®Itp i. 1. litU ICtbrarii North (tarohua g>tatf llntDprBttg Forestry 3D39-7 P55 "'" 1-6 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE DATE INDICATED BELOW AND IS SUB- JECT TO AN OVERDUE FINE AS POSTED AT THE CIRCULATION DESK. f-lwl SEP 2 9 200J ■4-1988- APR 2 6 199T MAR 1 ■\19|b FEB 1 4 199^ 1 1 tS94 N0VJ^,5 1995 JUL 15 1996 OCT 3 ^m '4AIi 21139? m Bulletin' No. 1?^ (Revised Edition). U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DIVISION OF FORESTRY. ^OT/l^y ^^bbary XH K TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. By CHARLES MOHR, Ph. D. T0GKTH7iR WITH A DISCUSSION OF THE STRUCTURE OF THEIR WOOD. By FILIBERT ROTH. PRKIARF.n UNDliR TlIK UIRKCTION OK 1!. K. FERNOW, CHIEF OK THE DIVISION OF FORESTRY. WASlIINGTON: GOVERNMENT pRINTING OFFICE. 1S9T. s Bulletin No. 13 (Revised Edition) U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 1 H E TIMBER FINES OF THE SOrTIIERN FNITEO STATES. By CHARLES MOHR, Ph. D. TOGETHKR WITH A DISCUSSION OF THE STRUCTURE OF THEIR WOOD. By FILIBERT ROTH. PREPARED VNDER THE DIRECTION OE B. E. FERNOW, CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF FORESTRY. WASHINGTON: G O V E R N JI K N T PRINTING O F F I CI E . 1 S 9 7 . LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Washington, D. C, November 1, 1897.- Sir: I have tlie honor to submit herewith for publication a revised and enlarged edition of a series of luonograplis on the live pines of economic importance in the Southern L'nited States, a result of many years' study by Dr. Charles Molir, the well-known authority on the botany of the Southern States, and agent of the Division of Forestry. The first draft of these monographs was prepared several years ago, but it was then found that in order to make them fully satisfactory and useful to the practitioner much additional infor- mation was needed, especially regarding the rate of growth and other sylvicultural as well as technological questions. This information has been gradually accumulated as our facilities have permitted. The extended investigations carried on in this division may be considered quite exhaustive, at least in regard to the mechanical properties of the wood of the.se pines. An interesting chapter on the wood structure by Mr. Filibert Eotli has been added, and a compar- ative study of the economic, sylvicultural, and technical characteristics and value of the pine.s under consideration— a resume, as it were, of the contents of the monographs— is to be found in the introduction by the writer. Advantage has been taken of the opportunity afforded by a call for a second edition to carefully revise the text of the monographs and record in additional notes results of new investi- gations. During the early summer of 1897, Mr. Filibert Eoth made an exhaustive study of several localities in the territory of the Southern Pines, and his observations, so far as they supplement the excellent \^ork of Dr. Mohi-, are embodied in brief notes at the end of each monograph. Mr. Eoth has also contributed a short sketch of the Pond Pine, which was found to be of greater economic importance than had been known. The cordial reception which was accorded this bulletin, and the large demand which has made this second edition necessary, are a source of great gratification to those interested in its preparation, and show an increasing appreciation of the great economic value of our forest resources on the part of the public. The pineries of the South furnish now, or will in the near future, the most important staples of our lumber industry. According as they are treated, carefully or wastefuUy, they will continue for a longer or shorter time to be a wealth-producing resource of the South. To aid in securing a true conception of the extent, condition, and value of this resource, and of the nature, development, and characteristics (botanical, sylvicultural. and technological) of these pines, these monographs have been written, with the hope of inducing rational forestry methods in their use and reproduction. Respectfully, B. E. Fernow, Chief of Division, Hon. James Wilson, Secretiiry of Ayricidlure. CONTEXTS. Introdnctiou. By B. E. Feuxow Botanical diagnosis of the four principal pinus occmiug in the : Xoinenclatiire of Southern pines. Characteristics of the wood of Southern pines Mechanical properties Relation of strength to weight Weight relations '^^^ ^'^ Distriliution of weight and strength thro'ugliout the tree 15 Effect of age 17 Range of values for weight and strength 18 Influence of locality '. 18 Influence of moisture 19 Weight and moisture 20 Shrinkage 20 Effect of "boxing," or "bleeding'" 21 Use of the wood , 21 Rate of gro w th 22 Statistics and conclusions , 23 The Longleaf Pino (Pinna pat uxtris Miller). By Ch.vri.ks .Mohu, Ph. D 27 Introductory 29 Historical 29 Geographical distribution 30 Characteristics of distribution in difl'erent regions 30 Timber regions — supply and production 31 The Atlantic pine region 3.1 The maritime pine belt of the eastern Half region . 3(5 The central pine belt of Alabama 41 The forests of Longleaf Pine in north Alabama 11 The region of Longleaf Pine west of the Mississippi 44 Products If) Value and uses of the wood 46 Resinous products of the Longleaf Pine 48 Products obtaiued from the leaves of Longleaf Pine 48 Nomenclature and classification 48 Botanical description and morphology 48 Root, stem, and branch system 49 Leaves and their modificalioiis 49 Floral organs 51 Seeds 51 The wood 53 Growth and development 55 Conditions of development / 60 Demands upou soil and climate liO Associated species 61 Enemies 61 Exploitation 61 Fires 62 Live stock 62 Storms 62 Fungi 63 Insects 1 63 b CO>'TENTS. The Longleaf Pine (PinMsjjn^Ksin's Miller). By Ciiaiu.es Mohu, Ph. I). — C'ontinueit. ranc. Natural reproduction 61 Forest management 64 Conclusion 66 Appendix.— The naval store industry 67 Kcsiii, or crude turpentine 67 Spirits of turpentine, or oil of turpentine (i7 Rosiu, or colophony 6S Pine tar 6S Common pitch 68 Historical remarks 68 Turpentine orcharding in the forests of Longleaf Pine 69 Distillation 70 Cost of establishing a plant and working the crops 71 Eftects of the production of naval stores upon the timber, the life of the tree, and the conditions of the forest 71' Longleaf Pine in highlands 7". Additional notes on Longleaf Pine. By Filihekt Koth 74 The Cuban Pino {rinus helero2)hylla (Ell.) Sudw.). By Ciiarlks Mohr, Ph. 1) 77 Introductory 7Si Geographical distribution ^ 7Si Products 80 Resinous jjrodncts 80 Classification and nomenclature 80 Description and morphological characters 81 Flowers 81 The wood 83 Progress of development 8.i Requirements for development 88 Soil 88 Additional notes on Cuban Pine. By Filibert Roth 89 The Shortleaf Pine (Phius echiiiata Miller). By Chaules Moiir, Ph. D on 101 Leaves 101 Flowers 10 1 Cones _. 103 Seed 103 The wood 103 Progress of development 104 Conditions of development 107 Soil and climate 107 Relation to light and associated species 108 Enemies 108 Forest management 1 1 Additional notes on Shortleaf Pine. By Filihert Roth lU The Loblolly Pine [riniia tada Linn.). By Charles Mohr, Ph. D 113 Introduction 115 Historical ll,-. Geographical distribution and economic history lid Products 119 Value and uses of the wood 119 Resinous products 120 Nomenclature and classification IL'I Botanical description and morphology 121 Root, stem, and branch system 121 Leaves 123 Floral organs 123 The wood 125 Progress of development 126 Rate of growth 126 CONTENTS. 7 The Loblolly Pine (Pinm luda Lhiu.)- By CllAHLEs Moiiu, Ph. D.— Coutinued. Page. Conditions of developmeut 129 Soil and climate 129 Relation to light and associated species 130 Enemies .' 130 Natural reproduction 131 Conclusion 132 Additional notes on Loblolly Pine. By Filibert Roth 133 The Spruce Pine (Piiuis glabra Walt.). By Charles Mohr, Ph. D 135 Introductory 137 Historical 137 Distribution 137 Economic importance 137 Botanical description 138 Progress of development 139 Enemies 140 Requirements of development 140 Notes on the structure of the wood of live Southern pines (I'iiiun jxilittris, heta-nphyUa, echinata, iada, and glabra). By Filibert Roth 141 Sap and heartwood 143 Annual rings , 144 Spring and summer wood 146 Grain of the wood .' 148 Miunte anatomy 148 Observations on the Marsh or Pond Pine (/'iHws S(TO■ II h liii^e of flesh color. Bro:id, 1 Abuiiii I I i,-Uling more pitch than ln:,_.: ,: M,. ,,!,■■ freely, yielding little .-,11. .lie. Cha; ■voud. pounds per cubic foot, Isiln-drieil iiverage. r of grain seen in cross section y variable: medium coarse; rings 'n jar heart, followed by zone of nar: ngs: not less than 4 (mostly about li i 15) rings to the inch, hut often very t Color, general appearance "WTiitish to reddish-brown Sapwood, proportion I Commonly over 4 inches of radius Kesin I iloilerately abundant, least pitchy ; only r stumps, knots, and limbs. i Yellowish to reddish and orange brown. Very variable. '^ to 6 inches of the radius. Abundant; more than Shortleaf, less than Lougleaf and Cuban. 14 TIMBliK PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. It is clear from the above diagnosis that Longleaf IMue may be distiuguished from Cuban Pme by its liner grain and small amount of sapwood ; also that both of these differ from the Shortleaf and Loblolly in their gieater weight and the more resinous character of their wood, but that the wood of the two last-named species is rarely distinguishable beyond doubt. Technically the wood of the pines differs about as follows : The wood of the Longleaf and Cuban pines are about equal in strength, Longleaf excelling by its finer grain and smaller amount of sapwood. The same comparison may be made with regard to Loblolly and Shortleaf Pine. Being much more variable, however, in weight and grain, exceptions to the general rule here are very numerous. Of the last-named species it may be said that the wood derived from more southern localities is generally heavier and stronger than northern grown — a fact especially apparent in the case of the Shortleaf Pine. The extensive investigations carried on l)y the Division of Forestry during the last three to four years mainly on these pines permit us to give the following rusumc^ of their mechanical properties derived from not less than 20,000 tests and as many measurements and weighings. We quote this information Irom Circular 12 of the division : JIECHANIOAL PROl'EUTIES. In general the wood of all these pines is heavy for pine (31 to -10 pounds per cubic foot, when dry), soft to moderately hard (hard for pine), requiring about 1,000 pounds per square inch to indent one-twentieth inch; stiff', the modulus of elasticity being from 1,500,000 upward; strong, requiring from 7,000 pounds per square inch and upward to break in bending and over 5,000 pounds in compression when yard-dry. The values here given are averages based on a large number of tests fiom which only defective pieces are excluded. In all cases where the contrary is not stated the weight of the wood refers to kiln-dried material and the strength to wood containing 15 per cent moisture, which may be conceived as just on the border of air-dried condition. The first table gives fairly well the range of strength of commercial timber. Jverage sireiigih of Southern Pine. [Air-dry material (about 15 per cent moisture).] Compre.ssion strength. Bending strength. .5 g g s I .a f 1 5 With grain. Across (fpe'r in'deuta- "s^'iiare"' At rupture modulus 1^'. 1 At elastic' Elasticity limit 1 (stillness) modulus modulus 3 W,i 3 W!3 rm \ TESh^ per square persq^uare Selative 1 Name. Average of all valid tests. Average for tlie weakest one-tenth ofall the tests. 1 Average Average of all for the weakest valid tests. one-tenth of all the tests. 1^ cl£ inch. f Absolut*, per Rela- tive. Absolute, per Eela- sjiuare tive. Absolute, per Kela-^^^pr^-Kela- tive. square , live. ; inch. 1 Cuban Pine.... Longleaf Pine . Loblolly Pine.. Shortleaf Pine. rounds. 7,S50 6,850 6,500 5,900 100 87 83 75 Pounds. 6,500 1 100 5,650 ] 87 5,3ijl' 82 4,800 74 Fmmds. 1,050 1,060 990 040 Pounds. 11,950 10. 900 10,100 9,230 Pounds. 100 8,750 91 8,800 84 I 8, 100 77 \ 7,000 100 101 92 80 Pounds. 9,450 8,500 8,150 7,200 Pounds. 2, 305, COO i;890;000 1,950,000 1, 600, 000 Pounds. 2.5 2; 25 2.05 Lbs. Lbs. 14. 300 680 15, 200 706 14.400 690 13, 400 688 RELATION OF STRENGTH TO WEIGHT. The intimate relation of strength and specific weight has been well established by the experl- lents. The average results obtained in connection with the tests themselves were as follows: Cuban. Longleaf. Loblolly. Shortleaf. Transverse stren 'tU 100 100 91 »1 94, S2 77 77 WEIGHT RELATIONS. 15 Since, in the determination of the specific gravity above given, wood of the same per cent of moistnre (as is the case in the values of strength) was not always involved, and also since the test pieces, owing to size and shape, can not perfectly represent the wood of the entire stem, the following results of a special inquiry into the weight of the wood represents probably more accurately the weight and with it the strength relations of the four species. /rhese data refer to the average spccitic WEIGHT RELATIONS. ' all the wood of each tree, onl.v tl f approximately the same age being involved.] Cuban. Longleaf. Loblolly. Shortleaf. NuS.^^II^^iv^;::::::;::;:;;::;:^';!!!;; 171 6 0.63 39 ion ,100, 127 22 0.61 ^9? (91) 137 0.53 33 84 (84) 131 10 81 (77, Weight per cu\.ic foot pounds.. Eelativo weight From these results, although slightly at variance, we are justified in concluding that Cuban and Longleaf Pine are nearly alike in strength and weight and excel Loblolly and Shortleaf by about 20 per cent. Of these latter, contrary to common belief, the Loblolly is the heavier and stronger. The weakest material would dift'er from the average material in transverse strength by about 20 per cent, and in compression strength by about 30 to 35 per cent, except Cuban Tine, for which the diflerence appears greater in transverse and smaller in compression strength. It must, of course, not be overlooked that these figures are obtained from full-grown trees of the virgin forest, that strength varies with physical conditions of the material, and that tberefore an intelligent iiisi)ection of the stick is always necessary before applying the values in practice. They can only represent the average conditions for a large amount of material. DISTKIBCTION OF WEIGHT AND STRENGTH THROUGHOUT U'ciyht and strength of wood at different heiyhts in the tree. Strength of Longleaf Pine (pounds per square inch). Specific weight. Mean of all Relative strength of Lon.'leaf Bending strength. Compres- sion endwise (with grain). Longleaf. Loblolly. Shortleaf. (relative "J™?^; weight,. P--- bending,. 56 22 14 127 113 'l2 48 56 Number of feet from atanip : .751 lOG .705 100 .674 96 .624 89 .590 .560 80 .539 .528 75 .629 296- .596 100 .578 .534 90 .508 .491 83 .476 80 .470 79 7,350 100 7,200 6,800 9i 6,300 86 m .585 100 .565 .513^ m .490 .472 • SJ .455 78 .454 78 100 100 :n 90 85 81 77 6 12, 100 11,650 90 10, 700 10,1^5 9,500 9,000 100 97 90 79 76 20 30 50 11 ss XoTE.— Relative values arc indicated by italic flgu 16 TIM15ER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. Ill any one tree the wood is lighter and weaker as we pass from the base to the top. This is true of everj- tree and of all four species. The decrease in weight and streiis'tli is most prououuced in the first 20 feet from the stump and grows smaller upward. (See lig. 1.) 49.6 Feet frOTti Stump. This great difference in weight and strength between butt and top finds explanation in the relative width of the summerwood. Since the specific weight of the dark summerwood band in each ling is in thrifty growth fiom 0.90 to 1, while that of the siu'ingwood is only about 0.40, the relative amount of summerwood furnishes altogether the most delicate and accurate measure of these differences of weight as well as strength, and hence is the surest criterion for ocular iusi)ection of quality, especially since this relation is free from the disturbing influence of both resin and moisture contents of the wood, so conspicnous in weight determinations. The following figures show the distribution of the summerwood iu a single tree of Longleaf Pine, as an examjjle of this relation: In the 10 ringa next to the bark. In the 10 1 rings Nos.^vsrogo for 100 to 110 iTutllediak. from bark. : Specific weight. . Percent. 37 25 15 Per«„.|P»rc^«.^i ^ ^^ ^ 37 ' 20 ' .55 EFFECT OF AGE. 17 Logs froiii t1io to]) fan usually be recognized by the larger percentage of sapwood and the smaller pro))i)rtion and more legular outlines of the bands of suninierwood, which are more or less wavy in the butt logs. Both weight and strength vary in the different parts of the same cross sectiou from center to periph- ery, and though the variatious appear frequently irregular in single individuals, a definite law of rela- tion is 7ieverthelessdisceiniblein large averages, and once determined is readily observable in every tree. A separate inquiiy, avoiding the many variables which enter into the mechanical tests, permits the fol- lowing deductions for the wood of tliese pines, and especially for Longleaf; the data referring to weight, but by inference also to strength: 1. The variation is greatest iu the butt log (the heaviest part) and least iu the top logs. 2. The variation in weight, he^lce also in strength, from center to jieripheiy depends on the rate of growth, the heavier, stronger wood being formed dur- ing the period of most ra|)id growth, lighter and weaker wood in old age. 3. Aberrations from the normal growth, due to unusual seasons and other disturbing causes, cloud the uniformity of the law of variation, thus occasion- ally leading to the foiniation of heavier, broad-ringed wood in old, and lighter narrow-ringed wood in young trees. 4. Slow-growing trees (with narrow rings) do not make less- heavy, nor heavier wood than thriftily grown trees (with wide rings) of the same age. (See fig. 2.) EFFECT OF ACiE. The interior of the butt log, representing the young sapling of less than fifteen or twenty years of age, and the central portion of all logs containing the pith and two to five rings adjoining, is always light and weak. The heaviest wood iu Longleaf and Cuban Pine is formed between the ages of fifteen and one hundred and twenty years, with a specific weight of over (t.OO and a maximum of 0.66 to_0.68, between the ages of forty and sixty years. The wood formed at the age of about one hundred years will have a specific weight of 0.02 to O.fJ'J, which is also the average weight for the entire wood of old trees; the wood formed alter this age is lighter but does not fall below 0.r)0 up to the two hundredth year: the strength varies in the same ratio. In the shorter-lived Loblolly and Shortleaf the period for the formation of t' e heaviest wood is between the ages of fifteen and eighty, the average weight then being over 0.50, with a maximum of 0.57 at the age of thirty to forty. The average weight for old trees (0.51 to 0.52) lies about the seventy-fifth year, the weight then falling off" to about 0.45 at the age of one hundred and forty, and continuing to decrease to below 0.3S, as the trees grow older. 25006— No. 13—02 2 '■ W/!/ZOA/rAi ^///^///V. i. 2 — Schematic section through stem of Longltaf I' luivviiig variation of specific weight with height, diame lul age at twenty (aio), sixty (dcd), one hundred and twe nee), and two hundred (fj'fS) years. 18 TIMBER FINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. That these statements refer only to the clear portions of each log, and are variably affected at each whorl of knots (every 10 to 30 inches) according to their size, and also by the variable amounts of resin (up to 20 per cent of the dry weight), must be self-evident. Sapwood is not necessarily weaker than heartwood, only usually the sapwood of tlie large- sized trees we are now using is represented by the narrow ringed outer part, which was formed during the old-age period of growth, when naturally lighter and weaker wood is made; but the wood formed during the more thrifty diameter growth of the first eighty to one hundred years — sapwood at the time, changed into heartwood later — was even as sapwood the heaviest and strongest. KANGE OF VALUES FOR WEIGHT AND STRENGTH. Although the range of values for the individual tree of any given species varies from butt to top, and from center to periphery by 15 to -*5 per cent, and occasionally more, the deviation from average values from one individual to another is not usually as great as has been believed; thus, of 56 trees of Longleaf Pine, 42 trees varied in their average strength by less than 10 per cent from the average of all 56. The following table of weight (which is a direct and fair indication of strength), representing all the wood of the stem and excluding knots and other defects, gives a more ijerfect idea of the range of these values: X Jinnye of specific weiyhl willi age (kilii-drled tvood). [To avoiil fractions the values are multiplieil by 100,] Cuban. Longleaf. Loblolly. Shortleaf. 24 61 63 96 57 59 60.5 62 61 55 60 56 Trees one hundred and fifty to two hundred years old. . . . 