For Reference 
 
.♦ 
 
 LIBRARY OF 
 
 I685_l©56 
 
Private Property o.' 
 
 Z. p. METCA LI- 
 NO 
 
 
 
Plate I, 
 
A MANUAL 
 
 STUDY OF INSECTS 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK 
 
 Professor of Entomology in Cornell University 
 
 ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK 
 
 Member of the Society of American Wood-Engravers 
 
 3fittb iEt>ition 
 
 ITHACA, N. Y. 
 
 COMSTOCK PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 For many years the most pressing demand of teachers 
 and learners in entomology in this country has been for a 
 handbook by means of which the names and relative affini- 
 ties of insects may be determined in some such way as 
 plants are classified by the aid of the well-known manuals 
 of botany. But, as the science of entomology is still in its 
 infancy, the preparation of such a handbook has been im- 
 possible. Excellent treatises on particular groups of insects 
 have been published ; but no general work including analyt- 
 ical keys to all the orders and families has appeared. It is 
 to meet this need that this work has been prepared. 
 
 The reader must not expect, however, to find that de- 
 gree of completeness in this work which exists in the man- 
 uals of flowering plants. The number of species of insects 
 is so great that a work including adequate descriptions of all 
 those occurring in our fauna would rival in size one of the 
 larger encyclopedias. It is obvious that such a work is not 
 what is needed by the teachers and students in our schools, 
 even if it were possible to prepare it. An elementary work 
 on systematic entomology will always of necessity be re- 
 stricted to a discussion of the characteristics of the orders 
 and families, and descriptions of a few species as illustrations. 
 Complete synopses of species will be appropriate only in 
 works treating of limited groups. It is believed, therefore, 
 that it would not be wise to materially change the scope of 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 the present work even if it were possible to describe all of 
 our species. 
 
 Although much pains has been taken to render easy the 
 classification of specimens, an effort has been made to give 
 the mere determination of the names of insects a very sub- 
 ordinate place. The groups of insects have been fully char- 
 acterized, so that their relative afifinities may be learned ; 
 and much space has been given to accounts of the habits 
 and transformations of the forms described. As the needs 
 of agricultural students have been kept constantly in view, 
 those species that are of economic importance have been 
 described as fully as practicable, and particular attention has 
 been given to descriptions of the methods of destroying 
 those that are noxious, or of preventing their ravages. 
 
 An effort has been made to simplify the study of in- 
 sects as much as possible without sacrificing accuracy in the 
 descriptions. Only such morphological terms have been 
 used as were necessary to accomplish the object of the book 
 in a satisfactory manner. And so far as possible a uniform 
 nomenclature has been used for all orders of insects. The 
 fact that writers on each order of insects have a peculiar 
 nomenclature has been a serious obstacle to the progress of 
 entomology ; this is especially true as regards the nomen- 
 clature of the wing-veins. It has been necessary for the 
 student in passing from the study of one order of insects to 
 that of another to learn a new set of terms; and in many 
 cases writers on a single family have a peculiar nomenclature. 
 
 The present writer has endeavored to remove this 
 obstacle by making a serious study of the homologies of the 
 wing-veins, and by applying the same term throughout the 
 work to homologous veins. The result is that the student 
 is required to learn only one set of terms ; and in applying 
 these terms there will be brought to his attention in a forci- 
 ble manner the peculiar modifications of structure charac- 
 teristic of each order of insects. Heretofore, with a differ- 
 ent nomenclature for the wing-veins of each order such a 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 comparative study of the various methods of specialization 
 has been beyond the reach of any but the most advanced 
 scholars. 
 
 The principal features of the method of notation of wing- 
 veins proposed by Josef Redtenbacher has been adopted. 
 But as the writer's views regarding the structure of tjie 
 wings of primitive insects are very different from those 
 of Redtenbacher, the nomenclature proposed in this book is 
 to a great extent original. The chief point of difference 
 arises from the belief by the present writer that veins IV 
 and VI do not exist in the Lepidoptera, Diptera, and 
 Hymenoptera ; and that, in those orders where they do exist, 
 they are secondary developments. The reasons for this be- 
 lief are set forth at length in my essay on Evolution and 
 Taxonomy. 
 
 In this essay there was proposed a new classification of 
 the Lepidoptera, which was the result of an effort to work 
 out the phylogeny of the divisions of this order. This classi- 
 fication has been further elaborated in the present work. In 
 the other orders but few changes have been made from the 
 more generally accepted classifications. It is more than 
 probable however, that when the taxonomic principles upon 
 which this classification of the Lepidoptera is based are ap- 
 plied to the classification of the other orders radical changes 
 will be found to be necessary. 
 
 A serious obstacle to the popularization of Natural His- 
 tory is the technical names that it is necessary to use. In 
 order to reduce this difficulty to a minimum the pronuncia- 
 tion of all of the Latin terms used has been indicated, by 
 dividing each into syllables and marking the accented 
 syllable. In doing this the well-established rules for the 
 division of Latin words into syllables have been followed. 
 It seems necessary to state this fact in order to account for 
 differences which exist between the pronunciations given 
 here and some of those in certain large dictionaries recently 
 published in this country. 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 Nearly all of the wood-cuts have been engraved from 
 nature by the Junior Author. As the skill which she has 
 attained in this art has been acquired during the progress 
 of the work on this book, some of the earlier-made illustra- 
 tions do not fairly represent her present standing as an 
 eugraver. But it does not seem worth while to delay the 
 appearance of the book in order to re-engrave these figures; 
 especially as it is believed that they will not be found lack- 
 ing in scientific accuracy. The generous appreciation which 
 the best engravers have shown towards the greater part of 
 the work leads us to hope that it will be welcomed as an 
 important addition to entomological illustrations. 
 
 Although the chief work of the Junior Author has been 
 with the pencil and graver, many parts of the text are from 
 her pen. But in justice to her it should be said that the 
 plan of the book was changed after she had finished her 
 writing. It was intended at first to make the book of a 
 much more elementary nature than it is in its final form. 
 It has seemed best, however, to leave these parts as written 
 in order that the work may be of interest to a wider range 
 of readers than it would be were it restricted to a uniform 
 style of treatment. 
 
 The figures illustrating the venation of the wings of in- 
 sects have been drawn with great care under the writer's 
 direction by Mr. E. P. Felt and Mr. R. H. Pettit. About 
 one half of those in the chapter on Lepidoptera were drawn 
 by Mr. Felt ; the others in this chapter and those in the 
 chapters on Diptera and Hymenoptera were drawn by Mr. 
 Pettit. 
 
 I wish also to acknowledge the help of my Assistant Mr. 
 A. D. MacGillivray, to whom I am indebted for much aid in 
 bibliographical researches and in many other ways ; also, 
 that of Dr. A. C. White of the Cornell University Library, 
 who has generously given much time to determining the 
 etymologies of many of the more obscure words the pro- 
 nunciations of which are indicated in the text. 
 
PREFA CE. VU 
 
 To the authorities of Cornell University the authors of 
 this book are under deep obligation for aid and encourage- 
 ment. The preparation of the work would not have been 
 possible but for the liberal grants which they have made for 
 the purchase of specimens and books. 
 
 John Henry Comstock. 
 
 Entomological Laboratory, 
 
 Cornell University, 
 
 December, 1894. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER PAGB 
 
 I. Zoological Classification and Zoological Nomenclature... i 
 II. Insectsandtheir Near Relatives: Branch Arthropoda ; 
 Class Crustacea, Crabs, Lobsters, Crayfish, and 
 Others; Class Arachnida, Spiders, Scorpions, Mites, 
 and Others; and Class Myriapoda, Centipedes and 
 Millipedes o 
 
 III. Class Hexapoda or Insects: Characteristics of the Class; 
 
 Metamorphoses of Insects ; External Anatomy of In- 
 sects ; Internal Anatomy of Insects ; Table for Deter- 
 mining the Orders of Insects; List of the Orders of 
 Insects 48 
 
 IV. Order Thysanura, Bristle-tails, Spring-tails, Fish- 
 
 moths, and Others 82 
 
 V. Order Ephemerida, May-flies 86 
 
 VI. Order Odonata, Dragon-flies 89 
 
 VII. Order Plecoptera, Stone-flies 93 
 
 VIII. Order Isoptera, Termites or White-ants 95 
 
 IX. Order Corrodentia, Book-lice and Others 98 
 
 X. Order M allophaga, Bird-lice 100 
 
 XI. Order Dermaptera Earwigs 102 
 
 XII. Order Orthoptera, Cockroaches, Crickets, Grasshop- 
 pers, Locusts, and Others 104 
 
 XIII. Order Physopoda, Thrips 119 
 
 XIV. Order Hemiptera, Bugs, Plant-lice, Bark-lice, and 
 
 Others 121 
 
 XV. Order Neuroptera, the Dobson and Others 175 
 
 XVI. Order Mecaptera, Scorpion-flies 184 
 
 XVII. Order Trichoptera, Caddice-flies 186 
 
 XVIII. Order Lepidoptera, Moths, Skippers, and Butterflies.. 191 
 
 XIX. Order Diptera, Flies 413 
 
 XX. Order Siphonaptera, Fleas 490 
 
 XXI. Order Coleoptera, Beetles 494 
 
 XXII. Order Hymenoptera Bees, Wasps, Ants, and Others.. 599 
 
 Index and Glossary 679 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATES, 
 
 PLATE I. (Frontispiece.) 
 
 FIGURB PAGE 
 
 1. The Carpet Beetle 539 
 
 2. The Twelve-spotted Diabrotica 577 
 
 3. The Adalia bipunctata 535 
 
 4. The Silver-spotted Skipper 370 
 
 5. The American Copper 390 
 
 6. The Red Admiral 401 
 
 7. The Painted Beauty 401 
 
 PLATE IL (Page 68.) 
 
 THE INTERNAL ANATOMY OF A CATERPILLAR. 
 
 PLATE IIL (Page 70.) 
 
 THE INTERNAL ANATOMY OF A COCKROACH. 
 
 PLATE IV. (Page 343.) 
 
 PSEUDOHAZIS HERA. 
 
 PLATE V. (Page 353.) 
 
 fIGURB PAGE 
 
 1. The Luna Moth 353 
 
 2. The Crinkled Flannel-moth 218 
 
 PLATE VL (Page 389.) 
 1. The Spring Azure 391 
 
 8. The Green Comma 404 
 
 3. The Hop-merchant 405 
 
 4. The Banded Elfin 393 
 
 5. The Mourning-cloak 403 
 
 6. The Olive Hair-streak 393 
 
 7. The Spring Azure 391 
 
 8. The Violet Tip 405 
 
 X 
 
A MANUAL FOR 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE- 
 
 I. Zoological Classification. 
 
 {For advanced sttidents.) 
 
 In order that the myriad forms of animals may be studied with 
 facility some system of classification is necessary. And now that we 
 have learned that there exists a blood-relationship between the difTtr- 
 ent kinds of animals, that system which most clearly expresses this 
 relationship is doubtless the best. This system is termed the Natural 
 Classification. 
 
 It is now generally believed that long ago, in early geological 
 times, there existed on the earth only very simple animals and plants; 
 and that from these simple beginnings more and more complex forms 
 have been developed. This growth in complexity has taken place in 
 different descendants of these simple primitive beings in very differ- 
 ent ways. Thus while it is probable that the first anirfiais Hved in 
 water, and very many still do so, others have become adapted to life 
 on the land, and in still others organs have been developed by which 
 they can fly through the air. And under each of these conditions we 
 find a great diversity of forms, each fitted for some special mode ol 
 life. 
 
2 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The diversity of forms of animal life is much greater than is com- 
 monly supposed. A competent authority has estimated that there 
 are now living on the earth more than one million species of animals. 
 And these are merely the surviving descendants of immense series 
 of beings that have existed in past geological times, the remaining 
 tips of a great genealogical tree, of which many twigs and branches 
 have perished. 
 
 The common figurative use of the word tree in this connection 
 expresses well the convergence of the lines of descent toward the 
 common ancestor from which existing forms have descended. But 
 in one respect it may be misleading. If an ordinary tree be ex- 
 amined, the tip of one branch will closely resemble that of any other 
 branch of the same tree. But in this figurative genealogical tree 
 we must imagine a very different state of affairs. Here the law of 
 growth is constant change ; each branch grows in its own individual 
 way; and each twig of each branch bears fruit peculiar to itself. 
 The changes, however, are gradual ; and thus the tips of closely-con- 
 nected twigs will be similar though not identical; while the tips of 
 two branches that separated early in the growth of the tree will be 
 very different. 
 
 It is the effort of the systematist, one who studies the classification 
 of animals and plants, to work out the relations which exist between 
 the various tips of the genealogical tree. This study when carried 
 to its fullest extent includes not only the study of existing forms of 
 life, but also the study of those that have perished, the trunk-forms 
 from which existing forms have descended. This, however, is a very 
 difficult matter ; and as yet only the beginnings of the Natural 
 Classification have been made. See pp. 199 to 204. 
 
 If we accept this theory of descent, now almost universally ac- 
 cepted by naturalists, it is evident that when we take into account 
 all the forms of life that have existed we cannot classify animals into 
 well-marked groups; for as the modification in form is gradual, series 
 of connecting links have existed between any two forms that might 
 be selected. 
 
 But practically the student that confines his attention to the 
 study of living forms can classify these forms into more or less well- 
 marked groups, for many of the connecting links have perished ; in 
 fact, the groups of living animals and plants are so distinct that it is 
 only in recent years that naturalists have come to understand the 
 blood-relationship referred to above. 
 
 We find that the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms are made up oi 
 a vast assemblage of individuals, each the offspring of parents similar 
 
ZOOLOGICAL CLASS/PICA TIOI\r. ^ 
 
 to itself, and each in turn producing similar offspring. Although the 
 ..ffspring is never exactly like either parent, the degree of variation in 
 a single generation is slight. And thus we find that there exist large 
 numbers of individuals which very closely resemble eacli other. Such 
 collection of individuals is termed in popular language a /cind, in 
 scientific language a species. Thus the kind of pine trees known as 
 pitch-pine is a species; and scrub-pine, still another. In the same 
 way the name sparrow-hawk indicates a kind or species of hawk; and 
 pigeon-hawk, another species. 
 
 Roughly speaking, a species is a collection of individuals which 
 resemble each other as closely as the offspring of a single 
 parent. For example, if any two pitch-pines be studied, nothing will 
 be found to indicate that they may not have sprung from seeds 
 grown upon the same tree. On the other hand, if a pitch-pine and 
 a white-pine be carefully compared, they will be found so different 
 that no competent observer would believe that they had a common 
 parent. 
 
 Unfortunately this mode of defining the limits of a species cannot 
 be depended upon. Many instances are known where forms of 
 animals or plants living in widely-separated regions differ so greatly 
 that they have been considered distinct species until more extended 
 collections in the intermediate regions have brought to light series 
 of intermediate forms, which connect the two so-called species so 
 closely that it is impossible to say where the one ends and the other 
 begins. 
 
 The only definite way of determining whether two forms are 
 specifically distinct is to determine whether they naturally interbreed 
 or not. We find among wild animals a sort of race prejudice which 
 keeps the members of different species from pairing, although they 
 may do so when demoralized by domestication. Except in the case 
 of very-closely-allied species, the pairing of individuals of different 
 species results in no offspring or- in the production of sterile offspring. 
 
 This grouping of individuals into species not only facilitates our 
 study of Natural History, but expresses certain important facts of 
 inheritance and reproduction. A second and somewhat similar step 
 is made by grouping species into genera. 
 
 We find that there exist groups of closely-allied species, species 
 that resemble each other in all of the more important characters, and 
 differ among themselves only in what are known as the specific 
 characters. Such a group of species is termed a ^<?««.y. Thus all the 
 different species of pine taken together constitute the genus pine, or 
 Finns, as it is termed by botanists. There are many species of oak. 
 
4 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 as red-oak, live-oak, and water-oak. All of the species of oak taken 
 together constitute the genus Qiierciis of botanists. Several species 
 of hawks and falcons are classed together by zoologists as the genus 
 Falco. 
 
 The genera in turn are grouped \x\\.o fainilies. Thus the pines, 
 the spruces, and the larches resemble each other quite closely, and 
 are classed together as the Pine Family {Abietinecs) ; the falcons, 
 hawks, kites, and eagles are classed together as the Falcon Family 
 {FalcontdcE). 
 
 Closely-allied families are grouped together to form orders. The 
 Pine Family, the Cypress Family, and the Yew Family comprise the 
 Order Conifercc, or cone-bearing plants, of botanists. The Owl Fam- 
 ily {Strigidci), the Falcon Family {Falconid(V),2.n(S the Vulture Family 
 {Vultiirida:) constitute the Order Raptores, or Birds of Prey. 
 
 Closely-allied orders are grouped together to form classes. Thus 
 all the orders of birds taken together constitute the Class Aves or 
 Birds. 
 
 The classes are grouped into branches, which are the principal 
 divisions of the Animal Kingdom.* In studying the different forms 
 of animals it is found that there are several distinct types of structure. 
 Some animals are built upon one plan or structure, and others on 
 other plans. All animals built on the same plan are said to belong to 
 the same Branch. Thus the back-boned animals comprise the Branch 
 Vertebrata : the clams, oysters, snails, cuttlefish, and certain other 
 allied forms comprise the Branch Mollusca ; and the insects, spiders, 
 centipedes, lobsters, and their near relatives comprise the Branch 
 Arthropoda. 
 
 All the branches of animals taken together constitute the Animal 
 Kingdovi. 
 
 It is not possible to lay down rules by which these different groups 
 of animals can be limited. For, as has been shown in our discussion 
 of species, all have been connected in past time by intermediate forms. 
 But notwithstanding this, each of the terms given above (Branch, 
 Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species) expresses a pretty definite 
 conception, which the student wi-11 learn to comprehend by practice 
 in classifying animals. But the sequence in rank of these groups 
 should be learned at the outset. Beginning with the most compre- 
 hensive it is as follows : 
 
 * The principal divisions of the Vegetable Kingdom are not termed 
 Branches ; hence we will not make further use of botanical illustrations in 
 this connection. 
 
ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 5 
 
 Animal Kingdom, 
 
 Branch or Subkingdom. 
 Class. 
 Order. 
 Family. 
 Genus. 
 Species. 
 Individual. 
 
 It is sometime desirable to indicate other groups than those named 
 above. Thus a family may be divided into subfamilies, or an order 
 into suborders. And occasionally an even more minute division is 
 made. Thus several closely-allied families may be grouped together 
 as a superfamily, a group of lower rank than a suborder. The follow- 
 ing table includes all the grades of groups now commonly employed : 
 
 Kingdom. • 
 
 Branch or Subkingdom. 
 Class. 
 Subclass. 
 Superorder. 
 Order. 
 Suborder. 
 Superfamily. 
 Family. 
 Subfamily. 
 Genus. 
 Subgenus. 
 Species. 
 Subspecies. 
 Variety. 
 
 Individual. i 
 
 II. Zoological Nomenclature. 
 
 {For advanced students.^ 
 
 At the beginning of his studies of Natural History the student is 
 met with what is to him a new and strange set of names. These 
 names are often long. In form they belong to a dead language, with 
 which, in these days, even many educated people are unfamiliar. It 
 is not strange that we often hear complaint respecting the difficulty of 
 this nomenclature. 
 
6 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 A little study of the matter, however, is sufficient to show the 
 necessity for scientific names. The common names of animals will 
 not answer our purpose ; for the same name is often applied to widely 
 different animals in different localities, while a single species of animal 
 is known by totally different names in different sections of the country. 
 
 In order that information respecting animals may be recorded so 
 that there need not be any doubt regarding the animal to which refer- 
 ence is made, it is necessary that each species or group of species 
 should have a distinct name by which it shall be known by naturalists 
 in all parts of the world. Therefore, to each branch, class, order, 
 family, genus, and species which has been described there has been 
 given a special name, by which it is known, and which pertains to this 
 group alone. 
 
 As this nomenclature is used by all naturalists of whatever nation- 
 ality, it is necessary that the names should be in a language which 
 can be understood by all. As Latin was the language in which most 
 scientific books were written at the time this nomenclature was estab- 
 lished, that language was chosen as the universal language of science; 
 and the rule has been adopted that all names of animals and plants 
 shall be Latin, or Latin in form. 
 
 The name of a species consists of two words — the name of the 
 genus to which the species belongs, followed by an adjective indicat- 
 ing the particular species ; for in Latin an adjective follows the noun 
 which it qualifies, instead of preceding it as in English. Thus the 
 scientific name of the Pigeon-hawk is Falco columbariiis; that of the 
 Sparrow-hawk is Fa/r<7 j:/art/^r/«j,- and that of the Prairie-falcon is 
 Falco mexicanus. 
 
 In the case of many species we find well-marked subspecies or 
 geographical races which it is desirable to distinguish by name. Thus 
 the Pigeon-hawk occurs over the whole of North America. But we 
 find that those that hve in the northwest coast region extending from 
 California to Sitka, constitute a distinct geographical race known as 
 the Black Merlin. As the Black Merlin and the typical Pigeon-hawk 
 intergrade, they constitute a single species, which is known as Falco 
 colitmbarius. To the Black Merlin has been applied the subspecific 
 name suckleyi. When, therefore, it is desired to refer to the Black 
 Merlin as distinguished from the typical Pigeon-hawk the term 
 F\ilco columbariiis suckleyi is used. If reference is to be made to the 
 typical Pigeon-hawk as distinguished from the Black Merlin, it is 
 designated as Falco columbarius columbariiis. 
 
 In writing long names like those given above they are frequently 
 
ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. J 
 
 abbreviated if the context is such that the abbreviations will be read- 
 ily understood. Thus the name of the Black Merlin may be written 
 Falco c. sitckleyi or F. c. suckleyi. 
 
 Subspecific names are used by entomologists not only to distinguish 
 geographical races, but also to distinguish the different forms of 
 dimorphic and polymorphic species. A good illustration is afforded 
 by a certain species of Swallow-tail Butterfly common in the Atlantic 
 States. This species exists under two distinct forms ; one of these is 
 yellow marked with black, and has long been known as Jasoiiiades 
 iiirnus ; the other is almost entirely black, and has been known as 
 Jasoniadesglaucus. At first it was supposed ihat these were different 
 species ; but in recent years the two forms have been bred from eggs 
 laid by the same female. It is thus evident that the two forms repre- 
 sent a single species. And as the iormglauciis was first described its 
 name is given to the species, which is now known as Jasoniades 
 glaiicus. This name Jasoniades glattcus is used when reference is 
 made to the species as a whole. But if one wishes to refer to the 
 black form alone, it is distinguished zs. Jasotiiades glaucus glancus ; 
 while the yellow form is distinguished as Jasoniades glauais iurnus. 
 
 In the illustrations just given the dimorphism occurs in the same 
 generation. But many instances are known where the dimorphism is 
 seasonal. Thus in the case of certain insects which pass through two 
 or more generations in the course of a year, the different generations, 
 or some of them, differ markedly in form or coloring from the others. 
 These differences in many cases are so great that the different genera- 
 tions of the same species were believed to be distinct species till they 
 were bred from each other. It is therefore often desirable to distin- 
 guish these different forms by subspecific names. Thus IphicUdes 
 ajax is a species of Swallow-tail Butterfly which exists under three 
 distinct seasonal forms: an early spring iorm, I. ajax viarcellus ; a 
 late spring form,/, ajax te/aniom'des ; and a summer form, /. ajax 
 ajax. 
 
 The name of a genus or of a subgenus is always a single word, 
 and should be a noun in the singular number and nominative case. 
 
 The names of all groups of genera (i.e., families, orders, classes, 
 and branches) consist each of a single word ; and this word should 
 be a plural noun in the nominative case. 
 
 The following practices regarding the forms of zoological names 
 are now almost universally followed : 
 
 The names of all groups in zoology, from kingdom to subgenus 
 inclusive, are written and printed with a capital initial letter. 
 
8 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Specific and subspecific names are written and printed with a small 
 initial letter. Thus in writing the name of a species the generic 
 name is capitalized, the specific name not ; e.g., Iphiclides ajax. 
 
 The names of families end in idee ; the names of subfamilies, in 
 incE. 
 
 It will aid the student greatly in the pronunciation of family and 
 subfamily names to know that the /of -idee in family names is short, 
 and consequently the accent falls on the syllable preceding this 
 letter; while the / of -z«^ of subfamily names is long, and is conse- 
 quently accented.* Numerous examples are given in the following 
 pages. 
 
 * This in accordance with the rule of Latin grammar that in words of more 
 than two syllables the penult if long is accented; but if the penult is short the 
 accent fails on the antepenulu 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 
 
 Branch Arthropoda (Ar-throp'o-da). 
 The Arthropods {Ar'tJiro-pods). 
 
 If an insect, a spider, a scorpion, a centipede, or a lobster 
 be examined, the body will be found to be composed of a 
 series of more or less similar rings or seg- 
 ments joined together; and some of these 
 segments will be found to bear jointed 
 legs (Fig. i). All the animals possessing 
 these characteristics are classed together 
 as the Branch Arthropoda. 
 
 A similar segmented form of the body 
 is found among worms ; but these are dis- 
 tinguished from the Arthropods by the 
 absence of legs. It should be remembered 
 that many animals commonly called worms, 
 as the tomato-worm, apple-worm, etc., are: 
 not true worms, but are the larvae of in- 
 sects (Fig. 2). The angle-worm is the 
 most familiar example of a true worm. 
 
 The Branch Arthropoda is the largest 
 of the branches of the Animal Kingdom, 
 including many more known species than all the other 
 branches taken together. Our common representatives are 
 distributed among four classes : these are the Crustacea, 
 the Arachnida, the Myriapoda, and the Hexapoda. The 
 
 9 
 
 G. T.— An insect show- 
 ing segmented form of 
 body. 
 
lO THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 first three classes are briefly discussed in this chapter; the 
 fourth comprises the Insects, and is the subject of the 
 remaining parts of this book. 
 
 The following table will enable the student to distin- 
 guish the classes of the Arthropoda.* 
 
 TABLE OF CLASSES OF THE ARTHROPODA. 
 
 A. With two pairs of antennse and at least five pairs of legs. Aquatic 
 animals breathing by gills, p. ii.. CRUSTACEA. 
 
 AA. With one pair of antennae or with none. Air-breathing ani- 
 mals. The number of legs varies from six to many. 
 
 *The following is the method of using the analytical tables given in this 
 book: Read carefully the statement of characteristics given opposite A and 
 AA respectively, and by examining the animal to be classified determine 
 which is true of this animal. This will indicate in which division of the 
 table the name of the group to which the animal belongs is to be looked for. 
 If this division of the table is subdivided, pass to B and BB (also to BBB if 
 it occurs) in this division and determine in a like manner under which the 
 animal belongs. Continue in this way, passing to the letters C, D, E, etc., in 
 regular order till the name of the group is reached. Then turn to the page 
 indicated and read the description or the group given there, comparing the 
 specimens with the description. It should be borne in mind that an analyt- 
 ical table is merely an aid to the determination of groups. As the groups that 
 we recognize are not always sharply limited in nature, we cannot expect to 
 be able in every case to find characters that will serve to distinctly separate 
 them in a table. Therefore when a student has determined by the aid of a 
 key to what group a species seems to belong, he should verify this determi- 
 nation by a study of the. characters of that group given in the detailed dis- 
 cussion of it. • 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR REIATIVES. II 
 
 B. Without antennae and with four pairs of legs, although the 
 maxillary palpi are often leg-like in form, making the animal 
 appear to have five pairs of legs. p. 12 Arachnida. 
 
 BB. With antennae. 
 C. With more than three pairs of legs; and without wings, p. 
 
 45 MVRIAPODA, 
 
 CC. With only three pairs of legs, and usually with wings in 
 the adult state, p.48 Hexapoda. 
 
 Class Crustacea (Crus-ta'ce-a). 
 The Crustaceans {Crns-ta ce-ans). 
 
 The members of this e/ass are aquatic ArtJiropoda^ which 
 breathe by true gills. They have ttvo pairs of antenncB and at 
 least five pairs of legs. 
 
 The most familiar illustrations of the Crustacea are the 
 Cray-fi.shes, the Lobsters, 
 the Shrimps, and the 
 Crabs. Cray-fishes (Fig. 3) 
 abound in our brooks, and 
 are often improperly called 
 Crabs. The Lobsters, the 
 Shrimps, and the true 
 Crabs live in salt water. 
 
 The Crustaceans are 
 distinguished from all oth- 
 er Arthropods by their 
 mode of respiration, being 
 the only ones that breathe 
 by true gills. Many in- 
 sects live in water, and 
 are furnished with gill-like 
 organs; but these are 
 tracheal gills, organs which differ essentially in structure 
 from true gills, as described later, in the chapter on Anat- 
 omy of Insects. The Crustacea also dififer from other 
 Arthropoda in having two pairs of antennae ; and from all 
 
 Fig. 3— a Cray-fish. 
 
12 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 except the Myriapoda in having many (more than four) 
 pairs of legs. 
 
 The illustrations named above are the more conspicuous 
 members of the class ; but many 
 other smaller forms abound both in 
 the sea and in fresh water. Some of 
 the more minute fresh-water forms 
 ''' ' are almost sure to occur in any fresh- 
 
 FiG. 4.— Crustacea : a, Cypris: b, 
 
 Cyclops: c^Dapitnia. watcr aquarium. In Figure 4 are 
 
 represented three of these, greatly enlarged. 
 
 Among the Crustacea that hve in damp places on land 
 the Sow-bugs, Oniscidce (O-nis'ci-dae), are most often- 
 seen. These frequently occur about water-soaked 
 wood ; and are often mistaken, by students begin- 
 ning the study of Entomology, for insects or Myria- 
 pods. Figure 5 represents a Sow-bug. 
 
 On the sea-coast an immense number of forms ^s'lw:^^ 
 of Crustacea occur. 
 
 on land 
 
 Class Arachnida (A-rach'ni-da). 
 Scorpions, Harvest men. Spiders, Mites, and others. 
 
 The nienibers of this class are air-breathing Arthropods, in 
 which the head and thorax are grown together, forming a 
 cepJialotJiorax, which have four pairs of legs ft ted for ivalk- 
 ing, and which have no antenncz. 
 
 The Arachnida abound wherever insects occur, and are 
 often mistaken for insects. But they can be easily distin- 
 guished by the characters given above, even in those cases 
 where an exception occurs to some one of them. The more 
 important of the exceptions are the following: In the Sol- 
 pugida the head is distinct from the thorax; as a rule the 
 young of mites have only six legs, but a fourth pair are 
 added during growth ; and in the gall mites {Phytoptus) there 
 are only four legs. 
 
 In the Arachnida we find only simple eyes. 
 
 The cepJialothorax (ceph a-lo-tho'rax) bears six pairs of 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELA TIVES. 
 
 13 
 
 Fig. 6. — Lower side of 
 cephalothorax of a 
 spider : ;«</, man- 
 dible ; w.r, maxilla ; 
 pus ; /, lower 
 sternum. 
 
 /, paip 
 lip ; J, ! 
 
 appendages— two pairs of jaws, and four pairs of legs. The 
 first pair of jaws are tiie mandibles (man'di-bles), the second, 
 the juaxilhi; (max-irhii). 
 
 The mandibles (Fig. 6, md) h'e in front of and above the 
 mouth, and consist each of two or three segments. They 
 serve for seizing prey, and often also for 
 killing it. In many books they are termed 
 the chelicera; (che-lic'e-rcx). 
 
 The maxillcs {¥'\g. 6, mx) lie just behind 
 the mandibles, one on each side of the 
 mouth. Each maxilla bears a large feeler 
 or palpus (Fig. 6, p). These palpi vary 
 greatly in form ; frequently they resemble 
 legs; hence many Arachnida appear to 
 have five pairs of legs. The palpi are often 
 so largely developed that each maxilla ap- 
 pears to be merely the first segment of its 
 leg-like palpus. These appendages are often 
 
 called the /r<'/^/<t^/ (ped-i-pal'pi). But as the 
 name Pedipalpi is applied to one of the or- 
 ders of the Arachnida, we will call these ap- 
 pendages the palpi. 
 
 The legs of Arachnida consist typically of 
 seven parts (Fig. 7), which are named, begin- 
 ning with the one next to the body, as fol- 
 lows : I, coxa (cox'a) ; 2, trochanter (tro-chan'- 
 ter) ; i, femur (fe'mur) ; ^, patella (pa-tel'la) ; 
 5, tibia {\\\i'\-?i)\ 6, metatarsus {^^t-^A-Ax'swi); 
 and 7, tarsus (tar'sus). The tarsus may be composed of 
 several segments, and is usually furnished with claws. 
 
 Two forms of breathing organs are found in this class : 
 one, tracheae, resembling the tracheae of insects, described 
 in the chapter on the anatomy of insects ; and the other, 
 tracheal lungs or lung sacs, which consist of many leaf-like 
 plates enclosed in a sac. Both forms open by paired spira- 
 cles, which are usually situated on the lower side of some of 
 the abdominal segments. 
 
f4 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Very great differences exist in the several orders of the 
 Arachnida in respect to the division of the body into seg- 
 ments. In arranging the orders in a series, we place first 
 those in which the segments of the body are most distinctly 
 indicated, while those which seem to depart more widely 
 from the segmented type characteristic of the Arthropoda 
 are placed later. 
 
 The class Arachnida includes seven orders ; these are 
 designated as follows: 
 
 The Scorpions, Order SCORPIONIDA (p. 15). 
 
 The Jointed Spiders, Order SOLPUGIDA (p. 16). 
 
 The Pseudoscorpions, Order PSEUDOSCORPIONES (p. 17). 
 
 The Whip-scorpions, Order Pedipalpi (p. 17). 
 
 The Harvestmen, Order Phalangidea (p. 19). 
 
 The Spiders, Order Araneida (p. 20). 
 
 The Mites, Order ACARINA (p. 42). 
 
 TABLE OF THE ORDERS OF THE ARACHNIDA. 
 A. Abdomen distinctly segmented. 
 
 B. Abdomen with a tail-like prolongation. 
 
 C. Tail stout and armed with a sting at the end ; first pair of legs 
 not greatly elongated ; a pair of comb-like appendages on the 
 lower side of the second abdominal segment in the adult. 
 
 {Scorpions.) p. 15 SCORPIONIDA. 
 
 CC. Tail slender, whip-lash like, without sting; first pair of legs 
 much longer than the others ; without comb-like appendages 
 on abdomen. {Whip-scorpions^ {Thelyphonidce.) p. 17. 
 
 Pedipalpi. 
 BB. Abdomen without a tail-like prolongation. 
 
 C. Palpi with pincer-like claws. {Pseudoscorpions.) p. 17. 
 
 PSEUDOSCORPIONES. 
 CC. Palpi without pincer-like claws. 
 
 D. Abdomen joined to the thorax by a slender stalk; front 
 legs greatly elongated and with whip-lash-like tarsi. ( Whip- 
 scorpions.) {Phrynidce) p. 17 Pedipalpi. 
 
 DD. Abdomen broadly joined to the thorax. 
 E. Legs usually very long and slender; thorax not dis- 
 tinctly divided into three segments. {Harvestmen^ p. 19. 
 
 Phalangidea. 
 
 EE. Legs moderately long; head distinct from thorax ; thorax 
 
 distinctly divided into three segments, p. 16. Solpugida. 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELA TIVES. 
 
 15 
 
 AA. Abdomen unsegmented. 
 B, Abdomen joined to the cephalothorax by a short, narrow stalk. 
 
 {Spiders.) p. 20 AraNEIDA. 
 
 BB. Abdomen fused with the cephalothorax. {Mites.) p. 42. 
 
 ACARINA. 
 
 Order SCORPIONIDA (Scor-pi-on'i-da). 
 The Scorpions. 
 
 With the scorpions (Fig. 8), the body is divided into a 
 compact, unsegmented cephalothorax, and a long, segmented 
 abdomen. The abdomen is divided 
 into two portions : a broad pre-abdo- 
 men, consisting of seven segments ; 
 and a slenderer tail-like division, the 
 post-abdomen, consisting of five seg- 
 ments. At the end of the post-abdo- 
 men there is a large poison-sting, 
 which appears like a segment. The 
 mandibles and the palpi are provided 
 with pincers. As the palpi are very- 
 large, with stout pincers, they resem- 
 ble in a striking manner the great claws 
 of lobsters. The cephalothorax bears 
 from three to six pairs of eyes. Scor- 
 pions breathe by means of lung sacs, 
 of which there are four pairs, opening 
 on the lower side of the third to the 
 sixth abdominal segments. 
 
 Full-grown scorpions possess a pair of comb-like organs 
 on the lower side of the second abdominal segment. The 
 function of these organs is not yet known. 
 
 The sexes of scorpions differ in that the male has 
 broader pincers and a longer post-abdomen. Scorpions do 
 not lay eggs, the young being developed within the mother. 
 After the birth of the young, the mother apparently shows 
 great regard for them, carrying them about with her for 
 
 -A. Scorpion. 
 
l6 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 some time, attached by their pincers to all portions of her 
 body. 
 
 Scorpions live in warm countries. They are common in 
 the southern portion of the United States, but are not found 
 in the North. They are nocturnal, remaining concealed dur- 
 ing the day, but leaving their hiding-places at dusk. When 
 they run the post-abdomen is bent upwards over the back. 
 They feed upon spiders and large insects, which they seize 
 with the large pincers of their palpi, and sting to death with 
 their caudal poison sting. 
 
 The sting of a scorpion rarely if ever proves fatal to man, 
 although the larger species, which occur in the Tropics, pro- 
 duce serious wounds. 
 
 Nearly twenty species are known from North America. 
 
 Order SOLPUGIDA (Sol-pu'gi-da). 
 
 The Jointed Spiders. 
 
 The members of this order differ from all other Arach- 
 nida in having the head separate from the thorax, and in 
 having the thorax composed of 
 three distinct segments, as with 
 insects. The mandibles are very 
 large, and are furnished with 
 strong pincers. The palpi are 
 shaped like the legs, and are said 
 to be used in locomotion. The 
 first of the four pairs of true legs, 
 like the palpi, are not furnished 
 with claws, and are used as palpi. 
 There are only two eyes. Respi- 
 ration is effected by means of 
 tracheae, which open through three 
 
 Fig. 9. — A Jointed-spider, Datantes . . . . 1 • 1 
 
 diintata. (After Putnam.) pairs of spiracles, Situated lu the 
 
 first thoracic and the second and third abdominal segments. 
 
 Only a few species of Solpugida occur in the United 
 
 States, and specimens of these are rarely found. So far 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. I/ 
 
 as is known, our species are nocturnal, remaining con- 
 cealed during the day. They prey upon small insects, and 
 are believed to be harmless. Figure 9 will serve to show 
 the appearance of these curious animals. The popular 
 name, jointed-spiders, is suggested by the segmented con- 
 dition of the abdomen. 
 
 Order Pseudoscorpiones (Pseu-do-scor-pi'o-nes.) 
 The Pseiidoscorpions. 
 
 The pseudoscorpions (Fig. 10) are small Arachnida, 
 which resemble scorpions in the form of their body, except 
 that the hinder part of the abdomen is not nar- 
 row, as is the post-abdomen of scorpions, and 
 they have no caudal poison-sting. The abdo- 
 men is broad, flat, and composed of eleven 
 segments, or in some cases of only ten. 
 
 The pseudoscorpions possess only one or 
 two pairs of eyes, and in some, eyes are want- 
 ing. They breathe by means of tracheae, 'dos°c(^pion^*"' 
 which open through two pairs of spiracles on the lower side 
 of the second and third abdominal segments. 
 
 These little scorpion-like creatures live under stones, be- 
 neath the bark of trees, in moss, and in the dwellings of man, 
 between the leaves of books, etc. They run rapidly, side- 
 wise and backwards ; and feed on mites and small insects. 
 They are often found attached to insects, especially to flies ; 
 but they probably do not feed on these large insects, but 
 merely use them as means of rapid locomotion. 
 
 The pseudoscorpions occur in the Northern States as 
 well in the South. 
 
 Order Pedipalpi (Ped-i-parpi). 
 
 The Whip-scorpions. 
 
 These strange creatures are found only in the extreme 
 southern part of our country, being tropical animals. In 
 
l8 THE STUDY OF IN'SECTS. 
 
 their general form they have some resemblance to scor- 
 pions. They can be easily distinguished by the form of 
 the front legs, which are greatly elongated, and have the 
 tarsi broken up into many small segments; this gives these 
 legs a more or less whip-lash-like appearance. In one 
 family the abdomen also bears a whip-lash-like appendage. 
 
 The mandibles are furnished with claws; the palpi are 
 very large and armed with strong spines, and the abdomen 
 is distinctly separated from the thorax. The order includes 
 two families, both of which are represented in the United 
 States. 
 
 Family Thelyphonid^ (Thel-y-phon'i-dae). 
 
 Tlie Tailed Whip-scorpions. < 
 
 This family is represented in the United States by 
 
 only a single species, the 
 Giant Whip - scorpion, 
 TlielypJiomis gigantens 
 (The-lyph'o-nus gi-gan- 
 te'us). This species 
 measures when full 
 grown from four to five 
 inches in length. Figure 
 1 1 represents one less 
 than natural size. These 
 whip-scorpions are great- 
 ly feared on account of 
 their supposed venomous 
 powers, but it is prob- 
 able that there is no 
 foundation for this fear. 
 Although it has been 
 stated often that their 
 bites are poisonous, we 
 
 Yxo.-L^.-Thelypkonus ^ganteus. ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^j^.^^^ ^^j. 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR REIATIVES. 
 
 19 
 
 dence that it is so. They destroy their prey by crushing it 
 with their palpi. 
 
 Family Phrynid^E (Phryn'i-dai). 
 
 TJie Tailless Whip-scorpions. 
 
 This family is represented in our fauna by the genus 
 Phrymis (Phry'nus), the members of which are smaller than 
 the Giant Whip-scorpion, In this family the front legs 
 are even more whip-lash-like than in the preceding family ; 
 the whole body is relatively shorter and broader ; the 
 abdomen is joined to the thorax by a slender stalk, and 
 the tail-like appendage is lacking. 
 
 Order Phalangidea (Phal-an-gid'e-a). 
 The Harvestmen, or Daddy Long Legs. 
 
 The Harvestmen are very common in most parts of 
 the United States. They are well known to children in 
 this country under the name Daddy Long Legs, but as this 
 name is also sometimes applied to Crane-flies, Harvestmen 
 is preferable. In some sections of the country the Har- 
 vestmen are known as Grandfather Graybeards. 
 
 Most Harvestmen can be recognized by their very long 
 and slender legs (Fig. 12), although some species have 
 
 Fig. 12.— The Striped Harvestman. 
 
 comparatively short ones. The cephalothorax is indistinctly 
 if at all segmented. The abdomen is short, broad, consists 
 
20 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. 
 
 of six segments, and is without a tail-like appendage; it 
 is broadly joined to the cephalothorax. 
 
 The eyes of the Harvestmen are two in number, and 
 are situated on a prominent tubercle near the middle of 
 the cephalothorax. The mandibles are pincer-hke. The 
 maxillae are large, and so opposed as to act as jaws ; their 
 palpi are four-jointed, and are small compared with the palpi 
 of the preceding orders ; they resemble in form and func- 
 tion the palpi of insects. The members of this order 
 breathe by tracheae, which open by a single pair of spir- 
 acles, on the lower side of the body at the junction of 
 the cephalothorax and abdomen. 
 
 The Harvestmen feed on small insects, especially Aphids, 
 
 and are perfectly harmless. They are said to devour their 
 
 prey, chewing it with their maxillae, and swallowing it, 
 
 '^ instead of merely sucking out the blood, as do most other 
 
 4, J|- Arachnida. 
 
 " . ■ Although the Harvestmen have stilt-like legs, they do 
 
 • "^ not raise the body much above the ground when they 
 ^ ^ walk, but carry it quite near their feet, with the middle 
 -^l ■'\- part of their legs high in the air. They are said to pounce 
 ^ "^ upon their prey as does a cat upon a mouse, and seize 
 it with their palpi as if with hands. 
 
 It is a common practice with children to catch these 
 creatures and say to them, " Grandfather Graybeard, tell 
 me where the cows are, or I'll kill you." As the poor 
 frightened animal points its legs in all directions in its 
 frantic efforts to escape, it usually earns its freedom ; but 
 too often it is not without the loss of one or more legs. 
 
 Order Araneida (Ar-a-ne'i-da). 
 
 The Spiders. 
 
 The Spiders differ from other Arachnida in having the 
 abdomen unsegmented and joined to the cephalothorax 
 by a short, narrow stalk. The cephalothorax is also un- 
 
 •->i 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 21 
 
 segmented ; and the abdomen bears at its end organs for 
 spinning silk (Fig. 13). 
 
 Fig. 13. — Penceiia viridans. (From the Author's Report on Cotton Insects.) 
 
 The mandibles (Fig. 14, md) consist of two segments, 
 a strong basal one and a claw-shaped terminal one, at 
 the tip of which a poison gland opens (Fig. 
 15). It is by means of these organs that 
 spiders kill their prey. The palpi are leg- 
 like in form, but differ greatly according 
 to sex. In the female the last segment of 
 the palpus resembles a foot of the spider, 
 and is usually armed with a well-developed 
 curved claw. But in the male the corre- 
 sponding segment is more or less enlarged, 
 and very complicated in structure (Fig. 16). 
 The greater number of spiders have four 
 pairs of eyes (Fig. 17), but there may be 
 
 Fig. 14.— Lower side 
 
 of cephalothorax of 
 
 a spider ; md, man- 
 
 ditle; «/.r, maxilla; 
 
 palpus ; /, lower 
 
 s. sternum. 
 
 U. 
 
 I 
 
 /.- P 
 hp; 
 
 Fig. 15.— Tip of claw of Fig. 16.— Maxilla and 
 mandible of spider. palpus of male house- 
 
 spider. 
 
 Fig. 17.— Head of spider, 
 showing eyes and mandi- 
 bles. 
 
22 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 only one, two, or three pairs ; and certain cave spiders 
 are blind. Spiders breathe by means of lung-sacs, of which 
 there are one or two pairs ; and some have tracheae also. 
 The lung-sacs open on the lower side of the abdomen 
 near its base, and between them is the opening of the 
 reproductive organs. The tracheae open through a single 
 spiracle near the hind end of the body, just in front of the 
 spinning organs. 
 
 The spinning organs, which are situated near the end of 
 the abdomen, consist of two or three pairs of spitinerets. 
 These appendages (Fig. i8) are more 
 or less finger-like in form, and some- 
 times jointed. Upon the end of each 
 spinneret there are many small tubes, 
 the spirining tubes, from which the silk 
 F,G. ,8.-End of abdomen of IS spuu (Fig. 19). Somc spidcrs have 
 ^^^t&^lX:::^i as many as one hundred and f^fty or 
 t^:!y^:^\iTo;i^.^Toi'^^. two hundred of these spinning-tubes 
 
 alimentary canal. i. • , <-p, .<. 
 
 on each spmneret. 1 he silk is m a 
 fluid state while it is within the body, but it hardens as 
 soon as it comes in contact with the air. 
 
 Ordinarily the tips of the spinnerets are brought close 
 together, so that all the minute threads that emerge from 
 the numerous spinning tubes unite to form a single 
 thread. This, however, may be so delicate as to be 
 invisible, except in a favorable light. Sometimes 
 a spider will spread its spinnerets apart, and thus pic 19. 
 spin a broad ribbon-like band. We have observed ^ ^J^oup of 
 a spider seize a large grasshopper which was en- ^g^"y 
 tangled in its web, and, rolling it over two or three enlarged. 
 times, completely envelop it in a sheet of silk spun from 
 its spread-apart spinnerets. 
 
 In the construction of their web some spiders make 
 use of two kinds of silk. One of these is dry and inelastic ; 
 the other, viscid and elastic. This fact can be easily seen 
 by examining an orb-web. If the spiral line which forms 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 23 
 
 the greater part of the web be touched, It will adhere to the 
 finger, and will stretch, when the finger is withdrawn, to 
 several times the original length. But if one of the radiat- 
 ing lines or a portion of the outer framework be touched, it 
 will neither adhere to the finger nor be stretched. If the 
 spiral line be examined with a lens, it will be found to bear 
 numerous bead-like masses of viscid matter (Fig. 20) ; this 
 explains its adhesiveness. 
 
 It is supposed that the two kinds of silk are spun from 
 different spinnerets, and that the viscid silk comes from the 
 front pair. When this silk is first spun the viscid matter 
 forms a continuous layer of liquid on the outside of it. But 
 very soon this layer breaks up into the bead-like masses — in 
 a way similar to that in which the moisture on a clothes-line 
 in a foggy day collects into drops. 
 
 Spiders of the two families DictynidcB and Uloborida 
 have spinning organs differing from those of all other 
 
 Fig. 20.— Viscid silk Fig. 21.— Spinnerets of Fig. 22. — Last two segments 
 
 from an orbweb. a Dictynid spider. of hind leg of spider, show- 
 
 The middle pair of ing calamistrum. 
 spinnerets are con- 
 cealed by the tirst 
 pair, c, cribellum. 
 
 spiders. They have in front of the usual spinnerets an 
 additional organ, which is named the cribellum (cri-bel'lum) 
 (Fig. 21). This bears spinning-tubes like the other spinner- 
 ets, but these tubes are much finer. These spiders have 
 also on the metatarsus of the hind legs one or two rows of 
 curved spines ; this organ is the calamistrum (cal-a-mis'trum) 
 (Fig. 22). By means of the calamistrum these spiders comb 
 from the cribellum a band of loose threads, which forms 
 a part of their webs. 
 
THE STUD V OF /AT SECTS. 
 
 Spiders make use of silk in the construction of their 
 webs or snares, in the building of tubes or tents within 
 which they live, in the formation of egg-sacs, and in loco- 
 motion. 
 
 Fig. 23 represents the large egg-sac of one of the orb- 
 weavers. This is made in the autumn, and contains at that 
 season a large number of eggs — five hun- 
 dred or more. These eggs hatch early in 
 the winter; but no spiders emerge from 
 the egg-sac until the following spring. If 
 egg-sacs of this kind be opened at differ- 
 ent times during the winter, as was done 
 by Dr. Wilder, the spiders will be found 
 to increase in size but diminish in num- 
 ber as the season advances. In fact, a 
 strange tragedy goes on within these 
 egg-sacs: the stronger spiders calmly 
 devour their weaker brothers, and in 
 the spring those which survive emerge 
 sufficiently nourished to fight their bat- 
 tles in the outside world. 
 
 The egg-sacs of the different species of spiders vary 
 
 Fig. 23.— Egg-sac of 
 Argiope riparia. 
 
 (From Wilder.) 
 
 Fig. 24.— Egg-sac of Nepkila piumfpes. (From Wilder.) 
 
 greatly in form. In some, as in that figured above, the outer 
 covering is very dense, while in others the outer part con- 
 
2NSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 2$ 
 
 sists cf loose flossy silk (Fig. 24). One of the most common 
 kinds is very flat, silvery in color, and is 
 firmly attached to stones lying upon the 
 ground (Fig. 25). 
 
 Every one knows that a spider wishing 
 to descend to some place beneath it simply 
 fastens a line to the object which it is 
 upon and then drops boldly off, regulat- p.^ .j.-Egg-sac of a 
 ing the rate of its descent by spinning Drassid. 
 
 the line rapidly or slowly; when the spider wishes to return, 
 it has only to climb up the same line. 
 
 Frequently spiders pass from point to point in a hori- 
 zontal direction by means of silken bridges. These are 
 formed in this way : The spider spins out a thread, which is 
 carried off by a current in the air. After a time the thread 
 strikes some object and adheres to it ; then the spider pulls 
 the line tight, and fastens it where it is standing. It then 
 has a bridge, along which it can easily run. 
 
 But more remarkable than either of these uses of silk for 
 locomotion is the fact that many spiders are able to travel 
 long distances, hundreds of miles, through the air by means 
 of these silken threads — 
 
 "sailing mid the golden air 
 In skiffs of yielding gossamere." — {Hogg.') 
 
 The Aeronautic Spiders, or Flying Spiders, as they are 
 more commonly called, are frequently very abundant, espe- ' 
 cially in warm antumn days. At such times innumerable 
 threads can be seen streaming from fences, from bushes, and 
 the tips of stalks of grass, or floating through the air. The 
 flying spider climbs to some elevated point, which may be 
 merely the tip of a stalk of grass, and then, standing on the 
 tips of its feet, lifts its body as high as it can, and spins out 
 a thread of silk. This thread is carried up and away by a 
 current of air. When the thread is long enough the force of 
 the air current on it is sufificient to buoy the spider up. It 
 
26 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 then lets go its hold with its feet and sails away. That these 
 spiders travel long distances in this manner has been shown 
 by the fact that they have been seen floating through the 
 air at sea far from land. 
 
 Representatives of nearly thirty families of spiders have 
 been found in the United States. But some of these fami- 
 lies include only rare species, and others are represented by 
 so few species that we cannot discuss them here. The 
 greater number of our spiders belong to the eleven families 
 described below. The following table will aid the student 
 in separating these families. 
 
 TABLE FOR SEPARATING THE PRINCIPAL FAMILIES OF 
 SPIDERS. 
 
 A. Claw of the mandibles moving vertically; four lung-slits present. 
 
 ( Tarantulas^) p. 27 Theraphosid^. 
 
 AA. Claw of the mandibles moving horizontally; only two lung-slits 
 present, but with a single spiracle or a pair of spiracles also. 
 B. Eyes equal or nearly equal in size, and usually arranged in two 
 rows. 
 
 C. Feet furnished with two claws (Fig. 28). Spiders which 
 do not spin webs for catching prey. 
 D. Second pair of legs not so long as the fourth pair. 
 
 E. Maxillae with a concavity or furrow (Fig. 29). Spiders 
 
 which live on the ground, p. 29 Drassid.e. 
 
 EE. Maxillae convex (Fig. 32). Spiders which live chiefly in 
 
 silken tubes on bushes, p. 30 Clubionid.e. 
 
 DD. Second pair of legs as long as or longer than the fourth 
 
 pair. ( The crab-spiders.^ p. 40 Thomisid^. 
 
 CC. Feet furnished with three claws (Fig. 38). Spiders which 
 spin webs for catching prey. 
 
 D. The caudal pair of spinnerets very long, and two-jointed. 
 Spiders which make irregular webs with a tube or hiding- 
 place at one side, from which they run on the upper surface 
 
 of the web, to catch their prey. p. 30 Agalenid^. 
 
 DD. All of the spinnerets short. 
 
 E. With cribellum and calaraistrum. Spiders making webs 
 in which there are curled threads, or double threads. 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 27 
 
 F. The side eyes not as far apart as the middle eyes; a 
 considerable space between the eyes and the front edge 
 of the head. Spiders making irregular webs. p. 32, 
 
 DlCTYNID^. 
 
 FF. The side eyes as far or farther apart than the middle 
 eyes ; eyes very close to the front edge of the head. 
 Spiders making regular webs. {U!ol>orus.) p. 38, 
 
 ULOBORIDi«. 
 
 EE. With neither cribellum nor calamistrum. Spiders mak- 
 ing webs in which there are no curled threads. 
 F. Eyes not near the front edge of the head, the space be- 
 tween the two being greater than that occupied by the 
 eyes (Fig. 37). Spiders that spin irregular webs, in or 
 near which they live, hanging back downwards, p. 34. 
 
 Theridiidte, 
 FF. Eyes near the front edge of the head, the space be- 
 tween the two being less than that occupied by the eyes 
 (Fig. 42). Spiders that make regular webs, consisting 
 chiefly of lines radiating from the centre, and a spiral or 
 
 looped sticky line. p. 35 EPElRlDiE. 
 
 SB. The eyes unequal in size and arranged in three or four rows. 
 C. With cribellum and calamistrum. Spiders which make webs. 
 
 {Hypt totes) p. 38 Uloborid^. 
 
 CC. With neither cribellum nor calamistrum. Spiders which do 
 not spin webs for catching prey. 
 D. The largest eyes not in the front row. {Rufiniiig spiders.) 
 
 p. 40 LYCOSIDiE. 
 
 DD. The largest eyes in the front row. {Jumping spiders.) 
 p. 42 Attid^. 
 
 Family THERAPHOSlDiE (Ther-a-phos'i-dae). 
 
 The Tarantulas and the Trap-door Spiders. 
 
 Those who live in the warmer parts of our country know 
 well the large spiders commonly called Tarantulas. These 
 are the giants among spiders, some of them being the largest 
 known ; but some species of this family are not very large. 
 They are dark-colored, hairy spiders, and can be distinguished 
 from the other families mentioned here by the fact that the 
 
28 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 claw of the mandibles works up and down instead of side- 
 wise. 
 
 The members of this family do not construct true webs, 
 but they dig long tubes in the earth, which they line with 
 silk, or line their hiding-places in clefts in trees or elsewhere 
 with a layer of silk. They live only in warm countries. 
 
 One of the best known of the Tarantulas is Eurypelma 
 hentzii (Eu-ryp'el-ma hentz'i-i). This species occurs in the 
 South and in the Middle West, and is the largest of our 
 spiders (Fig. 26). Several closely allied species are found in 
 California. 
 
 Fig. 26.— a Tarantula, Eurypelma hentzii. 
 
 But the members of this family that have attracted most 
 admiration on account of their habits are the Trap-door 
 Spiders. These dig a tube in the ground, as do many other 
 members of this family ; but this tube is lined with a denser 
 
 Fig. 27.— Entrance to nest of a trap-door spider. 
 
 layer of silk, and is provided Avith a hinged lid, which fits 
 the opening of the tube with wonderful accuracy (Fig. 2"]). 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 
 
 29 
 
 The spider hides in this nest when not seeking its prey. 
 Some species take the precaution to build a branch to their 
 nest, and to provide this branch with a door. As this door 
 forms a part of one side of the main tube, it is not hkely to 
 be observed by any creature which may find its way past the 
 first door of the nest. 
 
 Several species of Trap-door Spiders occur in the South- 
 ern and Southwestern States. 
 
 Family Drassid^ (Dras'si-dai). 
 The Drassids, or Tube Weavers in part. 
 
 There are certain dark-colored spiders that spin no web, 
 but wander about at night in search of prey, and hide under 
 leaves and stones during the day-time. Many of them miake 
 silken tubes, in which they hide in winter or while mouitino- 
 or laying eggs. Hence they have been termed Tube 
 Weavers, a name which is also applied to certain other 
 spiders. We will therefore call the members of this family 
 the Drassids (Dras'sids). 
 
 In this family the body is long, and is usually flattened 
 above. It is carried near the ground in walking. The leo-s 
 are rather short and stout ; the second pair are not longer 
 than the fourth, and the feet 
 are furnished with only two 
 claws (Fig. 28). The eyes are 
 in two nearly straight rows, and 
 the maxillae are 
 concave or fur- 
 nished with a 
 furrow (Fig. 29). 
 
 One of the 
 most common 
 species in the 
 East is Drassiis 
 
 Fig. 28. — Foot 
 a Drassid. 
 
 Fig. 29. — Maxilla 
 of a Drassid. 
 
 Fjg. 30. — Drnssus 
 saccatus. 
 
 saccatiis (Dras'sus sac-ca'tus) (Fig. 30). 
 
 It lives under stones, 
 
 large bag of silk, in which the 
 
30 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 female stays with her egg-sac. In early summer a male and 
 female live together in the nest. 
 
 Family Clubionid^ (Clu-bi-on'i-dae). 
 
 The Chibionids, or Tube Weavers in part. 
 
 There may be found during summer, in flat tubular 
 nests on plants, usually in rolled leaves, spiders that spin 
 no webs to entrap their prey. 
 These spiders very closely re- 
 semble the Drassids in structure, 
 but are usually lighter in color, 
 iXS ^'"^^Ni, with the legs a little longer and 
 
 |\ ^^^^^^iV^^^ more slender, and the abdomen 
 I ' W f^ore nearly cylindrical (Fig. 31). 
 
 F.G.'3,.-c/«^/- Fig. ,3.-Maxiiia of They are also distinguished by 
 
 ona canadensis. a Clubionid. ^^^ ^^^^ ^j ^j^^ maxillse, which 
 
 are convex (Fig. 32). These spiders belong to the family 
 Clubionidae. As we have no appropriate common name 
 for these spiders, they may be called the Chibionids (Clu-bi- 
 on'ids). 
 
 During the winter the Clubionids hide under bark or 
 stones, and make tubular nests in these places. 
 
 Family Agalenid^ (Ag-a-len'i-dae). 
 The Fiinnel-ivcb Weavers. 
 
 Even the most careful observers seldom realize what an 
 immense number of spider-webs are spun upon the grass in 
 the fields. But occasionally these webs are made visible 
 in the early morning by the dew which has condensed upon 
 them. At such times we may see the grass covered by an 
 almost continuous carpet of silk. 
 
 The greater number of the webs seen at such times are 
 of the form which we term funnel-webs. They consist of a 
 concave sheet of silk, with a funnel-shaped tube at one side, 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 
 
 31 
 
 and numerous lines extending in all directions to the sup- 
 poitiiig speais of grass (Fig. 33). Tin tube serves as a 
 
 hiding-place for the owner of the web ; from this retreat the 
 spider runs out on the upper surface of the web to seize any 
 insect that alights upon it. The tubes open below, near the 
 roots of the grass ; so that the spider can escape from it if 
 a too formidable insect comes upon the web. 
 
 The funnel-web weavers (family Agalenidoz) are long- 
 legged, brown spiders, in which the head part of the cephalo- 
 thorax is higher than the thoracic part, and distinctly 
 separated from it by grooves or 
 marks at the sides. The eyes 
 are usually in two rows, but ^j^'< -- 
 in Agalena the middle eyes of ^^^-^^: "■"— 
 both rows are much higher than 
 the others. The feet have three clavvs. The posterior pair 
 
32 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 of spinnerets arc two-jointed, and usually longer than the 
 others. 
 
 The common grass spider, which abounds in all parts of 
 the United States, is Agalcna ncevia (Ag-a-le'na nse'vi-a 
 (Fig. 34). 
 
 Family DiCTYNlD^ (Dic-tyn'i-dae). 
 
 The Curled-thread Weavers with Irregular Webs. 
 
 The Dictynids {Dic-tyn' ids). 
 
 Certain spiders are remarkable for using two kinds of 
 silk in the formation of their webs. Thus, as explained 
 later, the Orb Weavers build the framework of their orbs of 
 dry and inelastic threads, and attach to this framework a 
 thread which is sticky and elastic ; while most spiders which 
 make irregular webs use only one kind of silk. There are, 
 however, certain species of irregular web-weavers which use 
 two kinds of silk. One of these is a plain thread like that 
 spun by other spiders, and the other is a peculiar curled 
 thread or a delicate band of tissue in which there are curled 
 threads. 
 
 The curled-thread weavers represent two families, one 
 of which makes irregular webs; the other, those which are 
 of definite form. The first of these is the Dictynidce. 
 
 The curled -thread or tissue-like band is made in the 
 same way by both families. It is composed of silk spun 
 from a special spinning-organ, situated in front of the 
 ordinary spinnerets, and named the cribellum (cri-bel'lum) ; 
 and is combed into its peculiar form by means of a comb of 
 stiff hairs, the calaviistrum (cal-a-mis'trum), which is borne 
 by the metatarsus of the hind legs (see page 23). In mak- 
 ing the curled thread the spider turns one of its hind legs 
 under the abdomen so that the calamistrum is just under 
 the cribellum, and the foot rests on the other hind leg. It 
 then moves its hind legs back and forth rapidly', so that the 
 calamistrum combs out from the spinning-tubes, and at the 
 same time tangles, a band of fine threads. 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELA TIVES. 
 
 33 
 
 This band of tangled or curled threads is easily seen in 
 the webs of these spiders, being wider than 
 the ordinary threads and white in color. In 
 old webs it becomes conspicuous by the large 
 amount of dust which it collects. Figure 35 
 shows the appearance of this band when 
 magnified, and the way in which it is attached 
 to the plain threads. 
 
 Our more common Dictynids make webs of various 
 shapes, on fences, under stones, in holes in rotten logs, and 
 
 Fig. 35.— Curled 
 thread of a 
 Dictynid, en- 
 larged. 
 
 Fig. 36.— Web of a Dictynidj on a dead branch Oi Ceanothus, somewhat enlarged. 
 
 on plants. These webs are especially common among the 
 flowers of Golden-rod and other plants having clusters of 
 
34 THE STUD V OF INSECTS. 
 
 small flowers (Fig. 36), and exhibit a slight degree of 
 regularity. 
 
 Family Thertdiid.E (Ther-i-di'i-dae). 
 
 The Cobiveb Weavers. 
 
 Many are the kinds of webs spun by different spiders. 
 Some of them, as the orb-webs and the funnel-webs, delight 
 us with their wonderful regularity of form; while others 
 appear to be a mere shapeless maze of threads. Such are 
 the structures whose presence in the corners of our rooms 
 torment thrifty housewives, and which are disrespectfully 
 termed cobwebs. 
 
 The cobweb weavers (Family TheridiidcE) are small 
 spiders with unusually slim legs. The space between the 
 eyes and the front edge of the head is greater than the 
 
 Fig. 37.— Face of Fig. 38.— Foot of spider Fig. -ic^.—Mituetus 
 
 house spider. with three claws. inte^-fector. 
 
 region occupied by the eyes (Fig. 37) ; the eyes are in two 
 rows ; and the feet are furnished with three claws (Fig. 38). 
 This family includes many species, being in fact the largest 
 of all of the families of spiders. Figure 39 represents a 
 widely distributed species. 
 
 Although the house spiders are the most familiar mem- 
 bers of this family, the greater number of species spin their 
 webs in the fields on bushes. These webs usually consist of 
 a flat or curved sheet, under which the spider hangs back 
 downward. This sheet is supported by threads running in 
 all directions to the neighboring objects. Frequently there 
 is a large number of these supporting threads above the web, 
 which serve the additional purpose of impeding the flight of 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 35 
 
 insects, and causing them to fall into the web, where they 
 are caught. 
 
 Some of these spiders do not remain in their webs, but 
 have a nest in a neighboring crack or corner, from which 
 they rush to seize their prey. And sometimes there is a 
 funnel-shaped tube leading to this nest. But these spiders 
 differ from the true funnel-web weavers in running back down- 
 wards on the lower side of their web. 
 
 Family Epeirid^ (E-pei'ri-dai). 
 The Orb Weavers. 
 
 Few if any of the structures built by lower animals are 
 more wonderful than the nets of orb-weaving spiders, but 
 these beautiful objects are so common that they are often 
 considered hardly worthy of notice. If they occurred only 
 in some remote corner of the earth, every one would read of 
 them with interest. 
 
 The nets of the different species of orb weavers differ in 
 the details of their structure, but the general plan is quite 
 similar. There is first a framework of supporting lines. The 
 outer part of this framework is irregular, depending upon the 
 position of the objects to which the net is attached; but the 
 more central part is very regular, and consists of a number 
 of lines radiating from the center of the net (Fig. 41). All 
 of these supporting lines are dry and inelastic. But there 
 is spun upon the radiating lines in a very regular manner a 
 thread which is sticky and elastic (Fig. 20, p. 23). Usually 
 this sticky thread is fastened to the radiating lines so as to 
 form a spiral, but a few species make nets in which this 
 thread is looped back and forth. 
 
 Many of the orb weavers strengthen their nets by spin- 
 ning a zigzag ribbon across the center. This ribbon is made 
 by spreading the spinnerets apart so that the minute threads 
 from the spinning tubes do not unite to make a single thread, 
 as is usually the case. 
 
 Some of the orb weavers live in their nets hanging head 
 
36 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 downwards, usually near the center of the net ; others have 
 a retreat near one edge of the net, in which they hang back 
 
 Fig. 41. — Partially completed web of Epeira. 
 
 downwards. While resting in these retreats they keep hold 
 of some of the lines leading from the net, so that they can 
 instantly detect any jar caused by an entrapped insect. 
 
 When an insect in its flight touches one of the turns of 
 the sticky line, the line sticks to it ; but it stretches so as to 
 allow the insect to become entangled in other turns of the 
 hne. If it were not for this elasticity of the sticky line, most 
 insects could readily tear themselves away before the spider 
 had time to reach them. 
 
 In making its web an orb weaver first spins a number of 
 lines extending irregularly in various directions about the 
 place where its orb is to be. This is the outer supporting 
 framework. Often the first Hne spun is a bridge between 
 two quite distant points. This is done as described on p. 25. 
 Having a bridge across the place where the web is to be, it 
 is an easy matter for the spider to stretch its other lines 
 where it wishes them. In doing this it fastens a thread to 
 one point, and then walks along to some other point, spin- 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 37 
 
 ning the thread as it goes, and liolding it clear of the object 
 on which it is walking by means of one of its hind legs. 
 When the second point is reached the thread is pulled tight 
 and fastened in place. 
 
 After making the outer framework the radiating lines 
 are formed. Aline is stretched across the space so as to pass 
 through the point which is to be the center of the orb. In 
 doing this the spider may start on one side, and be forced to 
 walk in a very roundabout way on the outer framework to 
 the opposite side. It carefully holds the new line up behind 
 it as it goes along, so that it shall not become entangled with 
 the lines on which it walks ; one or both hind feet serve as 
 hands in these spinning operations. The spider then goes 
 to the point where the centre of the orb is to be, and fast- 
 ening another line there, it walk back to the outer frame- 
 work, and attaches this line an inch or two from the first. 
 In this way all of the radiating lines are drawn. The next 
 step is to stay these radii by a spiral line which is begun at 
 the center, and attached to each radius as it crosses it. The 
 turns of this spiral are as far apart as the spider can con- 
 veniently reach, except at the center of the web. All of the 
 threads spun up to this stage in the construction of the web 
 are dry and inelastic. The spider now proceeds to stretch 
 upon this framework a sticky and elastic line, which is the 
 most important part of the web, the other lines being merely 
 a framework to support it. In spinning the sticky line the 
 spider begins at the outer edge of the orb, and passing 
 around it fastens this line to each radius as it goes. Thus a 
 second spiral is made. The turns of this spiral are placed 
 quite close together, and the first spiral, which is merely a 
 temporary support, is destroyed as the second spiral pro- 
 gresses. Figure 41 represents a web in which the second 
 spiral is made oyer the outer half of the radii. In this fig- 
 ure, aa represents the temporary stay-line ; bb, the sticky 
 spiral ; and cc, the fragments of the first spiral hanging from 
 the radii. 
 
38 
 
 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. 
 
 The orb weavers (Family 
 Epciridce) are usually plump 
 spiders, the abdomen being 
 large, and often nearly spher- 
 ical. The space between the 
 eyes and front edge of the 
 head is less than the region 
 occupied by the eyes (Fig. 42). 
 are arranged in two rows. The front legs are 
 The feet have three claws (Fig. 43), 
 In some species of this 
 
 iG. 43.— Foot of Epeira. 
 
 The eyes 
 
 longer than the others. 
 
 and the spinnerets are all short 
 
 family the male is much smaller than the female. 
 
 Family Uloborid.e (U-lo-bor'i-dae). 
 
 The Curled-thread Weavers ivith Regular Webs, 
 
 The Uloborids (JJ-lo-bo'rids). 
 
 We have already described the thread-curling habits of 
 the Dictynids (p. 32), and the curious organs called cribel- 
 lum and calamistrum (Fig. 44), by which these curled threads 
 are made (p. 23). Similar organs and 
 a similar habit are possessed by the spi- 
 ders of the family Uloboridce. These 
 spiders, however, make webs which are 
 regular in form. There are only two 
 genera belonging to this family in the United States ; but 
 as the webs made by these are very different, we will de- 
 scribe both. 
 
 The Triangle Spider, Hyptiotes cavatus (Hyp-ti'o-tes ca- 
 va'tus). — This spider is common all over New England and 
 the Middle States, and has been found as far to the south- 
 west as Texas, Its web is most often found stretched be- 
 tween the twigs of a dead branch of pine or spruce. At 
 first sight this web appears like a fragment of an orb web 
 (Fig. 45); but a little study will show that it is complete. 
 The accompanying figure, by Dr. Wilder, who first described 
 
 -Calamistrum of 
 Hyptiotes. 
 
LV SECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 39 
 
 the habits of this spider (see Popular Science MontJily, 1875), 
 illustrates the form of the web. It consists of four plain 
 lines corresponding to the radiating lines of an orb web, and 
 a series of double cross lines, which are spun by the cribel- 
 lum and calamistrum. From the point where the radiating 
 lines meet a strong line extends to one of the supporting 
 twigs. Near this twig the spider rests, pulling the web tight 
 
 Fig. 4S.— Web of Hyptiotes cavatus. (From Wilder.) 
 
 SO that there is some loose hne between its legs, as shown in 
 the enlarged figure. When an insect becomes entangled in 
 one of the cross lines, the spider suddenly lets go the loose 
 line so that the whole web springs forward, and the insect is 
 entangled in other cross threads. The spider then draws 
 the web tight and snaps it again. This may be repeated 
 several times before the spider goes out upon the web after 
 its prey. 
 
 Uloborus (U-lob'o-rus). — The spiders of this genus make 
 round webs which resemble at first sight those of the Orb 
 Weavers ; but they differ from the ordinary orb webs in that 
 
40 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 the spiral thread is made of curled or hackled silk. These 
 webs are nearly horizontal, and are usually made between 
 stones or in low bushes. The spiders of this genus are not 
 common, but they are widely distributed. They have not, 
 however, been reported as yet from the Pacific coast. 
 
 Family ThomisiD/E (Tho-mis'i-dae). 
 
 The Crab Spiders. 
 
 There are certain spiders which are called crab spiders, 
 
 on account of the short and broad form of the body, and 
 
 the curious fact that they can walk more readily sidewise or 
 
 backward than forward. 
 
 These spiders spin no webs, but lie in wait for their prey. 
 They hve chiefly on plants and fences, and in the winter 
 hide in cracks and under stones and bark. Most of the spe- 
 cies are marked with gray and brown, like the bark upon 
 which they live. Some species conceal themselves in flow- 
 ers, where they lie in wait for their prey. These are brightly 
 colored, like the flowers they inhabit ; so that insects visiting 
 flowers may alight within reach of a spider before seeing it. 
 In this family the legs are turned outward and forward 
 more than downward ; so that the body is carried close to 
 the ground. The second pair of legs are as 
 long as or longer than the fourth pair. The 
 eyes are small, nearly equal in size, and ar- 
 ranged in two rows. 
 'menaljaticl"' Oue of thc best-kuowtt members of this 
 family is the female of Misniiienavatia (Mi-su'me-na va'ti-a). 
 This is milk-white, with sometimes a light crimson mark on 
 each side of the abdomen, and is found within flowers 
 (Fig. 46). 
 
 Family Lycosid^ (Ly-cos'i-dae). 
 TJie Rjinning Spiders. 
 Every collector of insects who has searched for speci- 
 mens under stones and logs is familiar with the large, dark- 
 colored, hairy spiders often found in these places. These 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 
 
 Spiders frequently attract especial attention by dragging 
 after them a large gray ball (Fig. 47) ; this is the egg-sac, 
 which the female carries about with her attached to her 
 spinnerets. These spiders run swiftly ; and as they depend 
 
 Fig. ^j.—Lycosa and eggsac. 
 
 on the use of their legs for the capture of their prey, they are 
 well termed Running Spiders. 
 
 These spiders resemble in general appearance and in 
 habits the Tarantulas of the South and the West. But none 
 of our species attain the great size of some of the Tarantulas, 
 and in the Running Spiders the claw of the mandibles 
 moves horizontally instead of vertically. 
 
 In this family the body is hairy and usually much longer 
 than broad. The eyes differ markedly in size, and are 
 arranged in three or four rows. The larger eyes are not in 
 the front row. The legs are rather long and quite stout. 
 
 Like the Tarantulas, some of the Running Spiders build 
 tubular nests in the ground, 
 which they line with silk. Some- 
 times the entrance to these nests 
 is concealed by small sticks and 
 leaves, and sometimes the spi- 
 der builds a regular turret over 
 the entrance of its tube (Fig. 48). 
 These nests are used merely as 
 retreats, the spiders wandering 
 forth in search of their prey. 
 
 The larger members of our 
 common species belong to the 
 genus Lycosa (Ly-co'sa). These 
 drag after them their egg-sacs as described above ; and 
 
 Fig. 48.— Entrance to nest ot Turret 
 Spider, Lycosa arenicola. (After Marx.) 
 
42 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 when the young hatch they dimb on their mother's back, 
 and are carried about for a time. The females of the genus 
 Dolomedcs (Dol-o-me'des), which also belongs to this family, 
 carry their egg-sac in their mandibles until the young are 
 ready to hatch. At this time the mother fastens the egg- 
 sac in a bush, and spins a web of irregular threads about it, 
 among which the young spiders remain for a time. 
 
 Family Attid/E (At'ti-dae). 
 
 TJie Jumping Spiders. 
 
 The Jumping Spiders are of medium size, with a short body 
 and short stout legs (Fig. 49). They are common on plants, 
 
 tlogs, fences, and the sides of buildings. They 
 are very apt to attract attention by their pecul- 
 iar appearance ; their short stout legs, bright 
 colors, conspicuous eyes, and quick, jumping 
 movements being very different from those of 
 t ordinary spiders. 
 
 The eyes are arranged in three or four rows ; 
 '^'°- , ^? "~/^'^'" the front middle pair are the largest, and are 
 
 nubtlus. (From -^ o ' 
 
 R*^ o "'^"n'co^ very conspicuous. These self-possessed spiders 
 ton Insects > ^rc able to stare an ordinary observer out of 
 countenance. They move sidewise or backward with great 
 ease, and can jump a long distance. They make no webs 
 except nests in which they hide in winter or when moulting 
 or laying eggs. 
 
 In certain members of this family the body is longer 
 than in the typical forms, and ant-like in appearance. 
 
 Order ACARINA (Ac-a-ri'na). 
 
 The Mites. 
 
 In this order the abdomen is unsegmented and fused 
 with the thorax, giving the entire body a more or less sac- 
 like appearance. In many the body is marked by numerous 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 43 
 
 transverse, fine lines, which are so impressed as to appear 
 Hke the divisions between minute segments (Fig. 52). The 
 majority of mites are very small ; but some, as certain Ticks, 
 are of considerable size. 
 
 With the exception of a single family the members of 
 which bring forth living young, all mites are produced from 
 eggs. As a rule, the newly-hatched mites have only three 
 pairs of legs; but a fourth pair are added during growth. 
 In Phytoptns, which infests plants, there are only two pairs 
 of legs. 
 
 The mode of life of the different members of this order 
 varies greatly : some are parasitic upon animals ; others 
 infest living plants ; and many feed upon dead animal or 
 vegetable matter, thus acting as scavengers. 
 
 Among the mites that are parasitic upon animals are the 
 various Ticks, which are very common in the 
 warmer parts of our country. Figure 50 rep- 
 resents the Cattle-tick of the Southern States. 
 It should be remembered in this connection 
 that the so-called Sheep-tick is a true insect, Fig. 50. — The 
 belonging to the order Diptera. ma"e^ "" ' 
 
 The Itch-mite is a well-known parasite, infesting man 
 and causing the disease known as 
 the itch. The sensation character- 
 istic of this disease is due to the 
 burrowing of the mites in the skin ; 
 and the efificiency of sulphur oint- 
 F.G. sr.-An Itch-mite: "a, from "^^nt in checking this disease is 
 below; b, from above. jue to the fact that by the use of 
 
 it the mites are killed. Figure 51 represents an itch-mite 
 greatly enlarged. 
 
 Parasitic mites are frequently found attached to insects ; 
 a common species occurs beneath the wings of locusts. 
 
 The best known of the mites that infest plants is the one 
 commonly called the Red Spider. . This lives upon house- 
 plants ; and in the warmer parts of the country, where there 
 
44 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 is a dry season, it infests fruit-trees in the open air. As it 
 thrives only in a dry atmosphere, it can be subdued upon 
 house-plants by a liberal use of water. When it occurs 
 upon plants in the open air it can be combated with any of 
 the washes found useful in destroying scale insects. 
 
 Some of the mites that infest plants produce galls. 
 These galls are of various forms, but differ from those pro- 
 duced by gall-flies (Family Cynipidce of the Order Hymen- 
 opterd) in having open mouths, from which the young mites 
 escape. 
 
 A common disease of the pear, known as the pear-leaf 
 blister, is produced by a four-legged mite, Phytoptus pyri 
 (Phy-top'tus py'ri) (Fig. 52), The blisters characteristic of 
 
 Fig. ^z. — Phytoptjts pyri, greatly enlarged. 
 
 the disease are swellings of the leaf, within which there is a 
 cavity affording a residence for the mites. Figure 53 repre- 
 
 Fig. 53. — Diagram of gali of Phytoptus pyri '. 
 e, gall; «, «, normal structure of leaf ; o, open- 
 ing of gall ; e, eggs. (After Soraur). 
 
 sents a section of a leaf through one of these galls. Here 
 the leaf is seen to be greatly thickened at the diseased part. 
 On the lower side there is an opening through which the 
 mite that started the gall entered, and from which young 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 45 
 
 mites developed in the gall can escape, in order to start new 
 galls. In addition to the swelling of both surfaces of the 
 leaf its internal structure is seen to be modified. In some 
 parts there is a great multiplication of the cells, and in 
 others a large part of the cells have been destroyed. Two 
 eggs of mites are represented in this gall. As the season 
 advances, and the galls become dry and brownish or black, 
 the thickening of the leaf becomes less marked. In fact, in 
 some cases there is a shrinkage of the parts affected. Fig- 
 
 FiG. 54.— Section of leaf showing structure of gall in autumn : ^, gall ; «, «, 
 uninjured part of leaf ; o, opening of gall. 
 
 ure 54 represents a section through a leaf collected and 
 studied in October. 
 
 Among the scavenger mites there are some that infest 
 food products. Thus mites are sometimes found in cheese, 
 in sugar, and in preserved meats. 
 
 Class Myriapoda (Myr-i ap'o-da). 
 The Centipedes and the Millipedes. 
 
 The members of this class are air-breathing A rthropods, in 
 which the head is distinct from the thorax, and the thorax 
 and abdomen form a eontinnons region, zvithfrom six to tzvo 
 hundred segments, each bearing a pair of legs. The head 
 bears a single pair of antenna. 
 
 The thousand-legged worms, as they are commonly 
 called, are well-known and generally feared creatures. But 
 few students find them attractive subjects of study ; never- 
 theless it is well to know something about them, for some of 
 them are dangerous animals, and some are harmless. A few 
 species are injurious to agriculture, while others are to be 
 
46 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 classed among our friends. And all of them are of interest 
 to the naturalist as representatives of a distinct type of 
 Arthropods. 
 
 If we omit certain small and rather uncommon forms, 
 the Myriapods may be classed in two orders ; one consisting 
 of the Centipedes, the other of the Millipedes. 
 
 Order Chilopoda (Chi-lop'o-da). 
 The Centipedes. 
 
 The centipedes can be recognized at a glance by the fact 
 that each segment of the body bears a single pair of legs 
 
 \A{\ I . (^^S- 55)- The body is 
 
 usually flattened, and the 
 antennae are long and many- 
 jointed. 
 
 Many species of centi- 
 FiG. 55.-A Centipede. pedes are venomous. The 
 
 poison glands open through the claws of the first pair of legs, 
 which are bent forward so as to act with the mouth parts. 
 These creatures abound in all parts of the United States; 
 those which are found in the North are comparatively 
 small, and rarely, if ever, inflict serious injury to man ; but 
 the larger species, which occur in the warmer regions, are 
 said to b':: extremely venomous. 
 
 The centipedes are predaceous, feeding on insects ; they 
 usually live under stones, logs, and bark. There is one spe- 
 cies, Cerniatia forceps (Cer-ma'ti-a), which has very long legs, 
 and only fifteen pairs of them, which is often found running 
 on th^ walls of houses, especially in the Southern States. 
 We have never heard of this centipede biting a human be- 
 ing, and as it feeds upon insects, especially cockroaches, it 
 may be regarded as a welcome visitor in houses. 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 4/ 
 
 Order Chilognatiia (Chi-log'na-tha). 
 
 The Millipedes. 
 
 The millipedes differ from the centipedes in having two 
 pairs of legs on each of the body segments except the 
 first three. The body in most of them is not flattened as 
 with the centipedes, and the antennae are comparatively 
 short and few jointed (Fig. 56). 
 
 an 
 
 Fig. 56.— a Millipede. 
 
 The millipedes, as a rule, live in damp places and feed on 
 decaying vegetable matter. They are harmless, except that 
 occasionally they feed upon growing plants. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 Class Hexapoda (Hex-ap'o-da), 
 
 The Insects. 
 
 The members of this class arc air-breathing Arthropocra, 
 with distinct head, thorax, and abdomen. They have one pair 
 of antenncB, three pairs of legs, and usually one or tivo pairs 
 of wings in the adult state. 
 
 There are about us on every side myriads of tiny crea- 
 tures that are commonly passed unnoticed, and even when 
 observed, they are usually thought to be unworthy of serious 
 consideration. But all life is linked together in such a way 
 that no part of the chain is unimportant. Frequently upon 
 the action of some of these minute beings depends the mate- 
 rial success or failure of a great commonwealth. The intro- 
 duction and spread of a single species of insect (the Cot- 
 tony-cushion Scale) in California threatened the destruction 
 of the extensive orchards of that State ; thousands of trees 
 perished. The introduction of a few individuals of a partic- 
 ular kind of "Lady-hug {Vedalia cardinalis), which feeds upon 
 this pest and multiplies rapidly, soon checked the evil, and 
 has nearly removed the pest frorin the State. 
 
 But insects are of interest to us for other reasons than 
 the influence they may have upon our material welfare ; the 
 study of them is a fruitful field for intellectual growth. It is 
 not a small matter to be able to view intelligently the facts 
 presented by the insect world, to know something of what 
 is going on around us. And so rich is this field that no one 
 gains more than a mere smattering concerning it. 
 
HEXAPODA. 49 
 
 We know'as yet comparatively little about the minute 
 structure of insects; the transformations and habits of the 
 greater number of species have not been studied; and the 
 blood-relationship of the various groups of insects is very 
 imperfectly understood. If, therefore, one would learn 
 something of the action of the laws that govern the life and 
 development of organized beings, and at the same time ex- 
 perience the pleasure derived from original investigation, he 
 cannot find a better field than is offered by the study of in- 
 sects. 
 
 But it is not necessary that one should have the tastes 
 and leisure required for careful scientific investigation in 
 order to profit by this study. It can be made a recreation, 
 a source of entertainment when we are tired, a pleasant oc- 
 cupation for our thoughts when we walk. Any one can find 
 out something new regarding insect architecture — the ways 
 in which these creatures build nests for themselves or foi 
 their young. It is easy to observe remarkable feats of en- 
 gineering, examples of foresight, wonderful industry, unre- 
 mitting care of young, tragedies, and even war and slavery. 
 
 The abundance of insects makes it easy to study them. 
 They can be found wherever man can live, and at all seasons. 
 This abundance is even greater than is commonly supposed. 
 The number of individuals in a single species is beyond com- 
 putation : who can count the aphids or the scale-bugs in a 
 single orchard, or the bees in a single meadow? 
 
 Not only are insects numerous when we regard individ- 
 uals, but the number of species is far greater than that of 
 all other animals taken together. The number of species in 
 a single family is greater in several cases than the number 
 of stars visible in a clear night. 
 
 The word insect is often applied incorrectly to any mi- 
 nute animal ; and even among naturalists there is some lack 
 of uniformity in its use. Some writers include under this 
 term the Araclinida and Myriapoda, as well as the Six-footed 
 Insects. But the great majority of entomologists restrict 
 
50 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. 
 
 the term to the Hexapoda, and it is in this sense that we 
 use it. 
 
 The name Hexapoda is from two Greek words: liex, six ; 
 and/^//^, foot. It refers to the fact that the members of 
 this order differ from other Arthropods in the possession of 
 only six feet. 
 
 Insects breath by means of a system of air-tubes (tra- 
 cheae) which extends through the body. This is true even 
 in the case of those that hve in water and are suppHed with 
 gilUike organs (the tracheal gills ; see p. 75). The head is 
 distinct from the thorax, and bears a single pair of antennae ; 
 in these respects they are closely allied to the Myriapods. 
 But they can be easily distinguished by the number of their 
 feet, and, usually, also by the presence of wings. 
 
 The Metamorphoses of Insects. 
 
 Nearly all insects in the course of their Hves undergo re- 
 markable changes in form. Thus the butterfly, which de- 
 lights us with its airy flight, was at one time a caterpillar; 
 the bee, which goes so busily from flower to flower, lived first 
 the life of a clumsy, footless grub ; and the graceful fly was 
 developed from a maggot. 
 
 In the following pages considerable attention will be 
 given to descriptions of the changes through which various 
 insects pass. It is our wish in this place merely to define 
 certain terms which are used in describing these changes. 
 
 Development without Metamorphosis. — In one of the orders 
 of insects, the Thysanura, the young insect just hatched 
 from the Q:'g% is of the same form as the adult insect. These 
 insects merely grow larger, without any more marked change 
 in form than takes place in our own bodies during our life. 
 They are said, therefore, to develop without metamorphosis. 
 
 Incomplete Metamorphosis. — There are many insects which 
 undergo a striking change of form during their life, although 
 the young greatly resembles the adult. Thus a young locust 
 just out from the egg can be easily recognized as a locust. 
 
HEX A POD A. 
 
 51 
 
 It is of course much smaller than the adult, and is not fur- 
 nished with wings. Still the form of the body is essentially 
 the same as that of the adult (Fig. 57). (The hair-line 
 above the figure indicates the natural size of the insect.) 
 After a time rudimentary wings appear; and these increase 
 
 Fig. 57. — Nymph of Melanoplus, 
 first stage. (After Emerton.) 
 
 Fig. 58.— Nymph of Melatioplus, 
 second stage. (After Emerton.) 
 
 Fig. sg.— Nymph of Melanofiliis, third stage 
 (After Emerton.) 
 
 G. 60— Nymph of Mrlnnof>lus, fourth 
 stage. (After Emerton.) 
 
 .f 
 
 ^""^^ tic 
 
 Fig. 61 —Nymph of Melanoplus, fifth 
 stage. (After Emerton.) 
 
 Fig. 62.—Melanoplu 
 
 in size from time to time till the adult state is reached (Figs. 
 57 to 62). During this development there is no point at 
 which the insect passes into a quiescent state corresponding 
 to the chrysalis state of a butterfly. Those insects which, 
 like the locust, when they emerge from the Qgg resemble in 
 form the adult, but still undergo some change, are said to un- 
 dergo an incomplete metamorphosis. In other words, after 
 leaving the egg they do not undergo a complete change of 
 form. 
 
 Complete Metamorphosis. — Still other insects, like the but- 
 
52 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 terflies, beetles, bees, and flies, leave the 0:%^ in an entirely 
 different form from that which they assume when they reach 
 maturit}'. A butterfly begins its active life as a caterpillar. 
 It feeds and grows, and when full grown changes to a chrys- 
 salis. In this stage it has very little resemblance to a cater- 
 pillar. After a time there bursts forth from the chrysalis 
 shell the butterfly, which looks very little like the chrysalis, 
 and still less like the caterpillar from which it came. In a 
 similar wa}', from the egg laid b}' a fl\' upon a piece of meat 
 there hatches, not a fly, but a footless, worm-like maggot. 
 This when fully grown changes to a quiescent object corre- 
 sponding to the chrysalis of a butterfly. Later from this ob- 
 ject there escapes a winged fly like that which laid the t.^g. 
 Those insects, like the butterflies and flesh-flies, which when 
 they emerge from the egg bear almost no resemblance in 
 form to the adult insect, are said to undergo a complete met- 
 amorphosis. In other words, the change of form undergone 
 by the insect is a complete one. 
 
 Hoxv Insects groiv — Molting. — The skin of an insect is hard- 
 ened more or less by a horny substance known as cJiitine 
 (chi'tine). This hardening usually occurs to a much greater 
 extent in adult insects than it does in 
 the young. But in all the skin becomes 
 so firm that it cannot stretch enough to 
 allow for the growth of the insect. The 
 result is, that from time to time an in- 
 sect's skin becomes too small for it, and 
 must be shed. But before this is done 
 a new skin is formed beneath the old 
 one; then the old skin bursts open, and 
 the insect crawls forth, clothed in a soft 
 skin, which stretches to accommodate 
 the increased size of the animal. Very 
 soon, however, this new skin becomes 
 hardened with chitine, and after a time 
 
 I^iG. 62rt.— Exuviae of 
 
 nymph of Dragon-fly. it in tum must be shcd. This shedding 
 of the skin is termed nio/tiiig, and the cast skin is some- 
 
11 EX A POD A. 
 
 53 
 
 times referred to as the cxnvite (ex-uVi-?c). Insects differ 
 greatly as to the number of times they molt : many species 
 molt only four or five times, while others are known to 
 molt more than twenty times. Figure dia represents the 
 cast skin of a Dragon-fly clinging to a reed. 
 
 The Egg. — This is the first stage in the existence of 
 any insect, although in some 
 few instances the egg remains 
 in the body of the mother till 
 it hatches. But almost always 
 the eggs are laid by the mother 
 insect on or near the food which 
 
 gives nourishment to the young. 
 
 Many of the most interesting 
 
 habits of insects are connected 
 
 with the care of the eggs by 
 
 the parent. The eggs may have 
 
 smooth oval sliells ; but often 
 
 the shells are beautifully ribbed ^-^f >7E^f,",i^crrtho?'s Rl^t 
 
 and pitted (Fig. 63), and some- on couon insects.) 
 
 times they are ornamented with spines, and are frequently 
 
 exquisitely colored. 
 
 The Larva.— ^n\\-> is the second stage of an insect's life, 
 
 and is the form that hatches from the egg. Familiar exam- 
 
 pies of larvae are caterpillars, maggots, and grubs (Fig. 64). 
 
 . 64.— A caterpillar, the larv 
 
 In fact, nearly all the creatures commonly known as worms 
 are larvse of insects. Away from the ocean we find but few 
 worms, except earthworms, leeches, "hair-snakes." and 
 worm parasites in the intestines of men and animals. 
 Nearly all the rest, except millipedes and centipedes, are 
 iarv^ of insects, and finally change to forms with wings. 
 
54 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The larval stage is devoted to growth; the sole business 
 of a larva being to eat and grow. All molting, because of in- 
 creased size, is done in the larval stage, later molts are 
 simply for change of shape. 
 
 TJic Pupa. — This is the third stage in the life of an in- 
 sect, and is ordinarily a period of inaction, except that rapid 
 and wonderful changes go on within the body. Very few 
 pupae, like those of mosquitoes, are active. Usually pup?e 
 
 have no power of moving 
 around, but man}' of them can 
 squirm when disturbed. When 
 the last skin of the larva is 
 thrown off the pupa is re- 
 vealed ; it is an oblong object, 
 F... 65.-A pupa of a large moth. ^^^^^ frequently apparently 
 
 headless and footless. In many pupae the skin is a shiny 
 covering like porcelain. If a pupa be examined closely the 
 antennae and legs and wings may be seen ; these are folded 
 up closely and soldered to the breast in the case of the 
 moths and butterflies (Fig. 65), but free in case of the bees, 
 ants, and beetles, 
 
 TJie Chrysalis. — This term is often applied to the pupa of 
 a butterfly. The word is derived from a Greek word mean- 
 ing gold, and came into use because of the golden dots and 
 markings on many of the butterfly pupae. 
 
 The Cocoon. — Many larvae, especially those of moths, 
 when full grown, spin about the body a silken case, so that 
 when they change to helpless pupae they may be protected 
 from enemies, and from rain and snow ; these silken cases 
 are called cocoons. They are frequently made within a 
 rolled leaves (Fig. 66), or beneath grass and rubbish on the 
 ground, or in cells below the ground. Some hairy caterpil- 
 lars make cocoons largely of their own hairs, which they 
 fasten together with a film of silk. 
 
 The Nymph. — The terms larva and pupa are only ap- 
 plied to the early stages of those insects that have a com^ 
 
HF.XAPODA. 55 
 
 plete metamorphosis; for in the case of other Insects there 
 is no distinct pupa stage. When reference is made to the 
 young of an insect that undergoes an incomplete metamor- 
 
 FiG. 66.— A large cocoon within a rolled leaf. 
 
 phosis it is called a nymph. This term is applied to all 
 stages of such an insect from the time they hatch from the 
 ^gS until they shed their skin for the last time. When a 
 nymph first hatches it has no signs of wings ; but after it 
 molts several times two projections appear on each side of 
 the thorax. These projections become larger and larger, 
 and more wing-like in form with each successive molt. 
 Usually the change in the size of these organs, between the 
 last nymph stage and the adult stage, is much greater than 
 that of any previous molt. With the nymphs of certain 
 families, dragon-fhes, crickets, grasshoppers, and locusts, 
 the front pair of developing wings extend back beneath the 
 hind pair instead of covering them ; and by this inverted 
 position of the wings the nymphs may be distinguished from 
 the adults, even in those cases where the adults have only 
 rudimentary wings. 
 
 TJie Adult. — This is the last stage or the mature form 
 of the insect. Almost all adult insects except Thysanura 
 have wings, although there are numerous exceptions to the 
 rule ; for there are many cases where wings have been lost 
 through disuse. An insect never grows after it reaches the 
 adult stage, and therefore never molts. There is a popular 
 belief that a small fly will grow into a large fly, but this is 
 not true, for after any insect gets its perfect wings it can 
 
56 THE STUDY OF L\ SECTS. 
 
 grow no larger, except that in case of females the body 
 may be distended by the growth of eggs within it. While 
 many adults eat more or less, it is only to sustain life, and 
 not for growth. Indeed, many adult insects take very little 
 food, and some have lost their mouth-parts entirely, through 
 disuse. The adult stage usually lasts for a considerably 
 shorter time than the larval or nymph stages. In fact, it 
 seems planned in the economy of nature that the grown-up 
 insects should live only long enough to lay eggs, and thus 
 secure the perpetuation of the species. 
 
 The External Anatomy of Insects. 
 
 The subject of insect anatomy is separated into two divi- 
 sions : one, treating of the structure of the body-wall or 
 skeleton ; the other, of the internal organs. The former is 
 termed external anatoiny ; the latter, internal anatomy. 
 
 In our own bodies we find a central framework or skele- 
 ton, about which are arranged the muscles, blood-vessels, 
 nerves, and other organs. But insects are constructed on 
 an entirely different plan : with them the supporting skele- 
 ton is outside, and the muscles, nerves, and other organs 
 are within this skeleton. The difference can be well seen 
 if the figure showing the internal structure of the leg of a 
 May-beetle (Fig. Gy) be compared with ojie of our own 
 limbs, either arm or leg. 
 
 The body of an insect is built on the same plan as are 
 its legs. The outside of the body is more or less firm, being 
 hardened by chitine ; and this firm outer wall supports the 
 muscles and other organs, thus serving as a skeleton. The 
 skeleton is therefore, in general outline, a hollow cylinder. 
 
HEX A POD A. 
 
 57 
 
 This hardening of the body- wall is not continuous, but 
 takes place in a series of more or less regular, ring-like bands, 
 which give the well-known seg- 
 mented appearance characteristic of 
 insects, and the animals closely Fig. es.— a Larva, 
 
 allied to them. Between the hardened ring-like segments 
 the body-wall remains soft and flexible. In this way provi- 
 sion is made fcr the various motions of 
 the body. The ring-like nature of the 
 segments of the body is best seen in 
 larvae (Fig. 68), and in the hinder part of 
 an adult insect (Fig. 69). The movements 
 of the legs, antennae, and certain other 
 appendages are provided for in the same 
 way ; each one is a c}'linder made up of 
 several segments, and between these seg- 
 ments the wall of the cylinder remains 
 flexible. 
 
 When a single segment of the'body is 
 examined, the hardened portion is not 
 found to be a continuous ring, but is seen 
 to be made up of several portions more 
 Fig. 69.— A Mole Cricket, or Icss movable upou cacli othcr. Such 
 a hardened portion of the body-wall is termed a sclcritc 
 (.scle'rite). 
 
 The sclerites constitute the greater part of the body-wall, 
 the soft membranous portions separating them being in 
 most cases narrow. Usually these narrow portions are 
 mere lines ; they are then called sutures (sut'ur.s). 
 
 Frequently the sutures become entirely effaced. We 
 are therefore often unable to distinguish certain sclerites in 
 one species of insect which we know to exist in another. 
 In such cases the effaced sutures are said to be obsolete. 
 
 If the central portion or thorax of an adult insect be 
 examined, numerous sclerites and sutures can be observed 
 (Fig. 70). 
 
58 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The subject of external anatomy of insects consists very 
 largely in a study of the sclerites of which the different seg- 
 ments of the body and of its appendages are composed. 
 This part of the subject is quite difficult, and will not be 
 discussed here. It is treated at length in a more advanced 
 text-book by the senior author.* 
 
 Fig. 70. — Side-view of Locust with wings 
 removed 
 
 Fig. 71. — Wasp, with 
 head, thorax, and 
 abdomen separated. 
 
 The segments of the body in a fully developed insect are 
 grouped into three regions : head, thorax, and abdomen 
 (Fig. 71). In the larval state this grouping of the segments 
 is not well shown. 
 
 The Head and its Appendages. 
 
 The head is the first of the three regions of the body. 
 
 It is supposed to be formed of several body-segments grown 
 
 together ; but entomologists differ in their views as to the 
 
 number of segments that have entered into its composition. 
 
 The head bears the compound eyes, the simple eyes, the 
 
 antennae, and the mouth-parts. 
 
 The Compound Eyes. — On each side of 
 the head of an adult insect is an organ, 
 which is recognized at once as an eye. 
 But when one of these eyes is examined 
 with a microscope it is found to present 
 an appearance very different from that of 
 the eye of higher animals ; its surface 
 is divided into a large number of six-sided divisions 
 
 * An Introduction to Entomology by John Henry Comstock Published 
 by the Comstock Publishing Co., Ithaca, N. Y. 
 
 
 Fig. 72. - Par 
 pound 
 larged. 
 
HEXAPODA. 
 
 59 
 
 (Fig. 72). A study of the internal structure of this 
 organ has shown that each of these hexagonal divi- 
 sions is the outer end of a distinct eye (Fig. 73). Hence 
 what at first appears to be a single eye is 
 really an organ composed of hundreds of eyes ; 
 it is termed, therefore, a compound eye. Each 
 of the small eyes of which a compound eye is 
 composed is termed an ocellus (o-cel'lus) (plural 
 ocelli). The number of ocelli of which a com- 
 pound eye is composed varies greatly : there 
 may be not more than fifty, as in certain ants, 
 or there may be many thousand, as in a but- 
 terfly or a dragon-fly. Compound eyes are not 
 found in larvae, though they may possess a 
 group of simple eyes on each side of the head. 
 
 The Simple Eyes. — In addition to the com- 
 pound eyes, many adult insects possess simple 
 eyes. These are situated between the com- 
 pound eyes. They vary in number from one 
 to four; the most common number is three (see 
 Fig. 71). The simple eyes are usually termed 
 ocelli ; sometimes, stemmata (stem'ma-ta). 
 
 When the term ocelli is used in descriptive 
 works, if there is nothing in the context to 
 indicate the contrary, it is almost invariably 
 applied to the simple eyes, and not to the ele- 
 ments of the compound eyes. In the same 
 way the term eye usually refers to the com- 
 pound eyes, unless otherwise indicated by the 
 context. 
 
 The AntenncB. — The antennae are a pair of 
 jointed appendages inserted in the head in 
 front of the eyes or between them. They 
 vary in form. In some insects they are thread-like, consisting 
 of a series of similar segments; in others certain segments 
 are greatly modified in form. 
 
 Fig. 73. — Three 
 ocelli, with reti- 
 nulse, Irom the 
 compound eye 
 of a May-beetle. 
 (After Grenach- 
 er.) The pig- 
 ment has been 
 dissolved away 
 fromtwoofthem. 
 F, corneal facet; 
 K, crystalline 
 cone;/, pigment- 
 sheath ; />, chief 
 pigment-cell;/", 
 pigment-cells of 
 the second order; 
 R, retinulae. 
 
6o 
 
 THE STUDY OF LY SECTS. 
 
 The various forms of anteniKt are designated by special 
 terms. The more common of these forms are represented 
 n Figure 74. These are as follows: 
 
 1. Setaceous (se-ta'ceous) or bris- 
 tle-like, in which the segments are 
 successively smaller and smaller, the 
 whole organ tapering to a point. 
 
 2. Filiform (fin-form) or thread- 
 like, in which each segment is of 
 nearly uniform thickness throughout 
 its length; and the antenna as a 
 whole tapers gradually, if at all, to- 
 wards the tip. 
 
 3. Moniliform (mo-nil'i-form) or 
 necklace-form, in which the segments 
 are more or less globose, suggesting 
 a string of beads. 
 
 4. Serrate (ser'rate) or saw-like, 
 in which the segments are triangular, 
 and project like the teeth of a saw. 
 
 5. Pectinate (pec'ti-nate) or comb-like, in which the seg- 
 ments have long processes on one side, like the teeth of a 
 comb, or on both sides, like a feather. 
 
 6. Clavate (cla'vate) or club-shaped, in which the seg- 
 ments become gradually broader, so that the whole organ 
 assumes the form of a club. 
 
 7. Capitate (cap'i-tate) or with a head, in wliich the 
 terminal segment or segments form a large knob. 
 
 8. Lamellate (^lam'el-late), in which the segments that 
 compose the knob are extended on one side into broad 
 plates. 
 
 The MoiitJi-parts. — No set of organs in the body of an in- 
 sect vary in form to a greater degree than do the mouth-parts. 
 Thus with some the mouth is formed for biting, while with 
 others it is formed for sucking. Among the biting insects 
 some are predaceous, and have jaws fitted for seizing and 
 
 Fig. 74. — Various forms of an- 
 tennse. 
 
HEXAPODA. 
 
 6i 
 
 tearing their prey ; others feed upon vegetable matter, and 
 have jaws for chewing this kind of food. Among the suck- 
 ing insects the butterfly merely sips the nectar from flowers, 
 while the mosquito needs a powerful instrument for piercing 
 its victim. In this place the typical form of the mouth- 
 parts as illustrated by the biting insects is described. The 
 various modifications of it presented by the sucking insects 
 are described later, in the discussion of the characters of 
 those insects. 
 
 In the biting insects, the mouth-parts consist of an upper 
 lip, the /c?^r/^///(la'brum) (Fig. 75, 8); an under lip, the lalninn 
 (la'bi-um) (Fig. 75, 12); and two 
 pairs of jaws between them. These 
 jaws open sidewise, instead of in 
 a vertical direction, as do the 
 jaws of the higher animals. The 
 upper pair of jaws are called the 
 mandibles (nian'di-bles) (Fig. 75, ^), 
 10); the lower pair, the iiiaxilloe 
 (max-il'lai) (Fig.' 75, 1 1). There 
 ma}' be also within the mouth 
 one or two tongue-like organs, 
 the cpipharynx (ep-i-phar'ynx) and 
 hypopJiarynx (hy - po - phar'ynx) 
 The epipharynx is 
 
 attached to the upper wall of the cavity of 
 the mouth, and the h)'i)ophar\'nx to the 
 lower. Tlie position of the h)'popharynx is 
 quite analogous, therefore, to that of our 
 tongue. 
 
 The mandibles vary much in form, but 
 
 usually each consists of a single sclerite. 
 
 The maxillae of biting insects, on the other 
 
 Fig. 76.-Maxiiia of a hand, are very complicated organs, each com- 
 
 TiKcr Beetle. ^q^q^^ of sevcral sclcritcs. Each maxilla 
 
 bears an appendage consisting of several segments; these 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 -Mouth-parts of the Red- 
 legged I.ocust. 
 
62 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 appendages are termed the maxillary palpi. In the maxillae 
 of certain biting insects, as the grasshoppers and the ground 
 beetles, there is an appendage usually consisting of two 
 segments : this is the galea (ga'le-a) or outer lobe. In some 
 of these insects, as the ground-beetles and the tiger- 
 beetles, the galea is shaped like a palpus, and thus there 
 appears to be two pairs of maxillary palpi (Fig. 76). 
 The labium is furnished with a pair of jointed appendages ; 
 these are the labial palpi (Fig. 75, 12, d\ 
 
 The Thorax and its Appendages. 
 The thorax is the second or intermediate region of the 
 body; it is the region that bears, in the adult insect, the 
 organs of locomotion, the legs, and the wings when they are 
 present. This region is composed of three of the body- 
 segments more or less firmly joined together ; the segments 
 are most readily distinguished by the fact that each bears a 
 pair of legs. In winged insects, the wings are borne by the 
 second and third segments. The first segment of the thorax, 
 the one next to the head, is named the prothorax ; the 
 second thoracic segment is the mesothorax ; and the third, 
 the mctatJiorax. 
 
 The Legs. — Each leg consists of the following parts, 
 beginning with the one next to the body (see Fig. jy) : 
 coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia, 
 and tarsus. Each of these 
 parts consists of a single seg- 
 ment except that in certain 
 Hymenoptera the trochanter 
 consists of two segments (Fig. 
 ']'j, t), and in most insects the 
 tarsus consists of several seg- 
 ments. The number of seg. 
 ments of the tarsus varies from 
 one to six ; the most common number is five. Frequently 
 the first segment of the tarsus is much longer than either of 
 
 Fig. 77.— Legs of insects 
 Ichneumon-fly; c. Bee 
 m, metatarsus. 
 
 a. Wasp ; b. 
 t, trochanter; 
 
HEXAPODA. 63 
 
 the other segments, and it may also differ greatly in form 
 from them ; under such circumstances it is sometimes desig- 
 nated the metatarsus (mct-a-tar'sus) (Fig. 'j'j, in). The last 
 segment of the tarsus usually bears one or two claws. 
 
 On the ventral surface of the segments of the tarsus in 
 many insects are cushions of short hairs or of membrane, 
 capable of inflation, or concave plates, which act so as to 
 produce a vacuum, and thus enable the insect to walk on the 
 lower surface of objects. These cushions or plates are called 
 pulvilli (pul-vil'li). In many insects the pulvillus of the last 
 segment of the tarsus is a circular pad projecting between 
 the tarsal claws. In most descriptive works this is referred 
 to as tJie pulvillus, even though the other pulvilli are well 
 developed. See also page 420. 
 
 The Wings. — The two pairs of wings are borne by the 
 mesothorax and metathorax, but either or both pairs may 
 be wanting. Thus the Flies, or Diptera, have only the first 
 pair of wings fitted for flight, the second pair being repre- 
 sented by a pair of knobbed threads, the function of which 
 is unknown ; and with the Earwigs and Beetles the first 
 pair of wings is wanting, although the mesothorax bears a 
 pair of horny wing covers, which are somewhat wing-like in 
 form, and are commonly described as wings.* 
 
 In form an insect's wing is a large membranous append- 
 age, which is thickened along certain lines. These thickened 
 lines are termed the veins or nerves of the wing ; and their 
 arrangement is described as the venation or tieuration of the 
 wings. The thin spaces of the wings which are bounded by 
 the veins are called cells. When a cell is completely sur- 
 rounded by veins it is said to be closed ; but when it extends 
 to the margin of the wing it is said to be opeji. 
 
 The wings of different insects vary greatly in structure, 
 
 * The wing covers or elytra of earwigs and beetles probably correspond to 
 the teguls of Hymenoptera and to the patagia of Lepidoptera; that is, they 
 are a pair of the side pieces of the mesothorax, the paraptera, greatly en- 
 larged. 
 
64 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 and thus afford excellent distinctions for the purposes of 
 classification. The various parts of the wing have, there- 
 fore, received special names. There is considerable lack of 
 uniformity among entomologists as to the names applied to 
 these parts ; but we have adopted the set of terms defined 
 below as representing the best usage. 
 
 An insect's wing is more or less triangular in outline ; it 
 therefore presents three margins: the costal viargin, or casta 
 (Fig. 78,^, b)\ the outer margin (Fig. 78, b, c)\ and the inner 
 viargin (,Fig. 78, e, d). 
 
 The angle at the base of the costal margin (Fig. 78, a) is 
 the humeral angle (hu'me-ral) ; that between the costal mar- 
 gin and the outer margin (Fig. 78, b) is the apex of the wing ; 
 and the angle between the outer margin and the inner mar- 
 gin (Fig. 78, c) is the anal angle (a'nal). 
 
 There have been many different sets of names applied to 
 the veins of the wings. Not only have the students of each 
 order of insects had a peculiar nomenclature, but in many 
 cases different students of the same order of insects have 
 used different sets of terms. This condition of affairs was 
 incident to the beginning of the science, the period before 
 the correspondence of the veins in the different orders had 
 been worked out. But now the time has come when it 
 seems practicable to apply a uniform nomenclature to the 
 wing veins of all orders ; and the following set of terms is 
 proposed for that purpose. 
 
 The principal veins of the wing, those that arise at or 
 near the base of the wing, are termed, beginning with the 
 one lying on the costal margin, the costa (cos'ta), the subcosta, 
 the radius (ra'di-us), the media (me'di-a), the cubitus (cu'bi- 
 tus), and the anal veins. The radius, media, and cubitus 
 are usually branched, and there may be several anal veins. 
 
 In certain orders of insects two other veins arising near 
 the base ot the wing have been developed : one lying between 
 the media and the radius, the pre jnedia ; and one lying be- 
 tween the media and the cubitus, the postmedia. 
 
HEXAPODA. 
 
 6S 
 
 The veins arc frequently designated by numbers ; the 
 following table will indicate the correspondence of the num- 
 bers with the names: 
 
 I. 
 
 Costa. 
 
 II. 
 
 Subcosta. 
 
 III. 
 
 Radius. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Premedia. 
 
 V. 
 
 Media. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Postmcdia. 
 
 VII. 
 
 Cubitus. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 1 
 
 IX. 
 X. 
 
 ,^Anal. 
 
 et at. 
 
 
 . — Diagram of wing, showing margiasi 
 angles, and veins. 
 
 Fig. 79'— Diagram of wing of moth, showing the arrangement of the veins ; vein. IV and 
 VI are wanting. 
 
66 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The principal veins are indicated by Roman numerals, 
 and when these veins are branched, the branches are indi- 
 cated by Arabic indices appended to the Roman numeral. 
 Thus the branches of radius are designated as III,, III,, III,, 
 etc. (Fig. 79). 
 
 Figure 78 represents the fore-wing of a butterfly {Danais), 
 and Figure 79 the two wings of a moth {Castnid). In all 
 butterflies and moths veins IV and VI are wanting, and in 
 all butterflies and in many moths the basal part of vein V is 
 also wanting. The arrows in Figure 78 indicate the po- 
 sition of the remnants of this part of vein V. In the hind 
 wing of the moth figured, vein V, has become joined to vein 
 III, so that it appears to be a branch of it ; and in the but- 
 terfly vein V3 appears to be a branch of vein VII, although 
 a short stump, indicated by the lower arrow, shows its former 
 position, in ancient butterflies, before the loss of the basal 
 part of vein V. 
 
 The Abdomen and its Appendages, 
 
 The abdomen is the third or caudal region of the body. 
 Its segments are more simple, distinct, and ring-like than 
 those of the other regions. The number of segments of 
 which it appears to be composed varies greatly. In the 
 Cuckoo-flies {Chrysididce) there are usually only three or four 
 visible, while in many other insects nine appear. Except in 
 the lowest order of insects {Tkysatmrd) the abdomen of the 
 adult bears no locomotive appendages. But many larvae 
 have fleshy appendages which aid in locomotion : these are 
 tQvmed prolegs. In the adult the end of the body in many 
 families is furnished with jointed filaments — the cerci, and 
 caudal set(2. Frequently also the body is furnished in the male 
 with organs for clasping — the claspers ; and in the female 
 with saws, piercers, or borers — the ovipositor. In the female 
 of certain insects there is ^ sting, a modified ovipositor, which 
 is used as an organ of defence ; and the abdomen of plant- 
 lice and certain other insects bears a pair of tubes or tuber- 
 
HEXAPODA, 6j 
 
 cles, through which honey-dew is excreted : these are com- 
 monly called Jioncy-tiibes ; they are also termed cornicles, 
 nectaries, or siphuncles. 
 
 The Internal Anatomy of Insects. 
 
 {For advanced students.) 
 
 As has been shown in the preceding pages, the body-wall serves 
 as a skeleton, being hard, and giving support to the other organs of 
 the body. This skeleton may be represented, therefore, as a hollow 
 cylinder. We have now to consider the arrangement and the general 
 form of the organs contained in this cylinder. For the details of the 
 structure of th. internal organs the student is referred to more special 
 works. 
 
 The accompanying diagram (Fig. 80), which represents a vertical, 
 longitudinal section of the body, will enable the student to gain an idea 
 of the relative position of some of the more important organs. The 
 parts shown in the diagram are as follows : The body-wall, or skeleton 
 
 Fig. 80.— Diagram showing the relation of the internal'organs. 
 
 is)', this is made up of a series of overlapping segments ; that part of it 
 between the segments is thinner, and is not hardened with chitine, 
 thus remaining flexible and allowing for the movements of the body. 
 Just within the body-wall, and attached to it, are represented a few of 
 the muscles (w) ; it will be seen that these muscles are so arranged 
 that the contraction of those on the lower side of the body would 
 bend it dowri, while the contraction of those on the opposite side 
 would act in the opposite direction. The alimentary canal (a) occu- 
 pies the centre of the body, and extends from one end to the other. 
 The heart {h) is a tube open at both ends, and lying between the 
 alimentary canal and the muscles of the back. The central part of 
 the nervous system (ti) is a series of small masses of nervous matter 
 connected by two longitudinal cords: one of these masses, the brain, 
 lies in the head above the alimentary canal; the others are situated, 
 
68 THE STUDY 
 
 A Caterpillar {Cossus ligniperda). 
 (After Lyonet.) 
 Fig. I.— Caterpillar opened on the ventral middle line. Fig. 2.— Caterpillar opened on 
 the dorsal middle line. i. principal longitudinal tracheae; 2, central nervous sys- 
 tem; 3, aorta; 4. longitudinal dorsal muscles; 5, longitudinal ventral muscles; 
 6. wings of the heart; 7, tracheal trunks arising near spiracles; 8, reproductive 
 organs ; 9, vertical muscles : 10, last abdominal ganglion. 
 
HEX.ironA, 69 
 
 one in each segment, between tlie alimentary canal and the layer of 
 muscles of the ventral side of the body; the two cords connecting 
 these masses, or ganglia, pass one on each side of the oesophagus to 
 the brain. The reproductive organs {r) lie in the cavity of the abdo- 
 men and open near the caudal end of the body. The respiratorv 
 organs are omitted from this diagram for the sake of simplicity. 
 
 The Muscular System. — We find in insects a wonderfully large 
 number of muscles. Those that move the segments of the body form 
 several layers just witiiin the body-wall. The two figures on Plate II 
 represent two caterpillars which have been split open lengthwise, one 
 on the middle line of the back and one on the opposite side ; in each 
 case the alimentary canal has been removed, so that only those organs 
 that are attached quite closely to the body-wall are left. From a study 
 of these figures some idea can be obtained of the number and arrange- 
 ment of these muscles. It should be borne in mind, however, that 
 only a single layer of muscles is represented in these figures — the layer 
 which would be seen if a caterpillar were opened in the way indicated. 
 When these muscles are cut away many other muscles are found ex- 
 tending obliquely in various directions between these muscles and the 
 body-wall. 
 
 The muscles of insects appear very differently from those (the lean 
 meat) of higher animals. In insects the muscles are either colorless 
 and transparent, or yellowish white ; and they are soft, almost of a 
 gelatinous consistence. When hardened by alcohol or otherwise, and 
 examined with a microscope, they are seen to be crossed by numerous 
 transverse lines, like the voluntary muscles of Vertebrates. 
 
 As a rule, the muscles of insects are composed of an immense 
 number of distinct fibres, which are not enclosed in tendinous sheaths 
 as with Vertebrates. Rut the muscles that move the appendages of 
 the body are furnished with a tendon at the end farthest from the 
 body (Fig. 81). 
 
 I.— Leg of May-beetle. (After Straus- Durckheim.) 
 
 Notwithstanding the soft and delicate appearance of the muscles 
 of insects, they are really very strong. One has only to observe the 
 power of leaping possessed by many species to be convinced of this. 
 
70 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 PLATE III. 
 
 A Cockroach {Pert'planeta orientalis). 
 
 (From Rolleston). 
 
 rt, antenniE; ^i, h'2, i^, tibia; c, anal cerci ; d, ganglion on recurrent nerve upon the 
 crop ; e-, salivary duct ; y, salivary bladder; g; gizzard ; //, hepatic cceca; z, chylitic 
 stomach; y, Malpighian vessels ; ,{■, small intestine ; /, large intestine ; /«, rectum; 
 n, first abdominal ganglion ; o, ovary ; /, sebaceous glands. 
 
HEX A POD A. yi 
 
 And the rapidity of their action is even more wonderful than their 
 strength. This rapidity is best illustrated by the muscles that move 
 the wings. Every one has observed gnats and other flies poising in mid 
 air by a movement of the wings so rapid that the eye cannot follow it. 
 Physicists have been able, however, to count these vibrations by de- 
 termining the pitch of the musical note produced in this way. And 
 they tell us that certain gnats vibrate their wings 15,000 times per 
 second. 
 
 The Alinioitary Camil. — The typical position of this is represented 
 in the diagram (Fig. 80); and on Plate III, illustrating the anatomy 
 of a cockroach, its form in that insect is shown. In larvae it is a 
 nearly straight tube, extending from one end of the body to the other. 
 But in adult insects it is usually much longer than the body, and is 
 consequently more or less folded. It is composed of parts differing 
 in form and use. To these parts names have been given similar to 
 those used to designate the corresponding parts in higher animals ; 
 thus we distinguish 2. pharynx, 2in cesophagtis,somt.l\m(t's, a rr^/, some- 
 times ?i gizzard, a stomach, a small intestine, and a large intestine. 
 
 The Adipose Tissue, or Fat. — On opening the body of an insect, 
 especially of a larva, one of the most conspicuous things to be seen is 
 fatty tissue, in large masses. These often completely surround the 
 alimentary canal, and are held in place by numerous branches of the 
 tracheae with which they are supplied. Other and smaller masses of 
 this tissue adhere to the inner surface of the abdominal wall, in the 
 vicinity of the nervous system, and at the sides of the body. In a full- 
 grown larva of Corydalis cornuta I have found the adipose tissue to 
 be greater in bulk than all of the other organs found inside of the 
 muscular walls of the body. In adult insects it usually exists in much 
 iess quantity than in larvae. 
 
 The Blood-vessels. — In insects all parts of the body cavity that are 
 not occupied by the internal organs are filled with blood. | \ 
 
 Thus the alimentary canal is completely surrounded with lyj'lvj 
 
 blood, and all the spaces between the muscles are filled ' 7 N 
 
 by this fluid. This is a very different arrangement from S 1 1 
 what occurs in our own body, where the blood is con- ■*J^<L»' 
 tained in a system of tubes, the arteries and the veins. ( | 
 
 We find, however, that insects are not entirely deprived of ^ L/jrvl 
 blood-vessels. For there is one which lies above the ali- ^ ^ 
 
 mentary canal, just within the middle line of the back. 'gram"~of'*a 
 See Figure 80, h, and Plate II, i. This extends from near gg^rt"!/''! 
 the caudal end of the abdomen through the thorax into May-beetle, 
 the head. That part of this system that lies in the abdomen 
 
72 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 is usually termed the heart. This is a somewhat complicated organ 
 consisting of several chambers arranged in 
 series, and each communicating witli the 
 one in front of it by an opening fur- 
 nished with valves. The number and form 
 of these chambers differ in different in- 
 sects. Fig. 82 represents the heart of a 
 May - beetle. These chambers not only 
 communicate with each other, but com- 
 municate with the body-cavity by means 
 of side openings, which are also furnished 
 with valves. These two sets of valves act 
 in such a way that when a chamber of the 
 heart contracts a stream of blood is forced 
 towards the head, and when it expands the 
 blood rushes into it through the side open- 
 ings, and from the chamber behind it. At- 
 tached to the lower surface of the heart 
 and extending out to the side of the body 
 there is on each side a series of triangular 
 muscles : these have been termed the wings 
 of the heart (Plate II, 6, and Fig. 83, c). 
 In Figure c they are represented cut away 
 from the caudal part of the heart. The 
 prolongation of the heart, which extends 
 through the thorax and into the head, is 
 termed the aorta. 
 The blood is forced by the heart through the aorta into the head, 
 where it escapes into the body cavity. From this point it flows 
 through the body cavity in regular streams, which have definite di- 
 rections, but which are not included in vessels. They, like the ocean 
 currents, are definite streams with liquid shores. 
 
 The blood is usually colorless, or slightly tinged with green; but 
 its circulation is made conspicuous by the movements of the large 
 corpuscles with which it abounds. In transparent insects it can be 
 seen pouring forth from the cephalic end of the aorta, batiiing first 
 the brain, and then passing to all parts of the body, even out into the 
 appendages. By tracing the course of any one of these currents it 
 will be found to flow, sooner or later, to the cavity between the wings 
 of the heart and the back in which the heart rests, and from which it 
 receives its blood. 
 
 The Nervous System. — The central part of the nervous system, as 
 
 Fig. 83.— Heart of May-beetle 
 fafter StrausDurckheim): a, 
 lateral aspect of aorta ; d, 
 interior of heart showing- 
 valves ; c, veniral aspect of 
 heart and wing;-muscles— the 
 muscles are represented as 
 cut away from the caudal 
 part of the heart; d, dorsal 
 aspect of heart. 
 
JlEXArODA. 
 
 n 
 
 already indicated, consists of a f;an^lion in the bead above the oesopli- 
 agus, and of a series of ganglia, typically one for each segment of 
 the body, lying on the floor of the body cav- 
 ity, and connected by two longitudinal cords. 
 In the head, one of these cords passes on 
 each side of the oesophagus, from the brain 
 to another ganglion in the head below the 
 oesophagus, thus forming a nervous collar 
 about the alimentary canal. From each 
 ganglion nerves arise, which supply the ad- 
 jacent parts; and from the thoracic ganglia 
 nerves extend to the legs and wings. This 
 series of ganglia is really a double one; but 
 each pair of ganglia are more or less closely 
 united on the middle line of the body, and 
 often appear as a single ganglion. Figure 84 
 gives a general view of the nervous system of 
 Corydalis cormtta. From the brain {a) two 
 large nerves extend to the compound eyes, 
 and a smaller pair to the antennae; the sub- 
 cesophageal ganglion {b) supplies the mouth- 
 parts with nerves ; and each of the thoracic 
 and abdominal ganglia supplies its segment 
 of the body. 
 
 How Insects Breathe — The Respiratory System. — A common mis- 
 take made by beginners in the study of Entomology is to suppose 
 that insects breathe through the mouth as do the higher animals. 
 Many a beginner has carefully poured chloroform on the head of an 
 insect in the expectation of killing it in that way, and has been sur- 
 prised at his poor success. 
 
 The truth is, insects breathe through their sides. If an insect be 
 carefully examined, there can be found along the sides of the body a 
 series of openings (Fig. 85). These are the openings through which 
 
 Fig. 84. — Nervous system of 
 Corydalis. (After Leidy.) 
 
 Fig. 85.— Side-view of Locust with wings removed. 
 
 the air passes into the respiratory system and are termed spiracles 
 (spir'a-cles). 
 
74 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The number of spiracles varies greatly in different insects. There 
 is, however, never more than one pair on a single segment of the 
 body. They do not occur on the head, but are borne by each of the 
 thoracic segments, and by the first eight abdominal segments. Thus 
 there are eleven segments that may bear spiracles, but they are 
 always lacking on some one or more of these. 
 
 These spiracles are either simple openings into the respiratory 
 system, or are provided with valves, sieves, or fringes of hair for the 
 exclusion of dirt. They lead into a system of air-tubes termed ira- 
 checF (tra'che-ae). The accompanying figures will indicate the distri- 
 bution of the main trunks of these tracheae in a cockroach (Figs. 86 and 
 
 Fig. 86. — Tracheal system of Cockroach. Fig. 87. — Tracheal system of Cockroach. 
 
 The dorsal integument removed and the The alimentary canal removed to show 
 
 alimentary canal in place. (After Miall the ventral tracheal communications, 
 
 and Denny.) (After Miall and Denny,) 
 
 87). There is a short trunk arising from each spiracle ; these are all 
 connected together by a large longitudinal trunk on each side of the 
 body, and by numerous transverse trunks. From these large trachese 
 there arise a great number of smaller ones, not shown in the figures, 
 which branch and subdivide, and extend to all parts of the body. When 
 one dissects an insect the viscera are found to be connected together 
 by the ramifications of these trachese, so that in order to remove any 
 organ it is necessary to cut some of them. The smaller branches of 
 the tracheae are exceedingly minute, and are intimately associated 
 with the various tissues. By means of these fine tracheal trunks the 
 air is carried to the tissues ; hence the blood plays a much smaller 
 part in respiration than it does in the Vertebrates. 
 
 Although insects are, strictly speaking, air-breathing animals, 
 many of them, as is well known, live in the water. The study of the 
 ways in which aquatic insects breathe is a very interesting one ; it 
 
HEXAPODA. 75 
 
 presents to MS many wonderful modifications of structure. Some ol 
 the more common of these are described in subsequent pages of this 
 book ; in this place we can only make a few generalizations. 
 
 The various modes of respiration of aquatic insects may be classi- 
 fied under two heads: first, those in which the insects obtain air 
 from above the surface of the water; second, those in which the 
 insects breathe the air that is mechanically mixed with the water. 
 
 WiUi many aquatic insects the spiracles open beneath the wings, 
 which are folded upon the abdomen. The insect, by coming to the 
 surface of the water and lifting the tip of its wings, forms a cavity be- 
 neath them, into which the air rushes. The insect can then swim 
 through the water, carrying this air with it in a position where it can 
 be respired. When the air becomes impure, the insect rises to the 
 surface, forces out the air from beneath its wings, and takes in a new 
 supply. Water-beetles and aquatic bugs afiford familiar examples of 
 this mode of respiration. 
 
 Some insects are provided with long tubes connected with their 
 spiracles, by means of which they can draw their supply of air from 
 above the surface of the water while they crawl upon the bottom of 
 shallow ponds. Our most common illustrations of this are bugs of 
 the family Nepidce; but the most remarkable development of this 
 kind is exhibited by certain Dipterous larvae of the family Syrphidce, 
 known as Rat-tailed Maggots. 
 
 Although there are many insects that live in the water and draw 
 their supply of air from above it, the greater number of aquatic 
 insects breathe, as do fishes, the air that is mixed with the water. 
 This is accomplished by organs known as tracheal gills. These are 
 hair-like or more or less plate-like expansions of the body-wall, 
 abundantly supplied with trachese (Fig. 88). These tracheae 
 divide and subdivide, and their terminations or fine branches 
 are separated from the water that bathes the organ only by 
 its thin walls. In this way the air contained in the tracheae 
 is separated from the air in the water only by a delicate 
 membrane, which admits of the transfer of gases between 
 them. It will be observed that the diflference between a 
 tracheal gill and a true gill (as of fishes, Crustacea, etc.) is 
 that the true gill is supplied with vessels containing blood, 
 which is purified by being brought in contact with the air 
 in the water, while the tracheal gill is supplied with tracheae 
 containing air to be purified. 
 
 Tracheal gills are usually borne by the abdomen, some- 
 times by the thorax, and in case of one genus of Stone-files by the 
 
'j6 THE STUDY OF IX SECTS. 
 
 head. They pertain almost exclusively to the immature stages of 
 insects; but Stone-flies of tlie genus Pteronarcys retain them through- 
 out their existence. 
 
 Tracheal gills vary greatly in form; in Corydalis tiieyare hair-like, 
 and occur in tufts near the lateral margins of the abdominal seg- 
 ments ; in the Cadd ice-worms they are thread-like, more or less 
 branched, and irregularly distributed over the surface of the abdo- 
 men ; and in certain Dragon-ffies they are in the form of large plate- 
 like caudal appendages. (Fig. 88.) 
 
 The Reproductive Organs. — The reproductive organs are situated 
 in the abdomen, as represented in Figure 80. There is a set on each 
 side of the body; but the two sets usually open by a common tube 
 near the caudal end of the body. In the May-flies and in the Ear- 
 wigs, however, the reproductive organs of each side have a distinct 
 opening. Thus May-flies are often found with two bunches of eggs 
 projecting from the caudal end of the body. 
 
 All insects are developed from eggs ; but there are some appar- 
 ent exceptions. Thus many flies retain their eggs until after they 
 are hatched, if a proper place for laying them is not found earlier; 
 and in some flies (the Pupipara) the young attain a considerable de- 
 velopment before they are born. In the Plant-lice (Ap/ndidce) there 
 is a remarkable alternation of reproduction by budding with the 
 sexual reproduction. This is described more fully in the account of 
 that family. 
 
 The Orders of the Hexapoda. 
 
 (For advanced students-.') 
 
 The Class Hexapoda, or Insects, is divided in this work into nine- 
 teen orders. This number is somewhat greater than what has been 
 commonly adopted heretofore. But we believe that in the earlier 
 classifications forms were brought together in the same order that 
 are not closely related, and that consequently the present classifica- 
 tion represents better the true relationship of the groups of insects. 
 
 There has been some hesitation on the part of many entomolo- 
 gists in adopting this division of certain of the old orders, merely for 
 the reason that they felt that the old classification was simpler. But 
 we do not share in this feeling. It seems to us that it is easier for 
 the student to learn the characters of a large number of well-defined 
 groups than it is to learn those of a smaller number of vaguely- 
 defined groups. 
 
HEX A POD A. yj 
 
 In arranging the orders in a linear series, as must be done in a 
 book, it is impossible to indicate in a satisfactory way either the rela- 
 tion of the orders to each other or the relative rank of the orders. 
 An effort is made to place near together closely allied orders, and to 
 treat first those that are more simple or primitive or generalized in 
 structure, and last those that are more specialized. But this plan 
 could be fully carried out only by having several parallel columns on 
 the pages of the book, each representing a distinct line of descent, 
 an arrangement which, to say the least, is impracticable. 
 
 What has been done in this work is to place first the Thysanura, 
 which is doubtless the most primitive order. Then follow first the 
 orders that undergo an incomplete metamorphosis, and last, those 
 that undergo a complete metamorphosis. Within these two groups of 
 orders those with biting mouth-parts are placed first, and these are 
 followed by those with sucking mouth-parts, except that in the 
 second group the Coleoptera and Hymenoptera are placed last for 
 want of a better position. We do not intend to indicate by this that 
 these two orders are closely related, or that they are more specialized 
 than the Diptera. 
 
 In fact, with regard to at least five of the orders of insects (Hemip- 
 tera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, and Hymenoptera), it seems 
 idle to us to discuss which is the more highly specialized. Each has 
 been specialized in a direction peculiar to itself ; and to attempt to 
 describe which is the "highest " seems as futile as the discussion by 
 children of the question : " Which is better, sugar or salt } " 
 
 We give below a table for use in classifying specimens. This table 
 is merely intended to aid the student in determining to which of the 
 orders a specimen that he is examining belongs. No eflfort has been 
 made to indicate in the table the relation of the orders to each other. 
 
 TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE ORDERS OF HEXAPODA.* 
 
 ( T/iis table includes only adult insects.) 
 A. Wingless or with rudimentary wings. 
 
 B. Mandibles and maxillae retracted within the cavity of the head 
 
 so that only their apices are visible, p. 82 Thysanura. 
 
 BB. Mandibles and maxillae more or less prominent and fitted for 
 biting. (See BBB also.) 
 C. Head with long, trunk-like beak. (Boreus.) p. 184. 
 
 Mecoptera. 
 
 * See note at bottom of p. 10. 
 
78 THE STUDY OF INSECTS, 
 
 CC. Head not prolonged into a trunk. 
 
 D. Louse-like insects of small size; body less than one-sixth 
 inch in length. 
 E. Antennae with not more than five segments. (Bird-lice.) 
 
 p. lOO M ALLOPH AGA. 
 
 EE. Antennae with many segments. (Book-lice.) p. 98. 
 
 CORRODENTIA. 
 
 DD. Insects of various forms, but not louse-like, and, except 
 in the case of some ants, with the body more than one-sixth 
 inch in length. 
 
 E. Abdomen with short, conical, compressed, many-jointed 
 caudal appendages. (Cockroaches?^ p. 104...ORTHOPTERA. 
 EE. Abdomen without jointed caudal appendages. 
 
 F. Legs fitted for jumping. ( IVifiglcss Locusts, Grasshop- 
 pers, a7id Crickets.) p. 104 Orthoptera. 
 
 FF. Legs fitted for running. 
 G. Abdomen broadly joined to thorax. 
 
 H. Body linear. {Walking-sticks.) p. 104. 
 
 Orthoptera. 
 HH. Body white and somewhat ant-like in form. 
 
 ( Termes.) p. 95 ISOPTERA. 
 
 HHH. Body neither linear nor ant-like in form. 
 
 ( IVing/ess Fire-fly et al. ) p. 494 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 GG. Base of abdomen strongly constricted. {Ants et al.) 
 
 p. 599 Hymenoptera. 
 
 BBB. Mouth-parts formed for sucking. 
 
 C. Small abnormal insects in which the body is either scale-like 
 
 or gall-like in form, or grub-like and clothed with wax. The 
 
 waxy covering may be in the form of powder, of large tufts or 
 
 plates, of a continuous layer, or of a thin scale, beneath which 
 
 the insect lives. {Coccidce.) p. 121 Hemiptera. 
 
 CC. Body more or less covered with minute scales, or with 
 thick long hairs. Prothorax not free {i.e., closely united with 
 the mesothorax). Mouth-parts usually consisting of a long 
 
 " tongue " rolled beneath the head. p. 191 Lepidoptera. 
 
 CCC. Body naked, or with isolated or bristle-like hairs. 
 
 D. Prothorax not well developed, inconspicuous or invisible 
 
 from above. Tarsi five-jointed. Mouth-parts developed 
 
 into an unjointed trunk; palpi present, p. 413. . . . Diptera. 
 
 DD. Prothorax well developed. 
 
 E. Body strongly compressed ; tarsi five-jointed. {Fieas.) 
 
 p. 490 Siphonaptera. 
 
HEXAPODA. 79 
 
 EE. Body not compressed ; tarsi one-, two , or three-jointed. 
 
 F. Last joint of tarsi bladder-like or hoof-like in form and 
 
 without claws; mouth-parts forming a trian^iular, un- 
 
 jointed beak ; palpi present, p. 119 Physopoda. 
 
 *FF. Last joint of tarsi not bladder-like, and furnished with 
 one or two claws ; mouth-parts forming a slender, usually 
 jointed beak; palpi apparently wanting, p. 121. 
 
 Hemiptera. 
 AA. Winged. (The wing-covers, (?/}'/;-«, of beetles and of earwigs are 
 counted as wings in this table.) 
 B. With two wings. 
 
 C. Wings horny, leathery, or parchment-like. 
 
 D. Mouth-parts formed for sucking. Wings leathery, short- 
 ened, or membranous at the tip. p. 121 Hemiptera. 
 
 DD. Mouth-parts formed for biting. Jaws distinct. 
 
 E. Wings horny, without veins. Hind legs not fitted for 
 
 jumping, p. 494 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 EE. Wings parchment-like, with a network of veins. Hind 
 
 legs fitted for jumping, p. 1 04 Orthoptera. 
 
 CC. Wings membranous. 
 
 D. Abdomen with caudal filaments. Mouth-parts rudimentary. 
 
 E. Halteres wanting, p. 86 Ephemerida. 
 
 EE. Halteres present (males of Co^(r/rt'<2'). p. 121. Hemiptera. 
 
 DD. Abdomen without caudal filaments. Halteres in place of 
 
 second wings. Mouth-parts formed for sucking, p. 413. 
 
 Diptera. 
 EJB. With four wings. 
 C. The two pairs of wings unlike in structure. 
 
 D. Front wings leathery at base, and membranous at tip, often 
 overlapping. Mouth-parts formed for sucking, p. 121. 
 
 Hemiptera. 
 DD. Front wings of same texture throughout. 
 
 E. Front wings horny or leathery, being veinless wing- 
 covers. {Elytra) 
 F. Abdomen with caudal appendages in form of movable 
 
 forceps, p. 102 Euplexoptera. 
 
 FF. Abdomen without forcep-like appendages, p. 494. 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 EE. Front wings leathery or parchment-like, with a network 
 of veins. 
 
 F. Under wings not folded. Mouth-parts formed for suck- 
 ing, p. 121 Hemiptera. 
 
80 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 FF. Under wings folded lengthwise. Mouth-parts formed 
 
 for biting, p. 104 Orthoptera. 
 
 CC. The two pairs of wings similar, membranous. 
 
 D. Last joint of tarsi bladder-like or hoof-like in form and 
 
 without claws, p. 119 .Physopoda, 
 
 DD. Last joint of tarsi not bladder-like. 
 
 E. Wings entirely or for the greater part clothed with scales. 
 
 Mouth-parts formed for sucking, p. 191.. .Lepidoptera. 
 
 EE. Wings naked, transparent, or thinly clothed w'ith hairs. 
 
 F. Mouth-parts arising from the hinder part of the lower 
 
 surface of the head, and consisting of bristle-like organs 
 
 inclosed in a jointed sheath. {Hoinoptera) p. 121. 
 
 Hemiptera. 
 FF. Mouth-parts in normal position. Mandibles not 
 bristle-like. 
 
 G. Wings net-veined, with many veins and cross-veins. 
 H. Tarsi consisting of less than five segments. 
 
 I. Antennae inconspicuous, awl-shaped, short and 
 slender. 
 
 J. First and second pairs of wings nearly the 
 same length ; tarsi three-jointed, p. 89. 
 
 Odonata. 
 JJ. Second pair of wings either small or wanting; 
 
 tarsi four-jointed, p. 86 Ephemerida 
 
 n. Antennae usually conspicuous, setiform, filiform 
 clavate, capitate, or pectinate. 
 J. Tarsi two- or three-jointed. 
 
 K. Second pair of wings the smaller, p. 98. 
 
 Corrodentia. 
 KK. Second pair of wings broader, or at least 
 of the same size as the first pair. p. 93. 
 
 Plecoptera. 
 JJ. Tarsi four-jointed; wings equal, p. 95. 
 
 ISOPTERA. 
 
 HH. Tarsi consisting of five segments. 
 
 I. Abdomen with setiform, many-jointed anal fila- 
 ments. {Certain May-flies.) p. 86. Ephemerida. 
 IL Abdomen without many-jointed anal filaments. 
 J. Head prolonged into a trunk-like beak. 
 
 p. 184 Mecoptera. 
 
 J. Head not prolonged into a beak. p. 175. 
 
 Neuroptera. 
 
HEX A POD A. 8 1 
 
 GG. Wings with branching veins and comparatively few 
 cross-veins, or veinless. 
 H. Tarsi two- or three-jointed, 
 
 I. Posterior wings smaller than the anterior. 
 
 p. 98 CORRODENTIA. 
 
 II. Posterior wings as large as or larger than the 
 anterior ones. (Pertain Stone-Jlies.) p. 93. 
 
 Plecoptera. 
 HH. Tarsi four- or five-jointed, 
 
 I. Abdomen with setiform, many-jointed anal fila- 
 ments. {.Certain lilay-Jlies.) p. 86. Ephemerida, 
 
 II. Abdomen without many-jointed anal filaments. 
 J. Prothorax horny. First wings larger than the 
 
 second, naked or imperceptibly hairy. Second 
 wings without, or with few, unusually simple, 
 veins. Jaws (mandibles) well developed. Palpi 
 
 small, p. 599 Hymenoptera. 
 
 JJ. Prothorax membranous or, at the most, 
 parchment-like. Second wings as large as or 
 larger than the first, folded lengthwise, with 
 many branching veins. First wings naked or 
 thinly clothed with hair. Jaws (mandibles) in- 
 conspicuous. Palpi long. Moth-like insects. 
 p. 186 Trichoptera. 
 
 LIST OF ORDERS OF THE HEXAPODA. 
 
 ^ Thysanura. t^ Hemiptera. 
 
 V Ephemerida. ^ Neuroptera. 
 v/' Odonata. i/Mecoptera. 
 y Plecoptera. V Trichoptera. 
 [/ Isoptera. Lepidoptera. 
 ]/ Corrodentia. I ' Diptera. 
 
 V Mallophaga. /Siphonaptera. 
 
 V^ EUPLEXOPTERA , COLEOPTERA. 
 
 y Orthoptera. Hymenoptera, 
 ,. Physopoda. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Order Thysanura (Thys-a-nu'ra). 
 
 Bristle-tails, Spring-tails, Fish-moths, and others. 
 
 The members of this order are wingless insects which 
 undergo no metamorphosis, the larval form being retained by 
 the adult. The mandibles and maxillce are retracted witJiin 
 the cavity of the head, so that only their tips are visible ; they 
 have, however, some freedom of motion, and can be used for 
 biting and cheiving soft substances. True compoinid eyes are 
 rarely presettt ; but in some genera there is a group of simple 
 eyes on each side of the head. The abdomen is sometimes 
 furnished tvith rudimentary legs. 
 
 Under stones and decayed leaves and wood, in the chinks 
 of bark, among moss, in damp 
 places, on snow or on pools, 
 or sometimes in houses, are 
 the members of this order to 
 be found. They are for the 
 most part very small insects, 
 but sometimes they are nu- 
 merous and lively enough to 
 make up for their lack in 
 size. They have no wings, 
 but they can either run very 
 fast or jump very far. Their 
 
 -Mouth-parts of a Spring-tail, Ento- 
 ntobryidce. (Drawn by J. M. Stedraan, 
 
 under the author's direction.) 8, labrum; .^^..♦.i, ^„..^.^ „„„ . 11 at, 
 
 10, mandible; i.. maxilla; 12, labium; 12^! mOUth-partS are USUally fit 
 labial palpus. 
 
 difficult to Study, because 
 
 ted for biting, but are very 
 they are retracted within the 
 
TJ/YSAXURA. 83 
 
 cavity of the head, and also on account of the small size of 
 the insects. Figure 89 represents them in place in the 
 head, and also each separately. 
 
 In certain respects these insects represent a connecting- 
 link between the other six-footed insects (Hexapoda) and 
 the Myriapods ; for many of the Thysanura have rudiments 
 of legs on the abdomen. It is believed, therefore, that they 
 are much like the first insects tiiat api^eared on the cartii 
 in ancient geological times. 
 
 The Thysanura undergo no metamorphosis, the young 
 resembling the adult in form. 
 
 The name of the order is from two Greek words: 
 ihysaiios, a tassel; and onra, the tail. 
 
 The Thysanura include two distinct types of insects ; 
 these are classed as suborders, and can be distinguished by 
 the following table : 
 
 TABLE OF THE SUBORDERS OF THE THYSANURA. 
 
 A. With bristle-like and many-jointed appendages at the caudal end 
 of the body (in a single genus these appendages are in the form of 
 forceps, Fig. 91), and without a sucker on the ventral side of the 
 abdomen, p. 83 CiNURA. 
 
 AA. With a forked sucker on the ventral side of the first abdominal 
 segment. Abdomen with a springing apparatus near its caudal 
 end, or without appendages, p. 84 CollEiMBOla. 
 
 Suborder CiNURA (Ci-nu'ra). 
 The Bristle-fails. 
 
 Often the careful housekeeper sees in the ironing-basket, 
 or upon the book-shelf where she is dusting, a flash of light 
 like a tiny thread of quicksilver, that usually vanishes as soon 
 as seen. 
 
 If she is experienced she knows that this streak of light is 
 a little animal, half an inch long, whose body is clothed in 
 shining scales like those of a fish. Hence she calls it a Fish- 
 moth. Its scientific name is Lepisnia saccharina ; (Le-pis'ma 
 sac-cha-ri'na) ; it is especially abundant in warm climates, 
 
84 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 and often does damage to starched clothing, book-bindings, 
 and sometimes loosens wall-paper by eating out the paste. 
 Under a microscope the Fish-moth shows beautiful markings 
 
 Fig. ^\.—Jaf-yx soli/tigus. 
 
 (After Lubbock.) Fig. 92. — Ventral aspect 
 
 of Mncki/is, showing 
 Fig. t^o.—Lepisma sac- appendages. 
 
 charina. (After Lub- 
 bock.) 
 
 on the shining scales ; and at the caudal end of the body are 
 three long bristle-like appendages (Fig. 90), which suggest 
 the common name Bristle-tail applied to members of this 
 suborder. Figure 91 represents yrt/>j;ir (Ja'pyx), a Bristle- 
 tail in which the caudal appendages are in the form of horny 
 forceps; and Figure 92 represents the lower side of Machilis 
 (Mach'i-lis), another Bristle-tail, found under stones and 
 loose bark ; this genus has rudimentary abdominal legs as 
 shown in the figure. 
 
 Suborder COLLEMBOLA (Col-lem'bo-la). 
 
 The Spring-tails. 
 
 In the Spring in the Northern States, on bright sunny 
 days when, it is thawing, one often sees upon the snow thou- 
 sands of tiny dark specks. In other places pools of still 
 
THYSANURA. 85 
 
 water appear to be covered by a moving mass of minute 
 grains which become more active when disturbed. These 
 masses as well as the dark specks on snow consist of thou- 
 sands of little creatures that arc provided with a wonderful 
 means of jumping. There is on the end of the body a tail-like 
 organ that is bent under when the insect is at rest, and that 
 reaches almost to the head ; this when suddenly straightened 
 throws the insect high in the air and several feet away. This 
 action is like a spring-board jump, only these little fellows 
 always carry their spring-boards with them, and have thus 
 won the name of Spring-tails. The species upon snow, called 
 the Snow-flea, Achorntes nivicola (Ach-o-ru'tes ni-vic'o-la), 
 sometimes proves a nuisance in maple sugar-bushes by get- 
 ting into the sap. Through a micro- 
 scope a Spring-tail appears very ab- 
 surd, it has long antennae and large, 
 dark eye-spots on the face, which, to- 
 gether with the longhair that sticks 
 forward on the head and thorax, 
 give the creature a look of solemn^ „ . , 
 
 ° Fig. tji.—Paptrtus fuscus. (After 
 
 fierceness. Different species may Lubbock.) 
 
 be found at almost any time of the year in damp places. 
 Figure 93 represents one of these. In many forms the 
 body is much more slender than in that figured, 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 Order EPHEMERIDA (Eph-e-mer'i-da). 
 
 The May-flics. 
 
 The members of this order have delicate membranous ivings, 
 with a fine network of veins ; the fore ivings are large, and 
 the hind wings are much smaller or wanting. The mouth- 
 parts are rudimentary. The metamorpJiosis is incomplete. 
 
 The name of this order is from 
 the Greek word ephemeros, lasting 
 but a day. It was given to these in- 
 sects on account of the shortness of 
 their lives after reaching the adult 
 state.* The May-flies are easily dis- 
 tinguished from other net-winged in- 
 sects by the peculiar shape of the 
 wings and the relative sizes of the two 
 pairs (Fig. 94). 
 
