(lihe i. in. Bill ICtbrara 3fartl( ffiarulina Statt MmofrHitg / "t— — ■' ■ ■■ ■ ( '^^ Bu. -U„_ A FAT OX. The Lotidon cutting Names; and Proportioned Prices of the Pieces; according to Mr. Campbell in 17 Annal. No. SUrllng. d. f. m. 1 1. Sirloin, 5i lO-Z 2. Rur,ip, ii lo-a 3. Etch Bone, 4 7-4 4. Buttork, 4i 8-3 4*. Mouft Buttock. 3 5-3 5. Veiny Piece, 4 /•4 6. Thick flank, part grow-' ) ing under the fat of the ■4 7*4 buttock, \ .7. Thin Flank, 4 7-4 8. Leg, l| a-6 9. Pieces in hind quarter, No. Stirling-^ 9. Fore Rib, containing j?*f, 10. Middle Rib, contg. four^ 11. Chuck, containing /irr.r, la. Shoulder, or leg of mut-T ton piece growing on the > chuck &. p:j:t of the briiket j 13. Brifket, 14. Clod, 15. Sticking piece (neck)T part growing under part S- of the clod, J 1 6. Shin, — > 8. Pieces, in fore quarter. f. IK. lo-a 8-3 6-5 7-4 J -3 3-7 2-6 The whole beef cuts into 34 pieces : the head tongue and feet omitted. On application by Mr. Cam^bd to the principal gentlemen of the trade, jn the belt markets of London, he was enabled to fend to Mr. Tcvng, a rough outline fketch of a good ox, with the names and propcnicnste prices of all the pieces. lie could not defcribe the pieces by the lines better than on the drawing, as fonie pieces grow under or partly under other pieces. This is copied from Mr. Campbei's ; tut the oft horn ftands rather too diltant at the root, frcm the ne" hurn— too much behind it ; and the legs are rather too Icnj:. HUSBANDRY AND RURAL AFFAIRS. By J. B. BORDLEY. Still let me Country Culture fcan : My Farm's my Home : " My Brother, Man : " And God is evciy where." The second edition with ADDITIONS. PHILADELPHIA: PRINTED Br BUDD yl X D BARTRA\f, FOR THOMAS DOBSON, AT THE STONE HOUSE, NO- 41, SOUTH SECOND STREET. •^" 180I. \X:opy-Right Secured according to La-j,:^ V -^ PREFACE. X HE writings of the refpedable Mr. TuLL firfl excited the author's atten- tion to agriculture: but, to Mr. Young he is chiefly indebted for his knowledge of its prefent flate and the modes of pradiice in Europe.* It was a happy firft thought which led Mr. Young to make his farm- ing-tours, for colleding faEis of the then exifting flate of hufbandry in England : the reft followed ; and the world has the fruits of his labours, his ingenuity, and his pub- lic fpirit. On 36265 IV PREFACE. On the turn of middle age and whilft gradually quitting public employments, the author fat down on a farm in Maryland, and became enthufiaftically fond of huf- bandry. Farmers in the neighborhood informed him of their modes of prad:ice ; but they taught him nothing of the princi- ples of the art. Whilft they knew how to pradlife in the manner common to the country, he knew neither principles nor practice ; but began however with obferving their practices, which he con- tinued to imitate ; until gaining infornia- tion from a number of inftru(5tive expe- riments, he was encouraged to deviate from fome of them ; and became more and more affured that great improvements might be made by profefTed farmers, in this firft of all employments, if they could be brought to relinquilh the worft of their habits. It was hoped the Society of Agriculture in Philadelphia would have induced farm- ers, in Pennfylvania at leaft, to feek im- provement PREFACE. provement in better pradices. Succ'efs was chiefly looked for from perfons who becoming farmers had been of other pro- felTions (foldiers, failors, &c.) and were never trained to follow mere habits, un- examined ; and moreover whofe fupport fhould not altogether depend on the pro- duce of their farms ; but who with minds unfhackled, would pradife upon well di- gefted and approved principles tefted by experiments. Little effays have been occafionaily writ- ten and difperfed amongfl: his friends ; which, with others hitherto remaining in manufcript pertaining alfo to the concerns of hufbandmen and country affairs, com- pofe the prefent work. If fortunately they Ihall induce improvements and better atten- tions, for afluring competency with do- meftic and focial comforts, his firfl wifh will be accomplilhed. PREFACE PREFACE To the Second Edition. T H E former edition of the EiTays and Notes on Hufbandry and Rural A5airs being difpofed of, and a new edition called for, and the Editor having received from the Author conliderable additions, the contents of many pages, upwards of eighty, which are chiefly dif- perfed in the work as is mofl fuitable to the refpe£l;ive fubjefts, this fecond edition is now offered to the public, embelliihed with two additional copperplates : but, that the price might not be increafed, the work is printed on a fmaller type than the former. The frontispiece to the prefent edition, will be particularly valuable to country families, in the copy of a drawing, given of a fat ox, by the attentive Mr. Campbell, with mai-ks pointing out from the London practice, the method of cutting up a beef to the beft ad- vantage ; alio with the names and proportion- ate prices of the pieces, from the firloin to the hock a portion of information which is greatly delired in the country. See the ij An. CONTENTS. CONTENTS. Page. I. SrSTEMS and Rotations r II. Grdfs-rotations 2 III. Grain-rotations jy IV. Defignfor a Grain Farm 40 V. Grain and Meadow-rotation 56 VI. F arm-Tar d 74 VIL Clover 85 VIII. Wheat on Clover 02 IX. Bea7is go X. Maize and Wheat-culture 100 XI. Hemp 108 XII. Farm-yard Manure 118 XIII. Barns XIV. Cattle Stalls XV. Cattle Pastured and Soiled; Kept and Fattened 141 XVI. Obfervations on Cattle, Sheep, and Hogs i5i XVII. Maize and Potatoes as Fallow- Crops and Fattening Materials 1 89 134 139 Vlll CONTENTS. XYllL Fences 194 XIX. Treading Wheat 202 XX. Method of Registering Experiments 213 XXI. Principles of Vegetation 223 XXII. Neceffaries best Produd; of Land 244 XXIII. Family Salt 259 XXIV. Butter 271 XXV. Rice 275 XXVI. Country Habitations - 279 XXVII. Ice-Houfes 304 XXVIII. Intimations on ne^u Sources of Trade, Is'c. 3^9 XXIX. Potato-Spirit a?id Beer 321 XXX. Diet in Rural Economy 330 XX XL Gypfum Manure 344 XXXIl. State Society of J gri culture 356 XXXIII. Of the Hujbandman*s Choice of . Siibjecls, between Li-ve -Stock and Grain 369 XXXIV. Thoughts en hired Labourers and Servants^ Cottages and Cot to- gers 3^7 XXXV. Pointing Roofs of Houfes 396 XXXVI. Flas 398 XXXVII. Sleds Cabbage Plants 400 XXXVIII. Fat Cattle 401 XXXIX. Notes and Intimatio?is 402 ESSAYS AND NOTES O N HUSBANDRY, &c. " Agriculture is coufeflcdly the moft ufeful of all the Arts. Bodily health " aiid adirity of mind are eminently promoted by the Exertions it re- " quires. It is better calculated than other Occupations, for prcferving " the fimplicity of manners, and purity of morals, which conflitutc the " fureft BaCs of a profpcrous TranquiUity iji States." Amdersok. SYSTEMS AND ROTATIONS IN FARMING BUSINESS. ARMERS bleffed with dlfpofitions to improve on what they know, will acknowledge there are great deficiencies in the modes of common farming, for want efpecially of well digefted fyflematic appli- cations of labour with a proper choice of crops j and that, there are great irregularities and mifappli- cation of labour and attentions in the pra(flices of hufbandmen. A It Library N. C. State Collerre 2 GRASS ROTATIONS It is not long fince wc began to read and talk of rotatic?2s cf crops, without applying any adequate meaning to the expreffion. It feems as if farmers, in common, undcrfland little more by it than the praflices or courfes, irregular and wild as they may be, in common farming. They indeed are not apt to elevate their minds to views of improvement ; but rather fet themfelves againfl it : for, improve- ment implies new labour and attention ; although it may be in heu of and lefs than the ufual courfe of labour; and they cannot give up their eld habits, already and inleniibly acquired, with httle expenfe of thought. A recurring rofaticn cf crops is the completion of as many years crops of the famie kinds, in regular chanees from field to field, as there are fields culti- vated ; and which form a cycle or round of fuch crops as will recur in the fam.e order for ever. But where, for inftance, there are feven fields, if the farmer proceeds £»n the defigned fyftem yet flops fliort of the, feven years, it is not a rstaiicn, but is only a courfe of crops for fo many years as it has been continued ; for there is no cycle or round of crops completed. Experience teaches, and a little refieftion on view- ing defigns of fyllematic recurring rotations of crops and bufinefs aiTures thinking perfons, that well chol'en OF CROPS AND BUSINESS. j^ chofen fyftematic bufinefs muft have important ad- vantages over random pra^ices and courfcs. GRASS ROTATIONS. A valuable friend of the focial virtues, the late Mr. Rigai, a gentleman from Manheim in Germa- ny, afked me how he fliould cultivate a fmall farm near fo confiderable a town as Philadelphia. On v/hich the following was written for him ; and it is here inferted entire, becaufe of the principles and intimations contained in it, which may be ufeful, as well as the fyflem of bufmefs propofed. " Commerce feeds the paffions : ** Agricultars calms tliem." Intending to retire from the buflle of a town life, to a fmall feat, a few miles in the country, confiding of a corifortable houfe, offices, garden, and ^6 acrco of arable land having a clay-loam rather impoveriihed, tut knowing nothing of huf- bandry from experience, and but little in theory, I confult practical farmers j who allure me labour is fcarce, hirelings are with difficulty managed, even by experienced hulbandmen, and that many pecu- liar attentions with much of complicated work are appendant to a grain farm. In fliort, that the mofl: fimple, the m.ofl: plealing, and the mofl ad- vantageous ufe that I can apply my land to, is to keep it in grafs. A 2 It C GRASS ROTATIONS It is alfo faid that feme fuch mode as is offered in the defign below, is bed adapted to my talents and fituation. It is my wilh, however, to have it approved or amended by experienced perfons, or that a better be propofed. DESIGN. No kind of grain is to be cultivated. No horfe, ox, cow or other beafl is to graze on paflure. They are to be kept up the year through. There then will be httle need of divillon fences. Such as are on the place may be removed, and the out fence be made perfeft. The fields will then be under one general incloCng fence ; and exhibit a beautiful unit of grafs, unbroken by fences, but dotted here and there with clumps of trees, and marked off in equal divifions by headlands or turnings, and cultivated as below.* The * The trees may be locuils, fugar-maples, black mulber- ries, black-walnuts, black-gums, dogwoods, faflafraffes : none whereof materially injure grals growing under them. If it Ihould be requifite to guard againll bleak winds, divifions may be formed with hedges, or only trees planted clofe in rows. Other trees may be two or three weeping-willows, for their Cngularity ; the yellow willow for ufe. The fugar- maple is a handfome clean tree, which gives a deep Ihade. A grove of them, two or three acres, would give comfortable fnady walks, and fugar for family ue ; the making whereof would require but a ihort time, and be an entertaining har- veft. The trees 30 feet apart, are above 48 on an acre j OF CROPS AND BUSINESS. 5 The llve-ftock may be two oxen for a plow, har- row, roller, and cart, occafionally ; four oxen in harnefs for a waggon, the journies being {hort ; and two good cows, belides carriage or faddle horfes.* Much which at a low reckoning would yield 200 tb. of fugar an acre. Two acres, yielding 400 lb. would pay an annual rent of 30 or 40 Dollars an acre, deducting only a trifle, not fo much for labour as for a (hort attention in the leifure month of February. From feeds, it may be 20 years before the trees yield fufficiently of fugar : but they foon form a de- lightful fhady grove ; and they grow readily from feeds . In- ftead of 48 trees, there may be 48 clumps of three or more fugar maples in each clump. Sugar maples growing in fields, uncrowded, give 7 lbs of fugar a tree : then clumps of 4 trees may yield 24 Jt)S a clump ; and 48 fuch clumps maybe reckoned to give 1 150 to 1300 lbs from an acre. * Mr. Rigal for whom this was written, lately died in eafy circumftances. Others, lefs able, may conduft the bufinefs of their grafs-farms with fewer cattle, and even without owning any, by occafionally hiring teams, for drawing hay, carrying out manures, plowing. Sec. But, four oxen, a waggon, a plow, a roller and a harrow, would pay well when kept on the farm, always at command. Indeed oxen cannot be deemed coflly, expenfive, and in the end a dead lofs, as horfes are. An ox coils . . . 40 Dollars. 3 years keep, at 24 . 72 1 year ditto, and fatting 40 He gains from 4 years but partial work 1 60 4 years dung (winter and fummer) 40 fold, for . , . 80 IJ2 .. 280 6 CRASS ROTATIONS Much of inconvenience and but little profit would attend the making butter for fale, by any other than a proprietor who is of the clafs of dairy peo- ple. Rather prefer buying butter and grain want- ed. The hay^ a fimple unit of attention and pro- duce, pays for them to the befl advantage : and a complication of attentions is to be avoided. Some ground for potatoes, truck-patch, and ex- periments will be wanted : therefore eight acres are referred ; which are to have no connection with the other fields ; nor are ever to grow any corn or grain, which would require the ihrajher to be intro- duced. Thefe eight acres may contain a garden for the market, or for pleafure, according to the views of the owner. In the firfl year plow up all the arable, deep as the foil will admit of. Then fow buckwheat, and plow in the plants before they produce feeds. Re- peat this, for proteding the fallow from exceflive ex- halation ; and for adding a manure to the foil as often as the buckwheat is plowed in. On the fields A and B, lay a quantity of rich dung : bed done in the fall, on the lafl: turning in of the buckwheat. Sow thefe and the other four fields with rye, for giving hay, AVhen, hereafter, clover and timothy feeds are fown, rye will firfl jhelter thefe graffes in their tender flate, and then be cut and cured into hay. OF CROPS AND BUSINESS. }) bay. In the fecond year, give dung alfo to C and D fields ; and in the third to E and F fields. I have not indeed ever feen rye-hay ; but have heard farm- ers fay, it is good in quality and the crop great. To dung the v^^holc in the firfl year might be be- yond your pouter, or be very inconvenient. There- fore a third part is propofed to be dunged in each of three years : which, however, rather difadvan- tageoufly poftpones, till the feventh year, the com- mencement of the defired courfe, for giving yearly two fields of rye-hay, two of clover, and t%vo of ti- mothy,* For effeding rotations of recurring crops, four articles of produce, if all annual, v/ould require four fields. If of three articles of crop, one is an- nual, as in the fubfequent table, and two are bieniiial^ then fix fields are requifite. With fewer fields the fyftem would be defedlive, and the round of crops could not be continued. For infl:ance : if thefe ar- ticles * If die ground is already in good heart, after plowing in the firft fowing of buckwheat for a manure, in July you may fow buckwheat for a crop, and clover fted immediately on it. Thus in the very firft year, a crop of iuckivheat is gained ; and in the fecond year a crop of clover, from the whole 48 acres. If the ground is fuitable to gypfum, tlien reftorc with gypfum or limeftone duft as far as the dung falls fhort, which will greatly reduce the poftponement of the intended grafs- crops. L GRASS ROTATIONS tides annual and biennial, as above, were cultivat- ed in only three fields, in the feventh and eighth years there would be no clover. If of two articles of crop one is annual and the other triennial^ then four fields are requifite. The firfl fix years of the above defign are rather preparative to the intended round of crops (fee the table). It is the feventh year which enters upon the defigned and proper recurring rotation of crops, manuring^ and imrk. A regular fyflem of recurring crops and bufmefs in hufbandry exifls on the princi- ples of the fpiral line, as well as of the circle. This is illuftrated by reading the plan diagonally, -Vom A field in the feventh year, downward through 1 field 8, C field 9, &c. to F field in the twelfth ear inclufive ; being in all fix fields, and fix years ; all whereof direct to " mow timothy, plow in timo- ■ hy, dung, fow rye.'* The like of the other arti- cles. By wrapping the paper plan or table round a cylinder, the fpiral line of crops is clearly under- ftood. The plan is alfo advantageoufly read direft- ly downward^ taking any one field at a time ; and alfo laterally through all the fields of either year. Though the firfl: fix years, in the fyfl:em exhibit- ed in the table, give crops, except the fixfl: year, yet they are not according to the defigned variety j as they arc moflly in rye-hay, inflead of two fields of OF CROPS AND BUSINESS. 9 of ryf, two of cloicr, and two of timoihy. Bnt the proper courfe being once entered on, the in- tended crops will regularly recur as long as you pleafe to continue it. Manurings alfo recur in rotation and fpiral order ; and being frequent are applied in lefs quantities at a time than would be requiiite afi he ufual lengthy delays in renewing them : and , "apply- ing them frequently in moderate quantities^ -c^ . r'.ch- es nearer to the economy of nature ; whi^ n- ftantly commits to the earth the food of plan:, the means of obtaining that food, in moderate p. tions : not in gluts to furfeit, nor at diftant inter- vals of time which might flarve the plants.* Not only the crops and manurings, but the plow- ings and the work in general, recur orderly and of courfe, without the hazard of a wrong bias or falli- ble reafoning leading you into error, confuficn, or ill judged and irregular practices and courfes. Such are important advantages, which fyflematic hufband- ry has over random or common practices. Your * This mediod of applying manures, gradually, it may be expefted will be effetSual, after being for fometime repeated : but it need not prevent laying on manures in full quantities at once ^Yhere they can be obtained. lO GRASS ROTATIONS Your live jflock will give the dung requifite, after the third year : and beeves bought and foiled on cut green grafs, will add to the dunghil. Rye is fovved in September or October. Clover in Maryland, in March, by flrewing the feeds on the grc'nd which is already fown with fraall" corn ; 'or in ' on buckwheat, without any attempt to cove ^m. The dikted flate of the ground, and xhc Mon given to its particles by the alternate V frods and thaws of March, and winds or s of July, fuffice for the growing of the feeds ; id the fun is too feeble to injure them, fheltered as they are by the buckwheat or other cornplants ; yet in fome cafes it may be well to run a light roller over it. Some farmers in Pennfylvania of late, prefer flrewing clover feed on their wheat fields in April. For the climate of Maryland about the 20th of March feems the bcfl time. Timothy fown in the fpring, would fometimes be injured by drought and heat of the midfuramcr fun, whilfl in its feeble flate on the lofs of its grain- fhelter. On the other hand, though timothy is more perfect from being fown on grain in autumn, yet it fometimes overgrows and injures the crop of winter grain. But when the grain is fown for the purpofe of hny and Jhelter only, the objection is avoided: and autumn is generally the preferable feafoa OF CROPS AND BUSINESS. II fcafon for fowing timothy feed. On rye being, in September, fown and harrowed in, immediately, before the foil can be fettled down by time or rain, flrew the timothy feed over it ; and either roll it in or leave it to the crumbling of the foil in its fet- teling with the aid of wind and rain ; which in ex- perience is found to be generally fufficient. Clover and timothy grow admirably well when ib^vn in "July on Bucku-heat. The feedling plants are thus well fhekered againfh the fcorching fun, and will have a good length of time for growing ftrong for withftanding the winter's frofls. Two years are the moft that clover ought ever to be continued in the ground. Timothy would con- tinue good feveral years longer. But this is of no confideration in a rotation courfe, which does not well admit of any grafs or clover being continued two years on the ground : and it is of great ad- vantage to turn up the ground, Jhift its furface, and bury thefods of grafs. The expenfe of feed for re- newing grafs is thought too much of by farmers. It is a trifle, when oppofed by the advantages gain- ed. The following rotations further illuflrate the aforementioned principles j and fhew other varieties of crops. Clover, 12 GRASS ROTATION S C.'cvtr, with Rye. TVwor^y, with Rye. Chver and Timofiy, without fhelter. ifl rRCC I ft rRTTT I ft rCTCT Round 4CRC Round J TRTT Round J CTCT of tCCR of i TTRT of i TCTC Crops. Crops. (,TTTR Crops. (,TCTC rRCC Zd, -JCRC CCCR rRTTT rCTCT I TRTT 2d. -J TTRT ,' J CTCT 2a. -J TCTC (_TTTR l^TCTC The want of a flieltering crop to the young clover and timothy, in mofl years might prove very ma- teriaJ. In the inflances where tiinothy is propofed, orchard grafs may be fubftituted.* In forae particulars they have a fimilarity of chara£ler : in others they ma- terially differ. Both arc blade or fpire graffes, tufty and fibrous rooted. Their principal difference is in the forw'ardnefs of their fpring growth, the time of their arrival to maturity, and their continuance to- wards winter. Orchard grafs comes early, is ma- tured foon, and continues green late in the feafon ; jufl * It is faid there is a grafs called orchard grafs in Eng- land ; wliich from the defcription given me, is very different from the orchard grafs of America — fo called from its grovv'- ing better under trees than other grafs. :)F CROPS AND BUSINESS, i^ jufl as clover does. Timcthy is late in its coming in the fpring, and late in ripening. It is not uncommon in the ordinary hufbandry, to fow lots of ground with clover and timothy feeds, mixed. But a better companion for clover is orchard grafs. Yet in a rotation fyftera, clover ought not to admit any kind of grafs feeds to be mixed with it. When clover is grown, it muil be cut : it ought to be fooner than is ufual. Timothy growing with clover, is cut with it, in a young and very imper- feft flate. In this cafe the clover gives matured hay : the timothy a crude food containing little of nourifhment. Horfes prefer ripe, full-grown timo- thy in hay. Mr. Gettings, of Gunpowder Foreft, Maryland, preiTcd with work, could mow but a part of his timothy before harveft. He ordered the pretty green hay from this mowing fhould be referved for his favourite horfes. His hoftler in- formed him, they preferred the brown hay cut after harveft j and he faw and was fatisficd of the hd:. Afterwards, Col. Lloyd, of Kent, cut a part of his timothy before harveft, and the reft in July after harveft. He attended to the feeding his horfes with thefe, in confcquence of what he had heard of Mr. Gettings* experiment, and afiured me his horfes 14 GRASS ROTATIONS horfes preferred the brownifli matured hay to what was cut before harveft.* * " In fome meadows I faw timothy grafs ftanding very thick and high ; and clofe to it, it was much thinner. On inquiry, I found the part where it was thin had been mowed twice; and what flood thick had been mowed once only, and thai after wheat harvefi. Mowing timotliy only once in a fea- fon, and that after harvefi^ gains almoft as much as if twice mowed (once before han'efl: and once again in autumn) : be- fides, horfes and cattle will eat ripe timothy when tliey will not look at the other." Journ. from Hope, in New-Jerfey : Co- lumb. Mag. Sept. 1788, p. 502. It is a prevailing opinion, that it is the moft beneficial to mow timothy but once in a feafon. The hay of the fecond cutting is not confiderable ; and it is faid, cfpecially in the German diftrifts, that a fe- cond mowing injures the foil greatly. They think that die fine aftermath is fuperior in value to tlie hay of a fecond cut- ting : moreover a due ripenefs of the timothy is more certain- ly obtained when only once mowing is pradlifed ; and the aftermath of a fecond growth, when eaten down, leaves the meadow naked and unfheltered late in the feafon, to damage from frofts and cutting winds of the winter. I have wifhed to be well experienced in ryc-grafs ; as it has a pretty blade, is hardy, coming early in the fpring and ftanding late in the autumn. European farmers are fond of it ; and we ought to give it a fair trial. Tab L E Of CROPS ANB BUSINESS. >s S <3 pH w u pq a ti OS Pi Di (={ pi e5 12; Pi Pi ei Pi (< t^ a pq ii Si ^ >^ 4-1 Pi > o. u c o -Op, i ^ 00 — : i > S > PQ •o "^ r: "" J. U4 Oi c ?, >- ^p5 ^ c ^ ^^ 2 ^ S fe (it Ch ii V3 pi.B ^ai S ^ = S § PL, Q C« ° o -2 3 5 a 2 Q-i CO PQ • rC^ 111 <, (x, u> ^ o 3 g to . & p^.S gp^ So - a u, pi. P 'pq 5 > |l2 S fi :8 pS'.S 1 1 ^.^ s 20 ov.f ^ A <-> ci h ^ 3l ^ CO 72 OS t4 p5 OS p5 u t> c4 1^ E- Pi c ^ • ■" pt! pi .2 II §5 SScg o ^ e ? o ^ (/> s o CJ o 5 ^ ^ < PL, H^ O!; vj 0.2 c _ . Oi -r L> ^ ^ S -00 ' CO c« * Buckwheat. t Not Ray or Rye Gn^/x ; but Rye Corn ; to be cut snd cured into /:ay, when the heads are fliooting out of die ilieath. i6 (SRASS ROTATIONS, &C. o; O U oJ Eh !-• ^ o o cJ H H S 1- ii p^ H H 5 o oJ H 1 >4 h u . w o |S,. > O 1 O 1 ! 1 1 s ^ ^ 1 6 C3 1 § § ^ ^So s S S '►S w w § S ^SCc^ S o , ^ u > *« . > o s s ? ^ s .i ^ C5 tj 1 o (2i o c S § ^ -2 bJ E ^ 1 g: i S ,< Pl, »J JJ 03 s S ^EQcg cSIS^, o <^ u > a fe ^ a; o iiri 11 = > 1 ••\ S S M W '^ s ISS 2 a, S CO =g2o S Q i5 c c Z:^ t^ , o u 1" Pi s h o II n > o O 1 o g S ^ ^ o S s -*; Ph Q M oo S O kr-I «3 TT •" o o ,4 m ►^ CO -JD bi KJ v^ ;h isN pq o u •J o iir^ III II s ^sc-i ^.2 'J s 2 pH i-3 -^ CO s c . 1 o 'J < »^ (i, fi 'O ftl >• o 1 ^ OS p^ ^ i-( y3 CO o >> p! H o 1 1 J; t- GRAIN GRAIN ROTATIONS.- tf OR J IN ROTATIONS. If reducing the cultivation of grafs to regular fyflematic rotations be advantageous, bow much more fo muft it be to apply fuch rotations to the more complicated and various bullnefs of grain farms ! Of the Englifli Old Courfes of Cropsi^ Unril about the middle of the i Sdi century, one of the befl: common courfes of farming, in England, confilled of a fallow^ which broke up and cleaned the ground, by feveral plowings, but left the foil cxpofed to the fcorching fun, during the hotteft iea- fon, without any iliading crop, and on this wheat "Was fown j peas or beans following the wheat : then barley (or oats or both) in fuccefTion, on one moie- ty of the farm, during ten to twenty or more years: the other moiety during that time being in common pallure graffcs.* When a change was to be made, the moiety in grafs was plowed and prepared ; and then thrown into the courfe of crops as above ; and that which had been in crops, was fown Vvith mixed B grafs * " In good land tlie worfe rotation o^ fallow — 'u)heat — le.7Hi (or peas cr barley) more ufually prevailed." This and th« following notes diftinguillic-d by an S. were writcen with a pencil, in tlie margin of or.e of my elTays, by an Englilh fisuntry.gentkmnn. 18 GRAIN ROTATIONS. grafs feeds (not clover) to lay as before ten or twen- ty years. The whole arable or plowable part of the farm thus divided into moieties, or nearly (o, was excluiive of the homeflead and flanding mea- dow. So that a farm of 300 acres, admitted of 150 acres in grafs, lay, or old field, and 150 in crops. Their fields bearing crops were feldom equal in quantity : but in the following deCgn they are fo confidered. No. I. Acres. 37 fallow, naic'd, yields nothing — exhausting* 37 wheat, bufhels ^^^ — exhausting 37 peas or beans 555 — ameliorating J 7 barley 740 — exhausting 150 in crops, 4 fields 1850 bufhels.f 150 in grafs or lay. 300 acres. The • The richnefs of a clean foil is in a ftate of wade, vihen expofed to the exhaling hot fun. But the Englifh fallows arc manured. The plowings open and clean the foil for receiving feed and producing the crop defired ; though in left perfec- tion than vihen the fallow is protected by fhade during its being plowed or horfehoed. Exhaujiing here means no more than tliat the fallow, when expofed naked to tlie fun, is rob- bed by exhalation of a part of the nutrition of plants depoCt- f S:i its next page for tbi quarJitiet of the crop. GRAIN- ROTATIONS. 1^ The manure added, ameliorates : yet the fun iSiining on the naked foil, in the hot feafon, is thought to exhale much of the valuable contents of the manure, and of the ground. B 1 The ed In the foil, more than if it were {Keltered by plants groTA'- ing in rows on tie fallow : yet naked fallow is fo fur advan- tageous Uiat it breaks and cleans the foil, without \vhich feed ftrewedon the ground wot" Id yield no crop. But the ground broken and cleaned whilft under (hade, is ccnfiderably de- fended from the exlialing fun and wind ; and is alfo meliorat- ed hj perfpiration, from juicy plants growing in the rows. If what voyagers fay be true, that fome dews, particularly in die Perfian Gulf, are fait, the fa:mer may readily apprehend that a part of the riches of Lis foil may ?Mo be exhaled bv the fun ; and he will refort to fisjhig crops on his fallow, for defending it againft wafte. He knows the value of mere mcljiure, and how foon it evaporates v^'hen the earth is expofed to the fun and wind without {heltcr. Befides what I have read of this in Harris's CoUedicn of Voyages, a celebrated late traveller into Egypt and Syria, aifures me it is true ; and that he has tafted the fait from dew on his lips, in thofe countries. Th.o\x^afou:ksrn countries are the be:ter for ihading fallow crops, yet northern countries m.ay be better without the fliade. In the high latitudes of England, fhaded lallows are contended for : how is it in Scotland or in Szvedcn ? t The quantities given, of the crops, are not meant as real or even as eftimatcd quantities ; but are noted at random, and continued at the fame rates in fubfequent courfes, for comparing the grain products of entire farms, as they are differently divided. All contain 300 acres. — The Maryland and Pennfylvania bulhel, like the London mcafure tn ufe , \s fomewhat larger than the EnghOi Rututs bufwel— about ^V"- ao GRAIN ROTATIONS. The above is of the crops of one field during four years ; or of the four fields in one year. The following is a plan of the whole farm (homeftead, meadow, and lay excepted) with the courfcs of the crops in thofe four fields during four years * Years. A B C Ti ^j^j^^^ 1791 1792 1793 1794 The medium produce of thefc fields, in England, is more than is above ftated. But it is well to fuppofe the quantity they produce per acre is as in this and the following flatements : nor is it material what the quantity is, when how much the Englifli foil or how much the American gives, is not under confider- ation. Englifli * Four years crrps, of four feveral articles, interchanged on four fclds, complete a rotation of four years ; -which if properly defigned, will recur as often as you pleafe ; and on die plan will read, diagonally, the fame through every Ro- tation. A B c D Fal. Wh. Pc. Ba. .* W \ P B \ F ; p B F w ; • • * ; F • • • • • • ; p ; 1 • • • GRAIN ROTATIONS. 21 Englijh New Courfes or Rotations of Crops. The better courfes of crops arc founded on thefe principles : To fallow^* and to have growing on the fallow, whilfl it is yet under the plow or hoc, a Jhading and ameliorating or mild crop : never to fow any fort of corn immediately after corn of any kind : to fow clover or an equivalent on every field of fmall grain : and with a courfe of well chofen crops and the Jhaded fallows, prevent the foil from rest- ing^ hardening and running into weeds. Thus entire farms are continued in a conflant ro- tation under 4 to 6 or 8 divifions or fields ; fo as with the clean, mellow flate of the whole arable, to give a pleafing fyftem of bulinefs, improve the foil and procure a confiderably larger income. Plowing the fields every year, bids fair to annihi- late even Joh?i^s-wort and garlick — indeed every growth but of the crops defigned. The rotation fyftem warring againfl: weeds and all coalefcence or fettling * The intention in fallowing is to plow up and pulveri:e the ground ; fhift its furfaces ; deftroy weeds and bring up or cover feeds to be fprouted and deftroyed. " ffi/li Ihould be plowed ohliqufly to the right hand, frcm the top, down ; by v/hich the furrow turns readily : as it aUb does when the plow- returns obliquely up hill, pcirallel to the former furrow made in going do^v^ hill." 52 GRAIN ROTATIONS. fettling and binding of the ground, vzill not allow the land to rest. It urges you on to perpetual culture: but rest, being a friend to iveeds and a hardnefs of the ground, cannot belong to culture. There is a flron^ exprelHon among hufbandracn, of " land untiuiny itfelf." They apply it to ground which has been cultivated, and afterwards neglected ; fo that it rests, fettles, and returns to its wonted hardnefs. No. II. 60 acres barley bufhels 1200 — exhaufling 60 clover . . — ameliorating 60 wheat . 900 — exhaufling 60 clover* . . — ameliorating 6c peas or beans 900 — atnelioraling ;oo acres in 5 fields. 3000 bufhels. In * " I believe it is never practifed to fow clover twice iwjive ^^ years. The ground would foon be exhaulied of die pabu- " lum of clover, and the feed would not vegetate. The rota- *' tion of clover, fown cnce 'n\ four years, cannot be long con- *' tinned without occafionally changing the clover for feme ** other grafs, ufually hop-clover or trefoil irJxed w!.;h rye- ** grafs. Without fuch change the ground becomes fick of ** clover, and the clover will no longer thrive. — The beil ro- *' taiion on jtrong \.\vA that will not bear treading with fheep, " is barl^ — clover — zuheat — Itaus : or barley, beans, wheat, *' clover two years. In light land, d;e beft and almoU univer- " iA rotation is karlcy — clover — nukeat — iurr.ips." S. The Hhove is faid of clover in England. And it alfo is there GRAIN ROTATIONS* 23 In their fandy light lands, turnips in a well pre- pared foil are a common fallow crop, inllead of peas or faid of their clover, that It fails much more than formerly ; for that it comes up very thick and fine, but " dies aivay In " winter." 2 E. Tour 128. And again, the fame book, p. 165. — " Land Is tired of clover. It comes up thick and fine, " but is all eaten off in February, by a red worm ; which did " not ufe to happen.'* Home's Pr. Agr. 161, fpeaking of change of f pedes •, fays, — ^ fome plants are defigned to^x the " foil ; others, to open it ; xSx^ fihrotis rooted and the tap rcot- ** ed." So far at leaft change of /pecks is advifable, andfowing cornsy which have fibrous roots, and hgumies 01 clover, which have tap-roots, alternately, tend to efFeft this ameliorating purpofe, and preferve a due medium between too clofe and too open a foil. Though change of fpecies may be nccefiary, T do not believe that change oifeed of the fame kind, at leaft of wheat or other common corns is. I never could perceive any difference. Many Ideal old fayings pafs current without examination. What more current than that acid of vitriol is a pollbn to foil, or to vegetation ? yet Doflor Home proved it to be a powerful manure ; and plafterof Paris is but a caicari- ous earth faturated with acid of vitriol. So it is faid of ani- mals, that it Is neceflliry to crof the firahu To be furc a horfe of fuperior breed, may be expected to give a better colt than your prefent inferior breed. Mr. Bahzvell fays, propao-ate from your own horfes till you meet with better. Certain feeds of exotic -plants, may be changed to advantage, yet the corns, common to all the world, it fcems, require not a change of feed. It is faid that, " In Egypt, the French are obliged to *♦ import, annually, the feeds of caulifiowers, beets, caiTots, ** and falfify ; and apricots, pears, and peaches, tranfported " to Rtjelta, degenerate." Vol. Syv. And fo itib in Kmt- '*4 GRAIN ROTATIONS. or beans ; the turnips being thinned greatly, and frequently hand-hoed, or if in rows, horfehoed, fo as to keep the ground clean and well flirred ; and they are always on manured ground.* A rica, refpecling raulif.o'X'er feeds. Yet Kliyogg, the noted Bwiis Farmer, is warm lor changing his feed-corn frequently. * Oar American farms arc lo to 15 degrees fcudi cf the farms in England ; yet fo keen are our frofts and fo fudden and frequent the changes from thaw to froft, that commoa turnips do not ftand the winter through in our fields. The Swediih plant, called ruta-Liga^ or r:ia'baga., is likely to ftand our winters ; for fupplying cattle and fhcep with a juicy food in winter and fpring, — a fauce to their dry food, for keeping them open ag?,inft the coftive effects of ftraw. Doc- tor Collin, Swedifh Millioner in Philadelphia, fays it is con- fidered in S-x^den as a fpecies of ikole or Colwort, and is call- ed Rot-kol, having fmooth leaves. I have but once had an opportunity of fovving its feeds : the roots irom which flood through the winter peiiecHy found, in the ground. But it was the mild winter 1795-6. The common courfe of crops in England, of turnips ^ barley^ clover, ivheat, a change on (y^- \j four fe'ds, cf their light lands, after t-juenty years tT^tr'icncCt is thought by fome farmers to furteit the ground, by the fre- quency of the repetition or recurrence of the fame crops, Cj" zuhsn they are nuiihcut mnnurings : the fame crops returning in the ftiort fpace of e\crj four years. Here inftead of allow- ing the foil to be impoverifhed in confequence of its being 20 years under crcps ^ju'ithout b/itigdunjtd, the mind flies to fancied furfelts of the ground. Call it what you will, in half twenty years mofl foil will fhew fome degree cf impoverifhment, from the crops taken cf luithout manure given to the foil. Mr. Library N. C. State College GRAIN ROTATIONS. 25 Years. 179: ^7^:, 794 ^795 B D E Yiddi, Ba CI \Vh CI Pe . C . w C * p B ' • W • c : p ' B G • ; c p B C \ ^^ • p • • • « B - • • • C w c . I79I PUtf an excellent farmer in England, who mentions this to Mr. Young, thinks it is very bad tillage, elpecially on iveak foils., unkfs the land is marled or twice cj" manured in the ro- tation. He adds, that on breaking up the turf, fome have with fuccefs, taken Jpring corn, followed immediately, after working the land well, in "jjhejt, turnips, larky with grafs feeds, and manuring upon th: feeds and for the turnips; which courfe, he adds, proves good, and the crops heavy. The fuperiority of crops in this courfe, he thinks, is caufed by manuring on the feeds, and by a fifth of the land laying fivt years in grafs. 4 An. 478. This fuggefts the propriety of hav- ing, in every rotation of crops, one field extraordinary to lay in grafs, not clover, till the courfe ends : that is, whilft the four to five or fix fields are revolving in crrps, one other field is to be laid dov.n and continued in grafs, or rather (landing mea- dow. For inftance : "juhsat^ clo'B.-r, rye, clover., peas or beans or foots, interchange whilfl die grafs-field continues vinb;ok;:n. 26 GRAIN ROTATIONS. I79I 1792 1 793 1794 ^19S Ba Here the crops are the fame as the preceding — but the courfe is differ- ent. In that the clover is annual : in this it continues two years. When clover is continued tvro or more years, it lets in weeds and forae binding of the ground, to a degree that may have occafioned the faying, in England, of the ground becoming, in that country, " clover fick." But 'pearly renewing the clover in a rotation of crops, neither admits of iveeds or a binding of the ground. The clover in this cafe, being fufficiently thick and well fown, ef- feclually (liades and mellows the foil, without having time allowed it or the foil to decline.* CI CI Wh Pe Comparifon during the five years crops of grain and clover. Then this is broke up, and put into a courfe of crops, as the others : and one of the crop-fields is laid down in grafs. Accordingly un- der the article recurring crops, is a defign of rotation crops at- tended vrith a permanent meadozu ; and another defign of a field in meadozv, and another in Hemp, during the time of other crops in rotation. * The climate and the foil of America may be believed to dif- fer greatly from thofe of England, refpefting the growth and perfection of fome particular plants. Wheat fown there 2 to 3 bufhels an acre, yields great crops of com. Two bufhels an acre fown in Maryland or Pennfylvania, would yield ftraw without grain. In Maryland three pecks are commonly fown. I never had better crops than from half a buftiel of feed wheat e aRAIN ROTATIONS. 2/ Comparifon between the EngUfi Old ana New CouT' fes of Craps. Upon comparing the old with the new courfes iri England, it occnrs that the 120 acres in clover, may be confiderably fuperior to the 1 50 acres^of common grafles on the hide-bound foil of the lay or old field ; and that the grain and ftraw is fuperior as 300 to 185. Peas to an acre, in a few inftances. In diefe inftances, the ground was pcrfcftly clean and fine, after many plowings or hovfe- hoings of maize ; on v/liich the wheat was fown in Septem- ber, whilil; the maize v/as ripening. It was a clay-loam, highly pulverifed. But becaufe of the lofs of plants at other times, I preferred to fo">v three pecks an acre. — The attentive Mr. E. an excellent farmer of Pennfylvania, made a farming tour in England ; and obferved that cloA'-er there is inferior to what it is in Pennfylvania, This may be owing, partly, to the climate and foil being Icfs friendly to this plant than in America : and certainly it is againft clover to continue it growing for years, fo that weeds and fibrous rooted gralTes arc let in to rob the clover and bind the foil. It is even an Englilh pradlice to fow rye grafs with clover : and rye grafs is a very fibrous rooted binding plant. The ground bccont- ing " clovcr-fick" is unknown in America, — unlcfs its being- reduced by a long continuance of the clover and introduiUon of v/eeds and graffes, will admit of the exprellion. But clo- ver-fick in the fenfc fpoken of in the note page 22, is unkno\\'n and unfufpected in America. Red clover is only meant. Ground be'mg clovcr-Jick or furfeited with clover, is atlributcJ by a Surrey cultivator to fliallow plowing. His land was firfc .of clover, baring been fown every fourih ye.]- '.-.' ■ -^ ' - SS GRAIN ROTATIONS. Peas and beans are inofFenlive,* as is clover, and even are ameliorating. They all Jhade the ground during the hotted time of the year. All corns im- poverifli ; and withal, the f?nall kinds let in weeds ; which with rest, bind and foul the foil. But they check the wafliing away of foil ; which maize culture greatly promotes, by repeated plowings or fcratch- ings given Vv^hilft the maize is growing. No. I. has two fields flirred and cleaned : the fal- low, a naked one, and the pea or bean field when in rows. The growing crop of the laft flickers the foil from extreme exhalation j and is the only ame- liorating crop againft the two exhaufting crops, wheat and barley. No. II. has one horfehoed or plowed field, in a fallow crop of peas or beans ; and three fields of ameliorating productions, which are peas, clover, clover (that is continued two years) •againfl the two exhaufl:ers, wheat and barley. The field-bean in England, though fmall, is of the na- ture of the garden or Windfor-bean. It grows up- right, and giving but a partial fhade, is not fully an plowing 12 inches ^eepy manuring greatly, and then fowing clover every third year, Mr. Young marked the refult for 9 years, and never faw finer crops, — 2 An 366. * " Not unlcfs they are kept clean from weeds by hoing, ** which cannot be performed, unlefs tliey arc fown in « drills." S. GRAIN ROTATIONS. 2^ an ameliorating crop, unlefs well horfehoed in the intervals, between the rows.* Neither are turnips or potatoes good fallow crops unlefs they are manur- ed and cultivated in the like manner. They there are always on manured ground. Englilli peas fooa covering the ground, even when fowed broad-caft, are good fallow crops, although not horfehoed. Having but little root, moft of their nourifliment, it feems, is derived from the atmofphere. The plants are juicy and emit much perfpiration on the ground. American Old Courfes of Crops. When in Maryland a farm is divided into three fields, the common courfe is maize, wheat or rye, and fpontaneous rubbifh paflure. When in four fields, it is maize, naked fallow, wheat, and the like mean pafture : or maize, wheat, lay or poor paflure during two years. And whiJft in feme parts of A- merica, the fields are four or five, in other parts the divifions * " Beans are ufually drilled In rows 1 8 or 20 Inches afun- •• der, in England, and kept clean by haiidhoing, m York- " fliire, the diftance not admitting of a horfehoe ; nor did I *' ever hear of one being ufed, except perhaps In fome part «* of Kent, where beans grow with an unufual luxuriance, " and are confequently fown at an unurual diftance." S. — In Maryland I ihimmed (a kind of horfehoing) peas, beans and potatoes, growing In rows iS or 20 Inrhcs apart, equal to two of my plow furrow 5. 30 GRAIN ROTATIONS. dlvifions are as low as two. Two exhaufting corn crops repeatedly taken from three or four fields, af- ter fome years of fuch crops, would fcarcely admit of eight bufliels of wheat an acre being produced on common land, one year with another :* but fuppofc No. III. ICO acr. maize, at 12 buihels 1200 100 wlieat, 8 800 100 lay, or mean paflure 300 acres in 3 fields 2000 bufliels. No. IV. ']c^ acr. maize 75 wheat IS i^y IS i^y 300 acres, in 4 fields. No. * A few years fince, It was a general belief that fix bufliels of wheat an acre, was the medium produce of a large extent of country within the peninfula of Chefapeak : but fmce then, till the Heflian fly took poirefTzcn of the wheat growing there, the wheat ciilture was improved fo as to gain a larger pro- duce, in that difl:ri(ft. I Ciinnot fo well judge of the crops in Pennfylvania ; but believe they exceed tv/elve buihels of wheat on an acre, when clear of injury from the Heffian fly j and that they are progrefling with the Increaflng ftate of clover and manurings with dung, gypfum and lime. Here the corn-ground is manured^ for raaize, Vv'heat or barley. In GRAIN ROTATIONS. 3I No. III. and IV. give light crops, moftly of a cheap corn, very poor pafture, and but little hay (if any) for keeping a flock of hide-bound beafts and prefcr- vation of a foil which is in an obvious confumption. Under fuch fevere treatment, land is continually lo- ling ftrength ; and it may be, greater productions arc here allowed than the old fettled maize farms yield, and than new ones can long continue to yield, under the old habits of farming, if it may be called farming.* We almofl: univerfally culiivatc one field in maize, whatever may be in the other fields. The maize being frequently plowed or horfehoed,t the ground is Maryland, alas ! the manuring entire /Ms, is fcarcely known in any inftance. * Wliat is above faid, applies to Maryland rather than to farming in Pennfylvania, where watered or irrigated meadows have long been in common ufe : and it is remarkable that the irrigated and bottom meadow lands are now thought lightly of, in comparilbn with die very high eftimation they were in before clover came into field culture. Still irrigated grounds are, as tliey ever will be, very valuable : but fo fure and plen- tiful are clover crops, that the Pennfylvania farmers are lefs fohcitous about meadows. Till lately a firm without irrigat- ed or bottom meadow, was never much valued. Now, pur- chafers are Icfs anxious for thofc articles, as they are fure of abounding in clover and hay from the arable upland. f Horfehoing, is (lining and cleaning from, weeds the in-r terval ground, with a plow or any inftrumsnt which cuts. 3^ GRAIN ROTATIONS. is thereby kept light and clean ; and it gives a fal* low with a crop : but it is an ill chofen crop for a fallow, becdufe of its giving only a trifle oi Jhade to the frefh expofed foil, and becaufe it is corn, to be fucceeded commonly by other corn : and all corns are terrible exhaufters. Some farmers fow wheat on this maize-field, in September before the maize is ripe, on a clean, light foil. Others delay fow- jng it till the enfuing autumn, when the foil be- ing fomewhat fettled and much in ftrong weeds, they plow, harrow, and fow it with wheat. Of the two methods farmers differ in the choice. I have known fome who had practifed in both methods, return to the former ; becaufe the latter was, as they judged, more injurious to the foil than the former method. But it is againft wheat to fow it on hard weeds or flubble, which keep the ground hollow ; and though this may be favourable to rye, it is olher- wife of ivheat, American Fallow-Crops ; and New Rotations, with and without Mdize.i Maize taken into a rotation under the new fyftem, according to the newly adopted principles of huf- bandry, divides and bre-iks it by the prm'er of horfes, at the fame time that a crop is growing in rows bc^ween the parts horfehoed. Whilft cur maize is growing, we repeatedly horfehoe it ; and fe call it, " plowing the corn." f Thefe methods are rather propofed than as yet pradlifed xa America. But, a beginning is made. Mr. M'Donough CRAIN ROTATIONS. -^ bandry, occafions feme difficulty, which feems beft overcome by increafmg the number of fields. Our hufbandmen aj-e fo ufed to maize crops, that fcarce- ly any appear difpofed to give up the culture of this corn, for productions much milder in their effe<5l on land. Nor is it advifable that they fhould relinquifli it, unlefs it may be on thin foil very liable to be waflied away, and the land apt to be broken into gutters. Maize is the beft of all the corns. It is food for moft animals, and its plant yields a great increafe of grain. Seafons or plagues which injure other corns do not alFedl maize: the growing it therefore gives many chances againft want. As a food to man it is remarkably wholefome and nourifli- ing, and admits of the greateft variety in its prepa- rations. In cultivating it the foil is cleaned and lightened, preparative to other crops : though it is inferior to preparations with ameliorating crops giv- ing more lliade, and moifture from perfpiration." C No. of Delaware has praSifed fome kind of rotations on the new principles, with the moft pleafmg fuccefs : and Mr. Pearce, of Maryland, in leafing out his fine eftate in Salfafras Neck, referved 1 20 acres, which he cultivates in fix fields, and gives his neighbours an inviting example of the fupcrlorlty of the new, over the 0I4 modes. 3^ cRAiN rotations; No. V. A MAIZE COURSE. 50 acr. maize 750 50 wheat or fpring barley 750 50 clover 50 rye or winter barley 900 50 clover 50 clover, pulfe, or roots 300 acres in 6 fields 2400 bufhels; It is a fault in this fyflem that wheat fucceeds maize, that is corn fucceeds corn. Rye or barley might have been in the place of wheat, but thefe al- fo are corns, which exhaufl: the foil. Clover after maize which has not been manured is not likely to fucceed, efpecially when fown without a Jhcltering crop ; and this flieltering crop being from any grain, would introduce the mifchief incident to corn on corn. But even this faulty fyftem is far preferable to any of our old courfes.* Had there been only five * On tiie above maize courfe No. V. Mr. S. Obfcrves that — " iinlefs there is fomething in the foil and climate of Ame- " lica, far more favourable to clover than in thofe of Eng- *' land, this rotation could not be repeated, for reafons before ** given. It probably is not fufficiently afcertained how fre- ** quently clover can be fcKTi in America." i>. Duch- GRAIN ROTATIONS. .^^ five fields, it would have teen worfe for the foil ; becaufe a courfe of only two fields in ameliorating crops to three in exhaufling corn, mud in time ren- der the ground weak, and comparatively unproduc- tive. Yet corn may follow com, where manure has been duly applied, occafionally but not gene- rally, nor of choice. BETTER MAIZE COURSES. No. VI. 50 acr. maize 750 50 pulfe (or root SCO 50 barley I coo 50 clover 50 wheat 75^ 50 clover 300 acres, in 6 fields 30C0 bufliels C 2 No. VLl. 'wheat is an Gzc&Mcnt Jheltering crop to clover, fo\vn in July, If iTiaize has been manured, a crop of buckwheat, from a fowing in Julr, may be taken off in October, after it has fhelter^d clover fo^^^l alfo in July on tlie buckwheat being fo\v-n. See tiihe note page 7. 50. American beans are meant in Ameri- can crops. i^^ GRAIN ROTATIONS.' No. VII. 43 acr. maize ^45 43 pulfe or roots 430 43 barley 860 43 clover 43 wheat 645 43 clover 43 clover (a fecond year) ;oo acres iu y fields 2580 bufliels. Here the corn crops are interpofed by clover and pulfe : both of them ameliorating to foil ; efpe- cially when the pulfe grows in rov\-s fo near as to JJjadg the well plowed and cleaned intervals ; and thefe crops are of three or four amehoratcrs, to three exhauflers.* BEAN-COURSES. Farmers having wafliy foils, who would exclude maize from their crops, may adopt No. II. in five fields ; or one of the following in 6 or 7 fields ; ob- ferving that the beans mufl be the American forts. No. VIII. * Wheat, barley, rye, maize, oats, and generally all foris ■jf gi-ain of which l/rear! is made, arc ctrnj. «RAIN ROTATIONS, n No. VIII. 50 acr. beans and roots 50 barley ^50 clover 50 wheat 50 clover 50 rye 300 acres, in 6 fields No. IX.* 43 acr. beans and roots 43 barley clover wheat clover 43 43 43 43 ■43 rye clover 300 acres, in 7 fields 500 1000 750 3000 buihels. 430 860 • 645 645 2580 bufliels. Beans or peas, following clover, are drilled on one deep plowing in June. Barley is fown in Sep- tember or October, on otie plowing ; the ground having been left clean and mellow after inning the beans. * " For reafons before given this muft be die word rotation " yet pointed out ; the clover being ro\\-n three times in leven « years." S.— This in England. But, in America, clover is free from the difordejs imputed to it there. jS GRAIN ROTATIONS. beans. Wheat is fown in September on one plow- ing in of the clover. What a faving of work ! — Three crops on only one plowing for each, and per- formed at lelfure ! on ground in the mellowed con- dition. The beans are plowed for in June ; the wheat in September ; the barley in Oclober, or Sep- tember : or on ibme crops in March. One of them, 2. cleaning crop, is horfehoed or fhimmed without any interference with the plowings and other work in fowing the wheat or barley. The clover which is to be plowed in for beans, may be paftured till June, if not mowed for hay : this would be efpe- cially advantageous on farms deficient in meadow ; as there will then be two clover fields for grafs and hay ; and moreover the ground of that mozvri^ will be preferved in a light and mellow flate, for receiv- ing the bean feed on the one plowing. Thefe beans are American. But if inftead of beans, the choice be o^ peas, then I fliculd expeci the Englijhpea would be beft ; and from what Mr Farkinfon fays of peas of the early Charlton garden forts, I would make an experiment of that fort, fowing them early in 'March as they would bear. His propofed prepara^ lien zL-ith turnips and garden Englijh peas, is very promifing. The following are plans of all the fields in No. VI. a maize Jj-stem, and No. VIII. a bean Jystem ; ihewing the whole of their crops during fix years. No. GRAIN ROTATION?. No. VI. 3^ 6 Tears. A B C D E F , ^.,/,,. I79I 1792 1794 ^795 1796 Ma Be Ba CI Wh Cl : Be ' Ba C w : c M ; • Ba c W . c . M • Be ; : c . w : c ; M : Be : Ba ; : w c : M : Be : Ba C ; : c M Be : Ba : c . W ; 6 Tears. 1791 1792 1793 1794 1795 1796 No. VIII. A B C D E Be Ba Cl Wh Cl Rye Be : : Ba ; C w C R : c w C R Be Ba : : w C R . Be : Ba c : : c : R Be . Ba C w : : R • Be Ba C W • c : • • . . 6 Fields, Three 4^ GRAIN ROTATIONS. ITiree valuable crops produced on only one plo^v- ing for each, is very important : and they are on ground in the mellowefl: condition. Other valua- ble crops may be procured from ground not even once plovvcd for them. Every American farmer has his maize field ; "which is or ought to be highly plowed or borfehoed, and if not fown with the ex- hoiistcrs wheat or rye, it is fuffered to run up in ii-eeds : but, Inflead of fowing v.beat or rye on the maize ground, or leaving it naked, why not profit of the maize pk-u'Ings and cultivation, in obtaining milder crops en the fame ground which require no other cultivation than what are neccflarily applied to the maize, unlefs it be to flrew^ manure along the rows of roots, below mentioned ? Wheat and rye are fown in other fields, on clover. If the maize is 4 feet apart in the rows ; and the interval ground between the rows 7 feet, the cluf- ters or hills of maize are 1550, fay 1506 on an acre. Between the cluilers of maize, in the rows, may grow cabbages, or potatoes. One cabbage in that fpace J or two holes cf potatoes, a foDt apar:.* Along * An acre of maize would d:us be accompamed with 15CO cabbages, and 3000 potatoe plants ; both whereot mufl be dunged. Query — of the difference between placing ^t feeds of cabbages where the plants are to Jiand and grovi to maturity^ and iraKj'^.:antlng tbe voung plants as ufual ? GRAIN ROTATIONS. 4I Along the middle of the 'intervals, turnips i o or 12 inches apart : or ruta baga the fame dlftancc, fown in May, in the four foot flep or fpacc, inflead of cabbages. Plows or fliims are to be worked length- ways of the intervals, in a fpace of 34- feet on each fide of the rows of turnips, whilfl the maize and other plants are growing. Near the end of September or firfl: of October, with fliarpened hoes, cut up the maize ftalks clofc to tjie ground-; having firft ftripped the blades and cut off the tops, but always leaving the cars on : and pile the flalks and corn in pyramidal form, ia fmall parcels, on the turnings or head-lands, to cure. What of the potatoes or other roots cannot be fav- ed in cellars and holes, may be covered with earth by plowing. The greatefl quantity of grain produced in a ro- tation is not alone a proof of its being the beft fyf- tem. A large quantity of good meadow would yield much hay. It is a fin againfl good hufbandry to fell off the hay of a farm. Unlcfs it be with great cau- tion, where the farm is near a large town ; from whence or otherwife it is plentifully fupplied with manure. Numbers of cattle well fed and well litter- ed, give the manure, in addition to other manures, requifite for invigorating the foil : but numl.^ers of cattle 42 GRAIN ROTATIONS. cattle cannot be kept in good condition through the year, unlefs clover or grafs as well as hay or draw abound. The fummer food and that of fhe winter are to bear a due proportion to each other : and the fields of grain are not to exceed the fields of amelio- rating crops. Thefe preferve the foil, as well as produce crops : but grain reduces the foil in produc- ing the crops. Aim at income from livestocky which improves, rather than from grain which impoverijhes 3^our land. ' It is reafonable to expert that the better courfes No. VI. VII. VIII. and IX. would yield by the acre, more of every article of produce than the inferior courfe No. V, But they are dated alike. Of the feveral forts of white beans, I have only cultivated the white dwarf or bufh bean, in my fields, which was in rows 1 8 inches apart, and the intervals were flirred and cleaned with a flbim. the blade whereof was a little convex in the line of its front or edge, and 1 2 inches wide. The ground perfeftly clear of ftone and gravel. Thefe beans confiderably fhaded the ground, though not fo fully as was wiflied. It was therefore intended to have tried the fort of white beans which would run and Jhelter the ground more perfectly, after being horfehocd with a fliim* re- peatedly, * Shims are in various forms, acute or obtufe, as the ground is ftony or not. In general, it is a hos drawn by a horfe. GRAIN ROTATIONS, 43 pcatedly, as long as that inftrument could be admit- ted to pafs between the rows to advantage. Re- moving The blade of the one I ufed, was 1 2 inches wide, and was welded to a fmall coulter on each fide of it, ferving alfo as flandards to the blade. Two ftilts are faftened to the coulters with fcrews and nuts, which could be Ihifted to different holes for fetting the fhim to go deeper or ihallower in the ground : but the fhiftinfT tliem was little ufed. The Ihim is not ufed in half plowed ground : but this being previoufly well plowed and harrowed, the fhim runs 3 or 4 inches deep, and crum- bles the earth into fuch minute parts that, as it proceeds, the earth feems to pour over the blade of the fhim like water. A coarfe rake of 4 or 5 teeth, hung to the tail of the fhim, as it worked. The two coulters or fide ll:andards feemed to in- terfere with the growing vines, when they were advanced to a confiderable fize : but there appeared no real damage from it. A fingle flandard of wood or iron would be clear of even full grov/n vines. I did not always hill or ridge up potatocb" and beans, nor even maize. For though maize is the better, yet tlie ground and future crops are the worfe for it. But it is well to edge up fome moderate quantity of earth to plants cultivated in rows with the horfehoe or fhim. The intention whereof is to fmother infant weeds which have jufl broke out clofe to the crop, and beyond the reach of the fhim. Hills and ridges are not otherwife (o advantageous as is commonly thought: and there are advantages in keeping the ground nearly level when under maize. A flip of iron is made to fhift off and on each fide of tlic blade of the fliim, for occa- fionally edging up light ridges of earth. The fhim is an ci'- ccUent .inftrument againfl young weeds ; but is infufficiont where grafs and weeds have obtained flrcngth. When the ground is in good condition, it performs a vafl deal of work, very fatisfadorily. 44 CRAIN ROTATIONS. moving to refide in Philadelphia, prevented the ma- king this experiment. It is faid that white beans arc generally in great demand in Madeira and the fouthern countries of Europe. I have feen letters from Barcelona ilating the price of " white beans" higher there than of wheat. Other forts of Ame- rican beans as well as feveral forts of American peas, I have cultivated ; and the crops of all were rather precarious ; peas generally more fo than beans, ex- cepting the lady pea, which is round and the fize of duck-ihot. Thefe I preferred and chiefly cultivated. They- make excellent foup ; bear well ; and are dwarf or bufh beans. If fown, in Maryland the i oth to the middle of June, they ripen nearly altogether ; otherv/ife not. They were in rows t 8 inches apart, and the cluflcrs lo inches apart in the rows. The in- tervals v.'ere ihimmed two or three times : and the plants handweeded and hoed once in the rows. Un- til fome other plant fliall be introduced which will anfwer better than beans for a fallow crop*, farmers ought to think nothing of giving a dollar a bufliel for them to be applied to produce a Jhading and ameliorating article of fallow, although not a bean ihould be gained from them : preferv'ing the fyftem being fo very important ! It is not uncommon for aftive * Enghjb peas, efpeciaDy the earl^ garden forts, are the plants that aniwer our purpofe ; as Mr. Parkinfon has indu- duced vat to believe. See p. 38. GRAIN ROTATIONS. 