50 53.4 53 iS 51 55 57 53 61 55 51 Though occasionally some very exceptional trees occur, especially in Loblolly and Shortleaf, the range on the whole is generally within remarkably narrow limits, as appears from the following table : Itanye of specific weight in trees of the same age approximately; averages for whole trees. [Specflc gravity multiplied by 100 to avoid fractions.] Name. Number Age, oftrees. 1 years. Single trees. Average. Cuban Pine ! J S 150-200 50-100 100-150 125-150 100-150 56 68 60 58 59 66 51 51 45 ; 47 62 65 1 1 62.5 60.9 60.5 52.8 50.8 60 59 .57 62 53 51 53 47 .::::::: 66 58 55 53 50 51 55 67 'S* 55 5S 55 53 66 ; 59 1 62 52 '• ' 57 Loblollv Piue Shortleaf Pine 51 50 i 63 From this table it would appear that single individuals of one species would approximate single individuals of another species so closely that the weight distinction seems to fail, but in large numbers — for instance, carloads of material — the averages above given will prevail. INFLUENCE OF LOCALITY. In both the Cuban and Longleaf Pine the locality wliere grown appears to have but little influence on weight or strength, and there is no reason to believe that the Longleaf Pine from one State is better than that from any other, since such variations as are claimed can be found on any 40-acre lot of timber in any State. But with Loblolly, and still more with Shortleaf, this seems not to be the case. Being widely distributed over many localities different in soil and climate, the growth of the Shortleaf Pine seems materially influenced by location. The wood from the Southern coast and Gulf region and even Arkansas is generally heavier than the wood from localities farther north. Very light and finegrained wood is seldom met near the southern limifof the range, while it is almost the rule in Missouri, where forms resembling the Norway Pine are by no means rare. The Loblolly, occupying both wet and dry soils, varies accordingly. INFLUENCE OF MOISTURE ON STRENGTH. 19 INFLUENCE OF MOISTURE. This influence is among the most important, hence all tests have been made with due regard to moisture conteuts. Seasoned wood is stronger than green and moist wood ; the difference between green and seasoned wood may amount to 50 and even 100 per cent. The influence of seasoning consists in (1) bringing by means of shrinkage about 10 per cent more libers into the same square inch of cross section than are contained in the wet wood; (2) shrinking the cell wall itself by about 50 per cent of its cross section and thus hardening it, just as a cowskin becomes thinner and harder by drying. In the following tables and diagram this is fully illustrated; the values presented in these tables and diagrams are based on large numbers of tests and are fairly safe for ordinary use. They still require further revision, since the relations to density, etc., have had to be neglected in this study. Influence of laohtiire on alreiiglh. ce^nTof mois- ture. Average of all valid te at 3. Relative values. Cuban. ■Zf: Lob- lolly. ^K- Cuban. Long, leaf. Lob. lolly. Short- leaf. Aver- BeodiDg strength: IV 13 10 33+ 20 15 10 33+ 20 15 10 8,450 7,660 8,900 7,370 8.650 10, 100 12,400 4,170 5,350 6,500 8", 650 6,900 8,170 9,230 11, 000 siloo 5,900 7,000 100 118 142 181 100 132 157 184 100 125 149 182 100 116 142 182 100 122 154 206 100 119 148 194 100 117 138 168 100 128 156 206 , 100 122 147 187 100 118 134 160 100 122 142 168 100 120 138 104 Yard dry . . 139 Cnishing endwise: 5,000 6,600 7,850 9,200 4,J50 5,450 6,830 9,200 Half drv 126 Tauid?^::::::::::::::;::::::::::::::;;:::::::::: Mean of both''i)endiDg and ciushiui: strength : Yard drv ' 146 Koom div 182 1 It will be observed that the strength increases by about 50 per cent in ordinary good yard seasoning, and that it can be increased about 30 per cent more by complete seasoning in kiln or house. Large timbers require several years before even the yard-seasoned condition is attained, but 2-inch and lighter material is generally not used with more than 15 per cent of moisture. 20 TIMBF.K PINES OF THE SoUTllEKX UNITED STATES. WEIGHT AND MOISTXTRE. 8(1 far tlie weight of only the kihidry wood has been considered. In fresli as well as all yard anil air dried material there is contained a variable amount of water. The amount of water contained in fresh wood of these pines forms more than half the weight of the fresh sapwood, and about one-fifth to one-fourth of the heartwood. In yard-dry wood it falls to about 12 to 18 per cent, while in wood kept in well-ventilated, and especially in heated rooms it is about 5 to 10 l)er cent, varying with size of piece, i)art of tree, species, temperature, and humidity of air. Heated to 150° F. (G5^ (J.), the wood loses all but abi)ut 1|^ to 2 per cent of its moisture, and if the temperature is raised to 175° F. there remains less than 1 per cent, the wood dried at 212° F. being assumed to be (though it is not really) perfectly dry. Of course, large pieces are in prac- tice never left long enough exposed to become truly kiln dry, though in factories this state is often api)roached. As long as the water in the wood amounts to about 30 i)er cent or more of the dry weight of the wood there is no shrinkage ' (the water coming from the cell lumen), and the density or specitic gravity changes simply in direct i^roportion to the loss of water. When the moisture per cent falls below abont 30, the water comes from the cell wall, and the loss of water and weight is accom- panied by a loss of volume, so that both factors of the frac- tion Specitic gravity — 1 \ / j -,_,0rSi0^^-^ / 1 1 1 i r w \ U 5 ^m a/rr im« r->y .(- 2 33-t weight volume arc affected, and the change in the specific gravity no lon- ger is simply proportional to the loss of water or weight. The loss of weight and vol- ume, however, being unequal and disproportionate, a marked reduction of the specific grav- ity takes place, amounting in these ]>ines to about S to 10 i^er cent of the specitic weight of the dry wood. SHRINKAGE. The behavior of the wood of the Southern i)ines in shrink- age does not differ materially. Generally the heavier wood shrinks the most, and sapwood °"""""'*' shrinks about one fourth more than heartwood of the same specific weight. Very resinous pieces ("light wood"') shrink much less than other wood. In keeping with these general facts, the shrinkage of the wood of the upper logs is usually 15 to 20 per cent less than that of the butt pieces and the shrinkage of the heavy heartwood of old trees is greater than that of the lighter peripheral parts of the same, while the shrinkage of the heavy wood of saplings is greatest of all. On the whole, the wood of these pines shrinks about 10 per cent in its volume — 3 to 4 per cent along the radius and to 7 per cent along the tangent or along the yearly rings. After leaving the kiln the wood at once begins to absorb moisture and to swell. In an experiment with short pieces of loblolly and shortleaf, representing ordinary flooring or siding ' lu oitlinary lumber anil all large size material the exterior parts commonly ilry so much sooner than the bulk of the stick that checking often occurs though the moisture per cent of the whole stick is still far above 30. Fio. 4.— Diagram USE OF THE WOOD. 21 sizes, these regained more than half the water and underwent over half the total swelling during tlie first ten days after leaving the kiln (see tig. 4). P^ven in this less than air dry wood the changes in weight far excel the changes iu volume (sum of radial and tangential swelling), and, therefore, the specific gravity even at this low per cent of moisture was decreased by drying and increased by subsequent absorption of moisture. Immersion and, still more readily, boiling cause the wood to return to its original size, but temperatures even above the boiling point do not prevent the wood from " working," or shrinking and swelling. In fig. -i are represented the results of experiments on the rate of loss of water iu the dry kiln and the reabsorption of water iu the air. The wood used was of Loblolly and Shortleaf Pine kept on a shelf in an ordinarj^ room before and after kiln drying. The measurements were made with caliper. EFFECT OF "BOXINCt,'' OR "BLEEDING-." "Bleeding" pine trees for their resin, to which chiefly Longleaf and Cuban Pine are subjected, has generally been regarded as injurious to the timber. Both durability and strength, it was claimed, were impaired by this process, and in the specifications of many architects and large con- sumers, such as railway companies, "bled" timber was excluded. Since the utilization of resin is one of the leading industries of the South, and siuce the process affects several milUons of dollars' worth of timber every year, a special investigation involving mechanical tests, physical and chem- ical analyses of the wood of bled and unbled trees from the same locality were carried out by this division. The results prove conclusively (1) that bled timber is as strong as unbled if of the same weight; (2) that the weight and shrinkage of tlie wood is not affected by bleeding; (3) that bled trees contain practically neither more nor less resin that unbled trees, the loss of resin referring only to the sapwood, and therefore the durability is not affected by the bleeding process. The following table shows the remarkable numerical similarity between the average results for three groups of trees, the higlier values of the bled material being readily explained by the difl'ereuce iu weight: Specific jei^Uof Unboxeti trees Boxed ami rec:eutly abaudoned .. Boxed aud abaudoned five years. Bending Compression 1 stiengtii sirengih per sq ua re per square inch. I inch. ' Pounds /Vlmds. 12,9fil 7,8i:i 12, 586 7.575 The amount of resin in the wood varies greatly, aud trees growing side by side differ within very wide limits. Sapwood contains but little resin (1 to i per cent), even in those trees in which the heartwood contains abundance. In the heartwood the resiu forms from 5 to 24 per cent of the dry weight (of which about one-sixth is turpentine), aud can not be removed by bleeding, so that its quantity remains unaffected by tlie process. Bled timber, then, is as useful for all purposes as unbled. U8E OF THE WOOD. In its use the wood of all four species is iiuicli alike. The coarse-grained, heavy, resinous forms are especially suited for timbers and ilimcnsion stuff; while the fine-grained wood, whatever species it may belong to, is used for a unnt \:ii iity of jjurposes. At present distinction is but rarely made in the species and in their use; all four species are used much alike, although differentiation is very desirable on account of the difference in quality. Formerly these pines, except for local use, were mostly cut or hewn into timbers, but especially since the use of dry kilns has become general and the .simple oil finish has displaced the unsightly painting and "graining" of wood. Southern iiine is cut into every form and grade of lumber, Xevertheless, a large proportion of the total cut is still being sawed to order in sizes above G by inches aud lengths above 20 feet for timbers, for which the Longleaf and Cuban Pine furnish ideal material. The resinous condition of these two pines make them also desirable tor railway- ties of lasting quality. 22 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED l>TAT£S. Since tbe custom of painting and graining- woodwork has given way to natural grain with oil finish, the wood of these hard pines is becoming very popular for inside finish. Kiln-drying is successfully practiced with all four species, but especially with the Shortleaf and Loblolly pines which, if not artificially seasoned, are liable to "blue." The wood can be dried without great injury rt high temperatures. RATE OF GROWTH. The species naturally develop somewhat differently, according to the soil conditions in which they occur. Without going into a detailed discussion, which will be found in the body of this work under each species, a comparison of the rate of growth of the four species, based on a large number of measurements, gave, for average trees and average conditions, the results shown in the accompanying diagrams (figs. 5 to 7), which permit the determination of the rate of growth at different periods of their life. Fig. 5.— Diagram sho-mng comparative progress of hcigbt groivtli in average trees. From these it appears that the Cuban Pine is by far the most rapid grower, while the Longleaf Pine, which usually grows associated with the former, is the slowest. Loblolly and Shortleaf occupying a position between the two. The Longleaf shows for the first five to seven years hardly any development in height and begins then to grow i-apidly and evenly to the fiftieth or seventieth year, and even after that period, though the rate is somewhat diminished, progresses evenly and steadily, giving to the height curve a smooth and persistent character. The diameter growth shows the same even and persistent progress from the start, and the volume growth also progresses evenly after the rapid height growth rate is passed at seventy years. The Cuban Pine ceases in its maximum rate of height growth at thirty years, starts with its diameter growth at about the rate of the Loblolly, but after the twenty-fifth year leaves the latter STATISTICS AND CO^'CLUSIONS. 23 behind for the next twenty-five to thirty years, then proceeds at about the same rate, but persisting longer than the Loblolly. At the age of fifty years the Cuban Pine with 46 cubic feet has made nearly twice the amount of the Loblolly and more than four times that of the Longleaf, but at one hundred years the difterence is reduced, being then 115, 90, and 55 cubic feet, respectively, for the three species. Both Loblolly and Shortleaf Pine reach their maximum growth sooner than the other two species. While these still show a persisteytly ascending line at one hundred and twenty to cue hundred and forty years, the rate of growth in the Loblolly shows a decline after the one hundredth year, and the Shortleaf has done its best by the eightieth year. These facts give indications as to the rotation under which these various species may be managed. 22 VCA, ^ ^ 20 . ^__ 18 ^ ^^ "^ 16 ^ ^ ? W ^ ^ ^ 14 y^ ^ /( <^' 12 / A V' y V ' 10 / A V ^<^' 8 '/ / y / 6 // / / 4 // V 2/ V i^ 2 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 l( )o i r IQ k 50 140 150 Fig. 6.— Diagram showing oomrarati 1 of diameter growth i As stated before, the growth of trees, especially in the virgin forest, is quite variable even for the same species and same soil conditions; au average, therefore, like the one presented in the diagrams, however perfect, could apply only when large numbers are considered. Thus there are fast-growing trees of Longleaf and slow-growing of Cuban or Loblolly Pine. Yet the diagrams will fairly well represent the average growth, with the possible exception of the Cuban Pine, for which the number of measurements was too small to furnish reliable data. STATISTICS AND CONCLUSIONS. The greatest difiBculty Dr. Mohr has found is in the statistical portions of his work. To deter- mine the amounts of remaining timber supplies of the various species is almost an impossibility without a very elaborate and laborious canvass, which, to be sure, it would appear our duty to 24 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. undertake, but for which tlie means at the disposal of the Division of Forestry have never been sufficieut. Even the amount of annual C(msumi)tion can only be approximated, ]iarlly because the species are not always kept separate and partly because information is not always readily given by the operators or shippers. The statistics for Longleaf Pine can be more nearly aiii)roxinmted, for the majority of tlie mills engaged in its exploitation cut hardly any other timber; moreover, its j;eographical limits are more clearly defined, so that even the area of remaining supplies is not entirely beyond our ken. When it comes to using such statistics for a prognostication as regards available supplies, another difficulty arises in the change of standards of material recognized as marketable and the change of demand or use, and hence consumption, of any of the varieties. But we can now safely assume that the standard of size and quality, which was high when the census figures of ISSO were 120 a^ 110 icSeei / / 110 / / ^ / 90 y / z' y / / flO .■f^ f / / / f / yn A / / / i^ I V SO / /¥ r 4 \f 40 / / / y / / 30 / A y / / 20 / // ^ / / 10 / '^ ^/ ^ y 1 a.^ ^ 4 s 0. ( -7 e s u 11 a i; 14 ) ^ ISO PiQ. 7 — Diagram showing comparative progress of volume groivtb iu average frees. estimated and hence made them appear below the truth, has now sunk nearly to the lowest level, any stick that can be placed on the mill down to 10 inch and .Sinch being fit material. There is also no danger of any reduction in the cut for any reason except a temporary one due to such general business depression as that experienced tlirougliout the last two years. Increase of consumption of Southern timber is bound to follow the imminent exhaustion of the pine supplies of the North. And with the exception of Pacific Coast timbers, which, owing to their great distance, have so far made but little competition in Eastern markets, no new undiscovered timber resouice will influence the cut of Southern pine. Venturing on the basis of the meager data furnished in this publication to make a guess at the probable supply an 1 demand, we may with due reserve state that the amount of pine timber ready for lumber manufacture standing in the South can not be above L'r)(),()00,000,OOU feet, and STATISTICS AND CONCLUSIONS. 25 more likely will fall far below 200,000,000,000 feet, while the figure for present and lowest future annual consumption may be approximated at near 7,000,000,000 feet, board measure.' There is nobody who knows or can kuow the actual condition of supplies, and whoever has an opinion on the subject will have to bring at least as good a basis or a better one for such opinion than the data furnished in the following monographs. There is no attempt to predict from the foregoing figures the absolute exhaustion of the pine supplies of the South within forty or fifty j ears, although such a result would appear not unlikely. Competition of otlier timbers, and substitutes lor the use of wood (which, to be sure, never in the history of the world have reduced wood consumption), and especially changes in i)resent methods of exploitation, may lengthen out supplies for a short time; or, if we begin rational forestry now, these forests may be kept a source of continuous supplies, everi though reduced. Those who rely upon the si)ontaneous natural rejiroduction of these pines to fill the gaps made in the virgin timber will do well to read the chapters on natural reproduction and the incidental remarks regarding the conditions for renewal and the appearance of the aftergrowth ; or, better, tramp through the vast region of culled pine woods and observe what the basis of their reliance is, as the writer of these monographs has done through forty years of his life. If, in addition, they study the chapters on conditions of development, they will realize that the Longleaf Pine is bound to disappear largely even in the regions where it reigned supreme; that the Cuban Pine, no despicable substitute, will take its place in the lower jjine belt, if allowed to propagate at all; but on large burnt areas the growth of scrubby oaks and brush will forever exclude this species which eminently needs light. Loblolly and Shortleaf, better fitted for warfaie with other species, will do much in their respective habitats to recuperate, except in the mixed forest, where they are culled and the hard woods are left to shade out the aftergrowth; or where the continuous conflagrations have destroyed the mold and aftergrowth and given over the soil to scrubby brushgrowth, whu;h for ages will either prevent the gnidual return of the ])ines or impede their renewal and growth. Considering that the timber on which we now rely and on wliich we base our standards comes from trees usually from one hundred and fifty to two liundred years or more old, and that none of these pines makes respectable timber in less than from sixty to one hundred and twenty-five years, the necessity of timely attention to their renewal is further emphasized. The owners of timber land and the operator^. of mills are tlie only peo))le who can improve these conditions, and this by a more rational treatment of their property. If they can be made to realize now that what they own and hold as a temporary speculation will, in a short time, when supplies have visibly decreased, become a first-class investmeut, and, by its revenues, become a greater source of wealth under competent management with a view to reproduction than that which they have derived from it by the mere robbing of the old timber, they might take steps at least against the unnecessary damage done to it by fire and cattle. I'ermanency and continuity of ownership appear to be the first condition to insure such results, and therefore corporations which are not of an ephemeral character and men of large wealth are most desirable forest owners. The monographs here presented will, it is hoped, aid in this realization, and the information regarding the conditions of development of the difl'erent species will furnish suggestions as to the forest management which, modified according to local conditions and economic considerations, may be employed to secure the perpetuity of the Southern pineries. B. E. Fekxow. Washington, D. C, June 5, 1S'j6. ' The entire region within which the sepines in occur merch.nntablo condition comprises ahont 230,000 sqnare miles or, in round nunibtrs, 147,000,000 acres ; for land in farms, etc., 10,000,OCO acres ninst b(! dodncted, and allowing as much as two-thirds of the remainder as representing pine lands (the other to hardwoods'), we would have about 90,000,000 acres on which pine may occur. An average growth (if 3,000 feet per acre, nn extravagant figure when referred to such an area, would make the ]iossible stand 270,000,000,000 feet, provided it was in virgiu condition and not mostly culled or cut. Fig 2.