tDtmmmtmmaaititbimmm HOD0SON Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2009 witii funding from . NCSU Libraries littp://www.arcliive.org/details/buildersarcliitecOOIiodg Builders' Architectural Drawing SELF-TAUGHT CONTAINING DESCRIPTIONS OF DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND ACCESSORIES, WITH RULES FOR USING THEM, AND HINTS AS TO THEIR CARE AND MANAGEMENT. RULES FOR LAYING OUT SIMPLE DRAWINGS AND EXECUTING SAME ARE GIVEN, AND THE STUDENT IS TAUGHT STEP BY STEP TO DRAW TO SCALE, FIRST THE PLANS, NEXT THE ELEVATIONS, AND FINALLY THE DETAILS OF BUILDINGS, INCLUD- ING FOUNDATIONS, WALLS, DOORS, WINDOWS, STAIRS, AND ALL OTHER ITEMS REQUIRED FOR FINISHING IT COMPLETE IN EVERY PARTICULAR. By FRED T. HODGSON Author of "Practical Uses of the Steel Square," "Modern Car- pentry" Common Sense Stair Building- and Handrailing." etc. ILL USTRATED CHICAGO FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., PUBLISHERS Copyright 1917, 1916 and 1903 By FREDERICK J . DRAKE & Co. Chicago. 111., U. S. A. PREFACE Having been more or less interested in Archi- tecture and the building trades for nearly a half a century, I have in that time become acquainted with a great many workmen, who, while filling a subordinate position, possessed aspirations and ambitions, which, had they had a fair knowledge of drawing and geometry, would have lifted them to the hightest place in the department in which they labored. To give similar good fellows a chance to obtain the necessary knowledge to enable them to apply for the better positions with a certainty of their being able to fill them with credit is the motive which has prompted the compilation of this book, and, knowing the quality and magnitude of their wants, by personal contact with the workmen in the shop and on the building, I think I am qualified, to a large extent, to cull from the vast treasure house of industrial and technical literature, which added to my own experience, to present to the work- man in the simplest form possible the material he requires to help him along in the struggle for PREFACE better conditions. To attempt to write a book on the subject of architectural drawing and claim for it originality, is simply out of the question; for very little that is original can be said, indeed very little is wanted to be said, for the literature now obtainable seems to cover every point and every phase of the subject. It may be asked then: "Why make another book on the subject?" This seems a just and reasonable query, and one that deserves a well considered answer, and I will, to the best of my ability, endeavor to make such answer. First, then, while admitting that all that need be said on the subject has been said, and better said than I can say it, yet, it is so scattered and broken up, a bit here, and a bit there, that the student for whom this work is prepared would require to own a gold mine to be able to purchase all the works containing just what he requires; secondly, as this work is specially designed for active workmen who have no time to wade through ponderous tomes to find what may be a simple matter after all, they would probably be forced to forego the knowledge if it could not be obtained in a cheap and handy form, therefore, it is thought that by gathering together, and putting within reach of those who want them, a PREFACE series of instructions containing what is con- sidered the most suitable to satisfy the require- ments I have undertaken to fill, and which I hope will prove satisfactory to the young work- man. Doubtless there are many things in this little work that, in the opinion of many persons, might be dispensed with; it may be, and likely is, that there are many good things omitted, many things that would have proved extremely useful, but in palliation I can justly say, that everything I have found on the subject, that was plain, simple and within the capacity of most of the persons this book will reach, and that were not too extensive, I have made use of, and to the best of my ability have placed them before my readers in such language as I am sure will meet with their approval. Plate 1. Plate 2. Plate 3. Plate 4. Plate 5. Plate 6. Plate 7. Plate 8. Plate 9. Plate 10. Plate 11. Plate 12. Plate 13. Plate 14. Plate 15. Plate 16. Plate 17. Plate 18. PLATES PAGt Eighteen illustrations 1? Plan of Cottage 32 Full Frame for Cottage 48 Showing Disposition of Joists 64 Elevation of Front and End of Cottage 80 Constructive Details 96 Showing Cornice, and Roof Construction 112 Shows Plans of Windows, Doors, etc 138 Inside Finish of Windows and Doors 144 Elevation and Section of Finish 160 Doors and Door Finish 176 Stairs, Newels and Balusters 192 Elevation and Details of Mantel 208 Elevation of a Book-case 224 Kitchen and Student's Desk 232 Section and Plans of Window 240 Cellar Window in Stone Wall 248 Sections of Windows in Wood 256 Architectural Drawing Self Tavght INTRODUCTION Before entering into the subject on which this work is being prepared, the editor and compile*' would like to say a few words to the reader, i* connection therewith. It will be noticed that the title of this work i* "Architectural and Builders' Drawing Self Taught"; and this title fairly conveys to the intelligent reader, the scope of the volume, as the work is intended solely for young progressive carpenters and builders who are not going to drag out a tiresome existence by remaining at the bottom of their trades, and who have not had an opportunity of acquiring a knowledge of architectural drawing or the use of drawing instruments. Many of the best draftsmen in the United States, Canada, and Great Britain, came from the ranks of the working men; men who had gained the most of their knowledge of the laws of construction and exactness in the work- shop, at the bench, or on the buildings where 11 12 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT they were employed; and I may say that it is ,within the power of ninety per cent of workmen to become fairly good draftsmen, by their own efforts, and the aid of such books as the one I have now prepared for this purpose; and the young man who has by his own efforts, per- severance and ability, succeeded in being able to place on paper or board with pen and pencil, a plain elevation of a door, window, house, stone wall, or veranda, drawn to scale, and so made as to convey to his fellow workman a correct idea of what is intended, that man has achieved a result which should — and generally does — advance his wages, increase his importance, and make him a more valuable and useful citizen. It is not to be supposed that this little work alone, even though thoroughly digested, will enable the reader to become a finished drafts- man, nor is it so intended, but it will aid him materially in acquiring such knowledge as will give him a good start on the highway to success. Wherever the student can attain access to a school for drawing, there he should at once proceed, for a few hours spent over a drawing board under competent supervision, will do more towards giving him an insight into the methods and practice of good draftsmanship than it is ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 13 possible to obtain by many days of book study. Where there are no such schools available the student should try and get Into an architect's office, or into the office of some mechanical draftsman, and either pay for, or work for, a series of lessons on drawing, but when none of these conditions exist, he should take up a series of studies in practical geometry in connection with drawing; as a knowledge of geometr>^ as presented in either "Modern Carpentry and Joinery", or other works published in this series of work-manuals, by Messrs. Frederick J. Drake &Co. The construction of geometrical tigures is exceedingly good exercise and will not only give the reader good theoretical knowledge, but will help him in his drawing lessons and practice him in exactness. By application and determination "to fight it out to a finish" the earnest student will be sure to make a good — perhaps a first-class— drafts- man, for, to the really earnest man, nothing is impossible within the range of human accomplishments. I have referred in the foregoing to "exactness." This is the first "necessity" in a drawing that is intended to be used as a guide for actual work. 14 ...^ HITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT A drawing'" may be rough, dirty and inartistically done, but if it be complete and correct it serves its purpose, and is immeasurably superior for practical uses to the inexact artistic one, which may dazzle with its shade and shadows and fineness of execution, but leads to confusion and failure and consequent chagrin and loss. I have thought it necessary to inject into this little work a few remarks and a few illustrations on Free Hand Drawing, as many persons are gifted with the power of being able to make a fair drawing of objects on sight, and it was thought that, perhaps, a few hints in this direc- tion would be necessary to make the book complete, as these hints may aid those who have these gifts, and stimulate those who have them not, to cultivate the art, as a knowledge of it is one of the most useful aids the drawing student can possess. It must be remembered this work does not pretend to lead the student beyond the realm of plain practical drawing, such as the everyday workman will find useful and corfvenient, when- ever he wishes to convey to others an idea of what he intends to erect, or to lay out on paper or board a piece of work he is about to execute. I have eschewed perspective, and ARCHITECTUHAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 15 elaborate drawings of any kind, but, should it be thought wise, I may hereafter, prepare a work for this series, dealing with perspective and a higher grade of work than is herewith presented. SOMETHING ABOUT DRAWING INSTRUMENTS In all kinds of geometrical, architectural and mechanical drawing, the accuracy of the work will depend much, in theory, on the excellency of the drawing instruments used. Practically, these instruments are not quite perfect, and any carelessness or negligence of the draftsman when using them, may render them unfit for accuracy of operation. Indeed, the hand and eye of the operator, viewed simply as instruments, for executing conceptions of form, are vastly superior and more varied than the best of appliances used by the draftsman, and well directed efforts should, and will, bring out this capacity so that, other things being equal, he will make the most expert and elegant drafts- man whose eye is most reliable in its estimate of form and size, and whose free hand is most skilled in expressing these elements of figure. Instruments, however, are necessary, and a little talk on the subject will not be out of place, and may prove of practical value to the reader. 16 ARCHITECTURAL D" '^'ING SELF TAUGHT PLATE I. This plate exhibits some eighteen different sketches. No. i shows a plain method of laying out a room having sliding doors in it. No. 2 shows the same room presented on another method. No 3 exhibits another simple plan ot marking off the same room, while No. 4 shows the walls in plain black. These four examples are intended to convey to the student some idea of the various methods of illustrating. No. 5 shows the layout of a porch, with an angle on one corner. No. 6 shows the plan of the porch roof. Nos. 7 and 8 show plan of semi-octagon bay-windows, and roof plan, while No. 9 shows the roof plan for a pentagon bay-window. Nos. 10 and 1 1 show two plans of stairs that are suggestive. Nos. 12 and 13 exhibit two styles of laying out a bath room. No. 14 shows several ways of laying out fireplaces, while 15, 16 and 17 show portions of a pantry and kitchen. INSERT FOLDOUT HERE ARCHITECTURAL, DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 17 Almost, in every department of life the best results can only be obtained by the skilful employment of the best means available. Some times a genius accomplishes supreme results with the most primitive of means, but it is not for geniuses this work is prepared, but for everyday sort of people, people who do not expect to build houses without materials, or become draftsmen without long and careful preparation; and such being the case it is in order that the reader be advised to purchase the best instru- ments and accessories his means will admit of. "A fine workman requires fine tools," and no man can do a fine piece of work not having the proper tools wherewith to do it, so no man can do a good piece of drafting without having the necessary tools; therefore, it will not be out of place to commence with a description of the instruments required, and the manner of using them. The first thing the young student will require, will be a drawing board. This may be made at home, but should be true on its face and the edges should be exactly at right-angles with each other, or perfectly square. The board may be made in size, to suit requirements, but should never be less than 12 by 17 inches. Indeed, it is 18 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT better to have two or three boards of sizes varying from 12x17 to 36x60 inches. They may be clamped on the ends with stuff about i^ inches wide and the thickness of the board, or they maybe held together with battens either screwed on to the underside as shown at Fig. 2. Fig. I, or dovetailed into the board across the grain as shown a^ rig. 2. At Fig. 3 a much ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 19 better board is shown and one I can recommend as possessing nearly all the qualities of a perfect board. A glance at the illus- tration will explain the good qualities of this style of board. The wood used should be carefully "^Fig. 3. selected pine or basswood with hardwood cross-bars at back. To pre- vent the warping of the wood, the board is sawed half way through at about every two inches, and for the purpose of allowing to con- tract and expand, the cross bars are not glued on, but fastened with screws, which run in oblong metal slots. At the ends, pieces of hardwood are inlaid, to give the T-square a smooth work- ing edge. They are also cut at every few inches, to allow for contraction and expansion of the board. While the cheapest boards are made of white pine or basswood, it doesn't necessarily follow that boards may not be made of other woods; cedar, mahogany and straight grained walnut make very fine boards and answer very well where you do not require to use pins for securing the paper to the board. When, then, hardwood 20 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT boards are used, it is as well to employ glue or mucilage in fastening paper to the board. Drawing paper comes in rolls of indefinite lengths, and from 36 to 54 inches wide, and in sheets of various sizes. It is made in different tints, is generally very tough, and is chiefly used for details; it is much cheaper than Whatman's, and for many purposes answers just as well. There is also a paper comes in rolls called "Cartridge paper" of a buff color, ver}^ strong and cheap, and admirably suited for details and like work. Tracing cloth, also, comes in rolls, 18, 30, 36, and 42 inches wide; it is convenient and durable, and may be folded up almost any number of times without injury. Tracing paper is made of different qualities and sizes; it is rendered transparent, and qualified to receive ink lines and tinting without spreading. Like tracing cloth, when placed over a drawing already executed, the drawing is distinctly visible through the paper, and may be copied or traced directly by the ink instruments; thus an accurate copy may be made with great expedition. We cannot give reliable price quotations of these papers, as they vary some- what, and mav be different prices in different localities. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 'il The paper should be fastened to the board with pins or thumb-tacks similar to those exhibited in Fig. 4. These are made with a broad flat head, of brass, white metal or silver, and rounded so as to permit the square to slide easily over them, '^' ■* and the stem should be of steel and riveted or screwed into the head. Fig. 5 exhibits several styles of "thumb-tacks,'^ all of which are well enough in their way. There is a number of other styles of tacks of various kinds besides the ones shown. When the young student gets down to "real worlc" and makes use of good paper, he should first damp the edges of the paper, then glue the edges and place fairly on the board, holding it in place with pins or other suitable appliances, which may be removed when the work is dry and ready to operate upon. This method of fastening is sufficient where no shadowing or coloring is to be applied, and if the sheet is not too long a time upon the board. It has the Fig. 5. 22 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT advantage, too, of preserving to the paper its natural quality of surface. With mounted paper, there is no other proper way of fastening. For large, colored, or elaborate drawings, however, a damped sheet is preferable, and where the coloring is a flat tint, damp stretching is indis- pensable, as the partial wetting by water color causes the surface to buckle; partial wetting of loose paper by water color causes the surface to buckle. Damp-stretching is performed in the following manner: lay the sheet on the board, with the face side under, and have the thick edges trimmed from the paper; draw a wet sponge freely and rapidly over the upper side, beginning at the center, damping the entire surface, and allow the sheet to rest for a few minutes till it be damped through, and the surface-water disappears. Those parts which appear to revive sooner than others, should be retouched with the sponge. The damping should be done as lightly as possible, as the sponge always deprives the paper of more or less of its siting. The sheet is now turned over and placed fair with the edges of the board — sufficiently clear of the working edges to permit the free action of the drawing- "Kiuare. The square, or an ordinary straight- ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 23 edge, is next applied to the paper, and set a little within one edge, which is then turned up over the square and smeared with glue. The paper is then turned down and pressed on the board, after which it is rubbed down all along the "lap" with some smooth article. The same process is performed on the other edges of the paper. The whole is then left to dry, which, when completed, leaves the sur- face flat and tense. It is not likely the ordinary workman will want to color his drawings, there- fore he will find it safer, and less trouble, to simply tack his paper on the board with the thumb tacks, and then make his drawings first in pencil, then in ink, but I have thought It well to give some hints regarding the manner of preparing the papers for coloring. Further on, I will have more to say on this subject and on the subject of color. ' ^///)!// />///)) ///////y///-/^^y J y//^^ v/ "/^ ^ig. 6. 24 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT Having prepared a drawing board, the next thing will be to provide a table or desk to rest the board on. I show a very good scheme for this purpose in sketch Fig. 6, and which can readily be made by any workman who can use tools. This should be fixed in some place where there is an abundance of light and in such a position that the light will fall on the board from the left side as shown in Fig. 7. The height and Fig. 7. projection of the table ot desk are marked in Fig. 6, and a movable block of about 3 inches square is shown at A, which can be moved in such a fashion that the angle of the board may ARGHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 25 be made to suit the operator. This block must of course be as long as the drawing board. Fig. 7 shows the board in position with the paper tacked on, and the proper position of the hands are shown as they should appear while making the drawing. The next thing to be considered is the T square. This needs but little description, a s every workman is supposed to know what this instrument is; it may, however, be noted that T-squares differ in construction. In the common- est the "blade", or thin portion, is fixed flush with one side of the "butt", or "head", as at A, Fig. 8. In other forms the blade is fast- ened in the middle of the butt, B, and this is the preferable form for large squares; others, at C, Fig. 8, have the blade above the level of the Fig. 8. 26 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT head, to permit set-squares to go over it. Very large squares have a couple of little studs, as shown in the figure B, to steady them. French curves, L, Fig. 9, are made in a great variety of combinations. They are extremely handy for draw- ing curves not easily struck by the compasses, and also for ec- centric curves, which the com- passes are not able to describe as in medieval mouldings of some forms. In i n k i n g - i n a curve by the aid of one of these appliances the edges must be turned about on the pencilled drawing until some part is found which corresponds, when the edge of the curve will guide the drawing-pen. There are a great variety of these curves as may be seen at Fig. 10. These variable or irregular curves are made of thin wood, hard rubber or celluloid, and are sold for a few cents each. Fig. 9. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 27 The set square or squares, similar to those shown at Fig. 9, C, D, K and B, are great aids Fig. 10. to drawing as they may be employed in conjunc- tion with the T-square, for lining off angles, or laying off parallel lines as shown by the dotted lines EG, and FH. These set squares are made Fig. II. to suit different angles, and in many styles, as will be seen in Fig. 11. The manner of 28 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT using them will suggest itself as the work pro- ceeds. T-squares of a superior kind may be obtained from any dealer in mathematical instruments for from $i.oo to $6.00 each, but in most cases the workman can make his own squares, as well as his own drawing boards, and save money by the operation. The squares shown at Fig. 12 are of a superior kind, the blades and one edge Fig. 12. of the stocks having ebony or other hard wood glued on the edges to prevent them from wear- ing. The lower square has a movable stock, which is operated by a thumb screw, thus enabling the draftsman to set the blade to any angle desired. The working of this will be easily understood by the reader. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 29 Another accessory, and one the workman can make for himself, is a straight edge — or several of them — which may be made of hard-wood, or it may be made of good clean straight grained soft wood, and have hardwood edges glued on as shown in Fig. 13. Perhaps it would be well to have three or four of these straight edges in different lengths and widths, say one 16 in. long, Fig. 13. one 30 in. long, and another 40 in. long. The widths may be 2 in., 23^ in., and ^% in. respectively. They should not be more than three-sixteenths of an inch thick, but would be better if they were thinner. A rule or scale is always necessary, for all architectural'or other drawings that are intended to be worked from, must be made to scale. Usually, in this country, scales are made and marked off to some proportion of the English foot, when intended for architectural work. One sixteenth of an inch may represent one 30 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT foot or one yard, as the case may be, so also may one eighth, one quarter, or one half of an inch represent one foot or one yard, just as the draftsman determines. One eighth of an inch is the most used, though one quarter of an inch is Fig. 14. the scale generally employed. For workmen's use three quarters of an inch scale is handy, as this makes one sixteenth of an inch represent one inch of the actual work, which is quite con- venient in a working drawing. Scales may be had flat or triangular, and in boxwood, ivory or hard rubber, and one foot Fig. 15. long. The flat scales' are very handy, but are sometimes confusing, because often two or more scales are laid off on one edge. Perhaps the handiest scale for actual use, is the triangular one. which is similar to Fig. 14. There are six ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 3t edges on this scale, each edge having a different marking or scale. The flat scale is shown at Fig. 15. This scale is 12 inches long, with 16 scales, as follows: >^, js, %, }i, j4, ^, ^, >^, i, 1%, lyz, i}i, 2, 2%, 2>^, and 3 inches to the foot, the first division of each scale subdi- vided in 12 parts, each. Besides these there are many other kinds of scales made use of by Architects, En- gineers, and Sur- veyors, but these shown and d e - scribed, will suffice for the purpose for which this book is prepared, as it is not intended to embody in this work other than the simplest methods of plain architectural work, and such as can be executed with the simplest kind of instruments. There is a number of other accessories used in drawing besides these mentioned, that are not placed in a regular box or case of instru- Fig. 16. 