 The mouth-parts are nearly want- 
 ing, as these insects eat nothing in 
 the adult state ; the antennae are very 
 small ; the abdomen is long, soft, and 
 terminated by two or three many- 
 jointed, thread-like appendages. In 
 their metamorphoses these insects differ from all others in 
 molting once after they have acquired wings fitted for flight. 
 This order includes only a single family. 
 
 FwG. 94.— May- fly. 
 
 * We have not adopted the name Plectoptera, which has been proposed 
 for these insects, on account of its similarity to Phcoptera. 
 
 86 
 
EPHEAIEKIDA. 87 
 
 Family Ephemerid^ (Eph-e-mer'i-dae). 
 The May-fiics. 
 In river or lake towns, during the warm evenings of late 
 spring or early summer, the electric lights or street lamps are 
 often darkened by myriads of insects that dash against them, 
 and the pavements are made slippery by their dead bodies 
 which have been trampled under foot. They are not the ordi- 
 nary night-flying moths : if an individual of the thousands 
 that cling to the posts and buildings in the vicinity of the 
 light be examined, it will prove to be a delicate creature with 
 dainty, trembling wings and two or three long, 
 white, thread-like organs on the end of its body ; 
 the body itself is so transparent that the blood 
 within can be seen pulsating. The front 
 wings are large and finely netted, and the 
 hind wings are small or absent (Figs. 94, 95). ^'a two'^nged 
 So fragile are these pale beings that they seem ^^ ^' 
 
 like phantoms rather than real insects. No wonder that 
 poets have sung of them as the creatures that live only a 
 day, It is true that their winged existence lasts often 
 only a day or even a few hours ; but they have another 
 life, of which the poet knows nothing. Down on the 
 bottom of a stream, feeding on mud, water-plants, or other 
 small insects, lives a little nymph with delicate, fringed 
 gills along its sides and two or three long, many-jointed, 
 and often feathery appendages on the end of the body (Fig. 
 96). It has strong legs and can both walk and 
 swim. After about the ninth molt— there may be 
 twenty molts in all— there appear on its thorax 
 four little sacs which are the beginnings of wings ; 
 with each molt these grow larger, until finally the 
 last skin of the water-nymph is shed, and gills and 
 mouth-parts are all left behind, and the insect 
 comes forth, a winged May-fly. But there is still 
 May-^"^ another change to be undergone. The insect 
 not yet reached the adult state. After flying a 
 
88 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. 
 
 short distance it alights and sheds its skin again, a thin layer 
 coming off from all parts of its body, even from its wings. 
 After this the delicate creature is more fragile than before. 
 It now has but one duty to perform in its brief life in the 
 air, and that is to lay its eggs. These are softietimes laid 
 on the surface of the water, and sometimes the mother wraps 
 her wings about her like a diving-bell and goes down into 
 the water and deposits her eggs on stones. The life of the 
 nymph is from one to three years, according to the species. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Order Odonata (Od-o-na'ta). 
 The Dragon-fiics. 
 
 The members of this order have four membranov.s zvings, 
 zvhich are finely netted zvith veins ; the hitid wings are as large 
 or larger than the fore zvitigs ; and each iving has near the 
 middle of the front margin a joint-like structure, the nodus. 
 The month-parts are formed for biting. The metamorphosis is 
 incomplete. 
 
 The name of this order is evidently from the Greek word 
 odons, a tooth ; but the reason for applying it to these 
 insects is obscure. 
 
 Fig. 97. — Lihe7!u7a Basalts. 
 
 The Odonata are easily recognized by the form of their 
 wings, which are long, narrow, and powerful ; and, possess 
 near the middle of the front margin of each a little notch 
 
 89 
 
90 THE STUDY OF IXSKC'IS. 
 
 iiiul a strong cross-vein. This structure resembles in ap- 
 pearance a joint, and is consequently named the nodus. 
 
 The mouth-parts are fitted for biting, these insects being 
 voracious feeders in the adult state. Both the upper lip and 
 the lower lip are large, and the two nearly enclose the jaws 
 
 Fig. 9?,.-Agrion. Fig. 99. -Nymph of Dragon-fly, 
 
 Agn'oninte. 
 
 when at rest. There are two distinct types of Dragon-flies : 
 in one the wings are extended horizontally when at rest 
 (Fig. 97) ; in the other the wings are folded together above 
 the abdomen when not in use (Fig. 98). 
 This order includes only a single family. 
 
 Family LlBELLULlD.^ (Lib-el-lu'li-dae). 
 
 The Dragon-flics. 
 
 Darning-needles, Devil's-needles, Snake-doctors, Spindles, 
 and Dragon-flies are some of the names given to those in- 
 sects which dart back and forth over streams and wet places, 
 
ODOiVA TA. 
 
 91 
 
 their rapidly moving wings throwing out gleams of metallic 
 color as they go. Still more beautiful are they when at rest, 
 their wings wide-spread or folded together above the ab- 
 domen, and as rigid and motionless as if made of iridescent 
 glass; and their great compound eyes shining like gold or 
 precious stones. But for all their terrible names Dragon- 
 flies are entirely innocent of any harm to mankind. 
 They neither sew up people's ears, as northern chil- 
 dren think ; nor bring dead snakes to life, as colored 
 people in the South believe ; but they are very 
 fierce enemies to their insect kindred. Their long, 
 narrow, closely netted wings are strong, carrying 
 them swiftly; and their jaws are powerful, and their 
 appetites good; so it is an unfortunate insect that 
 falls in their way. 
 
 The mother Dragon-fly lays her eggs in water or 
 fastens them to aquatic plants. The young as soon 
 as hatched swim off and hunt for some smaller creatures to 
 eat. They have strong legs and big jaws, and are real in- 
 sect ogres. The lower lip when extended reaches far out, 
 and is armed with powerful hooks with 
 which to grab their prey ; but when fold- 
 ed up it is so large that it is called a mask 
 and gives the insect's face a comical re- 
 semblance to that of a bull-dog. These 
 nymphs have a peculiar method of breath- 
 ing. The caudal end of the alimentary 
 canal is lined with trachese. The insect 
 alternately draws water into this cavity 
 and expels it ; and thus the air in these 
 tracheae is purified, this part of the alimen- 
 tary canal acting as a tracheal gill. This 
 process also helps the insect in swimming, 
 for the water may be expelled with such 
 force that the whole body is sent forward. 
 In some species the nymphs have also two or three large 
 
 Fig. ioi.— Exuviae of 
 nymph of Dragon-fly. 
 
92 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 plate-like gills on the end of the abdomen (Fig. 99). Figure 
 100 represents one of these gills enlarged. When the nymph 
 get its growth it crawls out of the water and rests on some 
 grass-blade or reed ; then the skin splits down the back and 
 the Dragon-fly comes forth, while the old skin, perfect in 
 form, still clings to its resting-place like a ghost until some 
 inquiring wind blows it away (Fig. loi). 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Order Plecoptera (Ple-cop'te-ra). 
 
 TJie Stonc-fiics. 
 
 The members of this order have four membranous zvings, 
 with comparatively few or with many cross-veins ; the hind 
 wings are much larger than the fore wings, and are folded in 
 plaits and lie upon the abdomen whcji at rest. The mouth- 
 parts are of the biting type of structure, but are freqiiently 
 poorly developed. The metamorphosis is incomplete. 
 
 The name of this order is from two Greek words : plecos, 
 plaited; and //^r^;/, a wing. It refers to the way in which 
 the hind wings are folded when at rest. 
 
 Although the mouth-parts are of the biting type of struc- 
 ture, the mandibles are often small, flat, and membranous, 
 and evidently of little use. It is probable that as a rule 
 the adults eat but little. The antennae are long, tapering, 
 and many-jointed ; and in most species the caudal end 
 of the abdomen is furnished with two many-jointed bristles. 
 The nymphs are aquatic. 
 
 This order includes only a single family- 
 Family Perlid^ (Per'li dse). ' 
 The Stone-flies. 
 
 Those boys fond of fishing know that a good place to 
 find bait is under stones in streams. And doubtless they 
 have often observed that in the swiftest portion of the stream 
 the turned-over stones have clinging to the lower surface 
 
 93 
 
94 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 flat creatures from one-half inch or less to one and one half 
 inches in length. They cling so closely and are so nearly the 
 color of the stone that they look almost like fossils. Their 
 antennas and caudal bristles and three legs on each side 
 extend out like the rays of a star ; the six soft clumps of 
 white hair-like gills, one behind each leg, alone show that 
 they are not engraved upon tiic stone (Fig. 102). These 
 insects are the nymphs of the stone-flies, and are the favorite 
 food of fishes, especially of brook trout. If a nymph is 
 fortunate enough to escape the fate of being a luncheon for 
 fish, when it is full-grown it crawls forth from the water and 
 
 Fig. 102. — Nymph of Stone- 
 fly, Acroneitrn. 
 
 Fig. \oT,.~Pteronarcys regalis. 
 
 transforms to a gray or greenish fly, with slender, closely 
 veined fore wings and wide, delicate hind wings (Fig. 103). 
 The cast nymph-skins are common objects on the banks of 
 the streams which these insects inhabit. Several of the 
 smaller species of the stone-flies appear in the winged state 
 upon snow in early spring, and often find their way into 
 houses. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 y 
 
 Order IsOPTERA (I-sop'te-ra). 
 
 T/ic Termites or White-ants. 
 
 The members of this order are social insects. Each species 
 consists of several distinct castes, of which only the " Kings " 
 and the " Queens " are winded. These have four long, nar- 
 row wings, which are somewhat leathery in structure, and 
 which are furnished with tiumerous bu t more or less indistinct 
 veins. The tzvo pairs of wijigs are similar in form and struc- 
 ture, and are laid flat upon the back tvhen not in use. The 
 mouth-parts are formed for biting. The metamorphosis is in- 
 complete. 
 
 The name of this order is from two Greek words : isos, 
 equal ; and pteron, a wing. It refers to the fact that the two 
 pairs of wings are similar in form and structure. 
 
 The wings of the Termites (Ter'mites), although really 
 broad when compared to the size of the body, appear 
 narrow on account of their great length, being in many 
 cases more than twice as long as the entire body. 
 
 The order includes only a single family. 
 
 Family Termitid.-E (Ter-mit'i-dee). 
 
 The Tennites or White-ants. 
 
 These interesting insects are not Ants, nor at all related 
 to them ; but they have been thus called because they have 
 certain social habits that are similar to those of true Ants. 
 They are more abundant in the tropics than here ; and 
 
 95 
 
96 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Fig. 104. — Termes 
 flapives, worker. 
 
 Fig. 105. — Terme. 
 Jlavipes, soldier. 
 
 there build nests or mounds sometimes twelve feet high, or 
 make roundish nests several feet thick on trees. Our 
 Northern species {Termes flavipcs) lives in old logs and 
 stumps, or under stones in the ground. 
 
 A remarkable thing about the White-ants is the way they 
 are divided into classes, each class fitted to do a certain work 
 
 for the colony. First, there 
 is the class of workers (Fig. 
 104), which is constituted of 
 both sexes : they are wingless, 
 and of a dirty-white color, 
 and while they resemble true 
 ants somewhat, their waists 
 are thicker. Their business is 
 to bring food for everybody, 
 feed and bring up the young 
 termites, and build nests. 
 Second, there is the class 
 called soldiers (Fig. 105) : these too are of both sexes and 
 wingless, and look somewhat like the workers, only their 
 heads are tremendous in size, being often nearly as long as 
 the rest of the body, and their jaws are large and powerful. 
 Third, is the royal class called kings and queens. It would 
 have been better to have called them fathers and mothers, 
 as they are the parents of the colony, and do not rule it. 
 This class when grown have wings which lie flat upon the 
 back when at rest, and may be twice as long as the body. 
 In May or June in our common species this class swarms 
 forth from all the nests of the neighborhood. After a flight 
 of some distance the wings are shed, and a king chooses 
 some queen near him and proposes that they start a king- 
 dom of their own. But like mortal kings and queens they 
 cannot reign unless a kingdom is found for them, and so 
 millions of these royal pairs die because they have no sub- 
 jects. But sometimes a fortunate couple is discovered by 
 some termite workers, who at once take possession of the 
 
I SOFT ERA. 97 
 
 wanderers and provide them with food, and with shelter 
 
 in the shape of a large circular shallow cell. In this they 
 
 are really imprisoned, but are well cared 
 
 for. Soon the queen or mother begins 
 
 to develop eggs, and her body grows 
 
 enormously. Finally, it is nothing but 
 
 a huge sac filled with eggs, looking more 
 
 like a potato than anything else, and is 
 
 sometimes six or seven inches long (Fig. 
 
 io6). Of course the poor queen cannot 
 
 move herself in the least, and if she were 
 
 not fed would soon starve ; but her king 
 
 remains devoted to her, and her ladies 
 
 and gentlemen in waiting do their best 
 
 to make her comfortable : they carry 
 
 away the eggs to other chambers as soon 
 
 as they are laid, then care for the eggs, and 
 
 feed the little ones when they are hatched, c- , ^ 
 
 -' Fig. 106.— Queen white- 
 
 The young termites are active, and re- ^"'' TermesgHvus. 
 semble the adult in form. If a nest becomes queenless, and 
 the workers are unable to procure a queen, there are de- 
 veloped in the nest wingless sexual individuals, which are 
 termed complemental males and females. But as each com- 
 plemental female lays only a few eggs, it requires several to 
 take the place of a real queen. 
 
 All White-ants are miners, and avoid the light. They 
 build covered-ways wherever they wish to go. In hot 
 countries they are a terrible pest, as they feed upon wood, 
 and actually destroy buildings and furniture and libraries. 
 They leave merely the outside portion of what they feed 
 upon ; and they have been known to enter a table through 
 the bottom of the legs and to eat all the inner portions so 
 that a slight weight crushed it to the floor. In Florida they 
 do damage to orange and other trees by girdling them below 
 the surface of the ground. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Order CORRODENTIA (Cor-ro-den'ti-a). 
 
 The Psocids {Psoc'ids) and the Book-lice. 
 
 The ivinged members of this order have four membranous 
 wings, with the veins prominent, but tvith comparatively few 
 crtss veins; the fore wings are larger than the hind ivings; 
 and both pairs when not in use are placed roof-like over the 
 body, being almost vertical, and not folded in plaits. The 
 mouthparts are formed for biting. The metamorphosis is in- 
 ccmplete. 
 
 The name of this order is from 
 the Latin corrodere, to gnaw, and 
 refers to the gnawing habits of these 
 insects. 
 
 The wings, especially the fore 
 wings, are often smoky in color or 
 variegated. The arrangement of the 
 wings (Fig. 107) differs in a striking manner 
 from that of any other biting insect. 
 
 The order includes two families, but representatives of 
 only one of them occur in the United States. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 veins of the 
 
 fsocus venosus. 
 
 Family PsociD^ (Psoc'i-dae), 
 
 The Psocids (Pso'cids) and the Book-lice. 
 
 Books may be old and out of date from our standpoint, 
 but still be of vital importance to others. Take down from 
 the shelf a time-3'ellowed book and open its neglected leaves 
 
CORRODEXTIA. 
 
 99 
 
 and watch the pale tiny creatures that scurry across its 
 pages; examine one of them with a lens, k)ok well at his 
 alert, knowing, black eyes, and we are sure you will believe 
 that he is in search of real literature, and not merely a feeder 
 upon paper, as we are taught. Anyway, scientists have con- 
 cluded that these insects look wise enough to bear the name 
 Atropos divitiatoi'ia (At'ro-pos di-vin-a-to'ri-a), 
 or the Divining Atropos (Fig. io8). They 
 are, however, more commonly called simply 
 book-lice. 
 
 Some members of the family Psocidc-e do 
 'not live in books, but feed upon lichens that 
 are found on the trunks of trees and on fences, 
 often a great number being grouped together. 
 Many of these have wings, and look like plant-lice (Fig. 107). 
 The eggs are laid in heaps on leaves and branches, and are 
 covered with a tissue of threads ; for the Psocids have the 
 power of spinning silk similar to that spun by spiders. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 Order Mallophaga (Mal-loph'a-ga). 
 
 The Bird-lice. 
 
 The members of this order arc wingless parasitic insects, 
 with biting mouth-parts. Their metamorphosis is incomplete. 
 The name of the order is from two Greek words : mallos, 
 wool ; and phagcin, to eat. Although some species infest 
 sheep and goats, feeding upon their wool, by far the greater 
 number live among the feathers of birds. It is due to this 
 fact that the common name Bird-lice is applied to the entire 
 group. 
 
 The order includes several families; but we will not take 
 the space to define them. 
 
 The Bird-lice are well known to most people that have 
 pet birds or who keep poultry. They differ from the true 
 Lice in having biting mouth-parts, and in feeding upon 
 either feathers, hair, or the skin ; while the true Lice have 
 sucking mouth-parts and feed upon blood. 
 
 It is to free themselves from these pests that hens wallow 
 in the dust. When poultry are kept in closed houses they 
 should be provided with a " dust-bath." All poultry-houses 
 should be cleaned at least twice a year, and the old straw 
 burned. Sprinkling powdered sulphur in the nests and oiling 
 the perches with kerosene will tend to keep the pests in 
 check. If a poultry-house becomes badly infested, it should 
 be cleaned thoroughly, and every part whitewashed ; and 
 the poultry should be dusted with Buhach or Persian insect 
 powder [Pyrcthruni). 
 
MALLOPHAGA 
 
 lOl 
 
 Fig. 109 represents Goniodcs sty lifer (Gon-i-o'dcs styl'i- 
 fer), a species which infests the turkey; and Fig. 110, 
 
 Fig. 109 — Goniodes stylifer. 
 (From Law.) 
 
 Fig. 1 10. — Trichodectes scalar is. 
 (From Law,) 
 
 Trichodectes scalaris (Trich-o-dec'tes sca-la'ris), a species 
 infesting the ox. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Order EurLEXoriERA (Eu-plex-op'te-ra). 
 
 The Earwigs. 
 
 The members of this order have usually four wings ; 
 the first pair of which are leathery, very small, witJiout veins, 
 and when at rest meet in a straight line on the back ; the 
 second pair are large, with radiating veins, and when at rest 
 are folded both lengthzvise and crosszvise. The mouth-parts are 
 formed for biting. The caudal end of the body is furnished 
 with a pair of appendages which resemble forceps. The meta- 
 morphosis is incomplete. 
 
 The name of the order is from three Greek words : eu^ 
 well ; pleko, to fold ; and pteron, wing. The word is not well 
 formed, but it cannot now be changed. It refers to the 
 unusual folding of the hind wings. This order is termed 
 the Dermaptera by many entomologists, but this name was 
 first applied to certain other insects, and so should not be 
 used for these. The fore wings of these insects resemble 
 the wing-covers of beetles, and like them differ greatly from 
 the usual form. The hind wings are very different from 
 those of any other insects. Figure in represents one of 
 these ; they are furnished with radi- 
 ating veins, which extends from a 
 point some distance from the base 
 of the wings. When the wing is not 
 in use that part over which these 
 veins extend is folded in plaits like a 
 fan, after which the wing is folded twice crosswise. Al- 
 
 -Wing of Earwig. 
 
ELPLEXOPTERA. 
 
 103 
 
 though these insects bear some resemblance to beetles, they 
 differ from them markedly in- having an incomplete meta- 
 morphosis. The order includes only a single family. 
 
 Family FORFICULID/E (For-fi cu'li dae). 
 Tlic Earivigs. 
 
 These are long and narrow insects, resembling rove- 
 beetles in the form of the body and 
 in the shortness of the wing - covers, 
 but easily distinguished by having a 
 pair of forceps at the end of the body 
 (Fig. 112). The common name, earwig^ 
 has reference to a widely spread fancy 
 that these insects creep into the ears 
 of sleeping persons. 
 
 The earwigs are rare in the North- 
 eastern United States, but are more 
 often found in the South and on the 
 Pacific coast. In Europe they are com- 
 mon, and are often troublesome pests, 
 feeding upon the corollas of flowers, 
 fruits, and other vegetable substances. 
 
 Fig. 112.— An Earwig. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Order Orthoptera {Or-thop'te-rd). 
 
 Cock?-oac/ies, Crickets, Grasshoppers, and others. 
 
 The vteuibers of tJiis order have four wings : the first pair 
 are thickened, and overlap when at rest ; the second pair are 
 thinner, and are folded in plaits like a fan. The month-parts 
 are formed for biting. The metamorphosis is incomplete. 
 
 The order Orthoptera includes some of the very common 
 and best-known insects. The most familiar representatives 
 are those named above. 
 
 Although the song of the Katydid and the chirp of 
 crickets are most often associated with recollections of pleas- 
 ant evenings spent in the country, we cannot forget that to 
 members of this order are due some of the most terrible 
 insect scourges man has known. The devastations caused 
 by great swarms of migratory locusts are not only matters of 
 historical record, but are too painfully known to many of our 
 own generation in the Western States. 
 
 With the exception of a single family {MantidcB), the 
 members of this order are, as a ruje, injurious to vegetation ; 
 and many species are quite apt to multiply to such an extent 
 that their destruction of vegetation becomes serious. 
 
 The name of the order is from two Greek words: orthos, 
 straight; and //^•r^?^, a wing. It refers to the longitudinal 
 folding of the hind wings. 
 
 In the Orthoptera the two pairs of wings differ in struc- 
 ture. The fore wings are parchment-like, forming covers for 
 the more delicate hind wings. These wing-covers have re- 
 
 104 
 
ORTIJOPTERA. I05 
 
 ceived the special name /r^w/;/rt (teg'mi-na); they are furnished 
 with a fine network of veins, and overlap at the tip at least. 
 There are many species in which the wings are rudimentary, 
 even in the adult state. Such adults resemble nymphs ; but 
 in the case of the jumping Orthoptera, where this peculiar- 
 ity most often occurs, nymphs can be distinguished by the 
 fact that the rudimentary hind wings are outside of the fore 
 wings, instead of beneath them, as in the adult state. 
 
 This order includes only six families. We are able, there- 
 fore, to discuss all of them in this work. The following 
 synopsis will aid the student in fixing in his mind the more 
 important characteristics of each family. 
 
 SYNOPSIS OF THE FAMILIES OF THE ORTHOPTERA. 
 
 The Running Orthoptera.— The body is oval when seen from 
 above, and is very flat; the three pairs of legs are similar in 
 form ; the insects run rapidly, p. 106 BlattiDyE. 
 
 The Grasping Orthoptera. — The prothorax is very long and 
 slender ; the first pair of legs are very different from the others, 
 and are fitted for grasping, p. 106. Mantid^. 
 
 The Walking Orthoptera.— The body is very long and slender; 
 the three pairs of legs are similar in form, and are also very 
 long and slender ; the insects walk slowly, p. 108 Phasmid^*:. 
 
 The Jumping Orthoptera. — The hind legs are very much stouter 
 or very much longer, or both stouter and longer, than the 
 middle pair, being fitted for jumping. This group includes three 
 families : 
 The Short-horned Grasshoppers, or Loaists. — The antennae are 
 shorter than the body. The ovipositor of the female is short and 
 composed of four separate plates. The tarsi are three-jointed. 
 
 p. 108 , ACRIDID^. 
 
 The Long-horned Grasshoppers. — The antennae are very slender 
 and longer than the body. (This is also true of the crickets.) 
 The ovipositor is sword-shaped. The tarsi are four-jointed. 
 
 p. 112 LOCUSTID^E. 
 
 The Crickets. — The antennae, like those of the long-horned grass- 
 hoppers, are very slender and longer than the body, except in 
 the mole-crickets. The ovipositor is spear-shaped when exerted. 
 The tarsi are three-jointed, p. 115 GRVLLiDiE. 
 
Io6 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Family Bl.ATTID/E (Blat'ti-dae). 
 
 The Cockroaches. 
 
 After every one is in bed at night and all is quiet in the 
 kitchen where there are water-pipes, often a throng of Httle 
 creatures come forth from hiding-places and, like brownies, 
 take possession of everything. They race around every 
 where, trying to find something to eat ; they do not care 
 much whether it is raw or cooked, but will devour almost 
 anything that comes in reach of their greedy jaws. They 
 eat book-bindings and bedbugs, if they find them, with 
 equal alacrity ; and sometimes they get bold enough to 
 appear in broad daylight. The little, pale brown rascal called 
 the Croton-bug, which came to us from Europe and infests 
 
 the vicinity of the pipes 
 of the water systems of 
 many of our cities, is es- 
 pecially bold and impu- 
 dent (Fig. 113). In fact, 
 in the North our native 
 cockroaches are mostly 
 
 F G. 113— The Fig. 114.— A Wing- Fig. 115.— Ootheca of a Cock- 
 
 Croion-bug. less Cockroach. roach. 
 
 respectable, well-behaved insects, living in fields and forests 
 under sticks and stones, the emigrant cockroaches being the 
 offenders. Many cockroaches are wingless (Fig. 114). The 
 eggs of a cockroach are laid, all at once, enclosed in a 
 sort of pod which is more or less bean-shaped (Fig. 115). 
 Thorough and frequent dusting with insect-powder in the 
 cracks about the kitchen will rid a house of these pests. 
 
 Family Mantid.^ (Man'ti-dae). 
 
 The Prayitig Mantes, or MiUe-killers. 
 
 Certainly they are pious-looking fellows, with their front 
 legs clasped together in front of their meek, alert faces, and 
 
ORTHOPTERA. 
 
 107 
 
 it is no wonder that tlicy arc called Praying Mantes. lUit 
 the only pra}cr that could ever enter the mind of a Mantis 
 
 6. — Phasinomantis carolir 
 
 would be that some unwary insect might come 
 near enough for him to grab it with his hypo- 
 critical claws, and so get a meal. Devil-horses* 
 rear-horses, and camel-crickets are other names 
 applied to these insects, because of the long, 
 slender prothorax which makes them look like 
 tiny giraffes. They are also called mule-killers» 
 from the absurd superstition that the dark-col- 
 ored saliva they eject from their mouths is fatal 
 to the mule. But they are absolutely harmless 
 to both man and beast. They are mostly tropical 
 insects, and often have wings that resemble the 
 leaves of trees. Our common species, PJiasnio- 
 jnantis Carolina (Phasmo-man'tis) (Fig. 116), is 
 confined to the Southern States. The eggs are 
 laid in masses and overlaid with a hard covering 
 of silk; the top of the masses having the appearance of bC' 
 ing braided (Fig. 117). 
 
 Fig. 117.— 
 
 Egg-mass of 
 
 a Mantis. 
 
io8 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Family Phasmid^ (Phas'mi-dse). 
 
 TJie Walking-sticks. 
 
 The rambler in forests is often 
 surprised to discover that a part 
 of the casually-plucked branch in 
 his hand is alive. A certain twig 
 that was stiff and motionless sud- 
 denly, when disturbed, walks off 
 on long slender legs, as awkwardly 
 as if it had never tried to walk 
 before. Strange and uncanny 
 creatures are these walking-sticks 
 with their long pointed bodies 
 and with legs colored and looking 
 exactly like twigs and leaf-peti- 
 oles. In the tropics their resem- 
 blance to foliage is made more 
 perfect by wings which are veined 
 like leaves. In the Northern States 
 we have only one common species, 
 Diaphcromera femorata, (Di-aph-e- 
 rom'e-ra fem-o-ra'ta), and that is 
 wingless (Fig. Ii8). Walking- 
 sticks feed upon foliage. Their 
 eggs, which are large, are dropped 
 on the ground under the trees by 
 Fig. 118.-A Walking-stick. the mother, who trusts entirely 
 to fate to preserve them. 
 
 IX Family ACRIDID^ (A-crid'i-dae). 
 
 Locusts, or SJiort-Jiorncd Grasshoppers. 
 
 Every country lad is familiar with the appearance of 
 grasshoppers. But there are many kinds of these insects, 
 representing at least two distinct families. The family 
 Acrididce, or Locusts, includes those grasshoppers in which 
 
ORTHOPTERA. IO9 
 
 tht antennae, are shorter than the body, and In which the 
 ovipositor of the female is short and made up of four sepa- 
 rate plates (Fig. 119). The tarsi are three-jointed; and on 
 
 Side view of Locust with wings removed. 
 
 each side of the first segment of the abdomen there is a cir- 
 cular plate which is believed to be an ear. 
 
 It is to these insects that the term locust is properly ap- 
 plied. For the locusts of which we read in the Bible, and in 
 other books published in the older countries, are members 
 of this family. Unfortunately in the United States the 
 term locust has been applied to the Periodical Cicada, a 
 member of the order Hemiptera, described later. And, 
 what is more unfortunate, the scientific name Locustidae was 
 given long ago to the next family and cannot now be 
 changed. It should be remembered, therefore, that the 
 locusts do not belong to the Locustidae. 
 
 Locusts lay their eggs in oval masses and cover them 
 with a tough substance. Some species lay their eggs in the 
 ground. The female makes a hole in the ground with her 
 ovipositor, which is a good digging-tool. Some species even 
 make holes in fence-rails, logs, and stumps ; then, after the 
 eggs are laid, the hole is covered up with a plug of gummy 
 materials. There is but one generation a year, and in most 
 cases the winter is passed in the egg-state. This family is 
 of great economic importance, as the members of it usually 
 appear in great numbers in every region where plants grow, 
 and often do much damage. 
 
 The males of many locusts are able to produce sounds. 
 This is done in two ways: First, certain species rub the 
 inner surface of the hind femora, upon which there is a row 
 of minute spines, against the outer surface of the wing-covers. 
 
no THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 In this case each wing-cover serves as a fiddle, and each hind- 
 leg as a fiddle-bow. Second, other species rub together the 
 upper surface of the front edge of the hind-wings and the 
 under surface of the wing-covers. This is done while the 
 locust is flying, and the result is a crackling sound. 
 
 There are very many species of locusts in the United 
 States. We have space to refer to only a few here. 
 
 The most familiar member of the family is the Red- 
 legged Locust, Melanophis femur-mbriun (Me-lan'o-plus) 
 
 (Fig. 120). It is more abun. 
 dant than any other species 
 throughout the United States, 
 except in the high dry lands 
 of the central part of the 
 F.G. i2o.-.i/./.«.//«./.v««.-.«/..«;;,. continent. Here the Rocky 
 
 Mountain Locust, JSIclanoplus spretiis, abounds. This spe- 
 cies closely resembles the red-legged locust, except that it 
 has longer wings. It is this insect that sometimes migrates 
 into the lower and more fertile regions of the Mississippi 
 Valley and does such great damage. It will be remembered 
 that at one time it almost produced a famine in Kansas and 
 the neighboring States. Fortunately the young of this 
 insect hatched in the low regions are not healthy, and die 
 before reaching maturity. Consequently the plagues caused 
 by the emigration of this insect are of short duration. There 
 arc several other species of Melanoplus common in this 
 country, but they can be distinguished only by very careful 
 study. 
 
 The Clouded Locust, EncoptoIopJiiis sordidus (En-cop-tol'- 
 o-phus sor'di-dus) (Fig. I2i), is very common in the Eastern 
 United States during the 
 autumn. It abounds in 
 meadows and pastures, and 
 attracts attention by the 
 crackling sound made by 
 
 the males during flight. Its ^"'«- ^^i--E"coj>Moj>hus sordidus. 
 color is dirty brown, mottled with darker spots. 
 
ORTHOPTERA. 
 
 Ill 
 
 The Carolina Locust, Dissostcira Carolina (Dis-sos-tei'ra), 
 is common throughout the United States and Canada, and 
 at the North is our largest species. It lives in roads and on 
 bare places, and its color matches the soil on which it lives. 
 It is usually pale yellowish or reddish-brown or slate color, 
 with small dusky spots. The hind wings are black, with a 
 broad yellow edge. It measures from one inch and a half 
 to nearly two inches in length. 
 
 The Sprinkled Locust, Chrysochraon conspersuin (Chry- 
 soch'ra-on con-sper'sum) (Fig. 122), is a common species. 
 Here the wings are a little 
 shorter than the abdomen in 
 the males, and much shorter in 
 the females. 
 
 In the South and in the Vu, ....-Ck.ysockraon couspe 
 
 West we find several 
 genera in which the body 
 is very long and slender. 
 Leptysma niarginicollc 
 (Leptys'ma mar-gin-i- 
 col'le) (Fig. 123), will 
 serve as an illustration of the form of these insects. 
 
 There is a group of small locusts of which Tettix (Fig. 
 124) is an example, which is remarkable for the shape of 
 the pronotum. This projects backward like 
 a little roof over the wings, and often 
 extends beyond the end of the abdomen. 
 With these insects the wing-covers are in Fig. 124.- yw/a-. 
 the shape of small rough scales, the wings being protected 
 by the large pronotum. These insects are commonly found 
 in low, wet places, and on the borders of streams. Their 
 colors are usually dark, and are often protective, closely 
 resembling that of the soil upon which they occur. Thec-J 
 locusts are very active, jumping great distances. 
 
 Fig. 123. — Leptysma tnayginicoUe, 
 
112 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS, 
 
 Family LOCUSTID.E (Lo-cus'ti-dae). 
 
 The Long-]iorned Grasshoppers. 
 
 Any one that is in the habit of lying in the tall grass of 
 meadows or pastures and watching the insects that can be 
 seen there is 'sure to be familiar with certain green grass- 
 hoppers, which attract attention by the extreme delicacy 
 and great length of their antennae. These are our most 
 common members of the Locustidae. The 
 antennae are much more slender than with 
 the short-horned grasshoppers or locusts, and 
 much longer, exceeding the body in length. 
 The tarsi are four-jointed. The ear-like 
 riG. i25.-Lep of organs, when present, are situated near the 
 ^^-like'^org^'^n.'^"'^ base of the fore tibiae (Fig. 125), and the 
 ovipositor is sword-shaped. 
 
 In those species of this family in which the wings are 
 well developed we find the males provided with an elabo- 
 
 FiG. 126.— Wing-cover of 
 Male Meadow Grasshopper. 
 
 Fig. 127. — Wingf-cover of 
 Female Meadow Grasshopper. 
 
 rate musical apparatus by means of which they call their 
 mates. This consists of a peculiar arrangement of the veins 
 and cells of a portion of each wing-cover near its base. This 
 arrangement differs in the different species ; but in each it is 
 
ORTlIorTERA. II3 
 
 such that by rubbing the whig-covers together they are made 
 to vibrate, and thus produce the sound. Figure 126 repre- 
 sents a wing-cover of the male of a common meadow grass- 
 hopper, and Figure 127 that of a female of the same 
 species. 
 
 In order to facilitate the study of this family the more 
 common representatives can be arranged in four groups : 
 The Meadow Grasshoppers, the Katydids, the Cricket-like 
 Grasshoppers, and the Shield-backed Grasshoppers. 
 
 I. The Meadoiv Grasshoppers. 
 — Under this head can be classed 
 our most common members of 
 the family ; they abound upon 
 grass in meadows and in moist 
 places. Figure 128 represents one ^'^- '^s --^''/>'' ''/'«'«• 
 
 of these insects. . 
 
 II. The Katydids. — The chances are that he who lies Q 
 awake of a midsummer night must listen whether he wishes v. 
 to do so or not, to an oft-repeated, rasping song that says, r- 
 " Katy did, Katy did ; she did, she didn't," over and over ft 
 again. There is no use of wondering what Katy did or (t 
 didn't do, for no mortal will ever know. If, when the dawn Q 
 comes, the listener has eyes sharp enough to discern one of r 
 these singers among the leaves of some neighboring tree, 
 never a note of explanation will he get. The beautiful, finely- 
 veined wings folded close over the body keep the secret hid- 
 den, and the long antennae, looking like threads of living 
 
 silk, will wave airily above the droll, green eyes as much as to 
 say, •' Wouldn't you like to know?" The katydids live only 
 on trees, and sing only during the night. There are several 
 species of katydids common in the United States. The 
 Western and Southern species, called the Angular-winged 
 Katydid, Microcentrum retinervis (Mic-ro-cen'trum ret-i'ner- 
 vis) lays its eggs in neat rows upon leaves and branches ; 
 the eggs are oval, and each overlaps its neighbor slightly 
 
114 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 (Fig. 129). In many sections where the katydids do not 
 occur, the song of the Snowy Tree-cricket, described later, is 
 often mistaken for that of a Katydid. 
 
 Fig. 129.— The Angul 
 
 ged Katydid and iis eggs. 
 
 III. The Cricket-like Grasshoppers. — These are wingless, 
 and resemble crickets in form. The mcst common members of 
 
 this group belong to the genus 
 CeiitJiophiliis (Ceu-thoph'i-lus) 
 (Fig. 130). These insects are 
 found under stones and rub- 
 bish, especially in woods. 
 Very closely allied to them are 
 the colorless and blind Cave-crickets, Hadencecus (Had-e- 
 noe'cus), found in caves. 
 
 Fig. \yi.—Ctuthophilus. 
 
ORTHOPTERA. 
 
 115 
 
 IV. The Shield backed Grasshoppers. — These are also 
 wingless, and dull-colored insects, which bear some resem- 
 blance to crickets. They 
 present, however, a 
 queer appearance, due 
 to the pronotum extend- 
 ing backward over the 
 rest of the thorax, like 
 a sun-bonnet worn over 
 the shoulders with the back side forward. This group is repre- 
 sented in the Eastern half of the United States by Thyreo- 
 notiis (Thyr-e-o-no'tus) (Fig. 131). In the regions west of the 
 Mississippi River occur the " Western Crickets," belonging 
 to the genus Anabriis (An'a-brus), and on the Pacific coast 
 
 Thyrroiiotiis. 
 
 there are large, clumsy creatures with big heads, that live 
 under stones and in loose soil, and are popularly known as 
 Sand-crickets. These belong to the genus StenopelmaUis 
 (Sten-o-pel-ma'tus) (Fig. 132). 
 
 Family Gryllid^ (Gryrii-die). 
 
 The Crickets. 
 
 The crickets differ from both families of grasshoppers in 
 having the wing-covers flat above and bent sharply down at 
 the edge of the body like a box-cover, instead of meeting in 
 a ridge above the body like a roof. The antennae are long 
 
Il6 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 and slender, like those of the Locustidae ; but the form of 
 the ovipositor is quite different in this family, being spear- 
 shaped, instead of sword-like. 
 
 The males of the crickets have musical organs which are 
 even more elaborate than those of the Katydids and meadow 
 grasshoppers. Here all that part of each wing-cover that 
 Hes on the back is occupied by them. This gives the males 
 a very different appearance from the females, the wing- 
 covers of that sex being veined simply. 
 
 During the latter part of summer and in the autumn the 
 air is filled with the chirping of crickets. It is an interest- 
 ing thing to watch one of these fiddlers calling his mate. 
 By moving quietly in the direction from which the sound 
 comes, and stopping whenever the insect stops chirping, 
 but moving on again when he renews his song, one can get 
 near enough to see how he does it. This can be done even 
 in tJie night with the aid of a lantern, as the crickets do not 
 seem to mind lights. 
 
 Figure 133 represents the musical apparatus of a cricket. 
 
 Fig. 133. — Tegmina of m:ile GryUus. 
 
 From this it will be seen that the large veins divide the wing- 
 covers into disk-like membranous spaces. If the principal 
 vein which extends diagonally across the base of the wing- 
 
ORTIlorrKRA. WJ 
 
 cover be examined with a niicroscc^pc, it will be seen to be 
 furnished with ridges like tliose of a file 1^1^'ig. 133, b). On 
 the inner margin of the wing-cover, a short distance toward 
 the base from the end of the principal vein, there is a 
 hardened portion which may be called the scraper. This is 
 shown enlarged at c in the figure. Each wing-cover is there- 
 fore provided with a file and a scraper. When the cricket 
 wishes to make his call, he elevates liis wing-covers at an 
 angle of about forty-five degrees with tlie body; then hold- 
 ing them in such a position that the scraper of one rests 
 upon the file of the other, he moves the wing-covers back 
 and forth sidewise so that the file and the scraper rasp upon 
 each other. This throws the wing-covers into vibration, 
 and produces the call. 
 
 There are comparatively few species of crickets, but they 
 represent three quite distinct groups. These can be dis- 
 tinguished as the Mole Crickets, the True Crickets, and the 
 Tree Crickets. 
 
 I. TJic Mole Crickets. — These are 
 called Mole Crickets because they burrow 
 in the ground like moles. There are 
 species belonging to the next group, the 
 true crickets, which burrow in the ground ; 
 but the mole-crickets are pre-eminently 
 burrowers. The form of the body is 
 suited to this mode of life. The front 
 tibiae, especially, are fitted for digging; 
 they are greatly broadened, and shaped 
 somewhat like hands, or the feet of a 
 mole. Figure 134 represents one of 
 these insects. The mole-crickets feed 
 upon the tender roots of various plants, 
 and where they are common they are 
 serious pests. 
 
 II. TJic True Crickets. — To this group belong our com- 
 mon, black acquaintances that peep at us from the cracks 
 
Il8 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 in the jsaving, or jump across our i)aths when we walk hi 
 
 the fields. They are com- 
 mon everywhere ; some spe- 
 cies even live in our houses. 
 They usually feed upon plants, 
 but are sometimes predaceous. 
 Fig. 135- (-'j''''"-""'"''''^""'''"- The eggs are laid in the au- 
 
 tumn, usually in the ground, and are hatched in the follow- 
 ing summer. The greater number of the old crickets die on 
 the approach of winter; a few, however, survive the cold 
 season. Figure 135 represents the female of a species com- 
 mon in the East. In this species the wings are shorter than 
 usual. 
 
 III. Tlic Tree Crickets. — The common name of this 
 group was suggested by the fact that these 
 crickets are very apt to inhabit trees ; but 
 they occur also on shrubs, or even on high 
 herbs and tall grass. The most abundant 
 species in the East is the Snowy Tree- 
 cricket, (Ecanthus niveus (QE-can'thus niv'e- 
 us). This is a delicate, whitish-green insect, 
 that lives upon shrubs or plants. The 
 female often does serious damage by laying 
 her eggs in raspberry canes, causing them to 
 die above the puncture. Canes thus in- „ . ^' , 
 
 *^ r IG. 130. — LtLcantnus 
 
 jured should be cut and burned in the mveus, male, 
 early spring before the eggs are hatched. Figure 136 shows 
 the male, his closely folded wings showing beneath his 
 delicate transparent wing-covers. The female has her wing- 
 covers wrapped closely around her body, making her look- 
 much narrower than the male. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 Order Physopoda (Phy-sop'o-da). ' 
 
 TJirips. 
 
 The members of this order have four zvings ; these are 
 similar in form, long, narrow, mcnibranous, not folded, with 
 but few or no veins, and only rarely zvith cross veins ; they 
 are fringed tvith long hairs, and are laid horizontally along 
 the back when at rest. The metamorphosis is incomplete. The 
 mouth-parts are probably used cJ lie fly for sucking; they are 
 intermediate in form between those of the sucki?ig and those of 
 the biting insects {Fig. 138); the mandibles are bristle-like; 
 the maxillce are triangular, flat, and furnished with palpi ; 
 and the labial palpi are also present. The tarsi are two- 
 jointed, bladder-like at tip, and without claws. 
 
 Pull to pieces a clover-blossom or a daisy, and you will 
 probably find at the base of the florets many wee, black, 
 red, or yellowish insects. These are so small that it would 
 take a dozen or more placed end to end to measure an inch ; 
 and when disturbed they are apt to thrust the end of their 
 bodies up in the air as if they meant to sting, looking as 
 ferocious as such small insects can look. They are extremely 
 lively, leaping or taking flight with great agility. Under a 
 microscope their four narrow wings, delicately fringed all 
 around with long hairs, may be seen ; these wings are laid 
 flat down the back when at rest. The red ones are wingless, 
 and are the young of the black species. Some species eat 
 other insects, but most of them live upon vegetation. There 
 is one species, Limothrips poaphagus il^'iva'o-thn^s po-aph'a- 
 
I30 
 
 THE STUD y OF LV SECTS. 
 
 gus) that damages timothy and June-grass very much by 
 working in the upper joints. In the early summer the dead 
 and yellow heads of grasses thus destroyed may be seen 
 everywhere in grass-growing regions. Some species live 
 under the bark of trees. The accompanying figure repre- 
 sents one of these insects very greatly enlarged (Fig. 137). 
 
 Fig. i^T.— Tkrifs 
 
 Fig. 138.— Mouth-parts of Thyi/'s. (Drawn by J. 
 M Stedman, under the author's direction.) 8, 
 labrum: lo, mandible; ti, maxilla; 12, labium. 
 
 The insect infesting grapes, called "The Thrips," is 
 not a Thrips at all, but a leaf-hopper belonging to the 
 Homoptera. 
 
 The name Physopoda is from two Greek words : physao, 
 to blow up, and pons, a foot. It refers to the curious 
 bladder-like feet of these insects. Figure 138 represents the 
 mouth-parts of Thrips. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 Order Hemiptera (He-mip'te-ra). 
 • Bugs, Lice, ApJiids, and others. 
 
 The winged members of this order Jiave four wings ; in one 
 sub-order the first pair of wings are thickened at the base, with 
 thinner extremities which overlap on the back ; in another 
 sub-order the first pair of wings are of the same thickness 
 throughout, and usually slope at the sides of the body. The 
 mouth-parts are formed for sucking. The nietaniorphosis is 
 incomplete. 
 
 The order Hemiptera includes many well-known pests: 
 here belong the true bugs, the lice, the aphids, the scale 
 insects, and many other forms injurious to plants. On the 
 other hand, some of the species are ranked among beneficial 
 insects on account of their predaceous habits ; while still 
 others, as the cochineal and lac insects, furnish us with 
 useful products. 
 
 The name Hemiptera is from two Greek words : hcmi, 
 half; and pteron, a wing. It was suggested by the form of 
 the first f)air of wings in the true bugs. Here the basal half 
 of these organs is thickened somewhat like the wing-covers 
 of beetles, only the terminal half being wing-like. The 
 second pair of wings are membranous, and when at rest are 
 folded beneath the first pair. 
 
 The mouth-parts are formed for piercing and sucking. 
 Without dissection, they usually appear as a slender jointed 
 beak, arising at the base of a shorter, pointed upper lip. 
 This beak consists of four bristles, enclosed in a fleshy, 
 
 121 
 
122 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 jointed sheath (Fig. 139). Two of the bristles represent the 
 mandibles, and two the maxillae. The sheath is supposed 
 to consist of the labium and the grown-together labial palpi. 
 In their transformation the Hemiptera pass through an 
 incomplete metamorphosis; the young nymphs resembling 
 
 Mouth-parts FiG. 140, a.— Head of an heter- 
 
 of Bug. (Af- opterous insect. of an homopterous 
 
 the adults more or less closely in form, and the wings being 
 gradually developed at successive molts. 
 
 This order includes three well-marked groups, which are 
 ranked as suborders. The first of these, the Heteroptera, 
 includes the true bugs. They are placed first, as we believe 
 they resemble the ancient Hemiptera — the first to appear on 
 the earth — more closely than the members of either of the 
 other suborders. The second suborder, the Parasitica, in- 
 cludes the lice. These insects are much lower in structure 
 than the Heteroptera ; but we believe that this simplicity 
 in structure is a result of degradation due to parasitic habits, 
 and therefore really represents a later development than 
 that shown by the Heteroptera. In other words, the lice 
 are probably descendants of some ancient form resembling 
 some of the existing Heteroptera. Among the Heteroptera 
 the bedbug exhibits a similar downward tendency. The 
 third suborder, the Homoptera^ includes some forms that 
 
IIEMIPTERA. 123 
 
 are perhaps as piimitive as any of the existing Heteroptera, 
 but, on the other hand, we find here forms that represent 
 the widest divergence from the hemipterous type known to 
 us. 
 
 These three suborders can be separated by the following 
 table : 
 
 A. Wingless Hemiptera. parasitic upon man and other Mammals, 
 
 with a flesliy, unjointed beai< p. 147 II. Parasitica. 
 
 AA. Hemiptera with or without wings, but with a jointed beaic. 
 B. First pair of wings thickened at the base, with thiimer extremi- 
 ties, which overlap on the back; beak arising from the front 
 
 part of the head (Fig. 140, a), p. 123 1. Heteroptera. 
 
 BB. Wings of the same thickness throughout, and usually sloping 
 at the sides of the body ; beak arising from the hinder part of 
 the lower side of the head (Fig. 140, /^) p. 148. 1 1 1. Homoptera. 
 
 Suborder HETEROPTERA (Het-e-rop'te-ra). 
 The True Bugs. 
 
 People that know but little regarding entomology are apt 
 to apply the term bug to any kind of insect ; but, strictly 
 speaking, only the Hemiptera are bugs, and many restrict 
 the term to members of this suborder. We therefore des- 
 ignate the Heteroptera as the True Bugs. 
 
 The bugs are very common insects. They abound on 
 grass and on the foliage of other plants. Certain foul-smell- 
 ing members of this group are well-known pests in gardens, 
 and upon berries in fields. 
 
 In this suborder the first pair of wings are thickened at 
 the base, while the tips, which overlap each other on the 
 back of the insect, are thin and transparent ; and the beak 
 arises from the front part of the head (Fig. 140, a). Some of 
 the Heteroptera live in water, others on land, while still 
 others live on the surface of the water or in marshy places. 
 Each of these modes of life are characteristic of certain fami- 
 lies. The name Heteroptera is from the Greek heteros, di- 
 verse, and pteron, a wing. The following synopsis will aid 
 
124 77/£ STUDY OF IX SECTS. 
 
 the student in learning the characters of the famih'es of this 
 suborder : 
 
 SYNOPSIS OF THE HETEROPTERA. 
 The Short-horned Bugs, Bugs with short antennae, which are 
 nearly or quite concealed beneath the head. 
 Bugs that live within water. 
 
 The Water-boatmen, Family Corisid^. (p. 129 ) 
 The Back-swimmers, Family Notonectid^. (p. 130.) 
 The Water scorpions. Family Nepid.'E. (p. 130.) 
 The Giant Water-bugs, Family Belostomid.e. (p. 131.) 
 The Creeping Water-bugs, Family NauCORID.e. (p. 133.) 
 Bugs that live near water. 
 
 The Toad-shaped Bugs, Family Galgulid.«. (p. 133.) 
 The Long-horned Bugs. Bugs with antennae at least as long as 
 the head, and prominent except in the Phyviatidee, where 
 they are concealed under the sides of the prothorax. 
 The Semi-aquatic Bugs. 
 
 The Shore-bugs, Family Saldid.«. (p. 134.) 
 
 The Broad-shouldered W^aier-striders, Family Veliid.E. (p. 
 
 1 34-) 
 The Water-striders, Family Hydrobatid.e. (p. 135.) 
 The Marsh-treadeis, Family Limnobatid.^. (p. 136.) 
 The Land-bugs. 
 
 The Land bugs with four-jointed antennce. 
 
 The Thread-legged Bugs, Family Emesid.e. (p. 136.) 
 
 The Assassin-bugs, Family Reduviid.e. (p. 137.) 
 
 The Damsel-bugs, Family Nabid^. (p. 138.) 
 
 The Ambush-bugs, Family Phymatid^. (p. 13S.) 
 
 The Flat bugs. Family Aradid.«. (p. 139.) 
 
 The Lace-bugs, Family Tingitid^. (p. 139.) 
 
 The Bed-bug and the Flower-bugs, Family Acanthiid.E. 
 
 (p. 140). 
 The Leaf-bugs, Family Capsid.e. (p. 140.) 
 The Red-bug Family, Family Pyrrhocorid.b. (p. 141.) 
 The Chinch-bug Family, Family LYG.t:iD.E. (p. 142.) 
 The Stilt-bugs, Family Berytid/E. (p. 143.) 
 The Squash-bug Family, Family COREID^. (p. 143.) 
 77/1? Land-bugs with five-jointed afitennee. 
 
 The Stink-bug Family, Family Pentatomid.E. (p. 144.) 
 The Burrower-bugs, Family Cydnid.«. (p. 145). 
 The Negro-bugs, Family Corimel/»-:nid^. (p. 146.) 
 The Shield-backed bugs, Family Scutellerid.e. (p. 146.J 
 
HEMll'TEKA, 
 
 125 
 
 Classification of the Heteroptera. 
 
 (l-'or advanced students.) 
 
 In order to use the following table for determining the families of 
 bugs, the student should become familiar with the names applied to 
 different parts of the fore-wings of these insects. The thickened 
 basal portion is composed of two pieces joined together at their 
 sides; one of these is narrow and is the part next 
 to the scutellum when the wings are closed (Fig. 
 141, cl)\ this is distinguished as the rA?7''«j(cla'vus). 
 The other broader part is the coriutn (co'ri-um) 
 (Fig. \\\,co). The terminal portion of the wing- 
 cover is designated as the membrane (Fig. 141, m.) 
 In certain families a triangular portion of the terminal part of the 
 corium is separated as a distinct piece; this is the cuneus {zw'n^-w?,) 
 (Fig. 141, cii). In certain other cases, a narrow piece on the costal) 
 margin of the corium is separated by a suture ; this is the embolium 
 (em-bo'li-um) (Fig. \\\, e). 
 
 Fk;. 141.— Diagram of 
 wing-cover of a 
 bug. 
 
 ^n 
 
 Fig. 143. 
 Acatithiida. 
 
 Fig. 146. 
 Lygecidce. 
 
 Fig. 144. 
 Capsidit. 
 
 TABLE FOR DETERMININ'G THE Fi^MILIES OF THE 
 HETEROPTERA. 
 
 A. Antennae shorter than the head, and nearly or quite concealed in 
 a cavity beneath the eyes. 
 B. Hind-tarsi without claws. 
 C. Fore-tarsi flattened with a fringe of hairs on the edge, and 
 without claws ; head overlapping the prothora.x. p. 129. 
 
 CORisiD.*;. 
 CC. Fore-tarsi of the usual form, and with two claws; head in- 
 serted in the prothorax. p. 130 Notonectid.^. 
 
126 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 BB. Hind-tarsi with two claws. 
 C. Caudal end of the abdomen furnished with a respiratory tube 
 composed of a pair of grooved, thread-like organs, p. 130. 
 
 Nepid^. 
 CC. Caudal end of abdomen without respiratory tube. 
 
 D. Legs flattened, fitted for swimming ; caudal end of the ab- 
 domen furnislied with a pair of strap-like appendages (these 
 appendages are retractile and are frequently withdrawn from 
 
 sight), p. 131 Bklostomid^:. 
 
 DD. Legs fitted for walking; ab<iomen without strap-like 
 caudal appendages. 
 
 E. Without ocelli, p- 133 Naucorid/E. 
 
 EE. Ocelli present, p. 133 Galgulida;. 
 
 AA. Antennae at least as long as the head, usually free, rarely {Fhy- 
 matidcB) fitting in a groove under the lateral margin of the pro- 
 notum. 
 B. Body linear; head as long as the three thoracic segments. 
 
 p. 136 LiMNOBATID/E. 
 
 BB. Body of various forms, but, when linear, with the head shorter 
 than the thorax. 
 
 C. Last segment of the tarsi more or less split, and with the 
 claws inserted before the apex. 
 
 D. Body usually elongated; prothorax narrow; beak four- 
 jointed ; second and third pairs of legs extremely long and 
 
 slender, p. 1 35 Hydrobatid^. 
 
 DD. Body usually stout, oval, and broadest across the protho- 
 rax ; beak three-jointed; legs not extremely long. p. 134. 
 
 VELIIDyE. 
 
 CC. Last segment of the tarsi entire, and with the claws inserted 
 at the apex. 
 D. Antennae four-jointed.* 
 
 E. Wing-covers resembling network, and very rarely (/*/>j;;/a 
 with any distinction between the corium and the mem- 
 brane, p. 139 TlNGITIDiE. 
 
 EE. Wing-covers of various forms or absent, but not of the 
 form presented by the Tingitidae. See Fig. 165. 
 F. Beak three-jointed. 
 
 *In certain families there are minute intermediate segments between the 
 principal segments of the antennae. For the purposes of this table these 
 intermediate segments are not counted. 
 
 \/ 
 
HEMIPTERA. \ 27 
 
 G. Wing-covers when well developed with an embolium 
 (Fig. 143) ; those forms in which the adult has rudimen- 
 tary wing-covers have no ocelli, p. 14c. . . Acanthiida:. 
 
 GG. Wing-covers when well developed without an em- 
 bolium ; those forms in which the adult has rudimentary 
 wing-covers have ocelli. 
 H. Ocelli wanting. 
 
 I. Body linear. p. 136 EmesiD/E. 
 
 II. Body greatly flattened, p. 139 ARADID7^;. 
 
 III. Body of ordinary form. p. 137. Reduviid^. 
 HH. Ocelli present, though sometimes difficult to see. 
 
 I. Beak very long, reaching to or beyond the inter- 
 mediate coxae, p. 134 SALDiDi^j. 
 
 II. Beak not reaching the intermediate coxae. 
 
 J. Front legs with greatly thickened femora. 
 
 p. 138 Phymatid^. 
 
 JJ. Front femora somewhat thickened, but much 
 less than half as wide as long. p. 137. 
 
 Reduviid^. 
 FF. Beak four-jointed. 
 G. Front legs fitted for grasping prey, the tibiae being 
 armed with spines and capable of being closed tightly 
 upon the femora, which are stout. In the forms with 
 long wings the membrane is usually furnished with 
 four long veins, bounding three discal cells which are 
 often open. From these cells diverge veins which 
 form several marginal cells. (Fig. 142). p. 138. 
 
 , Nabid^. 
 GG. Front legs fitted for walking. 
 
 H. Wing-covers with cuneus. Membrane with one 
 or two closed cells at its base, otherwise without 
 
 veins. (Fig. 144.) p. 140 Capsid^. 
 
 HH. Wing-covers without cuneus. Membrane with 
 four or five simple or anastomosing veins arising 
 from the base ; or with a large number of veins aris- 
 ing from a cross-vein at the base. 
 
 I. Ocelli wanting; membrane with two large cells 
 at the base, and from these arise about eight 
 branching veins. (Fig. 145.) p, 140. 
 
 Pyrrhocorid^. 
 
 II. Ocelli usually present. " 
 
128 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 J. Head with a transverse incision in front of the 
 ocelli, which are always present. (Fig. 175.) 
 
 p. 143 BERYTIDiE. 
 
 JJ. Head without transverse incision. 
 
 K. Membrane with four or five simple veins 
 arising from the base of the membrane ; the 
 two inner ones sometimes joined to a cell near 
 
 the base. (Fig. 146.) p. 142 LvG.«iD.*;. 
 
 KK. Membrane with many, usually forked 
 veins, springing from a transverse basal vein. 
 
 (Fig. 147.) p. 143 COREID^. 
 
 DU. AntenniE five-jointed. 
 E. Scutellum nearly fiat, narrowed behind. 
 
 F. Tibiae unarmed or furnished with very short spines. 
 
 p. 144 PENTATOMID.t;. 
 
 FF. Tibia; armed with strong spines in rows. p. 145. 
 
 Cydnid^. 
 EE. Scutellum very convex, covering nearly the whole ab- 
 domen. 
 
 F. Lateral margins of the scutellum with a furrow in 
 which the edge of the wing-cover fits when closed. 
 
 p. 146 CORIMEL^NID.«. 
 
 FF. Lateral margins of the scutellum without a furrow. 
 
 p. 146 SCUTELLERID^. 
 
 In the following pages we have discussed the families of the Hete- 
 roptera in the order in which they are commonly arranged by writers 
 on these insects. The aquatic families are placed first, the semi- 
 aquatic next, and the terrestrial last. We do not believe, however, 
 that this represents well the lines of development of these insects. It 
 seems probable to us that some of the terrestrial forms, as the Penta- 
 tomidse, resemble the ancient Heteroptera more closely than do the 
 aquatic forms ; and that the aquatic forms are really very highly spe- 
 cialized and represent the summit of one of the lines of development. 
 Perhaps the Scutelleridae represent the summit of another line. 
 But as we have been unable to give the matter sufficiently thorough 
 study to warrant our proposing a new arrangement, it seems best to 
 follow the old one, merely indicating our belief in the necessity for a 
 revision of the suborder. 
 
IIEMIPTERA. 129 
 
 Family CORISID/E (Co-ris'i-dae). 
 The Water-boatnicn. , 
 
 These are oval, gray and black, mottled bugs, usually 
 less than half an inch in length, which occur in the streams, 
 ponds, and lakes of the whole United 
 States. The characteristic form and 
 markings of these insects are shown in 
 Figure 148. These Water-boatmen 
 have the body flattened above, and 
 swim upon the ventral surface ; in 
 these respects they differ from the mem- 
 bers of the next family. Fig. i^z.—corha unduiata. 
 
 The body of these insects, as they swim through the 
 water, is almost completely enveloped in air, which glitters 
 like a silver armor. This air is breathed by the insects while 
 they remain under water, and in good water it is purified 
 by contact with the fine particles of air scattered through 
 the water; so that the insects can breathe their coats of air 
 again and again indefinitely. This is the case especially 
 when they are in their favorite attitude, anchored near the 
 bottom of a pond or aquarium. Here they will remain for 
 a long time clinging to some object by their fore legs, and 
 with their hind legs stretched out sidewise ; these they move 
 frequently as when swimming. The result of this movement 
 is to cause a current of water to pass over the coat of air, 
 purifying it. 
 
 The body of these insects with the air clinging to it is 
 much lighter than water; consequently, whenever they loose 
 their hold upon the object to which they have been clinging, 
 they rise quickly to the surface, unless they prevent it by 
 swimming. They occasionally float on the surface of the 
 water, and can leap into the air from the water and take 
 flight. They feed upon other insects and lay their eggs 
 upon water-plants. All of the North American species of 
 this family belong to the genus Corisa (Cor'i-sa). 
 
I JO THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Family NOTONECTID^ (No-to-nec'ti-dae). 
 TJie Back-swimmers. 
 
 The Back-swimmers have the back shaped hke the 
 bottom of a boat, instead of flat hke the true water-boatmen 
 and they differ from all other aquatic bugs in that they 
 always swim on their backs. 
 
 The favorite attitude of the Back-swimmers is floating on 
 the surface of the water, back downw-ard, with the hind end 
 of the body projecting sufficiently to admit of air being 
 drawn into the space beneath the wings. When in this 
 position their long oar-like hind legs are stretched outward 
 and forward, ready for action. When disturbed they dart 
 away toward the bottom of the pond, carrying a supply of 
 air beneath their wings. Occasionally these insects will 
 float on the surface of the water with their backs uppermost ; 
 and, like the water-boatmen, they can leap into the air from 
 the water and take flight. 
 
 The Back-swimmers feed upon insects and other small 
 ^g^^ animals. In collecting them care must be 
 
 «»iHfc^HUc**** taken or they will inflict painful stings with 
 ^fg their sharp and powerful beaks. 
 
 ^ The greater number of our common spe- 
 
 unduiata. clcs of this family belong to the genus Noto- 
 
 7iecta (No-to-nec'ta) (Fig. 149). 
 
 Family Nepid^ (Nep'i-dae). 
 
 The Water-scorpions. 
 
 The Water-scorpions have two long bristles on the end 
 of the body, which are grooved on the inner side. By put- 
 ting these bristles together a long tube is formed, which the 
 insects can project to the surface of the water, and thus ob- 
 tain air for breathing, while resting on the bottom of the 
 
HEMIPTERA. I3I 
 
 pond, stilted on their long legs, or clinging head downward 
 to the stems of plants. 
 
 The most common members of this family belong to the 
 genus Kanatra (Ran'a-tra) (Fig. 1 50). These are long, slender 
 bugs with long, slender legs. The 
 only other representative of the fam- 
 ily found in the United States is Nepa 
 apiculata (Ne'pa a-pic-u la'ta). In 
 this species the body is oval, flat, 
 and thin, and measures about two 
 thirds of an inch in length, not includ- 
 ing the breathing-tube, which is a 
 little more than one fourth of an inch 
 long. (See Fig. 214, p. 174.) 
 
 The Water-scorpions live among 
 rubbish or on the stems of water- 
 plants, in ponds and in the quiet parts 
 of our streams. They are carnivo- 
 rous, and have the first pair of legs 
 fitted for seizing prey. In these legs 
 the coxa is very long, and the femur 
 is furnished with a groove into which ^'^- ^s<^-—R'^natra/usca. 
 the tibia and tarsus fit like the blade of a pocket-knife into 
 the handle. 
 
 Owing to the linear form of the body of Ranatra, and to 
 the dirt with which it is usually covered, it is quite difificult 
 to detect the presence of this insect among the rubbish 
 where it is found. Doubtless this resemblance to a dirty 
 stick aids it greatly in the capture of insects, small fish, and 
 other unwary animals upon which it preys. 
 
 Family Belostomid^ (Bel-os-tom'i-dae). 
 The Giant Water-bugs. 
 
 We have named these insects the Giant Water-bugs as 
 the family includes the largest Heteroptera now in existence. 
 
^32 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 -Belostoma americanum. 
 
 Figure 151 represents a common 
 form, natural size. Like other 
 water-bugs, these insects fly readily 
 from pond to pond, and they are 
 frequently attracted to lights. 
 This is especially the case where 
 electric lights are used, into which 
 they sometimes fly and are killed 
 by hundreds. On this account 
 they are known in many parts of 
 the country as " Electric-light 
 Bugs ; *' and in some sections the 
 absurd idea prevails that they have 
 appeared only recently, as if they 
 were in some way a product of the 
 electric light. 
 
 Figure 151 represents Belostoma americamim (Be-los'to- 
 ma a-mer-i-ca'num). In Belostoma the front femora are 
 grooved for the reception of the tibiae, as in the preceding 
 family. Another common representative of the family is 
 Bcnacus griscits (Be-na'cus gris'e-us). This resembles Belos- 
 toma americamim very closely, but can be distinguished from 
 it by the absence of the femoral groove. 
 
 There are other species of the family which are smaller 
 and belong to the genus Zaitha (Za'i-tha). Figure 152 rep- 
 resents one of these, natural size. 
 
 In the far West there is a common spe- 
 cies which is an inch and a half long and 
 about half as broad ; this is Scrphus dilatatus 
 (Ser'phus dil-a-ta'tus). These insects are 
 known to California children as " Toe-biters," 
 owing to the great interest they are sup- 
 posed to take in the feet of waders and 
 swimmers. tt 7 ..i ^ 
 
 Fig. z.'^i.— Zaitha flu- 
 
 The Giant Water-bugs are rapacious """'"■ 
 
 creatures, feeding on other insects and small fish. With 
 
HEMIPTERA. 1 33 
 
 many of them the female fastens her eggs on the top of hei 
 own back with a thin layer of waterproof glue which she 
 secretes for this purpose. 
 
 Family Naucorid^E (Nau-cor'i-d.ne). 
 The Creeping Water-bugs. 
 
 This is a small family containing water-bugs of a moder- 
 ate size, in which the front legs are fitted for grasping and 
 the middle and hind legs for walking. They are flat-bodied, 
 chiefly oval insects, and without appendages at the hind end 
 of the body. 
 
 The members of this family are predaceous ; and, accord- 
 ing to Professor Uhler, they are fond of reedy and grassy, 
 quiet waters, where they creep about like the Predaceous 
 Diving-beetles, creeping and half swimming around and be- 
 tween the leaves and sprays of the submerged plants, and 
 suddenly seizing any unlucky water-boatman or other insect 
 that happens to be within reach. 
 
 Figure 153 represents Peloeoris femorata (Pe-loc'o-ris 
 fem-o-ra'ta), the only species found in the States on 
 the Atlantic coast. Several other species are found 
 in the Western States. These belong to the genus 
 Ambrysiis (Am-bry'sus), which differs from Peloeoris pfio^orh. 
 in having the front margin of the prothorax very deeply 
 sinuate. 
 
 %s 
 
 Family Galgulid^ (Gal-gu'H-dae). 
 
 The Toad-shaped Bugs. 
 
 There is sometimes found on the muddy margins of 
 streams or in marshes, where the soil is moist, a curious bug, 
 which on account of its short and broad body and projecting 
 eyes reminds one of a toad ; this is Galgulus oculatus (Gal'gu- 
 
134 THE STUDY OF IX SECTS. 
 
 lus oc-u-la'tus) l^Fig. 154), the most common member of this 
 family. Another species, Mononyx stygiciis (Mon'o- 
 nyx styg'i-cus), closely resembles this one in form, 
 but can be distinguished by the fact that it has 
 only a single claw on each front tarsus. A third 
 member of the family is Pelogonus americamis (Pe- 
 log'o-nus a-mer-i-ca'nus) ; this is a smaller insect, 
 
 with a more oblong body, and of a velvety-black color. 
 
 These three are all of the species of this family that have 
 
 been found in the United States. They all are predaceous. 
 
 Some members of this family are known to make burrows 
 
 for themselves, and to live for a part of the time beneath 
 
 the ground. 
 
 Family Saldid.^ (Sal'di-dae). 
 The Shore-hugs. 
 
 These are certain small bugs, of dark colors with white 
 or yellow markings, and with long antennae, which abound 
 in the vicinity of streams and lakes, and upon damp soils, 
 especially of marshes near our coasts. The shape of these 
 Shore-bugs is shown by Figure 155 ; they belong to 
 the genus Salda, the only genus representing this 
 family in the United States, although many species 
 occur here. p,c 
 
 Some of the Shore-bugs dig burrows, and live ^"^'^"' 
 for a part of the time beneath the ground. They take 
 flight quickly when disturbed, but alight after flying a short 
 distance. 
 
 Family Veliid^ (Ve-li'i-dae). 
 The Broad-shouldered Water-striders. 
 There are many bugs that run upon the surface of the 
 water. The greater number of them belong to the next fam- 
 ily; but there are several genera which represent a family 
 distinct from the true Water-striders, and which can be easily 
 distinguished from them by the fact that the body is broad- 
 
 Ik 
 
HEMIPTERA. 1 35 
 
 est across the prothorax. These Broad-shouldered Water- 
 striders constitute the family Veliidie. They pass the greater 
 part of their lives upon the surface of the water, often con, 
 gregating in schools containing hundreds of individuals ; but 
 they usually remain near the banks of the stream or pond, 
 and sometimes they leave the water, mov- 
 ing on the land with great freedom. Like ^^iC^ 
 the members of the allied families, they are jB| 
 
 JfTk 
 
 predaceous. Figure 156 represents one of 
 these insects somewhat enlarged. 
 
 Fig. 156. — Rhagovelia 
 CO liar is. 
 
 Family Hydrobatid^ (Hyd-ro-bat'i-dae). 
 
 TJie Water-striders. 
 
 On the quiet pools of a running stream or the calm 
 waters of a protected pond may be found swarms of slender 
 long-legged insects that seem to find the water surface a 
 pavement well suited for their airy feet. If your approach 
 is stealthy you may see them resting motionless as if ab- 
 sorbed in gazing at their own reflections in the mirror below 
 them ; but disturb them, and so swiftly do they move 
 that they seem but darting lines as they circle around and 
 around each other in a mystic dance. If you watch them 
 closely you may see one leap into the air after some approach- 
 ing insect. 
 
 These are the true Water-striders. In some of them the 
 body is long and narrow, as 
 shown in Figure 157; in 
 others it is oval ; but in all 
 it is widest back of the pro- 
 thorax, thus differing from 
 the form seen in the pre- 
 ceding family. 
 
 In the winter they stow 
 F,o. .,,.-Hy,rotr»chus conforn^is. thcmselvcs away undcr the 
 
 banks or at the bottom of the v/ater, and do not come to 
 
136 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 the surface until lured there by the warm weather of spring. 
 They then lay their eggs, gluing them fast to water-plants. 
 
 There are members of this family that live on the sur- 
 face of the ocean, hundreds of miles from land. 
 
 Family LiMNOBATlDiE (Lim-no-bat'i-dae). 
 TJie Marsh-treaders, 
 Only a single species of this family, the Marsh-treader, 
 Linmobates lincata (Lim-nob'a-tes lin-e-a'ta), is found in the 
 United States. This is represented greatly 
 enlarged by Figure 158. Although not an 
 uncommon species, it is rarely seen on ac- 
 count of its small size and quiet habits. It 
 can be recognized by its linear form and 
 the great length of its head, which is longer 
 than the thorax. It crawls about on the 
 surface of the water or mud, or climbs upon 
 water-plants and sticks projecting from the 
 w^ater ; it seems to prefer stagnant ponds 
 or marshes. We do not know upon what 
 it feeds. 
 
 Fig. 158. — Linmobates 
 
 Family Emesid^e (E-mes i-dae). 
 The Thread-legged Bugs. 
 This family includes a small number of insects in which 
 the body is very slender and the middle and hind legs are 
 thread-like ; but the fore 
 legs are fitted for grasping, 
 resembling much those of 
 the Mantes. Our most 
 common species is the 
 Long-legged Emesa, Eme- 
 sa lojigipes (Em'e-sa lon'- 
 gi-pes), which is repre- 
 sented by Figure 1 59. This f»g. i59.-^v'"« longipes. 
 is found upon trees, or sometimes swinging by its long legs 
 from the roofs of sheds or barns. It is predaceous. 
 
IIKMIPTERA. 137 
 
 Family Rkdi'VIIDJ-: (Rcd-u-vi'i-d.x-). 
 The Assassin-bugs. 
 
 There are many bugs which destroy their fellows, but 
 the members of this family are so pre-eminently predacecus 
 that we call them the Assassin-bugs. Although they usually 
 live on the blood of insects, in some cases they attack the 
 higher animals, and occasionally even man suffers from 
 them. Care should be used in collecting them, as some 
 are apt to inflict painful stings with their beaks. In this 
 family the beak is only three-jointed, and when not in use 
 the tip rests in a groove between the fore legs. The family is 
 a very large one, containing more than a hundred American 
 species. 
 
 In the Atlantic States one sometimes finds, in basements 
 and in rooms but little used, a bug which presents a very 
 curious appearance from having its body and legs completely 
 covered with dust, so that it looks like a living mass of lint 
 as it moves around. This is the Masked Bed-bug Hunter, 
 Opsic<£tus personatiis (Op-si-cce'tus per-so-na'tus). This 
 species infests houses for the sake of preying 
 upon bed-bugs ; it also feeds upon flies and other 
 insects. Its mask is worn only during youth, and 
 consists of particles of dust and fibres which ad- 
 here to a sticky substance with which the body, 
 legs, and antennae are covered. The adult is 
 black or very dark brown, and is represented by 
 Figure 160. 
 
 A closely allied species, which is black marked '^^fuJ'°u7fI'r. 
 with red, insinuates itself into beds for a less com- ■^'""''"^• 
 mendable purpose than that of its ally, for it sucks human 
 blood at first hand. This insect occurs in the Southern and 
 Western States ; it is the Big Bed-bug, ConorJiimis sanguisu- 
 giis (Co-nor'hi-nus san-gui-su'gus). Nearly all the members 
 of this family, however, live upon trees and other plants, and 
 prey upon insects. 
 
138 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Family NABID.-E (Nab'i-dae). 
 The Damsel-bugs. 
 
 We have called the members of this family the Damsel- 
 bugs for want of a better name, " little girl " being the mean- 
 ing of CoriscuSy the scientific name of our most common 
 genus. 
 
 Figure 161 represents a wing-cover of a member of this 
 family, and will illustrate the venation char- 
 acteristic of it, although in some species the 
 wings are usually rudimentary. We have two 
 Fig. 161. common members of this family, one blonde 
 and the other black. 
 
 The Blonde Damsel-bug, Corisciis ferns {^o-x'xs'zxx's, fe'rus), 
 is about one-third inch in length, and pale yellow, with nu- 
 merous minute brown dots. This species is widely distrib- 
 uted, both in this country and in Europe. It 
 secretes itself in flowers or among the foliage of 
 various herbaceous plants, and captures small in- 
 sects, upon which it feeds. There are several 
 other species that closely resemble this one. 
 
 The Black Damsel-bug, Corisctis subcoleoptratus Fig. 162 
 (sub-co-le-op-tra'tus) (Fig. 162), is very common in subcVuop. 
 the Northern States. It is of a shining jet-black 
 color, with the edge of the abdomen and the legs yellowish. 
 Usually this species has very short, rudimentary wings, but 
 a form with long wings is sometimes found. 
 
 Family Phymatid^ (Phy-mat'i-dae). 
 
 The Ambush-bugs. 
 
 The most common member of this family is PJiymata 
 ,uj^ ivolffii (Phy-ma'ta wolf'i-i) (Fig. 163). It is a greenish 
 ^st insect, with a black band across the broadly expanded 
 J^R abdomen. It conceals itself in flowers, and captures 
 Fig. 163. the insects which come to sip nectar. It is espe- 
 woiffii. cially abundant among the flowers of the golden-rod. 
 
HRMirrERA. 
 
 139 
 
 It has -wonderfully strong, grasping front legs, and can over- 
 come insects much larger than itself. 
 
 Family AradiD/E (A-rad'i-dae). 
 
 The Flat-bugs. 
 
 These are the flattest of all bugs, the body appearinp- as 
 if it had been stepped upon. They live in the cracks 
 or under the bark of decaying trees. The form of 
 the body is especially adapted for gliding about in 
 these cramped situations. They are usually of a 
 dull -brown color, but are sometimes varied with 
 reddish or pale markings. Figure 164 represents 
 a common species. 
 
 Family TlNGlTlD^ (Tin-git'i-dae). 
 
 TJie Lace-bugs. 
 
 Dainty as fairy brides are these tiny, lace-draped insects. 
 One glance at the fine white meshes that cover the wings 
 and spined thorax is sufficient to distinguish them from 
 all other insects, for these are the only ones that are clothed 
 from head to foot in fine white Brussels net. They live upon 
 
 # 
 
 Fig. 164. 
 A radus 
 acutus. 
 
 Fig. 165. — Corytktica arcu- 
 ata. (From the Author's 
 Report for 1879.) 
 
 Fig. 166.— Eggs and 
 nymph of Corythuca 
 arcuata. (Fr>im the 
 Author's Report for 
 
 1879.) 
 
 the juices of plants, and in the case of the Hawthorn Tingis 
 (Fig.^i65) sometimes prove too numerous for the health of 
 their plant host. 
 
140 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 They arc vci}' si-.iall insects, iarcl\' measuring more tlian 
 one eighth of an inch in length. Their eggs are fastened to 
 leaves, and covered by a brown, sticky substance ; they 
 appear more hke fungi than Hke the eggs of other insects 
 (Fig. i66). 
 
 Family AcAxNTHIID^e (Ac-an-thi'i-dae). 
 
 The Bed-bug and the Flozver-biigs. 
 The Bed-bug, AcantJda lectularia, (A-can'thi-a lec-tu-la'- 
 ri-a), is a well-known pest over the greater part 
 of the world. It is reddish brown in color, 
 and measures when full-grown from one-sixth 
 to one-fifth inch in length. The body is ovate 
 
 Fig. \(>T.~Acan- , , n/T^. ^n t- 
 
 thia lectularia. \\\ outluic and IS vcry fiat (Fig. 167). It IS 
 wingless, or has very short and rudimentary wing-covers. 
 
 The Bed-bug is a nocturnal insect, hiding by day in the 
 cracks of furniture and beneath various objects. Bed-bugs 
 are easily destroyed by wetting the cracks in which they 
 hide with corrosive sublimate dissolved in alcohol. This is 
 sold by druggists under the name of bed-bug poison. Py= 
 rethrum powder blown into the cracks will destroy these 
 insects, and, unlike corrosive sublimsite, is not poisonous to 
 man. A closely allied species, A. hirundinis (hir-un-di'nis) 
 occurs in nests of the barn-swallow. 
 
 There are certain small bugs that are closely allied to the 
 Bed-bug, but which have wing-covers that are almost always 
 fully developed. These are the Flower-bugs. 
 They are found in a great variety of situations, ^;;S^X^ ) 
 often upon trees and flowers, sometimes under ^^->' 
 bark or rubbish. They are predaceous. Figure 
 168 represents a wing-cover of one of these insects. 
 
 Family Capsid.e (Cap'si-dae). 
 TJie Leaf-bugs. 
 This is the largest family of the Heteroptera; the 
 members of it live chiefly upon the leaves of plants, 
 
IlEMIPTERA, 141 
 
 from which they derive their nourishment, but 
 some of them are predaceous. The most avail- 
 able character for distinguishing these insects is 
 the structure of the wing-covers ; at the base of ^'"- '^'^• 
 the membrane there are one or two cells, otherwise the 
 membrane is without veins (Fig. 169). 
 
 More than two hundred species belonging to this fam- 
 '^ y— ily are known to occur in the United States, 
 f v^U Figure 170 represents the Four-lined Leaf-bug, 
 I "1^Mt\^ Pivcilocapsns lincatns (Poe-cil-o-cap'sus lin-e-a'tus), 
 i B \ ^ yellow bug, with its prothorax and wing- 
 F.G. xjo.—PcBcii- covers marked with black, which is abundant 
 7uT"^ ^"'""" ii^ early summer on the leaves of currant- 
 bushes and of sage. 
 
 Family Pyrrhocorid^ (Pyr-rho-cor'i-dae). 
 The Red-bug Family. 
 The members of this family are rather stout and heavily 
 formed bugs, and are generally black or brown, 
 marked with red. Some members of the next 
 family resemble these in markings, but the two 
 families can be distinguished by the venation of ^'°' ''^' 
 the membrane of the wing-covers. In this family there are 
 two large cells at the base of the membrane, and from these 
 arise branching veins (Fig. 171). 
 
 The most important species of this family is the Red-bug, 
 or Cotton-stainer, Dysdercus siitiirellus (Dys-der'cus su-tu- 
 rel'lus) (Fig. 172). The adult is of a reddish color ; the wing- 
 covers are pale brown, with pale-yellow stripes. The young 
 are bright red, with black legs. They do much 
 damage by piercing the stems and bolls of the 
 cotton plant and sucking the juices, but do much 
 )W^\ more damage by staining the cotton in the open- 
 '™*^^ ing bolls. They also puncture the rind of oranges 
 in Florida, so that decay soon sets in, and the 
 Fig. 172.— z)j'j-fruit drops. These insects can be trapped by 
 
 dercus sutii-. . , . , 
 
 reiius, laymg chips of sugar-cane around the cotton- 
 
142 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 fields. In orange-groves heaps of cotton-seed as well as 
 pieces of sugar-cane will be found useful ; the insects will 
 collect in these places and can be scalded to death. 
 
 Family Lyg.eid^ (Ly-gae'i-dae). 
 The Chinch-bug Family. 
 
 This, too, is a large family, about one hundred and 
 fifty species being known to occur in the 
 United States. Here the membrane of the 
 wing-covers is furnished with four or five simple 
 ' *^^' veins, which arise from the base of the mem- 
 brane ; sometimes the two inner veins are joined to a cell 
 near the base (Fig. 173). 
 
 This family contains the Chinch-bug, Blissus Iciicoptcrus 
 (Blis'sus leu-cop'te-rus), the most destructive member of the 
 Heteroptera occurring in the United States. 
 Although quite widely distributed, its injuries 
 have attracted most attention in the Missis- 
 sippi Valley, where it has destroyed many 
 million dollars' worth of grain. It is a small p,^! ^^.-bussus 
 bug, measuring less than one sixth of an inch ^'"^"/'UyHs. 
 in length. In Figure 174 it is represented slightly enlarged 
 and greatly enlarged. It is blackish in color, with snowy- 
 white wing -covers, each marked with a dark spot and 
 Y-shaped line, as shown in the figure. The species is di- 
 morphic, there being a short-winged form. 
 
 There are two generations of the Chinch-bug each year ; 
 they winter as full-grown insects and hide under rubbish. 
 In the early spring they come forth and lay their eggs in 
 fields of grain upon the roots or stems beneath the ground. 
 The eggs hatch in about two weeks. The nymphs are red, 
 and feed at first upon roots; afterwards they attack the 
 stalks of the plants they infest. In about fifty days they 
 get their growth. About this time the whole brood starts 
 out to find new pastures, and they all march on foot in one 
 direction, like an army. Although they are tiny insects they 
 
HEMIPTERA. 
 
 143 
 
 number millions, and so attract much attention. As soon as 
 they find a new field of grain they lay their eggs there for 
 another brood. 
 
 No satisfactory means of combating this insect was 
 known until recently. But it has now been ascertained that 
 it is destroyed by a contagious disease which can be spread 
 artificially. Diseased bugs are sent to places where the dis. 
 ease does not exist; and thus the contagion is spread. 
 Extensive experiments are being carried on in Kansas at the 
 time of this writing, and the results so far seem very encour- 
 aging. 
 
 Family Berytid^ (Be-ryt'i-dai). 
 
 The Stilt-bugs. 
 
 This family includes a small number of land bugs, in which 
 
 the body, legs, and antennae are very slender, resembling 
 
 somewhat the thread-legged bugs 
 
 (Emesidae). 
 
 The stilt bugs have the tip of 
 the femora, the tip of the first joint 
 
 If\\y/\ of the antennae, and the last joint 
 
 J \1/ \^ of the antennae somewhat enlarged 
 p"!^^ (Fig. 175). Only two species have 
 
 J / BX \ been found in the United States. 
 
 These are Ncides innticus (Ne'i-des 
 mu'ti-cus), which has a prominent 
 spine on the vertex of the head ; 
 and Jalysus spinosus (Jal'y-sus spi- 
 no'sus), which, although spined in 
 other places, lacks the spine on the vertex. 
 
 These are sluggish insects, found in the undergrowth of 
 woods and in meadows and pastures. 
 
 Family COREID^ (Co-re'i-dae). 
 The Squash-bug Family. 
 This family is also a very extensive one, including many 
 species. The best character for distinguishing the members 
 
 Fig. \i^.— Jalysus spinosus. 
 
144 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 of it is the nature of the venation of the membrane of the 
 ^^^^ wing-covers. This part is furnished with many 
 ^^^^^^ veins, most of which spring from a cross-vein near 
 F.0.,76. its base (Fig. 176). 
 
 The Squash-bug, Anasa tristis (An'a-sa tris'- 
 tis), is a good example of this great family. These when full- 
 grown are brownish-black bugs, with some yellow spots 
 along the edges of the abdomen (Fig, 177), 
 and are dirty yellow on the under side. This 
 bug winters in the adult state, and takes the 
 first opportunity in the spring to lay its eggs 
 on the earliest sprouts of squash and pumpkin 
 vines. As soon as they hatch, the young bugs 
 attack the vines and are apt to destroy them „ . 
 
 i •' Fig. 177. — Anasa 
 
 entirely. The remedy is to protect the young t'lstis. 
 plants by frames covered with netting. 
 
 Family PentatOiMIU^ (Pen-ta-tom'i-dae). 
 TJie Stink-biig Family. 
 
 This is a family the taste and odor of which most of us 
 know to our sorrow. We learn the fla.'or in one experience, 
 and conclude that once is enough for a lifetime. To those 
 who live in cities it may always remain a mystery why one 
 berry looking just like another should taste and smell so 
 differently ; but all barefooted boys and sun-bonneted girls 
 from the country who have picked the wild strawberries on 
 the hillsides or scratched their hands and faces in raspberry 
 patches know well the angular green or brown bugs that 
 leave a loathsome trail behind them ; and they will tell you, 
 too, that the bugs themselves are worse than their trail, for 
 it is a lucky youngster that has not taken one of these insects 
 into his mouth by mistake with a handful of berries. 
 
 It should not be concluded, however, that only members 
 of this family possess this disagreeable odor ; for most of the 
 Heteroptera protect themselves by rendering their bodies 
 unpalatable in this way. Doubtless birds soon learn this 
 
# 
 
 Prof, 
 2- P. ME, 
 
 HEMIPTERA. " I45 
 
 £act and leave such bugs alone. But it is to members of 
 this family that the expressive name given above is com- 
 monly applied. 
 
 This nauseous odor is caused by a fluid which is excreted 
 through two openings, one on each side of the lower side of 
 the body near the middle coxa,-. 
 
 In this family the antenna; are five-jointed ; the scu- 
 tellum, although large, is less than half as long as the abdo. 
 men ; and the front legs are not fitted for digging 
 (Fig. 178). 
 
 Some species of this family feed upon other 
 insects, and so are very helpful to the farmer, one 
 species especially being a gallant fighter against 
 the potato-beetle. Other species feed entirely 
 upon vegetables, while others live upon both Fig 178. -a 
 
 ^ , , , . , ^ Stink-bug. 
 
 vegetable and animal matter. 
 
 The Harlequin Cabbage-bug or Calico-back, Miirgantia 
 histronica (Mur-gan'fi-a his-tron'i-ca), is very destructive to 
 cabbages, radishes, and turnips in the Southern States and 
 on the Pacific coast. It is black with bands, stripes, and 
 margins of red or orange or yellow. The full-grown bugs 
 live through the winter, and in the early spring each female 
 lays on the under surface of the young leaves about twelve 
 eggs in two parallel rows. The young bugs are pale green, 
 with black spots. They mature in a few days, so there are 
 many generations in one season. It is difficult to find a 
 remedy for this pest, but much can be done by placing 
 cabbage and turnip leaves on the ground in early spring, 
 and thus trapping them when they first come out of their 
 winter quarters. 
 
 Family Cydnid^ (Cyd'ni-dae). 
 
 TJie Burrower-biigs. 
 
 These are oval, rounded, or elliptical bugs, with five- 
 jointed antennae ; with the scutellum large, but less than 
 
146 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 half as long as the abdomen ; and with the front legs more 
 
 1^^ or less flattened, fitted for digging (Fig. 179). 
 
 JB3L The species are generally black or very dark 
 
 i^pV brown. They are found burrowing in sandy places, 
 
 ' or on the surface of the ground beneath sticks and 
 
 Fig. 179— ° 
 
 Cyrtome- stottcs, or at the roots of grass and other herbage. 
 
 nus trn- ' «> *5 
 
 rabiih. -pj^e fiimily is not a large one. The members of it 
 probably feed upon plants ; but it is desirable that further 
 observation be made upon the habits of this family. 
 
 Family CORIMEL^NID.E (Cor-i-me-laen'i-dae). 
 
 The Negro-bugs. 
 
 These bugs are mostly black, and are beetle-like in 
 appearance; some have a bluish or greenish tinge, and all 
 are very convex. The scutellum is very convex, and, as in 
 the following family, covers nearly the whole of the abdo- 
 men. But in this family there is at the base of 
 the scutellum on each side a short furrow into 
 which the &(^^^ of the wing-cover fits when at 
 rest. All of our species belong to the genus 
 CorimelcBna (Cor-i-me-lie'na). 
 
 Fig. 180.— Co7-/- ^ ' 
 
 meicena atra. Thesc Insccts infcst various plants, and often 
 
 injure raspberries and other fruit by imparting a disagreeable 
 odor to them. Fig. 180 represents one of these bugs, some- 
 what enlarged. 
 
 Family SCUTELLERID.E (Scu-tel-ler'i-dae). 
 
 The Shield-backed Bugs. 
 
 The members of this family resemble the 
 negro-bugs in the shape and size of the 
 scutellum, which covers nearly the whole of 
 the abdomen ; but the sides of the scutellum 
 are not furnished with a groove for receiving 
 the edge of the wing-covers. Fig. 181 repre- pm ,8, -£;, 
 sents one of these insects enlarged. They ^^'' "^'''''«' 
 feed upon plants. 
 
 i 
 
JlEMirTKRA. 
 Suborder I'arasita (Par-a-si'ta). 
 
 147 
 
 The Parasita includes certain parasites of man and other 
 mammals, commonly known as lice. They are wingless, 
 and differ from_ other Hemiptera in having the beak fleshy 
 and not jointed. This suborder is represented in the United 
 States by only one famil}-, the Pcdiculidic. 
 
 Family Pediculid.K (]'ed-i-cu'li-d;c). 
 The Lice. 
 
 This family comprises the true lice, which differ from the 
 bird-lice of the order Mallophaga in having sucking mouth- 
 parts. The true lice live on the skin of mammals, and suck 
 their blood. 
 
 There are three species that infest man : one living on 
 the head, among the hair ; and the other two on the body. 
 Several species infest our domestic animals. The more 
 
 Fig. \'i2.—HcEmatopinus 
 asini. (From Law.) 
 
 Fig. 183. — H. eurysiernus. 
 (From Law.) 
 
 common of these are the louse of the horse (Fig. 182), and 
 the louse of the cow (Fig. 183). 
 
 Various substances are used for destroying lice on domes- 
 tic animals : among them are a strong infusion of tobacco, 
 
148 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 an ointment made of one part sulphur and four parts lard, 
 Scotch snuff, powdered wood ashes, and kerosene emulsion. 
 The remedy should be applied thoroughly, and repeated 
 several times at intervals of three or four days, in order to 
 destroy the young which may hatch after the first application. 
 The stable and the places where the cattle are in the habit 
 of rubbing should also be v/hitewashed or sprayed with 
 kerosene, or strong kerosene emulsion. 
 
 Suborder HoMOPTERA (Ho-mop'te-ra). 
 Cicadas, Leaf -hoppers, Aphids, Scale-bugs and others. 
 
 The Homoptera includes insects of widely diversified 
 form, but which agree, however, in having the wings when 
 present of the same thickness throughout, and usually slop- 
 ing roof-like at the sides of the body when at rest, and in 
 having the beak arise from the hinder part of the lower side 
 of the head (Fig. 140, b). The name is from two Greek 
 words : homos, same ; and ptcron, a wing. 
 
 This suborder includes nine families, which are designated 
 as follows : 
 
 The Cicadas, Family CiCADiD.i: (p. 149). 
 
 The Lantern-fly Family, Family FULGORID^ (p. 151). 
 
 The Spittle Insects, Family Cercopid^ (p. 152). 
 
 The Leaf-hoppers, Family Jassid^ (p. 153). 
 
 The Tree-hoppers, Family Membracid^ (p. 154). 
 
 The Jumping Plant-lice,- Family PSYLLID.E (p. 155). 
 
 The Plant-lice, Family APHIDID^ (p. 156). 
 
 The Aleyrodes, Family Aleyrodid.'E (p. 163). 
 
 The Scale-bugs, Family COCCID/E (p. 164): 
 
 Classification of the Homoptera. 
 {For advanced students.) 
 
 TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE FAMILIES OF THE HOMOPTERA. 
 
 A. Beak evidently arising from the head ; tarsi three-jointed ; anten- 
 na; minute, bristle-like. 
 
IIKMII'TKRA. 149 
 
 B. Witli three ocelli, and the males with musical organs. Usiuiliy 
 large insects, with all the wings entirely membranous, p. 149. 
 
 CiCADID.K. 
 
 BB. Ocelli only two in number or wanting ; males without musi- 
 cal organs. 
 C. Antennae inserted on the sides of the cheeks beneath the 
 
 eyes. p. 151 Fulg(irid^. 
 
 CC. Antennae inserted in front of and between the eyes. 
 
 D. Prothorax not prolonged above the abdomen. 
 
 E. Hind tibiae armed with one or two stout teeth, and the 
 
 tip crowned with short stout spines p. 152.. . Cercopid^e. 
 
 EE. Hind tibiae having a row of spines below p. 1 53. Jas.SID/E. 
 
 DD. Prothorax prolonged into a horn or point above the 
 
 abdomen, p. 154 Membracid^. 
 
 AA. Beak apparently arising from between the front legs, or absent; 
 tarsi one or two jointed; antennae usually prominent and thread- 
 like, sometimes wanting. 
 
 B. Tarsi usually two-jointed; wings when present four in number. 
 C. Wings transparent. 
 
 D. Hind legs fitted for leaping; antennae nine or ten jointed.' 
 
 P- 155 PSYLLID.B.' 
 
 D. Legs long and slender, not fitted for leaping; antennae; 
 
 three to seven jointed, p. 1 56 Aphidid.b,- 
 
 CC. Wings opaque, whitish ; wings and body covered with a- 
 
 whitish powder, p. 163 ALEYRODlDyE.- 
 
 BB. Tarsi one-jointed ; adult male without any beak, and wit 
 only two wings; female wingless, with the body either scale 
 like or gall-like in form, or grub-like and clothed with wax. Th 
 waxy covering may be in the form of powder, of large tufts o 
 plates, of a continuous layer, or of a thin scale beneath which the 
 insect lives, p. 164 CocciDiE. 
 
 •'Family CiCADID.E (Ci-cad'i-dae). 
 
 TJic Cicadas {Ci-ca'das). 
 
 The large size and well-known songs of the more common 
 species of this family render them familiar objects. It is only 
 necessary to refer to the Periodical Cicada (or the seventeen- 
 year locust, as it has been improperly termed) and to the 
 
150 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Dog-day Harvest-fly (Fig. 184) to give an idea of the more 
 striking characters of this family. We 
 have several species much smaller than 
 either of these ; but their characteristic 
 form and the presence of three ocelli 
 arc sufficient to distinguish them from 
 the members of the other fapiilies. 
 
 The Periodical Cicada, Cicada sip- 
 tciidcciin (Ci-ca'da sep-ten'de-cim), is 
 very generally known in this country, 
 owing to tlie great numbers in which 
 it appears, at long intervals of time. 
 This periodical appearance is due to 
 the long time required for the nymphs 
 Y^o.^%,.-cicadam^cen. ^^ ^^^^'j^^ ^j^_,jj. growth— either seven- 
 teen or thirteen years — and to the fact that all the members 
 of one generation appear in the adult state at about the same 
 imc. The adult female lays her eggs in slits which she 
 nakcs in the twigs of trees. Small fruit is sometimes in- 
 jured i.'i this way. The eggs hatch in about six weeks, 
 'he young nym[)hs finding no attraction in a world of sun- 
 shine and of flowers, drop to the ground and bury them- 
 jelves in the earth, thus commencing a voluntary seclusion 
 'hich lasts for years. They live by sucking the juices from 
 the roots of trees. In May of the seventeenth year after 
 'their retirement to their earthy cloisters they crawl up to 
 the surface of the ground, like renegade monks ; and, leav- 
 ing their nymph-skins clinging to the tree-trunks, like cast- 
 ofT garments of penance, they come forth, broad-headed, 
 broad-bodied, clear-winged creatures, well fitted to get all 
 the experience possible out of a world whose frivolities they 
 have so long scorned. But, like other creatures, they find a 
 life of dissipation very exhausting, and after a few weeks 
 they sing their last song, lay their eggs, and pass away. 
 In the South these insects live onl)' thirteen years under 
 
HemipterA. 151 
 
 ground, but in the North it requires seventeen years for a 
 nymph to reach maturity. 
 
 More than twenty distinct broods of this species have 
 been traced out. In many localities several broods coexist; 
 this explains the fact thext in such places these insects ap- 
 pear several times during a single period of seventeen years. 
 
 There is a common species of Cicada known as the Dog- 
 day Harvest-fly or LyremanpOmr/^r tibiccn (Cica'da ti-bi'cen), 
 which requires only two years for its development, and as 
 there are two broods of this species the adults appear every 
 year. This Cicada (Fig. 184) is black and green in color, 
 and more or less powdered beneath. And its song is the 
 high, sharp trill that comes to us, midsummer noons, from 
 the depths of trees where the singer is hidden amid the 
 foliage, all unconscious that its shrill note has for centuries 
 been a theme for poets. 
 
 Family FULGORID.E (Ful-gor'i-dae). 
 The Lantern-fly Family. 
 
 This family is remarkable for certain exotic forms which 
 it contains. Chief among these is the great Lantern-fly of 
 Brazil, which is figured in many popular works on insects. 
 Scarcely less strange are the Candle-flies of China and the 
 East Indies, The popular names of these insects refer to 
 the fact that they are phosphorescent, but we know of no 
 native species that possesses this peculiarity. There does 
 not seem to be any typical form of the body characteristic 
 of this family. The different genera differ so greatly, that 
 on superficial examination they appear to have very little in 
 common. Some even resemble butterflies and moths, while 
 others might easily be mistaken for neuropterous genera. 
 
 The most useful character for recognizing these insects is 
 the form and position of the antennae. These are bristle- 
 shaped, and inserted in a button-shaped base on the side of 
 
152 THE STUDY OF IX SECTS. 
 
 the cheek beneatli the eyes. Although the Fulgoridne are 
 vegetable feeders, none of our species have attracted the at- 
 tention of agriculturists. There are, however, certain exotic 
 species which do great injury to crops. 
 
 The two accompanying figures will serve to show the 
 wonderful variations in form of these insects ; many other 
 types exist. Figure 185 represents a common species ofSco- 
 lops (Sco'lops), which occurs in grassy places. In this genus 
 the head is greatly prolonged, as with the exotic Candle-flies. 
 
 Scolops. L ¥lG. \%(>.—Oriitenis sefyten- 
 
 trionalis. 
 
 Figure 186 represents Ormenis septentrionalis (Or'me-nis sep- 
 ten-tri-o-na'lis), a beautiful pale-green species powdered with 
 white, which feeds on wild grape-vines, drawing nourishment 
 from the tender shoots and mid-ribs of the leaves during its 
 young stages. 
 
 J Family CercopiD/E (Cer-cop'i-dae). 
 
 The Spittle Insects or Frog-hoppers. 
 
 During the summer months one often finds upon various 
 shrubs and herbs masses of white froth. In the midst of 
 each of these masses there lives a young insect, a member of 
 this family. In some cases as many as four or five insects 
 inhabit the same mass of foam. The froth is supposed to 
 consist of sap, which the insect has pumped from the plant, 
 by means of its beak, and passed through its alimentary 
 canal. It is asserted that these insects undergo all their 
 transformations within this mass ; that when one is about to 
 molt for the last time, a clear space is formed about its 
 body ; the superficial part of the foam dries, so as to form a 
 vaulted roof to a closed chamber, within which the change 
 
liEMU'TERA. I $3 
 
 of the skin is made. The adult insects wander about on 
 herbage and trees. They have the power of leaping well. 
 The name frog-hoppers has doubtless grown out of the fact 
 that formerly the froth was called " frog-spittle," and was 
 supposed to have been voided by tree-frogs from their 
 mouths. The name is not, however, inappropriate, for the 
 broad and depressed form of our more common species is 
 something like that of a frog. 
 
 In this family the antennae are inserted in front of and 
 between the eyes ; the prothorax is not prolonged back of the 
 abdomen (as in the Membracidje) ; and the tibise 
 are armed with one or two stout teeth, and the 
 tip crowned with short, stout spines, as shown in 
 Figure 187. This figure represents the most com-c 
 
 , . ^ I- ^ x^ T T • 1 .- F'G. 187. — Apll- 
 
 mon spittle msect ot the hastern United States, ropho>a quad- 
 C'ApJiropJiora qiiadra7igularis{h.-'^\\xo'^\\'o-x'c!iC\y\dL<\- 
 ran-gu-la'ris), and one of its tibia; greatly enlarged. 
 
 Family Jassid^ (Jas'si-dae). 
 TJie Leaf-Jioppers. 
 
 The most abundant members of the Homoptera, except 
 perhaps the Aphids, are the leaf-hoppers. Large numbers 
 of them can be easily collected by sweeping grass, herbage, 
 or the foliage of shrubs. 
 
 The leaf-hoppers are more slender than the spittle insects, 
 and are also distinguished by the form of the 
 
 J^ hind tibiae, which are nearly or quite as long as 
 /■B\ the abdomen, curved, and armed with a row of 
 H^ spines on each margin (Fig. 188). 
 Fig. iz%-Proco- Amoug the leaf-hoppers that have attracted 
 
 nia undata. . ...... 
 
 attention on account of their injuries to vegeta- 
 tion are the following: The destructive Leaf-hopper,' ^zVd?^:////^; 
 exitiosa (Ci-cad'u-la ex-it-i-o'sa), which is represented greatly 
 enlarged by Figure 189, sometimes infests winter wheat 
 to a serious extent in the Southern States. The Grape- 
 
154 1^ti£^ STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 vine Ivcaf-hopper, Eryt]ironcura vitis (E-ryth-ro- 
 
 neu'ra vi'tis), is a well-known pest that infests the 
 
 leaves of the grape. It is about one-eighth inch 
 
 in length, crossed by two blood-red bands, and a 
 
 third dusky one at the apex. It is often improp. 
 
 erly called the " Thrip" b}' grape-growers. But 
 
 the term Thrip or better Thrips should be restricted 
 
 " to members of the order Physopoda. The Rose 
 
 ^'cica^l /7i Leaf-hopper, £//^/^<a: roses (Em'po-a ro'sae), is also a 
 
 fFrom'The well-knowu pcst, as it often swarms on the leaves 
 
 Report7o? ^i roscs, doing great damage. Its presence is 
 
 ^''^-^ usually indicated by numerous white cast skins 
 
 adhering to the lower side of the leaves. 
 
 The leaf-hoppers can be destroyed by a strong solution 
 of soap, or with kerosene emulsion. In vineyards, where the 
 use of these substances would injure the fruit, they can be 
 trapped by two persons carrying a screen covered with 
 tarred paper on one side of a row of vines, while a third per- 
 son walking on the other side of the row frightens them 
 from the vines on to the screen. Dead leaves and other 
 rubbish, among which these insects hibernate, should be 
 burned during the winter. 
 
 ^' Family Membracid^ (Mem-brac'i-dae). 
 T/ie Tree-hoppers. 
 Nature must have been in a joking mood when tree- 
 hoppers were developed, for these little creatures are most 
 
 L Fig. 190. — Tree-hoppers. 
 
IIEMIPTERA. 155 
 
 f 
 
 comically grotesque in appearance. In general outline 
 they resemble beech -nuts, except that many have humps on 
 their backs. The prothorax is prolonged back- 
 ward like a roof over the body, often quite covering 
 it. If the young entomologist wishes to laugh, let 
 him look at the faces of tree-hoppers through a 
 lens (Fig. 190). Their c}-es al\va)-s have a keen<^v;„„"^/!;~ 
 droll look, and the line that separates the head ''"'"'■ 
 from the prothorax gives them the appearance of wearing 
 glasses. In some cases the prothorax is elevated 
 ^Jl above the head, so that it looks like a peaked 
 ^P^P^ . nightcap ; in others it is shaped like a Tam-o'- 
 ^fhenopabin- Shautcr ; and sometimes it has horns, one on each 
 "''"'"■ side, which have given one species the name of 
 
 the Buffalo Tree-hopper. 
 
 Many species of this family live upon bushes or small 
 trees, and are all good leapers ; hence the com- 
 mon name, Tree-hoppers. Some species ex- 
 crete honey-dew, and are attended by ants. ^^ 
 All feed upon plants, but they seldom appear yig. ,94. /v/,;- 
 in sufificient numbers to do much damage. 
 
 The accompanying figures will show some of the more 
 common forms seen in this strange family (Figs. 191 -194). 
 
 Family PSYLLID^ (Psyl'li-dae). 
 The Jumping Plant-lice. 
 The jumping plant-lice are comparatively small insects; 
 cur more common species measuring only from one-eighth 
 to one-sixth inch in length, and it is rare that we find any 
 twice that size. When examined with a lens 
 they appear like tiny Cicadas (Fig. 195). 
 Their hind legs are formed for jumping; their 
 antennae are nine or ten jointed, and their 
 tarsi are only two-jointed. Figure 197 repre- 
 sents the wings of a common species, 
 eniargeu^^"^' The PsylHdai subsist entirely upon the 
 
IS6 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 juices of plants, and some of them cause serious injuries. 
 Many species form galls ; one of the larger of these infest 
 the Celtis or Hackberry. 
 
 Fig. 196 —The Pea-rtree Psylla, 
 greatly enlarged. 
 
 Fig. 197.— Venation of Wing's: j, stigma; 
 c, clavus ; c. s., claval suture. 
 
 The most destructive member of this family in the 
 United States is the Pear-tree Psylla, Psylla pyricola (Psyl'la 
 py-ric'o-la). This is a minute species, measuring only one- 
 tenth inch in length to the tip of the folded wings (Fig. 
 196). But it occurs in such large numbers that it has 
 destroyed extensive pear orchards, by sucking the sap from 
 the smaller limbs and twigs. It can be destroyed by 
 spraying the infested trees with kerosene emulsion imme 
 diately after the leaves have expanded in the spring. 
 
 Family APHIDID.^ (A-phid'i-dae). 
 The Plant-lice or Aphids {Aph'ids). 
 The plant-lice are well-known insects; they infest nearly 
 all kinds of vegetation in all parts of the country. Our 
 most common examples are minute, 
 soft-bodied, green insects, with long 
 legs and antennae, which appear on 
 various plants in the house and in the 
 field. Among our common species are 
 both winged and wingless forms (Fig. Fig. 198.— a Group of Aphids. 
 198). There are a great number of species, nearly all of 
 
HEMIPTKRA. 157 
 
 which are of small size. In our largest species the body 
 measures only about one-fourth inch in length, and usually 
 these insects are very much smaller. 
 
 The body is usually more or less pear-shaped. The 
 winged forms have two pairs of delicate, transparent wings. 
 These are furnished with a few simple veins, but the vena- 
 tion is more extended than in either of the two following 
 families. The first pair of wings is larger than the other, 
 and the two wings of each side are usually connected by a 
 compound hooklet. The beak is three-jointed, and varies 
 greatly in length ; sometimes it is longer than the body. 
 The compound eyes are prominent, and ocelli are also 
 usually present. The antennae are from three to seven 
 jointed. On the back of the sixth abdominal segment there 
 is, in many species, a pair of tubes, through which a wax- 
 like material is excreted. In some genera these organs are 
 merely perforated tubercles, while in still other genera they 
 are wanting. 
 
 The substance known as honey-dew is excreted from 
 the posterior end of the alimentary canal. It is sometimes 
 produced in such quantities that it forms a glistening coat- 
 ing on the leaves of the branches below the plant-lice, 
 and stone walks beneath shade-trees are often densely 
 spotted with it. This honey-dew is fed upon by bees, wasps, 
 and ants. The bees and wasps take the food where they 
 find it, paying little if any attention to its source ; but the 
 ants recognize in the plant-lice useful auxiliaries, and often 
 care for them as men care for their herds. This curious re- 
 lationship will be discussed farther under the liead of Ants. 
 
 It is easy to see what benefit ants derive from this asso- 
 ciation with plant-lice, and how they should learn that it is 
 worth while for them to care for their herds of honey pro- 
 ducing cattle. Little has been done, however, to point out 
 the great benefit that accrues to the plant-lice from this re- 
 lationship. It seems fair to assume that the plant-lice are 
 greatly benefited, else why has the highly specialized appa- 
 
158 THE STUDY OF IXSECTS. 
 
 ratus for producing the honey-dew been developed ? Writers 
 long ago showed that ants protect plant-lice by driving away 
 from them lady-bugs and other enemies. Recently, how- 
 ever, Professor Forbes has demonstrated that, in certain 
 cases at least, a more important service is rendered. In his 
 studies of the Corn Plant-louse, Aphis viaidis (A'phis 
 mai'dis), he found that this species winters in the wingless, 
 agamic form in the earth of previously infested corn-fields, 
 and that in the spring the plant-lice are strictly dependent 
 upon a species of ant, Lasiiis alicmis (Las'i-us al-i-e'nus), 
 which mines along the principal roots of the corn, collects 
 the plant-lice, and conveys them into these burrows, and 
 there watches and protects them. Without the aid of these 
 ants, the plant-lice were unable to reach the roots of the corn. 
 
 In addition to honey-dew, many Aphids excrete a white 
 substance. This may be in the form of powder, scattered 
 over the surface of the body, or it may be in large floccu- 
 lent or downy masses ; every gradation between these forms 
 exists. 
 
 The plant-lice are remarkable for their peculiar mode of 
 development. The various species differ greatly in the de- 
 tails of their transformation, but the following generaliza- 
 tions can be made. 
 
 There are several distinct forms in each species, each 
 form playing a peculiar part in the history of the species. 
 If a colony of plant-lice be examined during the summer 
 months it will be found, usually, to consist very largely of 
 Avingless individuals ; these are females, which reproduce 
 without the intervention of males. This is the xvingless 
 agamic form. In many cases this form gives birth to living 
 young, instead of laying eggs; and the reproduction of 
 this form is so rapid, that it would be disastrous to the 
 species, by the destruction of the infested plants and the 
 consequent starving of the insects, if another form of the 
 species did not arise. But from time to time }oung are 
 produced which become winged, and thus the spread of 
 
IIEMIPTERA. 159 
 
 the species is provided for. This winged form also con- 
 sists entirely of females, and is known as the winged agamic 
 form. They produce in turn the wingless agamic form, a 
 single, winged individual, which has flown to a new plant, 
 starting a new colony. Generally on the setting in of cold 
 weather, or in some cases on the failure of nourishment, 
 the weather being still warm, there is produced a generation 
 including individuals of both sexes. These are known as 
 the sexual forms. The males may be either winged or 
 wingless, but these true females are always wingless. The 
 sexual forms pair, and the female produces one or more 
 true eggs. It is in this state that the species usually pass 
 the winter, and consequently these eggs produced by the 
 sexual form are often called the ivijiter eggs, to distinguish 
 them from egg-like bodies produced by the agamic forms of 
 certain species, and which are termed psendova (pseu-do'va). 
 From the winter egg there hatches, usually in the spring, 
 an agamic female, which, as she is the stock from which the 
 summer generations spring, is often called the stem-mother. 
 The peculiar reproduction of the agamic forms is often 
 termed reproduction by budding. 
 
 Plant-lice are often very destructive to vegetation. The 
 ordinary methods of combating them are either by the use 
 of a strong solution of soap or with kerosene emulsion. 
 
 Plant-lice vary greatly in their habits. Certain species 
 live in the ground on the roots of plants. The Lettuce 
 Earth-louse, Rhizobius laetueec (Rhi-zo'bi-us lac-tu'cae), is a 
 good illustration. This occurs on the roots of lettuce, often in 
 great numbers. Other species are found on the roots of grasses 
 or herbaceous plants and usually accompanied by ants. 
 
 On the other hand, many species, in fact the majority of 
 Aphids, pass their lives on the foliage of plants, infesting 
 especially the tenderer leaves. Familiar examples are the 
 Cabbage Aphis, Aphis brassier (A'phis bras'si-cse), the Apple- 
 tree Aphis, Aphis inali, the Cherry tree Aphis, Mysus cerasi 
 (My'sus cer'a-si), and the Peach-tree Aphis, Mysus persiece 
 
l60 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 (My'sus per'si-cae). The last three are almost invariably 
 attended by ants. 
 
 The Plant-lice of the genus LacJinus (Lach'nus) are 
 
 usually found on the limbs of trees and shrubs. To this 
 
 genus belong our largest Aphids, some of 
 
 them measuring one-fourth inch in length. 
 
 Figure 199 represents one of these enlarged. 
 
 . ," Some species of plant-lice live both on 
 
 Fig. 199. — Lachtius. '^ '■ 
 
 the roots and on the leaves of plants. One 
 of these is the Grape Phylloxera, Phylloxera vastatrix (Phyl- 
 lox-e'ra vas-ta'trix), which is the most important enemy of 
 the grape. The presence of this insect is manifested by the 
 vines in two ways: first, in the case of certain species of 
 grapes, there appear upon the lower surface of the leaves 
 fleshy swellings, which are more or less wrinkled and hairy ; 
 these are hollow galls, opening upon the upper surface of 
 the leaf, and containing a wingless agamic plant-louse and 
 her eggs ; second, when the fibrous roots of a sickly vine are 
 examined, we find, if the disease is due to this insect, that 
 the minute fibres have become swollen and knotty; or, if 
 the disease is far advanced, they may be entirely decayed. 
 Upon these root-swellings we also find an agamic, wingless, 
 egg -laying plant -louse, the author of the mischief. The 
 insects found upon the roots differ slightly from those found 
 within the galls, but their specific identity is now generally 
 accepted. 
 
 Owing to the great injury which this species has done to 
 the vineyards of P"rance, hundreds of memoirs have been 
 published regarding it. But as yet no satisfactory means of 
 destroying it has been discovered. The difficulty lies in the 
 fact that the insecticide must be one that can penetrate the 
 ground to the depth of three or four feet, reaching all the 
 fibrous roots infested by the insect. It must be a substance 
 that can be cheaply applied on a large scale, and it must 
 also be something that will kill the insect without injury to 
 
HEMIPTERA. l6l 
 
 the vine. Carbon bisulphide has been used to some extent 
 for this purpose. 
 
 Where the vineyards are so situated that they can be 
 submerged for a period of at least forty days during the 
 winter, the insect can be drowned. But this method is 
 obviously of limited application. 
 
 It is found that vines growing in very sandy soil resist 
 the attacks of the Grape Phylloxera. This is supposed to be 
 due to the difficulty experienced by the insect in finding 
 passage through such soil. 
 
 Another well-known example of the plant-lice that make 
 galls is Colopha iilniicola (Col'o-pha ul-mic'o-la), which makes 
 the Cockscomb Elm-gall. This gall is shaped more or less 
 like a cock's comb,and is very common on the upper side of 
 the leaves of the elm. 
 
 There is a group of species of plant-lice known as the 
 Woolly Aphids, on account of a white more or less downy 
 or waxy substance with which the bodies of these insects are 
 covered. Large numbers of one of these species are often 
 found crowded together on the under side of the branches of 
 alder. This species is known as the Alder-blight, Schizoneura 
 tesscllata (Schiz-o-neu'ra tes-sel-la'ta). In addition to the gj 
 white excretion with which the body is covered this Insect 
 excretes large quantities of honey-dew. The result is that 
 the branches infested by this insect, and those beneath the 
 clusters of Aphids, become blackened with fungi that grow 
 upon this secretion. There is also a curious fungus which 
 grows in large spongy masses immediately beneath the clus- 
 ters of plant-lice; this is known to botanists as Scorias 
 spongiosum. It is evidently fed by the honey-dew that falls 
 upon it. 
 
 The Beech-tree Blight, Schizoneura imbricator (im-bri- 
 ca'tor), infests both the twigs and leaves of beech. Like 
 the preceding species it occurs in clusters of individuals, 
 each of which is clothed with a conspicuous downy excre- 
 tion. These clusters often attract attention by the curious 
 
 U 
 
1 62 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 habit that the insects have of waving their bodies up and 
 down, the plume-like masses of excretion rendering them 
 very conspicuous. When an infested limb is jarred the 
 Aphids emit a shower of honey-dew. Owing to the abun 
 dance of this secretion, the branches and leaves of an infested 
 tree become blackened by growths of fungi, as with the 
 preceding species. 
 
 The Woolly-louse of the Apple, Schizoneura lanigera 
 (la-nig'e-ra), is one of the best-known pests of the fruit- 
 grower. In its most conspicuous form it appears on the 
 trunks and limbs of apple-trees, in clusters of individuals, 
 which are conspicuous on account of the woolly excretion 
 with which the bodies are covered. It is especially in- 
 jurious to young trees, the bark of which becomes deeply 
 pitted and scarred by its attacks. The bark apparently 
 ceases to grow at the point of attack, but swells into a 
 large ridge about the cluster' of lice, leaving them in a 
 sheltered pit. The lice also frequently congregate in the 
 axils of the leaves and the forks of the branches. This 
 species resembles the Grape Phylloxera in having a root- 
 inhabiting form, which causes knotty swellings on the fibrous 
 roots. It is the presence of this form that makes this 
 pest such a difficult one to combat. For as it works deep 
 in the ground upon the fibrous roots of trees, the same 
 difficulties are met in attempting to destroy it that are pre- 
 sented by the Grape Ph\lloxera. In fact, except in case of 
 an especially valuable tree, we do not believe that it will pay 
 to attempt to save a tree that has become badly infested 
 by the Avoolly aphis. It will be cheaper to dig the tree up 
 and burn it, and devote the ground to some other use. 
 Another species of tree can be safely planted in the same 
 place, but not an apple. Great care should be taken in 
 putting out trees from a nursery to see that they are free from 
 this pest. If there is any doubt the trees should be washed, 
 roots and all, in a strong solution of soap. It is well also to 
 put in the forks of the trees pieces of hard soap, which will 
 
HEMIPTERA, 1 63 
 
 be dissolved and washed down by the rains. This will serve 
 to destroy certain other pests, as well as the woolly aphis. 
 In case it is desired to rid an infested tree of this pest, the 
 trunk form should be washed off willi a stroni;- solution of 
 soap applied with a sponge, taking care to destroy all eggs 
 and the ground should be treated with carbon bisulphide 
 for the Grape Pln^lloxera. 
 
 as 
 
 P^amily AlevrodiI).-?^: (Al-eu-rod'i-d;t;). 
 
 TJic Alcyrodcs {Al-cu-ro'dcs\ 
 
 The insects of the genus Alcjn'odcs were for a long time 
 classed with the Coccidas. In their immature state they are 
 scale-like in form (Fig. 200), and often somewhat resemble 
 certain species of Lecanium. But the 
 mature insects differ so much from the 
 Coccids that the genus has been sepa- 
 rated as a distinct family. They are ver\' 
 small insects; the species with which I 
 am acquainted have an expanse of 
 wings of about one eighth of an inch. 
 Both sexes are winged ; and, as with 
 other Hemiptera except the Coccids, f-g- ^oo.-^/o-'W.. 
 there are two pairs of wings. In the adult state, all the 
 species are nearly of the same color ; the wings are white, 
 sometimes spotted ; the body is usually yellowish, sometimes 
 pinkish, and more or less spotted with black. The most 
 striking character presented by the adults, in addition to the 
 fact that both sexes are winged and each has two pairs of 
 wings, is the presence of a whitish powder with which the 
 wings and body are covered. It is this character that 
 suggests the name 
 aleurodes, like flour., 
 
164 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Family COCCID^ (Coc'ci-dae). 
 The Scale-bugs or Bark-lice, Mealy-bugs, and others. 
 
 The family Coccidae includes the Mealy-bugs, the Scale- 
 bugs or Bark-lice, and certain other insects for which there 
 are no popular names. In this family we find those mem- 
 bers of the Hemiptera that depart most widely from the 
 type of the order. In fact this is a very anomalous group, 
 the species differing greatly in appearance, habits, and meta- 
 morphoses from those of the most closely allied families. 
 Not only do the members of this family appear very unlike 
 other insects, but there is a wonderful variety of forms within 
 the family, and even the two sexes of the same species differ 
 as much in the adult state as members of distinct orders. 
 
 The males of Coccidae, unlike all other Hemiptera, 
 undergo a complete metamorphosis. The adult males have 
 only a single pair of wings, the hind wings being represented 
 by a pair of club-like halteres. Each of these is furnished 
 with a bristle, which in all the species we have studied is 
 hooked, and fits in a pocket on the wing of the same side 
 (Fig. 202). The male in the adult state has no organs for 
 procuring food, as the mouth-parts disappear during the 
 metamorphosis of the insect, and a second pair of eyes ap- 
 pear in their place. The adult female is always wingless, 
 and the body is either scale-like or gall-like in form, or grub- 
 like and clothed with wax. The waxy covering may be in 
 the form of powder, of large tufts or plates, of a continuous 
 layer, or of a thin scale, beneath which the insect lives. 
 
 Among the Coccidae are found many of the most serious 
 pests of horticulturists. Scarcely any kind of fruit is free 
 from their attacks, and certain species of scale-insects and 
 mealy-bugs are constant pests in conservatories. The ease 
 with which these insects or their eggs can be transported 
 long distances while yet alive, on fruit or living plants, has 
 
HEMIPTKRA. 
 
 165 
 
 caused many species that infest cultivatctl pl.ints to become 
 world-wide in distribution. 
 
 During recent years much attention has been paid to 
 devising methods of destro}'ing these pests. Various soapy 
 
 Fig. 202.— The Scurfy Bark-louse. Qhionaspis fur/urus : i. scales natural size; m, 
 scale of male enlarged ; \b, adult male enlarged ; ir, scale of female enlarged. 
 
 or alkaline washes, and one made of lime, salt, and sulphur, are 
 now used on the trees with deciduous foliage; the wash is 
 applied during the winter while the trees are naked. In the 
 case of orange and lemon trees, which are constantly clothed 
 with leaves, a large tent is lowered over the tree and a 
 
i66 
 
 THE STUDY OF IX SECTS. 
 
 The Cottony-cushion 
 
 poisonous <^as (h)-th'()C}'anic-acicl gas) is generated within the 
 tent. 
 
 A number of useful insects belong to this family. Several 
 species furnish dye-stuffs. ' The best known of these is 
 Coccus cadi, the dried bodies of which are known as Cochi- 
 neal. The stick lac of commerce, from which shell-lac or 
 shellac is prepared, is a resinous substance excreted by 
 a species, Cartcria lacca (Car-tcr'i-a lac'ca), which lives on 
 the young branches of several tropical trees, and the bodies 
 of these insects, which are obtained from the stick lac, furnish 
 the coloring agents known as lac dye. China wax is another 
 substance for which we are indebted to this family. It is the 
 excretion of an insect known as Pe-la, Ericcrus pe-la (E-ri- 
 ce'rus). In. fact many species of this family excrete wax in 
 considerable quantities. 
 
 Among the more prominent members of this family are 
 the following: 
 
 Scale, Iccrya purcJiasi (I-ce'ry-a 
 pur'cha-si). — This beautiful in 
 sect (Fig. 203) was at one time 
 the most dangerous insect 
 pest in California, and did a 
 great amount of injury. It is 
 an introduced Australian spe- 
 cies, and has been subdued to 
 a great extent by the intro- 
 duction of an Australian Lady- 
 bug, F<rrt''^//rt(Ve-da'li-a), which 
 preys upon it. The body of 
 the adult female is scale-like, 
 dark orange-red, and has the 
 dorsal surface more or less 
 '''^.r^^^:::^%r:^^l^^ covered with a white or yel- 
 Report for 1880.) lowisli-white powdcr. Thein= 
 
 sect secretes a large egg-sac, which is beautifully ribbed. 
 The Mealy-bugs, Dactylopins (Dac-ty-lo'pi-us). — The 
 
HEMIPTERA. 
 
 167 
 
 IG. 20s— J)'itiylo/>iHs ,: I Iridic- 
 male, enlarged. (From the 
 Author's Report for 18S0.) 
 
 Fig. ■2o^.—Dcutylof>tui longnfi- 
 iiits, female, enlarged (From 
 the Author's Report for 1880 ) 
 
 F.G. ,o6.-hyrnussp.,ouQu.rcusa^i/oi,-<.. ,Ad,uU females on stem ; immature males 
 on leaves. (From the Author s Report tor 188... 1 
 
1 68 
 
 r]lE STL'DY OF INSECTS. 
 
 ;Mcaly Bugs arc the most common and the most noxious of 
 green-house pests; and in the warmer regions, as in Florida, 
 they infest plants in the open air. Two species are shown 
 greatly enlarged in Figures 204 and 205. These insects are 
 extremely difficult to combat, as the white powder with 
 which the body is clothed protects them from the sprays 
 and washes ordinarily used. 
 
 Kenncs. — Species of this genus are common upon oaks 
 wherever they grow. These insects are remarkable for the 
 wonderful gall-like form of the adult females. So striking is 
 this resemblance, that they have been mistaken for galls by 
 many entomologists. Figure 206 represents a species of this 
 genus upon Qiierctis agrifolia. The gall-like swellings on the 
 stem are the adult females ; the smaller scales on the leaves 
 are the immature males. 
 
 Orthesia (Or-the'zi-a). — The members of this genus 
 occur not uncommonl}' on vari- 
 ous weeds. They are remark- 
 able for the calcareous secretion 
 with which the body is clothed. 
 This is in the form of long 
 plates. Figure 207 represents 
 a nymph ; in the adult female 
 the secretion becomes more 
 elongated posteriorly, and 
 forms a sac containing the eggs 
 mixed with a fine down. Later 
 when the young are born, the)' 
 remain in the sac till they have 
 themselves secreted a suf^cient 
 """• th^ruuro'CR%;^ffTf^^^^^^^ amount of the lamellar matter 
 to cover them. 
 Pulvinaria (Pul-vi-na'ria).— This genus includes species 
 in which the body of the female resembles Lecanium, de- 
 scribed below, but which excrete a large cottony egg-sac. 
 This egg-sac is not ribbed, but is of the form shown in 
 
HEMIPTEkA. 
 
 169 
 
 Figure 208. Tlic species figured here is sometimes very 
 injurious to maple-trees ; it also infests grape-vines and 
 other plants. 
 
 Fig. 208. — Fulvinaria in> 
 
 <ierabilis. Female on grape, natural size. (From the 
 Author's Report for iSSo.) 
 
 Lecanium (Le-ca'ni-um). — The species of the genus Le- 
 canium abound everywhere ; they occur on all kinds of 
 
 Fig. 2o<).— Lecanium olea ; la, insect enlarged. (From the Author's Report for iS8o.) 
 
 plants, both in conservatories and in the open air. Some of 
 them are known to gardeners as " soft-scales." But the 
 
I70 
 
 THE STL DV OF TV SECTS. 
 
 scientific name is coming into general use; it is a common 
 thing now to hear fruit-growers speak of the Lecaniums, 
 especially in California. The Lecaniums are naked scale 
 insects, the scale being the body of the insect. These 
 insects are flattish or more or less hemispherical, the differ- 
 ent species differing in form, and are usually dark brown in 
 
 Fig. 2IO. — Lecaiiiiiin kes/>. 
 
 (From the Author's Report for 1880.) 
 
 color. The eggs, or the young in the viviparous species, are 
 deposited beneath the scale-like body of the female. Figure 
 209 represents Lccaniuvi olece (o'le-ae), which is very com. 
 mon in California, where it is known as the black scale; 
 Figure 210, the soft scale, Lccaniuni licspcridiun (hes-per'i- 
 dum), which is common on various plants in all parts of 
 
IIEMIPTKRA. 
 
 171 
 
 this cojintry; and Figure 211, the hemispherical scale, 
 Lecanium hcmispJuericum (hem-i-sphair'i-cum), which occurs 
 in conservatories everywhere, and in the open air in Cah- 
 fornia. 
 
 The Armored-scales Sub-family Diaspimr {J^\-7is-'^\' nTs). — 
 The great majority of the common scale insects of this 
 
 tMxi,TX(^ 
 
 FsG. 'izx^'^Lecanium kemispkcericum : 3^, insect enlarged. (From the Author's Report 
 
 for 1880.) 
 
 country differ from the forms described above in that the 
 body of the insect, except for a very short period after 
 birth, is covered with a scale composed in part of an excre- 
 tion of the insect and partly of molted skins. Thus in the 
 Lecaniums the scale-like object is the body of the insect; 
 but in the case of the Oyster-shell Bark-louse, the Pernicious 
 
172 
 
 77//-; STUDY OF IX SECTS. 
 
 Scale, and uf niaii)' other forms, the scale-h'ke object com- 
 monly seen is not the insect, but an armor beneath which it 
 lives. 
 
 The young insects of this sub-family resemble in general 
 appearance those of other scale insects. Their active stage, 
 however, is much shorter. After crawling about over the 
 
 MjoxJZ. 
 
 1 .L.. -zx^.—Chionaspis pinifolio' : 2. scales on Pinus strobus, natural size, leaves stunted; 
 2rt, leaves of P. strobus not stunted by scale insects; 2/5, scale of female, usual 
 form, enlarged; 2r, scale of female, wide f^rm, enlarged; 2(i', scale of male en- 
 larged. 
 
 twigs of a tree for a few days, the young scale insect settles 
 upon a suitable place and immediately begins to excrete 
 a cottony substance which soon becomes compacted into a 
 thin pellicle covering the body. As the insect grows and 
 needs to shed its skin, this cast skin is joined to the excretion 
 and forms a part of the scale. This is the bright- colored, 
 nipple-like prominence, seen in the centre of the Pernicious 
 
HEMIPTEKA 
 
 173 
 
 Scale and of the Red Scale of the Orange ; and it may be seen 
 at the smaller end of the scale of the Oyster-shell Bark-louse. 
 The position of this cast skin in the scale differs in differ- 
 ent genera, and forms a good character for classification. 
 
 Closely allied species differ but little in the form of the 
 scale. To distinguish these it is necessary to study the 
 
 Fig. zz-i.—Aspidtotus auratitii : scales on leaves of orangre, natural size; id, adult male 
 much enlarged ; ib, scale of female enlarged; ic, scale of male, enlarged. 
 
 insects themselves, which are found beneath the scales 
 The distinctions between closely allied species are such. 
 that it requires very close observation and much skill in this 
 particular line to make the determinations, a careful prepa- 
 ration of the specimens and an excellent microscope being 
 necessary requisites. 
 
 The different species of scale-insects vary as regards their 
 food habits. We find that certain species infest particular 
 
174 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 plants and will feed upon no others ; thus, the Red-scale of 
 the Orange does not trouble deciduous fruits. On the other 
 hand, other species have a wide range of food plants. This 
 is the case of the Greedy-scale, which infests a great variety 
 of both cultivated and wild plants. 
 
 Figure 202, page 165, represents the Scurfy Bark-louse, 
 Chionaspis fur/urns (Chi-o-nas'pis fur'fur-us), a species very 
 widely distributed on apple, pear, and cherry; Figure 212, the 
 Pine-leaf Scale, Chionaspis pinifolicB (pin-i-fo'li-ge), which 
 occurs on various species of pine and spruce in all parts of 
 the United States where these trees grow; and Figure 213 
 represents the red scale of California, Aspidiotiis aurantii 
 (As-pid-i-o'tus au-ran'ti-i), which is very destructive to 
 oranges and lemons. 
 
 Fig. z\^.—Nepa apiculata. See p. 131, 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Order Neuroptera (Neu-rop'te-ra). 
 
 TJie Dobson, Aphis-lions, A nt-lions, and others. 
 
 The members of this order have four wings ; these are mem^ 
 branous and furnished zvith numerous veins, and usually with 
 many eross veins. The head is 7iot prolonged into a beak. The 
 moMth-parts are formed for biting. The metamorphosis is 
 complete. 
 
 The name of this order is from two Greek words : neuron, a 
 nerve ; 2ind pteron, a wing. It refers to the numerous nerves, 
 or veins as they are more commonly called, with which the 
 wings are furnished. 
 
 When the name Neuroptera was first used it was applied 
 to a much larger group of insects than now, a group which 
 has since been divided into many orders. So that now, 
 while the name expresses a character \\hich is true of the 
 order, it is also true of many others.* 
 
 The order Neuroptera as now restricted is represented in 
 the United States by seven families. These can be separated 
 by the following table : — 
 
 TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE FAMILIES OF NEUROPTERA. 
 
 A. Prothorax as long as or longer than the mesothorax and the 
 metathorax combined. 
 
 B. Fore legs greatly enlarged and fitted for grasping, p. 179. 
 
 Mantispid^. 
 
 * The Neuroptera of the older Entomologists included the following 
 orders : Thysanura, Ephemerida, Odonata, Plecoptera, Isoptera, Corroden- 
 tia, Mallophaga, Neuroptera, Mecoptera, and Trichoptera. 
 
 175 
 
176 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 BB. Fore legs not enlarged, and not fitted for grasping, p. 178. 
 
 Raphidiid.'E. 
 AA. Prothorax not as long as the mesothorax and the metathorax 
 combined. 
 
 B. Hind wings broad at the base, and with that part nearest the 
 abdomen (the anal area) folded like a fan when not in use. 
 
 p. 176 SlALiD.*:. 
 
 BB. Hind wings narrow at base, and not folded like a fan when 
 closed. 
 
 C. Wings with very few veins, and covered with whitisli powder. 
 (As this family includes only very rare insects it is not dis- 
 cussed in this book.) Coniopterygid/E. 
 
 CC. Wings with numerous veins, and not covered with powder. 
 D. Antennae gradually enlarged towards the end, or filiform 
 
 with a terminal knob. p. 182 MvRMELEONlD.li. 
 
 DD. Antennae without terminal enlargement. 
 
 E. Some of the transverse veins between the costa and sub- 
 costa forked (in all common forms), wings brownish or 
 
 smoky, p. 181 Hemerobiid.e. 
 
 EE. Transverse veins between the cosia and subcosta simple, 
 wings greenish, p. 180 Chrysopid^E. 
 
 Family SialiD/E (Si-al'i-dae). 
 The Dobson and others. 
 
 The members of this family differ greatly in size and ap- 
 pearance ; but they agree in having the hind wings wide at 
 the base, and in having that part of these wings nearest the 
 abdomen (the anal area) more or less folded in plaits when 
 the wings are closed. 
 
 The species that is most likely to attract attention is the 
 Horned Corydalis, Corydalis cornuta (Co-ryd'a-lis cor-nu'ta). 
 This is a magnificent insect, which has a wing expanse of 
 from four to nearly five and a half inches. Figure 215 
 represents the male, which has remarkably long mandibles. 
 The female resembles the male, except that the mandibles 
 are comparatively short. 
 
NEUROPTERA. 
 
 177 
 
 This species is common throughout the United States. 
 The larvae are called Dobsons by anglers and are used by 
 them for bait, especially for bass. Figure 216 represents a 
 full-grown Dobson, natural size. These larvse live under 
 stones in the beds of streams. They are most abundant where 
 the water flows swiftest. They are carnivorous, feeding 
 upon the nymphs of Stone-flies, May-flies, and other insects. 
 
 Fig. 215. — CorydiilU cornitta. 
 
 Fig. 216. — Corydalis cornuta, larva. 
 
 When about two years and eleven months old, the larva leaves 
 the water, and makes a cell under a stone or some other 
 object on or near the bank of the stream. This occurs dur- 
 ing the early part of the summer ; here the larva changes to 
 a pupa. In about a month after the larva leaves the water 
 the adult insect appears. The eggs are then soon laid; 
 
178 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 these are attached to stones or other objects overhanging 
 the water. They are laid in blotch-Hke masses, which are 
 chalky-white in color, and measure from half an inch to nearly 
 an inch in diameter. A single mass contains from two thou- 
 sand to three thousand eggs. When the larvae hatch they 
 at once find their way into the water, where they remain 
 until full grown. 
 
 There are other common species of the family which 
 closely resemble Corydalis but are smaller, the larger ones 
 measuring less than two and a half inches in length, and 
 having a wing expanse of not more than four inches. These 
 insects also differ from Corydalis in having three ocelli and 
 in lacking the sharp tooth-like angles on the sides of the back 
 part of the head. See Figure 215 of the adult Corydalis. 
 These species belong to the genus CJiauliodes (Chau-li'o-des). 
 
 Chauliodes pecticornis (pec-ti-cor'nis) is a common species 
 with grayish wings and feather-like antennae. Chauliodes 
 serricornis (ser-ri-cor'nis) is also common ; this is a brownish- 
 black species with the wings spotted with white, and with 
 serrate antennae. 
 
 Family RAPHlDIIDiE (Raph-i-di'i-dae.) 
 
 TJie Raphidians {Ra-pJiid' i-ans). 
 
 The members of this family are found in this country 
 only in the far West. They are strange-appearing insects, 
 the prothorax being greatly elongated, like the neck of a 
 camel (Fig. 217). The female bears a long, 
 slender, sickle-shaped ovipositor at the end 
 of the abdomen. The fore legs resemble 
 
 Fig. 217. — Raphidia, . . • r i 11 1 
 
 female. the Other pairs of legs, and are borne at the 
 
 hinder end of the prothorax. 
 
 The larvae are found under bark and are carnivorous. 
 We have found them common under the loose bark of the 
 Eucalyptus. They also occur in orchards, and doubtless do 
 good by destroying the larvae and pupae of the Codlin-moth. 
 
XEUROPTEKA. 
 
 179 
 
 Living specimens of these insects have been sent to Aus- 
 tiaha by our government in the hope of introducing the 
 species there, and thus doing something towards repaying 
 the debt that wc owe that country for the Australian Lady- 
 bug, which has rendered us great service in the destruction 
 of the Cottony-cushion Scale in California. 
 
 Tiie family is represented by two genera, Raphidia (Ra- 
 phid'i-a) and Iiwccllia (In-o-cel'li-a), In the former there 
 arc three simple eyes on the top of the head between the 
 compound eyes ; in the latter these ocelli are wanting. 
 
 Family Mantispid.e (Man-tis'pi-dae). 
 TJic Mantis-like Neitroptera. 
 
 The members of this family are even stranger in appear- 
 ance than the Raphidians. Here, as in that family, the 
 prothorax is greatly elongated ; but the members of this 
 family can be easily recognized by their remarkable fore 
 legs, which are greatly enlarged and resemble those of the 
 Praying Mantes in form (Fig. 
 218). These legs are fitted for 
 seizing prey; and, in order 
 that they may reach farther 
 forward, they are joined to 
 the front end of the long pro- 
 thorax. In the adult state 
 these insects are predaceous; 
 while the larvae, so far as is 
 known, are parasitic in the 
 egg-sacs of spiders. 
 
 Five species of the family are known from the United 
 States; four of these belong to the gQxwxs Alantispa (Man- 
 tis'pa) and one to Symphasis (Sym'pha-sis). 
 
 Fig. ^xZ.—Mantispa. In the specimen 
 figured the fore legs were twisted 
 somewhat in order to show the form 
 of the parts. 
 
I So 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Family Chrysopid.e (Chry-sop'i-dae). 
 
 The Lacc-wiiigcd-flics or Aphis-lions. 
 
 If one will search the foliage of herbs, shrubs, or trees, 
 there may be found, running rapidly around on the leaves, 
 sturdy, spindle-formed, little insects that have great sickle- 
 shaped jaws (Fig. 219). These larvae are always hungry, 
 and will kill and eat any insects that they can overpower; 
 
 Fig. 219. — Eggs, larva, cocoon, and adult of Chrysof>a. 
 
 but as they are especially destructive to plant-lice, they are 
 called Aphis-lions. 
 
 When an Aphis-lion is full grown it rolls itself up into a 
 tiny ball and weaves around itself a glistening, white 
 cocoon, which looks like a large seed-pearl. It may be 
 supposed that while the Aphis-lion is secluded in this pearly 
 cell it repents its greedy, murderous ways, and changes in 
 spirit ; at least the body changes greatly, for, after a time, a 
 circular lid is made in the cocoon, and out of this emerges 
 a beautiful, dainty creature, with delicate-veined, green 
 wings, a pale green body, slender, brown antenna;, and 
 a pair of large eyes that shine like melted gold. It is 
 
NEUROrrERA. l8l 
 
 sometimes called GoUlen-cyes, and sometimes, a Lace-winged- 
 fly, from its appearance. The Lace-wing is a prudent 
 mother; she knows that if she lays her eggs together on a 
 leaf the first Aphis-lion that hatches will eat for his first 
 meal all his unhatched brothers and sisters. She guards 
 against this fratricide by laying each <t^^ on the top of a 
 stiff stalk of hard -silk about half an inch high. Groups of 
 these eggs are very pretty, looking like a tin\- forest of 
 white stems bearing on their summits round glistening fruit. 
 When the first of the brood hatches, he scrambles down as 
 best he can from his q^^ perch to the surface of the leaf, 
 and runs off, quite unconscious that the rest of his family 
 are reposing in peace high above his head. 
 
 The mouth-parts of these larvae are very unusual in 
 form. The mandibles are very long ; on the lower side of 
 each of them there is a furrow the entire length ; into this 
 furrow the long and slender maxilla fits. In this wa}'' the 
 mandible and the maxilla of each side form a tube, through 
 which the blood of the prey of the insect can be drawn. 
 This explains why an Aphis-lion holds its prey on the tips 
 of its long jaws, at arm's length, as it were, while sucking 
 its blood. 
 
 Nearly all of the members of this family belong to the 
 genus Chrysopa (Chry-so'pa). 
 
 Family Hemerobiid.E (Hem-e-ro-bi'i-dae). 
 The Hcmerobians {H em-e-ro bi-ans). 
 
 The common members of this family are rather dark- 
 colored insects, with the wings mottled with dark brown or 
 smoky specks, and with some of the veins between the costa 
 and subcosta forked. 
 
 The most conspicuous member of the family is Polys- 
 toecJiotes piinctatiis (Pol-ys-tcech'o-tes punc-ta'tus), which is 
 represented natural size by Figure 220. The larva is 
 unknown. 
 
1 82 THE STUDY OF l.XSECIS. 
 
 The larger number of tlic species of this family belong 
 to the genus Hcmcrobius (Hem-e-ro'bi-us). These are small- 
 ish insects, the largest of which 
 expands hardly an inch. They 
 occur in forests, and especially 
 on cone -bearing trees. The 
 Y.o. ..o.-Foiystoechous M^^tatus. j^^.^^ ^^^^ ^ strong rcscm- 
 
 blance to the Aphis-lions, and like them feed upon Aphids 
 and other small insects. After sucking the blood from their 
 victims, they make cloaks for themselves of the empty skins. 
 
 Family Myrmeleonid^ (Myr-me-le-on'i-dae). 
 
 Tlie Ant-lions and othej-s. 
 
 The Ant-lions, Myrmeleon (Myr-me'le-on). — In sandy 
 places beneath overhanging cliffs, beneath buildings, and 
 along sandy banks where the sun shines warmest, there may 
 be found, in all parts of our land, little, funnel-shaped pits 
 one or two inches across (Fig. 22 1). The sides are smooth 
 and as steep as the sand 
 will lie ; and at the bottom 
 may be seen two small 
 curved objects. All is still 
 and motionless until some 
 ant, hurrying along with 
 
 , . Fig. 221.— Pitfall of an Ant-lion. 
 
 mmd mtent upon busine.ss, 
 
 carelessly runs over the edge of one of these pitfalls. Then 
 the ant commences to slide down, while some force below 
 throws out the sand from under its struggling feet, until it 
 slides into the bottom, where literally jaws of death are 
 awaiting it. For the curved objects are a pair of jaws, 
 attached to a strong head, and closely connected with a 
 greedy stomach. If we dig out the owner of the jaws we 
 find it a spry, humpbacked creature, which moves backward 
 more easily than forward. It is worth while to collect some 
 
NEVKOPTERA. 
 
 183 
 
 of these larvae, and place them hi a basin of sand, and 
 watch them build their pits. They do this by using the head 
 for a shovel. Sometimes when an ant seems likely to escape, 
 the Ant-lion will throw up a torrent of sand so that it will 
 descend on the victim, knocking it back into the pit. 
 
 When ready to change to a pupa the Ant-lion makes for 
 itself a little, round cocoon of sand fastened together and lined 
 with silk. The adult Ant-lion is a graceful insect with long, 
 narrow, delicate wings, and a slender body (Fig. 222). 
 
 Fig. 222.— Larva, cocoon with pupa-skin projecting, and adult of an Ant-lion. 
 
 Certain members of this family differ from the ant-lions 
 in having long, filiform antennae, which are suddenly en- 
 larged at the end. These belong to the genus Ascalapkiis 
 (As-cara-phus). 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 Order Mecopteka (Me-cop'te-ra). 
 
 The Scorpion-flics and others. 
 
 The members of this order have four wings ; these are 
 membranous, and furnished zuith numerous veins. The head 
 is prolonged into a beak, at the end of zvhich biting mouth 
 parts are situated. The metamorphosis is complete. 
 
 This is a small order composed of very remarkable in- 
 sects. The most striking character common to all is the 
 shape of the head, which is prolonged into a beak (Fig. 223). 
 The name Mecoptera is from two Greek words ; 
 ^^fc^ mccos, length ; and pteron, a wing. This order 
 vbrW includes only a single family, the Panorpidce. 
 
 \ 
 
 Family Panorpid.e (Pa-nor'pi-dae). 
 TJie Scorpion-flics and others. 
 We have found representatives of this family 
 quite abundant on rank herbage growing on 
 Fig 22-, -Head ^^^^ bauks of a shaded stream; we have also 
 «"?/«.'' °^ '^" found them in damp woods where there was a 
 luxuriant undergrowth of herbaceous plants. 
 These insects take flight readily when disturbed ; they are car- 
 nivorous both in tlie adult and in the larval state. The larvae 
 larvae so far as known are remarkable on account of their 
 great resemblance to caterpillars. Not only is the form of 
 the body like that of a caterpillar, but the abdomen is fur- 
 nished with fleshy pro-legs. There are, however, eight pairs 
 of these ; while caterpillars, as a rule, have only five. 
 
 1S4 
 
MECOri KRA. 185 
 
 The most common members of this family arc tlie 
 Scorpion-flies, Panorpa (Pa-nor'pa). These are called Scor- 
 pion-flies on account of the peculiar form of the caudal part 
 of the abdomen of the male (Fig 223). This at first sight 
 suggests the corresponding part of a scorpion ; 
 but in reality the two are very different. The 
 last segment, instead of ending in a sting like 
 that of a scorpion, is greatly enlarged and bears 
 a pair of clasping organs. The wings arc nar- 
 row but arc well developed, being longer than 
 the body. In our more common species they are p^. ^., _^^,. 
 yellowish, spotted with brownish black (Fig. 224). "'"'^''' "'^"''• 
 
 Very closely allied to the Scorpion-flies are the insects of 
 the genus Bittacus (Bit'ta-cus). These insects have long 
 narrow wings, long legs, and a slender abdomen. They re- 
 semble crane-flies very closely when on the wing. In this 
 genus the caudal appendages of the male are not enlarged as 
 in Panorpa. 
 
 The species of the genus Boreus (Bo're-us) are remarka- 
 ble for occurring on snow, in the winter, in our Northern 
 States. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Order Trichoptera (Tri-chop'te-ra)c 
 
 The Caddice-flies or Caddicc-zvornis. 
 
 The members of this order have four tvings ; these are 
 membranous, furnisJied ivitJi numerous longitudinal veins but 
 with only fezv cross veins, and are more or less densely clothed 
 with hairs. The mouth-parts are rudimentary. The meta- 
 morphosis is complete. 
 
 The Caddice-flies are moth-like insects which are com- 
 mon in the vicinity of streams, ponds, and lakes ; and they 
 are also frequently attracted to lights at night. 
 
 The body-wall of these insects is soft, being membran- 
 ous or at the most parchment-like, and is thickly clothed 
 with hairs. There are usually four ample wings. These 
 are membranous ; but the fore pair are more leathery than 
 the hind pair. When not in use they are folded against 
 the sides of the abdomen, in an almost vertical position, 
 and give the insect a narrow and elongated appearance 
 (Fig. 225). The wings are more or less densely clothed 
 with hairs ; and in some cases the 
 hairs are scale-like in form. The hind 
 wings are usually broader than the 
 fore wings, and are often longitudi- 
 F,G. ..5.-Caddice-fly. j^^jj^ f^j^gj j,^ rcpose. All havc nu- 
 
 merous longitudinal veins, but the cross veins are few. 
 
 The name of the order is from two Greek words : thrix, 
 a hair; a.nd pteron, a wing. 
 
 The order includes only a single family, the PhryganeidcB, 
 
 186 
 
TRICIIOPTERA. 187 
 
 Family PHRYGANEioyE (Phryg-a-ne'i-dae). 
 
 The Caddice-flies or Caddice-worms. 
 
 The young naturalist loves to lie face downward on the 
 bank of a brook, and, with shaded eyes, watch the busy life 
 that goes on there. Among the astonishing things he sees 
 are little bundles of sticks or masses of stones moving about 
 the bottom of a quiet pool as if they were alive ; and yet if 
 he takes them out they seem dead enough. But when 
 he pulls them apart he finds that each is a tube lined 
 with silk within which a whitish larva lives. This larva, 
 when it wishes to move, puts out the front part of its body, 
 so that it can creep with its legs over the bottom of the 
 stream, or climb up and down water-plants, dragging its 
 house along after it. When molested it draws back into its 
 tube, and is safe. Larvae of this sort are called Caddice- 
 worms ; and the adult insects are known as Caddice-flies. 
 