-LONGLEAF Pine Purest after Removal of Merchantable Timber THE LONGLEAF PINE. (PINUS PALUSTRIS Miller.) Geographical Distribution. Products and Uses. Botanical Description. Description of Wood. Progress of Development. Conditions of Development. Forest Management. Appendix: The ^^aval Store Industry. Longleaf Pine in Highlands. Additional Notes on Longleaf Pine. THE LOXOLEAK J^INE. {riinis pahistris Miller.) Syiiiiuynis: Piiiiis ))«/»»()■;< Miller, Gard. Diet., cd. 8, No. 14 (1768). I'iiius liilra Walter, Fl. Car., 237 (1788). riiiiis anstrnlis Michau.x f.. Hist. Arb. Am., i. G4, t. 6 (1810). rUiufi aerotma Hort. Cf. Bou Jard. 976 (1837) ex Antoine, Conif., 23 (1840-'47 I'inui Palmieiiais Fr. Gard. ex Gordon, Pinetum, ed. 1, Suppl., 63 (1862). riling /'(i/mieriMauetti ex Gord., 1. c. (1862). Jlichx. (1803). LOCAL OR COMMON XAMES LoDgleaved Pine (Del., N. C, S.C, Ga., Al:i., Fla., La., Tex.). Southern Pine (N. C, Ala., Miss.. La. ). Yellow Pine (Del., N. C. S. C, Aia., Fla., La., Tex Turiicutine Pine (N. C). Rosemary Pine (N. C). Brown Pine (Tenn.). Hard Pine (Ala., Miss., La.). Georgia Pine (Del.). Fat Pine (Southern States). Southern Yellow Pine (general). Southern Hard Pine (general). Southern Heart Pine (general). Southern Pitch Pine (general). Hiart Pine (N. C. and Southern Atlantic region). 28 Pitch Pine (Atlantic region). Longleaved Yellow Pine (.Ulantic region). Longleaved Pitch Pine (Atlantic region). Long-straw Pine (Atlantic region). North Carolina Pitch Pine (Va., X. C.). Georgia Yellow Pine (Atlantic region). Georgia Pine (general). Georgia Heart Pipe (general i. Georgia Longleaved Pine (Atlantic region). Georgia Pitch Pine (Atlantic region). Florida Yellow Pine (Atlantic region). Florida Pine (A'tlantic region i. Florida Longleaved Pine (Atlantii- region). Texas Yellow Pine (Atlantic region). Texas Longleaved Pine (Atlantic region). THE LONGLEAF PINE. INTKODFCrORY. The Loiiglenf Piiic is tlie tree of widest distribution and of greatest commercial importance in the Southern Athuitic forest region of eastern North America, covering, with scarcely any lnterru])tiou, areas to be measured by tens of thousands of square miles and furnishing useful material. The timber wealth of the forests of Longleaf Pine, much of which is still untouched, has given rise to industries which involve the outlay of vast capital and an extensive employment of labor, thus closely affecting the prosperity of a large part of the Southern States as well as the indus- trial and commercial interests of the whole country. With the impending exhaustion of the pine forests of the North, the lumber interests of the country arc steadily tending to center in the South, attracted chiefly by the forests of Longleaf Pine. The Old World, which has heretofore depended almost entirely upon the pine forests of Canada and of the Northern United States for timber for heavy construction, is already importing a large amount of hewn and sawn square timber and of lumber iiom the Southern pine forests. Most of the lumber used for ordinary building i)urposes in the West Indies, on the coast of Mexico, and in many of the States of South America is furnished by the mills situated in the Longleaf Pine region. The unprecedented increase, during the last quarter of a century, of the population in the timberk'ss regions of the far West, as well as in the country at large, enormously augments the drafts made upon these forests, threatening their eventual exhaustion and ultimate destruc- tion unless measures are taken by which these supplies may be perpetuated. Tlie solution of the difticult problem of devising such measures can come oidy as a result of a study of the life history of the Longleaf Pine, of the conditions required for its growth and best development, of the laws regulating its distribution, and of the possibilities for its natural or artificial restoration. HISTORICAL. The economic importance of the Longleaf Pine was well recognized in early times. Bartram,' in the year 1777, in his wanderings along the western shore of JMobile Bay, had his attention attracted by three very large iron pots, or kettles, each with a capacity of several hundred gallons, near the remains of an old fort or settlement, which he was informed were used for the purpose of boiling down the tar to pitch, there being vast forests of pine in the vicinity of this i)lace. "In Carolina,"' this writer i)roceeds, "the inhabitants pursue a different method. When thejr are going to utake pitch they dig large holes in the ground, which they line with a thick coat of good clay, into which they conduct a sufficient quantity of tar and set it on fire, suiferiiig it to burn and evaporate for some time, in order to convert it into pitch, and when cool, put it into barrels until they have consumed all the tar and made a sufficient quantity of pitch for their purposes." Humphrey ^Marshall, one of the earliest writers on North American forest trees,' mentions the Longleaf Pine under the name of the "largest three leaved marsh pine, as accounted equal to any for its resinous products." In North Carolina crude resin, tar, and pitch figured as important and valuable exports during the later colonial times. During the period from 176G to 1769, 8130,000 r.artram's Travels tliron.!;h Xortli and South Carolina. Philadelphia, 1791. ' lliimiihrey JIsi>hall : •■.Arbiistrnm AiiiericaMiim,'' or the American Grove. Pliiladflphi 30 TI.MBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. worth of these stores were exported yearly ; among them were 88,11 1 barrels of crude resiii, valued at sllj-ii.So. F. A. Michaux, iu his travels east of the Alleghany Mountains, spcakinu- of the low country of the Carolinas, says:' "Seven tenths is covered with pine of nnc siKcics, rinus jMhistris, which, as the soil is drier and lighter, grows loftier; these pines, encumhcred with very few branches and which split even, are preferred to other trees for building fences on plantations." In his subsequent work Michaux gives for the lirst time an accurate and detailed account of the products of this tree and their industrial and commercial importance, as well as of its distribution and a description of its specific characters.- XoTE. — Iu sketching the topographical features of those regions of the Longleaf Pine forests, which did not come under the personal observation of the writer, the phj-siographical descriptions of the Cotton States on the Atlantic Coast and the Gulf region published in Professor Hilgard's report on cotton production in the fifth and sixth volumes of the Census of 1880 were freely drawn upon, and these reports were also consulted, together with Table VII, in the statistics published in the census report on productions of agriculture in the computation of forest areas. In the statements of the amount of Longleaf Pine standing iu the several States in 1880 and of the cut during the same year, the figures given in Prof. Charles S. Sargent's report, Vol. IX of the Tenth Census, were introduced, and for those which relate to Alabama and Mississippi the writer is mostly responsible. No ert'orts have been spared to arrive at a correct estimate of the total amount and value of square timber, lumber, and naval stores produced during the decade ending with the year 1890 and during the business year ISg.'S, in order to place iu a proper light the economic importance of the tree and its bearings upon the industrial and commercial interests of the country, and also to show the rapid increase of the industries depending directly upon the resources of this tree. The state- ments given are, however, of necessity only approximations falling below the limits of truth, as it was impossible to ascertain with any degree of accuracy the quantities entering into home consumption. Thus a factor of no little importance had to be neglected. The thanks of the writer are due to the gentlemen who kindly assisted him by their promjit reidies to his inquiries iu search for information, and who in other ways have afforded him aid. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBITION. The Longleaf Pine is principally confined to a belt about 125 miles in width in the lower parts of the Southern States which border upon the Atlantic and the Gulf shores. The northern limit of the tree is found on the coast near the southern boundary of Virginia below Xorfolk, north latitude 36° 30'. From here the forests of the Longleaf Pine extend southward along the coast region to Cape Canaveral, across the peninsula of Florida a short distance south of Tampa Bay, westward along the Gulf Coast to the uplands which border upon the alluvial deposits of the Mississippi. West of that river forests of this species continue to the Trinity liiver in Texas; in that State its northern limit is found to reach hardly 32° north latitude, while in Louisiana and ilississippi it extends hardly more than half a degree farther north, and in Alabama tinder .'Uo 30' the tree is found to ascend the extreme southern spurs of the Appalachian chain to an altitude of between 1,500 and 2,000 feet. Thus the area of the distribution of the Longleaf Pine extends from 70° to 9G0 we.st longitude and from 20^ 30' to 36^ 30' north latitude. (See PI. III.) With reference to the distribution of this species as depending upon geological formation, it may be said that its forests are chiefly confined to the sandy and gravelly deposits designated by Professor Hilgard as the orange sand, or Lafayette strata of Post-Tertiary formation, which of late is regarded as the most recent member of the Tertiary formation. These siliceous sands and pebbles, which to such vast extent cover the lower part of the Southern States and form also more or less the covering of the surface throughout the older Tertiary region, otter the physical conditions most suitable to the growth of this tree. CHARACTERISTICS OF DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT REGIONS, This great maritime pine belt east of the Mississippi River presents such differences iu topographical features and such diversity of physical and mechanical conditions of the soil as to permit a distinction of three divisions going from the coast to the interior: 1. The coastal plain, or low pine barrens within the tide water region, extends from the seashore inland for a distance of from 10 to 30 miles and over. The forests of the Longleaf Pine which ' M^moire sur la naturalisation des arbres forestiers de I'Amerique septentrionale, by F. A. Michaux. Paris, 1805. -F. A. Michaux, Histoire des Arbres forestiers de I'Amer., Sept. Paris, 1810-1813. English translation, Phila- delphia Editiou, 1859, Vol. Ill, p. lOU et seq. Sulletin No. 13, Division of Forestry. i • f o 5 ! i i . S i S o o I i i i UJ S £ I I _J O O ": O a a * 1- i i < 3 S S I I I I r -t '^rw^'^- 1' H* clh a ^1 <... I 1.^41^ TIMBER REGIONS SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION. 31 occupy tlie poorly draiued grassy flats of the plain are very open, intersected by numerous inlets of the sea and by brackish marshes. They are also interrupted by swamps densely covered with Cypress, WhiteCedar, Whiteand Red Bay, Water Oak, Live Oak, Magnolia, Tupelo Gum, and Black Gum and again by grassy savannas of greater or less extent. On the higher level, or what might be called the first terrace, with its better drained and more loamy soil, the Longleaf Pine once prevailed, but almost everywhere in the coastal plain the original timber has been removed by man and replaced by the Loblolly Pine and the Cuban Pine. 2. The rolling pine lands, pine hills, or pine barrens proper are the true home of the Long- leaf Pine. On the Atlantic Coast these uplands rise to hills over 600 feet in height, while in the Gulf region they form broad, gentle undulations rarely exceeding an elevation of 300 feet. TLus spreading out in extensive table-lands, these hills are covered exclusively with the forests of this tree for many hundreds of square miles without interruption. Here it reigns supreme. The monotony of the pine forests on these table-lands is unbroken. 3. The upper division, or region of mixed growth. With the appearance of the strata of the Tertiary formation in the upper part of the pine belt, the pure forests of the Longleaf Pine are con- fined to the ridges capped by the drifted sands and pebbles and to the rocky heights of siliceous chert, alternating with open woods of oak (principally Post Oak), which occupy the richer lands of the calcareous loams and marls. However, where these loams and marls, rich in plant food, mingle with the drifted soils, we find again the Longleaf Pine, but associated with broad-leaved trees and with the Loblolly and Shortleaf Pine. Here the Longleaf Pine attains a larger size and the number of trees of maximum growth per acre is found almost double that on the lower division. TOIBER REGIONS— SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION. The forests of Longleaf Pine can be conveniently discussed by referring to the following geo- graphical and limited areas : The Atlantic pine region; The maritime pine belt of the eastern Gulf States; The central pine belt of Alabama; The forests of Longleaf Pine of north Alabama (Coosa basin, etc.); The regions of Longleaf Pine west of the Mississippi lliver. THE ATLANTIC TINE REGION. The Atlantic pine region in its extent from the southern frontier of eastern Virginia to the peninsula of Florida embraces the oldest and most populous States of the Longleaf Pine district, and here the forests have suflered most severely by lumbering, the production of naval stores, and clearing for purposes of agriculture. Vinjinia. — The forests of the Longleaf Pine on the southeastern border of Virginia have almost entirely disappeared, and arc, to a great extent, replaced by a second growth of Loblolly Pine. Xorth CaruUua. — Li North Carolina the area over which this tree once prevailed may 1)6 estimated at from 14,000 to 15,000 square miles, leaving out of calculation the coastal plain with its extensive swamps, wide estuaries, and numerous inlets. From the northern frontier of the State southward, some distance beyond the Neuse River, in the agricultural district, the forest growth on the level or but slightly undulating pine laud is of a mixed character, the Longleaf species being largely superseded by the Loblolly Pine, together with widely scattered Shortleaf Pine and decid- uous trees — White Oak, Red Oak, Post Oak, Black Oak, and more rarely Mockernut and Pignut Hickory, and Dogwood, In this section the lumbering interests are chiefly dependent upon the Loblolly Pine {Pinus twda), better known to the inhabitants as the Shortstraw, or Shortleaf, Pine [not to be confounded with the true Shortleaf Pine). The forests of Longleaf Pine begin at Bogue Inlet, extend along the coast to the southern boundary of the State, and inland for a distance varying between 50 and 135 miles. The highly siliceous soil of these pine barrens offers but little inducement for its cultivation; the inhabitants, therefore, from the earliest time of the settlement of the State have chiefly been engaged in pursuits based on the products of the pine forests. Here the production of naval 3: TIMItKK T'INES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. stores was lirst ciirried on; losiii, tar, ami pitcli lis'iirod in early colonial times among the most important articles of export. I n cDnseiineiHe, the forests of the Loiigleaf IMne have been, with but slight exceptions, invaded by turpciitiiii", orcharding, and at the present time by far the greater part of tlie timber standing has been tapped for its resin. The forests of the Longleaf Pine in this State cover the largest area in the basin of Oape Fear Kiver, with Wilmington the main port of export for their products. The exjiort from this port had increased fioin i.'l,()()0,(lU(»l'eet of lumber in ISSO, to nearly 4i),()lt0,()0() annually, on the average, for the years 1887 to 1S!)1. The forests of the Lougleaf Pine on the banks of the Neuse Kiver, in Johnston County and in Wayne County, are almost exhausted; less than 40 per cent of the timber sawn at Goldsboro and Dover is Longleaf Pine timber from that section, and is invariably bled. A considerable number of the trees from the old turpentine orchards, with the excoriated surface of the trunk ("chip") over 2.5 feet in length and bled again after a lapse of years, show that they have been worked for their resin for twenty to twenty-four years in succession, and after a longer or shorter period of rest have been subjected to the same treatment continually for the same number of years. Such old martyrs of the turpentine orchard are unlit for lumber, but, impregnated as they are with resin, are used for piling and for posts of great durability. I'^ast of the Neuse Kiver, from the upper part of .lohnston County, in an almost southern direction to Newbern, no Lougleaf Pine has been observed. Single trees of the Shortleaf Pine (riiiiis echinata) have been found scattered among the growth of deciduous trees which cover the ridges between the Trent and Neuse rivers, and isolated tracts of a few acres of the Longleaf species are met with in the low Hats of the same section, which were in 1891: almost exclusively occupied by the Loblolly Pine. As reported for the Tenth Census, the amount of Longleaf Pine standing in North Carolina at the beginning of the census year was estimated to be r),2iiii,()00,o{)() feet, board measure. No reliable information could be obtained as to the amount of timber cut since 1880, consequently no data are at hand from which to compute the amount now standing. The cut for the year 1880 is given in the census report at 108,-i()i),000 feet, board measure. In 1890, eighteen mills were enumerated as engaged in sawing exclusively Longleaf Pine timber, almost all situated in the basin of Cape Fear Kiver, with a daily aggregate cajjacity of 475,000 feet, board measure. Such capacity would point to au annual cut of at least 05,000,000 feet, board measure. Stntemeiit of the ahipvieiits of naval stores fvom Wilmmglon, N. C. [From J. L. Cantwell, secretary Wilmington Produce Exchange.] Tear. Spirits of tur pentine. Eosin. Crude resin or turpentine. Tar. Casks. 125, 585 90. 000 88. 376 87. 050 78,978 71. 145 63, 580 71,912 63. 437 69. 668 70.289 67. 480 59, 263 58. 336 46, o;iB Barrels. 663. 907 450, 000 425, 925 483, 432 434, 376 310, 808 324. 942 381,335 246,510 351,827 385, 523 349, 500 287, 200 274, 800 189, 900 Barreli. Barrels. 3! 188 31, 966 43, 966 35,290 25, 002 21,572 18, 171 19, 082 ii'.m 15. 500 13, 500 9,900 5e,'ii3' 75,544 85 230 70,530 61, 195 68, 143 63, 163 68, 856 71, S49 67; 900 70. 500 45. 600 1882 1885 1801 Total 1,111.155 $19. 000, 000 5. 560, 051 $10, 000, 000 201, 020 $391,600 868. 323 $1,100,000 Totnl value, $30,500,000. Statement of shipments of litmher ioforeUjii and dumeslic ports from Wilmivglon, X. C. Tear. Feet, tord Tear. Feet, board measure. Tear. Feet, Ijoard measure. 21, 000, 000 i 45,498.480 40.291.140 35,46.5,000 30, 000, 000 1883 .16.000,000 39.500,000 41,000,000 30, 680. 000 40.289,000 1890 40, 060. 000 29,580,160 23,874,331 30,595,930 35,353 412 1K87 1888 . . 