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ELEMENTS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 PHILOSOPHY OF PLANTS. 
 
ELEMENTS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 PHILOSOPHY OF PLANTS 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC BOTANY; 
 
 NOMENCLATURE, THEORY OF CLASSIFICATION, PHYTOGRAPHY ; 
 
 ANATOMY, CHEMISTRY, PHYSIOLOGY, GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 AND DISEASES OF PLANTS : 
 
 WITH A HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE, AND 
 PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 BY 
 « 
 
 V. .'- i-. ■ • 
 
 A. P. DECANDOLLE and K. SPRENGEL. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN, 
 
 EDINBURGH: 
 
 PRINTED FOR WILLIAM BLACKWOOD, EDINBURGH ; 
 AND T. CADELL, STRAND, LONDON. 
 
 1821. 
 
p. Nbill, Printer, Edinburgh. 
 
TO 
 
 ROBERT JAMESON, Esq. F. R. S. E. 
 
 UEGIUS PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH, 
 
 KEEPER OF THE MUSEUM, PRESIDENT OF THE WERNERIAN SOCIETY, 
 
 &C. &C. &C. 
 
 WHOSE ZEALOUS AND ENLIGHTENED LABOURS 
 
 HAVE SO GREfVTLY CONTRIBUTED TO THE ADVANCEMENT 
 
 OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THIS COUNTRY ; 
 
 THIS WORK 
 
 IS MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED 
 
 TRANSLATOR. 
 
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 xirfVERY person acquainted with the recent history of 
 Botany, must have been struck with the remarkable 
 fact, that there does not at present exist in this coun- 
 try any work which embraces all the speculations and 
 views which that science has now opened up ; or in 
 which its higher branches are treated in a man- 
 ner suited to their importance. Much has lately 
 been done for elucidating the Anatomy, Chemi- 
 stry, Physiology, and Diseases of Plants ; and the 
 travels of those enlightened and indefatigable men 
 who have recently traversed the globe in all direc- 
 tions, with the view of illustrating its Natural His- 
 tory, have thrown the most instructive and pleasing 
 light on the laws which regulate the distribution of 
 vegetables over the face of the earth. But the facts 
 and speculations which have originated in these la- 
 bours, have hitherto remained scattered throughout 
 the various occasional works in which they first ap- 
 peared : in many cases they continue buried in the 
 obscurity of foreign languages ; and the student who 
 
Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 wishes to become acquainted with every thing of im- 
 portance that has lately been done for the elucidation 
 of this field of inquiry, is forced to explore his way 
 amidst intricacies and thickets, not less formidable 
 than those which were traversed by the men who first 
 gleaned from the great book of Nature the manifold 
 riches of tlie vegetable kingdom. 
 
 The work of Willdenow, which has hitherto 
 been the chief introduction to the study of the Phy- 
 siology of Plants, has now lost almost all its value. — 
 It never was remarkable either for the philosophical 
 spirit which it displayed, or for the powers of arrange- 
 ment by wliich its materials were disposed ; and by 
 the recent progress of the more advanced branches of 
 the science, it has been rendered more capable of mis- 
 leading and perplexing the student, than of serving 
 even as an introductory treatise to more correct spe- 
 culations. 
 
 Several otlier works upon tlie same subject have 
 lately been given to the public ; and those which have 
 proceeded from the pen of the distinguished Presi- 
 dent of the r^innean Society, are confessedly re- 
 markable, both for the correctness of the facts and 
 views which tlicy contain, and for the scientific ele- 
 gance which pervades all their descriptions. But 
 these seem to be the only qualities which the author 
 was desirous to secure for his works. To the merit of 
 being complete elucidations of all the higher prin- 
 ciples and discoveries of the science, they make no 
 
PREFACE. IX 
 
 pretensions ; and, certainly, there is no other work 
 hitherto puhlishecl in this country, which can he con- 
 sidered as surpassing these in that higher species of 
 merit to which allusion is now made. 
 
 At the same time, it is evidently a matter of much 
 importance, that a complete and well executed sys- 
 tem of Physiological Botany should exist. The vege- 
 tahle world comprehends many of the most interest- 
 ing and beautiful productions of T^'^ature ; and beside 
 those who are professedly engaged in the study of 
 these productions, there are so many persons who take 
 an interest in some one or other of the forms which 
 the vegetable v/orld assumes, and which we have at 
 all moments before us and around us, — that there is 
 perhaps no part of science in which the want of just 
 and comprehensive views must be more generally or 
 constantly felt. 
 
 To execute such a work, however, requires talents 
 which are not always found united in the same person. 
 Its successful accomplishment requires, in the first 
 place, that he who devotes himself to it should be ac- 
 quainted with a vast body of knowledge, whicli can now 
 only be acquired by the study of innumerable works, 
 which are often diffxcult to be jirocured, and laborious 
 in the perusal, — with a multitude of facts of the most 
 interesting kind indeed, but whicli arc either buried 
 in the obscurity of volumes that have long been laid 
 aside, or which lie dispersed among the occasional pro- 
 ductions of those Travellers and Natural Historians, 
 
X rREFACE. 
 
 who have lately done so much for the improvement 
 of this part of science. We expect of any person who 
 should undertake a work of this description, that he 
 should be gifted, in the second place, with that sound 
 judgment in matters of speculation, which may pre- 
 vent him from being led aside, by the very beauty of 
 the facts which he has to disclose, into theories that 
 are rather amusing or adventurous than well found- 
 ed ; that he should cherish, in short, that truly philo- 
 sophical spirit which spurns equally the contracted 
 views of vulgar minds, and the fanciful reveries of 
 men of genius and enthusiasm. We expect of him, 
 in the last place, that he should not only think sound- 
 ly and philosophically, but that he should also have 
 the kindred talent of disposing his reasonings in the 
 most luminous order, and that his work should imi- 
 tate the great system of nature, of which it professes 
 to illustrate a part, by having all things well arranged, 
 and in due proportion. 
 
 The Translator of the work which is now offered 
 to the public, is not expressing his own conviction 
 merely, but that of men much better qualified than 
 himself to form a correct opinion upon this subject, 
 when he ventures to claim for this Treatise all the ex- 
 cellencies which the qualities now enumerated are ne- 
 cessary to secure. The extent of reading which has 
 been gone through for obtaining the materials of tlie 
 work, may be seen from the list of authors prefixed 
 to its more important chapters ; and perhaps there is 
 
PEE FACE. Xl 
 
 no work on the Vegetable World that displays more 
 varied or instructive information. With respect to 
 the second qualification already mentioned, it may al- 
 so be maintained, that the philosophical views exhi- 
 bited in the work are no less sound than they are fre- 
 quently ingenious and original ; and that in no one 
 part of the performance is it possible to discover a 
 trace of that visionary mode of considering facts and 
 appearances, which has been unjustly represented as 
 belonging to all German writers. Nor is the merit 
 of the work less distinguished with respect to the 
 powers of arrangement which it displays ; — condensa- 
 tion and perspicuity, indeed, are among its most 
 striking excellencies, — so that it bears, in all respects, 
 evidence of having proceeded from men, who not only 
 knew their subject extensively and well, and who 
 thought justly on all its parts, but of men who were 
 in possession of the best means of conveying their in- 
 formation with effect, or who had made the higher 
 laws of composition their study. 
 
 The Translator cannot feel any hesitation in speak- 
 ing warmly of a work, which appears to him to be 
 marked by such excellencies. He ventures, indeed, 
 to believe, that its essential merits will speedily be re- 
 cognised ; and he has no doubt that its influence will be 
 considerable, both in enlarging the views of those who 
 are prosecuting Botany as a science, and in spreading 
 just notions respecting the structure and distribution 
 
XU PRE FACE. 
 
 of vegetable bodies, among all the liberal and en- 
 lightened classes of the community. 
 
 The reader must have already perceived, that the 
 work is the joint production of two authors, the first 
 three parts being extracted from the " Theorie Ele- 
 mentaire de la Botanique," of DeCandolle, publish- 
 ed at Paris 1819, and all the rest being furnished by 
 Sprengel, who superintended the publication of 
 the whole. The separate merits of the style of these 
 two authors may not perhaps be discernible in the 
 translation ; but in the original these merits are 
 strongly marked ; and, as De Candolle is distin- 
 guished by the subtlety, the flexibility and metaphy- 
 sical cast of his expression, Sprekgel seems to pos- 
 sess a style, occasionally abrupt indeed, but always 
 luminous, condensed, and bearing evident marks of a 
 mind of no common powers. 
 
 Respecting the merits of the translation, it is not to 
 be expected that any thing should here be said : — 
 fidelity and perspicuity are all that have been aimed 
 at, and with the attainment of these the Translator 
 would be satisfied. But, in a work involving so many 
 technical terms, and so much recondite learning, — in 
 which the views exhibited are sometimes such, as 
 even well informed botanists were not fonnerly ac- 
 quainted with, — and in which, along with many facts 
 borrowed from microscopical observations, there are 
 occasionally reasonings as subtle as any that are to 
 be found in our most ingenious systems of metaphy- 
 
PKEFACE. - Xiii 
 
 sics, — ill ail attempt to present such a work in a new 
 dress to the public, the Translator cannot but be diffi- 
 dent, lest inaccuracies may sometimes have gained ad- 
 mittance both into his definitions of terms, and into 
 liis statements of reasonings. He ventures, at the 
 same- time, to hope, that these inaccuracies may be 
 but of little moment, — that they are not such as in 
 any instance to affect materially the meaning of any 
 passage, — and that, as they are not likely, therefore, 
 to mislead the inexperienced inquirer, they can easily ^ 
 be corrected by those whose information is more pro- 
 found and accurate. 
 
SPRENGEL'S PREFACE. 
 
 In my " Introduction to the Knowledge of Plants," 
 it was my object to promote a knowledge of the vege- 
 table world among the public at large, — and I may 
 venture to say, that the result has surpassed my ex- 
 pectations. But the progress which the Itigher and 
 scientific knowledge of plants has lately made, seem- 
 ed to demand an introductory Treatise for the use of 
 students, which, embracing the discoveries that have 
 recently been made throughout the whole extent of 
 the science, might supply the place of the introduc- 
 tory work of WiLLDENOW, which has now become 
 completely useless. With the help of the latest edi- 
 tion of De Candolle's " Theorie Elementaire de 
 la Botanique," published at Paris 1819, I flatter my- 
 self that I have been able to present to the public 
 such a work. But only the first three parts of this 
 treatise, namely, the Nomenclature, the Theory of 
 Classification, and Descriptive Botany, are to be con- 
 sidered as extracts from the book of my excellent 
 friend. All the rest is my own ; and the reader will 
 perceive that I have used my utmost exertions to ful- 
 fil well the task I had undertaken. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Introdctction, - - - - * 
 
 PART I. 
 
 NOMENCLATURE, 
 
 CHAP. I. General Principles, - - 5 
 CHAP. II. Characteristic Expressions for Forms 
 
 AND Qualities, - - 10 
 
 I. Measure of the Parts, - - ib. 
 
 II. Colours of the Parts, - - 14 
 
 III. Surface of the Parts, - - 18^ 
 
 IV. Universal Forms, - - 22 
 V. Insertion, or Relative Position, - -f 30 
 
 VI. Direction of the Parts, - « 37 
 
 VII. Simplicity, or Composition of Parts, - 41 
 
 Vin. The Manner in which an Organ terminates, 47 
 IX. Duration of Plants, and of their Individual 
 
 Parts, - - - 48 
 
 CHAF. III. Names of the Organs, - * 50 
 
 I. The Root, - - - ib. 
 
 II. The Stem, - - - 51 
 
 III. Buds, Leaves, and Parts connected with them, 53 
 
 IV. Inflorescence, - => 57 
 
 b 
 
XVUl CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 V. The Flower, - - - 62 
 
 VI. The Nectaries, - - 67 
 
 VII. Sexual Parts, - - - 68 
 VIII. The Fruit and Seed, - - 72 
 
 PART II. 
 
 TAXONOMY, OR THE THEORY OF CLASSU 
 FICATION. 
 
 CHAP. I. General Obseevations, - - 81 
 
 CHAP. II. Artificial Classification, - 84 
 
 View of the Linnean System, - 87 
 
 CHAP. III. On the Mutual Connections of Plants, 95 
 
 I. Idea of Species, - - ib. 
 
 II. Idea of a Genus, - - 9^ 
 
 III. Idea of Tribes and Families, - 102 
 CHAP. IV. On the Natural Arrangement in Ge- 
 neral, - - - 104 
 
 CHAP. V. Theory of Natueal Classification, 112 
 
 I. Comparison of Organs, - - ib. 
 
 II. On the Means which Nature affords for ena- 
 
 bling us to know Organs, and thereby to 
 
 avoid mistakes, - - 1 1 6 
 
 A. Of Abortive Organs, - 118 
 
 B. On Change and Degeneration of Parts, 121 
 
 C. On the Union of Organs, - 123 
 HI. On the Different Points of View under which 
 
 an Organ, or a System of Organs, may be 
 considered, - - ISO 
 IV. On the Determination of the Value of Cha- 
 racters, - - 137 
 CHAP. VI. Natural Arrangement of Families, - 138 
 
 PART III. 
 
 PHYTOGRAPHY, OR DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 I. Of the Generic Name, - - 145 
 
 II. Of Trivial Names, - ^ 149 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XIX 
 
 III. Delineation of Characters, 
 
 A. On Generic Clmracters, 
 
 B. On Specific Characters, 
 
 IV. Description of Plants, 
 V. Synonymy, 
 
 VI. On the Form of Botanical Works, 
 
 A. Monographs, 
 VII. Floras, 
 
 VIII. Descriptions of Gardens, 
 IX. Plates of Plants, 
 X. General Works, 
 XI. On Collections of Plants, 
 
 Page 
 151 
 152 
 154 
 157 
 161 
 163 
 ib. 
 164. 
 166 
 167 
 168 
 169 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 PHYTONOMY, OR ON THE STRUCTURE AND 
 NATURE OF PLANTS. 
 
 CHAP. I. Phytotomy, or Anatomy of Plants, 
 I. On the Structure of Plants in general, 
 
 A. On Cellular Texture, 
 
 B. On the Sap-Tubes, 
 
 C. On the Spiral Vessels, 
 II. On the Structure of Roots, 
 
 IIL On the Structure of the Stem, 
 IV. On the Structure of Buds, 
 V. On the Structure of Leaves, 
 VI. On the Structure of Blossoms, 
 VII. On the Structure of the Sexual Organs, 
 
 CHAP. II. Pytochemy, or Doctrine of the Compo- 
 sition OF Plants, 
 
 i. General Remarks, - 
 
 ll. On the Common Sap, 
 III. More Intimate Constituents of Vegetables, 
 
 CHAP. III. Proper PhytoNomy, or on the Life of 
 Plants. 
 I. Effects of Stimuli, 
 II. Other Proofs of the Higher Life of Plants, 
 
 173 
 
 ib. 
 175 
 176 
 177 
 181 
 184. 
 191 
 195 
 205 
 212 
 
 218 
 
 219 
 22S 
 229 
 
 233 
 246 
 
XX 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 CHAP. IV. On the Distribution of Plants upon 
 
 THE Earth, - - 263 
 
 CHAP. V. History of the Distribution of Plants, 276 
 CHAP. VI. On Malformations and Diseases of 
 
 Plants, ... 283 
 
 €HAP. VII. History of Botany, - - 298 
 
 I. Ancient History till the Revival of Science, ib. 
 
 II. First Establishment of Scientific Botany, 304 
 
 III. First Establishment of the Doctrine re- 
 
 specting the Structure and Systematical 
 
 Arrangement of Plants, - - :^09 
 
 IV. Events preparatory to the Linnaean Refor- 
 
 mation, - - - 315 
 
 V. The Linnaean period, - - 318 
 
 VI. Recent History of Botany - 323 
 
 PRACTICAL PART. 
 
 lSS I. 
 
 1. 
 
 Hippuris vulgaris, L. 
 
 
 2. 
 
 Agardhia cryptantha, 
 
 II. 
 
 3. 
 
 Circaea lutetiana, L. 
 
 
 4. 
 
 Salvia brasiliensis. 
 
 in. 
 
 5. 
 
 Poa trivialis, L. 
 
 
 6. 
 
 Tontelea trinervia. 
 
 IV. 
 
 7. 
 
 Asterocephalus canescens. 
 
 V. 
 
 8. 
 
 Phyteuma spicatum, L. 
 
 
 9. 
 
 Gentiana Pneumonanthe, L 
 
 
 10. 
 
 Viburnum Opulus, L. 
 
 VI. 
 
 11. 
 
 Leucoium vernum, L. 
 
 VII. 
 
 12, 
 
 Trientalis Europaea, L. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 13. 
 
 Vaccinium Oxycoccus, L. 
 
 IX. 
 
 14. 
 
 Butomus umbellatus, L. 
 
 X. 
 
 15. 
 
 Pyrola secunda, L. 
 
 XI. 
 
 16. 
 
 Asarum Europaeum, L. 
 
 XII. 
 
 17. 
 
 View of the genus Rubus, 
 
 343 
 346 
 
 347 
 349 
 350 
 35S 
 354^ 
 357 
 360 
 362 
 366 
 368 
 370 
 373 
 37G 
 378 
 381 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XXI 
 
 CLASS XIII. 
 XIV. 
 
 XV. 
 
 XVI. 
 
 XVII. 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 XIX. 
 
 XX. 
 
 XXI. 
 
 XXII. 
 
 XXIII. 
 
 XXIV. 
 
 18. 
 
 19. 
 
 20. 
 21. 
 
 22. 
 23. 
 24. 
 2.5. 
 26. 
 27. 
 28. 
 
 29. 
 30, 
 31. 
 32. 
 33. 
 34. 
 35. 
 
 37. 
 38. 
 
 39. 
 40. 
 41. 
 
 42. 
 43. 
 44, 
 45, 
 46. 
 
 Papaver dubium, L. 
 Galeobdolon luteum, Huds. 
 Alectorolophus Crista galli, M. B. 
 Teesdalia nudicaulis, R. Br. 
 Erysimum cheiranthoides, L. 
 Geranium rotundifolium^ L. 
 Lathyrus tuberosus, L. 
 Hypericum montanum, L. 
 Thrincia hirta. Roth. 
 Cirsium eriophorum. Scop, 
 Arnica montana, L. 
 Calcitrapa stellata, Lam. 
 Calendula officinalis, L. 
 Echinops sphaerocephalus, L. 
 Ophrys myodes, Jacqu. 
 Sparganium simplex, Huds. 
 Salix caprea, Z. - . 
 
 Atriplex patula, L. 
 Bleclmum boreale, Sw. 
 Botrychium Lunaria, Siv. 
 Cinclidotus fontinalioides. Pal. Beativ. 
 Jungermannia trilobata, L. 
 Lecanora saxieola, Ach. 
 Scytosiphon intestinalis/L^w^6. 
 Ceratostoma fimbriatum. Fries. 
 |Spathularia flavida, Pers. 
 Craterium pyriforme, Ditmar. 
 Botrytis polyspora. Link. 
 Fusidium gryseum, Umk. 
 
 Page 
 
 393 
 
 395 
 
 598 
 
 402 
 
 405 
 
 407 
 
 410 
 
 413 
 
 416 
 
 420 
 
 423 
 
 426 
 
 429 
 
 431 
 
 432 
 
 436 
 
 439 
 
 444 
 
 447 
 
 449 
 
 451 
 
 454 
 
 456 
 
 458 
 
 459 
 
 461 
 
 462 
 
 463 
 
 ib. 
 
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 Fig. 1. The chalaza of the Citron, opposite to the umbilicus, 
 (Sect. 120.) 
 
 2. Cotyledons with the radicle. Seeds destitute of albu- 
 
 minous substance. The embryon erect, (121, S83.) 
 
 3. Section of Cardamon seed, having the umbilicus turn- 
 
 ed upwards. The mealy albuminous substance is 
 dotted. The vitellus is marked by lines. Within 
 this lies the embryon, having its upper (in this case 
 its lower) end bent into a hooked shape, (121, 385, 
 386.) 
 
 4. Seeds of Cardiospermum Halicacahim with the heart, 
 
 shaped strophiolus, (120.) 
 
 5. Thick fleshy cotyledons wound within one another, 
 
 (121.) 
 
 6. Achenium of Centaurea ruthcnica, with its bristly 
 
 pappus and lateral iimhilims, (109, 120.) 
 
 7. Silicle of Thlaspi hursa^ (114.) 
 
 8. Galbulus of Thuia orientalis^ (116.) 
 
 9. ^ii'o\)\\us o{ Alnus incana, (116.) 
 
 10. Section of the seed of Strelitzia reg'ma. The albu- 
 
 rainons substance is fmcly dotted : the embryon is in 
 the centre, unevolved. A red tomcntum forms the 
 strophiolus, (strophiolus stuppeus, 25, 120, 121.) 
 
 11. Section of a grain of Wheat, in the upper end of 
 
 which is the superficial unevolved embryon lying on 
 the scuidhiin, by means of which it is connected 
 
XXIV EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 with the albuminous substance which is denoted by 
 the hned portion, (121, 386.) 
 Fig. 12. Pencil-shaped pappus of Leyssera capillifolia. 
 
 13. Seed of Epilobium angustissimum, with its hairy 
 
 coma, (109.) 
 
 14, 15. Achenium of Laserpitium latjfolium, with four 
 
 membranaceous wings, and the intervening cavi- 
 ties, (109.) 
 
 16. Legume of Vicia consentina, (114.) 
 
 17. Tailed utriculus (arillus Linnaei) of Geranium Bo- 
 
 hemicum, (109.) 
 
 18. Lovientum o^ Hedysarum coronarium^ (1^4.) 
 
 19. AVinged seed of Tritonia flava Ker, (109.) 
 
 20. Section of the seed of Mirab'dis Jalappa. The em- 
 
 bryon in the circumference marked by lines. The 
 albuminous substance in the centre, (28, 121.) 
 
 21. Capsule of Mauj-andia antirrhimjlora Willd. It 
 
 has double sides : the exterior side is composed of 
 five regular valves ; the interior displays two com- 
 pletely dissimilar, irregular loculi, the larger of 
 which shews the rudiments of four loculi in the 
 four projections of the side. The placentation is 
 central. There are properly, therefore, two united 
 capsules, the larger of which shews the intended 
 quadrilocular structure of the capsule of this fami- 
 ly in its first rudiments, (110, 111, 185, 189, 192.) 
 
 22. Achenium of Asterocephalus Caucasius. IMembra- 
 
 naceous pappus. Five bristles proceeding from 
 within, (§ 109, page 354.) 
 
 23. Apple wuth five loculi, (115.) 
 
 24. Seed of Anona squamosa L. The albuminous sub- 
 
 stance is formed into plaited wrinkles, (albumen 
 ruminatum, 26.) Tlie small embryon lies at the 
 upper part, in a cavity of the umbihcus. 
 
 25. 26. Craterium pyriformc Ditm. One of the Gas- 
 
 tromyci, (page 462.) 
 27, 28. The sporidia of the former, with the tufty tex- 
 ture, (119j pnge 72.) 
 
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. XXV 
 
 Fig. 29. Agaricus amanlta, with tlie volva, the annulus, and 
 the pileus, (88.) 
 
 30. Hymenlum of Geoglossum virlde Pers. with the the- 
 
 cge sporophorae, and intervening sap-tubes, (119, 
 page 461.) 
 
 31. Botrytis polyspora Link. The bushy, branchy 
 
 flocci are externally set with sporae. One of the 
 Nematomyci, (119, page 463.) 
 
 32. Fusidewn gryseum Link. Fusiform sporae, (119, 
 
 page 463.) 
 
 33. The radicle oi Erysimum Meracifolium lying on the 
 
 back of the cotyledons (Cotyledones incumbentes), 
 (38, p. 405.) 
 
 34. The radicle of Sinapis nigra lying between the co- 
 
 tyledons (Cotyledones accumbentes), (38.) 
 
 35. Berry of Basella rubra. Snail-shaped enibryon, 
 
 (41.) 
 
 36. Sarcobasis of Ochna squarrosa, (85, 105.) 
 
 37. Bilocular capsule of Justicia paniculata, with the 
 
 hooks on the dissepimentum, (120.) 
 
 38. Silique of Leiccoia, with the seeds on both sides, 
 
 (114.) 
 
 PLATE II. 
 
 Fig. 1 . Hymenium of Peziza cerea Pers. The sporidia con- 
 tain eight sporae, (119, p. 459 ) 
 
 2. Apparent seeds ofSoIerina mccata Ach. (118, p. 456.) 
 
 3. Leconera straminea Ach. (118, p. 456.) 
 
 4. Grimmia controversa Hedw. with its calyptre cleft la- 
 
 terally, (88.) 
 
 5. Perichaetial leaves of Neckera distkha Hedw. (88.) 
 
 6. Club-shaped, reticulated, apparent antherae of Gyni- 
 
 nostomum pyriforrae, with the pistilla and sap- 
 tubes. 
 
 7. Exterior pcristomium of Hypnum alopccurum. 
 
XXV EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 Fig. 8. Interior peridomium of tlie same plant, (117.) 
 
 9. Capsule of Aspidiuin spinulosiim Sw. with its notch- 
 ed ring and rough seeds, (117.) 
 
 10. Indusium of the same Fern, fringed on the margin 
 
 and studded widi glands, (88.) 
 
 11. Y\o\vcY?> o^ Jponogcton distachys Thunb. Appen- 
 
 dages for the petals, (90.) Heptandria. 
 
 12. Flowers of Chironiafriitescens. Stamina perigyna, 
 
 (35.) Corolla infera ; germen superum, (34.) 
 
 13. Twisted anthera? of the same plant, (41.) 
 
 14. Phylica cricoid es ; folia sparsa, re vokita^ sessilia, lan- 
 
 ceolate. Flores fasciculati, (29, 38, 40, 44, 84.) 
 
 15. Calyx corollina of the same plant, ciliated (51, 90.), 
 
 the antheras under nectarilymata^ (102.) These 
 scales may also be called petals. The filaments 
 are united with the calyx corollina, (191, 192.) 
 
 16. Urceolatc corolla of Arbutus unedo, (31.) 
 
 17. Bilocular antherae of the same plant with spurs. 
 
 The filaments ciliated, (334.) 
 
 18. Oxalis purpurea Jacqu. The pistilla are shorter 
 
 than the interior, but longer than the exterior fila- 
 ments, (380.) 
 19- Oxalis macrostyVbs Jacqu. The pistilla are longer 
 than the exterior and interior filaments. The ex- 
 terior filaments are always shorter than the inte- 
 rior, (203, 205, 380.) 
 
 20. Five pistilla, having their extremities set with stig- 
 
 mata, and their lower parts with glands. Perhaps 
 the collectores, (341.) Connate ovaria of Oxalis 
 macrostylis, (107, 189.) 
 
 21 . Flowers of Agaihosma pubescens Willd. Beside the 
 
 five principal petals are five subordinate fringed 
 bodies, — abortive filaments. Of the five filaments, 
 three are higher than the two others, (175, 185, 
 203, 205.) 
 
 22. Similar abortive filaments. 
 
 23. ^'cilcd stigma of Lobelia dhcohvy (106.) The an- 
 
EXPLANATION 01 THE PLATES. XXVli 
 
 therac connate. The fruit inferior to the calyx, 
 and connected with it, (34.) 
 24. l*olIen of Amaryllis regincv^ (335.) 
 
 PLATE III. 
 
 Fig. 1. Male and female (lowers of Phyilanthus epiphyllan- 
 thus W, out of their buds. The apparent flower- 
 stalk is an abortive leaf. The male flowers have 
 abortive pistilla, (174.) The three filaments are 
 united in one pillar. Ou their base are nectareous 
 glands, which are wanting in the female flowers, 
 (138, 187.) Of the six flower-stalks, the interior 
 alternate with the exterior, and the former may 
 therefore be considered as petals, (196.) 
 '^l. Piqueria trinervia Cav. The common calyx, antho- 
 dium or perichnium, consists of four leaves, and 
 contains four florets, (87.) 
 
 3. A single floret, the rim of which has five lobes. The 
 
 stigma cleft. Sy7igenesia ccqualis, (137.) 
 
 4. Racemus of Ottonia anisum. Neue Entdeck., i. s. 
 
 S55, (84.) 
 
 5. A single floret of the same. At the base of the stalk, 
 
 a fringed scale or bractca. No corolla. Four bi- 
 locular antherae. Spherical germen, with a four 
 cornered stigma, iSQ.) 
 
 6. Crassula spathulata. The ovaria superior to the ca- 
 
 lyx and corolla. These alternate with the filaments, 
 the latter parts with the petals, and these last with 
 the teeth of the calyx, (34, 196.) 
 
 7. Schmidtia suhtUis Trattin. Two glume-valves en- 
 
 close two hypogynous filaments with moveable an- 
 thera?, a proportionately very large germen, and two 
 simple linear stigmata, (35, 40, 198".) 
 
 8. Capsules of Targioma hypophfjlUi^ surrounded by a 
 
 notched ring, and furnished with caiemda^ as they 
 had never before been observed. Its affinity with 
 
XXVlll EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 Jungermannia and Marchantia is thus established, 
 (109, 278.) 
 Fig. 9. Correa alba Sm. with eight perigynous, unequal fila- 
 ments, and nectareous glands between them, (35, 
 (101.) 
 10. The germen of the same plant enlarged by its greater 
 maturity. The nectaries are divided, and embrace 
 the four two-seeded cocci (86, 109.) 5 which being 
 united form the quadrilocular fruit. That they 
 were originally separate is evident from the infe- 
 rior linear processes, which might be mistaken for 
 collectores, (178, 189,341.) 
 
 11. Flower of Acacia lophanta^ Willd. Monadelphia, 
 
 (131, 187.) 
 
 12. Urceolate corolla of Erica aggregata, with its four- 
 
 lobed margin. Neue Entdeck., 1. 270, (31.) 
 
 13. The sexual parts of the same plant after the corolla 
 
 has been taken away. The four-leaved calyx in- 
 ferior to the germen, (34.) Eight bent filaments, 
 inclosed in the corolla, and between them the nec- 
 tareous glands. Eight bilocular, unarmed, or awn- 
 less anthers, (11, 5Q^ 80.) The pistillum with the 
 four-lobed stigma, (188.) 
 
 14. The germen in particular: there appears a fivefold 
 
 division, as an evidence of the original numerical 
 proportion, (178, 199, 389-) The unripe germen 
 also is multilocular, and it is only when it is fully 
 ripe, that the individual capsules become so united, 
 that their dissepimenta become simple, and extend 
 from the central column, (178, 189, 192.) 
 
 15. Two lipped, ringent corolla of Salvia Boosiana, Jacq. 
 
 (96.) 
 
 16. Two filaments, with processes, %vhich seem to be two 
 
 other abortive filaments, (178.) 
 
 17. Gynobasis, along with the laterally projecting nec- 
 
 tary, and the four caryopscs standing on it. The 
 pistillum between these, with the divided stigma, 
 
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. XXIX 
 
 the consequence of union, (85, 101, 105, 109, 188, 
 198", S02.) 
 18, 19. Antherae of Erica tenella Andr. (antheras cris- 
 tatse), with cristate appendages. Neue Entdeck. 
 1. 271, (31.) 
 
 20. Myccyporum tenuifoliuni Forst. The corolla with 
 
 its quinque-partite ciliated margin. Four filaments 
 of unequal length at the entrance of the tube of tlie 
 corolla. The original numerical proportion is in- 
 dicated by the segments of the corolla. Of the 
 five filaments one is abortive, (198*, 199.) 
 
 21. Quadrilocular drupe of the same plant, (112.) 
 
 22. Flower oi Ducliesnea frag\formis Smith. The calyx 
 
 has tripartite subordinate leaves. The hypogenous 
 filaments, in indeterminate number, are inserted on 
 the corollar integument of the calyx; Icosandria, 
 (35, 131.) The fruit arises from the enlarged re- 
 ceptacle, having its surface studded with granular 
 bodies. 
 
 23. Flower of Barleria Jlava Jacq. The calyx consists 
 
 of four unequal segments, of wliich the two exterior 
 are much larger than the other two, and the upper- 
 most is so much dentated, that it is impossible not 
 to perceive the original tendency towards a fivefold 
 division. The tubular corolla has a quinque-par- 
 tite margin, two of the lobes of which are reflex, 
 and the other three are emarginated. Of the five 
 filaments which there ought properly to be, and 
 which sometimes do appear, only two commonly 
 come to perfection, (178, 181, 389.) 
 
 24. Flower of VeltJieimia viridifoUa Y^J. A calyx co- 
 
 roUina, with the filaments inserted in it : these are 
 hypogynous. The germen is superior. The pistil 
 bent downwards, (35, 43, 90.) 
 516. Indications of the spiral vessels on the superficial cel- 
 lular texture of Sphagnum obtusifoUum, (278.) 
 
XXX EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
 Fig. 1. Punctured tubes and jpiral vessels of the root oi' 
 CissamjK-los Pnrcira L., (276, 277.) 
 
 2. Section of the buds of the common Alder, (304.) 
 
 3, 4. Simple buds of the Tulip-tree, with the three fol- 
 
 lowing series, (304.) 
 
 5. Buds of the common Ash, (ib.) 
 
 6. Buds of Mespilus ^-landulosa, (ib.) 
 
 7. Buds of Salisbui'ia adiantifolia Sm., (ib.) 
 
 8. Buds of the Guelder-Rose bush, (243.) 
 
 9. Leaf of Gymnostomum ovatum, the nerve of which 
 
 passes into two processes (nervus lamellatus), (49.) 
 
 10. Columna genitalium of Bletia TancarvUlc^ R. Br. 
 
 At its upper part the column is shaped into the 
 clinandrium of Richard, on both sides of which the 
 staminodia stand. The clinandrium has under it 
 the rostellum, which again has the stigma strongly 
 shaded under it, with which it is closely connected. 
 The anther is consequently epigynous. 
 
 11. Four connected masses of pollen of the same plant, 
 
 (107.) 
 
 12. The four loculi of the clinandrium, in which the 
 
 pollenous masses are contained, (107.) I have not 
 found the partition any where so distinct as it is 
 here figured. 
 
 13. Flower of Malva umhellata, Monadelphia. The 
 
 veins in the petals are spiral vessels, (324.) 
 
 14. Section of the same flower ; the tube of filaments 
 
 united with the corolla : expanded below, the fila- 
 ments and corolla being of the same nature, (191.) 
 
 15. Pollen of the same plant, (107, 335.) 
 
 16. Flower of Pogostemon plectranthoides Desfont. The 
 
 corolla is almost reversed (resupinata) : for the fila- 
 ments are bent downwards, whilst in the related 
 genera they stand erect. The undivided lip is pro- 
 
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. XXXl 
 
 perly the superior one, that with three lobes the 
 inferior. The long ciliated filaments are of the 
 didynamia structure : the pistillum is divided, (43, 
 187.) 
 17, 18. r'lower of Buttncra cordata. Quinque-partite, 
 open calyx. Five lunulate petals, furnished at 
 their upper part with two auriculae, and be- 
 tween them with a long slightly ciliated bristle. 
 Five filaments with bilocular anthera?, between 
 which and the pistillum a fivc-lobed fringe 
 stands, the lobes of which are emarginated, and 
 carry the nectaries on their outer-side, (101.) 
 19- Spiral vessels and sap-tubes of Marantha lutea Jacqu. 
 (276, 277.) 
 
 PLATE V. 
 
 Fig. 1. Spiral vessels and sap-tubes of Alpinia nutans Rose.,. 
 (276, 277.) 
 % Slits of the epidermis of the leaves of Hyacinthus, with 
 the cellular texture lying under them, (310, 311.) 
 
 3. Vasa scalaria of Lycopodium clavatum, with the inner 
 
 bark, (282. 297.) 
 
 4. Tubes with interstitial spaces, and the sap-vessels 
 
 and radiating vessels of the wood of the Fii*, (273, 
 293.) 
 
 5. Sporophleum gramineum Nees. Miser. A doubtful 
 
 Inomycus. 
 
 6. Camptospormm glaucum Link. Micros. On the in- 
 
 ner side of an old Oak bark ; (Ehrenb. Sylv. MycoL 
 p. 11. ; Nees, Radix Plant Mycetoid. p. 5.) 
 
 7. Eurotium ep'ixylon Link., (Berlin. Mag. 3. s. 31.) 
 
 One of the Gastromyci. 
 
 8. Diatoma Jlahelhdata Jlirg. A Bacillaria, according 
 
 to Nitsch. Transition from the veijetable to the 
 animal kingdom. 
 9' Bacillaria vexillum. 
 
XXXli EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 10. Strictures of Nodular'm fluviat'ilis l.yngb. Hydroph. 
 
 p. 99. t. 29., with the granular germs ranged in 
 the shape of a chahi. 
 
 11. Antliocoryn'unn of Suruhea Guianensis Aubl. Boyl. 
 
 Meyer. Fl. Esscqueb. p. 120, (86.) 
 
 12. The flower-bearing leaf-stalk of Turnera cuJieiformis 
 
 Juss., with two cup-shaped glands. 
 
 13. Flower of Pankiim Iciocarpon, (Neue Entdeck. 1. 
 
 s. 243. 
 
 PLATE VI. 
 
 Fig. 1. Tubers of Trevirania coccinea Willd., (288.) 
 
 2. Tubers of Triton'ia squalida Ker, (ib.) 
 
 3. Tubers of Ixia leucantha, (ib. ) 
 
 4. 5. Flowers of Euphorhia Characias. Double an- 
 
 therae on the filaments, which are furnished with 
 a joint ; and the four pistilla, (138, 331, 333.) 
 C. Bughivillaa spectah'ilis Juss., with red coloured 
 bracteae, (177.) 
 
 7. The seven filaments of the same plant united at the 
 
 base, (191.) 
 
 8. Star-shaped scales on the leaves of Croton Eluteria, 
 
 (27.) 
 
 9. Panduraeform leaf of Solanum Belfort'iaiium Dunal, 
 
 (29.) 
 
 10. Star-shaped hairs of the same plant, (25.) 
 
 11. Cassia Jleccuosa, with its bent stem, pinnated leaves, 
 
 and ciliated stipula?. 
 
 12. Sanvagesia Adima Aubl., (Neue Entdeck. 1. 294, 
 
 with its root-shaped ascending stem, and bristly 
 pinnated stipula?, (42, 54, 109.) 
 
 13. 14. Flower of the same plant. Between the calyx 
 
 and corolla stand bodies of an intermediate na- 
 ture between filaments and nectaries, as in Par- 
 nassia. Three lobed capsule, (Neue Entdeck. 1. 
 295. 296.) 
 
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. XXXlll 
 
 PLATE VII. 
 
 Eig. 1. Biinchy panicle of Hirtella glandiilosa (Neuc Ent- 
 deck. 1. s. 303.) Reflex bracteae. Bush of petio- 
 lated glands. 
 %. Ovate-oblong, somewhat pointed, leaf of the same 
 plant, full of veins. 
 
 3. The flower magnified. The calyx quinque -partite, 
 
 reflex, internally set with silky hairs. The corolla 
 fallen off". Five long, linear filaments. The pistil- 
 lum ciliated below. The dry berry set with rough 
 hairs. 
 
 4. The flower opened before the evolution. The fila- 
 
 ments convoluted. 
 
 5. Alyssum nehrodense Lin. (Neue Entdeck. 1. s. 286.) 
 
 shrubby stem, with rose-shaped aggregated leaves. 
 
 6. Elliptical silicle, crowned with the pistillum. 
 
 7. Inverted ovate leaf of the same plant, set with radia- 
 
 ted hairs. - 
 
 PLATE VIII. 
 
 Fig. 1, % CypMa serrata, (Neue Entdeck. 1. s. 274.) 
 
 3. The flower in particular. 
 
 4. The filaments not attached to one another. 
 
 5. Hydrocofyle plantaginea, (Neue 'Entdeck,!, s. 2S4.) 
 
 6. The fruit. 
 
 7. Section of the same. 
 
 8. 9. Notched pappus of Pteroma glabrata Thunb, 
 
CORRIGENDA. 
 
 Page 9, line 24. /or lanceolate-shaped read lanceolate 
 
 10. — 3. /or points read extremity 
 
 62. — 14. instead of to read for 
 
 124. line 17. for of involucrum read of the cahx 
 
 239. — 25, /qt also read both 
 
I'LATE 1 
 
 
 I 
 
 f M^^t,,; 
 
PLATE 11 
 
r L. .VI fc, J II 
 
PLATE IV 
 
PLATE V. 
 
ri^ATE TI . 
 
ri.ATE ATT. 
 
PL, ATE TIK 
 
PRINCIPLES 
 
 OP 
 
 SCIENTIFIC BOTANY. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 JlSoTANY comprehends the knowledge of Plants. These, 
 like all other natural bodies, may be considered under a two- 
 fold aspect ; either in relation to their external properties, or 
 with a view to their internal structure, their nature, and the 
 causes of the phenomena which they present. 
 
 Botariy, accordingly, divides itself into two principal de- 
 partments, which, in our days, can no longer be separated, 
 since they mutually support and illustrate each other. 
 
 1. The Natural History of Plants, which has been exclu- 
 sively denominated Botany. This comprehends the know- 
 ledge of the external marks of plants, and the means of dis- 
 tinguishing them ; their Description, Determination, and 
 Classification. This department includes three subdivisions. 
 
 1 . The Nomenclature, {Glossolog'ie De Candolle, falsely 
 called Terminology). Under this subdivision, we include the 
 knowledge of the expressions, by which the different organs, 
 
 A 
 
» INTRODUCTION. 
 
 of which plants are made up, and their properties, are desig- 
 nated. 
 
 2. Taaonomy^ or the Theory of the Classification of the 
 Vegetable Kingdom. 
 
 3. Phytography, or the Art of describing Plants in a con- 
 formable manner. As apphcations of this art, we must con- 
 sider Descriptive Botany^ or the technical representation of 
 all the essentially different forms'of the Vegetable Kingdom ; 
 and Botanical Synonymes, or the knowledge of the different 
 names under which plants are mentioned by writers. This 
 latter kind of knowledge has a necessary connection with an 
 insight into the fortune and progress of the science, as well as 
 with mere book-learning in this department. The history 
 and literature of Botany are lience essential requisites. 
 
 II. If we turn our attention to tlie internal structure, the 
 nature, and the principles of the plienomena of plants, these 
 lead us to the Natural Science, or Physics, of Plants ; which 
 has also been called the Physiology of Plants, Phytonomy, or 
 Phytology. This department again comprehends three prin- 
 cipal subdivisions. 
 
 1. The doctrine of the structure of plants; or what has 
 been called their Anatomy ; — the Organography of De Can- 
 doUe. 
 
 2. The doctrine of the composition of the constituent 
 parts of plants ; the Chemistry of Plants, or Phytochemy. 
 
 3. The proper explanation of the manner in which plants 
 originate, grow, form their parts, and propagate themselves. 
 This is properly the philosophical part of Botany, or the true 
 Phytonomy. 
 
 3. 
 
 To these two essential parts, we may add the following de- 
 partments of knowledge, as more or less connected with them, 
 or derived from them. 
 
 1. The before-mentioned History and Literature of Bo- 
 tany. These in no other science are so necessary as in this, 
 wliere we can only hope to attain a peifect acquaintance with 
 
INTROpUCTJtON, 3, 
 
 the objects of our study, by being acquainted with their dif- 
 ferent names and representatives among writers, and where 
 every new step must be accomplished by a comparison of all 
 earlier observations. .. j ^ , f f v, , ., , , 
 
 2. The Geography of Plants, or the examination of the 
 causes which determine plants to choose certain regions and 
 stations. This knowledge respecting the distribution of plants 
 is naturally enough included under the second great depart- 
 ment, or that which relates to the Physiology of plants. It 
 has of late begun to be studied with particular zeal, and is 
 fitted to afford the most important assistance in the Classifi' 
 cation of plants. 
 
 3. The knowledge of the Anomalies to which the forms of 
 the Vegetable Kingdom are subject ; to which belongs also 
 the doctrine of the Malformation and Diseases of plants. If 
 we consider these variations in their most comprehensive rela- 
 tions, their study is one of the most difficult, but it is also 
 one of the most instructive parts of Botany. The doctrine of 
 the diseases in particular, is called the Pathology of Plants. 
 
 4. The applications of these different parts of knowledge to 
 the arts and business of life are excluded from this Treatise ; 
 yet it cannot be denied, that these applications often reflect 
 an important light upon the science itself. The knowledge of 
 the officinal plants has. been called Medical Botany; the 
 knowledge of the plants which are employed in agriculture 
 and husbandry, is called CEconomical Botany ; that of the 
 plants which are useful in arts and trades, is called Technical 
 Botany ; and the knowledge of forest trees, is the Botany of 
 Forests. 
 
 4. 
 
 All these different branches of the science, or parts of Bo- 
 tany, are connected together in the closest manner. They 
 cannot well be treated or learned separately, without disadvan- 
 tage to the science ; and one chief cause of the interruptions 
 which are given to the progress of Botany, lies in the separa- 
 tion of these individual branches. 
 
 AS 
 
4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Especially it ought to be most zealously inculcated, that 
 the applications of this science should only be taught or 
 learned after a previous study of its general principles. That 
 part of Botany which relates to forest trees, is as little capable, 
 as the medical department, of dispensing with the helps which 
 are afforded by the Nomenclature, the Classification, and the 
 Physiology of Plants. 
 
PART I. 
 NOMENCLA TUBE. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 
 
 A ^- 
 
 jljlS all the departments of human knowledge and art, and 
 even all trades and occupations, have a multitude of peculiar 
 expressions, by which they designate certain things, proper- 
 ties, operations, and appearances ; and as, in Botany, amidst 
 the immense number of its different forms, every thing de- 
 pends upon our having a clear idea of these differences, the 
 necessity of a general agreement in the choice of expressions 
 for these different terms and properties is obvious ; since no 
 man will ever convey to another a distinct idea of any object, 
 if he either uses such expressions as that other person does 
 not understand, or if he employs them in a sense different 
 from that in which they are to be understood* 
 
 6. 
 
 The necessity of a general agreement imposes, no doubt, a 
 certain restraint, to which every person must submit; and 
 there has been no want of writers, both in our own and in 
 former times, who have entertained the idea of releasing them- 
 selves from this restraint, which to them was so oppressive ; 
 and who have, for this purpose, either indulged themselves 
 
V NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 in a cerUiin negligence of expression, or have dared to choose 
 a language for themselves, which it was necessary to have 
 explained in a preliminary vocabulary. This practice is high- 
 ly reprehensible ; because it proceeds partly from ignorance 
 and disregard of the laws of the already recognised Nomen- 
 clature, and partly from conceit, arrogance, fondness for no- 
 velty, and national prejudice ; and because it creates unneces- 
 sary difficulties in the science, and affords it no essential ad- 
 vantage whatever. 
 
 At the same time, our reprehension is not meant to fall 
 u]X)n those who designate forms that are really different and 
 peculiar, by new and suitably selected expressions; because 
 the farther the knowledge of plants is extended, the greater 
 number of altogether new forms, or of such as were hitherto 
 misunderstood, do we discover; and these could only be de- 
 signated in a very defective manner, if we should confine our- 
 selves to the expressions that are akeady used for them. 
 
 7. 
 Nomenclature has its difficulties; but these would be un- 
 necessarily increased, by compounding terms to too great 
 an extent, or by applying them to the most subtle sub- 
 divisions of our ideas. Without making any breach on the 
 sohdity of the structure, it may be simplified and relieved, 
 by, on every occasion, consulting nature, and giving hfe to 
 our demonstrations by examples ; by considering many terms 
 as in general useful, without constantly repeating them in the 
 description of every part ; and by supposing the knowledge 
 of the learned languages to have been already acquired. 
 
 8. 
 The Nomenclature is of Latin derivation, because this lan- 
 guage is understood by the learned of all nations, and of all 
 times. This cannot be objected to, since the descriptions of 
 the plants are also given in the language of each particular 
 country. These descriptions, however, are not generally in- 
 telligible ; and as long as there is no agreement in the choice 
 of terms, they must also be defective in respect of certainty. 
 
GENERAL PIUNCIFLES. 7 
 
 It is not to be expected that the Latin Nomenclature of 
 Botanists should always display the purity of the golden, or 
 even of the silver age, of Roman literature : because it is im- 
 possible to select such expressions only as are found in the 
 Roman writers of that period, as the designations of objects 
 which were altogether unknown to those writers ; yet it is to 
 be expected, that he who writes Latin, should neither mis- 
 take nor disregard the laws of grammar and of composition, 
 nor the spirit of the language in which he expresses himself. 
 
 9. 
 
 Where the Latin language cannot be employed, where the 
 necessary compositions are cither foreign or adverse to the 
 spirit of that language, we betake ourselves to the riclier and 
 more pliant dialect of the Greeks. Only here also, the terms 
 must be chosen according to the laws of the grammar and 
 composition of that language. \'\''e must be on our guard 
 not to employ what have been called hybrid expressions, or 
 words compounded from both the learned languages, (as, lor 
 example, muscologia^ algologia^ ovdidea) ; or to exchange 
 customary and intelligible Latin terms for unusual, often 
 strange and falsely compounded Greek expressions. 
 
 10. 
 
 The first principle of Botanical Nomenclature is, That each 
 distinct form, and every different organ, be designated by a 
 peculiar expression. By follownig out this principle, all 
 wavering of ideas, all uncertainty of knowledge, is avoided. 
 In conformity with this law, we call the leaves of the branches 
 <and ^iQm, folia ; the leafy appendages of the leaves, st'qnda ; 
 the leaves in the neighbourhood of the flower, hracka ; |he 
 parts of the cover of the flower and of the calyx, scpala ,• 
 and, lastly, the divisions of the corolla, pctala. In the same 
 manner must the elliptical form of the leaves, the varied 
 rounding or tapering of their summits, be designated by pe- 
 culiar expressions. 
 
 We may easily, however, go too far in this procest=, by 
 assigning difierent terms to every small additional variety of 
 
8 NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 an already well known form, to every insignificant aj^pendagc 
 or part of an organ. Much circumspection is necessary, not 
 to mistake the happy middle course. 
 
 11. 
 
 The properties of forms are expressed by adjectives or 
 participles. These have a different meaning according to 
 their different terminations. 
 
 1. Adjectives in atiis designate the presence of a certain 
 organ : radkatus, that which has a root ; Jbliatus, which has 
 a leaf. But this rule must not be understood as universal ; 
 because lanceolaius, ovatus, and many others, signify only a 
 resemblance. 
 
 2. Those which end in osus express an abundance of par- 
 ticular organs ; ncrvosus^Jbliosus, cicatricosus. 
 
 3. Adjectives in hnis and aceus denote the nature of the 
 organ. Thus, Jhltaceus means having the nature of a leaf: 
 radicinus denotes that w^hich has the consistence of a root. 
 A corolla calyeina is one which partakes of the nature of a 
 calyx. But there are many exceptions also to this mode of 
 expression, however much a general agreement is to be 
 wished. 
 
 4. When an organ is wanting, we put the Greek u priva- 
 tive before a Greek word, or the e before a Latin w^ord ; 
 (aphyllus, apetalifs, enervis, exstipulatus, eglandulosus). 
 Sdme hybrid expressions, however, have crept in, which we 
 must endure : for instance, aven'ms ; and also acauUs, where 
 the better term would be acavlus. In some instances, suh- 
 nidlus is placed immediately after mdlus : Margo mdlus, 
 subnullus. We often express the absence of certain organs 
 or foniis, although in an indefinite manner, by nudus or sim- 
 plex : thus, the Corolla is said to be nitdus; when it has no 
 calyx; the branches, nudi^ when they have no leaves: the 
 stalk, simj)lex, when it is destitute of branches. Finally, it 
 is usual, when an organ is wanting, to designate positively 
 the opposite property : thus, we say iiiermis, and muticus, in 
 opposition to spinosus, aculeatiiSy arisiattts, and cuspidahcs. 
 
GENKRAL rJlINCIPLES. 9 
 
 When a part or a property is not distinctly evolved, or is 
 not seen, we say that it is ohsoletus in consjj'i cutis. 
 
 5. Smaller variations of form are expressed by diminutive 
 terminations; by the termination o'ides in Greek adjectives, 
 ot by tlie preposition sitb. This latter syllable particularly is 
 put before the word, where the property or organ is not 
 found every where in the same degree. We thus use the 
 phrase Jblium subdentatum, where the teeth in many positions 
 are not observable, or pass into the smooth margin. The ex- 
 pressions Jiirsutiuscidus, acutmsculus, oltusiuscidus, are also 
 frequently used ; as also are not imfrequently rhizdides, cdly- 
 coides. 
 
 6. When the property is present in a higher degree, we com- 
 monly use the superlative ; by which means, all particles ex- 
 pressive of abundance, as, valde, maxime, msigniter, arc 
 avoided. We thus say, integerrimus, spinoswsinius, acidea- 
 tissimus, glaberriimis. 
 
 7. The intermediate condition between two varying forms 
 is frequently expressed by the compounding of two adjec- 
 tives; thus, ohlongo-lanceolatus, 7'cpando-dentntiis^ palmato- 
 lohatus. But we fail in these compositions, when we put to- 
 gether words which exclude each other, which are co-ordinate, 
 and are therefore self-evident. Ell'ipticO'lanccolatus involves 
 a contradiction ; because the lanceolate-shaped leaf is pointed, 
 and the elliptical is symmetrically rounded at both ends, 
 Pubescenti-Jiirtdlus involves a contradiction, and, at the same 
 time, expresses subordinate ideas of the same class; because 
 hirius denotes long stiff hairs : Jiirtellus is therefore a non- 
 entity ; but pubescentt-Jiirtellus is self-evident, and jmbescejis 
 alone were sufficient. 
 
 8. When we would express the reversed form of an organ, 
 we usually put the syllable ob before the adjective: thus, obt 
 ovatus, obcordatus, are very common. Obhuiccolaius can 
 scarcely be permitted, because the positive term spathidatus 
 is more definite. When an organ has the external shape of 
 another organ, without actually fulfilling the same purpose, 
 or even without having the same structure, we usually desig- 
 nate it as spuriuvi : we thus say,a7itherce spuria: of Tradescan- 
 
10 NOMENCLATURE 
 
 tia; viargo thallodes spurius of Lecidea petraea; peridium 
 spurium of iEcidium. 
 
 12. 
 
 Terms taken from common life remain without any ex- 
 planation, when they are iLsed with no variation of their 
 usual meaning : otherwise, they must be more exactly defin- 
 ed. Thus, pilosus, in technical language, means something 
 different from the idea suggested by it in the usual written 
 language. In this latter use, it means the hairy condition in 
 general ; but, in the former, it denotes particularly the pre- 
 sence of soft hairs, somewhat bent. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 CHARACTERISTIC EXPRESSIONS FOR FORMS AND 
 QUALITIES. 
 
 13. 
 
 We enumerate under this title, those terms which relate to 
 the properties of the organs, or parts of plants, and we seek, 
 especially, to make those terms general, in order to avoid all 
 repetition. It ought to be remarked, that we are only fur- 
 nishing an introduction to the comprehension of tlie works of 
 other writers, and that we do not, therefore, take upon \i^, 
 to answer for the correctness and necessity of every term. 
 
 I. Measure of the Parts. 
 
 14. 
 
 We call the measure of the parts absolute, when it lias a 
 reference, not to any comparison with other parts of the same 
 plant, but to some other commonly assumed scale. The mea- 
 sure is relative^ when we compare the extension of one part 
 Tvith the size of others, belonging to the same plant. 
 
I oil I OKMS AND QUALITIES. 11 
 
 15. 
 
 The absolute measure may be best taken from the parts of 
 the human body, because these are universally present, and 
 are the same among all nations. If these parts be compared 
 with the fixed civil measure, we readily perceive that they 
 cannot, by any means, be determined with geometrical exact- 
 ness. But this exactness is the very thing which in Botany we 
 ought not to aim at, because organised bodies neither form geo- 
 metrical lines and figures, nor can be calculated according to 
 a geometrical measure. Where the measure of the human 
 body is not sufficient, we can only have recourse to a civil 
 scale : but, in this case, we can only form an a2)proximation 
 to the truth, and ought not to consider the individual exten- 
 sion as general. 
 
 16. 
 
 The smallest measure in Botany is the breadth of a hair, 
 (capillus, hence capillar} s). If this be compared with the 
 civil measure, it forms about the twelfth part of a geometrical 
 line. But we must not confound the term capillaris with 
 capillaceus, since this latter term signifies, according to the 
 rule formerly given, (§ II. 5.), having the nature or consist- 
 ence of a hair. 
 
 After the hair, follows the breadth of the white crescent 
 on the nail, which corresponds more or less with a geometrical 
 line. This measure is named Vinea, whence linearis ; which 
 term, when applied to surfaces, signifies, that they preserve 
 the same breadth throughout. It must not be confounded 
 with rmeatus, which may be translated, marked with lines, 
 or streaks. 
 
 To this succeeds the length of the nail of the finger ; (un- 
 guis^ whence unguicularia). This is about six lines, or half 
 an inch. 
 
 Next comes the breadth, or even the length of the outer- 
 most division of the thumb, (polldv, whence pollicaiis). This 
 forms exactly an inch ; hence it is called uncia, uncialis. 
 
 The length of the middle finger follows, or, which is I lie 
 same thing, the breadth of the hand reckoned from the 
 
IS !N'OMEKCLATUEE 
 
 thumb. From digitus and palmus, we form digitalis and 
 palmaris : this last, however, must be carefully distinguished 
 from pcdmatus, which means, divided like the hand. The 
 measure of which w6 are now speaking, is about three 
 inches. 
 
 The small span (spiihama, whence spithameus) is the dis- 
 tance between the thumb and middle-finger, when they form 
 a span. This measure, in full grown men, is about seven 
 inches. 
 
 The great span (dodrans, whence dodrantalis) is the dis- 
 tance between the thumb and little finger, wheji they form a 
 span. It amounts to about nine inches. 
 
 The foot {pes^ whence pedalis) is the length of the sole of 
 the foot, when it is of a large size, or the distance of the 
 elbow-joint from the wrist. It is usually taken for a geome- 
 trical foot. But pedalis must not be confounded with peda^ 
 tus^ which denotes the foot-shaped position of the leaves. 
 
 We next take the distance from the elbow-joint to the 
 point of the middle finger. This is called cubitus, whence 
 cubitalis ; its length is about a foot and a half 
 
 Next comes the lengtli of the arm, {bracliium, whence bf^a- 
 cJdalis : as also ulna, uhiaris'). This is reckoned about two 
 feet. 
 
 Lastly, there is the fathom, {orgya, orgyalis), or the dis^ 
 tance of the points of the fingers, when the arms of a man 
 Are extended. This measure is taken from the length of a 
 man of large size : it is hence reckoned about six feet. 
 
 Whatever exceeds this measure, is reckoned in so many 
 fathoms or feet. 
 
 17. 
 
 It is an unaccommodating practice which has been adopted 
 by the French Natural Historians, of constantly employing the 
 decimal measure, -which is entirely unknown out of France, and 
 ■which is particularly unsuitable to this purpose, on account 
 of the very great exactness with which its subdivisions are 
 given. We only state here, therefore, that the met7'e amounts 
 to three feet and something more than eleven lines ; that the 
 
FOR FORMS AND QUALITIES. 13 
 
 decimetre is three inches and something more than eight Unes ; 
 the centimetre four Unes and a half; and the millimetre ex- 
 actly xV/o) o^ about half a line. This measure is not adopt- 
 ed by any other nation. 
 
 18. 
 
 The relative measure is taken by comparison with other 
 parts of the same plant. We say cequalis or cequans, major, 
 minor, longior, brevior, duplo, triplo major or minor. We 
 say also sicperanSy excidens^ ceqnans. 
 
 19. 
 
 We also frequently assume the relative size and extension; 
 from comparison, but without always naming the compared 
 parts. We thus name Calyx maximus, a calyx which, in 
 proportion to all the other parts of the plants, is very large. 
 We also usually say, rami, or peduncuU elongati, petioli bre-^ 
 vissimi or abbreviati, stipula minima, folia angnstissima, 
 calyx ampliatus, planta pusilla ov pumila, arbor gigantea : 
 by which expressions every one knows what he is to under-, 
 stand. 
 
 The relative measure of the parts of one and the same or» 
 gan, determines their regularity or equality. 
 
 The parts of an organ are equal (aqualis), when they have 
 throughout the same measure and the same form. Inequality 
 (imequalifas), expresses the reverse. Like, {confirmis, simi- 
 lis), relates only to the correspondence of form ; unlike, (dis^ 
 similis, and in Greek compounds lietero), signifies the oppo- 
 site quality. Variable, {varius, variabilis, mutabilis), relates 
 to the disposition of an organ readily to change its form. 
 
 An organ is called regular (regularis) the parts of 
 which shew a certain correspondence, but not a complete simi- 
 larity, of parts in size and form ; as when, for instance, larger 
 parts are interchanged widi those that are smaller. The 
 structure of an organ, again, is irregidar, when no corre- 
 .spondcnce of pari?, either in shape or size, is observable. 
 
14 NOMENCLATURE 
 
 When plants of the same kind have different shapes, they 
 are said to be dispares; Dimorphus is the word apphed to 
 one and the same part, which has different forms in the same 
 plant. An organ is called difformis, when its shape cannot 
 be reconciled with the usual form of" the part. 
 
 II. The Colours of the Parts, 
 
 21. 
 
 As colour produces an impression upon the senses which is 
 universal, it cannot be precisely defined, nor can it be em- 
 ployed as a character of the invariable Species. It is chiefly 
 of use, therefore, in description. Yet we must put a great 
 value even on this, when vve are treating of the lower organic 
 bodies, where other characters fail, and v/here those derived 
 from colour are very stedfast. 
 
 22. 
 
 There are two colours, which have been usually considered 
 as essential, and which have, hence, been universally taken as 
 characters. These are the hoary^ (canus, incanus) ; the 
 weaker variety of which is called cariescens, and the greenish- 
 blue (glaucus), the weaker gradation of which is named 
 glaucescens. 
 
 Besides, it is usual, when the ordinary green colour of the 
 integument of the leaves fails, to express this simply by the word 
 coloured, (coloratus) ; and when there is a difference of colours, 
 as, for instance, on the two sides of the leaves, we employ the 
 word discolor, as in Cornus alba. The opposite is, therefore, 
 unicolor, that is, when the colours are of the same kind. 
 
 A difference of colouring is also expressed generally by the 
 words spotted (maculatus), variegated (variegatus), and by 
 the words notatus and sphacelatus. The former expresses a 
 dark spot ; the latter the swarthy discolorations, which are 
 yearly the consequences of the decay of the parts. We use 
 the word zonatus to express differently-coloured curved lines 
 upon a surface : mnrginatus signifies that the margin is dif- 
 
FOR FORMS and.qualitip:s. 15 
 
 ferently coloured, or of another substance, (^ 28.) Round 
 spots, surrounded by a circle, are said to be ocellati. We al- 
 so use the words halonatus, halone cinctics. 
 
 23. 
 
 Among the many colours which appear in the vegetable 
 kingdom, the metallic are of least frequent occurrence. 
 Their various gradations have very properly been referred to 
 certain fundamental colours ; and the transitions from one 
 colour to another have been pointed out. 
 
 When there is scarcely any colour, and the parts are al- 
 most transparent, we use the words pellucidus, diaphanuSy 
 hyalinuSy agueus or vitreus. The opposite of this is opake 
 (opacus.) 
 
 The addition of the words sordide, intense, saterrime, pal- 
 lide, dilute, to colours, expresses the different gradations of the 
 dirty, the intense, and the pale colours. 
 
 1. The white colour (albus, in Greek compounds leuco-,) 
 has for its ground-tone the snow-white (niveus), which we 
 particularly observe, in its most beautiful state, in Camellia 
 Japonica. If the white colour is still very pure, but not so 
 clear as in the case already noticed, it is said to be candidus. 
 In Greek compounds this is expressed by the word argo-. 
 The white lilies afford the best example. If this last white 
 be united with a certain lustre, the term eburneus is used, 
 although but seldom. 
 
 If the lustre of the white colour is still more distinct, but 
 the colour itself not quite pure, we employ the term silvery ^ 
 (argenteus, and in Greek compounds argyro-.) 
 
 A faded white passing somewhat into a bluish, is called 
 milk-white (Jadeus, and in Greek compounds galacto-.) 
 
 Indeterminate varieties of the white colour constitute the 
 whitish (albidus and albescens). 
 
 If the white colour passes into the grey, it becomes hoary 
 {canus, incanus), especially when the surface is spreckled with 
 a greater or less number of distinguishable hairs. 
 
 2. The grey colour (griseus) has its ground-tone in the 
 ash-grey {cinereus, and in Greek compounds tephro- and spn^ 
 
X6 NOMENCLATURE 
 
 Jo-). Its varieties are the lead-grey {plumhcus)y which ap- 
 proaches near to the bhiish; ami the smoke-grey {lubidosus), 
 which goes more into a brown. The mouse-grey al$o (rnwi- 
 iius) is a soiled variety of the brownisli-grey. 
 
 3. The black colour {n'lgcr) has as its ground-tone the full 
 or coal-black {ater). In Greek compounds we express this 
 bv the words mela- or melanv-. 
 
 If the black passes somewhat into a greenish, it is called 
 raven-black {pullus) ; if it passes into a brownish, it is called 
 pitch-black {p\ccus~). 
 
 4. The brown colour {hrunncus) has as its ground-tone 
 the chesnut-brown (hadius). If it falls more into the red, it 
 is reddish-brown (fiiscus, in Greek compounds jo/z^o-). If 
 it goes more into a yellow, it is liver-brown ; and when a mix- 
 ture of reddish is added, it becomes rust-coloured (ferrugi- 
 neus). 
 
 If the brown colour is pure and somewhat splendent, it is 
 said to be spadiceus. If it is quite dirty, and passing into 
 black, it is said to be smoky {fidigineus). If along with this 
 smoky state, it is also mixed with undefined shadings of co- 
 lour, it is said, generally, to be lurid {luridus'). 
 
 5. The yellow colour {luteus, in Greek compounds xantho-,) 
 has as its ground-tone the golden-yellow {aureus^ in Greek 
 compounds chryso-). This is the same with the citron-yellow 
 ^citrinus). 
 
 A paler shade is denominated, generally, Jlavus. More 
 exactly defined vaiieties are the wax-yellow (cerinus), the 
 sulphur-yellow (sidphureus), and last the straw-yellow (stra- 
 mineus)^ which approaches pretty much to the white colour, 
 and is hence denominated by a Greek compound ochroleucus. 
 The dark-yellow approaches either to the red or to the brown. 
 It is generally called taicny (fulvus). Dark-yellow, with 
 reddish-brown, is called hclvoliis. Aurantiacus, is dark-yel- 
 low, passing somewhat into a reddish. Saffron -yellow {cro- 
 ceu^) is the distinctly intermediate colour between red and yel- 
 low- 
 
 If the yellow is soiled and pale, it is called Isabella colour, 
 and ochre-yellow (ochreus). If along with its dirty appear- 
 
roil FORMS AND QUALITIES. 17 
 
 ance it passes into a brownish, it is fawn-coloured {ccrvu 
 7ius). 
 
 6. The red colour {imber, in Greek compounds crythro-), 
 the ground-tone of which is carmine red {piiniceus), has 
 many gradations. 
 
 A i)ale clear red constitutes the rose-red {roscus). A still 
 paler tint, and somewhat soiled, is called incarnatus and car- 
 neus^ according to its different gradations. The former is 
 still a pure, but pale red : the latter, or the flesh colour, is 
 mixed \\\i\\ a yellowish tint. If the pale red falls still more 
 into the yeMow, it is called the tile colour (lateritius). 
 
 A pure red, which is clear and passes into yellow, is called 
 flame-coloured (Jiammeus)^ and also vermilion-coloured {ml- 
 niatu.s). Tile highest degree of it is the scarlet-red {coccu 
 7ieus). 
 
 If the red falls into a brownish, it is called clove-brozcn 
 {jccrampelinus), which is nearly related to the brown-red. 
 
 If the red passes into a dusky black, it is called blood-red 
 {fiangu'meus) ; and a complete similar mixture of pure black 
 and red produces the black-red {atro-purpiiixu^). 
 
 If the clear red has a slight shade of blue, it is called pur- 
 ple (purpiireus). If the mixture of blue and red is almost 
 equal, it is called violet-colour (violaceus) ; and the palest 
 shade of this is lilac Qilacinus). 
 
 7. The blue colour (ccdruleiis^ and in Greek compounds 
 cyaneo-') has as its ground-tone the Berlin-blue {cyaneus), 
 the most complete state of which is denominated sly-blue 
 (jazurcus). 
 
 The lavender-hXuQ. is a pale blue (c^esius) : it is mixed with 
 a little grey. 
 
 If the blue passes into the reddish, it approaches the violet 
 colour. It is expressed by the words jrwpureO'Cocr ulcus. 
 
 8. Lastly, The gi-cen colour (viridis, and in Greek com- 
 pounds chloro-) has as its ground-tone llic emcrald-gi*ecn 
 {sinaragdinus) . 
 
 Its varieties are chiefly the celavdine-grccn ; when mixed 
 with blue (uid arjh grev {bcr'dlus). 
 
 B 
 
18 NOMF.NCLA'J'l'Rt:. 
 
 Glaucus is a mixture of blue and green. When it is a still 
 clearer o-reen, it is called aruginosus. Prasinus is a slight 
 variety of it, with which a little ash-grey is mixed. 
 
 A dusky green, mixetl with brown, forms the olive-green 
 
 til. The Snifucc of the Parts. 
 
 24. 
 
 The surface of the parts has sometimes no covering, and' 
 no })roniinent substances. It is- then called even (Iwvis). A 
 higher degree of this evenness is denominated &Jiming {niti- 
 dus. The liig-hest deo:ree, which exhibits the surface a.s a 
 mirror, is called lueid or splendent (luddus, spkndens) ; and 
 when there is at the same time a gloss upon the part, it is 
 said to be veniicosus. Opake {opacns) is the op{X)site of 
 lucid, as it is also of transparent, (23.) 
 
 The want of hairs, or of substances resembling hairs, con- 
 stitutes the surface smooth (glahei'.) The term mains is also 
 used, to express the want of hairs or of a covering. 
 
 Surfaces that are uniformly even are called ccqualnles: 
 tiiose that are not uniform, but which have pi ominences and 
 hollows, although they are at the same time smooth, are-said 
 to be incequahilcs, 
 
 25. 
 
 With respect to tlie hairs in particular, they are in general 
 called pubes, and pubescens denotes a gentle and almost indis- 
 tinguishable covering of hairs. Soft {mollis^ moIUssimus) is 
 nearly the same. 
 
 If the hairs are soft, somewhat long and bent, the covering 
 is said to be pilosus ; but it is denominated viUosus or shag- 
 gy, when the soft hairs stand parallel and erect. 
 
 When the hairs, again, have other hairs attached to them, 
 the idea of plumes is generated (plumosus). In Hieracmm 
 undulatnm^ Ait. the whole surface is covered with these. lu 
 Damplera^ R. Br. the hairs of the whole are plumose. 
 
FOR FORMS AND QUALITIES. I9 
 
 Pencil-like (penicillatus) is that sort of hair wliicli has its 
 extremity completely set with small attached hairs. (Tab. I. 
 Fig. 12.) 
 
 When the soft hairs lie thick upon tiie surface, so that 
 they give it a silky or satiny lustre, it is said to be silky (se- 
 riceus) . 
 
 If the soft hairs are complicated, but yet so that the single 
 hairs can be distinguished, the covering is said to be woolly 
 (lanatus, lanuginosus). 
 
 Shag (Jomentum)^ and shaggy (tomentosus), denote that 
 the hairs are so thickly matted together, that the individual 
 hairs cannot be distinguished. The shag is commonly white 
 {tomentum album, candidum, niveum) ; frequently it is hoary 
 {t. canum, incanum) ; less frequently it is rust-coloured 
 {ferrugmewm) ; and still more rarely it is of a golden colour 
 {t. aureum). 
 
 Tufts (flocci) are short, thick, soft, irregularly hispid hairs, 
 as they appear upon the leaves of a great many kinds of Ve?'- 
 hascum^ and upon the corolla of Sccevola. 
 
 Stiff, very short hairs, make the surface hispid {hispidus). 
 When the stiff hairs are somewhat longer, the surface is 
 said to be rough-haired (Jiii'sutus). When the stiff hairs are 
 very long, the surface is said to be rigid Qiirtus). 
 
 When the stiff hairs stand singly, and resemble bristles, 
 the surface is said to be bristly (setosus). "When the stiff 
 hairs spring from a small prominence or knoll, the surface is 
 said to be strigose {stHgosus). 
 
 When hairs, considerably stiff, are crowded together in a 
 heap, the surface is said to be bearded (barhatm). 
 
 Stiff matted hairs form what is called stuppa or tow. The 
 filaments oi Dianella and Hypandra, R. Br., as also the abor- 
 tive buds of Acacia imdulata, W. are stuppece. 
 
 Small, star-shaped hairs constitute the piibcs stcllata. (Tab. 
 VI. Fig. 10. ; Tab. VII. Fig. 7.) 
 
 A coma is formed when long soft hairs arise from the base 
 of an organ, especially from the seed. Scmina comosa Ep'i- 
 lobii^ (Tab. I. Fig. 13.) See another meaning of the term (85.) 
 
 B2 
 
20 no^iexci.ati'kt:. 
 
 26. ' 
 
 Besides hairs, there are many other inequalities and rougli- 
 nesses of the surface. 
 
 Thus, the surface is said to be dotted {punctatus) when 
 fine small hollows or glands are observable on it. But those 
 transparent points, which do not form any peculiar hollows 
 on the surface, commonly receive the same aj)})ellation. 
 
 When the surface is beset witli such small inetjualities, as 
 can only be distinguished by the touch, and not by the na- 
 ked eye, it is said to be scabrous {scaber). Scahenimus cor- 
 responds with the next definition. In the lichens, a surface 
 is said to be Icprosus when it is scabrous, somewhat rent, 
 scaly, but also uniform. 
 
 Rough (asper) is the attribute of a surface w hen its inequa- 
 lities can be distinctly seen. Commonly they pass into short, 
 stiff hairs, and asperrimus is hence the same with Jiispidus. 
 
 Short herbaceous spines make the surface muricated (rni/- 
 rkatus). 
 
 Stiff points, lastly, form the prickly (ecJiinatus) surface. 
 
 Small, solid, visible inequalities make the surface granula- 
 ted {granulatus) ; and when the inequalities are larger, the 
 surface becomes warty {verrucosus and papillosus). AVhen 
 the Avarts are evidently filled v^'ixh air or water, the surface is 
 called ])ustular {papulosus). When they are very hard and 
 white, the surface is said to be callous {callosus). A coarse 
 granular substance is called grumose (grwnosa): Xylomtty 
 stromaia Spha7iaru?n variarum. 
 
 If the warts are considerably larger, the surface is denomi- 
 nated himched (iorosus, torulosus). 
 
 ^Vhen the inequalities proceed from successive risings and 
 depressions, the surface is said to be Avrinkled {ingvsus). A 
 considerable size in these risings makes the surface blistery 
 (bullatus). If the depressions are nearly parallel or streaked, 
 as we see them in the seed of the Annwica^ they arc called run- 
 cinate {runcinatus\ (Tab. I. Fig. 24.) When the depres- 
 sions resemble small hollows, the surface receives different 
 names, according to the size and regularity of the hollows. 
 It ts called porous {poj'osus) when the hollows are indistin- 
 
FOR romiS AXD QUAIJTir.F. 21 
 
 guishably small, so that they approach to the doited surface. 
 When they are larger, the surface is called scrohicidaie (.s'cro^ 
 h'icidatus). When, in the last place, the hollows are conti- 
 guous, and have a regular structure, the surface is said to be 
 honeycombed (favosus^ alveolatus). 
 
 When the depressions are linear, they are called furroro 
 (sulci), and the surface is said to be furrowed (sidcatufi). 
 
 When the depressions are intersected by raised lines of a 
 net form, the surface is said to be reticulated (reticulatws)^ 
 (Tab. VTII. Fig. 6, 7.) ; and when these lines run together 
 into distinct regular squares, tlie surface is called tessellated 
 (tessellatus). The surface is streaked (lineatus), when paral- 
 lel straight lines run through it, and are frequently elevated, 
 and frequently also of \'arious colours. 
 
 A part is said to be striated, when fine straight lines, which 
 project but a little, are seen running longitudinally on it. 
 
 Ringed {anmdatus) is commonly applied to a roundish or 
 tubular body, when it shews small circular prominences and 
 depressions ; Conferva muralis. If these rings go quite 
 through the body, like true partitions, the tube is called scp- 
 tata ; Puccinia, Didymosporium Nees. 
 
 Rifted (rimosus), is applied to a surface, when it has small 
 deep and regular clefts. When these form small fields, these 
 latter spaces are called areola;, and the surface is said to be 
 areolata {Lecideafumosa, atro-alba). 
 
 A furrowed surface, where the spaces between the furrows 
 are raised in folds, is said to be folded (plicaius). 
 
 Undulated (undidatiis) is a surface which rises and sinks 
 successively in gentle lines. When this bending and sinking 
 are very irregular, the surface assumes a crispid appearance, 
 (crispus). 
 
 27. 
 
 There are still some other apparently foreign substances, 
 which form a covering on plants. To these belong 
 
 Hoariness (pru'ma), which makes the surface hoary {pruU 
 nosus). It is a fine, commonly a bluish substance, which is 
 
22 NdMETSCLATUKi:. 
 
 exhaled from the juices of the planl itself, and which can 
 commonly be wiped oft'. 
 
 Meal (farina) makes the surface mealy (farinosus)^ and 
 has a similar origin. 
 
 Substances still finer than those form Dust (pulvis), and 
 make the surface dusty {pulvej'aceiis). 
 
 Scales (squairia) are dry membranous substances, which 
 rise mostly from the surface ; they render it scaly (lejncbtus), 
 (Tab. VI. Fig. 8.) If they are flat, the surface is called 
 squaviulosa. If they lie upon one another, and are thickly 
 placed, we say, as in the lichens, that the surface is globose 
 {glohosus). 
 
 Chaff' (palea) is formed by large, commonly dryand point- 
 ed, skins, and renders the surface chaffy {paleaceus). 
 
 Gluten, which is likewise an exhaled juice, renders the sur- 
 face more or less glutinous (g-luthiosus-, or vhcosu-s). 
 
 IV. Universal Formif. 
 
 We here treat of such forms only as belong to all the parts, 
 and to which all others have a reference. 
 
 The completion of a certain form is expressed by the term 
 ejffiguratus. Thus, it is used with respect to the peristoma 
 of the mosses, and with respect to the lichens, where, for ex- 
 ample, in Lecanora fidgens, it expresses the lobed crust of the 
 margin, in opposition to the granular and uniform crust. 
 
 28. 
 
 The base of an organ or part refers always to the point, 
 by which it is inserted, and through which it derives its 
 nourishment. 
 
 The apex is the point or region which is opposed to the 
 base. 
 
 The axis is an imaginary or actual line, which proceeds 
 from the base to the apex. 
 
 The sides (latera) are the parts which lie on botii sides of 
 the axis 
 
rOJl FOllMS AM) QUAlJTir.S. C3 
 
 The surface (pagina) is the extension of a part, and is 
 commonly divided into the upper and under surface. 
 
 The margin (margo) is the boundary which unites tlic two 
 surfaces. In a more common sense, when any thing is car- 
 ried from the sides to tliis part, it is called the circumference 
 or ray (amhitus, radius). That which lies in the circumfe- 
 rence is called radialis or pcriplie^'icus^ (Tab. I. Fig. 9.0.) 
 When the margin is perceptibly distinguished by its sub- 
 stance or colour from tlie central part or disc, the organ is 
 said to be marginated (margin at t/s)^ as the leaves of Saxifra- 
 ga aizoon, Bryum marginatum, and the fruits of many of the 
 lichens, (22.) 
 
 Lrmitate (limitatus), is, when the boundary is sharply 
 marked; as, for instance, in Lecidea g'eographiva, parasema^ 
 and others. 
 
 The opposite of runitatus is expressed by ejf'usm^ {Stroma 
 Sph/eri/e se^pentis.) 
 
 The central part of the surface, in opposition to the cir- 
 cumference, is denominated the disc.^ (discus). But this word 
 is used equally with respect to leaves and flowers. 
 
 The limb (limbiis, or lamina), is used with respect to the 
 extended surfaces of flowers ; the former term, when the co- 
 rolla consists of but one petal, the latter, of more than one. 
 
 The keel (carina), is the prominent line or ridge on the 
 under side of a horizontal surface. 
 
 Angle (angulus), is the point where two lines or surfaces 
 meet one another. It is hence applicable as well to the cir- 
 cumference of the leaves as to the stem and stalk. 
 
 The sinus, means the curvilineal indentation between two 
 projecting angles. It is chiefly used with respect to the mar- 
 gins of the leaves. 
 
 Umbilicus^ is a depressed surface, surrounded by an ele- 
 vated margin. 
 
 Appendage (apophysis), is a smaller body attached to n 
 greater, which, in the capsules of the IMosscs, is ronmionlv 
 called i\\c crop, (struma). 
 
24 xomi:nx'I.atuuk. 
 
 29. 
 
 In order tliat we niav be able to distinguish surfaces exact- 
 ly, we must attend to the following expressions. 
 
 Linear {I'mcarl^ § 16.), is, as was formerly remarked, a 
 surface uhicli preserves the same small dimensions through- 
 out, and is every where about the breadth of a geometrical 
 line. 
 
 Orbicular {orh'icidar'is)^ is a surface which has pretty near- 
 ly the form of a circle. If it deviates more or less from the 
 circular form, it is called roundish^ {sid)roiundus). The term 
 rounded {rotundatus) is also used, Avhen one part of the cir- 
 cumference approaches to the round form. 
 
 Ovate {ovaiu.s), is when a surface is rounded at the base, 
 but tapers towards the apex, and when its length is a little 
 greater than its l)readth. 
 
 Elliptical, or oval, {elUpt'icus, oval'is)^ is when the length 
 of a surface exceeds its breadth twice or thrice, and it is 
 cquall}' rounded at both ends. (Tab. VII. Fig. 6.) 
 
 Oblong {ohlongus), is a surface, the length of which ex- 
 ceeds the breadth more than three times, and which has its 
 ends variously defined. (Tab. VIII. Fig. 2. 5.) 
 
 Lanceolate {lanceolatus)^ is a surface which tapers gradual- 
 ly towards its apex, and is of considerable length. 
 
 Spathulate {spatlndatu.s), when a surface is rounded at the 
 apex, and tapers towards the base. 
 
 W^edge-shaped {amcaUis^ or cuneiformls), denotes proper- 
 ly a surface which terminates in a right line at the apex, and 
 tapers towards the base. It is usual also, without regarding 
 the apex, to designate this tapering alone, under the name of 
 the xvedgc-shapcd. 
 
 Tongue-shaped {lingulatu.s)^ or band-shaped {Ugulutus)^ 
 denotes a surface of some length, with blunt ends, and paral- 
 lel sides. 
 
 Sword-shaped {cnsifoi'mi.s), is an oblong surface, one mar- 
 gin of which is hollowed, and the opposite one is elevated. 
 
 Sickle-shaped (Jalcatns)^ is a curved surface, one part of 
 which remains straight. 
 
FOR FORMS AND QUALFIIKS. 25 
 
 Obovate {ohova(us), is tlic ovate form reversed, -with round- 
 ed apex, tapering base, and liaving the length but a little 
 more than the breadth. This form passes into the fan-shaped 
 (flahell'iformis)^ when the apex is much extended, and con- 
 vex. 
 
 Triangular (trlanrrular'ifi)^ is a surface, the sides of which 
 are nearly right-lined, and which meet in three angles. 
 
 Rhomboidal {rhombokleus), is a square moved forward, as 
 it were, at the top. Trapezoidal (trapezo'ideiis), is a surface, 
 the sides of which meet in four unequal angles. 
 
 Pandurse-form {pandiiraformls), is an oblong surface hav- 
 ing both its sides cut into a sinus. (Tab. VI. Fig. 9.) 
 
 Heart-shaped {cordatus)^ is when a surface is hollowTd at 
 the base, when this hollowing is rounded off at the sides, and 
 the apex tapers. The opposite is obcordaiiis, when the apex 
 of a surface has a heart-shaped hollowing and rounding-off, 
 and the base is tapered. 
 
 Kidney-shaped {rcn'iformh), is a surface of which the apex 
 is very broad and flat, the sides much rounded, and the base 
 emarginated. 
 
 Half-moon-shaped {semilunaius, lunulatus)^ is properly a 
 higher degree of the kidney-shaped, when the sides are drawn 
 to some length, and the apex is commonly sloped. 
 
 Arrow-shaped (sagittatus), when the sides terminate in two 
 straight-lined pointed lobes at the base ; and when these lobes 
 are sloped outwards, the surface is said to be spear-shaped, 
 {hastatus). 
 
 30. 
 
 When we attend not merely to the surfaces, but to the 
 substance of the organs, we make use of the following ex- 
 pressions. 
 
 Fleshy (carnosus), when a part is considerably thick and 
 soft, and has a fleshy consistence. 
 
 Membranaceous {memhranaccus), denotes the thin, but 
 commonly also the coloured character of the part. 
 
 Scariose (scariosus), when the membranes arc destitute of 
 sap, and commonly discoloured. 
 
C(i XO.MKNCLATUKE. 
 
 Chartaceous (cfmrtaceus), is a firmer variety of the fornier, 
 as in tlie fruit-cover of the Notola^na, Vcnten. 
 
 Inflated {infatus), wlicn a part has thin extended sides, 
 and is internally hollow. Calyx inflatus Silenes Hermannin? ; 
 Faux hnjlata Dracocephah. An inferior degree of tliis is ven- 
 tricose, {ventricosu^i). 
 
 Crustaceous {critstaceiis^JragWhs)^ when a part is dry, and 
 is composed of small pieces or scales ; as in the Peridiae of 
 Physarum, and the fruits of Lcucopogon, R- Br. 
 
 Dry (cvsTiccus), is used chiefly with regard to fruits, and is 
 opposed to juicy, (pulposus^ or ,succulcntus). 
 
 Bony (osseus), or stony {lapideiis)^ denote the highest de- 
 gree of hardness ; as in the fruit of Scleria, Lithospermum, 
 Styphelia, and Ventenatia, Cav. 
 
 Cartilaginous {cartilagineus)^ is an inferior degree of hard- 
 ness, but which still allows the parts to be separated witli dif- 
 ficulty ; as the margins of many leaves, and the albuminous 
 parts of seeds. 
 
 Cork-like {suherosus), and spongy (spongiosiis)^ explain 
 themselves. 
 
 Leathery (coriaceiis), expresses the union of a certain de- 
 gree of hardness vnth elasticity, as in many leaves, and in the 
 corolla of many Styraceae. 
 
 Horny (corneus), is something harder than the cartihigi- 
 nous. It is applicable chiefly to seeds. 
 
 If we attend to the substantial configuration of the Organs, 
 we employ the following expressions. 
 
 A part is said to be round (teres, cijl'indriais), of whicli 
 the section is more or less circular. From the gradations of 
 this form, there arise the ideas of half-round {scmitere.s), and 
 roundish (teretktscidus). If the cylindrical body is very fine, 
 it is ca]\ed capillaceous (capHl(wcu.s\ 16.), or fil'iform, (JU'i- 
 formis) ; in which last case, the thickness may be somcw hat 
 greater, and the section does not always exhibit a circle. 
 
 Compressed {romprcS'ms)^ when the body has two flat sur- 
 faces, which meet in projecting angles. AV'hen these angle^ 
 
roil FOJi.MS AXi) QUA LIT IKS. 2? 
 
 are acute, and the surfaces parallel, the body is said to be 
 tivo-edged {cinceps). 
 
 Depressed {depressus)^ when the surface or centre of a body 
 is sunk : this, therefore, corresponds with the navel-form. 
 
 Gibbous (gibhus), when a section of the body displays ele- 
 vations of its surface in particular parts. The simple swelling 
 up of a body is expressed by tumidus. 
 
 When a section of the body displays angles, and we do not 
 pay any particular attention either to their ninnber or regu- 
 larity, the body is said, generally, to be angular {angulatus). 
 AVhcn the angles are acute, and the surfaces flat, the part is 
 said to be three-sided (triqucter), four-sided {tetraqueter). 
 When the angles are obtuse, and the surfaces even, the part 
 is called three-edged {trigonus)^ four-edged {tetragonus)^ 
 five-edged (pentagonus), and so forth. When the sides are 
 sunk, we are accustomed, without regard to the acuteness or 
 obtusencss of the angles, to say, triangularis, quadrangula- 
 rlSf quinquangtdaris, and so on. 
 
 Deltoid (dcltoideus), when a section of the body is three- 
 sided, and when the body itself is not much longer than 
 broad. 
 
 Prismatic (prismatiais), when the body is somewhat long, 
 and, along with flat surfaces, has a considerable number of 
 angles. 
 
 Spherical (globosus, globulosus, spharicus, sphaermdeus), 
 when the body approaches more or less to the shape of a 
 sphere. Hemispherical (heinispharmis), when the body has 
 the form of a divided sphere. 
 
 An indefinite elevation is expressed by convexus', and the 
 opposite, the flat condition of a body, by planus, (44.) 
 
 Pear-shaped (piriformis), when the body has a thick, but 
 expanded summit, and tapers gradually towards the base. 
 To this is nearly related the turbinated shape (tu?'binatus). 
 In this case, the summit is commonly truncated, and the base 
 gradually tapers. This also is the form which is sometimes 
 called the reversed conical (pbconicus). 
 
 Conical (conicus), on the contrary, is when the section of 
 I he body is round, its apex tapering, and its base truncated. 
 
il^ ^rOMENXLATURE. 
 
 pyramidal {pijramklatus^ pyj-amidaUfi), wlien tlie section 
 of the body is angular, its apex tapcrinf]r, and its base trun- 
 cated. A variety of" this is the mitrc-shapcd {mitrcrfonnh)^ 
 resembling a niglit-cap ; which form is very common in the 
 calvptra? of Mosses, and is opposed to the obliquely-cut form, 
 (calyptra d'lm'id'icUa). 
 
 We arc also accustomed to derive the appellations of bodies 
 from their resemblance to various substances. Hence the 
 rule, That objects, either natural or artificial, which are sel- 
 dom met with, or, at least, which are not universally known, 
 ought not to be employed in comparing bodies. The most 
 usual expressions scarc^ely need anv more particular explana- 
 tion. 
 
 Mammillated {niammUlatus)^ is commonly a hemispherical 
 body, with a small wart upon its top. 
 
 Urceolate {itrceolatus), when the body is expanded at both 
 ends, and contracted in the mitldle. (Tab. II. Fi^. 16. Tab. 
 III. Fig. 12.) 
 
 Cotyloid {coft/lokleu.s), when the body is depressed in the 
 centre, and elevated at the margin. (Tab. V. Fig. 12.) A 
 slighter degree of this figure is called saucer-shaped (scutelli- 
 Jorm'is)^ a higher degree cup-shaped {scyphrformis)^ or cupola- 
 shaped {ci(pulatus). When the surface is scarcely concave, 
 it is called plate-shaped {pateU'iformls). This passes into the 
 disc-sliapcd (disciformis). 
 
 Lenticular (Icntkularis), is a body depressed both on the 
 \ipper and lower surface, and of which the circumference is 
 round. This is called shield-shaped^ when the upper surface 
 is raised, and the lower somewhat hollow. The higher degree 
 of the shield-shaped passes into the meniscoid {memsco'ideus). 
 
 The spiral form {trochlearis)^ I'esembles a screw, as in the 
 capsules of Helicteres. (See Spired is, § 37.) 
 
 SpindU^-shaped (fus/formis), is the conical form reversed, 
 with the lower end drawn out into a fine tapering form. But 
 we must distinguish this fro\n ft(sinns^ which denotes a cy- 
 linder, which t.-qx^rs at both ends. (Tab. 1. Fig. 31.) 
 
FOR FORMS AND QUALITIES. 1>9 
 
 Capitate (capital us)^ when the bociy has a round thick end, 
 or is of a roundish stalk shape. 
 
 Cap-shaped {pileatus, jy'ilcjformis). This form is derived 
 from the capitate, when the top is expanded, or has a margin 
 which hangs down. A still greater expansion of the cap con- 
 stitutes the umbrella form {umhraculiformis). Necklace- 
 sliaped {monil'ifonms), denotes the connection of round or 
 oval bodies by threads, as in a necklace, — Acrosporium, An- 
 tennaria, Nees : Legumen Parkinsonian. 
 
 Club-shaped {clavatus) is when the body has a thick apex, 
 and a gradually tapering base. 
 
 Awl-shaped (.siibidatu.'iy, when a round body tajx;rs conical- 
 ly towards the point, and becomes extremely line. 
 
 Scobiform {scohrformis)^ as the fine long seeds of Lepto- 
 spermum and the Orchidia;. 
 
 Scymitar-shaped {acmacrfoi'mis)^ when a body, having com- 
 monly a section with three sides, has also a long projecting 
 edge, and a thick back. 
 
 Axe-shaped (dolabriformis), when the body is compressed, 
 rounded, obtuse, and becoming gibbous towards the apex. 
 
 Crested {ciistatus), when the body has erect, rough points. 
 Coiiib-shaped (pectinahis), on the other hand, is when a body 
 has its parts deeply cut, parallel to one another, and lying m 
 the same plane, (Tab. VI. Fig. 12.) 
 
 Pillow-shaped (^pulvinatus)^ when several individuals or 
 parts are so pressed together, that they form an eminence, a 
 small hill, or pillow. 
 
 Wing-shaped or winged {alatus), when the body has mem- 
 branous appendages on both sides, which go out from it in 
 the manner of wings. Semina alata Gladioli, (Tab. I. Fig. 19.) 
 
 Arched (fo7'7iicatus), when the body is concave on the un- 
 der side, but on the upper side is raised and arched. See 
 the upper lips of many of the Labiata?. 
 
 ^- 32. 
 
 With respect to the cavities which are found in bodies, 
 many expressions have at different times been em])loyed to 
 denote them ; here we notice only the followino-. 
 
30 NOMF.XC'LATUllE. 
 
 Concave (coiicaxyus), when one surface of tlie body is de- 
 pressed. A higher degree of this depression is denominated 
 hooded {cuculatus). 
 
 When the hollowing is performed in a straight line, and a 
 section of it is hemispherical, it is said to be channelled (cana- 
 ricidatufi). 
 
 AVhen the hollowing is continued throughout a considerable 
 length, and it shews an angular section, it is called boat* 
 shaped or Iccel-fihapcd {navicidatus^ and carinatus). 
 
 AVhen a body is hollow throughout its whole length, it is 
 called tuhc-sliapcd (tubidosi/.s, fistuloms). When the lower 
 and narrow part of the tube is gradually stretched into a very 
 wide circumference, the funnel-shape is produced {iJifundibu- 
 li/brmh). 
 
 Bell-shaped {campanidatus, campanifrn'mis), when the in- 
 terior hollow channel is closed at one end, and is somewhat 
 narrower in that part than at the other, where it is open and 
 expanded. 
 
 When a narrow tube passes suddenly into a somewhat de- 
 pressed margin, but raised in the middle, it is said to be sal- 
 ver-shaped. 
 
 If the tube is so short, that it is scarcely attended to, but 
 the rim is very flat and expanded, the body is said to be 
 wheel-shaped. 
 
 If the tube is bent, pointed at one end, and expanded at 
 the otlier, it is said to be pnjboscis-shaped {prohosddeus). To 
 this belongs the shut and self opening cavity of some or- 
 gans {pars clausa et dcMscens). If the opening is very small 
 and round, it is said to be periusus^ as the fruit of Endocar- 
 pon tephroides. A small hollowing in the base is said also to 
 Ix* iwcidptus^ as in the seeds of the Anchusa. 
 
 V. Insertion, or Relative Position. 
 
 33. 
 
 The position of organs, or of their parts, is a vei'y variable 
 expression, which may be referred to several kinds of charac- 
 
FOK FOH.MS AND QUALITIES. 31 
 
 ters, 1. We may consider the situation of parts, in reference 
 to the things whicli surround tliem. We thus call them 
 Jtoating\ submersed, buried. Of these we shall speak on an- 
 other occasion. 2. We may consider the situation of a part, 
 in relation to the organ which lies under it. This is called 
 tlie insertion {hisertio), which is either mediate or immediate. 
 Tlie mediate insertion supposes an intervening substance, by 
 which means a kind of articulation is produced. Such an in- 
 sertion, we observe, for instance, in the labia of some of the 
 Orchidea^, as in Dendrobium, Sw. 
 
 When we mean to signify, generally, that one organ rises 
 out of another, or is inserted on it, we form a derivative from 
 the name of the organ which serves as its support. We thus 
 say, radicaiis, caulinus, rameuSy petiolaris. These denote 
 that which springs from the root, from the stem, the branches, 
 or the leaf-stalks, or which is inserted on them ; Flores pe- 
 tiolares of Turn era cuneiform is, (Tab. V. Fig. 12.) We al- 
 so sometimes form words from the names of both the organs, 
 — from that which is inserted, and that which serves as tlie 
 support. We thus say calyciflorus, calycostemon, (when 
 the filaments spring from the calyx) ; gynandrus, (when the 
 anthers are set upon the pistillum) ; rhizanthus^ thalamic 
 JioruSy (when the flower is set on the receptacle.) 
 
 We also use the prepositions ep'i and hypo, to denote more 
 precisely the insertion. We thus say, epipetahis, liypophyh 
 lus, and so forth. Lastly, [the expressions dorsalis, lateralis, 
 basilaris, terminalis, are important. We signify by them 
 that an organ is inserted,, on the back, on the sides, on the 
 base, or on the summit. 
 
 We also attend to the situation, as it is in the centre, or 
 in the axis, (centralis, axilis), or out of the centre {excentri- 
 cus) ; and also to the tendency towards the centre, or from 
 the centre, (centrifugus, centripetus) ; which terms are espe- 
 cially employed respecting the situation of the cmbryon, and 
 its radicle in the albuminous substance. 
 
32 XOMKXCLA'l riiK. 
 
 AVc may consider the insertion or situation of an organ, in 
 regard to tlie other parts by m hicli it is surrounded. AVe 
 thus say that a part is inierior {i}/fi'7U6), Avhen it is placed be- 
 low another. If this is the case -with the calyx, in respect oi" 
 the ovarium, it is said to be free {I'lhcr). But if the ovarium 
 is inferior, in respect of the rim of the calyx, it is then united 
 with the tube of the calyx. In this latter case, the calyx is 
 superior ; in the former instance, it is the ovarium. Tab. VIII. 
 Fig. 6, 7, the fruit is superior, the calvx inferior. Sec also in 
 Tab. VI. Fig. 13. 
 
 We are also accustomed to distinguish between mtrafoUa' 
 ecus and cxircifoliaceus. The latter term is used, ibr ex- 
 ample, respecting flower-stalks, which have no relation of po- 
 sition to the leaf-stalks, as happens in many kinds of Sola- 
 num. We also say of the stipula3 or appendages of the 
 leaves, that they are stipula hitrapeliolares, when they ap- 
 pear within the leaf-stalk. Flower-stalks are called ^;r^io/o5 
 opposite folios^ w^hen they spring opposite to the leaf-stalks, or 
 the leaves ; while, on the contrary, their usual oiigin is in 
 the axis of the leaves {axillaris). 
 
 Supra and irifra arc used respecting surfaces, st/peritc and 
 ■infcrnt respecting lines. The former are also used respect- 
 ing the sui-faccs of the leaves ; the latter, respecting the stalks, 
 to denote their upper or lower part. Utrinque is used in both 
 senses : it may thus denote the two surfaces of the leaves, or 
 it may also mean the summit and base of the leaf 
 
 Sursum denotes a direction upwards, towards the summit ; 
 for which purpose we also employ anirorsum : the opposite 
 of which are retrorsiim, dcorstim. Panicum viride has its 
 involucella f<in\'!um and V. verticillatum dcorsum lusp'ula. 
 Valantia Apariney6Z?a antrorsum, Galium Aparine rctrorsum 
 nculcata. Antlcus and posticus, denote position before or be-^ 
 liind another part. AVe also use anterior and posterior. In 
 Cryptostylis, the labellum is^06'/k7/7?? ,- in Genoplesiuni, Br. 
 the galea is antica. 
 
FORMS AND QUALITIES. 33 
 
 35. 
 
 The position and insertion of the sexual parts, in relation 
 to one another, is of more importance, frequently difficult to 
 investigate, and by no means uniform. In general, we call the 
 stamina hypogyna, when, as in the Grasses, (Tab. III. Fig. 7.) 
 they rise from a lower surface than the female parts. Stamina 
 perigyna are those which spring from the same plane with 
 the female parts; (Tab. VIII. Fig. 4. Tab. III. Fig. 24, 
 Tab. IV. Fig. 14.) Commonly the former are united with 
 the corolla, pass downwards along with it, and thus show their 
 origin to be in the same plane with the female parts. But in 
 many of the Caryophylleae, one half of the stamina, in the 
 same plant, are hypogyna., the other hsM pei^igyna. In Silene, 
 Cerastium, Dianthus, and Saponaria, five stamina stand on 
 the receptacle, and therefore deeper than the ovarium : but the 
 other five are connected with the petals of the corolla, and 
 may be considered as perigyna. 
 
 Lastly, we call those stamina, or anthers, epigyna, which, 
 as in Cleone and in the Gynandriatae, are united with the 
 pistil, or with the columna gcnitalium ; (Tab. IV. Fig. 
 10—12.) 
 
 36. 
 
 With respect to the position of organs of the same kind, 
 we must attend to the following expressions. 
 
 Parts are said to be opposita, when they rise opposite to 
 one another, or lie directly before one another. In the former 
 sense, the word is used respecting leaves which spring from 
 opposite sides of the stem. In its latter acceptation, it is 
 commonly used respecting the petals of the corolla, in so far 
 as they stand directly before the leaves of the calyx ; or re- 
 specting the stamina, in so far as they stand directly before 
 the parts of the corolla. We also say that the partition of a 
 capsule is opposite (dissepimentum contrarium or opposihcm), 
 when it is placed perpendicularly to the valves of the capsule. 
 On the other hand, the partition is parallel, when, arising out 
 of the suture of the valves, it has the same direction with 
 them, (Tab. VII. Fig. 6.) 
 
 C 
 
->* No:\n:xci.ATri?E. 
 
 Star-like (vcrticUlata^ .stellata)^ when several pai'ts in the 
 same plane, and with different direction^;, seem to rise from 
 tlie same }X)int. 
 
 Decussated {di'cussatu s) . The direction of organs is thus 
 designated, when, standing under or above one another, they 
 form with each other a right angle. 
 
 Cross-like (crudatus or crucifbrmis). This, on the other 
 hand, consists in the direction towards four opposite sides of 
 parts which lie in a horizontid plane. 
 
 Doubled {gemrnus or geminatus), when parts, which are 
 distinct, yet stand in the immediate neighbourhood of each 
 other. 
 
 Three-together (tomus), when the parts stand by threes in 
 the same plain. We perceive from this the meaning also of 
 quatermis, quhius^ &c. 
 
 37. 
 
 Alternate {aliernus^ alternans), when the parts either are 
 inserted, like steps, on the two opposite sides, or at least 
 when they stand not directly before, but between other parts. 
 The former occurs in leaves, the latter in the situation of the 
 petals of the corolla with respect to the divisions of the calyx, 
 or of the stamina with respect to the parts of the corolla. 
 
 Two-rowed {dlstichu.s), when, without regard to the oppo- 
 site or alternate insertion, the planes of the parts lie in one 
 surface. 
 
 On the other hand, we use the phrase in tzco dircctmis {bi- 
 fariam), when any property is observed on opposite sides, 
 with the same character. Thus, we say that the stalk of Ve- 
 ronica Chamaedrys is hifaiiam pilosus, because a line of hairs 
 springs from both sides of it. Thus, also, we say that the 
 leaves of Lycopodium complanatinn are hjfarlam connata, 
 lx?cause they grow in two opposite directions. We hence 
 perceive what is meant by quadrifarlam (in I.yco})odium al- 
 pinum), qiunquefariam (in Lycopodium annotinum), sexfu' 
 r'lavi (in Lycopodium dendroideum). It is thus said, respect- 
 ing the fruit of Nicotiana, Capsula ap'icc quadi^lfartam de- 
 hisce ns. 
 
FOR FORMS AND QITALITIES. 35 
 
 In rows (serialis), when the parts follow one another, in a 
 certain order or train. We hence understand what is meant 
 by bi- and tri-seriatus. 
 
 Spiral (spiralis), when the parts form a spiral line around 
 the common axis ; (Tab. III. Fig. 25, Tab. V. Fig. 1.) 
 TrocJdearis is the same (13.), only applied to solid bodies. 
 Gyrosiis is used respecting level surfaces, as respecting the 
 fruit of Lichens. 
 
 Rose-like {rosaceus, or rosaceo-congestus), when the parts, 
 by their crowded position, form rosettes, as the leaves of 
 Bryum roseum and Alyssum nebrodense, (Tab. VII. Fig. 5.) 
 
 Radiated (radiatus and radians), when the parts are 
 placed like the spokes of a wheel. 
 
 38. 
 
 If no order be observed in the position of the parts with 
 respect to one another, they are called sparse (sparsa). If, 
 in addition to this, they are thickly placed, they are said to 
 be crowded (con/erta, or congesta). But the parts are called 
 aggregate, when several of them rise from one point : Intri- 
 cate (intricatus), when the parts are so heaped together that 
 their origin and direction are altogether undistinguishable ; 
 Hyplia Sporotrichi, Lin. 
 
 If they do not originate in exactly one point, but spring up 
 in the neighbourhood of each other, they are then said to be 
 fasciculated (fascicidata)\ and conglomerated (conghmerata), 
 when they have no peculiar support, but touch one another. 
 
 We also apply the expression compact (coarctatus), when 
 the parts, without regard to their origin, stand thick together. 
 We use also the word turf-like (caspitosus), respecting stalks^ 
 or branches, which seem to stand thick together, and to grow 
 from one point. 
 
 When plants grow in distinct patches, they are called gre-- 
 garitp, in opposition to soUtaria. 
 
 Parts are contiguous (contiguus), when their margins seem 
 to meet each other. Continuous {contimms), is a part which 
 seems to be one with some other part, or it is an individual 
 organ which goes on without interruption. 
 
 C 2 
 
36 NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 Connivent (cojinivcns), when the parts, without being 
 connected, arc yet bent towards one another, as, for instance, 
 the anthera? of Cyphia serrata; (Tab. VIII. Fig. 3.) 
 
 Incumbent {inciimbens), when a part rests upon the sur- 
 face of another part, without being united with it, as the ra- 
 dicle on the cotyledons of Erysimum liieracifolium ; (Tab. I. 
 Fig. 33.) On the contrary, accumbent (accumhens)^ is used 
 when a part is placed upon the sharp edge of another, as the 
 radicle on the margin of the cotyledons of Shiapis nigra; 
 (Tab. I. Fig. 34.) 
 
 39. 
 
 The opposite of proximity is expressed by the terms distant 
 {dh'tans), remote {remotiis). Rare {rarus) is the opposite of 
 coiifertiis : Lax {laocus), the opposite of coardatus ; and a 
 higher degree of the former, when the pai-ts hang loosely 
 downwards in all directions, is commonly denominated diffw- 
 sus and flaccidus. 
 
 The opposite of contiguous is discrete (discrctus) ; (Tab. 
 VIII. Fig. 3. 4.) 
 
 40. 
 
 When one part is placed immediately upon another, it is, 
 in general, said to be sessile {scssilis). But of this there are 
 several varieties. 
 
 One part may form a joint with another ; it is then said to 
 be articulated {artkidatus) . It may grow along with it 
 (con?iatus)y or it may have a general connection with it (co- 
 lifrirns). When plain surfaces pass into one another, they 
 are said to be confluent (conjluentes')^ as in the IVuit of Li- 
 chens. 
 
 When one organ, with its lower surface, embraces an- 
 other, it is called amplexans, whence Folia amplexicaulia ; 
 and when this lower surface extends itself in the shape of 
 a saddle on both sides, the organ is called rkUng {cqii'itam). 
 When it descends, in the form of a sheath, around the other 
 body, it is called vag'inans. 
 
 When one organ is sunk into another, it is said to be im- 
 
FOR FOllMS AND QUALITIES. 37 
 
 mersed {immersus)^sis the fruits of many Lichens ; or becldud 
 and nestUng (nidulatis^, as the seeds of the Melastonia in the 
 pulp of the berry. 
 
 When, along with the immersion, it projects a little, it is 
 called emergens, as the fruit of Lecidea lithyrga, from the 
 crust. When a part projects a little, without being directly 
 immersed, it is called prominultLS ; Nervi foliorum suhtus 
 proviinuli. 
 
 When a part of one organ runs downwards on the surface 
 of another, it is said to be decurrent (decurrens). 
 
 When leaves grow in such a manner around the stem, or 
 leaf-stalk, that they seem to constitute one substance with 
 them, they are called perfoliate {perjvliata)^ as in Lonicera 
 caprifolium, Bupleurum rotundifolium, and Jungermannia 
 coalita. Hook. (Mus. Exot. ii. t. 123.) 
 
 When several parts which are sessile, partly cover each 
 other, they are called imbricated {imhi'icatus). 
 
 When a part has a stalk, this is variously denoted, hy pe- 
 tiolatus, in leafy parts ; by pedunculatus and pedicellatus', in 
 blossoms and fruits ; and by stipitatus, in other parts. 
 
 Peltated (peltatus), is a part which has its stalk in the 
 centre, and not on the margin. 
 
 Versatile (versatilis), is a part which rests in such a man- 
 ner on the point of another, that it is inserted in one point 
 only, and is easily put in motion ; for instance, the anthera) 
 of the Grasses and other plants. 
 
 When one part is so loosely bound to another, that it is 
 held only by one small point or thread, but in every other 
 part is loose, it is called basi solutus, as the leaves of Sedum 
 reflexum, saxatile. The opposite of this is adnatus, as in the 
 leaves of Seduni se:j:angulare. 
 
 VI. Direction of the Parts, 
 
 41. 
 
 The relation of organs, with respect to the horizoq, is tjicir 
 direction. 
 
:J8 NOMEXCLATURi:. 
 
 A part is called straight, when it proceeds in a straight 
 line. Upright (erect u^), when it stands more or less perpen- 
 dicular to the horizon. The higher degree of the straight 
 direction Is called stiff' {strictus), in which case a geometrical 
 straight line nearly is described. 
 
 Rigid, on the other hand, (r'lgidus), is a part which is in- 
 flexible, without having necessarily the straight direction. 
 
 The opposite of tlie straight direction is the bent (Jiexu- 
 osus), when the direction is removed on one side or the other 
 from the straight line, (Tab. VI. Fig. 11.) To this belong 
 the sul^ordinate definitions, crooked (infractus), when one or- 
 gan takes suddenly the opposite, or a quite different direc- 
 tion ; geniculated {geniculatus), when an organ changes 
 its direction, so as to form something like a knee ; twisted 
 (tortus, tortUis), when an organ is twisted round itself, or 
 changes its direction in a variety of ways, (Tab. II. Fig. 13.) 
 Tortilis denotes the capability, tortus the fixed convolution. 
 
 Twining (voIubiUs), when a part winds itself in a spiral 
 line around another part ; in which case, we observe whether 
 it is turned to the right or left side (dexti'ors^tm or sinistror^ 
 sum). The former happens in Bryonia and Lonicera peri- 
 clymenum, the latter in Calystigia sepiuni. When a part is 
 twisted upon itself, it is said to be snail-shaped (cocJdeaius), 
 (Tab. I. Fig. 25.) ; and we attend then to the individual 
 turnings (anfractus). 
 
 When a part clings fast to another, and bends this way 
 and that, but without going round, it is called climbing 
 (scand^ns). 
 
 42. 
 
 The dii-ection, which is parallel to the horizon, is called 
 horizontal {horizontalis, patentissimus), in opposition to the 
 perpendicular direction {verticalis). That which makes an 
 angle with both lines, the perpendicular and the horizontal, 
 is called oblique {obliquus). But this is subject to tlie follow- 
 ing varieties. 
 
 When one organ simply approaches so near to another. 
 
FOR iUKMS AND QUALITir-S. 39 
 
 that it has aJniost the siime direction with it, it is hiiid to ho 
 appressus. 
 
 When the upriglit direction is left {crectus), and the part 
 comes more towards the horizontal line, the direction is then 
 said to be spreading {patulus, patens), as in the branches of 
 Hirtelkglandulosa; (Tab. VII. Fig. 1.) 
 
 In this case, an angle of about 45'^ witli the horizon and 
 with the perpendicular is described. But we may continue 
 to call the direction upright, although there should be 5^0** of 
 variation from the perpendicular. 
 
 Divaricated (divaricatus), Avhen the direction is interme- 
 diate between the spreading and the horizontal, and even the 
 horizontal is frequently so named. But squarrose( sqicarro- 
 sus), is usually taken in a different sense, when parts, wliich 
 lie thick upon one another, raise their upper extremities on all 
 sides. 
 
 Diver gens expresses the varying direction in general ; in 
 particular, it is often taken for patent'issimus. AVhen long 
 branches diverge, and are divided in a forked manner, they 
 are said to be arm-shaped {brachiatus). 
 
 When a part is bent with its point towards tlie horizontal 
 line, it is said to be stooping or nodding {cemuus, nutans). 
 The latter is a higher degree of the former, and the direction 
 really changes then into the horizontal. 
 
 When an organ, especially a stem, lies upon the ground, 
 it is said to be procumbent (procumbeiis). When it is first 
 somew^hat upright, and then is turned down, it is called de- 
 cumbent {decumbens). When it is quite horizontal, it is said 
 to be prostrate [prostratus). To this order belong also the 
 terms creeping (repens), and rooting {radicans) ; (Tab. VI. 
 Fig. 12.) 
 
 An organ is called ascending (ascendens), when its lower 
 part lies flat, but its upper part is erect; (Tab. VI. Fig. 12.) 
 
 That which lies under the earth, is said to be liypogcms, 
 as the cotyledons of the Walnut and Horse-chesnut ; epigaius 
 is that which comes up above the ground, as the other coty- 
 ledons. 
 
40 NOMENCLATUKE. 
 
 43. 
 
 When the direction is downwards, and under the horizon- 
 tal Hne, it is called pendulcnis {pendulus) when we refer to 
 the points of the part ; it is called rejiex {reflexus^ reclinatus^ 
 and deflexus), when the direction of a part amounts to about 
 45° under the horizontal line. 
 
 Bent downwards {declinatu^), is when a part is bent to- 
 wards the horizon. 
 
 Inverted (hiversus), when the upper part becomes the 
 lower ; as when, for example, the embryo in the seed stands 
 with its radicle upwards. To this belongs also the reversed 
 direction {resupinatus)^ when the part which commonly is 
 uppennost, is found undermost. Thus the flowers are said 
 to be resupinate, when in the Labiatae the staminae are forced 
 down, and the lower lip has the form of the upper ; and in 
 the Leguminosae, when the vexillum, which on other occa- 
 sions forms the upper part, becomes the lower. 
 
 When the dii'ection of the parts is altogether to one side, 
 it is said to be partial {seamdus, liomomallus, lieteromallus). 
 When a property or form of an organ is observed only on 
 one side, this is expressed by Mnc ; Capsula hinc gibba. 
 
 44. 
 
 Something has been already said (26.) respecting the direc- 
 tion of surfaces ; but we find it necessary to mention the fol- 
 lowing particulars, as properly belonging to this depart- 
 ment. 
 
 Complicated {complicatus)^ when a part is folded into it- 
 self. Cwiduplicatus expresses the longitudinal folding; to 
 which belongs the term runcinatus (26.), only this term is 
 employed in a special sense. 
 
 Bent-back (revoluius), Avlien the margin or surface of a 
 part is rolled outwards or downwards ; (Tab. II. Fig. 14.) 
 
 Involute (involutus), when the surface or margin of a part 
 is bent inwards. Obvolute, when the parts are rolled round 
 one another. Convolute is nearly what we have already call- 
 ed snail-shaped; (Tab. I. Fig. 35., Tab. VII. Fig. 4.) This 
 
roll FORMS AND QUALITIES. 41 
 
 is also called circimiatus, when we speak of threads and fine 
 tubes. 
 
 The opposite of all the various bendings is plain or evefi 
 (planus'), (30.) 
 
 VII. Simplicitf/, or Composition of the Parts. 
 
 45. 
 
 A part is called simple (simplea:), either when it is not di- 
 vided into separate parts, or when it proceeds without inter- 
 ruption ; or, lastly, ; when it has certain subordinate parts 
 placed only in one row. 
 
 Simple stalks are thus opposed to the branched ; simple 
 lines to those that are articulated ; simple covers, or calyces, 
 to the double or threefold, as also to the scaly. 
 
 46. 
 
 With respect to composition, we remark the following kinds 
 in the leaves. 
 
 A leaf is said to be compound (compositum), when it con- 
 sists, generally, of several distinct parts, which have a com- 
 mon stalk, or point of insertion. A simple leaf may be 
 deeply lobed, without being on that account compound, pro- 
 vided the substance of the leaf is still united in the base. 
 Hence there are transitions from the folium palmatum, or 
 hand-shaped, to the finger-shaped or digitatum. When two 
 leaves stand together on a common leaf-stalk, they are said to 
 be binate {hinatum^j or conjugate (jconjugatum), as in the 
 genus Zygophyllum. When three of them stand on a com- 
 mon leaf-stalk, the leaf is said to be ternate (jternatum), as in 
 clover. When there are five, they form the quinate leaf {qui^ 
 natum). When there are seven, they form the septinate 
 leaf (septinatum). The two latter are said to be fingered 
 (digitatum). 
 
42 XOMKXCLATURE. 
 
 47. 
 
 A leaf is called pinnated (pinnatian), when it consists of 
 several distinct leaves, which spring along the sides of a com- 
 mon leaf-stalk; (Tab. VI. Fig. 11.) The common leaf- 
 stalk is called the pctiohis communis, as also the axis and 
 rachis. 
 
 Pinnated leaves are classed according to the position of the 
 individual leaflets (pinnae). When these stand opposite to 
 one another {opposite pinnata), they are reckoned by pairs 
 (jugum), and the leaves are said to be two-paired, three- 
 paired, four-paired, and so forth {bl- tri- quadri-juga). At 
 other times, however, the leaflets alternate with one another 
 {alternatim pinnata). If the summit of the whole leaf termi- 
 nate with an unpaired leaflet, it is then said to be impari-piiv- 
 natum : when there is no unpaired leaf on the point, th(j leaf 
 is said to be abruptly pinnated (abrupte pinnatum). 
 
 When, between the proper side-leaves, smaller leaflets are 
 placed alternately, the whole leaf is said to be interrupted- 
 ly pinnate (jnter7upte pinnatum), as in Agrimonia Eupato- 
 ria. When the side-leaves run into one another, the leaf is 
 called decursivdy pinnate ^decursivl pinnatum), as in Sca- 
 biosa alpina. 
 
 48. 
 
 When the common leaf-stalk is divided in two parts, it is 
 said generally to be doubly compound (decompositum) ; and 
 when the division of the leaf-stalk is threefold, it is said to be 
 sup>er decompound {supra decompositum), as in Peucedanum 
 oflicinale. 
 
 Doubly pinnated (bipinnatum), is a leaf, of which the com- 
 mon axis is again set forth with pinnated leaves, as in Athy- 
 rium Filix fccmina. The leaves of the first order are then 
 caWed pinna, oy Jbliola partialia ; the leaves of the second or- 
 der pinnulcE oxfoliola propria. 
 
 Triply pinnate {triplicato-pinnatum or iripinnatuni), is a 
 leaf of which the common axis has a threefold subdivision. 
 
FOR FORMS AND (iUALlTlES. 43 
 
 49. 
 
 The divisions of the Nerves of the leaves also belong to this 
 department. 
 
 Nerves, in general, are those visible continuations of the 
 leaf-stalk, or of the point of insertion, whici take place through- 
 out the length of the leaf The lateral branches of the nerves 
 are called Veins, which thus never run parallel with the axis, 
 but always form an angle with it. 
 
 When the nerve is divided at the base, we name the leaf 
 according to the number of the nerves, three-nerved, five- 
 nerved (tri-nervium, quinque-nervium) ; but when the side- 
 branches of the principal nerves do not spring directly from 
 the base, but arise first a little above it, so that they have 
 some of the substance of the leaf under them, the leaf is then 
 said to be triple-nerved, quintnple-nerved (trrpli- qumtupH- 
 nervium). 
 
 The veins and nerves often anastomose, or they are united 
 by side-branches {Vena anastomosantes, Anastornoses vena^ 
 runi). In the Ferns this is particularly observed. 
 
 The Nerves are seen to have leafy processes (nervi lamel- 
 lati), in Gymnostomum ovatum, (Tab. IV. Fig. 9.) ; in Po- 
 lytrichum laevigatum Wahlenb., angustatum Brid. tenuirostri 
 Hook., and in some other mosses. 
 
 Tlie nerves are said to be excurrent {excurrentes), when 
 they go on to the apex. The opposite ai'e interrupted nerves 
 (jiervi ad medium, ad § evanidi). Some also employ the 
 phrase. Folia ruptinervia. 
 
 As the leaf-stalk commonly passes into the central nerve, 
 and two other nerves place themselves on the sides of it, 
 three and five nerved leaves are therefore the most conmion. 
 Two-nerved leaves appear almost only in the mosses, and 
 most distinctly in Neckera affinis. Hook. (Muse. Exot. ii. 
 t. 122.) 
 
 50. 
 
 In the division of branches and of stalks, the forked-shape 
 is the most common (rami, peduncidi dichotomi). In this 
 
4)4 XOMKXCI.ATUllE. 
 
 case they are always divided into two. In the branches of the 
 Unibelhv, the first division is expressed by dichotcnnus, the 
 second by b'lfidus. Also i^eduncuU, rami trichotomi are not 
 unfrequent ; for instance, in the panicle of some of the 
 species of Avena. 
 
 A simple forked division is expressed by furcatiis. 
 
 51. 
 
 With respect to the iminterrupted continuation of an or- 
 gan, we find its simplicity subject to the following alterations 
 and reverses. We have already remarked (38.), that when 
 a part ))roceeds uninterruptedly forward, it is called cont'inuus. 
 In the Confervae, there are contracted parts (jstricturcE), which 
 are exceptions to this simplicity ; (Tab. V. Fig. 10.) In the 
 stem and branches there are knots (iiodi)^ swellings produced 
 by a crowding of substance, and which contain within them- 
 selves the means of increase. On the base of the leaf-stalk 
 also {Osteospermum moniliferuvi)^ similar knots appear. 
 
 When no indentation takes place at the margin of the 
 part, we have the idea of smooth-margined {integer rimiis)^ 
 in which case there is thus also no interruption of the pro- 
 gress in a line. 
 
 Indentations of the margin are caused by teeth, notches, 
 and cirrhi. 
 
 Teeth are, in general, pointed projections on the margin. 
 The rim is called dentated (dentatus), when there are in- 
 terstices between these pointed projections ; but when the 
 teeth run into each other, the rim is said to be serrated (ser- 
 ratus)- Forms of nearly the same kind are, denticulated 
 (denticulatus), and serrulated {serridatus), (Tab. VIII. Fig. 
 3.) ; as also, coarsely dentated {grosse denta fits'), deeply, 
 unequally, equally, doubly, and obsoletely dentated (pro- 
 fimde, inaqualiter, aquaUter, duplicato, and obsolete denta- 
 tus). AVe say also, equally, unequally, sharply, hooked, 
 connivent, doubly, obsoletely serrated (regualifer, infpquali- 
 ter, argute, uncinato, connivcnti, dupUcato, obsolete s.er- 
 ruins). 
 
FOR FORMS AND QUALITIES. 45 
 
 Notches are blunt rounded teeth. The margin is called 
 crenated (crenatus), when it has indentations of this sort. 
 Varieties of the crenated are \\\q fmely-crcnated {cremdatus), 
 and the crcnated-dentated (crenato-dcntatus)^ when the notch 
 is not completely rounded, but is not properly pointed. 
 
 Cilia are hairs, or bristles, which divide the margin. The 
 margin is then called ciliatus ; (Tab. VI. Fig. 11.) The 
 hairs frequently rise from sharp teeth, on which account the 
 margin is then said to be serrato-ciUatus. The hairs are 
 sometimes so stiff, and at the lower extremities so broad, that 
 they might be taken for spines or thorns. The margin is 
 then said to be ciliato-aculeatus, or spinoso-ciliatus. Some- 
 times the hairs have other round bodies, or glands, on their 
 points, the margin is then called gianduloso-cillatus ; (Tab. 
 VII. Fig. 1. 4.) 
 
 When fine fringes, in the form of cilia, extend themselves 
 from the surface, \hQ \(\e2i o^ fringed {JimhriaUis), is gene- 
 rated. 
 
 52. 
 
 With respect to the unseparated parts of a surface, we 
 have the following definitions. 
 
 Large unseparated parts, which are broad and rounded, 
 are called lobes (lohi). When they are small and pointed, 
 they are calledyrm^^^ {lacinia). 
 
 Hence we use the expression lobed {lohatus), when, in ge- 
 neral, there are lobes, without denoting their number ; thus, 
 also, three-lobed {trilobus), four-lobed {quadrilobus), and so 
 forth. 
 
 When a part has lacinia, it is said, in general, to be cleft 
 (laciniatus), when the number of clefts is not mentioned ; 
 but, when these are counted, we observe whether the cleft 
 proceeds to the centre, or almost to the base. In the former 
 case, we say of the part, that it is tri- quadri- qinnqu€-fidum. 
 If the clefts go almost to the base, we call the part tri- quadri- 
 quinque-partiius. This distinction is chiefly important re- 
 specting the calyx. 
 
4G NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 If the clefts go as far as the central rib, so that the sub- 
 stance of the leaf is divided, we say, that it is sectus. We 
 say also, Jhlia trlsccta^ ternatlm secta^ and we call the cleft 
 parts segment a. 
 
 53. 
 
