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 VETERINARY MEDICAL LIBRARY 
 
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 LED. I 
 
 APR 2 2003 
 
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A TEXT-BOOK 
 
 HORSESHOEING 
 
 Horseshoers and Veterinarians 
 
 BY- 
 
 A. LUNGWITZ 
 
 FORMER MEMBER OF THE ROYAL SAXON VETERINARY COMMISSION, LATE INSTRUCTOR IN THE 
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF HORSESHOEING, AND DIRECTOR OF THE SHOEING 
 
 SCHOOL OF THE ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE IN DRESDEN, GERMANY 
 
 JOHN W. ADAMS 
 
 PROFESSOR OF SURGERY AND OBSTETRICS, AND LECTURER ON SHOEING IN THE 
 VETERINARY SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 ELEVENTH EDITION 
 WITH TWO HUNDRED AND TWENTY-NINE ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PHILADELPHIA & LONDON 
 J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 
 
Copyright, 1897, by J. B. Lippincott Company. 
 
 Copyright, 1904, by J. B. Lippincott Company. 
 
 Copyright, 1913, by J. B. Lippincott Company. 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 The inauguration of the law requiring liorseshoers to be ex- 
 amined emphasizes the need of a brief and easily understood 
 text-book on theoretical and practical horseshoeing. At the re- 
 quest of the Royal Veterinary Commission, in charge of the 
 Royal Veterinary School in Dresden, and many interested in- 
 dividuals, I have attempted to meet this need by condensing 
 within the narrowest possible limits all that is essential to the 
 horseshoer in the practice of his profession. The subject-matter 
 has been cast into a logically arranged course of instruction ; all 
 that is superfluous and is found only in exhaustive treatises on 
 shoeing has been omitted. 
 
 In order to make this elementary text-book more easy to 
 understand, numerous instructive illustrations have been incor- 
 porated, which were taken partly from " Der Fuss des Pferdes," 
 by Leisering & Hartmann, fifth edition, Dresden, 1882 ; partly 
 from the journal Der Hufschmied, and partly from drawings 
 made specially for this work. 
 
 With the desire that this little book may find many friends 
 and supply them with valuable information, it is herewith given 
 to the public. 
 
 A. LUNGWITZ. 
 
 f, September, 1884. 
 
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 During the past nine years in which it has been my 
 privilege to teach horseshoeing to students of veterinary medi- 
 cine in the University of Pennsylvania, and to classes of horse- 
 shoers under the auspices of the Master Horseshoers' National 
 Protective Association of America, I have been forcibly im- 
 pressed vsdth the urgent need of a text-book of horseshoeing 
 that is adapted to the needs of beginners. In my opinion, such 
 a work must present a detailed description of the anatomy and 
 physiology of the legs below the middle of the cannons, and 
 must emphasize in unmistakable terms the definite relations 
 which exist between certain well-defined forms of the hoof and 
 certain well-defined standing positions of the limb. Only on 
 this sure foundation can a thoroughly scientific system of shoe- 
 ing be based. Furthermore, the teachings must be eminently 
 practical, logically arranged, as brief as is consistent with clear- 
 ness, easy of comprehension by persons who are unfamiliar with 
 technical language, profusely illustrated, and moderate in price. 
 Through the kindness of my respected friend and former 
 teacher. Professor A. Lung-witz, one of tlie highest authorities 
 in all matters pertaining to shoeing, and for many years a 
 teacher in and the Director of what I believe to be the best 
 school of shoeing in the world, I am enabled to present to* the 
 public this translation of his text-book for students of shoeing. 
 Written to meet requirements identical with those existing to- 
 day in the United States, and in scope and arrangement exactly 
 suited to both student and teacher, I am confident that it will 
 meet the favor that it merits. 
 
 The Translator. 
 Philadelphia, 1904. 5 
 
PREFACE TO THE ELEVENTH 
 EDITION. 
 
 Since the publication in 1904 of a translation of the tentli 
 edition of Der Lehrmeister im Hufbesclilag, Prof. Anton Liing- 
 witz, the author, having reached the age of retirement has with- 
 drawn from the activities of the Royal Saxon Shoeing School, 
 and has expressed a desire that the translator assume entire 
 responsibility for future editions. 
 
 To note the progress of farrierv during the past ten years 
 many chapters have been revised, necessitating resetting, and 
 sixty-nine new illustrations have been added and many re- 
 drawn. It has seemed desirable to discuss the effect of weight 
 in the shoe in altering the flight of the foot ; to consider rubber 
 pads so widely used in the United States, and to direct attention 
 to many innovations of more or less value, that hiave appeared 
 during recent years. 
 
 In preparing this edition I have had the cordial co-operation 
 of the publishers, to whom I hereby express deepest gratitude. 
 I wish also to record my appreciation for the many suggestions 
 and other aid given me by Mr. Franz Enge, Chief Farrier of 
 the shoeing shop of the Veterinary Hospital, University of 
 Pennsylvania. Joh:^ W. Adams. 
 
 University of Pennsylvania, April. 1913. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction 13 
 
 The Object of Shoeing 13 
 
 PART I. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 the gross anatomy of the horse. 
 
 Bones of the Head — Bones of the Trunk 17 
 
 The Spinal Column — Bones of the Thorax 17-19 
 
 Bones of the Pelvis — Bones of the Limbs 19-21 
 
 Joints — Muscles — Tendon Sheaths 21-24 
 
 THE FOOT. 
 
 A. The Bones of the Foot 24 
 
 The Cannon — The Long Pastern — The Sesamoid Bones — The 
 Short Pastern— The Pedal Bone — The Navicular Bone . . 24-28 
 
 B. The Articulations of the Foot 28 
 
 I. The Fetlock-Joint 28 
 
 The Suspensory Ligament 29 
 
 The Inferior Sesamoid Ligament 30 
 
 II. The Coronary Joint 31 
 
 III. The Pedal Articulation (Coffin Joint) 31 
 
 C. The Locomotory Organs of the Foot 32 
 
 The Anterior Extensor Tendon of the Phalanges — The Perforatus 
 
 Tendon— The Perforans Tendon 32-35 
 
 Mucous Bursae and Tendon Sheaths 35 
 
 Altering the Relative Tension of the Flexor Tendons and Suspen- 
 sory Ligament of the Fetlock- Joint 36 
 
 D. The Elastic Parts of the Foot 38 
 
 The Lateral Cartilages— The Plantar Cushion 39, 40 
 
 E. The Blood-Vessels and Nerves 41 
 
 The Arteries of the Foot — The Veins of the Foot — The Nerves of 
 the Foot 41-44 
 
 F. The Protective Organs of the Foot 44 
 
 (a) The Hair-Skin 44 
 
 1. The Epidermis 45 
 
 2. The Dermis 45 
 
 3. The Subcutaneous Tissue 45 
 
10 CONTENTS. 
 
 (b) The Hoof-Skin, or Pododerm 45, 46 
 
 1. The Perioplic Band 47 
 
 2. The Coronary Band 47 
 
 3. The Fleshy Wall 48 
 
 The Fleshy Leaves (Podophyllous Tissue) . . . . 48, 49 
 
 4. The Velvety Tissue of the Sole 49 
 
 5. The Velvety Tissue of the Frog 49 
 
 (c) The Horn Capsule or Hoof 50-53 
 
 The Wall 50-53 
 
 The Bars 51,52 
 
 The Layers of the Wall: 1. The Periople. 2. The Middle 
 or Protective Layer. 3. The Leafy Layer (Keraphyllous 
 
 Layer) 53-55 
 
 The Sole 55, 56 
 
 The Frog 57,58 
 
 The Minute Structure of the Horn 58 
 
 Hard and Soft Horn . 59 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. 
 
 A. Standing Positions of the Limbs 62 
 
 (a) The Positions of a Fore-Limb viewed from in Front and 
 
 IN Profile 62-67 
 
 (b) The Positions of a Hind Limb viewed from Behind and in 
 
 Profile 67-69 
 
 B. Forms of Feet, viewed from in Front, from Behind, and in Profile 69-72 
 
 C. Lines of Flight of Hoofs in Motion 72-75 
 
 D. Influence of Weight upon Lines, of Flight of Hoofs 75, 76 
 
 E. Forms of Hoofs 77 
 
 The Hoof of the Regular Position — The Hoof of the Base-Wide 
 Position — The Hoof of the Base-Narrow Position — Forms of 
 Hind Hoofs — The Wide and the Narrow Hoof — The Character- 
 istics of Healthy Hoofs 77-82 
 
 F. Growth of the Hoof and Wear of the Hoof and Shoe .... 82-86 
 
 G. Physiological Movements of the Hoof 86-89 
 
 PART II. 
 
 CHAPTER IIL 
 
 shoeing healthy hoofs. 
 
 A. Examination of a Horse Preliminary to Shoeing 90 
 
 B. Raising and holding the Feet of the Horse to be Shod 92 
 
CONTENTS. 11 
 
 C. Removing the Old Shoes 97 
 
 D. P>repariiig the Hoof for the Shoe 98 
 
 E. Preparing the Hoof for going Barefoot 102 
 
 F. Making Shoes 103 
 
 The Pedometer — Making Front Shoes — Making Hind Shoes — Gen- 
 eral Characteristics of Shoes — A Shoe with Heel-Calks — A Shoe 
 with Toe- and Heel-Calks — Special Characteristics of Shoes 103-116 
 
 G. Choosmg the Shoe 116 
 
 H. Shaping and Fitting Shoes — General Considerations 117 
 
 Shaping and Fitting Shoes — Special Considerations 120 
 
 Fitting Shoes to Saddlers and Hunters 122 
 
 Fitting Shoes to Runners 123 
 
 Fitting Shoes to Trotters and Pacers 124 
 
 Fitting Shoes to Heavy Draft Horses 125 
 
 I. Nailing the Shoe— Horseshoe Nails 128 
 
 K. Machine Shoes 132 
 
 L. Rubber Pads 135 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SHOEING HORSES THAT FORGE AND INTERFERE. 
 
 A. Forging — Cross-firing 138, 140 
 
 B. Interfering 142 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 winter shoeing. 
 
 1. Ice-Nails (Frost-Nails) 146 
 
 2. Sharp Toe- and Heel-Calks 146 
 
 3. Screw-Calks 148, 155 
 
 4. Peg Heel-Calks 150 
 
 5. Peg Toe-Calks 152 
 
 6. Removable Heel-Calks, that do not require Sharpening . . 154 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 hoof nurture. 
 
 A. Care of Unshod Hoofs . 157 
 
 B. Care of Shod Hoofs 159 
 
 Greasing and Soaking the Hoof 159 
 
12 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART III. 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS CONCERNING THE SHOEING OF DEFECTIVE HOOFS AND LAME 
 HORSES. 
 
 General Remarks 161-165 
 
 Classification of Diseases of the Hoof 165 
 
 C H A P T E R V I I I. 
 
 inflammations of the pododerm (pododermatitis). 
 
 1. Nailing 166 
 
 2. Street-Nail 170 
 
 3. Calk-Wounds of the Coronet 173 
 
 4. Corns 174 
 
 5. Inflammation of the Heels 176 
 
 6. Laminitis (Founder) 177 
 
 7. Keraphyllocele (Horn Tumor) 181 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 defects of the hoof. 
 
 A. Changes of Form 182 
 
 1. The Flat and the Full Hoof 182 
 
 2. The Upright or Stumpy Hoof 184 
 
 3. The Contracted Hoof 185 
 
 (a) The Contraction of Wide Hoofs 189 
 
 (6) Contraction of the Sole 189 
 
 4. The Wry Hoof 190 
 
 5. The Crooked Hoof 192 
 
 6. Ossification of the Lateral Cartilage (Side-Bone) . . . 194 
 
 B. Distiirbances of Continuity of Hoof 195 
 
 1. Cracks 195 
 
 2. Clefts 203 
 
 3. Loose Wall 204 
 
 4. Hollow Wall 205 
 
 5. Thrush of the Frog 206 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 shoeing mules, asses, and oxen. 
 
 1. The Shoeing of Mules and Asses 207 
 
 2. The Shoeing of Oxen 207 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Horseshoeing- is an industry whicli requires, in equal 
 degree, knowledge and skill. 
 
 The word " horse'shoeing " embraces various acts, especially 
 preparing the iron sole, the horseshoe ; forming it and fitting it 
 to the hoof, whose ground-surface has been previously dressed 
 in accordance with the direction of the limb, and fastening it to 
 the hoof by means of nails. 
 
 Owing to the complicated structure of the hoof, success in 
 the practice of horseshoeing requires a knowledge of the anatomy 
 and physiology of the horse's body in general and of the foot in 
 particular. 
 
 The object of shoeing is, — 
 
 1. To protect the hoof from excessive wear, and thus render 
 the horse continuously serviceable upon our hard roads. 
 
 2. To prevent slipping and falling during the winter season. 
 
 3. To so far remove the disadvantages of faulty positions of 
 the limbs that horses may render good ser\ace, and, in some 
 cases, 
 
 4. To cure or improve diseased or defective hoofs or feet. 
 Horseshoeing, though apparently simple, involves many 
 
 difficulties, owing to the fact that the hoof is not an unchanging 
 body, but varies much with respect to form, growth, quality, 
 and elasticity. Furthermore, there are such great differences 
 in the character of ground-surfaces and in the nature of horses' 
 work that shoeing which is not performed with great ability and 
 care induces disease and makes horses lame. 
 
 13 
 
14 INTRODUCTION 
 
 In view of these facts, a thorough training of the young 
 horseshoer in the principles and practice of his trade is not only 
 greatly to he desired, but is really essential to success ; unreason- 
 ing work does as much harm in this as in any other vocation. 
 A good commoti-school education is necessary (more will do no 
 harm). Further requisites are a healthy body, not too tall, 
 liking for the worlc, aptness, an active, reasoning mind, fear- 
 lessness, dexterity, a good eye for proportion, and, finally, care- 
 ful selection of a master-instructor. Theoretically educated, 
 practically experienced and approved masters, in whose shops 
 all kinds of horses are shod, are to be preferred. 
 
 During his term of apprenticeship the young apprentice 
 should learn to make drawings of horseshoes, of tools of the 
 trade, and of hoofs of various forms, and should also make one 
 or more model shoes as an indication of his ahility. After com- 
 pleting his time he should seek a position in a first-class shop, 
 either at home or abroad. A visit to foreign lands will mden 
 one's mental horizon and make him a broader, abler man in 
 every respect. Later, opportunity "vvill be given to some (in 
 Germany) to join the cavalry, and thus acquire a good educa- 
 tion in shoeing under the patronage of the government. Finally, 
 a course of instruction in a school of horseshoeing will convert 
 an already practical and intelligent horseshoer into a thoughtful, 
 capable, expert workman. 
 
 The scope of horseshoeing is by no means so narrow and 
 insignificant as it may appear, and since a knowledge of the 
 anatomy and physiology of the horse's body in general, and of 
 the foot in particular, is necessary, it is evident that the schools 
 of horseshoeing in which one can get the best instruction are 
 those in which there is not only a regularly graded course of 
 
INTRODUCTION 15 
 
 instruction, with demonstrations upon dissected material and 
 upon living horses, but also an abundance of daily work at the 
 forge and on the floor in the shoeing of horses. A course of 
 four to six weeks is not sufficient. 
 
 Furthermore, it should be borne in mind that schools of 
 horseshoeing are not for the purpose of instructing young men 
 in all matters which pertain to the trade, but only in the making 
 of shoes, the critical examination and management of hoofs, and 
 the rational and skilful performance of shoeing. For this reason 
 it is not advisable for young men to attend a school of horse- 
 shoeing until they have at least completed their apprenticeship. 
 
HORSESHOEING 
 
 PART I. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 THE GROSS ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 The supporting structure of the horse's body is the bony 
 framework or skeleton (Fig. 1, page 18). We distinguish in 
 the skeleton the bones of the head, trunk, and limbs. 
 
 The bones of the head are numerous and, excepting the 
 lower jaw, are solidly united with one another. In general, we 
 distinguish in the head only the upper and lower jaws (1 andl'). 
 Both form various cavities ; for example, the cranial cavity, in 
 which the brain lies, the orbital cavities (eye-sockets), the nasal 
 passages, and the mouth. Besides, the teeth are set in the jaws. 
 
 The trunk comprises the bones of the spinal column, thorax, 
 and pelvis. 
 
 The spinal or vertebral column (2 to 6), which bears the 
 head at its anterior end, is the chief support of the entire 
 skeleton. It consists of from fifty-two to fifty-four single and 
 irregular bones called vertebrae, placed in the upper part of the 
 median vertical plane of the body. Each vertebra, vnth the ex- 
 ception of those of the tail (coccygeal or caudal vertebrae), is 
 traversed by a large opening called the vertebral foramen. The 
 vertebrae are placed end to end in a row, and through them runs 
 a continuous large canal called the vertebral or spinal canal, in 
 which lies the spinal cord. The horse has seven cervical, 
 eighteen dorsal, six lumbar, five sacral, and sixteen to eighteen 
 2 17 
 
18 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 caudal vertebrae. The sacral vertebrae are grown together to 
 form one piece called the sacrum. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Skeleton of the Horse. — 1, bones of the head; 1', lower jaw; 2, cervical vertebrae; 3, 
 dorsal vertebrae; 4, lumbar vertebrae; 5, sacral vertebrae (sacrum); 6, coccygeal vertebrae; 7, 
 ribs; 8, sternum (breast-bone); 9, pelvis; 9', ilium; 9", ischium; 10, scapula (shoulder-blade) ; 
 11, humerus; 12, radius; 13, ulna; 14, carpus (knee) ; 15, large metacarpal bone (cannon); 16, 
 rudimentary metarcarpal bones (splint-bones); 17, os suffraginis (long pastern); 18, os coro- 
 nae (short pastern) ; 19, os pedis (hoof-bone); 20, sesamoid bones; 21, femur; 22, patella 
 (knee-pan, stifle) ; 23, tibia; 24, fibula; 25, tarsus, or hock; 26, large metatarsal bone (can- 
 non) ; 27, rudimentary metatarsals (splint bones) ; 28, os suffraginis (long pastern) ; 29, os 
 coronae (short pastern) ; 30, os pedis (hoof-bone, "coflan bone"); 31, sesamoid bones. 
 
 The thorax is formed by the ribs and the breast-bone or 
 sternum. The horse has eighteen ribs on each side (7), and all 
 articulate with the dorsal vertebrae. The first eight pairs unite 
 by their lower ends directly to the sternum or breast-bone, and 
 
HORSESHOEING. 19 
 
 are therefore called true lihs, while the last ten pairs are only 
 indirectly attached to the 'sternum, and are consequently called 
 false libs. The sternum. (8) lies between the forelegs, and helps 
 to form the floor of the chest cavity. The space enclosed by the 
 bones of the thorax is called the thoracic, pulmonary, or chest 
 cavity, and contains the heart and lungs. The bones of the pelvis 
 form a complete circle or girdle. The upper part, called the 
 ilium (9'), articulates on its inner 'side with the sacrum (5), 
 while its outer side is prolonged to form a prominent angle, 
 which is the support of the hip, and is called the " point of the 
 hip." The posterior part of the pelvis is called the ischium 
 (9''), and that part lying between the ilium and the ischium and 
 forming part of the floor of the pelvis is called the pubis. 
 
 The space between the thorax and the pelvis, bounded above 
 by the lumbar vertebrae and shut in below and on the sides by 
 the skin and muscular walls of the belly (abdomen), is called 
 the abdominal cavity. This cavity opens directly into the pel- 
 vic cavity, and contains the stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, 
 pancreas, kidneys, and a part of the generative organ's. The 
 thoracic and abdominal cavities are separated by a muscular 
 partition, the diaphragm. 
 
 The bones of the limbs may be likened to columns, upon 
 which the body rests ; they articulate with one another at various 
 angles, are tubular in structure, and strong. 
 
 The bones of the fore-limbs do not articulate directly with 
 the hones of the trunh, but are attached to the body by mean's of 
 the skin and muscles. From above to below we distinguish the 
 following bones : 
 
 1. The scapula, or shoulder-blade (10), a flat, triangular 
 bone, prolonged at its upper border by a flat, very elastic car- 
 tilage, called the scapular cartilage. At its lower end the 
 scapula articulates with — 
 
 2. The upper end of the humerus (11), forming the 
 shoulder-joint fiscapulo-humeral articulation). The humerus 
 articulates at its lower end with — 
 
20 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 3. The radius (12) and the ulna (13), to form the elbow 
 joint. These two bones are the basis of the forearm. The 
 ulna, smaller and weaker than the radius, lies behind and 
 projects above it to form the point of the elbow. The lower 
 end of the radius articulates with — 
 
 4. The carpus, or knee (14), which comprises seven small, 
 cubical bones disposed in two horizontal rows, one above the 
 other. The upper row comprises four bones and the lower row 
 three. The lower row rests upon^ — 
 
 5. The large metacarpal or cannon hone, and the two rudi- 
 mentary metacarpal or splint-hones. The lower end of the 
 radius, the upper ends of the metacarpal bones, and the small 
 carpal bones together form the carpal or knee-joint (wrist of 
 man). Of the metacarpals, the middle on© is the largest, 
 longest, strongest, and most important, and is called the large 
 metacarpal, cannon, or shin-hone (15). It articulates at its 
 lower end with the o's suffraginis, or long pastern (17), and with 
 the two small sesamoid bones (20). On each side of the upper 
 part of its posterior surface lie the two long, slender splint- 
 bones (16). The inner splint-bone is sometimes affected with 
 bony thickenings (exostoses) called " splints." 
 
 6. The bones of the phalanges (all bones below the cannon) 
 will be fully described in another place. 
 
 The bones of the hind limbs articulate directly with the 
 pelvis at the hip-joint. They are stronger than the bones of 
 the anterior limbs. We distinguish the following bones in the 
 hind legs : 
 
 1. The highest bone in the hind limb is the femur (21). It 
 is the strongest bone in the entire body. It lies in an oblique 
 direction downward and forward, and at its lower end articu- 
 lates with — 
 
 2. The patella (22), the tibia (23), and the fibula (24), to 
 form the stifle-joint (knee of man). The patella plays over the 
 anterior surface of the lower end of the femur. The fibula is 
 small, and lies against the upper and outer side of the tibia. 
 The latter at its lower end articulates with — 
 
HORSESHOEING. 21 
 
 3. The bones of the tarsus, or lioch (25), which are six 
 small, irregular bones disposed in three rows, one above another. 
 The OS calcis, or heel-hone, and tlie astragalus are in the upper- 
 most row, and are the most important. The former projects 
 above the true hock-joint from behind, to form a long lever, the 
 upper end of which is called the " point of the hock," and the 
 latter articulates with the tibia. The tarsal (hock) bones 
 articulate below with — 
 
 4. The metatarsal hones (26 and 27), which are longer, 
 and the cannon narrower from 'side to side, than the correspond- 
 ing metacarpal bones, but are otherwise similar. 
 
 5. The phalanges of a hind limb (28 to 31) are also nar- 
 rower than those of a fore-limb, but are nearly alike in other 
 respects. 
 
 All the horse's bones present small, but more or less distinct 
 openings (nutrient foramina) for the passage of blood-vessels 
 and nerves. Many bones possess roughened elevations and de- 
 pressions, to which ligaments, tendons, or muscles are attached. 
 With the exception of the os pedis, all bones are enveloped in a 
 sort of " bone-skin " called periosteum. The bones unite among 
 themselves to form either movable or immovable unions. A 
 movable union between two or more bones is termed a " joint," 
 or articulation. The articulating ends of the bones, presenting 
 on one side a convex surface (head or condyle) and on the other 
 a corresponding concave surface (glenoid or cotyloid cavity), 
 are covered mth elastic articular cartilage. The bones are bound 
 together by means of ligaments, which are tough, fibrous, cord- 
 like, or sheet-like structures. Ligaments are either (1) capsular 
 or (2) funicular (cord-like). Every articulation in the limbs 
 possesses a capsular ligament, and all, except the shoulder-joint, 
 have several funicular (cord-like) ligaments. The capsular liga- 
 ments are lined upon their inner face with a delicate membrane 
 synovial membrane) which secretes the synovia, or " joint 
 water," whose function is to lubricate the joint and prevent fric- 
 tion; they enclose the joint in a sort of air-tight cuflF or sack. 
 The funicular ligaments are very strong and often large, and 
 
22 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 are tlie chief means of union of the bones. The immovable 
 articulations are tenned sutures; they are found principally in 
 the head. The mixed joints are found between the bodies of the 
 vertebrae, each two of which are united by an elastic fibro-carti- 
 lage which, in the form of a pad, lies between them, and by its 
 elasticity allows of very slight movement, though the spinal 
 column as a whole can execute manifold and wide movements, 
 as shown by the neck and tail. 
 
 Joints which permit motion in all directions are known as 
 free joints; such are the shoulder- and hip-joints (ball-and- 
 socket joints). Those which admit of motion in but two 
 directions (flexion and extension), and often to a very limited 
 extent, are called hinge-joints, — e.g., the elbow, hock, and fet- 
 lock. The joints between the long and short pasterns and be- 
 tween the latter and the pedal bone are imperfect hinge- joints, 
 because they allow of some other movements besides flexion and 
 extension. The articulation between the first and second cervical 
 vertebra (atlas and axis) is called a pivot-joint. 
 
 The skeleton represents a framework which closely ap- 
 proaches the external form of the body, and by reason of its 
 hardness and stiffness furnishes a firm foundation for all other 
 parts of the body. By reason of the great variety of position 
 and direction of the bones, and of the fact that changes of posi- 
 tion of each single part of this complicated system of levers 
 may result in the greatest variety of bodily movements, we can 
 readily understand how the horse is enabled to move from place 
 to place. Of course, the bones have no power of themselves to 
 move, but this power is possessed by other organs that are 
 attached to the bones. These organs are the muscles, and, 
 owing to their ability to contract and shorten themselves, and 
 afterwards to relax and allow themselves to be stretched out, 
 they furnish the motive power that is communicated to and 
 moves the bones. 
 
 The muscles of the body massed together are the red flesh 
 which we observe in every slaughtered animal. They are not. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 23 
 
 however, so shapeless as thej appear while in this condition; 
 on the contrary, they present well-ai-ranged muscular layers 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Outer Muscles of the Horse. — 1, cervical trapezius; 2, dorsal trapezius; 3, mastoido- 
 humeralis; 4, great dorsal muscle; 5, long abductor of tiie arm; 6, long extensor of the fore- 
 arm; 7, large extensor of the forearm; 8, short extensor of the forearm; 9, sterno-trochinus 
 (deep pectoral); 10, sterno-aponeuroticus; 11, great serratus; 12, common extensor of the 
 metacarpus; 13, common extensor of the toe (anterior extensor); 14, common extensor of 
 the long pastern (lateral extensor) ; 15, oblique extensor of the metacarpus; 16 , external flexor 
 of the metacarpus; 17, internal flexor of the metacarpus; 18, oblique flexor of the metacarpus; 
 19, fascia lata; 20, superficial gluteus (anterior portion); 21, middle gluteus; 22, superficial 
 gluteus (posterior portion) ; 23 and 24, femoral biceps; 25, semitendinosus; 26, semimembra- 
 nosus; 27, anterior extensor of the toe; 28, lateral extensor of the toe; 29, perforans muscle 
 (deep flexor of toe); 30, oblique flexor of the phalanges; 31, perforatus tendon (superficial 
 flexor of phalanges); 32, Achillea tendon (ham-string). 
 
 of variable size, thickness, length, and position. (See Fig. 2.) 
 The muscles olothe the skeleton externally, give the body its 
 
24 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 peculiar form, and, by their special power of contraction, 
 change the relative positions of the bones and thus make it pos- 
 sible for the animal to move. For this reason, the muscles are 
 called the active, and the bones the passive, organs of motion. 
 By carefully examining a muscle it will be found to consist of 
 actual, minute, reddish, muscular fibres. As a rule, muscles 
 terminate in more or less strong, glistening, fibrous cords called 
 tendons, or fibrous sheets tenned aponeuroses, by which they 
 are attached to the bones. In the limbs are muscles terminating 
 in very long tendons, which act as draw-lines upon the distant 
 bones of the foot (long and short pasterns and pedal bone) and 
 set them in motion. Such long tendons are enclosed in sheaths 
 of thin, membranous tissue, known as tendon sheaths. The 
 inner surface of such a sheath is in direct contact with the 
 surface of the tendon, and secretes a thin slippery fluid 
 (synovia) which lubricates the tendon and facilitates its gliding 
 ■udthin the sheath. 
 
 As long as the bones, articulations, muscles, and tendons of 
 the limbs remain healthy, just so long will the legs maintain 
 their natural direction and position. Frequent!}^, however, 
 this normal condition of the limbs is gradually altered by dis- 
 ease of the bones, joints, and tendons, and defects in the form 
 and action of the lower part® of the limbs arise that often 
 require attention in shoeing. 
 
 THE FOOT. 
 A. The Bones of the Foot. 
 
 Since the horse is useful to man only by reason of his move- 
 ments, his foot deserves the most careful attention. The horse- 
 shoer should be familiar with all its parts. Fig. 3 shows the 
 osseous framework of the foot, consisting of the lower end of the 
 cannon bone (A), the long pastern (5), the two sesamoid bones 
 (C), the short pastern (D), and the pedal bone (E). The lower 
 end of the cannon, or large metacarpal bone (A) exhibits two 
 convex articular surfaces (condyles) separated by a median 
 ridge running from before to behind, and all covered by articu- 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 25 
 
 lar cartilage. On both tlie external and the internal aspects of 
 the lower end of the cannon are small uneven depressions in 
 which ligaments take 
 their attachment. ^^^- ^' 
 
 The condyles of 
 the cannon articulate 
 with the OS suffra- 
 ginis (long pastern) 
 and the two sesa,- 
 moids (Figs. 3, C, 
 and 4:, B) in such a 
 manner that in. the 
 forefeet the cannon 
 m.akes an angle with q/ 
 the long pastern of 
 from one hundred 
 and thirty-five to one 
 hundred and forty 
 degrees, and in the 
 hind feet of from one 
 hundred and forty to 
 one hundred and 
 forty-five degi-ees. 
 
 The long pastern 
 (first phalanx) (Fig. 
 4, A) is about one^third the length of the cannon ; its upper and 
 thicker end presents two condyloid cavities (a) (glenoid cavities), 
 separated by a median groove, which exactly fit the condyles 
 and ridge at the lower end of the cannon. The lower end of 
 the long pastern is smaller than the upper, and is provided with 
 two condyles, between which is a shallow groove (e). The an- 
 terior face of the bone is smooth, rounded from 'side to side, 
 and blends into the lateral borders. The posterior face is flatter, 
 and shows a clearly marked triangle to which ligaments attach. 
 
 The two sesamoid bones (Fig. 4, B) are small, and some- 
 
26 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 what pyramidal in shape, and, lying against the posterior part 
 
 of the condyles of the cannon 
 Fig. 4. bone, increase the articular sur- 
 
 faces at the upper end of the 
 long pastern. 
 
 The short pastern (second 
 phalanx) (Figs. 5 and 6) lies 
 under the first phalanx and 
 above the os pedis; it is some- 
 what cubical in shape. Its 
 upper articular surface (Fig. 5, 
 a) presents two glenoid cavities 
 to correspond with the condyles 
 of tlie first phalanx. The lower 
 
 Os suffraginis with both sesamoid bones . - /-n- ^^ ^\ 
 
 in position, as in Fig. 3. A, os suf=fraginis; B, artlCUiar SUrfaCO (-E Ig. 0,d) TO- 
 sesamoid bones; a, upper joint-surface of 1,1 j.U 1 J J? j-X, 
 
 long pastern; b, joint-surface of sesamoid SemblcS the ioWCr CUd 0± the 
 bones; c, roughened surface at upper end; £j.g^ phalaUX. The Upper pOStC- 
 d, roughened surface at lower end, both for i l if r 
 
 attachment of ligaments; e, lower joint sur- j-Jor bordor of tllis boUC is promi- 
 nent and prolonged transversely 
 a supporting ledge for the first phalanx, 
 as a point of attachment 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 face. 
 
 (Fig. 6, a), to serve 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Short pastern (os coronse) 
 viewed in front and in pro- 
 file: a, upper joint-surface; 
 b, anterior surface; c, lat- 
 eral surface; d, lower joint- 
 surface. 
 
 for the perforatus tendon, 
 and as a gliding surface 
 for the perforans tendon. 
 The lowest bone of 
 the limb is the third 
 phalanx or os pedis ( Fig. 
 7). In form it is similar 
 to the hoof. The anterior 
 or wall-surface (a) is 
 
 Short pastern seen 
 from behind: a, smooth 
 surface over which i ti 
 
 the perforans tendon rOUgh, llKC pumice StOUB. 
 
 surfrc'e. ' ""^^"^ ^°''^*' Above and in front is the 
 
 pyramidal eminence to 
 which the tendon of the anterior extensor of the phalanges 
 attaches. Behind, the bone extends backward to form the 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 27 
 
 inner and outer branches {c, c) or wings of the os pedis. The 
 upper, articular surface (6) slopes backward and downward. 
 The lower, solar or plantar surface (Fig. 8, a) is slightly con- 
 cave, and presents posteriorly a half-moon-shaped excavation, 
 with a roughened border called the semilunar crest (c), to which 
 the perforans tendon attaches; just above this crest are two 
 small holes (e) known. a^ the plantar foramina, through which 
 the plantar arteries pass into the bone. The surfaces of wall 
 and sole come together in a sharp edge, which is circular in its 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 Oa pedis seen in profile and in front; a, 
 anterior face with pyramidal eminence 
 above; b, joint-surface; c, wings or branches 
 of hoof-bone; d, notch which, by the attach- 
 ment of the lateral cartilage, is converted 
 into a foramen and leads to e, the preplan- 
 tar fissure. 
 
 Lower surface of hoof-bone; o, anterior 
 portion covered by the velvety tissue of the 
 sole; 6, wing of the os pedis; c, semilunar 
 crest, to which the perforans tendon at- 
 taches; d, plantar fissure leading to e, plan- 
 tar foramen. 
 
 course. It is easy to tell whether a pedal bone is from a fore 
 or a hind limb; the os pedis of a hind leg has a steeper and 
 more pointed toe, and a more strongly concaved solar surface 
 than the same bone of a foreleg. Not only is the outline of the 
 sharp inferior border of the os pedis of a front foot more rounded 
 at the toe, but when placed on a flat surface the toe does not 
 touch by reason of being turned slightly upward, much as a 
 shoe designed to give a " rolling motion." The os pedis of a 
 hind foot is narrower from side to side (pointed), and does not 
 turn up at the toe. 
 
 The right and left hoof-bones are also, as a rule, easily dis- 
 
28 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 tinguished by variations in the surfaces of wall and sole. The 
 shape of the os pedis corresponds to the form of the horny box 
 or hoof, and therefore a knowledge of this bone is absolutely 
 necessary. 
 
 The navicular bone (os naviculare, nut-bone, Figs. 9 and 10) 
 is an accessory or sesamoid bone to the os pedis. It is a small 
 
 bone, transversely elongated 
 Fig. 9. Fig. 10. ^^^ situated behind and below 
 
 the OS pedis and between the 
 wings of tlie latter. It adds to 
 the articular surface of the 
 pedal joint. Its under surface 
 
 Fig. 9 representa the upper surface of the • , i i , t j • 
 
 navicular bone; Fig. 10 the lower surface of IS SmOOth, and actS aS a gliding 
 
 ^^^nr^^Z^Z^'^f'oe^''''^'- surfacefortheperforanstendon, 
 
 which is quite wide at this point. 
 The long axes of the three phalanges (cf& suffraginis, os co- 
 ronge, and os pedis) should unite to form a straight line, when 
 viewed either from in front or from one side ; that is, the direc- 
 tion of each of these three bones should be the same as the com- 
 mon direction of the three considered as a whole. 
 
 In young colts both the long and short pasterns are in three parts 
 and the pedal bone in two parts, all of which unite later in life to form 
 their respective single bones. 
 
 In mules and asses the os pedis is comparatively small and narrow. 
 In cattle all three phalanges are double, and split hoofs cover the divided 
 OS pedis. 
 
 B. The Articulations of the Foot. 
 
 There are three articulations in the foot — namely, the fet- 
 lock, coronary, and pedal joints. All are hinge-joints, the fet- 
 lock being a perfect hinge-joint, and the other two imperfect 
 hinge-joints. Each has a capsular ligament, and also several 
 funicular or cord-like ligaments which are placed at the sides of 
 (lateral ligaments), or behind (on the side of flexion) the joints. 
 
 I. The fetlock or metacarpo-phalangeal articulation is 
 formed by the condyles at the lower end of the cannon bone and 
 the glenoid cavities formed by the union of the articular sur- 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 29 
 
 faces of the sesamoids and the upper end of the first phalanx. 
 The following ligaments are about this joint : 
 
 1. Two lateral ligor 
 
 merits, an external and Fig. 11. 
 
 an internal ( Fig. 11, a). 
 
 2. Two lateral sesa- 
 moid ligaments (f). 
 
 3. An intersesamoid 
 ligament (Fig. 12, &), a 
 thick, fibrous mass, 
 binding the sesamoid 
 bones almost immovably 
 together, extending 
 above them and present- 
 ing on its posterior face 
 a smooth groove, i n 
 which glide the flexor 
 tendons o f t h e phal- 
 anges (perforans and 
 perforatus). 
 
 4. The suspensory 
 ligament of the fetlock 
 (Figs. 11, c, 12, c, and 
 13, c, pages 29 and 30). 
 This may also be called 
 the superior sesamoid 
 ligament. It is a long 
 
 and very powerful brace, originating on the lower row of carpal 
 bones (bones of the hock in the hind leg) and on the upper end 
 of the cannon between the heads of the two splint-bones, and 
 dividing at the lower third of the cannon into two branches (<?), 
 which are attached one to each sesamoid bone. Below these 
 bones these two branches are prolonged obliquely downward and 
 foru-ard on opposite sides of the long pastern to pass into the 
 borders of the anterior extensor tendon of the toe at about the 
 uaiddle of the long pastern (Fig. 14, &', page 32). 
 
30 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Fig. 12. Fig. 13. 
 
 Fig. 11 shows a side view, and Figs. 12 and 13 a posterior view of the phalangeal bones, 
 with their articular ligaments. The lettering is the same in all three figures: a, lateral liga- 
 ment of fetlock-joint; 6, intersesamoid ligament; c, suspensory ligament of the fetlock; d, 
 median branch of inferior sesamoid ligament; d', lateral branches of inferior sesamoid liga- 
 ment; e, deep inferior sesamoid ligament; /, lateral sesamoid ligaments; g, inferior coronary 
 ligaments; h, superior coronary ligaments; h', median coronary ligaments; i, lateral pedal 
 ligament; A:, lateral coronary ligament and suspensory ligament of the navicular bone; I, 
 interosseous ligament. 
 
 5. The inferior sesamoid ligament (Figs. 11, d\ 12, d, d' , 
 and 13, d , E). This originates at the lowest part of the sesamoid 
 bones and intersesamoid ligament, and consists of three parts or 
 
HORSESHOEING. 31 
 
 branches. The median, branch {d) is the longest and strongest, 
 and takes its lower attachment in the middle of the fibro-carti- 
 laginous lip found on the upper border of the posterior face of 
 the second phalanx. The two lateral branches (d') approach 
 each other as they descend, and terminate on the sides of the 
 roughened triangle on the posterior face of the first phalanx. 
 
 6. The deep inferior sesamoid ligament (Fig. 13, e) is quite 
 short, and consists of a. number of distinct, thin fibrous bands 
 lying directly against the bone and entirely covered by the 
 median and lateral inferior sesamoid ligaments. These fibrous 
 bands cross one another in passing from the sesamoids to the 
 first phalanx. 
 
 II. The coronary joint is the simplest of the three articula- 
 tions of the foot. The long pastern furnishes two condyles and 
 the short pastern two glenoid cavities. Besides a capsular liga- 
 ment tliere are — 
 
 1. Two lateral coronary ligaments (Jc) and, 
 
 2. Six posterior coronary ligaments, — namely, two superior 
 coronary ligaments (^), tivo median coronary ligaments (h'), 
 and two inferior coronary ligaments (g). 
 
 III. The pedal articulation ("cofiin" joint) is an imper- 
 fect hinge-joint, and is formed by the condyles at the lower end 
 of the short pastern and the two glenoid cavities in the united 
 upper surfaces of the pedal and navicular bones. Besides the 
 capsular ligament (Figs. 12 and 13', ?), which binds all three 
 bones together, there are the following accessory ligaments : 
 
 1. Two strong lateral ligaments, an external and an internal 
 (Fig. 11, ^), whose posterior borders are lost in the lateral 
 cartilages which cover them. 
 
 2. Two lateral suspensory ligaments of the navicular bone 
 (k). They begin on the posterior border and ends of the 
 navicular bone, and terminate on the lower part of the anterior 
 surface of the os suifraginis, where they are lost in the lateral 
 ligaments of the coronary articulation. 
 
 3. The lateral ligaments of the lateral cartilages, navicular 
 bone, and os pedis. They are short, and unite the navicular 
 bone with the os pedis and lateral cartilages. 
 
32 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Of the three phalangeal articulations, the pedal is the only 
 one that permits of any lateral movement ; hence it is an im- 
 perfect hinge-joint. 
 
 C. The Locomotory Organs of the Foot. 
 
 Though the musch 
 
 ^L^ 
 
 are the organs which produce motion, 
 the horseshoer need con- 
 cern himself only with 
 the tendons of those 
 muscles which extend 
 and flex the phalanges. 
 These tendons are 
 either extensors or flex- 
 ors. The extensors lie on 
 the anterior face and the 
 flexors on the posterior 
 face of the phalanges. 
 
 The anterior exten- 
 sor of the phalanges 
 (Fig. 14, a) extends 
 the long and short pas- 
 terns and the hoof -bone ; 
 it is broad, and made 
 somewhat broader by rer 
 ceiving the branches of 
 the suspensory ligament 
 {V) that come from the 
 sesamoid bones. It takes 
 a firm attachment on 
 
 Right forefoot viewed from in front and from the ex- ^^ pyramidal eminence 
 
 ternal side: a, anterior extensor tendon of the toe; h, ^ "^ 
 
 suspensory ligament of the fetlocli; fc', branch of the of the OS pcdis. In the 
 
 same passing forward and uniting with the extensor n j; i -i 
 
 tendon of the toe ; c, extensor tendon of the os suffraginis lOreleet the lOUg paS- 
 
 (absent in the hind leg), called the lateral extensor. ^^^^^ ^^^ ^ ^^^^.^^ ^^^^^_ 
 
 sor tendon (c), which is known as the lateral extensor. When the 
 muscles to which these tendons are attached act, — that is, when 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 33 
 
 we term this 
 
 Fig 
 
 tbej draw themselves together, or contract, as 
 action, — the foot is carried forward (extended). 
 