 There are very many species of Caddice-worms ; and each 
 species makes a particular kind of tube. Some Caddice- 
 worms are carpenters, building their houses of straws or 
 
 sticks. These are usu- 
 ally placed lengthwise 
 the body (Fig. 226); 
 but certain species that 
 Fir.. 226. make their houses chief- 
 
 ly of straws fasten the straws crosswise like the logs of a 
 log-house (Fig. 227). These log-house builders 
 often have the curious habit of decorating their 
 houses by fastening snail-shells to the outside. 
 And strangely enough they do not always take 
 empty shells for this purpose; we have found 
 shells containing living snails securely fastened F"^- ^^'a 
 to the outside of the house of a Caddice-worm. In this case 
 the snail was afforded comparatively rapid transportation 
 whether it desired it or not. Fortunately the species that 
 
 » 
 
1 88 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 make this style of house live in still water, and may, there- 
 fore, be easily kept alive in aquaria. 
 
 There are caddice-vvorm houses closely resembling in plan 
 those just described but differing in appearance, being made 
 of bits of moss. Sometimes the houses are built of leaves ; 
 these may be fastened so as to form a flat case ; or are ar- 
 ranged in three planes, so as to form a tube, a cross-section 
 of which is a triangle. 
 
 Other Caddice-worms are masons, building their houses of 
 grains of sand or of small stones. Sometimes these houses 
 are tubes very regular in outline, being composed only of 
 grains of sand fastened together with silk ; but certain spe- 
 cies of Mason Caddice-worms fasten larger stones on each side 
 of this tube of sand (Fig. 228). Some of the species that 
 
 f 
 
 Fig. 228. Fig. 229. 
 
 build tubes of sand make spiral houses which very closely 
 
 resemble in form snail-shells (Fig. 229). 
 
 Whether stones or wood are used to build these houses 
 
 the material is always fastened together by silk, which the 
 
 larvae spin from the mouth in the same manner as do cater- 
 
 pillars. In some species the case is 
 
 ^^^^^*^^ composed entirely of silk. Figure 230 
 represents the form of such a case, which 
 
 Fig. 230, • . r 1 1 
 
 IS common in some of our lakes. 
 Among the simplest of the various forms of houses built 
 by Caddice-worms are those made by certain species that live 
 under stones in rapid streams. These consist merely of a 
 few pebbles fa.stened to the lower surface of a larger stone 
 by threads of silk. In the space between these pebbles the 
 worm makes a more or less perfect tube of silk, within which 
 
TKICHOl'TERA. 1 89 
 
 it lives. Very little respect for the architectural skill of 
 these builders is commanded by their rude dwellings. But 
 if one looks a little farther, something will be found that is 
 sure to excite admiration. The dweller within this rude re- 
 treat is a fisherman ; and stretched between two stones near 
 by can be seen his net. This is made of silk. It is usually 
 funnel-shaped, opening up-stream ; and in the centre of it 
 there is a portion composed of threads of silk extending in 
 two directions at right angles to each other, so as to form 
 meshes of surprising regularity. It is as if a spider had 
 stretched a small web in the water where the current is the 
 swiftest. These nets occur in rapids between stones, but in 
 many places they are to be found in greater numbers along 
 the brinks of falls. Here they are built upon the surface of 
 the rock, in the form of semi-elliptical cups, which are kept 
 distended by the current. Much of the coating of dirt with 
 which these rocks are clothed in summer is due to its being 
 caught in these nets. We have not yet observed the owners 
 of the nets taking their prey from them ; but we cannot 
 doubt that they are made to trap small insects or other ani- 
 mals that are being carried down-stream ; for the larvoe of 
 the sub-family to which these net-builders belong, the Hy- 
 dropsychince, are known to be carnivorous. It should be 
 noted here, however, that the greater number of Caddice- 
 worms are herbivorous. 
 
 When a Caddice-worm gets ready to change to a pupa it 
 retires into its house and builds a door to keep intruders 
 out ; but the door always has an opening to. allow the water 
 to flow in so that the pupa can breathe. Sometimes a simple 
 grating of silk is made over the entrance. 
 
 On one occasion the writer had the good fortune to ob- 
 serve a Caddice-fly leave the water and take its first flight. 
 The specimen was one of the net-building species, Hydrop- 
 syche (Hy-drop-sy'che), which I was breeding in an aquarium 
 in my laboratory. It swam to the surface of the water 
 repeatedl}', using its long middle legs. When swimniing, 
 
190 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 these legs were extended at right angles to the body like a 
 pair of oars. The insect was unable to crawl up the vertical 
 side of the aquarium, and after clinging to it for a short time 
 it would lose its hold and sink back to the bottom. After 
 watching it for a time I lifted it from the water by means of 
 a stick. At this time its wings were in the form of pads, 
 which were but little, if any, longer than the wing-pads of 
 the pupa, as shown by the cast pupa-skin found floating on 
 the water. The instant the creature was free from the water 
 its wings expanded to their full size, and immediately it flew 
 away several feet. In my efforts to catch the insect I found 
 that it had perfect use of its wings, although they were so 
 recently expanded. The time required for the insect to 
 expands its wings and take its first flight was scarcely more 
 than one second ; it was certainly less than two. As these 
 insects normally emerge from rapidly-flowing streams which 
 dash over rocks, it is evident that if much time were required 
 for the wings to become fit for use, as is the case with most 
 other insects, the wave succeeding that which swept one from 
 the water would sweep it back again and destroy it. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Order Lepidoptera (Lep-i-dop'te-ra). 
 
 The Mollis or Millers, the Skippers, and the Butterflies. 
 
 The members of this order have four iviiigs ; these are 
 membrancus, and covered zvith overlapping scales. The mouth- 
 parts are formed for sucking. The metatnorphosis is complete. 
 
 The name of this order is from two Greek words : lepis, 
 a scale ; and pteron, a wing. It refers to the fact that the 
 wings of these insects are covered with scales. Every lad 
 that lives in the country knows that the wings of moths and 
 butterflies are covered with dust, which comes off upon one's 
 fingers when these insects are handled. This dust when 
 examined with a microscope is found to be composed of very 
 minute scales of regular form ; and when a wing is looked at 
 in the same way, the scales are seen arranged with more or 
 less regularity upon it. The body, the legs, and other 
 appendages are also covered with scales. 
 
 The scales of Lepidoptera are modified hairs. That is, 
 they are hairs which, instead of growing long and slender as 
 hairs usually do, remain short, but grow very wide as com- 
 pared with their length. Every gradation in form can be 
 found from the ordinary hair-like form, which occurs most 
 abundantly upon the body, to the short and broad scale, 
 which is best seen upon the wings. 
 
 There is a great difference among the insects of this order 
 regarding the regularity of the arrangement of the scales 
 
 191 
 
19: 
 
 THE STUDY OF J \ SECTS. 
 
 upon 
 
 the wings. With some of the lower moths the scales 
 are scattered irregularly over 
 ^ r^^E^-^^--» the wings. But* if the wing of 
 
 '. ,-,/:- - r ■]• °"^' °^ ^^^^ higher butterflies be 
 
 A examined with a microscope, 
 ' -^-^ the scales will be found arranged 
 "^ "11 regular, overlapping rows; 
 
 ic arrangement being as reg- 
 lar as that of the scales on a 
 ish or of the shingles on a roof 
 (Fig. 231). In the upper part 
 of the figure the membrane is 
 represented with the scales re- 
 moved. 
 
 The use of the scales on the wings is to strengthen them. 
 We thus see that the wings of these insects are furnished 
 with much fewer cross veins than are the wings of similar 
 size in other orders. A secondary use of these scales is that 
 of ornamentation ; for the beautiful colors and markings of 
 these insects are due entirely to the scales, and are destroyed 
 when the scales are removed. Upon the body, legs, and 
 
 Fig. 231.— Part of wing of butterfly, 
 greatly magnified. 
 
 Fig. 232.— MaxilliE of cotton-moth, and tip of same enlarged 
 
 other appendages, the scales and hairs doubtless serve to 
 protect the insect, being a sort of armor. 
 
 The mouth-parts of moths and butterflies are especially 
 adapted for sucking nectar from flowers. If the head of a 
 butterfly be examined, there will be found a long sucking 
 
LEPfDOPTERA. 1 93 
 
 tube, which when not in use is coiled on the lower side of 
 the head between two forward-projecting appendages. This 
 long sucking tube is composed of the two maxilla;, greatly 
 elongated, and fastened together side by side. In Figure 232 
 there is represented a side view of the maxillae of a moth ; 
 and in Figure 233 a cross-section of these organs. Each 
 
 Fig. 233. — Cross-section of maxillae. 
 
 maxilla is furnished with a groove, and the two maxillae are 
 so fastened together that the two grooves form a tube through 
 which the liquid food is sucked. As a rule the maxillae of 
 insects of this order are merely fitted for extracting the 
 nectar from flowers, but sometimes the tips of the maxillae 
 are armed with spines, as shown in Figure 232. This enables 
 the insect to lacerate the tissue of ripe fruits and thus set 
 free the juice, which is then sucked up. Many moths do not 
 eat in the adult state ; with these the maxillae are wanting. 
 The two forward -projecting organs between which the 
 maxillae are coiled when present are the labial palpi. In 
 some moths the maxillary palpi are also developed. 
 
 The larvae of Lepidoptera are known as caterpillars. 
 They vary greatly in form and appearance ; but are usually 
 cylindrical, and provided with from eight to sixteen legs, — 
 six thoracic legs, and from two to ten abdominal legs. The 
 thoracic legs, which are finally developed into the legs of the 
 adult, have a hard external skeleton ; and are jointed, taper- 
 ing, and armed at the end with a little claw. The abdominal 
 legs, which are shed with the last larval skin, are thick, 
 
194 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 fleshy, without joints, elastic or contractile, and are generally 
 surrounded at the extremity by numerous, minute hooks 
 (Fig. 234) ; they are termed pro-legs. 
 
 Fig. 234,— Larva of a Hawk-moth. 
 
 Most caterpillars, except the larvae of butterflies, spin 
 cocoons (Fig. 235). In some instances, as in case of the 
 
 Fig. 235.— Cocoon of a 
 
 silkworms, a great amount of silk is used in the construction 
 of the cocoon ; in others the cocoon is composed principally 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. I9S 
 
 of the hairs of the larva, which are fastened together with a 
 fine web of silk. 
 
 In the pupai of Lepidoptera the developing wings and 
 legs are folded upon the sides and breast ; the whole being 
 enclosed in a hard skin (Fig. 
 236). 
 
 The members of this order 
 as a rule feed upon plants, and 
 are not aquatic ; some, as the 
 Clothes-moth and the species 
 that destroy Scale-bugs, feed ^"=- ^^s^.-i'upa of a mou.. 
 
 on animal matter, and a very few feed upon plants below 
 the surface of the water. 
 
 More than six thousand species of Lepidoptera are 
 known to occur in America, north of Mexico. These rep- 
 resent more than sixty families. 
 
 In order to give a synopsis of the Lepidoptera it is 
 necessary to enter into rather difificult technical details. 
 Hence this is done in that portion of this chapter designed 
 for advanced students and printed in fine type. The prin- 
 cipal divisions of the Lepidoptera that are appropriately 
 discussed here are three : the moths, the skippers, and the 
 butterflies : — 
 
 TJie JSIotJis. — These are the insects commonly called 
 millers. Most of the species fly by night and are frequently 
 attracted to lights. When at rest the wings are either 
 wrapped around the body, or are spread horizontally, or are 
 folded roof-like on the abdomen ; they are not held in a 
 vertical position above the body. The antennae of moths 
 are of various forms ; they are usually thread-like or feather- 
 like ; only in rare cases are they enlarged towards the tip. 
 The moths include all but the last six families of Lepidop- 
 tera. 
 
 The Skippers. — The skippers are so called on account of 
 their peculiar mode of flight. They fly in the daytime and 
 dart suddenly from place to place. When at rest the)- 
 
196 THE STUD V OF INSECTS. 
 
 usually hold the wings erect in a vertical position like 
 butterflies; often the fore wings are thus held while the 
 hind wings are extended horizontally. The antennae are 
 thread-like, and enlarged towards the tip ; but in most cases 
 the extreme tip is pointed and recurved, forming a hook. 
 The abdomen is usually stout, resembling that of a moth 
 rather than that of a butterfly. This division includes two 
 families. 
 
 The Buttei'flics. — The butterflies fly by day ; and when 
 at rest they fold the wings together above the back in a 
 vertical position. The antennae are thread-like with a club 
 at the tip, which is never recurved so as to form a hook. 
 The abdomen is slender. This division includes the last 
 four families described in this chapter. 
 
 Classification of the Lepidoptera. 
 
 {For Advanced Students.) 
 
 The study of the classification of the Lepidoptera is beset by a 
 peculiar difficulty. As these insects are clothed with scales com- 
 paratively little of their structure can be examined without injury to 
 the specimens studied. Fortunately, however, it has been found 
 that the various modifications of the framework of the wings afTord 
 excellent clues to the relationsliips of the different groups; and these 
 modifications can be determined in most cases without serious injury 
 to the specimens. The structure of the antennae also can be easily 
 studied, and in many cases affords much help in determining the zoo- 
 logical position of an insect. 
 
 The first step to be taken in the study of the classification of 
 these insects is to become thoroughly familiar with the nomenclature 
 of the wing veins ; this is given on pages 64 to 66. It is a good plan 
 to take several of the larger moths and butterflies and make draw- 
 ings showing the courses of the veins of the wings in each, carefully 
 indicating the names or numbers of the veins on the drawings. 
 The making of such drawings will be of much use in fixing the ar- 
 rangement of the veins in the student's mind. It should be remem- 
 bered that veins IV and VI are not developed in this order. 
 
 As the scales on the lower surface of the wings are more clo.sely 
 applied to the wings than are those on the upper surface, the veins 
 can be best seen when the wings are examined from below. The 
 
LEriDOPTERA. I97 
 
 veins can be rendered more distinct fur a few seconds by putting a 
 drop of chloroform on the part of the wing to be examined ; tliis can 
 be easily done by means of a camels-hair brush. 
 
 Sometimes it is necessary to remove the scales from a small part 
 of the wing in order to determine the nature of some characteristic; 
 this can be easily done with an artist's sable brusi). A very small 
 brush is best for this purpose; and care should be taken not to break 
 the wing. 
 
 The above methods are all that are needed in the majority of 
 cases where the mere determination of an insect is the object. But 
 when a very careful study of the venation of a wing is to be made, 
 it should be bleached and mounted on a card or on a glass slip in 
 order that it may be studied with a compound microscope. The fol- 
 lowing is the method of bleaching wings: — 
 
 1. Remove the wings carefully so as not to break the frenulum if 
 there be one; it is well to remove the patagium first. 
 
 2. Dip the wings in alcohol in order to wet them. 
 
 3. Immerse them for an instant in hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid). 
 Use for this purpose dilute acid, one part acid to nine parts water. 
 
 4. Put them in Labaraque solution with the upper surface of the 
 wings down, and leave there till the color has been removed from the 
 scales. If a wing bleaches slowly, the process can be hastened by 
 dipping it in the dilute acid and returning it to the Labaraque 
 solution from time to time. This solution can be procured of most 
 druggists. It deteriorates if left exposed in strong sunlight. If it 
 cannot be obtained, use an aqueous solution of chloride of lime. 
 
 5. When a wing is bleached put it in alcohol and leave it there till 
 after it floats. This is to wash off the Labaraque solution. The 
 wing can then be mounted on a card. But it is better to mount it as 
 described below. 
 
 6. Transfer the wing to a clearing mixture, if it is to be mounted 
 in balsam, and leave it there five or ten minutes. This is to remove 
 any water there may be on it. A good clearing mixture can be made 
 by mixing two parts by weight of carbolic-acid crystals and three 
 parts of rectified oil of turpentine. 
 
 7. Put the wing on a glass slip with considerable clearing mixture 
 under it to avoid bubbles ; put Canada balsam on top, and cover with 
 thin glass. In the case of small wings, it is best to transfer them 
 from one solution to another, and to the glass slip by means of a 
 camel's-hair brush. 
 
 Wings bleached and mounted in this way make an important ad- 
 dition to a collection. The slides should be carefully labelled ; and 
 
198 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 the insect from which the wings were taken should be kept with the 
 slide. It is our practice to remove always the wings from the right 
 side, and then to mount the slide in the collection at the right of the 
 insect from which the wings were taken. Uniformity in this respect 
 adds greatly to the appearance of the collection. 
 
 '"' The student should 
 
 study his larger speci- 
 mens first, leaving the 
 smaller ones till he has 
 acqui:ed skill in this 
 work. 
 
 There are a few spe- 
 cial terms used in de- 
 scribing the wings of 
 the Lepidoptera which 
 should be learned:— 
 
 Frenulum. — In most 
 moths there is a strong 
 spine or a bunch of 
 bristles borne by the 
 hind wing at the hume- 
 ral angle (Fig. 237, /); 
 
 V'iC.■i^^.-^N\n?,%o{ nyr!dopteryxeJ>hevierce/ormis. this is the frenulum. 
 
 Its use is to insure the acting together of the two wings of one 
 side. Except in the Microlepidoptera the frenulum of the male 
 consists of a single strong spine; 
 that of the female of two or 
 more bristles. 
 
 Juguvi. — In one suborder, 
 including only a few rare moths, 
 there exists, instead of a fren- 
 ulum, a lobe borne near the 
 base of the inner margin of the 
 fore wing (Fig. 238,7); this 
 is the jugum. See sub-order 
 Jugatse. 
 
 Discal Cell. — Near the cen- 
 tre of the basal part of the Mb vii, 
 wing there is a large cell lying ¥ig. ^T,?,.~Wing^oi Hepiaius gracilis. 
 between veins III and VII (Fig. 239, d.c); this is the discal cell. 
 In the more generalized Lepidoptera this cell is divided into two 
 parts by the base of vein V (Fig. 239, hind wing); in such cases the 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 199 
 
 cell lying immediately behind vein III is cell III, and that lying 
 immediately behind vein V is cell V, 
 
 Accessory Cells. — In many genera the branches of vein III of the 
 fore wings anastomose 
 
 so as to form one or 
 more cells beyond the 
 apex of the discal cells 
 (Fig. 239, a.c?) ; these 
 are the accessory cells. 
 
 Discal Vein. — The 
 cross vein at the outer 
 end of the discal cell is 
 termed the discal vein 
 (Fig. 239, d.v). 
 
 Patagia. — At the 
 base of each fore wing 
 there is a scale-like ap- 
 pendage; these are the 
 patagia. The paiagia 
 correspond to the tegulae 
 of the Hymenoptera and 
 ttre" elytra of the Cole- 
 optera. 
 
 In descriptions of 
 Lepidoptera reference is 
 often Inade to the palpi. 
 
 iir, in* iir, 
 
 Fig. 239. — Wings of Notolophus leucostigfna. 
 
 These form the double beak-like projection which extends forward 
 from the lower surface of the head. In most Lepidoptera only the 
 labial palpi are well developed ; but in some of the more generalized 
 forms the maxillary palpi are also present. 
 
 The presence or absence of ocelli 
 is a character which is sometimes of 
 considerable importance. These or- 
 gans are situated, one on each side, 
 above the compound eye and near its 
 
 „ ^ , V .. . margin (Fig. 240). But it requires some 
 Fig. 240.— Head of moth, showing , .,, ,- , 1 , , 
 
 position of ocellus. skul to find them when they are present, 
 
 on account of the long scales clothing the head. 
 
 The Phylogeny of the Lepidoptera. — Since the general acceptance 
 of the theory of evolution — that is, the theory that the higher animals 
 and plants have been developed from lower ones — it has become evi- 
 dent that the only sure basis for classification is a knowledge of the 
 
200 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 history of the various races of animals and plants, or phylogeny (phy- 
 log'e-ny), as it is termed. 
 
 The scope of this book has not permitted an extended treatmenc 
 of this phase of the subject. There is space for only a few hints re- 
 garding the phylogeny of the families of a single order; but these 
 hints will serve as an illustration of a method of study. The Lepi- 
 doptera is chosen for this purpose, as the method has been applied to 
 this order more fully than it has to others. 
 
 It is a well-known fact that every kind of animal and plant trans- 
 mits a general likeness with individual difTerences to its offspring. 
 
 According to the Darwinian theory of natural selection these dif- 
 ferences or variations may be of any kind and in any direction. And 
 as many more animals are born or plants germinated than can live to 
 reach maturity, owing to the tendency of each kind to increase in a 
 geometrical ratio, each individual is subjected to a severe struggle for 
 existence. 
 
 The result of this struggle is that any individual possessing a for- 
 tunate variation — that is, one that enables it to get its living and 
 escape its dangers more easily than its fellows — will be more apt on 
 this account to reach maturity and propagate its kind than will less 
 fortunate individuals. Thus there is a thinning-out process which 
 tends to the production of more and more specialized forms of animals 
 and plants, i.e., forms adapted to the special conditions under which 
 they exist. 
 
 It should be remembered that the difficulties surrounding exist- 
 ence may be met in different ways; and that thus there may have 
 descended from a common ancestor very different forms, each well 
 fitted to meet the struggle for existence. See Chapter I, pp. i and 2. 
 
 Just what changes have taken place in the structure of the mem- 
 bers of any race is a difficult matter to determine, for, although many 
 fossils have been found, the record is still very incomplete. But for- 
 tunately something can be learned regarding this by the study of 
 living animals. For not all members of the same family, or order, or 
 class are equally specialized. Some retain more nearly than others 
 the form of their remote ancestors ; and by the study of these ^^«^ra/- 
 Z^,?^ forms, as they are termed, we can gain some idea of the struc- 
 ture of the animals of past ages, and of the ways in which existing 
 animals have been modified. 
 
 We will state very briefly some of the conclusions that we have 
 reached regarding the phylogeny of the families of the Lepidoptera. 
 These conclusions are based largely on a study of the wings. It is 
 hoped that other parts will be studied in the same way ere long. 
 
LEl'IDOPTKRA. 
 
 201 
 
 In the flight of insects it is important tliat the two wings of each 
 side should act together, and we find that this is secured in most 
 orders by uniting them in some way. In the Lepidoptera two dis- 
 tinct methods are employed ; in some it is done by means of ?ijiigtnn, 
 in others by means of -a. frenitlmn or its substitute. As neitlier the 
 jugum nor the frenulum could be derived from the other, we infer 
 that the primitive Lepidoptera possessed neither of these organs, but 
 had wings tliat were quite distinct from each other. In the course of 
 time tliere was developed in some of the descendants of these primi- 
 tive forms a jugum ; while in others there was developed a frenulum. 
 Of course in each case the development was a gradual one, extending 
 through many generations. Thus the frenulum at first was probably 
 merely a bunch of hairs like 
 those elsewhere on the wings; 
 but these became stifTer and 
 stiffer in succeeding genera- 
 tions. 
 
 The descendants of those 
 ancient Lepidoptera in which a 
 jugum was developed constitute 
 the suborder y//^(?/^/ while the 
 descendants of those in which 
 a frenulum was developed con- 
 stitute the suborder Frenatce. 
 
 We know but little of the 
 Jugatse, as nearly all of them 
 have perished. There remain 
 only two small families, the 
 Hepialidee and the Microptery- 
 gidae. But these families are 
 very widely separated, and hence 
 it is safe to assume that they are 
 the remnants of what was in 
 past times a large fauna. 
 
 In the Frenatae, however, 
 there exist to-day many families, 
 each exhibiting its own methods of specialization. 
 
 In some of these families the frenulum has been preserved and 
 perfected to a greater or less extent. But in others a curious change 
 has taken place. 
 
 It is obvious that if the two wings of each side overlap to a great 
 extent, their acting together will be assured by this fact. And this is 
 
 Fig. 241. — Wing^s of Ancea andria. 
 
202 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 what has taken place with the butterflies, the skippers, and certain 
 moths. With these insects the humeral angle of the hind wing has 
 been greatly enlarged, so that it projects far beneath the fore wing 
 (Fig. 241). When this has taken place there is no longer any need 
 of a frenulum, and consequently this organ is no longer preserved by 
 natural selection. We find, therefore, that several families of Lepi- 
 doptera that belong to the suborder Frenatae, being descendants of 
 
 Fig. 242. — Wings of Bombyx mori. 
 
 ancient frenulum-bearing moths, no longer possess a frenulum. 
 These are classed in the following synopsis as the frenulum-losers. 
 It is a very interesting fact, and one that bears out the theory 
 just stated, that in the more generalized of the frenulum-losing 
 moths, as the Bombycidae, the frenulum has not yet entirely dis- 
 appeared, but is preserved in a rudimentary state (Fig. 242). We 
 place the frenulum-losers last in a serial arrangement of the fami- 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 20$ 
 
 lies of Lepidoptera, regarding tliein as tliose that depart most widely 
 from the primitive type. 
 
 From the foregoing it will be seen that a study of the relation to 
 each other of the fore and hind wings gives us important hints as to 
 the probable courses development has taken in the different families. 
 Equally suggestive hints may be derived from a study of the venation 
 of the wings. 
 
 By an extended study of fossil forms and the more generalized of 
 living forms, the details of which study cannot be given here,* it has 
 been determined that in the primitive Lepidoptera vein V of both 
 fore and hind wings was well developed, and extended from the base 
 of the wing out through the discal cell. We find that in certain 
 families of existing moths this vein is still preserved (see p. 65), 
 while in others it has been lost. Those families of the Frenatae in 
 which it is best and most uniformly preserved are grouped together 
 as the Generalized Frenatcz (see the following synopsis), while those 
 in which it is lost or nearly so are considered more specialized. 
 
 With the loss of the base of vein V there occurs a connection of 
 its branches with veins III and VJI, so that in the more specialized 
 forms these branches of vein V appear to be branches of those veins 
 (Fig. 241). A study of the extent to which this change has gone 
 gives much aid in determining the zoological position of the different 
 genera and families. In certain families vein Va tends to become 
 united to vein III ; in others it tends to become united to vein VII. 
 This too is an important character, of which use is made in the 
 following synopsis. 
 
 The number of anal veins is another character the study of which 
 throws much light on the relative position of the different forms. It 
 has been determined that the ancient Lepidoptera had at least three 
 anal veins in both fore and hind wings. This number has been pre- 
 served in one or both pairs of wings of the more generalized of living 
 moths, but has been reduced to two or even to one in the more 
 specialized families. 
 
 Enough has been said, without going into further details here' to 
 show that the way to determine the relationships of organized beings 
 is to determine the primitive form of their organs and the changes 
 that have been brought about in these organs by the action of natural 
 
 * The data upon which these conclusions are based are given at greater 
 length in an essay, by the senior author, entitled Evolution and Taxonomy. 
 This essay forms a part of the Wilder Quarter-Century Book, published by 
 the Comstock Publishing Company, Ithaca, N. Y. 
 
204 i'"^^^" STUDY OF I jV SECTS. 
 
 selection. The classification of animals and plants should not be 
 merely the assorting of them into convenient pigeon-holes, but 
 a serious study of their blond-relationships. 
 
 The following synopsis will serve to show what we believe to be 
 the relations of the principal divisions of the order. Following this 
 synopsis there is a table for use in classifying specimens. 
 
 SYNOPSIS OF THE LEPIDOPTERA. 
 {See page 207 for a table for determining specimens.') 
 
 A. The Jugate Lepidoptera. — Moths in which the two wings of 
 
 each side are united by ajugum (Fig. 238,^), p. 214. 
 
 Suborder Jugate. 
 
 B. The Swifts or MacrojtigatcB, p. 215 Family Hepialid^. 
 
 BB. The Little-wing Jugates or Microjiigatce, p. 216. 
 
 Family Micropterygidte. 
 AA. The Frenate Lepidoptera. — Moths, skippers, and butterflies 
 
 in which the two wings of each side are united by a. frenulum (Fig. 
 
 '2-V'f) O"* by its substitute, a large humeral angle of the hind wing 
 
 (Fig. 241), p. 201 Suborder Frenat.e. 
 
 B. The Generalized Frenat.^. — Moths that are supposed to 
 retain more nearly than any other Frenatse the form of the primi- 
 tive Frenatae, those that were the first to appear on earth. In 
 these generalized moths the wings approach tlie typical form; 
 the base of vein V of one or both pairs of wmgs is preserved 
 throughout a considerable part at least of the discal cell ; and 
 the anal veins are well preserved, there being two or three in 
 the fore wing and three in the hind wing. The frenulum is 
 usually well preserved. 
 
 The Flannel-moths, p. 218 Family Megalopygid^. 
 
 The Bag-worm Moths, p. 219 Family PSYCHID.«. 
 
 The Carpenter-moths, p. 221 Family CossiD/E. 
 
 The Slug-caterpillar Moths, p. 223 Family Eucleid^. 
 
 The Smoky-moths, p. 226 Family Pyromorphid^. 
 
 BB. The Specialized Frenat.'e.— Moths, skippers, and butter- 
 flies that depart more widely than do the Generalized Frenatae 
 from the primitive type of Lepidoptera, being more highly modi- 
 fied for special conditions of existence. An indication of the 
 specialized condition of these insects is the modified form of the 
 wings. In nearly all the base of vein V has been lost and the 
 branches of this vein joined to veins III and VII. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 20$ 
 
 C. The MiCROFRENA'iVE. — Frenulum-bearing moths, which are 
 usually of small, often minute, size. The anal area of the hind 
 wings is not reduced, having usually three anal veins except in 
 certain minute forms where a broad fringe has been substituted 
 for the membrane of this area. 
 
 The Pyralids, p. 228 Superfamily Pvralidina. 
 
 The Tortricids, p. 239 Superfamily Tortricina. 
 
 The Tineids, p: 246 Superfamily Tineina. 
 
 The Clear-winged Moths, p. 259 Family Sesiid.«. 
 
 CC. The Specialized MACROFRENATiE.— Specialized Frenatae 
 which are usually of medium or large size. This division 
 includes certain moths and all skippers and butterflies. In 
 these insects the anal area of the hind wing is reduced, con- 
 taining only one or two anal veins. 
 
 D. The Fremdum-conservers. — Specialized Macrofrenatse in 
 which the two wings of each side are united by a frenulum. 
 This group includes only moths. 
 
 E. Moths that appear to have a three- branched cubitus, only 
 vein V3 being closely connected with vein VII. Vein Va 
 either retains its primitive position midway between veins 
 III and VII or arises from the discal vein nearer to vein 
 III than to vein VII.* 
 
 The Dioptids, p. 262 Family DlOPTlD^. 
 
 The Prominents, p. 263 Family Notodontid^. 
 
 The Measuring-worm Moths, p. 270. 
 
 Superfamily Geometrina. 
 
 EE. Moths that appear to have a four-branched cubitus, the 
 
 base of vein V2 of one or both pairs of wings being more 
 
 closely connected with vein VII than with vein III. 
 
 F. Moths in which the humeral angle of the hind wings 
 
 is greatly extended, but which as a rule possess the 
 
 frenulum in one sex at least. 
 
 The Auzatids, p. 288 .Family Auzatid.«. 
 
 The Hook- tip Moths, p. 289 Family Drepanid^. 
 
 FF. Moths in which the humeral angle of the hind wings 
 is not greatly extended. 
 
 G. The Noctiiids and their Allies. — Moths in which some 
 of the branches of vein III of the fore wings coalesce 
 
 * In many Hawk-moihs vein V2 nearly or quite retains its primitive 
 position ; but when it has moved from this position, it is nearer to vein VII 
 than to vein III. This family is placed, therefore, in the next division (EE) 
 of this synopsis. 
 
206 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 beyond the discal cell, and which do not have what 
 appears to be a cross vein between veins II and III of 
 the hind wings. 
 The Cymatophorids, p. 291 .Family Cymatophorid^e. 
 
 The Owlet-moths, p. 293 Family NoCTUiD.t. 
 
 The Tussock-moths, p. 308 Family Lymantriid^. 
 
 The Wood nymph Moths, p. 313. Family Agaristid.«. 
 
 The Pericopids, p. 316 -Family Pericopid^. 
 
 The Tiger-motlis, p. 317 Family Arctiid.e. 
 
 The Footman-moths, p. 324 Family Lithosiid^. 
 
 The Zygaenids, p. 326 Family Zyg-ENID^E. 
 
 GG. The IVindow-winged Moths.— yioxh-s, in which vein 
 III of the fore wings is five-branched and in which all of 
 these branches arise from the discal cell (Fig. 404), p, 
 
 328 Family Thyridid,^. 
 
 GGG. The Hawk-moths. — Moths in which there appears 
 to be a cross vein between veins II and III of the hind 
 
 wings (Fig. 407), p, 330 Family SPHlNGlD.t. 
 
 DD. The Frenulicm-losers. —Specialized Macrofrenatae, in which 
 the frenulum has been supplanted by a greatly extended 
 humeral area of the hind wings. In some of the more gen- 
 eralized forms a rudimentary frenulum persists (Bombycidae 
 and Lacosomidae). This division includes three groups of 
 families: the Frenulum-losing Moths, the Skippers, and the 
 Butterflies. The grouping together of the families included 
 in this division is merely provisional, as it is probable that 
 the loss of the frenulum has arisen independently in several 
 of them. 
 
 E. The Frenuhivi-losing Moths. — In these moths the anten nae 
 are usually pectinate ; they are never enlarged into a club 
 at the tip. 
 
 F. Moths with cubitus of the fore wings apparently three- 
 branched. 
 
 G. Moths in which veins Ills and III4 coalesce to a great 
 extent. The Saturnians. p. 339. 
 
 Superfamily Saturniina. 
 
 GG. Moths in which veins III3 and III4 do not coalesce 
 
 beyond the discal cell. p. 357. .Family LACOSOMlDiE. 
 
 FF. Moths in which cubitus of the fore wings is apparently 
 
 four-branched, p. 359 Family Lasiocampid^E. 
 
 EE. The Skippers. — These are day-flying Lepidoptera whicfe 
 resemble butterflies in usually holding their wings erect 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 20/ 
 
 when at rest, but are distinguished by the peculiar venation 
 of tlie fore wings, vein III being five-branched, and all the 
 branches arising from the discal cell. The antennae are 
 enlarged into a club towards the tip. p. 364. 
 
 Superfamily Hesperiina. 
 
 EEE. The Bulterjltes.— Da.y -frying Lepidoptera that hold 
 
 their wings erect when at rest, iliat liave clubbed antennze, 
 
 and that differ from the Skippers in the venation of the 
 
 fore wings, some of the brandies of vein III coalescing 
 
 beyond the discal cell Superfamily Papilionina. 
 
 F. Butterflies in which vein VII is apparently four- 
 branched. The Swallow-tail Butterflies, p. 375. 
 
 Family Papilionid.k. 
 FF. Butterflies in which vein VII is apparently three- 
 branched. 
 
 G. Butterflies exhibiting no tendency to abortion of the 
 fore legs. 
 
 The Pierids. p. 381 Family Pierid.e. 
 
 GG. Butterflies exhibiting a marked tendency to abor- 
 tion of the fore legs. 
 The Gossamer-winged Butterflies, p. 388. 
 
 Family Lvc^NID^. 
 The Brush-footed Butterflies, p. 395. 
 
 Family Nymphalid.«. 
 
 TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE PRINCIPAL GROUPS OF 
 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 A. Wingless or with rudimentary wings. This division includes on!y 
 females. All males of Lepidoptera are winged. 
 B. The larvae case-bearers ; the adult female remaining within the 
 
 case to lay her eggs. p. 219' Psychid.e. 
 
 BB. The larvae not case-bearers; the wingless adult not in a case. 
 C. The adult remaining upon her cocoon to lay her eggs; the 
 body of the adult clothed with fine hairs, p. 308. 
 
 Lymantriid.«. 
 CC. The adult active, laying her eggs remote from her cocoon; 
 the body of the adult clothed with flattened scales, p. 270. 
 
 Geometrina. 
 AA. Winged, fore and hind wings similar in form and venation, the 
 radius of the hind wings being, like that of the fore wings, five- 
 branched. (Fig. 238.) {Subordtr J ugaice^) [See also AAA. J 
 
208 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 B. Moths of medium or large size. p. 215 Hepialid.«. 
 
 BB. Minute moths, resembling Tineids in appearance, p. 214. 
 
 M ICROPTERYGID.«. 
 
 AAA. Winged, fore and hind wings differing in form and venation ; 
 
 the radius of the hind wings being simple, although frequently 
 
 apparently two- or three-branched ; this is due to the union of one 
 
 or two branches of media with it (Figs. 241, 242). (Suborder 
 
 B. Antennae of various forms, but never thread-like with a knob at 
 the extremity* (moths in part). 
 
 C. The fringe on the inner angle of the hind wings as long as, or 
 longer than, the width of the wing; the hind wings often 
 
 lanceolate, but never fissured, p. 246 Tineina. 
 
 CC. The fringe on the hind wings shorter ; the hind wings not 
 lanceolate. 
 D. Wings fissured. 
 
 E. Each wing divided into six lobes, p. 238. . .Orne(JDID^. 
 
 EE. Wings never more than four-lobed ; usually the fore 
 
 wings are bilobed and the hind wings trilobed. p. 237. 
 
 Pterophorid.*:. 
 DD. Wings not fissured. 
 
 E. Fore wings very narrow, the width at the middle less 
 than one fourth the length of the wing ; a considerable part 
 of the hind wings, and in many cases of the fore wings also, 
 
 free from scales, p. 259 SESllDiB. "^ 
 
 EE. Wings scaled throughout, or if clear with the fore wings 
 triangular in outline. 
 
 F. Hind wings with three anal veins. Care must be taken 
 not to mistake a mere fold in the wing for a vein. When 
 there is no thickening of the membrane of the wing along 
 a fold it is not counted as a vein. 
 
 G. Subcosta and radius of the hind wings grown together 
 for a greater or less distance between the apex of the 
 discal cell and the apex of the wing, or in some cases 
 separate but very closely parallel, p. 228..PYRALIDINA. v 
 GG. Subcosta and radius of the hind wings widely sep- 
 arate beyond the apex of the discal cell. 
 
 * In some moths the antennae are enlarged towards the tip, forming a 
 more or less distinct club ; but this club is quite different in shape from the 
 knob at the extremity of the antennae in the skippers and the butterflies. In 
 the moths with club-like antennae the ocelli are usually present, and the hind 
 wings bear a frenulum. 
 
LEPID OP TERA . 209 
 
 H, Microlepidoptera ; i.e., moths that are in most cases 
 of small or minute size ; with those included here 
 the palpi are well developed, often prominent — when 
 the palpi are not prominent the antennae are at least 
 as long as the front wings; the fringe on the anal 
 angle of the hind wings is considerably longer than 
 elsewhere. 
 
 I. The second anal vein of the hind wings forked 
 cowards the base. p. 239 Tortricina. 
 
 II. The second anal vein of the hind wings not 
 forked towards the base. p. 246 Tineina. 
 
 HH. Macrolepidoptera ; i.e., moths usually of medium 
 or large size. With those included here the palpi 
 are small, rarely projecting beyond the head ; the 
 antennae are of moderate length ; and the fringe on 
 the anal angle of the hind wing is not Longer than 
 elsewhere, or but slightly so. 
 
 I. Subcosta and radius of hind wings grown together 
 to near the end of the discal cell. (Fig. 267.) 
 
 J. Small black moths, with thinly scaled wings. 
 
 p. 226 PVROMORPHIDiE. 
 
 JJ. Moths of medium size, and densely clothed 
 with long woolly hairs, which are light colored 
 or brown, p. 218 MEGALOPYGIDiE, 
 
 II. Subcosta and radius of hind wings distinct or 
 grown together for only a short distance, 
 
 J. Anal veins of the fore wings anastomosing so 
 as to appear as a branched vein (Fig. 253). 
 
 p. 219 PSYCHID^,. 
 
 JJ. Anal veins of fore wings not forked outwardly, 
 K. Vein V2 of the fore wings arising from the 
 discal cell nearly midway between veins Vi 
 and V3. 
 
 L. Vein Va of both fore and hind wings 
 coalescing with vein VIIi for a considerable 
 distance beyond the end of the discal cell 
 
 (Fig. 309). p. 262 DiOPTiD^, 
 
 LL. Veins Vs and VIIi not coalescing beyond 
 the end of the discal cell, 
 M. Veins III2 and III3 coalesced at base, 
 but separate from veins \\\\ and III». 
 
210 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 which also coalesce (Fig. 438). p. 357. 
 
 LACOSOMIDiE. 
 
 MM. Veins III,. Ills. Ill*, and Ilh united 
 
 at base (Fig. 419). p. 340. .Bombycid^. 
 
 KK. Vein Va of the fore wings emerging from 
 
 the discal cell nearer to cubitus than to radius, 
 
 causing cubitus to appear four-branched. 
 
 L. Fore wings with an accessory cell (Fig. 255); 
 veins Ilia and Ills coalesced at base, also 
 veins III4 and Ills; the accessory cell is 
 formed by the anastomosing of veins III* 
 and III4 + 5. p. 221 CossiDvE. 
 
 LL. Fore wings without an accessory cell ; 
 veins III3 and III4 coalescing to a greater 
 extent than any other branches of radius 
 
 (Fig. 261). p. 223 EUCLEID.E. 
 
 FF. Hind wings with less than three anal veins. 
 
 G. Fore wings with two distinct anal veins or with the 
 
 anal veins partially grown together in such a way as 
 
 to appear as a single branched vein. 
 
 H. Anal veins of fore wings partially grown together 
 
 so as to appear as a branched vein (Fig. 253). p. 219 
 
 PSYCHIDyE.V 
 
 HH. Fore wings with two distinct anal veins, p. 226. 
 
 Pyromorphid^. 
 GG. Fore wings with a single fully preserved anal vein. 
 This is the second anal vein (vein IX) ; the first anal 
 vein (vein VIII) is absent or represented merely by a 
 fold; and the third anal vein (vein XI) is short, not 
 reaching to the margin of the wing, or is wanting; 
 usually when the third anal vein is present it is joined 
 to the secon'-l anal vein, so that the latter appears to 
 be forked towards the base. 
 
 H. Frenulum present. In most cases the humeral 
 angle of the hind wings is not largely expanded. 
 I. The five branches of radius and the three branches 
 of media of the fore wings present, and each one 
 arising from the discal cell (Fig. 404). Small 
 moths (the largest expanding only three fourths 
 inch) resembling Hawk-moths in form, and with 
 translucent spots on their wings, p, 328. 
 
 Thvridid.e, 
 
LEriDOPTERA. 211 
 
 II. Some of the branches of radius or of media 
 either wanting or grown together beyond the 
 discal cell. 
 
 J. Hind wings with subcosta and radius appar- 
 ently distinct but connected by a strong oblique 
 cross vein (Fig. 407). Moths of medium or 
 large size, with spindle-shaped bodies, narrow, 
 strong wings, and usually with the antennae 
 prismatic in form, and more or less thickened 
 in the middle or towards the tip, which is fre- 
 quently recurved in the form of a hook (Hawk- 
 moths), p. 329 SPHINGIDyE.' 
 
 JJ. Subcosta and radius of hind wings either dis- 
 tinct or grown together; byt not appearing to 
 be connected by a strong, oblique cross vein. 
 K. Vein V2 of the fore wings not more closely 
 joined to cubitus than to radius, cubitus being 
 apparently three-branched. 
 L. The basal part of the subcosta of the hind 
 wings extending from the base towards the 
 apex of the wing in a regular curve. Moths 
 resembling Noctuids in form ; i.e., with a 
 large abdomen and with rather narrow, 
 strong, and coarsely-scaled fore wings. 
 M. Vein V2 of the hind wings arising much 
 nearer to cubitus than to radius; vein Vi 
 of the hind wings joined to radius at a 
 considerable distance before the apex of 
 the discal cell (Fig. 349). p. 291. 
 
 CVMATOPHORIDiE. 
 
 MM, Vein Vj of the hind wings either 
 wanting or present, but when present 
 arising either midway between radius 
 and cubitus, or nearer to radius than to 
 cubitus; vein Vi of the hind wings joined 
 to radius at or beyond the apex of the 
 discal cell (Fig 311). p. 263. 
 
 NOTODONTID^. 
 
 LL. The basal part of the subcosta of the 
 hind wings joined to radius for a consider- 
 able distance and then making a prominent 
 bend towards the costal margin, as in Cicin- 
 
212 T}1E STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 nus (Fig. 438). Veins Ills and III4 of the 
 fore wings separate from each other, p. 357. 
 
 [See also LLL.] LACOSOMlDiE. 
 
 LLL. The basal part of the subcosta of the 
 hind wings making a prominent bend into 
 the humeral angle of the wing (Fig. 327); 
 veins III3 and III4 coalesced to near the 
 apex of the wing. In most cases, moths 
 with a slender abdomen, and with rather 
 broad, delicate wings, which are finely 
 
 scaled, p. 270 Geometrina." 
 
 KK. Vein Va of the fore wings more closely 
 joined to cubitus than to radius; cubitus be- 
 ing in most cases apparently four-branched. 
 L. Small moths with the apex of the fore 
 wings sickle-shaped, p. 289. .Drepanid.^. 
 LL. Apex of the fore wings not sickle-shaped. 
 M. Small moths with snow-white wings, in 
 which the subcosta of the hind wings ex- 
 tends distinct from radius to a point be- 
 yond the discal cell where the two are 
 united for a greater or less distance (Fig. 
 
 344). p. 288 AUZATID,^;. I 
 
 MM. The subcosta of the hind wings ex- 
 tending distinct from the radius, or the 
 two joined for a very short distance, near 
 the base of the wing, [See also MMM.J 
 N. Chiefly day-fiying moths that are 
 either black with large, white or yellow, 
 rounded patches upon the wings, or 
 have the front wings white, margined 
 with brown, and the hind wings pale 
 yellow. 
 
 O. Cubitus of hind wings apparently 
 four-branched (Fig. 384). p. 316. 
 
 PERICOPIDiE.^ 
 
 00. Cubitus of hind wings apparently 
 •' three-branched (Fig. 379). p. 313. 
 
 Agaristid^. V 
 NN. Not such moths as are described 
 under N. 
 O, Antennae pectinate. 
 
LEPIDOP TEKA. 213 
 
 P. Ocelli absent, p. 308. 
 
 Lv.MAN IRIIO.'K. 
 
 PP. Ocelli present, p. 293 NoCTUlDiE. 
 
 00. Antennae simple, p. 293. NOCTUID^. 
 
 MMM. The subcosta of the hind wings 
 
 united with the radius for a considerable 
 
 distance {i.e., for one fifth or more of the 
 
 length of the discal cell). 
 
 N. The subcosta and radius of the hind 
 
 wings united for a considerable distance, 
 
 but usually separating before the apex 
 
 of the discal cell. 
 
 O. Ocelli present, p. 317. .. Arctiidje. 
 00. Ocelli absent, p. 324..L1THOSIID/E. 
 NN. The subcosta and radius of the hind 
 wings united into a single vein (Fig. 
 399), or at most with their tips separate 
 near the apex of the wing. With all 
 the moths included under this head 
 and under the preceding N, vein Vi 
 of the hind wings is present and is 
 joined to radius at or near the apex of 
 the discal cell; care should be taken 
 not to mistake this vein V, for radius, 
 
 p. 326 Zyg.enid^. 
 
 HH. Frenulum absent; the humeral angle of the hind 
 wings largely expanded and serving as a substitute 
 for a frenulum. 
 
 I. Cubitus of both wings apparently four-branched, 
 due to the fact that both the second and third 
 branches of media (V2 and V3) are joined to it. 
 
 J. Small moths, with slender bodies, and with the 
 apex of the fore wings sickle-shaped ; humeral 
 veins absent, p. 289 Drepanid^. 
 
 JJ. Moths of various sizes, but with robust bodies, 
 and with the apex of the fore wings not sickle- 
 shaped ; hind wings with humeral veins, p. 
 
 359 LASIOCAMPIDiE. ' 
 
 II. Cubitus of both fore and hind wings apparently 
 three-branched, due to the fact that only the third 
 branch of media (V3) is more closely joined to it 
 than to radius. (The moths included in this 
 
214 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 section of tliis table are robust, with strong wings, 
 and are of medium or large size. In some of the 
 Geometrina (p. 270), which also have a three- 
 branched cubitus, the frenulum is inconspicuous 
 or even in rare cases {Dyspterts) wanting ; these 
 moths can be distinguished from those included 
 here by their smaller size, more slender body, and 
 
 weaker wings), p. 339 Saturniina. 
 
 BB. Antennae thread-like with a knob at the extremity. 
 
 C. With the radius of the fore wings five-branched, and with all 
 of the branches arising from the discal cell (Fig. 445) ; club of 
 antennae usually terminated by a recurved hook. The Skip- 
 pers, p. 364 Hesperiina. 
 
 CC. With some of the branches of the radius of the fore wings 
 coalesced beyond the apex of the discal cell (Fig. 455) ; club of 
 antennae not terminated by a recurved hook. The Butterflies. 
 p. 373 Papilionina. 
 
 Suborder JUGAT^ (Ju-ga'tae). 
 The Jugate {/ii'gate) Lepidoptera. 
 
 The American representatives of this suborder are rare 
 moths, which the student beghining the study of insects is 
 not likely to meet. They can be easily recognized by the 
 peculiar structure of the hind wings, which resemble the 
 n III, fore wings in form and in 
 
 venation (Fig. 238). In all 
 other Lepidoptera, the two 
 *^N. X ~. ^^^.--^ "\ X ^ "^i pairs of wings differ in 
 ■^^ ' form, and the hind wings 
 VII, '''^ are furnished with fewer 
 
 veins than are the fore 
 wings, 
 'iiij The most important 
 
 V, characteristic of the sub- 
 
 \\\2 VII. ^^ order, and the one to which 
 
 Y\G. i^■i.—'^\n%^ oi Hej>iaius gracilis. j^s name rcfcrs, is the way 
 in which the two wings of each side are fastened together. 
 There projects backward from the inner margin of the fore 
 
LEriDOpy/'JiA. 215 
 
 wing near its base a small lobe (Fig. 243,7), which extends 
 under the costal margin of the hind wing; while the greater 
 part of the inner margin of the fore wing overlaps the hind 
 wing. This arrangement assures the acting together of the 
 two wings. 
 
 This projecting lobe is named thcjugian or yoke ; and the 
 moths possessing this organ are termed the Jugata; or the 
 Jugate Lepidoptera. 
 
 This suborder includes only two families; one represented 
 by minute moths, the other by moths of medium or large 
 size. 
 
 Family Hepialid^ (He-pi-al'i-dae). 
 The Stvifts. 
 
 The members of this family are of medium or large size. 
 Figure 244 represents one of the larger species. Our best 
 
 Fig. 244. — Hepialus argenteotitaculattis. 
 
 known forms are brown or ashy gray in color, with the wings 
 marked with silvery white spots. 
 
 It is said that these moths fly near the earth, and only in 
 the evening after sunset, hiding under some low plant, or 
 clinging to the stalk of an herb during the day. Some of 
 them fly with extreme rapidity, with an irregular mazy flight, 
 and have, therefore, been named Swifts by collectors. They 
 are attracted to lights. Figure 238 represents the venation 
 of the wings of Hepialus (He-pi'a-lus). 
 
2l6 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The larvae are nearly naked, and grub-like in appearance, 
 although furnished with sixteen legs. They feed upon 
 wood, and are found at the roots or within the stems of plants. 
 They transform either in their burrows, or, in the case of 
 those that feed outside of roots, within loose cocoons. The 
 pupae have transverse rows of teeth on the abdominal seg- 
 ments ; these aid them in emerging from their burrows. 
 The best known American species bores in the stems of the 
 speckled or hoary alder {A inns incand). 
 
 Family MicropterygiD/E (Mi-crop-te-ryg'i-dae). 
 
 TJie Little-ivingcd Jugates {J2i' gates). 
 
 These are very minute moths, which resemble Tineids in 
 
 size and appearance. The largest species known to the 
 
 writer expands but little more than half an inch. Figure 245 
 
 represents tiie venation of the wings. Only a single genus, 
 
 II iir, Tir 
 
 — "H iir^ 
 
 in. 
 
 VIII VII3VII1 '3 
 
 Fig. 245. — Wings of M icropteryx. 
 
 Micropteryx (Mi-crop'te-ryx), occurs in this country. The 
 larvae are leaf-miners. 
 
 Suborder Frenat^ (Fre-na'tae). 
 The Frenate {Fre'nate) Lepidoptera. 
 To the Frenatae belong nearly all of our moths, and all 
 skippers and butterflies. With most moths of this suborder 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 217 
 
 there exists near the base of the costal jiiargiii of the hind 
 wings a strong bristle or bunch of bristles named the frcmi- 
 liim, or little bridle (Fig. 237,/). As the frenulum projects 
 forward under the fore wing it tends to depress the hind 
 wing when the fore wing is depressed, thus insuring the act- 
 ing together of the two pairs of wings. Usually the frenulum 
 consists of two or more bristles in females and of a single 
 stronger bristle in males. The difference is due to the fact 
 that in males the bunch of bristles have grown together into 
 a single strong bristle. There is also another sexual differ- 
 ence. In the males the tip of the frenulum fits into a mem- 
 branous hook borne on the lower surface of the fore wing, 
 thus firmly tying together the two wings (Fig. 237, /". //). 
 This frenulum hook is rarely found in females. In certain 
 moths there is, besides the frenulum hook, a tuft of hairs 
 projecting forwards from just behind the cubitus of the fore 
 wing near its base, which tends also to keep the frenulum in 
 place. 
 
 With some moths and with all skippers and all butterflies 
 the base of the costal portion of the hind wings, the humeral 
 angle as it is termed, is largely developed, so that it projects 
 far under the fore wing (Fig. 241). This overlapping of the 
 two wings at the base to so great an extent insures their act- 
 ing together without the aid of the frenulum ; and, conse- 
 quently, there being no use for a frenulum, this organ has 
 disappeared. In other words, the frenulum has been super- 
 seded by the large development of the humeral angle. But 
 as we believe that these moths, skippers, and butterflies have 
 descended from forms which had a frenulum, we class them 
 with the moths that still possess this organ under the sub- 
 order Frenatae. 
 
 A more easily observed character which serves to distin- 
 guish members of this suborder is a striking difference in 
 the venation of the two pairs of wings, the hind wings hav- 
 ing fewer veins than the fore wings. 
 
2l8 
 
 rriE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Family Mkgalopygid^ (Me-gal-o-pyg'i-dae). 
 The Flannel-moths. 
 Sometimes there is attracted to our evening lamp a 
 whitish moth, whose wings, being densely clothed with long 
 curly hairs, resemble bits of flannel ; this is the Crinkled 
 Flannel-moth, Mcgalopyge cris- 
 pata (Me-gal-o-py'ge cris-pa'ta). 
 It is cream-colored, with the fore 
 wings marked with wavy lines of 
 crinkled black and brownish hairs. 
 The male is represented by Fig- 
 ure 246 ; the female is larger, 
 Fig. -nfi—Megaiofyge crisp.ua. expanding onc and three fifths 
 inches. In the female the antennae are very narrowly pecti- 
 nate. The larva is said to feed on oak, elm, apple, and rasp- 
 berry. 
 
 In the Southern States there occur three other species 
 of this family. These ,11, 
 
 moths are easily distin- 
 guished by the structure 
 of their wings (Fig. 247). 
 There are three anal 
 veins in both fore and 
 hind wings ; but in the 
 fore wings the second 
 and third anal veins (veins 
 IX and XI) are partially 
 grown together. The 
 basal part of vein V is 
 more or less distinctly 
 preserved, and divides 
 the discal cell into two 
 nearly equal parts. Veins 
 II and III of the hind 
 wings are grown to- 
 gether nearly to the end of the discal cell. 
 
 IX VIII 
 Fig. 247.— Wings of Megalopyge crispata. 
 
LEPIDOl'TERA. 
 
 The larvc-E of the Flannel-moths are remarkable 
 possession of ten pairs of legs, 
 three thoracic and seven abdomi- 
 nal. All other known lepidopter- 
 ous larvae, except perhaps those 
 of Microptcryx, have lost some of 
 the abdominal legs. The cocoons 
 of these insects are also remark- fk, 
 able, being furnished with a traj)-door (Fig. 248). 
 
 219 
 
 for the 
 
 Family PsvcHiD^ (Psy'chi-dae). 
 TJic Bag-ivorm Moths. 
 The Bag-worms are those caterpillars that have the curi- 
 ous habit of building each for itself a silken sac covered 
 with little twigs within which it lives (Figs. 
 249 and 250). When the caterpillar wishes 
 to move from one place to another it pushes 
 forth the front end of its body and creeps 
 along, carrying its house with it. It is said 
 that the species that inhabit Ceylon are be- 
 lieved by the natives to be composed of 
 individuals who in a previous incarnation 
 were human beings and stole kindling-wood, 
 and who now atone for the theft by repeat- 
 ing the act as an insect. 
 
 When a Bag-worm is fully grown, it 
 fastens its sac to a twig and changes tcT a 
 pupa within it. And here the females remain until death, 
 leaving their eggs within their 
 sacs. These females are grub- 
 like creatures without wings. 
 But the male pupa works his 
 way out from the lower end 
 of his sac and changes to a 
 winged moth. Figure 250 rep- 
 resents the sac of a male with the empty pupa-skin projecting 
 
 Fig. 249.— Bag of 
 Oiketicus abbot ii. 
 
 Fig. 2SO.— Bag of 
 Psyche con/ede- 
 
 W 
 
 Fig. ■i^x.— Psyche 
 con/ederata. 
 
220 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 from the lower end, and Figure 251 the fully developed 
 male. These figures are of one of our smaller species, 
 which belong to the genus Psyche (Psy'che). 
 
 Abbot's Bag-worm, Oiketicus abbotii (Oi-ket'i-cus ab- 
 bot'i-i). — This species occurs in the more southern part of 
 our country. The larva makes a bag with sticks attached 
 to it crosswise (Fig. 249). 
 
 The Evergreen Bag-worm, TJiyridopteryx cpJwnicrcefor- 
 viis (Thyr-i-dop'te-ryx e-phem-e-rae-for'- 
 mis). — This is our best known species, 
 and on this account has been commonly 
 called The Bag-worm. But as it is desir- 
 able to have different names for the dif- 
 „„ ., ferent species, we call this one the Ever- 
 
 FlG. i^i.— I hvndopteyyx ^ 
 
 ephemerce/ormis. green Bag-worm ; for although it feeds on 
 many different trees, it prefers red cedar and arbor vitae. The 
 bag of this species 
 is about the same size 
 as that of Abbot's 
 Bag-worm; but it dif- 
 fers in being covered 
 with bits of leaves of 
 cedar or arbor vitae, or 
 with twigs attached 
 lengthwise. 
 
 The structure of 
 the wings of the Psy- 
 chidae is very char- 
 acteristic (Fig. 253). 
 Both the fore and 
 the hind wings may 
 
 have either two or ^'^^- 253— Wings of Tkyridopteryx epkemem/ormis. 
 
 three anal veins ; but the anal veins of the 
 
 ^^ fore wings are grown together so as to ap- 
 
 "• pear as a single much-branched vein. The 
 
 Fig. 254. base of vein V is preserved and is forked 
 
LEriDOPTERA. 
 
 221 
 
 within the discal cell. In the hind wings, veins I and 11 
 and veins II and III are grown together in an unusual 
 way. In Figure 254 these veins are represented slightly- 
 separated in order to show their relation to each other. 
 
 P^amily CosslD^ (Cos'si-dae). 
 The Carpenter-wot hs. 
 
 This family includes moths with spindle-shaped bodies, 
 and narrow, strong wings, some of the species resembling 
 Hawk-moths quite closely in this respect. The larvae are 
 wood-borers, living in the solid wood of the trunks of trees. 
 They are often very injurious to forest or shade trees, and 
 one recently imported species is very injurious to pear trees. 
 The wood-boring habits of the larvae suggest the popular 
 name Carpenter-moths for the insects of this family. 
 
 These moths fly by night, and lay their eggs on the bark 
 
 \\\2 
 
 XI IX 
 
 Fig. 255.— Wings of Prionoxytus robinia; . /, frenulum, enlarged. 
 
 of trees, or within tunnels in trees from which adult Car- 
 penter-moths have emerged. The caterpillars are nearly 
 naked, and, although furnished with pro-legs as well as true 
 legs, are grub-like in form. The- pupa state is passed within 
 
222 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 the burrow made by the larva. When ready to change to 
 an adult, the pupa works its way partially out from its bur- 
 row. This is accomplished by means of backward-project- 
 ing, saw-like teeth, there being one or two rows of these on 
 each abdominal segment. After the moths have emerged 
 the empty pupa-skins can be found projecting from the 
 deserted burrows. 
 
 The Carpenter-moths arc of medium or large size. Our 
 more common species are of a pepper-and-salt color, due to 
 strongly contrasting dark and light scales. The antennae 
 are usually pectinate in both sexes, but in some species those 
 of the female are simple; the ocelli are wanting; and the 
 mouth-parts are obsolete. 
 
 The structure of the wings is shown in Figure 255 
 There are two anal veins in the fore wing, and three in the 
 hind wings. The base of vein V is preserved, and is forked 
 within the discal cell. In the fore wings, the branches of 
 vein III anastomose so as to form an accessory cell. The- 
 frenulum is rudimentary in most of our genera (Fig. 255), 
 but is strongly developed in others. 
 
 Our most common species is the Locust-tree Carpenter- 
 
 Fro. 256. — Prionoxyst 
 
 moth, Prionoxystus robinice (Pri-on-ox-ys'tus ro-bin'i-ae). 
 Figure 256 represents the female natural size. The male is 
 but little more than half as large as the female. It is much 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 223 
 
 darker than the female, from which it differs also in having 
 a large yellow spot, which nearly covers the outer half of the 
 hind wings. This species flies in June and July. As sug- 
 gested by its name, it infests locust ; but its larva also bores 
 in the trunks of oak, poplar, willow, and other trees. It 
 is supposed that the species requires three years to com- 
 plete its transformations. 
 
 The Leopard-moth, Zcuzera pyrina (Zeu-ze'ra py-ri'na) 
 is a large European species which has become common in 
 the vicinity of New York City, and will doubtless spread to 
 other parts of the country. It is white, spotted with numer- 
 ous small black spots. Its larva is very injurious, especially 
 to maple. It infests other shade trees, and also apple and 
 pear. 
 
 Family EUCLEID^ (Eu-cle'i-dee). 
 The Slug-caterpillar Moths. 
 One often finds on the leaves of shrubs or trees elliptical 
 or oval larvae that resemble slugs in the form of the body 
 and in their gliding motion. As these are larvae of moths 
 they have been termed Slug-caterpillars ; but they present 
 very little similarity in form to other caterpillars. The re- 
 semblance to slugs is greatly increased by the fact that the 
 
 Fig. 257. — Larva of Eulimacodes scapha. Fig. 
 
 lower surface of the body is closely applied to the object 
 upon which the larva is creeping, the pro-legs being replaced 
 by mere swellings on the abdominal segments. Some 
 species are naked (Fig. 257); but many of them are armed 
 
224 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 with branching spines (Fig. 258). The larvae when full 
 grown spin very dense cocoons of brown silk ; these are 
 egg-shaped or nearly spherical (Fig. 259), and are usually 
 spun between leaves. 
 
 The moths are of medium or small size ; they vary 
 
 greatly in appearance, 
 ^*' and many of them are 
 nis very prettily colored. 
 ' Considerable variation 
 
 exists in the venation of 
 the wings in this family 
 (Figs. 260, 261). The 
 base of vein V may be 
 preserved or wanting. In 
 some species it is forked 
 within the discal cell, in 
 others not. There is also 
 considerable variation in 
 the coalescence of the 
 branches of radius, but 
 veins III3 and III^ co- 
 alesce to a greater ex- 
 tent than any other 
 branches of this vein, and there is no accessory cell. 
 
 The Skiff Caterpillar, Eulimacodcs scapJia (Eu-lim-a-co'des 
 sca'pha). — This remarkable larva (Fig. 257) is not uncommon 
 on oak and other forest trees. It is pale apple-green, with a 
 chestnut-brown patch on its back. The moth (Fig. 262) is 
 light cinnamon-brown, with a tan-brown triangular spot on 
 each fore wing. 
 
 The Spiny Oak-slug, Eiiclea delphinii (Eu'cle-a del- 
 phin'i-i). — This larva (Fig. 258) is one of the most common 
 of our slug-caterpillars. It feeds on the leaves of oak, 
 pear, willow, and other trees. The moth is cinnamon- 
 brown, with a variable number of bright green spots on the 
 fore wings (Fig. 263). 
 
 Fig. 260. — Wings of Adoneia spinuloides. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 225 
 
 The Saddle-back Caterpillar, Empretia stimulea (Em- 
 pre'ti-a sti-mu'le-a). — This larva can be recognized by Fig- 
 ure 264. Its most characteristic feature is a large green 
 
 IX VIII 
 
 -Wings of Packardia getninaia. 
 
 Fig. 261 
 
 patch on the back, resembling a saddle-cloth, while the 
 saddle is represented by an oval purplish-brown spot. The 
 moth is dark, velvety, reddish brown, with two golden dots 
 
 Fig. 262. — Etilimacodes scafka. 
 
 Fig. 263. — Eiiciea delphinii 
 
 Fig. -zdi,.— Empretia 
 stimulea, larva. 
 
 near the apex of the fore wings. The larva feeds on oak 
 and other forest trees. The prick of its spines is said to be 
 venomous. 
 
226 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Family PYROMORrHlD^ (Pyr-o-mor'phi-dae). 
 
 The Smoky-moths. 
 
 There are but few insects in our country pertaining to 
 _ V^ y _ this family. These are small moths, that are 
 ^^Uk^S chiefly of a smoky black color ; some are 
 
 " marked with brighter colors. 
 
 ^thus/aisarius. A tiny representative of the family which 
 
 seems to be not uncommon in the East is Acoloithns fal- 
 sarius (Ac-o-loi'thus fal-sa'ri-us). This moth (Fig. 265) 
 expands two thirds of an inch. It is black, with the pro- 
 thorax of an orange color. The venation of its wings (Fig. 
 266) is peculiar in that subcosta and radius of the hind wings 
 coalesce for only a short m, m^ ^^ 
 
 distance beyond the mid- "" 
 
 die of the discal cell, and 
 a stump of radius pro- 
 jects towards the base 
 of the wing, from the 
 point of union of the two 
 veins. The larva feeds 
 in early summer on the 
 leaves of grape and of 
 the Virginia creeper. It 
 is said that the pupa 
 state lasts fourteen days 
 and is passed within a parchment-like cocoon. The adult 
 frequents flowers in the daytime. 
 
 The typical genus of the family is represented in the At- 
 lantic and Western States by Pyroviorpha dimidiata (Pyr-o- 
 mor'pha di-mid-i-a'ta). The entire insect is smoky black, 
 except the basal half of the fore wings in front of vein IX, 
 and the basal half of the costa of the hind wings, which are 
 yellow. The wings are thinly scaled, and expand a little 
 more than one inch. Figure 267 represents the venation of 
 the wings. 
 
 IX VIII 
 
 VII, 
 
 Fig. 266.— Wings of Acoloithus falsayius. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 227 
 
 In Texas and Arizona there occur several species of 
 Triprocris (Trip'ro-cris). The venation of one of them is 
 shown in Figure 268. . [^ tn, 
 
 It is remarkable in that 
 none of the branches of 
 radius of the fore wings 
 coalesce beyond the dis- 
 cal cell. 
 
 The ^enus I/arn'sNia 
 (Har-ris'i-na) seems to 
 be closely allied to the 
 preceding and is placed 
 in this family provision- 
 ally. It differs, how- 
 ever, from the typical 
 form of the family in 
 that the anal area of 
 the hind wings is greatly reduced, there being only two, 
 short, strongly curved anal veins. As in the other members 
 
 of the family there are 
 two, well-developed anal 
 veins preserved in the 
 fore wings. 
 
 In the East the most 
 common species is Har- 
 risina anicricana (H. 
 
 VIIj 
 Fig. 267. — Wings of Pyromorpha dimidiata. 
 
 Fig. 268.— Wings of Triprocris iiiarteni. 
 
 a-mer-i-ca'na) (Fig. 269). 
 
 Fig. ■2f>^.—Har 
 
 atniricana. 
 
 The wings are long and narrow; the abdomen is long and 
 widened towards the caudal end. It is greenish black in 
 color, with the prothorax reddish orange. The larva feeds 
 
228 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 on the leaves of grape and of the Virginia creeper. An 
 entire brood of these larvae will feed side by side on a 
 single leaf while young. 
 
 Harrisina texana (H. tex-a'na) occurs in the Southwest. 
 It closely resembles the preceding; but is bluish black 
 with a reddish orange prothorax. Harrisina coracina (H. 
 cor-a-ci'na) also occurs in the Southwest. This species is 
 entirely black. 
 
 Superfamily Pyralidina (Pyr-a-li-di'na). 
 The Pyralids {Pyr a-lids). 
 
 This superfamily includes moths of medium or small 
 size ; but so large a proportion of the species are small that 
 the superfamily is commonly classed with the two following 
 as Microlepidoptera. 
 
 The members of the different families included in this 
 superfamily differ so greatly in appearance that it is not 
 
 possible to give a gen- 
 J^^-f eral description that 
 
 will serve to distinguish 
 it. It is necessary to 
 study structural char- 
 acters to find evidences 
 of a common bond, and 
 here as in other groups 
 we find the structure of 
 the wings most useful 
 for this purpose. 
 xi^ — ^™ As a rule there are 
 
 Fig. 270. — W\x\%%oi Nojiiophila noctueiia. tlirce anal veius in the 
 
 hind wings and two in the fore wings. In this respect this 
 superfamily agrees with the preceding families and with the 
 two following superfamilies. But in most cases the Pyralids 
 can be recognized by the fact that the subcosta and radius of 
 the hind wings are separate along the discal cell, but grown 
 
 wii ^n. 
 
LEPIDOP TKRA. 
 
 229 
 
 " — -^ iirj 
 
 V, 
 
 together for a short distance beyond the cell, after which 
 they are again separate 
 (Fig. 270). In some gen- 
 era these two veins do 
 not actually coalesce, but 
 extend very near to- 
 gether for a short dis- 
 tance (Fig. 271). The 
 two types, however, are 
 essentially the same. 
 
 This superfamily in- 
 cludes seven families, 
 which can be separated 
 by the table given below. 
 The Plume -moths are 
 placed last in the series, 
 as we believe that they 
 depart more widely from the primitive type than do any 
 of the other families. 
 
 Wings of Tlascala reducttUa. 
 
 A. Wings not fissured. 
 B. Hind wings without a fringe of hairs on the basal part of vein 
 VII. Care must be taken not to mistake scattered hairs on the 
 anal area of the wing for such a fringe. 
 C. Fore wings with veins III4 and III5 separate, vein Ills arising 
 
 from the discal cell (Fig. 272). p. 230 Pyraustid^. 
 
 CC. Fore wings with veins IIIi and Ills united at base (Fig. 277). 
 
 p. 232 Pyralidid/e. 
 
 BB. Hind wings with a fringe of long hairs on the basal part of 
 vein VII. 
 C. Radius of fore wings five-branched. 
 
 D. Maxillary palpi more or less developed, but not triangular 
 
 as in the next family, p. 233 Galleriid^. 
 
 DD. Labial palpi long, straight, projecting forward ; maxillary 
 palpi well developed, strongly dilated at tip with scales, ap- 
 pearing triangular when viewed from the side. p. 234. 
 
 CRAMBID/E. 
 
 CC. Radius of fore wings four-branched, veins Ills and III« 
 coalescing to edge of wing (Fig. 281). p. 235 Phycitid^. 
 
230 
 
 THE STUDY OF IX SECTS. 
 
 AA. Wings fissured. 
 
 B. Wings with less than five fissures; usually the fore wings have 
 
 one fissure and the hind wings two. p. 237 Pterophorid^. 
 
 BB. Each wing split into six parts, p. 238 Orneodid^e. 
 
 Family PVRAUSTID/E (Py-raus'ti-dae). 
 The Pyraustids {Py-raus'tids). 
 
 The members of this family differ from other Pyralids by 
 the following combination of characters. There is no fringe 
 of long hairs on the basal part of vein VII of the hind 
 
 „ _. wings, and vein III, of 
 
 nr, "iiilLL nr, 
 inr, 
 
 the fore wings arises 
 from the discal cell dis- 
 tinct from vein III, (Fig. 
 272). This family in- 
 eludes many small 
 moths; but it contains 
 also the majority of the 
 larger species of Pyra- 
 lids. Some of the species 
 are very striking in ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 YlQ.^Ti.—V^xng^oiNorHophilanoctueUa. The GraOC Lcaf- 
 
 folder, Desjiiia funcralis (Des'mi-a fu-ne-ra'lis) is a common 
 species, the larva of which feeds on the leaves of grape. 
 The larva folds the leaf by fastening two portions together 
 by silken threads. When full grown, it 
 changes to a pupa within the folded leaf. 
 The moth is black with shining white spots. 
 The male (Fig. 273) differs from the fe- 
 male in having a knot-like enlargement near 
 the middle of each antenna. There is some variation in 
 the size and shape of the white spots on the wings. In 
 some specimens the white spot of the hind wing is sepa- 
 rated into two or three spots. 
 
 Fig. 273 — Desmia 
 Junernlis, 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 231 
 
 The Bass-wood Leaf-roller, Pantographa limata (Pan- 
 tog'ra-pha li-ma'ta). — Our bass-wood trees often present a 
 
 strange ap- 
 pearance 
 from the fact 
 that nearly 
 every leaf is 
 cut more than 
 half way 
 across the 
 middle, and 
 the end rolled 
 into a tube 
 (Fig. 274). Within this tube 
 there lives a bright green larva, 
 with the head and thoracic shield 
 black. This larva resembles cer- 
 
 Fig. 275. — Pantographa limata, 
 
 tain Tortricid larvae, both in ap- 
 pearance and habits ; but a study 
 of the adult shows it to be a Py- 
 FiG. 274.-Nest oHarva of Pantographa raJid. The moth expands about 
 one and one half inches ; it is 
 straw-colored, with many elaborate markings of olive with 
 a purplish iridescence (Fig. 275). There is one brood a 
 year ; the winter is passed in the larval state. 
 
 The Melon-worm, Margaronia Jiyalinata (Mar-ga-ro'ni-a 
 hy-a-li-na'ta). — This beautiful moth (Fig, 276) is often a 
 serious pest in our southern states, where the larva is very 
 
232 
 
 THE STUDY OF hX SECTS. 
 
 destructive to melons and other allied plants, destroying 
 both the foliage and the fruit. The moth is a superb 
 
 Fig. 2^6.—Margaron^a kyalinata, larvae, cocoon, and adults. (From the Author's 
 Report for 1879.) 
 
 creature, with glistening white wings bordered with black, 
 and with a spreading brush of long scales at the end of 
 the abdomen. 
 
 Family Pyralidid^ (Pyr-a-lid'i-dae). 
 
 The Typical Pyralids {Pyr' a-lids). 
 
 The moths of this family are distinguished from other Pyr- 
 alids, except the next family, by the absence of a fringe of 
 hairs on the basal part of vein VII of the hind wings; and 
 they are distinguished from that family by the fact that veins 
 III^ and III, of the fore wings are united at base (Fig. 277). 
 It is one of the smaller of the families of Pyrahds; fifty-four 
 species are now enumerated in our lists. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 233 
 
 I'lis) is 
 
 The Meal-moth, Pyralis farinalis (Pyr'a-lis far- 
 
 a common species. 
 
 The larva feeds on 
 
 meal, flour, and old 
 
 clover-hay. The moth 
 
 is commonly found 
 
 near the food of the 
 
 larva, -^qfcut is often 
 
 seen on the ceilings 
 
 of rooms sitting with 
 
 its tail curved over 
 
 its back. It expands 
 
 about an inch ; the 
 
 fore wings are light 
 
 brown, crossed by 
 
 two curved white 
 
 lines, and with a dark 
 
 chocolate-brown spot 
 
 on the base and tip 
 
 of each. 
 
 The Clover-hay Worm, Pyralis costalis (Pyr'a-lis cos-ta'- 
 
 lis). The larva of this species sometimes abounds in old 
 stacks of clover-hay, and especially near the 
 bottom of such stacks. As the infested hay be- 
 comes covered with a silken web spun by the 
 larva, and by its black gunpowder-like excre- 
 ment, much more is spoiled than is eaten by 
 The moth expands about four fifths of an inch. 
 
 It is of a beautiful lilac color, with golden bands and fringes 
 
 (Fig. 278). 
 
 Family Galleriid^ (Gal-le-ri'i-dae). 
 The Bee-moth Family. 
 
 This is a small family, of which only seven species have 
 been found in our fauna. The best known of these is the 
 Bee-moth, Galleria mellonella (Gal-le'ri-a mel-lo-neria). The 
 
 Fig. 277.— Wings of Pyralis farinalis. 
 
 Fig. ^^%.—Py 
 costalis. 
 
 the insect. 
 
234 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Fig. 1^g. — Gailer 
 nella . 
 
 larva of this species is a well-known pest in apiaries. It 
 feeds upon wax; and makes silk-lined galleries in the honey- 
 comb, thus destroying it. When full grown the larva 
 is about an inch in length. It lies hidden in its gallery dur- 
 ing the day, and feeds only at night, when the tired-out bees 
 are sleeping the sleep of the just. When ready to pupate 
 the caterpillar spins a tough cocoon against the side of the 
 hive. 
 
 The moth has purplish-brown front wings, and brown or 
 faded yellow hind wings. The fore wings of the male are 
 deeply notched at the end, while those 
 of the female (Fig. 279) are but slightly 
 so. The female moth creeps into the 
 hive at night to lay her eggs. 
 
 This pest is found most often in weak 
 colonies of bees, which it frequently 
 destroys. The best preventive of its 
 injuries is to keep the colonies of bees strong. Of course 
 the moths and larvae should be destroyed whenever found. 
 But the moths are slippery like other expert thieves, and 
 run so rapidly when disturbed that it is very 
 difficult to catch them. 
 
 Family Crambid.e (Cram'bi-dse). 
 T/ie Close-wings. 
 Although this is not a large family, there 
 being only seventy-five species known in our 
 fauna, the members of it are more often seen 
 than any other Pyralids. The larvae of most 
 of the species feed on grass; and the adults 
 fly up before us whenever we walk through 
 meadows or pastures. When at rest, the moths 
 wrap their wings closely about the body; this 
 has suggested the name Close-wings for the 
 insects of this family. When one of these 
 moths alights on a stalk of grass it quickly places its body 
 
LEPJDOPTERA. 
 
 235 
 
 parallel with the stalk, which renders it less conspicuous 
 (Fig. 280). Many of the species are silvery white or are 
 marked with stripes of that color. 
 
 More than fifty of our species belong to the genus Cram- 
 bus (Cram'bus). The moths of this genus are often seen; 
 but the larvse usually escape observation. They occur 
 chiefly near the surface of the ground, where they live in 
 tubular nests constructed of bits of earth or vegetable 
 matter. 
 
 Family PIIVCITID^ (Phy-cit'i-dae). 
 The Phycitids {Phyc'i-tids). 
 
 Our most common members of this family are small 
 moths with rather narrow but long fore wings, which are 
 banded or mottled with 
 various shades of gray 
 or brown. The family 
 is, however, a large one 
 and other types of col- 
 oration occur. The dis- 
 tinctive characteristics 
 are those given in the 
 table above. Figure 281 
 represents the venation 
 of the wings. 
 
 The larvae of the dif- 
 erent species vary greatly 
 in habits. Some live in 
 flowers, some fold or roll 
 leaves within which they 
 
 II ^ — —_ iij 
 
 Vi 
 
 V2 
 
 Vllt 
 
 V112 
 
 Fig. 281— Wings of Tlascala reductelta. 
 
 live and feed ; some are borers ; others feed upon dried 
 fruits, or flour and meal ; and one, at least, is preda- 
 ceous, feeding on coccids. Usually the larva lives in a 
 silken tube or case, lying concealed by day and feeding by 
 night. 
 
236 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. 
 
 The case made by certain of the leaf-eating species is 
 very characteristic in form (Fig. 282), being strongly taper- 
 ing and much curved ; in this instance the 
 case is composed largely of the excrement of 
 the larva. 
 
 The Indian-meal Moth, Plodia interpiinc- 
 tella (Plo'di-a in-ter-punc-tel'la) is the best 
 known of the species that infest stored 
 provisions. The larva is the small whitish 
 worm, with a brownish -yellow head, that 
 spins thin silken tubes through meal or among 
 yeast-cakes, or in bags or boxes of dried fruits. The moth 
 expands about five eighths of an inch. The basal two fifths 
 of the fore wing is dull white or cream-colored ; the outer 
 part reddish brown, with irregular bands of blackish scales. 
 
 The Mediterranean Flour -moth, Ephestia kiihniella 
 (E-phes'ti-a kuhn-i-el'la), is an even more serious pest than 
 the preceding species, which it resembles in habits. It has 
 become very troublesome in recent years in flouring-mills. 
 The moth expands about one inch, and is grayish in color. 
 Although it is called the Mediterranean Flour-moth, its 
 source is not definitely known. Nor do we know of any 
 easy way of ridding an infested mill of it. Carbon bisul- 
 phide is perhaps the most available insecticide in this 
 case. 
 
 Zimmermann's Pine-pest, Pinipestis zimmennaimi (Pin-i- 
 pes'tis zim-mer-man'ni), is a common species, the larva of 
 which is a borer. It infests the trunks of pine, causing large 
 masses of gum to exude. The moths appear in mid- 
 summer. 
 
 The Coccid-eating Pyralid, Lcetilia coccidivora (Lae-til'i-a 
 coc-ci-div'o-ra), differs from the other members of this 
 family in being predaceous. It feeds on the eggs and 
 young of various scale-insects {Piihinaria, Dactylopms, and 
 Lecanitun). Figure 283 represents the different stages of 
 this insect enlarged, and the moths natural size resting on 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 237 
 
 egg-sacs of Pulvinaria. Like other members of this family 
 the larva spins a silken tube, within which it lives. On a 
 
 Fig. 2%y—Latilia 
 
 idirora ; a, egg; i, larva ; c, pupa; d, adult; e, e, moths natural 
 size resting on egg-sacs of Pidvitiaria. 
 
 thickly-infested branch these tubes may be found extending 
 from the remains of one coccid to another. 
 
 Family Pterophoridae (Pter-o-phor'i-dae). 
 The Plume-moths. 
 The Plume -moths are so called on account of tlie 
 remarkable form of the wings, which are split by longilu- 
 
238 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Fig. ^&^.—Oxy/>tilus 
 perisceliilactylus. 
 
 dinal fissures into more or less plume-like divisions. In 
 most species the fore wing is separated into two parts, by 
 a fissure extending about one half the length of the wing; 
 while the hind wing is divided into three parts by fissures 
 extending farther towards the base of the wing. Sixty 
 species belonging to the family have been found in North 
 America. 
 
 One of our most common species is the Gartered Plume, 
 OxyptilusperiscelidactylusiOx-y^W-Xxxs per-is-cel-i-dac'ty-lus). 
 This is a small moth, expanding about seven 
 tenths of an inch. It is of a yellowish brown 
 color marked with dull whitish streaks and 
 spots (Fig. 284). The larvae hatch early in the 
 spring, and feed upon the newly-expanded 
 leaves of grape. They fasten together 
 several of them, usually those at the end of a shoot, with 
 fine white silk; between the leaves thus folded the cater- 
 pillars live either singly or two or three together. They 
 become full grown and change to pupae early in June. 
 The pupa is not enclosed in a cocoon, but is fastened to 
 the lower side of a leaf by its tail by means of a few silken 
 threads, in nearly the same way that the chrysalids of certain 
 butterflies are suspended. The pupa state lasts about eight 
 days. 
 
 Family Orneodid^ (Or-ne-od'i-dae). 
 The Many-plume Moths. 
 
 These insects resemble the Plume 
 Moths in having the wings fissured ; 
 but here the Assuring is carried to a 
 much greater extent than in that fam- 
 ily, each wing being divided into six 
 plumes (Fig. 285). 
 
 As yet only a single species of this 
 family has been found in Nortli Ami'i- 
 ica. This is Orneodes hcxadactyla (Or- 
 nc-o'des hex-a-dac'ty-la). 
 
 Fig. T&^.—Ortieoiics 
 kexadactyla. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 539 
 
 Superfamily ToRTRiciNA (Tor-tri-ci'na). 
 The Tortricids {Tor'tri-cids). 
 
 The Tortricids are generally small moths ; but as a rule 
 they are larger than the Tineids. They have broad front 
 wings, which usually end squarely. The costa 
 of the front wing curves forward strongly 
 near the base of the wing. When at rest the 
 broad front wings fold above the body like a 
 roof. The moths are variegated in color, but 
 are usually brown, gray, or golden rather than 
 of brighter hues. As a rule the hind wings 
 are of the color of the body and without ^f:j%i 
 markings. In the venation of the wings they 
 differ from the Pyralids in having subcosta 
 and radius of the hind wings widely separate IXr.A^ 
 beyond the end of the discal cell ; and from lAS'^ 
 the Tineids in having the second anal vein 
 of the hind wings forked towards the base 
 (F'g- ^86)- „ ,„, „, ,„ \ % 
 
 The larvae /--^^^^^-^^^^^^^^^^^ * 
 
 vary greatly in /^^^'^[^^^^^^^ 
 
 habits ; but a ' ^T^T^. : : >Zi;!^^^^n^^ 
 
 large proportion ^^^ " "^~^^^!S^^>^na ' 
 
 of them are leaf- --^^x^ra Vpt"^ 
 
 rollers (Fig. 287). ^f" ~ -'~- "' 
 
 It was this habit ^^^^^S^^^)"^ 
 that suggested \^v\\^\"~^^^^I!I^-Vv/ 
 the name Tor- \ \\^\^\"">^^' 
 trix (Tor'trix) ^xtV-^vS^^^ 
 
 for the typical Fig. 286. -wings of Crtra?c/« Fig. 287. -Leaf 
 
 , C ceiasivorana. rolled by a 
 
 genus, from larva. probably 
 
 which the names of one family and of the ^t°''"'"^"^- 
 superfamily are derived. A large proportion of the rolled 
 leaves found upon shrubs and trees are homes of Tortricid 
 larvae. But it should be remembered that the leaf-rolling 
 habit is not confined to this family. 
 
?40 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The rolled leaves serve the Tortricid larvae not merely 
 as homes but also as food, for they feed upon the enclosed 
 portions. Sometimes several leaves are used by a larva, 
 but more often only one, or in many cases merely a tip or 
 one edge of a leaf is used. Some species cut a slit in a leaf 
 and roll only one part of it. They also differ greatly as to 
 the extent to which the leaves are rolled. Some species are 
 gregarious, an entire brood making a common nest. During 
 the latter part of the summer and in the autumn these 
 rolled leaves can be found on almost any tree or shrub. 
 
 In nearly all cases entomologists in naming Tortricids 
 have formed the specific name with the ending -ana\ so 
 that the form of the name indicates the family to which the 
 insect belongs. 
 
 More than four hundred North American species of 
 Tortricids are known. The superfamily includes three fam- 
 ilies, which can be separated by the following table : — 
 
 A. With a fringe of long hairs on the basal part of vein VII of the 
 hind wings, on the upper side of the wing. Do not mistake a 
 bunch of long hairs arising from the wing back of vein VII for 
 
 this fringe, p. 240 GRAPHOLiTHlDiE. 
 
 AA. Without a fringe of long hairs on the basal part of vein VII of 
 the hind wings. 
 B. Vein VIIj of the fore wings arising from the outer fourth of the 
 
 discal cell, p. 243 ■ CcnsrcHVLiDiE. 
 
 BB. Vein VII2 of the fore wings arising from a point before the 
 outer third of the discal cell, p. 244 ToRTRiCiDiE. 
 
 Family Grapholithid^ (Graph-o-lith'i-dse). 
 
 TJie GrapliolitJiids {Gra-phot i-thids). 
 
 These moths are easily distinguished from other Tortri- 
 cids by the presence of a fringe of long hairs on the basal 
 part of cubitus of the hind wing. To this family belong 
 nearly two thirds of our species of Tortricids. The follow 
 ing are some of our more common species : — 
 
LEPiDOPTERA. 241 
 
 The Codlin-moth, Carpocapsa povionella (Car-po-cap'sa 
 pom-o-neria). — This is the best-known and probably the 
 most important insect enemy of the fruit-grower. The 
 larva is the worm found feeding near the core of wormy 
 apples. The adult (Fig. 288) is a beautiful little creature 
 with finely mottled pale gray or rosy fore 
 wings. There is a large brownish spot near 
 the end of the fore wing, and upon this spot 
 irregular, golden bands. The moth issues 
 from the pupa state in late spring and lays Fig 288.-o<r/<,- 
 
 ... - capsa pomonella. 
 
 its eggs singly m the maturnig blossoms of 
 the apple just as the petals fall. As soon as the larva 
 hatches it burrows into the apple and eats its way to the 
 core, usually causing the fruit to fall prematurely. When 
 full grown the larva burrows out through the side of the 
 fruit, and undergoes its transformations within a cocoon, 
 under the rough bark of the tree, or in some other protected 
 place. The species is both single-brooded and double- 
 brooded. The larvai winter in their cocoons, transforming 
 to pupae during early spring. 
 
 The method of combating this pest that is most com- 
 monly employed now is to spray the trees with Paris-green 
 water, just after the petals fall and before the young apples 
 are heavy enough to droop. The falling spray lodges in the 
 blossom end of the young apple, and the larva which hatches 
 from an ^^'g laid in this position gets a dose of poison with 
 its first meal, and dies before it can eat its way into the 
 apple. 
 
 The Bud-moth, Tmetocera ocdlana (Tme-toc'e-ra oc-el- 
 la'na). — The larva of this insect is also a pest infesting apple- 
 trees. It works in opening fruit buds and leaf-buds, often 
 eating into them, especially the terminal ones, so that all new 
 growth is stopped. It also ties the young leaves at the end 
 of a shoot together and lives within the cluster thus formed, 
 adding other leaves when more food is needed. Sometimes 
 so large a proportion of the fruit-buds are destroyed as to 
 
242 
 
 7^HE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 seriously reduce the amount of the crop. The pupa state is 
 passed withui the cluster of tied leaves or within a tube 
 formed by rolling up one side of a leaf, and lasts about ten 
 days. The moth expands about three fifths of an inch ; it is 
 of a dark ashen gray, with a large, irregular, whitish band on 
 the fore wine:. 
 
 Fig. zZg.—Retini 
 
 comstockiana, larva, pupa, adult, and work. (.P'rom the Author's 
 Report for 1879.) 
 
 The Pitch-pine Retinia, Retinia cotnstockiana (Re-tin'i a 
 com-stock-i-a'na). — This species (Fig. 289) illustrates well 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 243 
 
 the habits of the boring species. The larva infests the 
 small brandies of pitch-pine. It is a yellowish-brown 
 caterpillar, which makes a burrow along the centre of 
 the branch. Its presence may be detected by the resin 
 that flows out of the wound in the twig and hardens 
 into a lump. Two of these lumps are shown in the 
 figure, one of tliem splits lengthwise, 
 and the other with a pupa-skin pro- 
 jecting from it. The larva, pupa, 
 and adult are also figured. The 
 moth is represented natural size; 
 the darker shades are dark rust- 
 color, and the lighter, light-gray. 
 The insect winters as a larva ; the 
 adult emerges in May and June, 
 
 The Frustrating Retinia, 7?^/////^; 
 //-?/j'/rrt;/^(frus-tra'na). — Thisspecies 
 infests the new growth of several 
 species of pine, spinning a delicate 
 web around the terminal bud, and F'o-zgo— /?^^/«/.j/r/«/r,j;/fl.iarva, 
 
 . . . pupa, adult, and work. (From 
 
 mining both the twig and the bases the Author's Report for 1879.) 
 
 of the leaves. The larva, pupa, and adult are represented 
 somewhat enlarged in the figure. An infested twig is also 
 shown (Fig. 290). 
 
 Family CONCHYLID^ (Con-chyl'i-dce). 
 The Conchy lids {Con' chy-lids). 
 
 This is the smallest of the three families of Tortricids, less 
 than fifty species occurring in our fauna. The members of 
 it can be recognized by the characters given in the table 
 above. Comparatively little is known about the habits of 
 our species. 
 
 The Juniper Web-worm, ConcJiylis rutilajia (Con'ch}--lis 
 ru-ti-la'na), is an imported species which has attracted atten- 
 
244 
 
 THE STUDY OF J X SECTS. 
 
 tion by its injuries to junipers, the leaves of which it fastens 
 together with silk. In this way it makes a more or less per- 
 fect tube within which it lives. The moth expands about 
 one half inch, and has bright, glossy, orange, fore wings, 
 crossed by four reddish brown bands. 
 
 Family TORTRICID/E (Tor-tric'i-dffi). 
 
 TJic Typical Tortricids {Tor tri-cids). 
 
 The Tortricidae agree with the preceding family in lack- 
 ing a fringe of long hairs on the basal part of vein VII of the 
 hind wings, but differ in that vein VII, of the hind wings 
 separates from the main stem before the outer third of the 
 discal cell. More than one hundred and twenty North 
 American species are known. 
 
 Several of our best-known members of this family belong 
 to the genus Caccecia (Ca-cce'ci-a). These may be called the 
 Ugly-nest Tortricids, ugly dwelling being the meaning of 
 Caccecia, and also descriptive of the nests of the larvce of 
 these insects. 
 
 Figure 291 represents the nest of the larva of Caccecia ro- 
 
 sana (C. ro-sa'na), which v/e bred on currant ; and Figure 292, 
 
 the adult of this species. This 
 
 moth expands three fourths of 
 
 ^ ' \ an inch. The fore wings are 
 
 "°°^^^-^?:^ olive-brown, crossed by bands 
 
 of darker color ; the hind wings 
 
 are dusky. This species differs 
 
 M 
 
 Fig. agi. — Nest of Caca-cin rosana. Fig. 29s. — Caccecia rosana. 
 
 from the two following in that each larva makes a nest for 
 itself. 
 
LEPIDOnERA. 
 
 245 
 
 The Clicn-y-tree Ugly-ncst Tortricid, Caccccia cerasivo- 
 rana (C. cer-a-si-vo-ra'na), lives upon the 
 choke-cherry and sometimes upon the cul- 
 tivated cherry. The larvce, wliich are yel- 
 low, active creatures, fasten together all 
 the leaves and twigs of a branch and feed 
 upon them (Fig. 293), an entire brood oc- 
 cupying a single nest. The larva; change 
 to pupa,' within the nest; and tlve pup.x, 
 when about to transform, work their way 
 out and hang suspended from the outer 
 portion of the nest, clinging to it only by 
 hooks at the tail end of the body. Here 
 they transform, leaving the empty pupa- 
 skins projecting from the nest, as shown 
 in the figure. The moths vary in size, the 
 wing expanse of those we have bred rang- 
 ing from four fifths of an inch to nearly 
 , one and one-fifth inches. The wings are 
 bright ochre-yellow ; the front pair marked 
 with irregular brownish spots and numer- 
 
 FlG. 293.— Ntst cf Cacacia 
 cerasivorana. 
 
 Fig. 295. — Cacceria cerasi- 
 vorana, female. 
 
 ous transverse bands of pale leaden blue (Fig. 294 male, 
 295 female). 
 
 The Oak Ugly-nest Tortricid, Caccecia fcrvadana (C. fer- 
 va-da'na). — The nests of this species are common on our 
 oak-trees in late summer. They are merely a wad of leaves 
 fastened together. Each nest contains several larvae ; later 
 the empty pupa-skins may be found clinging to the outside 
 of the nest as in the preceding species. 
 
 The Pine-leaf Tube-builder, Lophodenis politana (Lo- 
 
246 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 phod'e-rus pol-i-ta'na). — One of the most interesting of Tor- 
 tricid nests occurs commonly on white pine. Each nest 
 consists of from six to ten leaves drawn together so as to 
 form a tube, and is lined within with silk. This tube serves 
 as a protection td the larva, from which it comes out to feed 
 upon the ends of the very leaves of which the tube is com- 
 posed ; in this way the tube is shortened. We bred the 
 moth from nests collected at Ithaca, New York; but we 
 have found similar nests as far south as Florida. The moth 
 expands one half inch. Its head, thorax, and fore wings are 
 of a dull rust-red color, with two oblique paler bands cross- 
 ing the fore wings, one a little before the middle, the other 
 beyond, parallel to it. 
 
 Superfamily TiNEINA (Tin-e-i'na). 
 The Tineids {Tin' e-ids). 
 
 The Tineids are nearly all minute moths with narrow 
 wings, which are bordered with wide fringes. A few species 
 are of considerable size, and have broader wings, with nar- 
 rower fringes. 
 
 The narrow-winged forms can be distinguished from all 
 
 other moths by the shape of the wings and the great width 
 
 of the fringes. The moths figured below (Figs. 298, 299, 
 
 300, 302) illustrate this. It should be remembered that in 
 
 ,„ ,,, each of these figures the insect 
 
 TI II Ii , ' III 
 
 — ' ^^~^ ^iiis is represented greatly enlarged ; 
 in most cases the size of the 
 
 J5T ---^^ZTr^r^rrvn, ' insect is represented by a hair- 
 
 " ni hne near the ngure. 
 
 )y' The wide- winged forms are 
 
 Vj most surely distinguished by 
 
 -^j^ix"^^^^' " ^^ venation of the wings. In 
 
 Fig. 296.-wings of D.pressaria ''^-'^ ^lorc general fcaturcs the 
 
 heracliana. VCnatioU of the wiugS in this 
 
 family is similar to that of the Tortricids ; it differs, how- 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 247 
 
 ever, in that the second anal vein of the ///W wings is not 
 forked towards the base (Fig. 296). 
 
 The venation of the wings of the more generalized Tineids is quite 
 primitive in type; there are two anal veins in the fore wings, three 
 anal veins in the hind wings, and the base of vein V is preserved 
 throughout the length of the discal cell. But the more specialized 
 members of the superfamily present a wide departure from this gen- 
 eralized type. With these the base of vein V has disappeared from 
 both pairs of wings, and the venation of the hind wings is reduced to 
 a greater extent than is seen elsewhere in winged Lepidoptera. 
 
 Correlated with this great reduction of the hind wings there has 
 been a great expansion of the fringe of the wing. It is evident that 
 the fringe of the wing takes the place of the wing-membrane as an 
 organ of flight. In those Tineids that we have studied carefully the 
 hairs composing the fringe are inserted in the lower side of the wing- 
 membrane a short distance back from the edge of the wing; and the 
 edge of the wing is stiflfened above by strong overlapping scales. 
 This arrangement renders the fringe rigid during the downward 
 stroke of the wing, but admits of its depression during the upward 
 stroke; a combination well adapted to facilitate flight. The substi- 
 tution of wide fringes for the wing-membrane occurs in some other 
 minute insects, as Thrips and certain minute, parasitic Hymenop- 
 tera. 
 
 To this superfamily belong the smallest of the Lepidop- 
 tera ; many of them are so minute that the larvae live until 
 full grown within the tissue of leaves. 
 
 These tiny moths are often very beautiful, their wings 
 being marked with scales that shine like silver or gold ; but 
 they are so small that it is necessary to examine them with 
 a lens to appreciate their beauty. 
 
 The larvae of nearly all Tineids feed upon vegetable 
 matter. The majority of them feed upon or within the 
 leaves of plants, but many live within nuts, or seeds, or dried 
 fruits ; a few feed upon dead animal matter, as woolens, 
 furs, and feathers ; and some are predaceous, destroying 
 scale-bugs. 
 
 Entomologists have a custom of terminating the name 
 of each species of Tineid with -ella. Thus we have Tinea 
 
248 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 granella, Adela ridingsella, Biicailatrix pomonclla, and many 
 hundreds of others; until the syllable -ella always brings 
 before us a vision of a tiny moth, with narrow wings bear- 
 ing long delicate fringes. 
 
 The Tineids are very numerous, there being nearly one 
 thousand described American species ; and doubtless there 
 are many undescribed as yet. The superfamily is composed 
 of several families; but, as the study of these insects is 
 too difficult to be carried far by the beginning student, we 
 will not take the space to define these families in this work. 
 We will merely describe the habits of a few species. 
 
 At first thought the leaves of our common shrubs and 
 trees seem quite as thin as if they had been cut out of 
 sheets of paper. But the reader has doubtless learned in 
 the study of Botany that the upper and the lower surfaces 
 of a leaf are each covered with a thin skin or epidermis, and 
 that between these two skins there is a fleshy portion called 
 the parenchyma. But if botanists had failed to teach us 
 this lesson, the Tineid larvae would have done so ; for many 
 of these little creatures live until full grown between the two 
 skins of a leaf, and derive their nourishment from the paren- 
 chyma. As our coal-miners dig tunnels in the earth, so do 
 these larvae eat out long passages in the substance of a leaf, 
 without breaking through either epidermis. 
 
 During the late summer and autumn there can be found 
 on almost any shrub or tree leaves that are more or less dis- 
 colored by white or grayish blotches or by long twisted 
 lines that reveal the abiding-places of leaf-miners. Surely 
 Mr. Lowell must have had these in mind when he wrote ; 
 
 " And there's never a leaf nor a blade too mean 
 To be some happy creature's palace." 
 
 Not only are very many kinds of plants infested by 
 Tineid larvae, but the mines in the leaves differ greatly in 
 form and in their position in the leaf. These differences in 
 food-plant and in the shape and position of the mines do 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 249 
 
 not indicate that these larvae are inconstant in their habits. 
 In fact, the opposite is the case. Each species of Tineid 
 infests a particular species of plant, or, at the most, several 
 closely allied plants. And each species makes a mine of 
 definite shape, although some species exhibit different habits 
 in the different stages of their growth. So constant are 
 these creatures in their habits that in most cases an expert 
 can determine the species of Tineid that made a mine by 
 merely examining the infested leaf. 
 
 The various kinds of mines can be classed under a few 
 distinct types. The long, narrow, and more or less winding 
 mines are described as 
 
 P 
 
 "^ 
 
 11)1 car mine's. Some of 
 these are very narrow at 
 their beginning and grad- 
 ually enlarge, resembling 
 in outline a serpent ; fre- 
 quently the larger end is 
 terminated by a blotch- 
 like enlargement, suggest- 
 ing a head. Such mines 
 are termed serpentine 
 mines. The leaves of the 
 wild columbine are often 
 marked by serpentine 
 mines (Fig. 297). Other 
 
 mines that start from a narrow beginning enlarge more 
 rapidly and extend in a more or less regular curve ; these 
 are triivipet mines. A common example of a trumpet 
 mine is that made by the larva of Tischeria vialifoliella 
 (Tis-che'ri-a mal-i-fol-i-el'la) in the leaves of apple. The 
 mines of many species are mere disk-like blotches ; these are 
 referred to as blotcJi mines (Fig. 298). Blotch mines differ in 
 position ; some are immediately beneath the upper epider- 
 mis, while others are nearer the lower surface of the leaf. 
 This distinction exists also in most of the other types of 
 
 Fig. 297.— Leaf with serpentine mines. 
 
250 
 
 THE STUDY OF IX SECTS. 
 
 mines. In some of the blotch mines the epidermis of one 
 side of the leaf is thrown into a fold by the growth of the 
 leaf ; these are tentiform mines. 
 
 In addition to peculiarities in shape many mines are 
 marked by characteristic lines or spots composed of the 
 droppings of th.e larva. 
 
 The following species will serve to illustrate the habits 
 of these remarkable insects. 
 
 The White-blotch Oak-leaf Miner, Litliocolletis Jianiadrya- 
 della (Lith-o-col-le'tis ha-mad-ry-a-del'la). — This little miner 
 infests the leaves of many different species of oak, and some- 
 
 Y\o.2^%.~LithocoUetis hamadryadcUa: «, mine; 3, young larva; c, full-grown, flat-form 
 larva; d, head of same, enWirged; e. antenna of same, enlarged; _/", round-form larva 
 from above; ^, same from below; h, head of same, enlarged; /, antenna of same, en- 
 larged; k, maxilja and palpus of same, enlarged; /, labium, labial palpi, and spinnerets 
 of same; >«, pupa; k, side view of pupal crest; o, front view of same; jf, cocoon; Q, 
 moth. (From the Author's Report for 1879.) 
 
 times it is extremely abundant. We have seen trees infested 
 so badly that there were on an average four or five mines in 
 each leaf. Figure 298 represents a leaf from such a tree. The 
 mine is a whitish, blotch mine in the upper side of the leaf. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 2$ I 
 
 The young larva is remarkable in resembling more the larva 
 of a beetle than the ordinary type of lepidopterous larvae. 
 It is nearly flat ; the first thoracic segment is much larger than 
 any of the others ; the body tapers towards the hind end ; 
 and there are only the faintest rudiments of legs discernible. 
 The larvai molt seven times. At the seventh molt the form 
 of the body undergoes a striking change. It now becomes 
 cylindrical in form, there is a great change in tiie shape of 
 the mouth-parts, and the fourteen feet are well developed. 
 This change in form during the life of the larva is charac- 
 teristic of a large group of Tineids of which this species may 
 be taken as a type. The full-grown cylindrical larva meas- 
 ures about one fifth inch in length. It spins a cocoon, which 
 is simply a delicate, semi-transparent, circular sheet of white 
 silk, stretched over a part of the floor of the mine. The 
 pupa is dark brown in color, and bears a toothed crest upon 
 its head, which enables it doubtless to pierce or saw its way 
 out from the cocoon. The moth is a delicate little creature, 
 whose wings expand a little more than one fourth inch. The 
 fore wings are white, with three, broad, irregular, bronze bands 
 across- each, and each band is bordered with black on the 
 inner side. The hind wings are silvery. 
 
 As this insect passes the winter as a larva within the dry 
 leaves, the best way to check its ravages when it becomes a 
 pest is to rake up and burn such leaves. 
 
 The Palmetto-leaf Miner, Lavcrna sabalclla (La-ver'na 
 sab-a-lel'la). — This species occurs only in the South where 
 the saw-palmetto grows. But it is of general interest as 
 illustrating a peculiar type of larval habit. The larvae can 
 hardly be said to be leaf-miners ; for they feed upon the 
 upper surface of the leaf, destroying the skin as well as the 
 fleshy part of the leaf. They are social, working together in 
 small companies, and make a nest consisting of a delicate 
 sheet of silk covering that part of the leaf upon which they 
 are feeding; this sheet is covered with what appears like 
 sawdust, but which is really a mass of the droppings of the 
 
252 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 larvce (Fig. 299). The full grown larva attains a length of 
 half an inch. The pupa state is passed within the nest made 
 by the larvae. The moth is quite large for a Tineid, the 
 wings expanding five eighths of an inch. Its general color is 
 
 Fig. 2(jq.—Laverna sabalella, larva, pupa, adult, and patt of injured leaf. (From 
 the Author's Report for 1879.) 
 
 a delicate silvery gray, with a tinge of lavender in some in- 
 dividuals. 
 
 The Pine-leaf Miner, G ehxhia piiiifolicna{Ge:-W c\\'\-di pin-i- 
 fol-i-el'la). — It often happens that the ends of the leaves of 
 pine present a dead and brown appearance that is due to the 
 interior of the leaf having been eaten out. This is the work 
 of the Pine-leaf Miner (Fig. 300). At the right season it is 
 easy to see the long, slender larva in its snug retreat by 
 holding a leaf up to the light and looking through it ; and 
 later the pupa can be seen in the same way. Near the lower 
 end of the tunnel in each leaf there is a round hole through 
 which the larva entered the leaf and from which the adult 
 emerges. We have found this insect in several of the 
 stouter-leaved species of pine, but never in the slender 
 leaves of the white pine. In the North it is most abundant 
 in the leaves of pitch-pine. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 253 
 
 The Apple Bucculatrix, Buccnlatrix pomifoliclla (Buc-cu- 
 la'trix pom-i-fol-i-el'la). — This insect differs in habits in sev- 
 
 FlG. 300. 
 
 -Gelechia piiii/oliitla. larva, pupa, adult, and leaves mined by the 1; 
 the Author s Report tor 1879.) 
 
 a. (From 
 
 eral respects from any of the other Tineids described here. 
 The larva infests the leaves of apple, and when full grown 
 it makes a small white cocoon which is attached to the 
 lower surface of a twig. These cocoons sometimes occur in 
 great numbers, side by side, on the twigs of an infested tree 
 (Fig. 301). They are easily recognized by their shape being 
 slender, and ribbed lengthwise. It is these cocoons that 
 usually first reveal the presence of this pest in an orchard. 
 They are very conspicuous during the winter when the 
 leaves are ofT the trees. At this time each cocoon contains 
 a pupa. The adult moth emerges in early spring. The 
 eo^gs are laid on the lower surface of the leaves. Each 
 larva when it hatches bores directly from the &^% to the 
 upper surface of the leaf, where it makes a brown serpentine 
 
254 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 mine. When these mines are abundant in a leaf it turns 
 yellow and dies. When the larva has made a mine from 
 one half to three fourths of an inch long, which it does in 
 from four to five days, it eats its way out through the upper 
 surface. Then somewhere on the upper 
 surface of the leaf it weaves a circular silken 
 covering about one-twelfth inch in diam- 
 eter. Stretched out on this network the 
 larva, which is now about one-tenth inch long, 
 makes a small hole in it near its edge, then, 
 as one would turn a somersault, it puts its 
 head into this hole and disappears beneath 
 the silken covering, where it undergoes a 
 change of skin. It remains in the molting 
 cocoon usually less than twenty-four hours. 
 After leaving this cocoon it feeds upon the 
 leaves without making a mine ; and in a few 
 days makes a second molting cocoon which 
 differs from the first only in being about one- 
 eighth inch in diameter. After leaving this it 
 Fig. 301. - Cocoons again feeds for a few days, and then mi- 
 l/oiteTia."^'^''^ ^'""' grates to a twig where it makes the long 
 ribbed cocoon within which the pupa state is passed. This 
 very interesting life-history was first worked out by Mr. A. E. 
 Brunn while a student in the writer's laboratory at Cornell 
 University. 
 
 When it is necessary to combat this pest the smaller 
 twigs bearing cocoons should be pruned as far as practicable 
 during the winter and burned, and those cocoons that 
 remain on the larger branches should be washed with strong 
 kerosene emulsion. 
 
 The Resplendent Shield-bearer, Aspidisca splcndoriferella 
 (As-pi-dis'ca splen-do-rif-e-rel'la). — This Tineid is both a 
 miner and a case-bearer. It feeds within apple-leaves, and at 
 first makes a linear mine ; but later this is enlarged into a 
 blotch mine. When full grown the larva makes an oval case 
 
LEPTDOP TERA , 255 
 
 cut from the walls of its mine and lined with silk. It then 
 seeks a safe place in which to fasten this case and pass the 
 winter. This is usually on the trunk or on a branch of the in- 
 fested tree (Fig. 302). Once some of these migrating larvze 
 dropped from a tree upon the writer's hat and carefully 
 
 Fig. 302. — Aspidiscit sf>lendori/erella : a, leaf of apple showing work ; 6, summer larva ; 
 c, larva in case travelling^ ; d, cases tied up for winter ; e, hibernating larva ; y, puf a ; 
 g-, moth ; A, parasite. (From the Author's Report for 1879.) 
 
 fastened themselves to the band with misplaced confidence 
 that they could remain there till spring. The adult has 
 gray and golden wings with silvery and dark markings. 
 
 The Maple-leaf Cutter, Inair'i>aria acerifoliella fln-cur- 
 va'ri-a a-cer-i-fol-i-el'la). — This insect illustrates still another 
 
256 
 
 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. 
 
 curious type of larval habits. It infests the leaves of maple, 
 and occasionally is so abundant that it does serious injury. 
 The leaves of an infested tree present a strange appearance 
 (Fig. 303). They are perforated with numerous elliptical holes, 
 and marked by many more or 
 less perfect ring-like patches 
 in which the green substance 
 of the leaf has been destroyed, 
 but each of which incloses an 
 uninjured spot. These inju- 
 ries are produced as follows: 
 The young larva cuts an oval 
 piece out of a leaf, places it 
 over its back, and fastens it 
 down with silk around the 
 edges. This serves as a house 
 beneath which it lives. As it 
 grows this house becomes too 
 small for it. It then cuts out 
 a larger piece which it fastens 
 to the outer edges of the 
 Fig. 303.— Leaf infested by /«<:7<rz/ar/«. smaller ouc, the larva being 
 between the two. Then it fastens one edge of this case to 
 the leaf by a silken hinge so that it will not fall to the 
 ground " cradle and all," and then turns the case over so that 
 the larger piece is over its back. When it wishes to change 
 its location it thrusts out its head and fore legs from the 
 case and walks off, looking like a tiny turtle. When it 
 wishes to eat it fastens the case to the leaf and, thrusting its 
 head out, eats the fleshy part of the leaf as far as it can reach. 
 This explains the circular form of the patches, the round 
 spot in the center indicating the position of the case. The 
 insect passes the winter in the pupa state within its case^ 
 which falls to the ground with the infested leaf. The moth 
 is of a brilliant steel-blue or bluish-green color without spots ; 
 it appears in early summer. 
 
PROPERTY, or 
 
 Z. p. METCALF 
 
 LEPIDOPTERA. 257 
 
 Other Case-bearers. — The two case-bearers described 
 above make their cases out of fragments of leaves ; there 
 are others that use the husks of seeds which they have 
 eaten. Such cases are extremely protective, appearing to 
 be merely seeds. But there are some Tineid case-bearers 
 that make their cases entirely of silk. These are usually 
 more or less nearly cylindrical, and are carried projecting 
 out at a considerable angle from the object upon which the 
 insect walks. When the insect is at rest and when it is 
 undergoing its transformations the mouth of the case is 
 closely fastened to some object, so that the insect is com- 
 pletely concealed. Considerable differences exist in the 
 form of these silken cases. In a quite common type the 
 case is nearly cylindrical, with a flaring lip at the head end, 
 and with the hind end three-sided, as if it had been pinched 
 between one's thumb and two fingers. In another type the 
 hind end of the case is somewhat enlarged and curved down- 
 ward so that the case is shaped like a pistol. 
 
 TJie ClotJies-vioths. — These are the dread of every house- 
 keeper. The mere mention of the word "moths" is enough 
 to conjure up visions of household treasures of woolen and fur 
 eaten full of holes, their beauty gone, their usefulness past. 
 It was formerly supposed that these well-known injuries 
 were caused by a single species ; but it has since been dis- 
 covered that we have in this country three species of clothes- 
 moths. These differ in habits as well as in structure. 
 
 The Case-bearing Clothes-moth, Tinea pellionella (Tin'e-a 
 pel-li-o-nel'la). — The larva of this species is a true case- 
 bearer, making a case out of bits of its food-material which 
 are fastened together with silk. As the larva grows it en- 
 larges its case by adding to each end and by slitting it and 
 inserting a piece. Instructive specimens can be obtained by 
 rearing the larvae, and changing them from time to time 
 from flannel of one color to that of another. The shape of 
 the successive additions to the case, being of different colors, 
 can be easily seen. The pupa state is passed within the 
 
258 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 case. The adult is a small brown moth with a few dark 
 spots on its fore wings. 
 
 The Tube-building Clothes-moth, Tinea tapetzella (T. 
 tap-et-zel'la). — The larva of this species makes a gallery 
 composed of silk mixed with fragments of cloth. This gal- 
 lery is long and winding and can be easily distinguished 
 from the case of the preceding species. The pupa state is 
 passed within the gallery. The moth differs greatly in ap- 
 pearance from the other two species, the fore wings being 
 black from the base to the middle and white beyond. 
 
 The Naked Clothes-moth, Tinea biselliella (T. bi-i-^l- 
 li-el'la). — Although this species spins some silk wherever it 
 goes, it makes neither a case nor a gallery. It may be 
 termed, therefore, the Naked Clothes-moth, in contradistinc- 
 tion to the other two species. But when the larva is full 
 grown it makes a cocoon, which is composed of fragments 
 of its food-material fastened together with silk. The adult 
 is of a delicate straw-color, without dark spots on its wings. 
 
 Protection from Clothes-moths. — In late spring or early 
 summer all winter clothing, flannels, furs, and other articles 
 that are to be put away for the summer should be thor- 
 oughly brushed or examined for these pests, and exposed to 
 the sunlight as long as practicable. Then they should be 
 wrapped carefully in stout paper, or better packed in paste- 
 board boxes, which can be procured at small cost, and the 
 crack between the cover and the box closed by pasting a 
 strip of paper over it. 
 
 The Angoumois Grain-moth, Gelcchia cerealella (Ge- 
 le'chi-a ce-re-a-lel'la). — Although this insect is closely allied 
 to the Pine-leaf Miner, its habits are very different. This 
 insect feeds upon seeds, and especially upon stored grain. 
 It occurs throughout our country; but it is especially de- 
 structive in the Southern States. In that part of the coun- 
 try it is extremely difificult to keep grain long on account 
 of this pest and certain beetles that also feed on stored 
 grain. The adult moth is of a very light grayish-brown 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 259 
 
 color, more or less spotted with black ; it expands about 
 half an inch. The common name is derived from the fact 
 that it has been very destructive in the province of Angou- 
 mois, France. 
 
 Family SesiiD/E (Se-si'i-dae). 
 The Clcar-zvinged Moths or Sesiids {Se' si-ids). 
 The Clear-winged Moths constitute a very remarkable 
 family, many of them resembling bees or wasps in appear- 
 ance more than they do ordinary moths, a resemblance 
 due to their clear wings and in some cases 
 to their bright colors (Fig. 304). There are a 
 few moths in other families, as the Clear- 
 winged Sphinxes, and certain Zygaenids, 
 that have a greater or less part of the wings 
 devoid of scales ; but they are exceptions. ^"=- 304- 
 
 Here it is the rule that the greater part of one or both pairs 
 of wings are free from scales; hence the common name 
 Clear-winged Moths. 
 
 These insects are of moderate size ; as a rule they have 
 spindle-shaped antennae, which are terminated by a small 
 
 rii s i 1 k y t u f t ; 
 
 ' ^~^ '" sometimes the 
 antenna? are 
 pectinate ; the 
 margins of the 
 wings and the 
 veins of even 
 the clear- 
 winged species 
 are clothed 
 with scales; 
 and at the end 
 of the abdo- 
 
 FiG. 305.— Wings of Sannina exitiosa, female. , 
 
 men there is 
 a fan-like tuft of scales. 
 
 The fore wings are remarkable for their extreme narrow- 
 
260 THE STUD V OF INSECTS. 
 
 ness and the great reduction of the anal area (Fig. 305); 
 while the hind wings have a widely expanded anal area. 
 There is great variation within the family in the number of 
 anal veins in the hind wings, the number ranging from two 
 to four. The maximum number of anal veins in the Lepi- 
 doptera has generally been considered to be three ; but in 
 certain forms belonging to this family a fourth (vein X) is 
 quite well represented. 
 
 Another remarkable feature of all me forms that we 
 have studied is that in the female the bristles composing 
 the frenulum are consolidated as in the male. The females 
 also possess a frenulum hook; but this is not so highly 
 specialized as that of the male. 
 
 The adults fly very swiftly and during the hotter part of 
 the day. They frequent flowers, thus increasing their resem- 
 blance to bees or wasps. The larvcne are borers, living within 
 the more solid parts of plants. Some species cause serious 
 injury to vegetation. Nearly one hundred and fifty species 
 have been found in this country. Doubtless many more 
 exist ; for the family has not been thoroughly studied as yet. 
 The following species have attracted much attention on 
 account of their serious ravages. 
 
 The Peach-tree Borer, Saiinina (?-irz/z^^<^ (San-ni'na ex-it-i- 
 o'sa). — This is the most important insect enemy of the 
 peach-tree. In some parts of the country it is difficult to 
 find a peach-tree that is not infested by it. The eggs are 
 laid on the bark of the tree near the ground. The larvae 
 bore downward in the bark of the trunk just below the sur- 
 face of the ground. Their burrows become filled by a 
 gummy secretion of the tree. As this oozes out in large 
 masses the presence of the borer is easily detected by it. 
 When full grown the larva comes to the surface of the 
 ground and makes a cocoon of borings fastened together 
 with silk. The perfect insects appear from May till October, 
 but most of them in the latter part of June and early i:-' 
 July. There is a single generation each year. The adults 
 
LRPinOPTERA. 261 
 
 differ greatly in appearance. The general color of both 
 sexes is a glassy steel-blue. In the female (Fig. 306) the 
 fore wings are covered with scales, and --v r' 
 
 there is a bright orange-colored band ^^^^jj^^^^ 
 on the abdomen. In the male both ^^^MBH^^^ 
 pairs of wings are nearly free from jTO 
 
 scales. No better method of fighting ''•^' 
 
 . , . .1 1 r 1 ii j_ Fig. ^06. — Sannina exitiosa. 
 
 this pest has been found than to care- 
 fully watch the trees and remove the larvae with a knife as 
 soon as discovered. 
 
 The Pacific Peach-tree Borer, Sannina pacifica (S, pa- 
 cif'i ca).— On the Pacific Coast there is a peach-tree borer 
 that is distinct from the above, and appears to be an even 
 more serious pest. The larva is more diflficult to remove 
 from the tree, as it bores into the solid wood. The female 
 of this species lacks the orange-colored band on the abdomen. 
 
 The Currant Borer, Sesia tipnliformis (Se'si-a tip-u-li-for'- 
 mis). — This species is closely allied to the two preceding, 
 but is smaller, expanding only about three fourths of an 
 inch. There are but few scales on either pair of wings 
 except on the tip and discal vein of the fore wings and the 
 outer margin of the hind wings. The eggs are laid on the 
 twigs of currant. The larvae penetrate the stem, and de- 
 vour the pith; in this way they make a burrow in which 
 they live and undergo their transformations. The perfect 
 insects appear in June. Before this time the leaves of the 
 infested plant turn yellow. If such plants be cut and burned 
 in May the'pest will be destroyed. 
 
 The Pine Sesian, Harnionia pini (Har-mo'ni-a pi'ni). — 
 Frequently there may be seen on the trunks of pine-trees 
 large masses of resinous gum mingled with sawdust-like 
 matter. These are the results of the work of the larvae of 
 this insect, which bore under the bark and into the superficial 
 layers of the wood. The adult resembles the female of the 
 Peach-tree Borer, but the abdomen is more extensively 
 marked with orange. 
 
262 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Tlie Squash-vinc Borer, Melittia celo (Me-Ht'ti-a ce'to). — 
 The larva of this species (Fig. 307) does great damage by- 
 eating the interior of squash-vines. In some places it is 
 
 Fig. lo-].— Melittia ceio, larva in squash-vine. 
 
 almost impossible to raise squashes on account of its rav- 
 ages. The fore wings of the adult are covered with scales, 
 and the hind legs are fringed with long orange-colored scales. 
 
 Family DlOPTlD.^ (Di-op'ti-dcx). 
 
 The Dioptids {Di-of tids). 
 
 This family is represented in our fauna by a single known 
 species, Fhryganidia californica (Phryg-a-nid'i-a cal-i-for'- 
 
 Fig. 308. — Phryganidia cali/c 
 
 ni-ca), which occurs in Califor- 
 nia. This is a pale-brown 
 insect, with nearly transparent 
 wings (Fig. 308). The veins 
 of the wings are dark, which j.p 
 
 renders them prominent. In 
 the males there is a yelloui.sh ^^o.y^.-w^n^^oi Phryganidia. 
 spot just beyond the discal cell. The venation of the wings 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 263 
 
 (Fig. 309) is very different from tliat of any other insect 
 that occurs in this country. 
 
 The larvae feed upon the leaves of live-oaks, and some- 
 times occur so abundantly as to almost strip the trees of 
 their foliage. They are said to feed singly, and appear to 
 make little if any use of the anal feet as a means of loco- 
 motion, generally carrying the last segment of the body 
 elevated in the air. 
 
 Family NOTODONTID^ (No-to-don'ti-dae). 
 The Proniinents. 
 
 This family includes moths of moderate size, only a few 
 of the larger ones expanding more than two inches. With 
 these moths the body is rather stout and densely clothed 
 with hair, and the legs, especially the femora, are clothed 
 with long hairs. The wings are strong, and not very broad, 
 the anal angle of the hind wings rarely reaching the end of 
 the abdomen. In their general appearance many of these 
 moths bear a strong resemblance to the Owlet Moths or 
 Noctuidae ; but they can be easily distinguished from the 
 Noctuids by the position of vein V^ of the fore wings, 
 which does not arise nearer to vein VII than to vein III, 
 as it does in that family. 
 
 In some species the front wing has a prominence or 
 backward - project- 
 ing lobe on the in- 
 ner margin, which 
 has suggested the 
 common name of 
 Prominents for 
 these insects (Fig. 
 
 3 10). The name is p,^ ^...-Pheo.ia ri>nosa. 
 
 more generally ap- 
 propriate, however, for the larvae, as a much larger propor- 
 tion of them than of the adults bear striking prominences. 
 
264 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The characteristic features in the structure of the wings 
 are the following (Fig. 311): the fore wings have a single 
 
 anal vein, the hind 
 wings two ; in both 
 wings cubitus is 
 apparently three- 
 branched ; and the 
 subcosta of the hind 
 wings does not make 
 a sharp bend into 
 the humeral angle 
 as it does in the 
 Geometridae (Fig, 
 323). In some 
 forms the basal part 
 of vein V is more or 
 less distinctly pre- 
 served ; and in some 
 an accessory cell is 
 present. 
 
 Y\0.-i\\.—'^\n%'ioiNotodontastragula. TllC larVSB fccd 
 
 upon the leaves of shrubs and trees. Our most common 
 species live exposed ; but some species live in folded 
 leaves. They are either naked or thinly clothed with 
 hairs. Many species have only four well-developed pro- 
 legs, the anal pair being rudimentary, or transformed into 
 elongated spikes. Some species are hump-backed; and 
 spines or fleshy tubercles are often present. The trans- 
 formations occur in slight cocoons or in the ground. 
 
 The family is a large one, more than one hundred species 
 occurring in the United States. The following are some of 
 the more common species : — 
 
 The Handmaid Moths, Z)<:^/rty/<:^ (Da-ta'na).— Among the 
 more common representatives of the Notodontidae are cer- 
 tain brown moths that have the fore wings crossed with 
 bars of a different shade (Fig. 312), and that bear on the 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 265 
 
 fore part of the thorax a conspicuous patch of darker color. 
 In most of our species the fore wings are also marked with a 
 dot near the center of the discal, 
 cell and a bar on the discal vein. 
 These moths belong to the genus 
 Datana. The common name, 
 Handmaid, is a translation of the 
 specific name of our most com- 
 mon species, D. ininistra (D. 
 mi-nis'tra). But as this species ^" • 3'2.-z^<</</««. 
 
 is now generally known as the Yellow-necked Apple-tree 
 Worm, and as all of our species are dressed in sober at- 
 tire as becomes modest servants, we have applied the term 
 Handmaid Moths to the entire genus. 
 
 The larvae of the Handmaid Moths are easily recognized 
 by their peculiar habits. They are common on various fruit 
 and forest trees, but especially on apple, oak, and hickory. 
 They feed in colonies ; and have the habit of assuming the 
 
 "--^ 
 
 Fig. 313. — Datana, larva. 
 
 curious attitude shown in Figure 313. The body is black or 
 reddish, marked with lines or stripes of yellow or white. 
 Owing to the gregarious habits of these larvae they can be 
 easily collected from the trees they infest. 
 
 All of the species that we have studied agree in being 
 single-brooded, the moths appearing in midsummer j the 
 
i66 
 
 711 E STUDY OF IX SECTS. 
 
 eggs are laid in a cluster on a leaf; the larvas are con- 
 spicuous in August and September. In some of the species 
 the larvae have the curious habit of -leaving the branch upon 
 which tiiey are feeding when the time to molt arrives, the 
 whole colony gathering in a large mass on the trunk of the 
 tree, where the molt takes place. The pupa state is passed 
 in the ground, in a very light cocoon or in none at all, and 
 lasts about nine months in the species that we have bred. 
 
 The White-tipped Moth, Edema albifrons (E-de'ma 
 al'bi-frous). — This beautiful moth, which is quite common, 
 can be easily recognized by the accompanying figure (Fig. 
 314); the white patch, which 
 extends along the costa of the 
 fore wing for half the length 
 from the tip, being very char- 
 acteristic. The larva (Fig. 315) 
 is quite common in the autumn 
 on leaves of oak. It is smooth 
 and shining, with no hairs; along each side of the back 
 there is a yellow stripe, and between these, on the back, 
 fine black lines on a pale lilac ground ; on each side below the 
 yellow stripe there are three black lines, the lowest one just 
 above the spiracles. The head is orange-red ; and there is 
 an orange-red hump on the eighth abdominal segment. 
 
 Fig. 314. — Edema 
 
 libl/y, 
 
 hk 
 
 albi/rons, larva. 
 
 The Two-lined Prominent, Seirodonta bilincata (Seir-o- 
 don'ta bi-lin-e-a'ta). — The larva of this species (Fig. 316) is 
 much more apt to be observed than the adult. It is com- 
 mon in the latter part of the summer and in early autumn, 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 26; 
 
 feeding on the leaves of oak, elm, and basswood. It 
 measures when full grown about one 
 and one half inches in length. Its 
 YxQ.ixt.-Siirodontabiiineata, grouud-color is usually green, but 
 '^"^- sometimes claret-red. There is a 
 
 pale yellow stripe along the middle of the back, and on each 
 side a stripe of the same color. The course of these side 
 stripes is very characteristic ; passing back from the head, 
 they converge on the prothorax ; on the mesothorax and 
 metathorax they are separated from the dorsal line only by 
 a narrow band of red or purple; on the first abdominal seg- 
 ment they diverge to the lateral margin of the back, but 
 converge again on the seventh and eighth abdominal seg- 
 ments. This yellow subdorsal line is bordered without by 
 a milk-white stripe; and extending from this stripe over the 
 side of the body there is a whitish shade which fades out 
 below. The moth is ash-colored, with the fore wings crossed 
 by two wavy lines between which the wing is darker ; be- 
 tween the outer wavy line and the outer margin of the wing 
 there is a faint band. 
 
 The Red-humped Apple -worm, CEdcmasia concimia 
 (CEd-e-ma'si-a con-cin'na). — The larva of this species (Fig. 
 317) is common on apple and allied plants. The head is coral- 
 
 FiG. 317. — ffirtVwrtWrt concinna, larva. 
 
 red, and there is a hump of the same color on the back of the 
 first abdominal segment ; the body is striped with slender 
 black, yellow, and white lines, and has two rows of black 
 
268 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 spines along tlic back, and other shorter ones upon the sides. 
 When not eating, the larvae remain close together, some- 
 times completely covering the branch upon which they rest. 
 This species passes the winter in the pupa state. The adults 
 appear in June and July. 
 
 The Mocha-stone Moths, IchtJiyura (Ich-thy-u'ra). — To 
 the genus IcJitJiyura belong several species of brownish-gray 
 moths, whose fore wings are crossed by irregular whitish 
 lines. It was these peculiar markings, resembling somewhat 
 those of a moss-agate, that suggested the popular name 
 given above. The larvae feed on poplar and willow, and 
 conceal themselves within nests made by fastening leaves 
 together. Our most common species is the following : — 
 
 The Poplar Mocha-stone Moth, Ichthynra inclusa (I. in- 
 cla'sa).-^The adult (Fig. 318) is a brownish-gray moth, with 
 
 g^ ^^mk the fore wings crossed by three irregu- 
 
 H^^^l^dHnp lar whitish lines. The basal line is 
 
 ^^BH^HHB^p broken near the middle of the wing; 
 ^BbF^b^^^ and the intermediate one forms an in- 
 ]P[ verted Y, the main stem of which joins 
 
 Yic.z^i.-ichthyiira inclusa. {-]-,£ third Huc ncar the inner margin of 
 the wing, making with it a prominent V. These lines are 
 bordered without by rust-red ; there is a chocolate-colored 
 spot near the apex of the fore wings, and an irregular row 
 of blackish dots near the outer margin. The hairs of the 
 thorax form a prominent crest, the fore side of which is a 
 rich dark brown. The hind wings are crossed by a wavy 
 band, which is light without and dark within. 
 
 The eggs are nearly spherical and smooth ; they are 
 deposited in a cluster a single layer deep on a leaf (Fig. 
 319). When the larvae hatch they make a nest either by 
 fastening several leaves together or, as is the case when 
 they infest poplar, by folding the two halves of a single leaf 
 together; frequently in the latter case the tip of the leaf is 
 folded in as shown in the figure. Within this nest the entire 
 colony Hves, feeding on the parenchyma, and causing the 
 
LEPIDOP TE RA . 269 
 
 leaf to turn brown. Later other leaves are added to this 
 ne2t or additional nests are made among adjoining leaves. 
 All of these infested leaves are securely fastened to the twig 
 by bands of silk. When the larvae become large they leave 
 their nests at night to feed upon other leaves. These they 
 entirely consume excepting the petioles, midribs, and larger 
 
 Fig. 319.— Eggs, larva, and nest of Ickthyuta huittsa. 
 
 veins. We have seen on poplar a nest composed of only 
 three leaves which contained one hundred and twenty-five 
 half-grown larvse ; all of the leaves, about thirty in number, 
 arising from the end of the branch bearing this nest had 
 been consumed. 
 
 The full-grown larva measures one and one half inches 
 in length. It is striped with pale yellow and brownish 
 black, and bears a pair of black tubercles close together on 
 the first abdominal segment, and a similar pair on the eighth 
 abdominal segment. The cocoon is an irregular thin web ; 
 it is made under leaves or other rubbish on the ground. 
 The insect remains in the pupa state during the winter, and 
 emerges as a moth in the latter part of June or later. In 
 the South this species 
 
 infests willow as well , ^ 
 
 as poplar, and is 
 double-brooded. 
 
 Among the most 
 
 grotesque of larV.-E be- ^"'- i-^O'-Ccelo^asys. larva. 
 
 longing to this family are those of the genus Ccv/odasj's 
 
2^0 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 (Cce-Iod'a-sys), of which we have several species. One of 
 these is represented by Figure 320. At the left in the figure 
 is shown a front view of the longest tubercle. 
 
 Superfamily Geometrina (Ge-o-me-tri'na). 
 The Geometrids {Ge-om'e-trids), or the Measuring-ivor?ns. 
 The peculiar way in which the larvae of Geometrids 
 walk attracts general attention, and has won for them 
 
 the name of Measuring-worms 
 
 ^P^^^ (F^ig- 32 0- ^s children we had 
 
 B ^^ ^^^^^ the dislike for "worms" that is 
 
 Jg^^^P^^ common to people that are un- 
 
 ^jHj^B educated to the beauties of na- 
 
 ^^^^^^^P ture. All larvae were " worms "; 
 
 ^^^ • and we never thought of admir- 
 
 FiG. -a.1. — A Measuring-worm. . . i • i 4.t i i c 
 
 ^ ing their beautiful colors, or of 
 
 watching them build interesting houses, or of keeping them 
 till they spun their silken cocoons. But the measuring- 
 worms were excepted from this dislike. We always found 
 these delicate, greenish or yellowish caterpillars with their 
 looping motion vastly interesting. We allowed them to 
 measure our fingers with their little tickling feet, and. we 
 counted each length as a yard. We were always delighted 
 with the way they had of standing on their hind legs, rear- 
 ing the body up into the air, and moving the head around, 
 as if looking at the scenery. And then, if one became 
 frightened in any way, it would drop suddenly, suspended 
 by a silken cord, which it seemed to have mysteriously con- 
 cealed in its mouth; and down it would go, doubling and 
 whirling around and around frantically until it reached the 
 ground. 
 
 Sometimes we found these fellows on branches of trees, 
 clinging by their hind legs, standing out straight, stiff, and 
 motionless, and appearing like twigs of the tree. We had 
 not heard then of protective resemblances, and did not 
 know that the assuming of this strange attitude protected 
 
LEPIDOPTEKA. 
 
 271 
 
 these worms from the sharp-eyed birds. If so, we should 
 have been still more interested in them ; and we should have 
 been even more so could some one have told us of the 
 transformation of these loopers first into pupae and then 
 into beautiful moths. But in those days comparatively few 
 people thought it worth while to study insects. 
 
 The larvae of Geometrids have as a rule only the last two 
 pairs of prolegs well developed ; and hence, as the middle 
 part of the body is not supported, they are unable to walk in 
 the way that other caterpillars walk. It is probable, however, 
 that the loss of the first three pairsof prolegs is the result of the 
 looping gait rather than the cause of it. That is to say, the 
 ancient Geometrid lar- 
 vae acquired the habit "^^/ 
 of looping, after which "^^ 
 the prolegs under the 
 middle of the body, 
 being unnecessary and 
 not used, dwindled 
 away in succeeding 
 generations. In the 
 case of a few members 
 of this family three or 
 even four pairs of pro- 
 legs have been re- 
 tained. 
 
 The Geometrid lar- 
 vae are mostly leaf-eat- 
 ing, and some species, 
 as the Canker-worms, 
 occur in such large 
 numbers as to be 
 serious pests. 
 
 The pupae are slender, and some species are green or 
 mottled in color in this state. The pupa state is passed in a 
 very flimsy cocoon or in a cell in the ground. 
 
 Fig. 322.— Wings of Caripeta angustiorata. 
 
272 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The moths are of medium size, sometimes small, but only 
 rarely very large. Usually the body is slender, and the 
 wings broad and delicate in appearance. This appearance ia 
 due to the fineness of the scales with which the wings are 
 clothed. These moths occur on the borders of woods and in 
 forests, rarely in meadows and pastures. Their flight is 
 neither strong nor long sustained. When at rest the wings 
 are spread horizontally and scarcely overlap each other. 
 
 The distinguishing features in the venation of the wings 
 of the Geometrina are that vein V, of the fore wings is not 
 more closely joined to cubitus than to radius, 
 cubitus being apparently three-branched, and 
 that the basal part of vein II of the hind 
 wings makes a prominent bend into the hu- 
 ^ingifo^f hi"d wiS mcral angle of the wing (Figs. 322, 323).* 
 of Euduie. Except in the more specialized forms where 
 
 it has disappeared there is a rudiment of vein I of the 
 hind wings. This usually extends from near the base of the 
 frenulum to the angle in vein II (Figs. 322, 324). In Etidiile 
 (Fig. 323) and allied forms the rudiment of vein I lies some 
 distance from the margin of the wing. 
 
 There occur in our fauna representatives of five families; 
 these can be separated by the following table : — 
 A. Vein Vj of the hind wings wanting, being represented merely by a 
 fold in the wing (Fig. 327). p. 277. Ennomid^, 
 
 AA. Vein Va of the hind wings present. 
 
 B. Vein V2 of the hind whigs arising much nearer to vein Vi than 
 to vein Vs (Fig. 343). Wings usually green, p. 287. 
 
 Geometrid^. 
 BB. Vein Va of the hind wings arising nearly midway between 
 veins Vi and V3 or nearer to vein V3 than to vein Vi, Wings 
 rarely green. 
 
 * In the more specialized forms the humeral angle is greatly expanded 
 (Fig. 343), and in some the frenulum is completely supplanted by it (Fig. 335) 
 The loss of the frenulum in this family, however, occurs only in highly spe- 
 cialized forms ; while in that series of families that we have called the Fren- 
 uhim-losers it has occurred in all except a very few extremely generalized 
 forms. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 2/3 
 
 C. Veins II and III of hind wings extending distinctly separate 
 from each other, except that they are connected by a cross 
 vein near the middle of the discal cell (Fig. 335). p. 282. 
 
 HVDRIOMENID^. 
 
 CC. Veins II and III of hind wings approximated or coalesced 
 for a greater or less distance. 
 
 D. Veins II and III of the hind wings closely approximated 
 but not coalesced along tlie second fourth (more or less) of 
 the discal cell. 
 
 E. Veins III and Vi of hind wings separating at or before the 
 apex of the discal cell (Fig. 327). p. 277. Ennomid/E, 
 
 EE. Veins III and Vi of hind wings coalesced for a consider- 
 able distance beyond the apex of the discal cell (Fig. 324), 
 
 p. 273. MONOCTENIID.«. 
 
 DD. Veins II and III of hind wings coalesced for a greater or 
 less distance. 
 
 E. Veins II and III of the hind wings coalesced for a short 
 distance near the beginning of the second fourth of the 
 discal cell, thence rapidly diverging (Fig. 341). p. 286. 
 
 STERRHID.E. 
 
 EE. Veins II and III of the hind wings coalesced to or be- 
 yond the middle of the discal cell (Fig. 334). 
 F. Fore wings with one or two accessory ceMs. p. 282. 
 
 Hydriomenid^, 
 FF. Fore wings without an accessory cell {Alsophild). 
 
 p. 273. MONOCTENIIDiE. 
 
 Family MONOCTENIID^ (Mo-noc-te-ni'i-dae). 
 The Moitocteniids {Mon-oc-te' ni-ids). 
 
 This family includes only a small number of North 
 American species ; but among them are those that are the 
 most important to us from an economic standpoint of all the 
 Geometrids. 
 
 The family is also of especial interest from a scientific 
 point of view; for to it belong the most primitive forms of 
 the Geometrina, certain genera, found in Australia, being 
 closely allied to the Notodontidae, according to the observa- 
 tions of Mr. Meyrick. 
 
274 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 In the typical forms, vein V, of the hind wings is present, 
 and veins II and III of the hind wings are closely approxi- 
 mate, but do not co- 
 alesce along the second 
 fourth of the discal cell 
 (Fig. 324). In many gen- 
 era veins III and V, of 
 the hind wings coalesce 
 beyond the apex of the 
 discal cell (Fig. 324). 
 This character is of use 
 in distinguishing certain 
 members of this family 
 from those of the En- 
 nomidjE that retain vein 
 V.^ of the hind wings. 
 In that family a similar 
 coalescence of veins III 
 and V, does not take 
 place till after the loss 
 of vein V,. In one of 
 our genera veins II and III of the hind wings coalesce 
 along the second fourth of the discal cell, as they do in the 
 Hydriomenidae ; but the absence of an accessory cell in the 
 fore wings at once distinguishes this genus from the Hydri- 
 omenids. The following species are our best known repre- 
 sentatives of the family. 
 
 The Firstborn Geometer, BrepJios iiifans (Bre'phos in'- 
 fans). — This interesting species has 
 been found only in the northeastern 
 part of our country ; its range is from 
 Labrador to New York. It is a 
 blackish-brown moth with the fore 
 wings marked with pinkish white and 
 the hind wings with reddish orange 
 (Fig. 325). The specimen figured is a male. In the female 
 
 IX 
 
 -Wings of Brefihos ivfam 
 
 325. — Brephos i>i/<. 
 
LEPinOP TF.RA. 275 
 
 the black border on the outer margin of the hind wings is 
 narrower, and the subterminal hght band on the fore wings 
 is more distinctly marked. The early stages of this species 
 are unknown ; but the kirvai of European species feed upon 
 birch and poplar. With these the prolegs are all present ; 
 but the first three pairs are stunted. As this is probably the 
 most primitive Geometer occurring in our fauna, we suggest 
 the popular name Firstborn for it. In Germany an allied 
 species is known as the Jungfernkind. 
 
 Canker-worms. — In many parts of our country Canker- 
 worms are extremely abundant. In such localities they are 
 among the more important of insect pests, often completely 
 stripping the foliage from fruit and shade trees. There are 
 two distinct species of Canker-worms; but they resemble 
 each other so closely that they were long confounded; and 
 to this day they are distinguished only by entomologists. 
 The two species agree in being loopers or measuring-worms 
 in the larval state, in the possession of ample wings by the 
 adult male, and in the adult female being wingless. They 
 differ in structural characters, as indicated below, and also to 
 a certain extent in habits. In one species the greater num- 
 ber of moths mature in the autumn and emerge from the 
 ground at this season ; in the other species the insects re- 
 main in the pupa state during the winter, emerging as moths 
 in the spring. The two species are therefore appropriately 
 designated as the Fall Canker-worm and the Spring Canker- 
 worm respectively. 
 
 The Spring Canker-worm, Palcacrita veniata (Pal-e-ac'ri-ta 
 ver-na'ta). — ^The eggs are ovoid in shape, and are secreted in 
 irregular masses, usually under loose scales of bark or be- 
 tween the leaflets of the expanding buds. The larva; hatch 
 about the time the leaves expand, and become full grown in 
 from three to four weeks. They vary greatly in color, and 
 are marked on the back with eight narrow, pale, longitudinal 
 lines which are barely discernible ; the two lateral lines of each 
 side are much farther apart than the others; and tliere are 
 
2/6 THE STUDY OF lA SECTS. 
 
 no prolegs on the fifth abdominal segment. The pupa state 
 is passed below the surface of the ground in a simple earthen 
 cell, which is lined with very few silken threads. The adult 
 moths usually emerge early in the spring before the leaves 
 expand ; but they sometimes appear late in the fall, or on 
 warm days during the winter when the ground is thawed. 
 In both sexes the adult of this species is distinguished by 
 the presence of two transverse rows of stiff reddish spines, 
 pointing backwards, on each of the first seven abdominal seg- 
 ments. In the male the venation of the wings very closely 
 resembles that of BrepJios (Fig. 324); veins II and III of the 
 hind wings although closely approximate do not coalesce, 
 and veins III and V, coalesce for a considerable distance be- 
 yond the apex of the discal cell. 
 
 The Fall Canker-worm, AlsopJiila ponietaria (Al-soph'i-la 
 pom-e-ta'ri-a). — The eggs appear as if cut off at the top, and 
 have a central puncture and a brown circle near the border 
 of the disk. They are laid side by side in regular rows and 
 compact batches, and are generally exposed. They hatch 
 in the spring at the time the leaves appear ; and the larvae 
 mature in about three weeks. The larva is of a pale brown- 
 ish color marked Avith dark brown and yellow ; the body is 
 marked on the back with six broad and very distinct pale 
 lines, those of each side equidistant ; and there is a pair of 
 distinct prolegs on the fifth abdominal segment. As in the 
 preceding species the pupa state is passed beneath the 
 ground, but this species makes a perfect cocoon of fine 
 densely spun silk. The adult moth 
 usually emerges in the fall, generally 
 beginning about the middle or latter 
 part of October ; although a con- 
 siderable number come out of the 
 earth in the winter during warm 
 weather and in the spring. The 
 
 Fig. j^-it.—AhjphiUi pometariu, . r i i 111 . 
 
 male. moths of both sexes lack the ab- 
 
 dominal spines characteristic of the Spring Canker-worm. 
 
LKPIDOPrERA. 277 
 
 The male is represented b)' Figure 326. In this species 
 veins II and III of the hind wings coalesce for a considerable 
 distance along the second fourth of the discal cell ; and veins 
 III and V, of the hind wings separate at tlie apex of the dis- 
 cal cell. 
 
 The two species of Canker-worms are sufficiently alike 
 in habits to warrant our combating them by similar methods. 
 The fact that in each the female is wingless and is thus 
 forced to climb up the trunks of trees in order to place her 
 eggs in a suitable place has suggested the method of defence 
 that has been most generally used in the past. This is to 
 place something about the trunks of the trees which will 
 make it impossible for the wingless female to ascend them. 
 Some viscid substance, as tar, printers' ink, or melted rubber, 
 either painted on the trunk of the tree or upon a paper band 
 which is tacked closely about the tree, is the means usually 
 adopted. Many other devices have been recommended. 
 In the use of this method of prevention, operations should 
 be begun in the autumn, even when it is the Spring Canker- 
 worm that is to be combated. For in this species some of 
 the moths emerge in the fall or during the winter. 
 
 Although the method just described is still the most avail- 
 able one when tall shade-trees are to be protected, it is now 
 rarely used in orchards. Here the spraying of the trees with 
 Paris-green water soon after the leaves appear is found 
 more practicable. This method has also the advantage of 
 enabling the fruit-grower to reach other important pests, as 
 the Codlin-moth, at the same time. 
 
 Family Ennomid^ (En-nom'i-dae). 
 The Ennomids {En' no-mids). 
 
 Nearly all of the members of this family can be easily 
 recognized as such by the fact that vein V^ of the hind wings 
 is wanting, being represented merely by a fold. In a few 
 species this vein has been preserved ; these can be recog- 
 
278 
 
 TJIE STUD Y OF INSECTS. 
 
 nized by the following combination of characters : Vein V, 
 of the hind wings does not arise much nearer to vein V, 
 
 than to vein V. (as it 
 does in the Geomet- 
 ridae), veins II and III 
 of the hind wings are 
 closely approximate 
 but do not coalesce along 
 the second fourth, 
 more or less, of the 
 discal cell (Fig. 327), 
 and veins III and V, 
 of the hind wings do 
 not coalesce beyond 
 the apex of the discal 
 cell. This last char- 
 acter does not apply 
 to the family as a 
 whole, but merely to 
 those that retain vein 
 V^ of the hind wings; 
 
 Fig. 327.— Wings of Caripeta angustiornta. jji sOme of tllOSC iu 
 
 which this vein is lost, the coalescence of veins III and V, 
 is carried beyond the apex of the cell. 
 
 This is by far the largest of the families of the Geome- 
 trina and contains the greater number of our larger species. 
 The following will serve as 
 illustrations of it : — 
 
 The Notched-wing Ge- 
 ometer, Ermomos magnarins 
 (En'no-mos mag-na'ri-us), is 
 one of the largest of our 
 Geometrids. The larva is 
 a common looper upon 
 maple, chestnut, and birch 
 trees, and measures about two and one third inches in length 
 
 Fig. ■i'zZ.—E 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 279 
 
 Fig. 329. — Diast 
 
 when full grown. It spins a rather dense, spindle-shaped 
 cocoon within a cluster of leaves. The moth (Fig. 328) is 
 ochre-yellow with a reddish tinge. The wings are shaded 
 towards the outer margin with brown, and are thickly spotted 
 with small brown dots. 
 
 The Currant Span-worm. Diastictis ribearia (Di-as-tic'tis 
 rib-e-a'ri-a). — There are several species of insects that are 
 popularly known as currant- 
 worms. The most common 
 of these are larvae of saw- 
 flies, which can be easily 
 recognized by the large 
 number of prolegs with 
 which the abdomen is fur- 
 nished. In addition to the 
 saw-flies there is a yellow 
 
 looper spotted with black, which often appears in such great 
 numbers on currant and gooseberry bushes as to suddenly 
 strip them of their foliage. This larva has been named the 
 Currant or Gooseberry Span-worm. When full grown it 
 measures about one inch in length, and is of a bright yellow 
 color, with white lines on the sides and with numerous black 
 spots and round dots. It has only four prolegs. There is 
 only a single brood; the larva matures in May or June; the 
 pupa state lasts about a fortnight ; the moth flies during the 
 summer months and oviposits on the twigs of the plants ; 
 
 and the eggs remain un- 
 hatched till the following 
 spring. The moth (Fig. 
 329) is pale yellow, with 
 the wings marked by ir- 
 regular dusky spots, which 
 sometimes form one or two 
 indefinite bands across them. 
 