 The clefts themselves, or the interstices between the pro- 
 jecting parts, ai-e called ainus, when they form curved lines ; 
 hence a sinuated leaf {unciatum)^ is that which has bendings 
 of this sort on its margin. 
 
 Deep rents on the surface, when they are altogether irre- 
 gular, give the idea of torn, or rent [laceratus, or multifidus) ; 
 smaller irregular projections and rents render the part eroded 
 (erosus). 
 
 Angled {angulatus), w^hen the margin has projections 
 which are greater than teeth, but are not proper lobes. When 
 these angles come out very feebly, and often are undistinguish- 
 able, the margin is said to be repand {repandus). 
 
 Palmated {palmatus), is when the surface is lobed, or cleft, 
 and its clefts go commonly in five divisions to the under part 
 of the surfiice. 
 
 Pinnatifid {pinna iifidiis), when a surface has long parallel 
 lobes, or clefts, on both sides. It coincides frequently with 
 the decursive pinnatum (47-) Bipinnatifid {hipinnat'ifidum), 
 is when either the side-lobes are again pinnatifid, or when, in 
 a properly pinnated part, the side-leaves shew this half feather- 
 ing. 
 
 Lyre-shaped (Jyratus), is a pinnatifid surface, tlie high- 
 est unpaired lobe of which is rounded, and the side-lobes be- 
 come always the finer the nearer they approach the base. 
 
 Runcinate {runc'matus), again, is when the uppermost un- 
 paired lobe of a pinnatifid surface is jx)inted, and the side- 
 lobes hang down. 
 
FOR FORMS AMD QUALITIES. 47 
 
 VIII. T]ic Manner hi ivh'ich an Organ is Terminated. 
 
 55. 
 
 We here attend to the apex of an organ. The termination 
 of an organ, as we formerly remarked (28.), is called its 
 apex (ope^r, seldom vertex). This is obtuse (obtusics), or 
 rounded (rotundatus) (29.), when it approaches, more or 
 less, to the round form. We also say, respecting solid 
 bodies, that they are thiclcened at the summit {apice incrassa- 
 tiis). To this belongs partly the club-form, (31.) 
 
 It is truncated (truncates), when it seems to form a 
 straight cross-line. It is bitten (pramorsti^^), when a curved 
 line seems to cross it. 
 
 It is retuse (retusus), when a slight curvature i;^ obser- 
 vable in the middle of the obtuse apex. When a sharp re- 
 markable curvature passes inwai'ds on the obtuse apex, it is 
 said to be emarginated {emarginatus). 
 
 A slight degree of obtuseness is expressed by ohtusiuscula ; 
 and the reverse of a sharp, or hairy apex, is called unarmed 
 {muticus). 
 
 - 56. 
 
 The pointed character is called generally acutus^ the slight- 
 er degree acutiusculus. Aeuminatus., again, denotes a long 
 projecting, highly-tapering apex. When this runs out gra- 
 dually into an apparently fine spine, it is called cuspidatus. 
 
 When the apex is somewhat obtuse, and a gentle tapering 
 suddenly takes place at the extremity, it is said to be ap'icu- 
 latus. Mucronatiis., again, denotes a rounded apex, with a 
 herbaceous spine standing on it. 
 
 When the long projecting apex is placed somewhat ob- 
 liquely, it is said to be rostratus, rostellatus^ which frequently 
 appears in the covers of the capsules of mosses. 
 
 The apex is also said to be bearded {arlstatus), when a 
 long projecting bristle terminates it. The aK'l-shaped apex 
 (apex subulati(s), is easily luidcrstood, from wliat uas said 
 
48 NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 (31.) In like manner, tlie pricking-apex {apex pungens), 
 needs no further explanation. 
 
 IX. Duration of Plants, and of their Individual Parts. 
 
 57. 
 
 Persistent (perslstens), is the epithet given to a part, when 
 it continues to exist beyond the time at which, according to 
 the laws of vegetation, it ought to wither or fall. With 
 respect to leaves, this is also called their property of being 
 perennial {perennans), when they are observed to be always 
 green. Semper vb'ens has the same meaning. 
 
 There are also parts, which, towards the time of their pro- 
 bable fall or decay, grow with increased vigour. We then 
 use the terms accrescens^ or auctus. Every change from the 
 progress of vegetation, is denoted by the addition of demum, 
 or atate : Apothecia demum angidosa ; capsula atate aucta. 
 
 58. 
 
 The opposite of persistent is decaying, for which we have, 
 in the Latin technical language, two different terms. 
 
 An organ, or part, is said to be caducus, when it loosens 
 itself very speedily in a joint at the base, as the calyx of 
 Papaver and Chelidonium ; deciduus, again, is the term used, 
 when, without releasing itself at one joint, the part falls at the 
 same time with other neighbouring organs. 
 
 Decaying {marcescens, marcidus), consists in a withering 
 of the part, without a falling off. The disappearance of a 
 part is expressed by evanescens. 
 
 59. 
 
 With respect to the earlier, cotemporaneous, or later ap- 
 pearance of particular parts, in relation to others, the follow- 
 ing expressions are used. Parts are called early (prfecox), 
 when they shoot out, or come to perfection before others ; 
 coeval {coa^taneus), when this happens at the same time ; 
 
FOR FORMS AND QUALITIES. 49 
 
 late {serotinus), when they appear later tlian others. These 
 definitions are important for distinguishing the Willow tribe. 
 Again, the female and male parts come to maturity at dif- 
 ferent times. In a great many plants, the anthera are 
 sooner ripe than the stigmata or pistillae. 1 his is called an- 
 drogynous dichogamy ; (Tab. II. Fig. 11. Tab. VI. Fig. 5.) 
 But when the female parts come to perfection sooner than 
 the male, this is called gynandrous dicJiogamy, 
 
 60. 
 Many organs, from internal laws, never attain their per- 
 fect state. They vary, in consequence, both in their form 
 and substance, and become unfit for their functions. These 
 are called abortive {abortivus), and their germs kre called 
 rudimenta. 
 
 61. 
 
 With respect to the absolute duration of plants, the fol- 
 lowing expressions are important. 
 
 Very evanescent (yugacissimus), when an organ scarcely 
 shews itself before it again disappears ; as happens in va- 
 rious blossoms. As also in Sporidia fugacia Ceratii Pers. 
 Hypha fugax Byssi. By means of some plants, we find the 
 hour of the day, whence they are called horarii. If they 
 shew themselves only for one day, they are called ephemeral 
 (ephemeri). If they appear only in the day-time, they are 
 called diu7iii ; if only during the night, nocturni ; during 
 the morning, matutini ; mid-day, meridiani ; after mid-day, 
 pomeridiani ; in the evening, vespertini. 
 
 62. 
 Their duration for a month is denoted by menstrnus ; for 
 tAvo or three months, by bi- tri-menstres. 
 
 If a plant dies the same year in which it sprung up and 
 blossomed, it is called an annual (planta annua), for whicli 
 the sign is used. 
 
 Leaves and shoots of the present vcar are called horni ; of 
 
 D 
 
50 NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 the past year annotini ,• aiul tlioso of the year before the 
 hist himi. 
 
 63. 
 
 When a plant springs up, and grows durhig the first year, 
 and during the second puts on fruit and dies, it is called a 
 biennial {biennis)^ the sign for which is i . 
 
 If a plant lasts several years, and every year sends out 
 new matter from its root, it is called perennial (perennis), the 
 sign of which is "U. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 NAMES OF THE ORGANS. 
 
 L The Root 
 
 64. 
 
 The root (radix), is that part of the plant by which it 
 descends into the earth. It may be considered as a part of 
 the stem, which has been changed only by the covering of 
 earth. 
 
 But the root is distinguished from the radicle, or fibrils 
 of the root {radicula. fibrillar), which are branches, or fibres, 
 that descend from the principal root. 
 
 65, 
 
 A thickened root, in which we can commonly distinguish 
 the solid kernel from the softer surrounding matter, is called 
 a tuber (tuber) , (288.) The forms of these are so extremely 
 various, that they pass from the common spindle-form to the 
 perfectly spherical, the turbinated, and other forms ; (Tab. 
 VI. Fig. 1. 3.) 
 
OF THE ORGANS. 51 
 
 A bulb (buldus), is a thickened, and commonly a spherical 
 or oval-shaped root, the solid central body of which is con- 
 tained within scales that lie upon one another, and between 
 which the stem, or shaft, rises ; (289.) 
 
 II. The Stem. 
 66. 
 
 Under the name Stem (tmnciis), we understand, generally, 
 that pai't of the plant which rises above the ground, and from 
 which all the other parts are evolved. 
 
 In particular, it is called the stalk (caulis), when it is more 
 or less of a herbaceous nature. A plant which has a stalk is 
 called caulescens ; one in which it is wanting, is called acmiUs. 
 
 67. 
 
 Tree-like stems (trimci arbor ei), and trees {arhot'es), arc 
 those plants which have a simple and woody stem. 
 
 In sections of woody stems we distinguish various parts, 
 which commonly lie in concentric layers within one another, 
 namely, 
 
 1. The rind (cortex), the outer part of which, covered by 
 the epidermis {epidermis), is for the most part brown, grey, 
 or of some similar colour ; the inner part is entirely cellular, 
 and of a green hue. 
 
 2. The inner bark {liher), is an apparently fibrous, whitc- 
 ish, and very flexible part, which lies under the rind. 
 
 3. The soft-wood {alburnum)^ or the layer of young wood, 
 which approaches nearer to the nature of the inner bai'k, by 
 its brighter colour and greater flexibility. 
 
 4. The wood {lignum), distinguished by its hardness and 
 cross-joinings, or bundles of rays {radii corticales). 
 
 5. And, lastly. The pith {medulla), apparently of an entirely 
 cellular structure, and in old plants either entirely gone, or 
 only remaining as a thin, almost inorganic, brown kernel ; 
 (291.) 
 
 D2 
 
52 NOMEXCLATTRE. 
 
 68. 
 
 Shrubs {frut'tces)^ are those plants which send out several 
 \s(K)dy stems from the same root. For shrubs and trees, we 
 use the sign Tj. 
 
 Undershrubs {suffrutices)^ are those, the lower part only 
 of* wliose stems are woody, but whose u})per part, being of a 
 lierbaceous nature, dies every year. 
 
 69. 
 
 The place where the stem and root meet, has received va- 
 rious names. Young calls it the Iwies communis, or fundus 
 2)lantte. Lamai'k calls it the life-knot. Some denominate this 
 part 7'hizoma, or root-stock ; and also cormus, and caudex. De 
 Candolle calls this part the neck (coUum). 
 
 70. 
 
 In the different families, different names are used for the 
 stem and its paits. 
 
 In the Grasses, and Grassy Plants, it is called the straw 
 (culmus). In Ferns, Palnxs, and Fungi, it is called the 
 stipe {stipes) ; but tlie latter word is generally used to express 
 different parts. 
 
 A leafy stem is called generally ajrond (frons), especially 
 in imperfect plants. The frond of Lichens is either ci'ustay 
 when it is quite uniform, granular, or at least as if some 
 matter had been deposited on it ; or it is called thallus, when 
 it is leafy, lobed, or shrubby ; (Tab. II. Fig. 3.) 
 
 In the Fungi, we employ the term Hypha, when the stem 
 is very delicate; (Tab. I. Fig. 31. ; Tab. V. Fig. 5.) 
 
 71. 
 
 Branches {rami), are the divisions of the stem. Twigs 
 {ramuli), are the last and youngest branches. 
 
 Sarments {sarmenta), are those branches, or stems, whicli 
 lie upon the ground, and here and there send out roots. 
 
 Shoots {surculi), are the stems and branches of Mosses and 
 Jungermanniaj. 
 
 Sprouts {turiones), are shoots of the present year, which 
 are not completely unfolded. 
 
or THE ORGANS. 53 
 
 III. Buds^ Leaves, and Parts cofmected with them. 
 
 72. 
 
 In most plants, especially of the lower kind, there are pro- 
 duced by a crowding together of the constituent parts, what 
 have been named the germs (ge?'mina, gcnigyl'i)- These arc 
 small spheres, or opake grains, which are collected together, 
 and from which new shoots or new individuals arise. When 
 they have grown somewhat larger, they are called propagines, 
 propagida ; and their union into something like small plots 
 is named sorasdm. The layer of cellular texture in which 
 these germs lie, is called lamina ,proligera^ especially in the 
 Lichens. 
 
 In higher plants the germs press so much upon one another, 
 that they commonly make their appearance enveloped by 
 scales, in the axes of the leaves. They are then called buds 
 {gemma) or eyes, (Tab. IV. Fig. 2. 8.) 
 
 73. 
 
 The forms of buds are extremely Taiious, (304.) Some of 
 them remain hidden under the epidermis, and are then only 
 small knots, composed of compact granular masses, or of 
 the substance of leaves, as in various tropical trees. Most 
 of the buds of trees belonging to the temperate zones, appear 
 as oval, pointed, or angular organs in the axes of the leaves. 
 In the Primus depressa, Pursh, two flower-buds stand one on 
 each side of the leaf-buds. They often take the appearance 
 of actual tubers, and even of small bulbs, as in Dcntaria huU 
 hifera, and most plants of the same species, wliere they ap- 
 pear between the blossoms. They are in their simplest form 
 in the Tulip-tree (Tab. IV. Fig. 3. 4.), and consist merely of 
 two flat scales lying upon one another, between which the fu- 
 ture leaf appears. At the base of the loaf-stalk, we see the 
 two scales of the buds of the second generation, and Ave tiius 
 often see from three to four generations included. 
 
 The scales of which buds are composed, lie commonly in 
 -such a manner upon one another, that one covers the half of 
 
54 NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 each of the two that ai-e below it {germ'inat'io imbricatlva, in 
 Sahsburia adiantifoUa, Tab. IV. Fig. 7.), or they he riding 
 upon each other (G. equitativa, in tlie Common Ash, Tab. IV. 
 Fig. 5.) Tlie leaves always lie curled up in the buds, as in 
 the Elder (Tab. IV. Fig. i), and in the Snowball (Tab. IV. 
 Fig. 8.) 
 
 74. 
 
 The buds are either leaf-buds (gemmajbliijera), when no- 
 thing but leaves and leafy shoots spring from them ; or diey 
 are fruit-buds (gemvia Jhictifera), which produce both blos- 
 soms and fruit. 
 
 There is also a remarkable difference in the situation of 
 the parts which are included in a bud, (304.) 
 
 75. 
 
 A leaf (folium) is a green surface, w^hich, for the most part, 
 is spread out horizontally. 
 
 Leaf-stalk {petiolus) is the part by which the leaf is joined to 
 the stem or branches. There are transitions from the leaf-stalk 
 to the leaves, when the latter are abortive, and then the leaf- 
 stalks assume the form of leaves. With De Candolle, we 
 may call these intermediate forms phyllodia. They are seen 
 most distinctly in the Acaciae from New Holland, and in 
 Phyllanthus, (Tab. III. Fig. 1.) We even suspect, that 
 what are called leaves in Bupleurum, are nothing else but 
 such intermediate forms. 
 
 Transitions from leaves to roots are also observed in water 
 plants, when the undermost leaves ai'e much subdivided in 
 the form of hairs, and thus resemble roots. AVe observe this 
 in the Ranunculus of our streams, in Sium latifolium, in Nec- 
 tris aquatica, and many others. 
 
 76. 
 
 The axis {axilla)^ is the angle which a leaf or leaf-stalk 
 forms at its insertion with the stem or ])ranchcs. Axillaris 
 thus denotes that which springs from the axis of the leaves. 
 
OF THJb: ORGANS. 55 
 
 The remains of the leaf-stalks often leave scars or warts on 
 the stem and branches. These are called cicatrices or ver- 
 ruca:. 
 
 The remains of leaves, and of the scales of buds, aie called 
 rmmnta. 
 
 77. 
 
 The sheath is the cylindrical prolongation of the leaf, by 
 which it wraps itself round the stalk. 
 
 The place where the sheath passes into the leaf is called 
 the opening {os vagina)^ and here a leafy membrane, for the 
 most part white and semi-transparent, is usually found, which 
 in the Grasses is called Ugula. 
 
 In some of the Cyperoideas and Palms, the interstices of the 
 cleft-sheath are connected by fibrous net-work {reticulum). 
 This is the case, among others, in Schoenus ustulatus, ca^ 
 pillaceus Thunb. thermalis, and Burmanni, Vahl., which 
 grow together at the Cape. 
 
 Stipule {stlpuld) is a leafy part, which grows in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the leaves, or of the leaf-stalks. There are 
 forms of this kind, however, which have very little of a leafy 
 nature, and are rather membranaceous or feathery, as in Sau- 
 vagesia, (Tab. VI. Fig. 12. 13.) 
 
 The roll (pchred) is commonly a cylindrical membrane, the 
 upper part of which is open, and which surrounds the leaves 
 or leaf-stalks. It appears as a peculiar organ in the Poly- 
 goneae and Cyperoidege. 
 
 Smaller leaves on the leaf-stalk are called cmriciihE ; hence 
 a Folium auriculatum has these appendages either on the 
 leaf-stalk, or at the base. When there are two appendages 
 bent downwards, one on each side of the Imse of a digitated 
 leaf, it is said to be pedate (pedaiiini). 
 
 Smaller leaflets, under the shoots of the Jungcrmannia;, 
 arc called amphigastria. 
 
 79. 
 
 Other subordinate parts oi' plants are called by I^innanis 
 
 supports ox fulcra^ because some of them serve to fasten ihr 
 
 2 
 
56 NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 plant to others. But all the parts which come under the name 
 by no means desers'e it. 
 
 The tendril {cirrhufi) is a filiform, and for the most part 
 bent body, by which the plant clings to other objects. It is 
 distinguished sometimes by its origin out of the leaves or leaf- 
 stalk (Jhliares, petiolare.sj, sometimes by the number of the 
 leaves which grow under it. Hence cirrhi diphylli, tetra- 
 phylli, and so forth. 
 
 Absorbent warts {haustoria) are spungy bunches, which 
 supply the place of roots in some parasitic plants, and by which 
 they attach themselves to other plants. 
 
 80. 
 
 Among what have been called the armour of plants (anna), 
 we place the spines {sphid)^ or woody and sharply pointed 
 processes, w^hich spring from the wood itself, or generally 
 from the internal parts. They appear not only on the stem 
 and branches, but also on the leaves and calyx. 
 
 Prickles (aciilei), again, are similar stiff, and prickly 
 points, which rise only from the epidermis, and are taken off 
 along with it. 
 
 The a^vn (arista), we have already noticed, (56.) It is 
 a hair-shaped and stiff prolongation of the body. The bristle 
 (seta), is distinguished only by its smaller length, and in some 
 instances by its being a continuation of the nerves. 
 
 The hook (hamus, uncus) is a bristle or prickle, bent at 
 the point. The double hook (glochis) is a bristle or prickle, 
 with reflex subordinate branches at the point. Hence we see 
 the meaning of the terms uncinatus, hamosus, and glochi- 
 datus. 
 
 The opposite of these different kinds of armour is express- 
 ed by inermis and mutlcus, in reference to the points. 
 
 81. 
 
 Scales (squama) are for the most part roundish or pointed 
 anembranaceous parts. 
 
 Olands (glancUtlfc) are granular, commonly transparent 
 
OV Tlii: OllGANS. 57 
 
 bodies, containing peculiar juices. They are of a roundish 
 or bowl shape, (Tab. V. Fig. 12.) 
 
 On and near the leaves there arise peculiar flask-shaped 
 organs, which separate fluids, as in Cephalotus and Nepen- 
 thes. In this instance, as well as in Sarracenia, where the 
 whole concavity of the leave has such organs, they are ol)- 
 served to have peculiar covers. Willdenow called them As- 
 cidia. 
 
 Air-bladders (ampiilla:) appear on Utricularia and Aldro- 
 vanda. 
 
 IV. Iriflorescence. 
 
 82. 
 Inflorescence {injloj'escentld) is all that which belongs to the 
 situation and arrangement of the flower, or the wviy and man- 
 ner in which flowers grow. To leave nothing unexplained, 
 we must first settle the idea of a flower (Jios). This is the 
 name given to the whole apparatus, by which impregnation 
 and propagation are accomplished, although, in common con- 
 versation, we give this name only to the coloured coverings 
 of the sexual parts. There are flowers without a corolla, 
 and even without any cover, (Tab. III. Fig. 4, 5.) ; but there 
 can be no flower without sexual organs ; on which account 
 the flowers of the Mosses are doubtful, and in the Ferns and 
 Lichens they cannot be admitted. 
 
 83. 
 
 The support of the flower is called the Jlower-stalk (pechiri^ 
 cuius) ; and the small stalks, which are in the neighbourhood 
 of a principal flower-stalk, are called pedicclU. The name 
 racliis is applied in the case of spikes and panicles, to denote 
 the common stalk. 
 
 Marshall of Biberstein uses thecopodium, and Ilofl'man spcr- 
 mapodophorum^ to denote the receptacle continued do\\'n- 
 wards. 
 
 In many families, the flower-stalk receives other names, 
 
58 NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 when it Is also the fruit-stalk. When it springs immediately 
 from the root, and bears flowers only without leaves, it is 
 called the shaft {scapus). 
 
 In the Mosses the fruit-stalk is called seta., in the Lichens 
 podetium. In the Gastromyci and Nematomyci, the part 
 which supplies the place of the fruit-stalk is called stroma, 
 and also suhiculum (ccpJudoplionim, Nces.) If we consider 
 the fruit-stalk of Calycium as a stroma, there is still another 
 part under the fruit, (Jiypostroma, Mart.) 
 
 84. 
 
 The name spike or ear {spied), is given to that mode of 
 inflorescence in which stalkless flowers are arranged on a 
 common axis. The spike may be simple or compound. In a 
 simple spike, the lowermost flowers are first evolved, and then 
 follow by degrees those higher up. But when the spike is 
 compound, the evolution takes place in a reversed order. 
 
 Spicula in the Grasses, is that mode of inflorescence in 
 which several flowers are contained within a common calyx. 
 
 The catkin {amentum) is a spike, which, instead of flowers, 
 contains only scales, as in Willow, Hazel, and Poplar. 
 
 The spadix is a spike with a thick juicy axis, which con- 
 tains either very small blossoms, as in Acorus and Saururus, 
 or only sexual parts without any covering, as in Arum and 
 Calla. 
 
 Sometimes we call the crowded spikes, whose flowers are 
 separated by coloured bractea?, strohili, as in Origanum. On 
 other occasions this word has a different meaning. 
 
 AVhen flowers without stalks, or with short stalks, stand in 
 descending rows around the stem, this is called a who7'l {ver- 
 ticillus). Such is the usual inflorescence of the I^abiatae. 
 Frequently the flowers are only on one side, and form then 
 the half-whorl {verticiUi dimidiati), as in Medusa officinalis. 
 The flowers of a whorl, however, are not always without 
 stalks. 
 
 When stalkless flowers are crowded together on the end of 
 a common stalk, they form a head {capitfdum) ; but when 
 the individual flowers which are thus crowded together have 
 
Oi TllJ; ORGANS. 69 
 
 Stalks, a fascicule (fasciculus) is formed. Of the former, 
 Arrneria vulgaris is a common example; and of the latter, 
 Dianthus barbatus. 
 
 A ball {glomerulus) is an irregular collection of flowers 
 with stalks. We hence speak of conglomerated Jlower-stalks 
 (pedunculi glomerati), when these are collected together, of 
 different lengths, into one heap. 
 
 The associated fruit-capsules of Fenis, upon the back of 
 the frond, form the sorus, 
 
 A bunch (racemus) is an inflorescence, where from one 
 common principal stalk undivided flower-stalks arise. When 
 the lower ranges of these are so much lengthened, and the 
 upper so shortened, that the flov/ers seem almost to be placed 
 in one horizontal plane, it is called a cojymb (corymhus). 
 
 The umbel (umbella) is that inflorescence, where the subor- 
 dinate stalks extend themselves in a ray shape, on the sum- 
 mit of a common flower-stalk. When these subordinate stalks 
 are again divided, the umbel is called compound. 
 
 The panicle (panicula) is an inflorescence, where the sub- 
 ordinate stalks of a common principal stalk are again divided. 
 When these are condensed, it is called a thyrse {thyrsus)^ 
 and when the flowers seem to lie in one plane, it is called a 
 cyme {cyma). 
 
 85. 
 The receptacle (recepfaculum), is that expanded part of the 
 fruit-stalk which bears the parts of fructification. This part 
 is also called discus hypogynus, when, like a disc, it bears the 
 sexual parts. When it is swelled up, it is called gymhasis and 
 sarcobasis, (105.) In the compound flowers, the expression 
 clinanthium has been lately proposed, to express the same 
 idea. It is of much importance how far we extend this idea 
 of the receptacle, because the separation of the sexual parts 
 is connected with the separation of the receptacle. If we 
 admit the separation of the sexual parts in Euphorbia and 
 some other Tricocca, we must necessarily regard the small 
 stalk which bears the germen, as a sign of the separation of 
 the receptacle. We also find the two receptacles, which other- 
 
60 NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 wise are separated, running togetlier in Xanthium hamotha- 
 lamum ; and the attempt at this separation in Flaveria and 
 Brotera, as also in Calycera, Cav. is very distinctly marked. 
 
 86. 
 
 Bractea are those leafy parts which appear in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the flowers, and which have either a different 
 form or a different colour from the other leaves ; (Tab. VI. 
 Fig. 6.) But when they cannot be distinguished from the 
 other leaves either by the form or colour, they are called, 
 from their station, foral leaves (Jhlia Jloralia). In the Ane- 
 mone, the leaves which stand immediately under the blossom, 
 liave been called involucres (hivolucra), although they are 
 only foUa Jloralia. 
 
 When the bracteae are collected together above the flowers, 
 and contain either abortive blossoms or none, they form the 
 tuft (coma). There is another sense of this word noticed 
 (2.5.) 
 
 Besides the bracteae, there is another remarkable part in 
 Surubea? Aubl. (Tab. V. Fig. 11.), where a club-shaped, 
 coloured, and forked body sits horizontally on the flower- 
 stalk, and as it were rides on it. It has been lately called an- 
 thoxorynium. In Ruyschia clusiaefolia, Jacq. Amer. Tab. li. 
 Fig. 2, there is a similar form, but not cleft. 
 
 87. 
 
 The spathc (spatha), is formed by one or more bracteae-, 
 which enclose the flowers of the Coronariae, Iridefe, and other 
 related plants, and which are either leafy or membranaceous. 
 The individual bracteae which compose the spathc, have 
 been very improperly called valves (valva). 
 
 Covers of flowers, which stand at a distance from them, arc 
 called generally perianthia. 
 
 To this class belongs, in particular, the involucrum which 
 occurs in umbelliferous plants. 
 
 If the inflorescence of compound flowers be regarded as 
 one bimch of flowers, the common cover receives the muue of 
 
OF THE ORGANS. 6l 
 
 calyx communis^ antJiodium, and periphoraiitJdmn, according 
 to Richard ; and j^erklinmm according to Cassini ; (Tab. II. 
 Fig. 2. 3.) The bracteae which stand on the base of this 
 bunch are then called the outer calyx (caly cuius, or, accord- 
 ing to Cassini, involucrum). 
 
 88. 
 
 In tlie Grasses, the exterior covering of the flowers is call- 
 ed the glume {gluma calycina, according to Panza, perista- 
 chium). 
 
 In the Ferns, the membrane which covers the fruit, and 
 which in some genera, encompasses it like a bowl, is called the 
 veil (indusium) ; (Tab. II. Fig. 5.) 
 
 In the Mosses, the leafy coverings which surround the 
 apparent sexual parts, are called perichatium ; (Tab. II. 
 Fig. 5.) The calyptre (calyptra), is the interior membra- 
 naceous, and often hairy covering of the ovarium, which, when 
 the fruit is ripe, bursts in a cross direction, or is longitudinal- 
 ly cleft, and for the most part continues till the opening of 
 the fruit. 
 
 Similar calyptrae of the flowers appear m Marcgravia, As- 
 cium, Schreb. and Thylacium, Lour. Also in Calyptranthus, 
 Sw., Eucalyptus, Herit., Endesmia, Br. Pileanthus Labill., 
 and Lecythis, we find deciduous or permanent covers, which 
 pass over the sexual parts. 
 
 In sponges there is a soft, open cover, which rises from 
 the root-knot, and is called wrapper {volva) ; as also the ring 
 (annulus) which divides and covers the stalk ; and when 
 these are reduced to threads, there is the cortina ; (Tab. I. 
 Fig. 29.) 
 
 In the lower fungi, the cover of the germ and seed, which 
 for the most part is spherical, is called the peiidium ; (Tab. L 
 Fig. 25. 28., Tab. V. Fig. 7.) 
 
 89. 
 The proper cup (calyx) is the external, and commonly green 
 cover of the sexual parts, which can either be easily distin- 
 guished from the internal coloured parts, or which passes in- 
 
6a NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 to them, when it is called calyx corollinus. This last we find 
 m the Polygoneae, Chenopodeju, and many other plants ; and 
 in Sesuvium, the separation of the two covers is so much in 
 the act of taking place, that they seem to be merely attached 
 tt) «ach other. 
 
 The separate pai-ts of the calyx are called sepaJa. 
 
 V. The Fhwer, 
 
 90. 
 
 The interior, coloured, and for the most part short-lived 
 cover of the parts of fructification, is called the corolla (corol- 
 la). This, as was formerly mentioned, often passes into the 
 exterior cover, and in particular it is called cwolla calychia^ 
 when it has indeed an integument resembling the calyx ; but 
 is still entirely a corolla. This is the case in the Liliaceae 
 and Coronariae. There is often merely a simple appendage 
 to the corolla, in some scattered leaves, as in Aponogeton ; 
 (Tab. II. Fig. 11.) 
 
 91. 
 
 The corolla consists either of one or of several distinct parts. 
 The division of the corolla may be known by looking at its 
 base, and observing whether its parts are connected with each 
 other or whether they are distinct. 
 
 When the parts of the corolla are separate, they are called 
 petala ; and from this we perceive the meaning of the terms 
 Ji-, trU, tetra-, penta^, and polypetala corolla. 
 
 When the parts of the corolla are connected with each 
 other, they are called lobes {lobi)^ segments (laci7ua), or lips 
 (labia), which expressions have been partly explained already 
 and will be more fully defined. 
 
 A corolla, of which the parts are united, forms a tube (^w- 
 bns) or the hollow cylinder, which unites the parts : the ex- 
 panded lobes form the border (limbus) ; and the junction of 
 this, with the former, is called the throat (faux). 
 
OF THE ORGANS. 63 
 
 93. 
 
 In a polypetalous corolla, the smaller part of the petals, 
 which often resembles a stalk, is called the nail (unguis), 
 and the expanded part is called larnina^ (28.) When the 
 ungues stand thick together, they also form a tube, the en- 
 trance to which, in like manner, is called the throat. The 
 scales, which in some of these plants protect the entrance, 
 constitute the corona faucis, as in Silene. 
 
 94. 
 
 The corolla is often arranged in several rows ; we have thus 
 an interior and exterior corolla {cm^olla interna et externa), 
 as in the Contortae, particularly Eustegia, in Sauvagesia, and, 
 as some think, in the Grasses. What in these last has been 
 called, in the Linnaean acceptation, the^Corolla, is only an ex- 
 terior cover, which, in contradistinction to the gluma calycinay 
 is named gluma corollina. It is divided, like the former, in- 
 to valves {valva), of which there are commonly two : they 
 have been lately called stragula, and the valves paleas. 
 Within this gluma corollina, there ai'e found, in most of the 
 Grasses, but not in all of them, two very small, delicate, and 
 transparent leaflets, resembling often a tuft of hairs, and 
 springing immediately from the sexual parts. These seem 
 to form the true corolla. Linnseus called them, falsely, nec~ 
 taria. They have also been called lodictda; (Tab. III. 
 Fig. 7.), (101.) 
 
 95. 
 
 We must also pay some attention to the regularity or irre* 
 gularity of the corolla. 
 
 It is impossible to give technical names to the infinitely 
 varied forms which here present themselves. The general 
 varieties of form have also been already noticed (31. 32.), so 
 that we need only to apply them to the corolla. We shall, 
 therefore, notice only at present the distinct forms of the ir- 
 regular corolla. 
 
 Of these the simplest is, undoubtedly, the tongue-shaped 
 (corolla ligtdata), which, in the Aristolochiae, changes into 
 
64 NOMENCI-ATURE. 
 
 tlie tube-form ; in compound flowers, it appears as a half 
 flowret {semi-Jlosculus) ; and in the Orchidege, as a small lip 
 {lahdlum). In the latter, the highest upright and open 
 leaves are, notwithstanding their colour, the calyx. The la- 
 bellum, in the Orchideae, extends downwards into an obtuse or 
 pointed sack, which is called the spur {calca?^) ; whilst an- 
 other small sack (perula), is formed by the prolonged base of 
 the calyx. 
 
 96. 
 
 A very frequent species of irregular corolla, is the ringent 
 and labiated {ringcns and labiata). We not only find this 
 form in what are called the Labiatae, but in many of the 
 Iridea^, Liliacea^, and Coronarije. In this case, the corolla 
 is composed, as it w ere, of two lips, one higher and the other 
 lower Qahium siiperhis and iriferius). The interval be- 
 tween both is here also called the throat {Jhux). 
 
 If the two lips are so closely set to each other, that we 
 cannot see into the interior of the corolla, such a corolla is 
 said to be personate, or masked {per sonata, larvatd). The 
 elevated and arched part of the lower lip, receives the name 
 of the palate {palatum). The upper lip, especially when it 
 is arched, is called the helmet {galea). 
 
 97. 
 
 Compound flowers {Jlores compositi), are those which are 
 crowded together upon a common receptacle, and surrounded 
 by a common cover. They are particularly distinguished 
 from the aggregated flowers {Jlores aggregati), by the fol- 
 lowing circumstances : that in the former the antherae are 
 united with the flower, in the latter they ai'e free ; that in 
 the former there are five, in the latter four antherae ; that 
 in the former there are two stigmata, in the latter but one ; 
 lastly, that in the former the embryo is placed upright in the 
 middle of the albuminous matter, and in the latter it is in- 
 verted, whilst the albuminous matter itself is consumed. 
 
 In compound flowers, the tube is the principal form ; the 
 tongue-form appears to be more imperfect, but very common. 
 
OF THE OIIGAXS. G5 
 
 Still less common is the ringent, which, however, lias been ol>- 
 served in one whole family in South America. 
 
 98. 
 
 In the Polypetalous corolla, we also attend, for the purpose 
 of defining its shajx", to its resemblance to some generally 
 known ibrni. We thus say that a corolla is rose-bhaped, 
 j)ink-shape(l, or lily-shaped {corolla rosea, caryophyllacca^ 
 i'diacea). 
 
 To this class belongs also tlie Papilionaceous corolla {co- 
 rolla papU'tonacca). It consists of four parts, the upper ex- 
 panded part, or tlie standard {veaclllum) ; the two lateral 
 parts or the zvlngs (cda), and the lower boat-shaped part, or 
 the keel {carina). These four parts consist sometimes of but 
 one piece, as in clover. In other cases, the keel consists of 
 two parts, or it is entirely wanting, as in Tamarind us, and 
 Amorpha. In many of these papilionaceous flowers, as in 
 Plymena^a, a more perfect resemblance between the parts of 
 the corolla takes place, and they a]:)proach, by this means, to 
 the regular form. 
 
 99. 
 
 We must attend to the situation and folding of the flower 
 before its evolution. These are called Estivation. It is witli 
 respect to flowers, what the interior structure of the leaf-buds 
 is to the leaves. We observe, 
 
 1. An testivatio valvaris, when the parts of the corolla, 
 before evolution, only touch one another with their margins, 
 like the valves of the capsule. We observe this, for instance, 
 in compound flowers. 
 
 2. The astivatio contorta. Here the parts of the corolla 
 stand so obliquely, that they cover the margins of each other. 
 This estivation is remarked principally in the family of the 
 Contortas, which hence derive their name, because, even after 
 their complete evolution, they still retain the oblique position 
 of the parts of the corolla, as may be seen in Vinca, Xerium, 
 and Arduina. We also observe this estivation in Pinks. 
 
 E 
 
66 NOMENCr.ATURE. 
 
 3. JEsi'watio huluplicativa, wlien the parts of the corolla 
 are bent inwards, and touch each other with the folds of their 
 margins, as the margins of the valves in the capsules of Vio- 
 lets. We observe this estivation in some of the Clematida?. 
 
 4. yE^tivatio alter nativa^ when the parts of the corolla 
 stand in two or more rows, in such a manner that the interior 
 row is covered partially and alternately by the exterior. This 
 is observed in most of the Liliacea?. 
 
 5. jEstivatio (pdncunciaUs^ when, of five parts, two are ex- 
 terior, and two interior, and the fifth covers the interior with 
 one of its sides, and is again partially covered by the exterior, 
 as we observe in the calyces of roses. 
 
 6. ^Esthatio vexillaris. This takes place in the papilion- 
 aceous flowers ; the standard covers the three other parts. 
 
 7. JEstivat'iO cocJikaris^ when one part is larger than the 
 others, and, bending itself into a spoon-shape, it incloses them. 
 This is the case in Aconitum, in some of the Personatae, and 
 in Antholyza. 
 
 8. JEstivatiO iuibricativa, when the parts stand in several 
 rows, and the exterior and shorter parts cover only the base 
 of the interior, as we observe in the common calyces of the 
 compound flowers. 
 
 9. jEstivatio convolutiva, when the exterior part is bent, 
 and incloses the interior, this again the following, and so 
 forth, as we observe particularly in the cruciform flowers. 
 
 10. JEstivatiO plicativa, when all the parts are folded into 
 one another, without any particular order, as we observe in 
 the Poppy, and in the Needhamia of Br. 
 
 And, lastly, we must observe, what seems to make an es- 
 sential difference between the corolla and the calyx, that their 
 estivation is completely different ; for example, the astivatio 
 of the calyx of the Garden Pink belongs to No. 5., and that 
 of its corolla to No. 2. 
 
 100. 
 
 We must yet further notice, with respect to the corolla, its 
 time of full blow (aiitJiesis). AVe mean by this, the point of 
 time wlien the parts of the corolla, as being the organs of 
 
OF THE ORGANS. 67 
 
 fructification, have completed their evolution. We can de- 
 termine this jx)int, by observing the emptying of the pollen 
 out of the opening antlierae. As the direction and position 
 of the parts are different, before and after this point of time, 
 we readily perceive the meaning of the expressions aide, and 
 jjost anthesin. 
 
 VI. The Nectaries. 
 
 101. 
 
 Nectaries (nectaria), are all those organs formed within, or 
 near the flower, which secrete a honeyed juice. 
 
 This term has been employed too loosely by Linnjpus, and 
 his followers, to denote all the parts of a flower, exce})t the 
 corolla and antheras. Hence the interior double corolla of 
 Narcissus, Sauvagesia, and such like plants, has been fre- 
 quently taken for nectaries. Also the fine transparent scales, 
 which immediately surround the sexual organs of the Grasses, 
 have been improperly called by this name, (64.) 
 
 It is often, indeed, a matter of doubt what parts shall re- 
 ceive this name, especially when we attend to the nectaries 
 of Parnassia and Sauvagesia. These last stand around the 
 corolla, which is at least an unusual position, although not 
 properly contrary to rule, (Tab. VI. Fig. 13.) ; because in 
 Cymbidium alvifolium of Swartz, the nectary is found com- 
 pletely without the calyx, on the base of the ovarium. 
 
 In general, we must say that that which secretes honey 
 is a nectary ; on which account neither abortive anthera?, 
 nor false petals, can be designated by this name. 
 
 Even situation determines this matter. Commonly we must 
 seek the nectaries in the bottom of the corolla, and they thus 
 stand, for the most part lower than the anthera^ (331.) 
 They frequently are united with the receptacle, and often 
 with the ovarium; (Tab. III. Fig. 10. 13. 14.; Tab. IV. 
 Fig. 18.) Not unfrequently they are united with the fila- 
 ments ; but they can scarcely appear higher than the anthera\ 
 
 E2 
 
68 NOMEXCLATUr.E. 
 
 102. 
 
 Beside tlie proper organs for secreting the honev, there 
 are other parts wliich preserve it, the nectarothedr. These 
 are cavities, sacks, or spurs {calcar). These parts belong 
 often essentially to the corolla. 
 
 There are other organs which serve for protecting the ho- 
 ney. These are called nectar'ilymata, and are formed either 
 by tufts of hairs, as in the Geranium, or by scales and subor- 
 dinate leaves, as in Phyhca, (Tab. II. Fig. 15.) ; or, lastly, 
 by the situation and direction of the petals themselves. 
 
 Lastly, We must not overlook the 7iectarostigmata. These 
 are, for the most part, coloured parts, lines, or spots, which 
 lead to the proper nectaries, as we see them marked out in 
 Pelargonia especially. 
 
 VII. Sexual Parts. 
 
 103. 
 
 Sexual parts are those organs which serve for the propa- 
 gation of the plant. 
 
 As in all the higher forms of organized nature, we observe 
 two sets of organs, the one of which, as being the active and 
 impregnating, are called the male organs, and the other, as 
 being more passive and adapted for being impregnated, are 
 called the female iiarts ; we distinguish also, according to 
 this idea, the male and female parts of plants. 
 
 The time at which plants arrive at the full exercise of their 
 functions is called puberty ; before this time, they are called 
 hnpiiheres, and afterwards effbeta. 
 
 Dichogamy consists in that arrangement, by which the sex- 
 ual organs come not at once, but after one another, to ma- 
 turity. The dichogamy is androgynous, when the antherae 
 come first ; and gynandrous, when the stigmata come soonest 
 to maturity. The former is the case in Tropa?olum, the 
 latter in Euphorbia, (331.) ' 
 
 A flower is called neutral {neuter), when no sexual or- 
 gans are produced in it; it is called hermaphrodite {herma- 
 
OF THE ORGANS. CO 
 
 phroditus), when both the sexual parts are contained in the 
 same cover, and for these last we employ the sign ^. A 
 plant is called androgynous (androg?/7ius), when the male 
 and female parts are separated from one another, but grow 
 upon the same common stalk, in the same ear, in the same 
 bunch, and so on. 
 
 A plant, again, is called mmioscms, whicli contains male 
 and female flowers separated from one another, but upon the 
 same plant ; it is called dio^cius, when the separate sexual or- 
 gans appear upon different plants; and, lastly, it is called 
 polijgamus^ when sometimes male, sometimes female, and 
 sometimes hermaphrodite blossoms appear. 
 
 104. 
 
 As the female parts appear first, we must begin our account 
 with them. 
 
 The Germen (germen, ovarium), is the rudiment of the fu- 
 ture fruit. It is distinguished into the Simple and Com- 
 pound. In the Cherry, for example, the germen is simple ; 
 in Sage, it is made up of four compartments. In the germen 
 we discover the beginnings of the future seed, like small eggs 
 (ovula), which are frequently more numerous than die per- 
 fect seed. 
 
 105. 
 
 The germen rests upon the bottom of the calyx, or it is 
 supported by a fruit-stalk. From this, or from the calyx, 
 there often arises a fleshy elevated support, which is called, in 
 general, gynobasis, (Tab. III. Fig. 17.) ; and when this sup- 
 port, during the ripening of the fruit, swells powerfully, it is 
 called sarcohasis ; (Tab. I. Fig. 36.) To this belongs tlie 
 juicy swelling of the receptacle in the Strawberry, and the 
 related Genera; (Tab. III. Fig. 22.) In the umbelliferous 
 plants, Hoffman calls this part stylopodii^i, 
 
 106. 
 
 The pistil (pistilhim, stylus), is the part which proceeds 
 upwards from the germen, or it is the prolongation of this 
 
70 NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 organ, and bears the scar, or stigma. The pistilknn is often 
 entirely wanting, as in the Poppy: it often rises, not from 
 the top of the germen, but from its base, and on its sides, as 
 in the Labiataj and Hirtella, (Tab. VII. Fig. 3.) : it is sel- 
 dom hollow, commonly it resembles a solid })illar, which might 
 be confounded with the filaments, if we did not attend to the 
 usual central jx)sition of the pistillum, and to its strength, 
 which is usually somewhat greater than that of the fila- 
 ments. 
 
 The stigma (stigma), is that part of the pistillum which 
 has a soft spungy structure, and is destined to the reception 
 of the impregnating principle. It is by no means always 
 found on the top of the pistillum, for in the Caryophylleae it 
 is placed longitudinally on the side of the pistillum. In the 
 Iris, it forms a small fold under each of the three divisions of 
 the pistillum, which in this species resembles the petals of the 
 corolla. The softer and more spungy the surface is, and the 
 richer in fine warty matter, the more certainly may we re- 
 gard it as a true stigma. Nor is it necessary, with Richard, to 
 give to the stigma of the Orchideae a peculiar name, gi/nizus, 
 (properly gynixus), because the idea upon which this name 
 is founded is applicable to all families. The stigma in the 
 Lobeliae lias a peculiar veil (indusium), which covers it, be- 
 fore it has attained its perfect state, (Tab. II. Fig. 23). 
 
 107. 
 
 The male part consists, in common plants, of two organs, 
 namely, the filament {Jila7nentum), and the anther (anthcra) ; 
 and these, when they are taken in connection, constitute the 
 stamina. The filaments have the same origin with the co- 
 rolla ; and, in innumerable plants, are closely united with it. 
 In the Canna, Scitamineae, Calothalamus Liibill., and some 
 species of Thalictrum, they evince, by their colouring and 
 breadth, their approach to the nature of the corolla. 
 
 The fertilising dust {pollen), is contained in the anthera?, 
 and has, for the most part, a resemblance to small globules, 
 but it often varies from this form. 
 
OF THK one; ANN, 71 
 
 When an anther consists of several horizontal conipait- 
 ments, the cellular texture, which connects the compartments, 
 is called connective (connectivum) ; (Tab. II. Fig. 2. 3.) 
 
 There are remarkable variations from these forms, liow. 
 ever. In the Contortse, particularly the Asclepiadete, we ob- 
 serve two bodies of a club-shape, and waxy nature, wliich are 
 bound together by a peculiar knot, and stick under the folds 
 of the common column of imjwegnation. In the Orchidea*, 
 too, we find some masses of a granular substance (massa 
 granulosa, Liste7'ia, Epipactis), or of a substance composed 
 of globules of a definite number, (from two to four, Limodo- 
 rum. Tab. IV. Fig. 11.). These masses are often united by 
 distinct threads, but they are always connected into pairs, by 
 means of a small spherical body {retinaculum). These masses 
 of pollen are deposited in peculiar cavities of the common pil- 
 lar of impregnation {columna genltalium, or clhiandrium 
 gynostemii, Richard), and are commonly covered by a project- 
 ing part of the pillar {rostelhim gynostemii), (Tab. IV. Fig. 
 12.) This pillar, which supports both the anthers and the 
 stigma, has two longitudinal appendages, which seem like so 
 many abortive filaments (staminod'mm, Richard). The mass 
 of pollen, also, is frequently divided, in these plants, into two 
 longitudinal valves (massce sectiles, Orchis), and are connect- 
 ed with the retinaculum by particular tails (caudicula). 
 
 There are other anthers of a compound form, some of 
 which seem to be more completely unfolded than the others. 
 Thus, Melastoma contains five large anthers, coloured like 
 the corolla, which bend down the filaments, that seem to liavc 
 joints in their centre, into a curved line. Five other yellow 
 coloured anthers have no jointed filaments. Similar forms arc 
 observed in Cassia, Hofmannseggia Cav. Anthonotha Pal. 
 Beauv., in Solanum cornutum, hcterodoxon, Fontanesianum, 
 and rostratum Dunal. 
 
 Abortive anthers are called cffa-t^, as in the Heterostemon 
 Desfont. 
 
NOMEXCLATUKE. 
 
 \1II. The Fruit and Seed. 
 
 108. 
 
 The fruit {frnctus)^ in a general sense, is every thing tliat 
 contains seed. 
 
 Fruits are hence usually divided into simple {slmflices), 
 compound {composit'i, or carpella), that is, when a single 
 flower-stem, having several pistills, produces several fruits, 
 as the Ranunculus, Clematidae, and Thalictra ; and aggre- 
 gate {aggregati)., when the fruits of several flowers are aggre- 
 gated into one common fruit, as is the case with some of the 
 Urticeae, Anoneie, and with the Mulberry. The term carpU 
 dium has been proposed for this kind of growth. 
 
 In the fruit, it has been usual to distinguish more particu- 
 larly the pcr'icarplum from the proper seed. The former is 
 the cover by which the latter is surrounded. 
 
 109. 
 
 Actording as the pericarps are too thin, simple, and small, 
 to be distinguished from the seeds, or separate themselves 
 more obviously from them, we apply the phrases of nalced 
 needs (semina nuda)^ or seeds surrounded by a cover {peri- 
 carpus tectai). But more correct observation teaches us, that 
 no seed is wholly naked, or destitute of a covering ; en which 
 account those called angiospermla must embrace but a very 
 small proportion. 
 
 What have been called pcrf'ccthj naled seeds, are only 
 such as are surrounded witli a simple covering of a peculiar 
 kind. These are now called carijopses {caryopsis), as in the 
 Grasses. 
 
 Achenium, again, is an apparently naked seed, which yet, 
 beside its proper cover, has a calyx overspreading it, as is the 
 case widi the Composita^ and partly with the Umbellata' ; 
 (Tab. I. Fig. 14. 15. ; Tab. VHI. Fig. 8.) Both these ap- 
 parently naked seeds are called, by De Candolle, carpella. 
 
 When the seed is loosely siuTounded by its cover, a blad- 
 der {ulriculus) is formed, as in the Amaranths, and the 
 
OF THE ORGANS. 73 
 
 Plantago species. In the Geranium, the loose bladder spring- 
 ing up laterally terminates in a bill-shaped appendage, which 
 fixes itself to the pistil ; (Tab. I. Fig. 17.) Cocculi in cau- 
 dam longam terminati, GcTrt. Linnaeus called this part, im- 
 properly, arillus. 
 
 When a fruit of this kind is furnished with a membrana- 
 ceous wing, it is called samara, as in the Elm, and partly in 
 the Maple. 
 
 On these simple fruits appear appendages, which serve 
 for their dispersion. Small chains {catenida:), are attach- 
 ed to the seeds of the Jungermanniae, Marchantiae, and 
 Targionia hypophylla, (Tab. III. Fig. 8.) Thread-shaped 
 appendages, under the name of tails (cauda), are found in 
 the fruit of Clematis and Puccinia. Hairs, which spring 
 from the base, form the tuft (coma), as in Epilobium ; (Tab. 
 I. Fig. 13.) 
 
 Further, the pappus {pappus) is an important part, being 
 the remnant of tlie covering calyx, which still continues in the 
 achenia of the Aggregatae and Composita?. It is bristly 
 (setaceus), when it consists of stiff hairs ; (Tab. I. Fig. 6.) 
 hairy (pilosus, capillaris), when it consists of soft long hairs ; 
 awned (aristatus), when the bristles are thick below, and 
 long ; plumose (plumosus), when the hairs are beset with 
 smaller hairs; pencil-shaped {pencillatus), when small hairs 
 stand on the top of the hairs, (Tab. I. Fig. 12.) ; chaffy 
 (paleaceiis), when dry membranes crown the seed ; (Tab, 
 VIII. Fig. 8.) 
 
 In the caryopses and achenia of the Umbelliferous plants, 
 the peculiar sap-vessels, under the external membrane, are 
 called vittas. The ribs of the fruit are caWedjitga, or costtz ; 
 the hollows, or small valleys between them, are called vaU 
 licula. 
 
 110. 
 
 Pericarps are divided according to their compartments, 
 their valves, and their partitions. 
 
 Compartments (loculi), are the chambers, or divisions of 
 the vessel containing the seed ; hence wc say, bilocular, trilo- 
 
 3 
 
74 NOMENCl>ATURE. 
 
 cular (hilocular'is, triloadarls). A kind of compartment, which 
 opens with a certain elasticity, is called cocaim, whence the 
 Euphorbia?, and similar plants, are called tricoccdc^ because 
 their fruits have three such compartments. 
 
 Valves (valvcE), are the side-pieces, or exterior walls of the 
 compartments, into which the pericarp is divided. Hence a 
 fruit is called bivalve, trivalve {bivalvis, trwalvis). 
 
 Partitions {dissepimentum), are the interior walls of the 
 compartments. They are often formed, as in the Andro- 
 medae, by the valves turned inwards. They are then called 
 dissepimejita valvar'ia, and valvas septiferas. 
 
 We must also notice the suture {suturd). This is the place 
 in which two valves are united. The suture properly, there- 
 fore, points out the springing of the fruit from valves ; but 
 the genus Eucledium Br. has distinct sutures, and yet the 
 fruit does not spring ; and Bunias, in the unripe fruit, sliews 
 sutures which disappear during the ripening. The opening 
 of the valves often takes place from above to the middle 
 of the fruit (semivalves fructus) ; they often also open from 
 below, as in the Orchideae and Triglochin. 
 
 Ill, 
 
 An uncommonly important part is that which has been 
 called the placc7ita {placenta, or reecptaculum), which cither 
 stands like a free column in the middle, or is formed by the 
 thickening of the partitions, or even by the bending in of the 
 valves; (Tab. I. Fig. 21). At the same time, every column 
 that is observable in the fruit is not the placenta. In the 
 capsules of the Mosses, for instance, we observe an entirely 
 free central column ; but the seeds are fastened to the walls 
 of the capsule. The way and manner in which the placenta 
 is formed is called placcntatwn. 
 
 In the Umbellatas Hoffman has called the column ftperma- 
 podium. 
 
 112. 
 
 A nut {nucv)^ is a fruit with a shell, which docs not burs-t 
 of itself This shell is often surrounded liy an external tough 
 
 2 
 
or THE ORGANS. 75 
 
 covering, which is called navcum. Almonds and Hazel-nuts 
 present examples of this. 
 
 But if the nut be surrounded by a juicy or fleshy covering, 
 it is called a drupe (drupa), as in Plums and Cherries, and 
 Myoporum ; (Tab. III. Fig. 21.) 
 
 113. 
 
 A berry (bacca) is a juicy fruit, which contains one or 
 more seeds imbedded in the sap or juice. Grapes and Goose- 
 berries are common examples ; (Tab. I. Fig. 35.) 
 
 114. 
 
 A legume {legitmen) is a long fruit with two valves, tlic 
 seeds of which are fixed on one and the same suture, but alter- 
 nately upon the two valves; (Tab. I. Fig. 16.) The legume 
 has commonly but one compartment; in Astragalus it has 
 two, and in Kennedia, Vent, it has several. 
 
 A loment {lomentum) is a legume, which is divided cross- 
 ways into cells, as in Hippocrepis and Ornithopus ; (Tab. I. 
 
 Fig-18) 
 
 A silique (siliqua) is a long, two-valved fruit, the seeds of 
 which are fixed to both sutures, as in Rape, Cabbage, and 
 Stocks; (Tab. I. Fig. 38.) 
 
 A small silique (siUcuIa) is properly a silique, which is 
 not much longer than broad, as in Thlaspi and Camelina, 
 (Tab. I. Fig. 7.) ; but improperly the nuts of Bunias and 
 Crambe also are so called, although they have neither sutures 
 nor valves. 
 
 The follicle (foUlcidus) is a long, one-valved fruit, which 
 opens only in one suture. It is found in the Contorta', in 
 Paeonia, Cimicifuga, and Butomus. 
 
 Ehrhart has given the name Pyxklluyn to an utriculus 
 with one seed, which bursts crosswise, as in Plantago and 
 Amaranthus. We also find the phrase Capsula drcumscissa 
 applied to this. 
 
76 NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 115. 
 
 A capsule (capsuJa) is every dry fruit M'hich does not 
 fall under the preceding or following article. 
 
 When it is surrounded by a fleshy covering, it is called an 
 apple {poimtrn) ; (Tab. I. Fig. 23.) We must distinguish 
 the pumpkin (pcpo) from this kind. The latter name is 
 given to a fleshy fruit, the seeds of which are fastened in the 
 interior circumference. Also the fruit of the iVgruma? (Au- 
 rant'unn^ De Cand.) is a peculiar, fleshy, and inflated fruit, 
 •whicli can easily be divided into several membranaceous com- 
 partments. 
 
 116. 
 
 Fruits are often collected together in numbers. The Um- 
 bellatae and Rubiacea? bear double nchenia ; the Labiata^ 
 and Asperifoliae bear a fourfold fruit ; and five stand together 
 in the Geranium. 
 
 Aggregated fruits are found in a great many plants, where, 
 by the s>velling of the receptacle, their union is promoted. 
 In the Annoneae, for example, the single seeded kernels {py- 
 rena or acim) arc collected together in the sw ollen receptacle. 
 In the Fig, a soft fleshy covering unites together many cary- 
 opses. In the Mulberry several juicy utriculi are united in- 
 to one. 
 
 The strobile {sfrohilus) of the Pines and Proteae consists 
 also of utriculi, which stick under bracteae that are very in- 
 volved and hard, and which together form a ball ; (Tab. I. 
 Fig. 9.) AVhen these bractea? swell and flow together, they 
 form the galhulus of the Cypress, Thuia, and even of the 
 Juniper; (Tab. I. Fig. 8.) 
 
 117. 
 
 The fruits of imperfect plants must also be considered. In 
 Ferns the membranaceous and spherical reservoir of the seed 
 is called the capsule. In the true Ferns, we observe a joint- 
 ed ring (^anmthis), by the elasticity of which the ca})sule is 
 thrown off*; (Tab. II. Fig. 9.) In the Mosses also, the fruit 
 has been called a Capsule, although some use the expression 
 
OF THE ORGANS. 77 
 
 theca for it. We distinguish also the operculum^ wliich, when 
 the fruit is fully ripe, loosens itself all round. This loosen- 
 ing is often assisted by a fringed ring {cinnulus fimhriatu.s)^ 
 which is placed horizontally between the operculum and ca})- 
 sule, and by its elasticity throws off the operculum. 
 
 The mouth of the Moss capsules {os, stoma) is the upper, 
 circular part, which is either naked (nudum), or is furnished 
 with teeth, cirrhi, and membranes, which arise from the pro- 
 longation of the capsular partitions, and are called peristmni^ 
 iwi; (Tab. II. Fig. 7 8.) Sometimes also a membrane, 
 which in Polytrichum and some others is called cprphragmay 
 passes across the mouth of the capsule. 
 
 118. 
 
 In Lichens, the whole thallus is capable of producing gra- 
 nular germs, destined for propagation. Yet there are opothc- 
 cia, which contain apparent, frequently twin-seeds, in peculiar 
 layers; (Tab. II. Fig. S.) Formerly the various forms of 
 these apothecia were furnished with peculiar names, ^\hich, 
 however, are no longer in use. Lirella is a linear longitudi- 
 nally opening apothecium, as in Opegrapha. 
 
 Trica are closed, twisted seed-beds, of a black colour. 
 
 Thalamia are close round seed-beds, in the substance of 
 the leaf, surrounded by a pecuhar membrane, within which 
 the seeds are enclosed in peculiar bags. 
 
 Tuhercula are close, roundish or spherical seed-beds, whicli 
 project from the leaf. 
 
 Cephalodia are highly coloured, roundish, open, and com- 
 monly stalked apothecia, covered with a seed-bed, which 
 passes off like a powder. 
 
 Orbillai arc flat, slightly coloured, open fruits, without a 
 raised margin, covered with a thin seed-bed. 
 
 Scutella are open, circular, hollowed fruits, the margin of 
 which is formed by the substance of the leaf. 
 
 Patella are open, flat or elevated fruits, without a raised 
 
7B NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 119. 
 
 In the Fmigi, the fruit is generally called j^eridia ; (Tab. 
 I. Fig. 25.) More particularly, however, the bladders which 
 contain the seeds or germs {spor^), are called sporidia. They 
 are also called theca: sporophora ; (Tab. I. Fig. 30., Tab. II. 
 Fig. 1.) Their reservoir, in certain groups of Fungi, is call- 
 ed perithecium ; and when the peridia are included in a dis- 
 tinct case, this latter is called .sporangium ; (Tab. V. Fig. 7.) 
 When the lines or hairs on which the spone of Fungi sit, are 
 collected together in tufts, this sort of tuft is called capilli- 
 tium ; (Tab. I. Fig. 28.) 
 
 In the proper Sponges, the germ-bladders, or seed-ljlad- 
 ders, form a peculiar covering, or a layer, which is called hy- 
 menium; (Tab. I. Fig. 30., Tab. II. Fig. 1.) 
 
 120. 
 
 On the seed itself, we remark, in the first place, what has 
 been called the iwibiUcns, hihim, cicatr'icula, or a hollow 
 part commonly found in the base, but often also on the sides, 
 by which the seeds are fastened, and from which the germ 
 proceeds; (Tab. I. Fig. 4. 6.) 
 
 The umbilicus, in many plants, particularly in the Legu- 
 minosae, is covered by a warty substance, which is called stro- 
 pMolus or stroph'iola. In Urania and Strelitzia, this strophio- 
 lus is a heap of beautifully coloured, intermingled, and stiff 
 hairs; (Tab. I. Fig. 10.) From the umbilicus proceeds the 
 fwuculus iimhUiccdis ov podospermmm, a thread which effects 
 the insertion of the seed. 
 
 A leafy or solid expansion of the funiculus umbilicalis 
 frequently surrounds the seed, and is known by the name of 
 arillus. In the Nutmeg, the mace is nothing else but this 
 arillus. In the Oxalideae, this membrane has a certain elasti- 
 city, by means of which the seeds are pushed forth. In 
 Euonymus, and m fresh Coffee-beans, this arillus can be very 
 distinctly seen. 
 
 Small hooks (I'et'macula) are observed on the seeds of the 
 Acanthea?, by whose elasticity the opening of the capsule and 
 the ejection of the seed is favoured ; (Tab. I. Fig. 37.) 
 
OF THE ORGANS. 79 
 
 In the seeds of many of the Leguminous plants, a small ca- 
 vity a})j)ears imder the umbilicus, called mic?-0])i/k, but its 
 use is unknown. 
 
 Chalaza is the place in the interior membrane of tlie 
 seed, where the funiculus umbilicalis passes into the seed. 
 Sometimes this is at a distance from the umbilicus, and it is 
 even, as in the seed of the Citron (Tab. 1. Fig. 1. 2.), placed 
 opposite to it. 
 
 121. 
 
 When we open the seed, we find the embryon either sur- 
 rounded by albuminous substance {albumen, peiispermium, 
 endospermium)^ or this substance lies in the centre of the 
 curved embryon, as in some of the Polygonea? and Caryo- 
 phylleae ; or it lies on the side of it, as in the Grasses and in 
 the grains of Corn ; (Tab. I. Fig. 3. 11. 20.) But this sub- 
 stance is often entirely wanting, that is, when the future plant 
 being already perfectly evolved, fills the seed ; (Tab. I. Fig. 
 1. 2.) 
 
 Seeds which have albuminous substance are called albiimi- 
 nosa, and those which want it exalbuminos^. 
 
 In some imperfect seeds, there is an intermediate body be- 
 tween the albuminous substance and the embryon, which in 
 the Grasses is called scutellum (Tab. I. Fig. 11.), and in the 
 Scitamineae viteUus, (Tab. I. Fig. 3.) In the latter it sur- 
 rounds the whole embryon. 
 
 The embryon, or future plant, is either unevolved, when it 
 resembles a small point, or a short thread ; or it is evolved, 
 and then we distinguish on it the two seed lobes {cotylcdones)^ 
 the plant itself {plumida), and the root (rostellum or r adieu- 
 la) ; (Tab. I. Fig. 1, 2. 5.) The direction of the last, com- 
 monly towards the umbilicus, may, however, be either ujv 
 wards or downwards, according as the seed is placed. In the 
 former case the embryon is called inverted (inversus), be- 
 cause it has the opposite direction with respect to the fruit, 
 but not with respect to the seed. In the latter case, the em- 
 bryon is said to be erect (erectus), (195.) 
 
( 81 ) . 
 
 PART II. 
 TAXONOMY, 
 
 OR THE 
 
 THEORY OF CLASSIFICATION, 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 CxENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 122. 
 
 JL HiRTY thousand species of plants are at present known 
 upon the earth. This number might be encreased to fifty 
 thousand, if all the plants which are still . undescribed in the 
 great collections were known. And if we suppose the cen- 
 tral regions of Asia, Africa, and New Holland, to have been 
 once as well explored, as many of the countries of Europe 
 have already been, we may consider it as extremely probable 
 that there are above a hundred thousand species of plants up- 
 on the Earth. Every one of these species has its native 
 Country, its Name, Form, Properties, and Uses. The 
 knowledge of these must have an important influence, both 
 upon the dfevelopement of the human mind, and upon the pro- 
 gress of trade and useful arts. But who shall clear up for us 
 this immense study ? To what guide shall we trust ourselves 
 in this frightful labyrinth ? How shall we able, not only to 
 become acquainted with the particular Natural History of 
 each plant, but to find out what others who have preceded 
 us have observed respecting the plant that is before us, and 
 
 F 
 
82 TAXONOMY. 
 
 to know whether or not the observed form be an entirely new 
 one, which no individual before us had observed ? This 
 most important service is perlbrmed for us by what has been 
 called the Metlwd ; that is to say, the Scientific Arrangement 
 and Division of Plants, either according to one common prin- 
 ciple, or according to Families and Groups, tlie common marks 
 of which have been learnt. 
 
 Botanists have always been so much convinced of the im- 
 portance and utility of such an arrangement, that they have 
 regarded the knowledge of the laws of this arrangement as 
 the highest object of their exertions. 
 
 123. 
 
 As long as a small number only of plants were known, the 
 necessity of classification was not felt. But the more that 
 native plants have been studied, since the beginning of the 
 sixteenth century, the more has the necessity of such a me- 
 thod pressed itself upon our attention ; and however imperfect 
 the first attempts of Lobelius and Bauhin were, every unpre- 
 judiced person must confess, that the principle upon which 
 they proceeded, that, namely, of arranging plants, as Nature 
 has done, is the only right principle. 
 
 In general, the various methods may he divided into the 
 Empirical and Scientific. Tlie former are at the same time 
 the most ancient. They are founded, not upon nature and 
 upon essential forms, but upon accidental things. The Al- 
 phabetical Arrangement of Plants, — or their division according 
 to their Uses, as when, for instance, the edible vegetables, the 
 orchard-trees, the forest-trees, and the ornamental plants, are 
 collected into distinct assemblages, — these are some of the 
 Empirical Methods. 
 
 Although Scientijic Classifications have a reference to the 
 nature of the objects, there is, how ever, a multitude of views 
 which may furnish the foundation of such a division. No 
 person has pushed further the attempt to find out, and even 
 in some degree to complete, the manifold methods, according 
 to the various properties and parts of plants, than the immor- 
 tal Michael AcJanson^ who lias proposed no fewer than five- 
 
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 83 
 
 and-sixty different classifications. Among these there are some 
 which are founded simply upon the Stature, others upon the 
 Thickness or Substance, and others again upon the Colour, 
 the Smell, the Taste, and similar properties. 
 
 124. 
 
 In assuming the parts and properties of plants, as prin- 
 ciples of Classification, we must, in every instance, make a dis- 
 tinction between essential parts, and those that are accidental 
 or less essential. The former are such organs as have an in- 
 timate connection with the purpose of vegetation : less essen- 
 tial forms, again, are those which have a more distant con- 
 nection with the purpose of vegetation. If we seek this pur- 
 pose in the propagation of plants, — and it seems undoubtedly 
 to consist in this, — then the seed and fruit, and also the flow- 
 er, which in most plants precedes the fruit, are the parts 
 which furnish the most important ground of Scientific Classi- 
 fication. 
 
 But, with respect to these, we may proceed in two ways. 
 We may regard the determinate relations of these essential 
 parts as the only Principle; and without considering other 
 properties and distant organs, we may employ the former only 
 as the principle of classification. In this case, we sketch an 
 Artificial System ; that is to say, an arrangement of plants ac- 
 cording to one common principle. 
 
 But we may consider the relations of essential parts, in 
 their joint connection with other organs and their properties ; 
 and we may proceed in this way so far, as universally to avail 
 ourselves of resemblances and agreements, without binding 
 ourselves exactly to one and the same leading principle. We 
 then follow a Natural Method^ which cannot be called a Sys- 
 tem, because it is destitute of unity of principle. 
 
 F2 
 
84 TAXONOMY, 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 125. 
 
 If, now, we would either study the nature of plants them- 
 selves, or would learn their uses, in both cases, we feel the 
 necessity of having names assigned to them ; because with- 
 out names, we can neither make ourselves intelligible to 
 others^ nor find out what others have remarked concerning 
 them. The Nomenclature of Plants is the first object of the 
 artificial arrangement. The second is to give them their 
 place in some order or other, and beside plants that are al- 
 Feady known ; because without this, the bare knowledge of 
 names would be completely useless^ 
 
 126. 
 When we find a plant, the simplest way of discovering its 
 name, and finding its place in the system, is to look into the 
 great Registers, or Scientific Catalogues, unless, in a complete- 
 ly empirical way, we betake ourselves to the turning over of 
 plates, which consumes much time, and yet often does not 
 lead to our object. But in order to be able to use those scien- 
 tific catalogues, or artificial systems, we must know the prin- 
 ciples according to which they are formed ; we must possess 
 the art, or have acquired the address, of regarding, with re- 
 spect to every plant, only the relations ; and of keeping in 
 our eye tlie organs, upon whose diversity the artificial system 
 proceeds. 
 
 127. 
 
 The Artificial Method, or the System, must necessarily as- 
 sume, as the grounds of classification, such parts only as are 
 
ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICATION. 85 
 
 invariable; so that all those things which are changed by 
 propagation, are justly excluded from the principles of the 
 system. The Duration of plants, their Stature, their Taste 
 and Smell, even sometimes their Colours, and also their situa- 
 tion and time of flowering, are all things and relations which 
 we must consider variable; whilst, on the other hand, the 
 Forms and Numerical Proportions of the parts of fructifica- 
 tion, are seldom subject to change. These, therefore, must 
 constitute the principle of classification. 
 
 128. 
 
 We must especially employ, as the grounds of classifica- 
 tion, such organs, as, besides their constancy and invariable- 
 ness, are also found in the greatest number of plants ; and, 
 when it is possible, such parts too as are easily observed, and 
 which appear at the same time. 
 
 But the two latter requisites are of less importance than 
 the first; and cannot always, according to the nature of 
 things, be obtained. There are a great many plants, whose 
 essential parts are so small, and lie so hidden, that they can 
 be discovered only by the aided eyes, and after previous, of- 
 ten troublesome, preparation. The finer differences in the 
 structure of the Mosses, Fungi, and other imperfect plants, 
 cannot be observed without powerful magnifying glasses. 
 The situation of the embryon and of its parts in the seed, 
 can only be exhibited by particular preparation. But as 
 these relations are among the most stedfast and important, 
 we must avoid no labour to become acquainted with them ; 
 and no system can be reproached for paying regard to those 
 parts and relations. 
 
 The same remark applies to the want of cotemporaneous 
 growth. It is impossible to determine a plant with cer- 
 tainty, before its vegetation has come to maturity ; because 
 then only are all the essential parts unfolded, and a plant 
 which has been observed for years, without being seen to 
 bloom, or to carry fruit, cannot be defined with certainty, 
 and in a scientific manner. Especially the ripening of the 
 fruit is to be waited for ; because, as we shall see, important 
 
86 TAX0N031V. 
 
 changes often take place in the fruit and seed, wlien they 
 are passing from an unripe into a mature state. 
 
 129. 
 The permanent relations of the parts which constitute the 
 foundation of the system, must be strongly and distinctly ex- 
 pressed in the nomenclature. Those designations of properties 
 and relations, which are also called Characters, must, as much as 
 possible, be positive, and must not consist merely in negation, 
 or in the assignation of absent properties, (for we may wish 
 to denote, by definite oppositions, what the characters ex- 
 clude). But even in this case, the absent properties may 
 easily be expressed positively. When, for instance, the chaf- 
 fy leaves of the receptacle are taken into the one character, 
 the naked receptacle properly takes its place in the other, as 
 the opposite of the former. If in one Genus it be important 
 to notice that the antherae grow together^ then the other Ge- 
 nus is distinguished by having its organs standingy'r^f . 
 
 130. 
 
 An artificial system, in order to be useful, must have as 
 many subdivisions as are demanded by the essential diffe- 
 rences of the principal organs. Too few divisions oblige us 
 to place together too great a number of different plants, and 
 thus the investigation of particular plants is made very diffi- 
 cult. But the arrangement must be made according to cer- 
 tain general properties or relations of the parts, in order that, 
 by seeking out the general division, \yc may pass with greater 
 ease to the particulars which it contains. 
 
 131. 
 
 If we examine by these principles the artificial systems 
 which have been hitherto devised, we shall find the most cele- 
 brated of them, that which Linnaeus proposed, to possess a 
 decided superiority, not only because it is consistently derived 
 from one simple principle, but also because the author of it, 
 by means of a new nomenclature, has given to his terms the 
 greatest distinctness of meaning. 
 
ARTIFICIAL CLxVbSll ICATlON. 87 
 
 But it will be necessary to present the whole system in one 
 Tabular view, before we proceed to pass judgment upon it. 
 
 Viezv of the LmntEun System. 
 I. Plants whose parts of fructification are manifest, Phane- 
 rogaviia. 
 
 A. Antheras and pistilla upon the same receptacle, Mo- 
 noclinia. 
 * Antherae and f lamenta free. 
 
 a. Filaments of equal length, Isostemones. 
 
 1. One anther. Class 1. Monandria. 
 
 S. Two anthers, %. Diandria. 
 
 3 Three, 3. Triandria. 
 
 4. Four, 4. Tetrandria. 
 
 5. Five, 5. Pextandria. 
 
 6. Six, 6. Hexandria. 
 
 7. Seven, 7. Heptandria ; 
 
 (Tab. VI. Fig. 7.) 
 
 8. Eight, 8. OCTANDRIA. 
 
 9. Nine, 9. Enneandria. 
 
 10. Ten, 10. Decandria. 
 
 11. Twelve to twenty, 11. Dodecandria. 
 
 12. Twenty and more anthers, but the filaments 
 
 upon the sides of the calyx, Class 12. Ico- 
 sandria; (Tab. III. Fig. 22.) 
 
 13. Twenty and more anthers, but the filaments 
 
 on the receptacle or corolla, Class 13. Po- 
 
 LYANDRIA. 
 
 b. Filaments of unequal length, Amsosteniones. 
 
 14. Two longer than the other two. Class 14. 
 
 DiDYNAMiA ; (Tab. III. Fig. 22., Tab. IV. 
 Fig. 16.) 
 
 15. Four longer than the two remaining ones, 
 
 Class 15. Tetradynamia. 
 '** Filaments united 
 
 16. Into one bundle. Class 16. jMoNADKLrniA . 
 
 (Tab. III. Fig. 11., Tab. IV. Fig. 14.) 
 
88 tax()N():mv. 
 
 1 7. Into two bundles, or one free, the others united, 
 
 Class 17. DiADELrniA. 
 
 18. In more than two bundles, Class 18. Polv- 
 
 ADELPHIA. 
 
 *** Anthers united 
 
 10. Among ^themselves, Class 19. Syngenesia; 
 (Tab. III. Fig. 2.) 
 
 20. With the pistillum, Class 20. Gynandria ; 
 
 (Tab. IV. Fig. 10.) 
 B. Antlierae and pistilla on different receptacles, Didmia. 
 
 21. On the same plant. Class 21. Mon(ecia. 
 
 (Tab. III. Fig. 1.) 
 
 22. On different plants. Class 22. Dioecta. 
 
 23. Sometimes separate, sometimes united, Class 
 
 23. Polygamia. 
 II. Plants whose parts of fructification are hidden, or 
 which want them. Class 24. Cryptogamia. 
 
 132. 
 
 From this view it is evident, that the relations of the 
 parts of fructification afford the foundation of arrangement. 
 These relations consist in the Number, the Insertion, the Dif- 
 ference of Length, the Union and the Separation of the male 
 parts, as well considered in reference to themselves, as in 
 respect to the female parts. A preference is given to the 
 male parts, which is less founded in nature, than apparently 
 rendered necessary by the circumstance that, besides being 
 commonly in greater number, they present also more varieties. 
 Nature seems, upon the whole, to have given less constancy 
 to the Numerical proportion, than to the Forms, the Situation, 
 the Union, and the different Lengths of the sexual parts. 
 The finding of plants in those catalogues which have been 
 arranged after this system, is very much aided by the simpli- 
 city of the principle; yet, in such researches, we must attend 
 to all the other relations, beside the number of the parts. 
 
 133. 
 
 In judging of this system, we cannot speak of its want of 
 conformity to nature, because, from the very fact of its being 
 
ARTiriC lAl. CLASSiriCATIOX. 89 
 
 an artificial system, it renounces the pretension of presenting 
 naturally related groups. Therefore, it exposes this system 
 to no well founded reproach, that the affinities of Nature are 
 torn asunder, and the most dissimilar genera of plants 
 brought totjether. The Grasses are thus scattered through 
 several classes : tlie Labiatae are found in two ; the Cheno- 
 podeae, the Rubiaceae, the Palms, and many other families, in 
 several classes. Every artificial system, from the very cir- 
 cumstance of its assuming one simple principle, founded on 
 the relations of a few essential parts, must depart from Na- 
 ture. 
 
 i34. 
 
 But the first well founded objection which may be made 
 to this celebrated system, consists in this, — that in many of the 
 classes more regard is paid to natural affinities, than the arti- 
 ficial structure of the system, and the unity of its principle 
 permit. If ^1 Monadelphous plants must be referred to the 
 sixteenth Class, so must also a great number of the Diadel- 
 phous ; and the Meliea? and the Malpighiea? must be trans- 
 ferred from the tenth, and even from the eighth and fifth 
 Classes, into the sixteenth. If attention had not been paid to 
 natural affinity, all the single flowered plants, having their an- 
 thers united, ought to stand in the nineteenth Class, 
 
 135, 
 
 A second objection, and one of the most important, is, tliat 
 a greater value is placed upon numerical proportions, than 
 is ever observed to be justified by Nature. There are ge- 
 nera of plants, such as Valeriana, Stellaria, Ehcxia, and in- 
 numerable others, which observe so little steadiness in the 
 numerical proportions of the male parts, that Linnaeus must 
 necessarily have been perplexed, when he wished to assign to 
 these genera a definite class. He used, in such cases, to fall 
 upon three plans. 
 
 In some genera, he remarked, in the Jirst place, wliat nu- 
 merical proportion was established in most of the species. 
 When, for example, among nine Convallaria^, whicli were 
 
90 TAXONOMY. 
 
 known to him, he observed six or seven species to have six 
 anthers, and the other two or tliree species to have only four, 
 he placed the genus in the Sixth Class, but referred, in what 
 he called the Key to his Classes, or in the Preliminary Gene- 
 ral Index, when speaking of the fourth class, to the Genus 
 Convallaria in the sixth. By this means the investigation 
 was completely facilitated. But it has happened, that later 
 discoveries have exhibited a multitude of species, in which 
 the subordinate numerical proportion has become the prevail- 
 ing one, in so much, that w^e must now transfer many plants 
 from the class in which Linna?us placed them into another. 
 This has happened with Verhena^ which Linntcus placed in 
 the second class, but which later botanists have justly placed 
 in the fourteenth. Thus also Bocrhavia, which Linnaeus 
 placed in the first class, is now transferred, on account of the 
 greater number of its species which have two anthers, into 
 the second. With respect to Rhexia, it is doubtful whether 
 it belongs to the eighth or tenth class, because we find nearly 
 as many species with eight as with ten anthers. 
 
 In the second place, Linnaeus was accustomed to observe, 
 among several species of the same genus, which of them was 
 most common, and was produced in greatest abundance ; 
 that, according to these circumstances, he might detennine 
 its place in the system. Thus he decided with respect to 
 Lythrum^ the most common species of which, namely Ly- 
 thrum salicaria, has from twelve to fifteen anthers, whereas, 
 in other cases, the number is far smaller. But even here 
 Linnaeus was not consistent ; at least the most common species 
 of Euonymus is almost always observed to have four an- 
 thers, although the genus stands in the fifth class. Defective 
 observation, also, often led him into mistakes, which have 
 been propagated to our time. Thus Ruppia stands in the 
 fourth Linnaean Class, although no such numerical proportion 
 can be discovered in it. We thus also find Calla in the 
 seventh class, and yet the number of the filaments is wholly 
 indeterminate and fluctuating. We shall speak of Eupliorb'ia 
 upon another occasion, when we shall shew that it holds a 
 very unsuitable place in the eleventh class. 
 
ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICATION. 91 
 
 Lastly^ The founder of this system, when he remarked a 
 fluctuating numerical proportion, was accustomed to set such 
 a value upon the first flower, (Jlos primariu.s), that according 
 to it he determined the place in his system. Thus the Garden 
 Rose has always ten filaments in the first flower, and in the 
 others eight ; hence Linnaeus placed it in the tenth class. 
 When tlie flower-top of Adooca unfolds itself, the first blos- 
 som is seen to have eight anthers, the following ones ten, and 
 Linnaeus accordingly attached it to the eight class. 
 
 1S6. 
 
 A third well founded objection which may be made to this 
 system, is foimded on the value which is laid in it on the dif- 
 ference of sex ; a difference which, considered in itself, is so 
 fluctuating, that we see it strikingly displayed, not only in 
 species of the same genus, but even frequently in different 
 plants which belong to the same species. The whole three- 
 and-twentieth class, and a great part of the genera which 
 stand in the one-and-twentieth and two-and-twentieth, shew a 
 separation of the sexual parts, which is completely destitute 
 of constancy. Thus some of the species of Hordeum are po- 
 lygamous, others hermaphrodite. The same thing happens 
 with respect to the different species of Acer. In numberless 
 genera, which Linnaeus referred to other classes, we find 
 monoecious, dioecious, and polygamous species, as the com- 
 mon examples of Rumex and Rhamnus shew. 
 
 137. 
 
 Beside these difficulties and deficiencies which the Classes 
 of the Linnasan system present, it cannot be denied, that 
 some well founded objections may be made with respect to 
 the Orders which it admits. In the first place, it fails here 
 completely in unity, since sometimes one and sometimes ano- 
 ther principle of the order is assumed. For the most part, 
 attention is paid to the number of the Pistils, but instead 
 of pistils, sometimes the germen, and not unfrequently also 
 the stigma is taken, so that we often are not in a situation to 
 find the Order. Not tp mention, that in the fourteenth class 
 
 2 
 
92 TAXONOMY. 
 
 the fruit is improperly called naked, because it presents 
 Caryopses with a smiple covering, and frequently even Nuts. 
 In the fifteenth class, the idea of a silicula causes some diffi- 
 culties in the first Order, because in many genera we observe 
 true nuts without the power of bursting. 
 
 Similar exceptions may be made to the orders of the nine- 
 teenth class. No doubt this arrangement promises much at first, 
 because in the first order of the nineteenth class, Syngenefiia, 
 Folygamia aqualis, the flowers have all equally good seed, 
 and are all hermaphrodites. In the second order, S. P. su- 
 'perf.ua, the flowers on the margin are only female, those in 
 the centre hermaj)hrodite, but they are all equally fruitful. 
 In the third order, *S'. P, frtistranea, the flowers on the mar- 
 gin are neutral, or the pistillum is abortive, but the flowers in 
 the centre are hermaphrodite, and alone bear perfect seed. 
 In the fourth order, S. P. necessaria, the relation is exactly 
 reversed : the central flowers, which are commonly male, are 
 abortive, and only those on the circumference, which are for 
 the most part female, bear perfect seeds. Lastly, in the fifth 
 order, S. P. segrcgata, every flowret has also its separate 
 calyx, although they all stand upon a common receptacle. 
 
 To this division it may be objected, that very often the 
 frustranea, in the same genus, coincides widi the crqual'is ; 
 for in Bidens and Centaiirea, for example, a neutral ray of- 
 ten makes its appearance, and often fails. The same thing 
 happens in some genera of the siiperflua, where Anthem'is, 
 Anacyclus, and Pyretlirum, sometimes lose the ray. But 
 these objections affect every other division of this class in an 
 equal degree ; for the Cynareae pass into the Radiatse, and 
 vice versa. In like manner we might notice, respecting the 
 segregata, that what has been called their pccidiar calyx, is 
 often nothing else but chaffy leaves, as we also see them in 
 many genera of the remaining orders, 
 
 138. 
 
 These, and similar defects, induced the founder of this 
 system, during his later years, to think of some improvements 
 on it. 
 
ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICATION. 93 
 
 This necessity seems to be most urgent in regard to the 
 sexual parts, as the principle of the classes from the twenty- 
 first to the twenty-third. The later scholars of Linnaeus as- 
 sure us, that he wished to leave out the twenty-third class as 
 altogether unnecessary. It was reserved, however, for Sir 
 James Edward Smith, the worthy inheritor of the Linnaean 
 treasures, to propose the happiest alteration* This consists in 
 recognising the difference of sex as then only essential, when 
 it manifests itself by an actual difference in the structure of 
 the female, male, and hermaphrodite flowers ; w hen thus the 
 male-blossoms, as in the Oak, stand in catkins, but the fe- 
 male flowers are insulated. This difference, not of sex alone, 
 but also of forms, is called by Smith didinia ; and he accord- 
 ingly rejects from the twenty-first, twenty-second, and twenty- 
 third classes, all the genera, in which no such correspondence 
 between the difference of sex and the difference of form takes 
 place. Hence among others, the genera Acer, Vtratrnm, 
 Hydrocharis, Stratiotes, Sagittaria, and so forth, are placed 
 much rather according to the number of their filaments, tlian 
 according to their difference of sex. 
 
 139. 
 
 Less fortunate attempts to improve the Linnaean systemi 
 have been made by Thunberg, Suckow, llebentisli, and 
 lately by Claude Richard. According to Thunberg's plan, 
 the Gynandria is removed, and is brought, with peculiar im- 
 propriety, under the second class. He also rejects Monoccia^ 
 Dioecia, and Polygamia, whilst he classes all these plants ac- 
 cording; to the numbers of their anthers. Otliers have thrown 
 away the Monadelphia and Diadelphia, and have acknow- 
 ledged the numerical proportions as the only principle of clas- 
 sification. But by these means the difficulties have only 
 been made greater, and some classes have been overloaded 
 with genera, so that their investigation has been rendered 
 much more troublesome. 
 
 Richard's later proposal is founded partly on a pretended 
 better division of the Polyandria and Icosandria, from wliich 
 he separates a new class, Hysterandria, in which the fihuneIlt^* 
 
94 TAXONorvrv. 
 
 stand on the gcrnicn, and are tlicrefore epi^ynous ; pardy on 
 tlie assignation of new names to the Syngenesia, Polygamia, 
 and Cryptogamia, namely, Synantlieria, Anomalaecia, and 
 Agamia, which are very superfluous. And, lastly, he forms 
 from the Linna?an Monogamous plants in the Syngeneeia, 
 a peculiar class which he calls Symp)iijmndria. All these 
 changes seem to fail of answering their purpose. 
 
 140. 
 
 Beside the I.inna^an, there are some other artificial sys- 
 tems, the most important and best known of which must be 
 here noticed. The nearest in principle and value to the Lin- 
 naean, is that which Gleditch proposed in 1764. It is founded 
 entirely on the situation of the filaments, and the more there- 
 fore may be said for it, the more constant this situation and 
 insertion are. The filaments, according to this system, stand 
 either on the rece})tacle, {thalamosteviones), or in the corolla 
 (petalostemones), or on the calyx {calycostemones), or, lastly, 
 on the pistil {stylostemoiie.s), or no filaments are found, or they 
 are hidden. Nevertheless, the small number of divisions 
 which this system allows, are a disadvantage to it ; and a 
 multitude of subordinate divisions must again be made, ac- 
 cording to the Linnacan system, by which means the value of 
 the former is much diminished. 
 
 However, Borckhausen (1792), and Monch (1794), on the 
 principle of the system of Gleditch, have published pecu- 
 liarly acute treatises, which evince as much a fine talent for 
 observation, as for just criticism. 
 
 141. 
 
 Older attempts to form artificial systems have been found- 
 ed on other essential parts beside the male organs. Casalpi- 
 nus (1583), Morison (1683), Paul Hermann (1690), and 
 Boerhaave (1720), divided plants simply according to the dif- 
 ferences of their fruit, without regarding natural affinities. 
 They were called Fructista. To these belongs Joseph Gart- 
 ne?', in later times, although he has never completed the plan 
 of his system. 
 
ARTIFICIAI> CI.ASSIFICATION. 95 
 
 Others, as Rhnnus (1690), Liidwig (1750), and Tourne- 
 Jbrt (1700), regard the corolla only in classification ; whilst 
 Rivhms attended to the number and regularity of the parts, 
 Tournefort to the general form of the corolla, and John Ray 
 (1682), connected the fruit with the corolla. All these Co- 
 roll'istcE^ as they were named, paid, however, a constant regard 
 to the natural affinities. 
 
 It is scarcely worth while to mention the unsuccessful at- 
 tempts of Antony Magnol (1720), to class plants according 
 to their calyx, and of Saiivage (1751), to arrange them ac- 
 cording to their leaves. We are far from considering every 
 artificial system as just as good as another, because we find 
 some fault with them all. Our opinion on the contrary is, 
 that the Linnaean system, with the improvements which Smith 
 has proposed, is best adapted to the instruction of beginners. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 ON THE MUTUAL CONNECTIONS OF PLANTS. 
 I. Idea of Species, 
 
 142. 
 
 By Species [species), we understand a number of plants, 
 which affree with one another in invariable marks. 
 
 In this matter every thing depends upon the idea of inva- 
 riableness. When an organ, or a property of it, is changed 
 neither by difference of soil, of climate, or of treatment, nor 
 by continued breeding, this organ or property is said to be 
 invariable. When, for instance, we have remarked during 
 centuries, that the Centifolia has always unarmed leaf-stalks, 
 we say correctly, that this property of the Centifolia is inva- 
 riable. 
 
90 Taxoxomv. 
 
 When we express these invariable properties in words, \^e 
 give the S))ecih'c Character {character specificiis). 
 
 143. 
 
 This idea proceeds on the supposition, that the species which 
 we know, liave existed as long as the earth has had its present 
 form. No doubt there were, in the preceding state of our globe, 
 other species of plants, which have now perished, and the re- 
 mains of which we still find in impressions in shale^ slate-clay, 
 and other floetz rocks. Whether the present species, which often 
 resemble these, have arisen from them ; — whether the great 
 revolutions on the surface of the earth, which we read in the 
 Book of Nature, contributed to these transitions, — we know 
 riot. What we know is, that from as early a time as the 
 human race has left memorials of its existence upon the earth, 
 the separate species of plants have maintained the same pro- 
 ])erties invariably. 
 
 To be sure, we frequently speak of the transitions and 
 crossings of species ; and it cannot be denied that some- 
 thing of this kind does occur, though without affecting the 
 idea of species which we have proposed. We must, there- 
 fore, understand this difference. 
 
 144. 
 
 We perceive the Transitions of a Species, when it loses or 
 changes die properties, which we had considered as invariable 
 in the character. Thus, it would be a transition, if we had 
 stated as an invariable character of winter wheat (Triticum liy- 
 hcrnum)^ that it was biennial, and had an ear without awns ; 
 and if we should remark, that by frequent reproduction, and 
 by very different treatment, it began to assume awns, and, when 
 sown in spring, came to maturity during the same summer. 
 
 But this shews only that our idea of the difference between 
 the two kinds of grains had been incorrect ; for it is the uni- 
 versal rule, that the character does not constitute the species, 
 but the species the character. Species, then, only appear to 
 undergo transitions, when we have considered an organ or a' 
 property as invariable which is not so. 
 
MUTUAL CONNECTIONS OV 1>I.ANTS. 97 
 
 The case is similar with respect to tlie Crossing of' Species. 
 By this we understand such changes as arise from the mutual 
 impregnation of two related species. It cannot be denied 
 a kind of bastards are thus produced : they are called hy- 
 brid plants (plants Jiyhrida). They occur most common- 
 ly among plants which are cultivated. Thus, in the ge- 
 nus Pyriis^ Priinvs, as also among the species of Grain, and 
 in the kitchen vegetables, there are a considerable number of 
 real hybrids, which do not lose their properties even by re- 
 production. But most of these plants are productions of art, 
 and Nature seems to prevent the mutual impregnation of re- 
 lated species in more ways than one, although these are not 
 completely understood by us, (332.) 
 
 145. 
 
 All properties of plants which are subject to change, form 
 either, a Subspecies (subspecies)^ or a Variety (varietas). By 
 the former we understand such forms as continue indeed 
 during some reproductions, but at last, by a greater difference 
 of soil, of climate, and of treatment, are either lost or changed. 
 When the different Cabbage species receive the same treat- 
 ment in the same climate, they continue to be frequently re- 
 produced, without changing their appearance. But we can- 
 not on this account maintain, that Cauliflower would retain 
 the same favourite form in very different climates, and under 
 a complete change of treatment. It at last changes so much, 
 that it can scarcely be distinguished from the Common Cab- 
 bage. This, therefore, is a subspecies. Varieties again do 
 not retain their forms during reproduction. The variable 
 colours, — the very variable taste, and other properties of the 
 kitchen vegetables, the ornamental plants, and the fruit-trees, 
 shew what varieties are ; and the Scientific Botanist must there- 
 fore be particularly attentive to distinguish permanent species 
 from the variable subspecies, degenerate plants, and varieties. 
 
 146. 
 To this discrimination belongs, above all things, a careful, 
 continued, and unprejudiced observation of the whole vegeta- 
 
 G 
 
98 TAXONOMY. 
 
 tion of the same plant during its different ages, and amidst 
 the most different circumstances which have an influence on 
 it. When, for instance, in the common Lotus corniculatus, 
 on whatever soil it may grow, we uniformly observe that 
 it has a solid stem, even and erect divisions of the calyx, 
 and expanded filaments, we must of necessity distinguish, as 
 a particular species from it, another form which grows in 
 bogs and in watery meadows, which has a much higher, and 
 always hollow stalk, the divisions of its calyx spread out into 
 a star-shape and hairy, and which has uniformly thin fila- 
 ments; and we must name this latter species either Lotus 
 uUgmosus with Schkuhr, or Lotus major with Scopoli and 
 Smitli. As, on the other hand, the Pimpinella Sax'ifraga 
 grows sometimes quite smooth, and sometimes, in woods and 
 shady meadows, considerably hairy ; as it displays sometimes 
 simple and small stem-leaves^ sometimes half and even doub- 
 ly pinnated leaves ; and as these forms vai'y according to the 
 situation of the plant and during reproduction, we cannot 
 regard these forms by any means as distinct species, but we 
 must view them as corruptions. 
 
 We see, that, in order to decide respecting the idea of a 
 species, an observation of many years, and of much accuracy, 
 is often required; and that the cultivation of plants, from 
 the most different climates, in botanical gardens, is in the 
 highest degree necessary for their discrimination. 
 
 II. Idea of a Genus. 
 
 147. 
 By a Genus we understand the sum of the species which 
 agree in certain constant properties of the essential parts. 
 When we compare several species of Roses vnXh one another, 
 we soon find that they have all certain common marks, and 
 that it is hence an easy matter for every person, who perceives 
 their sum of corresponding properties, to say that he has a 
 Rose before him. 
 
MUTUAL CONNECTIONS OF PLANTS. 99 
 
 148. 
 
 But we must confess, that there is an important difference 
 in genera, according as they are founded on an agreement in 
 the properties of most of the pails, or only in the marks of 
 a few essential organs. When the former is the case, we re- 
 cognise a Natural Genus. We then observe correspondences 
 in structure, in external appearance, in situation ; often in the 
 form of the roots, the leaves, the buds, in the subordinate 
 parts, or in the armour and supports ; sometimes even in the 
 composition of the sap, in the colours, in the smell and taste. 
 Such natural genera are, for example, those of the Rose, 
 Wheat, Stocks, Willows, and innumerable others. 
 
 Artificial Genera, again, are those which, though they want 
 a correspondence in external appearance, shew the same for- 
 mation of the essential parts. Whenever the preference has 
 been given to the organs of fructification as the essential or- 
 gans, we must then be permitted to connect the agreement 
 of these with the idea of a genus. Indeed, such genera are 
 by no means adapted to strike the eyes of every person ; nay, 
 in a Natural arrangement of plants, we might even very pos- 
 sibly overlook them. But when Art has once reared a sys- 
 tem, she must necessarily assume constant differences in the 
 essential parts, as foundations for the discrimination of ge- 
 nera. If the innumerable plants which are known to us as 
 Umbellatae, and which agree more or less in their external 
 marks, were not marked out as peculiar genera by such fine 
 and scanty characters of the essential parts, it would be con- 
 trary to all scientific ideas, to unite them into one common 
 genus, which would then include within it innumerable species, 
 with important differences in die fruit, and in the other es- 
 sential parts. 
 
 149«. 
 There are here two opposite errors to be avoided. If we 
 fall into the one, we then seek to simplify all things, and col- 
 lect the most different forms into a few great genera. The 
 less progress the knowledge of plants has made, the more are 
 we disposed to lose ourselves in this error. Indeed, when we 
 attend to the number of species which I.innipus knew, we 
 
 G 'I 
 
100 TAXONOMY. 
 
 cannot assert that he would have formed fewer genera than 
 his followers liave made ; but as he put less value upon the 
 fruit in par ticulai* than was proper, many of his genera are 
 too comprehensive, not to be separated with advantage. Who- 
 ever should receive the Finiiaria or Folijpodiu7n of Linnaeus 
 even now, in their entire latitude, would evidently overlook 
 the most important and essential differences, and strive for 
 simphcity at the expence of Science, and even of Nature. 
 
 The second error leads to too fine a discrimination of insig- 
 nificant marks, which might well furnish the foundation for 
 constructing a species, but can never be approved of as generic 
 characters, unless we would ultimately make as many genera 
 us there are species. 
 
 1495. 
 
 Wc are naturally led to ask, how we may most securely 
 avoid both these errors. It cannot be denied, that the power 
 of separating important from unimportant circumstances, and 
 of being as little misled by fancy as by refinement, in connect- 
 ing or separating things which ought not to be connected or 
 separated, is a talent which is either born with some indivi- 
 duals, or acquired to a great extent by practice. This talent 
 belongs to some Botanists in so high a degree, that we may 
 safely trust ourselves to their glance, and to their discrimi- 
 nation. Others, with the best intentions, have never been 
 able to acquire the talent, especially as they seem to believe 
 that refinement is the only requisite for the construction of 
 species aiid genera. 
 
 150. 
 
 In the first place, in order to avoid these errors. Genera 
 must be founded on such characters, as, compared with one 
 another, have an evidently uniform value. Thus, when a 
 certain number of genera have already been distinguished from 
 one another by the difference of one character, we may with 
 propriety avail ourselves of new differences of the same, to 
 construct nc\v genera ; since the organ or property must, m 
 all similar cases, have a uniform value. If we have thus 
 once begun to distinguish the Umbellatae bv the form of their 
 
MUTUAL CONNECTIONS OF PLANTS. 101 
 
 fruit, and the Syngenesistae by their pappus, we cannot, in 
 the former case, associate a winged with a solid fruit, noi*, in 
 the latter, a pinnated pappus with one diat is bristly. 
 
 It is much to be wished, that in all classes, or in all tribes of 
 plants, we had such characters as have a constant value, and 
 which could hence be employed in the formation of new gene- 
 ra. But that this is by no means the case, we see, in particular, 
 from the numerical proportion in very many genera and fa^ 
 milies ; that is to say, this proportion is often of so little value, 
 or it fluctuates so much, that we cannot employ it for the dis- 
 crimination of genera. It is also obvious, that the character, 
 taken from one organ, cannot be applied to several families. 
 Important as the inflorescence is in the Grasses, we cannot use 
 it for the discrimination of genera in other families. 
 
 151. 
 
 The second rule, by following which we may avoid the 
 above-mentioned errors, is, that as much as possible natural 
 genera should be constructed, and, when that cannot be ac- 
 complished, artificial genera ; but that the variation of form 
 and of proportion in one part, ought not to be considered as 
 sufficient for the construction of a genus, unless this diff*erence 
 be also expressed by other marks. " The character does not 
 constUnte the genus^'' is a very wise saying of the founder of 
 Scientific Botany. A genus is not on this account firmly esta- 
 blished, because one or another difference of structure occurs 
 in individual parts, but because the plants actually exhibit 
 striking differences in their whole vegetation. We might 
 easily, by giving to a genus a very circumscribed character, 
 be able to separate fi'om it all the species, and to unite them 
 to new genera, which have not that circumscribed character ; 
 but it is the business of Art, to evolve a more c()m{)rehensive 
 and generally availing character, so as to shew the value of 
 the principle. That the genus forms the character. 
 
 152. 
 
 Lastly, we must remark, that the further tlio knowledge* of 
 plants is extended, the more do we find that many great gc- 
 
102 TAX0N03IY. 
 
 nera, in the natuial arrangement, are not correctly placed, — 
 that ihcy ought much rather to be considered as Famihes, and 
 their subdivisions raised to the nmk of genera. This has hap- 
 pened in our days \\iih the genera Lkhe?i, Fucus, and Pro- 
 ica, whicli have justly been ex})anded into several genera, ac- 
 cording to fixed characters. 
 
 153. 
 
 Many genera consist of such numberless species, that it is 
 much to be wished they were separated into a greater number 
 of genera. But so long as Nature shews a correspondence 
 in essential parts, we dare not separate what she has united. 
 The genera Aster, Erica, Mescmhi'ijantliemum, Salvia, and 
 some others, thus justly remain undivided, and we must only 
 endeavour to arrange the species in such a manner as is 
 required by their natural correspondence. 
 
 This arrangement into divisions or sections, is as necessary 
 in numerous genera, as the arrangement of the genera them- 
 selves accorchng to a certain principle of affinity. Not only 
 the outward view of the ari'angement, but the investigation 
 of it, is generally relieved by this means. Many of these sec- 
 tions, if we were to carry our distinctions to a great length, 
 especially in the genera Convallaria and Polygonum, might 
 become as many genera, especially as they are separated from 
 each other not merely by numerical proportion of pai'ts, but 
 by other marks. Sometimes we give peculiar names to these 
 sections, as the genus Polygonum is divided into Atraphexoi- 
 dae, Bistorta?, Persicaria?, Polygona, and Helxinae. Otherwise 
 these sections are denoted by the signs {^, * or -f-. 
 
 III. Idea of Tribes and Families. 
 
 154. 
 
 As in the animal kingdom there are related genera which 
 form tribes, as the Cetaceous Animals, the ]\[arsh Fowls, and 
 the Graminivorous Animals, we also find in the vegetable 
 world a multitude of related genera, which together form 
 
xMUTUAL CONNECTIONS OV I'LANTS. 10.'i 
 
 either Tribes (tribns) or Families. Every person admits 
 that the different species of Grain, the Palms, Ferns, and 
 common Fruit-trees, are such Tribes or FamiUes. 
 
 155. 
 
 But we distinguish these two ideas from one another in 
 this way ; that by a Tribe we understand a smaller number 
 of related genera ; a Family, again, denotes the sum of all 
 the genera, which agree in one or more essential parts : a fa^ 
 mily may thus consist of several tribes. If, for example, we 
 assume all the species of Grasses as one family, then this con- 
 sists of the Hordeacege, the flowers of which are placed on a 
 spike, — of the Avenaceae, which flower in panicles, and have 
 a twisted awn, — and so forth. The names of these tribes, as 
 the examples we have given shew, are commonly borrowed 
 from the principal genus, to which a termination is given, ex- 
 pressive of the resemblance. We hence say, the Cyperoidere, 
 Orchideae, Junceae, Aroideae, Jasmineas, Gentianeae, and so 
 on. We proceed, in the same manner, in giving names to 
 Families. But these are, with as much propriety, denoted, 
 usually, by general names, which have a relation to the prin- 
 cipal property. We thus derive the Ferns, Sarmentaceae, 
 Coronariae, Labiatae, Asperifoliae, Cruciatae, Composite, Ag- 
 gregate. 
 
 156. 
 
 The laws which are followed in the construction of Gene- 
 ra, have the same importance in the establishment of Tribes 
 and Families ; for, fundamentally, the latter are nothing but 
 genera, and our only concern, therefore, is to separate them 
 from one another by constant characters, and to be able to 
 mark out their connections with one another. 
 
104 TAXONO.MV. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 ON THE NATURAL ARRANGEMENT IN GENERAL. 
 
 157. 
 
 The solution of the last mentioned problem, tliat, namely, 
 of marking out the connections of families with one another, 
 and of so arranging them with respect to each other as Nature 
 has arranged them, is the object of Method, or the Ideal after 
 which Science is incessantly striving, and to which she has re- 
 cently approached nearer than she ever did before, without 
 having yet perhaps completely reached it. 
 
 To present more distinctly the meaning of this problem, 
 let us think of two nearly related families, for instance, the 
 Musci frondosi and the Musci hepatici. Along with gene- 
 ral correspondences, we find also differences, which must be 
 so marked, that we may perceive which of the two families 
 stands higher or lower, — which of the two shews at once the 
 greatest number of organs, and the greatest perfection in 
 these. Let us next ask further, respecting these families, to 
 Avhat others they stand contiguous. In the foregoing ex- 
 amples, we shall see the Musci frondosi passing into the Ly- 
 copodeae, and bordering on the Ferns ; the Musci hepatici, 
 in several forms, approach the Ilomallophyllae, and through 
 them the Lichens ; the Lichens pass in several shapes into 
 the Funffi, which at last resolve themselves into the most im- 
 perfect of organised bodies, the Coniomijci and Nematomyci. 
 
 158. 
 When we have in this manner denoted the connections of 
 families and their differences, we are frequently led to inter- 
 mediate forms, which still more strongly establish the alliance. 
 Between the Musci frondosi and hepatici is the Aiidreaca ; 
 between the MuaciJYondosi and the Ferns are some species 
 
ON THE NATURAL AKRANGEMENT. 105 
 
 of Tnchomanes ; between tlie Musci hepatici and tlie Lichens 
 are Riccia and Enchcarpon ; between the Lichens and Fungi 
 are Calkium^ Stilhum, and Oj}egrap]ia ; — all evidently inter- 
 mediate forms. If we could shew similar intermediate forms 
 throughout the whole of the vegetable kingdom, it might then 
 be likened to a chain, the links of which were in every instance 
 connected, and where no proper separation of the parts could 
 be perceived. On the one hand, this account seems to be 
 daily more and more confirmed by recent observations. The 
 Compos'ita; and Lobelieae have lately been united by the genus 
 Brunon'ia^ in such a manner, that this genus may be consi- 
 dered as their intermediate form. 
 
 But, on the other hand, we must recollect, that although 
 Nature makes no leaps, yet she does not appear to proceed 
 uninterruptedly from inferior to higher degrees of perfection, 
 but that her forms are repeated in several families ; and if we 
 take the whole together, we shall commonly find, that of two 
 nearly related families, the one is the more perfect in many 
 respects, but that in other respects again it is by much the 
 least perfect. If, for instance, we compare the Musci hepa- 
 tici with the Ferns, the latter, by their frequently shrub- 
 by growth, resembling that of Palms, and still more by the 
 complete state of their spiral vessels and slits, shew a consider- 
 able degree of perfection. The Musci frondosi, again, although 
 they want these distinctions, shew not only doubly formed 
 sexual parts, but the leaves ^^hich cover these parts are often co- 
 loured in the manner of a corolla. These are marks of a higher 
 perfection, which is wanting in the Ferns. In the same man- 
 ner, we shall find throughout the whole vegetable kingdom, 
 that the growth with two separate cotyledons, and the con- 
 sumption of the albuminous substance, by the formation of 
 the embryon, are proofs of a higher perfection. But there 
 are not only tribes and families, which, along with their more 
 perfect formation in other respects, yet retain the albuminous 
 substance, as the Caryophyllea?, Portulacea^, and Aizoidac, 
 but among what have been called the lower plants we often 
 remark a degree of completeness and perfection in the forms, 
 
106 TAXONOMY. 
 
 as in the Scitamineae, Orchidea% and Coronariae, which must 
 often lead us into error in arranging these vegetable tribes. 
 
 159. 
 
 To this must be added, that there are a multitude of sepa- 
 rate genera, and even of entire families, which cannot at pre- 
 sent be arranged with respect to others. The genera Bego- 
 nia^ CynomGrium^ Datisca, and Nepenthes^ for instance, are 
 completely unknown in their affinities ; and it thus remains 
 doubtful, whether the Caryophylleae are not more properly 
 connected with the Chenopodea?, than with the Liliaceas and 
 Myrteae. 
 
 160. 
 
 We here already perceive one of the difficulties which the 
 Natural Order presents in instruction. For as several gene- 
 ra stand quite insulated in this order, — as others have some 
 properties of one family, and others have the marks of a dif- 
 ferent family, — as the situation of families with respect to one 
 another is not pointed out by nature, but is the work of hu- 
 man genius, — we must confess that such a method, from its 
 uncertainty and difficulty, is by no means fitted for begin- 
 ners, however elevating to the human mind the study of those 
 alhances may be, — however much it sets all the powers of the 
 mind in activity, — and however much it is to be wished that 
 this species of knowledge should constantly be making pro- 
 gress. 
 
 161. 
 
 The difficulty of the natural method is still greater, when 
 w^e look for some bond, or, what is the same thing, for 
 some common form, which may unite the natural families 
 with each other, and lead us to their arrangement. If we 
 take this leading principle from one or a few ever so essen- 
 tial parts, we in fact do nothing else but connect an artificial 
 system with the natural arrangement, and this arrangement it- 
 self can no longer be called a natural one. We may employ, 
 as our principle, the form and situation of the embryon, 
 
ON THE NATURAL AKUANCiKMENT. 107 
 
 the shape of the fruit, the insertion of the filaments, or any 
 other relations of the organs we please, but such a principle 
 cannot be employed throughout but in a constrained and ar- 
 tificial manner. This objection strikes even at the very cele- 
 brated, very ingenious, and in many respects the immortal 
 work, which Jussiku has published. Hence there remains no 
 other plan but that of arranging the tribes and families accord- 
 ing to the sum of related characters in the greater number of 
 their parts. But as, in this operation, a great deal depends 
 upon a peculiar glance of the obserser, the objects of which 
 frequently cannot be distinctly stated in words, fluctuation 
 and uncertainty are here unavoidable ; and the more com- 
 pletely all the marks are collected, the more impossible is it 
 to impress upon the mind of the learner the sum of these 
 characters. 
 
 In the last place, the comprehensive survey of the Natural 
 Method necessarily requires the knowledge of such genera, 
 tribes, and families, as are only accessible to him who has 
 either accomplished himself by travel in foreign countries, or is 
 in possession of a very rich collection of plants, and at the 
 same time has access to one of the best botanic gardens. 
 Without these assistances one could scarcely become acquaint- 
 ed with the Anoneae, the Guttiferge, the Sapoteae, and many 
 other families. 
 
 162. 
 
 If with all this vve compare the artificial system, nothing is 
 more easy than, during' the very first lesson, to produce exam- 
 ples from all the classes ; nothing more easy than to obtain a 
 view of the subdivisions of this system. It would be difficult 
 to find any other system better adapted to instruction than 
 the Linngean. But besides the objections which were before 
 stated, the study of this system, if the attention of the stu- 
 dent be limited wholly to it, has the great disadvantage, that 
 it produces a partial and confined way of viewing things, 
 which must necessarily estrange the mind from the higher 
 object of science. Accustomed to view the relations of the 
 sexual parts as the most important of all others, and to consi- 
 
108 TAXONOMY. 
 
 der plants only under this point of view, we come to believe, 
 in the end, that this is the object of science. We become sa- 
 tisfied to thrust the plants that come in our way into the 
 ranks which the Linnaean Classes furnish, and we neglect the 
 relations of the remaining organs. The mind becomes unac- 
 customed to consider Nature in her greater relations, and a 
 real distortion seizes the understanding, from the habit of as- 
 sembling together the most dissimilar things, and of separa- 
 ting; from one another the most closely related bodies. 
 
 To avoid those evils, we must begin, as soon as we have 
 obtained a competent knowledge of the common plants ac- 
 cording to the Linnaean svstem, to study the Natural Method. 
 The Cryptogamous Plants, as they have been called, force us 
 as it were to have recourse to these ideas of natural affinity. 
 Because here, where no artificial system is of any avail, we 
 must necessarily pay regard to general relations, to resem- 
 blance of structure and of outward appearance, and to the 
 sum of the other marks, in order to be able to arrange these 
 plants. As every person perceives the necessity of a natural 
 arrangement of these lower plants, wherefore should the study 
 of relationship be confined entirely to these, and not be ex- 
 tended also to the higher plants ? 
 
 163. 
 
 That Linnaeus himself viewed his artificial system in a 
 right manner, is evident from a great multitude of passages, 
 where he rates the value of the natural method very high, 
 and views this arrangement as the last object of Botany ; — 
 where he expressly asserts, that only imperfectly instructed 
 botanists set a small value upon this method, but tliat all ac- 
 complished natural historians regard it as the highest aim of 
 their labours ; — where, when he was only thirty years of age, 
 he promises to dedicate his whole life to the formation and 
 perfecting of the natural method ; — where he solicits all able 
 botanists to make common cause with him in securing the 
 great purpose of a scientific knowledge of the affinities of 
 plants ; and where he expressly says, respecting tlie artificial 
 aiTangement, that it is merely an expedient of necessity, and 
 
ON THE NATURAL ARKANCiKMENT. 109 
 
 must, on all occasions, yield to the natural arrangement. We 
 find those passages as well in the Classlhus Planturum^ 
 t. 484. and 487. as in the Philosophia Botcmica, § 77. Even 
 in the latter days of his life, he read ingenious lectures re- 
 pecting what he named Ordines naturales^ which lectures 
 have been published by Giseke, at Hamburgh, 1792. These 
 natural orders are formed without any particular bond, and 
 Linnaeus used to compai-e them with the different sections 
 upon a land chart. According to this idea, we find in Giseke's 
 edition such a land chart, where indeed very many regions 
 stand quite insulated, but where also the conterminous boun- 
 daries of many are correctly marked. That the Palms are 
 conterminous, through the genera Cycas, Zamia, and Nyssa, 
 with the Ferns, and on the other side with the Hydrocharideae ; 
 that the latter are related through the Juncea? with the Ca- 
 lamariae, and Cyperoidae, and on the other side with the 
 Ensatse or Irideae ; that the latter are conterminous w ith the 
 Orchideae, and these with the Scitamineas ; all this, and a 
 good deal more, is very correctly stated in that chart. 
 
 Even in his artificial system, the putting together of genera^ 
 according to their natural affinities, — a peculiarity of his sys- 
 tem which we have already blamed, — is a proof of his predi- 
 lection for the natural arrangement. 
 
 164. 
 
 Even during the life of Linnaeus, Michael Adanson pro- 
 posed a natural method in his Families ihs Planter, Paris 
 176S, which contains an inexhaustible treasure of observations 
 respecting the essential characters of families, and of innu- 
 merable genera. It wants indeed a principle of arrangement, 
 many of the genera are imperfectly constructed, and, with 
 capricious obstinacy, are improperly named ; but the se- 
 ries of families is for the most part derived from nature. 
 Thus to the Boragineae or Asperifoliae, succeed the Labiatae, 
 then the Verbencae, the Personatae, the Solaneae, the Jasmineae, 
 the AnagaUideae, the Salicariae, the Portulaceae, the Sedeae, 
 the Alsineae, and so forth. Besides, in this arrangement, at- 
 tention is paid to every thing, — even to the finest parts of the 
 
HO TAXONOMY. 
 
 fruit and seed ; and those recent times, the improvements of 
 whicli liave been derived from the labours of Adanson, have, 
 in many instances, only been able to confirm his observations. 
 
 165. 
 
 By Joseph Gartner's single work on Fruits and Seeds, an 
 entirely new light has been cast uyon the natural method, by 
 which a multitude of obscurities have been cleared up, and 
 affinities have been discovered, where they were before sought 
 for in vain. In this way, and by treading in the footsteps of 
 Jussieu, De Candolle, Richard, Batsch, Correa de Serra, 
 and Robert Brown, we may hope to afford essential advan- 
 tage to science, whilst we are searching out every where rela- 
 tions and affinities. 
 
 It cannot but happen, that the farther progress we make, 
 the greater number of families will be discovered ; because in 
 particular tribes we shall ever be noticing such distinct as- 
 semblages as separate themselves properly from the families 
 to which they had formerly been ascribed. If Jussieu reck- 
 oned only a hundred families, we must now be acquainted 
 with nearly a hundred and fifty. The Dilleniete, Pittospo- 
 reae, Tremandreae, Combreteae, Cunoniae, Rhizophoreae, Ha- 
 loxageae, Atherospermeae, Hackhouseae, are examples of later 
 families, which Brown has established by well-founded inves- 
 tigations. 
 
 166. 
 
 In a few words we shall notice the analytical method which 
 Lamark proposed, forty years ago, as a middle path for 
 avoiding the inconveniencies of the artificial system, as well 
 as the diflSculties of the natural method. He remarked, that 
 the procedure of the human mind, in the investigation of 
 plants, was of such a kind as leads us to divide the whole 
 vegetable kingdom into two principal departments, the cha- 
 racters of the one of which are always completely exclusive of 
 the marks of the other. Each of these two may again be se- 
 parated into other two divisions, and this mode of dividing 
 may be continued, until we have at last only two species to 
 
OF THE NATURAL ARRANGEMENT. Ill 
 
 compare together and to distinguish. Whilst in this plan 
 we are confined by no method, we actually exhaust the re- 
 gion of possibilities, at the same time that we are studying 
 realities. Yet the circumstantiality and discursiveness of 
 these investigations are objections to the plan. No person lias 
 pursued it with more ability and success, in later times, than 
 Gaudin, in his Agrostohgia Helvetica, 1811. When, for 
 example, he wishes to teach us to distinguish the species of 
 Festuca, he first attends to the leaves, whether they are all 
 bristly, or whether the stalk-leaves be smooth ; then to the in- 
 tegument of the leaves, whether it be very short and truncated, 
 or very prominent ; next he attends to the spicula?, whether 
 they be oval or oblong, with a^vns or without them ; lastly, to 
 the awns themselves, whether they be as long as the spicidae, 
 or longer. 
 
 For facilitating the diagnosis of individual species, the ana^ 
 lytical method is very useful ; but it requires too great an ex- 
 pence of time and labour to be used on every occasion in the 
 examination of plants. If, for instance, we wish to deter- 
 mine a Myrtle, we must first ask whether it belongs to the 
 division of plants with distinct sexual parts, or with those that 
 are hidden ; whether it be monoclinous or diclinous ; whe- 
 ther the sexual parts stand free or are united, to what organ 
 they are fixed, in what number they are present; whether 
 the seeds have albumen or not ; what situation the plumula 
 has with respect to the umbilicus and the cotyledons ; still 
 further, how the corolla is fashioned, how its estivation takes 
 place, whether the plant be a tree or an herb, what is the 
 formation of its leaves, and their situation in the buds, and 
 so forth. The answer to these questions depends on inqui- 
 ries, which always lead to certain, comprehensive, and useful 
 knowledge. They are also applicable to every system, but 
 for elementary instruction they are in every case too dis- 
 cursive. 
 
112 TAXONOMY. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 THEOKY OF NATURAI. CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 167. 
 
 To the Theory of Natural Classification belong essentially 
 the three following particulars. In the Jirst place, we must 
 be acquainted with the relative importance which belongs to 
 organs, compared with one anotlier ; in the secwid place, we 
 must know the circumstances which might lead the observer 
 to mistake the true nature of organs ; and, in the third place, 
 we must be able to estimate the importance which may be 
 attached to each of the points of view, under which an organ 
 may be considered. 
 
 I. Campariso7i of Organs. 
 
 168. 
 As in organic bodies every part has its relative import- 
 ance, so this importance can have a reference only to the 
 function for which it is destined, and not to things to which 
 it stands in no relation. In classification, therefore, the de- 
 gree of importance of every organ, can be estimated only in 
 relation to those organs which have a reference to the same 
 function. 
 
 169. 
 
 But as the functions of the vegetable kingdom are of two 
 kinds, namely, nourishment, which relates to the maintenance 
 of the individual, and propagation, which relates to the main- 
 tenance of the species, so each of these functions, considered 
 by itself, must have an equal importance ; and a classification, 
 
 2 
 
NATURAL CLASSIFICATIOX. 113 
 
 which is founded upon one of these two great functions of 
 the vegetable kingdom, must necessarily be as natural as that 
 which has a reference to the other function. 
 
 This principle, indeed, is opposed by the conjmonly recei- 
 ved idea, that the parts of fructification are properly the 
 most essential and important. It is opposed by the general 
 practice of the founders of systems, who regard only the ])arts 
 of propagation, and derive from them the principles of ar- 
 rangement ; but this happens principally because we usually 
 find fewer differences in the organs of nourishment, and be- 
 cause, in order to discover these differences, dissection is pre- 
 viously required. Hence, in order to proceed securely to 
 work, and not to throw unnecessary difficulties into the study, 
 we must view the Organs of Fructification as the chief basis 
 of Classification. 
 
 170. 
 
 As in an organised body all the parts ha\e a mutual in- 
 fluence, and are connected with one another, important differ- 
 ences in the organs of one function must of necessity draw 
 along with them differences in tlie structure of the parts 
 which belong to another function ; and it is a very important 
 principle, that the entire structure of plants is different when 
 important alterations are found in the seed. Plants, whose 
 seeds contain an unevolved embryon and rich albumen, have a 
 completely different internal structure of stem, leaves, flowers, 
 and commonly even a different numerical proportion, from 
 plants, whose seeds contain a completely developed embryon, 
 and have little or no albuminous substance. 
 
 In many instances this has even an influence on the nature 
 of the secreted juices, because these derive their character 
 only from the nature of the separate organs. Thus the co- 
 loured juices in the Hypericea? and Guttifene, the milky juice 
 of the Euphorbias, and the aromatic ingredients of the La- 
 biatae, are well known examples of this influence of natural 
 affinity even on the constitution of juices. The theory of 
 medicines may, in this view, derive advantages from the na- 
 tural arrangement of plants. 
 
 II 
 
114 TAXONOMY. 
 
 But it is a matter of consistency, when we admit the nature 
 of the secreted juices among the characters, to understand the 
 existence of pecuHar organs and vessels, which secrete and 
 contain these juices. If we have not yet completely ascer- 
 tained the internal structure of these organs, we are justified 
 in assuming it, when, instead of the organs themselves, we 
 exhibit their productions, namely, the nature of their secreted 
 juices. 
 
 171. 
 
 But it is not enouoh to know, that the org-ans deserve more 
 attention than their products ; in every function we must 
 know the means to be employed for estimating the import- 
 ance of the organs. Sometimes reason, and sometimes obser- 
 vation, are these means. 
 
 Reasoning can only be employed when we know the use of 
 an organ ; then we obtain, by a simple exercise of reason, an 
 idea of its importance. If we attend to the organs of propa- 
 gation, these are evidently of more importance than their in- 
 teguments. If we compare together the sexual parts, both of 
 these parts are alike indispensable ; but the male organs per- 
 form their part for but a very short time, and in this respect 
 may be compared to the stigma, which disappears after im- 
 pregnation. But as the female organ, beside this short-lived 
 part, contains another, for which all the other parts are con- 
 structed, it is plain that the female organ is of more import- 
 ance than the male, and that the part of it which lasts is of 
 more importance than that which passes away. As, farther, 
 in the permanent female organ, the integument, or the fruit, 
 may be separated from the seed, and exists but for it, the 
 seed has thus a higher value than the fruit. And when, 
 lastly, we divide the seed into the embryon and the albuminous 
 substance, or, in the want of the latter, when we distinguish 
 between the cotyledons and the young plant, then the latter 
 has a greater value than the other parts of the seed. If these 
 conclusions are just, we have then the following degrees in the 
 importance of these organs. In the 1^^ place stands the em- 
 bryon, the ultimate object of the whole vegetation, 2. The 
 
NATURAL CLASSIFICATION. 115 
 
 parts of the seed. 3. The fruit. 4. The filaments and an- 
 thers, the latter of which must be more important than the 
 former, because the former exist but for them. 5. The nec- 
 taries, which, when they are present, essentially promote 
 fructification. 6. The interior cover of the sexual parts, or 
 the corolla. 7- The calyx, or exterior cover. 
 
 172. 
 There is a second mean of determining the value of or- 
 gans, which, however, although very instructive in certain re- 
 spects, is liable to more objections. We may consider any 
 part of fructification as having so much the greater import- 
 ance, according to the number of species in which it is found. 
 By following this rule, we obtain nearly the same results as 
 from the former ; because the object of vegetation is in all 
 cases affected, when the same means are not in operation. The 
 seed, or germ-grain, is universally present, even in the lowest 
 plants. The individual parts of the seed cannot be so com- 
 monly distinguished. All plants have not fruit; but more 
 shew fruit than sexual organs. Of these organs, the female 
 parts, even those which are shortest lived, are found in more 
 plants than the male parts; since even in the Homalo- 
 phyllae, and Musci hepatici, there are pistils and stigmata, 
 where no anthers have yet been shewn. Anthers occur more 
 commonly than filaments. We dare not decide whether nec- 
 taries or corollge appear most frequently ; since as many 
 flowers wanting the corolla have nectaries, as there are nec- 
 taries without the former organ. As little can we affirm that 
 the corolla appears more frequently than the calyx, because, 
 in numberless cases these integuments pass into each other. 
 
 173. 
 
 A third mean of judging respecting the importance of or- 
 gans, consists in observing how far a certain oigan is more or 
 less constantly united with the structure of definite and gene- 
 rally received vegetable tribes. If, for example, we had to 
 determine whether the stipulse or spines are most im})ort- 
 ant, we must give the preference to the former, because there 
 
 II '2 
 
116 i'AX(>N():»iv. 
 
 is a niultitucle of families in which the stipulaj are a constant 
 appendage of vegetation ; for example, the Rubiacea?, Mal- 
 vaceae, Leguminosa?, Amentaceae ; whilst spines may be pre- 
 sent or wanting in a great many families, without making any 
 perceptible difference ; for instance, in the Rosacea^, Legu- 
 minosae, and so forth. In the same manner, the constant 
 absence of an organ, in certain families, is of more moment 
 than its accidental appearance, when it is wanting in other 
 related forms. Thus the Grasses, so far as we know, have 
 never nectaries, as they also never have compound leaves. 
 