45 aftive fpirited farmers in England, to fow feeds of various plants, merely for improving their foil : fucli as vetches, tares, buckwheat.* Thefe whilfl grow- ing, /?^//^r their fallows; and being plowed in green, they ferment and open the foil. Such alfo is the ef- feft from clover ; which having wheat fown on it, up- on one plowing, is followed with extraordinary crops. In Italy farmers diftant from towns want manures. They have no marl ; but they commonly apply lu- pines thus : the plants in green full pod are taken up by the roots laid in the furrows, and then earth is thrown on them ; and it is faid they thus give a ve- ry fat manure. Mr. Toung mentions an excellent courfe of fliade and green drefTmg, preparative to a corn crop ; by which feeds for producing three crops were fown on the fame ground, between autumn and autumn, with only three plowings, thus : win- ter * Vetches and Tares arc d'fFerent names foi the fame pulfe, the varieties are great. Generally, they are divided into win- ter and fummer vetches. Confult Mr. Anderfon's Agricul- ture. He fpeaks of forts Avhlch are perpetual. I would pre- fer a vetch hardy enough to bear out winters ; and that is of quick growth and ripens early, whether it be of the perennirJ kiiTd or not. With fuch a plant might be pra^ftifed Mr. I'oun^'s ** round and complete" mode, prefcntly mentioned in the tcxi One fort of winter vetch, I have tried ; the feed imported from Enaland. The feeds v/ere fown in two fnoccnive au- tumns. The ground being rather of the fort called " water " holding," only about a moiety oi the pl.mts Rood ihrou^U the winters. 46 GRAIN ROTATIONS. ter tares were fown in September with one plowing. The were reaped early next fummer. Then imme- diately buckwheat was fown on one plowing and har- rowing. The buckwheat was plowed in, in Sep- tember J* and wheat was fown on this, on one plowing ; the crop whereof was great. " Thus, *' fays Mr. Young, as the fpring advances, and the *' fun becomes powerful enough to exhale the hu- " midity * Buchiuheat is to be plowed in before it feeds, left a new growth becomes a weed to the crop of corn. The Aqua- maque or Magothy bay-bean, cajfia chamacrijia Lin. has won- ders imputed to it as an ameliorater of the light fandy lands in the peninfula of Virginia. In fize and other particulars, the plant may be confidered as being a Lilliputian locuft tree. For, although it is an annual, yet its ftem is a hard locuft- like wood ; and its leaves, flowers, pods and feeds greatly refemble thofe of that tree. The woody hardnefs of the plant is in appearance againft its being a choice ameliorater, as it is not likely to ferment and as it were melt away in the ground, fo foon as buckwheat and other juicy foft fubftances. No plant, however, can exceed ^^JJoade it gave on a piece of ground in my garden. A Lilliputian might have been there loft in darknefs. This JhaJe and a perfpiration from the plants, during die greateft heat of fummer, togetlier with an extra- ordinary quantity of blqffoms, pods and hazes, which the plants depofit on the ground are probably what give the great ma- nuring and amelioration, which the people of Aquamaque fatisfadtorily experience. But this plant, which is not the Partridge pea, is fo difficult to eradicate, it is faid, that it might become an injurious weed in other foils and courjes of CT/>ps than thofe in Aquamaque. Their courfes being maize, oats and lay, cu a f;indy loofe foil. GRAIN ROTATIONS. 47 *' mldky and with it the nutritious particles of the *' land, the crop (which was from a full fowing) ** advances and fcreens it from the action of his ** beams. Whatever weeds are in the foil vegetate " with the young tares, and are either ftrangled by *' their luxuriance, or cut oiF with them before they *' can feed. This crop is cleared from the land {o *' early that the foil would remain expofed to the fun " through the mod burning part of the fummer for ** three months ; and if fo left expofed, the three *' plowings would do mifchief, except in killing fome *' weeds. To give one plovying immediately and har- *' row in buckwheat, fpares expenfe, and the grow- *' ing herbage (hades the earth when it wants raoft " to be fo protected : withal a dreiling of manure is " gained at no expenfe. It is not in the power of " fcience, of theory or of pra(ftice to introduce a fyf- " tem more round and complete. Many have fown *' tares ; and many have plowed in buckwheat ; and ** mofl have given a year to each ; but it is the cgjii- " bination of the two that forms the merit.'* We may count upon all the arable land of farms yielding a yearly income, ivithottt any pari lying idle in rubbifli old field ; not as what is the cafe at prc- fent, but as believing that perpetual alternate crops from the whole plowable land will infenfibly become very general, as the fpirit for improvement fiiali, though flowly, advance on the grounds of reafon and experiment. 4? GRAIN ROTATIONS. experiment. With thefe may be eflablillied fmnd and familiar fy stems of the heft agricultural employ" ment : in which ameliorating^ or mild crops, will be at leafl as frequent as exhausting crops. Improvements in agriculture will probably be firil introduced amongfl us by foldiers, failors, phyfici- ans, clergymen, or others who become hufbandmcn with minds unfettered by the confined views and ha- bits in which common farmeri are trained according to thofe which had been fixed on and handed down through many generations. Attentive hufbandmen will at firil only look on, afhamed to imitate ; which would imply deficiency in their own practices : yet, after a while, they will cautioufly begin to adopt cer- tain of the approved new praftices. Varying thefe in fome unimportant particulars, they will cherilh them as difcovcries altogether their own. It is a fort of apology they make to themfelves, for their imi- tating improvements pointed out by men they deem ignorant of what themfelves praflife and deem to be farming. A Parti' DESIGN, ^c. 49 A Particular Dejign for a Grain Fann.* timothy grafs, when cut not before milk is in the feeds, makes a brovvnifti and feeraingly harfli hay : but horfes, the bell: of judges, prefer it to early cut green hay. On fome accounts orchard grafs may be preferred for permanent meadows. It comes early in the fpring, lafts till winter, is hardy and gives large crops. The feeds of it fhatter out before the heads are generally changed from the green colour. Watch the moment for faviag feeds of it. Keep 20 acres of permanent meadoiu'm timothy or orchard grafs, for hay. This lad comes early in the fpring, with clover. They may be cue immediately one after the other, or at the fame time ; and the hay flowed away together, layer on layer which may be a means of correcting fome fuppofcd bad quahties in clover : at lead thofe dry hays would abforb any redundant moiilure remaining in the clo- ver hay. Befides you can (lack your clover hay out of doors more fecurely, when you have a good quan- tity of timothy or orchard grafs meadow for furniih- ing the clover flacks with good toopings from its hay ; D if * Written for die late Mr. Riga! ; when he thought of fit- ting down on a grain farm, at a confidcrable diftance irom tow** 53 DESIGN FOR if Tcu are not in the practice of thatching with ftraw. JHomeftead i o acres Meadow 20 (^ Crops 120 150 Acres. Acres. 20 Pulfe and roots, fal- 17 Maize, low crop. 17 Pulfe and roots,* 20 Barley, 1 7 Barley or ry-e. 20 Clover. 17 Clover, f The wheat being I inned, this may be ^ ■TTT'U M. fown in July with 17 Wheat. ^Bw. & Clover, if I the foil 20 Rye 17 Clover. ^°°"«^- 1 7 Roots, or cl. 2 CROPS triTH MEALO^'? iLLVSTRAriDx, cf the ivhole rou?id of Crops during 7 years ; iLiih one Field continually in Meadow^ dur- ing the Time of the Rotation, yYrs. 3 4 5 6 B D G H Tim. Maiz CI. Wh. CI. 1 Rve.! Po. Bw. "Tim. C W c : R : p B M : Tim. w c R p : B ]M c : "Tim. C R P B ; M C : w ; [Tim. R P • B : M : c w : C ; ]Tira. P B : I\I C ; w C R ; '.Tim. B ]M C w : c . R p : 8Fde. The crops of the first year, of this table, are particularly treated of in page ^y -,. where it is feen that the r\-e field contains fome barley ; the potatoe field, fome turnips and beans or peas : the maize field alfo gives buckwheat. The buckwheat field, which is next after the potatoe field, is fown with timothy feed, for giving a new meadow next year, v.hich like the former is to ftand out the renewed rotation of crops. This new meadow will be on field B. The next on field C. and fo on. IN ROTATION. Jt In defignlng a recurring round of crops, their fuc- ceflion is to be tried on a plan or table, drawn for the purpofe, by reading the table, and flightly mark- ing it with a pen diagonally downward, and feeing that they run the fame throughout j and moreover that there are not more nor Icfs in the number of each fort in a year, any where in the table, than are in the firfl year among all the feven fields, or are in B field, during the feven years rotation. The table anfwcring in thefe particulars, warrants a true, orderly courfe of crops and employment, which will recur for ever ; but as the farmer may, in future, choofe to alter it. AJketch of afysiem of crops ; in which one field is 7 years in hemp, and the fame field is followed with timothy meadow another 7 years ; whilst other 7 fields are in annual changes of various crops : fo that of the 9 fields, 1 are in hemp or timothy dur- ing 14 years ; and 7 in various rotation, recurring crops. Every field coming into hemp and timothy in time. 7* Years- A B c D E F G H I I79I He. Tim. Maiz i CI. Wh. CI. Rye. Bk. Po. ■92 94 95 96 97 98- 99; i8co : 2 : 3.' 4! 5- 6 ." 7^ 8 ; 9 1 5810 \ li '. ; He. .'Tim. : c : w : c : R : Bk" p : M : He. .'Tim. w : c : R : Bk ■ P M : c : . He. :Tim. G : R ' Bk : p : M : c : w : He. iTim. R : Bk : p : M : c : w : c : He. ,'Tim. Bk : p ■ M : c w : c : R : He. :Tim. < X Tim.: M p >< — c : M X — > : w C < : C w < — > R c : R : Bk : < X X X Bk : p : He. : Tim.: C w :,c R Bk . p : M : He. : Tim.: w : c : R Bk. p : M : c :He.: Tim.: c : R ' Bk: p : M : c : w : He. : Tim.: R : Bk p : M : c : w : c : He. : Tim.: Bk : p M : c : w : c : R : He. : Tim.: p : : — X > M : He. : M c : c : < X w : w : c : . . . \ c : C X R : vR : Bk: Bk : He. : X — x^ p :Tim.: c : He. : w : c : R : Bk: p : M :Tim.: w :He. : c : R : Bk : p : M : c :Tim.: c :He. : R : Bk: p : M : c : W :Tim.: R :He. : Bk: p : M : c : w : c :Tim.: Bk : He. : p : M •: c : w : c : R :Tim.: p : He.': M : X c : X w : X c : X R : X Bk :Tim.: X X 3 Fieldji ift Ro. 11 The ground, well prepared, is in April fown with hemp^ and for 7 years fucceilively, after being plow- ed and harrowed in the fall and fpring, fometimcs with inanure added, it is repeatedly in hemp. Timothy \t to follow hemp ; fo that in the feventh year, the hemp being inned, and the ground plow- ed and harrowed fine, you fow buckivheat and I'lmo- ihy feeds, after the hemp crop. This is continued 7 years in timoihy, mowed once a year for hay j and now and then receives a top- dreffing of manures,* When the 7th crop is off, plow in the fward neatly, and harrow and roll it in the direction of the furrows. The fward being duly fmothered, heats and rots the better if done be- fore cold weather. It refts thus till April for perfeft- ing the rotting. Then lift, crofs, and plant maize. Potatoes manured and well cultivated, clean and mellow the ground perfcftly. Hemp leaves the ground clean and mellow, there- fore timothy is renewed after hemp. Timothy being fowed when the buckwheat is fown, the plants gain a neceifary ilielter from the buckwheat plants. The maize culture cleans the ground, and pulver- izes it after timothy, for future changes of crops. A * Why not generally give manure to grafs, rather tlian to grain. Grain will receive the benefit to great advantage after grafs. Ground that gives ^oo(/_j/\y^, ^wts good eveiy thing. 74 FARM YARD» A FARM TARD, Adaptlb to ihe Pp^cedjng System. It is a.n efpeclal object in this deCgn that the x^hole yard and its buildings, {hould be in view from the manfion ; and that they be confbnicled at a proper diHance, neither too near nor too far from the manfion. The food {hould be near to the hoof- ed live flock, for readily diftributing it. The yard ought to be compact j and the doors of the build- ings, and the gates of the yard, feen from the manfion.* Plate 1. The homestead includes this yard ; together with its ftackyard, the garden, nurfery, orchard,! and fome *■ It is not to fave ground that compaclnefs is here defired ; but t'h::>r attennoas due to the live ftock may be performed in the readied and beft way. A yard containing cattle always bcrafed, is nerer to be littered with draw, but all litter care- lefsiy dropt on it, is to be raked off, for fecurity againft fire dropt on the way to the boiling houfe ; and the beails are not ioffered to ftroll about wafting dung and urine. When let oat and ■watered, they are to be infhantly returned to their ftaBs, regnlariy in detachments, one fet after another. See pa. . On paper, aa octagon form of a farm yard is pleaA ing to the eye : but the above is preferred. ■fBerr is always certainly attainable on farms ; but cyder is rery precarious : therefore no more orchard need be eflablifh- ed tb^n wo'uld plentifully fupply the farm with fummer and •FARM YARD. 75 fome acres of grafs ; enough for occafionally letting mares, or jQck beads run on, at liberty, Expla?iation of Plate I. 1. Manfion. 2. Kitchen, Oven, and Afli- liole. 3. Poukry-houfc, and yard, 4. Wood-yard. 5. Laboratory (Laborature). 6. Milk-houfe. 7. Ice-houfe. 8. Pigeon-houfe. 9. Cloacas. 10. Family yard. 11. Pump. 12. Watering troughs. 13. Sow and Pig flies. 14. Cow-houfe. 15. Boihng-houfe.* 16. Hogs. 17. Stercories. 18. Barn. 19. Sheep-houfc, and yard. 20. winter fruit, for cookery and to eat. But In great fruit years, cyder may be made for family confumption, without ever laying out for It in quantities ; though it might be better to fell the apples. Beer is the mod wholefome of all made drinks,— the chief in all the countries where robuft health is the moft confpicuous. It proved on my Wye farm, very ex- cellent to harvea men ; who preferred it to rum ; and it kept them In fteady good heart, without any inftance of fuch irre- gularity as rum commonly produces. * The Boihng-houfe here may be too near to combuftlbles, hay and ftraw. Leaving this fpot for Swi/l-cijierns or tubs ; the boiling would be better at 29. Which might, fo near the manfion, alfo contain a brewing and diftilling apparatus. If hemp is in the round of crops, it may be ridcd at 30, and hroke and f'wingkd at a houfe at ^i. •Tb /ARM YARD 20. Chaife-lioufe and flable. 2 1 . Waggon and cart-houfe. 3 2. Implements of hufbandry, houfe. 23. Workfhop. 24. Herdfmen's hovel. 25. Granary. 26. Stable, for farm, 27. Area of bridge and vault. 28. Bees. 29. Boiling-houfc. 30. Hemp in ricks. 31. Hemp here broke and fwlngled. a. Treading-floor. b. Straw ricks. c. Hay ricks. d. Root pits. e. Kitchen garden. f. Nurfery, &c. The Manfion, is airy on every fide. The offices, being on the northeafl and northweft angles^ leave the manfion open to the fouth, the eaft, and the wefl:, in a clean lawn : and from the north rooms there is*a view of the farm yard and its bufinefs. The Kitchen^ has its oven and afhhole : this lall opening ont of doors, for avoiding the difperfion of aflics, in the kitchen, on moving them for ufe. No flairs proceed from the kitchen ; as it would be a paffage to dud and down from the bed-rooms to the kitchen : the ceiling ought alfo to be water-tight. ^Lay an arch of brick over the ailihole and oven, as a barrier againil fire, the flairs may be over the arch, from without. Indeed here might a ivajh- houfe have its roof extended, for covering the ftairs. Inadvertently, the wafli-houfe is omitted in the plan: but the laboratory may be ufed for wafhing and ironing. The OFFICES. n The Poultry-houfe and yard are roomy j and kept fwect by being frequently cleaned out ; and frcfh fand and gravel are ftrewed in the yard. Their food may be (learned potatoes and meal, in wintef ; cut grafs, potatoes and a little meal in fummcr. Poultry ranging at large, feed on grain, feeds, grafs and infc(fis. Gravel is ncceflfary to them. In Lan- guedock, geefe are fattened as follows. After they are in full flefli on green food, the fattening of them is not to be delayed, left the feafon be loft. About the end of December they begin to couple ; after which they cannot be fattened : foon as froft arrives, efpecially about the end of November, they are fhut up, never more than i o or 12 together ; in a dark place, quite free from light, and where they cannot hear other g^dc. Here they remain till quite fat. This moment is to be feized for killing them j other- wife they foon become lean, and at laft die. A trough is filled with rice, to be eaten by them at pleafure. Rice makes them very delicate. Others give them boiled maize in the grain. The coop is kept very clean. In two or three weeks they arc quite fat ; they then arc let out, to go at large in water 24 hours ; without which the flefh has a dif- agreeable flavour. Probably malt, barley or oats, would fucceed well, as their food. By an accident it was found that coal for them to nibble (I undcr- llood it to be charcoal) promoted their fattening greatly at fea. Treat ducks in the fame manner. If 7^ FARM YARD If a chicken is not fat in a week, it is diflempered. Poultry are fattened in coops kept very clean. Give them gravel, but no ivatcr. Their only food is bar- Icy-meal mixed vi'ith water, thin enough to ferve as drink. Their thirft makes them eat more than they would, for the fake of extracting the water from among the food. This is not put in a trough, but on a board ; which is ivajhed clean every time that frefh food is put on it. It is foul and heated water which gives the pip. Salt is faid to be a poifon to fowls : it may be fo, as a cauftic, when they fwal- low grains of it : but how v.-ould it anfwer when dilTolved in water, not flronger of fait than fea-wa- ter, and oflFered them in a veffel feparate from their frelh water ? The Laboratory (Laboraturc), is defigncd from one invented by my valuable friend, the late Mr. Law/on, of Fon thill, which anfwered many pur- pofes in country houfe-wifery. No better name oc- curs for dlflinguifhing it from other houfes on farms. See a feftion of the houfe in Plate II. No. i. and a further account of it, in the explanation of the cuts. The Milk-houfe, may be joined to the Labora- tory, and this be a fcalding houfe to it ; or it may be detached from the Laboratory, and funk two feet under ground. The o5al milk is conveyed to the pigs OFFICES. 79 pigs in wheel-barrows, and might be conveyed through a tube, under ground, to the pig-flie. Ice is at hand for hardening butter as it is taken from the churn and worked on a cold marble table. Wa- ter cold from the pump is ufliered through pipes to an upper fhelf, and paiTmg round the room, falls on the under fhelves and runs off. The Ice-houfe, will be beft detached from the milk- houfe, that it may be clear of all moifture, and receive air on all fides. The ice-houfe at Glofter point, near Philadelphia, flrongly recommends that it be chiefly above ground. Four feet under ground, fix above ground and twelve fquare, would hold 1440 folid feet: which is enough for family and milk-houfc purpofcs, though very freely expended. Pigeon-bou/e, Pigeons feed expenfively, when it is alone on the corns : but they alfo feed on many- wild feeds. They make an agreeable variety on the table ; but ought not to be fuffered to become too numerous ; and therefore their houfe is to be of a moderate fize; build it rather capacious in area, than in height or with many ranges of ncfls. The Fa7nily-yard, is a barrier againfl farm-yard intrufions. It is covered with a clean, clofe fvvard of fpire grafs. Its margin alone may be admitted to grow flowers. It is fenced by a funk fence ; on thq So FARM YARD the top whereof may be, a low, light palifadc; which with the bank may be hid by rofe trees plant- ed in the ditch, which is to flope gently up toivards the manfion. The white rofc bufli or tree is the hardiell:, tailed and handfomed fort ; but the damalk is bed for yielding the fine didilled water. The Fump ferves both family and farm-yard pur- pofes, and is worked by a brake or handle on either fide of the palifade. This large expcnfe of water is advantageous to its quality. The pump nozlc delivers the water 5 or 6 feet above the furface of the ground : and at every time of its being worked, a portion of the water is delivered into a vefiel, from whence proceeds a tube three feet under ground (for avoiding /rw/ and heat) to the kitchen, where fome of it is depofited in a cidern : the red proceeds alfo under ground, to the milk-houfe ; only leaving on the way a fmall part in a receptacle of the man- fion for wafli-bafon ufes. For the boiling-houfe, which takes much water, either the water mud be conveyed through pipes, or in caiks on barrows, or a pump is to be placed near the boiling-houfe. The ivaiering troughs are to have plugs in their bottoms ; that when the cattle have drunk, the re- mainder of the water may be immediately let out. Indead of letting cattle out to water, it may be ad- vantageous to convey water to tuciTT in their dalls through OFFICES. 8l through pipes, at two or three flated time?^in the day f and after allowing them time to drink, let the remainder out of the trough, for avoiding flalenefs or warmth in the fummer and froft in the ivinter, Befides, fuftcr the cattle out to ftrole about the yard and rub themfclves .daily, a few hours j 1 1 or 13, to 3 o*clock. The foxu and pig stiss. The o^al milk may be conveyed to the troughs in the flies, from the milk- houfe, by pipes under ground or orherwife. Sticks in a frame are fo fixed over the troughs, rack like, that the hogs cannot get into the troughs, further than their mouths. The fwine are to be kept clean, and littered in their flieltcrs. Salt water may be off-red them in the pen. The cow-houfe. Hay and ftraw are ricked at the back of it; the houfe is 16 feet wide, including its paflage ; 7 feet pitch for the cattle to fland under ; and above this 7 or 8 feet pitch to the joifls and raf- ters. Into this upper part llraw and hay are pitch- ed up, to be at hand ; and ufcd efpecially in bad weather : from whence it is thrown to the paiTage^ to be given to the cows. Wheel-barrows of drank pafs along the paiTage to the cattle cribs. Thcfe barrcrjjs carrying heavy tubs or barrels of drank, would pafs with more fafety and fleadincfs, with two wU,?eis ; fuch as every farmer can make, inde- F^ pendently §2 FARM YARD pendently of wheelrights, by doubling inch plank. In one corner of each crib is to be at all times a falt- lick in a firm mafs of the purefl: impalpable potter's clay or fuller's earth faturated with fait. The very important article, fait, is fhamefully negle£i:ed, in common. A siercory is in front of the cow-houfe, "within eafy pitch of dung from ihovels. Carts ne- ver need to pafs between the flercory and houfe : fo that the fpace is defigned only for the cattle to pafs along to the doors of their ftalls. llie dung is carted av/ay from the further fide of the flercory. The boilhig-houfe contains alfo the conveniences for steaming. Care is to be taken that fire cannot be blown about, and mix with any flraw neareft to it. For the apparatus for (teaming, fee plate IIJ. fig- 3- The stercories, may be 4 feet under ground, 2 or 3 above ; and walled. Over them may be fupport- ed, by (hort ftandards, a covering of brufli-wood or draw, which will exclude the fun, but let through rain. It would be faving labour, and anfv.er other good purpofes, to cart the dung out of the stercories, to the bead lands of fields meant to be dunged or manured ; there mix with the dufjgy three times its ' quantity of the earib taken from the head land ; and cnce mixing it ziell, day be better thau repeat- iog OFFICES. 8j ing it : as often turning the compofl may weaken it as a manure, and even check its fermenting. The barn, 32 to 36 feet wide, has a pailage its whole length, and flails on each fide of the pailage. Straw is cut in the paiTage, and the cattle are fed from it. At the fouth end of the houfe, a bridge is raifed from the ground up to the fecond floor, about 8 feet from the ground. The bridge is the width of the barn, and has an eafy afcent for load- ed waggons. Under it, next to the houfe, is a vault, for ftoring roots, alfo the width of the barn, by 12 or 15 feet, and 6 or 7 feet deep. At the end of the paflagc a door opens into the vault. The fecond itory is high enough for thrailiing in. The Jljcep-hoiife and yards, are to be roomy and airy in divifions. Back of the houfe is the hay re- quifite for the fhecp, in ricks. Its flercory is at one end. The dung is to be carried to it in large wheel* barrows. The granary had better be longer and narrower chan in the drawing ; with partitions acrofs it, with- out any communication between the rooms ; by which the different corns will be kept from mixing, and a general accefs to the rooms will not happen when only one fort is to be carried in or taken out. A lock is tp be to each of the feveral out doors. F 3 Windows 84 FARM YARD Windovv's facilitate thefts. There needs none to the lower rooms, if an air-hole be between every two joifts, clofe under the fccond floor, the vapour and heat naturally afccnding will pafs off at the air- holes. The pitch of the rooms may be only 6^ feet. Bees. From inftruftions given by an Englifh wri- ter, I tried bees in lateral boxes. On the firfl: ex- periment, in the morning of the firll of November 1787, after a cold night, the bees being all hosfed, a pair of the boxes were leaned on one fide, and fhew- ed the bees were all in one of the boxes : on which the other box was taken away ; and proved to be full of comb and honey, perfectly pure without an utom of any thing foreign. Not a bee was killed or even difturbed. This was on Wye Ifland, where the bees had half a mile to fly over the river before they could reach the main. Many at times muft have pe- ri flied, in rains and fl:orms, whilil they were endea- vouring to crofs the river ; and the diflance in return- ing from the fields exhauiled their ftrength and re- tarded returns of honey, lb as to render their parti- cular fltuation very ruinous to them. In the next fummer, a very wet one, they were reduced ; and it being a bad feafon for honey, they all died in the win- tcr, though no honey was taken from them. The boxes were exaci: cubes of i o inches'^, clear. The- me- tliod is promiimg. iiic OFFICES. 85 The trcading-floor. Though but fix or eight horfcs fliould tread on it, yet it ought not to be of a lels dia- meter than 80 feet ; and the track or bed of wheat is narrowed accordingly. I was long and greatly prejudiced againfl: treading wheat. But experienc- ing the advantages of getting out the crops ys\i\ifpeed^ and very clean when on a permanent well preferveJ floor, with horfes gently trotted in ranks, airy and diftant each rank from the others, the preference in my opinion is in favour of treading, over the moil: ex- pert thralliing with flails. So much fo that, conli- dering the greater opportunities for the thrafliers pil- fering, and the greater length of lime of their trou- blefomenefs whilil thrafliing out the crops, I would prefer treading to having my large crops thraflied for nothing. CLOVER, This IS an important article in the improved fyflfm of crops in rotation : but its feed bearing fome price or cofling/fl;;:^ labour to obtain it, renders it a bug- bear to common hulbandmen, whofe habits have di- verted them from a large ufe of it. It is indeed ab- folutely neceflTary that clover fliould be a common crop in rotation with other articles of crop, in entire fields. It is hoped there are farmers fpirited and determined enough to defeat popular obje(5lions ; and who will confider the coil not chargeable merely to tlic 86 CLOVER. the crop of clover, but to the whole round of crops; the clover being fo effential thereto that without it the foil, the cattle and the corn-crops would greatly fuffer ; and the farmer's income, his reputation, and his independency would be leflcned. If 4lb of clean clover feed, when fown with fuch a box as is defcribed below, clothe the ground as well with plants as lo or i2lb fown in the common broad-caft way and covered, of which 1 have had a little experience, then a bufliel of feed will fov/ 15 acres. The farmer can ameliorate 100 acres with clover more certainly than he can 20 from his fcanty dung-heap. While his clover \% Jljcliering the ground, •pcrffiring its excrementitious efiluvium on it, dropping its putrid leaves, and mellowing the foil with its tap roots, it gives i\i\\ food to the flock of cattle, keeps them, in heart, and increafes the dung-hill. Kor is the amelioration by clover very inferior to that by dung, as this is commonly managed. In fom.e rc- fpecls it is preferable. "With dung innumerable feeds of weeds are carried out and fovrn on the fields: not fo of clover, when the feed has been properly clean- ed. Clover is the beftipreparative for a crop of wheat. Dung inclines wheat to run more into itrav/ than full' grain. Wheat on clover has the beft grain and the fulleft crop. A farming friend of Chefler county, gave me \ plcafing CLOVER. S7 plcafing account of an improved method for gather- ing and cleaning clover-feed. In general the heads of the clover are rippled off, by a firaple machine moved by a horfe, at the rate of 5 acres of them in a day. The heads are carried to an oil mill, having two flones rolled in the manner of a tanner*s bark- ftones which feparates from the haulm, five bufhels a day. Of two fields, 50 acres each, in clover, one is kept up for giving feed in Auguft, iifter cutting the early growth. In 10 days the 50 :icres of feed may be gathered at a fmall expenfe ; and in 10 more, 50 bufhels may be feparated fi-om the haulm, and clean- ed with a fan or with fieves. Whatever may be the medium produce, I count on only one bufliel of feed an acre.* A box * Mr. UHommedieUy of New- York, fays : " T]ic feed ii collefted both from xh&frji crop and from the f^cond: but the largeft quantity is from tlie ^rfi. By fowing three o*- four pounds of clover feed to the acre, on light loamy foils which yield 8 or lo bufhels of wheat or rye to die acre, the clover will not be profitable to mow : but ftanding thin on the ground, the heads will be well filled \\'ith feed. Thefe fields are kept up the next year, till the feed is coUeSed. When above one half of tlie field has changed .its colour by the dry. ing of the clover heads, then begin to colleft tiaem ; which is done by a marhine drawn by a horfe and guided by a man or boy, who will collc'!icat at the fame time plowed m ; of wheat fown on a broad kve/t on round ridges of varioi^ heights, and on flat beds having deep parting furrows, the ridges and bed§ with their water furrows being 7 feet wide, and running fome N. and S. others E. and W. I clearly pre- ferred hds to ridges ; becaufe it is immaterial in what direc- tion they lie, the fun fliining equally on the whole horizontal furface of tJie beds ; becaufe the foil being alike in quality on the whole of the ied^ the wheat grew equally well from edge to edge ; becaufe tlierefore, in reaping, the wheat v as better fttved. there not being fliort wheat as on the edges of ilu^cs j 90 CLOVER. into feven parts, each divifion or receptacle having two holes bored through the bottom, half an inch diameter, and placed diagonally. The holes were finged with a hot iron rod to fmooth them. Square pieces of ftrong writing paper, fany gummed paper) were pailed over the holes, on the infide of the box. A hole was burnt, with coarfe knitting needles, through ■zad becaufe the furrows being opened deep the greateft rains 5)refendj' glided into the furrows and were by tliem conveyed mto the main drains of this flat land, vsithout ever drowning or fcalding the growing wheat, or hardening the ground on the fl.it led:. Upon the ridges E. and W. the wheat on the Borth-iide was inferior to that on the fouth-fide. This of the ridges raifed fomething higher than is common. On the higheft ridges, which were in the extreme for a ftiong con- trail:, the wheat on the north-fide was nearly all dead, in the ^ring. In ridges the beft foil is heaped in the middle ; and the thimier foil at the edges gave fhort ftraw and mean grain, noxh whereof v.'as loft in reaping and gathering. The ridges formed receptacles of rain which were angular at bottom, fo that rain water rofe fuddenly half way up the fides of the ridgey, and eventually hardened the ground on them, as well as drov.ned or fcalded much of the growing wheat. On riJges, clover ii more espofed to frofts, winds, and wafting of the earth away from the plants, than when on flat bed: ; nor is it fo ads'antageouily mowed. My beds were feparated by deep water furrows, fo:-med by a double mould board plow dipt deep by the power of only two horfes, not large, and which had a good faare of the Englifh race blood in them. This mixt breed bear heat well, are brilk, and wil- ^gly exert their powers. Plate III. fig. 8. CLOVER. 91 through each paper; and trials were made with feed gently fliook in the box, over a floor or carpet ; and the holes are enlarged as far as there may be occa- fion for dropping a due quantity of feed. It was ufed for fowing turnip feeds : the old papers being taken off, and new ones pafled on j and then holes burnt fuitable to turnip feeds. At about a third of the diflance from each end of the box were faften- ed flrong leathern flraps ; by which the box was held, and a little agitated in carrying it before the feedfman, in a dire£lion croiTmg the beds, whilfl the feedfraan walked along the beds. Plate III. fig. 5. The only comparative experiment made by me, of clover feed fown with the box above defcribed, againfl: broad cad fowing, was thus : In the moment when a feedfman long ufed to fow clover feed, was fowing feed in the chaff at the rate of isib of clean feed, according to his efumation, clean feed was fowed on feveral lands or ridges of growing wheat, with the box. After fowing about coo yards in length, the feed put into the box did not appear re- duced in quantity, and I feared it \^'as fown too thin. But the growth from the box fowing, proved to be thicker and much more equally diftant than that from the broad caft, and the plants were fufE- ciently clofe. Thefe operations left the feeds on the ground of the field of wheat without any means ufed to cover them. The time of fowing was about th^ middle 9^ WHEAT ON CLOVER. middle of March, whilfl: there were yet light frofts. It was a feafon in which I often had clover feed Town in the chaff, and left if uncovered, without ever experiencing any lofs or difappointment. When clean clover feeds are fown on a clean ground and harrowed in, numbers are fmothered tinder fmall lumps of earth as well as under larger ones : not fo of feed left on the ground uncovered during the frosts^ in March rather than earlier. It therefore feems proper that much more than 41b an acre fhould be fown, when the feeds are to be co~ •uered* Wheat on Clover. The language of Englilh farmers on this head is, that wheat on clover is to be fown on " one earth" — one plowing. To conform to this idea, I con- duced this bufmefs on 15 acres, in this manner : 1 . The clover having been cut once and then paf- tured, though not clofe, was turned in deep and the furrows laid neat and clofe by a plow. 2. The v;heat was fowed, broadcaft. 3. The * Mr. E. is lately returned to America from a fecond vifit to Ejigland, and is confirmed in his former opinion that clo- ver is better in Pennfylvania than in England ; merely, as he thinks, from the foil or the climate of America being mare i'mtaUle to iv See page 27. WHEAT ON CLOVER. p-J 3. The harrow followed twice, in the uime direc- tion in which the clover was plowed in. 4. The fown wheat was then rolled ; though roll- ing did not appear to be neceffary. The crop flood well and yielded fatisfaftorily. It grew near two miles from my other field wheat, on a foil not quite fimilar j fo that a jufl comparifon could not be made between them. The operations immediately followed each other, without any paufe. The plow, the harrow, the feed, &c. were all ready on the fpot, before the plow proceeded.* Mr. * Mr. Macro's experience is againft this tmmediate fowin^ upon plowing in tlie clover ; and his experiments were repeat- ed; mine ^Jingle inftance, which proved highly fatisfadtory, in general^ without any pointed particulars occurring of a much fuperior produce. Mr. Macro gives tlie following encourag- ing detail of his praftice and fuccefs. " From upwards of •* 20 years experience," he fays, " I am of opinion that, tlie •' bed way of fowing clover lands with wheat, is to ploii> the " land 10 or 14 dayr before you fozv it, that the land may have ** fome time to get dry, and after rain enough to make it dre6 ** well, lay on the feed in September, two bufhels an acre^ *' in Odtober, tliree bufhels an acre ; and in November, fouj *• bufliels an acre." Thefe quantities of feed are here merif) tioned from Mr. Macro, for the entertainment of farmers in America ; who may v-.onder that difference of climate or fqil, lliould admit of fuch diflFerence in the qUvintities fown : Ame.- rica, three pecks to a bufliel of feed : — England, two to four bufhels, an acre ! The atmofphere in America Ls dry in com- parifpn to that in England ; the Englllh atmofphere abound-s 94 WHEAT ON CLOVIIR. Mr. Toung was requefted in Ireland, to inflruft the farmers of that country in proper courfes of crops more in humidity than the American ; and affords drink and with it food to more plants than the humidity of the air iiv America can beftow. Jt leems, he plows in tlie clover on a fall of rain, and then vraits for a due flate of the ground. " The furrows, he continues to fay, ought not to be more " than 8 or 9 inches broad : lefs is better if the plow turns " them well ; and the two lad furrows fhould not be lapped *' one on to the other, but plowed fo as to leave a fpace of ** near two inches between them, for forae feed to fall in. I " am at a lofs, he fays, to account for the wheat thriving let- ** ter on lands that have been ploiced fome time, than it does on **'frej}j plowed lands which drefs as well or better : but I have •' often tried both ways on the fame lands, and always found ♦« the former anfwer befl." i An. 109. I conjecture that the clover plants being buried, and the wheat fown at tne fame time, they botli ferment and run into heat in the fam.e mo- ment : the germ then fhoots and the root is extremely deli- cate and tender for fome days ; during which the buned herb- age obtains its highefl degree of heat ; which added to the Internal heat of the germ may, though only {lightly, check and a little injure the delicate fhoot of tlie wheat. In fprout- hjg barley for making malt, a little excefs of heat in the bed, checks, and a little more totally flops the fprouting or growth> qf the roots. Botli modes, give crops fuperior to what are produced from wheat fowed On fallow. Farmers may weU try both methods, for determining which to prefer ; that is, as well in the immediate fowing, on plowing in the clover, aS in the mediod of fowing not till 10 to 14 days after having plowed in the clover : fuppofe an half in each way. Botji Siodes are exgellent, la letting the foil rell 10 to 14 days WHEAT ON CLOVBR. 95 crops. In direfting them how to fow wheat oil clover, he fays j " The clover is to be well plowed in, an opening Is given to heavy rains confelidating and leaving it in an inferior ftate for receiving the wheat feed. If rain falls after burying the clover, and before fowing the wheat, it may fometimes be neceffary to wait for the ground becom- ing only moift, rather than fow when it is wet and heavy. If the farmer plows in the clover when the ground is dry, ht may then choofe to wait for rain before he fows. Though for tliis reafon alone, he need not v/ait. I have found it gene- rally fafe to fow during a drought, when the foil is very dry : but not when a light rain has fallen on tlie very dry ground. In the former cafe the feed is fafe till a rain falls, which is ufually in plenty after a drought : the feed now quickly grow^s up : in the other cafe it is flightly damped, and it fwells ; but the moifture is fo foon and totally evaporated as to leave the feed to dry-rot and perifli. There may hav& been fome peculiarity in Mr. Macro's foil : yet it probably was but a light foil, little liable to be hardened in lo to 14 days ; as on a rain ftrong wheat land would. Farmer Kit- yogg, the Swifs, fays that -zukiai ftoots ftrongeft when there is an interval between the time of plowing and fowing ; but that larky is mofl; vegetative when fown immediately after tlw plow." Of all tlie modes of fowing wheat, I am ftrcmg>- ly perfuaded that in clujiers it gives the beft crops. A num.- ber of experiments made by me are the foundation of this opinion. I'hefe experiments were made at Wye in Maryland. There I invented a fimple flrong machine which dropt 5 or 6 grains of wheat in each clufter on above 8 acres. The cluflers were 7 inches apart in the rows ; and the rows were about gr inches from each other. A horfe on each fide of a bed walked in the water furrow^ and fowed an enure bed in 3 rows a: a 95 . WHEAT ON CLOVER, ill, with an even, regular furrow j and the wheat iown and harrowed well." One time. A light pole extended between the horfes, from th» neck of one to that of the other. Accounts of fome of die experiments were publilhed in the Columbian Magazine : and it appeared from them that as far as y grains in a clufter, (being no further tried by me) and from Mr. Singleton s ex- periments, made at the fame time in Talbot, as far as 15 grains in each duller, tlie produce in wheat was prog^efllvely the better. At that time I had never tried wheat fown on clover plowed in : but the machine was perfecHy adapted to cluucring wheat on ground in that (late. The follov.'ing mode of fowing and cultivating wheat and clover may be introduced. Clover is to be plowed in deep and the furrow neatly turned. On this is dra%vn by a horfe walking in the water furrow on each fide the bed, a machine which fhould open the ground about two inches deep in rows 8 inches apart, and in the rows drop feed wheat in clu Iters, each clufter con- fifting of 8 or 10 grains, at 6 inches apart, equal to about a bulhei to an acre. The whole bed is finiihed in the horfes walking once through the furrows. In November, a Ihim of feveral blades or hoes 6 or 7 inches wide, and fixed in frame ihould cut the ground between the S inch intervals of ground} •which, cutting up the weeds and ftirring the ground, would leave it in good condition till March or early April ; whci> die {him fhould again clean and ftir the ground, and eradi- cate the very injurious Mav-weed and (hepherd's purfe ; and ^t the fame time with the clover feed box and feed on the ^rame of the fhim, by jogging t!ie box the clover feed would be fowed, immediately after the ihim. This alio is perform- ed by the horfes walking in and being confined precifely by the water furrows. A light barrow or rake may be attached WHEAT ON CLOVER. 97 One of my neighbours intending to fow wheat on clover, plowed up the clover a week or two before feeding time ; and then gave it a fecond plowing, acrofs, and fowed wheat on it : whether the wheat was plowed or harrowed in, I know not.* Vail numbers of roots of the clover were turned up, G and to It. In cluftering wheat endeavour to drop the feeds all in a heap, in contadl witli each other if it can be. They thus proved greatly fuperior, dropt in fmall holes made by a dib- ble, to the fame number of grains fpread within circles of three inches, the centres whereof were 7 inches from the cen- tres of other like cluilers ; when the dibbled holes were only 6 inches apart, Befides fowing clover feed in the moment of fliimming, gyjJfum, lime, or lotten dung, may alfo be drfperfed as tlie machine proceeds in fhimming, thus : In 7 fields the rotation confifts of, I Roots, the ground dunged beforehand. I Spring grain ; In fowing it. In the fame Inftant and mo- tion, clover feed is fcattered with It from the box, and drew on each acre, lime 12 bufh. gypfum i bufh. I Clover I Wheat and clover feed, with 12 .... i I Clover I Rye or Barley and clover feed, with 12 . t I Clover or Pulfe 7 Fields • Had not tjiis been plowed a fecond time, it would have been preclfely in Mr. Macro's method : but the fecond plow- ia^ overfet tl.e good work. 9^ WHEAT ON CLOVER. and left (landing erecl above ground, all over the field. Here was unneceflary labour, an ufelefs and even injurious plowing, by which the manure from thofc fubftantial roots and a part of the green her- bage, was lod to the crop of wheat. Another neighbour proceeded thus, in fowing wheat on clover : 1. Plowed in the clover, deep. 2. Harrowed. 3. Rolled. 4. Sowed wheat. 5. Plowed it in, Jhallow. 6. Harrowed it, in the fame dire^ion.* BEANS. * Whllft the former copy of tliis was at prefs, an account of the eiFed of this experiment was expeded from the experi- menter ; but I was obliged to fpeak of it from memory, which proved to be incorred, and that part is now omitted. Mr. Singleton, of Talbot, Avalking in his wheat field, was fur- prifed to find the growing wheat much fuperior on the meaner foil of the field ; it being higher with ftronger ftraw and larger heads. This part of the field had been in clover, which was twice moived, and in Augufl broke up, and fowed with die wheat the tirfl: of September. The other part had the clover p'oived tip in Marchy for tobacco : but tobacco being laid afide, this ground was then repeatedly plaived in the fmntncr as a fallow, and fown alfo the firll of the fame September, with wheat : from which it yielded 14I bufliels an acre ; when th& part twice mown and hut once plowed gave 2\\ bufhels an acre. The difference is great : to which add the yalue of tlie clover BEANS. 99 BEANS. Let not the novelty or labour of fowing beans in field hufbandry be made a difficulty to the applica- tion of them in a rotation of crops. They may be dropt by hand. Bat a fimple and cheap machine may be made for dropping them in clullers, as quick as a horfe drawing it can walk. Two wheels made of inch plank doubled, turn an axis of about 5 inches diameter, having notches on one line round it, from each of which 3 or 4 beans are difcharged at the fame moment into a furrow opened by a plowlhare or wooden coulter, the ground being firft well prepared. A (lave at the tail of the ma- chine may ferve to cover the beans, if occafion : though the gr6und, being mellow, always tumbled in on the beans, with me. If the wheels be two feet diameter, they will have a circumference of 75 inches, which divided by icl- inches, give 7 for the number of notches round the axis, for drop- ping the beans, in cluflers, 10 ^ inches apart in the rows. With fuch an inflrument beans were drilled for me, at Wye.* G 3 Neit crops and the favlng of plowings. They abundantly prove the fuperiorltT of wlieat on one earth. Mr. Singldon is to bs depended on, and keeps a diary cf his farming bulmefs. * Hufbandmen have frequent occafion to difcover the dia- meters oi circHTOforenccs as well as the circumferences of lOO NEW CULTURE OF Nejv Practices in the Culture of Maize and Wheat. The common modes of cultivating the various corns, are every where familiar : but the following practices and obfervations are upon new modes, or particular branches of the bufinefs. In Maryland, mofl: of the wheat fown is amongfl maize, whilfl it is ripening in September. The farmer is urged to fow wheat early, for avoiding damage from rmt, and from storms. A ilorra upon maize having the tops on, would proflrate or en- tangle the tall ftalks, fo as to render plowing in the feed wheat difficult and lefs perfefl ; and the farmer dares not cut off the tops till after the wheat is fown and covered ; becaufe in plowing in the feed, the fwingletrees catching and bending down the ftalks and then fuddenly letting them go with a fpring, throw off the ears of corn with fome force ; which with the tops and taffcls on would be confiderablj refilled. Another mifchief is common, as well from horfehoing diameters. In common, for finding a circumference, the diameter is multiplied by 3 : but it is more exactly afcertain- ed by multiplying with 3. 141 6. The difference on 5 inches diameter is near 4^ths of an inch; it being as 15.7 to i^. The circumference kno'RTi, to find the diamsier, muhiply the circumference by '31831. MAIZE AND WHEAT. lol horfehoing the maize as plowing in the wheat, which is that the roots are torn or cut by the plow- Ihare. For avoiding the above meniioned mischiefs^ and that the feed wheat ihould be covered fokly by plows ; and alfo that the wheat fhould grow on perfectly fiat beds, and the plowfhares work partly above the mat of fibrous roots of the maize, I introduced the following praftices in my maize and wheat cul- ture, which was on very large fields. Obferving much irregularity in the (landing of maize in the rows, which prevented plows from working fufficiently near to the plants for covering the feed wheat, and that much was left for the ex- penfive and often bad work of handhoes to perform, I caufed the maize feed, after lifting and croiling, to be carefully placed clofe to the landfide of the furrows ; not dropt in the carelefs fcattering man- ner ufual. The maize thus grew very ftraight in lines, and admitted the plows to pafs near the plants. Thefe being up and a little grown, the defign was formed of dire-ater, it will be enough in four or five days : if in running water, in three or four days : which ftrongly implies die fuperior diffolving power of live water, and that the operation tStCt^jlh.thy,^ not r*tftnnrft 114 HEMP. Having no raluute of the quantity of feed fawn, I can only recommend what feems beft. But, it greatly depends on the flate of the ground, and the purpofes for which the crop is intended. A httle experience will afcertain the proper quantity. Tv.o bufhels of feed to an acre, I believe are a full portion for rope. That quantity or a little lefs might be about what I fowed.* It is faid in a publication by the Bofton Committee of Agriculture, that in the common method of fowing by broad caft, " not lefs than three bufliels are ufually fowed, and fometimes more, according to the richnefs of the foil." A defign was* formed by way of experiment, but not put in practice, of fowing the hemp feed on flat beds, having paths between them from w'hence the hemp plants might be pulled, half v/ay acrofs the bed, and then the other half; with intention that the male hemp fhould be pulled and water-rotted alone, leav- ing the female hemp to (land longer, which its de^ green colour and thriving appearances feemcd to re- commend ; but why fhould this double work be im- pofed, v/hen the crop which had been all pulled at cnce^ foon as the male plants fhewed ripenefs, proved fo excellent and fo unexceptionable ? The plants of one crop, which grew too tliialy, were • Mr hemp feed was genei-^Uy fo\va too thin, as I fufpe^;- iinJ the hemp w-as ralber too little rotted, from over caution. HEMP. 115 were fo firmly fixed, that it was found neceffary to cut them off near the ground; which left their nu- merous fnags {landing : and they were dangerous to fuch beads as might any how get into the ground ; and to people walking there, cfpecially in the dark. If the ground be good and well prepared, no crop is more certain than hemp, fowed in time, and when the foil is moift. But how uncertain is the tobacco crop ! Failure of plants from froll, drought, or fly ; want of feafonable weather for planting ; deftruftion by the ground-worm, web-worm, horn-worm ; but- tcning low, for want of rain ; curling or frenching, from too much rain ; houfe-burning or funking whilfl: curing ; frofl before houfed ; heating in bulk or in the hogfhead ; infpe^don, culling. Sec. Cul- tivating tobacco cleans, but expofes foil to exhalation and wafhing away. It is only about a month that it fhclters the ground : but hemp fliades it from May till about the firft of Augufl: : and from early Augufl it would be advantageoufly flickered with a growth of buckwheat, till this bloflbras ; and then (commonly) during a temperate flate of heat, it would be a manure if plowed in. Tliis buckiuhcat manure repeated every fall would I believe prcferve the foil in good heart for yield- ing rich crops of hemp, it not fuffered to go to feed, during many fuccdljive yean;. Plants fuffercd H 2 to lie H£MF. 1o go to feed, remarkably impoverifli foil. Not fo of what arc harrefted before they are in feed. Hemp is pulled before it feeds : flax whilft in full feed. The effects on the foil are accordingly. But if the m.ale Hemp is pulled by the beginning of Augufl: and the female not till September, the feed being then ripen- ed, the foil is thereby greatly impoveriflied ; and two hemp harvefts are produced inftead of one : the lad whereof interferes with feeding of wheat, rye, and barley. Buckwheat mufl: not run io feed on ground to be fown with hemp. I have had it fpire up and con- tend with growing hemp, till the buckwheat has been five feet high. The heavieil work in procuring Hemp, is the breaking and fcutching or fwingling it. But as it is the work of leifure winter, and every pcrfon who drips tobacco can break and fwingle hem.p : and moreover as hirelings, if neceilary, are in that fea- fon eaUly obtained, this bugbear part of the bulinefs can aiTuredly be accompliflied, and the hemp got rid cf at market in the fpring. — The riddance of crops is aliuays advantageous to future operations. A planter gaining 20 hogflieads of tobacco from 20 acres cf ground, value 800 dollars, might expeft 12000 or i6cGclbs. of hemp from the fame ground, value icoo or izzo dollars. But, if the income from HEMP. 117 from the hemp flaould be a fourth lefs than from the tobacco crop, yet I would, on feveral accounts, pre- fer the hemp culture. For the country houfe-wife who wiflies for infor- mation, the following is inferted as what I have read of a method o^ foftening and preparing hemp, for making it into hnen. The Hemp is laid at full length in a kettle. If the kettle is too fmall to admit it at full length, the hemp may be doubled, but with- out twilling it J only the fmall end of every hand is twilled a little, to keep the hands whole, and from tangling. Smooth flicks are laid in the bottom of the kettle, acrofs and acrofs three or four layers, ac- cording to the fize and depth of the kettle ; which is for keeping the hemp from 'touching the liquor. Then pour ley of middling flrength, half the flrength of that for foap, gently into the kettle till it rifes nearly to the tops of the flicks. The hemp is then laid in, layer crolling layer, fo that the fleam may pafs through the whole body of the hemp. The kettle is now covered clofe as can be, and hung over a very gentle fire to flew or fimmer, but not boil, fo as to raife a good fleam for 6 or 8 hours. It is then ta- ken off, and let fland co-vcred till the hemp is cool enough to be handled. It is now taken out, and wrung very carefully, till dry as can be : then hang it up §ut of the way of the ivi?id, in a garret or barn with all the doors fhut. Here it remains, now and then IlS FARM-YARD MANURE, then turning it, till perfectly dry. Then pack it up in a clofe^ dry place, till it is to be ufed. Yet at times it is to be vifited, and examined if any part has become damp* At leifure, twht up as many hands of hemp as arc intended for prefent ufe, hard as you can ; and with a fmart, round, fmooth hand-beetle, on a fmooth (lone beat and pound each hand by it- {t\^^ all over very well, turning it round till all is well bruifed. Then untwifl: and hackle it through a coarfe, and after it through a fine hackle. Hack- ling is performed in the fame manner as if combing a fine head of hair j beginning at the ends below as thefe are entangled, rifmg higher and higher : at lafl the top of the head is reached. The firfl tow makes country rope 5 the fecond, ofnaburgs, Iheeting and bagging j and the pure hemp excellent thread and linen. FARM- YARD MANURE. For conducing the bufinefs of a farm to full ad- vantage, the farmer is \.o purfue objefts which fyf- tematically embrace fuch a regular courfe of parti- culars as fiiall bell follow and depend on each other, for obtaining the one whole of the defign of farm- ing. It is not immediate produft alone that we aim at : for, whilft we wiih to obtain repeated full crops, our reafon alTures us it is indifpenfably neceifary to that end, that the foil be preferved in full vigor. The mind then is employed, principally, on the ob- jefts FARM-YARD MANURE. II9 jefts 0^ prefer vat ion and hnpro'vement of the prodii6lhe powers cf the earth, Obfervations on the ftate of common farming fix the opinion, th'at no unconneft- ed random purfuits tend to enfure a fuccellion of ad- vantageous hufbandry for any length of time. Well chofen rotations of crops together with due culture, are believed to be fo favourable to the ground as to need but httlc of manure in comparifon of what the common random or ill chofen crops abfo- lutely require. Still the fleady and attentive appli- cation of /nanures, is held to be an eflential duty in farming, a great link of the chain, in every inftance. If rich foils require, comparatively, but a moderate quantity, in a rotation where ameliorating crops are prevalent, yet middling and poor foils want all that can be obtained; and, under the old Mary/and courfes efpecially^ all foils eagerly demand more manure than can he readily procured. Thefe exhaufling courfes we fee continually impoverilh the foil. Too many farmers therefore incline to move to frelh lands ; where they would precifely acl the fame murderous part over again. The principal links in good farming are due tillage^ proper rotations of crops ^ which are treated of above, and manures^ of which it is wiflied the occafion would admit of more than the few obfervations which follow. « In !lft<^ FARM-YARD MANURE. " In the American praftlce, hay and fodder are stacked in the jields ; and the cattle 2Xt fed round the stacks and fodder-houfes : the difadvantages whereof are, 1 . A wasteful ufe of the provender j 2. The dung lying as it is dropped without straw, or other vegetable fubftance brought to it, the ma- nure is little in quantity ; and 3. That little not lying in heaps, is reduced abun- dantly by exhalation and rain; without leaving any thing to the foil. In the Englifli and Flemifli practice (feebly obferv- cd by a few of our hufbandmen) cattle are carefully houfed, or otherwife confined to a fold yard in which zrefhelters againfl cold rains, during the whole win- ter, and as far through the fpring as food will lafl : the advantages of which are, 1. A fair expenditure of the provender, without waste : 2. Lefs exhaustion of the juices 5 becaufe of the dung lying together, in large heaps : 3. The dung being mixed with the straw, and other vegetable fubflances brought to the beads as litter, the whole is trod together, and forms a large quantity of very valuable manure. It FARM-YARD MANURE. 121 It may be no exaggeration to affirm, that the dif- ference in the quantities of manures obtained from an equal (lock of cattle by thofe fcveral methods, may be as three to one. If fix acres may be annu- ally manured by the inferior method, then may eighteen by the fuperior. Now on a fuppofition that manured land is kept in heart five years u ithout repeating, in the one cafe but thirty acres will al- ways remain in good order ; in the other ninety acres : a very important difference ! Indeed It is all the difference between an hufbandman's poverty and his riches."* Do cattle, when foddered round hay-ftacks and fodder-houfes or ricks, give twelve loads of manure each ? Do they yield one fuch load ? It is a fa<5l ftated I think by Mr. Young, that in the courfe of a winter cattle, kept up and littered in a yard, have yielded full twelve fuch loads, each beall ; and if foiled or fed well during the fummer with cut green grafs or clover, they may be expelled to yield more and richer manure ; efpecially when they are kept' z(p, on :ifidl quantity of litter. Here, by the way, it may be noted that a portion of grafs only fuffici- ent to keep one bead in pasturing, has fufficed five in foiling : and v/hat is of immenfe importance to the * The above quoted paffage is from a friend, v-ho \vl{hed to h.Tve fomething faid oi farm yard manure ; and in very fev.- words he has here faid a great deal. 122 FARM-YARD MANURSr the ilate of the ground and of future crops, the ground being untrod, in foiling, is left light and 772*?/- l&w. Another favourable circumftaucc attends foil- ing: the beafls are kept mjhade, and confiderably protected from flies ; efpecially when the houfe is kept dark during the heat of the day, with only airholes near the ground and above their heads.* It * In to%ms, 'Z9ajh is given to cows ; and in the country ftuill to fows, &c. WaJJ} is compofed of wafhings from difhes, and the oSA of roots and cabbage from kitchens. SimU is meal, or rye, or buckwheat foaked in water till the grains fwell, and with ftirring burft ; and fometimes maize is fo foakei Swill is feid to be the moli nourifhing to hogs "when foured by long {landing. The celebrated Count Rtun- ford lays it is coming fafl into ufe in Germany to keep hom- ed cattle confined in ftables, all the year round, and there feed and frequently give thtm a drank, compofed of bran, grains, mafhed potatoes, mafhed turnips, or cat meal, rye meal, or barley meal, with a large proportion of 'zsaier and a good quan- tity oi fait : and it is difcovered to be the moft nouriihing when given ivarm, and when the mixture has been well hikd. Another advantageous practice, the Count fays, is lo give one- third of cut firazc, miit with two- thirds of chopt green chvir ; with which homed cattle ruminate (chew the cud) better than \cith green clover alone. Coach horfcs are kept up in uahles, many of them fcarcely ever being permitted to run out on grafs. My coach horfes for nine or ten years paft have never been a moment at pafture, but in ail that time have been kept in ilables, and fed on nothing but hay and oats, and now and then a little bran and ihorts or maize ; obicndng wiiiiai to give them fatf freqmntlj. Their health FARM-YARD MANURE. 