1893 1894 ■ TIMBER KEGIONS SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION. 33 kSoiitli Carolina. — The forests of Loiigleaf Piue in this State follow more closely the coast line, with an extension inland averaging 100 miles. The lower parts of the pine belt, or the Savannah region, is low and flat, rising but slowly above the brackish marshes and alluvial lands bordering the sea. Traversed by eight large rivers with wide estuaries and bordered by extensive swamps of Cypress, IMagnolia, Red and White I5ay, Laurel Oak, etc., its area has been estimated to be 7,000 scjuare miles, 4,500 scjuare miles of which are occupied by swamp lands, including the grassy marshes ou the coast. In the low, perfectly level pine barrens, with a soil of tine, compacted, almost impervious sand, covered with the Saw Palmetto, the Pond Piue, and a stunted growth of the Cuban and Tjoblolly Pine, the Lougleaf Pine is rarely seen, and always of dwarfed growth. In the Hat woods bordering the alluvial swamps, heavily timbered with Loblolly and Cuban Pine, the Longleaf Piue makes its appeai-ance more frequently, and finally i)revails almost exclusively on the broad, dry, sandy ridges, associated with the Barren or Turkey Oak {(Juerciis mtesia't), stunted Spanish Oak, and Upland Willow Oak (Quercus cinerea), trees of smaller size forming the under- growth. The timber growth on these ridges is rather open and of good quality. As has been observed near liidgeland, in the counties of Beaufort and Hampton, the forests have to a large extent given way to the plow, and along the railroads they have been destroyed by turpentine orcharding. Upon L acre, representing fairly the original timber growth of the forests ou these ridges, 48 trees of a diameter of from 12 to 24 inches at breast high, with a height of from 50 to 110 feet were found. Of these, 4 yielded sticks of clear timber averaging 45 feet in length with mean diameter of IS inches, ecjual to 2,000 feet, board measure, of tirst class lumber. These trees varied in age from 130 to 145 years; 8 trees yielded sticks of timber free from limbs 40 feet in length with mean diameter of 17 inches, equal to 3,'JOO feet, board measure, age on the average 140 years; 12 trees yielded 35 feet length of clear timber with mean diameter of 10 inches, equal to 3,000 feet of merchantable lumber, age from 130 to 13G years; 8 trees averaged 12 inches mean diameter, length of timber 30 feet, equal to 950 feet, bbard measure, age from 110 to 118 years; 4 trees averaged 10 inches mean diameter, length of clear timber 24 feet, wood sappy throughout, yielding 200 feet of lumber, age from SO to 85 years. The total yield of merchantable lumber of this acre would be 9,950 feet, board measure, repre- senting the average of the better quality of these tind)er lands. As in the adjoining States, the forests along the railroad lines for a wide distance have been subjected to turpentine orcharding, and but a small percentage of the timber stauding has escaped the ax of the "bo.t" cutter. The receipts of naval stores at Charleston during the ten years Irom 1880 to 1890 averaged aunually 57,570 casks (50 gallons to a cask) of spirits of turpentine and 225,920 barrels of rosin, with the largest receipts in 18S0 of 00,000 casks of spirits of turpentine and 259,940 barrels of rosin, and the smallest of 40,2.53 casks of si)irits in 188S, and 149,348 barrels of rosin in 1SS9. Tub, stalcment of the xhipmenta of naval stores at Charlealnn, S. C, from the beginning of ISS'l t'> the clove of the year 1894. [From the iiunual statements of the commerce of Cliiirleston, S. C, puulishcil fu tlio Omrle.'iton Courier.*! Year. Spirits of tiirpeutiuc. ItOSill. Year. .Spirits of turpentine. Ilosin. 18S0 1881 1882 Canks. 60. 000 ;-.l,:;fO 09, 027 or,, 914 04, 207 44, 126 , 40.375 52,549 1 HarreU. 259.940 2:il,417 258, 440 285, 440 218i971 no. 06U 171, 154 181.880 Caskn. 43, 127 25, 909 22, 543 14,415 •078, 537 $11,874,397 liarreU. 149,348 217,865 163,818 127, 202 121,624 71, 329 2,802,619 $5,206,714 ISUO 1S93 1894 '* A'aUie ' Tlie annual receipts ou liio average equal tbc exports. The rolling pine hills bordering upon the flat woods, or swamps, reach elevations of 130 to 250 feet above the sea, with a width of from 20 to 40 miles, and, as ou the pine ridges of the low pine barrens mentioned before, the ujdaud oaks form the sparse undergrowth in the forests of Longleaf Pine. . Nearly one-third of the area (estimated at about 4,500 square miles) has been opened to cultivatiou. These rolling pine lands rise on their northern l>orders abruptly to a range of steep hills over 000 feet above sea level, covered with a rather scanty growth of Longleaf 25(i0()— Xo. 13—02 3 34 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES, Pine among the Sbortleaf Pine and fine upland oaks, the hitter largely prevailing. On the south and west these hills merge into an elevated plateau with a loose soil of coarse wliite sand. Here the Lougleaf Pine is found in its full i)erfectiou and furnishes timber of excellent quality.' About IL' per cent of these pine-clad table lands are under cultivation, and about 22 per cent of tlie hills, with their generous red soil, are covered with a mixed growth of i)ine and oak: both of these divisions cover an area of not less than 4,000 sijuare niiles.- The Longleaf Pine timber standing in South Carolina in the census year ISSO was estiiiiated at 5,310,000,000 feet, board measure,' with an annual cut of 124,000,000 feet. In 1S90 forty mills sawing exclusively Longleaf Pine timber have been reported ^ with an aggregate daily capacity of about 510,()()() feet, taken at the lowest figure. This would indicate for that year a cut of 08,000,000 feet, board measure, wliich may also be considered the average annual cut for the last lifteen years. The exi)orts of lumber from Charleston, the chief port, have since the year 18S0 steadily increased, the excess in 1S90 over the amount iu 18S0 reaching o\er 4(i0 per cent, as is exhibited in the following statement: Stalcineiit of Iiimhvi Charleston, to foreii/ii tind don of ISO 4. hifj of ISSO to the close Year. Feet, board Year. Feet, boapl 15, 4:17. 000 ' 1887-88 45, 27(1, 1100 50, :.:rj, ouo cr,0!i:!.:)4i 611, U40. 453 1>'S"-S1 . Georgia. — The great pine State of the South, which has given to the Longleaf IMne the name of Georgia Pine, by which this lumber is known the world over, embraces the largest of the Atlantic pine forests. At a rough estimate, these cover over l!),r00 square miles, including the narrow strip of live-oak lauds bordering the seashore. The flat woods and savannas of the coast plain are from 10 to 15 miles wide. They are almost entirely stripped of their growth of Longleaf Pine. The upland pine forests, the pine barrens proper, or wire-grass region,^ embrace over 17,000 square miles. This region forms a Aast plain, nearly level except on the north, covered exclusively with Longleaf Pine. About 20 x^er cent of these lands have been cleared for cultivation. Formerly the principal sites of the lumber industry Mere Darien, Brunswick, and Savannah. The logs were rafted hundreds of miles down the Savannah, the Ogeechee, the Altamaha and its large tributaries, the Oconee and Ocniulgee. A limited quantity is carried down the Flint and Chattahoochee rivers to Ajialaehicola. The railroads, however, supply the nulls now to the largest extent. The forests of these pine uplands are in quality, and originally in quantity, of their timber resources equal to any found east of the Mississippi River. The soil is a loose sand, underlaid by a more or less sandy bufl'colored or reddish loam. The almost level or gently undulating jilain becomes slightly broken along the water courses, and the forests of Longleaf Pine are interrupted by wide, swauipy bottoms which inclose the streams and are heavily timbered with the Loblolly Pine, Cuban I'iue, Laurel Oak, Water Oak, Magnolia, White and Red Bay, and Cypress. On the better class of the pine-timber lands the amount of marketable timber found varies between 3,000 and 10,000 feet to the acre. The trees yielding lumber and square-sawn timber of the highest ' Kirk Hammond, Census Report, Vol. VI, Cotton production of South Carolina. -Hammond, 1. c. 5 Report of Tenth Ceuisus, Vol. IX. < Lumber Trade Dirqetory, NortUwesteru Lumberman, Chicago, July, 1890. 5 From the so-called wire-grass Aristida strlcta, the most characteristic plant of the dry, sa from western AIal>ama to the Atlantic coast. TIMBER REGIONS SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION. 35 grade were found to make sticks of from 40 to 45 feet long, perfectly clear of limb knots, and 18 to 22 inches mean diameter, giving from 450 to 750 feet of lumber, with the sapwood from li to 2 inches wide. The following measurements of trees from a small tract of forest untouched by the ax serve as a fair average sample of its timber growth: N umlier of tree. Diainctfr, Mean Length of Total XumberoC breast high. diameter. tin.ber. height. rings. r,..,.,. /«<•;«,. Feet. Feet. 1 22 45 93 250 19 15 40 OB 150 4 V :e.a;;e:;:::::::;:::":::::::::::: 18 15 40 , 03 138 213 17J 4Ui 07 104 Along the numerous railroad Hues and the navigable streams and their tributaries admitting of the driving of logs, the forests have been completely stripped of their merchantable timber, and the denuded areas to a considerable extent are at present under cultivation. The magnifi- cent forests on the Altamaha Eiver and between its tributaries, the Ocmulgce and Oconee rivers, and also on the Ogeechee River, have been practically exhausted and are utterly devastated by the tapping of the trees for turpentine. In fact, more than two-thirds of all the timber sawn at present has been bled. The timber from the turpentine orchards, abandoned for years past, is being rapidly removed to the mills,' and the vast areas occupied by them will, within a short time, be almost completely denuded of the Longleaf I'iue, its place being taken by scrubby oaks, dwarf hickories, and Persimmon. The timber is transferred to the mills mostly by steam-equipped tramroads, and the products of the turpentine distilleries in the remoter districts are hauled to the highw.ays of commerce by ox teams for distances of 12 miles and over. Considering the removal for their timber of trees far below medium size and during the best period of their growth, the de.struction of still younger trees by turpentine orcharding, and of the youug seedlings by fire, the prospect for the future of the lumber industry and the renewal of the forests of Longleaf Pine in this region are gloomy. Many of the intelligent men practically interested in the timber lands of this State aver that the exhaustion of the forests of the Longleat Pine is a question of but a short space of time, to be accomplished belbre another generation has passed. The amount of timber standing at the end of the census year 1880 had been comi)utcd at 10,778,000,000 feet, board measure, and the cut at 272,74.'!,000 feet. From the publication ijuoted, it appears that in the year 1890 there were 88 sawmills in opera- tion in the great pine belt of (Georgia, sawing exclusively Longleaf Pine timber. On the basis of lowest figures cited, the daily cut at these establishments during that year would not fall short of 1,607,000 feet, indicating an annual cut of over 400,000,000 feet. Ko statistical returns of the lumber trade previous to 1884 could be obtained at Savannah, Darien, or Brunswick. The export from the first of these ports averaged about 73,000,000 feet, board measure, a year, showing but slight fluctuation during the period beginning with 1884 to the close of 1889, when in the subsequent two years the annual average increased to 118,000,000 feet, board measure. The exports from Darien and Brunswick, averaging 82,0(t0,000 and 85,000,000 feet, respectively, for a similar period of time, show also but small diflerences from one year to another. About 30,000,000 to 33,0.00,000 feet are rafted down the Flint and Chattahoochee rivers, to be sawn at Apalachicola. With the spread of the sawmills along the railroad lines in the upper part of the pine region, the shipments of lumber by rail to distant Northern markets increased steadily, until in 1892 it was fouml that the productionof Longleaf Pine lumber shijjped by rail to Northern markets exceeded 60,000,000 feet. 36 riMHER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. Tubular atntemeni of exportD of lumber from Saraniiah, Darien, Jlruiiswick, and St. Mari/s to fo, and M])ments by railroad to inland markets Jrom li>S3S4 to 1S9.3-04. vrts Tear. Sav!iuii.-lli. Darieu. Brunswick. St, Marys. Savannah, railroad. Otherwise by rail. Flint River. Total. 18S3-84 Feet, JS. M. 82,100,000 09. 100. 000 08,000,0110 (irt. 4110. 000 711, 4011, 000 Trf, 11111,0110 l-.'.j, imo. (100 las! Doii, 000 110.1(10.0011 77. 4(10. 000 Feet,jB.M. 90,1110,000 72, 900, 000 83.0011,000 90,000,000 00. 000, 000 85, 000, 000 70,000.000 80, 000, 000 85,000,000 85. 000. OOO 85, 000. 000 FeeUB.:^. 84,700,000 ■ - „„„ ,„ ;; 8o! Wii. Ul 80,000,000 80,000.000 Feet,B.M: 8.500.000 8,5011.000 Feet.B.il. Feet.B.M. Feet.B.M. Feet,B.M. 1884-85 1 18S7-88 1891-92 50,000,000 50,000,000 50, OOU, 000 16,900,000 16,000,000 33,000,000 403,200,000 347, 000, 000 T t 1 935. 800, 000 sta.ooo.ooo 834,200,000 17, 000, 000 150, 000, 000 32,900,000 33,000,000 This makes a grand total for tbe teu years euded 1894 of 2,836,000,000 feet, board measure, with an aggregate value, at ])i'esent export rates ($11 per 1,000 feet), of at least $31,19{j,000. In the production of naval stores Georgia takes the lead. By the statements of the census of 1870, only 3,208 casks of spirits of turpentine and 13,840 barrels of rosin, valued at $95,970, were ijroduced during that year iu the State. In the course of the following ten years this industry progressed steadily and rapidly. In 1888 exports from Savannah, at present the greatest market in the world for these products, had increased fo 108,000 casks of spirits of turpentine and 054,000 barrels of rosin, of a total value of $3,880,000. ||( of export-! of naval stores from Sar the iiearn i5o- Tear. Spirits of turpeutiue. Rosiu. Year. Spirits of turpeutine. Casks. 46. 321 64, 703 771059 116.127 129, 835 121, 028 106, 925 U6, 925 168, 834 Barrels. 221. 421 282. 380 309. 834 430, 548 559, 625 401, 998 424. 490 566. S32 654, 286 Cask.'. 159,931 181.542 196. 227 196, 166 234. 986 26l',d81 Barrels. 677. 900 716. 658 770. 311 758,448 873,678 1,032,198 957, 027 1880-81 1890 91 1893 Total 1887-88 2, 475, 297 9,637,830 Valuod .Tt $49,401,031. The highest prices for these stores in Savannah were obtained iu 1880, with $19.50 per cask of 50 gallons for spirits of turpentine and $2.25 per barrel of rosin of 280 pounds gross ; and the lowest in 1887-88, with the price of spirits of turpentine at $14.25 per cask and $1.10 per barrel of rosin. On close scrutiny of the prices ruling at Wilmington, for the eleven years after 1880 the price of a cask of spirits of turpentine averaged $18 and of a bnrrel of rosin $1 .90, lowest grades of the latter excluded. Florida. — That part of the State between the Suwanee L'iver and tlie Atlantic Coast, as far south as St. Augustine, can be considered as part of the Atlantic i)iMe region, and covers an area of about 4,700 square miles. In the basin of the St. Johns liiver a large part of the land has been devoted to the cultivation of the citrus fruits. The principal sites of the manufi^cture of lumber in this section of the State are Ellaville, iu jMadison County, on the Suwanee E,iver, and Jacksonville. The supplies once existing along the Cedar Keys and Fernandina Railroad are at present well-nigh exhausted. South of St. Augustine the Longleaf Pine is less common and in general inferior in size. The timber on the extensive Hat woods to the h'verglades, covered with the Saw Palmetto, is stunted and the forests are very open, and in the more fertile soils Longleaf Pine is largely replaced by Cuban Pine. In the central section of the peninsula, with its numerous lakes, the Longleaf Pine is often associated with the Sand Vitw (Pinii.s clau.s(t), and hard woods prevail on the u])laiul hummock lands. From the banks of the Suwaiic ^Mississippi this pine belt, varying I'l Itiver to the npl 11 90 to 125 miles (Is bmderiiig tht alluvial lands rea roiii;hlv esti the ited TIMBER REGIONS — SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION. 37 at a little over 40,000 .square miles. It presents no material differences from tlie Atlantic region, of -whicli it is a direct continuation, being similar to it in both soil and climate. This ea.stern Gulf region is unsurpassed in the advantages it otters for tlie development of the industries based on the products of the pine forests. Its genial climate throughout the year permits the nuinterrupted exploitation of its abundant resources of resinous products and of timber of the best quality. The fine harbors and safe roadsteads on the Gulf Coast are reached by navi- gable rivers, which, with their tributaries, cross the lower division in every direction, and give ready and cheap transportation to its ports, while great railway lines afibrd easy commuiiicatiou with inland markets. This region thus presents inducements scarcely found elsewhere for the investment of capital and labor in the development of the resources of its forests. It is impossible to arrive at anything like an accurate estimate of the amount of timber standing at present, or of the rate of its consumption, since in the returns of the annual lumber product that needed for home consumption has not been included. Western Florida. — Placing the eastern limit of that part of Florida to be considered as belonging to the Gulf pine region at the lower course of the Suwanee lUver, the area included comjirises about 7,200 square miles, exclusive of the swamps and marshes of the coast. The forests of Longleaf Pine form a narrow strip along the course of the Suwaiiee Uiver and along tbe coast to the Appalachicola Kiver, covering about 1,280,000 acres. At their northern limit tliey merge into the oak and hickory uplands of middle Florida. Along the coast they are sur- rounded by marshes and swamps, rendering them difficult of access, consequently they have remained untouched. The same may be said of the pine forests between the Appalachicola and the Choctawhatchee rivers. These have been invaded to some extent along the banks of the latter river to supply the small mills situated on the bay of the same name. The pine lands of western Florida rise slowly above the coastal plain and form a vast expanse of slightly undulating surface. Those surrounding Perdido, Pensacola, Elackwater, and Mary St. Galvcs Bay, the oldest sites of active lumber industry in the Gulf region, were stripped of their valuable timber more than thirty years ago, and since that time have been cut over again. The largest tracts of finely timbered virgin forests of Longleaf Pine are found in the undu- lating uplands from the Perdido and Escambia rivers along the Alabama State line to the banks of the Choctawhatchee River. East of this river, in the same direction, where the younger Ter- tiary strata make their appearance, Longleaf Pine becomes associated with hard woods, with southern Spruce Pine added in the valleys. Since the opening of the Pensacola and Atlantic Bailroad considerable (juantities of sawn scjuare timber find their way to Pensacola from these remoter forests. A large portion of the timber supplied to the mills along the coast having been derived from Alabama, it is impossible to arrive at an exact estimate of the products of the forest of western Florida. of tJi>ort of he ■. sawn sf/Hrtrc tituhcr, nnd Inmh Fla., from 1S79S0 to 1S9^'- (From Hyer & Bro.'s auniial circ iiamet6r breast liigU. Total height. ^Sp"." Diameter below MeaD diam- eter of t..he. Length of timber free Inches. Feet. 106 111 111 113 113 216 183 Incheg. 18 U 12 Inches. 22 16 Feet. 50 ■ 18 J 17 t 50 16 1 50 5 182 1 13 19.6 111 193 17 1 '^1 " At a lumber camp near Lumberton, iu Washington County, 9 timber trees were measured, showing on the average a mean diameter of 17 inches, the clear sticks averaging 40. feet in length. Ux>on 1 acre, selected at random in the untouched forests north of Spriughill, Mobile County, very open and free from smaller trees or undergrowth, 16 trees were counted above 16 inches iu diameter at breast high, namely, 2 trees 23 inches iu diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 40 feet; 2 trees 20 inches iu diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 40 feet; 12 trees 10 to 18 inches in diameter at breast high, estimated length of timbei', 35 feet; which in the aggregate would yield about 5,000 feet, board measure. Upon another acre plat of the same quarter section G4 trees above 12 inches iu diameter at breast highwere found; of these 2 trees measured 20 inches iu diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 40 feet; 20 trees measured 17 inches in diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 30 feet; 3(> trees measured 13 inches in diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 24 feet. TIMBER REGIONS SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION. 39 Upou a tliircl plat exceptionally heavily timbered, 45 trees were counted, of which 5 trees ■were 25 iuches in diameter at breast high, the clear timber averaging 50 feet in length; 12 trees 22 inches in diameter at breast high, length of timber 50 feet, and 28 trees IG to IS inches in diameter, average length of timber estimated at 30 feet. Such a stand would indicate a yield of merchantable timber of at least 15,000 feet, board measure, to the acre. All over this lower division boggy tracts are frequently met with, in which tlie sour, black soil is covered with sphagnum, or bog moss; these support only a few scattered pines. On many of the steeper ridges the soil is pure sand and the pine growth is small and inferior, being largely replaced by Barren Oak, Sparkleberry, and the evergreen heather-like shrub Ceratiola ericoides. In this lower division of the maritime pine belt the manufacture of lumber and the produc- tion of naval stores is carried on most actively. These products find their outlet chiefly at Mobile, while more than one-third of the lumber exported from Pensacola (to the amount of at least 100,- 000,000 feet annually for the past few years) is also derived from this division. In the upper half of the maritime pine belt, with the appearance of the outcrops of limestones and limy marls of the Lower Tertiary (Eocene) formation, the country becomes more broken, with steeper hills and wider valleys, and a change iu the character of the flora takes place, particularly manifest in the nature and distribution of the tree growth. In the fertile vulleys and on the lower flanks of the hills broad-leaved trees, mostly Post Oak, Black Oak, Mockernut, Bitternut, Pignut, and Magnolia l^revail, interspersed with Shortleaf Pine, Loblolly Pine, and Red Cedar — the Longleaf Pine occupying sporadic i:)atches of drifted sands and pebbles. On the steep and frequently wide ridges capped by these deposits, and on the rugged hills of the buhrstone and flinty cherts this tree forms the principal growth, and is in the openings more or less associated with broad-leaved trees. From this commingling of cone-bearing and deciduous trees and the alternations of pine forest and oak woods, this upper division has been designated as the region of mixed growth, which at a rough estimate can be said to cover about 5,000 square miles. In the deep soil of light loam and strong loamy sands the Longleaf Pine attains a splendid growth and the number of large trees on a given area is greater than found in the lower division. The following measurements of 5 trees felled for test logs fairly represent the average dimensions of the timber from these lulls in the vicinity of Thomasville, Clarke County: Measurements of five trees. Xumber of tree. Eings in stump. breast bigb. Diameter below oSI Mean diameter of timber. .fuJtt Total height of 202 210 160 no 171 Inches. 