 II. On the Means ichich Nature affords for enabl^ig us ta 
 Ji'?WTc Organs, and therchij to avoid mistakes. 
 
 174. 
 
 In all iuquirie& nito the history of plants, it is an object of 
 the highest importance thai we should have a correct idea 
 respecting the purport and nature of any organ, because then 
 only can we flatter ourselves with the idea of having obtained 
 a propel' insight into the economy of plants. This department 
 of the study has made remarkable })rogress in our days, since 
 men began to iree themselves from the fetters of the schools, 
 and from the prejudices of authority. The great Founder of 
 Scientitic Botany frequently mistook the nature of organs, es- 
 pecially when he saw nectaries, where none are and never can 
 be. Audit is not long since it was believed, that in the Ferns 
 there w^ere anthers in very various organs, which, however, 
 have a very different purpose. 
 
 The first thing that we have to do, in order to become ac- 
 quainted v/ith the nature of an organ, is to endeavour to find 
 out whether it really performs the functions, to which, by its 
 form,, it seems to be destined. 
 
 Even when the form varies, we must be determined by the 
 function to assign to the organ a definite nature. It is well 
 known how different is the form of nectaries, and how great 
 a variety takes place in the structure of filaments. If, how- 
 ever, the function be really the same, we must explain their 
 nature upon a common principle. Rut he who permits himself 
 
to be led, hy the mere similarity of fbni), to suppose Uial, 
 therefore, the organs are ahke, has fallen into a mistake 
 which may give occasion to important errors. 
 
 Experience teaches us, that when, from some peciiiiaritv ol" 
 structure, a function cannot be performed by tlie oi-o-an com- 
 monly destined for that purj)ose, another organ supplies its 
 place. As the proboscis of the Elephant performs the ])art of 
 a hand ; as the tail of the Kangaroo, although fashioned like 
 other tails, serves the animals as a bone ; so in the Acacia of 
 New Holland, the leaf-stalks supply the place of leaves 
 Thus, also, those leaves of water plants, which grow under 
 the water, are divided in the manner of rf)()ts, and seem to 
 perform a siniilar function 
 
 175. 
 
 There is yet another law to be understood, t(^ ena!)le us to 
 judge properly respecting the Nature of Organs. In innumer- 
 able instances, there appear forms similar tt) those which are 
 connected with a definite function, but which do not fulfil 
 that function ; and Nature seems, in these instances, as in 
 the animal kingdom, to produce forms which are completely 
 useless, merely for the sake of a harmonious and symmetrical 
 stnicture. The appearance of filaments with empty anthers 
 in flowers that are altogether female, and of female parts in 
 flowers wholly male ; the structure of filaments in other 
 forms, where tliey resemble nectaries ; the false nectarothi cas 
 in such Orciiidea^ as have no nectaries ; these all are forma- 
 tions which can only be explained by tlie law of nature we 
 are now illustrating. 
 
 The third mean of knowing the Nature of an Organ, con- 
 sists in the dissection of its structure ; for which purpose pow- 
 erful magnifying glasses are frequently necessary. If we 
 wish to ascertain the existence of the integument jx)ssessing 
 the nature of the calyx, we must observe the continuation of 
 the epidermis with its slits in tliat integument, (S\2.) A 
 glandular and fleshy stnicture determines respecting the na- 
 tiu'e of nectaries, as a multitude of short absorbent warlK 
 leads to the belief of {ho existence of the stigma. 
 
118 TAXONOMY. 
 
 By studying these relations, by carefully comparing the 
 structure with the function, we arrive at a sure knowledge of 
 the nature of organs. 
 
 176. 
 
 Mistakes in this respect are committed, when we overlook 
 three things, namely, the Abortion, Alteration, and Union of 
 Organs. Respecting all these three phenomena of nature 
 we must now give a more particular account. 
 
 A. Of Abortive Organs. 
 
 111. 
 
 The abortive state of an organ is often the consequence of 
 an imperfect evolution. The cause lies not unfrequently in 
 unfavourable weather, in an unfertile soil, and in other acci- 
 dents. We thus see that fruit is not completely formed, 
 when the soil is arid. But the circumstance of most import- 
 ance is, that abortion arises very often from a law of Na- 
 ture, in consequence of which one part is evolved at the ex- 
 pence of another ; and this latter part, therefore, remains im- 
 perfect. We every day see a remarkable example of this in 
 many species of Violets, where some blossoms, in which the 
 corolla is chiefly unfolded, fall off, without leaving any fruit, 
 whilst other flowers, which had not a corolla, set perfect fruit 
 The beautiful colouring of the bracteae of Buginvillaa, leaves 
 no distinct evolution to the corolla ; and in our Melampyrum 
 nemorosum and cristatum, the flowers do not expand on the 
 upper parts, where the beautii'ully coloured bracteae seem to 
 supply their place. It is a law of Nature, which remains 
 constant even in entire families, that half of the filaments 
 are abortive, or that the loculi of the fruit, originally des- 
 tined undoubtedly for the reception of seed, remain partly 
 empty. In the Acantheae and Sapotea% we find the pheno- 
 mena of abortive filaments as a law of these families. In the 
 Rhamneae, Palmae, Sapindeac, and many other families, the 
 abortion of the individual loculi of the fruit is constant ; 
 and who can have compared our Gaura biennis, in the 
 
NATURAL tT.ASMJTC A riOX. Jlfj 
 
 State of the unripe germen, and of" the ripe fruit, witliout re- 
 marking, that the former contains several ovula, whilst the 
 latter always incloses but one seed. In the Siliculosae, as in 
 Crambe, Cakile, and Myagrum, we always find empty abor- 
 tive loculi. Is it further necessary to multiply examples, 
 by calling to recollection the common Snow-ball, and Hydran- 
 gea liortensis^ where the abortive state of the sexual parts 
 affords opportunity to the evolution of the beautifully colour- 
 ed integuments of the flower ? 
 
 178. 
 
 A question naturally arises, in what \\ ay \\q may avoid the 
 mistakes to which such abortion may lead. For this purpose, 
 we propose the following means. 1. We must examine the or- 
 gans in all their proportions, even in those that are most differ- 
 ent. It cannot but happen,*that during sucii examination a re- 
 turn to the symmetrical or natural structure will be observed. 
 These symmetrical proportions are oiten the natural ones, 
 and art has merely produced the abortive state, by evolving 
 one organ at the expence of another. The Snowball of our 
 gardens bears perfect flowers when it grows wild. It is fre- 
 tjuently art itself, or a luxuriant growth, which produces 
 this return to the original structure. As, for example, the 
 appendages to the filaments of Sage are abortive filaments, 
 the plant, like other Labiatge, should properly have four fila- 
 ments. In fact, we observe, that, in many species of this ge- 
 nus, the oblique processes of the filaments carry anther-shaped 
 bodies; and in Salvia ghd'mosa, we find these, during moist 
 summers, passing into true anthers. When we compare with 
 these Stachytarpheta and Westringia, v/e see very distinctly 
 the two abortive filaments, which also, in the last named ge- 
 nus, bear empty anthers. 
 
 But in every case it is important to observe the organs at 
 their first appearance, whilst they are as yet unrestrained in 
 their structure. Thus, we must examine (and this is one of 
 the most important rules for the botanist) the loculi of the ova- 
 rium in its unripe state, in order to determine respecting the 
 true nature of the ripe fruit. When we examine a spine in 
 
120 TAXONOMY. 
 
 its first appearance, we perceive that it was intended to have 
 been a branch, which has only proved abortive, and which, 
 notwithstanding, even as a spine, bears leaves, and, in Euplior- 
 hia heptagona, sometimes flowers and fruit. 
 
 179. 
 
 2. To avoid mistakes, we also often follow analogy or in- 
 duction. When a form is C(>mmon to several families, we 
 cannot mistake its sign, even when it seems to fail. Thus, 
 as the Orchideae are related to the Scitamineac and Iridea?, we 
 find in the former the sign of the three male organs, in the 
 two lateral appendages of the column of fructification, or the 
 Staminodia of Richard. In like manner, the two fibres, 
 which Gratiola carries beside the fruitful filaments, will ap- 
 peal* to be abortive filaments, when we compare them with 
 the other Scrophulari?e, which sdltnetimes have four fruitful 
 filaments, and sometimes, in addition to these, even a fifth. 
 
 The same analogy which leads us from genus to genus, ex- 
 plains also one species by another. As in the Lcea we con- 
 sider the cleft scales, with which the filaments are inter- 
 mingled, to be abortive filaments, because in the nearly re- 
 lated genus Alelia ten filaments have perfect anthers ; we 
 also conclude that Polijgoiium amphihmm, which has only 
 five, and Polygonum persicaria^ which has only six filaments, 
 have lost the rest by abortion, because several species of tlie 
 same genus possess eight filaments. 
 
 180. 
 From abortion principally arise the many irregularities in the 
 structure of plants ; because we may suppose that the original 
 formation of natural bodies is regular. When we thus find 
 unhnportant irregularities in the organs of a plant, we may 
 suspect that there are plants in which these irregularities as- 
 sume a more marked aspect, — tiiat there are others where 
 these organs are completely a])ortive, — and othei's in which 
 complete regularity takes place. The usual form of the pa- 
 pilionaceous flower is very irregular in D'lmorpha ; th/:," vexil- 
 lum and carina in Amorpha are completely abortive ; and m 
 
NATLKAL CLASSIFICATION. 121 
 
 Tamarindus, Hz/menaa, ParMnsonia^ and even Cassia^ the 
 papilionaceous blossom assumes the appearance of pretty re- 
 gular four-leaved flowers. 
 
 181. 
 
 Another effect of abortion is, that an organ, which has com- 
 pletely altered its form, becomes incapable of performing its 
 function. It is then either altogether superfluous, and re- 
 mains only as an ornament (175.), or it performs the function 
 of another organ, whose form it has taken,— as the expand- 
 ed filaments of Canna and Tiialictrum petaloideum supply 
 the place of the petals of the corolla. 
 
 The usual effect of abortion, in which another part is en- 
 larged at the expence of the abortive part, has been partly 
 noticed already. We thus see the fruit swell and be».-ome 
 better flavoured, when the seed is abortive. Thus, in the 
 Acacia of New^ Holland, the compound form of the leaves is 
 only remarked during the earhest growth of the plant. Af- 
 terwards the leaves become abortive, and in their stead the 
 leaf- stalk is evolved to such a degree, that, along with the 
 form, it assumes also^ the function of leaves. 
 
 In fact, attention is every day more carefuUy directed to 
 the laws of abortion ; because by them we are able to explain 
 a great multitude of phenomena in the vegetable world, and 
 of otherwise incomprehensible varieties of form ; and because 
 excellent apphcations of these laws can be made to the phy- 
 siology of animal bodies. 
 
 B. Oil Chmige and Degeneration of Parts. 
 
 182. 
 It is an important law of the whole vegetable kingdom, 
 that from every individual part of a j)lant, every other may be 
 evolved. In animal bodies of a perfect structure, this is not 
 possible in the natural state, because the internal structure of 
 the individual organs is much mere conijjound and various. 
 It is only in the sickly state of the higher animals that niustie 
 
122 TAXONOMY. 
 
 is changed into cellular texture and fat ; or the common mem- 
 brane of the vessels into the substance of bone. But in plants 
 this change takes place the more readily, the nearer the organs 
 stand to one another in the process of formation ; so that the 
 roots may become stem and branches, — these again may be 
 changed into roots, — leaves may become leaf-stalks, and the 
 reverse, — the calyx may become corolla, and the filaments 
 mav change to petals ; and even in some cases the fruit may 
 again push out leaves, and from the receptacle new branches 
 may spring up. 
 
 183. 
 In tlie formation of one part from another. Nature pro- 
 ceeds in such a way, that she first renders the parts compact 
 and simple, when she intends to give them an extended and 
 compound form. The root-leaves are naturally more simple 
 than the follo^\^ng stem-leaves, and these again are the sim- 
 pler the nearer they stand to the flower. When hindrances 
 to this compacting of the part occur, the consequent exten- 
 sion must also undergo a change, and hence we see many al- 
 terations arise. 
 
 184. 
 
 These alterations, when we attend to the substance of the 
 part, may be arranged under the five following classes. 
 
 1. The parts become prickly, as happens in the branches 
 of Fruit-' rees, — the stipulae of the Acacia, — in innume- 
 rable leaves, — in the calyx even,— and, in one instance, 
 the Cerviera De Cand. a genus of the family of the Ru- 
 biaceae, in the petals of the corolla. 
 
 52. The parts become lengthened out into a flexible fibre, 
 which, when it is cui'\'ed, is usually called cirrhus. It 
 is well known, that the leaf-stalks of Vetches, and of the 
 species of Lathyrus, are thus extended into cirrhi ; as 
 also that the flower-stalk of the Vine and of the Passion- 
 flower uniformlv undergo this alteration. The transi- 
 tion of the stipulfE in Smilax, and of the nerves of the 
 leaves in FhtgeUaria and Nepenthes, into cirrhi, is less 
 
NATURAL CLASSIFICATION. 133 
 
 known. Even the petals of the Strophanthus De Cand. 
 and the filaments of Hirtella resemble twisted threads. 
 
 3. The usual fibrous or rounded form of particular parts, may 
 also become of a leafy nature, and thus conceal their ori- 
 ginal form. The branches of Phyllanthus, and even of 
 the Cactus species, are of a leafy structure ; and, in the 
 former, the flowers seem to be set on the margin of the 
 leaves, whilst it is only the expanded and leafy flower- 
 stalks which bear them. We have already remarked, 
 that the nerves of the leaves of some species of Poly- 
 trichum are fashioned into lamellae. In the same man- 
 ner, it is not unusual for the filaments to expand them- 
 selves, and, in the Irideae, even the pistils from this ex- 
 pansion assume the appearance of petals. 
 
 4. Parts that are naturally green and juicy, often become 
 dry and membranaceous {scariosus). This is most fre- 
 quently observed in the calyx-scales of compoimd flowers, 
 and in the calyx of the single florets, which we consider 
 as a pappus. 
 
 5. Lastly, It very often happens, that membranaceous or 
 leafy parts become fleshy, as we every day see in the re- 
 ceptacle of the Strawberry and Raspberry. Thus, also, 
 the one-seeded berries of the Anonese unite by the swell- 
 ing of the receptacle into a single juicy fruit ; and, in 
 like manner, the strobilus of the Juniper, by the swell- 
 ing of the scales and their union, takes the form of a 
 juicy berry. In the Hoveniu dulch-, even the flower- 
 stalk, after the time of blossoming, becomes juicy, well 
 flavoured, and of a beautiful red colour. 
 
 C. On the Ufiion of Organs. 
 
 185. 
 
 Every person knows that there are instances in which two 
 fruits, two branches, and even two trees, are united with one 
 another. But there is a law of nature which regularly pro- 
 duces this junction ; namely, when similar organs have a dis- 
 position not only to hang together, but whvu they cannot pro- 
 
124 TAXONOMY. 
 
 ceed in their growth without passing into each other. Thus 
 we see leaves grow together, winch, in the Lonicera?, constitute 
 under the flower an entire leaf, so that we say they have com 
 plctely united. Thus we every day see in the Umbellata^, two 
 fruits united, which only separate when they are fully ripe. In 
 the same manner, we find the parts of the involucra of many 
 Umbellatae growing together, especially in the species Bijpleio- 
 rum and Seseli^ so as to lead us to the conclusion, that the ca^ 
 lyces of compound flowers are nothing else but united involu- 
 cra, — as is proved by their transition into leaves in the calyx 
 of Biiphthctlmvm^ in the Acmella of Richard, in the Georgia^ 
 Wild, and in the Sigesheckia. The distinction between 7Va- 
 gcqyogon and Urospermum^ Scop, also leads us to the same 
 conclusion, because in the latter the parts of the calyx are 
 united into one body, whilst in Tragopogwi they are disjoined. 
 In these examples, therefore, it is evident that a union of the 
 leaflets of involucrum takes place, rather than that the calyx 
 deserves to be considered as a single and independent body. 
 
 186. 
 What has now been said of the calyx is applicable also to 
 the corolla. There is a regular union of the usually-sepa- 
 rated parts of the corolla, of which we have obvious examples 
 in some papilionaceous flowers, particularly in Trifolium^ 
 and even in the vexillum of the Lotus. In like manner, 
 many monopetalous flowers may be regarded as made up 
 of parts that originally stood free ; and it is evident in what 
 manner the forms of Cyphia and Pliyteuma pass into imi- 
 tations of the corolla in the other Campanulea?. 
 
 187. 
 A similar disposition to united growth belongs to fllaments, 
 whose analogy to petals strikes every person upon an atten- 
 tive consideration. When we consider, that among papiliona- 
 ceous flowers and leguminous plants, the numerous tribe of So- 
 phoreae have free standing filaments, whilst the tribe of Spar- 
 tcfe have them united into one bundle, both tribes will ap- 
 pear to be related to the Diadelphous plants, because we ob- 
 serve frequent transitions from the one tribe to the other. 
 
XATCHAL CLASSIFU'ATIOX. 125 
 
 Crotalar'ia and Abrus shew, in the empty cleft on the hack 
 of the cvHnder of the filament, this disposition to the separa- 
 tion of the one filament, which, in proper diadelphous plants, 
 we see standing single, whilst in Dipteryx^ Schrcb., the junc- 
 tion of the filaments is incomplete, and in Dalea and Petalos- 
 temon they are less united with each other than with the })arts 
 of the corolla. Are not these instances proof sufficient that the 
 union of the filaments presupposes an original disunion of them? 
 Do we not every day, in many of Caryophylleae, perceive the 
 filaments standing free, whilst in others (Dianthus, Sapona- 
 ritty Silene, and Agrostemma,) they are attached to a ring 
 surrounding the pistil, or are united with the petals ? The 
 tribe of Chenopodeae, to which belong Illecebrum, Herniaria^ 
 Gomphrena, and others, shew the same thing. The fila- 
 ments in Iresine, Paronychia, Tourncf., Anychia, Hern'ia- 
 7'ia, and Bosea, stand free. In Adiyranthes, Illecebrumy 
 Gomphrena, and others, they are united. 
 
 188. 
 What has been said of petals and filaments is also appli- 
 cable to pistils ; that is to say, we are often forced, when we 
 see a simple pistil, to consider it as made up of several : other- 
 wise it would be difficult to understand in what way many 
 plants have several pistils, whilst some nearly related to them 
 have but one. It may here become a question, whether Mespl- 
 lus monogyna be the only original species, or whether there be 
 not many other species, which have from two to three, four 
 and five pistils. When in most of the Grasses we regularly 
 perceive two pistils, it is extremely probable, that the few, as 
 Nardus, Cenchrus, Lygeum, and Spartina, which are mo- 
 nogynous, have their one pistil made up of two that are 
 united. This is still farther confirmed by observing, that the 
 number of the pistils corresponds with the number of lo- 
 culi in the germen. If there be but one pistil, the num- 
 ber of loculi in the germen corresponds with the number of 
 stigmata ; and it is probable that oi-iginally there were as 
 many pistils as stigmata. Lastly, in a cross section of a strong 
 pistil, as for instance in any of the Cactus species, we observe 
 
126 TAXONOMY. 
 
 that there is not merely one canal in its axis to the germen, 
 but that several such passages stand in a circle, and pro- 
 bably represent as many united pistilla. When we obsei'\'e 
 how the four caryopses of the Labiatae and Asperifoliae sur- 
 round the single pistil, we cannot but believe that the latter 
 part is made up of four individual pistils, especially when 
 we attend to the almost complete separation of the stigma, — 
 the distinct coherence of two individual pistils in the Perilla, — 
 the deep disunion of them in the Thymhj'a, in EcJiium and 
 EcMochilon Desfont., — and, above all, when we attend to the 
 four divisions of the stigma in Cleonia and Coldenia. 
 
 189. 
 
 Lastly^ we must apply this idea of an union of parts even 
 to the fruit. What we mean is, that caryopses, in indefinite 
 numbers, are more original than capsules with many loculi ; 
 that the latter must be considered rather as a collection of 
 united simple capsules, and that when, in a simple fruit, we 
 observe a certain irregularity, we may safely suspect that ori- 
 ginally there were several loculi, but that they have become 
 abortive and united. 
 
 We may prove this account by striking instances. Eyery 
 person knows that the fundamental genus of the Ranuncu- 
 lese, from which they take their name, contains caryopses in 
 indefinite numbers, which are also found in Myosurus, Ane- 
 mone, Thalictrum, and so forth, but which pass in Xan- 
 thorrhiza into the single-seeded utriculus, and in Aconitum 
 and Paoniu into capsules which open laterally. On account 
 of the relationship of Nigella to those plants in other respects, 
 we must consider its fruit also as single capsules, which open 
 laterally, and which are only a little united at their lower 
 parts. Now, when we observe a capsule with five loculi 
 in Vallea Mut., which is evidently a Ranunculus, nothing 
 is more natural than the conclusion, that in this case, as 
 well as in Nigella, there have been five simple capsules which 
 have here undergone a union. If we attend to the fun- 
 damental genus, from which the Diosmeae have their name, 
 we find it carrying five pointed caryopses, surrounded by an 
 
NATURAL CLASSIFICATION. 127 
 
 arillus, which bursts by an internal elasticity. The Meli- 
 cope Forst. has a similar fruit, only that, in this case, the 
 capsules have but one seed. In the Corraa Sm. we find 
 a capsule of many loculi, derived undoubtedly from four 
 single capsules which have been united ; (Tab. III. Fig. 
 9. 10.) We all know that the fundamental genus of the Mal- 
 vaceae contains numerous capsules placed in a circle. The 
 same arrangement takes place in Sida and Lavatera. Hi- 
 hiscu^, again, has a capsule of many loculi, which is only 
 distinguished from the former fruits by the circumstance, 
 that in the one case the seeds are separated by a simple, and 
 in the other by a double partition. In illustration of the last 
 stated principle, I produce the striking instance of the Linnaa. 
 Its relation to the Loriicera, Hallera, Schradera, and espe- 
 cially to the Triosteicm, and even to the Sambucus, is obvious ; 
 and it belongs, therefore, to the Caprifoliae. Now, these have, 
 for the most part, fruit with three loculi and three seeds. 
 Linnaa also carries a berry with three loculi, but when it is 
 fully ripe, we always find but one seed, and the other two 
 loculi are united with the one which bears this seed. The 
 Poly galeae have commonly a germen of two loculi, but the 
 ripe fruit contains only one seed. The case is the same in the 
 Phillt/rea and Rytidea Decand. Three or four seeds are 
 here united, so that the situation of the embryon is changed 
 and pressed to one side. 
 
 Lastly, The opinion of Brown does not seem to be without 
 foundation, that the caryopses of the syngenesious plants, 
 which we always see simple, have originally been double ; 
 because, in some species, we see very distinctly two lateral 
 funiculi umbilicales, which would not be there if the seed 
 were simple. The divided pistil points, as we have former- 
 ly hinted, to the same conclusion; (Neue Entdeck. I. s. 171. 
 172.) 
 
 190. 
 
 Respecting the Union of Organs we may establish the fol- 
 lowing laws. The importance of this union of the pai'ts of 
 fructification increases with the difficulties that are presented to 
 
128 TAXONOMY. 
 
 its accomplishment, because the more numerous the obstacles 
 which are to be surmounted, the more powerful must be the 
 cause which overcomes them. But these difficulties may be 
 founded cither in the consistence of the organs, or in their de- 
 gree of analogy. Fleshy })arts are easily united. Such a junc- 
 tion is accordingly of no great importance ; and when, there- 
 fore, a capsule has sometimes the consistence of a berry, as in 
 Hypericum^ Androscemum, and Bacdfcrum, we are not jus- 
 tified in considering this phenomenon to ])e of so much con- 
 sequence that a generic distinction can be founded on it. 
 
 The analogy of parts facilitate their junction. That si- 
 milar parts should be connected is of so little consequence, 
 that we perceive the filaments, in particular, to be connected 
 at their base innumerable times, without on that account ar- 
 ranging the plants in the Monadelphia Class. In the same 
 manner, filaments and petals, calyx and corolla, may very 
 well be united, without any great difficulties being surmount- 
 ed. But between the germen and the corolla, between the 
 corolla and the filaments, there is no particular analogy, and 
 hence we find these parts seldom united. But when they are, 
 this phenomenon is of considerable importance. In the same 
 manner we consider the junction of the calyx with the fruit, 
 and the union of the two sexual parts, as at least more im- 
 portant than the union of the nectaries with the filaments and 
 sexual parts. 
 
 191. 
 
 The union of different organs of fructification is the more 
 important, the more intimately it is connected with very 
 great changes in the general symmetry. This observa- 
 tion limits some of the ibregoing remarks. With respect to 
 the connection between the corolla and the calyx in particu- 
 lar, this may take place in two ways. If the petals alternate 
 with the parts of the calyx, then they are commonly uni- 
 ted only at their base, and the general symmetry is not there- 
 by destroyed. But if the petals stand directly before the 
 parts of the calyx, then the junction may be complete, of 
 which we see a remarkable example in Sesiivium. In this 
 
NATUKAL CLASSIFICATIOX. 129 
 
 case the general symmetry is completely changed, and this 
 phenomenon is of very great importance. 
 
 If the filaments do not cling to the corollar integument of 
 the calyx, then the calyx cannot be united with the germen. 
 But if the filaments are fixed in the corollar integument of the 
 caly.x, then the calyx may either stand free, as in the Melas- 
 tomeae, or may be united with the germen, as in the Pomacea*. 
 
 When similar parts are united at their base", they always 
 shew a disposition to be more expanded at their lower part ; 
 and we may safely presume that they are not united, when 
 we observe that they become narrower towards the base. 
 Hence the Myrsineae, although they have a very deeply di- 
 vided corolla, are not at all inclined to produce polypetaloius 
 flowers. 
 
 192. 
 
 Lastly, The difference of numerical proportions may often 
 be explained both from the abortion and from the imion of 
 parts. When we compare two related plants, one of which 
 has five, the other ten filaments, either the former has taken 
 its character from an abortion of filaments, or the latter from 
 the union of two flowers. Although the Grasses have com- 
 monly three anthers, we sometimes see Grasses of the Hex- 
 andria Class, as if they had sprung from the union of two 
 belonging to the Class Triandria ; an idea whicli is strikingly 
 confirmed by the structure of the Ehrharta. In like man- 
 ner we often remark, that plants which have usually six fila- 
 ments, exhibit twelve of them, as happens in Lytlirum, On 
 tlie other hand, Hexandria Plants may lose a part of their 
 filaments, and appear as if they belonged to Tetrandria, of 
 which the genus Convallaria is a striking instance. Those 
 of the Class Tetradynamia, are perhaps originally of the 
 Class Decandria, and the four petals are to be regarded as 
 altered filaments, as in Thlaspi Bursa we sometimes observe 
 this return to the original structure. 
 
1.'30 TAXONOMY. 
 
 HI. (}n the diffiriut Points of' View under which an Organ y 
 or a System of Orgaji.f, may be considered. 
 
 193. 
 
 In order to seize these points of view, we must examine 
 as well the internal symmetry of an organ, as its relations to 
 other organs, or to the whole plant. Our attention, there- 
 fore, must be directed to the presence or absence of the or- 
 gan, — to its situation and relative position, — to its numerical 
 proportion, — to its size, — its external form, — its duration, — its 
 uses, — and to its sensible properties. 
 
 194. 
 
 In this examination, the most important matter is, that we 
 should be convinced of the presence or absence of an organ. 
 We must endeavour to avoid the errors which may arise 
 from abortion or union of parts. Especially we must put 
 more value on the positive characters, which express the pre- 
 sence of an organ, than on the negative, which indicate its 
 absence. 
 
 195. 
 
 The situation and relative po.sition of parts is their most im- 
 portant point of view. This situation may either be consider- 
 ed simply with reference to the place of insertion ; or with re- 
 ference to the dissimilar organs which are attached to the 
 same place ; or, lastly, with reference to tfie similar organs 
 which arise in different places. 
 
 With respect to the first oi^ these ; the essential situation of 
 every organ is always so defined, that we understand its true 
 support ; that is to say, we understand what is the part by 
 which it is nourished, or from which it springs. To give an 
 instance, — the situation of the embryon must not be considered 
 in relation to the fruit, but to the umbilicus, or to the point 
 where the funiculus uml)ilicalis is inserted. In this sense 
 we observe that almost all embryons direct their radicle to- 
 wards the funiculus imibilicalis. AVhen we say, therefore, 
 
 3 
 
NATURAL CLASSIFICATION. 131 
 
 that the radicle is directed upwards or downwards, it is the 
 same thing as if we said, that the seed stands upright, or hangs, 
 in relation to the fruit, downwards; (121.) Properly, there- 
 fore, this character has a reference, not to the situation of 
 the embryon, but to the situation of the seed, and its value is 
 not of the first but of the second rank. 
 
 The situation of the parts of the flower must always be re- 
 ferred to the receptacle, because they arise from it. But it 
 is often very difficult to determine the true position of these 
 parts on the receptacle ; and we sometimes only conjecture it 
 Irom the mutual junctions which take place, because we na- 
 turally take for granted, that organs stand nearer to one an- 
 other at their origin, the greater disposition they shew to 
 unite together. 
 
 196. 
 
 Still more important than their absolute situation is the po- 
 sition of different organs with respect to one another. We 
 must not only know that the filaments stand on the recepta- 
 cle, but also, whether they alternate with the petals, or are 
 set opposite to them, and stand before them. Especially, it 
 is of much consequence to consider the position of the parts 
 of the corolla and calyx with respect to each other, because in 
 this matter Nature pireserves a very particular regularity. 
 The most usual case, is that in which the filaments stand be- 
 fore the parts of the calyx, and alternate with the petals 
 and with the locuh of the fruit. There is no known in- 
 stance, however, in which the loculi of the fruit, the fila- 
 ments, and the parts of the corolla and calyx, all stand di- 
 rectly before or behind one another. The instances are rare 
 in which the parts of the corolla and calyx stand before one 
 another, and the filaments alternate with them ; or in which 
 the filaments, and the parts of the corolla, stand before one 
 another, and alternate with the parts of the calyx. The po- 
 sition of the stem-leaves also depends on the same principles. 
 The alternate position of the leaves is peculiar originally to 
 the imperfect and albuminous plants, — the opposite and 
 
 I 2 
 
13'2 TAXONOMY. 
 
 \vhorl-sha|X}d position belongs to the higher, or to the albu- 
 minous plants. But there are many exceptions to this. 
 
 197. 
 
 It is very difficult to establish any fixed principles respect- 
 ing the value of numerical proportion. On the one hand, 
 Nature shews a regularity which cannot be mistaken in the 
 numerical proportions of many parts, as, for instance, in the 
 impregnating organs of the Orchidese and Liliaceae. On the 
 other hand, she seems sometimes to sport in such a manner 
 with numbers, that in many genera we scarcely find the same 
 number of filaments and pistils in ail the species. Astonish- 
 ing changes often take place, in this res}:>ect, from abortion 
 and union of parts. We shall endeavour to state some 
 rules on this subject. 
 
 198(7. 
 
 Numerical proportion appears to be more steadfast, and 
 consequently more important, the more scanty the number 
 is. It is on this account that the numerical proportion 
 of the anthers remains so steadfast in the Scitaminea?, Or- 
 chideae, and Grasses, and also in the Labiatae, because they 
 have only one, three, or four. Dodecandria Plants observe 
 much seldomer tlie same numerical proportion than those of 
 the Class Hexandria. But there are exceptions also to this 
 rule, of which Valerinna and Bocrhavia are well known in- 
 stances. 
 
 In the organs of impregnation, unity seems chiefly to be- 
 long, as a character, to the pistil. In most of the other parts 
 of fructification, unity appears only as a consequence of abor- 
 tion or union. This has been already remarked in the 
 Orchidese; it is equally evident respecting the Scitamineae, 
 because on both sides of the principal filaments, these com- 
 monly have two filiform processes, which, on account of the 
 resemblance of the plant in other respects to the Irideae, 
 lead us to suspect that they are properly two abortive fila- 
 ments. 
 
NATURAL Cl.ASSlI'ICATIOX. 133 
 
 1986. 
 To know the true and absolute number of the organs of a 
 plant, we must trace them, with the help of the theory of 
 abortion and union, to the original type of the tribe or 
 family to which the plant belongs. When, for instance, I 
 remark that the Primulea? have almost all five parts in 
 their corolla and calyx, and live filaments, I cannot be led 
 into any mistake, although in the Trientalis and Tovaria I 
 commonly observe seven filaments. The original type is 
 five, to which our Trientalis sometimes returns. Also, the 
 four dissimilar filaments of Linde^mia, Lb?iosella, and Ccn- 
 tunculus, cannot occasion any mistake, since these plants ap- 
 pear as Primuleae in all other respects. The fifth filament is 
 here abortive, as it is also in the Personatae, Acanthea^ and 
 Bignonias. Among the Campanuleae, whose original number 
 is five, we yet find Canarina with six, and Micliauxia with 
 eight parts. 
 
 199. 
 
 We perceive from this, that it is a matter of more conse-. 
 quence to know the relative number, than the absolute num- 
 ber of parts. It is of more importance, in particular tribes, to 
 know, that the number of the filaments is twice or three times 
 the number of the parts of the corolla and the calyx, than to 
 be able to state the precise number. Tliis numerical propor- 
 tion, which the different parts maintain with respect to one 
 another, has often also an influence on the divisions of the 
 fruit, and even on the number of the seed. Thus in Alyssum 
 we observe a simple division of the silicula, four seeds, the 
 same number of parts in the calyx and corolla, and one 
 and a half times as many filaments. But in many genera 
 and families the number is altogether indefinite, especially in 
 the Ranunculea^ and Magnohae. 
 
 200. 
 
 In ill! regular flowers the relative number of the parts of 
 every system must be the first object of our examination ; but 
 in irregular flowers we must begin by examining the absolute 
 
134 TAXONOMV. 
 
 numbers of every system, and, by deriving from them, the re- 
 lative number. Because, as irregular flowers arise from the 
 union or abortion of regular petals, the whole number is 
 evidently lessened, and can no longer stand in a fixed relation 
 to the parts of the calyx, or to the filaments. Therefore 
 the absohite number is here tlie first object of examination. 
 
 201. 
 
 The number of petals has a fixed proportion to the num- 
 ber ol' the parts of the calyx, when each of tliese systems has 
 but one row of parts. The relative numbers are less remark- 
 able and less applicable in these two organs, when they stand 
 in several rows. But in some cases this relation may be ex- 
 pressed by multiplication. In Nymphaa alba we reckon four 
 divisions of the calyx, four times four pistils, four times five 
 petals in two rows, and four times twelve anthers iti four 
 rows. 
 
 But as the petals themselves, as in Delphinium, NympluEay 
 Calycantlms, and several other genera, are evidently altered 
 filaments, the numbers of each row of the filaments maintain 
 a fixed proportion to the parts of the corolla and calyx. 
 
 202. 
 
 It is diflicult to state the numerical proportion of the locii- 
 li of the fruit. If the ovaria are placed in the shape of a whorl 
 around an imaginary axis, they often maintain a definite pro- 
 portion to the parts of the calyx and corolla, as in the Ge- 
 raniums, Diosmea;, and Junceae. But when the ovaria are 
 arranged in heads or ears, their number is for the most part 
 quite indefinite, and maintains at least no proportion to the 
 parts of the corolla and calyx. We see this very distinctly in 
 the Ranunculeae. 
 
 Now, as we have already remarked that capsules of many 
 loculi are to be considered as individual capsules that have 
 been joined together, what has been already said respect- 
 ing the whorl-shaped position of individual ovaria, is appli- 
 cable to capsules of several loculi, when the pistil stands 
 in their centre. But if the pistil be on one side, this is pro- 
 
I 
 NATURAL CLAJSfsll ICATIOX. 13.5 
 
 bably a consequence of abortion or union, as we have al- 
 ready remarked of the Labiatae, and as in tlie Glt'dilschia 
 triacantha and Spartium scoparium wc often actually observe 
 two pistils more or less united. 
 
 The absolute size of organs is a very insignificant cir- 
 cumstance in the theory of classification. A more innx)rtanl 
 consideration is the proportional size of similar or dissi- 
 milar parts. Wc may assume the following rule as a funda- 
 mental law of vegetation. The parts of one and the same 
 system are by nature equal in size, and only become unecjual 
 from changes, which are more or less intimately connected 
 with the general nature of plants. We have already noticed, 
 that the Labiatae and Cruciform plants shew an abortion and 
 alteration of parts ; hence proceeds the want of uniformity in 
 the length of the filaments. 
 
 But, in general, the regularity or irregularity, and also the 
 similarityor dissimilarity, of the size of parts, depend very much 
 upon their position on the stem. If a flower stands alone at the 
 tip of a branch, where no other flower hinders its evolution, 
 it will necessai'ily be regular, even when it belongs to a fami- 
 ly with irregular flowers. Parnassia and Saiivagesia have 
 regular flowers, although they belong to the Resedeas with ir- 
 regular flowers. Asarum stands among the Aristolochiae, be- 
 cause it has always a stalk with but one flower. But let us 
 make the supposition, that around and near this blossom 
 others arise, it will then become a whorl, a head, an ear, or 
 an umbel. The uniformity is now overturned. The cen- 
 tral blossom continues regular, but those on the margin musl^ 
 be irregular, as we every day see in the Umbellatae, the Ag- 
 gregatae, and in the compound flowers. Hence the most irre- 
 gular flowers never stand single, and never on the tip of the 
 branch, if we except some of the Orchideae. When in the 
 Labiatae flowers appear on the tip of a branch, even they 
 sometimes are regular, as is the case in Tcucrium campanula- 
 turn and some species of Galeops'is. 
 
136 TAXOXO.AIY. 
 
 204. 
 
 From these considerations it follows, that in the theory of 
 classification all these irregular forms nuist be traced back 
 to their regular primitive form, even although this should be 
 of but rare occurrence. If we compare the Solaneaj with the 
 Personatae, the latter appear, from the irregularity of their 
 flowers, and the imequal number of their filaments, to be 
 completely distinguished from the former. But if we exa- 
 mine the fruit, the placentation, the situation of the embryon, 
 and the other relations of the flower, we find the greatest 
 agreement, and the transitions from Nkotiana to Hyoscya- 
 mus^ to Verbascinn, and to Cehia, strike every person ; for 
 in Verbascum the lobes of the corolla are often irregular, and 
 the filaments of unequal length. If we change but one fila- 
 ment in Verbascum^ it becomes Cels'm. 
 
 In general, we must observe, that an irregularity of parts 
 seldom appears in one organ, without being also apparent in 
 ethers. But the fruit is frequently an exception to this. 
 
 205. 
 
 The unequal length of the filaments is nevertheless some- 
 times connected with perfect regularity in the other parts, of 
 which we see daily instances in Phlox and Oxalis. Another 
 law prevails here, namely, that the parts of a svsteni are un- 
 folded successively, and not at once. Hence in Phlox in par- 
 ticular, there are some only of the filaments which have the 
 necessary length for enabling the anthers to impregnate the 
 stigma. In Oxal'm, there is more regularity, because exact- 
 ly one half of the filam.ents is longer than the other half. 
 
 206. 
 
 With respect to the connection of parts, the rule is, that 
 all organs which are united with their supports are persistent, 
 and all those which loosen themselves at their base are deci- 
 duous. In like manner, related parts, which have a suture, 
 open themselves ; whilst those which have no suture remain 
 shut. With respect to the internal structure of parts, we 
 find that the interruption of continuous structure arise? for 
 
NATUKAL CLASSIFJCATIOX. l.'j/ 
 
 the most part merely from chasms in the cellular texture. 
 Hence it appears, that such interruption is not of any great 
 moment. But in so far as the cellular texture is a part of 
 the whole body, and a great regularity is observed in this 
 interrupted or uninterrupted connection, such structure bo- 
 longs to the most important characters. It is as important a 
 character, that nuts and stony fruits do not burst in valves, 
 as that the calyx of the Papaverece is deciduous. 
 
 207. 
 
 The uses of organs and their sensible marks, as their co- 
 lours, smell, and taste, can only be so far important in Taxo- 
 nomy, as we can thence draAV conclusions respecting the in- 
 ternal structure of parts. 
 
 IV. On the DetenninatioiL of' Value of Chara.ciers. 
 
 208. 
 The determination of the value of characters, is in general 
 very simple. In this matter," we may take it as a rule, that the 
 value of a character stands in a compound pro}X)rtion to the 
 importance of the organ, and to the jx)int of view in which 
 we consider it. If the question relates to a single organ, the 
 characters stand in simple proportion to its variations. If the 
 question relates to a single variation, the characters are in the 
 same proportion as the importance of the organs. If we em- 
 ploy both these elements^ their union may afford similar or dis- 
 similar results. Characters are similar in three cases. 1. When 
 the same variation takes place with respect to two organs of 
 the same rank in one or two functions. 2. When two variations 
 of the same rank take place with respect to one or two or- 
 gans also of the same rank. 3. When the degree of inqx)r- 
 tance of an organ is correctly balanced by the value of the 
 variation. If, for instance, I compare the embryon, consider- 
 ed under its least important point of view, namely, its sensible 
 marks, with the nectary, under its most important point of 
 view, \\hich is its existence, then I obtain two anak^gous re- 
 
Iii8 TAXONOMY. 
 
 «ults according to the theory, which may be employed also in 
 practice ; because a character which, considered by itself, has 
 a small value, may assume a very important value, if we con- 
 sider it witli respect to the whole organization of a tribe or 
 family. This character then becomes the sign of a permanent 
 internal variation of structure, which must be of great conse- 
 quence. The form of 'the leaves is in itself of small value in 
 classification ; but in the (irasses, for instance, it has a very 
 important significancy, because it is inseparably connected 
 with tlie internal organization. If we knew the internal 
 structure of all plants, these relations in many families, for 
 instance in the Rubiacea^, the Leguminosae, and the Ferns, 
 would be completely cleared up. 
 
 209. 
 If, in a tribe, we observe certain plants which are nearly 
 related to each other by their general aspect as well as by 
 their other characters, but which are distinguished from one 
 another by one mark, this mark cannot be of any great con- 
 sequence. In the Saxifrageae, the superior or inferior posi- 
 tion of the fruit, when the other characters correspond, is of 
 just as little consequence as the upright position of the em- 
 bryon in the Berberideae, where it is often also inverted. The 
 Aggregatae, again, are distinguished from Compound flowers 
 by this permanent character, among others, that in the for- 
 mer the embryon is inverted, in the latter it is upright. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF FAMILIES. 
 
 210. 
 
 I. Plants of a cellular Structure. Scarcely proper Seeds. 
 Propagated by Spora^. 
 
 Fam. 1. Fungi. (Introd. II. Fig. 82.) 
 
 a. Conyomici, Nees von Escnbcck. 
 
 b. NematomycL 
 
NATUllAI. ARRANGEMENT OF FAMILIES. Itid 
 
 c. Goniomyci. 
 
 d. Gastromyci. 
 
 e. Spongiae. 
 
 ^ Myeolomyci. 
 2. LiCHENEs; (Anleit. II. V id. 51— 64.) 
 8. Algjs; (Do. 33—51.) 
 
 4. HOMALLOPHYLL^ ; (Do. 64 — 66.) 
 
 5. Musci iiEPATici ; True seeds. Double sex- 
 
 ual parts. 
 
 6. Musci frondosi ; (Do. 73 — 89) 
 
 II. Plants with Spiral Vessels and Slits. True Seeds. 
 The Sexual Parts not Double. 
 
 Fam. 7. Filices; (Anleit. II. Vid. 89—104.) 
 
 8. Pteroid.e; (Do. 104—107.) 
 
 9. Lycopode.e ; Uncommon sexual parts. 
 
 (Do. 107—110.) 
 
 10. Rhizosperm.e; (Do. 110—114.) 
 
 11. Naiad.e; (Do. 114—122.) 
 
 III. Plants with the Sexual Parts obvious, and of the 
 usual Form. The Spiral Vessels dispersed through the 
 Stem. The Embryon unevolved in the Albuminous Sub- 
 stance. The number three prevailing. 
 
 Fam. 12. Aroide.e ; (Anleit. II. Vid. 122—128.) 
 
 13. Cyperoid.e; (Do. 129—137.) 
 
 14. Grasses; (Do. 137—184.) 
 
 15. Restiace.e and Juxce.e ; (Do. 184 — 195.) 
 
 16. Palm.e; (Do. 195—209.) 
 
 17. SarmentacevE, (Dioscoreac, Smilacina?, Br.) 
 
 (Do, 219—231.) 
 
 18. Coronari.e; (Liliaceoe, Amaryllidca?.) 
 
 (Do. 231—256) 
 
 19. Iride.e; (Do. 256—261.) 
 
 20. Hyihiocharid/E ; (Do. 263.) 
 
 21. Alisme.e; De Cand. (Do. 266) 
 
 22. Scitamine.e; (Do. 270—277.) 
 
 23. Orchiue.e; (Do. 280-298.) 
 
 24. Muse,e; (Do. 278—279.) 
 
140 
 
 TAXOXOMV. 
 
 IV. Plants with Sexual Parts obvious, and of the usual 
 Form. Spiral Vessels in Concentric Rings. The Embryon 
 more or less evolved. Numerical proportion variable. 
 
 A. Simple Floral Cover. 
 
 B. 
 
 m. 25. Stylide.e ; (An! 
 
 eit. II. 
 
 Vid. 298—300.) 
 
 26. Aristolociii.e ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 300—302.) 
 
 27- Polygone.e; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 303—307.) 
 
 28. Chenopode/e ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 307—320.) 
 
 29. Santalee; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 320—323.) 
 
 SO. Thymelce.e ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 323 329.) 
 
 31. PlPERE^; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 123.) 
 
 32. Strobilifer.e ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 209—219.) 
 
 33. Amektace.e; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 344—353.) 
 
 34. Urtice.e; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 353—362.) 
 
 35. Tricocc-e; 
 
 (Do, 
 
 363—375.) 
 
 36. Proteace.e; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 329—339.) 
 
 37. Laurin.e; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 339 342.) 
 
 38. Myristice.e; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 342—344.) 
 
 39. Plantagine.e ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 376—377.) 
 
 40. Nyctagin.e ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 377—382.) 
 
 Double Floral Cover. 
 
 Slumber five prevailing. 
 
 a. The Petals united. 
 
 
 
 41. Primule.e; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 383—390.) 
 
 42. Personate; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 390—406.) 
 
 43. Acanthe.^ ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 407—411.) 
 
 44. BiGNONi^; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 412-418.) 
 
 45. Vitice.e; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 418—426.) 
 
 46. Labiat.e; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 427—443.) 
 
 47. Asi'ERIFOLLe; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 444—452.) 
 
 48. SoLANE.E ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 452—460.) 
 
 49. CoNVOLVULEyE ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 460—468.) 
 
 60. Jasmine.e; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 468-471.) 
 
 51. Gentiane.e ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 471—479.) 
 
 52. Contort.e; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 479—496.) 
 
 53. Sapotk.e; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 497_502.) 
 
 54. Styrace.e ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 505—507.) 
 
 55. Kuice.e; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 513—517.) 
 
NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF FAMILIES. ]41 
 
 56. 
 
 57. 
 58. 
 59. 
 60. 
 
 73. 
 74. 
 75. 
 76. 
 
 77. 
 78. 
 79. 
 80. 
 81. 
 82. 
 83. 
 84. 
 85. 
 86. 
 
 89. 
 90. 
 91. 
 92. 
 
 CampanulE/E ; (Anleit. ii. vitl. 522 — 525.) 
 
 507-_583.) 
 583—588.) 
 589—590.) 
 591—595.) 
 595.) 
 617—623.) 
 
 509—513.) 
 617—522.) 
 525—527.) 
 596—617.) 
 623—645.) 
 646—650.) 
 650—658.) 
 658—666.) 
 666-669.) 
 670—672.) 
 672—675.) 
 675—678.) 
 678—680.) 
 680—682.) 
 682—690.) 
 690—693.) 
 693—695.) 
 695—700.) 
 700—707.) 
 707—711.) 
 711—724.) 
 725—730.) 
 730—736.) 
 736—740.) 
 740-773.) 
 774—777.) 
 779—789.) 
 789—793.) 
 793—797.) 
 797— 806.) 
 
 COMPOSIT.E ; (Do. 
 
 Aggbegat.€ ; (Do. 
 
 VALERIANE.f: ; (Do. 
 
 CucurbitacEve; (Do. 
 
 61. Passiflore.e ; (Do. 
 
 62. Cafrifoli.e; (Do. 
 b. The petals more or less free. 
 
 63. Rhododendre.e ; (Do. 
 
 64. Epacrid.e ; (Do. 
 
 65. Lobelle ; (Do. 
 
 66. RUBIACE.E ; (Do. 
 
 67. Umbelliferous plants; (Do. 
 
 68. Saxifrages ; (Do. 
 
 69. Terebinthace.e ; (Do. 
 
 70. RHAMNE.E ; (Do. 
 
 71. DiosME^ ; (Do. 
 
 72. Berberidee; (Do. 
 RuTACE.^ ; (Do. 
 Menisperme.e ; (Do. 
 Anones ; (Do. 
 Magnolle ; (Do. 
 Meli.e ; (Do. 
 Malpighle ; (Do. 
 AHORN.E ; (Do. 
 Sapinde^e ; (Do. 
 Onagri ; (Do. 
 Salicarle ; (Do. 
 Cruciform plants ; (Do. 
 Papavere^ ; (Do. 
 Ranuncule.e ; (Do. 
 Poly GALE /E ; (Do. 
 
 87. Leguminous plants; (Do. 
 
 88. Capparid.e ; (Do. 
 Guttifer.e ; (Do. 
 Agrum.e ; (Do. 
 Geranie.e ; (Do. 
 Malvacf.e; (Do. 
 
142 
 
 
 TAXONOMY. 
 
 
 93. 
 
 Buthkere.e; (Anleit. II. ^ 
 
 nd. 806— 811.) 
 
 94. 
 
 OcilNBiE ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 811—813.) 
 
 95. 
 
 DlLLENIB^ ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 813—815.) 
 
 96. 
 
 TlLIACE.C ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 815— 8Jei.) 
 
 97. 
 
 Hermannie^; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 821—824.) 
 
 98. 
 
 Chlanace^e ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 824—825.) 
 
 99. 
 
 CisTE^ ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 825—826.) 
 
 100. 
 
 Resede^, De Cand. 
 
 ;(Do. 
 
 777—778.) 
 
 101. 
 
 lONlDIiE ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 827—829.) 
 
 102. 
 
 Caryophylle.* ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 829-839.) 
 
 103. 
 
 Portulace.e ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 839—842.) 
 
 104. 
 
 A1Z01D.E ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 842—845.) 
 
 105. 
 
 Ceee.e ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 845—847.) 
 
 106. 
 
 LoASE.f: ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 847—848.) 
 
 107. 
 
 Myrte.e ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 849—854.) 
 
 108. 
 
 Sede.e ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 854—856.) 
 
 109. 
 
 Melastom.« ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 856—859.) 
 
 110. 
 
 Rosace.* ; 
 
 (Do. 
 
 859—872.) 
 
( 143 ) 
 
 PART III. 
 PHYTOGRAPHY, 
 
 OR 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 ON THE NAMES OF PLANTS. 
 
 211. 
 
 T. 
 
 HE original names of plants are those by which they have 
 been designated in every country by common use. The most 
 ancient writers on botany have availed themselves of these 
 names only ; and as the common use of language is subject 
 to no rules, the same names were formerly given to the most 
 diiferent plants, when they had only a remote or accidental 
 resemblance, and quite different names were given to near- 
 ly related plants, to those even which belong to tlie same 
 genus. As more plants were discovered, greater perplexity 
 must have been felt respecting their names. A remedy for 
 this perplexity was endeavoured to be obtained, by furnish- 
 ing the names of known plants with such additions, as 
 might fit them for denoting new plants which bore a re- 
 semblance to them. Hence the names Canpphyllu^^ Ly- 
 simaehia, Consolida regalis^ NasUirtlumy Auricula jnuris^ 
 and so forth, were not only assigned to an innumerable mul- 
 titude of different plants, but were accompanied with verbose 
 definitions of a more particular character, wliich on tlie one 
 hand rendered it impossible to ii\ them in tlie menoiN . and 
 
144. ]>iiy'io(;«APHY. 
 
 on the other enlarged beyond all hounds the size of botanical 
 writings, and, as caprice ratlicr than law ruled in this matter, 
 multiplied the synonymes of every plant to an endless 
 length. In the middle of the seventeenth century, indeed, 
 Joachim Young, an ingenious philosopher in Hamburgh, 
 first attempted to introduce order into this chaos, by giving 
 laws, founded on correct views, to the nomenclature ; but his 
 writings became known for the first time almost a century after 
 his death, {Joach. Yungii Opuscnla hotanko-physka^ Cobtirgi, 
 1747, 4to.) ; and the herculean lalK)urs of Caspar Bauhin, re- 
 specting the older synonymes (^P'lnax Theatri hotanki, Basil, 
 1G71, 4to.), corrected and improved by Morison, (Praludia 
 hotanka ; Halluc'matwnes C Bauhinii in Pinace, Lond. 
 1669, 12mo.), continued till the eighteenth century to be the 
 onlv (juidin^r clew in the labvrinth of botanical nomenclature* 
 
 212. 
 
 Linnaeus earned for himself immortal honour, by inventing 
 what he called Trivial Names, in addition to the Generic 
 Names which several earlier writers (Ray, Plumier, Tour- 
 nefort), had established according to correct principles. In 
 this way every Species of plant was now designated by only 
 two invariable names, which could be easily retained, and 
 by means of which the acquisition of the science must have 
 been much facilitated. 
 
 To this nomenclature of Linna?us, it has indeed been ob- 
 jected, not without reason, that it serves only for enabling 
 us to retain the name of a plant, without denoting its essen- 
 tial properties. Hence Haller, and others, proposed various 
 plans for expressing the characters of plants in their names. 
 But these attempts failed, and, at any rate, could lay no 
 claim to general approbation, because their object was less to 
 facilitate the study, than to express a preconceived meaning. 
 The Linna?an Nomenclature must ever endure, because, with 
 about a thousand trivial names, and from two to three thou- 
 sand and a half of generic names, we are able correctly to 
 designate more than fifty thousand different species of plants* 
 
DF.SCRIPTIVE IU)TAXV. 145 
 
 But we must now point out the laws, according to wliich 
 both the ffeneric and trivial names have been invented. 
 
 I. Of the Generic Xainc. 
 
 213. 
 
 The Generic name should be a substantive, and the Trivial 
 name an adjective. Hence adjectives, as generic names, are 
 objectionable. We allow many at present, because custom 
 has consecrated them, (Scabiom, Gloriosa, Impatums^ Fon- 
 tmalis)y but to form new names on this principle is not ])er- 
 mitted. 
 
 214. 
 Generic names, which have been employed by the most 
 ancient classical writers, are always to be preserved, provided 
 they do not stand in direct opposition to the other rules oi" 
 nomenclature, {Betida, Samolu.s, Hurmdus. and so forth.) 
 
 215. 
 
 The best generic names are those which express the cha- 
 racter of the genus in a single well-formed word. They are 
 compounded of Greek or Latin words, (Epilobhcn?, Cerato- 
 carpus^ LitJiospermu7n, Tragopogon). This rule is not 
 exactly attended to, when we attempt to express, in the ge- 
 neric name, such peculiarities as are not immediately con- 
 nected with the essential generic character. These have of- 
 ten an allusion to the general aspect of plants, to their situa- 
 tion, colours, and odier properties. {Lychnis^ Strat/o/r.s, 
 LmcJiitis, Adoxa, M'wndus^ Hijdrocharis, Fotamogcton). 
 
 216. 
 Generic names should contain positive information. Hence 
 all those are exceptionable which are foimded upon a resem- 
 blance to other genera, and which express this resemblance 
 by diminutives, or by syllables, either prefixed or added. 
 
 K 
 
146 
 
 »IIYTOGllAriIV. 
 
 {IonkVui77i ^ Ampekypsisy Ricmoides^ AcetoseUa, Lypinaste?', 
 Orchidocarpus, Pseudorch'i.s). 
 
 On tliesc grounds gcnLTic names are to be rejected which 
 have been formed by transposition from others. GalpJihnia 
 instead of Midpighiu, Tcpesia for Pcfesla, and Maker nia for 
 Hcnnniniia^ have ahvady been admitted; but Mcoscluuin^ 
 formed from Iscliamum^ instead of hchaminn, is not to be 
 endured. 
 
 ' Names which have the same sound with others already in 
 use, are to be avoided. (Picria Lmir. and Picris, Castelia 
 Cav. and Casftia^ Turp. ; Dijsodia^ WUld. and Dysodiumy 
 Rich.) 
 
 917. 
 
 Generic names must be of Greek or Latin origin, because 
 these are the learned languages of which botanists avail 
 themselves. The orioinal national names are therefore ex- 
 ceptionable, which may be called barbarous, in so far as they 
 have no Latin termination. If diis rule is not observed, we 
 may commit as ridiculous mistakes as those into which Adan- 
 son fell, who adopted German, Dutch, and other names of 
 plants, as generic. (Gansblum, Kolman^ Chanterel, Amberboi, 
 Kreidek, Rulac^ Hondr-bessen.) However, several French 
 botanists follow him in this respect, by assimiing American, 
 African, and other barbarous names, as generic. (Harongana, 
 Lam. Icacoria, Jubl. PaypayrcHa^ Aubl) 
 
 However, in this respect, we must not be too strict, but must 
 endure such original names as have either been consecrated 
 by custom, or which have a Latin or Greek sound. (Cqffea, 
 Thea, Mum, Cadia, Scorzonera.) Linnaeus called these 
 names quasi modo gen'ita. 
 
 The formation of generic names must be guided by the 
 laws of the Latin and Greek lanfjuao^es, and therefore all 
 those are exceptionable whose composition is ungrammatical. 
 (Genosiris, Calyxhymenia, Aixtojcicon.) 
 
 Hence hybrid names, compounded from Greek and La- 
 tin, are exceptionable. {Caturus^ Laurryphyllus, Alternan- 
 thera.) 
 
DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 147 
 
 218. 
 Generic names should consist only of one word, otherwise 
 the additional trivial name would make up three names. Yet 
 we have adopted many names formed on a different principle, 
 because they have been in immemorial use ; {Rosvutrinus^ 
 Cornucopia, Sempervivicm.) 
 
 219. 
 
 Generic names should designate definite genera of plants. 
 They ought not, therefore, to be family names. (G7'amen, 
 Filix, Lichen.) These names, too, ought not to be taken 
 from other sciences and arts, especially not from other parts 
 of natural history, (Naias, Elephas, Natrix, Buprestis) : but 
 even here long use has its privilege ; {HcUotropium, Hyacm- 
 thus, Pastinaca, Tascus). 
 
 220. 
 
 As we are often at a loss for generic names, it is allowable 
 to borrow an allegorical name from mythology. This prac- 
 tice is allowable, but not to be imitated ; {Adonis, Narcissus, 
 Danais, Urania, Hecatea). To denote his perplexity, Lin- 
 naeus called a plant Quisqualis. 
 
 221. 
 
 From the earliest times it has been a custom to honour the 
 merits of great promoters of botany, by naming plants after 
 them. When neither flattery, nor other private views, lead 
 to this practice, it may be justified ; {MWiridatca, Eupafo- 
 rium, Cliffbrtia, Josephinia, Munchausia). But the prac- 
 tice is very reprehensible, when later botanists have sought, 
 by means of it, to do an agreeable service to their superiors, 
 or to make themselves acceptable to them ; (Ferdinaiida, 
 Napoleona, Bonapartea, Theodora, Carludovica, Jle.ran- 
 dra). 
 
 222. 
 To preserve, in this way, the memory of meritorious bo- 
 tanists, is a laudable custom, which nuist, however, be in- 
 
 K 2 
 
1'4<S PHVTOGRAPHY. 
 
 telligently adopted, and not misused. We must be able, 
 in the first place, so to change tlie names as tliat they yhaW 
 be easily pronounced ; {Gunddld tor GimdMieimerio, Cras- 
 sinia for Krascheninikovia, Goodcnia for Goodenoughia). 
 The French s\llables dc and Jw, le and lu, are also to be 
 omitted; (Heriteria, Fontanesiu). Wui if these syllables 
 are a part of the name, they nuist be adopted into the generic 
 name ; {DuhamcUa^ Lapei/rousia, Desvauxm). It is only 
 to be regretted, that we are often at a loss how to pronounce 
 these names, and the study cannot surely be said to be faci- 
 litated, when it is intended that names such as Kn'ightia, 
 Kfiau/tvnia, Pahifoaia, Munnoz'ia, should be pronounced as 
 the English and Spaniards pronounce them. 
 
 There is a further evil in this kind of nomenclature, that 
 no person can form to himself any conception of the plant, 
 when he hears it called by a name which has been formed 
 from that of some botanist. No person can have an idea 
 attached to many names, borrowed from men who are either 
 altogether unknown, or have been distinguished but in a 
 small circle. There is a multitude of such names, the deri- 
 vation of which it is almost impossible to state. It is impro- 
 per to immortalize, in this way, men who have been known 
 in other departments of study, or who have gained but a 
 doubtful reputation. Adanson named Carrkldera, after the 
 wild enthusiast Carrkhter of lleckingen. Orihasia^ ^gine- 
 tia, Podaliria, Machaonia^ Hippocratia, Jvkennia, Aver- 
 rlioa, Fernelkiy Chaptalia, ai'e also objectionable on the same 
 grounds. 
 
 This honour may be shewn not only to botanical writers, 
 but also to celebrated travellers, who, by extending our 
 knowledge of the earth, have also enriched the science of 
 plants ; as also to artists, who have distinguished themselves 
 by excellent representations of plants ; on which account the 
 names Cookia, BuginvilldEa, Mogellana, Banera, Ehretia, 
 Turpinia^ Redutea, may be justified. 
 
DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 149 
 
 II. Of Trivial Names. 
 
 223. 
 
 A fundamental rule in the construction of a trivial name, 
 is, that it be a descriptive word, short, and derived from the 
 Latin, or at any rate from the Greek language. 
 
 Latin trivial names are the best ; but many properties which 
 we wish to designate, cannot well be expressed in Latin ; in 
 which case we betake ourselves to Greek. Micranthiis may 
 be used indiscriminately wth parvijlorus^ and macrophylhis 
 with hng'ifolius ; but macrostemon and isostemoii are evi- 
 dently better than longistammeus and aqualistaminens. The 
 practice of those is to be blamed who employ Greek too 
 frequently in trivial names, when we have equally significant 
 Latin terms in use ; because the latter language is more ge- 
 nerally understood than the former. Cycloselis is a super- 
 fluous expression, since we have orhicularis and c'lncinnatus. 
 
 22%. 
 
 A second leading rule is, that the trivial names must be 
 as little varied as possible, so that synonymes may not be- 
 come infinite. The first trivial name must remain, even al- 
 though a better might easily be had. But there is an excep- 
 tion to this, when the wiiters who first employed the trivial 
 name denoted several different species of plants by it, or con- 
 sidered what was merely a subspecies to be a species. This 
 has happened with Ballota nigra, under which name Lin- 
 naeus included a completely different species during his bet- 
 ter days, from those which it had formerly denoted. 
 
 It is impossible at present not to urge the rule, tliat no 
 trivial name, but the Linnaean, ought to he pronounced or 
 written, without adding the authority to it ; because it hajv 
 pens that different plants have the same trivial name, and 
 because, without adding the autliority, no jx^rson can know 
 where to find more information respecting the plant. Nick- 
 era splacknoides, Schwagr. is a quite different plant from 
 A^. spl. Sm. : Pan'icum fasciculatum Sw. different fjoLP. that of 
 
150 PHYTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Lam. ; Solanum scabrum Lam. Jacqu. Zuccagn. Mill. Ruiz et 
 Pav, Vahl., and Dinial, are six comjiletely different plants. 
 
 225. 
 
 Trivial names should be expressive ; they must either ex- 
 press the specific character, or denote generally some strik- 
 ing property, such as the general aspect of the plant, — its 
 resemblance to other plants, — its native country, — its situa- 
 tion, — its time of flowering, — the duration of its life, — its 
 smell, — taste, — and also its uses. 
 
 Resemblance to other plants is expressed by the termina- 
 tion oidcs, (which, however, must not be added to any Latin 
 name, as muscokles, riparioidcs) ; also hy Jbr mis , pseudoy or 
 by the name of the plants to which the species bears a re- 
 semblance ; {Begonia Urtica^ Veronica Anagallis, Satureia 
 Thymhrd). 
 
 226. 
 
 We see that the trivial name is commonly indeed an ad- 
 jective, but may sometimes be a substantive, and is then 
 written with a large initial letter. If it is an adjective, it 
 must confonn itself to the gender of the generic name, and is 
 always written small, unless the adjective be formed from the 
 name of the discoverer or propagator of the plant ; {jCarex 
 arenaria., Euphorbia Gerardianu). When the trivial name 
 is a substantive, we must not be offended if it sometimes has 
 the termination of an adjective, and does not correspond with 
 the gender of the generic name ; {Ilex Aquifolium, Erysi- 
 mum AUiaria). 
 
 AVe even allow trivial names to be sometimes barbarous, 
 because less strictness prevails here than with respect to 
 generic names ; {jCentaurea Crupina, Robinia Chamlagu). 
 
 227. 
 Trivial names should be short. We therefore avoid, as 
 much as possible, those which consist of two separate words, 
 or which are very much compounded and diflicult to be pro- 
 nounced. Some that are in common use are allowed, which, 
 
DESCRIPTIVE KOTAXV. 1,51 
 
 however, we willingly abbreviate, as Thlaspi Bursa Pastona, 
 Hedysarum Caput galU, Lysimachla Linum utellatuvi. 
 
 III. Delineatmi qf'CJiaracter.s. 
 
 228. 
 Next to nomenclature, the delineation of characters is the 
 most important part of phytography. But we must under- 
 stand the method of delineating, and of correctly expressing 
 both generic and specific characters. This demands the ob- 
 servation of some general rules, which we are about to state. 
 The most essential requisite in a good character is, that it be 
 expressed in the generally understood technical language, and 
 neither contain undefined terms, nor comparisons with other 
 plants, or with other objects of nature and art. Comparison 
 and metaphorical expressions are objectionable on this ground, 
 that the character must give a positive acquaintance with the 
 object. But from this rule those terms of com})arison are 
 excepted, which are of common use in the artificial language. 
 
 229. 
 
 It is also a principal maxim in the delineation of characters, 
 that we should abstain from the introduction of all accidental 
 and non-essential things, because these lead only to confusion, 
 and are by no means invariable. 
 
 Into the character of genus and sj-^ecies mc must admit only 
 those marks which distinguish plants from those that are re- 
 lated to them. This may be done without instituting com- 
 parisons, which belong much rather to tlie descri])ti(m and 
 diagnosis. The sum of the mai'ks which are found in rela- 
 ted plants, must always be before us wliilst we are delineating 
 the character ; on which account it is impossible to give the 
 character of a new genus or species, unless we kiiow tiie plants 
 which have a similar nature. 
 
152 riivTodJiAPJiv. 
 
 A. On Generic Characters. 
 
 230. 
 The generic character (character gener'iaifi) is the expres- 
 sion of the peculiar and invariahle marks by which a genus 
 of plants is distinguished from all others. This character 
 may be of three kinds. 
 
 1. It may contain a complete enumeration of all and each 
 of the marks which are found in the whole plant. It is then 
 called a Natural Character. Such a character must always be 
 very circumstantial, and it is so much the more difficult to 
 give it correctly, that in the organs of nourishment non-essen- 
 tial things may easily be confounded with such as are es- 
 sential. 
 
 2. The Artificial Character {character artificialis). This 
 contains only the marks of the organs of fructification, or, 
 where these are not distinct, the marks of those parts which 
 are subservient to propagation. 
 
 3. The Diagnostic Character {character factitius^ diag- 
 nosis). This consists in the selection of such marks only as 
 serve to distinguish one genus from another. This last cha- 
 racter facilitates, indeed, the acquisition of the knowledge of 
 plants, and renders it more sure; but when a genus is represent- 
 ed by itself, this character cannot possibly be sufficient. When, 
 f(jr instance, we merely state respecting Bronius^ that the 
 awn springs from the ridge of the valve, we can distinguish 
 Bromus from Festuca by this means, but the whole charac- 
 ter of the former demands something more, and we must, for 
 this purpose, pay attention both to the inflorescence, and to 
 the number of flowers on the ear. 
 
 231. 
 
 Every generic character must state shortly and distinctly the 
 conmion marks which })elong invariably to all species of the 
 same genus. No generic character, therefore, can be formed, 
 till we have compared together all the species. Inattention to 
 this rule is tb.e reason wliv verv manv oi the older characters 
 
DESCUirriVE BOTANY. 153 
 
 are entirely useless, because they apply to but one or a few- 
 species. But if there be a correspondence in most of the 
 species, a difference of one or two species among a great num- 
 ber may take place, without inducing us to reject, on that ac- 
 count, the generic character. Commonly this difference is 
 taken into the character, especially a difference of numerical 
 proportion. As, for instance, in the genus Amaranthus, al- 
 most as manv triandria as pentandria species appear, it is 
 expressly stated in the character that there are either three or 
 five anthers. 
 
 232. 
 
 The generic character of the higher })Iants is borrowed 
 solely from the organs of fructification. And we begin with 
 the inflorescence ; we then proceed to tlie covers of the sexual 
 parts ; next to those parts themselves, and to the nectaries ; 
 after these, to the fruit ; and, lastly, to the embryon. All 
 invariable peculiarities of these organs, which are common to 
 all the species, compose the Generic Character. The general 
 aspect of the genus, — the formation of the root, stem, leaves, 
 and other parts, — the composition of the peculiar juices, — the 
 smell and taste, — are all things which are no doubt important, 
 and which may lead us to the formation of a genus, but they 
 cannot be taken into the generic character itself, unless we 
 would make it more circumstantial and natural. If, for instance, 
 we observe a herbaceous plant, which in its organs of fructifica- 
 tion shews almost the entire character of another genus, all the 
 species of which are trees, we are not allowed, at once, on this 
 account to view that herbaceous plant as a peculiar genus, and 
 to assume this difference into the character ; but this circum- 
 stance induces us to institute a closer examination of the es- 
 sential parts, that in them also we may discover marks of dif- 
 ference which correspond with the general aspect. 
 
 According to the gradation in the value of organs, which was 
 noticed in Sect. 171. and 172., we must not overlook even the 
 smallest parts of the fruit, but must minutely examine the si- 
 tuation of the embryon, — the structure of the cotyledons, of 
 
 2 
 
154 PHYTOGRAPHY. 
 
 the vitellus, and other parts of tlie seed. Every person, in- 
 deed, cannot institute such an examination, because it pre- 
 supposes not only the presence of the ripe fruit, but peculiar 
 practice and dexterity. But these tilings must be noticed in 
 the generic character, unless the genus is not distinguished 
 from its related genera by its structure in these parts. 
 
 233. 
 
 In the lower plants, where few or no organs of fructifica- 
 tion are found, we the more readily betake ourselves to other 
 parts, and borrow the character from them ; because in many 
 families the whole plant contains within itself the germs of 
 propagation. Neither in the Lichens, therefore, nor in the 
 Alga^, and least of all in the Fungi, is it objectionable that 
 we admit the structure of the whole plant into the character. 
 We are even permitted, in these cases, to admit such diffe- 
 rences into the generic character, as can only be discovered 
 by the most powerful magnifiers. 
 
 234. 
 
 The shorter a generic character is, it is so much the bet- 
 ter ; because it is intended to impress itself upon the memo- 
 ry. On this account the diagnostic characters are chiefly to 
 be recommended to beginners, although in them there is a re- 
 ference to related genera. It must be understood, ho'>s^ever, 
 that natural characters are excepted from this rule. 
 
 The generic character is put in the nominative, and in it 
 we follow the order in which the parts are successively un- 
 folded. 
 
 B. On Specific Characters. 
 
 235. 
 
 The Specific Character ought to be the expression of all 
 the invariable marks by which one species is distinguished 
 from all others, (142.) It is called also the Phrase. 
 
DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 155 
 
 It follows from this, that the character of a species whicli 
 is the only one of the genus, cannot be dehneated. Such 
 plants are rather explained by description. 
 
 236. 
 
 The specific character derives its elements from every 
 part of the plant, the properties of which are invariable. 
 The nature of the root, — the qualities of the stem and 
 branches, — the forms of the leaves, — the armour and sup- 
 ports, — the form of the calyx and corolla, — the relations of 
 the nectaries, filaments, pistils, ovaria, and fruit, — these are 
 the true elements of which the specific character is properly 
 compounded. Even the integuments of the parts nmst not 
 be neglected, in as far as they are constant. 
 
 237. 
 
 On the other hand, neither colour nor the size of parts,, 
 neither smell nor taste, neither the situation nor the frequency 
 of plants, belong properly to these elements. Nevertheless, 
 use may be made even of these things under certain circum- 
 stances. 
 
 Colour, in the first place, is taken into consideration, when 
 it is not only constant, but when, among a few characters, it 
 is also the most remarkable ; on which account, in the lower 
 plants particularly, the colour is very correctly defined. In 
 more perfect plants, we usually state merely that the parts 
 are diff*erently coloured, commonly by the words colof'atm, 
 maculatuSj and such like. 
 
 The measure and size of parts do not indeed properly 
 belong to the specific character, in so far as it is positively 
 expressed, because these qualities are subject to change. But 
 the relative size, or the proportion of the parts to one ano- 
 ther, is usually viewed as one of the most important ingre- 
 dients of the specific character. That the corolla projects 
 above the calyx, or is shorter than it, — that the filaments are 
 longer than the pistil, or the reverse, — that the leaf-stalks ex- 
 ceed the leaves in length, — all these things must be taken into 
 the specific character. It is also usual, when an organ, in rcla- 
 
156 PHYTOGKAPHY. 
 
 tion to others, is very long, very large, or very short and 
 small, to express this simply by a superlative. We thus say, 
 pedunculi longissimi^ calyx maxinms^ and so on. 
 
 Situation can only be taken into the specific character 
 of the lowest organised bodies, as the Alg^e and Fungi. In 
 these we sometimes even take the profusion, or the insu- 
 lated growth of plants, as a specific distinction. 
 
 238. 
 The specific character is put in the ablative, and this is 
 done for the sake of brevity. But we must endeavour to 
 avoid putting two ablatives, one after the other, because this 
 may occasion mistakes. Instead of corolla cahjce majore, we 
 say, with more propriety, corolla calijcem cxcedcnte. Instead 
 of petiolis pedunculis breviorihus, it is better to say peduncii- 
 lis petiolos superantihus, 
 
 239. 
 
 The specific character must be compounded only of the 
 usual artificial terms. In general, it must contain neither un- 
 explained words, nor allegories, metaphors, nor any other 
 comparisons but those which are customary. 
 
 240. 
 
 The specific character must be positive, and therefore all 
 ■negative expressions in it are objectionable. These last, pro- 
 ceeding upon comparisons with the nearest related species, 
 may very easily be expressed positively. Instead of non ra~ 
 mosus, Ave say simplex ; instead of non tortilis, strictus, and 
 so forth. 
 
 241. 
 
 The specific character must be as easily comprehended, 
 and as short as possible. For giving an easy view of it, 
 it is important that the organs, whose properties are to be 
 stated, should always be placed first ; that these ]:)roper- 
 ties should not be separated by signs, and that the or- 
 gans only should be separated In* commas. Brevity retjuirt-^ 
 that all particles shall be avoided as much as possible. The 
 
DESCRIPTIVE BOTAXV. 157 
 
 particles msigniter, maxime and such like, are replaced by 
 superlatives. Subhide, raro, noimunquam, and such like, 
 are better expressed by the syllable sub, prefixed to the ad- 
 jective. It is of importance to brevity, that a property which 
 belongs to several organs should not be repeated with each 
 of them, but put at the end after the organs have been con- 
 nected by the enclitical conjunction que, (pcduncuUs pctiO" 
 Usque aculeatis.) 
 
 But the richer in species any genus is, the more necessary 
 is a circumstantial character. 
 
 242. 
 The order in which the elements of the specific character 
 follow one another is, that the properties which belong to 
 most of the species should be placed first, or that certain lead- 
 ing parts should be selected, in which the differences lie. 
 These, in the case of Roses, are the ovaria ; and, in the case 
 of Pinks, the lobes of the calyx. 
 
 IV. Descriptions of Plants. 
 
 243. 
 
 Good and complete descriptions of plants (adumbratianes) 
 may be compared to excellent pictures, and in one respect 
 they are even preferable to them, namely, in that, at less ex- 
 pence, they exhibit all the relations of parts as correctly to 
 the imagination, as pictures present objects to the external 
 sense. Hence he who reads with attention the description of 
 a plant which is utterly unknown, can represent to himself its 
 image so perfectly, that when he happens to see the plant, he 
 instantly recognises it. For this high value, descriptions are 
 indebted to an observance of certain fixed rules, which we are 
 now to state more particularly. 
 
 244. 
 A good description must, in the first place, be complete, 
 that is to say, it must so compreliend the whole of the essen- 
 
158 - PHYTOGRAPHY. 
 
 tial parts and their relations, that nothing shall be omitted, 
 which is necessary for a coni}:)lete representation of the pecu- 
 liarities of the plant. Supei*licial descriptions, — of which 
 kind were those given by the first writers on botany, — have 
 for the most part a reference only to what was most striking 
 in the general habit of the plant, — to its obvious colours, its 
 size, and other properties, sometimes merely accidental. It 
 is often very difficult to guess from such descriptions, what is 
 the plant which the writer had in view. This difficulty is so 
 much the greater in the old writers, because their variable 
 nomenclature, and the distance of the countries, whose plants 
 are described, also prevent us from forming a correct judg- 
 ment. 
 
 245. 
 But descriptions may also be too full, when they express 
 common properties and such as belong to many species, or 
 when they dwell too much on the peculiarities of unessential 
 parts. In this case, the reader of such descriptions is per- 
 plexed by their too great exactness : he knows not in the end 
 which among the innumerable marks is the most distinguished, 
 and which are those that deserve most attention. To maintain 
 the happy middle course between too great circumstantiality, 
 and too rapid brevity, requires the union of an acute talent 
 for observation, genius, and sound judgment, — talents which 
 are seldom acquired, but are commonly innate, and which 
 constitute the proper botanical genius. Placing in the back 
 ground, or neglecting properties of less importance, we give 
 a prominent place to those which are subservient to die know- 
 ledge and discrimination of plants. Such descriptions are al- 
 ways the most instructive ; but when a person has no other 
 view, but that of delineating one plant, he is very apt to be 
 led into a useless prolixity. 
 
 246. 
 The order in which parts are described, is that pointed 
 out by their growth. But we often begin widi the general 
 aspect (habitus)^ in order to present the image of the plant 
 
 2 
 
DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 159 
 
 before the eyes of the reader at the very first. Otherwise 
 we begin with the root, with the bulbs and tubers ; we then 
 proceed to the stem and branches ; next to the leaves, leafy 
 appendages, armour, and other subordinate parts ; we then 
 describe the integument ; we next pass to the inflorescence, 
 calyx, corolla, nectaries, male and female sexual parts ; and 
 lastly, we dissect the fruit and seed, with all their properties. 
 Some good writers have reversed this order ; at least, have 
 spoken first of the flower. But the reasons for maintaining 
 this order preponderate. 
 
 247. 
 
 In these descriptions, attention is paid to every thing that 
 is observable in the plant ; that is to say, not only the speci- 
 fic character, but a complete picture of the plant must be 
 given, on which account an exact delineation of forms, di- 
 mensions, integuments, and colour, smell, taste, and other par- 
 ticulars, may be introduced. But whatever serves to distin- 
 guish the plant, must be made especially conspicuous ; on 
 which account the diagnosis of two related species, carried 
 through all the parts, is often much more important than the 
 most careful and circumstantial description. But both me- 
 thods can be easily united, provided in our description we 
 make the discriminating marks particularly prominent. 
 
 248. 
 
 In description, we must on all occasions employ the usual 
 artificial language ; and when forms are so changed that the 
 usual expressions are not proper to denote them, it is better 
 to give a more extended description, than to designate these 
 forms by new and uncommon words. 
 
 In descriptions that are quite complete, it is of use to ar- 
 range the individual organs at intervals under one another, 
 and to ^vrite or mark in some other way the names of these 
 organs. To save space, the parts likewise are often suc- 
 cessively arranged, their names also being always expressed 
 in writing or print. Individual properties are in this case sc- 
 
160 PHYTOGRAPHY. 
 
 parated by commas, which does not happen in drawing up the 
 specific characters. Colon and Semi-colon are made use of, 
 when the parts of the principal organs are to be described ; 
 for instance, in speaking of leaflets, after the principal leaf; 
 of petals, after the corolla in general ; of the partitions and 
 valves of the fruit, after the fruit itself 
 
 249. 
 
 Having finished the description, we proceed to give an ac- 
 count of the situation and duration of the plant, as also of 
 the use which is made of it in arts and trades. In as- 
 signing the station, correctness is chiefly to be recommended, 
 not only for facilitating the finding of plants, but also be- 
 cause the nature of a plant, and its discrimination from re- 
 lated species, depend partly upon this. The culture of 
 plants in Botanic Gardens may derive the most important ad- 
 vantages from such exact descriptions of their stations. No 
 advantage is derived from knowing that the plant grows in Af- 
 rica, A-merica, or New Holland ; but it is of the utmost impor- 
 tance to know under what degree of latitude, at what height 
 above the level of the sea, in what soil, and amidst what cir- 
 cumstances it grows. From these descriptions, which scarce- 
 ly any person has given so carefully as Humboldt, both the 
 natural historian of the vegetable world and the botanical gar- 
 dener may receive directions. 
 
 In stating the duration of plants, we often commit mistakes, 
 especially when plants have been reared in gardens ; because 
 many tropical plants, which in their native country are per- 
 ennial, become annuals in our cHmate, from causes which we 
 cannot explain. Hence, in the writings of the great botanists, 
 many errors are found, which can only be corrected by ob- 
 serving plants in their native countries. 
 
DESCIUPTIVE BOTANY. I6l 
 
 V. Synonymy. 
 
 250. 
 By Synonynies we understand the different names wliich a 
 plant has received in botanical works, as also those which 
 different nations assign to it in their native dialects. Both of 
 these have inideniable uses. By the former not only learn we 
 to understand the different views with which writers have 
 described plants, but we find also references to plates, which 
 are often very desirable, and we are thus able to give a com- 
 ])lete history of the plant. The knowledge of vulgar and 
 provincial names is often very useful for facilitating the find- 
 ing of plants in their native seats, and also for accjuiring a 
 knowledge of their employments and uses. 
 
 251. 
 
 Scientific synonymes should be complete, sure, and free 
 from superfluity. They are complete when no work is pass- 
 ed over, in which a more exact description, or distinguished 
 nomenclature, or a figure of the plant, is contained. It is 
 easy to perceive, that the use of a botanical library, as com- 
 plete as possible, is important for this purpose. 
 
 Synonymes are sure, when the cited places really treat of 
 the plants in question, and not of others. Innumerable errors 
 have crept into the science by the statement of false synonymes; 
 which errors can only be avoided by the most careful sitting 
 of these statements. It is of the first impcu'tance for obtaining 
 certainty, that no book should be cited, without having been 
 compared at the time when the plant was examined. No- 
 thing is more ruinous than to make a parade of borrowed 
 citations. We draw upon ourselves by this means the guilt 
 of propagating errors. We al-io proceed with certainty in re- 
 spect to synonymes, when we minutely comj)are the plant in 
 question with the description or figure. 
 
 Synonymes are redundant, when insignificant writings, or 
 such as throw no particular light upon the plant, are cjuoted. 
 Linnaeus gave a beginning to this evil custom, by raising 
 
 I. 
 
162 PIIYTOGllAPIIY. 
 
 books destitute of merit into autliority ; and die more recent 
 editors ot" his works liave not only exacdy transcribed tliese 
 citations, but have added a great many others which are to 
 the last deoTee imimportant,- — by whicli means si)ace has been 
 occupied to no purpose. It is also quite superfluous to tran- 
 scribe the speciflc character, or the description of the plant, 
 from the cited works ; but it is of the utmost importance for 
 completeness, that we should admit, without abbreviation, the 
 occasionally diffuse nomenclature of Caspar Bauhin, Pluke- 
 het, and other older writers, because otherwise we cannot be 
 perfectly certain what is the plant in question. 
 
 252. 
 
 The order in which citations are made, is the chronologi- 
 cal; we must therefore be sufficiently acquainted with the 
 history of the science to know the successive times in which 
 writers appeared. Some indeed reverse the chronological 
 order, by putting the most recent works first, and the oldest 
 last. But it is much more ^suitable, and is attended with es- 
 sential advantages, to begin with the oldest writers, and pro- 
 ceed to the most recent. We thus avoid repetition, and best 
 become acquainted with the earliest discoverers of plants. 
 
 It may be asked, with what writers we should commence. 
 Linnaeus used to cite, out of the sixteenth century, only Clu- 
 sius, Dodona^us, and, although more rarely. Fox and Dale- 
 champ. He referred throughout to the Pin ax of Caspar 
 Bauhin. In later times it has been discovered, that those 
 who have been called the Fathers of Botany in the sixteenth 
 and seventeenth centuries, were acquainted with a much greater 
 number of plants than from Linnaeus^ citations could have 
 been believed. Brunfels^ Conrad Gesner, Tragus, aud Ta^ 
 bernamontanus, have for some time been more industriously 
 consulted than formerly. But to go beyond the time of 
 Brunfels, and to extend synonymes to the books of herbaceous 
 plants used during the middle ages, — to the writings of the 
 Arabians, Romans, and Greeks, perhaps even of the Jews, — 
 is as troublesome as it is useless and superfluous. We 
 justly leave inquiries of this kind to the scholar, who studies 
 
DESCPtlPTIVE BOTAXY. 163 
 
 the history of his science, and avail ourselves in some in- 
 stances of the results of his investigations. 
 
 253. 
 
 The necessary saving of room demands, that in citations 
 proper abbreviations should be employed. The names of 
 writers, who might be confounded with one another, are given 
 at greater length. The Gmelins can only be distinguished 
 by adding their Christian names. The younger Linnaeus is 
 commonly denoted by the addition of ^/. The cited works 
 themselves are denoted by intelligible abbreviations, which 
 should always be explained in a register. The number of 
 the pages in which plants are mentioned, is always given 
 without prefixing the superfluous letters, pag. or p. Plates 
 are referred to according to their number, with the prefixed 
 t. or tab. 
 
 The place of a description is marked by *. When we are 
 doubtful whether a synonym suits, we add an interrogation 
 
 (?) 
 
 254. 
 Vulgar names are of importance principally in the Floras 
 of particular countries. To these they should be appro- 
 priated, and it is a reprehensible waste of space, when in \ 
 general works, or even in Floras, all barbarous names are pro- 
 duced. This is an employment which ought to be left to the 
 followers of Menzelius and Nemnich. 
 
 VL On the Form, of Botanical Works. 
 A. Monographs. 
 
 255, 
 
 By a Monograph we understand a complete accotmt of 
 any one family, tribe, or genus, nothing being neglected 
 which is necessary for a perfect knowledge of it. Such ac- 
 counts have i,n the highest degree promoted the progress of 
 
 L2 
 
1(S4 PHVTOCiKAPHY, 
 
 the science, because attention, when hmited to one object, ob- 
 serves much more and better than when it is divided. Yet 
 this very Umitation of attention may give occasion to a certain 
 subtlety, or to too keen a penetration into particulars, and 
 many examples might be cited to shew, that the founders of 
 monographs are particularly easy to be induced to admit 
 more species than nature warrants. 
 
 256. 
 Monograplis should especially correct synonymes. It is 
 also very useful, when they present us with plates of new or 
 very difficult species. In this respect we can highly recom- 
 mend the labours of Jacquin respecting the Oxalidae and Sta^ 
 peliae, Schkuhr on Reeds, Brown on the Contortae and Pro- 
 teaceae, De Candolle and Pallas on the Astragalae, Lambert 
 on Pines, Dunal on the Solaneae and Anoneae, Lehman on 
 the Asperifoliae, Humboldt on the Melastomae, Cavanilles on 
 the Malvaceae, Biria on Ranunculi ; Lyngbye, Turner and 
 Dillwyn, on Algae ; Hed^vig, Schwagrichen, and Hooker, oa 
 Mosses, and of the last author on Jungermanniae. 
 
 
 VII. On Floras, 
 
 257- 
 J No branch of botanical literature is more useful, and at 
 the same time more neglected than this. The Flora of a 
 country or region should contain an exact account of all wild 
 plants within the limits of that country or region. For a be- 
 ginner, therefore, it is the first, and one of the most impor- 
 tant aids for obtaining botanical knowledge. Confined to a 
 certain circle, the compiler of a Flora can study the peculiari- 
 ties of the plants of his region with diligence, distinguish true 
 species from subspecies, point out transitions, correct in this 
 way many errors, and lay the foimdation for a more correct 
 knowledge of plants. But there are a multitude of Floras 
 which contain nothing but a catalogue of names of pretend- 
 ed native plants of their region, with transcribed specific cha- 
 
DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 165 
 
 racters, without in one instance correctly signifying the situa- 
 tions. 
 
 2.58. 
 
 If the first and most celebrated example of tliis kind is to 
 be followed, as it was given by Linnaeus in his Flora of Lap- 
 land, the qualifications for the undertaker of such a labour 
 must be of a yet higher nature. 
 
 First of all, it is necessary that the compiler should be ac- 
 quainted with the labours of his predecessors, — that he should 
 study them, correct the synonymes, and point out the changes 
 which vegetation has since experienced. 
 
 To this should succeed a general natural history of the 
 region, an account of the soil, the mountains, and particularly 
 of the mountain rocks which make their appearance there, — 
 of the meadows, forests, seas, marshes, }X)ols, and streams. 
 The degree of latitude, ard the height above the level of the 
 sea, are supposed to be known. It is only when such a pic- 
 ture has been sketched, that the reader can form to himself 
 a distinct idea of the nature of the region. The knowledge 
 of the mountain rocks is especially important, in order that 
 we may perceive how vegetation varies with them. For this 
 pvirpose, it will be very useful to institute a comparison with 
 the vegetation of neighbouring regions, or of such as lie in 
 the same latitude with the described region. 
 
 259. 
 The order in which plants are treated of, may either fol- 
 low the Linnaean System or the Natural Method. But, above 
 all, the compiler of a Flora ought to admit no plant which lie 
 has not himself found in its place, liecause, otlierwisc, innu- 
 merable deceptions, and such as are scarcely credible, will be 
 occasioned. He ought also never to transcribe the character 
 of genera and species, but to develope it himself according to 
 the examples lying before him. New species, which have not 
 yet been described, must be defined in the most careful man- 
 ner, and if possible, they should be figured. It will also be 
 of much use to beginners, that the properties of plant^^, and 
 
166 PHYTOGKAPllY. 
 
 the distinguishing marks of doubtful or difficult species, 
 should be shortly and distinctly given. 
 
 260. 
 The synonomy of a Flora is properly confined to an account 
 of the best plates, and to a reference to preceding authors. 
 It is necessary to give the situations, especially of rare plants, 
 with much exactness, and this is best done in the language 
 of the country. Provincial names of plants are added, to 
 enable us, when necessary, to obtain explanations respecting 
 their situations from the inhabitants of the district. Lastly, 
 it will not be supei-fluous to describe the uses to which plants 
 are put. All these requisites have been fulfilled in the most 
 perfect manner by Linnaeus, in his Flora of Lapland. This, 
 therefore, is the model for all future attempts. 
 
 VIIL Descriptions of Gardens. 
 
 261. 
 Another branch of botanical literature consists of cata- 
 logues and descriptions of plants which are reared in gar- 
 dens. These catalogues are often merely registers, which 
 have been printed to promote the commerce of one garden with 
 others. In this case, nothing else can be required but that 
 the plants should be correctly and exactly named. New 
 species are either described in an appendix, as has been done 
 by De CandoUe, in his Catalogus plantarum Horti Motispeli- 
 ensis, 1813 ; or they are merely cited, their description being 
 left to future works. 
 
 262. 
 More circumstantial catalogues, like those which ^vc have 
 of the gardens at Kew, Copenhagen, and Berlin, contain 
 much that is superfluous indeed, because they frequently re- 
 peat well known specific characters ; but they are useful, part- 
 ly from giving more exact characters of new species, partly 
 from a more careful sifting of synonymes, and partly from 
 
DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. l67 
 
 furnishing an account of the manner and time in which plants 
 were first introduced into the gardens. The Hm'tus Kewen- 
 sis, and Sweefs Hortus suhurhamis, are particularly distin- 
 guished by the first of these excellencies, as is Linna'us's 
 Hortus CUffortianus, by carefully chosen synonymes, and 
 Gouan's Hortus Monspelknsis, by uncommonly useful ac- 
 counts of the structure and other external peculiarities of 
 plants. 
 
 Plates of rare or new plants, which are reared in gardens, 
 are expensive undertakings. We justly admire the work- 
 manship and wealth displayed by the English, in the Hortus 
 Eltliamensis, in the Botanisfs Repository, the Paradisus 
 Londinensis, Botanical Magazine, Botanical Register, and 
 such like works; and of the French, in the Jar din de Cels, 
 and de la Malmaison. Even Germany may boast of its 
 Hortus Vindobonensis, Schonhrunnensis, and Berolineiisis, 
 although all these works, on account of their high price, can 
 be useful but to a few. 
 
 IX. Plates of Plants. 
 
 263. 
 Good plates of plants are among the best means of pro- 
 moting the progress of botany. When they represent the 
 form of the plant according to nature, and especially when 
 they develope the characters of the genus and species, even 
 to their minutest parts, they fulfil all that can be required, 
 especially when no such expence is laid out on them as ren- 
 ders their price too high. The fathers of botany, in the six- 
 teenth century, set an excellent example in this respect. Lo- 
 beUus, Clusius, Fox, and the Bauhins, used wood cuts, 
 mingled with the text, which gave very correct representa- 
 tions, at least of the general aspect of plants. Conrad Ges- 
 ner and Fabius Columna first used copperplates, which often 
 gave the characters of plants in a masterly manner. Morison 
 and Plukenet, in very small room, gave an extraordinary 
 iiumber of figures of very rare platits ; and Dillenius reached 
 
16S PHYTOGRAPHY. 
 
 the very summit of art in his incomparable representations of 
 Mosses. 
 
 These examples of our predecessors should be imitated by 
 us ; and we should recollect, that science ought not to be 
 subservient to the luxury of the great, but should be commu- 
 nicated even to those who are destitute of wealth. Lehman, 
 also, in his Primuleye, and Hooker, in his Mosses, have 
 followed the laudable practice of giving their figures in 
 sketches merely, excellently shaded, by which means the 
 price is very much lessened. As, on the other hand, copper- 
 plates are given frequently of well known plants, but in a 
 style of excessive splendour, and at an expence which cannot 
 be afforded by a private person, we are forced to lament that 
 the science is rather retarded than promoted by this means. 
 Among these expensive copperplates we reckon Sibthorp's 
 Fbra Graca, Count Hoffmanseg's Flo7'a of Portugal^ and 
 the Jardin de la Malmaison. 
 
 We cannot advise the giving of figures of plants from 
 stone, because we have not yet been able, in this way, to ex- 
 press the finer parts. The same o])jection may be made to 
 impressions of plants in printing ink, of which Kniphoff has 
 published a great many. 
 
 X. General Works. 
 
 264. 
 
 General works on the vegetable world contain either an 
 enumeration of genera or of species. The former, which are 
 called Genera plantarum^ should exhibit the known genera, 
 and explain their characters, either according to an artificial 
 system, or according to the natui'al method. This has been 
 done in a masterly manner by Tournefort in his Institutiones 
 rei herbaria, by Linnaeus, Schreber, and Jussieu. 
 
 A complete enumeration of known species of plants, which 
 we call Species plantarum, has hitherto only been offered by 
 Linnaeus, Richard, and Willdenow. An excellent account 
 of Species, by Vahl, in his Enumeration was stopped in its 
 
DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 169 
 
 commencement by his death. The latest attempts of this 
 kind are by De CandoUe and Schultes. 
 
 Excerpts from these Species plantm'um^ in which only the 
 characters, the best plates, and the native country, are given, 
 have been published by Murray and Persoon. 
 
 Whoever undertakes a new work of the same kind, has 
 duties to perform which ^ew scholars are qualified to fulfil. 
 For it is obvious, that labour alone will not do, nor the sim- 
 ple accumulation of the discoveries and remarks of others ; 
 but that, in the first place, an eye accustomed to the vegeta- 
 ble world for many years, an acute and incorruptible judg- 
 ment, and, above all, that which I have already (245) called 
 the botanical genius, is requisite for this purpose. 
 
 It is an indispensable quahfication that as many plants as pos- 
 sible should have been actually seen and examined. Travels 
 in foreign countries, — the use of great herbaries, — a very com- 
 plete library, — a well stocked garden, — and a general inter- 
 course with the first botanists of the age ; these are the requi- 
 sites to such an undertaking, without the possession of which 
 the whole will be nothing but a work of mere compilation, 
 and of little utility. 
 
 XI. On Collections of Plants, 
 
 Hedwig's Belehrung die Pflanzen zu trocknen und zu ordnen. Gotha, 1797, 
 8vo. 
 
 The most exact descriptions and best plates leave some- 
 thing still to be desired by him who wishes to have a perfect 
 knowledge of a plant. Hence the actual sight and examina- 
 tion of plants is the only mean of obtaining certain informa- 
 tion. Now, in order to have this examination at all times in 
 our power, w^e dry plants ; and this may easily be accom- 
 plished with most of them, — some very juicy plants and 
 
170 PHYTOGliAPHY. 
 
 sponges excepted. Such a collection of dried plants is 
 called a Herbarium^ and the necessity of herbaries is so ge- 
 nerally felt, that beginners and accomplished botanists justly 
 consider them as their most important treasures. These trea- 
 sures, indeed, are subject, in certain circumstances, to waste 
 and destruction. But, under proper management, and with 
 careful attention, they last for centuries, as we still possess the 
 collection of Caspar Bauhin, and in part that of Burserius, 
 since the beginning of the seventeenth century ; I^Linn, 
 Amcc7i. Acad. I. 146.) 
 
 267. 
 
 The preparation of such a collection costs little labour, and 
 occasions a trifling expence, provided we can obtain a num- 
 ber of folios for this purpose, and are acquainted with some 
 expedients which must be emploved in the work. 
 
 Of these the principal is, that plants must not be laid 
 in while they are wet with rain and dew, but when they are 
 completely dry, and that they be put do^vn with all their ne- 
 cessary parts. Finer plants, which are not too j uicy, and too 
 much soiled, cannot be better dried than in folio sheets which 
 are subjected to some degree of pressure. In this case it is not 
 necessary that the paper should be inspected or changed, till the 
 plants are perfectly stiff and dry. AVhen there is a want of folios, 
 or when soiled or very juicy plants are to be dried, they are 
 placed between several sheets of blotting paper, and pressed 
 down with stones. But in this case they must be frequently 
 turned, and, in particular, must be defended from mouldi- 
 ness. The employment of a press for plants, with a screw, 
 cannot be recommended, because the pressure is too strong, 
 and cannot be gradually increased. Very prickly plants, 
 on the contrary, can only be subduejd in this manner. 
 Fleshy plants are placed for some time in boiling water, and 
 then dried in blotting paper. But in this case the forms and 
 colours are commonly lost. A dry heat is particularly de- 
 sirable in this employment ; on which account the drying of 
 plants always succeeds best in hot summers, in airy dwellingg, 
 in heated roomsj and even beside ovens. 
 
DESClllPTlVi: BOTANV. 171 
 
 26S. 
 When tlie plants are dried, they are put, according to the 
 order of the system, or according to the natural method, in 
 whole sheets of writing paper ; on the first side of which the 
 name of the plant, its situation, and the time of its being laid 
 down, are marked. Subspecies, and several large parts of 
 the same plant, are placed in separate sheets. A hundred 
 and fifty, or two huncbed of such sheets are bound together 
 between pasteboard covers, on which the genera are marked 
 in the order in Avhich they have been inserted, and an exact 
 register of the whole is kept. 
 
 269. 
 The care with which such collections are kept is repaid 
 in no common degree. This care requires, in the first place, 
 that the plants should be most correctly determined, — that 
 the authorities for their names should be given, — and that, in 
 every case, it should be noticed from whom the plants have 
 been obtained, and, where it can be got, that the handwriting 
 of the sender should be subscribed. The collection must 
 also be defended from insects and moisture. The former of 
 these are not easily removed, especially in many families, as 
 in the Cynareae. But an industrious examination of the col- 
 lection, in the course of which the insects are killed, and, at 
 any rate, a solution of corrosive sublimate in spirit of wine, are 
 the best means of protecting it from these causes of destruc- 
 tion. 
 
i 
 
( 173 ) 
 
 PART IV. 
 PHYTOXOMV, 
 
 OH 
 
 ON THE STRUCTURE AND NATURE OF PLANTS. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 PHYTOTOMY, OR ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 
 
 Grew's Anatomy of Plants. 
 
 Malpighi, Anatome Plantarum. 
 
 Leeuwenhoek Opera. 
 
 Reichel de vasis plantarum spiralibus. 
 
 Bohmer de vegetabilium cellulose contextu. 
 
 Hill on the Construction of Timber. 
 
 Swagerman, in Verhandelingen van de Maatschappy. Te Harlem, Vol. XX. 
 
 Hedwig, Sammlung zerstreuter Abhandlungen, Th. 1. 2. 
 
 Krocker, Diss, de plantarum epidermide. 
 
 Comparetti, Prodromo di fisica vegetabile. 
 
 Sprengel, Anleitung zur Kenntniss der Gewachse. 
 
 Brisseau-Mirbel, Traite d' Anatomic et de Physiologic vegetalcs, Vol. I. 2. 
 
 Dessen, Exposition et defense de ma thcorie de I'organization vegetale. 
 
 Link, Grundlehren der Anatomic und Physiologic der Pflanzen. 
 
 Rudolphi, Anatomic der Pflanzen. 
 
 Trcviranus, vom inwendigen Bau der Gewachse. 
 
 Dessen, Beytrage zur Pflanzen-Physiologie. 
 
 Moldenhawer, Beytrage zur Anatomic der Pflanzen. 
 
 Kieser, Memoire sur I'organization des Plantes. 
 
 Dessen, Grundzuge der Anatomic der Pflanzen. 
 
 I. On the Structure of Plants in General. 
 
 270. 
 We must endeavour to trace the structure of plants io 
 certain primitive forms, which we find as well in the rudest 
 
174 PIIVTONOMV. 
 
 beginnings of vegetables, as in all parts of perfect plants, and 
 into \vhich we can resolve all their organs. 
 
 These primitive forms may be reduced to three, the cell- 
 form, the tube-form, and the spiral form. We discover these 
 forms more or less in all vegetable bodies. But a closer 
 examination shews us, that some forms of a simpler kind lie 
 at the foundation of these, and that from them every organic 
 part proceeds. We must begin, therefore, with these latter 
 forms. 
 
 271. 
 
 Every organising fluid, when it is passing from the fluid 
 into the solid state, shews small spheres or vesicles, and spi- 
 culae or needle-shaped bodies of a diminutive size. The 
 former we refer to the disengagement of hydrogen, which, as 
 one of the constituents of water, is always the flrst to separate 
 itself from it, because it is httle soluble in water. Oxygen, 
 on the other hand, remains longer dissolved in water, and 
 accordingly the spicular and straight lined bodies which are 
 produced by it are more slowly disengaged, — as, in an electri- 
 cal process, negative electricity displays sparks and images of 
 a spherical shape, whilst positive electricity produces those 
 of a spicular appearance. 
 
 In the lowest organic bodies we find this simple spherical 
 structure, and they may now therefore be considered as be- 
 longing to the animal or vegetable world. The simplest Co- 
 niomyci, as well as the simplest infusory animalcuhe, have this 
 vesicular or spherical structure. Afterwards the spiculae, 
 threads, and tubes, which we find in the Nematomyci, become 
 associated with these spheres ; (Tab. V. Fig. 5. 7.) Treviranus 
 has lately exhibited these spherulae and tubes in the spawn of 
 frogs, in the cellular texture of the femoral muscles of the 
 mammalia, in the spinal marrow of frogs, and in the 
 nerves of the garden snail, (Vermischte Schriften, I. Tab» 
 14.) We find this same combination of spherulae and spi- 
 culae in every generative sap, as well as in every slimy fluid 
 of plants. From these, therefore, are evolved the peculiar 
 primitive forms of the vegetable world. 
 
AXATOISrY OF PLANTS. 175 
 
 A. On Cellular Tcaiure. 
 
 272. 
 
 What we call cellular texture in plants is, no doubt, when 
 it is regular, somewhat similar to the cells of bees ; but 
 it is distinguished from them by the direction of the cells, 
 and especially by this, that it seems to be as frequently void 
 of all regularitv, or to be fashioned in a quite different 
 manner. 
 
 Where the cellular texture is present in a regular form, it 
 consists of spaces, which, when cut in a longitudinal and cross 
 direction, display six sides and six angles, and the entire cir- 
 cumference of which resembles a dodecahedron. These 
 spaces are chiefly distinguished from the cells of bees, by 
 being more drawn out in length. There is, however, another 
 form of the cellular texture, which seems to be more primi- 
 tive than this. That is, the vesicular or spherical, which 
 seems to arise from the juxtaposition of the primitive sphe- 
 rulae. It is easily conceivable that from this juxtaposition 
 interstices must remain, which, indeed, we see distinctly 
 enough, and which sometimes seem destined to serve im- 
 portant purposes in the future history of the plant. 
 
 The spherical cells become angular, when their sides touch 
 and attract each other in several points. Tliat a figure pre- 
 cisely hexangular should be formed from a circle, is partly a 
 consequence of the effort to be regular, which is the more 
 conspicuous in imperfect organic bodies, the nearer they ap- 
 proach to the productions of the unorganised world, whence 
 regular crystals appear in the products of certain Fungi and 
 Sponges ; and partly it arises from this, that the hexangular 
 form is, next to the circle, that which includes the greatest 
 space, with the smallest extension of its circumference. We 
 often see the spaces which remain between tlie cells, after 
 their form is thus completely changed, filled with peculiar 
 juices, and often these interstices supply the place of tubes, 
 and conduct the unprepared sap upwards. 
 
176 PHYTONOMY. 
 
 273. 
 
 The sides of the cellular texture are, for the most part, 
 very thin, but yet completely impervious ; so much so, that 
 the communication of the sap from one cell to another can 
 only be explained by the supposition of an organic perspira- 
 tion. Yet there are exceptions to this. The cells of the 
 Epidermis are observed to have peculiar slits, (Tab. V. 
 Fig. i^.), of which we shall speak more particularly when we 
 treat of leaves ; and in Pines the extended cells are distinct- 
 ly observed to have gaps, which are surrounded by a pretty 
 high margin ; (Tab. V. Fig. 4.) 
 
 The function of the cellular texture is simply to contain 
 and to prepare the sap. It is not destined to conduct up- 
 wards the unprepared sap, because in the bark and in the 
 pith, both of which have a structure entirely cellular, the as- 
 cent of the sap is not perceived. There are, however, what 
 have been called sap-vessels in the cellular texture, but these 
 originally are nothing else but extended cells, which are 
 often stretched to a considerable length. 
 
 B, On the Sap-Tubes. 
 
 274. 
 The second primitive form of all plants is the tube-form, 
 appearing to the unassisted eye like straight-lined fibres. 
 But by magnifying them we perceive that these apparent 
 fibres have a real, though uncommonly small diameter ; that 
 they are therefore real tubes, which proceed for a consider- 
 able length with a cylindrical shape, and are sharply pointed 
 at both ends; (Tab. V. Fig. 1.) 
 
 275. 
 
 Apparently these tubes are the perfect state of the second 
 common primitive form of organic bodies, namely, the right 
 lined. Because, althovigh they more frequently occur than 
 the third or spiral form, they arc later in being produced, 
 and are first observed, as we have said, in the Nematomyci, 
 
 2 
 
ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 177 
 
 In more perfect plants they are found, for the most part, 
 in the neighbourhood of the spiral vessels : they constitute 
 the basis of trees, and a great part of the young wood, 
 and shew a toughness and a power of resisting violence, 
 which, considering their fineness, is astonishing. That they 
 arise from the first form, cannot be believed, because they 
 proceed directly from the generative sap, like fine straight 
 tubes, close to the spherulae. But the stretched form of the 
 cells is very like the tube-form. It is even undeniable that 
 it constitutes, especially in the lower organic bodies, the 
 transition-form from the cells to the tubes. In the fruit-stalk 
 of the Musci Hepatici and Frondosi we have not yet disco- 
 vered the proper tube-form, but only stretched cells, similar 
 to tubes, which apparently answer the purpose of these latter 
 bodies. 
 
 276. 
 
 The object of Nature, in the formation of tubes, seems 
 simply to be, by means of them to lead upwards the unpre- 
 pared sap. The similarity of the sap-tubes to hair-tubes 
 leads us to consider them as a physical contrivance, by which 
 the ascent of the sap is assisted, although the only principle 
 upon which these last act cannot obtain a place in this struc- 
 ture, (376.) 
 
 The pointed extremities of these sap-tubes present some 
 difficulty to this account. They lie with their ends oblique- 
 ly placed to one another, and the ascent would seem to be in- 
 terrupted by this position, if we did not here also admit the 
 organic perspiration of the sap through partitions which in 
 themselves are impervious. 
 
 C. On the Spiral Vessels. 
 
 This is called the spiral form, because originally it consists 
 of canals, the sides of which are entirely formed by spiral 
 
 M 
 
178 PHYTOTOMY. 
 
 fibres, of extreme fineness. But we must distinguish this 
 form into the primitive and the derived. 
 
 278. 
 
 The primitive spiral-form consists of canals, the diameter 
 of which is almost of the same size throughout, and is from 
 the twelfth to the fiftieth part of a Hne, their sides being 
 composed of those winding fibres, which can easily be un- 
 rolled ; (Tab. IV. Fig. 19.; Tab. V. Fig. 1.) We find an 
 instance of this form in some Confervae, in some of the Musci 
 Hepatici, (Tab. III. Fig. 8.) ; and especially in the cellular 
 texture which covers the surface of the Sphagnum obtusifo- 
 Hum; (Tab. III. Fig. 25.) 
 
 The fibres which, by their windings, form the sides of 
 the spiral canals, have so uncommonly small a diameter, that 
 we might suspect them to be any thing but hollow. Several 
 of them, however, especially in the Scitamineae, commonly 
 stick together, and in this way they are formed into bands ; 
 (Tab. IV. Fig. 19.) They are also easily unrolled, so long 
 as they are in their primitive state, because there is no con- 
 necting membrane, either external or internal, by which 
 they are united ; and this is the chief distinction between the 
 air-vessels of insects and the spiral-vessels of plants, that the 
 former have the winding fibres united by a peculiar mem- 
 brane, and that a soft cellular texture always surrounds 
 them. 
 
 279. 
 But a still more important circumstance essentially distin- 
 guishes the spiral-vessels of plants from the air-vessels of in- 
 sects. The former never divide into branches ; but where 
 they separate, a new pair always places itself on the sides of 
 the old ones, whilst the air-vessels of insects undergo every 
 kind of ramification, from their origin to their finest branches. 
 The primitive spiral-vessels are always in the company of the 
 sap-vessels, and are chiefly found between the bai'k and pith, 
 in the common plants, which are produced with two seed 
 lobes. But they appear later than the sap-vessels, and are 
 
ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 179 
 
 only first discovered when the young plant begins to shoot. 
 They are found also in the root, as well as in the stalk : they 
 partly compose the nerves and veins of the leaves and vessels 
 of the corolla : they are found in the stamina, in the pistilla, 
 in the fruit, and also in the funiculus umbilicalis of the seed. 
 
 280. 
 The interior canal of the spiral-vessels, in its natural state, 
 is always found free from M^ater. It is true, that if a piece of 
 wood be dipped in water, this fluid penetrates into the canal. 
 Also, when we permit coloured fluids to flow into the cut 
 branches of plants, these fluids become apparent in the sides 
 of the spiral canals ; but they are also seen, and still more 
 distinctly, in the neighbouring bundles of sap-vessels ; nay, 
 they penetrate in considerable quantity, even into the cellular 
 texture. AVe are not, therefore, entitled, from this entrance 
 of coloured fluids, to conclude respecting the natural con- 
 tents of these canals, because, in general, this penetration of 
 coloured sap does not succeed in a.i uninjured root. 
 
 281. 
 In spirsil canals, which grow rapidly, the fibres are often 
 torn in such a manner, that they fall together in the shape of 
 rings. These ring-shaped vessels, as they have been called, 
 are, therefore, an entirely accidental variety of the primitive 
 form of the spiral vessels ; and this is the more evident, be- 
 cause we find the same vessel in one situation as a spiral 
 canal, and in another as a ring-shaped vessel. This change, 
 besides, shews incontestibly, that the spiral vessels cannot 
 conduct sap, since they are often nothing else but rings at a 
 distance from one another, the circumferences of which are 
 every where and extensively separated. 
 
 282. 
 
 But an important and essential change of the spiral canal 
 
 is that presented by the Vasa scalaria. Under this name 
 
 are included those canals with transverse openings, which do 
 
 not at all shew the spiral winding of the fibres, and which 
 
 M2 
 
180 PIIYTOTOMY. 
 
 cannot be unrolled ; (Tab. V. Fig. 3.) They are formed 
 by an original spiral vessel meeting with perpendicular fibres 
 in its sides, which fibres cross the winding lines longitudi- 
 nally, and unite them together. These perpendicular fibres 
 belong to the original structure of the spiral fibres, and are 
 by no means part of the neighbouring cellular texture, be- 
 cause, from the first, we see them as j^eculiar fibres, and 
 not as partitions or membranes ; and because, after a gentle 
 maceration, by which the cellular texture is destroyed, these 
 fibres last as long as the twisted fibres oi' the spiral canals 
 themselves. 
 
 But that this form is not accidental, but one which makes 
 part of the original vegetable structure, is evident from this, 
 that in certain families this appearance is so connnon, that in 
 the Ferns, in the Lycopodea?, and in Grasses, we perceive 
 scarcely any other. In young wood, too, this form appears 
 very early, although, in the first shoots, the primitive spiral 
 vessels, having a great resemblance to the pith, long preserve 
 their unchanged shape. 
 
 283. 
 
 A remarkable variety of the spiral form is that in which it 
 appears porous, punctured, or surrounded by a reticulated 
 covering. This also is an original, and by no means an acci- 
 dental form. It is most frequently observed in the roots, 
 and in the woody parts of plants ; (Tab. III. Fig. 25.) 
 
 The origin of these vessels may be explained in the same 
 way as that of the vasa scalaria ; that is to say, perpendicu- 
 lar fibres cross the winding fibres, and bind them together. 
 To this also is added the further circumstance, that, in the 
 instances we have mentioned, the spiral fibres often cling 
 more early together, and take the shape of bands, which being 
 crossed by the perpendicular fibres, form the net-work above 
 mentioned. Not unfrequently \\e observe particular parts 
 of these canals closely contracted, which gives to them the 
 appearance of bladders. We also sometimes remark oblique 
 fibres, especially in Sassafrass wood, which seem to be re- 
 mains of the original twistings of the threads. To the older 
 tubes, a soft and vesicular cellular texture frequently attaches 
 
ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 181 
 
 itself; (Kieser Mem. Tab. IX. Fig. 40.; Tab. XIV. Fig. 
 67.) 
 
 But it is characteristic of these punctured vessels, that they 
 are always larger in their diameter than the primitive spiral 
 vessels or the vasa scalaria, so that in many kinds of wood, 
 particularly in the Bamboo, and the common chair cane, wc 
 can see their sections with the naked eye. But not unfrc- 
 quently the pores of the sides are so regular, and the bladder- 
 form of this canal is so surprising, that we might be disposed 
 to suspect a transition to the porous cell-form, especially as 
 in our Pines, the latter varies so much, that, besides the 
 pores, spiral windings also appear, as in the Yew and the 
 Larch ; (Kieser''s Grundzuge der Anatomie der Pflanzen, 
 Tab. V. Fig. 47. and 48.) 
 
 284. 
 
 As, then, the spiral vessels, and all their varieties, are 
 uniformly found empty of fluids ; as they shew themselves 
 only in the higher plants, and constantly appear wherever a 
 strong shoot is sent out ; as they are always in the com- 
 pany of the sap- vessels ; as, in fine, they maintain, by their 
 constant diagonal direction, the middle situation between 
 the perpendicular and the horizontal ; — from all these con- 
 siderations we must suspect that they are the instruments of 
 the higher vital activity of plants, and that they are the or- 
 gans by which the sap-tubes suffer an external excitement to 
 the speedy propulsion of the sap. 
 
 II. Ofi the Structure of Roots. 
 
 285. 
 The internal structure of the individual parts of plants is 
 always composed of the three primitive forms which we have 
 now described. With respect to roots, in particular, they 
 consist, as was formerly (64.) stated, of the radix and radicle. 
 The latter, as being the organ appropriated to the absorption 
 of the sap, is furnished, for this purpose, in perfect plants. 
 
182 PHYTOTOMY. 
 
 with a multitude of very fine fibrils, or hairs, which arc closed 
 at their extremities, (Reiser's Grundzuge dcr Anatomie der 
 Pflanzen, Tab. VI. Fig. 62.) These hairs in particular, with 
 their close and flaggon-shaped extremities, have a considerable 
 resemblance to the first appearances of the absorbent vessels 
 in the small intestines. As the former, like the latter, are 
 shut, we have in them a new proof of the organical perspira- 
 tion we have mentioned, and which takes place, notwithstand- 
 ing the peculiar impermeability of the partition. These 
 hairs are in immediate connection with the cellular texture of 
 the radicle; and as this first conveys the juice, that has been 
 absorbed, to the sap-vessels, it is evident that the unformed 
 fluids are already considerably changed, before they proceed 
 from the radicle into the root. The entire structure of the 
 radicle is protected by a fine cellular texture which surrounds 
 the sap-vessels in the centre. 
 
 On the ends of the radicle we often perceive drops of a 
 fluid, which is of a slimy consistence, and which, in all pro- 
 bability, has been derived from them. 
 
 286. 
 Some families of plants of the lower orders, the Ferns, 
 Palms, and Hydrocharida?, as also the Naiada?, instead of 
 these small hairs, have a spongy integument at the extremity 
 of the radicle. We observe it, in the form of a coif, or hood, 
 very distinctly in Lemna and Callitrkhe. This integu- 
 ment is not porous, but it consists of a very soft cellular 
 texture, which swells out in some small portions, but in other 
 respects is entirely closed. Here also, therefore, takes place 
 the absorbtion through the impervious partitions of the cellu- 
 lar texture. 
 
 287. 
 The radix, being the continuation of the stem into the earth, 
 has the same constituent parts with it, but with some differ- 
 ences, which are derived from the covering of the soil. Com- 
 monly the pith is wanting, and the centre of the root consists 
 of a woody kernel. Sometimes, however, it is hollow, and 
 
ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 183 
 
 pith is formed when the root is laid open to tlic air. The bark 
 of the root is richly stocked with peculiar juices, which the 
 more readily are collected in it, as the descent of the sap from 
 the stem into the root is favoured by the size of this latter part. 
 This direction of the root towards the centre of the earth, 
 is, without doubt, an effect of the common law of gravitation, 
 to which plants are partly subject, as they are fixed by their 
 lower extremity in the earth. This tendency, however, is 
 considerably modified by other circumstances, which originate 
 in the organization of the plant, so . that in many trees we 
 perceive fewer roots proceeding downwards into the soil, than 
 those which we observe running horizontally. 
 
 288. 
 
 TuberdeSy or tuberculous roots, are distinguished by their 
 
 greater thickness, and by their fleshy appearance, {Q5.^ 
 
 They enclose within a cellular covering certain parts, in which 
 
 the cellular texture is much crowded, and from which the hio-h- 
 
 o 
 
 er forms, the sap-vessels and the spiral-vessels, take their orioin, 
 as being the beginnings of the future shoot. A root has, 
 therefore, the greater means of production, the more tuber- 
 culous it is ; and in many tubercles we can distinguish very 
 accurately, at fixed periods, the harder kerael, from which 
 the future shoots are to arise, from the surrounding soft cellu- 
 lar texture. Even in the higher parts of the stem similar 
 thickened parts occur, in which the power of propagation re- 
 poses ; since, universally, wherever the cellular texture is 
 much crowded, new sap-vessels and spiral-vessels arise as 
 the foundation of future shoots ; whence, in the stem and 
 branches, the transition from tubercles to buds is obvious. 
 
 289. 
 Bulbs appear above and upon the root, like more |x?rfectly 
 formed tubercles. They have, as their foundation, a solid 
 substance, consisting of extremely compressed cellular tex- 
 ture. From this substance spring the germs of the leaves 
 between scales, which are a continuation of that solid matter ; 
 and in the middle of these arises perpendicularly the futiu*e 
 
184 rHYTOTOMY. 
 
 stalk, from the sap-vessels and spiral-vessels, formed by the 
 compressed cellular texture. The solid fundamental body 
 pushes towards the side, horizontally, the young shoot, which, 
 being nourished by its parent substance, is not separated from 
 it until it also has acquired a firm fundamental body, crowned 
 with scales, and is able, consequently, to maintain itself. 
 
 Between this lateral impulse and the upright one, which 
 produces the stalk, there is such an interchange, that the one 
 of these impulses languishes when the other is most active. 
 Hence it is usual, after the flowering of bulbs, to lay them 
 dry, that the quiet lateral impulse may remain undisturbed. 
 Bulbs, which have once completely blossomed and produced 
 seed, usually die. 
 
 III. On the Structure of the Stem. 
 
 H. Colta, Naturbeobachtungen uber Bewegung unci Function des Saftes in 
 den Gewachsen. Weimar, 1806, 4to. 
 
 J. Chr. F. Meyer, Naturgetreue Darstellung der Entwickelung, Ausbildung 
 und des Wachsthums der Pflanzen. Leipsig, 1808, 8vo. 
 
 C. Pollini, Saggio di Osservazioni e di Sperienze sulla Vegetazione degli 
 Alberi. Veron. 1815, 8vo. 
 
 H. L. du Hamel de Monceau, La physique des arbres. A Paris, 1758, 4to, 
 Vol. I. 2. 
 
 P. Keith, System of Physiological Botany, Vol. I. p. 284 — 362. 
 
 290. 
 
 The internal structure of the stem varies according to the 
 great divisions of the vegetable kingdom, which we have no- 
 ticed above, (171. and Part II. Chap. 6.) 
 
 In plants the seed of which contains an undeveloped and 
 rich albuminous body, the bundles of woody fibres, consisting 
 of sap-vessels and spiral- vessels, are spread through the whole 
 stem, and are every where divided by cellular texture. This 
 is most distinctly perceived in the trunks of Palms, in tlie 
 3tems of the Scitamineoe, Musca?, Orchidese, and Coronarise, 
 This dispersed situation proceeds from these plants having no 
 
ANATOMY or PLANTS. 1S5 
 
 cotyledons wliich embrace the young plant during its growth, 
 and its consequence is the parallel progress of the nerves in 
 the leaves, without veins, and without a reticular distribution. 
 In the Ferns alone we observe a construction difterent in 
 this respect, that strong bundles of numerous vasa scalaria 
 are intermingled with the sap-vessels ; and, being surrounded 
 by a peculiar brown cellular membrane, they stand in definite 
 number and in fixed order between the rind and the pith. 
 Here, also, the nerves of the leaves soon pass into veins, and 
 into numerous ramifications. 
 
 291. 
 
 In all perfect plants there is formed, where the two seed- 
 lobes embrace the rising plumula, and out of the knot which 
 vmites these, a connected circle of spiral-vessels and sap-vessels, 
 which rises perpendicularly between the pith and the bark, 
 and thus forms the concentrical layers of the parts of the stem. 
 In the knots of the stem this circle is inteiTupted, at the same 
 time that the cellular texture which is there crowded, affords an 
 opportunity for the production of new spiral-vessels and sap- 
 vessels. In the mean time a similar circle proceeds from the 
 knots upwards. The first spiral-vessels which take their 
 place are always the innermost: these maintain, for a long 
 time, their original shape, and even their green colour. 
 Those of later growth take their place more towards the 
 outer parts of the stalk, have a greater disposition to become 
 woody, and shew this by their speedy transition into vasa 
 scalaria and punctured vessels. 
 
 292. 
 It follows from this, that the innermost and outermost layer 
 of the stem is purely cellular, while the middle ring, on the 
 contrary, is composed of the higher primitive forms. The 
 outermost layer is called the Rind ; it consists of the proper 
 rind and the epidermis, which covers the former. The latter 
 is probably formed by the deposition of sap, and by its hard- 
 ening under the influence of the ingredients of tlic air. It 
 has always a different colour from the proper rind : it is, for 
 
186 PHYTOTOMY. 
 
 instance, white in the Birch and in the Melaleuca leucaden- 
 dron ; of a golden yellow in the Aucidja Japonica ; in a more 
 advanced age, it exhibits slight rents ; by and by it thickens 
 into a substance resembling cork, and, in consequence of the 
 increasing thickness of the stem, it is thrown off, as is very 
 distinctly seen in the Platanus. This latter phenomenon is a 
 proof that the epidermis, in this condition, is no longer orga- 
 nised, nor is of any use to the tree. However, in a consi- 
 derable number of trees, it has a certain permeability, by 
 means of which the ingredients of the air can have an in- 
 fluence through it upon the interior layers. 
 
 293. 
 