 There are tivo flexor tendons of the 
 phalanges, — namely, the superficial 
 (perforatus tendon) and the deep 
 (perforans tendon). 
 
 1. The superficial fiexor or per- 
 foratus tendon (Figs. 15, h, and 16, 
 a, h) lies behind, immediately imder 
 the skin, and covers the deep flexor or 
 perforans tendon. At the gliding sur- 
 face between the sesamoid bones (Eig. 
 15, /) it broadens, and forms a ring 
 or tube (Fig. 15, V) tlirough which 
 the perforans tendon (a'") passes, 
 while a short distance farther down it 
 bifurcates, or divides into two 
 branches (Figs. 15, V% and 16, &), 
 which terminate, one on either side, 
 partly on the inferior lateral borders 
 of the first phalanx and partly on the 
 fibro-cartilage of the second phalanx. 
 It acts simultaneously on the long and 
 short pasterns. 
 
 2. The deep fiexor or perforans 
 
 Right forefoot seen from behind: a, lower end of the 
 perforans tendon, cut through and hanging down, so 
 that its anterior surface is visible; a', lower expanded 
 end (plantar aponeurosis) of this tendon, which attaches 
 itself to the semilunar crest of the os pedis; a", shallow 
 groove which receives the slight elevation on the under 
 surface of the navicular bone; a'", piece of the perforans 
 tendon enclosed by the ring formed by the perforatus 
 tendon; 6, perforatus tendon bent over backward so that 
 its anterior surface ia v-isible; 6', ring of the perforatus tendon; h", terminal branches of 
 the same; the perforans tendon passes through the space between these two branches; c, 
 navicular bone; d, suspensory ligament of the same; e, smooth surface on the os coronse over 
 which the perforans tendon glides; /, the smooth groove (sesamoid groove) on the posterior 
 surface of the intersesamoid ligament for the gliding of the perforans tendon; g, body of the 
 suspensory ligament of the fetlock; g', terminal branches of the same, attaching to the sesa- 
 moid bones. 
 
34 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 tendon (Figs. 15, a, and 16, c) is cylindrical and stronger thaa 
 the perforatus tendon; above the fetlock-joint it lies between 
 the perforatus and the suspensory liga- 
 ment of the fetlock. At the sesamoid 
 bones it passes through the ring formed 
 by the perforatus tendon (Fig. 15, h'), 
 then becomes broad and double-edged, 
 passes between the two terminal 
 branches of the perforatus, glides over 
 the fibro-cartilage of the second phalanx 
 and over the inferior surface of the 
 navicular bone, and finally ends on the 
 semilunar crest of the third phalanx. 
 In common with the perforatus tendon 
 it flexes the foot. 
 
 If at a point a few inches above the 
 fetlock a limb be cut through from be- 
 hind, the knife will pass successively 
 through the following structures: skin, 
 perforatus tendon, perforans tendon, 
 suspensory ligament, cannon bone, 
 lateral extensor tendon, anterior exten- 
 sor tendon, and, lastly, the skin on the 
 anterior surface of the limb. The flexor 
 tendons are frequently thickened and 
 shortened by inflammation due to in- 
 jury, and as a result the foot is pulled 
 backward and the hoof gradually be- 
 comes more nearly upright, — i.e., stub- 
 by, steep-toed. A knowledge of the 
 
 Right forefoot seen from behind and a little from the external side: a, perforatus tendon; 
 b, terminal branches of the same; c, perforans tendon; d, annular ligament which attaches 
 to the sesamoid bones: d', the "x" ligament, which attaches by four branches to the oa suf- 
 fraginis;.d", an upper branch of the same (the lower branches are not shown in the figure); 
 e, reinforcing sheath of the perforans tendon, covering the under surface of the latter and 
 attached by its branches at e' to the lower end of the os suffraginis; /, suspensory ligament 
 of the fetlock. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 35 
 
 normal coBdition of the tendons is, therefore, absolutely 
 necessary to the horseshoer. Both flexor tendons are em- 
 braced and held in place by ligaments and fascia passing out 
 from the phalanges (Figs. 16, d' , and 24, e, f). The extensor 
 and flexor tendons essentially contribute to the strong union of 
 the phalangeal bones, and especially to the support and stability 
 of the fetlock- joint. The gliding of the tendons is made easy 
 by the secretion of a lubricating fluid, called ^synovia, from the 
 inner surface of the sheaths which surround them. In thin- 
 skinned well-bred horses with sound limbs one can not only dis- 
 tinctly feel the tendons through the skin, but can see their out- 
 line. When the tendons and hones are free from all inflammatory 
 thickenings, and the tendon sheaths are not visibly distended, we 
 say that the leg is " clean." 
 
 Mucous Bursae and Tendon Sheaths. 
 
 Accessory to the tendons, there are in the foot roundish, 
 membranous sacs (mucous bursas) and membranous tubes (ten- 
 don sheaths). Both contain a liquid resembling synovia (" joint- 
 w^ater"), which facilitates the gliding of the tendons. These 
 bursae and sheaths are often distended to form soft tumors, 
 known as hygromata (" mnd-puffs," "wind-galls"). 
 
 (a) Mucous Bursae. — They lie beneath tendons at those 
 places where the tendons pass over bony prominences. 
 
 1. The mucous bursa of the anterior extensor tendon of the 
 to© is about the size of a walnut, and lies between the tendon 
 and the capsular ligament of the fetlock-joint (Figs. 17, g, and 
 18, e). 
 
 2. The mucous bursa of the extensor tendon of the long pas- 
 tern (lateral extensor) is somewhat smaller, and lies, likewise, 
 beneath the tendon, between it and the capsular ligament of the 
 fetlock-joint (Fig. 11, h). 
 
 3. The mucous bursa of the navicular region lies between 
 tlie under surface (gliding surface) of the navicular bone and 
 the flexor pedis perforaris tendon (deep flexor). Its width 
 
36 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 equals the length of the navicular bone, and it extends upward 
 and do^vnward beyond the bone. Above, it is separated from 
 the sheath of the perforans tendon (" great sesamoid sheath ") 
 by a membranous partition ; below, it passes to the attachment 
 of the perforans tendon to the semilunar crest of the os pedis. 
 (h) There is but one tendon sheath in the foot, — the sheath 
 common to the two flexor tendons (great 'sesamoid sheath). It 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 Right forefoot seen from the inner side; d, 
 d', d", d'", great sesamoid sheath; e, mucous 
 bursa beneath anterior extensor tendon of 
 the toe; /, synovial distension of fetlock- 
 joint; 10, inner sesamoid bone; 11, "x" liga- 
 ment; 14, fetlock-joint; 15, lateral cartilage; 
 16, suspensory ligament of lateral cartilage 
 (Ellenberger in Leisering's Atlas and Veteri- 
 nary Anatomy, Sisson, Saunders.) 
 
 Right forefoot seen from the external side ; 
 /. /'i /". /'"■ great sesamoid sheath (tendon- 
 sheath) ; g, mucous bursa beneath anterior 
 extensor tendon of the toe; h, mucous bursa 
 beneath extensor tendon of long pastern; i, 
 synovial distension of the fetlock-joint; 7, 
 suspensory ligament; 9, cannon bone; 10, 
 outer sesamoid bone; 12, fetlock-joint; 13, 
 lateral cartilage; 14, suspensory ligament of 
 the lateral cartilage. (Ellenberger in Lei- 
 sering's Atlas and Veterinary Anatomy, 
 Sisson, Saunders.) 
 
 encloses the flexor tendons from the middle third of the cannon 
 down to the middle of the short pastern, and is intimately united 
 with the flexor pedis perforans tendon (Fig. 17, f, f, f\ f". 
 Fig. 18, d, d', d'', d'"). 
 
 Altering the Relative Tension of the Flexor Tendons and 
 Suspensory Ligament of the Fetlock-Joint. 
 
 The body- weight imposed at the fetlock-joint is supported, 
 in large part, by the suspensory ligament ; somewhat less weight 
 
HORSESHOEING. 37 
 
 is borne by the perforans tendon, and a still smaller amount by 
 the perforatus. The coronary joint is supported chiefly by the 
 perforatus, assisted by the perforans. The pedal joint is pressed 
 fonvard and upward by the perforans tendon passing in a curve 
 beneath the navicular bone. Each of these three structures bears 
 its normal proportion of the body-weight Avhen the three pha- 
 langes, as view^ed from the side, form a continuous straight line 
 from the fetlock- joint to the ground. In such a case the obliquity 
 of the long pastern will be the same as that of the toe (see 
 Foot- Axis, p. 70). 
 
 Raising the toe by means of a tip, a full shoe with thinned 
 branches or a toe-calk, or paring away the quarters will tilt the 
 OS pedis backward, break 
 the foot-axis backward in 
 the pedal joint and to a 
 less extent in the coron' 
 ary joint, and increase 
 the tension of the per- 
 forans tendon consider- 
 ably and of the perfo- 
 ratus slightly. These 
 tendons tightening be- 
 hind the fetlock - joint 
 
 force it forward, causing Rig^t forefoot viewed from the external side: A. os 
 
 tVi<^ Inno- T^n<?fA-m fn <4tnnf] coronae; B, os pedis; C. external lateral cartilage; a, 
 
 tne long pastern to Stana ,^^g^^, p^^^, y^^^^^^^. j,, Ugament uniting the lateral 
 
 SteeOer and takinsr some cartilage with the os coronae; c, aponeurosis joining 
 
 J ' ^ lateral cartilage and os pedis. 
 
 strain from the suspen- 
 sory ligament. Hence, the perforans tendon is under greatest 
 tension, and the suspensory ligament under least tension, when 
 the foot-axis is broken strongly backward. 
 
 Shortening the toe, or raising the quarters by heel-calks or 
 thickened branches, will tilt the os pedis forward, break the 
 foot-axis forward in the pedal joint, and wall greatly lessen the 
 tension of the perforans tendon. The aggregate tension of 
 perforans and perforatus tendons being diminished, the fetlock 
 
38 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 sinks downward and backward, the long pastern assumes a more 
 nearly horizontal direction, and the tension of the suspensory 
 ligament is increased. Thus, the perforans tendon is under 
 least tension, and the suspensory ligament under greatest strain, 
 when the foot-axis is broken strongly forward. 
 
 D. The Elastic Parts of the Foot. 
 
 All bodies which under pressure or traction change their 
 form, but return again to their original shape as soon as the 
 pressure or traction ceases, are called elastic or springy. Nearly 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 Os pedis and inner face of one lateral cartilage; a, toe of os pedis; a', pyramidal eminence 
 to which the extensor tendon attaches; a", wing of pedal bone; 6, lateral cartilage; C, points 
 of attachment of suspensory ligament of lateral cartilage; d, point of insertion of ligament 
 to the short pastern; e, point of insertion of ligaments from navicular bone. 
 
 all parts of the horse's foot, except the bones, possess more or 
 less elasticity. The lateral cartilages and the plantar cushion 
 are elastic to a high degree, but the coronary hand, the laminae, 
 the articular cartilage, and the homy box or hoof are less elastic. 
 This property or characteristic is possessed by the respective 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 39 
 
 parts of the foot in accordance \vitli their function, location, 
 and structure. 
 
 The two lateral cartilages (Figs. 19, C and 20, b) are 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 Plantar cushion seen from be- 
 low: a, base or bulb of the plantar 
 cushion; 6, summit; c, median 
 lacuna or cleft in which lies the 
 "frog-stay" of the horny frog. 
 
 Plantar cushion seen from above: a, base 
 (bulbs) of same; b, summit; c, supensory liga- 
 ment of plantar cushion; d, place at which the 
 elastic ligament connecting the os suffraginis 
 and the lateral cartilage unites with the plan- 
 tar cushion. 
 
 irregular, quadrangular plates, attached to the wings of the os 
 pedis, and extending so far upward and backward that one can 
 feel them yield to pressure on 
 the skin above the coronet, and 
 can thus test their elasticity. 
 The perforans tendon and the 
 plantar cushion lie between 
 the lateral cartilages, and on 
 the sides and behind are par- 
 tially enclosed by them. The 
 internal concave surface of the ^P^^ or point of fleshy frog 
 
 tissue of plantar cushion; d, „ ^.v,.„ 
 
 lateral cartilage (Fig. 20) is which receives the frog-stay of the horny 
 
 Section lengthwise through middle of the 
 plantar cushion: a, glome (bulb) of heels; b, 
 fibro fatty 
 median cleft 
 
 frog. 
 
 attached to the plantar 
 cushion, the os pedis, and the navicular bone, and, like the 
 external, slightly convex surface, is covered with many blood- 
 vessels (veins) Fig. 25, B). 
 
40 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 The plantar cushion (Figs. 21, 22, 23) is composed almost 
 entirely of yellow elastic and white fibrous tissues, with adipose 
 (fat) cells distributed throughout their substance. It is similar 
 
 in form to the horny frog, and 
 lies between it and the perforans 
 tendon (Fig. 24, a). The bulbs 
 are formed by the posterior 
 thicker portion which lies be- 
 tween the lateral cartilages and 
 is divided into two parts by the 
 cleft or median lacuna (Figs. 
 21, a, and 23, d). The summit 
 is attached to the plantar face 
 of the OS pedis in front of the 
 semilunar crest, and the bulbs 
 are attached to the lateral car- 
 tilages. It is covered inferiorly 
 by the velvety tissue of the frog 
 (pododerm). 
 
 Right forefoot viewed from below, behind, 
 and the external side. This figure shows 
 clearly the position of the plantar cushion. 
 The external lateral cartilage and the tissues 
 covering the plantar cushion and under sur- 
 face of the OS pedis (velvety tissue of the sole 
 and fleshy frog) have been removed: a, fleshy 
 frog or plantar cushion; a', bulbs of plantar 
 cushion; the remaining visible parts belong to 
 the so-called "fleshy frog;" a", groove (median 
 lacuna) in the lower surface of the fleshy frog, 
 in which lies the frog-stay of the horny frog; 
 h, suspensory ligament of the plantar cushion 
 passing out of the bulbs; 6', small elastic cords 
 passing to the lateral cartilage; c, elastic liga- 
 ment coming from the lateral cartilage and 
 uniting with the suspensory ligament of the 
 plantar cushion; d, small tendinous cord be- 
 ginning in the skin behind the fetlock-joint 
 and ending on the os suffraginis in common 
 with 6 and e; e, tendinous reinforcing sheath of 
 the perforans tendon; /, reinforcing stay of the 
 perforatus tendon; g, perforatus tendon; h, 
 
 perforans tendon; i, suspensory ligament of the fetlock; k, plantar surface of the os pedis, to 
 
 which the plantar cushion is joined by fibrous bands. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 41 
 
 E. The Blood-Vessels and Nerves. 
 
 Vessels which carry blood from the heart to the tissues are 
 called arteries, while those which return the blood to the heart 
 from the tissues are called veins. Arteries and veins are con- 
 nected by very small, thread-like vessels called capillaries, which 
 originate in the smallest arteries and are so minute that they 
 can not be seen without the aid of a microscope. The capillaries 
 penetrate the soft tissues in every direction, and finally unite to 
 form small veins. For our purpose we need consider only the 
 arteries and veins. 
 
 The arteries carrying blood from the heart ramify and sub- 
 divide in all parts of the body, and thus reach the foot. Tliey 
 are thick-walled, very elastic tubes, without valves, and carry 
 bright-red blood, which flows in spurts, as can be seen when an 
 artery is cut. If a finger be pressed lightly over an artery lying 
 near the surface, the blood-w^ave can be felt as a light stroke 
 (pulse). The character of the pulse is important, because in 
 inflammations of the pododerm or horn-producing membrane 
 of the foot we can ascertain by feeling that the pulse is stronger 
 than usual in the large arteries cai*rying blood to the inflamed 
 foot. 
 
 On either side of the phalanges below the fetlock-joint there 
 lies an artery called the digital artery (Fig. 25, a). The pulse 
 can be felt in it as it passes over the fetlock at A, Fig. 25. It 
 gives off the following collateral (side) branches: 1. The artery 
 of the first phalanx (pei*pendicular artery), with anterior and 
 posterior branches. 2. The artery of the plantar cushion, which 
 supplies with blood the plantar cushion, the velvety tissue of 
 the sole and frog, the bar portion of the coronary band, and the 
 sensitive laminje of the bars. 3. The coronary artery, which 
 carries blood to the coronary band, os coronse, ligaments of the 
 coronary and pedal joints, flexor tendons, and skin. 
 
 The terminal branches of the digital arteries are the preplan- 
 tar and plantar ungual artenes. The preplantar artery passes 
 
42 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 through the notch in the wdng of the os pedis, then along the 
 preplantar fissure, splitting up into many branches, which spread 
 over and penetrate the porous surface of the os pedis. The 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
 Side view of forefoot, showing blood-vessels and nerves: o, digital artery; b, anterior artery 
 of the OS suffraginis; d, anterior coronary artery, or circumflex artery of the coronet; e,' pre- 
 plantar ungual artery; /', inferior communicating arteries passing out from the semilunar 
 artery of the os pedis, through minute holes just above the lower border of the bone; they 
 unite to form (/") the circumflex artery of the toe; A, digital vein; B, superficial venous 
 plexus of coronary band and lateral cartilage; C, podophyllous venous plexus; G, circumflex 
 vein of the toe; 1, plantar nerve; 2, anterior digital branch of same; 3, posterior digital branch 
 of same; 4, small cutaneous branches of same. 
 
 plantar artery courses along the plantar fissure, enters the 
 plantar foramen, and passes into the semilunar sinus of the os 
 pedis, where it unites with the terminal branch of the opposite 
 digital artery, forming the senvi-lurmr arch. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 43 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 
 After the arterial or pure blood passes through the capil- 
 laries it is collected bj the veins, to be returned to the heart ; 
 then it is driven to the lungs for purification, and is again re- 
 turned to the heart, from, 
 whence it is pumped through 
 the arteries to all parts of 
 the body. 
 
 The veins are more 
 numerous than the arteries ; 
 they have thinner walls, 
 and the larger ones are pro- 
 vided mth valves tliat pre- 
 vent the impure blood from 
 flowing backward. The 
 veins carry impure or dark- 
 red blood towards the heart, 
 and if one is opened the 
 dark blood flows in a steady 
 stream; it does not spurt. 
 The great number of vein- 
 lets in the lower parts of 
 the foot form a complex 
 net- work (plexus) of ves- 
 sels which are in such mani- 
 fold and close union with 
 one another that checking 
 the flow of blood in one part 
 
 J . • 1 • /• ^°°* viewed from below and behind: a, digital 
 
 does not seriously mteriere arteries;. c, arteries of the plantar cushion; /'", 
 
 ,„:+'U 4-1, „ /!„ : „J? 4.1, small branches of the semilunar artery of the os 
 
 With the flowing 0± the pedis, which ramify in the velvety tissue of the 
 
 blood towards the larger sole;yl,digitalvein;B, venous plexus of the heels 
 
 ^ or bulbs; D, solar venous plexus; G, circumflex 
 
 veins. The following are vein of the toe; 3, posterior digital branch of the 
 
 . . plantar nerve; 4, cutaneous branches of the same. 
 
 the most important of these 
 
 net-works of veins or venous plexuses : ( 1 ) the solar venous 
 plexus (Fig. 26, D) : (2) the podophj/Uous venous plexus (Fig. 
 25, C) ; (3) superficial coronary venous plexus (Fig. 25, B) ; 
 
44 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 (4) bulbar venous plexus (Fig. 26, B). All these plexuses of 
 small veins contribute to form the digital veins (Figs. 25 and 
 26, A), 
 
 Nerves are roundish white cords which come from the brain 
 and spinal cord; they generally accompany arteries. They 
 divide and subdivide into smaller and smaller branches till they 
 become invisible to the naked eye and are lost in the tissues. 
 The nerves that are found in the foot come from the spinal 
 cord, and because the largest nerves of the foot accompany the 
 digital arteries they are called digital nerves (Fig. 25, 1). The 
 branches ramify throughout all parts of the foot except the 
 horny box and the hair. Nerves, according to their use or 
 function, are classed as motor and sensory. The motor nerves 
 end in muscles which they stimulate to action and control. The 
 sensory nerves terminate in the skin and iti the soft tissues just 
 under the homy box or hoof (pododerm), and render these 
 parts sensitive ; that is, they convey certain feelings, as, for 
 example, the pain caused by bruising, pricking, or close-nailing, 
 to the brain and consciousness. 
 
 F. The Protective Organs of the Foot. 
 
 The protective organs are the skin and the horny box or hoof. 
 
 The external skin, or hide, covers the entire body ; in the feet 
 it covers the bones, tendons, and ligaments, even passing in 
 under the hoof and directly covering the os pedis. This portion 
 of the skin, enclosed by the hoof and therefore invisible, is called 
 the pododerm or foot-skin. In Germany it is called the hoof- 
 sl'in (huflederhaut), because it is a continuation of the outer 
 visible skin, and because it secretes the hoof, — ^that is, the hoof 
 is produced by it. That part of the skin which is covered Tvdth 
 hair is known as the external or hair-skin. 
 
 (a) The hair-skin (Fig. 27, a) consists of three superposed 
 layers, — (1) the external superficial layer, or epidermis; (2) 
 the middle layer, derm or leather-skin (so-called because leather 
 is made from it) ; (3) the internal layer, or subcutaneous con- 
 nective tissue. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 45 
 
 1. The external layer, or epidermis, is composed merely of 
 le flattened, horn-like cells (scales) lying side by side and 
 
 over one another, and uniting to form one entire structure, — a 
 thin, horn-like layer, Avithout blood-vessels or nerves. It extends 
 over the entire surface of the body, and protects the underlying, 
 very sensitive middle layer from external influences. The 
 oldest cell-layers lie on the outer surface, and are being con- 
 tinuously brushed off in patches or scales, while new ones are 
 constantly being formed on 
 the outer surface of the 
 middle layer. 
 
 2. The middle layer, 
 leather-shin or dermis, is 
 composed of solid, fibrous, 
 and elastic tissues, and eon- 
 tains many blood-vessels, 
 small nerves, sweat- and oil- 
 glands, and hair follicles 
 from which the hair grows. 
 The hair upon the posterior 
 surface of the fetlock- joint 
 is usually long and coarse, 
 forming a tuft knoA\Ti as the 
 " footlock," which encloses 
 a homy spur, called the 
 ergot. Common bred horses 
 have, as a rule, larger and 
 
 coarser footlocks than thoroughbreds. The derm or leather- 
 skin, which produces the hair and epiderm, is the thickest and 
 most important layer of the skin. 
 
 3. The inner layer, or suhcutaneons tissue, unites the middle 
 layer with the muscles, tendons, ligaments, bones, or other 
 structures. It is that loose fibrous mesh or net-work through 
 which the butclier cuts in removing the hide from the carcass. 
 
 {h) The hoof-skin (Figs. 27 and 28, &, c, c^), or pododerm, 
 
 Foot from which the horny capsule or hoof, haa 
 been removed by prolonged soaking: o, skin; on 
 the left the hair has been rubbed awaj'; 6, perio- 
 plic band; c, coronary cushion; d, podophyllous 
 tissue (fleshy leaves) ; at the lower Ijorder of the 
 figure can be seen the minute thread-like pro- 
 cesses or villi which grow down from the lower 
 end of each fleshy leaf. 
 
46 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 is completely enclosed by the hoof. Although it is only an ex- 
 tension of the derm or middle layer of the hair-skin, it differs 
 from the latter in structure and relations. 
 
 In order to study the pododerm we should not wrench the 
 hoof off with violence, but should allow the foot to partially de- 
 compose by leaving it for six to eight days at ordinary room tem- 
 perature; it can then be 
 removed without injuring 
 the pododerm. After the 
 hoof has been removed the 
 entire pododerm presents a 
 more or less dark-red color 
 (flesh-color), which is due 
 to the great number of 
 blood-vessels that it con- 
 tains. For this reason dif- 
 ferent parts of the podo- 
 derm have received the 
 
 prefix " fleshy," as for ex- 
 Foot from which the near half of the horny wall , n i m n ^ 
 and a greater part of the so-called fleshy wall have ample, neSUy Wall, HCSny 
 been removed, in order to show the relation of the g^l- flaclrvr -frncr e^fn TVip* 
 lateral cartilage to adjacent structures: a, vertical =01 C, ueSUy irog, CtC. XUe 
 section of the skin prolonged downward tlirough the pododorm is what the UU- 
 pododerm (foot-skm) to show clearly that the latter ^ 
 
 isbut a continuation of the former; a', hairless place informed horSCShoer Calls 
 on the skin; b, perioplic band; b', line indicating the 
 upper border of the same; 6", surface of section of 
 the periople, or perioplic horn-band; c, coronary 
 cushion; c', (left) line which marks the upper border 
 of the coronary cushion; c", section of wall at the 
 toe; d, podophyllous tissue (sensitive laminae); e, 
 horny sole; /, white line; ff, horny frog; h, fleshy frog; 
 t, lateral cartilage. 
 
 the " quick." I will here 
 remark that the three 
 layers of the external or 
 hair^skin are represented 
 in the foot; however, the 
 epidermis is in an entirely different form, — namely, the homy 
 box or hoof. The internal layer or subcutaneous tissue of the 
 hair-skin is absent in those parts of the foot where the pododerm 
 covers the os pedis. There remains, therefore, only the middle 
 layer, derm, or pododerni', which secretes the hoof, and which is 
 the prolongation and representative of the middle layer of the 
 hair-skin. The pododerm is distinguished from the derm of 
 
HORSESHOEING. 47 
 
 the hair-skin chiefly by the absence of hairs, oil- and sweat- 
 glands, and the presence on its outer surface of fleshy, sensitive 
 iaminse and small thread-like projections called villi. 
 
 The pododerm consists of five different parts : the perioplic 
 hand, the coronary hand, the sensitive laminw (podophyllous 
 tissue), the velvety tissue of the sole, and the velvety tissue of 
 the fleshy frog. 
 
 1. The penoplic hand (Eig. 28, h) is a naiTow ridge, about 
 one-fifth to one-fourth of an inch wide, lying between the hair- 
 skin and the coronary band. Somewhat broader at the toe than 
 on the sides, it broadens out near the bulbs of the heels, over 
 which it passes to end in the velvety tissue of the fleshy frog. 
 It is separated from the coronary band by a narrow depression 
 called the coronary furrow (Moeller). The surface of the 
 perioplic band glistens faintly, and is thickly studded with num- 
 erous thread-like projections called villi, which are from one- 
 twenty-fourth to one-twelfth of an inch in length. The perioplic 
 band secretes the soft horn of the perioplic ring and the 
 perioplic or varnish-like outer layer of the wall. 
 
 2. The coronary hand (Fig. 27, c) lies between the perioplic 
 band and the sensitive laminae or fleshy leaves. It presents a 
 prominent convex band or cushion about three-fourths of an 
 inch wide, which extends entirely around the foot from one 
 bulb of the heel to the other. In front it directly covers the 
 anterior extensor tendon of the toe, and at the sides the lateral 
 surfaces of the os coronse and the upper part of the lateral 
 cartilages, while farther back towards the heels the lateral car- 
 tilages project considerably above both coronary and perioplic 
 bands. The coronary band is more convex (rounded) in front 
 than on the sides of the foot, and is flattened in the region of 
 the bulbs of the heels. Its surface is thickly covered with villi, 
 which are longer and stronger than those of the perioplic band. 
 At the bulbs of the heels the coronary band turns forward and 
 inward along the fleshy frog nearly to its summit. This portion 
 of the coronary band is from one-third to one-half an inch wide. 
 
48 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 and is called the har portion of the coronary hand. It is also 
 covered with villi, which are directly continuous with those of 
 the fleshy frog. The coronary band secretes the principal part 
 (middle layer) of the horny w^all of the hoof, including the 
 bar portion (bars) of the wall. 
 
 3. The fleshy wall, or podophyllous tissue (Figs. 27, 28, d, 
 and 29, a), is all that portion of the pododerm on which there 
 are fleshy leaves. This leafy tissue covers the anterior surface 
 of the OS pedis and the lower por- 
 tion of the external surface of the 
 lateral cartilages. At the bulbs of 
 the heels it turns inward at a sharp 
 angle and extends forward and in- 
 ward, between the bar portion of 
 the coronary band and the poste- 
 rior part of the velvety tissue of 
 the sole, nearly to the middle of 
 the solar surface of the foot, to 
 form the lamince of the bars (Fig. 
 29, a). The fleshy wall and fleshy 
 bars are not covered with villi, but 
 Plantar surface of a foot deprived of \\rith numcrous prominent, paral- 
 
 its horny capsule by prolonged macera- t ■• a i i ^ -i i 
 
 tion: a, laminse of the bars; b, velvety Icl, flCShy leaveS plaCCd cloSC to- 
 
 each of which runs in a 
 
 gether, 
 straight 
 
 line downward and for- 
 
 tissue of the sole; c, velvety tissue of the 
 
 frog; d, median cleft of the fleshy frog, 
 
 into which the velvety tissue dips; e 
 
 bulbar portion of the perioplic band, 
 
 which passes insensibly into the velvety ward from the COrOUary band tO 
 
 tissue of the fleshy frog. r ^ 
 
 the lower border of the os pedis. 
 Between the fleshy leaves are deep furrows in which, in a 
 foot which has not been deprived of its homy capsule, lie the 
 homy or insensitive leaves of the wall. The fleshy leaves (podo- 
 phyllous laminee) are related to one another somewhat as the 
 leaves of a book ; their posterior borders are attached to the body 
 or basement membrane of the fleshy wall, while their anterior 
 borders and sides are free. At their upper ends immediately 
 below the coronary band the leaves are quite narrow, but they 
 
HORSESHOEING. 49 
 
 gradually increase in width down to the middle, and thereafter 
 maintain that breadth to the lower border of the os pedis, where 
 they terminate in free, fleshy villi, which differ in no respect 
 from those of the fleshy sole. The number and length of the 
 fleshy leaves vary ; in a medium-sized foot there are about five 
 hundred, while in a large foot there may be as many as six 
 hundred. On the anterior surface of the os pedis the leaves are 
 thickest and longest; on the sides and quarters they gradually 
 decrease in length, while in the bar region they are the shortest 
 and gradually disappear near the anterior ends of the bars. 
 The width of the leaves decreases as they become shorter. Viewed 
 with the naked eye the leaves appear flat and smooth, but under 
 the microscope one can see on both sides of a fleshy leaf numer- 
 ous small, fleshy leaflets parallel to one another and extending 
 lengthwise with the larger leaf. The large ones are called piin- 
 cipal leaves, and the small ones are kno^vn as collateral leaves, 
 or simply as lea fiefs. 
 
 The fleshy leaves (podophyllous tissue) secrete the horny 
 leaves (keraphyllous tissue) and serve to bind the homy wall 
 to the pododerm. The strength of this union is due largely 
 to the dovetailing of the horny leaves and their leaflets with 
 the fleshy leaves and their leaflets. 
 
 4-. The ffeshy sole or velvety tissue of the sole (Fig. 29, h) 
 is that part of the pododerm which covers all the under sur- 
 face of the foot except the plantar cushion, the bar lamina^, and 
 the bar portion of the coronary band. It is sometimes slate- 
 colored or studded with black spots, but is usually dark red. 
 It is thickly set with villi, which are especially long and 
 strong * near its periphery. The fleshy sole covers the solar 
 plexus, or net-work of veins, and secretes the horny sole. 
 
 5. The velvety tissue of the frog (Fig. 29, c) covers the 
 
 * In order to see the length, thickness, and abundance of the villi 
 of the pododerm, place the foot deprived of its hoof in a clear glass 
 jar and cover it with waterj renewing the latter until it is no longer 
 tinged with blood. 
 4 
 
50 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 lower surface of the plantar cushion, and in the region of the 
 bulbs (e) passes insensibly into the perioplic band. In com- 
 parison with the fleshy sole, it has much finer and shorter villi 
 and contains fewer blood-vessels. It secretes the soft, horny 
 frog. 
 
 (c) The horn capsule or hoof (Fig. 30) is the entire mass 
 made up of the horn-cells secreted from the whole surface of 
 
 tlie pododerm, and next 
 to the shoe is the organ 
 with which the horse- 
 shoer has most to do. 
 The horn capsule or hoof 
 is nothing more than a 
 very thick epidermis that 
 protects the horse's foot, 
 just as a well-fitting shoe 
 protects the human foot. 
 The hoof of a sound foot 
 is so firmly united with 
 the underlying pododerm 
 that only an extraordin- 
 ary force can separate 
 them. In its normal con- 
 dition the hoof exactly 
 fits the 'soft structures 
 within it; hence it is 
 evident that local or 
 general contraction of the hoof must produce pressure on the 
 blood-vessels and nerve^endings of the pododerm, disturb the 
 circulation of the blood and the nutrition of the foot, and 
 cause pain. 
 
 The hoof is divided into three principal parts, which are 
 solidly united in the healthy foot, — ^namely, the wall, the sole, 
 and the frog. That part of the hoof which is almost wholly 
 visible when the foot is on the ground (Fig. 30, h, c), and which 
 
 Side view of hoof recently removed: a, the perioplic 
 horn-band; it is swollen from prolonged maceration in 
 water; the upper border shows adhering hairs; the 
 inner surface (perioplic groove) presents many minute 
 openings; a', the perioplic horn-band broadens in 
 passing over the bulb or glome of the heel, and is 
 finally lost in the horny frog; a", section of wall re- 
 moved. That part of hoof on the right of 6 is called 
 the toe; between 6 and c is the side wall or "mamma," 
 and between c and d the "quarter;" e, projecting 
 horny frog;/, coronary groove with numerous minute 
 openings; g, keraphyllous layer of the wall (horny 
 leaves) . 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 51 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 protects the foot in front and upon the sides, is known as the 
 wall. In position, course, direction, and an*angement of its 
 parts it simulates the different parts of the pododerm from 
 which it is developed. It extends from the edge of the hair 
 just above the coronary band to the ground ; backward it gradu- 
 ally decreases in height 
 (length), passes around the 
 bulbs of the heels, and 
 turns forward and inward 
 (Fig. 32, d, e, and 34, a, b) 
 to form the bars, which are 
 finally lost in the edge of 
 the sole near the summit of 
 the frog. It thus forms at 
 each heel an angle (Fig. 
 31, d, and 32, d) known as 
 a buttress, which encloses a ^ 
 branch of the homy sole. 
 Externally the wall is 
 smooth, covered with the 
 varnish-like periople, and 
 presents indistinct ring-like 
 
 markings (Fig. 30). Its 
 inner surface, on the con- 
 
 Plantar surface of right fore-hoof: a, a, bearing- 
 surface of the toe; a, 6, bearing-surface of the side 
 walls or mammse; b c, bearing-surface of the 
 trary, presents a great quarters;^, buttress, or angle formed by wall and 
 bar; e, bar; /, sole; /', branches of the sole; g, 
 white line; it passes between the sole and bars and 
 ends at g'; h, horny frog; i, branches of the frog; 
 k, heels, bulbs, or glomes of the hoof; I, median 
 lacuna of horny frog. Between the bars and the 
 horny frog lie the lateral lacunse of the frog. 
 
 number of horn-leaves 
 which are spoken of col- 
 lectively as the keraphyl- 
 lous tissue (Figs. 32, g^ 
 and 35, f). The upper or coronary border of the wall is thin 
 and flexible, and on its inner aspect is the coronary groove, into 
 which fits the coronary band (Fig. 30, f). The lower border 
 of the wall, called the " bearing-edge " or plantar border (Fig. 
 31, a), is the one to which the horseshoe is fastened. By divid- 
 ing a hoof from before to behind along its median line, otiter 
 
52 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 and inner halves or walls are produced, and by dividing the 
 entire lower circumference of the wall into five equal parts or 
 sections, a toe, two side walls or mammae, and two quarters 
 will be exhibited (Figs. 32 and 33). In order to designate these 
 regions of the hoof still more accurately, they are spoken of as 
 outer and inner toes, quarters, and heels. 
 
 The direction (slant) and length of the ivall vary in oiie 
 and the same hoof, as well as 
 between fore and hind hoofs. 
 The portion of the wall of 
 fore hoofs is the most slant- 
 ing, — that is, forms the most 
 acute angle with the surface 
 of the ground, — and is also 
 the longest. Towards the 
 quarters the wall gradually 
 ■becomes very nearly vertical; 
 in almost all hoofs the pos- 
 ,i^ terior part of the quarters 
 slants doAvnward and inward 
 towards the median vertical 
 ~"""\'''' antero-posterior plane of the 
 
 foot. At the same time the 
 
 Wall and bars seen from below: o, toe; 6, wall, iu passiug back from the 
 side-wall, or mamma; c, quarter; d, buttress; ill 
 
 €, bar; g, horn leaves; h, space occupied by toe tO the hCCl, DCCOmeS 
 
 '°^' gradually shorter in such a 
 
 manner that the heights of the toe, side walls, and quarters 
 are related to one another about as 3:2:1 in front hoofs 
 and as 4:3:2 in hind hoofs. The outer wall is, as a rule, 
 somewhat more slanting than tlie inner. Viemng a foot 
 in profile, the toe and heel should be parallel; that is, the 
 line from the hair to the ground at the toe should be parallel 
 to the line from the hair to the ground at the buttress. 
 All deviations of the wall from a straight line (out- 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 53 
 
 ward or inward bendiugs) are to be regarded as faults or 
 defects. 
 
 The tliichness of the wall is also varial>le. In front lioofs 
 the wall is thickest at the toe, 
 and becomes gradually thinner '^'' 
 
 towards the quarters, while in 
 hind hoofs, there is very little 
 difference in the thickness of 
 the wall of the toe, sides, and C- 
 qnarters. The more slanting 
 half of the hoof is always the 
 thiclcer; thus, for example, the 
 outer wall of a base-^Hde foot 
 is always longer and more 
 oblique than the inner wall^ 
 and is also thicker. According to Mayer, the thickness of the 
 wall at the toe varies from three- to five-eighths of an inch, and 
 at the quarters from 
 two to three eighths 
 of an inch. These 
 measurements are de- 
 pendent upon the 
 size and breeding of 
 the horse. 
 
 The horn wall is 
 composed of three 
 superposed layers. 
 These from without 
 to within are: (1) 
 the periople, secreted 
 by tlie perioplic band. 
 It is very thin, 
 glistening, and varnish-like in appearance, and covers the 
 entire outer surface of the wall, except where it has been 
 removed by the rasp, and prevents rapid evaporation of 
 
 A hoof in profile; a, toe (one half); 6, side 
 wall; c, quarter. 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 Vertical section through the middle of a hoof, with horny 
 frog removed, to show the position of the bar: a, b, marks 
 the line at which the wall bends forward and inward to- 
 wards the median line of the foot to become the bar. Bar 
 runs forward and passes imperceptibly into the sole c; o, a', 
 the light shading shows the part of the bar that was in con- 
 tact with the horny frog. 
 
54 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 moisture from the horn. (2) The middle or protective 
 layer (Fig. 35, d) is the thickest, strongest, and most im- 
 portant of the three layers; it forms the principal mass of 
 the wall, and is developed or secreted by the coronary band, 
 which fits into the coronary groove. There are in the coronary 
 groove a great number of small, funnel-shaped openings into 
 which project the horn-producing villi or papillae of the coro- 
 
 FiG. 35. 
 
 The outer wall of the hoof has been removed by cutting vertically through the middle of 
 the toe, down to the upper surface of the sole, then horizontally backward into the quarter, 
 and, finally, upward through the quarter: o, perioplic horn-band; h, coronary groove; it 
 turns inward and forward at c to form the upper border of the bar; d, surface of section of 
 the wall at the toe; d', at the quarter; e, surface of horizontal section of the wall near its 
 lower border; /, keraphyllous layer of the wall; at /' it turns forward and inward to cover 
 the bar; /", horny leaves standing free and passing insensibly into the white horn of the 
 middle layer or true wall; g, horny sole; h, white line; i, small horn-spur in middle of toe; 
 k, part of horny frog which is in intimate union with the upper edge of the bar; I, frog-stay 
 of horny frog; it divides the trough-Uke depression of the upper surface of the frog into m, 
 the two upper channels of the frog. 
 
 nary band. (3) The inner layer or keraphyllous layer (Fig. 
 
 35, /) consists of prominent, parallel horn-leaves lying side by 
 side over the entire inner surface of the middle layer of the 
 wall, and continuing beyond the buttresses to the ends of the 
 bars (Fig. 35, f). This layer of horn-leaves (keraphyllous 
 layer) has in a general way about the same shape and arrange- 
 ment as the layer of fleshy leaves (podophyllous layer) which 
 secretes it; for the horn-leaves fit in with the fleshy leaves in 
 such a way that every fleshy leaf is embraced by two horn- 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 55 
 
 leaves, and every liom-leaf by two fleshy leaves (Fig. 36). The 
 keraphylloiis layer and the horn of the inmost part of the 
 middle or protective layer are always white, even in pigmented 
 (colored) hoofs. 
 