3:2 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 2. Following up the ideas presented in Plate i, I give herewith the plans for a small cottage and show the cellar plan, first floor plan and chamber plan. This is drawn to a scale of sV of an inch to the foot, but I would advise the student to double the size, which, as a matter of fact, the original drawings of these examples is the scale to which they are made, namely A of an inch to the foot. Every item necessary for a house of this description is shown on these plans. INSERT FOLDOUT HERE ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 33 ments, such as splines, ellipsographs, and beam- compasses; the latter being designed for drawing circles of large diameter, and are so made that the points can be moved to the desired distance apart. One steel point may be removed and a pencil or inking pen inserted. Set screws hold the heads in position on the sliding bar A, Fig. i6. This bar may be of wood, or of metal, preferably the former, and it may be of any desired length. Fig. 17. Splines are flexible strips of wood or metal, and are used for forming cur\^es — regular or variable — and are held in position by a peculiar attachment which serves to hold the curve in position as shown at S S S, Fig. 17. These attachments are made of lead. The ellipsograph is a costly instrument and one which the ordinary workman would seldom require; besides, there are a number of ways by which an ellipse may be drawn, and figures approaching an ellipse, so I would not advise 34 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT the young draftsman to purchase the more expensive one until his means or business warranted it. I give an illustration, however, of Fig. 1 8. Browne's patent ellipsograph in order to acquaint my readers with the style of instrument. This is an excellent device, and can be adjusted to ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 35 form ellipses or ovals of all kinds within the limits of the instrument. It is shown with some of the attachments at Fig. i8. The price of this device varies from $9.00 to $14.00. A very- good one may be obtained for about $12.00. Apart from the conventional box of instru- ments, the appliances now described will be about all the young workman will require unless, of course, he intends to study for an architect or mechanical engineer, when, of course, he will have passed beyond the limits of this work which is intended only for such work- men as have no other opportunities of learning the rudiments of draftsmanship. It will be in order now to say something about the instruments proper the beginner will require, so I will, as briefly as possible, describe the instruments, explain their uses, and offer a few suggestions as to their care and management. A BOX OF INSTRUMENTS It is not my province to recommend any particular make of instruments for, so far as I am aware any of, the ordinary makes — that are not intended for school children — will serve the purpose of learning their use, and afterwards, the student, when advanced sufficiently, a more 36 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT costly and more complete set may be obtained if found necessary. While, of course, purchasing drawing instruments is like purchasing tools, that is, it is always better to buy the very best that can be bought, and I may say that the best may be obtained in single pieces or in boxes containing only three or four pieces. However, perhaps, it is best in our case to get a set similar to the case shown at Fig. 19. This is a Morocco case which con- tains two divid- ers, pen and pen- cil points, draw- ing pen, and a six inch flat scale. This case can be bought for about $4.00, for which sum instruments ought to be fairly good ; if, however, the student can afford it, and feels that he had better purchase a set of instruments that will meet all his needs, present and future, why then he had better invest in a better quality of goods, and purchase a case containing a greater number of instruments and of a finer grade, such as I show at Fig. 20, which may be obtained for about $20.00 or $25.00. This case Fig. 19. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 37 contains, besides the box, one ^}4 in. dividers, with pen, pencil and needle points, lengthening bar; T)/'^ iri- dividers, with pen, pencil and needle points; 5 in. plain dividers; 5 in. hair spring Fig. 20. ^ dividers; spring bow dividers, pen and pencil, needle points, ivory handle; 4.}4 in. ivory handle hinged drawing pen, needle point; 5>^ in. ivory handle hinged drawing pen, needle point; German silver protractor, ebony rule and scale. 38 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT These instruments are made of fine German silver with superior steel points. m iiiii FiiT. 21. Fine Swiss made instruments cost more than German ones, as some of the Swiss cases run up ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 39 to $150.00 and $175.00. English and American made instruments are high priced, but as a rule are more substantial and in the end give bet- ter satisfaction than other makes. The first things to be considered in a set of instruments are the compasses. These generally include dividers and pen and pencil attach- ments. It is not necessary to illustrate or de- scribe the form of these instruments, as they may be seen in the case as shown in Fig. 20, and the interchangeable parts will easily find the place they are intended for when required for use; so I will not dwell on the subject of com- passes longer. Perhaps the most important article in the case to the young student is the pen, and I will there- fore devote more space to a description of it than I will to any other of the instruments, as a proper knowledge of its use and care will be of great assistance in the work before us. A DRAWING PEN This is the most useful and the most used instrument in the case. Fig. 21, which is taken from Keuffel and Esser Co.'s catalogue, shows a variety of pens of the very best make, pens that are suited for any kind of line drawings in ink. 40 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT The prices of these, with ivory handles, range from $1.40 to $2.50 each, and they are warranted to be the best of their kind. A few words as to the use and care of this instrument may not be out of place at this juncture, as it is important the instrument should be well understood by the student so that he may the better be able to make the best of it. The man who devotes himself exclusively to any particular vocation, day after day, for several years, acquires an intimate knowledge of its details that is not easily imparted to the novice through the medium of pen and ink, and often when it is attempted, the finer details which con- tribute so, much to success are passed over lightly or are omitted altogether. "In the course of his experience he acquires ways and means of prosecuting his work, if he be intelligent and progressive, which makes its execution easy and places him on the list of "skilled operators." The art of mechanical drawing contains a few of those mysteries which, if published at all, have not been given a very wide circulation. Our scientific libraries and dealers in technical works are copiously supplied with books on mechanical drawing, in any of which may be found the illustrations of tools, curves, inks, ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 41 colors, etc., carefully reproduced from the catalogues of dealers, but the accompanying description does not always give a clear idea of the relative merits of the different tools shown, how they should be selected, handled, and kept in repair, and, while it is not intended in this work to describe the methods of caring for and repairing all the instruments a box contains, it is necessary the pen should have more than a passing notice. It is a custom with many makers of first-class instruments to hinge one jaw of the ruling pen to the little separating block above the adjusting screw, so that it may be opened after the adjust ing screw is removed. In a pen of this kind the joint should be very snug, as the least amount of play will allow the point of one jaw to slip ahead of the other, which would destroy the efficiency of the pen. In the opinion of the writer this joint is altogether unnecessary. It increases the first cost as well as complicates the instrument, and if used often, will get out of order, even with the very best workmanship. If used properly the points need nev^er be separated further than the adjusting screw will permit. Many draftsmen have the hinge joint brazed or soldered so as to fix the movable jaw to the 42 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT separating block and make it permanent. The points of a pen should never be separated for sharpening, which is the only purpose for which the hinge is made. When the point has become dull from use it will be found with a shape similar to Fig. 22. To restore it to the proper form the jaws should be closed by the adjusting screw, so that the \_y points press gently against each other; then with a fine oilstone worked with a circular motion on the high corners it should be ground to a shape similar to Fig. 23. The point will then be blunt, but will have the proper working when the sides are reduced, which should be care- fully done by laying the side of the pen on the stone at an angle with its surface that will allow the metal to be ground in a straight line to a distance of about one quarter of an inch from the point. The jaws should be opened frequently as the work progresses and the points examined Fig. to avoid grinding through the point of ''^' one jaw into that of the other. The sides are to be reduced till the points of each jaw are equal and just fine enough to slide smoothly over the paper without producing a 1 ARCHITECTLTRAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 43 cutting or scratching sensation. When the points are not sharp enough to make a clean fine Hne the blunt part is easily visible with the naked eye, but when it is sufficiently re- duced it is hardly possible to see it. The shape of the curves in the sides, or jaws, of a pen is also an important feature. If the pen is too open near the point on account of the jaws being too much curved, as in Fig. 24, it will leave too much space for ink, causing it to dry quickly or to fall out in using. Fig. 25 shows about the proper amount of curve in the jaws Fisf. 24. to give sufficient ink space. Wooden handles, though not quite as elegant, as bone, are preferable as they are not liable to break when accidentally swept off the drawing-board — an accident that destroys nine-tenths of the bone handles. For spring bow pens and pencil com- passes it is advisable to have on the adjusting screw, when the pen or pencil is set to draw its largest circle. With a 1 . . 1 . ^ig- 25. pen that is not too strong m the sprmgs an experienced draftsman w411 never change his centers to draw a shade line on one side of 44 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT the circle, as this may be easily accomplished by springing the pen gently toward the side to be shaded, as he continues the movement of drawing the circle. The pivot, or needle point, should always be adjustable. When it is made solid with the leg of the instrument it is generally shaped like the point of a sewing needle, and will pierce a large hole through the paper or tracing cloth with the slightest pressure if used several times in the same center; and should a small piece be broken off the point, the pen will be useless unless a similar length be ground off the nibs of the pen. A very common source of annoyance in nearly all bow pens and pencil compasses is found in the eye or socket provided for the pencil. In many cases it is found too large to hold the ordinary naked lead, and too small for those covered with wood. Frequently' draftsmen are obliged to overcome this difficulty by the clumsy makeshift of reducing the wood till it fits the socket. Sometimes a small bushing is provided with the compass, that will fit in the eye and hold the lead. This is unsatisfactory, as the pencil cannot be readily adjusted as the point wears away. The most effective treatment an instrument of ARCHITECTUR.M DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 45 this kind can have is to file away the metal in the parting or "split'" of the socket and close in its sides so as to reduce the eye sufficiently to grasp the hexagon lead of a 6H pencil; this makes the pencil-holder ver>' convenient as well as economical, the butts of worn pencils may be stripped of their wood and the leads used in the compasses. So much for the pen in its various forms; and now a few words concerning some of the other instruments. Among these may be found some possessing various degrees of usefulness, and others having no merit whatever. Some of the devices that have been invented for making broken or dotted lines may be classed among the latter. The proportional compasses or dividers is a ver}' good tool to have in stock, but it should never be used for transferring drawings from one scale to another when accuracy is required; not only is the instrument liable to be in error, but if there should be any mistakes in measure- ment in the original drawing they will be trans- ferred to the new in a greater degree. A much more effective and convenient pointer than that usually found in sets of instruments may be made on the one end of a 6H pencil by reducing it to a fine point. The dot or point left 46 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT by it, indicating the dimension, is always easily found, and, as the other end of the pencil may be made "chisel shaped" or flat for drawing lines, the operation of laying off dimensions and drawing the lines may be carried on without changing tools or losing time. For sharpening pencils, it; is very convenient to haVe a fine file, attached by a string to the under side of the drawing board, or what is still better, as the file very soo n gets dull, a piece of wood made about the shape of a small flat file with a piece of emery cloth glued to each side. In using, the pencil should be rubbed on the emery. The boxwood scale with triangular section, same as shown at Fig. 14, has served its purpose well, but it, too, has its weak points. The requirements of a good scale are that the graduations and figures shall be plain and indelibln, that it be perfectly straight and the edges sharp, so that the division lines may be brought close to the paper. The boxwood scale does net possess the first of these features as the lines will be often dimmed or partially oblitera«"ed with two or three years' use. Some draftsmen have a habit of taking off dimep'iions by placing one leg of the dividers on any particular division and extending the other AHCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 47 to the distance required. When this is done with a boxwood scale its usefulness is limited to a very short time. The grain of the wood must be straight, or it will be apt to warp or spring. Some excellent scales are made of hardened steel, by a firm in Providence, R. I., which seem to me to be as near perfection as possible. Draftsmen as a rule, however, object to making use of steel scales, and they have not come into general use; and for this reason, these scales, we are informed, cannot be obtained unless specially ordered at the factory. ~ Every metallic instrument the draftsman uses should, when possible, be nickel-plated. There is nothing contributes so much to their pres- ervation, no amount of careful polishing and wiping will so effectually prevent rusting and discoloring, and nothing improves their appear- ance so much or makes them so agreeable to handle. The cost of plating is insignificant compared with the benefit derived, as the average cost of plating would not exceed ten cents for each tool or instrument. In selecting triangles it is essential to have them of a material that will not change shape with each atmospheric disturbance. For a number of reasons hard rubber is the best that 48 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 3. On this Plate I show the side frame of the small cottage with all the openings for windows, also two sections of the framework, with the heights marked on for the different stories and sizes of timbers. The stonework and cellar windows are shown. INSERT FOLDOUT HERE ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 49 has been offered to the trade. It is unchange- able, under ordinary conditions, and may be made into angles from tV to /? of an inch thick, which is about right for handiness and strength. There are very few woods that are adapted to this purpose, because of their liability to warp and twist, and generally they have to be made too thick for convenient use. The same rule holds good in the selection of a T-square; the blade should be as stiff as possible and the edges not more than }i of an inch thick; when the edges are thicker it is difficult to draw long parallel lines, particularly with the pen, as the point of contact between the pen and the blade of square is on the upper corner, while the position of the point, when the pen is held vertically, must be the same distance from the lower corner of the edge of the blade on account of the angle formed between the side of the pen and the edge of the blade. On the other hand, it is not advisable to have the edge less than tV of an inch thick; this would bring the point of contact too close to the point of the pen and would render it liable to smear the ink. An excellent T-square patented some time ago has a thin piece of brass plate with a knife-edge inserted in the working edge of the blade. This 50 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT does very well when only a pencil is used, but a pen cannot be worked successfully against so thin an edge. A blade made of two different kinds of wood similar to that shown in Fig. 12, such as a mahogany center and ebony edges, while being excellent in their way, are liable to warp and "buckle" and require watching. Squares with swivel butts are ver>' convenient for certain kinds of work, but for general pur- poses and for such students as this book is intended, the swivel stock had better be eschewed. It is much more convenient to have the blade secured to the stock as shown at A and C, Fig. 8, than to have it dovetailed or mortised into the stock as shown ^t B, Fig. 8. By this means the upper surface of the stock is on the same level as the drawing-board and does not interfere with the angles or scales when working near it. Perhaps the most troublesome appendage to a draftsman's outfit is found in the many forms of porcelain ink saucers and "piles." For holding and mixing soft colors the pile of saucers does very well, but it takes a long time to rub ink by this method before a good black ink is produced as the smooth bottom of these dishes does not abrade the stick of ink rapidly. There are ARCHITECTUKAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 51 a several preparations of liquid ink that may be purchased, but they lack that solid black body in fine lines that is so necessary for drawings or tracings that have to be copied q^ ^ by the blue printing process. Pre- pared liquid ink requires a longer time to dry and is more liable to smear than ink made fresh from the stick. There is an ink saucer made by a firm in New York City that seems to meet all require- ments. It Is simply a slab of slate about four inches square and three- fourths of an inch thick, having a cup or saucer shaped cavity for holding the ink turned in its cen- ter, and covered over with a piece of plate glass. A good black ink may be mixed in this saucer in a few minutes by the grinding action of the slate on the stick when being rubbed. While it is quite necessary to have the ink with some "body" in it, it is not best to make it too thick, as it will not flow well then, and will be apt to dry too quickly and clog up the pen. When the ink is ready to use, a portion of it 52 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT may be inserted between the nibs of the pen until there is about as much ink in the pen as shown by the shaded part in Fig. 26, where two pens are shown, one charged and one empty. The ink may be put in the pen by the aid of a Fig. 27. camel hair or sable brush, such as shown in Fig. 27, which is full size. Clean off all superfluous ink from the outside of the nibs of the pen with a piece of chamois leather or a clean linen cloth, and you are ready for work. The pen may be filled by another method which is often adopted by draftsmen, as follows: Take the pen and open it, say, about a six- teenth of an inch, clean the nibs well with chamois, then close the pen with the screw until the light just shows between the nibs, then breathe gently between the nibs and dip them carefully into the ink, just Fig. 28. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 53 touching the surface of the liquid, and the ink will run up between the nibs by attraction of the moisture caused by the breath on the inside of the nibs. We suppose the paper *to be stretched on the drawing board, and either held in place by beings pasted or by thumb tacks, such as shown in Figs. 4 and 5. When all is ready, hold the pen as shown in Fig. 28, and carefully ink in all the Fig. 29. horizontal lines, both full and dotted, correcting where possible any slight irregularities that may have been niade in pencilling. In drawing the graduated lines. Fig. 29, begin with the thinnest, then with the middle finger, as shown in Fig.. 28, turn the screw of the pen back, say, about a quarter of a revolution for each of the others,, the last opening being about the right thickness for the border line. As the border line takes longer to dr}- it is very easy to smear, but of course this may be avoided by letting the ink dry while preparing the ink-leg for the com- passes. It is well to practice this method o£ 54 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT ■drawing lines a number of times until a certain amount of perfection is attained. In drawing circles, care must be taken in holdin<^ the compasses in order to get an even Fig. 30. Fig. 31. thickness of lines, and the pen should always stand vertically over the work, as shown in Fig. 30. When a number of circles drawn from a common center is necessary, as shown in Fig. 31, be sure to draw the outside, or the one having Fig. 32. the greatest radius, first, when the other circles may follow in regular order. The sharp curves as shown in Fig. 31 are always the most difficult to draw correctly, while the flat curves, or curves with greater radius, are, within certain limits, much easier to describe. The curves shown at Fig. 32 are flat ones, and well within ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 55 the range of the ordinary compass. The inner curve is "dotted" and to form this without a dotting pen, with any degree of regularity, requires considerable care and practice, but it is much better to make all dotted lines with the ordinary pen, than to make use of a dotting pen, which to a new beginner is generally a source of Fig. 33- F:g. 34. Fig. 33- trouble and disappointment. The examples of circles shown at Figs, t^t,, 34 and 35 offer good practice in curve drawing with the compasses.