20 21 22 Inches. 15 14 Inches. 1? Feet. 45 40 40 tl 39 .... 103 115 110 111 92 106.2 16 i 19 ig Average 18.2 i 21.2 j 15.4 Many of the trees of larger size were found affected by wind-shake in the direction of the rings of growth (ring-shake), in many instances impairing greatly the quality of the timber. The forests on these hills are open, with a comparatively small number of young trees. Upon 1 acre selected at rapdom 4(i trees were counted; of this number were found 4 trees of a diameter of 25 inches breast high, and the length of timber about 40 feet; 10 trees of a diameter of 22 inches breast high, and the length of timber about 3G feet; 20 trees of a diameter of 18 inches breast high, and the length of timber about 30 feet; G trees of a diameter of 15 inches breast high, and the length of timber about 25 feet. On the average each one of these trees would yield about 400 to 450 feet, board measure. On another acre 44 trees were found dittering in their average dimension but slightly from the above, and indicating a yield between 18,000 and 19,000 feet of lumber to the acre. In this upper part of the coast pine belt lumbering and turpentine orcharding have not developed to any great extent, owing to its inaccessibility. However, where railroads traverse the section, the manufacture of 40 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. lumber is carried ou extensively, tlie output goiug to Xortbern markets, Miicli of tlie heavy bewu timber that is exported from Mobile and Peusacola is furnished by this section. In collecting the statistics on the lumbering interests in the maritime pine belt of Alabama the information kindly furnished by firms engaged in the sawmill business or the lumber trade has chiefly been relied upon. The annual production was arrived at by multiplying the average daily output reported by 200, the assumed number of working days of the year. From these data it appears that during the year 1893 the daily output of the 2.5 points reported from amounted in the aggregate to about 7C8,00:i feet, or to 192,000,000 feet, board measure, for the year. This iigure can be said to represent the average of the animal production for the past three years. To this amount, at a low estimate, 85,000,000 feet of nmnd timber are to be added, cut iu Alabama and sawn in western Florida, including the hewn square timber shipped from the State to Pensacola, thus swelling the present annual production of lumber and sipiare timber in the maritime pine belt of Alabama to a total of about 277,000,000 feet, board measure. The statement of the annual exports of these products from Mobile by water and by rail for the past fourteen years will aptly illustrate the steady increase of the lumbering interests during this period. Sltdemtnt ofcrporlx of siiuare iiiiher, h: wii and suwii, and of lumber shipped from Mobile to forei Ike year 1ST9-80 to the end of the year 1S04. lid domeslic ports fr Tear. tin.!rrewn and sawn. Lumber. Totallnmber 1 and square 1 timber. Value. Cubic feet. 745, 000 1, 725. 000 1 147! 825 Feet. S.M. 13,572,000 IS. IGl. 000 (.l,^K.' »'...'. 79, 304, 505 67, 209, 745 Feet, B. M. 22,525,000 38,872,001) 162', Coisi 7U0 126, 084, 500 $280,825 400,348 710, 012 582, 000 636', 953 588, 148 641,215 677, 804 1, 081, 828 1,201,934 1,415,000 1.695,000 1,590,900 1, 270, 000 1884-85 1880-87 1887-88 1893-94 The first statement of the production of naval stores in Alabama is that reported to the census of 1850, mentioned in that year as of a value of $17,800. In 1870 the production had increased to 8,200 casks of spirits of turpentine and 53,175 barrels of rosin, valued at $280,203. In 1873 the receipts in the market of Mobile had fully doubled, amounting to nearly 20,000 casks of spirits of turpentine and to from 75,000 to 100,000 barrels of rosin, besides 1,000 barrels of tar and pitch, of a total value of $750,000. The largest production was reached in 1875, when the receipts reached a value of $1,200,000, up to the present only approximated in 1883 with 43,870 casks of spirits of turpentine and 200,025 barrels of rosin, valued at $1,109,700. Since 1J-"8S a steady decline in the receipts of these products has taken place, due to the exhaustion of the supi^lies near the commer- cial highways. Table of exports of n aval st oris from Mobile diirimj the period of 1SS0-1S94. Year. Spirits Eosin. Total value. Tear. Spirit-s turpen- Rosin, tine. Total value. 1879-80 1880-81 1881-82 18S2-83 1883-84 1884-85 iK?:::::: Cash!. 25,209 25, 224 30, 937 43, 870 4i;804 41,713 38, 733 40, 149 Barrels. 158, 482 hi 688 175, 817 182,955 1893-94;;!!;;!; Casln. r.arnls. ;, - • ,J "$535!69b'" -J i:j -T.'ijil 458,002 18. OU" '• Ki. 120 1 3.55, 180 24, 091 85, 619 453, 666 LOXGLEAF PINE IN ALABAMA. 41 PIXE BELT OF ALABAMA. The middle portion of the State is crossed from its eastern boundary nearly to its western, with a decided northern trend along the western border, by a belt of drifted loamy sands, pebbles, and light loams covered in the eastern and central parts witli an almost continuous forest of Long- leaf Pine, interrupted only by strips of hard wood which occupy the bottom lands. In its eastern extent the Longleaf Pine becomes associated with upland oaks, hickories, and Shortleaf Pine, the Longleaf Pine being entirely replaced in the northern extension of this belt by the latter species. This region of gravelly hills, as it is designated in the agricultural reports,' is 200 miles in length, 5 to 35 miles in width, and extends over about 2,000 square miles. In the sections where the forest consists almost exclusively of Longleaf Pine the stand of timber is heavy and of fine quality. Operators claim for these timber lands a yield of from 5.000 to 6,000 feet of merchantable timber to the acre, excluding all trees under 12 inches diameter. Ever since the opening of the great railroad lines leading to Northern markets the manufacture of lumber in this central pine belt has been carried on with unabated activity. In 18S0 not less than 80,000,000 feet, board measure, were transported by the Louisville and Nashville Railroad alone, mostly to the great Northwestern centers of commerce. In 1880 the production declined to 50,000,000 feet. At present most of the older mill sites have been abandoned and a few new ones established in other localities. Colonel "Wadsworth reports 12 mills in operation located along the Louisville ami Nashville IJailroad, with an output of a little over 40,000,000 feet a year on the average of the past few years. To this is to be added the production of the few mills on the IMobile and Birmingham Railroad, which will increase the present production in the central pine belt to about 50,000,000 feet a year. THE FOUESTS OI' LOXGI.EAF PINE ]N NORTH Forests of Longleaf Pine prevail with more or less interrujjtion in the basin of the Coosa River, principalfy on the beds of flinty pebbles and light, sandy loam which follow the upper course of the river from the base of the Lookout Mountain range near Gadsden to a short distance beyond the State line in Floyd County, Ga., where the Longleaf Pine finds its northern limit in about 34'^ north latitude, at an elevation above the sea of about 600 feet. With the reappearance of the above deposits south of Calhoun County the pine forests extend on the eastern side of the valley south to Childersburg. On the isolated ridges of old Silurian sandstone (Potsdam), and the met- amorphic region adjoining, the Longleaf Pine is scattered and stunted and ascends to an eleva- tion of nearly 2,000 feet above the sea. In proximity to the mineral region the rugged hUIs and mountain sides have been completely denuded, the pine having been cut for charcoal to supply the blast furnaces. In the valleys the forests of Longleaf Pine are of average density and the timber is considered of excellent quality, particularly in the northern part of the valley in Etowah and Cherokee counties. On the lower hills the timber is less abundant and somewhat inferior in size. The measurements of five trees felled in the hills near Renfroe, Talledega County, can be said to fairly represent the average quality of this pine timber. The undergrowth in the open forest covering the low ridges and the narrow valleys is dense, consisting of Blackjack, Spanish Oak, Pignut, and Bitternut Hickory. Measitremeiils ofjire h'ee-a. Number ,.f tree. ^r uPeifsTblgL Mean diamater. ^^i"' Total height of 237. 238. 239. 240. 241. 170 215 ■.M16 1 ^-^- ! il 21 20 Inehee. 12 17 18 18 15 Feel. 50 35 45 45 50 Feet. 95 95 108 112 109 Avera e 178 20 10 45 104 E. A. Smith: Agricultural Resources of Alabama, Vol. V. Reports of Geological Survey of Alabama. 42 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. The estiuction of Lougleaf Pine iu the forests of north Alabama, as far as economic vahie is concerned, appears to be certain. The dense undergrowth of deciduous trees suppresses completely the second growth of the Longleaf Pine iu the closed forest as well as in the openings. On the uiountain slopes a young pine is i-arely seen, no tree being left to serve for the future dissemination of the species, and the few seedlings sporadically springing up are invariably destroyed by the firing of the herbage one year after another. The output of the mills at Gadsden and the mills in Talladega County along the Birmingham and Atlantic Eailroad combined appears scarcely to exceed 50,000,000 feet, board measure, on the average per year. A fine forest of Longleaf Pine is found in Walker County, strictly confined within an isolated patch of silicious pebbles and sands, said to cover about 60,000 acres. Distant about 10 miles from the nearest railroad this forest has'been but slightly invaded, only to supply a small local demand. Summary statement nf sliipmintu of lumber and xqnarf timber from clikf centers of production in Alabama diiriiuj the year ISO?. Fcet.n.M. Mobile exports to foreign ports, coastwise, and shipments by rail ' 143, 8(10, OOO Estimated cut in Alabama and .sawn in western Florida 85,000, 000 Transported by rai 1, mostly to Northern markets = 9,5, 200, 000 Central pine belt" .■ 51,000.000 Coosa basin < 50,000,000 Total 425, 000, 0(K) Mississippi — What has been said of the forests of the maritime pine belt in Alabama ajjplies in general to the Scime region in Mississippi. The coastal plain above the extensive grassy marshes lining the seashore and the wide estuaries of the streams covers a larger area, being from 10 to 20 miles in width and embracing, at a rough estimate, about 728,000 acres of the 16,410 square miles within the limits of the pine belt. The broad, scarcely perceptible swells, with a soil of sandy loam and loamy sand, were originally well timbered, the widely spreading depressions with soil of fine, compacted sand, poorly drained, bearing a sparse and inferior timber growth. The timber produced on these flat woods, or " pine meadows," as they are aptly called in the adjoining section of Alabama, being of slow growth, is hard and of fine grain, frequently with the fibers of the younger wood contorted and of varied tints of color. This so-called curled pine is susceptible of high finish and is much appreciated for fine cabinet work. There is comparatively little valuable timber left in this coastal iilain. The remainder serves largely for the making of charcoal and cord wood for the Xew Orleans market. The rolling pine lands, rising suddenly above the plain, almost exclusively covered by the Long- leaf Pine, cover (roughly estimated) about 7,712,000 acres. The western limits of these forests are difficult to define, numerous outlying tracts being found to exlend into or even beyond the region of the loamy hills. The region of mixed growth, characterizing the ui)per division of the maritime pine belt in Alabama, enters the State in the shape of a triangle, with the base along the Alabama State line from Bucatunna to Lauderdale and its apex near Brandon, in Rankin County. The generous soil of the arable lauds in this region is mostly under cultivation. The forests of Longleaf Pine covering the steep hills, rather remote from the high roads of commerce, have been as yet but little exploited. About 12,000,000 feet, board measure, of lumber are shipped annually by the way of the Mobile and Ohio Itailroad, mostly to Mobile, from this region of mixed growth. From the information th;it could be obtained, it app<'ars that the cut of Longleaf Pine timber in this State on the average for the past three years reached between 422,000,000 and 12.5,000,000 feet. The chief center of the lumbering industry is located above the Pascagoula Eiver, at Scran- ton and Mosspoiut, where it has made great progress during the past thirteen or fourteen years. In 1880, 60,000,000 feet, board measure, were shipped to foreign and domestic ports, which in the ' Annual statement of commerce of Mobile, Mobile Register, September 1, 1892, Compiled from returns made to the Mobile Board of Trade, ^Production of mills south of Montgomery, etc, ■'Production of imills on Louisville and Nashville Railroad, north of Montgomery to C'alera, by Colonel \Varo(Jiiction in Misshifijiin, 1S79-S0, Year. 1 ""S-!?"'^ Pearl Eiver Basiu. Kew Olleaus and Northeast- ern Eailroad. Illinoia Cen- tral Railroad. i ^^i^;ot„ y,;t. li. J/. Feet. B. 31. Feet. li. M. 12,000,000 28; 000, 000 36, 000, 000 62, 000, 000 52, 000, 000 64,000,000 I88:j_si 07 :;(r- ir n *' ■ 1887-88 1888-89 1 107,000,000 36,000,000 55, 000, 000 (a) 1890 91 170 000 000 35,000,000 36,000,000 78, 240, 000 181,424,000 KECAPITDLATIOX FOR 1891-92. Pascagoiila Eiver 127, Pearl River Basin 36 ininoia Central Railroad 78, Xew Orleans and Kortheastern Railroad 60, Mobile and Ohio Railroad 12 Other points 20, Feet. 000. 000 000, ooo From this amount are to be deducted about 18,000,000 feet of lumber received from Mobile to comi^lete cargoes, and 12,000,000 feet of timber cut on the western frontier of Alabama, and finding an outlet at Pascagoula by the Escatawjia Eiver, leaving a round 300,000,000 feet, board measure, for the cut in Mississippi in 1892, against 108,000,000, the cut reported to the census in 1880. "With the exhaustion of the forests along thePascagoula and E.scatawpa rivers andafewiioints between these streams and the Pearl Eiver, which had been accomplished before the beginning of 1880, the naval store industry remained almost dormant in the State until it began to receive a new start bj' the opening of the New Orleans and Northeastern Eailroad. The ]iroduction of the distilleries along this road can be said to average about ir),000 casks of spirits of turpentine and 7."). 000 barrels of rosin annnally since 1890, which arc mo.stly disposed of in the New Orleans market. Uasfcrit Loni.sHutH. — Forests of Longleaf Pine cover the upper part of eastern Louisiana to the extent of about 3,880 square miles. Their western limit might be said to follow the Amite Eiver, but can not be clearly defined, since these forests toward the west pass gradually into the mixed growth of Shortleaf Pine, oaks, and hickories on the uplands which border the bottom lands of the Mississippi Eiver. Slightly undulating flat woods cover fully one-fifth of the area, and, with a somewhat loamy, porous soil, support a better timber growth than is generally found iu the flat pine barrens of the plain. Owing to their proximity to the coast, these forests have been exten- sively invaded. The i>ine hills embrace about 1,019,200 acres. Their forests have remained almost intact, their resources having been drawn upon only along the Illinois Central Eailroad line and the tributaries of the Pearl Eiver. 44 TDrr.EK PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. Ill 1890 seven sawmills were reported, with a diiily capacity, iu the aggregate, of about 120,000 feet, board raeasuro. It can safely be assnmed that their annual output would not exceed 15,000,000 feet, board measure. The products of these mills find their market chietly at j^ew Orleans. In former years a considerable quautit}- of nrfval stores was produced in St. Tammauy Parish, while at present only a few turpentine orchards are worked in tlie ui)i)er districts. The importance of the pine forests in the western Gulf region can not be overestimated, considering the develojjment of the immense timberless area beyond their western limit. The rapidly increasing population of the Western plains depends chiefly upon them for the supply of the material needed to build up the homes of civilization. The forests of the Longleaf Pine west of the Mississippi Eiver, as in regions so far considered, are geographically limited to the sands and gravels of the latest Tertiary formation. They make their first appearance in Louisiana above the great alluvial plain in the uplands bordering the valley of the Ouachita and follow its course for 50 miles, then extend west, skirting Lake Catahoula and the alluvial lands of the Red River. These pine forests to the north of this river cover an area estimated at 1,025,000 acres, extending northward for a distance averaging 55 miles. Toward their Jiorthern limit the forests pass gradually into a mixed growth of deciduous trees and Shortleaf Pine. In the center of this region the pine ridges alternate with tracts of White Oak and Hickory. Tending toward the Red River, the i)ure forest of Longleaf Pine which covers the undulating uplands is unbroken and has up to the pi'esent been but slightly invaded by the ax. On the low hills of this northern division of tlie pine belt of northwestern Louisiana the forests are somewhat open, and are composed of trees of the first order as regards their dimensions, the well-drained, warm, and deep soil of sandy loam being highly favorable to tlieir development. This fact is clearly shown in the following statement of the ages and dimensions of six trees felled for test logs : Minaiiremeiitx of tix trees. Number of tree. Einga on stump. breast high. Diameter helow crown . Mean diameter. Lenjrth of timber. Total height of tree. v 270 158 155 170 105 Inches. 32 2J Inches. 22 20 18 13 13 Inches. 20 22 ISl Feet. 46 50 50 '5 ■ Feet. 123 127 122 117 118 176 179 Average 171 22 17.0 10 U 117 Upon 1 acre of the same plat, with the timber standing rather above the average, 38 trees were found. Of these there were 14 of 24 inches diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 45 feet; of 1!) inches diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 40 feet; fl of 17 inches diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 35 ieet; 9 of 13 inches diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 30 feet. In the opinion of exi)erts, the average yield of] acre of these pine lands at a fair estimate is not less than G,000 feet, board measure. According to the statements of Mr. Sues, at Levins Station, 50,000,0(10 feet, board measure, were shipped, in 1802, from the mills of this section. South of the Red River bottom the forests of Longleaf Pine continue unoroken to the Sabine Eiver and soutli to the treeless savannas of the coast in Calcasieu Parish, their eastern boundary parallel with the eastern boundary of that parish. Roughly estimated, these ibrests cover an area of about 2,068,000 acres. From the marshy lowlauds of the coast to the upper tributaries of the Calcasieu River, up to Ilickory and Beck with creeks, the country is poorly drained, almost perfectly level, with a highly retentive and somewhat impervious clay subsoi'l. In t^oiiseciuence, these pine flats are, tor the greater part of the year, more or less covered with water. These low, wet pine forests were stripped some years ago of all their merchantable timber, and only a comparatively small number of trees of less than 12 inches in diameter were left standing. On DISTKIHUTION OF LONGLEAF PINE IN LOUISIANA. 