 The horn sole (Fig. 31, /, and Fig. 35, g) is secreted by 
 the velvety tissue of the sole. A sole from which the loose 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 Cross-section of keraphyllous and podophyllous laminse (horny and fleshy leaves) : a, inmost 
 part of the solid wall; the horn-tubes approach very close to the horny leaves; b, body of the 
 podophyllous membrane; c, horny portion of a horn-leaf directly continuous with the middle 
 or principal layer of the wall; c', a rudimentary horn-leaf that does not reach the body of the 
 podophyllous membrane; c", cross-section of horny leaves from the sides of which branch 
 many secondary leaves (leaflets) composed of soft (young) horn-cells. These soft cellular 
 horn-leaflets dovetail with the podophyllous or fleshy leaflets; d, podophyllous laminse ex- 
 tending from the body of the podophyllous membrane; d', podophyllous laminse which have 
 branched in their course to the wall, and thus given rise to c', rudimentary horn-leaves; d", 
 cross-section of podophyllous leaflets extending from the sides of the podophyllous leaves; 
 each two such leaflets secrete a keraphyllous leaflet between them; e, injected arterial vessels. 
 
 flakes of old horn have been removed is about as thick as the 
 wall. It covers the under surface of the foot, and presents 
 upon its upper surface a convexity which exactly fits into the 
 concavity on the under surface of the os pedis. This upper 
 surface is thickly covered by a multitude of minute funnel- 
 shaped openings for the reception of the villi of the velvety 
 tissue of the sole (Fig. 37). The lower surface of the sole is 
 more or less concave, rough, uneven, and often covered by loose 
 
56 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 scales of dead horn. Behind, the sole presents a triangular 
 opening whose borders lie partly in contact with the horny frog 
 and partly with the bars. This opening or re-entering angle 
 divides the sole into a tody (Fig. 31, /) and two \vings or 
 branches (Fig. 31, /'). The outer border of the sole unites 
 through the medium of the white line with the lower part of 
 the inner surface of the wall, — that is, with the keraphyllous 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 Vertical section of the horny sole magnified: a, Horny frog, with the posterior portion of 
 funnel-shaped openings which contain the horn- the perioplic horn-band and the periople 
 producing villi of the fleshy sole; they are of which covers the quarters removed from 
 various sizes; b, horn-tubes; c, intertubular the hoof as one piece by maceration: a, 
 jjQPjj trough-shaped depression of upper surface, 
 
 which is divided posteriorly into the two 
 
 layer of the wall. This white :!^: t^:^':,T^!^^^ ^^ l^^^f^ 
 line (Figs. 31, g^ and 35, h), of ZrZi^^V^lZS^lT.i^^^^^^^ 
 
 so much importance to the horse- frog;d, lateral surface of homy frog which, 
 
 . in its upper part, adheres to the bar, but 
 
 Shoer, is formed by the horn- below, at d', lies free; e. point or suminlt of 
 
 1 1 1 ii 1.1 the frog; /, perioplic horn-band; /', peri- 
 
 leaves, and by those short plugs opie of the quarters, 
 of tubular horn which are se- 
 creted by the villi that are always found at the lower ends of 
 the fleshy leaves. The w^hite line may be said to exist wherever 
 the horn-leaves can be discerned upon the plantar surface of 
 the hoof. It not only passes around the circumference of the 
 sole from heel to heel, but may be followed forward from the 
 buttTe'sses along the bars almost to the summit of the frog. 
 The horn of the white line is soft, unpigmented (white), and 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 67 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 possesses so very little resistance (strength) that it is often 
 
 found crumbling or even absent in places. The visible part 
 
 of the white line is usually of a grayish-black color, owing to 
 
 the working in from below 
 
 of dirt and liquid manure, 
 
 and to staining by nist from 
 
 the nails. The white line is 
 
 very important, since it 
 
 serves as the point from 
 
 which we judge of the 
 
 thickness of the wall, and 
 
 because the horseshoe nail a homy frog cut vertically and lengthwise 
 
 through its middle: a, upper surface; b, frog- 
 Should penetrate it. stay; c, median lacuna of frog, which at c', is 
 
 _,, _, , -T-<* o^ 7 overlaid with superposed layers of horn. 
 
 The Frog (Figs. 31, h, 
 35, k, I, 38 and 39), secreted by the velvety tissue covering 
 the plantar cushion and presenting almost the same form 
 as tlie latter, lies as a wedge between the bars and between 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 Longitudinal section of the wall magnified. The dark stripes parallel and close together 
 are horn-tubes; the lighter surface between the tubes represents the intertubular horn. 
 Notice that the horn-tubes are of various diameters. The space between a and b represents 
 the small tubes of the outer, darker horn of the principal (middle) layer of the wall; the space 
 between b and c the lighter, inner horn of the wall; c, d, the horn separating the wall proper 
 froen the horny leaves; d, e, the horny leaves (keraphyllous tissue), on which can be seen fine, 
 parallel, vertical stripes; in the horn-leaf at /, /', are seen fissures passing obliquely upward 
 and outward towards the wall. 
 
 the edges of the sole just in front of the bars, with both of 
 which structures it is intimately united. Its horn is quite 
 soft and very elastic. The median lacuna or cleft of the 
 
58 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 frog (Fig. 31, I) divides it into two branches (Fig. 31, i), 
 
 which, pass backward and outward into the hornj bulbs (Fig. 
 
 31, k). In front of the median lacuna the two branches 
 unite to form the body of the frog 
 Fig. 41. ^ (j^ig^ 31^ J^^^ ^l^i^h ends in a point, 
 
 designated the point, apex, or summit 
 of the frog. On the upper surface of 
 the frog, directly over the median cleft 
 of the lower surface, there is a small 
 projection called the frog-stay (Figs. 35, 
 Z, 38 and 39, h), which fits into the 
 median cleft of the plantar cushion. 
 Besides, the upper surface of the frog 
 Cross-section of the wall, mag- shows many miuutc opcuijigs, similar 
 
 f^h't/h ''°'°-*"^^'= ^' ''^*^'- to but smaller than those of the sole 
 
 tubular horn. 
 
 and coronary groove, for the reception 
 of villi. In unshod hoofs the frog, sole, bars, and bearing-edge 
 of the wall are on a level ; that is, the plantar surface of such 
 hoofs is perfectly flat. 
 
 The minute structure of the horn can scarcely be considered in de- 
 tail in an elementary treatise such as this is. However, a few of the 
 most important facts are as follows: 
 
 If we carefully examine a transverse section of the horn of the 
 wall (Fig. 41), sole, or frog, we will see with the naked eye, though 
 much better with a magnifying glass, many minute points quite close 
 to one another, and greatly resembling the small openings which we 
 have seen in the coronary groove of the wall and on the upper surface 
 of the horny sole and frog. If, now, we examine a longitudinal sec- 
 tion of the wall (Fig. 40) or sole, we will see a number of fine, dark 
 stripes which are straight, parallel, quite close to one another, of dif- 
 ferent widths, and which are separated by bands of lighter horn also 
 of different widths. A thin section or slice of the wall taken at right 
 angles to the direction of these dark lines (Fig. 41) shows us that the 
 minute points that are visible to the naked eye, when held up to the 
 light or moderately magnified, prove to be small opening's (Fig. 41, a). 
 Since these openings, shown in Fig. 41, represent the dark lines shown 
 in Fig. 40, because an opening is found wherever there is a dark line, 
 we must regard all dark lines seen in longitudinal sections of wall, 
 
HORSESHOEING. 59 
 
 sole, and frog as hollow cylinders or tubes, though they are not always 
 hollow, but are often filled with loosely adjusted, crumbling, broken- 
 down horn-cells. The dark edges of the openings (a) consist of thick 
 layei-s of horn-cells (tube-walls). The entire structure is called a 
 horn-tube, and the lighter-colored masses of horn (Fig. 41, 6) between 
 the tubes are known as intertubular horn. 
 
 With the exception of the homy leaves of the wall and 
 bars, all the horn of the hoof is composed of hom-tubes and 
 intertubular horn. 
 
 The lioni-tubes of the wall, sole, and frog always run down- 
 ward and forward parallel to the direction of the wall at the 
 toe, — that is, in a direction parallel with the inclination of the 
 hoof as a whole. Although the' wall, sole, and frog differ from 
 one another considerably vnth respect to the size and numl^er 
 of the hom-tubes, the quality of the intertubular horn, and the 
 thickness and strength of the horn-cells, these differences are 
 only of subordinate interest or importance to the horseshoer; 
 but he who desires to learn more of this matter is referred to 
 the work of Leisering & Hartmann, " Der Fuss des Pferdes in 
 Riicksicht auf Bau, Verrichtungen und Hufljesehlag," eighth 
 edition, Dresden, 1893. This book also treats of the variations 
 in the quality of hoofs, which is very important for the prac- 
 tical horseshoer to know. It, furthermore, considers the solidity 
 and strength of the horn of the different parts of the hoof. 
 
 With respect to solidity, two kinds of horn are distinguished, 
 — namely, hard and soft horn. The periople, the white line, 
 and the frog are soft horn structures ; the middle layer of the 
 wall and the sole are hard or solid horn. The wall, however, 
 is somewhat harder and more tenacious than the sole, for the 
 latter passes off in more or less large flakes (exfoliates) or 
 crumbles away on its lower surface, at least in shod feet, while 
 no such spontaneous shortening occurs in the wall. 
 
 Soft horn differs from hard horn in that its horn-cells never 
 become hard and horn-like. It is very elastic, absorbs water 
 quickly, and as readily dries out and becomes very hard and 
 
60 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Vertical section through middle of a forefoot, the skin and pododerm being in red. (In 
 the figure the direction of both long and short pasterns, B and D, is too nearly vertical — too 
 steep). A, metacarpal bone (cannon); B, os suffraginis (long pastern); C, inner sesamoid 
 bone (to render it visible a portion of the intersesamoid ligament was removed) ; D, os coro- 
 nse (short pastern) ; E, os pedis (foot-bone) ; F, navicular bone ; a, extensor tendon ; 6, suspen- 
 sory ligament of the fetlock; b', superficial inferior sesamoid ligament; c, perforatus tendon 
 or flexor of the os coronae; c', ring passing forward from this tendon and encircling the per- 
 forans tendon; d, perforans tendon; e, capsular ligament of fetlock-joint;/, capsular ligament 
 of coronary joint; g, g', capsular ligament of pedal joint; h, synovial sheath of the perfo- 
 rans tendon; !, plantar cushion and fleshy frog; i', bulbs or glomes of plantar cushion; Vin- 
 dicates the lowest point reached by the plantar cushion, which in the figure is hidden below 
 by the frog-stay of the horny frog; k, coronary band (red); /, podophyllous tissue (red); m, 
 velvety tissue of the sole (red) ; n, velvety tissue of fleshy frog (red) ; o, wall; p, sole; q, frog; 
 q", the inner half of the frog-stay which reposes in the median lacuna of the fleshy frog; s, 
 hair-skin (red). 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 61 
 
 brittle and easily fissured and chapped. With respect to quality, 
 we distinguish good and bad horn; the former is fine and 
 tenacious (tough), the latter coarse and either soft and crumb- 
 ling or hard and brittle. If not dried out, all horn is elastic, 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 Right forefoot viewed from the side: A, lower end of the cannon; B, fetlock-joint; C, 
 long pastern; D, coronet; E, hoof; F, heel; F', inner heel; G, foot-lock covering the ergot. 
 
 though soft horn is more elastic than hard. All honi is a poo7' 
 conductor of heat. 
 
 The relative positions of the various parts of the foot are 
 shown in Fig. 42. 
 
 Fig. 43 represents the exterior of a well-formed foot. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. 
 
 As there are well-formed and badly foraied bodies, so there 
 are well-formed and badly formed limbs and hoofs. The form 
 of the hoof depends upon the position of the limb. A straight 
 limb of normal direction possesses, as a 
 Fig. 44. ^le, a regular hoof, while an oblique 
 
 or crooked limb is accompanied by an 
 irregidar or oblique hoof. Hence, it is 
 necessary, before discussing the vari- 
 ous forms of the hoof, to consider briefly 
 the various positions that may be 
 assumed by the limbs. In this discus- 
 sion we shall deal with the living horse. 
 
 A. Standing Positions of the Limbs. 
 
 The position of a limb depends 
 upon the varying lengths of its com- 
 ponent bones and tlie angles at which 
 they meet one another. To judge the 
 standing position of a fore-limb one 
 must stand i7i front of the horse; to 
 judge a hind limb, stand behind the 
 horse ; the backward or forward devia- 
 / ft \ tions of both front and hind limbs 
 
 2=4 Jti| are judged by standing at the side. But 
 
 ' I ' ' ' ' — a horse does not always move as his 
 
 Normal (regular) position of,-,. ... IJIJ x 
 
 fore-limbs. Standing positiou would lead one to 
 
 suspect; standing and moving are 
 different. Therefore, in order to arrive at a proper judgment, 
 one must observe the limbs both at rest and in motion. 
 
 (a) The position of a limb viewed from in front is normal 
 62 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 63 
 
 or straight (Fig. 4-1) when it stands vertical or perpendicnlar. 
 A plumb-line dropped from the point of the shoulder (middle of 
 the scapulo-hnmeral articulation) should pass down the middle 
 line of the limb, dividing it into inner and outer halves of 
 equal width, and meeting the ground at the middle of the toe. 
 In the base-wide standing position (Fig. 45) the plumb-line 
 falls to the inner side of the limb; the limb extends obliquely 
 downward and outward. To this class belong also the hiee- 
 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 
 1 1 ;f- 
 
 Pi 
 
 if 
 
 I 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 Fig. 46 
 
 Base-wide Toe- wide Toe-narrow ("pigeon 
 
 toed") 
 
 narrow (knock-kneed) position, in which the knees are too close 
 together, while the feet stand wide apart, and the toe-wide 
 position (splay-footed, Fig. 46) in which the toes point ob- 
 liquely forward and outward. In base-wide positions either 
 the entire limb extends downward and outward or the foot alone 
 is turned outward. 
 
 The base narrow position is frequently obsei'\''ed in horses 
 with veiy wide breasts. The limbs run do\vnward and inward, 
 a plumb-line dropped from the point of the shoulder falling to 
 the outer side of the leg and foot. A special form of the base- 
 
64 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 narrow position is the toe-narrow or yigeon-toed position (Fig. 
 47). In some instances the legs are straight and perpendicular 
 do^^^l to the fetlock, while from there to the ground the phal- 
 anges incline obliquely inward. Another form is the Jcnee-wide 
 or bandy-legged position, in which the knees are placed too far 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 Normal (regular) fore-limb in profile. 
 
 Normal (regular hind limb in profile. 
 
 apart, while the cannons and phalanges incline downward and 
 inward. 
 
 The position of a fore-limb viewed in profile is regular 
 or normal (Fig. 48) when a perpendicular line dropped from 
 the tuberosity of the acromian spine (point of union of the 
 upper and middle thirds of the scapula or shoulder blade) 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 65 
 
 divides the leg from the elbow to the fetlock into anterior and 
 posterior halves of equal width, and touches the gi-ound imme- 
 diately back of the bulbs of the heel. A perpendicular line 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 
 Fig. 51. 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 
 Camped in front. 
 
 Acute-angled foot (low-jointed) . 
 
 dropped from the point of union of the middle and lower thirds 
 of the scapula (shoulder blade) will cut the humerus into 
 halves, and meet the ground between the toe and the heel.* 
 
 * In station of rest, the normal position of a fore-leg, as seen from 
 the side, is somewhat different. The station of rest is the position that 
 is maintained with the least possible muscular effort. With gradual 
 muscular I'elaxation the head and neck sink to a point somewhat below 
 the line of the back, the top of the shoulder blade sinks a little, and 
 the shoulder and elbow joints move foi-ward till the centre of the 
 elbow joint is directly above the ground-surface of the hoof. There- 
 fore, when a horse at rest stands firmly on all four feet, the fore-leg 
 \"iewed from the side, has a normal (regular) direction, when a per~ 
 •pendicular line dropped from the tuberosity of the acromian spine 
 passes through the middle of the elbow joint and meets the ground 
 near the middle of the hoof, 
 5 
 
66 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Til© foot-axis (line of direction of the three phalanges) and 
 the wall at the toe form an angle of from forty-five to fifty 
 degrees with the horizontal ground-surface. 
 
 From this normal or regular standing position, there are 
 deviations forward as well as backward. 
 
 Forward Deviations. — '' Standing in front " or " camped 
 in front " (Fig. 50) is that position in which the entire leg 
 from the body to the ground is placed too far forward. Sheep- 
 
 FiG. 53. 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
 Standing under. 
 
 Knee-sprung. 
 
 hneed (Fig. 51) is that position in which the forward deviation 
 is from the knee downward, the knee being placed too far under 
 the body. " Weak- jointed/' " low-jointed" or " acute-angled " 
 (Fig. 52) is that position in which the limbs are perpendicular 
 and straight down as far as the fetlock- joint, but the feet are 
 placed too far in front. 
 
 Backward Deviations. — Standing under in front (Fig. 53) 
 is that deviation in which the entire leg from the elbow down 
 is placed back of the perpendicular line and, therefore, too far 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 67 
 
 Fig. 55. 
 
 under the body. Wlien this deviation affects only the cannon 
 bone, the horse stands bent forward at the knees, — a condition 
 known as " goat-hneed," " hu-ck-hneed" " over in the knees" 
 or, more commonly, "knee-sprung" (Fig. 54). When the 
 backward deviation is only from the fet- 
 lock do^vn, the animal is said to stand up- 
 right or "straight in the fetlock" 
 
 (b) A hind leg viewed from behind 
 is said to be regular or straight (Fig. 55) 
 when a perpendicular line dropped from 
 
 Fig. 57. 
 
 Normal (regular) position Base-wide (cow hocked), 
 viewed from behind. 
 
 Base-narrow. 
 
 the tuberosity of the ischium (see Fig. 1, 9'') divides the entire 
 limb into inner and outer halves of equal width and touches 
 the groimd opposite the median lacuna of the frog. Seen from 
 the side, this line just touches the point of the hock and, passing 
 down at some distance from the flexor tendons, meets the ground 
 
68 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Fig. 58. 
 
 considerably back of the heels. A perpendicular line dropped 
 from the hip-joint should pass through the foot, meeting the 
 ground half-way between the point of the toe and the heel 
 (Fig. 49). There are base-wide, base-narrow, toe-wide, and 
 toe-narrow deviations in the hind limbs as in the fore-limbs. 
 
 The hind limbs are hase-wide when they, either as a whole 
 or in part, deviate outward from the normal. The " cow- 
 hoched" position (Fig. 56) is an example of the base-wide; in 
 this case the points of the hocks are too 
 close and turn towards each other, while 
 the feet are widely separated and the 
 toes turned outward. Base-narrow is 
 that position of the hind legs in which 
 either the entire leg deviates to the inner 
 side of the perpendicular (Fig. 57), or 
 the leg is about perpendicular down as 
 far as the hock, but below this joint runs 
 downward and inward (Fig. 58). In this 
 latter case the hocks may be too far apart, 
 the leg is bent outward at the hock and 
 the animal is termed " handy-legged," 
 " how-legged." 
 
 Viewing a hind limb from the side, 
 it may be observed to deviate either 
 forward or backward from the normal. 
 Among forward deviations is the so- 
 called " sahre-leg " or " sicMe-hoch " (Fig. 
 59), in which the hock-joint is too much flexed, the foot placed 
 too far forward under the body, and the fetlock too slanting. 
 In the position known as "cammed hehind" (Fig. 60) the 
 leg is behind the body and the pastern is too upright, too nearly 
 vertical. 
 
 It is possible for each limb of the same horse to assume a 
 different direction. It more often happens that if the fore- 
 limbs are base-wide the hind limbs are ba'se-narrow, or vice 
 
 Base-narrow position of hind 
 limbs (bandy-legged). 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 versa. While there are some other deviations that differ 
 somewhat from those already described, they are of less im- 
 portance to the horseshoer. 
 
 B. Forms of Feet, Viewed from in Front, from Behind, and in 
 Profile. 
 
 In all the various positions of the limbs we find the feet in 
 one of the following three forms,, or very closely approaching one 
 of them. By means of a proper knowledge of these three forms, 
 
 Fig. 59. 
 
 Fig. 60. 
 
 Sabre-legged or sickle-hocked. 
 
 Camped behind. 
 
 the judging of the form, flight of the foot in travelling, and 
 preparation of the hoof for the shoe, as well as the choice of 
 the length of the shoe, are regulated, facilitated, and simplified. 
 Whether a horse's feet be observed from in front or from 
 behind, their form corresponds to, or at least resembles, either 
 that of the regular position (Figs. 61 and 62), the base-wide 
 or toe-wide position (Figs. 63 and 64), or the base-narrow or 
 toe-narrow position (Figs. 65 and 66). 
 
70 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 By the direction of the foot-axis — that is, an imaginary 
 line passing through the long axis of the three phalangeal bones 
 (Figs. 61, 65, 67, 68 and 69) — we determine whether or not 
 the hoof and pastern stand in proper mutual relation. 
 
 Fig. 61. 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 
 A pair of front feet of regular position viewed from in front and from behind. 
 
 In the regular standing position (Figs. 61 and 62) the 
 foot-axis runs straight downward and forward, in the base- 
 
 FiG. 63. 
 
 Fig. 64. 
 
 A pair of feet of the base-wide (toe-wide) position seen from in front and from behind. 
 
 wide position (Figs. 63 and 64) it runs obliquely downward 
 and outward, and in the base-narrow position (Figs. 65 and 
 66) it runs obliquely downward and inward. 
 
 Viewing the foot from the side, we distinguish the regular 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 71 
 
 (normal) position (Fig. 68), and designate all forward 
 deviations as acute-angled (long toe and low heel, Fig. 67), and 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 
 A pair of feet of the base-narrow (toe-narrow) position seen from in front and from behind. 
 
 all deviations backward from the regular position as upright 
 (short toe and high heel, Fig. 69), steep-toed, or stumpy. 
 
 When the body-weight is uniformly distributed over all four 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
 Fig. 69. 
 
 An acute-angled hoof. 
 
 A normal-angled hoof. 
 
 An upright ("stumpy") 
 hoof. 
 
 limbs, the foot-axis should be straight (Figs. 67 and 69), not 
 " broken " (bent) ; the long pastern, wall at the toe, and foot- 
 axis should have the same slant. 
 
72 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 A peculiar form of foot is the so-called hear-foot (Fig. 70), 
 in which the foot-axis, viewed from the side, is broken strongly 
 forward at the coronet. The wall at the toe stands much 
 steeper than the long pastern and is more or less convex; in 
 other words, a low-jointed, sloping pastern is attached to an 
 upright hoof. Such a foot is sometimes improperly called a 
 " clubfoot." 
 
 C. Lines of Flight of Hoofs in Motion. 
 
 If we observe horses moving unrestrained over level ground, 
 we will notice differences in the carriage of the feet. Viewed 
 from in front, or from behind, in the regular standing posi- 
 tion of the limbs the hoofs are carried forward in a straight 
 direction^ — that is, in a line parallel with the median line of 
 the body (Eig. Yl). The toes likewise point -straight forward; 
 the hoofs alight properly (flat) on the ground. If the horse 
 stands hase-wide, the hoof is carried in a 
 circle; from its position, which is behind 
 and well out from the median line, the 
 hoof passes first forward and inward until 
 it is close to the supporting leg, and then 
 outward to the ground (Eig. 72), where 
 the shock is received principally upon the 
 outer toe. -The toes point either directly 
 forward, as in the regular standing posi- 
 tion (Eig. 72), or forward and outward as 
 
 The "bear-foot." . . " ./ .,. .^. ^_, -^ , 
 
 m the toe-wide position (Fig. 73). In the 
 toe-wide position the hoof in its flight may cross the median line. 
 
 Exactly the reverse is true of the horse that stands hase- 
 nmrow; in this case the hoof is moved in a circle whose con- 
 vexity is outward, — ^that is, the hoof from its position behind, 
 and close to the median line, is carried forward and outward 
 and then inward to the ground (Figs. 74 and 75). 
 
 Viewed from the side, the line of flight of a hoof is deter- 
 mined largely by the obliquity (slant) of the foot-axis. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 73 
 
 1. With a straight foot axis of normal slant (45°-50°, 
 Eig. 76, A), the hoof follows the arc of a circle and reaches its 
 highest point when directly above the supporting hoof, i.e., when 
 half-way in the stride. 
 
 2, With a straight, but acute-angled foot-axis (less than 
 45°, Eig. 76, B), the hoof rises rapidh 
 
 Fig. 71. 
 
 6 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
 Fig. 74. 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 6 
 
 (}) 
 
 
 
 © 
 
 Q 
 
 O 
 
 Q 
 
 Q' 
 
 
 
 Q-' 
 
 
 
 (i) 
 
 -Q 
 
 
 
 P I 
 
 Q 
 
 Q 
 
 © i 
 
 q; 
 
 point before it has completed the first half of the stride, i.e., be- 
 fore it has passed the supporting hoof, and descending gradually 
 in a long cur^-e alights easily on tlie ground. 
 
 3. With a straight, but upright foot-axis (55° or more, 
 Fig. 76, C), the hoof rises slowly, reaches its highest point in 
 front of the supporting hoof, from which point it descends 
 rapidly. The gait is " choppy," and in the saddle horse un- 
 
74 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 pleasant for the rider. The length and the height of the 
 are greatest in acute-angled feet; least in upright feet. Further- 
 more, length and height of stride are in a measure dependent 
 on breeding, training, condition of the legs (whether stiffened 
 by use or disease), length of the hoof and the weight of the shoe. 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
 -f— J- 
 
 ^ 
 
 <'^-.. 
 
 .-r-. 
 
 zri 
 
 ci 
 
 /-r-J 
 
 Flight of the hoof as seen from the side: A, flight of a regular hoof; B, flight of an acute- 
 angled hoof; C, flight of an upright hoof. 
 
 Many deviations in the line of flight of hoofs and in the 
 manner in which they are set to the ground occur ; for example, 
 horses heavily burdened or pulling heavy loads, and, therefore, 
 not having free use of their limbs, project their limbs irregu- 
 
HORSESHOEING. 75 
 
 larly and meet the ground first with the toe; however, careful 
 observation will detect the presence of one or the other of these 
 lines of flight of the foot. Irregular carriage of the feet renders 
 a horse unsuitable for general purposes only when it is very 
 pronounced, in which case certain troublesome conditions, such 
 as interfering and disease of joints, are of frequent occurrence. 
 
 D. The Influence of Weight in the Shoe or Otherwise Attached 
 to the Hoof, in Altering the Flight of the Hoof. 
 
 There is nothing mysterious in the effect of weight upon 
 the flight of the feet. On the contrary, the lines of flight are 
 determined (as shown in pages Y2-74, Figs. 71-76), first, by 
 the relation of the transverse axes of the hinge-joints of tJie 
 leg and foot to the line of progression (median line) ; second, 
 by the length and obliquity of the hoof and pastern ; third, by 
 the height and length of stride which is natural to each in- 
 dividual. 
 
 Weight induces higher action and a longer stride. Inertia 
 increases with the weight. A heavy shoe cannot be snatched 
 from the ground as quickly as a light one, but when moving 
 forward at a given velocity its greater momentum ( momentum = 
 mass (wt) X velocity : m = wt X v) carries the foot farther 
 forward than does the lighter shoe. Thus, the heavier shoe, 
 or M^eight attached to the hoof, lengthens the stride at both ends. 
 The farther from the centre of rotation of the scapula the 
 weight is placed, i.e., the nearer to the toe it is placed, the 
 greater the muscular effort required to start it and to stop it. 
 
 Height of action, though largely the result of breeding, 
 temperament, and the exhilaration that accompanies perfect 
 health and entire absence of muscular fatigue, is to a certain 
 extent influenced by the inclination of the pastern and toe to 
 the camion. The acute-angled foot, in the folding of the leg 
 during the first half of the stride, moves through a longer arc 
 of a circle whose centre is the fetlock joint than does the normal 
 or the upright foot ; rises more rapidly and to a higher point. 
 
76 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 (See Fig. 76, B.) When the momentum of a foot moving 
 rapidly and abruptly upward is increased by weight the result 
 is extreme and even exaggerated flexion of all joints of the leg, 
 and by allowing the hoof to grow long the flexion is still further 
 increased. In the show ring, harness horses with fair natural 
 action may be made to " climb " by shoes weighing from thirty 
 to sixty ounces upon hoofs an inch or more longer than normal. 
 The leverage of a heavy shoe on a long hoof is excessive, fatigu- 
 ing and most injurious to ligament, tendon and muscle. The 
 action, while high, is labored, poundmg and altogether inelegant. 
 
 Fig. 77. 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 A 40 oz. right front shoe (hoof-sur- 
 face) to increase knee-action in a high 
 acting harness horse. For show-pur- 
 poses only. 
 
 The same seen from the ground surface in pro- 
 file: a, bevel from inner border of the web to 
 outer border: b, ends of the branches of full 
 thickness from outer to inner border. 
 
 In the training of trotters weight is often used to increase 
 the length of the stride, or to cause a higher folding of a front 
 foot, in order to prevent " scalping " or " speedy-cut." As 
 soon as the new gait becomes a fixed habit the weight should be 
 gradually lessened. Weight is carried with less fatigue at a 
 trot than at a pace, or at a gallop. It therefore steadies a 
 
 trotter that is inclined to pace, or " break " into a 
 
 The in- 
 
 creased momentum of the weighted hoof makes for rhythm of 
 movement, and increases the difficulty of skipping, dwelling, or 
 mixing gaits. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 77 
 
 In the hose-wide (toe-mde) and hose-narrow (toe-narrow) 
 stondiiig positions, the flight of the hoofs, as seen from in front 
 or behind, is not straight forward, i.e., parallel to the line of 
 progression of the body, but in arcs of circles. (See Figs. 72-75, 
 p. 73.) In these cases, increasing the weight of the hoofs, by 
 increasing the momentum, must of necessity increase the 
 tendency of the hoofs to move off at a tangent to the curves 
 which they describe. In other words, weight increases the 
 centrifugal force of a body moving in a curve. The outward 
 swing of the hoofs of a base-narrow horse (paddling), and the 
 inward swing of a base-wide horse (interfering), are made 
 more pronounced hy adding weight to any part of the hoof. 
 The centrifugal force is greatest in base-wide feet when the 
 weight is on the medial, or inner side of the hoof; in base- 
 narrow feet when it is on the lateral or outer side. 
 
 A side weight, or side weight shoe is often of service in a 
 crossfiring pacer. This animal usually stands base-narrow (toe- 
 narrow) behind, and in motion his hind hoofs describe a cun'e 
 at first forward and outward and then inward till contact is 
 made with the diagonal hoof or leg. The added weight (placed 
 on the outer side) by increasing the centrifugal force caiTies the 
 hoof just enough farther from the centre around which the hoof 
 swings to prevent contact. (See cross-firing, p. 138.) 
 
 Finally, it must not be forgotten that weight is alwoys 
 weight; that it cids speed and devours endurance. 
 
 E. Forms of Hoofs. 
 
 A front hoof of the regular standing position (Fig. 79). 
 The inner and outer walls differ but little in direction and 
 thickness. The outer wall is a little thicker and somewhat 
 more slanting than the inner (see Figs. 61 and 62), and its 
 outer circumference describes a larger arc of a circle, — that 
 is, is more curved, as can be seen both at its plantar border and 
 at the coronet. The length of the quarter in relation to the 
 length or height of the side wall and toe is about as 1:2:3. 
 
78 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 The toe forms an angle with the ground of forty-five to fifty 
 degrees (see Fig. 68). The direction of the wall at the toe, 
 viewed from the side, should be parallel with the direction of 
 the long pastern. 
 
 A hoof of the hase-wide position (Fig. 80) is always awry, 
 
 because the outer wall is 
 naturally somewhat longer 
 and decidedly more slant- 
 ing than the inner (see Figs. 
 63 and 64). The plantar 
 border of the outer wall 
 describes a large arc, whose 
 sharpest curvature is where 
 the side wall passes into 
 the quarter. The plantar 
 border of the inner wall is 
 straighter (less curved) ; 
 the outer half of the ground 
 surface (sole) of the hoof 
 is, therefore, wider than the 
 inner. So long as the hoof 
 is healthy, both branches of 
 
 Right fore-hoof of the regular position: a, the frOg are equally dovel- 
 side-wall; 6, quarter; c, beginning of the bar; d, « , 
 
 buttress; f, middle of the bar;/, body of the sole; Opod. ilie WryUCSS 01 ttlC 
 
 /', branches of sole; g, white line; g', apparent ■, r -, _ i^ ,,^„„ +1^„ j; 
 
 end of the bar; ;», body of the frog; i, branch of hoof dcpcuds UpOU the dl- 
 
 the frog; A;, bulbs (glomes) of the heel; ?. middle ^q^^I^q^^ of ^he limb; thcrC- 
 cleft of frog; m, lateral cleft of frog. _ ' 
 
 fore, a base-wide hoof 
 should be regarded as a normally wry hoof, to distinguish it 
 from hoofs which are wry from disease. 
 
 A hoof of the toe-wide position (Fig. 81) is distinguished 
 from the preceding by the bending or curvature of the plantar 
 border of the outer toe and inner quarter being often decidedly 
 less pronounced than on the inner toe and outer quarter ; there- 
 fore, two short curves and two long curves lie opposite each 
 other; in other words, the inner toe and outer quarter, lying 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 79 
 
 opposite each other, are sharply curved, while the outer toe 
 and inner quarter, lying opposite each other, are much less 
 sharply bent or curved. The toes are turned out. The feet are 
 not set down flat upon the ground, but meet it with the outer toe. 
 A hoof of the base-nairoiv position is normally ivry, but 
 never so pronounced as a hoof of the base-wide position. The 
 inner wall is but little more oblique than the outer, the differ- 
 ence being most noticeable at the quarters (Figs. 65 and 66). 
 The curve of the plantar border of the wall is similar to that 
 of a regular hoof, except that the inner side wall and quarter 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
 Fig. 81. 
 
 Right fore-hoof of the base-wide position. 
 
 Right fore-hoof of the toe-wide position. 
 
 are a little more sharply curved in a base-naiTow hoof. Occa- 
 sionally the outer quarter is somewhat drawn in under the foot. 
 
 This form of hoof is most distinctly marked in animals 
 that stand toe-narrow or are bandy-legged. 
 
 As to the forms of the hind hoofs, what has been said cou- 
 ceming the influence of position of the limbs upon the shape 
 of the front feet will apply equally well to them. The hind 
 hoof (Fig. 82) is not round at the toe, but somewhat pointed 
 or oval. It greatest width is between the middle and posterior 
 thirds of the sole. It usually has a strongly concaved sole and 
 
80 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 a somewhat steeper toe than the fore-hoof; viewed from, the 
 side, the angle of the toe with the ground in the regular stand- 
 ing position is from fifty to fifty-five degrees. 
 
 Finally, we also distinguish wide and narrow hoofs; they 
 are not dependent upon the position of the limbs, but upon the 
 race and breeding of the animal. 
 
 The wide hoof (Fig. 83) is almost round upon its plantar 
 
 surface. Its wall runs 
 quite oblique to the ground. 
 The sole is but moderately 
 concave, and the frog is 
 fetrong and well developed. 
 The narrow hoof (Fig. 84) 
 is rather elliptical, with 
 steep side walls, strongly 
 concaved sole, and small, 
 ^ undeveloped frog. The horn 
 of the narrow hoof is fine 
 and tough ; of the wide hoof, 
 usually coarse. The wide 
 lioof may readily become 
 flat. Narrow hoofs are either 
 the result of breeding or 
 premature shoeing. 
 
 In enumerating the pre- 
 
 Right hind hoof of the regular position: a, 
 side-wall; 6, beginning of the quarter; c, begin- 
 ning of the bar; d, buttress; e, middle of bar; /, 
 body of the sole; /', branch of sole; g, white line 
 of the toe; g', white line of the bar; h, body of 
 the frog; i, branch of the frog; k, bulbs of heel; 
 I, middle cleft of frog; m, lateral cleft of frog. 
 
 ceding forms of the hoof we 
 
 have by no means referred 
 to all the forms in which 
 the hoof may be found ; on the contrary, hoofs vary in shape and 
 quality to such an extent that among a hundred horses no two 
 hoofs can be found which are exactly alike. In fact^ the same 
 variety exists as in the faces of people, and we know that we can 
 recall in succession even many more faces without finding two 
 that are exactly alike. This explains the manifold differences 
 in horsefehoes with respect to size, form and other qualities. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 81 
 
 Suppose now a hoof is before us ; it is first necessary to know 
 whether or not it is healthy. Unfortunately, a perfectly healthy 
 hoof is not so easy to find as one may think. We recognize a 
 sound hoof by the following marks: Seen from in front or 
 from the side, the course of the wall from the coronet to the 
 ground, in tlie direction of the horn-tubes, is straight, — tliat is, 
 bent neither in nor out. A straight edge, placed upon the wall 
 in the direction of the hora-tubes, touches at every point. The 
 wall must show neither longitudinal nor transverse cracks or 
 
 Fig. 83. 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 
 Wide fore-hoof. 
 
 Narrow fore-hoof. 
 
 fissures. If there be rings, their position and course are im- 
 portant. Rings which pass around the entire circumference 
 of the wall parallel to the coronet indicate nothing more than 
 disturbances of nutrition of the hoof; hut the hoof cannot pass 
 for sound when the rings have any other position and direction 
 than the one mentioned, or if the rings upon any part of the 
 wall are more marked than elsewhere, even though they may 
 be parallel to the coronary band. Marked ring-building upon 
 the hoofs of horses which have regular feeding, grooming, and 
 work indicates a weak hoof. Viewed from the ground-surface 
 
82 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 and from behind, the bulbs of the heels should be well rounded, 
 strongly developed, and not displaced. The concave sole should 
 show no separation along the white line. The frog should be 
 strong, well developed, and have symmetrical branches and a 
 broad, shallow, dry median lacuna. The lateral lacunae of the 
 frog should be clean and not too narrow. The bars should pass 
 in a straight direction forward and inward towards the point 
 of the frog. Any bending outward of the bars towards the 
 branches of the sole indicates the beginning of a narrowing 
 of the space occupied by the frog, — ^that is, contraction of the 
 heels. The horn of the branches of the sole in the buttresses 
 and in their proximity should show no red staining. The 
 lateral cartilages should be elastic. No part of the foot should 
 be weakened at the coist of other parts. By firm union of all 
 strong parts the strength and vigor of the hoof is in no sense 
 disturbed. // one desires to ascertain the exact form and state 
 of health of the hoof, it must never he inspected and judged 
 alone, hut in connection with the entire limb. 
 
 F. Growth of the Hoof and Wear of the Hoof and Shoe. 
 
 All parts of the horn of the hoof grow downward and for- 
 ward, the material for this growth being furnished by the re- 
 markably large quantity of blood which flows to the pododerm. 
 The growth of the hoof is regulated by the nerves. 
 
 As a rule, the hoof grows uniformly, — ^that is, one section 
 of the wall grows just as rapidly as another. A visible indication 
 of growth is the increase in height and width of the hoof from 
 colthood to maturity. 
 
 The rapidity of growth of the wall varies, amounting in a 
 month to from one-«ixth to one-half of an inch. The average 
 monthly growth in both shod and unshod horses of both feexes 
 is, according to my own experiments, one-third of an inch. 
 Hind hoofs grow faster than front hoofs, and unshod faster 
 than shod. The hoofs of stallions grow more slowly than 
 those of mares and geldings. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 83 
 
 Abundant exercise, proper grooming (flexibility and moist- 
 ness of the born), regular dressing of the wall, and running 
 barefoot from time to time favor growth ; while little or no 
 exercise, dryness, and excessive length of the hoof hinder 
 growth. 
 
 The time required for the horn to grow from the coronet to 
 the ground is, therefore, equally variable, and is, inoreover, 
 dependent upon the height (length of toe) of the hoof. At the 
 toe the horn grows down in from eleven to thirteen months, 
 at the mammae or sides in from six to eight months, and at the 
 quarters in from three to five months. The time required for 
 the renewal of the entire hoof we term the period of hoof 
 renewal. If, for example, we know exactly the rapidity of 
 horn grovsrth in a given case, we can estimate without difficulty 
 the length of the " period of hoof renewal," as well for the 
 entire hoof as for each individual section of the wall. The 
 duration of many diseases of the hoof (cracks, clefts, partial 
 bendings of the wall, contractions, etc.) can be foretold with 
 relative certainty only by knowing the period of hoof renewal. 
 
 Irregular growth sometimes takes place. The chief cause 
 of this is usually an improper distribution of the body-weight 
 over the hoof, — ^that is, an unbalanced foot. Wry hoofs of 
 faulty positions of the limbs are often exposed to this evil ; a 
 faulty preparation of the hoof (dressing) for the shoe, as well 
 as neglect of the colt's hoofs, is in the majority of cases directly 
 responsible for this condition. 
 
 If in the shortening of the wall a part is from ignorance 
 left too long, or one-half of the hoof shortened too much in 
 relation to the other half, the foot will be unbalanced. The 
 horse will tlien touch the ground first with the section of wall 
 which has been left too high, and will continue to do so until 
 this long section has been reduced to its proper level (length) 
 by the increased wear which will take place at this point. In 
 unshod hoofs this levelling process takes place rapidly; such, 
 however, is not the case in shod hoofs, for here the shoe prevents 
 
84 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Fig. 85. 
 
 rapid wear, and, indeed this levelling process is often rendered 
 impossible through- the welding of high steel calks to the shoe. 
 If this fault in trimming be repeated at the next and Subse- 
 quent 'shoeings, and if the faulty relation of the ground surface 
 of the hoof to the direction of the foot-axis remain during 
 several months, the portion of wall 
 left too high will grow more rapidly, 
 the walls will lose their natural 
 straight direction and become bent 
 If, for example, the outer wall has 
 been left too long during a consider- 
 able period of time, a crooked hoof 
 results (Fig. 85) in which the rings 
 are placed closer together upon the 
 low (concave) side than upon the 
 high (convex) side. If for a long 
 time the toe is excessively long, it 
 will become bent; or if this fault 
 affects excessively high quarters they 
 will contract either just under the coronary band or will curl 
 forward and inward at their lower borders. These examples are 
 sufficient to show both the importance of the manner in which a 
 horse places his foot to the ground and its influence upon the 
 loading, growth, and fonn of the hoof. 
 
 Wear of the Shoe and of the Hoof upon the Shoe. 
 
 The wear of the shoe is caused much less by the weight of 
 the animal's body than by the rubbing which takes place be- 
 tween the shoe and the earth whenever the foot is placed to the 
 ground and lifted. 
 
 The wear of the shoe which occurs when the foot is placed 
 on the ground is termed " grounding wear," and that which 
 occurs while the foot is being lifted from the ground is termed 
 " swinging-off wear.'* When a horse travels normally, both 
 kinds of wear are nearly alike, but are very distinct when the 
 
 Crooked (right) fore-hoof. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 85 
 
 paces are abnormal, especially when there is faulty direction of 
 the limbs. WTiile in the majority of horses whose limbs have 
 been stiffened by age and overwork both kinds of wear are most 
 marked at the toe of the shoe, we see relatively fewer cases of 
 " grounding wear " at the ends of the branches (as in lamini- 
 tis) ; on the contrary, we always notice "swinging-off wear" at 
 the toe of the shoe. It is worthy of notice that length of stride 
 has much to do with the wear. We observe that with shorten- 
 ing of the stride both kinds of wear occur at the toe of the 
 shoe, and this is rapidly worn away, as is the case with horses 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 
 Fig. 87 
 
 Fig. 
 