- Before drawing them, however, it will be best to draw a pair of center lines for each circle, cutting" each other at right angles in the center, and it is a good rule never to draw a circle under any circumstances without having two center lines to mark its proper situation. In the first circle, Fig, 33, mark off points one quarter of an inch apart along one of the diameters from the circumference to the center, and then describe the concentric circles with the compasses, taking 56 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT care not to bore a large hole through the paper "with the point. The compasses, if properly •sharpened, should barely penetrate the paper and leave no impression on the board. To fill up the middle circle, Fig. 34, set the compasses to the radius, and then, putting the point at the intersection of one of the center lines with the circumference, mark across the circumference on each side; do the same at each intersection of the center line with circumference, and it will be found that the circumference is then divided into twelve equal parts. Now join each opposite joint by a line passing through the center and the figure will be complete. The last figure to be drawn, Fig. 35, is the most difficult, but has the best effect, so it is worth taking some pains over. Draw the two center lines, put in the large circles and divide the horizontal diameter into % in. spaces. Take the small compass, set it to % in. radius, and then put in the smallest semicircle on each side. Then set it to >^ in. radius, and put in the next semicircle; then to '^^ in. radius for the next two semicircles, which should exactly meet at the center. Now to i in. radius, and, lastly to 1% in. radius, checking the curves before actually ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 57 drawing them, by seeing how they fit with those already drawn. Here is an example, Fig. 36, made up altogether with curved lines and which offers good practice. This re- quires accurate division and correct draftsman- ship. A few practical exam- ples of the use of curves are shown in the follow- ing figures: Fig. 2>1 shows a scheme by which '^' ^ an ornament may be constructed where all the f'ig. 37- 58 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT curves are drawn with one radius. The manner of getting the centers is shown by the dotted lines. Figs. 38 and 39 exhibit another combina- tion of curves which is easy to draw. To make Fig- 39 is perhaps the easiest of them all, as it is formed of curves drawn with one point of the — -^^^=— [— <"- — 1 Fig. 38. compass rbsting on one corner of each of the smaller squares which are shown by the dotted lines. The three examples shown in Figs. 40, 41, and 4.2 are a little more difficult to draw than the •«j>revious ones. Fig. 40 may be termed a trefoil ornament, as the central divisions are drawn ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 5& from the three points of an equilateral triangle, which is shown by the dotted lines. This style of an ornament is in frequent use in church work as the tri- angle is sup- posed to be symbolic of the Trinity. The student should copy this often enough so that Fig. 40. ■60 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT he can draw or describe it from memory alone. Fig. 41 is simple enough when the principle is understood. The circles inside are drawn from Fig. 41. six centers, or from the six points of a hexagon. Care must be taken not to cross the lines at the intersections of the circles, when such crossings are not intended. This will give good practice. Fig. 42 is somewhat complicated, but it is surmised that no trouble will be found in the formation of the ornament; at least, there ought not to be, if the student has been mindful of what has gone before. There are many situations in which a curved ARCHITECTURAL DRAWIXG SELF TAUGHT 61 line is required that calls for more or less skill to properly adjust to the purpose, and in order to arm the student with the proper knowledge to find centers for this purpose, the following problem is laid before^ him: Suppose we have three points that are not in a straight line, as ABC, Fig. 43. through which w e want to draw a portion of a circle. Let BHCbeachord of the segment H, and BJA a chord enclosing t n e segment. Bisect or divide m equal parts the chord BC at H, and square down from this point to D. Do the same with the chord AJB, squaring over from J to D, then the point where JD and HD intersect will be the center of the circle. This is a very important problem, and will be found useful in many ways. The same result may be obtained by the use of the compasses alone as may be seen as follows- 62 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHl Suppose AB, Fig. 44, to be the curve, from the point A and B strike ares of equal radius inter- Fig. 43- seating at c and d, and draw a line through the intersections cutting the arc at c. This line will pass through the center. Then from points € and b, with a rather shorter ra- dius, strike arcs in- tersecting at/ and ^, draw a line through these intersections, and where the pre- vious line is cut will be the center as shown at h. A practical application of this example may be ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT =^J» used on Fig. 45, where it is desired to round off a corner as shown at BAC. The center of the curve is shown at O, from which the curve is struck. Fig. 46 shows the method just described appHed to three straight Hnes form- ing two right angles and having two adja- cent corners rounded. Fig. 47 shows how Fig. 45. to deal with two parallel lines that are to be joined tangentially by a semicircle. In this case bisect the space between the two lines by a perpendicular line that must contain the center of the circle from F'g 46. Fig. 47. Fig. 48. Fig. 49. which the required circle is drawn. Determine the extreme position of the curve and mark from it, along the center line, a distance equal to half the distance between the lines, and this mark 64 ARCHITECTUKAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 4. This plate shows the disposition ot the joists in first and second stories, also the position of rafters and ridges on the roof. These sketches show the trimmers for fireplace and stairs. The manner of drawing is very simple and should offer no difficulties to the student. INSERT FOLDOUT HERE IRCHiTECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 65 will be the center of the required circle. The example shown at Fig. 48 is a little more difficult to deal with, as in this figure the lines which it is desired to join b}* a curve, are not at right angles. Therefore inside these, and at a distance from them equal to the radius of the curve which it is desired to use, draw two parallel lines. To do this, take the radius in the compasses and strike two arcs at some distance apart along the inside of each line. Tangent to these draw the two inner straight lines shown dotted, and their intersection will give the center required. The exact points of junction of the straight lines with the curve can be found by drawing perpendiculars from the center to the straight lines by the method shown on the left hand side of Fig. 48. The illustration. Fig. 49, on the left side, is exactly similar to Fig. 48 with the exception that it represents a sharper angle than that shown by the angle or corner of the previous exam.ple. At Fig. 50 is shown a method of joining a curve to a straight line by a smaller curve. In this example, after drawing the given straight line and circle, set the compasses to the required radius, and from any point in the circumference of the circle describe a short arc outside it. 66 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT From the center of the circle draw a straight line through this last point, and its intersection with the arc will give the radius of an arc concentric with the large circle, which must be drawn towards the given line. Then, with the required radius, again set off arcs from the given line to give a parallel line, as in Figs. 47 and 48. The intersection of this parallel line with the larger arc will give the center to use for the connecting Fig. so. Fig. 51. Fig. 52. curve. In every case it will be observed that the perpendicular line from the center ot the junction curve to the line, or the line joining the centers of the two curves, will give the exact termination of the junction curve. Fig. 51 is practically the same as Fig. 49 with different radii. -^ig. 52 shows two circles of different size joineci hy ^ wo curves of equal radii set off upon the same principle' as Figs. 50 and 51. Fig. 53 shows a straitrHt- line cutting a circle ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 67 and joined by small curves on the inside. After drawing the circle and straight line, take the required radius of connecting curve and draw a short arc on the inside of large curve — say, ork the center line — and from the main center draw an arc concentric with the large circle, but inside it. Then, with the required radius, obtain a line parallel to the given line, and the intersections <., -••*,;••■ . • **%'.*■ /y% ! "•■• . '.^ ; >^/ " - ,.V" ' • . '■*'^<^-\-- . .c". i; . *• Fig. S3- Fig. 54. of this parallel line with the large arc will give the centers for the connecting curves. Fig. 54 shows two given parallel straight lines which are to be joined by an ogee or reversed cur\'e. Select a point on one of the lines from which the curves may start, draw a horizontal line and also an inclined line, making an angle of 60 degrees with it. The latter line produced to cut the other given straight line will mark the termination of the curves. Bisect this inclined line, and it will give the junction point between the two curves. Bisect each half of the inclined line and produce the bisection to meet the B8 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT horizontal lines, to give the centers for the curves. Before drawing the curves, join these centers, to see that a straight line will pass exactly through the junction of the two curves, and then put in the curves with a radius equal to half the length of the inclined line. This is a very useful curve, and is similar to those used for cross-over roads on railways. In architecture the best curves are produced from conic sections or freehand. Circular curves have a harsh appearance. There' are nevertheless, many cases where they are necessary or desirable. The draftsman will often be called upon to describe mouldings of various kinds, and it is proper he should know how to form these so that they may accord with the style for which they are intended, whether this be Greek, Roman, or otherwise. y^ '1 7^'-- The following exam- LA/ V? n ^ 1 -2.L0 ^ VJ wi. /^ lA" — I vW -~.Vii ^' ^^^^-^f fcr-^p^ ^- ;Z.O' ^ ^r I ^ Fig. 93- ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 101 prevent disputes, annoyances and misunder- standings. Rough sketches may be made of any size and without reference to scale or regard to exactness, providing always, the dimensions are given. In order to illustrate this I show a rough sketch of a house plan at Fig. 93. We suppose, for instance, a man wants a small house; in the house he desires a parlor 18x20 feet, a dining room 18x20 feet and a kitchen 18x22 feet, and a side hall with stairwaj'', 6'6", length of the house, with all the necessarj'^ windows, bays, and doors, also chimneys and fire-places. The whole may be drawn, without scale, as shown in the pur- posely rough illustration. This at once gives a correct idea of the plan of the house and the general lay out. After satisfying all the con- ditions required in the plan, a rough sketch of the elevation, showing height of ceilings, pitch of roof, windows and other necessaries; ma}^ be reduced to scale and drawn on paper in regular order. Another rough sketch is shown at Fig. 94. on a much smaller basis. I do not advise making these sketches too small, particularly' if they are intended to submit to a prospective owner, as then they are apt to be misleading. Any one acquainted with building matters or 102 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT the reading of plans, will have no difficulty whatever in thoroughly understanding these rough sketches, or in making a scale drawing from them, if they have the least knowledge of drawing. The windows and J{^_J^c^^'&ss. s=i doors are shown so far as posi- tion is concerned, and are Pas I I marked respectively, W and D. Where the dimensions of these are decided upon, these ^^ dimensions may be marked on the plan, and a rough sketch of the elevation given; if for a door, make it as shown in 95, showing number of panels, and in such style as intended. If the door is elaborate, then, of course greater pains will have to be taken, and this can best be done by making it a scale drawing. If the design wanted is for a window, then a rough sketch may be made similar to the one shown at Fig. 96, which is a simple 6 light window. A more elaborate sash is shown at 97, which may be roughed out to the style shown, or to any other style desireti. Fig. 94. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 103 These five rough examples are quite sufficient to convey to the student an idea of how he can lay out a rough sketch from which he may construct an exact scale drawing. In the plans shown, I have not given thickness of walls; this l^wjir/iMmnnrffF. /hit 7 i I I i^^ig. 95- Fig. 96. the draftsman can arrange when he plots out his plan. I now present a few examples which show the method of marking off measurements and show- ing the thickness of walls, dimensions of windows, etc. The illustration shown at Fig. 98 is sup- posed to be the front of a building having a front entrance and windows, and an "over-all" meas- 104 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT urement of 3q'6". This shows i8'o" for the pro- jection, and 2i'6" for the reserved part. These measurements should be again sub- divided, showing the lengths of brickwork, widths of openings, etc.; and the line of meas- urements inside gives the thickness of the walls, di- mensions of rooms, etc. The distance that the part pro- jects should also be noted as shown by 30". The in- side measurements and the smaller dimensions should exactly agree with the "over- all" measurement given. In drawing pencil lines they should always be J / I drawn longer than the ac- ^ X. Dl tual length of the lines to be inked in, so that the exact point of intersection with other lines can be better seen. When the drawing has been inked in, these extra lengths, of course, have to be cleaned oft with India rubber, as well as a great many other pencil lines which are necessary in the process of making the drawing, but which form no part Fig. 97. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 105 of the finished drawing. These "construction lines," as they are called, should be drawn as lightly as possible, so as to be easily removed without greatly damaging the surface of the paper. When drawing circles or arcs of circles with the compasses, a little pencil mark should be made round the center point, so that it can be found without any trouble when it is desired to ink in the drawing. It is useless to draw in Fig. 98. pencil every one of a long series of circles or arcs which are alike; it will be more expeditious to mark the centers only after drawing one or two, for in the inking-in of the work when the compasses are once set to the correct radius, the centers will be all that is required to draw them in full. Every working drawing when it leaves the draftsman should be carefully and completely figured as shown in Fig. q8. A little time spent in figuring builders' drawings, so that the sizes 106 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT of window and door openings, thickness of walls, etc., are clearly stated, will save time, worry and inconvenience. A measurement of feet only should always have a cipher in the place of the inches as 280", and arrow-heads, as before described, should show the extreme limits of the intended dimensions. Perhaps it may not be necessary to explain to the student the use of the foot and inch marks, ' and " which should always be placed over dimensions figures The single mark denoting feet, and the double mark representing inches, when employed they greatly assist in reading of plans. Vertical measurements showing the height of rooms or stories are best figured from floor to floor — rarely from floor to ceiling — but allowance must be made for the depth of joists and thick- ness of floor and ceiling. The height of windows should be always figured from the top of the sill to the underside of the head, and their position from the level of the floor to the top of the sill, this giving exactly the opening in the frame or brickwork. When a drawing is carefully figured it is much easier for the workman to understand, and mistakes and misunderstandings are less liable to occur. We have now reached a point where the ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 107 Student may venture to attempt a rough draw- ing for a small cottage, and to this end the following illustrations are submitted. We will suppose that a brick cottage 31 feet long and i9'6" wide is to be built, having three rooms and a hall on main floor, a cellar, and attic containing three bedrooms, and attic. The foundation is to be of stone, the superstructure of bricks, and the roof of wood, shingled. Having the paper properly tacked on the draw- Fig. 99. ing board, ready for work, we next decide upon a scale. I would suggest a scale of four feet to the inch; that is, each quarter of an inch should represent one foot of the building; and as this is an easy scale, and one that can be readily under- stood by the student, he will have no trouble in dealing with it. A scale is shown at Fig. 99. Of course, the quarter inch must be divided into twelve parts — which will be found on any good rubber or ivory scale — then square off a fine pencil line from your left hand across the paper near the lower edge of the board. From this line, draw another at a convenient point at right angles to the first line. Make these lines with a 108 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT fine pointed HB pencil, and so light that they may be easily erased. From the junction of the two lines, F, Fig. lOO, measure off j% inches, which will equal 31 quarter inches, which again represent 31 feet by scale. From this point, B, square up another line. From E to F, is a Fig. 100. Cellar Plan. distance of 4^ inches, which contains 19 quarter inches and one }i of an inch. The 19 quarter inches represent iq feet on scale, and the % of an inch represents 6 inches, thus, making the total distance between E and F, 19 feet and 6 inches. Square over from E to A, and the lines A B, E F, form the boundary of the cellar plan. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 109 The cellar walls are supposed to be of stone, and are therefore i8 inches thick, so we measure off, working to the inside always, 3^ of an inch, which according to our scale, represents i ft. 6 in., the proper thickness of the wall. It will be noticed that at R we have projected the wall inside the cellar; this projection is intended to carry the chimney and fireplace. Here we show two projections, but in practice the projection is made in one as shown by the dotted lines. The same is also done with the chimney foundation shown at S. While the shaded parts shown would be ample to carry the chimney and fireplace above, it is generally more economical to make a solid block of stone- work, as shown b}^ the dotted lines. In actual practice, the first stones laid should project beyond the faces of the wall six or more inches on each side in order to give the foundation a wider base. These bottom stones are called "footings." They should never be less than 6 inches thick. The partition V is built of bricks laid on stone footings. This wall is nine inches thick — the length of a brick — and runs up to the floor joists. The partition on the opposite side of the stair- way is a studded, lathed and plastered one. The 110 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT openings, O, O, are for the cellar Avindows and are three feet (^ inch) wide. The framework outside the windows are curbs, built around the windows to prevent the earth from filling in against the glass. The student need not mind the shading unless he desires to fill in the walls. Fig. loi. First Floor Plan. This sketch is now a complete plan of the cellar, and one that can be worked to. It will now be in order to draw the first floor plan, as shown in Fig. loi. Proceed the same as before, only in this case the outer walls are made \i inch thick, which represents one foot, making the wall one and one-half bricks thick. Measure off the openings as shown, making the ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 111 Fig. 102. Attic Plan. window openings which are represented by three lines running through the openings (j4 i^^ch wide^, which is three feet. The two door open- ^ 1 ^ a 1 =31 L J C m 3 [ Fig. 103. Front Elevation. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 7. Plate 7 exhibits a portion of cornice and roof of main building. This shows the construction, with roof boards and shingles, also the finished portion of roof and cornice. INSERT FOLDOUT HERE ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 113 ings are 13-16 inch, or 3 feet 3 in. ]\Ieasiire oft the partitions and lay off to sizes as figured. Be careful to have the chimneys and fireplaces, R. Fig. 104. End Elevation and Section. R. S., directly over those in the cellar.' The stairs in cellar are directl}' under the stairs as shown in this plan. The projections shown at the doors are steps. 114 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT The plan shown at Fig. 102 is for the attic story. A part of the height of this will run up into the roof as will be shown in section Fig. 104. Here the chimneys take another shape and are "drawn in" to suit the flues. The partitions are varied and the stairs land in the hall by three Fig. 106. winders. The windows are not so wide as those in the stories below, only being 2 ft. 3 in. in the openings. Measure off the rooms as they are figured, making the partitions of 2x4 in. studs, and marking off the newel and rail for stairs as shown. The. elevation shown at Fig. 103 requires but little explanation, as it is simple b.nd easily understood. The windows are 3 feet wide in the opening and 5 ft. 3 in. from lintel to sill; so, ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 115 keeping these figures in mind, the window and sashes ma}' be laid out readily. The door, Trom floor to lintel, including fanlight, is 8 feet high, by 3 ft. 3 in. in width. The rest is easy. A part of the end elevation and a sectional view are shown at Fig. 104. In the section the Fig. 107. foundation footing is shown at O; the projection of door-steps is also shown on the ground line. All these examples should first be made in pencil, after which, when corrected, they may be "filled in" with ink. I have mentioned something regarding "foot- ings" for foundations and it may not be out of place at this point to say something more of 116 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT them. The illustration shown at Fig. 105 shows the footing and a portion of section of wall that would be suitable for the brick partition running through the cellar of the cottage we have just dis- cussed. Here is a flat stone footing with three courses of bricks on top before Fig. 108. mences. The dotted lines show the top of cellar floor whether it be plank or cement. When the whole foundation and wall are to be of stone, the student may lay it off in accordance with the class of ma- soury employed. " < ■ ^ -- One method of showing square rubble work in a wall, is exhib- 1 T-' ^ Fig- I09- ited at Fig. 106. This shows a section of the wall, through B, at Fig. 107. Coursed rubble work is shown at Fig. 108, while random rubble work is shown at Fig. 109. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT IIT In this style of masonry, the wall is brought to a level throughout its length at about every 12 or 14 inches, in height, so as to form courses of that depth. This wall is built of stones rough from the quarry, regardless of size or shape. Another st^^le of masonry built up of irregular stones that have been broken up from large field stones is shown at Fig. 1 10. The foundation and corners are built up of squared stones. This kind of work is some- times called irreg- ular rubble, rustic work, or field stone masonr}'. It does very well for garden walls, retaining walls, cel- lar walls for small buildings, but should not be used where great strength is required. Block course masonry is where the courses of stone run in straight horizontal lines as shown, at Fig. III. Ashler masonry is built up in courses of more or less uniform depth, generally from 10 to 14 inches deep, ranging with the quoins or corners, and other dressings; it goes. Fig. no. 118 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT by different names, according to the face put upon the stone — from quarry-pitched, or rock ashler, to wrought ashler. A sample of the work is shown in Fig. 112. There are many other forms of stonework, but the examples given are quite sufficient for the purposes of this work, and other forms may Tvell be left to the trained architect. Perhaps a MI|l|IIIllllil- - |,,.."Mi.iili|ti;|i"^- II,. "'"'.:, |l.ll,|||'|l"'^'m.lfl||;. Ill'-:' l • " ■' ■• '' .. I:!!'.:,„ii!ii'": lil.^^:' "■ i'TTJ iillli' |!ill!i'''^- ^^ ir —""::';>•■•■ 'I'li , ..■■•■iiii:i! 'liiiiiill l!:.iiiiiilii|i:i III '"•'■"" l|i|";ii-" ill" :i;;;i" ll'i'i' . ^■:,illllll'::..i:iii:'h Fig. III. few examples of brickwork will not be out of place at this point, as they will give to the student a slight insight into the manner of "bonding," which is quite an important matter in brickbuilding. At Fig. 113, the end section of a single brick, or 9 inch wall, is shown, having a two brick or 18 inch footing. This will be easily understood as will also the section shown at Fig. 114. The ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 119 latter shows the section of a brick and a half wail, known generally as a 14 inch wall. The tooting for this is formed of three bricks» ^h. Af /(-i I'V'i'f iJ 1 1 m yj i-iiii^ iir^ III "fl m I'l 111 ,1 if!lll,ii,.'lll ;iii,jr''|ij Fig. iiz. making it 28 inches wide. The footing is diminished until it is only two bricks wide on which the actual wall commences. Other thick- Fig. 113- Fig. 114. nesses of walls are formed on the same principle so other examples of this kind are unnecessary. At Fig. 115 I show two plans of an 18 inch. WJO ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT wall which illustrates the method of "bondingr" or breaking joints. I also show a section of the wall shaded. Before proceeding further, it may be well to explain the meaning of the term "bond," or I "bonding." "Bond" is an arrangement of bricks 2-Brick Wall. FUut^Cntrus f.S.5 1 Stetten 6 5 4 S 2 1 V 1 L_ Fig. 115. or stones placed in juxtaposition so as to prevent the vertical or plumb joint between any two bricks or stones falling into a continuous straight line with that between any other two. This is called "breaking joint," and when it i« not properly carried out, that is, when two or more joints do fall into the same line, as at x y ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 121 Fig 1 16, they form what is called a straight joint. Straight joints split up and weaken the part of the wall in which they occur, and should therefore be avoided. A good bond breaks the vertical joints, both in the length and thickness of the wall, giving the bricks or stones a good lap over one another in both directions, so as to afford as much hold as possible between the different parts of the wall. T^^ I ^^ iz~r Fig. 1 1 6. A further effect of bond is to distribute the pressure which comes upon each brick over a large number of bricks below it. Thus, in Fig. ii6, there is a proper bond among the bricks forming the face of the wall, and the pressure upon the brick A is communicated to every brick within the triangle A, B, C. A defective bond, either in brickwork or masonry, may look very well upon the face of the work, as in Fig. ii6, where the bricks regularly break joint vertically, but in which 122 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT there is no bond whatever across the thickness of the wall, which, it will be seen, is really composed of two distinct slices of brickwork, •each 4% inches thick, and having no connction with one another, except that afforded by the mortar. To avoid this defect, the bricks or stones forming a wall are not all laid in the same direction as in Fig. ii6, but some are laid parallel to the length of the wall and others at right angles to them, so that the length of one of the latter overlaps the width of the two below it, as shown in Fig. 115. In this figure, a wall is shown in section at the top, two bricks in thickness. The second diagram shows a plan of the courses, 2, 4, 6, as numbered in the section, while the lower diagram shows the plan of the courses, as they are laid in the wall, of the courses numbered i, 3, 5, in the section. When bricks are laid lengthwise in the wall, as shown in Fig. 117, they are called "stretchers"; when they are laid across the wall, as in Fig. 118, they are called "headers." "Stretchers" are bricks or stones which lie parallel to the length of the wall, those in the exterior of the work showing one side in the face of the wall. "Headers" are bricks or stones whose lengths lie across the thickness of the walls, the ends, or ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 123 "heads," of those thin walls like the diagram, or in the outside of thick walls, being visible on the face. If the student copies these examples and thinks as he draws, grasping the reasons why Fig. 117. Fig. 118. the bricks are laid in the manner shown, he will accomplish two purposes, learning to draw and acquiring a constructive knowledge. There are a variety of "bonds" in brickwork, all of which it will be necessary for the archi- tectural student to be familiar with, and I pro- pose to offer a few examples for practice and to- explain them at the same time. The bond chiefly used in this country for ordinary work is called running "bond." This consists of three, four or five running courses of stretchers, and then a course of headers, as shown in Fig. 119, where there are three courses of stretchers and one course ot headers. The small portions of bricks, or "bats," designated by 124 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT XXXX, are termed closers, and are required to fill out the courses. In English 'bond"' there is in the face wall a course of headers, then a course of stretchers, and so on all the way. This arrangement is for the front of the wall, and in the thick walls the bricks are made to join in to the best advantage. H 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 \ 1 1 1 1 1 \ 1 ' \ 1 1 1 1 1 ^ M 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 \ 1 1 1 ) / 1 1 1 1 1 i \ « 111- .1 Fig. 1 19. Thus, an English bond nine-inch wall will have for each course of stretchers two rows side by side, breaking joint horizontally. The joints in the inside courses should be one-half the width of the brick from the vertical joints of the stretchers above and below. A fourteen inch wall in English bond is shown at Fig. 120, which represents four courses in elevation, and the ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT i'-Zo second course and the top course, from the top, in plan. It is absolutely necessary in this wall to have a row of headers back of the stretchers, as if they were all stretchers in this course, there would be a mortar joint all the way up through I I I I I I I I f ~-B 1 ILtVATION PLAN OF COUKSE A PLAN OF COURSE B Fig. 1 20. the wall along the line A B. There are shown two wa^^s to make the headers in any course; break joints with the stretchers in the same course. In the plan of course A at the left- hand end there will be seen a closer X, which is half of a brick split lengthwise. This piece, 126 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT gx2}ix2%, being put in next to the last stretcher. In the plan of course B it will be seen that the same thing is done by using three-quarter bricks laid flatwise. The example shown at 121 exhibits several II 11 1 <^7>^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 II /-\ \ \// yv ( II II 11 II ^ \ \ W / / K 1 1 1 I 1 1 11; \ 1 1 ( '11 ll/N /\\ III 1 1 /\c y\ 1 1 II 1 1 i/^A c^\/\ 1 1 1 vV ^\ 1 1 ' 1 i/\/y ^\V \^Ai 1 1 1 1 /- 7/ xV \ 1 t 1 1 / — ^-.^ A/> \Nr\ J\ 1 1 1 1 /// X^xV"^ \i 1 1 1 ^1 V/ \^C--T-| II \ 1 // \V h 1 1 1 I 1 s 1 1 it 1 1 1 w II 11 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 F 1 1 11 II 1 1 1 II II II 11 1 1 1 1 11 II II II 1. 1 1 1 II 1 ' II 1 ■ \ Fig 1 2 1. Styles ot laying bricks; C shows the arch A, herring bone filling over a window, S, a stone sill, r^ the general brickwork and W the window opening. This is a good example to draw, though it is not by any means good architecture. These examples are sufficient for my purpose, A&CHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 127 and should the student desire to know more about the bonding of brickwork, he may procure a copy of a manual on brick and stone work I have in preparation, and which will be published by Drake & Co. shortly. DRAWING ARCHES It is absolutely necessary the draftsman should know how to draw the forms of arches that are in common use, and in order to instruct Fig. 123. him on this point, the following examples are submitted for him to study and work out. The arch shown at Fig. 122 is simply a semicircular one, and the simple line of arch is drawn from a center as shown. When an arch of this form is used for brick or stone work as shown at Fig. 123, a new set of conditions arise, as the joints of the bricks or stone must be shown so that the right bevels or angles may be given them. These joints all radiate to the center of the arch as shown. It may not be out of place at this 128 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 8. This plate shows the outside of a plain window frame, a door frame, corner board, and a sectional elevation of sash and frame. This is a very simple plate, and the young draftsman will find no difficulty in re-drawing these details INSERT FOLDOUT HERE ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 129^ point to give a description of the arch, with the terms used in connection therewith, and, I may say, the definitions given apply to all other arches as well as to the one in Fig. 123: (i) The SPAN of an arch is the distance between the points of support, which is generally the width of the opening to be covered, as A B. These points are called the springing points; the ma 5S against which the arch rests is called the ABUTMENT. (2) The RISE, HEIGHT OR VERSED SINE of an arch is the distance from C to D. (3) The SPRINGING LINE of an arch is the line A B, being a horizontal line drawn across the tops of the support . where the arch commences. (4) The CROWN of an arch is the highest point, as D. (5) VOUSSOIRS is the name given to the stones forming the arch. (6) The KEYSTONE is the center or upper- most voussoir, D. so called because it is the last stone set, and wedges or keys the whole together. Keystones are frequently allowed to project from the faces of the wall and in some buildings are very elaborately carved. (7) The INTRADOS or SOFFIT of an arch 130 ARCHITECTURAL DRA^aNG SELF TAUGHT is the under side of the voussoirs forming the curve. (8) The EXTRADOS or BACK is the upper side of the voussiors. (9) The THRUST of an arch is the tendency which all arches have to descend in the middle, and to overturn or thrust asunder the points of support. The amount of the thrust of an arch depends on the proportions between the rise and the span; that is to say, the span and weight to be supported being definite, the thrust will be diminished in proportion as the rise of the arch is increased, and the thrust will be increased in proportion as the crown of the arch is lowered. (10) The JOINTS of an arch are the lines formed by the adjoining faces of the voussoirs: these should generally radiate to some definite point, and each should be perpendicular to a tangent to the curve of each joint. In all curves composed of arcs of circles, a tangent to the curve at any point will be perpendicular to a radius drawn from the center of the circle through that point, consequently the jomts in all such arches should radiate to the center of the circle of which the curve forms a part. (11) The BED of an arch is the top ot the abutment; the shape of the bed depends on the AKCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 131 qualit}' of the curve, and is explained in the diagrams. (12) A RAMPART ARCH is one in which the springing lines are not on the same level. (13) A STRAIGHT ARCH or, as it is more properl}' called, a plat-baiid, is formed of a row of wedge shaped bricks or stones of equal depth placed in a horizontal line; the upper ends of the pieces being broader than the lower, prevents them from falling down. (14) ARCHES are named from the shape of the curve of the underside, and are either simple or complex. The simple curves may be defined as those that are described from one center, as Fig. 122, or by a continuous motion, as the ellipse, parabola, hyperbola, cycloid, and epicycloid; and complex arches are those which are described from two or more fixed centers, as many of the Gothic and Moorish arches are. Fig. 124 shows the manner of drawing a segmental arch The center of this is below the springing lines. A segmental arch, drawn out for brickwork, is shown at Fig. 125, in which the joint lines are marked off. 132 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT A segmental arch drawn from two centers is shown at Fig. 126, The centers are shown so that the student will have no trouble in describ- Fig. 125 ing it. The joints for brick or stone work may be laid out around this arch, by using the centers as fixed points and running radial lines through the curved lines. The diagram shown at Fig. 127 illustrates a V Fig. 127 Fig. 128 Tudor arch. It is struck from three centers as shown. It is sometimes called an elliptical Gothic arch, and may be struck as follows: ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 133 Divide the span, ad, Fig. 128, into three equal parts by the points, ef. From a, with radius a,J\ describe an arc, and from e,f, and d, describe similar arcs, which intersect at ij. Now bisect the span, ad, and raise a perpendicular to i. Draw a line through if and je, and produce these lines. With compasses from /with radius, fd, describe arc to/, and from e, with the same radius, describe a similar arc to nh. Then from i with radius ij, describe arc, ji, and from / same radius, the curve hi, when the interior curve of the arch will be completed, the remainder of the arch being set out in the usual manner. The elliptical arch can best be described with the trammel shown at Fig. 69, or with a string as described at Fig. 68, but the joints for brick or stone work must be obtained by a method very different from that illustrated for circular arches. To obtain the correct lines for the elliptical arch shown at Fig. 129, we must pro- ceed as follows: Let ZZ be the foci, and B a point on the Intrados where a joint is required; from ZZ draw lines to B, bisect the angle at B by a line drawn through the intersecting arcs D produced for the joint to F. Joints at i and 2 are found in the same manner. The joints for the opposite side of the arch may be transferred 134 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT as shown. The semi-axes of the ellipse, H G, G K, are in the same ratio as G E to G A. The K voussoirs near the springing line of the arch ar^ thus increased in size for greater strength. The diagram shown at Fig. 130 shows a lancet S~E Fig. 130. Fig. 131. arch. This is drawn by placing the centers of the curves outside the figure as at G and F. E O, show the width of the opening, and H J, the height. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELI' TAUGHT 135 A completed lancet arch is shown at Fig. 131, the radial or joint lines being exhibited. These lines are drawn from the centers in all cases. The diagram shown at Fig. 132 represents an equilateral, Gothic arch. This is drawn with the compasses set to the width of the opening, one leg being placed at the junction of the springing line when the other leg describes the curve of Fig. 132. one side. The same process forms the other side of the arch. The completed equilateral arch is shown at ^ig- '^33' with the method of laying out the curves. The centers being X and Y. As before stated, the joints in all these arches should be struck at right angles to tangents of the curve, which in the case of arcs of circles will cause the joints to radiate to the center from which the curve is struck. There are cases, however, when this rule cannot be followed, as take the ^st Illustration Fi-;;. 133, for instance, when the 186 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT bonding is not what a good workman would desire, yet it is better than the bonding shown in Fig. 134, though perhaps not so handsome; that, however, is a matter of taste. The employ- ment of the method shown at Fig. 133 gets rid of the small angle closers which show in the crown of Fig. 134. To get the lines properly, as shown in Fig. 133, run up the two dotted lines at an angle of fifty degrees, with the springing line X Y, on each side of the arch. These are produced to cut through the Fig. 134 ^ _ ^ curve lines at C and D. The joints of the arch from X to C are radiated to Y, those from D to Y to X, and those In the upper portion of the arch to the intersection of the two inner lines at B, whereby the bricks at the crown are eased off. In pointed or two-centered arches, other than equilateral, the same method maybe followed, the angles of the dotted lines being greater or less as the circumstances of the case may require. In setting out gauged arches care must be taken to draw first a middle or "key" brick at the crown of the arch, the object being to pro- vide a brick to resist the Increased strain at the ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 137 Fie:. !• point; and secondly, to have the effect of pro- ducing an equal number of bricks in the arch excluding the key, so that it may be finished the same on each side. The next arch is drawn upon the same principles as the ogee curve shown in Fig. 135, and with the construction lines given re- quires no further explanation. It is defective as a scientific arch, but occurs often in the Deco- rated Period, towards the end of the fourteenth century. After that period the arches were made flatter, examples of which are the seg- mental, or two-centered, and the Tudor, or four-centered, arches. To describe an equilateral ogee arch, like Fig. 136, proceed as follows: Make YZ the given span; make YX equal YZ, bisect YZ in A; on A as center, with A Y as ra- dius, describe the arcs Y B and Z C; on B and X as centers describe the arcs B D and X D, and on C and X as centers de- scribe the arcs C E and X E; on E and D as centers describe the arcs B X and C X. The flat ogee arch shown at Fig. 137 requires 138 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT some little different treatment to the previous one. To obtain the proper curves and centers for this style of arch proceed as follows: Let A B be the outside width of the arch, and C D the height, and let A E be the breadth of the rib. Bisect A B in C, and erect the perpendicular C D; bisect A C in F, and V draw F J parallel to C D. Through D draw J K parallel to A B, and make D K equal to D J. From F set off F G equal to A E, the breadth of the rib, and make C H equal to C G. Join G J and H K; then G and H will be the centers for drawing the lower portion of the arch, J and K will be the centers for describing the upper portion, and the contrary curves will meet in the lines G J and H K. This style of arch is seldom used in substantial work other than in Gothic architecture; the carpenter, however, often makes use of it in porch, veranda and arbor work, and sometimes in grille work, so it is well to have a knowledge of it. Another arch, not in common use, is the ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 139 horseshoe or Moorish arch; two examples are shown at Fiors. 138 and 139. In the first the curve is struck from a center situated above the springing line. This is said to be the strongest Fig. 138. Fig. 139. of all arches when properly constructed and is often employed for tunneling and other heavy work where great resisting strength is required. The figure shown at 139 is sometimes called a Gothic horseshoe arch because of its being pointed. It is somewhat similar to the last, but is struck from two centers, I and J. The special peculiarities of these arches is, that they are nar- rowed in on the springing lines, which gives to them a pleasing appearance. Often arches are formed by having them two or more bricks deep, or they may be rough and turned in half-brick rings, 4^ inches thick, as shown at JiJi In Fig. 140. In arches of quick curve, with not more than 2 or 3 feet radius, this method is absolutely necessary to prevent 140 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT very large points at the extrados. In the section of portions of small arches shown in the illus- tration, of which one wzv is turned, in nine inch rings consisting of headers. It will be seen that Fig. 140. the mortar joints in this are much wider at the top than those of the portion hh, built in rings half a brick in thickness. The line of joints in both these examples are radial, all being drawn from the center point. The most common — so-called arch — is what is termed "gauged straight arches," and with these, in brickwork, the draftsman will have the most to deal, and I purpose showing him several examples. Such arches are in very common use, and are generally 12 inches, or four courses of brickwork, in depth. The sommering or splay of the bricks depends ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 141 Fig. 141. upon the angle given to the skewbacks or springings, and varies with the distance of each voussoir from the springing. The skew- backs are gen- erally inclined at 60° from the horizontal, and are struck by prolonging the sides of an equilateral triangle, as shown on Fig. 142.. The joints give a better appearance when horizontal as at B, Fig. 141; but to save labor they are frequently formed as at A, and care- fully concealed by rubbing over, false horizontal joints being marked on the face, though in course of time the true joints are sure to show up and expose the sham. The arch shown at Fig. 142 is sometimes • \/ called a French ^^s-'^^"- or Dtdch arch. It is sometimes used by builders when intended to be plastered or covered over. Such arches U2 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT are unreliable, and the draftsman should never make them if intended to be built, unless they are to be built up in good Portland cement mortar. The joints may be arranged as shown at A or at B; if, as at A, only whole bricks should be used. Sometimes, in building arches of this kind, it may be necessary to "plug" the brickwork as shown at PPPP, Fig. 143, for the purpose of Fig. 143. attaching finished work to them by screws or other devices, and the draftsman must note this ■on his drawings in order to save future trouble. The manner of forming the skewbacks is shown in this illustration, at o o; the angle of this line should be about sixty degrees. In placing in arches of this kind, there must always be timber or concrete lintel behind the face bricks to carry the wall, and over this lintel, there should be a relieving arch builv. AliCHITECTURAi. DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 14? This latter arch is orenerally built up roughly unless it is intended to carry a great weight, then care must be taken in its construction. Before leaving the subject of arches it may be well to exhibit some examples in stone, and should the student never be called upon to prepare drawings for such work, their con- -s / r m / Fig. 144. struction on paper will make good practice. The example shown at Fig. 144 is a very common one in stonework and shows how the style of work is prepared. It will be seen that the joints are generally radial, while horizontal joints