1 23 It will be faid, the ground round the flacks re- ceives the dung dropt, as a dreffing to fo much of the and plight have conftantly been good in the whole of that time. Then why need farmers fuffer their beafts to tread, harden and untiil their foil, and wafte grafs and dung, by running in paRures, when they may more advantageoufly be kept up, houfed and fed during fummcr with cut green clover andjira-jj, and in winter \\\^ fodder and drank. If no beafts were ever fuff*red to pafture, there tlien fcarcely would be any neceffity for having crofs fences— What a faving of la- bour and wood ! But what is to be done with flieep ? Give them a range of v/oodland and rough grounds ? Why not keep them up ? Mr. Bakewell praftifed ftall-feeding them, if he did not alfo keep fome in houfes the year round. Tliey would require airy Ihelters and roomy yards, in dlvifions, for the different conditions of Ihccp. In Italy are fheep-honfes built of ftoae in rows, with divifions, a variety. Before them is a large fquare wclofure, divided into/t;^ equal parts. In the firft divifion and in tlie ftalls belonging to them, are the eives big -with young ; in the fecond /aching lambs ; in the tliird and fourth, the tzuo year old luTibs ; and in the fifth are tlie lamh done fuching. Trav. through Naples, tranflated by Aufrere, 1789. In Flanders their (lieep are ahuays in ftables, and are let out every day into the yard. 20 An. 466. — Mr. Cook (inventor of the drill) fays that the benefits from Jlratu cut into ch'.'ff, and paffing through cattle, irjlead of being trod uv.hr foot as littery are very great. He fupported in winter, 40 cat- tle near 7 months on 30 acres of yFrjo; ; and 4 of turnip J ; and made from it 400 tons of dung— 10 tons of pure dung- each bcall— How valuable! When he ^Tote tliij he wss making experiments in feeding his borfes en green food, cic - yer, vetches and grafs n./ ^Uhjlra-^; and expcded the Jun- 124 FARM-YARD MANURE* tlie field. Alas ! we know this extends to a very fmall diftance, and the effefl is in no part conCder- able. from it will more than pay for all their keep and the expenfe of cutting. 28 Eng. Rev. 1796, p. 89. " It has, fay die reviewers, long been ufed in Germany to chop green clover y and mix it with choptjlra'w : two flone (zStb.) of clover, and one (i4tb.) of ftraw. It is praftifed by thofe chiefly who confiae horned cattle in flables, the year round ; feeding with ihefe in fummer, drank in winter." — Sheds with large boilers are fitted to ftables and cow-houfes, to prepare food for horfes and cattle. Englifh farmers fay they find it highly advan- tageous. The dranks being loHed are more nourifliing and wholefome. Expenfe of fuel and attendance are compenfat- ed by improvement of the food. They boil potatoes two or three hours ; the longer the more the food is improved. But of late Jieaming inftead of boiling potatoes is preferred, for faving fuel. And now by recent improvements in the eco- nomy of fire, by Count Rumford, the expenfe of fire and fuel is reduced to a mere mite. They throw away the water, as it is apprehended tliere is fomething noxious to animals in raw potatoes y and in potatos-ivater. In Japan tliey univerfally feed all beafts in hcufes ; in which they are kept up the year through. They feem to know no- thing of pafturing. — " I took the idea of maintaining cattle in yards cr houfcs, fays Mr. Baker, from having frequently heard that, in Flanders^ they fcarcely ever fuffer their cattle to pajiure at large : but the farmers all feed them in houfes. I have now purfued it three or four years ; and have fo miuch re:ifon to be fatisfied with it, that I cannot fufficiently recom- mend it to others." 1 An. 93. In foiling there is fome- times a walling of 'the green food, by giving vmre than is eaten ; laying it in L'aps ; where it remains till it ferments FARM-YARD MANURE. 1 25 able. The place where, is fome eminence : the rains and winds of half the year 'n-ajh- -aivay and evaporate from the frozen ground mod of the rich fubllance of the dung fo dropt about ; and the ground, whilfl: unfrozen, is irod clofe and poached to a degree that untills it nearly equal to the value of the dung left on it uninjured. This is iliuflrated : a fodder houfe (a hoilow rick made of maize tops: in the way of thatch) was fet up in a field, as is ufual : it was fenced in. At the fouth front maize was hu/ked, and the hulks were fheltered in the fodder houfe. In the courfe of the winter they were given out to cattle, in front of the rick. In April the fodder houfe being then empty was pulled down, and the covering of maize tops was given to the and becomes four, &c. — Bv foilmg tn a yard littered, with the food in racks and cribs, labour in cleaning and favinp- urine is leiTened. But the value of this labour fo faved is loH in the cattle thriving lefs, the quality of the manure, the beafts pulhing and driving each other and illnaturedly preventing others from eating, whilft they are worried by flies. Tramp- ling dung and litter in the winter, or much rain, gives an ap- pearance of rottennefs very fallacious. Water, is the proper ferment for dung, togeth.^r witli the rich material urine ; but treading dung as fall: as it is made, impedes fermentation. Dung made under cover (the beafts kept up) is better than made in a yard : cattle do better and the food goes further. 14 An. 160. — But is it not better that dung fhould be rotted not more than partially when the ground receives it, that it may ferment ind rot moftly v.hiil^ In the ground > 125 JARIvI-YARD MANURE, the cattle. The ground thus fljcltered by the fod- der houfe for fix months, October to April, {hevvxd marks of richnefs greatly fuperior to the ground on •which the cattle were foddered during the fame time : grafs, weeds and crops, during the four or five following years of my remaining on the farm, {hewed this in their great growth. Where the fodder-houfe, three hundred feet long and twenty broad, flood and flickered the ground the richnefs of the foil was flrongly marked j when but a faint fuperloriry over the common field appeared on the part where the cattle were foddered. Litter is an efTential, to cattle when let into ydrds, inftead of being kept in houfes ; without which yard manure is of fmall account ; and unlefs it be in full proportion to the number of cattle in the yard, it is not thought highly of: but is as a half done tiling. Good farmers in England deem full litter- ing of cattle, when /;; yards, of fuch importance that after reaping with fickles and inning their wheat, they chop the stubble with fithes, and flack it for litter. Befides flraw and flubble for litter, they apply to the fame ufe, fern and fuch other ve- getable fubdances as they can procure: and they buy flraw from common farmers who are not in the practice of littering.* In all countries, common farmers * Mr. Bake-well kapt his beafts houfed vnthout Utter till of bte. He prefers the dung from a given quantity of flraw FARM-YARD MANURE. 1 27 farmers are indifferent to improvemeitts : they look not beyond old habits ; and it is prudent that they venture not on extenjive new projects, without firfl making experiment. A full littering is three loads of 12 or 13001b of ftraw to each grown beaft.* In England ilraw is fold by farmers who are tenants on (hort leafes, who jog on as their fathers and as therafelves were trained, and from which they can- not deviate.! It is prefumed that here alfo ftraw is to be bought. Maize stalks will for a long while cofl: little elfe than carriage. A fkeleton frame made of a light wood may be contrived to carry a vafl quantity when they are dry : but whilfl: yet uncur- ed eaten by catde, to a larger quantity gained by Uttering. On which Mr. Young obferves, that his rcafoning is good where Hubble, fern, and tlie like are to be had for littering with ; but adds diat a fmall quantity of dung very rich, is not equally efficacious with a large quantity of weak dung that contains altogether equal richnefs. Mr. Bakewell afterwards practifed littering his cattle in their llieds. 4 E. Tour 449. * In England, 13001b. o£ Jlrawj heaped on a waggon is a load. A load o{ hay is various : In fome places it is an exaft ton, of 22401b. ; in otliers, 220olb.'; in others again 2500; and about Z.o«^ii«, only iSoolb. f " I believe it is never done, except in the vicinity of ** large towns ; where it is eafy to exchange flraw for manure *' to a double profit. Maize (talks might undoubtedly be " converted to excellent manure, but feein to be univcrfaliy « wafted." S. 128 FARM-YARD MANURE/ ed they are better, becaufe of their fweet and iiou» rifhing juice, which invites cattle to browfe on thera, as they he under foot in the yard. When they are much trodden they become of ^fponge-Iike consistence, which retains the dung and the urine very efFeftually. Let us not be fparing of expenfe, or be dilatory in procuring the neceflary materials for d.full littering. It increafes and preferves the inanure requifite for the improvement and prefervation of the powers of the foil, for enabling it to yield greater crops and more of pecuniary income, and comfort. In America, jflraw, flubble, maize ftalks, fern, weeds before they feed, flags, wild oats, fea grafs, and leaves of trees are to be applied as litter. Our farmers fay, " there is no manure in corn flalks ;" and they are left (landing in the fields. I have been ufed to draw them into my cattle-yard, in the fall and during winter ; where they were laid thick, as litter to grown cattle, and were trod into a fponge- jike ftate ; in which they catch and retain the dung and urine of the cattle, fo as to give a great quan- tity of rich manure. A farmer near Philadelphia, after inning his wheat crop, mowed and fecured the stubble : the motives whereof were to preferve his young clover from being fmothered by a rank flub- ble, and to ufe the ftubble as Utter to his beafls. This is the firft inflance I have known of stubble be- ing liived in America with any view to Utteri?ig cat- tle! fARM'YART) MANURE. I29 i/e/ Farmer RuJJj has thus given an important le{* fon, for fhofe who are difpofed to fecond their judg- ment with determined exertion ! The quantity of draw and ftnbble to be produced in crops is eflimated at very great uncertainty before- hand, becaufe of the various growths which crops take in different years- It may be from ^o or 60 to 90 or I colt) of ftraw alone, for each bufliel of wheat produced. In the Mufeum Rufticum, and in the 8vo volume of feled papers from it, are accu- rate details of a crop of wheat, with its proportions of ftraw and chaff to that of the wheat. In November all the cattle are to be conjimd from wandering about the fields. The cattle-yard is then well littered j and as often as the litter is trod into the dung and muck, or is foaking wet, more litter is added \ fo that the beafts may lye always dcart and dry. They are thus confined to a yard and lit- tered till there is a full bite of grafs in May. All the cattle ought to be under flielter from cold rains during that time. Litter is to be given them, as- above. But it is flill better to keep flock altoge- ther in houfes ; that they may there eat all the stravjy and not be fulFcrcd to tread any of it into muck. It is the moft advantageous to a farm, and the jnoft profitable to the farmer to h^ve as numerous. I a {lock rja FARM-YARD MANURI'. a ftock of caiik as can be kept well, and no more than can he fo kept. Inftead of cultivating grain for the 7i:jrket, let it with its ftraw be raifed as food io live stock, for the market, efpecially whilfl wheat crops are reduced, as at prefent, by the Heflian fly, and until our foil is reftored to good heart by the live ftock. The ftraw of grain crops will keep cat- tle, and the grain in meal with ftraw or maize fod- der v,'\]] fatten them. See p. 68. Yet I fliouid not be fond of cultivating grain to be given to Hve flock, if it were not for the neceffity of having strazv for them ; and ftraw is a very good and very cheap food, when duly prepared and applied. It is bet- ter to have too few cattle than too many : yet in fome parts of America, farmers exceedingly difpro- portion their cattle to their provender. They will have numbers of hidebound creatures, many where- of die from mere want oi food and ^t//fr / To' that Icfs meat and lefs manure are derived from a great number fo poorly kept, than better farmers have from a due proportion well kept. Befides, does not the man feel fliame in the cruelty of ftar\-ing or keeping in a ftate of want and mifery a fellow-crea- ture com.mitted to his care? Is it not a tnift to the CTeature man, from the Father of all creatures ? The live-stock ought to be as many as can be kept fielier^d from cold rains, with abu7idant iiinter and fuviTner find. Of all the kinds, the borfe is the raoft: coftly FARM-YARD MANURE. IJl coftly and the moft injurious to the farm. He bites, clofc, is almofl continually treading and poaching the ground j and eats more than the ox as 5 to 3 j yet is not hirafelf eatable : when he dies he is loft for ever. The ox is meat : after having given us his labour, he becomes food to us. Steers arc un- profitable : they coft five or fix years keeping, with- out yielding labour ; and are then fold for lefs thaiL the coft of keeping and fattening them. Coivs give milk, and oxen give labour.* Sheep are profitable. I 2 So\vs * Cows and oxen may be fattened and difpofed of when 7 or 8 years old. If 6 are to be difpofed of, then the ftock is to confift. of 6 calves, 6 of two yeais, 6 of 3 years, 6 of 4, 6 of 5, 6 of 6, 6 of 7, and 6 of 8 years ; m all forty-eight Jiead; whereof thirty give milk, labour, or meat. After marking fix calves, yearly, die very ie/i for cows and oxen, the reft are to be fold: fo that ndt a fteer is to be raifed, other than fliall be necelTiary for oxetl. An ox improves in value, ten dollars a year from the time that he comes to be ufed and fed as an ox. A horfe declines, till he comes to nothing. " Mr. Cooper was much prejudiced againft oxen 1 but is now fuch a conA-ert as to have parted with moft of his horfes. A horfe cofts as much as 4-^ oxen : and the ox's keep is in fummer, gmfs alone ; jn winter, Jira-ju : on which they may be worked moderately. If Inrd v.-orked, they have hay. In harnsfs, they are ftill moro valuable. Their haniefs is much tlie fame as for horfes ; except tJiat the collars, open, are buckled on and worn contrary to thofe for horfes : tlie narrow end of the collars, which, open, being downwards ; — • rind as the chains are faftened to them in the fame dircdion as in horfe-harnefs, the bcalls of courfe draw much higher Vhnn horffs. Ilie lio« of ths chair.s is alnioft up to their 132 FARM-YARD MANURE. Sozus and pigs ought to be efpecially kept \There there is a dairy, as they make a confiderable part of its profit, from the offal milk. Hogs are advan- tageoufly kept on green clover ; and fattened on pc- tatces viith rneal of maize. Quantity backs ; but much above the chelt : which is neceflary from the different £hape of horfes and oxeu. They draw, when in tamefs, ahreajl in pairs ; Jingle ; or in a line one before another ; and walk as fail as horfes. An ox-tsam five in a waggon, and a horfe-team, four in another waggon. Both went twice a week, fourteen miles out, and fourteen miles home each day : die load equal, about two tuns. The oxen were gene- ralty at home two hours before the horfes ; and were in har- nefs. Driving vi-:th gir.tlerufs and good tempir, without ever hurrying, is found neceflary to procure their exerlions. A per- fon who drew with oxen, two or three years, and made fair experiments comparing tliem with horfes fays, an ox value thirty dollars, is equally ftrong in tlie draught, with a horfe value ninety dollars, and equally fit for plow, cart or har- row ; and that the ex requires a fourth part lefs provender tha^ the horfe : alfc that the ex works and increafes, from four till he is ten years old ; but tliat feven hoiu-* work a day is to him as much as eight to a horfe." See E. Tour, voL i. p. 172 — vol. iii. 152 — ^vol. iv. 5. 8z. 269 — vol. Li. 398. 418 •—vol. Iv. 268. 273. An. vol. sriii. 68. 70. Oxen may eve- ry way be ufed inftead ©f horfes : bruUed and rid ; harne/fed ead driven in vraggons, plows, Sec. In Maryland one Sutton Sicklemore rode on a bull about the country ; and I have ijeen a woman going to a race, with her cheR of cakes and fitting in a truck drawn by a bull bridled and guided by her- felf. In Pcnnf} ivania, I faw a waggon drawn by t-zvo tuVt *rd i^( cxe/if IriJLd and gtertd m kuriiejt Qud (olhrs. FARM-YARD MANURE. 235 Quantity of land, alone, is no rule for fixing on the number of cattle to be kept. Not only trie quantity and quality, but alfo the fituation and the crops will affeft the queftion : and the attentive far- mer will determine from his experience, how far he is to enlarge or reduce the numbers and kinds of his live-rtock. " In many fituations, fays j\fr. Toung, the de- " pendance of a farm for manure, is on the (Iraw- " yard. If in that cafe the fanner does not proper- " ly proportion his arable crops which feed cattle, to " thofe which Utter the yard, and both thefe to the " quantity of his grafs fields, the farm will be long " before it gets well manured."* How advantageous for acquiring dungy fo eifen- tial for preferving the produ£Uve powers of the earth, is the praftice of keeping cattle up in yards, well littered — How much more fo the keeping them up in houfes, littered the year through ! — efpecially^ when they are fed with green food cut for them in fummcry and juicy roots and drank with their dry- food, in ivinter : but cattle may be advantageoufly kept without having any litter^ provided they are in flails in houfes, tied up, and their floor daily clean* ed \ as Mr. Bakewell a long while kept his. BARNS. * Better to depend on xhtjlall and houfe ,■ where lilier may bf diiperJlJ with, and flock incrcar^d. 134 BARNS, BARNS. Farmers in Pennfylvauia have a commendable fpirit for building good barns, which are moftly of flone. On the ground floor are flails in which their horfes and oxen are fed with hay, cut-ftraw, and rye-meal ; but not always their other beafts.* Roots are feldom given to their live-flock, being too little thought of. The fecond floor with the roof, con- tains their flieaves of grain, which are thrafhed on this floor. A part of their hay is alfo here flored. Loaded carts and waggons are driven in, on this fe- conid floor ; with which the furface of the earth is there level ; or elfe a bridge is built up to it, for f^jpplying the want of height in the bank, the wall of one end of the houfe being built ck>fe to the bank of a hill cut down. For giving room to turn waggons within the houfe, it is built thirty-fix to forty feet wide : and the length is given that may- be requifite to the defign or fize of the farm. But if * " Barly, fays Sonnini, is the common food of kor/es in *' Egypt, as it is in all parts of the Eaft, where rye and oats *> are unknown. However prejudiced our farmers (in France) *' may be againft barley as a food for horfes, they cannot " jivoid being convinced of its excellence in this refpeft, v/hen ** they confider that in the countries where thefe animals are " mofl eminent for tiaeir goodnefs and beauty, they eat no *' other kind of corn." BARNS. 135 if the waggon is driven direftly- into the barn, it may be as direftly drawn back without turning it— a great faving of room ; and the houfe need not be fo wide as for the fake of turning waggons in it. If waggons carry more to the barn at a time, yet carts are briiker : their loads are Ihot down in an inftant. and they turn fliort. Waggons are tedi- oufly unloaded. I have fecn a barn, in Chefler county, Pennfylva- nia, which had a cellar under a floor of planks on joifts, on which horfes and oxen flood ; and their dung was daily fliovelled into the cellar. The farmer faid this dung is the better for being thus kept dry : but, may it not be there too dry F Dung drowned with water mud be much injured. But if a deep mafs of dung receives no more water than what falls on its furface from the clouds, and is well flieltered from the fun, is it then injured ? Is it better or worfc for being rotten before it is applied to the ground as a manure ? If firfl rotted, it will fprcad and mix wirh the foil more perfec'tly. If but partly rotted, and then fpread and plowed into the ground, inftantly as it is carted out, will it not be flronger — more pow- erful in opening and enriching the foil ? It there finiflies its heat and fermentation, which precede and bring forward rottcnnefs, whilft it is in the ground.* There * The 4 E. Tour, 453. fpcaks of dung being put uj) in a fmall compafs, or coiupaft mafs, that thc/un, ti-ifii and ruin. f^6 BARNS. J There are not many inflances of flieds tacked to their modern barns. Their mode of buildine, of late, does not well admit of them ; and room is gain- ed by all being under one roof, covering one or more flories, having deep fides or pitch. The roof is a coflly part of buildings : but it cofts no more to cover three or four ftorics than one. Their barns on the fides of hills (which they chie^y prefer) may be built three flories high, inftead of the ufual two flories. Cut down the hill perpendi- cularly feven or eight feet, and build up one end of the barn clofe to the bank. The other walls are to be quite free and airy from bottom to top. The ground flory feven or eigbt feet high j the next thir- teen may have but little power over it, to do it mifchief. Of thefe, the fun exhales without its rays adding any knov/ii virtue to the dung ; and the rain when in excefs, would rob it by too great dilution and wafiiing av/ay Its fubfliance : but the atmos- pheric air might impart to ifc^on^e of its rich combinations. For making gunpov/der, nitye is coUeded ia beds of ftraw, earth and rubbifh, raifed in thin banks or walls above the ground, expofed to the air ; and ftieltered only from /un and rain. From fuch ihi» majfes, rains would wafii out the nutritive ftores, and the fun would exhale them. But, would v.-hat my ftercories receive of rain, foaked into a large deep majs of dung, injure the dung, when there is fcarcely more than with the urine may be reqQifite for producing a fermentation in the dung and litter ? If dry dung is applied to a dry foil, it cannot ferijncnt tilj a fufficisncy of rain fiills on it. BARNS'. I35[ tften feet— the third alfo thirteen feet ; into whidi grain in the ftraw is pitched up, and there thniilied out. If the bank is not fo high as the fecond floor, or if there is no bank, lay a bridge up to that floor. The width of the barn being thirty-fix feet clear, a paiTage in the middle, eleven or twelve feet wide, will leave a range of cattle-flands on each fide of it^; The cattle are fed from the paflage ; and there fl:raw is cut and meal fl:ored. The doors are one to every two flails or four beafts. They may be latticed, or othcrwife airy : and at the end of the paflage next the bank, may be a door opening into a vault exca- vated from the bank, for keeping rooLs. The dung may be thrown into a fl^rcory ten feet from the doors. There will be no occafion for carts pafllng between the range of doors and the dung pit or ftercory. All is carted and flored on the barn floor, after paflf- ine in at the end door of the fecond floor. The llercory may be covered with whatever may flielter the dung from ihefwi, although it fliould fuffer niins to pafs through the covering : but no other rain or water is to have accefs to the dung ; yet urine is to be faved and thrown on it. One end of the fl:crcory or pit may be open, where a hill will admit of let- ting carts in. Air is admitted into the barn through long loopholes in the walls, rather than windows. A good thunder rod, half an inch diameter, infures the barn againft injury from lightning at the cofl: of ]efs than fifty cents a year. A t^B BARNS. A flone barn, lately built inPhiladelptua countyj has its ground flory loi feet high ; the next 19 feet, and the third 14 feet. Waggons are driven into the fecond flory. Seven feet are high enough for homed cattle. Horfes require more height ; and there are mconveniencies in keeping horfes and horned cattle in the fame houfe. The conflrucrion of their refpec- tive houfes flaould be adapted to their feverai pur- pofcs. A foreigner aiks, if fleam from the perfpiration and breath of the cattle, clofe houfed, would not taint the hay and flraw on the floor above them ^ and if the houfe being built up againft the bank would not occafion an injurious dampnefs to the grain, the ftraw and the hay r 1 have heard no com- plaint of either, and prefume there is no caufe for any in a country of fo dry an air ; efpecially as thefe ilone barns, built againft banks, ilored with cattle oa the ground-floor, and containing grain, flraw, and hay, on the upper-floor, continue to be pre- ferred. r It is faid that cattle are kept very clofe and zl-jftti in their houfes in Brabant and parts oi Germany. I never knew of out-cattle fuitering materially by mere cold, unattended with raiHy wetfncrjj or Jleet. But as often as they experience thefe, their wretched- nefs claims compaflion : and the owner, feeling for himfelf CATTLE-STALLS. I39 hiinfelf as well as for the beafls committed to his care, at fome time or other may rcfolutely practife giving them ducjhc/ier and attention ; and thereby profit of the increafe of /iiill:, of labour, of meat, and of dungy if not alfo of felf fatisfaftion on feeinor them throusrh his provident induflry in comfortable good plight, in no want. Whatever the number oi floors or ilories are, the bank is not to be higher than to the fecond floor, which is immediately above the cattle floor : fo that the bank is never more than feven or eight feet high; and to that height at the mod:, one end of the bam is attached to the bank. In Cheftcr county, I have feen where a bank was cut down three or four feet, and a bridge for waggons was from the top of it four or five feet more, to the fecond floor of the bara. See Plate II. CATTLE-STALLS. On this particular is here given what I have col- letted of ]Mr. Bjkczceirs method of houfing his cat- tle, from the Annals of Agriculture, or from Jo.bn Burnet who was fenc to America by l^.Ir. Bakewell with cattle, a few years fince. Mr. Bake-icell keeps his cattle in houfes : in which a paflTage is at the heads of them, to feed from. The troughs out of which they eat their hay or turnips 140 CATTLE-STALLS. turnips (I prefume alfo their draw, for he feed* largely v^ith flraw^ are 2^ feet wide at top, and flope to the bottom which is of brick, three feet long, eight or nine inches deep. The bottom of brick is on the ground. No rack. Every flali is fix feet wide for two cows : eight for two bull?. In each corner of the flails is a fmooth poft, with a ring Jarger than the poll for Aiding up and down. A chain, not a foot long, connefts with the ring, and alfo with a chain collar round the bead's neck, which locks with a T. The cattle can but jufl: reach their food next to the divifion between the two beafls. Three feet for each cow are better than more room: in which they lye down. More fpace would admit of their dirtying each other. Their (landing is fix feet : and behind is a ftep five or fix inches down to where the dung falls. The houfe is cleaned once a day ; and the cattle are driven twice to water. He has forty-five in one place fo tied up : and they are fed and taken care of by a man and a boy. Cows In milk are fiot to want water. In the American climate they ought to be watered three times a day in fumm.er. Their water ought to be near. Drivirxg cows any diftance is very injurious to their milk. In England, dairy cows are faid to give from 200 to 4oolb of butter. Do the Ameri- can give ICO to 2C0 ? Many attentions are reqnifite for CATTLE PASTUAED life. I4I for obtaining much butter, or good butter — and alfo much and good milk. In plate 111. is a /ketch of Mr. BakewelFs flails ; which are without racks ; the manger is therefore the wider : alfo a iketch of a flail drawn by a gentleman lately from Yorkfhire ; which has a rack leaning with its back part in the feeding pafTage ; a trough for food ; afpace for the cattle to fland in ; a fink for receiving their dung ; and a way behind the cat- tle. Lord Holdernefs's fink to his cattle houfe is faid to be without any drain ; fo that the dung, wrinc, and refufe fcraps of hay are all mixed there, and harrowed away from it, together, to the dung- hill ; which feems a good pra^ice, at leaft where fer- vants cannot be depended on for fsving the urine fe- paracely, and then carrying it to the dunghill. Catik Pastured and Soiled in Summer : Kept and Jfat,* tened in Winter : In fome of nTy little effays, are intimations of m<> thods for keeping and feeding Irve-flock, very differ- ent from the ufual pra^llces of hufbandmen j bu^ being concife or in notes, they are too obfcure to be attended to. The fubjecl claims attention, from farmers accuflomed to think with.a defire to iraprove» Such particulars thereon as at prefeoL occur, are therefore prefented to the confideratign of thU clal^ vf luvIbaHdnicii* . ^ ' A? 142 CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED: As well grain as grafs farms maintain live-flock : but their kinds, Czc and number proportionate to the means of fubfiflence are not fufficiently attended to ; nor are the modes of keeping them, and faving their manure. They are commonly raifed on the farm : But, fometimes are bought full grown, of drovers j and grazed in paftures. The common farmer's live-flock runs on a fort of paflure during fix or feven months. In the reft of the year they are kept entirely on dry food, at leafl in Maryland. Who among our farmers ever think of procuring 3. Juicy winter food, for tempering the coftive effcfts of dry draw and maize fodder eaten by -their cattle r yuin' food in general terxds to keep- their bodies open, their fkins and mnfcles mellow, pliant and eafy for their better thriving. Hence the fine eSFecl: of root and turnip-feeding, fo highly Tallied by European farmers. It is faid, cows require in England, from one to two acres of paflure : but the medium of a number of inftances is found to ' be one and a third acre. Their paflures are ?rutck by fowing grafs feeds after the grotmd has been a number of years producing crops ameliorating as well as exhaufting, under manur- vigs and good tillage. They continue many years af- terwards in grafs, carefiiUy cleared of brambles and ilrong weeds. During the ten or twenty yeais of ^ their KEPT AND FATTENED. I45 t"heir being paftured, the cattle drop their dung, fcat- tered and left expofed on the ground to exhauHiion by fun and wind. If the foil obtains any good from it, yet the continual treading (wheat foil) by the beads paftured, reduces it in deadening and untilling the foil. Neverthelefs, in fo long lying unimpoveriftied by renewed corii crops, the ground may be partly reftored from conftant though flow depofits from the atmofphere, rather than from the dung dropt. Have our American lay-fields equal advantages ? Very frequent returns of corn crops of different forts have robbed the ground, generally ivithoiit any appli' cation of manure : the ground is then left to a fpon- tancous growth of weeds and a four or poor gi^afs, which give what farmers of eafc and pleafure con- tentedly deem good enough pafture. On this their ill fated horfes, cows, oxen, and flieep are promif- cuouHy turned early in the feafon before there is a bite : but they nibble off the fcanty growth of rub- bifli as it rifes. Here they continue till winter: fometimes through the winter j fo that the ground becomes poached and trod to a dead clofencfs. The dung dropt is but of one or two years, towards re- ftoring the foil, when corn crops ai-e renewed, and reduce it flill lov/er. The acquifitiou from detach- ed fcraps of expofed dung and from the flow effect of the atmofphcre, in tlrat flior^ time, is trifling : far flacrt 144 CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED : fliort of repairing the wafle, from poaching' and quick returns of corn crops.* Oppofed to our unmade pailures, are the 7nade' puflurcs of Europe and fome parts of America : and oppofed to all pasturing, h foiling. Soiling is com- mon in Flanders, and is advancing iiito cxtenfivc ufe in Germany and in England. It is to the prefent purpofe that thefe pracl:ices and their effects be com.- pared. Advantages mpasiurifig^ that rich grafs paflure Iceeps grown cattle at the rate of one acre to a bead,- during the fix or feven warmer months : common pailure, at the rate oi two acres to a beaii. Attend- ance on them in pafture is very little. They range at pleafure and drop their manure on the field, fo that labpur in heaping, caning out and fpreading it is faved. The difadvantagcs are, the grafs and the ground are trod and reduced in value : the paftures require codly divifion fences : the dung is fcaitered on the ground, expofed to exhalation and wafle by fun and wind, fo as to be nearly worthlefs : the horfea * Witlings may fancy diey fee a palpable contradidion bc» fvreen quick returns of corn crops as here mentioned, fo greatly Irnpoverilliing and as they are rccommer.ded ill the rotations. Eiit, their genius forbids them to fee the differenqe between Kept and fattened. 145 horfes and oxen are driven to the flable with much waflc of time, and feme vexation and conlequent abufe. The advantages o^ foiling are that the ground re- quires but few or no divifion fences : grown cattle are kept at the rate of a fourth part of an acre to a beaft, during the fix warmer months ; their manure is all well preferved, and given to the foil when and where it is mofl wanted, and in the beft condition ; the foil is untrod and left mellow and lively : the horfes, oxen, and cows are always up,* ready for ufe without lofs of time : they are kept cool, fliaded and lefs worried by flies : they acquire good coats and full flefh, on a Icfs expenfe of food. When it is objected to the laying afide divifion fences, that there would be, at times, bad fcafons when grafs could not be cut and carried in, becaufe of great rains, or of cold drying w^inds which check the growth of grafs, fo that it would be requifitc there fhould be K fome * Except that for a few hours, after diey are returned to the ftalls on the morning watering, being then well emptied, they may be let out to ftrolc and rub thcmfelves in the flirm -yard ; from 1 1 o'clock till 3, then put up in the flails ; by which they will not have time to drop much dung in the yard : and what is there di'opt fhould be harrowed to the flercory. Car- ried immediately to the ftalls, after being watered, they dung and flale plentifully in the flails : then being turned out they do not dung much whillt in the yard. Rubbing pofls may ht provided. 146 CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED : fome fields divided oiF for the beads to run on at thofe times, the anfwer is that there is another way of providing for the cattle, and that much better than by pafluring them. In towns we fee horfes and cattle are kept up on hay and straw the year round, and that it agrees with them. A quantity of hay is therefore to be kept in ftore, as a provifion against fuch untoward feafens as fliall deprive the beads of their mefs of cut grafs ; and they ifiay be tethered, as Mr. Boys tethers his fine horfes. See the note page 154. Prudent farmers deem it^equifite always to have fome jftock of old hay.* A * Befides, as Mr. Duplaine advlfes, maize is to be fown thick, 3 to 34 bufhels an acre, harrowing the ground even, ■when the taflels fiioot, mow and cure it into fodder. Or cut if daily and give ii green to cattle. 9 Muf. 253. And in foiling or ftall feeding during fummer, on clever cut green, for fupply- ing the deficiency of clover during dry bad feafons, befides feeding with /uy and hihcring, we may have made other pro- vilion by fowing maize bioad-caft and thick on manured or rich ground in April, in May and in June, and cut and feed U'itli it occafionally as a green fodder : the remaining maize notfo ufed may be cut and cured into dry fodder. The Ita- lians praftife fuch thick fowing and feeding off the green maize ; and fometimes the blades are ftripped and given green to cat- tle, from the maize growing to produce a crop of corn. If the maize be fovv-n in drills 14 inches apart, and the corn about 5 inches diflant in tlie drills, a fhim of 10 or 11 inches blade, would clean and cultivate the maize well, drawn by one horfe. Moreover, buciivhat is to be fown, and tlic herbage given as a grafs ; and it is f;iid to admit of being cut Uvice. KEPT AND FATTENED. I47 A farmer pastures his ftock : his neighbour foils his. Each has 32 head of grown horfes, oxen, and cows. Pastured 32, at 2 a. of common pailure each, - . - - 64 acr. Soiled 32, at an acre of cut grafs to 4 beads - - - - 8 gained ^6 a. hy foiling ; which will keep 224 cattle : or give 140 tons of hay^ worth 1400 dollars. Accounts given of C2l\.\t foiled in England, make the beads foiled to be 4 to 6 head from an acre of cut clover. Mr. Wynn Baker, who was an accurate experimenter, found an acre kept five head, the grafs partly cut from head-lands.* A farmer in England foiled 20 horfes and 7 cows, from 7 acres of clover, without giving any corn or hay. He clofely watch- ed the management of his tenant with the fame num- ber of flock pastured in a field ; and it proved that one acre mown went as far as fix paflured. When his beads had eaten 5 acres, the tenant's had con- fumed 30 acres, and his horfes were in inferior con- dition. When foiling is recommended, farmers having in- veterate habits, or who are driving after plcafures, K 2 equally * See the note * page nz. I4B CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED": equally check all that might be faid, by vehemently objecting to the labour and expenfe of cutting, cart- ing and giving the grafs to the beafts ; and the far- mer of lounging habits, ever feeking for fiort cuts and even for ?iothing to do, can never find time for clean- ing flails and faving and carrying out dung, cffential as they are.* A man and a boy perform all the work and at- tendance in foiling 40 to 50 beafls. Thq^ cut grafs, enough in the morning for fhe evening feed ; let it lay to deaden a little, and cart it in, in the evening. So the morning feed is cut in the evening to be car- ried in, in the morning. Suppofing all the work performed in 3 hours of the morning, and 3 of the evening, there then remains 6 hours for other work. The expenfe of the man and boy is therefore but one half chargeable to the foiling account : but even let them be 8 hours employed in foiling, or two-thirds the expenfe. Reckoning * He is a bad farmer who feeks for nothing to do. A good farmer knows how to accomplilh the ordinary round of work, and it is without grudging full labour for having it complete. The {hort cut which would do it but fomehow, and not per- feftly, he fpums at. AVhen all this is done, with pleafure, he feeks to improve the eftate : whilPc others feek pleafure abroad, and all goes to ruin at horn:;. KEPT AND FATTENED. 149 Reckoning on only 32 head, they give per year Dols. 320 loads of rich manure 300 Time daily faved in catching the beafts ; foil left untrodandhvely; gentlenefs and do- cility of the beafts, value 40 Wages and expcnfcs, a man and boy, a year 200, off I 140 Gain, in foiling, . . . 56 acres, or 140 tons of hay, value 1400 1740 140 ISTet gain i6co Will you fptirn at the oiFer of 1600 dollars that you may avoid paying wages and expcnfes of a man or two ? Thefe herdfmen would be rcquifite for win- ier feeding, cleaning Halls and faving manure, even if the beafts were paftured in fummer inftead of be- ing foiled. How little then is chargeable to the foiling ! It is in this cafe unwife to fufFer the mind to be bialTed by apprehenfions of expenfes which evidently mufl be greatly below the benefit acquired. Let us make trials of this new method of managing cat- tle : fuppofe at firft our horfes and oxen fo kept. How docile, how well flefhed, what healthy coats, and what a valuable quantity of manure of the riched and moft perfect: kind on the fpot ! Many 150 CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED: Many harfes are kept up, in towns, the year through J except only whilfl they are employed : and all cattle thrive better, on lefs food, when tied up than when at large in fields. Even flieep are fo kept. The celebrated Mr. Bakewell, lately deceaf- ed, tied up his favorites, at leafh during winter : I believe too his cholcefl rams were tied up the year through, except for the moment of giving them the ewes, to run together in a lot, for they were not to be feen out at other times. In keeping Jheep up, they ought to have room, and much frefh air in fe- parate apartments, according to their ages and fexes, allowing to ewes with lamb a great portion of room.* Fancy induces a pretty current fuppofition that all animals require fome confiderable range and change of place ; which indeed, as far as for the feeking food, difperfed as it is in their wild flate, is true. The exercife of their legs and their wings is fo far efpecially necelTary to them, as well as for avoiding their enemies. But, experience proves that they exifl in perfeft health and good plight when clofely confined, in no want of food, as long for aught that is known as if they had continued at large in their wild flate. Cattle, horfes, and hogs prove this in many countries : and the horfe, like the deer, * Of houilr.g and foiling fheep, fee raga (i$. KEPT AND FATTENED. I51 deer, is of a very active, wild, and roving nature. Sheep are efpecially imagined to require fucli Ihift- ing of place : which may have arifen from the very early and general pyaftice of letting them pafture at large. They are in flocks commonly too numerous to be conveniently houfed, and being hardy are not thought to require it. But above all the habit, continued down from the firfl of time, of people called fhepherds (trolling after flocks of them, for the fake of fcattered fpontaneous food, is the prin- cipal fupport of the fuppofliion. On the other hand, it is proved by the practices of the hufbandmen of Flanders and other countries, that flieep thrive well when kept up in houfes the year through : even the heath fov^l, fo wild and roving as they are, have been domeflicated, under a degree of confine- ment very oppofite to their habits in their wild fl:ate. A gentleman of Scotland, and his lady, of high confideration, inform me, that they have feen the black cock of that country, in the tame flate in a yard. A Mr. Lewis Duval, formerly of Hawl- ing's a branch of Patuxent river, Maryland, afllir- ed me that he had groufe quite tame in his yard, and that they raifed young ones. Their manner of courtfliip as related by him was Angular. The male was long in making his advances and coaxing the hen, in vain till he fuddenly turned on his back, flirieked, and quivered his wings as if in a fit of agony. 152 CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED! agony. She then came up to him, walked round and looked on him with fecming compallion. Without knowing the quantity of cut grafs that beafts may daily require, 75tb are afTumcd ; which quantity would cure into 171^ of hay ; but it may be that lefs of green grafs would cloy them than what might when cured into a feed of hay. It is faid, 2 8tb of green clover cut fmall and mix- ed with i4rt) of flraw cut into chaff eqnal to i/lb of hay are a feed for a day to one bead: ; equal to 751b of green clover alone : what a faving of clover ! But in the feafon of foiling, clover is plentier than draw ; and flraw is an eflential in winter : fo that Sib or lefs of llraw and 40 of clover may be better. "When 4^ft of green clover cures into one of hay, 281& arc equal to 6\ of hay : to which add 141b of flraw ; the whole is equal to 20 i of dry food. But the flraw is inferior to the fame quantity of hay ; and jy'tb of hay is a good allowance to full grown hearts per day. As much flraw cut and mixt with green clover as will but improve the cud, is fufEcient ; and it feems Slfe of flraw to 40 of green clover will anfwer, or even lefs : for clover alone anfwers for the purpofe of rumination, though not fo well as when aided by flraw or hay. A Table JKEPT AND FATTENED. ^53 A Table of Food for a Day^ Cattle, in Soiling Grown Bcafts. Clover Clover & alone. ftraw. I lb 7S C c.40 I S. 8 10 750 C 400 I 80 20 1500 C 800 I 160 30 2250 C 1200 d 240 40 3000 C 1600 I 320 50 3750 C 2000 The herdfmen ought to know how much clover and flraw to cut and give daily ; that there may be enough without wade. If not enough the beads fuffer : if too much of green clover or grafs is cut and brought in, lying in a heap it ferments, turns four and is loft. Till herdfmen are well pra(fl:ifed, it may be well that they meafure each mefs, and chalk down how much a bafket and cart body hold of the articles, in weight. The pradice will at leaft have a defirable tendency of leading fervants to obferve method ; the ^ value whereof is conliderable in all bulinefs. With- out method^ random flights predominate and divert employment from its beft objects to unimportant or wafteful purpofes. On the fuppofition that 751b. of green clover, alone, fuflices, in the morning are carried to the 32 beafts, i2ooIb. in the evening the like quantity. Eieht J54 CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED I Eight acres, cut four times* in the feafon of foil- ing, is about once in every fix weeks : or near 30 perches are cut in a day : that is 15 in the morning, 15 in the evening ; or a fquare of near four perches each time. Would it require fix hours to cut, cart in and give to the beads a fquare of eight perches of grafs, befides cleaning the ftalls and heaping or depofiting the dung ? But, in many parts of America are idle improvi- dent people, mafters of farms, who fpend their time in taverns or other places of wafleful amufement : any where rather than at hom^. Thefe haunts are at the expenle of their domestic and true happinefs. Sooner or later they bring on them debts, wants and grating claims of creditors. Such a people can never be brought to foil cattle, or at all improve their farms. Where is foiid comfort to be found if not at home? The meannefs, the felfiihnefs and the folly of thefe hujhands^ fathers or masters^ are con- fpicuous, degrading and fhameful ; who, regardlefs of 'ujijcy child and dependents claiming their protec- tion, * In fome years this might be accompli flied. In odier rears the cuttings would be not more than thrice ; or even in years of very fevere droughts might be not more than t-jJice. Jn cafes cf neceffity the horfes and catde ca.n be tethered awiiile ; and hay muft be referved to fupply fuch deficiencies of grafs. Mr. Boys, (20th Anna!) ftakes his fine team hcrles, all fummer on clover. KEPT AND FATTENED. '55 tlon, their afFeflions and their attentions, and even regardlefs of the true interefts of their precious felves, fly from their own happinefs in the moment when they mount their horfes and hurry to the ta- vern, the race, nine-pins, billiards, excefs upon cx- cefs of toddy, and the mofl nonfenfical and idle chat, accompanied with exclamations and roarings, brutal and foreign to common fenfe and manners as the mind of wifdom can conceive of depraved man. Had thefe men, fo deficient in chara<^er, been train- ed but a few years among the orderly, thoughtful good farmers of fome neighbouring diftrifi-, they would have learnt valuable leffons for condu£lino: their farms, themfelves and their domestic affairs, greatly to their comfort and advantage, and to the comfort due to their families and dependents ; to Vv^hom they owe more than they are accuftomed to feel for them. There are on the other hand, thofc who with induftry aim at providing for their fami- lies, but it is not with an honed mind and fairnefs of reputation. The llrength of thefe is in lov/ cun- 7iing : If indeed they wilh to be perfect in that de- tellable of all qualities, they need not go far fropi home ; unlefs for the lake of embellifliing the fata- nical talent with fome variety. They might then affociate with the villanous clafs of people diflin- guilhed for more of this bafe quality than of provi- dent induflry, fairnefs and honefl:, manly candour. The 156 CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED. The foil of the flates fouth of Pennfylvania, has been impoveriflied by the ftaple articles of produce tobacco and maize. Maize being cultivated in large fields for feeding fupernumerary negroes, and alfo for the market without ever being manured, is the chief exhauder. Tobacco ground in detached par- cels is manured, and fo far is helped : but hand-hoe fcratchings and fcrapings expofe the foil to be hur- ried off by every gufl of wind or rain, and its nu- tritive contents to exhalation by the fun and wind. Another great evil attending tobacco-making is the attentions to it which are unceafmg and unrivalled, fo that the due culture of all other articles of huf- bandry is loft in that of tobacco. Houfes are un- grudged for curing tobacco, two to eight or ten houfes are cheerfully built for this crop ; but not one for live-stock ^ nor a -blade of hay for them, though multiplied beyond the prefent means of keeping them on the pretence that the more the cat- tle the more the dung for the tobacco : but the to- bacco planters herein deceive themfelves ; for, their cattle being pinched in quantity and quality of food, give a fmall portion of but lean dung 5 and becom- ing hide-bound and expofcd to fleet and cold rains, die in great numbers, yearly. Yoy renewing the redundancy all calves arc reared — But enough of thcfe gloomy and barbarous practices ! Humanity OX-HOUSE. 137 Humanity ought, and felf intereft well underftood, at (ome time or other, will induce the ere£ling boufes for cattle. The like motives ought to make mea- dows, provide great quantities of good food, and pro- portion the cattle to the means of keeping them fo as to have as many, and no more than as many as can be comfortably kept in good heart. Numbers ef cattle well kept, give the dung requilire for im- proving and prefcrving the productive powers of the ground. Some account is already given of the houfes and method of keeping cattle in (lalls, by Mr. BakeweU and farmers in Pennfylvania. The great difference, befides, in the American and the European modes of winter keeping live- ftock, is in the Europeans giving with dry food, roots or juicy food ; which the Americans generally negleft, whereby their cattle become colilve and hide-bound. The Englilh give turnips, the Ger- mans drank. Mr. Toung gives an account of an ox-houfe, which in England is reckoned very complete. The owner, a Mr. Moody, keeps 26 beafts, each in a flail 8 htt wide for large oxen^ 6 feet for fraaller. How dif- ferent from Mr. Bakeivell^s of the fame country; which are Halls 6 feet for i%vo cows, 8 k^i for i-icq bulls. 158 OX-HOUSE. bulls.* Mr. Moody's has at the head of each flail, a fquare manger, for hay put in through a window in the wall oppofite to the bead's head. The hay- ftacks are in a yard at the back of the building ; fo that the feed of hay is taken from the flack, and at one ftep put into the manger. On one fide the hay is a fmall flone ciflern, as a trough to eat oil-cake out of. On the other fide is another flone ciflern for water ; which is thus fupplied : outfide the houfe is a pump which raifes the water into a ciflern, ex- actly on a level with all thofe that receive water for the oxen. A pipe of lead leads from this pump ciflern to all the others in the houfe ; fo that it may be feen by the height of water in the pump ciflern, how high it is in all the refl. The houfe is fhut quite up. In tlje doors are holes to let in air : but flidins: fhutters exclude it at pleafure. At one end of the houfe is a Imall room for oil-cakes, and a ftove with a broad iron top, for laying on the cakes to be heated a little for breaking. A block flands by it, on which the cakes are broken. Mr. Moody is lingular in the practice of fvveating cattle, for promoting their fattening. He fays, the hotter they are kept the better they will fatten. He * Mr. Bakewell kept beafts : Mr. MooJy fattened them. Does this occafion the difference ; or is it not an error, ia applying 8 and 5 feet ftalls lo Jingle beafts I CATTLE KEPT, Efff. 1 59 He fliuts them up, and for forae time lets in no air through the holes of the doors. The breath of fo many and the heat of their bodies, foon bring them to fvveat prodigioufly ; and when this is at its height, they fatten beft and quickefl. After fweating two weeks, the hair all comes off and a frefli coat comes, like that in the fpring : after which they fweat no more. He adds, thofe beads which do not fweat at all fcarcely ever fatten well. His beafls are a large fort, from So to 130 ftone.* He gives to thofe of 100 Hone, two oil-cakes a day for two months : then three, till fat : alfo 2olb. of hay each a day; of which they eat only the prime part. Lean beafls are kept on their offal hay. Such a beafl in winter fattening eats above 30 dollars worth ; but he improves in value more than to that amount. There is a great difference between keeping and fattening. Mr. Bal<:ewell keeps : Mr. Moody fat- tens : and there is much difference in the expenfe of fummer fattening on grafs, and fattening on winter food. In America, we keep cattle through the winters, on ftraw, maize fodder, and hulks, giving them wa- ter ; "* 1 1 00 to 1 800 ft) ; or 280 to 450ft) a quarter: or is it meant a done of lefs weight by the cuflom of tlie place : Such deviations fupported by local cuftqms are perplexing. i6o CATTLE KEPT, '^C. ter ; and fatten on hay, and cut flraw with mdl ; or as in Maryland, with maize fodder and broken ears of maize, in the ivinter : on grafs in fummer. It is requilite that they have fait very frequently ; efpecially when tied up : and it is a good way when made up with fine clay into a firm mafs, to be lick- ed at pleafure, as in the wild flate beafls lick earth, in fpots, for obtaining fait. Oil cake is faid to be a great fattener, and on experiment has been proved to give doubly rich dung; but becoming dear, linfeed jelly is taking place of it in England. This jelly is a valuable dif- covery j and ought to be apphed in America, for fattening cattle, if not alfo fheep.* Hay, meal, and linfeed jelly with drank, muft be excellent food in ftall-fattening. Linfeed jelly is thus made : 7 of water to i of fiaxfeed deeped in a part of the water 48 hours : then add the remaining water cold, and boil gently 1 hours, ftirring conilantly to prevent burning. It is cooled in tubs, and given mixed with any meal, bran and cut chaiF. Each bullock (large) has two quarts oi jelly a day : equal to a lit- tle more than one q,uart of feed in four days. Cattle fix * Srfammm Oil, by the negroes m Carolina called B^mu oil, is faid to fatten tsr/fs near the Nile, in latitude 14" rorth. Eit)\TOe*s Travels. This plant gives the ^eateft portion of oil ; and may anfwer inltead of Linfeed. Ne^oes eat Benni Oil mixed in their meifes :made with Indian n:?al. OF CATTLE, SHEEP " AND HOGS. l6l fix or feven years old fatten moft advantagcoufly to the grazier. Their furamer grazing is commonly but a preparation to ftall-fattening. Obfervatio?ii on Cattle, Sheep, arid Hogs* In judging of the preference to be given to differ- ent kinds of cattle, fize is far from being of the firfi: confideration. Their being a large kind implies bulk rather than charader. It may be prefumed the mafs of meat and bone contained in three beeves^ gene- rally requires no more food than the fame quantity in one beef. But there is a rage in America for large horfes, large cattle, large iheep, large hogs ; whe- ther they are more or lefs docile, aftive and produc- tive of net income, or are kept and fattened at more or lefs cofl or not. This formerly was a diilemper of the mind among farmers in England j of which they have been cured by experience and the obfer- vations and communications of ingenious invefliga- tors on the nature and qualities of the feveral breeds refpcfting ufe and net projit. The common cow-kind of Maryland are valuable ; as they are hardy, feed cheaply, yield milk of good quality and in quantities if houfed and ivell kept ia winter, are docile, laborious, and give a fine grain- ed good meat, with a due proportion of tallow. But being in common very meanly Iiepr, they want L Hze 1^2 CATTLE. lize. When well fed and houfed, they are of a good fize for all ufcful purpofes. Northward of the Sufquehanna, this old breed is moilly fupplanted by new kinds, imported from Europe and valued more for their great fize and heavy appearance than good qualities. They have large bones with a deep flat-Cded but maiTy appear- ance, and their fore-quarters arc heavier than their hind ; in fome breeds amazingly fo : which indicates their keeping and fattening hardly and collly ; be- jides that their meat is coarfe and they are difpro- portioned in their weight of bone. The old breed of the country have the fore and hind quarters ■weighing nearly alike : mine at Wye had the hind- quarters a few pounds heavier than the fore. What a contrafi to this is the weight of the quarters in beeves foraetimes killed in Philadelphia ! The com- mon weights of my — » iVy e czXllt, from grafs, the fore quarters . 122, hind 124 A Ph'ilttd. ox, highly fed from a calf, . 403 280 The famous Blackwell ox has been reckoned the fined though not the heaviefl beafl ever killed in England. His hind quarters weighed more than the fore^ nearly in the proportion of the old breed in Maryland. His legs were very fmall-boned and neat. CATTLE. 1^3 neat, according to the pifture and account of him publilhcd. — This Blackwell, not Bakewell, fine boned ox weighed thus : The two fore-quarters 1057^ hind-quarters 1067 2124 How very different from thefe are the huge lub- berly beads, once in falhlon in England and now becoming fo in America ! which are imported into ditFerent parts of it. One of that chara£ler was kill* ed in England, under five years old : a ihort -horned, big-boned clumfy bead ; and weighed. The two^or^-quarters iio7tb /j/W-quarters 924 2031 A big-boned deer, killed in Philadelphia, weighed, The two/orf -quarters 805^ Z'/W-quarters 560 : and A big-boned deer in New-Jerfey, The two^r^-quarters 7581b. /jind-qu3iTters 525* The Maryland old breed if ^-dlfid and fnsliersd, TPOuld be a good fize : and if cautioudy raised with L ii other i64 CATTLE. Other breeds, the mofl ufeful and produElive of net income, would be improved. But it is with much caution that we fliould admit other breeds. There are better ; and certainly there arc much ivorfe, A Mr. Fowler, in England, with great care and judgment, changed for the better; in chieflyintro- ducing Mr. Bakeweli*s long-horned beef cattle : which are not {o remarkable for great fize or quan- tity of milk though very r'tch^ as for their giving meat on the parts which fell for the mofl money bj the pound y>-^;» a given quantity cffood ; and for their fattening on lefs food, and that on the mofl valuable parts. The horns of the few I have fcen, though Jong were very llim : either hanging downward, or {landing wide nearly at right angles to the cheeks. Yet the experienced Mr. B.:keivell allows for fuch cattle but fix feet width of ftalls for two cows, three feet each ; and eight feet for two bulls. More room he faid would admit of their turning and dirty- ing each other. The young cows, lean, appeared to mc like racers compared with the heavy big-boned cattle coming into falhion in America. There may be breeds preferable for American farms to Mr. BakewelPs valuable cattle ; efpccially the Sujfex old red, Suffolk polled, and the Hereford breeds : but /"/ r Jimins to be afcertained by experience, Mr. Toung, fpcalung of Suffolk cows, fays the quan- tity CATTLE. 165 ti'ty o^milk they give exceeds that oF any other breed he has met with, and there Is hardly a dairy of any confideration in the county of Suffolk which has not cows giving early in June, eight gallons of milk a day ; and fix arc common among many for a large part of the feafon ; and five gallons a day medium in a whole dairy for two or three months. It is alfo [ obfcrved by him, that this breed is much inclined lo fatten, and the milk excels in richnefs as well as being abundant.* Yet after Mr. Young had faid this, and had kept of the Suffolk breed, and was well acquainted with Mr. Bakewell and his breed of cattle many years, he purchafed for his own farm, a bull and two cows of the Sujfea old breed, having had a great deal of riding in fearch for the pureft of that breed ; they being eflecmed excellent for milk^ for beef, and for oxen. He gave about fifty guineas for the bull and two heifers, which were the beft he could • Lord Egremont has a Chinefe cow ; which gives milk fm- gularly rick. One pint of it, on experiment, yielded as much butter (4 ounces) as /even pints of the milk of a Sujfcx co'w ; both vrere churned directly from the cows ; \rithout being fet for cream. This Chinefe cow is defcribed as being fmaller than any Aldemey cow ; feems very fat ; and as clean in the chap as a deer. This fa cd when killed and cleaned, odds of 3700^ : an extraordinary inftance ! But, it is faid by farm.crs in Pennfylvania, that lumps of fat of the coarfe flabby meat hogs fooneft cloy labourers. This may continue to be an irrefifli- ble known : and it is daily coming more in fafhion and efteem. Even whilfl growing it may be eaten as a grafs, by cows. Its meal muft be excellent in drank, and for working horfes, mixt witli cut ftraw : for hogs, at firft dufted on potatoes, afterwards potatoes with maize meal ; and in all fwill and 'utajb : alfo for poultry : but is never to be given to faddle or travelling horfes ; nor to horfes or oxen when to be put to brilk work. It injures foil lefs than other corn ; and is the jnoft excellent Jbehtr to grafs or clover, fown at midfummer. Scarcely any thing equals it as a green dreffing manure — the plants plowed in before they produce any feed j and it is the cheapeft plant fo applied. ¥10GS, 18^ ble motirc with fome clafles of folks ; \\lien to others it will be difgufting and contemptible. Yet if we can oppofe the yijtb hog by one of 716, though it ihould be a mafs of inferior meat, we (hall have a fomething to give us confcqucnce — the bigggst hog ! At a Ni(i Prius court, in Maryland, a perfon was introduced to me, whofe horfe had lately won a race. This victory, as I was told, recom- mended him, though not before thought of, as being qualified to reprefent the people in their legiflature. An eleftion foon followed ; and the horfe — if you pleafe his influence carried the eleftion for his mafter, all hollow. So might 7 1 6 of even the coarfeft flabby pork fucceed againfl 715 of better meat. Quality is too /ittle attended to. The 19 An. 291, fays wean pigs in nine weeks: fell fucking pigs at three or four weeks old : wean in March, and not later than July : litters average feven pigs ; of which live are raifed, after all ha- zards : and that in four months, feventy fat hogs gave ! 