 A normal-angled foot 
 with straight foot axis. 
 The shoe shows uniform 
 
 An upright foot with 
 foot axis broken forward 
 by reason of too high quar- 
 ters. The shoe shows 
 "grounding" wear at ends 
 of branches, and "swing- 
 ing off" wear at toe. 
 
 A hoof with foot axis 
 broken backward by rea- 
 son of surplus horn at the 
 toe. The shoe shows ex- 
 cessive "grounding" and 
 "swinging off" wear at 
 the toe. 
 
 which are fretful and prance imder the rider, draw heavy loads, 
 or from any other cause, as disease or infinnity, are obliged to 
 shorten their steps. With increase of length of stride the wear 
 of the shoe becomes more uniform. 
 
 The position and form of the shoe have a marked influence 
 upon its wear; at the place where the shoe is too far under 
 the hoof either as a residt of shifting or of having been nailed 
 on crooked, or where the outer branch has not the necessary 
 width, or does not form a sufficiently large curve, the wear will 
 be increased. 
 
86 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Also tlie relative length of side-walls, or of toe and heels, 
 influences rapidity of wear of the shoe. If through ignorance 
 or carelessness one side-wall be left too long, the branch beneath 
 will meet the ground before other parts of the shoe and will 
 wear faster (see Eigs. 87, 88 and 89). 
 
 The wear of the hoof upon the shoe occurs as a result of the 
 movements of the quarters. Visible indications of this are the 
 brightly polished, often sunken places upon the bearing-surface 
 of the ends of the branches, showing that scouring occurs be- 
 tween the horn and the iron. Shoes which show brightly pol- 
 ished places in their anterior halves have been loose. The wear 
 of the quarters upon the shoe is not always uniform, but is 
 usually greater on the inner than on the outer quarter, especially 
 in base-wide feet. The degree of this wear of the hoof may be 
 from nothing to one-fourth of an inch or more from one shoeing 
 to the next. Finally, we should remember that this usually 
 invisible scouring away of the hoof gradually causes the nails 
 at the quarters to become loose, and that this is more clearly 
 marked in the front than in the hind hoofs. 
 
 G. Physiological Movements of the Hoof. (Mechanism of the 
 Hoof.) 
 
 These movements comprise all those changes of position 
 within and of the hoof which are brought about by alternately 
 weighting and relieving the foot, and which are manifest as 
 changes of form of the hoof. The following changes in form of 
 the hoof are most marked at the time that the hoof bears great- 
 est weight, — that is, simultaneous with the greatest descent of 
 the fetlock- joint. 
 
 1. A lateral expansion over the entire region of the quarters, 
 occurring simultaneously at the coronary and plantar borders. 
 This expansion is small, and in general varies between one- 
 fiftieth and one-twelfth of an inch. 
 
 2. A narrowing of the anterior half of the hoof measured 
 at the coronary border. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 87 
 
 Fig. 89. 
 
 3. A decrease in height of the hoof, with a slight sinking 
 of the heels. 
 
 4. A flattening (sinking) of the sole, especially in its 
 branches. 
 
 These changes of form are much more pronounced in the 
 half of the hoof that bears the greater weight. 
 
 A hoof while supporting the body-weight has a different form, 
 and the tissues enclosed 
 within it a different posi- 
 tion, than when not bear- 
 ing weight. Since load- 
 ing and unloading of the 
 foot are continually al- 
 ternating, the relations 
 of internal pressure even 
 in the standing animal 
 are continuously chang- 
 ing, so that, strictly 
 speaking, the hoof is 
 never at rest. 
 
 The changes in form 
 
 +nVA -nlflfi^ in f1if» fnllr^w Transverse vertical section through the middle of a 
 
 taKe place in tne lOllOW- ^.^j^^ ^^^^ ^j^^^ ^^^^ ^^ base-wide form, viewed from 
 
 ino" order: the body- behind. The outer wall having been insufficiently low- 
 
 ^^ (• 1 ' (• 1 ^'"®*^ ^^^ caused increased wear of the underlying 
 
 weight falls from above branchof the shoe: a, wear of inner branch (beneath 
 
 , the relatively short wall) ; 6, greater wear of outer 
 
 upon the OS COrOnae, OS branch beneath the relatively long wall; c, the horn 
 
 •n P fl i <? and navipnlflr between the dotted line and the shoe represents the 
 
 p e CI 1 s , ana navicular gy^piug je^gth of this outer waii. 
 bone, and at the moment 
 
 that the foot is placed upon the ground is transmitted through 
 the sensitive laminae and homy laminae to the wall. At the in- 
 stant that the fetlock reaches its lowest point the os pedis bears 
 the greatest weight. Under the body-weight the latter yields, 
 and with the navicular bone sinks downward and backward. At 
 the same time the upper posterior portion of the os coronae (Fig. 
 90, A) passes backward and downward between the lateral car- 
 tilages (a), which project above the upper border of the wall, 
 
88 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 and presses the perforans tendon down upon tke plantar cushion. 
 The plantar cushion being compressed from above, and being un- 
 able to expand downward, is correspondingly squeezed out 
 towards the sides and crowded against the lateral cartilages, and 
 they, yielding, press against and push before them the wall at 
 the quarters. The resistance of the earth acts upon the plantar 
 surface of the hoof, and especially upon tlie frog, and it, widen- 
 ing, crowds the bars apart, and in this manner contributes to 
 the expansion of the quarters, especially at their plantar border 
 (see Fig. 90). The horny sole under the descent and pressure 
 
 of the OS pedis sinks a 
 little — that is, the arch 
 of the sole becomes 
 somewhat flattened. All 
 these changes are much, 
 more marked upon 
 sound unshod hoofs, be- 
 cause in them the re- 
 sistance of the earth 
 upon the sole and frog 
 is pronoimced and com- 
 plete. These changes in 
 form are more marked 
 in front feet than in 
 hind. In defective and 
 diseased hoofs it may happen that at the moment of greatest 
 weight-bearing, instead of an expansion a contraction may 
 occur at the plantar border of the quarters. 
 
 Three highly elastic organs there are which play the chief 
 part in these movements, — ^namely, the lateral cartilages, the 
 plantar cushion, and the homy frog. Besides these structures, 
 indeed, all the remaining parts of the horn capsule, especially 
 its coronary border, possess more or less elasticity, and con- 
 tribute to the above-mentioned changes of form. 
 
 In order to maintain the elastic tissues of the foot in their 
 proper activity, regular and abundant exercise, with protection 
 
 Vertical, transverse section of a foot seen from behind: 
 A, OS coronae; B, os navicularis; C, os pedis; a, lateral 
 cartilage; 6, anterior portion of fleshy frog; c, section of 
 perforans tendon; d, suspensory ligament of the navicu- 
 lar bone; /, wall; m, sole; n, white line; o, frog. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 89 
 
 against drying out of the hoof, are absolutely necessary, because 
 the movements of the different structures within the foot and 
 the changes of form that occur at each step are indispensable in 
 presenting the health of the hoof. Long-continued rest in the 
 stable, drying out of the hoof, and shoeing decrease or alter the 
 physiological movements of the foot, and these lead under cer- 
 tain conditions to foot diseases, ^^^th which the majority of 
 horse owners are entirely unacquainted. 
 
 As an outward, visible indication of the mobility of the 
 quarters upon the shoe Ave may point to the conspicuous, brightly 
 polished, and often sunken spots, or grooves, upon the ends of 
 the branches. They are produced partly by an in-and-out 
 motion of the walls at the quarters, and partly by a forward 
 and backward gliding of the quarters upon the shoe. 
 
 The benefits of these physiological movements within the 
 hoof are manifold : 
 
 1. Through them shock is dispersed and the body protected 
 from the evil consequences of concussion or shock. 
 
 2. These movements increase the elasticity of the entire 
 limb, and in this way contribute much to a light and elegant gait. 
 
 3. They maintain a lively circulation of blood in the vessels 
 of the pododerm, and this insures a rapid growth of horn. 
 
 Since it is a generally accepted fact that shoeing interferes 
 with the physiological movements of the hoof, alters them, in- 
 deed, almost suppresses them, and that all these movements are 
 spontaneous and natural only in sound unshod hoofs, we are 
 justified in regarding shoeing as a necessary evil. However, it 
 is indispensable if we wish to render horses serviceable upon 
 hard artificial roads. If, in shoeing, consideration be given to 
 the structure and functions of the hoof, and particularly to 
 the hoof-surface of the shoe, the ends of the branches being 
 provided with a smooth, level bearing-surface, which allows 
 free play to the elastic horn capsule, in so far as this is not 
 hindered by the nails we need have no fear of subsequent dis- 
 ease of the hoofs, provided the horse is used with reason and 
 receives proper care. 
 
PART II. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SHOEING HEALTHY HOOFS. 
 
 A. Examination of a Horse Preliminary to Shoeing. 
 
 An examination should be made while the animal is at rest, 
 and afterwards while in motion. The object of the examination 
 is to gain accurate knowledge of the direction and movements 
 of the limbs, of the form and character of the feet and hoofs, of 
 the manner in which the foot reaches and leaves the ground, 
 of the form, length, position, and wear of the shoe, and dis- 
 tribution of the nail-holes, in order that at the next and sub- 
 sequent shoeings all ascertained peculiarities of hoof -form may 
 be kept in mind and all discovered faults of shoeing corrected. 
 
 The examination is best conducted in the following order: 
 The horse should first be led at a walk in a straight line from 
 the observ^er over as level a surface as possible, then turned 
 about and brought back, that the examiner may notice the 
 direction of the limbs and the manner in which the hoofs are 
 moved and set to the ground. "While the animal is moving 
 away the observer notices particularly the hind limbs, and as 
 it comes towards him he examines the fore-limbs. Then a few 
 steps at a trot will not only show whether or not the animal 
 is lame, but will often remove all doubt in those cases in which, 
 while the animal was walking, the examiner was unable to 
 make up his mind as to which was the predominating position 
 of the limb. The problem presented is, therefore, to determine 
 whether or not the direction of the limbs, the lines of flight 
 of the hoofs, and the manner in which they are set down and 
 picked up are regular. If there are deviations from the normal 
 90 
 
HORSESHOEING. 91 
 
 they will fall either into the base-wide and toe-wide group or 
 into the base-narrow and toe-narrow group. When clear upon 
 these points the horse is allowed to stand quietly, and the ob- 
 server, placing himself in front, examines the foot more closely, 
 fixes the direction of the foot axis clearly in his mind, marks 
 also the form and character of the hoofs and the position of 
 the coronets, as far as these parts can be inspected from in 
 front. At the same time each hoof should be closely inspected 
 to determine whether the slant of both quarters corresponds 
 to the direction of the long pastern, and whether the course of 
 the wall from the coronet to the plantar border is straight or 
 bent in or out (contraction, fulness). Walls curved from above 
 to below always indicate an unnatural height of some section 
 of the wall and a displacement of the base of support of the 
 foot. In order to gain accurate and complete knowledge of the 
 position of the limbs, the flight of the hoofs, and the manner 
 of setting the foot to the ground, the horse must frequently be 
 moved back and forth many times, especially when the stand- 
 ing position is somewhat irregular and the hoofs are of different 
 shapes. 
 
 At this point begins the examination of the position of the 
 limbs, and the form of the feet and hoofs, in profile. After 
 casting a glance over the entire body, so as to gain an idea of 
 the animal's weight, height, and length, the attention is turned 
 to the position and direction of the limbs and hoofs. The eye 
 should particularly note whether the form of the hoof cor- 
 responds to the position of the limb, and, furthermore, whether 
 the slant of the pastern is the same as that of the wall at the 
 toe, — that is, whether the foot axis is straight or broken ; also 
 whether the toes and quarters are parallel, for the toe is some- 
 times bulging (convex) or hollowed out (concave) between the 
 coronet and plantar border, and the quarters are frequently con- 
 tracted and drawn or shoved under the foot (weak quarters). 
 If the wall present rings the observer shoiild note their position 
 with reference to one another and to the coronet, and also their 
 
92 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 extent, and, furthermore, should determine whether or not they 
 cross one another (thrash of the frog). At the same time he 
 should notice the length of the shoes. 
 
 Next, the feet should be raised and the examiner should 
 notice the width of the hoof, tlie arching of the sole, the char- 
 acter of the frog, the position of the bulbs of the heel, as well 
 as the presence of any cracks or clefts in the wall. Then the 
 old shoes should be examined as to their age, form, tlie distribu- 
 tion and direction of their nail-holes ("punching"), position, 
 and wear. With respect to the form of the old shoe, one 
 should observe whether or not it corresponds to the form of 
 the hoof. The same careful examination should be made of 
 the number and distribution of the nail-holes. As regards the 
 position of the shoe, one must first ascertain whether it com- 
 pletely covers the bearing-surface of the wall, and whether the 
 shoe extends beyond the wall at any point and has caused in- 
 terfering or given rise to irregular wear. Finally, the wear of 
 the shoe should be observed, and the follo-unng points borne in 
 mind : One-sided wear, uneven setting down of the feet, and an 
 unnatural course of the ivall are often found together, especially 
 when uneven wearing of the shoe has existed for a long time, 
 — -that is, during several shoeings. As a rule, in such a case 
 the more worn branch of the shoe is too near the centre of the 
 foot, and the opposite branch too far from the centre (too 
 " full ") ; in other words, the base of support (shoe) has been 
 shifted too far in the direction of the less worn branch. More- 
 over, increased wear of a part, of a shoe is an indication that the 
 section of the wall above it is too high (too long) (Eig. 89), 
 or that the wall upon the opposite side of the foot is too low 
 (short). The twisting movement of many hind feet should, 
 from physiological reasons, not be hindered by shoeing. 
 
 B. Raising and Holding the Feet of the Horse to be Shod. 
 
 Thi's can always be done without much trouble if the horse 
 has been accustomed to it from early colthood. Certain rules 
 
HORSESHOEING. 93 
 
 governing the manner of taking hold of the feet, and of after- 
 wards manipulating them, are of vahie. 
 
 A shoer should never grasp a foot suddenly, or with both, 
 hands. The horse should first be prej^ared for this act. First 
 see that the horse stands in 'such a position that he can bear his 
 weight comfortably upon three legs. This is well worth notic- 
 ing, and if the horse does not voluntarily assume such an easy 
 position, move him gently until his feet are well under his body. 
 
 If the shoer, for example, wishes to raise the left fore foot 
 for inspection, he stands on the left side facing the animal, 
 speaks quietly to him, places the palm of the right hand flat 
 upon the animal's shoulder, and, at the same time, with tlie left 
 hand strokes the limb do^vnward to the cannon and seizes the 
 cannon from, in front. With the right hand he now gently 
 presses the horse towards the opposite side, and the foot be- 
 coming loose as the weight is shifted upon the other leg, he lifts 
 it from the ground. The right hand now grasps the pastern 
 from the inside followed by the left hand upon the inside and 
 the right hand on the outside; then, turning partly to the 
 right, the holder supports the horse's leg upon his left leg, in 
 which position he should always stand as quietly and firmly as 
 possible. If, now, the shoer desires to have both hands free 
 to work upon the hoof, he grasps the toe with the left hand in 
 such a manner that the toe rests firmly in the palm while the 
 four fingers are closely applied to the wall of the toe, takes a 
 half step toward the rear, passes the hoof behind his left knee 
 into his right hand which has been passed backward between 
 his knees to receive it, and drawing the hoof forward outward 
 and upward supports it firmly on his two knees, — the legs just 
 above the knees being applied tightly against the pastern. The 
 forefoot should not be raised higher than the knee (carpus), 
 nor the hind foot higher than the hock, nor either foot be dra^vn 
 too far backward. The correct standing position of the shoer 
 or floorman while holding a front foot is sho^vn in Fig. 91. 
 Shortness of stature (5'-5'.6'''') is desirable in a floorman. 
 
94 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Fig. 91. 
 
 In lifting the left hind foot the animal should be gently 
 stroked back as far as the angle of the hip, against which the 
 left hand is placed for support, while the right hand strokes the 
 limb down to the middle of the cannon, which it grasps from 
 behind. While the left hand presses the animal's weight over 
 
 towards the right side, 
 the right hand loosens 
 the foot and carries it 
 forward and outward 
 from the body so that 
 the limb is bent at the 
 hock. The holder then 
 turns his body towards 
 the right, brings his 
 left leg' against the an- 
 terior surface of the 
 fetlock- joint, and car- 
 ries the foot backward, 
 at which time his left 
 arm passes over the 
 horse's croup and 
 above and to the inner 
 side of the hock. 
 Finally, both hands 
 encompass the long 
 pastern. 
 
 If the right feet 
 are to be raised, the 
 process is simply 
 reversed. 
 
 In raising the feet no unnecessary pain should be inflicted 
 by pinching, squeezing, or lifting a limb too high. The wise 
 sheer avoids all unnecessary clamor and disturbance; quiet, 
 rapid, painless methods avail much more. In dealing with 
 young horses the feet should not be kept lifted too long; let 
 
 Proper position for holding a front foot. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 95 
 
96 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 them down from time to time. In old and stiff horses the 
 feet should not be lifted too high, especially in the begimiing 
 of the shoeing. 
 
 Vicious horses must often be severely handled. Watch 
 the play of the ears and eyes continually, and immediately 
 punish every exhibition of temper either by jerking the halter 
 or bridle vigorously, or by loud commands. If this does not 
 avail, then if soft ground is at hand make the horse back as 
 rapidly as possible for some time over this soft surface; it is 
 very disagreeable and tiresome to him. To raise a hind foot 
 we may knot a strong, broad, soft, plaited band (side line) 
 into the tail, loop it about the fetlock of the hind foot, and 
 hold the end. This often renders valuable service. The 
 holder seizes the band close to the fetlock, draws the foot 
 foi-ward under the body, and then holds it as above de- 
 scribed. The use of such a band compels the horse to carry 
 a part of his own weight, and at the sam« time hinders him 
 from kicking. Before attempting to place this rope or band 
 about the fetlock, the front foot on the same 'side should be 
 raised. 
 
 The various sorts of twitches are objectionable, and their 
 use should not be allowed unless some painful hoof operation 
 is to be done. The application of the tourniquet, or " Spanish 
 windlass," to the hind leg is equally objectionable. 
 
 Those horses which resist our attempts to shoe them we 
 do not immediately cast or place in the stocks, but first have a 
 quiet, trustworthy man hold them by the bridle-reins and 
 attempt by gentle words and soft caresses to win their attention 
 and confidence. 
 
 Tichlish horses must be taken hold of boldly, for light 
 touches of the hand are to such animals much more unpleasant 
 than energetic, rough handling. Many ticklish horses allow 
 their feet to be raised when they are grasped suddenly without 
 any preparatory movements. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 97 
 
 Fig. 94. 
 
 C. Removing the Old Shoes. 
 
 If a horse's hoofs are heahhy, all the shoes may be taken 
 off at the same time, but there are certain diseases of the 
 hoof in whicli this should not be done. 
 
 The inile to follow in removing every 
 shoe is to draw it cautiously, not wrench 
 it away with violence. Hoofs which are 
 dirty should first be cleansed, preferably 
 with a stiff brush. Next, the clinches 
 should be carefully lifted by means of a 
 rather dull clinch cutter (Fig. 93), with- 
 out injuring the horn of the wall. In order, 
 now, that the nails may be removed singly, 
 the shoe must be slightly lifted. This 
 may be done in one of two ways. 
 The sheer may use a pair of pin- 
 cers (Fig. 94), with broad bills 
 which ^\'ill encompass the branch 
 of the shoe and come well together 
 underneath it. The handles of the 
 pincers are then moved in the di- 
 rection of the branches of the shoe. 
 The second method consists in rais- 
 ing the branches of the shoe by driv- 
 ing the nail-cutter from behind be- 
 tween the shoe and hoof and using 
 it as a lever or pry to loosen the 
 shoe. 
 
 Violent and excessive twisting 
 of the hoof and straining of ligaments may easily occur, but 
 the smith should guard against them by supporting the hoof 
 with the left hand or with the leg just above the knee, while 
 loosening the shoe. 
 7 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 D. Preparing the Hoof for the Shoe. 
 
 This preparation is usually termed paring, trimming, or 
 dressing. It is a most important step in the process of shoeing, 
 and its object is to shorten the hoof, which has grown too long 
 under the projection of the shoe, and prepare it to receive the 
 new shoe. The instruments needed for this work are the rasp 
 and the hoof -knife (Fig. 95) ; upon large and hard hoofs a 
 
 Fig. 95. 
 
 German hoof set with detachable hook blades. (W. M. Kunde, Dresden): a,a, hoof 
 blades; 6, pus searcher; c, scalpel. 
 
 pair of sharp nippers (Fig. 96), or a sharp hewing knife, with 
 broad handle and perfectly flat, smooth sides, may be used, 
 since these instruments mil considerably facilitate and hasten 
 the work. 
 
 After the sheer has carefully examined the hoofs in the man- 
 ner described upon pages 90, 91, and 92, and has fixed in mind 
 the relation of the height of the hoofs to the size and weight 
 of the body, he cleanses the hoof and removes all stubs of old 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 nails. At the same time he should be asking himself if, 
 where, and hoiv much horn is to be removed. In all cases all 
 loosely attached fragments of horn are to be removed, for ex- 
 ample, chips of horn produced by repeated bending and stretch- 
 ing of the lower border of the wall. The sole is then freed 
 from all flakes of dead horn. The shoer then 
 runs the rasp around the outer border of the Fig 96. 
 wall and breaks it off to the depth to which 
 he thinks it should be shortened, and then 
 cuts the wall down to its union with the sole, 
 so that at least one-eighth of an inch of the 
 edge of the sole lies in the same level as the 
 bearing-surface of the wall. Finally, the wall, 
 white line, and outer margin of the sole, form- 
 ing the " bearing-surface," must be rasped until 
 they are perfectly horizontal, except that at the 
 toe of forehoofs this bearing-surface may be 
 rasped slightly upward (rolled toe). 
 
 In dressing the hoof the branches of the frog 
 should always be left prominent enough to pro- 
 ject beyond the bearing-surface of the quarters 
 about the thickness of an ordinary flat shoe. 
 If it be weakened by paring, it is deprived of 
 its activity, shrinks, and the hoof becomes nar- 
 row to a corresponding degree. The frog should, 
 therefore, be tnmmed only when it is really too 
 prominent. However, loose and diseased par- 
 ticles of horn may be trimmed away when it is 
 affected with thrush. Nippers. 
 
 The bars should be spared and never 
 shortened except when too long. Their union with the wall at 
 the quarters must in no case be weakened, and never cut through 
 (opening up the heels). They should be left as high as the 
 wall at the quarters, or only a little less, while the branches of 
 the sole should lie about one-eighth of an inch lower. 
 
100 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Fig. 97. 
 
 The buttress (angle formed by the union of wall and bar) 
 requires special attention. In healthy unshod hoofs the bars 
 run backward and outward in a straight line from the anterior 
 third of the frog. In shod hoofs, however, it happens that the 
 buttresses gradually lengthen, curl inward, and f)ress upon 
 the branches of the frog, causing the latter to shrink. In such 
 cases the indication is to remove these prolongations of horn 
 from the buttresses so as to restore to the bars their normal 
 direction. 
 
 The sharp edge of the plantar border of the wall should be 
 broken away with a rasp until the relative thickness of the 
 wall equals its absolute thickness. (Fig. 97). However, in 
 healthy hoofs, that is, in those whose 
 ivalls are straiglit from the coronet to 
 the ground, the outer surface of the 
 wall should never he rasped. The 
 only exceptions to this rule are those 
 cases in which there is an outward 
 bending of the lower edge of the wall, 
 most frequent on the inner side wall 
 and quarter. 
 
 With respect to the inclination 
 
 Longitudinal (vertical) section of of the gTOUud-SUrf acC of the hoof tO 
 the wall at the toe: o c is the abso- , ,. . (• ,i /» j_ 
 
 lute, and o 6 the relative thickness the dirCCtlOU 01 thC lOOt aXlS, aS 
 of the wall. With a as the centre, 
 and the line a c as a radius, a circle 
 
 is drawn; the corner of horn in f^^^^g ^^^ established: 
 front of this circle and indicated 
 by dotted lines is to be removed 
 with the rasp. 
 
 viewed from in front, the following 
 
 In the regular standing position of 
 the limbs (seen from in front) the 
 plantar surface of a hoof is at right angles to the foot axis, and 
 the outer and inner walls are of equal heights. 
 
 In the hose-wide position of the limbs the plantar hoof- 
 isurface is more or less inclined to the foot axis, usually to a 
 very small degree, and the outer wall is somewhat higher 
 (longer) and more slanting than the inner. 
 
 In tlie hase-narrow position of the limbs the plantar hoof- 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 101 
 
 surface is more or less inclined to the direction of the foot axis, 
 usually quite considerably, and the inner wall is somewhat 
 higher than the outer. 
 
 The foot is observed from the side in order to determine 
 the proper relation of the length of the toe to the height of 
 the quarters. 
 
 In this also the foot axis is our guide. If this axis is as it 
 sliould be, the wall at the toe and the long past em will have the 
 same slant (Figs. 67, 68 and 69). If the hoof has become too 
 long under the protection of the shoe, this wall be sho^\^l by 
 the foot axis being no longer a straight line, but broken back- 
 
 FiG. 98. 
 
 Fig. 99. 
 
 Fig. 100. 
 
 An untrimmed hoof with 
 an excess of horn (a) at the 
 toe which breaks the foot 
 axis backward. 
 
 An untrimmed hoof with 
 an excess of horn (6) at the 
 heels, which breaks the foot 
 axis forward. 
 
 Hoof dressed and foot 
 axis straightened by re- 
 moving excess of horn be- 
 low dotted lines in the two 
 preceding illustrations. 
 
 ward at the coronet (Fig. 98) ; that is, the hoof in comparison 
 with the fetlock will be too slanting. By shortening the toe 
 more than the quarters this faulty relation will be corrected 
 (Fig. 100) and the foot restored to its proper slant. If the 
 quarters are too long (too high) in comparison with the length 
 of the toe, the foot axis will be broken forward at the coronet 
 (Fig. 99), and the hoof will be too upright. By shortening 
 the quarters more than the toe the foot axis may be made 
 straight. The plantar surface of the hoof is therefore correct 
 (balanced) when the horse places the foot flat upon the 
 ground in travelling, and when the lines boimding the hoof. 
 
102 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 viewed from in front, from behind, and in profile, correspond to 
 the direction of the three phalanges (foot axis). 
 
 Finally, this fact should be emphasized, that in changing 
 from flat shoes to those with calks, or the reverse, the hoofs 
 must first be dressed in accordance, so that the foot axes will 
 remain straight, and the feet be set always flat to the ground 
 when the new shoes are on. Each hoof, when ready for the 
 new shoe, should be let down and the horse allowed to stand 
 upon it while it is again carefully examined and closely 
 compared with the opposite hoof. Only after such close 
 inspection has proved the dressing to be faultless can the 
 hoof be considered as properly prepared and ready for the 
 shoe. The two front hoofs and the two hind hoofs, when the 
 legs are in the same position, should not only he of equal 
 size, hut also in proper relation to the size and weight of the 
 body. 
 
 E. Preparing the Hoof for going Barefoot. 
 
 This becomes necessary when the nature of the ground and 
 the kind of service required of the horse render shoeing un- 
 necessary. However, to go barefoot the hoof must have plenty 
 of horn. After removing the fehoes the frog should be pared 
 down nearly to the level of the wall, and the sharp outer 
 edge of the wall well rounded off with the rasp, in some cases 
 as far as the white line, otherwise large pieces of the wall mil 
 readily break away. Hoofs with very slanting walls must be 
 more strongly rounded off than upright hoofs. Going bare- 
 foot strengthens the hoofs. From time to time the condition 
 of these shoeless hoofs should be ascertained by inspection, and 
 any growing fault in shape or direction of the horn immediately 
 corrected. It quite frequently happens that the sharp edge of 
 the wall must be repeatedly rounded, especially on very oblique 
 walls (outer half of base-wide hoofs), and the quarters may 
 require frequent shortening, because they are not always worn 
 away as fast as the horn at the toe. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 103 
 
 F. Making Shoes.* 
 
 Besides good, tough iron for the shoe, we need an anvil with 
 a round horn and a small hole at one end, a round-headed 
 turning-hammer, a round sledge, a stamping hammer, a pritchel 
 of good steel, and, if a fullered shoe is to be made, a round 
 fuller. Bodily activity and, above all else, a good eye for 
 measurement are not only desirable, but necessary. A shoe 
 should be made thoughtfully, but yet quickly enough to make 
 the most of the heat. 
 
 The iron of which horseshoes are made is derived from the 
 natural iron ore. Iron used for technical purposes is not 
 chemically pure. Pure iron is rather too soft, and is there- 
 fore mixed with different substances, mostly with " carbon," 
 tlie most important ingredient of our fuel. Of course, the iron 
 contains a, very small quantity of carbon (0.5 to 5 per cent.). 
 When iron contains more than 2.2 per cent, of carbon it is 
 hard, brittle, and more easily melted, and is known as crude 
 iron, or raw iron, because it is derived from the raw product, 
 — ^black ore. The melted crude iron is called cast iron. Iron 
 is ductile when it contains less than 2.2 per cent, of carbon, 
 and is then called forge iron, or wrought iron. Wrought iron 
 is fusible only at a high temperature. Only weldable iron 
 containing less than 1.6 per cent, of carbon is suitable for gen- 
 eral use. Of this iron we distinguish two sorts, — steel and 
 wrought iron. A larger percentage of carbon is found in steel 
 
 * On a shoe we distinguish an outer and an inner branch. The 
 anterior portion, formed by the union of the two branches, is called 
 the toe. The upper surface, upon which the hoof rests, is called- the 
 hoof-surface, and the under surface, which is in contact with the 
 eroimd, the ground-stir face. That portion of the hoof-surface which 
 is in direct contact with the lower border of the wall, the white line, 
 and a narrow marcin of the .sole is termed the hearing-surface, and 
 when necessary " concaving " (seating) extends from this to the inner 
 border of the shoe. On the ground-surface is seen the " fullering " or 
 " crease." 
 
104 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Fig. 102. 
 
 than in wrought iron. Steel is hard, can be tem- 
 pered, and may be called tempered wrought iron. In 
 order to temper or harden steel, bring it to a cherry- 
 red heat, and then cool it suddenly by dipping it in 
 cold water or wet sand. The tempered steel can again 
 be softened as desired by heating and ''lowly cooling. 
 By heating to a high temperature in a forge wrought 
 iron will become 
 doughy, and 
 may then be in- 
 timately united 
 (welded) with 
 another piece 
 at the same 
 temperature by 
 pressure or 
 hammering. 
 This property 
 is called weld- 
 ability; it is of 
 great impor- 
 tance in making 
 horse-shoes. The 
 heating of iron 
 until it reaches the welding stage is called getting a 
 " heat." The act of welding wrought iron with steel 
 is called " steeling." 
 
 Regarding the tools, the following hints are 
 sufficient : 
 
 Tlie anvil should have a level, smooth, flat steel 
 face. 
 
 Likewise, the round head and flat face of both 
 turning-hammer and sledge should be smooth. 
 
 On the fullering-hammer (Fig. 101) the left side 
 is flat, the right side convex, and the cutting edge has 
 slightly rounded corners.. 
 
 Hammer punch. 
 
 Pritchel. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 105 
 
 The hardy, fullering-liammer, and cold chisel should be 
 flawless on the edge. 
 
 The punch (Fig. 102), used to make the nail-holes in the 
 shoe, has a dull point, which should corresj^ond in size with 
 the head of the horseshoe-nail and have slightly rounded 
 corners. 
 
 The pritchel (Fig. 103) should not taper to a point, but 
 should end in a rectangular surface whose length is twice its 
 width, in order to punch iron through the shoe under the 
 blow of the hammer. 
 
 Making the Shoe. 
 
 To make a flat shoe, take the len^h of the hoof from the point of 
 the toe to the buttress and the gi-eatest ^vidth of the hoof; these two 
 measurement.s, when added together, give the length of the bar for the 
 shoe. The bar shoitld be of such width and thickness as will require 
 the least amount of working. For a bar-shoe or a shoe with heel-calks 
 the bar must be coiTespondinglj'^ long-er. 
 
 Should we wish to presen-e the exact outline of the plantar border 
 of the wall, we may advantageously use such a podometer as is shown 
 in Fig. 104. This consists of a perforated sheet-iron plate one-sixteenth 
 to one-twelfth of an inch thick. This is laid upon the hoof, and the 
 outline of the wall marked upon it \A4tli chalk. 
 
 If necessary, the hoof may be set on a piece of smooth, stiff 
 wrapping paper or card-board, and the outline of the wall closely 
 traced with a lead pencil. 
 
 To make a front shoe (Figs. 107 and 108), heat the bar 
 white-hot just beyond its middle, place the head of the sledge 
 hammer across one end of the face of the anvil, hold the un- 
 heated end of the bar on the head of the sledge, — the heated 
 end resting on the face of the anvil, and bend the bar into a 
 half-circle with the round head of the turning-hammer. (The 
 outer branch of all shoes is made first ; in making pairs the 
 right shoe is made first.) The extreme end of the heated bar 
 is d^a^vn out to the desired width and thickness with the 
 sledge. The bent branch is then placed obliquely across the 
 heel of the horn of the anvil, is turned over toward the right 
 
106 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 till it rests upon an edge, and is then bevelled diamond-shaped 
 from the toe to the end of the branch. [The edge in contact 
 with the horn is the inner edge of the right branch (outer 
 branch ) of the right shoe ; the edge beaten do^\Ti by the hammer 
 is the outer edge of the outer branch.] The branch is then 
 flattened on the anvil because in the bending the outer edge 
 has been stretched and thinned, while the iron of the inner 
 edge has been crowded together (back-set) and thickened. In 
 
 flattening, the shoe should be left 
 a trifle thinner on the inner edge. 
 The branch is again placed over 
 the horn, and gone over lightly 
 with the flat head of the turning- 
 hammer and brought to a proper 
 shape. It is now to be concaved 
 with or wdtliout the help of the 
 sledge, or the concaving may be 
 omitted. The concaving should 
 end about three-fourths of an 
 inch from the end of the branch. 
 ISTow turn the branch and fuller 
 it, or fuller it first and concave 
 afterwards. The fuller should 
 be set in about one-twelfth of 
 an inch from the edge for small 
 shoes, somewhat more for large shoes, and led from the end of 
 the branch towards the toe, twice being necessary to make the 
 fullering of sufficient depth. Next, stamp the holes, punch 
 them through with the pritchel, run over the surfaces, go over 
 the outer edge of the shoe upon the horn, and, finally, hammer 
 the bearing-surface smooth and horizontal. The left branch is 
 made in the same way, except that it is turned to the left and 
 the fullering carried from the toe to the heel. Any ordinary 
 shoe can and should be completed in the rough in two heats. 
 One pair of shoes requires from eight to fifteen minutes. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 107 
 
 The hind shoe (Fig. 116) is made in like manner, but the 
 branches are not bent in a circle but given that form sho\vn in 
 Eig. 106. Concaving is not necessary; it is sufficient merely 
 to round the inner edge of the web. 
 
 Fig. 105. 
 
 Fig. 106. 
 
 The curvature of a branch of a front shoe. 
 
 The curvature of a branch of a hind shoe. 
 
 Since in bending the shoe, and especially the toe of a hind 
 shoe, the inner edge is crowded together (back-set) and thick- 
 ened to the same extent that the outer edge is stretched and 
 thinned, we must remember to do away with these inequalities 
 of thickness and strain by hammering the shoe smooth. 
 
 Peculiarities of the Shoe. 
 
 They are dependent upon the structure, direction, and posi- 
 tion of the leg and hoof, as well as upon the horse's service and 
 the nature of the ground. Since the shoe is an artificial base 
 of support, and since a proper surface of support is of the 
 greatest importance in preserving the soundness of the feet and 
 legs, careful attention must be given to this matter. Naturally 
 shoes designed for the various forms of hoofs must present 
 equally great and equally numerous difference's of form, as well 
 as other peculiarities. 
 
 General Properties. 1. Form.- — A form corresponding to 
 the shape of the hoof is indispensable in every shoe. Front and 
 
108 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 hind and right and left shoes should be sharply defined and 
 easily distinguishable. Front shoes mu'st, above all else, be 
 circular round at the toe. Hind shoes, on the contrary, should 
 be round pointed at the toe, yet not too much so, but as in 
 Eig. 116. 
 
 2. Width. — All shoes should be wider Avebbed (more cov- 
 ered) at tlie toe than at the ends of the branches. The medium 
 width should be about twice the thickness of the wall. 
 
 3. Thickness. — Each shoe should, in general terms, be so 
 thick that it need not be renewed under four weeks. Lungwitz 
 
 Fig. 107. 
 
 Fig. 108. 
 
 Right front shoe, ground-surface. 
 
 Right front shoe, hoof-surface: a, bearing-sur- 
 face; 6, concaving, or "seating." 
 
 found that the average required thickness is about seven-six- 
 teenths of an inch. Of course, this thickness must be dimin- 
 ished or increased according to the rapidity of wear of the shoe. 
 Shoes without calks should he of uniform thichness, unless there 
 are special reasons for making them otherwise. 
 
 4. Length. — ^For draft-horses they should be long enough 
 to reach the bulbs of the heel, otherwise shorter, though i^ other 
 respects they may differ (see " special properties "), but should 
 in all ca'ses completely cover the bearing-surface of the hoof. 
 
 5. Surfaces. — That part of the hoof -surf ace of the shoe 
 which is in contact with the hoof (bearing-surface of the shoe, 
 
HORSESHOEING. 109 
 
 Fig. 109, a) should be horizontal and wide enough to cover 
 
 the wall, the white line, and from a twelfth to an eighth of 
 
 an inch of the outer edge of the sole. Shoes for large hoofs 
 
 require a broader bearing-surface than those for small hoofs. 
 
 The concaving, or "seating" (Fig. 109, h), should be made 
 
 deeper or shallower, according to the nature 
 
 . Fig. 109. 
 
 of the sole. SJioes for hoofs with strongly ' ^' ^ 
 
 arched (very concave) soles, do not require 
 any concaving (hind hoofs, narrow fore- 
 hoofs). The object of concavinq is to pre- 
 
 ■' ' ' a r Transverse section of a 
 
 vent pressure of the shoe upon the homy sole branch of a front shoe: a, 
 
 , , •, • bearing-surface; 6, con- 
 
 eXCept at its margin. caving; c, fullering, or 
 
 The ground-surface of the shoe should be ""'"''"= '' ""''■'°'" 
 flat and perfectly Jiorizontal, except at the toe, which may be 
 turned upward (rolled toe, "rolling motion"). 
 
 6. Borders. — The outer border should usually be moderately 
 base-narrow, — that is, the circumference of the ground-surface 
 of the shoe should be less than the circumference of its hoof- 
 surface; in other words, the entire outer border of the shoe 
 should be bevelled under the foot Shoes made base-narrow 
 are not so easily loosened, and materially assist in preventing 
 interfering. The inner border should be moderately rounded. 
 
 
 
 Fig. 110. 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 \=:-M 
 
 '^ V 
 
 ~^/~^m/ 
 
 
 (a) correct and (6) incorrect fullering. 
 
 7. The "Fullering" (Fig. 109, c).— In depth it should be 
 about two-thirds the thickness of the shoe, of uniform width, 
 and " clean." A fullering is not absolutely necessary, but it 
 makes the shoe lighter in proportion to its size, facilitates a 
 uniform placing of the nail-holes, renders the ground-surface 
 somewhat rough, and, because it is rather difficult to make, in- 
 creases the workman's skill. 
 
110 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 8. Nail-Holes (Fig. 109, d). — The importance of the nail- 
 holes, as regards their character^ number, distribution, depth, 
 and direction, cannot be over-estimated, because by the nails 
 which ai*e driven through them the stability of the shoe upon 
 the hoof should be maintained without injuring the sensitive 
 structures, splitting the homy wall, or immoderately interfering 
 with the elasticity of the foot. Each nail-hole should taper 
 uniformly from the ground to the hoof-surf ac© (funnel-shaped). 
 For a medium-weight shoe six nail-holes are sufficient, while 
 for all heavy shoes, especially those with toe- and heel-calks, 
 
 Fig. 111. 
 
 Fig. 112. 
 
 Swiss military shoe, hoof-surface. 
 
 Swiss military shoe, ground-surface. 
 
 eight are indicated ; however, it should by no means be said that 
 every nail-hole should contain a nail. Hind shoes usually 
 require one more nail-hole than front shoes, yet seldom more 
 than eight. In front 'shoes the nail-holes should be placed in 
 the anterior half of the shoe (Figs. 107 and 108), while in 
 hind shoes they are to be placed in the anterior two-thirds of 
 the shoe (Fig. 116), and in both cases so distributed that the 
 toe shall be without nail-holes, except in those shoes in which it 
 iaay be desirable to omit the nail-holes in an entire branch 
 
HORSESHOEING. Ill 
 
 (Fig. 153). The depth of the nail-holes — that is, their dis- 
 tance from the outer edge of the shoe — %vill depend always 
 upon the thickness of the wall, and should equal the absolute 
 (real) thickness of the wall (Fig. 97). It is evident, there- 
 fore, that all nail-holes should not be placed at the same depth 
 (for thickness of the wall, see p. 53). 
 
 The direction in which the nail-holes should pass through 
 the shoe depends upon the obliquity of the wall. The nail- 
 holes around the toe, as a rule, should incline somewhat in- 
 
 FiG. 113. 
 
 Form of clips: a, correct; 6, indifferent; c, faulty. 
 
 ward, the holes at the sides less so, while those at the quarters 
 should be punched straight, — that is, should pass perpendicu- 
 larly through the shoe. 
 
 Both front and hind shoes for army horses in time of war 
 and manoeuvres should be so punched that one or two nails 
 may be placed in the posterior half of the shoe (Figs. Ill and 
 112). 
 
 9. Clips (Fig. 113) are half -circular^ leaf -like ears dra^\^l 
 upward from the outer edge of the shoe. They should be 
 strong and without flaw at tlie base, and somewhat higher and 
 thicker upon hind than upon front shoes. Their height on flat 
 shoes should equal the thickness of the shoe, while on shoes 
 with leather soles, or with toe- and heel-calks they should be 
 somewhat higher. 
 
 According to their position we distinguish toe- and side- 
 clips. They secure the shoe against shifting; therefore, as a 
 rule, every shoe should have a toe-clip. A side-clip should 
 always be drawn up on that branch of the shoe which first 
 meets the ground in locomotion. 
 