are formed to receive the stone above. Another style of opening in stonework is shown at Fig. 145, where the head of the 144 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 9. Plate 9 shows three examples of inside finish — a door, a window, and sliding door — opening with trim. These like the other examples shown in Fig. 8 are easily understood. INSERT FOLDOUT HERE ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 145 window or door is flat. There is a relieving arch thrown over the Hntel or cap to carry the «UBBL£ARCH ■'4 Fig. 145. weight over to the jambs. The face of the window is all of dressed stone, while the walls are formed of irregular stones. Fig. 146. Another style of work is shown at Fig. 146, where the walls are formed of square stones laid 146 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT Fig. 147. up in irregular courses, and the relieving arch ends against a regularly prepared skewback. / ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 147 At Fig. 147 are grouped some of the principal forms of arch shown in architecture. At A is the semicircular arch, describing half a circle. B is a form of elliptical arch, not unfrequently employed. It is not, in reality, elliptical at all, save in appearance, being a segmental arch, or one formed by the segment of a circle, which is struck from below the springings. The elliptical arch C is formed of several circles. The stilted arch D rises from points below its center. The Gothic architects employed various forms of the pointed arch at different epochs. E is what is usually termed an equilateral arch, so called because the two springing points and the crown of the arch form an equilateral or equal-sided triangle. F, the lancet arch, is more pointed than the preceding. It is struck from outside the springings, and has the outline of an isosceles or equal-legged triangle, of which the base is, of course, less than the sides. G, the "drop" arch, in contradistinction to the last example, is less pointed than the equilateral arch. It is struck from within the springings, and has a triangular outline, in which the base is longer than the sides. H, the "segmental Gothic arch", is composed of two segments of a circle, meeting obtusely. I, the "ogee" arch, was introduced at 148 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT a late period of Gothic architecture, and is struck from four points. K, the "Tudor," arch prevailed during the close of the Gothic, and takes its name from the then ruling family of the English dynasty. It has a much flattened arch, low mouldings, and a profusion of panel- ings. I now come to arches of the form that are designated "foiled" arches, imitating the foils or leaflets of a leaf, which are generally divided into three varieties, viz., trefoils, cinquefoils, and polyfoils. L, M, N exhibit three forms of the "trefoil" or three-lobed arch, O is an example pf the cinquefoil or five-lobed arch, and P, one of the "polyfoil" or many-lobed arch. The latter form is principally confined to Romanesque and Saracenic architecture, and is especially met with in Moorish and Saracenic buildings. The latter people also employed a peculiar arch, special to themselves, and generally styled the "horseshoe" arch, shown at Q. This is only found in Arabic or Moorish buildings. The so- called "flat" arch, R, is in reality not an arch at all, though the voussoirs are so arranged as to radiate from a center, and are laid in parallel courses. This arch is employed in doorways, windows, and fireplaces of buildings, and the intrados are generally supported by a bar of ARCHITKCTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 149. iron or beam of wood. In some very ancient examples tlie voussoirs are cut to a peculiar form, with the idea of securing great stability and strength, as shown at Fig. 148, which is copied from the fireplace of Coningsbergh Castle. I think the foregoing illustrations of arches and the accompan^-ing description are quite sufficient for my purpose, as the' student caa •|\^\\\ //////^-[ Fig. 148. gather from them all he will immediately require to know, and after a thorough mastery of these examples he will have no difficulty in obtaining a higher knowledge from the thousand and one other sources that are available, should lie so desire. SOME MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICE Suppose it is necessary to show a door and casings in abrick wall, with jamb linings, grounds 150 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT and other finishings, we commence by first laying out the plan as shown at Fig. 149; we decide upon the height and width of door, also Fig. 149. style of door, and finish, and work to scale accordingly. In this case I show an elevation, Fig. 151, and plan respectively with a four paneled door with p.. J jamb and soffit lining. Fig. 150 shows a por- tion of the plan en- larged. In this case it will be seen that the door is hung to the jamb lining itself; the lat- ter is attached to a backing ba dovetailed in between the framed grounds, and secured to wood bricks in the wall, the edges of which may be seen in section Fig. 152. In some cases the grounds are tongued into Fig. 150. iltCHITECnjRAl DRAWlXN>3 SELF TaCGHT 151 the jamb linings, but this is very seldom done. mmm Fig. 152. The jamb linings go right through the depth of the opening, and on one side of the wall have their edges rebated to receive the door; the 152 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT ^t-J^^^??l '^?:;''^7v^:^<^:^-/7i^ Fig. 153. edges on the other side of the wall being (in superior work) similarly re- bated to corre- spond. The soffit lining is secured to cra- dling or backing c, consisting of rough stuff attached to the under side of the lintels over the opening. Of course the doorway might be spanned by a rough brick arch, or by a concrete beam, w 1 L h o u t wood lintels, i n which case the framing would be secured to plugs let into the arch or beam. The enlarged ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 153 plan in Fig. 150 differs slightly from Fig. 149, inasmuch as a smaller architrave is shown on the inside of the doorway. The paneling of the soffit lining is often shown in dotted lines upon the plan of the doorway. The whole ele- vation of one side of the door is shown at Fig. 151, and a section is shown at Fig. 152, with a portion of the jamb lining re- moved. This latter is a good scheme as it shows the workman exactly what is required of him. The illustration shown at Fig. 153 shows a vertical section oi a window and frame for a brick house. It is purposely cut short in order to show all the parts. It will be readily understood, as WL stands for wood lintel, b j for bottom joints. ib inside blinds, etc. Fig. 154 shows the same win- dow in f levation with shutters or blinds in sight. Fig. 154- 154 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT The plan is shown at Fig. 155. This shows the shutters box splayed from the wall. The dotted lines show the shutters partly folded. In redrawing these examples the student should make them at least twice or three times the size shown herewith; this can readily be Fig. 155- done by taking the distances on a compass and transferring to the paper on which the drawing is to be made. If the drawing is to be twice the size of the original, then space off the distance of each feature twice, if to be three times the distance, then space off three times, and so on for other sizes. By following this advice, the student will become familiar with his instru- ARCHITECIL RAL DRAWaXG SELF TAUGHT 155 ments and with the various kinds of work. Indeed, this work is intended, besides being a teacher of primar\- drawing, to be a helper in obtaining some knowledge of architectural con- struction as well; for, it is supposed, it will fall chiefly into the hands of young stu- dents, apprentices, and fellows who have not had a fairly good opportunity of ac- quiring a knowledge of either drawing or construction, but who are desirous of learn- ing what the}' can of both, during their spare moments. The plates, follow- ing the general illus- trations, will place before the student many things not as yet touched upon, but I have deemed it necessary' to show a few miscellaneous items both for practice, and because of their con- structive value to the young builder. The door and casing shown in Fig. 156 is a Fig. 156. 156 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT good example for drawing; its proportions are nearly perfect, and the style is modern. This is an inside door as shown by the base. The sliding doors shown at Fig. 157 are very nearly built in the same style as the single door Fig. 157. shown in Fig. 156. These may be drawn to any special scale, or they may be transferred from the illustration. I show a section of the wall into which the sliding doors run at Fig. 158. This drawing shows the method of construction. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 157 the end-wood of the studding being seen; also, the linings to protect the pocket. The illustration, as Fig. 159, shows a method Fig. 158. of adjusting the joint at the junction of the doors. The section shows clearly how the joint is hidden from view. A section and elevation of trim for a door is shown in Fig. 160. In this drawing the door, the step, the stud, the plaster and the trim are shown in place, and at the bottom, the plinth *block and base are also Fig. 159. 158 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT shown in section. This style of finish is called "block finish," because of the turned block being placed on the corner. Fipr. i6i exhibits a corner of a balloon frame, showing the manner of placing the studs, corner boards and other finish. I show at Fig. 162 a drawing of a cor- nice for a balloon frame house. The Fig. 161, Fig. 160. method of construction is made quite apparent and can easily be followed. The walls are boarded or "sheeted" on the outside, and then covered with siding or clapboards. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 159 The next drawing, Fig. 163, shows a section of a corner for a brick wall. The gutter and com* Fig. 162. plete finish for cornice are shown; also, an iron rod or anchor built into the wall, having a nut on the top which is intended to hold the plate 160 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE lo. This plate shows a number of details half life size. A portion of elevation and section of trim head are given, also section of casing, picture frame mould, plinth-block, base and floor step. The face of plinth-block is also shown. INSERT FOLDOUT HERE ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 161 in its place on the wall. A section of a box window frame is shown at Fig. 164. The weights are seen in the box, the stud forming part of the box. This is designed for a balloon frame house, and it will be seen that the inside trim 'Fig. 163. forms one side of the box. This is an exceed- ingly cheap way to make a frame as but very little stuff is required in its construction. The section of window frame shown in Fig. 165 exhibits the portion cut at the sill. This 1G2 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT Fig. 164. shows the construction of the frame at the bottom, including inside and outside finish. It will be in order now to follow the plates I have pre- pared, In which a large number of constructive de- tails are presented. I would advise that the student copy each item as pre- sented, making each one twice the size as shown on the plates; this will make instruc- tive practice and will soon fit the young- draftsman for work of a higher and more elab- orate kind. The foregoing illus- trations have been especially prepared and drawn, with a view of leading the student by easy steps to a fair knowledge of the use of his instruments and the laying out of work on paper. Fig. 165. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 163 Each item, too, has a constructive value, as all are drawn from examples of actual work, and will, therefore, convey in some measure a true knowledge of construction, without which the work of the mechanical draftsman has but little value. Str^ght Line. Corred Line. Fig. 1 66. SOME ORNAMENTAL EXAMPLES We have now reached a stage where an attempt at ornamental geometrical drawing is permissible, and though it is not my intention to go deeply into this subject, a few examples along with brief descriptions will probably start some of my readers on a course of drawing extending far beyond the limits of this work. This kind of drawing — like most other drawing — is composed of straight lines, curved lines and mixed lines, as shown in Fig. i66, but 164 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT such lines are regular, and are made by the aid ■of compasses, or other instruments, and this ^"^y^ '»•' L . TV^r \ / ^ Fig. 1 68. fact distinguishes geometrical drawings from drawings wrought freehand. Suppose we desire I I / M Fig. 169. Fig. J 70. Fig. to show a square diagonally either for ornamental or practical purposes, we simply proceed as ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 165 follows: Figs. 167 and 168 show the diagrams; join the l\nes a b, c d, Fig. 167, crossing at e, as shown in Fig. 168. Take half c d, Fig. 167, as c e, and set it off from m, Fig. 168, to e h, g f; join these, and parallel to them draw the internal squares and we have a figure more or less orna- mental. Again, sup- pose we desire a "lozenge" or dia- mond shape; this ^' can be accomplished ^ by a similar method as shown at Figs. 169 and 170. Fig. 170 shows the man- ner in which it is drawn; two lines c b, and e d, intersect at a; a c, a b, a e, a d, are each equal to half of a b, e f, Fig. 169; and a h, a m, a g, a f, Fig. 170, to half of h m, e d, F^ig. 169. Let us put one of these examples to some further purpose; this is done in Fig. 171, which shows how this style of drawing may "be used for filling in spaces. ■ / / \ A \ // \ / \\ ' J V Fig. 172. 166 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT The example shown at Fig. 172 exhibits a method of drawing a design for a diamond- shaped pattern. ff s^ P, ^ e ■/ J Fig. I to fairly understand the principles on which the ornamentation is based. The diagram shown in Fig. 189 will suggest to the draftsman something of the method in which combination of circles 174 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT may be used for ornamental purposes. Here a diagonal square, c d f g, is first formed, one side of which is equal to the distance between the centers of the circles, as a, b, c, d. The radii of the circles described ^i,. from the points d c g f is equal to half the side, as d m, f n, etc. ^ .^.^ Exemplifications of this figure are I often found in Gothic perforated parapets and similar work. Another class of drawing is shown in Fig. 190, where parts of circles and straight lines are used in order to form the ornament. In order to make this, proceed as follows: Draw the base line b first, then make a b at right angles to the first line. The respec- tive depths of the moulding must then be meas- ured off on this line, as d, h, m, o, and r, z, t, show the center line of the torus s, and e f, and u V show the centers of the ogees, and g n, the quarter round. Here in this example we have most of the mouldings in use in architecture — the ogee, or cyma recta, and the reverse ogee, or cyma reverse, the torus, the astragal, the quar- ter-round, and the fillet. Fig. 191 shows a design for a baluster that can Fig. 190. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 175 readily be drawn by the student, as the centers for the various curves are given. The center of the lower curve is at a; centers for the upper curves may be found by drawing a line c b; from a and b describe arcs cutting in d, with radius d - w ^-i •i'.<* d~M.l.^ A/. a. Fig. 191. Fig. 192. a describe an arc cutting the line c d in c; c in the center of the curve which is continued to the dotted line c b; a straight line is then continued to the neck of the baluster. The other curves and lines are readily obtained. The urn-shaped ornament shown in Fig. 192 is somewhat more complicated than the previous ITS ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE II. Plate II shows four doors of the style to be used In the cottage. These doors are drawn to a scale of one-half inch to the foot. The same character prevails in these four examples, the sliding doors being merely one of the second floor doors. The front doors are chamfered around the panels instead of being moulded, as the others are. The front and rear door maybe fitted with glass if so desired, in the second panel from top. INSERT FOLDOUT HERE ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 177 Fig. 19] example. It is suited to many purposes, par- ticularly that of terminal. To form it we first draw a center line b h, then the base a b, c c, the fillet d, and the curv-ed lines f f, g g; f f and e e are the centers of the circles; join g h; bisect it by the line i i, cutting g g in k k; from k, with the radius k h, describe arcs g h, and the line n n, the centers of the cap moulding are found. The last three examples are of a purely practical kind, and their determination suggests many other forms which will doubtless appeal to the student's imagination. The ornament shown at Fig;. 193 is called a Guilloche, or chain, and is formed by concentric circles overlapping each other. This pattern is easily drawn with com- passes, but is here given as a freehand study, in order to give the student an exercise in severity and accuracy of form. Figs. 194 and 195 are studies of the wave-line. Fig. 194. 178 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT They are, in fact, the cyma recta repeated, the depth being lessened in Fig. 195. \ Fig. 196 is a study of the elementary Hnes of a running scroll, formed of the wave-line, with the addition of spirals. Care must be taken in drawing these spi- rals, so that they may proceed from the stem in a smooth and continuous manner. They should start as a continuation of the wave-line so gradually, that Fig. 195. ^ Fig. 196. if the stem, beyond the spiral were removed the scroll would be perfect, and that if the scroll were Fig. 197. taken away the wave-line would remain unin- jured. This should also be the case in Fig. 197, in which tendrils are added to the scrolls ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 179 Fig. 19S is a further elaboration of the same design, the Hnes being doubled. Fig, 199 is another simple running pattern based on the wave-line. The example shown at Fig. 200 is an orna- Fig. 198. mental moulding adapted for wood-carving, and gives the pattern and half the repeat. Having drawn the upper and lower horizontal lines, draw A B, C D, E F, and G H; the distance between them being equal. Then it Fig. 199. will be seen that C D and G H are the center lines of the heart, and that A B and E F are the center lines of the tongue or leaf between the hearts. Now draw the curve J, and balance it by the curve I. It will of course be understood that although 180 4.RCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT the instructions and lettering refer to the com- plete figure, it is intended that the corresponding lines in the repeat are to be drawn at the same time; in fact, whatever length of the moulding is to be drawn, these divisions or compartments should be first set out, and the single curve Fig. zoo. drawn in each before proceeding any further. On no account should one portion be completed before the others have been sketched, for as each set of curves is drawn the drawing becomes more complex, and the difficulty of accurate balancing is increased. When these curves have been completed, the interior ones which depend upon, but are not parallel to them, are to follow. In drawing these the greatest care is necessary so that the curves ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 181 may run gracefully downwards, the space between the inner and outer curves becoming gradually narrower. The center part at C is now to be drawn, following the plan already laid down, viz.: to draw first the left and then the right side of the figure; and after this the leaves between the hearts are to be drawn in the same manner. The pattern shown at Fig. 201 is for a running, arranged so as to repeat; a will therefore join on to b, and thus the design may be continued. It will be seen that in order to equalize the spaces so as to carry out this arrangement, the whole is divided into squares, and the central flower is placed on the intersection of the diagonals. In commencing this design, the general form is to be sketched of each scroll rising out of the previous one. At this stage no notice should be taken of the husks or foliage c d, etc., but the scrolls should be sketched as if consisting of the main stem only, and the husks should then be drawn outside the original form. Great care must be exercised to insure the smooth, spiral character of the curves. There must be no angular breaks, but the eye must be carried onward towards the center of each |82 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT bo ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 183 scroll, and the husks must appear as additions, but not as excrescences. In order to test the correctness of the forms, turn the sketch upside down, place it vertically, or in any other direc- tion, and if the design has been correctly sketched, the scrolls should be equally perfect in whatever position they may be viewed. This Fig. 202. (K IK m J) Fig. 203. should be repeatedly done during the progress of the work, so that any part which may be too full or too flat may be improved before the husks, flowers, foliage, or other details are added. The ornament shown in Fig. 202 is called the Echinus, the ^^% and tongue, or ^^% and dart moulding. It is much used by carvers for borders and similar work. 184 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT The moulding shown at Fig. 203 is the Greek astragal, chaplet, or knuckle-bone ornament: this, also, is quite a favorite moulding with carpenters and cabinet-makers, because it can Fig. 204. be turned in a lathe and then split in two or quartered. Fig. 204 shows the Greek conventional lily form. It has a faint resemblance to the Egyptian lotus, but has a Grecian delicacy about it that is absent in Egyptian forms. The ornament shown in Fig. 205 is the Greek ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 185- A^ithemion. This is a very good example for •practice. It can all be drawn by the aid of compasses. Fig. 205. The border shown at Fig. 206 is purely Egyptian, and is partly made up of the open lotus flower and the bud. This is a very 186 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT common ornament for stenciling, incised work and low relief carving. A circular or rosette ornament is shown at Fig. 207 which is formed of a circle and four Fig. 206. lotus flowers. This may be drawn free-hand or by the aid of compasses. A conventional form of the lotus, in a more finished and elaborate state, is shown in Fig. 208. This or- nament was much in use with the an- cient Egyptians, and was considered as being a sort of sa- cred emblem with them. Indeed, the lotus was known by Egyptians as "the sacred flower." The illustration shown at Fig. 209 is a Roman border, and is composed of curved and straight Fig. 207. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 187 lines. This border is found on many of the old Roman buildings now extant and appears to Fig. 208. have been a favorite ornament with the old designers. F'ig, 209. The ornament or rosette shown in Fig. 209^^ is a Roman one used largely during the period of 188 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT the decay of art, about the second century of our era It is quite elabo- rate, but is not by any means effec- tive. The orna- ment shown in Fig. 2IO is also Roman but is the product Fie 2K-. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 189 of a better period and offers some advanced lines for the student's consideration. Fig. 211. The scroll border shown at Fig. 211 is of the Byzantine style of architecture, and is quite Fig. 212. effective in its way The rosette shown in Fig. 212 is also of that style and offers good practice to the student. These latter examples are taken mostly from 190 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT classic executed work, and while they only touch the fringe of classic ornament, they will, to some extent, give to the student an idea of the ornaments employed in the historical styles, and thus enable him to design his work on these lines with intelligence. GOTHIC ORNAMENT Gothic style is so much different to the styles that preceded it, that a separate chapter may well be devoted to it in order that the student Fig. 213. may have a fair opportunity of judging for him- self the peculiarities of the style. The first example presented is a Gothic border, Fig. 213, which, it will be seen, has a character of its own, that is far apart from other ornamentation. The main features of this style lie in the fact that its members all have a vertical ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 191 tendency as may be noticed in its pointed arches, its sharp spires, its pinnacles, its but- tresses, its cluster columns, and its wonderful traceried windows and doors. Its chief elements are window tracery, trefoils, quatrefoils, cinque- foils, zig-zags, gargoyles, fleur-de-lis and ball flowers. These, along with many other examples of ornamentation, and peculiar lay- out of plan and elevation, may be said to constitute the Gothic style. The illustration shown at Fig. 214 represents the tre- foil ornament, as used in windo\vs and other decoration, and is formed as follows: Draw the equilateral triangle as shown by the dotted lines a b c, then bisect it as at c f and a e, cutting the line c f, which gives the center for the surrounding circles; a b and c are the centers of the trefoil curves. The next illustration, Fig. 215, is the quatrefoil and is described from the corners, h m, f g, of a Fig. 214. 192 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 12. This plate shows a portion of the stairs, com- plete and under construction. The newel post and balusters are plain and chamfered. The bottom step is rounded off at the newel. INSERT FOLDOUT HERE ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 198 Fig. 215. square; a is the center of the surrounding circles, found by the intersection of the diagonals, a b, c d, of the square; the curves, s s s s, are drawn from the center a; while those meeting in 1 1 1 1 are described from the centers, h m, f and g. The cinquefoil. Fig. 216, is de- scribed from the corners of the pen- tagon, a b, d e f; by dividing e d equally on the point g, and draw- ing a line from a to it, cutting the perpendicular e c in h, the center n is the point from which the sur- rounding circles are drawn. The other parts of this ornament are easily drawn. Fig. 216. 194 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT Two more examples, and then I have finished in this style, but these are elaborate and will, doubtless, try the skill and patience of the stu- dent, but the results will well repay for the labor. ^ Fig. 217. And will open up new and unexplored fields for practice, for hundreds of designs may be formed by aid of the knowledge gained in understanding the examples herewiil> presented. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 195 The diagram sho\vn at Fig. 217 exhibits the skeleton work for the finished tracery shown at Fig. 2 1 8. The centers for all the curves of one third of the work are all shown by the heavy black dots. By a little study and patience the Fig. Z18. Student will soon be able to draw the completed work, Fig. 218. In Fig. 219 we have another skeleton for a still more elaborate piece of w^ork. The centers 1«6 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT are all shown by black dots, and portions of the curves are also given. The completed work shown at Fig. 220 has a very rich and ornate appearance. These two examples are quite ^"V") Fig. 219. sufficient to give the student a good insight into Gothic tracery work, bui it must be remembered that in Gothic work the designs of this character are innumerable. Portions of these designs are ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 197 used in window and door heads, and in a hundred other places, always with effect. It will be noticed that in these two designs given, that the trefoil, or three circles, forms the Fig. 220. foundation of the whole of the work. All the other ornamentation seems to cluster around the three larger circles; this is the peculiarity of these two examples, but it must be borne in 198 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT mind that the trefoil is not the only basis around which the old Gothic designers built their tracery; but these are sufficient for our purposes. SOME PRACTICAL EXAMPLES OF ORNAMENTATION The studious draftsman will soon discover many new worlds to conquer if he pays much attention to his ' work, and he will ' ' find that, for or- namental work, the power of his compasses is al- ^'^- "'• most without limit. I offer a few simple examples herewith, and will follow them up with others of a more complicated nature. The illustrations shown at Figs. 221 and 222 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 199 show the finished work, and working diagrams. The method of drawing these curves and orna- ments is quite apparent, the centers are all given, and the dotted Hnes show the direction of the curves. A very Httle practice on these Fig. 223. examples will enable the draftsman to describe them in quick time, and will give him an insight into the methods employed in designing orna- ments of this kind. Another very simple design, and one that requires but little description on the manner 200 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT of making it, is self-evident, and is shown at Fig. r!23. This is a very effective ornament, and at cne time was much in vogue. The ornament shown at Fig. 224 is drawn right and left, one-half being complete, and the other half exhibiting the various centers from Fig. 224. which the curves of the pattern are drawn. The method of forming scrolls has been described in a previous chapter, so that it is unnecessary to repeat at this stage. The design is simple, the centers being all given and the dotted lines show the radii of the curves. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 201 The design shown at Fig. 225 is taken from an old example of panel work and has rather a quaint look. The draftsman will have no great difficulty in lining out this design. The ornament shown at Fig. 226 is intended for a double barge-board, having a belt running along the center, di- viding the upper from the lower portion. This design is some- what complicated, and I therefore give herewith a full de- scription of the meth- od of describing it. To properly divide the diameter a, b, of the circle a b, c, d, into six equal parts, through the third of these, drawing the line c, d, e, f, g, at right angles to a, b. From 3, with distance equal to one of the parts on a, b, set off the line a, c, to the points 6 and 7, and through the points, 2, 4, 6, and 7, draw lines, forming a square. Then from the point 3 as a center, with 35 or 31 as radius, describe the circle hi, isd. Then with half the distance 5b, nia, and upon the lines 6 Fig. 225. 802 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT Fig. aa6. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 203 and 7, produced to right and left, describe from the centers j, k, 89, the arcs of circles which will join the parts of circle, i5, hi, as 5I, Im, hn, 50, with the sides 2 and 4 of the square. The small circles as j, k, 89, give the standard for the Fig. 227. various centers and center lines, the moulded part d, being drawn to depth as shown. Set off from the d the distance of the diameter of small circles as k, from the point d, nine and a half times to the point f, which terminates the design. The line p, q is drawn at right angles to g f, through the first part, r, s, through the third and the line t, u, through a point midway between 204 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT the sixth and seventh points. All the circles and arcs of circles are either equal to parts or multiples of the standard circle as k, or f, any one of the six divisions on the line a, b. The design shown at Fig. 227 is also a pattern for a verge board, and is a very good example of the kind. The centers for the circles are all shown in the working diagram, the cutting lines all being represented by the dotted lines. I purposely leave this without a further descrip- tion so that the draftsman may exercise his own skill in working it out, not a very difiicult matter when the reference letters are given. The drawing shown at Fig. 228 is a design for a balcony panel, showing frame and drop mould- ings. Suppose a, b, to be the total height; then divide it into seven equal parts and through the fourth of the points draw a line c, d at right angles to a, b. Make the facia at top equal to the distance between the sixth and seventh points. From the line d, set off to e, and f, and make f, g; e, h, each equal to two-thirds of one of the parts on a, b, as 7, 8. Through the point 2, draw a line parallel to c, d, through e, f ; g, h, draw lines parallel to a, b. Make b, j, equal to c, f, and through j, draw a line parallel to c, d, joining f, e. Bisect 2, j, in the point k, and ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT t05 through k, draw m, k, 1, parallel to c, d. With one-fourth of the distance of g, h, or e, f, set off Fig. 2 28. from the points j, k, o, and m, on each side of the center lines, as to o, and n. from 2. and i. 206 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT From these points as centers, as o, and n, with radii equal to o, i, describe arcs cutting as at p, and from p, describe an arc joining o, n. Do the same at all the other points, and describe the double arcs. Divide one of the parts into which a, b, is divided,- as the lowest part b, I, into four equal parts, as in the points of r, and s. With two of these as radius, from the point k, in center describe the circle k, t, u, and put in the ornament with the arcs as shown. Through the points I, s, 2, and q, as the line a, b, draw lines with distance q b set off from q to v, and from V draw a line parallel to a b, parallel to m, k, 1. With r, s, as radius, from v, as' center describe the arc v, x. With half the distance q, v, set off from X, to y, and through y, draw a line parallel to v, w, as y, z; the point z, is the center of the arc y, a. The arc from a, is described with radius x, y, and through the center a line to b, is drawn parallel to w, v. The arc c, is described from the point d. The dotted lines and radii show how the other parts are put in. The ornaments at f, are put in the lines drawn from the center k, to the corner points, as at e. These examples make splendid practice for the young student, and if repeated two or three times, they will become so impressed on the ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 207 mind that they may be produced at will without copy, and enable one to form designs, with the aid of rule and compass, to suit almost any situation. All these examples are formed in exact architectural proportions, a matter that is often lost sight of by the draftsman, who is sometimes astonished at his own uncouth creations, which become as offensive to the trained eye as vulgar language does to the cultivated ear. In the formation of ornaments^ like everything else in this world, there is an "eternal fitness," a fact which should never be lost sigbt of. The design shown at Fig. 229 is a very useful one and will answer very nicely for a drop or an eaves board. Suppose a, b, to be the height of the lower part of the design which is divided into thirteen equal parts. Then, through the second, sixth, seventh, and eleventh of these, draw lines at right angles to a b. From point I, with half the distance of the space between points I and 2, as radius, describe the circle d. From the point 2, draw lines at an angle of 45° to the line c f, cutting the semicircle; these joints, as g and h, give the centers of the semi- circles. From one center of the circle described j&etween the points 3 and 4 draw lines at right 208 ABCHITECTUEAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 13. Plate 13 shows a mantel in elevation and section, also a plan of the shelf, with construc- tion lines. This is drawn to a scale of ^ of an inch to the foot. INSERT FOLDOUT HERE ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 209 Fig. 229. 210 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT angles to the line e, f, to i and j. These are the centers of the parts of circles thus shown. Finishing the circle at the point k draw the line k, 1, parallel to a b; on this line the center m, of the arcs n and o, is found. 6 and p are the centers of the arcs q and r. The remaining portions of the design may readily be put in from the lines, curves and centers given. The example shown at Fig. 230 illustrates an elaborate design suited for a balustrade and many other purposes. Let a b be the height; divide this into two equal parts in the point c, through c, draw a line at right angles to a b, as d c d. Draw the distance a b, into eighteen, or a c, into nine equal parts. With one of these, from the center c, describe the circle e, f, g, h, and from the point where this cuts the line, a b; d, d, describe circles, the radius of which is one-fourth of one of the parts, or a, c. Then with the distance as h, g, from these points as centers, describe arcs cutting in the point i; from i, as a center with e, the same radius still kept on the compasses, describe an arc j. Do the same from the other points, as g. f; f. e; e, h, and thus find the centers from which the arcs corresponding to j, are described. From the points k, 1, where the outside of the small circles ARCHITECTUR-\L DR-^\VING SELF TAUGHT 2] I Fig. 230. 212 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT e and g, cut the line d, d, as centers with i, j, or c, g, as radius, describe arcs as t, r, s, or u, q, v, stopping at lines n, m; o, p, drawn through the points k, and 1, parallel to a, h. Next, from i, set off to the point p, and do the same at the other and corresponding points, thus finding the four centers m, n, o, and p. From these, with e, c, d, or i, j, as radius, describe arcs which are joined by straight lines with the semicircles w, and X, at the upper and lower ends of the design. To find the centers of these semicircles, divide the distance between the points I, and 2, on the line a b, into four equal parts, and at the points draw a line z, z; from the point y set off in the line z z, a distance equal to b g, to the points a and b. From these points a and b with a radius equal to y, I, or y, 2, describe semicircles, as w, c; X, c. Join the points w, and x, by straight lines e, e, with the arcs described from the points p, and n. From a point in the center between b, and c, and a, and c, describe a small arc, and join this with another arc with the points, as d, d; the center of the arcs being at c, c. The lower arc, d, f, is described from the center g, which is on a line drawn through a point the third in the distance b, I, on the line b a. To describe the part marked A, cut out the part B, ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 213 B. From the point m, o, and n, and p, describe small circles, the radius being one-fourth part of one of the parts on a b. With a radius equal to half of one of the parts as I 2, on the line a b, describe circles from the point f, f ; k, k, having a Fig 231. space between them equal to the space at c, as 1, 1, and with a radius equal to the diameter of these circles, describe from the points 1, 1, the arcs m, n; m. n. From n, n, which are equidistant from the center line, a space equal to the radius of the small circles n, p; describe with radius of these small circles the arcs meeting in the pomt 214 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT o. With vv, V, or s, t, as radius, set off on the Hne h, h; from the points 1, 1, to h, h, and from h, h, describe the arcs 1, p, 1, p, the centers of the arcs p, p, are q, q. These examples are quite sufficient for our purpose so far as woodwork and decoration are concerned, but it may not be amiss to supple- ment them with a few on the same line, that will answer for iron, for wood, or for designs in stencilling or other decorative work. To this end, I present an ornament in Fig. 231, that is suitable for a central ornament, and one that may be employed for many purposes. Carvers frequently make use of this as a skeleton figure for carved panel work as it may be elaborated to almost any extent. The manner of drawing it is as follows: Let, a a, be the center line, and a, b, the distance from upper rail to center of lower part of design; through b, draw the line c, d, at right angles to a, b; c, d, in the length of the lower part of the design. Divide c, b, b, d, into two equal parts in the points e, and f, with radius e, c, describe an arc cutting in the point i; from i, with i, a, describe the arc b, a, h. P>om the point b, set off the distance e, f, to the point j; and through j, draw a line k, k, parallel to c, d. From j, with the distance b, f, set off to the ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 213 points 1, and m, and these will be the centers of arcs forming the upper part of the design. The lines and centers for the spiral terminations of Fig. 232. the leading curves thus described as shown in the drawing. The skeleton shown in the illustration, Fig. 232, exhibits an ornament drawn altogether with the compass. The centers are all shown and lettered for reference; r being the general 216 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT ♦--;-■ H> — center, while a, j, d, i, m and c show the divis- ions and radia- ting Hnes of one- half of the fig- ure. As the cen- ters may all be framed at the intersections of the dotted lines, further explan- ations are un- necessary. I close this department by illustrating a n ornament in which the ellipse predominates, Fig. 233, which exhibits a run- ning scroll suit- ed to many pur- poses. On the continent of Eu- rope scrolls of ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 217 this kind are often used as window screens, being attached to the frame and covered with gauze, or woven wire, to prevent insects getting in the house w^hen the window is open. This shows oiily half the design. The height of this section, a, b, is divided into nine equal parts, the width of the framework is equal to one of these parts-. From c, at right angles to c, d, draw the line c, f, and with the distance a, b, from the point c, set off to the points e and f, and through these points^ draw lines at right angles to c, f; f, g, is the center line of the design. From the point f, with four of the parts on the line a, b, set off to the point h, and through h, draw at right angles to f, g, the line i, i. From the point h, set off to i, i, five of the parts in a, b, making i, i, equal to ten of these parts; divide i, i, into five equal parts; the first j, and fourth k, are the foci of the elliptical ornament, which draw as shown. Through the point 4 on a, b, draw a line 41, and make the distance m, 1, equal to h, i; put in the elliptical part as shown, and finish as in the diagram, in which all the centers and center lines are given. Rules for describing the ellipse were given in previous pages, that should the student experience any difficulty in describing the 218 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT elliptical cur\es, he may refer to those pages for assistance. SOMETHING ON ORDERS Cy ARCHITECTURE It is not my intencion to e...dr deeply into a description of the orders of Architecture or to give the student a history of their rise and growth, or analyze their peculiarities; it is enough for our purpose, to be able to draw them, and to give to each order its own pro- portion pnd arrangement. Before we can do this, however, it will be necessary for us to be able to lay off a section of a column, showing AKCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 219 the position of flutes and fillets in plan and elevation. This is brought out nicely in Fig. 234, where the dotted lines show the width of flutes and fillets as they will appear on the elevation. Suppose a b Fig. 234 to be the diameter of the column, then bisect it in c; and O O' Fig. draw c d. Make lines corresponding to these, and from the point c, with c b, describe the semicircle a d b, representing half the column. Bisect the quadrant a d, in the point e, and divide the arcs a e, e d, by points g, f, h, m. Mark the position of these by radial lines from c, as in the example. Divide the part a g into eight equal parts; and with three of these as- radius, from the points in the quadrant, as g, f, 220 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT etc., describe semicircles. Six parts will thus be given to each flute, and two to each fillet; and the column will have twenty-four flutes. To describe the flutes in a Doric column with- out the fillets, proceed as follows: Lay out the portion of column as in the previous example^ by dividing the quadrant bee. Fig. 235, into six eu -"'•' v'^^^- ^^ N^ /' ^^m "M 1^1/ ^^^^P ^^^ •n,---.e 1 • • V ^^^^ ^^M \% ^H ^»i \ Jr « k UU/U/Z/A ^.