 The proper rind, which, in its earliest state, is of a green 
 colour, assumes other hues at a later period. Its cells contain 
 concentrated and peculiar juices, which, by being deposited 
 upon its sides, make them imj:>enetrable to the eye. Many 
 of these cells are so extended by the sap, that they appear 
 like proper sap-vessels; because they are stretched out in 
 length, are surrounded by a very fine cellular texture, and 
 are closed at both ends. In Pines, in Celadine, and also in 
 the Rue species, these peculiar sap-passages can be most dis- 
 tinctly observed. 
 
 The rind cells proceed horizontally through the interior lay- 
 ers of the stem towards the inmost, and open by this means 
 a very remarkable connection between ail these layers, which 
 is of consequence to the explanation of many phenomena. In 
 most trees, however, this connection is interrupted at certain 
 periods of their growth. The juices which rise in the inner 
 bark, pass more readily the higher they ascend, into the gene- 
 rative sap, a kind of slimy organizing fluid. This sap, forcing 
 its way from the outermost layers of the inner bark, tears 
 the rind cells asunder, and fills the space which is thus form- 
 ed between the rind and the inner bark. It is in this way 
 that at the periods I have mentioned the rind is loosened, 
 and a foreign branch, or a bud of another tree, can now much 
 more easily be brought into this space, that it may derive its 
 nourishment from the generative sap, and as it were take i;oot 
 
ANATOxMY OF PLANTS. 187 
 
 in It. This is a short explanation of the artificial production 
 of trees, to which we shall again return, (306.) 
 
 294. 
 
 The bark cannot arise directly from any of the layers that 
 lie beneath it. It owes its origin entirely to the generative 
 sap, and may be reproduced when this flows outwards. 
 
 As the bark forms the place of deposition for the peculiar 
 juices [of the plant, and as these are frequently of a thick, 
 hard, balsamic or oily nature, it becomes by these means a 
 sluggish conductor of heat, and protects the interior layers 
 from the cold as from other external causes of injury. It 
 maintains also the connection of all the interior layers with 
 each other, by means of the radiated cellular vessels, which 
 proceed from it to the pith. 
 
 Great as these benefits are which the bark affords especial- 
 ly to the shrubby plants, its removal and the wounding of the 
 rind are not however attended with immediate danger to the 
 life of the tree. On the contrary, when the peeling of the 
 bark is effected cautiously, the young layers of inner bark 
 and of wood, which lie under it, arrive much earlier, though 
 rather violently, at the state of hard and perfect wood, from 
 the influence of the air. Even the fruitfulness of the tree 
 may be encreased by this peeling of the bark, because the in- 
 ner bark and the alburnum, laid open to the direct influence 
 of the atmosphere, are more powerfully excited, and the juices 
 become more concentrated. Nevertheless, a peeled tree of 
 this kind must necessarily die sooner, unless its superabun- 
 dant vital power affords an opportunity for the production of 
 new bark from the wood. 
 
 295. 
 
 The layer which lies under the bark, and which is called 
 the Inner Bark (liber), is readily distinguished by its whit- 
 ish colour, and by its distinctly fibrous and often mesh- 
 formed structure, as well as by its great flexibility, its tough- 
 ness, durability, and power of resisting the ordinary causes of 
 destruction, especially putrefaction. A closer examination 
 
188 PHYTOTOMY. 
 
 shews, that its apparent fibres are really, tubes, entirely of 
 the same construction with tlie sap-vessels which have been 
 already described. The bundles of these tubes ai'c bent 
 from one another, where the horizontal and radiated cells of 
 the bark intersect them. It is hence that the appearance of 
 meshes is formed ; (Tab. V. Fig. 3.) No trace of spiral ves- 
 sels is found in the inner bark. 
 
 296. 
 This is peculiarly that part of the stem in which the juices 
 ascend, as may be distinctly seen by a horizontal cut into the 
 trunk during spring. The higher these juices ascend, the 
 more are they changed into the organic slime, which is de- 
 nominated the Generative Sap , and, in this sense, the inner 
 bark may be considered as the organ from w hich all the other 
 parts are produced. 
 
 297. 
 The peculiar woody circle, which lies beneath the inner bark, 
 
 is composed of all the three primitive forms. In its earliest 
 state, when it most resembles pith, it consists only of the pri- 
 mitive spiral vessels, together wdth the sap-vessels which con- 
 stantly accompany them, and which are intersected by the ra- 
 diated and converging rind-cells, sent towards them through 
 the inner bark. It is evident that these latter vessels must al- 
 ways become closer set, the nearer they approach the pith. The 
 more recently deposited layers contain for the most part vasa 
 scalaria and punctured vessels, but more seldom a primitive 
 spiral vessel between the individual layers. 
 
 298. 
 In the older branches and stems of many trees, the distinction 
 between the younger and older woody layers, is easily ob- 
 served. The former, which are usually called the alburnum 
 {alburnum)^ are known by their white colour, spongy texture, 
 and inferior durability. Many trees, which either grow ra- 
 pidly, or whose organisation is peculiar, deposit nothing but 
 alburnum ; in many trees, what is called debility of the al- 
 
ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 189 
 
 burnum (splint swache) proceeds from their bad situation, 
 and from other causes, which^ hinder the quiet lateral im- 
 pulse, (416.) 
 
 As the growth of most trees takes place in determinate pe- 
 riods, it is from this circumstance that the annual rings, 
 which we observe in the wood, take their origin. The ear- 
 liest spring growth is commonly the richest ; hence the great- 
 est number of new layers are deposited by it, but, on ac- 
 count of the continued ascent of the sap during the summer, 
 these layers do not experience the gentle lateral pressure to 
 such a degree, as is necessary for the thickening of the sides 
 of the cells and of the sap-vessels, and for the consequent 
 production of wood. The second growth proceeds somewhat 
 more softly ; fewer new layers are deposited ; but the sub- 
 sequent lateral pressure from the bark-cells assists the thick- 
 ening and hardening of the wood more powerfully, on which 
 account the outermost layers of any annual circle are always 
 the firmest and the richest in resinous and oily juices. In 
 many tropical trees, the same distinction of the annual 
 rings is perceived, because in these also there is a periodical 
 change of vegetation during the dry and wet season. On the 
 other hand, the wood of many trees even of our climate shews 
 no annual circles, because they either undergo no double pres- 
 sure from the sap, or because their organisation resists the 
 alternate thickening we have mentioned. Even what is call- 
 ed the Silver-grain {Quer-gefuge), is not equally distinct 
 in all woods, — although it is present in them all, since in all 
 cases the bark pushes the silvery horizontal processes towards 
 the pith. The firmest woods have commonly the most dis- 
 tinct silver-grain, as may be seen in the Oak, the Beech, and 
 the Elm. 
 
 299. 
 The innermost part of the stem, namely the Pith, is as 
 completely cellular as the bark. In young shoots it is full 
 of sap, and is closely united with the woody circles. At a 
 later period the juices are dissipated ; the pith becomes dry 
 and white, and seems no longer to be so closely connected 
 with the wood. The quicker the plant grows, the more is 
 
190 PIIYTOTOMY. 
 
 the pith detached from the wood, until at last it entirely dis- 
 appears, and leaves the stem hollow, as we commonly observe 
 in the umbelliferous plants ; or vacant spaces occur, and the 
 pith is found only about the joints. Sometimes these vacan- 
 cies are divided by regular partitions, as we observe in Jun- 
 cus glaiicus, in Cictita virosa, in trees of the Walnut kind, 
 and in Rose bushes; in which last, from the regular con- 
 struction of these spaces, a connected cellular texture may 
 be remarked. 
 
 The pith vanishes in the hardest woods, because these press 
 ever more and more towards the centre, and, by uniting with 
 the cells of the pith, render them at last completely indistin- 
 guishable. 
 
 300. 
 
 As the layers of the stem become united in the joints, and 
 the primitive vessels are there crowded together and take a 
 different direction, the pith cannot be supposed to proceed 
 through the joints unchanged. There are indeed no pecu- 
 liar partitions, which intersect the cavity of the pith in the 
 joints ; but it is so intermingled with the other parts, that its 
 continuation is evidently interrupted. But the stronger 
 branches are excepted from this remark ; for they are knotted 
 and push out new shoots, without our being able to observe 
 the interruption of the pith. The forming sap hei-e pushes 
 into the space between the bark and the inner-bark, to fonn 
 a reservoir from which new shoots may be unfolded. 
 
 301. 
 
 From the interruption of the pith in the joints, it follows, 
 that this substance is by no means so essential to the produc- 
 tion of the fruit, as some naturalists have believed. And this 
 idea is still further opposed by the fact, that in the Syngene- 
 s\a necessaria we observe the perfect seed only in the circum- 
 ference ; whilst in the middle, where the pith might have had 
 some effect, we see the seed either imperfectly formed, or en- 
 tirely wanting. There are also a gi'eat many trees, which, 
 without having any peculiar pith-cavity, yet produce rich 
 
ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 191 
 
 fruits. Finally, the nature and structure of many fruits are 
 quite inconsistent with this origin, since the soft, spongy, and 
 entirely cellular pith cannot possibly generate organs, which 
 are often as hard as bones, and therefore contain a crowd of 
 spiral-vessels and sap-vessels, which are entirely wanting in 
 the pith. 
 
 Besides, the use of the pith is evidently altogether confined to 
 the time when the young shoots are sent out, when the connec- 
 tion between its cells and the radiated cell-vessels of the wood 
 seems to be subservient to the deposition and preparation of 
 the sap. In more advanced age, when the formation of wood 
 takes place, the radiated vessels themselves afford the means 
 of this deposition, and render the pith cells superfluous. 
 Hence we often enough observe, that in hollow trees, while 
 not only the pith, but the whole of the wood is destroyed, 
 they yet continue to grow, provided only the inner bark 
 remains. 
 
 IV. On the Structure of Buds. 
 
 F. C. Medicus's Beytra^-e zur Pflanzen-Anatomie. Manheim, 1799, 
 1801. 
 
 Dessen^s Pflanzen-physiologische Abhandlungen. Leipsig, 1803. 
 
 Darwin's Phytonomia. 
 
 Aubert du Petit-Thouars* Essay on the Organization of Plants. Paris, 
 1806. 
 
 302. 
 
 We must first establish a general idea respecting germs, 
 before we proceed to a more particular consideration of the 
 formation of buds, because these latter are only germs un- 
 folded, and matured into a variety of shapes, although in 
 Latin, and its kindred dialects, the word Gemmae is used as 
 well for germs as for buds. By genns, we understand every 
 condensation of the peculiar juices, or of the particular matters 
 from which new individuals of the same kind can be produ- 
 ced. In their simplest fomi these germs may be observed in 
 the small granular or spherical bodies, which arc produced in 
 
192 PHYTOTOMY. 
 
 the vessels of Confervae, as also in those which ooze out upon 
 the epidermis of Lichens. These, when they have come to 
 their mature state, are separated from their parent body, and 
 constitute new individuals, which retain not only the essential, 
 but the accidental nature of the parent plants; for it is a leading 
 character of propagation by germs, that these are properly to 
 be regarded as a continuation of the parent plant, by the con- 
 densation of its substance, on which account even accidental 
 peculiarities and diseases propagate themselves in this way, 
 and from this cause the shades of colour in the Lichens and 
 Sponges are so constant, that we are forced to assume them 
 also into the characteristic description. But this very circum- 
 stance renders the determination of species, in these lower or- 
 ganic bodies, a matter of doubt, for propagation by seed is, 
 in their case, out of the question. 
 
 303. 
 
 In trees and woody plants, the structure of the germ is of 
 a more complex nature. The parts of the stem and branches 
 become crowded in particular positions, pass into the sub- 
 stance of each other, and, in this manner, reservoirs and 
 joints are produced, which we observe both in the leaf- 
 stalk of trees of the citron kind, and in the fleshy leaves 
 of other plants. These reservoirs consist of a compact cellu- 
 lar texture, and of the congregated rudiments of new sap- 
 vessels and spiral-vessels, and may be artificially produced, 
 namely, by making an incision in a branch, and thereby pro- 
 moting the appulse of the sap. In every attempt to pro- 
 duce buds artificially, it is a necessary condition of success 
 that these reservoirs should first be formed. They are in- 
 deed produced in all woody plants, even when no proper 
 buds appear, as, in tropical trees especially, we observe them 
 occupying the place of buds. 
 
 304. 
 
 These last mentioned bodies, in the case of our fruit and 
 forest trees, commonly appear, during the time of the second 
 growth, in the axis of the leaves, or at the extremity of the 
 
ANATOMY or PI- ANTS. 19.'{ 
 
 branches, and, towards harvest, increase gradually in circum- 
 ference and size. They always arise out of those reservoirs, 
 are outwardly surrounded by variously coloured scales, which 
 are often bound together by a substance of a resinous nature, 
 and contain within them leaves or leafy scales, which are 
 placed upon one another and bound t(jgether in a peculiar 
 manner. They are found, for instance, in the Ash, (Tab. 
 IV. Fig. 5.), mutually riding, as it were, on each other ; and 
 they have a similar construction in the Alder; (Tab. IV^ 
 Fig. 2.) In the Salisburia they stand clenching each other ; 
 (Tab. IV. Fig. 7.) In the Horse-Chesnut, and in the Medlar, 
 they are folded into each other; (Tab. IV. Fig. 6.) In some 
 trees these scaly coverings are in a very small number, as in the 
 Guelder-rose bush, (Tab. IV. Fig. 8.) ; and especially in tlie 
 Tuhp-tree ; (Tab. IV. Fig. 3. 4.) These scales have either 
 the future leaves lying between them, as in the Alder, (Tab. 
 IV. Fig. 2.) ; or the leaves are found only in the centre of 
 the bud. In most instances the future leaves are folded and 
 bent in a variety of ways. A woolly sort of substance also is 
 often found between them, which evidently serves to keep off 
 the cold, to prevent the influx of superfluous moisture, and 
 to be a defence against other external injuries. The bud is of- 
 ten so protected by the closely shut and firmly agglutinated 
 scales, that no external power can have effect upon it, unless 
 it is inflicted by a very powerful cause. Until these cover- 
 ings unfold themselves, the bud can only be nourished by the 
 reservoir from which it arises. 
 
 305. 
 
 In many instances buds contain only leaves, but in other 
 cases they inclose also the rudiments of the future blossom. 
 Hence, in fruit trees, we commonly divide them into Wood 
 and Fruit buds. The former, which are of a smaller size and 
 more pointed, contain only the future leaf; the latter of 
 greater roundness, discover, when they are cut through, the 
 germ of the coming flower. However, they pass into one 
 another ; for the active and more perpendicular movement of 
 the unformed sap is their producing cause ; but the fruit-buds 
 
 N 
 
require a slower lateral movement and the co-operation of the 
 rnid-cells, on which account stinmli and v/ounding of the rind 
 often force the tree to put forth fruit-buds. The same purpose 
 is promoted by the constrained, horizontal, and bent jx)sition 
 of the branches. It is on this account that gardeners so ma- 
 nage their fruit-trees, as to remove the branches which rise 
 directly upwai'ds, and lead out into a fan-shape only those 
 that rise obliquely, that in this wav the tree mav be urged to 
 put out more fruit-buds. 
 
 :306\ 
 The idea is altogether false that wood-buds are produced 
 by the wood-circle, and fruit-buds by the pith or bark. 
 Every bud, as we have already said, arises from a reservoir, 
 which owes its origin to the generative sap. As this is the 
 product of the inner bark, all buds originate properly in 
 tlie inner-bark, and in so far as the wood also contains 
 inner-bark vessels, these may be considered as contributing 
 to the formation of buds. But we must more especially at- 
 tend to the connection of the buds \rith the inner-bark itself, 
 to understand particularly the success of the insertion of 
 buds, at the time when the rind is loosened from the inner- 
 bark, and the intervening space is full of generative sap, (293.) 
 
 307. 
 
 Finally, the position of buds on the stem is worthy of 
 notice. Generally we find them either placed opposite to 
 each other, or alternating. If, however, we attend to the 
 series of their positions on the stem or branches, we frequent- 
 ly, at least, perceive a spiral line on which they are set. We 
 see in this case, again, the continually equalised and ever 
 renewed contest between the perpendicular and horizontal 
 direction. 
 
 Buds plant their roots, which i'.re properly continuations of 
 the sap-vessels, between the inner-bark and the rind^ and 
 every bud ought to be considered as a new individual, which, 
 separated from its parent body, has the power of being pro- 
 pagated. Hence the art of the multiplication of trees. In 
 
ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 19:> 
 
 imperfect plants, propagation is commonly by means ol' buds. 
 The forms and colours still remain in this way, after the pa- 
 rent plant has been completely divided. 
 
 Those plants must be related whose buds are fitted to be 
 propagated together ; but to what extent this relationship 
 must exist is not quite clear. It is certain that evergreens 
 may be propagated on plants which are deciduous, if they be- 
 long to the same genus, (Hopkirk, Flor. Anom. p. 19) * 
 
 It is certain that the usual mode of propagation by layers, 
 grafts, and shoots, diminishes the power of the plants to pro- 
 duce seed. It is hence that Salisburia adiantifolia, Sac- 
 cliarum officinarum^ and Bamhusa aruiidinacea, very seldom 
 produce blossoms or seed with us. 
 
 V. On the Structure of the Leaves. 
 
 C. Bonnet, Recherches sur I'usage des Feuilles dans les Plantee. Geneve, 
 1754. 
 
 308. 
 
 The leaves are an expansion into a surface of those primi- 
 tive forms which in the stem stand near each other, or were 
 inclosed within one another. We hence find the leaves to be 
 altogether of a cellular structure, in those plants whose stem 
 contains no other form, as in the Mosses, among which, how- 
 ever, the Sphagnum ohtusifollum shews the same fine spiral 
 fibres in its cells, which we find on the surface of the stem ; 
 (Tab. III. Fig. 25.) 
 
 • Virgil speaks as a poet, not as a natural historian, when he sings, (Georg. 
 II. 69.) 
 
 Inseritur vero et foetu nucis arbutus horrida, 
 Et steriles platani malos gessere valentes : 
 Castaneae fagus, ornusque incanuit albo 
 Flore pyri ; glandemque sues fregere sub ulmis. 
 
 The best introduction to the artificial propagation of trees is in Munchau- 
 sen's Hausvater, Book V. vid. 675—758. 
 
 N2 
 
196 PHYTOTOMY. 
 
 The leaves of those plants, whose stems comain scattered 
 and parallel bundles of spiral vessels and sap-vessels, with in- 
 tervening cellular texture, exJiibit only parallel nerves, with- 
 out the appropriated veins, as in the Grasses, the Pahns, 
 the Coronaria?, the Iridea^, and the Scitaminese. In Fern^ 
 we observe a peculiai* distribution of the nerves and veins. 
 These seldom anastomose with one another, but more com- 
 monly issue in clear and pellucid points, which, by a more 
 careful dissection, shew the extremities of the spiral vessels in 
 a vermicular form. Something similar is observed in the 
 Hypericum duhhim of Smith, and in some species of Crassio- 
 la. The distribution of the nerves and veins is carried pe- 
 culiarly far in the leaves of the Aroidese, and the Melasto- 
 mea?, for they are united on the margin of the leaf by large 
 anastomoses, which run parallel with the margin. 
 
 309. 
 
 The nerves and veins of leaves are a continuation of the 
 bundles of spiral and sap vessels, and therefore they remain 
 uninjured during the maceration of the cellular texture. 
 They thus exhibit, frequently, a beautiful skeleton, the de- 
 licacy and almost endless ramifications of which are astonish- 
 ing ; (Seligman's Nahrungsgefasse in der Blattern der 
 Baume, Nurnberg, 1748, folio.) But the cellular texture, 
 which fills the interstices of this net-work, and which, on ac- 
 count of its juicy consistence, is distinguished by the name of 
 Parenchyma, is of as much importance as the net-work itself. 
 
 The cells of leaves have a different structure, according as 
 they are nearer the upper or lower surface. Near the upper 
 surface, they are more extended in length, and take the form 
 of prisms or cylinders, in preference to any other shapes. 
 Besides, the upper surface of leaves is frequently covered by 
 an apparently impermeable, and somewhat brilliant epider- 
 mis, in which we observe no further remarkable organization. 
 On the lower surface, again, the cells are more extended in 
 width ; here and there also spaces void of juice occur, or 
 some of the cells seem to have lost their sap, and to have be- 
 come filled with air. Their partitions undergo a change, 
 
ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 19^ 
 
 since they often, instead of the right-lined direction, assume 
 a crooked, folded, or winding form; and the cells or spaces 
 of the cellular texture, which want their sap, are thus placed, 
 by means of peculiarly constructed slits, in immediate com- 
 munication with the external atmosphere. 
 
 310. 
 
 These slits are commonly oval-shaped, and pointed at the 
 extremities, being encompassed by a border, which consists of 
 a granular or glandular mass, and can frequently be torn 
 off; (Tab. V. Fig. 2.) The partitions of the cellular texture 
 either unite with this border, or they pass round it without 
 touching it. 
 
 The size of these organs is as various as their number. In 
 the Coronariae, where they are largest, their longitudinal dia- 
 meter is from the twelfth to the twentieth part of a geometri- 
 cal line, and their diameter, in the cross direction, is from the 
 twenty-fourth to the fortieth part. They are exceedingly fine 
 in the most perfect plants, as the Myrteae, Rosaceae, Legu- 
 minosae, and Caryophylleae. Two hundred of them, at least, 
 might lie upon a geometrical line. 
 
 Their number is as various. The smaller they are, the 
 more numerous they usually are. In general, we can count 
 from fifty to two hundred of these slits upon a square line. 
 
 311. 
 
 These organs have some resemblance to the air-vessels of 
 insects, especially when we compare them witli the raised 
 pores of the chrysalis of the Sphinx populi ; (Mein. Comment, 
 depart, quibus insect, spirit, ducunt. Tab. II. Fig. 16.) But 
 there is this difference between these two kinds of organs, 
 that the pores of insects always contain the stem of the air- 
 pipes, whilst the slits of plants are in no immediate contact 
 with the spiral vessels. Yet it is very worthy of notice that 
 these two sets of vessels are produced together ; and as the 
 Ferns first shew the spiral vessels, the first symptoms of slits 
 arc also seen in them. 
 
198 PHYTOTOMY. 
 
 312. 
 ' The appearance of these slits, in certain families, has, how- 
 ever, some other remarkable circumstances, which at least 
 somewhat limit the relation of the spiral vessels to these organs. 
 Among plants of an entirely cellular structure, slits have been 
 actually observed, although they are but rare, in the Marchan- 
 tia, and in some species of Splachnum. Those plants of the 
 higher orders, which have no green leaves, are destitute also 
 of slits. Although, commonly, they appear only on the un- 
 der surface, they are yet observed on both surfaces in the 
 Coronaria?, the Grasses, the Palms, and even in Pines. But 
 they are found only on the upper surface of water plants, 
 whose leaves are spread out flat upon the water, and in such 
 land plants as have their leaves lying flat upon the ground. 
 
 But these slits are found on every leafy integument, pro- 
 vided it be not too much set with hairs. They are according- 
 ly observable on the exterior surface of the calyx, and serve, 
 when the calyx takes the place of the corolla, or is united 
 with it, as an excellent mark of distinction between these two 
 coverings of the sexual parts. They are as invariably want- 
 ing in the proper corollar integument, as in the sexual parts 
 themselves, (175.) Yet in one instance they have been ob- 
 served in the epidermis of the Cherry ; (Vom Bau und der 
 Natur der Gewachse, Tab. IX. Fig. 43.) 
 
 313. 
 
 The use of these organs is by no means confined to one 
 function ; but, as in plants, and even in the lower animals, 
 the same organ can perform two apparently opposite func- 
 tions ; so these slits appear to be destined as well for the re- 
 ception and preparation of gaseous matters, as for exhalation. 
 The former of these functions seems to be established by the 
 facts, that leaves absorb more powerfully with their under 
 than with their upper surface, and that the slits are more nu- 
 merous in juicy plants, which are nourished more by the sur- 
 faces of the leaves than by the roots. And that the slits ex- 
 hale, and even serve for evaporation, wo learn frcjm the expe- 
 riments of Trcviranus, in which plates of ghiss. fixed to the 
 
under surface of leaves, were covered, after some time, with 
 drops of dew, while they were little or not at all stained when 
 they were fastened to the upper surface. 
 
 314. 
 
 Generally the leaves, and leafy integuments, are the or- 
 gans, which, by exhalation and absorption, like the breathing 
 organs of animals, maintain the proper composition of the 
 plant, and contribute essentially to nourishment and propa- 
 gation. 
 
 Experiments and observations have instructed us, that 
 healthy and green leaves, during sunshine, take in carbonic 
 acid, and give out oxvgen in the state of gas. In the shade, 
 and at night, as also when they are sickly and take a differ- 
 ent colour from the green, they take in oxygen gas, and give 
 out carbonic acid. By these two functions, however, the 
 condition of the atmosphere is not to any great extent alter- 
 ed, either with respect to its quantity of oxygen, or of car- 
 bonic acid. Let us then enclose the green parts of vegetables 
 in a definite portion of air. In this case the quantity of oxy- 
 gen, during sunshine, is increased to such an extent, that 
 from twelve square inches of green blades, ten cubic inches of 
 oxygen are produced in a few minutes. The increase of car- 
 bonic acid from plants, which are confined in the shade, may 
 also be observed from the resolution of lime-water placed in 
 a similar confined space. In the open air, on the contrary, 
 scarcely more than the usual quantity of oxygen is imparted, 
 by this means, to the atmosphere, because it is impossible 
 that all the lea\es can be at the same time illuminated by the 
 sun ; for in bushes, forests, and gardens, a greater pro|X)r- 
 tion of leaves is always in shade, and, consequently, by the 
 production of carbonic acid, the quantity of oxygen giis is 
 balanced. It thus happens that the produced oxygen is 
 constantly consumed^ as well by the shaded leaves as by 
 animals, and also by the soil, which is incessantly taking 
 it up. It maintains an equality with the carbonic acid given 
 out in the shade. This carbonic acid is constantly deposited, 
 during the night, along with liic dc\v : jnul dnrin<; ^\ui-]iin(\ 
 
200 PIIYTOTOMY. 
 
 plants consume as much as they give out when they art in 
 the shade. 
 
 It has been observed, that a smaller quantity of carbonic 
 acid is always given out in the shade, than the quantity of 
 oxygen absorbed ; and, also, that tlie (quantity of the latter in- 
 creases when branches or leaves are cut off. Both circum- 
 stances seem to shew, that oxygen is not merely concerned 
 in the formation of carbonic acid, but is also appropriated as 
 a part of the plant : and the more so, because, according to 
 the latest experiments, juicy plants, and those with fleshy 
 leaves, consume the greatest quantity of oxygen, and form 
 the smallest product of carbonic acid. 
 
 315. 
 
 Which of the two surfaces of the leaves performs these 
 functions, or how they are divided between the two, is not 
 yet completely ascertained. Most experiments favour the 
 idea that the upper surface of the leaves is especially employ- 
 ed in exhalation. This surface is also the better adapted 
 for this purpose, as it is better exposed to the light of the 
 sun, and can give out the oxygen through the closed parti- 
 tions of its cells, just as easily as, in perfect animals, this same 
 substance forms a communication for itself through the shut 
 vesicles of the lungs, and the equally impervious partitions of 
 the other vessels. 
 
 316. 
 
 The exhalation of oxygen gas, during sunshine, is an ef- 
 fect of several conspiring circumstances. One necessary in- 
 ternal condition is the vital activity of the plant, which being 
 excited by the light of the sun, decomposes the carbonic acid 
 watei" in such a way, that while the oxygen is given out, car- 
 bon and hydrogen are fixed and become appropriated. The 
 exhaled oxygen gas is by no means derived from the decom- 
 position of water into its constituent partsj because, some- 
 times, the quantity of the oxygen corresponds exactly with 
 the quantity of carbonic acid which has been consumed ; and 
 because, sometimes, no oxygen gas is produced, when water, 
 
ANAT()?;iV OF P1.A>.TS. 201 
 
 deprived of its carbonic acid, is exposed to the light of the 
 sun. Universally this effect ceases when the leaves begin to 
 fade, to become discoloured, and to fall. It is most power- 
 ful in leaves which fall periodically, because their irritabi- 
 lity is considerably greater than that of evergreen and fleshy 
 leaves. This effect is, in the last place, most actively produ- 
 ced, when the electrical excitation of the atmosphere is great- 
 est, on which account the greatest quantity of oxygen is ex- 
 haled from leaves during Spring, after a storm, and in the 
 morning. 
 
 317. 
 
 But the exhalation of oxygen gas is closely connected 
 with a remarkable property of leaves, namely, their green co- 
 lour. As this colour in the rainbow stands exactly in the 
 middle, between the two outermost tints, the red and the vio- 
 let, — as it is bounded on the one side by the yellow, and on 
 the other b}^ the blue, — as all experiments further shew that 
 the red and yellow tints are more of an oxygenous, and tlie 
 blue and violet more of a hydrogenous nature, — it is extreme- 
 ly probable, that the green colour is the effect of a neutrali- 
 zation between the two extreme colours, or that it arises, when 
 the light has attracted exactly as much oxygen as was requi- 
 red by the hydrogen and carbon which remained. And this 
 theory seems to be conffrmed by the following observations. 
 All plants, so long as they are withdrawn from the light of 
 the sun, are of a pale yellow colour, and regain this same hue 
 when, as in the instance of the Endive and Cardoon, they 
 have been covered with earth and blanched. In this condi- 
 tion, they are rich in oxydized juice, as theii' sweet taste, and 
 the tenderness of their parts, shew. Besides, these blanched 
 plants give out nothing but carbonic acid water, saccharine 
 matter, and mucilage. As soon, however, as the light of the 
 sun has called forth the proper activity of the plant, it emj)- 
 ties itself of its superfluous oxygen, and forms those partly 
 resinous, partly oily substances^ which we find connected 
 with the green colouring matter. The green colouring mat- 
 ter evinces its resinous nature by this circumstance, that it 
 
2!02 PHYTOTOMY. 
 
 dissolves completely in spirit of wine ; but, as it is not ckp>- 
 sited by water from this solution, but continuing mixed witli 
 it, gives out a very nauseous hepatic smell, it is likely that 
 azote goes also to the composition of this green colouring 
 matter. We shall come back again to this subject, and only 
 notice farther here, that a higher degree of vital activity in 
 leaves, awakened by the light of the sun, often produces a 
 blue colour from the green. In tliis case, there is probably 
 an excess of hydrogen above carbon, as the putrefactive fer- 
 mentation of woad and indigo, which is encouraged for the 
 production of the blue colour, seems to shew. The blue 
 colour of woad and indigo passes again, with mineral acids, 
 into green, and lastly into yellow. 
 
 Decayed and falling leaves are yellow and red, because the 
 oxygen remains in them after the vital activity is gone. 
 
 318. 
 
 This peculiar breathing of plants through the leaves has 
 the most important influence upon their whole economy. Bv 
 this only the proper mixture of the juices, and the produc- 
 tion of fruit, is accomplished. It is hence that the leafing (jf 
 plants is so necessary to the setting and ripening of the fruit, 
 and that an attack of lightning, by which the leaves are de- 
 stroyed, is injurious to hops and to all other plants. The re- 
 ception of gaseous matters is equally important to tlie foi- 
 mation of the proper juices, and to the perfection of every 
 other vital function. 
 
 319. 
 
 But we must also treat of the absorption of fluids in the 
 shape of drops or of vapours, and of their evaporation, as be- 
 ing important functions of the leaves. 
 
 That the vapours and rain-drops are absorbed by leaves, 
 is evident to sight. This also is confirmed by the fact, that 
 a multitude of plants which have insignificant roots, yet grow 
 very freely by absorbing with their green surface the nourish- 
 ing fluidity of the atmosphere. In the parched deserts of 
 Africa, where the cjuantily of rain in a century rises scaiccly 
 
ANATOMY OF PLANTS OQ^ 
 
 to the height of an inch, the most juicy plants are often 
 found to grow to an astonishing height. They can only be 
 nourished by means of their green surfaces. In hot-houses, 
 t03, we never attain a brisk growlh so much by watering the 
 roots of the plants, as by an artificial wetting and sprinkhng 
 of the plants from above. Evident as all this is, it is still 
 a difficult matter to explain this absorption, upon com- 
 mon principles, through the closed sides of the cells. We 
 might indeed ascribe this effect to the under surface of the 
 leaves, on which principally the slits are seen ; but as dew 
 and rain much more frequently fall than ascend, we cannot 
 avoid confining this absorption of the vapours and fluid drops, 
 to the upper surface, on which supposition, we are again 
 forced to betake ourselves to an organic perspiration. 
 
 320. 
 
 The evaporation of leaves is one of the most obvious and 
 important of their functions. No person can deny it, who 
 has noticed the drops of clear moisture on the }X)ints of leaves, 
 even in hot-houses, where they cannot be affected by the dew ; 
 or who has traced the movement of a mist in a still evening, 
 as it raises itself from fields planted with vegetables ; or who 
 has seen the rising of clouds from forests, and the ascent of 
 vapoury columns from the same places before the formation 
 of a storm. In fact, plants lose, by evaporation from their 
 leaves, the greatest part of the moisture which they take in 
 by their roots ; the proportion of the water absorbed, to that 
 lost by evaporation, is as 15 to 13, seldom as 4 to 1. It is 
 hence that a branch without leaves, when it has been placed 
 in water, becomes heavier than one in a state of frondescence, 
 because it wants the organs through which it may relieve it- 
 self of its superfluous nourishment. The organs whicli are 
 chiefly employed in evaporation are the slits, and also the 
 hairs, which latter organs are therefore more abimdant in 
 young shoots, and in those parts whose evaporation is most 
 active. 
 
204? THYTOTOMY. 
 
 321. 
 
 Evajx)ration has an essential influence on the economy of the 
 plants themselves, and on the whole economy of nature. The 
 activity by which tlie plant empties itself of its superfluous 
 matters, operates as an incitement to the other functions, and 
 a plant is, in truth, the more healthy, the more freely it eva- 
 porates. Yet there may be an excess in this also, especially 
 when not only unformed juice, but the prepared and proper 
 sap, is given off". The sudden and powerful operation of 
 the sun-beams after a passing drizzling rain, favours not un- 
 frequently the perspiration of oxidized slime and of sweet 
 drops, which are known by the name of " honey-dew.^ 
 Swarms of insects are thus invited, whose young brood over- 
 spread the surface of the leaves as a fine powder, and ren- 
 der them incapable of performing their functions. Tliis is 
 the simple explanation of the blight, or of the mildew, as 
 every person may convince himself by observation, (426.) 
 
 322. 
 
 The evaporotion of leaves has a great influence on the ge- 
 neral economy of nature. As in the transition from the form 
 of drops to that of vapour, a greater portion of heat is con- 
 sumed, the quicker this transition takes place ; we find in 
 this fact a principal cause of the low temperature which the 
 juices of living plants exhibit even during the greatest sum- 
 mer heat. Nay, the shade of a leafy tree will alwaj^s afford 
 a greater coolness to sentient animals, than the shade of life- 
 less objects. 
 
 The influence which the evaporation of leaves has upon the 
 whole atmosphere, as well as upon the earth and its waters, 
 produces very extensive effects. Forest regions are not only 
 cooler, but also more productive of rain, than steppes and 
 sandy deserts, where vegetation is entirely wanting. All the 
 streams of the world have their sources in mountain chains 
 covered with woods ; and although the melted snow is their 
 immediate cause, they would neither continue to be poured 
 along, nor grow to a river, unless forests and woods, by their 
 evaporation, incessantly afforded tlie necessary stores of wa- 
 
ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 205 
 
 ler. The largest rivers in the world flow in South America, 
 in Upper India, and in Northern Asia, through forests of 
 immeasurable extent. 
 
 323. 
 
 We perceive in leaves a remarkable difference in point of 
 duration. Some of them, the evergreens, remain very long, 
 and fall off at least without any regularity. These are com- 
 monly of a firmer and more tough consistence, as they are 
 very small and needle-shaped, and contain a number of pecu- 
 liar, resinous, or oily juices. This characteristic leads us to 
 the conclusion, that the irritability of such leaves is not ade- 
 quate to their complete exhaustion. 
 
 With respect again to other leaves, which have a fixed pe- 
 riodical change of budding and falling, we can find no other 
 cause of this but their more perfect irritability, which, having 
 been exposed for a length of time to stimuli, is at last ex- 
 hausted, as in all the higher organised beings the vital activi- 
 ty acts periodically. External accidents have indeed an influ- 
 ence upon these phenomena, but the weathering of the sea- 
 sons cannot be the only cause of this change, since in hot- 
 houses and green-houses, we see that tropical plants, which 
 enjoy the same heat and the same nourishment during the- 
 whole year, yet undergo this periodical change. 
 
 VI. On (he Structure of Blossoms'. 
 
 324. 
 
 We refer to the distinction which we have stated above, 
 (89, 90. 101.), between the calyx, the corolla, and the nec- 
 tary, whilst we now apply ourselves to a more careful exami- 
 nation of the structure of these parts. We have already 
 stated, (185.), that the calyx has the same structure with the 
 leaves, as it springs from them. 
 
 It is the Corolla, therefore, which must chiefly occupy us 
 at present. When it is not united with the calyx, it is distin- 
 guished by a surface, which, in general, is of an extremely 
 
^06 PHVTOTOi\IY. 
 
 fine cellular structure, and the superficial cells of which rise 
 up into fine prominences or pyramidal shaped knobs, on 
 which we often perceive fine drops of a fluid. This construc- 
 tion occasions the brilliant appearance which many blossoms 
 assume in the light of day, and especially during sunshine. 
 We call this fine surface the CoroUar Integument. When 
 the calyx and corolla are united, when, as in the Rosaceae, 
 the filaments seem to be fixed in the calyx, it is, however, 
 from this ccrollar integument that they arise. The parts of 
 the corolla, also, frequently alternate with those of the calyx, 
 as in the Ribes, the Rhamneae, the Salicariae, and the Melas- 
 tomeae, because both these parts spring from one base, and 
 shew the corollar integument sometimes only on the inner 
 surface and sometimes on both surfaces. In the Polygoneas 
 we find this same transition of the parts of the corolla and 
 calyx into each other, evincing that these two organs, not> 
 withstanding their usual separation, are yet very nearly re- 
 lated, and can pass into each other. 
 
 This corollar integument covers the proper parenchyraa, 
 which is the seat of the colouring matters, and which dis- 
 plays a great variety of tints in different blossoms. The cel- 
 lular texture is by no means regulai' in blossoms; yet the 
 sides of the cells are not so bent, as they are seen to be on 
 the epidermis of the under surface of leaves. When this 
 cellular texture, the seat of the coloured fluid, is taken 
 away, we then perceive the spiral vessels, and less frequently 
 the sap-tubes: they appear in bundles on the basis of the 
 petals. But most frequently we observe them single towards 
 the circumference, apparently ramified, and anastomosing with 
 each other in great arched lines, until at the margin they 
 gradually pass away, so that the most powerful magnifiers 
 are scarcely able to shew us distinctly their extremities. 
 
 As the spiral vessels resist maceration, very fine skeletons 
 may be prepared and kept, as well from the blossoms as from 
 the leaves. 
 
ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 207 
 
 325. 
 
 The structure of nectaries, and the apparatus belonging to 
 ihem, corres])onds, in this respect, with die structure of die 
 corolla, that the nectarilyniata and the nectarotheca? are often 
 parts of the corolla, or such likenesses of the parts of the co- 
 rolla, that we sometimes hesitate to which of the organs they 
 should be assigned. In order to be convinced of what has 
 now been stated, we may examine the nectarilymata of Phy- 
 lica, (Tab. II. Fig. 15.) ; of Agathosma, (Tab. II. Fig. 
 ^22.) ; and of Biittnera, (Tab. IV. Fig. 18.) The proper 
 nectaries, in the strict sense of the word, are cellular or glandu- 
 lar organs, which we find on the receptacle, or at the base of 
 the filaments. 
 
 326. 
 
 If we attend to the appearance of the corolla in the differ- 
 ent families of plants, we observe, in those of the simplest and 
 lowest organization, that there is either no trace at all of this 
 organ, or a feeble one ; but where it does shew itself, it is no- 
 thing but a colourless scale, or it consists of a fine and very 
 pellucid membrane. Coloured coverings for the sexual 
 parts, first appear in the Musci frondosi, which, beside these, 
 have also a permanent cap, by which the fruit is covered till 
 it be perfectly ripe. In the Piperea?, and most of the 
 Naida?, we find scarcely any thing but some fine scales below 
 the sexual parts, which it is difficult to consider as representa- 
 tives of the corolla; (Tab. III. Fig. 4, 5.) The Aroideag 
 supply the want of the corolla by sheaths, which are often of a 
 beautiful colour, and from which the spadix projects, or here 
 and there some white hairs arise, which may be considered as 
 the representatives of the corolla ; (Tab. II. Fig. 11.) In 
 the Cyperoidae there are also some scales only ; whilst, in the 
 Grasses, there are fine pellucid membranes, which we must 
 regard as the corolla. But the outermost valves are some- 
 times coloured, as in Triodia, J vena versicolor, and Ses- 
 leria coerulea. The Restiacea3 and Junceae begin to exhibit 
 a regular corolla, which, in some genera, is beautifully co- 
 loured. The colouring of the corolla proceeds through the 
 
208 . PTIVTOTU.MV. 
 
 Palms, Sarmentace.T, and Coronaria\ onwards to the Iri- 
 deae, Scitamineac, and Orcliidete, where it is evolved in the 
 greatest magnificence. Although these, in some respects, are 
 families of a lower rank, we yet thus see, that in the progress 
 of nature towards a more complete evohition of forms, it is 
 seldom that a harmonious construction of all the parts takes 
 place, but that commonlv one organ is exquisitely fashioned, 
 while others remain imperfect ; since the Pine tribe, the 
 ArmentaccfB and Urticea*, which, in many respects, stand 
 higher than the before named families, yet want, w ith some ex- 
 ceptions, a proper corolla, their sexual ])arts being commonly 
 protected merely by scales. 
 
 The Polygoneae and Chenopodeae also shew only a corollar 
 integument of the calyx. In the Santale;e, Thymela^a^ 
 Proteacea^, Laurina?, and Tricocca?, the calyx is also formed 
 with the same integument, and might be mistaken for a true 
 corolla. It is in the Nyctagina^ and Primulea? that the co- 
 rolla first begins to be distinctly separated from the calvx, and 
 to take the place of a pecjuliAr organ. 
 
 327. 
 
 If we attend more particularly to the colour of blossoms^ 
 as their most striking characteristic, it is evident that the 
 operation of the light of the sun upon the exceedingly line 
 structure and on the juices of the delicate parenchyma of the 
 corolla, is the principal cause of the evolution of these colours. 
 This is evident from the fact, that not only tropical plants 
 have the utmost magnificence of colour in their blossoms, but 
 that also in the polar regions some very warm tints appear 
 upon the flowers ; because every person knows, that where the 
 sun does not set for several weeks, he must exert an uncom- 
 monly powerful influence on vegetation,— as is also apparent 
 from the rapid ripening of the summer crop in the polar 
 countries. 
 
 As an internal cause of the colours of blossoms, we must 
 attend also to the green colouring matter of the leaves. The 
 tints of the blossoms arise from this, by a change in the pro- 
 portion of oxydation, as we perceive in the corollar integu- 
 
ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 209f 
 
 iiient of the calyx, and as we also see it in the colouring of 
 the bracteae : since most of these pass again, when treated 
 with alkalies, into the green hue. The red juice of many 
 blossoms becomes, by means of alkalies, first blue, then green, 
 and, lastly, yellow. The iron in the soil has also a consider- 
 able influence in changing the red colour of the Hydrangea 
 into a blue. When, from all these facts, we conclude, that 
 the green colouring matter, as it passes into the corolla, frees 
 itself from its superfluous hydrogen and azote, and, in that 
 way, becomes more oxydized, we are supported in this con- 
 clusion by a variety of considerations ; not only by the before- 
 noticed change of colours by alkalies, but also by the solubility 
 of the colours of blossoms in water ; and more than all this, 
 by the frequent exhalation of azotic and hydrogen gas from 
 blossoms. 
 
 328. 
 
 It cannot be denied, however, that a multitude of diffi- 
 culties still remain, and that many hypotheses must yet be 
 adopted and rejected, before we can flatter ourselves that we 
 have come near the truth. 
 
 Of the utmost consequence, in particular, is the great va- 
 riation of colour, of which the Hibiscus midabilis, and Gladio- 
 his versicolor, afford the most striking examples, although 
 the fact is seen, in an inferior degree, in many other blossoms, 
 which, when they are first unfolded, are coloured by tints 
 different from those which they afterwards assume. It seems 
 that this variation of colour passes most frequently into the 
 red, because many white and blue flowers take this colour 
 in their later stages ; nay^ in a few cases, the yellow colour, 
 as in the Medicago media Pers., passes into the violet. It 
 cannot well be denied, that a variation in the proportion of 
 oxygen lies at the foundation of this fact. 
 
 329. 
 
 The smell of blossoms is another lemarkable property, the 
 explanation of which will be facilitated, at least, in some de- 
 gree, by vvhat we have already said respecting colours. It 
 
 O 
 
'210 PHYT0T03IY. 
 
 cannot be denied, tliat in all odorous matters hydrogen pre- 
 dominates. Along with this, the finest parts of the peculiar 
 juices are drawn out, and occasion the manifold smell of 
 flowers. That hydrogen is given out by flowers, may also 
 be concluded from the powerful evaporation of blossoms, 
 which, according to some observations on the Arum cordifo- 
 Ihim Bory, can even generate drops of water. To the same 
 purpose, also, are the experiments which have been made re- 
 specting the inflammability of the atmosphere of White Dit- 
 tany, by lighted bodies, as well as respecting the flashes given 
 out by many flowers on sultry summer evenings. 
 
 That azotic gas is produced from flowers, and that they 
 even regularly exhale it along with carbonic acid, at the same 
 time that they inhale oxygen, has been shewn by Saussure, 
 (Recherches Chimiques sur la Vegetation, p. 127.), and by 
 Grischow, (Untersuchungen iiber die Athmungen der Ge- 
 wachse, sect. 154.) ; but we shall return again to this im- 
 portant observation. Saussure, indeed, has denied that hy- 
 drogen is exhaled from flowers, and he attributes the in- 
 flammation of the atmosphere of dittany to the burning of es- 
 sential oils ; but these also consist, for the most part, of hy- 
 drogen. 
 
 330. 
 Every thing seems to shew, that the corolla is not only a 
 covering of the sexual parts, but an organ by which the po- 
 larised primitive matters are directed to their evolution, and 
 to their different attractions. The return of the sap to a 
 more oxydized condition, and the evident evacuation of hy- 
 drogen and azote, appear to have as essential an influence on 
 fructification, as the deposition in the honey-juice of flowers 
 of oxydized mucilage, during the evolution of hydrogen,— of 
 which we are about to speak. 
 
 331. 
 
 The situation of the nectaries, at the basis of the sexual 
 organs, shews us, that the oxydized sap must be deposited in 
 
ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 211 
 
 these organs, before the more volatile matters can ascend into 
 the parts of fructification. 
 
 It is hence that the nectaries have connnonly such a posi- 
 tion, that the evacuation of the pollen from the antherai is di- 
 rected towards them. This is so evident in the Iridea?, that 
 it is impossible to deny the connection between the nectaries 
 and the organs of fructification. This relation is still more 
 striking, when we observe an inclination of the pistilla, with 
 their stigmata, towards the nectaries, at the period when the 
 former have attained their perfect state. Finally, the evolu- 
 tion of the sexual organs at different times, or what is called 
 the Dichogamy, is a very obvious proof that in many cases 
 fructification is accomplished by the nectaries. When Ave thus 
 observe, that, in the same flo^v er, the antherae are much sooner 
 ripe than the stigmata, or the reverse, it is evident that these 
 latter organs cannot be impregnated by the former, in so far 
 as they belong to the same plant. It hence happens that the 
 first blossoms always fall off, and the fruit fails, when tlie 
 dichogamy is gynandrous, because the early unfolded stigma 
 finds no antherae to impregnate it; and when these become 
 capable of this office, the stigma of these first blossoms has 
 already lost its susceptibility. When the dichogamy is an- 
 drogynous, the last blossoms suffer the same failure, because, 
 when the stigma of the last blossoms has come to perfection, 
 there are no antherae remaining to impregnate it. 
 
 332. 
 From all these considerations it is evident, that there must 
 be some other helps to impregnation ; and this becomes the 
 more obvious, when we observe that tlie sexual organs ai-e often 
 so placed, that, according to any usual and mechanical plan, the 
 fructification cannot happen. We must, no doidjt, ascribe some- 
 thing to the efficacy of the winds, in transporting j)ollen from a 
 distance ; and it is certain, that in the Grasses, and some other 
 plants which have no nectaries, this cause may operate, espe- 
 cially as the antherae of these plants are large and pendant. 
 Insects, also, which suck the honey from the blossoms, are 
 most excellent assistants in impregnation. They wipe off the 
 
 O 9, 
 
212 PHYTOTOMY. 
 
 pollen from the bent anthera?, and bring it to other blossoms 
 of the same species. Nor is there much danger of a mixture of 
 species, and a production of hybrids in this way, because it is 
 proved respecting bees at least, that in each excursion they 
 gather only from flowers of the same species ; (C. K. Spren- 
 gel, Entdecktes Geheimniss der Natur im Bau, und in der Be- 
 fruchtung der Blumen ; Berlin, 1793, 4to. Smith's Intro- 
 duction to Botany, ed. 3., p. 256, 257.) 
 
 VII. On the Structure of the Sexual Organs. 
 
 333. 
 
 The analogy between the filaments and the petals, which 
 was formerly stated, (181. and 187.), as well as their fre- 
 quent union, lead us to conclude that the former have a 
 similar structure with the latter. Where the filaments are 
 so fine that they cannot be dissected, their structure, of 
 course, remains hidden from us. But in some of the greater 
 flowers among the Liliaceae, we meet with filaments of consi- 
 derable diameter ; and the filaments of the Malvaceae can also 
 be easily examined. In these instances, we observe that very 
 fine bundles of spiral vessels proceed through the whole length 
 of the filaments to their summits, and are so lost at their 
 points, that we cannot exactly point out their mode of con- 
 nection with the antlierae. The filaments hkewise contain a 
 very fine cellular texture, and have sometimes also a corollar 
 integument. 
 
 This simple structure, however, varies according to the 
 manifold variations of the external form of the filaments. 
 Particularly, we observe in the Urticeae an articulated struc- 
 ture of the filaments, by means of which, in the Parietaria, 
 Forskolea, and Antiaris, they are inclosed in the lobes of the 
 calyx, previous to their being fully ripened, and afterwards 
 spring forward with great elasticity to scatter the pollen from 
 the anthcra?. More minute experiments have not yet been made 
 respecting the internal structure of these joints in the fila- 
 ments. IMeanwhile the contracted portions seem to occasion a 
 
ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 213 
 
 considerable swelling of the parts which lie between them, so 
 that, upon the slightest touch, the elasticity of the filaments 
 is set in motion, and their tendency to the upright position is 
 favoured. In a similar manner the filaments of the Erica 
 aggregata, (Tab. III. Fig. 13.) are bent, before they are 
 fully ripe, into a large curve, and it is by their elasticity that 
 they afterwards become erect. The same thing is observed 
 in the Hirtella^ (Tab. VII. Fig. 4.), the filaments of whicli, 
 after the antherae are ripe, become of considerable length. 
 
 In the Euphorbiae, the filaments appear to be geniculated, 
 or as if they had a joint, (Tab. VI. Fig. 5.) But probably 
 each filament consists of two parts, the lower of which is a si- 
 milar stalk for the monandrous male blossom, as that which 
 supports the germen. According to this idea, which was first 
 advanced by R. Brown, {General Remarks on the Botany 
 of Terra Justralis, page 24.), what is commonly called the 
 corolla in the Euphorbia, is properly a common covering of 
 the flower, and incloses several male, and one female floret. 
 This idea is further confirmed by the fact, that in some species 
 of Euphorbia, we observe on the joint small laciniae or lobes, 
 which apparently are nothing else but the rudiments of the 
 interior covering, or of the proper corolla. 
 
 The filaments of most of the syngenesious plants have also 
 a peculiarly jointed structure, as they have been represented 
 by Schkuhr, in the Cacalia, (Tab. 236.) ; and still more dis- 
 tinctly in Baccharis, (Tab. 244. Fig. h.) But, in this case, 
 the joints seem rather to occasion a shortening and drawing 
 back of the cylinder of the antherae, because, in the more ri- 
 pened state, the pistillum, with its stigma, which was before 
 included in this cylinder, rises above it. 
 
 334. 
 
 With respect to the structure of tlie antherae in general, 
 we find, that for the most part they resemble an extended 
 purse, surrounded by a very fine celkilar texture, wliich is 
 found throughout their whole substance, and contains, in 
 each of its cells, a small pollenous body. It is worthy of re- 
 mark, that the circumference of the antherae is not inci'cased 
 
?14 PHYTOTOMY. 
 
 by their ripening, but that they have the same size in blos- 
 soms that are not yet evolved as at a later period. 
 
 We are still destitute of any exact information respecting 
 the manner in which the antherae are connected with the 
 filaments, or in what w^ay the opening of the antherae takes 
 place. Meanwhile we observe in a great many plants, in the 
 Irideae, the Laurels, in Jsarnm, and Stratiotes, that the an- 
 therae cling to the side of the filaments in such a manner, 
 that these latter bodies, in some degree, overtop them. In 
 most cases, the antherae either lie horizontally, or swing on 
 the points of the filaments, or these latter parts pass into the 
 substance of the anthera?. Very fine sap-vessels extend from 
 the points of the filaments into the anthera?, and conduct 
 nourishment to them. 
 
 The ripening of the antherae, like the ripening of the fruit, 
 seems to be a kind of desiccation. Although sufficient sap be 
 supplied, it ceases to be taken up. The partitions of the 
 cells become thinner and drier. The cavities, in which the 
 pollen is lodged, press it outwards by means of their elasti- 
 city, and when the extenuated and dried partitions of the 
 cellular texture do not yield, they are rent by force. 
 
 This tearing open, or bursting of the antherae, however, 
 takes place according to fixed and secret laws of nature. The 
 antherae of Solanum^ Galanthiis, Calectasia (R. Brown), open 
 at their summits. In Galeopsis this opening takes place by 
 means of a fringed flap. The antherae of the Syngene- 
 sious plants open longitudinally, each into two compartments. 
 The antherae of the Cucurbitaceae open in winding lines. 
 The antherae of the Laurels burst from the lower to the upper 
 surface, as also those of Epimedmm^ and of Leontice. The 
 antherae of Triglochin open around the circumference, and 
 those of Bros'wiiwi open in a circle which surrounds the 
 middle of the body. We have already noticed, that in flowers 
 which have nectaries, this opening of the anthera? corresponds 
 with the position of the nectaries^ (i531.) 
 
 335. 
 
 If we attend to the pollen, as it appears in most plants, we 
 perceive it to have diff'erait forms in the different families. 
 
ANATOMV Ol I'LANTtJ. 215 
 
 In the Malvacea; and the Compositae, its form is tlie same, 
 (Tab. IV. Fig. 15.) It appears, in these instances, to con- 
 sist of regular spherical bodies, with bristly openings. In 
 the Liliacea3 and the Geraniums, it consists of oval-shaped 
 bodies, surrounded by elastic rings or hoops, (Tab. II. Fig. 
 24.) In the Onagra? we find obtuse triangular bodies con- 
 nected by slimy threads. In the Proteaceae the pollen is cy- 
 lindrical, and somewhat bent; (Bauer's lUustr. Nov. Holl. 
 Tab. III. Fig. H.) The two first forms seem to be very 
 common. But the pollen varies its shape when it is put into 
 water or oil. In the former it becomes inflated, takes a more 
 or less perfectly globular form, and gives out, often with great 
 elasticity, its contents, like a small cloud, which do€s not mix 
 with the water. In mild oil it remains pretty much un- 
 changed, only it becomes by degrees surrounded by a dark 
 coloured ring, which by and by passes into the oil. In spirit 
 of wine it contracts pmverfully, and takes frequently, when it 
 is treated with nitric acid, an obtuse triangular form, which 
 originates in the contraction of the three rings. In nitric acid 
 it gives out its contents in the shape of rays, which do not 
 unite with the fluid. 
 
 386. 
 There are some remarkable variations from these forms of 
 the antherae and pollen, most of which we have already noticed, 
 (107.) There is, however, still one variety in the structure of 
 the pollen in some of the Naiadae, particularly in Chara and 
 Zostera, to which we must attend. In these instances, the 
 antherae seem to contain nothing but strings of conferva?, 
 which do not unite with the water. These are as distinctly 
 inclosed in particular reservoirs, as in tlio Fuci ; and in some 
 Ferns they stand single beside the germen. 
 
 337. 
 
 So many varieties, which might easily bo nuiiti plied, in the 
 
 structure of the pollen, naturally lead us to a difference of 
 
 chemical contents. Hitherto, however, experiments of tlii> 
 
 kind have only been made with the pollen of common plants, 
 
216 PHYTOTOMY. 
 
 which could be procured in abundance, and even in these the 
 results of the experiments have been very various and even 
 contradictory. 
 
 A variety of the albuminous matter, which is called by 
 John, poUenin^ seems, in fact, to be the chief ingredient in 
 pollen. This substance is uncommonly hable to decomposi- 
 tion, readily becomes corrupted, gives out a great quantity 
 of ammonia, and communicates to the pollen the naseous 
 animal flavour which we frequently perceive in it. It is 
 insoluble in the ordinary menstrua. Beside this, the pol- 
 len, in all probability, contains wax, although not in the 
 same state of mixture in which we have it from the cells of 
 bees, on which account some chemists entirely deny the exis- 
 tence of wax in the pollen. Extractive matters, of a gummy 
 or resinous nature, constitute the other component parts of 
 the pollen, (John in Schweigger's Neuen Journal, B. II. Heft. 
 3. s. 247. Grotthuss in the same Journal, B. II. Heft. 3. 
 Stolze, in Berlin Jahrb. der Pharmacie, B. VII. s. 159.) 
 Although these results are not universally admitted, they yet 
 entitle us to conclude, that an animal matter predominates in 
 the pollen, and that it is made up of azote and hydrogen, in 
 union with albumen and gluten. After the deposition in the 
 nectaries, and in the coloured portions of the corolla, of the 
 superfluous oxygen, hydrogen and azote make their appear- 
 ance, as the chief product of vegetation ; and of this product 
 we are speedily made sensible by the before-noticed exhalation 
 of azotic and hydrogen gases from the flower, by which means 
 the substance of the plant assumes a resemblance to animal 
 matter, whilst the plant is preparing to give, by its fructificar 
 tion, the highest proof of its vital activity, 
 
 338, 
 We naturally begin the consideration of the female parts 
 of the flower, with that of the Germen. This, in its unim- 
 pregnated state, is principally a cellular organ, in which the 
 ovula, or rudiments of the future seed, appear like small ve- 
 sicles filled with pure water, and can scarcely be distinguished 
 from the cells themselves. From the fruit-stalk, or from tlic 
 
AXATOxMY OF TI^AXTS. 217 
 
 receptacle, bundles of spiral and sap-vessels proceed into the 
 germen, disperse themselves through it when it is furnish- 
 ed with partitions, and become united in the central column 
 or placenta. From this central column arise, by the mere 
 act of vegetation, those vesicles I have mentioned ; and at a 
 later period, when impregnation takes place, a new activity, 
 awakened by this peculiar stimulus, is called into action. In 
 some instances, the exterior covering of the germen secretes 
 nectar, because at that time there is an evident overflowing 
 of the mild oxydized mucilage into the germen, 
 
 339. 
 The Pistil is commonly a solid column, but sometimes it is 
 observed to have a hollow space throughout its length, al- 
 though this is always shut at the point in which it passes in- 
 to the germen. On the other hand, the communication be- 
 tween the pistillum and the germen is maintained by means 
 of sap and spiral vessels, which pass into the dissepimentum, 
 into the central column or placenta, and constitute the pas- 
 sage to the ovula. We have already endeavoured to shew, 
 that the number of the pistilla corresponds with the loculi 
 of the germen, and that where the pistillum is single, it has 
 in all probability become so from the union of several pis- 
 tilla, (188.) 
 
 340. 
 
 The structure of the Stigma is as wonderful as it Is sim})le. 
 Universally, wherever we have examined it, we have found 
 its surface moist, and studded with very fine warts or hairs, 
 which are always closed as in the roots. Whatever, there- 
 fore, passes into the interior of the stigma, or pistillum, must 
 in this case also make its way through the impervious and 
 shut extremities of these organs. In many plants, particu- 
 larly in the Lobelias, nature has been careful to protect the 
 tender structure of the stigma from external injuries, by a 
 particular contrivance. This is a peculiar veil (Tab. II, 
 Fig. 23.) which covers the stigma, and which, in some gene- 
 ra allied to Lobelia, consists evidentiv of two valves. 
 
218 THYTOTOMY. 
 
 341. 
 
 The {X)sition of tlie stigma, as well with respect to the 
 male parts as to the pistillum in particular, presents remark- 
 able differences. We know that in the Orchideae, a com- 
 mon coliimna genitalium supports both the stigma and the 
 two antherae. The same union takes place in the Stylidea% 
 in Cleone, in Podostevwn, and in Andrachne, as well as in 
 Aristolochia. In some of the Proteaceae and Scitamineaf, 
 the two sorts of sexual organs become united at their base, 
 and thus furnish a proof of the kindred nature of their struc- 
 ture. 
 
 A remarkable difference of arrangement takes place in the 
 stigmata of the Syngenesious plants. The proper surface of 
 the stigmata appears to be less intended for the collecting of 
 the pollen, than what are called by Cassini the Collectors, or 
 hairy surfaces which are placed opposite to the proper stig- 
 mata. In many of the Caryophylleae, the greater part of 
 the pistillum is of the same consistence with the stigma, whilst 
 in the Saxifrages and Oxalidae, as also in the Ericoe, only 
 the extreme point of the pistil can be called the Stigma. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 PHYTOCHEMY, Oil DOCTllINE OF THE COMPOSI- 
 TION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Sennebier, Physiologie vegetale, torn. ii. p. 298. 
 
 Keith, Physiological Botany, vol. i. p. 375, vol. ii. 
 
 K. Sprengel, Von der Natur und dem Buu der Geuachse. 
 
 J. Ingenhousz, Versuche uber die Ernahrung der Pflantzcn. 
 
 Treviranus, Biologic. B. 4. 
 
 A. V. Humboldt, Aphorismen aus der Chemischcn-Physiologie der PHantzen. 
 
 Einhof in Hermbstadt's Archiv fur Agricultur-Chemic. 
 
 H. Davy, Elements of Agricultural Chemistry. 
 
 J. F. John, Ucber die Ernahrung der Pflantzen. 
 
ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 219 
 
 G. Wahlenberg, de sedibus matcriarum immediatarum in Plantis. 
 H. Steffens, Beytrage zur innern Naturgeschichte der Erde. 
 Rauch, Regeneration de la Nature vegetale. 
 
 I. General Remarks: 
 
 342. 
 
 The composition of organic bodies is distinguished by 
 more than one circumstance from the union of the elementa- 
 ry matters in unorganised substances ; and, on these accounts, 
 the examination of them becomes as difficult as it is instruc- 
 tive. 
 
 The first peculiarity in the composition of organic bodies, is 
 their great liability to change, and their constant tendency to 
 decomposition ; while, at the same time, as long as life remains, 
 this tendency never perfectly succeeds. As soon, however, as 
 organic juices are withdrawn from the dominion of life, thev 
 undergo a change of their elements, and a decomposition of 
 their constitution, which are attended with remarkable conse- 
 quences. 
 
 Since we can thus only examine the composition of organic 
 bodies, after they have ceased to live, we cannot be always 
 certain that the results of our chemical examination really ex- 
 plain the way and manner in which the juices are mixed in 
 living substances. Indeed, a highly etherial matter, which, 
 as it were, gave life to the sap, seems often to make its escape, 
 at the moment when the fluid or organic matter loses its in- 
 dividual character, and is subjected to examination. We are 
 thus often reminded of the spiritus rector of the blood, which 
 our predecessors admitted, and which we have no reason to 
 treat with too much contempt. 
 
 The change which organic matters undergo when they 
 cease to live, is of so pecuHar a kind, that it cannot take 
 place in inorganic bodies, unless they arc mixed witli or- 
 ganic matter. It is an internal change, which, in the juices 
 of plants and in other vegetable matters, conmu)nly begins 
 with the evolution of carbonic acid, and ends with the plenti- 
 ful production of acetic acid. It is called Fermentation. In 
 
220 PMYTOCHEMY. 
 
 animal matters, again, and in those juices of plants wliich ap- 
 proach to an animal nature, another decomposition takes 
 place, during which hydrogen and azote })rincipally are disen- 
 gaged. This change is called Putrefaction. Both of these 
 changes afford products, which did not previously exist as 
 such in the organic body, and from which, therefore, we can- 
 not conclude, with any certainty, respecting the component 
 parts of the living substance. 
 
 343. 
 
 The second peculiarity of the composition of organic bodies, 
 is, that it is more or less independent on the inorganic bo- 
 dies that may happen to be present. It cannot be denied, 
 indeed, that the comjX)sition of the earth and water, by 
 which plants are nourished, has a considerable influence on 
 their ingredients, and that at all times plants, and especially 
 tlie lower orders of them, partake more than animals of the 
 composition of the substances by which they are surround- 
 ed. In general, however, it is a law of nature, that every 
 organic body forms its own ingredients out of the elemen- 
 tary materials which surround it ; and that the quantity of 
 lime contained in plants which grow in pure sand, or whicli 
 spring amidst granite, is not less than the quantity of the 
 same material contained in those plants which grow on a cal- 
 careous soil. In a few instances, some compound matters 
 seem to pass unchanged into plants and the presence of com- 
 mon salt and of soda in plants which grow on the sea-shore or 
 on calcareous soils, is as undeniable as the passage of metallic 
 substances, and of many odorous and colouring matters, into 
 the blood and secreted juices of the animal body. On the 
 other hand, it is estabhshed, that neither odorous nor colour- 
 ing matters pass unchanged into the un wounded roots of 
 plants ; and that we cannot accomplish the absorption of co- 
 loured fluids by these parts in any other way, but by cutting 
 the twigs, so as to bring these fluids into direct contact with 
 the sap-tubes. 
 
COMPOSITION OF PLANTS. 2i>l 
 
 344. 
 The third pecuharity of the composition of organic Ixxliesy 
 respects the ahsence, commonly, in such bodies, of any of the 
 ordinary chemical ingredients in an entirely disengaged state. 
 Completely disengaged acids are as seldom to be met with in 
 the vegetable as in the animal juices. For the most part 
 they are united to a base, and are first disengaged during fer- 
 mentation, by the influence of mineral acids, or by some other 
 operations. It is equally seldom that we find, in a free state, 
 in the vegetable kingdom, any of those ingredients of which 
 hydrogen is a part. These, like alcohol, are first disengaged, in 
 consequence of a change which takes place during the saccha- 
 rine fermentation. It is true, that, in a few instances, free acids 
 are fovuid in plants, and that volatile oils are given out by them. 
 But these matters are for the most part to be considered as 
 excrementitious, as the oxalic acid which is exhaled from the 
 Chick-pea ; besides, the hydrogen, in volatile oils, is too close- 
 ly united to other matters, to be regarded as an entirely free 
 body. 
 
 345. 
 
 The fourth pecuharity in the composition of organic bo- 
 dies, consists in a kind of circulation, which the simple con- 
 nections of the elementary bodies in the sustaining juices un- 
 dergo. As in the higher animals, the chyle by degrees be- 
 comes freed from its oxygen, while it is mingling with the 
 gall and passing through the glands of the intestines, that at 
 last, in the thoracic duct it may pass into the state of bl(X)d 
 by the union of azote, by the evolution of phosphorated iron, 
 and of the colouring materials ; as this neutral fluitl Irees 
 itself in the secreting organs from its hydrogen, azote, 
 oxygen, and carbon, that it may suffer a new oxydation in 
 the lungs, and be prepared for undergoing again tlie same 
 changes; — in the same manner plants attract carbonic acid 
 water saturated with azote ; mix it with their own substance, 
 and sometimes add more evolved hydrogen and carbon to the 
 oxygen ; and at other times free themselves Ironi their super- 
 fluous oxygen and carbonic acid by exhalation from thi' 
 
2221 PHYTOCHEMY. 
 
 leaves. But, in tlie same manner, they repair their loss of 
 oxygen, by which means new affinities take place, until at 
 last the elementary substances in the blossom separate from 
 one another, from which separation the decay and partial 
 death of this organ take place. 
 
 In this ceaseless circulation, we cannot consider deoxyda- 
 tion as the ultimate object of the chemistry of the vegetable 
 kingdom, especially as a manifest progress to a still more 
 powerful oxydation may often be remarked. It is in this 
 manner, that, by means of the more complete predominance 
 of oxygen, resin is produced from oil, gum from mucilage, 
 and fixed substances from those that are volatile. 
 
 346. 
 
 These general considerations shew us the difference be- 
 tween the composition of animals and vegetables. The diffe- 
 rence evidently consists in this, that azote and hydrogen are 
 the prevailing matters in animal substances, oxygen and car- 
 bon in the vegetable world ; on which account, animal juices 
 commonly putrefy, but vegetable saps pass into a state of fer- 
 mentation. Not as if these matters were confined exclusively 
 to each of the two organic kingdoms, since not only do albu- 
 men and gluten pass into a state of putrefaction, and disen- 
 gage ammonia ; but we have also shewn the evolution of 
 azote and hydrogen from blossoms, and the predominance of 
 both these matters in the pollen. Our concern at present is 
 chiefly with the general difference of composition, which al- 
 'ways observes the assigned relations in the two great king- 
 doms of nature. It is hence that in transition forms, and in 
 organised bodies of the lower orders, we usually regard it as a 
 common proof of an animal or of a vegetable nature, if, when 
 the body is burnt, it gives out an animal odour, which arises 
 from a pecular union of azote and hydrogen with carbon. 
 
COMPOSITION OF PLANTS. 22'i 
 
 II. On the Common Sap. 
 
 347. 
 
 The matters which plants attract from the soil, are not 
 for tlie most part its compound ingredients ; tliey do not 
 attract either earth, or metals, or salts, or extractive mat- 
 ter ; but, according to all observations and experiments, 
 they take up only carbonic acid water, united with azote ; 
 and all improvements of the soil, all manuring of it, have 
 no other object than that of increasing this sap, for the 
 purpose of evolving more powerfully, and in due proportion, 
 its proper products. From the time of Helmont, it has been 
 understood, that water is the only source of all the nourish- 
 ment of vegetables. Plants have long been reared amidst 
 circumstances of such a nature, that no earthly ingredients at 
 least could be taken up by them. The experiments of Bon- 
 net, Kraft, and Duhamel, are the most decisive on this 
 point. In later times, it has been completely established by 
 Ingenhousz, Percival, Schrader, and Braconnot, that plants 
 thrive amidst substances that are altogether insoluble, pro- 
 vided they are supplied with carbonic acid water, and that 
 they even present the same constituent parts, as when they 
 are reared in the earthy soil. 
 
 And this account is strengthened by the necessity which is 
 known to exist, for exposing any soil, the chief ingredient of 
 which is carbon, to the influence of the air, that oxygen may 
 be attracted, and carbonic acid be thereby formed. The 
 careful and complete turning up of Clover and Lucern fields 
 in spring, not only loosens the soil, but promotes also the pro- 
 duction of carbonic acid. Hence the repeated ploughings, 
 by means of which Peter Kretschmar, seventy years ago, 
 wished to render manure needless, must have turned out very 
 unprofitable. 
 
 If we reflect still farther on the recent experiments which 
 have shewn, that there is a considerable consumption of 
 carbonic acid from absorption by the leaves ; and if we con- 
 sider that all those circumstances are favourable to the growth 
 
224 phytochp:my. 
 
 of plants, which increase the quantity of carbonic acid in the 
 moisture of the soil, as well as in the atmosphere, we shall 
 find ourselves obliged to admit that this substance is the pro- 
 per nourishment of vegetables. To these circumstances belong 
 dew and rain, which convey more carbonic acid to plants, 
 than tliat which is sup])lied by spring water ; on which account, 
 this latter fluid is always inferior to rain-water for the sprink- 
 hng of plants. From the same cause arises the vmcommon 
 fertility of volcanic countries, which, according to Gagliardo, 
 give out a peculiarly great quantity of carbonic acid. Our 
 own black mould is also so productive for the same reason, 
 namely, because the extractive matter which it contains is in- 
 cessantly attracting oxygen from the atmosphere, to form car- 
 bonic acid. Hence also arises the advantage in horticulture 
 of screens for fruit trees, because the surface of the earth, 
 when overshadowed by great leaves, attracts carbonic acid 
 vapours more strongly, and these also can less readily escape 
 than they must do from a bare field. On the same account, 
 Vetch-Oats and Summer-Rye succeed better when sowed 
 among Peas. Beans also are sowed among Oats, and this 
 mixture is called Rough-east. Clover is commonly sowed 
 with some other crop, in particular with Rape, Flax, Peas, 
 and even with winter-crops. 
 
 It is hence that heath is so little injurious to forests, that 
 it rather affords to the young shoots the advantage of shade, 
 and a more powerful attraction of carbonic acid. 
 
 But every just theory of the effects of manure, is in the high- 
 est degi'ee favourable to this assertion. Manure consists com- 
 monly of intermingled animal and vegetable matter ; in the 
 excrements of swine in particular, we find this latter sub- 
 stance, and especially seeds, so unchanged, that they readily 
 vegetate. But the excrements of animals are extremely apt 
 to become putrid, and it is necessary, in order to subject 
 them to a slower fermentation, during which carbonic acid 
 is produced, to mix them with straw, and other refuse of 
 vegetables. The manure of sheep, when mixed with 
 straw, is therefore much more lasting than the excrement 
 by itself ; and the refuse of the fold, unless it is very 
 
COMPOSITION OF PLANTS. 225 
 
 poWGifuI, produces little effect upon the second crop. When 
 the manure, liowever, has passed through this fermentation, 
 it will for ever connnunicate extractive matter and carbon to 
 the soil ; but before these can serve for the nourishment of 
 })lants, they must again be combined with the oxygen of the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 The burning of the soil, too, operates by the production of 
 oxygenised carbon, because every burning ends with the attrac- 
 tion of oxygen. Hence also arises the advantage of smoking 
 the ground, as it is practised in Italy ; (Bertuch Garten Ma- 
 gazin, b. 3. sec. ilSd.) Ashes must be considered as carbon 
 half oxidated durinjj the burnins:, and united with alkali. 
 Accordingly, when they are laid out, they have a powerful 
 influence in the melioration of the }X)orest soils, as is proved 
 by the excellent example of the improved agriculture around 
 Dankerode, south from Harzgerode ; (Georg. in den Mogelin- 
 schen Annalen, b. 3. s. 419, 448.) 
 
 The green manuring (sovescio of the Italians) proves tlie 
 same fact ; but the slow fermentation of green vegetables 
 should only be employed in fertile and warm soils. Potato 
 plants, Zostera marina, and the common sea-ware, serve as 
 manure, in the same manner, by the fermentation which they 
 undergo in the soil. 
 
 Lastly, Nothing proves the truth of this account more 
 clearly, than the distinguished advantage which the soil de- 
 rives from calcareous matter ; since the attraction of this sub- 
 stance for carbonic acid is, as every person knows, very pow- 
 erful. The most luxuriant vegetation arises on calcareoua 
 soils ; the strongest wood in the wc^-ld grows in the calcareous 
 islands, which are formed by the Coral Reefs of the South 
 Sea, as also upon the volcanic tei'ritory of IVIascaren's Island. 
 By a mixture of lime, we prepare tlK? best compost, when it 
 is placed in layers between animal manure, clay, and old 
 mud. The powerful effect of Chara vulgaris in fertilising 
 land, depends on the calcareous shme with which it is covered, 
 
 348. 
 Not only carbonic acid water, but also the azote which is mix- 
 ed with it, constitutes a principal part of the peculiar nourish- 
 
2^6 
 
 PIIYTOCIIEMV. 
 
 ing sap of vegetables. Azote is produced in the cai'th, partly 
 Iroiii the corrupted refuse of animals, partly from the clay or 
 loam which in a greater or less quantity are mixed with the soil 
 or mould, and partly, in the last place, from the atmosphere, 
 which, in three out of four parts, is composed of azote. The 
 advantage of a certain portion of clay in the soil, is not only 
 evident from this circumstance, but also from the further 
 consideration, that it retains the moisture for a longer time, 
 and supplies it to tlie roots. 
 
 Azote appears also to be taken up into plants from ma- 
 nures. Tobacco derives its pungent taste and unpleasant 
 flavour from animal manure. Grain produced on land 
 highly manured with sheep dung, contains too mucli gluten 
 to be employed in the brewing of ale. Manure composed 
 of the refuse of animals, as pieces of horns and claws, pro- 
 duces abundance of straw fit for litter, but little meal, and too 
 much gluten. 
 
 349. 
 
 it having been shewn, that the moisture drawn up by 
 })lants is only carbonic acid-water impregnated with azote, 
 the crude ascending sap of plants must have in a great de- 
 gree the same composition ; and the only difference will be, 
 that the living principle has operated upon the fluid, and has 
 mixed it, the higher it has ascended, with the greater num- 
 ber of peculiar vegetable matters. 
 
 In fact, the crude ascending sap exhibits properties which 
 completely confirm this account. As it mounts in the inner 
 bark of trees, it appears as a clear fluid, of a pleasant taste, and 
 producing a titillating eflect upon the tongue. It easily fer- 
 ments, and evolves during tliis process carbonic acid gas, which, 
 when united with hydrogen, is known as an intoxicating drink. 
 If the fermentation is continued, azote is disengaged, Avhich 
 swims upon the surface, and the liquor itself becomes of the 
 taste of vinegar. As this composition of the ascending sap is 
 the same in almost all plants, it is evident that it is directly 
 derived from the moisture of the earth, and that it is distin- 
 guished from it only by the oxygenised slimy matter which 
 it has attracted. 
 
c'OMrosiTioN Or plants. 2^7 
 
 350. 
 
 The attraction of sap from the earth, differs in the same 
 plants in the different periods of their growth, In the first 
 periods, before tlie plant has blossomed, a greater quantity of 
 nourishment is taken up, the more the plant is covered with 
 leaves; because we have already seen (321.) that the evaporation 
 |)romoted by the contracting power and irritability which the 
 plant maintains, is a very important function, and one which 
 must therefore strengthen its absorbing power. But we must 
 take into account, that, by means of the more powerful fron- 
 descence, the ground is more shaded, and carbonic acid is de- 
 posited in greater quantity. Perhaps we ought also to take 
 into account the evacuation of superfluous sap from the roots, 
 (285.) It is certain that any species of grain succeeds so 
 much the better among the stubble of a previous crop suitable 
 to it, as, for instance. Wheat after Clover or Pulse, the more 
 luxuriant that previous crop had been, which must be as- 
 cribed to the shadowing of the soil ; so that clover in general 
 promotes the fertility of the soil, the more luxuriantly it 
 springs. It is possible that this proceeds from the more live- 
 ly attraction of sap from the soil, by means of which exactly 
 such a quantity of the latter crop is called up, as is best for 
 the crop of grain which is to succeed it. We must also take 
 into account the extractive matter which a plant imparts to the 
 soil by its decay ; in comparison with which, the portion of 
 matter which the plant takes from the soil is scarcely worth 
 reckoning. At least a strong and rank fallow may always be 
 regarded as a manure. The thick grass sward, which is 
 produced on the soil after a long rest, increases its fertility in 
 an uncommon degree. 
 
 It is an undeniable fact, however, that a plant draws the 
 greatest quantity of nourishment from the soil, at the time 
 when it blossoms and forms its fruit. On a suj)crficial con- 
 sideration, we might have supposed the reverse. yVe might 
 have thought, that as the period of growth ends with the 
 blossom, a more powerful absorption could not take place 
 than formerly ; but when we reflect, that the blossoming and 
 setting of the fruit are entirely new operations nhich increase 
 
 P2 
 
^28 rHYTOCHEMY. 
 
 the contraction in the whole body, and raise its entire irri- 
 tability, we must be sensible, that this is the time when the 
 expenditure of sap must be the greatest, although we should 
 not take into consideration the fresh exhalation from tlie blos- 
 soms, or the evolution of azote ^nd hydrogen from them. 
 
 In fact, all our experience, both on a great and on a small 
 scale, confirms this remark. In horticulture, it is known, that a 
 plant requires the most powerful irrigation, when it puts on 
 its blossoms and fruit. In agriculture, it is kno^\^l, that it 
 makes an important difference whether the juicy or the ripen- 
 ed stalk remains in the ground. The latter exhausts it so 
 much the more powerfully, as the dead roots are no longer 
 able to give out again the superfluous sap. It is certain, 
 that from this cause Flax in particular exhausts the soil so 
 much, that no winter crop at least can be obtained after it. 
 It even seems to be true, that the richer the crop of grain is, 
 and the more nutritious its parts, the more is the soil exhaust- 
 ed by it ; not that the moisture of the earth passes directly in- 
 to the fruit, but because a greater expense of power, and a 
 more lively elasticity in all the parts, is required for the for- 
 mation of the nutritious parts of the fruit, so that the ab- 
 sorption of fluid sap must also be brisker. Einhoff's calcula- 
 tions teach us, that among common plants, French Beans con- 
 tain the greatest quantity of nutritious matter, namely 85 
 per cent. ; Wheat contains 78, Pease 75 J, Lentils 74, Rye 
 70, Barley Qo, and Oats 58. From this we may judge of 
 the exhausting power which these plants exert upon the 
 soil. 
 
 At the same time, it cannot be denied, that plants with 
 strong and deep-seated roots, or with juicy tubercles, take a 
 great quantity of nourishment from the ground, even when 
 they are not in flower. Among these we may reckon Beet 
 and Potatoes. Recent experiments have taught us, how 
 much the former of these roots contributes to the manuring 
 of the land, when it is suffered to remain in it, and when, 
 in the end of harvest, the sheep are enclosed in a field of this 
 plant after its leaves are shed, and time is allowed them to 
 gnaw its roots, and to manure the field. These putrefying 
 
I 
 
 COMPOSITION OF PLANTS. 229 
 
 roots replace completely to the soil, Avhatever it had lost by 
 nourishing the plants. Potatoes, when planted in a field which 
 had previously been fallow, keep back the winter crop. For 
 this reason, they are rather reared in a field which had before 
 been under crop ; dung is applied after them, and tlien pease 
 are sown. 
 
 III. More intimate Cwistituents of Vegetahks. 
 
 351. 
 
 It is not possible to state precisely how every one of the 
 more intimate constituents of plants is formed from the com- 
 mon sap ; but in a great many instances we can give a dis- 
 tinct explanation, and in others, where the component parts 
 are still unknown to us, we must satisfy ourselves with pro- 
 bable conjectures. 
 
 The first matter formed from the common sap, is the or- 
 ganizing mucilaginous matter, or the forming juice, respect- 
 ing which we remarked above (271), that it contains the two 
 primitive forms, namely, spherules or vesicles, and ray-shaped 
 or straight-lined bodies. The mucilaginous matter is a taste- 
 less and inodorous fluid, which, without undergoing the ace- 
 tous fermentation, passes, after a considerable lapse of time, 
 into a kind of putrefactive decomposition. When treated 
 with mineral acids, it forms oxalic and saccho-lactic acid. By 
 dry distillation, mucous acid, with a burnt smell, is disengaged 
 from it, and from this ammonia is formed by fixed alkali. We 
 thus see that the common sap, when it passes into mucilage, 
 changes its constituent principles, and that azote in particular 
 is disengaged during this process. With respect to the acids 
 which mucilage exhibits, they can scarcely be considered as 
 present in the living plants, because they arc first disengaged 
 by means of mineral acids and distillation. However, as car- 
 bonic acid consists of 72 parts of oxygen, and 28 of carbon, 
 the oxalic acid, which we find as a constituent part of some 
 plants, may easily be derived from it ; for ihis acid con- 
 sists of 70 parts of oxygen, 26 of carbon, and 2 of hydrogen. 
 
230 rHVTOCHE3IY. 
 
 Mucilage passes into gum and starch. Into the former of 
 these it passes only after it has escaped from the plant, when it 
 is thickened by the influence of the oxygen of the atmosphere. 
 It then allows the azote to escape, which forms ammonia, or 
 the azote becomes united to lime, of which we find a consi- 
 derable quantity in gum. Gum has no longer the same ten- 
 dency to become putrid as mucilage. 
 
 In tlie same manner starch is produced, probably from 
 a similar thickening of the mucilage, only this takes place in 
 the living plant ; because by the microscope we distinctly see 
 the grains of starch, like a deposit in the cellular texture. 
 Starch gradually passes, when mixed with water and ex- 
 posed to the M^arm air, into the acetous fermentation, during 
 which it becomes covered with mouldiness, 
 
 352. 
 
 Mucilage undergoes a further change when it passes into 
 saccharine matter. As, according to pretty good authorities, 
 saccharine matter consists of 74 parts of oxygen, 17 of car- 
 bon, and 8 of hydrogen, it is evidently formed by a higher 
 oxydation of mucilage, and, at the same time, by a change 
 in the proportions and quantity of hydrogen. The azote 
 seems in this case to have entirely vanished, since, during the 
 dry distillation, not a trace of it a])pears. From starch and 
 mucilage is formed sugar by oxydation. The tendency of 
 mucilage to oxydation favours the production of sugar. 
 When Beet, therefore, is exposed to the powerful action of 
 the sun's light, it affords less sugar, and it is accordingly 
 covered with earth to withdraw it from the light. When su- 
 gar is treated with spirit of wine, it loses its sweet taste, 
 and passes into the nature of gum. It is worthy of remark, 
 that saccharine matter, dissolved in water, undergoes the vi- 
 nous fermentation, which must arise from the disengagement 
 of hydrogen, and from a change in its proportions. Sugar 
 is produced in a dry and crystallised state, as a secretion 
 of some plants, and in union with quartz ; and in innumerable 
 plants, it appears as a honey juice or nectar, but, in these cases, 
 it is often united with the peculiar and even with the poison- 
 
COMrOSlTlON OF PLANTS. 231 
 
 ous ingredients of the plants, as is shewn by the hurtful pro- 
 perties of the honey produced by bees from the Azalea j)oiu 
 Oca and Kalmia latifolia. 
 
 353. 
 
 Azote being thus a constituent part of mucilage, it is 
 also, in an especial manner, evolved in albumen and ghi- 
 tcn, so that these are considered as properly the ingredients 
 of animal matter. In the leguminous fruits, tliese are the in- 
 gredients which render the plants so peculiarly nutritious. 
 In the juice of the Agave Americana^ which is the favourite 
 drink in Mexico, there is so much of these animal matters, 
 that tJiis liquor smells strongly of putrid flesh. Albumen, in 
 moderate warmth, passes into a putrid decomposition, during 
 which sulphurated hydrogen gas and azotic gas are disen- 
 gaged, and sulphur and phosphorus are generated. With 
 weak nitric acid, it disengages azotic gas, and in a stronger 
 heat it gives out cyanogen : by distillation we obtain carbo- 
 nated hydrogen, ammonia, and empyreumatic oil. It con- 
 sists, according to the French analysis, of 52 parts of carbon, 
 23 of oxygen, 15 of azote and of hydrogen. 
 
 Gluten is only distinguished from albumen by its greater 
 consistence, and by this further circumstance, that it is inso- 
 luble in water, but moderately so in spirit of wine. 
 
 354. 
 
 We further find extractive matter, tannin, and colouring 
 matter, all existing as ingredients of plants. The extractive 
 matters are indeed very various, but they seem to be formed 
 from mucilage by a difference in the pro}X)rtion of their 
 oxydation, and by a mixture of the peculiar matter of plants. 
 Extractive matters are insoluble in water, and they also so 
 far partake of the nature of mucilage, that they enable oil to 
 mix with water, and to be used as soap. They contain also so 
 much oxygen, that they redden the blue juices of vegetables, 
 and the bitter taste of most of these substances proceeds from 
 carbon oxy dated to a certain pitch, and whicli has been dc- 
 
232 PHYTOCHEMY. 
 
 rived from hydrogen ; (Braconnot, in Berlin Jahrbuch der 
 Pharmacie, b. 20. s. 205.) 
 
 Tanning matter is produced by such a change in extracli% c 
 matter as renders it fit to coagulate animal jelly, and to 
 cause a black deposition of salts of iron. There is also a 
 dark green deposition of salts of iron, by means of the common 
 extractive matter ; and tanning matter may be almost com- 
 pletely changed into extract, by repeatedly evaporating a so- 
 lution of it, by means of heat. Caustic alkali also takes 
 from tannin its astringent taste, and it is hence also probable, 
 that a difference in the proportion of oxygen distinguishes 
 those two substances from each other. This is also in part 
 evident from the disengagement of the gallic acid during the 
 mouldincss which takes place on a solution of the gall-nut ; 
 because, during the production of this matter, the characters 
 of tannin are lost, and that acid probably does not exist in 
 the matter previously, but is produced during the change. 
 
 We have already stated, when speaking of the green co- 
 lour of leaves, (317.), and of the tints of blossoms, (327.), 
 that the colouring matters of plants are of very different 
 kinds. They can sometimes be removed by water, and 
 sometimes by spirit of wine ; very frequently they are united 
 with a residuary powder, or a substance containing azote, which 
 gives the putrid smell to the colours of many plants, and with 
 ft weak nitric acid even produces azotic gas. 
 
 355. 
 
 An important ingredient of plants is the mild oil, which 
 we procure in its purest state from the fruit of the Olive and 
 Beech, but which we also very often obtain from the coty- 
 ledons, and alliuminous bodies in the seed. As, according 
 to corresponding analyses, mild oil consists of seventy-live 
 parts of carbon, and twenty-five of hydrogen ; as nature also 
 prepares the same matter from the saccharine juices of fruits, 
 and art can again change this oil into saccharine matter, by 
 treating it with the oxide of lead, it is extremely probable 
 that it owes its origin to a complete deoxidation of the saccha- 
 rine matter, and to an increased proportion of hydrogen. 
 
COMPOSITION or TLAXTS. 23ii 
 
 356. 
 
 Mild oil passes into a kind of wax, wlien it is slightly oxi- 
 dated, and attains, by that means, a certain degree of firmness ; 
 for art can produce wax from oil by nitric acid, and can change 
 it into oil again, by taking away the acid. Wax is produced 
 by Nature herself, in the fruit of the StiUingki seblferay 
 Rhifs succedanea, Myrica cenfera, and in the bark of the 
 Wax-palm (Ceroxylon Andicola). 
 
 357. 
 
 Volatile oils, which are commonly united with extractive 
 matters, are distinguished from mild oils, by containing a 
 greater proportion of hydrogen than of carbon. Of the for- 
 mer substance, they seem to contain, in many cases, two- 
 thirds, or even three-fourth parts. It is remarkable that 
 they are chiefly found in the covers of seeds, and, in the case 
 of the Scitaminea?, in the vitellus even, but almost never in 
 the albuminous bodies, and in the cotyledons of the embryons. 
 When volatile oils are oxydated, they run into a hard sub- 
 stance, which is called Camphor, and in which it has been 
 supposed that a peculiar acid resides, although good chemists 
 consider it as the same with the benzoic acid. This last sub- 
 stance is found in most of the balsams, or in those bodies 
 which, beside volatile oil, contain also resinous extract. The 
 strong smell of this acid, and its inflammability, as well as its 
 weak aflinity to the alkaline base, point it out as rich in hy- 
 drogen. 
 
 The volatile oils pass through the balsams into resin ; l)c- 
 xjause, by evaporation and the application of acids, we can 
 procure these oils from resinous substances. 
 
 358. 
 
 We must now consider those bases in plants which can Ix? 
 united with acids, — the origin of which is involved in much 
 obscurity. 
 
 With respect to the alkalies, it is certain that jx)tassa 
 is one of the most common substances to wliich the vege- 
 table acids are united ; but it is undoubtedly not drawn 
 
234 niYTOCHEMY. 
 
 from the soil in the state in which it is known to us, but is 
 prepared, by the organizing powers, from original materials, 
 the nature of which we only conjecture, but cannot state with 
 certainty. As annnonia is undeniably composed of azote and 
 hydrogen, and is found especially in gluten and albumen, we 
 may, without incurring the reproach of being hasty in our 
 conclusions, assume the same ingret^lients for potassa and soda, 
 only in quite different pro jx)rt ions, and probably with a cer- 
 tain share of oxygen, by which they are put in the state of 
 oxydes. The latter substance, soda, is cither drawn by 
 plants from the soil, or it is first decomposed by them into its 
 constituent parts, and with these the plants form salts similar 
 to those which are found in the soil, (343.) 
 
 The increase of the quantity of potash in woods which 
 have been subjected to putrefaction, and which was observed 
 by Schreber, Wiegieb, and John, (John, Uber die Ernah- 
 rung der Fflantzen, s. 156. 157.), favours the opinion, that 
 alkalies are produced by the disengagement of hydrogen and 
 azote. 
 
 359. 
 
 We must form the same opinion respecting the earths which 
 plants contain. Lime is found not only in the ashes of plants, 
 but in albumen and in gum : it cannot, however, be derived 
 from the soil, because, as we remarked formerly (343.), it is 
 found even in those plants which have grown in pure sand, or 
 amidst granite, or which have been reared in porcelain ves- 
 sels, and nourished only by carbonic acid water. If we should 
 suppose, that still the pure carbonic acid water might contain 
 dissolved lime, this is merely a supposition, which rests on no 
 foundation of proof. 
 
 Nor is the production of siliceous matter in plants more 
 easily accounted for. This substance is not only found in 
 considerable quantity in the larger Grasses, which grow in 
 boggy places, {Arundo phragrnitcs^ Poa aquatica, Festuca 
 Jluitans) ; it forms also the chief constituent of the saccharine 
 matter which exudes from the joints of the Bamboo. But 
 this siliceous matter cannot come from the soil, . because it 
 
C031P0SIT10N Or PLANTS. 235 
 
 cannot be dissolved but by a red heat with alkahes. We 
 shall not, therefore, be too hasty, if we suspect that plants 
 form siliceous earth, from carbon and hydrogen, especially as 
 the diamond, which is the most perfect of the gems, is 
 almost entirely composed of carbon and hydrogen. Lime, 
 also, as it is a principal product of the animal kingdom, and 
 is found almost every where along with azote, is probably a 
 compound of this latter body with carbon. 
 
 360. 
 
 With respect to the metals which we find in the ashes of 
 plants, they may be reduced, so far as is known to us, to the 
 following, namely, iron, manganese and copper. The last of 
 these is found in the tubercles of the Scitaminea\ Iron is 
 found in the ashes of almost all plants, and frequently united 
 with oxide of manganese. 
 
 Although we know not the elementary bodies from which 
 metals are formed, it is very probable according to Do- 
 bereiner's experiments, that carbon, in union with hydrogen 
 and azote, suffers a change during the process of vegetation, 
 which assimilates it to a metallic nature ; perhaps this change 
 has an influence upon the colours of blossoms, and by the 
 power of heat, the metal in the organic body is transformed 
 to a metallic oxide. 
 
 361, 
 
 When we proceed to the consideration of the more remote 
 constituents, a wide field is opened to conjecture. Sulphur, 
 phosphorus, the elementary matter of cyanogen, the fundamen- 
 tal principles of halogen, and iodine, are more or less related 
 substances, which, by their great inflammability, and tendency 
 to assume the gaseous form, attract oxygen from air and wa- 
 ter, and thus form peculiar acids. 
 
 Sulphur exists in albumen, and in other vegetable juices; 
 and sulphuric acid salts are found in the ashes of almost all 
 plants. Albumen also contains phosphorus, and phosphorated 
 lime, and salts compounded with the same acid are produced 
 in the juices of many plants. The phosphoric light of putrid 
 
236 PHYTOCHEMY. 
 
 wood is a proof of the existence of this substance, and of its 
 gradual oxydation by the admission of air. A. F. Mornay 
 has observed a phosphorescent plant, of the family of the 
 Contortae, in Brazil, (Philosophical Transactions, 1818.) The 
 nauseous smell which phosphorus gives out, and the existence 
 of the same in the salts of cyanogen, favour the suspicion, that 
 phosphorus is produced by a certain combination of hydro- 
 gen and azote. We can scarcely doubt of the existence of 
 this combination in the base of cyanogen. We find this 
 matter commonly in a slight state of oxydation, as cyanogen, 
 there being scarcely 2 per cent, of oxygen in it, in the Bit- 
 ter Almond, in the Cherry Laurel, in the Black Alder, and 
 in various other narcotic plants, (Gay Lussac in Schweigger's 
 neuem Journal.) Halogen or chlorine has the same disposi- 
 tion to become volatile, and the same tendency to assume the 
 gaseous form. Its strong attraction to oxygen is the cause 
 why we commonly meet with this substance as hydrochlorous 
 acid, and why we find it in the ashes of plants, in combina- 
 tion with alkahes. 
 
 Iodine is very nearly related to this substance : it is com- 
 monly found as an oxyde in the ashes of sea- weed ; it smells 
 like chlorine, and evaporates, when exposed to heat, with a 
 pui^le colour, and a smell of chlorine. It does not affect the 
 colours of plants either as an acid or an alkali : it is most so- 
 luble in alcohol and ether, but it takes from water, as do also 
 chlorine and azote, nearly two parts and a half more of oxy- 
 gen than its own weight. Even the highly poisonous nature 
 of iodine, which has been lately remarked, favours the idea 
 of its being a compound probiibly of hydrogen and azote. 
 
 362. 
 
 There are some other newly discovered matters In plants, 
 which may be arranged more or less with those. At least, 
 there are some bases of acids, which are probably similar 
 combinations of the elementary matters, as tiiose which form 
 the alkalies. Morphium, which is vniited in opium with the 
 mcconic apid, proves its affinity to alkalies by this circum- 
 stance, that it restores to their forincr colour the blue vege- 
 
COMPOSITION or PLANTS. 237 
 
 table juices, after they had been reddened by acids. Besides, 
 it shoots out into fine needle-formed, or prismatic crystals, and 
 is scarcely soluble in hot water, but very much so in alcohol. 
 Of precisely the same nature is Strychnin, which Pelletier has 
 found, by means of corrosive alkali, in the crow's eye, and in 
 Ignatius' beans. Many strong-tasted matters owe their ori- 
 gin, probably, to the same element ; (Annales de Chimie, 
 tom. X., 1819.) 
 
 Other peculiar substances have quite different relations, al- 
 though they stand in the same class with that we have now 
 considered, as being the bases of acids. Cinchonin, which is 
 found in the chinarinde, combined with the acid of cinchona, 
 ]X)lychroit in saffron, and inulin in the Alant, are but indivi- 
 dual examples of such matters, being formed by different 
 proportions of the same elements of plants* 
 
 363. 
 
 From all these facts we conclude, that the simple elemen- 
 tary bodies which plants take up from the soil, are united 
 and separated again in the most varied and multiplied pro- 
 portions, and that it is in this manner that all the more inti- 
 mate constituents of plants are produced. If, with the view 
 of illustrating this conclusion, we attend to the relations of the 
 vegetable acids, we perceive that the further vegetation has 
 proceeded, there is less oxygen, and more hydrogen and azote 
 in the acids. We remarked formerly (351.), that the oxalic 
 acid, next to carbonic acid, is the richest in oxygen. To 
 these succeeds the tartaric acid, which we find in a free state 
 in the pith of the Tamarind, and in other plants, combined 
 with a base. It is distinguished from the oxalic acid only by 
 4 per cent, additional of hydrogen, and 1 per cent, less of 
 oxygen. The citric acid, which is found in great quantity 
 in orchard fruits and berries, contains as much hydrogen, 9 
 per cent, more of carbon, and 10 per cent, less of oxygen, 
 than the tartaric acid. The malic acid is still richer in car- 
 bon, but less plentifully stored with oxygen, on which account 
 it is possible, by means of nitric acid, to change it into oxalic 
 acid. 
 
l?38l I'HVTOXOMV 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 PROPER PIIYTOXOMY, OR ON THE LIFE OF PLANTS. 
 
 I. Effects of Slwudi. 
 
 Mustel, Traite Theoriquc et Pratique sur la Vegetation, Vol. I. 4. Rouen, 
 1781. 
 
 Sennebier, Physiologic Vegetale, Vol, I. 5. A Geneve, 1800. 
 
 P. Keith's System of Physiological Botany. 
 
 G. R. Treviranus's Biologic. 
 
 R. Sprengel, Von dem Bau und der Natur der Gewachse. 
 
 J. Sennebier, Experiences sur I'Action de la Lumiere Solaire dans les Ve- 
 getaux. 
 
 Linne, De Somno Plantarum, in Amcen. Acad. Vol. IV. 
 
 J. Hill, The Sleep of Plants. 
 
 Hunter, Versuche uber das Vermbgen der Pflantzen und Thiere, Warme zu 
 erzeugen. 
 
 Al. Wilson, Beobachtungen uber der Einfluss der Klima's auf Pflantzen und 
 Thiere. 
 
 J. Ingenhousz, Vermischte Schriftcn. 
 
 Bertholon de S. Lazare, Uber die Electrizitat, in Beziehung auf die 
 Pflantzen. 
 
 Saussure, Recherches Chimiques sur la Vegetation. 
 
 Plaudus Heinrich, m Hermbstadt's Archiv fur Agricultur-C hemic 
 
 Balde, in Laurop's Annalen der Forstkunde. 
 
 Salome, in Hermstadt's Archiv. 
 
 V. Marum, in Rozier Journal de Physique. 
 
 364. 
 
 Plants live, not merely in the common sense of the word, 
 which includes activity of every kind, but in that stricter 
 sense, by which a higher and self-dependent activity is ex- 
 pressed. 
 
 If we compare natural bodies with one another, we find 
 some which are produced by an attraction of primitive mat- 
 ters, and which are destroyed by a process of the same kind. 
 
un: or pi.axth. ogc) 
 
 But others are reared by the internal powers of their own 
 constituent parts,— occasion, by means of motions, which me- 
 chanics and chemistry have not yet explained, the ascent of the 
 sap, its resolution, and an evident chan^^e of their own exter- 
 nal proportions, — and even extend their agency beyond the 
 bounds of their own existence, by propagating themselves. 
 These three operations — the assimilation and maintenance of 
 the sap, — activity arising from internal impulse, — and the pro- 
 duction of new individuals, are the characteristics of the life 
 of plants, which we have partly already considered (343.), 
 and which we have partly yet to illustrate. At the same time, 
 we must pay some attention to the slight traces of sensitive 
 life, which is the highest degree of vital activity in plants. 
 
 365. 
 The vital activity of organized bodies is excited by stimuli, 
 and receives the name of Irritability, since we cannot explain 
 its effects either upon mechanical or chemical principles ; for 
 these last admit neither of extension nor contraction of parts, 
 —of no remarkable attraction nor removal of matters, — and we 
 consider the power of producing these changes, therefore, as 
 one of a higher kind, than the lower powers with which mere 
 matter is endowed. The explanations which we give of this 
 peculiar power we term Dynamical : yet it is impossible to 
 determine sometimes, whether a particular phenomenon is to 
 be explained purely on dynamical principles, or whether it 
 may also be illustrated by mechanical and chemical means. 
 It cannot be denied, that the recent discoveries of chemistry, 
 respecting many operations of Natia*e, have also given more 
 light to the science of plants, than was formerly connnuni- 
 catcd by dynamical explanations. In particular, we are in- 
 debted to the introduction of the science of imponderable 
 bodies, for a more connected view of many vegetable pro- 
 cesses, than we formerly possessed, But still these im}K:)ndcr- 
 able substances act partly dynamically, at least contrary to 
 the laws of gravity, and not always according to the laws of 
 chemistry. 
 
240 piivroxoiiY. 
 
 366. 
 
 Light is the principal stimulus for all living bodies, and 
 for the vegetable world in particular : without its agency no 
 plant grows, nor continues to exist. We have already con- 
 sidered (317.), the chemical attraction of light for the oxygen 
 of plants, as a very important phenomenon, and have also re- 
 marked, that the consequences of this atti*action of light for 
 oxygen do not take place without the exertion of the internal 
 activity of the plant, and we must therefore admit a real con- 
 test between light and the power of the plant. The light 
 of the sun, however, is not a material substance, but a pure 
 principle of activity, because, witliout any perceptible loss of 
 time, it traverses the immeasurable extent of heaven, — be- 
 cause it penetrates even through space that is deprived of 
 air, — and because it every where acts in opposition to the 
 laws of gravity. It operates, therefore, on plants, simply as 
 a vital stimulant, and excites all the functions of the plant to 
 such a degree, that all its secretions are more powerfully per- 
 formed ; on which account even corn is not so nutritious in 
 wet seasons, when there have been many tempestuous days. 
 It is hence that branches and leaves push towards the light. 
 We hence also remark, that plants, which have long been 
 withdrawn from the light, suffer an exhaustion of their powers, 
 become white, and wither, when light has suddenly been ad- 
 mitted to them. Nay, in one instance, (Ciudius in der Gar- 
 ten Zeitung, b. i. s. 386.), after a long removal of light, an 
 evident quakirg of the plant was observed, as if it had been 
 agitated by the shivering of a fever, and even a leaf of tlie 
 Dionaa miisc'rpula, which has been torn off, makes repeated 
 attempts to open itself to tlie Hght. These attempts are seen 
 in undulating movements of the marginal ciha, during whicli 
 the surface of the leaf is successively opened and shut, until 
 it entirely opens, and thereby loses its excitability ; (Nuttal, 
 Genera of North American Plants). It seems even to be es- 
 tablished by ancient and modern observations, that the light 
 of the moon has some influence on plants ; (Wilson, Uber 
 der Einfluss der Klima's auf Pflantzen und Thiere, s. 16.) 
 
LIFE OF PLANTS. 241 
 
 367. 
 
 The periodical change in the direction of leaves, which 
 has been called the Sleep of Plants, is undeniably connected 
 with this stimulating operation of light. It is established, that 
 during the clear light of the sun, the leaves become erect, and 
 move their upper surface to the light, whilst, on the contrary, 
 during the absence of light, they either hang downwards, and 
 turn to the horizon, or they take an upright position, so that 
 the under surface of the leaves is turned more outward. On 
 account of this particular position of what have been called 
 Sleeping Plants, vre cannot properly ascribe this direction to 
 sleep, because the leaves do sometimes even raise themselves 
 during this state with greater energy, and press upon the 
 stem or leaf-stalk, for the purpose of turning their lower sur- 
 face outwards. This change is much rather, therefore, the 
 consequence of the contest we have already mentioned, be- 
 tween the activity of the plant, and the great activity of na- 
 ture. This change is the more evident, and the sleep of 
 leaves the more striking," the fin.^r and more compounded 
 the organization of the leaves is. We hence most frequently 
 observe it in the pinnated leaves of leguminous plants, al- 
 though also in some others, as in Atriplex. 
 
 That an internal and self-dependent activity is to be taken 
 into account in this sleep of plants^ is plain from the fact that 
 this sleep does not equally follow from a short withdrawing 
 of the light, but only from its complete and long continued 
 removal; as also from this other circumstance, that leaves 
 fall asleep or awake at fixed hours, whether the sky be serene 
 or troubled, exactly as happens with regard to animals. Other 
 stimuli, too, and especially heat, have a great influence upon 
 this phenomenon, because, in the cold, leaves awaken later, and 
 fall more easily asleep, notwithstanding the influence of light. 
 
 368. 
 Blossoms also experience a similar change from the in- 
 fluence of light. Most of them unfold themselves in the 
 morning at stated hours, and again close in the evening, 
 {Blurnen-Uh?). A considerable number, especially the Oxa* 
 
 Q 
 
24 2^ I' H V T () X a ,^1 ^' , 
 
 lidse of the Cape, and the Mesembryanthema, require a very 
 warm sunshine, and the full light of day, to unfold them- 
 selves. Bory St. Vincent forced them to open themselves, 
 by means of a powerful light artificially produced by burning 
 glasses, (Ann. Gener. des Scien. Phys.) Many again only open 
 themselves during the hours of mid-day, as the Mescmbryan- 
 iJiemum noctijioi'um, pojuerldianum, cblahrjforme, and stra- 
 mineum. Some others seem to be too tender for the strong 
 stimulus of the clear light of the sun : they hence open only 
 during the evening hours, and shut again when the sun has 
 attained a certain elevation. Of this description are many 
 Silense, CEnotherae, the Cudus grandiftoi-us and U'iangu- 
 laris. 
 
 369. 
 Light displays its stimulating influence also upon plants 
 that are beginning to germinate. But necessary as it is for the 
 springing plant, it is equally injurious when it is permitted 
 to exercise too powerful an influence, especially upon very 
 fine seeds and unusually tender plants. The seed of Ferns, of 
 the Ericae, and some others of a similar nature, only germinate, 
 when, with sufficient warmth and moisture, they receive as 
 little of the sun's light as possible. For larger seeds, and more 
 hardy plants, the clear light of the sun is not too powerful a 
 stimulant, 
 
 370. 
 The second common stimulus which the life of plants re- 
 quires is Heat, which is as little a material substance as light, 
 since, like it, it operates contrary to the laws of gravity^ dif- 
 fuses itself in rays on all sides, and passes through the Torri- 
 cellian vacuum. Without a certain proportion of warmth, 
 no plant can spring or thrive : this principle exalts the activity 
 of plants, and when it is very powerful it exhausts their 
 powers, as it does also those of animals. Its long absence ren- 
 ders plants as susceptible of a new excitement as animals. It 
 operates most advantageously upon the vegetable world, when 
 there is a regulated change of temperature, and when thus 
 
LIFE OF PLANTS. 243 
 
 cool days are interchanged with warm weather, wlience we 
 account for the luxurious vegetation of alpine regions and of 
 tropical climates, where a considerable coolness during the 
 night succeeds the heat of the day. 
 
 371. 
 
 It is worthy of remark, that seeds and bulbs most perfectly 
 withstand the cold, because they suffer no considerable in- 
 crease of susceptibility, by the withdrawing of the vital sti- 
 mulus during sleep. Generally, the effects of heat and cold 
 in plants must be considered in connection with the action of 
 their internal powers. As the powers of plants are connected 
 with a certain organization, no plant will accommodate itself 
 to a certain temperature, unless its organization permits this 
 change. We can transplant vegetables from foreign coimtries 
 into our own ; but we cannot, by centuries of cultivation, 
 force plants from warmer regions, to become perennial in 
 colder climates, as the common examples of Cucumbers, 
 French Beans, and Potatoes, shew. It is believed respecting 
 many plants, that by custom they become more hardy and 
 agree with our climate ; but this is a deception which proceeds 
 from our want of information respecting the nature of many 
 regions, which, on account of their latitude, we presume to be 
 very hot. It is true that we have partly accustomed to our win- 
 ter some Japanese plants from the fortieth degree of north lati- 
 tude ; but Japan contains mountains, and lies east from Asia, 
 where the temperature is always lower than in western re- 
 gions. The Japanese plants, too, are not more hardy than 
 those from the mountainous districts of America, which lie 
 under the same degree of latitude, (391 •) 
 
 372. 
 Another very important stimulus for the whole vegetable 
 world is presented by electricity. Obscure as the science of 
 atmospherical electricity still is, we yet know with certainty that 
 the influence of electrical excitation, and the discharge of po- 
 sitive electricity, is one of the most powerful stimulants to 
 the vital action of plants. We })erceive this from storms. 
 
 Q2 
 
244 PIIYTOXOMY. 
 
 Even ilie blighting of corn in low lands, by means of power- 
 ful storms of lightning, shews the operation of the exhausting- 
 stimulus, which the discharge of atmospherical electricity af- 
 fords. In the same manner Buck-wheat fails to be produc- 
 tive when it has been exposed to lightning ; (Thaer, Grund- 
 satze der Rationellen Landwirthschaft.) 
 
 We cannot state, in opposition to this, that artificial elec- 
 tricity from a machine produces little effect on very fine leaves, 
 when tliey are disposed to sleep, because this change of state 
 is one of those vital phenomena which depends principally 
 upon the effects of light. It is certain that seeds germinate 
 more actively, and that branches put forth buds more early, 
 when they are electrified. 
 
 373. 
 
 The kind of electricity which is excited by two bodies of 
 different susceptibilities of oxydation, with intervening moist- 
 ened conductoi*s, and which we call Galvanism, or the Gal- 
 vanic Activity, has a powerful influence upon the whole of na- 
 ture, particularly upon organized nature, and, therefore, upon 
 the vegetable world. Indeed, neither simple galvanism, nor 
 the voltaic pile, has any remarkable influence on the motions of 
 sensitive plants ; but it has been })roved that still the germina- 
 tion of seeds is very much promoted by the positive pole of 
 the voltaic pile, when no extraordinary discharge takes place. 
 On the contrary, the negative pole of the voltaic pile exhausts 
 in every case the vital activity of plants. 
 
 We are more generally concerned, howe\'er, witli the pro- 
 cess of natural galvanism, which incessantly takes place in 
 every organized body, where opposite principles are evolved, 
 where an excitation of the elementary matters takes place, 
 and where layers of different capacities of oxydation are con- 
 nected by moistened conductors. In all these cases, that ac- 
 tion takes place which we call Galvanic, and produces effects, 
 wliich chemistry can then only in some degree imitate, when 
 she avails herself of artificial galvanic batteries. 
 
 The organic perspiration through impervious coverings, 
 whicli we have often spoken of, is a \ ital function, which Wol- 
 kston has successfully imitated at the pole of the voltaic pile. 
 
1,1 ri: OF PLANTS. 2t.5 
 
 The wonderful eombination of primary matters, and the cl wmgcs 
 which are produced in ingredients derived from the soil and 
 from water, can only be explained by this influence of the gal- 
 vanic power, and it is in the same manner that we daily jK'i- 
 ceive more distinctly that wherever heat assists in the solution 
 of bodies, electricity is produced, as in every chemical proces^j 
 the electrical relations are changed. Art has ah-eady imitated, 
 by means of the voltaic pile, many of these operations of" na- 
 ture, by proving that carbon, colouring matters, alkalies, and 
 earths, are but oxides of metals, which distinctly resume 
 their metallic nature at the negative pole of the voltaic pile. 
 Finally, even in the operation of impregnation, there is unde- 
 niably an electrical or galvanic process, which is evolved by 
 the elementary contraction of opposite substances, as ancient 
 observers of the physiology of vegetables had observed. 
 
 374. 
 Oxygen is one of the most important and common stimu- 
 lants in the vegetable world. We have already (314. 329), 
 seen that plants attract oxygen, and it is certain, that in the 
 germination of seeds the influence of this body is of consider- 
 able importance. It has, indeed, been long known, that 
 salts, lime, and weak acids, powerfully promote germina- 
 tion, — that seeds, which have long been laid by, are forced to 
 unfold themselves by hydrochlorous acid, — and even that an 
 excessive excitement is produced by too powerful an applica- 
 tion of these salts and acids. For experiments have made it 
 obvious to sight, that plants, treated with these acids, spring 
 up speedily indeed, but on account of their too speedy and 
 active growth, are destitute of any proper power of increase, 
 and that they hence easily decay without bearing fruit. This 
 experiment, which has been confirmed by Lampadius in 
 particular, shews, that oxygen is not properly a nourishing 
 substance, nor becomes assimilated to the plant, but that it 
 only increases the vital activity in the capacity of a stimulus ; 
 (Hermstadfs Archiv der Agricultur-Chemie). This, also, 
 is further evident from other experiments, in which wc sec 
 that almost as much oxvgen is either exhaled or employed in 
 the composition of the carbonic acid which is exhaled, as had 
 
246 I'llYTONOMY. 
 
 been taken into the plant. It is also evident from the fact, that 
 lime, in combination with sulphuric acid, as we find it in gyp- 
 sum and marl, properly connnunicates no fertility to the soil, 
 but only a stimulating power ; on which account, marl, as a 
 manure, must always be interchanged by animal manure, if 
 we would not render the soil altogether barren ; (Mogehn- 
 sche Annalen). Free acids in the soil, especially when the 
 latter stands commonly under water, are rather hurtful to 
 vegetation, since the extractive matter of vsuch soils is not dis- 
 solved ; (Thaer, Grundsatze der rationellen Landwirth- 
 schaft). On this account, the mud which is taken from 
 streams and pools, must first be mixed with lime, if we would 
 assist by it the fertility of the soil. 
 
 375. 
 
 Experiments have shewn that the other stimulants act upon 
 plants as well as on animal bodies. Arsenic destroys the ir- 
 ritability of plants and germinating power of seeds. Opium, 
 too, acts on plants, although in a different manner from the 
 poisonous body we have last mentioned, which exalts the sus- 
 ceptibility to an extreme degree, but entirely destroys the 
 power of action. Opium, on the contrary, exhausts the sus- 
 ceptibility, by increasing the active power. Cherry-laurel 
 water, and Ticunas poison, bring plants speedily to a state of 
 decay, and take from them their irritability. 
 
 Hydrogen gas seems, on the contrary, to act less injuriously 
 on plants than on animals, as it has also been found, that 
 plants with juicy and green leaves live entirely uninjured in 
 azotic gas, and exhale carbonic acid gas. But they die when 
 we take from them, by means of lime water, the carbonic 
 acid gas, which seems to be constantly changed by them into 
 a source of nourishment. 
 
 II. Other Proofs of the Higher Lrf'c of Plants, 
 
 Brugmans et Coulon, de mutata humoruin in regno orgamco indole a vi vi- 
 tali \asorum derivanda. 
 
 Carradori Sulla Vitalita delle Piantc. 
 
 G. Bell, in Memoirs of the Society of Manchester. 
 
LIFE OF PLANTS. 24? 
 
 V. Maurum, Diss, qua disquiritur, quousque motiis lluidonim ci cetera: 
 quaedam animalium i)lantarumque functiones consentiant. 
 Medicus in Act. Theodoro-palat. 
 Calp. Fr. Wolf, Theoria Generationi«. 
 Patr. Blair, Botanical Essays. 
 Seb. Vaillant, Discours sur la Structure des Fleurs. 
 Lefebure, Experiences sur la Germination des Plantes. 
 C. Richard. Analyse du Fruit, considere en general. 
 I- C. Treviranus, Von der Entwickelung des Embryo. 
 
 376. 
 
 We find other proofs of the higher Hfe of plants in the as- 
 cent of the sap, and in the distribution of it through all the 
 organs. 
 
 It is impossible to overlook the fact, that the sap-vessels, 
 on account of Jie similarity of their structure to that of hair- 
 tubes, are chiefly appropriated to the purpose of raising the 
 sap to a certain height, (276.) But were the sap-vcsscls 
 simply hair-tubes, it were impossible to explain why the sap 
 in them rises constantly to a greater height, since the hair- 
 tube retains the fluid which it has once taken up, at one fixed 
 height. It would also be impossible to explain why light 
 has so powerful an influence upon the ascent of the sap, since 
 fluids, in hair-tubes, stand as high in the dark as in the light 
 of the sun. 
 
 Neither heat, nor the pretended hygroscopical nature of the 
 vessels of plants, can altogether explain this phenomenon ; be- 
 cause, were the ascending sap attenuated by heat, and were 
 the upper parts of the sap- vessels rendered, by the same 
 means, more fitted for receiving the attenuated sap, the heat 
 of the upper aerial strata must always be greater thiui tliat of 
 the earth around the roots. But in hot-beds, and in hot- 
 houses, we only bring plants to a lively growth, when we ren- 
 der the earth about the roots much Avarmer than the strata of 
 air above the earth ; and it is not possible, therefore, to ex- 
 plain the ascent of the sap from this attenuation by heat. The 
 hygroscopic nature of the vessels of plants is scarcely worthy 
 of a refutation, since the moisture, which constantly sur- 
 rounds them on all sides, directly contradicts this explana- 
 tion. 
 
248 PHVTUX031Y. 
 
 There remains nothing further, therefore, than to assume 
 a higher power in the sap-vessels, which being excited by the 
 sap and strengthened by hght, heat, and electricity, and 
 being also probably favoured by the elastic air, or by the ex- 
 halations which are produced in the spiral vessels, forces the 
 fluids upwards. The periodical change of the ascent of the 
 sap, without any stated change of the external influences, 
 must also lead to this idea, since the repeated motion of the 
 sap in our trees, during, perhaps, a similar temperature of 
 the atmosphere, and the similar repeated ascent of the sap in 
 tropical trees, and in those which are reared in hot-houses, 
 completely establish this opinion, (298.) 
 
 377. 
 To confirm our conclusion respecting the higher life of 
 plants, we must further remark, that they are capable of re- 
 sisting the external influences of heat and cold, — although 
 many of the phenomena of this kind can partly be explained 
 by chemical effects. It is certain that plants in warm baths, 
 the temperature of which is from 150° to 180° of Fahr., and 
 that others on the brink of the margin of volcanoes, fjrow 
 briskly, where the air is warmed above the boiling ]X)int. 
 On the other hand, we see a great many trees in the po- 
 lar zone resist a cold which is from 20° to 25° of Fahr. 
 We see that the internal temperature of trees in winter is al- 
 ways higher than the temperature of the atmosphere, — so 
 much so, that this internal temperature of some trees seems 
 never to fall belov/ 52°, and never to rise above 75°. 
 
 If we reflect on the manner in which plants and other living- 
 bodies withstand external cold and heat, we shall find that 
 this is a necessary consequence of their internal activity. By 
 means of this, evaporation must go on incessantly so long as 
 the plants are in leaf. In consequence of this function, the 
 heat that previously existed in a free state is employed in the 
 maintenance of the evaporation, and a diminution of the de- 
 gree of temperature must thus of necessity arise. To explain 
 the power by which plants resist cold, we might refer to the 
 production of an internal heat from the transition of fluid in- 
 
LIVE or PL.iXTS. 219 
 
 to solid parts, by which means heat must always be disen- 
 gaged ; but this would be to avail ourselves of a process of 
 nourishment, which is speedily accomplished, and of which 
 we can scarcely take advantage in winter. We must there- 
 fore recollect, that the roots of trees stand in a layer of earth, 
 which is not easily freezed, especially when it is covered with 
 snow ; that the sleeping life of plants in winter indures the 
 removal of stimuli as easily as that of animals, who, during 
 their winter sleep, are surrounded by very cold air or by ice. 
 We must recollect, that when the thermometer, lield in a 
 hole bored in the stem of a tree, rises during winter, this is a 
 natural consequence of the slow transmission of heat through 
 the rind filled with resinous sap, and that, besides, snow around 
 living trees does not dissolve sooner than around dry stakes. 
 
 The production of an internal heat in plants is therefore at 
 least very doubtful ; and we must as yet limit it to the rare 
 cases in which a considerable heat is generated, namely, in 
 the spadix of the Ai'um species, and, according to one report, 
 also in the Pandanus when it flowers ; although this pheno- 
 menon proceeds less from any preponderance of vital activity, 
 than from a process which is truly chemical, and which re- 
 lates to the evolution of elementary bodies in the blossoms ; 
 (Sennebier, Phys. Veget. ; Hall in Bradley's and Adams' 
 Med. and Phys. Jour. ; Bory St Vincent in Ann. Gener. des 
 Sciences Phys.) 
 
 378. 
 We come now to another vital phenomenon in plants, 
 namely, visible motions. As, however, there are a multi- 
 tude of brisk and often of wonderful movements, which may 
 be explained by mechanical or physical arrangements, we arc 
 led to inquire to what class we must refer these peculiar vi- 
 tal motions. Now, when we attend, in the first place, to the 
 absence of mechanical arrangements, — next to the fixed order 
 which occurs in these movements, — and, lastly, to the excit- 
 ing cause, which operates by irritation, — we shall find it dif- 
 ficult to consider this kind of motion as of any other tlian a 
 dynamical nature. 
 
250 PHYTONOMY. 
 
 When we see the anthcrae, which previously were included 
 within the concave parts of the corolla or calyx, suddenly and 
 powerfully raise themselves up and scatter their pollen, we 
 can only attribute this to the relaxation of the contraction of 
 the parts. When we see fruits or capsules spring up with 
 yet greater elasticity, or scatter their seeds, we find upon ex- 
 amination that this also is a consequence of the preceding 
 contraction, which in the Acantheae, for example, is occasion- 
 ed by peculiar hooks on the dissepimentum ; (Tab. I. Fig. 
 37.) 
 
 To the same class we refer other phenomena, which, in our 
 opinion, are falsely considered as effects of higher powers. 
 The springing back of the sexual parts of the Medkago spe- 
 cies on the vexillum, by the contact of the carina, is as cer- 
 tainly a consequence of the excited elasticity of the parts, as 
 the elevation of the fruit-stalk of the Stylidiue, which was pre- 
 viously pressed into double curvature, and was held in a state 
 of contraction by a peculiar pointed petal, until, after the 
 complete evolution of the blossom, this petal relaxes, and thus 
 leaves the fruit-stalk at liberty, which then stretches and 
 raises itself up, although it still continues curved ; (Fred. 
 Bauer, Illustr. Nov. HoU.) The irritability of the arched 
 margin of the corolla of the Leeuwenhoekia, R. B. is to be ex- 
 plained in the same manner. An irritability has also been 
 ascribed to the parts of the glume oi the Leersia lenticularh', 
 Mich., which is known in North America under the name 
 of the Fly-catching Grass ; but it has been lately shewn, 
 that the notched cilia of the valves detain the proboscis of 
 flies, when they stick in them, in a manner entirely mechani- 
 cal ; (Nuttall, Genera of North American Plants.) In our 
 Di'osera also, as in the Roridula of the Cape, the catching 
 of flies seems to be merely a consequence of the sticking of 
 the insects to the glands of the leaves. 
 
 We cannot determine with certainty whether the opening 
 and shutting of the lid of the water-bladder in the Nepen^ 
 tUes distillatoria^ Ccphalotus Jbllicidaris, and of the hollow 
 leaves in the Sari-accn'tcr, is merely the consequence of a me- 
 chanical arrangement. In the Ccphalotus at least, there is a 
 
LIFE OF PLANTS. 251 
 
 ring on the opening of* the water-bladder, with numerous 
 rib-shaped processes, to which we might ascribe a function 
 similar to that of the elastic ring of the capsules of the 
 Ferns. 
 