 Fig. ^-io.-Cin^-i'.iacatenaria. JJ^^ Chain-dotted GcOm- 
 
 eter, Cingilia cataiaria (Cin-gil'i-a cat-e-na'ri-a).— This moth 
 
28o 
 
 rilE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 to almost 
 
 wings are 
 
 The larva 
 
 has snow-white wings marked with zigzag lines and with 
 dots of black as shown in Fig. 330. The head is ochreous- 
 yellow in front ; aad the thorax is yellowish at the base of 
 the patagia. The moth flies during September and October. 
 The larva feeds on various shrubs and trees. The pupa 
 state is passed in a slight but well-formed web of yellow 
 threads, which is formed between twigs or leaves, and 
 through which the pupa can be seen. 
 
 The Evergreen Cleora, Clcora scmiclusaria (Cle'o-ra 
 sem-i-clu-sa'ri-a).— This beautiful moth (Fig. 331) is common 
 in tlie vicinity of pines, spruce, 
 fir, and hemlock during August 
 and September. It varies from 
 a smoky-ash color 
 snow - white ; the 
 marked with black, 
 feeds on the leaves of Conifers. 
 It is reddish yellow above, with 
 lateral yellow bands below, while 
 on each side are two pairs of black hair-lines. There are 
 black spots above on the segments. When full grown it is 
 a little more than an inch long and spins a loose cocoon 
 among the leaves. The chrysalid is green with white 
 stripes and is very pretty. 
 
 The Pepper-and-salt Currant- moth, Biston cognataria 
 (Bis'ton cog-na-ta'ri-a). — This 
 moth (Fig. 332) differs remark- 
 ably in appearance from most 
 Geometrids, the body being 
 stouter, and the wings appearing 
 heavier. It can be easily recog- 
 nized by its evenly distributed 
 pepper-and-salt markings. The 
 larva feeds on various plants, but is found most often on 
 currant. 
 
 The Lime-tree Winter-moth, Erannis tiliaria (E-ran'nis 
 
 Fig. ^\\. — Cteora senticlusaria. 
 
 Fig. 332. — Biston cognataria. 
 
LEPIDOPTKNA. 
 
 281 
 
 til-i-a'ri-a). — This species (Fig. 333) resembles tlie Canker- 
 worms in many particulars. The larva is a looper which 
 infests both fruit and forest trees; and in the adult state the 
 male has well-developed wings, while the female is wingless. 
 The eggs are oval, of a pale yellow color, and covered 
 with a network of raised lines. Thcv are thrust In' the 
 
 Fig. i-ii.—Eraiinis tiliaria. (From ihe Author's Report for iSjy.; 
 
 female under loose bark and in crevices on the trunk and 
 large limbs. They hatch in May, and the larvae attain their 
 full growth in the latter part of June. The larva is yellow, 
 marked with ten crinkled black lines along the top of the 
 back; the head is rust-colored, and the venter yellowish 
 white ; when full grown it measures about one and one fifth 
 inches in length. The pupa state is passed in the ground, 
 from three to six inches below the surface. The moths 
 issue in October, and then the wingless females ascend the 
 
282 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 trees to oviposit as do the females of the Canker-worms. 
 The female is represented in the lower left-hand part of the 
 figure. She is grayish in color, with two black spots on the 
 back of each segment except the last, which has only one. 
 The male has bufT fore wings, with a central spot and a band 
 beyond the middle, while the hind wings are much lighter. 
 This insect can be combated by the same methods as are 
 used against canker-worms. 
 
 Family HVDRIOMENID^ (Hyd-ri-o-men'i-dae). 
 The Hydriomcnids (Hyd-ri-o-me nids). 
 
 The Hydriomenids are easily recognized by the str 
 of their wings. In the fore wings the branches of 
 anastomose so as to form 
 one or two accessory cells; 
 and in the hind wings 
 veins II and III coalesce 
 along the second fourth 
 of the discal cell, the co- 
 alescence extending to or 
 beyond the middle of the 
 
 'VII. VII, 
 
 Fig. 334.— Wings of Eudule mendica. Fig. 335.— Wings of Dysfiteris abortivaria. 
 
I.ErUWP/'EKA. 283 
 
 discal cell (Fig. 334)- ^^'^^ ^'^b' exception to these char- 
 acters known to us is shown by certain genera (e.g., Heteroph- 
 leps and Dyspteris) in which, owing to a large expansion of 
 the costal area of the hind wings, veins II and III have 
 been pulled apart as it were, and are connected only by 
 a cross-vein near the middle of the discal cell (Fig. 335). 
 In a single genus {Paleacrita) not belonging to this family 
 veins II and III of the hind wings coalesce to the middle of 
 the discal cell; but this genus lacks the accessory cell in the 
 fore wings characteristic of this family. 
 
 This family ranks second in size among the Geometrid 
 families, and contains many common species. 
 
 The White-striped Black, EiicJiccca albovittata (Eu-choe'ca 
 al-bo-vit-ta'ta).— This beautiful little moth, which occurs 
 from the Atlantic to the Pacific, is the most easily recog- 
 nized member of the family. It expands about seven eighths 
 of an inch, and is of a uniform black color, with a single, very 
 broad whi'te band extending across the fore wing from the 
 middle of the costa to the inner angle, where it is usually 
 forked. The fringe of the wings is white at the apical and 
 inner angles of both pairs ; sometimes the white is lacking 
 on the inner angle of the hind wings. The early stages of 
 this beautiful moth are unknown. 
 
 The Spear-marked Black, Plemyria hastata (Ple-myr i-a 
 has-ta'ta).— This is another black-and-white species, occur- 
 rincT from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It is much larger than 
 the^preceding, expanding one and four tenths inches. It is 
 black striped and spotted with white. It varies greatly as 
 to the number and extent of the white markings. The 
 most constant mark is a broad white band crossing the 
 middle of the fore wings, and often continued across the 
 hind wings. Near the middle of its course on the fore 
 wing this band makes a sharp angle pointing outward; and 
 just beyond the apex of this angle there is usually a white 
 spot This spot and angular band together form a mark 
 shaped something like the head of a spear. In some speci- 
 
j84 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 mens the white predominates; other specimens are almost 
 entirely black, excepting the spear-mark. According to Eu- 
 ropean authorities the larva is brown or blackish brown, with 
 a darker line along the middle of the back, and a row of horse- 
 shoe-shaped spots on the sides. It feeds on birch and sweet 
 gale. It is gregarious, a colony of larv.-E spinning together 
 the leaves of the food-plant, and thus forming a nest within 
 which they live and feed. The 
 larva has not yet been observed 
 in this country. 
 
 The Scallop-shell Moth, 
 Calocalpe iindulata (Cal-o-cal'pe 
 un-du-la'ta). — This is a pretty 
 
 Fig. 336. — Ccilocalpe undulata, 
 
 moth, with its yellow wings 
 
 crossed by so many fine, zigzag, 
 
 dark brown lines that it is hard 
 
 to tell which of the two is the 
 
 ground-color (Fig. 336). It 
 
 lays its eggs in a cluster on 
 
 a leaf near the tip of a twig 
 
 of cherry, usually wild cherry. 
 
 The larvae make a snug nest 
 
 by fastening together the leaves 
 
 at the end of the twig ; and 
 
 within this nest (Fig. 337) they 
 
 live, adding new leaves to the 
 
 outside as more food is needed. 
 
 The leaves die and become brown, and thus render the nest 
 
 conspicuous. The larvae are black above, with four white 
 
 Fig. 337.— Eggs and nest of Calocalpe 
 undulata. 
 
LEPIDOP TERA, 28 5 
 
 stripes, and flesh-colored below. When full grown they 
 descend to the ground to transform, and pass the winter in 
 the pupa state. 
 
 The Diverse-line Moth, Eiistroma diversilincata{E\xs-Uo'. 
 ma di-ver-si-lin-e-a'ta). — This moth has pale ochre-yellow 
 wings, with a brownish shade near the outer margin, and 
 crossed by many diverging brown lines (Fig. 338). It varies 
 from one inch and a half to two inches in expanse. We 
 have often found this moth on the side of our room, 
 resting on the wall, head downward, and with its abdomen 
 hanging down over its head in a curious manner. The larva 
 feeds on the leaves of grape. There are two broods; the 
 first brood infests the vines during June ; the second, in the 
 autumn and early spring, wintering as larvae. 
 
 Fig. 33S — Eusttotiia diversilineata. FiG. 339. — Eudiile mcndica. 
 
 The Beggar, Eiidide mendica (Eu-du'le men-di'ca). — One 
 of the most delicate winged moths that we have in the 
 Northern Atlantic States is this species (Fig. 339). Although 
 the wings are yellowish white in color they are almost trans- 
 parent. On the fore M'ings there are two transverse rows of 
 pale gray spots, and a single spot near the outer margin be- 
 tween veins V3 and VII,. (This spot was indistinct in the 
 specimen figured.) The moth is common in midsummer. 
 
 We do not know nhat fancy led the naturalist that de- 
 scribed this species to name it mendica. But it seems ap- 
 propriate now to call it a mendicant ; for during the thirty 
 years that have elapsed since the species was described it 
 has not been allowed a position in its own family, but has 
 been catalogued in the Lithosiidai, although it was shown 
 to be a Gcometrid lonij ago. 
 
286 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The Bad-wing, Dysptcris abortivaria (Dys'pte-ris a-bor- 
 ti-va'ri-a).— It is easy to recognize this moth (Fig. 340) by 
 the pecLihar shape of its wings, the 
 hind wings being greatly reduced in 
 size. It is of a beautiful pea-green 
 color, with two white bands on the 
 fore wings and one on the hind 
 wings. Its color has led to its being 
 placed heretofore in the Geometrida^ ; 
 
 T,i,o.—Dyspteris abortivaria. ^^t the StrUCturC of ItS wlngS shoWS 
 
 it to be an Hydriomenid. The larva feeds on the leaves of 
 
 grape, which it rolls. 
 
 Family Sterrhid^ (Ster'rhi-dae). 
 The Sterrliids {Ster'rhids). 
 The members of this family are most easily recognized 
 by the venation of the 
 hind wings (Fig. 341). In 
 these veins II and III co- 
 alesce for a short distance 
 near the beginning of the 
 second fourth of the dis- 
 cal cell and then diverge 
 rapidly. The greater 
 number of our common 
 species are of medium 
 size, with whitish wings 
 crossed by from two to 
 four indistinct lines, and 
 with the head black in 
 front ; some are pure 
 white, and others are 
 brown marked with red- 
 dish lines. About one 
 hundred species have 
 
 beenfound in this country. pic. 34i.-Wings of Synelys ennucUata. 
 
LEPJDOPTERA. 
 
 ISJ 
 
 W 
 
 graian 
 
 latopis 
 
 The Chickweed Geometer, H<£t)iatopis graiaria (Ilae 
 mat'o-pis gra-ta'ri-a). — This Httle moth 
 (Fig. 342) is very common in our meadows 
 and gardens during the summer and au- 
 tumn months. Its wings are reddish 
 yellow, with the fringes and two trans- 
 verse bands pink. It is found from Maine 
 to Texas. The larva feeds on the common chick-weed, 
 Stellaria tnedia* 
 
 Family Geometrid.e (Ge-o-met'ri-dae). 
 
 The Green Geonietrids {Ge-oni e-trids). 
 
 As a rule the members of this family are bright green in 
 
 \\\i color. And as we have 
 
 but one other common 
 
 Geometrid {Dyspteris, p. 
 
 286) of this color, the 
 
 famih' may be well termed 
 
 the Green Geometrids. 
 
 The distinctive structure 
 
 that characterizes this 
 
 family is the fact that 
 
 vein V^ of the hind wings 
 
 arises much nearer to 
 
 1^ ^ vein Vj than to vein V3 
 
 1 7y — '->>.. ^ ''^^^ (F'g- 343)- ^'i ^^^^'-^ family 
 
 the tendency to expan- 
 sion of the humeral angle 
 of the hind wings, which 
 is exhibited by all Geo- 
 metrina, and which is cor- 
 related with the promi- 
 nent bend into this angle 
 of vein II, characteristic 
 of this super-family, is 
 *This moth is figured and mentioned here because it is one of our 
 most common species, and not as a typical illustration of the Sterrhidae. It 
 
 Fig. 343. — Wings of Geovietrn iridaria. 
 
288 rilE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 carried farther than in the other families (except in the 
 Dyspteris division of the Hydriomenidae). In fact, in all 
 of the forms known to the writer, the humeral angle ex- 
 tends a considerable distance beyond the frenulum. In 
 the fore wings there is also a more marked migration of 
 the base of vein V, towards radius than occurs in other 
 Geometrid families. All these characteristics lead us to 
 consider the Geometridae the most specialized of the Geom- 
 etrina. 
 
 The Raspberry Geometer, SyncJdora glaucaria (Syn- 
 chlo'ra glau-ca'ri-a). — The different species of green Geom- 
 etrids resemble each other to such an extent that it is 
 difficult to describe any one of them in a few words so that 
 it can be surely distinguished. The wings of the Raspberry 
 Geometer are of a delicate pale green color crossed by two 
 lines of a lighter shade, and when expanded measure from 
 one half inch to one inch, there being great variation in size 
 of specimens. The larva is 'more easily distinguished on 
 account of its curious habits. It feeds on the fruit and 
 foliage of raspberry, but chiefly on the fruit. It covers its 
 body by attaching to it bits of vegetable matter, so that it is 
 masked beneath a tiny heap of rubbish. 
 
 Family AUZATID.E (Au-zat'i-dae). 
 The Auzatids {Ansa t ids). 
 
 Only a single species belonging to this family is known 
 to occur in this country. This is a small moth with delicate 
 snow-white wings which expand from three fourths of an 
 inch to one inch. This is Eudcilinca Jicrviiiiiata (Eu-dei- 
 lin'e-a her-min-i-a'ta). 
 
 In the form of the body and in the structure of the wings 
 (Fig. 344) the members of this family closely resemble the 
 
 differs in important respects from the typical members of the family, and 
 may belong elsewhere. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 289 
 
 Drepanidae. As in the Drepanidne ve 
 four-branched, and the 
 course of vein II of the 
 hind wings is simihir in 
 the two famiHes, except 
 that in the Auzatidae this 
 vein anastomoses with 
 vein III beyond the discal 
 cell ; but the extent of 
 this anastomosis varies 
 greatly in different indi- 
 viduals of our species. 
 In the Auzatidae the 
 apex of the fore wings 
 is not sickle-shaped ; and 
 the branches of radius of 
 the fore wings coalesce 
 as in the Geometridae, 
 veins IIL and IIL coal- 
 
 VII appears to be 
 
 nr, 
 
 Fig. 344.— Wings of Eudeilinea herminiata. 
 
 :scing to near the apex of the wing. 
 
 Family Drepanid.-e (Dre-pan'i-dae). 
 The Hook-tip Moths. 
 The members of this family are small, slender-bodied 
 moths, which can be easily recognized by the sickle-shaped 
 apex of the front wings (Fig. 345). An 
 cipproach to this form of wing is pre- 
 sented by some species of the Satur- 
 niidae and by certain Geometrids. But 
 the former are large, stout-bodied moths ; 
 I. and the latter differ in wing venation, 
 cubitus of the fore wings appearing only 
 
 * In the Drepanidae veins IIIs+s and III4+5 do not coalesce from the 
 apex of the discal cell outward (Figs. 346 and 347); but veins Ilia and III4 
 anastomose for a greater or less distance near the apex of the vving, thus 
 forming an accessory cell. 
 
 Fig. T,i$.—Pla/y/>tery:, 
 
290 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 three-branched with them, whereas it appears four-branched 
 in the Drepanidae (Fig. 346). 
 
 Although the humeral angle of the hind wings is greatly 
 developed in these moths, some of them retain the frenulum. 
 
 Fig. 346.— Wings of Oreta rosea. Fig. 347. — Wings of Platy/>teryx arciiata 
 
 When the frenulum is present it is borne at the end of a 
 long thickened portion of the wing, so that it is at a con- 
 siderable distance from the point where the wing is attached 
 to the body (Fig. 347).* 
 
 The larvae are remarkable in havnig the anal prolegs 
 rudimentary, and the caudal segment prolonged into a more 
 
 * We class the Drepanidae among the Frenulum-conservers, although 
 many of them have lost the frenulum. Among the true Frenulum-losers the 
 loss of the frenulum occurs while the race is still in a very generalized con- 
 dition, no trace of a frenulum being found among these insects except a rudi- 
 ment in the most generalized forms {Boiiibyx, Cicinmis). In the Drepanidae, 
 however, the frenulum is retained by very highly specialized forms. There is 
 a striking similarity in this respect between this family and the more 
 specialized Geometrids. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 291 
 
 or less lizard-likc tail. They live upon the foliage of shrubs 
 and trees, and transform in a web between the leaves, or 
 in a case in a rolled leaf. 
 
 Only a small number of species occur in our fauna; at 
 present we know only eight ; and all but one of these pertain 
 to the eastern half of the continent. 
 
 Our most common Hook-tip Moth is Platyptcryx arcu- 
 cxta (Pla-typ'te-ryx ar-cu-a'ta). This species is of a dirty 
 white color marked with dark brownish lines and bands as 
 shown in Figure 345. Its larva feeds upon white birch. Pla- 
 typtcryx genicula (P. ge-nic'u-la), another eastern species, re- 
 sembles the preceding, but difTers in being of a light ochre- 
 yellow color and in the course of the wavy lines on the front 
 wings. A third similar species occurs in California; this is 
 Platyptcryx siciilifcra (P. sic-u-lif'e-ra). 
 
 Family Cymatophorid.^ (Cym-a-to-phor'i-dse). 
 The Cyiiiatophorids {Cyni-a-topJi o-rids). 
 
 The Cymatophoridai include moths of medium size, 
 with elongated wings. The front wings are usually slightly 
 widened at the inner angle (Fig. 348), and in our more 
 common species are conspicuously 
 marked with wavy or zigzag lines. 
 The antennae are filiform and more 
 or less velvety or pubescent in the 
 male, and the maxillae are well 
 developed. The moths fly by day, 
 and when at rest fold their wings ^.^ „ „, ,. 
 roof-like upon the abdomen. 
 
 The venation of the wings is illustrated by Figure 349. 
 The important features to be noted are the following: In 
 the front wing vein V, arises midway between veins V, and 
 V3 ; while in the hind wing vein V, arises much nearer to V, 
 than to V,. In the hind wing the subcosta and radius are 
 distinct, and vein V, is joined to radius by a comparatively 
 
292 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 long cross-vein (Fig. 349, c. 7-.), so that the two appear to 
 separate before the end of the discal cell. In the males the 
 tip of the frenulum is knobbed. 
 
 The larvae are naked, and live upon the leaves of shrubs 
 and trees. They often con- 
 ceal themselves in a case, made 
 by loosely fastening together 
 leaves, or by folding a single 
 leaf. 
 
 There are in our fauna rep- 
 resentatives of only four or 
 five genera belonging to this 
 family ; and the species that 
 are common hardly exceed 
 this number. 
 
 One of the more common 
 species is TJiyatira scripta 
 (Thy-a-ti'ra scrip'ta). This 
 Fig. 349.-win-;sof 7y/jvi//VvT jfr///rt. has fawu-colorcd front wings, 
 conspicuously marked with light bands and zigzag lines 
 (Fig. 348). According to Thaxter, it lays its eggs late in 
 July, in chains of five or six, on the leaves of raspberry, upon 
 which the larvae feed. The mature larva is rich yellow- 
 brown, often almost black, with a distinct dorsal black line. 
 The lateral portions are more yellow with blackish mottlings. 
 When at rest the larva either elevates the cephalic and caudal 
 ends of the body, like the Notodontids, so that the head 
 rests upon the caudal segments, or conceals itself in a case 
 formed by curling down the edge of a leaf. It makes a very 
 slight cocoon late in August. 
 
 Another common species is PseudotJiyatira cyviatopJio- 
 roides (Pseu-do-thy-a-ti'ra cym-a-toph-o-roi'des). This spe- 
 cies is slightly larger than the preceding one, expanding 
 nearly two inches. The front wings are silky gray tinted 
 with rose. They are marked with a black spot at the base, 
 a double or tiiple line, forming a black band at the end of 
 
LEriDOPTKRA. 293 
 
 the basal third of the wing, two black spots on the outer 
 half of the costa, a black spot at the inner angle, and a row 
 of black points on the outer margin. There is a variety 
 which lacks the black band and tiie four black spots. The 
 larva of this species has been found on red oak; it is of a 
 rich yellow-brown, mottled with fine dark lines, and lives in 
 a case made by fastening leaves together. It makes a slight 
 cocoon late in September; the adult emerges in June. 
 
 Family NocTUID^ (Noc-tu'i-da;). 
 The Oivlct-motJis or Noctuids {Noc'tn-ids). 
 
 This is the largest of all of the families of the Lepidop- 
 tera ; more than eighteen hundred species are now known to 
 occur in America north of Mexico. The great majority of 
 the moths that fly into our houses at night, attracted by 
 lights, are members of this family. 
 
 The nocturnal habits of these insects, and the fact that 
 often when they are in obscurity their eyes shine brightly, 
 have suggested the name of the typical genus [Noctita, from 
 the Latin for owl), as well as the popular name Owlet-moths, 
 by which they are known. Similar popular names have 
 been given to them in several other languages. 
 
 Although there is almost no question regarding the lim- 
 its of this family, as yet no structural character has been 
 found by which they can be distinguished from certain other 
 moths. Neither is there a general uniformity of appearance 
 which we can use for this purpose, as the family includes 
 great variations in size, form, and coloring. But most of the 
 species are dull-colored moths of medium size. 
 
 The greatest difficulty arises in attempting to separate 
 this family from the three following. Of these the first two 
 (Pericopidae and Agaristidae) differ in their highly contrast- 
 ing colors, as pointed out in the analytical table (p. 212, 
 N and NN). In the third of these families (Lymantriidae) 
 the species have pectinate antennae and do not have ocelli. 
 
294 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Only a few Noctuids have pectinate antenn.-E, and these, 
 so far as they are known to the writer, lack ocelli. 
 
 The venation of the wings of a member of this family is 
 
 represented by Fig- 
 lire 350. Vein V, of 
 the fore wings arises 
 much nearer to vein 
 V3 than to vein V, ; 
 there is usually an 
 accessory cell; and 
 the anal vein may 
 be forked towards 
 the base or not. On 
 the hind wings veins 
 II and III usually 
 coalesce for a short 
 distance near the 
 base of the wing ; 
 vein V, may be either 
 well preserved or 
 much weaker than 
 the other veins; and there is considerable variation in the 
 point of origin of this vein. 
 
 In the typical Noctuids, the body is large in proportion 
 to the size of the wings ; the front wings are strong, some- 
 what narrow, and elongated, the outer margin being shorter 
 than the inner margin ; and when at rest, the wings are 
 folded upon the abdomen, giving the insect a triangular out- 
 line. The antennae are thread-like, fringed with hairs, or 
 brush-like, rarely pectinate in. the males. Two ocelli are al- 
 most always present. The labial palpi are well developed, 
 and in some species quite prominent. The maxillae are 
 quite long and stout in most species. The thorax is heavy 
 and stout. In some species the scales on the dorsal surface 
 of the thorax are turned up more or less, forming tufts. 
 
 Fig. 350.— Wings of Agyotis ypsilon. 
 
LRPIDOPTERA. 295 
 
 The abdomen is conical and extends beyond the inner angle 
 of the hind wings, when these are spread. 
 
 The majority of the larvae are naked, of dull colors, and 
 provided with five pairs of prolegs. As a rule they feed 
 on the leaves of plants, but some are borers and some gnaw 
 into fruits. Among them are some of the most important 
 insects injurious to agriculture. 
 
 Although the Noctuidae is a very large family, the efforts 
 that have been made to divide it into subfamilies have not 
 given satisfactory results. Many subfamilies have been in- 
 dicated ; but in most cases these proposed subfamilies appear 
 to be merely groups of allied genera which cannot be dis- 
 tinguished by any common character from the other similar 
 groups. In the following pages we have given illustrations 
 of a large proportion of these groups, in order to show, as 
 well as we can in a limited space, the variations in form in- 
 cluded in this family. The sequence of groups adopted is 
 that given in the latest catalogue of the family, that by Pro- 
 fessor J. B. Smith ; in some respects we doubt its being 
 natural. 
 
 There is a group of moths, the Deltoids, which are placed 
 at the foot of this family on account of their apparent re- 
 lationship to the Geometrids and to the Pyralids. These 
 moths are usually of dull colors and of medium size. The 
 name Deltoids was suggested by the triangular outline of the 
 wings when at rest, which is well represented by the Greek 
 letter delta. When in this position the wings slope much 
 less than with other Noctuids, the attitude being more like 
 that assumed by the Geometrids; but the hind wings are 
 more nearly covered than with the Geometrids. Many of 
 the Deltoids have very long palpi, resembling in their size 
 those of the Pyralids. 
 
 The Clover Hypena, Hypena scabra (Hy-pe'nasca'bra), is 
 a common Deltoid. The larva feeds- on the leaves of clover, 
 and is a slender green worm. It measures when full grown 
 two-thirds inch in length and only about one-tenth inch in 
 
296 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Deltoids is Pscu- 
 
 width in its widest part ; it has a narrow subdorsal whitish 
 Hne and a lateral one of the same color. When ready to 
 transform it webs together several leaves and passes the pupa 
 state in the nest thus made. The adult (Fig. 35 1) is a blackish- 
 brown moth, with an irregular grayish 
 shade on the outer half of the fore 
 wings, and with very broad hind wings. 
 The palpi, which are not well shown in 
 Fig. 3s^.-Hy/>ena scahra. the figuTc, are loug, widc, and flat- 
 tened ; they project horizontally like a snout. 
 
 The Hop-vine Hypena, Hypena hiumili (H. hu'-mu-li), 
 is closely allied to the preceding and has often been con- 
 founded with it. The larva feeds on the leaves of hop, ano 
 is sometimes a serious pest. 
 
 One of the most abundant of oui 
 dagiossa lubricalis (Pseu-da-glos'sa lu- 
 bri-ca'lis.) In this species (Fig. 352) 
 the fore wings are chocolate-brown, 
 crossed with yellowish lines; the hind 
 wings are much lighter. The palpi 
 are long; but they are curved over 
 the head, so that they appear short when seen from above, 
 as represented in the figure. The larva feeds on grass. 
 
 Next to the Deltoids there is placed a group of moths 
 which may be called the Similar-winged Owlets, from the 
 fact that both pairs of wings are similarly marked by trans- 
 verse lines. The group includes the largest of our Noctuids. 
 
 The two following species 
 will serve to illustrate this 
 
 The Lunate Similar- 
 wing, Honioptera lunata 
 (Ho-mop'-te-ra lu-na'ta.) — 
 This is a brownish moth 
 with marbled wings. It 
 Figure 353 represents a 
 
 3. 353. — Honioptera lunata. 
 
 varies greatly in its markings. 
 
I.EPIDOPTERA. 
 
 297 
 
 variety which has been named cdusa, and which does not 
 show well the lunate mark on the hind wings that probably 
 suggested the name of the species. The larva feeds on the 
 leaves of rose, willow, maple, plum, and other plants. 
 
 The Black Witch, Erebus odor a (Er'e-bus o-do'ra). — The 
 most magnificent in size of our Noctuids is this species (Fig. 
 354). There is much variation in the depth of coloring. 
 The specimen figured is a female ; in the male the fore 
 wings a~e more pointed at the apex and the median band is 
 
 Fig. 354. — Erebus odoi-a. 
 
 indistinct. It is a native of the West Indies, and is not 
 known to breed in the United States. But specimens are 
 found as far north as Canada and west to Colorado, and 
 even in California. It is believed that these specimens have 
 flown north from Cuba or from Mexico. Recently some 
 observations have been made which seem to indicate that 
 the moth does breed within our territory ; but the question 
 is not yet settled. Only isolated specimens are found in 
 the North, and these in late summer or autumn. 
 
298 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS, 
 
 Closely allied to the moths just described is another group 
 ^^^ V / ^-^BB °^ species with broad wings, of 
 
 ^^B^^^KAiy^''^^^^^m which the Two-lined Parallelia, 
 ^^^^^^^A^^^Hj^Sr Parallelia bistriaris (Par-al-lel'i-a 
 
 j^^^^^^^^^^H^ bi-stri'a-ris) is a good example. 
 
 ^^^^V S^^l^r ^^^'^ moth (Fig. 355) is brown- 
 ^^^ W ^^SBf^ i^h in color, and has the fore 
 
 v,G.^^s-Par.dieiiabut,iaris. ^yj,^gg crosscd by tvvo parallel 
 lines. The larva feeds on the leaves of maple. 
 
 The most striking in appearance of the Noctuids, if we 
 except the Black Witch and one or two allied species, are 
 the moths belonging to the genus Catocala (Ca-toc'a-la). 
 These moths are of large size, often expanding three inches 
 or more. The fore wings are usually brown or gray, marked 
 with wavy or zigzag lines. The ground-color of the hind 
 wings is black; but in many species these wings are con- 
 spicuously banded with red, yellow, or white. This pecu- 
 Harity has suggested the name Underwings by which these 
 
 Fig. 356. — Catocala ilia. 
 
 insects are commonly known in England. The genus is a 
 very large one ; about eighty species are now known from 
 this country ; and many of these are extremely variable, 
 so that about twice that number of named forms are now 
 recognized. The Ilia Underwing, Catocala ilia (C. il'i-a), 
 will serve as an example (Fig. 356). The larvae of the 
 
lEPIDOPTERA. 299 
 
 Underwings feed on the leaves of various forest-trees. 
 Many species infest oak and hickory. By careful search 
 both the adults and larvic can be found resting on the 
 trunks of these trees ; but it needs sharp eyes to do it, as the 
 colors of these insects are usually protective. 
 
 Among the more common Noctuids that occur in our 
 meadows and pastures, and that fly up before us as we walk 
 through them, are two species belonging to the genus Dras- 
 teria (Dras-te'ri-a). These may be called the Clover Looping- 
 owlets ; for the larvae feed on the leaves of clover, and, as 
 they have only three pairs of prolegs, they walk in a loop- 
 ing manner like the Geometrids. 
 One of these species is Drastcria 
 erechtca (D. e-rech'te-a). This 
 moth (Fig. 357) has dark or light 
 drab-gray fore wings, which are 
 marked by two large dark bands, 
 as shown in the figure. These 
 bands are always separate, dis- ¥ig. -m.-Drasteriaerechtea. 
 tinct, and well defined towards the inner margin in the 
 male ; in the female the markings are much less dis- 
 tinct. 
 
 The other common species of this genus is Drasteria cras- 
 siuscula (D. cras-si-us'cu-la). In this species the fore wings 
 have either a distinct violaceous brown or a red shade, with 
 the two large dark bands very variable, often shading 
 into the ground-color on the outer edge or coalescing near 
 the inner margin ; all the markings are equally distinct in 
 both sexes. 
 
 There is a group of Noctuids containing about a score 
 of genera in which the species differ markedly in appearance 
 from the majority of the members of the family. In this 
 group the moths are of small or moderate size ; and some 
 of them bear a strong resemblance to Tortricids. Many of 
 the species are marked with bright colors, and especially 
 with white. The two following species will serve to illus- 
 
300 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 tratc this group. CJiamyris ceriiitJia (Cham'y-ris ce-rin'tha) 
 (Fig. 358) is white, with the fore wings 
 marked with shades of olive, brown, and 
 blue. The hind wings have a narrow 
 border of dark scales, within which 
 there may be a cloudy shade as shown 
 35s. — chamyris ce- \\\ the figure, or this shade may be want- 
 ing. The larva feeds on the leaves of 
 apple. The second of our illustrations of this group is 
 Acontia candcfacta (A-con'ti-a can-de-fac'ta) 
 (Fig. 359). This species is also largely white, 
 with the fore wings marked with shades of 
 olive, brown, and yellow. The amount of p,^ ^^^.-Acontia 
 yellow varies greatly in different specimens, cunde/acta. 
 
 The larva feeds on the leaves of Ambrosia artemisicefolia. 
 
 The Boll-worm, HeliotJiis arniigera (He-li-o'this ar-mig'e- 
 ra). — This widely distributed pest is best known in its larval 
 state ; but the larva varies so greatly in color and markings 
 that it is difficult to prepare a description by which it can 
 be recognized. The senior author has published colored 
 figures of this insect, including five varieties of the larva, in 
 his Report on Cotton-insects and also in the Report of the 
 U. S. Department of Agriculture for 1879, Plate VIII. The 
 larva when full grown measures about one and one half 
 inches in length. It is often found feeding on the tips of 
 ears of growing corn. It also frequently infests tomatoes, eat- 
 ing both the ripe and the green fruit. Occasionally it is found 
 within the pods of peas and of beans eating the immature 
 seeds. But the most serious of its injuries is to cotton. 
 The larva bores into the pods or bolls of the cotton, destroy- 
 ing them. The injury thus done to the cotton crop is 
 second in importance only to that done by the Cotton-worm, 
 which destroys the foliage of the plant. Much can be done 
 to check the injury of the Boll-worm to cotton by planting 
 rows of corn in the cotton-field, and collecting the larvae of 
 the early broods from the ears of corn, thus reducing the 
 
LEPID OP TERA . 30 1 
 
 des a large number of 
 
 number of individuals in the later broods which infest the 
 cotton. 
 
 The genus Plusia (Plu'si-a) includes a large number of 
 species in which the fore wings are 
 marked with metallic-colored scales. 
 The most common form of this 
 marking is a silvery spot shaped 
 something like a comma near the 
 centre of the wing. Plusia simplex 
 
 /T-- ti \ • 111 -Hi V\Q. 360. — Plusia simpU'x. 
 
 (rig. 360) IS a well-known illustra- 
 tion of this genus. About sixty species of this genus have 
 been described from North America. In some of the 
 species the metallic markings cover a large proportion of 
 the fore wings, and in others they are wanting. The larva 
 of Plusia brassicce (P. bras'si-cre) feeds on cabbage and other 
 Crucifcrce. 
 
 In the cotton-growing States the most important insect 
 pest is the Cotton-worm, Aletia argillacea (A-le'ti-a ar-gil-la'- 
 ce-a). The adult of this insect (Fig. 361) is a brownish 
 moth with its fore wings crossed 
 with wavy lines of darker color and 
 marked with a bluish discal spot 
 and two white dots as shown in- the 
 figure. This moth is found in the 
 Northern States and even in 
 
 Fig. 361. — Aletia argillacea. r^ y • ■, t 
 
 Canada in the latter part of the 
 summer and in the autumn. But this occurrence in the 
 North is due to migrations from the South, as the insect can- 
 not survive the winter north of the Gulf States. The larva 
 feeds on the foliage of cotton ; and as there are five or six 
 generations in a year, the multiplication of individuals is 
 very rapid, and the injury to the cotton great. Detailed 
 descriptions and colored figures of this insect in its different 
 stages are given in the works cited above in the description 
 of the Boll-worm. The best known way of combating this 
 pest is by the use of Paris green. 
 
302 
 
 THE STUDY OF IXSECTS. 
 
 The Hooded Owlets, Cticullia (Cu-cul'li-a). — We have 
 several common grayish moths, in which the fore wings are 
 marked with numerous irregular dashes of dark color, and 
 in which the thorax is furnished 
 with a prominent tuft of scales. 
 These moths belong to the genus 
 Cucullia. Figure 362 represents 
 Cuaillia speyeri (C. spey'er-i). 
 These insects evidently have 
 the power of moving this tuft 
 of scales ; for sometimes it projects forward over the head as 
 shown in the figure, while in other specimens of the same 
 species it will be directed backward ; in this case it is much 
 less conspicuous. The larvae of the Hooded Owlets feed 
 upon the leaves of goldenrod and other Compositae. 
 
 The Scalloped Owlet, Scoleoptcryx libatrix (Scol-e-op'ter- 
 yx li-ba'trix). — This moth is easily recognized by the shape 
 of the wings, the outer margins of which are deeply cut and 
 scalloped (Fig. 363). The 
 color of the fore wings is soft 
 brownish gray, slightly pow- 
 dered with rust - red, and 
 frosted with white along the 
 costa. There is an irregular 
 patch of rust-red reaching from 
 the wing, a single, white, transverse line before the middle, 
 and a double one beyond the middle. The larva feeds on 
 willow. This species is found in 
 all parts of the United States 
 and in Europe. 
 
 The American Copper Hind- 
 wing, Amphipyra pyramidoides 
 (Am-phip'y-ra pyr-a-mi-doi'des). 
 
 Fig. -iH—Ampliipyra pyramidoides. TllC fore wiugS Of this motll 
 
 (Fig. 364) are dark brown, shaded with paler brown, and 
 with dots and wavy lines of a glassy gray or dull whitish 
 
 Fig. -^.t-i.—Scoieopteryx libatrix. 
 
 the base to the middle of 
 
 •*# 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 303 
 
 hue. The hind whigs, except the costal third, are reddish, 
 with more or less of a coppery lustre. This suggests the 
 popular name. A closely-allied species found in Europe is 
 known as the Copper Underwing ; but we prefer to reserve 
 the name Underwing for the species of Catocala. The larva 
 
 feeds on the leaves of grape and Virginia-creeper. 
 The Many-dotted Apple-worm, Balsa malana 
 
 (BaKsa ma-la'na).— In June, and again in August 
 
 or September, there is some- 
 ^ times found on apple-leaves, in 
 
 considerable numbers, a rather 
 
 thick, cylindrical, light-green 
 
 %|t 
 
 worm, an inch or more in length, 
 with fine, white, longitudinal 
 
 _ Fig. 365.— 
 Balsa malana. 
 
 lines and numerous whitish dots. These are the 
 larvae of the little moth represented by Figure 365. 
 The fore wings of this moth are ash-gray, marked 
 by irregular, blackish lines. The larvae feed on 
 the leaves of many other trees besides apple. 
 The moth has been found throughout the eastern 
 half of our country. 
 
 The Army-worm, Leucania unipuiicta (Leu-ca'- 
 ni-a u-ni-punc'ta). — The Army-worm is so called 
 because it frequently appears in great numbers, 
 and, after destroying the vegetation in the field 
 where the eggs were laid, marches like an army to 
 other fields. This insect occurs throughout the 
 United States east of the Rocky Mountains, and 
 is present every year; but it attracts attention 
 only when it appears in great numbers. The larva 
 (Fig. 366) is one and one-half inches long when 
 Le'ufaiua full growu, aud is striped with black, yellow, and 
 ""larva!'*' green. The adult is of a dull brown color, marked 
 in the center of each fore wing with a distinct white spot 
 (Fig. 367). In seasons of serious outbreak of this pest it 
 usually appears first in limited areas, in meadows or pastures. 
 
304 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 If it is discovered before it has spread from these places It can 
 be confined by surrounding the field with a ditch, or it may be 
 ^^^ ^^^^ J destroyed by spraying the 
 
 ^^^^^^~'^tt^'^^^^^^Es[ grass with Paris-green water. 
 ^|^^^9|^B^BS^^F Ordinarily, 
 
 ^^^m^^H^^^^K worms are not observed until 
 
 ^^Iv ^V^B^^ after they have begun to 
 
 ^^k^^ T^ ^ ^ march and are wide-spread. 
 
 In such cases it is customary 
 to protect fields of grain in 
 their path by surrounding 
 them with ditches with ver- 
 tical sides; it is \vell to dig 
 
 ¥iG. T,6j.—Leucania uni/>uncta. holcS llkc pOSt-llolcS at iu- 
 
 tervals of a few rods in the bottom of such ditches. The 
 worms falling into the ditch are unable to get out, and crawl 
 along at the bottom and fall into these deeper holes. We 
 have seen these insects collected by the bushel in this way. 
 
 The Diver, Bellura gortynides (Bel-lu'ra gor-tyn'i-des). — 
 One of the most remarkable exceptions to what are usually 
 the habits of members of this order is presented by the 
 larva of this species. This larva is able to descend into 
 water and remain there for a long time. It lives in the leaf- 
 stalks of the pond-lily. It bores a hole from the upper side 
 of the leaf into the petiole, which 
 it tunnels in some instances to the 
 depth of two feet or more below 
 the surface of the water. This 
 necessitates its remaining below 
 the surface of the water while 
 feeding. The writer has seen one 
 of these larvae remain under water ^.g. ^ez.-Beiiura gortynides. 
 voluntarily for the space of a half-hour. The tracheae of these 
 larvae are unusually large, and we believe that they serve as 
 reservoirs of air for the use of the insect while under water. 
 The form of the hind end of the larva has also been modi- 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 305 
 
 fied, so as to fit it for the peculiar life, of the insect. The 
 last segment appears as if the dorsal half had been cut 
 away; and in the dorsal part of the hind end of the next 
 to the last segment, which, on account of the peculiar shape 
 of the last segment, is free, there open a pair of spiracles 
 much larger than those on the other segments. When not 
 feeding the larva rests at the upper end of its burrow, with 
 the segment bearing these large spiracles projecting from 
 the water. The adult insect is a brownish moth which 
 varies greatly in size and markings. Figure 368 represents 
 what seems to be the more common form. 
 
 Tiie Zebra Caterpillar, Mamcstra picia (Ma-mes'tra 
 pic'ta). — Cabbage and other garden vegetables are often 
 subject to the attacks of a naked caterpillar, which is of a 
 light yellow color, with three broad, longitudinal, black 
 
 Fig. idfj.—iMaviestra picta, larva. Fig. -ijo.—MiUi.'estra picta. 
 
 Stripes, one on each side and the third on the top of the 
 back. The stripes on the sides are broken by numerous 
 oure white lines (Fig. 369). It passes the winter in the 
 pupa state. The adult (Fig. 370) has dark chestnut-brown 
 fore wings and pale yellowish hind wings. 
 
 Cut-worms. — Few pests are more annoying than the ras- 
 cally little harvesters that nightly, in the spring, cut off our 
 corn and other plants before they are fairly started. There 
 are many species of these cut-worms, but they are all the 
 larvse of Owlet-moths. In general their habits are as 
 follows: The moths lay their eggs during midsummer. The 
 larvae soon hatch, and feed upon the' roots and tender shoots 
 of herbaceous plants. At this time, as the larvae are small 
 and their food is abundant, they are rarely observed. On the 
 
306 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 approach of cold weather they bury themselves in the 
 ground and here pass the winter. In the spring they renew 
 their attacks on vegetation ; but now, as they are larger and 
 in cultivated fields the plants are smaller, their ravages 
 quickly attract attention. It would not be so bad if they 
 merely destroyed what they eat ; but they have the unfortu- 
 nate habit of cutting off the young plants at the surface of 
 the ground, and thus destroy much more than they consume. 
 They do their work at night, remaining concealed in the 
 ground during the daytime. When full grown they form 
 oval chambers in the ground in which they pass the pupa 
 state. The moths appear during the months of June, July, 
 and August. 
 
 There are some exceptions to these generalizations : some 
 species of cut-worms ascend trees during the night and destroy 
 the young buds ; some pass through two generations in the 
 course of a year ; and a few pass the winter in the pupa state. 
 Cut-worms can be destroyed by poisoned baits of fresh 
 clover or other green vegetation, or with poisoned dough 
 made of bran. Much can be done by making holes in the 
 ground with a sharpened stick, 
 as a broom-handle. The holes 
 should be vertical, a foot deep, 
 and with smooth sides. On the 
 approach of day the cut-worms 
 will crawl into such holes to 
 
 YiG.ni.-Noctua c-nigrum. j Ml U Ul 4. 1 
 
 hide, and will be unable to crawl 
 out again. Climbing cut-worms can be jarred from the 
 trees during the night, and caught upon sheets, and then 
 destroyed. 
 
 One of our cut-worms, which is known as the Spotted 
 Cut-worm, is the larva of the Black-c Owlet, Noctna 
 c-nigrum (Noc'tu-a c-ni'grum). This moth (Fig. 371) is one 
 of the most common species attracted to lights. It occurs 
 throughout our country and in Europe. 
 
 At the end of the Noctuid series there is placed a group 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 307 
 
 of genera, which contain species that differ in appearance 
 from other Noctuids, the larva; of many being hairy like 
 those of Arctiids. The fore wings of the moths are gener- 
 ally light gray with dark spots, and in many species have a 
 dagger-like mark near the anal angle. On this account these 
 moths have received the name Daggers. 
 
 The Ochre Dagger, Acronycta morula (Ac-ro-nyc'ta mor'u- 
 la). — This moth (Fig. 372) is pale gray 
 tinge. Besides the black line ^,.^^^^^_ \, 
 forming part of the dagger 
 near the anal angle of the 
 fore wing, there is a similar 
 black line near the base of 
 the wing, and a third near 
 the outer margin between 
 
 veins V, and V,. The larva ^'''- 37— ^-->'-'- 
 
 feeds on elm and basswood. When full grown it is mottled 
 brown and greenish like the bark, it is clothed with but few 
 
 scattered hairs, and has a 
 hump on the first, fourth, and 
 eighth abdominal segments. 
 
 The American Dagger, Ac- 
 ronycta americana (Ac-ro-nyc'- 
 ta a-mer-i-ca'na). — This is a 
 gray moth resembling in its 
 general appearance the pre- 
 ceding, but with the black 
 lines on the fore wings much 
 less distinct. Its larva, how- 
 ever, is very different (Fig. 
 373). This larva looks like an 
 Arctiid, being densely clothed 
 with yellow hairs. But these 
 hairs are scattered over the 
 surface of the body instead of 
 growing from tubercles, as with the larva.* of Arctiids. Along 
 
 Fig. 373 
 
.^o8 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 the sides of the body and at each end are a few scattered 
 hairs that are longer than the general clothing, and there 
 are two pairs of long black pencils borne by the first and 
 third abdominal segments, and a single pencil on the eighth 
 abdominal segment. When at rest the larva remains curled 
 sidewise on a leaf, as shown in the figure. It feeds on 
 maple, elm, and other forest trees. 
 
 The Witch-hazel Dagger, Acronycta Jiainaniclis (Ac-ro- 
 nyc'ta ham-a-me'lis). — In the latter 
 part of summer and in autumn the 
 larva of this species is common on the 
 leaves of witch-hazel, oak, and other 
 forest trees. It differs greatly in ap- 
 pearance from the preceding species, 
 being nearly naked (Fig. 374). When 
 at rest it usually lies curled as shown 
 in the figure. It varies in color from 
 light yellow to reddish brown. Its 
 most characteristic feature is a double 
 row of milk-white spots along the 
 middle of the back. 
 
 FiCi. -iT^.—Acronyct. 
 vielis, larva, 
 
 Family Lymantriid^ (Lym-an-tri'i-dae). 
 TJie Tussock-moths. 
 
 The larvae of these moths are among the most beautiful 
 of our caterpillars, being clothed with brightly-colored tufts 
 of hairs ; and it is to this characteristic clothing of the larvae 
 that the popular name Tussock-moths refers. 
 
 The adult moths are much plainer in appearance than 
 the larvae ; and in the genus Notolophus, to which our most 
 common species belong, the females are practically wingless, 
 the wings being at most short pads, of no use as organs 
 of flight. 
 
 The Tussock-moths are of medium size, with the antennae 
 of both sexes when winged pectinated, those of the males 
 
LEPIDOPTKRA. 
 
 309 
 
 very broadly so ; the wingless females have serrate or nar- 
 rowly pectinate antennae. The ocelli are wanting. The 
 legs are clothed with 
 woolly hairs; when 
 the insect is at rest 
 the fore legs are usu- 
 all)' stretched for- 
 ward, and are very 
 conspicuous on ac- 
 count of these long 
 hairs. The venation 
 of the wings is rep- 
 resented by Figure 
 375 ; in this respect 
 these moths are very 
 similar to the Noc- 
 tuids ; in fact we 
 have been unable to 
 find as yet any con- 
 stant feature in the 
 
 structure of the wings ^"^'- 375 —wings of Netolo/^lms hucostigma. 
 
 of either family that will serve to separate the two. But in 
 the Lymantriidae the antennae are pectinate ^nd the ocelli are 
 absent ; while in the Noctuidae the antennas are usually sim- 
 ple and the ocelli are usually present; and when the antennse 
 are pectinate the ocelli, in all cases known to us, are pres- 
 ent : in this way a distinction is preserved between the two 
 families. Although it is hard to find a distinction between 
 the two that can be put into words, the general appearance 
 of the Tussock-moths is very different from that of the 
 Noctuids, and entomologists have no difficulty in deciding to 
 which family any species belongs. The Tussock-moths are 
 chiefly nocturnal ; but the males of Notolophus fly in the 
 daytime. 
 
 The larvae of our native species are very characteristic in 
 appearance. The body is hairy; there are several con- 
 
3IO THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 spicuous tufts of hairs on tlic dorsal aspect of the abdomen, 
 and at each end of the body there are long pencils of hairs; 
 on the sixth and seventh abdominal segments there is on 
 the middle of the back of each an eversible gland supposed 
 to be a scent-organ similar to the osmateria in the larvae of 
 Papilio, and it is stated that a fine spra\' of liquid is some- 
 times thrown from them. 
 
 Excepting a few rare forms, our native sjiccics fall into 
 two genera — Notoloplins and Parorgyia. In Notoloplius the 
 males have short, broad wings ; the females are nearly 
 wingless. In Parorgyia both sexes are winged, and the 
 wings are relatively longer than in NotolopJius. 
 
 Our most common species belong to NotolopJuis. Of this 
 genus the three best-known species are the following: — 
 
 The White-marked Tussock-moth, Notoloplins hucostigma 
 (No-tol'o-phus leu-co-stig'ma). — This is our most common rep- 
 
 t^^ ^p».^^^A resentative of the family. It frequently 
 ^^^^^^p^P occurs in such great numbers that it 
 seriously injures the foliage of shade- 
 J trees and orchards. The male (Fig. 
 376) is of an ashy gray color ; the fore 
 ■ ^^ .Y/i'/A'.,: "" wrings are crossed by undulated bands 
 of darker shade and bear a conspicuous white spot near the 
 anal angle. The female is white and resembles a hairy grub 
 
 A 
 
 Fig. 37; , . .is leucostigma^\a.\\3L. 
 
 more than a moth. She emerges from her cocoon and 
 after pairing lays her eggs upon it, covering them with a 
 
LET ID or TERA . 3 1 1 
 
 frothy mass. The larva (Fig. 377) is one of the most beau- 
 tiful of our caterpillars. The head and the glands on the 
 sixth and seventh abdominal segments are bright vermilion- 
 red. There is a velvety black dorsal band, bordered with 
 yellow subdorsal stripes ; and there is another yellow band 
 on each side just below the spiracles. The prothorax bears 
 on each side a pencil of long black hairs with plume-like 
 tips; a similar brush is borne on the back of the eighth 
 abdominal segment, and the first four abdominal segments 
 bear dense brush-like tufts of cream-colored or white hairs. 
 
 When this insect becomes a pest the larvae can be de- 
 stroyed by spraying the infested trees with Paris-green water; 
 or the egg-bearing cocoons can be collected during the win- 
 ter and destroyed. These cocoons are attached to the trunks 
 of the trees and to neighboring objects, or to twigs. In the 
 latter case they are usually partially enclosed in a leaf. Co- 
 coons not bearing eggs should not be destroyed, as many of 
 them contain parasites. Owing to the wingless condition of 
 the female this pest spreads slowly. 
 
 The Well-marked Tussock-moth, NotolopJius definita (N. 
 def-i-ni'ta). — The male, like that of the preceding species, is 
 of an ashy gray color ; but the markings of the fore wings 
 are much more distinct. The female is light brown. She 
 lays her eggs in a mass on her cocoon, covering them with 
 hair from her body. The larva closely resembles the pre- 
 ceding species in the form and arrangement of its tufts of 
 hair, but differs markedly in color, being almost entirely light 
 yellow. There is a dusky dorsal stripe and a velvety black 
 spot behind each of the tufts of the first four abdominal seg- 
 ments. The head and the glands on the sixth and seventh 
 abdominal segments are, like the body, light yellow. 
 
 The Old Tussock-moth, NotolopJius antiqua (N. an-ti'qua). 
 — The male is of a rust-brown color ; the fore wings are 
 crossed by two deeper brown bands and have a conspicuous 
 white spot near the anal angle. The body of the grub-like 
 female is black, clothed with yellowish white hairs ; she lays 
 
312 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 her eggs on her cocoon, but, unlike the two preceding species, 
 does not cover them with anything. The larva differs from 
 either of the preceding in having an extra pair of pencils 
 of plume-like hairs arising from the sides of the second 
 abdominal segment ; the head is jet-black ; the glands on the 
 sixth and seventh abdominal segments are vermilion-red or 
 sometimes bright orange ; and the tubercles on the sides of 
 the back of the second and third thoracic and the sixth 
 and seventh abdominal segments are orange-red or yellow 
 margined with pale yellow. 
 
 The Gipsy Moth, PortJietria dispar{Voi-\.\\^'Xx\-7i dis'par). — 
 This is a European species which has been introduced into 
 Massachusetts. It has become such a serious pest that the 
 Legislature of that State has appropriated a large sum of 
 money to be expended in efforts to eradicate it ; this work is 
 now going on. The male is yellowish brown ; the female, 
 
 white (Fig. 378). In each 
 the fore wings are crossed 
 by many dark lines and bear 
 a black lunule on the discal 
 vein. The specimen figured 
 unusually small. The eggs 
 are laid in a mass on any 
 Fig. 378.-/'<7rMf/>m fl'/V/ar, female. convenient objcct and are 
 covered with hair from the abdomen of the female. The 
 larva differs greatly in appearance from that of the preceding 
 genus, lacking the peculiar pencils and tufts of hair; but the 
 characteristic glands of the sixth and seventh abdominal 
 segments are present and are red. The body is dark brown 
 or black, finely reticulated with pale yellow-, and with narrow 
 yellow dorsal and subdorsal lines. On the dorsal aspect of 
 each segment there is a pair of prominent, rounded tubercles 
 bearing spiny black hairs. The first five pairs of these 
 tubercles are bluish, the others dark crimson-red. There 
 are also two rows of tubercles on each side of the body 
 which bear longer hairs. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 313 
 
 Family Agaristid.-k (Ag-a-ris'ti-das). 
 The Wood-nymph Moths. 
 
 These gayly-dressed motlis are a delight to the collector. 
 We have but few species of them in this country, and an 
 even smaller number are common. These moths are either 
 black with large, white or yellow, rounded patches upon the 
 wings, or they have the front wings white, margined with 
 brown, and the hind wings pale yellow. They are chiefly 
 day-flying; but some of them are attracted to lights at 
 night. 
 
 The shape of the antenn.ne varies greatly in the different 
 genera. \x\ EntJiisanoiia 
 the antennae are fili- 
 form ; in Alypia slightly 
 enlarged near the tip ; 
 and in Psyc]iojnorp]ia 
 they are filiform in the 
 female and pectinated 
 in the male. The max- 
 illae are moderately well 
 developed and spirally 
 rolled. The venation 
 of the wings (Fig. 379) 
 is very similar to that 
 of some Noctuids; but 
 there is no difificulty in 
 separating the two fam- 
 ilies, the Wood-nymph 
 Moths being very dif- Fig. 379.- wings of Cfl//v/;-j'<7j^^7rr/. 
 
 ferent in appearance from any Noctuids. 
 
 The larvae are but slightly clothed, and live exposed on 
 the leaves of plants. Our more common species feed 
 chiefly on grape and Virginia-creeper, which they some- 
 times injure to a serious extent. In such cases they can be 
 destroyed by the use of Paris green. This substance can 
 
314 THE STUDY OF hV SECTS. 
 
 be used even in vineyards in the East, as tlie application 
 would have to be made early in the season, and the sum- 
 mer rains would wash the poison from the vines. The 
 pupa state is passed either in an earthen cell or in a very 
 slight cocoon. 
 
 The family is one of limited extent ; less than thirty 
 North American species are known. The larger number of 
 these occur in the far West or in the Gulf States. The 
 following are the most common species : — 
 
 The Eight-spotted Forester, Alypia octomacnlata (A-lyp'- 
 i-a oc-to-mac-u-la'ta). — This species is of a deep velvety-black 
 color. The front wings have two large 
 sulphur-yellow spots ; and the hind wings, 
 two white spots (Fig. 380). The figure 
 represents a male ; the female is some- 
 ,, ^. ^ what larger. The patagia are sulphur- 
 
 FiG. T,%o.— Alypia octo- ° r fc> r 
 
 macuiata. yellow. The Icgs are black with orange- 
 
 colored scales on the tibiae of the first and second pairs. 
 The larva (Fig. 381) feeds upon the leaves of grape and Vir- 
 ginia-creeper, and sometimes occurs in such large numbers 
 as to do serious injury. The ground-color of the larva is 
 white, with eight black stripes on each segment, and a 
 
 ^s.2r" 
 
 Fig. 381. — Alypia octomacnlata, larva. 
 
 broader orange band, bounded by the two middle stripes ; 
 the orange bands are marked by black, conical, elevated 
 spots. There are usually two broods each year, the moths 
 appearing on the wing in May and August, the caterpillars 
 in June and July, and in September. The pupa state is 
 passed in an earthen cell in the ground. 
 
 Langton's Forester, Alypia langtonii (A. lang-to'ni-i), 
 resembles the jireceding species in general appearance, but 
 
I-EFlDOrTERA. 
 
 315 
 
 
 rfhi 
 
 can be readily distinguished by the hind wings bearing only 
 a single spot. It is not a common species, and its early 
 stages have not yet been described. 
 
 The Grape-vine Epimenis, PsycJiomorpJia cpimcnis (Psy- 
 cho-mor'pha ep-i-me'nis). — This is a velyety-black species 
 with a large white patch on the outer third of the front 
 wings and a brick-red patch on the hind 
 wings (Fig. 382). The larva resembles 
 somewhat that of Alypia figured above; 
 but it is bluish and has onl}^ four light 
 and four dark stripes to each segment, p, 
 It feeds upon the terminal shoots of epunent^. 
 
 grape and Virginia-creeper in spring, drawing the leaves to- 
 gether by a weak silken thread and destroying them. When 
 ready to transform, which is usually towards the end of May, 
 it either enters the ground or bores into soft wood to form a 
 cell. Within this it remains until the following spring. 
 
 The Beautiful Wood-nymph, Euthisanotia grata (Eu-this- 
 a-no'ti-a gra'ta).— This moth (Fig. 383) well deserves the 
 popular name that has been applied to it. Its front wings 
 are creamy white, with a glassy surface ; a wide brownish- 
 purple stripe extends along the costal margin, reaching 
 ^ from the base to a little beyond 
 
 |p^-w\ yid^^^W ^^^^ middle of the wing, and on 
 
 ^^^^^^^^^^f ^^^^^ the outer margin is a band of 
 ^^ifc^s. M\-^i^^^ the same hue, which has a wavy 
 white line running through it, 
 and is margined internally with 
 a narrow olive-green band. 
 On the inner margin is a yel- 
 The hind wings are clear pale 
 ochre-yellow, with a brown band on the outer margin. The 
 wing expanse is about one and three-fourths inches. The 
 moth appears during the latter part of June or early in 
 July. The larva of this species is pale bluish, crossed by 
 bands of orange and man}- fine black lines. It also bears a 
 
 hutlnsanotia grata. 
 
 lowish oHve-crreen cloud. 
 
3i6 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 resemblance to that of Alypia, but may be distinguished by 
 having only six transverse black lines on each segment. It 
 has the same food-plants as the species described above. It 
 transforms in a cell in the ground or in soft wood. 
 
 The Pearl Wood-nymph, Euthisanotia iinio (E. u'ni-o). — 
 This moth closely resembles the species just described, but 
 is smaller, expanding a little less than one and one half 
 inches. The outer border of the front wings is paler and 
 mottled ; and the band on the hind wings extends from the 
 inner angle to the apex. The larva resembles that of E. 
 grata ; it feeds upon the leaves of EiipJiorbia coloratiim, and 
 perhaps on grape also. 
 
 F'amily Pericopid^ (Per-i-cop'i-dae). 
 The Pcricopids {Pe-ric o-pids). 
 These beautiful insects occur within the limits of our 
 country only in the far West and in the Gulf States. They 
 
 resemble the 
 nr. iH^iTT. Wood-nymph 
 \P-^i Moths in their 
 'vi strongly contrast- 
 ing colors ; but 
 can be distin- 
 guished from 
 them by the po- 
 sition of the ori- 
 gin of vein V, of 
 the hind wings, 
 which appears to 
 be a branch of 
 cubitus (P^ig. 584). 
 Our most com- 
 mon species be- 
 long to the genus 
 Gnoph(2la (G n o- 
 phae'la). These 
 are black with conspicuous yellow spots. G. venniculata 
 
 Fig. 384. — Wings of Gnophixla hopfferi. 
 
LEPIDOPTEKA. 
 
 317 
 
 — Gnoph crla verm ic ii la ta. 
 
 (G. ver-mic-u-la'ta) occurs in Colorado ; it is represented 
 by Figure 385. G. hopf- 
 fcri (^G. hopf'fe-ri) is 
 found in California, in 
 the foot-hills of the Sierra 
 Nevadas. It has three 
 yellow spots near the mid- 
 dle of the fore wing, and 
 a transverse row of from 
 three to five spots near 
 the outer margin ; on the hind wings there are two spots near 
 the base and another pair between these and the ai)ex of the 
 wing. 
 
 Family Arctiid.^ ('Arc-ti'i-dcc). 
 
 The Tiger-moths, or Arctiids {Arc'ti-ids). 
 
 The Arctiidae includes stout-bodied moths, with moder- 
 ately broad wings, which in the majoritx' of cases are' con- 
 spicuously striped or spotted, suggesting the popular name 
 Tiger-moths ; some of the species, however, are unspotted. 
 
 A large proportion of 
 the species are exceed- 
 ingl)' beautiful ; this 
 renders the family a 
 favorite one with collec- 
 tors. As a rule, when 
 at rest, the wings are 
 folded roof-like upon 
 the bod\'. The moths 
 fly at night, and are at- 
 tracted to lights. 
 
 These moths differ 
 from the following fam- 
 ily in having ocelli ; 
 these are often prominent, at other times they are difficult 
 to see on account of the loiifr hairs with which the head is 
 
 Fig 386.— Wings of llalUidota tessellata. 
 
3i8 
 
 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. 
 
 clothed. The palpi are short, usually but little developed; 
 and the maxillae are present. The most important features in 
 the venation of the wings (Figs. 386, 387) is the union of 
 veins V, and V^ of the fore wings with cubitus, making 
 it apparently four-branched ; and the growing together of 
 subcosta and radius of the hind wings for a considerable 
 distance. The extent of the union of these two veins varies 
 greatly in the different genera; but so far as we have ob- 
 served it is always less 
 TIL "^ m, than four fifths of the 
 
 length of the discal 
 cell. This character is 
 of use in separating 
 these insects from the 
 Zygaenidae in which 
 the union of these two 
 veins is carried farther. 
 The larvae of the 
 Tiger-moths are clothed 
 with dense clusters of 
 hairs. In fact a large 
 proportion of our com- 
 mon hairy caterpillars 
 are members of this 
 family. In some species, certain of the clusters of hairs 
 are much larger than the others, resembling in this 
 respect the clothing of the Tussock-moths. Most larvae 
 of the Arctiids feed upon herbaceous plants, and many 
 species seem to have but little choice of food-plant ; 
 but certain common species feed upon leaves of forest- 
 trees. 
 
 About one hundred and fifty North American species 
 have been described. The following are some of the more 
 common representatives. 
 
 Among the more beautiful of the Tiger-moths is a genus 
 the species of which are snow-white or light yellow with the 
 
 Fig. 387.— Wings of Pygocienucha funeren. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 319 
 
 Fig. i?,%.—Hiipioa coittigt 
 
 Y 
 
 *^^\ 
 
 fore wings banded with dark brown. In most species the 
 hind wings are unspot- 
 ted and are snow- 
 white, but in some 
 the hind wings are 
 yellow. These moths 
 constitute the genus 
 Hap ha (Hap'lo-a). A 
 species common in the 
 Atlantic States and rep- 
 resented by Figure 388 is Haploa contipia (H. con-tig'u-a). 
 The insects of this genus vary greatly in their markings. 
 The Bella-moth, Utetheisa bella (U-te-thei'sa bel'la) is a 
 whitish moth with lemon-yellow 
 or orange-colored fore wings, 
 crossed by six transverse white 
 bands, each containing a series 
 of black dots (Fig. 389); the 
 hind wings are pink, with a 
 black outer margin, which is bordered within by a narrow white 
 line. The species occurs throughout the Atlantic States. 
 
 The Harlequin 
 Milkweed Cater- 
 pillar, Cycnia egle 
 
 (Cyc'ni-a eg'le). — c^y 7/U[mSi3^<^:^. ' ^ 
 
 This larva is the 
 most common cat- 
 erpillar found on 
 milkweed. It is 
 clothed Avith tufts 
 of orange, black, 
 and white ; those 
 at each end of the 
 body are longer 
 than the others, Fig. syo.-cv""'' ^^^'-^ larva 
 
 and are arranged radiately (Fig. 390). When full grown 
 
 Hitv V V.J*/ 
 
 Fig. ■iZ<).— Utetheisa bella. 
 
320 
 
 THE STUD y OF INSECTS. 
 
 the larva makes a felt-like cocoon composed largely of its 
 hairs. The adult has mouse-graj', unspotted wings; the 
 abdomen is yellow, with a row of black spots along the 
 middle of the back. 
 
 The Hickory Tiger-moth, Halisidota caryie (Ha-lis-i- 
 do'ta ca'ry-ae). — One of the most abundant of caterpillars 
 in the Atlantic States and westward during the months of 
 August and September is one clothed with dense tufts of 
 finely barbed white hairs (Fig. 391) ; there is a ridge or crest 
 
 Fig. y)\.— Halisidota caryce , larva. 
 
 of black hairs on the middle of the back of the abdominal 
 segments, a few long white hairs projecting over the head 
 from the thorax, and others projecting back from the last seg- 
 ment ; there are also two pairs of pencils of black hairs, one 
 on the first and one on the seventh 
 abdominal segment, and a similar 
 pair of pencils of white hairs on 
 the eighth abdominal segment. 
 This larva feeds on hickor)', 
 butternut, and other forest-trees. 
 Its grayish cocoons, composed 
 almost entirely of the hair of the larva, are often found under 
 stones, fences, and other similar places. The fore wings of 
 the adult (Fig. 392} are dark brown spotted with white. 
 
 Fig. 392. — Halisidota caryce. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 321 
 
 The Salt-marsh Caterpillar, Estigmene acraa (Es-tig-me'ne 
 a-crae'a). — The popular name of this insect was given to it 
 by Harris, and was suggested by the fact that the salt- 
 marsh meadows about Boston were overrun and laid waste 
 in his time by swarms of the larvae. But the name is mis- 
 leading, as the species is widel\' distributed throughout the 
 United States. The moth 
 (Fig. 393) is white, marked 
 with yellow and black. 
 There are many black dots 
 on the wings, a row of 
 black spots on the back of 
 the abdomen, another row F'g. 393- 
 
 on the venter, and two rows on each side. The sexes differ 
 greatly in the ground-color of the wings; in the female, this 
 is white throughout ; in the male, only the upper surface of 
 the fore wings is white, the lower surface of the fore wings 
 and the hind wings above and below being yellow. The num- 
 ber and size of the black spots on the wings vary greatly. 
 There are usually more submarginal spots on the hind 
 wings than represented in our figure. 
 
 The Fall Web-worm, Hypliautria cunca (H}--phan'tri-a 
 cu'nc-a). — A very common sight in autuilm in all parts of 
 our country is large ugly webs enclosing branches of fruit or 
 forest trees. These webs are especially common on apple 
 and on ash. Each web is the residence of • a colony of 
 larvae which have hatched from a cluster of eggs, laid on a 
 leaf by a snow-white moth. There is a variety of this 
 moth in which the fore wings are thickly studded with dark 
 brown spots. Every gradation exists between this form 
 and those that are spotless. The species winters in the 
 pupa state, and the moths emerge during May or June, 
 The webs made by this insect should not be confounded 
 with those made by the Apple-tree Tent-caterpillar, The 
 webs of the Fall Web-worm are made in the autumn, and 
 
Fig. 394.— /> 
 
 322 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 are much lighter in texture, being extended over all of the 
 leaves fed upon by the colony. 
 
 The Isabella Tiger-moth, Pyrrharctia Isabella (Pyr-rharc'- 
 ti-a is-a-bel'la). — " Hurrying along like a caterpillar in the 
 fall" is a common saying among country people in New 
 England, and probably had its origin in observations made 
 upon the larva of the Isabella Tiger-moth, This is the 
 evenly clipped, furry caterpillar, reddish brown in the 
 middle and black at either end, which is seen so commonly 
 in the autumn and early spring (Fig. 394). Its evident haste 
 
 to get somewhere, in the 
 autumn, is almost painful to 
 witness. A nervous anxiety 
 is apparent in every undulat- 
 ing movement of its body; 
 and frequently its shining black head is. raised high in the 
 air, and moved from side to side, while it gets its bearings. 
 Occasionally after such an observation it evidently finds it 
 is mistaken, and turns sharply and hastens along faster than 
 ever in another direction. So far as we can judge, its ex- 
 citement comes from a sudden fear that winter will over- 
 take it before it can find a cosy, protected corner in which 
 to pass its winter sleep. In the spring it comes forth again, 
 and alter feeding for a time makes a blackish-brown cocoon 
 composed largely of its hair. The adult is of a dull grayish 
 tawny-yellow, with a few black dots on the wings, and fre- 
 quently with the hinder pair tinged with orange-red. On 
 the middle of the back of the abdomen there is a row of 
 about six black dots, and on each side of the body a similar 
 row of dots. 
 
 The Yellow-bear, Spilosonta virginica (Spil-o-so'ma vir- 
 gin'i-ca). — The larva of this species is one of the most com- 
 mon hairy caterpillars found feeding on herbaceous plants. 
 It was named by Harris the Yellow-bear on account of the 
 long yellow hairs with which the body is clothed. These 
 hairs are uneven in length, some s.cattered ones being twice 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 323 
 
 as long as the greater number of hairs. The long hairs are 
 more numerous near the caudal end than elsewhere, but are 
 nowhere gathered into pencils as with the Tussock-cater- 
 pillars. This larva varies greatly in color. The body is most 
 often of a pale yellow or straw color, with a black, more or 
 less interrupted, longitudinal line along each side, and a 
 more or less distinct transverse line of the same color be- 
 tween each of the segments. Sometimes the hairs are foxy 
 red or light brown, and the body brownish or even dark 
 brown. The head and the ends of the feet and forelegs are 
 yellowish, and the venter is dusky. The larva feeds on 
 almost any plant. The cocoon is light, and is composed 
 almost entirely of the hairs of the caterpillar. This insect 
 passes the winter in the pupa state ; and it is probable that 
 there are usually two or more broods each year ; but these 
 are not well marked. The moth (Fig. 395) is snowy white, 
 with the wings marked by a few 
 black dots ; these vary in num- 
 ber, but there are rarely more 
 than three on either wing. 
 There is a row of black spots 
 on the back of the abdomen, 
 and another on each side, and 
 between these a longitudinal deep yellow stripe. 
 
 A very large number of species of Tiger-moths belong 
 
 to the genus Eyprepia 
 (Ey-pre'pi-a). These 
 are perhaps the most 
 striking in appear- 
 ance of all members 
 of the family. The 
 fore wings are velvety 
 black marked with 
 yellowish or pink 
 bands ; in some species the lighter color predominates, so 
 that the fore wings appear to be yellow or pink, spotted 
 
 , Fig. ■y)'^—St>iloso»ta virgiiiica. 
 
 Fig. 396 — Eyprepia virgo- 
 
324 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 with black. The hind wings are red, pink, or yellow, and 
 are margined or spotted with black. The thorax is usually 
 marked with three black stripes, of which the lateral ones 
 are borne by the patagia. There is also a black line or a 
 row of black spots along the middle of the back of the ab- 
 domen, and a similar row of spots on each side. Our most 
 common species of this genus is Eyprepia virgo (Fig. 396). 
 The larva of this species feeds on pigweed and other un- 
 cultivated plants. 
 
 Family LiTHOSllD/E (Lith-o-si'i-dct). 
 The Foot man-mot /is or Lithosiids {Li-t ho' si-ids). 
 
 The Lithosiidae include small moths with rather slender 
 bodies, filiform antennae, and usually narrow front wings and 
 broad hind wings. As a rule they are closely scaled insects 
 of sombre colors, a fact that has won for them the title of 
 Footman-moths; but in case of some of the species their 
 livery is very gay. Some species f^y by day, while others 
 are attracted to lights at night. 
 
 This family is closely allied to the Arctiidae ; in fact it is 
 sometimes difficult to tell to which of these families a species 
 belongs. Usually the Footman-moth^ can be distinguished 
 by the absence of ocelli ; but some species possess very small 
 ones. Tlie palpi are small or moderately developed; the 
 maxillae are present and quite well developed. The vena- 
 tion of the wjngs differs greatly in the different genera ; but 
 in its more important features it resembles that of the Arc- 
 tiidae. 
 
 The larvce are cylindrical and covered with short, stiff 
 hairs. The majority of the species whose transformations 
 are known feed upon lichens. They transform in very deli- 
 cate cocoons or have naked pupae. Among our more com- 
 mon species are the following: — 
 
 The Pale Footman, Crambidia pallida (Cram-bid'i-a pal'- 
 li-da. — This moth is of a uniform drab color, with the abdo- 
 men and the inner part of hind wings paler; it expands nine 
 
l.EPIDOr TEKA. 325 
 
 tenths of an inch. The moths of the genus Cranibidia cun 
 be recognized by the fact that veins V, and V3 of the fore 
 wings are both wanting, leaving cubitus only two-branched. 
 
 The Two-colored Footman, Lithosia bicolor (Li-tho'si-a 
 bi'co-lor). — This is larger than the preceding species, expand- 
 ing from one to one and one half inches. It is slate-colored, 
 with the palpi, the prothorax, the costa of the fore wings, 
 and the tip of the abdomen yellow. Vein V^ of the fore 
 wings is wanting, leaving cubitus apparently three-branched 
 
 The Striped Footman, Hypoprepia ininiata (Hy-po-pre' 
 pi-a min-i-a'ta). — This beautiful moth is of a deep scarlet 
 color, with three broad lead-colored stripes on the front wings. 
 Two of the stripes extend the entire length of the wings ; 
 while the third is between these 
 and extends from the end of the 
 discal cell to the outer margin 
 (Fig. 397). The outer half of the 
 hind wings is also slate-colored. 
 Vein V, of the fore wings is pres- Fig. sy?.-//,/,-/..//,; ;«/«/,.i',j. 
 ent ; but vein V, of the hind wings is wanting. The larva 
 feeds upon lichens, and may be found under loose stones or 
 on the trunks of trees. It is dusky, and thinly covered 
 with stiff, sharp, and barbed black bristles, which grow 
 singly from small warts. The cocoon is thin and silky. 
 
 The Painted Footman, Hypoprepia fiicosa (Hy-po-pre'pi-a 
 fu-co'sa). — This species is very similar to the preceding and 
 has been confounded with it. With the Painted Footman 
 the ground-color of the fore wings is partly yellow and 
 partly red. 
 
 The Clothed-in-white Footman, Cleniensia albata (Cle- 
 men'si-a al-ba'ta). — The specific name of this insect is some- 
 what misleading ; for although the general color of the moth 
 is white, there are so many ashen and gray scales, and dark 
 spots, that the general effect is gray. On the front wings 
 the more prominent black spots are six or seven on the 
 costa, one on the discal vein, and a row of small ones on the 
 
326 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 outer margin. The hind wings are white, but finely dusted 
 with gray scales. With this ::pecies vein V^ is present in 
 both fore and hind wings. 
 
 The Banded Footman, Cisthene unifascia (Cis-the'ne 
 
 u-ni-fas'ci-a). — This Httle beauty (Fig. 398) occurs in the 
 
 ,^^jg^ ^Vtlantic States from New York to Texas. The 
 
 IQ^ fore wings are lead-colored, and crossed by a 
 
 c- o .^ ./ yellow band, which extends also along the inner 
 
 uni/ascia. margin to the base of the wings. The hind 
 
 wings are pink except the apex, which is lead-colored. 
 
 There is much variation in the width of the yellow band. 
 
 iir. 
 
 Family Zyg.enid^ (Zy-gaen'i-d^E). 
 TJie Zygcenids {Zy-gce' nids). 
 
 These moths are most easily distinguished from the allied 
 families that are rep- 
 resented in this coun- ni. 
 try by the structure 
 of the hind wings. 
 Here we find the 
 tendency of veins II 
 and III to coalesce 
 carried to the great- 
 est extreme, aiey 
 being joined clear 
 to the margin of the 
 wing (Fig. 399) ; oc- 
 casionally forms are 
 found in which the 
 tips of these two 
 veins are separate for 
 a short distance near ^^ 
 
 the apex of the wing; F'G. sgg.-Wings of aettucha virginUa. 
 
 and usually they are separated for a short distance near the 
 base of the wing, as shown in the figure. In some of the more 
 
LEPTDOPTEfiA. 
 
 327 
 
 specialized forms, as Cosmosoina (Fig. 400), the hind wings 
 are greatly reduced in size, and the branches of radius and 
 cubitus coalesce to a remarkable 
 degree. 
 
 To the first division of this 
 family belong a small number 
 of bluish-black or brown moths 
 which have more or less vermilion 
 or yellow on the head, prothorax, ^'^- 4°o.~c-..;«...,«<z augc. 
 and patagia. These moths are of medium size, expanding 
 from one and one fifth to two inches. The dull color of the 
 wings is usually relieved by the bright color of the head and 
 patagia, and by a layer of blue scales covering the thorax 
 and abdomen ; but in some species these are wanting. The 
 larvae feed on grasses. Some of them strongly resemble 
 those of the Arctiidae in appearance as well as in habits, 
 being thickly clothed with hair ; they also spin cocoons simi- 
 lar to those of Arctiids. Our common forms represent two 
 
 Fig. 401. — Ctenucha virginica. 
 
 Fig. 402 — Scepsis fulvicollis. 
 
 genera, Ctenucha (Cte-nu'cha) and Scepsis (Scep'sis). In the 
 East we have only a single species of each of these genera, 
 Ctenucha virginica (C. vir-gin'i-ca), which is represented by 
 Figure 401, and Scepsis fulvicollis (S. ful-vi-col'lis), repre- 
 sented by Figure 402. 
 
 The second division of the family 
 includes a much larger number and a 
 much greater variety of forms. Our 
 most common species is Lycomorpha 
 pholus (Ly-co-mor'pha pho'lus). This is black with the 
 basal half of the fore wings and the ba-sal third of the hind 
 
 Fig. ^OT,—LycotHOrpha 
 pholus. 
 
328 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 wings yellow (Fig. 403). A variety of this species occurs in 
 California in which the lighter parts of the wings are pinkish 
 instead of yellow. These moths occur in stony places, 
 where the larvae feed on lichens growing on rocks. 
 
 In the extreme southern part of our country and in the 
 regions south of that, there occur highly specialized mem- 
 bers of this family, in which the hind wings are greatly re- 
 duced in size, and the veins of the hind wings coalesce to a 
 remarkable degree. In some of these forms the discal por- 
 tion of the wings bears but few if any scales. Cosiiwsoma 
 ange (Cos-mo-so'ma au'ge)from Florida (Fig. 400) will serve 
 as an example of these. In this species the body and legs are 
 bright red, with the head, end of abdomen, and a dorsal band 
 blue-black ; the veins and borders of the winsfs are also black. 
 
 Family Thyridid^ (Thy-rid'i-dae). 
 TJie Windoiv-winged MotJis. 
 These little moths can be easily recognized by the presence 
 of curious white or yellowish translucent spots upon the 
 wings ; it is these spots that suggests the name Window- 
 winged Moths for the family. 
 
 In this family the antennae are either strictly filiform or 
 slightly thickened in the middle; 
 the ocelli are wanting ; the palpi 
 project horizontally, and are 
 somewhat longer than the head ; 
 and the maxillae are strongly 
 developed. The venation of the 
 
 ^ riz^^^^^^x wings differs from that of all 
 
 /^^=== =""^IIl___J v" other families of moths, in that 
 all five branches of radius of the 
 fore wings are preserved and arise 
 from the discal cell (Fig. 404).* 
 A similar t}-pe of venation is 
 
 * In a single genus of the PyromorphidiE, Triprocris (p. 227, Fig. 26S), 
 all ihe branches of radius arise from the discal cell. 
 
 XI — IX 
 
 34.— Wings of Thyris mac 
 
LEV ID OP -J ERA. 
 
 329 
 
 possessed by the Skippers (Ilcspcrina) ; but the Window- 
 winged Moths differ from the Skippers in having a well- 
 developed frenulum. 
 
 The earljr stages of our species are not known ; but the 
 larva of a European species lives upon tiic leaves of Cle- 
 matis, which it rolls like a Tortricid. Tliis larva is said to 
 appear like that of a Chrysomelid beetle. It descends to 
 the surface of the ground and makes a dense silken cocoon, 
 more or less mixed with grains of sand. 
 
 The most common representative of this family in the 
 Eastern and Middle States is the Spotted Thyris, Thyris 
 viaailata (Thy'ris mac-u-la'ta). This species 
 (Fig. 405) is brownish black, sprinkled with rust- ^^t^ 
 yellow dots; the outer margin of the wings, ^S^fSt 
 especially of the hind wings, is deeply scalloped, p,^ ^ \t; ,■• 
 with the edges of the indentations white. 'mlcuiau." 
 There is on each wing a translucent white spot ; that of 
 the hind wing is larger, kidney-shaped, and almost divided 
 in two. This species occurs also in the West, as there are 
 specimens from Montana in the Cornell University collection. 
 The Mournful Thyris, Thyris lugubris (Thy'ris lu-gu'bris), 
 is a larger species found in the Southern 
 States. It can be recognized by Figure 406. 
 It is brownish black, marked with yellow, 
 ^'""'lufub^h.'^"''" ''^"^^ ^^"^^^ ^'^^ translucent spots yellowish. 
 
 Family Sphingid.^ (Sphin'gi-daj). 
 The Hawk-moths or Sphinxes, 
 
 Hawk-moths are easily recognized by the form of the 
 body, wings, and antennae. The body is very stout and spin- 
 dle-shaped ; the wings are long, narrow, and very strong ; the 
 antennae are more or less thickened in tlie middle or towards 
 the tip, which is frequently curved back in the form of a 
 hook ; rarely the antennae are pectinated. The sucking-tube 
 (maxillae) is usually very long, being in some instances twice 
 
330 THE STUDY OF IXSECTS. 
 
 as long as the body; but in 'one subfamily it is short and 
 membranous. When not in use it is closely coiled like a 
 watch-spring beneath the head. None of the species have 
 ocelli. 
 
 The venation of the wings (Fig. 407) is quite character- 
 istic; the most distinctive feature is the presence of what 
 
 Fig. 407. — Wings of Phlegethontius celeus. 
 
 appears to be a cross-vein between subcosta and radius of 
 the hind wing. This apparent cross-vein is due to the fact 
 that veins II and III are grown together for a short distance, 
 and then vein 11 separates and joins vein I. The obvious 
 presence of vein I in the hind wings is unusual ; but it occurs 
 in the Psychidae, in the Bombycidae, and in the Anthroceridae 
 (a family not represented in our fauna) also. This basal part 
 of vein I is probably preserved in other cases where it appears 
 to be the base of vein II. Thus in Citheronia (Fig. 417) there' 
 is a rudiment of the so-called cross-vein, which has entirely 
 disappeared in the more specialized forms of the family to 
 
I.EriDOPTFKA. 331 
 
 which this genus belongs. In the Hawk-moths the frcnu- 
 lum is usually well preserved, but in a few it is wanting or 
 rudimentary. In many genera vein III, of the fore wings 
 coalesces with vein Illjtoits tip, so that vein III is only 
 four-branched. 
 
 Some of the Hawk-moths are small or of medium size ; 
 but most of them are large. They have the most powerful 
 wings of all Lepidoptera. As a rule they fly in the twilight, 
 and have the habit of remaining poised over a flower while 
 extracting the nectar, holding themselves in this position by 
 a rapid motion of the wings. This attitude and the whir of 
 the vibrating wings gives them a strong resemblance to hum- 
 ming-birds, hence they are sometimes called Humming-bird 
 Moths ; but they are more often called Hawk-moths, on ac- 
 count of their long, narrow wings and strong flight. 
 
 Of all the beautifully arrayed Lepidoptera some of the 
 Hawk-moths are the most truly elegant. There is a high-bred 
 tailor-made air about their clear-cut wings, their closely fitted 
 scales, and their quiet but exquisite colors. The harmony of 
 the combined hues of olive and tan, ochre and brown, black 
 and yellow, and grays of every conceivable shade, with touches 
 here and there of rose color, is a perpetual joy to the artistic 
 eye. They seldom have vivid colors except touches of yel- 
 lo.v or pink on the abdomen or hind wings, as if their fas- 
 tidious taste allowed petticoats only of brilliant colors always 
 to be worn beneath quiet-toned overdresses. 
 
 The larvae of the Sphingidae feed upon leaves of various 
 plants and trees, and are often large and quite remarkable 
 in appearance (Fig. 408). The body is cylindrical and 
 naked and usually has a horn behind near th-e end of the 
 body on the eighth abdominal segment. Sometimes instead 
 of the horn there is a shiny tubercle or knob. We cannot 
 even guess the use of this horn, unless it is ornamental, for 
 it is never provided with a sting. These caterpillars when 
 resting rear the front of the body up in the air, curl the 
 head down in the most majestic manner, and remain thus 
 
r:>- 
 
 THE STUDY OT INSECTS. 
 
 rigid aiul motionless for hours. When in this attitude they are 
 supposed to resemble the Egyptian Sphinx, and so the typical 
 genus was named Sphinx and the family the Sphingidae. 
 But we think they deserve the name independently of their 
 habits because of the riddle they constantly propound to us 
 as to why they wear this horn on the rear end of the body 
 instead of on the head, where it ought to be in order to be of 
 
 Fig. 408. — Sj>htnx chcrsis, larva. 
 
 any use whatever as a horn. These caterpillars are usually 
 of some shade of green and often are ornamented with a 
 series of diagonal stripes along each side. 
 
 Most species pass the pupa state in the ground in simple 
 cells made in the earth ; some, however, transform on the 
 surface of the ground in imperfect cocoons composed of 
 leaves fastened together with silk. 
 
 Nearly one hundred species of Hawk-moths occur in 
 this country. The followinir are some of the more common 
 ones. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 333 
 
 The Modest Sphinx, Maruniba modcsta (Ma-rum'ba 
 mo-des'ta). — It was, probably, the quiet oHve tints in which 
 the moth is chiefly clothed that sug<Tested the name modcsta 
 for it, but it is one of the most beautiful of our Hawk-moths, 
 The body and basal third of the fore wings are pale olive; 
 the outer third of the fore wings is a darker shade of the 
 same color ; while the middle third is still. darker (Fig. 409). 
 
 Fig. 409 —Mayuinha modcsta. 
 
 The hind wings are dull carmine-red in the middle ; there 
 is a bluish-gray patch with a curved black streak over it 
 near the anal angle. The larva feeds on poplar and cotton- 
 wood. When full grown it is three inches long, of a pale 
 green color, and coarsely granulated, the granules studded 
 with fine white points, giving the skin a frosted appearance. 
 The Twin-spotted Sphinx, Siiicriiithiis gcminatiis {Smc- 
 rin'thus gem-i-na'- 
 tus). — This exquis- 
 itely colored moth 
 expands about two 
 and one half inches. 
 The thorax is gray 
 with a velvety dark 
 brown spot in the 
 middle. The fore 
 wings are gray, with a faint rosy tint in some specimens, 
 
 Fig. 41 
 
334 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS, 
 
 and tipped and banded with brown as shown in Figure 
 410. The hind wings are deep carmine at the middle, and 
 are bordered with pale tan or gray. Near the anal angle 
 there is a large black spot in which there is a pair of blue 
 spots, which suggested the name gemijiatiis. The larva 
 feeds upon the leaves of apple, plum, elm, ash, and willow. 
 
 Harris's Sphinx, Ellenia Jiarrisii (El-le'ma har-ris'i-i). — - 
 This sphinx has interested us chiefly on account of the 
 habits and markings of its larva (Fig. 411). It feeds upon 
 the foliage of pine, and is colored with 
 alternating green and white longitudi- 
 nal strips ; the dorsal stripe is green 
 spotted with red. It has a way of 
 hanging head downward in a pine tas- 
 sel that conceals it entirely from the 
 sight of all but very sharp eyes, its 
 stripes giving a close resemblance to 
 a bunch of pine leaves. The moth ex- 
 pands about two inches ; it is gray with 
 the fore wings marked by several series 
 of small brown spots. 
 
 The Pen marked Sphinx, Sphinx 
 cJursis (Sphinx cher'sis). — This moth is 
 of an almost evenly distributed ashy- 
 gray color. This sombre color is relieved 
 somewhat by a black band on each 
 side of the abdomen, marked with four 
 or five white transverse bars ; by two 
 dark brown, smoky bands which cross 
 the hind wings ; and by a series of black 
 dashes on the fore wings, one in each 
 cell between the apex of the wing and the anal vein. These 
 dashes appear as if drawn casually with a pen. The larva (Fig. 
 408) is not uncommon upon ash and lilac ; it is greenish 
 or bluish white above, and darker below ; there are seven 
 oblique yellow bands on the sides of the body, each edged 
 
 Fig. ^11.— Ellen. 
 larva 
 
LEriDOFTERA. 355 
 
 above with dark green. When disturbed it assunaes the 
 threatening attitude shown in the figure. 
 
 The Tomato-worm, Plilegethontius cclciis (Phleg-e-thon'- 
 ti-us ce'le-us). — This larva is the best known of all our 
 Sphinxes, as it may be found feeding on the leaves of 
 tomato, tobacco, or potato wherever these plants are grown 
 in our country. It resembles in its general appearance the 
 larva of Sphinx chersis (Fig. 408); but its favorite attitude 
 is with the fore end of the body slightly raised. It is usu- 
 ally green, but individuals are often found that are brown, 
 or even black. There appear at frequent intervals in the 
 newspapers accounts of people being injured by a poison 
 excreted by the caudal horn of this larva ; but there is 
 absolutely no foundation whatever for such stories. The 
 pupa (Fig. 412) is often ploughed up in gardens, and attracts 
 attention on account of 
 its curious tongue-case, 
 which is free, resembling 
 the handle of a pitcher. 
 The moth is a superb 
 creature, expanding four ^'^- 4--/'/'/'-r'"^-«' -' -^-- 
 
 or five inches. It is of many delicate shades of ash-gray, 
 marked with black or very dark gray ; there are a few short 
 black dashes on the fore part of the thorax, and some irregular 
 black spots edged with white on the posterior part ; the 
 abdomen is gray with a black middle line, and five yellow, 
 almost square spots along each side. Each of these spots is 
 bordered with black, and has a white spot above and be- 
 low, on the edge of the segment. The hind wings are 
 crossed by four blackish lines, of which the two interme- 
 diate are zigzag. 
 
 The Tobacco-worm, Plilegethontius Carolina (Phleg-e-thon'- 
 ti-us car-o-li'na). — This species closely resembles the preced- 
 ing, and the two are often mistaken the one for the other. 
 The larvae have similar habits, feeding on the same plants. 
 But the moths are easily distinguished. This species is brown- 
 
^^6 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 ish gray instead of ashy gray ; at the end of the discal cell of 
 the fore wings there is a distinct white spot ; and the two 
 dark bands crossing the middle of the hind wings are not 
 zigzag, and are less distinctly separate ; often they are 
 united into a single broad band. 
 
 The Hog-caterpillar of the Vine, AnipelopJiaga myron 
 (Am-pe-loph'a-ga my'ron). — There is a group of Hawk- 
 moths the larvae of which have the head and first two 
 thoracic segments small, while the two following segments 
 are greatly swollen. These larvae from a fancied resemblance 
 to fat swine have been termed Hog-caterpillars; and the 
 present 'species, which is common on grape, has been named 
 the Hog-caterpillar of the Vine. It is a comparatively 
 small species, the full-grown larva being but little more 
 than two inches long. There is a row of seven spots varying 
 in color from red to pale lilac, each set in a patch of pale 
 
 yellow, along the middle of 
 the back. A white stripe with 
 dark green margins extends 
 along the side from the head 
 P, ■ ^ / ^/ , .t, to the caudal horn, and be- 
 
 rio. 413. — Avipclopliaga tiiyron^ larva with ' 
 
 cocoons of parasites. Jq^^, ^j^Js ^^,.g gCVCn obliqUC 
 
 stripes. This larva is often infested by Braconid parasites; 
 and it is a common occurrence to find one of them with the 
 cocoons of the parasites attached to it (Fig. 413). The 
 pupa state is passed on the surface of the ground within a 
 rude cocoon made by fastening leaves together with loose 
 silken threads. The adult expands about two and one 
 fourth inches. The fore wings are olive-gray, with a curved, 
 olive-green, oblique band crossing the basal third, a discal 
 point of the same color, and beyond this a large triangular 
 spot with its apex on the costa and its base on the inner 
 margin. 
 
 The Pandorus Sphinx, Philajnpcliis pandorus {V\\\-\a.m'pQ- 
 lus pan-do'rus). — This magnificent moth expands from four 
 to four and one half inches. The ground-color of its wings 
 
LEPIDOPTKRA. 
 
 337 
 
 is pale olive, verging in some places into gray ; the markings 
 consist of patches and stripes of dark, rich velvety olive, 
 sometimes almost black (Fig. 414). Near the inner margins 
 of both pairs of wings the lighter color shades out into pale 
 yellow, which is tinged in places with delicate rose-color. 
 
 1 4 :—/'/« Uii vipelus pa ndorus- 
 
 These markings show a harmony of contrasting shades 
 rarely equalled elsewhere by nature or art. The larva is 
 one of the Hog-caterpillars. It feeds upon the leaves of 
 Virginia-creeper. When young it is pinkish in color, and 
 has a long pinkish caudal horn ; as it matures it changes to 
 a reddish brown, and the horn shortens and curls up like 
 a dog's tail and finally disappears, leaving an eye-like tuber- 
 cle. The caterpillar has on each side six cream-colored oval 
 spots, enveloping the spiracles. 
 
 The White-lined Sphinx, Deilcphila lincata (Dei-leph'i-la 
 lin-e-a'ta).— This moth can be easily recognized by Figure 
 415. Its body and fore wings are olive-brown; there are 
 three parallel white stripes along each side of the thorax ; 
 the outer one of these extends forward over the eyes to the 
 base of the palpi ; on the fore wings there is a bulT stripe 
 extending from near the bnse of the inner margin to the 
 apex, and veins III, to IX are lined with white; the hind 
 
338 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 wings are black with a central reddish band. The larva is 
 extremely variable in color and markings. It feeds on many- 
 plants, among which arc apple, grape, plum, and currant. 
 
 Fig. 415. — Deilephila lineata. 
 
 The Thysbe Clear-wing, Heuiaris thy she (He-ma'ris 
 thys'be). — There is a group of Hawk-moths that have the 
 middle portion of the wings transparent, resembling in 
 this respect the Sesiidae and certain Zygaenids; but they 
 
 are easily recognized as Hawk- 
 moths by the form of the 
 body, wings, and antennae. 
 One of the more common of 
 these is the Thysbe Clear- 
 wing (Fig. 416). The scaled 
 portions of the wings are of a 
 dark reddish brown ; but this 
 F.c. 4.6.-/A-«,«,.v thyshe. ^^^^,^^ {g most easily distin- 
 
 guished from our other common species by a line of scales 
 dividing the discal cell lengthwise and representing the po- 
 sition of the base of vein V. The larva of this species feeds 
 on the different species of Viburmun, the snowberry, and 
 hawthorn. 
 
 The Bumblebee Hawk-moth*, H^maris diffinis {lle-\m.'r\s 
 dif-fi'nis). — This Clear-wing appears to be about as common 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 339 
 
 as the preceding, and resembles It somewhat. It lacks, 
 however, the line of scales in the discal cell, and the body- 
 is more nearly yellow. This color probably suggested the 
 name Bumblebee Hawk-moth, given to this insect nearly 
 one hundred years ago by Smith and Abbot. The larva 
 feeds on the bush honeysuckle {Dicrvilla) and the snow- 
 berry {Symphoricarpiis). 
 
 Supcrfamily Saturniina (Sa-tur-ni-i'n:i). 
 The Saturnians {Sa-tur ni-ans). 
 
 The group of families constituting the superfamily Sa- 
 turniina includes the largest of our native moths ; in fact 
 nearly all of our very large moths belong to it ; but it also 
 includes a considerable number of species of moderate size. 
 
 These moths are most easily distinguished from other 
 moths by the structure 
 of the wings (Fig. 417). 
 Here, as with the Skip- 
 pers and the Butterflies, 
 the frenulum is lost (or 
 nearly so in the low- 
 est family), and its place 
 is taken by a greatly ex- 
 panded humeral angle 
 of the hind wing, which, 
 projecting under the 
 fore wing, insures the 
 acting together of the 
 two in flight without the 
 aid of a frenulum. This 
 losing of the frenulum 
 is also characteristic of 
 the Lasiocampidae. But 
 the Saturnians differ 
 
 C 4.1 • f -1 • ^1 ^ ^'"- 417— Wings of Citheronia regalis. 
 
 from this family in that 
 
 vein V, arises midway between radius and cubitus, or 
 
340 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 more closely united to radius than to cubitus, leavl.ng the 
 latter apparently three-branched ; while in the Lasiocampidae 
 cubitus appears to be four-branched. 
 
 This superfamily includes the Bombycidae which are 
 represented in this country only by the Chinese Silkworm 
 and three families of native moths. These can be separated 
 by the following tabic : — 
 A. Vein V2 of the fore wings arising midway between veins V, and 
 
 V3. p. 340 BOMBVCID^. 
 
 AA. Vein V2 of the fore wings arising nearer to vein Vi than to vein 
 V3. 
 B. Hind wings with two anal veins. 
 C. The stalk of veins Vi and V2 of the fore wings separating 
 from radius before the end of the discal cell (Fig. 420, c. v.). 
 
 p. 342 Hemileucid^. 
 
 CC. Vein Vi of the/(;;vwings separating from radius beyond the 
 apex of the discal cell. 
 D. Veins Vi and Vu of the hind wings joined to radius by a dis- 
 tinct stalk (Fig. 417, c. v.). p. 343 Citheroniid^. 
 
 DD. Vein Vi and V2 of the hind wings not stalked (Coloradid). 
 
 p. 350 Saturniid^. 
 
 BE. Hind wings with only one anal vein. p. 350. . .Saturniid^. 
 
 Family BOMBYCID^ (Bom-byc'i-dae). 
 
 TJie Silk-ivorni. 
 
 The Bombycidae as now restricted are not represented in 
 
 our fauna ; but a single 
 species, the Silk-worm, is 
 frequently bred in this 
 country, and is usually 
 present in collections of 
 Lepidoptera. 
 
 The Silk-worm, Bonibyx 
 mori (Bom'byx mo'ri). — ■ 
 The moth (Fig. 418) is of a 
 "PxG. »,^?,.-Bo>,l^yx■mor^. crcam-color with two or 
 
 three more or less distinct brownish lines across the fore 
 
LEPinorrERA. 
 
 341 
 
 wings and sometimes a faint double bar at llie end of the 
 discal cell. The head is small; the antennae are pectinated 
 broadly in both sexes ; and the ocelli, palpi, and maxillae 
 are wanting. The abdomen and thorax are densely clothed 
 with woolly hair. The distinctive feature in the venation of 
 the wings (P^ig. 419) is the obvious presence of vein I on the 
 hind wings. 
 
 The usual food of the Silk-worm is the leaf of the mul- 
 berry. Our native species, however, arc not suitable. The 
 species that are 
 most used are the 
 white mulberry 
 {Morns alba), of 
 which there are 
 several varieties, 
 and the black mul- 
 berry {Morns ni- 
 gra); the former is 
 the better. The 
 leaves of osage 
 orange {Maclnra 
 anratitiaca) have 
 also been used as 
 silk-worm food to 
 a considerable ex- 
 tent. In case silk- 
 worms hatch in the 
 springbefore either 
 mulberry or osage- 
 orange leaves can 
 be obtained, they 
 may be quite suc- 
 cessfully fed, for a few days, upon lettuce-leaves. 
 
 The newly-hatched larva is black or dark gray, and is 
 covered with long stiff hairs, which spring from pale-colored 
 tubercles. The hairs and tubercles are not noticeable after 
 
 VIII 
 -Wings of Bonibyx iiiori. 
 
34^: 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 the first molt, and the worm becomes lighter and lighter, 
 until in the last larval period it is of a cream-white color. 
 There is a prominent tubercle on the back of the eighth ab- 
 dominal segment, resembling those borne by certain larvae 
 of the Sphingidae. 
 
 There are many special treatises on this insect, some of 
 which should be consulted by any one intending to raise silk- 
 worms. 
 
 Family Hk.mileucid^ (Hem-i-leu'ci-dae). 
 
 The HcniilcHcids {Hcm-i-lcu' cids). 
 
 This is a small family containing rather large and con- 
 spicuously marked insects. The antennae are broadly pec- 
 tinated in the males and narrowly so or nearly serrate in the 
 
 females. There is only a 
 iiij^, single pair of teeth to each 
 jjj segment of the antennae. 
 The thorax and abdomen 
 are usually thickly clothed 
 with long woolly hair; but. 
 in some species the cloth- 
 ing of the antennae is less 
 woolly and more scale-like. 
 As to the wings, the frenu- 
 lum is wanting, the humer- 
 al angle of the hind wings 
 being largely developed 
 (Fig. 420) ; and in both 
 fore and hind wings veins 
 V, and Vj are joined to 
 radius by a common stalk. 
 Our best-known repre- 
 sentative is the Maia-moth, 
 ma'i-a). In this species (Fig. 
 
 Fig 420.^ — Wings of Hemileuca tiiaia. 
 
 Hemilenca maia (Hem-i-leu'ca 
 
 421) the wings are thinly scaled, sometimes semi-transparent ; 
 
Plate IV. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 343 
 
 they are black with a 
 
 -lU-in iUnca tiiaia. 
 
 common white band near their 
 middle ; and the discal 
 veins are usually white 
 and broadly bordered with 
 black. There are great 
 variations in the width of 
 the white band on the 
 wings. The larva feeds on 
 the leaves of oak ; it is 
 brownish black, with a lat- 
 eral yellow stripe ; and is 
 armed on each segment with large branching spines. This 
 species pertains to the eastern part of the continent ; but 
 there are several western species belonging to the genus. 
 
 In the West there occur also two species of the genus 
 Pseudohazis (Pseu-do-ha'zis). These are P. hera (P. he'ra), in 
 which the ground-color of the wings is white (Plate IV), and 
 P. eglanterina (P. eg-lan-te-ri'na), in which the ground-color 
 is brown. Both species are spotted and striped with black. 
 In each the abdomen is ringed with black; there is a large 
 discal spot on each wing, which frequently has a white center 
 due to white scales borne by the discal vein. The base of 
 the wings is dusky. There is a transverse band at the end 
 of the basal third, which is sometimes wanting on the hind 
 wings ; and a broader, wavy, transverse band crossing both 
 wings at the end of the basal two thirds ; arid on each wing 
 there is a series of six or seven triangular black spots situ- 
 ated on the ends of the veins, at the outer margin of the 
 wing. It should be said that both in the ground-color and 
 in the markings these two forms vary much ; and it is possi- 
 ble that the}' are merely varieties of one species. 
 
 Family ClTHERONllD^ (Cith-e-ro-ni'i-dae). 
 TJie Royal-moths. 
 The Royal-moths are stout-bodied and hairy, with sunken 
 heads and strong wings. The species are of medium or large 
 
344 
 
 THE STUDY OF IX SECTS. 
 
 size, some of them being nearly as large as the largest of our 
 moths. The most obvious character limiting this family is 
 the structure of the antennae of the male. These agree with 
 those of the Saturniidae in having two pairs of teeth to each 
 segment, but differ in being pectinated for only a little more 
 than half their length. These moths also differ from most 
 Saturniidae in having two anal veins in the hind wings. Al- 
 though the antennae of the male are broadly pectinated, 
 those of the female are filiform. The palpi and maxillae are 
 very small. The thorax and abdomen are densely clothed 
 
 Fig. 422.— Wings of atheroma regah 
 
 Fig. 423.— Wings of Anisota virgini- 
 ensis. 
 
 with long hairs. The wings are strong, with prominent veins. 
 The frenulum is wanting, and the humeral angle of the hind 
 wings is very largely developed. In the fore wings vein V, 
 arises from the discal vein (Figs. 422, 423). 
 
 The larvae are armed with horns or spines, of which 
 those on the second thoracic segment, and sometimes also 
 
LBiriDOPTERA. 
 
 345 
 
34^^ THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 those on the third, are long and curved. Tlicsc caterpillars 
 eat the leaves of forest-trees, and go into the ground to trans- 
 form, which they do without making cocoons. The rings of 
 the pupa bear little notched ridges, the teeth of which, to- 
 gether with some strong prickles at the hinder end of the 
 body, assist it in forcing its way upwards out of the earth. 
 
 This is a small family ; it is not represented in Europe, 
 and less than twenty species are known to occur in this 
 country. The more common ones are the following: — 
 
 The Regal-moth, CitJieronia regalis (Cith-e-ro'ni-a re-ga'- 
 lis). — This is the largest and most magnificent of the Royal- 
 moths (Fig. 424). The fbre wings are olive-colored, spotted 
 with yellow, and with the veins heavily bordered with red 
 scales. The hind wings are orange-red, spotted with yellow, 
 and with a more or less distinctly marked band outside the 
 middle olive. The wings expand from four to six inches. 
 
 When fully grown the larva measures from four to five 
 inches in length. It is our largest caterpillar, and can be 
 readily recognized by the very long spiny horns with which 
 it is armed. Those of the mesothorax and metathorax are 
 much longer than the others. Of these there are four on 
 each segment; the intt.itiediate ones measure about three 
 fifths inch in length. This larva feeds on various trees and 
 shrubs. 
 
 The Imperial-moth, Basilona iinpcrialis (Bas-i-Io'na im- 
 pe-ri-a'lis). — This moth rivals the preceding species in 
 size, expanding from four to five and one half inches. It 
 is sulphur-yellow, banded and speckled with purplish brown. 
 The full-grown larva (Fig. 425) measures from three to 
 four inches in length. It is thinly clothed with long 
 hairs, and bears prominent spiny horns on the second and 
 third thoracic segments. In the early larval stages these 
 thoracic horns are very long and spiny, resembling those of 
 the larva of the Regal-moth. The larva feeds on hickory 
 butternut, and other forest-trees. 
 
 The Two-colored Royal-moth, SpJiingicampa bicolor 
 
LEriDOPTKRA. 
 
 347 
 
 (Sphin-gi-cam'pa bi'co-lor). — In this species the upper side 
 of the fore wings and the- under side of the hind wings are 
 yellowish brown, speckled with black. The under side of the 
 fore wings and the upper side of the hind wings are to a con- 
 
 siderable extent pink. There is usually a dark discal spot 
 on the fore wings, upon which, especially in the males, there 
 may be two white dots. This species is more common in 
 the Southern States than in the North. The expanse of 
 wings in the male is two inches ; in the female, two and one 
 half inches. The larva feeds on the "leaves of the Honey- 
 locust and of the Kentucky Coffee-tree. 
 
 Anisota (An-i-so'ta). — To the genus Anisota belong three 
 species of moths that occur in the Eastern United States. 
 These moths are dark yellow, purplish red, or brownish in 
 color, and agree in having the fore wings marked with a 
 white discal dot. The larvae feed on the leaves of oak; they 
 are more or less striped and are armed with spines. These 
 insects hibernate as pupae. 
 
 In determining these moths the student should remem- 
 ber that the two sexes of the same species may differ more 
 in appearance than do individuals of different species but of 
 the same sex. The sexes can be distinguished, as already 
 indicated, by the antennae. The three species can be sepa- 
 rated as follows : — 
 
348 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. 
 
 The Rosy-striped Oak-worm, Anisota virgimensis (A. vir-- 
 gin-i-en'sis). — The wings of the female are purplish red, 
 blended with ochre-yellow ; they are very thinly scaled, and 
 consequently almost transparent ; and are not speckled with 
 small dark spots (Fig. 426). The wings of the male are 
 
 Fig. 427. — Anisota virginiensts. 
 Fig. 426. — Anisota virginiensis, female. male. 
 
 purplish brown, with a large transparent space on the middle 
 (Fig. 427). The larva is of an obscure gray or greenish color, 
 with dull brownish yellow or rosy stripes, and with its skin 
 rough with small white warts. There is a row of short spines 
 on each segment, and two long spines on the mesothorax. 
 
 The Orange-striped Oak-worm, Atiisota senatoria (A. sen- 
 a-to'ri-a). — The wings of the female are more thickly scaled 
 than in the preceding species and are sprinkled with numer- 
 ous blackish dots ; in other respects the two are quite similar 
 in coloring. The male differs from that of A. virginiensis 
 in lacking the large transparent space on the middle of the 
 wings. The larva is black, with four orange-yellow stripes 
 on the back and two along each side; its spines are similar 
 to those of the preceding species. 
 
 The Spiny Oak-worm, Anisota stigma (A. stig'ma). — The 
 female closely resembles that of A. senatoria ; and as both 
 species are variable it is sometimes difificult to determine 
 to which a given specimen belongs. In A. stigma the wings 
 are rather darker and have a greater number of blackish spots, 
 and the hind wings are furnished with a middle band which 
 is heavier and more distinct than in A. senatoria. The male 
 differs from that of the other two species in quite closely 
 
LEriDOPTERA. 349 
 
 resembling the female in coloring, and in having the wings 
 speckled. The larva differs from the other species of Ani- 
 sota in having long spines on the dorsal aspect of the third 
 thoracic and each abdominal segment in addition to the 
 much longer spines on the mesothorax. It is of a bright 
 tawny or orange color, with a dusky stripe along its back 
 and dusky bands along its sides. 
 
 The Rosy Dryocampa, Dryocampa rubicunda (Dry-o- 
 cim'pa ru-bi-cun'da). — The wings of this moth (Fig. 428) 
 are pale yellow, banded 
 with rose-color. The dis- 
 tribution of the color varies 
 greatly in different speci- 
 mens. In some the pink 
 of the fore wings predomi- 
 nates, the yellow being re- 
 duced to a broad discal 
 band, while in one variety f,g. 4.8.-z),;,...,„/. ;„/„v„w«. 
 
 the ground-color is yellowish white and the pink is reduced 
 to a shade at the base and a narrow stripe outside the mid- 
 dle. The hind wings may be entirely yellow, or may have a 
 pink band outside the middle. The expanse of wings in 
 the male is one and one half to one and three fourths inches ; 
 in the female, two inches or more. 
 
 The larva of this species is known as the Green-striped 
 Maple-worm, and is sometimes a serious pest on soft-maple 
 shade-trees. It measures when full grown about one and 
 one half inches. It is pale yellowish green, striped above 
 with eight very light, yellowish-green lines, alternating with 
 seven of a darker green, inclining to black. There are two 
 prominent horns on the second thoracic segment, and two 
 rows of spines on each side of the body, one above and one 
 below the spiracles. And on the eighth and ninth abdomi- 
 nal segments there are four prominent dorsal spines. The 
 species is one- or two-brooded, and winters in the pupa 
 state. 
 
350 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Family Saturniid^e (Sat-ur-ni'i-dai). 
 
 TJie Giant Silk-tuorins. 
 
 The large size of the members of the Saturiiiidai, and the 
 ease with which the cocoons of most of the species can be 
 collected, render them well known to every beginner in the 
 study of entomology. The family includes our largest lepi- 
 dopterous insects; and all of the species known to us are 
 above medium size. They are stout-bodied, hairy moths, 
 with more or less sunken heads, and strong, wide wings. 
 They may be distinguished from the Citheroniida, some 
 of which rival them in size, by the form of the antennae of 
 the males, and by the fact that except in the lowest genus, 
 Coloradia, which is a rare insect from the far West, the 
 
 hind wings are furnished 
 -- ™' iii< with only one inner vein. 
 
 v"^< The adults fly at night, and 
 are attracted by lights. 
 
 The head is small and 
 deeply sunken in the thorax; 
 the antennae are either fili- 
 form or pectinated in the 
 females, but always pecti- 
 nated in the males ; and the 
 pectinations extend to the 
 tip. Where the antennae of 
 both sexes are pectinated, 
 the males can be distin- 
 guished by the larger size of 
 their antennai. The palpi 
 are small, and the maxilla; 
 but little developed, often 
 obsolete. 
 
 The thorax is densely clothed with hair. The wings are 
 broad, and are often furnished with transparent, window- 
 like spots. The frenulum is wanting. The humeral angle 
 
 ^"^ 
 
 ■ 
 
 '^J^' 
 
 2--=:^ 
 
 
 -yvn. 
 
 
 ^~~~ ■ 
 
 yvii. 
 
 
 =~IX 
 
 
 ^ . 
 
 ____,! 
 
 
 
 JX. 
 
 yvii, 
 
 F.G. 429.-Wing 
 
 rs of Saw 
 
 ia cecrcpia. 
 
LEPIDOPTEKA. 351 
 
 of the hind wing is largely developed, and is usually strength- 
 ened by a deep furrow, the bottom of which is sometimes 
 tiiickened so as to appear like a humeral vein (Fig. 429). 
 
 The larv.-c live exposed on the leaves of trees and shrubs ; 
 they arc more or less armed with tubercles and spines, and 
 are very conspicuous on account of their large size. They 
 transform within silken cocoons, which are usually very 
 dense, and in some cases have been utilized by man. These 
 cocoons are often attached to trees and shrubs, and are 
 sometimes inclosed in a leaf. They can be easily collected 
 during the winter months, and the adults bred from them. 
 
 The following species are those that the young student 
 is most likely to find :— 
 
 The lo-moth, Aiitomcris io (Au-tom'e-ris i'o). — This 
 is the most common of the smaller species of the family. 
 The female is represented by Figure 430. In this sex the 
 
 FiG^ 430 — A utoiiicris io. 
 
 ground-color of the fore wings is purplish red. The male 
 differs greatly in appearance from the female, being some- 
 what smaller and of a deep yellow color, but it can be easily 
 recognized by its general resemblance to the female in other 
 respects. 
 
 The larva is one that the student should learn to recog- 
 nize in order that he may avoid handling it ; for it is armed 
 
353 
 
 THE STUDY 01' IX SECTS. 
 
 with spines the prick of which is venomous (Fig. 431). It 
 
 is green, with a broad 
 brown or reddish stripe, 
 ;t~ edged below with white, 
 on each side of the abdo- 
 men. The spines are 
 
 The Polyphemus-moth, Telca polypJieniiis (Te'le a pol-y- 
 phe'mus). — This is a yellowish or brownish moth with a 
 window-like spot in each wing. There is a gray band on 
 the costal margin of the fore wings ; and near the outer mar- 
 gin of both pairs of wings there is a dusky band, edged 
 
 Fig. \yi.— TeleaJ>plypheiiius, hirva. 
 
 without with pink ; the fore wings are crossed by a broken 
 dusky or reddish line near the base, edged within with white 
 or pink. The transparent spot on each wing is divided by 
 the discal vein, and encircled by yellow and black rings. 
 
Plate V. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 353 
 
 On the hind wnigs the black surrounding the transparent 
 spot is much widened, especially toward the base of the 
 wing, and is sprinkled with blue scales. The wings expand 
 from five to six inches. 
 
 The larva (Fig. 432) feeds on oak, butternut, basswood, 
 elm, maple, apple, plum, and other trees. When full grown 
 it measures three inches or more in length. It is of a light 
 green color with an oblique yellow line on each side of each 
 abdominal segment except the first and last ; the last segment 
 is bordered by a purplish-brown V-shaped mark. The 
 tubercles on the body are small, of an orange color with me- 
 tallic reflections. The co- 
 coon (Fig. 433) is dense 
 and usually enclosed in a 
 leaf ; it can be utilized for 
 the manufacture of silk. 
 When the adult is ready 
 to emerge, it excretes a 
 fluid which softens the 
 cocoon at one end, and y^g. ,,^.-TeUa po/y/^/u.nus. 
 
 breaking the threads it nakes its exit through a large round 
 hole. 
 
 The Luna Moth, Tropcsa luna (Tro-pae'a lu'na). — This 
 magnificent moth is a great favorite with amateur collectors 
 (Plate V). Its wings are of a delicate light green color, with 
 a purple-brown band on the costa of the fore wings; there is 
 an eye-like spot with a transparent center on the discal 
 vein of each wing; and the anal angle of the hind wings is 
 greatly prolonged. The larva feeds on the leaves of wal- 
 nut, hickory, and other forest-trees. It measures when full 
 grown about three inches in length. It is pale bluish green 
 with a pearl-colored head. It has a pale yellow stripe along 
 each side of the body, and a transverse yellow line on the 
 back between each, two abdominal segments. The cocoon 
 resembles that of the preceding species in form., but is veiy 
 thin, 'containine but little silk. ■ " 
 
354 T'//^ STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The Promethea Moth, Callosamiapromcthca{(ZA-\o-sd!YC\\-^ 
 pro-me'the-a). — This is the most common of the Giant Silk- 
 worms. The wings of the female (Fig. 434) are light reddish 
 
 Fig. 434. — CaJlosamia promethea, female. 
 
 brown ; the transverse line crossing the middle of the wings is 
 whitish, bordered within with black ; the outer margin of the 
 wings is clay-colored, and each wing bears an angular discal 
 spot. The discal spots vary in size and distinctness in different 
 specimens. The male differs so greatly from the female that 
 it is liable to be mistaken for a distinct species. It is black- 
 ish, with the transverse lines very faint, and with the discal 
 spots wanting or very faintly indicated. The fore wings also 
 differ markedly in shape from those of the female, the apex 
 being much more distinctly sickle shaped. The larva when 
 full grown m.easures two inches or more in length. It is of 
 a clear and pale bluish-green color ; the legs and anal shield 
 are yellowish ; and the body is armed with longitudinal rows 
 of tubercles. The tubercles are black, polished, wart-like 
 elevations, excepting two each on the second and third 
 thoracic segments, which are larger and rich coral-red, and 
 one similar in size to these but of a yellow color on the 
 eighth abdominal segment. This larva feeds on the leaves 
 
LEPIDOPTEKA. 
 
 355 
 
 '\ ^ 
 
 X 
 
 of a large proportion of our common fruit and forest trees; 
 but we have found it more frequently on wild cherry and 
 ash than on others. The cocoons can be easily collected 
 during the winter from these trees. This is the best way to 
 obtain fresh specimens of the moths, which will emerge from 
 the cocoons in the spring or early summer. The cocoon 
 (Fig. 435) is interesting in structure. It is greatly elongated 
 and is enclosed in a leaf, the 
 petiole of which is securely fast- 
 ened to the branch by a band 
 of silk extending from the co- 
 coon ; thus the leaf and enclosed 
 cocoon hang upon the tree 
 throughout the winter. At the 
 upper end of the cocoon there 
 is a conical valve like arrange- 
 ment which allows the adult to 
 emerge without the necessity 
 of making a hole through the 
 cocoon. This structure is char- 
 acteristic of the cocoons of the 
 moths of this and the following 
 genus. 
 
 The Angulifera Moth, Callo- 
 saniia angiilifera (C. an-gu-lif'e- 
 ra). — This is a somewhat rare in- 
 sect which so closely resembles 
 the Promethea Moth that b}- 
 many it is considered a variet\ 
 of it. Specimens of it are usu- 
 ally a little larger than those of 
 Q. promethea, and the transverse 
 line and discal spots are more 
 angular. The most important 
 diffeiences, however, are pre- 
 sented by the male, which quite closely resembles the female 
 
 Fig. ^^s—Callosajitia promethea, cocoon. 
 
35^ 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 of the Promethea Moth in color and markings, and thus 
 differs decidedly from the male of that species. 
 
 The Cecropia ^iot^x, Saniia cecropiai^di! m\-2, ce-cro'pi-a). — 
 This is the largest of our Giant Silk-worms, the wings of the 
 adult expanding from five to six and one half inches. The 
 ground color of the wings is a grizzled dusky brown, espe- 
 cially on the central area. The wings are crossed beyond the 
 middle by a white band, which is broadly margined without 
 with red, and there is a red spot near the apex of the fore 
 wing just outside of a zigzag line. Each wing bears near 
 its center a crescent-shaped white spot bordered with red. 
 The outer margin of the wings is clay-colored. The larva 
 is known to feed on at least fifty species of plants, including 
 apple, plum, and the more common forest trees. When full 
 grown it measures from three to four inches in length and is 
 dull bluish green in color. The body is armed with six rows 
 of tubercles, extending nearly its entire length, and there is 
 an additional short row on each 
 side on the ventral aspect of 
 the first five segments follow- 
 ing the head. The tubercles on 
 the second and third thoracic 
 segments are larger than the 
 others, and are coral-red. The 
 other dorsal tubercles are yellow, excepting those of the first 
 thoracic and last abdominal segments, which with the lateral 
 tubercles are blue ; all are armed with black bristles. The 
 
 Fig. 436 
 
 ojiia, cocoon. 
 
I.EPJDOn^ERA. 357 
 
 pupa is represented b}' Figure 436 and the cocoon by Figur'" 
 
 437. 
 
 The Cecropia-nioth occurs from the Athmtic coast to the 
 Rocky Mountains. In the far West its place is taken by 
 very closely allied forms, which are supposed to be distinct. 
 In these the ground-color of the wings is usually a reddish 
 or dusky brown. The form occurring in Utah and Arizona 
 is Samia gloveri (S. glov'er-i) ; that found on the Pacific 
 coast is Samia californica. 
 
 The Ailanthus-worm, Philosaniia cyntJda (Phil-o-sa'mi-a 
 cyn'thi-a), is an Asiatic species that has been introduced into 
 this country. It has become a pest in the vicinity of New York, 
 where it infests the Ailanthus shade-trees. The moth differs 
 from all our native species of this family in having rows of 
 tufts of white hairs on the abdomen. The cocoon resembles 
 that of the Promethea-moth. 
 
 Family Lacosomid^ (Lac-o-som'i-dae). 
 The Sack-bearing Fretiulninlosers. 
 
 This family so far as is now known includes only two 
 species that are found in the United States, and both of 
 these are rare ; farther south several other species occur. 
 They are our only native Frenulum-losers that retain a rudi- 
 ment of the frenulum, but, as in the silk-worm, this frenulum 
 is very small and the humeral angle is greatly expanded, so 
 it is probable that the frenulum is of but little if any use 
 (Fig. 438). It was the presence of this rudiment that first 
 suggested to the writer that those families of the Lepidop- 
 tera that we have termed Frenulum-losers were descended 
 from frenulum-bearing ancestors. 
 
 The Lacosomidae seem to be the sole survivors of a very 
 distinct line of descent. In many respects they appear to 
 be closely allied to the Saturniina, especially to the Bom- 
 bycidae. But they differ markedly both in the structure and 
 in the habits of the larvae ; and, too, the wings of the adult, 
 
358 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 although at first sight resembling those of the silk-worm, are 
 Tir, really quite different. 
 
 In the coalescence of 
 the branches of ra- 
 dius of the fore wings 
 veins III3 and III^ 
 remain separate, 
 while in the Satur- 
 niina these are the 
 first branches to coa- 
 lesce. And in the 
 hind wings there is 
 no indication that 
 vein I becomes joined 
 to the base of vein 
 II as is shown to be 
 the case in the most 
 generalized Satur- 
 niina (Figs. 417 and 
 419). 
 
 The members of 
 Fig. 438.— wingrsof cicinniis mehheimerii. t^j^ family in the lar- 
 
 val state feed upon leaves, and protect themselves by mak- 
 ing a case of leaves within which they live (Fig. 439). 
 
 Fig. 439.^Cr»se of 
 Cicinnus. 
 
 Fig. 440, — C 
 
 ehhei»ierii. 
 
 Melsheimer's Sack-bearer, Cicinnus inclshcinierii {Cx-q'wV- 
 nus mels-hei-me'ri-i). — The larva of this species feeds on oak. 
 The adult moth (Fig. 440) is of a reddish gray color, finely 
 sprinkled all over with minute black dots; there is a small 
 black spot at the end of the discal cell of the fore wings; 
 
LEFIDOPTERA. 
 
 359 
 
 and both pairs of wings are crossed by a narrow blackish 
 band. This species is quite widely distributed ; but is quite 
 rare in most places. 
 
 The other representative of this family found in the 
 United States is Lacosoma chiridota (Lac-o-so'ma chir-i-do'- 
 ta). This species is even more rare than the preceding; it is 
 somewhat smaller, and dark yellowish brown in color ; but 
 its general appearance is very similar. The venation of the 
 wings is also similar to that of Cicinnus except that vein 
 VIII of the hind wing is wanting. 
 
 The adults are stout-bodied, hairy moths of 
 The antennae 
 
 Family LasiocampiD/E (Las-i-o-cam'pi-dae). 
 
 The Lasiocavipids {Las-i-o-caiii pids). 
 
 This family includes the Tent caterpillars and the Lap- 
 pet-caterpillars 
 medium size. 
 
 are pectinated in both sexes, 
 and are from one fourth to 
 one half as long as the front 
 wings ; the teeth of the an- 
 tennse of the male are usu- 
 ally much longer than those 
 of the female. The ocelli ari 
 wanting ; and the palpi are 
 usually short and wooll\-. 
 But the most distinctive char- 
 acteristic is found in the 
 wangs. The frenulum is want- 
 ing, there being instead, as 
 in the Saturniina, a largely- 
 expanded humeral angle of 
 the hind wings. But these 
 moths differ from the Satur- 
 niina in having cubitus ap- ^'°- 44i.-Wings of Clisioca,„pa americana. 
 
 parently four-branched and in having the humeral angle 
 
360 THE STUDY OF IX SECTS. 
 
 Strengthened by the development of some extra veins, the 
 liuvieral veins (Fig. 441, Ji. •jy.).* 
 
 The larvae of the Lasiocampids feed upon the foliage of 
 trees, and are frequently very destructive. 
 
 The family is a small one, less than thirty North Ameri- 
 can species being known to entomologists. Our more com- 
 mon ones represent three genera : Clisiocampa (Clis-i-o-cam'- 
 pa), which includes the Tent-caterpillars, and Phyllodesma 
 (Phyl-lo-des'ma) and Tolype (Tol'y-pe), which include the 
 Lappet-caterpillars. 
 
 There are several species of Tent-caterpillars in this 
 country. Most of them belong to the Pacific coast ; but 
 two are common in the East. Of these the most com- 
 mon one is the Apple-tree Tent -caterpillar, Clisiocampa 
 americana (C. a-mer-i-ca'na). This is the insect that builds 
 large w^ebs in apple and wild cherry trees in early spring. 
 Figure 442 represents its transformations. The moth is dull 
 yellowish brown or reddish brown, with two transverse 
 whitish or pale yellowish lines on the fore wings. The 
 figure represents a male; the female is somewhat larger. 
 These moths appear early in the summer. The eggs are 
 soon laid, each female laying all her eggs in a single ring-like 
 cluster about a twig; and here they remain unhatched for 
 about nine months. This cluster is covered with a substance 
 which protects it during the winter. The eggs hatch in 
 early spring, at the time or just before the leaves appear. 
 The larvae that hatch early feed upon the unopened buds 
 till the leaves expand. The larvae are social, the entire 
 brood that hatch from a cluster of eggs keeping together 
 and building a tent in w^hich they live when not feeding. 
 The figure represents a specimen in our collection. In this 
 case the tent was begun near the cluster of eggs. But usu- 
 
 *So far as we know, humeral veins occur nowhere else in the Lepidoptera, 
 although in many butterflies vein I of the hind wings is preserved and 
 appears like a humeral vein. The humeral veins of the Lasiocampidae do not 
 represent any of the primitive veins, but are developed secondarily. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 361 
 
 ally the larvne soon after hatchini^ migrate down the branch 
 towards the trunk of the tree until a fork of considerable 
 size is reached before they begin their tent. This is neces- 
 sary, as the completed tent often measures two feet or more 
 in length. The larvae leave the nest daily in order to feed ; 
 and spin a silken thread wherever they go. The larvae be- 
 
 FiG. ^i,i.^Clisiocaiiipii aiiui i.a n.i . eggs, leni, larva, ^;oLoOll^, anJ <iJult. 
 
 come full grown early in June ; one of them is represented 
 on a partially-eaten leaf in the figure. When ready to 
 transform they leave the trees and make their cocoons in 
 some sheltered place. These cocoons are quite peculiar in 
 appearance, having a yellowish white powder mixed with 
 the silk. The pupa state lasts about three weeks. 
 
 The easiest way to fight this pest is to destroy the webs 
 containing the larvae as soon as they appear in the spring. 
 This should be done early in the morning, or late in the 
 
3^2 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 afternoon, or on a cold day, when the larvae are not scat- 
 tered over the tree feeding. 
 
 The other Eastern species of this genus is the Tent-cater- 
 pillar of the Forest, Clisiocampa disstria (C. dis'stri-a). This 
 species resembles the preceding in habits. It is more apt, 
 however, to feed upon forest-trees. The moth differs from 
 C> americana in having the oblique lines on the wings dark 
 instead of light ; the larva differs in having a row of spots 
 along the back instead of a continuous narrow line; and 
 the egg-masses differ in ending squarely instead of being 
 rounded at each end. 
 
 The more common species of the Pacific coast are Clisio- 
 cavipa calif ornica, whose nests may be found on oaks in 
 March and April, and Clisiocampa constricta, which infests 
 fruit-trees later in the season. The caterpillars of the last- 
 named species do not make a tent, although they live in 
 colonies. 
 
 The larvae of Tolype and Phyllodesma are remarkable for 
 having on each side of each segment a little lappet or flat 
 lobe ; from these many long hairs are given out, forming a 
 fringe to the body. When at rest the body of the larva is 
 flattened, and the fringes on the sides are closely applied to 
 the surface of the limb on which the insect is. Thus all ap- 
 pearance of an abrupt elevation is obliterated ; the colors 
 of these larvae are also protective, resembling those of the 
 bark. 
 
 The genus Tolype includes only two common North 
 American species; both of these 
 occur in the East. The more com- 
 mon of the two is the Velleda 
 Lappet, Tolype velleda (Tol'y-pe 
 vel'le-da). The body of the moth 
 is milk-white, with a large black- 
 ish spot on the middle of its back 
 
 YiG^>,-i.-Toly fie velleda. . "^ ^r.l- 
 
 (rig. 443). Ihat part of this spot 
 which is on the thorax is composed of erect scales ; the cau- 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 363 
 
 dal part, of recumbent hairs. The wings arc dusky gray, 
 crossed by white Hues as shown in the figure. The figure 
 represents the male ; the female is much larger. The moths 
 arc found in August and September. The larva feeds upon 
 the leaves of apple, poplar, and syringa. Its body is bluish 
 gray, with many faint longitudinal lines ; and across the back 
 of the last thoracic segment there is a narrow velvety-black 
 band. The larva reaches maturity during July. The cocoon 
 is brownish gray, and is usually attached to one of the 
 branches of the tree on which the larva has fed. 
 
 The second species of this genus is known as the Larch 
 Lappet, Tolype laricis (T. lar'i-cis). This is a smaller species, 
 the females being about the size of the male of the preced- 
 ing species, and the males expanding only about one and 
 one fourth inches. The wings of the females are marked 
 much like those of T. vellcda, except that the basal two 
 thirds of the front wings are much lighter, and the dark 
 band on the outer third is narrower and much darker than 
 the other dark bands. The males are bluish black, with the 
 markings indistinct. The larva feeds upon the larch. When 
 mature it is of a dull brown color and less than one and one 
 half inches in length. When extended the front of the first 
 thoracic segment is pale green, and the incision between 
 the second and third is shining black. The larva matures 
 during July. The cocoon is ash-gray, flattened and moulded 
 to the limb to which it is attached, and partially surround- 
 ing it. The moths appear in August or September. The 
 winter is passed in the &^^ state. 
 
 The genus Phyllodesma includes 
 three Califcrnian and two Eastern 
 species. The more common one of 
 the latter is the American Lappet, 
 P. americana (Fig. 444). The moth 
 
 is reddish brown, with the inner angle f,g. ^^^.-Phyiiodesma ameri. 
 of the front wings and the costal ^'^""' 
 
 margin of the hind wings deeply notched. Beyond the mid- 
 
3^4 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 die of each wing there is a pale band edycd with zigzag, daik 
 brown lines. The larva lives upon apple, cherry, oak, birch, 
 maple, and ash. When full grown it measures two and 
 one half inches in length and one half inch in breadth. 
 The upper side is slate-gray, mottled with black, with two 
 transverse scarlet bands, one on the second and one on the 
 third thoracic segments. There is a black spot at each end 
 and in the middle of each of these bands. The larva is 
 found during July and August. It is said that the cocoons 
 are attached to limbs Hke those of Tolype ; but the larvae of 
 this species which we have bred made their cocoons between 
 leaves, or in the folds of the muslin bag enclosing the limb 
 upon which they were feeding. The species passes the 
 
 winter in the pupa state; 
 
 ^i and the moth appears in 
 
 \"^' June, when it lays its 
 
 '^' eggs upon the leaves of 
 
 'V, the trees it infests. 
 
 Superfamily Hesperiina 
 (Hes-per-i-i'na). 
 
 TJie Skippers. 
 The Skippers are so 
 called on account of their 
 peculiar mode of flight. 
 They fly in the daytime 
 and dart suddenly from 
 place to place. When at 
 rest most species hold the 
 wings erect in a vertical 
 position like butterflies; 
 in some the fore wings 
 are thus held while the 
 hind wings are extend- 
 Yxo.»,^^.-w^^gsoiEparsyremt^tyrus. ^^ hoHzontally ; and a 
 
 few extend both pairs of wings horizontally. The antennae 
 
LEPID OP TERA . 365 
 
 are thread-like, and enlarged toward the tip; but In most 
 cases the extreme tip is pointed and recurved, forming a 
 hook. The abdomen is usually stout, resembling that of 
 a moth rather than that of a butterfly. The skippers are 
 most easily distinguished by the peculiar venation of the 
 fore wings, vein III being five-branched, and all the 
 branches arising from the discal cell (Fig. 445). In some 
 butterflies all the branches of vein III appear to arise from 
 the discal cell ; but this is because two of the branches 
 coalesce to the margin of the wing. In such butterflies vein 
 III appears to be only four-branched. 
 
 This superfamily includes two families — the Giant Skip- 
 pers, MegathyinidcE, and the Common Skippers, Hesperiidcs. 
 These can be distinguished as follows: — 
 
 A. Head of moderate size ; club of antenna large, neither drawn out 
 at the tip nor recurved. Large skippers, with wing expanse of 
 two inches or more. p. 365 Megathymid,'E. 
 
 AA. Head very large ; club of antenna usually drawn out at the 
 tip, and with a distinct recurved apical crook. In a few forms 
 the crook of the antennae is wanting; such forms can be distin- 
 guished from the Megathymidae by their smaller size, the wing 
 expanse being less than one and one fourth inches, p. 368. 
 
 Hesperiid^. 
 
 Family Megathymid^ (Meg-a-thym'i-dae). 
 
 The Giant Skippers. 
 
 This family includes a small number of large skippers, 
 which are found in the South and far West. In the 
 adult insect the head is of moderate size, the width, includ- 
 ing the eyes, being much less than that of the metathorax. 
 The club of the antennae is large ; and, although the tip is 
 turned slightly to one side, it is neither drawn out to a 
 point nor recurved. The body is very robust, even more 
 so than in the Hesperiidae. These insects fly in the day- 
 time and with a rapid, darting flight. When at rest they 
 fold their wings in a vertical position. 
 
 In the more general features of their venation the wings 
 
366 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 closely resemble those of the Hesperiidae. But the Giant 
 Skippers exhibit a very peculiar specialization of wing struc- 
 ture in the male sex. Here the two branches of vein VII of 
 the fore wings separate from each other and from the cross- 
 vein connecting them with vein V3, near the base of the 
 wing (Fig. 446). In this sex this cross-vein, the branches of 
 
 — Wings of Megathyinui 
 co/aqui, female. 
 
 ^ ^-^ VII2 
 
 XI JX 
 
 Fig. 446. — Wings of Megathymus yuccee, male. 
 
 vein VII, and vein IX are all very stout. The strengthening 
 of these veins is evidently a specialization that increases the 
 power of flight of this sex. For these stout veins must aid 
 in depressing the hind wings during the downward stroke of 
 the wings, as the hind wing is overlapped by that part of the 
 fore wing traversed by these veins. The separation of the 
 branches of vein VII from each other and from the cross- 
 vein, so near the base of the wing, is directly correlated 
 with the strengthening of these veins. In the course of 
 the perfecting of the powers of flight in the male these 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 367 
 
 veins have split apart, so that they overhc the hind wings 
 
 to a greater extent than they do in the female (Fig. 447), 
 
 which probably represents a more primitive condition. It 
 
 is a common occurrence for the wings of the male to be more 
 
 highly specialized than those of the female, for, in the seeking 
 
 of mates, the males 
 
 fly more than do 
 
 the females. But it 
 
 is unusual for veins to 
 
 coalesce to a smaller 
 
 extent in specialized 
 
 forms than in those 
 
 more generalized. 
 
 In other words, the 
 
 ordinary course of 
 
 • !• .• • t Fig. 448. — Mezathymus cofaqui. 
 
 specialization is for 44 ;? j y y 
 
 veins to grow together instead of to split apart. 
 
 This family is represented in the United States by a 
 single genus, of which only three species are known. The 
 female of one of these, MegatJiymiis cofaqiii {W^^-d,-\.\vy'YC\\xs, 
 cof-a-qui'), is represented by Figure 448. The male differs 
 in the smaller size of the spots on the fore wing, in lacking 
 the band of spots on the hind wing, and in having the upper 
 surface of the hind wing nearly covered with long fine black 
 hairs, which stand nearly erect. This species has been found 
 in Florida and Colorado. 
 
 A much better known species is the Yucca-borer, Mega- 
 tJiymus yticccs (M. yuc'cae). The female of this species differs 
 from that of the preceding in having much darker wings, 
 all of the spots being smaller, and in having only one or 
 two white spots on the lower surface of the hind wings. 
 The male lacks the erect hairs on the hind wings. The 
 larva bores in the stem and root of the Yucca or Spanish 
 Bayonet. It differs greatly in appearance from the larvae of 
 the Hesperiid^e, having a small head. This species is widely 
 distributed through the southern part of our country. 
 
368 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The third species, MegatJiymiis neuniccgeni (M. neu-moe- 
 gen'i), occurs in Arizona. 
 
 Family Hesperiid^E (Hes-pe-ri'i-dae). 
 
 The Common Skippers. 
 
 The family Hesperiida3 includes all skippers found in 
 
 the United States except 
 mj the three species de- 
 y, scribed above as the 
 V. Giant Skippers. In ad- 
 dition to the differences 
 indicated in the table 
 (p. 365), it may be said 
 that the males in the 
 Hesperiidae lack the pecu- 
 liar thickening and split- 
 ting apart of the branches 
 of vein VII of the fore 
 wings characteristic of 
 the Giant Skippers. But 
 there exists instead in the 
 males of nearly all spe- 
 cies peculiar scent-organs, 
 which are described later. 
 Figure 449 represents the 
 venation of a male mem- 
 ber of this family. 
 
 Fig. 449— Wings of Epargyretis tityrut. The larvae of the 
 
 Common Skippers pre- 
 sent a very characteristic ^,, ' 
 appearance, having large 
 heads and strongly con-^s|t^ ' 
 stricted necks (Fig. 450). 
 
 ^y,, ,, ,. Fig; 450. — Epargyreus tityrus, \a.r\a.. 
 
 1 hey usually live con- 
 cealed in a folded leaf or in a nest made of several leaves 
 
LEriDOP TERA. 369 
 
 fastened together. The pup^t are rounded, not anguhir, 
 resembhiig those of moths more than those of butterflies. 
 The pupa state is passed in a shght cocoon, which is ^^\\. 
 erally composed of leaves fastened together with silk, and 
 thinly lined with the same substance. 
 
 The family Hesperiidae includes three subfamilies ; but 
 only two of them are represented in this country, the third 
 being confined to South and Central America. Our forms 
 can be separated as follows : — 
 
 A. Vein Va of the fore wings arising nearer to vein V, than to vein 
 
 V3. p. 369 Hesperii?-,^. 
 
 A A, Vein Vj of the fore wings arising midway between veins V, and 
 
 V3 or nearer to vein V3 than to vein V,. 
 
 B. Vein V2 of the fore wings arising nearly midway between veins 
 
 V. and V3. 
 
 C. Discal cell of fore wings more than two thirds as long as the 
 
 costa. Males usually with costal fold in fore wings, p. 369. 
 
 Hesperiin^. 
 
 CC. Discal cell of fore wings less than two thirds as long as the 
 
 costa. Males usually with a discal patch on fore wings. 
 
 p- 372 Pamphilin^. 
 
 BB. Vein Va of the fore wings arising much nearer to vein V3 than 
 Lo vein Vi. p. 372 Pamphilin^. 
 
 Subfamily Hesperiin^ (Hes-pe-ri-i'nae). 
 
 Skippers ivitJi a Costal Fold. 
 
 This subfamily includes the larger of the Common 
 Skippers, as well as some that are of moderate size. Most 
 of the species are dark brown, marked with white or trans- 
 lucent, angular spots. The antennae usually have a long 
 club, which is bent at a considerable dis- 
 tance from the tip (Fig. 451). But the 
 most distinctive feature of the sub- 
 
 
 and is lacking in some species. It 
 
 consists of a fold in the fore wing near ^^a- ^^■'^~Th,lnaos martiuUs. 
 
 the costal margin, wliich forms a long slit-like pocket, con- 
 
370 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 taining a sort of silky down. This is supposed to be a 
 scent-organ. When this pocket is tightly closed it is diffi- 
 cult to see it. 
 
 Nearly seventy species belonging to this subfamily have 
 been found in America north of Mexico. The following 
 are some of the more common of these: — 
 
 The Silver-spotted Skipper, Epargyrcus tityrus (Ep-ar- 
 gy're-us tit'y-rus). — This skipper is represented on our 
 colored plate (Plate I, Fig. 4). It is dark chocolate-brown, 
 with a row of yellowish spots extending across the fore 
 wing and with a large silvery-white spot on the lower side 
 of the hind wing. It is found in nearly the whole United 
 States, from Massachusetts to California, except in the 
 extreme Northeast and Northwest. The larva (Fig. 450) 
 feeds upon various papilionaceous plants. We have found 
 it common on locust. It makes a nest, within which it re- 
 mains concealed, by fastening together, with silk, the leaf- 
 lets of a compound leaf (Fig. 452). 
 
 Fig. 452.— Nest of larva of Epurgyrtus iityt 
 
 The Long-tailed Skipper, Eudauius protcus (Eu'da-mus 
 pro'te-us). — This Skipper by the shape of its wijigs reminds 
 one of a swallow-tail butterfly, the hind wings being furnished 
 with long tails. It expands about one and three fourths 
 inches; and the greatest length of the hind wings is about 
 one and one fourth inches. The wings are very dark choc- 
 olate-brown ; the front wings contain several silvery-white 
 spots ; and the body and base of the wings bear metallic- 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 3/1 
 
 green hairs. The larva: feed upon both Lcgumuiosae and 
 Cruciferas. In the South it is sometimes a pest in gardens, 
 cutting and rolHng the leaves of beans, turnips, and cabbage, 
 and feeding within the rolls thus formed. It is found on 
 the Atlantic border from New York southward into Mexico. 
 
 There are two common skippers which are nearly as 
 large as the two described above, but which have neither 
 the yellow band of the first nor the long tails of the second ; 
 neither do they have the brown spots characteristic of the 
 following genus. These two skippers belong to the genus 
 Tliorybcs. The wings are of an even dark brown ; the fore 
 wings are flecked with small or very small irregular white 
 spots, and the hind wings are crossed beneath by two rather 
 narrow, parallel, inconspicuous darker bands. These skippers 
 are distinguished as follows : — 
 
 The Northern Cloudy-wing, TJiorybes pyladcs (Thor'y-bes 
 pyl'a-des). — In this species the white spots on the fore wing 
 are usually mere points, although their number and size 
 vary. The species is found in nearly all parts of the United 
 States. The larva commonly feeds on clover. 
 
 The Southern Cloudy-wing, Tliorybcs bathyllus (T. 
 ba-thyl'lus). — In this species the white spots are larger' 
 than in the preceding, almost forming a continuous band. 
 This skipper is widely distributed over the eastern United 
 States, except the more northern portions. 
 
 To the genus T/innaos belong a large number of species 
 which on account of their dark colors have been named 
 Dusky-wings. These species resemble each other so closely 
 in markings that it is very difficult to separate them with 
 out longer descriptions than we can 
 give here. The one following will 
 serve as an example. 
 
 Martial's Dusky-wing, TJianaos 
 martialis (Than'a-os mar-ti-a'lis). — 
 
 The wings are grayish brown with Fig. ^•i^-Thanaos martuiih. 
 many dark brown spots evenly distributed and with several 
 
 StpctldLC lilCUl Willi 
 
272 THE STUDY OF IXSECTS. 
 
 minute white ones on the outer half of the fore wings 
 (Fig. 453). This skipper is found throughout the greater 
 part of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Among the smaller members of this subfamily are the 
 skippers of the genus PJiolisora. The most widel)' dis- 
 tributed species of this genus is the Sooty-wing, PJiolisora 
 catullns (Phol-i-so'ra ca-tul'lus). The expanse of the wings 
 is a little more than one inch. The wings are nearly black, 
 marked with minute white spots, which vary in size and 
 number. This species is found throughout the United 
 States except along the extreme northern border. 
 
 The genus Hesperia includes a considerable number of 
 small skippers, which are easily recognized by their check- 
 ered markings of white upon a dark brown ground. Small 
 white spots on the wings are common in this subfamily, 
 but in this genus the white spots are unusually large, so 
 large in some cases that they occupy the greater part of the 
 wing. One of the more common species is the Variegated 
 Tessellate, Hesperia tessellata (Hes-pe'ri-a tes-sel -la'ta). 
 This is distributed from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and is 
 the only one common in the Eastern United States. In this 
 species more than one half of the outer two thirds of both 
 fore and hind wings is white. 
 
 Subfamily Pamphilix^ (Pam-phi-li'nae). 
 
 Skippers with a Discal Patch. 
 
 This subfamily includes the greater number of our 
 
 smaller skippers. Some of the species, however, surpass in 
 
 ^^ ^^1^ size many of the Hesperiinae. To the 
 
 ^^m^^^^j^^^M Pamphilinae belong all of our common 
 
 ^S^HM^^^V tawny skippers, as well as some black 
 
 ^^BH^^^A or dark brown species. The antennae 
 
 ^^^■^j^r usually have a stout club, with a short, 
 
 recurved tip ; sometimes this tip is 
 
 Fig. ^n.—Limocho) t-s />on- . . . , 
 
 /w., male. wantmg. In the majority of our species 
 
 the males can be recognizer' at a glance by a conspicuous 
 
LEPIDOPTEKA. m 
 
 discal patcli, which usualh' appears to the naked eye Hke 
 a scorched, obhque streak near the center of each fore 
 wing (Fig. 454)- Tin's patch is a comphcated organ, com- 
 posed of tubular scales that are outlets of scent-glands 
 and other scales of various shapes. The females can be 
 recognized by their resemblance in other respects to the 
 males. In some species the discal i)atcli is wanting in the 
 males also. 
 
 This subfamily is an exceedingly difficult one to study. 
 More than one hundred species have been described from 
 America nortii of Mexico; and in many cases the differences 
 between allied species are not well marked. The following 
 two are named merely as examples, The first is easily 
 recognized. But it is not worth while for the beginning- 
 student to attempt to distinguish other members of this 
 subfamily. 
 
 The Least Skipper, AncyloxipJia immitor (An-cy-lox'i-pha 
 nu'mi-tor). — This skipper is the smallest of our common 
 species, and is also remarkable for lacking the recurved 
 hook at the tip of the antcniut. The wings are tawny, 
 broadly margined with dark brown. In some specimens 
 the fore wings are almost entirely brown. The larger in- 
 dividuals expand about one inch. The larva feeds upon 
 grass in damp places. 
 
 The Black Dash, LiuiocJiores pontiac (Li-moch'o-res 
 pon'ti-ac). — The male of this species is represented by 
 Figure 454. It is blackish brown, \\\\\\ considerable yellow 
 on the basal ha'f of the fore wings. The discal patch is 
 velvety black. This species is distributed from Massachu- 
 setts to Nebraska. 
 
 Superfamily Papilionina (Pa-pil-i-o-ni'na). 
 
 Tlie Butterflies. 
 
 The butterflies differ from moths in that they have 
 clubbed antennae, fly only in the daytime, and hold the 
 
374 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 wings erect above the back when at rest. There are some 
 
 moths that have 
 clubbed antennae.and 
 others that fly by day 
 but no moth presents 
 all three of the charac- 
 teristics given above. 
 It is more difficult 
 to distinguish the but- 
 terflies from the skip- 
 pers ; yet this can be 
 easily done. In but- 
 terflies the club of 
 the antenna is bluntly 
 rounded at the tip 
 instead of being fur- 
 nished with a re- 
 curved point as in 
 most skippers ; the 
 abdomen is very slen- 
 der ; and some of the 
 branches of radius of 
 the fore wings co- 
 alesce beyond- the 
 There are butterflies in 
 
 Fig. 455. — Wings of Basilarchia astyanax, 
 
 apex of the di.scal cell (Fig. 455). 
 
 which all of the branches of radius present arise from the 
 discal cell ; but this is due to the fact that two of the 
 branches coalesce to the edge of the wing, as is shown by 
 the fact that in these butterflies radius has less than five 
 branches. 
 
 This superfamily includes four families, which can be 
 separated as follows : — 
 
 A. Cubitus of the fore wings apparently four-branched (Fig. 456). 
 
 p. 375 Papilionid^. 
 
 AA. Cubitus of the fore wings apparently three-branched (Fig. 455). 
 B. With six well-developed legs, although in some species the fore 
 
LEPIDOPTKRA. 375 
 
 legs of the male are a little shorter, and the tarsi of these lack 
 one or both claws ; radius of the fore wings, with rare exceptions, 
 only three- or four-branched. To determine the number of 
 branches of radius, count the two cubital and the three medial 
 branches first ; the branches left between veins Vi and II belong 
 to radius. 
 
 C. Vein V, of the fore wings arising at or near the apex of the 
 discal cell (Fig. 465) except in Feniseca tarquiniiis, in which the 
 wings are dark brown, with a large fulvous spot on each. p. 
 
 388 LVC^NIDiE. 
 
 CC. The first branch of media of the fore wings united with 
 the last branch of radius for a considerable distance beyond 
 the apex of the discal cell (Fig. 460). Ground color of wings 
 
 white, yellow, or orange, p. 381 PlERiD^, 
 
 BB. With only four well-developed legs, the fore legs being un- 
 used, much shorter than the others, and folded on the breast like 
 a tippet (except in the female of Hypatiis). Radius of fore wings 
 five-branched (Fig. 467), p. 395 NYMPHALiD.*i. 
 