112 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Shoe without calks, with perfectly level hoof- and 
 ground-surfaces, and with roll at the toe (flat, rolling- 
 motion shoe). 
 
 Fig. 115. 
 
 Shoe with heel-calks for a front hoof. 
 
 A Shoe with Heel-Calks. — All shoes with heel-calks de- 
 signed for healthy hoofs should be so made and applied that 
 they will disturb the normal setting down of the foot as little 
 as possible, that the wear of the shoe will take place uniformly, 
 
 and slipping be dimin- 
 F^<^- 114. iglied. The toe of the 
 
 shoe must, therefore, 
 be left somewhat 
 thicker than the 
 branches just in front 
 of the heel-calks. More- 
 over, every front shoe 
 with heel-calks must be 
 relatively long, and be 
 provided with consider- 
 able rolling motion at the toe ; that is, the shoe should be turned 
 up at the toe, the bending beginning near the inner edge of the 
 web. The three- or four-cornered, someAvhat conical heel-calks 
 with rounded corners should not be higher than the thickness of 
 the shoe. With reference to the direction of the ends of the 
 branches, we should see to it that they do not rise excessively, 
 but that they assume as near as possible a horizontal direction 
 in passing back to the heels (see Fig. 115). 
 
 A Shoe with Toe- and Heel-Calks. — Such a shoe should 
 be of uniform thickness from end to end, and should have a 
 toe-calk and two heel-calks that are somewhat stronger and 
 longer than the heel-calks of a shoe which has no tocK^alk. If 
 to a shoe of uniform thickness, on w^hich the heel-calks are 
 somewhat higher than those already described, a piece of steel 
 (Fig. 116, b) of the height of the heel-calks is welded at the 
 toe, we have a shoe with toe- and heel-calks. The toe-calk 
 should never be higher than the heel-calks. There are three 
 principal kinds of toe-calks, — ^namely : 
 
 1. The Sharp Toe-Calk. — A bar of toe-steel of proper width 
 and thickness for the toe-calk is thrust with the shoe into the 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 113 
 
 Fig. 116. 
 
 fire. When the end of the bar is cherry-red in color it is with- 
 drawn, laid across the straight hardy, and cut nearly through 
 at a point a calk-length from the end. Bar and shoe are then 
 brought to a welding heat, the calk quickly and securely welded 
 across the toe of the shoe, the bar wrenched away, the calk gone 
 over again -with the hammer, when it is immediately beaten out 
 to a sharp edge from the anterior face, either over the far edge 
 of the anvil, or in a foot-vise. The posterior face of a sharp 
 toe^calk should be perpendicular to the ground-surface of the 
 shoe. Machiner-made toe-calks, — sharp, half-sharp and blunt, 
 provided with a sharp spud at one or both ends, are in general 
 use. Their use requires 
 two heats, and the sharp 
 calk is blunted in the 
 welding. 
 
 2. The Blunt Toe- 
 Calk. — It is a rather long 
 rectangular piece of toe- 
 steel, straight, or curved to 
 conform to the toe of the 
 shoe. The shoe-surface 
 and the ground-surface of 
 the calk are of equal di- 
 mensions. It should be 
 
 -r^^l-J^J ^^ :« ^^^ l,„«4- Right hind shoe with toe- and heel-calks: a, heel- 
 
 Welded on m one heat. ealks; 6, toe-calk; c. greatest width of the base of 
 
 3 The Hdlf-SllCLVD ^'^PPO'* ('•''•' contact with the ground) of this shoe 
 
 '^ " when without toe- and heel-calks; d, the greatest, 
 
 Toe-CalJc (Coffin-I/id Toe- and «, the least width of the base of support of this 
 
 „ , . , shoe with calks. 
 
 Calk). — It resembles the 
 
 blimt calk, except that the surface of the calk that Is applied 
 to the shoe is somewhat broader and longer than the sur- 
 face that comes in contact with the ground. It is welded on 
 in one heat. The first and third kinds are most suitable for 
 winter. 
 
 Since heel- and toe-calks raise the hoof far from the ground 
 and prevent all pressure upon the frog, they diminish the 
 8 
 
114 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 elasticity of the hoof and injure it. They are injurious also 
 to the joints, because they furnish a base of support which is 
 essentially smaller than that afforded by a flat shoe (Fig. 116). 
 However, they are indispensable for heavy draft purposes 
 on slippery roads and in winter. Upon all other roads and in 
 summer they are superfluous, at least upon front hoofs, es- 
 pecially as they do not wholly prevent slipping. 
 
 Special Properties. — The many different fomis of hoofs re- 
 quire a great vai-iety of shoes. Following are the special 
 peculiarities of each of the chief classes of shoes. 
 
 1. Shoe for a Regular Hoof. — Outer edge : moderately base- 
 narrow (bevelled under) all around. Distribution and direction 
 of the nail-holes : regular. Length : longer than the hoof by the 
 thickness of the shoe (see Figs. 121 and 122). 
 
 2. Shoe for an Acute-Angled Hoof. — Outer edge: strongly 
 base-narrow around the toe, but gi*adually becoming perpendicu- 
 lar towards the ends of the branches. Punching: regular, ex- 
 cept tbat the nail-holes at the toe must incline inward some- 
 what more than usual. Length: rather longer than the pre- 
 ceding shoe (see Fig. 123). 
 
 3. Shoe for an Upnght (stumpy) Hoof. — Outer edge: per- 
 pendicular at the toe; but if the hoof is very steep, then base- 
 wide at the toe, — i.e., bevelled downward and outward. Punch- 
 ing: last nail should be placed just beyond the middle of the 
 shoe. Direction of the holes : perpendicular. Length : short ; at 
 most, one^ighth of an inch longer than the hoof. In the ease 
 of a "bear-foot" (see Fig. TO) the shoe should be long. 
 
 4. Shoe for a Base-Wide Hoof. — Outer edge; the outer 
 branch should be moderately base-narrow, — i.e., bevelled down- 
 ward and inward, the inner branch perpendicular. Punching: 
 upon the outer branch the holes should extend well back, while 
 upon the inner branch they are to be crowded forward towards 
 the toe (see Fig. 117). Length will depend upon the obliquity 
 of the hoof as seen in profile (see 1, 2, and 3). 
 
 5. Shoe for a Base-Narrow Hoof. — Outer edge: the outer 
 branch either perpendicular or base-wide, the inner branch 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 115 
 
 strongly base-narrow. Punching: the nail-holes in the outer 
 branch should be crowded towards the toe and, under certain 
 conditions, punched deeper than the wall is thick, on account 
 of the greater width of this branch ; in the inner branch the 
 nail-holes are to be distributed back to the quarter and punched 
 light (see Fig. 118). Length will depend upon the obliquity 
 of the hoof. The outer branch should be about one-fourth of 
 an inch longer than the inner. 
 
 6. 8hoe for ci Wide Hoof. — Somewhat wider webbed (more 
 
 Fig. 117. 
 
 Fig. 118. 
 
 A right front shoe for a base-wide (toe- 
 wide) hoof. The inner branch should be 
 about one-fourth of an inch longer than 
 the outer. 
 
 A right front shoe for a base-narrow 
 (toe-narrow) hoof. The outer branch is 
 wider and one-fourth of an inch longer 
 than the inner. 
 
 covered) than usual. Outer edge: bevelled under the foot all 
 around (base-narrow). Punching: nail-holes carried back into 
 the posterior half of the shoe (see Fig. 119). Length will 
 depend upon the obliquity of the hoof. 
 
 Y. Shoe for a Narrow Hoof. — Outer edge: moderately 
 bevelled under the foot at the toe (base-narrow), elsewhere 
 perpendicular. Distribution of the nail-holes : regular. Direc- 
 tion of the nail-holes: perpendicular and towards the quarters, 
 inclining somewhat outward. The holes about the toe incline 
 
116 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 somewhat inward. Lengtli will dei:)eud upon the obliquity of 
 the hoof. Concaving unnecessary (see Fig. 120). 
 
 The forms of shoes described in paragi-aphs 2 to 7 differ 
 from that described in paragraph 1, but are necessary in order 
 to lessen the injurious consequences of irregular loading (un- 
 balancing) of the feet, and of unfavorable bases of support of 
 the body-weight. 
 
 Fig. 120. 
 Fig. 119. 
 
 Flat shoe for a round hoof (right front). 
 
 A left front shoe for a narrow hoof. 
 conca^■ing is unnecessarj*. 
 
 G. Choosing the Shoe. 
 
 The choice of the shoe for a given horse is not at all difficult 
 after we have carefully considered his weight, the nature of his 
 work, his standing position, gait, the form of his hoofs, and 
 quality of the horn, bearing in mind the general and peculiar 
 properties of shoes. As a rule, we choose a shoe that is longer 
 than the hoof, because the latter grows and carries the shoe 
 forward with it, and because the quarters gradually become 
 lowered by rubbing and wearing away upon the branches of 
 the shoe. The length of the shoe is of e-special importance. 
 ■For horses employed for slow, heavy-draft purposes the shoe 
 supplied with heel- and toe-calks should extend backward far 
 
HORSESHOEING. 117 
 
 enough to support the bulbs of the heels. On the contrary, 
 horses used at a trot or gallop, as coach- and saddle-horses, 
 require shorter shoes (see Eig. 124). 
 
 The iveight of the shoe should be so adjusted to the demands 
 of the horse's work, the condition of tlie legs (whether used up 
 with work or not), and the nature of the ground that the shoeing 
 will last at least a month. Hard roads and a heavy, clumsy 
 gait require strong, durable shoes, which, under some con- 
 ditions, are to be rendered still more durable by welding in 
 steel. For moderate service upon soft roads we should use 
 light shoes. Running horses require unusually thin and narrow 
 shoes of steel (see Figs. 125-128). 
 
 H. Shaping and Fitting Shoes. General Considerations. 
 
 This is one of the most important parts of horseshoeing. 
 Its object is to so fashion or shape the shoe which has been 
 chosen for a particular hoof that its circumference will exactly 
 correspond to the lower circumference of the previously pre- 
 pared hoof, and its bearing-surface will fit air-tight to the bear- 
 ing-surface of the hoof. At this time all defects in the surfaces 
 of hoof and shoe and in the nail-holes must be remedied, the 
 clips dra^vn up, and the shoe made to fit perfectly. The bear- 
 ing-surface of the shoe, especially at the ends of the branches, 
 must be kept horizontal* and 'smooth, and its width regulated 
 by the width of the bearing surface of the hoof (see page 99). 
 Perfectly uniform heating is absolutely indispensable in shap- 
 ing the shoe, because an irregularly heated shoe twists or 
 becomes distorted at the warm places. Every shoe should be 
 straight, and when held before the eye one branch should exactly 
 cover the other. A flat shoe laid upon a level surface should 
 touch at all parts of its ground-surface; the only exception to 
 
 * The horizontal bearing-surface is in accordance with nature, 
 because the changes of form of the hoof which take place at the 
 plantar border of the wall, on burdening and unburdening the foot, 
 should not be interfered with. A horizontal bearing-surface bast fulfils 
 this requirement. 
 
118 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 this is the shoe with a rolleid toe (rolling motion), in which the 
 toe is turned upward. A shoe is termed " trough-shaped " when 
 only the inner edge of the web rests upon the flat surface. It is 
 faulty, disturbs the stability of the foot, and shifts the weight 
 of the body too much upon the quarters. 
 
 To front shoes we give a rolled toe (Eig. 121, rolling 
 motion), by which we mean, a more or less pronounced upward 
 turn of the toe of the shoe. Ordinarily, the toe begins to turn 
 up at the middle of the web, and should be elevated about one- 
 half the thickness of the iron. The rolled to© corresponds to 
 
 Fig. 121. 
 
 Shod fore-hoof viewed in profile to show the "roll" at the toe. 
 
 the natural wear of front hoofs, facilitates the " breaking over " 
 of the feet, and insures a uniform wear of the shoe (see Fig. 
 86). The shoe is made moderately hot and placed on the foot 
 with the toe-clip against the wall exactly in front of the point 
 of the frog. The scorched horn should be repeatedly removed 
 with the rasp until a perfect-fitting bed has been made upon 
 the bearing-surface of the hoof. From the bearing-surface of 
 the shoe to the inner border of the web the iron must be free 
 from the sole around its entire circumference. The horn sole 
 should not be burnt, because the velvety tissue of the sole lies 
 immediately above it. In the region of the nail-holes the outer 
 borders of shoe and wall should correspond. The nail-holes 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 119 
 
 Fig. 122. 
 
 must under all conditions cover the white line. From the last 
 nail-hole back to the ends of the branches, for hoofs of the 
 regular standing position of the limbs, the shoe should gradually 
 widen until it projects at each quarter from a sixteenth to an 
 eighth of an inch beyond the edge of the wall. The posterior 
 half of the shoe shoidd, tlierefore, be somewhat wider than the 
 hoof. The effect of this will be to prolong the usefulness of the 
 shoes. With respect to the width of the branches, an exception 
 arises in the case of hind 
 shoes, in which the inner 
 branch, with few exceptions, 
 should closely follow the bor- 
 der of the wall ; this will pre- 
 vent interfering and tearing 
 off the shoe by the opposite 
 foot. 
 
 Between the ends of the 
 branches and the frog there 
 should be enough room, with 
 iew exceptions, to pass a 
 foot-pick. 
 
 In order to judge of the 
 width of a shoe which has 
 been fitted to the hoof, it is 
 of advantage to seize the hoof 
 in the left hand and, extending it towards the ground, to 
 observe from behind and above the outer border of the shoe 
 and the surfaces of the wall. 
 
 Furthermore, the most important rule is that the shoe should 
 always have the form of the foot, so long as the form of the hoof 
 remains unaltered. In all hoofs that have already undergone 
 change of form we must strive to give the shoe that form which 
 the hoof had before it underwent change. Such treatment will 
 not only do the hoof no injury, but, on the contrary, is of 
 advantage to it, as it is well known that in time the hoof will 
 acquire the form of the shoe. 
 
 Left fore-hoof of normal position shod. 
 
120 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Shaping and Fitting Shoes. Special Considerations. 
 
 {a) A shoe for a hoof of the regular form fits properly when 
 the outer border of the shoe in the region of the nail-holes closely 
 follows the outer edge of the wall, but from the last nail-hole to 
 the end of each branch extends beyond the wall from a sixteenth 
 to an eighth of an inch, the shoe is straight, lies firmly and air- 
 tight upon the bearing-surface of the hoof, the nail-holes fall 
 exactly upon the white line, and there is sufficient space between 
 the frog and the branches of the shoe for the passage of a foot- 
 pick. The branches must be of equal length. 
 
 While in fitting a shoe to a hoof of regidar form we need 
 pay attention only to the form of the hoof, it is very different 
 when we come to shape and fit shoes to hoofs of irregular forms. 
 In these cases we must consider not only the form of the hoof, 
 hut the position of the Umhs and the distrihution of weight itv 
 the hoof, because where the most weight falls the surface of 
 support of the foot must be widened, and where least weight 
 falls (on the opposite side) the surface of support must be 
 narrowed. In tliis manner tlie improper distribution of weight 
 within the hoof (an unbalanced foot) is regulated, — that is, is 
 evenly distributed over the surface of support. The manner 
 in which this is accomplished in the various forms of hoofs is 
 as follows : 
 
 (h) An acute-angled hoof requires the shoe described in 
 paragraph 2, page 114. The branches must be long, because 
 more of the weight falls in the posterior half of the foot, and 
 long branches extend the surface of support backward, while 
 the 'surface of support in front is to be diminished by making 
 the toe of the shoe base-narrow, either by turning it up or by 
 bevelling it in under the foot. A shoe for an acute-angled hoof 
 fits when it is otherwise related to the hoof as is described in 
 paragraph a, above. 
 
 (c) An upright or stumpy hoof presents exactly reverse 
 conditions with respect to the distribution of weight within 
 
HORSESHOEING. 121 
 
 the hoof, and is treated in an exactly opposite manner. The 
 surface of support should be increased at the toe and diminished 
 at the quarters. This is accomplished by a shoe possessing the 
 peculiarities described in paragraph 3, page 114, whose nail- 
 holes are directed either straight or slightly outward. 
 
 (d) A base-ivide hoof requires the surface of 'support to be 
 wddened upon the inner side of the foot and narrowed upon the 
 outer side, because the inner half of the foot bears the more 
 weight. A shoe having the peculiarities described in paragraph 
 4, page 114, accomplishes this end. 
 
 (e) The base-narroiv hoof is just the reverse of the preced- 
 ing, and requires a shoe whose peculiarities are described in 
 paragraph 5, page 114. Wliile in the normal standing position 
 
 Fig. 123. 
 
 The three principal forms of hoofs shod with flat shoes. 
 
 of the limbs, viewed from in front, the ends of the branches 
 of the shoe should be equally distant from the middle of the 
 median lacuna of the frog, this is not so in the base-wide and 
 base-narrow positions. In the base-wide position the outer and 
 in the base-narrow position the inner branch should be some- 
 what farther from the median lacuna than the branch of the 
 opposite side. 
 
 (/) The wide hoof has too large a surface of support, and, 
 therefore, the shoe designed for it should possess the peculiar- 
 ities enumerated in paragraph 6, page 115. 
 
 (g) The narrow hoof has already too narrow a base of sup- 
 port, and must not be made smaller ; therefore, the shoe should 
 not have a base-narrow but a perpendicular outer border, as 
 described in paragraph 7, page 115. 
 
122 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Shoeing Saddlers and Hunters. 
 
 The shoes for saddlers (Park Hacks) should be light, short, 
 and fitted snug to prevent forging, interfering and pulling of 
 the shoes. The hoof surface should cover the wall, white line 
 and at least one^fourth of an inch of the margin of the sole. 
 An average width of one inch is desirable. Both front and 
 hind shoes should be fullered and concaved on the ground sur- 
 face (convex iron). The Front Shoe: — Length, should not pro- 
 ject beyond the buttress more than one-eighth of an inch. Width, 
 
 Fig. 124. 
 
 A right front shoe with forging calks; suitable for a saddle horse, or hunter (convex iron). 
 
 an inch at the middle on the branches, somewhat more at the 
 toe, and less at the ends of the branches. Bevelling, outer- 
 border, base-narrow all around. The ends of the branches, and 
 the heel calks, in case they are used, are bevelled strongly down- 
 ward and forward under the foot. The toe is rolled from the 
 inner edge of the web, and provided with a strong central clip. 
 Six nails are sufficient ('see Fig. 124). 
 
 The Hind Shoe: — Length, the shoe may project from one- 
 fourth to three-eisiiths of an inch behind the buttresses. The 
 
HORSESHOEING. 123 
 
 toe should be well rounded and somewhat blunt so that the 
 horn of the toe will project beyond the shoe an amount equal to 
 one-half the thickness of the wall. Width, somewhat less than 
 the front shoe. The branches are of equal thickness, and should 
 carry heel calks whose height equals the thickness of the 
 shoe. To guard against interfering the inside calk may be 
 omitted and the innei* branch thickened, fitted snug and bevelled 
 strongly base-narrow. Clips are to be placed at inner and outer 
 toes. Seven nails are sufficient. 
 
 The shoes for hunters do not differ materially from those 
 suitable for Park Hacks. The hunter's shoes are somewhat 
 lighter, and to g-uard against injury to the feet by over-reaching 
 and interfering, and against the shoes being pulled by stiff mire 
 and by treading, the shoes must represent merely a prolongation 
 of the hoofs, i.e., must be no longer and no wider than the hoofs 
 themselves. The front shoe of narrow, convex iron is rolled at 
 the toe and has a central toe clip. Forging heel calks are 
 advisable. 
 
 The hind shoe is set back at the toe, carries inner and outer 
 toe clips, an outer heel calk and an inner interfering branch. 
 Seven nails. 
 
 Shoeing Runners. 
 
 Racing plates are intended solely to prevent excessive wear 
 and breaking away of the wall, and to insure a secure foothold 
 upon the ground. The shoes are made as light as possible, 
 but they must not be so narrow and thin that they will bend 
 or break. They are therefore made of steel, wide enough to 
 cover the bearing surface of the wall, white line, and an eighth 
 of an inch of the sole. The ground surface is divided into two 
 sharjD edge's by a deep, clean, fullering continued entirely 
 around the shoe. Heel calks are of no advantage. Front and 
 hind shoes carry six nails. The last nails are well back in the 
 quarters to prevent the spreading or bending of the light shoe. 
 Front shoes are provided -with central toe-clips ; hind shoes 
 
124 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 carry inner and outer toe clips and are set slightly under at 
 the toe (see Figs. 125, 126, 127, 128). An average weight 
 running plate for a medium-sized hoof is three to four ounces. 
 
 Fig. 125. 
 
 Fig. 126. 
 
 A fore running plate, hoof-surfa 
 
 Fig. 127. 
 
 A fore running plate, ground-surface. 
 
 Fig. 128. 
 
 A hind running plate, hoof-surface. A hind running plate, ground-surface. 
 
 Shoeing Trotters and Pacers. 
 
 The shoes worn while the trotter or pacer is in training are 
 somewhat heavier than those worn while racing. Training 
 shoes will average 40 ounces to the set, while trotting and 
 pacing plates weigh from 16 to 28 ounces to the set. Of the six 
 
HORSESHOEING. 125 
 
 fastest trotters during the last year (1912) the average weight 
 of the front shoes was 6% ounces, of the hind shoes 4 ounces. 
 Of the seven swiftest pacei's of the same year the front shoes 
 averaged 5^2 ounceis, and the hind shoes 3% ounces. In short, 
 extreme speed at running, pacing or trotting demands as light a 
 shoe as can be made, which will at the same time furnish a 
 hearing for wall, white line and a narrow rim of the sole. 
 
 In style of shoes there is no- marked difference between 
 trotters and pacers — except in the hind shoes of pacers that 
 cross-fire (see cross-firing," p. 140). Open shoes predominate. 
 Bar-shoes are used, not to give frog pressure, but to stiffen and 
 prevent spreading of the 'shoe, when after a few days' wear 
 it becomes thin at the toe. The average trotting and pacing 
 plate is so thin that it would be weakened by fullering, so most 
 of them are stamped (punched). Six nails are sufficient. Clips 
 are seldom needed. 
 
 Pacers usually require a low circular grab or " rim " at the 
 toe. This is set flush with the outer border, is about one-eighth 
 of an inch high and is brazed on. Trotting plates are usually 
 without toe calks, though many are fullered across the toe (cor- 
 rugated) to furnish a grip upon the ground. 
 
 On both trotting and pacing shoes the heel calks should be 
 low and sharp and should run straight forward so as not to 
 retard the for^vard glide of the foot as it is set to earth heel 
 first. The heel calk serves chiefly to prevent the lateral twist 
 of the foot a's the horse takes the sharp turns of the track. 
 
 Freak shoes, toe- weights, side-weights, excessive length of 
 hoof or toe, and other unscientific appliances and methods of 
 shoeing speed horses are being gradually eliminated, and to- 
 day the fastest are dressed and shod in accordance with the 
 principles enunciated in this book. 
 
 Fitting Shoes to Heavy Draft-Horses. 
 
 What has been previously said concerning shoeing holds 
 good here; however, the conditions of shoeing are somewhat 
 different in heavy horses, and particularly with respect to hoofs 
 
126 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 which, without being clearly diseased, have been injured by 
 shoeing. The entire operation requires more circumspection, 
 because it is more difficult. In many cases one will find that 
 the width that has been advised for the outer branch of the 
 shoe at the quarter is not sufficient. Indeed, if a horse has wry 
 feet, and there is unequal distribution of weight within the 
 hoof, and we attempt in shoeing it to follow to the letter the 
 directions given on preceding pages, we would be apt to favor 
 the perpetuation of the defect. In such cases the slant of 
 the wall at the quarters is of the great- 
 est practical value to us in estimating 
 the proper width for the shoe at this 
 point. 
 
 When uniform setting down of the 
 hoof and uniform wear of the shoe are 
 desired, every point in the coronary 
 band in the posterior half of the foot 
 must receive support by the shoe. This 
 applies particularly to the outer halves 
 of hoofs that are extremely base-nar- 
 row. If, for example, the coronet of 
 the outer quarter projects beyond the 
 plantar border of the quarter, the outer 
 branch of the shoe from the last 
 nail-hole back must be kept so wide 
 (full) that an imaginary perpendicular line dropped from 
 the coronary band will just touch the outer border of 
 the shoe. The inner branch, on the contrary, should follow 
 the edge of the wall a's closely as possible. Eurthermore, the 
 new shoe should be given more curve, — ^that is, made wider and 
 fitted more full where the old shoe shows greatest wear. The 
 principal thought should he to set the shoe, which should always 
 he regarded as the hase of support of the hoof, farther towards 
 the more strongly worn side. Such a practice renders super- 
 fluous the wide-spread and popular custom of bending outward 
 
 Left hind shoe with a broad, 
 base-wide outer branch for 
 draft-horses that stand markedly 
 base-narrow (close behind). 
 
HORSESHOEING. 127 
 
 the outer quarter and heel-calk of hind shoes. From the manner 
 in which a horse travels and the wear of the old shoe, we esti- 
 mate the distance that the branches of the shoe should be set 
 from the middle line of the hoof. If in following out this plan 
 the bearing-surface of the outer quarter of the wall is not com- 
 pletely covered, the quarter will be pinched and squeezed in- 
 wai'd ; this should be prevented by a broader branch punched so 
 deeply that the holes will fall upon the white line (Fig. 129). 
 
 When the shoer has satisfied himself that the shoe fulfils 
 every requirement and fits perfectly, it is to be cooled, tlie holes 
 opened with an oiled pritchel, and the shoe brightened with a 
 file. In filing, all sharp edges should be removed. If a shoe 
 is to be filed upon the outer border, to give it a neater appear- 
 ance, the filing should be done lengthways of the shoe, and not 
 crossways; of course, the shoe must not be bent by being im- 
 properly clamped in the vise. 
 
 It indicates much greater skill in making and fitting shoes 
 when they look clean and finished with little or no filing. 
 
 In the preceding remarks I have insisted upon a horizontal bear- 
 ing-surface for all shoes, with the single exception of shoes provided 
 with the rolled toe (rolling motion). As far as I can judge from the 
 literature of shoeing, and from what I have seen with my own eyes in 
 many countries, this is the most wide-spread practice. In Germany, 
 on the other hand, there is another method, followed in the militaiy 
 shoeing-shops, which consists in placing the bearing -surf ace of the shoe 
 as nearly as possible at right angles to the slant of the ivall. Accord- 
 ing to this method the bearing-surface of the shoe, depending upon 
 the direction of the wall (viewed from in front, from behind, and 
 from the side), should incline more or less, now backward, now in- 
 ward, now horizontal, and now outward. Shoes for wide hoofs are 
 given a bearing-surface which inclines inward, while for narrow hoofs 
 the shoes have a horizontal bearing-surface. Shoes for wry hoofs 
 have a bearing-surface which inclines downward and inward for the 
 slanting wall, and for the steeper wall a horizontal bearing-surface, 
 which towards the end of the branch may incline slightly downward 
 and outward. Besides, the bearing-surface of the ends of the branches, 
 viewed from the side, has a backward and downward inclination. This 
 method is practicable only in part. 
 
128 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Fig. 130. 
 
 I. Nailing the Shoe. 
 
 This is that act of horseshoeing by which the shoe is fastened 
 to the hoof by special nails called hoof-nails or horseshoe-nails, 
 which are driven through the shoe and horny wall. 
 
 At present there are hand-made and machine-made horse- 
 shoe-nails. Both kinds should be made of the best wrought 
 iron. The nails must be slender, wedge-shaped, and twice as 
 wide as they are thick. Thickness and length must be in proper 
 relation to each other. We should never choose a nail which 
 is longer than is absolutely necessary to 
 hold the shoe; six to eight sizes are suffi- 
 cient for aJl purposes. 
 
 The rough nails (hand-made), before 
 being used, must undergo a special shaping 
 to prepare them to pass through the wall 
 easily and in the desired direction. This 
 preparation is called shaping and bevelling. 
 In doing this we should see to it that the 
 nails are made smooth, and even, but are not 
 hammered harder than is absolutely neces- 
 sary, because the lighter one can hammer 
 the nails the better they will be. 
 
 Furthermore, we must give the nail that 
 form which will insure its passing through 
 the horn straight and not in a curve; with 
 this object in view, the nail is to be slightly 
 curved so that the side which is turned towards the frog in 
 driving (inside) will be a little concave, the opposite side 
 convex (Eigs. 130, 3, and 131, No. 10), since it is known that 
 a straight nail always passes through the horn in a curve, and 
 not only does not long remain tight, but is quite likely to press 
 upon and injure the soft tissues of the foot. ( See, also, Nailing. ) 
 At the point of the nail the bevel is to be so placed that it 
 will form a short one-sided wedge with the slanting side 
 
 Hand-made horseshoe- 
 nails, natural size, for ful- 
 lered shoes ( 1 ,not bevelled) 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 129 
 
 directed from within to without (Eigs. 130, 3, and 131, d). 
 A short bevel is suitable for nails that are to be driven low, 
 while a long bevel makes it possible to drive them high. The 
 hevel should never form a hooJc; it must always he straight, 
 should he sharp hut not thin, and under no conditions incom- 
 plete (defective). 
 
 Fig. 131. 
 
 6. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 
 
 
 S' 
 
 t t 
 
 Machine-made horseshoe-nails (natural size) with a low, wide head for a fullered shoe. 
 The last nail is shown from one border; the others from the inner face: o, head; 6, neck; 
 c, shank; d, bevel; e, point; /, inner face; g, outer face. 
 
 Machine-made nails, 'smooth, polished, bevelled, and ready 
 for use, are, for many reasons, to be preferred to hand-made 
 nails, though the latter are rather tougher (see Fig. 131). 
 
 Before the shoe is nailed on it should b© cooled and again 
 carefully examined by a competent shoer, who should then 
 place it upon the hoof, where it should be critically observed to 
 see whether it really fulfils every requirement of a properly- 
 
130 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 fitting shoe. Afterwards, the least fault or defect must be 
 remedied, and then the work of nailing it begins. Bj nailing, 
 the shoe is firmly and durably fastened to the hoof, in doing 
 which the horn of the wall is spared so far as possible, the 
 elasticity of the hoof borne always in 
 mind, and wounding of the pododerm 
 entirely avoided. The nails must in all 
 cases penetrate the white line and pass 
 through the wall in such a straight 
 direction that they will appear neither 
 too high nor too low upon its outer sur- 
 face. In the first case there is con- 
 siderable danger of pricking or close- 
 nailing, and in the latter the nail-holes 
 will tear out easily when the nails are 
 being clinched. 
 
 In driving a nail, it should be held 
 in the fingers as long as possible in the 
 direction in which it is desired that it 
 shall pass through the horn. A nail 
 should be driven cautiously, with atten- 
 tion to its sinking and sound, and yet 
 with enough force so that at each stroke 
 it will penetrate from one-fifth to one- 
 fourth of an inch. The power required 
 at each stroke will depend upon the 
 hardness of the horn and the size of the 
 nail. Fearless driving and timorous 
 tapping should not be allowed. 
 
 Nails, which at a depth of five- 
 eighths of an inch are still going soft, or 
 which bend and give a dull sound, or cause pain, should be 
 immediately withdrawn. 
 
 According to the size of the horse and his hoofs the nails 
 should be driven from five-eighths to an inch and five-eighths 
 
 Driving hammer. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 131 
 
 high, and as eve^i as possible. A's soon as a nail is driven its 
 point should be immediately bent down towards the shoe in 
 order to prevent injuries. The heads of all the nails should 
 then be gone over witli a hammer and driven do^vn solidly into 
 the nail-holes, the hoof being meanwhile supported in the left 
 hand. Pincers are then held under the bent nails and they are 
 more sharply bent hj light blows upon the nail-heads. The 
 points of the nails are now nipped off near the hoof, the horn 
 which has been thrown out j.ust below the clinches by bending 
 the nails down is removed mth rasp or gouge, and the ends of 
 the nails bent do^\Ti still more, but not quite flush ^\'ith the 
 wall. This operation is called " clinching." A clinching- 
 block or a pair of ordinary blacksimith's pincers is then placed 
 under the end of the nail, now called a clinch, and by light 
 blows (in doing this the nail must not bend ^vathin the wall) 
 upon the head the clinch is turned closer to the surface of the 
 wall ; finally, with the front edge of the nail-hammer the clinch 
 is hammered down flush with the wall. On the inner half of 
 the wall the clinches should not be felt on stroking the wall 
 with the fingers. The small amount of horn that projects 
 beyond the shoe around the toe may be carefully rasped away 
 in the direction in which the wall slants, but never higher than 
 the clinches; finally, the sharp lower edge of the wall is to be 
 removed by caiTving the comer of the rasp around between 
 the shoe and the horn. 
 
 A clinch is sufficiently long when it equals the mdth of 
 the nail at that jwint. 
 
 It is of advantage to use a shoeing-bock or foot-stool in 
 clinching the nails on the front hoofs. The hind hoofs may be 
 clinched in the hands. Then the horse should be led out and 
 again moved in order to see whether or not the new shoeing has 
 actually accomplished what was desired. Finally, the entire 
 hoof should be given a thin layer of hoof-salve. 
 
132 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 K. Horseshoes More or Less Deficient in the Desirable 
 Qualities Described on Pages 107-116. 
 
 Machine Shoes. 
 
 1. Machine SJioes of Wrought Iron. — They are half-finished 
 and finished. Though machine shoes with few exceptions show 
 no distinction between front and hind, or left and right, with 
 correct punching for these different feet, but usuallj present 
 one form in different sizes, yet, unfortunately, they are in 
 high favor with horseshoers, because they may be used for 
 both summer and winter and for bar shoes. 
 
 Fig. 133. 
 
 Fig. 134. 
 
 A machine-made (drop-forged) front shoe, 
 ground surface. 
 
 A machine-made toe-weight front shoe 
 for a harness horse, showing ground 
 surface. Punching good. 
 
 Eor these reasons we cannot approve of machine shoes. 
 
 2. Finished Cast Shoes. — They are of four kinds, — 
 ordinary cast shoes, cast shoes with rope buffer, cast shoes with 
 fiber buffer, and cast shoes fenestrated to hold a rubber buffer. 
 Ordinary cast shoes of correct form and proper punching 
 designed by Grosisbauer, of Vienna, are sold by Hannes' Sons, 
 of that city. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 133 
 
 Rope Shoes. — These shoes have a groove on the ground sur- 
 face, in which rests a tarred rope, which greatly diminishes 
 slipping on smooth pavement. For this reason alone they are' 
 
 Fig. 135. 
 
 Fig. 136. 
 
 Fig. 137. 
 
 Machine-made (drop-forged) multi-calk fore shoe. A, ground-surface; B, hoof-surface 
 C, profile. 
 
 Fig. 138. 
 
 Fig. 139. 
 
 Fig. 140. 
 
 Machine-made (drop forged) multi-calk hind shoe. .4, ground-surface; B, hoof-surface; 
 C, profile. 
 
 extensively used in the large cities of Germany. Since the open 
 rope shoe, when half worn out, will warp, the bar rope shoe is 
 more satisfactory and more extensively used (Figs. 141-144). 
 
134 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Before fitting the shoe the rope must be removed. After 
 the nails are driven it is laid in the groove and hammered into 
 
 Fig. 141. 
 
 Fig. 142. 
 
 Fig. 143. 
 
 Bar rope shoe with bar 
 bent forward. 
 
 The same with bar 
 bent backward. 
 
 The same with beak- 
 formed bar. 
 
 Fig. 144. 
 
 An open rope shoe. 
 
 place. Rope shoes can seldom be fitted properly to hoofs other 
 than those which are healthy and of regular shape. 
 
 Fiber Shoes. — These have a groove 
 
 on the ground surface into which layers 
 
 of linen fiber belting have been tightly 
 
 pressed. The fiber cannot be removed, 
 
 and therefore the shoes cannot be heated, 
 
 but must be fitted cold. The nail-holes 
 
 are placed between the fiber and the 
 
 outer border of the shoe, and are punched 
 
 too light. The bearing surface of the 
 
 shoe is unsupported, 'so that when the 
 
 shoe is half worn out, it warps. There 
 
 is no distinction between rights and lefts. 
 
 Rubber shoes have all the defects of fiber shoes, and one 
 
 more. The hoof surface is covered with canvas, which under 
 
 normal and acute-angled hoofs wears through under the quarters 
 
 and leads to loosening of the last nails. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 135 
 
 Fig. 145. 
 
 L. Rubber Pads. 
 
 The increasing use of asphalt, tarvia and other hard, smooth 
 and slippery materials for surfacing citj streets and country- 
 highways has not only made travelling in flat and even in 
 calked 'shoes precarious, but has aggravated all those injuries 
 produced by concussion. 
 
 To prevent slipping and the injurious effects of concussion 
 a great many shoes have been devised, in which are incor- 
 porated such materials 
 as hemp rope, linen fibre, 
 papier mache, cork, wood, 
 bast, felt and rubber, but 
 all fail in greater or les- 
 ser degree to meet prac- 
 tical requirements. 
 
 Rubber, though the 
 most expensive of these 
 materials, is the most 
 resilient and takes the 
 best grip on smooth pave- 
 ment. A pad of rubber, 
 wide enough to cover the 
 
 branches of the frog a light driving pad, gummed and stitched to a 
 
 alone, or the branches of leather sole; seen from the ground surface and in pro- 
 
 " file. Used with a seven- to ten-ounce short shoe, a, 
 
 ■the frog' and the but- stitching; b, rubber bar under buttress and frog; c, 
 
 tresses of the hoof, firmly 
 
 cemented to a leather sole, constitutes the modem rubber pad 
 
 (Figs. 145, 146, 147). 
 
 The frog-and-buttress pad used with a short shoe is to be 
 preferred to the earlier frog pad which takes a full shoe. 
 
 The advantages of rubber pads are: 
 
 1. They prevent slipping upon asphalt and other smooth, 
 dry surfaces. 
 
 2. They diminish concussaon, and are valuable in the 
 
136 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 prevention and treatment of sore heels, dr)' and moist corns, 
 bruised sole, and incipient side bone. 
 
 3. They give frog pressure, develop the frog and tend to 
 prevent contraction of the quarters and those lesions which 
 may follow contraction, as corns, cracks of bars and quarters, 
 laminitis of the quarters and thrush. 
 
 A ruhher pad should not he used: 
 
 1. In contraction of one or both quarters, when the frog is 
 too much shrunken to bear upon the pad. 
 
 Fig. 146. 
 
 Fig. 147. 
 
 . Air-cushion pad, seen from ground surface 
 and in profile. Suitable for light harness 
 
 A heavy bar-pad suitable for heavy har- 
 ness and draft-horses on pavement. The 
 short shoe may carry a toe-calk of medium 
 height. 
 
 2. In lameness from well developed side bones. 
 
 3. In navicular bursitis ("navicular disease"). 
 
 4. In thrush, or canker of frog or sole. 
 
 Rubber pads, light, medium and heavy, are made in all 
 sizes and are suitable for all classes of horses, from the light 
 roadster to the heavy draft type. The short shoe with which 
 they are used reaches the middle of the quarters. The pad 
 surface (upper surface) of the ends of the branches should be 
 bevelled to conform to the pad, and to hold it firmly against 
 
HORSESHOEING. 137 
 
 the frog and buttresses. The thickness of the shoe should 
 equal two-thirds the thickness of the pad, so that when fitted 
 one-third of the thickness of the pad shall project below the 
 ground-surface of the shoe. The 'shoe should be provided with 
 a strong toe-clip. With the heavy, thick pad of a draft-horse a 
 low toe-calk may be used, but heel calks should never be put 
 on a short shoe. Pads are seldom necessary on the hind feet. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 SHOEING HORSES THAT FORGE AND INTERFERE. 
 
 A. Forging. 
 
 Forging is that defect of the horse's gait by reason of 
 which, at a trot, he strikes the ends of the branches or the 
 under surface of the front shoe with the toe of the hind shoe 
 or hoof of the same side. Forging in a pacer is termed " cross- 
 firing " and consists in striking the inner quarter, or the under 
 surface of the inner branch of a front shoe with the toe of the 
 diagonal hind shoe or hoof. 
 
 Forging is unpleasant to hear and dangerous to the horse. 
 It is liable to wound the heels 
 of the forefeet^ damages the toes 
 or the coronet of the hind 
 hoofs, and often pulls off the 
 front shoes. 
 
 Fig. 148. 
 
 Right front shoe with concave ground- 
 surface ("convex iron") to prevent 
 "forging." 
 
 Right hind shoe with lateral toe-clips to pre- 
 vent "clicking" and the various injuries due 
 to forging. 
 
 Causes. — 1. Faulty conformation ; for example, horses that 
 stand considerably higher at the croup than at the withers ; 
 horses with long legs and short bodies ; horses that " stand 
 under " in front and behind. 2. IJising horses on heavy ground, 
 unskilful driving, allowing a long-necked, heavy-headed horse 
 138 
 
HORSESHOEING. 139 
 
 to cany liis head too low; riding without holding a horse to 
 his work by feeling his mouth and pressing the knees against 
 his sides. 3, Fatigiie frequently leads to forging, even in horses 
 that are well built and properly shod. It may also occur in the 
 act of vaulting over an obstacle. 4. Poor shoeing, especially 
 too long toes upon the front and hind hoofs, and too long front 
 shoes. 
 
 The aim of the shoer should be to facilitate the quick and 
 easy " breaking over " of the front foot, so that it may get 
 away before it is overtaken by the hind foot. The toe of the 
 front hoof should be fairly short and rolled ; the quarters spared. 
 The front shoe should be light, rolled at the toe and no longer 
 and no wider than the hoof. The ends of the branches of a 
 flat shoe, and also the heel-calks, in case they are needed to 
 elevate a heel that is too low, should be bevelled from the hoof 
 surface of the shoe downward and forward under the foot. 
 Such short heel-calks, bevelled to prevent forging, are called 
 " forging calks." If the horse continues to forge between the 
 branches and "against the ground surface of the shoe, concaving 
 this surface will prove advantageous (convex iron). The form 
 of the front shoes of horses that forge should represent merely 
 a prolongation of the hoof. 
 