 Finally, the alternate approximation and separation of the 
 cilia in the setting of the orifice of the Mosses, is a j)urely 
 hygroscopic phenomenon, since every change in the quantity 
 of vapour contained in the atmosphere sets this alternation 
 a-going. 
 
 379. 
 
 But what, without doubt, are automatic motions, or such 
 as vve cannot account for by mechanical causes, but by higher 
 powers, are, in the first place, the movements of fresh-water 
 Oscillatoria? during their growth. By the microscope, we 
 observe these motions under the influence of sunshine so 
 striking during the rapid increase of the bodies, that we can 
 scarcely refrain from supposing, that we perceive a trace of 
 animal life, or from considering these bodies as holding a 
 middle place in the two organic kingdoms. Equally striking 
 are the movements of the Hedysarum gyrans during its ra- 
 pid growth. It is the smaller side leaves, however, which 
 incessantly exhibit this circumvolving motion. Even the 
 power of detaining flies which belongs to the Dlouaa musci- 
 pula^ may be ascribed, notwithstanding the wonderful mecha- 
 nical means for producing it, to the irritability which, from 
 other proofs, we know to belong to the leaves of that plant. 
 
 The collapsing of the leaves of what are called Sensitive 
 Plants, which belong to the species Mimosa, Schrankia, 
 ^schynomene, Averrhoa, Oxalis, and Smithia, is, notwith- 
 standing all earlier attempts to explain it mechanically, an in- 
 dubitable consequence of irritability ; and this is the more evi- 
 dent that in one of them, the Averrhoa Caramhola, it is not 
 the leaves which were touched, but those placed opiK)site to 
 them, whicli collapse and fall down. 
 
252 PHYT0X03IY. 
 
 380. 
 
 But the most important proof of the higher, and even of 
 the sensitive Ufe of plants, is derived from the events that oc- 
 cur during fructification. The regular order in which the 
 antherae free themselves by degrees, and indeed one after an- 
 other, from their pollen, is a phenomenon which we cannot 
 well account for but by the admission of higher powers. 
 This regular order is seen most distinctly in the Garden Rue 
 and the Parnassia paluatris. 
 
 The splitting of the two-lipped stigmata in the Mimiiliit 
 and Gloxinki before fructification, and the quick shutting of 
 the two lips, the moment that a particle of pollen is placed 
 upon the inner surface of the stigma, also announces the ex- 
 istence of a susceptibility which does not require to be much 
 exalted, in order to pass into the feeling of an animal body. 
 But we must also take into account the consequences of the 
 increase of the plant, — of the gradual unfolding of its parts, 
 and of dichogamy ; because in the Malvaceae, as well as in 
 the Syngenesious plants, the late appearance of the stigma, 
 and its prolongation above the filaments, are to be ascribed 
 to the latter causes. 
 
 381. 
 
 Finally, we think we shall be able to prove, that the whole 
 process of fructification is truly a dynamical operation, in 
 which every thing depends on the excitement of a new life 
 in the germen. 
 
 The times are past when previously formed embrya were 
 supposed to exist in the ovula of the unimpregnated germen. 
 This previous existence of embrya is contradicted in the 
 strongest manner, not only by the production of hybrid 
 plants, when two different kinds are forced together for the 
 purpose of artificial impregnation, by which means the pro- 
 duced plants exhibit the combined characters of both the pa- 
 rents, (Jos. Gottl. Koelreuter, Vorlaufige Nachricht von eini- 
 gen das Geschlecht der Pflantzen betreffenden Versuchen. 
 Gallcsio, Theorieder vegetabilischen Reproduction) ; but also 
 by the changes of form which a plant undergoc^s by reproduc- 
 
LIFE OF PLANTS. 253 
 
 tion, and still farther by the difference in the number and in- 
 sertion of the unimpregnated ovula, from that of the impreg- 
 nated seeds, and by the constant failure of the former, when 
 they are not awakened by the pollen into new life. 
 
 We might indeed suppose, with the natural historians of 
 the early part of the eighteenth century, that there is a direct 
 passage of the pollen into the ovary, and a material union of 
 this substance with the ovula; by which supposition, we 
 should explain the germination of the seed entirely on atomi- 
 cal principles, (Sam. Moreland, Phil. Trans, vol. xxiii.) ; but 
 tlie following reasons lead us to reject this supposed direct 
 passage. In the first place, there are no visible canals through 
 which this passage could take place, except the sap-vessels 
 of the pistillum and the spiral vessels, both of which connect 
 the germen with the stigma. But sap-vessels and spiral ves- 
 sels perform quite different functions, as we have already 
 seen. 
 
 In the next place, the surface of stigmata, as we have al- 
 ready remarked (340.) is covered with shut warts and hairs, 
 which equally prevent this direct communication. 
 
 It must also be noticed, that in the Labiatae, Asperifoliae, 
 some of Urticae, and Rosaceae, the pistillum only directs itself 
 sideways towards the ovula, without appearing to stand in di- 
 rect communication with them ; and that in the Contortae the 
 pistilla ar^ covered by a shield-shaped surface resembling the 
 stigma, without being directly united to it. Finally, we must 
 ajlow its privilege to analogy, which informs us, that in the 
 lower animals, particularly in the Mollusca^ impregnation is 
 accomplished without the passage of any material substaiicc 
 from the impregnating organ into the receptacle of the seed. 
 In this case it is purely a galvanic process, in which, by 
 means of a chain of different organs lying together, the vital 
 activity is unfolded to the degree necessary for the production 
 of new individuals. A process exactly similar takes place in 
 the vegetable kingdom. The pollen, brought into contact 
 with the stigma, awakens in it, as well as in the germen, a 
 new life. New secretions and depositions of organising mat- 
 ters take place, by means of which now forms; are ])n)diicrd 
 
254 PHYTONOMY. 
 
 corresponding to the pattern which properly belongs to each 
 plant. 
 
 That electricity performs an important part in impregna- 
 tion, has long been suspected ; and the contraction of electri- 
 cal matters in the blossom, and in the parts of fructification, 
 seems to favour this idea. 
 
 382. 
 
 As we thus consider the stimulus of the pollen to be a ne- 
 cessary condition of the evolution of seed from the ovula, we 
 must at the same time defend ourselves against both the an- 
 cient and later objections to this doctrine, and must be pre- 
 pared to encounter the reproach of having taken a partial 
 view. 
 
 It is true that diclinous plants often seem to bear fruit 
 without having been impregnated by pollen. Not only an- 
 cient pretended observations respecting the setting of the 
 fruit in the female hemp plants, after the male plants had 
 been taken away, but more recent experiments, which have 
 the appearance of having been carefully made, have bred a 
 doubt respecting the necessity of impregnation by pollen to 
 the evolution of the seed (Spallanzani, Fisica animale e vege- 
 tabile.) Supposing these experiments to have been always 
 made with indisputable exactness, fidelity, and care ; suppo- 
 sing also that perfect seed has been obtained from female 
 plants of Spinage, Hemp, and Mercury, which were com- 
 pletely isolated, the reason of this is to be sought in the fre- 
 quently androgynous nature of diclinous plants. For Glei- 
 chen has shewn respecting Spinage, Schkuhr respecting Mer- 
 cury, and Kastner respecting Willows, that female plants of- 
 ten bear hermaphrodite blossoms, at least that they are an- 
 drogynous. Something similar must take place with respect 
 to Hops ; for when only female plants are set, male plants 
 are found to have risen among them ; (Thaer, Grundsatze 
 der rationellen Landwirthshaft.) 
 
LIFE OF PLANTS. 255 
 
 383. 
 
 If we examine still further the changes which take place 
 in the germen after impregnation, we find this idea of a new 
 life being awakened, confirmed, in the first place, by the 
 swelling v/hich this organ exhibits at the expense of the other 
 parts of fructification, and their coverings. These last decay 
 and fall off. The ovary and the receptacle, and in Hovenia 
 dulcis the fruit-stalk, begin to swell ; and the ovula, which 
 before were only simple vesicles or spherical cells, being now 
 filled with })ure water, begin to undergo wonderful changes. 
 
 The skin of the seed begins to thicken by depositions from 
 the organising fluid. After some time, which cannot exactly 
 be defined, we are able to distinguish a double covering of 
 the seed ; the exterior, which from analogy is called the 
 Chorion^ and the interior, which is denominated the Amnios. 
 The latter, which is for the most part full of a sweet and slimy 
 fluid (liquor ainnii), shews after some time a small point, 
 either swimmimg or fixed to the side of the vessel, which is 
 the first trace of the embryon. It seldom occurs that we 
 find more than one embryon in the same ovulum, although 
 this is observed in the Agrumae and in Fuchsia. It still 
 more seldom happens that no embryon is found in a proper 
 seed, but that it first makes its appearance in the shoot. 
 
 The farther evolution of the seed is different according to 
 the type of its structure ; that is to say, the embryon either 
 does not increase, but remains imevolved, and continues to 
 be hke a point, a line, or a fungus. In that case, it does not 
 consume the moisture appropriated to the nourishment of the 
 germ, but this matter becomes thickened by^the absorption of 
 of its more volatile parts, and passes at last into the nature of 
 albumen. When this occurs, as in the Grasses and Scitami- 
 neae, we can discover the scutellum or the vitellus appearing 
 as an instrument of evolution. In other instances, the em- 
 bryon becomes thickened at one end, by which also it attaches 
 itself to a substance, which holds the place of the cotyledons, 
 and is called the Cotyledonous Body. In some of the Naiadas 
 and Zamiae, as well as in the Pine tribe, this body incloses 
 the germ within itself. By the germ it is itself divided, and 
 
2oG PHYTONOMY* 
 
 thereby its transition to the true cotyledons becomes evident. 
 According to the observations of L. C. Treviranus, the thick- 
 ened cotyledonous termination of the Riippia has the struc- 
 ture, and supphes the place of the albuminous substance ; 
 (Von der Entwickelung des Embryo.) 
 
 In most of these albuminous plants, the cotyledonous body 
 is first formed along with the germ. The Palms, for instance, 
 the Liliaceae, Junceac, and Sarmentaceae, send out from the 
 seed, along with the germ, a horizontal thread, which be- 
 comes thickened into a tubercle, and from which the root 
 proceeds downwards, and the plant upwards. A great many 
 families of plants retain the thickened fluid of the germ, as 
 albuminous substance, and yet the embryon is evolved with 
 its cotyledons. We observe this in the Umbellatae, Polygo- 
 neae, Nyctaginae, as well as in the Caryophylleas, in which 
 the albuminous substance remains in the middle, and the em- 
 bryon is placed around it. In plants of the higher orders, 
 however, it commonly happens that the evolution of the em- 
 bryon with its cotyledons is performed so much at the ex- 
 pense of the albuminous substance, that this substance is 
 either entirely consumed, and becomes one with the chorion, 
 or there remains only a small trace of it. 
 
 384. 
 
 Although the chemical changes in the germ are of very 
 high moment, yet this process cannot otherwise be funda- 
 mentally explained but in a dynamical way. 
 
 The object of first importance in germs is their vital acti- 
 vity ; and this in many plants dies so speedily, that acorns 
 and coffee-beans cannot be preserved above a few months, 
 without losing their power of germinating. On the other 
 hand, this power is retained in many other seeds for an ama- 
 zing length of time, especially when light and air are ex- 
 cluded ; and it is from this cause that we must account for 
 the otherwise incomprehensible phenomenon, that the bottom 
 of dried pools, or earth which has been stirred to a great 
 depth, produces plants, which do not make their appearance 
 for maiiv miles round ; (Thaer, Grundsaze der rationelleu 
 
LIFE OF PLANTS. 25? 
 
 Landwirthschaft.) The peculiar power of plants seems even 
 to be increased by this long keeping of their seeds, apparent- 
 ly because, by the drying up of the albuminous substance 
 and of the cotyledons, the constituent parts become more 
 concentrated and powerful. We hence choose old seeds of 
 melons, for the purpose of obtaining a rich crop of the best 
 flavoured fruit. Old Lint seed also gives commonly the 
 finest and best Flax. 
 
 It is a further consequence of the different varieties which 
 the internal power of seeds exhibits, that many seeds germi- 
 nate very early, and others very late ; for we cannot find a 
 sufficient foundation for this difference, either in the structure 
 or in the apparent composition of the parts of the seed. 
 While the Umbellatas, Rosaceae, and Proteacea?, often do not 
 appear till after two years, most of the Grasses, Cruciform, 
 and leguminous plants, on the contrai-y, germinate in a few 
 days. 
 
 385. 
 
 There is also a series of chemical changes, connected with 
 the germ, by means of which, as a sort of conditional causes, 
 the vital power of the germ is awakened. In the first 
 place, the seed attracts carbonic acid water through its 
 umbilicus, by which means a swelling of the albuminous 
 substance or of the cotyledons takes place, and an evident 
 effervescence is begun. During this latter operation, carbo- 
 nic acid gas is disengaged, and hydrogen is in part set free. 
 The external heat, the regulated influence of the light of the 
 sun, and the oxygen of the atmosphere, are the stinuili which 
 now awaken the life of the germ, and enable it to make use 
 of its proper nourishment, the carbonic acid water impivo-. 
 nated with azote, for its full evolution. 
 
 If the embryon remains still undeveloped in the seed, 
 more arrangements and preparations must be had recourse to, 
 before it will completely unfold itself. In many of the lower 
 plants, the necessity of these preparations consists in this, 
 that the awakening life, directed by no fixed original tvpe, 
 produces fluctuating forms, which have often no resemblance 
 
 11 
 
358 PHYTOXOMY. 
 
 to the type of the family or species. The germinating 
 mosses thus produce conferva forms, which often remain for 
 a long time after the young ]\Ioss has attained its full size ; 
 (Nees, de Muscorum propagatione Dissertatio.) Germinating 
 Ferns and Alga* produce lobed cellular forms, which remind 
 us of the structure of the Musci hepatici, and which are im- 
 properly named Cotyledons, since the existence of these can- 
 not be suspected or proved in 4:he seeds of these lower organic 
 bodies. We have formerly shewn, that in the Naiadae and 
 in some other families, the thickened cotyledonous end of the 
 germ, and, in the Pahna? and Junceae, the lateral tubercles, 
 furnish the apparatus, by the help of which the further evo- 
 lution of the embryon takes place. In the Scitamineae and 
 in the Grasses, the vitellus or the scutellum are the organs 
 by which the sap, when prepared, is conducted to the embry- 
 on, and by which its evolution is favoured. 
 
 We must here also, as in most of the lower families, take 
 into account the sheath of the root, or the warty promi- 
 nences from which the radicle first proceeds, and which are 
 equally instrumental in preparing the evolution of the germ. 
 
 These warts, or club-shaped appendages, attract also, in 
 higher plants, the moisture of the earth, and push the radicle 
 from the umbilicus. This is always the first external ap- 
 pearance which indicates the germ. The distinction which 
 Claud Richard makes between Endorrhizes and Exorrhizes, 
 is in so far correct, that in the former, the entire embryon not 
 being developed, the roots are first formed from the warty 
 substances ; while the latter, on the contrary, possess a root 
 already formed ; but this also urges on the roots and warts, 
 by which it is succeeded ; (Link, Anatomic der Pflantzen.) 
 
 Plumula? and radicles are separated by what is called the 
 Knot, which constitutes the partition between the descending 
 and ascending motion. From the knot sap-vessels pas§ into 
 the cotyledons. These take up the sap from the radicle, 
 and prepare it, by means of the processes for respiration, 
 with which they are furnished by the slits in their epidermis. 
 From them the sap proceeds, apparently through the same 
 sap-tubes, but at different times, back again to the upper 
 
T.IFK OF TLA NTS. <;>59 
 
 part of the knot, and rises from thence into the plant. We 
 thus perceive, that in plants of the higher kinds, the cotyle- 
 dons are a necessary instrument of germination and growth ; 
 on which account, when both the cotyledons are cut off, t he- 
 plant of necessity dies. 
 
 386. 
 
 The distinction which has been made, chiefly since the 
 lime of Ray, between the Acotyledonous, Monocotylcdonous, 
 Dicotyledonous, and Polycotyledonous plants, — a distinction 
 which still prevails in the system of Jussieu, — entirely vanishes 
 upon a more exact and more general observation of nature. 
 
 Among the Acotyledonous plants were mentioned the Fun- 
 gi, Algae, Lichens, Homallophyllae, Musci hepatici and fron- 
 dosi, Ferns, and Naiada?. But it has been already shewn 
 (30^, 307.), that Fungi, Alga?, and Lichens, are propagated 
 l)y germs only ; and that Homallophylla?, Musci hepatici and 
 frondosi, and Ferns, during gennination, produce fluctuating 
 fonns, which might be regarded as representatives of the co- 
 tyledons. In the Naiadas, the thickened cotyledonous end of 
 the root renders, in most instances, the cotyledons superfluous, 
 and in some cases the albuminous substance, {Zostcra, Riip- 
 pia^ Zannichellia^ Potamogeton.) \\\ other Naiada? {Lemna, 
 Hipptirls), the embryon is entirely unevolved in the middle 
 of the albuminous substance ; and in others (CaUifriche, Ce- 
 ratophyllum, Myriophyllum), the embryon evitlently divides 
 itself into two cotyledons. 
 
 With respect to what are called Monocotylcdonous plants, 
 Jussieu has reckoned them in this order, the Aroida^ Cy}3e- 
 roidae. Grasses, Palma?, Restiaceae, Juncea^, Sarmentaccjv, 
 Coronariae, Irideae, Hydrocharidae, Scitaminea», IMusejc, Or- 
 chideae, and Pipereae. But in none of these plants can we 
 admit the existence of a proper cotyledon. Lidced, iMirbel 
 (Annal. du Mus.), Fischer (Ueber die Existen/ der Mono- 
 und Polycotyledonen), Smith (Linn. Trans.), and Trevira- 
 nus (Entwickelung des Eyes), consider the vitellus in the 
 Scitamineae, or the bodies resembling scutella in the Grasses, 
 as cotyledons; because there is a distinct tr?nisiti(.n U:a\\ 
 
 \{ 'I 
 
260 niYTONOMY. 
 
 these bodies into the stem. But, without entirely denying 
 this connection, which, however, cannot be shewn in all cases, 
 there is a complete objection to this account in the structure 
 of the vitellus, and in the composition of its juices. In the 
 vitellus those small granular bodies are wanting, which are 
 deposited by the mucilage and albumen, and which we ob- 
 serve in the cotyledons ; while, on the other hand, it contains 
 in the Scitaminca; peculiar ingredients, namely, volatile oil 
 and aromatic matter. Other authors, as Claud Richard 
 (Analys. du Fruit, p. 27. ; Ann. de Mus.) consider the 
 sheath of the first leaves (called hlastus) as the cotyledon, 
 though with still less propriety, because these are no way dis- 
 tinguished from the leaves that come after them. In fact, 
 the Grasses and Cyperoidae have no proper cotyledon. As 
 little have the Aroidae, in which the embryon for the most part 
 lies, with the end of its root thickened, in the middle of the 
 albuminous substance : the Naiad ae also are destitute of this 
 structure. In the Junceae and Palmae, a tubercle proceeds 
 during germination out of the first horizontal shoot, and 
 from this tubercle the plant and radicle are first evolved, 
 (385.) Intermediate forms, as Zamia and Cycas, have a 
 distinctly divided cotyledonous body, which also shews itself 
 in the Pipereae. The same organ is found in the trees of the 
 Pine tribe, which have been falsely ranked among the po- 
 lycotyledonous plants ; because their first leaves are different 
 from those that follow in number and form. But, notwith- 
 standing this, they are still leaves, and not cotyledons. In 
 the Sarmentaceae and Coronariae, the embryon is unevolved, 
 and stands either in the centre of the albuminous substance 
 or surrounds it. It has sometimes a thickened cotyledo- 
 nous end (HemerocaUiSy Hcemanthus) ; in the Gloriosa it is 
 even divided into cotyledons. In the Hydrocharidae the 
 thickened end of the embryon seems to hold the place of the 
 albuminous substance ; and in the Orchidea?, where, from the 
 fineness of the seed no parts can be distinguished, the young 
 plants unfold themselves in the same manner as Ferns, tliat 
 is to say, first a soft, cellular, lobed body, and after it a tu- 
 bercle arises, out of whicli the young plant springs. 
 
LIFE OF PLANTS. 26 1 
 
 We thus perceive, that what are called the Monocotyledonous 
 plants have no proper cotyledons. As little do wc find polv- 
 cotyledonous plants, from the number of Mhicli the Pine 
 tribe, as we have remarked above, must be struck out. If, 
 in the case of dicotyledonous plants, the seed-lobes are di- 
 vided or cleft, as in Erodium, Canarlum^ and Lcp'ulhim, 
 tliey are fundamentally still but two, and all perfect plants, 
 reckoned upwards from the Polygoneae, must iluis be con- 
 sidered as dicotyledonous. 
 
 387. 
 
 In the study of nature, we must accustom ourselves to sus- 
 pect that in all bodies there are transition forms, and never 
 to believe that one and the same type remains without change. 
 There are thus transitions from cotyledons to leaves (in the 
 Liliaceae) ; transitions from albuminous substance to cotvle- 
 dons, and even to the root of the embryon. There are transi- 
 tions from leaf-stalks, and even from brandies, to leaves, as in 
 the Cereag and Acaciae, (181.) ; transitions from leafy appen- 
 dages to leaves in the Cistae ; from leaves to bractea? and to 
 the calyx ; from the calyx to the corolla in the Liliaceae ;. 
 from petals to filaments {Pancratium)^ and to nectaries {Con- 
 iortcE.) Nay, in the Canneae and Orchideae, the opposite 
 parts of fructification are so run into each other, that even 
 here transitions must be admitted. 
 
 388. 
 When we are examining the evolution of the parts of 
 plants, we must further attend to the law of nature, which 
 was before stated (183.), namely, that simple forms always 
 j^recede those that are complex and subdivided. In imperfect 
 plants, where the embryon resembles a line or a point, and is 
 unevolved, the expansion of it takes place in pai-allel sur- 
 faces, when the plant unfolds itself, (290.) A more complex 
 expansion takes place when this complexity was prefigured in 
 the manifold subdivisions of the parts of the seed, and when 
 a more powerful crowding towards the first knot is evident, 
 i'rom ihis law (183.) that the more early forms are always 
 
262 PHVTONOMY. 
 
 simpler than tlic later, as, tor example, that the root leaves 
 are simpler than the stem leaves, there are, however, manv 
 apparent exceptions in the Acacise of New Holland, the first 
 leaves of which are separated into many parts, while those 
 that come later appear to be simple. These later leaves, 
 however, are rather intermediate forms between the leaf-stalk 
 and the leaves. These last have not arrived at their evolu- 
 tion ; they have thus become abortive, and the leaf-stalks 
 supply their place, (181.) 
 
 389. 
 Another law to which the coiisidoation of the evolution of 
 plants leads us, is that of numerical {iroportion. As all divi- 
 sion and unfolding of parts proceeds from the spiral vessels, 
 and where these fail, from the sap-vessels, no other division, 
 according to the rule formerly given (279), can be fundamen- 
 tal, but that which proceeds from one to three ; because two 
 new vessels always place themselves on the sides of the origi- 
 nal spiral vessels. Hence, the number three prevails in all 
 the lower organic bodies, as far as the Amaranthejc. By 
 doubling this number we have six, and by tripling it we have 
 nine. Hence BiUoimis and Hydrocharls belong to the same fa- 
 mily. In more perfect plants two new vessels place themselves 
 on both sides of the original spiral vessels, and in them, there- 
 fore, the number five must prevail, the double of which gives 
 ten. When we perceive a fourfold and eightfold subdivision, 
 we may assume an abortion or union of parts, as the law of 
 nature in these cases, (178.) 
 
=GEOGKAl'HV OF 1M.AX1\S. 263 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 OX THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS UPON THF 
 EARTH. 
 
 Linne, Stationes plantarum, in Amoen. Acad. vol. iv. 
 Giraud Soulavie, Geographic physique de regnc \egetal. 
 
 F. Stromeyer, Historiae vcgetabilium geographicae Specimen. ; Dissertatio 
 
 G. R, Treviranus, Biologic, b. ii. s. 44, 137. 
 
 Humboldt et Bonpland, Essai sur la Geographic des Plantcs. 
 
 Willdenow, im Magazin der Berlin, Gesellshaft naturforschender Freundc. 
 
 Wahlenberg, Flora Lapponica. 
 
 Dessen, Flora Carpathorum principalium. 
 
 Dfissen, de Vegetatione et Climate Helvetioe septentrionalis. 
 
 Brown's General Remarks, geographical and systematical, on the Botany 
 of Terra australis. 
 
 Brown's Observations, systematical and geographical, on the Herbariuir 
 collected by Professor Smith in the vicinity of Congo. 
 
 Humboldt, Prolegomena ad nova genera plantarum. 
 
 Schouw, de sedibus plantarum originariis. 
 
 Jahrbucher der Gewachskunde. 
 
 Ritter's Sechs-Karten von Europa, mit erklarendcm Text. 
 
 Titford's Sketches towards a Hortus botanicus Amcricanus. Table of cli- 
 mates and habitats of plants. 
 
 390. 
 
 The geography of plants makes iis acquainted with the 
 present distribution of plants upon the earth and in tlie 
 Abaters, and endeavours to refer their growth to external 
 causes. It is thus a part of tlie Phijswloirtj of Plants^ si nee 
 it investigates the laws according to which climate, tcmj^era- 
 ture, soil, elevation above the surface of the sea, and distance 
 from the equator, as also accidental external circumstances, 
 operate upon the production of plants. It is connected in some 
 measure with the History of Plants^ or with investigations 
 respecting the origin, diffusion, and gr-adu;d dislrihution oi 
 
264 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS. 
 
 plants. Yet it must be distinguished from this ; and when 
 a sure foundation of facts is laid and arranged, it exerts an 
 essential influence on the science of the cultivation of gardens 
 and fields, on the rearing of forests and other civil occupa- 
 tions. 
 
 391. 
 
 We may investigate the laws of the distribution of the fa- 
 milies and tribes of plants in different climates by two me- 
 thods. 
 
 In the first place, we divide the surface of the Earth into 
 certain zones, in wliich we seek for the plants that are pro- 
 duced, and thence draw general results. This method is in- 
 deed a laborious one, and is especially difficult on this ac- 
 count, that we are not yet completely acquainted with all the 
 parts of every zone of the earth ; while the lower families of 
 plants have commonly been neglected by most travellers. 
 Yet we can draw conclusions, with some probability, respect- 
 ing unknown plants from those that are known ; at least, this 
 method leads to greater certainty than the following, on which 
 only, however, most of our labours have been conducted. In 
 this second method, we place the Floras of countries of diffe- 
 rent climates before us ; we compare the plants which they 
 contain, and in this way form conclusions respecting their dis- 
 tribution. But, as we are not in possession of complete Flo- 
 ras of all countries and their individual regions, it cannot but 
 happen that false inferences and contradictions will arise, 
 while we do not take into account the productions of neigh- 
 bouring countries, or of those that lie between the districts 
 which have been examined. Besides, we can only make use 
 of the Floras of particular degrees of latitude and longitude, 
 but not those of the whole zone ; because most of the com- 
 pilers of Floras have been acquainted with the products of 
 vegetation only within a certain circle. 
 
 392. 
 Without entering, in this place, into the history of plants, 
 we may state it as the fundamental law of the geography of 
 
GEOGRArilY or TLAXTS. 265 
 
 plants, that the lower the organization of the body is, the 
 more generally is it distributed. As infusory animalcuhe are 
 produced in all zones, when the same conditions exist ; we 
 find, in the same manner, that Fungi, Sponges, Alga', and 
 Lichens, and even Musci frondosi and hepatici, are distri- 
 buted every where upon the earth, in the sea, and in the wa- 
 ters, when the same circumstances propitious to their produc- 
 tion occur. We have seen that the idea of genera and 
 species can be applied with so much less strictness, the less 
 perfect the vegetable is ; and hence, although the same or si- 
 milar forms of Conyomici, Nematomici, Gastromici, and 
 Sponges, are produced in all zoneS;> we cannot pronounce in 
 all cases respecting the identity of the species. If travellers had 
 not so much neglected the imperfect plants of foreign coun- 
 tries, this assertion might easily have been proved by innu- 
 merable testimonies. But we must receive with caution 
 and limitation, even what they have told us respecting the 
 growth of common European cryptogamous plants in the 
 most distant regions and waters of the earth, because many 
 of these travellers had no exact knowledge of the crypto- 
 gamous plants. The most distant countries of the earth, Eu- 
 rope and New Holland, the inhabitants of which are anti- 
 podes to each other, have, according to the testimony of 
 Brown, a witness of the best information and highest credit, 
 a considerable number of Lichens, almost indeed two-thirds 
 of those that have hitherto been discovered in New Holland, 
 of the same species with those that exist in Europe. Of the 
 Musci hepatici and frondosi, nearly one-third belong equally 
 to New Holland and to Europe. And, with respect to the 
 Alga?, not only Confervae, but Fuci, are common to the 
 most distant seas. Laminaria Jgarum, Lam., for instance, is 
 found in Greenland, in Hudson's Bay, in Kamtschatka, and 
 in the Indian Ocean. Halidrys siliquosa, Lyngb., Spharo- 
 coccus ciliatus, Ag., and many others, have a distribution 
 equally extensive. 
 
 The Naiadae and lihizospermae also are found in the same 
 manner almost in all waters, as the MarsHea quadrjfolUt, 
 Zostcra marina^ and ihc niilive rolaniogetons and Lcimue 
 
266 GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS. 
 
 shew, which Brown found also in New Holland. Even the 
 Grasses and Cyperoidje share in this general distribution. A 
 great many native members of these families, as the Carex 
 raspiiosa, Scirpus liicustris^ Glyceriafluitans, Ariindo phrag^ 
 mites, Panicum Cms Gallic and so forth, grow also in New 
 Holland. Humboldt has confirmed these observations, in re- 
 spect to the growth of European Mosses, Grasses, and Cy- 
 peroida?, in South America. 
 
 Higher and more perfect plants, on the contrary, are less 
 generally distributed by nature, although, by cultivation, they 
 also can be forced to vegetate in the most distant countries, 
 provided favourable circumstances occur. Of these circum- 
 stances, a considerable number must always co-operate for 
 the perfect evolution of plants of the higher orders. Yet 
 there are some exceptions to this rule. Verbena ojfficinaU-s, 
 Prunella vulgaris, Sonchus oleraceus, Hydrocotyle vulgaris, 
 Potentilla anserina, and some other common European plants, 
 grow also, according to Brown, in New Holland. Almost 
 the seventh part of the phanerogamous plants that vegetate 
 in North America are found in Europe ; yet we cannot deny 
 that many of them have been transplanted hither, (401.) On 
 Mascaren's Island, Bory St. Vincent found Cladium Germa- 
 nicum, Schrad., Cyperus Jusctis, Potamogeton natans, Hy- 
 drocotyle vulgaris, and some other European plants. 
 
 393. 
 
 The same distance from the equator, or the same degree 
 of latitude, produces rather a resemblance in the forms, — an 
 agreement in the families and genera, — than the same species, 
 chiefly because, besides this geographical latitude, the height 
 4ibove the surface of tlie sea, the temperature during the 
 growing season, the soil and constitution of the mountains, 
 even the degree of longitude, and several other circumstances, 
 have an influence on vegetation. 
 
 There are a great many perfect plants which exclusively 
 belong to the tropics, which never pass beyond them, and 
 which are found equally in Asia and Africa, in America 
 and the South Sea Islands, and even in New Holland. Al- 
 
c;i:OGKAPIlY OF PLANTS. ^67 
 
 thougli, as \vu have said, these are rather faniiUcs, as Pahiia-, 
 Scitamincae, Muscat, Myrtea?, Saphidea^, and Aiionca'; or 
 genera, as Epidcndrum, Santalum^ Olax^ Cymhidiuvi, and 
 so forth : yet there are particular species, which grow in all 
 parts of the world only between the tropics, as, for instance, 
 Heliotrop'mm Indlcum, Ageratum coni/zokles, Pist'ia stra- 
 tiotcs, Scoparia dulcis, Guilandina Bo?iduc^ Splicnoclea zey^ 
 lanica, Ahrus precatorms, Boerhavia rtwiahiUs, and so forth. 
 But most commonly there are other species, which, under 
 the same degree of latitude, supply in the new world the 
 place of related species in the old. Dnjas octopetala, in- 
 deed, grow s equally upon the mountains of Canada, and in 
 Europe ; but Dryas tenella of Pursh, which is very like the 
 former, grows only in Greenland and Labrador. Instead 
 of th.e Platanus orientalis^ there grows in North America the 
 Platanus occidcntalis ; instead of Thiiia orlenUdls, Thuia 
 occidentalis ; instead oi Pinus Ccmbra^ in Europe and Asia, 
 there grows in North America, Pinus Strobus ; instead of 
 Prunus Laurocerasus^ in Asia Minor, there grov,s under the 
 same latitude in North America, the Prunus Caroliniana. 
 
 394. 
 There are many exceptions to this rule, however, depending 
 on circumstances that have been already noticed. In the first 
 place, countries are wont to share their Floras with neighbour- 
 ing regions, especially islands lying under the same latitude, 
 as the Azores possess the Floras of Europe and of Nortiiern 
 Africa, rather than those of America, because they are scarce- 
 ly ten degrees of longitude from the coast of Portugal. Si- 
 cily, and still more Malta, possesses a Flora made up of those 
 of the south of Europe and the north of Africa. The Aleu- 
 tian Islands share their Flora with the north-west c(Kist ot' 
 America and the north-east of Asia. But the most distant 
 countries, lying under the same latitude, may have the 
 same, or a similar vegetation, while countries, or islands 
 which lie between them, have not the least share in this ])arti- 
 cular Flora. The island of St Helena, which is scarcely 
 eighteen degrees of longitude from tlu> wcsi coast of Alrica, 
 
268 GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS. 
 
 and which lies a little further south than Congo, has yet no 
 plants, which are found in those last named regions ; (Rox- 
 burgh's List of Plants seen in the Island of St Helena, Ap- 
 pend, to Beatson's Island of St Helena.) Japan has a great 
 many plants common to southern Europe, which, however, 
 are not found in these regions of Asia that lie under the same 
 latitude. 
 
 395. 
 We must further remark, that the eastern countries of the 
 old world, and the eastern shores of America, as far as the 
 Alleghany Mountains, have a much lower temperature than 
 the western regions ; or that it is always colder in Siberia 
 and the north-east of Asia, than under the same latitude in 
 Europe; and that even Petersburgh is colder than Upsal, 
 and Upsal than Christiania, although they all three lie in the 
 60th degree of north latitude. In North America the differ- 
 ence is still greater, and there are commonly fifteen degi'ecs of 
 Fahrenheit's thermometer between the temperature of the east 
 and west coast. It hence happens tliat many plants, which in 
 Norway grow under the polar circle, scarcely reach the 60th 
 degree on the limits between Asia and Europe. To this class 
 i)elong the Silver-fir, Mountain-asli, Trembling Poplar, 
 Black Alder, and Juniper. Even in the temperate zone, 
 the vegetation of many trees ceases sooner in the east than in 
 the west. In Lithuania and Prussia, under the 53d degree, 
 neither Vines, nor Peaches, nor Apricots thrive ; at Jeast 
 their fruit does not ripen, as also happens in the middle of 
 England. The most remarkable example of this great differ- 
 ence of temperature is furnished by the Mesp'ilus Japonica^ 
 which grows at Nanga sacki and Jeddo, under the 33d and 
 36th degrees of N. Lat., and which also grows in the open air 
 in England, under the 52d degree of N. Lat., when it is 
 planted against a wall, (Botanical Register, vol. v.) 
 
 396. 
 The same degrees of latitude, in the southern and northern 
 hemif=phcfc, arc connected with very different temperatures, 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS. «69 
 
 and produce a completely different vegetation. This, how- 
 ever, must be understood rather of the temperate and frigid 
 zones, than of the tropical climates, which, as we have al- 
 ready noticed, are pretty much the same over all the earth. 
 But the summer is shorter in the southern hemisphere, be- 
 cause the motion of the earth in her perigee is more rapid. 
 The summer is there also colder, because the great quantity 
 of ice over the vast extent of sea requires more heat for dis- 
 solving it than can be obtained ; as also, because the sun 
 beams are not reflected in such quantity from tlic clear sur- 
 face of the sea water, as to afford the proper degree of heat. 
 It hence happens, that in the southern hemisphere, the Flora 
 of the pole extends nearer the equator, than in the northern. 
 Under the 53d and 54th degrees of south latitude, we meet 
 with plants which correspond with the Arctic Flora. In Ma- 
 gellan's Land, and in Terra del Fuego, Betula antarctlca cor- 
 responds with Betula nana, in Lapland ; — Empetrum ruhrum 
 with Empetrum nigrum, — Arnica oporina with Arnica vion- 
 tana, — Geum Magellanicum with Geum rivale, in England, — 
 Saxifraga Magellanica with Saxifraga rivularis, in Fin- 
 mark. Instead of Andromeda tetragona and hypnoides, of 
 Lapland, Terra del Fuego produces Andromeda myrsiniics : 
 in place of Arbutus alpina and Uva Ursi of the Arctic po- 
 lar circle, Terra del Fuego produces Arbutus mucronata, 
 micropliylla, and pumila. Aira antarctica reminds us of the 
 Holcus alpina of Wahlenberg; and Pinguicula antartica 
 recalls to our recollection Pinguicula alpina. 
 
 We must recollect, however, that in South America, the 
 great mountain chains of the Andes stretch from the tropical 
 regions, almost without interruption, to the Straits of ^lagel- 
 lan, (from the 52d to the 53d degree of S. Lat.) ; and that, on 
 this account, tropical forms are seen in that frigid southern 
 zone, because, as we shall have occasion to remark more fully 
 afterwards, the tract of mountains every where determines 
 vegetation. It is hence that the Straits of Magellan are ])r(x- 
 lific of Coronaricp, Onagra:, Dorstoiio', and Hciiotropifr^ 
 which in other parts of the world grow only within the tro- 
 pics, or in their neighbourhood. 
 
270 GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS, 
 
 In general, the vegetation of the southern liemisphere is 
 very different from that of the northern, and there is a cer- 
 tain correspondence between tlie Floras of Southern Africa, 
 America, and New Holland. Most of the trees are woody, 
 with stiff leaves, blossoms sometimes magnificent, but fruit 
 of little flavour. In Southern Afiica, as well as in Nev/ 
 Holland, it is the form of the Proteae which prevails as if 
 appropriated to these regions. Instead of the South Ameri- 
 can Erica', we find the Epacrida of New Holland. LoheU^y 
 DiosmeeE, and a great number of rare forms of compound 
 blossoms, and of Uvihellata, are common to all these south- 
 
 397. 
 
 For understanding the growth and distribution of ])lants, 
 we must also attend to the soil. Similar plants are found in 
 similar soils, completely separated from each other, and with 
 respect to which no supposition of interchange can be enter- 
 tained, provided only the climate be not too different. Salt 
 soils produce almost every where particular Chenopodeae, 
 species of Chenopodium, A triplex, Salsola, Salicornia, and 
 Anabasis. Calcareous soils produce always the most nume- 
 rous and distinguished forms of plants. Volcanic mountains, 
 particularly basalt, produce few forms, but those of a distin- 
 guished kind and very variable. Alluvial mountains, parti- 
 cularly in the neighbourhood of streams, usually, like marshes, 
 produce forms that are always the same. The primitive 
 mountains, on the other hand, almost every where separate 
 the Floras of countries. Thus the Pyrenees, — the Alps 
 which divide Italy from France and Switzerland, — those 
 which separate Upper Italy from the Tyrol and Carindiia, — 
 and the Carpathian mountains, — divide the Floras of the 
 southern from those of the northern countries. 
 
 It is hence of so much importance, along with Floras, to 
 describe the mountain rocks and the different soils, (258.) 
 The first example of a map of this kind was given by De 
 CandoUe, in the second volume of his Flore Fran^am, in 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS. 271 
 
 which, however, the mountains only, the southern shores, and 
 the alluvial land, are distinguished, and the heights above 
 the sea are given. Wahlenberg's ]\Iap of Lapland, in his 
 Flora Lapponica^ is much more correct. Maclure has given a 
 Map of the constitution of the Mountains in the Free States 
 of North America, (Geographische Ephemeriden). I know- 
 not that any person has given a more pleasant and instructive 
 account of the soils and mountains of his country, in relation 
 to their Floras, than the excellent Villar, respecting the iVlps 
 which divide Italy from Switzerland, in the Preface to the 
 Hlstoire des Platdes de Daiiphine. 
 
 398. 
 
 This brings us to a very important circumstance, which 
 must be taken into account in every examination of the 
 causes of the growth of plants, namely, the height of their 
 station above the level of the sea. As, upon the whole, the 
 temperature on the highest mountain tops seems to be the 
 same w ith the temperature at the polar circle, it is commonly 
 believed, that under the snow-hne, and near to it, the same 
 vegetation is found as in the polar regions. The limit of 
 perpetual snow, under the Equator, is at the height of 15,000 
 feet ; in the 35th degree of N. Lat. it is at 10,800 ; in the 45th 
 degree, at 8400 ; in the 50th degree, at 6000 ; in the 60th de- 
 gree, at 8000 ; in the 70th degree, at from 1200 to 2000 feet 
 above the level of the sea ; and, at the 75th degree of N. Lat., 
 the snow- line lies almost upon the ground In general, it 
 has been ascertained by observations, that the same vegeta- 
 tion is produced at the same distance from the snow-line. It 
 must be considered, however, that tow^ards the pole, the sum- 
 mer is shorter, but hotter, than under the snow-line upon the 
 tropical mountains, where winter and summer cause no 
 change of temperature. On this account, a better vegetation 
 must be produced in the polar regions during summer, espe- 
 cially as the plants are there exposed to the uninterrupted 
 hght of the sun : while, on the other hand, from the uniform 
 temperature on the highest tropical mountains, throughout 
 the year, a very different Flora is there produced from that 
 
272 GEOGRArHY OF PLANTS. 
 
 which springs towards tlie pole. As yet we know only, 
 from Humboldt's immortal labours, the vegetation upon the 
 highest chains of the Andes, in South America; for the 
 Floras of the much higher mountains in Noithern India, 
 which are called the Himalaya Mountains, and of the Moun- 
 tains of the Moon, in Africa, are entirely unknown to us. 
 The Flora of tlie Andes, at the height of 14,760 feet, is al- 
 most entirely of a peculiar kind ; and if a pair of Ranunculi, 
 a Gentiana, and a Bihes^ remind us of the Flora of" the poles, 
 the remaining productions are completely peculiar, and prove 
 that the height above the level of the sea is very far from 
 producing universally the same forms. Yet we must add, 
 that in Europe, at least, many northern and even polar forms 
 appear under the snow-line of the Pyrenean and Helvetian 
 Alps. Of this the Dwarf Willow, Dwarf Birch, Saxifrages, 
 Ranunculi, Cerastia, and other genera, are striking proofs. 
 
 Of perfect plants, the Daplme Cneorum seems in Europe 
 to hold the most elevated station, since, on Mont Blanc, it 
 stands at 10,680 feet ; and, on Mont Perdu, at 9036 feet 
 high. The growth of woody plants ceases, on the Alps of 
 central Europe, at the height of 5000 feet ; and, on the Rie- 
 sengebirge, at 3800. Oats grow on the Southern Alps at 
 3300, and on the Northern scarcely at 1800 feet. The Fir 
 grows on Sulitelma, in Lapland (68 degrees N. Lat.), scarce- 
 ly at the height of 600, and the Birch scarcely at the height 
 of 1200 feet. On the other hand, upon the Alps which 
 divide Italy from France and Switzerland, Oaks and Birches 
 grow at 3600, Firs at 4800 ; and the same plants grow on 
 the Pyrenees above the height of 600 feet. 
 
 In Mexico, the mountain chains, and, in particular, the 
 Nevado of Toluca, are covered, above 12,000 feet high, with 
 the occidental Pine {Pinus occidentalis) ; and, above 9000 
 feet, with the Mexican Oak {Queirus Mexicnna, spicata) ; 
 as also with the Alder of Jorullo {Alnus Jomllcnsls.) 
 
 On the Andes, Palms grow at the height of 3000 feet. 
 The woody Ferns, {Cyathea speciosa, Menlscmm arhoj^cscenSy 
 J.spid'wm rostrahim)^ are found as high as 6600 feet ; as are 
 also the popper species, Melastomea',Cinchonye, Dorsteniae,and 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS. 273 
 
 some Scitamineae, rise to the same elevation. At the height 
 of 14,760 feet, we siiU find the Wax Palnis, suv.e CiiaI.. ».,<, 
 Wintera?, Escalloniae, Espelettias, Culcitia, Joanneae, Valka 
 stipidm'is, Bolax aretioidcs, and some othei's. 
 
 399. 
 
 The growth of plants in society, or as individuals, is very 
 interesting. Many forms are so appro})riated to certain re- 
 gions, that amidst constant changes they still take in a great 
 tract of land, and are produced in exuberant abundance. 
 Others, on the contrai'y, stand quite insulated, and seem as if 
 they would utterly disappear, did not Nature, in a manner 
 which is often inexplicable, provide for their continuance. 
 
 While with us. Polygonum aviculare^ Erica vulgaris^ 
 Poa annua. Air a canescens, Vaccinium Myrtillus, grow al- 
 ways in society, and cover great tracts of country, we ob- 
 serve, on tlie contrary, that Marrubium pcregrinumy Car- 
 duus cyanoides, Stellera Passerina, Carta: Bua:baumii, Cir- 
 slum eriojphorum, Lathyrus Nissolia, Hypericum Kohlianumy 
 Schodnusferrugineus, and Heliantliemum Furaana, are con- 
 fined, in an insulated state, within a very narrow space, be- 
 yond which they never pass. The Cedar of Lebanon, Fors- 
 tera sedifolia of New Zealand, Mclastoma setosum on the 
 Volcano of Guadaloupe, and Disa longicornis on some spots 
 of the Table Mountain of the Cape, are examples of this 
 completely insulated growth, which renders the idea of the 
 migration of plants at least very doubtful. 
 
 400. 
 
 If we proceed through the separate families, we shall find 
 their geographical distribution pretty exactly ascertained, and 
 their increase or diminution determined according to the tlif- 
 ferent zones. But, as many famihes consist but of single 
 groups, which are limited to certain zones or countries, — this 
 circumstance occasions always a variation in the account. If 
 we attend, for instance, to the Rubiacete, it is almost im}X)s- 
 sible to pronounce any general opinion respecting the geogra- 
 phical distribution of this family, because the first group of 
 
 S 
 
274! GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS. 
 
 this family, the Stellatae, is ahTiost pecuUar to the temperate, 
 and especially to the northern temperate zone, while the 
 Spermacoceae and CofFeaceae are confined to the tropical zone. 
 The Cinchonese, indeed, grow chiefly between the tropics, 
 but always at a fixed height above the level of the sea, and 
 they also pass beyond the tropics. Plants with compound 
 flowers are indeed generally *more abundant between the 
 tropics, but the group, which I have named Perdiciea? (La- 
 biatiflorae, De Cand.), is peculiar to South America, and 
 descends even into the southern frigid zone. 
 
 Respecting Ferns, it is understood that, in the temperate 
 7one, they constitute the sixtieth part of the whole vegetable 
 kingdom. But how little certainty attends such conclusions, 
 may be understood from this, that in New Zealand, the num- 
 ber of Ferns is to the number of other plants as 1 to 6 ; in 
 Norfolk Island, and Tristan d'Acunha, as 1 to 3 ; in Ota- 
 heite as 1 to 4 ; in Mascaren^s Island as 1 to 8 ; in Jamaica 
 as 1 to 10 ; in St Helena as 1 to 2 ; and in Egypt we have 
 as yet found but one species. The Grasses seem in all zones 
 to maintain nearly the same proportion : They constitute the 
 tenth or fifteenth part of the whole Flora. The Umbellata2 
 are evidently in greatest number in the temperate zone. 
 They constitute about the thirtieth part of other plants. To- 
 wards the pole they diminish in number ; and in the torrid 
 zone there are scarcely any other Umbellatai but some inter- 
 mediate forms, which only appear at a very considerable 
 height upon the mountains. The Cruciform plants exhibit a 
 similar proportion. In the temperate zone, they are to the 
 remaining plants perhaps as 1 to 20. Towards the pole they 
 decrease in number, and between the tropics we find scarcely 
 a trace of them. The reverse is the case with the Malvaceae. 
 Whilst these constitute, between the tropics, the fiftieth part 
 of the other plants ; in the temperate zone they bear to them 
 the proportion of 1 to 200, and in the polar zone they fail 
 entirely. The Leguminous plants are in greatest quantity 
 between the tropics, where they form the twelfth part of the 
 whole Flora. In the temperate regions they fail considerably, 
 and in the polar zone they are to the other plants as 1 to 35. 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS. 275 
 
 The Primuleae are almost the only plants that are common 
 to the frigid and to the temperate zone. The Contortae be- 
 long to the tropical region, where they form from tlie fortictli 
 to the fiftieth part of the whole. In the temperate zone they 
 diminish in number, until, towards the polar circle, they al- 
 most entirely cease. 
 
 401. 
 
 It is interesting also to know the limits within which the 
 cultivation of the useful plants is confined. The cultivation 
 of Cocoa, Coffee, Anatto, Cloves, and Ginger, is limited to 
 inter- tropical regions. The Sugar Cane, Indian Figs, Dates, 
 Indigo, and Battatas, pass the tropics as far as the 40di de- 
 gree of N. Lat. Cotton, Rice, Olives, Figs, Pomegranates, 
 Agrumse, and Myrtles, gi*ow in the open air, as far as the 
 45th and 4Gth degree. The Vine succeeds best with us 
 within the 50th degree of N. Lat. ; this, also, is the limit, es- 
 pecially in the West of Europe, of the cultivation of ]\Iaize, 
 Chesnuts, and Almonds. Melons also succeed to the same 
 latitude in the open air. 
 
 In the West of Europe, the cultivation of Plums, Peaches, 
 Wheat, Flax, Tobacco, and Gourds, ceases at the 60th de- 
 gree of N. Lat. In the East of Europe, the cultivation of 
 Apples, Pears, Plums, and Cherries, terminates at the 57th 
 degree ; but Hops, Tobacco, Flax, Hemp, Buckwheat, and 
 Pease, succeed there even under the 60th degree. Hemp, 
 Oats, Barley, Rye, and Potatoes, are planted by the Nor- 
 wegians under the polar circle; and the Strawberry flourish- 
 es, even at the North Cape, under the 68th degree. 
 
 S 2 
 
276 HIS.TOKY OF THE 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 MISTOllY OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Linne, de Telluris habiiabilis incremento : in Amcen. Acad. vol. ii. 
 Zinn, Vom Ursprung der Pflanzen : im Hamburgishen Magazine. 
 Bergman, Jordklot. Phys. beskrifn. ii. 
 Zimmerman, Geographische Geschichte des Menschen. 
 Schouw, Diss, de Sedibus Plantarum originariis. 
 
 402. 
 
 We come now to answer the questions, in what manner 
 plants have originated, and how they have distributed them- 
 selves. Are we to admit, that plants have been distributed 
 from one point on the surface of the earth, to all its parts ? 
 or must we believe that they belong properly to every coun- 
 ti'y in which they grow ? The founder of Scientific Bo- 
 tany has defended the former of these opinions at a great ex- 
 pence of ingenuity, acuteness, and learning ; but we appre- 
 hend that we must adopt the latter conclusion, with some h- 
 mitations. 
 
 403. 
 
 When we examine the remains of the primeval world, we 
 find the first traces of vegetable impressions in the slate for- 
 mation. These remains of the former vegetable world be- 
 long almost entirely to the lower families : they consist, for the 
 most part, of Grasses, Reeds, Palms, and Ferns, — the latter, 
 however, being almost always destitute of fruit. But although 
 these forms cannot be referred to any one of the species which 
 are at present known, they have yet so much the appearance 
 of tropical productions, that Ave are forced to admit a very 
 high degree of heat at the surface of the earth during its 
 
DISTRIBUTION OT PLANTS. 277 
 
 former state, which heat must, at that time, have been diffu- 
 sed over all the zones, because we find the same productions 
 in the slate formation of all parts of the earth *. In order 
 to explain this, it has been supposed, that the plane of the 
 ecliptic, during the former state of the globe, was completely 
 different in its position, and that, consequently, our planet had 
 then another situation in respect to the sun. But Bode, the 
 worthy veteran of Prussian astronomers, has srhewn, that the 
 plane of the ecliptic has been, for 65,000 years, between the 
 20th and 27th degree ; and that at present it is about 2g 
 minutes less, and, consequently, the inclination of the axis oi' 
 the earth as much greater, than in the time of Hipparchus, 
 who lived about two thousand years ago. The former solu- 
 tion must, therefore, be entirely abandoned ; (Neue Schrif- 
 ten der Berlin Gesellschaft naturforschender Freunde). 
 
 Shall we then consider as satisfactory another explanation, 
 which has been advanced by one of the most ingenious and 
 learned investigators of the ancient stcite of the globe ? Ac- 
 cording to this author, the Earth, during its primeval 
 state, was completely surrounded by water. By slow de- 
 grees the sea retired ; the highest mountain tracts were laid 
 bare, and the lowest and densest atmospherical stratum, 
 supported by the surface of the sea, now rested upon the 
 highest primitive land, which, like an island, emerged but a 
 little way above the ocean. While the heat was chiefly gene- 
 rated in the lower strata of the air, it must also, at that time, 
 have been equally diffused throughout all parts. The naked 
 summits of the mountains were gradually mouldered by the 
 
 * It seems, indeed, that all the carbonaceous matter of the more ancient 
 slate formation ought to be considered as the oldest remains of plants which 
 had been growing, but which had been stopped in their progress; and 
 that all calcareous matter ought to be considered as the remains of a begun, but 
 suppressed creation of animal bodies ; (StefTen's Beytri^ge ziir innern Natur- 
 geschichte der Erde, s. 27. Dessen, Handbuch der Oryctognosic, b. ii.,s. .3.53.) 
 In what manner mineral substances are formed from corrupting vegetal)lc.s, 
 we perceive from the ])roduction of iron-i)yritcs, in our Peat Mosse^^, where it 
 is found in layers, under the thin, broad, reed leaves, after they have become 
 putrid. 
 
278 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 influence of light, of aerial matters, and of moisture. To the 
 primitive and transition rocks succeeded the horizontal flcetz 
 formation. A multitude of bodies was now formed, which 
 light elicited from the organizing water. These bodies de- 
 cayed, and left behind them the original materials of carbon 
 and lime, from which still more perfect forms were to spring, 
 until, at length, Ferns, Grasses, and Palms, were produced, 
 which, during the high level of the waters, enjoyed upon the 
 declivities of the mountains, a high and equal temperature. 
 With these forms, creative nature remained contented, till 
 new revolutions of the surface of the earth gave the waters an 
 opportunity of retreating still further, when new formations 
 arose. 
 
 This hypothesis, which is favoured by the Geognosy, de- 
 rives particular support from the concurring testimony of the 
 most ancient inhabitants of the world, respecting universal in- 
 undations and floods ; as also, more especially, from the Per- 
 sian Cosmology, in which Albordsch, the highest primitive 
 mountain, the hill of light, or navel of the earth, plays a 
 principal part, while it is yet surrounded by water. The pri- 
 mitive light produces, upon this mountain, during an ever 
 equal temperature, all living things; (Kanngiesser Alther- 
 thums wissenschaft, s. 8. u. 18. ; Algemeine Encyclopaedic, 
 th. ii. s. 375.) 
 
 404. 
 
 What revolutions the surface of the earth underwent, be- 
 fore it assumed its present state, we know not. But with the 
 period of the alluvial mountains begins the present vegetation 
 of the earth's surface, and those forms which we now see in 
 unvarying perpetuity, have been so for several thousand 
 years, or since the earth assumed its present state, (142.) 
 
 Whether now, as Linnaeus maintained, one example only 
 of every genus of plant existed at the beginning : whether 
 all these single genera were produced by the hand of Nature 
 upon the highest mountain ridge of the earth, along with the 
 single pair from which the human race has proceeded, and 
 with similar individual pairs of all other animals : whether. 
 
DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 279 
 
 at least, the highest mountain ridges may, in general, be re- 
 garded as the birth-places of the vegetable world, as Will- 
 denow asserted ; and whether, therefore, plants have been dis- 
 tributed from single stations, by their own migrations, and by 
 other means, which nature provides, — these are questions which 
 ought to be examined and answered with the greatest care. 
 
 405. 
 
 We are not disposed altogether to deny the migration of 
 plants in similar climates, because we know from experience, 
 that the Datura Stramonium^ Erigeron Canadense, and 
 ^sculus Hippocastanum^ are not natives of Germany ; but 
 that the first was imported, as it is said, by the gypsies, — the 
 Horse-Chesnut, by the Austrian embassy which was sent to 
 Constantinople at the end of the sixteenth century, — and the 
 Erigeron Canadense^ in consequence of some commercial re- 
 lations which we had with North America; — as this latter 
 country has also probably received from us, in the course of 
 commerce, the Jgrostis Spica Venti, Trichodium canimnn^ 
 Anthoxantlmm odoratum, Alopecurus prate?isis, Poa trivialis, 
 Bromus secalinus, mollis, Dactylls glomei'ata, Hordeum 
 mdgare, Dipsacus sylvesti'is, and many other plants, (392.) 
 We know that a great many plants have passed from India 
 into Italy, along with the cultivation of rice : we know that 
 the West Indian negroes have introduced into the western 
 world a great many plants from Africa, which at present 
 grow wild there, as the Cassia occidentalis, and Chrysobala- 
 nus Icaco. 
 
 It is certain, that sea plants have been brought by ships, 
 from the southern into the northern sea, as has been the case 
 with Fucus cartilagineus. Turn., Fucus natans^ and hacci- 
 ferus. West Indian fruits are every year driven ujxin the 
 coasts of Norway, and of the Faroe Islands, during storms 
 from the south-west; as Cocoa Nuts, Gourds, the fruit of 
 Acacia scandens, Piscidia Erythrina, and Anacardiiim occi- 
 dcntale. But after all this has been granted, we are still far 
 from being in a condition to maintain the migration of plants 
 
280 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 and tlieir distribution from one point over the surface of the 
 earth. 
 
 406. 
 
 It betrays very limited ideas respecting the laws of vege- 
 tation to suppose, that all the plants upon the face of the 
 earth, which require such different climates, such a differ- 
 ent constitution of the mountain-rocks, so various a composi- 
 tion of soil and of water, could ever have been assembled upon 
 one and the same high mountain ridge. All testimonies, indeed, 
 confirm the supposition, that the human race, and the domes- 
 tic animals, descended from the high mountain plains of cen- 
 tral Asia, between the 27th and 44th degrees of N. Lat. We 
 may also conjecture, that the different kinds of grain grow 
 M'ild in these latitudes, as it is also probable that the domes- 
 tic animals are there found in their native state. But the in- 
 numerable other wild growing plants, of all quarters of the 
 globe, which are so frequently confined to a single island, or 
 to a single circle of the continent, cannot possibly have their 
 native seats in those regions ; otherwise the remains of that 
 vegetation which is now dispersed over the whole face of the 
 earth, would be found in Northern India and Persia, in Thi- 
 ])ct, and in the Mogul empire. It is physically impossible, 
 that plants, which in Germany grow only upon calcareous 
 soils, or upon basalt and other peculiar mountain rocks, could, 
 at an early period, have flourished upon the primitive granite 
 and gneiss of the Himalaya Mountains. 
 
 407. 
 
 As little can we assent to the opinion of those who consider 
 the high mountain tracts as so many birth-places, or foci of 
 vegetation, and of the neighbouring Floras. We admit, that 
 when a particular moinitain chain stretches into the level 
 country beneath it, its peculiar plants will also appear in the 
 low land. The flcetz limestone of central Germany confirms 
 this conclusion in the strongest manner. But when this is 
 not the case, the low country never partakes of the Flora of 
 the neighbouring mountains. Otherwise, Scsrll Hipjwma- 
 
DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 281 
 
 rathrum^ Teucrium montanum, Poa alp'ma, and Stellera 
 Passer ina^ would soon diffuse themselves irom our calcareous 
 hills to the flat country, and even over our porphyry moun- 
 tains. 
 
 It is true that mountain tracts commonly form the boun- 
 daries of Floras. But this happens, not because these moun- 
 tains are the birth-places of the vegetable world, but because 
 climate and temperature change with them. The Rhaetian 
 Alps separate Germany from Italy ; on their southern decli- 
 vities we observe Laurels, Pines, Beeches, Cypresses, Jas- 
 mins, and other similar plants, which do not grow on their 
 northern sides. But the temperature on the opposite sides 
 of these Alps is also completely different. 
 
 It must also be added, that the limits of Floras are not defined 
 by mountain tracts alone, but that even in a great extent of le- 
 vel country the Floras have their proper boundaries. Andro- 
 pogon IschtEmum, Asperula cynaiwhica^ glauca^ M. B. Coh- 
 tunculus minimus^ Lycopsis pulla, Bupleurum rotundifolium, 
 Peucedanum officinale, Cnidium silaus, Silcne noct'iflora 
 and conoidea, and Centaurea calcitrapa, seem not to pass be- 
 yond the 52d degree North Lat. into central Germany. At 
 that point, Angelia Archangelica, Lonicera peridymejiuvi, 
 Andromeda polifblia, Arbutus uva ursi, and other forms 
 begin to appear. In completely level countries, the Acer 
 campestrCy Pseudoplatanus, Populus alba, nigia, and Sam- 
 bucus nigra, cease to grow at the 56th degree N. Lat. The 
 Myrtle, Mastick, Oak and Cork tree, the flowering Ash, 
 and the Caper tree, pass not beyond the 44th degree North 
 Lat., whether mountain tracts or level countries occur at this 
 limit. The heights of the Wolga, or Alaunian Mountains of 
 the ancients, are said to be the limit between the eastern and 
 western Floras ; but according to Pansner's recent examina- 
 tion, the entire Wolga heights are only alluvial land, covered 
 with sea sand. Besides, the eastern Flora is seen a great 
 way on this side of the Wolga heights, (Neue Geographische 
 Ephemeriden, b. v. s. 14L) The Weichscl on the north, 
 and the Oder on the south, seem better entitled to be con.^i- 
 dered as the limits of the western and eastern Flora. On the 
 
282 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 farther side of these streams, we find Plantago arenaria. Kit. 
 Anchusa BarreUeri, Vilm., Flcerkia Ulifolia, Angelica praten- 
 sis, M. B., Acer platanoides, Andromeda calyculata, Silene to- 
 tarica, Dianthus serotinus, Kit. (east from Cracow), Anemone 
 patens. Ranunculus cassubicus, Teucrium LaxTnanni, Dra- 
 coceplialum Moldavica (east from Grodno and Jaroslaw), Bur. 
 nias oiientalis (east from Lemberg). Isatis tinctoria (beyond 
 Warsaw), Astragalus Onohrychis, Meliloius polonica. Pen- 
 taphyllum Liipinaster, Hieracitim coUinum, Bess., Orchis cu- 
 cullata (beyond the Niemen.) 
 
 408. 
 
 Had plants been distributed from single, and, as it is 
 thought, from elevated points on the earth's surface, the 
 Floras of contiguous regions would necessarily have been 
 confounded, and could not have been so distinctly appropria- 
 ted, as we see them to be. It must be added, that winds 
 and birds, rivers, and the waves of the sea, are far from be- 
 ing able completely to have effected the universal dispersion 
 of plants. There can be no doubt, that the wind is able to 
 diffuse to a certain extent some particular seeds, which are 
 furnished with crowns, hairs, and other appendages. But it 
 is not able to disperse to any distance the Carduus cyanoides, 
 which grows on a single grassy hill near Halle, and on the 
 steep banks of the Elb above Tochheim, although the seeds 
 of this plant are furnished v, ith a crown of bristly hairs. The 
 Syngenesious plants, too, the seeds of which can be so easily 
 transported by the wind, are by no means common in the 
 greater number of countries. If the wind favoured the mi- 
 gration of plants, we might determine their correspondence in 
 most countries from the distance. But we have already noticed 
 (397.)? that the most distant countries have common plants, 
 whilst the most dissimilar Floras are found in neighbouring 
 lands, and some plants grow quite insulated, (395.) The 
 dispersion of plants over large tracts of country has also been 
 ascribed to birds, because they devour the fruits, and often al- 
 low them to pass from them undigested. But no example of 
 this can be produced except the Miblctoe, and therefore this 
 
DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 283 
 
 assertion deserves no particular refutation. Streams, indeed, 
 can carry down seeds ; and plants from those higher regions 
 through which the streams flow are accordingly often found 
 growing on their banks. But the Flora on the banks of one 
 and the same stream, is very different in the different districts 
 through which it passes, as is seen in the clearest manner up- 
 on the shores of the Elbe ; for in Bohemia very different 
 plants appear from those which spring in the neighbourhood 
 of Dresden, — others, again, make their appearance near Wit- 
 tenberg and Barby, — and a yet different set near Lauenburgh 
 and Hamburgh. 
 
 These considerations lead us to conclude, that the vege- 
 table world has neither descended from one common birth- 
 place, nor diffused itself from one country into another ; but 
 that vegetation is in every case the product of the joint in- 
 fluence of temperature, soil, and the particular composition 
 of the moisture of the earth. 
 
 Nor is the conclusion of Brown (on Congo, p. 50.), that 
 the native country of a genus is always where the greatest 
 variety of species is found, by any means to be admitted, 
 since the example of Nicotiana shews the contrary. The 
 greatest number of its species are found in South America ; 
 yet the Nicotiana Chinensis, Lehm. txxid Jruticosa are cer- 
 tainly indigenous to Eastern Asia. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 ON MALFORMATIONS AND DISEASES OF PLANTS. 
 
 Linne, Philosophia botanica. S. 119, 131. 
 Jager, Uber die Missbildungcn der Gewachsc. 
 Gallesio, Theoric der vegetabilischen Reproduction. 
 Keith'3 System of Physiological Botany. 
 
284 MALFORMATIO.N.S AND DISExVSES 
 
 Hopkirk's Flora Anomoia, a general view of the anomalies in the Vegetable 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Ginanni, Delle Malattie del Grano in erba. 
 
 Tessier, Des Maladies des Grains. 
 
 Fabricius, in Norske Vidensk. Selsk. Skrift. 
 
 Plenck, Physiologia et Pathologia Plantarum. Vienna. 
 
 Seetzen, Systematum de morbis plantarum dijudicatio. 
 
 Burdach, Systematisches Handbuch der Obstbaum-Krankheiten. Berlin. 
 
 F. Re Saggio, teorico-pratico ncUe Malattie delle Plante. 
 
 Cir. Pollini, nella Biblioteca Italiana, torn. vi. 
 
 F. W. Gothe, Zur Naturwissenschaft iiberhaupt, besonders zur Morpholo- 
 ^ie. Tubingen. 
 
 409. 
 We have considered (176, 192.) the Abortion, Degenera- 
 tion, and Union of Organs, as effects of a constant law of na- 
 ture. If we would distinguish from these the Malformations 
 or Anomalies, we must consider these latter as variations or 
 degenerations of forms and colours, which are less permanent, 
 and which are not inconsistent with the health of the entire 
 plant. We say that malformations are variations or degene- 
 rations which are less permanent, because very often they 
 disappear by reproduction, although there are instances of 
 their being propagated for a short time. We distinguish 
 malformations from diseases by this circumstance, that in the 
 former all the organs continue to be propagated with their 
 due proportions. 
 
 410. 
 
 With respect to the causes of malformations, wc may re- 
 mark, that most of them arise from cultivation, and from 
 that too great attention which in cultivation is paid to some 
 particular organs; or they arise from too great luxuriancy of 
 growth, which is injurious to the constancy of the fundamen- 
 tal type of forms. AVe hence observe, that malformations 
 are again lost, when the sterility of the soil, and a coarser 
 method of treatment confine the growth. Even climate lias 
 an undeniable influence on many of tliese variations of form, 
 as we observe in the full or doul)le Hyacinths, which, after 
 bulbs have been brought from Holland, iniCold only once in 
 
OF PLANTS. 285 
 
 Germany and Italy the complete magnificence of their double 
 >tructiire, and then pass again to their simple form. I^ut it 
 is also true, that want of fertility in the soil is another fre- 
 quent cause of malformations, as we observe distinctly in the 
 Stunting and Speckled structure of the stem and branches. 
 
 411. 
 
 In the stem and in the branches, we observe sometimes the 
 speckled structure, sometimes the witch knots, and sometimes 
 the downward direction of tlie branches, as consequences of 
 malformation. What we call the Speckled structure, is an ad- 
 mired form of the wood, in which the knots are more nume- 
 rous and more mixed with each other than is usual, and a 
 great quantity of buds seem to have been but half formed. 
 Many woods, as the Birch, Poplar, and Yew wood, have a 
 particular disposition to become speckled, especially when 
 they grow on dry, stony or rocky soils. Even art can aid in 
 the production of this structure, by a frequent withdraw- 
 ing of the branches from the light ; (Marten's Theorie uber 
 die Entstehung des Masernholzes.) Connected with these 
 spots, are the witch-knots of the Scots, which are chiefly 
 found upon the Highland birches. They consist of buds in- 
 termingled in a great variety of ways, from which, however, no 
 proper branches proceed, but a crowd of thin twigs, in the 
 form of a bush or shrub, shoot out, as we often find in the 
 Pines of the very dry sandy plains of Germany ; (Keith, ii. 
 278 ; Hopkirk, p. 62.) 
 
 From a similar cause proceeds the downwai'd direction of 
 the branches of the Birch and Ash, which must be consider- 
 ed as a malformation, because, by propagation, it finally dis- 
 appears. 
 
 The stem of herbaceous plants is often fascicular, or has 
 that structure which is called Fasciation. In Asparagus, 
 Hieracium cerinthoides, Carduus paJustris, Cdos'ia crhtatUy 
 and Ranunculus bulbosu^, this structure is observed to be 
 more or less permanent, in so much, that in the case of Cela- 
 sia, it remains almost unchanged, provided the mode of treat- 
 ment be entirely the same. This fascicular form seems to 
 arise from the union of a number of branches, as may be dis- 
 
5J86 MAI.FOR^MATIONS AND DISEASES 
 
 tinctly seen in Asparagus. The union of the flowers on the 
 summit of such fascicular stems favours this explanation ; 
 since the Hieracium already mentioned, as well as the Ranun- 
 culus bulbosus, shew distinctly this union of the flowers; 
 (Gilibert Demonstr. elem. de Bot.) 
 
 412. 
 
 Among malformations, we place also the discoloration of 
 the leaves, particularly the fascicular streaks, the silvery or 
 golden margins, and many other varieties of spots which are 
 common among garden plants, — as in Myrtle, Sage, Ivy, 
 Holly, the Agave Americana, Semper vivum arboreum, and 
 many of the Pelargonia?. These spots are not diseases, be- 
 cause the whole plant has all the signs of being in a perfect- 
 ly healthy state. But neither are they effects of a law of na- 
 ture, like the spots of Orchis maculata, and the red coloured 
 leaves of Caladiuin hicolor and Amaranthus tricolor, be- 
 cause they are not continued by propagation. But it is like- 
 ly that such discoloured spots are incapable of performing 
 their function, namely, the exhalation of oxygen gas, as in- 
 deed experiments shew ; (Sennebier, Physiologic Vegetalc, 
 iv. p. 273. 
 
 413. 
 
 Luxuriancy of growth produces a manifold subdivision of 
 the leaves and a curling of their margin, as we find strikingly 
 exemplified in Pclypodium camhricum, Scolopendrium offici- 
 nale, Acer platanoides, and Fraxinus excelsior. We can- 
 not consider these forms as permanent, or form peculiar 
 species from them, because they are by no means propagated 
 by seed, but only by buds and layers. The manifold inden- 
 tations of the leaves of the common Alder, and of the Pivi- 
 pinella saxifraga, are of the same nature, and, on account of 
 their little durability, deserve to be considered rather as va- 
 rieties. 
 
 414. 
 
 Retrogradations sometimes occur in vegetation (Goethens 
 imregelmassige Metamorphose), when the more perfect organs 
 
OF PLANTS. 287 
 
 are not unfolded, but leaves and other lower organs arise 
 instead of them. We thus observe, that the blossoms of the 
 Juncus subverticillatus, when it remains as Junciis Jluitans 
 constantly under water, degenerate into long stem leaves. 
 In the same manner, it is not uncommon, with the Rubus 
 fruticosus, when in dark forests it is deprived of the sun's 
 light, to put forth only leaves instead of blossoms. In the 
 double flowers of Hesperis matronalis, we frequently remark 
 the transition into the leaf form. In the Colchicum autum- 
 nale, not only the blossoms, but even the filaments and pis- 
 tils, have been seen to assume the colour and form of stem- 
 leaves ; (Bernhardi in Homer's Archiv. b. 2.) When the 
 garden tulip is very double, the outermost petals are of- 
 ten mai'ked with green streaks, and even the innermost, 
 which have arisen out of the pistillum, shew the same colour- 
 ing. 
 
 When seeds pass into bulbs, as has been observed in Bui- 
 bine Asiatica and Moi^ea Northianay the same kind of retro- 
 gradation in the process of vegetation takes place, as when we 
 observe that the siliques of Clover degenerate into leaves, or 
 that a pear pushes out leaves (Keith, ii. tab. 9. fig. 12.), and 
 that one flower arises from another ; a mode of growth which 
 in some cases is a law of nature, but which in our Centifo- 
 liae, and in other instances, is a consequence of malformation 
 produced by luxuriant growth. 
 
 415. 
 
 These retrogradations in the process of vegetation, explain 
 the circumstance of blossoms becoming multiplicate, and j>er- 
 fectly double or full. Cultivation stimulates the organs of 
 nourishment, and the instruments of propagation pass into 
 these. Yet there are inferior gradations of this disposition to 
 become double, in which the organs of fructification remain un- 
 confined in their evolution, and in the exercise of then- fimc- 
 tions. When in the Hydrangea of our gardens, the jiarls of 
 the calyx expand, and become of the nature of a corolla, 
 the evolution of the filaments suffers so little by this, that we 
 frequently observe eight of them instead of five. In the t^ame 
 
288 MALFORMATIONS AND DISEASES 
 
 manner, the fructification of the full Balsam is not injured. In 
 the more perfect instances of double flowers, not only the fila- 
 ments, but the pistils, and even the nectaries, when they are pre- 
 sent, pass into the corolla. In the common Columbine of our 
 gardens, this last change happens. Yet the nectaries are often 
 multiplied to the greatest degree, while the petals remain un- 
 affected. It seems to be established by a very remarkable 
 observation, that the nectaries even sometimes supply the 
 place of the instruments of fructification ; (MuUer in Vcr- 
 handlungen der Gesellschaft zur Beforderung der Natur- 
 kunde und Industrie Schlesiens, th. i. s. 214.) 
 
 AVhen monopetalous corollse become full, they are divided 
 during this process, as is distinctly seen in Antirrhinum majtis, 
 and Jasminum Samhac. When compound flowers are filled, 
 they either return, when they are radiatae, to the origmal tube- 
 form of the disc florets, as we see in the quilled China aster 
 of our gardens, and in Tagetes ; or the disc florets degenerate 
 into ray florets, which is almost constantly the case with the 
 Calendula qfficmalis^ Pyrtthrum Parthenium, and Anthemis 
 graudiflora. It is remarkable, that the papilionaceous flow- 
 ers almost never are full. Spartium ju7icemn is the only ex- 
 ception with which I am acquainted. Some Japanese flowers, 
 Anthemis grandrflora, Ramat., Clerodendron fragrans^ Vent, 
 and Keria Japonica, De Cand., grow always full. 
 
 416. 
 
 To malformations of the fruit, we refer partly its formerly 
 remarked retrogradation to the form of bulbs and leaves, and 
 partly its want of seeds, which also is a consequence of 
 luxuriant growth, and of the ceaseless propulsion of the juice 
 increased by art. The Musa almost never bears seeds. 
 Our Figs always contain only female flowers, the ovaries of 
 which are consequently abortive. The Italian Azarole, the 
 Chinese Cedrat, our Ananas, our Barberries and Plums 
 without seeds, are malformations of the same kind, which may 
 be considered as the consequences of cultivation. The growth 
 of one fruit in another, which is partially observed in the 
 Agrumae, belongs to the same class of facts; (Linne, in 
 
OF PLANTS. i>Hi) 
 
 Amial Transalp. i. p. 414. ; Meidinger in Beschaftigungeii dw 
 Berlin Gesellscliaft natiu'forschender P'reunde.) 
 
 417. 
 
 We now come to what are called the Diseases of Plants, or 
 to those varieties in the form and in the composition of their 
 parts, which are injurious to the fulfilment of their functions, 
 and to the conthiuance of their life. As plants are organic 
 bodies endowed with vital activity, the same causes which af- 
 fect animal bodies must produce similar effects upon vegetation. 
 They must, therefore, be affected in the same manner as ani- 
 mal bodies, by heat and by cold, by moisture and drought, 
 by a deficiency and by a superfluity of the ingredients of the 
 atmosphere. We have partly stated above (369, 370, 372, 
 376.), the effects of the great natural agents upon the vege- 
 table world. Among other effects, we have mentioned the 
 blighting of corn during severe storms of lightning. The 
 aerial smoke or dry-fog, which Pfnff (lleber den hcissen Som- 
 mer von 1811, s. 52.) calls a dry electrical vapour, and which 
 is apparently an impregnation of the atmosphere with sul- 
 phurous acid gas, is likewise very hurtful to plants, because, 
 by means of it, an over excitement and parching are produced, 
 and the lively green of the leaves is changed into a dirty 
 brownish-veJlovr 
 
 418. 
 But vegetables are s;.dijected to a still greater number of 
 causes of disease than animals, because an innumerable crowd 
 of small parasitic plants and insects beset them, suck out their 
 juices, disturb their functions, and are injurious to their life. 
 In many cases, a diseased tendency in the ])lant seems to 
 favour the production, or at least the increase of these ene- 
 mies. We have already (321.) stated the production of 
 what is called INlildew, or of the sprinkling of plants with 
 aphides, to be a consequence of the unnaturally increased 
 evaporation of saccharine matter. In the same manner, 
 we observe a much more rapid and general production of 
 Lichens on gooseberry bullies wliich grow upon an unfruit- 
 
 T 
 
590 \ r A I . F ( )l^ M A T 1 \ S A X T) }^ I S K A S E S 
 
 fill soil, than on those which are reared in good garden land. 
 The blight also in Wheat, which is a degeneration of the 
 "Tain, bj vhich it passes into Coniomvci, seizes for the most 
 part on grains tiiat are not ripened, btit not on those that have 
 attained their perfect state. VVe can hence partly provide 
 against the occurrence of this disease, by permitting the seed 
 to become pei-fectly ripe and hard before it is taken in ; and 
 even then it ought not to be stacked, but instantly thrashed 
 out to such an extent, that only about two-thirds of tlie grain 
 may be beaten out, and the less ripe seeds left behind. 
 
 That a diseased tendency must, for the most part, pre- 
 viously occur, when diseases are generated in plants, even 
 by parasitic plants, is evident from the growth of Fungi 
 on sickly stems and branches. On our Alder we find the Bo- 
 letus alneus ; on our Willow, Boletus adustzis, fumosuSy and 
 suaveolens ; on our Beech, Boletus fomentarms ; on our Birch, 
 Boletus hetulinus ; on our Ash, Boletus Jraxineus ; and on 
 the stem of the Oak, Dadalca quercinay — as proofs of the 
 diseased state of the plant, and of the tendency of its juices^ 
 to corruption. In like manner, a number of Fungi, as al- 
 so the RMzoviorpha suhcorticalisy appear upon the roots of 
 trees when they stand in too moist a soil, shewing the diseased 
 disposition of the roots. 
 
 419. 
 
 The barks of our trees are subject to cracks, to the flowing 
 of resinous matter, to leprosy, and seal), — all of which dis- 
 eases either pass into others that are still more dangerous, or 
 invite a crowd of parasitic plants and insects, by which the 
 evil is made worse. 
 
 The cracking of tliC bark in our fruit trees is for the most 
 part the consequence of an over luxuriant growth, during which 
 too many layers of alburnum are deposited, so that the inner 
 bark and the rind cannot yield and make room for them. 
 The inner bark being thus rent, usually makes way for the 
 passage of the nutritive sap through the rent, and this sap, 
 when it reaches the air, assumes the consistence of gum. By 
 this means the tree must naturally be enfeebled, and finally 
 
OF PLANTS. 291 
 
 perish. When the bark cracks, becomes liard and scaly, 
 without this flowing of resin, it seems to suffer these injuries 
 either from being exposed to too powerful a heat ol' the sun, 
 from the influence of too dry seasons, or of too barren a soil. 
 The leprosy or scab which we have mentioned, destroys 
 the Olive-trees in Italy ; (Giovene in Opuscoli scelti, xiii. 
 p. 106.) In our Cherry trees, the Spharia pidchella lodges 
 between the torn rind and the inner bark. But slill worse 
 guests are the earwigs, the wood wasps, and the drilling 
 worms, which often make long excavations under the rind, 
 and thus become injurious to the life of the stem, 
 
 420, 
 
 A superabundance of raw j uice in trees, which have been 
 rendered feeble by management or weak by frost, produces 
 the dropsy or jaundice. The bark becomes spongy, and, 
 when pressed, gives out a great quantity of water ; the young 
 shoots are thin and powerless, the leaves pale and yellow, and 
 fruit is seldom produced. Stimulating and powerful nourish- 
 ing matters from animal dung, mud, lime, and even soot, when 
 they are applied in time, take away the disease, and shew the 
 correctness of the explanation we have given of it. 
 
 AVe may attribute in some measure to the same cause 
 the debility of the alburnum in forest trees ; because, where- 
 ever it occurs, either early frost, or other weakening causes, 
 have prevented the concentration of the sap, and the proper 
 formation of wood; the unformed sap thus remains in the 
 alburnum, (^98.) ; (Mezieres, De la Force de Bois, p. 94 ; 
 Slevogt, in Laurop's Annalen.) 
 
 421. 
 We meet with blotches and canker, as diseases of trees, the 
 former of which are manifested by dark spots in the rind and 
 wood, and commonly have their origin in the sterility of tlie 
 soil, and in other enfeebling causes. This disease chiefly lays 
 waste the Mulberry trees in Italy, and has given rise to 
 manifold and very anxious investigations ; (Scoj)()li, Ann. 
 
 T2 
 
992 :\rALFORMATio>:s and diseases 
 
 Hist. Nat. iv. p. 115. ; Palletta, in Atti della soc. patriot, di 
 Milano, Re. p. 303. 
 
 The canker proceeds mostly from a hardening of the bark, 
 in consequence of wliicli the juices become sharp and corro- 
 sive, make tlieir way through the rents and slits of the rind, 
 consume the parts that are below them, and at last complete- 
 ly destroy the wood. 
 
 422. 
 
 Our Corn crops are injured chiefly by parasitic plants of 
 the lowest class. The rust upon the leaves and stalks is no- 
 thing but a Puccmia, which closes up the epidermis of the 
 leaves, and thereby destroys their functions. Whether this 
 plant is generated by the jEcid'mm Berberides^ is a matter of 
 much uncertainty ; (Sir Jos. Banks on the Blight in Corn, 
 in Ann. of Botany, ii. p. 51.) 
 
 The flying blight, by which Oats and Maize are chiefly in- 
 jured, consists, as we formerly remarked, of an innumerable 
 multitude of spherical black Coniomyci (Ustilago segetum), 
 which presuppose a degeneration of the grain, and by which 
 it is completely consumed. The soiling blight (Uredo sito-- 
 phila, Ditmar.), on the other hand, contains smaller grains 
 within a spherical covering, and is instantly discovered by 
 its disagreeable smell, resembling herring-pickle. ^Vhat more 
 remote causes, beside the formerly mentioned predisposition of 
 the grain of AVheat, contribute to the production of this evil, 
 is not quite clear. But the infectious nature of this species 
 of Coniomyci cannot be denied. So strong, indeed, is this 
 tendency, that it clings to the glumes or caps of the wheat 
 grain, and even to the iine hairy bodies Vvhich rise upon 
 the jx)ints of the grain. The steeping of the grain in lime, 
 and in a solution of common salt, cleans the Wheat indeed in 
 most instances from any adhering rust ; but the manure itself, 
 if it be mingled with wheat-straw that had been blighted, 
 communicates to the wheat, which is grown upon lands so ma- 
 nured, the diseased tjuality. It is not impossible, that even the 
 want of a free circulation of air in v/heat fields, or the too 
 
OF PI, ANTS. 293 
 
 deep ploughing of* the furrow in iron-shot soils, may contri- 
 bute to the diffusion of Wight or rust. 
 
 423. 
 
 The innumerable kinds of Coniomyci which are connect- 
 ed with blight or rust, are undoubtedly individual forms ; 
 but they seem to owe their origin to a peculiar transforma- 
 tion of the spherical and vesicular bodies, which the genera- 
 tive sap contains. We hence see them appearing in abun- 
 dance upon healthy leaves, in which we observe either a su- 
 perfluity of juice, or a perspiration of the generative sap. 
 This is obviously the case with the Uredo Candida, which ap- 
 pears in abundance upon the Thlasp'i bursa, and is coveretl 
 with an inflated epidermis. The same thing is distinctly per- 
 ceived in the Uredo tremellosa and cincia of Strauss, the pro- 
 duction of which is commonly attended by the perspiration of 
 a fluid having the appearance of a jelly. And the Neinaspo- 
 ra, of which a great many kinds appear upon the branches of 
 the Poplar, shews, beyond all doubt, that it owes its origin to 
 the generative mucilage. 
 
 Again, we frequently see the degenerating j uices of the leaves 
 becoming hard and producing shapeless masses of a blackish 
 colour, which are called xyloma, and have the appearance of 
 new shoots that have died. But if, by the influence of the 
 original vital powers, a new activity is awakened in the juice 
 which had been thus entirely changed or dead, the primitive 
 forms again appear in their simplest state. They appear as 
 spheres or vesicles, as in Eurotium, Camptosporium, Spodo- 
 phlciun (Tab. V. Fig. 5, 7.), Podismay Phacidhwi, and other 
 Fungi ; among which, however, there are some that seem 
 but slightly to injure the health of the leaves, because they 
 seem to be formed from the perspired sap upon the ejViderrais 
 only, as in the instance of Phijllerium. It often happens, 
 however, that the epidermis of the leaf is torn at the snxm^ 
 time, and surrounds, in a definite and peculiar liirm, a crowd 
 of Coniomyci, which have been generated in the sap, (/E<7- 
 dium, Rostelia.) 
 
294 MALFORMATIONS AND DISEASES 
 
 424. 
 
 A quite different kind of decomposition is that to which Rye 
 is subject, when it degenerates into davits, which has a great re- 
 semblance to what in German is called the stone blight in Wheat. 
 The grain swells, bends itself, and comes out from its husk. 
 It has a sharp taste, and contains neither gluten nor saccharine 
 matter, but putrid oil, free phosphorous acid, ammonia, and 
 corrupted starch ; (Buchner, Repertorium fur die Pharmacie, 
 b. iii. s. 100.) It is remarkable, that infusory insects, like 
 vinegar eels, are found in it. But whether these were for- 
 merly present, and occasioned the disease of the grain, or 
 were produced by the degeneration, has not been well ascer- 
 tained. Meanwhile it is certain, that very moist yeai's and 
 wet lands contribute in a very great degree to the production 
 ofclavus. 
 
 425. 
 
 Insects occasion a numberless crowd of diseases, and of the 
 causes of death, to plants. Some of these have not yet been suf- 
 ficiently investigated, as the round navel-shaped bodies, which 
 we find in such quantities on our fading Oak leaves, and 
 which, by some authors, are called Xyloma pezizo'ides, and in 
 the Flora Danica (1492), Sclerotium fasc'iculatuvi^ but which 
 have been best examined by Hopkirk, (Flor. Anom. p. 10. 
 tab. XI. fig. 1 .) It is impossible, and it is not indeed suited 
 to our present purpose, to mention all the kinds of injuries 
 which insects occasion to plants. We seek only to present 
 the most important facts, according to the common division of 
 insects. 
 
 Among the Coleoptera we mention, first, the May Bug, 
 (Melolantha vulgaris), the larvae of which are known as 
 grubs, and live four years under ground, where they 
 occasion the greatest devastation among the roots of trees. 
 In their perfect state, too, they lay waste the leaves and buds 
 of orchard and other trees. Equally injurious, but not so 
 common, is the Spring beetle, (Elator Segetis) : the larva con- 
 tinues five years in that state, and is equally hurtful with 
 th€ former kind to the roots of grain ; (Spence and Kirby, 
 
or IM.ANTS. 29o 
 
 Introd. to Entoniol. i. p. 181.) The Carahm gibbus^ also, 
 not only in its larva state, but as a perfect insect, destroys 
 the wheat crops throughout great tracts of country; (Ger- 
 inar'^s Magazine, i.) There is a Staphylinus, the larva of 
 which insinuates itself into the grain of wheat, while it is 
 springing, and kills it ; (Walford, in Linn. Transact, ix. 
 p. 156.) The Bosti^ychus typographus lives entirely upon the 
 inner-bark of Pines, and so hollows it out into winding cavi- 
 ties, that six and thirty years ago, a million and a half of 
 the Pinus picea and Pinus sylvestris, upon the Hartz alone, fell 
 a sacrifice to it ; (Trebra, in Schriften der Berlin Gesellschaft 
 natur-forschender Freunde, b. iv. t. 4 ) The Anobru7u te,s- 
 sellatzim, which is also called the Death-watch, devours both 
 decayed and living wood. Two Attelabi, also, may be men- 
 tioned, of which the one, A. Bacchus, is destructive to Vines; 
 the other, A. pomorwn^ to the buds of Apple-trees. To the 
 same order belongs the Buprestis viridh, the larva of which 
 gnaws the alburnum of the red Beech, and produces the 
 same kind of winding excavations, as the Bo.strychii.s ti/po^ra- 
 phits ; and, lastly, there is the well known EarLh.-flea {Hal- 
 tica okracea), which, during dry -seasons, is so des'tructive to 
 Greens, particularly to plants with cruciform blossoms, as 
 the Raj)e, and C'abbage species. The Crambus Brassica; 
 the larva of which lays waste also the fields of Caraway and 
 C'oriander, is the greatest enemy to the Ra})e (Bi-assica ole- 
 racea laciniata.) 
 
 The second family of destructive insects is (lie IIenn|)- 
 tera, among which the leaf-lice, or aphides, from their incre- 
 dible fecundity, and endless increase, destroy most of the 
 plants upon which they alight. Almost every plant has its 
 own kind of aphis, and of these many bring forth twenty 
 times in a year. Even under the bark of Apple trees, a very 
 destructive kind had long been found, the Aphis Inn'igcru^ 
 which occasioned great devastati(ms, especially in England, 
 (Sir Jos. Banks, in Transact. Horticultural Soc. ii. \iVZ.) 
 The want of a free circulation of air is partitiilaiK favour- 
 
296 ?.IALroi{MATIONS AND DISKANES 
 
 able to the production of Heiiuptera. They are accordingly 
 produced in hot-houses to which little air is afforded. Cab- 
 bage plants are less subject to their depredations in the open 
 field than in gardens. To this family belong-s also the 
 ChervieSj on.e species of which, Ch. cadi, produces the Cochi- 
 neal ; a second is found u})on the Oaks of the South, and 
 produces the French Chcrmcs ; a third kind, Ch. polai^icus, 
 nestles in the roots of the SclerantJms ijerennis ; and all the 
 three kinds produce colouring matter. To this order belong 
 the Cocci, w hich fix themselves almost immoveably, and quite 
 flat, upon the plants of our hot-houses, and suck out the sap 
 of the plants, with their j)roboscis, which springs from their 
 breast. We are acquainted with two species. Coccus hespei'l- 
 dum and C. adonidum. There is also the Cercopis spumaria, 
 which sucks the juices of Grasses, and especially of Willows, 
 and gives it out again in the sha})e of foam : it is called 
 Cuckow's Spittal, — and when, as sometimes happens, it falls 
 down in drops, it has given rise to the expression of Drop- 
 ping-Wiilow s. 
 
 The small TJirips physapus is also very common in the 
 flowers of many plants, and perhaps assists in the impregna- 
 tion, but frequently, also, it gnaws the germen. 
 
 The flowers of Juncus ohtus'iflorus, and acutiflorus, are 
 disfigured by the puncture of the Livia juncorimi, and the 
 mischief done in corn fields by the Acheta grylloUdpa, is known 
 to every person. 
 
 427. 
 The innumerable crowds of butterflies, particularly in the 
 caterpillar state, are exceedingly destructive to plants. The 
 greatest enemies to fruit-trees are the caterpillars of Bomhyx 
 d'lspar, chrysorrhaa^ caerultocephala, Hiapaniola, processio- 
 nea, Neustrla, and of Noctua brumata. The caterpillars of 
 Papilio Cratagi, B?'assica, Rapa, and Napi, suck princi- 
 pally the garden vegetables. In Fir Avoods, the larvae of 
 Bomhyx Pini, Hadena piniperda, and Phalcena geometra 
 pmiaria ; and in Oak woods, the larva? of Bomhyx nw^iacha, 
 and Noctua brumata, occasion very great devastation. The 
 
or TLANTS. 297 
 
 soft woods of the Willow and Poplar arc attacked by Bomb, 
 cossus, Sesia crahroniformis^ and Nitidida grynea. The ca- 
 terpillars of B. graminis, lay waste the meadows, (De Geer, 
 Mem. sur les Insects, ii. p. 341.) ; and those of Hepiolus 
 Humuli, destroy the Hop-gardens. 
 
 428. 
 Among insects of the order Hymenoptera, the Gall Insects 
 are the most remarkable, for they deposite their eggs in plants, 
 which consequently exhibit remarkable excrescences, and 
 these are often distinguished by the most singular shapes and 
 peculiar colours. The mossy and crisped excrescences upon 
 the Wild Rose, which are known by the name of Bedeguarj 
 proceed from Cynips Rosfc ; the gall-nut, from C quercu-s, 
 which produces different kinds, however, according as it ap- 
 pears on the leaves, on the leaf-stalk, or on the flower-stalk. 
 Hierac'mm sahaudnm^ Sidvia j^om'tf'era, and Glcchoma hc- 
 deracea, exhibit similar excrescences. The AVild Figs, too, 
 are punctured by similar insects, and although the swelling 
 of the fruit is thus assisted, the animals have no effect in pro- 
 ducing tlie impregnation of the plant ; (Pontedera Anthol. 
 ii. p, 33; Olivier Voy. dans Temp. Othom. ii. p. 171.) 
 
 The origin of what is called the Willow Rose, from the 
 puncture of C. Salicis, is in the highest degree remarkable. 
 In spring, this insect deposites its eggs in the leaf-buds of the 
 Saliw Heli{v, alha^ and riparia. The new stimulus attracts 
 the sap, — the type of the part becomes changed, and, from 
 the prevailing acidity of the animal juice, it happens, that in 
 the rose or stock-shaped leaves, which are pushed out, a red 
 colour, instead of a green, is evolved. Superstition is thus 
 frequently cheated in its hopes, but it is also delivered from 
 its fear ; (Grass, in Eph. Nat. Cur. Dec. i. ann. 5. ; Winder 
 eben Dass. ann. vi. vii. n. 117. 229- ; Albrecht, in Act, 
 Nat. Cur. vol. ix. ; Schroter, in Berl. Samml. b. ii. ; Sims, 
 in Ann. of Rot. i. p. 374.)/ 
 
 The Hylotoma Fabr., the larva of which are distinguished 
 by two prominent eyes, and eleven pair of feet, are extremely 
 injurious to Pines, especially one species of the insect (HylO' 
 
298 HISTORY OF BOTANY. 
 
 tonia pini). The yellowish green caterpillar shews itself in 
 incredible numbers, and destroys the cones completely. 
 
 429. 
 
 Among gnats and flies we mention, first, the Musca pumi- 
 lionis, Bierk., or the Mos'illiis arcuattis, Latr. This fly lays 
 hold of the Wheat and also of the Rye crops, while they are 
 young, but these frequently shoot out more luxuriantly af- 
 terwards ; (Spence and Kirby, Introd. to Entom. i. p. 170.) 
 A small yellow gnat, Tipula tritici, eats into the blossoms of 
 Wheat, and destroys them ; (Linn. Trans, iii. p. 242.) 
 Lastly, we may enumerate, among the unwinged insects, the 
 small red acarus of our hot-houses {Acai'us telarius), which, 
 when enough of air is not given to the plants, or when they 
 are kept too warm, overspreads them with a fine web, and so 
 destroys them. 
 
 CHAP. VIL 
 
 HISTORY OF BOTANY. 
 
 I. Aticient History till the Revival of Science, 
 
 430. 
 
 Scientific Botany is indebted for its origin to the philoso- 
 phical schools of ancient Greece. But it was the physics of 
 plants, much rather than descriptive botany, which was then 
 cultivated, because, in the first place, from the small number 
 of plants which were then known, and which, among the 
 Greeks and Romans, scarcely exceeded a thousand, it was 
 not found necessary to think of classifying them, — of forming 
 a theory for this purpose, — of arranging them according to a 
 scientific system, — and of giving them a regular nomenclatuie ; 
 secondly^ Because the views of the ancients, with respect to 
 
HISTORY OF BOTANY. 2{)9 
 
 natural bodies, were entirely confined to tlie explanation of 
 phenomena, and to the employment of physical substances in 
 arts and trades: and, in the last place, because the physics of 
 plants, like physics in general, were then derived from mere 
 processes of reasoning. It is hence that, in the writings and 
 fragments of the Greek philosophers, we find chieHy some phy- 
 sical notices respecting the life and nourishment of plants, 
 which they endeavoured to explain by the analogy of the ani- 
 mal kingdom ; and along with these many happy ideas re- 
 specting the rank which plants hold in the scale of natural 
 bodies, and respecting their relations to external animals. 
 
 At the time when the Athenian Republic was in its most 
 flourishing condition, it is true that several persons, who were 
 called Rhizotomae, devoted themselves exclusively to the dig- 
 ging of roots and finding of herbs, for the advancement of 
 arts, and particularly of medicine. Some of these persons, 
 who were called Pharmacopolae, seem even to have issued from 
 the schools of the philosophers, and to have acquired for them- 
 selves a comprehensive knowledge of plants, whence they 
 were called Cultivators of Physics. But the greater number 
 pursued their occupation as market-cryers, and observed a 
 multitude of superstitious customs, on which account thev 
 are rather to be regarded as traders, than as men who had 
 been trained in a scientific manner. 
 
 431. 
 
 The first founder of the natural science of plants, was un- 
 doubtedly Aristotle of Stagira, to whom the nick-name of 
 Pharmacopolist was even given, because, for a long time, he 
 employed himself in collecting medicinal plants. But his ge- 
 nuine works respecting plants have been lost, and what we 
 now possess under this name, is but the insipid forgery of an 
 ignorant Greek of the middle ages. 
 
 Aristotle's follower and favourite scholar, Tyrtanuis of 
 Lesbos, to whom his master gave the name of Theophrastus, 
 on account of his eloquence, drew his principles, utidoubtedh . 
 from the information of his great teacher. lie also cultivated 
 the knowledge of plants entirely after the fashion of the Peri- 
 
300 HISTORY OF BO'l'ANV. 
 
 patetic School. But he seems to have undertaken lew jour- 
 neys and travels, since he always appeals to the testimony of 
 the diggers of roots, the cutters of wood, and the inhabitants 
 of the mountains. But, as he lived between the years 371 
 and 286 before Christ, the ever-memorable march of Alex- 
 ander the Great through Asia and Africa, aftbrded him an 
 opportunity of becoming acquainted with many foreign plants. 
 Although he notices these but occasionally, and without of- 
 fering any exact descriptions of them, yet his works, under 
 the title of A History of Plants, and On the Causes of Plants, 
 are immortal memorials of his ceaseless attention to the vege- 
 table world, and of his excellent observation of the ]^hciio- 
 niena which it presents. But we must not expect from him 
 either a scientific arrangement of objects, or a systematical 
 enumeration of the plants known to him ; but we must view 
 the whole as the production of a philosopher, wlio, almost 
 without predecessors, endeavoured, for the first time, to em- 
 ploy the reasoning faculty upon the phenomena of the vege- 
 table w^orld. The best edition of his works is that by 
 Schneider, and w^as published, in four octavo volumes, at 
 Leipsig, in 1818. Theophrastus v/as also the first who kept 
 a garden for plants, and in his legacy he named some of his 
 scholars as keepers of this property. 
 
 432. 
 But he found none of his scholars worthy of being a successor 
 to himself. Notwithstanding the foundation, during his time, 
 by the liberality of the Ptolemies in Alexandria, of the most 
 celebrated school of antiquity ; and, although, from rivalry 
 with the kings of Pergamus, the libraries in Alexandria 
 were raised to the rank of the best in the world ; yet the very 
 liberality of the Egyptian kings produced, by means of the 
 superfluity of literary helps, such a learned indolence, and 
 such a predilection for dialectic and grammatical investiga- 
 tions, that the study, as well as the science of nature, were 
 entirely neglected. Nay, the Pharmacopolgc were again se- 
 parated from the learned physicians and teachers of that 
 
HISTOKY OF BOTANY. . 301 
 
 school, and employed themselves, as formerly, in the digging 
 of roots, — a low and superstitious trade. 
 
 The kings Mithridates, Eupator of Ponlus, and Attains 
 Philometer of Pergamus, promoted, to a certain extent, the 
 knowledge of plants, by maintaining botanical gardens, in 
 which they reared poisonous plants, and made experiments 
 with other plants, as antidotes to poison. In the courts of 
 these kings lived the two most learned rhizotoma? of antiquity^ 
 Cratevas, and Nicander of Colophon. The work of the for- 
 mer exists only in manuscript. But Nicander has left us two 
 very obscure works respecting poisons and antidotes, both of 
 which have been excellently edited by Schneider, in 1792 and 
 1816. 
 
 j 433. 
 
 After Greece was subdued by the Romans, the knov ledge 
 of the conquered so iar passed over to the victors, that the 
 latter, who always sought out only what was useful, cultiva- 
 ted the study of plants to as great an extent, as it aiforded 
 advantages to the arts and trades. 
 
 In the works of the old Romans, Cato, Varro, and Co- 
 lumella, respecting Rural Economy, the best editions of which 
 are those published by Schneider, in 1794'; as also, in the Geor- 
 gics and Eclogues of Virgil, we find a multitude of plants 
 named, which were useful in horticulture and agriculture. 
 It is much to be lamented, that we no longer possess the wri- 
 tings of the younger Juba, king of Mauritania, whom Caesar 
 had caused to be educated in Rome. These works consisted 
 of a Treatise on the History of Nature, — a Description of the 
 Canary Isles, which were discovered by him, — Notices re- 
 I specting Lybia, — and a Plistory of Arabia. According to the 
 testimony of the ancients, he described plants, on all occasions^, 
 with the most scrupulous care. 
 
 434. 
 
 The most celebrated writer among the oldest botanists, 
 
 I is Pedacius Dioscorides, of Anazarbus, in Silicia. He lived 
 
 in the middle of the first centurv of" our a-ni, was i\ ])liv- 
 
'J02 HISTORY OF BOTANY. 
 
 .sician, and followed the Roman armies in their expeditions 
 through the greatest part of tlie Roman empire. The work 
 of his which we possess, and the best edition of which was 
 published by Sanaceniis, at Frankfort, in 1598, is entided 
 Materia Medica, and contains, therefore, an enumeration of 
 all the medicinal plants which were known to the ancients. 
 These are arranged in rather a capricious order, and are de- 
 signated not only by the common Greek names, but also by 
 the Roman, Punic, or African, and other barbarous names : 
 they are frccjuently described at great length, their situation 
 assigned, and proofs of their medicinal efficacy produced. 
 This work, next to that of the elder Pliny, has exercised the 
 most enduring dominion over the schools, since it was held, 
 for more than fifteen hundred years, to be the only fountain 
 of all knowledge relating to natural history, and particularly 
 of botanical information. 
 
 435. 
 
 Caius Plinius Secundus, commonly called the Elder, a 
 commander and statesman during the middle of the first cen- 
 tury of our aera, left behind him a Summary of all Science, 
 Knowledge, and Arts, which, for the most part, he had ex- 
 tracted from the Greek and from some Roman writers. The 
 work bears the title of a History of Nature, or of the World, 
 and the best edition of it, in ten octavo volumes, is that pub- 
 lished by Franz, after Harduin, at Leipsig, between 1778 
 and 1791. The plants are treated in it, in alphabetical or- 
 der, according to the descriptions of Theophrastus and Dios- 
 corides. Here and there also, some notices are added, and 
 plants are described, which were unknown to his predecessors ; 
 and he himself has informed us, that in his youth he acquired 
 his knowledge of plants in the garden of Antonius Castor, a 
 son-in-law of the well known King Dejotanus. 
 
 436. 
 
 Among the later Romans, the number of persons who cul- 
 tivated the knowledge of nature diminished, in proportion as 
 the night of barbarism descended, and, for a long time, the 
 
HISTORY OF BOTANY. 303 
 
 remains, even of Greek and Roman learning, weie entirely hid. 
 The Arabians, indeed, after tliey had instituted schools 
 of learning, infirmaries, and laboratories, applied themselves 
 dihgently to the study of medicinal plants. But they drew 
 their knowledge entirely from Dioscorides, whom, however, 
 they did not peruse in the original, but in a translation which 
 had been made from a Syrian copy. But, as it is probable 
 that neither of the translators was a botanist, they could nei- 
 ther avoid the grossest mistakes, nor be of the least advantage 
 to the science. 
 
 Nevertheless, the flourishing trade which this nation car- 
 ried on, for some centunes, from Madeira to China, made 
 them acquainted with some remarkable oriental plants, which 
 had escaped the notice of the Greeks. There were also, in 
 the western parts of the Arabian empire, some inquisitive stu- 
 dents of nature, who endeavoured to correct and to extend 
 their knowledge by travel, among whom was Ebn Beitar, a na- 
 tive of Mallaga, who flourished in the thirteenth century, 
 and whose work we possess only in manuscript. 
 
 437. 
 
 About the beginning of the eleventh century, the Arabians 
 became the teachers of the other nations of western Christen- 
 dom, who now formed their schools of learning according to 
 the Mahometan pattern, and translated their books from the 
 Arabian. In this manner arose a four times repeated transla- 
 tion of Dioscorides, which served as the foundation of the 
 knowledge of medicinal plants ; and we may easily imagine 
 how completely changed this work must have seemed to be, 
 and how little advantage science could gain from it. 
 
 The first faint spark of a sure knowledge of plants gleamed 
 during this darkness of the middle ages, when, after the ex- 
 ample of the Minorite Monks, whom the Pope sent, in the 
 thirteenth century, as missionaiies into the Mogul empire, 
 and to the court of the pretended Prester John, several 
 merchants undertook the same expedition. Among these, 
 the most illustrious was Marco Polo of Venice. He exa- 
 mined, during fifty years, most of the regions of Middle 
 
301 HISTOliV Ol HOT A XV. 
 
 and SoutlKrn Asia, as well as the eastern coast of Africa, 
 brought from thence nianv riire fruits and seeds, and, foi- 
 the first time, described, from actual inspection, the plants of 
 India, and of the islands of the Indian Ocean. This treatise 
 is found in the original, in the second volume of Ramusio's 
 great collection. 
 
 Meanwhile, in the cloysters of the West, some know- 
 ledge of medicinal and garden plants had been preserved, — 
 which plants were endeavoured to be made extensively known 
 by Avhat was called the Hortus Sanitatis. This contained 
 an alphabetical catalogue of useful plants, to w hich miserable 
 [)lates were added, and which was translated from one lan- 
 guage into another.' The Latin edition of Meidenbach, at 
 iMentz, in 1491 ; the German of Schonsperger, at Augs- 
 burgh, in 1488; and that in the Lower Saxon dialect, by 
 Cube, at Lnbeck, in 149^, are well known. 
 
 II. First Establishment of' Scientific Botany. 
 
 438. 
 During the flourishing condition of the free states of Italy, 
 which had been raised to distinction by trade, and by their 
 constitutions, science and art were first established on a pro- 
 ])er basis, and those Greeks that had been banished by the 
 Turks, namely, Emanuel Chrysoloras, Bessarion, and Theo- 
 dore Gaza, in particular, first made the Italians acquainted 
 with the great masterpieces of ancient Greece. Hence arose 
 a very active and well known rivalry, — in the search for memo- 
 rials of Grecian art and science, — in the multipUcation and il- 
 lustration of the genuine works of the ancients by wTiting 
 and printing, — and even in the imitation of their celebrated 
 works. It was now that Dioscorides and Pliny were, for the 
 first time, studied in the original, — the belief being universal 
 that their works are the only and the abundant fountain of 
 the knowledge of plants. But, at the same time, attempts 
 were made to ascertain what native plants properly bore the 
 names which the ancients had assimied. 
 
HISTORY or BOTANY. .'iO.> 
 
 439. 
 
 The Italians, Hermolaus Barbarus, Marcellus Virgilius, 
 Nicolaus Lconicenus, John Manardiis, and Antony Miisa 
 Brassavola, became celebrated and useful, indeed, in their 
 age, by such investigations ; but they pursued these studies 
 rather as grammarians, than as natural historians. 
 
 The proper fathers of the later botany were Germans, who, 
 independent of the ancients, examined and made known the 
 plants of their native country. Among these, the most an- 
 cient was Otto Brunfels, schoolmaster in Strasburgh, after- 
 wards a physician, who died in 1534. His Herbarum vivae 
 Icones were published at Strasburgh, in folio, with wood cuts, 
 in 1532 and 153(i. 
 
 To him succeeded Leonhard Fox, professor at Ingolstadt, 
 and afterwards at Tubino^en. He died in 1565. His Historia 
 Stirpium appeared at Basil, in folio, in 1542. In this work, 
 we find wood cuts, true to nature, of about four hundred 
 German plants, and here also we find the first catalogue of 
 technical terms in botany. 
 
 Hieronymus Tragus, schoolmaster at Zweybrucken, after- 
 wards a physician at Hornbach, who died in 1554, had also 
 collected plants on the Hundsruck, the Eyfel, the Ardennes, 
 the Vogeses, on Jura, and in the countries on the Rhine. 
 His book on herbaceous plants appeared in German, at Stras- 
 burgh, in 1551. 
 
 Valerius Cordus, also, who was taken from the world by 
 an early death, at Rome, in 1544, had carefully examined 
 the plants of Germany. His literary remains were published 
 by Conrad Gesncr, at Strasburgh, in 1561. 
 
 This Gesner, one of the most learned and excellent men of 
 his time, was schoolmaster and corrector, afterwards physi- 
 cian and professor, at Zurich, and died in 1564. He ac- 
 quired the highest merit as a botanist, by not only collecting 
 and describing the plants of Switzerland, but also by leaving 
 behind him a great number of excellent designs, wood cuts, 
 and copperplates, of foreign plants, in which he was the first 
 wlio attended to the parts of fructification. These remams 
 canic two hundred vears afterwards into the hands of Schmidel, 
 
 r 
 
rjOt) HISTORY or BOTANY. 
 
 who publislied them in 1754 and 1771, under the name oi 
 Opera Botanica. 
 
 Tlie plants of the Hartz were published by John Thai, a. 
 physician at Nordhausen, who died in 1587, in a work en- 
 titled Sylva Hercynia, at Frankfort, in 1588, in quarto. 
 This publication, after the death of the author, was taken 
 care of by Joachim Camerarius. 
 
 A scholar of Tragus, named Jacob Theodore Tabernamon- 
 tanus, a native ol' Bergzabern, in Alsace, puUished a work 
 similar to that of his German predecessor, the best edition of 
 which is that published by Hieronymus Bauhin, at Basil, in 
 folio, in 1731. xVlthough this work contains many things 
 copied from other authors, we also find in it a multitude of 
 plants which were not known to his predecessors. 
 
 440. 
 The inhabitants of the Netherlands, who had been incor- 
 porated with the German empire under Charles the Fifth, 
 being urged by the tyranny of his successor, Philip the Se- 
 cond, freed themselves from the Spanish sovereignty, and ob- 
 tained their independence, after an opposition of many years. 
 This bloody struggle promoted the trade and prosperity of the 
 nation. Arts and Sciences were cultivated in the Nether- 
 lands, with German diligence and zeal, and botany prospered, 
 in proportion to the opportunities that were afforded of ob- 
 taining plants from foreign countries. 
 
 Rembert Dodongeus, a native of West Friesland, an Aus- 
 trian physician, afterwards a professor at Leyden, who died 
 in 1586, was one of the oldest and most distinguished founders 
 of botany. His Stirpium Historiae Pemptades VI. were pub- 
 lished at Antwerp, in an enlarged edition, in folio., in 1616. 
 
 Matthias Lobelius, of Flanders, who was afterwards super- 
 intendant of the garden of Queen Elizabeth of England, and 
 died in 1616, not only discovered a multitude of plants 
 during his travels in France, the Netherlands, England, and 
 Germany: he also made the first attempt to arrange them 
 according to a certain natural affinity. His Stirpium Nova 
 Adversaria, published at London in 1570 and 1605, in folio. 
 
HISTORY OF BOTANY. :J07 
 
 was succeeded by his Plantarum Historia, published ai AiU- 
 werp in 1576 ; and, at last, all the plates of his works, and 
 those of his predecessors, Mere republished in the Iconibus 
 Stirpium, at Antwerp, in 1591, in quarto. 
 
 In ardent zeal for the discovery of plants, — in submitting to 
 sacrifices of every kind, — and in the very successful issue of his 
 labours, Charles Clusius, of Antwerp, excelled all his prede- 
 cessors. As companion of the noble Fuggerius, through the 
 whole south of Europe, he enjoyed every opportunity of col- 
 lecting, describing, and drawing, the plants of Germany, 
 France, Spain, and Portugal. He lived several years in 
 England, and also hi Vienna, as superintendant of the impe- 
 rial gardens, from whence he made the tour of Austria and 
 Hungary. At last he was professor at Ley den, and died in 
 1609. His chief work is the Rariorum Vlantarum Historia, 
 pubhshed at Antwerp, in folio, 1601. 
 
 441. 
 
 Among the Italians of the sixteenth century, some also 
 distinguished themselves by an extensive and careful search 
 for plants, especially Anguillara, who was for a long time 
 professor at Padua, afterwards at Ferrara, and died 1570. 
 No person was better acquainted with the plants of his native 
 country, of the large islands in the neighbourhood of Italy, 
 of Greece, also of Dalmatia, and of the Grecian islands. He 
 described them, with a constant reference to their names in 
 Dioscorides and Pliny, in his Semplici, published at Venice, 
 in octavo, 1661. 
 
 Peter Andrew Mattioli, a native of Sienna, and an Aus- 
 trian physician, who died in 1577, was one of the best in- 
 formed discoverers in botany. His Commentaries on Dios- 
 corides, are either cited according to the edition of Valgri- 
 sius, with small figures, piibli:^hed at Venice, 1560, in folio, 
 or according to that of 13auhin, with large figures, at Basil, 
 1674, in folio. 
 
 One of the most active and eminent discoverers of Italian 
 plants, was Fabius Columna, a Neapolitan of high birth, 
 whose bad health was the occasion of his prcdilerti(^n Wtv bo- 
 
 r '> 
 
308 HISTORY OF BOTANY. 
 
 tany. We possess a work of his called Phytobasanos, pub- 
 lished at Naples, 1592, and anotlier denominated Ecphrasis 
 Stirpium, published at Konie, 1G16, in quarto, in which the 
 drawings of plants, after the model of Gesncr, are connected 
 with representations of the parts of fructification. 
 
 442. 
 
 The knowledge of Indian plants was promoted in the six- 
 teenth century, by the victories of the Portuguese ; and the 
 two PorUigLiese physiclaiis at Goa, Garcia ab Orto, and 
 Christopher da Costa, published accounts of many medicinal 
 plants, which Clusius translated in his Exoticis, printed at 
 Antwerp, in folio, 1605. 
 
 The discovery of America also unexpectedly enriched the 
 science, and the Spanish governor in the West Indies, Gon- 
 zalo Hernandez Oviedo, was the first to give a proof of the 
 advantages thus obtained. 
 
 The east was investigated by Peter Belon, who was sent to 
 travel at the expenceof the Cardinal Tournon ; by Leonhard 
 Rauwolf, and by Prosper Alpinus, professor at Padua, who 
 died in 1617. The observations of the first of these are 
 translated in the Exoticis of Ckisius. Rauwoirs Travels 
 were printed in German, at Lauingcn, 1582, in quarto; and 
 the works of Alpinus, De Plantis v^Egypti, in 1640, in quar- 
 to, and l)e Plantis Exoticis, at V^enice, 1627, in quarto, 
 contain excellent plates and descriptions of a number oi' 
 very rare plants. 
 
 US. 
 U has ahendy been mentioned, that Lobelius made the 
 first attempt to establish a definite arrangement of plants. 
 But Andrew Cesalpinus, piofessor at Risa, who died in 1603, 
 gave a wrong direcuon to the search after fixed scientific prin- 
 ciples; for, in his work De Plantis, ]iublished at Florence, 
 1583, in quarto, he first constructed a systens the foundations 
 of which were the fruit and its parts, especially the embryon, 
 and its situation in the seed. 
 
HlSTOllY OF BOTANV. .'JOO 
 
 As, about the end of the century, an ahnost infinite iiuil- 
 titude of plants was discovered, and different names were 
 given to these by eacli writer, it became a matter of urgent 
 necessity, to review the synonymes, in order to give some 
 certainty to the knowledge of plants. This difficult la})our 
 was undertaken by Caspar Bauhin, professor at Basil, who 
 died in 1624. His Pinax Theatri Botanici, printed [it l^asil, 
 162-3, in quarto, is still a necessary aid in the complete study 
 of the science. The Theatrum Botanicum, which was in- 
 tended to contain the natural families of plants, has not been 
 fully published, but we possess only the Prodromus, publish- 
 ed at Frankfort, 1620, in quarto, with excellent plates, and 
 the first part of the larger work, wliich was published at Ba- 
 sil, 1658, in folio. Caspar's brother, John Bauhin, physician 
 to the chief of Mumpelgard, who died 1613, collected a 
 great many plants, and arranged them according to a plan si- 
 milar to that of his brother. But his Historia Plantarum 
 Universalis, which was published in three volumes, at IfJcr- 
 ten, 1651 and 1653, disappointed expectation, both in regard 
 to the arrangement, and to the plates. 
 
 III. First Establishment of the Doctiinc rcspc'ctiiii^' tlw Stria-'- 
 tare and Systematical Arrangement of Plants. 
 
 444. 
 
 We are principally indebted to the establishment of learn- 
 ed societies in the seventeenth century, and to the iinention 
 of the microscope, for the first attempts at a more minute 
 examination of the structure of plants. In the Society of 
 London for the Promotion of Science, which was liberally 
 supported by Charles the Second, several men were fovnid, 
 under the management of the King himself, who occupied 
 themselves exclusively with the dissection and microsco]>ical 
 examination of plants. Of these, the most distinguished was 
 Nehemiah Grew, secretary to the society, who died in 1711. 
 His discoveries are recorded in the immortal work, the Ana- 
 tomv of Plants, London, 1682, in folio. In ibis \unk wo 
 
310 HISTORY OF BOTANY. 
 
 find the first notice of the twofold sex of plants, which doc- 
 trine he had learned from Thomas Millington, a professor in 
 Oxford. 
 
 The same British Scientific Society also published the ex- 
 cellent and peculiar investigations of INIarcellus Malpighi, a 
 professor at Bologna, who died 1694, in the Anatomc Plan- 
 tarum, 1675 and 1679, in folio. 
 
 A citizen of Delft, named Antony Leuwenhoek, who died 
 1723, also contributed very nuuh to the establishment of this 
 science, by his minute investigations respecting the structure 
 of plants. 
 
 The French Academy of Sciences, founded in 1665, also 
 distinguished itself by discoveries respecting the structure and 
 nature of plants ; its first members, Claude Perrault, who 
 died 1688, Denis Dodart, who died 1707, and Edme Ma- 
 riotte, who died 1684, having instituted a multitude of in- 
 teresting investigations, especially respecting the nourishment 
 of plants. 
 
 445. 
 
 Joachim Jung, a German, born in Lubeck, and Professor 
 at Hamburgh, who died 1657, first improved the technical 
 language, and published in his Ijctures more acciu-ate notions 
 respecting the relations and nomenclature of plants. Al- 
 though his Opuscula were first })ublished a himdred years af- 
 ter his death, at Coburg in 1747, yet copies of his Institutes 
 had been circulated in Great Britain, and the natives of that 
 country, who appeared as reformers of scientific botany, fol- 
 lowed, according to their own confession, these copies. 
 
 Among these Britons, the first was Robert Morison, a 
 Scotclixnan, who, during the usurpation of Cronnvell, lived in 
 France, and afterwards was Professor at Oxford. He died 
 in 168 5. We Lave already (211.) m. ntioned his Pra^udia 
 Botanica as the work in which the first criti([ue on the ar- 
 rangement wliicli at that time was in use is found. He also 
 laid th.e Ibundalion in the same work for a better discrimina- 
 tion of genera. He became chiefly meritorious by the publi- 
 cation of his Historia Plantarinn Universalis, which appeared 
 
HISTOKV or BOTANY. :il) 
 
 in three volumes, at Oxford 1715, in folio, and contains more 
 than 3600 species of plants, arranged according to the natu- 
 ral method, and illustrated with good plates. In the steps of 
 Morison followed John Ray, an English clergyman, who, af- 
 ter having travelled during many years through the whole of 
 Europe, lived without preferment, and died 1 705. His Me- 
 thodus Plantarum emendata, the third edition of which was 
 published in 1 733, contains the true principles according to 
 which the genera and species of plants ought to be distin- 
 guished. At the same time, a natural method is pointed out 
 in the same work, in which attention is paid as much as pos- 
 sible to all and each of the parts, and no preference is given 
 to one above the rest. Ray also distinguished himself with 
 respect to the British Flora, by his Synopsis Methodica Stir- 
 pium Britannicarum, published for the third time by Dille- 
 nius in 1724. He likewise published a general view of the ve- 
 getable kingdom, according to the natural method, under the 
 title Historia Plantarum, in three volumes, London,. 1686 till 
 1704, folio. 
 
 Paul Herman, a Professor at Leaden, who died in 1695, 
 attempted to improve this method, by paying more regard 
 to the fruit ; as did also Herman Boerhaave, who was Profes- 
 sor in the same place, and died 1738. The Flores Flora? 
 Lugduni-Batavae, Leyden 1690 — 12, of the former author ; 
 and the Index I. and II. Plantarum, qua? in Horto Lugdu- 
 nensi aluntur, of the latter, Leyden 1720-4, deserve here to 
 be noticed. 
 
 446- 
 
 Although botanists were now in a fair \n ay of introducing the 
 natural method, attempts were not wanting to lay the foun- 
 dation of an artificial system, for the sake of beginners. The 
 corolla was the first part that drew attention, and its division 
 and form were the foundations of the earliest artificial system. 
 Augustus Quirinus Rivinus, Professor in Leipzig, who died 
 1725, set out in liis great work, Introductio generalis in Rem 
 Herbariam, Leipzig 1690 till 1699, in folio, from the prin- 
 ciple that the corolla, as being the part which nuu'k> the |>e»- 
 
312 HISTORY UK LOTANV. 
 
 fection of the plant, is the most important part. Hence he 
 divided plants according to the parts of the corolla, but chief- 
 ly according to the regularity or irregularity of its form. But 
 he extended the idea of irregularity so far, that he regarded 
 even the bent form of the pistil as an instance of the irregu- 
 larity of the corolla, without reflecting, that, in the first place, 
 the pistil in some species of, the same genus, as Pyrol a and 
 Epilobium, is bent downwards, and in others is erect ; and, 
 in the second place, that this bent position is often the conse- 
 quence of dichogamy. This system no doubt suiFered much 
 well founded opjx)sition, particularly from Ray and Dille- 
 nius; but in Germany it was so great a favourite, that at a 
 later period it was with difficulty overcome by the Linnsean 
 system. 
 
 447. 
 
 An excellent French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tourne- 
 fort, who, after having travelled for many years through the 
 South of France, and among the Pyrenees, had also examined 
 the Levant, and died as Professor at Paris 1708, founded a 
 system similar to that of Kivinus, but with more regard to 
 the form of the corolla than to its regularity. He proposed 
 this system in a work which appeared at Paris, imder the 
 name of Institutiones Rei Herbaria^, in 1719, in three vo- 
 lumes, with 489 plates, in which the characters of most of 
 the genera are given in a masterly manner. An excellent 
 account of his travels in the east, Relation d'un Voyage du 
 Levant, was published at Amsterdam 1718, in two parts ; 
 and the new plants which were foimd there, 1356 in number, 
 were inserted in the Coi-olliuium of his Institutions. 
 
 448. 
 Meanwhile, the know ledge of foreign plants was promoted 
 in various ways. The Dutch took Brazil from the Spaniards ; 
 and ('ount Moritz of Nassau, as governor of the newly con- 
 quered territory, took with him a natural historian, William 
 Piso, and an artist, George Marcgraf, whose observations 
 on the ])lants and animals of Brazil were pubhshed at Am- 
 
IIISTOJIV OF liOTANV. 313 
 
 sterdam in 1658, in I'olio, under the title, De India; utriusquc 
 re naturali. 
 
 In the East Indies, also, the sovereignty of the Dutch was 
 favourable to science. The Governor of Malabar, Henry 
 Adrian van Rheede, commanded the plants of IVIalabar to be 
 marked and described in a style of kingly magnificence. 
 Hence originated the Hortus IN^alabaricus, published between 
 1676 and 1703, in twelve folios. This work was surpassed, 
 not in the number of species, bu.t in the value of the defini- 
 tions and descriptions, by the Herbarium Amboinense, which 
 was patronized by George Eberhard Humph, governor at 
 Amboina, and was published by John Burmann, in seven vo- 
 lumes, at Amsterdam, between 1741 and 1751. 
 