 Family Papilionid.^ (Pa-pil-i-on'i-dae). 
 TJie Swallozv-taih and the Parnassians. 
 
 This family includes the swallow-tail butterflies, which 
 are common throughout our country, and the Parnassians, 
 which are found only on high mountains or far north. These 
 insects are distinguished from all other butterflies by the 
 fact that vein V, of the fore wings appears to be a branch 
 of cubitus, making this vein appear four-branched (Fig. 456), 
 and also by the fact that the anal area of the hind wings is 
 more reduced than the anal area of the fore wings, the 
 former containing only a single anal vein, the latter two or 
 three. 
 
 The caterpillars are never furnished with spines, but are 
 either naked or clothed with a few fine hairs. In a single 
 species in our fauna [Laertias pJiilenor) the body of the 
 larva bears fleshy filaments. 
 
 A striking peculiarity of the larvae of this family is the 
 presence of a pair of bright-colored fleshy *' horns," which 
 can be projected from a slit in the dorsal wall of the pro- 
 
376 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 thorax. 
 
 These have been teniiecl osniateria (os-ma-te'rla), 
 and are supposed to be 
 organs of defence ; for 
 they exhale when pushed 
 i''j out an odor which in some 
 species is exceedingly dis- 
 agreeable. 
 
 The chrysalids are 
 thickened in the middle 
 and taper considerably at 
 each end ; they are more 
 or less angulated, and have 
 certain parts excessively 
 produced ; they are sus- 
 pended by the tail and by 
 a loose girth around the 
 middle. 
 
 This family includes 
 two well-marked subfami- 
 lies, which are distin- 
 guished as follows : — 
 
 Fig. 456.— /;-V«?-^ r/ Paf-ilio poly 
 
 A. Hind wings with a tail- 
 iike prolongation ; ground- 
 color of wings black ; radius 
 of fore wings five-branched; the base of vein VIII of fore wings 
 preserved as a spur-like branch of vein VII (Fig. 456). p. 376 
 
 PAPILIONINyE. 
 
 AA. Hind wings without tail-like prolongation ; ground color of 
 wings white; radius of fore wings four-branched ; vein VIII of fore 
 wings wanting, p. 380 Parnassiin^e 
 
 Subfamily Papilionin^ (Pa-pil-i-o-ni'nae). 
 The Swallow-tails. 
 
 These magnificent butterflies are easily recognized by 
 their large size and the tail-like prolongations of the hind 
 wings. The ground color of the wings is black, which is 
 
LF.PrnOPTF.RA. 
 
 377 
 
 usually marked with yellow, and often with metallic blue or 
 green. 
 
 There are about twenty-five species of swallow-tails in 
 America north of Mexico. The following well-known spe- 
 cies will serve as illustrations. 
 
 The Black Swallow-tail, /^rt////<? polyxenes{^^di-\)\\"\-o po- 
 lyx'e-nes). — The larva of this swallow-tail (Fig. ^57) is well 
 
 known to most 
 country children. 
 
 f ll «/ J" Jr^''^ worm, ringed with 
 ^SJfy I black and spotted 
 
 ^jr / ^^''^^^ yellow, that 
 
 II J/hJ^ eats the leaves of 
 
 r// W. ^-^ caraway in the 
 
 back yards of coun- 
 try houses. It feeds 
 also on parsnip and 
 other umbelliferous plants. These 
 caterpillars always fascinated us in 
 our childhood ; we have spent many 
 idle moments in poking them with 
 straws to see them rear upward and 
 project their yellow horns, which gave 
 off a sickening odor. When ready to 
 transform the caterpillar crawls away 
 to a fence or the side of the house 
 .. and changes to an angular pupa, sus- 
 V pended by the tail and by a little 
 silken girth around the middle. 
 
 In the adult the wings are black, 
 crossed with two rows of yellow spots, 
 and with marginal lunules of the same 
 color. The two rows of spots are 
 much more distinct in the male than in the female, the in- 
 ner row on the hind wing forming a continuous band crossed 
 
378 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 with black lines on the veins. Between the two rows of 
 spots on the hind wings there are many blue scales ; these are 
 more abundant in the female. Near the anal angle of the 
 hind wing there is an orange spot with a black center. On 
 the lower surface of the wings the yellow markings become 
 mostly orange and are heavier. 
 
 This species is found throughout the United States and 
 in the southern parts of Canada. 
 
 The Tiger Swallow-tail, Jasoniades glaticus {^]ci,s-o-\\\' 2.-(\qs 
 glau'cus). — The larva of this butterfly (Fig. 458) is even more 
 striking in appearance than that of the 
 preceding species. When full grown it is 
 dark green, and bears on each side of the 
 third thoracic segment a large greenish- 
 yellow spot, edged with black, and enclos- 
 ing a small purple spot bordered with 
 black. This caterpillar has the curious 
 habit of weaving upon a leaf a carpet of 
 silk, upon which it rests when not feed- 
 ing ; when nearly full grown, instead of 
 spinning a simple carpet as before, it 
 stretches a web across the hollow of a 
 leaf and thus makes a spring bed upon 
 which it sleeps (Fig. 458). 
 
 In the adult state two distinct forms of 
 this insect occur. These differ so greatly 
 in appearance that they were long con- 
 sidered distinct species. They may be 
 distinguished as follows : — 
 (i) The Turnus Y orm, Jasoniades glaucus turmis. — The 
 wings are bright straw-yellow above, and pale, faded straw- 
 yellow beneath, with a very broad black outer margin, in 
 which there is a row of yellow spots. On the fore wings 
 there are four black bars, extending back from the costa ; the 
 inner one of these crosses the hind wings also. This form 
 
 Fig. 458. — yasoniades gia, 
 <r?/j, larva upon its bed. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 379 
 
 is represented by both sexes, and is found in nearly all parts 
 of tlie United States and Canada. 
 
 (2) The Glaucus Form, Jasoniadcs glaucus glaucus. — In 
 this form the disk of the wings is entirely black, but the 
 black bands of the Turnus form are faintly indicated, espe- 
 cially on the lower surface, by a darker shade. The mar- 
 ginal row of yellow spots is present, and also the orange 
 spots and blue scales of the hind wings. This form is rep- 
 resented only by the female sex, and occurs only in the 
 more southern part of the range of the species, i.e., from 
 Delaware to Montana and southward. 
 
 The Zebra Swallow-tail, Iphiclidcs njax (Iph-icli'des 
 a'jax). — This butterfly (Fig. 459) differs from all other swal- 
 low-tails found in the 
 eastern half of the 
 United States in hav- 
 ing the wings crossed 
 by several bands of 
 greenish white. This 
 is one of the most in- 
 teresting of our but- 
 terflies, as it occurs 
 under three distinct 
 forms, two of which 
 were considered for a 
 long time distinct 
 species. Without tak- 
 ing into account the ^'^" 459.-//^'/^/''^<'^ ">-v. 
 more minute difTerences these forms can be separated as 
 follows : — 
 
 (i) The Early-spring Form, Iphiclides ajax marcclliis 
 (mar-cel'lus). — This is the form figured here. It expands 
 from two and six tenths inches to two and eight tenths 
 inches ; and the tails of the hind wings are about six tenths 
 inch in length and tipped with white. 
 
 (2) The Late-spring Form, Iphiclides ajax telanwnides 
 
380 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 (tel-a-mon'i-des). — This form is a little larger than marcellus 
 and has tails nearly one third longer ; these tails are bordered 
 with white on each side of the distal half or two thirds of 
 their length. 
 
 (3) The Summer Form, IpJiiclidcs ajax ajax. — The sum- 
 mer form is still larger, expanding from three and two tenths 
 inches to three and one half inches, and has tails nearly two 
 thirds longer than the early-spring form. 
 
 The life-history of this species has been carefully worked 
 out by Mr. W. H. Edwards. He has shown that there are 
 several generations each year, and that the winter is passed 
 in the chrysalis state. Rut the early-spring form and the 
 late-spring form are not successive broods; these are both 
 composed of individuals that have wintered as chrysalids, 
 those that emerge early developing into marcellus, and those 
 that emerge later developing into tclanionides. All of the 
 butterflies produced from eggs of the same season, and there 
 are several successive broods, are of the summer form, ajax 
 ajax. 
 
 The larva feeds upon papaw {Asii)iina). This insect is 
 found throughout the eastern half of the United States 
 except in the extreme north. 
 
 Subfamily Parnassiin.^ (Par-nas-si-i'nae) 
 
 The Parnassians {Par-nas'si-ans). 
 
 The Parnassians differ from the Swallow-tails in lacking 
 the tail-like prolongations of the hind wings and in that the 
 ground-color of the wings is white ; but resemble them in 
 the general plan of the venation of the wings, and in pos- 
 sessing similar scent-organs (osmateria) in the larval state. 
 The wings of the butterflies are usually conspicuously marked 
 with black spots and shades, and with red spots. Only four 
 species have been found in North America. These belong 
 to the genus Parnassius (Par-nas'si-us). They are found only 
 on high mountains or far north. 
 
LEriDOPTERA. 
 
 381 
 
 Family PlERID^ (Pi.er'i-dae). 
 The Fiends {Pi'e-rids). 
 
 These butterflies are usually of medium size, but some of 
 them are small; they are nearly always white, yellow, or 
 orange, and are usually marked with black. They are the 
 most abundant of all our butterflies, being common every- 
 where in fields and roads. Some species are so abundant as 
 to be serious pests, the larvae feeding on cultivated plants. 
 
 The characteristic features of the venation of the wings 
 are the following (Fig. 460): Vein V, of the fore wings is 
 more closely connected 
 with radius than with 
 cubitus, the latter appear- 
 ing to be three-branched', 
 vein V, of the fore wings 
 coalesces with radius for 
 a considerable distance 
 beyond the apex of the 
 discal cell ; and only three 
 or four of the branches 
 of radius remain distinct. 
 
 In this family the fore 
 legs are well developed in 
 both sexes, there being no 
 tendency to their reduc- 
 tion in size, as in the two 
 following families. 
 
 The larvai are usual- 
 ly slender green worms ^ 
 clothed with short, f^ne ^^'^- 46o-\v.n,.s „f /v./ « /...w«-.. 
 hairs; the well-known Cabbage-worms are typical illus- 
 trations (Fig. 461). The chrysalids are supported by the 
 tail and by a loose girth around the midtile. They may be 
 distinguished at a gl.uice by the presence of a single pointed 
 projection in front (Fig. 461). 
 
382 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Our genera of this family can be separated into three 
 groups, which seem hardly distinct enough to be ranked as 
 
 Fig. 461. — Pieris rapcr, larva and pupa. 
 
 subfamilies. These are the Whites, the Yellows, and the 
 Orange-tips. 
 
 I. Tlie Whites. — The more common representatives of 
 this group are the well-known Cabbage-butterflies. They 
 .are white butterflies more or less marked with black. Occa- 
 sionally the white is tinged with yellow; and sometimes yel- 
 low varieties of our white 
 species occur. About a 
 dozen North American 
 species of this group are 
 known. 
 
 The Cabbage-butterfly, 
 Pieris rapic (Pi'e-ris ra'pae). 
 — The wings of this butter 
 fly are dull white above, 
 occasionally tinged with 
 yellowish, especially in the 
 female ; below, the apex of the fore wings and the entire 
 
 Fig. 462 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 383 
 
 surface of the hind wings are pale lemon-yellow. In the 
 female there are two spots on the outer part of the fore 
 wing besides the black tip, in the male only one (Fig. 
 462). There is considerable variation in the intensity of 
 the black markings, and in the extent of the yellow tinge of 
 the wings. 
 
 The larva of this species (Fig. 461) feeds principally on 
 cabbage, but it also attacks many other cruciferous plants. 
 Its color is the green of the cabbage-leaf, with a narrow, 
 greenish, lemon-yellow dorsal band, and a narrow, inter- 
 rupted stigmatal band of the same color. The body is 
 clothed with ver\' fine short hairs. 
 
 Pieris rapes is without doubt the most injurious to agri- 
 culture of all our species of butterflies. It is an introduced 
 species, but has spread over the greater part of this coun- 
 try. As it is three-brooded in the North and probably 
 more in the South, it is present nearly the entire season, so 
 that it needs to be fought constantly. Owing to the im- 
 practicability of using poison upon cabbage, and to the fact 
 that the larva bores into the heart of the cabbage beyond 
 the reach of applications to the plant, it is an exceedingly- 
 difficult insect to combat. Obviously it is important in 
 fighting this insect to thoroughly subdue the spring and 
 summer broods, so that the bulk of the fighting can be 
 done before the cabbage begins to head. For this purpose 
 pyrethrum and kerosene emulsion have been found most 
 useful. 
 
 The Gray-veined White, Pieris oleracea (Pi'e-ris ol-e-ra'- 
 ce-a\ — The wings are white above and below, with a scarcely 
 perceptible tinge of greenish yellow. Sometimes there is a 
 dark spot on the fore wing between veins V, and VII, , but 
 usually the wings are unspotted. The base of the wings, 
 however, and the basal half of the costa of the front wings, 
 are powdered more or less with dark scales, and the veins of 
 the wings, especially on the lower side, are grayish. 
 
 This species occurs throughout Canada and in the more 
 
384 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 northern portions of the United States. The larva feeds 
 on cabbage. 
 
 The Checkered White, Poutia protodice (Pon'ti-a pro- 
 tod'irce). — The two sexes of this species differ greatly in 
 appearance, the female being much more darkly marked 
 than the male. The wings are white, marked above with 
 grayish brown. There is a bar of this color at the end of 
 the discal cell ; beyond this there is in the male a row of 
 three more or less distinct spots, and in the female an 
 almost continuous band of spots. Besides these there is in 
 the female a row of triangular spots on the outer margin of 
 both fore and hind wings, and on the hind wings a submar- 
 ginal zigzag bar. 
 
 The larva of this species is colored with alternating 
 stripes of bright golden yellow and dark greenish purple, 
 upon which are numerous black spots. It feeds upon cab- 
 bage and other cruciferous plants, and occurs in nearly the 
 whole of the United States. Both this and the preceding 
 species seem to become greatly lessened in numbers by the 
 increase of the imported Picris rapce. 
 
 II. The Orange-tips. — These, like the butterflies compris- 
 ing the preceding group, are white, marked with black. 
 Their most characteristic feature is the presence on the 
 lower surface of the hind wings of a greenish network, or a 
 marbled green mottling. Tiiis usually shows through the 
 wing so as to appear as a dark shade when the wings are 
 seen from above (Fig. 463). Many species have a con- 
 spicuous orange spot on the api. 
 cal portion of the front wings. 
 Tliis has suggested the common 
 name Orange-tips for the group. 
 But it should be remembered 
 that some species lack this 
 mark, and that in some others it 
 is confinetl to the males. Nearly 
 all of our species are confined to 
 the far West. The two following occur in the East. 
 
LEPIDOP TEN A. 
 
 385 
 
 The Falcate Orange-tip, Anthocharis gcnutia (An-thoch'- 
 a-ris ge-nu'ti-a). — In this species the apex of the fore wings 
 is hooked, reminding one of the Hook-lip Moths. In the 
 males there is a large apical orange patch. This butterfly 
 is found throughout the southeastern part of the United 
 States, not including Florida. It occurs as far north as 
 New Haven, Conn. It is nowhere abundant. 
 
 Synchloe olyuipia (Syn'chlo-e o-lym'pi-a). — In this species 
 the orange patch is wanting in both sexes. There is a con- 
 spicuous black bar at the end of the discal cell of the fore 
 wings, and the apical portion of these wings is gray, includ- 
 ing a large irregular white band (Fig. 463). 
 
 This species occurs in the Mississippi Valley. 
 
 III. The Yellows. — The Yellows are easily recognized by 
 their bright yellow colors, although in some species whitish 
 forms occur. Tliey abound almost everywhere in open 
 fit^lds, and are common about wet places in roads. To this 
 group belong the larger number of our Pierids. 
 
 The Clouded Sulphur, Euryjmis pliilodiee i^n'xy inns plii- 
 lod'i-ce). — The wings above 
 are rather pale greenish yellow, 
 with the outer borders black- 
 ish brown. Figure 464 repre- 
 sents the male ; in the female 
 the border on the fore wings 
 is broader, and contains a sub- 
 marginal row of yellow spots. 
 The discal dot of the fore 
 wings is black, that of the 
 hind wings is orange. The under surface is sulphur-yellow. 
 
 This species is dimorphic. The second form is repre- 
 sented only by the female sex, and differs in having the 
 ground-color of the wings white instead of yellow. 
 
 The Clouded Sulphur occurs from the mouth of the St. 
 Lawrence to South Carolina and westward to the Rocky 
 Mountains. Its larva feeds upon clover and other Legu- 
 minosae. 
 
 Eurymusphilodice. 
 
386 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The Orange Sulphur, Eiirynms curythcme (E. eu- 
 ryth'e-me). — This species closely resembles pJiilodice in- 
 size, shape, and markings. The typical form differs from 
 philodice in being of an orange color above instead of a 
 yellow. 
 
 The Orange Sulphur is a Western species, occurring in 
 the Mississippi Valley and west to the Pacific Ocean. It is 
 one of the most polymorphic of all butterflies ; the forms 
 differ so much in appearance that four or five of them have 
 been described as distinct species. The larva feeds on 
 clover. 
 
 The Dog's-head, Zcrcfie ccBsonia (Ze-re'ne cae-so'ni-a.) — 
 The wings are lemon-yellow above, bordered on the outer 
 margin with black. On the hind wings the border is nar 
 row, but on the fore wings it is broad. The outline of the 
 yellow of the fore wings suggests a head of a dog or of a 
 duck, a prominent black spot on the discal vein serving as 
 the eye. This is an abundant species in the Southeastern 
 and Southwestern States, extending from the Atlantic to 
 the Pacific. The larva feeds on clover. 
 
 The Black-bordered Yellow, XantJiidia nicippe (Xan- 
 thid'i-a ni-cip'pe). — The wings above are bright orange, 
 marked with blackish brown as follows : on the fore wings a 
 narrow bar at the apex of the discal cell, the apical portion 
 of the wings, and the outer margin ; on the hind wings, the 
 outer margin. In the female the outer marginal band is in- 
 terrupted at the anal angle of each wing, and on the hind 
 wings it may be reduced to an apical patch. The expanse 
 of wings is from one and six tenths inches to one and nine 
 tenths inches. 
 
 The species occurs from Southern New England to 
 Florida and west to Lower California. The larva feeds on 
 several species of Cassia. 
 
 The Little Sulphur, Eiirevia lisa (Eu-re'ma li'sa).^ 
 Although this species is larger than the following one it 
 is considerably below the average size of our yellows, the 
 
LEFIDOPTERA. 38/ 
 
 larger specimens expanding less than one inch and a half. 
 The wings are canary-yellow above, with the apex of the 
 fore wing and the outer margin of both fore and hind wings 
 blackish brown. The border of the hind wing is narrow and 
 sometimes wanting. 
 
 The distribution of this species is similar to that of the 
 preceding. The larva feeds on Cassia. 
 
 The Dainty Sulphur, NatJialis iole (Na-tha'lis i'o-le). — 
 This little butterfly can be distinguished from all others de- 
 scribed here by its small size, as it expands only from less 
 than one inch to one and one fifth inches. It is of a pale 
 canary-yellow color, with dark brown markings. There is a 
 large apical patch on the fore wings, and a broad band par- 
 allel with the inner margin ; on the hind wings there is a 
 stripe on the basal two thirds of the costa, and spots on the 
 ends of the veins ; these are more or less connected on the 
 margin of the wing, especially in the female. 
 
 This species also is found from Southern New England 
 to Florida and west to Lower California. It, too, feeds on 
 Cassia. 
 
 The Cloudless Sulphur, Callidryas eiibule (Cal-lid'ry-as 
 eu-bu'le). — This large butterfly differs greatly in appearance 
 from those described above. It expands two and one half 
 inches. The wings above are of uniform bright canary- 
 yellow. In the male they are without spots, except fre- 
 quently an inconspicuous brown dot at the tip of each vein, 
 and a lilac -brown edging of the costal border. In the 
 female there is a discal dot on the fore wing and a mar- 
 ginal row of bro.wn spots at the ends of the veins. 
 
 This is a southern species which occasionally extends as 
 far north on the coast as New York City, and in the Missis- 
 sippi Valley as far as Southern Wisconsin. The larva feeds 
 on Cassia. 
 
388 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS, 
 
 Family LyC/ENID^ (Ly-ccen'i-da;). 
 
 The GossajHcr-ivinged Butterflies. 
 
 The family Lycaenidae includes butterflies which are of 
 small size and delicate structure. In size they resemble the 
 smaller Hesperiidae ; but they can be distinguished at a 
 glance from the skippers, as they present an entirely differ- 
 ent appearance. The body is slender, the wings delicate 
 and often brightly colored, and the club of the antenna 
 straight. The antennae are nearly always ringed with white, 
 and a conspicuous rim of white scales encircles the eyes. 
 An easily-observed combination of characters by which 
 
 the members of this fam- 
 **' ily can be distinguished 
 
 is the absence of one or 
 two of the branches of 
 radius of the fore wings, 
 this vein being only 
 three- or four-branched, 
 and the origin of vein V, 
 of the fore wings at 
 or near the apex of the 
 discal cell (Fig. 465). 
 In all other butterflies 
 occurring in our fauna 
 in which radius is only 
 three- or four-branched, 
 vein V, of the fore wings 
 coalesces with radius for 
 a considerable distance 
 beyond the apex of the 
 discal cell. An excep- 
 Fic. 465.-Wings of chrysophanus thoe. tiou to the charactcrs of 
 
 the Lycaenidae is presented by Feniseca, as indicated in 
 the table of families, p. 375. 
 
 A remarkable characteristic of this family is that while in 
 
LRPIDOPJKRA. 3^9 
 
 the female the front legs are like the other legs, in the male 
 they are shorter, without tarsal claws, and with the tarsi 
 more or less aborted. This reduction of the fore legs is 
 carried even farther in the next family, where it extends to 
 both sexes, and the fore legs are unused. 
 
 The caterpillars of the Lyca;nida.' present a very unusual 
 form, being more or less slug-like, reminding one of the 
 larvae of the Eucleidae. The body is short and broad ; 
 the legs and prolegs are short and small, allowing the body 
 to be closely pressed to the object upon which the insect is 
 moving — in fact some of the species glide rather than creep ; 
 and the head is small, and can be retracted more or less 
 within the prothorax. The body is armed with no conspic- 
 uous appendages ; but some of the species are remarkable 
 for having honey-tubes which can be pushed out from the 
 seventh and eighth abdominal segments, and through which 
 honey-dew is excreted for the use of ants. Certain other 
 species are remarkable in being carnivorous ; one American 
 species feeds exclusively upon plant-lice. 
 
 The chrysalids are short, broad, ovate, and without angu- 
 lations. They are attached by the caudal extremity, and by 
 a loop passing over the body near its middle. The ventral 
 aspect of the body is straight and often closely pressed to 
 the object to which the chrysalis is attached. 
 
 The Lycasnidae include two subfamilies ; these can be 
 be separated as follows : — 
 
 A. Vein II of the hind wings without a branch near the base of the 
 wing (Fig. 465) Lyc^nin^. 
 
 AA. Vein II of the hind wings giving ofT a spiur (the tip of vein I) 
 near the base of the wing. p. 394 Lemoniin^e. 
 
 Subfamily Lvc^NINiE (Ly-cae-ni'nae). 
 The CouDnon Gossamer-winged Butterflies. 
 
 This subfamily includes all of our common members 01 
 the Lycoenidse ; it is composed of three well-marked groups 
 
390 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 of genera, which have been distinguished as the Coppers, 
 the Blues, and the Hair-streaks. 
 
 I. The Coppers. — The Coppers are easily distinguished 
 from other gossamer-winged butterflies by their orange-red 
 and brown colors, each with a coppery tinge, and conspicu- 
 ous black markings. They are the stoutest of the Lycaenidae. 
 About twenty species are known to occur in this country ; 
 the three following will serve as illustrations: — 
 
 The American Copper, Heodcs hypophlccas (He-o'des 
 hyp-o-phlae'as). — This is the most common of our coppers 
 in the Northeastern States and in Canada. Its range ex- 
 tends also along the boundary between the United States 
 and Canada to the Pacific Ocean, and southward into Cali- 
 fornia ; and in the east along the Alleghany Mountains 
 south to Georgia. It is represented on Plate I (Fig. 5)« 
 The fore wings are orange-red above, spotted with black, 
 and with a blackish brown outer border ; the hind wings are 
 coppery brown, with a broad orange-red band on the outer 
 margin ; this band is indented by four black spots. 
 
 The larva feeds on the common sorrel {Ruviex acetoselld). 
 
 The Bronze Copper, CJirysopliaiuis tJioe (Chrys-o-pha'nus 
 tho'e). — This is larger than the preceding species, the wings 
 expanding one and one half inches or more. In the male 
 the wings are coppery brown above, spotted with black, and 
 with a broad orange-red band on the outer margin of the 
 hind wings. The female differs in having the fore wings 
 orange-red above, with prominent black spots. 
 
 This species occurs in the Middle and Western States 
 from the Connecticut Valley to Nebraska. The larva feeds 
 on curled dock [Riimex crispus). 
 
 The Wanderer, /^?;/wr<:« tarqniiiius {¥e-r\WQ-C2i tar-quin'i- 
 us). — This butterfly can be readily distinguished from all 
 other Lycaenids in our fauna by the fact that vein V, of 
 the fore wings coalesces with radius for a considerable dis- 
 tance beyond the apex of the discal cell. The upper surface 
 of the wings is dark brown, with a large, irregular, orange- 
 
LEPIDOP I 'ERA . 39 1 
 
 yellow patch on the disk of the fore wing, and one of the 
 same color next the anal angle of the hind wing. 
 
 This species is of unusual interest, as the larva is carniv- 
 orous in its habits. It feeds on plant-lice ; and, so far as 
 observed, it feeds only on the woolly aphids. It is found 
 more often in colonies of the Alder Blight {ScJiizonetira tes- 
 sellatd) than in those of the allied species. It is found from 
 Maine to Northern Florida and westward to Kansas. It is a 
 very local insect, being found only in the neighborhood of 
 water where alder grows. 
 
 II. TJie Blues. — The Blues may be distinguished from 
 the other gossamer-winged butterflies by the slender form 
 of the body, and the blue color of the upper surface of the 
 wings. About fifty North American species have been de- 
 scribed ; but most of- these occur only in the far West. 
 This is a rather difficult group to study owing to the fact 
 that in several cases a single species exists under two or 
 more distinct forms, and also that the two sexes of the same 
 species may differ greatly. It often happens that two indi- 
 viduals of the same sex but of different species resemble 
 each other more closely in the coloring of the upper sur- 
 face than do the two sexes of either of the species. In 
 each of our eastern species the upper surface of the wings 
 of the female is much darker than that of the male. 
 
 The Spring Azure, Cyaniris pseudargiolus (Cy-a-ni'ris 
 pseud-ar-gi'o-lus). — In this species the hind wings are with- 
 out tails, the eyes are hairy, and the lower surface of the 
 wings is pale ash-gray. This combination of characters will 
 distinguish it from all other blues occurring in the Eastern 
 United States. But the species is not confined to this re- 
 gion, as it occurs in nearly all parts of the United States 
 and in a large part of Canada. 
 
 This butterfly exhibits polymorphism to the greatest 
 degree of any known species ; nine or ten forms have been 
 described. Two of these are represented on Plate VI 
 (Figs. I and 7). 
 
 The larva feeds on the buds and flowers of various 
 
39- THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 plants, especially those of Cornus, Ciiiiicifuga, and Actino- 
 mcris. They are frequently attended by ants for the sake 
 of the honey-dew which they excrete through tubes that 
 they push out from the seventh and eighth abdominal seg- 
 ments. 
 
 The Tailed Blue, Everes comyntas (E-ve'res co-myn'tas). — 
 The butterflies of the genus Everes can be distinguished 
 from our other blues by the presence of a small tail-like 
 prolongation of the hind wing. This is borne at the end of 
 vein VII. Our common species [E. comyntas) is distributed 
 over nearly all parts of North America. The male is dark 
 purplish violet above, bordered with brown ; the female is 
 dark brown, sometimes flecked with bluish scales. In the 
 Eastern United States this is the only species of the genus. 
 The larva feeds upon clover and other leguminous 
 plants. 
 
 III. The Hair-streaks. — The Hair-streaks are distinguished 
 from the other Lycaeninae by the fact that radius of the 
 fore wings is only three-branched. They are usually dark 
 brown, with delicate striped markings on the lower surface 
 of the wings, which suggested the com- 
 mon name given above ; but some 
 species are brilliantly marked with me- 
 tallic blue or green. The hind wings 
 are also commonly furnished with deli- 
 cate tail like prolongations (Fig. 466). 
 The fore wings of the male often bear 
 a small dull oval spot near the middle 
 of the costal part of the wing, the dis- 
 FiG. ^(>(>.-T;,ecia caianus. ^^\ stigma, which is filled with the 
 peculiar scent-scales known as andriconia. The males are 
 also distinguished by having a tuft of hair-like scales, the 
 beard, on the front ; this is wanting or very thin in the fe- 
 males. About fifty species occur in America north of 
 Mexico; of these nearly twenty occur in the eastern half 
 of the United States. 
 
 The Banded Hair-streak, TJiccla caianus (Thec'Ia cal'a- 
 
LEl'lDOPTERA. 393 
 
 nus). — In the Northeastern United States the most common 
 of the hair-streaks is this species (Fig. 466). The upper 
 surface of the wings is dark brown or blackish brown. The 
 under surface is blackish slate-brown nearly as dark as the 
 upper surface, and marked as shown in the figure. 
 
 The larva feeds on oak and hickory. Excepting the 
 southern portion of the Gulf States, the species is found 
 throughout our territory east of the Rocky Mountains, and 
 in the southern part of Canada. 
 
 The Olive Hair-streak, Mitoura davion (Mi-tou'ra 
 da'mon). — The upper surface of the wings is dark brown, 
 with the disk more or less deeply suffused with brassy yellow 
 in the male or tawny in the female ; the hind wing has two 
 tails, one much longer than the other, both black tipped 
 with white. The lower surface of the hind wings is deep 
 green ; both fore and hind wings are marked with white bars 
 bordered with brown (Plate VI, Fig. 6). 
 
 The larva feeds on red cedar. The species occurs from 
 Massachusetts to Florida and westward to Dakota and 
 Texas. 
 
 The Banded Elfin, Incisalia nipJwn (In-ci-sa'li-a ni'phon). 
 — In the butterflies of the genus Incisalia the fringe of the 
 outer margin of the hind wings is slightly prolonged at the 
 end of each vein, giving the wings a scalloped outline ; 
 they also lack tail-like prolongations of the hind wings. 
 There are several species occurring on both sides of the con- 
 tinent. One of these, the Banded Elfin, is represented on 
 Plate VI (Fig. 4). In this species there is a distinct white 
 or whitish edging near the base of the under side of the 
 hind wing which limits a darker band that occupies the 
 outer two thirds of the basal half of the wing. 
 
 This species occurs in the Eastern and Middle States. 
 The larva feeds on pine. 
 
 The Hair-streaks described above are of moderate size 
 and modest colors. The two following will serve to illustrate 
 a somewhat different type. 
 
 The Great Purple Hair-streak, Atlides halcsus (At'li-des 
 
394 THE STUDY OF IX SECTS. 
 
 ha-lc'sus). — This is the largest of our eastern hair-streaks, 
 the larger individuals expanding two inches. In the male 
 the greater part of the upper surface of the wings is bright 
 blue ; the discal stigma, the outer fourth of the fore wings, 
 the apex of the inner margin of the hind wings, and the 
 tails are black. In the female the outer half of the wings is 
 black. 
 
 The species occurs in the southern half of the United 
 States and southward. It has been found as far north as 
 Illinois. The larva is said to feed on oak. 
 
 The White-M Hair-streak, Ejipsyche m-albuvi (Eu-psy'- 
 che m-al'bum). — This is a smaller species, expanding about 
 one and one half inches. The upper surface of the disk 
 of the wings is a rich, glossy dark blue, with green reflec- 
 tions ; a broad outer border and costal margin are black. 
 The hind wing has two tails, and a bright dark orange 
 spot preceded by white at the anal angle. The under sur- 
 face is brownish gray, and on this surface both wings are 
 crossed by a common, narrow white stripe, which forms a 
 large W or reversed M on the hind wings. 
 
 This species occurs in the southern half of the United 
 States. The larva feeds on oak and on Astrangulus. 
 
 Subfamily Lemoniin^ (Le-mon-i-i'nse). 
 TJie Lemoniids [Lc-vio' ni-ids). 
 
 This is a large subfamily ; but the species are found 
 chiefly in South and Central America. In our fauna it is 
 represented only by a small number of rare butterflies. 
 
 If we except one Florid ian species {Eumejiia atala), this 
 subfamily is represented in the Eastern United States by 
 only two species. In the far West eleven others are now 
 known. The eastern species are the Large Metal-mark, 
 Calephelis borealis (Cal-e-phe'lis bo-re-a'Iis), which expands 
 one inch or more, and the Small Metal-mark, Calephelis 
 ccenhis (C. cae'ni-us), which expands less than four fifths of an 
 inch. In both species there are on the outer half of the 
 wings two lines of shining lead-colored scales. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 395 
 
 Family NYMniAi.in.K (N>ni-phari-da;). 
 
 The Four-footed Butterflies. 
 
 The family Nymphalida^ includes chiefly butterflies of 
 medium or large size ; but a few of the species are small. 
 With a single -exception, these butterflies diff'er from all 
 others in our fauna in having the fore legs very greatly re- 
 duced in size in both sexes. So great is the reduction that 
 these legs cannot be used for walking, but are folded on 
 the breast like a tippet. A slight reduction in the size of the 
 fore legs occurs in the Lycaenidae, but there it occurs only in 
 the males, and to a much less degree than in this family. 
 
 In the venation of the wings (Fig. 467) the four-footed 
 butterflies differ from 
 the two preceding ,^ ^5^-=^-^ 
 families in retaining ^^^ 
 all of the branches 
 of radius of the fore 
 wings, this vein be- 
 ing five-branched. 
 
 The la r V se are 
 nearly or quite cylin- 
 d ri c a 1, and are 
 clothed to a greater 
 or less extent with 
 hairs and sometimes 
 with branching 
 spines. 
 
 The chrysalids are 
 usually angular, and 
 often bear large pro- 
 jecting prominences; 
 sometimes they are 
 rounded. They al- 
 ways hang head 
 
 downwards, sup- Fig. 467.— Winj^s of BasHarchia astyanax. 
 
 ported only by the tail, which is fastened to a button of silk. 
 
396 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 This is tlic lai-Ljcst of the f.iniilics of butterflies. It not 
 only surpasses the other families in number of species, but 
 it contains a greater number and variety of striking forms, 
 and also a larger proportion of the species of butterflies 
 familiar to every observer of insects. There may be in any 
 locality one or two species of yellows or of whites more 
 abundant, but the larger number of species commonly ob- 
 served are four-footed butterflies. 
 
 Five subfamilies of the Nymphalidae are represented in 
 our fauna. These can be separated by the following table, 
 which is based on one given by Mr. Scudder : — 
 A. With none of the veins of the fore wings unusually swollen at the 
 base. 
 B. Antennae clothed with scales, at least above. 
 
 C. Fore wings at least twice as long as broad, p. 397. 
 
 HELICONINiE. 
 CC. Fore wings less than twice as long as broad. 
 
 D. Palpi much longer than the thorax, p. 396. .LlBYTHElN^. 
 DD. Palpi not as long as the thorax, p. 398. . .Nymphalin^. 
 
 BB. Antennae naked, p. 397 Euplcein/e. 
 
 AA. With some of the veins of the fore wings greatly swollen at the 
 base. p. 410 , . .SatyriNvE. 
 
 Subfamily LlBYTHElN^ (Li-byth-e-i'nae). 
 Tlie Long-beaks. 
 
 The Long-beaks can be easily recognized by their ex- 
 cessively long, beak-like palpi, which are from one fourth 
 to one half as long as the body 
 and project straight forward 
 (Fig. 468). The outer margin 
 of the fore wings is deeply 
 notched ; the males have only 
 four well-developed legs, while 
 fk,. 468.-//;.a,/«. ba,iu„a„ni. thc fcmales have six. 
 Only three species have been found in America north of 
 Mexico; and of these but one occurs in the Eastern United 
 States. 
 
L EPID OP TERA . 397 
 
 The Snout Butterflx', Hypatus bachmannii (Hyp'a-tus 
 bach-man'ni-i). — The wings are blackish brown above, 
 marked with orange patches and white spots. The species 
 occurs throughout the Eastern United States, excepting the 
 northern part of New England and the southern part of 
 Florida. The larva feeds on Celt is occidcntalis. 
 
 Subfamily HeliconiiN/E (Hel-i-co-ni-i'nai). 
 TJie Heliconians {Hel-i-co ni-ans). 
 This subfamily consists chiefly of tropical butterflies ; a 
 few species, however, extend into the southern portion of 
 our territory. They are of medium or rather large size, 
 and are easily recognized by their narrow and elongated fore 
 wings, which are usually more than twice as long as broad. 
 
 Subfamily EuPLCiilN^ (Eu-ploe-i'nae). 
 The Etiplceids {Eii-plce' ids). 
 
 These are butterflies of large size, with rounded and 
 somewhat elongated wings, the apical portion of the fore 
 wings being much produced. The absence of scales on the 
 antennae is the most available character for distinguishing 
 these insects. Only a very few species occur in our fauna. 
 The best known of these is the following : — 
 
 The Monarch, Anosia plcxippus (A-no'si-a plex-ip'pus). — 
 The upper surface of the wings is light tawny brown, with 
 the borders and veins black, and with two rows of white 
 spots on the costal and outer borders as shown in Figure 
 469. The figure represents a female ; in the male the veins 
 of the wings are more narrowly margined with black, and 
 there is a black pouch next to vein VI I^ of the hind wings, 
 containing scent-scales or androconia. 
 
 The larva feeds upon different species of milk-weed, As- 
 clcpias. When full grown it is lemon or greenish )'ellow, 
 broadly banded with shining black. It is remarkable for 
 bearing a pair of long fleshy filaments on the second thoracic 
 segment; and a similar pair on the seventh abdominal seg- 
 
398 THE STUDY OF IXSECTS. 
 
 ment. The chrysalis is about one inch in length. It is 
 bright green, dotted with gold. 
 
 This species occurs throughout the greater part of the 
 United States, and is distributed far beyond our borders. 
 
 Fig. 469.—^ nosia pUxippus. 
 
 It is believed, however, that the species dies out each year in 
 a large part of the Northern States, and that those butter- 
 flies which appear first in this region, in June or July, have 
 flown hither from the South, where they hibernate in the 
 adult state. In the extreme South they fly all winter. 
 Great swarms, including many thousands of individuals of 
 this species, are sometimes seen. 
 
 Subfamily Ny.mphalin.^ (Nym-pha-li'nse). 
 The Typical Nymplialids {Nym-p lux lids). 
 
 The butterflies of this subfamily vary so much in the 
 outline and ornamentation of the wings that it is impossible 
 to briefly characterize them. The student, however, will 
 have no difficulty in distinguishing them by means of the 
 table of subfamilies already given. Our genera represent 
 five quite distinct groups, as follows: — 
 
 I. TJie Crescent-spots or the MelitcBids (Mel-i-ta^'ids). — This 
 group includes some of the smaller members of the Nym- 
 
LEriDOrTKRA. 
 
 399 
 
 phalinne. The color of the wings is sometimes black, with 
 red and yellow spots ; but it is usually fulvous, with the fore 
 wings broadly margined, especially at the apex, with black, 
 and crossed by many irregular lines of black. About fifty 
 species occur in this country. 
 
 The Baltimore, Euphydryas phaeton (Eu-phyd'ry-as pha'- 
 e-ton).— The wings above are black, with an outer marginal 
 row of dark reddish-orange spots, and parallel rows of very 
 pale yellow spots ; on the fore wings a third row is more or 
 less represented. The wings expand two inches or more. 
 
 The larvae feed on a species of snakehead {Chelone 
 glabra) ; they are gregarious, and build a common nest by 
 weaving together the leaves of their food-plant. The species 
 occurs in Ontario and the northern half of the United States 
 east of the Rocky Mountains. It is very local, the butter- 
 flies remaining near the bogs or moist meadows where the 
 food-plant of the larva is found. 
 
 The butterflies of the genus Phyciodes (Phy-ci-o'des) and 
 the allied genera abound throughout our country. They are 
 of small size, and of a fulvous color, 
 heavily marked with black. Each 
 species varies considerably in mark- 
 ings, and different species resemble 
 each other quite closely, making 
 this a difficult group for the begin- 
 ning student. Figure 470 repre- ^^^^-^lo.-rhycUnies nycuis. 
 sents a common species. 
 
 II. The Fritillaries (Frit'il-la-ries) or the A rgyimids {Ar- 
 gyn'nids).— This group includes butterflies varying from a 
 little below to somewhat above medium size. The color of 
 the wings is fulvous, bordered and checkered with black, but 
 not so heavily bordered as in the crescent-spots. The lower 
 surface of the hind wings is often marked with curving rows 
 of silvery spots. This is a large group containing many 
 species, which are extremely difficult to separate. More 
 than fifty species occur in America north of Mexico. The 
 larvae feed upon the leaves of violets. 
 
400 
 
 rilE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The Great Spangled Fritillary, Argynnis cyhelc (Ar-gyn'- 
 nis cyb'e-le). — This species (Fig. 471) will serve to illustrate 
 
 Fig. 471. — Argynnis cyhele. 
 
 the appearance of the larger members of this group, those 
 belonging to the genus Argynnis. In this genus vein III^ 
 of the fore wings arises before the apex of the discal cell. 
 
 There are a number of common fritillaries which resem- 
 ble the preceding in color and markings but which are much 
 smaller, the wings expanding considerably less than two 
 inches. These belong to the genus Z?r^;///^w (Bren'th is). In 
 this genus vein III^ of the fore wings arises beyond the apex 
 of the discal cell. 
 
 The Variegated Fritillary, Euptoicia claudia (Eup-toi-e'ta 
 clau'di-a). — This butterfly agrees with the smaller fritillaries 
 
 {Brcnthis) in the origin 
 of vein III, of the fore 
 wing beyond the apex 
 of the discal cell, but 
 differs from them in the 
 shape of the fore wing, 
 the apex of which is 
 much more produced 
 
 FiG. ^^^.^Euptah■/a cu,u,1ia. (^pjg_ ^^3^^ y,^ J ^j^^, obiter 
 
 margin, except at the apex, concave; it is also considerably 
 larger. 
 
 This species occurs throughout the United States east of 
 
LEFIDOPTERA. 
 
 401 
 
 the Rocky Mountains ; but it is very rare in the northern 
 half of this region. 
 
 III. The Angle-wings or tJie Vanessids (Va-nes'sids). — To 
 this group belong many of our best-known butterflies. With 
 these the outer margin of the fore wings is usually decidedly 
 angular or notched as if a part had been cut away. A large 
 proportion of the species 'hibernate in the adult state, and 
 some of them are the first butterflies to appear in the spring. 
 Some of the hibernating species, however, remain in conceal- 
 ment till quite late in the season. 
 
 The Red Admiral, Vanessa atalanta (Va-ncs'sa at-a- 
 lan'ta). — The wings are purplish black above. On the fore 
 wing there is a bright 
 orange-colored band 
 beginning near the 
 middle of the costa, 
 and extending nearly 
 to the inner angle ; 
 between this and the 
 apex of the wing are 
 several white spots, 
 as shown in Figure 
 473 ; on the hind 
 wing there is an orange band on the outer margin inclosing 
 a row of black spots. The lower surface of the wings is 
 shown on Plate I, Fig. 6. 
 
 The larva feeds chiefly on nettle and on hop. When 
 first hatched it folds together a half-opened leaf at the sum- 
 mit of the plant ; when larger it makes its nest of a lower 
 expanded leaf. There are two broods ; both butterflies and 
 chrysalids hibernate. This butterfly occurs over nearly the 
 whole of the European and North American continents. 
 
 The Painted Beauty, Vanessa Jmntera (Va-nes'sa hun'- 
 te-ra) — The wings above are very dark brownish black, with 
 large irregular spots of golden orange. In the apical portion 
 of the fore wings there are several white spots, as shown 
 
 Fig. 473. — Vanessa atalanta. 
 
402 
 
 THE STUDY OF J X SECTS. 
 
 in Figure 474. The lower surface of the wings is repre- 
 sented on Plate I, Fig. 7. A characteristic feature is the 
 presence of two submarginal eye-like spots on the hind 
 wing. 
 
 The larva feeds on everlasting {GnapJialiimi) and allied 
 plants. The species occurs in Ontario and nearly the whole 
 of the United States. 
 
 sa hunt era. 
 
 The Cosmopolitan Butterfly, Vanessa cardui (V. car'du-i). 
 — The butterfly resembles the preceding very closely in 
 color and markings. There is, however, a smaller propor- 
 tion of orange markings; and on the lower surface of the 
 hind wings there is a submarginal row of four or five eye- 
 like spots. 
 
 The larva feeds upon Compositae, especially thistles. 
 This species is very remarkable for its wide distribution. 
 Mr. Scudder states that " witli tlie exception of the arctic 
 
 regions and South Ameri- 
 ca it is distributed over 
 the entire extent of every 
 continent." 
 
 The American Tor- 
 toise-shell, Aglais inilberti 
 (Ag'la-is mil-ber'ti). — The 
 wings above are brownish 
 F.,.. ,,,.^A,uu ,niibe>ti. ^j^^^^ With abroad orange- 
 
 fulvous band between the middle and the outer margin. 
 
LEPJDOP TERA. 403 
 
 There are two fulvous spots in tlic discal-ccll of the front 
 wing (Fig. 475). 
 
 The larvai feed upon nettle \Urticd) ; they are gregarious 
 in their early stages. This species occurs in the northern 
 portions of the United States and in Canada. 
 
 The Mourning-cloak, Eiivanessa antiopa (Eu-va-nes'sa 
 an-ti'o-pa).— The wings above are purplish brown, with a 
 broad yellow border on the outer margin sprinkled with 
 brown, and a submarginal row of blue spots. The upper 
 surface is represented by Figure 476, the lower by Plate VI, 
 
 The larvae live on willow, elm, poplar, and Ccltis ; they 
 are gregarious, and often strip large branches of their 
 leaves. The species is usually two-brooded. "This butter- 
 
 fly is apparently distributed over the entire breadth of the 
 Northern Hemisphere below the Arctic Circle as far as the 
 thirtieth parallel of latitude " (Scudder). 
 
 The Compton Tortoise, Eugonia j-albiuii (Eu-go'ni-a j-al'- 
 bum).— This butterfly (Fig. 477) resembles in its general 
 appearance those of the genus Polygonia, but it is sharply dis- 
 tinguished from them by the inner margin of the fore wings 
 being nearly straight, by the heavier markings of the fore 
 
404 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 wings, and by the presence of a whitish spot on both fore 
 and hind wings, near the apex, and between two larger 
 black patches. On the lower surface of the hind wings 
 there is a small L-shaped silvery bar. This species occurs 
 
 Fig. 477. — Eugonia j albn. 
 
 throughout Canada and the northern portion of the United 
 States east of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Polygonia (Pol-y-go'ni-a). — The butterflies of this genus 
 resemble the preceding species in havang a metallic spot on 
 the lower surface of the hind wings, but differ in having the 
 inner margin of the fore wings roundly notched beyond the 
 middle. Nearly a dozen species occur in this country. 
 These differ principally in the coloring and markings of the 
 under surface of the hind wings. The following are some 
 of the more common ones : — 
 
 The Green Comma, Polygonia faunns (P. fau'nus). — The 
 silvery mark of the hind wings is usually in the form of 
 a C or a G, the ends being more or less expanded (Plate VI, 
 Fig. 2), but sometimes it is reduced to the form of an L. 
 The lower surface of the wings is more greatly variegated 
 than in any other species of this genus ; and there is a larger 
 amount of green on this surface than in any other of the 
 eastern species, there being two nearly complete rows of 
 green spots on the outer third of each wing. 
 
 The larva feeds upon black birch, willow, currant, and 
 
L EPfD OP TERA . 40 5 
 
 wild gooseberry. This is a Canadian species; but it is also 
 found in the mountains of New England and of New York, 
 and in the northern portions of the Western States, extend- 
 ing as far south as Iowa. 
 
 The Hop-merchant, Polygonia comma (P. com'ma). 
 — As in the preceding species, the silvery mark of the 
 hind wings is in the form of a C or a G (PI. VI, Fig. 3); 
 but the general color of the lower surface of the hind wings 
 is very different, being marbled with light and dark brown ; 
 and the green spots so characteristic of faumis are repre- 
 sented here by a few liliaceous scales on a submarginal row 
 of black spots. 
 
 Two forms of this species occur. In one, P. comma dryas, 
 the hind wings above are suffused with black on the outer 
 half, so that the submarginal row of fulvous spots is ob- 
 scured, and on the lower side the wings are more yellowish 
 than in the other form. The latter is known as P. comma 
 harrisii (P. c. har-ris'i-i). 
 
 The larva feeds upon hop, elm, nettle, and false-nettle. 
 It is often abundant in hop-yards, and the chrysalids are 
 commonly known as hop-merchants, from a saying that the 
 golden or silvery color of the metallic spots on the back of 
 the chrysalis indicates whether the price of hops is to be 
 high or low. This species is found in Canada and the 
 northern part of the eastern half of the United States ; its 
 range extends south to North Carolina, Tennessee, Arkansas, 
 and Indian Territory. 
 
 The Gray Comma, Polygonia progne (P. prog'ne). — 
 In its general appearance this butterfly closely resembles 
 P. comma, but it can be readily distinguished by the form 
 of the silvery mark, which is L-shaped and tapers towards 
 the ends. 
 
 The larva feeds on currant, wild gooseberry, and rarely 
 elm. This species occurs in Canada and in the northern por- 
 tion of the United States except in the extreme West. 
 
 The Violet Tip, Polygonia interrogationis (P. in-ter- 
 
406 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 ro-ga-ti-o'nis). — This butterfly (Plate VI, Fig. 8) is some- 
 what larger than the preceding species of Polygonia, and 
 differs in the form of the silvery mark, which consists of a 
 dot and a crescent, resembling somewhat an interrogation- 
 mark, but more nearly a semicolon. On the upper side the 
 outer margins of the wings and the tails of the hind wings 
 are tinged with violet. 
 
 This species is dimorphic ; and the two forms differ so 
 constantly and in such a marked manner that they were 
 described as distinct species. In P. intcrrogationis fabricii 
 (P. i. fa-bric'i-i) the upper surface of the hind wings is not much 
 darker than that of the fore wings, and there is a submarginal 
 row of fulvous spots in the broad ferruginous brown border. 
 In P. interrogationis UDibrosa (P. i. um-bro'sa) the outer two 
 thirds of the upper surface of the hind wings is blackish, and 
 the submarginal fulvous spots are obliterated, except some- 
 times faint traces near the costal margin. 
 
 This species is found in Canada and throughout the 
 United States east of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 IV. The Sovereigns. — These butterflies differ from other 
 Nymphalinae in having the club of the antennae marked by 
 four slightly elevated lines, and in that veins I, II, and III 
 of the hind wing (Fig. 467, p. 395) separate at the same 
 point. This group includes some of our most elegant but- 
 terflies; the larvae are grotesque in appearance, being very 
 irregular in form and strikingly mottled or spotted. 
 
 The Banded Purple, Basilarchia arthcuiis (Bas-i-lar'chi-a 
 ar'the-mis). — The upper surface of the wings is velvety 
 chocolate-black, marked with a conspicuous white bow 
 (Fig. 478). 
 
 This is a Canadian species which extends a short distance 
 into the northern part of the United States; the larva feeds 
 on birch, willow, poplar, and many other plants. 
 
 The Red Spotted Purple, Basilarcliia astyanax (B. 
 as-ty'a-nax). — The upper surface of the wings is velvety 
 indigo-black, tinged with blue or green. There are three 
 
LEPinOP TERA. 407 
 
 rows of blue or green spots on the outer third of the hind 
 wings : the spots of the inner row vary greatly in width in 
 different individuals. On the lower surface there is a reddish 
 orange spot in the discal cell of the fore wings, and one on 
 the discal vein ; on the hind wings there are two orange spots 
 similarly situated, a third at the base of cell II, and a row of 
 
 Fig 478. — Biisiliircliia att/ieinis. 
 
 seven spots just within a double row of submarginal blue 
 or green spots. 
 
 This species occurs throughout nearly the whole of the 
 Eastern United States south of the 43d parallel of latitude. 
 The larva feeds on many plants ; among them are plum, 
 apple, pear, and gooseberry. 
 
 The Hybrid Purple, BasilarcJiia astyanax-artheinis. — 
 There occurs, along a narrow belt of country extending from 
 southern Wisconsin and northern Illinois eastward to the 
 Atlantic coast of New England, a butterfly that closely re- 
 sembles the Red-spotted Purple, but which has more or less 
 of the white band of the Banded Purple. This is believed 
 to be a hybrid between these two species. The region in 
 which it occurs is that in which the ranges of the two species 
 overlap. North of this region, of these three forms only the 
 Banded Purple occurs ; south of it only the Red-spotted 
 Purple is found. 
 
 The Viceroy, BasilarcJiia archippus (B. ar-chip'pus), — 
 The wings vary in color from a dull yellow orange tinged 
 
408 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 slightly with brown to a dark cinnamon color; they are 
 bordered with black, and all the veins are edged with the 
 same color (Fig. 479). The fringe of the wings is spotted 
 with white, and the black border on the outer margin con- 
 tains a row of white spots. 
 
 Fig. 479 — Basilarchia archif'piis. 
 
 This species is remarkable for its resemblance to the 
 Monarch {Anosia plexippiis. Fig. 469). But aside from the 
 structural characters separating the two subfamilies which 
 these butterflies represent, the Viceroy can be easily distin- 
 guished from the species it mimics by its smaller size, and 
 by the presence of a transverse black band on the hind 
 wings. 
 
 It is believed that the resemblance of these two species 
 is not merely accidental, but is a result of the action of the 
 law of natural selection. The butterflies of the subfamily 
 to which the Monarch belongs {Euplceince) are exempt from 
 the attacks of birds. It is supposed that this exemption is 
 due to the possession by these butterflies of a disagreeable 
 odor. With such an odor the conspicuous coloring of the 
 butterflies is protective, the birds soon learning that such 
 butterflies are not fit for food. And it can be seen that these 
 birds will naturally leave undisturbed any other butterflies 
 
LEPIDOPTRRA. 4O9 
 
 that resemble the ill-smelling ones, even though they do not 
 possess a similar odor. According to the theory of natural 
 selection these resemblances have been produced as follows. 
 In the case of a variable species that is unprotected by any 
 disagreeable quality, any variation towards a protected spe- 
 cies will tend to preserve the life of the individual possessing 
 it. And in turn such offspring of these individuals as still 
 more nearly resemble the protected species will be most 
 likely to be preserved. The continued action of this natural 
 selection will result in producing a species that closely re- 
 sembles the protected one, even though it may be very 
 different structurally from the one that it mimics. 
 
 Many instances of unconscious mimicry of this kind are 
 known. They are especially abundant in the tropics where 
 the foul-smelling Hcliconince are most abundant. The bad 
 odor of these butterflies when living is so marked that it 
 can be detected by the human nose; and it is found that 
 many species of them are mimicked by other butterflies, and 
 especially those of the Pieridae. The mimicry is not con- 
 fined to similarity in coloring, but extends to the shape of 
 the wings and manner of flight. 
 
 The larva of the Viceroy feeds upon willow, poplar, balm 
 of gilead, aspen, and Cottonwood. The species two- or three- 
 brooded, and hibernates as a partially grown larva in a 
 nest made of a rolled leaf. This nest is lined with silk, 
 and the leaf is fastened to the twig with silk so that it can- 
 not fall during the winter. Mr. Scudder states that so far 
 as is known to him all of the species of the Sovereigns hi- 
 bernate as larvae in nests of this kind. It is worthy of note 
 that only the autumn brood of caterpillars make these nests. 
 So that the nest-building instinct appears only in alternate 
 generations, or even less frequently when the species is 
 more than two-brooded. B. arcJdppus is found over nearly 
 the whole of the United States as far west as the Sierra 
 Nevada Mountains, and has been found sparingly even to 
 the Pacific coast near our northern boundaries. 
 
410 THE STUDY OF IXSF.CTS. 
 
 As A)iosia plcxippus has been termed the Monarch, this 
 species is aptly called the Viceroy. 
 
 V. The Emperors. — The butterflies of this group are 
 found chiefly in the southern part of our country. The fol- 
 lowing is the best known species : — 
 
 The Goat-weed Butterfly, Ancea andria (A-nae'a an'- 
 dri-a). — The female of this species can be easily recognized 
 by Figure 480. The male is smaller, with wings of a rich 
 
 Fig. 480. — Antra aiuiria. 
 
 dark orange, margined with brown, and without the light- 
 colored band characteristic of the female. 
 
 This species is found in the Western States from Illinois 
 to Texas. The larva feeds on goat-weed {Crotoii). 
 
 Subfamily SATVRlNyE (Sat-y-ri'nae). 
 The Meadow-brozviis or Satyrs. 
 
 This subfamily includes chiefly brown butterflies whose 
 markings consist almost entirely of eye-like spots. Some 
 western species, however, are bright-colored. Our forms 
 can be easily recognized by their having some of the veins 
 of the fore wings greatly swollen at the base. 
 
 The larvae are cylindrical, tapering more or less towards 
 each end. The caudal segment is bifurcated, a character 
 that distinguishes them from all other American butterfly 
 
I.EPIDOP TF.RA . 411 
 
 larvEe excepting those of sonic of the Emperors {Clilorifypc), 
 not described in this book. Nearly sixty species belonging 
 to this subfamily have been described from America north 
 of Mexico. 
 
 The Eyed lirown, Satyrodcs curydice (Sat-\'-ro'des cu- 
 ryd'i-ce). — The upper surface 
 of the wings is soft mouse- 
 brown on the basal half and 
 paler beyond, considerably so 
 in the female ; each wing bears 
 a row of four or five small 
 black eye-like spots (Fig. 481). 
 This species is found in Onta- 
 rio, and throughout the east- yx^. ^^^.-saty,o,hseuyydice. 
 ern half of the United States. 
 
 The Dull-eyed Grayling, Cercyonis nepJiele (Cer-cy'o-nis 
 neph'e-le).— The two most conspicuous of the Meadow- 
 browns that occur east of the Rocky Mountains are this 
 and the following one ; they are comparatively large 
 species, expanding from two inches to two and one fourth 
 inches; both are dark brown. In this species there are on 
 the upper surface of the fore wing on the outer third of 
 the wing two black spots with white or bluish centers ; 
 sometimes the wing is tinged with yellow in the vicinity of 
 these spots, but generally the tinge is very slight, and it is 
 never so deep as in the next species; the hind wing is with 
 or without a spot in cell VII, , and sometimes with a spot on 
 either side of this one. On the lower surface the eye-like 
 spots of the fore wings are distinctly ringed with yellowish ; 
 and the hind wings are with or without eye-like spots, 
 usually with six of them. (See the Hybrid Graylings, 
 below.) 
 
 The Blue-eyed Grayling, Cercyonis alope (C. aKo-pe). — 
 This species closely resembles the preceding, but it is dis- 
 tinguished by the presence of a distinct yellow or pale orange 
 band on the outer half of the fore wings. 
 
412 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The larvae of both of these species feed upon grass ; 
 the butterflies fly during the latter half of the summer, 
 and the larvae begin hibernating as soon as hatched. 
 
 The Hybrid Graylings, Cercyonis alope-nephele. — The 
 Dull-eyed Grayling is a northern species, occurring in 
 Canada and the northern part of the United States. The 
 Blue-eyed Grayling is found throughout the greater part of 
 the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, except in 
 the extreme North and South. The ranges of the two 
 overlap in the southern portions of New England, New 
 York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Nebraska; and in the 
 northern portions of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. In this 
 belt both species occur, and also intergrades between them ; 
 these intergrades may be called Hybrid Graylings. 
 
 The White Mountain Butterfly, CEncis semidea (CE-ne'is 
 se-mid'e-a). — Comparatively few students who study this 
 book will collect this butterfly; but we refer to it on ac- 
 count of its remarkable distribution. It is found only on 
 the higher parts (above 5000 feet) of the White Mountains 
 in New Hampshire, and on the highest peaks of the Rocky 
 Mountains of Colorado, above 12,000 feet. 
 
 These two widely separated colonies of this butterfly are 
 believed to be the remnants of an Arctic fauna which was 
 forced southward during the Ice Age. At the close of this 
 period, as the Arctic animals followed the retreating ice 
 northward, the tops of these mountains became colonized 
 by the cold-loving forms. Here they found a congenial 
 resting place, while the main body of their congeners, which 
 occupied the intervening region, was driven northward by 
 the increasing heat of the lower land. Here they remain, 
 clinging to these islands of cold projecting above the fatal 
 sea of warmth that fills the valleys below. 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Order DiPTERA (Dip'te-ra). 
 The Flics. 
 
 The inembers of this order have only tzvo zvings ; these 
 are borne by the niesothorax. The metatJiorax is furnished 
 ivith a pair of knobbed threads, the halteres. The mouth- 
 parts are formed for sucking. The metamorphosis is com- 
 plete. 
 
 To the order Diptera belong all insects that are properly 
 termed flies, and only these. The word "fly" forms a 
 part of many compound names of insects of other orders, 
 as butterfly, stone-fly, May-fly, and Chalcis-fly ; but when 
 used alone, it is correctly applied only to dipterous insects. 
 To some flies other common names have been applied, as 
 mosquito, gnat, and midge. 
 
 The name Diptera is from two Greek words : dis, two, 
 and pteron, a wing. It was suggested by the fact that the 
 flies are distinguished by the possession of a single pair of 
 wings; for no fly has more than two wings, and only a few 
 are wingless. 
 
 The wings of flies are thin, membranous, and usually 
 either naked or clothed with microscopic hairs; but with 
 mosquitoes the wings bear scales, and with the moth-like 
 flies (Psychodidae) and some others the clothing of hairs is 
 very conspicuous. The hind wings are represented by a 
 pair of knobbed threads, the halteres (hal-te'res) ; these can 
 be easily seen in a crane-fly (Fig. 482). The function of 
 
414 THE STUDY OF IX SECTS. 
 
 these rudimentary wings is not known ; but they doubtle-ss 
 
 have some important use, for they are present in nearly all 
 
 flies, even when the front wings are wanting. 
 
 The mouth-parts of flies are formed for sucking, and 
 
 sometimes also for piercing. Their structure differs greatly 
 
 in different families; and 
 in some cases it is exceed- 
 ingly difficult to determine 
 the correspondence of the 
 different parts. In the 
 more typical forms the 
 mouth-parts consist of six 
 bristle -like or lance -like 
 organs enclosed in a sheath, 
 and a pair of jointed palpi. 
 A difference of opinion 
 exists as to the corre- 
 
 F.c. 482.-A crane-fly. showing w"i^gs and SpOUdcnCC of thcSC partS ; 
 
 ''^''"^'*- but according to the most 
 
 generally accepted view the six bristles represent the 
 upper lip {labniin), the tongue [JiypopJiarynx), the two man- 
 dibles, and the two maxilke, and the sheath enclosing these 
 bristles is the lower lip {labium). The palpi which are not 
 enclosed in the sheath are the maxillary palpi. At the tip 
 of the lower lip there is, on each side, a lobe-like appendage ; 
 these are the labial palpi. The labial palpi of certain flies 
 are quite large ; in the House-fly, for example, they are ex- 
 panded into broad plates, which are fitted for rasping. 
 
 In their transformations flies pass through a complete 
 metamorphosis. The larva; are commonly called maggots. 
 These are usually cylindrical and are footless ; some possess 
 a distinct head, others do not; the form of the mouth-parts 
 varies greatly in the different families; and there are re- 
 markable variations in the form of the respiratory organs, 
 especially as to the number and position of the spiracles. 
 The pupae are usually either naked or enclosed in the last 
 
DIPTERA. 
 
 415 
 
 larval skin. A few are enclosed in cocoons. When the 
 pupa state is passed within the last larval skin the body of 
 the pupa separates from the larval skin more or less com- 
 pletely ; but the larval skin is not broken till the adult fly 
 is ready to emerge. In this case the larval skin, which 
 serves as a cocoon, is termed a puparium (pu-pa'ri-um). In 
 some families the puparium retains the form of the larva ; 
 in others the body of the 
 larva shortens, assuming a 
 more or less barrel-shaped 
 form (Fig. 483, 2), before 
 the change to a pupa takes 
 place. 
 
 This is a large order, 
 both in number of species 
 and individuals. The spe- 
 cies differ much in habits. 
 Some are very annoying to 
 man. Familiar examples 
 are the mosquito, which 
 attacks his person ; the 
 flesh-flies, which infest his 
 food ; the bot-flies and gad- 
 flies that torment his cat- 
 tle ; and the gall-gnats that 
 destroy his crops. Other 
 species are very beneficial. 
 Those belonging to 
 Syrphidse, and to the sub- 
 family Tachininee of the 
 Muscidae destroy many noxious insects ; and very many 
 species, while in the larval state, feed upon decaying animal 
 and vegetable matter, thus acting as scavengers. 
 
 Although the habits of these creatures, which revel in 
 all kinds of filth, are very disgusting, we cannot help admir- 
 ing that arrangement by which a mass of filth, instead of 
 
 f]-|P Fin 483 —The Apple-maggot; i. larva; 2, pupa- 
 rium ; s. aduh ; la, head of larva from side, 
 showing mouth-parts and cephalic spiracle; 
 lb. head of larva Irom below ; ic, caudai 
 spiracle of larva. 
 
4l6 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 being left to poison the atmosphere, is transformed into 
 myriads of living beings, whose swift flight and delicate 
 forms lend life and beauty to the landscape. 
 
 SYNOPSIS OF THE DIPTERA. 
 
 The Straight- Seamed Flies. — Flies in which the pupa escapes 
 from the larval skin through a T-shaped opening, which is 
 formed by a lengthwise split on the 
 back near the head end and a crosswise 
 split at the front end of this (Fig. 4S4), 
 "^' ''^■'' or rarely through a crosswise split be- 
 
 tween the seventh and eighth abdominal segments, adults without 
 a frontal lunule.* Suborder Orthgrrhapha (Or-thor'rha-pha). 
 The Long-horned Orthorrhapha or Nematocera (Nem-a-toc'e-ra). 
 Flies with four- or five-jointed pendulous palpi and with many- 
 jointed antennae, which are usually long. Tlie segments of the 
 antennae, except the basal two, are similar in form, and are more 
 than six in number; they are often fringed with hairs or 
 bristles. t 
 
 * 'Yhc frontal luHu/e is a small crescent-shaped piece immediately above 
 the antennae, which is characteristic of the second suborder, the Cyclor- 
 rhapha. In most of the members of this suborder there 
 is a suture separating the lunule from that part of the head 
 above it, the frontal suture ; and frequently this suture 
 extends down on each side to near the mouth (Fig. 485). 
 But as the suture is wanting in several families of the 
 Cyclorrhapha, it is often difficult to determine whether 
 the lunule is present or not. The following statement 
 will enable the student to recognize nearly all of the 
 members of the first suborder. ^'showl'g "frS 
 
 The suborder Orthorrhapha includes : — suture 
 
 All flies in which the antennae are more than three-jointed, not counting 
 a bristle or style borne by the third segment. 
 
 AH flies with three-jointed antennae in which vein III is four-branched. 
 
 Such of the flies in which vein Vila appears like a cross-vein, or curves 
 back towards the base of the wing, as lack the suture above the antennae. 
 This section includes only a few Empididaeand the families Dolichopodidae and 
 Lonchopteridae. Nearly all of the flies in which vein VII2 is of the form 
 described here possess the suture above the antennae, and hence belong to 
 the Cyclorrhapha. 
 
 f The two types of antennae characteristic of the Nematocera and 
 Brachycera respectively are connected by intermediate forms. These 
 
DIPTERA. 417 
 
 The True Nematocera. The antennae usually long and frequently- 
 bearing whorls of long hairs, especially in the males ; legs long 
 and slender; abdomen usually long and slender. 
 The Moth-like Flies, Family PSYCHODIDTE. p. 428. 
 The Midge-like Flics. 
 The Crane-flies, Family Tipulidte. p. 429. 
 The Net-winged Midges, Family Blepharocerid^, p. 432. 
 The Dixa-midges, Family DixiDit. p. 436. 
 The Mosquitoes, Family Culicid/E. p. 437. 
 The Midges, Family ChironomiD/E. p. 440. 
 The Fungus-gnats, Family MvcETOPHlLIDi*;. p. 442. 
 The Gall-gnats, Family CeciuomyiiD/E. p. 444. 
 The A/ioiiialous Nematocera. The antennae are composed of 
 many segments, but are shorter than the thorax, and without 
 whorls of long hairs. The segments of the antennae are short 
 and broad and closely pressed together. Except in the first 
 family, the abdomen is comparatively stout, and the legs are 
 shorter and stouter than in the True Nematocera. 
 The False Crane-flies, Family Rhyphid^. p. 448. 
 The Solitary-midge, Family Orphnephilid^. p. 449. 
 The March-flies, Family Bibionid^. p. 449. 
 The Black-flies, Family SlMULllD^. p. 451. 
 The Short - horned Orthorrhapha or Brachycera (Bra-chyc'e-ra). 
 Orthorrhapha with one- or two-jointed, porrect palpi, and with 
 usually short, three-jointed antennae. The third segment of the 
 antenna is sometimes distinctly ringed, showing that it is really 
 composed of many segments grown together; and sometimes 
 the antennae are four- or five-jointed. 
 
 The Anomalous Brachycera. The third segment of the antenna is 
 ringed, showing that it is composed oi several segments grown 
 together. The body is not furnished with strong bristles. 
 The Horse-flies, Family TABANiD.ii. p. 453. 
 
 occur in those families grouped below as the Anomalous Brachycera (see 
 Figs. 489, 490, and 492). The Nematocera and Brachycera are more 
 sharply distinguished by the form of the palpi, as indicated in this Synopsis ; 
 but sometimes it is difficult to see the palpi. A more easily seen distinction 
 is presented by the venation of the wings. In the Anomalous Brachycera 
 cell Va is divided by a cross-vein and cell VIII is closed before the margin of 
 the wing or is greatly narrowed at the margin of the wing (see Figs. 539, 
 545, and 551). In the Nematocera cell VIII is never closed, and cell V2 is 
 divided only in the Tipulida and Rhyphidae, and in these families the 
 antennae are distinctly composed of many segments. 
 
41 8 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The Soldier-flies, Family Stratiomyiid^. p. 455. 
 The Snipe-flies (in part). Family Leptid.e. p. 456. 
 The True Brachycera. The antennae are usually three-jointed, 
 but sometimes four- or five-jointed; the third segment is not 
 ringed, but usually bears a style or bristle.* The body is 
 usually furnished with strong bristles. 
 
 True Brachycera with the empodta pidvilliform. Flies in which 
 there are three membranous lobes beneath the tarsal claws 
 (Fig. 495) + 
 
 'The Snipe-flies (in part), Family Leptid^. p. 456. 
 The Small-headed Flies, Family Acrocerid^e. p. 458. 
 The Tangle -veined Flies, Family Nemistrinid^, p. 459. 
 True Brachycera with the empodia not pulvilliform. Flies in 
 which there are only two membranous pads beneath the 
 tarsal claws (Fig. 494). 
 Vein III of the wings four-branched. 
 The Robber-flies, Family Asilid^. p. 460. 
 The Midas-flies, Family Midaid^. p. 461. 
 The Apiocerids, Family Apiocerid.e. p. 462. 
 The Bee-flies, Family Bombylid^. p. 463. 
 The Stiletto-flies, Family Therevid^. p. 464. 
 The Window-flies, Family SCENOPINID^. p. 465. 
 The Dance-flies (in part), Family Empidid^. p. 466. 
 Vein III of the wings three-branched. 
 The Dance-flies (in part). Family Empidid^e. p. 466. 
 The Long-legged Flies, Family Dolichopodid^. p. 467. 
 The Spear-winged Flies, Family Lonchop'1»ERID^. p. 469. 
 The Circular-Seamed Flies. — Flies in which the pupa escapes 
 from the larval skin through a circular orifice made by push- 
 ing of? the head end of it (Fig. 486). Adults with a 
 frontal lunule. Suborder Cyclorrhapha (Cy-clor'rha- 
 pha). 
 
 Cyclorrhapha without a fro7ttal suture (ASCHIZA). 
 The Syrphus-flies, Family Syrphid^. p. 470. 
 The Big-eyed J^'lies, Family Pipunculida;. p. 473. 
 The Flat-footed Flies, Family Platypezid/E. p. 474, 
 The Humpbacked flies, Family Phorid^. p. 475. 
 
 * A similar type of antenna is possessed by the Cyclorrhapha, which 
 were formerly on this account included in the Brachycera ; but this term is 
 now restricted to the Short-horned Orthorrhapha. 
 
 f The empodia are pulvilliform in the Anomalous Brachycera also ; but 
 that group is easily distinguished by the form of the antennae. 
 
DIP TEN A. 419 
 
 Cyclorrhapha 7Vith a frontal suture (Schizophora) 
 Normal Schizophora. 
 
 The Thickhead-flies, Family CoNOPlUit. p. 476. 
 
 The Bot-flies, Family OiSTRiDiE. p. 477. 
 
 The Muscids, Family Muscid^e. p. 479. 
 The Pupa-bearing Flies (Pupipara). 
 
 The Louse-flies, Family Hipporoscid.e. p. 487. 
 
 The Bat-ticks, Family Nycteribiid^. p. 489. 
 
 The Bee-louse, Family Braulidte. p. 489. 
 
 Classification of the Diptera. 
 
 {For advanced students.) 
 
 In the following table for determining the families of the Diptera 
 use is made chiefly of characters based on the form of the head, an- 
 tennae, and wings. 
 
 The more important of the characters presented by the head are 
 the presence or absence of the frontal lunule, and the presence or ab- 
 sence of the frontal suture when the lunule is present. (See page 416, 
 note.) In those families that possess the frontal suture there exists 
 a large bladder-like organ, xht ptilinum (ptil'i-num), which is pushed 
 out through this suture when the adult is about to emerge from the 
 puparium. In this way the head end of the puparium is forced off, 
 making a large opening through which the adult escapes ; afterwards 
 the ptilinum is withdrawn into the head. If a specimen is captured 
 soon after its emergence from the puparium, there may be seen in- 
 stead of the frontal suture the bladder-like ptilinum projecting from 
 the head, imniMiately above the antennae. 
 
 The form of the antennae is of prime importance in determining 
 to what family a fly belongs. In the more generalized families the 
 antenna consists of many segments, which, except the basal two, are 
 similar in form (Fig. 487). Frequently such antennae bear whorls of 
 long hairs (Fig. 488). In the more specialized families there is a re- 
 duction in the number of segments of the antenna. This is brought 
 about either by a more or less complete consolidation of the segments 
 beyond the second into a single segment* (Figs. 489 and 490), or by a 
 dwindling of the terminal segments, so that they form merely a slen- 
 der style (Fig. 491) or bristle (Fig. 492). Such a bristle is termed by 
 many writers the arista (a-ris'ta). In most cases where a style or 
 arista exists it is borne by the third segment, and this segment is then 
 usually greatly enlarged. When the enlargement of this segment has 
 taken place evenly the style or arista is terminal; but frequently one 
 part of the third segment is expanded so that it projects beyond the 
 
420 
 
 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. 
 
 insertion of the arista (Fig. 493) ; then the arista is said to be 
 dorsal. 
 
 The legs vary greatly in length and in stoutness. The coxae are 
 usually long, and in most of the fungus-gnats (Mycetophilidae) they 
 are very long. When pulvilli are developed they are membranous 
 pads, one beneath each tarsal claw. A third appendage, the einpo- 
 dium (em-po'di-um), often exists between the two pulvilli of each tar- 
 
 
 -J^^ 
 
 Fig. 487. 
 
 Fig. 489. 
 
 Fig. 4go. 
 
 Fig. 491. 
 
 sus. The empodia may be bristle-like, or tapering (Fig. 494), or 
 membranous, resembling the pulvilli in form (Fig. 495); in the last 
 case they are described 2,% pulvilliform. 
 
 Variations in the form and venation of the wings afford charac- 
 ters that are much used in the classification of flies. In many fami- 
 
 FiG. 492. 
 
 Fig. 493. 
 
 FiG. 495. 
 
 lies there is a notch in the inner margin of the wing near its base 
 (Fig. 496, a e); this is the axillary excision; that part of the wing 
 lying between the axillary excision and the base of the wing is the 
 posterior lobe (Fig. 496,/). In- certain families there is a membrane 
 beneath the base of the wing and above the halter or rudimentary 
 
DirrKKA. 421 
 
 hind wing; this is the ahiltx (al'ii-l.i) or ahilct (al'u-lct). The alula; 
 are well developed in the coninion House-fly. Each alula, in those 
 species where the aluljE are well developed, consists of two lobes 
 which fold over each other when the wings are closed. The alulae 
 are called the teguhc by many writers on Diptera; but the term icgiila 
 
 aili (TTTi+j 
 
 V112+IX 
 
 Fig. 496. — Wing of Conors; ae, axillary excision ; /, posterior lobe. 
 
 was first used in insect anatomy for the cup-like scale which covers 
 tlie base of the wing in certain insects, as most Hymenoptera, and 
 should be restricted to that use. The terms alula and alulet are also 
 often misapplied, being used to designate the posterior lobe of the 
 wing. 
 
 The plan of the venation of the wings can be easily learned by a 
 study of the wing of Rhyphus (Fig. 497), which is very generalized in 
 structure, except that vein III is only three-branched, while in cer- 
 tain still more generalized forms it is five-branched (e.g., Protoplasa, 
 Fig. 504; and Psychoda, Fig. 500). In the figures of wings in this 
 chapter both the veins and the cells are numbered. The numbers 
 outside of the margin of the wing refer to the veins ; those witiiift, to 
 the cells, except when otherwise indicated by a dotted line or by an 
 arrow. It should be remembered that each cell bears the same num- 
 ber as the vein that forms its front margin when the wings are spread. 
 When a cell is divided by a cross-vein the two parts are numbered 
 ist and 2d. Thus in R/iyphus, cell Vo is divided, and the parts are 
 designated as the ist cell V2 and the 2d cell V2 (Fig. 497, ist V2 , 2d 
 V2). A cross-vein is marked cv. 
 
 In the Diptera veins IV and VI are not developed. Vein I ex- 
 tends along the costal margin of the wing ; it usually ends somewhere 
 near the apex of the wing; in Rhyphus it ends at the tip of vein III44.5 
 (Fig. 497). In some families it extends entirely around the wing; it 
 is then called the ambient vein. Vein II is simple. Vein III is typi- 
 cally five-branched; but the number of branches is usually reduced to 
 
422 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 four or to tlirce. Vein V is three-branched in the more generalized 
 forms. Vein VII is two-branched. Vein VIII is usually merely a 
 concave fold just behind vein VII and parallel with that vein; it is 
 represented in most of the figures of wings by a dotted line. Vein IX 
 is usually present; and sometimes vein XI also exists. 
 
 One of the most marked features in the specialization of the wings 
 of Diptera is a tendency of the veins to coalesce from the margin of 
 the wing towards the base. This is illustrated by the wing of Conops 
 (Fig. 496). In this genus veins III4+5 and V1+2 coalesce at the mar- 
 gin of the wing; veins Vs and VI Ii coalesce for nearly their entire 
 
 "I. in.+, 
 
 Fig. 407.— Wing- of Rhy/'hus. 
 
 length. The result of this coalescence is to cause the free part of 
 vein Vs to appear like a cross-vein between cells V and the ist cell 
 Va. Veins VII2 and IX also coalesce at the margin of the wing. 
 
 In a few genera of flies certain longitudinal veins are bent so as 
 to form a sharp angle, and from this angle a spur is developed. Thus 
 in Protoplasa there is a sharp angle near the base of vein Illa+n which 
 bears a spur (Fig. 504, s) ; in Erax a similar spur is formed on vein 
 II I4 (Fig. 559, s) ; and in Pantarbes this spur on vein III4 is prolonged 
 so as to form a complete cross-vein dividing cell Ilia into two parts 
 (Fig. 564)- *. 
 
 TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE FAMILIES OF THE DIPTERA. 
 
 A. Flies in which the abdomen is distinctly segmented, and the two 
 legs of each thoracic segment are not widely separated. Habits 
 various, but the adults do not live parasitically upon either birds 
 or mammals. 
 B. Antennae consisting of more than three segments. (Note that 
 
 a style or bristle borne by the third segment is not counted as a 
 
 segment.) 
 
DIP TEN A. 423 
 
 C, Antennae consisting of more than five distinct segments, the 
 segments beyond the second not consolidated; cell VIII of 
 the wings but slightly narrowed at the margin of the wing, if 
 at all ; palpi usually elongate, and composed of from three to 
 live segments. 
 
 D. Small moth-like flies, with the body and wings densely 
 clothed with hairs and scales. Wings with from nine to 
 eleven longitudinal veins, but with no cross-veins except 
 sometimes near the base of the wings (Fig. 500), p. 428. 
 
 PSVCHODID^. 
 
 DD. Flies that do not resemble mollis in appearance. 
 
 E. Dorsum of thorax with a distinct V-shaped suture (Fig. 
 
 503). p. 429 TlPULID^. 
 
 EE. Dorsum of thorax without a distinct V-shaped suture. 
 F. Vein V of the wings three-branched ; cell V, divided 
 
 by a cross-vein (Fig. 527). p. 44S Rhyphid^. 
 
 FF. Vein V of the wings simple or two-branched ; cell V, 
 not divided by a cross-vein. 
 
 G. Wings with a network of fine lines near the outer 
 and inner margins in addition to the veins (Fig. 506). 
 
 p. 432 Blepharocerid^. 
 
 GG. Wings without a network of fine lines. 
 
 H. The margin of the wings and each of the wing- 
 veins fringed with scales (Fig. 512). p. 437. 
 
 CULICID/E. 
 
 HH. The wing-veins with or without a fringe of hairs, 
 but without a fringe of flat scales. 
 
 I. Anal veins entirely wanting; vein V wanting or 
 at most represented by a single unbranched fold 
 (Fig. 522). p. 444 Cecidomyiid^. 
 
 II. Anal veins present or represented by folds ; vein 
 V present or at least represented by a fold which 
 is usually branched. 
 
 J. Ocelli present. 
 
 K. Antennae shorter than the thorax; legs 
 comparatively short and stout ; coxae not un- 
 usually long, p. 449 BlBlONID^. 
 
 KK. Antennae usually longer than the thorax ; 
 legs slender, and with greatly elongate coxae 
 
 (Fig. 518). p. 442 M YCETOPHILIDiE. 
 
 JJ. Ocelli absent. 
 K. Antennae short, not clothed with long hairs, 
 
424 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 and with most of the segments wider than 
 long (Fig. 533) ; wings very broad (Fig. 534). 
 
 p. 451 SiMULIIDiE. 
 
 KK. Antennae either bushy, being densely 
 clothed with long hairs or slender with nar- 
 row segments ; wings narrow or moderately 
 broad. 
 
 L. Wing-veins well developed on all parts of 
 the wing. 
 
 M. Vein IIIi ending at or near the end of 
 the second third of the costal margin. 
 
 p. 449 ORPHNEPHILIDiE. 
 
 MM. Vein IIIi ending on the outer margin 
 
 of the wing (Fig. 509). p. 436..DixiD^. 
 
 t LL. Wing-veins much stouter near the costal 
 
 margin of the wing than elsewhere (Fig. 
 
 517). p. 440 Chironomid.e. 
 
 CC. Antennae either consisting of four or five distinct segments 
 or consisting of five or more segments, with those beyond the 
 second more or less closely consolidated so as to appear as a 
 single segment consisting of several subsegments (Figs. 489, 490, 
 492, and 537) ; cell VIII closed by the coalescence of the tips of 
 veins VI I2 and IX, or greatly narrowed at the margin of the 
 wing ; palpi rarely elongate, and composed of from one to three 
 segments. 
 
 D. Antennae consisting of four or five distinct segments, 
 empodia wanting or bristle-like. 
 E. Vein Ilia not curved forward towards the costal margir. 
 
 of the wing (Fig. 559). p. 460 AsiLiD^- 
 
 EE. Vein III5 curved forward towards the costal margin of 
 
 the wing (Fig. 561). p. 461 MlDAiD/E. 
 
 DD. Antennae consisting of five or more segments, but witli 
 
 those beyond the second more or less closely consolidated ; 
 
 empodia resembling pulvilli in form (Fig. 495). 
 
 E. The branches of vein III crowded together near the 
 
 costal margin of the wing, and the first cell V; unusually 
 
 short and broad (Fig. 545). p. 455 Stratiomviid.'E. 
 
 EE. Venation of wings normal. 
 
 F. The alulets large, p. 453 Tabanid.e. 
 
 FF. The alulets small or wanting, p. 456 Leptid,«. 
 
 BB. Antennae consisting of not more than three segments; the 
 
DIPTERA. 425 
 
 third segment either with or without a style or bristle, but not 
 divided into subsegments. 
 
 C. Antennae consisting apparently of a single globular segment 
 bearing a long bristle ; wings with some stout veins near the 
 costal margin and other weaker ones extending across the 
 wing unconnected by cross-veins (Fig. 581). p. 475. PhoriD/E. 
 CC. Flies that do not present the type of venation represented 
 by Figure 581. 
 
 D. Cells V and first V.j not separated (see Fig. 571 for an ex- 
 ample of this type). 
 
 E. Vein III with a knot-shaped swelling at the point of 
 separation of veins III2-I-3 and III4 + 5; the cross-vein 
 III-V at or near this swelling; no suture immediately 
 
 above the antennae, p. 467 Dolichopodid/E. 
 
 EE. Vein III with or without a swelling at the point of 
 separation of veins Ills-f-s and III44-6; the cross-vein 
 III-V more remote from base of wing; a suture immedi- 
 ately above the antennae, p. 479 , MusciD/E. 
 
 DD. Cells V and V2 separate. 
 E. Vein III four-branched. 
 
 F. Venation intricate, due to an unusual anastomosing of 
 
 the veins (Fig. 555). p. 459 Nemistrinid^. 
 
 FF. Venation not of the type represented by Figure 555. 
 G. Vertex of head distinctly hollowed out between the 
 eyes (Fig. 557); eyes never contiguous, p. 460. 
 
 ASILID^. 
 
 GG. Vertex of head not hollowed out between the eyes; 
 eyes often contiguous in males. 
 
 H. Alulets very large, p. 458 Acrocerid.'E. 
 
 HH. Alulets small or rudimentary. 
 
 I. Cell V3 present. 
 
 J. Vein Ills ending before the apex of the wing 
 
 (Fig. 562). p. 462 Apiocerid.«, 
 
 JJ. Vein Ills not ending before the apex of the 
 wing. 
 
 K. Empodia pulvilliform, i.e., with three mem- 
 branous lobes beneath the tarsal claws (Fig, 
 
 495). p. 456 Leptid^. 
 
 KK, With only two membranous lobes beneath 
 the tarsal claws, p. 464 Therevid/E. 
 
 II. Cell V3 obliterated by the coalescence of veins 
 V3 and Vlli. 
 
426 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 J. Third segment of antennae without bristle or 
 style ; vein V, ending at or before the apex of 
 
 the wing (Fig. 568). p. 465 ScENOPiNiDiE. 
 
 JJ. Third segment of antennae usually with bristle 
 or style ; vein Vi ending beyond the apex of the 
 wing. 
 
 K. Vein VII3 extending free to the margin of 
 the wing or coalesced with vein IX for a short 
 
 distance (Fig. 564). p. 463 Bombylid.e. 
 
 KK. Vein Vila joining vein IX far from the 
 margin of the wing, often extending towards 
 the base of the wing (Fig. 569). p. 466. 
 
 EMPIDIDiC. 
 
 EE. Vein III with not more than three branches. 
 
 F. Wings lanceolate, and with no cross veins except at the 
 
 base (Fig. 572). p. 469 Lonchopterid^. 
 
 FF. Wings not of the type represented by Figure 572. 
 
 G. Flies with a very small head ; with the thorax and 
 
 abdomen inflated, giving the body a hunchback-like 
 
 appearance, and with the alulets very large. The 
 
 empodia pulvilliform, i.e., with three membranous lobes 
 
 beneath the tarsal claws, p. 458 Acrocerid>e. 
 
 GG. Head of ordinary size or very large ; form of thorax 
 and abdomen various; alulets either large or small. 
 The empodia not pulvilliform, i.e., only two membra- 
 nous lobes beneath the tarsal claws, 
 H. Vein VII2 appearing as a cross-vein or curved 
 back towards the base of the wing (Figs. 569, 588). 
 
 I. Antennae with a terminal style or arista, p. 466. 
 
 EMPIDIDiE. 
 
 II. Antennae with a dorsal arista. 
 
 J. Proboscis rudimentary ; mouth-opening small ; 
 
 palpi wanting, p. 477 CEstrid^. 
 
 JJ. Proboscis not rudimentary ; palpi present. 
 K. Head with a suture immediately above the 
 antennae th/ough which the ptilinum is pro- 
 truded and withdrawn (Fig. 587). p. 479. 
 
 MusciD^. 
 KK. Head without such suture, p. 466. 
 
 Empidid^. 
 HH. Vein VIIj not coalesced with vein IX to such an 
 
DIPTERA. 427 
 
 extent as to cause the free part to appear like a 
 cross-vein. 
 
 I. Antenna with a terminal style or bristle. 
 
 J. Antenna with a terminal bristle, p. 474. 
 
 Platypezid/e. 
 JJ. Antenna with a terminal style. 
 
 K. Front with grooves or a depression beneath 
 
 the antennae, p. 476 Conopid^. 
 
 KK. Front convex beneath the antenna. 
 
 P- 470 SVRPHIDvE. 
 
 II. Antenna with dorsal bristle. 
 
 J. Head extremely large, and with nearly the en- 
 tire surface occupied by the eyes (Fig. 577). 
 
 P- 473 PlPUNCULID^. 
 
 JJ. Head not of the type represented by Figure 
 577- 
 
 K. Wings with a vein-like thickening, the spu- 
 rious vein, between veins HI and V (Fig. 574). 
 
 P- 470 Syrphidte. 
 
 KK. Wings without a spurious vein. 
 L. Front with grooves or a depression beneath 
 
 the antennae, p 476 Conopid^. 
 
 LL. Front convex beneath the antennae. 
 
 P- 470 SYRPHIDiE. 
 
 AA. Flies in which the abdomen is indistinctly segmented, and the 
 two legs of each segment are widely separated by the broad ster- 
 num. The adults live parasitically upon birds, mammals, or the 
 Honey-bee. 
 B. Compound eyes present ; wings present or absent, p. 487. 
 
 HlPPOBOSCID^. 
 
 BB. Both compound eyes and wings absent. 
 
 C. Halteres present; tarsal claws of ordinary form. Adults 
 parasite upon bats. p. 489 NYCTERlBiiDyE. 
 
 CC. Halteres absent; last segment of tarsus with a pair of comb- 
 like appendages, p. 489 Braulid>E. 
 
 Suborder Orthorrhapha (Or-thor'rha-pha). 
 
 The Straight-seamed Flies. 
 
 To this suborder belong those families of flies in which 
 the pupa escapes from the larval skin through a T-shaped 
 
428 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 opening, which is formed by a lengthwise spht on the back 
 near the head-end and a crosswise spht at the front end of 
 this (Fig. 498). In a few members 
 of this suborder (i.e., some of the 
 Cecidomyiidae) the pupa escapes 
 ^ '^- ^>'' through a crosswise spht between 
 
 the seventh and eighth abdominal segments. The pupae 
 are usually either naked or enclosed in the last larval skin, 
 the puparium ; but the pupae of some of the gall-gnats, 
 Cecidomyiidae, are enclosed in cocoons. The adult fhes do 
 not possess a frontal lunule. See footnote page 416. 
 
 Family PSYCirODID^ (Psy-chod'i-dse). 
 The Moth-like Flies. 
 
 There may be found frequently upon windows and on 
 the lower surface of the foliage of trees small flies which 
 have the body and wings densely clothed with 
 hair and which resemble tiny moths in appear- 
 ance. The wings are broad, and when at rest 
 slope at the sides in a roof-like manner or are 
 held horizontally in such a way as to give the 
 insect a triangular outline (Fig. 499). 
 
 The moth-like appearance of these insects is sufficient to 
 distinguish them from all other f!ies. The venation of the 
 
 Fig. 499.-A 
 moth-like fly. 
 
 VII, 
 Fig. soo.— Wing of a molh-like fly. 
 
DirTERA. 429 
 
 wings (Fig. 500) is also very peculiar. All of the longitu- 
 dinal veins separate near tiie base of the wing except veins 
 III, and III3 and veins V, and V^. In some forms veins 
 III^ and IIIj are distinct, as shown in the figure; in others 
 they coalesce completely, so that radius is only four-branched. 
 In this case there is onlv a single vein between the two 
 forked veins. 
 
 The antennae are long and slender, and are clothed with 
 whorls of hairs (Fig. 501). Those of the male are longer; 
 and in the species figured the two 
 basal segments are clothed with scales 
 like those of the Lcpidoptera. Scales 
 of this form occur also on the wings, 
 palpi, and legs of certain species. 
 
 Only a few of the American species 
 have been described ; these have been 
 
 , , . , 71/7 1 F"'^- SOI. — Antennoe of Psv 
 
 placed ni the genus rsyclioaa ; the '/'""'"• w, antenna of male 
 
 '■ and the second segment of the 
 
 early StaP[eS of none of them have same more enlarged ; y, an- 
 
 •' ° tenna of female and the tip 
 
 been observed. The larvae of some enlarged. 
 
 European species inhabit cow-dung, and others live in water. 
 
 They have a pair of spiracles at each end of the body. 
 
 As regards the structure of their wings these flies are very distinct 
 from all others. The pre-anal area, that part lying in front of vein 
 VIII, presents an extremely generalized form. This is shown by the 
 outline of the wing (a line drawn lengtiiwise of the wing through its 
 centre will divide it into two similar parts), the small extent to which 
 the veins coalesce, and the fact that the maximum number of veins is 
 present. On the other hanc^ the anal area is so reduced as to be 
 barely represented. The dotted line in the figure represents the 
 position of what is left of the anal furrow (i.e., vein VIII). 
 
 Family TiPULlD/E (Ti-pu'li-dse). 
 
 The Cranc-fiies. 
 
 The crane-flies are mosquito-likc in form ; but they are 
 usually very much larger than mosquitoes. The body is 
 long and slender, the wings narrow, and the legs very 
 
430 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 long (Fig. 502). This family includes the larger members 
 of that series of flies in which the antennae are thread-like ; 
 but it also includes some species that are not larger than 
 certain mosquitoes. The most distinctive feature of crane- 
 flies is the presence of a transverse V-shaped suture on 
 the dorsal side of the mesothorax (Fig. 503). 
 
 — Tho- 
 
 acrane- 
 tiy showing 
 the V-shaped 
 suture. 
 
 Fig. 502. — A crane-fly. 
 
 The wings are long and narrow. In a few genera vein 
 III is five-branched, and the branches separate near the 
 middle of the wing (Fig. 504) ; but usually the number of 
 
 Fig. 504.— Wing of Protoplasa Jitchii. (After Osten Sacken.) 
 
 branches is reduced to three or four; and those that remain 
 distinct separate near the apex of the wing (Fig. 505). Cell 
 V, is divided into two parts by a cross-vein ; the branches of 
 vein VII like those of vein III separate near the distal end 
 of the wing; and the margin of the wing is strengthened by 
 an ambient vein. 
 
DIPTERA. 431 
 
 The structure of the ovipositor is also quite distinctive, 
 being composed of two pairs of long, horny, pointed valves. 
 These are fitted for depositing the eggs in the ground, or in 
 other firm substances. 
 
 The larvae of most species live in the ground ; and some 
 of them destroy grass and grain by gnawing the young 
 plants just below the surface of the soil. Those of other 
 species live in various situations, as in water, in decaying 
 wood, in fungi, and even on the leaves of plants. The larvae 
 
 KiG. 505.— Wing of Tiptthi abdomtnalis. 
 
 of this family have either a single pair of spiracles situated 
 at the hind end of the body, or they have two pairs, one 
 at each end of the body. The pupae are not enclosed in 
 a puparium, and bear transverse rows of hairs, bristles, or 
 spines, which enable them to work their way out from the 
 earth when about to transform. 
 
 Crane-flies often appear in great numbers, flying over 
 meadows and pastures. But in most cases their power of 
 flight does not seem to be well developed ; for they fly 
 slowly, and only a short distance at a time. Some species, 
 however, sustain themselves in the air for long periods. 
 This is especially true of some of the smaller species ; which 
 often collect in swarms at twilight, forming a small cloud, 
 and dancing up and down like some of the midges. But 
 even with these the flight is poor compared with that of the 
 more specialized families, as the Syrphidse or the Muscidag. 
 Their ability to walk is also poor; for they use their long 
 legs awkwardly, as if they were in the way. This has sug- 
 gested the rhyme : — 
 
 " My six long legs, all here and there, 
 Oppress my bosom with despair." 
 
432 THE STUDY OF IX SECTS. 
 
 Not only are the legs of crane-flies poorly fitted for loco, 
 motion, but they are so feebly attached to the body that 
 they are easily broken off ; however, the loss of a few legs 
 does not seem to be a serious matter to one of these insects. 
 Yet from what we know of the laws of development we are 
 forced to believe that the peculiar form of the legs has been 
 attained in order to fit them to perform better some impor- 
 tant function. It may be that the great length of the legs 
 is correlated with the unusual length of the abdomen and 
 ovipositor, and enables the insect to oviposit in a better 
 manner than would otherwise be possible. When about to 
 lay her eggs, the female stands nearly upright and, bringing 
 the abdomen at right angles to the surface of the earth, 
 thrusts the ovipositor into the ground. After placing one 
 or two eggs in the hole thus made, she moves forward a few 
 steps and repeats the operation. 
 
 Family Blepiiarocerid^ (Bleph-a-ro-cer'i-dae). 
 The Nct-ivingcd Midges. 
 
 The net-winged midges are extremely remarkable in- 
 sects; for in certain respects the structure of the adults is 
 very peculiar, and the larvae appear much more like Crusta- 
 ceans than like Insects. 
 
 The adults are mosquito-like in form; but they differ 
 from all other insects in having the wings marked by a net- 
 work of fine lines which extend in various directions and 
 are not influenced at all by the veins of the wing (Fig. 506) ; 
 they are, however, quite constant in their position in the 
 species that we have studied. 
 
 When a wing is examined with a microscope, the fine 
 lines are seen to be slender thickenings extending along the 
 courses of slight folds in the wing. The significance of 
 these folds is evident when a net-winged midge is observed 
 in the act of issuing from its pupa-skin. When the wing is 
 first pulled out of the \ving-sheath of the pupa, that part of 
 
DIPTERA. 
 
 433 
 
 it which Is crossed by the fine h'nes is plaited somewhat like 
 a fan and folded over the other portion. By this means the 
 wing, which is fully developed before the adult emerges, is 
 packed within the wing-sheath of the pupa, which is much 
 shorter and narrower than the wing. When the wing is 
 
 Fig. 506. — Wing of Blepharocera. 
 
 finally unfolded, it does not become perfectly flat, but 
 slight, alternating elevations and depressions remain, show- 
 ing the positions of the former folds, a permanent record of 
 the unique history of the wings of these insects. 
 
 Ordinarily the wings of insects, while still in the wing- 
 sheaths of the pupa, are neither longer nor wider than the 
 wing-sheaths, but expand after the adult emerges from the 
 pupa skin. Usually it takes considerable time for the 
 wings to expand and become fit for flight ; and during this 
 interval the insect is in an almost helpless condition. In 
 certain caddice-flies that emerge from swiftly-flowing water, 
 the time required for the expansion of the wings has been 
 reduced to the minimum (see pp. 189, 190). In the net- 
 winged midges, which also emerge from, swiftly-flowing 
 water, the difficulty is met by the wings reaching their full 
 development before the adult leaves the pupa-skin. It is 
 only necessary when the adult emerges from the water that 
 it should unfold its wings to be ready for flight. 
 
 The members of this family have three simple eyes. 
 Each compound eye is divided into two parts: an upper 
 half, in which the ocelli are very large ; and a lower half, in 
 
434 
 
 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. 
 
 which the ocelli are small. The antennae are thread-like, 
 but are not furnished with whorls of long hairs (Fig. 507). 
 The legs are very long. On the dorsum of the mescn 
 thorax there is on each side, beginning just in front 
 of the base of the wing, a well-marked suture, like 
 that of the crane-flies; but the two do not meet so 
 as to form a continuous V-shaped suture as in the 
 Tipulidai. 
 
 In some species at least there are two kinds of 
 females, which differ somewhat in the shape of the 
 Fig. 507. head. These two forms also differ in habits, one 
 being blood-sucking, the other feeding upon nectar. 
 The adults may be found resting on the foliage of shrubs 
 and trees on the margins of mountain-brooks, or dancing in 
 the spray of waterfalls. 
 
 The immature forms of these insects are even more 
 wonderful than are the adults. The larvae live in water, in 
 swiftly-flowing streams, where the water flows swiftest. We 
 have observed the transformations of Blepharocera capitata 
 (Bleph-aroc'e-ra cap-i-ta'ta), which is abundant in some of 
 the ravines near Ithaca, N. Y. 
 
 The larvae of this species are readily seen on account of 
 their black color, and are apt to attract attention on account 
 of their strange form (Fig. 
 508, a). At first sight the body 
 appears to consist of only seven 
 segments, but careful examina- 
 tion reveals the presence of 
 smaller segments alternating 
 with these. Each of the larger 
 segments except the last bears 
 a pair of conical, leg-like appen- 
 dages. On the ventral side of 
 the body (Fig. 508, b) each of 
 the seven larger segments except the last bears a sucker, 
 the cavity of which extends far into the body, and each 
 
 Fig. io^.—Blef>harocera . a, larva, dor« 
 sal view ; b, larva, ventral view ; c, 
 
 puparium. 
 
DIPTERA. 435 
 
 of these segments except the first bears two tufts of tracheal 
 gills ; but those of the last segment are united. The 
 head, which forms the front end of the first of the seven 
 larger divisions, bears a pair of slender antenna;; each of 
 these consists of a very short basal segment and two long 
 segments; at the tip of the last of these there is a pair of 
 minute appendages and a bristle. The suture between the 
 head and the remaining part of the first division is best seen 
 on the ventral side of the body. On the dorsal side a 
 suture may be seen dividing the last division into two 
 segments. 
 
 The pupa-state is passed in the same place as the larval. 
 Like the larvae the pupae are very conspicuous on account 
 of their black color, and are apt to occur like the larvae 
 closely clustered together. The pupa is not enclosed in the 
 larval skin, and differs greatly in form from the larva. On 
 the dorsal side the skin is hard, forming a convex scale over 
 the body (Fig. 508, c) ; and the thorax bears a pair of breath- 
 ing-organs ; on the ventral side the skin is very delicate, soft, 
 and transparent ; so that the developing legs and wings may 
 be easily seen when the insect is removed from the rock. 
 The pupae cling to the rock by means of six suckers, three 
 on each side near the edge of the lower surface of the abdo- 
 men ; and so firmly do they cling that it is difficult to re- 
 move specimens without breaking them. 
 
 We have watched the midges emerge from their pupa- 
 skins and escape from the water. The pupae occurred in 
 groups so as to form black patches on the rocks. Each one 
 was resting with its head down ^.tream. Each midge on 
 emerging forced its way out through a transverse rent be- 
 tween the thorax and abdomen. It then worked its body 
 out slowly, and in spite of the swift current held it vertical. 
 The water covering the patch of pupae varied from one 
 fourth to one half inch in depth. In the shallower parts 
 the adult had no trouble in working its way to the surface 
 still clinging to the pupa-skin by its very long hind legs. 
 
43^ 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 While still anchored by its legs the midge rests on the sur- 
 face of the water for one or two seconds and unfolds its 
 wings ; then freeing its legs it takes flight. The adults 
 emerging from the deeper water were swept away by the 
 current before they had a chance to take wing. The time 
 required for a midge to work its way out of the pupa-skin 
 varied from three to five minutes. 
 
 Family DIXID.-K (Uix'i-da;). 
 The Dixa-viidges. 
 These midges closely resemble mosquitoes in size and 
 form ; but they are easily distinguished by the venation of 
 their wings (Fig. 509). 
 
 Fig. 509. — Wing of Dixa. 
 
 The wing-veins are not furnished with scales, and are 
 distinct over the entire surface of the wing ; vein I is pro- 
 longed into an ambient vein ; vein II is well 
 developed, but is short, ending in the margin of 
 the wing near its middle, ana before the first fork 
 of vein III ; vein III is four-branched ; vein V is 
 two-branched ; cell V, is not divided by a cross- 
 vein ; and vein IIIj extends parallel to the mar- 
 gin of the wing to a point on the outer end 
 of the wing. The antennae (Fig. 510) are six- 
 teen-jointed, and differ but slightly in the two 
 sexes ; the legs are very long and slender ; and 
 he caudal end of the abdomen of the male is 
 enlarged. 
 
 Fig. 510. 
 
DIPTERA. 
 
 437 
 
 The family includes only a single genus, Dixa. 
 We have found the adult midges common on rank her- 
 bage, growing in a swanip)- place, in a shady forest. 
 
 Family CULICID.K (Cu-lic'i-da;). 
 The Mosquitoes. 
 
 The form of mosquitoes is so well known that it would 
 be unnecessary to characterize the Culicida^ were it not 
 that there are certain mosquito-like insects that are liable 
 to be mistaken for members of this family. 
 
 The mosquitoes are small flies, with the abdomen long 
 and slender, the wings narrow, the antennae 
 plumose in the males (Fig. 511), and usu- 
 ally with a long, slender, but firm proboscjs. 
 The thorax lacks the transverse V-shaped 
 suture characteristic of the crane-flies ; and 
 vein V of the wings is only two-branched 
 (Fig. 512). But the most distinctive feature f""^- s'l.-Antennae of 
 
 . . mosquitoes, m, male ; 
 
 of mosquitoes is a fringe of scale-like hairs y. <emaie. 
 
 on the margin of the wing and also, in all known American 
 
 forms, on each of the wing-veins. 
 
 Fig. 512 
 
 The larvae of mosquitoes, so far as they are known, are 
 aquatic. But it is probable that some species breed in the 
 ground, for mosquitoes occur in arid regions far from water. 
 
 The transformations of those species with aquatic larvae 
 are easily observed. The immature forms may be found in 
 
438 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 pools of stagnant water, in watering-troughs, and in ex- 
 posed receptacles of rain-water. 
 
 The long, slender eggs are laid side by side in a boat- 
 shaped mass, on the surface of the water (Fig. 513). They 
 
 Fig. 513. — A glas? of water containing eg'gfs, larvae, and pupae of mosquitoes. 
 
 hatch in a few days, and the larvae escape from the lower 
 ends into the water. The larvas are well known, and are 
 commonly called " wigglers," a name suggested by their 
 wriggling motion as they swim through the water. The 
 larva (Fig. 514, a) has a large head and 
 thorax and a slender abdomen. The 
 next to the last abdominal segment 
 bears a breathing-tube ; and when the 
 larva is at rest it hangs head down- 
 ward in the water, with the opening of 
 this tube at the surface (Fig. 513). At 
 the end of this tube there is a rosette 
 of plate-like lobes (Fig. 515, a), which, 
 floating on the surface of the water, keeps the larva in posi- 
 tion when at rest. The larva grows rapidly, and after a few 
 
 Fig. 514. — Mosquitoes . 
 rt, larva, b, pupa. 
 
DIPTERA. 439 
 
 molts changes Into a club-shaped pupa, the head and thorax 
 being greatly enlarged (514, b). With this transformation a 
 remarkable change takes place in the respi- 
 ratory system. There are now two breath- 
 ing-tubes, and these are borne by the 
 thorax. One of these tubes is represented 
 greatly enlarged by Figure 5 1 5, /;. At the 
 tail-end of the body there is a pair of leaf- _ 
 
 •' '^ Fig. 515 „ „. 
 
 like appendages, with which the insect t>reathing-tube of larva; 
 
 >■ ^ ^ ' b, breathing-tube of 
 
 swims; for the pup.-e of mosquitoes, and p^p^- 
 also of certain midges, differ from the pupae of other insects 
 in being active. The pupa state lasts only a few days ; then 
 the skin splits down the back, and the winged mosquito 
 carefully works itself out and cautiously balances itself on 
 the cast skin, using it as a raft, until its wings are hardened 
 so that it can fly away. 
 
 The larvae of mosquitoes are doubtless beneficial insects, 
 for they feed on decaying matter in water, and thus act as 
 scavengers ; but the annoyance caused by the bites of the 
 adult females more than counterbalances this good. The 
 males of mosquitoes neither sing nor suck blood ; * they 
 are said to feed on the sweets of flowers. 
 
 These pests can be repelled by smoke and by certain 
 strong-smelling substances. In regions where they abound 
 it is customary to build smudges in the evening for this 
 purpose ; and sportsmen anoint their faces and hands with 
 aromatic ointments. The best of these is made of mutton 
 tallow scented with camphor and oil of pennyroyal; a mix- 
 ture of oil of tar and oil of pennyroyal is also used. 
 
 It often happens that plagues of these pests are bred in 
 receptacles of rain-water standing near dwellings; such re- 
 ceptacles should not be left open unnecessarily. When the 
 breeding-places are ponds of limited extent the larvae and 
 
 *E. Ficalbi states that he has observed two Italian species in which both 
 sexes suck blood. Bull. Soc. Ent. Ital. 1889, p. 25. 
 
440 
 
 'JJIE STUDY OF IX SECTS. 
 
 pupae can be destroyed by pouring a small quantity of kero- 
 sene on the water ; this method of destroying them was first 
 suggested by Mr. L. O. Howard. 
 
 Family ClllRONOMlD^E (Chir-o-nom'i-dae). 
 Tlic Mido;cs. 
 
 %■ 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 The members of this family are more or less mosquito- 
 like in form. The abdomen is usually 
 long and slender ; the wings narrow ; the 
 legs long and delicate ; and the antennae, 
 especially in the males, strongly plumose 
 (Fig. 516). In fact many of these insects 
 are commonly mistaken for mosquitoes; 
 but only a few of them can bite, the 
 
 Fig. 516.— Antennae of 1 1 • 1 1 
 
 chironomus. /, female ; greater numbcr benig harmless. 
 
 >«, male. ., , . . 
 
 Ihe midges are most easily distin- 
 guished from mosquitoes by the structure of the wings 
 (Fig. 517). These are furnished with fewer and usually less 
 
 Fig. 517. — Wing of C/tironomus. 
 
 distinct veins; and the veins, although sometimes hairy, are 
 not fringed with scale-like hairs. There is a marked contrast 
 between the stouter veins near the costal border of the wing 
 and those on the other parts of the wing, which seem to be 
 fading out. The costal vein is not prolonged into an am- 
 bient vein, beyond the apex of the wing. 
 
 The name midge has been used in an indefinite way, 
 some writers applying it to any minute fly. It is much 
 better, however, to restrict it to members of this family 
 
DIVTERA. 441 
 
 except where it has become firmly cstabHshed as a part of a 
 specific name. The Wheat-midge and the Clover-seed 
 Midge are examples of names of this kind ; it would not be 
 wise to attempt to change these names, although the insects 
 they represent belong to the Gall-gnat family, and hence are 
 not true midges. 
 
 Midges often appear in large swarms, dancing in the air, 
 especially towards the close of day. Professor Williston 
 states that, over meadows in the Rocky Mountains, he has 
 seen them rise at nightfall in most incredible numbers, pro- 
 ducing a buzzing or humming noise like that of a distant 
 waterfall, and audible for a considerable distance. 
 
 The larvae are either aquatic or terrestrial ; they have 
 two pairs of spiracles, one at each end of the body, or are 
 furnished with tracheal gills. Some of the pupae are free 
 and active, others are quiescent ; some of the latter remain 
 partially enclosed in the split larval skin. 
 
 Many of our species belong to the genus CJiirononiiis 
 (Chi-ron'o-mus). These are mosquito-like in form, but vary 
 greatly in size, some being smaller than our common mos- 
 quitoes, and others much larger. The head is small, the 
 snout, comparatively short, and the antennae of the males 
 very bushy. The larvae so far as they are known are aquatic. 
 Many of them are blood-red in color ; and as they live in 
 standing water they are sometimes found in vessels contain- 
 ing rain-water, where they appear like bits of animated red 
 thread. The pupae of this genus, like those of mosquitoes, 
 are active. 
 
 To the genus Ceratopogon (Cer-a-to-po'gon) belong the 
 small midges commonly known as punkies. Of these there 
 are many species, which vary greatly in size and color. 
 The body and legs are not as slender as in the preceding 
 genus, and consequently the insects appear much less mos- 
 quito-like. Certain minute species are sometimes very 
 abundant, and extremely annoying on account of their bites. 
 We have found them exceeding troublesome in the Adiron- 
 
442 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 dack Mountains. The larvae live under the bark of decaying 
 branches, under fallen leaves, and in sap flowing from 
 wounded trees. 
 
 Family Mycetophilid.e (My-cet-o-phil'i-dae). 
 T)ie Fungus-gnats. 
 These flies are of medium or small size, and more or less 
 mosquito-like in form. They are most 
 easily recognized by the great length 
 of the coxae (Fig. 518, c\ and the 
 fact that all the tibiae are furnished 
 with spurs. They also differ from 
 the closely-allied families in lacking, 
 as a rule, whorls of hairs on the an- 
 tennse of the males (Fig. 519), and 
 in possessing ocelli. 
 
 At first sight considerable varia- 
 PiG. S18. Fig. 519. j.JQj^ seems to exist in the venation 
 
 of the wings as shown in the three wings represented in 
 Figure 520 ; but in reality the variations are comparatively 
 slight. Vein I extends along the margin of the wing to the 
 end of vein III,+j. Vein II varies in length. Vein III pre- 
 serves three branches in the more generalized form (Fig. 
 520, rt); in some genera veins III^ and III,.^, coalesce from 
 the apex of the wing backward for a greater or less distance 
 so that the base of vein III5+3 appears like a cross vein (Fig. 
 520, b)\ this coalescence may be complete, in which case vein 
 III is only two-branched (Fig. 520, c). Vein V is also 
 two-branched. It should be observed that the cross-vein 
 III-V extends more or less obliquely or even lengthwise of 
 the wing ; while the base of vein 1 1 1, +5 may extend trans- 
 versely, and then is liable to be mistaken for a cross-vein 
 (Fig. 520, b, c). 
 
 The flies are often found in great numbers on fungi and 
 in damp places where there is decaying vegetable matter. 
 They are active, and leap as well as fly. 
 
DIPTERA. 
 
 443 
 
 III4+3 
 
 The larvoe are gregarious, and live in fungi and in decay- 
 ing vegetable matter. They may be found in the fungi 
 growing on logs and 
 trees, in the vegeta- 
 ble mould among 
 dead leaves, under 
 bark, and sometimes 
 in cow-dung. They 
 have eight pairs of 
 spiracles. One spe- 
 cies, Sciara mail 
 (Sci'a-ra ma'li), feeds 
 on ripe apples, es- 
 pecially those that 
 have been previously 
 perforated by the 
 Codlin-moth. 
 
 In this family the 
 larva has a distinct 
 head. The pupa is 
 not enclosed in the 
 skin of the larva ; 
 but 
 the 
 
 vih vn. 
 
 in some cenera ^"^' 520— wings of fungus-gnats. (The drawings are 
 '^ after Winnertz ; the lettering is original.) 
 
 transformations 
 
 are undergone in a delicate cocoon. 
 
 The larv^ of some species of the genus Sciara often 
 attract attention on account of a strange habit they have of 
 sticking together in dense patches. Such assemblages of 
 larvae are frequently found under the bark of trees. But 
 what is more remarkable is the fact that when the larvae are 
 about to change to pupae an assemblage of this kind will 
 march over the surface of the ground, presenting the appear- 
 ance of a serpent like animal. Such a congregation is com- 
 monly spoken of as a Sciara-army-worm. Examples have 
 been described that were four or five inches wide and ten or 
 twelve feet long, and in which the larvae were piled up from 
 
444 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 four to six deep. The larvae crawl over each other so that 
 the column advances about an inch a minute. 
 
 Family Cecidomyhd.^ (Cec-i-do-my-i'i-dae). 
 
 The Gall-gnats. 
 
 The gall-gnats are minute flies which are extremely 
 delicate in structure. The body and wings are clothed with 
 long hairs, which are easily rubbed off'. The 
 antennae are long, sometimes very long, and 
 usually with a whorl of hairs on each seg- 
 ment (Fig. 521); the legs are slender and 
 quite long, but the coxae are not greatly 
 elongate, and the tibiae are without spurs ; 
 the wing-veins (Fig. 522) are greatly reduced 
 in number; the anal veins being entirely 
 wanting, and vein V wanting or merely 
 Ftg. 521.— "Antennae represented by a slight, unbranched fold, 
 male; f. female; To this family belong the smallest of 
 
 enlargred more than .,,., ^. ^^ r,- 
 
 that of the male. the midge-like flies. On account of their 
 minute size, the adult flies are not apt to attract the at- 
 tention of the young student. But the larvae of many 
 
 in.+j 
 
 Fig. 522. — Wing of gall-gnat. 
 
 species cause the growth of galls on plants ; some of which 
 are sure to be found by any close observer. Other species 
 arrest the growth of the plants they infest, and thus cause 
 
DIPTERA. 
 
 44; 
 
 very serious injury; in tliis way tlic amount of a crop of 
 grain is often greatly reduced. 
 
 The larvae are small maggots, with nine pairs of spiracles. 
 Many species are brightly colored, being red, pink, yellow, 
 or orange. In almost every case a larva 
 belonging to this family can be recog- 
 nized as such by the presence of a horny 
 piece on the lower side of the body, be- 
 tween the second and third segments (Fig. f.g. 523. -Head-end of 
 523). This piece is called the breast-bone. br7ast-bon'°""'^ '"' 
 Its homology and use have not been definitely determined. 
 
 The different species vary as to the method of under- 
 going their transformation ; in some the pupa is naked ; in 
 others the pupa is enclosed in the dried skin of the larva; 
 and in still others it is enclosed in a delicate cocoon. 
 
 One of the most common and conspicuous of the o-alls 
 made by gall-gnats is the Pine-cone Willow-gall (Fig. 524). 
 
 This often occurs in 
 great abundance on the 
 tips of twigs of the 
 Heart - leaved Willow 
 {Salix cor data). The 
 gnat that causes the 
 growth of this gall is 
 ■ Cccidomyia strobiloides 
 (Cec-i-do-my'i-a strob-i- 
 loi'des). The gall is a 
 deformed and enlarged 
 bud ; the lengthening of 
 the stem is checked by 
 the injury caused by 
 the larva ; but leaves 
 -The pme cone w.i'ow-gaii. continue to be devel- 
 
 oped which results in the cone-shaped growth. The larva 
 remains in the heart of the gall throughout the summer and 
 winter, changing to a pupa early in the spring. The adult 
 
44<5 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 emerges soon afterward, and lays its eggs in the newly- 
 started buds of the willow. 
 
 There is a guest gall-gnat, Cecidomyia albovittata (C. al- 
 bo-vit-ta'ta), which breeds in large numbers between the 
 leaves composing the Pine-cone Willow-gall. The larvae of 
 this gnat do not seem to interfere in any way with the 
 development of their host, there being abundant food in the 
 gall both for the owner of the gall and for its numerous 
 guests. 
 
 The Clover-leaf Midge, Cecidomyia trifolii{C. tri-fo'li-i). — 
 The leaflets of white clover are sometimes infested by white 
 
 or orange-colored mag- 
 gots which fold the two 
 halves of the leaflet 
 together. From one to 
 twenty of these larvae 
 may be found in a single 
 leaflet. When full- 
 grown the larvae make 
 cocoons, and undergo 
 their transformations 
 within the folded leaflet. In Figure 525 an infested leaf 
 containing cocoons is represented natural size, also a larva 
 and an adult gnat, greatly enlarged. 
 
 The Clover-seed Midge, Cecidomyia legtiminicola (C. le- 
 gu-mi-nic'o-la), is a much more serious pest of clover. This 
 infests both red and white clover. The larvae live in the 
 heads of the clover and destroy the immature seed. When 
 full-grown they drop to the ground, where they undergo 
 their transformations. In some parts of this country it is 
 impossible to raise clover-seed on account of this pest. 
 
 The Hessian-fly, Cecidomyia destructor {C.dc-sUuc' tor). — 
 This is perhaps the most serious pest infesting wheat in this 
 country. The larva lives at the base of a leaf between it 
 and the main stalk. There are two or three broods of this 
 insect in the course of the year. The larvae of the fall brood 
 
 Fig. 525. — Cei.idoi>iyiii iri/olii 
 Report for i 
 
 (From the Author's 
 
DIPTERA. 
 
 447 
 
 infest the young wheat-plants near the surface of the ground. 
 When full-grown each changes to a pupa within a brown 
 puparium, which resembles a flax-seed. Here they remain 
 throughout the winter. In the spring the adult gnats 
 emerge and lay their eggs in the sheaths of leaves some dis- 
 tance above the ground. The infested plants are so weak- 
 encd by the larva that they produce but little if any seed. 
 
 The Whcat-midge, Diplosis /r///« (Di-plo'sis trit'i-ci).— 
 This gnat is also a very serious enemy of wheat. It deposits 
 its eggs in the opening flowers of wheat. The larvae feed 
 on the pollen and the milky juice of the immature seeds, 
 causing them to shrivel up and become comparatively 
 worthless. When full-grown the larvae drop to the ground, 
 where the transformations are undergone near the surface. 
 The adults appear in May or June. 
 
 The Resin-gnat, Diplosis resinicola (D. res-i-nic'o-la).-^ 
 This species infests the branches of various species of pine. 
 
 Fig. ^id.— Diplosis resinicola. (From the Auth 
 
 We have found it throughout the Atlantic region from New 
 York to Florida. The larvae live together in considerable 
 numbers within a lump of resin. They derive their nourish- 
 ment from the abraded bark of the twig; and the resin 
 exuding from the wound completely surrounds and protects 
 
448 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 them. The transformations arc undergone within the lump 
 of resin. After the gnats emerge the empty pupa-skins pro- 
 ject from the lump of resin as shown at the right in Figure 
 526. In this figure the gnat, a single wing, and a part of 
 the antenna of each sex are represented, all greatly enlarged. 
 
 Family RllYPlilD.qi (Rhyph'i-dae). 
 The False Crane-flies. 
 
 The false crane-flies are so called because they resemble 
 the Tipulidae somewhat in the venation of the wings, the 
 
 I", iir.. 
 
 Fig. 527.— Wing of •/?//>'///aj. 
 
 three branches of vein V being preserved, and cell Vj being 
 
 — divided by a cross-vein (Fig. 527). They lack, 
 
 % however, the V-shaped suture on the thorax 
 
 mS^y \, that is characteristic of crane-flies ; and differ, 
 
 '(aB ^ M also, in having ocelli, and in the structure of the 
 
 ^B^^ M antennae (Fig. 528). The wings are wider than 
 
 ^' is usual with crane-flies, and the branches of 
 
 Fig. 528. vein III separate nearer the base of the wing 
 
 than in that family. 
 
 The adults are mosquito-like insects with spotted wings, 
 which often enter houses, where they are found on windows. 
 We have also observed them in considerable numbers just 
 at nightfall, feeding on sugar which had been placed on 
 
DIP TEA' A. 449 
 
 trees to attract moths. They feed on over-ripe fruit and 
 other vegetable substances. 
 
 The larvae are found in pools and in decaying vegetable 
 matter ; they have two pairs of spiracles, one at each end of 
 the body. The pupas are free. 
 
 Only four species of false crane-flies have been found in 
 the United States ; these belong to the genus Rhyphus 
 (Rhy'phus). 
 
 Family OKi'iiNEriiiLiD.-E (Oiph-ne-phil'i-dai). 
 The Solitary-midge. 
 
 Only a single species of this family, Orphnephila testacca 
 (Orph-neph'i-la tes-ta'ce-a), is known to occur in North 
 America. This is a small fly measuring about one eighth 
 of an inch in length, with a wing-expanse of one third inch. 
 
 The antennai are short, about as long as the head, and 
 nearly of the same structure in both sexes ; the segments of 
 the antennae except those at the base are slender and are 
 clothed with a few short hairs. The ocelli are wanting. The 
 compound eyes are large and meet in front in both sexes. 
 The wing-veins are well developed on all parts of the wing ; 
 vein II ends in the margin of the wing before the end of 
 the basal third; vein III is two-branched, the first branch 
 ending in the margin at the end of the second third of the 
 wing and the other branch near the apex of the wing ; vein 
 V is two-branched, the branches separating at the end of the 
 basal third of the wing and near the cross-vein III-V ; the 
 fork of vein VII and the cross-vein V-VII are near the end 
 of the basal fourth of the wing. 
 
 The transformations of this insect are unknown. 
 
 Family BlBIONID^ (Bib-i-on'i-dae). 
 TJic MarcJi-flies. 
 
 In these flies the body is comparatively robust, and the 
 legs shorter and stouter than in most of the families with 
 
450 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 thread-like antennae (Fig. 529). The abdomen, however, 
 is much longer than wide. The antennae (Fig. 530) are 
 
 shorter than the thorax, and 
 composed of short, broad, 
 and closely-pressed-together 
 segments. Although the an- 
 tennae are hairy, they are not 
 furnished with whorls of long 
 hairs in the males, as is the case in most of the preceding 
 families. These insects resemble the fungus-gnats in having 
 ocelli; but they differ from them in the shortness of the 
 antennae and in the fact that the coxae are not greatly 
 elongate. In this family and the following one the eyes of 
 the males are in many cases contiguous. The venation of 
 the wings of the typical genus is represented by Figure 531. 
 
 Fig. c,2').—Bibio. 
 
 Fig. 530. 
 
 Fig. 531. — Wing of Bibio. 
 
 The adult fhes are generally black and red, sometimes 
 yellow. They are most common in early spring ; which has 
 suggested the name March-flies ; but some occur later in the 
 season. 
 
 The larvae vary in habits ; some species feed on decay- 
 ing vegetable matter, while others attack the roots of grow- 
 ing plants, especially of grass. They have ten pairs of 
 spiracles ; which is an unusually large number, as but few 
 insects have more than nine pairs. The pupae are usually 
 free. 
 
PR. 
 
 z. p. 
 
 DIPTERA. 
 
 451 
 
 Family SiMULliD/E (Sim-u-li'i-dse). 
 The Black-flics. 
 
 The common name, black-flies, given to the members of 
 this family is not distinctive, for there are many species in 
 other families that are of this color ; but like many other 
 names that are descriptive in form, it has come to have a 
 specific meaning distinct from its original one. It is like 
 the word blackberry ; some blackberries are white, and not 
 all berries that are black are blackberries. 
 
 In this family the body is short and stout (Fig. 532) ; the 
 legs are short, and the tibiae are without spurs. The anten- 
 nae, although composed of many seg- 
 ments, are comparatively short, and 
 taper towards the tip (Fig. 533) ; the 
 segments of the antennae are short 
 and closely pressed together ; they 
 are clothed with fine hairs, but do not 
 bear whorls of long hairs. There are 
 no ocelli. In the males the compound 
 eyes are contiguous, and are composed of two kinds of 
 ocelli, those of one part of the eye being much larger than 
 
 iir. 
 
 Fig. 533- 
 
 Fig. 534. — Wing of SimuUum. 
 
 the others. The wings are broad, iridescent, and not 
 clothed with hairs. The veins near the co.stal border are 
 stout ; those on the other parts of the wing are very weak 
 (Fig. 534)- 
 
452 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The females of many species suck blood and are well- 
 known pests. Unlike mosquitoes and midges, the black-flies 
 like heat and strong light. They are often seen in large 
 numbers disporting themselves in the brightest sunshine. 
 
 The larvae are aquatic; and usually live in swiftly-flowing 
 streams, clinging to the surface of rocks in rapids or on the 
 brinks of falls. They sometimes occur in such large num- 
 bers as to form a moss-like coating over the rocks. There 
 is a disk-like sucker fringed with little hooks at the caudal 
 end of the body by means of which the larva clings to the 
 rocks; and just back of the head there is a fleshy proleg 
 which ends in a similar sucker fringed with hooks (Fig. 535). 
 By means of these two organs the larva is able 
 
 #to walk with a looping gait similar to that of a 
 measuring-worm. It also has the power of 
 spinning silk from its mouth, which it uses in 
 locomotion. The hooks on the caudal sucker 
 and at the end of the proleg are well adapted 
 to clinfrincr to a thread or to a film of silk 
 
 Fig. 53s — Head t> fc. , , i • 
 
 of larva. gp^,,-, upon the rock to which the larva is 
 clinging. Respiration is accomplished by means of three 
 much-branched tracheal gills which are pushed out from be- 
 tween the last two abdominal segments. The head bears 
 two large fan-shaped organs, which aid in procuring food. 
 The food consists of microscopic plants and bits of tissue of 
 larger plants. 
 
 When full-grown the larva spins a boot-shaped cocoon 
 within which the pupa state is passed 
 (Fig. 536). This cocoon is firmly fast- 
 ened to the rock upon which the larva 
 has lived or to other cocoons, for they 
 occur in dense masses, forming a carpet- 
 like covering on the rocks. The pupa, 
 like the larva, breathes by tracheal gills ; 
 but in this stage the tracheal gills are k,c. sse.-Larva and co- 
 borne by the prothorax. 
 
DrPTERA. 453 
 
 The adult fly, on emcrgiii<^ from the pupa-skin, rises to 
 the surface of the water and takes flight at once. Soon 
 after this, the eggs are laid. We have often watched the 
 flies hovering over the brink of a fall where there was a thin 
 sheet of swiftly-flowing water, and have seen them dart into 
 the water and out again. At such times we have always 
 found the surface of the rock more or less thickly coated 
 with eggs, and have no doubt that an <ig^ is fastened to the 
 rock each time a fly darts into the water. 
 
 The above account is based on observations made on the 
 Innoxious Black-fly, Siinuliuin innoxium (Si-mu'li-um in- 
 nox'i-um), which is exceedingly common in the streams 
 about Ithaca, N. Y. This species, fortunately, is not blood- 
 thirsty, for, notwithstanding its great abundance in this 
 locality, we have never known it to bite. 
 
 The Southern Buffalo-gnat, Siinuliiun pccuarnui (S. pec- 
 u-a'rum), of the Mississippi Valley is a terrible pest, which 
 causes the death of many mules and other domestic animals. 
 The popular name of this insect refers to a fancied resem- 
 blance in the shape of the insect when viewed from one side 
 to that of a buffalo. 
 
 The Turkey-gnat, Siinuliiun nicrulionale (S. me-rid-i-o- 
 na'Ie), closely resembles the preceding in habits, infesting 
 all kinds of domestic animals ; but as it appears at the time 
 that turkeys are setting and causes great injury to this fowl, 
 it is commonly known as the Turkey-gnat. 
 
 The Adirondack Black-fly, Siniuliiun nwlcstinn (S. mo- 
 les'tum), is a scourge in the mountains of the Northeastern 
 States. 
 
 / Family TabaniD/E (Ta-ban'i-dai). 
 The Horse-flics. 
 The horse-flies are well-known pests of stock, and are 
 often extremely annoying to man. They appear in sum- 
 mer, are common in woods, and are most abundant in the 
 hottest weather. 
 
454 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 In this family the third segment of the antenna Is ringed 
 (Figs. 537, 538) and is never furnished with a distinct style 
 or bristle. The wing-veins (Fig. 539) 
 are evenly distributed over the wing, 
 as the branches of vein III are not 
 crowded together as in the follow- 
 ing family ; the costal vein extends 
 completely around the wing ; the 
 alulets are large. 
 
 The flight of these flies is very 
 
 powerful ; they are able to outstrip 
 
 the swiftest horse. The males feed 
 
 on the nectar of flowers and on 
 
 AmenMof swect sap. The mouth-parts of the 
 
 C /try sops. ^ ^ 
 
 female are fitted for piercing the 
 skin and sucking the blood of men and quadrupeds; the 
 
 Fig. 538. 
 
 •Vlij + lX' VHi 
 Fig. 530. — Wine of Tabamts. 
 
 females, however, also feed on the sweets of plants v/hen 
 they cannot obtain blood. 
 
 The larvae are carnivorous ; many live in the earth ; others 
 live in water. They feed on various small animals; some 
 upon snails, others upon the larvae of insects. In most cases 
 they have a single pair of spiracles, which is situated at the 
 hind end of the body; some have a pair of spiracles at 
 each end of the body. The pupa is not enclosed in the 
 skin of the larva. 
 
DIPTEKA. 455 
 
 The larger species, as well as some of moderate size, 
 belong to the genus Tabauus (Ta-ba'nus), of which nearly 
 one hundred American spe- 
 cies are known. One of the 
 most common of these is the 
 Mourning Horse-fly, Tabanns 
 atratus (T. a-tra'tus). This 
 insect is of an uniform black 
 color throughout, except that 
 the body may have a bluish 
 tinge (Fig. 540). 
 
 To the genus Chrysops ^'°- ^'*°~/«''/'"" 
 (Chry 'sops) belong the smaller 
 and more common horse-flies with banded wings (Fig. 541). 
 Nearly fifty North American species of this genus have 
 been described. 
 
 Family Stratiomyiid.^ (Strat-i-o-my-i'i-dae). 
 The Soldier-flics. 
 The soldier-flies are so called on account of the bright- 
 colored stripes with which some of the species are marked. 
 
 In the more typical mem- 
 bers of this family the abdo- 
 *\ men is broad and greatly 
 
 M I flattened (Fig. 542), and the 
 
 M \ wings when at rest lie parallel 
 
 » Jitm. ^P*^'^ ^^^^^ other over the ab- 
 
 ^ ^^w domen. But in some genera 
 
 „^ ^ "Yr the abdomen is narrow and 
 
 riG. 542. ^A \_i 
 
 ^{''''fj'" considerably elongate. 
 
 "'y'"- F.G 543. F,G. 544. ™, / ^ . 
 
 1 he antennae vary greatly 
 
 in form ; in some genera the third segment is long and con- 
 sists of several quite distinct rings (Fig. 543) ; in others it is 
 short with but few indistinctly-separated rings and with a 
 bristle (Fig. 544), as in the true true short-horned flies. 
 The most distinctive characteristic is the peculiar vena 
 
456 
 
 THE STUD y OF INSECTS. 
 
 tion of the wings (Fig. 545). The branches of vein III are 
 crowded together near the costal border of the wing ; and 
 
 II m, iii,+j ni4 inj 
 
 Fig. 545. — Wing of Stratioviyia. 
 
 the first cell V, is unusually short and broad ; the branches 
 of Vein V and vein VII, are comparatively weak. 
 
 These flies are found on flowers and leaves, especially in 
 the vicinity of water and in bogs and marshes. The larvae 
 ■^^ ^j^ ^g>|-j-|'ar ^ia aL^ ^^^^ ^" water, earth or decaying wood. 
 ^^^^^^^^^^" ^ * faX^J ^ Some are carnivorous, others feed on 
 
 Fig. ^46 - I'utiariuin ot Odon- . • ». i_i a.l. t-i 
 
 tomyic. decaying vegetable matter. 1 hey 
 
 have six or seven pairs of spiracles ; the pupa state is passed 
 within the skin of the larva (Fig. 546). 
 
 Family Leptid^ (Lep'ti-d.x). 
 TJie Snipe-flics. 
 
 These trim-appearing flies have rather long legs, a cone- 
 shaped abdomen tapering towards the hind end (Fig. 547), 
 and sometimes a downward-projecting proboscis, which 
 with the form of the body and legs has sug- 
 ge.sted the name snipe-flies. Some members of 
 the family, however, are remarkable for their re- 
 semblance to certain Ichneumon-flies, the abdo- 
 men being long and somewhat compressed. 
 
 The body is naked or hairy, but it is not 
 clothed with strong bristles. Frequently the 
 hairy covering, though short, is very dense and is 
 of strongly-contrasting colors. Three ocelli are 
 present. The antennae vary greatly in form ; 
 
DIPTEKA. 457 
 
 genera the third segment consists of several subseg- 
 nients, which maybe quite distinct (Fig. 548); in others the 
 antennae are only three-jointed, and the third segment bears 
 a style or bristle (Fig. 549). The proboscis is usually short, 
 only a few members of the family having it long like the 
 bill of a snipe. The wings are broad, and when at rest are 
 held half open. The cmpodia are pulvilliform ; that is, 
 
 Fig. 548.— Antenna of Xylo- Fig. 549.— Antenna Fig. 550. 
 
 phagus ■AK\^, p, palpus. of Chrysopila. 
 
 there are three, nearly equal, membranous pads beneath the 
 tarsal claws (Fig. 550). 
 
 Although the form of the antennae in certain genera 
 closely resembles that characteristic of the long-horned flies 
 (Nematocera), the form of the palpus even in these cases 
 (Fig. 548, /) is that characteristic of the short-horned flies 
 (Brachycera), being only two-jointed and not pendulous. 
 
 The venation of the wings is comparatively generalized 
 (Figs. 551, 552), each of the principal veins usually extend- 
 ing distinct from the others; but in some veins VII, and IX 
 coalesce at the margin of the wing (Fig. 552). Vein III is 
 four-branched ; the branches of vein V are connected with 
 adjacent veins only by cross-veins ; and cell V, is divided by 
 a cross-vein. 
 
 The flies are predaceous. They may be found about 
 low bushes and on tall grass. They are somewhat sluggish, 
 and, therefore, easily caught. 
 
 The larvae also are predaceous. Some live in earth, 
 
458 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 decaying wood, or dry sand ; others live in moss or in water. 
 They have either two pairs of spiracles, one at each end of 
 
 VII, +IX 
 Fig. 551.— Wing of LeJ>tis. 
 
 the body, or are furnished with tracheal gills. The last 
 segment of the body has a transverse cleft, both above and 
 
 ■■jx ,m, ,ni,+3 
 
 VU2+IX 
 
 Fig. 552. — Wing- of Xylophagus. 
 
 below, which is furnished above with two processes. The 
 pupae are free. 
 
 The family is of moderate size; about seventy North 
 American species have been described. 
 
 Family ACROCERID^ (Ac-ro-cer'i-dae). 
 The Small-headed Flies. 
 These flies are easily recognized by the unusually small 
 head, the large humpbacked thorax, the in- 
 flated abdomen, and the very large alulets 
 (Fig. 553). 
 Fig -Piero- ^^^^ head is composed almost entirely of 
 dontia vtiseiia. eycs, and in some genera is minute. The 
 
DIPTERA. 459 
 
 eyes are contiguous in both sexes. The antennae are two- 
 or tliree-jointed, and are furnished with a style or bristle in 
 some genera, in others not. The venation of the. wings 
 varies greatly in the different genera. We are unable, there- 
 fore, to point out distinctive features drawn from these 
 organs. The figure given (Fig. 554) represents a single 
 genus rather than the family. 
 
 ■VII, + IX Vj^VII. 
 
 Fig. 554.— Wing of Eulonchus 
 
 The flies are generally slow and feeble in their move- 
 ments. In some species that feed upon flowers the pro- 
 boscis is very long, sometimes exceeding the body in length. 
 Other species take no nourishment in the adult state, and 
 have no proboscis. The empodia are pulvilliform. 
 
 " The larvae are apparently chiefly parasitic, and in the 
 few species in which they have been observed are parasitic 
 on spiders or their cocoons, in the former cases the young 
 larvae living within the abdomen." (Williston.) 
 
 Family Nemistrinid^ (Nem-is-trin'i-dae). 
 The Tangle-veined Flies. 
 
 The members of this family are of medium size ; some 
 of them resemble horse-flies, and others bee-flies. They 
 can be recognized by the peculiar venation of the wings, 
 there being an unusual amount of anastomosing of the 
 veins (Fig. 555), which gives the wings a very characteristic 
 appearance. 
 
460 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The antennae arc small and short ; the third segment is 
 simple and furnished with a slender, jointed, terminal style. 
 The proboscis is usually long, sometimes very long, and 
 
 Fig. 555. — Wing- of RhyncTiocephalus sackeni. 
 
 fitted for sucking nectar from flowers. Only four North 
 American species have been described ; and these are all 
 rare. / 
 
 V Family AsiLlD^ (A-siri-dae). 
 
 TJie Robbcr-jiies. 
 
 These are mostly large flies, and some of them are very 
 large. The body is usually elongate, with a very long, 
 slender abdomen (Fig. 556); but some species are quite 
 stout, resembling bumblebees in form. This resemblance is 
 often increased by a dense clothing of black and yellow 
 hairs. 
 
 In this and the following family the vertex of the head 
 
 Fig. 556. — Erax rt//Vrt//.s destroying 
 a cotton-worm. (From the Au- 
 thor's Report for 1879.) 
 
 Fig. 557.— Head of 
 robber-fly. 
 
 is hollowed out between the eyes (Fig. 557). In this family 
 the proboscis is pointed and does not bear fleshy lips at the 
 
DIPTERA. 461 
 
 tip. The antenricTe project forward in a prominent manner. 
 They are three-jointed, and with or without a terminal style. 
 The style when present sometimes appears like one or two 
 additional segments (Fig. 558). 
 
 Vein III, (Fig. 559) does not curve forward toward the 
 costal margin of the wing as in the following family. Cell 
 Vg is present, but is usually closed by the coalescence of the 
 
 vii,+ix vi + vn. 
 
 Fig. 559.— Wing of Erax. 
 
 tips of veins V, and VII,. The tips of veins VII, and IX 
 may or may not coalesce for a short distance. The robber- 
 flies are extremely predaceous. They not only destroy 
 other flies, but powerful insects, as bumblebees, tiger-beetles, 
 and dragon-flies, fall prey to them ; they will also feed upon 
 larvae. They are common in open fields and are as apt to 
 alight on the ground as on elevated objects. 
 
 The larvae live chiefly in the ground or in decaying wood, 
 where they prey upon the larvae of beetles ; some, however, 
 are supposed to feed upon the roots of plants. The pupae 
 are free. 
 
 The family includes a large number of genera and 
 species. 
 
 Family MlDAID.^i (Mi-da'i-dae). 
 
 The Midas-flics. 
 
 The Midas-flies rival the robber-flies in size, and quite 
 closely resemble them in appearance. As in that family, 
 the vertex of the head is hollowed out between the 
 
462 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 eyes; but these flies can be distinguished by the form 
 of the proboscis, which bears a pair of fleshy lobes 
 at the tip, by the form of the antennae, which are 
 long and clubbed at the tip (Fig. 560), and by the 
 peculiar venation of the wings (Fig. 561), vein V, ter- 
 minating at or before the apex of the wing, and the 
 branches of vein III coalescing near the apex of the 
 wing in an unusual way. 
 
 Fig. 560. The adult flies are predaceous. The family is a 
 
 small one ; but a large proportion of the species occur on 
 
 this continent. 
 
 Vj + yiu 
 
 VIIj+JX 
 Fig. 561.— Wing of Midas. 
 
 Family Apiocerid^ (A-pi-o-cer'i-dae). 
 The Apiocerids {A-pi-oc' e-rids). 
 This family includes only a small number of species, 
 
 Fig. 562.— Wing of Apiocera. (After Williston.) 
 
 which are rare and occur in the far West. They are rather 
 large and elongate, and are found upon flowers. 
 
DIPTERA. 463 
 
 The head is not hollowed out between the eyes ; the 
 ocelli are present ; the antennae arc furnished with a short, 
 simple style. Vein III is usually four-branched, but some- 
 times it is only three-branched ; all of the branches of vein 
 III end before the apex of the wing (Fig. 562); cell V^ is 
 present, but closed by the coalescence of veins V, and VII, 
 at the margin of the wing ; and cell V, is divided by a cross- 
 vein. The empodia are wanting. 
 
 Family BOMBYLIID/E (Bom-by-li'i-da:). 
 The Bee-flies. 
 
 These flies are mostly of medium size, some are small, 
 others are rather large. In some the 
 body is short and broad and densely 
 clothed with long, delicate hair (Fig. 563). 
 Other species resemble the horse-flies 
 somewhat in appearance, especially in the 
 dark color or markings of the wings ; but ^'°- s(-3-—Bombyiius. 
 these can be distinguished from the horse-flies by the form 
 of the antennae and the venation of the wings. 
 
 The antennae are usually short ; they are three-jointed ; 
 the third segment is not ringed ; the style is sometimes 
 present and sometimes wanting. The ocelli are present. 
 The proboscis is sometimes very long and slender, and 
 sometimes short and furnished with fleshy lips at the ex- 
 tremity. 
 
 Vein III of the wings (Fig. 564) is four-branched ; cell 
 III3 is sometimes divided by a cross-vein ; cell V, is obliter- 
 ated by the coalescence of veins V3 and VII, ; in a few 
 genera cell V, is also obliterated by the coalescence of veins 
 V, and V,; cell VIII is narrowly open, or is closed at or 
 near the border of the wing. The alulets are small or of 
 moderate size. 
 
 The adult flies feed on nectar, and are found hovering 
 over blossoms, or resting on sunny paths, sticks or stones; 
 they rarely alight on leaves. 
 
464 THE STUDY OF INSECTS, 
 
 The larvae are parasitic, infesting hymenopterous and 
 lepidopterous larvae and pupae and the egg-sacs of Orthop- 
 tera. The pupae are free. 
 
 in.' 
 
 III. 
 
 Vj + VIIi 
 Fig. 564.— Wing of Pantarbes capita. 
 
 The family is a large one, including many genera and 
 species. 
 
 Family Therevid.e (The-rev'i-dae). 
 The Stiletto-flies. 
 
 With the flies of this family the head is transverse, being 
 nearly as wide as the thorax ; and the abdomen is long and 
 tapering, suggesting the name stiletto-flies. These flies are 
 small or of medium size; they are hairy or bristly. The 
 antennae are three-jointed ; the third segment is simple, and 
 usually bears a terminal style ; but this is sometimes want- 
 ing. Three ocelli are present. The legs are slender and 
 bristly; the empodia are wanting. 
 
 Vein III of the wings (Fig. 565) is four-branched, and 
 the last branch (vein III^) terminates beyond the apex of 
 the wing ; the branches of vein V are all separate ; cell VIII 
 is closed near the border of the wing; the 2d cell III and 
 cell V are long. 
 
 The adult flies are predaceous ; and conceal themselves 
 among the leaves of low bushes or settle on the ground in 
 sandy spots, waiting for other insects upon which they 
 prey. 
 
 The larvae are long and slender, and the body is appar- 
 ently composed of nineteen segments. They are found in 
 
DIPTEKA. 
 
 465 
 
 earth, fungi, and decaying wood. They feed on decaying 
 animal and vegetable matter and are said to be predaceous 
 also. The pup.x are free. 
 
 Fig. 565. — Wing of Thereva. 
 
 The family is a comparatively small one, including but 
 few genera and species. 
 
 Family SCENOPINID^ (Scen-o-pin'i-dse). 
 The Window-flies. 
 
 The window-flies are so-called because the best-known 
 species are found almost exclusively on windows ; but the 
 conclusion that these are the most common flies found on 
 windows should not be drawn from this name ; for such is 
 not the case. 
 
 These flies are of medium size, our most common species 
 measuring one-fourth inch in length. They are usually 
 black, and are not clothed with bristles. 
 The thorax is prominent, and the abdomen 
 is flattened and somewhat bent down, so -^g^. 
 that the body when viewed from the side ^T^ 
 presents a humpbacked appearance (Fig. p gg fi 6 
 566). When at rest, the wings lie parallel, Scenopinus. 
 
 one over the other, on the abdomen ; when in this position 
 they are very inconspicuous. There are three ocelli. The 
 antennae are three-jointed ; the first and second segments 
 are short, the third is long and bears neither a style nor a 
 bristle (Fig. 567). 
 
466 THE STUD V OF INSECTS. 
 
 The venation of the wings is represented by Figure 568. 
 Vein III is four-branched ; cells V, and V, are both obliter- 
 ated by the coalescence of the veins that bound them ; ceh 
 VIII is closed at a considerable distance before the margin ; 
 and the 2d cell III is much longer than cell V. 
 
 The larvai, which are sometimes found in dwellings 
 
 VUj + IX 
 Fig. 568.— Wing of Scettopinus. 
 
 under carpets or in furniture, are very slender, and are re- 
 markable for the apparently large number of the segments 
 of the body, each of the abdominal segments except the last 
 being divided by a strong constriction. They are also found 
 in decaying wood, and are supposed to be carnivorous. 
 
 The family is a very small one. The most common 
 species is Sccnopinus fencstralis (Sce-nop'i nus fen-es-tra'lis), 
 
 Family Empidid^ (Em-pid'i-dce). 
 TJie Dance-flics. 
 
 The dance-flies are of medium or small size ; they are 
 often seen in swarms under trees or near shrubs and about 
 brooks, dancing and hunting. The family is a rather diffi- 
 cult one to characterize owing to great variations in the 
 form of the antennae and in the venation of the wings. 
 
 The branches of vein VII coalesce with the adjacent 
 veins (VII, with V, and VII, with IX) from the margin o't 
 the wing towards the base for a considerable distance (Fig- 
 569). In most of the genera this coalescence is carried so 
 far that the free parts of the branches of vein VII appear 
 
DIPTEKA. 
 
 467 
 
 like cross-veins. The only other famihes of the suborder 
 Orthorrhapha in which this occurs are the two following; 
 and the venation of the wings in each of these is very differ- 
 ent from that of the Empididai, 
 
 The antennai are three-jointed ; the first and second 
 
 Fig 569. — Wing of Rhainphomyia. 
 
 segments are often very small, and then appear like a single 
 segment ; the third segment may or may not bear a style or 
 bristle. The mouth-parts are in many cases long, and ex- 
 tend at right angles to the body or are bent back upon the 
 breast. 
 
 These flies arc predaceous, like the robber-flies ; but they 
 also frequent flowers. The larva; live in decaying vegetable 
 matter, but are probably carnivorous. The pupae are free. 
 The family is a large one, containing many genera and 
 species. 
 
 \J Family DoLlCHOPODID^ (Dol-i-cho-pod'i-dae). 
 TJie Long-legged Flics. 
 
 These flies are of small or medium size and usually 
 bright metallic green in color. The legs are 
 much longer than is usual in the families 
 belonging to the series of short-horned flies 
 (Fig. 570). This suggested the name Do- 
 lichoptis (Do-lich'o-pus), which means long- 
 footed, for the typical genus; and from this 
 the family name is derived. It should be 
 
 Fig. $7o.—Do/ich0- 
 fits lobatus. 
 