06 loads of dung ; they taking that time to fatten. In Maryland they are fattened on maize given in ears, in little more than two months, from fome time of 0£tober, and kiiled loth to 20th De- cember ; weighing 150 to 200, after eating feven or cisht bulhels of maize piven them in the ears : with which no food in Maryland, is found compara- ble for giving firir.nefs to their fat. It is good ceo- noray i8$ Hoo»* nomy to pen them for fattening, the firfl: of Oftober, eipecially where maft is not an obje£l. They thrive bell in a miJd feafon ; and the bacon may be early cured, before thr approach of fpring and warm wea- ther. Salt is not given them that I know of; but I would offer it to them ; to be taken or not at their pleafurc, and not force it on them mixed among their food. Why do fows fometimes eat their pigs, though abounding with food r Is it for want of commonjhlt that they feek to find the condiment in the animal juices ? The offal of milk is to be given to weaning-pigs, andyoifj that have young pigs : and the number of young pigs Just iveaned, andyWvr having young pigs that can be rnaintained by the dairy. Ihould regulate the number of hogs kept, and the food provided ac- cordingly. In other words there fliould be fuch a fuccejfimi in the litters, that the J^im-mi/k, butter-milk and Cheefe-whey, may never be applied to other ufe than feeding fuch young pigs, dnid/oius that have pigs. Ten cows may yield of fuch food, enough for keep- ing ten pigs, to be puihed forward into hogs. But, in fome months the food will be deficient, and in other months faperabundant. To make the moil of fuch food, feed the pigs from out of Cisterns in w^hich the milk is preferved. As I under/land it, offal-milk and cheefe-whey are kept cool in Cisterns under ground (fo is water kept for years, though stagnant.) There MAIZE AND POTATOES, ^C. 189 There the heat is temperate ; perhaps about 52. and the milk that is excluded from the external air is lit- tle apt to become putrid. If it ferments, yet it goes not beyond the acidulous (late ; in which it may keep a long while ; and common fwill from grain, is known to be the bed for fwine, when it becomes four. At any time, if there be more of offal milk than is wanted for the pigs, pour the overplus into the cistern. Maize and Potatoes confidered as Fallow Crops and Fattening Materials. In eflimating and comparing different materials for feeding live-flock, the value of the rent and culture expended for procuring them, and the condition in which the foil is left by the culture and crop, ought to be confidered. When potatoes are cultivated under manurings and repeated horfehoing or fhimming, and then are plowed up and hoed out, the high (tate in which the ground is thereby left, preparative to a fucceeding crop, pays for cultivating the potatoes. The ground is left in the befl: condition for receiving barley and cltyver feeds in the fpring. Wheat cannot follow po- tatoes to advantage, in Maryland, becaufe of the latenefs of the feafon. But it feems juft that the expenfe of cultivating and preparing the ground, (hould be apportioned between the crops ; becaufe 190 MAIZE AND POTATOES AS as it is nccciTary that the cultivation {hould he given for gaining a good potatoe crop, it is equally i'o for gaining a good barley crop ; and both partake of it. Add the country value of both crops together, and afcertain the apportionment arithmetically. The cultivation given to maize alfo leaves the ground clean and light for receiving feed-wheat or other crop. It however is far inferior to the pre- paration given in cultivating potatoes. No manure or but little is given the maize ground ; and it is left in hillocks and finks. Apportionments are alfo to be made of the expenfe between maize and wheat crops. When maize ground is manured, it is befl not to fow wheat on it ; but leaving it a clean fallow till the fpring, then (perhaps after adding more manure between autumn and fpring) fow barley and clover feeds. Wheat is to be fowed upon plowing in this clover. Cultivating ten acres o^ poiatces may coft, dollars 36.60 ; and it prepares the ground for a crop o^ bar- ley, to follow the potatoes. What portion oi the coft ought to be charged to the refpe£tive crops ? The value of the potatoe and the barley crops is to be feverally afcertained. The potatoes produced by ten acres are 1700 bufhels, at 1^ cents they amount FOOD AND FALLOW CROPS* 191 amount to 255 dollars ; and the barley, 300 bufliels, at 60 cents, to 180 dollars : together 435 dollars. Then, D. C. as 435 : 36.60 : : 155 = 2 1 .50. the apportionment on the coH oi potatoes, as 435 ; 36.60 : : 180 = 15.10, the apportionment on larky,. So on the culture of the ^o acres of viahe, the produce, 750 buihels, at 50 C. amounts to 375 dol- lars ; and the wheat fown on it produces 600 buQiels, ■ at 100 cents, amounting to 600 dollars: together gy^ dollars. The coft of cultivating the 50 acres of maize is 250 dollars. Then, D. C. as 975 : 250 : : 375 = 96.1 1 apportionment of coft on maize: as 975 : 250 v: 600 = I53'89 apportionment of coft on 'whsa't. It is faid, a hog of 2241b is fattened in 60 days with 24 buihels of potatoes and one bufliel of meal. At which rate a hog of i6olb would require 17 bu(h. of potatoes, and 4^ of a bufliel of meal. An acre ought to yield not lefs than 200 bufliels of potatoes ; fay 17c, and of maize 15 bufhels. Potatoes are befl when boiled or fleamed ; but the water in which they are boiled, is noc to be given to the hogs ; it being thought unwholefome. One hundred hogs weighing each 1 60!*), fattened with 1 7 bufticls of potatoes and near three pecks of 192 MAIZE AND POTATOES AS meal, each, will eat altogether 1700 bufliels of po- tatoes, the produce of tea acres, and 70 bulliels of meal, the produce of 4^4 acres : together 14-^!^ acres. llie 100 hogs, if fattened with 7ibu(hels of maize, each, would eat 750 buihels of corn the produce of fifty acres. See then the difference between fattening with /o- iatces and with maize. An expenfe in rent and cul- ture is paid on 50 acres, for producing the requifite quantity of maize ; when the rent and culture for producing the potatoes with a dufting of meal, are only on I4j^ acres : and, i4^acresof/>(//a,'e.'/ and »nr?v 1.:.. Sowed the fouth end on maize ground, after it was harrowed fat, under furrow ; which formed h,eds. The refl: left gently rounded by harrowing, was alfo fawn under furrow; and left in moderate ridges. Result — ■- — yuly 1786. The beds gatve plants equally ftout from the very edg.es, quite acrofs them. The ridgrs gave plant® inferior about the edges* Queflion — Are ridges or beds to be preferred ? — JBeds are by this trial. (A) (A) The maize had been thrice plowed yro;;z the plants, twice fo them ; which left the ground rather loweft near the maize, and higheft in the intervals. A harrowing immediately before fowlng did not quite level it. The wheat fown on this and plowed in, * This viethod of reglftering experiments is taken from Mr. Jylarjhal. And the experiments here inferted are from adual proceedings on my farm at Wye in Maryland. IN MARYLAND. ^1$ in, and the water furrow or clofing furrow being formed by a double mould-board plow dipt deep, left the wheat on flat beds of foil equally deep at the edges as in the middle : and the water furrow be- tween bed and bed carried off redundant rain. — Other part of this maize ground, was twice plowed ffom and twice to the plants. This alfo laid the ground well, and the wheat grew nearly as ft out on thefe low ridges (nearly beds) a very little raifed above the water furrow, as on the above beds : ex- cept that fome of the field, having the lands more raifed, was formed into ridges which every where ihewed weak wheat at their edges. My idea of bed« and ridges is, where the lands are rounded down on each fide to nothing at the water furrow, they arc ridges : water drowns the edges, and the foil is there /hallow : but where the edges are abru^ (nearly up^ right like ftrawberry beds) whether the lands are a little raifed in the middle or are quite flat, they arc beds, whofe edges are raifed above the water in the furrows, with a foil more equal in depth from edge acrofs to edge. The endeavour is to have the beds quite ^^/. In reaping ridges, on the right hand at entering the fickle, and on the left at going out, the reapers drop many heads of wheat, which are loft : in reaping on beds^ they cut evenly as the bed and its wheat range. WHEAT ■^t6 rEXPXRIMENTS! WHEAT SOWING. No. II. MiDFIELD. 2j; ?3-b^ FjiOCESs Septemberiy^$. Eight lands, each 250. yards long, 7 feet wide, (In- cluding water furrows) w ere plowed into ridges, har- rowed, fowed and harroived in : eight others florjced in : thefe were alternately repeated through feveral acres. The whole equally and highly cultivated to 5 plowings, 3 harrowings, and a rolling. Result July 1786. "^ All very fine : not the lead difcovcrable difference, on repeated clofe infpe£^ion by different people. Queftion Is under furrow or over furrow befl? Equal in this clean, mellow, ridged or raifed ground. (A) (A) With great prejudices againft harrowed-in wheat, I was agreeably furpvrifed to find this har- rowed-in equal to the plowed-in ; or over furrow equal to under furrow. Harrowing in, is not un- common in the peninfula of Chefapeak (evidently ufed for difpatch) : but their fallows, fo called, be- ing twice rather flovenly plowed, are feeded in fo foul XK MARVLAND. Zlf foul and imperfea a ftatc, that harrowing In the feed proves greatly inferior to careful plowing in ; from deficiency of preparative culture, as it feems. Their fallows are generally full o£ tufts and hard weeds, which fcratchings with plow or harrow cannot re- duce. Even when fuch flrong weeds are turned in together with the feed wheat, they keep the ground hollow; which is a ^ifadvantageous ftate of the ground to a good wheat crop — there is a want of firmnefs— -of compaftnefs in the foil ; from whence it is that even the richeft fand-land gives fraall crops of wheat. But as rye yields bed in light land, a clay foil might for rye be the better, fo kept hollow by ftrong weeds. My hope now is, that it will be found on clean, mellow, well tilled land (no feed ought to be on other') harrowing in will generally prove to be equal to plowing in wheat. If it fliould not, yet I ihould feel deteftation in ufing that method of covering wheat, merely for the fake of a ftiort cut. From a pra£tice in the Fork of Gunpowder, in Ma- ryland, where poor tenants often fowed rye upon ftubble and then plowed it in (the foil a clay loam) it was faid to give better crops qf rye than when fowed on fallow. Upon fallow, they faid, the clay ground foon becomes too clofe for rye : but, when fown on ftubble, the stubble gives the ground an ar- tificial opcnnefs when it is plowed in. Yet query, of this fuppofed fuperiority, if it is not an apology for indolence, or want of ability to fallow the ixS EXPERIMENTS gronnd ? But it is faid, we have not time— have noC force for ploivin^ it in : alas ! *tis too true, whilft wc feel not the value of fpirited exertion on critical oc- cafions, or aim more at riddance than perfection. That famenefs of motion we are ufed to indulge in, is much againfl ftout crops. WHEAT SOWING. No. III. MlDFIELD, PROCESS September 1785. South end, fown in broad Jiat lands, and in ridges y feet wide (^including water furrow) fingk and double. A north and fouth direftion. The whole five times plowed, thrice harrowed and once rolled ; •—under furrow. Result July iy86. The preference very flriking : my overfeer won- dered at it. The ridges much better than the broad lands. Queftion Are broad flat lands, or ridges pre- ferable ? Ridges are in this inflance of a very level field. (A) (A) The foil, a good clay loam ("wheat land) ly- ing pretty dry and level. The lingle raifed ridges were (» a part of the field which was rather lower than IN MARYLAKDi lY^' than where the double ridges were : from whence, being wetter, the wheat intheni was inferior to the latter. By Tingle and double ridges is meant raifed fo often by the plowings — increafed in height, not in breadth. WHEAT SOWING. No. TV. MlDFl.ELD. PnocESs—'-'Septembcr 1785. Six acres fown in ridges N. and S. — the reft with mod of Afhfield^ fown in ridges and beds, E. and W.— *Mbft of the ridges were fingle : forae double^: » few triple. Result July i/Sfi^ The north lides of the E. and W. ridges were uni- verfally inferior to the S. lides. This difference was greater in the double ridges than in the fingle ;.andt very little wheat or flraw grew on the N. fide of the triple ridges. Queftion— Are ridges in a N. and S. or E. and" W. direction preferable? North andfouth. (A) (A) The beds fcarcely (hewed any difference be- tween, their N. and S. fides, la fome fituations it may^ be neceffary to fow in an.E. and W. dire£tion .;: and then beds ; not ridges Ihould efpecialiy be made. ROLLING «5« EXPERIMENTS R OLLING. No. V. Sanfield. Process — April 1786. Fifteen acres in clover were rolled with a hea\7 roller, early in the month in a moift ftate of the ground. Rains in May prevented mowing it till June. Soil a clay-loam. Result — August 1786. The growth from April contmually inferior to dovcr in a near field, fown and every way managed as this ; except its not being rolled. The foils alike ; and till the rolling, the growth of both was equal, and equally promiling. ' Queftion — Is rolling clover in the Jpring advanta- geous ? It is difadvantageous, as feems from this com- parifon, on a moist clay-loam. WHEAT SOWING. t ■ No. VI. MiDFIELD ASHFIELD. Process — September 1785. Sown in ridges and beds, feven feet wide, inflead of 5-i- as heretofore water furrow included : 200 acres. Result IN MARYLAND. 221 . Result — July 1786. The 200 acres were reaped in 12 days with 23 fickles ; with as much eafe as the fame hands and number of fickles were ufed to reap them in 12 days on 54 feet ridges and beds. Queftioh— Are fields fown in 5I feet lands, or 7 feet lands preferable, for reaping whpat ? Equal, by this trial. (A; ^ CA) It was an agreeable furprife to find the field in feven feet lands was reaped and fecured in as fliort a time as formerly when in 5!^ feet lands ; thefe narrow lands being efteemed beft with fmgle reapers. But a flrong and a weak hand joining to cut down the wheat of a broad land, performed it with great eafe. Strong reapers cutting lands feparately from weak ones, often flop for them j whilfl the weak ones, hurrying to get up to the flrong, wafle wheat ; but when they join to cut the fame land, the flrong reaper readily takes the greater width of the land, and they keep together. By their more orderly proceeding, and not over reaching, as fometimes on fingle lands is the cafe, they avoid cutting off heads without flraw, where the fickles ^nter or quit the fides of the ridges. My wheat was now cut cleaner and better faved, with lefs hurry than ufual on fin- gle or narrow lands. The reapers were men, wo- men, A2a JEXP£RIMENTS. men, boys and well grown girls. The bed reaper and the worft took a land ; a fecoiid beft and worft .aootber land ; then two middling hands a third land ; irom whence a fteadinefs and evennefs of work un- .ttfual. WHEAT SOWING. No. MI. Eastfield. PsocLSB'-^Sepiember 1 7 56. Sowed under furrow, rather wet ; the foil left ia clods. Every alternate four lands, each 7 feet wide, was harrowed after plowing in the wheat j the other -four left unharr owed. The refult cannot be fbted till after the harvcft X)f next year, 1787. At prefent November 17S5, as in September and 0£lober, what "R-as harrowed after plowing in, {hews wheat of much the bed appearance. The great fallow harrow proved too coarfe : the triangular maize harrow, with pointed or nearly chifel teeth, performed well in t^Xi bouts 10 each rid^e of feven feet width* c^' Tbougbts PRINCIPLES or, fsfc, aa3 Thoughts on the Nature and Principles of Vegetation,* The earth preferves plants in their place : and contains water combined with panicles of matter that promote their growth, and which the water conveys to the plants, at the fame time that itfclf is a diluent to them. The earth and the atmofphere, even in the dried feaibus, contain moifture, which includes fuch matter, however minute the parts and proportions. The foil, then, bclides fupporting plants in their vertical or proper pofition, and the atmofphere imparts water with its nutritive combi- nations to plants, as a food to tliem. The earth and the atmofphere may be confidered as magazines of the food of plants. The one gives it immediate- ly to the roots ; the other to the leaves. Different kinds of foil fuit different plants : Co which hufbandmen and gardeners are attentive as a faft known from experience. I know of no foil incapable of producing ufeful plants. We have a poor earth, a whitifh clay, which though of a fine grain and not hard appears remarkably dry, at times when you would expe£l it fliould • The purport of anfwers made to queiies fele.5led from a paper of the Board of Agriculture, in London, an Dried in an oven i$\ Moiflure evaporated 2I But it is more agreeable to confider it by the bufliel. Then, a bujhel of this fait would weigh, be- fore it is wafhed, 78^ — when dried, in an oven, be- fore it ii wafhed, as below, 7 1 Moifture evaporated 7!^ A bufliel wajhed and left moht 561b* as above ; when dry 51 fc pure. — Inferior fait, obtained from thewafliings, dry 15 -66^ for ufe. —dregs, dirt, bittern and flack ; and thrown away in /kimming Total grofs dry fal t, as above, 7 1 ^ 7itb dry; grofs. (i^ dry; fit for ufe, after being waflied: of which 15* inferior. 5tb, lofl in ikimming, dregs, &c. The i5fe of ordinary, and much inferior (lilt, were recovered by boiling down the water which drained 268 FAMILY SALT, drained through the mafs of fait in the box, after it had flood to be clear.* An * Tlie box ufed for wafhing the fait, had been applied to fikrlng malt-wort in brewing family beer. In one of which proceffes, not thinking of fuch an eflped:, I was furprifed to fee, on pouring fair water on the fand in the box, the day after wort had been ftrained through it, in order to wafli the fand, that the wort, prefled on by the column of water, ran off for a while quite rich in the extraft of malt ; and then, all of a fudden, the water followed, with fcarcely any apparent mixture of the two fluids. The ufe of this fand filtre to wort, fuggefted the benefit that might be derived from fome fuch contrivance In purifying the ordinary water drunk in fome parts of the country : and the fad, of horfes running on fand iflands on the coad of Maryland and Virginia and fcooping holes in the beach on the fea fide, when the tide falls, and thereby procuring frefli water, led me to defign a hox of tubes vibrating in a fpace of about fix feet fquare, fo as to admit of 50 or 60 feet of filtration tlirough fand ; tliere- by I hoped that frefli water might be obtained from fea-water poured into a refervoir, as a head, and paffing 54 feet do-^-n, then as many up, and fo on to the end of the tubes ; fome- what like the afcent and defcent of water, in ebbing and flowing of the tides, through the fand on the fea-fhore : and if it Ihould fail of procuring frefh water from fea-water, yet it would be an excellent filtering machine, for clarifying fpring-water. — Since writing the above, the experiment has been made ; and a total failure to obtain frefh water is the refult. The horfes may difcover fpots where frefli water oozes out of the beach. And noAv I aik myfelf, how can Jand pofllbly decompofe fait water ? FAMILY SALT. 269 An objeftion is made by country people to bay- fait, as being " too ftrong.*' Strong of what ? too flrong of fait ? If a buQiel of %-falt weighs 84^, and a bufliel of blown-hXx. weighs but $6"^ ; and a bufhel of the %-falt is applied to the fame weight of meat, for which they find a bufliel of the blown is fufEcient, the former mud then fupcr- abound as 84 to 56 : and thus it is that meat is fometimes " overfalted and hardened,'* If the large gi-ained fait be ground down to the fize of fmaller fait, meafure for mcafure will be nearer to an equa- lity of fubftance, in both kinds of fait j but weight for weight will be flill nearer. Cents, ao b. of bayizXt at 841b. = l68olb. at 80 c. p. 841b. or a bufli. . 1600 ao b. of i/ow/;-falt, j61b. =1120, at 80 c p. 561b. or bufh. 1600 Difference 560, at 80 c. p. ditto • '800 2400' So that 80 cents worth of %-falt, performs as much as 120 cents worth of blown'{d\\. ; and the lat- ter, though it contains more of the bad fubflances, cofls 50 per cent more than the former, for making pickle. For dry-falt'mg the cofl of grinding would be a trifle ; which in pickling is (lived. It is faid by Lord Dundonald, that the diflblved magneflal fiilts drop out : but what comes of the ■/, - of * Two figures on the right hand, in atiy fttm of cent u hemg dotted off, all on the left are dollars. C/O FAMILY SALT. of fait in the folution ? Is this 4o attached to the general mafs of fait, whilft the water of the folution carries down the magneCal dregs ? If it is fo attach- ed, there is no waiie of, the -^V of diffolved fait. Chemifts, I believe, countenance the fuppofition that the fait in the folution, attaches to the mafs of undiflblved fait, whilil the dregs continue united with the water, and are carried off by it. Although the common rule for making pickle, that it fhould bear an egg, may anfwer for fome purpofes, as where the thing pickled is for early ufe, yet for making 2i full and true pickle, fufficicnt- ly flrong for preferving meat, fifh and butter during a long voyage, it is prefumable that the folution ought to be boiled down till the fait begins to cry- flallize ; which is difcovered by a fine fcum on the top of the liquid, whilil it is flill over the fire. The water is then faturated with fait, and the pickle is . perfe£l. It would be a fortunate circumflance if houfe- wives, butter-makers and falters, were impreffed with a warm convi£tion of the very important fupe- riority of the Dutch refined fait, over our grofs im- pure/alt, and even over the Britijh refined fait ! the effect of which fuperiority is f]:rikingly evident in the fuperior condition of their barreled filh. I have compared Dutch falted herrings with Britifli. The Britilh BUTTER. 271 Britifli herrings were fine and large : far fuperior to the American ; and were clean and well preferved : but the fuperiority of the Dutch herrings, though fmaller than the Britifh, was great in the neatnefs^ and efpecially in the fai'or — Their filh, with the pickle, were a perfume. BUTTER. The following method of making butter has been recommended, from the practice of a butter maker near Philadelphia : though feveral particulars of the procefs are omitted, as not being remembered. The chiuTiing was in the evening ; and when the butter was come, the milk was drained off; and then the mafs of butter was put in a wooden tray or bowl ; and a good quantity of fine fait was thrown over it, to remain undifturbed in a cool place till morning. In the morning it was again drained, and daflied with cold water for wafliing off the remaining fait and milk.* It may be next dried by a foft cloth taking * Dafhing on water, and dien without paufe, clearing the butter from every particle of water, is widely different from wafhing butter by kneading and letting it remain at all in the water. Very good butter for colour, flavor and confiftence, is made by one who wafhes it twice, but never lets it remain in the water a moment. Another butter maker fays, mix //v fait in the lutter in the evening, and let it rejl till the morning ; then work out the liquor ; but never let it be once touched with water. 2/2 BUTTER. taking up the remaining moiflure ; and without ever wetting it again, flowly work it, and put it up for ofe. The bell butter I ever faw-, had never at all been wet with water ; as I was fatisfaftorily affured. The following method of potting butter is pro- mising without my knowing of it beiog practifed : Bed common fait t^o parts Sugar one part 5^/ peire one part : beat them together, blend- ing them completely. One oance of the mixture, for every pound of butter, is well worked into the butter ; which is then put up clofe for ufe. — It is £ud, a comparative exj>eriment has been made of it, with butter only falted ; and its fuperioricy was great: — That cured with the mixture being of a rich marrowy confiilence, and fine colour, never having a brittle hardnefs, nor tafle of fait : and at three years old it is found perfectly fweet. — It is to ftand 3 or 4 weeks before it is ripe for ufe : the falts will not be fooner blended, i Rep. Freih butter in balls, placed in kegs of brine bear- ii^ an egg, probably would not keep long : but, a brine fo weak would admit of the predominant wa- ter rendering the butter rancid ; and might even adnut of maggots in it. But would this be the cafe of a tmefaJI brincy when a little of the fait cryflal- lizinij. BUTTER. 273 lizing, fliews it is at lead equal to the water ? If balls or prints of frefli butter were barreled up with fuch a pickle in tight kegs, perfeftly tight againfl air, would not the butter keep a long while ? And would it be without imbibing the brine ?* It how- ever is known that the Hollanders praiftife a dif- ferent method, with fuccefs. The late Mr. Hill, when he reiided in Madeira fometimes received from Amflerdam prefents of butter in very fmall tighc kegs filled in mafs ; but without any fait or brine. Thefe little kegs were, each one, contained in a keg of flrong brine. On opening the little kegs, the butter was perfectly freJJj, fine in colour^ in taste, and m. fniell : but if not foon ufed, it became infe- rior ; as indeed would frefli butter made on ihe fpot, on being expofed to air and heat. This gentleman alfo received compliments in fafted herr'.ngs of the coafl of Norway, which were very fine. He ob- ferved that large grains of fait abounded among the herrings ; and fuppofcs they tend to preferve the fifti, from the cool nature of fait; : but it is proba- ble they were firfl (truck and cured with fine grain- ed fait. S " Butter * Collins on Salt and Fillieries, an. 16S2. p. 138, fays thac he made fuch very jiroug brins ; and in May potted up lumps o^ frejb bulter, bought ut market. Near the end of Septem- ber the brine had eat through the pot ; and then the butter was put to .family u.e ; it being fweef, frejh, gf^od and \\d\ Li.'kd. Tlie lumps of butter were kept funk in the brine. 2/4 BUTTER. " Butter is fent from the Crim and the Kuben to Consianti?7ople, without being falted : but it is melt- ed in large copper pans, over a very flow fire, and whatever rifes is fkimmed off. It keeps two years, fine tailed. Wafliing does not fo effeftually free butter from the curd and butter-milk, as boiling or melting. Salting the butter fo melted and iliiramed is the befl method of prcferving butter. Melting and boiling it down with care, does not difcolour or injure the tafle.'* Nich. Journ. II. p. ^^6. But it is apprehended that butter, Jlowly melted and kept hot, without boiling, would be injured by ver- digrife from brafs or copper veffels : if fo, stcne or well tinned veffels may be preferred. Every motion ought to htjicnv in making butter : excepting perhaps in the aft of churning or bringing the butter ; which may be fomewhat briiker, for fpeedily effecting the purpofe. Till the butter is come, there is nolhing, no body^ to be healed, by mere friftion or quick motion. A medium is to be found. The motion in churning may be, and often is too flow. Butter is the better for having never been in wa- ttr, or at all wetted, even in clearing it from bur- ter-miik. If with j7oio motion for mixing it with very -pure fine fait, and flowly preiUng out the but- ter-milk, the butter be never touched with water, but RICE. 275 but inflead of cooling it with water, Ice be placed round and under it, fo however as not to wet it, and all this be done rather on a cold marble table, the butter may be expcftcd to be greatly fuperior;, hi colour, in clofciiefs, and in Jia'vor. But it ought not to be beat, nor even preiTed or fqueezed with ii quick motion. Every motion ought to be Jlozv, m making butter. For getting out the butter-milk, fprinkle it with very fins fait, and after gently mix- ing it in, let it fland awhile before the fluid is to be . . . V difcharged. It is faid, there is no making fine pafle, but on marble tables ; which are cleaner, fiueeter and cooler than any wooden tables ; and that French pailry cooks ufe marble. The reafons are as flrong for nice butter makers ufing marble. A flab of fmooth if not polifned marble, on a flout oaken frame, may be flrfl: made cold with ice ; and a drawer ciofe under the flab, filled with ice, woulJ continue the cold, whiltT: the butter is cleanflng. RICE. The farmers in Jcrfey, Pennfylvania, and Mary- land, have for fome years had fuch dcftru*5lion in their crops of 'n-heat, from the Hejftan-fiy, that they now increafe fome crops and look about for other articles of crop to fupply their lofl^es in wheat. Some increafe their maize culture ; others rye. Tliey might alfo increafe cr introduce barley, buck- S % wlKat^ 2'j6 RICEr wheat, pulfe and hemp crops. As far north as Sufquebanna rice may be tried : perhaps further. But why muft ivheat be culti\^ted ; when fattening numbers of li-ve stock fcr 7narket gives dung, and procures more money than grain can ; and is beft for the ground and beil for the pocket ! fome 'wheat, and for live ftock others of the corns are to be raif- ed : but never let a paffion for wheat reduce the better defign of cultivating live flock for the market, rather than grain for the market ; at leafl not until our lands are reilored to good heart. Sixty years ago, I experienced that rice grew to perfeftion in the dry fandy foil of Annapolis ; and a negro now living with me, has been ufed to grow rice on the loamy foil of South river, near Anna- polis ; the produce whereof was preferred by thofc who bought of him by the quart, to the beft im- ported rice. In 17S1, in a clay loam on upland, in Talbot, Maryland, I grew a garden bed of it, drilled and hoed ; the produce v^'hereof was good in quality and quantity. Rice has been cultivated in Italy from early in the 1 6th century ; but it will fucceed well either on ridi or on poor land ; it requiring a foil of moderate fer- tility. It alfo is faid in Italy that in valleys low and wet, it may be continued a length of time : in light- er and drier foils it requires a change, and is fown everv Rice. '^n every other year; firfl: r/V^, then 'wheat. Sec. old writers recommend the cultivation of r/Ven- ing the S. and N. windows, and the partition doors occafionaJly. The floors of bafement ftories in dwelling houfes, are wholefomer and better vfhai foHd and of the common earth naked or laid with brick, ftone, or cement, than floors laid upon joills over cellars or near the ground. Floors laid on joilis near the ground or over cellars, confine a damp air under them long enough for becoming an unelailic dead air ; which producing a mouldinefs and fmell of vaults, is mixed with the air of the rooms above, ib as to be even fmelt in fome. Delicate people, afed to drv warm houfes of the towns, feldom take a cold on fleeping in log pens or houfes having damp earihen jizurs^ when they travel in the frontier . of the country.* Court * In all CilrMj lays Mr. Faa Braam, the houfes are built tipoD llje "sjoaiid, without aii'f cellar under diem. The apart- ments are paved wuli flat, ^uars bricks ; a thing very agree- able in ^■'fira ^■^atberi bat leii fo in fe\"ere cold weather, unlefs covered widi 'Zi'volkxjcpTpieit. .To defend tfcem from the pinch- ing cold cf vriater, in the northern parts of China j they have fvhiaTaxteas jumjixcit outiide of their houfes, in eicavadons made on pqrpoie ; from Avhesice tvhes branch cS" in all direc- tions, vaiier fhe bricls ofibefiaort, and under a kind of platforms cr eftrades. on vrhich the Chinese ileep. They even p?.li pOUNTRY HABITATIONS. 281 Court houfes and oilier flone or brick buildings, having paved floors, and which are not airy, when fhut up for fome time, contain a foracwhat flagnant unelaftic damp air, -which is alfo unwholefome : but this is not at all the cafe of inhabited, viucb-frcqucnU ed, or airy houfes with folid floors j when the air has fome degree of current, and is all alive. The floor of a bafement ftory may be of brick or flag-fl:one upon the ground, raifed a foot above the common fnrface. The fecond or beft ftory to have its floor laid with rough flrong boards or planks, only three or four inches wide, nailed down acrofs ftrong fliifl'joifts, and covered with a thick bed of a flrong throu-rh the walls which divide the rooms,' fo that the heat diffufed by thefe tubes produces In the apartments the tempe- rature defired. The f re is hept up night and day, in the outer ftove or furnace, without the leaft danger to the buildings ; becaufe a coat of bricks clofely confines the fire . If the apart- ments be fpacious and numerous, an increafed number of ftoves and tubes always infure the fame refult. It is an Import- ant advantage to enjoy, in cold weather, an agreeable heat difFufed through all the apartments of a houfe. It is in thefe places efpecially where thefe outer ftoves are wanting, and where there is a necelTity of having recourfe to brafiers of char- coal, (a kind of chafing dlili or warmer) diat the value of this invention is the moft fenfibly felt. He had before fpoke of die hrajiers or metal velTcls of charcoal, carried about for communicating heat in the apartments." 2 ^'""W Cra.im on China, pa. 65. 282 COUNTRY HABITATIONS. flrong cement, the colour whereof fhould yield to utility.* Carpets may cover the whole. The wafh-boards and furbafe may be of cut ftone or mar- ble. The floor of the third llory to be laid with thick narrow boards and cement as the floor of the fecond ftory ; but the wafh-boards to be of cement rounded off. Cellars to be under a detached build- ing, or tfnder the flaircafe, or fome one room of the principal houfe. Wood is to be avoided as much as poflible. The door and window frames may be of flone or iron, and the doors faced or lined with iron.f The joifts and * Pieces between the joilts fliffen them ; and prevent lateral ■vreaknefs and cracking of the cement. The excellence of the Venetian plqfterjloorst io much admired for their bardnefs and beautiful />c>.V/2), fays Mr, Eaton's Survey, p. 231, depends en- lirelv on their \>€\v.^Jir'jngh I eaten. The compoiition is only frejh Ume and fand (^\^th pieces of marble) ufed almojl dry, and leai till qvite hard, tlien ground even and polifhed. Common earthy as well as lime-moitary acquires an incredible degree of bardnefs by comprcJ-iUHt if it contains no more fnoijiure than is ueceiTary to make its parts unite. A )dni.o£ artificial Jlotievazj be made of gra^oel with 3 little lirne ftrcngly prfj^d, or beaten into mouldi . f In lialj, the doir and -zvindo-iu cafes of dieir houfes being of frcejlone or marlle, ihejiocrs hrici, and the walls of the rooms painted, contribute greatly to the fecurlty of their houfes a^ainft fire. Brook on Italy, p. 236. They fecure doors and window-fhutters agaiull the burglar's faw, by iron inlaid. COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 283 mid boards for the platform roof and floors, alfo for the flaircafe If this fliould be of wood, are to be defended from conta^: of fire by cements. No out- fide cornifh is reqiiifite to a platform roof. Pent- houfes and corniflies of wood, greatly facilitate the progrcfs of fire in confuraing houfes. Many houfes of the ancient civilized world had, and the Afiatic and African houfes on the coaft of the Mediterranean fea, ftill have platform roofs. The houfes in Algiers are fo, and of one height ; fo that the ladies vifit from houfe to houfe and ftreet to ftreet, by walking on the roofs of the houfes.* Platform roofs are cheaper than common ridge-roofs, (hinglcd ; and are fafer againfl fire Infide and out, and againfl: the preflfurc of wind. Moft houfes burnt in country places take fire in the roofs whilfl: the ♦ At yilc^po, the houfes not being burdened widi lieavy clumfy roofs, gives the whole an air of inconceivable neatnels. The roofs are »\\Jliit, and terraced with a hard cement. From each houfe there is a communication witli the terrace above ; by which the Inhabitants of whole ftr.;ets enjoy the fociety of each other ; efpecially in cool plcaf<^.nt evenings, without going mto the flreets. — During the time of the plague, it is particu- larly ferviceable to the Chriftian European inhabitants ; who then Ihut tlieir gates, and never go abroad ; but they enjoy fociety, air and exercife, from the tops of their houfes. Their food is then drawn up in a baflcet, and carefully fumigated and purified, before i;: is made ufc of. i Tayl. Trav. p. 225, pubhliicd in 1799. ;84 COUNTRY HABITATIONS. the family is gone on vifits or to church. Then it is that children or fervants take candles or light-wood to rummage dofets, cuddies, and cock-lofts, which ufually are lumbered with combuflibles : or flakes of burning foot fall on the {hingled roof. A platform roof may be thus conftrucled. Joifls 12 or 13 inches deep at the big end, are to reft on the middle wall, and from thence flope two-tenths of an inch per foot to the fmaller end on the exteri- or wall. Their thicknefs 2^ or three inches. The dillance between them 12 or 14 inches, from centre to centre. Or the joifls may be equally deep from end to end ; and battens which flope are to be fixed on them, for forming the platform roof with the faid degree of flope. Between the joifls, at every five or fix feet, fix to them at right angles, pieces of plank, nearly the depth of the joifls. Thefe would add to their flxength, as fo many braces, preventing their weaknefs laterally.* Stout, rough, narrow boards, 3 or four inches broad, and a full inch thick, are nailed down acrofs the joifls with large nails ; the better if rag- ged. The fun is powerful in drawing nails. On the boards lay a cement an inch or two thick, whilil it is hot in flacking burnt powdered lime-ftone one part, * The joifrs of the floors are alfo to be ftiffened or braced ; for preventing their being liiaken, fo as-to injure die cement cf the fioors. COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 285 part, mixt with clean fand and brick-dud two parts. No more at a time is to be flacked than what the trowels can mix and work up whilfl hot.* When the cement is dry, in a hot funfliine day, with a brufli lay upon it hot tar three or four parts, and o^fjh-oil one part, well mixed together over a gen- tle fire. This coat may be repeated. Forbid walk- ing on it for months after. Fifli-oil corrects tar in hs faculty of letting water through it ; and the mix- ture gives a clofe varniih. After this, lay upon the cement tar and iifli-oil boiled down together till they become half-ituff',\ and lift very coarfe fand or fmall pebbles over the whole. Over this lay more half- stuff, now without oil, and more pebbles without fand. J The * Doffie. In ilacking no more water is ufed than what will well wet through the heap of fand : then to this add and mis up the unflacked burnt limeftone in powder ; and be careful never to drown the mafs for a moment. This fault would be incurable. f What in Maryland arc called inch-planh, are loarJs in Pennfylvania. Tar, long boiled, produces pilch. When tar is but half boiled down, to a medium Ihicknefs, between tar and pitch, it is tlien called half-Jluff. X It may be tried by making a led of fand and pehlles dry, and then levelling it pour on hot tar (or the mixture tar and oil) barely to foak through the bed. So it is, a gentlemar. of Carolina informed me he made beds of a fandy foil, formed fomething higher than the comm.on level cf the ground, for thralhing out hi$ rice crops. With gourds were gradually 285 COUNTRY HABITATIONS. The method ufed for covering platform roofs in New-England, called there compcfition roofs, was lately given me ; and is as follov. -;. *' Fir": boil a compoiition of far Siud pitch, of about bait made ftufFj and let it boil well. Fay over the boards : lay down the paper ^ beginning at the eaves with a dou- ble courfe ; always paying over the firft before the next is laid on. Then lay the next courfe, about one-third to the weather, the fame as fliingling ; and lap each joint one upon the other, about two inches ; and fo on till it is all papered over. Then pay it all over. Now take gravel, about the iize of peas, or a httle fmalJcr, perfectly clear of loam* Put the gra- vel on about half an inch thick ; and having flood two or three days, expofed to the fun, in the cool of the day fweep what will come off in a heap : and then pay it all over again, and put on gravel as before. Then with a wooden roller three feet long and twelve inches diameter, roll it well in the heat of the day ; always adding gravel as it may require. A ftrip of lead half an inch broad is then nailed in the top of the poured upon one of diefe beds, many barrels of hot tar. After a while tlie beds became like ftcr^e. Above fifty years ago, I was fbewn the kitchen of a Captain Lux of Baltimore. It was a houfe which had been ufed for ftonng barrels of tar. The floor was now a compoiition of tar and eartli, and appeared like ftone. I chiefly noticed the fire place, which alfo was a compofition of tar and earth, appearir.g like flone, and was quite incombuftible. So on wharves are feen c/^fpots, where tar had been fpilt, which cannot be burnt. COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 287 the eaves over all, to keep the wind fromralfing the paper. The compofition is always to be put on boilinsr. The roof to have about two inches in three feet more or lefs. The joifts are not to be more than 18 or 20 inches from centre to centre. The boards are to be well jointed, and the joints well broke. When they are nailed down, dub off the joints fair and fmooth.'* Mr. Volney, in his Syria, fays that that people make ufe of a cement thus : " whiifl: the lime is boiling (^according to the tranllation— ^^r/'/w^ I pre- fumc) they mix with it one-third part of fand, and another of aflies and pounded brick-dufl. With fuch a compofition they form wells, ciflerns and vaults, which water cannot pafs through." I am informed this has been tried, from Mr. VoIney*s book, in the weflern country ; and that it anfwers on a platform roof there. Mr. Latrobe permits me to give here the compo- fition of a cement ufed by him, and the manner of applying it to platform roofs. " The floor mud rife about two or three inches in ten feet (two or three tenths of an inch in a foot.) Firfl:, lay a floor upon t\itraften,* of narrow well feafoned plank cut into' fiip<; * On fuch a flat roof are rafters requifite or not.' Joill? ■without rafters may have the proper yZ?/»<' ; v itliout the aid of rafters for thai purpofc. But are not rafters better for rccciv- \ 28S COUNTRY HABITATIONS. flips not wider than four inches, idly. Lay dowa upon the floor with voi/ifig far, a coat o^ Jhe at hing pa- per, fuch as is ufed for Iheathing Ihips. 3d]y. One bufliel pounded chalk, or unjlackedlime ox lime flacked in the air, or o'i loater Jlackcd lime dried and pounded very fine. Two bufliels clean coarje fand, and as much tar as is neceiTary to reduce it to a fubflance that w ill fpread toughly \L'he7i hot. The tar mufh be boiled and the materials gradually mixed with them tilt they are in a proper ilate to lay on the paper. The ftratum may be three quarters of an inch thick. Skreen gravel, fo that the largeil particles may be as big as large fizcd peas, and none much lefs than fwan fhot. Take a i^ery hot day, when the compoil- tion is fomewhat fofiened by the heat of the fun, and with a garden roller, roll in as much of this gravel as it will take. The floor will then be a beautiful pavement, ino^ the unavoidable great weight or prefTure of fnow and ice ? They bear up againft the preihire, in lome meafare as an arch would : and the feet of the rafters place it all directly on the vrall. Not fo of joifts receiving the vreight. — Lengthy ftraight pieces of timber lying horizontally, fwag with their own weight when they reft with each end on a wall : and the great preflure of weight bearing on them from end to end or wall to wall, is increafed in proportion to their length or diftance from the wall. Rafters are certainly requifite where the dif- tance is confiderable and the beft fecuiity is fought. They ought not to be avoided for tlie fake of fo little coft as they would occafion. Indeed, v.-ith rafLcrs, tlie joifts may be fur- ther apirt, or a little fmaller.. COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 289 pavement, and may be worked in mofaick. This covering is fo light, that very little timber is required in the roof." A refifter of water for fome purpofes, is equal parts of rofin, turpentine and bees-'wax ; which ftands any heat not more than 140 degrees of Farenheit. Melt the ingredients together in a pot. When all the volatile oil, which caufes the mixture to rife is diiTipated, apply it hot with a bruili. But it wants body for a roof. Add ochre. In travelling from Philadelphia to Reading there is much of an earth having the caft of red iron-ore, and it occurred that it might be the fame as the re- fifter of water called Pozzolani : but 1 was not well enough to examine or view it oiherwife than as I palled on. A facftitious Pozzolani has been produc- ed ; which is faid to anfwer the purpofes of what is natural : and that it is cheap, and keeps well. In one hundred parts it contains 43 oifdkc, 2,5 of ircn, 1 7 of alu/Uy and a little of manganefe. Thofe compo- nent'parts of Pozzolani, are found in the earths of America. When earth or clay on the fide of a bank looks froiled or hoary, as a fait exuded from the ground, if tafted, it fometimes proves to be an alu- minous fubllancc, which I have experienced on ihe banks of the Chefapeak. T Objcflions 29*3 COUNTRY HABITATIONS. Obje£l:ions readily occur to new projects ; and it is right that they fliould be well weighed and corifi- dered. It is faid plarform-roofs may anfwer in fou- thern climates ; but that in our more northern coun- try, the weight of fnow would be too great to be borne. This objeftion has the lefs force with me, who have had fome experience on this head. I co- vered a houfe, thirty-fix feet fquare, with a flat roof which floped about a quarter of an inch to a foot. The joifis of poplar were two feet apart ; nine inches deep at the upper end (the ridge of the roof j and about fix and a half inches at the fmall end, where they refted on a wall. From the ridge to this wall was ten feet, and the joifts from thence continued tapering further eight feet, where they refted on a plate fupported by brick pillars. Pine fawed laths, inch thick, were nailed acrofs the joifls. Common weak oyfter-fhell mortar, from old Indian colle^ions of fhells, was laid on the laths, three-fourths of an inch thick. Tiles fix quarters of an inch thick were bedded in the mortar. The joints were filled with tar and fand ; and the tiles and joints were covered and filled v^'ith half- fluff, on which fand was fire wed thick and rolled. A gufl of wind carried off mofl of the fand. Then again half-fluff and fheathing pa- per were laid on ; and upon the paper half-fluff, fand and pebbles. Gufls of wind blew mofl of the paper off; and rain paffed eafily through. The pa- per remained on the roof over only one of the rooms ; which COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 29I which was tight, excepting in one place, where rains poured through, tillafingle thin coat o( tar andfijh- oil^ laid on hot with a hair brulh, totally llopt the leak. This roof bore the fnows of near twenty win- ters, in Maryland, w ithout the leafl attempt made to {hovel off the fnow, Mr. Latrobc*s cement feeras the bell. It is tough, and cannot crack. The leaking in this experiment was the more ex- ceflive, from the mortar being made of rotten fliells ; which made an imperfect cement : and m.oreover, too much was expefted from tar and pitch, as reliilers of water ; when in fact they let it through rapidly j until mixed with filli-oil, which proved to be a per- fe<5l corrector : neither v/as the paper properly iixed ; for it could not be nailed down. Though the joifls were of a brittle wood, flender and diflant from each other, yet the fpan from wall to wall was but about nine feet. In the annexed plan is a main partition wall, acrofs where the chimney is, from whence the joiils extend 2 1 feet to the exterior wall.* The weight of extra- T 2 ordinary * In laying down joiils, if s fmall chip or cleat be naikJ on, near their ends, it would greatly ftrengthen the walls ; ia liulding them as a tie, and preyenting their inclining either inv.urd or outward. Short fpurs of fcantling may be fised to tlie fide of the joiils nsxt the wall, and extend into the wall with chips near their ends, for holding the lid 2 walls. 292 COUNTRY HABITATIONS, ordinary quantities of fnow and fleet often repeated in the coiirfe of a winter, is to be guarded againft. If there was no chance of omilTion to fliovel off the fnow every time it fliould fall, lefs ftrength would be requifite : but there probably would be negleft in this ; or the houfc might happen to be uninhabited during fome winter or other ; I would therefore have the joifts ftrong and numerous, and the joifts imrae- diatelj' below thofe of the roof, fliould be made to bear fome portion of the weight, by planks between the lower and upper joifl:s ; which are to be two or three feet apart, the depth of the fpace allowed for the external air to pafs through and carry heat from under the platform roof, fo as to cool tjie work and chambers, and admit a perfon to go between the plat- form and ceiling and examine defers. Another objection is, that fudden changes of the weather between great heats and torrents of cool rain, are very trying. But it is pretty certain that atten- tion in the choice of the materials and laying on the covering will be effe£lual in preventing fuch injuries ; cfpecially when relieved from much heat by the vent between platform and ceiling. The fl:air cafes in the above defign may be befl: In tlie corner rooms, or the pafl'ages. To make thefe corner rooms otherwife than fquarc, would give the houfe the appearance of aii old caflle, if rounded, and COUNTRY HABITATIONS. ^93 and of a modern fortrefs if the extreme angles were made at all acute ; which is to be avoided. It is in all things to fupport the character of a houfe, a mere habitation. Wood on (lair cafes may be coated over with a cement.* Preferving the principles, and the form ; the fize will be according to the abihty and difcreet views of the proprietor. In the annexed plan, the Fiet. Fiit. 2 Paflages are in the clear 21 by 9,^ each 200, both 400 4 Rooms, the corners iz hj 12 144 576 2 Ditto, . . 20 by 21 420 840 Whole area 1816 The drawing is of an elevation and plan fronting fouth. The entrance is at either of the fides, eaft or wcfl : and thefe fides need but little of window light. There are obje(5lions to balconies : but if de- fired, the eafl: and weft fides of the houfe may be preferred, for giving (hade ; in the morning on the weft, and in the evening on the eaft. The width may be 2^^ feet of the rccefs, and 5^ projecting ; making 8 feet the width of the balcony. Between ■* Nothing is faid of any ufe of tlie /ani/, formed by the re- cefles of the exterior walls ; though holes in them would effed feme good in airing tlie rooms. Among a civilized people, and in a country of laiusy there ought to be ao occafion for any extraordinafy application of them. 294 COUNTRY HABITATIONS. Between the ceiling of the uppermoft (lory and the platform roof, is to be a clear fpace of two or three feet in depth, with holes through the oppofire walls. The hot air will thus be carried olf from the under parr of che platform, and there will be a fpace for examining the ftate of it. The air holes in the walls may be 8 or lo inches diameter, with wire or twine lattices well foakcd in the tar and oil compofition (page 285J, for excluding birds; and during the winter, infide clofe Ihutters are to exclude fnow. A baluftrade of plain banniflers fquaring to 2 by 3 inches, thin fide outward, and leaving clear inter- vals of 6 or 7 inches, will admit of fnow being more freely blown off as it falls : otherwife a handfome clofe parapet of wall, would be preferable. Turned banniders would not be {o limply neat, nor admit of {0 much freedom to the fnow being blown off, as thefe plain bannifters. Rope-netting or lattice would alfo admit of fnovr accumulating on the diagonal ropes and their angles. Height: Bafemfnt elevation of the walls 9 + 1 = 10 feet. Second llory, '. 12 + 1 = 13 Third ftory, . . 9 + 1 = 10 Vent fpace, . . 2+1=3 Whole height 36 In proportion as the walls are hi^b, they fliould be thick and ftrong. The ihree-siory houfe would have -.6 COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 295 ;i^6 feet of wall above ground. A two-story, 26 feet, and a one-story houfe 1 5 feet. So that if one (lory requires a wall i brick thick, two llories may have the bafement i^, and three ftories 2 bricks thick : or fay 1^, 2, 2 1 bricks thick, the bafement or firil (lo- ries. The foundation wall fliould be three feet in the ground, for gaining firmnefs and to be out of the reach of fevere froft. It may be fufficient for fome families, and bell; fuit their purpofes to have but one or two flories of rooms. The lower the walls the ftronger. It would be no great tafk to force water up, every evening in fum- mer, for cooling the roof and other purpofes. At Algiers, much of the women's work is done on the roof, where water is always at hand. They cfpe- cially wafli and dry their linen there. In Spain they have their cloacas on the platform roof; where alfo are two ciflerns of water: one for the ufe of the cook, the other for more common purpofes, wailiing, ^'c* From this the pipes of the cloacas are fluiced. At Cadiz, water is received into the ciflerns on the tops of the houfes, from refervoirs or heads of water on the hills out of the town. Water might be raifed to a head at the top of Mr. Morris's quarry hill, on the * In Oporto die kitchens are ufually in the attic story. Mur- phy's Trav. So it is faid, the kitchens are on the tops of many houfes in Spain : eitlier on the platform roof; or more probably in the attic (lories. 296 COUNTRY HABITATIONS, the Schuylkill, for fupplying referroirs on the tops of the houfes in Philadelphia.* Confult ingenious men. ITie tide falling eight feet ; and running 2^ ^ths miles in an hour, at leall equal to the walking of horfes in mil'-work, could not works be fo conftruftcd that the impetus of the water of that river {hou!d move a wheel (I think a horizontal one) which would force the water wanted up to a refervoir, on the top of that hill? A horizontal wheel under water would for ever turn one and the fame war, whether the water runs ebbing or flowing ; as near thirty years ago I exoerieaced in a model.f The :\- :T:'7;/ 2iAfecGnd sHries may be divided ac- cording to the views of the builder, rather than by the annexed plan ; pi. IV. The third story having the four fqnare rooms, at the comers of the plan, thrown into dofets about 2 J^ths feet deep, will admit of the thin partition as above laid down, to be omitted ; and) then the wkole_ area (clear of the clofets pro- pofed) will divide into four roomy bed-chambers. The * With a. quadrsnt level, I find diat the upper part of die brick psdeilal of Chiift church ft^ple, is nearly level with the top of d:is hill : the obferration taken at a ftadon diftant froia both objeSs : about two miles from the fteeple. •* J From crater forced up throng^ pipes, erenr hoiife m'ght hs^cfarjiHj bath near the bed-rooms, which wcjld be an iro- pcifant improTement fpr promoting the health and comfort of families. Ypa now rife from bed and waflj face and hands COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 297 The middle wall croifing the paffages and divid- ing the large rooms, will bear mofl: of the weight on —your tip ends. Wliy not rife and plunge into your wafh-ba- fon — a bath adjacent to your bedcliamber, inftead of ufing a gallon vefiel of water, only for hands and face ? Every family in this climate ought to have its iath ; and proper bathing places fliould be provided for fervants alfo. Bathing moiftens, foaks, waflies, fupples and refrefhes the whole body. When the water is tep'id, bathing is always fafe, cleaning and rcfrefhing ; when coU, or made more than blood 'warpit it is wholefome or not according to the ftate of health ; but it is very beneficial in many cafes, when well advifed to ufe the one or the other. " Among the rules for preferving cleanlinefs and a found " ilate of the fkin, an important one is to bathe once a nueek the *' nuhole year throughy in tepid water : and it is wilhed (fays " Mr. H'lf dandy in Germany) that puhlic baths were again " ereded. that poor people might enjoy this benefit and be " rendered ftrong and found ; as was the cafe in former centu- " ries ; when on every Sunday evening, people went in pro- " ceflion through the ftreets, beating on bafons, to remind the " poorer claiTes of batliing : and people who labored at dirty " work, waflied oflF in the bath the dirt which, undifturbed, " would have adhered to them probably their whole lives." 2. Huf eland. In Itah', ladies fomeiimes nfe the bath before they drefs ; and therefore are capable of bearing the fummer's heat; and are better prepared forbearing the change of air in their enfuing winter. Their chambcr-haths are vtrj convenient. — In iliape fomething like a cradle without a head, they have a 29B COUNTRY HABITATIONS. on the roof, and mull therefore be particularly firoDg. The joills of the platform run ixom this wall north and loi:th to the exterior walls. The handle at each end, and ftand on four fbort legs, hij;h enough to admit a chafing-difh under them ; lb that they can have a tepid or hot bath whenever thev pleaft. It is made of copper well tinned ^s^thir: ; and being thin and portable, is cafilv car- ried from room to room. When ufed for medical purpoles, the patient is eafiiy laid in it- Brooh on Ital^, p. 199. In feme cafes water is xti^efab at tbefta. Thoie who uie eiui^r tepid or hot baths, mtdkaUxy pat vinegar, brimilone, iron filings, and fometimes aromatic herbs in the \rater. The^^Eo^ hmth is inconvenient for fick penbns in getting out of it. In no fituations are lathi more ne ccfTary than in pnfoiu. Wherever men are kept together in numbers, they are liable to contagious fevers brealdng oat amongic them. It is fo even Tfhen they are lefs conaned than in priibas. " In 1 792 a con- •* tagious fever broke out in a regiment of foldiers quartered «* at Liverpool, Ecglasd, and increafed rapidly againil all •* oppofition, till by advice of the jAyfician the regiment was ** drawn up, and the men fevemUy examined by him ; when *• 1 7 were found to have the morbid fymptoms ; and being- •* drawn out, were ftripped naked in the fick houfe, and had ** a fail bucket of cclJ water thrown fuddenly on them, feve- ** rally ; which was repeated CEce or twice a day, and cured •* them in a few days . The whole regiment then bathed daily " :a the fea, (the water whereof contained one thirty-fecond *• part of fait.) In two weeks this praSice, daily repeated, to- *•' tally eilinguiiaed the ccz.tagicn and fever." This cold bath (tbcfca *si2:'r) was 58 to 60® of Farenheit*s fcale. When the bath bof fjrefii water, add one part of ialt to 33 of water. COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 299 The receffes of the walls are fliallow as may be ; i^ foot clear of wall will do. If deep, they re- tain or concentrate heat, and harbour muJketoes. If the corner rooms be 10 feet fq. or ico X4 = 4-° f^^^ The middle rooms 18 by 20 ft. fq. or 360 X 2z=/20 The palf^ges 7tV by 25, or 187 X 2 = 374 Whole area ^494 Coiifl:ru(5lion of chimnies to the belt advantage is very important ; yet, till lately, the principles have been The like practice is applicable in hofpUah and mamifador'tes as well as in prifons. Befides the ufefulnefs of baths in cafes of ficknefs in prifonsy SiC. they would at all times be refrefhing, and tend to prevent the occurrence of dilbrders. At leaft the ufe of them would be ckanfmg and comfortable ; and for thefe purpofes the Ger- mans formerly ufed bathing amongll the common people of towns, as above ; and in great mealure fuch bathing by fud- den effufion or immerfion, would fupply the want of cxcni/e, , by the powerful and briflc aftion into which the mufcles, fibres and nerves, would be thrown. " CleanUnefs, fays Hajfar Imtnay is of the greateft importance to all animal life. All animals are fubjecl to its laws. The means of it arc always prefeut. The limpid ilream and the briny wave are appointed to this purpofe. They purify the furface, and brace and flrengthen tlie nerves and fibres of ani- mals. The Deftinies have thus profcribed najl'tnefs, which is the fource of many difeafes ; and is loathfome and deteftaitls to human nature, and to moft animals.'* 300 COUNTRY HABITATIONS. been but little ur.derftood. Mr. Peak, of the Mu- ieum in Philadelphia, has given me feme account of the fine efiefts of his patent improvements, and fays, that " fire-places which were ufed to fmoke, on his " principles are cured of fmokicg ; and fuch entire " command is had of the draught of air, that with " but little of attention to the ftate of the fire, as " to its fc'jming clear or not, by moving the Aiding *' mantle downward for increafing the draught, then ** returning it for letting the heat into the room, *' and clofing the valve or regifter in the throat of " the chimney, jufli far enough for carrying off the " watery particles of the fuel, only a fmall portion " of the heat is fuffered to efcape up the chimney : *• confcquentiy with verj' little confumption of fuel, ** even large rooms may be kept comfortable in the " coldeft feafons, as during the laft winter he con- *' tinually experienced ; and the houfe is perfectly *' fecure from any fire left iathe fire-place at night." 