45 tbose abandoned timber lauds a youiig- pine is rarely seen, the seeds shed in the fall being apt to rot in the water-soaked soil, or, if they happen to germinate, the seedlings are drowned daring the winter rains. On the lands rising- gently above the Hat woods, with the ridges still low and wide and often more or less imperfectly drained, Lougleaf Pine is found of an exceedingly fine growth. The trees in the dense forest are tall and slender, and their timber is eipialed only by the timber of the same class growing in the valley of the Neches River, in Texas. The following measurements of five trees felled for test logs in the forests in the ui»per part of Calcasieu Parish, between Hickory and Beckwith creeks, will serve as a fair re])resentatiou of the timber growth on these low, broad ridges: MeasKiements of five trees. Kumberoftrce. Kinss on Diameter | '^l^Tl"' 1 Mean stump. breastbigh.| ^^^J^ .Uameter. ^^^f|bJgl,f Inches. Ivchcs. Inches. 190 28 23 24 195 23 16 19 190 -n U 1 17 Feel. > Feet. 50 110 50 1?7 40 117 40 102 37 127 203 2U4 205 180 10 ' 15 17 107 iC 13 ' U Average 185 21 10 18 43 118 Upon 1 acre, selected on the back of a low swell which might be said to represent the average of the timber standing, 44 trees in all were counted. Of these, 3 trees measured 25 inches diameter at breast high, with a length of clear timber estimated at 'M feet; 6 trees measured 23 inches diameter at breast high, with a length of clear timber estimated at 50 feet; 10 trees measured 18 inches diameter at breast high, with a length of clear timber estimated at 40 feet; 14 trees measured 14 inches diameter at breast high, with a length of clear timber estimated at 30 feet, corresponding in the aggregate to somewhat over 15,000 feet, board measure. On another acre considered tirst class, rather level laud,- the soil fresh to wet throughout the year, 72 trees were counted. Of this number, 14 were found 27 inches diameter at breast high, with an estimated length of timber of 50 feet; 5 were found 24 inches diameter at breast high, with an estimated length of timber of 50 feet; 13 were found 23 inches diameter at breast high, with au estimated length of timber of 50 feet; 8 were found 21 inches diameter at breast liigh, with au estimated length of timber of 40 feet; 10 were found 20 inches diameter at breast high, with an estimated length of timber of 40 feet; 11 were found 18 inches diameter at breast high, with an estimated length of timber of 40 feet; 11 were found 18 inches diameter at breast high, with au estimated length of timber of 30 feet. According to these tigures the timber standing on this acre would amount to not less than 35,0(t0 feet, board measuie. The chief site of the lumber industry of western Louisiana is at Lake Charles. Accordiug to the information furnished by Mr. George Lock, of Lockport, La., the annual output of the sawmills in the vicinity of Lake Charles for the years 1892 and 1803 averaged about 154,000,000 feet, board measure, all shipped West and Northwest. It can be assumed that over one-half of the lumber sawn at Orange, in 'Jexas, is cut on the eastern banks of the Sabine River, which amount has to be credited to the cut of Louisiana. .SHm/MrtCi/ of tin prodiictiou of Loiiyteuf I'iiie tiimlitr in the Stult- of LoiiiHiaiia in ISO:;. F.pt, n.M. Parislics east of the Mississii)i)i, about 2.5,000,000 Parishes north of the Red Kiver .5(5,000.000 To the Sabine River, sawn at Lake Charles 1.51.000,000 Sawn at Orange, Tex., (•stiiii:ite(l 40. (too. 000 Total 27.5.000,000 Texas. — The forests of Longleaf Pine extend from the Sabine west to the Trinity River and from the grassy savannas of the coast region north to the center of Sabine, San Augustine, and 46 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATEi^ Angelina counties, and include au area of about 2,890,000 acres. In amount and (juality of the timber these forests are unsurpassed and are only equaled by the forest of the adjoining region iu Louisiana. Toward their southern borders the country, like the pine fiats of southwestern Louisiana, is perfectly level and poorly drained, with the soil water soaked for a greater part of the year. Thfse flats have been almost completely stripped of their merchantable timber. North of Nona the surface rises gradually above the water level in broad, low swells, and, being underlaid by strata of stifl' loams, is more or less deficient iu drainage. The intervening wide flats are frequently covered with a dense growth of large slirubs and small-sized trees, consisting of various species of hawthorn [CmUcgus crusgnlU, G. virldix, C. mollis, C, berberidifolki), the Deciduous Holly {Ilex deeidua), Dahoon Holly {Ilex caroliniana), Privet {Adelia acuminatd), plane trees, and magnolias. These impenetrable thickets are common, and often cover many square miles, like the so-called Big Thicket in the lower part of Hardin County, said to be from 10 to 1") miles wide, either way. The growth of Longleaf Pine which covers the gentle, wide swells, is dense, of fine proportions, and of remarkably rapid development. The average age of five trees felled northwest of Nona, 15 to 25 inches in diameter, is but little over one hundred and fifty years, as the following measurements show : Mtaauremcnis of five trees. — "-- Kings on stump. Diameter breast high. Mean diameter. Length of Total height Of 240 208 105 113 94 Inchee. 26 18 21 15 Inche,. 20 19 16 18 12 Feet. 40 50 50 45 40 Feet. 110 101 113 110 107 190 ^ 1-'' 1 -HI 1 17 J- 1(11 In this region, owing to the direct communication of several railroad lines with the great centers of trade in the North and with the treeless plains of the far West, the manufacture of lumber has made a wonderful progress during the past twelve years. In 1880 the cut of Longleaf Pine in this State has been estimated at 00,450,000 feet. From Information received from jiartics engaged in the lumber business, the cut during the year 1S92 can safely be estimated at 440,000,000 feet. The centers of lumber production are Orange and Beaumont, but a great amount is cut at the mills along the several lines of railway passing through this region. Output (if Longleaf Pine lumber hi Texas diiriim the year 189:^. Feet, B. M. Orange ( inclusive of 40,000,000 of feet derived from Calcasieu) 45, 000, 000 IJeaumout 75,000,000 Sabine Valley, Texas and Nortbern Railroad •. 157,000,000 Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railroad 143,000,000 Houston, Kansas and Texas Railroad 20,000,0011 Total 440,000,00(1 For the renewal of the forests of Longleaf Pine iu this region there is as little hope under their present management as in the adjoining region in Louisiana. In this cold, wet soil the seeds find but a poor chance for germination, and the surviving plantlets soon succumb to the same cause. In the pine flats seedlings are rarely observed among the tall broom sedge grasses {AndnqxHion), which, under the influence of light and a damp soil, thrive luxuriantly in the flat woods denuded of their timber growth, imparting to them the aspect of waving meadows or savannas. PRODUCTS. VALUE AND USES OK THE WOOD. The wood of the Longleaf Pine is hardly surpassed by any of our timber trees of economic importance, and is practically unsurpassed by any member of its own order in the qualities which are required for purposes of construction, thus taking the first place among its congeners. VALUK AND USES OF THE WOOD. 47 The timber from the damp Hat woods of the coastal ])hiiu east of the Mississi])pi River, with a soil of almost pure, fine, closely compacted saud, is of slow growth and generally of the finest grain, often exhibiting that irregularity known as "curly pine." In the perpetually damp to wet soil of the pine Hats in southwestern Louisiana aud in Texas, with a deep retentive subsoil richer in nutritive elements, causing a better and quicker development of the tree, the wood is of a more open grain. Owing to the excellent qualities of the wood of Lougleaf Pine, its use in the various mechanical arts and industries is as extensive as it is manifold. Its greatest value rests in its adaptability for heavy constructions— in naval architecture, for masts and spars; in civil engi- neering, for the building of bridges, viaducts, trestlework, and for supports in the construction of buildings. Large quantities of long and heavy sticks of square timber sawed or hewn for such purposes are shipped to the British ports and to the dockyards of the European continent, with a constantly increasing demand. In the building of railroad cars, where great strength and elasticity is needed, the timber of Longleaf Pine is preferred to any other. For this purpose sticks from 3G to -12 feet, 10 by 1-! inches, are requii-ed, free from blemish. Enormous quantities of the younger timber of this tree are cut every year to serve for cnlss- ties, used by the railroads not oidy in the pine regions, but in other parts of the country. The demand for these ties forms a constant and increasing draft upon the forest. The ties delivered are, on the average, 8i feet long, 9 inches wide, aud 7 inches thick, and must be all heartwood and free from blemish. The trees selected for this purpose are from 15 to IG inches in diameter, and preferably only the butt cuts are accepted. On an average 10 cross-ties are cut from 1 acre, each tie representing a log which would make at least 75 superficial feet of lumber. Since such a tic, ready for the roadbed, contains not more than 50 feet, board measure, it will be readily seen what an enormous waste i-esults from tliis practice. On the damp, sandy tracts of the lower South, such ties will last five or six years, and 3,000 ties are needed for 1 mile of road. Hence, for the construction of the 3,2-10 miles of railroad traversing the forest of Longleaf Pine east of the Mississippi River, nearly 10,000,000 ties have been required, which being renewed every six years involves an annual cut of 110,000,000 feet, board measure, to which must be added the amount exported to other regions. In the Southern States, the West Indies, many places on the coast of Mexico, aud Central and South America the lumber of the Longleaf Pine forms the chief, if not the only, material in the construction of houses. For similar purposes considerable (luantitie^ are of late years shijjped to Northern markets. East and West, replacing in many cases, at least in paits of the buildings, the lumber of the White Pine, on account of its increasing scarcity. The finegrained and "curly" varieties of Longleaf Pine lumber, by their beauty and the high polish of which they are susceptible, begin, of late years, to take a place among the higher-priced kinds of wood for ornamental inside work. The importance and value of Longleaf Pine lumber as a material for constructions can not be better evidenced than by the fact that little less than 1,500,000,000 feet, board measure, or about one-third of all the lumber manufactured in the South, is being exported from Southern ports annu- ally to domestic aud foreign ports, besides furnishing almost the only material used at home in the construction of dwellings and all kinds of buildings. It also supplies material for furniture, as well as fuel, both in the form of firewood and charcoal, and its exploitation attbrds the means of subsistence to thousands. Lightwood.—Wlntnevev the sapwood of the tree is laid bare copious exudation of resin takes place and the surrounding wood becomes charged with it. Thus the wood of the trunks of the trees tapped for the extraction of their resin soon becomes charged with this along the scarified surface, and, as with the evaporation of water from the dead wood, the resinification proceeds and the wood increases in weight and durability. In low, damp places particularly this process takes place more extensively. This resin-charged wood is termed lightwood. The lightwood timber, con- sidered very durable when exposed to alternating conditions of moisture and dryness, is much preferred for posts, etc. Being highly inflammable, it serves for torches and kindling, and hence its name. Of late years a profitable industry has been started to utilize the resinous stumps of abandoned orchards as kindling material by cutting the same close to the ground and then, veneer 48 TIMBliR PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. fasliion, into long, narrow strips threefourtbs of an inch thick, which are subsequently steamed and rolled iu small bundles to make a convenient i)ackage for shipment. The knots, limbs, roots — particularly "fat," i. e., highly charged with resin — are used in the making of tar. , Charcoal burning. — Where a market is found the trees lefc standing, after the removal of the larger timber lit for sawlogs, are burned for charcoal. This industry is carried on to a greater or less extent iu the mineral regions to supply the blast furnaces operated for the manufacture of charcoal iron. Large areas of the forests of the Longleaf, covering the hills in north Alabama, have been entirely denuded of their tree covering to meet the demands for such i>uri)ose. Fuel value. — The air-dry wood of the Longleaf Pine is much esteemed for fuel; containing but a small percentage of ash — not over 0.25 per cent — with a small amount of water, and a dense and close liber, as indicated by its high specific gravity, its fuel value is necessarily high. Being also easily inflammable, it is preferred where quick and intense heat is required, as, for instance, in bakeries, brick kilns, potteries, etc., and in the raising of steam for stationary engines on steam- boats and railroad locomotives throughout the pine region, where mineral coal can not be cheaply obtained. It can safely be asserted that among the trees of the same order there is found -no other eipially rich in resin. The manufacture of naval stores from the resin of the Longleaf Pine forms one of the most widely developed industries in the pine forests of the coast pine belt of the South- ern States, and is scarcely less important than the manufacture of its lumber. A full account of these industries will be found iu the accompanying appendix. Concerning the manufacture of tar, i)itch, tar oils, and other products of destructive distillation of the wood and of rosin oil, see the Peport of the Chief of Forestry, 1892, page 356, etc. I'HODUCTS OBTAINKU KliOM THK LEAVES OI'' LONGLEAF PINE. The green leaves of the tree furnish by distillation an essential oil of balsamic odor closely resembling spirits of turpentine. The so-called j)ine wool is made from their cellular tissue, being treated with a strong alkaline solution at boiling heat, the remaining fiber being cleaned and carded. This pine wool is used in upholstery, and is said to be of value as an antiseptic dressing for wounds. Of late years it is manufactured into various kinds of textile fabrics. One fabric is a carpet which resembles cocoa matting somewhat, but is closely woven and is naturally of a rich brown color and very durable. This industry, only recently established, has already met such success that the manufacturers have added twenty-nine looms to their work. No:HEN('LATrRi: AND CLASSIFICATION. This tree was first described by Miller in the year 1768 under the name of Pinu.f 2>nl>i>>iris. The younger Michaux substituted for it the more appropi-iate one of J'inu.s aiistraluj under which name it was described by succeeding writers and generally known to botanists of recent date. To satisfy the law of priority, the name given by Michaux has recently been dropped and the ok? one reinstated, iu the Catalogue of Xorth American Forest Trees,' published in the ninth volume of the census reports of 1880. (See vernacular nomenclature in introduction.) UOTANICAL DESCRIPTION AND MOUl'Mc il.i m . V . Leaves three, iu a long light-colored sheath; coiiiiiionly I'rom 9 to 13 (somel;imes 11 to l.j) inches long; of a bright green color and closely set iu brush-like clusters at the cuds of the stout branches. Cones large, dark tan colored, 6 to souietiuus 8 inches long and 2 to 2i inches iu diameter when closed, 5 to (i inclijes when open; scales about 2 inches long and one-half to 1 inch wide— rather uniform iu width— somewhat thickened at the ends, and bearing a rather delicate iucurved prickle; seed large, slightly triangular, three-eighths to seven-sixteenths of an inch long and one- fourth of an inch wide; often with two or three longitudin.al ridges on one face; whitish, with few or abundant brown specks; wing IJ to 2 indies long and of a glossy brownish to deep purple-brown cidor. The most cousjiicuous and distinguishing featui-e of this species is the silvery ihU-k terminal bud, or rather the bud-like clusters of the young leaves inclosed in their finely iringcd subtending scales. Its branches are rough, covered with tiie bases of the imbricated leaf scales, the elongated silvery fringes having fallen off. 'A catalogue of Norih American Forest Trees, exclusive of Mexico, by C. S. Sargent. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION. 49 BOOT, STEM, AND BUANCH SYSTEM. The Long-leaf Piue attains a height averaging 100 feet, rarely exceeding 110 feet, with a diameter breast high, when fully grown, varying between 20 and 3G inches, rarely more. The tall, straight, very gradually tapering trunk arises from a massive taproot which, in favorable situations, penetrates the soil to a depth of from 12 to 15 feet, and sometimes much more. It has several stout, comparatively short lateral roots, which assist the tree in its hold by slant- ing deeply into the ground, and some of greater length are placed more or less near the surface. Its crown is open and elongated, of irregular shape, about one half to one third of its height. The stout limbs are rarely over 20 feet in length, twisted and gnarled and sparingly branched. The trunk is covered with a reddish-brown bark, one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch thick, furrowed throughout its full length, crossed horizontally by deep fissures, and scaling oft' in thin, bluish, almost transparent ihombic Hakes. LEAVES AND THEIR MODIFICATIONS. Like all the pines, this species produces during various stages of its growth seven different modifications of leaves as recognized by botanists, all more or less specific in character: (1) Cotyledonary, or seed leaves (first leaves of the embryo), which soon wither and disappear (PI. VII, a, h). (2) Primary leaves succeeding the former immediately on the main axis (PI. VII, c), which either wither or later on are transformed into, or succeeded by, more or less permanent bracts or scales covering the branches (PI. V, «). (3) The secondary or foliage leaves rising from the buds produced in the axils of the primary leaves or of the scales by which they are represented (PI. VII, d), forming the permanent foliage of the tree, with three leaves in one sheath. (4) The bud scales forming the sheaths of the foliage leaves (PI. IV, 1>, c, c1) at base. (5) Involuci-al bracts of the male flower (PI. V,_/'). (6) luvolucral scales of the female inflorescence (ament) (PI. V, e). (7) The bracts which support the carpellary scale bearing the seed (PI. V, /»).' The primary leaves, which succeed the cotyledons on the i)rimary axis, are in form and structure true leaves. They are softer than the final foliage leaves, have a broad base, are rounded on the dorsal side and not channeled, the whitish transparent margins being finely \)ut distinctly den- ticulate. It is rare that secondary leaves proceed from the axils of these chlorophyll-bearing primary leaves. With the more frequent appearance of the ordinary leaves, these primary leaves wither and henceforth appear as triangular scale like coriaceous persistent bracts, with broad, hyaline, long-fringed edges, in the axils of which the undeveloped branchJets are produced bearing the secondary or foliage leaves. Tlie cidorophyll-beariiig primary leaves exhibit a simple structure. The flbro-vascular bundle is single, embedded in a wider ring of large cells free from chlorophyll, and the resinous ducts fewer iu number, one, or rarely more than two, being irregularly situated in the clilorophyll-beariug parenchymatous tissues, and mostly external, i. e., close to the thick epidermis. But few of these leaves are formed after the appearance of the foliage leaves, and a few of them persist thi-oughout the first season.