 The West India plants were investigated by Hans Sloane, 
 a learned Irishman, who was physician to the Governor of 
 Jamaica, and afterwards to the King of Great Britain, and 
 president of the Royal Society. He died 1753. His prin- 
 cipal work is entitled a Voyage to Madeira ; in two \oJumcs, 
 London, 1707 to 1727, in folio. 
 
 449. 
 
 Botanical gardens also became extremely common during 
 the seventeenth century. In Padua a botanical garden had 
 been laid out since the year 1533; in Pisa since 1544; in 
 Pavia since 1556 ; and in Bologna since 1563. About the 
 end of the 16th century, Peter Richier de Belleval laid out 
 the first botanical garden at Montpelier in France, in whicli 
 he reared the plants of the south of France, and left behind 
 him a multitude of notices respecting them, which, at the dis- 
 tance of two centuries, were published by Villars and Gilli- 
 bert in the Demonstrations Botaniques of the latter, at Lyons 
 1796, in quarto. The Royal Garden at Paris was first laid 
 out in 1635. In England, the Royal Garden at Hampton 
 Court, and the garden of medicinal plants at Chelsea, had 
 been richly stocked since the time of Queen Elizabeth. The 
 superintendant of the former was John Parkinson, whose 
 Theatrum Botanicum, published at London 1640, in foho, 
 contains an arrangement of the plants according to their uses 
 
314 HISTORY OF BOTANY. 
 
 and situations. His disciple was Leonhard Pluknet, who 
 became known by drawings of very rare plants in his Alma- 
 gestum Botanicuni, j)ublished in London 1697 and 1705, in 
 quarto. The garden for medicinal plants was superintended 
 by Jacob Petiver, who died in 1718, and whose works, pub- 
 lished in London 1764, in three folio volumes, also contain a 
 multitude of plates of })lants. 
 
 In the Netherlands, the most celebrated garden was that 
 at Amsterdam. Its rare plants were ordered to be engraved in 
 copper and described, by the chief councillor John Conmielyn. 
 We have thus obtained the work entitled Horti medici Am- 
 stelodamcnsis rariorum plantarum descriptio et icones, pul)- 
 lished at Amsterdam in 1697 and 1702, in two volumes fo- 
 lio. The garden at Leyden, laid out in 1577 by Bontius, was 
 now superintended by Paul Hermann. His Catalogus Horti 
 Lugduno-Batavi, published at Leyden 1687, in octavo, and 
 Paradisus Batavus, at Leyden 1705, in quarto, are valuable 
 works. The most remarkable plants of the Dutch gardens 
 were ordered to be engraved with great care by Jacob Breyn, 
 a merchant in Dantzig, and he has described them in his Exoti- 
 carum plantarum centuria, published at Dantzig in 1678, in 
 folio. Among the Dutch gardens, that which was suj)}X)rted 
 by the Bishop of Eichstadt, under the inspection of liasilius 
 Besler, an apothecary at Nurnberg, was very celebrated. 
 A description of its rare plants is contained in a magnificent 
 work, entitled Hortus Eystettensis, published in 1613 in 
 folio. 
 
 Among the gardens of Italy, that at Bologna Avas most cele- 
 brated, — the superintendant of which, Jacob Zanoni, caused to 
 be engraved and described a multitude of rare plants, in his Is- 
 toria Botanica, published at Bologna in 1675 in folio. What 
 was denominated the Catholic Garden, the owner of which 
 Avas the Pope, and its superintendant Francisco Cupani, was 
 remarkable for a multitude of rare plants, natives of Sicily. 
 The great work entitled Panphyton Sicukmi, which contains 
 )ilates of these plants, is now only, in some of its fragments, an 
 ornament of libraries. 
 
IlISTOllV OF BOTANV. 315 
 
 450. 
 
 Native Floras were also objects of very careful investiga- 
 tion during tlie seventeenth century. 
 
 Jacob Barrelier, a Dominican, a native of Paris, wlio died 
 1673, bad carefully examined the vegetable kingdom through- 
 out the whole of the south of Europe, and made a multitude 
 of discoveries, which were published long after his death, un- 
 der the title Planta? per Galliam, Hispaniam, ct Italiam ob- 
 servatae ; Paris 1714, in folio, with 1324 copperplates. His la- 
 bours were rivalled by those of Silvius Paul Boccone, an Ita- 
 lian Cistercian monk, who travelled over the greatest part of 
 Europe, and died in his native town Palermo in 1704. His 
 most important works are his Icones et Descriptiones rario- 
 rum plantarum Siliciag, Oxford 1674, in quarto ; and liis Mu- 
 seo di Piante rare, Venice 1697. 
 
 The Flora of Prussia found an editor in John Losel, pro- 
 fessor at Konigsberg, who died 1656, and whose Flora Prus- 
 sica was published at Konigsberg 1703, in quarto. 
 
 IV, Events preparatory to the RefdnnatUyn ()/' Linnaus. 
 
 451. 
 
 During the time which intervened between Tournefort and 
 the publication of the Linnaean reformation, the appearance 
 of the latter author was introduced by some learned men. 
 In particular John Henry Burkhard, a physician in AV^olfen- 
 bnttel, published in an epistle to Leibnitz, which was again 
 edited by Lorenzo Heister 1750, the passing thought, that 
 plants might be divided according to the number of their fila- 
 ments. But, as he almost immediately opposes this idea, he 
 can by no means be considered as properly a predecessor of 
 Linna:us. 
 
 But the doctrine of the sex of plants, which had been ol)- 
 scurely hinted at by Grew, was exj)erimcntr.lly illustrated by 
 Jacob Bobart, and established by John Bay. liudolph Ja- 
 cob Camerarius, professor at Tubingen, endeavoured circum- 
 stantially to prove it, by observations and ex[)eriments, in a 
 
316 HISTORY OF BOTANV. 
 
 letter to VaJentini. That letter was again copied by Giiielin, 
 in liis treatise De Novo Vegetabiliiim exortu. 
 
 At this time, during the prevaihng love for atomic expla- 
 nations, the discovery of the seminal animalcules, gave an op- 
 ]X)rtunity for their employment in accounting for the fructifi- 
 cation of plants. Samuel Moreland, Stephen Francis Geoffrey, 
 and others, maintained that the matter of the pollen penetrated 
 into the ovarium, (381.) But this account was opposed in 
 the strongest manner by Sebastian Vaillant, professor at Paris, 
 who died 17^1, in his Discours sur la Structure des Fleurs, 
 Ley den 1718, in quai'to. Vaillant also obtained distinction 
 by his disquisitions respecting many families of plants, as well 
 as by his Parisian Flora, Botanicon Parisiense, Leyden 1727> 
 in folio. 
 
 452. 
 
 The most accomplished predecessors of Linnaeus were Ja- 
 cob Dillenius, John Scheuchzer, and Peter Antony Micheli. 
 The first was early a professor in Giessen, afterwards super- 
 intendant of the Sherardian garden at Eltham in England, and 
 lastly professor at Oxford. He died 1 747. How little he was at- 
 tached to the systems of his time, how completely he under- 
 stood the manner of investigating the parts of fructification, 
 even of Cryptogamous plants, had been already proved by 
 his Catalogus Plantarum, Giessen 1718, in octavo. In Eng- 
 land he published the Hortus Elthamensis, London 1732, a 
 Avork which was intended to combine unexampled beauty of 
 plates, with the most minute investigations and the most care- 
 ful descriptions. But every thing which had hitherto been 
 done in this department, was surpassed by his Historia Mus- 
 corum, Oxford 1741, in quarto. 
 
 The merits of John Scheuchzer, professor at Zurich, who 
 died 1737, are chiefly confined to an examination and arrange- 
 ment of the Grasses, which we find in his Agrostographia, 
 Zurich 1775, in quarto. 
 
 Peter Antony Micheh, superintendant of the gardens of 
 the Grand Duke of Florence, and who died 1737, laboured in 
 I he same spirit as Dillenius, searching chiefly for the sexual 
 
HISTOKY OF BOTANY. 317 
 
 parts of tlie lower organic bodies. His Nova Plantaruui 
 Genera were publislied at Florence 1729, in small folio, 
 
 453. 
 
 The l)oundarics of our knowledge of plants were also un- 
 commonly extended, and the reception of the I/uma-an system 
 prepared by travels into foreign countries, undertaken by 
 acute and well informed natural historians. The most re- 
 markable of these travellers was Charles Plumier, a monk of 
 the order of the Minimi, who at different times spent several 
 years in the West Indies, and died 1704. His Nova Plan- 
 larum Genera, Paris 1703, contains descriptions and plates of 
 120 new genera. He described the West Indian Ferns in 
 his expensive work, Traite des Fougeres de TAmeritjue, Paris 
 1705, and live hundred descriptions of plants Mhich he had 
 lei't behind him were published by J(.)hn IJurmann, luider 
 the title Plantarum Americanum fasciculus 1 — 10; Am- 
 sterdam, 1755 to 1760, folio. 
 
 Another monk of the order of the Minimi was Lewis 
 Feuillee, who lived two years in Chili and Lima as royjd bo- 
 tanist and mathematician. He died 1732. In his Journal, 
 written in French, Paris 1714 to 1725, we Ihid a nudtitude 
 of rare plants of these regions described and figured. 
 
 454. 
 
 Asia was very diligently and thoroughly examined by En- 
 gelbrecht Kampfer. He was a native of Lemgo, and went 
 with the Swedish deputies to Persia, where he staid some 
 years, and then sailed with the Dutch fleet to the East Indies, 
 remained a year in IJatavia and two years in Jajian, and at 
 last returned, at the distance of ten years. He died 1716. 
 In his Amoenitates Exotica?, Lemgo 1712, in (piarto, he pub- 
 lished excellent descripticms and plates of Japanese and of 
 some Persian plants. 
 
 Asia Minor and Armenia were first examined by John 
 Christ. Buxbaum, a native of Merseberg, who was physician 
 to the Russian Embassy at Constantinople. He died 1730. 
 
318 HISTORY OF BOTANY. 
 
 His principal work is entitled Plantarum minus cognitarunv 
 centuria, 1—5, St Petersburg, 1728 to 1740. 
 
 Northern Asia was traversed during ten years, at the com- 
 mand of the Empress Anna, chiefly by John George Gmelin. 
 He died 1755. His Flora Sibirica, in four volumes, St Peters- 
 buriT 1747 to 17G9, contains a multitude of the most remark- 
 able and rare plants. 
 
 John Burmann, professor at Amsterdam, who died 1780, 
 made use of the collections of other travellers in his Thesau- 
 rus Zeylandicus, Amsterdam 1737, and in his Rariorum Af- 
 ricanum Plantarum, dec. 1 — 10, Amsterdam 1734 to 1739. 
 
 A magnificent work of Marcus Catcsby, on the Floras of 
 the southern provinces of North America, the Natural His- 
 tory of Carolina, kc. was published in two volumes, Lon- 
 don 1731 and 1743. 
 
 V. The Linnaan Pei'iod. 
 
 Charles Linne gave their new form to all the parts of Na- 
 tural History ; but he deserves to be in a peculiar sense call- 
 ed the Founder of the Historical Part ; for he first regulated 
 the artificial language, — fixed the laws of Classification, — 
 unfolded the generic characters, — was the first to settle the 
 idea of species, — invented trivial names and specific charac- 
 ters. He enriched the science of plants by a more exact in- 
 vestigation of exotic Floras, and by a more sure determina- 
 tion of some thousand new species discovered by others. In 
 the last place, he formed a system, the value of which has 
 been already estimated, (133.) If we were disposed to find 
 fault with him and with his system, we might derive occasion 
 from his neglect of microscopical examinations, — from his su- 
 perficial study of Cryptogamous plants, — from his giving too 
 little attention to the anatomy and physiology of plants, — 
 and from the following circumstances : That he often exhi- 
 bited in a defective manner the characters of the southern 
 plants, owing to the want of actual inspection ; — that he set 
 
HIST(M{y OF 150TAXY. 319 
 
 a higher value upon the corolla and petals than ujxjn the 
 fruit and seed ; — and, lastly, that he overlooked many species, 
 from incorrectly regarding them as subspecies. 
 
 He was born at Roshult, in Sweden, 1707, and performed, 
 in 1732, his memorable journey through La])land, from 
 which he brought, as a sort of botanical booty, his admirable 
 Flora Lapponica, the second edition of which was published, 
 by Smith, at London, 1792. In Hartecamp, in Holland, 
 where he was superintendant of the Clifford Garden, from 
 1735 to 1737, he first pubHshed his Systema Natura?, Ley- 
 den, 1735, folio; then the Hortus Cliffortianus, Ley den, 1736, 
 folio; and, besides other treatises, the Genera Plantarum, 
 Ley den, 1737, in octavo. In 1741 he was professor at Up- 
 sal, and published, 1745, his classical Flora Suecica ; in 
 1751, the Philosophia Botanica ; and, in 1753, for the first 
 time, his Species Plantarum, in which 7300 species were enu- 
 merated. In 1762, the second edition of this work appeared, 
 in which the number of species had been increased by about 
 1500. His later discoveries were published in the Mantissa 
 Prima and Altera, and he died 1778. 
 
 456. 
 
 In his own time, a certain degree of opposition continued 
 to be made in Germany and France, to the innovations which 
 he introduced. In Germany this was occasioned, in the 
 Jirsi place, by the favourers of the system of Rivinus, to 
 whom belonged, in particular, Chr. Gottl. Ludwig, professor 
 at Leipsig, who died in 1773 ; and by whom the system of 
 Rivinus was always considered as fundamental, in his Defini- 
 tiones Plantarum, although he endeavoured to connect it 
 with the Linnajan System. In the second place, the autho- 
 rity of Haller, who was too much an enemy to the innovations 
 of Linnaeus, was detrimental to their extension. And, in the 
 last place, attempts were made to substitute other systems in 
 the place of the Linnaean, among which that proposed by 
 John Gottlieb Gleditsch, professor at Berlin, who died 1786, 
 deserves chiefly to be mentioned. This system appeared 
 in 1764, and founded the arrangement of plants simply 
 
320 HISTORY OF BOTANY. 
 
 upon the situation oC the filaments, (140.) In France, tlie 
 same thini!; liappeneil, ])artly from the too great favour with 
 wliicli tlie system of Tournefort was received, partly because 
 Michael Adanson, of the Academy at Paris, who died 1806, 
 had again directed the attention of botanists, in his Fa- 
 milies des Plantes, to the i^.atural affinities (1G4), and Bern- 
 Iiarcl Jussieu, professor at Paris, who died 1777, founded 
 upon tliem a Natural jMethod, which is usually denomi- 
 nated the System of Trianon, because the plants were ar- 
 ranged according to this system in the royal garden at that 
 place ; (Mem. de f Acad, de Paris, 1774, p. 175—197.) The 
 Ibunder of this system took, as the principle of arrangement, 
 and the bond of the natural families, {)artly the pretended 
 number of cotyledons, partly the number of the petals, and 
 partly the insertion of the filaments on the receptacle, the 
 <-alyx, the corolla, or the pistil. 
 
 Meanwhile, the principles of the sexual theory were dis- 
 cussed during the time of I^innaeus, and this doctrine was se- 
 cured against objections and misapplications. Joseph Gott- 
 Heb Kolreuter, professor at Carlsruhe, who died 1799, in his 
 preliminary notices respecting some experiments relating to 
 the sex of ])lants, 1761 to 1766, threw great light on the ne- 
 cessity of the co-operation of the two sexes. William Frede- 
 rick Von Gleichen, counsellor to the Margrave of Anspach, 
 who died 1783, raised some doubts respecting the actual pas- 
 sage of the pollen, and proposed many objections to the sex- 
 ual theory, (Das Neueste aus dem Planzenreich, Nurnberg, 
 1768, folio) ; and Caspar Frederick Wolf, of the academy at 
 Petersburgh, who died 1794, gave, in his 'J^heoria Genera- 
 tionis, Halle, 1774, the most complete discussion of the phe- 
 nomena of fructification, as he also gave tlie first explanation 
 of the evolution of the organs of plants from one another ; 
 (Nov. Comment. Petrop. xii. p. 403; xiii. p. 478.) 
 
 457. 
 
 The anatomy of plants was neglected in the time of Lin- 
 naus. But George Christian Reichel, professor at Leipsig, 
 wlu) died 1771 ; John Hill, phv^ician in I^ondon, who died 
 177-3; and Hornce Benedict de Sau^siire, who died 1799, 
 
lUSTOliy OF DOTANV. 321 
 
 were celebrated exceptions. The first gave the earliest cor- 
 rect representation of tlie primitive form of tlic spiral vessels ; 
 (Diss, de V'asis Plantariim Spiralibus, Leipsig, 1758, 4to.) 
 Hilfs Construction of Timber, London, 1770, 8vo. contains 
 good investigations respecting tl)e structure of wood, as also 
 respecting the effects of the absorption of coloured fluids, — and 
 it is adorned with good plates. Saussure's Observations sur 
 TEcorce des Feuilles et des Petales, Geneva, 1762, contains the 
 first correct researches respecting the slits. Nor must we forget 
 the excellent researches of Charles Bonnet, who died in 1793, 
 respecting the uses of leaves. These were first published at 
 Gottingen, 1754. Above all, however, Henry Ludwig du 
 Hamel du Monccau, inspector of the French Navy, who died 
 1782, deserves to be celebrated as the greatest writer of that 
 period respecting the physiology of plants. La Physique des 
 Arbres is the title of his immortal work, which was published 
 in two volumes at Paris, 1758. 
 
 458. 
 
 Foreign countries were examined, during the time of Lin- 
 naeus, chiefly by his scholars, among whom Frederick Has- 
 selquist, who died 1752; Peter Forskol, who died 1763; 
 Peter Lofling, who died 1756 ; and Peter Kalm, avIio died 
 1779, deserve particularly to be named. Hasselquist's Tra- 
 vels in Palestine were published by Linnaeus himself, 1757; 
 ForskoPs Flora vEgyptiaco-Arabica was published by Nie- 
 buhr, at Copenhagen, 1775; Ldfling's Travels in the Spanish 
 Dominions of America were published by Linn^rus, 1758; 
 and Kalm's Travels in North America were published in 
 three volumes, at Stockholm, 1753 to 1761. 
 
 The botanical treasures of Philibert Commerson, the fellow 
 traveller of Bougainville, who died 1773, could be of no ser- 
 vice to Linnaeus, because they were deposited with the French 
 Academy, and have been partly employed by Antony Lorenz 
 Jussieu. 
 
 Northern Asia was examined in the most careful manner, 
 during the time of Linnaeus, by Peter Simon Pallas, who 
 died in 1811. His Travels through the various Provinces of 
 
 X 
 
the Russian Empire, in three vohimes, St Petersburgh, 1771 
 to 1776, produced a rich harvest of botanical discoveries. 
 Tiie Indian Flora also became more known, from tlie labours 
 of Nicholas Lorenzo Burmann, professor at Amsterdam, who 
 (Hed 1793, because, in his Flora Indica, Leyden, 1768, he 
 has formed a great number of new species from the collec- 
 tions of others. 
 
 The West Indies were examined in the most complete 
 manner, during the age of l.inna^us. Patrick Browne pub- 
 hshed his Civil and Natural History of Jamaica, Lon- 
 don, 1756, in foho; Nicolaus Joseph de Jacquin, his excel- 
 lent Historia Stirpium Selectarum Americanarum, Vienna, 
 1763, in folio; and a French apothecary, Fusee Aublet, his 
 incomj)arable Histoire des Plantes de la Guiane Franc^-aise, in 
 four volumes, Paris, 1775, in quarto. 
 
 Lastly, the treasures of the South Sea Islands were made 
 known by Cook's two companions during his second voyage, 
 namely, John Reinhold, who died 1798, and George Forster, 
 who died 1794. The Characteres Generum Plantarum ap- 
 peared at London 1776. 
 
 459. 
 
 Among the native Floras which became known in the time 
 of Linnaeus, we may mention the Flora Carniolica of John 
 Antony Scopoli, professor at Pavia, afterwards chief physi- 
 cian in Idria, who died 1788, published at Vienna 1772 ; 
 i>ut more especially tlie Flora Austriaca of Nicolaus Joseph 
 de Jacquin, in five centuria^, Vienna, 1773 to 1776, folio; 
 also the Historia Plantarum in Palatinatu Electoral! cres- 
 centium of John Adam Pollich, physician to the imperial 
 miners, who died 1780, three volumes, Manheim, 1776, and 
 the Flora Herbornensis of John Daniel Leer, 1775. Al- 
 brecht von Haller, originally professor at Gottingen, after- 
 wards landamman of the canton of Bern, who died 1777, pub- 
 fished a masterly work, his Historia Stirpium Helvetiae indi- 
 genarum, Bern, 1768, folio. 
 
 Among the French Floras of that period, the preference is 
 due to Lewis Gerard's Flora Gallo-Provincialis, Paris, 1761, 
 
HISTOUY or BOTANY. .S2.'3 
 
 in octavo. Antony Gouan's Flora Monsj)cliaca, I-.yons, 
 1765, and the Ulustrationes et Observationes Botanicje of the 
 same author, pubhslied at Zurich, 1773, in folio. 
 
 The plants of Italy were examined with great (llligence by 
 Francis Seguier. His Plantar Veronenses appeared in three 
 volumes at Verona, 1745 to 1754. 
 
 A Spanish Flora was published by Don Joseph Quer y 
 Martinez, professor at Madrid, who died 1764. It appeared 
 in four quarto volumes at Madrid, 1762 to 1764. 
 
 An excellent English Flora was published by William 
 Hudson, apothecary in London, who died 1793, a second 
 edition having appeared in 1778 ; and the valuable Flora 
 Scotica of John Lightfoot, who died 1788, was published in 
 two volumes, London, 1777. 
 
 The Danish government did a permanent service io the 
 science, by causing the plants of Denmark to be engraved 
 at its own expence, and by devolving the care of the work 
 first upon George Christian Oeder, and afterwards u]:>on Otto 
 Frederick M tiller. In consequence of their labours ajipeared 
 the masterly work entitled Flora Danica, the four iirst volumes 
 of which were published from 1 761 to 1777. Nor ought we to 
 forget the Flora Norwegica of John Ernst Gunnerus, bishop 
 of Drontheim, who died 1773, two volumes, 1766 and 1772. 
 
 460. 
 
 Among the botanical gardens wliich were most celebrated 
 in the time of Linnaeus, we may notice particularly that at 
 Vienna, the rare plants of which were marked, by Jacquin, in 
 the Hortus Botanicus Vindoboncnsis, Vienna, 1770 to 1776. 
 three volumes. The garden at Upsal had been already de- 
 scribed by Linnaeus himself, in the year 1748. 
 
 VI. Recent History of Botany. 
 
 461. 
 Since the death of Linnaeus, the chief labours of botanists 
 have been employed in perfecting his svsteni, in applying it 
 
 ' X 2 
 
ti24> HISTORY or BOTANY. 
 
 10 the lower families of plants, in correcting it, and in fol- 
 lowing out with more attention those views which he had 
 neglected. Hence their chief attention has been directed to 
 the improvement of the generic characters, — more care has 
 been used in the examination of fruits and seeds, and, by de- 
 grees, the Linna?an System has come to be regarded simply 
 as an assistance to beginners, whilst the forming of a Natural 
 Method has been viewed as the highest object of botany. 
 Among the individuals who have examined the sexual sys- 
 tem, especially in the lower organic bodies, Casimir Christo- 
 pher Schmidel, professor at Erlangen, who died 1793, John 
 Hedwig, professor at Leipsig, who died 1799, and Joseph 
 Gottlieb Kolreuter, deserve to !)e first mentioned. Schmidefs 
 Icones et Analyses Plantaruni, Nurnberg, 1782, in folio ; 
 Hed wig's Theoria Generationis, Leipsig, 1798 ; his Funda- 
 mentuni Ilistoriye Naturalis Muscorum frondosorum, Leip- 
 sig, 1782; and his Stirpes Cryptogamica?, in four volumes, 
 Leipsig, 1787 to 1797 : and Kolreuter's Entdecktes Geheim- 
 iiiss der Kryptogamie, 1787, are the works in which princi- 
 pally the existence of the sexual parts, in the lower organic 
 bodies, are treated of. Yet that these excellent natural histo- 
 rians only followed out an idea which had formerly been con- 
 ceived, has been shewai by Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin (Historia 
 Fucorum, St Petersburgh, 17G8), and Phihp Cavolini, (On 
 the Animal Plants ol' the Mediterranean, translated by Wil- 
 liam Sprengel, Nurnberg, 1813). The effect of the nectaries 
 t)n fructification, was completely developed by Christian Con- 
 rad Sprengel, who died 1816 ; (Das Entdeckte Geheimniss 
 der Natur im Bau, und in der Befruchtung der Blunien, Ber- 
 lin, 1793, 4to.) 
 
 The Linna'an Species Plantarum lias found several editors of 
 very unequal merit. John JiicobReieluird, phvsit ian at Frank- 
 iort on ihc Maine, who died 1789, produced nothing in his 
 edition, which was published in 1779 and 1780, in four vo- 
 lume ;, but the supplements from the Mantissa? of Linnaeus, 
 and here and there some scattered remarks. The Systema 
 Vegetabilium of John Frederick Gmelin, professor at Got- 
 
UlSTOllV OF BOTANV. .12.5 
 
 tingeii, 1791, soon fell into neglect, because it was conduct- 
 ed with little discrimination. Charles Lewis Willdenow, 
 professor at Berlin, who died 1812, edited an excellent edi- 
 tion of the Species, especially in that part which embraces the 
 ten latter classes. His edition appeared between 1797 and 
 1810, in ten volumes, and goes as far as the end of the 
 Ferns. An early death took from us a still more excellent 
 follower of Linnaeus. This was Martin Vahl, professor at 
 Copenhagen, who died 1804, and whose Enumeratio Planta- 
 rum includes only the first and second, and a part of the 
 third class. Christian Henry Persoon, in his Synopsis Plan- 
 tarum, 1805 and 1807, gave an Abridgment of Willdenow, 
 and added to it the recent discoveries of the French. Of late, 
 John Jacob Romer, professor at Zurich, who died 1819, and 
 Joseph August Schultes, professor at Landshut, have com- 
 menced an undertaking, to which we cannot but wish a more 
 successful progress, but to which the well-founded objection 
 of too great diffuseness, and of the want of critical discrimi- 
 nation, may be made ; (Systcma Vegetabilium, vol. i. 4to., 
 Tubingen, 1817 to 1819.) 
 
 463. 
 
 The science has made the most important advances, since 
 the attention of natural historians was directed to the most 
 essential product of vegetation, namely, the seed and fruit ; 
 and since, by this means, the idea of natural relationship has 
 been again awakened. This zeal has been excited in the live- 
 liest manner by the masterly work of Joseph Gaertner, physi- 
 cian at Calw, in Wirtemberg, de Fructibus et Seminibus 
 Plantarum, whicli appeared in two volumes, at Stutgard, 
 1788 and 1791, with 180 copperplates, and to which his sou 
 added a Supplement, svith 45 copperplates, in 1805. 
 
 Independent of this author, Antony Lorenzo Jussicu, prow 
 fessor at Paris, in the spirit of his uncle, formerly mentioned, 
 constructed a natural method, which was published under the 
 title Genera Plantarum, 1789, and is distinguished chieHy by 
 its correct and carefully constructed generic characters. Ste- 
 phen Peter Ventenat, professor at Paris, who died 1808, also 
 Was of much service to the natural method, bv his Tableau 
 
326 HisTOKV or botany. 
 
 du llegne \'egctal, Paris, 1799, iour volumes ; as also Au- 
 gustus Jolm George Cliarles Batsch, professor at Jena, wlio 
 died 1802, by his Tabuhe Affiuitatuiu Regni Vegetabilis, 
 Weimar, 1802 ; and, it is to be hoped, that Augustus Pyra- 
 nuis de Candolle, professor at Geneva, will gain the highest 
 credit, ])y the continuation of his Sy sterna Naturalc Regni 
 Vegetabilis, Paris, 1818. 
 
 464. 
 
 The anal(nnv and physiology of plants have gained new 
 life, especially in Germany, France, and Italy, since the 
 structure of plants has been examined, without reference to 
 preconceived ideas. John Hedwig, along with many import- 
 ant tiuths, had also given currency to some obvious mistakes, 
 especially in the collection of his scattered works, Leipsig, 
 1 793, in two volimies ; and the correct view (Prodrcmo di Fisi- 
 ca Vegetabile, Padua, 1791) of Andrew Camparetti, professor 
 at Padua, obtained little success, at least in Germany. Antony 
 Krocker, (Dc Plantarum Epidermide, Halle, 1800), and the 
 author of this history, in his Introduction to the Knowledge of 
 Plants, Halle, 1812, endeavoured, indeed, to lay open these 
 mistakes, and to shew the true structure of plants. But more 
 attention was paid in France to the frequently mistaken ideas 
 of C. F. Brisseau Mirbel, of the French Academy, in his 
 Traite d' Anatomic et de Physiologic Vegetales, Paris, 1802. 
 Meanwhile, Flenry Frederick Link, and Charles Asmund 
 lludolphi, professors at Berlin, as also Ludolph Christian 
 Treviranus, professor at Breslau, published more correct 
 views ; (Link, Grundlehen der Anatomic und Physiolo- 
 gic der Pflanzen, Berlin, 1807; Rudolphi, Anatomic der 
 Pflanzen, Berlin, 1807 ; and Treviranus, vom Inwendigen 
 P*au der Gewachse, Gcittingen, 1806.) Since then, Mir- 
 bel has come nearer the truth ; (Exjx)sition et Defense de ma 
 Theoric de V Organization Vegetale, Amsterdam, 1808.) 
 John Jacob Paul Moldcnhawer, professor at Kiel, by his 
 Contributions to the Anatomy of Plants, Kiel, 1815, quarto; 
 and George Kieser, professor at Jena, by his Memoire sur 
 r Organization dcs Plantes, Haarlem, 1813, quarto; and by 
 his Grundzuge der Anatomic der Pflanzen, Jena, 1815, have 
 
IIISTOIIY OF BOTANY. .'327 
 
 ()l)taiiied great distinction. On the })h)'si()l{)o y oi' plants in ge- 
 neral, several introductory works have appeared, nanvly, the 
 Traite Theorique ct Pratique sur la Vegetation, by Mus- 
 tel, a Frencli officer, published at Rouen, 1781, in four 
 volumes ; the Physiologic Vegetale of John Senebier, a 
 Genevese clergyman, who died 1809, Geneva, 1800, in five 
 volumes ; the Vegetable Physiology of Darwin, ])hysician 
 at Derby, who died 1802, translated at Lei])sig, 1801 ; 
 the System of Physiological Botany of P. Keith, clergy 
 at Bethersden, in England, London, 1816. in two volun. 
 
 auci 
 
 465. 
 
 Native plants have recently been exair.incd whh g\vA\ 
 care. 
 
 To begin with Germany. — In the Manual of Botany, by 
 Christ. Schkuhr, mechanician at Wittenberg, who died 1811, 
 published at Wittenberg between 1791 and 1803, in three vo- 
 lumes, with nearly 500 plates, we have a multitude of very 
 excellent drawings and dissections, chiefly of native, but also 
 of many exotic plants. The Flora of Germany, in plates, by 
 Jacob Sturm, artist at Nurnberg, in three parts, and sixty- 
 five numbers, likewise deserves, in every respect, the most 
 honourable mention. The Flora Germanica of Henry Adoi- 
 phus Schrader, professor at Gottingen, of which the first vo- 
 lume appeared in 1806, is distinguished by the most perfect 
 accuracy and care. It is only to be lamented, that it has not 
 been continued till the present time. Among the Floras 
 of particular districts of Gernuiny, we may mention, espe- 
 cially, the Flora Badensis, in three volumes, by Charles 
 Christ. Gmelin, physician at Baden, ])ublished at Carlsruhe, 
 1805 and 1810 ; the Flora Cryptoganiica Erlangensis of 
 Charles Frederick Phihp Martins, published at Nurnberg, 
 1817; and the Prodronuis Flora^ Neomarchicje oi" John Fre- 
 derick llebentisch, published at Berlin, 1804. 
 
 A general Flora of France was published by Augustus 
 Pyramus de Candolle, in the Flore Fran(,'aise, Paris, 1805 
 to 1816, in six volumes ; and by Loiseleur Dc^longchanijjs. 
 in his Flora GalJica, Paris, 1806 and 1807. Anions the 
 
iJ28 UKSTUKV cjI' JurrANv. 
 
 Floras of particular districts we may mention, especially^ the 
 classical Ilistoire dcs Plantcs de Dauphine, by Villars, professor 
 at Strasburg, who had carefully examined the Alps which divide 
 Italy from Switzerland, the Vogeses, and the south of France, 
 along with Chaix, a clergyman at Gap, and Clapier, physician 
 at Grenoble. He died in 1813. The work was published in 
 four volumes, 1786 to 1789, at Grenoble, with 55 copper- 
 plates. The Histoire Abregee des Plantes des Pyrenees, 
 Tlioulouse, 1813, in octavo, also belongs to the class of ap- 
 proved works. 
 
 Among Italian Floras, the following deserve the most re- 
 spectful notice, namely, the Flora Pedemontana of Charles 
 Allioni, professor at Turin, who died 1804, published in 
 three volumes, at Turin, 1785, with 92 copperplates, folio ; 
 the Flora Neapolitana, Naples, 1811, in folio, by Michael 
 Tenore, professor at Naples ; and the Flora Ticinensis, Pa- 
 via, 1816, by Dominicus Nocca, professor at Pavia, and John 
 Baptiste Balbis, professor at Lyons, Pavia, 1816. The Si- 
 cilian Flora has found its votaries in Antonin Bivona^Ber- 
 nardi, who published Plantar um Sicularum cent. 1 — 2, Paler- 
 mo, 1806, 1810, in octavo ; and Stirpium Rariorum in Sici- 
 lia provenientium Manip. 1 — 4, Palermo, 1813 to 1816, in 
 quarto ; and in Constantin Schmalz Rafinesque, who pub- 
 lished Carattcri di alcuni Gcneri di Piante, Palermo, 1810, 
 octavo. 
 
 The Flora of Portugal, which had long been neglected, 
 was carefully edited by Fehx Avellar Brotero, professor at 
 Coimbra, in his Flora Lusitanica, Liitbon, 1804, two volumes; 
 and by Henry Frederick Link, and the Count Hoffmansegg, 
 in the Flore Portugaise, Berlin, 1809 to 1814, folio. 
 
 Great Britain can boast of an excellent work, with copper- 
 plates, on the native Flora, published under the title English 
 Botany, by James Sowerby and Sir James Edward Smith, in 
 thirty-six volumes, from 1790 to 1814. The latter author 
 also published a Flora Britannica, in three volumes, London, 
 1800 to 1804, which possesses distinguished scientific merit. 
 Not less meritorious is the Muscologia Britannica, by William 
 Jackson Hooker and Thomas Taylor, London, 1818. 
 
HIS'lOKV Ol" JtO'i'AN^ . 229 
 
 With respect ti) the other northern countries, tlie Flora 
 Danica, by Martin Vahl and James AViJkin Hornemann, was 
 continued to the end of the ninth voknne. In Sweden, J. W. 
 Pahnstruch and C W. Venus, pubhshed a Swedish l^olany, 
 beginning in 1802, after the model of the English Botany ; 
 and George Wahlenberg published a masterl)/ work, entitled 
 Flora Lapponica, Berlin, 1812. 
 
 Among the districts of Poland, those which are most south- 
 erly were examined in a very complete manner by W. S. 
 J. G. Besser, professor at Krzeminiec, in Podolia, and his 
 Primitia3 Flora? Galiciae, Vienna, 1809, in two volumes, be- 
 long to the class of the most perfect works of this kind. 
 
 The rich treasures of Hungary, and of the neighbouring 
 territories, were examined at the cxpence of Count Francis 
 von Waldstein, by Paul Kitaibel, professor at Pesth, who 
 died 1817, and were made known in his masterly work, en- 
 titled Descriptiones et Icones Plantar um Ilariorum Hunga- 
 rise, Vienna, 1803 to 1812, in three volumes. The Tran- 
 sylvanian Flora also, found an editor in Job. Christ. Gottl. 
 Baumgarten, physician at Schiisburg, whose Enumeratio 
 Stirpium Transylvaniae was published in three volumes, at 
 Vienna, 1816. 
 
 466. 
 
 Among foreign countries, which, in recent times, have been 
 examined by botanists, we begin with the Levant. Johi\ 
 Sibthorp, professor at Oxford, twice examined Greece and 
 Asia Minor, and was only prevented by death from {)ub- 
 hshing his discoveries. In consequence of his will, however, 
 a magnificent work, entitled Flora Gra^ca, has been published 
 since the year 1806, — a useful compend of which work has 
 been pubhshed, in two volumes, by Sir James l^dward Smith, 
 in the Prodromus Flora? Gra?ca>, London, 1806 to 1813. 
 The Icones Plantarum Syriae Ilariorum of Jacob Julius la 
 Billardiere, published at Paris, 1791, also deserve to be 
 mentioned with applause. The Aiabian plants, brought by 
 Forskol, were re-examined by Martin Vahl, and described, 
 along with many other plants brought from Malabar, by 
 
TM lIlSTOliY OF BOTANY. 
 
 Konig, and the West Indies, by Pflug and Rohr, in his Sym- 
 bolis Botanicis, vol. 1—3, Copenhagen, 1790 to 1794, foHo. 
 
 Since the Russian dominion extended itself over Caucasus, 
 this very important country lias been examined by several 
 excellent natural historians, and, in regard to its botany, it 
 has been most carefully investigated by Baron Frederick 
 Mai'shall von Biebeistein. His excellent Flora Taurico-Cau- 
 casica appeared in two vokmics, at Cracow, 1808. 
 
 The dominion of England in the East Indies gave new life 
 to the zeal for the search of plants in these regions. The 
 most important work on the subject was that published by 
 WilHam Roxburgh in his Plants of the Coast of Coromandel, 
 London 1795, three volumes. The Flora Cochin-Chinensis 
 of John de Loureiro, a Portuguese missionary, which was 
 published at Lisbon 1790, is also very valuable. With re- 
 spect to Japan, we have the admirable Flora Japonica of 
 Charles Peter Thunberg, published at Leipzig 1784, with 
 forty copperplates. 
 
 In regard to Africa, the learned companions of the expedi- 
 tion of Bonaparte to Egypt, in the year 1798, have enriched 
 the science with many important contributions, in the magni- 
 ficent work entitled Description de TEgypt, Paris 18LS. A 
 compend of this was published by A. R. Delile, under the 
 title of INIemoires Botaniques, Paris 1813. On the Flora of 
 northern Africa, appeared a valuable work of Renatus Des- 
 fontaines, professor at Paris, Flora Atlantica, Paris 1800, in 
 two volumes, with 261 copperplates. One part of the coast 
 of Guinea was examined by A. M. F. J. Palisot-Beauvois, 
 Flore d'Oware et de Benin, Paris 1804 to 1810, in folio. 
 Charles Peter Thunberg described the rich Flora of southern 
 Africa in his Prodromus Plantarum Capensium, Upsal 1794 
 and 1800; and in the Flora Capensis, Upsal 1813. iVIasca- 
 ren's Land and Madagascar were examined by Aubert du 
 Petit-Thouars, Histoire des Vegetaux recueillis dans les Isles 
 Australes d'Afrique, P^ris 1806, in quarto. 
 
 We possess excellent Floras of North America by Andrew 
 jNIlchaux, Flora Boreali-Americana, Paris 1803 ; by Frede- 
 ric Pursh, Flora Americjje Septentrionallcj, I^ondon 1814; 
 
HISTOllV OF BOTANY. 331 
 
 and by Thomas Nuttall, Genera of North American Plants, 
 Philadelphia 1818, hi two volumes. S'Lcphen Elliot exa- 
 mined the southern states ; Botany of the Southern States, 
 Carolina and Georgia, Charlestown 1817, 1818. Some con- 
 tributions were furnished by Henry Muhlen})ero-, clergyman 
 at Lancaster, who died 1816, Catalogus Plantarmn Americfe 
 Septentrionalis, Lancaster 1813, octavo ; by Const. Schmal/ 
 Rafinesque, Florula Ludoviciana, translated from the French 
 of C. C. Robin, New York 1817, octavo; and by C. W. Ed- 
 dy and J. Torrey ; (A Catalogue of Plants growing sponta- 
 neously within thirty miles of the city of New York, Albany 
 1819, octavo.) 
 
 Olaus Swarz, professor at Stockholm, who died 1817, des- 
 cribed in a very complete manner the West Indian Hora in 
 his Flora India? Occidentahs, Erlangen 1797 to 180G, in 
 three volumes. 
 
 The Spaniards Hippolytus Ruiz and Joseph Pavon, have 
 made us acquainted with a multitude of new genera and spe- 
 cies belonging to Peru and Chili, in their Flora Peruviana 
 et Chilensis, Madrid 1798, in folio. But Alexander von 
 Humboldt has gained immortal honour by his numerous bo- 
 tanical discoveries, the fruits of his travels through Spanish 
 America. He published them along with Amatus Bonpland, 
 in his Plantes Equinoxiales, and with Charles Kimth in his 
 Nova Genera et Species Plantar um, Paris 1815, in three vo- 
 lumes. 
 
 Lewis Nee, the companion of Malaspina, examined with 
 much care the South Sea Islands. Antony Joseph Cava- 
 nilles, professor at Madrid, who died 1804, availed himself of 
 his treasures, and described them in his Icones et Descrij)- 
 tiones Plantarum, Madrid 1791 to 1799, in six volumes. Jiu 
 cob Julius la Billardiere published an excellent Flora of New 
 Holland, under the title Novae Hollandia^ Plantarum Speci- 
 men, Paris 1804, in folio, with ^65 copperplates. A\'e owe 
 the greatest obligations to the ingenious Robert Bi'own, whose 
 Prodromus Florae Novfe HollandicT, London 1810, very rare, 
 and his General Remarks on the Botany ol" Terra Aust rails, 
 London 1814, are uncommonly valuable. 
 
332 IIISTOUV OF BOTANY. 
 
 467. 
 
 Some particular fiimilies and genera have been examined in 
 recent times with the most perfect care, and the science has 
 thus been extended. 
 
 The Fungi have been represented in good plates by 
 Augustus John George Charles Batsch, professor at Jena, 
 who died 1802, (Elenchus Fungorum, Halle 1783, 1784) ; 
 by BuUiard, (Herl)ier de la France, div. ii. 1791, in 
 folio) ; by Jacob Bolton, (History of Funguses growing 
 about Halifax, vol. i. iii. suppl. tab. 1, — 182, Huddersfield 
 1788, — 1791, quarto); and by James Sowerby, (Coloured 
 Figures of English Mushrooms, n. i — 29, London 1799 to 
 1814, folio.) The scientific knowledge of Fungi and their 
 genera was first established by Henry Julius Tode, clergy- 
 man in Mecklenburgh, who died 1799, (Fungi Mecklenbur- 
 gensis Selecti, fasc. 1. 2. Luneburg 1790, 1791, quarto.) He 
 was followed by Christ. Henr. Persoon, whose system was 
 long the only one ; (Synopsis Methodica Fungorum, Gottin- 
 gen 1801, octavo ; Observationcs Mycologicae, vol. i. ii. 
 Leipzig 1796, 1798.) J. B. von Albertini and L. D. von 
 Schweinitz extended the knowledge of species ; (Conspectus 
 Fungorum in Agro Nicskiensi crescentium, Leipzig 1805, oc- 
 tavo.) But Henry Frederick Link (Berlin Magazin, iii. 
 s. 1 — 42, vii. s. 25 — 45), and C. G. Nees von Esenbeck 
 (Das System der Pilze und Schwamme, Wurzburg 1817, 
 quarto), were the founders of entirely new views and divi- 
 sions of these families. 
 
 Our knowledge of the Algae was chiefly extended by Al- 
 bert Wilkelm Roth, physician at Vegesack ; (Catalecta Bo- 
 tanica, fasc. 1 — 3, Leipzig 1797, 1806.) Afterwards John 
 Peter Vaucher, clergyman at Geneva, examined the fresh 
 water Confervae, and divided them into natural genera ; 
 (Histoire des Conferees d'Eau douce, Geneva 1803, quarto.) 
 Lewis Weston Dillwyn published excellent plates of the 
 same, (Synopsis of the British Confervae, fasc. 1 — 20, Lon- 
 don 1802, and following years) ; and J. A. P. Ducluzeau de- 
 scribed them as they grow in the south of France, (Essai sur 
 THistoire Naturelle des Conferves des Environs de Montpel- 
 
HISTORY OF BOTANV. f^33 
 
 lier, 1805, octavo.) ' The Fuci have lately been more cor- 
 rectly classed by J. B. F. Lamouroux, professor at Caen, 
 (Ann. (le Mus. xx. p. 21, IIG, 267.) ; by Job. Stackhouse, 
 (Nereis Brittanica, ed. ii. Oxford 181G, folio; by Charles 
 Agardh, (Synopsis Algarum Scandinaviae, London 1817, oc- 
 tavo) ; and by H. Christ. Lyngbye, (Tentamen Hydrophy- 
 tologia* Danica.', Copenhagen 1819, quarto, with 70 co])- 
 perplates.) Dawson Turner published valuable plates of 
 ihe known species, (Fuci, or coloured figures and descrip- 
 tions of the plants referred by botanists to the genus Fucus, 
 vol. i.— iv. London 1807—1811.) 
 
 George Francis Hoffman, professor at Gottingen, now at 
 Moscow, published good plates of the Lichens, (Plantar Li- 
 chenosas, vol. i. — iii, Leipzig 1789 to 1801, folio). But for 
 the system of this family, we are indebted to Erick Acha- 
 rius, physician at Badstena, (Lichenographia I'niversalis, 
 Gottingen 1810, quarto ; Synopsis Methodica Lichenum, 
 Land. 1814, octavo.) 
 
 The Jungermannia} were chiefly studied by William Jack- 
 son Hooker, (Jung-ermanniarum Icones, fasc. 1 — 20, Lon- 
 don 1813, quarto.) 
 
 The Musci Frondosi were investigated in a very excellent 
 manner by John Hedwig, and a system proposed by him, 
 which deserved and obtained almost universal approbation, 
 because the parts of fructification in particular were examined 
 and represented with great skill, (Fundamenta Hisitoriye Na- 
 turalis Muscorum frondosorum, vol. i. ii. Leipzig 1782-«-4; 
 Descriptiones et Adumbrationes Muscorum frondosorum, vol. 
 i. ii., Leipzig 1189 to 1797, in folio; Species Muscorum 
 frondosorum, Leipzig 1801, quarto.) His worthy follower, 
 Fr. Schwagrichen, enriched botany with a great number of 
 new species, (Supplcmentum ad Species Muscorum, vol. i. ii. 
 Leipzig 1811, 1816, cpiarto). We are also much indebtml 
 to W. J. Hooker for our knowledge of British (Musco- 
 logia Britannica, London 1818, octavo,) and exotic Mosses, 
 (Musci Exotici, vol. i. ii. London 1818, 1819, octavo). A 
 new system of this family has lately been constructed by Sam. 
 
334 HISTOKV OF liOTAXY. 
 
 El. von Bridel, (Methoclus Nova Muscorum, Gotha 1819, 
 quarto.) 
 
 Sir James Edward Sniitli had already given much attention 
 to Ferns, and has established the principles according to which 
 they ought to be divided, (Mem. de TAcad. de Turin, vol. v. 
 p. 401.) ;• But Olaus Swartz completed this system, (Synop- 
 sis Filicum, Keil 1806, octavo.) 
 
 Christ. Schkuhr published a good monograph on the 
 Reeds, (Besclireibung und Abbildung der Ried-grasser, Wit- 
 tenberg 1801 to 1806, octavo, with 93 copperplates. The 
 Austrian Grasses were excellently delineated by Nicolaus 
 Thomas Host, an Austrian physician, (Icones et Descrip- 
 tiones Graminum Austriacorum, vol. i. — iv. Vienna 1801 
 to 1814) ; and John Gaudin, clergyman in Waadtland, 
 described the Grasses of Switzerland, (Agrostologies Hel- 
 vetica", vol. i. ii. Paris 1811, octavo.) John Christian Da- 
 niel Schreber, professor at Erlangen, who died 1810, in- 
 stituted excellent investigations respecting particular grasses, 
 and published very good figures of them, (Besclireibung 
 der Grasser, th. 1 — 3, Leipzig 1769 to 1810, in folio.) 
 An entirely new and peculiar system was formed by A. M. 
 F. J. Palisot de Beauvois, (Essai d\me Nouvelle Agrosto- 
 graphie, ou Nouveaux Genres des Graminees, Paris 1812, 
 octavo.) 
 
 Amoncr the Pine tribe tbe o^enus Pinus was described 
 by Aylmer Bourke Lambert, (A Description of the Genus 
 Pinus, London 1803, in folio). 
 
 The Coronariag and Liliaceae were studied by Augustus 
 Pyraraus de Candolle and P. J. Redoute, (Histoire de Plantes 
 Grasses, i. — xxii. Paris 1799 to 1811, in folio ; and Les Li- 
 liacees, vol. i.—viii. Paris 1802 to 1816, in folio.) The text 
 of the latter work was furnished for the first four volumes by 
 De Candolle, and for the fifth, sixth, and seventh, by F. de la 
 Roche, and for the eighth by A. R. Delile. The genus Aloe was 
 thoroughly and carefully examined by Charles Lewis Willde- 
 now (Berlin Mag. v. s. 163. f.), and by the Prince of Salm- 
 Dyck, (Veizeichniss der verschiedenen Arten des Geschlechtes 
 Aloe, 1817, octavo.) These, and other succulent plants were 
 
HISTOKV OF liOTAXV. 335 
 
 described by Adrian Hardy Haworth in several works, (Synop- 
 sis Plantaruni succidentarum, adjungitiir Narcissoruni revisio, 
 London 1819, octavo ; Miscellanea Naturalia, London 1803, 
 octavo; Transactions of Linn. Soc. vol. vii. p. 1. s.) The 
 Spathaceae were divided by John Bellenden GaAv ler, now Kcr, 
 into several Genera, (Ann. of Bot. i. p. 216.) 
 
 The Scitamineae were subjected by William lloscoe (Trans. 
 Linn. Soc. vol. viii. p. 330.), and by William Roxburgh 
 (Asiat. Research, vol. xi. p. 200.) to a new revision. The same 
 was done by Glaus Swartz with the Orchideje, (Act. Soc. 
 Scient. Upsal, vi. p. 59. s. ; Stockh. Acad. Handl, 1800, 
 p. 202. s. ; Schrader's Journal, 1799, st. ii. s. 201 ; and 
 Neues Journal, st. i. s. 1. f.) 
 
 Of the Chenopodeae, Peter Simon Pallas studied the salt 
 plants of the East ; (Illustrationes Plantaruni imperfecte aut 
 nondum cognitarum, Leipzig 1803, folio.) 
 
 Among the Thymelaeae, the genus Daphne was examined by 
 John Em. Wikstrom; (Diss, de Daphne, Upsal 1817, quar- 
 to.) 
 
 A complete revision of the Proteacese was published by 
 Robert Brown ; (Trans. Linn. Soc. vol. x. p. 15. — ^226.) 
 
 Of the Amentacea?, the Willows were examined by George 
 Francis Hoffman, (Historia salicum, iconibus illustrata,vol.i.ii. 
 Leipzig 1785 to 1791, folio) ; and by W. C. Seiinge, teacher 
 at Bern, (Essai d'une Monographic des Saules de la Suisse, 
 1815, octavo). 
 
 The North American Oaks were studied by Andr. Mi- 
 chaux; (Histoire des Chenes de PAmerique, Paris 1801, in 
 folio.) 
 
 Of the Tricoccae, the genus Croton was made the subject 
 of an inquiry by Edward Ferdinand Geiserl ; (Crotonis Mo- 
 nographia, Halle 1807, octavo.) 
 
 The genera Primula and Nicotiana were studied by J. G. 
 C. Lehmann, professor at Hamburgh ; (Monographia generis 
 Primularum, Leipzig 1817, quarto ; Historia generis Nico- 
 tianarum, Hamburg 1818, quarto.) The same author pub- 
 hshed a classical revision of the Asperifoliae ; (Planta' e fami- 
 lia Asperifoliarum nuciferae, vol. i. ii. Berlin 1818, quarto.) 
 
3*36 111 STOP. Y OF U OTA NY. 
 
 Michael reiix Dunal, professor at Montpellier, examined 
 the genus Solanimi ; (Ilistoire cle Solanum, Montpellier 1818, 
 quarto ; Solanoriim Generunuiiie aftinium synopsis, Mont- 
 pellier 1816, (xtavo.) 
 
 A complete revision of the Contortae was published by Ro- 
 bert Brown, (Transact. Wern. Soc. vol i. p. 40. s.) ; and ex- 
 cellent montjgraphsof the genus Stapelia have been drawn up 
 by Francis Masson (Stapeliie Novae, London 1796, folio), and 
 by Nicolaus Joseph von Jaetjuin (Stapeliarum Descriptiones, 
 iconibus illustrata?, ^'ienna 1806, folio.) 
 
 The species of the genus Erica have been described and 
 figured by H. C. Andrews, (Coloured Engravings of Heaths, 
 vol. i. — iii. London 1803 to 1809, folio) ; and by John Chris- 
 topher Wendland, (Ericarum Icones et Descriptiones, fasc, 
 1—17, Hanover 1798 to 1806, quarto.) 
 
 A new tribe of the Composita^ was constructed by Marian 
 Lagasca (Amoenidades Naturales de las Espanas, Orihuela 
 1811, quarto), and by Augustus Pyramus de Candolle, (Ann. 
 du Mus. xix. p. 59. ; Ilecueil de Mem. sur la Botanique, Pa- 
 hs 1813, quarto). But Henry Cassmi (Journ. de Bot. Nouv. 
 iv. p. 231. s. ; Dictionnaire des Scien. Nat. x. p. 131. s.), and 
 Robert Brown (Trans. Linn. Soc. vol. xii. p. 75.) have pub- 
 lished interesting observations on the whole family. 
 
 The Valeriantx? were examined by P. Dufresne, (Histoire 
 Naturelle de la Famille des Valerianees, Mont})ellier 1811, 
 quarto.) 
 
 Of the Rubiacca?, the genus Cinchona was described by 
 Aylmer Bourke, (A Description of the Genus Cinchona, 
 London 1797, quarto.) 
 
 The umbelliferous plants were examined after Peter Cus- 
 son, professor at Montpellier, who died 1783, (Hist, et Mem. 
 de la Soc. Roy. de Medec. 1781, 1782, p. 275.), by George 
 Frederick Hoffman (Genera Umbelliferarum, ed. nov. Mos- 
 cow 1816, octavo,) and the author oi' this history, (Plantarum 
 Umbelliferarum denuo disponendarumProdromus, Halle 1813, 
 (x:tavo ; Species Umbelliferarum minus cognita', Halle 1818, 
 ({uarto.) The genus Eryngium was described by Francis de 
 la RocIk , (Ervngiorum Ilistoria, Paris 1808, folio.) 
 
HISTORY OF iiOTANY. o'M 
 
 Caspar Count von Sternberg gave excellent (igurcs ot the 
 Saxifragae, (Revisio Saxifragarum, iconibus illustrala, Re- 
 gensburg 1810, folio.) 
 
 The Anoneae were arranged by Michael Felix Dunal, 
 (Monographic de la Famille des Anonacees, Paris 1817, 
 quarto.) 
 
 The cruciform plants were revised by Robert Brown (Ailon. 
 Hort. Kew. ed. 2. vol. iv. p. 71—130.), and by Desvaux 
 (Journ. de Bot. Nouv. iii. p. 145. s.) ; the genus Bisculella 
 by De CandoUe, (Recueil de Mem. sur la Botan. 1813, cjuar- 
 to) ; the Papavereae by L. G. A. Viguicr, (Histoire Natu- 
 relle des Pavots, Montpellier 1814, quarto) ; the Ranuncu- 
 lese by J. A. J. Biria (Histoire Naturellc des Rcnoncules, 
 Montpellier 1811, quarto.) 
 
 Of the leguminous plants, the Clover species were more ac- 
 curately determined by Joh. Christ. Dan. Schreber, (Sturm's 
 Deutsche Flor. No. 17.) ; and by Gaetan Savi, (Observationes 
 in varias Trifoliorum Species, Florence 181 0, octavo). Augus- 
 tus Pyramus de CandoUe (Astragalogiie, Paris 1802, folio), 
 and Peter Simon Pallas (Species Astragalorum descriptae et 
 iconibus illustratae, Leipzig 1800, folio,) revised the genus 
 Astragalus. Humboldt and Kunth arc now publishing the 
 American Mimosae. 
 
 Charles Lewis THeritier (Geraniologia, Paris 1787, 1788, 
 folio,) and H. C. Andrews (Geraniums, or a Monography of 
 the genus Geranium, London 1805,) examined accurately the 
 Geraniae. 
 
 Nicolaus Joseph von Jacquin published an excellent mono- 
 graph of the Oxalidnc, (Oxalis Monographia, Vienna 1794, 
 quarto.) 
 
 The Malvaceae, Melica*, Passiflorac, and Malpighieac, were 
 revised by Antony Joseph Cavaniilcs, (Monadelphiir Classis 
 diss. X. Madrid 1790, with 296 copperplates, (piarlo) : the 
 Ochnea^ and Simarubea? were revised by Augustus Pyramus 
 de CandoUe, (Recueil de Mem. sur la Botan. 1813.) 
 
 Of the Aizoidje, the Mesembryanthema were examined by 
 Adrian Hardv Haworth, (Observations on the genus Mesem- 
 
 Y 
 
33B HISTOr.Y OF BOTANY. 
 
 bryamlieiTium, London 1794, octavo; Miscellanea Naturalia, 
 London 1803.) 
 
 The Melastomea?, collected during the travels of Hum- 
 boldt, were revised by Amatus Bonpland in a magnificent 
 work, (Monographic des Melastomes, fasc. i. — vi. Paris 1809, 
 quarto.) 
 
 Of the Roseaeece, the Potentillae were subjected to a new 
 revision by C. G. Nestler, professor at Strasburg (Monogra- 
 phia de Potentilla, Strasburg 1816, quarto), and by J. C. G. 
 Lehman. The splendid works on Roses by Miss Lawrence 
 (Collection of Roses from Nature, London 1799, folio,) and 
 by P. J. RcdoiUe (Les Roses, liv, i. — xi. Paris 1816, folio,) 
 have not been of any particular advantage to the science. 
 
 468. 
 
 Among the botanical gardens of recent times, that at 
 Schonbrun near Vienna deserves to be first mentioned. Its 
 treasures were described by the elder Jacquin, in the Hortus 
 Schonbrunnensis, Vienna 1797, in four volumes. To this 
 department belong also his Icones Plantarum rarioriim, in 
 three volumes, Vienna 1781 to 1795, and the Eclogae Planta- 
 rum rariorum of his son Joseph Francis von Jacquin, Vienna 
 1811 to 1816. Next to this, the garden at Berlin has be- 
 come celebrated by the zeal of Willdenow, and the rare ta- 
 lents of its present superintendant Otto. The Hortus Bero- 
 linensis of Willdenow, Berlin 1809, folio, rivals the work of 
 Jacquin ; and his Enumeratio Plantarum Horti Berolinensis, 
 BerHn 1809, is a very rich, scientific, and useful catalogue. 
 
 Among the botanical gardens of France, that established by 
 Josephine Bonaparte at Mahiiaison has been celebrated from 
 the splendid work which the superintendant Ventenat began 
 to publish in 1803, in folio, under the title Jardin de la Mal- 
 maison, and which Amatus Bonpland continued, (Description 
 des Plantes rares cultivees a Malmaison et a Navarre, hvr. 
 i.— i. Paris 1803 to 1816, in folio.) Ventenat pubhshed fi- 
 gures o( the rarer plants in a nursery-garden, and described 
 them under the titles. Description des Plantes dans le Jardin 
 
HISTORY OF BOTANY. .'339 
 
 de M. Cels, Paris 1800, folio, and Choix des Plantes dans Ic 
 Jardin de Cels, Paris 1803, folio. 
 
 The gardens of Great Britain are the richest and most ce- 
 lebrated of modern times. In the first rank stands the Royal 
 Garden at Kew, of which a description was published by its 
 first superintendant WiUiam Aiton, who died 1793, under 
 the title Hortus Kewensis, three volumes, 1789. The new 
 edition of this work was published by the younger Aiton, 
 with the assistance of Robert Brown, in five volumes, from 
 1810 to 1813. The treasures of the English gardens had 
 been previously figured and described by Charles Lewis 
 L'Heritier, who died 1800, in his Sertum Anglicum, Paris 
 1788, and in his Stirpes novae aut minus cognitae, fasc. i. — vii. 
 Paris 1784, folio ; also by Sir James Edward Smith in his 
 Exotic Botany, London 1804 to 1808, and by Richard An- 
 tony Salisbury in his Paradisus Londinensis. But the finest 
 works in this department, are the expensive copperplate works 
 of Henry Andrews, The Botanist's Repository, London 1797 
 to 1808 ; The Botanical Magazine of Curtis and Sims, and 
 the Botanical Register, edited by Ker. An intelligently con- 
 ducted Catalogue of the Plants in the English Gardens was 
 published by Robert Sweet, under the title Hortus Subur- 
 ban us Londonensis, 1818. 
 
 Among the other gai'den catalogues, the following deserve 
 to be particularly noticed : Agustus Pyramus de Candolle's Ca- 
 talogus Plantar um Horti Botanici Monspeliensis, 1813, octavo, 
 andMarian Lagasca's Elenchus Plantarum quae inHortoRcgio 
 botan. Matritensi colebantur, Madrid 1816, quarto ; Genera 
 et Species Plantarum, quae aut novae aut sunt nondum rccte 
 cognoscuntur, Madrid 1816, quarto. 
 
 Y9 
 
PRACTICAL PART. 
 
PRACTICAL PART. 
 
 CLASS I 
 
 Hippuris vulgaris. 
 
 Kazenzahl, Weisse Seetannc, Tannwcdel. — Fren. Pesse com^ 
 mime. — Eng. Mare's-tale, Paddow-pipe, — Ital. La Corre- 
 g iola femmina. — S wed. Hastswants. 
 
 There are few of the higher plants which have so simple a 
 structure as this, or which have so much simpUcity in the re- 
 lations of the essential parts. 
 
 In deep ditches, in standing and running waters, there 
 arises in spring a round stem, from one to two feet above the 
 water, straight, perpendicular, almost stiff (41.), and simple 
 (45.) Its colour is reddish ; and its circumference is iu size 
 about that of the quill of a pigeon's or hen's feather. It is 
 also jointed (40.), and shoots out under the water, first, ho- 
 rizontal fibrous roots, and, next, pellucid, linear-lanceolate 
 leaves. On dissection, we discover in the circumference a 
 compound cellular texture, with distinct regular interstices 
 (299.) ; and in the centre there is a firm cord, composed of 
 spiral vessels and sap-tubes (280.) 
 
 Above the water, there spring from each joint of tlie stem 
 conmionly from eight to ten leaves, arranged in a circle (36.) ; 
 sonictinies also, especially under the water, fasliioned into a 
 s}>iial shape (37 ) horizoiitul, Iliu-ai-lanccolale, somewhat oh- 
 
344 1. HIPPUIUS VULGARIS. [CL. I. 
 
 tuse {55.), quite entire, without nerves, opakc, of the length 
 of a finger-nail, or of the thumb, (16.) These leaves, espe- 
 cially on their lower surface, have pretty large slits, (309.) 
 
 At the base of the leaves, or in the axis of the leaves, there 
 appear in spring, in the first place, some larger bodies, which 
 we may consider with Haller (Hist. Stirp. Helv. 1752), as 
 buds ; and, secondly, small ovaria, surmounted by a simple 
 pistil, on both sides of which, the rudiments of llie two-lobed 
 anthers stand directly over the germen. The anther after- 
 wards is elevated upon a simple filament, about the length of 
 the pistil, by the side of which it stands, and continues till the 
 seed is almost fully ripe. The external cover of the germen 
 maylx? considered as the calyx, which in ihat case will be a su- 
 perior one, (34.) Tlie germen shews as its fruit, whilst the ex- 
 ternal cover swells, a smooth, oval nut, with a similar shaped 
 cavity, in which the seed lies. This contains, amidst the near- 
 ly consumed albumen, a filamentous embryo in the centre, 
 ha\nng its radicle directed upwards. 
 
 Geographical Distribution. 
 
 With res].iect to the geographical distribution of the plant, 
 it seems to thrive only in the waters of the Northern Hemi- 
 .sphere. It grows as far as the Polar circle, (Wahlenb. Flor. 
 Lapp. p. 1.), in Europe, Asia, and America, (Pursh, Amer. 
 Sept. p. 3. ; Nuttal, p. 3.) But the American form is con- 
 sidered as a distinct variety, since it has almost always only 
 six leaves in the circle. But it does not grow farther south 
 than the north of Italy, the south of France, and the north 
 of Spain. Hence its southern limit in Europe seems to be the 
 44° N. Lat. In Asia, it scarcely passes beyond the 5^. But 
 in Nortli America it is found even under the 35°. 
 
 Syn&ivijmes and Figures. 
 
 Polygonum femina, Label, ic. 792. — Matth. Valgri.% 485. — 
 
 Dodcn. U^.-^Dahch. 1072.— J. Bauh. Hht. 3. 732. 
 Cauda equina femina, Gerard. Evinc. 1114. 
 
CL. I.] 1. HIPPUIIIS VULGARIS. 345 
 
 Equisetum palusire, brevibus foliis polyspermum, C. Bauhluy 
 
 15. Parkin's Theatr. 1200. 
 Pinastella, Dill. Giess. Jpp. 168. Biuvb. Hal. 261. 
 Limnopeuce, V. Cord. Hist. p. 150. Vaill. Mem. dc Paris, 
 
 1719, p. 15. t. 1. f. S. Hall. Stirj). n. 1572. 
 Hippuris vulgaris, Linn. Fl. Dan. 87. Engl. Hot. 76'J. 
 
 Gdrtn. Friict. t. 84. Richard in Ann. da Mu^-. J3. t. '30. 
 
 f. 8. 
 
 Affinity. 
 
 The first authors who arranged this plant in a natural or- 
 der, placed it beside Ceratophyllum^ Myriopliyllum^ Zanni- 
 chellia, and immediately after it they placed Pilnlaria, {Ray, 
 syn. p. 136.) Linna?us also placed it along with similar 
 plants in his 15th tribe, which he called Inundates, {Giseke 
 Ord. Nat. p. 327.) Batsch followed the same plan (Tab. 
 Ajffin. Regn. Veget. p. 161.), denying at the same time, very 
 improperly, to the Inundatae, the albumen in the seed. And 
 Jussieu opened with this plant his family of the Naiada?, 
 placing Chara immediately after it, {Jussieu, Gen, Plant. 
 p. 18.) But Adanson was the first who thought of a higher 
 place, for he placed his Limnopeuce among the Elaeagna> be- 
 tween Thesium and Cynomorium, {Adanson, Famill. 2. 
 p. 80.) More lately Jussieu has approved of this arrange- 
 ment, {Ann. du Mus. 3. p. 323.) ; and De Candolle has 
 placed the plant among the Onagrae, {Fl. Franc. 4. 415.) 
 Lastly, Nuttal thinks it has no afiinities. 
 
 But when we direct our attention to the existence of a cen- 
 tral bundle of spiral vessels, and to the slits on the surface, 
 and recollect the law, that essential differences of internal 
 structure almost always correspond with differences in the 
 formation of the seed, and in external relations (170.), Adan- 
 son's idea gains considerable strength. If we compare Ela- 
 agnus and Hippophde with this plant, the formation of the 
 seed, and the position of the embryon, on which most de- 
 pends, agree completely, (171.) Instead of the nut in oui- 
 plant, these others have a drupe. The calyx, whitli in 
 the Hippuris is not unfolded, consists in Elrrngnus of four 
 
346 2. agahdhia cKYrTANTHA. [cl. i, 
 
 parts, aiid in Hippophdc of two ; but, in both cases, it standi 
 above tlie Iruit. It is true, lliat in the two latter plants, the 
 filaments ai'c four ; but we know that a uniform abortion ac- 
 counts for the want of organs of the same kind, (180.) 
 
 Uses. 
 
 Only goats eat this plant. It contributes to the purifica- 
 tion of air in standing water. 
 
 2. 
 
 Agardhia cryptantha. 
 
 Char. Gen. Cal. 3-sepalus, inferus. Cor. 5-petala, convo- 
 hita. Stam. 1, anthera magna. Drupa 3-locularis, 3-val- 
 vis. 
 
 Ramum florentem habeo e Brasilia, cortice fusco. Folia op- 
 posita, ovata, inaequalia, coriacea, integerrima, acuta, nervo- 
 so-venosa, duos poUices cum dimidio longa, duos fere pol- 
 lices lata, utrinque glaberrima ; petioli fusci ; canalicula- 
 ti, semipollicares, patentes. Racemus terminalis, aphyllus, 
 nutans. Flores flavidi. Calyx trisepalus, subimbricatus. 
 iEstivatio convolutiva. Corolla 5-petala, extus sericea. Re- 
 ceptaculum villosum. Stamen unicum laterals. Anthera 
 ratione reliquarum parti um maxima, curvata, bilocularis. 
 Plstilliim triquetrum. Drupa ovalis pollicaris, atra, trival- 
 vis, trilocularis. 
 
 Planta affinis Cryptostomo Schreb. (MoutabeaAubl. Guian. 
 t. 274.) ipsique mangifera*. Sed ha^c turn calyce 5-sepalo, 
 tum drupa monosperma, ilia antheris quinque stamini uni- 
 co insidentibus, et calyptra corollae differt. Videtur tamen 
 Tcrcbinthaces adnumeranda esse. 
 
 Dixi in honorem Agardhii, prof. Lundincnsis, qui algarum 
 hibtoriam egregic illustravit. 
 
CL. II.] 3. CIRC^EA LUTETIANA. 347 
 
 CLASS II. 
 
 Circaea Lutetiaiia, L. 
 
 Hexenkraut, Stephanskraut, Waldkletten. — Freii. Hcrhc dc 
 St Etienne. — Engl. Enchanters Night-shade, — Swcd. GuU 
 sirse. 
 
 About St John's day, an interesting plant appears in our 
 dark and moist woods. It has a woody, articulated, creeping 
 root, which is commonly tliickly entwined with the roots of 
 the tree, and is hence difficult to be torn up. From this root 
 a small stem arises, about the thickness of a corn-stalk, straight, 
 round, simple, with fine and undistinguishable hairs, green in 
 its colour, and from a foot and a half to two feet in length. 
 
 From the stem, leaf- stalks shoot out, opposite to one ano- 
 ther, at distances which are about an inch from one another, 
 having undistinguishable hairs, angular, almost marginated 
 (28.), an inch long, and standing open ; and upon these ai'e 
 leaves completely oval-shaped, almost in the form of a heart, 
 with undistinguishable hairs, obtusely pointed, with notches 
 at intervals on the margin, nerved and veined, an inch and a 
 half long, and an inch broad. 
 
 On the top of the stem stands the many-blossomed bunch 
 (84.), the principal and secondary stalks of which are more 
 strongly ciliated than the lower part of the stem. Tlie se- 
 condary stalks, from three to four lines in length, stand al- 
 most horizontal, afterwards they are reflex ; they bear at 
 their lower part the ovaria, of a round shape, afterwards 
 pear-shaped, studded with hooked bristles (80.) ; over the 
 ovariii arc two calyx-leaves, of an oval or oblong form, re- 
 flex, of a rcddith coloiu-, and two petals of a pale nd, of [i\\ 
 
S48 3. CIIIC^.A LUTETIANA. [CL. II. 
 
 inverted heart-shape, shorter than the two filaments. The 
 filaments stand before tlie calyx leaves, and alternate like 
 them with the petals, (19().) The stigmata are two. The 
 ai'stivation is valvular. 
 
 The capsule consists of two loculi, opens from below, and 
 t'ontains in each loculus a seed, which, without any albumi- 
 nous matter, contains a com})letely unfolded embryon, with 
 two erect, thickish cotyledons, and a radicle scarcely distin- 
 guishable. 
 
 A subspecies of this plant is produced in mountain forests, 
 and especially in North America, with a smoother stem, with 
 the leaf-stalks completely linear and smooth, and with leaves 
 more softly ciliated. This is the Circcea hitermedlay Ehrh. 
 beytr. 4. s. 42. St^irm Deutsch. Flor. Heft. 23. C. Lute- 
 tiana Canadensis Michaux^ bo. ram. 1. p. 17. Pursh, Amei'. 
 Sept, 21. Nuttall, 18. 
 
 The Circ^a alpina, again, is essentially distinguished 
 by a smooth, branchy stem, which is never longer than a 
 small span, and by small cordate leaves. There is also a 
 small bractea under every flower, which is Avanting in our 
 species. 
 
 Geographical Distribidion. 
 
 The Circdca lutetiana appears to be diffused in the northern 
 hemisphere from 37° to the 64° N. Lat. For Sibthorp found 
 it in the Bithynian Olympus, and Marshall of Biberstein in 
 Tauris. On the other hand, it is wanting in Lapland, where, 
 instead of it, the Circtea alpina grows. Its limits in North 
 America have not yet been exactly determined. But it seems 
 to grow from 40 '' to the 50^ N. I.at. 
 
 Sijnonymcs and Figures. 
 
 C'irc.Ta lutetiana, Loh. Hist. 137, ic. 206. Gcr. Emac. 351. 
 Ocymastrum verrucarium, J. Bauli. H'lsi. 3. 977. Solani- 
 folia C'ircaia dicta, C. Bauh. Pin. 68. Park. Theatr. 351. 
 J/o/7'.s. s. 5. t. 34. (C. lutetiana, Dalcch. 1338. is C. alpU 
 
CL. II.] '3. CIRC^A LUTETlxVXA. *]40 
 
 na.) Fi Dan. 210. Engl Bot. 1056. Sturm DcuUJi. 
 Flor. Heft 23. 
 
 Affinity. 
 
 Ray was completely mistaken when he placed Circ^a along 
 with Callitriche, Stratiotes, and Hydrocharls., {Ray Syn. 
 p. 289.) Linnaeus also shewed no great insight into its affi- 
 nities, when he placed Circa^a along with Boerhaavia and 
 Valeriana, among the Aggregatae, {Orel. Nat. 48.) Adanson 
 first perceived its true relations, when he placed the plant 
 among the Oenagrae, {Famill. des Plantes^ p. 85.) Later bo- 
 tanists have followed Adanson more readily, since we have 
 become acquainted with a Mexican plant which is very like 
 the Circcea, namely Lopezia, Cav. in which we find only a 
 different numerical proportion. Ditmaria, too, {Eriama 
 Rudg.) lays claim to a still greater resemblance. The num- 
 bers 2, 4, 8, prevail in this family ; and although (Enothera 
 and Epilohium are removed from Circaa by different propor- 
 tions, yet Gaura and Haloragis fiu-nish intermediate mem- 
 bers of the series ; and Escallonia, Sm., although the num- 
 ber 5 prevails in it, opens its capsule exactly like the Circaa. 
 
 Uses. 
 
 The name Circaa was given to the plant by Lobelins, because 
 superstition regarded it as a charm ; hence, too, the English 
 name Enchanter's Night-shade. The well known witch 
 Circe is understood to have made use of this charm, and Ge- 
 rard affirms, that the Mandragora had been confounded 
 with this plant. At present no other use of it is known, ex- 
 cept that in America a yellow dye is procured from the root. 
 
 4. 
 
 Salvia Brasiliensis. 
 
 6. calyce ampliato colorato tridentato corollam excedcnto, lb- 
 liib ovatis scrratii; acuniinatis glabris ba^i cuiicalis. 
 
350 4f$ SALVIA ERAZILIENSIS. [CL. II. 
 
 Habitat in Brasilia. 
 
 Caiilis herbaceus, quadrangularis, glaber, nodosus. Folia 
 opposita, longe petiolata, petiolis sesquipollicaribus, angulatis, 
 glabris, ovata, acuminata, basi cuneata, inaequaliter obtuse 
 serrata, nervoso-venosa sesquipollicem longa, supra pollicem 
 lata. Raccmi terminales, pubescentes. Flores subverticilla- 
 ti, ebracteati. Calyx puniceo-roseus, unguicularis, amplia- 
 tus, nervosus, pubcscens, apice tridentatus. Corolla inclusa, 
 sordide rubra, bilabiata, labio suj^eriori fornicato, inferior! tri- 
 lobo. Stamina duo, basi appendiculata. Pistillum apice fis- 
 sum. Achenia quatuor. 
 
 Proximae S. lieg'la, Cav., et S. gakata R. et P., sed diife- 
 runt colore calycis, et corolla calycem excedente. 
 
 CLASS III. 
 
 Poa trivialis, L, 
 
 Gemeines Wiesen-, Vieh- oder Rispengras. — French, Pdtu- 
 rin rude. — Ital. La fienarola comvne. — Engl. Rougldsh 
 Meadow-grass. — Swed . Angs-grds. 
 
 This grass, although a very common one, may easily be 
 confounded with others which are nearly related to it. We 
 have, therefore, subjoined an exact description and compa* 
 rison of it with these others. 
 
 From a fibrous root there rises a round stalk, sharp to the 
 touch, about the length of an ell or arm. AVhcre the leaves 
 rise from the sheath, a long ligula remains, (77.) The leaves 
 are small, and, at the same time, sharp to the touch. The 
 flowers are produced on a uniform, spreading panicle, the 
 subordinate stalks of which are horizontal, or even reflex, 
 and also sliarp to the touch. The individual ears consist 
 
Ct. III.] 5. POA TRIVIALIS. 351 
 
 of three glumes, the valves of which are observed to liave 
 five fine nerves ; on the margin they are of a reddish colour, 
 and at the base they are united by tufts of hair, (94.) 
 
 The generic character of the Poa is constituted by the 
 oval shape of the ear, and by the valves being destitute of 
 awns. 
 
 The species most nearly related to this are the P. pratcn- 
 sis, serotina Ehrh. and nemoralis. The former is distin- 
 guished by its creeping root, its smooth stem, its short, 
 truncated, and luiprojecting ligula, and by its earlier season 
 of flowering. For it is in full flower in May, whilst the Poa 
 trivialis begms to blossom in June. 
 
 The Poa serotina Ehrh., is distinguished from our grass 
 by a root slightly creeping ; by a ligula, which projects but a 
 little, and which is truncated ; by a panicle of a more pyra- 
 midal shape, having its subordinate stalks open, but not re- 
 flex ; by its ear being smaller and more of a spear-shape, its 
 glumes being commonly five, and coloured yellow at tlie 
 point. This species also blossoms later than the P. trivialis. 
 
 The Poa nemoralis is distinguished by a stalk as smooth 
 as that of the P. trivialis, being, at the same time, a little 
 compressed. The ligula is also truncated. The panicle is 
 not uniformly spreading, but tapering, and inclining towards 
 one side. The ears are lanceolate, contain commonly three 
 glumes, which are open, and have long projecting }X)ints. 
 At their base, too, they are almost completely free, although 
 some small hairs appear here also. 
 
 Geographical Distrihntion. 
 
 The Poa trivialis is one of the plants which have the most 
 extensive distribution in Europe. Towards the north it ex- 
 tends beyond the polar circle, and constitutes the principal 
 produce of the meadows in Lapland. It is also very com- 
 mon in Northern Asia, and in North America. Towards 
 the south it constitutes the chief riclies of llie meadows in Vc~ 
 loponnesus. All the countries of Europe, Asia, and Ame- 
 rica, which lie between the o(5^ and G8'' N. L;it., furnish 
 
352 5. roA trivialis. [cl. hi. 
 
 this grass. But towards the south it does not appear to 
 grow beyond the 36° N. Lat. It is wanting entirely in Afri- 
 ca, and every where between the tropics. In hke manner it 
 is not found in New Holland, nor in the islands of the South 
 
 Sea. 
 
 Syyionyrnes and Figures. 
 
 Gramcn pratensc, Loh. k. 1. (Gramen minus D^. est P. se- 
 rotina, and Gramen miliaceum 3. Poa pratensis), Gra- 
 men pratense, 1. Dodo7i. 560. Gerard Emac, 9>. Par- 
 kins. Theatr., 1156. Gramen pratensc paniculatum me- 
 dium, C. Bank. Pin. 2. Scheicchz. Agi'ost. 180. Gra- 
 men pratense vulgatius, minus, Moris, sect. 8. t. 5. 
 
 Poa scabra, Ehrh. 
 
 P. dubia, Leer'^s Hcrhorn. t. 6. f. 5. 
 
 P. triviahs, Linn. Engl. Bot.^ 1072. Host. Gram, Atislr., 
 9. t. 62. FL Dan., 1444. 
 
 Uses. 
 
 It is one of the most productive of the meadow and feed- 
 ing grasses. In England, a great deal has been said, since 
 the time of Ray, respecting what has been called the Orches- 
 ton Grass. Ray cites it under the name of Gramen canbium. 
 .supinum longissimum in the Indiculus plant, duhiarum of 
 his Synopsis : he mentions, as its liabitat, a meadow near Mad^ 
 dington, two miles from Sahsbury, and says, that the plant 
 is twenty-four feet long. Maddington and Orcheston St 
 Mary, from which latter place the grass has its name, lie 
 close by one another. It has lately been established by 
 Swayne and Maton, that this remarkable grass is nothing 
 but a mixture between the Poa trivialis and the Alopecurns 
 ■pratensis^ and that its extraordinary length arises from the 
 richness of the soil, and from the annual irrigation of the 
 meadoAv with the water of a spring, which, having the high 
 temperature oi' 48^ or 49 '^ Fahr., necessariiy gives an uncom- 
 mon stimuhis to vegetation; (IVitrterlng^s Arrangement of 
 British Plants, 1>. p. 100.) 
 
CL III.] 6. TOXTELEA TRINERVTA. ti53 
 
 Sir Humphry Davy and Sinclair state the ]jrut!uce of this 
 grass to be equal to that of the Antliomuithinn odoraliini, of 
 the Brovms tectoriim, of the Lolium perennc, of tlie Mc~ 
 lica cccrulea ; (Sir Himiphry Davy's Elcmcnt.H of A^ricuU. 
 CUemiHr. p. 100.; Landwirthschaftl. Zeitung, 1815, \Jd. 
 303. 
 
 6. 
 
 Tontelca trinervia. 
 
 T. foliis oblongis acuminatis trinerviis intcgerrimis utriuque 
 glabris, panicula terminali dichotoma pubescente. 
 
 Hab. in Brasilia. 
 
 Rami teretes, glabri, fusci, cicatricula tuberculosa albida 
 sub quovis ramulo et petiolo. Petioli sparsi, erecto-patentes, 
 pubescentes, subpollicares. Folia subdigitaha oblonga, basi 
 rotundata, acuminata, integerrinia, trinervia, venosa. Pani- 
 cula terminaUs, erecta, pubescens, dichotoma, aphylla. Cul. 
 quinquefidus, minimus. Cor. quinquepetala, calyci affixa, 
 extus pubescens. Stamina tria e membrana urceolata pro- 
 gredientia. Pistillum unicum. Bacca uni-locularis tetra- 
 sperma. 
 
 Genus hoc, Tonsella a Vahho dictum, idem cum Antho- 
 donte Ruiz et Pav., satis adfine Chaetocrateri R. et P. Sa- 
 laciae Lour, et Hippocrateae L., in systemate artificiali locum 
 obtinet prope ab Hippocratea. Hace vero differt potissinunii 
 capsulis tribus bivalvibus, medio dchiscentibus. 
 
 In ordine naturali Casearia% Samydae, Athenaea? Sehreb. 
 et Cedrelae Aubl. coonatum, cum his constituit tribum sinou- 
 larem Samydearum, qua? cum IVIeheis et jVIal])ighieis nuilta 
 habet communia. Stamina urceolo aut membranula' pecullari 
 insidentia, et embryo cotyledonibus plicatis, constituunt cli.i- 
 racterem tribus. 
 
 Nostra species Tonteleae scandenti Aubl. t . 10. vieina. 
 Haec tamen scandit, ramos habet divaricates, folia hand tri- 
 nervia. Reliquae species gaudent vel foliis serratis aut denli- 
 culatis, vel pedunculis laterahbus congestis. 
 
 Z 
 
^554 1. ASTERQCEPHALUS CANESCENS. [CL I\ 
 
 CLASS IV 
 
 A sterocephaliis caiiesceiis. 
 
 Graue Scabiose. Aj)oslemkraiit. — FivncI), Scahleuse grise- 
 atrc. — Engl. Gni/'isli. Scabious. — Sued. Gru vddd. 
 
 This remarkable species was confounded with Ast. Coliim- 
 haria^ till Kitaibel first taught us to distinguish them ; {Plant. 
 Hungar. 1. p. 53. t. 53.) 
 
 The brown perennial root creeps almost horizontal, and 
 pushes out first oblong leaves, tapering at both ends, quite 
 entire, rarely having two teeth, set with indistinguishable 
 hairs on both sides, ciliated on the margin: the leaves are 
 nearly an inch long, four lines broad, with a strong nerve in 
 the middle, and some lateral veins. 
 
 By the side of this first shoot, and often at a later pe- 
 riod quite separated from it, there springs up a simple stem, 
 about a foot long, round, thickly beset with greyish reflex 
 hairs : below, this stem is set with half pinnated, cihated 
 leaves, having indistinguishable hairs, the tufts of which are 
 lanceolate, linear-shaped, and stiff at the point. The upper 
 leaves become always finer, stand at wider distances, lose the 
 pinnated shape, and, at last, become entirely simple. The 
 joints of the stem have the same greyish colour. 
 
 On the tip of the stem stands the compound flower, of a la- 
 vender blue colour, and having a fine smell, almost like that 
 of Orchis nigra. The common calyx consists of about 
 twelve very small uniform obtuse leaves, which are much 
 shorter than the ray. The flowers are five-lobcd, dissimilar, 
 radiated on the margin, externally set with fine white hairs. 
 The receptacle contains chaffy leaves, which upwards be- 
 come broader, and are thickly set with white hairs. Between 
 
CL. IV.] 7. ASTEllOCErilAlATS CANESCENS. 355 
 
 the geniien and the flower there stancls a nienibraiiaceous 
 rown, and within it fiv^e white bristles, which are nuuh short- 
 er than the gernien, and not much larger than the mem- 
 branaceous crown. Four white filaments are comiected with 
 the tube of the corolla, and vcdry reddish anthers. The 
 pistillum is linear, and has a ])relty thick stigtiia. The 
 nectary is the u])per surface of the germen. 'I'his swells to 
 an eight-cornered, strongly haired achenium, which continiK> 
 to exhibit the five white short bristles, and tlie j)appus, and 
 contains the evolved embryon in consumed albumen, with tlie 
 radicle turned upwards. 
 
 Diag'nosis. 
 
 If we compare the related species, particularly Jsi. Cohim- 
 baritty with this plant, we find this other species, in tlie first 
 place, much taller, somewhat ciliated also, but by no means 
 of a greyish colour. The leaves of the root are mostly lyre- 
 shaped, very seldom ovate, and deeply serrated. The joints 
 of the stem are reddisli, the leaves of the cahx pointed, and 
 a little shorter than the ray, the chaffy leaves of the rece}>- 
 tacle are finely pointed, and, above all, the bristles of the paj)- 
 pus are brown, and almost as long as the germen. The co- 
 lour of the flower is violet or sky blue. 
 
 A-s't. agrest'is^ also, (Scabiosa agrestis Kit. PI. Hungar. 3. 
 t. 204.) may be confounded ^nth our plant. But that 
 species has always lyre-shaped root-leaves, and bi- or tri-jMu- 
 nate stem-leaves, — the stem is branchy, and sprinkled with 
 grey hoar ; the leaves of the common calyx are lanc-colate 
 and ciliated ; the flowers are of a lilac colour, and the bristles 
 of the pappus of a brown colour, and nearly as long as the 
 germen. Sc. pyrenaica AIL, which some confound with our 
 plant, is completely distinguished from it by white soft to- 
 mentum, and by broader lacinid'. BcrtoL Jma'n. Ital. p. 12. 
 
 Geographical Distribution. 
 
 This species grows on the calcareous soil of central Ger- 
 many, France, Austria, and Hungary. It seems not to pass 
 beyond the 54" N. I.at. We cannot determine with cLMtnin- 
 
 Z 2 
 
CJ;5() 7. ASTKHOVEPIIALUS CANESCKXS. [ci.. IV. 
 
 ty, on account of the inaccuracy of synonynies, how far it ex- 
 tends towards the south, av.d whetlier it passes heyond tlie 
 4i3<^ \. Lat. 
 
 Stjno-nipncs and Figures. 
 
 Scabiosa nunor, 1. 3. ix. xi. Tahcrn. 443. Scab, media, 
 
 Gerard euutc. 7~0. 
 Sc. capitulo <^loboso minor, Moris, sect. 6. t. 14. Bujchcwm 
 
 Hal. 295. Tourncf. In.st. 4G5. Hist, des Plantcs aiix 
 
 Environs de Par'is^ p. 141, (probe jam distinxit spcciem). 
 
 DuUbard Flor. Par'iss. 45. 
 Asterocephalus tbhis ad lerrani ovahbus, Haller G'ott. 352. 
 Scabiosa descripta in Wicgel Flor. Pomer. p. 25. n. 91. C. F. 
 
 ejus Obs. Dot p. 23. 
 Sc. asterocephala, Tliv'ul. Flor. Par'iss. p. 72. (var Hore 
 
 albo). 
 Sc. suaveolens, Desfont. Cat. Hort. Par'iss. ed. 2. p. 131. 
 
 De Cand. Fl. Fran^. 4. p. 229. 
 Sc. canescens, Kit. Plant. Hung. 1. p. 53. t. 53. Pohl. Bo- 
 hem. 1. p. 133. Pcrs. Syn. 1. p. 22. W'dld. Enum. 1. 
 
 p. 14(). Baumgart. Trans. Sylv, 1. 77. Wallroth. Ann. 
 
 Bot. p. 143. R6m et SchuU. 1. p. m. JD'ierbach, Flor. 
 
 He'idelb. 1. 39 
 Sc. Columbaria, «,. y. Poir ene. 6. 711- var. ,3. Gmel. Bad. 
 
 1. p. 323. var. s. Marsch. Bieb. taur. cauc. 1. 96. 
 
 .^ Sc. tomentosa Sibth. Smith, Prod. Fl. Gra-c. 1. 85. 
 
 On the Family of the Scahiosa. 
 
 The Scabiosge, otherwise called Aggregatge, evidently con- 
 stitute a peculiar family, which are neai'ly related to the 
 Syngenesistae, by their compound flowers, by their common 
 calyx, by the chaffy leaves on their receptacle, by their mo- 
 nopetalous flowers, to the tube of which the filaments are fix- 
 ed, — by their fruit being iiiferior, forming achenia?, or cary- 
 opses, and carrying pappi. But they are distinguished by 
 the free situation of the anthers, by the number of the fila- 
 ments, which are always but four, by the simplicity of the 
 stigma, and by the direction of the radicle of the embryon 
 
CI., v.] 8. PHYTKAMA SPICATU^F. .T.57 
 
 upwards, whilst, in the Syngenesista^ the radicle is directed 
 downwards. 
 
 Sebast. Vaillant, long ago, divided the Scabiosa^ into seve- 
 ral genera, which I have adopted with the names given by 
 Vaillant; (Vaillant in Mem. de Paris, 17^22. Anleit. zur 
 Kentn. der Gewash. 2. te Aufl. th. 2. s. 584.) Other writers 
 have unnecessarily given new names to them. 
 
 Asteroceplialus Vaill. is one of those genera the character 
 oi' which consists in its many-leaved, almost simple calyx, in 
 having its flower divided into iive parts, and in its double 
 pappus, which is partly formed by a membranaceous circle, 
 and partly by five bristles. The Scabiosa, again, has its 
 flower divided into four parts, and the pappus consists sim})lv 
 of chaffy leaves. Sc. arvensis, succisa Vaill. has a scaly calyx, 
 a flower divided into four parts, and chaffy leaves, passing 
 into bristles, as its pappus. Sc. Succisa^ Pterocephalus Vaill 
 has a bristly receptacle, and a pinnated pappus. {Sc. pup- 
 posa.) 
 
 CLASS V 
 
 Phyteimia spicatum, L. 
 
 Wald-Rapunzel, Taiibonkropf. — French, Ud'qmncc en rp'i 
 — Engl. Ravipion, spikc-Jiowcrcd. — Dan. Tnicvlckronc. 
 
 This plant blossoms in our woods in June. From a root 
 about the thickness of a finger, whitish, tuberculous alxwe, 
 and fusiform below, which continues for several years, there 
 springs a herbaceous, smooth, simple stem, reddish at the un- 
 der part, green above, round, or slightly angular, commonly 
 about a foot and a half high, frequently, also, of the length 
 of an arm. The leaf-stalks are a small span long, alternate, 
 open, far from one another, smooth, marked by furrows, and 
 embracino- the stem at their base: higher uj) they hi>(()i)ir 
 
358 8. {•HVTEu:\fA spicatum. [cl. v. 
 
 shorter, and, at last, entirely disappear. The lowermost 
 leaves are cordate, oblong, unequally crenate and dentate, 
 smooth on lx)th sides, three inches long, and one inch broad. 
 The upper leaves are smaller, and, at last, are entirely lanceo- 
 late, and without stalks. On the upper part of the stem 
 stands the spike, frecjuently of a finger's length, the yellowish 
 white, sometimes blue flowers of which open from below up- 
 wards, (84.) Immediately imder the spike a pair of small 
 stem-leaves are found, which are quite entire. 
 
 The calyx surrounds the germen, and terminates at the 
 upper part in five pointed teeth. The corolla consists of five 
 long pointed petals, which, with their upper greenish ends, at 
 first are united around the pistil, and form a short tube, but 
 at their under part they are open. Afterwards they spring 
 from one another, and stand quite open. The filaments are 
 broad and hairy below, form a kind of arch over the up- 
 per part of the germen, by degrees become pointed above, 
 and pass into long yellow anthers. The pistil is simple, up- 
 wardly hairy, terminates in two convoluted stigmata, and is 
 much larger than the corolla and the anthers. On this ac- 
 count, and because androgynous dichogamy takes place here 
 (103. 331.), the stigma cannot be impregnated by the anthers 
 of the same flower, but from the superior flowers, which blos- 
 som later. The nectary is the surface of the germen. The 
 fruit is a capsule of two loculi, surrounded by a calyx, 
 containing in each loculus, on a separate free-standing pil- 
 lar, a number of fine seeds, which inclose, in the middle of 
 the albuminous substance, the erect embryon, with its two 
 cotyledons. 
 
 Diagnosis. 
 
 The nearest to this species is the Ph. hetonictrfornnn, 
 Vmll. (Dclj)h. t. 12.), which is distinguished only by longer 
 and smaller leaves, and by an oblong obtuse spike. The 
 Ph. amlatum V'lll. (t. 11. mgrwn Sclnn'uU.)^ also is nearly 
 related, but its blossoms are constantly of a dark violet co- 
 lour, and the bracteae are subulate. The otlicr species arc 
 more distantly related. 
 
€L, v.] 8. PIIYTEUMA SPICATU:M. 359 
 
 Geographical Distributioii. 
 
 This species is found throughout the whole of Germany, 
 Poland, Hungary, Transylvania, Upper Italy, and France. 
 It docs not grow either in Great Britain or Denmark (the 
 German States excepted), or in Sweden and Russia. As lit- 
 tle does it appear to exist further south than the 44° N 
 Lat., since it is neither found in Sicily nor Spain, neither in 
 Greece nor in Tauris, 
 
 Si/noiiymes and Figures. 
 
 Rapunculum sylvestre, Trag. p. 277. a. (ed. 1551.) 
 Rapunculum alopecuron. Dodon. 165. Barrel, ic. 892. 
 
 alopecuroides, Clus. Hist. 2. 171. 
 Rapuntium majus, Lohel. Hist. 178. ic, 329. (nrard^ Emac. 
 
 453. 
 Rapunculus major, Dodon. Dalcch. 641. 
 Rapuncuhis V. nemorosus 1. Taherii. 794 
 Rapunculus spicatus, C. Bank. Pin. 92. (R >picatus cccru- 
 
 leus, C. Bauh. Prodr. 32, is evidently Th. hetonica*- 
 
 folium.) J. Bauh, Hist. 2. 809. Parkin's Theatr. 648 
 
 Tourn. Inst. 113. 
 Rapunculus corniculatus, folio urticae Moris, sect. 5. t. 5 
 
 Rap. corn, spica longiore, Riv. Irr. Monop. Hall.^ Hist 
 
 Stirp. n. 684. 
 Phyteuma spicata, Limi. Fl. Dan. 362. Schk. t. 39. 
 
 Affinities of the Genus. 
 
 When we compare the most important organs, m pariicu- 
 lar the structure of the filaments, the form of the capsulo and 
 of the seed, we cannot but be struck with the resemblance of 
 this genus to the Campanula. Rut the distimtion betwcvii 
 them lies in this, that the lacinia: of the contlla are at firsi 
 united at the top, that two stigmata are found, and that tin 
 capsule consists of two loculi ; whilst, in the Campanula. 
 there arc three stigmata, and three loculi in the capsule 
 But these, and some related genera, constitute a peculi.u 
 
360 9. CiENTIANA PNEUMONANTHE. [CL. V. 
 
 family, the Campanuleae, which stands belween the Ericea^ 
 and Lobelijr ; (Anleit. 2. s. 522.) 
 
 Uses. 
 
 The root affords a milky substance, and is edible ; hence 
 the name Rapunculus, instead of which they use the term 
 Wild Rape, in Germany. In some countries the plant is 
 reared in gaidens, antl the root and young leaves are used in 
 spring as greens. 
 
 9. 
 
 Gentiaiia pneumoiianthe, />. 
 
 Lungenblume, schmalblattriger Herbst-Enzian. — French, 
 Gentiana PneitmoiiantJie. — Engl. Marsh Gentian., Cala- 
 thian violet. — Swed. Klach genzian^ Host-klackor. 
 
 This plant grows (m peat-mosses and moist meadows in 
 August, and is distinguished, at first glance, by its beautiful 
 Berlin blue flowers, which are of considerable size. 
 
 From a small yellowish-brown fibrous root, there rises a 
 stem of the thickness of a straw, of a large span long, simple, 
 somewhat angular, sharp to the touch, but otherwise smooth. 
 "J^he leaves, which are almost linear, somewhat obtuse, quite 
 entire, of an inch long, of a shining green on their upper 
 surface, sharj) to the touch on their lower, embrace the stem 
 with their tapering base, stand opposite to one another, but 
 so that the nearest pairs form a right angle with one another, 
 and are thus cruciform, (36.) 
 
 On the uppermost axillae spring the flowers upon short 
 stalks. The flowers consist of a tubular five- toothed, or 
 five-lobed calyx, the teeth of which, at an after period, are 
 reflex, — and of a monopetalous corolla, bell- shaped, of a 
 Berlin blue colour, internally adorned with yellow points. 
 The margin of the corolla has five larger, and as many small- 
 er teeth. The a\stivation is twisted, (99-) Five filaments 
 are united at their lower parts, with tlie base of the corolla. 
 The yellow, ahuosl arrow-shaped anthers, also stand at first 
 in a clu>ter aiound the simple pistillum; afterwards they sc- 
 
(I., v.] 9, (iENTlANA PNEUMONAXTIIK. 36l 
 
 parate i'nnn one another, but always stand lower than tin- 
 margin of the corolla. Tlie stigma is two-lobeil. The Iruii 
 is a superior, simple, two lobed capsule, the valves of which 
 being bent inwards, form, with their inner margins, the a{)arl- 
 nient for the numerous seeds. These contain the erect 
 embryon, with its evolved cotyledons, in the middle of the 
 albuminous substance. 
 
 Diag7iosu: 
 
 The most nearly related to this species is the Gcnt'unui, tri- 
 fiora Pall. ; but, in this last species, the linear leaves are alwut 
 two inches long, and pointed. The flowers, though of the 
 same size, are }H'operly without stalks, and are placed by 
 threes on the uppermost axilla'. This species grows in east- 
 ern Siberia. G. algida Pall, has much broader, longer, lan- 
 ceolate, three-nerved leaves. G. asclcpiadca is much larger, 
 more branchy, and has ovate-lanceolate leaves. The other 
 species are still more imlike. 
 
 Geographical Distribution. 
 In Europe this species seems to grow i'rom 45° to 64" 
 N. Lat., for it is not found more southerly than Gretx:e, nor 
 more northerly than Lapland. In North America it seems 
 to be confined to the space between the 40^ and 50" North 
 Lat. 
 
 Syrwnymcs and Figures. 
 
 Campanula autumnalis, Dodon. 168. 
 
 Pneumonanthe Cordi, Lobel. Adv. 130. Hist. 166. Ic. SOf). 
 Tahcrn. 1176. Gerard. Emac. 438. Parkins. Tin air. 
 406. Barrel. Ic. 52. 122. 
 
 Gentianae iv Species, Clus. Hist. 313 
 
 Gentiana minima, Matth. ed. C. I3auh. p. 481. Uarrd. 
 Ic. 51. 
 
 C'alathiana viola ct Campanula pratensis, Didech. 184. Bar- 
 rel. Ic. 54. 
 
 Gentiana? species, calathiana quibusdam, ./. Uauli. Hist. 3. 
 527. 
 
362 10. VIBUKNUM OrULUS, [CI.. Y. 
 
 Gentiana angustifolia autuninalis major, C. Bank. Phi. 188. 
 
 Moris, sect. 12. t. 5. Tournof* Inst. 31. G. palustris 
 
 angustifolia, C. Bank. I. c. 
 Ky^v/j" Rcncalm. spec. (^S. 
 
 Gentiana alis floriferis, Hall. Hist. Stir p. n. 641. 
 Gentiana Pncumonanthe, Linn. Flor. Siiec. n. 288. Flor. 
 
 Dan. 269. Engl. Bot. 20. Bot. Mag. 1101. Lam. Ill, 
 
 t. 109. 
 
 Affinity. 
 
 The Gentians constitute, along with Chirania, Erythrcea^ 
 Swertia^ Chlora, Exacum, and Mcnyanthes, a peculiar fa- 
 mily, which is distinguished by the numerical proportion of 
 the essential parts, by the situation of the fruit, by the inser- 
 tion of the seed, — and which stands between the Jasmineae and 
 Contortae. (Anleit. 2. 471.) 
 
 Uses. 
 
 As the composition of the juices corresponds with the fa- 
 mily character, we may suspect that those ingredients, which 
 arc found in one genus, or species of gentians, will also be 
 found in the others, (170.) Bitter extractive matter is that 
 by which Gentiana lutea, Erythrtra Ce7ita2irium, and Meny- 
 anthes trifoliata, are distinguished. The same bitter ex- 
 tractive matter exists in our species. Formerly the root was 
 used as a tonic for the stomach. It has also a powerful ef- 
 fect upon the urine, and hence the Mccklenburghers call the 
 plant, Sta up unn gah wcg-, ([Vredozifs okwi. Flor. von 
 McHenb. 1. 456.) It used to be employed in France as a 
 cure for sprains; (Commerce. Lit. Nor. 1743, helxl. 7) 
 
 10. 
 
 \^ibiirniim opiiliis, L. 
 
 Schneeball, Wasserholdcr, Hirschholder, Schwclken-liaum, 
 Kalinen, Drossclbeercn, Wasserahorn, Schlingcn-bauni, in 
 PoincraniUy Goosflcdcr. — ^Frcnch, Viornc obicr, Hose ilc 
 
CL. v.] ](). viiU'iiNUM oruLrs. 363 
 
 Gueldrc, Pain Idanc, Pomme de nicgc. — Ital. Sainhiuo 
 oquatico, Magg'w.-~F,ng[. Common Gucklcr-Ilosr, Walcr- 
 Eldcr. — Swed. Olvon, Hals-hdr. 
 
 This is a shrub, which grows from the size of a nuiii in 
 height to twice that size : its stems, which are al)()iit the 
 thickness of an arm, having a grey, rifted, hut, in t)thcr re- 
 spects, smooth bark, and white spongy pilli. Tlie branches 
 stand opposite to one another. The sulcated smooth leaf- 
 stalks, an inch in lengtli, are also placed opposite to one ano- 
 ther, and have from four to six kidney-shaped knobs. At 
 the base of each leaf-stalk there are two deciduous pointed sti- 
 puhe. The leaves are about four inches long and broad, ha- 
 ving three short lobes, somewhat round at the base, cunei- 
 form, with sharply dentated margins, smooth, and having 
 deep nerves and veins on the upper surface, and slightly fin-- 
 nished with hairs on the under surface. The flowers grow 
 on a stalked false umbel, at the top of the branch. 
 
 The calyx is very small, and has i\\Q teeth. The corolhe 
 are not uniform. At the circumference of the flowers we ob- 
 serve large, white, wheel-shaped, five-lobed coroljfe, without 
 ovaria, commonly without anthers, although sometimes these 
 last parts are seen. The central flowers are yellowish, and 
 also divided into five parts. Five filaments, longer than tlie 
 corolla, are united with its base, and carry yellow anthers, 
 consisting of two parts. The germen stands below the calyx, 
 and is surmounted by three reddish stigmata. Its up|)er- 
 most part is also the nectarium. It passes into a red, edible, 
 one-seeded berry. The embryon stands in a small hole of 
 the albuminous matter, with the radicle tiu'ned upwards. 
 
 In the wild state, the marginal flowers alone are unlruit- 
 ful, because the sexual parts are abortive, (181.) and the co- 
 rolla is uniblded instead of them. Luxuriant growth in gar- 
 dens makes the abortion general, all the flowers become un- 
 fruitful, and the false umbel is contracted into a ball. 
 
:36t' 10. VJBUKNUM OrULUS. [CL V. 
 
 Diagnosis. 
 
 The essential character of the species consists in the g.an- 
 ( hilar leaf-stalks, and in the threc-lohed leaves, which are 
 somewhat rounded at the base, but which also taper, and 
 Jiave their lobes short and unequall}^ dentated. The most 
 nearly related to this species are two North American species, 
 V. Oxycoccos Pursh, and edule Pursh ; for both of them 
 have the same glandular leaf stalks, the same general form of 
 the leaves, the same unfruitful marginal flowers in the false 
 umbel, and the same colour of the berries. But in V. Oxy- 
 voccos the leaves taper at the base into a long wedge shape, 
 have three distinct nerves, in the axillae of which are some 
 hairs : the lobes of the leaves are drawn out to a great length, 
 and have few teeth. In V. cdule Pursh, the lobes of the 
 leaves are also shorter than in V. Opulus^ but the teeth are 
 produced into a fine point. Viburnum acerifolium also agrees 
 in the three-lobed form of the leaves, but the glands are 
 wanting on the leaf-stalks, these last named parts being fur- 
 nished, instead of glands, with long white hairs. The leaves 
 are mwe rounded at the base, have stronger hairs on their 
 lower surface, and the flowers are all alike. Other species have 
 still more numerous differences. The case is the same with 
 V. orientale Pall., which has quite the appearance of V. aceri- 
 folium, and is distinguished from it simply by its larger and 
 more obtuse teeth, and by the oval form of the seed^ which, 
 in V. acerifolium, is heart-shaped. 
 
 Geographical Distribution. 
 
 Viburnum Opulus grows throughout all Europe, from 40 •^ 
 to 60° N. Lat. Its southern hmit seems to be Constanti- 
 nople, its most northerly Upsal. In America, the three 
 sj:)ecies already mentioned, V. Oxycoccos, edule, and acerifo- 
 lium, and in Asia, V. orientale supply its place. It grows in 
 ^reat abundance on Caucasus, along with this latter species. 
 
CI., v.] 10. VinURNUM OVULUS. 365 
 
 Synonymes and Figures. 
 Sambiicus a(],uatica, Trage^ f. 378. h. Muttliiol. cd. C. 
 
 Bank. 874. Dalcch. 270. Tahern. 1440. C. Bauh. Pin. 
 
 456. S, palustris Dodon. 864. ^S*. rosea, Loh. ic. 2. 
 
 201. Gtr. jEwac. 1424. Tabern. 1440. J. /ir////^ Hist. 
 
 1. 552. /^ar^- r//r«^r. 209. 
 Opuliis Ruellii, Toiwn. Inst. 607. O. glandulosus, Monch. 
 
 Mcth. 505. Baumg. Transylv. 1. 261. 
 Viburnum Opulus, Lirin. Fl. Dan. 661. Engl. Bot. 332. 
 
 iS^r^A^ t. 81. Kerner Baumz. t. 35. 
 
 Affinity of the Genus. 
 
 The old writers perceived distinctly the affinity of this ge- 
 nus with Sambucus, and hence they chose for it the names 
 Sambucus aquatica and palustris. Indeed Vibui'num is dis- 
 tinguished from Sambucus, simply by its berries having but 
 one seed, while the latter genus contains three seeds in the 
 berry. If we pass by the unessential parts, and attend only 
 to the relations of the most important, both the genera Ikv 
 long, with Lonicera, to one family, which we called the Ca- 
 prifolio' ; (Anleit. 2. vid. 617.) 
 
 Uses. 
 
 The wood is used in Norway for making weavers combs. 
 The shoemakers use it for pegs. The stronger branches ai*e 
 used for tobacco pipes. The leaf is eaten only by cows. 
 The berries are favourites with the thrush. In Courland 
 they make vinegar with these berries, and the inhabitants of 
 Northern Asia form an intoxicating drink from them. 
 
S66 11. LEUCOIT^M VERNUM. [cT. 
 
 CLASS VI. 
 
 11. 
 
 Lciicoiinii venniiii, L. 
 
 Grosses Schnecolockc'hoii, Soniiiiertluerchen, Frucklings-Kno- 
 lenblumc, ]\larz<»lc)ckchen. — French, Perce-mige, N'lveolc 
 printanmere. — Engl. Great Siiow-droj). — Ital. Primestro, 
 Jior marzajuolo. — Swed. Varhviter. 
 
 This lovely flower appears in April among bushes, and on 
 the pastures. From a wliite bulb of the size of a walnut, 
 there first spring several lanceolate leaves, quite entire, ob- 
 tuse, smooth on both sides, having the upper surface shin- 
 ing, about the length of a finger, and nearly an inch broad. 
 In the middle of these arises an even divided stalk, about a 
 small span in length, at the top of which there stands a two- 
 lobed calyx, of a whitish green colour, and streaked. From 
 this arises a round flower-stalk, nodding or bent downwards, 
 smooth, about an inch long, which supports, over the obtuse 
 three-cornered, smooth, streaked, green germen, a six-leaved, 
 bell-shaped, downward-hanging corolla, the divisions of which 
 are callous at the points, and marked by a small green spot. 
 The exterior integument of the corolla is of the natiu'e of 
 a calyx, and has slits, (90. 312.) On the receptacle stand 
 six short white filaments, which carry on their summits yel- 
 low, long, bilocular antheroe, containing an oval pollen. In 
 the middle of the filaments stands the club-shaped green pis- 
 til, with a stigma somewhat tapering. The thick part of it 
 secretes the nectar, (SprengePs entd. Geheimniss, vid. 182.) 
 The fruit is a capsule of three loculi, the round seeds of 
 which contain the unevolved embryon opposite to the um- 
 bilicus in the albuminous substance. The strophiolus con- 
 tinues as a withered, folded membrane. 
 
CI.. YI.J 11. LEUCOIUM VEKXUM. 3G7 
 
 Diagnosis. 
 This species is distinguished from the other species of the 
 same genus by its single blossomed ilower, the L. (tstivinn 
 and autumnale having several blossoms, — and by its club- 
 shaped pistil, the L. autumnale and 7'oscnin, Mart, having a 
 linear pistil. GalaniJius, or the small snow-droj), is indeetl 
 very like this plant, but is distinguished by its double three- 
 leaved corolla, the interior petals of which are emarginatcd, 
 and by its anthers which pass at the summit into a bristle. 
 
 Geog raphical Distribution. 
 
 This plant grows throughout the greatest part of Europe, 
 from Upper Italy to Upland in Sweden, and from Spain to 
 Transylvania. It is remarkable, that it is not found it Great 
 Britain, nor does it appear in Tauris, or in Greece. In 
 these countries its place is supplied by L. (Estivum. It is 
 therefore confined (with the exception of Great Britain) be- 
 45° and 60^ N. Lat. 
 
 Synonymes and Figures. 
 
 Narcissus Brunfds^ 1. 129, n. vii. Maitli. ed. BauU. 860. 
 
 Viola alba, Fuchs. 486. 487. Dalecli, 1527. 
 
 Le,ucoium bulbosum hexaphyllon, Dodan. 230. CI us. Hist. 
 
 1. 168. L. bulbosum, i. Tahern. 1005. J. Bauli. Hi.st. 
 
 2. 590. Ger. Emac. 148. (L. bulbosum serotinuni, (pia- 
 si esset L. aestivum, sed est vernimi.) 
 
 Leuconarcissolirion, Lohel. Ic. 123. 
 
 Leucoium bulbosum vulgare, C. Bauh. Pin. 55. 
 
 Narcisso-leucoium vulgare, Tourn. Inst. 387. 
 
 Galanthus uniflorus, Hall. Helv. n. 1253. 
 
 Leucoium vernum, Linn. Hort. Upsal. 74. Jaccju. FJ. Austr. 
 
 t. 312. Batsch. Annal. Flor. t. 2. Schk. t. 89. :jSlurvi, 
 
 Heft. 11. 
 
 Affinity. 
 
 Its affinity with Galanthus., Narcissus, Pancratium, is olv 
 vious, and therefore this genus belongs to the Coronaria^, and 
 
368 12. TRIENTALIS EUllOPvEA. [CI.. VII. 
 
 indeed to that subdivision whicli has the fruit below the 
 flower, (Anleit. ii. vid. Ml.) 
 
 Uses. 
 
 Formerly the bulbs of this plant were used instead of the 
 scjiiill, but they have now fallen into disuse. 
 
 CLASS VII. 
 
 12. 
 
 Trieiitalis Europsea. 
 
 Schirmkraut, Sternkraut, Meyerblume. — French, Tricntale 
 d' Europe. — Engl, Chickenweed Winter-gree7i. — Swed.Z^z^ 
 kulla. 
 
 On the northern declivities of our forest hills, there appears 
 in June among the bilberries and heath, a gentle, handsome 
 plant, which is particularly interesting, from the numerical re- 
 lations of its parts. 
 
 From a very small woody tuber, which is surrounded by 
 fibrous roots, there rises, about the length of a small span, a 
 simple, even, round stem, about the thickness of a strong- 
 linen thread. At the lower part of the stem stand, in a 
 sparse state, very short, roundish or oblong, obtuse leaves. 
 On the upper portion, there grow from five to seven leaves, 
 an inch and a half long, smooth, oblong, tapering at the 
 base, with short stalks, quite entire, or indistinctly crcnated, 
 somewhat obtuse, with numerous nerves and veins. From 
 their axillae arise two or more linear, smooth flower-stalks, two 
 inches in length, having single flowers on their summits. 
 
 The calyx consists commonly of seven small sharply point- 
 ed leaves ; the corolla, which is entirely white, of seven ob- 
 long open parts. Opposite to the latter there stand, upon a 
 
CL. VII.] 12. TRIENTALIS EUROPyEA. 3^9 
 
 peculiar membranaceous, glandular circle, commonly seven 
 filaments, almost of the size of hairs, somewhat shorter than 
 the corolla, and bearing curved anthers. The germen is su- 
 perior, and has a simple pistil. The fruit is a spherical, dry 
 berry, the seeds of which are fastened to a spherical cavity. 
 The embryons stand upriglit in the albumen. 
 
 Affinity. 
 
 Although the external appearance of this plant corresponds 
 with that of the Stellariac, the situation of the embryon, how- 
 ever, is completely different. In the Stellariac, the curved 
 embryon surrounds the central albumen ; in the Trientcdisj 
 it stands upright, almost in the axis of that substance. By 
 this circumstance, our plant becomes associated with the Ly- 
 simachia?, AnagaUiSy and the family of the Primuleae. The 
 peculiar numerical proportion probably arises from an imper- 
 fect union of two flowers (185.) ; in consequence of which, 
 instead of ten, there are only seven divisions of the calyx, 
 seven petals, and seven anthers. However, there are ex- 
 amples of five, six, and ten filaments. 
 
 Synonymes and Figures. 
 
 Herba trientalis, Valer. Cord. Sylv. Obs. p. 222. /. Bauh. 
 
 Hist. 3. 537. 
 Alsinanthemon, Thai. Here. 15. 
 Pyrola al sines flore, C. Bauh. Prodr. 100. Moris. Sect. 12. 
 
 t. 10. 
 Pyrola Brasiliana, alsines flore. Park. Thcatr. 509- 
 Pyrola longifolia, flore albo. Barrel. Ic. 1156. 
 Trientalis Europa^a, Linn. Fl. Dan. 84. Engl Bot. 15. 
 
 Schh t. 103. Sturm, Fl. 17. 
 
 Geographical Distribution. 
 
 Few plants are found so far north as diis. For it is found 
 at the North Cape, and in Siberia on the Lena, under the 
 70° N. I.at. It grows also in North America as far as Hud- 
 *!on's Bay, but with smaller, and more sharply pointed leaves. 
 
 A a 
 
370 12. VACClNiUM OXYCOCCOS. [CI.. VIII. 
 
 Carinthia and Transylvania seem to be its fartliest southern 
 limits. 
 
 ( IIAP. VIII. 
 
 13. 
 
 Vacciniiim oxycoccos, L. 
 
 Moosbeere, Sumpfboerc. In Pomerania, Kramsbeercn, — Fren. 
 Coiisshict^ Cannchergc. — Engl. Cranberry. — Swcd. Tran- 
 bar. 
 
 In our marshes and moors, where much Sphagmcm grows, 
 this plant is found on the rising plots which have been formed 
 by shrubs. The feeble stems, frequently a foot in length, 
 are completely level with the ground, send out here and there 
 fine fibrous roots into the moss, and push forth sparse, bent 
 twigs, which also lie low, but at the points where the flowers 
 spring, are somewhat raised. The leaves stand alternate on 
 short stalks, are evergreen, ovate, quite entire, having the 
 margin somewhat reflex ; on the upper surface they are 
 splendent, and of a dark green ; on the lower surface greyish, 
 from nearly three to four lines long, and two lines broad. 
 On the points of the shoots appear the flower-stalks, an inch 
 long, reddish, even, set with small red bractese : on the end 
 of the stalk rises the calyx above the gcrmen ; it consists of 
 four obtuse, cihated lobes. The corolla consists of four lan- 
 ceolate, red, curved petals. The eight filaments are flatly com- 
 pressed and hairy. The anthers are deeply cleft, of a brown 
 colour, and pour out their pollen from the pores of the two 
 white points. The pistil is simple, and projects above the 
 anthers. The nectary is the surface of the germen, and is 
 completely protected by the filaments which stand together, 
 and arc hairy ; as also bv the hanging position of the flower. 
 
CL. VIII.] IS. VACCINIUM OXVC OCCOS. 371 
 
 The pollen is spherical, surrounded by three rings. The 
 fruit is a beautiful red berry, of many loculi, in each of 
 which there ai*e numerous seeds, and these contain the em- 
 bryon in an erect position in the middle of the albumen. It 
 is ripe in October. 
 
 Diagnosis and Affmiiij. 
 
 There is no species in Europe which is very nearly related to 
 this ; but in North America tliere grows the Vacciniuni macro- 
 carpon, wliicli resembles our species in its creeping stem, re- 
 sembling a root, — in its evergreen leaves, which are of a light- 
 grey colour on the loAver surface, — and in the general form of 
 the flowers. But the leaves are oblong-ovate, and obtusely 
 rounded at the extremity; the petals also are smaller and longer, 
 and the berries larger. Michaux, however, thinks he has de- 
 tected transition forms, and lience he considers V. maa'ocar- 
 pon as a subspecies of V. oxycoccos. A North American spe- 
 cies, V. hispidulum L., has also a creeping stem, but this, like 
 the back of the leaves, is furnished with reddsh brown stiff 
 hairs. The small, almost stalkless flowers, are placed in the 
 axillae of the leaves ; the anthers are included within the bell- 
 shaped corolla ; and the berries are of a snow-white colour. 
 
 V. oxycoccos and macrocarpmi are distinguished from the 
 other species by the shape of the corolla, which in these is 
 deeply divided, quite open, and seems to have the petals re- 
 flex, whilst the other species have a pitcher or bell shaped 
 corolla ; hence Tournefort long ago formed them into a pe- 
 culiar genus, under the name Oxycoccos, in which arrange- 
 ment he has been followed by Persoon, Pursh, and others. 
 Roth named them Schollcrn. Sometimes, however, this dis- 
 tinction is not so marked ; and in V. stamineum L., and vie- 
 ruUondlc Sw., we observe transitions from the one form to 
 the other ; whilst in these last menti(^.ied instances the bell- 
 shaped corolla is deeply divided. 
 
 The affinity of this genus with Bcvohotrys and Empciruvi 
 is striking ; through StyphcVia and Epacr'is it is coimected 
 widi Erica, to v/hich family it belongs; (Anleit. ii. 521.) 
 
 A a 9. 
 
572 13. VAC'CIXIUM OXYCOCCOS. [CL. VITT. 
 
 Synonymes and Figures. 
 Oxycoccos, Val Cord. Hist. cd. Gesner. f. 140. b. 
 Vaccinia palustria, Dodon. 790. Lohel Ic. 2. 109. J. Bauh. 
 
 Hist. 1, 525. Gerard Emac. 1419- P^rA*. Theatr. 1229. 
 Erica vi. baccifera, DalccJi. 187. 
 Vaccinium oxycoccos, /.f/i??. Fl. Dan. 80. Engl. Bot. 319- 
 
 >S'cM'. t. 107. a. L«m. Ill t. 286. f. 3. Batsch Anal. Flor. 
 
 t. 7. 
 Oxycoccos palustris, Pers. Syn. 1. 419. O. vulgaris., Pursh 
 
 Amcr. Sept. 1. 263. 
 Schollcra oxycoccos, Roth. Fl. Germ. 2. p. 442. 
 Schollera paludosa, Bawngart. Transylv. 1. 381. 
 
 Geographical Distribution. 
 
 It is chiefly in the highest northern latitudes that this plant 
 grows, namely, Greenland, Iceland, Lapland, Siberia, Kanit- 
 schatka, Unalaska, and North America as far as Baffin's Bay. 
 Its most southern limit seems to be 46* N. Lat. ; for it is 
 found in the Floras of Switzerland, of Carinthia, and of Tran- 
 sylvania, but it does not grow in Italy and Greece. 
 
 Uses. 
 
 Cranberries are an article of food ; but in their natural 
 state they are too sour, and they must have been subjected 
 to frost, in order that they may become palatable. If they 
 are kept during the winter in snow, they become a pleasant 
 article of food in spring. In Scotland they constitute so con- 
 siderable an article of commerce, that at Longtown, on the 
 borders of Cumberland^ from L. 20 to L. 30 Sterling worth 
 are sold every day during five or six weeks. The I'nglish 
 prepare them with sugar, and use them in tarts ; (Lightfoot, 
 Flor. Scot. 1. p. 203.) This luxury, however, cannot be en- 
 joyed by every body, for the Cranberries have a peculiar 
 taste. In Petersburg they are sold in spring, water is pour- 
 ed on them, which thus assumes the colour of madder, and a 
 cooling drink is procured, (Gorter Flor. Ingr. p. 59.) The 
 Swedish apolhccarics make syrups and jellies from these ber- 
 
 3 
 
CL. IX.] 14. BUTOMUS UMBELLATUS. f)73 
 
 ries. The goldsmiths also use the powerful acid of lliis berry 
 to give silver a white colour, because the copper, with which 
 silver is alloyed, is soluble in it. 
 
 CLASS LS. 
 
 14 
 
 Butomus umbellatus. 
 
 Blumenbinse, Deutsches Blumenrohr, Wasserviolc.— -French, 
 Joncjleuri.-^ltal. Giuncojlorido, — Engl. Flowering Bush. 
 — Swed. Blomwass. 
 
 This beautiful plant grows in our streams, pools, and other 
 deep waters. The root is a horizontal lying tuber, about the 
 thickness of a thumb, frequently still thicker, covered with a 
 blackish rind, from which the fibres of the root, about the 
 thickness of pack-thread, pass downwards, and the flower- 
 shoots rise upwards. The leaves spring from the tuber; 
 they are triangular below, but towards the point they be- 
 come flat ; throughout nearly their whole length they ai'e of 
 the same size ; and though their length is about four or five 
 ^eei, they are scarcely an inch broad. 
 
 Between these leaves, and surrounded by them, rises the 
 round, even flower-stalk, four, five, and six feet high, and 
 about the thickness of a finger. This contains a white, spon- 
 gy pith, which consists of a compound cellular texture, and 
 shews some scattered bundles of spiral vessels. At the top of 
 the stalk stand the flowers in an umbel, which contains alxnit 
 fifteen flowers on stalks ; and at its base there is a membra- 
 naceous sheath of four, five, and six membranaceous, dry, 
 pointed leaves, which contained the flower before its evo- 
 lution, l)ut after it has flowered are reflex. The flower 
 consists of six ovate, rose-coloured ju'tnls, which externally 
 .ire of the nature of a ealvN, and have slits; but inteTnally 
 arc of the nature of a corolla, and ha\e the rc(iuisite intcgu^ 
 
374 14. BUTOJMUS U311iELLATUS. [CL. IX. 
 
 ment. On the receptacle there stand nine reddish, uniform 
 filaments, with yellow bilocular anthers, which are more early 
 developed than the stigmata, and are thus an example of the 
 androgynous dichogamy. Six ovaria stand together in the 
 centre, of a star-shape, and in their corners we perceive 
 ssx honey-drops oozing out. These ovaria are surmount- 
 ed by flat stigmata, somewhat emarginated, reflex, and 
 warty. The withered flower continues after the decay. The 
 germen consists of six simple capsules, which open laterally 
 and contain the oval, furrowed seed, fixed in two rows at the 
 sides. The seeds contain a great deal of mealy albumen, 
 and at one end is the unevolved embryon, in the shape of a 
 point, 
 
 Affinity. 
 