1 have in the late winter feen one of Mj-. Peale's fire-places in its improved ftate, where the room was uncommcrJy large, 26 by 25 feet fquare and 15 feet high. On inquiry, it was afcerrained to me that during the winter only fmall fires were kept burning from the morning about feven o'clock till nine or ten at night, when it was let go dovvn, and the mantle of the fire place, and the valve or regi- flcr of the chimney fine were clofed, or very near- ij, and the family left the room to go to bed ; that it COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 3OI it preferved a warmth, not lefs than 48 of Faren- heit, in the room till the fire was renewed next morning ; and this was the cafe in the coldefl nights, when out of doors the thermometer was at 10 de- grees. That in the day the heat was fteadily kept at 60 degrees. There is, next door to mine, a fire- place very noted for fmoking. After many vain at- tempts to cure it, it was clofed up with brick-work, plaiftered over, and fo remained till lately, when Mr. Peale direfted his improvements to be applied to it. Now it is perfectly free from fmoking in the very word of winds and weather. What further proved to me the due portion of heat having been fteadily preferved in Mr. Peak's above room, dur- ing the winter, was the high perfection in which, in March, I faw in it a colle£lion of green houfe- plants, oranges, &c. that had flood there the win- ter through. The room had two windows fronting wefterly, and two foutherly, and I never faw green houfe-plants more perfe<5lly kept. CELLARS AND APERTURES ix HOUSES, It is a general practice in America, in building habitations, to have many windows ; and to leave them open in hot ivcatbcr for letting in the common air. When in fuch weather there happens to be a breeze, fome benefit is received by the few perfons who can fit clofe to the window. But as the air from 302 COUNTRY HABITATIONS. from without when the fun (hines, is full 20 degrees hotter than within doors, the air looked for brings with it that increafe of actual heat : yet concentrat- ed in a llream as it rufhes through the windows it relieves perfons on whom it flrlkes, with fcnfations of coolnefs. But if the houfe is Jhut up during the hot fun-ftiining part of the day, the family feels more coolnefs and comfort than when the windows are open for letting in the wind which is actually hot — and how is it in the time of a calm ? The hav- ing only a fciv apertures^ in habitations^ is advan- tageous both against cold and heat. Cellar windows are improperly left open during the whole time of the hot feafon, for letting in cool air : when in fa£l the air let in is heated above 20 degrees more than the nearly quiefcent air in the cellar. I The following attentions would be preferable to the common pra<51:ice. Shut up the cellar during the hot feafon, from May till 0£i:ober, night and day : or open the windows after the fetting of the fun, and clofe them by fun rife, if it be a wet cellar. From the firft of Oftober the windows may be left open, day and night, till the end of November, or threatening of a fpell of freezing weather: then again clofe them, till about the 20th of March or early in April j when the windows are left open, till COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 303 till May, as above. Yet, during winter, a few fmail air holes may be left open immediately under the joifts of the lirfl: floor, for preferving fome de- gree of motion, as the life of air, and for a paiTage to mufty vapours of the cellar. The lefs the cellar, under habitations, the more healthful the family. For a few purpofes a fmail cellar may be here. For other pul-pofes have them under fome detached building.* ICE * In live fucceffive days of June and July, I found the medium mid-day heat of clear days Avas aii" more out of doors, ten yards north of my houfe and 5 feet above the ground, than in a recefs in a N. and S. paflage running through the houfe. When cloudy, the heat out of doors, as above, was only 3 to 54° more than in the paiTage. But, thefe experiments having been made in a thick built town, are lefs fatisfa<5lory than if they had been of heat in die coun- try, where its effeds are much more estenfively felt, by huf- bandmen, labourers and travellers. In fuch a nitch or otlier Ihaded part within doors of a houfe in the country, obferve the degrees of heat ; and alfo at five feet above tlie ground (the thermometer hanging clear of what might add to its heat) of an o-ptn Jield or main road. In July, when in doors the heat was 80°, in the back yard north of the houfe in tlic fun-lhine it was 100 at five feet above the ground, .ind at the fouth doer lo.'S^' nine feet nbov- the ftreet. ICE HOUSLs. ICE HOUSES. Ice is applicabls to economical purpofes in hot weather, efpecially in countr}^ families.* In 1 77 1 5 I built an ice-houfe in the peninfula of Chefapeak, -where the ground is flat and the furface only feventeen feet above the high ^^-ater mark of a fait water river, and 80 yards from ir. It was con- ftrufted * " I never was in better fpirits than here in this hot coan- " try (Sicily), I believe the quantities of ice we eat, in ices, " contribute to It ; for I find, in a very violent heat there is " no Tach cordial to the Ipirits as ice, or a draught of iced " water. Its cold ^racej the fiomach, and gives a new tome ** to ik:f,lr£s. I knew an Engliih lady, at Nice, foon cuied ^ of a threatening confiimption, by a free indulgence in the " ufe of ices," — Probably attended with internal b!icJlng ; which it is iaid cucumbers, cold in their nature, have cured. ** It is the common praftice here, Sicily, to give quantities " of ice waters to drink in inflammatory fevers." Brjdone. But great caution is to be obferved that it be not drunk when you are '■warmed at all by any kind of motion : much Ids when you are in a l:at from esercife. '•' The cuftom in Sicily and Italy of taking ice, is confider- " ed as a powerful remedy in many difeafes. The phyCcians " cf thefe countries do not give many medicines ; but fre- " quendy prefcribe a fevere regimen ; and prevent the bane- " fill eflPeSs cf various difeafes, by fuffering the Cck, for fe- ♦« veral days, to take nothing but water cooled by ice, fvreet " oranges, and iced fruits." Stolbsr^. ICE HOUSES. 30J ftrucT:cd with great care to prevent entrance of air, ac- cording to the then univerfai pra£lice; and it was filled with 1 700 fohd feet of ice, the pit being 1 2 feet fquare and 1 2 feet deep : but it failed of keeping the ice till fummer, bccaufe of its moiflure and clofenefs. When the pit was dug it fliewed fome appearance of moiflure near the bottom : the lead moiflure is too much for an ice-houfe. Moiflure at the fides or bot- tom of an ice-pit, is raifed to the infide furface of the dome by a heat which, in the deepefl pits that can be dug, is much above the freezing degree, and if the pit be clofe it recoils on the ice for want of a vent. If the clofe pit is not frequently opened it be- comes very warm, and the ice is foft and pappy at the top. The deepefl and coolefl pits are about twenty degrees warmer than the freezing point : fo that no depth of a pit can prefcrve ice from melting. It is from a greedinefs for depth that- we too often meet with duffip earth. Some years afterwards, I made another ice-houfcj 150 yards from the above mentioned, on the prin- ciples and in the manner following : vent was an elTential obje^ ; and drjncfs with coolnefs led me to the defign of infulating the mafs with a bed of flraw furrounding a pen of logs which was to contain the ice. The pit was dug on a fpot open to v. ind and fun, for the fake of drynefs. It was 9 feet deep. Within it was the pen of logs, of that depth, and g U feet 3o5 ICE HOUSES. feet fquare in the clear. It contained but a .tittle more than 700 folid feet — only half the quantity ftored in common ice-pits. A houfe was over the whole ; rather for excluding rain than air. The fides of the houfe were 5 or 6 feet high. The eaves were boarded up, but not clofe, and the principal vent was at the top of a pavillion roof. Strazc is a cocMerable reliiler or non-conductor of heat. Let it be clean, found and dry ; and lay it clofe between the logs and bank, with an abundance of it upon the ice. The fmall mafs of ice flored in the above infulated pen, 700 feet, was daily ufed of very freely, and iailed near as long as double the quantity flored in a clofe ice-pit as commonly con- llrucled, and which is on the hill in Union ffcreet, Philadelphia ; the earth, whereof is dry and gravelly from near the furface down to the bottom. In plate V. is a fe£l:ion of this infulated ice-pit. The pen or cell iniide of the logs, is 1 1 feet fquare, 1 1 feet deep, whereof 51 are under ground and 5! above ground, and it contains 1330 folid htt. The fpace between the logs and the bank, at bottom is near one foot ; the fame at top is about 2 or il feet. The link for receiving water from the melting ice need be only 5 or 6 inches deep if it be good ground, and 8 or 9 feet fquare. Logs are laid acrofs it. An ice-pit of 1300 folid feet, if infulated as above, I ICE HOUSES. ^ChJ I believe would keep more ice than any private fa- mily could want j fuppoCng the pit is not deep, and the ground is dry. If 1300 feet of ice (liould not be fufficient, in another year heap upon it a foot more in thicknefs ; and fo foot upon foot, as may be rcquifite. Thefe additions are above ground. Ice, in ice-houfes, melts more at the bottom and fides than on the top ; unlefs it may be otherwife in very clofe pits feldom opened. A pen of eleven feet cube, requires a houfe over it of only eleven or twelve feet fquare. The winds raofl injurious to ice are from theycw/^ to the east. The door being on the 7iort/j fide, needs no paflage. Rats are to be guarded agalnft. The caves are to be clofed againft them : but openings may be left on the north fide, at the eaves, for ad- mitting the fleam to pafs out, there as well as at the common vent on the top of the roof. Thefe open- ings may be from lattice work in wood or wire : or a plank may be projected below the opening, and be-- yond the reach of rats. All the building materials are to be on the fpoty ready to be put up as foon as the pit is dug, \ei\ rain damage the pit before the houfe can be covered. Pound the ice fmall, and prefer to (lore it in keen Tcather. In fuch li-cathcr a neighbour dafned water U c on. 3oS ICE HOUSZS. on his pounded ice, a pailful or two to each cart load, as foon as it was flored and pounded, load by load : and he informed me it anfwered well, in doling and cementing the mafs. Ice-houfes are to be left oj>cn fome time, till dry, before filling them with ice. When the houfe is to . be charged with ice, firfl \2.j fniall fa^ois on the grate ; and on thefe reeds, rather than iba.w as is common. Corn or maize ilalks are very fpongy, and holding water feem improper. The thiimer the ice, the eafier it is broken to ponder ; and the fmaller it is broke, the better it will unite into a clofe mafs. — Ram the ice clofe as poffible in its place. Count Stolberg, fays in Sicily they prefer y7;^zfj as it is more eaiily prefer\xd than ice. The fnow is clofely packed together, and covered with fir aw.* INTDIA- * Janiiary 1 797. Viewed the ice boufe at the tavern, on Glofter point near Philadelphia. It is built Yrithin a few fteps on the nortii fide of the tavera, and Bear the margin of a drained low meadow of fome miles ertent, and of the river Delaware ; but a few feet higher than the meadow and rlrer. It was dug 5 feet deep (feemingly 3 feet too deep). Then filled up 2 feet with logs, and ftraw upon them ; learing 5 feet cf ice under ground ; and about 6 feet above ground, iht ice inclofed in llraw ; which ahb is a lining to die houfe or flabs, coTcred with a flight roof of flabs. It was tlien fill of ice, in pieces the fize of fmall apples. Sixty -one loads of a one horfe cart filled it. In the year preceding 27 fuch loads fupplied the tavern with ice till fome lime of Augu^. INTIMATIONS, ^c. 5^9 INTIMATIONS; On Manufa&ures ; — on the Fruits of Agriculture ; — and on New Sources of Trade, interfering zvitb Products of the United States of America in Foreig?i Markets. The countries of Europe abounding in manufac- turers and failors j and fuperabounding in foldicrs and minifters of religion, buy bread from other countries ; chiefly from Ptland, America and Barbary ; and, ge- nerally, the countries which fell fome, buy more than they January 1798 I again faw tliis ice ho\ife ; and was affured that the 61 loads kept through the fummer, and that " fome loads of ice were in it when ice came again." The only way into it is by a fmall door, about 2i feet fquare at the gable end into the roof. July 5th, 1799, Mrs. Marfhal affures me, her ice kept in this ice-houfe through the laft fummer, 1798, and until the Dela- ware was frozen in the laft winter. It is aftonifhing ! Ice keeps not fo well in the pits in the high grounds in Philadelphia. Many people view her ice-houfe ; and admire at the keeping ice in it fo much better — almoft in a drained meadow ! Above, Jlrarjj is fpoken of as being a confiderable refiftcr or non-conduftor of heat. The Annals of Chemiftry, vol. 26, Fr. as cited by Tillock's Phllofophical Mag. 2, pa. 182, fays, " It is well known that charcoal is one of the wcakeft condudtors of heat." Hence the thought of double tvalls for filling the inter medi . ite fpacewitlifWfoa/; and he appUes tht? ^ra INTIMATIONS OtT they fell. ' The bread countr)^, England, buys more than fhe fells ; and, at the fame time, it is a happinefs to her that Ihe is fuperior in the number and the excellency of her maniifad:iir€rs ; who, with her failors, are the more defirable mere confumcrs of bread, giving fupport to a conftant good market, oi home, for the corn, the meat, the wool, and gene- rally ail the productions of her land ; fo that England abounds in the neceifaries and comforts of life, within herfelf, from a well proportioned employment of her farmers and tradefmen, who mutually fupply each other's wants : and Ihe furniflies foreign countries with a prodigious overplus of the fruits of her manu- factories and commerce \ which has rendered her rich, powerful, and lefs dependent than other nations. The fifty or Cxty fhip loads of wheat which die buys more than {he fells, are inconfiderable when compar- ed with the great profits of her immenfe commerce and manufactures. The yearly buying more bread from abroad than fhe fells, afiures to her hufband- men a conlfant demand and full price for the corn pro- duced idea to " ice-houfes above ground,^* He adds, *' at the fame beat, a body incloled in charcoal does not receive but about two-thirds of tlie heat of a body furrounded by quartzeous fand ; and that the redudtion of fubjeds which do not melt but at a heat of 130 degrees, cannot be effected in charcoal.'* As often as the river tides are high its water oozes into tlie ice pit ; a pump is therefore at one comer of the houfe, for freeing it of the water. NEW SOURCES, ^C 311 duced by their lands ; and this is a great encourage- ment to a vigorous cultivation of them ; as it gives an income to the induflrious countryman, independent of uncertain demand by foreign countries. A ftatute of the parliament of Great Britain, of no long {landing, compels the mod minute entry to be made in the Britifh cuflom houfe, of every fort of corn, as well what is imported as exported. The firfl report made to the parliament, under that fla- tute, was of the firfl eight years after it was in force ; by which it appears, on a medium of the eight years, that there were imported into England about 600,000 bufliels of wheat yearly, more than were exported — near 60 fbip loads,* ^Poland and America import no bread. For want of numerous manufacturers and failors, the moft ufc- ful confumers of bread, who make none, they have not a demand at home for one half of the produce of their lands : they therefore export great quanti- ties ; America, efpecially, depending thereon for fupplies of clothing and other comforts : which flie might * This is here dated from memory. It is liopcd it is not materially, if at all erroneous. That there is a deficiency of com produced in the united nation of England and Scotland, we are afTured by a fubfequent report of a committee of the Lords of council to tlicir king, on a bill then before the Parlia- ment ; in which it is declared, that " Great Briuin is not able to fupply itfelf witli bread, without aid from other countries." 312 INTIMATIONS ON might foon, in a great meafure, manufafture within herfelf. Ought fhc not, therefore, to prefer it to a dependence ahogether on foreign countries ? Somewhat has been faid, in pubhc, of manufafto- ries in America ; whether it be advifable to promote them in this early flage of her political exigence, or to depend on procuring goods from other countries, with the produce of her lands ? Have we not " room for looms and the various arts ?" Why then fhould not this nation, in its prefent youthful vigor, begin to apportion her employment between hufbandry and manufaftories ? which in experience prove to be fo coincident, fo promotive of wealth and independence, as to have rendered Britain rich in all comforts, with a purfe pou erful in war; but which fome on both fides of the Atlantic think has unwarily admitted of a degree of pride in her, that, according to what is common to that vice, bodes an approaching reverfe in the current of her affairs. Belides, in the courfe of a great influx of emigrants to America, many, if not the greater number, are mechanics. When thefe land on the fea coaft, and find little or no employ- ment for them in the way of their profeffion, will they generally go to country labour ? Pafl experience fays they will recrofs the Atlantic, or travel farther weflward, and fit down on lands eafier obtained, and where they caji live on lefs labour than they could among the old fettlements in the hither country. Bur NEW SOURCES, ^C, 313 But if manufa£lories were on foot among us, it would be natural that they fhould geacrally prefer the em- ployment they had been uf:d to ; and by fitting down to their trades, they would gradually advance the arts in America, whiifl: the more rapid increafe of huibandry would be the means of fupplying them with bread in payment for their goods, and leave an overplus to be exported to foreign markets. " It however is material to the vigor and worth of manu- fa£lories, that they be not difperfed. They are more or lefs advantageous, according as they are car- ried on in towns, or in detached habitations in the country. In general, the manufafturer in the coun- try has his farm, or a lot of ground, which divides his attention with that of his fhop, whereby both crafts fufFer ; and certain it is, fays Mr. Toimg, their hufbandry is always execrable — the fliop and the field are coudu(5led with little fpirit : both are mean in the quantity and the quality of the productions ; and the living of the farmer -trade] man is according to it. But in towns the trade is alone depended on, and the productions are more and better : fo of the thorough -farmer^ from whom he buys his bread, and to whom he fells his goods." When our employment fliall be duly apportioned between huibandry and manufaftorics, the comforts of life will be certain ; as they will be procured with- in our country, independent of the caprice of foreign countries : 314 INTIMATIONS ON countries : with the overplus of thefe we are to ob- tain exotic delicacies, luxuries, and bullion. " From well chofen employments are derived the riches, the flrength, the independency, and the hap- pinefs of nations.*' If the employment be in things neceflary and convenici^c, it is infinitely better than when applied in producing luxuries. With necefla- ries plentifully produced at home, we may be inde-- pendent of other nations. An abfolute independency, which (huts out commercial and in effect focial inter- courfe, is not meant. Nations do not all yield the fame productions ; and few, if any, properly divide their employment between hufbandry and manufac- tories. Britain is the neareft to it. JEven where the bed proportion prevails, luxuries and trifles will have fome fliare of attention among the ar tills, al- though common fenfe directs that, efpecially for the Intereds of a young country, the firfl and principal application fliould be to procure necejfaries as well for staples cf commerce as for domefric ufes ; fuch as food, clothing, ammunition, &:c. Yet legillators will not over bufily warp employment againft its natural bent. They may invite and gently incline it ; avoid- ing dogmatical inhibition or command, unlefs it may be on very extraordinary national occafions. Nor will they ereft monopolies, directly or indirectly, or give undue preferences. Temporary patent rights for NEW SOURCES, Effr. 315 for Inventions are not meant.* To fet about making fine goods before we are full of necejjary comforts, fcems a beginning at the wrong end. The hianufaftures wiflied to be firft promoted arc efpecially of plain clothing and blankets ^ arms and am- munition. Manufafturcs of woollen goods are full in our view — In promoting thefe, we increafe the quan- tity of meat and ildns as well as of wool. They are not exotic ; but precious materials furniflied by our hufbandmen. A bounty on the exportation of arms and ammunition made within the Tiation^ would foon caufe thofe effentials to abound in the country for its neceffary defence. Yet it is in a fpirited and flourijfoing hujhafidry that the foundest health and comfort of nations is found. It is 2i plenty of food and clothing, plain and good, rather than fine things, which gives content and cheerfulnefs to a people; and it is the great mafs of the people that are induftrious, rather than the idle poor or the luxurious few, who are principally confidered by legiilatures. What if to the bread wanted by fome countries, which is at prefent fupplied by Poland, America and Barbary, * Perhaps It were better to grant retvards proportioned to the ufefulnefs of difcoverie's or inventions, tlian exclufive patent rights. There are confiderablc objcdions to die hitter, in ex- pcri-cnce, however fair it (lands in theory ; and infinite advan- tages would arife from an immediate free ufe of the invention, at large. 3l6 INTIMATIONS ON Barbary, oise or two great additional fonrces of tt xhould be opened? How would the hufbandry and the income of our country be affected by it? Would there not be then felt a want of manufacturers, confumers of bread who make none, yet who would preferve the value of the produce of our hufbandry by fuch confuraptioD, and furnifli other neceffaries and com- forts from their various odtupations ? There is reafoa to believe that yet a little while, and the productions of the countries on the Nieper and the Danube will ruih through the Straits of Constantinople into the Mediterranean, and thence into all Europe. The wheat of the Ukrain, hitherto fhut up by the Turk, fells at if. to if. flerling a bufhel. The countries fo fliut up alfo abound in cattle, hemp, tobacco, &c. Trhich are to be conveyed through thefe ftraits to a market new and important to thofe countries ; which articles will greatly interfere w'ith and cheapen the produce of our country. The Banat is faid to be by far the cheapeil country in Europe, in all neceflary productions, meat, bread, wine, fruits, &c. The culture of rice was introduced there by the late Em- peror with great and increafing fuccefs. Prices in the vicinity of Tybifcus river are in flerling, as fol- low:* vrheat at lyd. an Englifh bufhd ; rye iid. barley ♦ Tnz Tybifcu?, or TeiiTe. is a large river, which takes its r*d"e in the Carpathian mountains ; pafTes by Tockay through Hungary, and falls into the Danube above Belgrade. The Banat is the countrvof Temefwaer. NEW SOURCES, '<^C. 317 barley yd.\ ; hay in towns, lo/: a ton ; in the coun- try, 2>f' ^ '^^" ^^ 40/ to 50/ a cow 30/: to 45/. (cattle are dearer than grain, becaufe they are rea- dily driven to market : they are driven by thoufands annually, from the Ukrmn, through Poland into 5/- lefta and Germany) mutton, i^. a ft. beef, from id, to id.i'y pork, id.i, to 2d. wine, 45 gallons new, in a good vintage, 7/. to 42/. according to quality ; rent, 2/6 to 4/. the Englifli acre ; and all this cheapnefs we prefume is owing to the want of a pafTage through the ftraits of Conftantinople, to foreign markets — the very markets hitherto fupplied by Poland, Jme- rica and Barbary.* The Turk is to be forced by the Czarina and the Emperor to fuffer. a palTage through * « The clogs to the exportatioaof the produce of ^wn^ary, ^ is an evil continually galling individuals. Wherever I <* went (iays Mr. To'wnfon) I was led into cellars /«// of ivmc^ •« and into granaries /:J/ of corn^ and I was flicwn paftures ^^ full of cattle. If I felicitated the owners upon tlieir rich «« ftorcs, I heard one common complaint — the tf^n/ of a mar- «' ket, want of buyers. Wine bought in Hungary for 133 cents, " has an additional expenfe on it of 177 cents, in all 310 cents «« when it reaches the port of Triefie : and the com bought for «« 44 cents, an expenfe of 1 33, both 177 cents at Triefie. The « raw produce, unmanufadured, which Hungary exports, are « cattle, hogs, Iheep, goats, metals, minerals, flour, wheau " rye, oats, hnen, woollen cloth, wine, wool, wax, potafti, fill:, " ftonewarc, tobacco, flax, hemp, feathers, fi(h, fkins, leather, « furs, tallow, foap." The above fums in cen^s, are lite value of the fterling money in the quoted pallag?. 3l8 INTIMATIONS ON through thofe flraits : it already has been of late nearly accompliflied. You fay the above events are problematical, or at a great diftance of time : but there is one of a different nature and very influential in the argument which is more certain and nearer at hand. With the improvements in government, v.hich the phiio- fopbical fpirit of modern times is producing, the condition of mankind will be bettered, and in no circumftance will it be more perceptible than in their greater ikill in all the arts, as well in agriculture as others. Then will France be fully equal, to fupply her own demands for wheat, and Spain and Poi-tugal will be fo in no long time. Another new fource may be in hid'm, Sugs.r has not become a common article from that quarter till lately. When in 1792, it fold there i^f. or 18/I near four Spanifti dollars a hundred, it was fold 50/I to 6of. in London. A fudden and till then unknown demand for fugars by Europe and America occaConed an increafed price in India : and the demand having continued and increafed, has Simulated the Indostans to increafe the culture of fugar canes with great fpi- rit, for fupplying Europe and America with fugar. The Calcutta gazettes are full of the defigns of plant- ing and cultivating the fugar cane : and now we are aflured by fome of cur countrymen, who have been lately NEW SOURCES, ^C. 319 lately in India, that the ii'beat of that country is very fine, and is fold at i id. fterling for an Englifli bufliel. If then their fugar makes a freight and a profit when carried to Europe, fo may their icheat ; provided it Ihould bear fo long a voyage. It would fell at above 500 per cent, when their fugars would fcarcely ob- tain 300. Bat will the bulk and price of wheat ad- mit of a freight and profit fufficient for the adven- turer ? Mr. Laxv, in his iketches of arrangements in Bengal, for the year 1789, fays it would clear 50 per cent. " I faw, he fays, much extended cultivation and increafing population xhvowgh Bengal : but there is fome apprehenfion of a want of confumption ; grain felling in fome places loofcand upwards for iid. fterling, (equal to yd.- a bufliel of 6clb ) Wheat might certainly be exported from Bengal with great fuccefs. — It would be Ihipped for yf^ fterling, the Englifli quarter which is under iid. 2l bufliel. At 58/'. a quarter in London, it would yield 50 per cent, profit on coft and charges of freight," &:c. Although wheat from India fliould not always bear the voyage, yet the flour of it, which is very fine, might. Flour carried from the Delazcare to the Ganges, proved perfectly good when returned from thence to Philadelphia in a late voyage. But if nei- ther their wheat nor their flour could be carried to Europe in good condition, yet their rice, the com- mon bread of the country, could.. It ufually is very cheap J 320 INTIMATIONS ON cheap ; and whilfl their labour is but 2d. fieri, or 37 mills a day, all the fruits of that labour will continue to be cheap. Whether the great fources of the countries on the Nieper and the Danube (hall foon be opened or fhall not, there is at prefent fuch an apparent probability of it as may induce us farmers to coDiider in time how we are to avert the threatened ill effe£i:s of a change that muft be as ludden as important. The farmer of fiafliy oftentaticn may efpecially think of retrench- ing waileful habits : and whilfl legiflators may wifh that labour be apportioned between hufbandry and manufa6lories, and gently promote it, they will be cautious how they favour the one at the expenfe of the other. In the Ukrain and Poland, and on the Danube, la- bour is cheap, whilfl with us it is the highefl in the world. When we fhall have driven the Indians from their country, what will be the condition of the peo- ple of the hither flates, rcfpecting labour which al- ready is fo much drained from them by the ultra- montane country ? This will not immediately affecl all the flates ; but it foon may, and who can fay how fooD it will not. POTATO POTATO SPIRIT, ^C, XZl POTATO SPIRIT; AND BEER. What is called IriQi-potato, as if derived from Ire- land, was firfl found in Peru ; and might therefore be more properly called Peruvian-potato, according to Mr. Romans : or globe-potato, from its fliape. Doftor Anderfon, of Scotland, gives' an account of an extraordinary fpirit which he procured from this potato. In February he boiled to a foft pulpy ftafe, a bulhel of them weighing 72^^:* then bruifed and paired them through a ftrait riddle along with fpring water, keeping the fkins back, in the riddle, and throwing them away. Cold water was added to the pulp, and mixed up till the whole mixture was 20 gallons. It ftood till cooled to the temperature ufual for applying yeafl: to wort. Yeall was then mixed with it as if it was malt wort. In 10 or 12 hours a fermentation began, and con- tinued very brifkly 10 or 12 hoars ; and then began fenfibly to abate. It was now hrijhly stirred, and the fermentation was thereby renewed. The fame ope- ration, as often as the head fell, was renewed every day ; and the fermentation continued for two weeks. It then abated, and could no how be further kept X up, * In coroOiou a bufl\el weighs about 6j.ib, 322 POTATO spirit; up. The liquor had by this time obtained a kind of acid flightly vinous tafte. It was now diflilled with due caution : care being taken to stir it in the flill, until it began to boil before the head of the flill was put on ; and the fire was af- terwards kept up fo ftrong as to keep it boiling brijkh;^ till the whole was run over. This boiling prevented the thick matter from fubiiding to the bottom and bein^ ftill-burnt. " In confequence of thefe precautions and due *' rectification I obtained, fays Mr. Anderfon, an " Engliih gallon of pure fpirit, conCderably above " proof, and about a quart more of a weaker kind, *' a good deal below proof. It was in every refpecl " the fined and mofl agreeable vinous fpirit I ever " faw. It was fomewhat like very fine brandy : *' but was milder, and had a kind of coolnefs on the *' palate peculiar to itfelf. Its flavour was flill more " peculiar, and refembled brandy impregnated with " the odour of violets and rafpberries, A fingle glafs " of it put into a bowl of rum punch gave it a flavour " of half rum, half brandy impregnated with rafp- " berries. There was no difierence in the tafle of " the very weak eft of its fpirit, near the end of the " diftiiling and that of the firft ; which is a great " peculiarity." The AND BEER. Z'^Z The white pulp at the bottom of the fllll is, he fays, every way applicable to domeftic ufes ; for the table or for live-ftock, as the whole potato is. But might it not, under fome circumftances, be better ap- plied in producing ftarch ? In the firfl: week oi August 1790, I made an expe- riment, according to Mr. Anderfon, for procuring potato fpirit, from potatoes then gathered for the purpofe, from vines not dead, but only beginning to be yellowifli. But in feveral attempts could never get the math to ferment. The failure feemed owing to the potatoes being not perfedly matured ; and ma- turity is always an effential for obtaining a vinous fermentation from vegetables. There alfo feems to be another reafon for the failure. Mr. Anderfon made his experiment in February ; a fpring month, when doubtlefs his potatoes were coni\dQX2h\j fprouted ', and fo far were malted. Grain is purpofely fprouted, prior to fermenting it for making beer or for dlflilla- tion ; and in Maryland thefe potatoes fpontanecully fprout and grow in February and March : fo that had I in either of thefe months chanced to have made the experiment, it would without doubt have fuc- ceeded. Mr. Anderfon's candour and habits of accuracy are eminent ; and leave no room to doubt that as he a^ually procured the fine fpirit in the way above X 2 dated. ^24 POTATO SPIRIT ; dated, the like may be again produced, by the like attentions. I cannot exprefs my fenle of the ruinous habits in a free ufc of drinks made from diftilled fpirits ; which arc feen to debafe and deflroy very many men, and even fome good men on whom the practice has fto- len. In country famihes they are ufed with a free- dom allonifhing to Grangers, who have been ac- cuftomed to obferve a more temperate conduct, and are in the habit of drinking mild beer. In our large towns beer is taking place of diluted fpirits ; which is a reafon why there is more fobriety now obferved in the towns than formerly, when Wefl India rum abounded at a third of its prefent price. Country people pretend they know neither how to get malt or to brew it. This is not generally true. Malt is to be had at country malt-works, in the more provi- dent ftates ; and maltilers can eafily be drawn into the counties of other Hates, if country gentlemen would in good earneit hold out proper encouragement. Every houfewife knows how to brew, fomehow; and would improve in it from practice. It is better to buy malt, or exchange barley for malt, than to make it in families ; and not every farmer has conveniency for making it with cafe. The principal diiliculty I found, was in the heats of the malt whiUl growing. Finding no one to inftrufl me, in AND BEER. 325 in many attempts I failed from giving too much heat : for, feeing it feeble in growth, it was thrown into more heat, and thereby flopt in its power of further vegetating. Till at length I fucceeded, on applying the heats given by Mr. Mills in his Huibandry. In Mills's Hufbandry, vol. 5. are good inflruftions for making malt, and beer. The heats in the malt whilft on the floor, were all that I wanted of him. Thefe he gives, thus : During the firft ten days that the malt was on the floor, the heat in it was between 50 and 60 degrees. During the next three or four days, it was increafed from 60 to 65 and 6j degrees ; and during the lafl days of its lying there, ro 80, 84 and 87, which lafl: was the degree of heat when the malt was put on the kiln.* In country families the good wife would delight in brewing beer for her hufoand, to take place of the mad, mifchief-making and, in the end, debilitat- ing * Great lofs and Inferiority occurs in America from the hafty manner in malting. In England a ftatute obliges malt- fters to work their malt three ii'eeks. Such deliberate work renders the malt pci-feft. The Englifli laws alfo prohibit all ufe of fugar or melaffes in brewing, becaufe of the duties on malt. Yet I fufped, from tafte and obfervation, that the por- ter formerly fo in vogue, and To excellent, called Bea. Kenton s^ liad a good (hare of burnt fugar or melaffes in it. How die fugar could be fmuggled into that porter, can fcarccly b^ ac- counted for. J iS POTATO SPIRIT ; ing and ruinous brandy or fpirit beverage. The truth is, drirxking beer is not a fafliion of the coun- try. Vile habit? bear down all prudence ard every rational practice that is recommended by the experi- enced lober friends of mankind. Whilfl fpiritous liquors continue to be ufed in drink, the mildeft and belt ought to be preferred. Of ihefe the potato fpirit feems the leaft caustic of any of the home made fpirits. By drawing the fpi- rit vranttdi from pctafoes, ,the culture of that root is encouraged, grmn is faved and the befl preparation of the foil for future crops is increafed. During mofl: of the revolution war m^y reapers had the choice of fmall beer or water to drink, after an uninterrupted long ufe of rum. The beer had body enough to preferve rheir flrength and a due fiiare of cheerfulnefs, without ever fetling them wild as had been not uncommon under the ufe of rum. At the end of harveft there were no com- plaints of forenefs and want of refi : but they con- tinued cheerful and eafy, and expreffed a preference in favour of beer. This beer v/as brewed, enough of it, iufl before harveft. I never met with a fer- Tant, black cr white, who did not like it ; and for the moft part, excepting confirmed fots, prefer it to rum, Generally, when I have aJked poor travel- lers AND BEER. 327 lers and mefTengers whether they would have a drink of beer or a dram of rum, they preferred beer. Our country is favourable to the production of hops : and they grow wild. It would be a good article to cultivate for the market, if labour was plenty for gathering entire fields of them. Hops arc bed cured by fire, as is tobacco ; and like to- bacco, when cured they become dry and friable or moid and tough, with the changes in the atmof- phere : as they pafs from the moiil ilate to the dry, a portion of their active qualities is loH in evapora- tion : therefore it is proper to pack them away, being thoroughly cured, the firfi: time .of their be- ing " in cafe," as tobacco planters would call it : that is when they will bear preffing in the hand without being too dry or too moiil or high in cafe. I am not recommending hops as an article of crop for market, generally. But there are hufoandraen fo circumftanced that, to them, it would be a pro- fitable choice. Every farmer, however, would do well to cultivate 50 to 100 hills of hops, for hav- ing at command an article fo eflcntial to the making good beer when may hap he (hall wifli to introduce the mod excellent beverage in his family : an article conducive to fobriety, health, vigor and content- ment. If hovv'ever he meanly gives way to an im- pulfe that Ihall unfortunately continue him in the ufc 328 POTATO SPIRIT ; life of an rmwholefome, debilitating, mifchief-mak- ing choice of diflilled fpirits in his drink, then his 50 to ICO hills produce of hops irould annually put 20 to 40 dollars in his wife's pocket ; who proba- bly would have the care of thofe few plants in her garden. In England, great preference is given to a kind called Famkam bop. It is there a furer crop than other forts. The crop is not only always greater, t|^t is of a quality that gains a confiderably higher price than other kinds. This hop was introduced into Maryland by that pattern of manly virtues the late Col. Sharp, when he was governor of ^lary- land. Some of the roots he gave me ; of which I planted 1 50 hills : and at the fame time and place near 6co of a much admired hop, called the large ■white hop. ITie foil, againft appearances, proved to be extremely nnfuitable. The white hop in five or fix years fcarcely gave ten pounds weight a year. The Famham, few as the plants were, gave five times as much. The plants of the former w ere al- ways exceHlvely rufty or mildewed : thofe of the latter were much lefs io, and ripened the fruit twelve days fooner than the former. The following method of brewing is compared with the old or common method. A Tripartite AND BEER. 329 A Tripartite Method of B reiving.* 1. Water is put into the kettle, divifion A. and heated. 2. The malt is fpread in the divifron B. J' J. The hot water is pumped or poured over, from A. to C. where it fpreads over a perforated bottom ; and falling every where on the malt in B. waihes out its fubftance, through another perforat- ed bottom into A. The perforated bottoms aft moveable. This operation is repeated, with now and then flirring up the grains, and then, without ftirring the grains, till the liquor is clear. The li- quor is then made to boil bri/kly, from hence it is let into coolers. The old Method of Brewing. 1. The kettle is filled with water; which is then heated. 2. The mafli vat is charged with malt. 3. The hot water is removed from the kettle to the raafli. It there remains forae time, and then 4. The • Tripartite, becaufe the kettle apparatus is worked in tliree divifions. A Swcdilli method of brewing in camp, af- forded me tlie hint for this invention. See the dimeniic;ns, &c. in the Explanation of the plates. 35"^ DIET IN 4. The mafli is a long while flirred up with pad- dles : it ftands fome time afterwards, and then 5. The wort is let out very flowly into the ua- derback or vat : a lengthy operation. 6. It is again returned to the kettle and boiled — and thence into coolers. Mr. M'Cauley, in Front flreet, Philadelphia, made my tripartite copper ; which fee in plate III. £g. I. DIET IN RURAL ECOJ^OMT. Count Riuvjord has made many experiments on diet ; and has written a bock recommending the befl choice for labourers. His book is not now in my poiTefuon : but as Do£i:or Lettfom has fince publifhed on the fame fubjecl:, below are a number of mcffes felected from his book of " Hints defigned to pro- mote Beneficence, Temperance and Medical Sci- ence j" publifhed in 1797. Doctor Letrfom obferves, in general, that pies are more advantageous than roafting or boiling. This he illuftrares. Of mutton, 64 ounces in 2. pie made with 24 ounces of wheat flour, and eaten with Si- ounces of bread, in all g6^ ounces, dined 8 perfons fully : whilfl 60 ounces of mutton, roasted znd eaten with RURAL ECONOMY. 33I with 33 ounces of brciid, In all 93 ounces, dined only -5 of the fume perfons. 1. IV^ilk pottage (thickened milk) he fays, is more faUuary than tea and bread and butter ; and made thus, is preferable to milk alone ; equal quantities of milk and water, are boiled up with a little oatmeal ; which breaks the vifcidity of the milk, and probably is eafier digefted than milk alone. Oatmeal is a warmer nouriihment than wheat flour, and agrees with weak flomachs. 2. Of boiling potatoes he fays, in Ireland and Lan- cafliire potatoes are boiled to great perfeftion, and then are ufed inftead of bread. The potatoes being good, are to be nearly all of the fa?ne fi%c. The large and the fmall to be boiled feparately. Wa(h them clean, without paring or fcraping. Put them in a pot with cold water \ not fo much as to cover them, becaufe they will add to the water from their own juices. If large, as loon as the boiling begins, throw in fome cold water, and occafionally repeat it, till they are boiled through to the centre : they will otherwife crack and burft on the outfide, whilft the infide will not be enough. Whilfl boiling, add a lit- tle fait. The Jlower they are cooked the better. Pour off the water and place them again over the fuc, for evaporating their moifture, that they may become dry and mealy. Serve up with the Ikms on. Steaminj: JJ- DI2T IN Steaming them is very inferior to boiling or ftewing in water, as above. 3. Potato Pltdding. Lctffom. 12 ounces of potatoes, boiled, fkinned and maflied I do fuet I do m ilk, that is, 2 fpoonsful I do cheefe. Mix all together with boil- ifiZ water to a due confidence. Bake it. Inflead of cheefe, there may be an ounce of red-herring pounded fine in a mortar. 4. Potato Bread. Parmentier. Crufli and bruifc potatoes well, together with prepared leaven {jot yeafl) and the whole flour de- ilgned ; (o that 4 be fiour, 4 potato. Knead all up with warm water added. "When the dough is enough prepared, place it in the oven lefs heated iban ufual 7isrjhui it upfofoon as is commoji ; but leave it longer in tbe oven. Without thefe precautions, the crust ^ill be hard and fhort, while the itifide will have too miuh jncisture, and not be foaked.* When potato^ are to be mixed zviih dough cf fiour ^ they are to be made into a glutinous pafle ; for giving tenacity to the fiour of grain. A fmall f>ortion of ground rice anfwers, and makes it eat fhorter. 5. Fotah- * See Leitfom, p. 404. RURAL ECONOMY. 333 5. Potato bread, in England. A /I^illet of pota- toes with cold water is hung at fome diftance over the fire, that the water may not boil till the potatoes become y^//. Then fkin, mafli and mix them with their weight of wheat flour, and alfo with the yeaft, fait and warm water wanted. Knead all together. Lay the mafs a little while before a fire, to rife ; then bake in a very hot oven [Parmentier in the preceding page is directly contrary.] Flour of rice or barley may be ufed inftead of that from wheat. 6. Another Englifti mode fays : after long boiling, peel, fcle6l the mofl mealy, and bruife the potatoes. To take oiFauy bitternefs of the yeaft, a little bran, milk and fait are added ; and after (landing an hour thefe are run through a hair lieve. 7. Another mode is given by the Board of Agricul- ture. — It diredls, to felecl the moft mealy fort, and boil and ikin them. Break and ftrain 1 2 lb potatoes through a very coarfe fieve of hair, or a very fine one of wire, fo as to reduce the pulp as near as pofGble to a flour. Mix this well with 2ott) of wheaten flour. Make and fet the dough of this mixture ex- aftlyas if the whole were wheat flour. This quan- tity makes 9 loaves of 5tt> each, in dough ; or when baked about two hours, 421b of excellent bread. Doftor Foikcrgill fays, if potato bread is cut be- fore it is a day old^it will not appear enough baked ; becaufc 334 DIET IN becaufe of the potato moifture [Parraentier's mode in the preceding page, cures this by baking flowlyj. He adds, never flice potatoes with a knife, raw or boiled ; but break and mafh with the hand or a fpoon, otherwife they will not be foft. Doctor Lettfom next proceeds to give the befl foups ; according to Mr. Juflice Colquhcun* I. Potato Soup. Colquhoun. Sieiv 5* coarfefl parts of beef or mutton, in lo quarts of water till half-done. Add a quantity of potatoes, Jkinned, and fome onions, pepper and fait. Stir frequently and boil enough. Bones of beef ad- ded would increafe the foup in richnefs or quantity. Mills. Eflimate in raills.t 5^ coarfebeef at 60 mills 300 Bones, to enrich it, 50 Potatoes 24ft> or 4 a bufliel 20 Onions, a bunch 60 Pepper and fait 60 49.0 It * Some of die receipts fij boil ; others JIcw ; others again, Icil over ajlo-jufre. Page 342, fays, " iwcer boil foups brj/ily ; but leave them long, long over the ^xo-tJimTTienng rather than boiling." Doftor Johnfon fays, — " It is material that fiupt be cooked in chfe ftew pans or vefiels that will icarcely admit of any evaporation." \ Small dealings, are conveniently ctiarged in mi/Zr ; or In ctnts and mills, 10 mills make a cent, iod cents or 10 dimes u dollar. RURAL ECONOMY. 335 It gives lo quarts foup, meat and potatoes : and dines ID men, at nearly 5 cents. — A red herring is fuid to be a good fubftitute for onions, pepper and fait. But red pepper may be added.* II. Barley Broth. Colquhoun. It admits of a mixture of almofl: every kind of gar- den vegetable and is never out of feafon. Onions or leeks and parfley are always a part of the ingre- dients : belides which, cabbage or greens, turnips, carrots and peas may be added. A tea-cup of bar- ley fuffices for a large family. Pearl barley is dearer, yet not fo good as the common hujked or Scotch drefTed barley. Water 4 quarts, beef 4 pounds with bones, barley 4 ounces [Count Rumford fays barley-meal is better than whole barley, for thickening broth, and making it more nourifhing]. 5/rTv' all together two hours. Then add the herbs cut fmall, and fait. The whole then boils till tender. Skim off the fat or not, as you like it. Onions or leeks mud not be omitted. III. * An EngliOi gentleman aiTures me he of:en ate of a plain pottage or foup in Switzerland, which was very agreeable tr> him ; and that having it made at his father's on his retuni to England, the family liked it fo well that they often had it, though fo plain and fimple as to be made only oi potjtc-eijhinned, boUeJy nuijljedup, and tbenjlewed 'with fom^ butter and fait ; with- out any potherbs orfpice : and yet thefe were opulent peopb, ufed to good living. It is a good jubftitutc for pea fc:r> ; -vvl made ot the fame confidence. 33^ I>i£T IN III. A plain good food, ivith very little meat ; and as ivholcfome as can be obtained from ivheat or bar- ley. Colquhoun. Cut half a pound of beef, mutton, or pork, into fmall pieces ; add half a pint of peas, 3 fliced turnips, and 3 potatoes, cut very fmall : an onion or two, or leeks. Put to them fevcn pints of water, and boil the whole, gently, over a flow fire for 2i hours. Thicken with a quarter pound of ground rice, and i- pound of oat-meal \ox ^^^ of oat-meal or barley- meal without rice). Boil \ hour after the thicken- ing is put in ; ftirring it all the time. Then feafon with fait and pepper, or ground ginger. x\s only a pint will be lofl: in boiling, it is a meallfor 4 perfons ; and will cofl 2 cents each perfon. IV. Cut into very fmall bits, 2^^ beef, mutton, or pork out of the tub ; or hung beef, frefhened in wa- ter; and put them in a pot with 6 quarts water. Boil Jlow near three hours : or rather stew till tender. Add 4* carrots or parfnips, and 4^ turnips, all fliced finall. Sometimes inilead of them, a few po- tatoes fliced : alfo add fome greens, cabbage, cellery, fpinach, parfley, and two ounces onions or leeks. Thicken with a pint of oat-meal (or a quart, to make it very thick). Boil all well together, and feafon with pepper, or ground ginger and fait. It will ferve a family RURAL ECONOMY. 337 family of fix, for a day. Or it may be thickened with any kind of meal ; or barley, beans, peas or rice. V. Take 4lt> beef, onions 4 ft turn'ps 2ft rice i^ft. Parlley, favory, thyme of each a large handful ; pep- per and fait : w-ater 17 quarts. Cut the beef into fliccs, and after boiling it fome time, mince it fmall. The turnips and onions infufed,and fweec herbs may be minced before they go to the pot. Boil the whole gcnth together, about 3 hours on :xj1o-j; fire. Scarcely two quarts wiil be wailed in boiling. The rell will ferve i8 perfons for one meal. Cod 3 cents each. "Where fuel is fcarce, the materials in the three above receipts may be ftewed in a pot, all night m an oven ; and will next day require but a quarter hour boiling. VI. Bake in an earthen pot, a {hank of beef in fix quarts of water, with a pint of peas, a leek, and four or five turnips fiiced. I. Pottages, by Ccl. Pjynicr. Officers Mefs. Three pounds of the (licking piece of beef, or a 1-z.xi of a fhiii, or any coarfe piece. Eoil it m Y eleven 33S DIET IN eleven quarts of water, two hours. Then add a fjound Scotch barley ^ and boil it four hours more, in which time add potatoes fix pounds, ojiiojis half a pound, and fome par/ley, tbyme or favory, pepper 2ji6.falt, with other vegetables, and half a pound of bacon may be added, the bacon cut into fmall bits. It gives three gallons of pottage. Boil it over ■d.fivjj fire, to be thick. If fatisfied twenty foldiers, 'with- out bread ; the nature of the food not requiring any. Col. Paynter adds that the men in the barracks liked it very much ; and the oficers introduced it into their mefs, and found it excellent. Its coft would be 30 cents ; cr 15 mills a man. z. A prcparat'rcefcr Puiagcs. Faynier. It may be applied as above, or be eaten in mefs : an excellent diOi. A pound of Scotch barley is boiled, and draining the water from it, i^fet to cool in an earthen pan. A pound of bacon is boiled in two quarts of water. A few minutes before it Is i iken cff the fire, put in the boiled barley, when it w ill imraediately fall to pieces, being a jelly whilft cold, and -avV/ fuck up all the juices, cf the bacon, nearly. The remaining ijater is then poured off. A few omons or leek: fhould be boiled with the ba- con and herbs. Seafon with pepper and Ja'lt. A pound of Scotch barley boiled four hours, and coaled in RURAL ECONOMY. 339 in a pan, becomes a fort of jclley ; which being put into boiling ivater, inftantly falls to i;ij barley ^'±, onions, pepper and fait. Coft 9 cents. A dinner for three men, needing no bread. ' IV. Mess. Dr. Johnfon. An ox cheek, barley itb, potatoes 6rt>, pepper and fait, onions i^. Cabbage, turnips, carrots. Water 22 pints. Cod 30 cents. Produce 3 gal- lons. A meal 18.7 m.ills or ic.8/^m. This colts 30 cents, without bacon ; and gives three gallons of very excellent pottage, for 8 men at dinner and fupper (perhaps even for 10 men). It v^as rich, and better than mj other pottages. Ox cheek feeras to have the preference to the coarfe pieces of beef commonly chofen. c^ In all ike aboi-e cookery, fays Mr. Johnfon, a very clofe ste^d;'pan^v;-^s ufed, vfhlxch. tm\it.Qd fcarcely any cvaporaticn : a ma- terial cu-curallance. ?Ie adds : Thefe diihes are not meant to be continual ; but to be three or four days in the week. V. Mess. RURAL ECONOMY. 34I V. Mzss. Dr, Jchnfon. A fliln of beef, barley ifr, onions ift, potatoes 6;b. Cabbage, carrots, turnips, fait and pepper. "Water ii quarts. Cofl 28 cents. Produce three gallons. Dinner for 7 men. Coil 40 ir.IlJs, or 4.0 cents a man. VI. Mess. Dr. Jchnfon. Ox's head \. barley 4!fc, onions ifr, potatoes 31b. Cabbage, carrots, turnips. Salt and pepper. Water 5 J- quarts. Produce 6 quarts. Cod 16 cents. A rich and high flavored pottage. In the laft two above trials, the do(5lor omitted the bacon j bccaufe the flavor of it, in fome other inflances, was too predominant ; and it is a needlefs expenfe, Oa the whole of his trials, he found that ox cheek or Jhin beef are preferable to any pieces that are ivithcut bones. See Prifon Diet. PoMPioN Diet. Doclor Lettfcm. ^The fort common at the tables of the people of Maflfachufetts, are diftinguiihed by the name of " the winter, or long nechcd fquaj%.^* They weigh 10 to 15.0, This fquafli is boiled abuut half an hour : then malhed up with flour or dough. They make 342 DIET IN make " bread, puddings, and mcft excellent pan- cakes; by mixlD? certain proportions of this vege- table, previouily boiled, with flour. But mofl commoniy, they are eaten ftewed, the ikin being firft taken o% and the entrails taken out. It is al- niofl: a /landing diih at their tables ; even amongft the moil opulent.'* General Cautions in Country Cookery, So'ups are never to be filled cp or have even a drop of water, hot nor cold, added : and are never to boil brijkly. They are to be k)ng, long over the fire, fimmering rather than boiling. And all foups hav- ing roots or herbs, are to have the meat laid on the bottom of the pan, with a good lump of butter. The herbs and roots being cut fmall are laid on the meat. It is then covered ckfe and fet on a veryjlow fre. This draws out all the virtue of the roots and herbs, and turns out a good gravy ^ with a fine favour^ from what it would be if the water was put in at nxil. When the gravy is almofl dried up, theyi fill the pan with water : and when it begins to boil, take off the fat. — Never boil fiih ; but only fimmcr, till enough. — Beef ^mck boiled, is thereby hardened : Jimmer or flov/ boil it, in not too much water. — Veal and poultry are to be dufted with flour, and put into the keltle in cold -ivater. Cover arrd boil Jlcw as poffible, /kimmicg the water clean. It RURAL ECONOMY. 34j It is the worft of faults, to boil any meat fad.— In baking pies, a quick oven -xcll chfcd^ prevents falling of the cruft. Wafteful or indolent people overlook calculation j and too many may think but little of the wholefome and nourifhing qualities of food. But here are well informed and moft actively good men, recommending to the world the refults of much inquiry and expe- rience tlierein. However lightly may be thought of a cent on a fmgle meal of visuals, when the fum of a year's meals is calcular.ed,, for a perfon, a fami- ly, and a nation, it becomes flriking and important. A cent for a «eal, amounts to three cents a day. * Dol. One perfon, at 3 cents a day, faves in the year . • • ^ ' One family of 5 perfons . • ' S':> A nation of 5 millions of people 55,000,000 The cent thus faved by the good houfe-wife, on every plentiful meal of the zuholefomest food, would be fufficient for maintaining the mod defperate war by the freemen of America, in defence of their country, againft the wiles and the violences ot the Great enlightened world ! GVPSUM 344 GYPSUM MANURE. GTPSUM MANURE. ]^izz Prcn V. rote circular letters to feveral ex- 'Der:—':::, ::.r~=-;- zi PeriEiyivaDia, containing quef- : ■ : vLich they g^ve him anfwers : _. ;:ome whereof, follows.* Queftion ift. How long have you ufed the plafter ? Anfwcr, by Mr. West 11 years Hanman 12 Price 6 Hand lO Curwen "* Sellers Duffield 13 Roberts 7 Peters 25 QueftioQ 2d. In what flate was your land when you began the ufc of it ? Anfwcr, by Mr. West : tired down. Hannum : Virgin foil and old land ; good bad and indifferent. Price : * "his:. Cljl has the pamtJilet at large, for file ; in which the aniwers are fbOf given, together with Mr. Petert*i obfer- ratkms. And I have their penniflkm to publiih this epitome. GYPSUM MANURE. 345 Price : Worn out ; but had been limed. Hand: Exhaufted. Cunven : Had been limed and dunged, after being exhaufled. Sellers: Poor. Duffield : Had been in poor timothy. Peters : Worn out. Queftion 3d. What quantity per acre have you ge- nerally ufed ? Anfwer, by Mr. West : 4 1 to 3 bulhels. Hannum .• i to 5 Price ; I to 2 Hand ; 3 to 4 Cur\ven : i began with 6 and funk to i Sellers : 2r began with 4 or 5 Ditffield: 3 to 5 if fandy 3. If loamy more. Roberts : 1 1^ to 4 Peters .-3. Queftion 4th. What foils are the moft proper for this manure ? Anf. by Mr. West : Warm, kind, loamy. Hannum : High ground, and fandy foils. Price: High, warm, dry, gravelly or loamy. Curzven : Dry loam ; better on hilly than level land. Sellers: 346 GYPSUM MAKURE. Sellers : Too light and fandy or clay are unfa- vourable : loam is befl. Bufficld : Sandy or light loam. Roberts : The fame ; and watered meadows. (Sloping is meant.) Peters : Light dry and fandy or loamy. Queflion 5th. Have you repeated the application of it with or withour plowing ? At what intervals, and with what efie£l ? Anf. by Mr. West. They have a good eiFeft. It fol- lows lime equal to any manure. Hannum. With and without plowing, with very eood eSecl:. Price. The like anfwer, with many inftances of good effefts. Hand, With good effefl 5 though with lefs at the laft. Cur\uen. On meadow and clover every other year, with good effect. Sellers. Sufpe<5ls the good efFefts will be lefs on a frequent application, as of any other manure often repeated. Improvement of land may be fimilar to that of animal improvement, which is better promoted by a change of nutriment, than by being confined to any one kind. Dufleld. Good on grafs every 3d or 4th year, without plowing : on maize with plowing. Peters. GYPSUM MANURE. ^47 Peters. Good with and without plowing. CJueflion 6th. In confeqaence do you find that it ren- ders the earth fteril after its ufeful effefts are eone? Anf. by Mr. West. Something of flerility it creates in five or fix years by mowing.* Hannum. Its ufefal effects have not ceafed ; ap- plying one^ufliel a year. Price. Never any bad effects ; and the good ceafes not. Hand. Quite contrary to flerility. Curwen. Quite the reverfe of flerility. No kind of manure gives flerility. Sellers. Have not obferved any flerility. Duffield. Not in the leaft degree. Peters. No greater degree of flerility after plaf- ter than after dunij. Queflion 7th. To what produfts can it be befl ap- plied ? grain and what kinds ? graffes and what kinds ? Anf. by Mr. West. It is befl adapted to grafs and every kind of fumraer grain. Hannum, * Not the manure, but the many crops taken off, weaken the foil ; and tlie ibur or five years of lay, give the foil time to fet- tle, become hardened and untillcd : and moreover, fibrous rooted plants take place and add to the milchief. §4^ GYPSUM MAKURE* Hannum. BeneSciaiiy to the production of wheat, rye, barley, Indian-corn, buckwheat, f>eas, f>o- tatoes, cabbage, clover, and all other gralTes common amongftus. Price, I have found it more beneficially applied to Indian com than any other grain, having never failed, except in two inftances : on^ was in a field a third part whereof had buckwheat in the year before. A row of com was left unplaflered, which run acrofs the frefh broken up land and the buckwheat ground. In the latter no ei±e£l whatever was perceptible that the plafter had on it. In the freih broken up land the crop was very good ; more than double the quantity where it was plaitered than in the row that was not. The other inllance W'as in 2.Jin£ mellow rich piece of land that bad been well manured the year before ; from which had been taken a good crop of potatoes and pompions. Three rows were left nnplaf- tered : but no difference could be feen be- tween them and the others, where had been fown two buihels per acre. The piece was fown the fpring following with barley and clover feed, and the plafter that had been put upon the com without any advantage, had a great efieft upon the clover, which was much better than where the three rows were omit- ted. The effects of the plafler here, as well as GYPSUM MANURE. 349 as in many other inftances where it has been apphed to Indian corn in mellow /and without effect, is, he fays, myilerious in its operations. It has never had any effedl: (when lirft applied) on any other grain except buckwheat, when fowed on frefli broken up land.