^ Fig. 236. equal parts, as e, m, n, etc., giving to the entire column twenty-four flutes as before. Draw radial lines from b. Divide a f into four equal parts, and lay one of these on a b produced to e; from b, with b e, describe a semicircle as e m n, cutting the radial lines. Bisect, a f in o, and with f o as radius, from the points — where the dotted semicircle intersects the radial lines — as ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 221 centers, describe the arcs as in the example. Another method is shown in Fig. 236, which is formed as follows: Make the semicircle a d e and divide the quadrant bad into five equal parts, so as to give twenty flutes to the column. Produce a b to f ; bisect a e in h, and from e lay off e h to m; join h m, and with distance h e lay off on the radial line b e to n. From b, with b n, describe the dotted semicircle, f n o. The centers f the flutes are placed where the radial lines intersect this semicircle. From n, with n m, describe the lines as shown, and finish the section. A section of a column having flat flutes and fillet is shown at 237. To describe this draw the semicircle a d c, and divide the quadrant bad into six equal parts, divide a e into five equal 222 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT parts. With two of these from the radial line lay off on each side, as f h. With one part lay- off from c to m, and from m, with b m, describe a semicircle c d a; complete the diagram as shown. This wiU give the depth of the flutes, one; the width four, and the width of the fillets, one. In Fig. 238 we give a method of describing the cabled moulding with fillets between. Divide the semicircle a c d in the same proportion as in Fig. 234, giving an equal number as in that example. From b, with b e on the compass, describe the semicircle c f f. From the points where the radial lines intersect this, as centers, with a e, describe the curves as in the example. I will now endeavor to explain what arc known as "The orders of Architecture," showing their ARCHITECTCrRAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 22-" various members, their proportion, and the manner of arrangement. "Order, in architecture," says an authority, "is a system or assemblage of parts subject to certain uniform established proportions, regu- lated by the office each part has to perform. An order may be said to be the genus, whereof the species are Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite; and consists of two essential parts; a column and an entablature." These again are subdivided, the first into three parts, namely: the base, the shaft and the capital; the second also into three parts, namely: the architrave or chief beam, C Fig. 239, which stands immediately on the column; the frieze B, which lies on the architrave, and the cornice, A, which is the crowning or uppermost member of the order. In the subdivisions certain horizontal members are used, which from the curved form of their edges are called mouldings, the con- struction of which depends on a certain knowl- edge of geometry. This application may be seen in the illustration; thus a is the ogee, b, the cornice, c the ovolo, d the cavetto, which with fillets compose the cornice, f f the facia. The capital of the column consists of the upper members or abacus, g, the ovolo moulding 2£4 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 14. This plate shows an elevation for a cheap book- case suited for the cottage under consideration. The end elevation is also shown with the face of drawers laid off. The scheme for a box stall shown in the drawing is somewhat out of the usual course, but may be found very convenient in stable construction. INSERT FOLDOUT HERE ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT * 225 c, the astragal i i, and the neck h. The base consists of the torus k, and the pHnth 1. The character of an order is displayed, not only in its columns but in its general forms and details, whereof the column is, as it were, the regulator; the expression being of strength, grace, elegance, lightness, or richness. Though a building be without columns it is nevertheless said to be of an order, if its details be regulated according to the method prescribed for such order. In all the orders a similar unit of reference is adopted for the construction of their various parts. Thus, the lower diameter of the column is taken as the proportional measure of all the other parts and members, for which It Is subdi- vided into sixty parts, called minutes, or Into two modules of thirty minutes each. Being pro- portional measures, modules and minutes are not fixed ones like feet and Inches, but are vari- able as to the actual dimensions which they express — larger or smaller according to the actual size of the diameter of the column. For instance, if the diameter be just five feet, a minute being one-sixtieth, will be exactly one inch. Therefore, before commencing to draw an elevation of any one of the orders, the diameter of the column must be determined, and 226 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT lf, m ■m^fi~'^'-W. \^>m]m£t^Mm^^ML^M Fig. 241. ARCHITECTUHAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 235 also of the volutes may be either single or maniold, and the eye or center of the spiral may be made larger or smaller, flat or convex, or curved as a rosette. Fig. 242 represents an example of the Corin- thian order, from the Arch of Hadrian, at Athens. This order is distinguished from the Ionic, more by its deep and foliated capital than by its porportions — the columns of both have bases differing but little from each other, and their shafts are fluted in the same manner. Although the order itself is the most delicate and lightest of the three, the capital is the largest, being considerably more than a diameter in height, varying in different examples from one to one and a half diameter; upon the average about a diameter and a quarter. The capital has two rows of leaves, eight in each row, so disposed that of the taller ones, composing the upper row, one comes in the middle, beneath each face of the abacus, and the lower leaves alternate with the upper ones, coming between the stems of the latter; so that in the first or lower tier of leaves there is in the middle of each face a space between two leaves occupied by the stem of the central face, above them. Over these two rows is a third series of 236 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT Fig. Z42. ABCHITECTCrRAL, DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 237 eight leaves, turned so as to support the small volutes which, in turn, support the angles of the abacus. Besides these outer volutes, which are invariably turned diagonall3% as in the four-faced Ionic capital, there are two smaller ones, termed caulicoli, which meet each other beneath a flower on the face of the abacus. The abacus itself is not, properly speaking, a square, although it ma}' be said to be so in its general form. But instead of being straight, the sides of the abacus are concave in plan, being curved outwards so as to produce a sharp point at each corner, which is usually cut off. The proper Corinthian base differs from that of the usual Ionic or Attic, in having two smaller scotiae, separated by two astragals; however, both kinds are employed indiscriminately. The shaft is fluted, in general, similarly to that of the Ionic column, but sometimes the flutes are cabled, as it is called; that is, the channels are hollowed out for only about two-thirds of the upper part of the shaft and the remainder cut so that each channel has the appearance of being partly filled up by a round staff or a piece of rope, hence the term cabling. The cornice is very much higher than in the other orders, which makes more projection also. 238 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT From this greatly increased depth of cornice, it consists of a great number of mouldings beneath the corona, for that and the cymatium over it invariably retain their places as crowning members of the whole series of mouldings. In the illustration square blocks or dentels are introduced, but often to the dentels is added a row of modillions immediately beneath and sup- porting the corona. These modillions are ornamental blocks, curved in their under surface somewhat after the manner of the letter S laid on its edge, and between them and the dentels, also below the latter, are other mouldings, sometimes cut, at others left plain. Sometimes a plain, uncut dentel band is substituted for dentels; sometimes, in simpler cornices, that is omitted altogether and plainer blocks are employed instead of modillions; or else both dentels and modillions are omitted. The dentel is not peculiar to this order, but is considered as more properly belonging to the Ionic. The composite order is very much akin to the Corinthian, and is sometimes called the Roman Corinthian. It is frequently formed with square plintJis or pedestals beneath the column. The base is nearly like those of the Doric and Ionic. The shaft is channeled with twenty-four flutings ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 2-9ff separated by fillet?. The capital consists of two rows of acanthus leaves, eight in each row; the upper row be- ing placed over the meeting points of those in the lower row. Four spiral volutes in each face spring from two bunches of acanthus leaves; and two of them are so connected at the corners as to support the abacus of the cap- ital. (See Fig. 243.) Each face of the aba- cus, besides being moulded into an ovolo form, is a slight differ- ence between the Cor- inthian and Composite. The Corinthian archi- trave is divided into three facias, the Composite into two; the facias being in both cases separated from another by small enriched mouldings. Fig. 243. 240 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE i6. Plate i6 shows sections and plans of windows, for wood and for brick buildings, with weights where the mullion is narrow and will not admit of two weights passing each other. One section shows the manner of constructing the angle of a bay window where boxes and weights are required. This is a very useful plate for the young draftsman. INSERT FOLDOUT HERE ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 241 The frieze is enriched nearly all over with sculptures or other ornaments. The cornice, besides a number of small enriched mouldings above and below the corona, has a row of those square blocks which obtain the name of dentils. The Composite has mutules on the soffit, or underside of the corona, like the Doric; but the Corinthian has peculiar ornaments, called modillions. Between every two modillions, along the under side of the corona, is an enriched panel. If the student has followed the foregoing closely, he will, by this time, not only be a fair draftsman, but he will have obtained a knowl- edge of general architecture and construction that will make of him a valuable and efficient mechanic, and one whose services will be sought after and paid for at a good rate. MISCELLANEOUS A good draftsman is always supposed to be a good letterer, and as every drawing must have a brief description of some sort, and as it is sometimes a little puzzling to decide on what style of letter to employ, I thought I would give a few examples, so that the draftsman may 242 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT have something to aid him in deciding. Orna- mental letters had better be avoided until such time as the draftsman feels he can make them with ease and celerity, and plain lettering had best be the rule; however, I give a few examples ABCDEFCHIJKLMNO PQRSTUVWXYZ&c Fig. 244. of both plain and ornamental, so that the student can determine for himself the styles of letter he will employ. A simple block letter is shown in Fig. 244, with one letter G enlarged at the end. These letters, as will be seen, may be made in single or double line, as may be desired. Figures 1234567890 Fig. 245. appearing in the heading, Fig, 245, should be the same size as the letters, but as dimensions on the drawing they should not be more than }i in. deep, nor less than j\ in. When dimensions are put upon a drawing, the distance to which they should extend should be carefully shown by dotted lines, with arrow-heads at the extremi- ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 243 ties, keeping the fractions level, and with the small figures two-thirds the size of the large ones. The feet should be marked by a single accent thus ', and the inches by a double accent thus ", with a full stop on the line between the figure. If the dimensions consist of an even number of feet, then inches should be repre- sented by o". The omission has led to serious mistakes in practical work, which should always be guarded against, and, notwithstanding the examples of text-books and the practice of some examiners, this is an important point always observed b}- practical draftsmen. After inking in all the figures, pencil out the heading very carefully, making the letters a little thicker than those used in Fig. 244; G, R, S. C, and M will be found the most difficult. The distance apart of the letters should not be quite uniform, but should be such as will look uniform. For example, as I between M and N would require more than the usual space to look right; on the other hand, a T between L and J would require to slightly overlap to give the right effect. The junction points A, IVI, X, V, and \V should not be sharp but the same width as the thickness of the strokes. Leave >^ in. between the words of the heading. 244 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT It is thien much easier to read than if cramped closer together or spaced wider apart. Remember that the printing — being thicker — will take longer to dry, and be careful not to use the india rubber too soon. It will be observed that the guide lines for the square and center lines for the circle, as described above, have not been inked in, as they would spoil the ABCDEFGHIJ K L M N PQRST UVWXYZ Fig. 146. effect of the drawing, but on machine drawings it is usual to put the center lines in red, using a little crimson lake for the purpose. Another block letter is shown at Fig. 246, which is easy to make and quite effective. This, and the three following examples, are taken from "The Draftsman," an excellent little journal for the young draftsman, as it is full of useful matter, and will help him along materially. The journal is published monthly, in Cleveland, Ohio, and only costs one dollar a year. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 245 The letters shown at Fig. 247 have some pre- tentions to ornamentation, but on the whole they are very simple and easy to make. yiBGDEFGjlIJKLMNO PPR8TUYWXYZ 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Fig. 247. Fig. 248 exhibits a sort of Runic letter that ig quite ornamental and would require considerable practice before it could be formed nicely. Fig. 248. The letters shown at Fig. 249 are good old style characters and are always in order for almost any kind of work. 24-6 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT The two styles of open letters shown in Fig. 250 may sometimes be found useful, but as a rule I do not recommend this style of letter; it does not "show up" enough for the trouble; at the same time, it offers excellent practice for the draftsman. These examples are quite sufficient for my purpose, but the student will do well to try his ABCDEFGHI JKLMNOPQR STUV WX YZ Fig. 249 hand on other styles, many of which he can find in public prints, headings, and other places. While I do not advise the young student to attempt the coloring of drawings, yet, if he advances himself sufficiently to be able to make a good drawing, there is no reason why he should not attempt to color some of his work, and to aid him in doing so I submit for his guidance the following hints and suggestions regarding this work. The first thing to do when ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 247 coloring is in- tended is to see that the paper has all the super- fluous sizing re- moved by being sponged lightly with clean water. The paper, and everything about it, must be kept perfect- ly clean. Line off the spaces, with very fine pencil marks, that are to be tinted. Never use the eraser on the part to be tinted, either before or after tinting. Try the tinting process on a piece of waste paper un- til the proper ^ n IT?' 1^^ =1U ..^ ^fi) © HI 1 r^S (^^ ^ m^ ^ (@ ^ © 1^ @ 248 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 17. This plate shows a basement window in a sione wall, the elevation showing the outside of the window, and the section exhibits the manner of coastructing the frame and placing the sashes. This is drawn to a scale of ^ of an inch to the foot. INSERT FOLDOUT HERE ABCHITECTURAl. DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 249 tint is obtained, before applying to the drawing. Dark tints are formed by applying a number of light ones over each other, but a second tint should not be applied until the first one is perfectly dry. Always finish tinting one portion of drawing before leaving it. Otherwise it will be cloudy. See that the paper is damp before •vou begin to tint. Ink in all lines after <^he tinting :s completed and the drawing is perfectly dry. The colors used for representing wood, iron, and other materials, are as follows: For soft pine, a very pale tint of sienna; for hard pine, burnt sienna with a little carmine added; for oak, a mixture of burnt sienna and yellow ochre is used. Mahogany is represented by burnt sienna and a portion of dragon's blood. For walnut, dragon's blood and burnt umber are used. For bricks, burnt sienna and carmine make a good color. Gray stones are represented by a mixture or Diack and white, with a little Prussian blue and carmine added — pale ink alone is sometimes used for stone work. Brown freestone is rep- resented by burnt sienna, carmine, and ink Wrought iron is represented by a light tint ot Prussian blue, and cast iron by a gray tint com- posed of black, white, and a little indigo. Brass '250 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT is tinted with gamboge. Gamboge, slightly mixed with vermilion, makes a good color for copper. Silver is represented by an almost invisible blue. Many draftsmen have a natural talent for using suitable colors, and putting them on in a suitable manner, but others must go through the drudgery of careful practice according to rule. A perfectly uniform tint such as desired on an engineer's drawing is not required on an architect's drawing, and still less on that for use by a builder; but unless the draftsman learns first to lay on a flat and uniform wash of any tint, he is not likely to be able to put on an appropriate rough tint. For water-color sketch- ing a flat tile with shallow recesses is suitable for mixing the colors, but this is quite unsuited for a draftsman's use. He should invariably use the nests of round saucers fitting one on the other, and of a size to hold as much color as would be required to completely finish the color- ing of any one material on one sheet. The saucers should be kept covered while in use, and washed out when done with. The lightest tints should, as a rule, be put on first, and the brush should always be of ample size. Color brushes should be kept scrupulously clean, ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 251 never put in the mouth, always washed after using, the surplus moisture shaken out, and then put away in the box and not laid on a dusty shelf to dry. A little practice in the laying of colors one over another will be used for impressing on the memory the general effect of combination, and also a knowledge of the primary colors and their secondaries. Nearly all water-colors are transparent, and a medium tint of any one color, if laid over another after it is dry, will allow the first color to show through. A more intimate combination may be made by mixing the colors together in the same palette and putting them on with the brush in one operation. Wipe the brush lightly on the edge of the saucer to remove the surplus color, and hold it as described for a lead pencil when about to draw a vertical line; commence at the top left hand of the space to be colored; pass the brush downwards, then along the top, then down by short strokes from the top to the length of the first stroke, and so carry the color downwards for the whole width, finishing at the bottom right-hand corner. To produce good and uniform coloring, never damp the paper before commencing, refill the 252 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT brush often, gently wiping it on the edge of the saucer each time. The margin of the color must not dry before the next stroke reaches it, and a part once colored must never be retouched, even though it looks uneven. Retouching is a fruitful source of failure; for color, looking uneven when wet, may dry even, but if touched again when partially dried it is certain to show uneven when dry. There is an advantage in having plenty of color in the brush, but when nearing the bottom boundary the amount must be reduced, so that there is not a pool left at the lower corner. By regulating the amount of color any slight excess may be picked up with the brush by simply raising it slowly, point last, from the corner. The brush should not be wiped in any way, but simply washed in clean water, when done with, or before use with another color. It will soon be found that with a given amount of color in the brush more or less of it may be left behind as the brush is allowed to trail or is used side- ways, and it is by unconscious adjustments of this kind that a good colorist produces uniform results. There are certain tints employed by architects to designate works of various kinds, and I give ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 253 them herewith so that the student may have them within reach if he has occasion for their use. It must be understood, however, that nearly every drawing oflfice of any note has rules of its own for marking and coloring drawings, so that the rules given herewi'th may differ materially from many others in vogue. Banks (Steep) — Shaded with graduated warm sepia, darkest at top of bank; vertical hill- shading in India ink or dark sepia. Brass — Gamboge with yellow ochre or burnt sienna. Bricks (Blue) — Elevation, indigo and India ink; section, indigo. (Red) — Elevation, light red (pale); section, India red (dark). Brickwork (New) — Elevation, Roman ochre; section, crimson lake. (Old) — Elevation, India ink (pale); section, India ink (dark). Buildings (Brick or Stone) — Crimson lake. (Wood) — Sepia. Cast Iron — Payne's grey; neutral tint. Chain — Elevation, Prussian blue (dot and stroke); section, no color. Concrete — Sepia with black marks; or indigo, or Payne's grey with black marks and small light spots left. Copper — Gamboge with lake; elevation, 254 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT crimson lake and burnt sienna; section, crimson lake and burnt sienna (dark). Earth — Burnt umber or warm sepia, left jagged at edges; or sepia, light and dark. Electric-bell Wires— Yellow. Fields and Vacant Lands — White. Fir and Deal (rough) — Elevation, burnt sienna or gamboge; section, burnt sienna (edged round and hatched). Footpaths (Flagged) — Yellow ochre. Glass — Green; Prussian blue; neutral tint. Glass Roofs — Cross-hatching of Prussian blue. Granite — Purple madder; pale India ink. Greenheart — Elevation, indigo and gamboge; section, indigo and gamboge (dark). Gun-metal — Elevation, Indian yellow; section, Indian yellow (dark). Lead — Indigo; indigo with India ink. Leather — Elevation, burnt umber (very pale); section, burnt umber (dark). Mahogany — Elevation, light red and burnt sienna; section, light red and burnt sienna (dark.) Meadows and Cultivated ^Grass — Prussian green; Hooker's green. Oak — Elevation, burnt umber (pale); section^ burnt umber (dark). ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 255 Pine and Spruce (wrought) — Elevation, burnt sienna (pale); section burnt sienna (dark rings). Pipes (Cold-water) — Prussian blue. (Gas) — Indigo with lake. (Hot-water) — Crimson lake. (Rain-water) — Elevation, Prussian blue (outline); section, Prussian blue (outline). (Soil) — Eleva- tion, burnt sienna; section, burnt sienna (out- line). Plaster — Payne's grey. Plaster and Cement-- Elevation, India ink (pale); section, India ink (dark). Railways — Neutral tint between the rails of each track. Rope — Elevation, burnt sienna (dot and stroke); section, no color. Rosewood — Burnt sienna with lake. Sewers and Drains — Prussian blue. Skies (in perspectives) — Cobalt blue. Slate — Elevation, Payne's grey; section, Payne's grey (dark). Steel— Elevation, violet carmine (very pale); section, violet carmine (dark); or indigo with a little lake. Stone — Yellow ochre; gamboge with Indian red and burnt umber; sepia; Prussian blue. Representing stone in section by Prussian blue is to be avoided, though in common use 2o(> ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF lAUGliT PLATE i8. This plate shows two elevations and sections of windows, one designed for wooden build- ings, and the other for brick buildings. The vertical sections of frames and sashes are shown in both cases, and the manner of constructing the sills is given. The segmental headed window shows finish around the frame suited for brick. Both frames show exterior finish, and that designed for wood shows the lines of siding on one side. These examples are drawn to a scale of ^ of an inch to the foot. INSERT FOLDOUT HERE 2dt) ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINO SELF TAUGHT ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 25? Prussian blue should be retained entirely for wrought-iron work. Stone Dressings — Elevation, French blue, (very pale); section, French blue (dark). Streets (Paved) — Neutral tint. Timber (Existing) — Elevation, India ink (pale); section, India ink (etched). Tubes (Speaking) — Green. Water — Elevation, Prussian blue (washed); section, Prussian blue (lines). Water may have graduated blue edges. Windows Inside — Elevation, French blue (pale); section. Hooker's green, No. 2 (dark). Windows Outside — Elevation, Payne's grey (dark); section, Hooker's green. No. 2 (dark). Wrought-iron (Bright) — Elevation, Prussian blue (very pale); section, Prussian blue (dark). (Rough) — Payne's grey. York and Soft Stone — Elevation, sepia (very pale); section, sepia. Zinc — Elevation, French blue (very pale); section, French blue (dark). Often various materials are shown by the manner in which the sections of such materials are hatched or lined off as may be seen by the illustration shown at Fig. 251, where a large number of sections are given. By this method !J58 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT the material is recognized by the method of hatching, and no color is required, the whole being done in black and white. It may be necessary sometimes for the drafts- man to shade portions of his work, and, though this book does not pretend to deal with the A.0C^^*»f»it t'\g 251. higher class of drawing, it may not be out of place to say a few words on shading, and offer a few rough illustrations, showing how some objects maybe shaded even by an inexperienced hand. The principles of shading are very simple, but do not seem to be generally under- stood, even by architects. All the exhibition drawings of an Architectural Association were ARCHITECTTIRAL DEAWTNTG SELF TAUGHT 259 spoilt one year by the roof shading being reversed, presumably in order to comply with some fancied natural requirement. The prin- ciples are as follows: (i) The more distant the object the less distinct the light" and shade, and vice versa; (2) for the sake of uniformity the light is usually supposed to come from the left, and on a drawing is generally taken as coming down the long side of a 45° set square, when one edge is placed diagonally on the paper and at right angles to it; (3) on inclined surface in the light the farthest part is the darkest and in the shade the nearest part is the darkest; (4) cylindrical surfaces follow the same rules, but on the right hand or lower sides the effect appears as though some reflected light were shown towards the edge. The accompanying 560 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT illustrations, Fig. 252, show the application of these rules. When ink lines to any considerable extent have to be erased, a small piece of damped soft sponge may be rubbed over them till they disappear. As, however, this process is apt to -discolor the paper, the sponge must be passed through clean water, and applied again to take up the straggling ink. For small erasures of ink lines, a sharp erasing knife should be used; this is an instrument with a short triangular blade fastened to a wooden or ivory handle. A sharp rounded pen-blade applied lightly and rapidly -does well, and the surface may be smoothed down by the thumb nail or a paper-knife handle. In ordinary working drawings a line may readily be taken out by damping it with a hair pencil and quickly applying the india rubber; and, to smooth the surface so roughened, a light applica- tion of the knife is expedient. In drawings intended to be highly finished, particular pains should be taken to avoid the necessity for corrections, as everything of this kind detracts from the appearance. A little Prussian blue, mixed with the ink makes it flow freer and adds to the color. In inking in on ordinary tracing cloth, the student ARCHITECTURAL DRA^aNG SELF TAUGHT 261 will find the ink will "creep" in such a manner that the lines will be broken. This can be pre- vented if a drop of ox-gall be mixed with the ink, but where ox-gall is not available, Prussian blue may be substituted, and this will, to some extent, work freer over the cloth. As this book is not intended for making finished draftsmen, I have avoided in all cases — except in the orders of Architecture — offer- ing any very elaborate or finished examples, as the student can find a number of works in the market that will lead him to a higher plane if he so determines, after he has well mastered what I have served up to him. Neither have I thought it desirable to describe the method of making blue prints, as this method, or m.ethods, has been rendered over and over again in the technical journals, for years past. If, however, the student desires to iearn how to make blue prints, I would advise him to purchase a copy of "Blue Print Making" by P. Reissmann, which can be had from the publishers of this book, price 25 cents. This is an excellent little work, and goes into the subject thoroughly. It must be understood that this work is pre- pared purposely for the workman who has no time to attend night school, or money to spare I 262 ARCHITECTUBAL DRAWING SELP^ TAUGHT to take a course in any one of the excellent correspondence schools; therefore, the illustra- tions have been left in a plain state, so that the student would not be frightened on the threshold of his work by fancy and elaborate drawings. I state this fact, partly to make it easy for the student, and partly to disarm critics, who can, if they are so disposed, find many defects in the illustrations. 'BUILDERS' ARCHITECTURAL DRAW- ING SELF TAUGHT." QUESTIONS. 1. What is the first article required by the student for drawing purposes? 2. Give a description of how the paper should be fixed to the drawing board. 3. Give a description of what is meant by the process termed "damp stretching." 4. Mention the three kinds of materials used in making out the drawings. 263 264 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 5. After having prepared a drawing board what is the next thing that is required? 6. Give a description of "T squares," "French curves" and "set squares" used in drawing. 7. Give descriptions of "straight-edges," "scales," "splines," "eJlipsographs," and "beam compasses." 8. Give a description of what is contained in a case of "complete set" of drawing instruments. 9. Give a description as to the use and care of the drawing pen. 10. Give a description of how the ink should be applied to the drawing pen, and how to manipu- late the pen when all is ready. 11. Give a description of how to use the com- passes in drawing circles. 12. Give a description of how to use the com- passes when a number of circles drawn from a common center is necessary. 13. Give a few illustrative examples of curve drawing with the compasses. 14. Give a description of how the trefoil orna- ment! is formed, and a drawing illustrative of same. 15. Give an illustrative example of how circles may be drawn from six centers or from the six points of a hexagon. 16. Give a description of how to find the cen- ters for a curved line wdiere the situation calls for more or less skill to properly adjust to the purposes, with illustrative drawing. ARCHITECTUR^VL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 265 17. Give a description o*f how the same result may be obtained by the use of the compasses alone, with illustrative drawing. 18. Give a description of how to deal with two parallel lines that are to be joined tangentially by a semi-circle. 19. Give description and illustrative sketch how to join by a curve, lines that are not at right angles. 20. Give description and illustrative sketch showing the method of joining a curve to a straight line by a smaller curve. 21. Give illustrative sketch showing a straight line cutting a circle and joined by small curves on the inside, and description how to obtain same. 22. Give illustrative sketch showing two given parallel straight lines which are to be joined by an ogee or reversed curve, and description how to obtain same. 23. Describe how to draw a "Scotia" or cove and give an illustrative sketch of same. 24. Describe another method of getting a deeper moulding and give an illustrative sketch of same. 25. Describe how to draw an "echinus" or ovolo, and give an illustrative sketch of same. 26. Describe how to draw the moulding called a "quirked ovolo" and give illustrative sketch of same. 27. Describe how^ to draw the hyperbolic ovolo 266 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT of the Grecian Doric "capital, and give an illus- trative sketch of same. 28. Describe how to draw a cove or "cavetto moulding" and give illustrative sketch of same. 29. Give another method of describing the "cavetto mould" with illustrative sketch of same. 30. Describe how to draw the "cyma recta" moulding with illustrative sketch of same. 31. Describe how to draw a "cyma recta" formed by two opposite curves, shown by the use of ordinates. 32. Describe how to draw a "cyma recta" formed with true elliptical quadrants. 33. Describe one of. the simplest methods of forming an ellipse, and give illustrative sketch of same. 34. Describe how to form an ellipse by using the trammel, and give illustrative sketch of same. 35. Describe how a figure that approximates an ellipse may be formed by using the compasses and give an illustrative sketch of same. 36. Give a description how to form a diamond or lozenge-shaped figure with illustrative sketch of same. 37. Give description of how to draw a scroll by using two lead pencils. 38. Give description how to form a figure that corresponds somewhat to the spiral, and give il- lustrative sketch of same. 39. Give description how to form squares with- ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 267 in larger squares, the lines being equidistant from each other, with illustrative sketch. 40. Give a description how to manipulate the pen and ink in finishing the drawings with India ink. 41. Give a description how to mark off dimen- sions on a drawling. 42. Give description how to use the lead pencil in drawing, and the different kinds for use in their respective purposes, 43. Give a description how to make out "rough sketches" of any size and without reference to scale or regard to exactness, and give illustrative sketch of the ground plan of a house. 44. Give a description of how to lay off a *'scale" for the drawings. , 45. Give description and illustrative sketch showing how to lay off the "cellar plan" of a house. 46. Give description and illustrative sketch showing how to lay off the "first floor plan" of the house. 47. Give description and illustrative sketch showing how to lay off the "attic plan" of the house. 48. Give description and illustrative sketch showing an "end elevation and section" of the house. 49. Give description of "footings" for founda- tions and illustrative sketch of same. 268 ARCniTECTUR.\L. DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 50. Give description and illustrative sketch showing "square rubble" work in a wall. 51. Give description and illustrative sketch showing "irregular rubble, rustic work or field stone masonry." 52. Give description and illustrative sketch of "block course" masonry. 53. Give a description of "ashler masonry" and illustrative sketch showing plain ashler masonry. 54. Give a drawing of the end section of a single brick or 9-inch wall, with a two brick or 18-inch footing. 55'. Give a drawing of the section of a brick and a half or 14 inch wall, with 4 courses of brick work in footings. 56. Give an explanation of what is meant by "bond or bonding" in brick work. 57. Give an explanation of what is meant by dT straight joint in brick work. 58. Give a few advantages that are obtained by using a good bond in building stone or brick walls. 59. Give a description of what is meant by the term "running bond" in ordinary work. 60. Give a description of what is meant by the term 'English bond" used in building brick work. 61. Give a sketch of "running bond" in brick work showing the "bats" or closers required to fill out the courses. 62.' Give a sketch showing the several styles of laying bricks, and consisting of a brick wall hav- ARCHITECTUR.U. DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 269 ing a window with stone sill, also gothic shaped arch filled in with "herring-boned" brick building over window. 63. Give a description and sketch showing how a semi-circular arch may be used in brick or stone walls. 64. Give a description of what is meant by "the span" of an arch, also the "springing points" and "abutment." 65. Give a description of wdiat is meant by the "rise," "height" or versed sine of an arch. 66. Give a description of the "springing line" of an arch. 67. Give a description of the "crown" of an arch. 68. Give a description of what is meant by the term "Voussoirs" of an arch. 69. Give a description of what is meant by the term "the keystone" of an arch. 70. Give a description of what is meant by "the intrados or soffit" of an arch. 71. Give a description of what is meant by "the extrados or back" of an arch. 72. Give a description of what is meant by "the thrust" of an arch. 71). Give a description of what is meant by "the joints" of an arch. 74. Give a description of what is meant by "the bed" of an arch. 75. Give a description of what is meant by "a rampart arch." 270 ARCHITECTURAL. DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 76. Give a description of what is meant by "a straight arch or plat-band." 77 . Give a sketch of a segmental arch drawn from two centers and describe how the joints for brick or stone work may be laid out around this arch. v. 78. Give a sketch of a Tudor arch drawn from three centers, and give description how it may be struck. 79. Give a description and sketch of an elliptical arch. 80. Give a description how to draw a lancet arch, and illustrative sketch of same, » 81. Give a description how to draw an equilat- eral Gothic arch, and illustrative sketch of same. 82. Give description of how to set out "gauged arches" in brick work. 83. Give a description how to draw an "equilat- eVal ogee arch" and give illustrative sketch. 84. Give a description how to draw a "flat ogee arch," and give illustrative sketch. 85. Give a description how to draw the horse- shoe or Moorish arch, and give illustrative sketch of same. 86. Give a description how to draw a Gothic horseshoe arch, and give illustrative sketch of same. 87. Give a description of what are termed gauged straight arches," and an illustrative sketch of same. 88. Give a description of what is termed a ARCHITECTURAL, DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 271 "French" or "Dutch" arch, and give an illustrative sketch of same. 89. Give a description and illustrative drawing- showing style of opening where the head of window or door is flat, and having a rubble relieving arch, a stone window head with chamfers, the face of the window all of dressed stone, while the walls are formed of irregular stone. 90. Give illustrative drawings of the following forms of arches, namely, "a semi circular arch," an "elliptical arch," an "equilateral arch," the "lancet arch," the "drop arch," the "segmental Gothic arch," the "ogee arch," the "Tudor arch ;" also three forms of the "trefoil" or three-lobed arch, one of the cinquefoil or five-lobed arch, and one of the "polyfoil" or many-lobed arch. 91. Give a description and illustrative sketches necessary to show a door and casings in a brick wall with jambs, linings, grounds, and other finishings. 92. Give a description and illustrative sketch showing the vertical section of a window and frame for a brick house, also the internal elevation, and plan showing the shutters, box splayed from the wall. 93. Give a drawing showing an inside door and casing. 94. Give a drawing showing a "sliding door" with finishings. 95. Give a drawing showing a section and ele- vation of trim for a door, with style of finish called "block finish." 272 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 96. Give a drawing which exhibits a corner of a balloon frame, showing- the manner of jilacing the studs, corner boards and other finish. 97. Give a few illustrative examples of how to draw internal squares, "lozenge" or "diamond shaped figures," also a diagonally set square for Gothic balustrade. 98. Give illustrative sketches showing a design having six sides which is often employed in decora- tion and in Gothic architecture. 99. Give a drawing which represents a per- forated balustrade or parapet of Gothic architec- ture. 100. Give a more complicated figure in which the octagon forms the basis of the combination, and describe how it is drawn. 101. Give an illustrative example formed of squares and half squares, and show how "squares" may be placed so as to exhibit stars or other pointed ornaments. 102. Give an illustrative example of what may be termed a basket pattern formed of interlacing straps. 103. Give an illustrative example of how to draw an ornamented design of strapwork feet. 104. Give an illustrative example of a design having a combination of curves and straight lines. 105. Give an illustrative example of a design ' having the simplest forms of running Greek fret. 106. Give an illustrative example of another style of fret, partaking somewhat of the arabesque. AECHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 273 107. Give an illustrative example of a design in which combination of circles may be used for orna- mental purposes. 108. Give a description and illustrative example of a design where parts of circles and straight lines are used in order to form the ornament. 109. Give a description and illustrative example of a design for a baluster. 110. Give a description and illustrative example of an urn-shaped ornament. 111. Give a description and illustrative example of how to draw a "Guilloche" or chain ornament. 112. Give a description and three illustrative examples of "running scrolls." 113. Give an illustrative example of how to draw an ornamental moulding adapted for w^ood carving, and which gives the pattern and half the repeat. 114. Give a drawing of what is termed the "Echinus," the egg and tongue, or Qgg and dart moulding. 115. Give a drawing of the Greek astragal, chaplet, or knuckle-bone ornament. 116. Give a drawing showing the Greek con- vential lily form as its characteristic. 117. Give a drawing showing what is termed the Greek "Anthemion" ornament, 118. Give a drawing showing a purely Egyp- tian ornament composed of the open lotus flower and the bud. 119. Give a drawing: of a circular or rosette 274 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT ornament, which is formed of a circle and four lotus flowers. 120. Give a drawing showing a conventional form of the lotus in a more finished and elaborate state. 121. Give a drawing showing a Roman border composed of curved and straight lines. 122. Give a drawing of the scroll border of the Byzantine style of architecture. 123. Give a description of what is meant by the term "Order" in architecture, and the sub- divisions which compose the complete order; also the names given to the different "orders." 124. Give a description and illustrated example of the "Tuscan order" showing the several parts of which it is composed. 125. Give a description and illustrative example of the "Doric order" showing the several parts of which it is composed. 126. Give a description and illustrative example of the "Ionic order," showing the several parts of which it is composed. 127. Give a description and illustrative example of the "Corinthian order," showing the several parts of which it is composed. 128. Give a description of the "Composite or- der" or what is sometimes termed the Roman Corinthian, showing the several parts of which it is composed. 129. Give illustrative examples of seven styles ARCHITECTTJR^y-. DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 2 / O of "letters" used by draftsmen and for which parts of the drawings they should be adopted. 130. Give a description as how to prepare "col- ors," and their adaptation for the several purposes in cgloring drawings, and describe the colors used in designating the following: "Brass Banks" (steep), "Bricks" (blue), "Bricks" (red), "New Brickwork," "Old Brickwork," "Brick or Stone Buildings," "Wood," "Castiron," "Chain-eleva- tion," "Concrete," "Copper," "Earth," "Electric belt-wires," "Fields and vacant lands," "Fir and deal" (rough), "Footpaths" (flagged), "Glass" ''Glass Roofs," "Granite,""Greenheart,""Gun-met- al," "Lead," "Leather," "Mahogany," "Meadows and Cultivated Grass," "Oak," "Pine and Spruce" (wrought), "Cold water pipes," "Hot water pipes," "Rain water pipes," "Soil pipes," "Plaster and ce- ment," "Railways," "Rope," "Rosewood," "Sewers and drains," "Skies" (in perspectives), "Slate eleva- tions and sections," "Steel elevation and section," "Stone," "Stone Dressings," "Streets" (paved), "Timber (existing) elevation and section," "Win- dows, outside elevation and section," "Wrought iron" for elevation and section and rough material, "York and soft stone" for elevation and section, "Zinc" for elevation and section. 13L Give a description of the adaptation of "shading" to the several parts of the drawings, and illustrative examples of same. 132. Give illustrated examples on one sheet, showing four different methods of illustrating 276 .VRCIIITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT room plans, also 2 roof plans, one plan showing porch, 3 plans showing roofs, 2 plans showing stairs, 2 sketches of bathroom, plan showing fire- places; also plan for pantry, sink, etc. 133. Give illustrated plan of a cottage, show- ing foundation, first floor and second floor. 134. Give illustrated plan showing side frame of the small cottage, with all the openings for win- dows, also two sections of the framework, with the heights marked on for the different stories and sizes of timbers. 135. Give illustrated sketch showing the dispo- sition of the joists in first and second stories, also the position of rafters and ridges on the roof, and the trimmers for fireplace and stairs. 136. Give illustrated sketch showing the front and side elevation of the cottage in finished order (in two styles of drawing, one in plain line and the other shaded). 137. Give an illustrated sketch showing some details of the porch, and giving the construction of cornice and other work. 138. Give an illustrated sketch showing a por- tion of cornice and roof of main building, also the construction with roof boards and shingles, and the finished portion of roof and cornice. 139. Give an illustrated sketch showing the outside of a plain window frame, a door frame, corner board, and a sectional elevation of sash and frame. 140. Give an illustrated sketch showing three ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 277 examples of inside finish — a door, a window, and sliding door — opening with trim. 141. Give an illustrated sketch showing portion of elevation and section of trim head, also section of casing, picture frame mould, plinth block, base and floor step. 142. Give an illustrated sketch showing the four styles of doors to be used in the cottage. 143. Give an illustrated sketch showing a por- tion of the stairs, complete and under construction. The newel post and balusters plain and chamfered, and the bottom step rounded off at the newel. 144. Give an illustrated sketch showing a man- tel in elevation and section, also a plan of the shelf with construction lines. 145. Give an illustrated sketch showing an ele- vation for a cheap book-case suited for the cottage under consideration, also the end elevation show- ing the face of drawers laid off, and a drawing for a box stall. 146. /Give an illustrated sketch showing a kitchen and students' desk (for twelve students). 147. Give an illustrated sketch showing sec- tions and plans of windows for wood and for brick buildings, with weights where the mullion is nar- row and will not admit of two weights passing each other, — one section showing the manner of constructing the angle of a bay window where boxes and weights are required. 148. Give an illustrated sketch showing a base- ment window in a stone wall, the elevation show- 278 ARCHITECTURiU. DRAWING SELF TAUGHT ing the outside of the window, and the section ex- hibiting the manner of constructing the frame and placing the sashes. 149. Give an illustrated sketch showing two elevations and sections of windows, one designed for wooden buildings, and the other for brick buildings, also showing, the vertical sections of frames and sashes and the manner of constructing the sills, and segmental head over window. 6^What our Plans Consist ALL OF OUR PLANS are accurately drawn one-quarter inch scale to the foot. We use only the best quality heavy Gallia Blue Print Paper No. loooX, taking every precaution to have all the blue prints of even color and every line and figure perfect and distinct. We furnish for a complete set of plans : FRONT ELEVATION REAR ELEVATION LEFT ELEVATION RIGHT ELEVATION ALL FLOOR PLANS CELLAR AND FOUNDATION PLANS ALL NECESSARY INTERIOR DETAILS Specifications consist of several pages of typewritten matter, giving full instructions for carrying out the work. We guarantee all plans and specifications to be full, complete and accurate in every par- ticular. Every plan being designed and drawn by a licensed architect. Our equipment is so complete that we can mail to you the same day the order is received, a complete set of plans and specifications of any house illustrated herein. Our large sales of these plans demonstrates to us the wisdom of making these very low prices. ADDRESS ALL ORDERS TO FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. Architectural Department CHICAGO. ILL. ;0 (O a 3 o rt 3 -^ CO o i/i u -C -n c 10 ; ; I/) 3 o U- CJ 3 \^^ — —"' 'i < 1) c O o c o h dJ nj ■o 4) c -a 3 o I/) T) T) C c ci CO rt c o o V- c O n) «^ a to. •!:; CO ^ f=-S o . 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