468 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. 
 
 remembered, however, that these flics are long-legged in 
 comparison with the aUied famiUes, and not in comparison 
 with crane-flies and midges. 
 
 The members of this family are easily distinguished as 
 such by the peculiar venation of the wings, the most char- 
 acteristic features of which are the following (Fig. 571): 
 cells V and ist V, are not separated by a vein, the basal 
 part of vein V3 being undeveloped; veins III.^^„ and Ill^-i-fr 
 separate near the base of the wing, and the two veins form 
 
 Fig. 571.— Wing: of Psilophzi^ ciliatus. 
 
 at the point of separation a more or less knot-shaped swell- 
 ing ; the cross-vein III-V is at or close by this swelling, so 
 that cell III is very short. A somewhat similar venation 
 occurs in some of the Muscidas ; but there the knot-shaped 
 swelling on vein III is often wanting, and the cross-vein 
 III-V is usually more remote from the base of the wing; 
 and too the flies belonging to the Muscidae possess the 
 suture above the antennae characteristic of the suborder Cy- 
 clorrhapha. 
 
 The members of this family have three ocelli ; the an- 
 tennae are three-jointed ; the second segment of the antenna 
 is sometimes rudimentary; and the third segment bears a 
 two-jointed arista. 
 
 The adults are predaceous and hunt for smaller flies and 
 
DIPTERA. 
 
 469 
 
 Other soft-bodied insects. They are usually found in damp 
 places, covered with rank vegetation. Some species occur 
 chiefly on the leaves of aquatic plants, and about dams and 
 waterfalls ; and some are able to run over the surface of 
 water. Others occur in dry places. 
 
 The larvae live in earth or decomposing vegetable matter. 
 They are long, slender, and cylindrical, and have two pairs 
 of spiracles, one at each end of the body. In most cases the 
 pupiE are free ; but some form cocoons. The thorax of the 
 pupa bears a pair of long breathing-tubes. 
 
 The family is a large one ; more than two hundred North 
 American species have been described already. 
 
 Family Lonchopterid/E (Lon-chop-ter'i-dae). 
 TJie Spear-zvingcd Flies. 
 
 These are minute flies, which measure from one twelfth 
 to one sixth of an inch in length, and are usually brownish 
 or yellowish. When at rest the wings are folded flat, one 
 over the other, on the abdomen. The apex of the wing is 
 pointed ; and the wing as a whole is shaped somewhat like 
 the head of a spear. This suggested the family name. 
 
 The venation of the wings is very characteristic, and is 
 suf^cient to distinguish these flies from, all others. The 
 
 V3 + Vllr 
 
 Fig. 572.— Wing of LoncJwptera. 
 
 cross-veins III-V and V-VII are oblique, and near the 
 base of the wing (Fig. 572). Vein VII, is very short, and 
 extends towards the base of the wing. In the females vein 
 
470 THE SrUD V OF INSECTS. 
 
 VII, coalesces with vein V3 , as shown in the figure; but 
 in the males the tip of vein YII, is free. The posterior 
 lobe is wanting. 
 
 Three ocelli are present. The antennae are three-jointed ; 
 the third segment is globular, and bears a three-jointed 
 style. 
 
 These flies are common from spring till autumn, in damp 
 grassy places. They frequent the shores of shady brooks, 
 where the atmosphere is moist. But little is known as yet 
 about their habits and tranformations. 
 
 In the shape of the wings, the absence of cross-veins, 
 except at the base of the wing, and the great reduction of 
 the anal area of the wing the flies closely resemble the Psy- 
 chodidae. 
 
 Suborder CyclorRHAPHA (Cy-clor'rha-pha). 
 The Cirailar-scamed Flies. 
 To this suborder belong those families of flies in which 
 the pupa escapes from the larval skin through a 
 round opening made by pushing off the head- 
 end of it (Fig. 573). The pupa is always enclosed 
 in a puparium. The adult flies possess a frontal 
 lunule (see footnote page 461), and except in the 
 Fig. 573.- f^^gi; {q^jj. families a frontal suture, through which 
 
 h'upanum ot " 
 
 a Muscid. ^i^g ptilinum is pushed out, when the adult is 
 about to emerge from the puparium (see page 419). 
 
 Family Syrphid^ (Syr'phi-dae). 
 The Syrphus-flies. 
 The family Syrphidae includes many of our common 
 flies ; but the different species vary so much in form that 
 no general description of their appearance can be given. 
 Many of them mimic hymenopterous insects; thus some 
 species resemble bumblebees, others the honey-bee, and 
 still others wasps ; while some present but little resemblance 
 to any of these. 
 
DIPTERA. 
 
 471 
 
 The most distinctive characteristic of the family is the 
 presence of a thickening of the membrane of the wing, which 
 appears hke a longitudinal vein between veins III and V. 
 This is termed tlie spurious I'ciii, and is lacking in only a few 
 members of the family ; it is represented in Figure 574 by a 
 
 Fig. 574.— Wing of Eristalis. 
 
 band of stippling. Cell III, is closed; and the 2d cell III 
 and cell V are large. 
 
 The antennae are three-jointed ; the third segment usually 
 bears a dorsal bristle, but sometimes it is furnished with a 
 thickened style. The face is not furnished with longitudinal 
 furrows to receive the ante*nnae as in the Muscidze. The 
 frontal lunule is present' but the frontal suture is wanting. 
 
 The adults frequent flowers and feed upon honey and 
 pollen. Some fly with a loud humming sound like that of 
 a bee ; others hover motionless except as to their wings for 
 a time, and then dart away suddenly for a short distance, 
 and then resume their hovering. 
 
 The larvae vary greatly in form and habits. Some prey 
 upon plant-lice, and are often found in the midst of colonies 
 of these insects ; others feed on decaying vegetable matter, 
 and live in rotten wood, in mud, and in water. Some are 
 found in the nests of ants ; and some in the nests of bum- 
 blebees and of wasps. 
 
 Among the common representatives of this family there 
 is one that so closely resembles a male honey-bee as to be 
 
f 
 
 472 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 often mistaken for it. This is the Drone-fly, Erisialis tenax 
 (E-ris'ta-lis te'nax). It is common about flowers. The 
 larva hves in foul water, \vhere it feeds on decaying vegeta- 
 ble matter; it is of the form known as " rat-tailed," which is 
 described below. 
 
 The larvae of the genus Volucclla (Vol-u-cel'la) are pre- 
 daceous, living in the nests of bumblebees and of wasps 
 {Vcspd], and feeding upon their larvae. Some of the species 
 in the adult state very closely re- 
 semble bumblebees. 
 
 The larvae of the genus Micro- 
 
 don{W\c'Yo-do\-\) are hemispherical, 
 
 '^'^^''- slug- like creatures (Fig. 575), 
 
 which resemble mollusks more than ordinary maggots ; they 
 
 are common in ants' nests. 
 
 The larvae of several species that live in water as well as 
 some that live in rotten wood are known as rat-tailed mag- 
 gots on account of a long, tail-like appendage, with which 
 the hind end of the body is furnished. This is a tube, like 
 that of a diver, which enables the insect to obtain air when 
 its body is submerged beneath several inches of water or de- 
 caying matter. This tube being telescopic can be lengthened 
 or shortened as the insect may need it ; and at its tip there 
 is a rosette of hairs, which, floating on the surface of the 
 water, keeps the tip from being submerged. The larva has 
 on the ventral side of its body several pairs of tubercles 
 armed with spines, which serve as prolegs. 
 
 Among the more common members of this family are 
 the yellow-banded species belonging to the 
 genus Syrphns (Syr'phus) (Fig. 576), The larvae 
 of these live in colonies of Aphids, and do much 
 good by destroying these pests. 
 
 This family is a very large one ; nearly or 
 quite two thousand species being known. In 
 his monograph of the species of America north of Mexico, 
 
DIPTERA. 
 
 473 
 
 Professor WilHston describes about three hundred species 
 from this region,* 
 
 Family PlPUNCULID^ (Pip-un-cu'li-dcE). 
 The Big-eyed Flies. 
 This family is represented in the United States by a 
 single genus, Fipuncnlus (Pi-pun'cu-lus). These are small flies, 
 with very large heads composed almost en- 
 tirely of eyes (Fig. 577). The head is nearly 
 spherical, and broader than the thorax. The 
 abdomen is somewhat elongate with the sides 
 nearly parallel. The body is thinly clothed 
 with hair or nearly naked. The wings are 
 much longer than the abdomen, and when at 
 rest they lie parallel to each other upon it. 
 (F'g- 578) closely resembles that of some of the Conopidze. 
 Vein III is three-branched. The last branch of Vein III and 
 
 Fig. 577.— j"/>««- 
 
 CtllllS, 
 
 The venation 
 
 Vj + viu 
 
 VII2 + IX • — ' 
 
 Fig. 578. — Wing of Pifunculus. 
 
 the first branch of vein V approach each other at their tips. 
 Vein V3 coalesces with vein VII, for nearly its entire length. 
 Veins VII, and IX coalesce at their tips. Cells III and V 
 are long. 
 
 The flies hover in shady places. They are sometimes 
 found on flowers, and may be swept from low plants ; our 
 most common species measure about one eighth of an inch 
 in length, not including the wings. The larvae so far as 
 known are parasitic upon bugs. 
 
 * Bulletin of the U. S. National Museum, No. 31. 
 
474 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Family Platypezida<: (Plat-y-pez'i-dae). 
 The Flat-footed Flies. 
 These flies resemble the House-fly somewhat in appear- 
 ance but are very much smaller. They hover in the air in 
 shady places, and alight frequently on the leaves of low 
 plants, where they run about in circles with great rapidity. 
 
 The head is hemispherical or spherical, and as broad as or 
 broader than the thorax. The antennae are three-jointed, 
 with a terminal bristle. The legs are 
 short and stout, and the tarsi of the hinder 
 ^1 / / P^''' ^"^^ often very broad and flat (Fig. 
 ^\^ / / 579)- The wings are rather large, and 
 
 ^ when at rest lie parallel upon the abdo- 
 
 men ; the axillary excision is prominent, 
 but the posterior lobe of the wing is 
 small (Fig. 580) ; the alulets are minute. 
 
 Vein III of the wings is three- 
 branched ; veins V, and V^ either coalesce 
 throughout or separate near the margin 
 of the wing. Cell V^ is sometimes divided 
 III. 
 
 Fig. 579.— Leg: of Platy- 
 peza. a, forked hairs of 
 leg greatly enlarged. 
 
 VU,+IX 
 
 Fig. 580 —Wing of Platypeza. 
 
 by a cross-vein, and sometimes not. Cells 2d III, V, and 
 VIII are short. 
 
 This family includes but few species, and these are 
 usually rare. The larvae live in rotten mushrooms. 
 
DIPTERA, 
 
 475 
 
 Family riloKiD/li (Phor'i-dae). 
 The Humpbacked Flies. 
 
 These are minute, dark-colored, usually black flies, which 
 can easily be recognized by their humpbacked form and 
 the peculiar venation of the wings. Certain species are 
 often found running about rapidly on windows, others on 
 fallen leaves. Sometimes they are seen in swarms dancing 
 up and down in the air. 
 
 The head is small ; the thorax large and humped ; and 
 the abdomen rather short. The antennae arc apparently 
 
 Hit 
 
 iii,+3 1114+5 
 
 one- or two-jointed, the last segment with either a dorsal or 
 a terminal bristle. The coxae are long; the femora, espe- 
 cially of the hind legs, which are rather long, are widened 
 and flattened. The wings (Fig. 581) are large, and are fur- 
 nished with two strong veins near the costal border, which 
 extend but a short distance beyond the middle of the wing. 
 From these strong veins from three to five weak ones extend 
 across the wing. 
 
 The larvae feed on decaying vegetable matter, dead 
 insects, snails, etc., and some are believed to be parasitic 
 upon other insects. 
 
47^ THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Family CONOPlD/t: (Co-nop'i-dae), 
 The Thick-head Flies. 
 
 With the members of this family the head is large, being 
 broader than the thorax. The body is more or less elon- 
 gate ; sometirhes the abdomen has a long, slender pedicel 
 like that of certain wasps. The body may be naked or 
 thinly clothed with fine hair, but it is rarely bristly. 
 
 The ocelli may be either present or absent. The an- 
 tennae are prominent, and project forward; they are three- 
 jointed ; and the third segment bears either a dorsal bristle 
 
 VIU+DC 
 Fig. 582. — Wingf of Coitojis affinis. 
 
 or a terminal style. Vein III of the wings (Fig. 582) is only 
 
 three-branched. The last branch of vein III and the first 
 
 branch of vein V end near together or coalesce at their tips. 
 
 Cell V, is divided by a cross-vein. Vein V3 coalesces with 
 
 vein VII, for nearly its entire length. Veins VII^ and IX 
 
 _ coalesce at their tips, and sometimes for 
 
 \ %. f nearly the entire length of vein VII,. 
 
 ^fy^ffS^sA^^^ The adult flies are found on flowers. 
 
 ^^^^^~^ In some genera the abdomen is long, with 
 
 //■\\ a slender, wasp-like pedicel (Fig. 583). In 
 
 ' * others the abdomen is of the more usual 
 
 iG. i^i.-conops. fQ,.,yj The larvae are parasitic, chiefly upon 
 
 bumblebees and wasps, but some species infest locusts. 
 
DIPTERA. 
 
 477 
 
 Family (EstkiD/K (CEs'tri-da:). 
 The Bot-flies. 
 
 This family includes flies that are large or of medium 
 size; most of the species resemble bees in appearance; 
 some, the honey-bee; others, bumblebees. In the vena- 
 tion of the wings they closely resemble the Muscidae ; but 
 the wings are usually furnished with f^ne transverse wrinkles. 
 They are most easily distinguished from the Muscidae by 
 the small size of the opening of the mouth and the rudi- 
 mentary condition of the mouth-parts, the proboscis being 
 rudimentary and the palpi usually wanting. 
 
 The head is large, with the face broad. The antennae 
 are small, three-jointed, more or less concealed in a suban- 
 tennal cavity or grooves ; the last segment bears a dorsal 
 bristle. Vein III of the wings is three-branched. Cell III, 
 is broadly open (Fig. 584)- or is narrowed at the margin of 
 
 vj + vir, 
 
 Fig. 584.— Wing of Gastrophilii 
 
 the wing, or closed. The alulets are usually large, conceal- 
 ing the halteres ; but sometimes they are small. 
 
 The larvae are parasitic upon mammals. The best known 
 species are the following : 
 
 The Horse Bot-fly, Gastrophilns equi (Gas-troph'i-lus 
 e'qui). — The adult fly closely resembles the honey-bee in 
 
4/8 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 form except that the female (Fig, 585) has the end of the 
 abdomen elongate and bent forward under the body. It is 
 most often seen flying about horses, which 
 have an instinctive fear of it. The eggs are 
 attached to the hair, chiefly on the legs and 
 shoulders of the horse. The larvae are licked 
 off by the horse and swallowed with its food, 
 fio- 585- When the larvae reach the stomach they fasten 
 themselves to the inner coat of it, and remain there until 
 full-grown. Then they pass from the animal with the dung, 
 and crawl into some protected place, where they transform 
 within a puparium. 
 
 The Oxwarble, Hypoderjua lineata (Hyp-o-der'ma lin- 
 e-a'ta). — The larva of this species is the common pest that 
 lives in the backs of cattle just beneath the skin. The adult 
 lays its eggs on the backs of cattle ; and it has been supposed 
 that the young larvae penetrate the skin, thus reaching the 
 place where they are commonly, found. But Dr. Cooper 
 Curtice has recently shown that the larvae are licked off 
 from the back by the cattle and swallowed. He found the 
 larvae in large numbers in the walls of the cesophagus in 
 November; later, about Christmas-time, they appeared sud- 
 denly, and in large numbers under the skin of the back. 
 The course of their migration from the oesophagus to the 
 skin has not yet been traced. The greater part of the 
 growth of the larva is made within the tumor beneath the 
 skin. When full-grown it passes out through a hole in the 
 skin and undergoes its transformations on the ground. Dr. 
 Curtice has also shown that the most common oxwarble of 
 this country is Hypodcrina lineata and not Hypoderina bovis, 
 as has been supposed; 
 
 The Sheep Bot fly, (Estrus ovis (CEs'trus o'vis). — The 
 eggs of this species are laid in the nostrils of sheep. The 
 larvae pass up into the frontal sinuses and into the horns 
 when they are present. Here they feed upon the mucus. 
 They are very injurious to sheep, causing vertigo or the 
 
DIPTERA. 
 
 479 
 
 disease known as " staggers." When full-grown they pass 
 out through the nostrils and undergo their transformations 
 beneath the surface of the ground. 
 
 Other species infest rabbits, squirrels, deer, and reindeer. 
 One that lives beneath the skin of the neck of rabbits is very 
 common in the South. 
 
 1 Family MusciD.-l': (Mus'ci-diL-). 
 
 T/ic Muse ids {Mils' cids). 
 
 The form of the more typical members of this family ij, 
 well shown by the common House-fly. But the family is a 
 very large one and includes species that differ greatly in 
 form. These differences are so great and so varied that 
 some writers divide the family into nearly thirty families. 
 It seems to us, however, to be better to consider these 
 divisions of subfamily value. The following characters are 
 presented by the family as a whole. 
 
 The antennae (Fig. 586) are three-jointed ; the third seg- 
 ment bears a dorsal bristle. The frontal suture is present- 
 (Fig. 587). The proboscis is 
 always present. Vein II of 
 the wings may be present or 
 absent ; vein III is three- 
 branched ; cells V, and V3 are 
 wanting ; the branches of vein 
 VII coalesce with the adjacent 
 veins (VII, with V, , and VII, 
 with IX) for nearly their 
 entire length. The pulvilli 
 are present, and the empodia 
 are never pulvilliform. 
 
 As this family includes more than one third of all the 
 known Diptera, it usually happens that a large proportion 
 of the flies in a collection belong to it. It seems necessary, 
 therefore, to indicate some of the principal divisions of the 
 
 Fig. 586. 
 
 Fig. 587. 
 
48o 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 family. The first of these is into two groups of subfamilies, 
 and is based upon the size of the alulets. The division is 
 not a satisfactory one ; and it is only given here because it 
 is commonly employed by writers on the Diptera, and a 
 more definite one has not yet been discovered. 
 
 A. The alulets large ; face with a depression or vertical grooves 
 beneath the antennas; cell III5 closed or narrowly open, except in 
 the Anthomyiinae, where it is widely open. p. 480. 
 
 Calyptrate Muscid^. 
 
 AA. The alulets small or wanting; form of face varied; cell IJI5 
 usually widely open. p. 484 Acalyptrate Muscid^e. 
 
 I. Calyptrate Muscid.b (Ca-lyp'trate). 
 
 To this division belong our most familiar representatives 
 or the family, of which the House-fly and the flesh-flies are 
 good illustrations. As a rule cell III^ of the wings is closed 
 or narrowly open (Fig. 588); but in the last subfamily this 
 
 Fig. 588.— Wing of Musca domestica. 
 
 cell is widely open (Fig. 589). Five subfamilies are classed 
 here ; these can be separated by the following table, which 
 is based on one given by Professor Williston. 
 
 A. Cell Ills of the wings closed or more or less narrowed at the 
 margin of the wing (Fig. 588). 
 
 B. Antennal bristle wholly bare. p. 481 ^ . . .Tachinin^. 
 
 BB. Antennal bristle distinctly pubescent or plumose. 
 
DIPTEKA. 
 
 481 
 
 C. Antennal bristle bare near the tip. p. 482. . Sarcophagi n^e, 
 CC. Antennal bristle plumose or pubescent to the tip. 
 
 D. Dorsum of abdomen bristly ; legs usually elongate, p. 482. 
 
 Dexiin/e. 
 DD. Abdomen not bristly, except sometimes somewhat so 
 
 near the tip. p. 482 MusciN^. 
 
 AA. Cell Ills widely oi)en, not narrowed at the margin of the wing 
 (Fig. 589). p. 483 Anthomyiin^. 
 
 nii+$ 
 
 Fig. 589.— Wing of XiV^. 
 
 Subfamily TACHiNiNiE (Tach-i-ni'nae). 
 The Tachina-flics {Ta-cJii'iid). 
 
 The Tachina-flies are often found about flowers and rank 
 vegetation. They are u.sually short, stout, and bristly, 
 and can be distinguished from 
 the three following subfamilies by 
 the bristle of the antennae being 
 wholly bare. 
 
 The larvae are parasitic, chiefly 
 within caterpillars, and play an ex- 
 ceedingly important part in check- 
 ing the increase of noxious insects. 
 The female fastens her eggs to the 
 skin of a caterpillar (Fig. 590); 
 when the larvae hatch they bore 
 their way into their host and live there till they are full- 
 grown. 
 
 Fig. 590. — Neiiioraa hiuanice. 
 Larva, adult, puparium, and eggs 
 upon fore part of an armyvvorm. 
 (From the author's Report for 
 1879.) 
 
482 THE STUDY OF IXSECTS. 
 
 Subfamily Sarcophagin^e (Sar-coph-a-gi'nae). 
 TJie Flesh-flics. 
 These flies resemble those of the preceding subfamily in 
 general appearance, but differ in having the bristle of the 
 antenna plumose or hairy at the base; the outer end of the 
 bristle is bare. They are called flesh-flies because many of 
 them lay their eggs on the bodies of dead animals, resem- 
 bling in habits the Blow-fly, which belongs to the sub- 
 family Muscinae. The larva; of other species live in dung, 
 in decaying vegetable matter, and in fruits. 
 
 Subfamily Dexiin^ (Dex-i-i'nae). 
 
 TJie Nimble-flies. ^^^^^ 
 
 In this subfamily the bristle of the ante^^^^^umose 
 or bristly to the tip, and the dorsum of ^^^^^Ren is 
 bristly. The legs are usually long. These fli^^^re much 
 less common than the members of the allied subfamilies ; the 
 larvae of some of the species, at least, are parasitic. 
 
 Subfamily MUSCIN.E (Mus-ci'nae). 
 The Typical Muscids {Mils' cids). 
 
 With these flies, as in the preceding subfamily, the bris- 
 tle of the antenna is pubescent or plumose to the tip; but 
 the abdomen is not bristly except near the tip. Here be- 
 long many of the best-known members of the Muscidae; 
 among the more important ones are the following : — 
 
 The House-fly, Musca dojnesiica (Mus'ca do-mes'ti-ca). — 
 This is the most familiar representative of the order Diptera, 
 as it abounds in our dwellings. It lays its eggs in horse- 
 manure, a single female laying from one hundred and twenty 
 to one hundred and sixty eggs ; the larvae become full- 
 grown in from five to seven days, having molted twice ; the 
 pupa state lasts from five to seven days. 
 
 The Stable-fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (Sto-mox'ys cal'ci- 
 trans). — This species resemble the House-fly in appearance ; 
 
DIPTERA. 483 
 
 but it has its mouth fitted for piercing and for sucking 
 blood. It annoys cattle greatly; and before storms and 
 in the autumn it enters our dwellings and attacks us. The 
 larvae live in fresh horse-manure. 
 
 The Horn-fly, H(Ematobia serrata (Hsem-a-to'bi a ser- 
 ra'ta). — This is an exceedingly annoying pest of horned 
 cattle, which has spread over the United States in recent 
 years. It resembles the House-fly in appearance ; but is 
 less than half as large. These flies cluster in great numbers 
 around the base of the horns ; they also settle upon the 
 Back. The larvae live in fresh cow-manure. 
 
 The Screw-worm Fly, Campsomyia macellaria (Camp-so- 
 my'i-a ma^B^i-a), is a bright metallic-green fly, with four 
 black stt^^^^Hthe upper part of the thorax ; it measures 
 about ^^^^^^h|f '^'i J"ch in length. This terrible pest 
 resemb^^Hp^sh-flies in habits, and it deposits its eggs 
 in wounds, sores, and the nostrils and ears of men and 
 cattle. The la^as living in these situations often cause 
 serious sickness, and sometimes even death. 
 
 The Blow-fly, Calliphora vomitoria (Cal-Hph'o-ra vom-i- 
 to'ri-a), is larger than the House-fly, and black in color, with 
 a steel-blue abdomen. It flies with a loud buzzing noise, 
 and lays its eggs upon meat, cheese, and other provisions. 
 The eggs hatch in about twenty-four hours, and the larvst 
 become full-grown in a few days. 
 
 ' Subfamily Anthomyiin^ (An-tho my-i-i'nae). 
 The AntJioniyiids [An-tJio-uiy'i-ids). 
 The members of this subfamily differ from other Ca- 
 lyptrate Muscldae in having cell III, widely open, vein V,^„ 
 nearly straight (Fig. 589), and not bent in its outer part 
 towards the tip of vein III4+6, as in the preceding subfam- 
 ilies. In fact, the type of venation is the same as that 
 which is characteristic of nearly all of the Acalyptrate 
 Muscidae; and as the alulets are quite small in some of the 
 Anthomyiids, it is difficult for the beginner to recognize all 
 
484 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 members of this family as such. It is to be hoped that 
 other characters than those we now know for separating the 
 Calyptrate Muscidae from the Acalyptrate Muscidae will 
 soon be discovered. 
 
 The Anthomyiids are very common flies. They are 
 found on leaves and flowers, and are also often found on win- 
 dows in our dwellings. The larvae of most species live in 
 decaying vegetable matter, a few are parasitic on other in- 
 sects, and some attack growing plants. Among the latter 
 are certain well-known pests infesting garden crops. The 
 more important of these are the following : — 
 
 The Cabbage-root Maggot, Phorbia brassic(e (Phor'bi-a 
 bras'si-cae). — This insect in its larval state feeds on the roots 
 of cabbage, radish, turnip, and cauliflower {|-it also attacks 
 the roots of various weeds belonging to the'-same: family of 
 plants. It is one of the most serious pests tha'lj^gardeners 
 have to contend with. • 
 
 The Onion-fly, Phorbia ceparum (P. ce-pa'rum). — The 
 larva of this species is often exceedingly destructive to 
 onions, consuming the bulb of the plant. 
 
 The leaves of beet are often mined by maggots; and it 
 has been found that this injury is due to several species of 
 Anthomyiids. The most common of these is Pegomyia 
 vidua (Peg-o-my'i-a vi-ci'na). 
 
 II. Acalyptrate Muscid^ (Ac-a-lyp'trate). 
 
 To this division of the Muscidae belong a very large 
 number of common flies. These vary greatly in form, and 
 represent a large number of distinct subfamilies. As a rule 
 cell III5 of the wings is widely open (Fig. 591), and vein II 
 may be either present or wanting. The alulets are usually 
 very small or rudimentary. 
 
 The American species have not yet been sufificiently 
 studied to enable us to give a table for separating the sub- 
 families. We will merely refer, therefore, to a few of the 
 more important species. 
 
DIP TEN A. 
 
 485 
 
 The Dung-flics, Saitophaga (Sca-toph'a-ga), are rather 
 iiii 
 
 IIU+S 
 
 .IX V3 + VII, 
 
 Fig. 591. — Wing of Callopistria antnilifies. 
 
 slender flies; which have the body clothed with yellowish 
 
 hair, and which are com- 
 
 mon, especially about 
 
 fresh cow-dung. They 
 
 belong to the Subfamily 
 
 CordylurincB (Cor-dyl-u- 
 
 ri'nae). 
 
 To the subfamilies Or- 
 t alines (Or-ta-li'nae) and 
 TrypetincE (Try-pe-ti'nae) 
 belong many common 
 species which have the 
 wings beautifully marked 
 with dark spots or bands. 
 In the Ortalinae vein 11 
 extends to the margin of 
 the wing in the usual 
 way; in the Trypetinai 
 the outer part of vein II 
 turns suddenly towards 
 
 the margin of the wing, Fig. <:92.-The Apple-maggot; 1, larva; 2, pupa- 
 
 j , , • rium; 3, adult- la; head of larva from side, 
 
 and at tne same Iime showing mouth-parts and cephalic spiracle; 
 
 , 1 1 1- lb, head of larva from below; ic, caudal 
 
 becomes much less dlS- spiracle of larva. 
 
486 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 tinct. The two following are well-known members of the 
 Trypetinae. 
 
 The Apple-maggot, Trypeta pouwnclla (Try-pe'ta pom-o- 
 nel'la.) — This maggot eats into the pulp of apples, boring 
 tunnels in all directions through the fruit ; it attacks espe- 
 cially the early maturing varieties. When full-grown it goes 
 into the ground to transform. The adult is a black and 
 white fly, with banded wings (Fig. 592). 
 
 The Round Goldenrod Gall. — One of the most familiar 
 of abnormal growths on plants is a ball-like enlargement of 
 
 ♦ the stem of goldenrod (Fig. 593). 
 This is caused by a maggot, which 
 lives within it, and which develops 
 into a pretty fly with banded wings. 
 This is Trypeta solidaginis (T. Sol-i- 
 dag'i-nis). There is another gall on 
 Fig. 505. -The Round Golden- the Stem of goldcnrod which is liable 
 to be mistaken for this one, but which 
 can be easily distinguished from it. It is more elongate, 
 and is hollow. It is made by the larva of a Tineid moth, 
 Gelechia gall(2solidaginis (Ge-le'chi-a gal-lae-sol-i-dag'i-nis) ; it 
 may be called the Elliptical Goldenrod Gall. 
 
 The Stem-eyed Fly, Spliyracephala brevicornis (Sphyr-a- 
 ceph'a-la brev-i-cor'nis) is a very singular fly, Avhich is found 
 on the leaves of skunk-cabbage. On each side of the head 
 there is horn-like process extending outward, upon the end 
 of which the eye is situated. This species is the only Amer- 
 ican representative of its subfamily, the DiopsiucB (Di-op- 
 si'nae), yet described. 
 
 The Cheese-maggot, Piopliila casei (Pi oph'i-la ca'se-i) is 
 the larva of a small black-fly, less than half the size of the 
 House-fly. It belongs to the small subfamily Piophilmce 
 (Pi-oph-i-li'nae), in which vein II of the wings is quite closely 
 united with vein III. This fly lays its eggs on cheese, ham, 
 and bacon ; the larvae live in these substances and are often 
 serious pests. They are commonly known as "skippers " on 
 
DIPTERA. 487 
 
 account of the remarkable jumps which they can make. 
 This is accomplished by first bringing the head and tail ends 
 together and then suddenly straightening the body. In this 
 way one of these maggots can jump several inches. 
 
 To the genus Ephydra (Eph'y-dra) of the subfamily 
 EphydrincB (Eph-y-dri'nae) belong several species the larvae 
 of which live in marine or strongly alkaline waters. In the 
 far West and in Mexico these larvae occur in the alkaline 
 lakes in countless numbers; and are washed ashore in such 
 quantities that bushels of them can be collected. They are 
 gathered by the Indians, who dry them and use them for 
 food, which they call Koo-cha'bee. 
 
 The Pomace-flies. — These are certain small yellowish 
 flies from one-eighth to one-sixth of an inch in length, which 
 are very common about the 
 refuse of cider-mills, decaying 
 fruit, and fermenting vats of 
 grape pomace. These are the 
 pomace-flies ; and their larvae 
 live in the decaying fruit. 
 A very common species is 
 the Vine-loving Pomace-fly, 
 Drosophila ampelopliila (Dro-soph'i-la am-pe-loph'i-la) (Fig. 
 594). 
 
 Family H1PPOBOSCID.E (Hip-po-bos'ci-dae). 
 The Louse-flics. 
 
 The louse-flies are very abnormal flies that, in the adult 
 state, live like lice, parasitically, upon the bodies of birds 
 and mammals. Some species are winged, others are wing- 
 less, and still others are winged for a time and then lose 
 their wings. 
 
 The body is depressed ; the head is closely attached to 
 the thorax, which is notched to receive it. The antennae 
 are apparently one-jointed, with a terminal bristle or style; 
 they are situated in a depression near the mouth. The 
 
 Fig. 594. — Drosophila ainpelophila. 
 
488 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 frontal suture is present. The legs are broadly separated 
 by the sternum ; they are comparatively short and stout ; 
 the tarsal claws are strong and are often furnished with 
 teeth. The winged forms vary greatly in the venation of 
 the wings. The veins near the costal border are usually 
 strong while the others are weak. Figure 595 represents 
 
 IX 
 
 Fig. 505. — Wing of Olfcrsia. 
 
 the venation of Olfersia. In this genus veins III^+s and 
 III^_|_^ separate near the base of the wing. In Hippobosca 
 they separate at or beyond the middle of the wing. 
 
 Even more remarkable than the parasitic life of the adult 
 flies is the mode of reproduction of these insects. The ^g'g 
 is hatched within the body of the parent, the larva is nour- 
 ished in this position till it is full-grown, and is not born till 
 it is ready to change to a pupa. This mode of reproduction 
 is also characteristic of the two following families, which are 
 frequently on this account classed with this one as a division 
 of the Diptera, termed Pupipara (Pu-pip'a-ra). 
 
 The most common member of the Hippoboscidae is the 
 
 Sheeptick, Melophagiis ovimis (Me-loph'a-gus o-vi'nus). This 
 
 is a wingless species (Fig. 596), which lives upon 
 
 sheep. Hippobosca equina (Hip-po-bos'ca e-qui'na) 
 
 is winged and lives on the horse. Olfersia ameri- 
 
 cana (01-fer'si-a a-mer-i-ca'na) is also winged and 
 
 is common on owls and other birds. The species 
 
 Fig. 596. Qf |.|^g genus Lipoptera (Li-pop'te-ra) are winged 
 
 at first and live on birds ; later they migrate to quadrupeds, 
 
DIPTERA. 489 
 
 where they remain, and having no further use for their 
 wings, they lose them. 
 
 Family NVCTERIBIID^ (Nyc-ter-i-bi'i-dae). 
 TJic Bat-ticks. 
 
 The bat-ticks are wingless parasites of bats. The body 
 is depressed ; the head is small and folded back into a groove 
 on the dorsum of the thorax. The compound eyes are 
 wanting; the ocelli are present or wanting. The legs are 
 long, and the tarsal claws of ordinary form. Although 
 wingless the halteres are present. 
 
 The mode of reproduction is similar to that of the 
 Hippoboscidae. 
 
 Family Braulid^e (Brau'li-dae). 
 The Bee-louse. 
 This is a minute insect, one-sixteenth of an inch in 
 length, which is parasitic upon the Honey- 
 bee (Fig. 597). It is found clinging to the 
 thorax of queens and drones. It is wing- 
 less, and also lacks halteres. The head is 
 large, but lacks both compound eyes and 
 ocelli. The legs are comparatively short ; 
 the last segment of the tarsus is furnished with a pair of 
 comb-like appendages. Only a single species is known ; 
 this is Braula cceca (Brau'la cae'ca). Its mode of reproduc- 
 tion is similar to that of the Hippoboscidae. 
 
CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Order Siphonaptera (Siph-o-nap'te-ra). 
 TJie Fleas. 
 
 The members of this order are practically wingless, the 
 wings being represented only by ininiite scaly plates. The 
 mouth-parts are formed for sucking. The jnetamorphosis is 
 complete. 
 
 These tiny tormentors are best known to us in the adult 
 state \ for it is only during this period that they annoy us 
 and our household pets. The larvae and pupae are rarely 
 observed except by students who search for them. 
 
 The name of the order is from two Greek words : siphon, 
 a tube ; and apteros, wingless. It refers to the form of the 
 mouth and to the wingless condition of the insects. 
 
 In our more common fleas the body of the adult is oval 
 and greatly compressed, which allows the insect to glide 
 through the narrow spaces between the hairs of its host. 
 The integument is smooth, quite hard, and naked, except 
 that there are many strong spines, 
 which are arranged with great 
 regularity (Fig. 598), and thus af- 
 ford good characters for distin- 
 guishing the different species. 
 The smoothness and firmness of 
 the body makes it easy for the 
 insect to escape when caught be- 
 F.o. 5g8.-TheD0g.flea and its larva, ^^^^gj^ the fingers of man or the 
 
 teeth of lower animals. Doubtless the backward projecting 
 
 490 
 
SIP II ON A P TEPA. 49 1 
 
 spines also aid them in their efforts to escape, as every 
 wriggle of the body pushes it forward. When once out of 
 the clutch of an enemy, they quickly leap away. 
 
 The head is broadly joined to the thorax. There are no 
 compound eyes ; but on each side of the head there is a 
 large ocellus, and hidden in a groove behind the ocellus is 
 the antenna. The mouth-parts are formed for piercing and 
 sucking ; the sucking-tube is formed of the upper lip and the 
 two mandibles ; the maxillae are small, triangular plates and 
 bear long, four-jointed palpi ; the labium is minute and bears 
 a pair of terminal, three-jointed palpi. The mesothorax and 
 metathorax each bears a pair of fiat scales, which are sup- 
 posed to be rudimentary wings. The legs are long and 
 strong, and fitted for leaping ; the hinder pair are the larg- 
 est and the middle pair next in size. 
 
 The eggs are scattered about the floors of dwellings and 
 in the sleeping-places of infested animals. The larvae are 
 slender, worm-like creatures, with a distinct head and with- 
 out legs (Fig. 598). They have biting mouth-parts, and feed 
 upon the decaying particles of animal and vegetable matter 
 always to be found in the dirt in which they live. When 
 full-grown the larva spins a cocoon within which the pupa 
 state is passed. 
 
 Of the domestic animals only the dog, cat, rabbit, pigeons, 
 and poultry have fleas. They are most common on dogs 
 and pigeons. But the species of fleas do not appear to be 
 so strictly limited to particular animals as are the lice andl 
 some other parasites ; for the species that commonly infests 
 dogs and cats will also attack man without hesitation, and 
 in this country seems to be more troublesome to our race 
 than the Human-flea. 
 
 To rid a dog or cat of fleas it should be dusted with 
 Persian insect powder [Pyrethriini), and its sleeping-place 
 thoroughly cleaned, The bedding in kennels should be of 
 some substance which can be replaced frequently, as shav- 
 ings or straw, and when replaced the old bedding should be 
 
492 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 burned, and the floors wet with kerosene emulsion or some 
 other insecticide that will destroy the eggs and larvae. 
 
 In regions where fleas abound much relief can be ob- 
 tained by the use of rugs on the floors of dwellings instead 
 of carpets. The frequent shaking of the rugs and cleaning, 
 of the floors will prevent the breeding of these pests within 
 the house. As a single flea will inflict many bites, it often 
 happens that a house will seem to be overrun by them when 
 only a few are present. In such cases a careful search for 
 and capture of the offenders will soon remedy the evil. We 
 have found that in catching fleas greater success attends our 
 efforts if the thumb and forefinger be wet before seizing the 
 flea, and the insect be placed in a dish of water before we 
 attempt to destroy it. Otherwise the insect is apt to escape 
 while we are trying to destroy it. 
 
 People that suffer from the attacks of these pests can 
 also gain much relief by dusting the upper part of their 
 stockings each morning with Persian insect powder, and by 
 sprinkling a small quantity of this powder between the 
 sheets of their beds at night. 
 
 This order contains only a single family, the Pulicidoe 
 (Pu-lic'i-dae), of which five or six genera and about twenty- 
 five species are now known. The species that are most fre- 
 quently observed are the following : — 
 
 The Dog-flea, Ceratopsylltis serraticeps (Cer-a-to-psyl'lus 
 ser-rat'i-ceps). — This is the most common flea that infests 
 dog, cat, and man in this country (Fig. 598). It is reddish 
 brown ; the lower margin of the head and the hinder margin 
 of the prothorax each bear on each side from seven to nine 
 black, tooth-like spines. 
 
 The Human-flea, Pulex irriians (Pu'lex ir-ri'tans). This 
 species lacks the comb-like rows of black spines on the lower 
 side of the head and on the hinder margin of the prothorax. 
 It is also usually darker than the preceding species, being 
 sometimes pitchy brown. It is a common pest in dwellings 
 in Europe, but is comparatively rare in this country. 
 
SIP HON A P TERA . 493 
 
 The Chigoe (Chig'o) or Jigger, Sarcopsylla penetrans 
 (Sar-co-psyl'la pen'e-trans), is a small flea found in the West 
 Indies and South America, which often causes serious 
 trouble to men by burrowing beneath the skin of the foot. 
 It is the fertile female that does this, and soon after enter- 
 ing its host the body of the flea becomes distended with 
 eggs and acquires the size of a pea. 
 
 In the southern United States the names Chigoe and 
 Jigger are improperly applied to the harvest-mites, which 
 kre the immature six-legged forms of various mites that 
 attach themselves like ticks to the skin and become gorged 
 with blood. 
 
CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 Order Coleoptera (Co-le-op'te-ra). 
 
 The Beetles. 
 
 The members of this order have a pair of horny wijig-covers, 
 called elytra, which meet in a straight line down the back, aftd 
 beneath which there is a single pair of membranous wings. 
 The mouth-parts are formed for biting. The metamorphosis 
 is complete. 
 
 Beetles can be readily distinguished from all other in- 
 sects except earwigs by the possession of horny, veinless 
 wing-covers which meet in a straight line down the back 
 (Fig. 599); and they differ from ear- 
 wigs in lacking the pincer-like ap- 
 pendages at the tail end of the body 
 characteristic of those insects (see 
 page 103). Beetles also differ from 
 earwigs in having a complete meta- 
 morphosis. 
 
 The name of the order, Coleop- 
 
 ^'^- 599- tera, is from two Greek words: coleos, 
 
 a sheath; 2i\\d pteron, a wing. It refers to the sheath-like 
 
 structure of the elytra {eV y-tra) or wing-covers, which are 
 
 modified wings. 
 
 The structure of the elytra is so different from that usu- 
 ally characteristic of wings that F. Meinert was led to be- 
 lieve that they were not wings, but greatly enlarged paraptera 
 of the mesothorax; and unfortunately this view was adopted 
 in the earlier editions of this book. 
 
 The reasons in support of Meinert's view are the follow- 
 ing : the difference in the structure of elytra from that of 
 wings ; the fact that in the Lepidoptera the paraptera of the 
 
 494 
 
COLEOrTERA. 495 
 
 mesothorax often bear a striking resemblance to elytra (this 
 can be well-seen by removing the scales from the paraptera, 
 or palagia, as they are termed, of a sphinx moth) ; and the 
 fact that in many Coleoptera {e.g., Dytiscus) what appear to 
 be rudiments of the fore wings exist beneath the elytra. 
 
 The argument based on the thickened structure of the 
 elytra loses its force when we consider the more or less elytra- 
 like wings of many other insects (Heteroptera, certain Blatti- 
 die, et al.) ; and it probably would not have been seriously 
 urged but for the presence of the so-called rudimentary wings 
 beneath the elytra of certain beetles. These, however, have 
 been found to correspond in structure and position to the 
 alul.Te of the wings of other insects; but most important of 
 all, a study of the development of elytra has proven that they 
 are wings. 
 
 The hind wings are membranous, and in most species very 
 efficient organs of flight. But in some of the pre-eminently 
 running beetles the hind wings are wanting, and the elytra 
 serve only as a protection to the abdomen. With some of 
 these insects the elytra are even grown together where they 
 meet on the middle line of the back. Instances of this kind 
 are not uncommon among the ground-beetles and the dark- 
 ling beetles. 
 
 The different mouth-parts are very evenly developed ; 
 we do not find some of them greatly enlarged at the ex- 
 pense of others, as in several other orders of insects. The 
 upper lip, or labrum, is usually distinct ; the mandibles are 
 powerful jaws fitted either for seizing prey or for gnawing ; 
 the maxill?e are also well developed and arc quite compli- 
 cated, consisting of several distinct pieces; the maxillary 
 palpi are usually prominent ; and the lower lip, or labium, is 
 also well developed and complicated, consisting of several 
 parts and bearing prominent labial palpi. 
 
 The larvae are commonly called grubs. They are usually 
 furnished with six thoracic legs, and often with a single 
 proleg at the caudal end of the body ; some, however, as 
 
49^ THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. 
 
 the larvae of the snout-beetles, are entirely destitute of 
 jointed legs. The pups have the partially developed elytra, 
 
 ♦ wings, and legs folded upon the breast, but in dis- 
 tinct sheaths (Fig. 600). These insects usually 
 transform in rude cocoons made of earth or of bits 
 of wood fastened together by a viscid substance ex- 
 creted by the larvae. Many wood-burrowing species 
 transform in the tunnels made by the larvae ; and 
 Fig. 600, yoiY^e of the Dermestids as well as some of the 
 lady-bugs transform in the last larval skin. 
 
 Both beetles and their larvae vary greatly in their habits ; 
 while some species are very beneficial to man, others are 
 extremely noxious. 
 
 More than eleven thousand species of beetles, represent- 
 ing upwards of eighty families, are known to occur in Amer- 
 ica north of Mexico. The following synopsis will aid the 
 student in learning the relationships of these families : — 
 
 SYNOPSIS OF THE COLEOPTERA. 
 
 {See page So$/or a table for determining speci'mefts.) 
 
 A. The Typical Coleoptera. — Beetles with the head and mouth- 
 parts of the ordinary form. 
 
 B. The Isomera (I-som'e-ra). — Typical Coleoptera. in which the 
 hind farsi have as many segments as the others. (There are a 
 few exceptions to this character among the Clavicornia.) 
 C. Isomera in which the fourth and fifth tarsal segments are not 
 grown together. 
 
 D. The Adephaga (A-deph'a-ga) or Predaceous Beetles. — 
 Isomera in which the first three ventral abdominal segments 
 are grown together, and the first of these is divided by the 
 hind coxal cavities so that the sides are separated from the 
 very small medial part. 
 
 The Tiger-beetles, p. 516 Family Cicindelid^. 
 
 The Ground-beetles, p. 518 Family Carabid^e. v 
 
 The Amphizoids. p. 521 Family AMPHizoiDyE. 
 
 The Haliplids. p. 522 Family Haliplid^. 
 
 The Predaceous Diving-beetles, p. 523. Family Dytiscid^. V 
 The Whirligig Beetles, p. 525 Family GvRiNiDiE. y 
 
 
COLEOPTERA. 497 
 
 DD. The Clavicoknia (Clav-i-cor'ni-a) or Clavicorn Reetles. 
 — Isomera in which the first ventral abdominal segment is 
 visible for its entire breadth, and in which the antennae are 
 usually clavate or capitate, but not lamellate. 
 The Water Scavenger Beetles, p. 527. (/' 
 
 Family HYDROPHILIDyE. 
 
 The Beaver-parasite, p. 529 Family Platvpsyllida;. 
 
 The Leptinids. p. 529 Family Leptinid^e. y' 
 
 The Carrion-beetles, p. 529 F"amily Silphid^. 
 
 The Scydniffnids. p. 531 Family Scvdma;nid.'E. 
 
 The Pselaphids. p. 531 Family Pselaphid^. ^ 
 
 The Rove-beetles, p. 532 Family Staphylinid^. 1 
 
 The Feather-wing Beetles, p. 533. 
 
 Family Trichopterygid^. 
 
 The Hydroscaphids. p. 533 Family Hydroscaphid^. 
 
 The Spliaeriids. p. 533 Family Sph^riid^E. 
 
 The Scaphidiids. p. 533 Family ScaphidiiDjE. ■ 
 
 The Phalacrids. p. 534 Family Phalacrid^'T 
 
 The Corylophids. p. 534 Family Corylophid^. 
 
 The Lady-bugs. p. 534 Family Coccinellida:." * 
 
 The Endomychids. p. 535 Family Endomychid^. 
 
 The Erotylids. p. 536 Family Erotylid^. 
 
 The Colydiids. p. 537 Family CoLYDii-DyE. 
 
 The Rhyssodids. p. 537 Family Rhyssodjd^. ^ 
 
 The Cucujids. p. 537 .Family CucujiD^. ' 
 
 The Cryptophagids. p. 538 Family Cryptophagid^. 
 
 The Mycetophagids, p. 538 Family Mycetophagid/E. J' 
 
 The Dermestids. p. 538... Family DERMESTtD^E^- 
 
 The Histerids. p. 541 Family Histerid^. ' 
 
 The Nitidulids. p. 541 Family NlTlDULiD^. ' 
 
 The Trogositids. p. 542 Family Trogositid^. 
 
 The Monotomids. p. 542 Family Monotomid.*;'. 
 
 The Lathridiids. p. 542 Family Lathridiid.e. 
 
 The Derodontids. p. 542 Family Derodontid^. 
 
 The Pill-beetles, p. 542 Family Byrrhid^. 
 
 The Georyssids. p. 543 Family Georyssid^e. 
 
 The Parnids. p. 543 Family Parnid^e. 
 
 The Heterocerids. p. 543 Family HETEROCERiDiE, 
 
 DDD. The Serricornia (Ser-ri-cor'ni-a) or Serricorn Beetles. 
 — Isomera in which the first ventral abdominal segment 
 is visible for its entire breadth, and in which the antennae 
 are usually serrate. . 
 
498 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. • 
 
 / 
 
 The Dascyllids. p. 544 Family DASCYLLiDiE. 
 
 The Rhipicerids. p. 544 Family Rhipicerid^. / 
 
 The Click-beetles, p. 544 Family Elaterid^.^ 
 
 The Throscids. p. 548 Family Throscid/E. / 
 
 The Buprestids. p. 548 Family BuPRESTlD.t. ^^ 
 
 The Fire-fly Family, p. 550 Family Lampyrid.E. ^ 
 
 The Malachiids. p. 552 Family Malachiid^. y^ 
 
 The Checkered-beetles, p. 552 Family CleriD/^T'- y^ 
 
 The Ptinids. p. 553 Family Ptinid^. ^ 
 
 The Cupesids. p. 553 Family Cupesid^. 
 
 The Ship-timber Beetle Family, p. 553. 
 
 Family Lymexylid.e. 
 
 The Ciids. p. 554 Family Cl I DyE. 
 
 The Sphindids. p. 554 Family SPHiNDip^. 
 
 DDDD. The Lamellicornia (La-mel-li-cor'ni-a) or Lamelli- 
 corn Beetles. — Isomera in which the first ventral abdominal 
 segment is visible for its entire breadth and in which the 
 antennae have a lamellate club. 
 
 The Stag-beetles, p. 554 Family Lucanid^. y 
 
 The Scarabaeids. p. 556 Family Scarab/eid^. \/ 
 
 CC. The Phytophaga (Phy-toph'a-ga). — Isomera in which'the 
 fourth and fifth tarsal segments are grown together ; the fourth 
 tarsal segment is usually very small, and concealed in a notch 
 in the third segment. 
 
 The Aberrant Long-horned Beetles, p. 566. / . 
 
 Family SpondylidtE. / 
 
 The Long-horned Beetles, p. 567 Family Cerambycjb.«. r 
 
 The Leaf-beetles, p. 574 Family Chrysomelid^. ^ ^ 
 
 The Pea-weevil Family, p. 581 Family Bruchib.«. ^ 
 
 BB. The Heteromera (Het-e-rom'e-ra) or Heteromerous Beetles. 
 — Typical Coleoptera in which the fore and middle tarsi are five- 
 jointed, and the hind tarsi four-jointed. / 
 
 The Darkling Beetles, p. 582 Family Tenebrionid^e.^ 
 
 The ^gialitids. p. 584 Family ^gialitiD/E. 
 
 The Cistelids. p. 584 Family Cistelid.®. 
 
 The Othniids. p. 584 Family OxHNIIDiE. 
 
 The Lagriids. p. 584 Family LagriiDvE.' 
 
 The Monommids. p. 584 Family MonommiDvE." 
 
 The Melandryids. p. 585 Family Melandryid^. ' 
 
 The Pythids. p. 585 Family Pythid^. ' 
 
 The CEdemerids. p. 585 Family CEDEMERlDiE. " 
 
 The Cephaloids. p. 585 . .• Family CephaloidvE. ' 
 
COLEOPTERA. 400 
 
 The Mordellids. p. 586 Family Mordellid.*:. . 
 
 The Anthicids. p. 586 Family Anthicid^.- 
 
 The Pyrochroids. p. 5S6 Family Pyrochroid.e. - 
 
 The Blister-beetles, p. 586 Family Meloid.b. A "^ 
 
 The Khipiphorids. p. 589 Family Rhipiphorid.e. 
 
 The Stylopids. p. 589 Family Stylopid^!:. 
 
 AA. The Rhvnchophora (Rhyn-choph'o-ra) or Snout-Beetles.— 
 Beetles in which the head is more or less prolonged into a beak, 
 and in which the palpi are short and rigid. 
 
 The Rhinomacerids. p. 590 Family RHINOMACERlD.ii. 
 
 The Rhynchitids. p. 591 Family Rhynchithxi;. 
 
 The Leaf-rolling Weevils, p. 591 Family Attelabid.e. 
 
 The Byrsopids. p. 591 Family Byrsopid.e.^ 
 
 The Scarred Snout-beetles, p. 592 Family Otiorhynchid^.- '^ 
 
 The Curculios. p. 593 Family Curculionid^.--^ 
 
 The Brenthids. p. 594 Family Brenthid^.^./ 
 
 The Bill-bugs. p. 595 Family CALANDRiD^.vy 
 
 The Engraver-beetles, p. 596 Family ScoLYXiDiE. -J^ 
 
 The Anthribids. p. 598 Family Anthribid^e. ■- 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE COLEOPTERA. 
 
 {For Advanced Si it dents.) 
 
 In order to use the table for determining the families of beetles it 
 is necessary that the student should become familiar with certain 
 
 Fig. 601. — Head of Harfalus : a, dorsal aspect ; i, ventral 
 aspect; i, occiput; 2 epicranium; 3, eye; 5. clypeus; 6, 
 gfula; 7, antenna; 8, labrum; 10, mandibles; ii</. maxillary 
 palpus; iiy, galea or outer lobe of maxilla; 12a, submen- 
 tum; i2</, labial palpus; cs, clypeal suture; g-s, gular 
 suture. 
 
 Fig. 602. — Head and pro- 
 thorax of Rhymhofhorus: 
 c, coxa; tv«, epimeron;/", 
 femur; ^j, gular suture ; 
 J. presternum 
 
 terms not defined in the discussion of the external anatomy of insects 
 on pages 56-67. The following notes are therefore given as a supple- 
 ment to that discussion. 
 
 T/ie Head. — Two of the sclerites that enter into the composition 
 
500 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 of the external wall of the head are frequently referred to in descrip- 
 tions of beetles; these are the clypeus and the gula. The clypeus 
 (clyp'e-us) is situated on the dorsal side of the head, and is the.sclerite 
 to which the labrum is attached. (Fig. 6oi, a, 5.) Ih^t giila (gu'ia) 
 is the central portion of the ventral wall of the head, and is the part 
 which bears the labium (Fig. 601, <5, 6). The sutures which bound the 
 gula, one on each side, are termed the gular sutures (Fig. 601, b,gs). 
 In the Rhynchophora the gula appears to be wanting, and there is a 
 single suture on the middle line of the liead (Fig. 602, ^.y) ; in this case 
 the gular sutures are said to be confluent. The suture which separates 
 the clypeus from the sclerite immediately behind it (the epicranium) 
 is termed the clypcal suture (Fig. 601, a, cs). 
 
 The Antennce. — The more common types of antennae are named 
 and figured on page 60. But it is necessary to define two 
 other terms here. In many insects the first segment of the 
 antenna is long and the antenna is bent suddenly at the 
 joint between the first and second segments ; such antennae 
 are said to be elbowed o\ geniculate (ge-nic'u-late). In some 
 pectinate antennae the tooth-like processes are very long, 
 giving the antenna a more or less fan-like appearance ; such 
 antennae are defined z.?, flabellate (fla-bel'late) (Fig. 603). 
 Fig. 603. The Mouth-parts. — The labrum and mandibles are suffi- 
 
 ciently described on page 61. The parts of the ma.xillae are repre- 
 sented in Figs. 604, 605, and 606; of these there are five primary 
 
 Fig 604.— Maxilla of Cicin- Fig. 605.— Ventral aspect of 
 dela. ma.x.Wa.oi NydroJ>/iilus. 
 
 Fig. 606.— Dorsal aspect of 
 maxilla of Hydrophilus. 
 
 parts and three appendages. The primary parts are \.\it.cardo or hinge 
 {a), the stipes (sti'pes) or footstalk {h), xhe palpi/er (pal'pi-fer) or pal- 
 pus-bearer {c), the subgalea (sub-ga'le-a) or helmet-bearer (^), and the 
 lacinia (la-cin'i-a) or blade {g). The appendages are the maxillary 
 palpus or i&t\&r {d),\.\\& galea (ga'le-a) or outer lobe or superior lobe 
 (/,/), and the digitus (dig'i-tus) or finger (//). 
 
COLEOPTERA. $01 
 
 The parts of the maxilla to which reference Is most often made are 
 the palpus and the galea. The number and form of the segments of 
 the palpus are much used in descriptions; as is also the presence or 
 absence of the galea. When the galea is developed as a distinct ap- 
 pendage, the maxilla is said to be bilobed, the galea being termed the 
 ouhr lobe, and the lacinia, or blade, the inner lobe (Fig. 604). When 
 the galea is not developed so as to appear as an appendage the 
 maxilla is said to have but one lobe. 
 
 Much use is made'of the form of the parts of the labium or lower 
 lip in descriptions of beetles. When fully developed the labium con- 
 sists of three principal parts and a pair of appendages. Tlie principal 
 parts are the submenliiin,Xhc vtenlu?n,<iv\d tlie ligiila ; the appendages 
 are the labial palpi'. The basal part of the labium, the part which is 
 joined to the gula, is the stibmentinn (Fig. 607, sm). 
 By an unfortunate error this sclerite is almost in- 
 variably described in works on the Coleoptera as the 
 mentuvi. This fact should be borne in mind by the 
 student when using any of the older books on this 
 subiect. The intermediate portion of the labium is F'g. 607. — L:i 
 the mentiim (Fig. 607, ;//); and the distal portion su bme ntu m; w, 
 
 ^, ,. , T^, ,. , . , , meinum ; x, labial 
 
 the ligiila. The ligula is a compound organ ; but palpus; g, giossa, 
 in beetles the sutures between the different sclerites ^' paragiossa. 
 of which it is composed are usually obsolete. Three parts, however, 
 are commonly distinguished, a central part, which is sometimes 
 divided at the tip, \.\\&glossa (Fig. 6oj,g), and two parts, one on each 
 side of the giossa, the paragiossa" (Fig. 607, p). The part on each side 
 which bear the palpus is termed, when it is distinct, the palp iger. 
 
 The Thorax. — Each segment of the thorax is composed of several 
 sclerities. The shape and relative position of these sclerites afTord 
 characters which are much used in classification. Figure 608 is a dia- 
 grammatic representation of what is considered the typical arrange- 
 ment of these parts in each of the thoracic segments. Each segment 
 of the thorax is a ring, which is divided into four parts: a dorsal, a 
 ventral, and two lateral. The dorsal part is named the notiim (no'tum) 
 or tergum (ter'gum); each lateral part the plcurian (pleurum) ; and 
 the ventral part the sternum (ster'num). 
 
 When the notum or sternum of a particular thoracic segment is to 
 be indicated, it is done by the use of one of the prefixes pro, jfteso, or 
 tneta. In this way are formed the terms pronotum, mesonoitim, meta- 
 notum, prostertium, niesosternum and metasternum; which are applied 
 to the nota and sterna of the prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax 
 respectively. 
 
502 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The tergum or dorsal wall of each thoracic segment is composed 
 typhically of four sclerities. These are ar- 
 ranged in a linear series (Figs. 608, 609). 
 They are named, beginning with the first or 
 most cephiilic, prascutum (prae-scu'tum) {a), 
 scutum (scu'tum) {b),sciiielluvi (scu-tel'lum) {c), 
 and postscuiellum (post-scu-tel'lum) {d). In 
 the prothorax of beetles the sutures between 
 these four sclerites are obsolete, the pronotum 
 appearing to be composed of a single sclerite (Fig. 609, 14). The 
 mesonotum and metanotum are usually covered by the wings and 
 
 Fig. 608.— Diagram of the 
 fixed pans of a thoracic 
 segment. 
 
 Fig. 609 — Dorsal aspect of the thorax of a 
 beetle; 14, pronotum; 
 
 metanotum. Dysticus. 
 Audouin.) 
 
 mesonotum ; 
 "dissected. (After 
 
 Fig. 610.— Figure of a beetle, 
 showing the sculellum. 
 
 elytra, excepting the scutellum of the mesothorax, which is usually 
 quite conspicuous, appearing as a more or less triangular piece be- 
 tween the elytra at their base (Fig. 610). As this is the only one of 
 the three scutella that is usually seen, it is termed the scutellum. 
 
 Each pleurum or lateral part of each thoracic segment is composed 
 chiefly or entirely of two sclerites, arranged more or less obliquely. 
 The first of these (Fig. 608, e) is the episternuvi (ep-i-ster'num), the 
 second (Fig. 608,/) is the epiinero7i (ep-i-me'ron). A third sclerite 
 (Fig. 608,^) is sometimes present near the dorsal end of the epister- 
 num; this is the parapteron (pa-rap'te-ron.) Paraptera have not been 
 found in the prothorax. In beetles the paraptera of the mesothorax 
 
CO LEO r VERA. 
 
 503 
 
 are greatly developed ; they project from the body wall, with which 
 they are hinged, and constitute the wing-covers or elytra. The par- 
 aptera of the metathorax are concealed. 
 
 Each sternum or ventral part of each thoracic segment is composed 
 
 Fig. 611.— Ventral aspect of a beetle, Enchronia gigautea : /, 
 head; 2"^, gena of the epicranium; 3, eye; 7, antenna; //, 
 thorax; 14, prothorax; 14^, proepisternum or episternura of 
 the prothorax; 14^, proepimeronor epimeron of the prothorax; 
 14', prosternum; 15, mesothorax; 15', mesoepisternum; 15', 
 mesoepimeron; 15', mesosternum; 16, metathorax; i6"=, meta- 
 episternum; 16^. metaepimeron; 16', metasternum; 16", ante- 
 coxal piece of the metasternum; 17', coxa; i?'", trochantin; 
 z.f>, trochanter; 17'=. femur; 17'', tibia; 17', tarsus; 17=', tarsal 
 claws; i7«2, pulvilli; 18, elytron. 
 
 of a single sclerite (Fig. 608, /.) As indicated above, the three sterna 
 are designed as the prosternum, mesosternum, and metasternum, 
 respectively. 
 
 In some beetles the metasternum is divided into two unequal por- 
 
504 
 
 THE STUDY OF JXSECTS. 
 
 tions by a suture which extends transversely a short distance in front 
 of the caudal margin ; the smaller sclerite which borders the posterior 
 coxae in front and often pjasses between them is called the atite-coxal 
 piece of the nietaslermn (Fig. 6ii, i6 /'). 
 
 The openings in the thoracic segments in which the legs are in- 
 serted are termed thccoxai cav/tics. Much use is made in the classi- 
 fication of beetles of the form of the coxal cavities of the prothorax. 
 When the epimera of the prothorax extend behind the coxae and 
 reach the prosternum, the coxal cavities are said to be closecf (Fig. 612); 
 
 Fig. 612.— Prothorax of 
 Hnrpalus: c, coxa ; <■;«, 
 epimeron ; es, epister- 
 num;y", femur; «, pro- 
 notum ; s, s, s, proster- 
 num. 
 
 Fig. 613.— Prothorax of 
 Penthe : c, coxa; cc, 
 coxal cavity; /, femur; 
 J, prosternum; /, tro- 
 chanter. 
 
 when the epimera do not extend behind the coxae to the prosternum, 
 the coxal cavities are described as opeti (Fig. 613). 
 
 The Legs. — The parts of the leg are described on page 62. In ad- 
 dition to what is said there it should be noted that in beetles the 
 coxae of the hind legs are frequently broad plates which appear to 
 belong to the fixed parts of the thorax, differing greatly in form from 
 the fore and middle coxae (Fig. 611, ly^). 
 
 In many beetles there is a small sclerite which is supposed to be an 
 appendage of the coxa; this is the irochanthi {X.xo-c\\din't\n); the tro- 
 chantins of the fore and hind coxae are represented in Fig. 611, and 
 are lettered 17^'. 
 
 The student should understand clearly the numbering of the seg- 
 ments of the tarsi. In counting these segments the claws borne by 
 the last segment are not included, but the segment that bears these 
 claws is counted. This fact should be carefully noted. We have 
 found that students are very apt to omit counting this segment, espe- 
 cially when it differs in form from the preceding segments. Two of 
 the more common types of the tarsi of beetles are represented in Fig. 
 614, with the segments numbered. 
 
 Students wishing to carry their study of beetles beyond the scope of 
 this text-book should procure the " Classification of the Coleoptera of 
 
COLEOPTERA. 
 
 505 
 
 North America," by LeContcand Horn. This work can be purchased 
 of the Secretary of the American Entomological Society, Philadelpliia, 
 Pa. In the following pages we have followed closely the classification 
 proposed by these authors, and have made free use of the character- 
 izations given by them ; hence it will be easy for a student to pass 
 from a study of this chapter to the use of thai indispensable work. 
 
 TABLE FOR DETERMLNING THE FAMILIES OF THE 
 COLEOPTERA.* 
 
 A. Head not prolonged into a narrow beak ; palpi always flexible; 
 two gular sutures at least before and behind (Fig. 601) ; prosternal 
 sutures distinct (Fig. 612) ; the epimera of the protliorax not meet- 
 ing on the middle line behind the presternum (Fig. 612). 
 
 Typical Coleoptera. 
 
 B. Hind tarsi with at least as many segments as the others. 
 
 C. Tarsi usually apparently four-jointed, the fourth segment 
 
 being reduced in size so as to form an indistinct segment at 
 
 the base of the last segment, with which it is immovably united 
 
 (Fig. 615, 4) ; the first three segments of the tarsi dilated and 
 
 Fig. 615. 
 
 Fig. 617. 
 
 brush-like beneath; the third segment bilobed. In a single 
 family, the Spondylidse, the fourth segment of the tarsus, 
 although much reduced and immovably united with the fifth, 
 is distinctly visible, the first three segments are but slightly 
 dilated, and the third is either bilobed or not (Fig. 616, a 
 
 and b) Phytophaga. 
 
 D. Fourth segment of tarsus distinctly visible ; segments of 
 antennae with deep impressions containing the organs of 
 special sense (Fig. 617). p. 566 Spondylid^. 
 
 * This table is based largely on the tables given by Le Conte and Horn, 
 Aid was also derived in its preparation from the table of European Coleop- 
 tera by L. Redtenbacher. 
 
506 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 DD. Fourth segment of tarsus inconspicuous; organs of spe- 
 cial sense of antennae diffused, Tiiis group contains three 
 families, which are so connected by intermediate forms that 
 it is not easy to separate them. The following characters 
 will aid the student in separating the more typical forms : 
 E. Body elongate; antencs almost always long, often as 
 long as the body or longer. The larvae are borers, p. 567. 
 
 Cerambycid.«. 
 
 EE. Body short and more or less oval ; antennae short. 
 
 F. Front prolonged into a broad quadrate beak; elytra 
 
 rather short, so that the tip of the abdomen is always 
 
 exposed. The larvae live in seeds, p. 58i..BRUCHlDiE. 
 
 FF". Front not prolonged into a beak; usually the tip of 
 
 the abdomen is covered by the elytra. Both larvae and 
 
 adults feed on tiie leaves of plants, p. 574. 
 
 Chrysomelid^e. 
 CC. Tarsi varying in form, but when five-jointed not of the type 
 described under C, the joint between the fourth and fifth seg- 
 ments being flexible. 
 
 D. Ventral part of the first segment of the abdomen divided 
 by the hind coxal cavities, so that the sides are separated 
 from the very small medial part. 
 
 E. Metasternum with an antecoxal piece, separated by a 
 well-marked suture reaching from one side to the other, 
 and extending in a triangular process between the hind 
 coxae. 
 
 F. Antennae eleven-jointed ; hind coxae mobile, and of the 
 usual form ; habits terrestrial. 
 G. Antennae inserted on the front above the base of the 
 
 mandibles, p. 516 Cicindelid.«. 
 
 GG. Antennae arising at the side of the head between 
 the base of the mandibles and the eyes. p. 518. 
 
 Carabid^e. 
 FF. Antennae ten-jointed ; hind coxae fixed and greatly 
 expanded so as to conceal the basal half of the hind 
 femora and from three to six of the abdominal seg- 
 ments ; habits aquatic, p. 522 Haliplid^. 
 
 EE. Metasternum either with a very short antecoxal piece, 
 which is separated by an indistinct suture, and which is 
 not prolonged posteriorly between the coxae, or without 
 an antecoxal piece. 
 
 F, Metasternum with a very short antecoxal piece, p. 521. 
 
 Amphizoid/E. 
 
COLEOFTERA. SO/ 
 
 FF. Metasternum without an antecoxal piece. 
 G. Legs fitted for swimming. 
 
 H. With only two eyes. p. 523 Dytiscid^e. 
 
 HH. With four eyes, two above and two below, p. 
 
 525 Gyrinid^. 
 
 GG. Legs fitted for walking, p. 537 Rhyssodida;. 
 
 DD. Ventral part of the first segment of the abdomen visible 
 for its entire breadth. 
 
 E. Antennai with a lamellate club (Fig. 74, 8, p^ge 60). 
 F. Plates composing club of antennae not capable of close 
 apposition, and usually nut flattened, p. 554. 
 
 LuCANIDiE. 
 FF. Plates composing club of antenna; capable of close 
 
 apposition, and flattened, p. 556 Scarab^id^. 
 
 EE. Antennae either clubbed or not, butwhen clubbed not 
 lamellate. 
 
 F. Elytra short, leaving the greater part of the abdomen 
 exposed ; the suture between the elytra when closed 
 straight ; wings present, and when not in use folded 
 beneath the short elytra ; the dorsal part of the abdom- 
 inal segments entirely horny. 
 G. Abdomen flexible, and with seven or eight segments 
 
 visible below, p. 532 SxAPHYLiNiDiE. 
 
 GG. Abdomen not flexible, and with only five or six 
 
 ventral segments visible, p. 531 PSELAPHlDiE. 
 
 FF. Elytra usually long, covering the greater part of the 
 abdomen ; when short the wings are wanting, or if pres- 
 ent are not folded under the short elytra when at rest; 
 the dorsal part of the abdominal segments partly mem- 
 branous. 
 G. Hind tarsi five-jointed. 
 
 H. Antennae elbowed, and clavate. 
 
 L Elytra truncate behind, leaving two segments of 
 
 the abdomen uncovered, p. 541 Histerid.^. 
 
 IL Elytra entire, p. 553 Ptinid.E. 
 
 HH. Antennae rarely elbowed, and then not clavate. 
 \. Maxillary palpi as long as or longer than the 
 
 antennae, p. 527 Hydrophilid^. 
 
 n. Maxillary palpi much shorter than the antennae. 
 J. Tarsal claws very large ; the first three abdom- 
 inal segments grown together on the ventral 
 side. p. 543 ... Parnid^. 
 
S08 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 JJ. Tarsal claws of usual size; ventral abdominal 
 segments usually free ; sometimes (Buprestid*) 
 the first two are grown together. 
 K. Abdomen with only five ventral segments, 
 L. Femur joined to the apex or very near the 
 apex of the trochanter, p. 553. ..Ptinid^. 
 LL. Femur joined to the side of the tro- 
 chanter. 
 
 M. Anterior coxae globular or transverse, 
 usually projecting but little from the 
 coxal cavity. 
 
 N. Anterior coxae transverse, more or 
 less cylindrical. 
 
 O. Posterior coxae grooved for the re- 
 ception of the femora. 
 P. Legs stout, retractile ; tibiae di- 
 lated, usually with a furrow near the 
 outer end for the reception of the 
 tarsi ; tibial spurs distinct, p. 542. 
 Byrrhid^. 
 PP. Tibiae slender, with small and 
 sometimes obsolete terminal spurs, 
 or without spurs. 
 Q. Head constricted behind ; eyes 
 
 smooth, p. 553 CuPESiD^. 
 
 (^(^. Head not constricted behind ; 
 eyes granulated, p. 544. 
 
 Dascyllid^. 
 00. Posterior coxae flat ; not grooved 
 for the reception of the femora. 
 P. Tarsi more or less dilated, first 
 segment not short, p. 541. ^ 
 
 NlTIDULID^. 
 
 PP. Tarsi slender, first segment 
 
 short, p. 542 Trogositid.*:. - 
 
 NN. Anterior coxae globular. 
 
 O. Prosternum with a process which 
 extends backward into a groove in 
 the mesosternum. 
 
 P. The first two abdominal segments 
 grown together on the ventral side. • 
 
 p. 548 BUPRESTIDiE. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 5^9 
 
 PP. Ventral segments free. 
 Q. Prothorax loosely joined to the 
 mesothorax ; front coxal cavities 
 entirely in the prosternum. p. 544. y 
 
 ELATERIDiE. 
 
 (^Q. Prothorax firmly joined to 
 the mesothorax ; front coxal cav- 
 ities closed behind by tlie meso- 
 sternum. p. 548. . .TuROSClD/h:. 
 00. Prosternum without a process re- 
 ceived by the niesosternum, although 
 it may be prolonged so as to meet 
 the mesosternum. 
 
 P. Posterior coxae contiguous, p. 53^^ 
 Phalacrid^. 
 PP. Posterior coxae separated. 
 Q. Body very depressed; middle 
 coxal cavities not closed exter- 
 nally by a meeting of the meso- 
 sternum and metasternum. p. 537. . 
 Cucujida;. 
 Q^. Body more or less convex ; 
 middle coxal cavities entirely sur- 
 rounded by the sterna. 
 R. Prosternum not prolonged 
 behind, p. 538. 
 
 Mycetophagid^. 
 RR. Prosternum prolonged 
 meeting the mesosternum. 
 S. Anterior coxal cavities open 
 behind, p. 538. 
 
 Cryptophagid^, 
 SS. Anterior coxal cavities 
 closed behind, p. 536. ^ 
 
 Erotylid/e. - 
 MM. Anterior coxae conical, and projecting 
 prominently from the coxal cavities. 
 N. Posterior coxae dilated into plates 
 partially protecting the femora, at least 
 at their bases. 
 
 O. Antennae serrate or flabellate. 
 p. 544 RHIPICERID/E. 
 
5IO THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 OO. Antennae with the last three seg- > 
 ments forming a large club. p. 538. y 
 Dermestid^e. 
 000. Antenna; with the last three 
 segments somewhat larger than the 
 preceding, but not suddenly en- 
 larged, p. 542 Derodontid^. 
 
 NN. Posterior coxae not dilated into plates 
 partially protecting the femora. 
 O. Posterior coxae flat, not prominent, 
 covered by the femora in repose. / 
 
 p. 552 Clerid.e.^ 
 
 00. Posterior coxae oval, not promi- 
 nent, p. 533 SCAPHIDIIDiE. 
 
 000. Posterior coxae conical and 
 prominent. 
 
 P. Anterior coxae with distinct tro- 
 chantins. p. 552. ..MALACHilDit:. 
 PP. Anterior coxae without tro- 
 chantins. p. 553. . .LVMEXYLIDiE. 
 KK. Abdomen with six or more ventral seg- 
 ments. 
 L. Anterior coxae flat. p. 529. 
 
 Platypsyllid^. 
 LL. Anterior coxae either globular or conical. 
 M. Anterior coxae globular. 
 N. Prosternum prolonged behind, form- / 
 ing an acute process moving in the j 
 
 mesosternum. p. 544 Elaterid/E. 
 
 NN. Prosternum not prolonged behind. 
 
 p. 529 Leptinid.*. 
 
 MM. Anterior coxae conical. 
 N. Posterior coxae not prominent, flat, 
 covered by the femora in repose. 
 
 p. 552 CLERIDiE. 
 
 NN. Posterior coxae more or less conical 
 and prominent at least internally, not 
 covered by the femora in repose. 
 O. Posterior coxae widely separated. 
 P. Eyes wanting or inconspicuous. ^ 
 
 p. 529 SlLPHID^. 
 
 PP. With well-developed eyes. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 5^' 
 
 Q. Elytra covering the abdomen. 
 
 p. 531 SCYDM.KNID/E. 
 
 (^^. Elytra not covering the entire 
 abdomen, p. 533. 
 
 SCA1'H1D1I1)/E. 
 
 00. Posterior coxai approximate. 
 P. Antennae gradually thickened, or 
 clavate ; posterior tarsi not wid- 
 ened, p. 529 SiLPHlD/E. 
 
 PP. Antennae setaceous, filiform, 
 serrate, pectinate, or flabellate, 
 rarely with three somewhat larger 
 terminal segments, in which case 
 the tarsi are widened. 
 Q. Anterior coxae long, with dis- 
 tinct trochantins. 
 R. Abdomen with seven or eight ■ 
 ventral segments, p. 550. , • 
 
 Lampyrid^. 
 RR. Abdomen with only six 
 ventral segments, p. 552. 
 
 Malachiid^. 
 Q(^. Anterior coxae without tro- 
 chantins. p. 553..Lymexylid.'e. 
 GG. Hind tarsi either only three-jointed or four-jointed, 
 but apparently three-jointed, the third segment being 
 small and concealed in a notch at the end of the sec- 
 ond segment. (See also GGG.) 
 H. Wings fringed with long hairs. 
 
 I. Abdomen with six or seven ventral segments. 
 
 '. Tarsi four-jointed, the third segment small and 
 concealed in a notch at the end of the second 
 segment, p. 534 Corylophid^. 
 
 JJ. Tarsi three jointed. 
 
 K. Antennae slender, verticiliate, with longhair, 
 abdomen not prolonged, p. 533. 
 
 TRICHOPTERYGIDiE. 
 
 KK. Antennae short, not verticiliate, abdomen 
 
 prolonged, p. 533 Hydroscaphid^e. 
 
 II. Abdomen with only three ventral segments. 
 
 p. 533 SPH^RIIDiE. 
 
 HH. Wings not fringed with hairs. 
 
512 TJIE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 I. Tarsi with second segment dilated. 
 
 J. Tarsal claws appendiculate or toothed ; first 
 ventral abdominal segment with distinct curved ^ 
 coxal lines, p. 534 Coccinellid.«, 
 
 JJ. Tarsal claws simple ; first ventral abdominal 
 segment without coxal lines, p. 535. 
 
 Endomychid.e. 
 
 II. Tarsi with second segment not dilated. 
 
 J. Elytra entirely covering the abdomen ; ventral 
 abdominal segments nearly equal, p. 542. 
 
 LATHRIDIIDiE. 
 
 JJ. Elytra truncate ; the first and fifth ventral ab- 
 dominal segments longer than the others. 
 K. Maxilla with galea distinct; anterior coxae 
 
 small, rounded, p. 542 Monotomid.e. 
 
 KK. Galea wanting, anterior coxae subtrans- 
 
 verse. p. 541 , Nitidulid.«. 
 
 GGG. All tarsi four-jointed. 
 
 H. The first four abdominal segments grown together 
 on the veniral side. 
 
 I. Tibiae dilated, armed with rows of spines, and 
 fitted for digging, p. 543 HETEROCERlDyE. 
 
 II. Tibiae not dilated nor fitted for digging, p. 537. 
 
 COLYDIIDiE. 
 
 HH. Ventral segments of abdomen not grown to- 
 gether. 
 
 I. Wings fringed with hairs. 
 
 J. Hind coxae contiguous and with plates cover- 
 ing the femora entirely or in part. p. 529. 
 
 SlLPHID^. 
 
 JJ. Hind coxae separate and not covering the 
 femora, p. 543 CORYLOPHID^. 
 
 II. Wings not fringed with hairs. 
 
 J. Anterior coxae transverse, p. 541. 
 
 NlTIDULID^. 
 
 JJ. Anterior coxae either globose or oval. 
 K. Anterior coxae globose. 
 
 L. Tarsi slender, p. 535 EndomychiD/E. 
 
 LL. Tarsi more or less dilated and spongy 
 
 beneath, p. 536 Erotyi.id^. 
 
 KK. Anterior coxae oval. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 5I3 
 
 L. Anterior coxae separated by the horny 
 prosternum. 
 M. Body depressed, head free. p. 538. 
 
 Mycetophagid^. 
 MM. Body cylindrical, thorax prolonged 
 
 over the head. p. 554 CilD^. 
 
 LL. Anterior coxae contiguous, prosternum 
 
 semimembranous, p. 543 Georyssid.e. 
 
 BE. Hind tarsi with only four segments, the fore tarsi, and almost 
 always the middle tarsi also, with five segments. 
 C. Anterior coxal cavities closed behind. 
 D. Tarsal claws simple. 
 
 E. Abdomen with five ventral segments. 
 
 F. Ventral abdominal segments in part grown together. 
 G. Next to the last segment of tarsi spongy beneath. 
 
 P- 584 LaGRI ID/E. 
 
 GG. Penultimate segment of tarsi not spongy, p. 582. 
 
 TENEBRIONID.E. 
 FF. Ventral abdominal segments free. 
 G. Anterior coxal cavities confluent, p. 584. 
 
 OTHNIIDAi;. 
 
 GG. Anterior coxal cavities separated by the proster- 
 num. 
 H. Elytra truncate, tip of abdomen exposed. {Rhizo- 
 
 p/iagUS.) p. 541 NlTIDULID^. 
 
 HH. Elytra entire, p. 554 SphindiD/E. 
 
 EE. Abdomen with six ventral segments. 
 
 F. The first two ventral abdominal segments grown to- 
 gether ; the last two closely united, p. 584.iEGiALiTiD/E. 
 FF. Ventral abdominal segments free. p. 529. 
 
 SiLPHlD.*:. 
 
 DD. Tarsal claws pectinate, p. 584 Cistelid.*:. 
 
 CC. Anterior coxal cavities open behind. 
 
 D. Head not strongly and suddenly constricted at base. 
 E. Middle coxae not very prominent. 
 
 F. Antennae received in grooves, p. 584. ..Monommid.-e. 
 FF. Antennae free. 
 G. Prothorax margined at the sides. 
 
 H. Middle coxal cavities entirely surrounded by tlie 
 
 sterna, p. 538 Cryptophagid/e. 
 
 HH. Epimera of mesothorax reaching the coxae. 
 
514 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 I. Metasternum long ; epimera of metathorax visi- 
 ble, p. 585 Melandryid^. 
 
 II. Metasternum quadrate ; epimera of metathorax 
 covered, p. 537 CucujiD^. 
 
 GG. Prothorax not margined at the sides, p. 585. 
 
 PVTHIDiE. 
 
 EE. Middle coxse very prominent, p. 585. . .CEoEMERlDiE. 
 DD. Head strongly constricted at base. 
 
 E. Head prolonged behind and gradually narrowed, p. 585. 
 
 CEPHALOIDiE. 
 
 EE. Head suddenly narrowed behind. 
 F. Prothorax with the side pieces not separated from the 
 pronotum by a suture. 
 
 G. Tarsi perfect, with distinct claws ; eyes normal. 
 H. Prothorax at base narrower than the elytra. 
 
 I. Hind coxae not prominent, or but slightly so. 
 
 J. Anterior coxae globular, not prominent, p. 537. 
 
 CuCUJIDiE. 
 
 JJ. Anterior coxae conical, prominent, p. 586. 
 
 ANTHICIDiE. 
 
 II. Hind coxae large, prominent. 
 
 J. Tarsal claws simple ; head horizontal, p. 586. 
 
 PYROCHROID/E. 
 
 JJ. Claws cleft or toothed ; front vertical, p. 586. 
 
 Meloid^. 
 HH. Prothorax, at base, as wide as the elytra, p. 589. 
 
 Rhipiphcrid.e. 
 GG. Tarsi without claws ; eyes pedunculated, p. 589. 
 
 Stylopid.e. 
 FF. Lateral suture of prothorax distinct ; base of pro- 
 thorax as wide as the elytra. 
 G. Antennae filiform. 
 
 H. Hind coxae plate-like. p. 586 Mordellid.*;. 
 
 HH. Hind coxae, not plate-like. p. 585. 
 
 Melandrvid/E. 
 GG. Antennae flabellate in the male, subserrate in the 
 
 female, p. 589 Rhipiphorid^e. 
 
 AA. Head more or less prolonged into a beak ; palpi short and 
 rigid; gular sutures confluent on the median line (Fig. 602, ^.y); 
 prosternal sutures wanting; the epimera of the prothorax meeting 
 on the middle line behind the prosternum. (Fig. 602, em.) 
 
 Rhynchophora. 
 
 / 
 
COLEOPTERA. 515 
 
 B. Elytra with no fold or with a very feeble one oti the lower sur- 
 face near the outer edge ; pygidium of male and female alike. 
 
 C. Labrum distinct, p. 590 Rhinomacerid^. 
 
 CC. Labrum wanting. 
 D. Mandibles flat, toothed on inner and outer sides, p. 591. 
 
 Rhynchitid^. 
 DD. Mandibles stout, pincer-shaped. p. 591 . . . Attelabid^. 
 BB. Elytra with a very strong fold on the lower surface near the 
 outer margin. 
 
 C. The last dorsal segment (pygidium) of the male divided 
 transversely, so that this sex appears to have one more dorsal 
 segment than the female. 
 D. Antenna; with a ringed or solid club. 
 
 E. Tarsi narrow, setose or spinose beneath, p. 591. 
 
 Byrsopid^. 
 EE. Tarsi usually dilated, brush-like beneath. 
 
 F, Mandibles with a deciduous piece, which is lost soon 
 after emergence from the pupa state, and leaves a scar. 
 
 P- 592 Otiorhynchid^. "^ 
 
 FF. Mandibles without accessory piece in the pupa state, 
 and therefore without a scar in the adult state, p. 593. 
 
 CURCULIONID^. 
 
 DD. Antennae with ten or eleven distinct segments, p. 594. 
 
 Brenthid^. '' 
 CC. Pygidium of both sexes undivided. 
 
 D. Pygidium horizontal ; tibiae usually serrate, p. 596. 
 
 SCOLYTIDiE. ' 
 
 DD. Pygidium vertical or declivous; tibiae not serrate. 
 
 E. Antennae geniculate; labrum wanting ; last spiracle cov- 
 ered by ventral segments, p. 595 Calandrid^. ^ 
 
 EE. Antennae straight; labrum distinct; last spiracle un- 
 covered, p. 598 ANTHRIBID.E. 
 
 Suborder COLEOPTERA GENUINA. 
 
 The Typical Coleoptera. 
 
 This suborder includes all the families of Coleoptera 
 except the snout-beetles, which are classed together as a 
 second suborder, the Rhynchophora. 
 
5l6 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 In the Typical Coleoptera the mouth-parts are of the 
 ordinary type ; the head is not prolonged into a snout ; the 
 gula is present, there being two gular sutures, at least, 
 before and behind (Fig. 6oi, b); and the epimera of the 
 prothorax are not prolonged so as to meet on the middle 
 line of the body behind the prosternum (Fig. 612). 
 
 Family C1CINDELID.E (Cic-in-del'i-dae). 
 
 The Tiger-beetles. 
 
 The' graceful forms and beautiful colors of the greater 
 number of the tiger-beetles have made this family one of 
 the favorites of students of Coleoptera. To this family 
 belong the most agile of all beetles ; and they are not 
 merely swift of foot, but are also able to fly well. They 
 are found on bright, hot days in dusty roads, in beaten 
 paths, and on the shores of streams. They remain abso- 
 lutely still until we can see them well but are still out of 
 reach ; then like a flash they fly up and away, alighting 
 several rods ahead of us. Before alighting they always turn 
 so that they face us, and can thus watch our movements. 
 
 Their popular name is suggestive of their predaceous 
 habits, and of the spots with which many are marked. 
 They are usually a metallic green or bronze, banded or 
 spotted with yellow. Some are black ; and some that live 
 on white sand are grayish white, being exactly like the sand 
 in color. 
 
 A useful character for distinguishing the members of 
 this family is the fact that the terminal hook 
 of the maxilla (the digitus) is united to this 
 organ by a movable joint (Fig. 618, h). 
 
 The sexes of the tiger-beetles can be dis- 
 tinguished, except in AinblycJiila, by the sixth 
 abdominal segment of the males being notched 
 
 riG. oi». 11 1 1 •! 
 
 SO as to expose a small seventh segment ; while 
 in the females only six segments are visible. In the 
 
COI.EOPTERA. 517 
 
 males also the first three segments of the anterior tarsi are 
 usually dilated and densely clothed with hair beneath. 
 
 It has been said that these beetles make burrows in 
 which to retire from the rain and cold. We have seen them 
 in September digging burrows in a hillside; these descended 
 slightly and were about-five inches deep. The beetles kicked 
 the dirt out behind them as they dug, so that it lay in a 
 heap at the opening of the hole. But we were unable to 
 discover whether these burrows were made as dwellings, or, 
 what is more likely, places in which to deposit eggs. No 
 observation as to the egg-laying habits of these insects has 
 come to our notice. 
 
 The tiger-beetle larv?e (Fig. 619) are as ugly and ungrace- 
 ful as the adults are beautiful. The two have only one habit 
 in common — their eagerness for prey. The 
 larvae live in vertical burrows in sandy places 
 or in beaten paths. These burrows occur also 
 in ploughed fields that have become dry and 
 hard. They often extend a foot or more in 
 depth. The larva takes a position of watch- 
 fulness at the mouth of its burrow. Its dirt- 
 colored head is bent at right angles to its p,^, ^^ —Larva 
 lighter-colored body and makes a neat plug to °^ cuindeia. 
 the opening of the hole. Its rapacious jaws extend upward, 
 wide open, ready to seize the first unwary insect that walks 
 over this living trap. On the fifth segment of the abdomen 
 there is a hump, and on this hump are two hooks curved 
 forward. This is an arrangement by which the little rascal 
 can hold back and keep from being jerked out of its hole 
 when it gets some large insect by the leg, and by which it 
 can drag its struggling prey down into its lair, where it may 
 eat it at leisure. It is interesting to thrust a straw down 
 into one of these burrows, and then dig it out with a trowel. 
 The chances are that you will find the indignant inhabitant 
 at the remote end of the burrow, chewing savagely at the 
 end of the intruding straw. 
 
5i8 
 
 THE STUD y OF INSECTS. 
 
 Nearly all of our tiger-beetles belong to the genus Cicin- 
 dela (Cic-in-de'Ia\ of which there are about sixty North 
 Anmerican species; one of these is 
 represented in Figure 620. We 
 have also two species of Tetracha 
 (Tet'ra-cha); see Figure 621. In 
 the Middle West is found Ambly. 
 c/iila cyliiidriformis (Am-bly-chi'la 
 cy-Hn-dri-for'inis), the giant of the 
 family, measuring one and three 
 eighths inches in length ; and on 
 the Pacific coast occur nine species of Omus (O'mus). In 
 this genus the body is smaller and its thorax larger than 
 in Cicindela. These beetles search for their prey only at 
 
 Family Carabii)^ (Ca-rab'i-dae). 
 TJic Ground-beetles. 
 
 The ground-beetles are so called because they are very 
 common on the surface of the ground, lurking under stones 
 or rubbish, or running through the grass. Our more com- 
 mon species are easily recognized by their shining-black 
 color and long legs. On the Pacific coast, however, the 
 darkling beetles (Family Tenebrionidae), which are also 
 black and have long legs, abound under stones and frag- 
 ments of wood on the ground. But the two families can be 
 easily distinguished by the fact that in the ground-beetles 
 all the tarsi are five-jointed, while in the darkling beetles the 
 hind tarsi are only four-jointed; and the darkling beetles do 
 not run rapidly as do the ground-beetles. 
 
 With the ground-beetles the antennae are thread-like, 
 tapering gradually towards the tip, and each segment is of 
 nearly uniform thickness throughout its length ; the legs are 
 fitted for running, and the antennae are inserted between the 
 base of the mandibles and the eyes. Although most of the 
 species are black, there are those that are blue, green, or 
 brown, and a few that are spotted. The wing-covers are 
 
COLEOPTERA. 5I9 
 
 almost always ornamented with longitudinal ridges and 
 rows of punctures. 
 
 Most members of this family are predaceous, feeding 
 upon other insects, which they spring upon or capture by 
 chase. A few species use vegetable food ; but their depre- 
 dations are rarely of economic importance. As there are 
 more than eleven hundred described North American 
 species, and as many of the species are very common, this 
 family may be considered the most important family of 
 predaceous insects. 
 
 The larvae of ground-beetles are generally long, with the 
 body of nearly equal breadth throughout (Fig. 622.) They 
 have sharp projecting mandibles ; and the 
 caudal end of the body is usually fur- 
 nished with a pair of conical bristly ap- Fig- 622. 
 pendages. They live in the same obscure situations as the 
 adult insects, but are more shy, and are consequently less 
 frequently seen. Like the adults, they are predaceous. 
 
 Among the more common ground-beetles are the fol- 
 lowing : — 
 
 The Searcher, Calosoma scrutator (Cal-o-so'ma scru-ta'- 
 tor). — This is one of the larger and more beautiful of our 
 ground-beetles ; it has green or 
 violet wing-covers margined 
 with reddish, and the rest of the 
 body is marked with violet-blue, 
 gold, green, and copper (Fig. 
 623). This beetle and the follow- 
 ing have been known to climb 
 trees in search of caterpillars. 
 
 The Fiery Hunter, Calosoma 
 calidum (C. cal'i-dum), is some- 
 what smaller than the preced- 
 ing, and is easily recognized by 
 ^"^- ^^3- the rows of reddish or copper- 
 
 colored pits on the wing-covers (Fig. 624). 
 
520 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 There are certain other large, swiftly running ground- 
 beetles which resemble somewhat those just described. 
 These belong to the genus Cychrus (Cy'chrus), and may 
 be recognized by the long, narrow head, the wider or 
 more nearly circular wing-covers, and 
 by the fact that the wing-covers have 
 a very broad, reflected margin, which 
 covers a large part of the sides of the 
 thorax. 
 
 The bombardier-beetles, Brachinus 
 (Bra-chi'nus). — There are many species 
 of beetles that have at the hind end of 
 Fig. hi,. the body little sacs in which is secreted a 
 
 bad-smelling fluid, which is used as a means of defence. 
 These beetles spurt this fluid out on to their enemies when 
 attacked. But in the case of the bombardier-beetles this 
 fluid changes to a gas, which looks like smoke as soon as 
 it comes in contact with the air, and is ejected with a sound 
 like that of a tiny pop-gun. When some larger insect tries 
 to capture one of these insect-soldiers, and gets very near it, 
 the latter fires its little gun into the face of its enemy. The 
 noise astonishes the pursuer, and the smoke blinds him. 
 By the time he has recovered from his amazement, the little 
 bombardier is at a safe distance. These beetles have quite 
 a store of ammunition ; for we have often had one pop at 
 us four or five times in succession, while we were taking it 
 prisoner. The bombardier-beetles belong to the genus 
 Brachinus, of which we have in this country about twenty- 
 five species. They are very similar in appearance ; the 
 head, prothorax, and legs are reddish yellow, 
 and the wing-covers are dark blue, blackish, or 
 greenish blue (Fig. 625). 
 
 There is a common beetle that resembles 
 the bombardier-beetles quite closely in size and 
 color, but which may be distinguished by the Fig. 625. 
 comb-like form of the tarsal claws ; this is Lebia grandis 
 
COI.EOPTERA. 
 
 521 
 
 ill another 
 
 ;pecies 
 
 (Le'bi-a gran'dis) (Fig. 626). It has been reported more 
 often than any other insect as destroying the Colorado 
 Potato-beetle. 
 
 Galeritajanus (Gal-e-ri'ta ja'nus) is stil 
 that bears some resemblance to the bom- 
 bardier-beetles. But it is much larger, 
 measuring two thirds of an inch in length, 
 and has only the prothorax and legs red- 
 dish yellow, the head being black ; the 
 prothorax is only about half as wide as 
 the wing-covers. 
 
 What is perhaps the most common 
 
 type of ground-beetle is illustrated by 
 
 Harpalus caliginosiis (Har'pa-lus ca-hg-i- 
 
 no'sus), which is represented natural size 
 
 by Figure 627. It is of a pitchy black 
 
 color, and is one of the 
 
 of our larger species. 
 
 fifty other species of this genus in this country. Most 
 
 of them are smaller than this one, are flattened, and have 
 
 'X ^^^ *^ ^^^^ prothorax nearly square. 
 
 \JES^ The beetles of the genus Diccelus (Di-cae'- 
 
 ^HR lus) are quite common ; and some of the larger 
 
 XHi||\ species resemble Harpalus caliginosiis quite 
 
 ^BMk closely. They can be distinguished by a prom- 
 
 t ^^j^t jj^gj^^. keel-shaped ridge which extends back 
 
 ^ ^ upon each wing-cover from near the corner of 
 
 Fig. 627. the prothorax. 
 
 The most common of all ground-beetles, in the North- 
 eastern States at least, is Pterosticus hiciiblandus 
 (Pte-ros'ti-cus lu-cu-blan'dus). In this species (Fig. 
 628) the narrow, flat margin on each side of 
 the prothorax is widened near the hinder angle 
 of this seo^ment. 
 
 most common Yl^.t-i^.-Lebiagrandi, 
 ,_,, natural size and ei 
 
 1 here are nearly larged. 
 
 The family Amphizoid^E (Am-phi-zo'i dae) is represent- 
 
522 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 ed in our fauna by two species of Amphizoa (Am-phi-zo'a), 
 which occur in Northern Cahfornia, Utah, and Vancouver, 
 clinging to logs or stones under the surface of streams. 
 In these beetles the metasternum is truncate behind, not 
 reaching the abdomen, and has a very short antecoxal 
 piece. 
 
 Family Haliplid^ (Ha-hp'li-dae). 
 
 The Haliplids {Hal'i-plids). 
 
 This family includes a few species of small aquatic beetles, 
 which are oval, more or less pointed at each end, and very 
 convex. The wing-covers have rows of punctures, and the 
 hind coxae are greatly expanded so as to conceal the 
 basal half of the hind femora and from three to six of the 
 abdominal segments. 
 
 These beetles are not uncommon in ponds and streams, 
 but they swim poorly. Only three genera occur in this 
 country. In Brychius (Brych'i-us), which is represented by 
 one species from California, the prothorax is quadrate ; in 
 the other genera it is narrowed in front. In Haliplus (Hal'- 
 i-plus) the last segment of the palpi is small and awl-shaped ; 
 in Cnemidotus (Cnem-i-do'tus) it is longer than the third seg- 
 ment, and conical. 
 
 The larvae are aquatic, occurring near the shores of 
 ponds and streams and in other damp places. The body is 
 rather slender; each segment except the head is 
 furnished on the back with fleshy lobes with spiny 
 tips, which vary greatly in size in different species; 
 and the last segment bears a long tapering appen- 
 dage. Figure 629 represents a larva of this family, 
 which we found in large numbers in a pond swarm- 
 ing with Cnemidotus ; it probably belongs to this 
 genus. The larvae of several species of Haliplus 
 Fig. 629. ^j.g figured by Schiotde, but in each of these the 
 caudal appendage is forked. 
 
COLEOPTERA. $2^ 
 
 Family DVTISClD/E (Dy-tis'ci-dae). 
 
 T/ie Predaceoiis Diving-beetles 
 
 If one will approach quietly a pool of standing water, 
 there may be seen oval, flattened beetles hanging head 
 downward, with the tip of the abdomen at the surface of 
 the water. Such beetles belong to this family. 
 
 The predaceous diving -beetles are usually brownish 
 black and shining, but are often marked indefinitely with 
 dull yellow. They can be distinguished from the water 
 scavenger-beetles, which they resemble in general appear- 
 ance, by the thread-like form of the antennae. The hind 
 legs are the longest, and are fitted for swimming, being flat- 
 tened, and fringed with hair. The middle and the hind pairs 
 of legs are widely separated. This is due to the very large 
 hind coxae which cover the greater part of the lower surface 
 of the thorax. In the males of certain 
 genera the first three segments of the fore 
 tarsi are dilated and form a circular disk> 
 upon the under side of which are little 
 cup -like suckers (Fig. 630). In a few 
 cases the middle tarsi are dilated also. 
 The females of some species exhibit an ^"^' ^^°' 
 
 interesting dimorphism in that some of the individuals have 
 the elytra furnished with a number of deep furrows (Fig. 
 631), while others of the same species have them 
 smooth. 
 
 The diving- beetles abound in our streams 
 and ponds, but they are more often found in 
 standing water than in streams. When at rest 
 they float in an inclined position, head down- 
 FiG. 631. ward, with the tip of the hind end of the body 
 projecting from the water. The spiracles open on the 
 dorsal side of the abdomen beneath the elytra. By lifting 
 the elytra slightly a reservoir is formed for air, which the 
 beetle can breathe as it swims through the water. When 
 
524 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 the air becomes impure the beetle rises to the surface, 
 forces it out, and takes a fresh supply. 
 
 These beetles are very voracious. They destroy not 
 only other insects, but some of them will attack larger ani- 
 mals, as small fish. When kept in aquaria they can be fed 
 upon any kind of meat, raw or cooked. They fly from pond 
 to pond, and are often attracted to lights at night. Many 
 of the species make sounds, both under the water and in 
 the air. In some cases this is done by rubbing the abdom- 
 inal segments upon the elytra; in others, by rubbing the 
 hind legs upon a rough spot on the lower side of the 
 abdomen. 
 
 The females deposit their eggs at random in the water. 
 The larvae are known as water-tigers, because of their blood- 
 thirstiness. They are elongated, spindle-form grubs (Fig. 
 632). The head is large, oval or rounded, and flattened ; 
 
 the mandibles are large, sickle-shaped, and hollow, with a 
 slit-like opening near the tip; they are admirably fitted for 
 holding the prey, and at the same time sucking the juices 
 from its body, the hollow of the mandibles communicating 
 with the oesophagus. The true mouth is quite small. The 
 thorax is furnished with six well-developed legs. With 
 many of these larvae the body ends in a pair of breathing- 
 tubes, which they protrude into the air at intervals. 
 
 When a larva is fully grown it leaves the water, burrows 
 into the ground, and makes a round cell, within which it 
 undergoes its transformations. The pupa state lasts about 
 three weeks in summer; but tljje larvae that transform in 
 autumn remain in the pupa state all winter. 
 
 This is the largest of the families of water - beetles ; 
 nearly three hundred North American species are known. 
 
COI.EOPTEKA. 525 
 
 The best way to obtain specimens is to sweep the vege- 
 tation growing on the bottom of a quiet pool with a dip- 
 net. 
 
 The larger of our common species belong to Cybistcr 
 (Cy-bis'ter), Dytiscus (Dy-tis'cus), and al- 
 lied genera. In Cybistcr the little cups 
 on the under side of the tarsal disks of 
 the male are similar, and arranged in four 
 rows. In Dytiscus and its allies the cups 
 of the tarsal disks vary in size. Figure 
 633 represents a common species of Dy- 
 
 tisCUS. !• u,. ojj. 
 
 The most common of the diving-beetles that are of 
 medium size belong to the genus Acilius (A-cil'i-us). In 
 this genus the elytra are densely punctured with very fine 
 punctures, and the females usually have four furrows in 
 each wing-cover (Fig. 631). 
 
 There are also common diving-beetles that are of about 
 the same size as the preceding, but which have the wing- 
 covers marked with numerous very fine transverse stri.ne; 
 these belong to the genus Colynibetes (Col-ym-be'tes). 
 
 Of the smaller diving-beetles, measuring less than one 
 fourth of an inch in length, many species can be found in 
 almost any pond. These represent many genera. 
 
 Family Gyrinid^ (Gy-rin'i-dse). 
 
 The Whirligig-beetles. 
 
 As familiar to the country rover as the gurgling of the 
 brook, or the flecks of foam on its " golden-braided centre,'' 
 or the trailing ferns and the rustling rushes on its banks, 
 are these whirligigs on its pools. Around and around each 
 other they dart, tracing graceful curves on the water, which 
 vanish almost as soon asunade. They are social fellows, 
 and are almost always found in large numbers, either swim- 
 ming or resting motionless near together. They rarely dive, 
 except when pursued ; but are so agile that it is extremely 
 
526 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 difficult to catch them without a net. Many of them when 
 caught exhale a milky fluid having a very disagreeable odor. 
 They feed upon small flies, beetles, and other insects that 
 fall into the water, and are furnished with well-developed 
 wings, with which they fly from one body of water to an- 
 other. 
 
 This is one of the most easily-recognized families of the 
 whole order Coleoptera. The members of it are oval or 
 A % elliptical in form (Fig. 634), more or less flattened, 
 Mftr and usually of a very brilliant, bluish-black color 
 ^■B> above, with a bronze metallic lustre. The fore 
 ^^ legs are very long and rather slender ; the middle 
 Fig. 634. and hind legs are short, broad, and very much flat- 
 tened. These insects are remarkable for having the eyes 
 completely divided by the margin of the head, so that they 
 appear to have four eyes — a pair upon the upper surface 
 of the head with which to look into the air, and a pair upon 
 the under side for looking into the water. The antennae 
 are very short and peculiar in form. The third segment is 
 enlarged, so as to resemble an ear-like appendage, and the 
 following ones form a short, spindle-shaped mass. They 
 are inserted in little cavities in front of the eyes. 
 
 The eggs of these insects are small, 'of cylindrical form, 
 and are placed end to end in parallel rows upon the 
 leaves of aquatic plants. The larvae (Fig. 635) are 
 long, narrow, and much flattened. Each abdominal 
 segment is furnished with a pair of tracheal gills, 
 and there is an additional pair at the caudal end of 
 the body. The elongated form of the body and the 
 conspicuous tracheal gills cause these larvae to re- 
 semble small centipedes. When a larva is full 
 grown it leaves the water and spins a gray, paper- 
 like cocoon attached to some object near the water. 
 The pupa state of the species in which it has been "^" ^^' 
 observed lasts about a month. 
 
 The family is a small one. At present only thirty-six 
 
COLEOPTERA. 52/ 
 
 North American species are known. These represent three 
 genera. The genus Gyreius (Gyr'e-tus) is distinguished by 
 having the last ventral segment of the abdomen elongated 
 and conical. It is represented by a single species, G. sinuatus 
 (G. sin-u-a'tus). In the other two genera the last ventral 
 segment is flattened and rounded at the tip. In Dineiitus 
 (Di-neu'tus) the scutellum is wanting; there are eight spe- 
 cies of this genus. In Gyrinusi^y-xx'ww^) the scutellum is 
 visible ; of this genus we have twenty-seven species. 
 
 Family Hydrophilid^ (Hyd-ro-phiri-dae). 
 Tlie Water-scavenger Beetles. 
 
 The water-scavenger beetles are common in quiet pools, 
 where they may be found swimming through the water, or 
 crawling among the plants growing on the bottom. They 
 can be easily taken by sweeping such plants with a dip-net. 
 
 They are elongated, elliptical, black beetles', resembling 
 the predaceous diving beetles in appearance ; but they are 
 usually more convex, and differ also in having club-shaped 
 antennae and very long palpi. As the antennae are usually 
 concealed beneath the head, it often happens that the inex- 
 perienced student mistakes the long palpi for antennae. 
 
 These beetles are supposed to live chiefly upon decaying 
 vegetation in the water; but a number of species have been 
 known to catch and eat living insects. They breathe by car- 
 rying a film of air on the lower surface of the body. This 
 film gives them a silvery appearance when seen from below. 
 They obtain the air by bringing the head to 
 the surface of the water and projecting the 
 antennae, which they again fold back with a 
 bubble of air when they descend. The female 
 makes a case for her eggs out of a hardened 
 silk-like secretion. Some species deposit as 
 many as a hundred eggs in one of these water- 
 proof packages (Fig. (il6). The egg-cases in ^"^- ^'^• 
 some instances are fastened beneath the leaves of aquatic 
 
528 THE STUDY OF ]N SECTS. 
 
 plants ; in others they are provided with floats and let loose 
 in the water ; and in still other species the cases are carried 
 by the mother underneath her body and steadied with her 
 hind legs. Frequently some of the young larvae devour 
 their companions ; in this way the size of the family is de- 
 creased before it escapes from the egg-case. Later they 
 live upon insects that fall into the water and upon snails. 
 
 These larvae resemble somewhat those of the Dytiscidae ; 
 but the body is much more plump, and the mandibles are of 
 moderate size. A very interesting observation on the mode 
 of feeding of one of these larvae has been published. It cap- 
 tured a fly, and swam with it rapidly through the water to a 
 leaf near the surface. It then rested on this leaf, and, rais- 
 ing its head out of the water, crushed the fly to pulp with its 
 jaws, letting the blood run into its open mouth. 
 
 The Hydrophilidae are represented in North America by 
 about one hundred and fifty species. Our three largest be- 
 long to the genus Hydrophilus (Hy-droph'i-lus). In this 
 genus the metasternum is prolonged backward into a spine 
 between the hind legs, and the ster- 
 num of the prothorax bears a deep 
 furrow. Our most common species is 
 HydropJiihis triangularis (H. tri-an-gu- 
 la'ris) (Fig. en). 
 
 The beetles of the genus Tropister- 
 niis (Trop-i-ster'nus) agree with Hy- 
 dropJiihis in the form of the proster- 
 num and metasternum, but differ in 
 size, our species measuring less than 
 one-half inch in length. The most 
 common species in the East is Tropi- 
 ^^' sternus glaber (T. gla'ber), and, on the 
 
 Pacific coast, T. californicus. 
 
 Next in size to Hydrophilus are several species of Hy- 
 drocharis (Hy-droch'a-ris). In this genus the metasternum 
 is prolonged somewhat, but does not form a long, sharp 
 
COLEOFTERA. 529 
 
 spine as in HydropJiilus and Tropistcrnus, and the sternum 
 of the prothorax bears a keel-shaped projection. Our most 
 common species is Hydrocluiris obtiisatus (H. ob-tu-sa'tus); 
 this measures about five eighths of an inch in length. 
 
 Some of the smaller species of this family are not aquatic, 
 but live in moist earth and in the dung of cattle, where, it 
 is said, they feed on dipterous larva;. 
 
 Family PlatvpsvlliD/E (Plat-y-psyl'i-die). 
 Tlie Beaver-parasite. 
 
 Only a single representative of this family is known ; 
 this is Platypsylla castoris (Plat-y-psyl'la cas'to-ris), which 
 lives parasitically on the beaver. This beetle is about one 
 tenth of an inch in length ; the body is ovate, elongate, and 
 much flattened ; the wing-covers are short, about as long as 
 the prothorax, and leave five abdominal segments exposed ; 
 the eyes and wings are wanting. 
 
 Specimens of this remarkable insect are most easily 
 obtained by beating over a sheet of paper the dried skins of 
 beavers, which can be found at fur-stores. 
 
 The family Leptinid^E (Lep-tin'i-dae) is represented by 
 only two species in North America. One of these is from 
 the Hudson Bay region ; the other, Leptinus testaceus (Lep- 
 ti'nus tes ta'ce-us) lives with various small rodents and insec- 
 tivora, either on their bodies or in the material of their nests. 
 It can be distinguished by the characters given in the table 
 of families. 
 
 Family SiLPHlD.E (Sil'phi-dae). 
 
 TJie Carrion-beetles. 
 
 The carrion-beetles are mostly of medium or large size, 
 many species attaining the length of one and one half inches, 
 while the smaller species of the more typical genera are 
 nearly half an inch in length ; some members of the family, 
 however, are minute. The segments near the tip of the an- 
 
530 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 tennae are usually enlarged so as to form a compact club, 
 which is neither comb-like nor composed of thin movable 
 plates; sometimes the antennae are nearly filiform. 
 
 These insects usually feed upon decaying animal matter; 
 some, however, feed upon fungi, and a few species have 
 been known to be predaceous when pressed by hunger, 
 destroying living snails and insects — even members of their 
 own species. 
 
 It is easy to obtain specimens of these insects by placing 
 pieces of meat or small dead animals in the fields and exam- 
 ining them daily. There are several other families of 
 beetles the members of which can be attracted in this way. 
 The larvae also live upon decaying flesh and are found in 
 the same situations as the adults. 
 
 We have in this country more than one hundred species 
 of this family. Our larger and more familiar species repre- 
 sent two genera, Necrophorns (Nec-roph'o-rus) and Silplia 
 (Sil'pha). 
 
 The Burying-beetles, iV<r^r^//!t'r?/j-. — To this genus belong 
 the largest members of the family. The body is very stout, 
 almost cylindrical (Fig. 638). Our com- 
 mon species have a reddish spot on 
 each end of each wing-cover ; these 
 spots are often so large that they ap- 
 pear as two transverse bands. In some 
 species the prothorax and the head are 
 also marked with red. 
 
 These insects are called burying- 
 beetles because they bury carrion. 
 When a pair of these beetles discover a 
 dead bird, mouse, or other small ani- 
 mal, they dig beneath it, removing the 
 earth so as to allow the carrion to settle 
 This they will continue until the object 
 
 Fig. 638. 
 
 into the ground. 
 
 is below the surface of the ground. Then they cover it 
 with earth, and finally the female digs down to it and lays 
 
COI.EOPTERA. 531 
 
 feed upon the food tlius provided for them. There are 
 many accounts of exhibitions of remarkable strengtli and 
 sagacity by burying-beetles. A pair of these insects have 
 been known to roll a large dead rat several feet in order to 
 get it upon a suitable spot for burying. 
 
 The members of the genus Silplia arc very much Hat 
 tencd (Fig. 639). The prothorax is round in 
 outline, with very thin edges which overlap the 
 wing-covers somewhat. The body is not nearly 
 as stout as that of a burying-bectle, being fitted 
 for creeping under dead animals instead of for 
 performing deeds requiring great strength. F'g. 639. 
 
 In some of the minute members of the family the body 
 is nearly hemispherical. 
 
 uuLii uai 
 
 The family ScydM/ENID^ (Scyd-maen'i-dae) includes 
 very small insects found under bark or stones, in ants' nests, 
 or near water. They are small, shining, usuall}' ovate, but 
 sometimes slender insects, of a brown color, and more or 
 less clothed w ith erect hairs. Other characters are given in 
 the preceding table of families. Nearly fifty North American 
 species are known. 
 
 The family Pselaphid.^ (Pse-laph'i-dae) includes certain 
 very small beetles, the larger ones not exceeding one eighth 
 inch in length. They resemble rove-beetles in the shortness 
 of the wing-covers and in having the dorsal part of the 
 abdominal segments entirely horny; but they differ from 
 them in that the abdomen is not flexible, and in having 
 fewer abdominal segments, there being only five or six on 
 the ventral side. The species are of a chestnut-brown color 
 and usually slightly pubescent. The elytra and abdomen 
 are convex and usually wider than the head and prothorax. 
 These beetles are found under stones and bark, or in ants- 
 nests, or flying in the twilight. Nearly one hundred and 
 fifty species are known from North America. 
 
532 7V/£ STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Family Staphylinid^ (Staph-y-Iin'i-dje). 
 
 The Rovc-bcetlcs. 
 
 The rove-beetles arc very common about decaying ani- 
 mal matter, and are often found upon the ground, under 
 stones or other objects. They are mostly very small insects ; 
 a few species, however, are of larger size, measuring a half 
 inch or more in length. Their appearance is very charac- 
 teristic, the body being long and slender, and the wing- 
 covers very short (Fig. 640). The wings, however, 
 are fully developed, often exceeding the abdomen 
 in length ; when not in use the wings are folded 
 beneath the short wing-covers. The abdominal 
 segments are freely movable, and are seven or eight 
 in number. 
 
 It is interesting to watch one of these insects 
 
 Fig. 640. ° 
 
 fold its wings ; frequently they find it necessary 
 to make use of the tip of the abdomen or of one of the legs 
 in order to get the wings folded beneath the wing-covers. 
 
 The rove-beetles- can run quite swiftly ; and they have 
 the curious habit, when disturbed, of raising the tip of the 
 abdomen in a threatening manner, as if they could sting. 
 As some of the larger species resemble wasps somewhat in 
 the form of the body, these threatening motions are often 
 as effective as if the creature really had a sting. 
 
 As these insects feed upon decaying animal and vegetable 
 matter, they should be classed as beneficial. The larvae re- 
 semble the adults in the form of the body and are found in 
 similar situations. 
 
 About one thousand North American species of rove- 
 beetles have been described. The great majority of them 
 are small and exceedingly difficult to determine. Among 
 the large species that are common are the following : — 
 
 CreopJiilus villosus (Cre-oph'i-lus vil-lo'sus). — This species 
 varies from one-half inch to nearly an inch in length. It is 
 of a shining black color, spotted with patches of fine gray 
 
COI.EOPTERA. 533 
 
 hairs. There is a conspicuous band of these across the 
 middle of the wing-covers, and another on the second and 
 third abdominal segments; this abdominal band is best 
 marked on the lower side of the body. 
 
 StapJiyli)ius )/iaculosus (Staph-y-li'nus mac-u-lo'sus) is a 
 larger species, which often measures fully an inch in length. 
 It is densely punctured, and of a dull-brown color, with the 
 scutellum black, and a row of obscure, square, blackish spots 
 along the middle of tlje abdomen. 
 
 StapJiyliiius vulpimis (S. vul-pi'nus) resembles the pre- 
 ceding somewhat, but it has a pair of bright-yellow spots at 
 the base of each abdominal segment. 
 
 Lcistotrophus cingulatus (Leis-tot'ro-phus cin-gu-ia'tus) is 
 of about the same size as the preceding. It is brown, 
 speckled with brownish-black spots, and the tip of its 
 abdomen is clothed with golden hairs. 
 
 The family TRICHOPTERVGlDiE (Tri-chop-te-rygl-dae), or 
 the Feather-wing Beetles, includes the smallest beetles that 
 are known ; most of our species are less than one twenty- 
 fifth of an inch in length, and in many cases they are not 
 half that size. The most striking feature of the typical 
 forms is the shape of the wings, which are long, narrow, and 
 fringed with long hairs, being feather-like in appearance ; 
 but in some species the wings are wanting. Some species 
 live in rotten wood, muck, manure, and other decaying 
 organic matter; a few have been found in ants' nests. 
 
 The family Hydroscaphid.'E (Hyd-ro-scaph'i-dae) is rep- 
 resented in America by a single, minute, aquatic species 
 from California. See table of families for its characteristics. 
 
 The family SPH^RliDiE (Sphae-ri'i-dae) is also repre- 
 sented on this continent by a single Californian species. It 
 lives in mud or under stones near water. Its distinguishing 
 features are given in the table of families. 
 
 The family SCAPHIDIID^ (Scaph-i-di'i-dae) includes less 
 than twenty known North American species. They are 
 
534 '^'^^^ STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 small, oval, very shining insects, found in fungi and rotten 
 wood. The elytra are broadly truncate behind, not covering 
 the entire abdomen. 
 
 The family Phalacrid^ (Pha-lac'ri-die) includes a small 
 number of very small, convex, shining black beetles, which 
 are sometimes two-spotted or tipped with red. They are 
 found on flowers and sometimes under bark. 
 
 The family CORYLOPIIID.E (Cor-y-loph'i-dae) includes 
 minute beetles found under damp bark and in decaying 
 vegetable matter. The body is oval or rounded, and in 
 many species is clothed with a grayish pubescence. The 
 wings are wide, and fringed with long hairs. About twenty- 
 five North American species are known. 
 
 V^ Family COCCINELLID^: (Coc-ci-nel'li-dae). 
 
 TJie Lady-bugs. 
 These insects are well known to nearly every child under 
 the popular name given above. They are more or less 
 nearly hemispherical, generally red or yellow, with black 
 spots, or black, with white, red, or yellow spots. 
 
 The larvae occur running about on foliage; they are 
 
 t^\ often spotted with bright colors and clothed with 
 
 J^s! warts or with spines (Fig. 641). When ready to 
 
 IB change to a pupa the larva fastens itself by its tail 
 
 w to any convenient object, and the skin splits open 
 
 fg. 641. Q,^ tiie back. Sometimes the pupa state is passed 
 
 within this split skin, and sometimes the skin is forced 
 
 back and remains in a little wad about the tail (Fig. 
 
 642). 
 
 With very few exceptions, the lady-bugs are pre- Fig. 642. 
 daceous, both in the larval and adult states. They feed 
 upon small insects and upon the eggs of larger species. 
 The larvae of certain species are known as "niggers" by 
 hop-growers, and are greatly prized by them ; for they are 
 very destructive to the hop-louse. On the Pacific coast the 
 lady-bugs are well known as the most beneficial of all insects 
 
 i 
 
COLEOPTERA. 535 
 
 to the fruit-growers. Nothing more wonderful has been 
 accomplished in economic entomology than the subduing in 
 California of the cottony-cushion scale by the introduction 
 from Australia of a lady-bug, Vedalia (Ve-da'li-a), which 
 feeds upon it. 
 
 Next in importance to the Vedalia on the Pacific coast 
 are the twice-stabbed lady-bugs. Several species that occur 
 on both sides of the continent are included under this popu- 
 lar name. They are black, with a bright-yellow or reddish 
 spot on each wing-cover. They are especially prized in 
 California as they feed on the pernicious scale, the black 
 scale, and other destructive species. 
 
 A very common lady-bug in the East \?, Adalia bipunctata 
 (A-da'li-a bi-punc-ta'ta). This species is figured on Plate I, 
 Figure 3. It is reddish yellow above, with the middle of the 
 prothorax black, and with a black spot on each wing-cover. 
 It frequently passes the winter in our dwellings, and is found 
 on the walls and windows in early spring. Under such 
 circumstances it is often mistaken for the carpet-beetle and, 
 unfortunately, destroyed. 
 
 The Nine-spotted Lady-bug, Coccinclla novenmotata 
 (Coc-ci-neria no-vem-no-ta'ta) has yellowish wing- >\ 
 covers, with four black spots on each, in addition -^T^^ 
 to a common spot just back of the scutellum ^^ 
 (Fig. 643). 
 
 The Herbivorous Lady-bug, EpilacJina horealis (Ep-i- 
 lach'na bor-e-a'lis), presents a remarkable exception in habits 
 to what is the rule in this family. The larva of this species 
 is herbivorous, feeding on the leaves of squash, pumpkin, and 
 allied plants. It is yellow and is clothed with forked spines 
 (Fig. 644). A pupa is shown in the figure near the upper 
 right-hand corner. The adult is yellowish, with large black 
 spots. 
 
 The family ENDOMVCHlDiE (En-do-mych'i-dae) includes 
 a small number of species which are found chiefly in fungi. 
 The body is usually more elongate than in the preceding 
 
536 
 
 THE STUDY OF IXSECTS. 
 
 family; the antennae are about half as long as the body; 
 the prothorax is nearly square, and usually has a wide, thin 
 margin, which is slightly turned upwards at the sides. 
 
 Fig. 644. 
 
 Family Erotylid^ (Er-o-tyl'i-dae). 
 The Erotylids {Er-ot' y-lids). 
 
 The members of this family are usually of moderate or 
 small size; but some species are quite large, measuring three 
 fourths inch or more in length. Some of our more common 
 species are conspicuously marked with shining black and red. 
 
 To the genus Mcgalodachne (Meg-a-lo-dach'ne) belong 
 two common, large species, which are black, 
 with two dull-red bands extending across the 
 ■wing-covers. M. heros (M.he'ros) (Fig. 645) is 
 two thirds of an inch or more in length. M. 
 fasciaia (M. fas-ci-a'ta) is about half an inch 
 long. 
 
 The genus Languria (Lan-gu'ri-a) includes 
 long, narrow species, which resemble click-beetles in form. 
 
 I'ne) belong 
 
 Fig. 645 
 
COLEOPTERA. 
 
 537 
 
 Figure 646 represents L. Diozardi (L. mo-zar'di) greatly 
 enlarged. This is a reddish species with dark-blue wing- 
 
 FlG. 646. 
 
 covers ; the larva bores in the stalks of clover. 
 
 The family COLYDIID^ (Col-y-di'i-dae) is composed of 
 small insects which are usually of an elongate or cylindrical 
 form, and are found under bark, in fungi, and in earth. 
 Some of the species are known to be carnivorous, feeding 
 on the larvae of wood-boring beetles. The tarsi are four- 
 jointed ; the tibiae are not fitted for digging, and the first 
 four abdominal segments are grown together on the ventral 
 side. More than fifty North American species are known. 
 
 The family Rhyssodid^ (Rhys-sod'i-dae) includes only 
 four species, two from each side of the continent. They 
 are elongate, somewhat flattened beetles, with the head and 
 prothorax deeply furrowed with longitudinal grooves. They 
 are found under bark. 
 
 Family CUCUJID^ (Cu-cu'ji-dae). 
 The Oiciijids [Cu'cu-jids). 
 The insects of this family are very fiat and usually of 
 an elongate form; most of the species are brown, but some 
 are of a bright red color. As a rule they are found under 
 bark and are believed to be carnivorous both in the larval 
 and adult states ; but some feed in grain. 
 
538 THE STUDY Oi'- INSECTS. 
 
 The most conspicuous of our common species is Cuciijus 
 clavipes (Cu'cu-jus clav'i-pes) (Fig. 647). This insect is 
 
 * about one half inch in length and of a bright red 
 color, with the eyes and antennae black and the 
 tibiae and tarsi dark. 
 The most important member of this family is 
 p,t- 6 the Corn Silvanus, Silvanus surinamensis (Sil-va'- 
 nus sur-i-na-men'sis), which is one of the small beetles that 
 infest stored grain. This species is readily distinguished 
 from other small beetles with similar habits by its flattened 
 form and the saw-like edges of the prothorax. Besides 
 grain it often infests dried fruits and other stores. It meas- 
 ures from one tenth to one eighth of an inch in length. 
 
 The family Cryptophagid^ (Cryp-to-phag'i-dae) in- 
 eludes insects of small size, usually less than one tenth of an 
 inch in length, and of variable form, but never very flat. 
 The thorax is nearly or quite as wide as the wing-covers 
 and the first ventral abdominal segment is somewhat longer 
 than the others. They are generally of a light yellowish- 
 brown color, and live on fungi and decomposing vegetable 
 matter. 
 
 The family Mycetophagid^ (My-cet-o-phag'i-dae) is 
 composed of small, oval, rarely elongate, moderately convex 
 beetles. They are densely punctured and hairy, and are 
 usually prettily marked insects. They live on fungi and 
 under bark. 
 
 Family Dermestid^E (Der-mes'ti-dae). 
 The Dermestids {Der-mes'tids). 
 
 There are several families of small beetles that feed on 
 decaying matter, or on skins, furs, and dried animal sub- 
 stances. The most important of these is the Dermestidae, 
 as several species belonging to this family destroy house- 
 hold stores or goods. 
 
 The Dermestids can be distinguished from most of the 
 
COI.EOPTERA. 539 
 
 Other beetles with similar habits by the fact that the wing- 
 covers completely cover the abdomen. They are chiefly 
 small beetles, although one of the common species measures 
 one third inch in length. They are usually oval, plump 
 beetles, with pale gray or brown markings, which are formed 
 by minute scales, which can be rubbed of^. These beetles 
 have the habit of pretending that they are dead when they 
 are disturbed ; they will roll over on their backs with their 
 legs meekly folded and lie still for a long period. 
 
 The larvae do much more damage than the adults. They 
 are active, and are clothed with long hairs. These hairs are 
 covered throughout their entire length with microscopic 
 barbs. 
 
 The Larder Beetle, Dcrmestcs lardarius (Der-mes'tes 
 lar-da'ri-us). — This pest of the larder is the most common of 
 the larger members of this family. It is three tenths of an 
 inch long, and black except the basal half of its wing-covers, 
 which are pale buff or brownish yellow. This lighter portion 
 is usually crossed by a band of black spots, three on each 
 wing-cover (Fig. 648). The larva feeds on dead animal 
 matter, as meat, skins, feathers and cheese. It is 
 often a serious pest where bacon or ham are stored. 
 When full grown it is about half an inch in length, 
 dark brown above, whitish below, and rather thickly Fig. e^s. 
 covered with long, brown hairs. It is said that this insect 
 can be attracted by baits of old cheese, from which they 
 may be gathered and destroyed. 
 
 The Carpet Beetle, AntJirenus scropJmlarics (An-thre'nus 
 scroph-u-la'ri-3e). — During recent years this insect has be- 
 come the worst of household pests, feeding in its larval state 
 on carpets, woollens, furs, and feathers. The larva is well- 
 known to many housekeepers as the BufTalo-moth. It is a 
 short, fat grub, about one fifth of an inch in length when 
 full grown, and densely clothed with dark brown hairs. It 
 lives in the cracks of floors, near the edges of rooms, and be- 
 neath furniture, where it eats holes in the carpet. It also 
 
 ^ 
 
540 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 enters wardrobes and destroys clothing. The adult is a 
 pretty little beetle which may be found in infested houses, 
 in the spring, on the ceilings and windows. It is about one 
 seventh of an inch in length and clothed with black, white, 
 and brick-red scales (Plate I, Fig. i). There is a whitish 
 spot on each side of the prothorax, and three irregular, 
 whitish spots on the outer margin of each wing-cover ; along 
 the suture where the two wing-covers meet there is a band 
 of brick-red scales, which is widened in several places. It is 
 worth while to learn to know this beetle ; for a Lady-bug 
 (Plate I, Fig. 3), which often winters in our houses, is fre- 
 quently mistaken for it. The Carpet Beetle in its adult 
 state feeds on the pollen of flowers. Sometimes it abounds 
 on the blossoms of currant, cherry, and other fruits. The 
 best way to avoid the ravages of this pest is to use rugs in- 
 stead of carpets, and to trap the larvae by placing woollen 
 cloths on the floors of closets. By shaking such cloths 
 over a paper once a week the larvae can be captured. 
 
 The change from carpets to rugs is a very desirable one*, 
 for carpets that are tacked to the floor and taken up only 
 once or twice a year are unwholesome. The change need 
 not be a very expensive one. As carpets wear out they 
 may be replaced with rugs ; and good carpets can be made 
 over into rugs. If the floors are not polished as is usually 
 the case where it was planned to cover them with carpets, 
 they can be made presentable by filling the cracks with 
 putty and painting the boards where they are to be exposed. 
 
 The museum pests, Anthrenus varitis (An-thre'nus va'- 
 ri-us) and AntJireniis vmseoriini (A. muse-o'rum). — There 
 are two minute species of this family that are a constant 
 source of annoyance to those having collections of insects. 
 
 The adult beetles measure less than one eighth of an inch 
 in length, and are very convex. They deposit their eggs on 
 specimens in our collections ; and the larvae feed upon the 
 specimens, often destroying them. In order to preserve a 
 collection of insects it is necessary that they should be kept 
 
COLEOPTEKA. 54 1 
 
 in tight cases, so that these pests cannot gain access to them. 
 Specimens should not be left exposed except when in use. 
 And the entire collection should be carefully examined at 
 least once a month. The injury is done by the larvae, 
 which are small, plump, hairy grubs. Their presence is in- 
 dicated by a fine dust that falls on to the bottom of 
 the case from the infested specimens. These larvai 
 can be destroyed by pouring a small quantity of car- 
 bon bisulphide into the case, and keeping it tightly 
 closed for a day or two. Benzine poured on a bit of cotton 
 in the box will cause the pests to leave the specimens, when 
 they may be taken from the box and destroyed. But we 
 have found carbon bisulphide the better agent for the de- 
 struction of these pests. 
 
 The Raspberry Fruit-worm, Byturus unicolor (B)-tu'rus 
 u-ni-co'lor). — The fruit of the red raspberry is often infested 
 by a small white worm, which clings to the inside of the 
 berry after it is picked. This is the larva of an oval, pale, 
 dull yellow beetle, which is densely clothed with 
 short, fine, gray hairs. The beetle is represented 
 enlarged in Figure 649; it measures about three 
 twentieths of an inch in length. This insect is also 
 injurious in the adult state, as it feeds on the bios- fig. 049. 
 soms of the raspberry. 
 
 The family HlSTERlD^ (His-ter'i-dae) includes certain 
 easily recognized beetles which are found about carrion and 
 other decomposing substances. They arc mostly small, 
 short, rounded, or somewhat square-shaped beetles, of a 
 shining black color, with the-wing covers marked by lines 
 
 Wof fine punctures and truncate behind, leaving two 
 segments of the abdomen exposed (Fig. 650). In 
 some species the wing-covers are marked with red. 
 Fig. 650. The family NlTlDULlD^ (Nit-i-du'li-dae) com- 
 
 prises small, somewhat flattened beetles. With many spe- 
 cies the prothorax has wide, thin margins, and the wing- 
 covers are more or less truncate, so as to leave the tip of the 
 
542 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. 
 
 abdomen exposed ; but sometimes the elytra are entire. 
 The tarsi are usually five-jointed, with the fourth segment 
 very small ; they are more or less dilated ; the posterior 
 coxzE are flat, not sulcate ; the anterior coxae are transverse ; 
 and the abdomen has five free, ventral segments. 
 
 »One of the most common representatives of 
 this family is Ips fasciatus (Ips fas-ci-a'tus). (Fig. 
 651.) It is a shining black species, with two'con- 
 Ki(,. 631. spicuous, interrupted, reddish bands across the 
 wing-covers. 
 
 The family TUOGOSITID/E (Trog-o-sit'i-dae) includes ob- 
 long, somewhat flattened beetles, of a black or reddish-black 
 color. Most of them live under bark; but some are found 
 in granaries. They differ from members of the preceding 
 family in having slender tarsi, with the first segment very 
 short. 
 
 The family MONOTOMID^ (Mon-o-tom'i-dse) is composed 
 of a few small, depressed beetles, found mostly under the 
 bark of trees. The wing-covers are truncate behind, leaving 
 the last abdominal segment exposed. 
 
 The family LathridiiD/E (Lath-ri-di'i-dae) includes very 
 small beetles, which live under bark and stones and are 
 sometimes caught flying in twilight. They are oblong; the 
 wing-covers are usually wider than the prothorax and 
 entirely cover the abdomen. 
 
 The family Derodontid^ (Der-o-don'ti-dae) is repre- 
 sented by a single species found in the East and two found 
 in Oregon and northward. The eastern species is a small 
 brown beetle with a tubercle on each side inside the eye. 
 
 The family Byrrhid^ (Byr'rhi-dae) or \\\q pill-beetles are 
 short, very convex beetles of small or moderate size ; some, 
 however, are half an inch in length. The body is clothed 
 with hairs or minute scales. The legs can be folded up very 
 compactly, the tibia usually having a furrow for the recep- 
 tion of the tarsus. These beetles are found upon walks and 
 
COLEOPTERA. 543 
 
 at the roots of trees and grass ; a few live under the bark of 
 trees. 
 
 The family GeoryssiD/E (Ge-o-rys'si-dae) includes only 
 two American species. " They arc small, rounded, convex, 
 roughly sculptured, black insects, found at the margin of 
 streams, on wet sand ; they cover themselves with a mass of 
 mud, so that no part of the insect is visible." (LcContc and 
 Horn.) 
 
 The family Parnid^ (Par'ni-dae) includes small water 
 beetles, in which the legs are not fitted for swimming. The 
 tarsi are five-jointed ; the first four segments of the tarsi are 
 short and equal; the fifth is longer than the others con- 
 joined ; the tarsal claws are unusually large. The body is 
 clothed with fine, silken hairs, which retain a film of air when 
 the insect is beneath the water. These beetles are found 
 adhering to stones or plants beneath the surface of the water. 
 The larva of Pscphemis kcontei (Pse-phe'nus le-con'te-i) is 
 common in the East, chnging to the lower surface of stones 
 in rapid streams; and we have found it in muck near a 
 spring. It is very flat and circular in outline 
 (Fig. 652), and measures about five sixteenths 
 of an inch in length. It is rarely recognized 
 as an insect by the young collector. Other 
 larvae of this family have similar habits, and 
 resemble this species in form except that the 
 margin of the body is notched between the 
 segments. p,^ ,^^ 
 
 The family HeteroceriDvE (Het-e-ro- 
 cer'i-dae) includes only the genus Heteroccrus (Het-e-roc'e- 
 rus). These beetles "are oblong or subelongate, oval, 
 densely clothed with short silky pubescence, very finely 
 punctate, and of a brown color, with the elytra usually vari- 
 egated with undulated bands or spots of a yellow color. 
 They live in galleries which they excavate in sand or mud 
 at the margin of bodies of water, and, when disturbed, run 
 from their galleries and take flight." (LeConte and Horn.) 
 
544 'i'^^ STUD Y OF INSECTS. 
 
 The family DascYLLID^ (Das-cyl'li-dae) includes certain 
 beetles that live on plants, usually near the water. The legs 
 are short with slender tibiae ; the tarsi, are five-jointed ; the 
 posterior coxae are transverse, and dilated into a plate partly 
 covering the femora ; the anterior coxae are transverse ; and 
 the abdomen has five free, ventral segments, the fifth 
 rounded at tip. About fifty species occur in North America. 
 The larvae, of several species at least, live in rotten wood. 
 
 The family Rhipicerid^ (Rhip-i-cer'i dae) is represented 
 in this country by a very small number of species, which are 
 most commonly found on cedars. The antennae are serrate 
 in the females, frequently flabellate in the males. The an- 
 terior and middle coxae are conical and prominent, the 
 former with large trochantins ; the posterior coxae are 
 transverse, and dilated into a small plate partly covering the 
 femora. 
 
 y Family Elaterid^ (El-a-ter'i-dae). 
 The Click-beetles or Elaters {El'a-ters). 
 
 There is hardly a country child that has not been enter- 
 
 tertained by the acrobatic performances of the long, tidy- 
 
 <C~^r^ appearing beetles called snapping-bugs, click-beetles, 
 
 ^S^ or skip-jacks (Fig. 653). Touch one of them and it 
 
 J^H\ at once curls up its legs, and drops as if shot ; it 
 
 jWl usually lands on its back, and lies there for a time as 
 
 Fig. 653. if dead. Suddenly there is a click, and the insect 
 
 pops up into the air several inches. If it comes down on its 
 
 back, it tries again and again until it succeeds in striking on 
 
 its feet, and then it runs off. 
 
 We remember well carrying these creatures into the old 
 district schoolhouse, where all lessons had to be learned 
 from books, and where Nature was never given a chance to 
 teach us anything. Here, with one eye on the teacher and 
 one on this interesting jumper laid on our book behind the 
 desk, we found a most fascinating occupation for the tedi- 
 ous moments. But the end was alwa}'s the same ; the 
 
COI.EOPTEKA. 545 
 
 beetle jumped so high that it betrayed us and was hbcr- 
 ated, and we were disgraced. 
 
 Our common species of cHck-beetles are mostly small or 
 of medium size, ranging from one tenth to three fourths of 
 an inch in length. A few species are larger, some reaching 
 the length of nearly two inches. The majority of the 
 species are of a uniform brownish color; 
 some are black or grayish, and some are 
 conspicuously spotted (Fig. 654). The bod}' 
 is elongated, somewhat flattened, and tapers 
 more or less towards cacii end ; the antennae 
 are moderately elongated, and more or less p„. 654. - T ciick- 
 serrate ; the first and second abdominal seg- !/^rW»,'^'^'namra'i 
 ments are not grown together on the ventral ^i^e ""^i ^"larged. 
 side; and the hind coxae are each furnished with a groove 
 for the reception of the femur. 
 
 The larviE of click-beetles are long, narrow, worm-like 
 creatures, very even in width, with a very hard covering, 
 and are brownish or yellowish white in color (Figs. 655 and 
 
 *1 
 
 656). They are commonly known as wire-worms, a name 
 suggested by the form and hardness of the body. 
 
 Some wire-worms live under the bark of trees and in 
 rotten wood ; but many of them live in the ground, and 
 feed on seeds and the roots of grass and grain. In fact 
 there is hardly a cultivated plant that they do not infest; 
 and, working as they do beneath the surface of the ground, 
 it is extremely difficult to destroy them. Not only do they 
 infest a great variety of plants, but they are very apt to 
 attack them at the most susceptible period of their growth, 
 before they have attained sufficient size and strength to 
 withstand the attack ; and often seed is destroyed before 
 it has germinated. Thus fields of corn or other grain are 
 
546 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS, 
 
 ruined at the outset. The appearance of these insects 
 when in the ground, as seen through the glass side of one 
 
 of our root- 
 cage s, is 
 shown in 
 Fig. 657. 
 
 There 
 is a vast 
 number of species of click- 
 beetles ; more than five hun- 
 
 & ^ 
 
 Fig. 658.— Larva of Cryptohyptius abbre- 
 viatus : a. clypeus; b, mandible; c, 
 maxilla ; d, gula; e, caudal segment. 
 
 Fig. 659. — I.arva of Drasterius elegans : 
 
 F,G. 657 -A corn-plant growing in a root- ^'jl^PrcVudaUeement ^ '' ""'""'" ' ''* 
 cage infested by wire-worms and click- guia , f, cauaai segment, 
 beetles (from a specimen in the Cornell 
 
 Insectary). The spotted beetle represented drcd haVC been described 
 near the base of the plant is Drasterius 
 
 eugans: that near the top of the plant is from North America alone. 
 
 Agr totes mancus. 
 
 It is quite difficult to sep- 
 arate the closely-allied species, as there is but little variation 
 in shape and color. The larvae also show comparatively 
 
COLEOPTERA. 
 
 547 
 
 little variation in form ; but in this stage the shape of the 
 parts of the head and the last segment of the body often 
 furnish reliable specific characters (Figs. 658 and 659). 
 
 In those species that we have bred it requires several 
 years for the larva to complete its growth. In these species 
 the full-grown larva changes to a pupa in the latter part of 
 the summer, in a little cell in the ground ; the pupa soon 
 afterwards changes to an adult ; but the adult remains in 
 the cell formed by the larva till the following spring. 
 
 Although we tried an extensive series of experiments, 
 extending over several years, we were unable to find any 
 satisfactory way of destroying the larvai infesting field 
 crops. But we found that if the cells containing pupae or 
 recently-transformed adults were broken the insects per- 
 shed. We conclude, therefore, that much can be done 
 towards keeping these insects in check by fall-ploughing; 
 for in this way many of the cells containing pupje or young 
 adults would be broken. 
 
 The Eyed Elater, Alans ocnlatus (A'laus oc-u-la'tus). — 
 Although most of our click-beetles are of moderate size, we 
 have a few species that are large. The most common of 
 these is the Eyed Elater (El'a-ter). This 
 is the great pepper-and-salt-colored fellow 
 that has two large, black, velvety, eye- 
 like spots on the prothorax (Fig. 660). 
 These are not its eyes, however. The true 
 eyes are situated one on each side of the 
 head near the base of the antenna. This 
 insect varies greatly in size, some individ- 
 uals being not more than half as large as 
 others. The larger larva; are about two 
 and a half inches long, and nearly four 
 tenths of an inch wide across the middie 
 of the body. They live upon decaying F'^- 66o- 
 
 wood, and are often found in the trunks of old apple-trees. 
 
 There is an Elater quite similar to the preceding that 
 
548 THE STUDY OF INSECTS, 
 
 differs in having the eye-like spots less distinctly marked, 
 and is not as common. This is Alans niyops (A. my'ops). 
 
 The family Throscid^ (Thros'ci-dae) includes a few 
 small species which resemble the Elaters and Buprestids in 
 having the prosternum prolonged behind into a process, 
 which is received in the mesosternum. They differ from 
 the Elaters in having the prothorax firmly joined to the 
 mesothorax, and the front coxal cavities closed behind by 
 the mesosternum instead of by the prosternum; and from 
 the Buprestids in having the ventral abdoininal segments 
 all free. The adult beetles are found on flowers. 
 
 Family BUPKESTIIX-E (Bu-pres'ti-dae). 
 The Metallic Wooci-boi-ers or Buprestids {Bii-pres'ticls). 
 
 The Buprestids resemble the click-beetles somewhat in 
 form, being rather long and narrow ; but they are easily 
 recognized by their metallic coloring. Their bodies are 
 hard and inflexible, and usually appear as if made of 
 bronze ; but some species exhibit the brightest of metallic 
 colors. The antennae are serrate ; the first and second 
 abdominal segments are grown together on the ventral 
 side ; and these beetles do not have the power of springing 
 when placed on the back. 
 
 The adults are found upon flowers and upon the bark of 
 trees, basking in the hot sunshine. Some of them fly very 
 rapidly, with a loud buzzing noise ; and some drop to the 
 ground when disturbed, and feign death. 
 
 Most of the larvae are borers, feeding beneath bark or 
 within solid wood. In such species the bod)' is of a very 
 characteristic form, which is commonly designated as " flat- 
 headed." The flattened portion, however, is composed 
 largely of the segments immediately following the head. 
 The first thoracic segment is very wide and flat ; the next 
 two or three segments are also flattened, but are successively 
 smaller; while the rest of the body is quite narrow and 
 cylindrical. These " flat-headed " larvae are legless, and 
 
Fig. 66i. 
 
 COI.EOPTERA. . 549 
 
 have been compared to tadpoles on account of their form. 
 Their burrows are flattened, corresponding with the shape 
 of the larger part of the body. In some of the smaller 
 species the larvse are cylindrical, and are furnished with three 
 pairs of legs. These are leaf-miners; and in the adult state 
 the body is much shorter than in the more typical .species. 
 
 The Virginian Buprestid, Chalcophora virginica (Chal- 
 coph'o-ra vir-gin'i-ca).— This is the largest of our common 
 Buprestids (Fig. 66i). It is copper-colored, 
 often almost black, and has its upper surface 
 roughened by irregular, lengthwi.se furrows. 
 This beetle appears late in spring in the vicin- 
 ity of pine-trees. The larvae bore in the wood 
 of pine, and are often very injurious. 
 
 The Dicerca divaricata (Di-cer'ca di-var-i- 
 ca'ta) is three quarters of an inch or more in 
 length, copper-colored or brassy above, with the wing-covers 
 \-^^/ marked with square, elevated, black spots. The 
 \n|f^ wing-covers taper very much behind, and are 
 yJM. separated at the tips (Fig. 662). The larva bores 
 /^^Pv" ^" peach, cherry, beech, and maple. 
 /ym\ '^^^^ Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer, Chrysoboth- 
 
 W ris femorata (Chrys-o-both'ris fem-o-ra'ta). — This 
 
 Fig, 662. jg Qj.,g Qf |-|^g most iujurious of all Buprestids. The 
 adult (Fig. 663) is about half an inch long, and is a very dark 
 green above, with bronze reflections, especially in 
 the furrows of the wing-covers. It appears during 
 June and July, and lays its eggs upon the trunk and 
 limbs of apple, peach, oak, and other trees. The 
 larvae at first bore into the bark and sap-wood, and 
 later into the solid wood. The transformations are com- 
 pleted in one year. 
 
 To prevent the ravages of this pest, the trees are rubbed 
 with soap during June or July, or cakes of soap are placed in 
 the forks of the trees, so that the rains will dissolve the soap 
 and wash it down over the trunks. This is supposed to 
 
550 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 prevent the beetles from depositing their eggs on the trees. 
 
 After a tree is once infested, the larvae should be cut out 
 
 with a gouge or a knife. Nursery stock that is infested should 
 
 be promptly burned. 
 
 The Red-necked Agrilus, Agrilus riificoliis (Ag'ri-lus rui- 
 Y^>i i"Col'hs). — This beetle (Fig. 664) is about three tenths 
 jgf of an inch long. Its body is narrow and nearly cyl- 
 
 /^■Vl indrical. The head is of a dark-bronze color, the 
 
 /^Hy prothora.x of a beautiful coppery bronze, and the 
 ^y wing covers black. The larva bores in the stems of 
 Fig. 664. raspberry and blackberry, causing a large swelling, 
 
 known as the Raspberry Gouty-gall. These galls should be 
 
 collected and burned, in early spring. 
 
 Family Lampyrid^ (Lam-pyr'i-dse). 
 The Firefly Family or Lampyrids {Lam- py' rids). 
 
 During some warm, moist evening early in our Northern 
 June we are startled to see here and there a tiny meteor shoot 
 out of the darkness near at hand, and we suddenly realize that 
 summer is close upon us, heralded by her mysterious mes- 
 sengers, the fireflies. A week or two later these little torch- 
 bearers appear in full force, and the gloom that overhangs 
 marshes and wet meadows, the dusk that shrouds the banks 
 of streams and ponds, the darkness that haunts the borders 
 of forests, are illumined with myriads of flashes as these 
 silent, winged hosts move hither and thither under the cove- 
 of the night. 
 
 The fireflies are soft-bodied beetles of medium or small 
 size, with slender, usually eleven-jointed, saw-like an- 
 tennae. The prothorax is expanded into a thin pro- 
 jecting margin, which in most cases completely 
 covers the head (Fig. 665). The wing-covers are 
 rather soft, and never strongly embrace the sides of F'^^-^ss. 
 the abdomen, as with most other beetles. 
 
 Most members of this family are nocturnal insects, and 
 
COLEOPTERA. 
 
 551 
 
 are sluggish by day. On the other hand, a few species are 
 very active in the brightest sunshine. 
 
 The most common of these day-fliers are the soldier- 
 beetles, Chauliognaihus (Chaul-i-og'na-thus). These are very 
 abundant in late summer and autumn on various flowers, but 
 especially on those of the goldenrod. There are two very 
 common species: the Pennsylvania Soldier-beetle, CJiaiiliog- 
 iiathus pennsylvanicus {C penn-syl-van'i-cus), which is yellow, 
 with a black spot in the middle of the prothorax and one 
 near the tip of each wing-cover (Fig. 666) ; and the Margined 
 
 Fig. 666. 
 
 Fig. 667. 
 
 Soldier-beetle, C. marginatiis (C. mar-gl-na'tus). This species 
 (Fig. 667) may be distinguished from the former by the head 
 and lower part of the thighs being orange. The beetles 
 of this genus are remarkable for having an extensible, 
 fleshy filament attached to each maxilla. These filaments 
 are probably used in collecting pollen and nectar from 
 flowers. 
 
 Another common diurnal Lampyrid is Calopteron rcticu- 
 /^/«;« (Ca-lop'te-ron re-tic-u-la'tum) (Fig. 668). This species 
 represents a group in which the wing-covers are covered with 
 a network of fine elevated lines. These insects are found on 
 the leaves of plants, where they seek and feed upon other 
 insects. 
 
 The true Fireflies are nocturnal, and are furnished with 
 a light-giving apparatus, which is situated on the lower side 
 of the abdomen ; the exact position of the.se organs differs 
 in different genera. Figure 665 represents a common species. 
 
552 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The family MalaciiiiD/E (Mal-a-clii'i-dae) is composed 
 chiefly of small or very small beetles, found on flowers, and 
 on the ground near water. They vary greatly in form; but 
 bear a general resemblance in structure to the preceding 
 family, from which they can be distinguished by the presence 
 of only six ventral abdominal segments. Some members of 
 the family are furnished with soft, orange-colored vesicles 
 whicli they protrude from the sides of the body, and 
 which are supposed to be scent organs for defence. 
 One of our most common representatives is Collops 
 quadrimacidatus (Col'lops quad-ri-mac-u-la'tus), which ^"^" ^'°' 
 is. yellowish orange, with the top of the head and four spots 
 on the wing-covers bluish black (Fig. 670). 
 
 Family CLERlD.^i (Clcr'i-dae.) 
 T]i€ Chtxkcj-cd BcctliS. 
 
 The family Cleridae includes a considerable number of 
 species which are found on flowers and on the trunks of 
 trees. Many of them are beautifully marked with strongly 
 contrasting colors; this has suggested the common name 
 checkered beetles for them. Frequently they are more or 
 less ant-like in form, the prothorax being in these cases 
 narrower than the wing-covers, and slightly narrower than 
 the head. The abdomen has either five or six ventral seg- 
 ments; the anterior coxae are conical, prominent, and con- 
 tiguous, or very slightly separate ; the hind coxae are trans- 
 verse, not prominent, and covered by the femora in repose ; 
 the legs are slender ; and the tarsi are five-jointed. 
 