* Hand. Oats and maize feed wetted and dufied with it before fown, is very good. With lime equal to 3 or 4 times the quantity put on the corn after it is up. Curzuen. Bell on red clover, and is good on white clover and mixt grafles. It enlarges the plant of maize more than the produft of the corn. Is very trifling on wheat and rye.f Sellers. All graffes, efpecially the clovers. Duffield. * MeHcw foils raoft readily imbibe and retain mo'iflure ; and therefore have ]efs need of the attradion of moifture by the acid and calcarious matter of gypfum. There is humidity in the drieft common air that comes in contact with the foil ; and this air is never quiefcent. The cultivation given to maize cleans and mcllov.'s the foil. Buckwheat is fown on ground fcratched over or very imperfcftly tilled, and fo the ground is not mill(rjj ; and there the gypfum is ufeful in coUeding and re- taining mo'ijlurcy which the fcratched half tilled ground cannot alone. ' f If It enlarges tlie plant, it fo far promotes its condition for yielding much com : but untimely plowing and breiking the roots, and great drought or c.^S ing particular crops— the adapting foreign produfts to our climate — and preventives againft all the evils attendant on our local fltuatlon, or arifmg from acci- dental caufes — may here be pra ^ c 07,60-1 at I del. 67,60-5 Peas, . . 47,6033 " -> /'J Oats, . . S7^159 • • • S^cts. 17,207 Rye, 15957 ' ""^f 2,147 . . . 70 . . 1,503 Barley, 5523 Wheat, 10,056 ... I dol. 10,056 Flour, bar. 519,265 = 2,596,325 buQi. 7 f^^ Wheat I dol. 5 ^090,325 Maize, bu. 1,200,495 • • 6octs. . 720,292 Meal of maize, 231,226" Rye, 49,269 Bkwh. 7. M«''449-7oc. .97,°H Oats, 200J Bifcuit, bar. 47340 ... 3 dol. 142,020 Starch & Powder, 69ooolbs. 20 cts. 13,800 Ship-fluff, 1,747,088 . 2 . . 34,946 3,800,766 Beef, or HUSBANDMAN S CHOICE 5 :>y Hories, Gzoz So 'J 10 cts Beef, bar. 91,321 . . 12 dol. Pork, 52,26s . . 16 . . . Tallotr, !fe. 19926 ^ 1,080,317ft Do. Candles, 1,060,39.1 j Lard, lbs, 1,451,657 . Buirer, 1,314,502 . Cheefe, 1,164,590 . Hams & Bacon, 1,412,005 Sheep, 9733 at 2 dol. Hogs, 37S6 2 . . . Cattle, c^oj. 2J. . . . 20 12 19,466 7^572 127,280 37/5400 1,095,852 836,288 ? 149563^ 145,166 262,900 163,042 169,440 Dung, remaining to the farms, from ^ livei^ck, 399/300 tons, at y^ cts. 5 531.718 321,637 Produced from grain, 3,800,766 /;-i- i^:r^ 3,783,044 DifFerence, ^7^7-^ 3,783,044 For drawing atten'ion5 to live stock, the expref- fions above are flrong ; but the idea is, that in thin lands zLwifnig restoration, efpecial attention is to be paid to live stock, at lead until the foil is recovered j and that at all times elfe a due attention be paid, in a courfe of ftinning, both to grain and live stock. If the one impcvcrijhes, the other restores the foil. All BETWEEN LIVE-STOCK AND GRAIN. 375 All which wc have now confirmed and greatly ftrengthened on the evidence of the board of agricul- ture in England, who have publiflied, among other particulars, their declaration that " The hulband- ry of every country depends moflly on the market for cattle, Jheep, and -ivoolJ* They thereupon aflc — " How Rir is the bad culture oi America owing to a want of thofe particulars ?" — Further they aik — " Is there a demand for beef, mutton, and 'ujqoI, in any quantities for exportation, or otherwife ? — And how far does the exigence of thefe circuraftan- ces in the vicinity of large towns, remedy fuch bad cultivation ?" In an anfwer given to thefe queflions by a arming gentleman of Yorkflure, after he had travelled in the United States, it is faid that " cattle for the curing houfes, in all parts of Ne%v-Engla7id, are calculated in the drove, at i8s. pd. fterling per hundred ft. hide and tallow included. Beef from 31s. 6d. to 45s. (lerling per barrel of two hundred pounds, nett, each, according to quality : the firfl he fays is very bad, the lail excellent ; and the demand is far greater than the fipply : Pork per barrel, not furpaffed by any in the world, is 72 to 76s. flerling.* And fur- ther, it is obfcrved, from the detail hereon, that it is not only evident that the demand for expor- tation * Cattle at 18/9J fterling = 416 cents. Beef, medium 38/ 3^ = 850 cents. Pork, medium 74/= 1646 cents. 3/6 husbandman's choice tation must be greater than the f apply, but that the cott' fumption by the great toxviis affords a price more than fufficient for all the articles that are carried to them. In other parts of the EfTays, it is contended that foiling, or stall-feeding live stock, is much more ad- vantageous than pasturing ; and that regular rotations and Jystems of crops and bufinefs, are alfo greatly fuperior to the common practices and random pur- fuits. In fupport whereof, from a publication of the Board of Agriculture, are here inferted the fol- lowing : " By direction of the Society of Rural Economy, of Zell, in the Electorate of Hanover, the following was prefented by Doctor Thaer, to the Board of Agriculture, in England. '' The two fyftems of rural economy, befi proved by experience, and acknowledged to be the mod perfect in the Electorate of Hanover, fay the focie- ty, are the plan of ftall-feeding, and the Mecklen- burg or Holilein Schlag, or Koppein Economy ; whereof, " The Koppein or Schlag Economy, confifts in an equal partition of fields, into a certain number of portions, and in ?i fixed, or a regularly varied ife of them, either for cultivation, nuadov:;, or pasture. It has from feven to thirteen portions, eflabliihed upon BETWEEN LIVE-STOCK AND GRAIN. '^']'J upon certain determinate general principles. — There certainly is no fysteni of hujhandry more regular, or more to be depended on, fo far as it goes, fays Doc- tor Thaer, the writer for the fociety. The number of the o.\r«, of milch cows^ the manure^ the differ- ent kinds of plows or implements, the yoic/;?^, the fucceilion of crcps^ every thing is fixed in the mod accurate manner. Every work has its proper iime, and its regular Juccejfton^ fo as to be done with the fmalleft: pofiible expence, either by the flrength of men or cattle. A polleflion of many acres is kept in order with the fame eafe as one of a few acres. This fylfem refembles a clock, which is wound up once a year by confulting the regifters : the value of an eftate managed in this way, and the rent it can afford, may be determined at once. The con- ditions on which the ground may be let, are, upon general principles, capable of being determined with fuch accuracy, that it is not in the power of the far- mer to impoverifli the land." " But, whoever wiflics to draw the highest pojftblc produce from his lands ; though undoubtedly with a greater expence of money, labour, and attention ; whoever choofes to employ a greater number of hands in the ufeful occupations of huibanury, and to keep a greater number of cattle, io odvjntage^ will, beyond a doubt, prefer the mode of stall fccd- inz '6' TIk 373 husbandman's choice " The Advantages of the System of Stnll-Feeding, are founded upon the following incontrovertible principles : 1. A fpot of ground, wliich, when pastured up- on, will yield fufficient food for only o?ie head, will abundantly maintain four head of cattle in the stable, if the vegetables be mowed at a proper time, and given to the cattle in a proper order* 2. The stall feeding yields, at leafl, double the quantity of manure from the fame number of cattle ; for the bed and mofl efficacious fummer manure, is produced in the stable ; and carried to the fields at the mod proper period of its fermentation. 3. The cattle ufed to stallfeeding, will yield a much greater quantity of milk, and increafe fafler in weight "when fattening, than when they go to the field. 4. They are lefs liable to accidents, do not fufi*er by the heat, hj flies and infects, and are not affeded by the ivcathgr. ** For explaining thefe principles more accurately, the following fhort defcription is here prefented, as carried on at a farm called EJfcnrodc, belonging to Baron BETWEEN LIVE-STOCK AND GRAIN. 37^ BaroQ Biilow, which confills of 700 acres of grafs land. " It had been tiUed many centuries ago, and con- ijfted of a very good clay foil. The Baron broke it up, and laid it oat mfeven partitims (koppeln), each conlifting of 90 acres, and an additional one of lix- ty acres adjoining to the farm. The farm has befides, 24 acres of meadow, and 22 acres of garden ground. " ITie fmaller portion, is deflined partly for lu- cerne, and partly for cabbage, for roots and vegetables for/ale. ' " Thtfeven main partitkns (koppeln) are manag- ed in the following manner. " One year, a divifion or koppeln is manured for beans, peas, cabbages, potatoes, turnips, linfeed, Src. ; 2. rye; 3. barky mixed with clover ; 4. clcier, to be mowed tv.o or three times ; 5. clvcer, to be mowed once, at St. John's, then to be broke up, plowed 3 or 4 times and manured j 6. wheat ; 7. oats. " The stock of cattle, amounts in afl to 100 head ; namely, 70 heavy Fries land milch-co^a:s or oxen, to he fattened, which are continually kept in the stable, and about 30 head o^ draught oxen and young cattle. "A o^^ husbandmak's choics " A fafficient, or rather fkntiful fupply of food for one head of cattle, daily if kept in a stable, con- fifts upon an average of ijOfb of green, or 3c!b of dry clover, which anfwers the fame purpofe.* Hence one head of cattle requires in ■t>^^ days I0j95olb o^ dry chver, or about one hundred cwt. of I lo'^ each ; the portion of food being, according to this mode of feeding, alike, both in fummer, and in winter. Hence 70 head require annually, 7000 hundred weight of dry clover. ** One acre of clover, mowed twice or thrice, yields -:o quintals, and one acre mowed once, 25 quintals ; confequently 90 acres of the former, and 90 acres of the latter, produce 6350 quintals. The deficient 650 quintals, are completed by lucerne, and other vegetables, fit for food, from the finaller por- tion (^koppeln). *• Belides all this, the ofials of the vegetables of the hy-lands^ the straw mixed ivith clrrcer. and the young clover * The difference in the quantity of food feems great. In the EJkjiy are allowed 171b of tay ; in the prefent inftance 3oib, of what is called dry clover. But it is proper to confider that the difference between hfepirg ■and.fattrning cattle is always great ; iu the one inftance they are allowed only a fufficiency lofufiain them in healthful plight ; which is much below what they are encoaraged to eat and have without ftint for fatten- ing them. Again, a difference is made between common Jiz^d cattle, and large beaus : the EJfayt fpeak of comnizn caiiU, htpt : the Hanoverian accotm: isof Zvj^, Friffljnd cattle, fattened. — But hay is not neceflhry in fattening cattle. BETWEEN LIVE-STOCK AND GRAIN. 3S1 clover of the fifth portion, when laid down, joined to the Hubble feeding, will produce fufficient food for the draught oxen and the young cattle. The hay mowed from the meadows, is preferved for the ufe of the horfes. " Each head of heavy ^ fat cattle, fed in the stable, if a plenty of Utter be given, yields annually, ftxieen fidl double cartloads of dung ; ']o head therefore yield 1120 fuder or cartloads. Add to this 30 draught oxen and young cattle, at 6 fuder or cartloads, a year, and the produce will be 1300 fuder. A management of this kind, therefore, affords a triennial manuring per acre, of 10 fuder or cartloads, of good liable dung ; and as, to this is united a com- plete and regular tillage andfuccejfion of crops, a double produce of corn may be expected thus : Acres. Rix dollars. 90 Wheat yield at 20 1800 at i dol. 1800 90 Rye 20 1800 24 1200 90 Barley 24 2160 24 1260* 90 Oats , 36 3240 12 1080 90 manured lay crop, and 30 acres in the fmall portion, 120 acres at 15 1803 The heavy Friefland cows, fed with the fame plenty, both winter and fummer, or the Oxen that are yearly fiiut rp /icvV^ in the flables 382 HUSBANDMAK S CHOICE iiahles, fatie!ied, and fold at 40 rix dollars a head. 2800 Thus the farm produces *9940 " That we may be able to afcertain the relafhe proportion in point of produce, of our two most re- nowned fysiems of rural economy, the fame farm is now to be conCdered as managed after the koppcln fystem of Mecklenburg. "According to the quality of its /oil, which is very good, yet flands in need of manuring, it ought to be divided into 7nne portions, of 77 acres each ; the reafons for which will foon appear. " According to experience, thefe are moft advan- tageoufly appropriared in the following manner :" I. Fallows, plowed during the whole fummerand left unfown ; 2. Wheat, unmanured j ^. Barky ; 4. manured lay-land, with lay-crop ; 5. Rye ; 6. OatSj with clover; 7. Clo'ver, once cut j then paftured j S. Pasture ; 9. Pasture, " By this mode of management, yy acres are ma- nured every ninth year, each acre with 10 fudcr or cartlcrvds. * The R'lx dollar, in Hanover, is 3/6 ftsrling : elfevrhere, in general, about 3/. fader, is a carthad. BETWEEN LIVE-STOCK AND GRAIN. 383 cartloads. As one head o^ grazing cattle yields eight fuder, 97 head ought to be kept. Each head, on this foil, requires two acres for its pasture ; confequently 97 head require 124 acres, or 2|koppeIn. Hence follows the divifion 9 portions, as above. " It may be admitted that aaiong thefc cattle there are about eighty milch coils, the rest draught oxen. This kind of economy feldom rears young cattle, but buys them. The cous are of the fraaller breed, in this koppeln fyftem, or elfe the paflure would not be fufficient for thera. During winter, they live upon nothing elfe but straw ; for what little there is oi clover-hay, is deftined for the draught oxen ; hence it comes that they do not produce more than ten rix dollars a head. - - - 8 00 " Though by this fydem the land is manured only once e-very nine years, which according to the Jystem of stall feeding, is done every third year ; yet this is made up in fuch a manner, by a three years reft, and the lay left quite unfown, &c. that the return of the corn may be admitted at the fame rate, but not higher : confequently. 77 acres wheat. yield at 20 1540 at I 1540 77 Rye 20 1540 24 1026;- yy Barley 24 1848 21 1078 yy Oats 36 2772 12 9-4 yy Lay. crop 15 ^^55 Produc.; 384 husbandman's choice Produce of the fiirm ^S^t,]- From this ought to be deduced, for the expenfe of houfe-keeping, 8zc. nearly 1500 Remains clear produce 5^33", " But as fuch complaints are made of the expe?ifes of houfe-keeping, S-lc* attending the fyflem of stall feeding, though in this cafe the young cattle are not bought, as in the other, which is a confiderable fav- ing ; yet we will admit the higheft poffible fum, viz. the double, or 3000 rix dollars, to be deducted from the general produce of 9940 rix dollars. " Hence there remains of clear profit, by the fy- flem of stall feeding, 6940 rix dollars ; confequcnt- ly it produces, upon 700 acres, a greater profit than the koppeln economy of Mecklenburg, amounting to 19064. rix dollars ; and every acre of its land is employed at a greater advantage of 2i rix dollars. " By this calculation, which may vary in fmgle points ; but which upon the whole is proved by ex- periencj, and confequently may be depended upon, one would think that this fyftem of rural economy mud become general, wherever it is knou-n ; but, as yet there are few farms of any confequence ma- naged in this manner, in the northeaftern part of Germany. * yhe ^'i;-. includes all expenfes f^i Jlod, fc:d, tillage, 5;c. BETWEEN LIVE-STOCK AND GRAIN. 385 Germany. In our country (Hanover) the number of wealthy people who at the fame time are enlight- ened, and diverted of prejudice, is too fraall. In the countries of Mecklenburg and Holflien, there is indeed a vafl number of rich and attentive huf- bandmen ; but the farms in thofe countries are ra- ther too extenfive, and the people of the lower clafs are, comparatively few and indolent. It cannot therefore be expefted that this kind of economy, which demands much greater exertions, fhould be foon introduced there. Bcfides, it is believed in thofe regions, that the perfection of rural economy has been already attained. *' As a preference is but relucftantly given to fuch things as a perfon does not incline to undertake, t)bje(flions, ten times repeated, are repeated again and again, to difcourage the attempt. A few cafes in which this fyftem of economy would not anfwer, are fure to be referred to. But it appears that the managers of the eftates, and the people employed thereon, were averfe to the meafure, and united to crujh it ; or that on the firft outfet the aim was mif- fed, either by parfimony or by raflmefs ; that there was not a fufficient ftocR of clover hay, or that it was mifmanaged when made; in Ibort, that they had been negligent and carelefs in their procefs. B b '< This 386 husbandman's choice '• Xhis fort of hufbandry docs not admit of any material errors ; and fnitab!e preparations ought to be made againil every accident that is likely to be- fall it. If once the requifite ftock of clover fhonld happen to fail, the cattle ufed to an abundance of food, viill wafte away in a manner beyond all poiu- ble recovery. If on account of the deficiency of food, the herds be lejfehed in nimiber, the lands ivill be exhausted by the want of manure. If to obviate the want of food, a portion is fuffered to lie longer for raiding food, than it ought agreeable to the fy- ftem above flated, there will be a want of strerw, which is fo neceffary for litter, and the abfence of which i« extremely pernicious to the health of cattle. " As in fome years, though feldom, the quantity of food produced, may be reduced to only one half, the prudent farmer fliould endeavour to keep one half of it, and like wife one half cf his sfraiVj ^tbm mie year fo another, and ought not to fuffer hifcfelf to be tempted by any price, be it ever fo high, to fell it. As this fj-ftem is on fo great a fcale, grea^ dif- ficulties mufl be conquered. " In a fmall farm which I carr)" on in this man- ner (fays the German writer to the Ibdety) at a country houfe, a quarter of a mile from town, and where from 18 to 20 head of milch cows are kept and fed in a ilable, none were ever materially ill, coce fiETt^^EEK? LIVE-STOCK AND GRAIN. 387 none ever mifcarried, nor was there ever any left barren. M. De Billcw can atteft the fame thing en a greater fcale. The cattle, which in our country graze in the fields, are, on the other hand, expofed to many accidents. " I have dwelt rather the longer (fays Do^of Thaer) upon this fyflem of rural economy, becaufe though in the Englifli writings on agriculture, I have indeed met with fome remarks relative to the stall feeding of cattle, yet I have feen none upon the fyflem of economy biailt thereon : and in the pam- phlet herewith fcnt to the Board, which I wrote a few years ago, at the dcfire of our fociety, for the ufe of the hufbandmen of Lunenburg, you will find themoft necciTary rules for stall feeding, detailed. It has already produced fuch beneficial effefts that, at prefent, you will find from 6 to 8 head of cattle, in the ftable of many a peafant, and the cornfields much improved, by the greater quantity of manure they fumifh." Thoughts on hired Labourers and Servants, Cottages and Cottagers. V^htufJaroery {Iiall ceafe or be inhibited, in our < ountry, where or how are means of cultivatino- the lands of the fouthern and middle ftates to be found ? The landholders and hufbandmen cannot too fcon B b - T. • 388 LABOURERS AND SERVANTS J begin the inquiry, that they may be prepared for the change. Will they confult the practices of huiband- men in the old countries ? The mofl we know of hiifbandry has been received from them by our an- ceftors ; and improvements in hufbandry during the latter part of the late century have been great in Europe. Information from European farmers, of our time, would tend greatly to improve us in the economy and management of labour and labourers hired : we fhoald efpecially beailiiied by information from them^ in the befl methods of conducing our rural bulinefs with hired labour, which would be attended with many particulars, to the wafteful and Icfs thought- ful and refpe£ting hired labour confiderably igno- rant American, equally new, convenient, advantage- ous or necelTary and becoming his profeffion and Na- tion in life, to be praftifed. In Britain, the country from whence our anceftors firfl; came, are various clafTes of farmers : generally they are common farmers and gentlemen farm.ers. The latter have their fle\v^rds, bailiffs, &:c. The common farmers attend to and conduct their own bu- linefs, with the aid of their children or a head fer- vant, — nothing hke the impoling overfeers of Ame- rica ; andthcy occaHonally hire what other labour is neceHary. The COTTAGES AND COTTAGERS. 389 The flavc being done with in America, all muft then be performed by hirelings ; who are diftinguilli- ed into labourers 2indfervanfs. The fervaiit rcfides in your family and contrafts to ferve you by the year, feldom for lefs than half a year, though fometimes it may be by the month. He receives wages, board and lodging. The labourer hires to work by the month, the day or the job ; is not of the family, but boards and lodges abroad as he can, or rents a fmall houfe, working for you or others occafionally, for wages only. Some particulars of labour and the economy of conducting farms in Europe are now communicated, for the confideration of the thoughtful clafs of Ame- rican farmers, efpecially of the lefs experienced mid- dle and fouthern ftates ; yet there are farmers, par- ticularly in Chefter county, Pennfylvania, and as I am informed, in fome of the Eallern dates, whofe practices are very fuperior, and nearly altogether by the aid of labourers or fervants, as above. It is deemed advantageous for the farmer to have fome number of labourers on his eftate at a rent, in a fmall very confined houfe called a cottage ; and the labourer taking it is called a cottager. The cottage is a great convenience and comfort to the cottager having a wife ; as it is a fnug home for her and their little cares j and that this clafs of people are more happy 39^ LA30UE^E.S AND SERVANTS; bappy 2j:d independent tlian tbe farmer vrho hires him, is evident from the known fact that they marry more than the farmers^, as 9 to 6. Nine in 10 marry, and of farmers but 6 in i o. The experience of ages fixes the cottage to be very limited. It is recommended by an experienced farnnsr, that for a man wife and children, it be in the ckar 1 2 by 16 {€£:t area for the ground floor ; of ■which 12 feet fqnare is for the family to iit in, dine, Szc. The refl of the area of the ground floor, 1 2 by 4 f^t, is divided for iiairs and clofet or pantry. The ^eps are 74 inches rife, 9 inches tread. Over the ground floor are two rooms, for beds, partly in the roof, and 3 feet from the eaves do-orn to the fecond fioor ; that is the pitch or height of the wall or fide is i I feet from the ground floor up to the eaves ; of which 3 feet are ia the fecond flory or floor of rooms upftairs ; the other 8 feet are the pitch of the room on the flrii or ground floor. A fmall garden is al- lowed to the cotELgc ; which gives employment and comfort 10 the wife and children : but not an inch of ground is otherwife allowed for czdti'vatiDn of any fiKt, -K'hich might tend 10 draw the cottager from the farmer's buflneis, to attend to an enlarged em- ployment of his ©■R'n, when he would become a poor fort oiyarmer^ inferior and mean, and therefore un- eafy in himfcif, inflead of remaining in the comf(K-t- sbk, ufefal and fettled alation of a decent, indq^en- dent COTTAGES AND COTTAGERS. 39I dent and contented labourer. Yet in America, ra- ther than to allow of ground for them to cultivate flax in it, fell them very reafonably the flax they may want, for employing the wife and her girls. The rent for a cottage is about ten dollars. Some cot- tagers keep one — a few, two cows j buying for thera winter provender, and paying for pafturage : they are fubjefts of the wife. Many inftances there are of a fcandalous negleft of decency, even in opulent farmers, in their not build- ing a fingle necejfary, or houfe of office ; fuch ought to be provided wherever there \% a habitation, be the family many or few, rich or poor — the cottage, or the hovel, — and d\{o fcreens, of fome fort or other, efie(flual for decency fake between the beds of the fa- mily children of both fexes. On a fair flatement it may be made appear that, dear as labour is in America, tillage by hired labour- ers is cheaper, the net gain greater, than when the farmer is a flave to his flave in cultivating his ground, as is much the eafe from infinite advantages taken of their mafter in very many ways — the little work done by the flaves, — the burthen of their families, S:c. Alfo the parent flaves teaching their children to plun- der their maflers and imlruaing them that they have a right to do it. A 392 LABOURERS AND SERVANTS; A farmer has ^^ fiaves : men 6 Women 6 Boys l _ Girh 3 Workers i8 Infants, aged, &:c. ly 35 Expence of the ^^. Com, meat, clothes, bedding, &c. Mifchief, wafte, pilfer, &c. IXiUars. T200 6oo i8oo If inflead of the t,^ (laves, i8 of them workers, the farmer is to hire labour, few hands fuffice : the following for the fame farm, might be a large pro- portion : Laboar hired, 4 men 4D0' 3 TTomen 120 3 boys 60 2 girls 30 Workers 1 2 6to Board and k)dgmg 6cc I2ICJ With thefe are |>eacf, quiet, order, economy, &c. And but 2 of the men, and 2 of the women and 2 of the boys need be in conflailt pay, and refiding in the family; cottagers or labourers doing the reft of the labour. Farmers COTTAGES AND COTTAGERS. 393 Farmers who hire all their labour, have with it the attentions of a manager, bailie, or head fervant ; and occafionally the labour of cottagers ; which al- together duly attended to introduces an orderly and necelTary economy : — there then is not an idle hand, nor eater, nor waiter yielding nothing profitable or advantageous. The farmer having Haves, generally has fupernumerary hands, eating, wafting, making confufion, &:c. the year through without abatement. He maintains twenty to pull down or extinguifh what other twenty toilers in good works had pro- duced with fatisfa^tion and repute. A writer who has treated well of hired fervants, labourers and cottagers, fets out with the important obfervation that nothing is more ruinous to farmers than their keeping more fervants than they have a real occafion for ; and that there muft be a fixed eftablifhment o^ fervants, proportioned to the extent and nature of the farm : but then this fixed eftablifh- ment is not fufHcient for the whole feafon of employ- ment ; and there are times and operations which re- quire additional labour. The farmer is fortunate enough who can then find hands for his purpofe ; for, generally, when one farmer wants additional aid, others alfo want it. He concludes, there are but three fources from whence the farmer can ex- pert affiftance, — from towns, villages, or cottages. The befl labourers are from cottages. Villagers arc better 394 LABOURERS AND SERVANTS J better than townfmen, thefe lafl being more wanton, yicious, idle and inexpert. If, fays he, the farmer is fo happy as to have fe- veral well peopled cottages upon his land, there will be no want of hands on extraordinary occafions. The ereclion of cottages is therefore of importance to the farmer : but he adds, it is neceffary for both parties that they be on the beft: terms. That the cottage family be regarded as a part of his own, in attentions to them ; and that they look up to him as their friend. But as fome may be ungrateful and Jittle difpofed to prefer their landlord, they may be held by a condition that in cafe they do not give their aifiHance on preHing occafions, they fliculd pay fo much more. In fpare corners of the cftate that are dry and iheltered, near good water, cottages fliould be built, and the cottagers made eafy, with avoiding however a.11 excefs of indulgence. About 6400 or 66co fquare feet of ground arefufhcient for a cottage garden, or a fquare of 80 to 90 or 100 feet. There are cot- tages without any garden : but it was obferved by a clergyman who relided in a village amongfl; cottagers that during thirty years of his attention, cottagers who had a garden were generally fober, induftrious and healthy ; and thofe who had no garden, were often drunken, lazy, vicious and ailing. Cottagers COTTAGES AND COTTAGERS. 395 Cottagers are limited in fuel, and are therefore faving of it. Their fire place on the firfl floor is but enough for their frugal and plain cookery ; and in the parent's room above flairs the hearth is but little more than will hold a chaffmg difli of coals, ufed in ficknefs and to vent the room. Heat con- veyed by a ftove flue from a fire below, would be fafer and more frugal. The firfl: floor of cottages ought to be raifed 8 to 14 inches above the common furface. A flaelter or fmall roof over the out door is convenient and com- fortable. Some tools may be flieltered there. The time for changing fervants in England is well fixed on Martinmas the 22 J November. A more eli- gible time it is faid cannot be devifed. The flranger fervants then enter in a fcene of tranquillity ; and have all the winter to become familiarly acquainted. The accurate Mr. Marjhdl fays, that on the ma- tureft calculation, the yearly expence of hirelings is thus : A many in tlie hoiife co^%£, 35 fterling ; of which wages are . . . £. 10 a year. A loy cods ^•23 of which wages 3 A man, at day labor, even if he works every day is but . . . 27 10 o A hfiy^ , . , 13 396 POINTING ROOFS, So that a man in ihe krufe is more than by the day _^7 i o o befides rainy days. . . A baj in the houfcj more than by the day 10 c o AVhere there are more than one cottage requiCte on a farm, it is advantageous that two be united ; by which the conduct of the families is more public, and their underhand or fecret improper movements are feen, difcountenanced or prevented : they are checks on each other in what is difadvantageous to the farmer or themfelves ; and thereby abufes are prevented, at the fame time that they are at hand to aiBil each other occafionallr. Of Pointing Rcc/s cf Houfes, The difficulty of preventing driving rains from entering where the fhingling of houfes and chimnies join, or between houfe and houie or one part of a roof with another, has been forely experienced, and complained of without finding the means of relief. Many fubftances and modes of curing the caufes of complaint, have been tried without effecl. Brick- layer's mortar alone, mortar mixed with black- fmith's cinders — with brickduil — with plafter of Paris^-of plafterer's common plafler, without as well as with hair, all to no purpofe : the very firfl rain that fell on the work, fweliing the fhingles and preffing them clolJb to the brick work, uniformly cracked POINTING ROOFS. 397 cracked and generally forced out ferae part of the oppc^mg fubftance, called pointing ; and thus left openings for every future rain to enter, and the frofts of the fucceeding -winters completed the de- ftru6lion. The defire formed by my next door neighbour, in pointing, was to find out an elastic fubflance that when preffed on by a fwelling of the fhingles, fhould give way, and when the ihingles became di-y again, Ciould by its own elafticity return to its former clofe flate. It alfo was necelTary that fuch fubftance jQiould be able to refifl: the injurious elfeft of driving rains in not eafily giving way or decaying. The tow of hemp my neighbour found to have all the requifite elafticity ; and when defended by a coat of glazier's putty was proof againft the wea- ther for feven years that it had then lately been tri- ed by him, although it was very imperfectly pointed with the tow and putty ; fo that it required to be renewed ; he therefore directed it to be better done, thus : the joint or jun£lion between the lliingles and brick work was well filled with tow forced in by a bricklayer's trowel, and kept down half an inch be- low the upper furface of the Jhingles ; then putty was frejfed down with the trowel on the tow ; and laftly, /craped off fmooth, even with the fliingles, — fo that no part remained on the top of the fliingles, but even 398 FLAX. even with them. Several rains have happened fince, yet his houfe proves perfeftly tight ; without the leaft crack in the pointing, or deviation of the fluffing from the (late in which it was placed. The putty when partially dried, is yet fufficiently tough to admit of being prelTed by the wet, fwoln fliin- gles, without cracking : and he took fome putty, ufed on the former trial out of a joint or bend when it had been there above a year, which ftill retained its toughnefs, and had not even then acquired the ftone-like hardnefs that it Ihews on old glazed win- dow fafhes. The pointing (hould be done in dry, fettled wea- ther, that the putty may acquire fome degree of hardnefs in a hot fun, four or five days, left a rain by occafioning the fliingles to fwell fliould prefs with too much force on the putty. Soaking the tow in oil would be an improvement, he thinks, if it fhould hot deprive the tow of its elafticity — becaufe then if any accident occafioned the putty to fcale off or crack, the tow filled with oil vi^ould be indefl:ru<5tible by the weather, and would keep the houfe always tight. FLA X, The hufbandmen of America generally pay fome attention in the cultivation oi jiax. Bnt it is noto- rious FLAX. 399 rious that where tobacco is taken into cultivation, not only flax, but even bread and generally all other articles of hufbandry are more or Icfs negle^led, for giving a preference in labour and attention to to- bacco. Both of thefe articles impoveriili ground ; but then the flax, requifite, needs only a fmall por- tion of ground, and this can be readily changed for other ground, and is eafily manured and then culti- vated in ameliorating crops, for relloring the foil ; — ^befides it is a neceifary article amongit the great mafs of farmers and country labourers. It therefore mud be produced ; though folely for home confump- tion — not a thread for exportation. If, fays a farmer attentive in cultivating flax, feed is to be raifed, fow only one bufliel an acre : if limn is the obje(5l, fow two bufliels. But unlefs the ground is previoufly well prepared by an ameliorat- ing fallow crop, with a full manuring, weeding, and fl:irring, fow not at all. Flax is faid to be better for Handing till the bark of the plant is pretty well matured, though not fully fo ; that the lint may admit of being fplit into perfect fibres the mod minute. Tobacco itfelf, in its culture, will give a very clean fallow ; but nothing exceeds p(ptatoe, turnip, or 400 SLEDS CABBAGE PLANTS. or pea-fallow crops, when hoed with fpirit ; and they alfo are family comforts. SLEDS, A common, handy, light Jled is in univerfal cfti- mation in Yorkfliire; and it is in continual ufe, both in winter and fummcr. It carries harrows and other implements, or rough pieces of fmall timber, to and from the houfe and fields. On tender ground, tur- nips, &c. are carried, rather than in carts. They have two : one fmall, for one horfe ; another for two or more horfes or oxen ; which is larger. CABBAGE PLANTS. Compared cabbages i ran/planted, with others not once moved. The unmoved grew and were better than the moved. 8 An. 1 1 8. Propofed : that nearly equal portions of cabbage feed and rich moift foil be put together in a box or pot till the feeds fprout, or only fhow their white pips. Hills of earth keep clean, and jufl on ftir- ring the ground fow the feeds and foil together in the hills, thin j and as the plants grow, thin them to one. Of other plants, tranfplant, when of the ufual fize ; and compare them, when full grown. FAT 40 1 FAT CATTLE. Oxen made half fat, or in good plight, on grafs or turnips, are then very highly and foon finifhed in France, upon a four food thus prepared : rye meal (buckwheat or maize meal may be tried) with water is made into a paste, which in a few days^^r- ments and htcoTv^.^, four ; this is then diluted with water, and thickened zvitb hay, cut into chaff, which the oxen fometimes refufe the firft day, but when dry they drink and prefer 'v{qq All the French huf- bandmen are decidedly of foK^nioa they fatten much better becaufe of [he acidity. They give it rhrice a day, and a large ox tiius eat 22lbs. a day. Maize meal, or maize fleeped till four Ihould be tried. This four mefs is given during the lad three weeks of their fattening ; and they eat about 74- buihels of meal, value four dollars. Their cattle are of a cream colour, and are very excellent and greatly admired by Mr. Young. Their fat oxen weigh 900 to 9 20 lbs. an excellent fize. C c NOTES NOTES AND ^OTES jiND INTIMATIONS, " The whabitaTtis of the inland country have more in- ** tegrtiy, fimplkity^ and getierojity ; and in all re- ^^ fpscfs baie -mare amiable manners^ than tlxtfe of '• tbefea cDOsi. ^he latter have contraded a traf- *•*■ fi eking keenfpiriij naturally i/iimicaJ to the virtues *^ founded ex TnoderaSam and di/inierestednefs,** Vol. Syr. " An apparently grc"^ advantage J ivould be a real " e^cily if it fended t far out as to be left pen- dent. Soon as gutted, fait the fifli and flow them clofe in the barrel ; laying each layer in a contrary dire£tion to the one below. The barrel is coopered clofe up, foon as full. Be careful to have none but perfectly tight barrels. The herrings remain thus, to pine in this firft fait and in the bloody juices or brine, 14 days "with, f mall fait, or 3 or 4 weeks with large fait. — Curing : this prevents a tenden- cy which the bloody liquor or brine has to putrify. A proper curing depends on a procefs whereby the oil contained in the prepared liquor or brine, by being INTIMATIONS. 419 being rendered mifcihle with ivater and reduced to a faponaceous date, is preferved from the aftlon of the air and turning rancid. — After the herrings have been a fufficient time in fait to pine or throw their hquor (part with their juices), empty the bar- rels of them upon a large dreffer having a ledge round it, and inclining one way for the liquor to run off int6 a veiTel. Boil the brine in an iron vef- fel : /kim and draw it into a wooden receiver ; let- ting it cooL Take the melts of thirty male herrings for every barrel. Bruife or triturate them in a mortar : add fome of the liquor, as you triturate ; and when well diffolved to the ftate of a rich emul- fion or faponaceous liquor, mix it with the boiled liquor in the wooden velTel. Then lay the herrings in the barrels, and a layer of fait between the rows, as in the firfl faking. Cooper the barrels clofe^ and fill them with the prepared liquor, at the bung or head. C Al^D LES. " Difiblve 25^ Q)[ heef talloiv Tccidi 1^0^ mutton tallow^ in a copper orbrafs veffel, with Jrt^ ox boiling ivatcr to each pound of tallow. Mix therein i '- quart of brandy^ when the tallow is melted, and 5 ounces fa/t of tartar, 5 ouwca fal ammoniac, 5 ounces cream of tartar, and 2 ounces dry, clean poUiJh. Boil all together A hour. Cool it. Next day take D d 2 out 420 NOTES AND out the cake, cut it into flices, and expofe to the dew and air, till it becomes a fine white mafs, hard almoft as vrax. Make the \ricks of best cotton fpun very Jine and very even and clean. Steep the wicks in fpirits of wine ; and harden them under a coat of wax. Then pour the tallow on them, in moulds." POKEMELT. Green cucumbers, middle fized or rather large and even tawny, are put into a jar or caik. Upon each layer of them, add a layer of ivhite ozik leaves, and black currant leaves. Over every layer fprinkle dill feeds, mufliard feed, horfe-radifli and garlic : and to CYcry twenty cucumbers, one bell of pepper. ZMakc a brine of fait and water, not quite follrcr.r : " 'ear an egg: to every gallon whereof add u c_ ^:od white wine vinegar; and fill the jar or caik; with the pickle, cold, after it has been boiled 21.: :: . r. rd. A gentleman from RuiEa gave this account, to fome friends in Philadelphia. He faid the pickled cucumbers, according to the above, are ufed in RufHa ; and that it is faid there, the Eir.prefs had a calk of them for every day in the year. Mr. Sziintcriy the traveller, gives another way of r ;.t.c1v ; v.hich is this : — A layer of oak leaves ;s tkiii put into the bottom of a cajk which is beft of white oak : then a laver of cucum- bers : and fo altemately till the cafk is filled. A pickle INTIMATIONS. 421 pickle is made, as is common, with fait and water ; not too ftrong : and it is poured over the cucumbers in the cafk. The cafk is kept in a cool cellar. The cucumber is foon fit for ufe, and keeps good a year or more. He imagines if fome vinegar was added it would be wholefomer, efpecially to Ruffians whofe great ufe of fait meffiss renders them very fcorbutic." The gentleman who gave the firfl: above receipt faid, the pickle was to be acidulated fo that the tafte of vinegar fliould be very flight. He dire^led alfo that the cafk be of white oak, and the cucumbers be ra- ther full grown, and put in whole. I have eat of them as made in the firfl above method, aifo fome fplit into four lengths. It is a much admired pickle, mild and winning, I faw a lady nearly make her dinner of them : for they are ferved up in plates-full ; and are in a ftile different from, and milder than other pickles. RENNET. Mr. Marjhal, in his Rural Economy of Norfolk, gives the following as the befl way of faving rei^pet fkins. — Throwing away the curd, the ftomach of the calf is waihed clean and falted thoroughly infide and out, Cwith fine pounded fait, it is prefumed ; for he adds) leaving a white coat of fait overy every part of it. It is then placed in an earthen (better if flone) jar, for 3 or 4 days. It is then hung up, 2 or 3 days, 422 NOTES AND days, refalted and placed again in the jar, covered tight down with a paper pierced with'pin holes ; where it remains till wanted, for ufe. It ought to remain fo 1 2 months, to be ilrong : but may be ufed a few days after the fecond faking. RENNET LIQUOR. A handful of the leaves of fweet briar, another of the dog rofe, and another of the bramble, are boiled together in a gallon of water with three or four handfuls of fait, for a quarter of an hour. Strain oif the liquor. When quite cool put it into an earthen or flone veffel and add the prepared maw or ftomach iliin. Then add a found lemon, ftuck round with i. ounce of cloves. The longer it is in the liquor the ftronger is the rennet. When (Irong enough, take out the fkin. Hang it up two or three days to drain. Refalt it : put it again in the jar ; and thus continue to treat it, till its virtues are exhaufted, which will not be till ufcd feveral times. MarJhaL ' CURD. The warmer the milk, the fooner it coagulates : but if too warm, the curd is tough and harlli. The cooler the milk and longer in coagulating, the more tender and delicate the curd. — The length of time between the fitting the milk and the conmg of the cnrd INTIMATIONS. 423 curd may be regulated by the warmth of the 7nilk when fet ; or by the warmth in which it is kept vvhilfl it is coagulating ; or by the strength and quantity of the rennet. — ^Perhaps it is not the heat when yt"/, but the heat when it comes, which gives the quality of the curd. — The curd fliould be covered to make it come together : it may otherwife be hard at the bot- tom half an hour before it comes at the top. — Milk immediately from the cow is 95° of heat — From a number of experiments Mr. Marflial concludes that curd of a good quality is obtained from 7nilk heated from 87 to 103° of Farenheit ; provided that the ren- net be fo proportioned that the time of coagulation be from -i to 2 i hours ; and provided that the milk be properly covered, during the procefs of coagula- tion — But from thefe and numbers of other obferva- tions it rather feems to him, at prefent, that from 85 to 90 are the proper degrees of heat : that from one to two hours is the proper time oi coagulation, and for keeping the milk covered ; fo as to lofe in the procefs about 5" of its original heat. MarfJoaU BEER. It is fiiid Sir Jolm Dalrymple propofes that beer be brewed with ivort-cake and hop-cake, combined with yeast-powder : which may be with cold water. One pound of the cake is to make a gallon of table beer : and it is thought it would anfwer well at fea, and fave Ilowage 424 NOTES AND flowage. — I have cured yeaft in cakes, by fmearing tubs with it, and cxpofmg it to evaporation in the fliade and wind till perfectly dry. My dried cakes of yeaft were broke fmall, and kept in bottles, quite di-y and well corked. EGGS. Into a tub put abufliel quicklime, 2ft» fait, and 4^ of cream of tartar, mixt in water to bear an cg^ with its top jufi: above water. Keep eggs in this ; which may be two years, fays Repert. 177. LEVEL. Thz /pan-level is always ufed by irrigators of mea- dows in Pennfylvania. The bifliop of Landiff (Doc- tor Shipley; it is faid was fo pleafed with it that he prevailed with Mr. E. a Pennfylvania farmer to direct the making them for him. The Repertory of arts has given proper direflions for ufing it thus : — At the level of the water, where you begin, drive a pia into the ground ; on which one leg of the level can reft ; then bring the other leg round, till it touches the ground on a level with the top of that pin : there drive in another pin ; and having adjufted the level perfefiiy, make ufe of this lail pin as a refl: for one foot, turn the other about till you find the level in the fame way ; and fo proceed on. Thus at once vou INTIMATIONS. 425 you difcover the precife dire^lions that the water courfe fliould hold, without digging through heights or fiiUng up hollows. This is to conduft \v2Xtr per- feSfly level. — If declivity is to be given 4 4 '^ch or more in every 12 feet (the fpan of the level), inftead of wooden pins, make ufe of one pin of steel, having inches, halves, and quarters, marked on the fides, from the fquare top downwards ; and have a number of wooden pins, cut neatly at the top quite fquare. After fixing the iron pin quite level with the firfl:, drive a wooden pin into the ground clofe by it, mak- ing its head go i- or \ inch lower than the top of the iron pin. Then pulling out the iron pin, and em- ploying the wooden one as a rcfl: for one of the legs, put the iron pin in again for the other leg, and driv- ing another wooden pin into the ground, a quarter inch lower, proceed forward in this manner, and the canal will have the fame uniform degree of Hope, throughout its whole extent. Thus the fall can be regulated to any affignable degree. One of thefe levels 1 ufed at Como, in Chefter county, with great fatisfaflion, for directing water in irrigating the land. See plate. WILLOWS. There are low, broken, fwampy lands little fuita- ble for meadow, which may be profitably planted with willows. A Mr. Lowe, in England, improved V fuch. 426 KOTES AND fucli ground ; by laying it out from 3 to 4 yards wide, with a ditch on each fide, 3 feet at top, i foot at bottom, 2 1 feet deep ; but the ditch is to be deep and wide, according to the condition of the ground, for giving near a yard of earth above the level of the water ; towards which purpofe, the earth dug out of the ditches, is thrown on the land. Then dig the ground two fpades depth, unlefs it be very boggv. The plants are to be kept perfectly clean, efpecially the firft year. The fets or truncheons are cut 20 to 24 inches ; avoiding to bruife the bark in cutting or planting : they are therefore cut in the hand, not on a block. The ground is opened with a crow bar, 14 to 20 inches deep ; and 4 to 6 inches of the plants are left above ground. The cuttings were from poles of three years growth ; and placed 3 feet apart, quincunx. — One, two, or three fhoots were left to grow. At 8 years old he fold off near 500 dollars worth on an acre. "Where the plants are puny and weak, dig in manure to their roots. The poles fo fold, at 8 years old, were 33 to 36 feet high, enough for three rails, 2 at bottom and one at top. But their great ufe was in making hurdles, gates and im- plements of hufbandry. The time for planting is from January to the end of March j and the fets are to be cut from December to the end of February, whilst tk»fap is dczun. Rep. — It is with caution that the yelkzu 'luHIow fliould be planted near fprings and wells of water. I have heard of thefe being damag- ed INTIMATIONS. 427 ed greatly by the willow roots, and of afpring being flopt entirely. On a farm which I lately bought in Chefler county, water was carried under ground near 300 yards from a fpring which had been choak- ed, as the tenant thought mifchevioufly, by twigs of the yellow willow being cut and put into the tube at the fpring. They drifted and lodged at different parts of the tube, and there threw out malTcs of roots, very fmall, fponge-like, and clofe, fo that the water was, in a while, totally ftopt from paffmg through. The whole of the tubes I have caufed to be taken up and replaced ; and a flone houfe built, and locked up, over the fpring. See, of Swamps, the next ar- ticle. SWAMPS. I have read of a fwamp, of which meadow could not be made ; and, being a difagreeable objeft, large deep ditches were dug, and the earth thrown up into little iflands ; which were planted wjth willows, and formed beautiful clumps of trees, here and there ; fo that nothing was feen but thefe trees, and various peeps of water. The ditches anfwered for fifh- ponds. See of willows ; the preceding article. m Lombardy poplar is planted about habitations in America for ornament : but an Italian gentleman fays, in Italy it is fawed at mills whilfl green into boards ' ; to 428 NOTES AND i 4- to one inch thick, and into plank 2 to 3 inches thick ; and is greatly applied to making packages for merchandize. Nails are not apt to draw in thefe packages, the boards whereof are thii>; and the wood being tender is eafily cut into thin boards with handfaws. In 20 years their trunks, he adds, grow to be 2 feet diameter and 30 long. Boxes of it made ftrong for the ufe of vineyards lad there 30 or 40 years ; which induces the expeftation that they may lafl long in fence-rails ,or logs. As fuel he fays it makes a much ftronger fire than the willow. The weeping willow is a fmgular and valuable ornament. Of other willows and ofiers, the beft adapted to mak- ing bafkets, hurdles, tool handles, &c. no hufband- man ought to be without a permanent flock in full growth. For the more general, extenfive and im- portant purpofes, the Larch f Pinus Larix, Lin. J mufl have the firft attention of landed men. See DotStor Anderfon^s 3d volume of EfTays on Hufban- dry, for a full and fatisfaftory account of it, and of the extenfive propagation of it in Scotland ; with its ofeful and durable qualities ; and its very quick growth, fo much wanted in the oal<. ^ Mr. Young fpeaks of fifh-ponds ; and of four ponds, an acre each, one above another, on aflream, which turned a mill below the ponds. 19 An. 400. BmriL^ INTIMATIONS. 429 DISTILLATION. The Dutch method of preparing wafh, for malt fpirit, faves much trouble and procures a large quan- tity of fpirit. It is the mod profitable method, and reduces the two operations o^brezving andfcnnenting into one. It is this : — In proportion to ioit)of malt v!\jine meal, and 3 ft) of common wheat meal, they add 2 gallons of cdd water, flirring all well toge- ther : then add 5 gallons of water boiling hot ; and again ftir all together. When this is cold they add 2 ounces o^folid yeafl ; and ferment it in a warm place, loofely covered. — In England, by drawing and mafh- ing for fpirit, as they do for beer, pumping into coolers, and running it into fermenting backs, and fermenting it, they have twice the labour, and lofe much fpirit, by leaving the grofs bottoms out of the Itill, for fear of burning. Sibley's Hift. IMifcel. pa. 352. TOWER—DRAVGUr. The 16 An. 562, fays, can ivitb one horfe are pre- ferred ; and that they carry 1 60 large bricks, of i4tb, equal to 22401*)- Thefe cars are about 5 feet fquare, and i foot deep ; containing 25 feet : 27 f. a cubic yard is a load of earth. The ivbeels tzi-o feet diameter, run under the car, as in Ireland.* The * I direifled a cart to be made on the principles of Sharp's waggons on rollers. The wheels of this cart, or rpther th- 43^ xorrs and The 1 8 An. 1 79, fays, one-horfc carts prove macb preferable for all works of hufb.mdry : and the form of fcch a cart, '■Mitb an ox in thills and gears, and bridled, is given. This cart is 5 feet long : t^~^ broad : 2 deep ; equal to t^6 cubic feet. The firength of a common man, walking bonzov- tally, with his body inclining forwards, is faid to be equal to 27]^. If he walks backwards the force is faid to be greater in pulling backward ; and it is fiid to be known that a horfe draws horhcntally as much as feven men ; that confequently his firength is equal to I Splb, when drawing hori'z.ontaUy. Yet in afand- ing, three men laden with ico^, each, will go up a pretty fteep hill with more eafe and expedition, than a horfe laden with 3001c. I have often fcea about a tun weight drawn, and fometimes up a trying hill as from Market ftreet wharf, Philadelphia, to Front ftreet, by 07ie bcrfe in a dray having wheels of three feet diameter. On level ground, with fuch lov7 wheels, his whole power is exerted to advantage j up'xard, from the centre of the rolhrsy "vrere fvro feet dJain?ter, and 1 6 inches tread, fa'S'ed out of oak. They performed admirably, escept when run- ning oTer old cornhills : they tien iumped condnually. With. 4cxen it carried 120 bulhels cf wheat, 7000!*). eafily. The rollers were under the body ; and this was nsariy fquare with equal fides. Carts are uied with cw cv, inflead of a horfe. INTIMATIONS. 33I the axis which is below his point of draught. Hori- zontal draught, has but 189^^ of power to be added to fome portion of the horfe's weight. But in draw- ing upward it is with an increafed power. Contrary to common reafoning, a horfe draws more in a dray having three feet wheels than in a cart having five feet wheels, or elfe I muft ftrangely be millaken in my judgment of what I have feen and concluded were facts. The line of draught, yrow the axis of a three feet wheel, is elevated ; which gives the horfe a lift- ing purchafe, with the aid of his legs, and better foot- hold prelllng more direflly on the ground : but when the wheel is five feet high, the draft is in a line nearly horizontal, and the horfe pulls to difadvan- tage ivith a horizontal exertion of the footlock ; which is very inferior to the pov»'er exerted by \h^fooi and leg, when drawing upward they prefs more diredly on the ground. SHEEP. The univerfal food for flieep in England is, in fumnier, common grafs and clover ; in zcintcr, tur- nips for winter feed, and from tuiTiips to vetches in the fpring : hay, only when turnips fail. Of stock flieep, 100 require 5 acres of turnips, and 15 acre^ of clover. Good inclofed padure will carry fix fliecp to an acre. 1 9 An. 295. 298. — A tun of hay a day was eaten by 700 (heep ; which gave to each 3 j.\rfc 432 >50T£S AND a diiy, and was rather fcanty. " Cabbages are bet- ter for flieep than turnips two to one" — After the flieep are a little accuflomed to their flails, they thrive well. They are there fed 3 or 4 times a day, and have clean htter. 18 An. 105. 111. — In America, plant a cabbage in the flep betw'een every two hills of maize, the partial (hade may be favora- ble to them. It is faid that colliflowers fucceed bet- ter when planted amongft maize, than when in a garden, gooseberries alfo require fome (hade. Thus they are ralfed without labour ; for the maize mufl be horfe-hoed. What would be the di5erence be- tween letting the plants grow into cabbages from the feeds, without removal, and tranfplanting as ufual ? FRESHENmG SALT PROVISIONS. In my paffages on the Chefapeak, I obferved my fkipper would foraetimes flice falted barrel pork, and in a few minutes fre(hen the llices in a frying pan ; and then boil them for his dinner. The pork llices were put in ffe(h, cold water, in a frying pan, and held over^fire till the water begafi tofimmcr (never fuffering it to boil in the leaft). This water was then thrown away, and other cold freOi w ater was put in a pot together with the flices of pork. They were then boiled till enough. — This was applied, in my family, to frediening fait fidi ; efpecially cod founds j and it anfwered admirably. Sometimes they were fo over INTIMATIO^rs. 433 over frefhened, that it was neceffary to eat fiilt with them. TURNIPS, In Kent's Hints, page 128, is the following on tur-* nips. — In crops they anfwer three great purpofes j to clean the ground : fupport live stock, a vafl: deal : and prepare for other crfjps ; particularly for barley and clover, or grafs-feeds. The turnip crop is the Nor- folkman*s flieet anchor; and he fpares it no pains* The flubble of wheat, barley, or oats, is preferred for bringing on turnips. They plow very iliallow ; fo as to ikim off the rough furface only, fome time be- fore Chriflmas. In the following March, it is well harrowed (their foil is a fandy loam) and then is crofs plowed to ksfull depth. In May, it is plowed again, the fame depth : and if dry wearher and the foil ftifF, immediately harroiv after this plowing. By the first of June, it ought to be perfectly clean. Now, I o good cart loads of manure are laid on an acre, re- gularly fpread, and plowed in quite frejh, half the depth of the other plowing. — It thus is left till about the 2 1st of June ; and then is well harro--:ed, to blend the foil and manure together. — It is then ploivcd to Its full depth, and harrowed, once only, the way it is plowed. — The feed is then immediately fown, on the E e frejh 434 NOTES AND frefn earth ;* not even ivaitingfor theplow'mg afecond ridge. A quart of feed an acre is fown. The feed is harrcr^ued in twice, the fame way the ground was plowed. The barrcrj; is fhort tined, and the lighter the better. The niceft part of the turnip hufbandry now re- mains to be obferved : It is hoing ; without which all the former labour is thrown away. — When the plants cover three inches in diameter, hoe them with a lo inch hoe; and fet them at 15 inches apart; without regard to the apparent health in the choice of thofe left. About i o or at moft 1 4 days after the firfl: hoing, the ground is hoed a fecond time, fo as to stir the mould effectually between the plants, and to check weeds. About 14 to 20 days after the 20th September, the turnips are fit for confuraption, and fo to April, unlefs the froft injures them. — % Where the land is ivet the whole are drawn, and fed in cribs. On light dry land, every other ridge is drawn. He adds, 20 acres of a good crop of turnips fat- fen 15 or 16 bullocks, 2.nd fupport 10 followers or ftors cattle for 25 weeks ; or of (heep, as 8 to one bullock. * In Maryland, turnip feed is ufually fown a full irxnth later than this. /\ INTIMATIONS. 435 bullock. But the greatefl advantage is in cleaning, meliorating and preparing the foil for other crops. Tofave turnips in the field, they fink fome beds in the ground where they grew, about two feet deep, of a coniiderable width, and lay 5 or 6 layers of tur- nips in them, one upon another, with a little yrr/zj eart/j between every two layers, and cover the top over with ilraw, to keep out the froit. Or pile thera up in fmall ftacks, with the greens outward, and a little clean ftraw between every two layers ; ^nd laftly cover or fkreen them with wattles lined with Itraw.* E e 2 MANURING * At Wye, w'uh intention to tiy a new modf, my turnips ■were Ibvvn in broad-c;il^, thick. A plow having a narro\v fin without its mould bo.ird, was run throiigh the young plants, carefully, for leaving them on narrow ilips ot" earth. Hand- lioes followed, working actofs the rows, and cutting near a foot width of the plants quite up ; the hoers ftooping occafi- onally to thin the clufters of turnips left by the hoes. A dou^ ble mould beard plow after^s-ards run through the intervals, heaves up the earth on each fide and leaves the plants on clean ridges. Advantageous r.s this proved, I could not procure it to be repeated more than once more, a few years after- wards. Overieers are fis fixt to old habits as tlie negroes under them; and I was much abroad on other bufinefs. I have indeed always found the negroes better dilpofed to execute my defigns, than the overfeers, who invariably are attentive and ingenious in taking fiiort cuts for fiurring over all work, to foon get rid of it and go a frolicking. I ufually fowed near the end of July though I felt diipofed to break through the pra»5tice ; and fow a /iuU later^ for faving them before they v.cre old in grcwth when tliey incline to be op:a 436 NOTES AND MAlsURIhG ORCHARDS. When a boy, I obferved that hogs were much in orchards ; ftalks and trafh of tobacco were placed round the foot of the trees, on the ground, in fmall heaps, during winter ; and then apple trees in or- chards bore better, and appeared much larger and more perfect than at this time. Hogs feed on po- tatoes. If orchards were planted irregularly with po- tatoes or Jerufalem artichokes, * and hogs turned on them and fpongy, and therefore do not keep fo well as younger tur- nips, clofe and in fail vigor. In that country turnips are but little hoed and that flovenly : and to thin the plants the coun- try people think ■would be dellroying what they had done. Tliey count the rurnips by the number of plants, rather than by the quantity of the roots. Turnips in rows, having 12 or 14 inch intervals. Every ether rcw taken up and faved, would leave intervals 24 to zS inches wide. Cover the remaining turnips with long dung : then in November, before the froft fets in, dip deep a double mould board plow, and heave the eartli on the turnips, to ftand the winter. Make the experiment. Such a plow is highly valuable on many occafions. It efpecially faves 2 or 3 bouts in clearing out, when plowing maize. Of potatoes every otlier row taken up would leave three feet intervals be- tween the rows of remaining potatoes. The haulm cut off and laid on thefe potatoes, may then be covered by the eartli heaped on them by a ftout double mould board plow ; for keeping this half of the crop through the winter. It may be firit tried, in a few rows. * But I fufpe^; artichokes are more Impoverlftiing than potatoes. INTIMATIONS. 