 The " breaking over " of the hind foot should be delayed 
 by sparing the toe and lowering the quarters, but not sufficiently 
 to break the foot-axis too far backward. Tlie hind shoe is to 
 be squared at the toe and the lower edge of the shoe in the 
 region of the toe well rounded ; instead of a toe-clip, two side- 
 clips are to be dra^vn up and the shoe so fitted that at least 
 three-fourths of the thickness of the wall of the toe, with the 
 edge well rounded, will extend for\vard beyond the shoe. Should 
 the toe of the hoof be short it may be raised either by a low toe- 
 calk set one-fourth of an inch back from the edge of the shoe, or 
 by thinning the shoe from the toe to the ends of the branches. 
 The branches of a flat hind shoe should extend somewhat 
 farther back of the buttresses than under normal conditions, 
 
140 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Fig. 150. 
 
 to trail upon the ground just before the hoof alights, and acting 
 as a brake, to bring the hoof to earth (Fig. 150). 
 
 " Cross-firing " is most apt to occur and is most dangerous 
 at extreme speed. Then, when the inner branch of the hind 
 shoe strikes the inner heel, quarter or shoe of the diagonal 
 front foot, both feet are in the air, — the fore foot is approach- 
 ing the middle of its stride, while the offending hind foot is 
 in the last third of its flight. The standing position that favors 
 cross-firing is the base-wide (toe-wide) in front, and the base- 
 narrow (toe-narrow) behind. With this direction of limbs the 
 
 flight of the fore feet is 
 forward and inward during 
 the first half of their stride, 
 while the flight of the hind 
 feet is forward and inward 
 during the second half of 
 their stride (see Eigs. 72, 
 73, 75). 
 
 The problem is, there- 
 fore, so to pare and shoe a 
 „. J ^ .^^ „ J* * I *i. K ir,„ base-wide fore foot that it 
 
 Hind shoe with swelled toe to slow the breaking 
 
 over. Often efficient when the hoof is too short at -^^11 break OVCr nearer the 
 
 the toe: a, long branches to trail and bring the /> i j i 
 
 foot to earth; 6, outer- toe clip; c, toe squared and centre ol the tOC and thUS 
 
 set under to prevent injury to front hoof, and to j. l jr • J 
 
 deaden the sound of forging. CXCCUte IcSS of an mward 
 
 swing during the first half 
 of its stride, and to so pare and 'shoe a base-narrow hind 
 foot that it will break over nearer the centre of the toe and 
 thus execute less of an inward swing during the second half of 
 its stride. Neither a toe-wide nor a toe-narrow foot can be 
 made to break over the exact centre of the toe, and yet it is 
 possible by dressing the hoof and by shoeing to shift the break- 
 ing over point nearer to the centre of the toe, and by doing so, 
 to alter slightly the lines of flight of the feet. 
 
 Dressing and shoeing the front foot : The hoof should be 
 relatively low from the middle of the toe around to and in- 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 141 
 
 eluding the outer buttress. If the inner half of the wall is 
 deficient in length it must be raised above the outer half by 
 applying a shoe which is thinner in its outer than in its inner 
 branch. The inner toe should be left long. 
 
 The shoe should be light, without heel-calks, but may 
 OQxvj a low, cun^ed grab (" grab," is a low, straight or curved, 
 
 Fig. 151. 
 
 Fig. 152. 
 
 Left hind hoof of a toe-narrow pacer, shod 
 to prevent crossfiring: a, dotted line indi- 
 cating outer border of the hoof; b, long bent 
 outer branch; c, short, thin inner branch; d, 
 inner wall extending beyond the shoe; /, 
 line from which inner branch is feather- 
 edged. The shoe is of even thickness from 
 6 to /at inner toe; but from latter point to c 
 diminishea to a feather edge. 
 
 Front view of hoof and shoe depicted in 
 Fig. 151: a, outer branch fitted very full 
 and bevelled base wide; b, inner branch 
 diminishing in thickness from i nner toe c, 
 to its termination at the inner quarter. 
 Designed to favor "breaking over" near 
 centre of the toe, and to widen the gait. 
 
 toe- or heel-calk on a racing plate) running from the second 
 inner toe nail to the centre of the toe. The inner branch is to 
 he. fitted flush with the wall from the centre of the toe back 
 to the quarter, back of which point it gradually extends beyond 
 the wall, i.e., is fitted full ; and terminates well back of the 
 buttress. This inner branch should be from one-fourth to three- 
 eighths of an inch longer than the outer branch. The long 
 
142 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 inner branch, full at the quarter, is desirable, but must be 
 covered by a quarter-boot, which a cross-firer should always wear. 
 
 The outer branch should be fitted snug and terminate at 
 the buttress. From the centre of the toe to the end of the 
 branch the ground surface should be bevelled from the inner 
 edge of the web to a knife-edge at the outer border. 
 
 Dressing and shoeing the hind foot : The hoof should be 
 relatively low from the centre of the toe around to and in- 
 cluding the inner buttress. If the outer half of the hoof is 
 deficient in length, it must be raised above the inner half by 
 applying a shoe witli a thin inner branch. The inner branch 
 may terminate in a knife-edge midway between toe and heel 
 (Figs. 151 and 152). 
 
 The inner branch is to be fitted snug from the centre of 
 the toe to its end, and its ground surface should be bevelled 
 from the inner edge of the web to a knife-edge at the outer 
 border. 
 
 The outer branch is to be fitted very full from the outside 
 toe to the end. This branch should extend well behind the 
 buttress, and in well-marked base-narrow hoofs should be turned 
 outward in order to support the overhanging coronet of the 
 quarter. The outer border should be bevelled base-wide, and 
 the nail holes punched coarse, i.e., far in from the outer border 
 (Figs. 151 and 152). The outer branch may carry a small 
 heel-calk. 
 
 B. Interfering. 
 
 A horse " interferes " when a hoof in motion strikes the 
 opposite Supporting leg. Interfering is apt to produce in- 
 juries, either of the coronary band of the inner half of the 
 foot or of the fetlock-joint, or (in fore-limbs) of the cannon, 
 even as high up as the knee. Lameness frequently accompanies 
 such injuries. 
 
 The causes of interfering lie either in the shoeing (of the 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 143 
 
 foot that strikes, as well as of the foot which is struck), in 
 the position of the limbs, or in the use of the aiiimal. Horses 
 that have the correct standing position do not interfere when 
 thej are properly shod; base-wide horses interfere sometimes; 
 horses base-narrow do^vn to the fetlock and toe-wide below that 
 point interfere very frequently. Traces of unequal length, 
 weariness, and shoeing at too long interv^als favor interfering. 
 
 In attempting to lessen or remove interfering, the horse 
 must be most carefully examined with respect to the position 
 of his limbs, his gait, and his 
 shoeing, in the manner de- 
 scribed on pages 90 to 92. 
 
 If the cause is found to be 
 the twisted position of a shoe, 
 too wide hoofs, raised clinches, 
 etc., nothing need be done fur- 
 ther than to correct the shoeing ; 
 but if a faulty position of the 
 limbs is the cause, we must 
 ascertain the exact part of the 
 hoof that does the striking, 
 diminish the size of the hoof 
 at that point, regulate the en- 
 tire plantar surface of the hoof, 
 make the shoe straight along 
 the region that strikes, — that is, 
 without curve, — and so fit it to the foot that one-third of the 
 thickness of the wall will extend beyond the shoe. Where in- 
 terfering is so pronounced as to produce serious injuries, we 
 use a shoe with no nails in the inner branch (" dropped-crease " 
 shoe) (Figs. 153, 156, 157). 
 
 The so-called interfering shoes (Figs. 154 and 155) are 
 worthy of recommendation only for hoofs of the base-narrow 
 position. The interfering branch, whose greater thickness 
 raises the inner wall, which is often too low, is to be so shaped 
 
 A right front shoe with nailless and 
 narrow inner branch for a base-wide hoof. 
 Suitable for horsea that strike anywhere 
 from inner toe back to the quarter. 
 
144 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 and directed that the hoof will project somewhat beyond it. 
 This interfering branch must be made and shaped in accord- 
 ance with each individual case. The holes in the interfering 
 
 Fig. 154. 
 
 Fig. 155. 
 
 Left hind shoe with interfering branch 
 (ground surface) , for base-narrow stand- 
 ing position. 
 
 Fig. 156. 
 
 The same (hoof -surf ace). 
 
 Fig. 157. 
 
 Left hind interfering shoe without nail- 
 holes in inner branch (" dropped-crease" 
 shoe) : a, side-clip. 
 
 Right hind shoe for toe-cutters. The 
 dotted lines indicate the distance that the 
 wall projects beyond the shoe: a, side-clip. 
 
 branch should be punched somewhat finer (nearer the edge) 
 than usual. Interfering shoes in which the nail-holes, with 
 the exception of the inner toe nail-hole, are placed in the outer 
 
HORSESHOEING. 145 
 
 branch, are called '"'' dropped^crease interfering shoes " (Eig. 
 156). Such shoes are not recommended for hind hoofs that 
 are decidedly toe-wide (toe-cutters) ; in such cases better results 
 will be obtained by using a shoe, either with or without heel- 
 calks, whose inner branch is straight and without nails along 
 the striking region, and is fitted wide (full) at the quarter. 
 The inner branch should be from one-fourth to three-eighths 
 of an inch longer than the outer. The inner heel-calk should 
 be higher than the outer, and the end of the outer branch 
 should be as base-narrow as it can be made (fitted close) (Eig. 
 157). In order to prevent shifting of an interfering shoe, a 
 side-clip should be drawn up on the outer branch (a). 
 
 There is no manner of shoeing that will prevent interfering 
 which is caused by improper harnessing, crooked hitching, or 
 weariness. The simpler and the lighter the shoes the less will 
 horses interfere. 
 
 10 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 WINTER SHOEING. 
 
 Fig. 158. 
 
 All shoes whose ground-surface is provided with contriv- 
 ances to prevent slipping uj)on snow and ice are called winter 
 shoes. 
 
 These various contrivances are produced bj several proc- 
 esses called " methods of sharpening." All methods may be 
 gathered into two groups, — namely, practical sharp-shoeing 
 and impractical. Only the first will be considered. 
 The durability of sharpened shoes depends 
 partly upon whether they are made of steel or 
 iron, and partly upon the nature of the ground 
 in winter. If the ground is continuously covered 
 with a thick layer of snow, whatever method of 
 sharpening is followed, the shoes stay sharp; if, 
 however, the winter is open, changeable, with 
 more bare ice than snow, no method of sharpening, 
 whatever it may be, will last long; the shoes will 
 not stay sharp. 
 
 For these reasons no method of sharpening 
 which fulfils all conditions satisfactorily has yet 
 been discovered. 
 
 The simplest and at the same time the least 
 durable method of sharpening is: 1. That by 
 means of ice-nails or frost-nails (Fig. 158). One or two nails 
 are drawn from each branch of the shoe and replaced with ice- 
 nails. 
 
 2. Sharp Toe- and Heel-Calks. — The outer calk is split 
 
 and a small steel wedge welded in. It is then laid upon the 
 
 edge of the anvil, indented and sharpened from within to 
 
 without in such a manner that the calk shall be thin from 
 
 146 
 
 An ice-nail, frost- 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 147 
 
 Outer and inner heel-calks sharp- 
 ened. 
 
 the branch to the ground, and the outer surface shall be in the 
 
 same vertical plane as the outer edge. If a calk is narrow 
 
 from its base to its end, and at the -p^^ 
 
 same time without flaw, it does not 
 
 need a sharp cutting edge. The 
 
 inner calk should never be sharp- 
 ened except the ground be very 
 
 slippery. The cutting edge of 
 
 this inner calk stands at right angles 
 
 to the length of the branch, and its 
 
 outer comer should then be rounded 
 
 to prevent its injuring the opposite foot (Figs. 159, 160). 
 For horses used for heavy draft purposes a toe-calk is 
 
 welded to the shoe and sharj^ened. For this purpose we use 
 
 only steel (toe-steel), 
 which is easily 
 welded to the shoe 
 and remains firm. 
 Toe-calks and steeled 
 heel-calks are tem- 
 pered, in order, as 
 much as possible, to 
 lengthen their period 
 of durability. This 
 method of sharpen- 
 ing is the oldest and 
 most wide - spread, 
 and is employed on 
 the shoes of all horses 
 of which we require 
 more than light ser- 
 vice, 
 even ruined by frequently 
 
 Left fore hoof sharp shod: a, toe-calk bevelled from in 
 front; 6, outer heel-calk directed lengthwise with the branch; 
 c, inner heel-calk, half sharp and directed transversely to 
 direction of the branch. 
 
 Hoofs are easily damaged 
 
 repeated sharpening of the shoes, because every time this is 
 done the shoes must be removed and replaced. 
 
148 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 3. Shoeing with Screw Heel-Calks. — Any ordinary flat 
 shoe not too tliin and narrow at the ends of the branches can 
 be changed to a shoe with screw heel-calks by punching holes 
 in the ends of the branches and cutting a thread in them. 
 
 The screw heel-calk holes are made either by punching or 
 boring. The punching is done by means of an almost cylindrical 
 hammer-punch, afterwards finishing the holes by driving 
 through them a round punch which tapers from the middle 
 towards both ends. On the ground-surface of 
 ^^' ■ the shoe the hole is moderately counter-sunk 
 (Fig. 162, a,), so that after the thread has 
 been cut and the calk screwed into place the 
 shoulder of the latter will rest on the counter- 
 sinking. 
 
 At present nearly all screw-calks are made 
 by machinery, either of iron or toe-steel. The 
 former is too soft and therefore not sufficiently 
 durable; the latter, however, is quite durable 
 when the calk is properly hardened (tempered) 
 by heating to a cherry-red, sticking the head of 
 the calk as far as the tap into a bed of moist 
 sand, and allowing it to slowly cool. 
 Ground-surface of The chief requirements of a good screw- 
 
 the end of a branch n /. i i 
 
 of shoe, showing calk are, further, a clean, deep, but not too 
 ter-sinidng'^ for^'a coarsc thread, and but 07i€ size of thread and 
 hlirrturai S: i'^P f^"- «^^ ^^^^^^ «o that every calk will fit in 
 every shoe. A calk whose tap measures one- 
 half inch (12.7 millimetres) (Whitworth) in diameter is sirfS- 
 cient for the heaviest shoes. The tap which is used to cut the 
 thread in the holes for the screw-calks must be about y|-g- of an 
 inch thicker than the head of the calk. In the German army 
 tbe calks have a tap fifteen thirty-seconds of an inch in diameter. 
 The coachman should be given four calks (sharp and blunt) 
 for each shoe, and a small screw-calk key for placing and remov- 
 ing them. Screw toe-calks are also used, yet they require 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 149 
 
 special security to prevent their becoming loose. Experimenta- 
 tion with the screw toe-calks, though not yet entirely satisfactory, 
 cannot be said to have ended. 
 
 The advantages of shoes provided with good screw heel- 
 calks are so manifold that they deserve marked preference 
 over shoes sharpened by the ordinary methods. 
 The common objections urged against screw- 
 calks, — namely, that they loosen and are lost, 
 or break off, are not worthy of serious con- 
 sideration, since these evils are merely the re- 
 sult of unskilful workmanship and poor ma- 
 
 FiG. 1G3. 
 
 Fig. 164. 
 
 IS 
 
 Sharp screw-calks with Whitworth thread 
 (half-inch, natural size). 
 
 Whitworth tap (half-inch, 
 half natural size). 
 
 terial. Shoes with screw heel-calks are the best shoes for winter, 
 especially for horses that have to worJc hard and continuously. 
 Balling with snow is prevented by using shoes narrow in 
 the web and concave upon the ground-surface (convex iron), 
 and thoroughly oiling the sole^ and frog. Sole-pads of felt, 
 leather, or straw serve the same purpose. Balling with snow 
 is best prevented by a rubl^er sol&-and-frog pad, or by a " stop- 
 ping " of a patent hoof cement known in Germany as "huf- 
 lederkitt." 
 
150 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 4. Shoeing with Peg-Calks.— The calks are merely stuck 
 into the calk-holes, hence their name. Round and square peg- 
 calks are u'sed, but the former are better than the latter. 
 
 The inventor of round peg-calks is Judson, an American. The 
 shoes differ in no respect from the ordinary flat shoes. It is necessary 
 that the tap of the calk have a moderately conical form, and exactly 
 fit into the calk-hole of the shoe. The taper of the calk-tap is correct 
 if for every ten thirty-seconds of an inch in length it increases or 
 diminishes one-thirty-second of an inch in diameter (equal to one inch 
 m every ten inches of length). 
 
 Although the calk-holes may be pmiched in a hot shoe, yet boring 
 and reaming them is much better, because by this method a more per- 
 fect fit can be secured. For this 
 purpose we require a drill (a 
 spiral drill is the best) whose 
 diameter is exactly the same as 
 that of the small end of the 
 calk-tap (Figs. 165, c, and 166, 
 c). After the shoe has been 
 fitted to the hoof, the pro- 
 visional holes are drilled and 
 aftei-wards reamed out from the 
 ground-surface of the shoe with 
 the reamer shown in Fig. 167. 
 Since the tap of the reamer 
 corresponds exactly in size to 
 the tap of the calk, it is evident 
 that the latter must exactly fit 
 and be tight. The wire edge 
 that is raised around the hole is 
 removed with a file, and the edge then smoothed by introducing the 
 reamer a second time. The calks are made of rolled round steel, which 
 has the thickness of the tap-end of the calk. For this purpose we 
 require a calk-mould or matrix, in which one or more holes have been 
 finished with a reamer. A piece of rod steel is heated at the end for 
 a distance nearly twice the length of the calk, is swaged, thrust into 
 the matrix, then broken off, and backset. This will give a blunt peg- 
 calk. If a sharp calk is desired, the upper part of the head of the calk 
 is sharpened in the ordinary manner, although this is accomplished 
 most easily by using a pair of tongs with short jaws that are hollowed 
 upon the inside for seizing the tap of the calk. 
 
 Sharp peg- 
 
 Blunt peg- 
 
 Lower part of 
 
 calk (cog) : a, 
 
 calk: o, the 
 
 the reamer. 
 
 the tap; 6, 
 
 tap; 6, the 
 
 
 the head. 
 
 head 
 
 
HORSESHOEING. 151 
 
 Before the shoes are nailed on, the normal punch should be oiled 
 and driven into the calk-holes, and the calks passed into the holes to 
 see that they fit perfectly. 
 
 The calks are driven into place after the shoes are nailed to the 
 hoofs. A light blow is sufficient to fasten a calk, yet a necessary 
 precaution is first to remove every trace of oil from the calks and calk- 
 holes. The first calk driven into place must be held with the hand 
 while the second is being diiven, otherwise it will either spring from 
 the calk-hole or be loosened so that it will soon afterwards be lost. 
 
 To remove such a calk we strike its head from different sides with 
 a hammer, stone, or other hard object until it becomes loose, when a 
 rather hai-d blow upon the shoe causes it to spring out. Calks which 
 have worn do\TO are seized by a pair of sharp nippers and loosened by 
 blows upon the shoe. Since a calk which is firm soon rusts and is then 
 veiy difficult to remove, it is recommended that all caJks be removed 
 eveiy night. 
 
 The advantages of peg-calks over screw-calks are: 1. They do not 
 break off. 2. They are easier to make and simpler to use. 3. They 
 are cheaper. 
 
 Disadvantages. — 1. Peg-calks are sometimes lost, even when 
 properly made and most carefully introduced. This evil happens 
 much less frequently when the calks are put in by the maker (lioi-se- 
 shoer) than when they are stuck in by the coachman, attendant, rider, 
 or other pei-son. When calks are lost on the way from the shop, it is 
 usually due to some fault in the calk-holes or in the calks, although 
 when the feet are balled with snow the calks are easily lost, because 
 they do not then touch the ground. 
 
 2. The removal of the calks often involves many difficulties, since 
 they are apt to rust into place if not removed daily, and when worn 
 down so far that they cannot be grasped with the pincers are almost 
 impossible to remove. By hammering upon the calks and shoe many 
 horses are rendered not only restive, but sensitive in the feet. 
 
 3. If hoi-ses are used without the calks, a wire-edge forms around 
 the hole on the bottom of the shoe, which interferes with the placing 
 of the calk and lessens its security. 
 
 The hollow peg-calk (Fig. 168), made by Branscheid & 
 Philippi, of Remscheid, has considerable merit. It holds ex- 
 ceeding:ly well, and is very durable. It is furnished in three 
 sizes, — Nos. 12, 13, and 14, — of twenty-seven, thirty-one, and 
 thirty-four millimetres leng;th, and twelve, thirteen, and four- 
 teen millimetres diameter at the end of the tap. 
 
152 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 A punch is furnished which, when driven u^ to its head in 
 the holefs of the heated shoe, insures a proper width and shape 
 of the hole and an accurately fitting calk. 
 
 The calks may be removed by an extractor (Fig. 169) 
 having at one end a thread which is screwed into a correspond- 
 ing thread on the inside of the hollow calk, when by a fer\v 
 hammer blows on the shoe the calk loosens. To prevent the 
 calk becoming choked with dirt, a piece of cork is thrust into 
 the hollow. It may be easily removed by means of the cork- 
 screw at the other end of the extractor. 
 
 5, Shoeing with Peg Toe-Calks, — These are an invention 
 of considerable worth, especially for heavy draft in hilly 
 country. They render better service on 
 hind than on front shoes. 
 
 Peg toe-calks with a single tap are 
 simpler and preferable to those with two 
 
 Fig. 169. 
 
 Fig. 168. 
 
 Hollow - spring peg -calk, 
 No. 12. 
 
 Peg-puller. 
 
 taps. Every known contrivance to prevent the occasional loss 
 of the peg toe-calk is impractical. 
 
 The shoe for a peg toe-calk should be of good tough ma- 
 terial and without a flaw. The toe of the shoe should be about 
 one-twelfth to one-tenth of an inch thicker than the branches. 
 
 The hole for the peg toe^calk, whatsoever its shape may be, 
 must be smooth and uniform, with clean, true comers. Semi- 
 circular holes should present the convex side towards the toe. 
 
 Before punching, draw up the toe-clip. A punch-plate with 
 a good-sized hole, and a tap which will fit into the square hole 
 in the anvil will facilitate the work. The punch-plate when 
 
HORSESHOEING. 153 
 
 in position should be flush with the front edge of the anvil. 
 Place the toe of the shoe, hoof surface upward, over the hole 
 of the punch-plate, and drive a hole with a punch-hammer 
 which is perceptibly thinner than the model punch. Now turn 
 the ishoe over, punch back from the ground surface, and then 
 file away the wire edge which the punch has raised on the 
 ground surface. Ne'xt, take a hand-punch, the end of which 
 should just enter the hole, punch through from the ground 
 surface, and correct any bulging by dressing lightly over the 
 horn of the anvil. Finally, use the model punch to give the 
 hole the exact size and smoothness. 
 
 Should the hole in the toe of the shoe enlarge in time, as 
 sometimes occurs, then backset when necessary on removing the 
 shoe. Backsetting is easiest with the half-round hole, because 
 
 Fig. 170. 
 
 1=1 O ^^::\ci:^c^ 
 
 oo 
 
 Cross-section of different forms of peg toe-calk taps. 
 
 the curved side, being turned forward, runs approximately 
 parallel to the outer border of the toe of the shoe. 
 
 A good serAdceable peg toe-calk must possess the following 
 characteristics : 
 
 1. The tap must be of such shape as not to turn ; there- 
 fore, not round. 
 
 2. The tap must be cone-shaped, and diminish in diameter 
 about one-thirty-second of an inch for each one-fourth of an 
 inch of its length from base to apex. If the tap has less taper 
 it will enlarge the hole in the shoe till the head of the calk 
 comes into contact with the shoe, when the calk will loosen and 
 drop out. 
 
 3. The tap must be full-formed and smooth. 
 
 4. It must fit air-tight in the toe, and a single hammer- 
 blow should be sufficient to fix it securely. 
 
154 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 5. The head of the toe-calk must not rest on the shoe ; 
 a space of one-sixteenth of an inch should intervene. 
 
 AATiile a sheer of average mechanical ability can make a 
 faultless peg toe-calk, it is not profitable to do so while good 
 machine-made calks are to be had very cheap. 
 
 Fig. 171. 
 
 Fig. 172. 
 
 Chisel toe-calk. (Doring.) No. 1 from 
 the firm of Branacheid & Philippi, of Rem- 
 scheid.' 
 
 Fig. 173. 
 
 Shovel toe-calk. 
 
 Fig. 174. 
 
 Peg toe-calk shoeing after Fisher-Renker, 
 of Dresden. 
 
 Peg-calk (shovel-calk) after Kunze-Klotzs- 
 che-Konigswald, of Dresden. 
 
 The best forms in use are the quadrangular heads, with 
 oval, half-round (Figs. 171 and 172), and with two taps (Figs. 
 173 and 174). 
 
 In several European countries the peg toe-calks with half- 
 round tap and with two round taps are in use. To make good 
 peg toe-calk shoes and fit the calks properly requires more 
 than ordinary knowledge and skill. Poor work does much 
 hann. Therefore, work carefully and get well paid for it. 
 
 6. Removable Heel-Calks that do not Require Sharpening. 
 — The undeniable fact that all chisel-shaped or pyramid-shaped 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 155 
 
 sharp calks become dull in time, and must then either be 
 sharpened or replaced by new calks, renders shoeing not only 
 costly, but injurious to the hoofs and annoying to the owner. 
 This drawback is most pronounced in large cities, where the 
 snow never lies long upon the streets, and the hoi-se just sharp- 
 shod is soon obliged to travel upon bare pavements. Attempts 
 have been made to lessen this annoyance by the use of calks 
 that do not require sharpening, . and yet which will prevent 
 
 Fig. 175. 
 
 Fig. 176. 
 
 Screw-calk with H-formed cro33- 
 section. 
 
 Screw-calk with 4-formed cross- 
 section. 
 
 slipping even after tliey have been used for a long time upon 
 bare pavements. It cannot be denied that such calks have 
 considerable value, and, except when the ground is covered 
 with ice, many of these calks render excellent service. Just 
 as the ordinai-y sharp calks are satisfactory and very durable 
 outside of the large cities, so now for the first time a few of 
 tliese recently invented sharp calks seem to be worthy of 
 recommendation for city use. The following are the best: 
 
 1. Screw-calks and peg-calks with H-shaped cross-section 
 (Fig. 175). 
 
 2. Screw-calks with +-shaped cross-section (Fig. 176). 
 
 3. Screw- and peg-calks with 0-shaped cross-section (Fig. 176). 
 
 4. Screw- and peg-calks with S-shaped cross-section. 
 
 5. Angle-calks (Fig. 177). 
 
 6. Screw- and peg-calks with rubber foot-pad. 
 
 7. Screw-calks with Y star-shaped cross-section (Fig. 178). 
 
156 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 8. Hollow wedge-calks (Fig. 179). 
 
 9. Perforated screw-calks (Fig. 180). 
 
 There is no doubt that the grip that these calks take upon 
 the ground and their durability depend upon the diameter and 
 the arrangement of their surfaces of friction. From all ex- 
 
 FiG. 177. 
 
 Fig. 178. 
 
 Fig. 179. 
 
 Fig. 180. 
 
 Hollow .calk. 
 
 Perforated calk. 
 
 Fig. 181. 
 
 Universal screw-calk key with tap. 
 
 Fig. 182. 
 
 Felber's hand- 
 
 to secure the hoof from twisting while changing the screw-calks. 
 
 periments made thus far it is shown that those calks which 
 have narrow and comparatively few surfaces of friction are 
 the least durable. 
 
 To introduce and remove the calks we use a calk key or 
 wrench. For the shop, the ordinary fork key (Fig. 181), the 
 jaws of which are tempered, is recommended. It fits all calks. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 HOOF NURTURE. 
 
 Hoof nurture comprises all those measures whicli are em- 
 ployed to keep hoofs healthy, elastic, and serviceable. 
 
 A. Care of Unshod Hoofs. 
 
 The care of the hoofs of colts is of special importance. 
 Abundant exercise upon dry ground which is not too stony is 
 most beneficial. Such exercise will cause the hoofs to wear 
 gradually, and it will only be necessary from time to time to 
 observe whether the wear „ .„„ 
 
 is taking place uni- 
 formly, and if not, to 
 correct the uneven wear 
 with the rasp. 
 
 If colts are reared 
 in the stable, the horn 
 
 ^ ^ Twisted left front long pastern of colt, viewed from 
 
 does not undergo Suffi- the upper articular surface. The lower end has been 
 
 "^ twisted toward the left: a, transverse axis of lower 
 
 Cient wear, and changes articularsurface;6, transverse axis of the upper artlc- 
 
 . /» J? xi 1 ir 1 ular surface. 
 
 in form of the hoof, and 
 
 even permanent distortions of the bones of the foot gradu- 
 ally occur. The wall becomes too long and bends or some- 
 times separates from the sole and keraphyllous layer. Weak 
 quarters bend (curl) inward and encroach upon the space 
 occupied by the frog (contracted feet of colts). The toe be- 
 comes too long, and this gives rise to too steep a position 
 of the pastern and causes an insecure and diffident gait ; there- 
 fore tlie hoofs must be shortened from time to time. The in- 
 curved quai*ters should be removed with the hoof-knife, and 
 the outer edge of the plantar border of the wall well rounded 
 
 157 
 
158 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 with the rasp. In the base-wide and base-narrow standing 
 positions the outer and inner walls respectively become relatively 
 long and induce the colt to assume a still more abnormal posi- 
 tion. The young and pliant pasterns may thus become perma- 
 nently twisted and distorted (see Figs. 183 and 184). In 
 a hoof that is becoming awry, restoring to the wall its proper 
 
 level with relation to the 
 poisition of the limb will 
 not only be invaluable in 
 ultimately producing a good 
 hoof, but will improve the 
 faulty position of the limb. 
 In exceptional cases, where 
 the plantar border of some 
 section of the wall gives 
 evidence of too rapid wear, 
 the application of a tip or 
 of a half-shoe may be of 
 benefit. Furthermore, Ave 
 should attempt to secure 
 greater cleanliness by fre- 
 quently and thoroughly wash- 
 ing the hoofs and bedding 
 with plenty of good straw. 
 
 Too early ' shoeing of 
 young horses is very injuri- 
 ous; it hinders the development of the hoofs, and, furthermore, 
 young horses when shod are frequently seriously overworked 
 and prematurely ruined. Moderate work in the fields does not 
 injure young horses, but for such service they do not require 
 
 Left front long pastern of a colt showing com- 
 pressian shortening of outer half: a , transverse 
 axis of upper articulation; b, transverse axis of 
 coronary joint, not parallel to upper axis. 
 
 The unshod hoofs of older horses should be periodically 
 rounded with a rasp and the length of the walls regulated when, 
 by reason of a lack of exercise, proper wear has not taken place. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 159 
 
 B. Care of Shod Hoofs. 
 
 Shod hoofs are exposed to many more injuries than are 
 unshod hoofs, because shoeing iteelf, although absolutely neces- 
 sary to render horses continuously serviceable upon hard streets, 
 is injurious to the hoof, since it to a greater or less extent 
 prevents the physiological movements of the different parts of 
 the foot, interferes with the circulation of the blood in the 
 foot, slows the growth of the horn, and brings about a gradual 
 shrinking of the entire hoof. 
 
 In addition, there are the injurious consequences of stabula- 
 tion. These are prevention of free movement^ uncleanliness 
 due to bad floors and filthy bedding, — as, for example, peat 
 moss and soiled straw, — and dryness. 
 
 Continuous standing always contributes to contraction of 
 the hoofs, and this evil is greatly favored by dryness, which 
 more particularly affects the front hoofs. The hind hoofs re- 
 ceive sufficient moisture from the animal's manure. Poor 
 floors, particularly those that are uneven, tire the limbs. 
 Accumulation of manure and the careless use of stationary sole- 
 pads induce thrush of the frog. 
 
 The object of hoof nurture is to lessen or entirely remove 
 all these injurious consequences of shoeing and stabulation. 
 It comprises, therefore, not only the proper shortening of the 
 hoofs every five to six weeks, but careful attention to cleanliness 
 and moisture. Both are insured by dry 'straw and daily picking 
 out and washing the hoofs. Such measures will prevent thrush 
 in the hind feet. If front hoofs are washed once a day. suffi- 
 cient moisture will penetrate the horn to give it that degree 
 .of suppleness (elasticity) which is possessed by an unshod hoof, 
 and which contributes to a proper expansion of the hoof when 
 the body-weight is placed upon it In ord^r to prevent a hoof 
 from again drying out, the entire hoof should receive a thorough 
 application of an oil or ointment (hoof-salve). The object of 
 greasing the horn is to prevent evaporation of the moisture 
 
160 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 that has penetrated the horn. Specially compounded hoof- 
 salves are not necessary. Melted horse-grease, pork-fat, or any 
 other fat that is not rancid is sufficient. Cosmoline is an 
 excellent hoof-salve. 
 
 Abundant but not excessive exercise is more necessary than 
 anything else to the preservation of the health of the hoof. It 
 aids the circulation of blood mthin the foot, and, therefore, 
 the growth of the horn. Horses which perform hard, regular 
 work have, as a rule, better hoofs than those which stand the 
 greater part of the time in the stable. Poulticing hoofs with 
 day, bran, linseed-meal, or white-rock, or standing them in 
 water is unnecessary if they have had proper care, but will 
 sometimes be of benefit when the hoofs have been neglected, 
 and especially so for front hoofs. The latter are more exposed 
 to drying influences, and the shoes prevent the moistening 
 process by keeping the hoofs partially or completely removed 
 from contact with the earth. Oiling alone is not sufficient to 
 soften horn, but must always be preceded by permeation of the 
 horn with water. Oiling without first cleansing the hoof is 
 useless, because this soon produces a greasy crust underneath 
 which the horn is crisp and brittle. 
 
 The surest sign of cleanliness of a hoof is the appearance of 
 the natural color of the horn, the latter appearing translucent 
 even after the hoof -ointment has been applied ; therefore, black- 
 ened hoof-ointments should not be used. When hoofs are ex- 
 posed to too much moisture (muddy roads, melting snow, etc.) 
 an addition of wax or common yellow rosin to the hoof -oint- 
 ment is recommended to prevent too great softening of the horn. 
 No hoof-ointment has any direct influence upon the growth of 
 the horn. 
 
 Inasmuch as it is a fact that the very best shoeing injures 
 the hoof, it is advisable to allow horses to go barefoot whenever 
 it is possible. This applies especially to horses that from any 
 cause are thrown out of service, presupposing, of course, that 
 the nature of the hoofs will allow them to go barefoot. 
 
PART III. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS CONCERNING THE SHOEING OF DEFECTIVE 
 HOOFS AND LAME HORSES. 
 
 The boundary between health and disease of the hoof is 
 difficult to determine, especially when we have to deal with 
 minor defects of structure or shape of the hoof. Ordinarily, 
 we first consider a hoof diseased when it causes lameness. How- 
 ever, we know that diseases of the hoof may exist without lame- 
 ness. Therefore, a hoof should be regarded as diseased or 
 defective when the nature of the horn, the form of the hoof, 
 or the parts enclosed by it, deviate from what we consider as 
 normal or healthy (see page 81), whether the service of the 
 animal is influenced by it or not. 
 
 Front hoofs become diseased or defective more readily than 
 hind hoofs, because they bear greater weight, have more slant- 
 ing walls, and are more exposed to drsdng influences. All nor- 
 mally wry hoofs and acute-angled hoofs become more readily 
 diseased than regular and upright (stumpy) hoofs. 
 
 The indications of the various diseases of the hoof are dis- 
 cussed in the following chapters. We shall in this chapter 
 undertake only a brief general discussion of inflammation of 
 the pododerm. This inflammation, known as pododermatitis, 
 always manifests itself by lameness and, under closer examina- 
 tion of the foot, by increased warmtJi,, pain, and stronger pul- 
 sadion of the digital and plantar arteries. The pain produces 
 either a timid, shortened (sore) gait, or well-marked lameness, 
 especially upon hard ground. Increased sensitiveness of the 
 pododerm is detected by compression of the hoof mth the 
 pincers (hoof-testers), or with greater certainty by lightly 
 11 "^ 161 
 
162 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 tapping the hooi. The increased warmth of a part or of the 
 entire hoof is detected by feeling with the hand. Intense pain 
 and greatly increased warmth, with a moderate, diffuse swelling 
 of the soft parts between the hoof and fetlock- joint, indicate 
 suppuration within the hoof. 
 
 The examination of horses lame in the feet must always be 
 cautious and searching, and should begin with the moving and 
 judging of the horse as already described on page 90. The 
 faults detected in the hoof or in the shoeing, the pain and in- 
 creased warmth of the hoof, will not leave us in doubt as to 
 whether the animal is lame in the hoof or not. However, 
 should there be a doubt, w© must carefully examine, all the 
 joints and tendons of the foot and, if necessary, of the limb 
 above, and observe the animal's manner of travelling at a walk 
 and at a trot, on soft and on hard ground, in a straight line 
 and in a circle. 
 
 The removal of the shoe should be performed with greatest 
 caution. Under certain conditions the second shoe should not 
 be removed until the first has been replaced. The same caution 
 must be observed in paring the hoof, which is to be regarded as 
 a part of the examination of the hoof. The paring of a hoof 
 for this purpose often differs somewhat from the preparation 
 of a sound hoof for the shoe, and while it is necessary because 
 it frequently furnishes the first trustworthy indication of the 
 trouble, it must be done with circumspection and intelligence. 
 
 The causes of diseases of the hoof are very numerous, for 
 many external influences act injuriously upon the hoof. In 
 addition to too great dryness, want of care (neglected shoeing), 
 and premature, unreasonable, cruel use of the horse, should be 
 mentioned particularly injudicious dressing of the Jioof and 
 direct and indirect faults in tTie shoeing. The pododerm, shut 
 in between the hard os pedis and the stiff, unyielding horn 
 capsule, is frequently exposed to bruising and other injuries, 
 from which arise most of the defects of the hoof itself. All 
 these things lead, under certain conditions, to lameness. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 163 
 
 Treatment. — First of all, the discovered causes should be 
 removed, or, if this is not possible, as is frequently the case, 
 they should be ameliorated. Very often the lameness may be 
 removed by proper 'shoeing, a change in the animal's work, and 
 better care of the hoof. When there is intense inflammation 
 within the foot, the shoe should be removed for a few days. 
 When the inflammation is moderate and confined to a small 
 area, it is usually sufticient to alter the shoeing by regulating 
 unnatural relations of height in the different parts of the wall, 
 and by removing all superfluous horn from the wall and sole 
 (to a less degree from the frog), partly for the purpose of 
 rendering the horn capsule more yielding, and partly to make 
 the poultices which are used more effective. Tlie shoe is then 
 to be so applied that the diseased region mil be relieved of the 
 tody-weight, and will remain free from all pressure from the 
 shoe. This can be done partly by making the underlying 
 branch of the shoe somewhat wider and longer than the other, 
 and partly by cutting down the bearing-edge of the wall where 
 this is possible without weakening 
 it too much, other\\dse by concav- 
 ing or beating Ao\xn the upper 
 surface of the shoe. By reason of 
 the fact that the posterior half 
 of the hoof is the seat of most 
 diseases of the hoof, it is to be 
 recommended that the nail-holes 
 in shoes used in these diseases be 
 placed as far as possible in the 
 anterior half of the shoe, and in 
 jsome special cases distributed 
 evenly around the toe. Among 
 shoes suitable for diseased hoofs 
 the bar-shoe (Fig. 185) holds the first place, because it 
 renders superfluous many other shoes specially designed 
 for various diseases of the hoof. It is made like an ordinary 
 
 Fig. 185. 
 
 Bar-shoe for right foot. 
 
164 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 flat shoe, except that it requires a somewhat longer piece of 
 iron; the ends of the branches are bent inward over a dull 
 corner of the anvil, bevelled, laid one over the other, and 
 welded together to fonn the bar. The width and thickness of 
 the bar should be the same as of the rest of the shoe, and its 
 frog-surface should be slightly concave. 
 
 The har-slioe is valuable, because it protects from pressure 
 diseased sections of the wall which have been laid free, allows 
 part of the body-weight to be borne by the frog, and restores 
 normal activity to the disturbed physiological movements of the 
 foot. By using it we can either gain a more extensive bearing- 
 surface for the hoof, or can make it easier for the surface that 
 bears the weight to do the work. If on account of weakness 
 of the bearing-surface of the hoof, or from any other cause, we 
 wish to distribute the body-weight over the entire plantar sur- 
 face of the foot with the exception of the painful region, we 
 add a leather sole to the bar-shoe. 
 
 In this case it is necessary to place holes in the ends of 
 the branches of the shoe, so that we may rivet the leather 
 firmly to the shoe with small nails. The shoe should be made 
 somewhat wider than the hoof, and the clips somewhat higher 
 than usual. After fitting the shoe the grooves for the clips are 
 cut in the leather, the latter is riveted to the shoe, and all 
 leather projecting beyond the outer edge of the shoe is trimmed 
 away. The lacunae of the frog and other concavities of the sole 
 are then thickly smeared with wood-tar and afterwards filled 
 up with oakum to such a degree that the packing will bear 
 some of the body-weight when the shoe and leather sole are in 
 position. This packing is of great importance, because it pre- 
 vents the filtering in from behind of sand and slime, preserves 
 the toughness and pliability of the horn, breaks shock, and 
 produces a gradual expansion of the posterior half of the hoof. 
 Before nailing the shoe to the foot the leather sole should be 
 soaked in water. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 165 
 
 Classification of Diseases of the Hoof. 
 
 INFLAMMATIONS OF THE PODODERM. 
 
 1, Nailing (pricking and close nailing) ; 2, streeMiail ; 
 3, calk-Avoimds; 4, corns (bruised sole); 5, bruised heels; 6, 
 laminitis (founder); 7, keraphyllocele (tumor of homy 
 leaves). 
 
 DEFECTS OF THE HORN CAPSULE AND LATERAL CARTILAGES. 
 
 (a) Changes of form: 1, flat hoof and full hoof (dropped 
 sole) ; 2, upright hoof (stumpy or stubbv hoof) ; 3, contracted 
 hoof; 4, \^Tv hoof; 5, crooked hoof; 6, ossification of the lateral 
 cartilage (side-bone). 
 
 (6) Disturbances of continuity of the horn capsule: 1, 
 cracks; 2, clefte; 3, loose wall; 4, hollow waJl; 5, thrush. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 INFLAMMATIONS OF THE PODODERM (PODODERMATITIS). 
 
 I. Nailing. 
 
 Wounds of the velvety tissue of the sole or of the podophyl- 
 lous tissue of the wall, caused by nails which have been driven 
 into the hoof for the purpose of fastening the shoe, are usually 
 termed " nailing." 
 