 The nearest related to this plant are the genera Hydro- 
 dels, Commers. {Richard in Mem. du Mus. i. t. 18.), and 
 Hydrogeton, Pers., which are distinguished from it almost 
 solely by the numerical proportions. In the latter genus, there 
 is but half the number of petals and ovaria, and but six an- 
 therae. The seed contains no albuminous substance, which is a 
 remarkable circumstance, (Enc. Suppl. iv. p. 237.) Altsma, 
 Sagittaria, and Llmnocfiaris, are related to this plant, al- 
 though the embryon in them lies folded together in a pud- 
 ding shape, without albumen. Hence, if we attend to the 
 character of the embryon only, we cannot exactly place our 
 plant with the Alismeae of De Candolle. But if, as is proper, 
 we take all the other marks into consideration, we must place 
 it among the Hydrocharidas, from which, however, the genus 
 Nectris Schreb. must be banished, because, according to la- 
 ter observations, its embryon is unfolded, and has distinctly 
 two cotyledons, {Rafinesque in Silimmi^s Journ. of New 
 York, vol. i. p. 374.) Respecting the Hydrocharidae, vid. 
 Anleit. ii. s. 262. 
 
 Synonymes and Figures. 
 
 Gladiolus palustris, Vul Cord. Hist. 100. Gcr. Emac. 29. 
 Gl AqmitiUs Dudon. 601. 
 
CL. IX.] 14. BUTOMUS UMBELl.ATrs. 375 
 
 Juncus floridus, Matth. ed. Bank. 7J31. J. cvjK'ioicUs i\ov\- 
 
 dus, Lobel. Adv. 44. ic. 86. Dalcch. 989. J. Bank. Hint. 
 
 2. 524. J. cyperinus floridus, Tahcrn. 5()7. Parkins. 
 
 1197. 
 Calamagrostis, I. Dalcch. 1006. 
 Sedo affinis JLincoidcs palustris, Moris, sect. 12. t. .j. 
 Butomus florc roseo, Town. Inst. p. 271. 
 B. umbellatus, /,«;?7l /7. Dan. 604. lycV/A. t. 111. Ln^l 
 
 Bot 651. ^^wrm, F/. 18. 
 
 Geographical Distribution. 
 
 Rudbeck and Linnaeus found this plant (Fl. L(ip. n. 159) 
 in the Kemi-elf, therefore under the polar circle. Wahlenberg, 
 however, who searched this stream in the year 1802, has not 
 mentioned this plant, as if it did not grow in Lapland. But 
 it is certain, that in Europe and Asia it passes beyond the 6'3'* 
 N. Lat., for J. G. Gmelin found it on the banks of the Obi 
 and Jrtisch, {Fl Sib. 1. p. 77.) How far towards the Equa- 
 tor it stretches, has not been determined ; but Sibthorp found 
 it in Asia Minor, as far as the 38^ N. Lat. {Smith, Prodr. 
 Fl. Grac. 1. p. 269.) From east to west, it stretches from 
 Ochozk to Lisbon. It is not found in America. Between 
 the tropics, Hydrogetcni and Hydrocleis seem to supply it.^ 
 place. 
 
 Uses, 
 
 Baskets are made of its leaves, and in Holland matts are 
 formed from it. The tuber of the root, rich in starch, is pre- 
 pared and used as an ingredient in bread, (Wrcdow's Oekf>- 
 nom. Elor. Mecklenb. 2. 209.) 
 
^75 lo. PYllOLA SECUXDA. [Cj.. X. 
 
 CLASS X. 
 
 15. 
 
 Pyrola secunda, L. 
 
 Birnbaumchcnkraut, Einseitiges Wintergrun, Wald-mangold, 
 — Frencli, Pi/role un'ilaterale. — Engl. Serrated Whiter- 
 green. — Swed. Hult-vintergr'6n. 
 
 This plant grows in moist shady spots in our pine forests, 
 during June and July, not singly, but in numbers. The root 
 is woody, yellowish, creeping ; it strikes fibres here and there 
 into the soil below, and pushes out an ascending stem, about 
 a small span's length, simple, even, roundish, about the thick- 
 ness of a pack-thread. Over the whole of the stem, small, 
 green, lanceolate, and stalkless bracteas are found scattered. 
 The leaf-stalks also stand sparse and open, are even, and about 
 half an inch long. The leaves are ovate, oblong, unequal at 
 the base, serrated on the margin, having a herbaceous spine 
 at the point, even on both surfaces, full of nerves and veins, 
 and of a beautiful light-brown colour. The end of the shoot is 
 void of leaves, but the stipulee appear as bracteae. The flowers 
 stand in a one-sided cluster, are of a greenish-white colour, 
 and consist of a small quinque-partite calyx, membranaceous on 
 the margin, somewhat indented, and of five oblong, some- 
 what concave petals. The red filaments, ten in number, sur- 
 round the germen, and are at first bent doubly, whence the 
 bilocular anthera? have their pores turned downwards. Af- 
 terwards the filaments become erect, and the antherae then 
 stand with their pores turned upwards. The germen has 
 five furrows ; the pistillum is simple, and stands perpendicu- 
 lar ; the stigma is shield-shaped and fivc-lobed. The cap- 
 sule is superior and consists of five loculi, which burst at th(^ 
 
CL. X.] 15. PVKOLA SECUNDA. /J77 
 
 corners. The seeds are surrounded with a reticulated, s|x)iigj 
 membrane. The embryon stands erect in the albumen. 
 
 Diagnosis and Affinity. 
 
 This species could only be confounded with Pyrola mu 
 i\or. But P. minor has its leaves more rounded, obtuse, 
 slightly serrated ; it has pale red flowers, which are not 
 turned to one side only, but to several. The other species 
 are still more dissimilar. The genus Pyrola is most nearly 
 related to the Chimaphila Pursh, which is distinguished 
 merely by a thick, circular stigma, which, without a pistil- 
 lum, is placed immediately upon the germen. It borders on 
 GauUheria, Cletlwa^ Diapensia, Andromeda, Morwtropa, 
 and Erica, along with which it forms the family of the Eri- 
 .ce^. 
 
 Synonymcs and Figures. 
 
 Pyrola II. Clus. Pannon. 506. Hist. 2. 117. Gerard Eviac, 
 
 408. 
 Ambrosia montana, Dalcch. 1148. 
 Pyrola folio serrato, /. Bauh. Hist. 3. 536. 
 Pyrola tenerior, Park. Theatr, 509, 
 Pyrola foUo mucronato serrato, C. Bauh. Pin. 191. Moris. 
 
 sect. 12. t. 10. Riv. Pcntap. Jrreg. 
 P. racemo unilaterali, Hall. Stirp. Helv. n. 1008. 
 P. secunda, Linn. Fl Dan. 402. Eng. Bot. 517. Sturm, 
 
 Fl 13. 
 
378 16. ASAllUJM EUROPIUM. [CL. XI, 
 
 CLASS XI. 
 
 16. 
 
 Asarum Europaeum, L. 
 
 Haselwurz, Weihrauchkraut. — French, Cabaret, Rondclli\ 
 Oreille cThomme. — Engl. Asarabacca. — Ital. La baccJtera, 
 spigo salvatico. — Swed. Hasselbrt 
 
 This small, unostentatious, but interesting plant, grows in 
 our forests, particularly under hazel bushes. Its stem is of 
 a brown colour, about the size of a pigeon's quill, lies low, 
 and throws out fibrous roots. These last are externally brown, 
 internally white, and have a strong smell and a sharp taste, 
 which may be compared to that of pepper or ginger. The 
 ascending shoots, like the leaf-stalks, are set with hairs, and at 
 the base of the leaf-stalks are two membranaceous, brownish 
 stipula: or sheaths. The leaf-stalks are roundish, set with 
 hairs, and always grow in pairs. The leaves are kidney- 
 shaped, very obtuse at the point, hairy, but of a shining 
 dark-green colour, ciliated, quite entire, intersected by veins 
 an inch long, and two inches broad. Between two of 
 the leaf-stalks springs the flower-stalk, also set with hairs, 
 nodding, half an inch in length, and carrying over the ger- 
 men a brownish coloured calyx, externally hairy, of the na- 
 ture of a corolla, and terminating in three pointed, upright 
 vstanding lobes. Twelve pointed, reddish filaments surround 
 the pistillum, are longer than it, but shorter than the calvx. 
 A little below their summits, the bilocular yellow anthera^ 
 are as it were stuck to them. The pistillum is a thick co- 
 lumn, which carries at its top a six-lobed, radiated, reddish 
 stigma. The capsule is six-celled, and in each of the cells 
 it contain^ two seeds concave on one side, which consist chiefly 
 of albumen, and contain the uncvolvcd embryon, like a pointy 
 
CL. XI.] 16. ASAllU.M EUROPyEUM. 379 
 
 lying at one end. During germination two cotyledons arc 
 unfolded, but continue under the earth. 
 
 Diag}iosis and Affinitij. 
 
 The other species grow in North America, and are distin- 
 quished by the folk)\\ing circumstances. — As. Canndoise lias 
 more cordate, pointed, and hairy leaves, and the lobes of the 
 calyx are open and reflex. As. Virginkiiiii has cordate, 
 roimded, even, white spotted, coriaceous leaves, and an al- 
 most stalkless even flower. As. arifoUum Mich., has leaves 
 that are almost spontoon-shaped, coriaceous, white spotted, 
 and a tubular calyx, with a very short margin. 
 
 The affinity of this genus with Ai'lstolochm is striking in 
 its numerical proportions, in the general shape of the leaves, 
 and in the structure of the seed. The colour of the flowers, 
 and even the composition of the juices, in the case of most of 
 the Aristolochi >?, agree with the corresponding qualities of 
 this plant. But we must not push this idea of affinity so far, 
 as, with Pursh, to place Asarum in the class Gynandria ; be- 
 cause in Asarum the filaments stand on the germen, and con- 
 sequently the antherag are not united with the female parts, 
 as must be the case in Gynandria. But between Aristolochia 
 and Asarum, although more neaily related to the former, stands 
 the RJwplum Schreb. or Mehorea Aubl., because in this plant 
 each of the three pistilla carries two double antherae below 
 the stigma. Tacca is more distantly related to them. These 
 genera constitute together the family of the Aristolochiae, 
 which stands between the higher and lower forms, and are 
 conterminous with the Polygoneae, (Anlcit. ii. ^01.) 
 
 Synonymes and Figures. 
 
 Asarum, Braunschw. f. 68. a. Brunf. 1. 71. Fucks, 10. 
 Dodon. 858. Matth. 36. Tabern. Ilf2l). Dalcch. 914. 
 Ger. Emac. 836. /. Bauh. Hist. 3. 548. Park. Thcatr. 
 
 Nardus agrestis, Frog. f. 24. b. 
 
 Asarum baccliaris, Lob. Hht. 3f28. ic. 601. 
 
 Asarum vulgare, Moris, sect. 13. t. T. 
 
380 16. ASARUM EUROPiEUM. [CL. XL 
 
 Asaruiii Europaeum, Linn. Fl Dan. 633. Engl Bot. 1083. 
 Schk. t. 127. Sturm, Fl 2. 
 
 Geographical Distribution. 
 
 The geographical hmits of this plant cannot be determined 
 for want of precise information. How far Asarum Euro- 
 p(£um extends towards tlie north, may perhaps be conjectured 
 from the fact, that Linnaeus, Liljcblacl, and the Flora Danica, 
 place it in Smaland and Jutland, and Gorter in Ingria, but 
 that it is wanting in the Catalogues of the Northern, Iceland- 
 ish, and Lapland plants. It must grow, therefore, as far as 
 the 60° N. Lat., but not beyond this. Towards the south, 
 it grows in Peloponesus, where Sibthorp found it. According 
 to him, it extends as far as the 37^ N. Lat. 
 
 Uses. 
 
 The root, when distilled, gives out a volatile oil, which 
 smells like camphor, and has the same relations, as camphor, 
 to re-agents. On being dryed, however, it passes into the 
 atmosphere, and becomes invisible. We also obtain from it 
 a resinous extractive matter, by means of which the root, 
 when pulverized, or dissolved in wine, serves as an emetic. 
 But its efficacy is not certain, because, when the root is be- 
 come old, little good can be expected from it. The inhabi- 
 tants of Britain use the leaves, pulverized, and mixed with 
 maijoram and lavender, as a sternutatory, in doses of five 
 and six grains, in the case of violent inflammation of the eyes, 
 or headachs proceeding from catarrh. 
 
CL. XII.] 17. nuBUs. 381 
 
 CLASS XII. 
 
 17. 
 
 Rubus. (Brombeere, Himbecre.) 
 
 This genus stands, in the Linnaean System, between Ro- 
 sa and Fragaria — a situation which is natural enough, when 
 we recollect, that all the three genera possess the family cha^ 
 racter of the Rosaceae ; for the genus Rubus is shrubby, like 
 the Rosa, yet there are several herbaceous species, by means 
 of which they are connected with the Fragaria. In all of them 
 the leaves are compound ; only some species of Rubus, Rosa 
 herherifolia Pall., and Fragaria monophylla Willd., are an ex- 
 ception. In all of them the calyx is quinquepartite, internally 
 of the nature of a corolla, and carries five petals, and an in- 
 determinate number of filaments. The ovaria are also inde- 
 terminate in number, and each of them has its pistillum on 
 its summit. But there is this remarkable difference, that in 
 the genus Rosa the lower part of the calyx swells into the 
 forni of a berry, and contains the seed within it, whilst, in 
 the Rubus and Fragaria, the seeds lie upon the receptacle, 
 and are often surrounded by the lower calyx. The two lat- 
 ter species are essentially distinguished by the following 
 circumstances. In the first place, the calyx of Fragajia 
 has five subordinate leaves between its principal divisions, 
 and may therefore be called decempartite, whilst in Rubus, 
 on the other hand, the calyx is only quinque|)artite. In the 
 second place, the receptacle of Fragaria swells, and eon- 
 tains the naked caryopsis imbedded in its surface, whilst 
 Rubus carries compound, one-seeded, juicy berries. All the 
 Rosaceae, however, agree in this, that the seed contains no 
 albumen, but only the evolved embryon, with its cotyledons 
 turned downwards, and its truncated radidc diitctLiI up- 
 
382 17. RUBUS. [CL. XII. 
 
 wards. All these relations assign to the Rosacere a place in 
 the highest famihes of plants. (Anleit. 2. 859) 
 
 The diagnostic character of Ruhus also consists in the 
 simple quinque-partite calyx, and the compound berries, 
 uliich stand above the calyx. DaUharda. Mich., which for- 
 merly was reckoned of this genus, is distinguished by its 
 having from three to five, and ten caryopscs, which stand on 
 the dry receptacle. We arrange the species of Rubus, ac- 
 cording as they are shrubby or herbaceous, and as their leaves 
 are compound or simple. The following is a view of the 
 species that are present known. 
 
 * Fruticoat. 
 
 •f- Aculeatl. 
 
 a. Foliis compositis. 
 
 1. R. idaus I.., foliis quinato-pinnatis ternatis supra gla- 
 bris subtus albido-tomentosis, aculeis rectis, petiolis canalicu- 
 latis, floribus racemosis, laciniis calycinis reflexis. 
 
 R. id^us, Trag. f 367. a. Dodon. 743. Matth, 715. 
 Clus. Hist 1. 117. Lohel ic. % 212. Dalech. 123. Ger. 
 Emac. 1272. Tabern, 1298. J. Batch, 2. 59. Parle. Pa^ 
 rod. 559. Fl Dan, 788. Engl Bot. 2442. Dttham. Arhr. 
 2. t. 56. 
 
 In sylvaticis montosis per omne hemisphaerium boreale a 
 circulo inde ai'ctico ad 37^ lat. bor. et Kamtskatka inde ct 
 Japonica ad fretum Nutka, Sinum Hudsonis, per Lapponiam 
 ac Siberiam, per omnem Europam, usque ad Olympum ct 
 Parnassum provenit. 
 
 Himbeere. — GalL Framboise. — Aiigl. Raspberry. — Huh 
 Lampione. — Suec. Hallon. 
 
 Fructus vulgo ru])ri, interdum et albi : occurrit etiam va- 
 rietas inermis. 
 
 2. R. c^sms L., caule repenti tcreti caesio-pruinoso, acu- 
 leis subrecurvis, foliis ternatis subpubescentibus, calyccerecto- 
 glanduloso pubcscente, petalis obovatis emarginatis. 
 
CL. XII.] 17. iiUBUS. 383 
 
 R. minor, Dodon. 742. 
 
 R. caesius, Fl Dan. 1213. Engl Bot. 826. Schk. t. 13G 
 Hayne Ar::neygew, 3. t. 9. 
 
 Ad margines agrorum ab Upsala inde per totam Euro- 
 pani ad Thessaliani usque, denique in ipsa Japonia, (GO" — 
 48'>). 
 
 Brombeere. — Gall. Ronce bleuatre.— >4/?^/. Dewberry. — 
 Itai Rovo lurchino. — Succ. Bla Hallon. 
 
 3. R. fruticosus L., caule erecto quinquangulari sublo- 
 mentoso, aculeis recurvis, foliis quinatis ternalisque petiolatis 
 supra glabris subtus tomentosis, calyce subtomentoso reflexo, 
 petalis obovatis integris. 
 
 Rubus Fuchs. 152. Dod(y)i, 742. MattK 714. LoheL 
 Hist 619. ic. 2. 211. Dalech. 119. Gcr, Emac. 1272. 
 
 R. fruticosus, Linn. Fl(yr. Dan. 1163. Engl. Bot. 715. 
 Hayne Arziieygew^ 3. t. 12. 
 
 Brombeere — Gall. Ronce. — Angl. Bramble. — Ital. Rovae. 
 Suec. Brombar. 
 
 Ab Uplandia Sueciae inde ad Algeriam usque per onincni 
 Europam et Asiam borealem in sylvis et nemoribus. Occur- 
 rit variis formis, caule glabriusculo, minus aculeato, vel plane 
 inerme, foliis magis minusve incisis, petalis rubicundis, flori- 
 bus plenis, fructibus albis. 
 
 4. R. corylifolius Sm., caule erecto teretiusculo, aculei, 
 confertis rectiusculis, foliis quinatis subtus pubescent ibus, la- 
 teralibus sessilibus, calyce fructus subreflexo, 
 
 R. major fructu nigro, Schrnidel, ic. t. 2. 
 
 R. corylifolius, Smith, Fl. Brit. 542. Engl. Bot. 827- 
 Svensk. Bot. 187. 
 
 R. nemorosus, Hayne Arzneygcw, 3. t. 10. Willd. Bert. 
 Baumz. ed. 2. p. 411. 
 
 R. suberectus, Engl Bot. 2572. 
 
 In sepibus et nemoribus passim. Pra?cocius florcns quani 
 R. fruticosus, fert albos et fructus bruntHj-nigriusculos. 
 
 Per omnem Europam. 
 
384 17. EUBUS. [CL. XII. 
 
 5. R. tomentosus Willd., caule angulato, aculeis recurvis, 
 foliis tcrnatis obovatis acutis iucTqualiter serratis utrinque to- 
 mentosis, latcralibus subincisis, calyce tomentoso reflexo. 
 
 R. creticus triphyllus flore parvo, Tmirn. Cor. 43. 
 
 R. sanctus, Schreh. Die. t. 8. p. 15. Willd. Sp. PI 2. 
 1083. 
 
 R. tomentosus, Willd. Sp. PI 2. 1083. Enum. 548. 
 Berl Baumz. ed. 2. p. 409. Nocc. et Balb. Fl Ticin. 
 p. 235. t. 9. 
 
 ? R. tomentosus, Thmll. Paris* 253. Dubitatur, eamdem 
 esse speciem, Poir. Enc. SuppL 4. 694. 
 
 R. triphyllus, Bellard. ArU Tanrin, 3. 231. 
 
 R. argenteus, Gmel. Bad. 2. 434. 
 
 R. canescens, Cand. Monop. 139. R. collinus, ib* et Nocc. 
 Fl. Ticin. p. 238. 1. 10. 
 
 Passim per omnem Europam et Asiam Minorem. R. oMtt.- 
 sifolius, Willd. Berl. Baumz. ed. 2. p. 409. et R. agrestis, 
 Kit. Hung. 3. p. 297. t. 268, hue pertinere videntur, licet 
 aculei rectiusculi sint. 
 
 6. R. glandulosus Bellard., caule angulato, aculeis rectius- 
 culis subrcflexis, foliis tematis subrotundo-ovatis acuminatis 
 mucronato-serratis glabris ciliatis, venis subtus pubescentibus, 
 caule, petiolis, pedunculis calycibusque glanduloso-hispidis. 
 
 R. glandulosus, Bellard. Jpp, Ad. Fl. Pcdem. p. 24. 
 Willd. Enum. 548. Berl. Baumz. ed. 2. p. 410. Bauntg. 
 Transylv. 2. 5Q. 
 
 In Germania, Italia superiore, et Transylvania. 
 
 7. R. hirtus Kit., caule subangulato, aculeis subrecurvis 
 setisque confertis rubicundis, foliis ternatis cordato-ovatis 
 acutis in^equaliter serratis hirtis, nervo medio subtus aculeato, 
 pedunculis inermibus calycibusque glanduloso-pilosis. 
 
 R. hirtus Kit., Hung. 2. p. 250. t. 241. Willd. Enum. 
 549. Berl. Baumz. ed. 2. p. 413. Batimg. Transylv^ 
 2. 55. 
 
 In svlvis Banatus et Transvlvaniae, 
 
CL. Xll.J 17. RUBUS. »S» 
 
 8. R. laciniaius Willd., caule subanj^ulnto, aculeis recur- 
 vis4 foliis quinato-digitatis ternatisque subtiis ])ilosis, foliolis 
 plnnato-incisis, calycibus reflexis aculeolatis, ]xaaris trilohis* 
 
 R. laciniatus, Willd. Emcm. 550. Hurt. Btroi. t. 82. 
 Berl. Baum-:. cd. 2. p. 416. 
 
 Patria iguota. E seininibus educatus idem nianet. 
 
 9. R. occidentalis L., caulc tereti glabro pruinoso, aiuU is 
 recurvis alternis, petiolis teretlbus aciiU'utis, fcliis ternatis 
 ovato-acuminatis incisis argute duplicato-serratis subtiis lo- 
 mentosis* 
 
 R. idseus, fructii nigro^ Virginianus, Dill. Elth. 3.^7. 
 t. 287. f. 319. 
 
 R. occidentalis, Willd. Sp. PI 2. 1082. Bcrl Baitm::. cd. 
 2. p. 407. Pursh, Amer. Sept 347. 
 
 In rupestribus et montibus a Canada ad Pennsylvaniam. 
 Virginian Raspherry. Fructus nigri aut rubri. Petiolis 
 teretibus et foliis acuminatis duplicato-serratis pracipue dif- 
 fert a R. ida^o ct ca^sio. 
 
 10. R. hispidiis L., caule sannentoso procunibt nle tereti, 
 aculeis recurvis setisque sparsis, foliis ternatis inciso-inax^ua- 
 liter dentatis basi subcuneatis glabriusculis, racenii pedicellis 
 elongatis setosis, petalis obovatis. 
 
 R. hispidus, Willd. Sp. PI. 2. 1083. 
 
 R. trivialis, jMich. Bor. Am. 1. 296. WilUl. Enum. 549- 
 Berl. Baumz. ed. 2, 414. Ait Hort. Kuc. ed. 2. vol. 3. 
 p. 269. Pursh, Amer. Sept 347. 
 
 R. flagellaris, Willd. Enum. 549. Bcrl Banmr.. ed. 2, 
 412. Purshy Amer. Sept 347. 
 
 R. procumbens, Miihlcnh. Catal. p. 50. 
 
 In arvis a Canada ad Pennsylvaniam. Fructus nigri. 
 
 11. R. heterophyllus Willd., caule procunibente subangu- 
 lato glabriusculo> aculeis raris rccunis, petiolis peduncu- 
 liscpie raccniosis inennibus villosis, foliis ternatis glabriusc-ulis 
 profunde serratis, calyce tomentoso reflexo, petalia integri». 
 
 R. hetemphvllus, Willd. Berl. Bmimz, c«d. 2. p. 413. 
 
 TJb 
 
38(5 17. RUiiiii. [ex. Xll. 
 
 R. villosus, Torreyy in CataL Nov. Eborac. p. 4<7. 
 Ad Novum Eboracum. R. triphylluSy Thunb. Fl. Japon. 
 SI 5. est sola vaiietas, foliis subtus pubescentibus. 
 
 12. R. villosus Ait , caule Iiispido, aculeis reflexis, foliis 
 digitatis ovato-oblongis acuniinatis serratis utrinque villosis, 
 petiolis aculeatis, pedunciilis racemosis laxis. 
 
 R. villosus, Ait. llort. Klic. ed. 1. vol. 2. p. 210. WiUd. 
 Sp. PI 2. 1085. Mich. Bar. Amer. 1. 297. Purah, Avier. 
 Sept. 346. Poir. Enc. 6. 243. 
 
 In arvis a nova Anglia ad Carolinam. Blackberries. 
 
 13. R. cunc'ifolius Pursh., ramis petiolis peduuculisque to- 
 incntosis, aculeis sparsis recurvis, foliis digitatis obovatis apice 
 inaequaliter dentatis plicatis basi revuiutis sul)tus tomeiitosis, 
 pedicellis paniculai ditai'icatis nudiusculis. 
 
 R. paivifolius, Walt. Carol, 149. 
 
 R. caneifolius, Piirsh^ Amer. Sept. 347 Nuiiall, Gen. \. 
 308. 
 
 In Nova Caesarea 
 
 14. R. roS(jefoUus Smith, caule tereliusculo piloso, aculeis 
 recurvis, foliis pinnatis pilosis, foliolis ovato-lanceolatis dupli- 
 cato-serratisj pedunciilis sub-unifloris terminalil)us. 
 
 R. rosafolius, Sm. ic. ined. 3. p. 60. t. 60. Willd. Sp. PI. 
 2. 1080. 
 
 R. borbonicus, Pers. Syn. 2. 51. 
 R. Commersonii, Poir. Enc. 6. 240. 
 In insulis Mascarenis et Java, 
 
 15. K. pinnatiis, Willd., ramis villosis, aculeis recurvis, 
 foliis quinatis ternatisquc rugoso-venosis duplicato-serratis 
 utrinque glabrisj nervo medio aculeatOj pedunculis racemosis 
 calycibusque villosis. 
 
 R. pinnatus, Willd. Sp. PL 2. 1081. Ait^ Hart, Kew- 
 ed. S. vol. 3. p. 270. 
 
 Ad C. B, S. ct in insula S. Helena> 
 
CL. XII.J 17. RULUS. 387 
 
 16. R. australis Forst., caale glabro teretiusculo, aculeis 
 raiKorum secundis recurvis, foliis tcrnatis utrinque glabris 
 ovalibus argute dentatis subcoriaceis, floril:us raceniosis dice- 
 cils, sepalis obtusis patentibus. 
 
 R australis, Forst. Prodr. Fl Ausir. p. 40. WUld, Sp. 
 PI. 2. 1081. 
 
 In Nova Zellandia, 
 
 17. R. roseits Polr., ramis flexuosis glabris, foliis ternalia 
 ovato-lanceolatis crenulatis utrinque glabris, nervo medio acu- 
 
 eato, stipulis ovalibus, pedunculis solitariis, petalis calyco 
 glabro minoribus. 
 
 R. roseus, Pair, in Efic. 6. 245. 
 R. coriaceus, ib. 237. 
 In Peruvia. 
 
 18. R, parvifoUus h., caule tereti tomentoso, aculeis re* 
 curvis confertis, foliis tematis ovatis subtus albo-tomentosis, 
 floribus raceniosis. 
 
 R. Moluccanus, Runiph, Amho'in. 5. p. 88. t. 47. f. 1. 
 R. parvifolius, Linn. Sp. PI. 707. WUld. Sp. PL 2. 1083. 
 In insulis Moluccis. 
 
 19. R- Jamaicensis L., caule glabriusculo, aculeis recurv-is, 
 foliis quinato-ternatis inciso-serratis subtus villoso-tomentosis, 
 paniculis terminalibus diffusis. 
 
 R. foliis longioribus, Shane^ Jam. t. 212. f. 1. 
 R. aculeatus, P. Brown, Jain. 242. 
 
 R. Jamaicensis, Linn. Mant. 75. Sxo, Obs. 205. WlUd. 
 Suppl. 2. 1084, 
 
 In Jamaica et Antillis. 
 
 20. R. urticafolius Poir., ramis anguljitis sctosis, aculeis 
 raris rectiusculis, foliis tematis simplicibus utrinque sericco 
 tomentosis, panicul^ ramis hirsutissiniis, calyce albido. 
 
 R. urticsefolius, Poir, in Enc. 6. 246. 
 In Peruvia- 
 
 B b« 
 
oSS 17. KL'liUS. [CL. XI!. 
 
 iiJl. 11. Jrajrini/bliii^ Puir., ramis giabr'ts teretibus, aculeis 
 rails, foliis seplenato-phiualis uLiinque glabri.s, foliolis ovato- 
 iicuminatis inciso-serratis, paniculie ramis filifornnbus glabris. 
 
 R. fraxinifolius, Poir. in Enc. 6. 242. 
 
 In Java. 
 
 atl. R. apttaliis Toir., r.iuns teretiuscubs pubescentibus, 
 aciilei.s sparsis, foliis scpicnato-pinnalis subtus albido-tonien- 
 to.sis, fbliolis ovabbus serrulatis, racemi axillaris rainis pubes- 
 centibus, floribus apetali.s. 
 
 R. apetalus, Pu'tr. in line. 6. ^!4id. 
 
 In InsiiJa Francia', Coinmrrstn. 
 
 mp! 
 
 B-i. U Moluccanus I..., ra^ni.s liirsnlis, aculeis recurvi**, 
 foliis curdato-lobatis scrralis .sul)lus iunitiitc>is, pedunculii 
 subracemosis axillaribus. 
 
 It. Moluccanus latifolius, Rmnph. Amb. 5. p. 88. t. 47* 
 t 2, Lm7i: Sp, PL 707. Tlumtj. FL Jap. 219. WUId. 
 Sp. PL 2. 1086. 
 
 U. ak"ea:;folius, Po?7-. in /:.;,r. 6. i^-47. CaU cibus inflatis 
 difTLrre dicitnr. 
 
 In insuli-^ Molucc.is, Java ct Ja}-onia. 
 
 24. K. m'iCropliyUu^'i L. fil., ramis teretibus flexuosis gla- 
 bri.s, aculeis sparsis recurvis, foliis cordatis trifidis ina^qualiter 
 dentatis glabris, venis subtus pid)escentibus, pedunculis soli- 
 tariis, calyce villoso, 
 
 K. mirrophyllus, Limi. Svppl. 268. WUM. Sp. PL 2. 
 1086. 
 
 .R. palmatus, Tlmnb. FL Jap. 217* 
 
 In Japonia. Fri ictus lutei. 
 
 2o. R. inci.fus Tbunb., ramis glabris, aculeis sparsis sub- 
 recurvis, foliis cordato-snbrolundis inciso serratis utrinque 
 glabns, f)cdvnirulis solilariis glabris. 
 
CL. XII. J 17. UUBUS. 38<} 
 
 R. inci^is, Thunb. FL Jap, 217. 
 In Japonia. 
 
 26. W-Corchorifolius L.fil.,ramis tomentosis, aculcis rcciirvis, 
 foliis cordato-ovatis acutis sublobatis serratis villosis, nervo 
 medio supra aculeato, pedunculis axillaribus solitariis touitrii 
 tosis. 
 
 R. corchorifolius, Lhm. Suppl 26i3. WUld. Sp. Fi 2. 
 1087. 
 
 R. villosus, Thuiib. Fl Jap. 218. 
 In Japonia. 
 
 27. R. clongatus Smith, ramisviscoso-pubesccntibu?, aculeis 
 sparsis, foliis cordato-acuminatis duplicato-crcnatis subtus to- 
 mentosis, paniculae ramis glomeralis, calyce obtuso. 
 
 R. elongatus, Smith Ic. Ined. 8. t. 62. WUld. Sp. PI. 2. 
 
 1087. Poir. in Enc. 6. 248. 
 In Ja-va. 
 
 28. R. pyrifolius Smith, ramis flcxuosis, acukis pparsis, 
 foliis oblongis acuminatis serratis ntrinque glabris, panicu- 
 Ite ramis corymbosis, bracteis incisis, petalis calyce minori- 
 bus. 
 
 R. pyrifolius, Smith, Ic. Ined. 3. t. 61. WUld. Sp. PL 2. 
 
 1088. Polr. in Enc. 6. 248. 
 In Java. 
 
 -)*-f- Incrmes. 
 
 29. R. atiigosus Mich., caule tereti liispidissuno, foliis 
 quinato-tcrnatis ovatis acuminatis ina^(iualiter serratis subtus 
 lineatis candido-tomentosis, pedunculis subtrifloris calycibus- 
 que hispidis. - 
 
 R. strigosus, Mich. Bor. Amer. 1. 297. WUhl, Bcrl. 
 Baumz. 408. Pjirsh, Amer. Sept. 346. 
 R. Pennsylvanicus, Poir. in Enc. 6. 246. 
 In montosis a Canada ad Virginiam. 
 
390 17. RUBUS. [CL. XII, 
 
 30. R. Canadensis L., caule purpureo glabriusculo, foliii 
 digitatis denis quinis ternatisque, foliolis lanccolatis argute 
 serratis utrinque nudis, stipulis lincaribus subaculeatis. 
 
 R. Canadensis, Linn. Sj). PI. 707. ^n.^. Ic. t. 223. Willd. 
 Sjj. PL 2. 1085. Pursh, Amer. Sept. 347. 
 
 In rupestribus sylvaticis a Canada ad Virginiam. 
 
 81. R. hiermis WiWd., caule procumbente glauco-tomento- 
 so, foliis ternatis sublus albido-tomentosis, foliolis ovatis acu- 
 tis subincisis inocqualitcr serratis, stipulis subulatis. 
 
 R. inerniis, Willd. Enum, 548. Berl Baumz, 410. Pursh^ 
 Amer. Sept. 348. 
 
 In Pennsylvania, 
 
 32. R. ohovalis Mich., caule hispido, foliis ternatis obova- 
 to-subrotundis serratis nudis, stipulis setaceis, racemis subco- 
 rymbosis paucifloris, bracteis ovatis, pedicellis elongatis 
 
 R. obovalis, Mich. Bor. Am. 1. 298. Pursh, Amer Sept. 
 349. 
 
 In paludibus sphagno abundantibus a Novo Caesarea ad 
 Carolinam, 
 
 33. R. spedahilis Pursh, caule ramisque flexuosis glaberri- 
 mis, petiolis pubescentibus subaculeatis, foliis ternatis ovatis 
 acutis angulatis inasqualiter duplicato-scrratis subtus pube- 
 scentibus, pedunculis terniinalibus solitariis unifloris, petalis 
 ovatis calyce longioribus. 
 
 R. spectabilis, Pursh, Amer. Sept. 348. ♦ t. 16. 
 In ora occidentali America? borcalis. Flores speciosi pu- 
 nicei, 
 
 34. R. odoratus L., caule erecto, petiolis pedunculisque 
 glanduloso-p'losis, foliis simplicibus quinquelobis inasqualiter 
 dentatis, venis subtus pubescentibus, calycibus appendicu- 
 latis. 
 
 R. odoraius, Corn. Canad. t. 150. Mill. Ic. 223. Linn. 
 HorL Cliff. 192. * Willd, Sp. PI 2. 1085. Berl. Bauniz, 
 416 Bot, Ma^. 823. 
 
CL. XII.] 17. RUBUf. 301 
 
 In sylvis Americae borealis. Folia suaveolentia. Flores 
 rubri. Fructus flavi. 
 
 35. R. parviflorus Nuttall, foliis palmato-loballs, pcduncu« 
 lis subirifloris, calycibus villosis acuniinatis, petalis cal} cc bre- 
 vioribus ovato-oblongis, 
 
 R. parviflorus, Nuttall, Gen. 1. 308. 
 
 In insula Michillimakinak lacus Huronuin. 
 
 •* Hcrbacei, 
 
 36v R. saxatilis L., flagellis reptantibus, caule obtusangu- 
 lo, foliis ternatis rhombeis acutis inciso-dentatis nudis, pcdun- 
 culis subternis elongatis, petalis linearibus. 
 
 R. saxatilis alpinus, Clus. Paiinon. 116. Hist. 1. 118. 
 
 R. alpinus humilis, J. Bank. Hist. 2. 61. 
 
 R. saxatilis, Ger. Em. 1273. Park. Thcatr. 1014. Fl 
 Dan. 134. Bug. Bot. 2233. 
 
 In rupestribus per Europam, Asiam, ct Aniericani. In 
 veteri orbe a Caucaso (45°), inde ad Islandiam et Lapponiam 
 (66°) ; in America a Virginia (38°) ad Canadam (50°). 
 
 37. R. a^'ctJcus L., caule simplici glabro, foliis ternatis ovatis 
 obtuse-dentatis glabris, pedunculis solitariis, petalis obovatis 
 emarginatis. 
 
 R. humilis flore purpureo, Bu.rh. Cent. 5. t. 26. 
 
 R. arcticus, Linn. FL Lap. t. 5. f. 2. FL Lkin. 488. Eng. 
 Bot. 1585. Bot. Mag. 132. 
 
 Arcticus jure dicitur : namque in Succia et Norvcgia baud 
 citra 60° provenit ; vera patria est regio ab occidente Sinui 
 Bothnico contermina, (Helsiugeland, jNIedelpad, Angcmian- 
 land.) In Scotia tamcn et Sibiria a Kamtschatka ad i>6^ de- 
 sccndit ; in America ad 52°. In Succia Boreali nomine Aker- 
 bdr fructus flavidus sapidissimus fragrans delicias summas 
 constituit. 
 
 38. R. pistUlatus Sm., caule unifloro, foliis ternatis argute 
 scrratis glabris, petalis oblongis integris, stylis approximatis. 
 
:^Q2 17. KUBUs. [CL. xii. 
 
 l\. plstillatus, Smithy Ejcot. But. J^. t. 86. Pursh, Amer. 
 Sept. 349. 
 
 R. acaiilis, Mkh. Bor. Amcr. 1. 298. 
 
 In paiudibus Canada? ct in ora America; Borealis occid^fn- 
 
 taJi. 
 
 -'^O. R. rad'icans Cav., caule prostrate sarmentoso aculeato, 
 foliis longc petiolalis tcriialis orbiculatis sublobatis crenatis 
 utrincjue villosis, pcdunculis solitariis elongatis, calycis laci- 
 niis dentatis, petalis ovalibus. 
 
 R. radicans, Cav. Ic. 5. t. 413. 
 
 in sylvis Chili. Nisi flores esscnt riibri ct folioriim forma 
 aliena, Duclicsneamfrogifbrmcm Sm. subesse crcdiderim. 
 
 40. K. cliamcemo7'us^ radice repente, caule simplice unifloro, 
 foliis simplicibus subreniformibus rotundo-lobatis plicatis, ca- 
 lycis laciniis oblongis incisis, floribus dioeciis. 
 
 Chamaemorus, Clus. Pannon, 118. Hist. 1. 118. Gcr. 
 Emac. 1273. 1420. Park. 1014. Pontopfid. Norg. Naturl. 
 Hist. 1. 215. 
 
 R. Chatnaemorus, TAnn. Fl. Lap. t. 5. f. 1 . Lig^i^tf- Scot. 
 9.m. • t. 13. FL Dan. 1. Eng. Bat. 716. 
 
 In Succia Boreali, praesertim in paiudibus Lapponia?, per 
 omnem Norvegiam, Islandiam, insulis Faeroer, Scotia borea- 
 li et Cambria, in Pomerania, ad Fontes x\lbis, in Meisnero 
 monte Haffiae, in Curonia, Livonia, Ingria, Sibiria, Kamt- 
 schatka, Canada et Nova Anglia. In Europa, si citra 60° 
 occurrit, amat uligines alpestres. In summo jugo Sudetum 
 (50° 50') fere 4000 pedes altam habet sedem. In peninsula 
 Dars Pomeraniae (54'' 30') paludem mari a^qualem habitat. 
 In America Boreali sub 44^" in paiudibus montosis invenitur. 
 Sueci dicunt Hjortron^ Dani et Pomerani Afidtebdr, Scoti 
 Cloudberry, Flos albus, fructus aurantiacus. 
 
 41. R. sfellatus Sm., caule crccto unifloro, foliis simplici- 
 bus cordatis trilobis rugoso-venosis, ])etalis lanceolatis. 
 
 R. stellatus. Smith, Ic. Ined. t. 64. Wiild, Sp. Pi 2 
 10S9. Pur.sh, Amcr Sejit 349. 
 
CL. XIII.] 18. PAPAVEK DUinUM. S93 
 
 In ora occidentali America? Borcalis. Flores purnu- 
 
 rei. 
 
 42. R. tr'ifidus Tliunb., caule glabro simpllci, follis simpli- 
 cibus cordatis trifidis scrratis utrinque glabris, pcdunculis so- 
 litariis. 
 
 11. trifidus, Thuiih. Jap. 217. Wilhl Sp. PI 2. 1089. 
 
 Ilubus pcdatus Sm., gcoides Sm. ainandandi sunt ad genus 
 Dalihardam. Rubus Japonicus, Linn. Willd. et Cliorcliorus 
 Japonicus Thunb., eamden) constituunt plantam, Kcriam a 
 De Candollio dictam, 
 
 CLASS XIII. 
 
 18. 
 
 Papaver diibium, L. 
 
 Ackermohn, Klatschrosen, Feldniohn. — French, Pavot doit- 
 ieux, CoqucUcot.' — Ital. Rosolacno. — Papavere silvntko. 
 — Eng. Red poppy, Smootli-headcd poppy. — Swcd. Syster- 
 vallmo. 
 
 This plant blossoms in our fields in June and July. From 
 n fibrous, whitish root, there rises a round, herbaceous stem, 
 of the thickness of an oat-slraw, two feet high, and, like the 
 leaves, furnished on the lower part with distarit, pretty stiff 
 hairs. The leaves are doubly pinnated, and embrace half 
 the stalk; the lobes are lanceolate-linear, and distant from 
 one another. The flower-stalks are nearly a foot long, 
 and furnished with thick accumbent stiff hairs or bristles. 
 The flowers stand single, and have a two-leaved deciduous 
 calyx ; four broad, pale scarlet-coloured j)etals, crenated on 
 the marfjin, and smooth ; an indefinite number of linear fila- 
 ments, which stand on the receptacle ; yellow anthera? of two 
 loculi ; a superior, longish, smooth, angular gernun, 5ur- 
 
394 18. PAPAVER DUBIUM. [CL. XIII. 
 
 mounted by the six or eight rayed, shield-shaped stigma, 
 \vithi)ut a pistilkim. The capsule is unilocular, and the 
 seeds are placed in several flat cavities, which proceed in a ra- 
 diated fcrm from without half-way inwards. It opens under 
 the persistent stigma with as many holes as there are rays in 
 the capsule. The seeds have a wrinkled covering, and con- 
 tain the small, evolved embryon on the side of the albuminous 
 matter. 
 
 Diagnosis and Affinity. 
 
 This species, which is very like the common Poppy (Pa- 
 paver rhoeas)^ is distinguished from it by the thickly accum- 
 bent bristles on the flower-stalk, — these bristles, in the other 
 species, standing horizontally from each other. The flowers, 
 too, are by no means of so fiery a red, but are somewhat paler. 
 P. argemone^ which also, although more rarely, grows among 
 the corn, has a club-shaped, bristly capsule, small and still 
 paler petals, and bluish antherge, and filaments which are 
 thick above. P. hybrulum^ which grows still more rarely 
 in Germany, has an almost spherical, sulcated, bristly capsule, 
 dirty dark red flowers, and bright blue antherae. 
 
 The affinity between the genus Papaver and Chelidonium 
 and Glauchim is striking, although in the two latter the 
 form of the fruit is different. Among exotics, it is still more 
 nearly related to Argemone, and this affinity is expressed by 
 the peculiar juices, which in the Poppies are white; in Che- 
 UdoniuiJi, Glauciinn^ and Argevione^ yellow ; and in Abatia^ 
 black. The Papavereae are related, through Hypecoum and 
 Fumaria, to the Cruciform plants, and through Actaoa to the 
 Ranunculeae, (Anleit. ii. 727.) 
 
 Synonymes and F'lgiires. 
 
 Argemone capitulo longiori glabro, Moris, sect. 3. t. 14. 
 Pavaver erraticum, Toiirn. Inst. 238, Rupp. len. ed. Hal-. 
 
 kr, p. 79. Hallcr, Stirp Helv, n. 1065. 
 P. dubium, Linn. Engl. Bot, 644. Schk. t. 140. Fl. Dan. 
 
 902. 
 
CL. XIV.] 19. GALEOBDOLON LUTEUM. 395 
 
 Geographical Distribution. 
 This species seems to extend, as well as P. rJuras, froin 
 60° N. Lat. towards the Tropics. In Lajiland it is as seldom 
 met with as in countries between the Tropics. It is ako 
 wanting, together with its related genera, in America. 
 
 CLASS XIV. 
 
 Okder I. 
 
 This is called Gijmnospcrniia, because four naked carvop- 
 ses stand an und the pistillum, at the bottom of the calyx, 
 (Tab. III. Fig. 17.) But there are transitions to capsules. 
 In Verbena^ for examj)le, the four seeds, as long as they arc 
 not quite ripe, are included in a membranaceous bladder, 
 which disappears when the seeds are matured. In this in- 
 stance, the pistillum stands directly on the germen, whilst in 
 the proper Gymnospermae, it stands in the middle of tlie four 
 caryopses. These latter bodies lie, in this family, on the 
 thickened and swollen germen {gynobasis). The Asperifo- 
 lioe, again, which also have four caryopses, have no gynobasis, 
 but the caryopses are surrounded by a ring of nectaries. Of 
 the four filaments, two are commonly shorter than the others, 
 (Tab. IV. Fig. 16.) The pistillum is cleft. The corolla 
 has a disposition to become irregular, and exhibits frecpient- 
 ly tW'O lips ; hence this division forms the natural family of 
 the Labiatae ; (Anleit. ii. 427.) 
 
 19. 
 
 Galeobdolon lutcuni, Huds. 
 
 Gelbe Hanfnessel, Goldnessel, gelber Hahnenkopf. — French, 
 Agripaume javnCy Lamicr des hois. — Ital. Ortica morfa 
 
^96 19. GALEOBDOLOX LUTEUM. [CL. XIY. 
 
 gialla. — Engl. Ydloic arcJtangcl, Weasel s7ioui, — Swed. 
 
 This plant appears in our forests at the end of May, "with a 
 knotty root, from which rises a four-cornered stem, its lower 
 part being of the form of a root, furnished with reflex hairs, 
 and from one foot to a foot and a half hioh. The leaf-stalks 
 stand opposite to one another, are furnished with long, soft, 
 white hairs, and are half an inch, and even somewhat longer. 
 The leaves are ovate, unequally crenated, and the teeth are 
 furnished with a small point. At the base they are almost 
 cordate, in other parts they are hairy, of a dark green, 
 sometimes spotted with white, an inch long, and not quite 
 so broad. The uppermost are much smaller, and without 
 stalks. They surround the flowers, which stand by fours 
 and sixes in verticilli, and are surrounded, beside the stem 
 leaves, by smaller bristle-shaped leaves. The calyx has a 
 short stalk, is smooth, and properly has two lobes. The 
 upper lip forms an almost erect, long pointed tooth. The 
 lower lip consists of four teeth, which are also pointed, and 
 almost bristle-shaped. The yellow corolla is two-lipped : 
 the upper lip is arched, without a stalk, and furnished with 
 jointed hairs : the under lip consists of three flat, small, and 
 spotted laciniac. These brownish red sjx>ts are the nedaro-stig- 
 mata : the nectary is the surface of the gynobasis : the lower 
 part of the tube of the corolla, furnished with hairs, forms 
 the nectarilf/ma. Four soft haired filaments, broader below, 
 stand on the tube of the corolla : two are shorter than the 
 other two. They carry four anthera3 with double loculi, 
 and are nearly as long as the upper lip of the corolla. 
 The pistillum is cleft at the top : the stigmata are pointed. 
 Four three-cornered, longish caryopses are persistent in the 
 bottom of the calyx, and contain, like all the Labiata?, the 
 erect embryon, without any albuminous matter. 
 
 Affin'itij. 
 
 This plant is so nearly related to the genera LecmuruSy 
 Gahnpsh, and Lamium, that it is sotnctimes rla-^sed with the 
 
ORD. I.] 19. GALKOBDOLON LUTEUM. 397 
 
 one, and sometimes with the other of tlicni, IJut Lcminru^ 
 is distinguished by the five-cawned tetth of iis calyx, two of 
 which form the upper, and tliree the under Tip ; and by the 
 three rounded lobes of the lower lip of the corolla, of which 
 the central one is the largest. Galcops'is haa a calyx similar to 
 that of Leonurus ; but the lateral lobes of the lower lip of 
 tlic corolla form, at the entrance of the tube, a pair of kiH)ts, 
 the upper lip is shortly cleft, and the anthera? o})en with 
 fringed valves. Lam'ium has a similar calyx to the fonner, 
 only with long-pointed teeth : the tube of the corolla is in- 
 flated above: the lateral lobes of the lower lip pass into a 
 pair of reflex teeth, the central lobe is emarginated : the lobet 
 of the antherae are furnished Vith long hairs. A\'e must, 
 therefore, regard Galeohdolon as a peculiar genus, the cha- 
 racter of which is to be sought in the structtu'e of the calyx 
 and corolla. The single long-pointed tooth, which forms 
 the upper lip of the calyx, and the three small lacinia? of 
 the under lip of the corolla, form this character. 
 
 Synonymes and Figures. 
 
 Urtica iners, in. Dodon, 153. 
 
 Lamium luteum, Loh. Adv. (223. Ic. 521. Tabcrn. 923. 
 
 Gerard. Emac. 702. Parle, thcatr. 606. folio oblongo. 
 
 Moris, sect. 11. t. 11. Hiv. Monop. Irr. 
 Galeopsis s. Urtica iaers, J. Tiauh. Hist. 3. 323. Touni 
 
 Inst. 185. 
 Galeobdolon, Dill. Giess, 49. 
 
 Leonurus foliis ovatis acutis serratis, Linn. Hort. Cl/Jf. 313. 
 Galeopris Galeobdolon, Li7m. Fl. Suec. cd. 2. p. 205. Fl 
 
 Dan. 1272. 
 Leonurus Galeobdolon, Scop. Cam. n. 705. W:U>1. Sp. 
 
 PL 3. 115. .Sdik. t. 157 
 Lamium Galeobdolon, Grant::, Austr. 262. 
 Pollichia Galeobdolon, Roih. Germ. 2. 26. 
 Galeobdolon luteum, Huds Fl Angl.^iiS. Smith, FL But 
 
 631. Engl. Bat. 787. 
 
398 '20. A. CRISTA GAXLI. [CL. XIV. 
 
 Geographical Distribution. 
 The temperate part of Europe is tlie native region of this 
 plant. Its most northern limits, as far as is yet known, 
 are Wasa in Finland, Jamtcland in Sweden, and Dron- 
 theim in Norway, (63°.) Its most southern limit is Ha?mus 
 in Rumilia, (41°.) Only thus far, too, the plant grows to- 
 wards the east ; but in Lithuania it grows as far as the Wol- 
 ga Heights, (33° E. Lat.) Westward it extends as far as 
 the Pyrenees. 
 
 OHDEE II. 
 
 This order is called Angiospermia^ because the fruits are 
 capsules, or drupes. In the natural arrangement, the plants 
 of this order belong to the Personata?, Acanthea?, Bigno- 
 nieae, and Vitice^ ; (Anleit. 2. 390—426.) 
 
 20. 
 
 Alectorolophus Crista Galli, M, B* 
 
 Hahnenkamm, Klapperkraut, Wiesenrodel. — Fren. Crete de 
 coq. Cocrisie. — Ilal. Crista di gallo. — Engl. Yelloio-rattle. 
 — Swed. H'6-skaller^ Paininge-grds. 
 
 This is one of the most common weeds in our meadows and 
 iiclds, blossoming during summer^ and withering entirely 
 during harvest. From a soft fibrous root there rises a four- 
 cornered stem, commonly simple, sometimes considerably 
 branched, smooth, or somewhat sharp to the touch, and some- 
 times marked with dark red spots. It is about a foot in 
 height. The leaves are set opposite to one another, without 
 stalks, lanceolate, rough, sharply serrated, and cordate at the 
 base, an inch, or an inch and a half long, and from three to 
 four lines broad. In the neighbourhood of the flowers they 
 supply the place of bracteae, are ovate, and somewhat mem- 
 branaceous, but otherwise are as much serrated and rough to 
 the touch a^ thopc farthest down. The flowers stand oppo- 
 
ORD. II.] J^O. A. CltlSTA GALLI. 399 
 
 site to one another, and compose together a richly furnisljt-d 
 ear. The calyx is almost stalkless, inflated, menibranaceous, 
 having reticular veins, with a contracted lour-loolhcd (>jAn- 
 ing. The corolla is yellow, about one-hall longer than the 
 calyx, w4th two hps, and almost personate. 1 he upper lip 
 is arched, compressed, externally set with short hairs, with 
 an obtuse, often an emarginated, sometimes a violct-colourcd 
 beak. The lower lip has three short, yellow lobes, which 
 press upon the upper lip. Four filaments of unequal length 
 are fixed in the tube of the corolla, and carry lour an- 
 thera? of two loculi, pointed laterally, and ciliated, which 
 never rise above the upper lip. The germen has on its 
 lower margin the nectary, as an insulated gland, and car- 
 ries a simple pistillum, with a somewhat thickened stigma. 
 The fruit is a double, compressed capsule, the partition of 
 which goes right across the loculi. On this partition are 
 placed the flat compressed, marginated seeds, containing the 
 embryon opposite to the umbilicus in the albuminous sub- 
 stances. 
 
 Diagnosis ami Affimty. 
 
 We find, according to difference of soil, many subspecies 
 of this plant, of which Alcct. Idrsutus Allion. {U/iliKuU/m.f 
 AlcdorolopJnis, PoHich.), is distinguished by its size and 
 hairs. It is about two feet high ; the stem is furnished wiili 
 red spots and with soft hairs : so also is the calyx. "^Ve are 
 prevented from constituting it a peculiar species, by its mark- 
 ed ti*ansitions, and by its want of uniformity. Still less could 
 we form a new division in regai-d to Rhlnanthus mhior 
 Ehrh., and alpinus Baumg. The former is distinguished 
 simply by its less size, smaller leaves, and inck)sed pistillum. 
 But in this species, as in several plants, the jjistillum has a 
 different length according to the diflerent age of tlie blossom. 
 At first it is inclosed, afterwards it projects a little. Lastly, 
 if the Rhlnanthus alpinus Baumg. is to be dislinguishtd by 
 its variegated, violet, and yellow flowers; this colouring is 
 also found in the common yellow rattle, and we can onl\ , 
 therefore, regard these difPrrent frrms as sn(fs|xcies 
 
400 20. A. CRISTA GALLI. [CL. XIV. 
 
 Very similar, although essentially different, is Rhinanthui 
 versicolor Lam., which grows on the shores of the Mediter- 
 ranean, in Italy and Africa. It has small, linear leave?, the ser- 
 rated teeth of which are somewhat ohtuse, and go very deep, 
 so that the leaves seem to he half-pinnated : the uppermost 
 leaves are dentated only at the base. The corolla is of a red- 
 dish purple, and is much longer than the calyx. This latter 
 part is not inflated, but it has also four teeth. The seeds 
 are not flatly compressed, but angular ; hence this species 
 properly belongs to the genus Bartsia, which, very like the 
 Alectorolophus^ is distinguished from it by its tubular, coloured 
 calyx, and by its angular seeds. The same is the case with 
 Rhlnanthus Trixago Linn. This plant of the South of 
 France, with a stem of an ell long, branched, and lanceolate^ 
 and with large and deeply serrated leaves, has its calyx and 
 seeds similar to those of the former species, and belongs, 
 therefore, to Bartsia, with which it is classed by De Can- 
 dolle. 
 
 Allioni and Marschall of Bieberstein, have very properly 
 separated the genus Alectorolophus from Rhinanthus. The 
 latter genus is distinguished by its two-lipped calyx, and by 
 a tubular, beak-shaped upper-lip of the corolla, having a 
 broad appendage at the j)oint. To it belong RJunantlius 
 orientalis Mill., and Rh. cleplias L. These genera are ar* 
 ranged in the natural method with the Personata?, andj in- 
 deed, with the subdivision of the llhinanthe^e ; (Anleit.2. 397.) 
 
 Synonynies and Figures. 
 
 Crista galli, Dodon. oB^. Lohel Adv. '^IP.I. Hist. '285. Ic. 
 
 5529. Dali'ch. 10T3. Mas et Fcemhia. J. Baiih. Hist. 
 
 3. 436. Ger. Emac. lOTL Parh T/ieafr. 713. Riv. 
 
 Monop. Irr. 
 Pedicularia lutea, Tabern. 1180. Prate nsis, Moris, sect. 11. 
 
 t. 23. Tourn. hist. \1± 
 Alectorolophus calycibus glabris et hirsutis, Hall. Stirp. 
 
 Helv. n. 313. 314. AlUon. Pedem. n. 205. .906. Al. Crista 
 
 galli, Marsili. Bleb Taur. Caiic. 2. 68. 
 
ORD. II.] 20. A. CRISTA GALI.I. 401 
 
 Rliinanthus Crista galli Linn., Willd. Sp. PL 3. 188. /7. 
 
 Dan. 981. Engl. Bot. 637. Schk. t. 1G9. 
 Mimulus Crista galli et Alectorolophus, Scop. Carn. n. '751. 
 
 im. 
 
 Geographical Distribution. 
 
 This is properly a northern plant, which grows in Europe 
 as far as the North Cape (70°), in Iceland, Siberia, Kamts- 
 katka, and North America ; as far as Hudson's Ba)-, and 
 scarcely passes, towards the south, beyond the 44° or 43^ ; 
 for Tauris, Transylvania, and the South of France, appear 
 to constitute the most southern limits of its distribution. 
 
 Uses. 
 
 I am not acquainted with any useful property of it. Orr 
 the contrary, the rattle is a hurtful weed in our meadows, 
 and is not eaten by any animal. Its seed, mixed with 
 meal, gives it a dark appearance, and makes the bread indi- 
 gestible. 
 
 CLASS XV 
 
 Order I. 
 
 This Order is called that of the SiUcuhsn', or siliclo-bear- 
 ing plants, because their fruit is almost as long as broad, 
 (96.) Yet here, as every where else, there are transitions. 
 Farsetia R. Br., on the one side, and Brmja Stcrnb., and 
 Nasturtium R. Br., on tlic other, arc so nearly related to this 
 order, that we may sometimes call their fruit a Silicula, some- 
 times a Siliqua. Several of these silicles are fruits of another 
 species, nuts, in particular, which do not burst, as in Bu~ 
 nias, Crambe, Cakilfy Succovia, Monch. But, as the plants 
 
 . C c 
 
402 21, TEESDALIA XUDICAULIS. [CL XV. 
 
 correspond with this order in their other relations, we can- 
 not separate thera from it. 
 
 21. 
 
 Teesdalia nudicaulis, R. JSr. 
 
 Sand-Bauernsenf, Taschelkraut, Felsenkresse. — Fren. Ta- 
 bouret a iige nue. — Eng. Naked-stalked Candytuft. — Swed. 
 Sand-iber. 
 
 This plant blossoms with us in spring, on high sandy, 
 open places. From a soft fihrous root, a number of lyre- 
 shaped, smooth leaves, expand themselves into a circle, ha- 
 ving their margins sometimes ciliated, but undivided, and 
 about half an inch long. In the midst of them, perpendicular, 
 smooth, round flower-stems arise, about three inches, or, at 
 most, half a foot in length, and of the thickness of a thread. 
 These stalks are furnished with a few lanceolate, or oblong, 
 coloured, scaly leaflets : in other respects they are entirely 
 void of leaves. On the upper part of these appears the small 
 white flower-bunch, the upper part of which resembles an 
 umbel. The single flower-stalks are scarcely two lines in 
 length. 
 
 The calyx consists of four pieces ; the corolla of four pe- 
 tals, which, for the most part, are dissimilar, the two outer 
 being larger than the two inner. The filaments are six, and 
 stand on the receptacle. Two of them are longer than the 
 others. On each of the filaments, at its lower part, and turn- 
 ed inwards, there is a whitish leaflet, which is larger in the 
 longer filaments, and smaller in the shorter. The fila- 
 ments carry bilocular, yellow antherae. The germen is su- 
 perior, emarginated above, and carries a short thick pistil- 
 lum, with a warty stigma. The fruit is a bilocular silicle, 
 with boat-shaped wingless valves, having two round seeds 
 without a raised margin in each loculus,— attached to long 
 funiculi umbilicales, and containing the embryon without al- 
 bummous substance, its radicle being turned towards the 
 opening of the cotyledons. 
 
ORD. I.] 21. TEESDALIA NUDICAULIS. 
 
 40:i 
 
 Diagnosis and Affinity. 
 
 This plant has some resemblance to Draha vcnm, -which 
 blooms somewhat earlier however, and is much mt)re com- 
 mon. Both are of nearly similar stature, but Draha vema 
 is commonly the smaller ; its individual flower-stalks arc much 
 longer, the root leaves are undivided, and furnished with 
 three-pointed hairs. The petals are deeply indented, and the 
 fruit is a longish, pointed silicle, with many seeds. Lcp'uVium 
 nudicaulc L., which grows about Montpellier, and is figured 
 by Magnol (Bot. Monsp. p. 187.)? is also distinguished from 
 it, by the smaller lobes of its lyre-shaped root-leaves. But 
 De Candolle has shewn (Flor. Franc. 4. 708.), that this plant 
 is only a subspecies of ours. Thlaspi Bursa, also, has some- 
 times an appearance, which might lead us to take it for Tees- 
 dalia, since it has lyre-shaped root leaves, and white flowers. 
 But its stem is always branched and furnished with leaves : 
 the silicles, also, are inversely triangular, and contain many 
 seeds. Lepidium alp'mum and petraium L. have also some 
 resemblance to it ; but they have peculiarly pinnated leaves, 
 which grow on the stem, and lanceolate siliculae, furnished 
 with pointed extremities. 
 
 This plant is commonly classed with Iberis, because its pe- 
 tals are somewhat unequal. But Iberis has the Valves of its 
 siliculae distinctly marginated, and has no appendages to the 
 filaments. These two circumstances constitute the diagnostic 
 character of the two genera. This plant cannot be classed 
 with Lepiduirn, because, in this latter gcnus^ the petals are 
 uniform, the filaments are without appendages, and the ra- 
 dicle of the embrvon is turned towards the ridge of the coty- 
 ledons. Thlaspi is still further distinguished by the winged 
 or marginated valves of the sUlcida, by the want of ap})end- 
 ages to the filaments, by having many seeds in its \(k\\\\, and 
 by the direction of the radicle towards the ridge of the coty- 
 ledons. 
 
 Cc2 
 
4fOJ? 21. TEESDALIA NUDICAULIS. [CL. XV. 
 
 Synonymcs and Figures. 
 
 PaStoria bursa minor, Dodon. 103. Park. Theatr. 866. Mi- 
 nima, Lob. Ic. 221. Ger, em. 276. 
 
 Bursa pastoris parva, folio glabro, J. Bauli. Hist. 2. 937. 
 
 ? Bursa pastoris media, Moris, sect. 3. t. 20. {Nasturtium 
 petrtEwin, Ger. Park. Tahern. Moris., the plant more com- 
 monly identified with this is Lepidium petrtEum.) 
 
 Nasturtium minimum vcrnum, Magnol. Bot. Monsp. 186. 
 Toiirn. Inst. 214. Formerly, however, he classed Nas- 
 
 ' turtium petraum of his predecessors, with Pastoria bursa 
 miiior. 
 
 Iberis foliis pinnatis. Hall. Stirp. Helv. n. 521. 
 
 Iberis nudicauhs, Linn. Ft. Suec. ed. 2. p. 228. Willd. Sp. 
 PI. 3. 458. Fl. Dan. 323. ScM: t. 179- Engl. Bot. 
 327. Sturm. Fl. 11. 
 
 Lepidium nudicaule, Gouan, III. p. 40. Willd. Sp. PI. 3. 
 432. 
 
 Thlaspi nudicaule^ Desfont. Atl. 2. 67. De Cand. Fl, 
 Fran^. 4. 708. 
 
 Guepinia Iberis, Desvaucc, Journ. de Bot. 3. 167. 
 
 Teesdalia nudicaulis, R. Brown, in Ait. Kew., ed. 2. torn. 4. 
 p. 83. 
 
 Geographical Distribution, 
 
 This plant seems chiefly to inhabit the south-west regions 
 of the Old World. Its eastern limits seem to be Grodno and 
 Translyvania, (20° E. Lat.) Northward it extends to the 
 ^4°, for it does not grow in Lapland. Southward it extends, 
 with some variety of form, (with smaller lobes of its root- 
 leaves), as far as Peloponnesus, the south of Spain, and even 
 Algiers, (35" N. Lat.) 
 
ORD. II.] 21. ERYSIMUM CHEIRAXTHOlDrs. 105 
 
 Order II. 
 
 SiUquosa^ with long extended Sili(|u<T. 
 
 22. 
 
 Erysimum cheiranthoides, L. 
 
 Leucoienartiger Hederich, Schotendotter. — French, Velar 
 girqflee. — Engl. Treacle hedge-mustard. — Swed. Akcr- 
 rym. 
 
 This plant, the fibrous root of which lasts two years, is 
 pretty common among the shrubs of our pastures, in mea- 
 dows and moist fields. Its somewhat angular, branched, 
 ferect, leafy, herbaceous stem is furnished with mnncrous ac- 
 cumbent sharp hairs. The leaves of the stem stand alternate, 
 are lanceolate, without stalks, or lengthened into the leaf- 
 stalk, generally two inches long, and half an inch broad, fur- 
 nished with indistinguishable, scattered teeth on the margin, 
 which almost entirely disappear in the upper leaves. The 
 surface appears smooth to the naked eye ; but with a glass we 
 observe small, contiguous, three-pointed hairs. The branches 
 stand open, and carry rich bunches of flowers ; the individual 
 flower-stalks are a line and a half long; at first they are 
 erect, afterwards, when the fruit has I'ij^ened, they become 
 horizontal. The calyx consists of four lanceolate, erect, yel- 
 lowish-green pieces, furnished with a membranaceous margin : 
 the corolla consists of four spoon-shaped, more or less emar- 
 ginated yellow petals, somewhat longer than the calyx. The 
 filaments are six in number, four of which are longer than 
 the other two ; but they are all as long as the pistillum, ami 
 as the claws of the petals. The anthera* are oval, yellow, 
 and bilocular. The nectaries stand at the base of the fila- 
 ments, those on the shorter filaments being half ring.sha|xxl, 
 riiose on the longer crcnated. After flowering:, both tlie si- 
 
406 Q.2. ERSYIMUM CHEIRANTHOIDES. [CL. XV. 
 
 liquae stand erect, are quadrangular, having the remains of 
 the simple stigma at their points, and containing the seed in 
 two row s, the radicle of the embryon being turned towards 
 the ridge of the cotyledons. 
 
 Diagnosis and Affinity. 
 
 The plant which most resembles this is Cheiranthus ery- 
 simoides Linn., or Erysimum hiernc'ifoUiim Linn. Ehrh. (not 
 Jacqu.), or Er. lanceolatum R. Br. But this latter plant is 
 distinguished by its liabitat being confined to dry, sunny 
 places, along the wayside, — by its erect stem, distinctly den- 
 tated leaves, and by its white flowers being larger and whiter. 
 Er. huraci folium Jacq., or odoratum Ehrh. Willd., is also 
 extremely similar, but it has commonly a simple stem, dis- 
 tinctly dentated leaves, golden-yellow flowers, w^hich have a 
 pleasant smell, circular petals, and a two-lobed stigma at the 
 end of the siliqua. Er. repandum Linn, has an almost pro- 
 cumbent stem, the flower-branches of v/hich stand opposite to 
 the leaves : it has also lanceolate, angular dentated leaves, 
 and horizontal siliquae. Er. diffusum Ehrh. has linear, 
 greyish, slightly dentated leaves, the hairs of which have 
 merely a simple cleft, and the flowers are of a pale yel- 
 low colour, and large. Er. angustrfolium Ehrh. has revo^ 
 lute, linear, sulcated, entire, greyish leaves, sulphur-yellow 
 flowers, and a long pistillum on the end of the siliqua. 
 
 Synonymes and Figures. 
 
 Viola lutea sylvestris, Trag. f. 212. b. 
 
 Myagrum alter um, Thlaspi effigic, Lohcl. Hist. 112. Ic. 
 
 225. Dalech. 1137. Amarum, Park. Theatr. 868. 
 Myagro affinis planta, siliquis longis, J. Bank. Hist. 2. 894. 
 ? Erysimon in. Tabern. 840. (It may also, however, be 
 
 Cheiranthus ery simoides). 
 Camelina, Ger. em. 273. 
 
 Eruca sylvestris, Thlasplos effigic, Moris, sect. 3. t. 5. 
 Turritis leucoii folio, Tourn, Inst. 224. 
 Erysinuun cheiranthoidcs, Linn. Willd. Sp. PI. 3. 51 L 
 
CL. XVI.] 23. GERANIUM KOTUXDll OIJIM. 407 
 
 Jacq. Fl Austr. t. 23. FL Dan, 731. 923. En<yL But. 
 942. Schh. t. 183. 
 Cheiranthus turritoides, Lam. Enc. 2. 716. 
 
 Geographical DistrihiUiwi. 
 
 This plant is found from 68° to 44° N. Lat., ibroiigliout 
 tliG whole northern hemisphere. It grows in Lapland, Silic- 
 ria, and North America ; but it does not grow farther south 
 than the South of France. 
 
 CLASS XVL 
 
 23. 
 
 Geranium rotuiidifolium, L. 
 
 Rundblattriggcr Storchschnabel. — French, Geranium a feu- 
 illes rondes. — Engl. Dove'sfoot CranesbilL. — Swed. Gdrd 
 Storhnqf. 
 
 This plant flowers about the middle of summer, in gar- 
 dens and fruitful fields. From a soft, fibrous root arise se- 
 veral herbaceous, roundish stems, furnished with soft, white, 
 erect hairs, somewhat glutinous, much branched, of the thick- 
 ness of a thread, and from one to two feet higli. The branches 
 and leaf-stalks stand opposite to one another, and, where 
 they grow, the stem and branches are somewhat thickened 
 and reddish. Among these divisions stand reddish, mem- 
 branaceous, lanceolate, pointed leafy appendages, which in 
 time become dry, and fall oft'. The leafstalks, which are 
 nearly horizontal, are almost an inch long, and furnislied 
 with shaggy hairs. The lower stem-leaves are nearly circu- 
 lar, liaving a deep small indentation, where the leaf-stalk is 
 inserted : they are five-lobed, having tlie lobes standing thick 
 together, obtusely dentatcd, of a pale green, furnished on 
 
408 23. GERANIUM ROTUNDirOLlUM. [CL. XVI. 
 
 both sides with the same soft shaggy hairs. The upper leaves 
 are more broad than long, so that they are almost reniform ; 
 they have no indentation at the base, but sometimes they ta- 
 per into a wide shape, sometimes they are directly truncated. 
 Their circumference is also divided into five obtuse lobes, 
 standing at some distance from each other, and furnished 
 with three obtuse teeth : their surfaces also are hairy. In 
 the neighbourhood of the flowers the leaves are frequently 
 three-lobed. Their size varies, the lowermost having a diameter 
 of an inch and a half, the uppermost of scarcely half an inch. 
 Opposite to the leaf-stalks, and higher up even between the 
 leaf-stalks, appear the flower-stalks, likewise an inch long. 
 They stand erect, or open, and are divided, half way their 
 length, into two distinct stalks, under which two fine, white, 
 pointed bractca?, or stipulre, stand. The calyx consists of five 
 oblong, pointed, streaked, strongly cihated pieces. The 
 flower consists of five spoon-shaped, pale red, quite entire pe- 
 tals, the claws of which are ciliated at the base : they are ra- 
 ther longer than the calyx. In the bottom of the latter stand 
 ten filaments, enlarged at the base, and clinging to one ano- 
 ther. On their outer side we perceive five nectaries, covered 
 by the cilia? of the petals. The antheras are reddish, and 
 contain a yellow, oval pollen, surrounded by three circles. 
 In the middle of the filarhents rises the pistillum, inclosed by 
 the five, rostrate, connate, shaggy appendages of the germen. 
 At its summit, the pistillum is expanded into a five-lobed, 
 reddish stigma. After the fall of the flower, five ciliated, but 
 not bunchy or wrinkled utriculi, remain, which open laterally 
 from below upwards, and whose beaks are externally set 
 with the same parallel white liairs which cover the whole 
 plant. The spotted, or warty seed, contains the embryon 
 without albumen, with convoluted, membranaceous cotyle- 
 dons, and the radicle turned upwards. 
 
 Diagnosis and Affinity. 
 
 This plant is most nearly related to Geranium molle and 
 puhiUum. But the former of tliese two is distinguished by 
 its cleft, or dcej)ly cmargined })ctals, and by its wrinkled ulri- 
 
CL. XVI.] 23. GERANIUM ROTUND! FOtlUM. 409 
 
 cuius having a smooth beak. Geranium pus'dlum has cmar«;i, 
 nated petals, only five antherae, and its flowers are much 
 smaller, although also ])ale-red. The beak of the vtrkulus 
 is not furnished with distant, but with thick crowded hairs. 
 G. pyrenaicimi^ which is most nearly related to G. molk^ has 
 a perennial root, is much larger in all its parts, has also large 
 flowers, the petals of which are deeply cleft, and it has not a 
 bunchy utriculus. G. dissectum is distinguished by its pal- 
 mate, cleft leaves, the lobes of which are linear, and stand at 
 regular distances from each other ; the emarginated petals 
 are as long as the awned calyx: the beak of the utriculus is 
 furnished with shaggy hairs: the flower-stalks are shorter 
 than the stem-leaves. G. columbinum, on the other hand, 
 which is very like G. dissectum, has very long, wavering, 
 flower-stalks, stem-leaves of the same kind, large flowers, anct 
 a smooth beak of the utriculus. 
 
 The genus Geranium cannot be distinguished at first sight 
 from Erodium Ait. But the latter has among its ten fila- 
 ments, five that are unfruitful and abortive : the beak of the 
 utriculus is turned into a spiral shape, and is intcrn:illy fur- 
 nished with hairs, which may be most easily seen in E. cicu- 
 tariuniy the most common species. Pelargonium Ait. has a 
 similar beak of the utriculus, but the corolla is irregular and 
 two-lipped : the nectary is in the bottom of the tubular calyx. 
 The diagnostic character of Geranium, therefore, is as fol- 
 lows : the corolla regular, ten fertile filaments, five nectarie<> 
 at the base of the filaments, and a straight beak of the utri- 
 culus, internally without hairs. The Geranijc constitute a 
 natural family, which stands between the Agrunia- and Mul- 
 yacese, (Anlejt. ii> vid. 793.) 
 
 Sijnonijme^ mul Figures. 
 
 Geranium alterum, Fuclis. 205. Maitli. ()21. 
 Pes columbinus, Dodon. 61. Lubcl Hist 37C. Ic. Go8 
 Ger. ahud fecundum, Dalech. 1277. Tabcrn. 12J3. 
 Ger. columbinum, Ger. cm. 938. Pari'. 70(). 
 Ger. folio rotundo, J. Bnuh. 3. 173., is intencK^l for it, ))UL 
 the figure is quite a failure. 
 
410 24. LATHYRUS TUBEROSUS. [CL. XVII. 
 
 Ger. folio malvae rotundo, C. Bauh. Pin. 318. Tourn. Inst 
 
 268. 
 Ger. annuum, folio malvaceo rotundo, Moris, sect. 5. t. 15. 
 Ger. viscidum, caule decumbente, Hall. Stirp. Helv. n. 941. 
 Ger. rotundifolium, Linn. Willd. Sp. PI 3. 712. Cav. 
 
 Diss. 4. t. 193. f 2. Engl Bot. 157. 
 
 Geographical Distribution, 
 
 This species delights in the temperate and warmer regions 
 of the earth. In Sweden it does not grow beyond the 61*^. 
 On the other hand, it extends throughout the whole of Eu- 
 rope, as far as the islands of tlie Archipelagus, and it is even 
 found in the northern coasts of Africa. Its diffusion east- 
 ward seems to be limited by the Wolga Heights ; for it is 
 found in Lithuania, but not in the other parts of Bussia, in 
 Tauris, or in Asia. 
 
 CLASS XVII. 
 
 24. 
 
 Lathyrus tuberosus, L. 
 
 Erdnuss, Erdmandel, Grundeichell, Akereichell, Sand-brot. 
 —French, Anette, Marcusson. 
 
 This beautiful plant is common enough in the corn fields of 
 Germany. The stem rises from an irregular, yet, for the most 
 part, round tuber, externally of a brown colour, internally 
 white, and of an agreeable taste. The stem is herbaceous, erect, 
 commonly quadrangular, without leafy or membranaceous 
 appendages : its upper part is divided into branches, and it 
 attaches itself, by cirrhi, to other plants and objects. It is an 
 ell or arm in length, and, at its lower part, is of the thick- 
 ness of a pack-thread. Where the leaf-stalks and branches 
 arise, there arc linear, long, and fine pointed stipulae, which 
 
CL. XVII.] 24). I.ATIIYllUS TUBEROSLS. ill 
 
 are half arrow-shaped, by having the lower teelh reflex. The 
 leaf-stalks stand open, are at least half an inch long, angular, 
 and carry each two opposite, oblong, entire leaves, tajR'iing 
 at the base, somewhat rounded at the point, furnished with 
 an herbaceous spine, penetrated by many nerves and veins, 
 but in other respects smooth, and which are an inch long, and 
 rather more than half an inch broad. The leaf-stalk passes 
 above these leaves into divided crooked cirrhi. 
 
 At the extremity of the shoots grow^ the flower-stalks, 
 about a finger in length, frequently still longer, without 
 leaves, smooth, roundish, and erect. The beautiful red flowers 
 stand in a six or eight blossomed bunch. The individual 
 flower-stalks stand open, are from three to four lines in length, 
 and have beneath them a linear stipula, wliich is about one 
 half shorter than the flower-stalks. 
 
 The calyx is divided into five lanceolate teeth, two of svliich 
 commonly lie on the vexillum of the corolla, and three stand 
 beneath it. The corolla is papilionaceous. The vexillum is 
 emarginated, reflex, white in the centre, of a beautiful red 
 above, and marked wdth red streaks below. The aUe and the 
 carina, likewise of a beautiful red, are inferior to it. The 
 carina incloses a cylinder of filaments, one of which becomes 
 separated from the rest towards the vexillum. The other 
 nine are completely united : all of them carry round, yellow- 
 ish antherae. In the middle of tliem stands the longisli, 
 compressed germen, with the ciliated, broad pistillum, and a 
 yellow, roundish stigma. The fruit, which is superior to the 
 calyx, is an unilocular, two-lobcd, rather compressed legume, 
 which contains ten roundish seeds, fixed to one suture. 
 The embryon fills the whole seed with its two rounilish 
 strong cotyledons. 
 
 Diagnosis and ^JjinKi/. 
 
 This species cannot easily be confounded with any other. 
 It is true that in Lathyrus pratcnsis the cirrhus also springs 
 from tw^o opposite leaves ; but these leaves are lanceolate, laixr- 
 ing at tlie point, and the Howers are always yellow. In L. .sy//- 
 Vestrls Sindi lafj/oHus, also, the flowers lue red; but m ihr 
 
412 24. LATHYRUS TUBEROSUS. [CL. XVII. 
 
 former they are more soiled, and the carina is green ; both 
 have leafy appendages on the stem and on the branches. The 
 leaves of L. sylvestris are about three inches long, and sharp- 
 ly tapered at their point. L. latifoUus has flowers of a rose- 
 red colour ; oblong, rounded leaves, with an herbaceous spine, 
 and these leaves arc also much larger than those of the other 
 species, and almost coriaceous. The stipulae are broad lan- 
 ceolate, and rather dentated. With other species it has still 
 less affinity. 
 
 The genus Lathyrus has a very distinct character in the 
 flat pistillum, although in other respects it is nearly related to 
 Vicia, which, however, is distinguished by the hairs of the 
 roundish pistillum ; and Orohus^ which is related to both of 
 them, is distinguished only by the want of cirrhi. These ge- 
 nera belong to the natural family of leguminous plants, which 
 stand between the Polygalea? and Capparideas ; (An. 2. vid. 
 740.J 
 
 Synonymes and Figures. 
 
 Apios, Fuchs, 131. Dalech. 1596. 
 Pseudoapios, Matth. ed. Bauh. 876. 
 Terrae glandes, Dodon. 550. Lobel Ic. 2. 70. Ger. Emac, 
 
 1237. 
 Cham^ebalanus, Tahern. 891. J. Bauh, Hist. 2. 328. 
 Arachydna Theophrasti, Column. Ecphr. 1. p. 304. t. 301. 
 Lathyrus arvensis. Park. Theatr. 1061, radice tuberosa, 
 
 Moris, sect. 2. t. 2. Riv. Tdrapet. Irreg, 
 J., tuberosus, Linn. IVilld. Sp. PI. 3. 1088. Fl. Dan. 1463. 
 
 peograpliiQcd Distribution. 
 
 It is as yet completely unknown according to what laws 
 this plant is distributed. We find it so dispersed from 30"* 
 to 56^ N. Lat. in the Old World, that some countries have it, 
 whilst others, lymg in the same latitude, want it. Thus, it 
 is very conmion on the north coast of Africa ; on the other 
 liand, it is wanting in Greece and Asia Minor : it is found in 
 '^Fauris and Transylvania, in Germany, France, and Poland ; 
 but is wanting in Sweden and Great Britain. In Denmark 
 
CL. XVIir.] 25. HYPERICUIM MONTANUM. 413 
 
 it is only found near the fort at Copenhagen. In Siberia, 
 again, it grows along the upper Jcnisei as far Krasnojarsk. 
 
 Uses. 
 
 The tubers are edible. In Siberia they are much rehshed 
 by the Tartars, under the name Tschina. Tlie common 
 people in Germany also use them. They contain three limes 
 more starch than potatoes. 
 
 CLASS XVIII. 
 
 25. 
 
 Hypericum montanum, L. 
 
 Berg- Johanniskraut, Grossblattriges Hardieu, — French, Mil- 
 lepertuis de montagne. — Engl. Mountain St John's-icort. 
 
 This graceful plant grows single, in woods and on calca- 
 reous soils. The stem, which is an ell long, round, sim})le, 
 and smooth, springs from a brown, woody, fibrous root, and is 
 about the thickness of a pack-thread. The stem-leaves are 
 oblong, smooth, and stalkless : they stand above and oppo^iie 
 each other, at intervals, which are an inch and a half long, 
 and they partially embrace the stem. The margin of the 
 leaves is adorned with black points, and its lower surl'ace is 
 reddish. The leaves are rather tapering at the point, yet not 
 pointed. On their lower surface we perceive some ribs pro- 
 ceeding from the base. The length of the leaves is an incli, 
 the breadth half an inch. The leaves, when rubbed, before 
 the flowering, give out a reddish juice. On the upper part 
 of the stem they are less frequent, and much smaller. Tlie 
 flowers stand on the top of the stem in crowded panicles, len- 
 der each flower-stalk there is a lanceolate brattea, set roumi 
 with black stalked glands. In the same manner are tlu' live 
 lanceolate leaves of the calvx Inclosed. Of tlic <evir:il tlow- 
 
414 25. HYPERICUM MONTANUM. [CL. XVIII. 
 
 crs in the panicle, only a pair is ahvays quite open : they 
 consist of five oWiqiie, entire, citron-yellow leaflets. From 
 the bottom of the calyx rise the yellow filaments, in indeter- 
 minate number, and in three bundles : they carry oval anthe- 
 ra?, likewise of a yellow colour, and are for the most part 
 longer than the petals. The germen is superior, and carries 
 three remote pistilla, with button-shaped stigmata. After 
 flowering, the corolla withers, without falling off^", and be- 
 comes somewhat twisted, for its aestivation is complex. The 
 fruit is a thrce-lobed capsule, the valves of which form 
 double dissepimenta with their inverted margins. The nume- 
 rous fine seeds contain the embryon evoh ed, with albuminous 
 
 Diagnosis and Affinity. 
 
 The species most related to this is the H. elegans Willd., 
 {Kohlianum Fl. Hal.) But this is distinguished — by its 
 shrubby stem, which with us is seldom longer than a small 
 span, — by its leaves, which, being much smaller, are furnish- 
 ed on the margin, not with black, but with bright points, and 
 have their margins for the most part reversed. This species is 
 limited in Germany to a single calcareous hill. But it grows 
 also in Volhynia, where it is an ell in length, and in Siberia. 
 H. perfoliatum L. or ciliatum Willd. has a two-edged stem, 
 and pellucid points in the leaves, which embrace the stalk. 
 Of exactly the same nature is the structure of //. ThomoMi 
 from Calabria. It has cordate leaves, completely embracing 
 the stem, furnished with bright points, and pellucid cartilagi- 
 nous margins, an obtuse quadrangular stem, the bractea? and 
 the leaves of the calyx completely set round with glands having 
 stalks. Very much resembling our plant is aiSo H. macula' 
 turn Wall. Mich. ; but here also the stem and the petals are 
 furnislied with dark points. The panicle is expanded, with 
 branches distant from one another, and forming together 
 an umbel. H. coiipnbosuui Willd., and pnnctahim Lam., 
 belong to this species. But H. pimctafum Willd. seems to 
 be a different species, although one that is related to H. mon- 
 ianuiii. The dark points shew themselves through the whole 
 
CL. XVIII.] 25. HYPERICUM MOXTANUM. 415 
 
 leaves, and the round stem also is set with tlicm ; llie leave:* 
 also are much smaller. H. alpinum Kit. (Hung. 3. t. ^65.) 
 is also very nearly related, but is distinguished l)y fine hairs 
 on the ])etals, and by having the upper part of its stem two* 
 edged. H, dentatum Loisel. (Fl. Gall. 2. p. 499. t. 17.) 
 has completely the external appearance of //. montnnmn ; 
 but the leaves are not studded on the margin with black, but 
 every where with pellucid points, and those farthest up are 
 fringed and ciliated on the margin. We cannot, with l*oiret, 
 (Enc. Suppl. 3. 700.) suppose it to be a subspecies of our 
 plant. H. pulchrum, to which H. montanum is also very si- 
 milar, has quite short, ovate leaves, embracing the stem, and 
 fine dark points. //. liirsutuvi is distinguished by the shag- 
 gy hair which covers the stem, and the lower surfiicc of the 
 leaves. 
 
 The genus Hypericum, along with some others, constitutes 
 a natural tribe, which includes the Guttifer.-e {Marcgraviccc 
 and Mesuea), and has, in common witli them, the coloured 
 peculiar sap, the indeteraiinate number of the almost united 
 filaments, and the number five prevailing in the calyx and 
 in the corolla. As we do not observe any nectaries in most 
 of the species of Hypei^icum, we distinguish as a ])eculiar 
 species, under the name Martia (Elodea Adans.) the //. Vir- 
 ginicum L. smd petiolatum Wall., on account of three necta- 
 rious glands on the base of the petals, between the bundles 
 of filaments. Jndrosamum Tourn. also is distinguished by 
 the berry-shaped fruit, and Ascyrum by its four-leavcxl ca- 
 lyx and corolla, and by its two-valved capsule. On the other 
 hand, the diagnostic character of Hypericum is its five-lcaved 
 calyx ; its corolla, consisting of five petals ; its filaments in 
 three or more bundles ; no nectaries ; three or five pistilla ; 
 a three or five valved capsule, with the margins of the valves 
 involuted. To this genus also is now added Sarothra L., 
 the filaments of which vary from five to ten. 
 
 Synmymcs and Figures. 
 
 Hypericon II. Trag, 28. 
 Androsaemon, Fuchs. 7G. 
 
416 25. HYPERKI'M .MONTANUJf. [CL. XIX. 
 
 Hypericum elegantissimum non ramosum, J. Bauh. Hist. S. 
 
 '383. Tour7i. Inst ^55. 
 Androsaemum campoclarensc, Colunm. Ecphr. 1. 74. 
 Ascyron, s. Hypericum bifoUum, C. Bauh. Pin. 280. (excl. 
 
 synon. Dodon. et Matth., qu£e ad H. quadrangulare.) 
 
 Moris, sect. 5. t. 6. 
 Hypericum montanum, Lifin. Willd. Sp. PI. 3. p. 1463, 
 
 Fl. Dan. 173. Engl. Bot 371. Trattin. Ostr. Fhr. H. 3. 
 
 Geographical Distribution. 
 
 Desfontaines places this species on the mountains of Al- 
 giers, and Sibthorp near Messenia in Peloponnesus. It is dif- 
 fused from 30° N. Lat. throughout the whole of Europe. 
 How far it proceeds towards the north, is not yet established. 
 It grows at Bornholm, and in the south of Sweden ; but not 
 in Lapland, nor in Norway. Its northern boundary in Swe- 
 den seems thus to be the 61° N. Lat. How far eastward it 
 extends, is not yet determined. It is found in Lithuania^ 
 Gallicia, and Transylvania^ but not in Tauris, the other 
 parts of Russia and Siberia. Its eastern limit may therefore 
 be the 30° E. Lat. 
 
 GLASS XIX 
 
 Order I. 
 a chore a J or Semijlosculosir. 
 
 Thrincia hirta, Roth. 
 
 This plant grows in July and August on some pastures and 
 fields in Germany. The root is perennial and fibrous. Here 
 and there appears a somewhat thickened, tuberous radix. From 
 this spring, in the first place, several- lanceolate leaves, taper- 
 
CL. XIX.] 26. THlilXClA Hliri A, 
 
 417 
 
 ing towards the base, having sparse teeth on llie niargin, ami 
 sinuses between ; these leaves are set with scattered white 
 hairs, rather stiff, separated in the form of cirrhi at the ex- 
 tremity. The lengtli of tlie leaves is at most that of a finger, 
 the breadth about three lines. At the side, not in the centre, 
 of this plot of leaves, there arise several round stalks, either 
 quite smooth, or having their under suriace furnished with a 
 few scattered hairs, of a reddish colour below, a small or great 
 span long, of the thickness of a thread, and carrvi ng single 
 flowers. The flowers, before blossoming, are pendant. The 
 calyx is smooth, or slightly ciliated, simple, divided into eight 
 or ten pieces, and furnished at the base with some small short 
 scales. The calyx has as many corners as parts. 
 
 The flower consists of an indeterminate number of uniform, 
 yellow, tongue-shaped florets, whicli are penetrated longitu- 
 dinally by five fine parallel veins (Vid. 2G0. II. Brown in 
 meinen. Neuen Entdeckungen, i. 1G6.), and the upper end 
 of which terminates in five teeth, between which run those 
 veins or nerves. The ray-florets, or those on the margin, 
 are of a lead or copper colour on their lower surface. In 
 each of the florets is a cylinder of yellow antherac, tlie fila- 
 ments of which are ciliated, remote, and inserted into the 
 lower tubular part of the floret. Through the middle of the 
 cyhnder of antherae proceeds the pistillum, which terminates 
 above, in two linear stigmata, internally warty, outwardly 
 furnished with small hairs, (Collectores, vid. 273.) At first 
 the pistillum is included in the cylinder of anther.^ ; after- 
 wards the former comes forth, and its stigmata become ex- 
 panded, and revolute. The pollen is spherical, set round 
 with fine spines, (271.) The nectary is the up{X'r part of 
 the germen, within die pappus. The receptacle is full of 
 very fine cavities, set with extremely delicate bristles. The 
 seed is longish, brown, sulcated, having cross ridges, and a 
 varying pappus: For the ray-florets bear seeds the pappus 
 of which consists altogether of short chaffy leaves ; the setnis 
 in the centre, on the contrary, have a pinnated pappus. The 
 seed is a caryopsis, in which the evolved embryon stnmh 
 erect, without albuminous matter. 
 
 l)d 
 
418 2C. TiniTXriA IiniTA. [OL. XIX. 
 
 Diagnosis and Affimty. 
 This plant is commonly classed with Hierachim pUoselln 
 and Aparglu hispida. With these two it might most readi- 
 ly be confounded. But //. pihsclla is distinguished by 
 trailing shoots, — by its entire, more strongly ciliated leaves, 
 having their under-surface set with a white tomcidum^ — 
 by its citron-yellow flowers, the lower parts of which are 
 of a bright red, and which, upon the whole, are much lar- 
 ger than the flowers of Thrincia ; — finally, by its simple, 
 hairy pappus. Apargia hispida has runcinate leaves, the 
 hairs of which are universally divided into a forked shape. 
 In the centre, not at the sides of these leafy plots, arise, pret- 
 ty perpendicularly, the flower-stalks having each one blossom, 
 and more strongly ciliated. The calyx is covered by strong 
 hairs, scaly, and the scales lie like tiles on one another. The 
 flowers are larger than those of Thrincia, and of a darker yel- 
 low ; each floret lias a bush of loqg yellow hair at the en- 
 trance of the tube, and the five teeth of the upper extremity 
 have five brown glands on their lower surface. In other re- 
 spects the lower surface of the florets is of the same colour 
 as the upper. The pappus is ovate and pinnated. In 
 the south of Europe there grows a species, Avhich is 
 uncommonly like this, namely, Thrincia hispida Roth. 
 This is distingiiished by its annual root, — by its runcinate 
 leaves, every where furnished with forked hairs, — by its 
 roughly ciliated calyx and long-stalked pappus. There 
 grows also in the south of France and in Italy, a Thrincia 
 tuberosa De Cand. Sav., which is distinguished by its beet- 
 shaped tuberous roots, its runcinate, nearly smooth leaves, and 
 by its calvx being but slightly ciliated. Its florets also are 
 discoloured on the back. Apargia iuhcrosa Wilkl. does not 
 altogether correspond with this, but the following more an- 
 cient synonymes are applicable to it : Cichorium Constanti- 
 nopolifanum, Mattli. cd. Bauh. 388. ; Dens Lconis Monspcli- 
 ensiinn, Dodon. 636. ; Monspeliensium dens Lconis, asphode- 
 li bulbulis, Lobel. Hist. 117. ic. 5232.: ChondriUa altera 
 D'toscor'nVis, t't^lvnnb Plivlob, t. 4. These, therefore, are 
 
ORD. 1.] 26. TITRi:<CIA MIUTA. 419^ 
 
 the true Thrhicia iuberosa. Aparg'm iuhcrom grows smooth 
 and cihated : the ciliae are sliort and forked. The leaves arc 
 shaped pretty mucli in the same way as thosi* of Thr. lirfu. 
 The flowers are large, the calyx distinclly scaly and cillattHl, 
 the pappus uniformly pinnated. The plant which has the 
 greatest resemblance to this is Aparg^'ia hast'dU Willd. parti- 
 cularly because here also the calyx has the r.amc shape, ami 
 the marginal florets have the same leaden colour on their 
 lower surface. I also think that the two sj)ecics coulil only 
 be artificially distinguished. For Ap. hastills has an ovaU: 
 pinnated pappus, and is quite smooth. Are there not transi- 
 tions from the one form to the other ? I think there are. 
 Jacquin fifty years ago attempted in vain to discover these 
 transitions, {Enumer. Plant. Vindob. p. 270.) I.achenal, 
 (Act. Helv. 1. p. 272.), indeed, has remarked transitions to 
 Leontodon Jmpulum ; but can we believe that he had our 
 plant actually in his eye ? 
 
 Synonymcs and Figures. 
 
 Hieracium ;^jajMa<A«<r<oTg«;cy?'«^^''y, Richard de Bellrc. Ic. 1. 119- 
 Hier. hirsutum parvum, caule aphyllo Magnoh Bat. Monsp. 
 
 131. 
 Hier. montanum latifohum non sinuatum, Loscl. Boruss. 
 
 p. 125.* 
 Dens leonis foliis hirsutis Zannich Vend. p. 86. t. 183. f. 1. 
 ? Hieracium dentis leonis folio, Bua:b. Hal. 157. 
 Rhagadiolus foliis semipinnatis asperrimis. Hall. Stir p. n. 7. 
 Leontodon hirtum, Linn. Sp. PI. cd. Rcic/i. 3. G34. (excl. sy- 
 
 non. Bauh. et baud apta descriptione.) Houtuyn. 9. CO. 
 
 Gouan Fl. Monspel 349. Wither. Arrang. 3. 837. (excl. 
 
 Syn. FL Dan. 901. qua? Apargia hispida.) Roth. FL 
 
 Gerin.%%\^5. Jacqu. Vindob. 139. Lcer.s, Hcrborn. 
 
 168. * Leyss. Hal. cd. 2. p. 191. 
 Leontodon proteiforme, Vdl. Delph. 3. p. 87. t. 24. (>ed excl. 
 
 plerisque synonymis.) 
 Apargia hirta, Scop. Cam. n. 984. (excl. syn. J. Bauh.) 
 
 Hqfm. Germ. 274. Host. Syn. Austr. 424. Synith. 
 
 Prodr Grar 2. 131. SM: t. 220. 
 
 \) i\ 2 
 
420 2G. THllIXCTA TIIP.TA. [CL. XIX. 
 
 Jlyosciis taraxacoides, Lam. Enc. 3. 159. (Sed pianta dici. 
 
 tur annua.) Snv. Ph. 2. f?30. Sanfi it, Tosc. 3. p. 360. 
 
 t. T. 
 Rhacradiolus taraxacoides, AUimi. Peduti. p. 83G. 
 Let)ntodon hlspiduni, PolUch. Pulat. n. 737. * (Scd de pap- 
 
 })i diversitate nil dicit.) 
 Colobium hirtum, Roth, in Rem. Arch. 1. 37. 
 TInincia hirta, Roth. Catal Bot. 1. 98, 2. 103. WilU. Sp. 
 
 PI 3. 1554. Pcrs. St/n. 2. 368. De Cand. Fl. Fran. 4. 
 
 51. Sav. Bot. Etrtcsc. 3. 12^. Bertoloti. Amccn. Acad. 
 
 183. Ilagcn. FL Boruss. 2. 153. Sprcng. Hal 228. 
 
 Baiimg. Transylv. 3. 15. 
 
 Geographical Distribution. 
 
 Tliis plant seems to be limited to a few countries. Ger- 
 many, from 50' N. Lat. going onwards to the south, France, 
 Italy, and Transylvania, are the countries in which it is found. 
 Whether it grows in the Island of Great Britain is still unde- 
 termined ; because Hedypnois hirta Huds., although called a 
 ThrinciOf has many circumstances that distinguish it from 
 this, especially as Hieracium pumilum saxatih Rai Syn. 167. 
 along with which Hicr. montarnim saxatile C. Bauh. Prodr. 
 66. and Column. Ecphr. 1. 243, is classed, is by no means 
 our plant, but a subspecies of Apargia hispida or A. Villar- 
 sii Willd. But the plant of Ray is figured in the Engl. Bot. 
 555. 
 
 Cynarcce ; (Anleit. ii. 532.) 
 
 Cirsium Eriophorum, Scop. 
 
 Wolldistel. — French, Cliardon aiix uncs. — Engl. Woolly- 
 headed thistle. 
 
 This remarkable and beautiful thistle only grows in Germany 
 within very confined limits, on mountain meadows. It has a 
 
 • Apargia hirta (distinct from A. hispida) is now ascertained to be a native 
 Lotli of England and .'Scotland. 
 
UllD. I.] 127. CIKSIUM KUlOrilOKUM. 421 
 
 biennial, Avhitc root, of the tl)icknci.s of n thiinih, und an 
 ell in length, from which, during the second year, a stem 
 shoots up, about the height of a man, of the tliickncss of a 
 finger or thumb, straight, green, angulai-, and entirely wool- 
 ly. The leaves are deeply semi-pinnate, the lowermost being 
 often two feet long, covered on their under-surface with thick, 
 woolly, white tomnUum, and having their upper surface green, 
 set with stiff, somewhat crowded hairs. On the lower leaves 
 the lacinios are remote and upright, again divided into two 
 other lacinia^, the larger of which is linear, the smaller 
 spear-shaped ; both of them are entire, but furnished with 
 thorns, and terminated in two strong yellowish thorns, 
 which are placed alternately upwards and downwards. The 
 middle rib is strong, projects downwards, and also terminates 
 in a long, stift* thorn. The stem-leaves are not so long, em- 
 brace the stem without rnnning downwards, and are not so 
 regularly pinnated, but in other respects resemble the loot- 
 leaves. The flowers on the top of the shoot, together with 
 the calyx, are about eight inches in circumference. The ca- 
 lyces, several of which often stand together, are fiu'nished at 
 their base with very small, semi-pinnate, thorny covering 
 leaves, about the size of an ordinary apple : the small thorny 
 scales of the calyx are set with thick white wool, which, how- 
 ever, in many instances passes into something resembling a 
 mere cobweb. The florets are all uniform, tubular, of a purple 
 red colour, and their margin is divided into five segments. The 
 cylinder of antheras is longer than the floret ; the pistillum is 
 furnished with a divided stigma ; the receptacle is set with chaf- 
 fy leaves, which are divided into bristles. The pappus, stalk- 
 less and pinnated, rests upon a ring, which seems to be in 
 the act of disengaging itself from the oval seed. The seed is 
 a caryopsis, in which the embryon, without albuminous mat- 
 ter, stands erect, with its cotyledons unfolded. 
 
 Diagnosis and Affinitij. 
 
 The most nearly related to this species is Cirsium lancco- 
 latum Scop. ; yet the calyx of the latter is not woolly, but 
 merely covered by a fine web, and the leaves, wliich are not 
 
4252 27. CIRSIUM ERIOPHOllUM. [CL. XIX. 
 
 so deeply semi-pinnate, run down the stem. The stem itself 
 is not so tall, and the flowers are not so large as in our spe- 
 cies. Cnlcus luniflorus M. B. is still more nearly related to 
 it, and is distinguished by having the scales of its calyx 
 broader ; — these are of a reddish colour. As this corresponds 
 with the figure in the Engl. Bot.y it becomes a question, 
 Avhether the Tauric and British plants be not the same 
 variety of C. eriophorum. The other species have a less 
 perfect resemblance Cirsiiim, long ago very correctly dis- 
 tmguished by Tournefort, has been named Cnicua by some 
 later writers, who have not recollected, that Seb. Vaillant a 
 century ago, had given the name to the well marked Centau- 
 rca henedicta as a peculiar genus. We appropriate the name 
 Cirsium, therefore, to those thistles the pappi of which ai*e 
 pinnate and the scales of the calyx thorny. If the scales of 
 the calyx are unarmed, it is tlie genus Saussurea De Cand= 
 If the pappus is simply hairy, it is the genus Carduus. 
 
 Synonyritej and Figures. 
 
 Carduus eri(x:ephalus, Dodon. 723. Clus. Pann. ^(iii. Hist 
 
 J^. 154. Gerard, Emac. 1152. 
 Carduus tomentosus, Lobel. Hist. 482. ic. 2. 9. C. capite 
 
 tomcntoso. J. Bank. Hist. 3. 57. Parkins, 978. 
 Cirsium foliis pinnatis, Hall. Helv. n. 168. 
 Carduus criophorus, Linn. Hort. Upsal 249. Mill. Ic. 293. 
 
 Willd. Sp. PI. 3. 1669. Jacq. Fl. Austr. 171. ? Eng. 
 
 Bot, 386. 
 Cu-sium eriophorum^ Scop. Cam. n. 1008. 
 
 Geographical Distribution . 
 In England, v/here diis thistle is not rare, its farthest nor- 
 thern limit is Cumberland*, (between 54° and 55" N. Lat.) 
 In Germany, again, it extends only a little beyond 51° ; but 
 southward from this, it is very connnon in all hilly regions, 
 especially in the Palatinate, Austria, Hungary, Transylvania, 
 If Gillibert's account (Jundzill, Fl. Lithuan. 244.) be correct, 
 it grows again more eastward, as far as 55°, for it is found be- 
 
 * It grows albu in Scotland, bat spiiringly ; as near the foot of Largo Law 
 in Fifeshire. 
 
GUI). II.] <28. AKNICA .MONTANA. lli.'> 
 
 tween Grodno and Wilna. In France, Italy, nnd (ircicc, as 
 well as in Asia Minor, near Smyrna (30), it grows pretty 
 frc(]ucntly. 
 
 Order II. 
 liudiata', ( Polygamia supcrjlua. ) 
 
 Arnica montana, L. 
 
 Fall kraut, Wolvcrley. — French, Tabac dcs Fosgt^v, Tabac 
 Savoymd-s. — Swcd. St Hanshlomster. 
 
 This remarkable plant grows in open woods and on moun- 
 tain meadows. Its root is perennial, brown, of the thickness 
 of a quill, almost horizontal : it shoots out several root leaves, 
 which are opposite to one another, oblong or elliptical, entire, 
 set on both sides, especially on the upper, with sparse, crook- 
 ed hairs, ciliated, and furnished with five nerves. They pass 
 downwards into a short sheath-shaped leaf-stalk, which is 
 composed of- the two opposite leaves. The lowermost leaves 
 are from two inches to a finger in length, from an inch to an 
 inch and a half broad, rounded at the point, and commonly 
 they stand in pairs, one above the other. The simple, round- 
 ish, furrowed or angular stem, set with crooked glandular ci- 
 lia, and of the thickness of a pack-thread, rises from about a 
 foot to an ell in height. About its centre are two lanceolate, 
 small, pointed leaves, which embrace the stem on both sides. 
 Commonly' the stem is divided at the upper end, but frequently 
 also it remains simple, and carries a single large copper-yellow 
 coloured flower, of a strong, pecidiar smell. The common 
 calyx consists of four ciliated, lanceolate leaflets, which stand 
 in two rows. The ray-florets arc Ungulate, terminate in 
 three points, and are penetrated by nine parallel nerves. At 
 tlie entrance of the tube of tliese ray-florets are lour or live 
 free, short filaments, inserted in the floret, with the same 
 number of j»oinled, cm[)ly, evidently abortive anthenc. The 
 florets of the disc are tubulai', with a (ivc-lobed margin. The 
 
42i 2S. AllNICA .MONTANA. [cL. XIX. 
 
 yellow cylinder of antlierae surrounds the pistillum, Avhich 
 here, as in the ray-florets, is divided. The receptacle is fur- 
 nished v'ith short cilia. The fruit is an angular caryopsis, 
 of which the inferior umbilicus is furnished with a persistent 
 funiculits umbilicaUs. The caryopses are provided with sharp 
 cilia, and have a sharp-haired pappus. 
 
 Diagnvs'is and Affinity. 
 
 There is a distinct variety of this plant, with small 
 lanceolate leaves, which is figured in the Fl. Dan. 1524. 
 yis the Arnica angustifolia Vahl. of Greenland. Linnaeus 
 (Fl. Lappon. n. 305.) mentions the same plant under Doro- 
 oiicwn foUis lanccolatis^ and maintains that it is a peculiar spe- 
 cies. But he cites, at the same time, Doromcum IV. Clus. 
 Pannon. 5S2. and Alisma MatthioU J. Bauh. Hist. 3. 20, 
 both of which figures perfectly correspond with our A. mon- 
 iana. Chryscmtlievium laUfoliuvi mbius Ger. Emac. 742. 
 might also be mentioned on the same occasion. In the later 
 editions of the Species Phmtarum this plant is mentioned in 
 the Flora of Lapland, as a variety of A. montana. Nut- 
 tall (Amer. Plants, 2. 164.) also recognises A.fidgens scad. 
 j)Iantogincce Pursh, as varieties which grow in Labrador, 
 and on the Missouri. The former small-leaved species is 
 mentioned by Linnaeus in a letter to J. G. Gmelin (Fl. Sib. 
 2. 153.) as a variety, produced by its situation on high moun- 
 tains. That which bears the greatest resemblance to our 
 plant is A. chronicumy which is distinguished, however, by the 
 alternate position and dentated margin of its upper leaves. 
 The genus Arnica is in other respects difficult to be distinguish- 
 ed from Doromcum^ for both have a double row of leaflets in 
 the calyx, both have a hairy receptacle, abortive filaments in 
 the ligulate florets, and a pappus with sharp-pointed hairs. The 
 only difference is, that in Doromcum the marginal seeds have 
 no pappus. Doronicum plantagineum, which is very like our 
 plant, is distinguished from it, partly by the generic charac- 
 ter, partly by the alternate, imperfectly dentated teeth, and, 
 by the pale yellow, almost inodorous flowers 
 
OllD. 11.] 28. AUMCA .MONTANA. 425 
 
 Syiionijrnes and Figures. 
 Chrysanthemum latifolium, Dodon. 263. Dalcch. 1358. 
 
 Gerard, Emac. 742. 
 Alisma, Matth. cd. Bauh. 666. J. Bank. Hist. 3. 20. 
 Doronicum IV. Clus. Pannon, 522. V. VI. Clus. HisL 2. 
 
 18. 
 Nardus Celtica altera, Lohel. Ic. 313. 
 Ptarmica montana, Dalcch. 1169. 
 
 Damasonium s. Alisma Mattli. Dalcch. 1057. Tabcrn. 1116. 
 Caltha alpina, Tahern. 714. 
 Doronicum Germanicum, Park. Theat. 321. 
 Aiov^nriKvi Renealm. Spec. 119. 
 Doronicum plantaginis folio alterum, C. Bauh. Pin. 185. 
 
 Tourn. Inst. 487. Lin7i. Fl. Lap. 304, 305. 
 Arnica montana, Linn. Sp. PL 1245. Fl. Dan. 63. Schh\ 
 
 t. 248. 
 Doronicum oppositifolium, Lam. Enc. 2. 312, 
 Cineraria cernua, Than. iMnd. 344. 
 
 Geog raphical Distribution. 
 
 IC A. angusiifoUa VohX., fulgens and plantaginca Pursh, 
 belong to our species, it is diffused northward as far as 
 Greenland and Labrador; which cannot be wondered at, 
 since Messerschmid and John George Gmelin found it on the 
 banks of the Tungusca and the Jenisei (beyond 60° N. Lat.), 
 and Steller found it on Behring's Island. It is remarkable 
 that Linnfcas found it at Torneo (68^ N. Lat.) ; but Wah- 
 lenberg found it not in Lapland. To the south, it grows 
 throughout Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Prussia, Lithuania, 
 Galicia, Hungary, Transylvania, France, and Switzerland. 
 The farther south, the higher it ascends the mountains. It 
 IS even found on ihp Pyrenees. 
 
 Uses. 
 
 It is one of the most important medicines, the stimulating 
 power of which is seen particularly in the vascular system, and 
 niust be ascribed to the resinous ingredient which accompanies 
 
426 28. AllMCA MONTANA. [cL. XIX. 
 
 the volatile oil. The root contains tanning matter also ; 
 the flowers are very rich in volatile oil and resin ; the 
 leaves contain more soapy extractive matter. In warm solu- 
 tions we employ it in palsy and typhus, for awakening sus- 
 ceptibility ; we employ it also for stoppmg the blood after ex- 
 ternal wounds, and as a diuretic and sneezing powder. From 
 this last use its present name is derived, for i^^ivov has passed in- 
 to Arnica. Under the latter name it was used in the fifteenth 
 century, and the first person who suspected its medicinal qua- 
 lity was unquestionably Lobelius (Adv. 133.), where he 
 praises the plant on account of its diuretic powers. Taber- 
 namontanus extols it for its power of stopping bleeding after 
 wounds, (Krauterb. 417.) The name Tabac de Savoyards 
 et de Vosges, is derived from its being smoked and snuffed by 
 the Savoyards and inhabitants of the Vogeses. 
 
 Order III. 
 Centaurco', (Polygamiajrustranea.) 
 
 29. 
 Calcitrapa stellata, Lam. 
 
 Sterndistel, Wegedistel. — French, Chaussc-trape, Char don 
 eto'ilc. — Eng. Star-thistle. — Ital. La scardigUona. 
 
 This plant grows abundantly in central Germany, by irr. 
 way side, and on dry fields. It has a white, rather creeping 
 root, which lasts only one summer. The woody, branchy 
 stem is perhaps two feet high, divided from below upwards 
 into branches which are squarrose and sm(X)th, or furnished 
 with a few soft hairs ; they are round also, and of a yellowish 
 white. The root-leaves are lyre-shaped, but soon fall off. 
 The stem-leaves are alternate, embrace the stem, or are with- 
 out stalks, lanceolate, pointed, an inch long or somewhat long- 
 er, >Nemi-piimatcd at th«: base, with bharp teeth on the margin, 
 
OKD. 111.] ;29. CAT.dTRArA STELLATA. 427 
 
 smooth on both sides, or sUghtly cihated. Above the divisions 
 of the branches spring the flowers, on very short stalks, surround- 
 ed by leaves similar to those on the stem . The cal y ces arc ovate, 
 smooth, of a pale green colour, and about the size of a hazel- 
 nut. The scales of which they consist, pass into very strong 
 thorns, of a whitish yellow, half an inch or more in length, and 
 have subordinate thorns at their base. Tlie florets are all of 
 a pale red colour and tubular, with a quinque-partite margin : 
 the marginal florets contain no sexual parts, and the seed 
 below them is therefore abortive. They are somewhat lar- 
 ger than the florets of the disc, which shew the pistillum with 
 a cleft stigma within the cylinder of antherae. If the cylin- 
 der of antheraj be touched at a certain period during flower- 
 ing, it contracts, and the pistillum comes more strongly for- 
 ward, (816.) The germen is furnished with cilia. The fruit 
 is an oval caryopsis, without a pappus, with its umbilicus at 
 one side. 
 
 Diagnosis and Affinity. 
 
 Calcitrapa lanceolata Lam. (Centaurca Calcitrapoidcs 
 Linn.), is the most nearly related to this plant. But it is 
 distinguished by its taller growth, its linear-lanceolate leaves, 
 its woolly scales of the calyx, and its white pappus. Cenlau- 
 rea myacanthus De Candolle, also resembles our plant, and 
 the seeds are likewise without a pappus. But the leaves 
 are woolly, the scales of the calyx have appendages which 
 are surrounded with small thorns. Centaurea soIstiUaUs, al- 
 though the scales of the calyx are armed with similar thorns, 
 is yet sufficiently distinguished by its decurrent leaves, which 
 make the stem winged, and by its yellow flowers. The ge- 
 nus Calcitrapa is separated, by Vaillant and Jussieu, from 
 the CentaurejE : it is distinguished by its want of a pap- 
 pus, and by compound or double thorns on the scales of the 
 calyx, (Anleit. ii. 540.) 
 
 Synonymcs and Figures. 
 
 Kryngium, BranfL f}. 59. 
 
 Carduus stellatus. Vodoi:, 7oo. MatiJ(. aL Banh. 501. 
 
428 29. CALCITIIAPA STELLATA. [CL. XIX. 
 
 Lohel Hist. 482. ic. 2. 11. J. Bank, Hist 3. 89. Gcr, 
 ernac. 1166. C. Bauh. Pin. 387. Zann. IsL t. 155. 
 
 Carduus muricalus, Clus. Hist. 2. 7. 
 
 ? Myacanthus Theophr., Dalech, 1473. 
 
 Spina Stella, Tabcrn. 1080. 
 
 Calcitrapa vulgaris, Parle. Theatr. 969. 
 
 Hippophaestum, Colum. Phytob. t. 24. 
 
 Ccntaurea Calcitrapa, Linn. Hort. Ups. 273. Willd. Sp. 
 PL 3. 2317. Engl. Bot. 125. Stimn. 4. 
 
 llhaponticum Calcitrapa, Scop. Cai'n. n. 1018. 
 
 Calcitrapa stellata. Lam. Fl. Franc^. 2. 34. 
 
 Calcitrapa Hippophaestum, Gdrtn. Friict. 2. 376. t. 163. 
 
 Geographical Distribution. 
 
 This plant is a proof of the principle laid down, p. 399. 
 that, in the same latitude, the temperature diminishes towards 
 the east ; and that hence southern plants grow at a higher 
 latitude in the west than in the east. This plant does not 
 grow in Germany beyond 52° N. Lat. In England, again, 
 it is found as far as Yorkshire, (54°). Eastward from Ger- 
 rnany it seems to have a still more southern limit, since it has 
 not once been found in Galicia, although it grows in Hun- 
 gary and Transylvania. But towards the south it extends 
 as far as Peloponnesus and Sicily. 
 
 Uses. 
 
 Formerly this plant was celebrated for its medicinal powers. 
 The root was used in decoctions as a diuretic, of which use, 
 in particular, Tournefort {Hist, des Plantes aux Env. dc 
 Paris, p. 12, 13.) has adduced proofs. 
 
OUT). IV.] 30. CALENDULA OFFICINALIS. 429 
 
 Ordeii IV. 
 {Polygamia iiecessaria.) 
 
 30. 
 
 Calendula officinalis, L. 
 
 ^ingclblunic, Dotterblume. — French, Soiici des jardins. — 
 Ital. Fior rancio. — Engl. Marygold. — Swed. RmgMom- 
 ma. 
 
 This well known plant propagates itself by seed in our 
 gardens. It has a pretty strong, whitish root, and a branchy, 
 round, sulcated stem^ furnished with short hairs, and having 
 open branches. All the leaves embrace the stem and 
 branches, are rather glutinous, and hjlve a peculiar strong- 
 smell : the lower ones are spathulate, quite entire, set with 
 short, soft hairs, which also make the margin ciliated. The 
 upper leaves are lanceolate, imperceptibly dentated, and fur- 
 nished with a herbaceous spine at the extremity : they are 
 also more hairy than the lower. The flower-stalks, at the 
 points of the shoots, are woolly. The common calyx is 
 divided info several lanceolate, woolly laciniae, with taper- 
 ing points. The flowers are of a golden-yellow coloiu* : the 
 ray florets are tongue-shaped, furnished with three pointed 
 extremities, and with several parallel nerves. The florets of 
 the disc, having a cylinder of anthers^ are tubular, and have 
 commonly abortive seeds under them. The fertile are com- 
 monly on the margin, are lanceolate, ot boat-shaped, and in- 
 ternally have spines on their back. 
 
 Diagnosis and Affinity. 
 
 Calendida arvensls is very nearly related to our plant, 
 but it has no spathulate, but only cordate-lanceolate leaver : 
 it has smaller flowers, and the extenor seeds stand erect, ami- 
 are «^mall lanceolate^ C. sancla is dlstinouishod by liavin*'- 
 
430 30. CALENDULA OFFICINALIS, [CL. XIX. 
 
 its calyx notched, or furnislied with herbaceous spines. C. 
 stcVata Cav. lias flowers of a sulphur-yellow colour, and five 
 below the fruit on the margin are horned, and stand very re- 
 mote, (Schk. t. 235.) The genus Calendula is related to few 
 others, principally to Mdampodium and S'dphium. 
 
 Synonymes and Figures. 
 
 Calendula, Brunf. 3. 77. Dodon. 254. i — viii. Tahern. 
 
 711, 712. I.— VII. Ger, cm, 739. 
 Ringelblumen, Trag. f. 55. 
 Caltha, Fuchs. 382. Matth. 894. Dalech. 811. J. Bauh, 
 
 Hist. 3.101. 
 Chrysanthemum ct Caltha poetarum, Lohcl. Hist. 298. 
 
 ic. 552. 
 Clymenum Colum. Phytob. t. 13. 
 Calendula officinalis Linn. WiUd. Sp. PL 3. 2340, Sturm. 8. 
 
 Geographical DiMribiition. 
 
 Although this plant propagates itself in the gardens of 
 Germany, it is properly, however, a native of the south of 
 France, where it grows in the fields. It does not seem to 
 grow in the other southern countries of Europe. 
 
 Uses. 
 
 In the sixteenth century, this plant, from its strong smell, 
 was reckoned medicinal, and was employed in the case of 
 diseased female organs, especially in cancer, {Matth. Val~ 
 grls. C28 ) This practice has been lately renewed by West- 
 ring, (Erfahrungen uber die Heilung der Krebsgeschwure. 
 Aus. dem Schwed., Halle 1817, 8vo.) Exact chemical ana- 
 lyses have been given by Geiger (Diss, de Calendula offi- 
 cinalCj Heidelb, 1818.), and by Stolze (Berlin. Jahrb. fur 
 die Pharm. 1820, s. 282. f.) According to the analysis of 
 the latter, its principal constituent parts are green vegetable 
 wax, albumen, lime united to malic acid, Myricin and Calen- 
 (lulin, (a peculiar matter which might readily be mistaken 
 for jell vV 
 
ORD. v.] 31. ECHTNOPS SPH^.ROCEPHALUS. 431 
 
 Order V. 
 Cynarc^. (Polygamia segregata.) 
 
 SI. 
 
 Echinops sphaeroceplialus, L. 
 
 Kugeldistel. — French, Echhiope, Boidette. — Engl. Globe- 
 thistle. — S wed. Bol-tidel, 
 
 This plant is frequently observed in hedges and bushes, 
 by the way side, and in rocky places. From a w(X)dy tap- 
 root, the stem rises to the height of two ells, frequently 
 to the height of a man. It is of the thickness of the finger, 
 angular, completely covered with wool, and with a glutinous 
 moisture, which may also be observed on the leaves. The 
 leaves are alternate, short-stalked, the upper ones with- 
 out stalks, a large span in length, frequently still longer, 
 deeply semi-pinnate, having their upper surface green and 
 hairy, their lower entirely white, covered with a woolly to- 
 mentum : the laciniae of the leaves are angular, and termi- 
 nate in thorns. The upper part of the stem is divided into 
 several branches, on the tips of which grow the compound 
 flowers, resembling bluish spheres of the size of a middling- 
 sized apple. The spherical receptacle is properly naked, 
 (Meese Het. xix. class, t. 3. f 5.), and a calyx for each floret 
 is formed of chafly leaves, which are stiff* and hairy. At the 
 base of these calyces bristles appear, which are attached to 
 them, and upon superficial observation seem to belong to tlie 
 receptacle. The florets are all similar, tubular, with a quinque- 
 partite margin, and of a whitish-blue colour. The cylinder 
 of the antheraj is violet coloured : the stigma is divided. The 
 aestivation is valvular, and the florets expand from the centre 
 of the sphere towards the circumference. The roughly cilia- 
 ted seed (a caryopse), is surmounted bv a membrane : {Bcrl- 
 hey, E.vpos. FL Camp. t. 3. f 18.) 
 
432 31. r.ciTixors sPH.T:KOCErHAi. us. [cl. xix. 
 
 DiagTiosts and Affinitij. 
 
 The most nearly related to this species is E. exaUatus 
 Schrad., which is distinguished, however, by wanting branches, 
 by the absence of the glutinous integument, and by having 
 the teeth of the laciniae of the leaves more closely set ; (Schrad. 
 Hort. Gott. t. 9.) E. paniculaius Jacq., also is nearly rela- 
 ted to it, and is distinguished by its very branchy stem, by 
 having its flowers in panicles, and by its wrinkled leaves, die 
 upper surface of which is without hairs, the under surface 
 covered Avith a bluish-green tomentum, and the lacinia? 
 of which are squarrose ; (Jacqu. Eclog. t. 48.) E. Ritro L., 
 has likewise its leaves smooth on the upper surface, and co- 
 vered with a snow-white tomentum on their lower, and it has 
 five flowers on one stem ; (Schk. t. 269-) E str'igosus L., 
 has its leaves strigose on the upper surface, and tomentose 
 beneath. The flower-tops are not spherical, but properly 
 form tufts, the exterior calyx of which is protracted and abor- 
 tive ; {Herm. rarud. 224.) This species affords an oppor- 
 tunity of taking an important view of the inflorescence : it 
 is a compound, compressed spike, the flowering of which is 
 always from above downwards; (s. 74. Neue Entdeck. 1. 
 174.) The genus Echhiops is related to the Boopideae of 
 Cassini, or the Calycerea? Br,, to which belong Boopis Juss., 
 CaJycera Cav., and Acicarpha Juss. These also have a' 
 calyx for each floret, but they have a receptacle furnished 
 with chaffy leaflets, and a common calyx. They are dis- 
 tinguished from all the other syngenesious plants by their 
 simple pistil, which is united to the tube of the corolla, by 
 the rich albuminous matter in the seed, and by the direction 
 of the radicle upwards. In Echhiops, on the contrary, the 
 structure of the seed corresponds with the family character. 
 
 Synonymes and Figures. 
 
 Chamgeleon verus, Trag. f. 322. Fiichs. HS^. 
 Carduussphaerocephalus, Z>oJo?z. 722. Tahciii. 10G9. Acu- 
 
 tus major, Parh. 977. Bcsler. Syst. uEst. xi. t. 7. f. L 
 
 Latifoliiis major, Moris, sect. 7- t. 35. 
 
CL. XX.] 32. OPHRYS MYODES. 433 
 
 Spina alba altera, Matth. 494. 
 Ritro, Lobcl. Hist. 481. ic. 2. 8. 
 Chalceios, Dalcch. 14^83. 
 Spina Arabica, Dalcch. 1467. 
 
 Echinops major, /. Bauh. Hist. 3. 69. Tourn. Inst. 463 
 Carduus globosus, /. Ger. cmac. 1151. 
 
 Echinops spha^rocephalus, Linn. Sp. PI. 1314. WHM. Sp. 
 PI 3. 2396. Lam. Illustr. 719. 
 
 Geographical Distribution. 
 
 This plant is diffused from the north of Africa (30° N. 
 Lat.), over all the temperate regions of Europe. Rut Bar- 
 by, on the Elbe, (52° N. Lat.), seems to be its northern 
 limit. It grows, indeed, here and there, even in Sweden, 
 beyond Liljeblad ; but, as it is not mentioned by Linnaeus, it 
 has probably been propagated from the gardens. 
 
 CLASS XX. 
 
 Gynandria. (Orchideae.) 
 
 32. 
 
 Ophrys my odes, Jacqu, 
 
 Insecten-Ragwurz. — French, Ophrys mouche. — Engl. Fly- 
 orchis. — S wed . Flug-blo7nster. 
 