 In the larval state these insects are usually carnivorous, 
 living under bark and in the burrows of wood-boring insects, 
 upon which they prey; some are found in the nests of bees ; 
 and still others feed on dead animal matter. 
 
 Figure 671 represents one of our more common species, 
 Trichodes nuttalli (Tri-cho'des nut-tal'li). 
 
COLEOPTKKA. 553 
 
 i 
 
 The family rriNID.K (Ptin'i-da-) or the Death-watch 
 Family is composed of small insects, which rarely 
 exceed a quarter of an inch in length, and very many 
 of them are not half that length. They are usually 
 of a cinnamon-brown color, but not always so. The 
 most distinctive structural feature is the position of Vw..t^l. 
 the trochanters, which are situated between the femora and 
 coxae, instead of at one side of the base of the femur in each 
 case. These insects usually live upon dead vegetable matter, 
 and frequently upon that which has begun to decay ; but some 
 bore into solid wood, and others attack living plants. One 
 of the latter is the Apple-twig Borer, Amphicerus bicaiidatiis 
 (Am-phic'e-rus bi-cau-da'tus), which often injuriously affects 
 the twigs of apple-trees ; the adult beetle is about three 
 tenths of an inch long, and the male has two thorn-like pro- 
 jections from the ends of the wing-covers. The Cigarette 
 Beetle, Lasioderma serricorne (Las-i-o-der'ma ser-ri-cor'ne) is 
 a serious pest in tobacco manufactories, infesting the dried 
 tobacco-leaves and the manufactured products. Sitodrepa 
 panicea (Si-tod're-pa pa-nic'e-a) is a cosmopolitan species, 
 which feeds on many kinds of dead organic matter, both 
 animal and vegetable. It sometimes assumes the role of a 
 bookworm. We have bred it in large numbers from the 
 cover of a very old book, a copy of Dante's Divine Comedy 
 printed in 1536. It seems that old books are much more 
 subject to the attacks of bookworms than others. 
 
 The family CupesiD/E (Cu-pes'i-dae) includes only four 
 American species. These are found under the bark of de- 
 caying trees, and sometimes in houses. The body is covered 
 with small scales; other characteristics are given in the.table 
 of families. 
 
 The family Lymexylid.e (Lym-ex-yl'i-dae) is also a very 
 small family. It is represented in this country by only three 
 species. Its chief interest lies in the fact that it includes 
 the Ship-timber beetle, Lymexylon iiavale (Ly-mex'y-lon na- 
 va'le) of Europe. 
 
554 THE STUDY OF J. y SECTS. 
 
 The family CllD.E (Ci'i-dae) includes a small number of 
 very small beetles, found under the bark of trees and in the 
 dry and woody species of fungus. The body is cylindrical ; 
 the prothorax is prolonged over the head ; the abdomen has 
 five ventral segments, of which the first is longer than the 
 others; and the tarsi are all four-jointed. 
 
 The family SPHINDID.-E (Sphin'di-dae) is represented in 
 North America by only three small species, which are found 
 in dry fungi, which grow on the trunks of trees. Although 
 the antennae are clubbed, and these beetles are commonly 
 regarded as belonging to the Clavicornia, the tarsi are like 
 those of the Heteromera, the fore and middle tarsi being 
 five-jointed and the hind tarsi four-jointed. 
 
 Family LUCANID^ (Lu-can'i-dae). 
 The Stag-beetles. 
 
 The stag-beetles are so called on account of their large 
 mandibles, which in the males of some species are branched 
 like the antlers of a stag. But they are more surely distin- 
 guished by the form of the antennae, which are lamellate; 
 but the plates composing the club are not capable of close 
 apposition, and usually are not flattened. The student should 
 carefully distinguish between this type of antenna and that 
 of the Scarabaeidae, where the terminal segments are greatly 
 flattened and can be brought close together so as to form a 
 compact club. 
 
 The adult beetles are found on the trunks of trees, and 
 are said, by Harris, to live upon sap, for procuring which the 
 brushes of their jaws and lips seem to be designed ; but it 
 seems probable that some species at least feed upon decom- 
 posing wood. They lay their eggs in crevices of the bark of 
 trees, especially near the roots. The larvae that hatch from 
 these eggs resemble the well-known larvae of May-beetles in 
 form. But, unlike the white grubs which feed on the roots 
 of herbaceous plants, the larvae of stag-beetles bore into the 
 solid wood of the trunks and roots of trees, and reduce it to 
 
COLEOPTERA. 
 
 555 
 
 a substance resembling very coarse sawdust. Tliey mature 
 slowly ; it is said that the larvae of some of the larger species 
 require six years to complete their growth. 
 
 The family is a small one; only 'fourteen North Ameri- 
 can species are at present known. 
 
 The Common Stag-beetle, Lucanns dama (Lu-ca'nus da'- 
 ma). — The most common of our Stag-beetles is this species 
 (Fig. 672). It flies by night with a 
 loud buzzing sound, and is often at- 
 tracted to lights in houses. The larva 
 is a large whitish grub resembling the 
 larvae of the Lamellicorn Beetles. It 
 is found in the trunks and roots of 
 old, partially decayed trees, especially 
 apple, cherry, willow, and oak. The 
 specimen figured here is a male ; in 
 the female the mandibles are shorter. 
 
 The Giant Stag-beetle, Liicanus 
 elaphus (L. el'a-phus), is a large species 
 found in the South. It measures from 
 one and one-half inches to two inches 
 in length, not including the mandibles, which in the case of 
 the male are more than half as long as the body, and 
 branched like the antlers of a stag. 
 
 The Antelope Beetle, Dorcus parallelus 
 (Dor'cys par-al-le'lus). — This beetle is 
 somewhat smaller than the species of Lu- 
 canus. and differs in having the wing-covers 
 marked with longitudinal striae 
 and the teeth on the outside 
 of the fore tibiae much smaller 
 
 (Fig- ^71) 
 
 Several species of stag-bee- 
 tles that are much smaller 
 than Dorcus are found in this 
 country. 
 
 Fit. 672. 
 
 Fig. 673. 
 
 Fig. 674. 
 
556 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The Horned Passalus, Passalits corniitus (Pas'sa-lus cor- 
 nu'tus), differs greatly in appearance from our other stag- 
 beetles (Fig. 674). It is a large shining, black beetle, with 
 a short horn, bent forwards, on the top of the head. This 
 beetle and its larva are found in decaying wood. The larva 
 is remarkable for posse.ssing only four well-developed legs. 
 
 Family Scarab.*:id^ (Scar-a-bae'i-dae). • 
 
 The Scarabmds {Scar-a-bce' ids) or the Lamellicorn {La-niel'li- 
 corn) Beetles. 
 
 This is a very large family, including beetles that repre- 
 sent a wide range of variation in size, form, and habits. 
 They are mostly short, stout-bodied beetles, of which the 
 well-known June-bugs or May-beetles represent the most 
 familiar type. The most useful character for distinguishing 
 these insects is the lamellate form of the club of the antennae, 
 the segments constituting it being greatly flattened, and 
 capable of being brought close together. It is this character 
 that suggests the name lamellicorn beetles. 
 
 According to their habits, the members of this family can 
 be separated into two well-marked groups — the scavengers 
 and the leaf-chafers. 
 
 THE LAMELLICORN SCAVENGERS. 
 
 The lamellicorn scavengers in both the larval and adult 
 states feed upon decaying animal and vegetable matter. 
 Nearly all the species live in the dung of animals, chiefly that 
 of horses and cows. But the members of one genus, Trox, 
 feed upon decaying animal matter, and a few species feed 
 upon fungi. The following are the most common represen- 
 tatives of this division : 
 
 I. The Tumble-bugs. — These are the most familiar of all 
 dung-beetles, for their peculiar habits have attracted much at- 
 tention from the earliest times. They are of rounded form, 
 and the wing-covers are shortened so as to expose the tip 
 
COLEOPTERA. 557 
 
 of the abdomen. They are generally black, but some are 
 colored with rich metallic hues. They vary greatly in size. 
 
 The name tumble-bug refers to the habit which many 
 species exhibit of forming round balls of dung, which they 
 roll long distances. They work in pairs, a male and a female 
 working .together ; and often the ball is several times as 
 large as their combined size. They finally bury the ball in 
 the ground, and the female deposits an egg in one side of 
 it ; this partially decomposed matter serves as food for the 
 larva when it hatches. It should be noted that this is one 
 of the instances, rare among insects, where the male realizes 
 that he has some responsibility as a father, and assists the 
 female in providing for the young. 
 
 This strange habit of rolling these balls has occasioned 
 much speculation as to its object, and has been the source 
 of many superstitions, especially in ancient times. The 
 only reasonable theory that we have met is that as many 
 predaceous insects frequent the masses of dung from which 
 the balls are obtained, in order to prey upon the larvae which 
 live there, the more intelligent tumble bugs remove the food 
 for their larvae to a safe distance. 
 
 The most noted member of this group of genera is the 
 Sacred Beetle of the Egyptians, AtcucJms sacer (A-teu'chus 
 sa'cer). This insect was held in high veneration by this 
 ancient people. It was placed by them in the tombs with 
 their dead ; its picture was painted on sarcophagi, and its 
 image was carved in stone and precious gems. These sculp- 
 tured beetles can be found in almost any collection of 
 Egyptian antiquities. 
 
 From the habits and structure of this Scarabaeid the 
 Egyptians evolved a remarkable symbolism. The ball, 
 which the beetles were supposed to roll from sunrise to 
 sunset, represented the earth ; the beetle itself personified 
 the sun, because of the sharp projections on its head, which 
 extend out like rays of light ; while the thirty segments of 
 its six tarsi represented the days of the month. All indi- 
 
5S8 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 viduals of this species were thought to be males, and a race 
 of males symbolized a race of warriors. This latter super- 
 stition was carried over to Rome, and the Roman soldiers 
 Avore images of the Sacred Beetle set in rings. 
 
 Our common tumble-bugs are distributed among three 
 
 genera: Canthon, Copris, and Phancsus. In the genus Can- 
 
 thon (Can'thon) the middle and posterior tibiae are slender, 
 
 and scarcely enlarged at the extremity. Canthon Icevis (C. 
 
 lae'vis) is our most common species (Fig. 675). In Copris 
 
 ^ ^^ (Co'pris) and Phanmis (Pha-nae'us) the middle 
 
 ^[^HBl^ and posterior tibiae are dilated at the ex- 
 
 f ^^HL\ ^''^"^'^y- ^^ P^i'^>i<^iis the fore tarsi are want- 
 
 r ^^^U^ 1 ing, and the others are not furnished with 
 
 ^^^^1 claws; the species are brilliantly colored. 
 
 Fig. 075. PJianceiis carnifex {Y . car'ni-fex), with its rough 
 
 copper-colored thorax and green elytra, is one of our most 
 
 beautiful beetles, and is our best-known species. It is 
 
 about two thirds inch in length, and the head of the male is 
 
 furnished with a prominent horn. In Copris 2\\ the tarsi are 
 
 present and furnished with claws. Copris Carolina is a large 
 
 well-known species, which measures more than one inch in 
 
 length. 
 
 II. TJie Aphodian (A-pho'di-an) Dung-beetles. — These 
 are small insects, our common species measuring from one 
 sixth to one third inch in length. The body is oblong, 
 convex, or cylindrical in form, and, except in one small 
 genus, the clypeus is expanded so as to cover the mouth- 
 parts entirely. These insects are very abundant in pastures 
 in the dung of horses and cattle, and immense numbers of 
 them are often seen flying through the air during warm 
 autumn afternoons. More than one hundred North Amer- 
 ican species have been described ; of these seventy belong 
 to the genus Aphodius (A-pho'di-us). One of the more 
 common species is Aphodius fimetarius (A. fim-e-ta'ri-us), 
 which is about one third inch in length, and is easily recog- 
 nized by its red wing-covers. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 559 
 
 tier trom all 
 
 III. The Earth-boring Dung-beetles. — These beetles are 
 of a rounded convex form (Fig. 676). They differ from all 
 other dung-beetles in having tiie antenna; 
 eleven-jointed, and in the labrum and man- 
 dibles being visible from above. This is a 
 small group, less than twenty North American 
 species having been described. The popular 
 name is derived from that of the typical genus, p,^. ^^^ 
 Geotrupes (Ge-o-tru'pes), which signifies earth-boring, lliose 
 species the habits of which are known live in excrement. 
 The females bore holes into the earth either beneath the 
 dung or near it ; into these holes they convey a quantity of 
 the dung: this is to serve as food for the larvae, an ^g^ be- 
 ing laid in each hole. This is an approach to the peculiar 
 habits of the tumble-bugs. 
 
 IV. The Skin-beetles. — The members of this group are 
 oblong, convex species, in which the surface of the body 
 and wing-covers is usually very rough, and covered with a 
 
 # crust of dirt, which is removed with great dif- 
 ficulty. They are small or of medium size ; 
 our most common species measure from one 
 third to one half inch in length. The abdomen is 
 F'G. 677. covered by the elytra ; the feet are hardly fitted 
 for digging, but the femora of the front legs are greatly di- 
 lated. Our species all belong to the genus Trox (Fig. ^"J"]). 
 They feed upon dried, decomposing animal matter; many 
 species are found about the refuse of tanneries, and upon 
 the hoofs and hair of decaying animals. 
 
 THE LAMELLICORN LEAF-CHAFERS. 
 
 The leaf-chafers are herbivorous insects which in the 
 adult state usually feed upon the leaves of trees, but many 
 of the species devour the pollen and petals of flowers. In 
 the larval state some of these insects are found in rotten 
 wood; others live in the ground, where they feed upon 
 the roots of grass and other plants. These larvae are thick, 
 
560 THE STUDY OF I iV SECTS. 
 
 fleshy grubs, with well-developed legs (Fig. 678). The 
 caudal segments of the abdomen are very 
 large, and appear black on account of the 
 large amount of dirt in the intestine. The 
 body is strongly curved, so that the larvae 
 can crawl only with great difficulty ; when 
 in the ground they usually lie on their 
 
 Fig. 678. 
 
 backs. 
 
 The following groups include the more important repre- 
 sentatives of this division : — 
 
 I. The May-beetles or June-bugs. — During the warm 
 evenings of May and June we throw open our windows so 
 that we may feel the refreshing coolness of the night air 
 and the inspiration of the new summer. Suddenly, as we 
 sit working or reading, our peace is disturbed by a buzzing 
 object which whirls above us. Then comes a sharp thud 
 and silence. A little later the scratching of six pairs of 
 tiny claws tells us the whereabouts of the intruder. But so 
 familiar are we with his kind that we need not look to know 
 how he appears, the mahogany-brown blunderer, with 
 yellowish wings sticking out untidily from under his 
 polished wing-covers. 
 
 Although these insects are beetles, and attract our atten- 
 tion each year in May, they have received the infelicitous 
 title of June-bugs. They are more properly termed May- 
 beetles. 
 
 The May-beetles belong to the genus LacJinosteriia 
 (Lach-no-ster'na), of which we have more 
 than sixty species. The adults frequently do 
 much injury by eating the foliage of trees. 
 In the case of large trees this injury usually 
 passes unnoticed ; but small trees are often 
 completely defoliated by them. When trouble- 
 some, they can be easily gathered by shaking 
 them from trees upon sheets. Figure 679 
 represents a common species. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 56 1 
 
 The larvae of the different species of May-beetles are 
 commonly classed together under the name " white grubs." 
 They are often great pests in meadows and in cultivated 
 fields. We have known large strawberry plantations to be 
 destroyed by them, and have seen large patches of ground 
 in pastures from which the dead sod could be rolled as one 
 would roll a carpet from a floor, the roots having been all 
 destroyed and the ground just beneath the surface finely 
 pulverized by these larvs. No satisfactory method of 
 fighting this pest has bee.i discovered as yet. If swine be 
 turned into fields infested by white grubs they will root 
 them up and feed upon them. We have destroyed great 
 numbers of the beetles by the use of trap-lanterns, but 
 many beneficial insects were destroyed at the same time. 
 
 II. The Rose-bugs. — The common rose-bug, Macrodactyhis 
 snbspinosus (Mac-ro-dac'ty-lus sub-spi-no'sus), is a well-known 
 pest. It is a slender beetle, tapering before and behind, and 
 
 measuring three eighths inch in length (Fig. 680). 
 It is thickly clothed with fine, yellow, scale-like 
 /'Y'liitFA' hairs, which give it a yellow color; the legs are 
 / \ long, slender, and of a pale-red color. These beetles 
 Fig. 680. appear in early summer, and often do great injury 
 to roses and other flowers, and to the foliage of various 
 fruit-trees and shrubs. This is a very difficult pest to con- 
 trol. The best method now known is to use Paris-green 
 when safe to do so ; in other cases the beetles should be 
 collected by jarring them into a large funnel which is fitted 
 into a can. The larvae of rose-bugs feed on the roots of 
 plants. 
 
 III. The Shining Leaf-chafers. — These insects resemble 
 the May-beetles in form, but can be distinguished from 
 them by the position of the hinder pair of spiracles, which 
 are visible on the sides below the edges of the wing-covers; 
 and they differ from the other leaf-chafers in which the 
 spiracles are in this position in that the tarsal claws are of 
 unequal size, one claw of each pair being larger than the other. 
 
562 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 These beetles are usually polished, and many of them are of 
 brilliant colors. To this family belong the most beautiful 
 beetles known, many appearing as if made of burnished 
 gold or silver, or other metal. 
 
 The Goldsmith-beetle, Cotalpa lanigera (Co-tal'pa la- 
 nig'e-ra). — This is one of our most beautiful species. It 
 measures a little less than one inch in length, and is a broad 
 oval in shape. It is of a lemon-yellow color above, glittering 
 like burnished gold on the top of the head and thorax ; the 
 underside of the body is copper-colored and thickly covered 
 with whitish wool. 
 
 The Spotted Pelidnota, Pelidnota punctata (Pel-id-no'ta 
 punc-ta'ta). — This beetle is reddish brown 
 above, with three black spots on each wing- 
 cover and one on each side of the prothorax 
 (Fig. 681). The scutellum, base of the head, 
 and the entire body beneath are of a deep 
 bronzed-green color. The adult is commonly 
 found feeding on the leaves of grape. The 
 larva feeds upon decaying roots and stumps of 
 various trees. 
 
 The Light-loving hnomdXdi, Anomahi hicicola (A-nom'a-la 
 lu-cic'o-la). — This also feeds on the leaves of grape. It 
 resembles the preceding species in form, but is much smaller, 
 measuring onlyabout one third inch in length. It is of a pale 
 dull yellow color; the prothorax is black, margined with 
 dull yellow, and the hinder part of the head and the ventral 
 side of the body are also black ; sometimes the abdomen is 
 brown. As this beetle appears early in the summer, it can 
 be safely destroyed with Paris-green, for the subsequent 
 rains will wash the poison from the vines before the fruit 
 ripens. 
 
 IV. The Rhinoccros-bcetlcs. — The name rhinoceros-beetles 
 was suggested for this group by the fact that in many species 
 the male bears a horn on the middle of the head. In addi- 
 tion to this horn there may be one or more horns on the 
 
COLEOrTERA. 563 
 
 thorax. These beetles are of medium or large size ; in 
 fact, the largest beetles known belong to this group. As 
 with the flower-beetles, the claws of the tarsi* are of 
 equal size, but the fore coxai are transverse, and not promi- 
 nent. 
 
 One of the largest of our rhinoceros-beetles is Dynastcs 
 tityrus (Dy-nas'tes tit'y-rus). This is of a greenish-gray 
 color, with scattered black spots on the wing-covers, or, if 
 only recently transformed, of a uniform dark brown. The 
 
 male (Fig. 682) bears a prominent horn on the top of his 
 head, and a large one and two small ones on his prothorax. 
 The female has only a tubercle on the head. This insect is 
 found in the Southern States; the larva lives in rotten 
 wood. In the far West there is a closely allied species, 
 Dynastes grantii (D. gran'ti-i), in which the large horn on 
 the thorax is twice as long as in D. tityrus. In the West 
 Indies there occurs a species, Dynastcs hercnlcsiD. her'cu-les), 
 which measures six inches in length. 
 
 Several other genera occur in this country, in some of 
 which the males have prominent horns; in others the horns 
 are represented by tubercles, or are wanting. The following 
 species represents the latter type. 
 
 The Sugar-cane Beetle, Ligyrus rugiceps (Lig'y-rus 
 ru'gi-ceps). — This beetle is a serious pest in the cane-fields 
 of Louisiana, and it sometimes injures corn. Figure 683 
 represents the adult, and its method of attacking a 
 plant. 
 
$64 
 
 THE STUD Y OJ' lASECJS. 
 
 V. The Fioii'cr-beetUs. — The flower-beetles are so called 
 because many of them are often seen feeding upon pollen 
 and flying from flower to flower. These beetles arc some- 
 what flattened, or nearly level on the back ; the claws 
 
 Fig. 683.--The Sugar-cane Beetle. 
 
 of the tarsi are of equal size, and the fore coxae are coni- 
 cal and prominent. Nearly sixty species occur in this 
 country. 
 
COI.EOPTEKA. 
 
 565 
 
 The Hermit Flower-bcctlc, Osmodcnna c rcmico la {Os-mo- 
 der'ma er-e-mic'o-la). — This is one of the 
 larger of our Flower-beetles (Fig. 684). It 
 is of a deep mahogany-brown color, nearly 
 smooth, and highly polished. It is sup- 
 posed that the larva lives on decaying 
 wood in forest-trees. 
 
 The Rougli Flower-beetle, Osinoderuia 
 scabra (O. sca'bra), is closely allied to the 
 preceding. It is not quite as large, meas- 
 uring about one inch in length. It is 
 purplish black, and the wing-covers are 
 roughened with irregular, coarsel)'-punc- 
 tured striae. It is nocturnal, concealing Fig. f,84. 
 
 itself during the day in the crevices and hollows of trees. 
 The larva lives in the decaying wood of apple and chcrr}', 
 consuming the wood and inducing more rapid deca}'. 
 
 The Bumble Flower-beetle, EiipJioria inda (Eu-pho'ri-a 
 in'da). — The most common of our Flower-beetles, at least in 
 the North, is a yellowish-brown one, with the 
 wing-covers sprinkled all over with small, irregular 
 black spots (Fig. 685). It is one of the first in- 
 sects to appear in the spring. It flies near the 
 surface of the ground with a loud humming 
 sound, like that of a bumble-bee, for which it is 
 often mistaken. During the summer months it is 
 Pig. 685. ,^Q{. ggg,^ . ]-j^,j- ^ j-jg^y brood appears about the 
 middle of September. The adult is a general feeder occur- 
 ring upon flowers, eating the pollen ; upon corn-stalks ajid 
 green corn in the milk, sucking the juices ; and upon peaches, 
 grapes, and apples. Occasionally the ravages are very 
 serious. 
 
 The genus Euphoria represents well the form of the 
 more typical Flower-beetles, which are distinguished by the 
 margin of each wing-cover having a large wavy indentation 
 near its base, which renders the side pieces of the meso- 
 
566 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 thorax visible from above. This indentation makes it un- 
 necessary for these insects to raise or expand their wing- 
 covers when flying, as most beetles do, as they are able to 
 pass the wings out from the sides. 
 
 The Sad Flower-beetle, Euphoria mclancholica (Eu-pho'- 
 ri-a mel-an-chol'i-ca). — This is a much smaller species than 
 the Bumble Flower-beetle, measuring hardly half an inch in 
 length. It is almost black, with irregular transverse white 
 lines on the wing-covers. W'e have received several reports 
 of its producing injuries similar to those of E. iiida. 
 
 The Fig-eater, AllorJiina nitida (Al-lo-rhi'na nit'i-da). — 
 This species extends over the Atlantic slope,, and is very 
 common in the South. It is a green, velvety insect, measur- 
 ing from two thirds of an inch to one inch in length. It is 
 somewhat pointed in front, and usually has the sides of the 
 thorax and elytra brownish yellow. These beetles often fly 
 in great numbers at night, making a loud buzzing noise similar 
 to that of the May-beetles. In fact, in the South the term 
 June-bug is often applied to this insect. The larvae feed 
 upon the roots of grass and other plants. Sometimes they 
 leave the ground and crawl from one place to another. 
 When they do so they, strangely enough, crawl upon their 
 backs, making no use of their short legs. On one occasion 
 we saw them crawling over the pavements on the Capitol 
 grounds at Washington in such numbers that bushels of 
 them were swept up and carted away. 
 
 The family SpoxdyliD.^ (Spon-dyl'i-dae), or aberrant 
 long-horned beetles, includes only four North American 
 
 Fig. 686. 
 
 Fig. 687. 
 
COI.EOPTEkA. 567 
 
 species. These live under the bark of pine-trees. Tliey 
 are closely allied to the Cerambycidae, but differ in the form 
 of the tarsi and in the structure of the antennae. The 
 fourth segment of the tarsus, although much reduced in 
 size, is distinctly visible ; the first three segments are but 
 slightly dilated, and the third is either bilobed or not (Fig. 
 686). The segments of the antennae have deep impressions, 
 in which are situated the organs of special sense (Fig. 687). 
 The most common species is Parandra brnnnea (Pa-ran'dra 
 brun'ne-a) (Fig. 688) ; this insect is of a mahogany-brown 
 color. 
 
 Family Cerambycid.e (Cer-am-byc'i-dae). 
 The Long-horned Beetles or Cerambycids {Ce-ram'by-cids), 
 This is a very large family, there being about six hun- 
 dred described species in North America alone. As a rule 
 the beetles are of medium or large size, and graceful in 
 form ; many species are beautiful in color. The 
 body is oblong, often cylindrical. The antenna; are 
 long, often longer than the whole body ; but except 
 in one genus, Prionus, they are only eleven-jointed, 
 as with most beetles. The legs are also long, and 
 the tarsi are apparently four-jointed, the fourth 
 segment being very small and hidden ; the third 
 segment of the tarsi is strongly bilobed (Fig. 689). F'c.esg. 
 They are strong fliers and swift runners ; but many of 
 them have the habit of remaining motionless on the limbs 
 of trees for long intervals, and when in this apparent trance 
 they suffer themselves to be picked up. But, when 
 once caught, many species make an indignant squeak- 
 ing by rubbing the prothorax and mesothorax to- 
 gether. 
 
 The larvee are borers, living within the solid 
 parts of trees or shrubs, or beneath bark. They are 
 white or yellowish grubs. The body is soft, and 
 Fig. 690. ^^pgj.g slightly from head to tail (Fig. 690) ; the 
 jaws are powerful, enabling these insects to bore into the 
 
568 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 hardest wood. The larval state usually lasts two or three 
 years. The pupa state is passed within the burrow made 
 by the larva ; frequently a chamber is made by partitioning 
 off a section of the burrow with a plug of chips ; but some- 
 times the larva builds a ring of chips around itself just 
 beneath the bark before changing to a pupa. The pupal 
 state is comparatively short, lasting only a few days or weeks. 
 This family comprises three subfamilies, which are sep- 
 arated by Le Conte and Horn as follows : — 
 
 A. Sides of the prothorax with a sharp margin, p. 568. 
 
 PRIONINiE. 
 
 AA. Prothorax not margined. 
 B. Front tibiae not grooved; palpi never acute at tip. p. 569. 
 
 CERAMBVCINiE. 
 
 BB. Front tibiae obliquely grooved on the inner side; palpi with 
 the last segment cylindrical and pointed, p. 572 Lamiin^e. 
 
 ^ Subfamily PriONIN/E (Pri-o-ni'uGe). 
 
 The Prionids {Pri-o'nids). 
 
 The larger of the Long-horned Beetles constitute this 
 subfamily. They are distinguished from other Cerambycids 
 by having the sides of the prothorax prolonged outwards 
 into a thin margin, which is more 
 or less toothed. The wing-covers 
 are usually leathery in appearance, 
 and of a brownish or black color. 
 The following are our best-known 
 species :— 
 
 The Broad-necked Prionus, Pri- 
 onus lalicollis (Pri-o'nus lat-i-col'- 
 lis). — This is the largest of our 
 common species; but the individ- 
 uals vary from less than one inch 
 '^"- ^91- to two inches in length. It is of a 
 
 pitchy-black color, and of the form shown in Figure 691. 
 The antennae are twelve-jointed in both sexes. The larva 
 
COLEOPTERA. 569 
 
 is a large flesliy grub, and infests the roots of grape, apple, 
 poplar, and other trees. 
 
 The Tile-horned Prion us, Prioiiiis it)ibricornis (P, ini- 
 bri-cor'nis), is very similar to the preceding species, but can 
 be distinguished at a glance by the form of the antenna?. 
 In the antennae of the male the number of tiie segments 
 varies from eighteen to twenty, while in the female the 
 number varies from sixteen to seventeen. The popular 
 name refers to the fact that the segments of the antennae of 
 the male overlap one another like the tiles on a roof. The 
 larva infests the roots of grape and pear, and also feeds 
 upon the roots of herbaceous plants. 
 
 The Straight-bodied Prionid, OrtJiosoma briinncuin (Or- 
 tho-so'ma brun'ne-um), is also a common species. The body 
 is long, narrow, and somewhat flattened ; it measures one 
 inch to one and one-half inches in length, and is of a light- 
 brown color. The prothorax is short, and is armed on each 
 side with three sharp spines. The sides of the wing-covers 
 are very nearly parallel ; this suggests the common name. 
 The adult flies by night, and is often attracted to lights ; the 
 larva is supposed to infest pine. 
 
 Subfamily CerambyciN/E (Ce-ram-by-ci'nae). 
 TJie Typical Ccrambycids {Ce-ram' by-cids.) 
 
 In this subfamily the prothorax is rounded on the sides, 
 the the tibiae of the fore legs are not grooved, and the palpi 
 are never acute at tip. There are nearly four hundred 
 American species, representing more than one 
 hundred genera. The few species mentioned 
 below are those that the beginning student is 
 most likely to meet. 
 
 The Ribbed Pine-borer, RJiagiuvi lincatum 
 (Rha'gi-um lin-e-a'tum). — This is a gray beetle 
 mottled with black, and has a narrow thorax, 
 with a spine on each side (Fig. -692). It received its name 
 because of the three ridges extending lengthwise on each 
 
570 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 wing-cover. Its larva bores in the wood of pine-trees. On 
 one occasion the writer found many of them in a pine-tree 
 eight inches in diameter, which they had bored through and 
 through. When the larva is full grown it makes a hole 
 nearly through the thick bark of the tree, so that it may 
 easily push its way out after its transformations ; it then 
 retreats a short distance, and makes a little ring of chips 
 around itself, between the bark and the wood, and changes 
 to a pupa within this rude cocoon. Tiie adult beetle remains 
 in this pupal cell through the winter. 
 
 The Cloaked Knotty-horn, Desmocerus palliatus (Des- 
 moc'e-rus pal-li-a'tus). — This beautiful insect is of a dark- 
 blue color, with greenish reflections. 
 The basal part of the wing-covers is 
 orange-yellow, giving the insect the 
 appearance of having a yellow cape 
 thrown over its shoulders (Fig. 693). 
 The segments in the middle of the 
 antenucTe are thickened at the outer 
 end, so that they look like a series 
 ^"^■^93- of knots. The adult is found quite 
 
 common in June and July on elder, in the pith of which the 
 larva bores. 
 
 The Beautiful Maple-borer, Plaginotus speciosus (Plag-i- 
 no'tus spe-ci-o'sus). — This is a very handsome insect, marked 
 with black and yellow, as indicated in Fig- 
 ure 694. It lays its eggs in midsummer 
 on the trunks of sugar-maples, in the wood 
 of which the larvae bore. If an infested 
 tree be examined in the spring the pres- 
 ence of these borers can be detected by 
 the dust that falls from the burrows. The 
 larvae can be destroyed at this time by the 
 use of a knife and a stiff wire. 
 
 The Locust-borer, Cyllen'e robincB (Cyl- 
 le'ne ro-bin'i-ae). — To the enthusiastic en- Fig. 694.' 
 
COLEOPTERA. "5 7 1 
 
 tomologist the goldcnrod is a rich mine, yielding to the 
 collector more treasures than any other flower. It gives 
 up its gold-dust pollen to every insect-seeker; and because 
 of this generous attitude to all-comers it is truly emblematic 
 of the country that has chosen it as its national flower. 
 
 Among the insects that revel in this golden mine in the 
 autumn is a black beetle with numerous transverse or wavy 
 yellow bands (Fig. 695). This beetle is also 
 found on locust-trees, where it lays its eggs. 
 The larv.-E bore under the bark and into the 
 hard wood ; they attain their growth in a little 
 less than a year. The locust-trees have been 
 completely destroyed in some localities by the 
 depredations of these larvK. 
 
 The Painted Hickory-borer, Cyllcnc pictus 
 (C. pic'tus). — This beetle resembles the preced- 
 ing so closely that the same figure will represent either. 
 But the Hickory-borer not only infests a different kind of 
 tree, but appears in the spring instead of the autumn. In 
 this species the second segment of the hind tarsus is densely 
 pubescent beneath, while it is glabrous in the Locust-borer. 
 
 The Oak-pruner, ElapJiidion villosmn (El-a-phid'i-on vil- 
 lo'sum). — The work of this insect is much more likely to 
 attract attention than the insect itself. Frequently, in the 
 autumn, the ground beneath oak-trees, and sometimes 
 beneath "apple-trees also, is strewn with small branches that 
 have been neatly severed from the trees as if with a saw. 
 These branches are sometimes nearly an inch in diameter, 
 and have been cut off by the larva of a beetle, which on ac- 
 count of this habit is called the Oak-pruner. The beetle lays 
 each of its eggs in a small twig. The larva eats out the in- 
 side of this twig, and works down into a larger branch, fol- 
 lowing the centre of it towards the trunk of the tree. When 
 full grown the larva enlarges the burrow suddenly so as 
 nearly to sever the branch from the tree, leaving only the 
 bark and a few fibres of wood. It then retreats up its bur- 
 
5/2 THE STUDY OF /XSECVS. 
 
 row a short distance, and builds a plug of chips below it. 
 The autumn winds break the branch from the tree. The 
 larva remains in its burrow through the winter, and under- 
 goes its transformations in the spring. No one has ex- 
 plained its object in severing the branch. The adult is a 
 plain, brownish-gray beetle. Whenever it becomes abun- 
 dant its increase can be checked by gathering the fallen 
 branches in the autumn and burning them before the beetles 
 have escaped. 
 
 r 
 
 Subfamily LamiiNtE (Lam-i-i'nae). 
 T/ie Laniiids {Lain'i-ids). 
 
 As in the preceding subfamily, the prothorax is rounded 
 with these beetles ; but the Lamiids are distinguished by 
 having the fore tibiae obliquely grooved on the inner side, 
 and the last segment of the palpi cylindrical and pointed. 
 The following are some of the more important species: — 
 
 The Sawyer, Monohammus confiisor (Mon-o-ham'mus 
 con-fu'sor). — This beautiful brown and gray beetle is about 
 an inch and a quarter long, with antennae as long as the 
 body in the case of the female and twice as long in 
 the case of the male (Fig. 696). The larva bores in 
 
 the sound wood of 
 pine and of fir, mak- 
 ing a hole, when 
 full grown, one half 
 inch in diameter. 
 The pupa state is 
 passed within the 
 burrow. It some- 
 times occurs in such 
 numbers as to kill 
 the infested trees. 
 The Round- 
 FiG. 696. headed Apple-tree 
 
COI.EOPl-ERA. 573 
 
 Borer, Sapcrda Candida (Sa-per'da can'di-da).— Excepting the 
 Codlin-moth, which infests the fruit, this is the worst enemy 
 of the apple that we have. Its common name is used to dis- 
 tinguish it from the Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer, already 
 described, the larva of this species being nearly cylindrical 
 in form (Fig. 690). The eggs are laid on the bark at the 
 base of the tree late in June or July. The larva at first 
 bores in the soft sap-wood, making a disk-shaped mine ; after 
 this it works in an upward direction in the harder wood, and 
 at the close of its lar\'al existence comes to the surface 
 several inches above the place it entered. It recpiires 
 nearly three years for this larva to attain its growth ; it 
 changes to a pupa, near the upper end of its burrow, about 
 the middle of May, and emerges as a beetle in June. The 
 beetle (Fig. 697) is of a pale-brown color above, with two 
 
 TX 
 
 Fig. 697. Fig. 698. Fig. 699. 
 
 broad, white stripes extending the whole length of the body. 
 Although the larva is found chiefly in apple, it infests many 
 other trees. 
 
 The Two-spotted Oberea, Oberea biinaculata (0-ber'e-a bi- 
 mac-u-la'ta), is sometimes a serious pest, boring in the canes 
 of blackberry and raspberry. The larva resembles that of 
 the preceding species. The adult (Fig. 698) is about one 
 half inch in length and of a deep-black color, except the 
 prothorax, which is yellow. There are usually two or three 
 black spots on the pronotum, but frequently these are 
 wanting. 
 
574 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The Red Milkweed-beetles, Tetraopcs (Tet-ra-o'pes). — 
 There are several species of bright-red beetles that are com- 
 mon on milkweeds {Asclepias). These belong to the genus 
 Tetraopes. Our most common species (Fig. 699) is T. tetra- 
 ophthalmus (T. tet-ra-oph-thal'mus). In this species there 
 are four black spots on each wing-cover, and the antennae 
 are black, and not ringed with a lighter color. The larva 
 bores in the roots and the lower parts of the stems of milk- 
 weeds. 
 
 Family Chrysomelid.*: (Chrys-o-meri-dae), 
 TJic Leaf -beetles or Chrysomelids {Clirys-o-vie' lids). 
 
 The Leaf-beetles are so called because they feed upon 
 the leaves of plants both as larvjE and adults. They are 
 usually short-bodied, and more or less oval in outline ; the 
 antennae are usually of moderate length ; and the front is 
 not prolonged into a beak. The legs are usually short, and 
 are furnished with tarsi of the same type as those of the 
 preceding family (see Fig. 689, p. 567). 
 
 Although we are unable to cite any characteristic that 
 will invariably distinguish these beetles from the preceding 
 family, the student will rarely have any difificulty in making 
 the distinction. The beetles of the genus Donacia, described 
 below, are the only common ones that are liable to be mis- 
 placed. In other cases the more or less oval form of the 
 body, the comparatively short antennae, and the leaf-feeding 
 habits will serve to distinguish the Chrysomelids. 
 
 The Leaf beetles are nearly all comparatively small, 
 the Colorado Potato-beetle being one of our larger spe- 
 cies. 
 
 The eggs are usually elongated and yellowish, and are 
 laid upon the leaves or stems of the plants upon which the 
 larvae feed. Many of the larvae live exposed on the leaves 
 of plants ; others that live in similar situations cover them- 
 selves with their excrement ; some are leaf-miners ; and a 
 
I 
 
 700. 
 
 COLEOPTERA, 575 
 
 few, as the Striped Squash-beetle, bore in the roots or stems 
 of plants. 
 
 This is a large family, of which about six hundred 
 North American species are known. The following il- 
 lustrations will serve to show the variations in form and 
 habits : 
 
 The Long-horned Leaf-beetles, Donacia (Do-na'ci-a). — 
 These are the common Leaf-beetles that are liable to be 
 mistaken for Cerambycids. They arc of elongated form, 
 with slender antennae (Fig. 700). They measure from 
 quarter to a half inch in length, and are of a me- 
 tallic color — either greenish, bronze, or purplish. 
 The lower side of the body is paler, and is clothed 
 with very fine hair which serves as a water-proof 
 coat when the insect is submerged. The larvae 
 feed upon the roots or in the stems of aquatic plants ; and 
 the adults are found on the leaves of the same plants. We 
 have many species, but they resemble each other so closely 
 that it is dif^cult to separate them. 
 
 The Three-lined Lema, Levia trilineata (Le'ma tri-lin-e- 
 a'ta). — This insect is common, feeding on the leaves of 
 potato. The beetle is a quarter of an inch long, yellow, 
 with three black stripes on the wing-covers. The eggs are 
 laid in small clusters on the leaves. The larvae feed on the 
 leaves, and can be easily recognized by a habit they have 
 of covering their backs with their own excrement. They 
 transform in the ground in earthen cells. There are two 
 broods each year ; the second hibernates in the ground as 
 pupae. 
 
 The Asparagus-beetle, Crioceris asparagi (Cri-oc'e-ris as- 
 par'a-gi). — This is a small, red, yellow, and black beetle, that 
 gnaws holes into the heads of young asparagus, and lays oval, 
 black eggs upon them. The larvae, which are small, brown, 
 slug-like grubs, also feed upon the young heads in the 
 spring, and later in the season a second brood feed upon 
 the full-grown plant. Figure 701 represents a head of as- 
 
5/6 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 paragus bearing the eggs of this beetle, also a beetle and a 
 larva enlarged. The beetle measures about a quarter of an 
 inch in length. Where this pest occurs 
 care should be taken to destroy all wild 
 asparagus. This will force the beetles to 
 lay their eggs upon the shoots that are 
 cut for market. The larva; hatching 
 from such eggs will not have a chance 
 to mature. 
 
 The Colorado Potato-beetle, l)o- 
 rypJiora diccinlincata (Do-ryph'o-ra dec- 
 em-lin-e-a'ta). — A good many insect 
 tramps have come to us from Europe 
 and from Australia, and appropriated 
 whatever pleased them of our grow- 
 ing crops or stored grain. But two of 
 our worst insect pests have swarmed 
 out on us in hordes from their strongholds in the 
 region of the Rocky Mountains. These are the Rocky 
 Mountain Locust and the Colorado Potato-beetle 
 (Fig. 702). The latter insect dwelt near the base '^^ 
 of the Rocky Mountains, feeding upon the sand- 
 burr {SolanuDi rostratiuii), until about the year 
 1859. At this time it began to be a pest in the F"^- 702. 
 potato-fields of the settlers in that region. Having acquired 
 the habit of feeding upon the cultivated potato, it began its 
 eastward march across the continent, spreading from potato 
 patch to potato patch. At first the migration took place at 
 about the rate of fifty miles a year, but later it was more 
 rapid ; and in 1874 the insect reached the Atlantic 
 coast. 
 
 The Three - spotted Doryphora, DorypJiora 
 clivicollis (D. cliv-i-coriis). — This resembles the 
 Colorado potato-beetle in size and form. It is 
 of a deep-blue color, except the wing-covers, which are 
 orange, with three dark-blue spots on each (Fig. 703). 
 
COLEOPTERA. 577 
 
 There is considerable variation in the size and shape of 
 these spots; frequently the two near the base of the wing- 
 covers are joined so as to make a continuous band extend- 
 ing across both wing-covers. The larva feeds on milkweed 
 ^Asclepias). 
 
 The Diabroticas. — Several vcr}- important pests belong 
 to the genus Diabrotica (Di-a-brot'i-ca). In the East they 
 are known as cucumber-beetles ; but on the Pacific coast, 
 where they are more feared on account of their injuries to 
 fruit and fruit-trees, they are commonly called the Dia- 
 broticas. They are chiefly greenish-yellow beetles, marked 
 with black stripes or spots. The Striped Diabrotica, D. 
 vittata (D. vit-ta'ta), has two black stripes on each wing- 
 cover. The adult feeds on the leaves of cucumber, squash, 
 and melon ; and the larva, which is a slender, worm-like 
 creature, bores in the stems and roots of the same plants. 
 The Twelve-spotted Diabrotica, D. duodecimpunctata (D. 
 du-od-e-cim-punc-ta'ta), and Diabrotica soror (D. so'ror), 
 agree in having six black spots on each wing-cover (Plate I, 
 P"ig. 2). The former is very common in the East; the 
 latter occurs on the Pacific coast, and is the most destructive 
 of all of the Diabroticas. Diabrotica longicornis (D. lon-gi- 
 cor'nis) is a grass-green species, which feeds on the pollen 
 and silk of corn and on the pollen of other plants. Its 
 larva is known as the corn root-worm ; it is very destructive 
 to corn in the Mississippi Valley. Its injuries are greatest 
 where corn is grown on the same land year after year ; 
 hence a rotation of crops should be practised where this pest 
 is troublesome. The other species of Diabrotica mentioned 
 above are difficult to combat, as the leaves of cucumber, 
 melon, and squash are very apt to be injured by the use of 
 arsenical poisons. The most practicable way of protecting 
 these vines is to cover them while young with frames cov- 
 ered with netting. Where they infest fruit-trees they can 
 be fought with Paris-green ; but this poison must be used 
 with great care on such trees as prune and apricot. Squashes 
 
578 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 should not be grown in orchards, as is sometimes done in 
 CaHfornia. 
 
 The Flea-beetles. — There is a group of leaf-beetles, of 
 which we have many species, in which the hind legs are 
 fitted for leaping, the thighs being very large. These are 
 commonly called the flea-beetles. 
 
 The Striped Flea-beetle, Phyllotreta vittata (Phyl-lo-tre'ta 
 vit-ta'ta), is exceedingly common on cabbage, 
 turnip, radish, mustard, and allied plants. It is 
 a small, black, shining beetle, with a broad, wavy, 
 pale, dull-yellow stripe upon each wing-cover 
 (Fig. 704) ; it measures about one tenth of an 
 Fig. 704. inch in length. These beetles eat numerous little 
 pits in the thicker leaves that they infest, and minute 
 perforations in the thinner-leaved plants. The larva is a 
 slender, white worm, about one third inch in length ; it feeds 
 on the roots of the plants infested by the adult. The adult 
 beetles can be destroyed with kerosene emulsion. 
 
 The Cucumber Flea-beetle, Crepidodera cuanneris {Cxe^-\- 
 dod'e-ra cu-cum'e-ris), is a common pest of melon and 
 cucumber vines ; it also attacks the leaves of potato, rasp- 
 berry, turnip, cabbage, and other plants. This is a minute 
 black species, measuring less than one twelfth of an inch in 
 length. The body is finely punctured, and clothed with a 
 whitish pubescence ; there is a deep transverse furrow across 
 the hinder part of the prothorax; the antennae are dull 
 yellow, and the legs are of the same hue, except the posterior 
 femora, which are brown. The adult beetles feed on the leaves 
 of plants in the same manner as the preceding species ; but 
 the larva is a miner, feeding within the substance of the 
 leaves of the infested plants. 
 
 The Steel-blue Flea-beetle, Haltica chalybea (Hal'ti-ca 
 cha-lyb'e-a). — This is a larger species than the two preced- 
 ing, measuring from one sixth to one fifth inch in length, 
 and is of a dark steel-blue color. It is a great pest in 
 vineyards, eating into the buds of grape in early spring, 
 
COLEOPTERA. 
 
 579 
 
 and latoi 
 
 holes into the leaves (Figs. 705 and 
 706). In May and June the 
 brown, sluggish larvae may 
 also be found feeding upon 
 the upper surface of the 
 eaves. The full-grown larva 
 is chestnut -brown, marked 
 with black spots. The beetles 
 can be destroyed in early 
 spring by jarring them from 
 the vines onto a sheet wet 
 with kerosene ; use for this 
 purpose a piece of sheeting 
 several yards long, with a 
 stick fastened to each end so that it 
 can be easily moved from vine to 
 vine. 
 
 TJie Wcdge-sJiapcd Leaf -beet Us. — 
 These insects are characterized by the 
 peculiar form of the body, which is 
 narrow in front and broad behind. In 
 
 Fig. 705. Fig. 706. 
 
 most of the species the body is much roughened by deep pits ; 
 and usually the pits on the wing covers are in regular rows. 
 These insects and the tortoise-beetles differ from other leaf- 
 beetles in having the fore part of the head prominent, so that 
 the mouth is confined to the under surface. Someof thelarvai 
 
580 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 feed externally upon leaves and bear a parasol composed of 
 their excrement ; other species are leaf-miners. Odontota 
 rubra (Od-on-to'ta ru'bra) is a good repre- 
 sentative of this group (Fig. 707). It varies 
 in length from one eighth to one fifth of an 
 inch. It is of a reddish color, with the 
 elevated portions of the elytra more or less 
 spotted with black. The larva mines in the 
 leaves of apple, forming. a blotch-mine; the 
 transformations are undergone within the r;*ne. We have 
 also found this species mining the leaves of basswood in 
 great numbers. 
 
 The Tortoisc-bcctlcs. — Among the more beautiful Coleop- 
 tera are certain bright, golden, green, or iridescent beetles 
 found on the leaves of sweet-potato, morning-glory, nettle, 
 and other plants. In these beetles the body is flattened 
 below and convex above ; the head is nearly or quite con- 
 cealed beneath the prothorax ; and the margins of the 
 prothorax and elytra are broadly expanded, forming an 
 approximately circular or oval outline, and suggesting a 
 resemblance to the shell of a tortoise. Not all of the 
 species are iridescent ; and in the case of those that are, 
 the brightness of the colors are said to depend on the 
 emotions of the insect. What a beautiful way to express 
 one's feelings— to be able to glow like melted gold when one 
 is happy! Unfortunately for the beauty of our collections, 
 these bright colors disappear after the death of the insect. 
 
 The larvae of the tortoise-beetles are flattened, and have 
 the margin of the body fringed with spines. At the caudal 
 end of the body there is a forked appendage which serves 
 a very strange purpose. This fork is bent forward over the 
 back, and to it are attached the cast-off skins of the larva and 
 its excrement ; these constitute a parasol. When about to 
 change to the pupa state these larvae fasten the caudal end of 
 the body to the under side of a leaf ; the skin then splits open, 
 and is forced back to this end of the body, where it remains. 
 
COLEOPTERA. S^I 
 
 The One-dotted or Five-dotted Tortoise, Pliysonota uni- 
 piinctata (Phys-o-no'ta u-ni-punc-ta'ta). — The largest of our 
 bright-colored tortoise-beetles is common in midsummer, 
 feeding on the leaves of wild sunflower. It measures from 
 three eighths to one half inch in length, and is yellow, with 
 the margins whitish. On the prothorax there are five black 
 dots — two close together in front, and three more widely 
 separated behind. Sometimes all but one of these dots are 
 wanting. It was this form that was first described, hence 
 the name imipunctata. We have found the larvae abundant 
 in July on the same plant with the adults. 
 
 Most of our species of tortoise-beetles' are of moderate 
 size, measuring about one fourth inch or even 
 less in length. These represent two genera, 
 Cassida (Cas'si-da) and Coptocycla (Cop-toc'y- 
 cla). These genera can be separated by the 
 length of the antennae, which extend beyond Fig. 70s. 
 the base of the prothorax in the latter (Fig. 708), but do not 
 in the former. 
 
 The Argus-tortoise, ClielymorpJia argns (Chel-y-mor'pha 
 ar'gus), is a large brick-red species, which measures from 
 three eighths to seven sixteenths of an inch in length, and 
 has the prothorax and wing-covers marked with many black 
 spots. This species feeds on milkweed {Asclepias). 
 
 Family BruCHID^ (Bru'chi-dai). 
 The Pca-zvecvil Family. 
 These are small beetles, the larvae of which live in the 
 seeds of leguminous plants. The head of the 
 iW? adult is prolonged into a broad beak ; and the 
 yjHj^T wing-covers are rather short, so that the tip of 
 ^(^my the abdomen is always exposed (Fig. 709). 
 I { The Pea-weevil, ^r//^/!?/^//^/(Bru'chus pi'si).— 
 
 Fig. 709. " Buggy-peas " are well known in most sections 
 of our country ; but just how the " bugs " find their way into 
 
582 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 the peas is not so generally understood. The eggs of the 
 Pea-weevil are laid upon the pod while the peas are quite 
 small ; when the larvae hatch they bore through the pod 
 into the young peas. Here they feed upon the substance 
 of the seed, which ripens, however, and in some cases will 
 germinate when planted. The larva before transforming 
 eats a circular hole on one side of the seed, leaving only a 
 thin scale, which is easily pushed away by the mature beetle. 
 The adult is about one fifth inch in length ; it is dark brown, 
 with a few white spots on the wing-covers, and one on the 
 prothorax near the middle. Sometimes the beetles leave 
 the peas during the autumn or winter ; but as a rule they 
 remain in the seed till spring, and are often planted with it. 
 Seed peas should be placed in water, and the infested ones, 
 which will float, should be picked out and destroyed. This 
 species is not known to oviposit on dry peas. 
 
 This and other grain-infesting insects can be destroyed 
 by placing the grain into a close receptacle with a small 
 quantity of bisulphide of carbon. 
 
 The Bean-weevil, BrncJms obtectus (B. ob-tec'tus). — This 
 species resembles the preceding quite closely; but it is a 
 little smaller (Fig. 709), and lacks the white markings char- 
 acteristic o{ B. pisi. It infests beans, and often several indi- 
 viduals inhabit a single bean. The eggs are laid within the 
 pod, being pushed through a slit which the female gnaws 
 through the pod. This species will oviposit on dry beans, 
 peas, and other grain, and will continue to breed for many 
 generations in stored beans and peas. 
 
 Family TENEBRIONID.E (Te-neb-ri-on'i-dse). 
 
 TJie Darkling Beetles. 
 
 The darkling beetles are nearly all of a uniform black 
 color, although some are gray, and a few are marked with 
 bright colors. The different species vary greatly in size and 
 
COLEOPTERA. 5^3 
 
 in the form of the body. As with the blister-beetles, the 
 hind tarsi are four-jointed, and the fore and middle tarsi 
 are five-jointed ; but unlike the members of that family, the 
 body and wing-covers are firm, and the head is narrower 
 than the prothorax. 
 
 These insects occur chiefly in dry and warm regions. 
 Thus while we have comparatively few species in the North- 
 eastern United States, there are many in the Southwest. 
 Most of the species feed on dry vegetable matter, and often 
 on that which is partially decomposed; some live in dung, 
 some in dead animal matter, others in fungi, and a few 
 prey upon larvae. More than four hundred species occur in 
 this country. The three following will serve to illustrate 
 the variations in form and habits : — 
 
 The Meal-worm, Tenebrio molitor (Te-neb'ri-o mol'l-tor). 
 — This is a well-known pest in granaries and mills. The 
 larva is a hard, waxy-yellow, cylindrical worm, which meas- 
 ures when full grown an inch or more in length, and 
 closely resembles a wire-worm ; it feeds on flour and 
 meal. The beetle is black, and about five eighths 
 of an inch in length (Fig. 710). 
 
 The Forked Fungus-beetle, Boleiotherus bifiir- 
 
 cus (Bol-et-o-the'rus bi-fur'cus), is common in the ^"^•7'°- 
 
 Northeastern United States and in Canada about the large 
 
 toadstools {Polyporus) which grow on the sides of trees. 
 
 The surface of the body and wing-covers is very rough, and 
 
 the prothorax bears two prominent horns (Fig. 
 
 yS^i 7^^)' ^^^^ \2iXV3i lives within the fungi referred 
 
 NWr to above. 
 
 y1nl\, The Pinacate-bugs (Pin-ah-cah'te-bugs). — Sev- 
 
 f^^^ eral species of Elcodes (El-e-o'des) are abundant 
 
 ^ - on the Pacific coast, where they are found under 
 
 ^'°' ^"' stones and pieces of wood lying on the ground. 
 
 They are apt to congregate in large numbers under a single 
 
 shelter, and are clumsy in their movements. They defend 
 
 themselves when disturbed by elevating the hinder part of 
 
 1 meas- 
 
 I 
 
584 THE STUDY OF IX SECTS. 
 
 the body and discharging an oily fluid from it. '\\\<iy present 
 an absurd appearance, walking off clumsily, 
 and carrying the hind end of the body as high 
 as possible. The most common species are 
 large, smooth, club-shaped beetles (Fig. 712), 
 and are commonly known as Pinacate-bugs. 
 These beetles and those belonging to several 
 closely allied genera are wingless. 
 
 The family /Egialitid.^ (^-gi-a-Iit'i-dae) 
 was founded upon a single species from Alaska; 
 recently another has been found in California. 
 
 Fig. ^l■^. ^ 
 
 The family CiSTELlDiE (Cis-tel'i-dae) in- 
 eludes about fifty North American species, some of which 
 are quite common. These are brownish beetles, without 
 spots, which are found on leaves and flowers and under bark. 
 The body is usually elongate, elliptical, and quite convex. 
 They are most easily distinguished from allied families by 
 the tarsal claws being pectinate, and the anterior coxal cavities 
 closed behind. The larvae of some of our species at least live 
 in rotten wood and resemble wire-worms in appearance. 
 
 The family OTHNllDiE (Oth-ni'i-dpe) is represented in our 
 territory by four species of OtJinius (Oth'ni-us), one from 
 the East and three from the far West. They are small 
 beetles, which are found running actively on the leaves of 
 trees, and are probably predaceous. In this family the an- 
 terior coxal cavities are closed behind, and none of the ab- 
 dominal segments are grown together on the ventral side. 
 
 The family Lagriid^ (La-gri'i-dae) includes only five 
 North American species, all of which are from the East, and 
 are found under bark and on leaves. They are elongate 
 beetles, with a narrow, subcylindrical prothorax, and 
 a more or less brassy color. Our most common spe- 
 cies is Arthromacra ceiica (Ar-thro-ma'cra se'ne-a). 
 This species is nearly half an inch in length (Fig. 713; 
 
 The family MoNOMMiD.^t (Mo-nom'mi-dae) is rep- ^'°- ^'^• 
 resented in this country by a single genus,, including four 
 

 COLEOPTERA. $8$ 
 
 species. They are small, black, oval, heteromcious beetles, 
 in which the anterior coxal cavities are open behind ; and 
 in which tke antennae are received in grooves on the under 
 side of the prothorax. 
 
 The family Melandryid.^ (Mel-an-dry'i-dai) includes 
 about sixty North American species. These are found under 
 bark and in fungi. They are usually of elongate form, al- 
 though some, like the one figured here, are not so. The 
 maxillary palpi are frequently very long and much dilated; 
 and the first segment of the hind tarsi is always 
 much elongated. Among our more common 
 species are two belonging to the genus Pciithe 
 (Pen'the). These are rather large, oval, de- 
 pressed beetles, upwards of half an inch in 
 length, and of a deep black color. Pciithe obli- Fig. 714. 
 quata (P. ob-li-qua'ta) is distinguished by having the scutel- 
 lum clothed with rust-red hairs (Fig. 714). Pcntlie piinelia 
 (P. pi mel'i-a) closely resembles this species, except that the 
 scutellum is black. 
 
 The family PYTHID.E (Pyth'i-dae) includes less than a 
 score of North American species. Some of these live under 
 bark; others are found under stones. They are heteromer- 
 ous beetles, in which the anterior coxal cavities are open 
 behind, the head is not strongly and suddenly constricted at 
 base, and the prothorax is not margined at the sides. 
 
 The family CEdemerid^ (CEd-e-mer'i-dae) is composed 
 of heteromerous beetles of moderate size, with elongate, 
 narrow bodies. The head and prothorax are somewhat nar- 
 rower than the wing-covers ; the antennae are long, nearly 
 filiform, sometimes serrate ; the anterior coxal cavities are 
 open behind, and the middle coxae are very prominent. 
 Less than fifty North American species have been de- 
 scribed. They are generally found on plants, but some live 
 on the ground near water. 
 
 The family CephaloiD/E (Ceph-a-lo'i-dae) includes only 
 a single genus, which is represented in this country by but 
 
586 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 three species. These are heteromerous beetles, which can 
 be easily recognized by the characters given in the table of 
 families. 
 
 The family MORDELLID.^ (Mor-derii-dae) includes a large 
 
 number of small beetles, which are easily recognized by 
 
 ^^^ their peculiar form (Fig. 715). The body is arched, 
 
 /^^ the head being bent down ; and the abdomen is 
 
 Fig. 715. usually prolonged into a slender point. Our most 
 
 common species are black ; but many are variegated, and 
 
 all are pubescent. The adults are usually found on flowers ; 
 
 the larvae live in rotten wood and in the pith of various 
 
 plants, upon which they are supposed to feed. 
 
 The family Anthicid^ (An-thic'i-dae) includes beetles of 
 moderate or minute size. The head is strongly constricted 
 behind the eyes, and the neck is slender ; the prothorax is 
 narrower than the wing-covers at base. Many of the beetles 
 live on flowers and leaves ; but some are found near the 
 margin of water. Our most common species belong to the 
 genus A^^/i7;f//5 (No-tox'us), in which the prothorax is pro- 
 longed over the head into a horn. 
 
 The family Pyrochroid^ (Pyr-o-chro'i-dae) includes a 
 small number, of beetles, which are from one ^ ^ 
 
 third to three fourths of an inch in length. The ^|;q^ 
 body is elongate ; the head and prothorax are 
 narrower than the wing-covers; the antennae are 
 serrate or subpectinate in the females and usually 
 flabellate in the males (Fig. 716). The beetles Fig. 716. 
 are found about decaying trees, beneath the bark of which 
 the larvae live. 
 
 y^ Family Meloid^ (Me-lo'i-dae). 
 
 The Blister-beetles. 
 
 The blister-beetles are of medium or large size. The 
 body is comparatively soft ; the head is broad, vertical, and 
 abruptly narrowed into a neck ; the prothorax is narrower 
 
 it 
 
COLEOPTERA. 587 
 
 than the wing-covers, which ate soft and flexible ; the legs 
 are long and slender; the hind tarsi are four-jointed, and 
 the fore and middle tarsi are five-jointed. 
 
 These beetles are found on foliage and on flowers, on 
 which they feed in the adult state ; some of the species are 
 very common on goldenrod in the autumn ; and several 
 species feed on the leaves of potato. 
 
 The blister-beetles are so called because they are used 
 for making blister-plasters. The beetles are killed, dried, 
 and pulverized, and the powder thus obtained is made into 
 a paste, which when applied to the skin produces a blister. 
 The species most commonly used is a European one, com- 
 monly known as the Spanish-fly; but our American species 
 possess the same blistering property. 
 
 The transformations of blister-beetles are remarkable ; 
 not only do tiiese insects undergo wonderful changes in 
 form, but the number of these changes is greater than is 
 usual with insects. On this account their mode of develop- 
 ment is termed hypermetamorphosis. 
 
 The beetles lay their eggs in the ground. The newly- 
 hatched larva is active, running about in search of its food, 
 which consists, in some species, of the eggs of locusts, in 
 others of the t.g^ and honey of some solitary bee. 
 
 In the case of those species that live in the nests of bees 
 the larva finds its home in a curious way. Instead of hunt- 
 ing for a nest it merely climbs a plant, and remains near a 
 flower till it has a chance to seize hold of a bee visiting the 
 flower. The larva clings to the bee until she goes to her 
 nest, then, letting go of the bee, it remains in the cell and is 
 shut up there with the t^^ of the bee and the store of food 
 which she provides for her young. The beetle larva then 
 devours the egg; after which it moults and undergoes a 
 change of form, becoming a clumsy creature, which feeds 
 upon the honey. Several other changes in form occur be- 
 fore the beetle reaches the adult stage. 
 
 The wonderful instinct by which the larvae of these 
 
588 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 blister-beetles niid their way to the nests of solitary bees 
 has not yet reached perfection ; for many of the larvae at- 
 tach themselves to flies, wasps, honey-bees, and other flower- 
 visiting insects, and merely gain useless transportation 
 thereby. 
 
 Nearly two hundred species of blister-beetles have been 
 found in this country. The majority of our common species 
 belong to the genera named below. 
 
 Meloe. — The beetles of this genus present an exception 
 to the characters of the Coleoptera, in that the wing-covers, 
 instead of meeting in a straight line .down the 
 middle of the back, overlap at the base (Fig. 
 717). These wing-covers are short, and the 
 wings are lacking. These beetles are called 
 oil-beetles in England, on account of the yel- 
 lowish liquid which oozes from their joints in 
 
 Fig. 717. large drops when they are handled. Our 
 most common species is the Buttercup Oil-beetle, Meloe 
 angusticollis (Mel'o-e an-gus-ti-col'lis). It may be found in 
 meadows and pastures feeding on the leaves of various 
 species of buttercups. 
 
 Neviognatha. — The species of the genus Nemognatha 
 (Ne-mog'na-tha) are remarkable for having the maxillae 
 developed into a long sucking-tube, which is sometimes as 
 long as the body, and which resembles somewhat the suck- 
 ing-tube of a butterfly. A similar modification of the 
 maxillae occurs in the genus Gnathiiim (Gnath'i-um), which 
 differs from Nemognatha in having a slight thickening of the 
 outer segments of the antennae. The species of these two 
 genera occur chiefly in the South and West. 
 
 Our most common. species of blister-beetles in the East 
 belong to the genus Epicauta (Ep-i-cau'ta). These insects 
 feed in the adult .state upon the leaves of potato, and upon 
 the pollen of goldenrod ; the larvae, so far as is known, are 
 parasitic in the egg-cases of locusts. The Pennsylvania 
 Blister-beetle, Epicauta pcnnsylvanica, (E. penn-syl-van'i-ca), 
 
COLEOPTERA. 589 
 
 :h 
 
 is of a unifornri black color (Fig. 718). Epicaiita cinerea (E. 
 ci-ne're-a) is sometimes clothed throughout with 
 an ash-colored pubescence, and sometimes th( 
 wing covers are black, except a narrow gray 
 margin ; the two varieties were formerly consid- 
 ered distinct species: the first is commonly known 
 as the ash-colored Blister-beetle, the last as th( 
 Margined Blister-beetle. Another common spe- F"- 7>8. 
 cies is the Striped Blister-beetle, Epicatita vittata (E. vit-ta'- 
 ta); this species is yellowish or reddish above, with the head 
 and prothorax marked with black, and with two black 
 stripes on each wing-cover. 
 
 In the far West very many species of blister-beetles 
 occur — so many, in fact, that we cannot undertake to specify 
 them here. 
 
 The family RHiPiPHORlDJi (Riiip-i-phor'i-dae) includes 
 a small number of beetles, which are very remarkable in 
 structure and habits. The wing-covers are usually shorter 
 than tile abdomen, and narrowed behind (Fig. 719); sometimes 
 they are very small, and in one exotic genus they 
 are wanting in the female, which lacks the wings also, 
 and resembles a larva in form. The antennae are 
 Fig. 7.9. pectinate or flabellate in the males, and frequently 
 serrate in the females. The adult insects are found on 
 flowers. The larvae that are known are parasites, some in 
 the nests of wasps, and some on cockroaches. 
 
 The family Stylopid^ (Sty-lop'i-d^e) includes a small 
 number of minute insects which differ so much from ordi- 
 nary beetles that they have been classed by some writers as 
 a distinct order, the Strepsiptcra (Strep-sip'te-ra). In tlTe 
 males the elytra are reduced to slender, leathery, club-shaped 
 appendages; while the wings are very large, fan-shaped, and 
 furnished with a few diverging veins. The females have 
 neither wings nor elytra, and resemble a larva in form. 
 They are always contained in the pupa case in the body of 
 a wasp or bee, which they infest parasitically. The point 
 
590 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 of attack of these parasites is between two abdominal 
 segments of the host. The presence of one of these para- 
 sites is indicated by an irregularity in the outline of the 
 abdomen of the infested wasp or bee ; and, too, the heads 
 of the pupa cases of the parasites can be seen project- 
 ing from the suture. " The head of the pupa case of the 
 male is convex, that of the female is flat ; specimens con- 
 taining male pupae can be kept confined with proper 
 food until the parasite is hatched." (Le Conte and Horn.) 
 Two genera occur in this country, Stylops (Sty'lops), 
 which infests bees of the genus Andrena (An-dre'na), and 
 Xenos (Xe'nos), which infest wasps of the genus Polistes (Po- 
 lis'tes). Certain foreign genera infest ants, cockroaches, and 
 homopterous insects. 
 
 • Suborder Rhynchophora (Rhyn-choph'o-ra). 
 TJie Snout-beetles. 
 This suborder includes the insects commonly called 
 snout-beetles, of which ten families are represented in North 
 America. With these insects the head is more or less 
 prolonged into a beak, which is sometimes longer than the re- 
 mainder of the body. The most distinctive characteristics of 
 this suborder are the absence of the gula, there being only 
 a single gular suture (Fig. 720, gs), and the fact that the 
 epimera of the prothorax meet on the middle 
 line behind the prosternum (Fig. 720). 
 
 A monograph of the North American 
 species of this suborder by Le Conte and Horn 
 is published by the American Philosophical So- 
 ciety, Philadelphia. 
 
 The family Rhinomacerid^ (Rhin-o-ma. 
 Fig. 720. cer'i-dae) includes a small number of Snout- 
 beetles in which the elytra have no fold on the lower sur- 
 face near the outer edge, but in which the labrum is distinct. 
 The head is prominent, not deflexed ; the snout is as long as 
 the protliorax, rather flat, narrowest about the middle, wider 
 
COLEOPTERA. 59 1 
 
 at base and tip ; the elytra are rounded at the tip and en- 
 tirely cover the abdomen. These beetles infest the stami- 
 nate flowers of coniferous trees, in which the eggs are laid. 
 
 The family Rhynchitid^ (Rhyn-chit'i-dae) includes 
 Snout-beetles in which the elytral fold is very feeble, the la- 
 brum is wanting, and in which the mandibles are toothed 
 both on the outer and inner side. The mandibles can be 
 spread widely, and when closed the outer tooth at the end 
 of each projects forward so that two small acute teeth seem 
 to project from the mouth. 
 
 The most common member of this family is RJiyucJiites 
 bicolor {^\\y\\-c\\W&s bi'co-lor) (Fig. 721). This is red above, 
 except the snout, and black below ; the body, not in- ^^^^^ 
 eluding the snout, is about one fourth inch long, .,^^^^S 
 the snout is half that length. The adults are often fig. 721. 
 abundant on wild roses. • 
 
 The family ATTELABID.E (At-te-lab'i-dae), or Leaf-rolling 
 Weevils is composed of beetles that have neither an elytral 
 fold nor a labrum, and in which the mandibles are flat, 
 pincer-shaped, and toothed on the inner side. The elytra do 
 not entirely cover the abdomen, and each is separately 
 rounded at the tip. Only five species are known from this 
 country, four from the Atlantic States, and one from New 
 Mexico; all belong to the genus Attelabus (At-tera-bus). 
 The females provide for their young in a very remarkable 
 way. They make compact thimble-shaped rolls from the 
 
 leaves of trees (Fig. 722) and lay a single egg in each. 
 
 The larvae feed on the inner parts of these rolls, and 
 
 when full grown enter the ground to transform. 
 
 Sometimes these rolls are found hanging by a narrow 
 Fig. '722. piece to the leaf from which they were made, and 
 sometimes they are found lying on the ground separated 
 from the leaf. 
 
 The family BYRSOPlDiE (Byr-sop'i-dae) is represented in 
 North America by a single species, Tliccesternus humeralis 
 
592 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 (Thec-e-ster'nus hu-mer-a'lis), of the central portion of the 
 United States. It usually lives near the surface of the 
 ground, but has been found attacking grape-vines and hick- 
 ory. It is a grayish beetle, one third to one half inch in 
 length, and with its wing-covers roughened by rows of tu- 
 bercles. Its distinctive structural characters are given in 
 the table of families. 
 
 Family OTiORHYNCHIDiE (O-ti-o-rhyn'chi-dai). 
 The Scarred Snout-beetles. 
 This is one of the larger of the families of snout-beetles, 
 including more than one hundred North American species. 
 The most distinctive characteristic of these insects is the 
 presence in the pupa state, and sometimes also in recently 
 matured adults, of an appendage on each mandible, and in 
 the adult state of a scar indicating the place from which the 
 appendage has fallen. This scar is on the anterior face of 
 the mandible, and frequently at the tip of a slight process. 
 Many species of this family are beautifully ornamented with 
 scales which resemble in a striking manner the scales on 
 the wings of butterflies. Among the more important species 
 are the following : 
 
 Fuller's Rose-beetle, Arainigus fulleri (A-ram'i-gus ful'le- 
 ri). — This is an oval, black snout-beetle, lightly covered with 
 dark-brown scales, and about one fourth inch in 
 \ A length. It is very destructive to roses ; the 
 VftV larvje feed upon the roots, and the adults de- 
 W^L stroy the leaves, flowers, and buds. In Cali- 
 
 /^^V\ fornia it is sometimes a pest in orange-groves. 
 i^^^^V The Imbricated Snout-beetle, Epic(£rus im- 
 }^^^ bricatns (Ep-i-cae'rus im-bri-ca'tus) is usually a 
 Fig. 723. dull, silvery-white beetle with brown markings ; 
 but the species is quite variable in color. It is represented 
 somewhat enlarged by Figure 723. It is omnivorous, gnaw- 
 ing holes in various garden vegetables and fruits, and in the 
 bark of trees and shrubs. 
 
COLEOPTERA, 593 
 
 Family CurculionID.e (Cur-cu-li-on'i-dae). 
 TJic Curculios {Cur-cu li-os) or Weevils. 
 
 The CurcuHonidae is the most important of the families 
 of snout-beetles ; it includes more than one half of all the 
 Rhynchophora found in this country, and some of the most 
 destructive insect pests. In this family there is on the 
 lower side of each wing-cover a strong fold near the outer 
 margin, which limits a deep groove in which the upper edge 
 of the abdomen fits; the mandibles have no scar; the 
 antennae are usually elbowed, and have a ringed or solid 
 club ; the tarsi are usually dilated, with the third segment 
 bilobed and spongy beneath ; in a few cases the tarsi are 
 narrow, but not spinose beneath. 
 
 The larvse are soft, white, maggot-like grubs destitute of 
 feet. They feed chiefly on fruits, seeds, and nuts ; but all 
 parts of plants are subject to their attacks. 
 
 In laying her eggs, the female first bores a hole with her 
 snout, then drops an egg into this hole, and finally pushes 
 the ^^^ to the bottom of the hole with her 
 snout. In many species the snout is highly 
 developed for this purpose ; sometimes it is 
 twice as long as the remainder of the body. 
 This is well shown in the acorn-weevils and 
 the nut-weevils, which belong to the genus 
 Balaninits (Ba-lan'i-nus). Figure 724 repre- 
 sents BaliDiinus qucrcns (B. quer'cus) resting F'°- t^'^- 
 on an acorn ; the specimen figured, when found had her snout 
 inserted in the acorn up to the antennae. 
 
 Of the closely allied species B. rectus (B. rec'tus) breeds 
 in acorns, B. nasicns (B. na-si'cus) in hickory-nuts, and B. 
 caryatrypes (B. car-y-a-try'pes) in chestnuts. 
 
 Probably the most important member of this family from 
 an economic standpoint is the Plum Curculio, Conotrachelus 
 nenuphar (Con-o-tra-che'lus nen'u-phar). This is the insect 
 that stings plums, often destroying a large proportion of the 
 
594 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 fruit ; the larva is also the well-known grub or " worm " 
 of " wormy " cherries. The presence of this insect in an 
 orchard can be determined early in the season by a peculiar 
 mark it makes when laying its eggs in the young fruit. The 
 female beetle makes an incision, with her snout, through 
 the skin of the fruit. In this incision she lays a single t%^, 
 which she pushes with her snout to the bottom of the cav- 
 ity that she has prepared. She then makes a crescent- 
 shaped incision in front of the one containing the egg. This 
 last cut undermines the egg, leaving it in a little flap. The 
 larvae feed within the fruit. In the case of plums the in- 
 fested fruit falls to the ground ; but not so with cherries. 
 When full grown the larvae usually go into the ground to 
 transform ; a few transform within the fruit. This species 
 infests nectarines, apricots, and peaches as well as plums 
 and cherries. This insect is fought in two ways : the 
 beetles are jarred from the trees upon sheets in early spring, 
 and destroyed before they have laid their eggs ; they are 
 also poisoned by spraying the trees with Paris-green-water 
 before the fruit is large enough for them to oviposit in it 
 The adult beetle feeds upon the foliage, and can thus be 
 poisoned. 
 
 As yet this species does not occur on the Pacific coast, 
 and the greatest care should be taken that it be not intro- 
 duced there. 
 
 The Apple-weevil, Anthoiionius quadrigibbiis (An-thon'o- 
 musquad-ri-gib'bus), infests the fruit of apple. The specific 
 name was suggested by the fact that there are two wart-like 
 projections near the hinder end of each wing-cover. 
 
 The Strawberry-weevil, Anthonomus signatns (A. sig- 
 
 JZl na'tus), is sometimes a serious pest in strawberry 
 
 ^^^^ plantations. The adult beetle (Fig. 725) punctures 
 
 Fig. 725. the pedicel of the flower a short distance below the 
 
 buds, and lays her eggs within the buds. The buds drop to 
 
 the ground, and the larvae, one in each, develop within them. 
 
 The family Brenthid.e (Bren'thi-dae) is confined chiefly 
 
COLEOPTEA'A. 595 
 
 to tropical regions, and, except in the far South, only a single 
 species occurs in this country. This species is the Nortiiern 
 Brenthid, Eiipsalis viinuta (Eu'psa-lis mi-nu'ta), which is 
 represented by Figure Ji^. In the female the head is pro- 
 longed into a slender snout ; but in the male 
 the snout is broad and fla 
 pair of powerful jaws, 
 offence, for the males figh 
 
 mates ; and, too, the males are generally larger 
 than the females — an unusual occurrence among i'"- 7-'fi 
 insects. It is interesting, as has been pointed out b\' Mr. 
 A. R. Wallace in his " Malay Archipelago,"' " as bearing on 
 the question of sexual selection, that in this case, as in the 
 stag-beetles, where the males fight together, they should 
 be not only better armed, but also much larger than the 
 females." 
 
 The Northern Brenthid is found upon oak-trees, in the 
 solid wood of which the larvae bore, and is widely distributed 
 over the United States and Canada. 
 
 One species of BrentJuis is found in Southern Florida 
 and two in Lower California, In this genus the snout is 
 slender in both sexes. 
 
 The only other representative of this family that occurs 
 on this continent north of Mexico is the Sweet Potato Root- 
 borer, Cylas formicarius (Cy'las for-mi-ca'ri-us), of Louisiana 
 and Florida. This beetle is somewhat ant-like in form; the 
 color of the elytra, head, and snout is bluish black, that of 
 the prothorax reddish brown. 
 
 Family Calandrid.^ (Ca-lan'dri-dae). 
 
 The Bill-bugs. 
 
 To this family belong some of our most common snout- 
 beetles. Here the lateral edge of the .metathorax and of 
 the abdomen fits into a groove in the wing-cover, and the 
 surface of the wing-cover in this groove has a pearly lustre ; 
 
596 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 the pygidium of both sexes is undivided, and may be cov- 
 ered or uncovered by the wing-covers, but is not surrounded 
 at the edge by them, as in the Scolytidae ; the tibiae are not 
 serrate ; the antennae are elbowed ; and the labrum is want- 
 ing. The larvae of the larger species bore in the stems of 
 plants, while those of the smaller species infest grains and 
 seeds. 
 
 Among the more common members of this family are 
 
 several species of the genus Sphcnophorus{S^\\i:-no^\\' o-rus)\ 
 
 one of these is represented by Figure J2y. These are 
 
 v^y of medium or rather large size, and are often marked 
 
 ]^L< in a very characteristic manner by longitudinal, 
 
 'JHL) elevated bands of darker color. 
 
 } \ One of the most important members of the family, 
 
 Fig. 727. from an economic standpoint, is the Rice-weevil, Ca- 
 landra oryzcs (Ca-lan'dra o-ry'zae). This is a small snout- 
 beetle, measuring only one fifth inch in length. It is usually 
 black, but sometimes it is of pale-chestnut color, or some 
 shade between the two. It is exceedingly abundant, espe- 
 cially in the Southern States, where it does great injury to 
 stored grain of all kinds. 
 
 Family SCOLYTID^ (Sco-lyt'i-dae). 
 
 The Engraver-beetles. 
 
 If the bark be pulled from dead branches or trunks 
 of trees, the inner layer and the sap-wood will be found 
 to be ornamented in many cases with burrows of more or 
 less regular form. These smoothly cut figures are the 
 mines of the engraver-beetles. Many kinds of these engrav- 
 ings can be found, each characteristic of a particular kind of 
 engraver-beetle. A common pattern is shown in Figure 728. 
 
 The beetles that do this work are mostly of cylindrical 
 form and of small size ; many species are almost microscopic, 
 and the larger ones rarely exceed a quarter of an inch in 
 length. They are usually brown, sometimes black; and 
 
COLEOP TERA. 
 
 597 
 
 with many the hind end of the body is very blunt, as if cut 
 off. The antenna; are elbowed or bent in the middle, and 
 are clubbed at the tip ; the tibia; are usually serrate ; the 
 
 pygidium is surrounded at the edge by the wing-covers, 
 which have the fold on the inner surface well developed. 
 
 The members of this family feed almost exclusively on 
 woody plants. Most of the species make burrows between 
 the bark and the wood; but many species bore directly into 
 the solid wood, and one well-known pest lives in the roots 
 of herbaceous plants. 
 
 In the case of the kind of burrow figured above and other 
 similar ones the central tunnel is made by the mother 
 beetle. While doing this she makes a series of niches along 
 each side of this tunnel, and lays an egg in each. When the 
 larvae hatch, each one deepens its niche, and thus makes a 
 burrow at right angles to that of the parent beetle. 
 
 In the case of a European species, Tomicns typogra- 
 phns{Jom'\-zws ty-pog'ra-phus). Dr. K. Lindeman, a Russian 
 naturalist, has discovered that the original tunnel is be- 
 gun by the male, which makes a little chamber in the bark ; 
 afterwards the female comes to him in this chamber, and 
 later she continues the mine begun by her mate, making the 
 long central tunnel from which the tunnels of her offspring 
 extend. Thus we see that all of the members of a single 
 family have a share in making one of these engravings. It 
 
598 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. 
 
 is probable that the males of other species have similar 
 habits, but how general this is has not yet been determined. 
 
 The members of this family are among the most injuri- 
 ous of the insect enemies of forest-trees. Frequently the 
 trees are killed outright; in other cases, although the life of 
 the tree is not endangered, the timber is greatly injured by 
 the burrows. Occasionally fruit-trees are also injured by 
 members of this family. 
 
 Figure 729 represents one of the larger of our common 
 
 species, Dendroctoniis tenebrans (Den-droc'to-nus ten'e- 
 
 brans). This is a light-yellowish beetle, which 
 
 ^jjp' lives under the thick bark of pine logs and stumps. 
 
 y^l^ It is about one fourth of an inch in length. 
 
 The Clover-root Borer, Hylesinns trifolii (Hy- 
 FiG. 729. les'i-nus tri-fo'li-i). — This is a European insect, which 
 has found its way to this country, and become a very serious 
 pest in the Eastern States. It differs markedly from most 
 of the members of this family in that it makes irregular 
 burrows in the roots of herbaceous plants. It infests clover 
 and allied plants. In many places in the East a large 
 proportion of the two-year-old clover plants are infested by 
 it. In the autumn larvae, pupae, and adults are found in the 
 roots of such plants, and the adults remain here throughout 
 the winter. 
 
 The family Anthribid^ (An-thrib'i-dae) includes a small 
 number of snout-beetles, in which the fold on the lower 
 surface of the wing-covers is present, the pygidium of both 
 sexes is undivided, the antennae are not elbowed, and the 
 labrum is present. The larvae, as a rule, infest seeds and 
 the stems of plants; some of them are said to have short but 
 well-developed legs. The larvae of the genus Brachytarsus 
 (Brach-y-tar'sus), which are very small, are supposed t^ be 
 parasitic on scale-insects. 
 
CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 Order Hymenoptera (Hy-me-nop'te-ra). 
 Bet's, Wasps, Ants, and others. 
 
 The members of this order have four zvings ; these are 
 membranous, and furnished tvith comparatively few or with 
 no transverse veins. The hind wings are smaller than the 
 fore %vings. The month-parts are formed for biting and 
 sucking. The abdomen in the females is usually furnished 
 with a sting, piercer, or saw. The metamorphosis is complete. 
 
 The bees, wasps, and ants are among the better-known 
 insects, and will serve to give an idea of the characteristic 
 appearance of the members of this order. They are chiefly 
 insects of small or moderate size, and many of them 
 abound wherever flowers bloom. From the earliest times 
 they have been favorites with students of the habits of ani- 
 mals, for among them we find the most wonderful develop- 
 ments of instinctive powers. Many volumes have been 
 written regarding their ways, and much remains to be dis- 
 covered, even concerning our most common species. 
 
 The name of the order is from two Greek words — 
 hymen, membrane, and pteron, a wing. It refers to the fact 
 that the wings are of a delicate membranous texture ; but 
 this characteristic is not distinctive, for it is possessed by 
 the wings of many other insects. 
 
 In the Hymenoptera the wings of each side are held to- 
 gether by a row of hooks on the front margin of the hind 
 
 59q 
 
6oo 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 wing. These hooks fasten to a fold in the hind margin of 
 the front wing, so that the two wings present a continuous 
 surface. (Fig. 730). 
 
 Fig. 730.— Win},'s of the honeybee. 
 
 With other insects the mouth-parts, if well developed, 
 are formed either for biting or for sucking, 
 but in this order they are adapted to .serve 
 both purpo.ses (Fig. 731). The mandibles 
 are fitted for biting, and they are sometimes 
 very powerful. The maxillae, in the typical 
 members of the order, are long, membranous 
 or leathery, and form a sheath to the labium, 
 the three organs thus constituting an appara- 
 tus for sucking or lapping liquid food. The 
 maxillary and the labial palpi are present. 
 
 The larvse of Hvmenoptera are usually the 'honey-iiee : «, 
 
 •' >■ r' antenna; c, clypeus; 
 
 footless, ma£Te;ot-like creatures, incapable of «, labrum; w, man- 
 
 ' ■=•" ' dibles; wjr, maxilla; 
 
 any extended motion, and entirely depend- {^^,1^^''^ paipus; /, 
 ent on the provision made for them by the 
 adult insects. But in the two lower families the larvae are 
 furnished with legs, and frequently have a striking resem 
 blance to caterpillars, both in form and in habits. When the 
 larvae are full grown they transform to inactive pupae, which 
 
IJYMKXOP TERA 6oi . 
 
 have all of the h'mbs of the ackilt insect inclosed in sheaths, 
 and folded upon the breast. With many species the larva, 
 before changing to a pupa, spins a cocoon about its body. 
 With some this cocoon is composed of comparatively loose 
 silk, and resembles somewhat the cocoon of a moth. In 
 others the cocoon is of a dense parchment-like texture, and 
 in still others it resembles a very delicate foil. 
 
 Although there are yery many species of Hymenoptera, 
 the number of families is not large. The following synopsis 
 will aid the student in fixing in his mind the relationships 
 of the different families: — 
 
 SYNOPSIS OF THE HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 The Boring Hymenoptera, Suborder Terebrantia. p. 6io. 
 The Plani-eaiing Hyinetioptcra, 
 The Saw-flies, Family Tenthredinid.e. p. 6ii. 
 The Horn-tails, Family Siricid/E. p. 614. 
 The Gall-inhabiting Hymenoptera. 
 
 The Gall-flies, Family Cynipid/E. p 615, 
 The Parasitic Hymenoptera. 
 The Trigonalids, Family Trigonalid^. p. 621. 
 The Ichneumon-flies, Family Ichneumonid^. p. 621. 
 The Stephanids, Family Stephanid^. p. 624. 
 The Braconids, Family BraconiD/E. p. 625. 
 The Ensign-flies, Family Evaniid^. p. 626. 
 The Chalcis-flies, Family Chalcidid^. p. 628. 
 The Proctotrupids, Family Proctotrupid^. p. 630. 
 The Stinging Hymenoptera, Suborder Aculeata. p. 631. 
 The Pelecinus, Family Pelecinid^. p. 631. 
 The Cuckoo-flies, Family Chrysidid.^ p. 632. 
 The Ants, Superfamily Formicina. p. 633. 
 
 Family FoRMiClD^. p. 640. 
 
 Family Ponerid^. p. 642. 
 
 Family Myrmicid^. p. 642. 
 The Digger-wasps, Superfamily Sphecina. p. 644. 
 
 The Velvet-ants, Family Mutillid/E. p. 648. 
 
 The Scoliids, Family ScoLllD/E. p. 649. 
 
 The Sapygids, Family Sapygid^e. p. 649. 
 
 The Spider-wasps, Family Pompilid^e. p. 650. 
 
602 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 The Thread-waisted Wasps, Family Sphecid^. p. 650. 
 
 The Ampulicids, Family AmpuliciD/E. p. 647. 
 
 The Larrids, Family Larrid^. p. 652. 
 
 The Bembecids, Family Bembecid^. p. 652. 
 
 The Nyssonids, Family Nyssonid^. p. 654, 
 
 The Philantliids, Family Philanthid^. p. 654. 
 
 The Mimesids, Family MiMESlD^. p. 655. 
 
 The Mellinids, Family Mellinid^. p. 647. 
 
 The Pemphredonids, Family Pemphredonid.«. p.655. 
 
 The Crabronids, Family Crabronid^. p. 656. 
 The True Wasps, Superfamily Vespina. p. 657. 
 
 Tlie Guest Wasps, Family Masarid,«. p. 657. 
 
 The Solitary Wasps, Family Eum,enid.e. p. 658. 
 
 The Social Wasps, Family VESPip.E. p. 660. 
 The Bees, Superfamily Apina. p. 664. 
 
 The Short-tongued Bees, Family Andrenid^e. p. 665. 
 
 The Long-tongued Bees, Family ApiD-^. p- 666. 
 
 Classification of the Hymenoptera. 
 
 {For Advanced Students.) 
 
 Nearly all of the technical terms used in the descriptions of 
 Hymenoptera in this work have been defined already. For a general 
 account of the external parts of these insects see pp. 56-66 ; for a 
 more detailed description of the external anatomy of an insect, see 
 the discussion of tlie external anatomy of beetles, pp. 499. 
 
 After a student has learned to recognize the sclerites in the body 
 wall of a beetle, he will have but little trouble in determining the 
 parts of a hymenopterous insect. The following points, however, 
 should be carefully noted : — 
 
 The Propodeiini.—A remarkable peculiarity of Hymenoptera is 
 that the first abdominal segment is united with the thorax in such a 
 way as to appear to be a part of it ; and what appears to be the first 
 abdominal segment, and is always called so, is really the sec- 
 ond. The true first abdominal segment is called the propodeum 
 (pro-po'-de-um). 
 
 The Tegultp. — There, is on each side of the second thoracic seg- 
 ment a cup-like scale over the base of the fore-wing (Fig. 732, 5); 
 this is the parapteron (see p. 502). The paraptera of the meso- 
 thorax of Hymenoptera are termed the tegulce (teg'u-lse) ; they cor- 
 respond to the patagia of Lepidoptcra and to the elytra of 
 Coleoptera. 
 
// YMENOP TERA. 603 
 
 The Parapstih's. — in this order the scutum ot the mesothorax is 
 divided into three parts by two longitudinal sutures; the lateral por- 
 
 FiG. 732.— A Chalcis-fly : 1. pronotum; 2, 2, parapsides ; ^, mesal [lart of tlie scutum of 
 the mesothorax ; 4, scutellum; 5, tegulae. 
 
 tions of tlie scutum thus separated from the mesal part (Fig. 732, 2, 2) 
 are termed tht parapsides (pa-rap'si-des). 
 
 T/ie Wing-veins. — It is much more difficult to determine the 
 homologies of the wing-veins of the Hymenoptera than those of 
 either the Lepidoptera or the Diptera ; for in this order the primitive 
 plan is much more obscured. The best way to learn the wing-veins 
 of the Hymenoptera is to make first a careful study of those of the 
 Diptera, and then to compare the front wing of a generalized 
 hymenopterous insect with a wing of one of the more generalized 
 Diptera ; for this purpose take the front wing of a saw-fly of the 
 genus Pamphilius (Fig. 733) and that of Tabanns (Fig. 539, p. 454). 
 
 In Pamphilius (Pam-phil i-us), and in most other Hymenoptera 
 also, the anal furrow or vein VIII is easily recognized as a concave 
 fold, in the position indicated by the dolled line (Fig. 733, VIII). 
 Having found this, a very important landnark is established. 
 
 Next it should be understood that the Hymenoptera belong to 
 that series of orders in which veins IV^ and VI are not developed; 
 therefore the v^ins that lie in front of the anal furrow are veins I, II, 
 III, V, and VII. 
 
 Vein I forms the costal border of the wing, as in the Diptera 
 (Fig. 733. I). 
 
 Vein II is usually absent in the Hymenoptera; but in Pamphilius, 
 and in a few other genera, it is well preserved (Fig. 733, II). It is 
 simple, and is usually connected with vein III by a cross-vein. 
 
 Vein III is the most difficult of all of the veins to understand. A 
 very careful study of the problem has convinced the writer that this , 
 
 vein is typically five-branched in this order, resembling in this re- ^ v 
 
6o4 
 
 THE STUDY OF IX SECTS. 
 
 spect the homologous veins in the Lepidoptera and Diptera. In the 
 Hymenoptera the tips of the branches of vein III coalesce with 
 other veins ; and when this coalescence has proceeded for a con- 
 siderable distance towards the base of the wing, the branches may 
 appear like cross-veins, instead of branches of a longitudinal vein. 
 This result is very similar to what takes place in the more specialized 
 Diptera. In Pamphthis (Fig. 733) vein II U is wanting; but this vein 
 is present in Afacroxyela (mac rox-y-e'la) (Fig. 735). In both of 
 these genera there is a cross-vein between veins IIIi and IIU^^s (Fig. 
 733. ^"'^''^ "'^ similar cross-vein exists in some crane-flies, dividing cell 
 
 IIl4+.yi. 
 
 XII 
 
 Fig. 733.— Wings of a saw-fly.- Pamphilizis, with the veins numbered. 
 
 nil into two parts (see Fig. 505). In both of these genera also the 
 tips of veins III4 and III5 coalesce with vein Vi to such an ex- 
 tent that these veins appear to be cross-veins. In tTie wing of the 
 Honey-bee (Fig. 730) these veins are more obviously longitudinal 
 veins. 
 
 Vein V is very similar to the homologous vein in the Diptera. It 
 arises from a cross-vein extending from vein III to vein VII. In 
 Pamp/nltus it arises from near the costal end of this cross-vein; but 
 in Apis (Fig. 730) its origin is near the middle of the cross-vein. In 
 the Hymenoptera, however, the cross-vein III-VII is much farther 
 from the base of the wing than it is in the Diptera. In the more 
 
nVMENOPTEKA. 605 
 
 generalized Hymenoptera vein V is three-branched, and veins V, and 
 V3 are connected by a cross-vein, as in the Diptera ; but this cross- 
 vein appears like a longitudinal vein (Fig. 733). The tip of vein Va 
 has migrated from its primitive position on the outer margin of the 
 wing to the anal furrow (vein VIII), and ends in this furrow at a 
 greater or less distance from the margin of the wing (Fig. 733) ; the 
 result of this migration is to pull the cross-vein Va-Va into a longi- 
 tudinal position. 
 
 Vein VII coalesces with vein III for a considerable distance from 
 the base of the wing in Pamphiliiis (Fig. 733) ; but in Apis{Y'\<g. 730), 
 and in many other forms, it arises from the base of the wing. This 
 vein is two-branched, as in the Lepidoptera and Diptera. The tips 
 of the branches of vein VII have migrated from the margin of the 
 wing to the anal furrow (vein VIII), and for a considerable distance 
 along this furrow towards the base of the wing, so that both of these 
 veins (VIIi and VII,) end in the anal furrow, far from the margin of 
 the wing; the result of this migration is to pull the cross-vein 
 Vs-VIIi into a longitudinal position. In Paitip/n'h'its (Pig. 733) this 
 cross-vein is nearly longitudinal; in Apis (Fig. 730) it is completely 
 so. In Patnphilius vein VII.; is very short, but well enough de- 
 veloped so that there is no doubt regarding the homology; but in 
 most Hymenoptera it has completely disappeared. 
 
 In the area lying back of the anal furrow there also exists a 
 tendency for veins to coalesce at their tips ; this is well shown in both 
 fore and hind wings of Paniphilius ; and in the hind wings especially 
 the united tips of veins IX and XI have migrated towards the base 
 of the wing along the anal furrow (Fig. 733). 
 
 The concave veins of the anal area (veins X and XII) are rarely 
 developed ; in the hind wing of Pamphiliiis there is a fold which 
 probably represents vein XII (Fig. 733). 
 
 The Cells of the /fVwi,'. — Having learned the venation of the wings 
 it is easy to number the cells. There are, however, a few special 
 terms that are used in works on this order; the more important (jf 
 these are the following : — 
 
 III most Hymenoptera there is an opaque spot on the costa, a short 
 distance beyond the middle of the wing; this is the stigma (Figs. 734 
 and 735, j). The stigma lies between vein IIIi and the margin of the 
 wing ; it is probably the apical portion of cell II. In Figure 733 it has 
 not been blackened in order to show the course of vein IIIi. 
 
 Usually vein IIIi , after joining the costa at the end of the stigma, 
 does not again separate from it, but is joined by the tip of vein III3 
 before the apex of the wing (Fig. 733). But in certain families the 
 
000 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Fig. 734.— Wings of a saw-fly, Pamphilius^ with the ceils numbered. 
 
 III2 
 
 Fig. 73S--Wings of a saw-fly, Macroxyel.i, with the cells and veins III3 and III, of the 
 fore-wing numbered. 
 
HYMEA'OrTERA. 
 
 607 
 
 tip of vein IIIi separates from the costa and coalesces with the tip of 
 vein III3 at some distance from the costa. The space thus formed 
 between the united tips of veins IIIi and III3 and the costa is termed 
 the appendiculate cell (Fig. 736, ap). 
 
 Fig. 736.— Wings of Larra wiih the cells numbered: af, appendiculate cell 
 
 The cells marked in, m, tn, in Figure 735, are termed the marginal 
 cells ; and those mariced sm, s?n, sm, sm, the submarginal cells. 
 
 The following table for determining the families of the Hymen- 
 optera has been compiled from the works of several writers on this 
 order, and is merely provisional. It, however, will enable the student 
 to determine the larger and more common forms; and in the present 
 state of our knowledge the study of the minute Hymenoptera is too 
 difficult for the beginner. 
 
 TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE FAMILIES OF THE 
 HYMENOPTERA, 
 
 A. Trochanters of the posterior legs, consisting each of two segments 
 (Fig. 737. b) ; caudal end of body in the female furnished with a 
 saw or borer for depositing the eggs. (Suborder Terp:brantia.) 
 B. Abdomen joined broadly to the thorax. 
 C. Anterior tibise with two apical spurs ; abdomen of female fur- 
 nished with a pair of saws. p. 611 Tenthredinid.^. 
 
 CC. Anterior tibise with one apical spur ; abdomen of female fur- 
 nished with a borer, p. 614 SiRICIDyE. 
 
 BB. Base of abdomen constricted. 
 C. Abdomen joined to the dorsal aspect of the metathorax. p. 626. 
 
 EVANIID^. 
 
 CC. Insertion of the abdomen normal. 
 D. Fore wings with no closed cells.* 
 
 * In a few Proctotrupidae the wings have one or more closed cells. 
 
6o8 THE STUDY Of IXSECTS. 
 
 E. Borders of the mesoscutum intervening between the pro- 
 notum and the tegulae (Fig. 738) ; ovipositor issuing be- 
 fore the apex of the abdomen, p. 628 CHALClDiDiE. 
 
 EE. Pronotum extending to the tegulae (Fig. 739) ; oviposi- 
 tor issuing from the apex of the abdomen, p. 630. 
 
 PROCTOTRUPIDiE. 
 
 DD. Fore wings with several closed cells, or at least with a 
 closed or nearly closed marginal or submarginal cell.* 
 
 E. Fore wings witiiout a stigma, p. 615 CvN'iPlD/E, 
 
 EE. Fore wings with a stigma. 
 
 F. Fore wing with the vein between cells Vi and ist Va 
 wanting (Fig. 740). 
 
 G. Veins I-III of the fore wing consolidated from the 
 
 base of the wing to the stigma, p. 625 . . Braconid/E. 
 
 GG. Base of fore wing with a cell between veins I and 
 
 III. p. 624 Stephanid/e. 
 
 FF. Fore wing with cells Vi and ist V2 separate (Fig. 741). 
 
 G. Veins I-III of fore wing consolidated from the base 
 
 of the wing to the stigma, p. 621 . ..Ichneumonid^E. 
 
 GG. Base of fore wing with a cell between veins I and 
 
 III. p. 621 Trigonalid/e. 
 
 AA. Trochanters of the posterior legs, consisting each of a single 
 segment (Fig. 737, a) ; caudal end of body in female usually fur- 
 nished with a sting. (Suborder Aculeata.) 
 B. Fore wing with no closed submarginal cells. 
 
 C. Abdomen long; antennae long, not elbowed, threadlike ; body 
 
 smooth and polished, black, p. 631 Pelecinid.'E. 
 
 CC. Abdomen but little longer than the head and thorax; an- 
 tennae short, elbowed ; body adorned with metallic colors, and 
 
 often coarsely and deeply sculptured. 632 Chrvsidid^.. 
 
 BB. Fore wing with at least one closed submarginal cell. 
 
 C. First abdominal .segment, and sometimes the second also, 
 forming a lens-shaped scale or knot (Fig. 742) ; base of front 
 
 wing not protected by a tegula. p. 633 Formicina. 
 
 CC. Basal part of abdomen without a knot. 
 
 D. First segment of posterior tarsi cylindrical and naked, or 
 with but little hair; hairs clothing thorax simple. 
 E. Wings not plated when at rest. p. 644 Sphecina. 
 
 * Very rarely the wings are without closed cells in some Evaniid?e and 
 Braconidae. 
 
HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 Fig. 737.— Leps of insects :«, wasp; /', Fig. 738.— A Chalcis-fly: i, pronotum; 2,3,2, 
 Ichnuemon-fiy ; <f, bee; i", trochanter; mesoscutum ; 5, tegula. 
 
 m, metatarsus. 
 
 Fig. 739.— a Proctotrupid ; 
 pronotum; 5, tegula. 
 
 Fig. 740.— Wings of a Braconid. 
 
 Fig. 742. 
 
 Fig. 741.— Wings of an Ichneumon-fly. 
 
6lO THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 EE. Wings folded in plaits when at rest* p. 657. 
 
 Vespina. 
 
 DD. First segment of the posterior tarsi enlarged, flattened, 
 
 and more or less clothed with hair ; hairs clothing thorax 
 
 plumose (Fig. 737, ^). p. 66?^ Apina, 
 
 Suborder Terebrantia (Ter-e-bran'ti-a). 
 The Boring Hyvienoptera. 
 
 The Hymenoptera are divided into two suborders, the 
 Boring Hymenoptera and the Stinging Hymenoptera. In 
 the first of these suborders the caudal end of the abdomen 
 of the female is furnished with an organ, the ovipositor, 
 which is fitted for boring a hole into which an Qg^ is to be 
 placed, and also for conveying the &%g into this hole. The 
 form of the ovipositor varies greatly in the different families ; 
 in one the boring parts are represented by a pair of saws, by 
 means of which slits are made in the leaves of plants and an 
 ^gg conveyed into each slit ; in other families this organ is 
 truly a boring instrument by means of which deep holes are 
 made into trees and eggs placed in these holes ; and in still 
 other cases the organ is fitted for thrusting an ^gg into the 
 body of another insect. 
 
 Although the ovipositor is very conspicuous in many 
 members of this suborder, there are others in which it is 
 more or less completely concealed within the body, and thus 
 affords but little aid to the student who is classifying his 
 specimens; moreover, in the case of male insects we must 
 always depend on some other character. Fortunately there 
 is another character by which the suborders can be separated. 
 In the Boring Hymenoptera the trochanter of the hind leg 
 
 * It is sometimes difficult, especially in the case of cabinet specimens 
 with the wings spread, to determine whether a species is one that folds its 
 wings or not. Bur we know of no other character which will always distin- 
 guish the Vespina from the Sphecina. The following will often be of ser- 
 vice: In all North American Vespina veins Va and V3 both arise from the 
 second submarginal cell; in many of the Sphecina they do not. 
 
HYMENOFTERA. 
 
 6ll 
 
 is composed of two segments (Fig. 737, b\ while in the 
 Stinging Hymenoptera it consists of a single segment. 
 There may be exceptions to this characterization among the 
 minute members of the Ttrebrantia ; but the beginning 
 student will hardly undertake the study of these. 
 
 Family Tenthredixid^ (Ten-thre-din'i-daij. 
 
 TJie Saiv-flies. 
 
 In this family the head and thorax are wide ; the base 
 of the abdomen is not slender, as in most Hymenoptera, but 
 broadly joined to the thorax (Fig. 743,7) ; and the abdomen 
 
 Fig. 743 — The Locust saw-fly, Nematus similaris : «, egg ; 3, young larva ; c, full- 
 grown larva ; a', anal segment of full-grown larva ; e, cocoon ; /, adult. (From the 
 Author's Report for 1879.) 
 
 of the female is furnished with a pair of saws. The larva; 
 look like caterpillars and feed upon leaves (Fig. 743); but 
 they have, ordinarily, from twelve to sixteen prolegs, while 
 
6l2 rilE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 true caterpillars have only ten.* Most saw-fly larvae have 
 the curious habit of curling the hind end of the body side- 
 wise. 
 
 The saw-fly larvae make pafchment-Hke cocoons which 
 they sometimes attach to the plants on which they have 
 fed ; but they often burrow in the ground and spin their co- 
 coons there. The adult saw-fly lays its eggs upon the food 
 plant, and in some strange way, perhaps by the absorption 
 of moisture, the eggs increase in size before they hatch. 
 The saws of the female are set side by side in a groove un- 
 der the end of the body like the blades of a penknife in the 
 handle. These saws can be shoved out and moved up and 
 down. Here we have at least one instance where the fe- 
 male wielding of a saw is done most skilfully, for the female 
 saw-fly uses these nice tools in a very efficient manner to 
 make slits in the leaves and stems of plants in which she 
 places her eggs. 
 
 The American Saw-fly, Cimbex aniericana (Cim'bex 
 a-mer-i-ca'na). — This is the largest of our common saw-flies. 
 The female is about three fourths of an inch long and has a 
 black head and thorax, a steel-blue or purplish abdomen, 
 with four yellowish spots on each side, smoky brown wings, 
 and black legs, while her feet and short, knobbed antennae 
 are pale yellow. The male is longer and slenderer, and dif- 
 fers somewhat in color. The eggs are laid in June in cres- 
 cent-shaped slits made in leaves. The food plants are elm, 
 birch, linden, and willow. The larva is greenish yellow, with 
 black spiracles and a black stripe down its back. When dis- 
 turbed it spurts forth a fluid from glands just above the 
 spiracles. There is but one brood each year. After the 
 larva is grown it burrows in the ground, makes an oval brown- 
 ish cocoon, and there spends the winter, not changing to a 
 pupa until spring. The adult appears in May or June, These 
 saw-flies have been known to injure willows by biting inci- 
 
 * Except in the Megalopygidae, see p. 219. 
 
// 1 -MEiXOP TERA. 6 1 3 
 
 sions half-way round the terminal twigs of the tree. What 
 their object was in doing this is a myster)-. 
 
 The Rose-Slug, Monostcgia roses (Mon-os-te'gi-a ro'sae). 
 — Often in the summer our rose-gardens look as if fire had 
 swept over them, so scorched and brown are the leaves. 
 The cause of this apparent conflagration is a transparent 
 jelly-like slug, greenish above and yellowish below, which 
 eats the upper surface of the leaves, leaving patches of the 
 lower surface and the veins. These slugs usually feed by 
 night and remain hidden on the lower surface of the leaves 
 by day. When ready to pupate they crawl down or drop to 
 the ground and burrow beneath the surface; here each 
 makes a little cell and then transforms. The adult fly is 
 shining black with smoky wings, and with the fore and mid- 
 dle legs grayish or dirty-white. The female is about one 
 fifth inch in length. There are two broods a year, one in 
 June and one in August. The last brood passes the winter 
 in the ground. This pest can be destroyed with a solution 
 of whale-oil soap, or with kerosene emulsion. 
 
 The Pear-tree Slug, Eriocampa cerasi {^\--\-o-Cd.m'^3. cer'- 
 
 a-si). The eggs of this species are laid on the leaves of pear 
 
 and cherry trees, at the beginning of the summer. In about 
 ten days the slugs hatch; they are at first whitish, but soon 
 cover themselves with a dirty green, gummy excretion. 
 When full-grown these larvae attain the length of half an 
 inch. The fore part of the body is enlarged ; and they rest 
 with their tails in the air, and appear, as Mr. Harris aptly 
 observes, like minute tadpoles. These, like the rose-slugs, 
 eat only the upper surface of the leaves. The species is two- 
 brooded ; the second brood passes the winter in the ground. 
 The larvae can be destroyed in the same way as the preced- 
 ing species. 
 
 The Currant-worm, Ncmatus ribesii (Nem'a-tus ri-be'si-i). 
 — This well-known enemy of currant and gooseberry bushes 
 belongs to the class of criminal emigrants, and has gained a 
 foothold and flourishes in our midst in spite of us. The fe- 
 
6l4 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 male deposits her eggs on the under side of the first leaves 
 that appear on the currant ; the eggs are glossy and white, 
 and are placed in rows along the ribs of the leaf. In ten 
 days the larva hatches; it is at first whitish, with a big head ; 
 it grows fast, and soon becomes green, and then has black 
 dots and a black head, and looks like a caterpillar. A 
 brood will strip a bush of all its leaves. The larva spins 
 a brownish paper-like cocoon, sometimes fastening it to the 
 stripped bush, and sometimes making it just below the sur- 
 face of the ground. There are two broods, and as the flies 
 of one brood do not issue all at the same time, the fight 
 against them must be pretty constant. Hellibore or Paris- 
 green are the substances commonly used to destroy this in- 
 sect. There is a native saw-fly on currents that has much 
 the same habits. 
 
 Family SiRiclD.^ (Si-ric'i-das). 
 Tlie Horn-tails. 
 
 These are so named because in this family the end of 
 the body usually bears a spine or horn. This is short and 
 triangular in the males, and long and often spear-shaped in 
 the females. The horn-tails are closely related to the saw- 
 flies, but differ from them in the shape of the ovipositor, 
 which is made for boring instead of sawing, and in the 
 habits of the larvae, which are borers in solid wood. 
 
 The ovipositor consists of five long slender pieces ; the 
 two outside pieces are grooved on the inner surface, and 
 when joined make a sheath containing the other three 
 pieces ; one of these is nearly cylindrical, and is channelled 
 beneath for the reception of the other two, which are very 
 slender and stiff, and furnished at the tip with transverse 
 ridges, like the teeth of a file. With this complex instru- 
 ment the female can bore a deep hole into a tree and place 
 an ^gg at the bottom of it. 
 
 There are several species of horn-tails in America. A 
 
HYMEXOP I'ERA. 
 
 <5,5 
 
 Fig. 744. — Tremex columba. 
 
 typical species is The Pigeon Horn-tail, Tremex columba 
 (Tre'mex co-lum'ba). The body of this insect is cylindri- 
 cal, as large around as a me- 
 dium-sized lead-pencil, and 
 at least an inch and a half 
 long (Fig. 744). The thorax 
 and head are rust-red and 
 black. The abdomen is black, 
 with ochre-yellow bands and 
 spots along the sides; the 
 horn at the hind end of the 
 body is yellow ; the antennae 
 are rust-red, with broad black 
 rings at the middle. The wings are smoky color and trans- 
 parent ; the legs are dull yellow. The female pierces the 
 wood of a tree to the depth of half an inch, where she de- 
 posits her eggs ; sometimes her ovipositor gets wedged in 
 the wood and holds her there a prisoner until she dies. 
 The grub is cylindrical and whitish, and attains the length 
 of an inch and a half ; it does great injury by perforating 
 trees, especially elms. It transforms within a cocoon made of 
 silk and fine chips. When the fly emerges it breaks through 
 the cocoon, creeps to the mouth of the burrow, gnaws 
 through the bark, and flies off. 
 
 The preceding is the only species of Tremex that occurs 
 in our fauna. In this genus there is a single closed marginal 
 and two closed submarginal cells. The Horn-tails of the 
 genus 5z>^;ir(Si'rex), of which we have many species, closely 
 resemble Tremex in form, but differ in having two marginal 
 and three submarginal cells. 
 
 Family Cynipid.e (Cy-nip'i-dae). 
 The Gall-flies. 
 
 These insects are termed gall-flies because the majority of 
 the species live within galls; but it should be remembered 
 
6l6 THE STUDY OF IX SECTS. 
 
 that not all of the members of this family are developed 
 in galls, and that galls are produced by many insects 
 that do not belong to this family. Galls made by mites, 
 plant-lice, flies, and moths have been described in the pre- 
 ceding pages, and galls are also produced by beetles and cer- 
 tain other insects; but the great majority of these strange 
 growths are made either by mites, plant-lice, or true gall- 
 .flies (Cynipidae). 
 
 The galls made by mites and plant-lice have open mouths, 
 from which the young of the original dweller escape. But 
 in the case of the gall-flies the gall is closed, and a hole must 
 be made by the insect in order to emerge. Moreover, there 
 is no reproduction of insects within the galls of gall-flies, as 
 there is within the galls of mites and plant-lice. Many 
 species of gall-flies undergo their transformations within 
 their galls ; while in other species the full-grown larva leaves 
 the gall and enters the earth to transform. But in each case 
 the adult female provides for the production of new galls, 
 in which their young are to develop. 
 
 In the adult gall-fly the abdomen is usually much com- 
 pressed. It is joined to the thorax by a short peduncle, the 
 
 first abdominal segment (Fig. 
 745). The second and third 
 abdominal segments are large, 
 and the remaining segments, 
 usually five in number, are 
 short, and each is more or less 
 covered by the preceding seg- 
 ment. Concealed within these 
 segments is the long, partially 
 coiled, very slender ovipositor. 
 Fig. ^^,i.-A>l,phibolips spongifica. which ariscs near the base of 
 the abdomen. The wings of gall-flies have compara- 
 tively few veins, and the fore wings lack the stigma ; some 
 forms are wingless. The antennae are not elbowed, and 
 consist of from thirteen to sixteen segments. The larvae 
 
// Y MEN OP TERA . 6l 7 
 
 are maggot-like, and without a caudal opening to the ali- 
 mentary canal. 
 
 It is a remarkable fact that each species of gall-insect 
 infests a special part of one or more particular species of 
 plants, and the gall produced by each species of insect is of 
 a definite form. Hence when an entomologist who has 
 studied these insects sees a familiar gall, he knows at once 
 what species of insect produced it. 
 
 Naturalists have speculated much as to the way galls are 
 made to grow. It has been supposed that at the time the egg 
 is laid there is deposited in the tissue of the plant with it a 
 drop of poison, which causes the abnormal growth. By this 
 theory the differences between the galls of different insects 
 was explained by supposing that the fluid produced by each 
 species of insect had peculiar properties. There are certain 
 kinds of galls which may be produced in this way. Thus it 
 is said that the wound made by a certain saw-fly in the leaves 
 of willow causes an abundant formation of plant-cells, and 
 the gall thus formed attains its full growth at the end of a 
 few days, and before the larva has escaped from the egg. 
 But with the gall-flies the gall does not begin to grow until 
 the larva is hatched ; but as soon as the larva begins to feed, 
 the abnormal growth of the plant commences. In this case, 
 therefore, if the gall is produced by a poison, this poison 
 must be excreted by the larva. 
 
 There exists in many species of gall-flies an alternation of 
 generations ; that is, the individuals of one generation do not 
 resemble their parents, but are like their grandparents. In 
 many cases the two succeeding generations of a species 
 differ so greatly that they have been considered not merely 
 as distinct species, but have been placed in different genera. 
 Thus it has been found by Mr. Adler, of Schleswig, that 
 that while a certain species of Neiiroterus (Neu-rot'e-rus) is 
 developed in one kind of gall on the leaves of oak, the 
 larvae that hatch from eggs laid by it produce a different 
 kind of gall, and develop into gall-flies which do not present 
 
6l8 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 the characteristics of Neurotcrus, but have been classed in 
 another genus under the name Spathegaster (Spath-e-gas'ter). 
 These in turn lay eggs which develop into gall-flies like their 
 grandparents, i.e., a species of Neuroterus. Not only, says 
 Mr. Adler, do the two generations live in galls differing in 
 form, color, and situation, and the insects exhibit among 
 themselves differences of size, proportions, and structure, but 
 what renders the contrast more striking is that the Neu- 
 roterus generation is only represented by females, whilst the 
 Spathegaster generation presents individuals of both sexes. 
 
 Although alternation of generations occurs in many 
 species of the Cynipidae, it is believed that there are other 
 species in which the parthenogenetic form exists alone ; that 
 is, the species reproduce continuously without any males ap- 
 pearing. There can be no doubt that these parthenogenetic 
 species have descended from species consisting of both sexes. 
 Still, it is said that no case is now known of a bisexual form 
 existing alone ; each bisexual species is merely a link in a 
 cycle containing a parthenogenetic generation. 
 
 The members of this family infest many kinds of plants, 
 but their galls occur most abundantly on oaks. Among the 
 more conspicuous species are the following : 
 
 The Fibrous Oak apple, Ainphibolips coccinecE (Am-phib'- 
 o-lips coc-cin'e-.ne). — There are several larg^, spherical galls, 
 common on oaks, which have received the name of oak-apples. 
 These galls resemble each other quite closely in their ex- 
 ternal appearance, but differ much in their internal struc- 
 ture. The one which we name the Fibrous Oak-apple is 
 represented by Figure 746. In the centre of the gall there is 
 a small, hollow kernel, in the cavity of which the gall-fly is 
 developed. The space between this kernel and the dense 
 outer layer of the gall is filled with many fibres, which radi- 
 ate from the kernel. This gall is found on the scarlet oak, 
 and varies in size from three fourths inch to two inches in 
 diameter. 
 
 The Spongy Oak-apple, Ainphibolips spongtfica {K. spon- 
 
HYMENOPrERA. 
 
 619 
 
 g-if'i-ca), is most common on the red oak, but it occurs also 
 on the black oak. In this gall the space between the kernel 
 and the outer layer is quite densely filled with a porous 
 mass, which suggests the name spongy. 
 
 The Larger Empty Oak-apple, Holcaspis inanis (Hol- 
 cas'pis i-na'nis). — There are two oak-apples which are very 
 similar in structure, and which may be termed the empty 
 oak-apples. In these the space between the central kernel 
 
 Fig. 746. — Gall of AtHphiiwlips cocci nea-. 
 
 and the outer shell contains only a few, very slender, silky 
 filaments, which hold the kernel in place. The larger of 
 these two galls measures an inch or more in diameter, and 
 is found on the scarlet oak and the red oak. 
 
 The Smaller Empty Oak-apple, Holcaspis centricola (H. 
 cen-tric'o-la), is found on the post-oak, and measures three 
 fourths of an inch or less in diameter. It also differs from 
 the preceding in that the outer shell is mottled. 
 
 The Bullet-gall, Holcaspis globulus (H. glob'u-lus).— One 
 of the most common galls on our oaks in the Northeastern 
 
620 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 States is a bullet-like gall, which is attached to the small 
 twigs, and which measures from one half to two thirds inch 
 in diameter. In this gall the central kernel is surrounded 
 by a hard, woody substance. 
 
 The Giant Oak-gall, Andriais californinis (An'dri-cus 
 cal-i-for'ni-cus. — This is the most common oak-gall of the 
 Pacific coast. It is very abundant on the twigs and branches 
 of the California white oak, and during the winter, when the 
 trees are bare, it is a very conspicuous object. It differs 
 from the preceding galls in being of the type termed poly- 
 thalamous; that is, instead of containing a single cell, there 
 are several cells within it, in each of which a gall-fly is devel- 
 oped. This gall varies greatly in form and size ; some of the 
 larger ones measure ten or twelve inches in their greatest 
 circumference. The outer surface of the gall is white, and 
 usually smooth. 
 
 The Pithy Blackberry-gall, DiastropJms iiebulosus (Di-as'- 
 
 tro-phus neb- 
 u-lp'sus), is 
 another exam- 
 ple of a poly- 
 thalamous gall. 
 It is a large 
 woody growth, 
 which occurs 
 on the stems 
 of blackberry. 
 It is sometimes 
 three inches in 
 length and one 
 and one -half 
 inches in diam- 
 eter. It varies 
 in shape, but 
 
 Fig, 747.— The Mossy Rose-gall, Rhodites rosa. there are al» 
 
 ways several wrinkled ridges along the stem. 
 
// Y MEN OP TEKA . 62 1 
 
 The Mossy Rose-gall, Rhoditcs rosce (Rho-di'tes ro'ss), 
 is a very common polythalamous gall, which is formed on 
 the stem of the sweetbrier (Fig. 747). The gall consists of 
 a large number of hard kernels surrounding the branch and 
 covered with reddish or green, moss-like filaments. In each 
 of these kernels a gall fly is developed. 
 
 The Guest Gall-flies or Inquilines (In'qui-lins). — There are 
 many gall-flics that do not form galls, but lay their eggs in 
 the galls made by some other species. The larvae of these 
 guest gall-flies feed upon these galls, and in many instances 
 do not discommode the owners in the least. 
 
 Family Trigonalid^ (Trig-o-nal'i-dae). 
 TJie Trigonalids ( Tri-gon' a-lids). 
 
 This family includes only one genus, Trigonalys (Tri- 
 gon'a-lys), of which there are only four North American 
 species. All of these are rare. 
 
 In this genus there is a distinct cell between veins I and 
 III of the fore wing; the stigma is well developed ; there is 
 only one marginal cell, but this reaches nearly to the apex 
 of the wing ; and there are four submarginal cells. 
 
 Family ICHNEUMONlDiE (Ich-neu-mon'i-dse). 
 The IcJineuvwii-flics. 
 
 When the discouraged farmer sees his crops harvested 
 before due time by hordes of hungry insects, he is apt to 
 long for a miracle to remove the plague from his fields. 
 Oftener than he dreams the miracle takes place, and millions 
 of insect pests never live to lay their eggs for another brood. 
 Such miracles are most frequently wrought by members of 
 this and the allied families. These constitute a group com- 
 monly spoken of as the Parasitic Hymenoptera (see Synop- 
 sis, p. 601), a group containing the great majority of all 
 parasitic insects. 
 
 Very many other insects play an important part in the 
 
622 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 destruction of insect pests; but in most cases these other 
 insects are simply predaceous, pouncing upon and destroy- 
 ing such insects as they can overcome. But the true para- 
 sites act in a very different way. Although some species 
 are external parasites, most of them live within the bodies 
 of their victims, within which they pass their entire larval 
 existence. Their presence in this strange situation is due 
 to the fact that the parent lays her eggs within or upon the 
 body of the insect to be destroyed. When the ^^^ is laid 
 upon the body of the victim, the larva as soon as it hatches 
 bores its way into the body. So in either case the young 
 parasite is in the midst of suitable food. It is probable that 
 
 Fig. 748.— Wings of Exefastcs fascjfennis. 
 
 the parasite feeds only on the blood of its host ; hence the 
 parasitized insect is not destroyed at once, but lives on with 
 the parasite within it, which gradually attains its growth. 
 Finally, the parasitized insect perishes ; and from the larva 
 that has been nourished in its body there is developed a 
 winged creature, which in turn lays its eggs in other victims. 
 Frequently a parasitic insect lays several eggs within a single 
 victim, so that a- number of parasites may be developed 
 within the body of a single insect. Each species of these 
 parasites infests only certain insects, each insect having, to 
 a great extent, its peculiar parasites. 
 
 Although the Ichneumonidae include some minute forms, 
 
HYMENOFTERA. 
 
 623 
 
 the species are mostly of considerable size, and here belong the 
 largerof the parasitic Hymenoptera. In this family the wings 
 are furnished with several closed cells ; the fore wings have 
 a stigma; and cells V, and ist V, are separate (Fig. 748). 
 
 The largest members of the family belong to the genus 
 Thalessa. These are remarkable-looking insects, with long, 
 slender bodies and three long hairs at the end of the body. 
 Two of these hairs form a sheath for the third, which is the 
 ovipositor. This ovipositor, although apparently merely a 
 thread, is really composed of three pieces placed paralkl, 
 one above and two below, and securely locked together. 
 Near the end of them are ridges like those on a file, and 
 between them is a passage through which the egg is forced 
 when it is laid. 
 
 Thalessa liinator (Tha-les'sa lu-na'tor) is one of the 
 larger of our Ichneumon-flies. Its body is two and one 
 half inches long, and it measures nearly ten inches from 
 the tip of the antennae to the tip of the ovipositor. It 
 is a parasite of the wood-boring larva of the Pigeon Horn- 
 tail. When a female 
 finds a tree infested by 
 this insect she selects a 
 place which she judges is 
 opposite a Tremex-bur- 
 rovv, and, elevating her 
 long ovipositor in a loop 
 over her back, with its 
 tip on the bark of the 
 tree (Fig. 749), she 
 makes a derrick out of 
 her body, and proceeds 
 with great skill and pre- 
 cision to drill a hole into 
 the tree. When the 
 
 TremeX-burrOW is Fig. 7^^.— Thalessa lunator. 
 
 reached she deposits an ^gg in it. The larva that hatches 
 
624 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 from this egg creeps along this burrow until it reaches 
 its victim, and then fastens itself to the horn-tail larva, 
 which it destroys by sucking its blood. The larva of 
 Thalcssa when full grown changes to a pupa within the bur- 
 row of its host, and the adult gnaws a hole out through the 
 bark if it does not find a hole already made by the Tremex. 
 Sometimes the adult Thalessa, like the adult Tremex, gets 
 her ovipositor wedged in the wood so tightly that it holds 
 her a prisoner until she dies. 
 
 The most common of our larger Ichneumon-flies belongs 
 to the genus Ophion (O'phi-on) (Fig. 
 750) ; these have yellow bodies. They 
 infest the caterpillars of the Polyphe- 
 mus-moth, and only a single egg is 
 laid within each victim. The cater- 
 pillar lives until it spins its cocoon, 
 Fig. 75o.-6»/a/<'«. ]q^<i^ docs not changc to a pupa. The 
 
 Ichneumon larva when full grown spins a dense brownish 
 cocoon within the cocoon of the caterpillar. Another smaller 
 Ichneumon-fly, Cryptus extrematis (Cryp'tus ex-tre-ma'tis), 
 infests the same caterpillar, but more than one ^tgg is laid in 
 a caterpillar by the female. We have bred thirty-five of 
 these Ichneumon-flies from one caterpillar. The larv.ne of 
 this species also spin their cocoons within the cocoon of their 
 host. 
 
 Family Stephanid^ (Ste-phan'i-dae). 
 
 TJie StepJianids {Steph'a-nids). 
 
 This family includes only four North American species, 
 and all of these are rare. They resemble the Braconids in 
 lacking the vein between cells V, and ist V, of the fore wing, 
 but differ in having a cell between veins I and III. 
 
HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 625 
 
 Family BRACONIDyK (Bra-con'i-dae). 
 The Braconids {Brac'o-nids). 
 
 The Braconidae include a large number of parasites, 
 or of moderate size. They are often called 
 
 which are sma 
 
 Ichneumon-flies; but it seems bes 
 
 members of the Ichneumonidai. 
 
 to restrict that name to 
 In the Braconids the 
 
 Fig. 751. — Wings of K/inens farasrfrafS. 
 
 wings have several closed cells, the fore wings are furnished 
 with a stigma, and the vein between cells V, and ist V, is 
 wanting (Fig. 751). This last character is important, as dis- 
 tinguishing the members of this family from the true Ichneu- 
 mon-flies, which they resemble both in appearance and habits. 
 It is not an uncommon thing, especially in vineyards, to 
 find a feeble caterpillar with its back covered with little, white, 
 oblong bodies, which the ignorant usually think are its own 
 ^oS^ (Fig. 752). These are 
 the cocoons of braconid par- 
 asites. The larvae obtain 
 their growth within the body 
 of the caterpillar, and just 
 before it perishes they leave 
 it, and spin their silken cocoons upon its back. When these 
 cocoons arc examined with a lens they are found to be beau- 
 
 Fig. 75.?. — Caterpillar with cocoons of a 
 Braconid. 
 
626 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. 
 
 titul objects, resembling in miniature those of the silkworm. 
 The adult parasite in emerging from its cocoon cuts a neat 
 little lid at its upper end. These parasites belong to the 
 genus Microgaster (Mic-ro-gas'ter). Bunches of white or 
 yellow cocoons of Microgaster are often found attached to 
 grass or other plants instead of to the back of the caterpillar 
 which the larvae have destroyed (Fig. 753). 
 
 Perhaps the most interesting of the com- 
 mon forms belonging to this family are those 
 belonging to the genus ApJiidius{K-y^\\\d."\-w'?). 
 The members of this genus are minute creat- 
 ures which infest plant-lice. If colonies of 
 Aphides be examined, the dried bodies of 
 dead ones may be found in which the abdo- 
 men is more or less spherical, being greatly 
 distended. These bodies remain clinging to 
 the leaves in the position in which the insects 
 were when they died. From each one there 
 emerges in due time an Aphiditis. The para- 
 site in emerging cuts a very 
 regular circular lid in the dor- 
 sal wall of the abdomen of its host (Fig. 754). 
 We have watched with much interest these 
 little Braconids ovipositing in the bodies of 
 plant-lice. When one has selected a plant- F'^ 754. 
 
 louse in which to oviposit she stands with her head towards 
 it, and bending her abdomen under her thorax between her 
 legs she darts her ovipositor forward into the body of the 
 Aphis. The species of this genus do not construct co- 
 coons, but undergo their metamorphoses within the dried 
 skins of the plant-lice. 
 
 Family Evaniid.^ (Ev-a-ni'i-dae). 
 The Ensign-JIies. 
 This is a small family, comprising insects of very peculiar 
 structure. They can be easily distinguished by the fact 
 
HYMEXOPTERA. 627 
 
 that the abdomen is attached to the top of the mctathorax, 
 and not at the hind end of it, as with other insects. The 
 abdomen is compressed, and has a very slender base. 
 
 The venation of the wings also presents a striking pe- 
 culiarity. In other Hymenoptera vein V of the fore wings 
 
 Fig. 755.— Wings of Atdacus. 
 
 arises from some point on the cross-vein III-VII that is 
 nearer to vein III than to vein VII, while in the Evaniidae 
 the origin of vein V is nearer to vein VII than to vein IIL 
 
 F:g. 756.— Wings of Fcenus. 
 
 In the more generalized members of the family, as Aidants 
 (Au'la-cus), the origin of vein V is but a little way from the 
 
628 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 middle of cross-vein III-VII (Fig. 755); but in Fce:ms 
 (Foe'nus) (Fig. 756) vein V has migrated so far toward the 
 anal furrow tliat it no longer arises from the cross vein, and 
 cell V is reduced to a mere areolet. 
 
 These insects are parasitic ; we have bred one species, 
 
 Fig. T^-j.—Evania aj>peiuiignster. 
 
 Fig. ■j^Z.—rucniis. 
 
 EzHinia appendigastcr (E-van'i-a ap-pen-di-gas'ter) (Fig. 757), 
 from the ootheca of a cockroach, and have found another, 
 a species of Famis (Foe'nus) (Fig. 758), common on flowers. 
 We have named these insects Ensign-flies, because they 
 carry the abdomen aloft like a flag. 
 
 Family Chalcidid^ (Chal-cid'i-dae). 
 The CJialcis-fiics. 
 The Chalcis-flies are among the smaller of the parasitic 
 Hymenoptera. In fact they are usually minute insects, 
 often not more than one one-hundredth of an inch in length ; 
 on the other hand, a few of our species are much larger, a 
 common one measuring three eighths of an inch in length. 
 They are nearly always black, with strong metallic reflec- 
 
 FlG. Ti<i.—DilophogastercaHfornica. FiG. jSo.—Ajyhycus ernfiior. 
 
 tions, although some species are yellow. The head is 
 usually large ; the prothorax does not extend back on each 
 
H YMENOP TERA . 629 
 
 side to the cup-like scale covering the base of the fore 
 wing; the wings have no closed cells; and the ovipositor is 
 usually hidden, issuing before the apex of the abdomen. 
 Figures 759 and 760 represent Chalcis-fhes greatly enlarged. 
 
 It is to this family that the great majority of the para- 
 sites of the smaller insects belong. Thus scale-bugs are 
 preyed upon by many species of Chalcis-fiies. But Chalcis- 
 flies also attack large insects, for many caterpillars are de- 
 stroyed by them. The most efficient parasite of the cab- 
 bage-butterfly is a Chalcis-fly, Pterouiahis piiparnm (Pte- 
 rom'a-lus pu-pa'rum). In the case of these larger insects 
 hundreds of Chalcis-flies may reach maturity within a single 
 individual. 
 
 The larva; of Chalcis-flies usually feed within their vic- 
 tims, but a few live attached externally. Some Chalcis- 
 flies, like the members of the next family, are egg-parasite.s, 
 and certain others are developed within the galls produced 
 by members of other families (Cynipidae and Cecidomyidae), 
 and are doubtless merely inquilines, instead of parasites. 
 
 The members of one subfamily closely approach the 
 gall-flies (Cynipidae) in structure and in habits. One of 
 these, the Joint-worm, Isosoma hordei (Is-o-so'ma hor'de-i), 
 is a well-known pest, which infests the stalks of growing 
 grain. It causes a woody growth, which fills up the cavity 
 of the stalk, and sometimes also causes a joint to swell and 
 the stalk to bend and lop down. The presence of this insect 
 is often indicated by pieces of hardened straw coming from 
 the threshing-machine with the grain. There is but a single 
 generation of the joint-worm in a year. The insects remain 
 in the straw during the winter, the adults emerging in the 
 spring. Obviously the best way to destroy this pest is to 
 burn the infested straw before the insects emerge. 
 
 The Chalcis-flies of the genus Leucospis (Leu-cos'pis) are 
 very remarkable in form. They agree with the true wasps, and 
 differ from all other Hymenoptera in having the fore wings 
 folded like a fan when at rest. They are also peculiar in 
 
630 THE STUD Y OF IXSECTS. 
 
 having the ovipositor of the female curved up over the dor. 
 sum of the abdomen to the thorax. Our most common 
 species is Leucospis affinis (L. af-fi'nis) ; this measures about 
 three eightiis inch in length. 
 
 Family Proctotkupid.^£ (Proc-to-tru'pi-dae). 
 The Proctoirupids {Froc-to-irn'pids). 
 
 These insects, in spite of their long family name, are the 
 
 smallest of the parasitic Hymenoptera ; and in fact the 
 
 smallest of all known insects belongs to this family. The 
 
 larger species rarely exceed one twenty-fifth of an inch in 
 
 length • the smallest, Alaptus excisus (A-lap'tus ex-ci'sus), 
 
 measures between six and seven one-thousandths of an inch. 
 
 In shape, the body is slender, and the 
 
 color is almost invariably black or 
 
 brown without metallic lustre ; the 
 
 prothorax extends back on each side 
 
 to the cup-like scale covering the base 
 
 of the fore wing ; the wings are often 
 
 wantingf, and when present are en- 
 Fig. 761. ,. , . , ,, , 
 
 tirely vemless, or they may approach 
 
 the venation of some of the Chalcis-fhes, or in other cases 
 
 that of some of the Braconidae ; the ovipositor issues from 
 
 the apex of the abdomen. Figure 761 represents a Procto- 
 
 trupid greatly enlarged. 
 
 The Proctotrupids are nearly all parasitic ; and very 
 
 many of them infest the eggs of other insects. The female 
 
 Proctotrupid bores a hole with her ovipositor through the 
 
 shell of an egg of one of the larger insects, and deposits one 
 
 of her eggs inside of it. Here the young parasite when it 
 
 hatches finds itself in the midst of food which is suflficient 
 
 for it till it is fully grown. The transformations are passed 
 
 within the infested egg, from which the parasite comes forth 
 
 an adult. Other species are internal parasites of larvae, 
 
 and some are secondary parasites, that is, parasites upon 
 
// ] 'ME NOP TERA. 6l I 
 
 Other parasites. A few species are inquilines, but none 
 have been found to be injurious to vegetation. 
 
 Suborder Aculeata (A-cu-Ie-a'ta). 
 The Stinging Hymenoptcra. 
 
 In the second of the two suborders into which the Hy- 
 menoptera are divided we find at the caudal end of the 
 body of the female a sting connected with a poison gland, 
 the well-known organ of offence of these insects. This is 
 really the same organ as that which we have termed the 
 borer in the first suborder, but its form and use are differ- 
 ent. It should be said, however, that the sting of insects of 
 this suborder is not a simple spear, as often supposed, but 
 is really a compound organ composed of essentially the 
 same parts as the borer described in preceding pages. In 
 some cases the sting is imperfectly developed : thus we find 
 that while certain ants have well-developed stings, others are 
 not able to sting at all. 
 
 In the Aculeata, as already indicated on page 6io, the 
 trochanter of the posterior legs consists of a single segment 
 (Fig- 737, a, c\ 
 
 In the adult insects of this suborder the abdomen con- 
 sists of six complete segments in the female, and seven in the 
 male. This character is very useful in separating the sexes 
 of these insects.* 
 
 Family Pelecinid^ (Pel-e-cin'i-dae). 
 The Pelecinus {Pel-e-ci'tms). 
 
 This family is represented by a single species, Pelecinus 
 polyturator (P. pol-y-tu-ra'tor), which is a very remarkable 
 insect. The females are common where they occur, and 
 are easily recognized by the slender and very long abdomen 
 (Fig. 762). The abdomen of the male is club-shaped, and 
 
 * No account is taken here of the propodeum (see page 602). 
 
632 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 only about twice the length of the head and thorax. This 
 sex is very rare ; it can be recognized by the venation of 
 the wings, which is similar to that of the female. Nothing 
 
 Fig. yf>2.—Pelech!US polyturator, female. 
 
 is known regarding the habits of this species, but it is sup- 
 posed to be parasitic, like the Ichneumon-flies. 
 
 Family Chrysidid^ (Chry-sid'i-dae). 
 
 The Cuckoo-flies. 
 
 The cuckoo-flies are wonderfully beautiful creatures, be- 
 ing usually a brilliant metallic green in color. The species 
 are of moderate size, the largest being only about a half 
 inch in length. They can be distinguished from other 
 Hymenoptera by the form of the ab- 
 domen, in which there are only three 
 or four visible segments (Fig. 763), 
 except in the male of a single genus 
 {Cleptes), where there are five. The 
 abdomen is convex above and flat or 
 concave below, so that it can be read- 
 ily turned under the thorax and closely applied to it. In 
 this way a cuckoo-fly rolls itself into a ball when attacked, 
 leaving only its wings exposed. 
 
 Although these insects are handsome, they have very 
 ugly morals, resembling those of the bird whose name has 
 been applied to them. A cuckoo-fly seeks until it finds one 
 of the digger-wasps, or a solitary true wasp, or a solitary 
 
 Fig. 763.— r/iryj 
 
H Y MEN OP TERA . 633 
 
 bee, building a nest, and wlien the owner of the nest is off 
 collecting provisions steals in and lays its egg, which the 
 unconscious owner walls in with her own egg. Sometimes 
 the cuckoo-fly larva eats the rightful occupant of the nest, 
 and sometimes starves it by eating up the food provided for 
 it. The bees and wasps know this foe very well, and tender 
 it so warm a reception that the brilliant-coated little rascal 
 has reason enough to double itself up so that the righteous 
 sting of its assailant can find no hole in its armor. There 
 is one instance on record where an outraged wasp, unable 
 to sting one of the cuckoo-flies to death, gnawed off her 
 wings and pitched her out on the ground. But the un- 
 daunted invader waited until the wasp departed for provi- 
 sions, and then crawled up the post and laid her t^^ in the 
 nest before she died. 
 
 Some of the cuckoo-flies are true parasites ; one of them 
 infests the currant-worm in Europe. It is to be hoped that 
 this species will find its way to this country. 
 
 Superfamily FOKMICINA (For-mi-ci'na). 
 TJie Ants. 
 
 The ants are easily recognized by the well-known form 
 of the body. The only insects that are liable to be mis- 
 taken for ants are the white-ants or Termites {Termitidce) 
 and the velvet-ants {Mutillidce). But the true ants are 
 readily distinguished from these and other insects by the 
 form of the abdomen. With the ants the first segment of 
 the abdomen, and in one family the second also, forms a 
 lens-shaped scale or knot, varying in form and 
 serving as a peduncle to the remaining por- 
 tion of this region of the body (Fig. 764). Fig. 764. 
 The winged ants are also peculiar in lacking the cup like 
 scale or tegula at the base of each fore wing. 
 
 If the statesman or the philosopher would study a per- 
 fect communistic society, let him throw away his histories 
 
634 THE STUDY OF IX SECTS. 
 
 of poor human attempts, and go and study thoroughly the 
 nearest ant-hill. There he will find no love for friend or 
 wife or child, but a love for everyone. There everything is 
 done for the good of the whole, and nothing for the indi- 
 vidual. The state makes wars, provides food for all, cares 
 for the children, owns all the property. He will find no 
 complaint against the existing condition of society, no 
 rebels; but the fate of each one is determined by the acci- 
 dent of birth, and each takes up its work without a murmur. 
 He will find that this perfect commune has developed 
 courage, patriotism, loyalty, and never-failing industry; but 
 he will find also that war, pillage, slavery, and an utter dis- 
 regard of the rights of other communities and individuals 
 are as prevalent as they are among our own nations, where 
 selfish private ambition has held sway so long. 
 
 There arc always three classes of ants in a colony : males, 
 females, and workers. The males and the females are winged, 
 the workers wingless. Often in warm summer afternoons 
 the air will seem to be filled with countless thousands of 
 flying ants. Their moving wings divide the sun's rays into 
 rainbow flashes as they rise or fall, a silent, onward-moving 
 host. This is the wedding-journey of the male and female 
 ants, which have come from many communities and have 
 taken flight together. But soon the journey is over and 
 they drop to earth, where the males soon die ; but the 
 females tear off their own Avings, having no further use for 
 them, and set about to find places to lay their eggs. Some- 
 times a female starts a new colony; in other cases she is 
 fo'nd by some workers of her own species and adopted as 
 their queen. 
 
 Comparatively little is known regarding the formation of 
 new colonies of ants. It has-been a question whether a 
 colony is founded by a single queen working alone, as with 
 the bumblebees and social wasps; or whether a queen asso- 
 ciates a number of workers with herself and they together 
 found the colony, as with the Honey-bee. The writer has 
 
nVMEXOPTERA. 635 
 
 demonstrated by repeated experiments that in the case of 
 our common carpenter-ant {Cainponotiis poinsyhuDiicus) the 
 former method is practised. But it is not improbable that 
 with certain other species the latter method occurs. 
 
 On many occasions we have found a queen of the car- 
 penter-ant in a small cleared space beneath the bark of a 
 dead tree or lo^j. Some of these queens were alone ; others 
 were accompanied either by eggs, larva;, or by small workers, 
 On one occasion we collected several such queens and placed 
 each with her eggs in a cell between plates of glass in an 
 artificial ant's nest, and have thus watched the beginnings 
 of colonies. A few eggs, from ten to fifteen, are laid at 
 first ; these soon hatch, and the larvae develop quite rapidly. 
 A nest which on July 15th contained, besides the queen, 
 only seven eggs, contained July 27th thirteen eggs, three 
 larvae, and one cocoon ; and on Aug. 14th there were six 
 cocoons. In another nest, which on July 15th contained, 
 besides the queen, only young larvae, the larvae began to 
 spin cocoons on July 19th, and on Aug. 8th the workers 
 began to emerge. On Aug. i6th the workers had begun to 
 work, carrying the empty cocoons out of the nest, and on 
 Aug. 20th the workers began to take into the nest dead flies 
 that had been placed at the entrance. 
 
 The most remarkable result of this experiment was the 
 demonstration of the fact that from the time the queen forms 
 her cell and begins to lay eggs to the time when a brood of 
 workers is matured no food is taken into the nest. The cell 
 is a closed one, and contains no store of food except what 
 may be within the body of the queen. The queen does not 
 leave the nest ; and when we placed food within a nest the 
 queen built a wall of earth about it, thus walling it out. 
 
 To test this matter a queen was placed with some of her 
 eggs in an empty vial, and Swiss muslin was tied over the 
 mouth of it. Here, where the queen could not possibly 
 obtain food, the larvae matured, spun cocoons, and adult 
 workers ernerged. The queen was often seen to apparently 
 
636 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 lick the workers, and the conclusion was forced upon us 
 that there was stored up within the stomach of the queen a 
 supply of food, which was regurgitated and fed to the larvae. 
 It should be noted that this first brood of workers consists 
 of very small individuals, of the type known as worker- 
 minor. 
 
 The term queen, as applied to the individual at the head 
 of a colony of ants, is a misnomer, for among social insects 
 the queens do not rule ; they are merely the mothers of 
 their colonics. The queen ant is not jealous, like the queen 
 bee, but may live in peace in the same dwelling with several 
 other queens. She is always an object of extreme devotion 
 to her attendants, who feed her and care for her eggs as soon 
 as she lays them. 
 
 The larvae of ants are white and legless; most species 
 spin cocoons when ready to pupate, but some do not. The 
 oblong, egg-shaped bodies, which may be seen in any ant's 
 nest, and which are often mistaken by the careless observer 
 for eggs, are these cocoons. The eggs are so small that 
 they escape observation unless careful search is made for 
 them. The larvae are efificiently cared for by the workers, 
 who carry them about and put them in the warmer parts of 
 the nest and feed them. When the adults issue from the 
 cocoons their nurses help them out carefully ; and they un- 
 fold the legs and smooth out the wings of new-fledged roy- 
 alty with tenderest solicitude. The workers are by far the 
 most interesting portion of the ant colony, as they do all 
 the work, feed the colony, build and defend the nests, care 
 for the young and for the stock, and carry on the wars. 
 The workers are undeveloped females, which very rarely lay 
 eggs, and as the eggs of workers always develop into males, 
 the presence of a queen is necessary for the perpetuation of 
 the life of a colony. For this reason, as the queens grow old 
 the workers find young queens at the swarming season, 
 bring them into their nests, and adopt them as successors to 
 the old queens. 
 
NYMEXOFTERA. 63/ 
 
 Tliere are many forms of ants* nests, but each species 
 builds the same sort. Sometimes the nest is a simple tun- 
 nel in the earth, sometimes a large mound with tunnels and 
 galleries extending many feet under ground; and some 
 species live in decayed trees. In the tropics a greater variety 
 of these structures occur than in our country. Some 
 colonies own several mounds. One colony of one species 
 has been known to have two hundred mounds, covering 
 several hundred square yards. Ants are also very good 
 road-makers, sometimes making clean, beaten paths, and 
 sometimes working out covered ways under rubbish. 
 
 As to their food, ants are general feeders, eating animal 
 food and also sweet substances, like the juice of fruit and 
 sugar ; and they are also very fond of the honey-dew given 
 off byAphids; and the ants regard these Aphids as their 
 milch-cows. An ant will walk up to an Aphid and stroke its 
 back with its antennae, and immediately the pleased Aphid 
 gives forth a drop of sweet fluid, which the ant at once 
 drinks up. The ants take very good care of their cattle, 
 and will carry them to new pastures if the old ones dry up. 
 They also carry the Aphid-eggs into their nests, and keep 
 them sheltered during the winter, and then carry the young 
 plant-lice out and put them on plants in the spring. When 
 ants are seen going up and down the trunks of trees it 
 is safe to suppose they are attending Aphids. They also 
 care similarly for some of the Coccids (especially some 
 Lecaniums) and a few other honey-giving insects (Tree- 
 hoppers and others). 
 
 Many species of beetles are also found in ants' nests, but 
 the ants have never revealed to us why these insects are 
 allowed to dwell in peace in their habitations. 
 
 We have many evidences that ants think, but what goes 
 on in their minds we can only guess. They have a language 
 that seems to exist through the sense of touch. The an- 
 tennae are most sensitive organs, and when ants meet they 
 cross their antennae and pat each other. If one finds some 
 
638 THE STUDY OF IX SECTS. 
 
 large article of food, too heavy for it to carry, it goes for 
 aid, and the first fellow it meets it pats with its antennae, 
 and the two start off together for the booty. If a nest is 
 attacked the workers or soldiers rush around and stroke each 
 other with their antennae, and thus evidently give warning 
 and plan a battle for protection. In case an ant finds a 
 comrade in distress it shows great solicitude and activity in 
 giving relief. Yet there are some species that, like the 
 Spartans, kill off the feeble and old, as useless to the colony. 
 When a portion of a colony is removed and kept imprisoned 
 for a time, and then returned, there is great rejoicing on 
 both sides. Gould says they have a way of standing on 
 their hind legs and prancing around under such circum- 
 stances, as well as when they enter the cell of their queen, 
 that indicates great joy. Sometimes they get to be very 
 hilarious and wrestle with each other, and carry each other 
 around as if it were a part of a game that they found amus- 
 ing — a sort of formic football. 
 
 But it is in their wars that the ants show that they are 
 trained athletes. They do most of their fighting with their 
 jaws, but they also eject upon each other an acrid fluid called 
 formic acid. They are very courageous, and will attack a 
 man as readily as a grasshopper. They seem in a great rage 
 when they fight, and are fierce beyond belief. After a 
 battle the field is strewn with legs, heads, and bodies. They 
 usually wage war against other species, but sometimes two 
 colonies of the same species Avill go to war if their nests 
 happen to encroach upon each other. When an army is 
 ready to go forth for conquest, scouts are sent out and the 
 army waits till they return before it starts. Very often 
 these armies go forth to capture slaves, for there are several 
 species of ants that are slaveholders, and by strange coin- 
 cidence the slaves are dark colored, while the masters are 
 light. When a depredating army sets forth it proceeds to 
 the black colony, which defends itself fiercely ; if the be- 
 sieged blacks are overcome, the conquerors carry off all the 
 
HYMEXOPTERA. 639 
 
 larvae and pupse to their own nests, and bring them up with 
 their own, and they in turn work hard for their captors, and 
 take great interest in their welfare and success. When a 
 party of marauders comes back without any booty their 
 slaves give them a cold reception ; but if they come back 
 laden with plenty of larv;c and pupai, the slaves rush out 
 and meet them with apparent dcligiit and exultation. 
 
 Some species of slaveholders (e.g., Formica dijficilis) 
 work side by side with their slaves. However, in one species 
 {Polyergus rufesccns of Europe) the masters have depended 
 upon their slaves so long that they cannot build their own 
 nests or feed tiiemselves or care for their young, but have 
 only retained the power of fighting to get more slaves. 
 Hiiber tells of placing several of these slaveholders by 
 themselves, where nearly all helplessly starved, although 
 there was plenty of food all around them. Then a slave was 
 introduced, which at once set to work and made a nest and 
 fed those still alive, thus saving from death its stupid 
 masters. 
 
 The classification of the ants is still in a very imperfect 
 state. Many of our common species are still undescribed, 
 and the limits of the families have not yet been determined. 
 But, if we except a few species found in Texas and Utah, 
 our described species represent only three families. These 
 can be separated by the following table : — 
 
 TABLE OF FAMILIES OF THE FORMICINA, 
 
 A. Peduncle of the abdomen consisting of a single segment. 
 
 B. Abdomen not constricted between the second and third S5£,' 
 
 ments (the first segment forms tlie peduncle), p. 64o..FoRMlCIDiE. 
 