- The cataphyllary leaves forming the sheath or the foliage leaves are iu this si)ecies composed of eight successive jiairs of bud scales; those of the first pair are blunt, fiat, deeply concave and coriaceous, with sharp edges; the others are more membranaceous and with ringed edges, the closely interwoven edges entwining the base of the fascicle. In the secondary leaves the very numerous stomata form, on both sides, regular longitudinal rows. Parallel with these, at regular distances between them and embedded iu the parenchymatous tissue, are found bundles of numerous, elongated, thick-walled cells, the so-called hypodermal or strengthening cells. The resin ducts, not over five in number, described bj Engelniann as internal, have been found in the specimen examined rather parenchymatous, invariably so on the dorsal side. Three of the secondary or true foliage leaves are united into one bundle, inclosed at the base by a persistent sheath from one-half inch to an inch in length, formed by the bud scales or cataphyllary leaves. On the older trees the leaves are rarely over 8 inches in length, but during the periods of most active growth they are found 12 to 18 inches long. They are finely serrulate, rounded on the back, channeled, and obtusely triangular in cross section. ' George Engelmauu : Revision of the Genus Pinus. Transactions of the St. Louis Academy of Science, 1882. •Engelmann: Revision of Genus Pinus. Trans. St. Louis Academy of Science, 1882, p. 5. 25666— No. 13—02 4 EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV. Fig. fl, branch showing the terminal spring shoot ol' the season with characteristic, large silvery white winter bud ; the bundles of leaves arise from the axils of the leaf-bracts of the last two seasons, the tirst leaves of the second year already shed; h, detached bundle of mature leaves with sheath; c, d, scales of the sheath, uiagniBed three and nine times; e, transverse section through base of leaf bundle showing imbrication of sheath scales, maguihed 30 diameters; /, transverse section of an immature leaf, magnitied 30 diameters; g, transverse section of a mature leaf, magnified 45 diameters, showing the microscopic structiire (as pointed out for V. echinuta, f, f) ; h, longitudinal sec- tion of the dorsal side of a mature leaf showing two rows of stomata and the errated edge, magnitied 45 diameters. 50 Bulletin No. 13, Division of F PiNUS PALUSTRIS: BUD AND LEAF. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION. 51 Owing to the sbedding of the older leaves at the end of the seeoud year and to the short annual growth of the axis, the leaves on the older trees are eonspicuously crowded into dense tufts or tassels on the tips of the branchlets. The high development of (he organs of transpiration, as shown by the immense number of breathing eells, clearly indicates that forests of the Longleaf Pine, and in fact of most evergreens, are not less important than forests of deciduous trees in intiuencing atmospheric conditions, particularly when it is considered that in tiie former, clothed with perpetual foliage, this function suffers but little interruption of its activity. I LORAL ORGANS. The male and female flowers are sometimes found ou the same branch; they are, however, more frequently situated on different branches, the male Howers mostly on the lower (PI. V, h). The male flowers consist of a slender axis, the staminodial column, around which the numerous naked anthers are densely crowded, forming a cylindrical catkiu-lilie flower from 2 to lii inches and over iu length, surrounded at the base by a calyx like involucre consisting of twelve ovate somewhat leathery bracts, of which the lowest pair or exterior ones are laterally compressed, strongly keeled, and much smaller. The connective of the dark-rose purple anthers spreads out in a semiorbicular denticulate crest; a number of these male flowers are crowded around the base of this year's shoot, forming a dense whorl. After the discharge of the pollen the withered flowers remain for several mouths ou the tree. The pollen remaining for a long time suspended in the air is often wafted to widely distant localities. In the latitude of Mobile its dischaige takes place during or shortly after the second week of March. The feuiale flowers (see PI. V, a) are united iu a subterminal oval, erect, short-stalked catkin, which is also surrounded by an involucre, the bracts being more numerous, longer, more acuminate, and membranaceous than those of the male flower. The carifellary scales bearing ovules are oblong oval, tipiied with a strong reflexed iwiut, and are almost hidden by the thin flat scales by which they are subtended, which, however, thej^ soon surpass in size. During the first year the young cones make but slow progress in their growth. Ou the opening of the second season they are scarcely over an inch long; during the summer they increase rapidly and reach their full size during the latter part of the fall. The cones are placed horizontally on the branches below the terminal bud (subterminal), sessile, slender, conical with a slight curve and from G to S inches long; of a dull tan color; the thick scales are light to dark chestnut brown on the inside, 2 inches or slightly over in length, and bear on their exposed end, or apophysis, a small but prominent tubercle armed with a short recurved prickle (see PI. VI . Plate VI exhibits truly and fully the open cone and especially the tine markings on the apophysis of the scale. The cones are shed in the latter part of the winter of the second year, rarely remaining to the following spring. On breaking from the branches they leave the lowest rows of the scales behind. The seeds are strongly convex, oblong, oval, less than a half inch long, and surroumlcd by the long oblique wing (see PI. VI). The shell is whitish, at the front face marked by three prominent ridges, flat, smooth, and darkly spotted on the posterior side. It incloses an oily kernel, covered by a white seed coat; rich in nutritious matter and palatable, the seeds furnish in fruitful years an abundance of mast. They are shed before the fall of the cone during dry weather, most abun dantly during the latter ])art of the fall lend of October or November the best time for their collection), and in a lesser degree during the winter. They germinate easily after reaching maturity, and it often liappens, in wet, sultry, weather, that they begin to s[)rout before leaving the cone, iu which event the whole crop is destroyed. This, together with the killing of the flowers by late frosts, seems to be one of the main causes of failure of the sefd crop so frequently observed. From the behavior of the seed just mentioned and from its oleaginous character it is to be inferred that the period of time during which the seeds retain the power of germination under ordinary circumstances is but a short one, but as a matter of fact seeds a little over a year old have been known to germinate. EXPLANATION OF PLATKS V AND VI. Plate Y. Fig. a, l)ranch with two I'eujale aments (sfcoiid week of March), at the end of terminal young shoot of the season densely covered with limhriate silvery hract snbtending the leaf Inids which are still hidden in their axils ; below are two immature cones of one season's growth and mature closed cone of two seasons' growth (October) ; I), branch with the male inflorescence, the leaves cut away to show the dense cluster of male flowers which closely surround the apex of the young shoot; c, female ament with basal scales forming the calyx like involucre; d, d, d, carpellary or seed-bearing scales of female flowers more advanced, lateral, ventral, and dorsal views — magnified 5 diameter.s; e, detached male flower with basal involucral scales, before opening (dehiscence); /, male flower, after discharge of the jiollen; ;/, three detached anthers, lower sides showing longitudinal slits of the pollen sacs just opening; lateral view of an eft'ete anther; another seen from upper side showing the transverse semilunar crest — all magnified 5 diameters; h, detached female flower seen from above; the cuspidate carpellary, or seed scale, bears two strongly bifid naked ovules as its base ; i, female flower viewed from below, dorsal side ; the bract almost covers the carpellary scale, leaving only the tip of the latter ahd the cusps of the ovules visible; magnified 5 diameters. Plate VI. Fig. a, mature open cone, after shedding seed; 6, cone scale seen from lower or dorsal side showing the apophysis with low umbo and small, weak prickle; c, cone scale sien from upper or ventral side with seed in place; d, seed, upper side; r, seed detached from c, lower side; /, seed detached from wing, upper side, and inches annually, as is clearly shown by the length of the internodes sepai-ating the whorls. As the branches increase in length they produce, in the same order mostly, two opposite secondary branches. With the rapid expansion of the leaf surface^ the formation of wood keeps pace. The rate of growth in diameter, as well as in height, during this period, is of course variable according to differences in the physical condition of the soil as well as in the available amount of plant food and moisture it contains, and no less upon differences in temperature and of exposure to light and air. These variations are clearly shown 56 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHEBX UNITED STATES. in the annexed tables, exhibiting the rate of growth of the tree during its most active stage. With the increasing accretion of wood the annual rings become sharply defined, leaving no doubt as to the age of the tree. To make sure as to the relation between the annual rings and the age of the tree, the age of second growth was ascertained by close inquiries directed to settlers who knew the time that had elapsed since this second growth made its appearance in the abandoned fields or in the forest. Ill every instance it was found that the number of rings accorded closely with the information elicited. To ascertain the ditlerence in rate of growth and (|uality of wood between trees grown njion ground once turned by the plow and those sprung ui) in the original forest on the same soil, several trees of nearly the same size were felled in what clearly appeared to be the remnant of virgin forest, and in a grove grown up in a field abandoned years ago.' It was made evident that trees in the original forest required almost double the length of time to attain the same dimension. A field covered with saplings quite uniform in growth and known to have been thrown out of cultivation during the years 1.SG3 and 18(54 afforded a good oi)portunity for these investigations. A number of trees, varying in diameter between lOi and 11 inches, and in height between 4.5 and no feet, showed from 30 to 3~> rings of growth. The length of the spring shoots on the main stem oi' these trees was found (June 8) to be from 21 to 24 in(;hes. In another fine grove, covering a field which was known to have been cultivated for the last time during the years 1S.')5 and IS.'iO, a number of trees were cut down for nieasureinent. The number of rings was found not to exceed 48. These trees also showed great uniformity in size, measuring near the base Hi to 12 inclies in diameti-r and from G8 to 72 feet in height. The wood was sappy throughout and useless, except for fuel and for making charcoal. For this purpose the laud is rented at $4 to $5 per acre. In this grove, ranking as best pine-woods laud, the soil of which was nearly level, well drained, and with a light, loamy subsoil, 110 trees of the above dimensions were counted on 1 acre. Among the trees taken from the forest for determining the difference between forest growth and field trees, one measuring 12 inches in diameter and 70 feet in height showed 85 rings of annual growth, with 9.i inches of heartwood. Two others, 14 and 15 inches in diameter and 70 and 71 feet high, showed 00 rings each. The shoots of the year (June 8) on the primary and lateral axes of these trees were found to be but little over 1 inch in length. In a third grove, upon poor, sandy, undulating ground, a number of trees below medium size were found cut down to serve for posts and logs. In 25 of these trees the diameter varied between 7i^ and 8 inches, with a nearly uniform height of GO to 02 feet, the first limb being IS to 20 feet above the ground. The number of rings varied between 48 and 50. The forests in the same vicinity were stripped of their more valuable timber a number of years before. The largest trees of the original forest growth remaining were from 12 to 15 inches in diameter. Several were brought down for measurement and found to be 73 feet in height by 14 inches in diameter, with 12G rings and 9 inches of heartwood; 73 feet in height by 13 inches in diameter, with 94 rings and G inches of heartwood; and 89 feet in height by 14 inches in diameter, with 107 rings and S inches of heartwood. When the tree has reached its second decade it begins to produce flowers and fruit. Having during the course of the following ten to fifteen years reached a length of from 40 to 45 feet, with the main stem clear of limbs, the growth of branches does not jiroceed with the same regularity; consequently, they are no longer arranged in regular wlioils, but appear irregularly, and thus the symmetry of the tree is lost. ' On tlie rolling jjine uplauda near Spring Hill, Mobile (bounty. Diame- Height. breast To Total. [nchet. Feet. Feet. 5fi, 4^ lo" u 6 17 9 ■12 8 14 L'4 % 15 PERIOD OF RAPID GROWTH. Table I. — Measurements of young treis of Longlcaf Pine. Opening in forest; pasture protected 1 Do. Old field ; last time plowed in 1874. In the midst of forest. Opeuinj^ iu forest. Deep forest. Old field. Open forest. Pasture in forest; ground never turne Old clearing ; turned ground. Do. Opening in forest ; sandy uplands. 57 Flat, damp; openiuj; in forest; exposu Old held ; poor, broken ground. Virgin forest; undercover. Virf^in forest; in opening; free. ii|„ II \.,v I s.iiidy uplands; free. ! ;. I i:l ,: I. use forest in opening; exposure free. Do. Do. Boundary field ; open. Flat, damp ; open forest. Dense oak opening ; opi)ressed. Iu open forest. Old pasture, on poor broken ground. 6 trees from grove of old pasture; yield, sticks and posts for fencing and building; averaging 20 feet in length. Grove with 115 to 120 trees to the acre; on field abandoned in 1835, and rented to charcoal burners. Old ])asture. Old.turpentine orchard ; bled; exposed for over 20 year.s, one season after another, to tire. Under cover of forest. Old turpentine orchard: bled ami si^ordu^il, exiiibiting the effect of bleeding and repeated burning of the woods by their retarded grow Stage of slow growth. — Rapid as is the increase in length of the primary axis or trunk, amount- ing during the first half century, in the average, to 14; or 15 inches annually, the rate is subse- quently greatly diminished, averaging from the fiftieth to about the one hundred and fifteenth year but from 4 to 5 inches, and from this time to the age of two hundred and fifty years only IJ inches — that is, at a relative rate of 10, 3, and 1 in the three successive periods. The decrease in the accretion of wood corresponds with the reduction in the growth of the branches and conse- fiuent reduction of foliage. From what has been said, it is seen that the Longleaf Pine attains fullness of growth, with the best qualities of its timber, at an age of from one hundred and eighty to two hundred years. After having passed the second century the trees are found frequently to be wind shaken and otherwise defective. The deterioration of the weather-beaten crown lessens the vitality of the tree, and the soil, under prevailing conditions, becomes less and less favorable. In consequence, the trees become liable to disease and mostly fall prey to the attacks of parasitic fungi (red heart). Instances of trees which have reached the maximum age of two hundred and seventy-five or three hundred years are exceptional. In order to ascertain the age required to furuisU merchantable timber of first quality, meas- urements were made of a number of logs iu a log camp in the rolling pine uplands of the lower division of the coastal pine belt near Lumbertou, Washington County, Ala. From the results obtained it appears that in this section of the eastern Gulf region, at the lowest figure, one hundred and fifty to one hundred and seventy-five years are requisite to produce logs of the dimensions at present cut at the sawmills. 25666— No. 13—02 5 58 TIMBER PINES OP THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. Taiile II. — Mea^uretncHls of Longleaf Fine — period of slower (/rowth from one Inindred to two hundred i/eam. S & •= g s .•". •a H Tn. lOb 19 110 17 180 i 112 15 I 50 114 115 115 116 116 17 1^* 118 15 123 125 17 18 133 135 18 17 145 19 145 22 140 20 155 155 23 18 160 24 165 21 167 16 170 170 21 21 180 19 182 19 183 16 189 19 190 21 Increase in diam- eter for e.ieli ball- quired for every inch of wood for each suc- cessive lialf ceutury. 3 I 4 5 Nona, Tex ... Wallace, Ala.. Wilson, Ala Chniichnla. Ala. Wilson, Ala , Eastman, Ga Flat; soil, deep sandy loam, damp; vir- gin forest close; e.\po8ure free. Gently rolling, pine upland, close; vir- gin forest; slightly under cover and oppressed. Bored timber; abandoned for five years; dry pine, rolling pine forest ; e.\posnre free. Open forest; exposure free. Do. Do. Flat woods; closed forest; dumii, etc. Clearing in forest; soil dry, sandy. RoUinc: pine laiida; dry, .sandy. Flat womls: Hnii();iniit:'i-rown oppressed. Kolliii^ ! " • .Ir.v, siiudy. Bi-'Kil '! ii Hi open forest; par. Gii.i for- Do Eidgeland, S. C . Wallace, Ala. Itenfroe, Ala. Exposed slope ; open forest ; soil, loamy sand; exposure free. Open forest; dry, sandy; exposure free. Kocky hillside ; dry subsoil, loam; expo sure free. Eocky hillside; dry subsoil, loam; par- tially free. Gently undulating open forest; loamy sand; exposure free. Open pine forest; sandy loam, dry; Open pine forest; loamy saud, dry; posure free. Close forest; deep sandy loam; e: sure free. Kocky hillside; forest open; dry; e: sure free. Flat woods, damp: close forest; e: sure free. Do. Rolling open I Wallace, Ala.. ■tFallv ne woods; deep sandy loam; KoUing pine woods; deep saudy loam; partiall.y under cover. Flat woods; loamy; damp; free Table III.— J/lack Oak, Spanish Oak, Black-jack, Bitternut, Morkcinut llickm-ies, and Black Gum. It will be apparent, from what has been said regarding the demands for light, that the asso- ciated species must be either slower growers or later comers, if the Longleaf Pine is to survive iu the mixture. As has been pointed out elsewhere, with the culling of the Longleaf Pine from the mixed growths it must soon cease to play a part in them, since its renewal under the shade of the remaining associates is impossible. ENEMIES. The greatest danger threatening the existence of the forests of Longleaf Pine must be ascribed to the agency of man, since their destruction is caused chiefly by the reckless manner in which they are depleted without heed to recuperation. The right of ownership has been generally acquired on such low terms that since no value has been attached to the laud without the timber, despoliation has been carried on with no other object than the quickest return of momentary profits. EXPLOITATIOX. Such management could not but entail tremendous waste, a large percentage of the body of the trees felled being left on the ground to rot or to serve as fuel for the conflagrations which scour these woods almost every year. Infinitely greater than the injuries inflicted upon the forest by the logger and by getting out cross-ties and hewn square timber, which consist chiefly in the accumulation of combustible waste, are those caused by the production of naval stores. When the fact is considered that the production of the 40,000 barrels of spirits of turpentine, which on an average during the latter half of this decade annuallj' reached the market of Mobile alone, implies the devastation of about 70,000 acres of virgin forest, the destruction caused by this industry appears iu its full enormity. Under the management of the turpentine orchards l)revailing at present, trees of such small size are tapped that they are unable to resist the force of the winds, and in a few years are inevitably prostrated, while the larger trees, weakened by the severe gashes on almost every side, become largely wind shaken, and the timber after a longer lai)se of time loses much iu value. 