 We distinguish direct and indirect nailing; the former is 
 noticed immediately , the latter later. 
 
 In direct nailing the nail passes directly into the pododerm 
 (velvety tissue of the sole, podophyllous tissue) ; the wound pro- 
 duced may vary from a simple puncture of the pododerm to 
 chipping of the border of the os pedis, and is always accompa- 
 nied by bleeding, even though it may not always be noticed. 
 
 In indirect nailing the nail does not pass entirely through 
 the horn capsule, but very close to the sensitive tissues, and 
 crowds the soft horn inward against them. This inward bulging 
 presses upon the pododerm and causes inflammation and lame- 
 ness, which may not manifest themselves for several days. 
 
 Symptoms. — The first symptom of direct nailing is instant 
 pain indicated by flinching or a jerking of the limb, showing 
 that the nail has taken a wrong course, and then a more or less 
 profuse hemorrhage. IJisually the blood flows from the nail- 
 hole, or the nail when withdrawn may merely show a blood- 
 stain at its point; however, internal bleeding may occur with- 
 out any external manifestations. The symptoms of indirect 
 nailing are entirely different. In this case pain does not arise 
 immediately , but later, sometimes as soon as the horse attempts 
 to bear his weight upon the shod foot. In the latter case, on 
 holding up the opposite foot the animal sways backward and 
 throws his weight upon the holder, or becomes restless. As a 
 166 
 
HORSESHOEING. 167 
 
 rule, the consequences of indirect nailing are first manifested 
 after two or three days, infrequently from the eighth to the 
 fourteenth day, as inflammation within the hoof and lameness, 
 at which time a careful examination will usually reveal in- 
 creased warmth of the hoof, pain upon pressure with the hoofr 
 testers and on tapping tlie hoof lightly, some swelling of the 
 entire foot, increased pulsation of the digital arteries, and un- 
 willing-ness of the animal to place all or perhaps any of its 
 M'eight upon the foot. 
 
 Suspicion of nailing should be entertained if the shoeing 
 be recent, the hoof appear too small in relation to the body- 
 weight, the walls have been thinned by rasping or have been 
 broken away, or if the nails have been driven too high or very 
 irregularly. 
 
 Causes. — The most common causes are mistakes in shoeing. 
 In the majority of cases the cause is a disregard of the rule that 
 the nails should penetrate the white line (see pages 118, 119 
 and 130, heavy type). 1, Using badly-punched shoes; 2, excessive 
 paring and shortening of the hoof; 3, weakening of the lower 
 border of the wall by excessive rasping away of the outside 
 (Fig. 187, c) ; 4, mistakes in fitting the shoe, especially apply- 
 ing shoes that are too narrow, letting the toe-clips too deep 
 into the horn, by which the nail-holes near the toe, instead of 
 falling upon the white line, are carried back upon the edge of 
 the sole, or using shoes in which the nail-holes are too wide 
 or improperly directed ; 5, using nails that are split, incom- 
 plete, badly formed and bevelled, and too large; 6, starting 
 nails too deep or with the bevel on the outside, or drawing them 
 too tight. As occasional causes may be mentioned : 7, old nail- 
 stubs in the horn ; 8, walls that are very thin or broken away ; 
 9, a soft, crumbling wall, which alters the sound and feeling 
 of the nail as it is driven, and makes it difficult to judge of its 
 course ; 10, restlessness of the animal while being shod. 
 
 Examination. — Press with the hoof-testers upon the sole 
 and clinches ; tap lightly upon the clinches. If these acts cause 
 
168 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 pain, tliere can be little doubt that the nail is responsible for 
 the damage. Remove the shoe by drawing each nail separately 
 and carefully. Examine the nails with reference to their direc- 
 tion and size, as well as to staining with blood, blood-serum, 
 or pus. Immediately after removing the shoe, look for the 
 point of entrance of each nail into the hoof, and if a nail-hole 
 be found upon the edge of the sole (Fig. lS7,h) instead of in 
 the white line, it is highly probable that the nail which passed 
 
 Fig. 187. 
 
 Fig. 186 
 
 Cross-section of a shod hoof, the hoof-skin or 
 pododerm being in red: a, indirect nailing 
 where backsetting has been overdone and has 
 bent the nail; 6, nail properly placed and of 
 correct shape. 
 
 Front hoof deficient in horn: a, right 
 position of the nail-holes in the white 
 line; b, faulty position inside of the 
 white line; c, wall weakened by exces- 
 sive rasping. 
 
 in at that place pressed upon the sensitive tissues of the foot. 
 Every nail-hole should then be searched by passing a clean new 
 nail into it and pressing its point towards the soft tissues at 
 various depths; any indication of pain caused by this act is 
 pretty sure proof of nailing. It stands to reason that the 
 character of the nail-holes in the shoe should be closely 
 examined. 
 
 Treatment. — '\ATien the foot has sustained an ordinary 
 simple prick with a nail, the latter should be left out and the 
 hole well filled with wax. As a rule, no serious results follow. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 169 
 
 In severe direct nailing the entire shoeing should be most 
 carefully examined, and only after everything is found to be 
 right, and the shoe fits in such a manner that the nails can 
 only penetrate the wall from the white line, can it be regarded 
 as correct. The offending nail-hole is then to be closed with 
 wax. According to the intensity of the wound we may expect 
 a more or less pronounced inflammation of the pododerm, and 
 this is to be combated by resting the animal and cooling the 
 foot. 
 
 If the wound is clean and recent, enlarging the opening in 
 the horn by cutting and boring can have no reasonable object; 
 tlie wound by such an act will not be made smaller, but larger. 
 
 Frequently, however, the wound is not obser^-ed or suspected 
 until the pain has become very intense (indirect nailing, nail- 
 pressure) ; in such cases the offending nail when withdra"uni is 
 apt to be covered with pus or a dark, thin, ill-smelling liquid. 
 In such a case the liquid, whatever its nature may be, must be 
 given free escape. In order to accomplish this it is entirely 
 sufficient to cut away a section of the wall from the nail-hole 
 outward, not greater than the width of the little finger, and 
 then to assist in the discharge of the pus by placing the foot in 
 a warm bath ; it is entirely wrong, in fact, reprehensible, to 
 remove all horn of the wall and sole which has been loosened 
 from the soft parts by the suppurative proc^^ss. After the 
 escape of the inflammatory fluids, the wall and sole will form 
 the best-fitting and most suitable protective dressing for the 
 diseased region until it has secreted new horn. If, after re- 
 moval of the nail and pus, the pain does not diminish, warm 
 disinfecting baths of one to two parts of creolin, or the same 
 amount of lysol, to one hundred parts of water at a temperature 
 of about 90° F. will be of especial benefit ; they will not only 
 soften the honi, but by their moisture and warmth ^^^ll directly 
 diminish the pain and have a healing influence upon the sup- 
 purating surfaces. The warm baths must actually be loarm and 
 
170 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 be kept warm. Antiseptic solutions at room temperature are 
 much less efficient. 
 
 If the pain has not been very pronounced, or if it has been 
 greatly alleviated by two or three warm baths, then, as a rule, 
 it is sufficient to put a few drops of creolin upon the inflamed 
 surface, and to close the opening with oakum (carbolized oakum 
 or carbolized cotton is better). 
 
 The horse which has been nailed will be again perfectly 
 serviceable after a few days if shod with a shoe which does not 
 press upon the inflamed region. The shoe does not press when 
 it rests only upon the hearing-edge of the wall, when the white 
 line and the edge of the sole are entirely free of the shoe, and 
 no nails are driven in the immediate vicinity of the wound. 
 
 Even though, as we have seen, nailing in the great majority of 
 cases is not particularly serious to the horse and owner, yet we should 
 never forget that tetanus (lockjaw), a disease which is nearly always 
 fatal to horses, may follow. Nailing, however insignificant it may 
 seem, may under conditions lead to the death of the horse. 
 
 2. Street-Nail. 
 
 The condition caused by accidental injury of the sensitive 
 'structures covered by the homy sole, such as the velvety tissue 
 of the sole and frog, plantar cushion, perforans tendon, navicu- 
 lar bone, OS pedis, or the pedal articulation, by sharp objects, 
 especially nails, is called " penetrating street-nail," or simply 
 " street-nail." The resistance of the ground to the weight of 
 the body drives these penetrating objects through the sole or 
 frog into the foot. 
 
 Hind hoofs are more often affected than fore-hoofs. A 
 favorite point of entrance is the lateral lacuna of the frog. 
 Street-nail is favored by excessive thinning of the sole and 
 frog. 
 
 Symptoms. — The symptoms are, as a rule, sudden pain fol- 
 lowed by lameness. The first a^ssistance is usually sought in 
 the shoeing-shop. If the cause of lameness be found to be a 
 
HORSESHOEING. 171 
 
 penetrating nail, piece of glass, or other pointed foreign body, 
 it must be carefully drawn out, in doing which we should re- 
 move the entire object, not allowing pieces to break off and 
 remain in the wound. Since it is always important to know 
 in what direction and how deep the foreig-n body has penetrated, 
 in order to be able to estimate the gravity of the wound, it is 
 advisable in all cases -to presence tlie penetrating body, that it 
 may be shown to the veterinarian, in case his services are 
 required. 
 
 Fig. 188. 
 
 Shod hind foot, with splint dressing. 
 
 In slight injuries to the velvety tissue of the sole or frog, 
 accompanied with moderate pain, it is of no benefit to enlarge 
 the opening, though the horn of the sole or frog should be 
 thinned for the space of an inch or more around the wound, 
 followed by cooling applications. Deep, penetrating wounds 
 accompanied with intense pain require the attention of a veter- 
 inarian. 
 
172 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Often some form of dressing is necessar)', and this is usually 
 held in place hj a special shoe. For slight injuries, such 
 splint-dressings as are shown in Figs. 188 and 189 are sufficient. 
 Whether such a dressing be applied to the front or hind feet, 
 the shoe should be well concaved upon the hoof-surface. The 
 dressing is held in place by thin splints of tough wood, which 
 are firmly wedged between the shoe and hoof. 
 
 Fig. 189. 
 
 A practical "splint shoe" for hospital use 
 
 In those rare cases in which it is necessary to maintain 
 continuous pressure upon the seat of the wound, and to protect 
 the entire plantar surface of the hoof, a covered shoe (Figs. 
 190 and 191) is recommended. This shoe is provided with a 
 sheet-iron cover, having at the toe a spur which fits into a cor- 
 responding hole in the toe of the shoe, and fastened at the 
 heels by means of screw heel-calks. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 173 
 
 3. Calk Wounds of the Coronet. 
 
 All tread-wounds of the coronet, caused by the calks of the 
 opposite shoe, by the shoes of other horses, or by forging, are 
 knoA\Ti as calk wounds, or simply as " calking." The injury 
 itself is either a bruise or a bruised wound, followed by inflam- 
 mation of the coronary cushion and an interruption in the 
 formation of horn at that point. It occurs most often in winter 
 
 Fig. 190. 
 
 Fig. 191. 
 
 Shoe with cover-plate for street-nail treatment; suitable where pressure-dressing is de- 
 sired: a, hole in the bottom of the toe-calk for reception of spur, 6, of cover-plate; r, holes 
 for reception of screw-calks, rf, which fasten the cover-plate to the shoe. 
 
 from sharp calks, especially on the hind feet. The common 
 seat of the injury is the coronet of the toe and inner side of 
 the foot. 
 
 The inflammation terminates either in resolution — that is, 
 passes gradually away, leaving the tissues apparently normal — 
 or in suppuration. The perioplic horn-band, which is usually 
 loosened from the perioplic band by the injury, does not again 
 unite. For this reason, and because of the interruption in the 
 
174 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 formation of horn at the seat of injury, there results a trans- 
 verse depression or cleft in the wall. 
 
 The shoeing has to deal only with the lameness that may 
 he present as a result of the calking. The section of the wall 
 containing the lesion should be shortened, so that it will not 
 press upon the shoe. Serious calk wounds, as a rule, require 
 treatment by a veterinarian. 
 
 4. Corns (Bruised Sole). 
 
 The expression " corns " is applied to nearly all bruises of 
 the pododerm of the posterior half of the foot, with the excep- 
 tion of the frog, which are apparent to the eye as yellowish, 
 reddish, or bluish-red discolorations of the horn of the sole and 
 white line. 
 
 The surface of the pododerm (fleshy leaves and villi) is 
 chiefly involved, and almost without exception there is rupture 
 of small blood-vessels and an outpouring of blood between the 
 pododenn and the horn. The blood penetrates the horn-tubes 
 and causes the above-mentioned staining. By subsequent growth 
 of horn these stained patches are carried downward, and are 
 finally uncovered and brought to sight in paring the hoof. 
 
 T^e seat of corns is either on the fleshy leaves of the 
 quarters, or on the velvety tissue of the sole in the angle between 
 the wall and the bar, or on the fleshy leaves of the bars. Thus 
 we distinguish corns of the wall, sole, and bars. 
 
 Corns afi^ect chiefly the front hoofs, and more often the 
 inner half than the outer. Unshod feet are seldom affected. 
 
 According to the intensity of the lesions we distinguish : 
 
 1. Dry Corns. — The red^stained horn is dry, and there is 
 seldom lameness. 
 
 2. Suppurating Corns. — They are the result of intense 
 bruising followed by inflammation. The pus is either thin and 
 dark grayish in color, denoting a superficial inflammation of 
 the pododerm, or yellowish and thick, denoting a deep in- 
 
HORSESHOEING. 175 
 
 flammation of the pododerm. In the latter case a veterinariau 
 should be called. Lameness is usually pronounced. 
 
 3. Chronic Corns. — In this case there is vivid discoloration 
 of horn in all possible hues. The horn is either soft, moist, 
 and lardy, or crumbling, cracked, and at times bloody. The 
 inner surface of the horn capsule has lost its normal character, 
 and is covered with horny swellings or nodules (Fig. 192, a). 
 Sometimes the wing of the os pedis on tliat side has become 
 morbidly enlarged and loosened. A short, cautious gait alter- 
 nates with well-marked lameness; the latter appears whenever 
 the shoe presses too firmly on 
 the corn, or when the hoof be- 
 comes too dry. 
 
 The causes, aside from the 
 form and quality of the hoofs 
 and the position of the limbs, 
 lie in injudicious dressing of 
 the hoof and in faulty shoes. 
 Too much trimming of wide and 
 flat hoofs, excessive weakening ^^^^^ aspect of a quarter of a hoof, 
 
 ' 1 T_ J showing changes in the horn-leaves due to 
 
 of the quarters, sole, bars, and chronic corns: a, homy tumor resulting 
 j> J? n xi 1 c 1 •! ii from the disease. 
 
 irog 01 all other hoois, while the 
 
 toe is usually left too long, are the usual causes. Shortening one 
 quarter too much in relation to the other, so that the foot is un- 
 balanced and the lower side overloaded, is a frequent cause. 
 Hollowing the sole and bars excessively and unnecessary thinning 
 of the branches of the sole in the search for corns are also causes. 
 Among faulty shoes we may mention those not level on the 
 hoof-surface, trough-shaped, too short, in the branches, shoes 
 which do not completely cover the bearing-surface of the hoof, 
 or whose bearing-surface at the ends of the branches is directed 
 do-^Tiward and inward so that the quarters are squeezed to- 
 gether w^hen the weight is put on the foot. Insufficient con- 
 caving of the shoe is often an exciting cause of corns in flat feet 
 and in those with dropped soles. A well-formed shoe which 
 
176 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 does not rest firmly upon the hoof, or which has been shifted as 
 a result of careless nailing, may as readily cause bruising of 
 the quarters as neglected shoeing. The latter causes, as a rule, 
 corns of the sole. It is very rarely that corns are caused by 
 stones fastened between the frog and branches of the shoe or 
 in unshod hoofs by pebbles becoming wedged in the white line. 
 
 Dryness is particularly injurious to the hoofs, and is in the 
 highest degree favorable to the production of corns. It renders 
 the hoof stiff and inelastic, and first manifests itself by a 
 short, cautious (sore) gait when the horse is first put to work. 
 
 Treatment. — First, removal of the causes, by restoring the 
 proper form to the hoof through shortening a toe which is too 
 long (esi^ecially apt to be the case in acute-angled hoofs), cutting 
 down quarters wdiich are too high, and carefully removing all 
 dead horn from the branches of the sole, especially in acute- 
 angled hoofs. 
 
 Deeply digging out a small area of blood-stained horn is in- 
 jurious. It is much better to thin the horn of the entire branch 
 of the sole uniformly, in doing w^hich we should avoid wound- 
 ing the velvety tissue of the sole or drawdng blood. 
 
 The proper shoe is the bar-shoe, except when both carti- 
 lages are ossified. The pressure should not be taken from the 
 quarters unless they are sore. 
 
 When there is a suppurating corn, the shoe should be left 
 off several days. A chronic corn should be protected continu- 
 ously from pressure by the shoe. This is accomplished by 
 using a bar-shoe with leather sole. A three-quarter shoe is not 
 sufficient to properly protect a, hoof affected with a chronic com, 
 if the animal rtiust perform exacting labor on hard roads. 
 
 The care of the hoof consists in keeping it cool, moderately 
 moist, and pliant. 
 
 5. Inflammation of the Heels. 
 
 Inflammation of the bulbs of the plantar cushion (heels) is 
 usually caused by such external influences as bruising. It occurs 
 
HORSESHOEING. 177 
 
 in both shod aiid unshod feet. The symptoms are: increased 
 warmth, pain and swelling, sometimes infiltration of the tissues 
 with blood, accompanied by a short, cautious gait, or, if only 
 one foot is affected, by well-marked lameness. 
 
 The most frequent causes are: going barefoot upon hard 
 (frozen), uneven ground; shoeing hoofs having low heels with 
 flat shoes that are too- short ; sometimes too much frog-pressure 
 by the bar of a bar-shoe; forging and grabbing. 
 
 The treatment first indicated is a. cooling application in the 
 form of an ice-poultice, or a soaking in cold water. Later, 
 astringent (drying) applications are of benefit, especially if 
 the perioplic horn-ring has partially loosened from the bulbs of 
 the heels; for example, a weak solution in water of sulphate 
 of copper (1 to 20), followed by the application of a shoe 
 with heel-calks, which is quite long in the branches and which 
 must not press upon the luall of the quarters. 
 
 6. Laminitis (Founder). 
 
 By this name we designate a peculiar inflammation of the 
 pododenn at the toe. It arises suddenly in well-nourished and 
 apparently healthy horses, following excessive work or long- 
 continued rest in the stable, and frequently leads to a decided 
 change of form of the hoof. 
 
 The disease is always accompanied with intense pain. It 
 most often affects both front feet, more rarely all four feet, or 
 only one foot. In the first case the two front feet are planted 
 far in advance of the body, and the hind feet Avell forward under 
 the belly. When all four feet are affected, travelling is ex- 
 ceedingly difficult, often impossible ; in this case there is nearly 
 always a high fever over the entire body. 
 
 The seat of the disease is in the fle^shy leaves about the toe, 
 more rarely upon the side walls and quarters. Depending upon 
 the intensity of the inflammation, the fleshy leaves are more or 
 less loosened from the homy leaves, as a result of which there 
 is a change of position of the os pedis, with a simultaneous 
 12 
 
178 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 sinking of the coronet at tlie toe. This produces a change of 
 form of the hoof. The quarters become higher. Rings form 
 upon the wall, and their course is quite characteristic of the 
 disease. At the toe these rings are quite close to one anotlier, 
 but as they pass back toAvards the quarters they gradually 
 separate from one another and recede from the coronary band 
 (Figs. 193, 19i, and 195). 
 
 The wall at the toe is sunken just under the coronet; its 
 lower part, on the contrary, is thrust forward. Later, the white 
 
 Fig. 193. 
 
 Vertical longitudinal section of a foot altered by chronic laminitis: o, hollow wall at toe 
 thrust forward; h, leafy layer much thickened and crumbling ("seedy-toe"); c, dotted line 
 showing limit to which the toe may be rasped away in shoeing; d, dropped sole; e, atrophy 
 of lower sharp edge of os pedis; g, dotted line indicating the height of the perioplic band; h, 
 foot axis. 
 
 line becomes pathologically ividened. The horn of the white 
 line is dry, crumbling, and easily broken down, so that a break 
 in continuity (crack) is apt to occur between the wall and sole, 
 and lead to the formation of a hollow wall ("seedy toe"). 
 Where the inflammation is moderate and is not repeated, healing 
 usually takes place and the horn grows down regularly and in 
 normal direction from the coronet. However, a rather brittle 
 condition of the horn remains permanently. If, on the con- 
 trary, the inflammation was very severe or repeated several 
 times, the homy sole becomes flat just in front of the point of 
 the frog as a result of the sinking of the os pedis, or it may even 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 179 
 
 drop below the level of the wall (full hoof, dropped sole). In- 
 deed, it even happens at times that the toe of the os pedis per- 
 forates the horny sole just in front of the point of the frog. 
 
 Fig. 194. 
 
 Fig. 195. 
 
 Foundered foot (chronic laminitis), before 
 dressing. 
 
 Foundered foot, dressed and shod. The 
 dotted lines indicate its form before being 
 dressed, — i.e., as shown in Fig. 194. 
 
 The wall at the toe, which was previously but little altered in 
 form, is now tlirust prominently forward. 
 
 The inflammation of the j^ododerm may under certain con- 
 ditions and by skilful veter- 
 inary treatment be removed, 
 so that the characteristic 
 changes of form and quality 
 of the hoof will not occur. 
 But if this is not accom- 
 plished, as is often the case, 
 the disease will be obstinate, 
 and permanent morbid 
 changes of the horn capsule 
 take place. 
 
 A horse in such a con- 
 dition can be used, but tlie 
 
 gait will be short and stiff. The hoofs are shuffled forward and 
 set heels first to the ground, a manner of travelling that rapidly 
 wears away the branches of the shoe. 
 
 In dreissing a foundered hoof the outer circumference of 
 
 A hoof altered by chronic laminitis; shod with 
 an open flat shoe: a, wall at the toe does not 
 bear on the shoe; 6, clip at the end of the branch 
 to oppose the tendency of the shoe to slip for- 
 ward when half worn out. 
 
180 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 the sole is the giiide. The thick projecting wall at the toe may- 
 be removed with the rasp without injuring the foot.. The sole 
 should be spared, but the quarters should be lowered to improve 
 the setting of the foot to the gTound. 
 
 The choice of the shoe will depend upon the shape and 
 nature of the sole. If this is still concave, an ordinary shoe 
 may be used. If, however, the sole is flat or dropped, it must 
 be protected by an open shoe with a broad web, or with a 
 
 Fig. 197. 
 
 A well-covered (wide-webbed) bar-shoe, 
 with two lateral toe-clips and an end-clip, 
 for a foundered foot. 
 
 An open shoe for a foundered foot with 
 dropped sole. 
 
 bar-shoe (Eig. 197), which is of especial value when the bear- 
 ing-edge of the wall is weak or broken away. 
 
 As long as there is pain on pressure about the toe there 
 should be no toe-clip, but two side-clips. The wall between 
 these clips should be lowered a tenth to an eighth of an inch 
 to prevent pressure of the shoe upon the sensitive tissues of 
 the toe (Fig. 195). The nails should be as small as possible 
 and placed well back towards the quarters. No nail should be 
 driven in. the wall at the toe when there is separation of sole 
 and wall at the toe (hollow wall, seedy-toe). 
 
 The shoes of horses affected with founder often work 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 181 
 
 forward as a result of the animals travelling upon tlieir heels. 
 To prevent this evil, clips may be raised at the ends of the 
 branches of an open shoe, or one clip in the middle of the bar, 
 in case a bar-shoe is used (Fig. 197). 
 
 Fig. 199. 
 
 7. Keraphyllocele (Horn Tumor). 
 
 A keraphyllocele is a more or less sharijly bounded horn tumor 
 projecting from the inner surface of the wall. 
 
 Its occurrence is rare. Its favorite seat is at tlie toe. It rarely 
 causes lameness. It can only be diagnosed 
 with certainty when it extends doAvnward 
 to the lower border of the wall. In this 
 case there may be seen a half-moon-shaped 
 thickening of the white line which rounds 
 inward upon the edge of the sole, and is 
 of a waxen color. Frequently the horn 
 at this place crumbles away, lea\'ing a 
 more or less dark-colored cavity from 
 which there sometimes escapes a small 
 quantity of dark-gi-ayish pus. 
 
 Causes. — Chronic inflammation of the 
 podophyllous tissue, resulting from com- 
 pression or bruising. Keraphyllocele fre- 
 quently follows a complete toe-crack of 
 long duration, or a deep calk-wound at the 
 coronet. 
 
 Prognosis. — Unfavorable, whether there 
 is lameness or not. If there is no lame- 
 ness it is vei-y apt to arise later, and if 
 lameness is already present it can only be ^hoVng t KelpTy'LL^YhoS! 
 
 removed by an operation, which should be leaf tumor): o, coronary border; 
 
 performed by a veteHnarian. A i-etum of J; ^Lrertutorpr^^enl^n" funnel: 
 the lameness following hard work at a trot shaped opening discharging pus. 
 upon hard roads is always to be feared. 
 
 Shoeing. — An ordinary shoe well concaved underneath the inflamed 
 region, which should be relieved of all pressure.* 
 
 * Should lameness persist, it will be necessary to remove a strip of 
 the wall from the plantar border to the coronet in order to remove the 
 horn tumor. The fleshy leaves which have secreted the tumor must be 
 extirpated and the surface of the os pedis well scraped, or the growth 
 will return. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 DEFECTS OF THE HOOF. 
 
 A. Changes of Form. 
 
 1. The Flat and the Full Hoof (Dropped Sole). 
 
 (a) Flat Hoof. — A flat hoof is one whose toe and side walls 
 are inclined very obliquely to the ground surface, and whose 
 sole is on a level with the bearing-surface of the wall. 
 
 It exists most often in horses bred in low-lying, marshy 
 countries. 
 
 Frequently the frog is well developed, and projects con- 
 siderably beyond the level of the wall. The branches of the 
 sole sink perceptibly under the weight of the body, much more 
 than in better-formed hoofs. 
 
 Preparing the Hoof for the Shoe. — The rule is to spare the 
 plantar surface of the foot. After removing from the sole 
 
 what little loose horn there 
 may be, level the usually defi- 
 cient bearing-surface of the 
 wall with the rasp. The outer 
 border of the wall, especially 
 at the toe, should be rounded 
 off rather more strongly than 
 usual, because the toe requires 
 and will bear considerable 
 shortening. Outward bend- 
 insufficient height of bearing-edge of wall and Jj^^g ^f ^^^ Jo^gj. border of the 
 therefore a corresponding downward and in- " 
 
 ward inclination of the bearing-surface of wall should bc rcmOVed aS far 
 the shoe. . . • i i 
 
 as it IS practicable to do so. 
 The shoe, which should be rather wider in the web and 
 thicker than usual, should have its bearing-surface shaped to 
 182 
 
 Cross-section of a shod flat foot: 
 ciently high bearing-edge of wall, and a 
 horizontal bearing-surface on the shoe; b, 
 
HORSESHOEING. 183 
 
 correspond to the bearing-surface of the wall; that is, if the 
 bearing-surface of the wall is below the margin of the sole (the 
 sole of the foot being uppermost), then the bearing-surface of 
 the shoe should incline downward and inward (Fig. 200, b). 
 The beaj-ing-surface of the branches, however, must always re- 
 main horizontal. The shoe always requires deep concaving, 
 especially along the inner branch of the sole. If the quarters 
 are weak, the walls defective, or there are corns, cracks, loose 
 walls, or other diseases of the hoof, a bar-shoe should be selected. 
 
 (6) Full Hoof (Dropped Sole). — A full hoof is one whose 
 sole instead of being concave is convex, — ^that is, bulges beyond 
 the bearing-surface of the wall. It either arises gradually from 
 a flat hoof or is the result of laminitis (founder). In full hoofs 
 the lower surface of the os pedis is of the same shape as the 
 horny sole. 
 
 The preparation of a full hoof for the shoe consists merely 
 in removing all loose horn. In case the dropping of the sole is 
 very pronounced, the bearing surface of the Avail should be built 
 up artificially with Defay's hoof cement. The shoe should be 
 light, but broad in the web, and furnished vnth. a more or less 
 deep concaving, which extends from the inner edge of the web 
 to the outer edge of the shoe, and corresponds in shape to the 
 bulging of the sole. By reason of the deficiency of the wall, 
 the bar-shoe deserves the preference over an open shoe. It is 
 frequently necessary to apply toe- and heel-calks to remove the 
 hoof from contact with the groimd. The nails should he thinner 
 and longer than usual, and a more secure position of the shoe 
 may 1^ secured without injury to the hoof by drawing up two 
 side-clips. 
 
 Flat and full hoofs are incurable. Shoeing is of benefit 
 only in rendering such horses serviceable. Soles that are soft 
 and sensitive should be smeared vrith crude turpentine or pine- 
 tar, though unusual sen'sitiveness calls for a leather sole. 
 Horses with full hoofs should not be driven faster than a walk 
 over hard roads. During long-continued spells of wet weather 
 
184 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Fig. 201. 
 
 Upright I 
 
 stumpy hoof, shod with a 
 "tip." 
 
 2. It arises also as 
 
 softening of these hoofs should be prevented by smearing the 
 soles with a hoof-ointinent containing resin. 
 
 2. The Upright or Stumpy Hoof. 
 
 The upright or stumpy hoof is that form in which the 
 quarters, with relation to the toe, are 
 too long (too high). The wall at the 
 toe stands very steep, in some cases 
 perpeaidicular, and is strongly worn 
 away by standing and travelling. 
 
 Causes. — 1. The upright hoof is 
 peculiar to tlie " standing under " 
 position (Fig. 53, page QQ) and to 
 the so-called bear-foot (Fig. 70, 
 page 12). 
 result of all those alterations in the 
 
 direction of the limbs wdiich tend to remove the quarters from 
 
 contact with the ground (con- 
 
 fir 20*? 
 
 traction of the flexor tendons, • "" 
 
 spavin,— Fig. 202). 
 
 3. It may arise gradually 
 from neglect of the hoofs of 
 horses running barefoot. 
 
 4. It may arise from ex- 
 cessive shortening of the toe 
 in relation to the quarters. 
 
 Shoeing. — The forms of 
 hoofs mentioned in class 1 
 should be left as they are. 
 The hoofs that fall under 
 class 2 should be dressed and 
 shod until a more natural 
 
 setting down of the foot is secured. This is brought about by 
 sparing the quarters, and applying a shoe wath thickened 
 branches or with heel-calks. ^ATiere the service of the animal is 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 185 
 
 exacting and uj^on hard streets, the toes, especially of the hind 
 shoes, may be made more durable by welding in steel plates. 
 Besides, the shoe should be moderately hase-wide around the 
 toe, — that is, should be bevelled downward and outward, should 
 have a strong toe-clip, and should be quite concave at the toe and 
 rolled. (Figs. 203 and 204). Should the hoof tip fonvard 
 whenever the weight is thro%vn upon the limb, a shoe with a 
 
 Fig. 203. 
 
 Fig. 204. 
 
 Shoe for stumpy hoofs, ^■iewed from ground-surface, hoof-surface, and in profile. 
 
 spur projecting from the centre of the toe, and turning back and 
 pressing upon the wall just underneath the coronary band, will 
 be of ser\'ice (Fig. 202). 
 
 Only those upright hoofs which are the result of the causes 
 mentioned in 3 and 4 are to be dressed as ordinary hoofs, and 
 if the service required is not too exacting they should be shod 
 with tips (Fig. 201), or with shoes with thinned branches. 
 
 3. The Coxtracted Hoof. 
 
 A hoof ichich has deviated from its normal form in such a 
 mminer that its posterior half, either in part or as a whole, is 
 too narroiu, is a contra<:ted hoof. The walls of the quarters 
 assume an abnormally oblique direction downward and inward 
 towards the median line of the hoof. 
 
186 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Fig. 205. 
 
 ^Yhen contraction affects only one quarter, it is called wii- 
 lateral contraction, or abnormal wryness (Fig. 211). 
 
 The buttresses are usually very much prolonged and press 
 upon the frog and cause it to shrink. The bars no longer run in 
 the natural straight direction from the point of the frog back- 
 ward and outward, but describe a circle passing outward, back- 
 ward, and inward. 
 
 Contraction affects front feet, especially those of the acute- 
 angled form, more often than hind 
 feet. In order to determine whether 
 or not a hoof is too narrow, we 
 should always examine the frog 
 and its lateral lacunse. If the frog 
 is small and narrow, and the lateral 
 lacimse very narrow and deep, there 
 can be no doubt but that the hoof is 
 too narrow (contracted). 
 
 The causes, aside from too little 
 exercise, are chiefly errors in shoe- 
 ing, such as weakening the posterior 
 half of the hoof, leaving too long a 
 toe, either neglecting to remove the 
 
 A fore-hoof with bilateral contrac- SpurS of hom wllich grOW frOm the 
 tion of the quarters: a, spur of horn -i ,. i j.1, j? ™ 
 
 prolonged from the buttress, which buttresscs and press upou the ±rog, 
 L°cunrorthe^fror' ^' ""^""^ "^^'^'^'^ ^^ removing them incompletely, and 
 using shoes whose branches are 
 either too wide apart or are inclined do^vnward and inward, 
 so that imder the weight of the body the heels are squeezed 
 together and contraction is favored. 
 
 Prevention and Treatment. — First, it should be borne in 
 mind that whatever exercises moderate pressure upon the sole, 
 frog, and bars tends to expand the hoof. The action and value 
 of the various shoes, frog-, and sole-pads, are measured by this 
 rule. For this reason a shoe with heel-calks is never advisable 
 if an open flat shoe without other means of relief can be used. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 187 
 
 Fig. 206. 
 
 Furthermore, since contraction is the parent of nearly all dis- 
 eases of the hoof (corns, quarter-cracks, bar-cracks, thrush of 
 the frog) , we should use the greatest care to prevent it by dress- 
 ing the hoof as described on pages 98 to 103, using flat shoes 
 with a horizontal bearing-surface for the quarters, giving 
 abundant exercise, preventing drying out of the horn, and 
 allowing the animal to go barefoot when- 
 ever possible. Where the contraction is 
 hut slight the foregoing rules will be 
 found sufficient. 
 
 In very pronounced contraction, 
 where the hoof is not acute-angled, an 
 expansive shoe with clips raised at the 
 ends of the branches to press against the 
 buttresses may prove very advantageous ; 
 but under no conditions should violence 
 be used in expanding the heels with the 
 expanding-screw. This is an act of ex- 
 treme delicacy, and should be performed 
 only by experienced veterinarians. 
 
 In very pronounced contraction of 
 one or both quarters of hoofs of every 
 degree of obliquity we may obtain a con- 
 tinuous expansive action by the use of 
 one of the numerous V-shaped springs, 
 of which the Chadwich spring is the best 
 (Fig. 207 and 208). After levelling th^°u:niro^t^off^a^'S 
 the wall and thinning the branches of the ^^'t:'^lX:^^i^ 
 sole, the points of the spring are set s^°^: ^' ^'""^'^ ^^^ expanding 
 
 I ^ "^ ^ the Defay's shoe. 
 
 against the buttresses, the apex of the 
 
 spring moved to and fro till the points have bored well into 
 the horn, when the apex is laid against the sole at the toe, the 
 sole filled with tar and oakum and covered by a leather sole, 
 and a bar-shoe applied. If the contraction be less pronounced, 
 or if the frog be much shrunken we may place a Chadwick 
 
188 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 spring beneath a rubber bar-pad with a short shoe. The spring 
 may be stiffened from shoeing to shoeing, first by introducing 
 the ferrule at the apex of the spring and later by shifting the 
 ferrule toward the shoulder (Figs. 207, h, and 208, h). 
 For contracted hoofs of the acute-an/^led form we use the 
 bar-shoe, and if there are other diseases of the hoof present, or 
 if we wish a more rapid and continuous expansive action, we 
 use also a leather sole with foot-packing with or without a 
 
 Fig. 208. 
 
 Fig. 207. 
 
 The Chadwick spring for expanding 
 contracted quarters: a, apex of spring; 
 b, ferrule to stiffen the spring; c, point 
 which is buried in a buttress of the hoof. 
 
 A fore-hoof showing a Chad^-ick spring in 
 proper position: o, Chadwick spring; b, ferrule 
 to stiffen spring as desired; c, uncompressed 
 spring before it has been engaged against the 
 buttresses; d, buttresses in which points of 
 spring are buried. 
 
 buttress spring. A foul frog should be properly cleansed, and 
 then disinfected A^th pine-tar thinned with alcohol or crude 
 wood-vinegar (pyroligneous acid). 
 
 Further curative measures are : turning the horse out with- 
 out shoes (expensive and seldom practicable); applying tips; 
 using shoes the bearing-surface of whose branches inclines 
 downward and outward (unilateral contraction requires but one 
 branch to be so constructed) ; hoof-pads of rubber (Figs. 145, 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 189 
 
 Fig. 209. 
 
 146, and 147), straw, rope, cork, hoof -cement, etc. Special 
 forms of contraction are distinguished, and are as follows: 
 
 (a) The Contraction of Wide Hoofs. — This contraction is 
 manifest as a concavity or gi-oove in the wall just below the 
 coronet, usually at the quarters, though sometimes extending 
 entirely around the foot parallel to the coronary band (Fig. 
 209). Pain is produced in the contracted area by lightly 
 tapping the horn, but not by moderate pressure with the hoof- 
 testers. 
 
 Green horses witli wdde hoofs, just from the pasture, are 
 particidarly liable to this form of 
 contraction. As a rule, the lameness 
 does not disappear completely until 
 the wall has assumed its natural, 
 straight direction by growing down 
 properly from the coronary band. 
 
 In dressing the hoof and apply- 
 ing the bar-shoe, care must be taken 
 that the lower border of the wall 
 underneath the painful area is 
 lowered so much that it will not 
 receive direct pressure from the shoe. 
 
 (6) Contraction of the Sole. — 
 This is accompanied by an unnatural .^^^^-^^^ toad'^Tai.o'^ 
 
 direction of the wall. Instead of the Kroove in each quarter, and dis- 
 
 appearing toward the toe. 
 
 wall being straight from the coronet 
 
 to the shoe, it describes a curve whose convexity is outward 
 (keg-shaped, claw-shaped when seen from the side) (Fig. 210). 
 The hoof seems constrict>ed (tied in) at the coronet and at its 
 plantar border, the sole is abnormally concave (arched), and 
 the plantar surface of the hoof is considerably shortened 
 from toe to heel. It happens in both shod and unshod 
 horses, with otherwise strong hoofs, but is quite rare. It is 
 occasionally associated A\'ith navicular bursitis ("navicular 
 disease "). 
 
190 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Fig. 210. 
 
 Causes. — Principally dryness, too little exercise, and shoes 
 without horizontal bearing-surface. 
 
 The treatment is correspondingly simple : The shoes should 
 be flat, fitted full all around to coax the wall out at every point, 
 and the outer border bevelled base-wide, so as to furnish a base 
 
 of support that is mder and 
 longer than the hoof. In 
 moderate contraction of the 
 sole, the bearing-surface of 
 the shoe should be perfectly 
 horizontal, but if the con- 
 traction be very pronounced, 
 the entire bearing-surface 
 should incline downward 
 and outward (even at the 
 toe). No toe- or side-clip 
 should be used. The shoe 
 should be reset ©very two 
 weeks ; the sole kept so thin 
 by paring that it will spring under thumb pressure, and kept 
 moist by washing, tubbing or " stopping," and the animal given 
 moderate exercise daily. 
 
 In all forms of contraction of the hoof abundant exercise and 
 the maintenance of the natural 'pliancy of the horn hy daily 
 moistening (washing) with water are absolutely necessary for 
 successful treatment. 
 
 4. The Wky Hoof. 
 
 If one side wall and quarter is steep, and the other very 
 slanting or oblique, we term such a hoof a " wry hoof." Such 
 a hoof divided in the middle line presents two very dissimilar 
 halves. There are three classes of wry hoofs : 1, normal wry 
 hoofs (see Figs. 63-66) ; 2, pathological wry hoofs, or hoofs con- 
 tracted in one quarter (see contracted hoofs) ; 3, wry hoofs 
 which are the result of improper shortening of the wall and 
 of neglect in horses running barefoot. 
 
 A fore-hoof with a contracted sole, properly 
 shod: a, toe convex in profile; 6, shoe fitted full all 
 around, and "bearing-surface" inclining outward; 
 c, outer border bevelled base-wide. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 191 
 
 Fig. 211. 
 
 Only the second and third classes of wry hoofs require 
 especial attention. First, the more oblique wall must be cut 
 down, and the steep wall spared, — a procedure which differs 
 essentially from that employed in treating the first class, but 
 is, nevertheless, entirely warranted, because these second and 
 third kinds of wry hoofs do not correspond to the direction 
 of the limb. 
 
 In order to take weight from the steep wall, we use with 
 advantage a bar-shoe, which should be longer and ^^dder than 
 the hoof on its contracted 
 side. In other words, enlarge 
 the base of support by mak- 
 ing the branch of the shoe 
 broader. If an entire side 
 wall and quarter is con- 
 tracted the branch of the shoe 
 beneath must be broad, the 
 border bevelled base-wide. 
 and the branch punched so 
 deeply that the nail-holes 
 will fall upon the white line. 
 
 In old work-horses any 
 sort of shoe may be used, 
 
 A wry right front foot of the base-wide class, 
 viewed from behind. The bar shoe is fitted 
 full along the contracted inner quarter, and 
 though a flat shoe serves the snug on the outside. The inner branch of the 
 
 ° _ ^ frog rests upon the bar of the shoe; the outer 
 
 ig branch is free. The inner quarter from the last 
 nail back to the frog is free of the shoe. 
 
 purpose best If a hoof 
 
 wry from faulty paring, and 
 
 we cannot at once completely restore the proper relative slant 
 
 of the two walls by paring alone, we may use a shoe with 
 
 a thicker branch for the half of the hoof which is too low 
 
 (too steep). 
 
 In colts such wry hoofs can often be cured only by shoeing. 
 The shoe employed for this purpose is "SO made that the branch 
 imdemeath the steep (contracted) wall is quite thick, but gradu- 
 ally thins away aroimd the toe to the end of the other branch. 
 In strongly marked cases the thin branch may end at tlie middle 
 
192 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 of the side wall (a three-quarter shoe). This method of shoe- 
 ing shifts the body-weight upon the slanting wall and restores 
 the foot to its proper shape in from two to four shoeings. 
 