437 them when ripe, two valuable purpofes might be an- fwered : their du7ig fecured, and the ground stirred ^ the turning over whereof buries and fecures the dung to the foil. PORK KEPT FRESH A TEAR. A Mr. Poultney, of Philadelphia, dined on board a Spanifh (hip of war, at the Havanna, and ate of boiled frefli pork which appeared as if jufl: killed. He was told it was killed and put up near a year be- fore, at La Vera Cruz. The bones were taken out, and without any fait, the pieces were covered with Spanifh brown (a red ochre). It was then packed in bags, for the ofEcers. They fliewed him fome in bags, where they were fmothered in red ochre : which is waflied off with warm water, previous to boiling it. I prefum.e any other pure, impalpable, efpecially dry aftringent clay would anfwer as well. Some clays fo far partake of alum, as to (hew it ex- uded, like a white mould. Such I have feen and tailed on the banks of the Chefapeak. But does Spanifli brown contain alum ? BARRELED BEEF. Being at an inconvenient diftance from market, and fcldom able to fell my beeves, on the foot, but at a very low price, I found it advifable to depend » rather 43S NOTES AND rather on barreling up from tha grafs, than on felling on the foot. From ignorance of a proper mode of performing the byfmefs, part of my beef in the firft attempt fpoiled. On four years experience, I prefer the following ; which procured a good charafter to my beef, at market. I killed between 24 and 30 beeves which were raifed on the farm, fat from the grafs in the lad week of Oftober. The beeves may be kept up from food and drink, two days : the better if clofe and dark, and then llaughtered ; after fo fading they are found to bleed better, are handled lighter and cleaner, and every way look better. 1 had experienced this ; though it was not my common practice. I found that in com- mon upon the firfl falting and the meat lyingin open barrels/owr days, there has been drawn out by the fait, ^gallons of bloody juices from 432^t-> of beef. This is of the nature of pining of herrings, by the Dutch. Compare that in pa. 418, with this method oi falting and curing- Tbe barrels are to be ready, fweet, and weU trim- med ; and the fait previoufly waflied or refined, and ground fmall, before the beeves are to be flaughter- ed. — I killed 14 beeves as to-day, and falted them to- morrow morning. Z>£'/^j' in falting is injurious : (o is expofure to the air, even after it is falted. The pieces are therefore packed into the tight barrels piccp INTIMATIONS. 439 piece by piece as they are faked ; inflead of bulking them 6n a frame or drefler to drain, as had been the practice : and inftcad of remaining two weeks to drain, expofed to the air, they are now 6 or 8 days left to drain, in clofe barrels headed up tight. Having thus fecured the fn-fc day's beef, in barrels, to drain (or pine) ; on the third day, other 14 beeves were killed, and managed in the fame manner. Six pofls framed into plates of timber on the top, v/cre erefted high enough for the beeves to hang clear of the ground. The entire carcafes were Hid back on the plates, one after another as they were drefled. The two front pods had holes through, at the fides and front ; by which with handfpikes, or levers and iron pin^, the beeves were raifed and dreiTed, a pin- Iiole or two at a time, without rope or pully. Coarfe fait, ivajhed but not ground, having alfo been previoully read}'f is dilTolved in fair cold water til! no more can be diflblvcd on (lirring. Let it fet- tle a day or two : /kim olF the top : pour off all but the dregs ; and keep it for ufe as below. The meat is to be taken out of the barrels ; re- fiilted^ and clofcly repacked in the fame barrels. Im- mediately head them up perfectly clofe ; to remain {o, till fold or ufed. In a few days after heading up the barrels, bore a hole in one cf the heads, or 440 NOTES AND or the bulge, of each barrel, and fill it up firft with the prepared and boiled juices of the meat, faved from the firll falting and barreling, as under mentioned. Every time of filling, the barrels being rolled leaves room for more liquor. When there is no more of xhe prepared juices , the barrels are next to be repeat- edly filled with the plain flrong brine, made as above, from the walhed coarle fait, till they can take no more after ftanding a while,* I * It may be fomedmes requiute to kill cattle in the hotteft ■weather. A farmer's ox or cow may chance to break or flip a limb — " Eeef dXmid-Jummer has been well preferred a; fol- " lows. — The OS killed one day, and cut up and faked the next " day. The i'alt, beat very fine, was well rubbed into the '" meat, which was then prefled into a cafk with fpijnkling of ** fait between the lays. It thus flood 48 hours, when from •* the clofe packing the bloody juices appeared above the meat, *' and they were poured off. Then a brine was made fo ftrong •* that the -water could diflblve no mpre fait. The meat was ** walhed in this brine, and again well fiilted, as before ; and " laftly, the caiks were filled up with the brine. Related by *'■ a Capt. Norr'iSi who .had often feen meat fo preferved." Collins on Salt and Fiftxeries, p. 16. In Maryland, a Capt. Blnny flau^-htered beeves in jJuguJi, and faked the meat into barrels, as provifion for his feamen. — He immediately failed witli it on a voyage to Barladoa : what of it remained he brought back to Maryland, perfectly good. The cattle were killed from the pafture, one by one, and immediately cut into pieces, and thrown into tubs of cold water for cooling the meat ; the wa- ter ofien renewed. When the meat was cool, it was drained, aB.d inftantly faked. The pieces were then packed and prefTcd INTIMATIONS. 44I I believe then juices of meat cured with fait, and the boiled^ are of an excellent mellowing quality. ^ All that can be faved, is therefore to be fo boiled, and poured cold and clear on the meat in the barrels as above. When animals faft long, the blood and juices retire from the extremities to the large blood veffels in the centre of the body, in proportion as re- pleniiliment is withheld and the animal is weakened. Hence it is that the animal bleeds fo much freer, and more plentifully, after long fading. Here as in pre- ferving fifli in barrels, the operations are diftinftly, to Jdlt, and to cure. (^See the Dutch mode of barrel- ing herrings, page 418) and the boiled juices, from the faked meat, muft ferve to beef what the pickle of fifli cured is to the herrings. On boiling the blood and juices with the pickle, the firmer parts fettle in a mafs on (landing, and the liquor pours off clear. Let not the barrels of meat be expofed to the fun, as is often the cafe, by rolling them out of doors and leaving them there longer than need be. Damp is , bad for fait meat as well as for frefli ; therefore flore the barrels in a dry place, the coolest to be found. It is recommended to cut up beef with a long, iharp knife, having a fteel plate back faw ; with this to faw the bones, inftead of mangling with an ax : that the pieces clofe into barrels, and headed up. This account I had from Capt. Binny ; and alfo from my brother, for vhoni Capt, Binny failed. 442 NOTES AND pieces be but 4 to 6Ibs. that to a barrel there be nfed, befides fea fait, fugar 2 or 3 lbs. the coarfe brown {QTt',falt petre 4 ounces. It is obferved that Irijh prQvifwns are in demand throughout Europe : In the fize of the pieces they differ from the reft of Europe, which gives a preference ; and it is efpecially in cut- ting their pork into pieces of 4lbs. to fuit fmall meffes ; about 50 pieces to a barrel of aoolbs. h therefore is in greater demand, and bears a better price. As coming from the intelligent Admiral K?ic\vles, and as it is meant of meat for the ufe of the Britifli navy, which required the befl provifions, the follow- ing mud be worth fome attention. He fays, ikin and cut the ox into pieces fit for ufe, as quick as poiuble, foon as killed, and fait the meat whilll itis hot. For v.'hich purpofe fait petre and bay fait are pounded together and made hot in an oven, of each equal parts ; fprinkle the meat with this at the rate of two ounces to the pound. Lay the pieces on flielv- ing boards to drain 24 hours : turn them and repeat the fame, to lay 24 hours more. Wipe each piece dry with coarfe dry cloths. Common fait made hot in an oven is then taken out and mixed with one third of brown fugar. Rub the pieces well with this mix- ture and pack them into barrels, allowing -^ib of the mixture to each pound of meat. It will keep good feveral years. The fame procefs is applied to pork, only INTIMATIONS, 443 only giving it more fait and lefs of fugar. The pre- fervation of the meals depends equally upon their be- ing hot 'ujhcn first failed. One pound of beef re- quires two ounces of fait petre and two ounces of bay fait, becaufe it is to be fprinkled twice ; an ounce of each to a pound of beef both times. Yet beware, and firfl make experiment. rJLLOJTS. Mr. Forbes has a good chapter on fallows : and the Bath Letters fpeak of a comparative experiment between fallow left rough from the plow, through winter, and fome that was harrowed after the plow. This lafl proved much the beft in a barley crop fowed the following fpring. In an entire lield of wheat, a part of the feed was plowed and then rak- ed in ; another part bandhoed after being plowed in, as ufual when fown amongfl: maize plants; and a part lef[ rough after being plowed in. This lafl was fo fuperior that (and from other particulars and in- flances of fmooth drelTed ground compared with a part in its rough flate as left by plowing in the grain) I afterwards generally left ray wheat un- touched on being plowed in, without raking, har- rowing, hoeing or rolling the ground. On the other hand it proved on an experiment I mavie, that a part fallowed and then harrowed fmooth and fo left through a winter, was preferable for receiving feed 444 NOTES AND feed and giving a fuhfequent crop, to what was left rough. Such, fo far as thefe experiments were made, is the difference between fallow and fown ground htmgfmoothed or left rough : the foil a clay- ioara. LETTSOM's TEAST. Do£ior Lettfom in his Hints for promoting Bene- ficence, fays — " Thicken 2 quarts of water with 4 ounces fine flour ; boil it half an hour. Sweeten it with 3 ounces Mufcovado fugar. When almost cold, pour it on 4 fpoonsful of yeaft into an earthen or ftone jar, deep enough to allow the yeafl: to rife : fliake it well together, and place it a day near a fire : then pour oif the thin liquor at top : fhake the remainder, and clofe it up for ufe. It is to be drained through a fieve. Keep ic in a cool cellar, or hang it fome depth in a well. — Some of it is to be kept, always, for renewing or maldng the next quantity wanted.'* I had a German brewer, in my family, who ufcd to keep family yeaft in a cafe bottle ; and he pour- ed half a gill of brandy, very gently, to float on the top of the yeaft, in a cafe bottle containing about two quarts, for excluding the air. When- ever he found his yeall was inclined to be flat, he mixed in it half a gill to a gill of brandy, according to INTIMATIONS. 445 to the quantity of ycafl: left in the bottle ; and let- ling it fland a while, fhook it up again and thctr. ufed it. The bed brewers stro?2g beer yeast, I pre- furae fliould be begun with : and then a good bodi- ed rich yeafl may be kept up, by renewals. POTATO-TEAST, by Kir by. The principles in this, are allied to the prepara- tions for producing Anderfon's potato fpirit. Kirby recommends the mealy fort to be boiled till thorough- ly foft ; mafhed till very fmooth ; with hot water put to the mafh, till of the confiftency of beer ycaft, and not thicker. To every pound of potatoes add two ounces of coarfe fugar or melaiTes. When but jufl warm, for every pound of potatoes, ftir in two fpoonsful of yeafl, and keep it gently warm till done fermenting. He fays, a pound of potatoes yields near a quart of yeaft, to keep three months : and he direfts that the dough lie eight hours before it be put to the oven. This Ihews that the ferment, however fure, is Cow. I would have the potatoes to be thoroughly ripe, and w^W fprouted ; for the reaipns mentioned under the head of potato fpirit. PERSIAN-l-^EAST, A tea-cup full of fplit or bruifed peas has poured on it a pint of boiling water, and is then fet on the hearth 44^ NOTES AND hearth or other \ranii place, all night. Next mom- ^^iig the water will have on it a froth, and will be good yeafl:. This quantity makes as ranch bread as two lix-penny (llerl.) loaves ; very good, and very light. It is the yeaft ufed on the coaft of Perfia. CASTOR OIL. Though this mild family purgative is produced in quantities in fome of the illands ia the Weft Indies, yet it is fometimes hardly to be got in the fhops, in the United States, or is very ftale. It is produced from the feeds of the Palma Cbristi plant, common ia our gardens. There are two forts in this coun- try ; but that which has been long known, is the moft common, has a lighi or bluijb coloured stalk, is the fort ufed in the Weft Indies, as I am afiured by a refpeclable family from thence, who add, that the Palma Chritli having a reddijh stalk, is never ufed, it being fufpected of having haHh if not poifonous qualities. Further they fay, that of the two modes of procuring the oil, that by exprejfion is preferred. — Yet Labat and others prefer boiling the feeds. The reddilh fort was but lately introduced as a curi- ofity in a gnrden near Philadelphia. Strip the nuts of their hulks. Boil them in wa- ter : and as the oil rifes ikim it off. When it yields no INTIMATIONS. 447 no more to the water, prefs the grounds wmpped, loofcly, in a coarfe cloth. This oil is fweet, with- out bad tafle or fmell, and as clear as olive oil. P. Labat, Bruife the fee^s, and boil them. The oil itimraed off is much purer, and is capable of be- ing kept longer than what is obtained by exprejfit)n ; becaufe the water detains the muciiage, which is in a large quantity in the exprelTed oil, and which dil- pofes it to fpoil fooner. Edfnb. Difpenf. An. 1794. Dr. Sim?7io?is fays of Palma-christi and its oil, in Dr. V/rig/jt*s book of Medical Plants in Jamaica, that when the bunches begin to turn black, thev are gathered, dried in the fun, and the feeds picked out and put up for ufe : that the bed preparation of it is thus : a large iron pot is half filled with wa- ter ; the nuts being beat in parcels, in deep w^ooden mortars, are then thrown into the pot, and gently boiled two hours under conflant stirring. The oil then fwims mixed with a white froth, and is ikim- med off till no more rifes. The ikimmings are heated in a fmall iron pot, and ftrained through a cloth. When cold it is bottled up. T/jus 7nadc it is clear, and well flavored. An EngHlh gallon of the feeds may yield two pounds of oil, which is a Jarge proportion. In lamps it burns clear, and has no offenfive fmell. It anfwers all the purpofes of the painter, and for ointments and plaiflers. It purges witliout llimulus, and i> given to infants to purge 44^ NOTES AND • purge off meconium. All oils are noxious to in- fects ; and the caftor oil kills and expels them. — It is given as a purge, after ufing the cabbage-bark fome days. It is remarkably fuccefsfal in conflipa- tion and belly-ach ; fits well on the ftomach ; allays the fpafm, and produces plentiful evacuation, efpe- cially if at the fame time fomentations or warm bath are ufed. rURNIP-FLT. It is faid to be a fuccefsful method of avoiding damage to young turnip plants by flies, to mix every two pounds of feed with a quarter pound of fulphur in fine powder, to ftand ten or twelve hours ; and then fow the feed. Quere : would wheat, when the feed has been fo treated with ful- phur, avoid the Heflian-fly ? CHEESE. Mr. Tivamley was many years a great dealer ia cheefe, annually vifited the dairies of Glofterfliire, Wiltiliire, &c. and bought the cheefes of entire choice dairies. He made obfervations on the prac- tices of the cheefemakers ; and fays that the princi- pal faults in the cheefes of thofe countries, made in inferior dairies, were there being hove, fpongy or full of eves, vvhey-fprings, iliakes, fplits, loofe or made INTIMATIONS. 449 iTiaiie of unfetllcd curd, rank or flrong, flying out or bulged at the edges, dry-crackt or huilcy coated, bliftered coats, blue pared or decayed, fweet ot funky, ill-fmclling from tainted maw-ikins. Be careful that the rennet is perfectly found. " There is no making good goods of bad materials." A very great fault is the hastily breaking and gathering the curd, and Jetting it ; each of which requires minute attention Tmdifull ti?ne. Of curd, fee pa. 422. Driving cows far, or darfying milk far, retards the coming of the curd ; fo much fo that inflread of an hour or two, it will require three, four, or five hours ; and even then the curd is in fo imperfeft a flate as to occafion the cheefe heaving, puffing up or* fplitting : and it will not anfwer to add more rennet for quickening the coming of curd that is too flow. The proper warmth of milk when receiving rennet is only milk v/arm ; or perhaps rather about 85 or 90 degrees of Farenheit. If it is too cool, add fome wanned milk, but let it not boil in warming. If it becomes too cold after the rennet is put to it, add hot luater when the curd is nearly come ; which will give a due firmnefs to the curd. But it is of import- ance that, before the rennet is put to the milk, there be thrown into it at the rate of two handsful o'i fait F f to 4SC NOTES AND to the milk of ten or twelve cows ; which will tend to make the rennet work quick, prevent fweet or funky cheefe, make the cheefe all alike fair, and pre- vent flip curd, by occafioning the curd to be firm and fmk readily and equally. Mr. Marjhall adds, for making the curd come all at the fame time, cover the milk with a cloth whilfl the rennet is in it. The great fault, continues Mr. T^j;a?nlcy, is in dif- turbing the milk too foon, before the curd is perfe£i:. It is firfl a weak foft curd called y?//> curd ; in which ftate it is unfit for making good cheefe : when it ftands fufficiently long after this ftate, it becomes a firm perfect curd fit for cheefe. In w^hatever ftate it is when it is firft broke or ftirred, in that ftate it will continue ; and can never be made better by adding rennet or other means. Neglect not to put/alt to the milk when the ren- net is about to be applied ; and inftead of an hour kt the curd be undifturbed during one and an half or two hours, or more if requifite for obtaining a full, firm, and perfect curd ; — dindjink the curd with a fifter rather than break it. For finking it, a long \vooden.or lath knife is to cut the curd from top to bottom, crofling it many times ; then with a Ceve prefs it down: when having fettled it well down, let it rest a quarter hour. The whey being laded out, the curd lies folid ; then cut injiices, and work it INTIMATIONS. 45J it into the vat with as httle breaking it as pofTible. Breaking it fmall in the tub and into the vat reduces the cheefe in quality and alio in quantity ; for the fat Is thereby more apt to be fqueezed out. There are he fays, perfons making good checfes, who might make better and more, if they did not fqiieeze cut fo much of the fat in breaking. The whey that finl comes is the thinneft. If that thin whey was firil fcparated before breaking ike curd^ it vs'ould leave the cream in the checfe, with the lofs of but very little fqueezed out in putting it in the vat : but when broke fmall amongft the whey the rich parts are fqueezed and v.afhed out among the thin wh:?y. Where there are bits of flip curd floating on the whey, they are taken off and carried away with the whey, as they would damage the cheefe. The befl chcefemakers let the curd fland t\vo hours in- flead of one and an half; by which the curd be- comes fo firm and perfeft that it needs no more than to be cut and fliced, put in the vat clofe packed, and then to the prcfs. A good v.'hcy is greenifli. It is reckoned on, that the milk requifite for making one pound of butter, will yield two pounds of cheefe. RICH CHEESE. New milk makes the fine checfes .for market, without any addition of cream : but a rich cheefe F f z for 45^ NOTES AND for Jiigh days, has " a meal extraordinary of cream *' added to the new milk. Care mufl: be obfervcd " that the curd fliould not be funk in lefs than two " hours : two and an half or three hours may be " better." SLIP-CURD CHEESE. " To fix quarts of new milk warm from the cow, the ilrokings befl, put two fpoonsful of rennet, to ftand three quarters of an hour, or until the milk forms a fufHcient Jlip-curd. With a fpoon lay it in the vat, without breaking it, and place a trencher or fiat board on it. Prefs it with a four pound weight ; or if it inclines to be hard, a lighter weight, turning it with a dry cloth once an hour ; and when fti5" fhift it daily into frefli grafs or rufhes. It may be cut in ten or fourteen days. Its bcft condition is to have it run or diffolve into a creamy confulence." Nothing but weak half fonned curd called flip-curd will produce it. It is the cream cheefe of Philadel- phia. RENNET-BJG or MAW^SKIN. " Rennet is the produce of the ftomach of a calf that has fed on milk only ; and the calf killed be- fore the digeltion is perfeftcd. Though this rennet readily INTIMATIONS. 45: readily coagulates milk, yet if put to milk already coagulated, it then diiTolves it. *' Soon as the maw, taken from the calf, is cold, fwill it a little in water : then rub it well with fine powdered fait; next fill and cover it with fait. Some cut the flomachs open and fpread them in fait, in layers one over another, and Tet them lie in the brine they produce ; fometimes turning them, four, {i^i, or nine months : then they dry them ftretched out on flicks. When dry, ufe them. They are bell to be a year old when ufed. Keep them diflant from fire, for avoiding rancidity.'* l-vjamky. A dry cool place is bed. See pa. 42 \ . Never ufe any that Is in the leafl: tainted. RENNET-LIQUOR. " Take two fkins to a gallon of pure fpving water : the water having been boiled and made into a brine that will ftrongly bear an egg. When the brine is made blood warm, cut the /kins into pieces, and flecp them in the brine twenty-four hours. It may thqn be ufed ; about a tea-cup full to the milk often cows : but obferve that a juft quantity be applied : for if too 7nuch the chcefe becomes ftrong and liable to heave; \i too little the cheefe will be mild, bat the curd will be a long while before it can be properly broke or funk, and may become damaged before it is 454 KOTES AND is firm enough to be committed fa the prefs. The liquor is kept cool in jars or bottles. The Bath Letters fay, in the brine boil fweet briar leaves, rofe leaves and fiowers, clnnaiaon, mace, cloves aod other aromatics, briildy till a fourth is reduced : pour it milk warm on the mav.- iiiia and flice a lemon into it. Thea fiand- iDg a day or two, it is ftrained and bottled ciofe.'* I'-jsaniley. See pa. 422. ITie headlands of arable fields, along the fides of fences, accumulate foil from the fields oq every bout of the plows. This accretion of foil confines water on the fields fo 23 to chill them, and damage grow- ing crops. For reducing this mifcbief and increafing manure^ plow up a portion of the headland and then fen cattle on it, till it becomes very rich with dung and urine. Then having another portion recently plowed, pen the catt^le on this in like manner j and the fomser portion is again plowed for covering the dung and mixing it with the earth ; which is then either immediately carried away, and as a manure laid on other ground, or heaped up high and covered from the fun, to remain fo till wanted for manuring grouGd. During the fummer, and till cold weather fDrbids, Other portions of the headlands are to be plov;cdand penned with cattle in the fame manner in iiucceiliGn. This is preferable to cGn^'-penmng on lots for INTIMATIONS. 455 for tobacco, as is pra^lifed ; and it is making a cam' post without carting the earth to a dunghil or yard. GRASS, The^ne qua non of live-stock ! the eflential of DUNG ! the nurfery of corn, and of all farming PRODUCTS : HE AT ICE, *' When we entered the Seminary at Syracufe, fays Count Stolberg^ the heat was not extreme ; but when in lefs than an hour we returned, it met us hot as if it came out of an oven, we being then in the open air, unprotefted by fliade. It continued thus hot about three hours. We were advifed [oJJmt up our windows, leaving only light to read by, and fprinkle our rooms ivilh water. The air in the houfe thus became fupportable. Farenheit's thermometer afcended from 8 1 ^- to 1 01 i degrees. We durfl not leave the houfe all the afternoon ; but cooled OMx{d-^^% with ice ; and ftrengthened ourfelves with v/ine. The pra<5tice of taking ice, in Italy and Sicily, is con- fidered as an indifpenfible refrelliment ; and as a powerful remedy in many difeafes. The phyficians of thefe countries do not give many medicines ; but frequently direft a fevere regimen : and prevent the ill efTcds of various difeafes by fufFering the fick, for feveral 4S^ NOTZS AND feveral days, to take nothing but water cxJed ivitb icef Iweet oranges, and ire J fruits. — Iced miikj fruits y cbccolaic, and other iced viands, are found in mofl of their towns. They Y^rzhr fnow, as it is more eafily preferred than ice. iLh^fnow is ckfely packed toge- ther, and covered with flraw.** POJTERT. The earthen ware made in America, is g!a%c'd uitb lead : and the glazing compoiition is laid on very fav- ingly, thin and flight : fo'that it is not only worn away by vegetables and every thing acidulous, but is apt to fcale o5' and be fwaliowed wirh meat, greens, and drinks. It is pure I^ady and conle- qu^ntly a ftrong poifon. The ccecJ: of lead on the heakh of glaziers and houfe painters, is daily feen. A ioumeyman or working painter may live, conti- nually dying, fix or eight years as a large allowance. The mafrer who fees that the work is dene, and works but little. Jives longer. M^ are groaning and pining, under colicks, gripes, cramps, rheuraaiifms, aches and pains, who continue to Inuffup and inhale the vapours of lead for fome time ; . or who gradu- ally fwallow fmall portions of it with their milk, greens, cider and drinks, di^ufed from the glazing made of Uad, The people of New-England, drink vaxicQ. cider, and vi{z much vinegar, in country fami- lies; INTIMATIONS. 457 lies ; and there have been inflances of whole families afflicted as above. Lead requiring but little fuel to melt it, is the cheapell or eafieil material for producing common glazing. It is therefore impofed on the inattentive people of the country, who buy the ware without knowing its bad qualities, or without caring for them: and this lead is imported from foreign countries ; whilfl our own country abounds in materials for pro- ducing the mod perfect, durable, and wholefome glazing. Thefe materials are ivood-afloes 2.wdi fund. On converfing with a potter in Philadelphia, his ob- jection to the ufe of thefe materials was their requir- ing more labour and fuel ; but if I would prepare them for glazing any pieces I might want, he would lay them on, and find a place in his kiln, for giving a good glazing. If legiflators were duly fenfible of all this, their energy might find means for caufmg the change from lead to /and, for glazing earthen ware ; and of courfe, for protecting the health of the people. A young man of the name of Cook, a brickmaker, in the time of the revolution war, informed me he would erect an earthen ware manufactory, if he knew how to glaze the ware. Having a fmall air furnace, for my amufement, he made fmall clay cakes, and the glazing materials were prepared and laid on the dry 45^ NOTES AND dry cakes : and being fluxed in the furnace, the glazing was very fatisfaftory to him. He then got ^ome fine potters clay out of my bank, and made a number of little cakes of it, mixt with various pro- portions oi ground /and. Thefe were burnt in the furnace j and one efpecially was a fpeciraen of a very excellent stoneware : which is vaftly preferable, in its qualities, to earthen ware ; and is greatly wanted in America. The heavy freight paid on fo bulky and cbeap an article of imported merchandize, ren- ders stoneware fcarce : and gives an inviting open- ing to induflrious manufacturers of flonevv'are, in America. SEASONING WOOD. Wood fcafoned by the air is left in the fame ftatc as if feafoned by water ; which is with the lofs of its fap or juices, being waflied or evaporated away. It is fooner effected by water than by air. The wood, then, only confifts of its fibrous and folid parts ; which are confiderably concentrated by be- ing dried : yet the mafs is not without numerous interftices, from whence the fap had been expelled by the air or the water. In dry weather thefe con- tain little elfe than dry air : but in moid weather they become charged with humidity from the at- raofphere to fuch a degree at times as to fwell and even burfl boards fo feafoned. Shrinking w INTIMf^TIONS. 459 Shrinking and fwelling of boards happen accord- ing as moiilurc is abfent or prelent. If feafoned wood can be defended from the impreflions of wa- ter, it never will fwell. I effected this when paint- ing a landfcape on feafoned poplar, which warped or became flraight according as were the changes in the ftate of the atmofphere. I covered the back the fides and the ends well, with painters drying oil, at a time when the board was flraight, and it never afterwards warped.* Wood feafoned by Jire with quicknefs ivbilst full offap, does not imbibe water, as air and water fea- foned wood ; becaufe, as it feems, the fap is infpif- fated by xhzfudden heat fo as to fill or moflly fill up the interfaces ; and being fo fixed and hardened, it excludes water. The fap thus eured, is prevented from fermenting and rotting tiie infide of the wood, and from flying off in vapour. A pair of cart wheels, foon as made were tarred over thick and fet up reding on the fide of a houfe a year or two. When put to ufe the fellows broke and fhewed a found csternal furface, and the reft a dark, * " Equal parts of rofm, turpentine, and bees wax were mtlted together, 'well fkimmed, and with a brufli laid boiling hot on a board 6 feet long, 1 8 inches wide ; which v.as kept in water 19 months, without having imbibed any water, or having its coat or cement damaged.'* z. Rep. 460 NOTES AND dark, rotten, coarfe powder. Here the unfeafoned wood being coated over fo as to obftruft the fap from evaporating, the {2.^ fermented^ it is prefumed, and rotted the inlide of the folid parts of the tim- ber : the Ihell or outfide of the timber having been feafoned, or lofl: its fap, before the tar was applied. In foreflis, I have ftept on the bodies of proflrate trees, which appeared found to the eye : but have broke through the feafoned cruft to a mafs of rot- ten powder. % Sleeping in a room of a one flory brick houfe then lately built by a Doctor Wharfield, of Elk- ridge, Maryland ; in the morning I admired the wainfcoting and ceiling of the room, which were made of poplar boards ; in which che joints could not be eafily difcovered. The work was not paint- ed. — I fuppofed the boards had been many years feafoning in a tobacco houfe. The doftor pointed to two lengthy pits, on the fide of a hill ; and faid the trees were felled and cut off into logs, which were immediately hauled to the pits, over one of which a log at a time was fawed into boards or planks, and immediately, whilft full of fap, a fire was made and kept burning under the ftock till the boards were cured ; and that fome of the wainfcot was put up within two weeks of its having been in the growing tree. The pits were alternately em- ployed in fawing the logs, and firing the flocks. Recommending INTIMATIONS. 461 Recommending to a {hip carpenter, the trimming timber roughly in the woods, and there feafoning the pieces by fire, he objefted it would render the timber hard to cut and dub. Perhaps coo fome might think it would render the limber too durable. It may be proper to contrail for its being fo feafon- ed : efpecially for national Ihips. MelaJJcs* and Mufcovado Sugar Cleanfed. Weight, 24 melafles ; ^4 water ; 6 charcoal thoroughly charred. Bruife the charcoal grofsly. Mix the three articles in a caldron ; letting the mix- ture boil, gently on a clear v/oodfire, half an hour. Then pour it through a draining bag j and place it again on the fire, for evaporating the fuperfluous water, till the melaiTes is brought to its original confidence. The lofs is fcarcely any. 2. Rep. ^SALTING AXD CURING MEAT, in ENG- LAND. According to 14 An. pa. 267. meat for family ufe, in England receives i!b of fait and los. nitre to every i4tb of meat. The fait and nitre to be hc2itjine. Rub them well into the meat. Lay the pieces * A fyrup of the conSftence and fweetnefs of homy ; anci produced by the labor of ajfes in grinding fugar ca^nes : thence melaifes from mel and afnut, or afles. 4^2 KOTES AND pieces on each other, during a month, and turn them once a week. Then drain, and lliake bran [perhaps better if impalpable clay or ochre] over them, for abforbing the moillure. Hang the pieces in a kitchen. If the quantity is large, then in a room having a ftove and flue round it. It is a month in drying — then keep it in an airy, dry room. — For voyages and hot countries, foon as dried pack it in faw-dust, ftove dried.* Moisture is more to be ap- prehended than heat. In common the longer meat is kept in brine the falter it is ; but in this method it never varies. — Salting for Jhip u/e the fait is ilb. to 81b. of meat ; befides 4 i"ch thick of fait in packing. See p. 406. and of Pork cured in ochre page 437- MAIZE. Farmer Shephard, of New Jerfey, informed tTie Burlington Society of Agriculture, that in autumn ^ 1786 he collected, for feed to his next year's crop, a quantity of corn produced on stalks luhicb produc- ed two ears. The crop from that feed, was increaf- ed much beyond what he had been accuflomed to, even to 10 bulhels an acre: and by following the fame rule in faving feed, his crops increafed 10 60 bufliels * Perhaps ftill better packed in an arcrlngent and very diy pure clay or fullei's earth. INTIMATIONS. 463 buCbels an acrej with three or four ears upon a flalk. The hufbandmen of America would do well to try the method of cultivating maize as praftifed in Italy, France and Spain : where it is fown very thick in broadcalt, for producing fodder^ and for stall feeding or fci ling ; and when for a crop cf corn is planted in fquares of two feet : and even then blades are dally pulled and given to the cattle; which Mr. Young fays accounts for the ver}' hieh order of all the cattle in the fouth of France, in Spain, and in Italy, in lituations clear of meadows. Planted at two htt there are 10400 hills an acre, or 20800 plants when two remain in a hill. la Maryland are about 1500 hills having two to three plants each. In the countn,- cf New York, in Auguft I admired a field of maize, feemingly grow- ing 2 4- feet apart, perhaps 3 feet, with two cr three plants in a hill. It was the only field I faw of that appearance ; fo near growing, fo ftout ra- ther than tall, green and vigorous, cafling a confi- derable Ihadc on a clean mellow ground. The cars and taiTels were but jufl peeping out. By informa- tion their ground commonly yields more maize by the acre than the ground in Maryland. The former always manure for maize, the latter do not. It flill is furprifing to me that maize growing fo clofe, fliould 464 NOTES AND fhould yield fo greatl}'', but it is well to make fair experiment. WJSH, FOR BOARDS or STONE WORK, In Nova Scotia they "wafli rough boards, the rougher the better, with a mixture of ftone lime flacked with boiling water, whiting, alum, common fait. The alum is an excellent article for binding ; fait alfo would be unexceptionable, but that it at- trafts moifture and gives, as it is called. The above promifcs to be a good whiie-iua/h, A Black-'U'q/h, which 1 have experienced efFe£lu- ally resists ivater, is made of tar three or four parts, and fifli oil one part,. intimately mixed in a pot over a flow fire ; which is laid on hot with a brufh. Such brufhes, bound with iron rings, are to be got at {hops for fliipping. For giving it body, add im- palpable clay or ochre. A grey-wafi may be produced, by adding more or lefs of the black-wafli with the white-walh : but I w^ould omit the fait, as doubtful ; and rhe alum, as unneccflary, where fo binding a varnilh as the black-waOi is admitted. I have feen a fimple, cheap varniili Oi turpentine, ufed in fhips : but know not hov/ it is made. Per- hapSy INTIMATIONS. 46^ haps, as that of tar with jijh oil* This vamifh mixt with the white-wafli, it feeras would produce a wafli excellent in quality, and of a cream colour. — This may be laid on plaftered walls, floors, and platform-roofs, for excluding moifture. There is great neatnefs in well plaflered and white-waihed rooms ; eafily renewed ia country places ; but town fafhions generally prevail over this rural method of fiuifhing and renewing rooms in country habitations. Where objecf^ions are made to the glare of white, this glare may be blunted by adding to the wafli a very little of forae o^her co- lour. In painting on lime-plaller, perhaps fpirit of turpentine or linfeed tea are better than oil. — PAUPERS, As a forerunner to promoting employment, be bold in amending the exifling regulations refpe£ting the poor. Principally provide checks on the magistrates and o-verfeers ; who through levity, wealvnefs, or other caufe, fuffer their country to be fliamefully abufed, in at lead fome of the United States ; and involve in their las government a marked encou- ragement of fome of the greatefl evils that can en- feeble nations or affe£l mankind — Idlenefs and de^ G g bauchery^ * It is faid to be produced from a mixture of turpentine and rofin. 466 NOTES AND hauchery^ with their companion ivretchednefs : for, John will be iit cq/e — will be idle — will be a Jhfy becaufe John can u-bine himfelf into the fociety of public paupers, and there be provided for, as a drone, at the expenfe of the induflrious and fober citizens. The laws provide for the poor, — not for the whining impoftor : and it is defirable that they be provided for ; but they fliould alfo be kept to forae employment. Paupers capable of but whittling a ftick, may be induced to pafs their time in pro- ducing toys for other people, as the Germans in Europe are ufcd to fupply our babies, little and big. A fleadinefs in work, of any fort, according to the abilities of the refpeflive paupers, would leffen the public burthen ; both by the income gained from it, — and from impoflors ilirinking from a com- pullive work under conjinementy when they can, uu- confincd, find work at large. The bcfl: fupport the poor can receive is from their own endeavours. Every allowance made them ■which ren.ndi ajfes, it was natural for Egypt to boafl fine mules. There were fome of thefe mules at Cairo, far fuperior, in price, to the finefl horfes. They were preferred for the priests and officers of the revenue. Their pace was an amble with very long fteps, to which they were brought by faflening each fore foot to the hinder, for forae time. The handfomell aifes at Cairo come from up- per Egypt and Nubia : the higher up the Nile, as in Said, the beauty is the greater.** The common breed in Egypt and Syria, fays ift Frank. Hiil. Egypt, is much larger than what are ever feen in Britain ; and another yet larger breed is preferved for the faddle. Almoft all the common people in Egypt, and all chriilians and flrangcrs whatever, ride on afies. — The bell: fort bear a high price. — They are tali, handfomely formed, go fwift- Iv, 470 NOTES AND 1y, in an eafy ambling pace or gallop, and are re- markably fure footed. G A 7 E S. The bed farm gates on my farms, were thus con- ftrufted. The pods were fawed fquare off at the tops ; and were but 4 feet 6 or 8 inches high from the ground. The top of each poft inclined 4 inches inward toward each other. Their diftance on the ground was 9 feet, of courfe the diflance at top was but 8 feet 4 inches : and this inchnation feemed to influence oxen and horfes, in carts, to take more to the middle of the paflage. Gluts of wood, large and flout, were trunnelled to the pofts and let into the ground ; which ferved as fenders and braces. Thefe fenders alfo tended to dire^i: beads to the mid- dle of the way. Gate pods ought never to be higher, if fo high as the cart wheels ; that plain frames holding hay or draw may pafs over the pods. When pods are thus inclining to each other at the tops, the gates will be narrower, by 8 inches, at top than the bottom ; and of courfe lighter than if of the fquare of 9 feet, as at the bottom ; and as they are opened they rife gradually from nothing to 4 inches ; and then being let go, gently fall to their {latioQ at the pod. My INTIMATIONS. 47I My gates had been widened from i o to ii feet, by an honed Hibernian much ray friend, that the carts might be fure to pafs through without flriking the pofls: but alas! the drivers became more carelefs, and the cattle were left to their own bias. Thefe pofls 1 1 feet apart were more cut than thofe of lo feet as the lo feet were more than the 9 feet. Thefe lafl were indeed fcarceiy touched — the fenders, &c. preventing it. See the Plate. PLOWS. A habitual fondnefs for zc^bf els has greatly lumber- ed and depreciated the plows of England. Ingeni- oufly built Norfolk wheel plows have been imported into America; but were very foon laid aCidc. In oppofition to this huge complex machine, the Englilh Rotheran patent plow is every thing : a fmiple, chip, fwing-plow with a clean but full bow mould board. The fliare and mould board are fuperior for cutting and turning old lay or grafsland : but in horfehoing it is inferior to the common bar plows of Maryland and Pennfylvania, as it requires more ufe of the plow- man's hands. The common fault in the American plows is moftly in the mould board. Almofl any mould board, would be preferable to the bo/Io'w fine fhapcd board which the fancy of fome delight in ; as injudicious watermen prefer the fliarp entrance and hollow forepart of the bottoms of failing \cMs. The plow and the boat have to force their way through 472 NOTES AND through refiding mediums. P'or gaining this, (harp- nefs of entrance is all in all with heedlefs fancy. But \vhat avails this firft clear entrance, if oppo- fition in a more abrupt and direct manner, a little further aft is the confequence ? View the holloiv mould board of a fharp fair looking plow, after it has been worked a while, or whilfl working, what a glut of fri(51ion or oppofition it has experienced, juft in the hollow, and how it labours through accum.ulated maffes of earth unthrown off forward. On the other hand fee the mould board having a fair eafy entrance and full bow in a gradual fwell as it rifes, how it turns off the earth and rids itfelf or avoids ac- cumulated refinance, juft as a v/ell formed boat does the water ; and this wich the leafl poffible friction or wearing^ of the mould board ! Iliuflration : defign- ing to fpend a winter in Philadelphia, it was propof- ed that Mr. Siiigletcn, of Talbot, fliould procure to be madj a double plow to carry two furrows at a time, and that I fliould have one made at Philadelphia, where, in Arch Itreet, was an ingenious plowmaker. On comparing Mr. Singleton's with mine, the weight of mine ready for v/crk was 9610, wood and all : his 43 to 45^^. His had the admired fine light hollow mould board ; mine the comparatively heavy looking full bowed mould board. My plowmen, were horfe- hoing maize, when I ordered the two beft to try the double plows with two horfes to each. Seeing them at work for fome time, they were ordered to change plows INTIMATIONS. 473 plows. After working thefe awhile, they v.ere aiked ieparateiy, their work being lixty yards apart, which they liked beft. It was curious how they for fomc time looked at one and then at the other plow, be- fore they anfwered. Their conclullon, refpeclively, was that the large plow was beft : but that it was heavy in fwinging round. It did not appear to them or to me that the horfes exerted more power, or were more worried, in carrying the large than the fmall plow. The plowmen were obliged conftantly to prefs on the (lilts of the fmall plow, but not of the large one : and whilft we were talking the horfes went oS with the large plow, which followed them fteadily and without deviation as if the plowman had hold of the ftilts and leading line, for 70 or 80 yards. Both were bar fwing-plows, for we fee no ufe in wheels to plows : but the Philadelphia plow had a longer tread. The Talbot plow was fliorter than common which with the boUounefs of the mould board deprived it of fteadinefs and a due balance. Neither Mr. Singleton or myfelf gave any dire£lion in making the mould boards. — Having worked mine one feafon, with approbation and forae admiration^ a new overfcer would improve my large plow, by cutting away ihej'zuc/l of the mould board and leave it hollow, that it might pafs eaUer through the ground. It was done ; and the plow performed ver)- indifferently : it was worked thus a few days and laid afide. A 474 V NOTES AND A promiCng mould board, formed on mathematical principles, is lately invented by Mr. Jefferfon ; of which an account is given in the fourth volume of American Philofophical Tranfaftions. TURNIPS. Mr. Amos fays, " on poor foils lo inches are " the befl dillance : on rich foils 1 2 inches, and *' one inch the befl depth. When they fland at a " greater diflance, they grow too large for keeping " long. The fmaller the turnips the longer they * *' refill the feverity of winter." Too early fown or planted turnips or cabbages do not fland the winter well : they are over ripe, fpongy, and fufceptible of frofl ; having lefs of the 'vis infa of their nature: their vigor is fpent, which would withfland frofl. But the more hardy Swedifh turnip, called ruta- baga, is fown in April or May for giving the full grown bulb in autumn. CARROTS. In Mr. Young's Agriculture of Suffolk, it is faid the moft approved method is to leave a barley flub- ble, which has followed roots, through the winter ; and about 25 March to plow by a double fur roiv as deep as may be ; and to harrow in about 51b. of feed an acre. About Whitfuntide hoe the firfl time ; and thrice in all, at 4 dollars an acre. The pro- duce on good land, 400 to 500 bulhels : fometimes 800 i I INTIMATIONS. 475 800. On poor foils as low as 2co buflicls. The carrots are commonly left in the ground during win- ter ; and taken up as wanted : but in fome winters they are frofted and rot. The feed is 80 bulliels a week to 6 horfes, with chaff, but no corn ; and when fo fed very Httle hay is eaten.* Yet it is beft to take the carrots up in autumn and pack them in a barn. There they acquire the ivlthercd state ; in which they yield most nourifijment ; and late feeding is better than early in the feafon when they abound in water. — Carrots put horfes in better conditioa than corn iviih hay ; and they leave oats for carrots. Feed with them from Chriftmas till a full bite of grafs in May. One bufhel with chaff", is enough for a horfc a day, without corn, and faves half the hay. The preparation they give for a fubfequent crop, fully pays for them. Mr. Amos propofes drilling carrot feeds. Two pounds of feed, deeped in rain water 24 hours, then laid on a floor till they f])rout, with three pecks of dry faw dull, and three pecks of fine dry mould, all well mixed together, are drilled, one inch deep and 14 inches between the rows. Thus fteeped and fproiitcd when fown, the plants begin to appear In 8 or 10 days. After drilling, harrow once, with light harrows ; and then roll, if the ground * Seven pecks of roots a day foeiii more than enough. It * is prefently afterwards CiiJ, one bufacl with cliafF i? enough. 47^ K0T£3 AND ground is not molll. As foon as the carrots are about 2 or 3 inches above ground, fays Mr. Amos, they fliould be harr(m;ed, the horfes walking in the furrov.'s, for avoiding to tread the land and plants. In two or three weeks after harrowing the feccnd boing is given to clear away weeds, and the plants are thinned. In 3 weeks again horfehoe the inter- vals, and handhoe the rows, as well as finifh the thinning. Every other row may be taken up : the reft covered with a double mould board plow, and long dung, for {landing the winter. MODES OF SOWING WHEAT. 1 . Broadcast : the moft fimple and moft common. 2. Drilling, i?i co?itinued rows ; like garden peas. 3. Drilli?ig clusters ; in rows. 4. Dibbling : dropping feed in holes. Broadcast can fcarcely be hoed at all : nor is it done in crops. Harrowing might anfwer. Drilled, like garden peas, it is horfehoed between the rows ; and yields more than broadcaft. Drill- ed in clusters, it is horfehoed, and may alfo be hand- hoed. It thus yields Hill more than the drilled in a continued line. ^m Dibbled, with a number of feeds in each hole, is ^JP probably the moH productive: dropping not lefs than • INTIMATIONS. 477 than eight or ten grains of wheat to each clufler. Dibbling is tedious and expenlive, where labour is fcarce, though it is moftly the work of women and children : but the effeft is very great, where fome number of grains of wheat is dropt in each hole. Mr. A?nos made a number of comparative experi- ments, as well of feeds fowed broadcast as drilled: the refult whereof fliews, that drilled and horfehoed grain is fuperior to broadcast harrowed and hand- hoed, by 13 per cent; befides cheapnefs in the work, and the ground left in better condition. Drilled turnips, horfehoed) fuperior to handhoed 17 per cent; and the work cheaper, with the ground left in better condition. Drilled potatoes, horfehoed, fuperior to handhoed 1 6 per cent ; the work cheaper and the ground left better. In the above experiments, broadcaft wheat was handhoed, which it fcarcely ever is in entire fields of it. If, in the experiment, it had not been hand- hoed, the fuperiority of the drilled wheat might have been greater. ^^mat ^Hbeti From experiments made by me at Wye, I efli- mate wheat growing in clusters to be 15 per cent etter than drilled wheat in continued rows, both ping hoed, &c. alike ; which would be -^ or 33 cent better than broadcafl wheat not hoed: and 47S KOTES AND and the grov/ing crops of clustered wheat, are the mod: beautiful, the work cafy, and the produ^ls the moil abundant and perfect ! * ROTATIONS, iMr. Amos' s are : I. 11. III. Oats Turnip:, rot. Potatoes 12 L dung Cole feed, li»iei dung 10 1. Barley with i44bu{h. Barlev Clover Barley Clover Wheat Beans "Wheat Wheat The lime ought to enrich greatly : for colcfeed is faid to be very impoverilhing, and beans are the only mild crop in No. I. — So the dung mull be rich, and the ground previoufly in good heart, in No. II. as 10 loads are rather a fmall allowance to an acre. The like of No. Ill : but then No. II and III have two mild crops, rather ameliorating, to two exhaufters. DRINKING WATER. In low flat countries, even in fome diilricts o^^^fc higher country, the water of fprings and wells i^H bad tailed and bad in quality. Water in fprings^^B which does not run rapidly, but is fluggiih to being nearly INTIMATIONS. 479 nearly ftagnant, abounds in putrid remains of vege- tables and infefts. What are deemed fprings of good, clear, fweet water, in thefe countries, are ftill but comparatively fo. They want the brilliancy and the fpirit of rock water, fuch as the highlands afford. If filtering the water ufed for drink was praftifed, it would render what is fo inferior at leaft bright and palatable ; and probably perfeftly wholefome ; efpecially if charcoal fliould be applied to it as be- low. Of this and filtering, it may be obferved that, Parlfying water may be performed in either of the following modes. According to Dpftor Lind, a fmall cafk open at both ends, is placed within a larger calk wanting a head. Clean fand and gravel is put into both, fo that the level of the fand with- in the inner calk (room being left to pour in water) be higher than the bed of fand in the intermediate fpace betwixt the two calks. A cock is fixed in the outer calk, above the fand, at a level fomewhat lov^er than the furface of the materials in the inner calk. The water poured in at top of the inner , calk, finks through the mafs of fand ; and pafiing alfo through that in the outer cafk, afcends and is difcharged at the cock, when wanted. As the fur- face of the fand in the inner caHc becomes loaded with 480 NOTES AND with impurities, remove it, and add freili clean fand. According to Mr. Lowitz, three half ounces af charcoal powder, and twenty-four drops of oil of vitriol fuffice to purify three and an half pints of corrupted water, without giving it acidity. If the Titriol is omitted, it requires thrice the quantity of charcoal or nine half ounces. The vitriol is firfl mixed with the water : then the coal. Spring wa- ter having an unpleafant hepatic flavour, is improv- ed by filtering it through a bag half full of charcoal ■pffivdcr. Dry this charcoal, and powder it over again ; it then will anfwer a fccond time : and if made red hot in a chfe vefTcI, the coal will immedi- ately recover its power of purifying, after having before loil it by ufe. Mr. Hufeland fays, reduce burnt charcoal to a fine powder : mix a fpoonful of it in a pint of flagnant, bad, or putrid water : flir it well and let it ftand a few minutes : then run it ilowly through filtering paper. The fame powder will anfwer again. To travellers it is recommended that they dry the powder and keep it corked clofe up in a vial \ and for families in bottles. The third method of procuring pure and cool wa- ter is this : Make a cafe for containing a number of tubes placed vertically along fide of each other, "with proper communications from one to another. The X INTIMATIONS. 481 The cafe will be compact, and may fland on a chim- ney-hearth or in a paiTage. The water is filtered through clean fand contained in the tubes. Eight tubes, one foot high, would filter through fevea feet of fand in extent. The tubes may be four inches fquare. In the middle of the eight tubes, in the box, is a fpace for ice. This box would not exceed 18 inches fquare area, and 14 inches deep: and a box lefs than two feet area, would alfo allow room for bottles of liquor to be kept cool with the water and ice. The tubes may be of wood, or (fweeter) tin ; and if 1 8 inches deep, would con- tain a third more of fand and water : that is, above nine feet in extent. The firft tube receives a head of water above the range of the other tubes, which is to be occafionally renewed with water. Rain water is faved in cifterns under ground in many places of Europe, efpecially in Holland, Spain, Italy and Sicily ; and according to travellers, there is no fweeter or purer water. It is efteemed accord- ing to its age, which gives it its remarkable purity. I think it is Mr. Stolberg who fays rain water three years old was recommended to him, and he found it very excellent. In Malta every inhaibitant is ob- liged to have a ciftern for water in his houfe ; and there are icatcrhouscs cut in the rocks, vihich con- tain water fufficient for three years ; and it is kept very good, and ufed at all times. Month. Mag. H h or 482 NOTES AND or Britllli Rcgifler, April, 1799. See before page 417, of Houfe Cifterns. Water faved in ciilems fliould be fo deep under ground as to be below the warmth that will produce fermentation ; therefore prefer the double cube, and prevent accefs of the external air to the water. FIRST IMPRESSIONS. Science is but little regarded by hufbandmen. Yet an education which tends to promote the focial vir- tues and manners^ is invaluable in all flations of life. But tbe inrtues ivith happy 7nanncrs, can only be aiTured to the riling generation through the very earliefl: attentions to children by the pious good 77/0- thcr and nurfe ; beginning with the firfl: lifp : for children rcafon and underhand, though not flrong- ly, yet long before they can articulate. Neverthelefs, how neglecled and how little under- flood is education, as well in the town as the country. Parents aft as if all that is necelTaiy is to fend chil- dren to fchool : but how mifplaced is book learning without firft irapreffing them at home with good in- tentions, good principles ; and leading them to a de- fire of improving as well their manners as their minds* Attentions * Certain Indians were afked why they took their boys io foonfrom fchool amongft the white people ? They anfwerrd, — " Becaufe Indians vho get fchool karningf prove to be the INTIMATIONS. 483 Attentions are mifapplied in the education of chil- dren which early burthen their memories with religi- gious productions of inventive men. Religion, mo- rals and manners are contained in the Gofpel of Jefus Chrift ; which confifts of a few plain principles that are invaluable ! but thefe are nearly loft in a cloud of forced and unnatural expofition and fantafy. To imprefs the minds of children with the general belief of their fubordination to a Supreme Being who hperfed goodnefs, without attempting thus early to explain more of the Deity, is it not for children, enough of religious concerns ? " Araongftthe ancient Romans, />.7rt/z/x anxioufly " attended to the education of their children; begin- "ningit/row their birth. They committed them " to the care of fome well known prudent matron of " character (or the mother performed it) whofe bu- " finefs it was to form ihtir Jirst habits of afting and '"' fpeaking ; to "jsa'ch their growing palHons, and d'/- *•• reel them to the proper objeifts ; to fuperintend " their fports, and fuffer nothing indecent or impro- H h 2 " per rrcatcfl rog-ues in our nation." The boys had never been prepared or impreffed with g»od principlis in their tender in- tlincy. So of certain clafles of \vhite people. — They obtain fchool education, and turn out brimful of the dogmas of men, without having been ever led to attend to and admire the mo- rality of the Gofi>el, or any thing like xor-l -ind virtuous coT>d\i3, or amiable manr.sr5. 4^4 NOTES AND " per to come from them : that the mind preferved " in its inncceiice, cor depraved by a tafte of delufive " pleafure, might he free to purfue things laudable, " and apply its whole ftrength to the profefhon in " which it is difpofed to excel. No time of im- " provement was lofl ; arid literary inst ruction kept " pace '■jL'ith the moral. They were accuftomed to " hear at home the purest language and fentiment, " from their nurfcs, their fathers, and their mothers, " accompanied with attentions, gentle manners and " addrefs towards all their fellow creatures." It was the principal ftudy of the Egyptians in the education of their childi-en to implant in them the virtues of industry, economy, gratitude, and truth : upon thefe they confidered the general happinefs of their country to depend : to this fource was traced all that was excellent in their la\vs, their go-vernment or their morals, and that tended to propagate and improve ihefciefices. Frank. Eg. 354. RJW LIME-STOJSE AND GTPSUM MANURES, Mr. Chancellor Livingston of New- York, has made a number of valuable experiments, which are publiflied by the agricultural fociety there, and from which the following are felefted. In Auguft 1790, on a rood of ilia clay ground lying very fiat, he fpread one INTIMATIONS. 485 one bufliel of pulverifed limestone. In the next fum- mer, the efFecfls of it were difcernibie to an inch, both in the verdure and luxuriancy of the grafs. The difference between it and the parts adjoining were in its favour, as he judged on counting the cocks, as feven to four : from whence he infers that, on clay ground, eight bufhels of pulverifed h'meftone are at leafl: equal to Hx of gypfura. This is very import- ant tellimony. Many phices are fcarce of fuel for burning limeflone : and if ever fo plenty, hufband- men can find means for pulverifmg eight bufliels of the ftone, at a cheaper and more advantageous rate than they can break up and reduce 100 bufliels of flonc, cut the wood, cart in the (tone and wood, charge the kiln, and attend feveral days and nights to feed it; befides the difference of carrying it out and flrewing it on the fields.* At the fame time the Chancellor tried the effe*5ts of pulverifed limestone at the rate often bufliels to the acre on ^fandy loam ; and this acquired the fame verdue as the part that had been dreffed with gypfum. — On the 20 May 1791, the Chancellor viewed a piece ofy/j.v, fown very in- judicioufly by a poor tenant, on a dry fandy declivity. It looked extremely fickly, and the tenant thought of plowing it up : but the Chancellor prefcribed for it, three bufliels of gypfum to be applied the next m.orning whilfl: the dew fliould be yet on the ground. It * 1 And. Hufb, 276, fpeaks of a mill for beating Um,Ji'.r.c into a powder for manure ; according to M. Duhamel. 486 NOTES AND It was accordingly applied, and the benevolent Chancellor expreffes his fatisfaction in having fecn the tenant gather more Jiax from this half acre, in an uncommon dry fiimmer, than any acre in the neighbourhood afforded. In many cafes of experi- ence, the principle I hold of gypfum fliewing its ex- traordinary power in promoting vegetation moftly in dry feafons, is corroborated : for it is principally in dry feafons and iituations that gypfum ftiews its im- portance in pufliing vegetation forward ; undoubtedly by its fuperior virtue in inviting or attracting partis cles of moifture, to itfelf and plants near it. Mr. Chancellor Livingfton from his eighteen ex- periments on gypfum, raw limeftone ; and oyfter- fbells, pulverifed ; draws the following inferences : 1. ThTit. gypfiwi in fmall quantities has no vifible effect, on nvhcat or rye. 1. That it is uniformly beneficial to Indian corn ; linlefs it be in very rich or very wet foils.* 3. That it is beneficial to fax on dry poor fandy land. 4. That * Rich or 'u.-et foils, vrznX. not the aid of gypfum ; the pro- perty -n-hereof is to attract motfiure, vrhere foil is poor or dry. 3ee p. 348, 349. INTIMATIONS. 487 4. That it is peculiarly adapted to the growth of clover in all dry foils, or even in wet foils in a dry feafon. 5. That limestone pulverifed, has llmilar etTcfls with gypfum : but whether it is better adapted to wet foils, he could not as yet determine. 6. Another fa£l, he fays, feems to be very well eftabliflied, though he could fay nothing of it from his own experience, that the efFecls of gypfum as a manure are hardly perceivable in the vicinity of the fea. RUS T OF WHEAT. " Mr. Ifaac Young, of Georgia, mixed rye amongfl: his feed wheat, and thus efcaped the blafl: of his wheat. It was repeatedly tried, till he was con- vinced of its efficacy : and then he fowed five acres with wheat, furrounded 'ujith a list of 2^ feet breadth of rye : and this alfo fucceeded ; and being repeated, is found a certain fecurity to the wheat.