 This beautiful and interesting plant grows sparingly in 
 June, in our mountain woods, on clay soils. From a tuber, 
 of a yellowish-brown colour, and of the size of a hazel-nut, 
 by the side of which a second commonly stands, and on the 
 top of which several fibrous roots are expanded, arise, in the 
 first place, convoluted, whitish sheaths, afterwards three or 
 four leaves, embracing the stem, oblong lanceolate, smooth on 
 both sides, quite entire, penetrated by parallel nerves, some- 
 
 Ee 
 
434 32. OPIIRYS MYODES. [CL. XX. 
 
 Avhat pointed at the top, about the length and breadth of a 
 finger, hi the centre of wlilch the round, smooth stem, of the 
 thiclaicss of a strong packing thread, rises straight, erect, to the 
 height of a foot. The blossoms are arranged on the top of the 
 stem in a spike, but distant from one another, seldom to the 
 number of six. Amotig them we observe erect, Avhitish-green, 
 small, nearly linear bracteae, a little longer than the flowers. 
 These last consist of a three-leaved calyx, which externally 
 is green ; internally, and at a later period, it is brown. The 
 leaflets are oblong, somewhat obtuse, and penetrated by three 
 nerves. The labellum is four-lobed or three-lobed, with the 
 central lobe emarginated or divided ; the lateral lobes are 
 somewhat distant, but they are all obtuse. The whole la- 
 bellum is reddish-brown, or of a rusty colour, hairy, ciliated, 
 and has a bluish spot in its centre, by which means the 
 whole flower resembles a fly. Above it, the reddish-brown 
 fruit-column rises, with two linear, remote, lateral honis, of 
 the same length. Two yellow pollenous masses, each of 
 which is divided into two parts, rest on stalks, which are at- 
 tached to the fruit-column by small spheres ; on the upper part 
 they are surrounded by two folds, from which they gently issue, 
 when they are fully ripe. The stigma, on its lower side, is 
 splendent with a glutinous moisture ; (s. 90, 91.) The ger- 
 men is cylindrical, a little twisted, stands below the fruit, and 
 opens with three valves, which last are connected by particu- 
 lar ribs, and carry on their sides the exceedingly fine, small 
 seeds surrounded by a spongy membrane. 
 
 Diagnosis and Affinity. 
 
 The most nearly related species are O. aranifera and ajyi- 
 fera. But the latter, the flowers of which have a great re- 
 semblance to a bee, are distinguished by their broader and 
 shorter stem-leaves, by three large pale-red calyx leaflets, and 
 two others that are small, green, and fringed. The labellum 
 is brownish-red, with a yellow hairy setting, and the central 
 lobe is turned backwards with a small process. The fruit 
 column passes above the antherae into a distinct rotellum. It 
 flowers in July. Three months earlier, in April, appears 
 
CI.. XX.] 32. OniRYS MYODE.S. 435 
 
 (). arauifira, llic ilowcrs of which entirely resemble a spider. 
 The leaflets of the calyx are all obtuse, and of a ycllowish- 
 grecn : the labellum is brownish-yellow, strongly set witli 
 hairs, three-lobed, w ith the margin bent inwards ; the fruit 
 column terminates in imperceptible rostclla. O. arachnites^ 
 which bears the greatest resemblance to 0. ap'ifera^ has also 
 a browttj hairy labellum, but this part is three-lobed, the 
 central lobe being: again divided into three obtuse lobes. 
 O. tcnthrcdimfera Desfont., which also grows in Calabria and 
 Sicily, has very long, rose-coloured bractea*, three obtuse 
 oblong calyx-leaflets, and two very short : the labellum is 
 two-lobed, with a process between the two lobes. 
 
 The genus Opliyrs is most nearly related to Epipactis 
 Sw. ; but the latter is distinguished by the jointed structure 
 of the middle lobe of the labellum, and by its four round 
 pollenous masses. Richard distinguishes Opliyrs Mcniorchis 
 as a peculiar genus, under the name Herminium, the charac- 
 ter of which consists in the short, spur-shaped sack of the 
 hastate labellum, and in the naked large retinaculum. Re- 
 specting the family of the Orchidea?, vid. Anleit. ii. 280. f. 
 880. f. 
 
 Synonyraes and Figures, 
 
 Orchis Serapias tertius, Dodon. 238. 
 
 O. myodes, i. Lohel Hist. 90. ic. 181. Ger. em, 213. J. 
 
 Bank. Hist, 2. 767, 768. Pa?-^. 1352. 
 Triorchis Serapias tertius, Dalecli. 1555, 
 Testiculus muscarilis, ii. Tabern. 1050. 
 Orchis musca? corpus referens, Bauh. Pin. 83. (excl. synon.,- 
 
 quae hie non sunt.) Rudb. Elys. 2. 201. f. 11. VailL 
 
 Bot. Paris, t. 31. i". 17, IS. (flores soli.) Minor, Tmirn. 
 
 Inst. 434. 
 Ophrys insectifera «. myodes, Linn. Sp. PL 1343. Gunner, 
 
 Fl. Norw. 2. t. 5. (icon gigantea.) 
 Orchis n. 1265. Hall. Siirp. Hdv. t. 24. 
 Ophrys myodes, Jaeqit. Misc. 2. 373. Ic. Bar. t. 184. 
 
 FlDan. 139S. 
 
 Ee2 
 
436 33, sPATiGANirM simplex, [cl. xx^ 
 
 O. muscifera, Smith. Fl Brit. 3. 937. Etigl Bot G4. 
 Wither hi^^ Arrang. 2. 43. 
 
 Gcog t aph ical D Iftiibu twn . 
 
 The northern Hmit of the growth of this plant is another 
 proof of the principle formerly laid down, that in the western 
 countries, plants are found at a higher latitude than in the 
 eastern, on account of the warmer temperature. In Sweden, 
 O. myodcs is found only in Gothland and Oeland, (57*^ N. 
 Lat.) In Norway, on the contrary, it is found, according to 
 Gunnerus,. at Snaasen, (64° N. Lat.) ; and, according to Fl. 
 Dim.., it is even found on the island Langoe, (69 N. Lat.) 
 •It is diffused throughout England, France, Germany, Hun- 
 gary, Italy, and Transylvania. Its southern limit seems to 
 be Peloponnesus, (38°.) The four varieties mentioned by 
 Desfontaine (Fl. Atl. 2. 320.), under the name Ophyrs insec- 
 iife7'a, do not belong to this. I have also a doubt, whether 
 O. myodes of Hagen (Pruss. Flor. 2. 215.), be really our 
 plant. Its eastern limit north^vard would then be 20^ W 
 Long., southward 25.°. 
 
 CLASS XXL 
 
 33. 
 
 Sparganium simplex, lliuh. 
 
 Einfache Igelsknospe. — French, Ruhanier simple. — Engl. 
 Simple Bu r-reed, — S wed . Rak-trdgjan . 
 
 This peculiar plant flowers in July and August, in our 
 standing waters and ditches, especially where the bottom is 
 gravelly. From a creeping, perennial, fibrous root, arises 
 about perhaps a foot or a foot and a half high, a round, 
 green, smooth stem, which is wholly undivided, and about the 
 thickness of a quill. All the leaves embrace half the stem with 
 
CL. XXI.] T3. SPARC ANIUM SIMPLEX. 437 
 
 a shcatli, which is membranaceous on the sides ; the lowei- 
 leaves, when cut across, are trianguhir, with smooth interior 
 surfaces: the upper are somewhat concave, and do not exlii- 
 bit a triangular section. Besides, the leaves are almost all 
 longer than the stem, frequently tv/o feet high, and scarcely 
 the breadth of a little finger, uniformly small throughout, 
 smooth and entire, tapering at the point, and furnished with 
 parallel soft nerves. Their cellular texture is spongy and 
 compound ; the cells full of air. There are slits on both 
 sides of the leaves. In their centre rises a simple flower- 
 stalk, which carries below two petiolated spherical flower-tufts, 
 and above one stalkless female tuft, and several stalkless male 
 spherical flower tufts. The individual female florets consist 
 of three or four lanceolate scales or leaflets, in the centre of 
 which rises, on an oval germen, the simple, green, sometimes 
 cleft pistillum, having the stigma placed laterally at its sum- 
 mit. The male flowers contain, in the centre of the some- 
 what spoon-shaped scales, imperceptibly dentated at the top, 
 commonly three filaments of a white colour, on the top of 
 which stand the bilocular straw-yellow anthera\ containing 
 an oval pollen. The fruit is a brown nut, or drupa, contain- 
 ing in the centre of the albuminous matter, the uncvolved 
 -embryon in a reversed position. 
 
 Diagnosis ami Affiuiti/. 
 The most nearly related species is Sp. ruiiiosnin. But 
 this species is much larger, its flower-stalk is branchy, the 
 sides of the leaves are concave, not smooth. The scales of the 
 calyx are also of a deeper brown colour. Sparg: vntans^ on 
 the other hand, has leaves entirely of a grass shape, swim- 
 ming on the surface of the water, rather concave, and very 
 long ; the flower-tuft is much smaller, and onlv the one that 
 is uppermost is male. This genus evidently borders on 
 Typha. I also find Chrysithrix related to it, the dividetl 
 shaft of which pushes out laterally the flower-tuft. Acorns 
 and Oroniium form the transition to (he Aroide-e, to whid) 
 these plants belong; (Anleit. ii. 1^7.) 
 
438 33. SPARGAKIUxM SIMPLEX. [CL. XXL 
 
 Syiionijmcs and Figures. 
 
 Platanaria altera, Dodon. 601. 
 
 Sparganium alterum, Lob. Hist. 41. ic. 80. J. Bank. Hist. 2. 
 
 541. Dalech. 1019. rabern. 560. 
 Sp. latifolium, Ger. cmac. 45. 
 Sp. non ramosum, Park. Thcatr. 1206. Moris, sect. 8. 
 
 t. 13. 
 Sp. foliis natantibus planoconvexis, Linn. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 
 
 p. 280. Fide Smith. 
 Sp. ercctum, Linn. Var. /3. Sp. PI. 2. 1378. 
 Sp. simplex, Huds. Fl. Angl. 401. Engl. Bet. 745. Sclik. 
 
 t. 282. 
 Sp. americanum, Nuttcdl, 2. 203. Admunerandum jiixta 
 
 dcscnptionem. 
 [Sp. maius S. ramosum virginianum, Park. Thcntr. 1206. 
 
 rcpet. in Moris, sect. 8. t. 13. non Sparganii species, scd 
 
 forte Carex lupulina W .^] 
 
 Geog raphical Distribution. 
 
 Sp. simplex is a northern plant. According to Linnteus^s 
 description and Smith's assertion, n. 345. in the Fl. Lapp&n. 
 can be nothing else but this plant. Yet AVahlenberg says 
 i^Fl. Lapp. p. 822.), it is Sp. natans ; and Sp. erectum (by 
 -which he understands Sp. ramosum and simpleoc) does not 
 grow beyond Medelpadia 63" N. Lat. How shall we re- 
 concile such evident contradiction of two equally credible eye- 
 witnesses ? As Linnaeus says respecting this plant, that it has 
 from ten to twelve male flower-tufts at its top, it cannot be 
 Sp. natans. Linnaeus found this plant in the Great Calix- 
 elf, (67^), where, according to our opinion, Wahlenberg 
 never was. J. G. Gmelin found it in Siberia, in the Jenisei, 
 and in the province of Lsezk. In North America it is found 
 every where as far as the river St. Lawrence, (50^). It does 
 not seem to extend far south, for it is not met with either in 
 Greece or Tauris ; but it is found in Transylvanit\ and tlic 
 south of France, (45*'). 
 
CL. XXII.] 34. bALlX CAPIIEA. 439 
 
 CLASS xxir. 
 
 34. 
 
 Salix Caprea, L. 
 
 Sohlweide. — French, Saule marceau- — Engl. Great rounds 
 leaved salloxv, — Ital. Salcio a grandefogVte. — Swed. S'dlg- 
 pihl. 
 
 As the willows of all known plants shew least constancy in 
 their forms, so the Salix Caprea, is perhaps of all willows, that 
 which is subject to the greatest variations of fgnn, Situation 
 has a powerful effect upon it ; for commonly it grows on a 
 somewhat dry soil, but frequently also upon a moist and 
 boggy one, where it undergoes a remarkable change in the 
 size of the stem, and in the shape of the leaves. But even 
 on the same soil we observe such differences in its structure, 
 and particularly in the form of the leaves, that those persons 
 may easily be excused who have regarded such different 
 forms, when they have seen them single, and in dried speci- 
 mens, as peculiar species. We are most secure, when we 
 hold to those characters which never vary. These are — 
 1. Early catkins, w^hich appear before the leaves. 2. Fe- 
 male catkins, short and thick. 3. The germen tomen- 
 tose, or covered with silky hairs, and also ventricosc. 4. 
 Broad, almost ovate or oblong leaves, quite entire when they 
 are young, afterwards dentated and undulated, either green 
 or hairy above, but always tomentose, and intersected by re- 
 ticular veins below. 5. Lunulate dentate stipula?, which are 
 either persistent or fall off. 6. Smooth filaments. 
 
 The size varies uncommonly. The Salix Caprea is usually 
 a moderate sized tree, from eight to ten feet high : frequently 
 it is a branchy shrub, with a greyish-brown, pretty smooth 
 
340 34. SALIX CAPREA. [ci.. XXII. 
 
 bark. The shoots of the })resent year are commonly dark- 
 brown and liairy, when ihey are viewed late in the sum- 
 mer. The leaf-stalks are alternate, strongly ciliated, and even 
 tomentosc, from two to four lines in length, with round- 
 ish or lunulate, dentated stipulae at their base ; and in the 
 axillae of the upper leaves are found the buds of the coming 
 year, when they are examined in the middle of summer. 
 The leaves are about three inches long, and half an inch 
 broad ; tapering slightly at their base, rapidly at their sum- 
 mit, dentated on the margin, the teeth being bent towards 
 the point. The upper surface is for the most part green, 
 properly, however, not smooth, but partly wrinkled, partly 
 furnished along the nerves and veins with white, soft, short 
 hairs. Hairs also are found on the interstices, when we 
 avail ourselves of the aid of the microscope. The lower sur- 
 face is more or less strongly ciliated ; often it is covered with 
 silky hairs, often also it is shaggy, and even tomentose. 
 
 The male and female flowers appear, in April, in catkins 
 on different trees, on the smooth shoots of the preceding year. 
 Both of these spring from buds, the splendent silky scales of 
 which are persistent, and give a pleasant appearance to the 
 flowering, but still leafless tree : both of them, during the 
 time of flowering, are scarcely an inch long, obtuse, and ob- 
 long ; the female flowers afterwards increase to three inclics 
 in length. The scales of the male catkins are brown, oblong, 
 and ornamented with long soft hairs. Two filaments, which 
 are longer than the scales, carry quadrilocular yellow an- 
 therae, and have at their base a longish, nearly cylindrical 
 honey-gland. The female flowers have the same scales and 
 glands, and also a petiolated, strongly ciliated germen,the lower 
 part of which is swollen, and crowned with three or four 
 short stigmata. The fruit is a bivalved capsule, having se- 
 veral seeds attached to the inner surface of the valves, and 
 surrounded from the base upwards by long soft hairs. 
 
 Va7'ietie.<{. 
 
 1. This species is not unfrequently found almost quite en- 
 tire, and without perceptible teeth, whence we might be 
 
CL. XXII.] 34'. SALIX CAPHKA. 441 
 
 tempted to consider it as a peculiar species. l^iil, when 
 transplanted, it shews the transition by distinct teeth on the 
 margin of the leaves. As the tip of the leaf is often wither- 
 ed and discoloured, Smith has named it S. •sphacelata. 
 
 2. On the young shoots, which spring from the cut root- 
 stems, the leaves are uncommonly long and broad. They 
 are sometimes seen more than six inches long, with verv long- 
 tapering points, and the stipula? very large, cordate, and 
 strongly dentated ; {Sal tomentosa, J. macrophylla, Ser. 
 p. 17.) 
 
 3. This species grows often with small, almost lanceolate 
 leaves. In this case, the germen also is usually drawn out to 
 a greater length. This is S. acuminata, Mill., Hofm., 
 Smith., Willd. But this variety has many evident transitions 
 into tlie usual form of S. caprea. 
 
 4. AVith completely round, and even with cordate leaves, 
 which scarcely taper at the point. This is S. tovicntosa, H., 
 rotimclifolia, Ser v. p. 17. 
 
 5. With oblong leaves, the lower surface of which is grey- 
 ish, and furnished with a few hairs, (S. aquatica. Smith). 
 The moist situation seems to produce this variety. 
 
 6. With androgynous catkins, (S. Tinimii, Schk. 3. s. 457. 
 S. tomentosa D., androgyna Ser, p. 16.), Vorgl. s. 322. 
 Numerous malformations also are produced by the puncture 
 of insects, and by parasitical plants. 
 
 Diagnosis and Affinity. 
 
 This species is most nearly related to S. aurita L., {S. 
 rugosa Ser.), and as both of them are alike various in their 
 aspects, they approach each other in their forms. But *V. au- 
 rita is principally distinguished by its wrinkled leaves, which 
 taper at the base, and have their tips drawn oblicpiely {nui- 
 cronc adunco), by its great cordate stipulae, by its hairy fila- 
 ments, united at their lower part, by its long tapering ger- 
 men, and by its low growth, seldom exceeding six feet, com- 
 monly only from two to four feet in height. To S. aurita L., 
 belong, as varieties, S. ambigita Ehrh., spathulata W., and 
 uli^ino^a W. 
 
44'2 3'L SALIX CAPllEA. [CL. XXII. 
 
 The second species, with which S, caprca might easily be 
 confounded, is S, grandrfolia Ser. In particular, it has a 
 great resemblance to the third variety. But the principal 
 character of S. grandifoUa consists in this, that the catkins 
 appear at the same time with the leaves, whilst, in S. acumi- 
 nata, they appear earlier : that the leaves are much larger, 
 often six inches long, and properly lanceolate, nearly quite 
 entire, — the stipulae large, pointed, and semi-cordate, — and 
 the honey-gland drawn out to a great length. S. stipularis 
 Sm., does not belong to this species, because its catkins ap- 
 pear much earlier. 
 
 S. patula Ser., olecrfolia Vill., lias also some resemblance 
 to the small-leaved variety of S. caprca, but the catkins ap- 
 pear late, first in May, when tlie leaves come forth. The 
 other species are less liable to be confounded. 
 
 The natural affinity of Willows to Poplars is obvious : the 
 distinction of genera lies in the flowers, which, in the case of 
 Willows, consist only of simple scales. But in Poplars, be- 
 side scales, there is also a funnel-shaped corolla, with eight 
 or more filaments. Both belong to the catkin-bearing trees, 
 or the Amentaceae ; (Anl. ii. 344.) 
 
 Synonymes and Figures. 
 
 Seilweiden, Trag. f. 406. a. 
 
 Salix aquatica, Lohel. ic. 2. 137. (var. 3.) 
 
 S. platyphyllos leucophloeos, Dalech- 276. 
 
 S. caprea latifolia, Tabern, 1452. Ger. em. 1390. 
 
 S. latifolia inferne hirsuta, J. Bauh. Hist. 1. p. 2. 215. Ro- 
 tunda et oblongior. Park. Theatr, 1432. Bauh. Pin. 474. 
 Rai Syn. 449. Tmrn. Inst. 591. 
 
 Salix foliis obscure crenatis, Linn. Fl. Lapp. n. 365. t. 8. 
 f. 1. 
 
 S. caprea, Linn. Sp. PI. 1448. Fl. Dan. ^4<5. Engl. Bot. 
 1488. Hofm. Sal. t 3. f. 1, 2. t. 5. f. 3, 4. t. 21. f. a, 
 b, c, d. Schk. t. 317. c. n. 15. 
 
 S. foliis ovatis rugosis. Hall. Stirp. Hcho. n. 1653. 
 
 S. acuminata, Hofm. Sal t. 6. f 1, 2. t. 22. f. 2. Engl 
 
CL. xxn.] :M-. rsAi.ix CArjiiLA. -143 
 
 Bot 1434. (var. 1.) Ser. Sal p. 12. ^V/Ju t. 317. c. 
 
 n. 12. 
 S. sphacelata, Engl Bot 2333. (var. 3.) 
 S. Janata, Light/. Scot. 602. (var. 3.) 
 S. aquatica, Smith, FL Brit. 3. 1065. Engl Bot. 1437. 
 
 (var. 5.) 
 S. tomentosa, Ser. Sal p. 14. 
 
 Geographical Distribution. 
 
 Few trees have so extensive a distribution. It grows 
 throughout the whole of Europe, from the forests of Arca- 
 dia (37°), to the woody heights of Kautokeimo, ont he Alten- 
 Elf, in Lapland, (69°). It passes also into Siberia, where 
 it is found abundantly in all its varieties. But it is not a na- 
 tive either of Japan or of North America. 
 
 Uses. 
 
 The bark contains tanning matter, and is hence used iii 
 the preparation of leather ; and in Sriuilcmd it is employed 
 in the manufacture of the gloves called Klipping. The bark 
 is also used in the making of Danish gloves, and of Russian 
 leather. The bark of the young shoots is used, instead of 
 Peruvian bark, in medicines for the poor. It operates simply 
 as an astringent and tonic, and, as it wants cinchonin, and 
 the spicy matter of Peruvian bark, it may be used in common 
 intermittent fevers, with ammonia, and to prevent inflamma- 
 tion. In other diseases it lies too heavy on the stomach, and 
 must be taken in too great quantity, if it is expected to ope- 
 rate. The bark also contains colouring matter, which may 
 be applied to woollen cloth, that has previously been treated 
 with bismuth, and produces a beautiful apricot-yellow colour. 
 Linen yarn is dyed bkvck by it, when it has previously been 
 mixed with alder bark. 
 
 The wood is very tough, and is easily cleft. Hence in 
 Thuringia, sieves, and other plaited utensils, are constructed 
 of it. Ra,y maintains, that very good straps are made of it, 
 on which knives may be sharpened. It is also used for ma- 
 king handles to knives, and other instruments. Although it 
 
444 35. ATlilPLEX PATULA. [CL XXI J I. 
 
 properly aflbrds no good burning wood, because it consists 
 almost entirely oP alburnum, and the heat soon passes away, 
 it yet affords a light charcoal, which readily takes fire, and can 
 hence be used, in particular, for gun-powder. The tree is 
 also well adapted for forming quick hedges, because it grows 
 rapidly, because its branches can readily be twisted, and in 
 early spring the flowers are anxiously sought for by bees. 
 
 The leaves are eagerly eaten by all sorts of cattle. In 
 Sweden, calves are foddered with them. 
 
 The wool of the seeds is often used as native cotton ; (Her- 
 der's Gesch. der hierlandi.ichen Baumwollenarten. Munchen, 
 1788. Rafn's Danmarks Flor. 1. s. 417. f.) 
 
 CLASS XXIII. 
 
 35. 
 
 Atriplex patula, L. 
 
 'Sparrige Melde. — French. Arroche etaUe. — Engl. iSpr-eadlng 
 orache. — Ital. Jtrepice spalancante. — Swed. Gull^ro^ Alar- 
 molla. 
 
 This plant grows in August and September, commonly 
 on salt soils, or on fatty soils, on heaps of rubbish and dung. 
 From a short, thin stake-shaped root, rises directly up- 
 wards a stem, which for the most part is thin and angu- 
 lar. This pushes out its branches from below upwards near- 
 ly in a horizontal, and therefore a squarrose direction on 
 all sides, and is about an ell high. The leaf-stalks are 
 half an inch long, somewhat concave and squarrose. The 
 
 leaves are triangular, hastate, tapering at the base, furnish- 
 ed with three nerves, and set on both sides, but especial- 
 ly on the lower side, with whitish scales, which give the leaf 
 a brilliant appearance. The margin of the leaf, for the most 
 part red, terminates below on lx>th sides in two wing-shapetl 
 distant points, which produce the hastate form. Towards the 
 
CL^ XXIII.] 35. ATRIPLEX PATULA. 445 
 
 point are projecting teeth, and sinuses between them. The lat- 
 ter disappear in the up]5erniost leaves, which are hence simply 
 hastate, and very small. Tlie frequently red coloured flow- 
 ers are in fasciculi or glomeruli, which form spikes at in- 
 tervals, and are separated by leaves. The flowers are partly 
 male, partly herma})hrodite, partly female. The two former 
 consist merely of a quinque-partite calyx, with five filaments, 
 and the same number of yellow bilocular anthera?. The her- 
 maphrodite and the female flowers have two linear pistils. 
 The calyx of the female flowers consists of two thick leaflets, 
 which are triangular, have long projecting points, dentated 
 margins, and herbaceous waily spines on the surface. This 
 calyx also is covered with whitish scales. Between these 
 elastic leaflets of the calyx, lies the fruit, a caryopse, which 
 contains the evolved, bent embryon around its circumference, 
 and in its centre the remainder of the albuminous matter. 
 
 Diagnosis and Affinity. 
 
 This species has the nearest affinity to A. angustifolia Smith, 
 with which it has also been frequently confounded. But the 
 angustifolia is much more common in central Germany, grows 
 every where by the road side, is much taller, has not the 
 reddish colour nor the crowded stem, but has its branches at 
 a distance from each other. Fewer scales are observable, and 
 the lowermost leaves only are hastate, those farther up being 
 lanceolate and quite entire. The leaflets of the calyx are 
 nearly smooth, at least they have only some small bunches on 
 the margin. 
 
 A. hastata L. is also frequently confounded with our species. 
 This indeed has similar leaves, but the leaflets of the calyx 
 are intersected by reticular veins, and have bristly teeth. 
 A. laciniata L. is less nearly related : it grows only by the 
 sea-shore, and is entirely covered ^vith white and red spots ; 
 the stem lies low ; the leaves are more oblong, sinuated, and 
 dentated; the leaflets of the calyx are enlarged, and have 
 strong warty bunches. A. nitens Schk. has similar leaves, 
 but it grows much taller, and has quite smooth, and entire ca- 
 lyx leaflets. 
 
4-i-O :J5. ATUiPLEX PATULA. [CL. XXIII. 
 
 Atriph'x is essentially distiiiguished from Chcnopodium. by 
 its polygamous flowers, and by the two-leaved calyx of the 
 female flowers ; (Anleit. ii. 308.) 
 
 SyTuyiiymcs and Figures. 
 
 ? Atriplex sylvestris, Dodon. G15. 
 
 Atriplicis marinoe species Valerando, J. Batih. Hist. 2. 974*. 
 
 Atriplex folio deltoide triangulari sinuato, Moris, sect. 5. t. 
 
 A folio liastato s. deltoide, Tourn. Inst. 585. Hist, des 
 
 Plantes aux Envir. de Paris, p. 10. Magnol. Bot. 34. 
 
 A foliis sagittato-lanceolatis, Li7in. Lapp. n. 377. 
 A foliis triangularibus basi productis, Hall. Stirp. Helv. 
 
 n. 1617. A caule herbaceo, valvulis foemineis magnis 
 
 deltoidibus, Oer^ Prov. 329. 
 A. hastata, Linn. FL Suec. n. 921. (Manifesto nostra, cum 
 
 Morisonii synonymon citet. Hinc confusio posteriorum, 
 
 quae tandem herbario Linnaeano soluta est.) Scop. Cam. 
 
 n. 1245. Pollich. Pallat. n. 942. Selioll Barh. n. 809. 
 
 Leyss Hall n. 1015. Sclik. t. 348. Huds. Angl. p. 443. 
 
 Lightf. Scot. p. 636. Gouan, Fl. Momsp. 433. Host,Austr. 
 
 545. Rafn. Dan. 2. 238. Vill. Delph. 2. 56Q. Lam. Enc. 
 
 1. 275. Fl. Dan. 1286. De Cand. Fl Franc. 3. 386. 
 (Omnes hi ahique auctores, si A. patulam enumerant, A. 
 angustifoliam intelligunt.) 
 
 A. patula, Linn. Herb. Smith, Fl Brit 3. 1091. Eng. 
 Bot. 936. Fl Dan. 1285. MarscL Bicb. Taur. Cauc. 
 
 2. 443. Spreng. Hal n. 293< 
 A. laciniata, Besser Gallic. 1. 194. 
 
 Geographical Distribution . 
 
 This species is distributed from 44 ^ to 64° throughout the 
 whole of Europe ; for Tauris, Bologna, and Montpellier, 
 seem to be its southern limits; Umea and Angermanland 
 its northern. How far it stretches eastward is not clear, be- 
 cause the Siberian plants which pass under this name are 
 still doubtful. 
 
CL. XXIV.] 36. BLECHNUM BORKAI.E. U7 
 
 CLASS XXIV. 
 
 I. True Ferns, 
 
 Blcchnum borealc, Stv, 
 
 Nordlicher Rippenfarrn. 
 
 This handsome fern grows in our woods. The root \% 
 about the thickness of a Uttle finger, of a brownish red colour, 
 covered with scales, chaffy leaves, and the remains of old 
 stalks. It pushes downwards fibrous roots, which are ex- 
 panded on all sides. From the root arise the fronds, at first 
 of a snail-shape, and every where set with hairs and chaffy 
 leaves. Afterwards these last-mentioneil substances disap- 
 pear in a great measure, so that the mature stalk is only fur- 
 nished at its lov/er part with a few scattered chaffy leaflets. 
 The fronds are partly fertile, partly barren. These last arc 
 from a large span to a foot in length, lanceolate, deeply half- 
 pinnated. The kciniae alternate in such a manner, that one 
 is always in the centre of two others that are opposite to it, 
 and, when seen from above, it seems to unite with them. 
 The lacinias are from half an inch to eight lines in lengthy 
 quite smooth and entire, somewhat falcated, pointed or some- 
 what obtuse, and penetrated by a principal nerve and piu'al- 
 lel veins. The lower laciniae are always more obtuse, rounder 
 and shorter, the wider they stand ; the uppermost unite into 
 one entire point. The stalks of these barren shoots are sharp, 
 angular, yellowish brown below, and become whitish where tlie 
 frond begins ; but sometimes also the yellowish brown colour 
 stretches a little higher. The barren fronds are always green 
 and lie in a circle upon the ground. The stalks of the fertile 
 fronds rise in the centre of those that are barren : thev are 
 
448 36. BLECHNUM BOREAI.E. [CL. XXIV. 
 
 dark brown to the point, compressed, and an ell in length. 
 The fronds are also lanceolate, pinnated below, deeply halt- 
 pinnated above. The leaflets are linear, opposite, and dis- 
 tant or alternating, pointed, half an inch or more in length. 
 On both sides of the middle rib, on the back, lie the so- 
 ri in continuous lines, and are covered by a membrana- 
 ceous indusium, which opens towards the middle rib. When 
 young, the capsules are petiolated, and have sap-tubes be- 
 tween them. Afterwards they become brown, consist of a re- 
 ticular membrane, and are surrounded by an elastic, jointed 
 ring, by the springing of which, rough, angular seeds are 
 thrown out. In a state of greater maturity, the whole back 
 is so covered with sori, that the more early structure is no 
 longer distinguishable : hence the plant can now be readily 
 classed with the genus Achrostichum, 
 
 Diagnosis and Affiiiitij. 
 
 The older fronds can scai'cely be distinguished from Acrosti- 
 chum, but by attending to the presence of the indusium, which 
 is always persistent at the margin of the leaflets ; but in Aero- 
 stichum it is wanting. The genera Struthiopteris and LornOr- 
 ria Willd. might also be confounded with this plant, were it 
 not that in the former the indusium is formed by the margin 
 of the frond, and is laid in the fonii of scales over the sori. 
 In Lomaria the two margins of the leaf unite continuously 
 over the sori, (Billard. Nov. Hall. t. 246.) Compare Anleit. 
 2. 101. 
 
 Synonymes and Figures. 
 
 Walt-asplenon, Trag. f. 208. b. 
 
 Lonchitis aspera minor, Matth. 661. Dodmi. 469- Dalech. 
 
 1221. Ger. Emac. 1140. Pari.:. 1042. 
 Lonchitis altera Neotericorum, Clus. Hist. 2. 213. Lobel. 
 
 Hist. 475. Ic. 815. Foemina, Tahern. 1190. J. Bauh. 
 
 Hist. 3. 737. 
 Asplenium sylvestre, Dalech. 1217. 
 Lonchitis minor, C. Bauh. Pin, 359- Altera foliis Polypo- 
 
 dii, Moris, sect. 14. t. 2. 
 
CL. XXIA".] 36. BLECHNUM BOREALE. 449 
 
 Polypodiuiii aiigustifolium folio vario, Tourn. Il'istt (Jes 
 
 Plantes aux Envir. de Paris, p. 519. In.st. 540. 
 Spicant Tragi ct Gcnnanorum, Rupp. Icn. ccl. Hall. 346. 
 Acrostichum Osmiintla, Linn. Sp. PL 1522. 
 Osniuda spicant, Linn. Fl. Suec. n. 936. Fi Dan. 99. 
 
 Bolt. Fil. t. 6. Gouan Fl. Monsp. 439. Light/. Scot. 2. 
 
 654. 
 Strutliiq:)teris, Hall. Hist. n. 1687. BiiJnii. Fl. Lips., 296. 
 Str. Spicant, Scop. Cam. n. 1258. Weis, Crypt. Goit. 287. 
 Acrostichum Spicant, Vill. Delpli. 4. 838. 
 Acr. nemorale, Lam. Enc. 1. 35. 
 Blechnum Spicant, Roth. Ge?m. 3. 44. De Cand. Fl. Franc. 
 
 2. 551. 
 Onoclea Spicant, LLofrn. Germ. 2. 11. Liljihl. Fl Svec. 385. 
 Blechnum horeale, Sw. Syn. Fil 115. Eng. Dot. 1159. 
 
 Schk. Fil X. 110. 
 
 Geographical Distribution . 
 
 This fern grows in Europe from 43° to 60°. Tiie south of 
 France and Genoa (Bertol. Amoen. Ital. 212.) seem to be its 
 most southern stations; the south of Norway and Scot- 
 land its most northern. Whether it grows in Siberia, I know 
 not ; but Lewis found it on the north-west coast of America, 
 (Pursh, Amer. Sept. 669) 
 
 Uses. 
 
 The power of healing wounds has been ascribed to this 
 plant. It is also mixed, in some places near Jena, with beer, 
 to increase its salutary qualities, {Rupp. Fl. Lcn. p. 346.) 
 
 n. Pteroido'. 
 
 37. 
 Botrychium lunaria, Siu\ 
 
 Mondkraut. — French, I^unaiir. — Engl. Moonwort.'^^^^wed, 
 
 Ldsgrds. 
 
450 37. BOTRYCHiU3I LUNAHIxV. [cL. XXIV. 
 
 This plant grows with us in June, on stony, almost on 
 barren places, and woody heights. The root consists of thick 
 brown fibres, of the thickness of a pack-thread. These send 
 out first two sheath-shaped leaflets, and from them a smooth, 
 round, herbaceous stem, a large span high at most, and of 
 the thickness of a pigeon's quill. This stem stands quite 
 erect, and is divided at about two inches high, pushing out 
 laterally a pinnated frond, about a small finger long. This 
 frond consists of nine or ten dull green, flabelliform (29.) leaf- 
 lets, which stand alternate, are irregularly crenated on their 
 convex margin, and penetrated by radiated fine nerves. They 
 are about the size of the nail on the little finger. Sometimes 
 the capsules shew themselves on the margin of these leaflets ; 
 not unfrequently the frond sends out, besides the principal 
 fruit-stalk, one or two subordinate stalks, which are formed 
 in the same manner. The principal fruit-stalk forms a branch- 
 ed, compound spike, with angular, somewhat open branches, 
 on which the yellowish brown, spherical, smooth fruit is placed, 
 without stalks, for the most part on one side. These sphe- 
 rules, of the size of mustard seed, split transversely when 
 they are ripe, and scatter their fine seeds. The plant springs 
 from these, like a green, lobed, cellular texture. 
 
 Diagnosis and Affinity, 
 
 This species is related to two others of more rare occur- 
 rence, — B. rutaceum Sw. and matricariodes Willd. The for- 
 mer has a bi-pinnated frond, the extreme lobes of which are 
 obtusely dentated. In this species the frond comes along with 
 the stem out of the root-sheath ; the frond is tri-partite, bi- 
 pinnate, and the extreme lobes are oblong and obtuse. The 
 latter species is very rare : I have it from Courland. The ge- 
 Botrycliium borders on Ophioglossmn, which is distinguished 
 by its simple spike : together they form the tribe of Stachy- 
 opterida?, under the Pteroidae, (Anl. ii. 107.) 
 
 Synwiymes and Figures. 
 
 I.unaria minor, Fucfis. 482. Dodon. 139. MattJi. G47. Da- 
 lech. 1313. Gcr, Em. 405. Parh, 507. Moris, s. 14. t. 5. 
 
CI,. XXIV.] 37. BOTRYCIIIUM LUNARIA. 4.51 
 
 L. racemosa, Loh. Hist. 470. Ic. 807. J^otrytis minor, CI us. 
 
 Hist. 2. 118. J. Baiih. Hist. S. 710, 711. 
 Ruta lunaria, Tahcrn. 413. 
 Osniunda (bliis luiiatis, Tourn. Inst. 547. 
 Osmunda lunaria, Lmn. Sp. PL 1519- Fl. Lapp. n. 389. 
 
 Fl. Dan. t. 18. f. 1. Sturmy FL 1. Enn^. Boi. 318. 
 Botrychium lunaria, Sw. Syn. Fil 171. Willd. Sp. PL 4. 
 
 61. Schk. Fil. 154. 
 
 Geographical Distribution. 
 
 In the north this plant extends not only to Iceland and 
 Lapland, where it is found in those crevices of rocks which 
 are turned to the sun, but in V/estcrn Finnmark, as hx as 
 the Island of Masoe, (70^ N. Lat.) How far south it ex- 
 tends, I know not exactly, but it grows at Montpellier a:id in 
 Calabria, but not in Greece. 
 
 As the plant grows and fades so quickly, without leaving a 
 trace behind it, it vras formerly believed, that during the in- 
 crease of the moon it sprung up, and that with the wariing of 
 of the same it died. Hence the alchemists of the middle ages 
 made use of it in their researches ; (C Gesncr dc herhisy qua: 
 Lunaria: nominajiiur. Tiguri 1555. 4.) 
 
 III. Musci Frondosi 
 
 38. 
 
 Cinclidotus fontinalioidcs, Pal. Bcaiiv. 
 
 This beautiful moss grows on stones and wood in our 
 streams and flowing waters. It sends out brown fibres into 
 the mud with which the stones or wood are covered ; and 
 from thence rise several branched stems, from four to six 
 inches long, of the size of a linen thread, and of a green co- 
 lour, and covered from below upwai'ds with leaves. These 
 last-mentioned parts grow close together, without lying like 
 tiles on one another : they half embrace the stein and brandies, 
 are oblong-lanceolate, quite entire, a little tapering at the 
 
 V f 2 
 
452 38. CINC. rONTIXALIOIDKS. [CL. XXIV. 
 
 point, of an olive-green colour, which, by drying the part, be- 
 comes dark green. The texture of the leaves is very thick 
 granular, almost opake, indistinctly cellular. A strong green 
 nerve runs to the point : this also is persistent, when the pa- 
 renchyma of the leaves is consumed by water, and these re- 
 mains of the leaves appear as merely short iibrcs on the low- 
 er part of the stem. 
 
 In the axillae of the leaves we find sometimes male, some- 
 times female buds, in considerable numbers. The covers 
 of these buds are of a yellowish red colour. In the male 
 buds the covering leaflets have no nerves, and are ovate; 
 in the female they are lanceolate. In the male buds we find 
 green knobs, with intermingled sap-tubes ; in the female we 
 find tender red pistilla, with fine sap-tubes standing between 
 them. From these buds rises the fruit, but on a very short 
 stalk, scarcely half a line in length, whence it is commonly 
 overtopped by the covering leaves. The capsule is perfectly 
 elliptical, smooth, olive-green, and afterwards of a brownish 
 red colour. Where the operculum rests on the capsule, the lat- 
 ter is of a red colour. The former is conical^ with the point 
 standing rather obliquely, and the twisted peristome is im- 
 pressed upon it. The calyptre is even, mitre-shaped, and 
 sphts transversely at the base. After the operculum has fal- 
 len off*, the peristome appears, which is beautifully red and 
 simple. It consists of thirty-two pretty long, hair-shaped, 
 divided, and in the dried state, twisted teeth, which at the 
 base are partly united with, and partly penetrate each other. 
 The seeds are small dirty-green spheres. 
 
 Diagnosis and Affinity. 
 
 The moss which most nearly resembles this is Anooctangi- 
 urn aquaticiim Hedw., which likewise grows in running water, 
 and has a dark green colour. But tlie leaves of the latter 
 are much longer and smaller, always falcated, and bent to one 
 .side : the fruit-stalks are father longer, and hence the cap- 
 sules are more prominent than in our species. But espe- 
 cially the peristome is wanting in An. aquaticum : it like- 
 wise grows only in waters south of Austria. Our moss can 
 
CL. XXIV.] 38. cixc. roxTiXALioiJ)i:s. 4,53 
 
 less readily be confounded with Fmitinalis cmtipi/rctica^ wliicli 
 grows almost in all running waters, but is distinguished by 
 its triple direction, by its want of nerves, and by the some- 
 what keel-shaped nature of its leaves, whitli are also much 
 larger, and more remote. The capsules are envelo})ed by 
 short round scales : the peristome consists in a trellis- 
 shaped net. The olher aquatic mosses are still less similar. 
 Hypnum fluitans L. is distinguished by very small leaves, 
 separate from one another and alternating ; by long iVuit- 
 stalks, and by a double peristome ; H. ruscifbrium Neck, by 
 its ovate, serrated leaves, the nerves of which extend almost 
 to the point, by its long petiolated nodding capsules ; H. ri- 
 parium, by the fibres which every where proceed Irom the 
 axilla? of the leaves ; H. JluviatHe Hedw. almost solely by its 
 peticlated capsules with a double peristoma. 
 
 The genus Ciiididotus, first estabislied by Falisot-Beau- 
 vois, and admitted by Hooker, stands Ix^tween Tricliostommu 
 and Barhiila. From the former, with which this moss used 
 to be classed, it is distinguished by having the teeth of the i)e- 
 ristome united below, and twisted above. Barbiila is distin- 
 guished by this circumstance, namely, that the twisled cilia of 
 the peristome are tender, and must be considered merely as 
 prolongations of the internal membrane of the capsule. The 
 calyptre, too, is laterally divided. 
 
 Synonyracs and Fignrc^^ 
 
 FontinaUs minor lucens, J. Bauli. Hist. 3. 770. Foliis trir 
 angularibus minus complicatis. Rat Syn. p. 79. Trian- 
 gularis minor carinata. Dill, Hist. Mksc. p. 257. t. 33. f 2. 
 
 Muscus aquaticus frutescens pinnatus, Moris. 3. p. G^G. s. 15. 
 t. 6. f. 32. 
 
 Muscus squamosus, fohis acutissimis, in aquis nascens, Tourn. 
 Inst 554. 
 
 Fontinalis minor, Liini. Sp. PL 1571. Ed. Ueich. 4. 452. 
 Gunner, Fl. Norv. n. 969. t. 3. f 2. Eng. Bot 557. 
 
 Hypnum, Hall Stirp. Helv. n. 1795. 
 
 Hypnum nigricans, Vill. Dclph. 3. 905. 
 
 Tnchostomum fontinalioidcs, Iledic. Stirp. Crypt. 3. t. 14. 
 
454 39. JUNGERMANNIA TllILOBATA [CL. XXIV. 
 
 Roth. Germ. 3. 195. SmUh, Fl Bnt. 3. 1248. Turn. 
 
 Muse. Hihern. 41. Hcdw. Sp. PL 114. Bridel. Muscol 
 
 % 133. SeJtwdsrrieh. SuppL 1. 160. 
 Hypnum fontinalioidcs, Hcrfm. Germ. 2. 79. 
 Fontinalis alpina, Dicks. Fuse. 3. p. 2. t. 4. 1". 1. 
 Cinclidotus fontinalioidcs, Palis. Beauv. Aethclog: p. 2S. 52. 
 
 Hooh Mns. Brit. p. 29. t. 11. 
 
 Geog rapliical Distribution. 
 
 Norway and the nortli of Scotland seem to be the most 
 northern regions where this moss is found. It extends, so 
 far as I know, only into the south of Germany. But it is 
 not found either in Hungary or in the more southern coun^ 
 tries = 
 
 IV, Musd hepatici. 
 
 39. 
 
 Jimgermaniiia trilobata, L. 
 
 This beautiful moss grows, early in spring, on stiff clay 
 soils, in our woods. It climbs on the roots and stems of our 
 forest-trees. The stem, which is about five inches high, 
 is dichotomous, branched, every where set with leaves, attaches 
 itself by its tendrils, which spring at considerable distances, 
 and are covered by small scales, to all objects. The leaves 
 are green, but are generally inclined to yellow, stand thick 
 together in two lines, nearly opposite to one another, and ho- 
 rizontal. They are oblong, almost quadrangular, embrace 
 the stem or branches with their base, have a thick, granular, 
 cellular texture, no nerves, and are provided at their broad 
 extremity with three, more rarely with four distinct teeth ; in 
 other respects they arc entire. On the upper surface they 
 are somewhat convex, on the lower a little concave. On the 
 lower surface of the stem are found very small amphigastrio', 
 which are also nearly square, with three larger doubly den- 
 fated teeth, and with their margin somewhat bent. The 
 
CL. XXIV.] 39. JUNGERMANIA TlllI.OEATA. 455 
 
 membranaceous, cylindrical, deeply notched calyx sprinpjs 
 from the axillae of the lower part of the stenj, (by no means 
 from the top, as Roth maintains.) The fruit-stalk is tender, 
 white, pellucid, erect, snjooth, about the size of a fine linen 
 thread. It carries a brownish-red capsule, which at first is 
 closed like a splendent sphere ; afterwards it opens with four 
 valves, which stand cruciform from one another, and have 
 the seeds hanging by a chain-shaped apix^ndage. 
 
 Diagnosis and Affinity. 
 
 The species most nearly related to this are J. Fl'&ndi Web. 
 Mohr. and Naumanni Nees. But the former is distin- 
 guished by sending out tendrils only below the stem, by 
 having its leaves not so much lengthened, and rather verti- 
 cal, and chiefly by the size and multifarious division of the 
 amphigastria?, {Mart. Fl. Crypt. Erlang. p. 144. t. 4. f. 17.) 
 J, Naumanni has still shorter leaves, placed still more re- 
 mote from each other, and deeply divided, ciliated amphi- 
 gastriae, (^Mart. 143. 4. f. 16.) /. qidnque-dentata L. is very 
 like our species, but it wants the amphigastriae, and the leaves 
 are much shorter. J. nitida (convexa Thunb.) is distin^ 
 guishes by its uniform, quadri-partite amphigastriae, the la- 
 ciniae of which are subulate. There is a smaller variety, 
 which passes into that of Roth, and the amphigastriae of which 
 are merely crenated : This is J. tricrcnata Wahlenb. Car- 
 imih. p. 864. 
 
 Synonymcs and Figures. 
 
 Muscoides terrestre repens, ex obscuro viresccns, Michel. 
 
 Nov. Ge7i. p. 10. t. 6. f. 2. 
 Lichenastrum pinnulis obtuse trifidis, Dillcn. Hist. Muse. 
 
 p. 493, t. 71. f 22. A. B. {End. Syn. Michel.) 
 ? L. multifidum majus, ab extremitate fiorcns, DHL Hist. 
 
 Muse. p. 494. t. 71. f. 23. 
 Jungermannia alpina nigricans major, Hupp. I en. 404. 
 Jungermannia, Hall. Stirp. n. 1866. 
 J. trilobata, Lmn. Sp. PL cd. Reich. 4. p. 507. Roth. Germ, 
 
4:56 40. LECANOllA SAXICOLA. [cL. XXlV. 
 
 a 396. E7igl BoL 2232. IVcb. Prodr. HepaL p. 42. 
 
 Mart. Fl. CrypU Erlang p. 141. t. 3. f. 14. 
 J. radicans, Hofin. Germ. 2. 87. 
 J. stolonifcra, Sw. Fl. Ind. Occid. 3. 1862. 
 
 Geographical Distribution. 
 
 This plant is disixirsed throughout tlie temperate zone of 
 the whole northern hemisphere. It is found in the south of 
 Sweden, in Norway, and Scotland, as well as in France, 
 Italy, and Germany. I have also received it from New 
 York. As J. stolmiifera Swartz, and J. trier enata Bridol, 
 brought by Bory S. Vincent, are the same with this plant, 
 it grows also between the tropics, at least in Jamaica, and 
 Miiscaren's Island. 
 
 V. Lichens. 
 
 40. 
 
 Lccanora saxicola, Ac/i. 
 
 This lichen grows abundantly on field-stones, on porphyry 
 and sandstone rocks. Its tlialli?s is thick accumbent, scaly, 
 wrinkled, dissimilar, often as it were broken, and of a dirty 
 palegreen, or yellowish-green colour, whitish, and smooth he- 
 neath, but formed into radiated lobes on the margin. The 
 whole lichen has often a diameter of several inches, and in 
 its perfect state, on level stones, it is circular. The pale gem- 
 miferous dust exudes in spring, on the surface. The appa- 
 rent fruit is flat, round, without stalks, and pressed together, 
 of a dirty, reddish-yellow colour, surrounded by a pale mar- 
 gin resembling a thallus, and of the size of lentil or mustard 
 seed. It stands in closely crowded heaps, commonly in the 
 centre of the thallus, is frequently irregular, without the 
 margin resembling a thallus, and contains opake grains in 
 fine tubes. 
 
CL. XXIV.] iO. LKCANORA SAXICOLA. 457 
 
 Diagnosis and Affinity. 
 
 This species has a great resemblance to Lccanora slra- 
 minca Ach., (Tab. II. Fig. 3). But, in this last named 
 species, the thallus is straw-coloured. The lobes are quite 
 linear on the margin, roundish when cut through : the cen- 
 tral lobes are also as it were inflated. The colour of the ap- 
 parent fruit is darker, and the margin, which resembles a 
 thallus, is as it were swollen. Lcc. versicolor Ach. also re- 
 sembles it : but this species grows almost exclusively on cal- 
 careous rocks. The thallus is whitish on the margin, of a 
 a dirty-green in the centre. The apparent fruit, when young, 
 is of a flesh colour, and has a white margin : afterwards it 
 is of a dark dirty red, and the margin vanishes. Lee. crassa 
 Ach. corresponds, indeed, in the colour of the thallus, and of 
 the apparent fruit ; but the structure is quite different, for 
 it consists of single, cartilaginous, crenated, undulated, bent 
 lobes, which lie like scales on one another : the lower surface, 
 koo, is brown, and the apparent fruit stands dispersed. 
 
 Synonymes and Figures. 
 
 ? Lichen pulmonarius saxatilis farinaceus glauco-virescens, 
 
 Michel. Nov. Gen. p. ^4<. t. 51. f. 4. 
 Lichen saxicola, Pollieh. Palat* n. 1098. Engl. Bot. 1695. 
 
 Achar. Lichenogr. Suec. Prodr. p. lOi. WaJdenh. Fl. 
 
 Lappon. p. 415. 
 L. murahs, Schreb. Spec. Fl. Genn. p. 130. Wither. Arrang. 
 
 4. 31. 
 L. ochroleucus, Wulff. in Jacqu. Coll. 2. t. 13. f. 4. a. 
 Tsora muralis, Hqfm. PL Lichen, t. 16. f. 1. (male.) 
 Parmelia saxicola, Ach. Method, p. 191- Mart. Fl. Crypt. 
 
 Erlang. p. 215. 
 Lccanora saxicola, Ach. Lichenogr. p. 431. Syn. j). 180. 
 
 Geographical Disirihuiion. 
 
 Although this lichen i;> dispersed through Kuropc, from 
 Lapland to Italy, and from the Pyrenees to Tauiis, no traces 
 pf it are to be found in more distant countries. 
 
458 41. S. INTESTINALIS. [CL. XXIV. 
 
 VI. AlgtE. 
 
 41. 
 
 Scytliosiphon intestinalis, Lyngh. 
 
 In summer, tlierc appear upon our running and stagnant 
 waters, yellowish-green, membranaceous, spongy tubes, which 
 frequently cover a large surface of the water. When young 
 they are filiform, and of a bright green. These threads are 
 firmly attached to stones with a shield-shaped expansion, and 
 ascend as tubes, which gradually become wider, but are con- 
 tracted in particular places, without exhibiting any partitions, 
 and swim on the water, where they are then filled with water, 
 and throw up air-bubbles. When in their perfect state, they 
 resemble the intestines, and are about the thickness of a fin- 
 ger : towards harvest they always become discoloured, more 
 yellov/, and finally dissolve into slimy matter. When we 
 examine the fine sides of the tubes with a microscope, we 
 observe fine grains collected together in fours. 
 
 Diagnosis and Affinity. 
 
 The species which stands nearest to this is Sc, comprcssus 
 Lyngb., but this latter plant grows only in salt water, is 
 branched and compressed, and is not so thick as Sc. intes- 
 tinalis. Formerly both of these were arranged under Ulva ; 
 but Roth remarked (Catal. 1. 158.), that the definition of 
 Ulva includes the level, expanded, but not tubular nature of 
 the frond. Hence he classed the Ulva intestinalis with the 
 Confers^ae; but the latter has always jointed tubes, and these 
 furnished with partitions. Hence Lyngbye very properly 
 formed the genus Scytosiplion, the character of which consists 
 in its membranaceous, uninterrupted tubes, the seeds of 
 which contain the granular germs. 
 
CL. XXIV.] 12. CEKATOSTOMA riMlHUATLM. 459 
 
 Synonymes and Figures. 
 
 Cava, Lnperat. Hist. Nat. p. 858. 
 
 Fucus cavLis, C. Bank. Pin. J. Bmih. Hist. 3. 791. 
 
 Lactuca marina tubulosa, Rai Hist. 1. p. 77. 
 
 Folliculus marinus, Loscl.> Fl. Priiss. p. 75. 
 
 Conferva marina tubulosa, DiUcn. Giess. App. p. 16. 
 
 Conferva latifoiia flavescens et tubulosa major, Bitxb. Hal. 
 
 p. 79. 
 Fucus tubulosus intc&tinoruai forma, Tourn. Inst. p. 568. 
 
 Bua;b. Cent. 5. t. 13. f. 1. (male). 
 Ulva marina tubulosa, Rai Syn. p. 62. 
 Ulva tubulosa simplex, Linn. Lapp. p. 348. 
 Tremella marina tubulosa, Dill. Hist. Muse. p. 47. t. 9- f. 7. 
 Ulva tubulis cjlindricis, Hall. Stirp. n. 21:28. 
 Ulva intestinalis, Linn. Fl. Suec. n. 1154. Sp. PI. cd. Reich. 
 
 4. 583. Lightf. Scot. p. 368. Huds. Angl. 568. Wither. 
 
 Arrang. 4. 141. De Cand. Fl. Fran<^. 2. p. 8. Lamour. 
 
 Thalass. p. Qt5. Agardh. Syn. p. 45. 
 Conferva intestinalis, Roth^ Catal. 1. 154. ^Vulff. Crypt. 
 
 Aqu. p. 13. Schumach. Suelland. 2. p. 103. 
 Scytosiphon intestinalis, Lyngb. Hydroph. p. (51. 
 
 Geog raphieal Distribution . 
 
 This alga is found in all waters, from the polar circle to 
 the tropic, in the northern hemisphere : whether it also grows 
 in the southern hemisphere I know not. 
 
 VII. Mycohmyci. 
 
 42. 
 
 Ceratostoma fimbria tiim, Fries. 
 
 On the leaves of beeches and ha/el bushes, we observe dark 
 spots during summer, — results of the decaying vegetation 
 of the leaf, and of another kind of vegetation which has be- 
 gun, but which is often interrupted in the germ. In this la^t 
 
 3 
 
460 42. CERATOSTOMA FniBRIATUM. [CL. XXIV. 
 
 case it remains a Xylonia^ (Aul. ii. 17.) Otherwise small 
 spherules, of a black colour, and scarcely distinguishable 
 by the naked eye, arise during liarvest on these spots. It 
 sometimes happens, especially with regard to hazel leaves, 
 that single spherules project above tl)£ common layer. These 
 pass into stiff, straight rostella, thick above, about a line in 
 length, and of the fineness of a hair, between which and the 
 spherule, a white, membranaceous rim, resembling a ruffle, 
 stands in a circular form. This rostellum is not the peristome, 
 which in the Spha^ria supplies the place of the operculum of 
 the Mosses, but it is a continuation of the perithecium ; 
 (Fries, Obs, Myc. 2. <318, 319.) The spherule contains the 
 germ-sacks, which are club-shaped, nearly pellucid bodies, 
 filled with eight fine grains. But what purpose does the 
 white rim of the rostellum serve .'' Batsch thought that it 
 was the reflex interior cellular membrane, which opinion I do 
 not assent to. But Rebentisch^s idea is more probable, name- 
 ly, that it is the remainder of the epidermis of the leaf, and 
 disappears in spring. 
 
 This species cannot be confounded with others, because 
 the above-mentioned rim is not found in any other species. 
 In other respects it is nearly related to C. pidchellum and 
 cornutu7n. 
 
 Synwiymcs and Figures. 
 
 Sphseria spiculosa, Batsch, Eh Fung. 1. p. 273. t. 30. f. 182, 
 
 Sph. Coryli, Ih. 2. p. 131. t. 32. f. 231. 
 
 Sph. Carpini, Hofm. Veg. Crypt, 1. t. 1. f. 1. Timm. Fl 
 
 Megap. p. 279. 
 Sph. fimbriata Pers., Obs. Myc. 1. p, 70. Syn. p. 36. Alb. 
 
 et Schwein. Fung. Niesc. p. 17. Rebentish, Neom. p. 329. 
 
 Schultz, FL Starg. p. 425. Mart. Fl. Crypt. Erlang. 
 
 p. 479. 
 Ceratostoma fimbriatum, Fries, Obs. Myc. 2. p. 340. 
 
CL. XXIV.] 43. SPATirULARIA FLAVIDA. 4Gl 
 
 \'III. Proper Fungi. 
 
 43. 
 
 Spatliularia flavida, Pcrs. 
 Lclstcnsciiwamm, Nccs. 
 
 In our fir woods, sekloni among hard woods, this funo-us 
 is observed, in the end of summer, and in hardest. It grows 
 on the fohage of the fir, and on other fallen leaves, com- 
 monly surrounded by moss. The whole fungus is commonly 
 only two inches, at most a little finger in length. The stem 
 has its base thick, like a tuber : it is of a straw-yellow co- 
 lour, smooth, about the size of a writing c^uill. Its length v^ 
 somewhat more tlian an inch. Internally it is sometimes hol^- 
 low when it is old : commonly it consists of a double sub- 
 stance, an exterior fibrous part, and an interior cellular. It 
 carries a compressed pileus, of a yellow or reddish-yello-w co- 
 lour, which runs downwards on the side of the stem, and lias 
 the shape of a spade ; at most an inch long and broad, it is 
 smooth all round, but frequently crenated or notched on the 
 margin. It consists of two united hymenia, which internally 
 contain a fine, white cellular texture. At a more advanced 
 age these hymenia separate from each other : the pileus ap- 
 pears then to be inflated, and internally full of soft fibres. 
 From the stem, branchy wrinkles are extended through the 
 cap, which have been regarded by many as veins. In the 
 hymenium we observe,, by the microscope, fine ])cllutid, club- 
 shaped sporidia, with intervening sap-tubes. In the former 
 lie five double-ringed spora?, exactly in the same manner as 
 in Gcoglossum virlde (Tab. I. Fig. 34.), with which this 
 fungus is found in company. During warm sunshine these 
 sporae give out dust like a fine shining cloud, and the plant 
 becomes, by this means, like Pe:nr:a, a bladder fungus ; 
 {Fungus Utrinus, Nces, p. 243.) 
 
462 44, CRATERIUM TYUIFORME. [CL. XXIY. 
 
 Diag-nosls and yljjinitij. 
 
 This genus is most nearly related to the genus Helvella. 
 The two hymenia, which are here united, are separated in 
 Helvella, and hang down in tlie form of a mitre. The co- 
 lour of the pileus is also commonly darker. Geoglos-mm 
 forms a peculiar club, which is distinctly separated from the 
 stem. 
 
 Synonymcs and Figures. 
 
 Elvella clavata, Sch'dft. Fung. t. 149. 
 
 Clavaria Spathula, Flor. Dan. 658. 
 
 CI. spathulata, Schmid. ic p. 196. t. 50. f. 1. (alter). 
 
 Helvella spathulata, Afzel Stockh. Handl 1783. p. 302. 
 
 Sowe7'b. Fung. t. 35. 
 Helvella farctoria, Bolt. Fung. ed. Willd. 3. p. 10. t. 97. 
 Spathularia flavida, Pers. Dispos. Mcth. Fung. p. 36. Com- 
 
 ment. de Fung* clavfeform. p. 34 — 36. Syn. p. 601. 
 
 NceSj Syst. p. 174. t. 17. f. 156. (Sp. rufa eadem, icones 
 
 malae). 
 
 IX. Gastromyci. 
 
 44. 
 
 Craterium pyriforme, Ditmar. 
 
 (Tab. I. Fig. 25—28.) 
 
 In harvest, this fungus is observed on the rind of birch 
 trees in moist places. It is scarcely a line in size, and of a 
 brownish-yellow colour. On a short stalk stands the pear or 
 flask shaped peridium, contracted below the mouth. The 
 mouth is covered by a whitish round operculum, which opens 
 and shews the spora?, with intermingled tufts of hairs as the 
 contents of the peridium. 
 
 Ditmar, in den Pilzen Deutschl. b. 1. n. 10. 
 
CL. XXIV.] 46. FUSIDIUM GRYSEUM. 463 
 
 X. NematomycL 
 
 45. 
 
 Botrytis polyspora, Link. 
 
 (Tab. I. Fig. .SI.) 
 
 This fungus appears in harvest, a line in height, in thick 
 plots, on dry twigs. The branchy flocci are furnished below 
 Avith dissepimenta, and are of a greyish-green colour. The 
 spherical, olive-green sporag are placed in heaps on the 
 branches, especially towards their extremities. 
 
 Link, in Berl. Mag. 3. s. 14. 
 Ditraar, in den Pilzen Deutschl. n. 35. 
 
 XI. Coniomyci. 
 
 46. 
 
 Fusidium gryseuni, Link, 
 
 (Tab. I. Fig. 3S.) 
 
 On dry beech leaves we observe this fungus, during har- 
 vest, in the form of heaps of whitish-grey spots, wliich, 
 being examined by the microscope, are seen to consist of 
 fusiform, very fine sporae. 
 
 Link, in Berl. Mag. 3. s. 8. 
 Dkmar, in den Pilzen Dentschl 
 
 INDICES. 
 
( 465 ) 
 
 INDICES 
 
 G 
 
( 167 ) 
 
 INDEX 
 
 TO THE 
 
 LATIN TERMS. 
 
 The Number 
 
 s indicate, not the Page, but the Section. 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 alternans 
 
 31 
 
 Abbreviatus 
 
 19 
 
 alternatim pinnatus 
 
 47 
 
 abortiens 
 
 60 
 
 alternativus 
 
 99 
 
 abrupte pinnatus 
 
 47 
 
 alternus 
 
 31 
 
 acaulis 
 
 11, m 
 
 alveolatus 
 
 26 
 
 accrescens 
 
 57 
 
 Ambitus 
 
 28 
 
 accumbens 
 
 38 
 
 Amentum 
 
 84 
 
 Achenium 
 
 109 
 
 Amnios 
 
 383 
 
 acinaciformis 
 
 31 
 
 Amphigastrium 
 
 78 
 
 Acinus 
 
 116 
 
 amplexans 
 
 40 
 
 acotyledones 
 
 386 
 
 ampliatus 
 
 19 
 
 Aculeus 
 
 80 
 
 Ampulla 
 
 81 
 
 acuminatus 
 
 56 
 
 Anastomoses venarum 
 
 49 
 
 acutiusculus 
 
 ib. 
 
 anceps 
 
 30 
 
 acutus 
 
 . ib. 
 
 androgynus 
 
 51 
 
 adnatus 
 
 40 
 
 Anfractus 
 
 103 
 
 Adumbratio 
 
 . 243 
 
 angiospermus 
 
 109 
 
 aequabilis 
 
 26 
 
 angulatus 
 
 30, 53 
 
 aequalis 
 
 18 
 
 Angulus 
 
 28 
 
 ffiquans 
 
 ib. 
 
 angustissimus 
 
 19 
 
 aeruginosus 
 
 23 
 
 Anisostemones 
 
 131 
 
 -^stivatio 
 
 99 
 
 annotinus 
 
 . 62 
 
 aggregatus 
 
 38, 97, 108 
 
 annulatus 
 
 26 
 
 Ala 
 
 98 
 
 Annulus 
 
 ss, 117 
 
 alatus 
 
 31 
 
 annuus 
 
 62 
 
 albescens 
 
 23 
 
 Antliera 
 
 107 
 
 albidus 
 
 ib. 
 
 Antliesis 
 
 100 
 
 Albumen 
 
 . 121 
 
 Anthocoryniiun 
 
 86 
 
 albuminosus 
 
 ib. 
 
 Antliodinni 
 
 87 
 
 Alburnum 
 
 67 
 
 anticus 
 
 :j4 
 
 alb us 
 
 . 23, 25 
 
 antrorsum 
 
 . ib. 
 
 
 
 (i iT. 
 
 J 
 
468 
 
 LAtlN TERMS. 
 
 apetalus 
 
 . 
 
 11 
 
 bimus 
 
 62 
 
 Apex 
 
 . 28 
 
 ,55 
 
 binatus 
 
 46 
 
 aphyllus 
 
 . 
 
 11 
 
 binervius 
 
 . 49 
 
 apiculatus 
 
 . 
 
 56 
 
 bipinnatifidus 
 
 54 
 
 Apophysis 
 
 , 
 
 28 
 
 bipinnatus 
 
 48 
 
 Apothecium 
 
 
 118 
 
 Blastus 
 
 386 
 
 appressus 
 
 
 42 
 
 brachialis 
 
 . 16 
 
 aqueus 
 
 . 
 
 23 
 
 brachiatus 
 
 42 
 
 Arbor 
 
 . 
 
 67 
 
 Brachium 
 
 . 16 
 
 arboreus 
 
 . 
 
 ib. 
 
 Bractea 
 
 86 
 
 Areola 
 
 . 
 
 26 
 
 brevissimus 
 
 . 19 
 
 areolatus 
 
 . 
 
 ib. 
 
 brunneus 
 
 23 
 
 argenteus 
 
 . 
 
 23 
 
 Bulbus 
 
 65 
 
 argo- 
 
 . 
 
 ib. 
 
 bullatus 
 
 26 
 
 argyro- 
 
 . 
 
 ib. 
 
 C 
 
 Caducus 
 
 
 Arillus 
 Arista 
 
 109, 
 
 120 
 
 80 
 
 58 
 
 ari status 
 
 56, 
 
 109 
 
 caesius 
 
 23 
 
 Arma 
 
 
 80 
 
 caespitosus 
 
 38 
 
 articulatus 
 
 
 40 
 
 calcar 
 
 95 
 
 ascendens 
 
 
 42 
 
 callosus 
 
 26 
 
 Ascidium 
 
 
 81 
 
 calycinus 
 
 11,89 
 
 asper 
 
 . 
 
 26 
 
 calycostemon 
 
 33, 140 
 
 asperrimus 
 
 
 ib. 
 
 calyculus 
 
 87 
 
 ater 
 
 
 23 
 
 calyx 
 
 87,89 
 
 atropurpureus 
 
 . 
 
 ib. 
 
 calyptra 
 
 88 
 
 auctus 
 
 
 57 
 
 campaniformis 
 
 32 
 
 aurantiacus 
 
 
 23 
 
 campanulatus 
 
 ib. 
 
 Aurantium 
 
 
 115 
 
 canaliculatus 
 
 ib. 
 
 aureus 
 
 2S 
 
 , 25 
 
 candidus 
 
 23,25 
 
 Auricula 
 
 
 78 
 
 canus 
 
 ib. ib. 
 
 auriculatus 
 
 
 ib. 
 
 capillaceus 
 
 16, 30 
 
 avenius 
 
 
 11 
 
 capillaris 
 
 16, 109 
 
 axilis 
 
 , 
 
 33 
 
 capillitium 
 
 119 
 
 Axilla 
 
 . 
 
 76 
 
 capillus 
 
 16 
 
 axillaris 
 
 34, 76 
 
 capitatus 
 
 31 
 
 Axis 
 
 26 
 
 1,47 
 
 Capitulum 
 
 84 
 
 azureus 
 
 • 
 
 23 
 
 capsula 
 Carina 
 
 115 
 
 . 28, 98 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 carinatus 
 
 . 32 
 
 Bacca 
 
 . 
 
 113 
 
 carneus 
 
 23 
 
 badius 
 
 . 
 
 23 
 
 carnosus 
 
 30 
 
 barbatus 
 
 . 
 
 25 
 
 Carpel lum 
 
 109 
 
 basilaris 
 
 , 
 
 33 
 
 Carpidium 
 
 108 
 
 Basis 
 
 , 
 
 28 
 
 cartilagineus 
 
 30 
 
 berillus 
 
 . 
 
 23 
 
 caryophyllaceus 
 
 98 
 
 biennis 
 
 . 
 
 63 
 
 Catenula 
 
 . 109 
 
 bifariam 
 
 , 
 
 37 
 
 Cauda 
 
 ib. 
 
 bifidus 
 
 
 50 
 
 Caudex 
 
 69 
 
 bimestris 
 
 . 
 
 62 
 
 Caudicula 
 
 . 107 
 
LATIN Tr.nMs*. 
 
 46f^ 
 
 caulescftiis 
 
 66 
 
 compositus 
 
 . 46, 97, 108 
 
 caulinus 
 
 33 
 
 compressus 
 
 30 
 
 Caulis 
 
 66 
 
 concavus 
 
 32 
 
 centralis 
 
 33 
 
 con col or 
 
 22 
 
 centrifugiis 
 
 ib. 
 
 conduplicatus 
 
 44 
 
 centripetus 
 
 ib. 
 
 confertus 
 
 38 
 
 Cephalodium 
 
 118 
 
 confluens 
 
 40 
 
 Cephalophonim 
 
 83 
 
 con form is 
 
 20 
 
 cerinus 
 
 9.3 
 
 congestus 
 
 38 
 
 cernuus 
 
 42 
 
 Conglomeratus 
 
 , ib. 
 
 cervlnus 
 
 23 
 
 conicus 
 
 30 
 
 Chalaza 
 
 120 
 
 conjugatus 
 
 . 46 
 
 Character 
 
 142, 230 
 
 connatns 
 
 40 
 
 Character artificial is 
 
 230 
 
 Connectivum 
 
 . 107 
 
 factitius 
 
 ib. 
 
 connivens 
 
 38 
 
 naturalis 
 
 . ib. 
 
 contiguus 
 
 ib. 
 
 chartaceus 
 
 SO 
 
 continuus 
 
 . ib. 
 
 chloro- 
 
 23 
 
 con tortus 
 
 99 
 
 Chorion 
 
 383 
 
 contrariiis 
 
 . 36 
 
 chryso- 
 
 23 
 
 convexus 
 
 30 
 
 cicatricosus 
 
 11 
 
 convolutivus 
 
 . 99 
 
 Cicatriciila 
 
 120 
 
 convoliitus 
 
 44 
 
 Cicatrix 
 
 iCy 
 
 cordatus 
 
 29 
 
 Cilia 
 
 51 
 
 coriaceus 
 
 30 
 
 ciliatus 
 
 ib. 
 
 Cor m us 
 
 09 
 
 cinereus 
 
 23 
 
 corneus 
 
 30 
 
 eircinnatus 
 
 44 
 
 covollinus 
 
 .89 
 
 circumscissus 
 
 114 
 
 Corolla 
 
 90, 94 
 
 Cirrhus 
 
 79 
 
 Corona 
 
 93 
 
 citrinus 
 
 23 
 
 Cortex 
 
 67 
 
 clausus 
 
 32 
 
 cortical is 
 
 ib. 
 
 clavatus 
 
 31 
 
 Cortina 
 
 88 
 
 Clinandrium 
 
 107 
 
 Corymbus 
 
 , 84 
 
 Clinanthium 
 
 85 
 
 Costa 
 
 . 109 
 
 clypeatus 
 
 31 
 
 Cotyledones 
 
 121 
 
 coaetaneus 
 
 59 
 
 cotyloideus 
 
 31 
 
 coarctatus 
 
 38 
 
 crenatus 
 
 51 
 
 cocciiieus 
 
 . 23 
 
 crenulatus 
 
 ib. 
 
 Cocculus 
 
 109 
 
 crisp us 
 
 26 
 
 Coccum 
 
 110 
 
 cri status 
 
 31 
 
 coeruleus 
 
 23 
 
 croceus 
 
 23 
 
 cochlear is 
 
 99 
 
 cruciatus 
 
 36 
 
 cochleatiis 
 
 . 41 
 
 cruciformis 
 
 ib. 
 
 cohaerens 
 
 40 
 
 Crusta 
 
 70 
 
 Collectores 
 
 . 3il 
 
 crustaceus 
 
 . 30 
 
 CoUum 
 
 G9 
 
 cubitalis 
 
 16 
 
 coloratus 
 
 22 
 
 Cubitus 
 
 ib. 
 
 Coma 
 
 25, 86, 109 
 
 cucullatus 
 
 . 32 
 
 comosus 
 
 25 
 
 Culmus 
 
 70 
 
 complicatus 
 
 44 
 
 cuneatus 
 
 . 29 
 
470 
 
 LATIN TEEMS. 
 
 cimeiformis 
 
 . 29 
 
 dodrantalis 
 
 16 
 
 cupiilatus 
 
 31 
 
 dolabvifomnis 
 
 31 
 
 euspidatus 
 
 b(S 
 
 dorsalis 
 
 33 
 
 cyaneus 
 
 23 
 
 Drupa 
 
 112 
 
 cylindricus 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 Cyma 
 
 84 
 
 E 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 Eburneus 
 
 23 
 
 D 
 
 
 echinatus 
 
 . 26 
 
 Deciduus 
 
 . 58 
 
 effiguratus 
 
 27 
 
 declinatus 
 
 43 
 
 effbetus 
 
 103, 107 
 
 decompositus 
 
 48 
 
 eglandulosus 
 
 11 
 
 decumbens 
 
 42 
 
 ellipticus 
 
 29 
 
 decurrens 
 
 40 
 
 elongatus 
 
 19 
 
 decursive pinnatus 
 
 47 
 
 emarginatus 
 
 55^ 
 
 decussatus 
 
 m 
 
 Embryo 
 
 121 
 
 deflexus 
 
 43 
 
 emergens 
 
 40 
 
 dehiscens 
 
 32 
 
 Endorrhizae 
 
 385 
 
 deltoideus 
 
 SO 
 
 Endospermium 
 
 121 
 
 demum 
 
 57 
 
 enervis 
 
 11 
 
 dentatus 
 
 51 
 
 ensiformis 
 
 . 29 
 
 denticulatus 
 
 ib. 
 
 ephemerus 
 
 61 
 
 deorsum 
 
 34 
 
 Epidermis 
 
 . 67 
 
 depressus 
 
 c 30 
 
 epigaeus 
 
 42 
 
 dextrorsum volubilis 
 
 . 41 
 
 epigynus 
 
 ^5 
 
 diaphanus 
 
 23 
 
 epipetalus 
 
 . ^^ 
 
 Dichogamia 
 
 5% 103 
 
 Epiphragma 
 
 117 
 
 dichotomus 
 
 50 
 
 equitans 
 
 40 
 
 Diclinia 
 
 138 
 
 erectus 
 
 . 42, 121 
 
 Dicotyledones 
 
 386 
 
 erosus 
 
 6S 
 
 difFormis 
 
 20 
 
 erythro- , 
 
 23 
 
 difFusus 
 
 39 
 
 evanescens 
 
 58 
 
 digitalis 
 
 16 
 
 evanidus , 
 
 49 
 
 digitatus 
 
 46 
 
 exalbuminosus 
 
 121 
 
 Digitus 
 
 16 
 
 excedens 
 
 IS 
 
 dilutus 
 
 23 
 
 excentricus 
 
 ^^ 
 
 dimidiatus 
 
 30 
 
 excurrens 
 
 49 
 
 dimorphus 
 
 20 
 
 Exorrhizas 
 
 . 385 
 
 dioecius 
 
 . 103 
 
 exsculptus 
 
 32 
 
 disciformis 
 
 31 
 
 exstipulatus 
 
 11 
 
 discolor 
 
 22 
 
 exsuccus 
 
 S^ 
 
 discretus 
 
 , 39 
 
 extrafoliaceus 
 
 34 
 
 Discus 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 dispar 
 
 20 
 
 F 
 
 
 Dissepimentum 
 
 110 
 
 Falcatus 
 
 29 
 
 dissimilis 
 
 20 
 
 Familia 
 
 155 
 
 distichus 
 
 37 
 
 farinosus 
 
 27 
 
 diurnus 
 
 61 
 
 fasciculatus 
 
 38 
 
 divaricatiis 
 
 42 
 
 Fasciculus 
 
 84 
 
 divergens 
 
 ib. 
 
 Faux 
 
 92, 96 
 
 Dod rails 
 
 16 
 
 favosus 
 
 26 
 
LATIN TETIMS. 
 
 471 
 
 ferrugineus 
 
 Fibrillas 
 
 Filamentuin 
 
 filiformis 
 
 fimbriatus 
 
 fistulosus 
 
 flabelliformis 
 
 flaccidus 
 
 liammeus 
 
 flavus 
 
 fiexuosus 
 
 Flocci 
 
 floralis 
 
 Flos 
 
 Flosculi 
 
 foliaceus 
 
 foliatus 
 
 Foliolum 
 
 foliosus 
 
 Folium 
 
 Folliculus 
 
 fornicatus 
 
 fragilis 
 
 Frons 
 
 Fructificatio 
 
 Fructus 
 
 Frutex 
 
 fiigax 
 
 Fulcrum 
 
 fuligineus 
 
 fulvus 
 
 Fundus 
 
 Funiculus umbilicalis 
 
 furcatus 
 
 fusiformis 
 
 fusinus 
 
 Galacto- 
 
 GalbuJus 
 
 Galea 
 
 geminatus, geminus 
 
 Gemma • ' 
 
 Gemmatio 
 
 geniculatus 
 
 Genus 
 
 Germ en 
 
 gibbus 
 
 giganteus 
 
 gilvus 
 
 23, 25 
 64 
 
 107 
 30 
 51 
 32 
 29 
 39 
 . 28 
 ib. 
 41 
 25 
 86 
 82 
 95 
 11 
 ib. 
 48 
 11 
 75 
 
 114 
 31 
 30 
 70 
 
 103 
 
 108 
 68 
 61 
 79 
 23 
 ib. 
 69 
 . 120 
 51 
 31 
 ib. 
 
 23 
 
 116 
 
 96 
 
 . 36 
 
 74, 302 
 
 72,74 
 
 41 
 
 147 
 
 72, 104 
 
 30 
 
 19 
 
 23 
 
 glabcr 
 
 Glandula 
 
 glanduloso-ciliatus 
 
 glaucescens 
 
 glaucus 
 
 glebosus 
 
 globosiis 
 
 glocliidatus 
 
 Glochis 
 
 glomeratus 
 
 Glomerulus 
 
 Gliima 
 
 glutinosus 
 
 Gongylus 
 
 granulatus 
 
 gregarius 
 
 griseus 
 
 gmmcsus 
 
 gymnospermus 
 
 gynandrus 
 
 Gynizus 
 
 Gynobasis 
 
 Gynostemiura 
 
 gyrosns 
 
 II 
 Halonatus 
 hamosus 
 Hamus 
 hastatus 
 Haustorium 
 helvolus 
 hemisphaericus 
 hepaticus 
 h ei-maphrod itu s 
 hetero- 
 hetcromallus 
 Hilum 
 hinc 
 hirsutus 
 hirtus 
 hispidus 
 homomallus 
 horarius 
 horizontal is 
 hornus 
 hyalinus 
 Hymenium 
 Hypha 
 hypocrateriformis 
 
 24 
 81 
 57 
 22 
 ib^ 
 27 
 30 
 80 
 ib. 
 84 
 ib. 
 88, 9-i 
 27 
 72 
 26 
 38 
 23 
 26 
 
 109 
 59, 103 
 
 106 
 85, 105 
 
 107 
 37 
 
 22 
 80 
 ib. 
 29 
 79 
 23 
 33 
 23 
 
 103 
 20 
 43 
 
 120 
 43 
 25 
 ib. 
 
 ,26 
 43 
 61 
 42 
 62 
 23 
 
 119 
 70 
 33 
 
472 
 
 LATIN TERMS. 
 
 hypogaeus 
 
 . 
 
 42 
 
 lacteus 
 
 23 
 
 hypogynus 
 
 . 
 
 35 
 
 laevis 
 
 24 
 
 hypophyllus 
 
 . 
 
 33 
 
 lamellatus 
 
 49 
 
 Hypostroma 
 
 • 
 
 83 
 
 Lamina 
 lanatus 
 
 28, 72, 93 
 25 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 lanceolatus 
 
 29 
 
 Imbricativus 
 
 . 
 
 99 
 
 lanuginosus 
 
 25 
 
 imbricatus 
 
 , 
 
 40 
 
 lapideus 
 
 SO 
 
 immersus 
 
 . 
 
 ib. 
 
 larvatus 
 
 96 
 
 impari-pinnatus 
 
 . 
 
 47 
 
 Latera 
 
 28 
 
 impuber 
 
 . 
 
 103 
 
 lateralis 
 
 33 
 
 inaequabilis 
 
 . 
 
 24 
 
 lateritius 
 
 23 
 
 inaequalis 
 
 20 
 
 .51 
 
 laxus 
 
 39 
 
 incanus 
 
 23 
 
 ,35 
 
 Legumen 
 
 114 
 
 incarnatus 
 
 
 23 
 
 lenticularis 
 
 31 
 
 inconspicuus 
 
 
 11 
 
 lepidotus 
 
 27 
 
 iiicrassatus 
 
 , 
 
 55 
 
 leprosus 
 
 ^6 
 
 incumbens 
 
 . 
 
 38 
 
 leuco- 
 
 23 
 
 induplicativus 
 
 . 
 
 99 
 
 Liber 
 
 67 
 
 Indusium 
 
 88, 
 
 106 
 
 liber 
 
 34 
 
 inermis 
 
 H 
 
 , 80 
 
 Lignum 
 
 67 
 
 in feme 
 
 . 
 
 34 
 
 Ligula 
 
 77 
 
 inferus 
 
 , 
 
 ib. 
 
 ligulatus 
 
 29.95 
 
 inflatus 
 
 . 
 
 30 
 
 lilacinus 
 
 23 
 
 Inflorescentia 
 
 
 82 
 
 liliaceus 
 
 9S 
 
 infra 
 
 , 
 
 34 
 
 Limbus 
 
 28,92 
 
 infractus 
 
 , 
 
 41 
 
 Limes 
 
 69 
 
 infundibuliformis 
 
 . 
 
 32 
 
 limitatus 
 
 28 
 
 Insertio 
 
 , 
 
 33 
 
 Linea 
 
 16 
 
 integerriraus 
 
 
 51 
 
 linearis 
 
 16, 29 
 
 intense 
 
 . 
 
 23 
 
 lineatus 
 
 26 
 
 Internodium 
 
 . 
 
 51 
 
 Lirella 
 
 118 
 
 interrupte-pinnatus 
 
 . 
 
 47 
 
 lobatus 
 
 52 
 
 intrafoliaceus 
 
 . 
 
 34 
 
 Lobus 
 
 52,91 
 
 intrapetiolaris 
 
 . 
 
 ib. 
 
 Loculus 
 
 110 
 
 intricatus 
 
 . 
 
 38 
 
 Lodicula 
 
 94 
 
 inversus 
 
 . 
 
 43 
 
 Lomentum 
 
 114 
 
 Involucrum * 
 
 86 
 
 ,87 
 
 lucidus 
 
 24 
 
 involutus : 
 
 . 
 
 44 
 
 lunulatus 
 
 29 
 
 irregularis 
 
 . 
 
 20 
 
 luridus 
 
 23 
 
 Isostemones 
 
 . 
 
 131 
 
 luteus 
 
 23 
 
 Jugum 
 
 47, 
 
 109 
 
 lyratus 
 
 54 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 Labellum 
 
 , 
 
 95 
 
 Maculatus 
 
 22 
 
 labiatus 
 
 
 96 
 
 mammillatus 
 
 31 
 
 Labium 
 
 91 
 
 ,96 
 
 marcescens 
 
 58 
 
 laceratus 
 
 . 
 
 53 
 
 marcidus 
 
 58 
 
 Lacinia 
 
 52 
 
 ,91 
 
 marginal us 
 
 28 
 
 laciniatus 
 
 . 
 
 52 
 
 Margo 
 
 ib. 
 
LATIN TERMS. 
 
 475 
 
 Massa granulosa 
 
 107 
 
 obcordatus 
 
 2c> 
 
 Massa sectilis 
 
 107 
 
 obliquus 
 
 42 
 
 matutiiius 
 
 61 
 
 oblongus 
 
 29 
 
 maximus 
 
 • 19 
 
 obovatus 
 
 ib. 
 
 Medulla 
 
 67 
 
 obsoletus 
 
 11 
 
 mela-, melano- 
 
 . 23 
 
 obtusiusculus , 
 
 55 
 
 membranaceus 
 
 30 
 
 obtusus 
 
 ib. 
 
 meniscoideus 
 
 31 
 
 obvolutus 
 
 44. 
 
 menstruus 
 
 62 
 
 ocellatus 
 
 22 
 
 meridianus 
 
 61 
 
 ochraceus 
 
 23 
 
 Micropyle 
 
 120 
 
 Ochrea 
 
 78 
 
 miniatus 
 
 23 
 
 ochroleucus 
 
 23 
 
 minimus 
 
 19 
 
 olivaceus 
 
 ib. 
 
 mitrasformis 
 
 30 
 
 opacus 
 
 ib. 24. 
 
 mollis 
 
 25 
 
 Operculimi 
 
 117 
 
 mollissimus 
 
 ib. 
 
 oppositifolius 
 
 34 
 
 moniliformis 
 
 31 
 
 oppositus 
 
 . 3G 
 
 Monocotyledones 
 
 386 
 
 orbiculatus 
 
 29 
 
 monoecius 
 
 103 
 
 Orbilla 
 
 118 
 
 mucronatus 
 
 56 
 
 Orgya 
 
 16 
 
 multifidus 
 
 53 
 
 orgyalis 
 
 ib. 
 
 muricatus 
 
 26 
 
 Os 
 
 77, 117 
 
 murinus 
 
 23 
 
 osseus 
 
 30 
 
 mutabilis 
 
 . 20 
 
 ovalis 
 
 29 
 
 muticus 
 
 11,55,80 
 
 ovatus 
 
 ib. 
 
 
 
 Ovarium 
 
 104 
 
 N 
 
 
 Ovulum 
 
 ib. 
 
 Naucum 
 
 112 
 
 
 
 navicularis 
 
 32 
 
 P 
 
 
 nebulosus 
 
 23 
 
 Pagina 
 
 28 
 
 Nectarilyma 
 
 102 
 
 Palatum 
 
 96 
 
 Nectarium 
 
 94 
 
 Palea 
 
 27, 94. 
 
 Nectarostigma 
 
 102 
 
 paleaceus 
 
 • 27, 109 
 
 Nectarotheca , 
 
 ib. 
 
 pallidus 
 
 23 
 
 nervosus 
 
 11 
 
 palmaris 
 
 . 16 
 
 Nervus 
 
 49 
 
 )almatus 
 
 46, 54 
 
 neuter 
 
 103 
 
 Palmus 
 
 16 
 
 nidulans 
 
 40 
 
 panduroeformis 
 
 • 29 
 
 niger 
 
 23 
 
 Panicula 
 
 84 
 
 nitidus 
 
 24 
 
 papilionaceus 
 
 98 
 
 niveus 
 
 23 
 
 papillosus 
 
 26 
 
 nocturnus 
 
 . 61 
 
 wpulosus 
 
 ib. 
 
 Nodus 
 
 51 
 
 Pappus 
 
 109 
 
 notatus 
 
 22 
 
 partialis 
 
 48 
 
 nudus 
 
 11,24, 117 
 
 Patella 
 
 118 
 
 nutans 
 
 42 
 
 patelliformis 
 
 31 
 
 Nux 
 
 112 
 
 patens 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 patentissimus 
 
 ib. 
 
 O 
 
 
 pectinatiis 
 
 31 
 
 Obconicus 
 
 •'o 
 
 pedalis 
 
 16 
 
474 
 
 LATIN TERMS. 
 
 pedatus 
 
 pedicellatus, 
 
 Pedicellus 
 
 Pedunculus 
 
 pellucidus 
 
 peltatus 
 
 pendidus 
 
 penicillatus 
 
 pentagonus 
 
 Pepo 
 
 l^erennans 
 
 perennis 
 
 perfoliatus 
 
 Perianth i urn 
 
 Pericarpiiim 
 
 Pericha^tium 
 
 Peiicliniiim 
 
 Peridium , . 
 
 perig-ynus 
 
 periphericus 
 
 Periphoranthium 
 
 Perispemiium 
 
 Peri stachy urn 
 
 Peristomium 
 
 Perithecium 
 
 persistens 
 
 personatus 
 
 pertusus 
 
 Perula 
 
 Pes 
 
 Petalostemon 
 
 Petalum 
 
 petiolatus 
 
 Petiolus 
 
 phaeo- 
 
 Phyllodium 
 
 piceus 
 
 pileatus, pileiformis 
 
 pilosus 
 
 Pinna 
 
 pinnatifidus 
 
 pinnatus 
 
 Pistillum 
 
 Placenta 
 
 Placentatio 
 
 planus 
 
 plicativus 
 
 plicatus 
 
 plum be us 
 
 plumosus 
 
 78 Plumula 
 
 40 Podetium 
 
 83 Podospermium 
 
 ib. Pollen 
 
 23 Pollex 
 
 40 pollicaris 
 
 43 Polycotyledones 
 25, 109 Polygamia . l 
 
 30 aequalis 
 
 1 1 5 frustranea 
 
 •'^7 necessaria 
 
 63 segregata 
 
 40 supei5lua 
 
 87 polygamus 
 108 pomeridianus 
 
 88 Pomum 
 87 porosus 
 
 88, 119 posticus 
 35 prascox 
 28 praemorsus 
 
 87 prasinus 
 121 primarius 
 
 88 prismaticus 
 117 proboscideus 
 119 procumbens 
 
 57 prominulus 
 
 96 Propago 
 
 32 Propagulum 
 
 95 proprius 
 
 16 prostratus 
 140 Pruina 
 
 91 pruinosus 
 
 40 Pubertas 
 
 75 Pubes 
 
 23 pubescens 
 
 75 puUus 
 
 23 pulposus 
 
 31 pulveraceus 
 25, 109 pulvinatus 
 
 47 Pulvis 
 
 54 pumilus 
 
 47 punctatus 
 j06 puniceus 
 1 1 1 purpureo-cceruleus 
 
 ib. purpureus 
 30. 44 pusillus 
 
 g9 Pyramidalis, pyramidatus 
 
 26 Pyrena 
 23 pyi'ifot'mis 
 25, 109 I^yxidium 
 
 12t 
 
 83 
 
 120 
 
 107 
 
 16 
 
 ib. 
 
 386 
 
 31, 137 
 
 137 
 
 ib. 
 
 . ib. 
 
 ib. 
 
 . ib. 
 
 103 
 
 61 
 
 115 
 
 26 
 
 34 
 
 59 
 55 
 23 
 
 135 
 30 
 32 
 42 
 40 
 72 
 ib. 
 48 
 42 
 27 
 
 ib. 
 
 103 
 
 25 
 
 ib. 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 31 
 
 27 
 
 19 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 
 19 
 
 30 
 116 
 
 30 
 114 
 
LATIN TERMS. 
 
 475 
 
 Q 
 
 Quadrangularis 
 
 quadrifariam 
 
 quadrifidus 
 
 quadrijiigus 
 
 quadrilobus 
 
 quadripartitus 
 
 quaternus 
 
 quinatus 
 
 quincuncialis 
 
 quinquangularis 
 
 quinquefariam 
 
 quiiiqiiefidus 
 
 quinquenerveus 
 
 quinquepartitus 
 
 quintuplinervius 
 
 quinus 
 
 Racemiis 
 
 Rachis 
 
 radialis 
 
 radians 
 
 radiatus 
 
 radicans 
 
 radicatus 
 
 radicinus 
 
 Radicula 
 
 Radius 
 
 Radix 
 
 Ramentum 
 
 Ramus 
 
 rarus 
 
 Receptaculum 
 
 reclinatus 
 
 rectus 
 
 reflexus 
 
 regularis 
 
 remotus 
 
 renifoi-mis 
 
 repaiidus 
 
 repens 
 
 resupinatus 
 
 reticulatus 
 
 Reticulum 
 
 Retinaculum 
 
 retrorsum 
 
 retusus 
 
 revolutus 
 
 R 
 
 Rhizoma 
 rhomboideus 
 
 30 rigidus 
 
 37 rimosus 
 
 52 ringens 
 
 47 rosaceus 
 
 52 roseus 
 
 ib. rostellatus 
 
 36 Rostellum 
 46 rostratus 
 
 100 rotatus 
 
 30 rotundatus 
 
 37 ruber 
 
 52 Rudimentum 
 
 . 49 rugosus 
 
 52 ruminatus 
 
 49 runcinatus 
 
 3Q iniptinervius 
 
 84 
 47,83 
 28 
 37 
 ib. 
 42 
 11 
 ib. 
 
 64, 121 
 28, 67 
 64 
 76 
 71 
 39 
 
 85, 111 
 43 
 41 
 43 
 20 
 39 
 
 53 
 42 
 43 
 26 
 77 
 107, 120 
 34 
 55 
 44 
 
 Sagittatus 
 
 Samara 
 
 sanguineus 
 
 Sarcobasis 
 
 Sarmentum 
 
 saterrime 
 
 scaber 
 
 scabeiTimus 
 
 scandens 
 
 Scapus 
 
 scariosus 
 
 scobiformis 
 
 scrobiculatus 
 
 Scutella 
 
 scutelliformis 
 
 Scutellum 
 
 scyphitbrmis 
 
 sectus 
 
 secundus 
 
 Segmentum 
 
 Semen 
 
 Semiflosculus 
 
 semilunatus 
 
 semiteres 
 
 semivalvis 
 
 Sepalum 
 
 septatus 
 
 septenatus 
 
 septiferus 
 
 serial is 
 
 . 66 
 29 
 41 
 26 
 96 
 
 37,98 
 23 
 56 
 107, 121 
 56 
 32 
 
 29, 55 
 23 
 60 
 26 
 ib. 
 54 
 49 
 
 . 29 
 
 109 
 23 
 85, 105 
 71 
 23 
 26 
 ib. 
 41 
 83 
 SO, 184 
 31 
 26 
 
 118 
 31 
 
 121 
 31 
 52 
 43 
 52 
 
 109 
 
 ■ 95 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 no 
 
 S9 
 26 
 46 
 110 
 37 
 
476 
 
 LATIN TERMS. 
 
 sericeus 
 
 25 
 
 squarrosus 
 
 42 
 
 serotinus 
 
 59 
 
 Stamen 
 
 107 
 
 serratus 
 
 51 
 
 Staminodium 
 
 ib. 
 
 serrulatus 
 
 ib. 
 
 stellatus 
 
 2, 5, 36 
 
 sessilis 
 
 40 
 
 stigma 
 
 108 
 
 Seta 
 
 80, 83 
 
 stipes 
 
 70 
 
 setaceus 
 
 109 
 
 stipitatus 
 
 47 
 
 setosus 
 
 25 
 
 Stipula 
 
 78 
 
 sexfariam 
 
 37 
 
 Stoma 
 
 119 
 
 Silicula 
 
 114 
 
 Stragula 
 
 94 
 
 Siliqua 
 
 ib. 
 
 stramineus 
 
 23 
 
 similis 
 
 20 
 
 striatus 
 
 26 
 
 simplex 
 
 45, 108 
 
 Strictura 
 
 51 
 
 sinistrorsum 
 
 41 
 
 strictus 
 
 41 
 
 Sinus 
 
 28, 53 
 
 strigosus 
 
 25 
 
 sinuatus 
 
 53 
 
 Strobilus 
 
 84, 116 
 
 smaragdinus 
 
 23 
 
 Stroma 
 
 83 
 
 solitarius 
 
 38 
 
 Strophiola 
 
 l20 
 
 solutus 
 
 40 
 
 Struma 
 
 28 
 
 sordide 
 
 23 
 
 stupeus 
 
 25 
 
 Soredium 
 
 72 
 
 Stylopodium 
 
 105 
 
 Sorus 
 
 84 
 
 stylostemon 
 
 140 
 
 spadiceus 
 
 . 23 
 
 Stylus 
 
 106 
 
 Spadix 
 
 84 
 
 suberosus 
 
 30 
 
 sparsus 
 
 38 
 
 Subiculum 
 
 83 
 
 Spatha 
 
 87 
 
 subrotundus 
 
 29 
 
 spathulatus 
 
 29 
 
 Subspecies 
 
 145 
 
 Species 
 
 142 
 
 subulatus 
 
 31,56 
 
 Spermapodium 
 
 111 
 
 succulentus 
 
 30 
 
 Spermapodophorum 
 
 . 83 
 
 SufFrutex 
 
 68 
 
 sphacelatus 
 
 22 
 
 sulcatus 
 
 26 
 
 sphaericus 
 
 30 
 
 Sulcus 
 
 ib. 
 
 sphseroideus 
 
 ib. 
 
 sulfureus 
 
 23 
 
 Spica 
 
 84 
 
 superne 
 
 34 
 
 Spicula 
 
 ib. 
 
 supra 
 
 ib. 
 
 Spina 
 
 80 
 
 supradecompositus 
 
 48 
 
 spinoso-ciliatus 
 
 51 
 
 sursum 
 
 34 
 
 spiralis 
 
 37 
 
 Sutura 
 
 110 
 
 Spithama 
 
 16 
 
 Syngenesia 
 
 137 
 
 spithameus 
 
 ib. 
 
 
 
 splendens 
 
 24 
 
 T 
 
 
 spodo- 
 
 23 
 
 Tephro- 
 
 23 
 
 spongiosus 
 
 30 
 
 teres 
 
 30 
 
 Spora 
 
 119 
 
 teretiusculus 
 
 ib. 
 
 Sporangium 
 
 ib. 
 
 terminalis 
 
 33 
 
 Sporidium 
 
 , ib. 
 
 ternatim sectus 
 
 52 
 
 Sporophorus 
 
 ib. 
 
 ternatus 
 
 46 
 
 spurius 
 
 11 
 
 ternus 
 
 36 
 
 Squama 
 
 27,81 
 
 tessellatus 
 
 26 
 
 squamulosus 
 
 27 
 
 tetragonus 
 
 30 
 

 LATIN ' 
 
 lERMS. 
 
 tetraqueter 
 
 30 
 
 undulatus 
 
 Thalamium 
 
 118 
 
 unguicularis 
 
 thalamostemon 
 
 140 
 
 Unguis 
 
 Thallus 
 
 70 
 
 urceolatus 
 
 Theca 
 
 117 
 
 Utriculus 
 
 Thecapodium 
 
 . 119 
 
 
 Thyrsus 
 
 84 
 
 
 tomentosus 
 
 25 
 
 Vagina 
 
 Tomentum 
 
 ib. 
 
 vaginans 
 
 torosus 
 
 26 
 
 Vallicula 
 
 torulosus 
 
 ib. 
 
 Valva 
 
 tortilis 
 
 41 
 
 valvaris 
 
 tortus 
 
 ib. 
 
 variabilis 
 
 trapezoideus 
 
 29 
 
 variegatus 
 
 triangularis 
 
 29,30 
 
 Varietas 
 
 Tribus 
 
 154 
 
 varius 
 
 Trica 
 
 118 
 
 Vasa scalaria 
 
 trichotomus 
 
 50 
 
 spiralia 
 
 trifidus 
 
 52 
 
 Vena 
 
 trigonus 
 
 30 
 
 ventricosus 
 
 trinervius 
 
 49 
 
 vernicosus 
 
 tripartitus 
 
 52 
 
 Verruca 
 
 tripinnatus 
 
 48 
 
 verrucosus 
 
 triplicato-pinnatus 
 
 48 
 
 versatilis 
 
 triplinervius 
 
 49 
 
 verticalis 
 
 triquetur 
 
 SO 
 
 verticil] atus 
 
 trisectus 
 
 52 
 
 Verticillus 
 
 trochlearis 
 
 31,37 
 
 vespertinus 
 
 Truncus 
 
 66 
 
 vexillaris 
 
 Tuber 
 
 ib. 
 
 Vexillum 
 
 Tuberculum 
 
 118 
 
 villosus 
 
 tubulosus 
 
 32 
 
 violaceus 
 
 Tubus 
 
 92 
 
 viridis 
 
 tumidus 
 
 30 
 
 viscosus 
 
 turbinatus 
 
 30 
 
 Vitellus 
 
 Turiones 
 
 71 
 
 vitreus 
 Vitta 
 
 U 
 
 
 volubilis 
 
 Ulna 
 
 16 
 
 Volva 
 
 ulnaris 
 
 ib. 
 
 
 Umbella 
 
 84 
 
 
 Umbilicus 
 
 28, 120 
 
 Xantho- 
 
 umbraculiformis 
 
 31 
 
 xerampelinus 
 
 Uncia 
 
 16 
 
 
 uncialis 
 
 ib. 
 
 
 uncinatus 
 
 80 
 
 Zonatus 
 
 Uncus 
 
 ib. 
 
 
 X 
 
 177 
 
 26 
 
 16 
 
 16, 93 
 
 31 
 
 109 
 
 77 
 40 
 
 109 
 
 87, 109 
 
 99 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 145 
 20 
 
 282 
 
 277 
 49 
 81 
 24 
 76 
 26 
 40 
 42 
 84 
 ib. 
 61 
 99 
 . 98 
 25 
 23 
 ib. 
 27 
 
 121 
 23 
 
 109 
 41 
 88 
 
 23 
 ib. 
 
( 479 ) 
 
 INDEX 
 
 TO THE 
 
 PRINCIPAL DEFINITIONS AND NAMES. 
 
 The Figures indicate the Seclions. 
 
 Abortion of organs^ 60, 177 
 
 Acharius, 467 
 
 Acids of plants, 363^ — in the 
 
 soil, 374 
 Acotyledonous, 386 
 Adanson, l64, 456 
 Aerial smoke, what it is, 417 
 Agamia, 139 
 Agardh, 467 
 Agrumas, 115 
 Aiton, 468 
 Albertini, 467 
 Albumen in seeds, 1^21, 3So, — 
 
 in plants, S5S 
 Alburnum of trees, 67; — its 
 
 structure, ^^^, — debility of, 
 
 420 
 Alexandria, botany studied in 
 
 its schools, 432 
 Alkalies, 358 
 Allioni, 465 
 Alpini, 442 
 
 Alterations of organs, 184 
 Ammonia in plants, 358 
 Analogy, its use, 179 
 Andrews, 467 
 Angidllara, 441 
 Anomaloecia, 139 
 
 Anthers, 107, — their .-structure, 
 334 
 
 Aphides, hurtful to plants, 426 
 
 Appendage of parts, 28 
 
 Apple, 115 
 
 Arabians, 436 
 
 Aristotle, 431 
 
 Armour of plants, 80 
 
 Arsenic, its effects on plants, 375 
 
 Ashes, in what way they im- 
 prove the soil, 347 
 
 Aublet, 458 
 
 Auriculae of plants, 78 
 
 Axilla, 76 
 
 Axis of parts, 28 
 
 Azote, whence derived to plants, 
 349 
 
 Azotic gas, inhaled from flowers, 
 329 
 
 B 
 
 Bidbis, 4()5 
 Barrelier, 450 
 Base, 28 
 
 Bastard phuits, 381 
 Batsch, 463, 467 
 r. Bauhin, 211, 413. 
 J. Bauhin, 443 
 Bauwuartcr, 465 
 
3f80 PRINCIPAL DEFINITIONS AND NAMES. 
 
 Beard, 25 
 
 Beitar, 436 
 
 BeJon, 442 
 
 Berry, 113 
 
 Beslier, 449 
 
 Besser, 46? 
 
 BilUirdiere, 466 
 
 ^zna, 467 
 
 Bivona-Bemardi, 465 
 
 Blight, of trees, 421, —of corn, 
 422 
 
 Blisters, 26 
 
 Blossomin|r, lOO 
 
 Bobart, 451 
 
 Boccone, 450 
 
 Boerhaave, 141, 445 
 
 5o/^ow, 467 
 
 Bonnet, 457 
 
 Bonpland, 466, 467 
 
 Borkkausen, 140 
 
 Boundaries of parts, 28 
 
 Bracteae, 86 
 
 Branches, 71 
 
 Breyne, 44<9 
 
 jSrzffe/, 467 
 
 Bristles, 25, 80 
 
 BroterOy 465 
 
 P. Brown, 458 
 
 i2. Brown, 466, 467 
 
 Brunfeh, 439 
 
 Buds of trees, 72,-^their struc- 
 ture, 302 
 
 Bulbs, 65, — their structure, 289 
 
 Bulliard, 467 
 
 Burkhard, 451 
 
 J. Burmann, 454 
 
 iV. L. Burmann, 458 
 
 Butterflies, hurtful, 427 
 
 Buxbaum, 454 
 
 Camerarius, 451 
 
 Camphor, 357 
 
 Cancer in trees, 421 
 
 Candolle, De, 463, 465, 467, 
 468 
 
 Capsule, 115 
 
 Carbonic acid absorbed and ex- 
 haled by plants, 315, — their 
 nourishment.^ 347 
 
 Cassini, 467 
 
 Catesby, 454 
 
 Catkins, 84 
 
 Calo, 433 
 
 Cavanilles, 466, 467 
 
 CavoUni, 46 1 
 
 Cellular texture,272,— of leaves 
 309 
 
 Cesalpin't, 141, 443 
 
 Chaffy leaves, 27 
 
 Characters of plants, their deli-^ 
 neation, 228 
 
 Charts of plants, 397 
 
 Chemistry of plants, 342 
 
 Cherry-laurel water, its effects 
 on plants, 375 
 
 Chlorin m plants, 36 1 
 
 Cinchonin, 362 
 
 Circumference of parts, 30 
 
 Citric acid, S6S 
 
 Classification, theory of it, 122 
 
 Clavus, 424 
 
 Clusius, 440 
 
 Coleoptera, 425 
 
 Collections of plants, 266 
 
 Collectores on the pistilla of 
 the syngenesious plants, 341 
 
 Colouring matter, 355 
 
 Colours, 21, — of the leaves, 317, 
 — of flowers, 327 
 
 Columella, 433 
 
 Columna, 441. 
 
 Comelyn, 449 
 
 Commersoji, 458 
 
 Commissura, the surface by 
 which the two parts of a 
 double fruit touch each other^ 
 (PI. VIII. Fig. 6, 7.) 
 
 Comparetti, 464 
 
 Composition of plants, 342,— 
 different from that of ani- 
 mals, 346,— of parts, 45 
 
 Copper in plants, 360 
 
 Cordiis, 439 
 
 Corolla, 90, — its structure, 321 
 
 Corollista?, 141 
 
 Corymb, 84 
 
 Costa, Da, 442 
 
 Cotyledons, 121,- — their evolu- 
 tion, 383,-their functions, 385 
 
PRINCIPxVL DEFINITIONS AND NAAfKS. 481 
 
 Crop, 29 
 
 Cryptogamia, 131 
 Cupani, 449 
 Cusson, 467 
 
 Cyanogen in plants, .Slii 
 Cyme, 84 
 
 D 
 
 Darwin, 46'4 
 
 Decandria, lo\ 
 
 Delile, 465, 46? 
 
 De-oxydation not the ultimate 
 object of vegetation, 345 
 
 Description of plants, 243 
 
 Desfoiitaines, 46'() 
 
 Desvaux, 467 
 
 Diadelphia, 131 
 
 Diandria, ib. 
 
 Dichogamia, 59, 103, 331 
 
 Diclinia, 131 
 
 Diclinous plants, frequently an- 
 drogynous, 382 
 
 Didynamia, 131 
 
 Dlllemu.s, 452 
 
 Dillwyn, 467 
 
 Dioscorides, 434 
 
 Direction of parts, 41 
 
 Diseases of plants, 418 
 
 Distribution of plants upon the 
 earth, 390 
 
 DoJart, 444 
 
 Dodecandria, 131 
 
 Dodonaeus, 440 
 
 Dropsy of plants, 420 
 
 Drupe, 112 
 
 Drying of plants, 266 
 
 Diichizcau, 467 
 
 Dvfresne, ib. 
 
 Dtmal, ib. 
 
 Duration of parts, 57 
 
 Ear, 56, 80 
 
 Earth in plants, 359 
 
 Eddi/, 417 
 
 Electricity, its influence on 
 
 plants, 372 
 Elliot, 466 
 
 Embryon, its origin, 383 
 Enneandria, 131 
 
 Equator, distance IVoni it de- 
 termines the iurnis of })lant'^, 
 393 
 
 Euphorbia^, structure of their 
 filaments, 333 
 
 Evaporation of j)lants, 320 
 
 Extractive matter, 354 
 
 Families of plants, 154, — na- 
 tural, 210,— their distribu- 
 tion, 400 
 
 Fasciation, 411 
 
 Ferm.entation, what it is, 342 
 
 Feuillee, 453 
 
 Figures of plants, 263 
 
 Flies, hurtful to plants, 429 
 
 Floral leaves, 86 
 
 Flower-stalk, 83 
 
 Flowers, 90, — their structure, 
 324, — opening and sluitting, 
 367, — that open during day 
 and shut at night, 368, — their 
 filling, 415 
 
 Follicle, 114 
 
 Form of parts, 29 
 
 Forskul, 458 
 
 Forsfer, ib. 
 
 Fringes, 51 
 
 Fructistae, 141 
 
 Fruit, 108 
 
 Fuch.'f, 439 
 
 Fungi, their fruit, 11 9, — on 
 other plants, 418, 423 
 
 Gall insects, 428 
 
 (-'alvanism, its effects on plants, 
 373 
 
 Gardens, botanical, their de- 
 scription, 2()1 
 
 Gartner, 1()5, 463 
 
 Gamlin, 140, 467 
 
 Gaivlcr, 467 
 
 Geiselcr, ib. 
 
 Genera of plants, 147 
 
 (icojf'roi/, 451 
 
 Geography of plants, 3f)0 
 
 Gerard, 45f) 
 
 Geimen, 101 
 
 H h 
 
4.82 
 
 linXC ITAL DKFIXITIONS AND Xa:MKS. 
 
 Germs, 72, 384 
 Geaner, 439 
 Glands, 81 
 GleidiUch, 140, iof.) 
 Gleichen, 45() 
 Glume of j2:rasses, 88, 94- 
 Gluten, 35 o 
 C. C Gmdin, 46;> 
 J. F. GmeBi, 462 
 J. G. Ginelin, 454 
 6'. G. Gmelin, 46 1 
 Gnats, hurtful, 420 
 Gouan, 4.59 
 Grains, 26 
 6r{?7y, 444 
 Gum, 351 
 Gunner us, 459 
 Gynandria, 131 
 
 Gypsum in the soil, its effects 
 on plants, 374 
 
 H 
 Hairs of plants, 25 
 Half floret, 9^ 
 Hallcr, 459 
 
 Halogen in plants, 36 1 
 Hamel du Aloncrau, Du, 457 
 Hasselquist, 458 
 Hawurlh, 467 
 Heat, its effects on plants, 370, 
 
 376, — production of it in 
 
 plants, 377 
 Iledwig, 461, 467 
 Height above the level of the 
 
 sea determines the forms of 
 
 plants, 398 
 Helmet of flowers, 9(^ 
 Hemiptera, 426 
 Heptandria, 131 
 Heritier, L', 467, 468 
 Hermann, 141, 443, 449 
 Hexandria, 131 
 Hill, 4.57 
 
 History of Botany, 430 
 Hoar of the surface, 27 
 Hoffmann, 46? 
 Honey dew, 321 
 Hooker, 465, 467 
 Hooks, 80 
 Horneman, 465 
 
 Horti sanitatis, 437 
 Host, 467 
 Hudson, 459 
 Humboldt, 466, 467 
 Hybrid names, 217 
 Hysterandria, 139 
 
 I, J 
 
 J. F. V. Jacquin, 468 
 
 N. J. V. Jacquin, 458, 459, 460, 
 467, 468 
 
 Jaundice in plants, 420 
 
 Icosandria, 131 
 
 Imponderable substances, their 
 influence on plants, S65 
 
 Impregnation assisted by in- 
 sects, 332, — its progress, 381 
 
 Inflorescence, 82 
 
 Inner bark, 67, — its structure, 
 295 
 
 Insects, their air-vessels com- 
 pared with those of plants, 
 31 1, — assist in impregnation, 
 332, — occasion diseases in 
 plants, 425 
 
 Insertion of parts, 33 
 
 Inulin, 362 
 
 Iodine in plants, 36 1 
 
 Iron in plants, 360 
 
 Irregularity of organs, 180 
 
 Irritability of plants, 365 
 
 Juba, king of Mauritania, 433 
 
 ./. Jung, 211, 445 
 
 A. Jussieu, 386, 463 
 
 B. Jussieu, 456 
 
 K 
 
 Kalm, 458 
 Kampfer, 454 
 Keith, 464 
 Ker, 467, 468 
 Kieser, 464, 
 Kitaibel, 465 
 Kolreutcr, 456, 46 1 
 Kratevas, 432 
 Krocker, 464 
 Kunth, 466, 467 
 
 La^asca, 467, 468 
 
PUINCIPA], ni-.I IMTU^NS aXD xamks. 483 
 
 Lamarck, i()6 
 
 Jjamhert, 4()7 
 
 Lamouroux, 46? 
 
 iMpeijrousc, 46.5 
 
 Lawrence, 467 
 
 Leaf, 15, — its stalk, ib. 
 
 Leaves, their surfaces, ^(), — 
 composition, 46, — structure, 
 308, — functions, 313, — sleep, 
 367, — irritability, 379, — cli**- 
 coloration, 412 
 
 Leers, 4.59 
 
 Leeuwenhoeh, 444 
 
 Lchmanii, 467 
 
 Lichens, 1 1 8 
 
 Life of plants, 364 
 
 Light, its influence on plants, 
 
 Lightfoot, 459 
 
 Lime, how useful to soils^ 317, 
 
 — its production, 3o9 
 Link, 464, 46.5, 467 
 Linne, 131, 212, 455, 46 1 
 Lips of flowers, 9L 9.^i 
 Lobel'ms, 440 
 Lobes, 52, 91 
 Loculi of the fruit, liO 
 Lofting, 458 
 
 Loiselriir des Longchamps, 4()5 
 Loftel, 450 
 Loureiro, 466 
 Ludwig, 456 
 Lyngbye, 467 
 
 M 
 
 Magnol, 141 
 
 Malic acid, SQS 
 
 ^alpighi, 444 
 
 Manganese in plants, 360 
 
 Manure, theory of it, 347 
 
 Manuring, green, ib. 
 
 Marcgrqf, 448 
 
 Margin of parts, 28 
 
 Mariolle, 444 
 
 Marl in the soil, 374 
 
 yinrscholl von Bicberslem. ()(^ 
 
 Martins, 465 
 
 jMassnn, 1-67 
 
 MafUoli, 441 
 
 Meal on the surface, 27 
 
 Measure of parts, 14 
 
 Metals in plants. 360 
 
 Metamorphose, Goethe's. 41 1- 
 
 Method in Botany, 122 
 
 Michanx, 4()(), 467 
 
 Michcli, 452 
 
 Migration of plants, 405 
 
 Mildew, 321, 418 
 
 Mi/ ling fan, 444 
 
 Mirbe), 464 
 
 Moldcniiawcr, \h. 
 
 Monadelphia, 131 
 
 Monandria, ib. 
 
 Monch, 140 
 
 -Monoclinia, 131 
 
 Monocotyledonous. .']s6 
 
 Mona^cia, \S\ 
 
 Monographs of plants, 255 
 
 Monstrosities. 414 
 
 Mori son, 7 41, 211, 44. > 
 
 Mor/and, 431 
 
 Morphium, 362 
 
 Mosses, their fruit, 1 17 
 
 Motion in plants, 378 
 
 Mould, of what it consists, .3()7 
 
 ?vluciiai'e, a constituent part of 
 
 plants, 351 
 Muhlenberg, 466 
 Midler, 459 
 Maslel, 464 
 
 X 
 
 Nail on the leaves of flowers. 
 
 93 
 Names of plants, 211 
 Nectaries, 101,— theory ofthcm, 
 
 331 
 Nvr, 46() 
 
 Nces V. Esenbccli, 467 
 Nerves of the leaves, 40, — tlicir 
 
 structure, 309 
 Xes/ler, 467 
 \ecandcr, 432 
 Nocra, 465 
 Nimierical proportion of parts. 
 
 135, 197, 389 
 Nut, 112 
 Nijttall, 446 
 
484 PllIXCirAL Di-LFiXlTlOXS AND NAMES. 
 
 o 
 
 Octandria, 131 
 
 (Edcr, 459 
 
 Oil in plants, 355 
 
 Opiumj its effects on plants, 
 375 
 
 Organic bodies, their proper- 
 ties, 34a 
 
 Organs, their value, l68, — 
 means which nature presents 
 for knowing them, 174, — 
 their change, 18,'^, — union of 
 them, 185 
 
 Orto, 442 
 
 Ovarium, 104 
 
 Qviedo, 442 
 
 Oxalic acid, 351 
 
 Oxygen exhaled from leaves, 
 314, — its effects on plants, 
 374 
 
 PaUsot-Beauvois, 466, 46? 
 
 Pallas, 458, 467 
 
 Pahmtruch, 465 
 
 Panicle, 84 
 
 Papilionaceous flov/ers, 98 
 
 Paraphysis, sap-tubes in the 
 neighbourhood of the sexual 
 parts of mosses, (PL 2. Fig. 
 6.) 
 
 Parasitic plants, 418, 423 
 
 Parenchyma of leaves, 309, — of 
 flov/ers. 324 
 
 Parkinson, 449 
 
 Partitions of li'uit, 110 
 
 Pavon, 466 
 
 Pentandria, 131 
 
 Perrault, 444 
 
 Persoon, 462, 467 
 
 P'eiiver, 449 
 
 Phanerogamia, 131 
 
 Pharmacopolists of ancient 
 Greece, 430 
 
 Phosphorus in plants, 36 1 
 
 Phvase, 235 
 
 Piso, 448 
 
 Pistil, 106,— its structure, 339 
 
 Pith of plants, 67,— Its struc- 
 ture, 299 
 
 Placenta, 1 1 1 
 
 Plinius, 435 
 
 Plukuet, 449 
 
 riumier, 453 
 
 Polarised matters in flowers, 
 630, — ar2 never free in or- 
 ganic bodies, 344 
 
 Pollen, 107, — its structure, 335, 
 33i^, — ^^composition, 337, — ef- 
 fects, 381 
 
 Pollich, 459 
 
 Polo, 437 
 
 Polyadelphia, 131 
 
 Poiyandria, ib. 
 
 Polychroit, 362 
 
 Polycotyledonous, 386 
 
 Polygamia, 131 
 
 Porous vessels, 283 
 
 Potash, a production of plants, 
 358 
 
 Primeval world, 403 
 
 Primitive forms of plants, 270 
 
 Punctured vessels, 283 
 
 Pursh, 466 
 
 9 
 
 J. Qucr y Martinez, 407 
 
 R 
 
 Racemus, 84 
 
 llqfinesque, 465 
 
 Raphe. See Commissura. 
 
 Ramvolf, 442 
 
 Raij, 141, 445 
 
 Rebentisch, 465 
 
 Receptacle, 85, — its structure, 
 
 changes after impregnation, 
 
 383 
 Redoutc, 
 
 Regularity of parts, 20, 203 
 Reichard, 462 
 Reichcl, 457 
 Resin in plants, 357,— its flow 
 
 in trees, 419 
 Retrogradation in vegetation, 
 
 414 
 Rheidc, 448 
 Rhizotomisth of ancient Greece, 
 
 430 
 Richard, 139 
 
rillXCIPAL DEFiNlTIOXS AND XAMI^S. 185 
 
 Ricliier dc BeUeval, 44y 
 Rind of trees, 67, — its structure, 
 292,— clefts and diseases, 419 
 lUvinus, 141, 44^6 
 fxoc/ie, De la, 46? 
 Roll, 78 
 Homer, 462 
 Roscoe, 467 
 Roth, 467 
 
 Roxburgh, 465, 467 
 Rudolphi, 464 
 Ruiz, 466 
 Rumph, 448 
 
 Saccharine matter, 351 
 
 Salisbury, 468 
 
 Salm-Dijck, Prince of, 467 
 
 Sap, 34*7, — ascending, 348 
 
 Sap-tubes, 274, — how they act, 
 
 ^ 376 
 
 Sannents, 71 
 
 Saussure, 457 
 
 Sauvages, 141 
 
 Savi, 467 
 
 Scab of the bark, 419 
 
 Scales of the surface, 27, 81 
 
 Scheuchzer, 452 
 
 Schkuhr, 465, 467 
 
 Schmidcl, 46 1 
 
 Schrader, 465 
 
 Schreber, 467 
 
 Schultes, 462 
 
 Schwagrichen, 467 
 
 Schweiuitz, 467 
 
 Scopoli, 459 
 
 Screens, 347 
 
 Seeds, 108, — ^^iheir evolution, 
 383 
 
 Scquier, 459 
 
 Senncbier, 464 
 
 Seringa, 467 
 
 Sexual parts, 103, — tht'ir struc- 
 ture, 333 
 
 Sheath, 77 
 
 Shoots, 71 
 
 Shrub, 66 
 
 Sibihdrp, 466 
 
 Silcx, 359 
 
 Silique, 1 M 
 
 Simplicity of parts, 45 
 
 Situation of parts 
 
 Size of parts, I9, 203 
 
 Sleep of plants, 367 
 
 Slits of the surface, 309 
 
 Shave, 448 
 
 Smell of flowers, 329 
 
 Smith, 4()5, 466, 467, 468 
 
 Soil, what plants take up fioin 
 it, 347, — wliether it be ex- 
 hausted by plants, 350,— 
 how it influences plants, 397 
 
 Sotverby, 465, 467 
 
 Species, idea of, 122 
 
 Speckled structure, 41 1 
 
 Spiculae, 84 
 
 Spike, ib. 
 
 Spines, 71 
 
 Spiral vessels, 277 
 
 Spreugcl, 461 
 
 Spurs, 95, 102 
 
 Stackhouse, 467. 
 
 Stalk, 70 
 
 Starch in plants, 351 
 
 Stem, 66,— ^-its structure, 299 
 
 Sternberg, Count of, 467 
 
 Stigma, 106,— its structure, 340 
 
 Stipe, 70 
 
 Stiplda, 78 
 
 Storms, their effect on plants, 
 372 ^ 
 
 Strobilus, 84 
 
 Structure of plants in general. 
 270 
 
 Strychnin, 362 
 
 Sturm, 465 
 
 Substiuice of parts, 30 
 
 Sulphur in plants, 'MU 
 
 Supports of plants, 7f) 
 
 Surface of the parts, 24 
 
 Sutures, 1 10 
 
 Swartz, 4()6 
 
 Sweet, 468 
 
 Symj)hysandria, 1 .'JO 
 
 Syanthera, 139 
 
 Sy ngenesioiis plants, 131, — 
 structure of llieir filament.^. 
 
 Synonymy, '.'50 
 System of j)lants, 
 
186 
 
 PRI^X•IPAL DEFIXITIOXS AND NAaMES. 
 
 TabcrnamoniamiSy 439 
 
 Tannin, "il^^ 
 
 Tartaric acid, 20)^ 
 
 Technical language of botany, 5 
 
 Teeth, 51 
 
 Teiiore, 465 
 
 Tetradynamia, 131 
 
 Tetrandria, 131 
 
 Thai, 439 
 
 Theophrast, 431 
 
 Thouars, Petit, 466 
 
 Thunbcrg, 466 
 
 Thyrse,^84 
 
 Ticunas-poison, its efTects on 
 
 plants, 375 
 Tips of the parts, 28, 55 
 
 Tode, 467 
 
 Torrcy, 
 
 Tourneforl, 141, 447 
 
 Tragus, 439 
 
 Trees, 67 
 
 Treinramis, 464 
 
 Triandria, 131 
 
 Tribes of plants, 154 
 
 Trivial names, 223 
 
 Tubers, 65^ — their structure, 
 
 288 
 Tubes of flowers, 92 
 Turner, 467 
 
 Under-shrubs, 6S 
 Union of organs, 185 
 
 Vahl, 464 
 Vnillant, 451 
 Valves, 87, 110 
 Variety, 145 
 Vaucher, 467 
 
 Veins of leaves, 49, — their struc- 
 ture, 309 
 Vcntenal, 463, 468 
 Vignier, 467 
 PlUors, 465 
 Virgil, 433 
 
 W 
 
 Wnhlaiherg, 465 
 
 Warts, 26" 
 
 Wax, S5G 
 
 Wendland, 467 
 
 Wik.sirom, 467 
 
 Willdeno7v, 462, 467, 46(S 
 
 Willow-rose, 428 
 
 Wings of flowers, 98 
 
 Witch-knots, 411 
 
 Wolf, 456 
 
 Wood, 67, — its structure, 297 
 
 Wrinkles of parts, 26 
 
 U 
 
 Umlxjl, 84 
 
 Znnoni, 449 
 
 FINIS. 
 
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 Zoology, Botany, Chemistry^ Mineralogy, Anatomy, 
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