 Causes. — Unequal distribution of the weight in the inner 
 and outer halves of the foot, in conjunction with excessive 
 cutting do^^^l or wear of the steeper wall. All faults in shoeing 
 which tend to produce contraction of the heels aid in the forma- 
 tion of a wry foot, especially when these faults directly affect 
 the steep wall. Neglect of the colt's hoofs during the first 
 years of life frequently lays the basis for wry foot in later 
 years. All wry feet are more susceptible to disease than others. 
 
 The amount or degree of wryness varies considerably. In a 
 moderately developed case the steep wall (usually the inner) 
 will be drawn in at the plantar border of the quarter, presenting 
 a convex surface between this border and the coronet, and the 
 adjacent branch of the frog ^vill be more or less shrunken. In 
 extreme cases the slanting wall (usually the outer) will also be 
 involved and bent in the opposite direction, — i.e., will be con- 
 cave (dished) between coronet and lower border (crooked hoof). 
 
 Prognosis. — ^^Tien the degree of wrvness corresponds to the 
 slant of the foot-axis and the old shoe shows nearly uniform 
 wear, the defect is not directly injurious. In very pronounced 
 " wryness," however, with thin, bent walls, a number of asso- 
 ciated lesions, such as corns and cracks, may be present and 
 render the animal unfit for service upon paved or macadam 
 roads. 
 
 5. The Crooked Hoof. 
 
 A crooked hoof (Fig. 212) is one whose walls (viewed from 
 in front or behind) do not pass in a straight, natural direction 
 from the coronet to the ground, but are bent in such a manner 
 that the bearing-surface of the wall in relation to the foot axis 
 lies either too far out or in. 
 
 It may occur on any foot, but is seldom strongly marked. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 193 
 
 Fig. 212. 
 
 Causes. — The causes are either long-continued leaving of 
 one-half of the wall too high, or the use of shoes shaped for 
 normal feet upon hoofs of the base-wide position. 
 
 The principal part of the treatment is the proper dressing 
 of the hoof. The wall which is bent out at the middle and 
 drawn in at the plantar border is, as a rulcj too high and too 
 near the centre of tKe foot (too narrow) ; the opposite wall, 
 on the contrary, is too low 
 and too far from the centre 
 of the foot (too wide). This 
 explains the manner in which 
 the hoof should be cut down 
 and rasped. The shoe must 
 be laid out as far as possible 
 towards the side which is 
 too high and narrow. A 
 straight edge placed against 
 the high wall touches it only 
 at its middle. The distance 
 of this line from the lower 
 edge of the wall shows us how 
 far the surface of support — 
 namely, the shoe — should be 
 
 set out beyond the horn. If a crooked right fore-hoof of the base-wide 
 
 , • 1 J. J T_ 1 J position: a, convex wall, too high; b, concave 
 
 the straight edge be placed wall, too low; cd shows how much of the outer 
 
 J. J.L, „ 'j- ,„„n '-I- wall must be removed with the hoof-knife; 
 
 agamst the opposite wall, it y^ superfluous horn to be removed gradually 
 
 will touch only at the coronet ^th the rasp; ce and ff;.indi^cate the position 
 
 •^ of the shoe with relation to the hoof. 
 
 and at the plantar border, 
 
 showing that the wall is concave. The distance of the mid- 
 dle of this wall from the straight edge shows us how 
 much too wide this half of the wall is at its plantar 
 border, and how much of the outer surface of the wall at its 
 plantar border should be removed with the rasp. The restora- 
 tion of a crooked hoof to its normal form requires several 
 
 13 
 
194 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 6. Ossification of the Lateral Cartilage (Side-Boxe). 
 
 The ossification of a lateral cartilage (Fig. 213) consists in 
 a cliange of the cartilage into bone. Heavy horses are more 
 frequently affected than lighter ones. It most often involves 
 the outer cartilages of tlie forefeet, seldom both cartilages. 
 Side-bones always interfere with the physiological movements 
 of the foot, and may, indeed, entirely suppress them. 
 
 The disease can only be diagnosed with certainty after the 
 upper part of the cartilage has ossified. The coronet is then 
 
 rather prominent (bulging), 
 ^'°- 2^^- and feels hard. The gait is 
 
 short and cautious, and well- 
 marked lameness often follows 
 severe work. As causes, may 
 be mentioned predisposition in 
 heavy lymphatic horses, and 
 violent concussion or shock due 
 to fast work upon hard roads. 
 The disease is incurable. 
 
 A special method of shoe- 
 
 A left fore os pedis viewed in profile, show- . . ■. i j.i 
 
 ing ossification of the external lateral carti- "Ig IS Only nCCCSSary whcu the 
 lage: a dotted line shows normal line of union ^ cartilage is OSsificd and 
 
 of cartilage with wing of os pedis; 6, ossined t?^ 
 
 portion ("side bone"). The unossified car- -^l^g quarter UpOU that sido is 
 tilage has been removed by maceration. i « c 
 
 contracted. After removing 
 the old shoe, whose outer branch is, as a rule, more worn away 
 than the inner, the outer wall will always be found too high, 
 due to the fact that there has been little or no expansion 
 and contraction in this quarter and, therefore, little or no wear 
 of the horn against the shoe. The hoof is therefore wry, — on 
 the outside too high, and on the inside too low. This shows 
 us how the foot should be dressed so as to obtain a proper 
 base of support and a uniform wear of the shoe. The most 
 suitable shoe is a flat shoe, whose out.er branch must be wider 
 than the inner. It is so applied that the inner branch fol- 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 195 
 
 lows the edge of the wall closely, Avhile the outer branch must 
 be full and at the quarter must extend beyond the wall far 
 enough to touch a perpendicular line dropped from the coronet 
 (Fig. 215). The shoe must, therefore, be punched deep (coarse) 
 on the outer branch and fine on the inner, A side-clip must be 
 
 Fig. 214. 
 
 Fig. 215. 
 
 Right fore-hoof whose form has changed 
 as a result of ossification of the external lat- 
 eral cartilage. 
 
 Shoe with broad outer branch, for the 
 hoof shown in the preceding cut. 
 
 placed on the outer branch, because in time the outer half of the 
 the hoof will again be too high. Bar-shoes and rubber-pads are 
 injurious when both cartilages are ossified, but may be used 
 w^hen there is partial ossification of but one cartilage, especially 
 if corns are present. 
 
 B. Disturbances of Continuity of the Hoof. 
 1. Ceacks. 
 
 Interruptions of continuity of the wall extending in the 
 direction of the horn-tubes are known as cracks or seams. They 
 have, according to their location, degree, and extent, not only 
 various names, but also a varying significance. 
 
196 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Fig. 216. 
 
 Occurrence.-^On. the inner side of front hoofs, especially of 
 horses that stand base-mde ; on hind hoofs, usually at the toe. 
 Classification. — According to location we distinguish toe- 
 cracks, side-cracks, quarter-cracks, and bar-cracks. Those 
 cracks which affect only tlie upper border of the hoof are called 
 coronary cracJcs; those which are limited to the lower border of 
 the hoof are sometimes designated low cracTcs (plantar cracks) ; 
 while those which are continuous from one border to the other 
 are called complete cra-cJcs. If the crack passes through the 
 entire thickness of the wall to the sensitive tissues imdemeath, 
 it is called a deep or penetrating 
 crach, in contradistinction to the 
 superficial erack (Fig. 216). 
 
 Causes. — There are many. Be- 
 sides wounds of the coronet, every- 
 thing that impairs the elasticity of 
 the horn, weakens the hoof, and 
 causes an overloading of one-half of 
 the hoof. Furthenuore, great dry- 
 ness and excessive work on hard 
 streets. 
 Prognosis. — This will depend upon the age, kind, and loca- 
 tion of the crack. A low crach is without significance unless 
 it is the remnant of an old coronary crack which has gro^\Ti 
 do\\Ti. Coronary cracks, on the contrary, are more serious be- 
 cause of the lameness which often accompanies them, and 
 especially on account of the long duration of the healing process. 
 The borders of the crack never grow together, and healing 
 can only take place through healthy, unbroken horn growing 
 down from the coronary band. 
 
 {a) Treatment of Coronary and Bar-Cracks. — If practic- 
 able, allow the affected horse to go barefoot; otherwise, the 
 use of the bar-shoe for all cracks is advised, because it will 
 continuously protect the diseased section of wall from pressure 
 by the shoe. If there are present still other diseases of the 
 
 Hoof exhibiting a coronary crack, a 
 plantar or low crack, and a complete 
 deep crack, the latter with a nail ready 
 to be clinched. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 197 
 
 hoof (corns, contraction, flat or full hoof), the addition of a 
 leather sole with packing will be most beneficial, not only in 
 favoring the healing of the crack, but also in improving the 
 form of the hoof and in favoring the cure of the other lesions. 
 In all coronary cracks it is of advantage to assist healing by 
 fastening or immobilizing the borders of the crack by one of the 
 following methods : - 
 
 1. By rivets (nails), which pass across the crack through 
 holes previously drilled in the horn (Fig. 217). 
 
 2. By clamps or hooks, which by means of special pincers 
 are forced into pockets previously burnt into the horn on 
 opposite sides of the crack (Fig. 219, B). 
 
 3. By a thin iron plate placed across the crack and secured 
 by small screws, such as are used in wood (Figs. 220, 221). 
 
 4. By means of a bandage to last one shoeing. 
 
 Toe-crack occurs most often in draught-horses and most fre- 
 quently in the hind feet. In shod hoofs it starts at the coronary 
 border, and unless proper treatment is instituted soon reaches 
 the plantar border. Long toes and low quarters and excessive 
 dryness of the horn are predisposing causes. The exciting 
 cause is usually for^vard pressure of the upper end of the 
 'short pastern against the thin upper edge of the wall of the 
 toe. In the last part of the phase of contact of hoof with 
 ground the pasterns are upright, or may even incline do^\mward 
 and backward (foot axis broken strongly backward), the short 
 pastern presses the coronary band firmly against the upper thin 
 edge of the toe, when *if brittle through dryness it is unable to 
 stretch and tears asunder. Thus, under the effort of starting 
 a heavy load, when a horse with all four legs flexed has risen 
 upon the points of his toes, a short quick slip followed by a 
 catch, vnW frequently start a crack at the coronet. 
 
 The hoof should be so dressed and shod that the foot-axis 
 shall be straight when seen from the side. In hind feet it is 
 admissible to break the foot axis slightly fonvard. Therefore, 
 shorten the toe and spare the quartetrs. If the latter are 
 
198 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 deficient in length, raise tliem by swelling the branches or by- 
 low heel-calks. 
 
 The shoe may be open, or a bar-shoe, or a short shoe with 
 a rubber frog- and buttress-pad. Whatever expands the quarters 
 
 closes a toe-crack. The Defay's 
 ^^^^^^^ ^'.""i.^^^: .,,^. shoe (Fig. 206), or the Chad- 
 
 wick spring beneath a rubber- 
 pad, or beneath a bar-shoe with 
 leather sole, if the frog be much 
 shrunken, will be of service. The 
 shoe should fit air-tight, except 
 for an inch or so on botli sides 
 of the crack. Two lateral toe- 
 clips (Fig. 217) are drawn up, 
 and the wall between these clips 
 is cut down from a twelfth to an 
 eighth of an inch. 
 
 After the shoe has been nailed 
 on tight the toe-crack should be 
 immobilized. The best method 
 is by buried nails. Slots are burned or cut on opposite sides 
 at a distance of an inch from the crack. With a spiral drill 
 (see Fig. 218) bore a hole from a slot at right angles to the 
 
 Toe-crack immobilized by lateral toe- 
 clips: a, bearing-surface left free from 
 pressure; b, heads of the rivets (nails) 
 driven through holes previously drilled. 
 
 Fig. 218. 
 
 uu/7r7 rm^^z^r^. 
 
 Spiral drill for boring the hole into which a round wire nail is driven to fasten a toe-crack, 
 (a) three sided point of drill (similar to the point of a stilet of a csecal trocar). 
 
 crack. Make a similar hole on the opposite side. Make the 
 holes continuous by introducing a straight hot wire. The rivet 
 may be an ordinary round wire nail which has been softened 
 by bringing it to a yellow heat and allowing it to cool slowly. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 199 
 
 Fig. 219. 
 
 —-& 
 
 It is driven through and the ends firmly clinched. Such a nail 
 is easily placed, need not press upon fleshy leaves, can not be 
 stripped off or lost, and holds fast. The horse should s.tand 
 on the foot while the rivet is being clinched. Two are sufficient 
 for a complete crack (Fig. 217). 
 
 A more rapid, though less 
 efficient method of immobilizing 
 a toe- or a quarter-crack is by 
 the use of the Vachette hook. A 
 special apparatus is required 
 (see Fig. 219). The burning 
 iron (Fig. 219, 4) is brought 
 to a yellow heat, its end applied 
 to the wall so that the two ears 
 are on opposite sides and equi- 
 distant from the crack, when it 
 is pressed firmly till the shoulder 
 (Fig. 219, h) touches the sur- 
 face of the wall. A Vachette 
 hook, the distance between the 
 points of which equals the dis- 
 tance between the ears of the 
 firing iron, is seized by the 
 special pincers (C), pressed 
 into the slots burned to receive 
 it, and is then driven into the 
 
 horn bv COmDrPSsino- thp ninPPr'? ^' shoulder; B, Vachette hook; C, pincers 
 
 noru uy comprchbin^ ine pincers. ^^^ io^cing. the hook into the wall. 
 At the toe these hooks are fre- 
 quently stripped off by the heels of the opposite shoe (in hind 
 feet). Free application of hoof ointment, and maceration of 
 the horn by melting snow or mud tends to loosen them so that 
 they often drop out. 
 
 An efficient method of fastening either a toe- or a quarter- 
 crack is by using a metal plate one-sixteenth {^/i^') of an 
 inch thick, provided with four to eight holes for the reception 
 
 A, Vachette burning iron for making the 
 two slots to receive the ends of the hook; 
 
200 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 of screws four- to five-sixteenths of an inch long. The plate is 
 heated, bent to conform to the cun'^ature of the wall and pressed 
 against tlie horn till it burns a bed for itself, when it is screwed 
 fast. It will not loosen (see Fig. 220, b). In every complete 
 crack of the wall the growing down of coherent horn is favored 
 by thinning the horn for an inch on both sides of the crack 
 directly over the coronary band (see Fig. 221, a), so that any 
 gliding movement between the sides of the crack below can 
 
 Fig. 221. 
 
 Fig. 220 
 
 Hoof with coronary quarter-crack, shod with Hoof with complete quarter crack, shod with 
 a bar-shoe. The part of the quarter reheved of a bar-shoe : a, area thinned almost to the podo- 
 pressure a, is indicated by the dotted lines; b, derm; b, tg inch metal plate secured by screw 
 iron plate secured by small wood screws xVib is of an inch long; c, quarter relieved of pres- 
 of an inch in length, j sure from bottom of crack to a perpendicular 
 
 dropped from top of crack. 
 
 not be transmitted through the thinned area to the crack in the 
 velvety tissue of the coronary band. Cutting a " V " at the 
 coronet acts similarly, but is less efficient. 
 
 Quarter-crack is usually associated mth contraction of the 
 heels. It occurs on the inner quarter of base-wide (toe-wide) 
 hoofs, and rarely in the outer quarter of base-narrow hoofs. 
 For quarter-cracks w^e use a bar-shoe and determine the extent 
 of the wall to be laid free in the following manner: We 
 imagine the crack to be prolonged in the direction of the horn 
 tubes to the plantar border, and drop a perpendicular line from 
 the upper end of the crack to the plantar border. That part 
 of the plantar border lying between these two points is then to 
 
HORSESHOEING. 201 
 
 be lowered sufficiently to prevent j)ressure from the shoe until 
 the next shoeing (Figs. 220, a, and 221, c). 
 
 This method should he followed even when the jDerpendicular 
 line falls behind the buttress. 
 
 The crack may be immobilized by the metal plate, or by 
 narrow ticking bandage or adhesive tape wound a half dozen 
 times around the hoof,, in conjunction with a bar-shoe, Chadwick 
 spring, leather sole and tar and oakum sole-packing. 
 
 In dressing the hoof, the side containing the crack should 
 be spared, the opposite side lowered, the object being to shift 
 the weight and consequent expansion into the sound quarter. 
 W^ien the affected quarter is deficient in length the branch of 
 the shoe beneath should be made thicker, even to the extent of 
 causing it to ground in advance of the opposite branch. 
 
 Next to shoeing, rubber hoof-pads render good service, be- 
 cause through them a part of the body-weight is distributed over 
 the sole and frog. They assist in widening the hoof, and lessen 
 shock when the foot is set to the ground. These are all matters 
 which favor the growing down of unbroken horn. 
 
 When the crack gaps widely, and the frog is small and deep 
 in the foot a shoe unth bar-clips (Defay's shoe), or a Chadwick 
 spring, with bar-shoe and leather sole may be used. It is not 
 impossible, indeed, to obtain a cure by using an ordinary open 
 flat shoe, though much will depend upon the other lesions that 
 may be present, the nature of the hoof, and the service required 
 of the animal. 
 
 If the edges of the crack are irregular and overlapping, 
 they should be carefully thinned away. Thinning the horn on 
 lx)th sides of the crack over the coronary band, preventing dry- 
 ing out of the horn, and frequent applications of carbolized oil 
 to the coronet favor growth of undivided horn and guard against 
 a renewal of the crack. 
 
 If in the beginning of the disease there is inflammation and 
 lameness, cooling poultices should be used for several days. 
 When there is no lameness, the horse may be used for slow 
 draft purposes. Coach- and saddle-horses should he kept 
 
202 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 from fast work until sound honi has grown down at least one- 
 half of an hich from the coronet. 
 
 Bar-crachs are usually the result of changes of position of 
 the quarters, and are just as frequently brought about by con- 
 traction as by leaving the quarters too high. We see them 
 almost entirely upon the fore-hoofs. They seldom occur alone, 
 but are usually accompanied by corns. When the crack ex- 
 tends to the pododerm there is a superficial inflammation of 
 ■the pododerm and lameness. When treatment is not promptly 
 begun the inflammation extends to the deeper layers of the 
 pododerm, or, indeed, even to the plantar cushion, and gives 
 rise to swelling of the bulb of the heel upon that side and to a 
 well-marked lameness, which requires treatment by a com- 
 petent veterinarian. 
 
 Ordinarily a bar-crack is only found by a close examination 
 of the hoof after the shoe has been removed. In paring the 
 hoof the crack usually appears as a dark streak, sometimes as a 
 bloody fissure; not infrequently grayish hoof -pus is discovered 
 in the depths of the crack. 
 
 The treatment must be directed towards favoring the growth 
 of a continuous (unbroken) bar. This is accomplished by com- 
 pletely removing the edges of tlie crack, paring the horn of the 
 vicinity very thin, and preventing the least pressure upon the 
 wall of this quarter by the shoe, by lowering this quarter with 
 the rasp and applying a bar-shoe with leather sole. 
 
 Following the removal of the edges of the crack there often 
 appears, especially in stumpy hoofs, a deep groove; if the bot- 
 tom of this groove is moist, we should pack it with oakum wet 
 with a five per cent, solution of creolin or carbolic acid, and 
 cover the oakum with wax (grafting wax). The cracks will 
 return if the exciting causes cannot be completely removed. 
 
 (&) Treaiment of Low Cracks (Plantar Cracks). — These 
 cracks, occurring principally upon the hoofs of unshod horses, 
 are the result of excessive stretching and bending of the lower 
 border of the wall. Insufficient rounding of the wall with the 
 rasp is largely responsible for them. An exciting cause in 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 203 
 
 shod horses is the use of too large nails in shoes that are punched 
 too fine. 
 
 Every coronary crack becomes in time a low or plantar crack, 
 and this has an important bearing upon the prognosis, because a 
 renewal of the coronary crack will be followed by a low crack. 
 
 In order to remove these cracks it is sufficient merely to 
 shoe the horse. Upon, shod horses they may be prevented by 
 using properly punched shoes and thin nails. The lower border 
 of the wall near the crack should be relieved of pressure by 
 cutting out a half-moon-shaped piece of horn. To prevent the 
 crack from extending farther upward we may bum a trans- 
 verse slot at the upper end of the crack, in as far as the leafy 
 layer of the wall, or cut such a slot with a small hoof-knife. 
 
 2. Clefts. 
 
 An interruption of continuity of the wall, at right angles to 
 the direction of the horn-tubes, is called a cleft. 
 
 Clefts may occur at any part of the wall ; vet they occur 
 most often upon the inner toe and -pj^ 2oo 
 
 inner side, as a result of injury 
 from sharp, improperly placed 
 heel-calks (see page 173). How- 
 ever, suppurating corns, or other 
 suppurative processes situated at 
 the coronet or which find their 
 point of escape at tlie coronet, may 
 from time to time lead to separa- 
 tions of continuity and the forma- 
 tion of horn-clefts. 
 
 Horn-clefts, though the result 
 of lesions which are often very 
 injurious and interefere with the 
 use of the horse, are of themselves 
 not an evil which can be abolished 
 or healed by shoeing, although, in many cases, proper shoeing 
 would have prevented them. A horn-cleft is not a matter for 
 
 Hoof with clefts of the toe and aide wall. 
 
204 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 consideration by tlie shoer until it lias grown do^vn so far that 
 it comes within the region of the nails. 
 
 In order not to disfigure the hoof unnecessarily, the horn 
 below the cleft should be kept in place as long as possible by 
 shortening the wall at that point, to remove shoe-pressure, and 
 by driving no nails into it. If, however, the horn is loose and 
 about to come away, it should be removed and the defect filled 
 with Defay's patent horn-cement. 
 
 3. Loose Wall. 
 
 Separation of the wall from the 'sole in the white line is 
 called loose wall (Fig. 223, a). 
 
 Occurrence. — Frequent on the fore-hoofs of shod and un- 
 shod horses, and oftener upon the inner than upon the outer 
 side. More rare on hind hoofs. Common-bred horses vnth. \^dde 
 and flat feet are predisposed to this trouble. 
 
 We distinguish superficial and deep loose wall; only the 
 latter requires the sheer's attention, because it leads to lameness. 
 
 Causes. — Walls which are very oblique (slanting) ; outward 
 bendings of the plantar border of the wall ; burning the horn 
 with hot shoes ; dryness ; neglected shoeing ; excessive softening 
 of the horn with poultices, particularly of cow-dung; careless- 
 ness in preparing the bearing-surfaces of hoof and shoe in shoe- 
 ing ; uneven fitting of the shoe. 
 
 Treatment. — It aims to remove the lameness and to favor 
 growth of coherent horn. In the first place the removal of the 
 exciting causes, followed by proper shortening of the wall. We 
 should apply a shoe whose bearing-surface inclines slightly down- 
 ivard and imcard, is perfectly smooth, and wide enough to cover 
 the wall, white line, and outer border of the sole; the iron should 
 be only moderately warm. Where there is lameness we use a 
 leather sole with packing, or a bar-shoe. The loose wall should 
 be freed from shoe-pressure only when it does not extend far 
 along the white line. When the separation is extensive the loose 
 wall should not be lowered. The crack should be filled with 
 wood-tar, ciiide turpentine, or soft gi-afting-wax. 
 
HORSESHOEING. 205 
 
 If a loose wall occur upon the foot of a horse while running 
 barefoot, all separated horn should be removed ; if, on account 
 of the nature of the ground, this seems to be impracticable, the 
 hoof must be shod. 
 
 Care of the Hoof. — Shoe at least every four to five weeks. 
 Preserve the pliancy and toughness of the horn by judicious 
 moistening. 
 
 4. Hollow Wall. 
 
 A hollow wall is one in which a separation has occurred be- 
 tween the middle layer of the wall and the heraphyllous layer. 
 This crack or separation 
 always extends in the di- 
 rection of the layers of 
 the waU (Fig. 223, b). 
 
 Occurrence. — Quite 
 rare. 
 
 We should suspect a 
 
 hollow wall when a part ^^ imaginary transverse vertical section of a hoof 
 •'■ showing (a) loose wall and (6) hollow wall. 
 
 of the wall rounds out 
 
 prominently beyond the rest, and gives forth a hollow (reson- 
 ant) sound when struck. The white line presents a crack, yet 
 we should hesitate to form a conclusion as to the extent of 
 the separation from the extent of the crack along the white 
 line, since the latter may be considerably smaller. The separa- 
 tion extends higher up the Avail than in the case of loose wall, 
 frequently to the coronet. The cavity is usually filled with 
 crumbling, disintegrated horn. 
 
 Hollow wall is not often accompanied by pain. Lameness 
 may arise, however, if the hollow section of wall assists in 
 bearing the body-weight, and if the animal does fast work 
 upon paved streets. 
 
 Causes. — Mechanical influences resulting in chronic inflam- 
 mation of fleshy leaves. 
 
 Treatment. — A cure is possible, but requires considerable 
 time. In shoeing, which should always aim to relieve pressure 
 
206 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 from the hollow section of wall, we cleanse the cavity and 
 fill it with oakum and tar, cinide turpentine, or w^ax. Where 
 the separation is very extensive we use a har-shoe. 
 
 The time required for complete cure of hollow and loose 
 walls will depend upon the height of the separation (see growth 
 of the hoof, page 82). 
 
 5. Thkush of the Frog. 
 
 Wlien the horny frog is ragged and fissured, and an ill- 
 smelling, dark-colored liquid collects in the lacunfe of the frog, 
 it is affected with thrush. When thrush exists uninterruptedly 
 for several months the perioplic band is irritated and forms 
 
 rings of periople which 
 ^^" ^' assume an in-egular 
 
 course and cross the 
 rings of the middle 
 layer of the wall (Fig. 
 224). 
 
 The causes: un- 
 cleanliness, too little 
 exercise in fresh air, 
 excessive paring of the 
 frog, and the use of 
 shoes with calks by 
 which the frog is 
 
 Hoof with irregular superficial rings resulting from thrush pemianentlv rCmOVed 
 of the frog. <- . i " i 
 
 from the ground. 
 
 The consequences are, besides contraction of the hoof, sore- 
 ness in travelling, a shortening of the step, and, occasionally, 
 well-marked lameness. 
 
 Treatment. — Removal of all greasy horn from the frog, and 
 of the prominent overgrown angles of the buttresses (see page 
 100), thorough washing of the frog once or twice daily with a 
 5 per cent, creolin or carbolic solution, abundant exercise, and 
 shoes without calks, 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 SHOEING MULES, ASSES, AND OXEN. 
 
 Fig. 225. 
 
 1. The shoeing of -mules and asses is, as in the case of 
 horses, a necessity if these animals are to be used for draft 
 or saddle purposes on hard streets. The structure and char- 
 acteristics of the hoofs of these animals are quite similar to 
 those of the horse, differing chiefly in the form and thickness 
 of the wall. The mule hoof is long and narrow and round at 
 the toe, the sole is well arched, and the 
 side walls are rather steep (Fig. 225). 
 In the ass the narrowness of hoof is still 
 more pronounced, the wall is relatively 
 thick, the frog is particularly well devel- 
 oped in its branches, and therefore the 
 hoof is relatively wide in the region of 
 the quarters. The horn of both mule and 
 ass is tough. 
 
 The shoes differ from those of tlie 
 horse in no other respect than that they 
 should be lighter and narrower. Four 
 nail-holes are sufficient for an ass' shoe, 
 and five to six for a mule's. 
 
 On account of tlie hardness and touffh- ^ ™"''''* ^°°^- (P'antar sur- 
 
 '^ face). 
 
 ness of the walls, we use nails that are 
 
 short but strong in the shank; nails with weak shanks are apt 
 
 to bend in driving. 
 
 2. The shoeing of oxen is essentially different from that 
 of horses, because the foot of the ox is cloven (split), the long 
 pastern, short pastern, and hoof-bone are double, so that, in- 
 stead of one hoof or claw, there are two upon each foot, dis- 
 tinguished as outer and inner. Each claw consists of wall, 
 
 207 
 
208 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 sole, and bulbs; the frog is absent. The wall is considerably 
 thinner than that of the horse's hoof, the sole is thin, and the 
 bulbs are low. Eor these reasons the shoe designed for a 
 claw must be thin, but wide. 
 
 The holes must be punched fine and the nails be quite 
 (short and strong. On each shoe a long tongue should be made 
 on the inner edge near the toe, and so directed that it can be 
 turned upward and outward to embrace the toe of the claw. 
 
 Fig. 226. 
 
 A small clip raised on the outer toe of each shoe will increase 
 its stability. In some parts of Saxony the shoes are so made 
 that the tongue of each shoe begins in the rear third of its 
 inner edge and runs forward, upward, and outward, closely 
 embracing the wall of the toe. The smaller clip is drawn up 
 on the outer edge of the shoe close to the toe. These shoes 
 are more difficult to make, but when applied sit more firmly 
 and remain fast longer than all others. Machine-made ox 
 shoes (Fig. 227) have no clip at the inner toe, and are fre- 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 209 
 
 quently pulled and lost. For this reason they are inferior to 
 hand-made shoes. An undivided 'shoe (the so-called " closed 
 claw-shoe ") is unsuitable for oxen, because it deprives both 
 claws of their natural, free movements. However, such a shoe 
 is of advantage for heavy draft over hard and very rough 
 roads, because it lessens the liability of the fetlock and coronai^ 
 joints and the cleft of the claws to strains. 
 
 Great difficulty is often encountered in holding the feet 
 during the operation of shoeing. It is necessary to fasten the 
 head securely against a tree, -pio 227 
 
 post, or wall. A front foot 
 may be raised and held by 
 passing a slip-noose in the 
 end of a rope or side-line 
 around the fetlock and carry- 
 ing the line over the withers 
 to the opposite side, where it 
 is held by an assistant. A 
 hind limb may be controlled 
 by passing a round pole in 
 front of the hock of the leg 
 to be raised, and, with a man 
 at each end of the pole, carry- 
 ing the limb backward and 
 upward, in which position it 
 is held ; or the limb may be bent and controlled by tightening a 
 twitch or tourniquet upon the leg just above the hock (Fig. 
 228). Oxen that continue to resist may sometimes be quieted 
 by light blows of a short stick upon the base of the horns. In 
 parts of the country where many oxen are shod stocks are in 
 common use. 
 
 Very satisfactory stocks have been designed by Gutenaecker, 
 of Munich (Fig. 229). The four comer-posts (a, a, h, h) are 
 eight inches square and eight feet long, of which three feet 
 14 
 
 Pair of machine made ox shoes, viewed from 
 the ground-surface and in profile; a, toe-calk; b, 
 heel-calks. 
 
210 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 four inches are solidly implanted in the ground. They are 
 united bj side- and cross-bars {c, c, d). In front of the comer- 
 posts {a, a) and in the middle line stands a head-post (e) of 
 the same dimensions as the corner-posts, provided with a slot 
 four inches wide and twenty inches long beginning three feet 
 from the ground. In this slot is a pulley- wheel (i), and below 
 it a windlass {h) for winding up the rope which is tied around 
 the base of the animal's horns. The comer-posts are pro\aded 
 with a slot (n) three inches wide and three inches deep, 
 
 Fig. 228. 
 
 Hind foot raised by means of a round pole. 
 
 within which are placed two movable side-bars {o, p), which 
 can be set at desired heights and fastened by iron pins. Be- 
 tween the front and rear oomer-posts of the right-hand side is 
 an eight-sided roller with a ratchet and click at one end, and 
 having on one of the sides six iron hooks, to which a girth is 
 attached. On the opposite side of the stocks, at the same 
 height, is a stationary bar (f) with six hooks (g, g) on the 
 outer side. The belly girth is six feet long, six inches wide, 
 and terminates at both ends in several strong cords two feet 
 
HORSESHOEING. 
 
 211 
 
 four inches long with iron rings at their ends. Between the 
 front comer-posts are a neck-yoke (h) and a breast-bar which 
 
 slide in the slots (m) and may be fixed at desired heights by 
 iron pins. On the rear face of each rear corner-post is an iron 
 
212 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 bracket (s) one foot and a half long, with a ring (t) six inches 
 in diameter, through which passes a round pole padded in the 
 middle and kept in place by two iron pins. Above each bracket 
 is a hook (w) to which the end of the breeching attaches. 
 
 Before an animal is brought into the stocks the neck-yoke 
 is raised, the breast-bar lowered, and the girth left hanging 
 from the hooks on the stationary bar. The ox is then led into 
 the stocks and the rope which is tied around the balse of the 
 horns is carried over the pulley (i) , fastened to the hook on the 
 roller (k), and wound up till the head is tight against the head- 
 post. The yoke and breast-bar are then placed in position and 
 fastened, the breeching hung on the hooks (u), and the belly 
 girth attached to the hooks on the roller, so that, if need be, it 
 can be shortened till it bears the animal's entire weight. 
 
 To control a front foot a slip noose is placed about the fet- 
 lock and the limb is raised and lashed to the side-bar, the rope 
 passing finally to the hook (r). To control a hind foot a slip 
 noose is placed about the fetlock, the foot carried upward 
 and backward over the rear cross-bar, and, wdth the front sur- 
 face of the fetlock-joint resting against the padding of the 
 bar, the limb is firmly 'secured by wrapping the line several 
 times about the limb and bar. 
 
 When no stocks are at hand, we may use an ordinary farm 
 wagon or a truck wagon. Tie the ox with his head forward 
 between the front and hind wheels. Fasten the large end of a 
 binding pole to the spokes of the front wheel and let it rest on 
 the hub. Swing the pole close . to the ox and induce him to 
 step over it with one hind leg, then raise the rear end of the 
 pole, and with it the leg and so much of the animal's hind 
 quarters that the inner hind leg standing close to the wagon 
 re'sts but lightly upon the ground. The binding pole may then 
 be slung with a rope from the rack of the wagon or other 
 stationary object and the outer limb held in the usual manner. 
 By following this method a sheer with one assistant can easily 
 and safely control the most refractory oxen. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Apprentice, 14 
 Arteries, 41 
 Articulations, 21 
 
 Balanced hoof, 101 
 
 Balling with snow, 149 
 
 Bar-shoe, uses of, 164 
 
 Bare foot, preparing the hoof, 102 
 
 Bars, 51 
 
 dressing, 99 
 Base-narrow position, 63, 68 
 Base-wide position, 63, 68 
 Beaked shoe, 184 
 Bear-foot, 72 
 
 Bearing surface of shoes, 117, 127 
 Blood-vessels, 41 
 Bow-legged position, 64 
 Buttress, 100 
 
 Calf-kneed, 66 
 Calk wound, 173 
 Camped behind, 68 
 
 in front, 66 
 Cannon bone, 20, 21 
 Carpus, 20 
 Cartilages, lateral, 39 
 Cast iron, 103 
 
 shoes, 132 
 Chadwick spring, 187 
 Clefts, 203 
 Clinch cutter, 97 
 Clinching, 131 
 CUps, 111 
 
 Close naihng, biu-ning, 166 
 Contracted hoof, 185 
 
 sole, 190 
 Com, chronic, 175 
 
 dry, 174 
 
 suppurating, 174 
 
 Corns, 174 
 
 treatment, 176 
 Coronary band, 47 
 
 joint, 31 
 
 Ugaments, 31 
 Cover-plate shoe, 173 
 Cow-hocked, 68 
 Cracks, 195 
 
 coronary and bar, 196, 202 
 
 plantar, 202 
 Crest, semilunar, 27 
 Crooked hoof, 192 
 Cross-firing, 140 
 
 Defay's shoe, 187 
 Diseases of hoof, 165 
 Dressing the hoof, 98 
 Driving the shoe, 130 
 Drop-forged shoes, 132 
 Dropped sole, 178, 182, 183 
 
 Elastic parts of foot, 38 
 Examination before shoeing, 90 
 
 Feet, forms of, 69 
 
 Femur, 20 
 
 Fetlock, hgaments of, 29 
 
 joint, 28 
 Fiber shoes, 134 
 Fibula, 20 
 Flat hoof, 182 
 Fleshy frog, 49 
 
 sole, 49 
 
 wall, 48 
 Fhght of hoofs, 72, 75 
 Foot, articulations of, 28 
 
 bones of, 24 
 Foot-axis, 70 
 
 relation to sole, 100 
 
 straight and broken, 101 
 213 
 
214 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Forging, 138 
 Founder, 177 
 
 dressing hoof, 179 
 
 shoeing, 180 
 Frog, 57 
 
 dressing, 99 
 Front shoe, making, 105 
 Frost-nails, 146 
 Full hoof, 183 
 Fullering, 109 
 
 hammer, 104 
 
 Gathered nail, 170 
 
 Hair-skin, 44 
 
 Head, bones of, 17 
 
 Heavy draught horses, shoeing, 125 
 
 Heel-calks, 112 
 
 always sharp, 154 
 Heels, inflammation of, 176 
 Hind shoe, making, 107 
 Hock, 21 
 Hollow wall, 205 
 Hoof, 50 
 
 benefits of movements within, 89 
 
 crooked, 84 
 
 growth of, 82 
 
 healthy, 81 
 
 irregular growth, 83 
 
 knife, 98 
 
 ointments, 159, 160 
 
 physiological movements of, 86 
 
 wear against shoe, 86 
 
 wear of, 82 
 Hoof-skin, 45 
 Hoofs, care of unshod, 157 
 Hoofs, forms of, 77, 80 
 
 of colts, care of, 157 
 Horn, minute structure of, 58 
 
 quahties of, 59 
 
 tumor, 181 ' 
 Horseshoeing, object of, 13 
 
 schools, 15 
 
 Horseshoer, requisites of, 14 
 Humerus, 19 
 Hunters, shoeing, 123 
 
 Interfering, 142 
 
 Iron for horseshoes, 103 
 
 Joints, free, hinge, and pivot, 22 
 
 Keraphyllocele, 181 
 Knee-sprung, 67 
 
 Laminitis, 177 
 
 Leather sole, 164 
 
 Ligaments, 21 
 
 Limbs, standing positions, 62 
 
 Loose wall, 204 
 
 Low-jointed, 66 
 
 Mucous bursse, 35 
 Mule shoes, 207 
 Muscles, 22 
 
 Nail holes, 110 
 Nailing, 166 
 
 causes of, 167 
 
 examination and treatment, 167, 
 168 
 Nails, 128 
 Navicular bone, 28 
 Nerves, 44 
 Nippers, 99 
 Normal position, 62, 64, 67, 69 
 
 Os pedis, 26 
 
 Ox shoes, 208 
 
 Oxen, securing feet, 209 
 
 Pacers, shoeing, 124 
 Pads, rubber, 135 
 Pastern, long, 25 
 
 short, 26 
 Patella, 20 
 Pedal joint, 31 
 
 ligaments, 31 
 
INDEX 
 
 215 
 
 Peg-calks, 150 
 
 Peg toe-calks, 152 
 
 Pelvis, 19 
 
 Periople, 53 
 
 Perioplic band, 47 
 
 Periosteum, 21 
 
 Pigeon-toed position, 64 
 
 Pincers, 97 
 
 Plantar cushion, 40 
 
 Pododerm, 45 
 
 Pododermatitis, symptoms of, 161 
 
 treatment of, 163 
 Podophyllous tissue, 48 
 Podometer, 105 
 Pricking, direct nailing, 166 
 Pritchel, 105 
 
 Protective organs of foot, 44 
 Punch, 105 
 
 Quarter crack, 200 
 Quarters, contraction of, 186 
 
 Radius, 20 
 
 Raising feet in shoeing, 92 
 
 Removing shoes, 97 
 
 Rolled toe, 118 
 
 Rope shoes, 133 
 
 Rubber shoes, 134 
 
 Runners, 123 
 
 Saddle horses, shoeing, 122 
 
 Scapula, 19 
 
 Screw heel-calks, 148 
 
 Seedy toe, 178 
 
 Sesamoid bones, 25 
 ligaments, 29-31 
 
 Sharp toe- and heel-calks, 146 
 
 Shod hoofs, care of, 159 
 
 Shoe, choosing the, 116 
 
 for acute-angled hoof, 114, 120 
 for base-narrow hoof, 114, 121 
 for base-wide hoof, 114, 121 
 for narrow hoof, 115, 121 
 for regular hoof, 114, 120 
 
 Shoe, for stumpy hoof, 114, 120 
 
 for wide hoof, 115, 121 
 
 parts of, 103 
 
 wear of, 84 
 
 weight of, 116 
 Shoeing defective hoofs, 161 
 Shoes, fittmg, 118 
 
 general properties, 107 
 
 machine, 132 
 
 making, 103, 105 
 
 nailing, 128 
 
 removing old, 97 
 
 shaping and fitting, 117, 120 
 
 special properties, 114 
 Sickle-hock, 68 
 Side-bone, 194 
 Sole, 55 
 
 contraction of, 189 
 Spinal column, 17 
 Splint-bones, 20 
 
 shoe, 172 
 Standing under, 66 
 Station of rest, 65 
 Steel, 103 
 Stocks, for horses, 95 
 
 for oxen, 209 
 Stifle joint, 20 
 Stilt-foot, 184 
 Street-nail, 170 
 Stride, height of, 75 
 
 length of, 75 
 Stumpy hoof, 184 
 Suspensory ligament, 29 
 
 altering tension of, 36-38 
 Synovia, 21 
 
 Tendon, anterior extensor, 32 
 
 deep flexor, 33 
 
 lateral extensor, 32 
 
 sheaths, 35 
 
 superficial flexor, 33 
 Tendons, 24 
 Tension of tendon, altering, 36 
 
216 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Thorax, 18 
 
 Thrush, 206 
 
 Tibia, 20 
 
 Toe- and heel-calks, 112 
 
 Toe-calk, blunt, 113 
 
 haK-sharp, 113 
 
 sharp, 112 
 Toe-crack, 197 
 Tools for making shoes, 104 
 Tread, 173 
 
 Trotters, shoeing, 124 
 Trunk, 17 
 Tubbing and stopping, 159 
 
 Ulna, 20 
 
 Vachette hook, 199 
 
 Veins, 43 
 Velvety frog, 49 
 sole, 49 
 
 Wall, 51 
 
 dressing, 99 
 
 height of, 52 
 
 leafy layer, 53 
 
 protective layer, 53 
 
 slant of, 52 
 
 thickness of, 53 
 Weight, influence of, 75 
 Weights, side and toe, 77 
 White hne. 56 
 Wide hoofs, contraction of. 
 Wry hoof, 193 
 
^ JUN 82 
 
 Ig^ N. MANCHESTER,