*' Rom, Florida 118. I have alfo heard an Englifli farmer fay that rye fown mixt with wheat will prevent the wheat from being blighted, in England. A Stuffing 488 NOTES AND ' A Stiifingfor Leather, in Shoes and Boots. The New-England fifhcrmen find great benefit from ferving their boots with the following compofi- tion ; which excludes water, and preferves boots and fhoes. The fame advantages are applicable to the fhoes of hufbandmen. My fhoes have been ferved with it conftantly for feven years ; and in no inftance has it let in any water or dampnefs through the leather : nor does it harden or ftiifen the thinned calf leather. One pint of boiled Unfeedoil ; half a pound of mutton fiiet ; fix ounces clean bees-iiax ; four ounces rofin : melt and mix well over a flow fire. Shoes or boots when quite new and clean, are a lit- tle warmed ; and then are ferved with the ftufEng alfo warmed, but fo as not to fcald, as much as the outfide of the leather, upper and foal, can receive ; and efpecially the feams and joining of the foal and upper leather are to be well fluffed j taking care the tack-holes are plugged up ; and that all is perfectly dry. The leather will want no renewal of the ftuff- ing : at leail my flioes never have. 1 ufe a painter's brufh for laying on the ftuff. This fluffing fills the pores of the leather and excludes water, as the fap of green wood when infpiffatcd by fire fills the pores of wood and excludes water. BRAMBLE INTIMATIONS. 489 BRAMBLE FENCES, The Intelligent Do^lor Anderfon, of Scotland, gives an intcrefling account of the bramble ; and recom- mends it as far preferable to the fweet briar in a fence. Its character is, that it refembles the rafpberry in the manner of its growth ; and they differ from all other plants. But the bramble has a peculiarity, dif- fering from the rafpberry in this : it alone poflefTes the faculty to ftrike out roots at the point of each flioot of a year's growth ; and no other part of the flem can be brought to flrike root, even if laid in the ground. So that to prevent brambles from rambling and fouling the ground, nothing more is neceflary than to walk round the bramble fence, and whip off the ends which dangle towards the ground. He re- commends every August for this work. It will want no other clipping, fliortening, or dreillng. Like the rafpberry, the bramble yearly fends out many (lioots from the bottom (the ground), which puih out to the whole length they ever attain, during the firfl year. Thefe flioots, in this feafon, confift: of fingle stems which never branch, unlefs where by accident they have been cut over, when they be- come forked. In the next feafon thefe stems fet out many fruit-bearing branches, along their whole length, 490 NOTES AND length, which flower and perfeft their feeds, while a new fet of ste?ns are pufhing from the bottom to become feed-bearers next feafon. After perfecting their feeds the luhole stem that bore them, with all its branches dies. This is the unvarying progref- fion obferved in the growth of the bramble plant : io that a hedge of it, will at all times contain three dis- tinct kinds of /hoots, intermixed with and croiFmg each other in all directions : i. xht dead Jhoots ; i. the fruit fhoots ; 3. the roots pujhing forward in their lengthy growth. They are all covered with ftrong fpines, and form an impenetrable matting, when confined within proper bounds. Mr. Le Blanc, in the 2d Annal, fays it is worthy of the attention of all who wifli to raife live hedges in a poor fandy foil, in the (horteft time, and at the lead expence, to cul- tivate the bra?nble. In a field of blowing fand, in which flieep were kept, on one fide of a road the bank was planted with brambles mixed with white thorn, and a dead hedge placed on the top. The bramble not only defends the young quick from flieep, but alfo by twifling through the dead hedge, flrengthens it from being broken down. On the other fide of the road, the bank was at the fame time planted with white thorn, only. The dead hedge to it, has been feveral times renewed, and there is no probability that this white thorn, will ever be- come a fence. What a valuable corroboration this is INTIMATIONS. 49' is of Doa. Anderfon's propofed bramble fence, on light poor land ! See his 3d volume of Effays. A good fence of bank and bramble may be reared in moil fituations, fays Mr. Anderlbn, at id. to 3^. fteriing a yard (3 to 5 cents ;) for a facing is re- quired only on one fide. Siuect briar he obferves is not equal to the bram- ble : for unlefs it be often cut over by the roots, it gets naked below, rugged and unfightly, if without fupport from other plants ; and if other plants be near ihem, they grow poorly. In expofed fituations too the wind gets hold of the tops and by aaing on them as a lever, is apt to pull down the bank. The bratnbk is liable to none ofthefe objecTions; and it feems to be, he adds, the ver)' plant fitted by nature for forming that clofe, netted prickly coping, alike wanted to prevent animals from tearing down the bank, and to preferve it from the levelling power of the wind, and other external injuries. The bram- ble efpecially excels other plants on upland thin ground. Bramble fences, which are equally appliq^ble in foft good foils and thofe that are harder in rocky and hilly countries, may be thus conflrufted : A 492 NOTES AND A bank is railed on the inner fide of a ditch, "where it can be dug and faced with ftones, of a good binding quality ; or if the floncs are fmall or roundifli, or fewer than wanted, they may be laid in alternate rows with yi;^/. Where no floaes are to be had, the facing may be entirely of fod. The backing to be made of earth, dug either from the ditch, if on a le- vel, or fcraped from without, if upon a Hope ; or ta- ken from behind where it is eafiell had : fo as to raife the laall with its ditch four to five feet high. Upon the top of this bank and about one foot backwards from its edge, plant a row of brajnble plants, at about (ix inches apart all around. ' If taken from the com- mons be fare they are all young plants nearly grown and well rooted : for it is of the utmofl confequence that the hedge {hould come forward equally in all its parts ; fo as not to leave a fingle gap in any place. To infure this, plants reared from feeds are befl: and the cheapefl. The plants are to be examined the first feapin cfter planting ; and fupplied with what are wanting : without which attention, the hedge can never afterwards be made equal Rud uniform through- out. I am induced, fays Mr. Anderfon, to take no- tice of the circumftance thus poiiiicdly from obferving a culpable carelefTnefs refpefting it, which is the chief canfe of the raggednefs in hedges that every where prevails. If a dead fence of thorns and brufliwood be placed on the top of the fence at the time when the brambles are planted, tbefe live plants may be intermixed INTIMATIONS. 493 intermixed with the dead fence, to advantage rather than detriment. Care is to be taken of flieep, that they have not accefs to injure the bank. If the hedge has been planted with care, it will come forward with great luxuriance, in fhoots which rifing upwards and fpreading out on both fides form a clofe matted coping cffpring plants all over, which will effeftually prevent intrufion of men or animals. The people of Kent, county, Maryland, who made naked bank fences, mentioned in page 196, wanted only to know the above ufes of bramble plants for them to have completed their dcfign. They made banks, and fodded them very perfeftly. Brambles upon thefe banks would have properly fliaded the banks and prefcrved the grafs, and with dead wood for the firfl feafon or two among the brambles would have kept oiF beads from cutting down the fods, and always afterwards. IMPROVEMENT OF THE MIND FOR RURAL LIFE. " Of fcientifical purfuits, the mod: liberal, the mod honorable, the happied, and what probably will be the mod fuccefsful employment for a man in eafy cir- cumdances, (particularly in country life,') is the study of nature, including natural hidory and natural phi- lofophy J and therefore to this important objetft a principal 494 NOTES AND principal attention Ihould be given in educating youth who have the means of applying to thefe in- ftructive and comfortable purfuits, ^?s•hen it may be without interfering with the means neceilar}' to his fupport. Every man finds vacant moments from his ordinary bufinefs, which cannot be better filled than by fuch attentions as le2.dto the improvement of his underflanding and elevate his mind to admire, more and more, the aftonifliing works of the Creator j and thus is real religion befriended. " All the arti^ from whence is derived all that tends to the fecurity and comfort of mankind, de- pend upon the knowledge of the powers of nature wherewith we become converfant ; and the only pofUble way of afluring and increafing the conveni- encies and comforts of life, of guarding againfl in- conveniencies and vexations, to which all are fubjecl, and of enlarging the powers of man, is through a fur- ther acquaintance with the powers of nature."' — From Doctor Priestly y a very little altered. Some inftruc- tion in geometry and mechanics would alfo be advan- tageous in country life. Farmers who do not lay the hand to the plow, often want they know not what : time hangs heavy on them : They feel diffatisfied, reftlefs : a void fur- rounds them. Employment of any fort would gwc them relief. But they mount the horfe, and leave xhsiT family and the inviting calls of an improvable farm. INTIMATIONS. 495 form, to feek amufement in riding to and fro ; fome- tiraes unwarily popping into taverns. But, though time is thus palTed away, they gain no folid or per- manent fatisfaftion, much lefs any improvement of the mind : and to be fure the farm is not improved j nor its work well done. Were thcfe mailers of farms fortunately led by their parents to the study of nature, they would never vi^ant foothing and nouriili- ing food to the mind ; and from their being employ- ed in inquiries concerning the wonderful works of the Supreme-Good, God alone ii'i/e, a found and rati- onal piety would be increafed and confirmed in them. The book of nature far furpalTes books of clumfy art ; whilfl the wordy works of mifled and miilead- ing inftruftors convey no profitable knowledge, and are infignificant to common fenfe, the underftanding given us by God, and to good minds wilhing to be impreifed with the knowledge of plain truths, and improved in whatever is amiable and promotive of good. The comforts held out by the gofpel of Christ, confirm the hope derived from contemplations on nature : and there is a perfeft agreement between the pure intelligible principles of the go/pel, and the laws of nature ; but which folly would fet at vari- ance. " The fublime inflinft of our minds, our fouls, " may be mifled ; but can never be annihilated by " the doctrines of a falfe philofophy or the unintclJi- " gible jargon of trained teachers; a .confcioufncfs " whereof impels us to admire and love ivifdom and generojiiy 49^ K0TE5 AND *• gctierofity of conducl^ as we do grandeur and lym- " metry in nature." " Can the fublime ideas of a divine Creator, " whofe providence watches over the world and the " immortality of the foul, that confolatory hope of *' perfecuted virtue, be nothing more than amiable " and fplcndid chimeras ? But in how much obfcu- *' rity are thcfe difficult problems involved ! What " accumulated objections arife, when we with to exa- " mine them with mathematical rigour ! No ; it is " not given to the human mind to behold thefe " truths in the full day cf perfect evidence : But " why Ihould the man of fenCbility repine at not be^ " ing able to demondrate what he feels to be true /" " In the filence of the clofet and the drynefs of " difcuillon, lean agree with extravagant or abfurd '' teachers, as to the infolubility of certain queftions : " but, when in the country and contemplating na- " lure^ the foul full of emotion, foars aloft to the " -j'ivifywg priiidple that animates it, to the Almighty '• itiiiilecl that pervades it, and to the goodnefs that " renders the fame delightful and juft to my fenfes *• derived from the Creator ; enjoying the truths de- " monilratcd to me, and giving way to feelings fo " imprefftve andfatisfaclory, I am content to remain " ignorant of what cannot be known, and give my- *' felf no didurbance about the opinions of others. But INTIMATIONS. 49^ " But I conform to ihc public ivor/hip, becaufe my " fituaiion makes it my duty (o to do." Mdm, RoL ORCHARDS. It feeras, in England as in America, orchards have been coniiderably ncgledled ; and the know- ledge of proper modes of managing them was not generally well known in the moment when a well- timed and generous interference of a Mr, Bucknall, eftefled fuch a current in favour of them, as that they are again becoming a great confideration in England. Befides Mr. Bucknall's perfonal attention: to his own, his neighbours, and friends orchards, and very actively diffufing a knowledge of the new principles in converfations, he addreifed the London fociety for the encouragement of arts, laid before them his principles of orcharding, as he calls it, obtained firfl their filver medal, and on a further communication their gold medal with their thanks. The certificates accompanying his communications are very ftrong in their favour ; and his practice is warmly adopted, and in a courfe of being generally purfued by the EngliHi farmers. An experienced and intelligent farmer, from New England, alfa alTures me that for the corrednefs of Mr. Bucknall's principle on clofe-pruning he can vouch, from his own praftice twenty-five years ago. A pamphlet en Mr. Bucknall's principles and practice is publifh- I i cd 49^ NOTES AND ed in London, entitled The Orchardist ; from which the following notes are taken. The management of orchards is capable of being reduced to a fyflem, under a few general heads concentrated in the principle of making every tree in orchards, healthy, round, l^^rge, and beautiful. Due pruning would greatly prevent the fpeckled and stunted fruits occafioned by the trees being over- loaded with wood ; which obllrufts the rays of the fun, and caufes a vapour, the cold whereof stunts the fruit in its firfl growth. , The bark of trees confifts of the outer, rough ; the middle y foft and fpongy ; the inner, a whitilh rind which joins the bark to the wood, and is fup- pofed to contain the liquid fap. When the flem grows too fafl for the bark, it caufes blotches and lacerations ; which is avoided h^ f coring the hark with a fliarp knife, fo as not tn cut through the whitilh rind or inner bai'k. ; CLOSE-PRUNING, AND MEDICATING FRUIT-TREES. Pruning with judgment brings trees to bear fooner ; and continue in vigour nearly double their common INTIMATIONS. 499 common age. Mr. Bucknall gives no attention to fruit branches and 'wood branches in the prefent in- flance.* No branch is ever to ht portened ; unlcfs for the figure of the t/ee, and then clofe at the fe- paration. The more the range of the branches flioot circu- larly, a little inclining upward, the more equally the fap will be didributed, and the better will the tree bear. Let not the ranges of branches be too near each other ; as all the fruit and leaves ftiould have thnr full (hare of iht fun. Where it fuits, let the mid- dle of the tree be free from wood ; fo that no branch croiTes another, but all the extreme ends point outwards* A neighbour faying, your trees are handfonis but too thin of wood, is a high compliment ; for fuch trees will gain the befl: price for the fruit at market. a fure teft of perfection. A young orchard was planted in a rich foil and it throve greatly. Such vigorous growth occafioned I i 2 an ♦ The expreffion " In the prefent inftance'' muft me?.n, in general, refpefting his prefent fubjed of pruning : gives no attention to fruit branches and wood branches, in pruning fruit trees fuiTered to ran greatly into wood : but thins Uiem to be j/Vv, and to ^wzjhape and regular l-ranchet. 50O NOTES AND an early decay of the trees, from the wind fplitting thera down ; and the wood being foft many caufes concurred to injure them. The injudicious manner in which the lacerations were taken oiF added to the evil J for generally a gum follows from a wound, and this becomes filled with vermin, which obdruft the healing by their eating and fretting the bark. Mr. Bucknall is here fpeaking of an orchard of both apple and cherry trees ; the latter yield gum. He found the branches fo intermixed and entan- gled together as to cut each other and caufc wounds and blotches ; which on the return of the fap in the fpriug, affefts the leaves by inclining them to curK In this ftate of the orchard, in the November following, Mr. Bucknall undertook to improve it ; and found that the branches could not be cut true enough with a bill, to take them off, without leav- ing a ftump or improper wound, as it is effential that every branch fliould be cut perfe£lly clofe and fmooth. He therefore ufed faws, and afterwards fvioothed with a knife. Immediately on this the wounds, with medicated tar on a brufli, were fmear- ed over. As the hark can never grow over a stump, he al- ways cuts a little within the wood. The rule is to cut (luick, clofe, 2^Xid fmooth. Mr. INTIMATIONS. 50I Mr. Bucknall and his affiftants kept together, and firfl: walked round the tree. He then pointed out every branch that came near the ground or had re- ceived material injury^ or where the leaves were much curled (which are accompanied with fpecky fruit;) and every branch having the least tendency to crofs the tree or run inwards, all whereof were taken off. Then he attended to the beauty of the head, leaving all the branches as nearly equidiftant as poffible. Next they examined if there were any remaining blotches ; and opened and fcored them with the knife ; and where the bark was ragged from laceration, pared it gently down till they came to the live wood. Each of thefe were then touch- ed over with the medicated tar. The mofs fhould then be rubbed off and the ixtzs fcored. In cutting they went to the quick, but avoided making the wound larger than neceffary. In doubting whether a particular branch fhould be taken off, they confidered if it will be in the way three years hence. If it will, the fooner it is off the better. When trees are much trimmed they throw out many Ihoots in the fpring. It is neceffary that thefe be rubbed off, not cut j for cutting increafes them. The ^bl NOTES AND The MFDicATED TAR IS compofcd oF one "half ounce of corrof,'ve fiibUmate^ reduced to a fine pow- der by beating it with z\vooden haniTier : then put it into a three-pint earthen pipkin, with a glafs full of gin or other fpirit ftirred Veil together, and the fubliniate thus diflblved. The pipkin is then filled by-degrees with common tnr, and conflantly flirred, till the mixture is blended, intimately as poillble. This quantity is fufficient for 200 trees. Corrofive fublimate is a violent polfon ; and to prevent mifchief, it is to be icftantly mixed in the tar, y;5.'7 as bought. Mr. Bucknall finds the fubli- mate diiTolves better when united wi:h the fame c •quantity of fpirit of harffhom or of fal ammoniac* Farmers fearing to meddle with corrofive fubli- mate may get their apothecary to mix the ingredi- ents; the tar being fent to him. Or let them try the following as an experiment. Mix fi{h oil one ;^ .rt with tar two or three parts, by ftirring them well over a gentle fire, that the mixture may be peiTc^. Apply it when cold. Would you add things bitter or acrid ; as alces, or red pepper ? For ginng more body or conuflence to this mix- ture, ^dd fine powder o fullers earth or clay ; or according to Lord Newark, powdered chalk. Do * Ccrober, -svo'jld give more time for the vrcunds to heal, |;efore -s^inter fets in. INTIMATIONS. 503 Do not attempt to force a tree to grow higher than it is difpofed to grow : but keep the branches out of the reach of cattle : then let them follow .their natural growth. In general prune trees y^ow as the fruit is off, that the wounds may tend towards healing before the froft comes on. The fubflantial form of the tree is the fame before and after pruning. It is of the fame fize, and the extreme flioots are all kept at the fame diflance. But too often the heads of trees are mutilated and the tree is left in a more decaying Itate. The year before the trees are to be planted out, choofe and prune them in the nurfery ; taking off perfeftly clofe, all rambling and unfightly branches, leaving the beads to three or four good leading flioots. From pruning thus in the 7iurfery the year preceding the planting out the trees, it will not be requifite to prune for fome time ; and the wounds being healed, will accelerate their growth. Plant none galled, fretted or cankered. Take them up to be planted, with roots long as is convenient. Prepare ftakes before the day of planting, and Hake them immediately. Shelter, by trees, is requifite on the cold blow- ing fides of the orchard, north-weft to north- cafi:. Plant 5e4. NOTES AND Plant not the trees too deep ; many ills arife from It. Mr. Bucknall's tools are ; two pruning knives ; a faw ; two chifels ; a mallet; ; a fpoke fhave, and a painter's bruih. With the chifels and fpoke fhave work upwards, or the bark will {hiver. The faw muiL be coarfe fet ; all the other tools Iharp and fmooth, He prefers the blade-bone of a doe, for rubbing pff rotten bark, mofs, &c. When the trees are planted, a quefl:ion arifes what ufe is to be made of the ground ? To plow it is dangerous ; as the injuries received by young trees from implements in hulbandry are great ; and if any kind of corn is grown, the land is impover- iflied, and then the trees are ftunted and run to mofs. Hc^s do well for fome years, and then let the ground be grazed : and the ground is never to be plowed deep directly ever the roots of a young planted fruit tree. Manure is neceiTary to an orchard ; and hog*s dung is the befl:. Watering orchards in dry weather is important — which may be beft accompliflied if a flream can be led through it. Prevent INTIMATIONS. 5©5 Prevent young trees bearing much fruit : pluck it off foon as feen, except half a dozen to fliow the quality. Graze and manure. Hogs are bed to run in orchards. Although no leading branches are to h^Jhortenedy yet whilll in the nurfery, the heads mufl be cut down to give (Irength and fymmetry to the ftera ; and al- fo moil of the grafts mud be fhortened, or the wind will blow them out ; and whilft in the infant state, {hortening the plant helps to fwell out the buds. Shorten:ng is only forbid when the plant he- comes a tree. Mofs is the refult of poverty and negkd, and re- fle£ls difcredit on the owner. In a wet day, a ftrong man with a birch-broom can do great good on mofs. He is to rub all the branches, fpring and autumn, with a hand-bruih and foap-fuds. They may then be oiled or not, as you like. The befl orchard foil is a deep loam. No one for profit would plant on a ll:rong clay or a cold fharp gravel. But where it is necefTary to plant on thefe foils, never dig into the undcr-flrata ; which would be planting in well-holes : rather plant the trees above ground, raifing over them a little mound of good mould, and fow on it white clover. In 5C6 NOTES AND In pruning, never omit the inedkation; as the ^mercury is found ftrongly operative in removing the effei3:s of canker, giving a fmoothnefs of the bark, and a freenefs of growth. The fyflem of clofc-pruning and ?nedication here •follows, that it may be feen at once : Take off ■every stump, the decayed or blighted branches, with all that crofs the tree, or where the leai^s curl, chfe, fmooth, and even. Pare the gum down clofe to the bark, and even a Httle within, but not to deftroy the rough coat : open the fiffures from whence the gum oozes, to the bottom : cut away the blotches and pare down the canker : then anoint all the wounds with the medication, fmearing a lit- tle over the canker not large enough to be cut: 'walh and fcore the tree, rubbing off the mofs j but • do wo/y2>i7r/#« a fingle branch. A tree under fuch care muft, with its remaining free fhoots, run large ; which requiring a great flow of fap will keep the roots in conftant employ, and from that very fource neceffarily eflablilli permanent ■health. - Canker, he fays, arifes much from animalculcE j and if the only objeft is to remove the canker, he finds hogs-lard preferable to tar j but where wet is to INTIMATIONS, ^6y to be guarded againfl, tar is fuperlatively better. Therefore tar and oil, as above. Mr. Morjhead praflifed clofe-prunlng and' m^dica- ' Hon, according to Mr. Bucknall, on a greal variety of fruit trees of all ages j which fuccecded beyoiid his expeftations. Mr. Tivamky*^ principles on pruning orchards accord with Mr. Bucknail's, as far as he touches on it. PEACH TREES, A farmer in New-Jerfey has publiihed in the news-papers, an account of peach trees ; in which he fays, on the fecond of June 1795 his peach trees were in a very fickly ftate : that he applied the re- medy below mentioned ; in confequencc whereof by the middle of fidy they had recovered their full verdure and health; and that in 1799 they ftill continued in full health. His remedy was in laying bare the stems of the trees and the roots near to the stems, by taking the earth away. There then appeared in the trees a number of holes the lize of gimblet boles. On probing them hairy wbf-ms were brought out, of a whitifli colour, except that the head was brown with 5c8 NOTES AND with a {harp nofe ; and it was an inch long and had a boring motion. Burdock leaves were dipped in whale oil (currier's filh oil) and wrapped about the part of the trees affected ; and then the earth taken off was thrown on them. Six quarts of oil ferved twenty trees. Three of his trees had bees under thera, in hives. Fearing to diflurb the bees with the fmell of the oil, the flems and roots only were laid bare as above ; and thefe trees alfo recovered. He thinks the effluvium of the oil foon killed the •worms in the firft inflance ; and that from their be- ing very porous, the air entering the pores killed them in the lall: inftance : and he adds as his opinion that if the trees are laid bare as above in tlie fpring and coi'tred before winter fets in, it may anfwer the deCred effect, with taking off the fungus or gum on the body of the tree under which the worms breed. A number of them were taken from within a lump of gum, and they all " diffolved" in the air. The old worm on having a drop of oil put on its head, drew up in a ball and inflantly died. He fays, a large peach orchard, in Jerfey, was on a loofe fand, called the fand hills ; which he thinks was " an old orchard in 1738," when he knew it, and he thinks it was in being in 1776 when he rode over thofe hills, fo that it continued more INTIMATIONS. 509 more than 40 years. He thereon infers that fandy foil is beft for peach trees. I have known peach trees give fruit many years in the fandy lands of Severn River, in the country about Annapolis ; and alfo on clay loams in the peninfula of Chefapeak ; where they were in old fields, or free from fpade or plow breaking the ground near them. An apricot tree flood a number of years in a garden where the ground was yearly dug about it j the fruit always dropt off before it could ripen. That part of the garden being turn- ed out, the ground fettled and remained clofe and hard all about the tree : from which time it matur- ed its fruit. The winter 1783-4 was extremely feverc. Its froft killed many noble oaks and other trees, but not one of many peach trees in my orchard and gar- den. The garden peach trees annually fuffered by the worm above defcribed, but not thofe in the orchard where the ground remained unstirred. In the fpring 1784 many feedling peach trees being hove up by the frofl, feemed to ftand on their main roots partly above ground, without being injured. Thefe proofs of the hardinefs of peach trees induc- ed me to dig the earth from the garden peach trees late in November and return it in April. In feveral years 5IO NOTES AND f years of this being practifed, I recollect no inftance of the worm in thofe trees. DIET FOR PRISONERS: — liTued to the prifoners in the gaol of Philadel- phia in 1798 J for 230 men and women. BREAKFAST AND SUPPER : Indian-meal 294 gals. jib. a gal, 147ft. at C. M. 2 c. i^m. a tb. . . . . 314 6 Melaffes 44 gals, at 60 c. . . . . 270 o Salt I qts. . . • . . 6 6 Water 96 gals, in Mujh 384 qts. of which ■ c. m. 591 2 Forbreakfaft, at i 3 (more esaS T K I 112 8 Dimmer INTIMATIONS. 5" C. VI. Dinner, 224 q\s. foup, coft 521 6 or each 2 2 (more €xaatMM» of an i^fidii^cnt English farmer now in America. INTIMATIONS. 5I3 The mill cofl: flerling 45;^^. equal to Dollars 200 A cover of boards, with "| wire platform under I the beaters ;C3* 3* r* ^7 The fhed, to cover the j wheel and horfes 12. o. J ■ 267 The wire platform begins under the canvafs, or Doping board, and extends as far as any grain falls, and has openings to allow the grain to pafs. A wo- man and boy with a rake can clear the machine of ftraw, whilft the grain falls through the wire in a ftate for being fanned. It thraflies 1 So bujhe/j cfzvbeat'm tenhours^ very clean. Barley is thraflied with'flails, after it comes from the mill for breaking off the awns or beards. One horfe will work the machine : rather hard work. He ufes two horfes. If a diligent perfon drives the horfes, all pcrfons about the mill mufl be bufy. The hands neceilkry are the driver, a boy ; the feeder, a careful attentive perfon ; a perfon to rake, and tijco to bundle the flraw. He confiders it work for three men and t'-^o boys. ' K k Mr. 314 KOTES AND Mr. Moztbray, of Durham, fays his thrafhing mill, built by Mr. Rajtrick, has given him great fatisfac- tion. He ufes two horfes, ' a boy, a man, and two women. It had thrafhed out 1 2800 bu£hels of wheat; 6400 bufliels of oats, and 6400 buihels of barley : in all 25600 bufliels of grain ; and had cod him no- thing in repairs ; and there is no difficulty in work- Mr. Wiikie fays his thrafliing mill is fo Cmple that repairs can be feldom wanting. It is a mofl valuable machine. Mr. B:\s*s mill is in a barn, and a projefting build- ing contains the great wheel : which is 12 feet dia- meter, has 120 cogs working into 12 : the cogs at the end of the {haft are 87, which work into 14. The under, of the two cylinders, for drawing the com through, is of wood, the upper of cafi: iron : a wheel of 15 cogs works into 33 for turning them. The beating or flail wheel (or barrel), is 5 feet long, and 3>- feet diameter to outlide beaters : has 4 of thefe beaters, or battens fixed to it, and flrikes up- 'Lvard: ; icoo ftrokes in a minute. Others flrikc dtmrniuards, which do not clear away the ftraw equally well. The flraw is carried over the beating wheel, and falls on a latticed floor, for the fliort fluff to fall through. Four horfes work the mill. A hoy drives : INTIMATIONS. 515 drives : a niati throws up the flieaves : a boy fupplies : one man to fprcad them on the inclined plane ; and two men to fork away the ftraw. 'The whole 4 wt«, 2 boys, 4 horfes* It thraihcd 360 bujhels of oats in 10 hours. For clearing away the flraw, as it comes from the mill, a wheel turns in a direftion contrary to the beating wheel, and clears it completely. 1 5 An. 481. 20 An. 248. 504. — Mr. Meikle\ built a mill for Mr. Adams, worked \^\\hfour horfes, which thrailies out 640 bujhels oats in 10 hours. Length of the barrel 44 feet, diameter 3^ feet, treble motion. Wheels, cafl: iron. There are many mills for thrafli- ing, of different conftruftion in England and Scot- land : all on the principle of battefis upon a barrel^ for beating out the grain. K k 2 LABOUR' * Horfes are more expenfive than oxen for all fuch -v^'ork j and they are lefs fteady than ox:n. Whilft oxen are perform- ing the work, they increafe in value full ten dollars a yean This with their dung pays for tlieir keeping : fo that tlieir la- bour is clear gain. f Mr. And. Meikl: erefted his firfl threfhing mill in 1788 ; fince when he has progrefllvely improved them. The labour isfimplified, and the performnnce augmented. By adding rakes or fhakers, and two pair of fanners, all driven by the fame ma- chinery, threfliing, fhaking, and winnov.-ing, are now perform- ed all at once, and the grain is made clean for market. 5i6 NOTES AND LABOURING POOR, in ENGLAND, Mr. Marfhall flates the expences of a labcuring or poor family in England thus For Wheat and rye Fuel Candles and foap Furniture Tools Rent Man's coat, S:c. Hofe and hat Shirts Shoes Wife and children's clothes Meat, &^c. . Shil. Cenu. 120 or 2666 i^ 10 5 26 22 o 10 86 448 288 177 222 III 577 488 66 222 177 191 1 3044 99-5- So that, in England, a labourer having a wife and two children, and expending ico dollars, has 4 dollars over and above the means of fupporting them through the year in a comfortable habitation, with the other neceffary comforts of life. They fcarcely fpend a (hilling on phyfick. Keeping out of tippling houfes, which is eafily and cheerfully obferved by a good hufband and father, the four dollars is a treafure of evidence to a round of per- ennial content and happinefs ; in fuccefhon through father and fon from generation to generation. LABOUR' INTIMATIONS. 5^7 LABOURING POOR in IRELAND.— Expences, Cabbin and garden Labour in the garden Two cows Hay for them Turf (fuel) . Clothing 1 5s. a head, for 5 Tools .... Hearth tax ShU. 30 50 30 14 7S 5 1 or Cents. 666 666 nil 666 311 1666 III 44 236s. or 52.44 Their Receipts. The year . . 3^5 ^^JS- 92 dedua, Sundays . 52 Bad weather 30 Holy-days 10 Two calves s. 30 Pig • • 20 Poultry « • 5 d. 273 at 6, 1 36: 6 or 3035 ;o3 days fpinning by ^ ^^ ^^^ ^'^ . ^• wife and daughter S ^ —130:3 2900 266:9 = 5935 Expenles 5l8 NOTES AND ' 8. d. cenu. Expenfes . . . 236 : o zz 5244 Remain for whifky, &c. &c. 30 : 9 686 266 : 9 = 59.30 Thefe cotters Mr. Young fays, are very much addifted to pilfering. — He adds, their general cha- racter is idlenefs^ with want of attention. — Such habits muft arife from their having more arable land than is manageable by a cottager or mere labouring man, or than is confident with his office and calling ; and they become neither good or happy labourers, nor contented, orderly, induflrious land-holders ; and then they are apt to degenerate into low beings of no character or worth in themfelves or to others ■ — and from total idlenefs^ the common parent of vice, become fhifty plunderers of the fruits of the labour and cares of others. In fa£l, Mr. Young aflures us that in Ireland the cottager has allowed him one and an half acres of garden with the grafs of one or two cows, and moreover the daily pay of fix pence the year through. It is there thought difficult to raife a race of little farmers from the cot- tagers, by adding land gradually to them at a fair rent ; and indeed it feems it would be unfriendly to the poor, to attempt to elevate them from happy contented cottagers to become but inferior, imper- feci:, and difcontented mean farmers. Whilft INTIMATIONS. 5I9 Whilfl the Irijh cottager has more acres than one, the EngUjh cottager fcarcely has a fourth part of one acre.* Of the fame ground being too much for a cottager and too little for a farmer^ fee before in this work, of Labourers, Cottages, and Cottagers. An acre and an half, with the grafs ground of one or two cows, equal to 2 to 4 acres, are in all on a medium 4^ acres, or 1 8 to i of the Enghfh cotta- ger's portion. HOG-CISTERNS Made of brick and terrace are objected to, as being too coflly, though among the firil convenien- cies of a farm houfe ; — to wooden ones, the objec- tion is becaufe incommodious ; — and leaden, becaufe poifonous and dangerous. But the cifterns prefer- red are built of bricks layed in clay, and furrounded with a coat of clay. Sink the pit where it is conve- nient to the dairy-kitchen and hog-yard, jointly. — Above ground raife a nine inch wall one foot high ; raifmg a ridge roof over it ; and placing a door in one of the gable ends. — MarJhalL PRESERVATION of SEINS, TWINE, and SMALL ROPE. Mix 5 parts tar, and one oifjh-oil, melting them together, for thoroughly incorporating them ; and while * From whence follows, content in the Englifh cottager — difcontent, and WTetchednefs in the JriJJj cottager. 520 NOTES AND while quite hot (but not to burn) the nets being in a tub, pour the hot mixture upon them in quantity fufficient to wet them entirely. The mixture is then drawn off by a hole at the bottom of the tub, immediately, in order that too much of it may not ftick, and make the nets clammy, which would hap- pen if cooled upon them : and to prevent the net flopping the hole at the bottom, a balket like cover fhould be applied over the hole, not in it. Thus, fpreading nets to dry is rendered unnecejfary, is a great faving of labour ; and the practice has become very general in the fifhery on the coafl of Ireland. CEMENT FLOORS. They have lately become commonly applied to cottages. The materials are lime and fand, mixed in nearly the fame proportion and prepared in the fame manner as the common morter of bricklayers ; but is made flronger and fofter than for laying bricks. The bed made fair and level, the materials are carried on in pails, in a ftate between paste and baiter and laid 4 or 5 inches thick ; alfo an inch higher than the intended floor, to allow for fettling in drying. The whole being well worked over with a fpade, the furface is fmoothed with a trowel ; and as it dries is repeatedly beaten with a flat beater — better fwitches to prevent cracking, the workman /landing on planks. In two or three weeks it may te INTIMATIONS. 5?i be walked on. On the laft: beating, if crofs iines be deeply graven on the furface, the floor has the appearance, as well as ufefulnefs of a freeilone floor. TURNIP-SLICER. For feeding turnips away with fafety againfl: their choking cattle, and rendering them eafily eaten by young flock, many contrivances have been applied to cut, chop, or flice them ; of which Cuthbert Clarke's feems the mofl; Ample and eflicacious : — Two men fitting with Clarke's machine between them, and facing each other, cut into flices three quarters of an inch thick, three tons of turnips per hour, by pufliing a frame to and fro having a dou- ble edged fpoke fliave knife which cuts going and returning. The machine has an oaken frame, a hopper or trunk containing the turnips to be cut ; the turnips refling -on a board in the Aiding frame, whilft this is moved backward and forward with the knife which cuts the turnips, and the flices fall through into a bafket. The Aiding frame has a flrap at the crofs piece of each end for checking the frame at each end alternately. The knife can be fet to cut the flices half an inch thick. The machine is 4;. feet high; 24- feet long; 2 feet wide, outfide meafure, the boards are of de;il 4 of 522 NOTES AND 4 of an inch thick. Its four pods are oak, 4 inches fquare. The feet, Aiding frame, crofs bars, &:c. are alfo of oak. The hopper is angular within, fuited to the angle the knife, when placed in the frame, makes with the fides thereof, about 45 de- grees. The frame Hides to and fro upon two rol-' lers, which abates the friftion. The feet of the four polls are mortifed into two pieces of plank or timber, which extend 8 or lo inches beyond the polls to fecure it from tottering or falling. The Hiding frame carr}'-ing the knife, has a board bottom larger than the lower aperture of the hop- per, which has no other bottom than the board fix- ed in the Hiding frame. This board may be about 1 6 inches wide between the fide pieces of the Hiding frame, and 2\ feet long between two crofs pieces, one at each end of the board bottom, and let into the frame. This board, or floor of the Hiding frame, is divided into two, each divifion having an oblique or diagonal parallel fide to the other, and they leave a fpace between them for the fliced tur- nips to fall through into the baH:et placed under the frame. Over this paflage or fpace the broad knife is placed, each end of it turned up at right angles and let through a fmall mortife of the frame, where it is fet to cut the turnips 4. to -I- of an inch. The poHtion of the knife and the aperture in the board are exactly alike ranged in their obliquity, of 45 degrees : INTIMATIONS. 523 degrees : and fo are the two little mortifes in the frame. There is a contrivance for clearing the fpace of turnip flices by thrufting them out as the * frame is moved. Mr. Young has given a drawing of it in his fecond Northern Tour, by which it is befl explained. PLANTATIONS of TREES. Timber becomes fcarce ; to an alarming degree in the old fettled country of the United States. It is therefore recommended to the confideration of gentlemen improvhig farmers, few as they are, that they begin to grow plantations of wood the moil generally ufeful ; of which no tree affords any com- parable to the wood of the larch (pinus larix, Lin.), according to the hiftorical teftimony of it now largely difplayed in the writings, and confirm- ed by the recent and prefent praftices of many in North and South Britain. This wood, fo little known to the modern world in general, was every thing to the ancients; fo much fo that its unlimited ufe has caufed a fcarcity, and almofl a total reduction of it every where but in mountainous inland diflrifts ; from whence it can- not be conveyed for ufe. The Greeks, the Ro- mans, and the old world in general, preferred it for all ufeful and great purpofes : and now the Ruffians^ 524 NOTES AND Rnjfians, a new people, bringing it with great la- bour from Siberia to Archangel, build their {hips of war with Larch-wood, Some of the modern notices of the larch are here mentioned, with the defire that Doftor Anderfon^s third volume of EJ/ays on Agriculture be confulted on the fubjecl, wherein he treats of the very extenfive ufefulnefs and value of the timber, with the proper attentions for propagating the larch in Britain, efpe- cially the praftices of North Britain — their methods, fuccefs and profits experienced at this time. Mr. Young in his Eastern Tour, gives fome par- ticulars of the cultivation and fuccefs in England ; but Dodlor Anderfon*s EJfays are full of the qualities of the wood of the larch, and methods of railing it, with the great profit arifing from plantations of it — even when very young. It is the quickefl growing tree. In England a Mr. Fellows had a plantation of Scotch Jirs, of 38 years growth : on the fame land he had larch trees of only 3 1 years growth, as large as the Jirs, An old gravel pit was planted with, fpruce Jir and larch, in alternate rows. The larch trees are 6 to 12 feet high, when the fpruce are but 2 feet on a medium^, A large INTIMATIONS. 5^^5 A large plantation of many acres, a poor gravel- ly land, containing Scotch and fprnce Jirs and larches^ at 1 6 years growth in fquares of lo feet, are worth — the Scotch firs . . 2s. 6d. each, the fpruce firs . . Z '' ^ the larch . . . . 4:6. At 10 feet there are 435 trees an acre. The Scotch at 2S. 6d. come to ;^.54 7 6 flerling, or per acre per annum £.-^ 7 o. — The fpruce at 3s. 6d. to £'^6 2 6 or per acre per annum to £.^ 150. — The larch at 4s. 6d. to ^^.97 17 6 or per annum £.6 1 o fterling ; exclufive of thinnings. In what other way can ;^.6 flerling be made of an acre, without rifque, and almofl without expenfe? — A cafe is then put, Suppofe 5 acres of larch planted every year ; at the end of 16 or 17 years, five acres will be yearly cut down, value £-500 fterling : from w4iich day, a regular produce of £'S^^ ^ J^^^ ^^ gained out of 100 acres of land. If let to a tenant, thefe ico acres produce ;C*4° ^ 7^^" > ^^^^ '^ planted they yield £'S^o a year — what an amazing difference! Again, fuppofe a fingle acre planted yearly : after 18 or 20 years to cut, yearly, j^.ioo fterling a year from only 20 acres, which if let, would be but jT.S a year. How beneficial a condu(5^. But ^26 NOTES AND But larch would fell for more than the firs, by the foot ; being in every refpe^l more valuable — and of the many excellent qualities of larch, fee much in Doctor Anderfori's third volume of EJfays on Agri- culture ; efpecially attend to his detail of the method of propagating it, as praftifed in Scotland, where millions of trees are now raifed from feeds in nurfe- ries and difperfed about the country at a low price. Moreover thg. larch is very ornamental, grows freely in all foils and lituations — in building it is preferred for strength and durability; it grows straight and is excellent for piles, lading many hun- dred years put to that ufe ; as in Venice. — In Jhi?igles it is durable and very excellent as it is in log-houfes built by the Ruffians, as recommended by Admiral Gregg on a vifit to his friends in Scotland. Sawed into fcantling it is at firfl white, and on 2 or 3 years expofure turns of a dark colour, is clofe grained with the grain filled up clofe and is firm and fmooth. Staves of it are preferred for making calks. It faws into broad and long planks and boards. The timber is very durable in the ground — takes a fine polifli — nor flirinks nor warps. The trees are ge- nerally planted in Britain and Switzerland. It is readily trained in a crooked growth for fliip timber. In Scotland there are larches ^^ years old, which are 120 feet high, 34^ feet diameter, and contain no INTIMATIONS. 527 110 folid feet of wood in the trunks. Even young larch is very durable, though of the quickeft growth. — The medium growth of a plantation of larches, in 8 years, was above 20 feet in height, and they were 6 to 9 inches when planted. The fame plants when 12 years old have increafed in height 34 to ;^6 feet, Tht feeds and the plants are to be had from Scot- land in any quantities. — It is befl to get feeds and plants from thence, as they cultivate the pinus larix, Lin. the true Italian larix of the ancients, the qua- lities whereof arc fo well known, whereas the Ame- rican larch, fecmingly diiferent, has fcarcely at all been experienced. Whilft the plants and feeds are expe£ted from Scotland, choofe an acre to 5 acres, that may be yearly increafed to other one or 5 acres, to be ap- plied as above. — Clean and cultivate thefe acres per- fectly, in a fallow manured ; or rather in cleaning and jhaded fallG'-JO' crops, for deftroying all means of 'iveeds growing and fouling the ground — then fov/ and propagate the larch for univerfal purpofcs, fuel alone excepted. In a word, Mr. Anderfon aifures us that the larch is now univerfally preferred for plantations — that its good qualities are indeed fo numerous and fo 528 NOTES AND fo excellent, that they need only be known to oc- cafion its being propagated beyond any other tree whatever, in our climate. " I dare hardly even to mention thefe qualities, left I be accufed of exag- geration, though the proofs (continues Mr. Ander- ibn) that afcertain them are irrefillibly ftrong." Wherever introduced it grows fo freely^ — is io healthy and beautiful in leaf ; fo ornamental when co- vered with bloffoms, fo elegant in form, that it in- flantly becomes a favourite with thofe who plant it. Then its value is immenfe, for ufeful purpofes — com- pared with oak, it is twice as fpeedy as oak in growth, and where a fence was partly of oak, part- ly of larch, the oak rails had yielded to time, when the larch continued found many years after. K R A. In a communication frora'^Elias Boudinot, Efq, I receive the following particulars of the okra plant. Mr. Boudinot had been informed by a gentleman of the Weft Indies, that the planters of tafte, there, life a drink made in imitation of the cofteeberry drink, calling it alfo coffee or okra coffee, made of okra feeds, and prefer it to the coffeeberry drink ; ■which excited his attention to okra, and he culti- vated it to a confiderable extent in the way of ex- periment. It furpaffcd his expectation made as the coffeeberry INTIMATIONS. 529 coiTeeberry is made into a drink called okra coffee ; and it was very generally preferred by Grangers to the cofFeeberry coiFee. Accordinof to Mr. Boudinot okra feeds are to be drilled in rows 36 inches apart, and 18 inches in the rows ; thinning the plants when four inches high to one or two plants. Prefer a rich mellow loam, plowed deep early in the fpring, and again early in May — then harrow, plant, hoe and cultivate a5 maize is treated. The green pods are foon fit for culinary purpofes, chiefly in foups ; for which when they begin to harden, they become unfit. About the middle of October cut down the plants, and when dry, thrafli the feeds out, taking care that the pods be not expofed to rain after be- ing cut down and before thrallied. The feeds weigh 561b. a bufliel ; which at 30 bufliels an acre that Mr. Boudinot thinks may be produced, would amount to near 17001b. but fay ]5oolb. of okra coffee, at 12 cents per lb. it would give 18000 cents or 180 dollars per acre. The plant alfo is ufed in foups as well as the green pods> and is very wholefome and palatable. Doctor Wright, fpcaking of the Weft: India okra, fhibifcus efculenius) fays, the pods are gathered L 1 green, 53© NOTES AND green, cut into pieces, dried, and boiled in broths and foups. It is the chief ingredient in the pepper- pot of the Well Indies, much celebrated as a rich olJa. Sl^RUP FROM WATER-MELONS, It is faid, a great portion of the fyrup ufed as a fweetener in Ruilia is produced from the pulpy fweet part of "water-melons. I am now favoured with a fmall quantity of the fyrup of water-melon ; half a pint of which was obtained in Philadelphia, by gra- dually boiling the flrained pulp and juice of a melon that weighed 141b. Melons growing at 5-I- by 5^ feet apart, are 1433 plants on an acre: thefe bearing two melons of 141b. each, yield 4oooclb. of melons, 1433 pints of fyrup; which at 10 cents would come to 143 dollars, for an acre's produce. It is alfo faid that the peafants in the fouthern parts of RulTia, ufe little other fugar than that which is obtained from water-melons. The fample given to me is a very neat well flavored fyrup, of the confidence of melafles, but of a lighter colour, nearer to tiiat of honey. Here INTIMATIONS. 53I Here are flattering circmnftances to induce expe- riments that may prove how eafily the country family may become independent of foreign countries for fweets of the clafs of fugars, and at a very cheap rate. The fyrup it is fuppofed may be granulated into fugar, or with much eafe made into a /agar candy. The hufbandman's chief crop for giving hira income in money is wheat ; for which he labours, in fevcral plowings, and gains nothing from his ground during a year of fallow ; unlefs he may be one of the few who adopt the profitable courfe of a fallow crop or a crop produced whilft the ground is under a fallow. After all the lofs of time, and expenfe of labour with hazards, the acre of wheats that proud article, may put eight or ten dollars in the pocket ; of which a part goes to the fhop for fugar and melafles. But now, fuppofe the acre of melon fyrup fhould yield but half of the above cal- culation ; it then would give the farmer or (which may be better) his wife above 70 dollars — Are not thcfe irrefillible motives, impelling to make the trial! The like, in part, may be applied to the article ccffee from the ckra plant. Even take only a fourth part of the calculation, near 360 pints of fyrup at 10 cents, give near 36 dollars produce, almoft without 532 NOTES AND, SzC. without coft, and four times as much as the wheat income ! — Withal, ivheat greatly impoveriflies the hufbandmau's ground : when meloiu cover and fhel- ter it, (o as to prevent weeds growing and running to feed, but they leave the ground mellow and in a good ftate of fallow. *' The Spirit of Commerce renders men avaricious " and Jeljijh : atzd a People demoralized ought to be " brought back to agriculture : for^ Commerce feeds '^ the Pajfions ; Agriculture calms them.** FINIS. { 533 ) Receipt for the Parmefan or Lodian Cbeefe. The fize of thefe cheefes varies from 60 to i3olbs, and depends confiderably on the number of cows ia each dairy. " During the heat of fummer cheefe is made every day, but in the cooler months milic will keep longer, and cheefe is made every other day. The fumm.er cheefe which is the befl is made of the evening milk after having been ikiramed in the morning and at noon, mixed with the morning milk after having been Jkimmed at noon. Both kinds of milk are poured together into a copper caldron, capable of holding about 130 gallons, of the fhape of an in- verted bell, and fufpended on the arm of a lever, fo as to be moved off and on the fire at pleafure. In the caldron the milk is gradually heated to the temperature of 120 degrees: it is now removed from the fire and kept quiet for 5 or 6 minutes. When all internal motion has ceafed, the rennet is adaed— this fubftancc is compofed of the Horaach of a calf, fermented together with wheaten meal and fiilt — and the m.ethod of ufing it is, to tie a piece of the fize of an hazle nut in a rag, and rteep it in the milk, fqucezing it from time to time. In a ftiort time a fufncient quantity of the rennet pafles through the bag into the milk, which is now LI 2 to 534 RZCEIFT FOR THE PATs^MESAN to be well ilirred, and afterwards left at refl td co- agulate. In about an hour the coagulation is complete, and then the milk is again put over the fire, and raifcd to a temperature of about 145 degrees. During all the time it is heating, the mafs is briikly agitated till it feparates in fraall lumps. Part of the whev is then taken out and a few pinches of fafFron are added to the remainder in order to colour it. When the curd is thus broken fufficiently fraall. nearly the whole of die whey is taken cut, and two pails of cold water are poured in; the temperature is then lowered, fo as to enable the dairy man to coUecl the curd by palling a cloth beneath it, and gathering it up at the corners. The curd is now pafTed into a frame of wood like a bulhel without a bottom, placed on a (oYid table, and covered by a round piece of wood with a great (lone on the top. In the courfe of the night it cools, affumes a firm confid- ence and parts with its whey. The next day one fide is rubbed v%ith fait, and the fucceeding day the cheefe is" turned, and the other fide rubbed in the fame manner. This alternate faking of each fide is praclifed for about 40 days. After this period the outer crufl of the cheefe is pared off, the frefli fur- face is varniflied with linfeed-oil : the convex fide is coloured red, and the cheefe is fie for fale." An- 7iales de Chem'ie. Certain OR LODIAN CHEESE. 535 *' Certain it is that in Peiinfylvania we do not make good cheefes of the Chefhire or Glouceftcr qualities : it is probable however that we could make good Parinefan. That we lliould fail in the inferior, and yet fucceed in the fuperior may feera ftrange, but the probability arifes from the circuraflance that Pennfylvania better agrees in climate with the country of the fuperior, the northern diviiion of Italy, than wieh the country of the inferior, England. Of this truth, there cannot be a better teilimony than what is laid in a volume of Young's Annals, by Zanga, lefldent in London, from the court of Turin, that the wheat harved of the INIilancfe, where the Par- mefan cheefes are made, comes on about the twenty- lixth of June, but a week before that of Pennfylvania; whereas the harvefl: of England begins in no part earlier than Auguft, and continues northerly through all the autumnal months. And from greater refemblance in climate may we not infer the greater refemblance in the animal and vegetable productions ? It is moreover a philofophical opinion that the natu- ral produces of a warmer, are generally more highly con- cofted and matured, than tliofe of a colder climate. And in fa^t, by a curious analyfis lately made at Paris, of twenty-two pounds of the v/hcat of dilterent coun- tries, that feparable portion of the grain, which is the alimentary principle, abounded more in that of the Pennfylvania 536 RECEIPT FOR THE PARMESAN, ScC. Pennfylv^ania growth than in the reft, one of them ex- cepted ; that one fharing with it, the principle in an equal degree : And the London bakers have difccver- cd that the American flour goes conCderably further in the making of bread than the Englifh. As favourable to this general opinion, it has been affirmed in Devon {hire that the beef of the French cattle, which have been fometimes brought over into that country for the breed, is more efleemed there than their own. And that great traveller, whom Mr, Gibbon wifhed had vifited every quarter of the earth, thought, w^hen here a few years lince, that American beef had more nutriture flill than that of his own country, France. From thefe confiderations and afluraed fa£h I ven- ture to Tend you for infertion in the intended new edition of your very ufeful book, a receipt for making the Parmefan cheefe, recommended beyond all others, from the celebrated work in which it is found, the AnnaJci de Chcmie conducted by Cbaptal, and wherein the directions are minutely plain and may be very eafily followed. it is hardly worth noticing that without fome ac- companying obfervations, as affording the probable grounds of fuccefs, no experiments whatever may be cxpefted to be made from the receipt.'* Explanation "^ Library N. C. Stiite College INSERT FOLDOUT HERE INSERT FOLDOUT HERE Explanation of the Cuts. PLATE I. A Farm-yard, homeftead and buildings ; explained in the work, page 74 to 76. PLATE IL Fi 53^ a propofed ftate fociety of . 356 American crops . . , . 29 to 48 Appoitionment of the expenfes and value of crops 190 Apricot trees made to bear fruit , . . 509 Arms and ammunition, the means of obtaining them at home .... 259 Afles, feveral kinds . , . , 469 Attentions Ingrolfed by tobacco, injure hufban- dry in general .... 155 Aquamaque bean, a manure • . . 46 Ages of cattle and ftock . . . 131 B. Bacon, its weight, green and cured . . 405 cured a la Pocock . . . 404, 406 fmokcd in a houle . . . 78 Barley, common feed for horfes in Afia and Egypt 1 34. Barns in Pcnnfylvania, their form . . ibid, propofed on aiiother defign . . 85 Baths and bathing highly beneficial . 296 to 299 Beans, feeded with a fimple drill . . 99 in a fallow crop . . . 35 to 4» dwarf and runners . . . ibid. American, their qualities . • 44 N n INDEX FASE. Beaos, diflance of rows in a fallow crop . r» Beds of wheat, how made . . • oc, 21? better than ridges . . , 214 lying north and fouth or eail and weft . 219 Beef, pickled . . . , 404. according to Pocock , . . ibid. dried for fiamily \ife . . . . 406 to barrel, for the market . , •437 do. in hot weather . . . 440 falted hot, by Admiral Knowles . . 442 Beer, in a folid (late, to be diffidved^occaflqnally . 425 homebrewed recommended . . 74 tripartite brewing, an cafy method . 326 ^es, in lateral boxes .... 84 ^fnni oil, from Sefamum . . . , ijSo Bilcuit, to make .... 407, l^des of naaize, boldly ftripped off . . ^107 Bpiling houfe . . . . . 8i. Bramble, a valuable and lingular plant . 489 fence . . . . ibid. Bread, to make and bake . . . 409 called handy-cake, or potafb . . 411 59 little and frequent . . 58 quantity from cattle in a yard . 6§ how faved by Bakewell . . 66 to be unceaflngly applied . • 68 INDEX. fAGE. Manure, from compofls at headlands . . 454 from gypfum certified by many farmers 344 to 355 from powdered limeftone and gypfum, by Chancellor Livingfton . • 484 how it operates . . . 238 try various fubflances on various foils . 58 from turf-dykes . . . 240 Manurings, fyftematically recurring . . 9 Marble table for butter . . . 275 Marl, fcarcc — of trying what prefents . . 64 Meadows, become cheap from field culture of clover 3 1 for feven years, during annual crops in rotation . . . $c, 56 Meal, the annual expenditure by (lock . • ^3 Meat, kept frefli a year . . . 437 a method of faking and curing in England . 461 method according to Pocock . . 404 MelafTes to purify • . . • 460 MefTes, for labouring people . . 339 ^P 34^ Milk, quantity and quality of Suffolk, Bakewell and China cows . . . 163 quantity alone not evidence of good cows . 168 Milkhoufe . . . . • 7 8 Mills for thrafhing wheat . . . 511 Morals of a people injured by a fudden influx of property, motto . . 402, 532 Moth-fly in wheat . . . . 241 N. Ncceflaries, the beft prodaft of land . • 224 Notes and intimations . . * 4^* INDEX. o. PAGE. Oats, unknown in Afia and Egypt . . 134. Oil of fefamiim or benni, its qaalities . 160 of caftor, how to make . . . 446 cake, a great fattener of flock . . 1 60 Okra, its ciiltiire and xifes . . . 528 Orchards, precarious in giving fruit . . 74 to manure and prune . . 436 cultivated on improved principles . 497 Orchard-grafs, its qualities . . . 12 the bell companion to clover . 13 the feed precarious in faving it : gather it whilft yet greenifh . 49 Oxen, their expsnfe and profit . . . 5 profitable when worked in hamefs . 131,132 P. Painting on plaftered walls with linfeed tea or fpirit of turpentine, inHiead of oil . . 465 Palma-chrifti, two forts — how caftor oil is made of the bluifli plant .... 446 Parmefan or Lodian cheefe . . 533^° 53^ Paftures, in England, are made . . 142 in America, are fpontaneous . 143 Pafluring cattle, advantages and difadvantages 142 to 147 inferior to foiling . . 121, 144. Pauf)€rs, of governing them . . 465 Peach trees, to preferve . . . 507 Peas, the garden forts, for fallow crops . 38, 44 the American, their qualities . . 44 Pickle for meat and fifh . . 404, 414 Pigeon-houfe, fize and form • • • 79 I N D E «. r.\cc. Pigs, their food, offal of dairies . . 78, i88 Plantations of trees . . . .523 Plants, whether beft to tranlplant or not . 4C0 Plafter of Paris, fee gypfum Plows, the importance of the form of mould boards 47 1 with two Ihares . . . ^jz double mould-boards, important . 104, 105 Plowing, fee horfehoing fields yearly extirpates weeds . 2 1 in wheat, and harrowing in . ,216 Pocock's family pickle . . . . 404 Pointing, roofs and leaks in houfes . . 396 Pokemely, a Ruffian pickle . . . j.20 Pompion diet . . , . , 341 Pork, kept frefh a year . . . 4^7 pickle by Pocock . . , 404 Poft and rails, deficient in fences . . gj Potafti bread . . . . .411 Potatoes, yield a fpirit . . . 321 planted in the ftep of maize . . 40 faving them in the field . . 4^6 the crop, how fupcrior to wheat . 160 quantity expended by ftock . . 63 beft planted in June . . . ji Pottages, a fattening food . . . 1S9 Pottery and glazing, their defeheat fown In beds and ridges ; harrowed in and plowed in ; rolling wheat ; reaping . ^ . . 259, 268 cut early, it'tliraflies out beft by the mill 512 fown with rye mixed or bordered prevents ruft 487 its enemies, the moth and the Heffian-fly . 243 beft foviTi-in clufters . . 95 to 97 average produftion per acre . . qo bow fecured agalnft the moth-fly ^ . 241 ViTieel-barrows having two wheels . . 81 T^Tiite-wafhing preferred for country houfes . 465 Willows, propofed in fwamps « , . 425 Wine, not generally an article of crop . . 244 Wood, how to feafon it . . .458 impenetrable by water . . 459 Y. Yeaft, called Lettfom's . . . 444 of potatoes .... 445 of Perfia .... ibid. Gypfum, experienced by farmers to be a manure 484 fails on land rich, wet, or that is near the fea , . . 486, 487 ERRATUM. Page ^6, for bare earthen foots — read, on bare paved Jloors.