 BB. Abdomen constricted between the second and third segments. 
 
 p. 642 ..'. .PONERlDiB. 
 
 AA. Peduncle of the abdomen consisting of two segments, p. 642. 
 
 Myrmicid^. 
 
640 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Family FORMICID^ (For-mic'i-dae). 
 The Typical Ants. 
 
 The ants of this family can be recognized by the follow. 
 
 ing characteristics : the pe- 
 duncle of the abdomen con- 
 sists of a single segment ; 
 there is no constriction be- 
 tween the second and third 
 abdominal segments (Fig. 
 Fig. /es.-A Formicid. 765) j and the queens and 
 
 workers have no sting. The pupae are sometimes contained 
 in a cocoon and are sometimes naked. The following are 
 some of our more common species: 
 
 The Carpenter-ant, Camponotus pennsylvamcns (Cam-po- 
 no'tus penn-syl-va'ni-cus). — This is one of the largest of our 
 common ants. Its entire body is black. It builds its nests 
 in the timbers of buildings, in logs, and in the trunks of 
 trees. Frequently they build in the dead interior of a liv- 
 ing tree, excavating a complicated series of chambers. The 
 way in which new colonies of this ant are founded is de- 
 scribed on page 635. 
 
 The Mound-building Ant, Formica cxsectoides (For'mi-ca 
 ex-sec-toi'des). — This species is- the builder of our largest ant- 
 hills ; these are often five or six feet across, and sometimes 
 more than twice that in diameter. The head and thorax of 
 this ant are rust-red, while the legs and abdomen are black- 
 ish brown. This species has been supposed to be the same 
 as the European Wood-ant, Formica riifa, and is referred to 
 in many books under that name. 
 
 The Slavemaker-ant, Formica difficilis (F. dif-fic'i-lis). — 
 One of our common slave-making ants is this species. It 
 very closely resembles the preceding in size and in color; 
 in fact it is difficult to distinguish the two apart without the 
 use of a microscope. The Slavemaker-ant usually makes 
 >ts nest almost entirely underground. We often find these 
 
H YMEXOF I ERA, 64 1 
 
 nests beneath large flat stones. It is a curious fact that in 
 a single nest some of the pupai will be enclosed in cocoons 
 while others are naked. This ant is not always accompanied 
 by slaves ; but it is a common occurrence to find its dark- 
 colored associate with it. The way in which this ant gets its 
 slaves has been described above (p. 638). 
 
 The Slave-ant, Formica subsericca (F. sub-se-ric'e-a). — 
 This is usually a dark-brown or ash-colored ant with reddish 
 legs, but it varies greatly in color. It generally makes its 
 nest in the ground, beneath a stone or other object, and 
 leads an independent life when allowed to do so. But it is 
 this species that Formica difficilis enslaves. 
 
 The Corn-louse Ant, Lasiiis briinneus (Las'i-us brun'ne- 
 us). — This is the common, brown, small ant, about one eighth 
 inch in length, whose nests abound along the borders of 
 roads, in pastures, and in meadows. It is an exceedingly 
 interesting species on account of the care it is known to 
 take of certain plant-lice that feed upon the roots of grass 
 and of grain. One of these plant-lice feeds on the roots of 
 corn, and is a very serious pest in the middle West. It has 
 been discovered that this ant cares for the eggs of this plant- 
 louse, keeping them in its nest during the winter, thus 
 making sure of having a herd of Aphids from which it can 
 get a supply of honey-dew the following summer. 
 
 The marriage flights of the ants of the genus Lasius are 
 remarkable. The nests of these ants are so inconspicuous 
 that they are rarely observed except when search is made 
 for them. But the males and young queens from all the 
 nests in one region will emerge at one time, usually some 
 warm a'fternoon, and, where a short time before no ants 
 could be seen, the air becomes filled with these flying crea- 
 tures. We have ridden for several miles through such a 
 swarm, when the ants were so abundant that it was almost 
 impossible to breathe without inhaling them. The ants that 
 make up these swarms are very different from the workers 
 that we find in the nests. Both the young queens and the 
 
642 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 males are winged, and the queens are much larger than 
 either the workers or males. 
 
 The Honey-ant, Myrmecocystiis melliger (Myr-mec-o-cys'- 
 tus mel'li-ger). — This ant exhibits a striking peculiarity. 
 One form of the workers has its abdomen 
 enlarged to the size of a currant and filled 
 with honey (Fig. 766). This species lives in 
 high altitudes in the southwestern part of 
 Fig. 766. our country, and builds nests in the form 
 
 of little mounds. The honey-bearing individuals are found 
 clinging to the roofs of their chambers, and are merely storing 
 vats for a sort of honey which the other workers collect from 
 galls that grow on oak-trees and feed to them. When the 
 season for obtaining this food is past, these living cells 
 disgorge their supply through their mouths for the use of 
 their hungry fellows. 
 
 Family PoNERID^ (Po-ner'i-dae). 
 The Ponerids {Po-ne'rids). 
 
 The ants of this family resemble those of the preceding 
 family in that the peduncle of the abdomen consists of a 
 single segment, but differ in having the abdomen con- 
 stricted between the second and third 
 abdominal segments (Fig. 767), and in 
 the possession of a sting by the queens Fi^.'767.-A Ponerid. 
 and workers. The pupa state is passed within the cocoon. 
 But few species belonging to this family have been described 
 in this country, and most of them are rare. Their favorite 
 nesting-place is beneath stones. 
 
 Family Myrmicid^ (Myr-mic'i-dae). 
 The Myrmicids {Myr-mi 'cidi). 
 
 The ants of this family are easily recognized by the fact 
 that with them the peduncle of the abdomen consists of two 
 
H YMENOP TERA. 643 
 
 segments (Fig. 'jdZ). The queens and workers are armed 
 with a sting, and the pupae are 
 naked. The following will serve 
 to illustrate this family : 
 
 The Red-ant, Mononiorium pJiar- 
 aotii s (M o n -o-mo'ri-um phar-a- 
 o'nis). — The most troublesome of 
 all ants that live in this country 
 is a minute yellow species that ^•'ieI^trl.^&s'S\h4 L^^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 frequently invades houses. Al- ^^e front le^, enlarged. 
 
 though this species is light yellow in color, it is commonly 
 known as the Red-ant. When these ants build their nests 
 within the walls or beneath the foundations of a house it is 
 almost impossible to dislodge them. By trapping and de- 
 stroying the workers their numbers can be lessened some- 
 what. But so long as the queens are undisturbed in their 
 nests the supply of workers will continue. 
 
 The Shed-builder Ant, Cremastogastcr lincolata (Cre-mas- 
 to-gas'ter lin-e-o-la'ta). — This is a small ant, the workers 
 measuring from one eighth to three sixteenths inch in length. 
 It is usually yellowish brown, with a black abdomen; but it 
 varies greatly in color. Its favorite nesting-place is under 
 stones or underneath and within the decayed matter of old 
 logs and stumps. Out of this material the ants sometimes 
 make a paper-like pulp with which they build a nest attached 
 to the side of a log, or even to the branches of a shrub at some 
 distance from the ground. Professor Atkinson describes 
 such a nest,* which was built several feet from the ground, 
 on a bush, and was eighteen inches long and twelve inches 
 in circumference ; it contained about one fourth pint of 
 adults, pupae, and larvae, and was doubtless the home of 
 the colony. But these ants often build small sheds, at 
 some distance from the nest, over the herds of Aphids or 
 scale-insects from which they obtain honey-dew. In these 
 
 *American Naturalist, Aug. 1887. 
 
644 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 cases the Aphids or scale-insects are huddled together on a 
 branch, from which they are deriving their nourishment, and 
 are completely covered by the " cow-shed " built by the ants. 
 
 Superfamily Sphecina (Sphe-ci'na). 
 The Fossores {Fos-so'res) or Digger-wasps. 
 
 There are several closely allied families of the Hymenop- 
 tera that are usually classed together as the Fossores or 
 Digger-wasps. These names refer to the fact that most 
 of these insects make nests for their young by digging 
 burrows in the ground or in wood. Many true wasps and 
 bees have similar habits, but these insects differ in appear- 
 ance from the Fossores in the following easily seen charac- 
 teristics: The true wasps when at rest have their wings 
 folded like fans, while the digger-wasps have their wings 
 lying flat above the body. The bees have the basal segment 
 of the tarsi of the hind legs flattened for carrying pollen, 
 while the digger-wasps have legs fitted only for digging and 
 walking. 
 
 The Fossores are all solitary in their habits, that is, each 
 female makes provision for her young. The adults are very 
 fond of the warm sunshine, and may be seen flitting about 
 flowers in the tropical heat of the noontide. As in most 
 Hymenoptera, the male dies early, leaving the entire work 
 of the nest-building and family cares to the female; however, 
 she seems entirely equal to her responsibilities. She burrows 
 in the ground or in wood, or utilizes the forsaken burrows 
 of other species, or builds in the ready-made cavities of 
 reeds or straws, or constructs £f tube out of mud. The nest 
 thus made is provisioned with spiders or with insects, which 
 are not killed, but stung until paralyzed. The prey thus 
 treated remains alive a long time, but is helpless. The egg 
 is laid with this provision, and then the opening of the tube 
 sealed up securely. When the larva hatches it finds nicely 
 preserved food right at hand sufificient to nourish it during 
 its growth. 
 
HYMENOPTERA. 645 
 
 Asa rule, each species provisions its nest with a particular 
 kind of food. Some use only spiders for this purpose, some 
 plant-lice, some caterpillars ; and so on through the list. 
 
 Very interesting and useful work can be done by the 
 student in the study of the habits of the digger-wasps and 
 of the solitary true wasps and solitary bees. Comparatively 
 few nests of either of these groups of insects have been 
 carefully described in this country ; and as each species 
 presents peculiarities of habits, the study is a very fascinat- 
 ing one. 
 
 The nests are most abundant in sandy banks and in the 
 pith of sumach, elder, brambles, and other plants. Some 
 nests are dug in the earth in level places, and many are built 
 of mud and attached to the lower surface of stones or be- 
 neath the roofs of buildings. 
 
 The nests made of mud should be carefully removed so 
 as not to break them, the nature of the provisions noted, 
 and the nest placed in a cage to breed the adult. When 
 the adult has been obtained, both nest and insect should be 
 mounted and placed in a collection. 
 
 In many cases the cells of mining species can be re- 
 moved from the earth and the insects bred in a similar way. 
 But the easiest nests to study are those made in the pith of 
 plants. If dead branches of sumach or elder be split open 
 many of these insects can be found. If the branch be split 
 carefully the peculiarities of the nest can be observed with- 
 out injury to its occupants. Then if the pieces of the branch 
 be tied together the adult insects can be bred by placing the 
 nest in a glass jar or other cage, or in a bag of muslin, if the 
 branch is a long one. 
 
 If a nest is provisioned with a paste made of pollen and 
 nectar, it is a nest of a bee ; but if it is provisioned with 
 spiders or insects, it belongs either to a digger-wasp or to a 
 solitary true wasp. We know of no way of distinguishing 
 between the nests of the last two except by breeding the 
 adults. 
 
646 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 In breeding these insects from their nests care should be 
 taken not to mistake cuckoo-flies or other guest-insects or 
 parasites for the rightful owners of the nests. The fact that 
 members of each of these classes of insects are common in 
 these nests adds both to the complexity and interest of the 
 study. 
 
 The digger-wasps found in America north of Mexico 
 represent fourteen families. These can be separated by 
 the following table : 
 
 TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE FAMILIES OF THE 
 SPHECINA.* 
 
 A. Pronotum considerably produced backward on the sides reaching 
 the tegulae in the winged forms ; in one family the females are 
 wingless. 
 
 B. Abdomen with the first ventral abdominal segment distinctly 
 separated from the second by a constriction (Figs. 769, 770). 
 C. Intermediate tibiae with two apical spurs; the intermediate 
 coxae contiguous, or but little separated ; females wingless. 
 
 p. 648 MUTILLID^. 
 
 CC. Intermediate tibiae usually with a single apical spur, very 
 rarely with two; intermediate coxae, as a rule, widely sepa- 
 rated ; both sexes winged, p. 649 Scoliid^. 
 
 BB. First and second ventral abdominal segments not separated 
 by a constriction. 
 C. Hind legs short, the tibiae not reaching to the apex of the 
 
 abdomen, p. 649 SAPVGiDiE. 
 
 CC. Hind legs long, the tibiae reaching beyond the apex of the 
 
 abdomen, p. 650 Pompilidte. 
 
 AA. Prothorax usually consisting of little more than a narrow 
 collar, the posterior angles not reaching the tegulae ; both sexes 
 winged in all species. 
 
 B. Fore wings with three closed submarginal cells, (Fig. 773, 2d 
 III, III5, III4). 
 C. Base of abdomen with a long slender portion (petiolate), 
 
 * This table is based on one given by Mr. Cresson in his Synopsis of the 
 Hymenoptera of America north of Mexico, Philadelphia, Am. Ent. Soc, 
 1887, 
 
HYMEXOPTERA. 647 
 
 D. Vein V3 arising at or beyond the end of the 2d cell III (Fig. 
 
 773)-* 
 
 E. Petiole of abdomen cylindrical, smooth; antennse slender 
 at apex ; tibiae of middle legs with two apical spurs, p. 650. 
 
 Sphecid^. 
 
 EE. Petiole of abdomen depressed and generally furrowed 
 
 above ; antennae tliickened at apex; middle tibiae with one 
 
 apical spur. p. 655 MlMESID^E. 
 
 DD. Vein Vs arising before the end of the 2d cell III. 
 
 Mellinid^.I 
 CC. Base of abdomen without a long, slender portion (not 
 petiolate). 
 
 D. Veins Vj and V3 arising from the second submarginal cell 
 (III5) (Fig. 775); sometimes vein Vs arises from the end of 
 cell III.. 
 
 E. Fore wings with an appendiculate cell (Fig. 775, «/.) ; 
 mandibles usually more or less deeply notched on the ex- 
 terior margin, p. 652 Larrid^. 
 
 EE. Appendiculate cell wanting; mandibles with the ex- 
 terior margin entire. 
 F. Labrum short, projecting but little, if at all. p. 654. 
 
 NvSSONIDiE. 
 
 FF. Labrum distinctly exserted, sometimes forming a long 
 
 triangular beak (Figs. 776, -]-]-]) 652 BembecidvE. 
 
 DD. Vein Va arising from cell Ilh and vein V3 from cell Ills 
 
 (Fig. 779). p. 654 Philanthid.*:. 
 
 BB. Fore wings with two closed submarginal cells (Fig. 781, 2d 
 III + IIl6 and III4). 
 
 C. Prothorax long and narrow, produced anteriorly into a neck. 
 (As this family includes only a single American species, and 
 that a very rare one, it is not discussed in this work.) 
 
 AMPULICIDiE. 
 
 CC. Prothorax short, transverse, p. 655 Pemphredonid^. 
 
 BBB. Fore wings with only one closed submarginal cell (Fig. 783, 
 2d III + Ills), p. 656 Crabronid^. 
 
 * Vein V3 is the vein between cells V and ist V2 , and between cells Va 
 and 1st V2. In the species represented in Figure 773 it arises nearthe middle 
 of cell Ills and extends backward for more than half its length. 
 
 f This family includes only two species found in the Rocky Mountain 
 region, and a single, very rare, one found in the Eastern States. It is not 
 discussed in this work. 
 
648 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Family MUTILLID^E (Mu-tirii-dae). 
 The Velvet-ants. 
 
 These handsome insects resemble ants in the general 
 form of the body, but lack the scale-like knot of the pedun- 
 cle of the abdomen characteristic of those insects, although 
 there is a constriction between the first and second abdomi- 
 nal segments (Fig. 769). The body is densely 
 ^Sf^^^fS^S covered with hair, which gives the insects the 
 ^ vv ^ appearance of being clothed in velvet ; and as 
 
 Fig. 769. the body is usually ringed with two or more 
 strongly contrasting colors, they are very conspicuous. The 
 colors most commonly worn by the velvet-ants are black 
 and scarlet. The males are winged and frequent flowers. 
 The females are wingless; but they run very fast, and can 
 sting severely. 
 
 These insects are abundant in the warmer portions of 
 our country ; our lists now include one hundred and sixty 
 North American species. The largest of these and a very 
 common species is SpJicerophthalma occidentalis (Sphaer-oph- 
 thal'ma oc-ci-den-ta'lis). This species measures from two- 
 thirds of an inch to a little more than an inch in length ; it 
 varies in color, but is usually black and scarlet. It is known 
 to dig burrows in beaten paths and store in them flies and 
 other insects. It will also enter bee-hives and kill and eat 
 bees. In Texas it is known as the Cow-killer ant, because 
 of a popular superstition that its sting is very dangerous to 
 live stock. 
 
 Several exotic species of Mutilla live in nests of bumble 
 bees ; but whether they exist there as parasites or as inqui- 
 lines has not been determined. Species of Mutilla have also 
 been bred from nests of other digger-wasps, and from those 
 of certain true wasps. 
 
HYMENOPTERA. 649 
 
 Family Scoliid.e (Sco-li'i-dae). 
 The Scoliids {Sco'li-ids). 
 
 The Scoliids are quite closely related to the preceding 
 family but differ in their general appearance, resembling 
 wasps rather than ants. In their habits they do not exhibit 
 as much intelligence as do most digger-wasps, for although 
 they make burrows in the earth, it is said that they do not 
 have the power of building nests and transporting prey to 
 them for their carnivorous larvae. Instead of this, they dig 
 in the ground in order to find larvae that have buried them- 
 selves to undergo their transformations ; and lay their eggs 
 upon such larvae. These insects occur in sunny, hot, and 
 sandy places ; more than forty American species are known. 
 
 One of our most common species is Tiphia inornata 
 (Tiph'i-a in-or-na'ta) ; this is a shining black species, and 
 measures three fifths of an inch in length 
 (Fig. 770). It is parasitic upon white grubs, 
 the larvae of May-beetles, EHs quadrinotata 
 (E'lis quad-ri-no-ta^ta) is a magnificent spe- Fig. 770. 
 
 cies common in the South. It is black, with four yellow 
 spots on the abdomen, and measures nearly or quite one and 
 one fourth inches in length. 
 
 Family Sapygid^ (Sa-pyg'i-dae). 
 
 The Sapygids {Sa-py' gids). 
 
 This is a small family including only two North Ameri- 
 can genera, and but little more than twenty species. These 
 insects are of moderate size, with short legs, and are usually 
 black, spotted or banded with yellow, rarely entirely black. 
 So far as their habits are known, they are inquilines in the 
 nests of solitary wasps and solitary bees. 
 
6SO THE STUD y OF IX SECTS. 
 
 Family POMPILID^ (Pom-piri-dae). 
 
 TJie Spider-wasps. 
 
 The spider-wasps are so called because they provision 
 their nests with spiders. They are slender in form, with long 
 legs (Fig. 771), and are usually black with 
 dusky reddish or black wings; sometimes 
 they are variegated with red or orange. The 
 ^ peduncle is short, so that the abdomen is very 
 closely united to the thorax. Many of the 
 
 ViQ.iji.— fompilus. . - ,. . , , 
 
 species are of medmm size, but some are very 
 large. In fact, the largest of all known Hymenoptera belong 
 to this family. 
 
 One of the giants of the family is the well-known Taran^ 
 tula-hawk, Pepsis fonnosa (Pep'sis for-mo'sa), of the South- 
 west, which stores its burrows with Tarantulas. Many a 
 hard-fought battle does this digger-wasp have with these 
 enormous spiders ; and sometimes it is conquered and igno- 
 miniously eaten. 
 
 Most of the Pompilidse dig burrows in the ground ; but 
 some species of Agenia (A-ge'ni-a) make cells of mud attached 
 to the lower surface of stones or in the chinks of walls ; and 
 the members of the genus Ceropalcs (Ce-rop'a-les) are inqui- 
 lines in the nests of other digger-wasps. 
 
 About one hundred and twenty species belonging to this 
 family are known in our fauna. 
 
 Family SPHECID.E (Sphec'i-dae). 
 The Sphecids {Sphe'cids) or the Thread-waisted Wasps. 
 
 These are the most commonly observed of all our 
 digger-wasps as certain species build their mud nests in the 
 attics of our houses ; and, too, the peculiar shape of the 
 body makes them very conspicuous. The Sphecidae differ 
 from the preceding families of digger-wasps in that the pro- 
 
HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 651 
 
 thorax is not prolonged backward on each side to the base 
 
 of the fore wing. But the most striking characteristic is 
 
 that the first segment of the abdomen is 
 
 generally narrowed into a long, smooth, 
 
 round petiole (Fig. 772), which suggests '^P yj 
 
 the popular name given above. The ve- f-.g. ^^2.-relopceus 
 
 .• r i.1 • t e cement art US, 
 
 nation ot the wmgs of one of our more 
 
 common species is represented by Fig. yy^. The fore wing 
 
 Fig. 773.— Wings of Pelopceus cenientarius. 
 
 in this family has three closed submarginal cells (2d III, 111^, 
 and IIIJ, and the last branch of vein V (vein V3) arises be- 
 yond the end of the 2d cell III. Most of the species burrow 
 into sand-banks, and provision their cells with caterpillars 
 and spiders. But those best known to us are the mud- 
 daubers. These belong to the genus Pelopmis (Pel-o-poe'us). 
 They make nests of mud attached to the lower surface of 
 flat stones or to the ceilings of buildings. These nests usu- 
 ally have the form of several tubes an inch or so long placed 
 side by side, and are provisioned with spiders. 
 
 The mud-daubers may be seen in damp places collecting 
 mud for their nests, or exploring buildings in search of a 
 place to build. They have a curious habit of jerking their 
 wings frequently in a nervous manner. 
 
 About seventy species of this family occur in this country. 
 
652 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Family LARKiDiE (Lar'ri-dae). 
 The Larrids {Lar'rids). 
 
 This family is composed of insects of moderate size and 
 
 ^^ rather slender form. The abdomen is ovoid- 
 
 ^S^^l*^ conical in outline (Fig. 774); there is a single 
 
 ^^^^^ spine at the apex of the middle tibiae; the fore 
 
 ' • wings have an appendiculate cell (Fig. 775, af)\ 
 
 ra'terminata. and the mandibles are usually notched on the 
 exterior margin. 
 
 These insects burrow in sandy places, and provision their 
 
 Fig. 775.— Wings of Larra. 
 
 nests chiefly with orthopterousM"nsects. Some species fre- 
 quent milk-weed iAsclepias) blossoms, but are very difficult 
 to capture. 
 
 More than fifty species have been found in the United 
 States and Canada; most of them occur in the Southwest. 
 
 Family Bembecid.^ (Bem-bec'i-dae). 
 TJie Benibecids {Be?n'be-cids.) 
 
 The members of this family are most easily distinguished 
 from the closely-related forms by the shape of the upper lip, 
 which distinctly projects. In some genera it not only pro- 
 jects, but is prolonged so as to appear like a beak. 
 
 Great variations in size occur within the family, The 
 majority of our species are of moderate size ; but some of 
 
HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 653 
 
 them are among the larger insects of the order. The family 
 includes two quite distinct subfamilies. 
 
 To the Bembecince (Bem-be-ci'nae) belong the smaller 
 forms, which are usually black with greenish 
 or greenish-yellow bands. With these the 
 labrum is longer than the cl)'peus, formin< 
 a triangular beak (Fig, TJ^)- They burrow 
 in sand, and provision their nests with flies. 
 
 To the Stiziiice (Sti-zi'nge) Fig. 776.- Face of 
 
 Bembex. /, labrum. 
 
 belong the giants of the fam- 
 ily. With these the labrum is shorter than the 
 clypeus (Fig. T]"]^. Our best-known represen- 
 tative is the Cicada-killer, SpJiecms speciosus 
 sphecius. /, labrum. ^gpi^e'cj.ys spc-ci-o'sus). It is a formidable in- 
 sect, measuring one and one fourth inches in length. It is 
 black, sometimes of a rusty color, and has the abdomen 
 banded with yellow (Fig. 778). It digs burrows in the earth, 
 
 Fig. 777.— Face of 
 
 Sphecius speciosus. 
 
 two feet or more in depth, and provisions each with a Cica- 
 da. Many a Cicada-song has been suddenly silenced because 
 the singer was pounced upon and carried off alive but help- 
 less to be buried in the den of this fierce, handsome insect 
 of prey. 
 
6S4 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Family Nyssonid^ (Nys-son'i-dae). 
 The Nyssonids {Nys-so' nids). 
 
 These digger-wasps are of medium size. Some of them 
 are remarkable for their close resemblance in form and mar^- 
 ings to true wasps of the family Eumenidae ; but they do not 
 plait their wings like the true wasps. Little is recorded re- 
 garding their habits; some species provision their nests with 
 nymphs of leaf-hoppers, others with spittle-insects (Homop- 
 tera). It is said that the species of the typical genus Nysson 
 (Nys'son) have the habit of feigning death and dropping to 
 the ground when alarmed. 
 
 We have about fifty species of this family in our fauna. 
 
 Family Philanthid^ (Phi-lan'thi-dae). 
 The Philanthids {Phi-Ian' t hi ds). 
 These digger-wasps are easily recognized by the charac- 
 ters given in the table above. Figure 779 represents the wing 
 
 Fig. 779.— Wings of Cerceris. 
 
 of Cerceris (Cer-ce'ris) and shows the typical venation. The 
 males are peculiar in having a fringe of hairs resembling a 
 mustache on the free edge of the clypeus on each side. 
 
 The Philanthids burrow in the earth. Some provision 
 their nests with bees; others with beetles. The family con. 
 tains about seventy-five North American species. 
 
HYMENOPTEIiA. 
 
 655 
 
 Family Mimesid.e (Mi-mes'i-dae). 
 The Miiiiesids {Mi-me' sids). 
 The Mimesids are small digger-wasps in which the base 
 of the abdomen is slender, forming a petiole 
 much like that of the Sphecids, but differing in 
 being flattened and usually furrowed above 
 (Fig. 780). These digger-wasps are much 
 smaller than the true thread-waisted wasps. 
 Less than a score of North American species 
 are known. They make their burrows in 
 the pith of brambles, and provision them 
 with Aphids or Psyllids. 
 
 Family PempiiredoniiX'E (Pem-phre-don'i-dae). 
 The Peniphredonids {Pejn-phre-do' nids). 
 Most of the species of this family are slender insects, of 
 small size and shining black color. They can be distin- 
 
 FiG- 780.— A Mirae- 
 
 FiG. 781.— Wings of a Pephredonid. 
 
 guished from the closely-related families by the 
 presence of two, and only two, closed submarginal 
 cells (Fig. 781, 2d III + III, and III,). It is a 
 small family, including scarcely a dozen North 
 American species. 
 
 The Pemphredonids usually burrow in the pith 
 of dry branches and provision their burrows with plant-lice. 
 
 Fig. 782 
 
656 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 A very common species in the East is Stiginus fraternus 
 (Stig'mus fra-ter'nus). This insect measures one fifth of an 
 inch or less in length, and makes very tortuous burrows in 
 the pith of sumach (Fig. 782). Other common members of 
 the family are larger. 
 
 Family Crabronid^ (Cra-bron'i-dae). 
 The Crabronids {Cra' bro-nids). 
 The Crabronids can be distinguished from all other digger- 
 
 FiG. 783.— Wings of Crabo singularis. 
 
 wasps that occur in this country by the vena- 
 tion of the fore wings, in which there is only 
 one closed submarginal cell (Fig. 783, 
 2d III -j- III5). The head is gener- 
 ally large, and nearly square when 
 viewed from above, and sometimes 
 broader than the thorax (Fig. 784). 
 The different members of this 
 family vary greatly in their nesting habits. 
 Some mine in the pith of such plants as sumach 
 and elder; some bore in more solid wood; 
 some dig burrows in the ground ; and others 
 make use of any suitable hole they can find, 
 often the deserted burrow of some other in- 
 sect. These insects usually provision their nests 
 with flies ; but we have found spiders in the 
 nests of some. 
 
 Fig. 785.— Nest of 
 TryJ>oxylon/ri' 
 gidutn. 
 
H \ 'MENOP TEKA . 657 
 
 We have found the nests of Trypoxylon frigidiim (Try- 
 pox'y-lon frig'i-dum) very common in branches of sumach 
 (Fig. 785), more common perhaps than those of any other 
 insect except the httle carpenter-bee, Ceratina. The cells 
 of the nest of Trypoxylon are separated by partitions of mud, 
 and the pupa when full grown makes a very slender cocoon, 
 with the upper end rounded and sometimes slightly swollen, 
 and the lower end blunt and of denser texture than the 
 remainder of the cocoon. The adult insect is very slender 
 and lacks the yellow bands on the abdomen, possessed by 
 most members of this family. 
 
 Superfamily Vespina (Ves-pi'na). 
 TJie True Wasps. 
 
 All members of this superfamily are winged, and when 
 at rest fold their wings lengthwise like a fan. In this last 
 respect they differ from all other Hymenoptera except a 
 single genus of Chalcisflies, Leucospis (Leu-cos'pis). The 
 prothorax is prolonged backwards on each side to the 
 base of the front wing ; the eyes are kidney-shaped ; and the 
 legs are not formed for burrowing, being free from spines and 
 bristles. 
 
 Three families are included in this superfamily ; these 
 can be separated by the following table : — 
 
 A. Antennae clavate or knobbed at tip. p. 657 Masarid^. 
 
 AA. Antennae filiform or nearly so. 
 
 B. Tibiae of the middle legs with a single terminal spur; tarsal 
 
 claws armed with a tooth, p. 658 Eumenid^. 
 
 BB. Tibiae of the middle legs with two terminal spurs; tarsal 
 claws simple, p. 660 VESPlDiE. 
 
 Family MASARlDiE (Ma-sar'i-dae). 
 
 The Guest-wasps. 
 
 This is a small family of which only seven species are 
 
 known to occur in the United States. These are found in 
 
 Texas and the far West. As yet nothing is known regarding 
 
658 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 the habits of our species. But as an European species has 
 been bred from the nest of a digger-wasp, it is inferred that 
 the members of this family are inquilines. 
 
 Family EUMENID.E (Eu-men'i-dae). 
 The Solitary Wasps. 
 
 All of the variations in habits found among digger-wasps 
 occur in this family. Some are miners, digging tunnels in 
 the earth ; some are carpenters, cutting tubular nests in wood 
 and then showing a mason's skill by partitioning their tun- 
 nels off into cells with mud. While others are masons pure 
 and simple, and build oval or globular mud-nests which they 
 fasten to twigs of trees; such nests often contain many 
 cells. All of these wasps are predaceous, provisioning their 
 nests with insects. 
 
 One species, Eumenes frati'r?ius (Eu'me-nes fra-ter'- 
 nus), makes a neat little nest, which appears like a miniature 
 
 Fig. j%6.—E!(}iiencs fraternus and its nest. 
 
 water-jug (Fig. 786). These Mason-wasps have a very char- 
 acteristic form. The peduncle of the abdomen is shaped 
 like a bell with a long handle. The segment of the ab- 
 domen next to the peduncle is large and globe-shaped. The 
 segments behind this taper off into a point, giving the whole 
 
HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 659 
 
 abdomen the shape of an old-fashioned earrin 
 species provisions its nest with caterpil- 
 lars, and frequently with the canker-worm. 
 
 The greater number of our solitary 
 wasps belong to the genus Odyncrus (Od- 
 y-ne'rus). In this genus the abdomen is 
 joined to the thorax by a very short ped- 
 uncle. The shape of the body and fre- 
 quently the coloration resemble those of 
 the social wasps known as yellow-jackets, 
 although usually the body is more slender 
 and smaller. The common species are 
 quite neighborl)- ; and owing to this res- 
 emblance to the yellow-jackets, they in- 
 spire us with a fear that is out of all 
 proportion to their will or abilit}' to inflict 
 pain. 
 
 The wasps of this genus exhibit a great 
 variation in habits. Many species burrow 
 in the stems of pithy plants, making a series 
 of cells separated by mud partitions ; other 
 species will avail themselves of an)' con- 
 venient cavity in which to make their nests, 
 frequently utilizing the deserted nests of 
 nuid-daubers. In this case a single cell of 
 a mud-dauber is divided by a transverse 
 partition making two cells for the smaller 
 
 This 
 
 % 
 
 Fig. 787. — Monobia quadridens. P ir 
 
 Odyncrus. One year these wasps plastered up man] 
 
 )f the 
 
66o THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 keyholes in our house, including those in the bureaus ; thus 
 constructing for us locks that required a good deal of time 
 and industry on our part to open. Some species of Odytic- 
 rus are masons constructing nests entirely of mud. One of 
 our species makes a nest about the size of a hen's egg. This 
 is composed of hard clay, fastened to a twig of a bush, and 
 contains many cells. 
 
 Probably the most skilful of architects among our soli- 
 tary wasps is Mo7iobia quadridens (Mo-no'bi-a quad'ri-dens), 
 a species common in most of the states east of the Missis- 
 sippi (Fig. 787). This insect bores a tunnel in solid wood. 
 Figure 788 represents a nest in our collection which was 
 made in a board in the side of a barn. The partitions are 
 made of mud. Each cell contained a pupa when the nest 
 was opened ; so we do not know with what the nest was 
 provisioned. 
 
 Family Vespid^ (Ves'pi-dae). 
 The Social Wasps. 
 Here again, as with the ants, we find colonies consisting of 
 three forms of individuals, males, females, and workers. The 
 colonies exist for only one season ; the males and workers 
 die in the autumn ; the females hibernate and each starts a 
 new colony in the spring. In the early part of the season 
 only workers are produced ; later the males and females ap- 
 pear. The three forms arc similar in coloring. They are all 
 winged, and the queens and workers are provided with ven- 
 omous stings. The queens are larger than the workers, and 
 the males have seven segments in the abdomen, while the 
 others have only six. The male wasps do not sting, but they 
 bear such a close resemblance to the belligerent, well-armed 
 workers that this interesting bit of knowledge is entirely 
 useless. When we see a hornet our interest in its sex hardly 
 leads us to test it to see whether it will sting, or to examine 
 it closely to ascertain if it has seven abdominal segments. 
 If male wasps wish to get any credit for their amiability, 
 
IIYMEXOP rERA. 66l 
 
 they would do well to change their spots, so that they can be 
 distinguished at a distance. 
 
 Social wasps build their nests in the ground, or attach 
 them to bushes and trees, or to the roofs or eaves of buildings. 
 The nests are made of paper composed of bits of wood con- 
 verted into a paste by the action of the jaws. Probably these 
 insects add a fluid excreted by the mouth to the fibres of 
 wood in order to make the paste, but of this we have no 
 definite knowledge. 
 
 The species that build their nests above ground make a 
 grayish paper composed of fibres of weather-worn but not 
 decayed wood. This material is collected from stumps of 
 trees, fences, and the sides of unpainted buildings. This 
 paper is comparatively strong ; so that, in those cases where 
 the combs are enclosed in an envelope, the envelope is com- 
 posed of sheets of paper of considerable size, a single sheet 
 often completely enveloping a nest. 
 
 But most of the species that build their nests in the 
 ground make their paper out of partially-decayed wood. 
 This paper is brownish in color and is very fragile ; it would 
 not be suitable, therefore, for use in nests built in exposed 
 places. Even when the nest is built in a hole in the ground, 
 the use of this fragile material necessitates a different style 
 of architecture. The enveloping layers of the nest, instead 
 of being composed of sheets of considerable size, are made 
 up of small, overlapping, shell-like portions, each firmly 
 joined by its edges to the underlying parts. 
 
 The social wasps are predaceous ; and they feed their 
 young upon insects which they have masticated. These 
 wasps are also fond of sweets of flowers, the juices of fruits, 
 and of honey-dew. They collect the honey-dew from leaves 
 in the vicinity of Aphids without, so far as we know, render- 
 ing the Aphids any service in return. 
 
 Except in California, only two genera of social wasps 
 occur in the United States. These are Polistes (Po-lis'tes) 
 and Vespa (Ves'pa). Each of these genera is represented 
 
662 
 
 THE SrUD Y OF INSECTS. 
 
 by a number of species. In California there is a single repre- 
 sentative of a third genus, Polybia (Po-lyb'i-a). This genus 
 differs from the other two genera, in having the first abdom- 
 inal segment long and slender, forming a peduncle. Our 
 species is Polybia flavit arsis (P. flav-i-tar'sis). 
 
 Polistes. — In tiiis genus the abdomen is long and spindle- 
 shaped (Fig. 789). The species 
 are black, ringed with yellow, or 
 are brownish. Their nests con- 
 sist each of a single comb, sus- 
 pended by a peduncle, and are 
 not enclosed in an envelope (Fig. 
 790). In the fall these fellows 
 are quite as familiar as the mud- 
 Y\c,.^%^.- Polistes. daubers, which they resemble in 
 
 color. However, they are easily distinguished from these, 
 as the abdomen is not on such an absurdly long peduncle, 
 
 Fig. 790.- Nest of PoUst.s. 
 
 and their wings fold like fans. They come into our houses 
 searching for warm crevices in which to pass the winter. 
 
 Vespa. — To this genus belong the wasps commonly 
 known as yellow- jackets and as hornets. With these 
 insects the body is comparativel}' short and 
 rather stout (Fig. 791); the abdomen is at- 
 tached to the thorax by a very short peduncle ; 
 the color is black, spotted and banded with 
 yellow or yellowish white. The species of this 
 genus enclose the combs of their nest with a 
 spherical paper envelope (Fig. 792). Any person fi 
 
H Y MEN OP TERA . (^l 
 
 '\\\\o has no respect for the rights of yellow-jackets has be- 
 fore him a lesson which he will have no difficulty in learning, 
 if he takes the pains to disturb one of the oval, gray paper 
 nests commonly found hanging from the eaves of buildings. 
 The yellow and black mass of seething and buzzing ven- 
 geance that can pour out of the hole in the bottom of one 
 of these nests seems almost as wonderful as the miraculous 
 multiplication of the loaves and fishes. And these insects 
 do not threaten more than they can perform : their painful 
 
 Fig. 792.— Nest of Vespa, 
 
 stings are so well known, that neither man nor beast tres- 
 passes willingly on their domains. Their nest is a real palace 
 of papier-mach^. It consists of several horizontal combs 
 suspended one above the other, with commodious galleries 
 between, and all enveloped by an elaborate covering made 
 of many folds of water-proof paper. The yellow-jackets are 
 clever and -original artisans. Once we chanced, most inad- 
 vertently, to lift a board and thereby tear off the whole roof 
 of a nest ; naturally we beat a hasty retreat. On returning 
 to the spot a few days later we found the nest neatly and 
 thoroughly covered with a sloping water-proof roofing of 
 
664 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 paper, although this was probably the first time in thes6 
 yellow-jackets' history that such a problem in architecture 
 had occurred. When these wasps wish to enlarge their 
 nest they tear away the inner layers of the envelope, add to 
 the sides of the comb, and put on new layers on the out- 
 side of the envelope. The yellow-jackets that build their 
 habitation in the ground excavate a hole which is enlarged 
 gradually as the colony grows, 
 
 Superfamily APINA (A-pi'na). 
 The Bees. 
 
 The bees can be distinguished from all other Hymenop- 
 tera by the form of the basal segment of the hind tarsi (Fig. 
 737, c). This segment is more or less dilated, flattened, and 
 generally hairy, and bears an apparatus for collecting and 
 carrying pollen. In the inquiline bees, however, this seg- 
 ment is narrower, and is not furnished with organs for col- 
 lecting and carrying pollen. 
 
 Sometimes, in the case of those species that most closely 
 approach the wasps in structure, it is difificult to dis- 
 tinguish bees by a study of the tarsi alone. But 
 there is a microscopic character which is said to be 
 reliable even in these cases. It is said that the bees 
 differ from all other Hymenoptera in the form of the 
 hairs clothing the body, which, at least those of the 
 thorax, are branched or plumose (Fig. 793), while in 
 all other members of the order they are simple. 
 
 The different species of bees exhibit great varia- 
 tions in habits: some are solitary, each female pro- 
 viding a nest for her young; some are inquilines, 
 laying their eggs in the nests of other bees ; and a 
 F'G- 793- fg^ ^,.g social, of which the honey-bee is the most 
 familiar example. But in all the nest is provisioned with 
 pollen or honey, or both. In this respect the bees differ 
 
HYMENOPTERA. 665 
 
 distinctly from the wasps and the digger-wasps, which pro- 
 vision their nests with other insects or with spiders. 
 
 The superfamiiy Apina includes two families: the An- 
 drenidai or short-tongued bees, and the Apidae or long- 
 tongued bees. These can be separated as follows : — 
 
 A. Bees with the terminal portion of the lower lip, the glossa, flat- 
 tened and shorter than the mentum; and with the basal segments 
 of the labial palpi not unlike the following segments, p. 665. 
 
 Andrenid^e. 
 
 AA. Bees with the glossa slender, not flattened, and longer than the 
 mentum; and with the basal segments of the labial palpi elongate, 
 p. 666 AplD/ti. 
 
 Family Andrenid^ (An-dren'i-dae). 
 The Short-tongued Bees. 
 
 The family Andrenidae includes several genera of bees 
 which agree in having the glossa shorter than 
 the mentum. and flattened (Fig. 794). In 
 some genera the glossa is spear-shaped, in 
 others it is heart-shaped. 
 
 The different genera of this family vary 
 greatly in habits, but none of the species are 
 social. Among the more common short- 
 tongued bees are some that make their nests 
 in the ground, and on this account are termed 
 mining-bees. It should be remembered, how- 
 ever, that some of the Apidae are also mining- 
 bees, and that not all of the Andrenidae are fig. 794.- Labium 
 
 of Sphecodes. ;«, 
 miners. mentum;/. pal- 
 
 T,, ^ , • • u 11 ' ^ P"^5 ^- g'assa 
 
 ine nest o* a mmnig-bee usually consists 
 of a tunnel, more or less branched, each branch leading to 
 a single cell. The walls of these cells are glazed, appearing 
 like the surface of earthenware. In each cell there is stored 
 a quantity of pollen and nectar-paste, an Qg^ is laid witl» 
 this food, and the cell is then closed up. 
 
 Among the larger of our common mining-bees are those 
 
666 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 of the genus Andrena (An-dre'na). Some of these nearly 
 or quite equal in size the workers of the honey-bee. They 
 build their nests in grassy fields, sinking a perpendicular 
 shaft with branches leading sidewise to the cells. The 
 main shaft sometimes extends to a depth of more than one 
 foot. These bees, though strictly solitary, each female 
 building her own nest, frequently build their nests near to- 
 gether, forming large villages. Sometimes a village, or we 
 might say a city, of this kind, covering only one square rod 
 of ground, will include several thousand nests. While 
 writing this account we have received from a correspondent 
 a description of a collection of nests of this kind which was 
 fifteen feet in diameter, and in the destruction of which 
 about two thousand bees were killed — a terrible slaughter 
 of innocent creatures ! 
 
 The smallest mining-bees, in fact the smallest of all our 
 bees, belong to the genus Halictus (Ha-lic'tus). These 
 measure from one one-tenth to three one-tenths of an 
 inch in length. They usually burrow in the sides of clififs, 
 and especially in sand-banks, which often look as if they 
 had been used as targets for practice with a shot-gun, so 
 thickly are they studded with burrows of these bees. A 
 remarkable feature in the habits of the bees of this genus is 
 that several females unite in making a burrow into a bank, 
 after which each female makes passages extending sidewise 
 from this main burrow or public corridor to her own cells. 
 While Andrena builds villages composed of individual 
 homes, Halictus makes cities composed of apartment- 
 houses. 
 
 Family APID^ (A'pi-dae). 
 
 The Long-tongued Bees. 
 
 In the Apidae we find that the lower lip has been highly 
 specialized for the procuring of nectar from deep flowers. 
 Here the glossa is slender and greatly elongate, being longer 
 
HYMENOPTERA, 
 
 667 
 
 than the mentum (Fig. 795) ; the basal segments of the 
 labial palpi are also elongate. 
 
 A remarkable difference in habits exists 
 among the different species of this family : 
 some are solitary ; others are inquilines-; 
 and a few are social. Among the solitary 
 species we find an even greater variation in 
 the form of the nest than we found among 
 the solitary wasps or among the digger- 
 wasps. Some of these bees are miners, 
 digging tunnels in the ground ; some are 
 masons, making their nests out of mortar- 
 like mud ; some are carpenters, boring 
 tunnels in the pith of plants or in solid 
 wood ; and some are leaf-cutters, lining 
 their nests with pieces of leaves or of petals 
 of flowers. We have space to describe the 
 habits of only a few of these. 
 
 [. THE SOLITARY LONG-TONGUED BEES. 
 
 Fig. 705.— Labium of 
 the Honey-bee : j, 
 
 The Leaf-cutter Bees, Mcgachile (Meg- ^^^rATipusT^: 
 a-chi'le). — The bees of the genus Megachile ^'°^^''' 
 have the curious habit of making cells for their young out 
 of neatly-cut pieces of leaves. These cells are packed away 
 in such secure places that one does not often find them ; 
 but it is a very easy thing to find fragments of leaves from 
 which the pieces have been cut by bees. The leaves of 
 various plants are used for this purpose, but rose-leaves are 
 used more frequently than any other kind. In Figure 
 796 there are represented one of these bees, its nest, and 
 a spray of rose-leaves from which pieces have been cut by 
 the bee. 
 
 The species represented here, Megachile acuta (M. a-cu'ta), 
 is a carpenter as well as a leaf-cutter. It first makes a tun- 
 nel in wood, often selecting that which is partially decayed ; 
 then it proceeds to build a thimble-shaped tube at the bot- 
 
668 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 torn of this tunnel. For this purpose it cuts from the 
 leaves oblong pieces, each of which forms a part of a side 
 and the bottom of the thimble-shaped tube. Two such 
 pieces had been cut from the lower leaf on the left side of 
 the spray figured here. When the thimble-shaped tube is 
 completed, the bee partially fills it with a paste of pollen 
 and nectar, and then places an Q^g upon the supply of food. 
 She then cuts several circular pieces of leaves, the diameter 
 
 Fig. 796. — A leaf-cutter bee, nest, and rose-leaves cut by the bee. 
 
 of which is a little greater than the diameter of the tube, and 
 forces them into the open end of it, thus making a tightly- 
 fitting plug ; three of these circular pieces had been cut from 
 the spray figured. Usually several cells of this kind are 
 placed end to end in a burrow ; and sometimes many bees will 
 build their nests near together in the same piece of wood. 
 The leaf-cutter bees do not always bore tunnels in which 
 
HYMEXOPTEKA. 669 
 
 to place their cells. We have found these cells in a crack 
 between shingles on a roof, in the cavity of a large branch 
 of sumach, beneath stones lying on the ground, and in 
 Florida in the tubular leaves of a pitcher-plant. 
 
 Some species of bees make nests similar to those of the 
 leaf-cutter bees, except that the cells are formed of pieces of 
 petals of flowers. The petals of Pelargonium are often used 
 for this purpose. 
 
 The small Carpenter-bee, Ceratiiia dupla (Ce-rat'i-na 
 du'pla). — The nests of this bee are built in dead twigs of 
 sumach and in the hollows of brambles and other plants. 
 They are more common than those of any other of our 
 solitary bees that build in these situations. This is a dainty 
 little bee, about a quarter of an inch long, and of a metallic 
 blue color. She always selects a twig with a soft pith 
 which she excavates with her mandibles, and so makes a 
 long tunnel. Then she gathers pollen and puts it in the 
 bottom of the nest, lays an egg on it, and then makes a par- 
 tition out of pith-chips, which serves as a roof to this cell 
 and a floor to the one above it. This process she repeats 
 until the tunnel is nearly full, then she rests in the space 
 above the last cell, and waits for her children to grow up. 
 The lower one hatches first; and, after it has attained its 
 growth, it tears down the partition above it, and then waits 
 patiently for the one above to do the same. Finally, after 
 the last one in the top cell has matured, the mother leads 
 forth her full-fledged family in a flight into the sunshine. 
 This is the only case known to the writer where a solitary 
 bee watches her nest till her young mature. After the last 
 of the brood has emerged from its cell, the substance of 
 which the partitions were made, and which has been forced 
 to the bottom of the nest by the young bees when making 
 their escape, is cleaned out by the family, the old bee and 
 the young ones all working together. Then the nest is used 
 again by one of the bees. We have collected hundreds of 
 these nests, and, by opening different nests at different sea- 
 
6/0 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 sons, have gained an idea of what goes on in a single nest. 
 There are two broods each year. The mature bees of the 
 fall brood winter in the nests. 
 
 The Large Carpenter-bee, Xylocopa virginica (Xy-loc'o-pa 
 vir-gin i-ca). — This is a large insect, resembling a bumblebee 
 in size, and somewhat in appearance. But it can be easily 
 distinguished from a bumblebee, as the female has a dense 
 brush of hairs on the hind leg, instead of a basket for carry- 
 ing pollen. This bee builds its nest in solid wood, and some- 
 times excavates a tunnel a foot in length. These tunnels 
 are similar to those of the carpenter-wasp, Monobia quadri- 
 dens (Fig. 788) ; but differ in being provisioned with a paste 
 of pollen and nectar, and in the structure of the partitions. 
 These are made of chips of wood, securely cemented to- 
 gether, and arranged in a closely-wound spiral. This 
 arrangement of the chips is easily seen when the lower side 
 of a partition is examined ; but the upper side of a partition, 
 which forms the floor of the cell above it, is made concave 
 and very smooth, so that the arrangement of the chips is 
 not visible. 
 
 II. THE GUEST-BEES OR INQUILINES. 
 
 Although bees are proverbially industrious, we find 
 many loafers in the family. We do not refer to the lazy 
 males of those species in which the females are hard workers, 
 but to certain species in which both sexes are alike idle, 
 and dependent upon the exertions of other species of bees. 
 These idle species are called guest-bees, or inquilines, be- 
 cause they are reared in the nests of other bees, who act, 
 willingly or unwillingly, as hosts. 
 
 The guest-bees are entertained both by solitary bees and 
 by social bees ; but each species of guest-bee inhabits the 
 nests of a particular kind of working bee. Thus the nests 
 of certain bees are visited by certain guest-bees, while those 
 of other species are infested by different guests. This habit 
 of sponging their living has had a degrading effect on the 
 guest-bees ; for we find that they are not merely idle, but 
 
H Y MEN OP TERA. 6/1 
 
 are actually unable to work ; as shown by the fact that the 
 organs for collecting and carrying pollen have been lost 
 through disuse. 
 
 The inquiline bees that infest the nests of solitary bees 
 resemble the cuckoo-flies in habits, watching their oppor- 
 tunity to steel into a partially completed nest, and, cuckoo- 
 like, laying an egg there. The larva of the guest-bee hatch- 
 ing first is able to devour the food stored there, and thus 
 starves the rightful occupant of the nest. We have in our 
 collection many nests of solitary bees in which more than 
 half of the cells were inhabited by inquilines. 
 
 The relations existing between the solitary bees and 
 their unwelcome guests are easy to understand ; but when 
 we study the nests of bumblebees we find that they, too, 
 have guests : but in this case the guests are apparently wel- 
 come, although, so far as we have been able to learn, they 
 are of no use to the colony. 
 
 The inquilines infesting the nests of bumblebees belong 
 to the genus Psithyrus (Psith'y-rus). These bees so closely 
 resemble bumblebees in appearance and structure that it is 
 extremely difficult to determine whether a male is a 
 PsitJiyrits or a Bojiibus', but the females are easily distin- 
 guished, for in Psithyrus the pollen-basket of the hind legs 
 has been lost through disuse. In Psithyrus there are only 
 two forms of individuals, the males and the females, there 
 being no working caste, as with bumblebees. 
 
 The female Psithyrus lays her eggs in a bumblebee's 
 nest, and when the larvae hatch they are cared for by the 
 bumblebees as if they belonged in the nest. And even after 
 the guests have reached maturity they come and go in the 
 nest without being disturbed, although they never lend a help- 
 ing mandible in carrying on the work of the colony. Some- 
 times these guests very closely resemble their hosts in size 
 and color, but in other cases the Psithyrus is marked very 
 differently from the Bouibus that entertains it. We cannot 
 suppose, therefore, that the guests are mistaken for mem- 
 
672 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. 
 
 bers of the family. Neither is it probable that the bumble- 
 bees are unable to drive their guests away. Let any one in- 
 clined to this view disturb a bumblebee's nest, and he will 
 probably have an increased appreciation of their powers of 
 defence. These facts have led some naturalists to believe that 
 these aristocratic guests perform some important and neces- 
 sary duties conducive to the general prosperity of the whole 
 colony, although as yet we have not the slightest hint as to 
 what these duties may be. 
 
 III. THE SOCIAL BEES. 
 
 The social bees are so called because many individuals 
 work together to build a common home. Here, as with the 
 ants and with the social wasps, we find three forms of in- 
 dividuals — the males or drones, the females or queens, and 
 the workers. The workers are a caste of females that rarely 
 lay eggs, but are especially adapted for performing the 
 labors of the colony. 
 
 Our native social bees belong to the genus Bofubus, and 
 are commonly known as bumblebees. Of these more than 
 fifty species have been described from North America. 
 We have also an introduced, domesticated species, the 
 Honey-bee, which now lives wild in all parts of our country, 
 building its nest in hollow trees and in other situations. 
 
 The Bumblebees, Bomhis (Bom 'bus). — The clumsy rover, 
 Ihe bumblebee, is an old friend of us all. As children we 
 caught her off thistle-blossoms and imprisoned her in 
 emptied milkweed pods, and bade her sing for us. We 
 robbed her nest in the hay-field, and tried to believe that 
 the strongly-flavored honey, mixed with dirt, was delicious. 
 And all our lives the sound of her droning has brought to 
 us visions of blue skies, roadsides golden with buttercups, 
 and fields purple with clover-blossoms. And she has de- 
 served all the attention and affection bestowed upon her, 
 because she is usually good-natured and companionable. 
 She is a happy-go-lucky insect, and takes life as it comes 
 
H YMENOP TERA. 673 
 
 without any of the severe disciph'ning and exact methods 
 of her cousin, the honey-bee. 
 
 With the bumblebees the queens are larger than either 
 the workers or the males, and are the only ones that live 
 through the winter. In early spring we often see one of 
 these great queens fl>'ing low, and inspecting our meadows 
 and pastures for a building-place. She chooses some de- 
 serted mouse-nest in the meadow, and places within it a ball 
 of pollen, upon which she lays some eggs. As soon as the 
 larvae hatch they eat into the pollen-mass in all directions, 
 and when full grown make for themselves silken cocoons, 
 and change topupai. These cocoons the old bees strengthen 
 with wax, and after the young bees vacate them they are 
 used as storing cells for honey. This explains the irregu- 
 larity of the bumblebee-comb. The first broods of the sea- 
 son are workers, and relieve the queen of all duties except 
 laying the eggs. Later in the summer males and females 
 appear, and it can be said to the credit of the bumblebee 
 queens that they are not jealous, but allow the young queens 
 to live with them in the nest. In the autumn the colony 
 breaks up, and all of the bees, except the young queens, perish. 
 These crawl away into some protected place and pass the 
 winter. In the spring each queen that has survived the 
 winter founds a new colony, performing, until a brood of 
 workers has been developed, both the duties of queen and 
 of worker. 
 
 The Honey-bee, Apis niellifica (A'pis mel-lif i-ca). — Neat 
 rows of hives on a sunny slope, with an orchard on one side 
 and wide-stretching meadows on the other, the busy hum 
 of comers and goers of this city of cities, the odor of honey 
 weighing down every passing breeze — these constitute 
 one of the most home-like possessions of the ideal country- 
 home. 
 
 The honey-bee, through its useful products, has been 
 known and cared for by man for centuries. Philosophers 
 have written about it, poets have sung its praises, and nat- 
 
674 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 uralists have studied it during past ages, until there is 
 probably no other insect with which man has such an inti- 
 mate acquaintance. The honey-bee was originally a Euro- 
 pean species, but has been domesticated the world over. 
 It was introduced into America more than three centuries 
 ago, and escaping swarms have stocked our forests with 
 what we call wild bees, for when free they almost univer- 
 sally build their nests in hollow trees. These insects offer a 
 no less interesting study of communistic society than do 
 ants. There are in each community three forms of indi- 
 viduals — the queen or female, the drones or males, and the 
 workers, which are imperfectly developed females. The 
 •worker is our common acquaintance, the dull-black and 
 gold-colored companion of our walks, that we watch with 
 interest as she ransacks the flowers of a garden or a way- 
 side for her booty of nectar or pollen, now bending low a 
 violet or a clover-blossom, now plunging head foremost into 
 a hollyhock or a lily, from which she emerges dusty with the 
 gold of pollen-doors which barred her way to nectar-cham. 
 bers. We marvel at her industry ; but she is ever driven on 
 with the sense of her responsibilities : for the worker-sister- 
 hood must do all the work of the hive, collect and store the 
 food, manufacture the wax, build the comb, take care of the 
 footless, helpless larvae, fight the battles for protection, and 
 manage affairs generally. 
 
 The drones are larger than the workers, and are reared 
 in larger cells. If honeycombs be examined, some sheets will 
 be seen to be composed of larger cells than those of the more 
 common type. It is in cells of this kind that the eggs are 
 laid which are to develop into males. In shape the drones 
 are broader and blunter than the workers. They are few in 
 numbers, and are only present in the hive during the early 
 summer. After the swarming season is over, these gentle- 
 men of leisure are driven out of the hive by the workers or 
 are killed by them. 
 
 The queen is larger than a worker, and has a long, 
 
// i -MENOP TERA. 67 S 
 
 pointed body. She is developed in a cell which differs 
 greatly from the ordi- 
 nary hexagonal cell of 
 honeycomb. This cell 
 is large, cylindrical, and 
 extends vertically. In 
 Figure 797 the begin- 
 nings of two queen- 
 cells are represented on 
 the lower edge of the 
 comb, and a completed 
 cell extends over the F'«- 797.-Comb . 
 face of the comb near the left side. From the lower end 
 of this cell hangs a lid, which was cut away by the workers 
 to allow the queen to emerge. 
 
 The larviE that are to develop into either workers or 
 drones, and which are contained in hexagonal, horizontal 
 cells, are fed with honey and bee-bread. But the occupant 
 of a queen-cell is furnished with very different food — a sub- 
 stance called by bee-keepers royal jelly. This royal jelly is 
 a substance which resembles blanc-mange in color and con- 
 sistency. It is excreted from the mouth by the workers, 
 and is a very nutritious food. 
 
 It has been demonstrated that in the egg state there is 
 no difference between a worker and a queen. When the 
 workers wish to develop a queen they tear down the parti- 
 tions between three adjacent cells containing eggs that 
 under ordinary conditions would develop into workers. 
 Then they destroy two of the eggs, and build a queen-cell 
 over the third. When the egg hatches they feed the larva 
 with royal jelly, and it develops into a queen. 
 
 In early summer several queen-cells are provided in each 
 colony ; as soon as a queen is developed from one of these 
 the old queen attempts to destroy her. But the young 
 queen is guarded by the workers, and then the old queen 
 
^-J^ THE STUD y OF INSECTS. 
 
 with a goodly portion of her subjects swarm out, and they 
 go off to start a new colony. 
 
 This swarming of the honey-bee is essential to the con- 
 tinued existence of the species ; for in social insects it is as 
 necessary that the colonies be multiplied as it is that there 
 should be a reproduction of individuals. Otherwise, as the 
 colonies were destroyed the species would become extinct. 
 With the social wasps and with the bumblebees the old 
 queen and the young ones renriain together peacefully in the 
 nest ; but at the close of the season the nest is abandoned 
 by all as an unfit place for passing the winter, and in the 
 following spring each young queen founds a new colony. 
 Thus there is a tendency towards a great multiplication of 
 colonies. But with the honey-bee the habit of storing 
 food for winter, and the nature of the habitations of these 
 insects, renders it possible for the colonies to exist indefi- 
 nitely. And thus if the old and young queens remained 
 together peacefully there would be no multiplication of colo- 
 nies, and the species would surely die out in time. We see, 
 therefore, that what appears to be merely jealousy on the 
 part of the queen honey-bee is an instinct necessary to the 
 continuance of the species, 
 
 The sting of a queen-bee is no ignoble weapon, but it is 
 never used except against a rival queen. When several 
 young queens mature at the same time there is a pitched 
 battle for supremacy, and the last left living on the field be- 
 comes the head of the colony. One morning we found the 
 lifeless bodies of fifteen young queens cast forth from a 
 single hive — a monument to the powers of the surviving 
 Amazon in triumphant possession within. 
 
 The materials used by bees are wax and propolis, which 
 serve as materials for construction : and honey and bee- 
 bread, used for food. 
 
 The comb is made of wax, which is an excretion of the 
 bee. When a colony needs wax, many of the workers gorge 
 themselves with honey, and then hang quietly in a curtain- 
 
iiYMiwXorTERA. 6yy 
 
 like mass, the upper bees clingiiij^ to the roof of the hive, 
 and the lower ones to the bees above them. After about 
 twenty-four hours there appears on the lower surface of the 
 abdomen of each bee little plates of wax that are forced out 
 from openings between the ventral abdominal segments 
 called wax-pockets. Other workers attend to this curtain 
 and collect the wax as fast as it appears, and use it at once in 
 constructing comb. As it requires about twenty-one pounds 
 of honey to make one pound of wax, the bees, who are true 
 economists, make this expensive product go as far as possi- 
 ble. The hexagonal cells of the honeycomb afford an 
 ideally compact arrangement, as if the bees were mathema- 
 ticians and had fully planned to secure the most room in the 
 least space. The cells of the combs are used both for 
 rearing the young and for storing food. 
 
 Propolis is a cement used for cementing up crevices, and 
 is made of a resin which the bees collect from the buds of 
 various trees, but especially the poplar. 
 
 Honey is made from the nectar of flowers and is taken 
 into the honey stomach of the bee, and there changed into 
 honey, and then regurgitated into the cells of the comb. 
 
 Bee-bread is made from the pollen of flowers, which the 
 bees bring in on the plates fringed with hairs on the hind 
 legs. 
 
 There is a large literature concerning the intelligence of 
 bees, but those who love to see rather than merely to think 
 about interesting things will find keenest pleasure in intimate 
 associations with these little communists. One soon learns 
 to love them ; and the reward of studying them sympathet 
 ically is a satisfaction to the mind far beyond the sweetness 
 of honey to the palate. 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 Abbot's Bag- worm, 220 
 Abdomen and its appendages, 66 
 Aberrant long-horned beetles, 566 
 Acalyptrate Muscidse, 484 
 Acanthia hirundinis, 140 ; A. lectu- 
 
 laria, 140 
 Acanthiidae, 140 
 Acarina, 42 
 Accessory cells, 199 
 Achorutes nlvicola, 85 
 Acilius, 525 
 
 Acoloithus falsarius, 226 
 Acontia candefacta, 300 
 Acorn-weevils, 593 
 Acrididae, 108 
 Acroceridae, 458 
 Acroneura, 94 
 Acronyctaamericana, 307; A. ham- 
 
 amelis, 308; A. morula, 307 
 Actias = Tropoea 
 Actinomeris, 392 
 Aculeata, 601, 631 
 Adalia bi punctata, 535 
 Adephaga, 496 
 Adipose tissue, 71 
 Adirondack Black-fly, 453 
 Adult, 55 
 ^gialitidae, 5S4 
 Aeronautic Spiders, 25 
 Esophagus, 71 
 Agalena naevia, 32 
 Agaelnidse, 30 
 Agamic form, 158 
 Agaristidse, 313 
 Agenia, 650 
 Aglais milberti, 402 
 Agrilus ruficollis, 550 
 Ailanthus-worm, 357 
 Alaptus excisus, 630 
 Alausmyops, 548; A. oculatus, 547 
 
 Alder-blight, 161, 391 
 
 Aletia argillacea, 301 
 
 Aleyrodes, 163 
 
 Aleyrodidae, 163 
 
 Alimeniary canal, 67, 71 
 
 Alkaline lakes, 487 
 
 Allorhina nitida, 566 
 
 Alnus incana, 216 
 
 Alsophila pometaria, 276 
 
 Alula, 421 
 
 Alulet, 421 
 
 Alypia langtonii, 314; A. octomacu- 
 
 lata, 314 
 Ambient vein, 421 
 Amblychila cylindriformis, 518 
 Ambrosia artemisiaefolia, 300 
 Ambrysus, 133 
 Ambush bugs, 138 
 American Copper, 390 
 American Copper Hind-wing, 302 
 American Dagger, 307 
 American Lappet, 363. 
 American Saw-fly, 612 
 American Tortoise-shell, 402 
 Ampelophaga myron, 336 
 Amphibolips coccinese, 618; A. 
 
 spongifica, 618 
 Amphicerus bicaudatus, 553 
 Amphipyra pyramidoides, 302 
 Amphizoa, 521 
 Amphizoidae, 521 
 Anabrus, 115 
 Anaea andria, 410 
 Anal angle, 64 
 Anal veins, 64 
 Analytical tables, method of using, 
 
 10 
 Anasa tristis, 144 
 Ancyloxipha numitor, 373 
 Andrena, 590, 666 
 
 n 679 
 
68o 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 AiKlreiiicJa', 665 
 Andricus californicus, 620 
 Angle-wings, 401 
 Angoumois Grain-moth, 258 
 Angular-winged Katydid, 113 
 Angulifera Moth, 355 
 Animal Kingdom, 4 
 Anisopteryx = Alsophila 
 Anisota, 347 ; A. sanatoria, 348; A. 
 stigma, 348; A. virginiensis, 348 
 Anomala lucicola, 562 
 Anomalous Brachycera, 417 
 Anomalous Ncniatocera, 417 
 Anosia plexippus, 397, 408 
 Ante-coxal piece of the metasternum, 
 
 504 
 Antelope Beetle, 555 
 Antennae, 59, 500 
 Anthicidae, 586 
 
 Anthocharis, 385; see also Synchloe 
 Anlhocharis genulia, 385 
 Anthomyiids, 483 
 Anthomyiinaj, 483 
 Anthonomus quadrigibbus, 594 ; A. 
 
 signatus, 594 
 Anthrenus museorum, 540 ; A. 
 scrophulariae, 539; A. varius, 540 
 Anthribidae, 598 
 Ant-lions, 175, 182 
 Ants, 157, 59b, 633 
 Aorta, 72 
 
 Apatela = Acronycta 
 Apex, 64 
 Aphididae, 156 
 Aphidius, 626 
 Aphids, 121, 156 
 Aphis brassicae, 159; A. maidis, 158; 
 
 A. mali, 159 
 Aphis-lions, 175, iSo 
 Aphodian Dung-beetles, 558 
 Aphodius fimetarius, 558 
 Aphrophora quadrangularis, 153 
 Aphycus eruptor, 628 
 Apidae, 666 
 Apina, 664 
 Apiocera, 462 
 Aoioceridae, 462 
 Apiocerids, 462 
 Apis mellifica, 673 
 Appendiculate cell, 607 
 Apple, beetles infesting, 486, 549, 
 565, 569, 571, 573, 580, 594; cater- 
 pillars infesting, 218, 223, 241, 253, 
 254, 265, 267. 300, 303, 32r, 334' 
 353, 35(>. 363, 364, 407; maggots 
 infesting, 486 
 
 Apple Bucculalrlx, 253 
 
 Apple-maggot, 4S6 
 
 Apple-tree Aphis, 159 
 
 Apple-tree Tent-calerpillar, 360 
 
 Apple-twig Borer, 553 
 
 Apple-weevil, 594 
 
 Apricot, 577. 594 
 
 Arachnida, 12 
 
 Aradidae, 139 
 
 Aramigus fulleri, 592 
 
 Araneida, 20 
 
 Arbor vitae, 220 
 
 Arctia = Eyprepia 
 
 Arctiidae, 317 
 
 Arctiids, 317 
 
 Argus-tortoise, 581 
 
 Argynnids, 399 
 
 Argynnis cybele, 400 
 
 Arista, 419 
 
 Armored-scaJes, 171 
 
 Army- worm, 303 
 
 Arthromacra aenea, 584 
 
 Arthropoda, g 
 
 Arthropods, 9 
 
 Arzama = Bellura 
 
 Ascalaphus, 183 
 
 Aschiza, 418 
 
 Asclepias, 397 
 
 Ash, 321, 334, 335, 364 
 
 Asilidj-e, 460 
 
 Asimina, 380 
 
 Asparagus-beetle, 575 
 
 Aspidiotus aurantii, 173, 174 
 
 Aspidisca splendoriferella, 254 
 
 Assassin-bugs, 137 
 
 Astrangulus, 394 
 
 Ateuchus sacer, 557 
 
 Atlides halesus, 393 
 
 Atropos divinatoria, 99 
 
 Attacus = Callosamia and Samia 
 
 Attelabidae, 591 
 
 Aitelabus, 591 
 
 Attidae, 42 
 
 Aulacus, 627 
 
 Australian Lady-bug, 160 
 
 Automeris io, 351 
 
 Auzatidae, 288 
 
 Auzatids, 288 
 
 Axillary excision, 420 
 
 Back-swimmers, 130 
 
 Bad-wing, 286 
 
 Bag-worm Moths, 219 
 
 Balaninus, 593; B. caryatrypes, 593; 
 
 B. nasicus, 593; B. quercus. 593; 
 
 B. rectus, 593 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 68 1 
 
 Balsa malana, 303 
 
 Baltimore, 399 
 
 Banded Elfin, 393 
 
 Banded Footman, 326 
 
 Banded Hair-streak, 392 
 
 Banded Purple, 406 
 
 Baptria = Euchseca 
 
 Bark-lice, 164 
 
 Barn-swallow, 140 
 
 Basilarchia archippus, 407; B. arthe- 
 
 mis, 406; B. astyanax, 406; B. 
 
 astyanax-arthemis, 407 
 Basilona imperialis, 346 
 Basswood, 267, 353, 5S0 
 Bass-wood Leaf-roller, 231 
 Bat-ticks, 489 
 Beans, 300, 371, 582 
 Bean-weevil, 582 
 Beautiful Maple-borer, 570 
 Beautiful Wood-nymph, 315 
 Beaver-parasite, 529 
 Bed-bug, 140 
 Bee, 589, 590, 664 
 Beech, 549 
 
 Beech-tree Blight, 161 
 Bee-fiies, 463 
 Bee-louse, 489 
 Bee-moth Family, 233 
 Beet, 484 
 Beetles, 494 
 Beggar, 285 
 Bella-moth, 319 
 Bellura gortynides, 304 
 Belostoma aniericanum, 132 
 Belostomidae, 131 
 Bembecidae, 652 
 Bembecids, 652 
 Bembecinae, 653 
 Benacus griseus, 132 
 Berytidae, 143 
 Bibio, 450 
 Bibionidae, 449 
 Big Bed-bug, 137 
 Big-eyed Flies, 473 
 Bill-bugs, 595 
 
 Birch, 278, 284, 364, 406, 275 
 Bird-lice, 100 
 Birds, 488 
 
 Biston cognataria, 280 
 Bittacus, 185 
 Blackberry, 550, 620 
 Black-bordered Yellow, 386 
 Black-c Owlet, 306 
 Black Damsel-bug, 138 
 Black Dash, 373 
 Black-flies, 451 
 
 Black Scale, 1 70 
 
 Black Swallow-tail, 377 
 
 Black Witch, 297 
 
 Blattidae, 106 
 
 Bleaching wings, 197 
 
 Blepharocera, 433 ; B. capitata, 434 
 
 Blepharoceridae, 432 
 
 Blissus leucopterus, 142 
 
 Blister-beetles, 586 
 
 Blonde Damsel-bug, 138 
 
 Blood, 75 
 
 Blood-vessels, 71 
 
 Blotch mines, 249 
 
 Blow-fly, 483 
 
 Blue-eyed Grayling, 411 
 
 Blues, 391 
 
 Boletotherus bifurcus, 583 
 
 Boll-worm, 300 
 
 Bombardier-beetles, 520 
 
 Bombus, 672 
 
 Bombycidae, 340 
 
 Bombyiiidae, 463 
 
 Bombylius, 463 
 
 Bombyx mori, 340 
 
 Book-lice, 98 
 
 Book-worm, 553 
 
 Boreus, 185 
 
 Boring Hymenoptera, 601, 610 
 
 Bot-flies, 477 
 
 Brachinus, 520 
 
 Brachycera, 417 
 
 Brachytarsus, 598 
 
 Braconidae, 625 
 
 Braconids, 625 
 
 Brain. 67 
 
 Branches, 4 
 
 Braula caeca, 489 
 
 Braulidae, 489 
 
 Breast-bone, 445 
 
 Brenthidae, 594 
 
 Brenthis, 400 
 
 Brenthus, 595 
 
 Brephos infans, 274 
 
 Bristle-tails, 82. 83 
 
 Broad-necked Prionus, 568 
 
 Broad - shouldered Water - striders, 
 
 134 
 Bronze Copper, 390 
 Bruchidae, 581 
 
 Bruchus obtectus, 582 ; B. pisi, 581 
 Brychius, 522 
 
 Bucculatrix pomifoliella, 253 
 Budding, 159 
 Bud-moth, 241 
 Bugs, 121 
 Bullet-gall, 619 
 
682 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 Bumblebee Hawk-moth, 338 
 Bumble-bees, 648, 672 
 Bumble Flower-beelle, 565 
 Buprestidae, 548 
 Buprestids, 548 
 Burrovver-bugs, 145 
 Buttercup Oil-beetle, 5S8 
 Butterflies, 196, 207, 373 
 Butternut, 320, 346, 363 
 Byrrhidae, 542 
 Byrsopidae, 591 
 Byturus unicolor, 541 
 
 Cabbage, 30T, 305, 371, 383, 384, 578 
 Cabbage Aphis, 159 
 Cabbage-butterfly, 382 
 Cabbage-root Maggot, 4S4 
 Cabbage-worms, 381 
 Cacoecia, 244 ; C. cerasivorana, 245 ; 
 
 C. fervadana, 245; C. rosana, 244 
 Caddice-flies, 186. 187 
 Caddice-worms, 186, 187 
 Caenis, 87 
 Calamistrum, 23 
 Calandra oryzae, 596 
 Calandridae, 595 
 Calephelis borealis, 394 ; C. caenius, 
 
 394 
 
 Calico-back, 145 
 
 Callidryas eubule, 387 
 
 Callimorpha = Haploa 
 
 Calliphora vomitoria, 483 
 
 Callosamia augulifera, 355; C. pro- 
 methea, 354 
 
 Calocalpe undulata, 284 
 
 Calopteron reiiculatum, 551 
 
 Calosoma calidum, 519; C. scruta- 
 tor, 519 
 
 Calyptrate Muscidae, 480 
 
 Camponotus pennsylvanicus, 635,640 
 
 Campsomyia macellaria, 483 
 
 Cane, 563 
 
 Canker-worms, 275 
 
 Canthon laevis, 558 
 
 Capitate, 60 
 
 Capsidae, 140 
 
 Carabidae, 518 
 
 Carbon bisulphide, 161 
 
 Cardo, 500 
 
 Carolina Locust, HI 
 
 Carpenter-ant, 640 
 
 Carpenter-bee, 669 
 
 Carpenter- moths, 221 
 
 Carpet Beetle, 539 
 
 Carpocapsa pomonelia, 241 
 
 Carrion- beetles, 529 
 
 Carteria lacca, 166 
 Case-bearers, 257 
 Case-bearing Clothes-moth, 257 
 Cassia, 386, 387, 581 
 Caterpillars, 193 
 Caterva = Cingilia 
 Catocala, 298 ; C. ilia, 298 
 Cattle-tick, 43 
 Caudal setae, 66 
 Cave-crickets, 114 
 
 Cecidomyia albovittata, 446 ; C. de- 
 structor, 446; C. leguminicola, 446 ; 
 
 C. strobiloides, 445 ; C. trifolii, 
 
 446 
 Cecidomyiidae, 444 
 Cecropia Moth, 356 
 Cell, 421 
 
 Cells of the wing, 605 
 Celiis, 156, 403; C. occidentalis, 397 
 Centipedes, 45, 46 
 Cephaloidae, 585 
 Cephalothorax, 12 
 Cerambycidae, 567 
 Cerambycids, 567 
 Cerambycinae, 569 
 Ceratina dupla, 669 
 Ceratocampida = Citheroniidae 
 Ceratopogon, 441 
 Ceratopsyllus serraticeps, 492 
 Cerceris, 654 
 Cerci, 66 
 Cercopidae, 152 
 Cercyonis alope, 411 ; C. alope- 
 
 nephele, 412 ; C. nephele, 411 
 Ceresa bubalus, 155 
 Cermatia forceps, 46 
 Ceropales, 650 
 Ceuthophilus, 114 
 Chain-dotted Geometer, 279 
 Chalcididae, 628 
 Chalcis-flies, 628 
 Chalcophora virginica, 549 
 Chamyriscerintha, 300 
 Chauliodes, 178 ; C. pecticornis, 178 ; 
 
 C. serricornis, 178 
 Chauliognathus, 551; C. marginatus, 
 
 551 ; C. pennsylvanicus, 551 
 Checkered Beetles, 552 
 Checkered While, 384 
 Cheese, 45 
 Cheese-maggot, 486 
 Chelicerae, 13 
 Chelone glabra, 399 
 Chelymorpha argus, 581 
 Cherry, 245, 284, 355, 364, 549. 565, 
 
 595 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 683 
 
 Cherry-tree Aphis, 159 
 
 Cherry-tree Ugly-nest Tortricid, 245 
 
 Chestnut, 278, 593 
 
 Chickvveed Geometer, 287 
 
 Chigoe, 493 
 
 Chilognatha, 47 
 
 Chilopoda, 46 
 
 China wax, 166 
 
 Chinch-bug, 142 
 
 Chinch-bug Family, 142 
 
 Chionaspis furfurus, 165, 174; C. 
 
 pinifolise, 172, 174 
 Chionobas = ^neis 
 Chironomidae, 440 
 Chironomus, 441 
 Chitine, 52 
 Choke-cherry, 245 
 Chrysalis, 54 
 Chrysididae, 632 
 Chrysobothris femorata, 549 
 Chrysochraon conspersum, iii 
 Chrysomelidae, 574 
 Chrysomelids, 574 
 Chrysopa, 181 
 
 Chrysophanus, 390; see also Heodes 
 Chrysophanus thoe, 390 
 Chrysopidae, 180 
 Chiysopila thoracica, 456 
 Chrysops, 455 
 Cicada, 149; C. septendecim, 150 ; 
 
 C. tibicen, 151 
 Cicada-killer, 653 
 Cicadidae, 149 
 Cicadula exitiosa, 153 
 Cicindela, 518 
 Cicindelidse, 516 
 Cicinnus melsheimerii, 358 
 Cigarette Beetle, 553 
 Ciidae, 554 
 
 Cimbex americana, 612 
 Cimicifuga, 392 
 Cingilia catenaria, 279 
 Cinura, 83 
 
 Circular-seamed Flies, 418, 470 
 Cistelidae, 584 
 Cisthene unifascia, 326 
 Citheronia regalis, 346 
 Citheroniidae, 343 
 Classes, 4 
 Classification of the Coleoptera, 499; 
 
 of the Heteroptera, 125; of the 
 
 Homoptera, 148; of the Hymenop- 
 
 tera, 602 
 Claspers, 66 
 Clavate, 60 
 Clavicornia, 497 
 
 Clavus, 125 
 
 Clear-winged Moths, 259 
 
 Clemensia albata, 325 
 
 Cleora semiclusaria, 280 
 
 Cleptes, 632 
 
 Cleridae, 552 
 
 Click-beetles, 544 
 
 Clisiocanipa, 360 ; C. americana, 
 360 ; C. californica, 362 ; C. con- 
 stricta, 362 ; C. disstria, 362 
 
 Cloaked Knotty-horn, 570 
 
 Closed, 504 
 
 Close-wings, 234 
 
 Clothed-in-white Footman, 325 
 
 Clothes-moths, 257 
 
 Clouded Locust, no 
 
 Clouded Sulphur, 385 
 
 Cloudless Sulphur, 387 
 
 Clover, 371, 385, 386, 392, 537, 598 
 
 Clover-hay VVorm, 233 
 
 Clover Hypena, 295 
 
 Clover-leaf Midge, 446 
 
 Clover Looping-owlets, 299 
 
 Clover-root Borer, 598 
 
 Clover-seed Midge, 446 
 
 Clubionidae, 30 
 
 Clubionids, 30 
 
 Clypeal suture, 500 
 
 Clypeus, 500 
 
 Cnemidotus, 522 
 
 Cobweb Weavers, 34 
 
 Coccidae, 164 
 
 Coccid-eating Pyralid, 236 
 
 Coccinella novemnotata, 535 
 
 Coccinellidae, 534 
 
 Coccus cacti, 166 
 
 Cochineal, 166 
 
 Cockroaches, 104, 106, 589, 590 
 
 Cockscomb Elm-gall, 161 
 
 Cocoon, 54 
 
 Codlin-moth, 241 
 
 Coelodasys, 269 
 
 Cofiee-tree, 347 
 
 Coleoptera, 494 
 
 Coleoptera genuina, 515 
 
 Colias = Eurymus and Zerene 
 
 Collembola, 84 
 
 Collops quadrimaculatus, 552 
 
 Colopha uimicola, 161 
 
 Colnradia, 350 
 
 Colorado Potato-beetle, 576 
 
 Colydiidae, 537 
 
 Colymbetes, 525 
 
 Common Skippers, 368 
 
 Common Stag-beetle, 555 
 
 Complete metamorphosis, 51 
 
684 
 
 IXDEX AXD GLOSSARY. 
 
 Coirjposit;c, 402 
 
 Compound eyes, 58 
 
 Compton Tortoise, 403 
 
 Conchylidae, 243 
 
 Conchylids, 243 
 
 Conchylis rutilana, 243 
 
 Coniferous trees, flowers of, 591 
 
 Conifers, 280 
 
 ConopidjE, 476 
 
 Conops affinis, 476 
 
 Conorhinus sanguisugus, 137 
 
 Conotrachelus nenuphar, 593 
 
 Coppers, 390 
 
 Copris Carolina, 558 
 
 Coptocycla, 581 
 
 Cordylurinae, 485 
 
 Coreidse, 143 
 
 Corisa, 129; C. undulata, 129 
 
 Coriscus, 138; C. ferus, 138; C. sub- 
 
 coleoplratus, 138 
 Corisidae, 129 
 Corimelaena, 146 
 Corimelaenidae, 146 
 Corium, 125 
 Corn, 300, 563, 577, 641 
 Cornicles, 67 
 Corn-louse Ant, 641 
 Corn Plant-louse, 158 
 Corn Root-worm, 577 
 Corn Silvanus, 538 
 Corn-stalks, 565 
 Cornus, 392 
 Corrodentia, 98 
 Corydalis cornuta, 176 
 Corylophidae, 534 
 Cosmopolitan Butterfly, 402 
 Cosrnosoma, 327; C. auge, 328 
 Cossidse, 221 
 Costa, 64 
 Costal margin, 64 
 Coialpa lanigera, 562 
 Cotton, 300 
 Cotton-stainer, 141 
 Cotton-worm, 301 
 Cottony-cushion Scale, 166 
 Cow-killer Ant, 648 
 Cow-manure, 483, 485 
 Coxa, 13, 62 
 Coxal cavities, 504 
 Crabronidae, 656 
 Crabronids, 656 
 Crabro singularis, 656 
 Crabs, 11 
 Crab Spiders, 40 
 Crambidse, 234 
 Crambidia pallida, 324 
 
 Crambus, 235 
 
 Crane-flies, 429 
 
 Cray-fishes, 11 
 
 Creeping Water-bugs, 133 
 
 Cremastogaster lineolata, 643 
 
 Creophilus villosus, 532 
 
 Crepidodera cucumeris, 57S 
 
 Crescent- spots, 398 
 
 Cribellum, 23 
 
 Cricket-like Grasshoppers, 114 
 
 Crickets, 104, 115 
 
 Crioceris asparagi, 575 
 
 Crop, 71 
 
 Croton, 410 
 
 Croton-bug, 106 
 
 Cruciferse, 371 
 
 Cruciferous plants, 383 
 
 Crustacea, 11 
 
 Crustaceans, 11 
 
 Cryptohypnus abbreviatus, 546 
 
 Cryptophagidae, 538 
 
 Cryptus extrematis, 624 
 
 Ctenucha virginica, 327 
 
 Cubitus, 64 
 
 Cuckoo-flies, 632 
 
 Cucujidae, 537 
 
 Cucujids, 537 
 
 Cucujus clavipes, 538 
 
 Cucullia, 302; C. speyeri, 302 
 
 Cucumber, 577, 578 
 
 Cucumber-beetles, 577 
 
 Cucumber Flea-beetle, 578 
 
 Culex, 437 
 
 Culicidae, 437 
 
 Cuneus, 125 
 
 Cupesidae, 553 
 
 Curculionidae, 593 
 
 Curculios, 593 
 
 Curled dock, 390 
 
 Curled-thread Weavers with Irregular 
 
 Webs, 32 
 Curled-thread Weavers with Regular 
 
 Webs, 38 
 Currant, 244, 280, 613 
 Currant-borer, 261 
 Currant Span-worm, 279 
 . Currant-worm, 613 
 Cut-worms, 305 
 Cyaniris pseudargiolus, 391 
 Cybister, 525 
 Cychrus, 520 
 Cyclorrhapha, 418, 470 
 Cycnia egle, 319 
 Cydnidae, 145 
 Cylas formicarius, 595 
 Cyllene pictus, 571; C. robiniae, 570 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 685 
 
 Cymatophoridae, 291 
 Cymatophorids, 291 
 Cyiiipidse, 615 
 
 Dactylopius, 166 
 
 Daddy Long Legs, 19 
 
 Daggers, 307 
 
 Dainty Sulphur, 387 
 
 Damsel-bugs, 13S 
 
 Danais = Anosia 
 
 Dance-flies, 466 
 
 Darkling Beetles, 582 
 
 Darning-needles, 90 
 
 Darwinian theory of natural selec- 
 tion, 200 
 
 Dascyllidre, 544 
 
 Datana, 264; D. ininistra, 265 
 
 Dead animal matter, 559, 5S3 
 
 Decaying fruit, 4S7 
 
 Decaying vegetable matter, 484, 538, 
 565 
 
 Deilephiia lineata, 337 
 
 Deltoids, 295 
 
 Dendroctonus tenebrans, 598 
 
 Dermestes lardarius, 539 
 
 Dermestidae, 538 
 
 Dermestids, 538 
 
 Derodoiitidae, 542 
 
 Desmia funeralis, 230 
 
 Desmocerus palliatus, 570 
 
 Destructive Leaf-liopper, 153 
 
 Development without metamorpho- 
 sis, 50 
 
 Devil's-needles, 90 
 
 Dexiinae, 482 
 
 Diabrotica, 577 ; D. duodecimpunc- 
 tata, 577; D. longicornis, 577; D. 
 soror, 577; D. viitata, 577 
 
 Diapheromera femorata, 108 
 
 Diaspins, 171 
 
 Diastictis ribearia, 279 
 
 Diastrophus nebulosus, 620 
 
 Dicaelus, 521 
 
 Dicerca divaricata, 549 
 
 Dictynidae, 32 
 
 Dictynids, 32 
 
 Diervilla, 339 
 
 Digger-wasps, 644 
 
 Digitus, 500 
 
 Dilophogaster californica, 628 
 
 Dineutes, 527 
 
 Diopslnae, 4S6 
 
 Dioptidae, 262 
 
 Dioptids, 262 
 
 Diplosis resinicola, 447 ; D. tritici, 
 447 
 
 Diptera, 413 
 
 Discal cell, 198 
 
 Discal vein, 199 
 
 DissoEteira Carolina, III 
 
 Diver, 304 
 
 Diverse-line Moth, 285 
 
 Divining Atropos, 99 
 
 Dixa, 436 
 
 Dixa-midges, 436 
 
 Dixidae, 436 
 
 Dobson, 175, 176, 177 
 
 Dog-day Harvest fly, 151 
 
 Dog-tlea, 492 
 
 Dog's- head, 386 
 
 Dolichopodidae, 467 
 
 Dolichopus, 467; D. lobatus, 467 
 
 Dolomedes, 42 
 
 Donacia, 575 
 
 Dorcus parallelus, 555 
 
 Doryphora clivicollis, 576; D. decem- 
 
 lineata, 576 
 Dragon-iiies, 89, 90 
 Drassidae, 29 
 Drassids, 29 
 Drassus saccatus, 29 
 Drasteria, 299; D. crassiuscula, 299; 
 
 D. erechtea, 299 
 Drasterius elegans, 546 
 Drepanidae, 289 
 Drepanulidae = Drepanidae 
 Dried fruits, 236 
 Drosophila ampelophila, 4S7 
 Dryocampa rubicunda, 349 
 Dry vegetable matter, 583 
 Dull-eyed Grayling, 411 
 Dung, 583 
 Dung-flies, 485 
 Dye-stuffs, 166 
 Dynastes grantii, 563 ; D. hercules, 
 
 563; D. tityrus, 563 
 Dysdercus suturellus, 141 
 Dyspteris, 283 ; D. abortivaria, 286 
 Dytiscidae, 523 
 Dytiscus, 525 
 
 Eacles = Basilona 
 
 Ears, 483 
 
 Earth-boring Dung-beetles, 559 
 
 Earwigs, 102, 103 
 
 Edema albifrons, 266 
 
 Egg, 53 
 
 Egg-mass of a Mantis, 107 
 
 Egg-sac, 24 
 
 Eight-spotted Forester, 314 
 
 Elaphifiion villosum, 571 
 
 Elateridae, 544 
 
686 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSAR Y. 
 
 Elaters, 544 
 
 Elder, 570 
 
 Electric-light Bugs, 132 
 
 Eleodes, 583 
 
 Elis quadrinotata, 649 
 
 Ellema harrisii, 334 
 
 Elliptical Goldetirod Gall, 486 
 
 Elm, 218, 267, 308, 334, 353, 403 
 
 Elytra, 494 
 
 Emboliuni, 125 
 
 Emesa longipes, 136 
 
 Emesidae, 136 
 
 Emperors, 410 
 
 Empididae, 466 
 
 Empoa rosae, 154 
 
 Empodium, 420 
 
 Empretia stimuJea, 225 
 
 Enchenopa binotata, 155 
 
 Encoptolophus sordidus, no 
 
 Endomychidse, 535 
 
 Engraver-beetles, 596 
 
 Ennomidae, 277 
 
 Ennomids, 277 
 
 Ennomos magnarius, 278 
 
 Ensign-flies, 626 
 
 Epargyreus tityrus, 370 
 
 Epeiridae, 35 
 
 Ephemerida, 86 
 
 Ephemerid<-E, 87 
 
 Ephestia kiihniella, 236 
 
 Ephydra, 4S7 
 
 Ephydrinae, 487 
 
 Epicaenis imbricatus, 592 
 
 Epicauta, 588 ; E. cinerea, 589 ; E. 
 pennsylvanica, 588 ; E. vittata, 
 589 
 
 Epilachna borealis, 535 
 Epimeron, 502 
 Epipharynx, Oi 
 Episternum, 502 
 Erannis tiliaria, 280 
 Erax, 461 
 Erax apicalis, 460 
 Erebus odora, 297 
 Ericerus pe-la, 166 
 Eriocampa cerasi, 613 
 Eristalis, 471 
 Erotylidae, 536 
 Erotylids, 536 
 Erythroneuravitis, 154 
 Estigmene acraea, 321 
 Eubyia = Biston 
 Euchaetes = Cycnia 
 Euchoeca albovittata, 283 
 Euclea delphinii, 224 
 Euclcidae, 223 
 
 Eudamus, 370 ; see also Epargyreus 
 
 and Thorybes 
 Eudamus proteus, 370 
 Eudeiiinea herminiata, 288 
 Eudryas = Euthisanotia 
 Eudule meridica, 285 
 Eufitchia = Diastictis 
 Eugonia j-album, 403 
 Eulimacodes scapha, 22/. 
 Eulonchus, 459 
 Eumenes fraternus, 658 
 Eunienia atala. 394 
 Eumenidae, 658 
 Euphanessa — Eudule 
 Euphoria, 565; E. inda, 565; E. 
 
 melancholica, 566 
 Euphydryas phaeton, 399 
 Euplexfjptera, 102 
 Euploeids, 397 
 Euploeinae, 397 
 Eupsalis minuta, 595 
 Eupsyche m-album, 394 
 Euptoieta claudia, 400 
 Eurema lisa, 386 
 Eurygaster alternatus, 146 
 Eurymus eurytheme, 386; E. philo- 
 
 dice, 3S5 
 Eurypelma hentzii, 28 
 Eustroma diversiiineata, 285 
 Euthisanotia grata, 315; E. unio, 316 
 Euvanessa antiopa, 403 
 Evania append igaster, 628 
 Evaniidae, 626 
 Everes comyntas, 392 
 Evergreen Bag-worm, 220 
 Evergreen Cleora, 2S0 
 Everlasting, 402 
 Evolution and Taxonomy, 203 
 Exetastes fascipennis, 622 
 External anatomy of insects, 56 
 Exuviae, 53 
 Eyed Browrn, 411 
 Eyed Elater,' 547 
 Eyprepia, 323; E. virgo, 324 
 
 Falcate Orange-tip, 385 
 Fall Canker-worm, 276 
 Fall Web-worm, 321 
 False Crane-flies, 448 
 Families, 4 
 Fat, 71 
 
 Feather-wing Beetles, 535 
 Femur, 13, 62 
 Feniseca tarquinius, 390 
 Fibrous Oak-apple, 618 
 Fiery Hunter, 519 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 687 
 
 Fig-eater, 566 
 
 Filiform, 60 
 
 Fir, 572 
 
 Firefly Family, 550 
 
 Firstborn Geometer, 274 
 
 Fish, 132 
 
 Fish-moths, 82, 83 
 
 Five-dotted Tortoise, 581 
 
 Flabellate, 500 
 
 Flannel-moths, 218 
 
 Flat-bugs, 139 
 
 Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer, 549 
 
 Flat-headed Lan-cc, 548 
 
 Flea-beetles, 578 
 
 Fleas, 490 
 
 Flesh-flies, 482 
 
 Flies, 413 
 
 Flouring-mills, 236 
 
 Flower-beetles, 564 
 
 Flower-bugs, 140 
 
 Flying Spiders, 25 
 
 Foenus, 62S 
 
 Footman-moths, 324 
 
 Forest trees, 281, 299, 308, 318, 320, 
 
 346, 353. 355. 35(). 598 
 Forficulidae. 103 
 Forked Fungus-beetle, 583 
 Formica ditficilis, 639, 640, 641 ; F. 
 
 exsectoides, 640; F. rufa, 640; F. 
 
 subsericea, 641 
 Formicidae, 640 
 Formicina, 633 
 Fossores, 644 
 
 Four-footed Butterflies, 395 
 Four-lined Leaf-bug, 141 
 Frenatae, 201, 216 
 Frenate Lepidoptera, 204, 216 
 Frenulum, 19S 
 
 Frenulum-conservers, 205, 290 
 Frenulum-losers, 206, 290 
 Fritillaries, 399 
 Frog-hoppers, 152 
 Fruit, 577 
 
 Fruit-trees, 275, 281, 355, 362, 598 
 Frustrating Retinia, 243 
 Fulgoridae, 151 
 Fuller's Rose-beetle, 592 
 Fungi, 161, 538, 583. 585 
 Fungus-gnats, 442 
 Funnel-web Weavers, 30 
 Furs, 538 
 
 Galea, 62, 500 
 Galerita janus, 521 
 Galgulidae, 133 
 Galgulus oculatus, 133 
 
 Galleria mellonella, 233 
 Galleriidae, 233 
 Gall-flies, 615 
 Gall-gnats, 444 
 
 Gall-inhabiting Hymenoptera, 601 
 Galls, 44, 616 
 Ganglia, 69 
 
 Garden vegetables, 305, 592 
 Gartered Plume, 238 
 Gastropacha = Phyllodesma 
 Gastrophilus equi, 477 
 Gelechia cerealella, 258; G. gallse- 
 solidaginis, 486; G. pinifoliella, 
 252 
 Genealogical tree, 2 
 Generalized, 200 
 Generalized Frenatse, 203, 204 
 Geniculate, 500 
 Genus, 3 
 GeometridcTe, 2S7 
 Geometrids. 270 
 Geomeliina, 270 
 GeoryssidjE, 543 
 Geotrupes, 559 
 Giant Oak-gall, 620 
 Giant Silk-worms, 350 
 Giant Skippers, 365 
 Giant Stag-beetle, 555 
 Giant Water-bugs, 131 
 Giant Whip-scorpion, 18 
 Gipsy Moth, 312 
 Gizzard, 71 
 Glaucus Form, 379 
 Glossa, 501 
 Gnaphalium, 402 
 Gnaihiuni, 588 
 Gnophsela, 316; G. hopfferi, 317; G. 
 
 vermiculata, 316 
 Goat-weed, 410 
 Goat-weed Butterfly, 410 
 Golden-eyes, 181 
 Golden-rod, 138, 302, 551, 571, 587, 
 
 58S 
 Goldsmith-beetle, 562 
 Goniodes stylifer, loi 
 Gooseberry, 407, 613 
 Gooseberry Span-worm, 279 
 Gossamer-winged Butterflies, 388 
 Grain, 142, 258, 304, 596 
 Grandfather Graybeards, 19 
 Grape, 152, 154, 226, 228, 238, 286, 
 303. 313. 315, 562, 565, 569, 57S. 
 592 
 Grape Leaf-folder, 230 
 Grape Phylloxera, 160 
 Grape-vine Epimenis, 315 
 
688 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 Grape-vine Leaf-hopper, 153 
 
 Grapholithidae, 240 
 
 Grapholithids, 240 
 
 Grapta = Eugonia and Polygonia 
 
 Grass, 234, 375 
 
 Grasshoppers, 104 
 
 Gray Comma, 405 
 
 Gray-veined White, 3S3 
 
 Great Purple Hair-streak, 393 
 
 Great Spangled Fritillary, 400 
 
 Green Comma, 404 
 
 Greeti Corn, 565 
 
 Green Geometrids, 287 
 
 Green-striper) Maple-worm, 349 
 
 Ground-beeU'-.s, 518 
 
 Grubs, 494 
 
 Gryllidae, 1:5 
 
 Gryllotalpa borealis, 117 
 
 Gryllus abbreviatus, n8 
 
 Guest-bees, 670 
 
 Guest-gall-flies, 621 
 
 Guest-gall-gnat, 446 
 
 Guest- wasps, 657 
 
 Gula, 500 
 
 Gular sutures, 500 
 
 Gyretus, 527; G. sinuatus, 527 
 
 Gyrinidae, 525 
 
 Hackberry, 156 
 Hadenoecus, 114 
 Haematobia serrata, 483 
 Haematopinus asini, 147; H. eury- 
 
 siernus, 147 
 Haematopis grataria, 287 
 Hair-snakes, 53 
 Hair-streaks, 392 
 Halictus, 666 
 Haliplidae, 522 
 Haliplids, 522 
 Haliplus, 522 
 Halisidota caryae, 320 
 Halteres, 413 
 Haltica chalybea, 578 
 Handmaid Moths, 264 
 Haploa, 319; H. contigua, 319 
 Harlequin Cabbage-bug, 145 
 Harlequin Milkweed Caterpillar, 
 
 319 
 Harmonia pini, 261 
 Harpalus caliginosus, 521 
 Harrisina, 227; H. americana, 227; 
 
 H. coracina, 228; H. texana, 228 
 Harris's Sphinx, 334 
 Harvestmen, 12, 19 
 Harvest-mites, 493 
 Hawk-moths, 329 
 
 Hawthorn, 338 
 
 Hawthorn Tingis, 139 
 
 Head, 499 
 
 Head and its appendages, 58 
 
 Heart, 67 
 
 Heliconians, 397 
 
 Heliconiinae, 397 
 
 Heliothis armigera, 300 
 
 Hemaris diffinis, 338; H. thysbe, 
 338 
 
 Hemileuca maia, 342 
 
 Hemileucidae, 342 
 
 Hemileucids, 342 
 
 Hemerobians, 181 
 
 Hemerobiidae, 181 
 
 Hemiptera, 121 
 
 Hens, 100 
 
 Heodes hypophlaeas, 390 
 
 Hepialidae, 215 
 
 Hepialus, 215 
 
 Herbaceous plants, 318 
 
 Herbivorous Lady-bug, 535 
 
 Hesperia montivaga, 372 
 
 Hesperiidae, 368 
 
 Hesperiina, 364 
 
 Hesperiinae, 369 
 
 Hessian-fly, 446 
 
 Heteroceridae, 543 
 
 Heterocerus, 543 
 
 Heteromera, 498 
 
 Heterophleps, 283 
 
 Heteroptera, 122, 123 
 
 Hexapoda, 48 
 
 Hickory, 265, 299, 320, 346, 353, 393, 
 
 592 
 Hickory-nuts, 593 
 Hickory Tiger-moth, 320 
 Hippobosca, 488 
 Hippobosca equina, 48S 
 Hippoboscidae, 4S7 
 Histeridae, 541 
 Hoary Alder, 216 
 Hog-caterpillar of the Vine, 336 
 Holcaspis centricola, 619; H. globu- 
 lus, 619; H. inanis, 619 
 Homoptera, 122, 148 
 Homoptera lunata, 2g6 
 Honey-ant, 642 
 Honey-bee, 673 
 Honey-comb, 234 
 Honey-dew, 157, 162, 392 
 Honey-locust, 347 
 Honeysuckle, 339 
 Honey-tubes, 67 
 Hooded Owlets, 302 
 Hook-tip Moths, 289 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 689 
 
 Hop, 401 
 
 Hop-merchant, 405 
 
 Hop-vine Hypena, 296 
 
 Horned Corydalis, 176 
 
 Horned Passalus, 556 
 
 Horn-fly, 483 
 
 Horn-tails, 614 
 
 Horse, 488 
 
 Horse Bot-fly, 477 
 
 Horse-flies, 453 
 
 House-fly, 482 
 
 Hybernia = Erannis 
 
 Hybrid Graylings, 412 
 
 Hybrid Purple, 407 
 
 Hydriomenidae, 282 
 
 Hydriomenids, 282 
 
 Hydrobatidae, 135 
 
 Hydrocharis, 52S; H. obtusatus, 529 
 
 Hydrophilidae, 527 
 
 Hydrophilus, 528; H. triangularis, 
 
 528 
 Hydropsyche, i8g 
 Hydropsychinae, i8g 
 Hydroscaphidae, 533 
 Hygrotrechus conformis, 135 
 Hylesinus trifolii, 598 
 Hymenoptera, 599 
 Hypatus bachmannii, 397 
 Hypena humuii, 296; H . scabra, 295 
 Hyperchiria = Automeris 
 Hypermetamorphosis, 587 
 Hyphantria cunea, 321 
 Hypoderma bovis, 478; H. lineata, 
 
 478 
 Hypopharynx, 61 
 Hypoprepiafucosa, 325; H. miniata, 
 
 325 
 Hyptiotes cavatus, 38 
 Human-flea, 492 
 Humeral angle, 64, 217 
 Humeral veins, 360 
 Humpbacked Flies, 475 
 
 Icerya purchasi, 166 
 Ichneumon-flies, 621 
 Ichneumonidae, 621 
 Ichthyura, 268; I. inclusa, 268 
 -idae, 8 
 
 Ilia Underwing, 298 
 Imbricated Snout-beetle, 592 
 Imperial-moth, 346 
 -inae. 8 
 
 Incisalia niphon, 393 
 Incomplete metamorphosis, 50 
 Incurvaria acerifoliella, 255 
 Indian-meal Moth, 236 
 
 Inner margin, 64 
 
 Innoxious Black-fly, 453 
 
 Inocellia, 179 
 
 Inquilines, 621, 670 
 
 Insects, 48, 49 
 
 Internal anatomy of insects, 67 
 
 lo-moth, 351 
 
 Iphiclides ajax, 379; I. ajax ajax, 
 
 380; I. ajax marcellus, 379; I. 
 
 ajax telamonides, 379 
 Ips fasciatus, 542 
 Isabella Tiger-moth, 322 
 Isomera, 496 
 Isoptera, 95 
 Isosoma hordei, 629 
 Itch-mite, 43 
 
 Jalysus spinosus, 143 
 
 Japyx, 84 
 
 Jasoniades glaucus, 378; J. glaucus 
 
 glaucus, 379; J. glaucus turnus, 
 
 37s 
 Jassidae, 153 
 Jigger, 493 
 Joint-worm, 629 
 Jugatae, 201, 214 
 Jugate Lepidoptera, 204 . 
 Jugum, 198 
 
 Jumping Plant-lice, 155 
 Jumping Spiders, 42 
 June-bugs, 560, 566 
 Juniper Web-worm, 243 
 
 Katydids, 113 
 Kermes, i58 
 Kings, 96 
 Koochabee, 487 
 
 Labial palpi, 62, 501 
 Labium, 61, 501 
 Labrum, 61 
 Lac, 166 
 Lac dye, 166 
 Lace-bugs, 139 
 Lace-winged Flies, 180 
 Lachnosterna, 560 
 Lachnus, 160 
 Lacinia, 500 
 
 Lacosoma chiridota, 359 
 Lacosomidae, 357 
 Lady-bugs, 534 
 Laertias philenor, 375 
 Laetilia coccidivora, 236 
 Lagoa = Megalopyge 
 Lagriidae, 584 
 Lamellate, 60 
 
690 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 Lamellicornia, 498 
 
 Lamellicorn Beetles, 556 
 
 Lamellicorn Leaf-chafers, 559 
 
 Lamellicorn Scavengers, 556 
 
 Lamiids, 572 
 
 LamiinEe, 572 
 
 Lampyridae, 550 
 
 Lampyrids, 550 
 
 Land-bugs, 124 
 
 Langton's Forester, 314 
 
 Languria, 536; L. mozardi, 537 
 
 Lantern-fiy Family, 151 
 
 Lappet-caterpillars, 359, 360 
 
 Larch Lappet, 363 
 
 Larder Beetle, 539 
 
 Large Carpenter-bee, 670 
 
 Large intestine, 71 
 
 Large Metal-mark, 394 
 
 Larger Empty Oak-apple, 619 
 
 Larra terminata, 652 
 
 Larridae, 652 
 
 Larrids, 652 
 
 Larva, 53 
 
 Lasiocampidse, 359 
 
 Lasiocampids, 359 
 
 Lasioderma serricorne, 553 
 
 Lasius alienus, 158 ; L. brunneus, 
 
 641 
 Lathridiidae, 542 
 Laverna sabalella, 251 
 Leaf-beetles, 574 
 Leaf-bugs, 140 
 Leaf-cutter Bees, 667 
 Leaf-hoppers, 153 
 Leaf-rollers, 239 
 Leaf-rolling Weevils, 591 
 Lebia grandis, 520 
 Lecanium, 169; L. hemisphsericum, 
 
 171; L. hesperiduin, 170; L. oleae, 
 
 169, 170 
 Legs, 62 
 
 Leguminosae, 371, 385, 392 
 Leistotrophus cingulatus, 533 
 Lema trilineata, 575 
 Lemoniids, 394 
 Lemoniinae, 394 
 Leopard-moth, 223 
 Lepidoptera, igi 
 Lepisma saccharina, 83 
 Leptidae, 456 
 Leptinidae, 529 
 Leptinus testaceus, 529 
 Leptis, 458 
 
 Leptysma marginicolle, ill 
 Lettuce, 341 
 Lettuce Earth-louse, 159 
 
 Leucania unipuncta, 303 
 
 Leucarctia = Estigmene 
 
 Leucospis, 629; L. affinis, 630 
 
 Libellulidae, 90 
 
 Libythea = Hypatus 
 
 Libytheinae, 396 
 
 Lice, 121, 147 
 
 Lfchens, 328 
 
 Light-loving Anomala, 562 
 
 Ligula, 501 
 
 Ligyrus rugiceps, 563 
 
 Limacodes = Eulimacodes 
 
 Limacodidae = Eucleidae 
 
 Limenitis = Basilarchia 
 
 Lime-tree Winter-moth, 280 
 
 Limnobates lineata, 136 
 
 Limnobatidae, 136 
 
 Limochores pontiac, 373 
 
 Limothrips poaphagus, 119 
 
 Linear mines. 249 
 
 Liparidae = Lymantriidae 
 
 Lipoptera, 488 
 
 LithocoUetis hamadryadejla, 250 
 
 Lithosia bicolor, 325 
 
 Lithosiidse, 324 
 
 Lithosiids, 324 
 
 Little Sulphur, 386 
 
 Little-winged Jugates, 2l6 
 
 Live-oaks, 263 
 
 Lobsters, 11 
 
 Locust-borer, 570 
 
 Locust, insects infesting, 370, 571 
 
 Locustidae, 112 
 
 Locusts, 108 
 
 Locust-tree Carpenter-moth, 222 
 
 Lonchoptera, 469 
 
 Lonchopteridae, 469 
 
 Long-beaks, 396 
 
 Long-horned Beetles, 567 
 
 Long-horned Bugs, 124 
 
 Long-horned Grasshoppers, 112 
 
 Long-horned Leaf-beetles, 575 
 
 Long-horned Orthorrhapha, 416 
 
 Long-legged Emesa, 136 
 
 Long-legged Flies, 467 
 
 Long-tailed Skipper, 370 
 
 Long-tongued Bees, 666 
 
 Lophoderus politana, 245 
 
 Louse-flies, 487 
 
 Lucanidae, 554 
 
 Lucanus dama, 555; L. elephus, 555 
 
 Luna Moth, 353 
 
 Lunate Similar-wing, 296 
 
 Lung-sacs, 13, 22 
 
 Lycaena = Cyaniris and Everes 
 
 Lycaenidae, 388 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 691 
 
 Lycaeninne, 389 
 Lycomorpha pholus, 327 
 Lycosa, 41 
 Lycosidae, 40 
 Lygneid.T, 142 
 Lyinaritriidae, 308 
 Lymcxylid?e, 553 
 Lymexylon navale, 553 
 Lyreman, 151 
 
 Machilis, 84 
 
 Macrodactylus subspinosus, 561 
 
 Maia-molli, 342 
 
 Malachiidae, 552 
 
 Mallophaga, 100 
 
 Mamestra picla, 305 
 
 Mandibles, 13, 61 
 
 Maniidie, 106 
 
 Maiitis-like Neuroptera, 179 
 
 Mantispa, 179 
 
 Mantispidae, 179 
 
 Many-dotted Apple-worm, 303 
 
 Many-plume Moths, 238 
 
 Maple, 223, 278, 298, 308, 349, 353, 
 
 364. 549 
 Maple-leaf Cutter, 255 
 March-flies, 449 
 Margaronia hyalinata, 231 
 Marginal cells, 607 
 Marsh-treaders, 136 
 Martial's Dusky-wing, 371 
 Marumba modesta, 333 
 Masaridae, 657 
 
 Masked Bed-bug Hunter, 137 
 Mason-wasps, 658 
 Maxillae, 13, 61 
 Maxillary palpi, 62, 500 
 May-beetles, 560, 649 
 May-flies, 86, 87 
 Meadow-browns, 410 
 Meadow Grasshoppers, 1 13 
 Meal, 236 
 Meal-moth, 233 
 Meal-worm, 583 
 Mealy-bugs, 164, 166 
 Measuring- worms, 270 
 Mecoptera, 184 
 Media, 64 
 
 Mediterranean Flour-moth, 236 
 Megachile, 667; M. acuta, 667 
 Megalodachne, 536; M. fasciata, 
 
 536; M. heros, 536 
 Megalopyge crispata, 218 
 Megalopygidae, 21S 
 Meganostoma = Zerene 
 Megathymidae, 365 
 
 Megathymus cofaqui, 367; M. neu 
 moegeni, 368; M. yuccae, 367 
 
 Melandryida;, 585 
 
 Melanoplus femur-rubrum, no; M. 
 sprelus, no 
 
 Melilaea = Euphydryas 
 
 Melitaeids, 398 
 
 Melitlia ceto, 262 
 
 Mcloe, 588; M. angusticollis, 588 
 
 Meloidae, 586 
 
 Melon, 577, 578 
 
 Melon -worm, 231 
 
 Melophagus ovinus, 488 
 
 Melsheimer's Sack-bearer, 358 
 
 Membracidae, 154 
 
 Membrane, 125 
 
 Mentum, 501 
 
 Mesonotum, 501 
 
 Mesosternum, 501 
 
 Mesothorax, 62 
 
 Metallic Wood-borers, 548 
 
 Metamorphoses of insects, 50 
 
 Metanotum, 501 
 
 Metasternum, 501 
 
 Metatarsus, 13, 63 
 
 Meiathorax, 62 
 
 Microcentrum retinervis, I13 
 
 Microdon, 472 
 
 Microfrenatae, 205 
 
 Microgaster, 626 
 
 Micropterygidae, 216 
 
 Micropteryx, 216, 219 
 
 Midaida:, 461 
 
 Midas, 462 
 
 Midas-flies. 461 
 
 Midge-like Flies, 417 
 
 Midges, 440 
 
 Milk-weed, 397 
 
 Milkweeds, 574, 577, 581, 652 
 
 Millipedes, 45, 47 
 
 Mimesida, 655 
 
 Mimesids, 655 
 
 Misumena vatia, 40 
 
 Mites, 12, 42 
 
 Mitoura damon, 393 
 
 Mocha-stone Moths, 268 
 
 Modest Sphinx, 333 
 
 Mole Crickets, 117 
 
 Molting, 52 
 
 Monarch, 397, 408 
 
 Moniliform, 60 
 
 Monobia quadridens, 660 
 
 Monocteniidae, 273 
 
 Monocteniids, 273 
 
 Monohammus confusor, 572 
 
 Monommidae, 584 
 
692 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 Monomorium pharonis, 643 
 
 Mononyx stygicus, 134 
 
 Monostegia rosae, 613 
 
 Monotomidae, 542 
 
 Mordellidae, 586 
 
 Morning-glory, 580 
 
 Mosquitoes, 437 
 
 Mossv Rose-gall, 621 
 
 Moth-like Flies, 428 
 
 Moths, 195, 257 
 
 Mound-building Ant, 640 
 
 Mournful Thyris, 329 
 
 Mourning-cloak, 403 
 
 Mourning Horse-fly, 455 
 
 Mouth- parts, 60, 500 
 
 Mud-daubers, 651 
 
 Mulberry, 341 
 
 Mule-killers, 106 
 
 Murgantia histronica, 145 
 
 Musca domestica, 482 
 
 Muscidae, 479 
 
 Muscids, 479 
 
 Muscinae, 482 
 
 Muscles, 67 
 
 Muscular system, 69 
 
 Mustard, 578 
 
 Mutilla, 648 
 
 Mutillidae, 648 
 
 Mycetophagidae, 538 
 
 Mycetophilidae, 442 
 
 Myriapoda, 45 
 
 Myrmecocystus melliger, 642 
 
 Myrmeleon, 182 
 
 Myrmeleonidae, 182 
 
 Myrmicidae, 642 
 
 Myrmicids, 642 
 
 Mysus cerasi, 159; M. persicae, 159 
 
 Nabidae, 138 
 
 Naked Clothes-moth, 258 
 Nathalis iole, 387 
 Natural classification, I 
 Naucoridae, 133 
 Necrophorus, 530 
 Nectaries, 67 
 Nectarines, 594 
 Negro-bugs, 146 
 Neides muticus, 143 
 Nematocera, 416 
 Nematus ribesii, 613 
 Nemistrinidae, 459 
 Nemognatha, 58S 
 Neonympha= Satyrodes 
 Nepa apiculata, 131 
 Nepidae, 130 
 Nervous system, 67, 72 
 
 Nettle, 401, 403, 580 
 
 Net-winged Midges, 432 
 
 Neuroptera, 175 
 
 Neuroterus, 617 
 
 Nimble-flies, 482* 
 
 Nine-spotied Lady-bug, 535 
 
 Nisoniades = Thanaos 
 
 Nitidulidas, 541 
 
 Noctua c-nigrum, 306 
 
 Noctuidae, 293 
 
 Noctuids, 293 
 
 Noctuids and their allies, 205 
 
 Nolophana = Balsa 
 
 Northern Brenthid, 595 
 
 Northern Cloudy-wing, 371 
 
 Nostrils, 4S3 
 
 Notched-wing Geometer, 278 
 
 Notodontidae, 263 
 
 Notolophus, 308, 310; N. antiqua, 
 
 311; N. definita, 311; N. leuco- 
 
 stigma, 310 
 Notonecta, 130 
 Notonectidae, 130 
 Notoxus, 586 
 Notum, 501 
 Nut-weevils, 593 
 Nycteribiidae, 489 
 Nymph, 54 
 Nymphalidae, 395 
 NymphalinaC; 398 
 Nysson, 654 
 Nyssonidae, 654 
 Nyssonids, 654 
 
 Oak, beetles infesting, 549, 571, 595; 
 caterpillars infesting, 218, 223, 224, 
 225, 245, 250, 265, 266, 267, 293, 
 299, 308, 345, 347, 353, 358, 362, 
 364, 393, 394; galls on, 618 
 
 Oak-pruner, 571 
 
 Oak Ugly-nest Tortricid, 245 
 
 Oberea bimaculata, 573 
 
 Obsolete, 57 
 
 Ocelli, 59, 199 
 
 Ochre Dagger, 307 
 
 Ocneria = Porthetria 
 
 Odonata, 89 
 
 Odontomyia, 456 
 
 Odontota rubra, 580 
 
 Odynerus, 659 
 
 Oicanthus niveus, 1 18 
 
 CEdemasia concinna, 267 
 
 CEdemeridae, 585 
 
 CEneis semidea, 412 
 
 CEstridae, 477 
 
 CEstrus ovis, 478 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 693 
 
 Oiketicus abbotii, 220 
 
 Oil-beetles, 588 
 
 Old Tussock-moth, 311 
 
 Olfersia, 488; O. americana, 488 
 
 Olive Hair-streak, 393 
 
 Omus, 518 
 
 One-dotted Tortoise, 581 
 
 Oiiion-tiy, 484 
 
 Oniscidai, 12 
 
 Ootheca of a Cockroach, 106 
 
 Open, 504 
 
 Ophion, 624 
 
 Opsicoetus personatus, 137 
 
 Orange, 592 
 
 Orange-striped Oak-worm, 348 
 
 Orange Sulphur, 386 
 
 Orange-tips, 384 
 
 Orb Weavers, 35 
 
 Orchards, 310 
 
 Orders, 4 
 
 Orders of the Hexapoda, 76, Si 
 
 Orgyia = Notolophus 
 
 Ormenis septenirionalis, 152 
 
 Orneodes hexadactyla, 238 
 
 Orneodidae, 238 
 
 Orphnephila testacea, 449 
 
 Orphnephilidse, 449 
 
 Ortalinse, 485 
 
 Orthezia, i63 
 
 Orthoptera, 104 
 
 Orthorrhapha, 416, 427 
 
 Orthosoma brunneum, 569 
 
 Osage Orange, 341 
 
 Osmateria, 376 
 
 Osmoderma eremicola, 565; O. 
 scabra, 565 
 
 Othniidae, 584 
 
 Othnius, 584 
 
 Otiorhynchidae, 592 
 
 Outer lobe, 62, 500 
 
 Outer margin, 64 
 
 Ovipositor, 66 
 
 Owlet-moths, 293 
 
 Owls, 488 
 
 Ox, loi 
 
 Oxwarble, 478 
 
 Oxyptilus periscelidactylus, 238 
 
 Oyster-shell Bark-louse, 171 
 
 Pacific Peach-tree Borer, 261 
 Painted Beauty, 401 
 Painted Footman, 325 
 Painted Hickory-borer, 571 
 Paleacrita vernata, 275 
 Pale Footman, 324 
 Palmetto-leaf Miner, 251 
 
 Pal pi for, 500 
 
 Palpus, 13 
 
 Pamphila = Limochores 
 
 Pamphilinae, 372 
 
 Pandorus Sphinx, 336 
 
 Panorpa, 185 
 
 Panorpidae, 184 
 
 Pantarbcs capito, 464 
 
 Panlographa limata, 231 
 
 Papaw, 380 
 
 Papilio,377 ; see also Iphiclides, Ja- 
 
 soniades, and Lajrtias 
 Papilionidae, 375 
 Papilionina, 373 
 Papilioninae, 376 
 Papilio polyxenes, 377 
 Papirius fuscus, 85 
 Paraglossae, 501 
 Parallelia bistriaris, 298 
 Parandra brunnea, 567 
 Parapsides, 603 
 Paraptera, 63, 495, 502 
 Parasita, 147 
 Parasitica, 122 
 
 Parasitic Hymenoptera, 601 
 
 Parnassiinse, 380 
 
 Parnassians, 375, 380 
 
 Parnassius, 380 
 
 Parnidae, 543 
 
 Parsnip, 377 
 
 Passalus cornutus, 556 
 
 Pastures, 303 
 
 Patagia, 199 
 
 Patella, 13 
 
 Peach. 260, 265, 549, 594 
 
 Peach-tree Aphis, 159 
 
 Peach-tree Borer, 260, 261 
 
 Pear, 223, 224, 407, 569 
 
 Pear-leaf Blister, 44 
 
 Pearl Wood-nymph, 316 
 
 Pear-tree Psylla, 156 
 
 Pear-tree Slug, 613 
 
 Peas, 300, 582 
 
 Pea-weevil, 581 
 
 Pea-weevil Family, 581 
 
 Pectinate, 60 
 
 Pediculidae, 147 
 
 Pedipalpi, 13, 17 
 
 Pegomvia vicina, 484 
 
 Pe-la, i'66 
 
 Pelecinidae, 631 
 
 Pelecinus, 631 ; P. polyturator, 631 
 
 Pelidnota punctata, 562 
 
 Peiocoris femorata, 133 
 
 Pelogonus americanus, 134 
 Pelopceus, 651; P. cementarius, 651 
 
694 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 Pemphredonidae, 655 
 
 Pemphredonids, 655 
 
 Pencetia viridans, 21 
 
 Pen -marked Sphinx, 334 
 
 Pennsylvania Blister-beetle, 5S8 
 
 Pentatomidse, 144 
 
 Penthe. 585; P. obliquata, 585; P. 
 
 pimelia, 585 
 Pepperand-salt Currani-moth, 280 
 Pepsis formosa, 650 
 Pericopidae, 316 
 Pericopids, 316 
 Peri<jdical Cicada, 150 
 Perlid-Te, 93 
 Pernicious Scale, 171 
 Perophora = Cicinnus 
 Petrophora = Eustroma 
 Perophoridae = Lacosomidae 
 Phalacridae, 534 
 Phalangidea, 19 
 Phanaeus carnifex, 558 
 Pharynx, 71 
 Phasmidae, 108 
 Phasmomantis Carolina, 107 
 Pheosia rimosn, 263 
 Philampelus pandorus, 336 
 Philanthidae, 654 
 Philanthids, 654 
 Philosamia cynlhia, 357 
 Phlegethontius Carolina, 335; P. ce- 
 
 leus, 335 
 Pholisora catullus, 372 
 Phora, 475 
 Phorbia brassicae, 484; P. ceparum, 
 
 484 
 Phoridae, 475 
 Phryganeidae, 187 
 Phrynidae, 19 
 Phrynus, 19 
 Phycitidae, 235 
 Phycitids, 235 
 Phyciodes, 399 
 
 Phyllodesma, 360; P. americana, 363 
 Phyllotreta vittata, 57S 
 Phylloxera vastatrix, 160 
 Phylogeny of the lepidoptera, 199 
 Phymata vvolffii, 138 
 Phymatidae, 138 
 Phryganidia californica, 262 
 Physonota unipunctata, 581 
 Physopoda, 119 
 Phylophaga, 498 
 Phytoptus, 43 
 Phytoptus pyri, 44 
 Pieridae, 381 
 Pierids, 381 
 
 Pieris, 3S2 ; see also Pontia 
 
 Pieris oleracea, 382; P. rapae, 383 
 
 Pigeon Horn-tail, 615 
 
 Pinacate-bugs, 583 
 
 Pine, 243, 252, 334, 549, 567, 569, 
 .572 
 
 Pine-cone Willow-gall, 445 
 
 Pine-leaf Miner, 252 
 
 Pine-leaf Scale, 174 
 
 Pine-leaf Tube-builder, 245 
 
 Pine Sesian. 261 
 
 Pinipestis zimmermanni, 236 
 
 Piophila casei, 486 
 
 Piophilinae, 486 
 
 Pipuiiculidae, 473 
 
 Pipunculus, 473 
 
 Pitch-pine, 243, 252 
 
 Pitch-pine Retinia, 242 
 
 Pith, 586 
 
 Pithy Blackberry-gall, 620 
 
 Plaginotus speciosus, 570 
 
 Plant-eating Hymenoptera, 601 
 
 Plant-lice, 156, 391 
 
 Platypeza, 474 
 
 Platypezidae, 474 
 
 Piatypsylla castoris, 529 
 
 Platypsyllidae, 529 
 
 Platypterygidae — Drepanidae 
 
 Plaiypteryx arcuata, 291 ; P. geni- 
 cula, 291 ; P. siculifera, 291 
 
 Plecoptera, 93 
 
 Plectoptera, 86 
 
 Plemyria hastata, 283 
 
 Pleurum, 501 
 
 Plodia interpunctella, 236 
 
 Plum, 334, 353, 356, 407, 593 
 
 Plum Curculio, 593 
 
 Plume-moths, 237 
 
 Plusia, 301 ; P. brassicae, 301 ; P. 
 simplex, 301 
 
 Poecilocapsus lineatus, 141 
 
 Polistes, 590, 662 
 
 Pollen, 565 
 
 Polybia, 662 
 
 Polyergus rufescens, 639 
 
 Polygonia, 404 ; P. comma, 405 ; P. 
 comma dryas, 405 ; P. comma 
 harrisii, 405 ; F. faunus, 404 ; P. 
 interrogationis, 405 ; P. interro- 
 gationis umbrosa, 406 ; P. interro- 
 gationis fabricii, 406 ; P. progne, 
 405 
 
 Polyphemus-moth, 352 
 
 Polyporus, 583 
 
 Polystoechotes punctatus, l8l 
 
 Polythalamous, 620 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 695 
 
 Pomace-flies, 487 
 
 Pompilidae, 650 
 
 Pond-lily, 304 
 
 Poneridne, 642 
 
 Ponerids, 642 
 
 Poiitia prolodice, 384 
 
 Poplar, 223, 268, 275. 363. 403. 406, 
 
 569 
 Poplar Mocha-stone Moth, 2C8 
 Ponhetria dispar, 312 
 Posterior lobe, 420 
 Post media, 64 
 Posiscutellum, 502 
 Potato, 335, 575. 576, 578, 587. 588 
 Poultry, 100 
 Prsescuium, 502 
 Praying Mantes, 106 
 Predaceous Diving-beetles, 523 
 Premedia, 64 
 Preserved meats, 45 
 PrioninsE, 568 
 Prionids, 568 
 Prionoxystus robinise, 222 
 Prion us, 567 ; P. imbricornis, 569 ; 
 
 P. laticollis, 568 
 Proctotrupidae, 630 
 Proctotrupids, 630 
 Prolegs, 66 
 Promeihea Moth, 354 
 Prominents, 263 
 
 Pronotum, 501 
 
 Propodeum, 602 
 
 Prosternum, 501 
 
 Prothorax, 62 
 
 Proioparce = Phlegethontius 
 
 Protoplasa filchii, 430 
 
 Prune, 577 
 
 Pselaphidse, 531 
 
 Psephenus leccntei, 543 
 
 Pseudaglossa lubricalis, 296 
 
 Pseudohazis, 343; P- eglanterina, 343; 
 P. hera, 343 
 
 Pseudoscorpiones, 17 
 
 Pseudoscorpiuns, 17 
 
 Pseudothyatira cymatophoroides, 292 
 
 Pseudova. 159 
 
 Psiiophus ciliatus, 468 
 
 Psithyrus, 671 
 
 Psocidae, 98 
 
 Psocids, 98 
 
 Psyche, 220 
 
 Psychidse, 219 
 
 Psychoda, 429 
 
 Psychodidae, 428 
 
 Ps'ychomorpha epimenis, 315 
 
 Psylla pyricola, 156 
 
 PsylliiicE, 155 
 
 Pteromalus puparum, 629 
 
 Pteronarcys regalis, 94 
 
 Pterophorida;, 237 
 
 Pterosticus lucublandus, 521 
 
 Ptilinum, 419 
 
 Ptinida:, 553 
 
 Pulex irritans, 492 
 
 Pulicida;, 492 
 
 Pulvilli, 63 
 
 Pulvilliform, 420 
 
 Pulvinaria, 168, 237; P. innumera- 
 
 bilis, 169 
 Pumpkin, 535 
 Punkies, 441 
 Pupa, 54 
 
 Pupa-bearing Flies, 419 
 Puparium, 415 
 Pupipara, 419, 488 
 Pyralididse, 232 
 Pyralidina, 228 
 Pyralids, 22S 
 
 Pyralids, the Typical, 232 
 Pyralis costalis, 233 ; P. farinalis, 
 
 Pyrameis = Vanessa 
 Pyraustidae, 230 
 Pyraustids, 230 
 Pyrethrum, 100 
 Pyrgus = Hesperia 
 Pyrochroidae, 586 
 Pyromorpha dimidiata, 226 
 Pyromorphidae, 226 
 Pyrophila = Amphipyra 
 Pyrrharctia Isabella, 322 
 Pyrrhocoridae, 141 
 Pythidae, 585 
 
 Queens, 96 
 
 Race prejudice, 3 
 Radish, 578 
 Radius, 64 
 Ranatra, 13I 
 Raphidia, 179 
 Raphidians, 178 
 Raphidiidae, 178 
 Raspberry. 146. 218, 292, 578 
 Raspberry Fruit-worm, 541 
 Raspberry Geometer, 288 
 Red Admiral, 401 
 Red-ant, 643 
 Red-bug Family, 141 
 Red Cedar, 220, 393 
 Red-humped Apple-worm, 267 
 I Red legged Locust, no 
 
696 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 Red Milkweed-beetles, 574 
 
 Red-necked Agrilus, 550 
 
 Red Scale of California, 174 
 
 Red Spider, 43 
 
 Red Spotted Purple, 406 
 
 Reduviidae, 137 
 
 Regal-moth, 346 
 
 Reproductive organs, 69, 76 
 
 Resin-gnat, 447 
 
 Respiratory system. 73 
 
 Resplendent Shield-bearer, 254 
 
 Retinia comstockiana, 242 
 
 Retinia frustrana, 243 
 
 Rhagium lineatum, 569 
 
 Rhamphomyia, 467 
 
 Rheumaptera = Plemyria 
 
 Rhinoceros-beetles, 562 
 
 Rhipicerida, 544 
 
 Rhipiphoridae, 589 
 
 Rhizobius lactucae, 159 
 
 Rhodites rosse, 621 
 
 Rhogas parasiticus, 625 
 
 Rhynchites bicolor, 591 
 
 Rhynchitidse, 591 
 
 Rhynchocephalus sackeni, 460 
 
 Rhynchophora, 499, 590 ' 
 
 Rhyphidae, 448 
 
 Rhyphus, 449 
 
 Rhyssodidae, 537 
 
 Ribbed Pine-borer, 569 
 
 Rice-weevil, 596 
 
 Robber-flies, 460 
 
 Rocky Mountain Locust, no 
 
 Rose-bugs, 561 
 
 Rose Leaf-hopper, 154 
 
 Roses, 154, 561, 591, 592, 613 
 
 Rose-slug, 613 
 
 Rosy Dryocampa, 349 
 
 Rosy-striped Oak-worm, 348 
 
 Rotten wood, 584, 586 
 
 Rough Flower-beetle, 565 
 
 Round Goldenrod Gall, 4S6 
 
 Round-headed Apple-tree Borer, 
 
 572 
 Rove-beetles, 532 
 Royal-moths, 343 
 Rumex acetosella, 390; R. crispus, 
 
 390 
 Running Spiders, 40 
 
 Sack-bearing Fr< n ilum-losers, 357 
 Sacred Beetle, 5 7 
 Saddle-back Caterpillar, 225 
 *ad Flower-beetle, 566 
 Salda, 134 
 Saldidae, 134 
 
 Salt-marsh Caterpillar, 321 
 
 Samia californica, 357; S. cecropia, 
 356; S gloveri, 357 
 
 Samia = Philosamia 
 
 Sand-crickets, 115 
 
 Sannina exitiosa, 260; S. pacifica, 
 261 
 
 Saperda Candida, 573 
 
 Sapygidae, 649 
 
 Sapygids, 649 
 
 Sarcophaginae, 482 
 
 Sarcopsylla penetrans, 493 
 
 Saturnians, 339 
 
 Saturniidae, 350 
 
 Saturniina, 339 
 
 Satyrinae, 410 
 
 Satyrodes eurydice, 411 
 
 Satyrs, 410 
 
 Satyrus — Cercyonis 
 
 Saw-flies, 611 
 
 Sawyer, 572 
 
 Scale-bugs, 164 
 
 Scales of Lepidoptera, 191 
 
 Scalloped Owlet, 302 
 
 Scaliop-shell Moth, 284 
 
 Scaphidiidae, 533 
 
 Scarabaeidae, 556 
 
 Scarabaeids, 556 
 
 Scarred Snout-beetles, 592 
 
 Scatophaga, 485 
 
 Scenopinidae, 465 
 
 Scenopinus, 465; S. fenestralis, 466 
 Scent-glands, 373 
 Scent-organ, 370, 380 
 Scepsis fulvicollis, 327 
 Schizoneura imbricator, 161; S. 
 lanigera, 162; S. tessellata, l6l, 
 391 
 Schizophora, 419 
 Sciara, 443 
 
 Sciara Army-worm, 443 
 Sciara mali, 443 
 Sclerite, 57 
 
 Scoleopteryx libatrix, 302 
 Scoliidae, 649 
 Scoliids, 649 
 Scolops, 152 
 Scolytidae, 596 
 Scorias spongiosum, 161 
 Scorpion-flies, 184 
 Scorpionida, 15 
 Scorpions, 12, 15 
 Screw-worm Fly, 483 
 Scurfy Bark -louse, 174 
 Scutelleridae, 146 
 Scutellum, 502 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 697 
 
 Scutum, 502 
 
 Scydmffinidae, 531 
 Searcher, 519 
 Seirodonta bilineata, 266 
 Semi-aqiialic Hugs, 124 
 Sericaria — Bonibyx 
 Serpentine mines, 249 
 Serphus dilataius, 132 
 Serrate, 60 
 Serricornia, 497 
 Sesia lipuliformis, 261 
 Sesiidae, 259 
 Sesiids, 259 
 Setaceous, 60 
 Shade-trees, 223, 275. 310 
 Shed-builder Ant. 643 
 Sheep Bot-fly, 47S 
 Sheep-tick, 43, 488 
 Shellac, 166 
 
 Shield-backed Rugs, 146 
 Shield-backed Grasshoppers, I15 
 Shining Leaf chafers, 561 
 Ship-thnber Beetle, 553 
 Shore-bugs, 134 
 Short-horned Bugs, 124 
 Short-horned Grasshoppers, 108 
 Short-horned Orthorrhapha, 417 
 Short-tongued Bees, 665 
 Shrimps, 11 
 Shrubs, 292, 351 
 Sialidae, 176 
 Silk, 22 
 
 Silk-worm, 340 
 Silpha, 531 
 Silphidae, 529 
 
 Silvanus surinamensis, 538 
 Silver-spotted Skipper, 370 
 Similar-winged Owlets, 296 
 Simple Eyes, 59 
 Simuliidae, 451 
 
 Simulium,45i; S. innoxium, 453; S. 
 meridionale, 453; S. molestum, 
 453: S. pecuarum, 453 
 Siphonaptera, 490 ^ 
 
 Siphuncles, 67 
 Sirex, 615 
 Siricidse, 614 
 Sitodrepa panicea, 553 
 Skeleton, 67 
 Skiff Caterpillar, 224 
 Skin-beetles, 559 
 Skins, 538 
 
 Skippers, 195, 206, 364, 486 
 Skippers with a Costal Fold, 369 
 Skippers with a Discal Patch, 372 
 Slave-ant, 641 
 
 Slavemaker-ant, 640 
 
 Slug-catcrpiUar Moths, 223 
 
 Smaller Empty Oak-apple, 619 
 
 Small-headed Flies, 458 
 
 Small intestine, 71 
 
 Small Metal- mark, 394 
 
 Smerinlhus geminatus, 333 
 
 Smoky-moths, 226 
 
 Snake-doctors, 90 
 
 Snakehead, 399 
 
 Snipe-flies, 456 
 
 Snout-beetles, 590 
 
 Snout Butterfly, 397 
 
 Snowberry, 338, 339 
 
 Snow-flea, 85 
 
 Snowy Tree-cricket, 114, I18 
 
 Social Bees, 672 
 
 Social Wasps, 660 
 
 Soldier-flies, 455 
 
 Soldiers, 96 
 
 Solitary Long-tongued Bees, 667 
 
 Solitary-midge, 449 
 
 Solitary Wasps, 658 
 
 Sooty-wing, 372 
 
 Sores, 483 
 
 Sorrel, 390 
 
 Southern Buffalo-gnat, 453 
 
 Southern Cloudy-wing, 371 
 
 Sovereigns, 406 
 
 Sow-bugs, 12 
 
 Spanish Bayonet, 367 
 
 Spathegaster, 618 
 
 Spear-marked Black, 283 
 
 Spear-winged Flies, 469 
 
 Specialized, 200 
 
 Specialized Frenatae, 204 
 
 Specialized Macrofrenatse, 205 
 
 Species, 3 
 
 Sphaeriidae, 533 
 
 Sphserophthalma occidentalis, 648 
 
 Sphecidae, 650 
 
 Sphecina, 644 
 
 Sphecids, 650 
 
 Sphecius speciosus, 653 
 
 Sphenophorus, 596 
 
 Sphindidae, 554 
 
 Sphingicampabicolor, 347 
 
 Sphingidae, 329 
 
 Sphinx chersis, 334 
 
 Sphinxes, 329 
 
 Sphyracephala brevicornis, 486 
 Spiders, 12, 20, 651 
 Spider-wasps, 650 
 Spilosoma virginica, 322 
 Spindles, 90 
 Spinnerets, 22 
 
698 
 
 INDEX AND Glossary. 
 
 Spinning organs, 22 
 
 Spinning tubes, 22 
 
 Spiny Oak slug, 224 
 
 Spiny Oak-worm, 348 
 
 Spiracles, 13, 73 
 
 Spittle Insects, 152 
 
 Spondylidae, 566 
 
 Spongy Oak-apple, 618 
 
 Spotted Cut-worm, 306 
 
 Spotted Pelidnota, 562 
 
 Spotted Thyris, 329 
 
 Spring Azure, 391 
 
 Spring Canker-worm, 275 
 
 Spring-tails, 82, 84 
 
 Sprinkled Locust, iii 
 
 Squash, 535, 577 
 
 Squash-bug, 144 
 
 Squash-bug Family, 143 
 
 Squash-vine Borer, 262 
 
 Stable-fly, 482 
 
 Stag-beetles, 554 
 
 Staphylinidae, 532 
 
 Staphylinus maculosus, 533; S, vul- 
 
 pinus, 533 
 Steel-blue Flea-beetle, 578 
 Stem-eyed Fly, 486 
 Stemmata, 59 
 Stem-mother, 159 
 Stenopelmatus, 115 
 Stephanidae, 624 
 Stephanids, 624 
 Sternum, 501 
 Sterrhidae, 286 
 Sterrhids, 286 
 Stiletto-flies, 464 
 Stilt-bugs, 143 
 Sting. 66 
 
 Stinging Hymenoptera, 601, 631 
 Stink-bug Family, 144 
 Stipes, 500 
 Stizinae, 653 , 
 Stomach, 71 
 
 Stomoxys calcitrans, 482 
 Stone-flies, 93 
 
 Straight-bodied Prionid, 569 
 Straight-seamed Flies, 427 
 Stratiomyia, 456 
 Stratiomyiidae, 455 
 Strawberry-weevil, 594 
 Strepsiptera, 589 
 Striped Blister-beetle, 589 
 Striped Diabrotica, 577 
 Striped Flea-beetle, 578 
 Striped Footman, 325 
 Style, 419 
 Stylopidae, 589 
 
 Stylops, 590 
 
 Subclass, 5 
 
 Subcosta, 64 
 
 Subfamily, 5 
 
 Subgalea, 500 
 
 Subgenus, 5 
 
 Submarginal cells, 607 
 
 Submentum, 501 
 
 Suborder, 5 
 
 Subspecies, 5 
 
 Subspecific names, 7 
 
 Sugar, 45 
 
 Sugar-cane Beetle, 563 
 
 Sugar-maples, 570 
 
 Sunflower, wild, 58 1 
 
 Superfamily, 5 
 
 Superior lobe, 500 
 
 Superorder, 5 
 
 Sutures, 57 
 
 Swallow-tails, 375, 376 
 
 Sweet-brier, 621 
 
 Sweet-gale, 284 
 
 Sweet-potato, 580 
 
 Sweet-potato Root-borer, 595 
 
 Swifts, 215 
 
 Symphasis, 179 
 
 Symphoricarpus, 339 
 
 Synchloe olympia, 385 
 
 Synchlora glaucaria, 288 
 
 Synopsis of the Coleoptera, 496; of 
 the Heteroptera, 124; of the Hy- 
 menoptera, 601 ; of the Lepidop- 
 tera, 204; of the Orthoptera, 105 
 
 Syringa, 363 
 
 Syrphidae, 470 
 
 Syrphus, 472 
 
 Syrphus-flies, 470 
 
 Tabanidae, 453 
 
 Tabanus, 454; T. atratus, 455 
 
 Table for determining the families 
 of the Coleoptera, 505; of the 
 Heteroptera, 125; of the Homop- 
 tera, 148; of the Hymenoptera, 
 607; Of the Lepidoptera, 207; of 
 the Neuroptera, 175; of the Sphe- 
 cina, 646; of Spiders, 26 
 
 Table of the Classes of the Arthro- 
 poda, 10 
 
 Table of the Orders of the Arach- 
 nida, 14; of the Hexapoda, 77 
 
 Table of the Suborders of the Hemip- 
 tera, 123; of the Thysanura, 83 
 
 Tachina-flies, 481 
 
 Tachininae, 481 
 
 Tailed Blue, 392 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 699 
 
 Tailed Whip-scorpions, 18 
 
 Tailless Whip-scorpions, ig 
 
 Tangle-veined Flies, 459 
 
 Tarantula-hawk, 650 
 
 Tarantulas, 27, 650 
 
 Tarsus, 13, 62 
 
 Tegulce, 421, 602 
 
 Telamona, 155 
 
 Telea polyphemus, 352 
 
 Tenebrio molitor, 583 
 
 Tenebrionidae, 582 
 
 Tent-caterpillar of the Forest, 362 
 
 Tent-caterpillars, 359, 360 
 
 Tenthredinidai, 611 
 
 Tentiform mines, 250 
 
 Terebrantia, 610 
 
 Tergum, 501 
 
 Terias = Eurema and Xanthidia 
 
 Termes flavipes, 96; T. gilvus, 97 
 
 Termites, 95 
 
 Termitidae, 95 
 
 Tetracha, 518 
 
 Tetraopes, 574; T. tetraophthalmus, 
 
 574 
 Tettix, III 
 
 Thalessa, 623; T. lunator, 623 
 Thanaosbathyllus, 371; T. martialis, 
 
 371 
 Thecesternus humeralis, 591 
 Thecla, 392; see also Atlides, Eu- 
 
 psyche, Incisalia, and Mitoura 
 Thecla calanus, 392 
 The Least Skipper, 373 
 Thelyphonidae, 18 
 Thelyphonus giganteus, 18 
 Theory of descent, 2 
 Theraphosidse, 27 
 There va, 465 
 Therevidae, 464 
 Theridiidse, 34 
 Thick-head Flies, 476 
 Thistles, 402 
 Thomisidae, 40 
 
 Thorax and its appendages, 62 
 Thorybes pylades, 371 
 Thread-legged Bugs, 136 
 Thread-waisted Wasps, 650 
 Three-lined Lema, 575 
 Three-spotted Doryphora, 576 
 Thrip, 154 
 Thrips, 119 
 Throscidae, 548 
 Thyalira scripta, 292 
 Thyatiridae = Cymatophoridae 
 Thyreonotus, 115 
 Tbyrididae, 328 
 
 Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis, 220 
 Thyris lugubris, 329; T. maculata, 
 
 329 
 Thysanura, 82 
 Thysbe Clear-wing, 338 
 Tibia, 13, 62 
 Ticks, 43 
 Tiger-beetles, 516 
 Tiger-moths, 317 
 Tiger Swallow-tail, 378 
 Tile horned Prionus, 569 
 Tinea biselliella, 258; T. pellionella, 
 
 257; T. tapetzella, 258 
 Tineids, 246 
 Tineina, 246 
 Tingitidae, 139 
 Tiphia inornata, 649 
 Tipula abdominalis, 431 
 Tipulidae, 429 
 Tmetocera ocellana, 241 
 Toad-shaped Bugs, 133 
 Toadstools, 583 
 Tobacco, 335, 553 
 Tobacco-worm, 335 
 Toe-biters, 132 
 Tolype, 360; T. laricis, 363; T. vel- 
 
 leda, 362 
 Tomatoes, 300, 335 
 Tomato-worm, 335 
 Tomicus typographus, 597 
 Tortoise-beetles, 580 
 Tortricidae, 244 
 Tortricids, 239 
 Tortricids, the Typical, 244 
 Tortricina, 239 
 Tracheae, 13, 22, 74 
 Tracheal gills, 75 
 Tracheal lungs, 13 
 Trap door Spiders, 27 
 Tree Crickets, 118 
 Tree-hoppers, 154 
 Tremex columba, 615 
 Triangle Spider, 38 
 Trichodecles scalaris, lOI 
 Trichodes nuttalli, 552 
 Trichoptera, 186 
 Trichopterygidae, 533 
 Trigonalidae, 621 
 Trigonalids, 621 
 Trigonalys, 621 
 Triprocris, 227 
 Triptogon = Marumba 
 Trochanter, 13, 62 
 Trochantin, 504 
 Trogositidae, 542 
 Tropaea luna, 353 
 
700 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 Tropisternus, 528; T. californicus, 
 
 528; T. glaber, 528 
 Trox, 559 
 
 True Brachycera, 418 
 True Bugs, 123 
 True Crickets, 117 
 True Nematocera, 417 
 True Wasps, 657 
 Trumpet mines, 249 
 Trypeta pomonella, 486; T. solida- 
 
 ginis, 486 
 Trypetinae, 485 
 Trypoxylon frigidum, 657 
 Tube-building Clothes-moth, 258 
 Tube Weavers in part, 29, 30 
 Tumble-bugs, 556, 558 
 Turkey, loi 
 Turkey-gnat, 453 
 Turnips, 371, 578 
 Turnus Form, 378 
 Tussock-moths, 308 
 Twelve-spotted Diabrotica, 577 
 Twin-spotted Sphinx, 333 
 Two-colored Footman, 325 
 Two-colored Royal-moth, 346 
 Two-lined Parallelia. 298 
 Two-lined Prominent, 266 
 Two-spotted Oberea, 573 
 Typical Ants, 640 
 Typical Cerambycids, 569 
 Typical Coleoptera, 496, 515 
 Typical Muscids, 482 
 Typical Nymphalids, 398 
 
 Ugly-nest Tortricids, 244 
 Uloboridse, 38 
 Uloborids, 38 
 Uloborus, 39 
 
 Umbelliferous plants, 377 
 Under lip, 61 
 Under wing, 298, 303 
 Upper lip, 61 
 Urtica, 403 
 Uletheisa bella, 319 
 
 Vanessa, 401; see also Aglais and 
 
 Eu Vanessa 
 Vanessa atalanta, 401; V. cardui, 
 
 402; V. huntera, 401 
 Vanessids, 401 
 Variegated Fritillary, 400 
 Variegated Tessellate, 372 
 Vedalia, 166, 535 
 Veliidae, 134 
 Velleda Lappet, 362 
 Velvet-ants, 648 
 Vespa, 662 
 
 Vespidae, 660 
 
 Vespina, 657 
 
 Viburnum, 338 
 
 Viceroy, 407 
 
 Vine, 336 
 
 Vine-loving Pomace-fly, 487 
 
 Violet Tip, 405 
 
 Virginia-creeper, 226, 228, 303, 313, 
 
 3'5. 337 
 Virginian Buprestid, 549 
 Volucella, 472 
 
 Walking-sticks, 108 
 
 Walnut, 353 
 
 Wanderer, 390 
 
 Wasps, 657 
 
 Water- boatmen, 129 
 
 Water-scavenger Beetles, 527 
 
 Water-scorpions, 130 
 
 Water-striders, 135 
 
 Wax, 166, 234 
 
 Wedge-shaped I.eaf-beetles, 579 
 
 Weevils, 593 
 
 Well-marked Tussock-moth, 311 
 
 Western Crickets, 115 
 
 Wheat, 153 
 
 Wheat-midge, 447 
 
 Whip-scorpions, 17 
 
 Whirligig-beetles, 525 
 
 White-ants, 95 
 
 White-blotch Oak-leaf Miner, 250 
 
 White grubs. 649 
 
 White lined Sphinx, 337 
 
 White-marked Tussock-moth, 310 
 
 White-M Hair-streak, 394 
 
 White Mountain Butterfly, 412 
 
 White pine, 246 
 
 Whites, 382 
 
 White striped Black, 283 
 
 White-tipped Moth, 266 
 
 Willow, 223, 224, 268, 334, 403, 406, 
 
 612 
 Window-flies, 465 
 Window-winged Moths, 328 
 Wings, 63 
 Wing-veins, 603 
 Winter eggs, 159 
 Witch-hazel, 308 
 Witch-hazel Dagger, 308 
 Wood-nymph Moths, 313 
 Woolly Aphids, 161 
 Woolly-louse of the Apple, 162 
 Workers, 96 
 Worms, 9 
 Wormy apples, 241 
 Wounds, 483 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 701 
 
 Xanthidia nicippe, 386 
 Xenos, 590 
 
 Xylocopa virginica, 670 
 Xylophagus, 457, 458 
 
 Yeastcakes, 236 
 Yellow-bear, 322 
 Yellows, 385 
 Yucca, 367 
 Yucca-borer, 367 
 
 Zaitha, 132 
 Zebra Caterpillar, 305 
 Zebra Swallow-tail, 379 
 Zerene ca^sonia, 386 
 Zeuzera pyrina, 223 
 Ziminermann's Pine-pest, 236 
 Zoological classification, i 
 Zoological nomenclature, 5 
 Zygajnidae, 326 
 Zygaenids, 326 
 

 ^o 
 
 
 
 V <► 
 
For Reference 
 
 NOT TO BE TAKEN FROM THIS ROOM