62 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. While a judicious tapping is uot only justified, but demanded, by an economic system of exploitation, the prevailing methods of orcharding are unnecessarily destructive. The tapping of sapling timber not yet ripe for the saw, and the destructive Arcs started in connection with this industry, annihilating all young growth, pi-event any renewal of the forest, while the working of large bodies of timber years before milling facilities are available leads often to 20 per cent and more of loss in both quality and quantity of the merchantable product. The greatest injury to which the pine forests are subject in consequence of turpentine orcharding arises from the flres which are started every spring for tlie purpose of getting rid of the combustible matter raked from around the tapped trees in order to protect them from accidental conflagrations while they are worked. These forest fires, spreading far beyond their intended limits, destroy entirely the youngest progeny of the pines, stunt the growth of the more advanced trees, and cause the ruin of a large number of older ones in the abandoned turpentine orchards. Burning deeply into the gashes and other exposed surfaces of the tapped trees, these flres hasteu their jirostration by the gales. Moreover, the fire causes cracks in the surfaces laid bare by the ax and the puller and occasions greater exposure to atmospheric action, thus inducing more or less rapid decay. A test, made by sawing through twenty-two logs taken at random from a turpentine orchard after it had been abandoned for a ])eriod of sixteen to eighteen years, showed that about one-half of the timber was partially decayed and shaky. Besides the production of naval stores as a cause of forest flres, there is another scarcely less potent. This is the ])ractice prevailing among the settlers of burning the woods upon the approach of every spring in order to hasten the growth of grass for their famished stock. Fires are also frequently started through the carelessness of loggers and hunters, in the preparation of the ground for tillage, and by sparks from locomotives. These fires, occurring at least once during every year, cause the total destruction of the young growth of the Longleaf Pine. The danger to this species is much greater than to any other Southern tree, because of the greater length of time it requires to reach a size at which it can offer some resistance to fire. In the open forests of Longleaf Pine the fires are not so destructive to the larger timber as in the dense forests of coniferous trees farther north, trees of larger size being, with some exceptions, but slightly, if at all, directly damaged. Another serious damage, however, resulting from the frequent recurrence of fires is the destruction of all vegetable matter in the soil. Deprived of the mulching needed for the retention of moisture, the naturally porous and dry soil, now rendered absolutely arid and barren, is no longer capable of supporting any larger tree growth or other useful vegetation. Of no less danger to the existence of the forests of Longleaf Pine is the injury caused by live stock. This agency, slow in its action, is sure to lead to their destruction unless restricted to some extent. Besides the damage due to the trampling down and mutilation of the young growth by herds of cattle roaming through the woods, the smaller domestic animals — goats and sheep — eat the tufts of the tender foliage of the seedlings, while hogs are seen digging up and chewing the spongy and tender roots of the young plants. As a further agency in the way of tlie renewal of this species, the destruction of the mature cones might be mentioned, caused principally by the squirrels, which peel oft' the scales clean to the core in search of the sweet, nutritious seed. Full-grown trees are frequently uprooted by the hurricanes which from time to time pass through the pine belt. Those having the taproot shortened by impenetrable layers of indurated clay interposed in the subsoil at varying depths are invariably the first victims of the high winds. In trees grown in such x>laces the taproot is found with a tumid and round base as smooth as if polished. 63 Frequently full-grown trees are found to show signs of rapid decay. These are recognized by the gradual dying of the smaller liaibs and their falling otf, in consequence of the rotting of the wood surrounding their base; and after having been cast ofl' a hole or diseased spot remains in the trunk, which is infested by a large fungus of the genus Pohjporus (punk holes, punk stools). The heartwood of such trees is of a reddish color, soft, sappy, and full of small channels, caused by the breaking down of the walls of the wood cells, tilled with the mycelium, the so-called spawn of the fungus, the threads of which also penetrate the medullary rays. Such punky or red-heart timber is found mostly on the ridges in the poorest soil. Apparently superannuated trees are most frequently found afHicted with this rot. The Longleaf Pine, throughout its existence, is exposed to the danger of destruction by the ravages of insects, hosts of which, belonging to various orders, are found to infest it from the earliest stages of its development. Upon the tufts of the tender primary leaves of the seedling are often found feeding large numbers of a yellow, black-striped caterpillar, the larva? of a species of sawfly (LopliijrnH). The cambium of trees felled in the latter part of the summer is soon found swarming with the larval brood of bark beetles, which after a short time infest the trees growing near by, causing, as has been again and agaiu observed, the death particularly of the trees of younger growth over extensive areas. Hence the necessity of stopping the practice of felling trees during the summer season. According to information kindly furnished by Mr. Schwarz, of the Entomological Division of the United States Department of Agriculture, most if not all the species of the bark beetles of the family Tomicidw have more than one annual generation, and in the Southern States they have, in all probability, three. The summer generation develops in a very short time, possibly within four or five weeks, and the perfect beetles issuing from the trees felled in August will in Septem- ber attack the healthy trees near bj^ for want of more suitable food. The ravages spoken of bj' Michaux refer, no doubt, to these species of Tomicidcv beetles which enter the solid wood of trees, e. g., Gn-uthotrichus materiarius and XjflehoruH intbesceiis. The galleries of these timber beetles or allied species are found to penetrate the wood to the heart. The grating noise made by the larva; of the large ceramboid beetle, the Monohammus, while engaged in its work of destruction frequently strikes the ear in the forest. That there is a large number of species belonging to different orders preying on the Longleaf Pine and more or less destructive to the life of this tree is apparent from the following communication from Mr. Schwarz: The nnraber of insects to bo found on the Longleaf Pine is very large and comprises species of most orders, but a complete list defoliating the branches. The species thus far observed are Lophyrus ahbotii, Leach; Lophyrits leconiei, Fitch, and three or four less common species. Order Cohoptera: Round-headed borers (larvM> nf Cifimhijcidw) atfect the trees similarly to the Siiprentida-, but their burrows are always cylindrical, and - ni. -]m , ;. s Lore only under the bark. The most abundant and destructive is Monnhammus lilillalor, Fabr., but i In i r .■.n- many cither species, of which the following is a partial list: Scaphinus sphaTicollis, Lee; Asemum moestum, Ilal.l. ; Ciin,, i.lmhis nuhilus, Lee; Eupogoniuntomentoaus.l^a.M. ; Acantho- cinus nodosiis, Fabr. In the family Curculionidu, the worst enemy of the pine tree in the more Northern .States Pissodes stiobi is rare in the region of the Longleaf Pine, bat another species, rachylobiux jiiciiorus, Germ., the larva' of which bore nnder the bark, is quite common and greatly injurious to the Longleaf Pine. Of its more dangerous enemies the Scolytid beetles, which mostly bore their galleries under the bark, only a fe%v species entering the solid ■wood, the following are known to infest Pinu8 palustrh: Piti/opthoriiK piiUcariua, Zim. ; P. aiinectens, Lee. ; TomUus calligraphus, Ger.; T. -ai'iiZsi/s,, Eich. ; T. cacographuf, IjOc; Cryplunjua alonuia,'Lec.\ Dendrocionus ieribraiis, OWv.; D. froiitalh, Zim. ; Hylastes porculm, Er. ; //. exilis, Chap. The few species entering the solid wood are Platypus quadr'idenlaius, Oliv.; Gnathoirichus maieriarius, Fitch, and Ayhborus 2>iibi8ceiis, Zim. Most of these ScolytidiE are extremely numerous in specimens, and although they usually infest injured or diseased trees, yet in cases of excessive multiplication or for want of proper food they often attack healthy trees, which within one oi; two years succumb to their attacks. 64 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. NATURAL REPRODUCTION. Certain peculiarities inherent to this species form a series of obstacles in the way of its spontaneous reproduction. These are, iirst, the rare occurrence of seasons of abundant crops of seed, and, second, its slow growth during the earliest part of its development, rendering the young oft'spring of this pine liable to be suppressed by competing species of quicker growth. To these causes is to be further added its dependence upon the influence of direct suidight, which is required for its germination as well as during the subseijuent stages of its growth to maturity, and the sensitiveness of the seeds and seedlings to moisture; phiced in a wet, undrained soil, the germinating power of the first is destroyed and the latter will perish on exposure to the same conditions. A study of the'^'oung growth of the Longleaf Pine over the difl'erent regions of its habitat leads unavoidably fo the conclusion that the chances ior the reproduction of its forests, left to the ordinary course of nature, are quite limited, even if the adverse conditions arising from human agencies are left out of consideration. On the lowlands of the Atlantic Coast toward its northern limit this pine is almost invariably replaced by the Loblolly Pine, while farther south and in the coastal plain of the Gulf States east of the INIississippi Eiver, after its removal, it is replaced partly by the Loblolly Pine and largely by the Cuban Pine. On the wide expanse of uplands rising above the coastal plain with their broad ridges of a soil of sandy loam, the young trees of the Longleaf Pine are met with in every stage of growth. Attaining, however, during the first five or six years scarcely a greater height than the surrounding herbage, the seedlings >are irredeemably ruined by the various destructive agencies to which they are exposed. On land liable to repeated conflagrations, a scrubby growth, chiefly of barren oak and other upland oaks already mentioned, takes possession and excludes by its shade the pine. If upon the rolling pine lands or dry pine barrens the removal of most of the original tree covering is followed by a succession of barren years, the ground will surely be invaded by the hard wood trees mentioned, which will retain possession. Under the shade of these trees the Longleaf Pine can never again find a home. In the stronger soil of the upper division of tlie maritime i>ine belt, the region of mixed growth, where the seedlings of the Longleaf Pine spring up simultaneously with the hard-wood trees and the seedlings of the Shortleaf Pine, these latter will eventually gain the supremacy and suppress those of the Longleaf Pine; consequently the latter is seldom observed in mixed forests of second growth. In the flat woods, particularly in the pine flats of southwestern Louisiana and Texas, with a soil water-soaked during the winter and spring, the ottspring of tlie Longleaf Pine is still more rarely met with for the reasons stated. From these fiicts it is evident that, owing to natural causes, combined with the unrestricted sway of the influences leading to its destruction by human agency, the oflsi>riug of the Longleaf Pine is rarely seen to occupy the place of the parent tree, even in the region most favorable to its natural renewal, and that final extinction of the forests of the Longleaf Pine is inevitable unless proper forest management is applied. FOREST MANAGEMENT. The time for the acquisition of timber lands or of the right of working them for their products at prices far below what could be considered as an adequate return for their intrinsic value has well-nigh passed away. Tlie opportunities which existed during the last twenty-five years for acquiring Longleaf Pine lands, which were open to purchase by the hundreds of thousands of acres, have now in a great measure ceased to exist. The greater part of this kind of property has passed into the possession of capitalists, and the rest will soon be similarly controlled. Under this new order of things the price of these timber lands is gradually approaching figures more in proiiortion to their true value. The depredations committed unblushingly on the public lands, and on the lands of railroad corporations and private owners, are rendered less easy every year under a mutual protection of interest. Keckless waste and devastation, heedless of the interests of tlie future, are giving way to a more economical management of the timber resources in the logging camp and in the mill. No measures have been attempted to maintain these resources by sparing the younger timber in its best stage of growth from the ax, or to provide in any other way for the protection and preservation of the younger growth. FOREST MANAGEMENT. 65 What has been said of the geographical distribution of this tree and its demands upon climate, soil, and exposure demonstrates that east of the Mississippi Eiver it can be successfully grown all over the maritime plain of the Southern States (Austro-riparian zone) and in the interior of Ala- bama, through a large region of the Carolinian and the southern extension of the Appalachian zone to an elevation above the sea falling little short of 2,000 feet. And the sandy soils of this region, largely too poor for agricultural use, are par excellence Lougleaf Pine lands. In the renewal of the forests of Lougleaf Pine, upon areas denuded, the fact must be borne in mind that to l^roduce timber which is under iireseut conditions considered of fair merchantable quality a period of not less than one hnndred and fifty years is required, and that to produce timber of the dimen- sions, clearness, and durability for which it is held in such high esteem the slow growth under the severe and hardening conditions involved in the struggle for light in the crowded forests is necessary. Hence, economic reasons would point to the maintenance and conservative manage- ment of the existing forests of Lougleaf Pine and their renewal by natural reproduction, and preferably by the method of selection which under the present conditions appears the most practi- cable, involving chiefly methods of protection. By this method all or most of the mature trees, corresponding in their proportions to the most desirable quality of timber, are cut and the rest left to grow until they reach similar dimensions, to be in their tarn replaced by the second growth, which in the openings from time to time springs up. In fact, this method was followed in the earlier days of the timber industry iu the several regions of the Lougleaf Pine, where the forests were being culled for the best sizes at intervals of from fifteen to thirty years. But owing to the exhaustion of the mature pine from forests within reach of railroad lines and water courses, which necessitates great outlays of capital for constructing tramroads or waterways, the original practice of selection has been abandoned, no tree being spared at present that will make a stick of timber, however small, as long as it finds a sale iu the market. Care should of course be taken to leave always enough seed trees evenly distributed, and the chief care is to be directed to the protection of the seedlings and other young growth from the destructive agencies mentioned — fire, cattle, and the encroach- ment of invading species. A forest under such management would necessarily present a great diversity in the growth of the trees, and the length of time between one cutting and the next would be equally variable. It must be remarked that the demand of this species for the unhin- dered access of direct sunlight during the time of germination and successive stages of growth might prove a serious obstacle to the continued success of this method of selection ; and the " group method," as described in the report of the chief of the Division of Forestry for 1894, might be sub- stituted with advantage. Where it is desired to reestablish the growth of Longleaf Pine upon denuded areas, the ground must be cleared of every obstacle in the way of free access of the rays of the sun before the sowing. Owing to the ease with which the seeds germinate and the seed- lings take root in the ground, but slight preparation of the same would be required, and there would be no difficulty in procuring a good stand. If transplanting is to be resorted to, the seed- lings should be taken up during the fall or winter succeeding the first season of their growth, before the further development of the rapidly growing taproot, the precaution always being taken to prevent any injury to the rootlets and their drying out before their transfer to the ground. Since the trees clear themselves easily of branches, the stand in the plantation in the earlier stages does not need to be as dense as with other species. In order to secure improvement and permanency of favorable soil conditions, the litter from the shedding of the leaves and gradual decay of herbage should be left undisturbed on the ground. There can be hardly any doubt that the introduction of other shady species would greatly assist in improving soil conditions and producing more rapid development of the pine. Care would have to be taken to bring iu these species later, say between fifteen and twenty years, when the pine has begun to make its rapid height growth and can escape the shade of its neighbors. For the present, however, the economic conditions are hardly yet ripe for any artificial reforestation, but the great importance of this valuable forest resource to the industrial and commercial development and prosperitj' of the people living within its limits should be apparent enough to keep them at least from preventing its natural reproduction. The growth of the young timber after the first few years is rapid enough, as may be seen from the table on page 57, and 66 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. after fifteen or twenty years, when the trees Lave reached a diameter of 12 inches, they can be tapped for resin and will give a continuous revenue. Under careful management, and by tapping only the trees which should be removed in thinnings to make light for the rest, this revenue can be obtained without in any way impairing the final harvest value. CONCLTTSION. From the southern frontier of Virginia, throughout the lower part of the Southern States, to the limits of high and compact forest growth west of the Mississippi Kiver, spread over an area of from 90,000 to 100,000 square miles, the forests of theLongleaf Pine still present a stupendous tim- ber wealth. Yet, if we deduct the farm lands, and consider that large areas have been culled or entirely denuded of the original growth, we may estimate that the amount of timber standing can at best not exceed 100,000,000,000 feet, and is probably much less, while the cut, which at present does not fall short of 3,700,000,000 feet, board measure, is bound, as the Northern pine is giving out, to increase at even greater rate than in the past. Under such a strain, outstripping by far the i)ossibilities of their reproduction, the exhaustion of the resources of these forests within the near future is inevitable, and if the devastation under present management by the naval store industry and the destruction caused by fire and domestic animals is continued their extermi- nation as far as practical purposes are concerned must be regarded as equally certain. APPENDIX. THE NAVAL STORE INDUSTRY. The resinous product of the Longleaf Pine furnishes the raw material for the production of naval stores, one of the most important industries in connection with the resources of the American forests. At present the bulk of these stores used in the world is derived from the forests of Lougleaf Pine, and hence this industry is almost entirely confined to the coast pine belt of the Southern States, the proportion contributed by France, Austria, and other countries being insignificant. For the year 1892 the foreign export of spirits of turpentine alone amounted to over 260,000 casks and the total production exceeded 350,000 casks. To produce this amount of spirits at least 2,500,000 acres must have been in orchard, and since over one-third of the total production is furnished by orchards being worked for the first year, over 800,000 acres of virgin forest must be attacked annually to supply present demands. Under the name of naval stores are comprised the products derived directly or indirectly from the resinous exudation of cone-bearing trees, mostly pines, including tar, the product of the destructive distillation of the wood of pines highly charged with resinous matter. The name is undoubtedly derived from their extensive consumption in the shii)yards and on board of vessels. These products are: RESIN, OR CRUDE TURPENTINE. The resin of the Longleaf Pine recently exuded is almost colorless, or of a pale straw color, of the consistency of honey, having a terebiuthinous odor and taste, and like all substances of the same class is insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, ether, and spirits of turpentine. It con- sists of a volatile oil and a solid resin held in solution partially suspended in the former. The best quality is obtained during the first year the tree is worked, known as "virgin dip " or " soft white gum," which is almost colorless and contains the largest quantity of volatile oil. In the following year it is of a deeper yellowish color, the "yellow dip," which with each succeeding year becomes darker in color, more viscid, and poorer in volatile oil.' Toward the close of the season the resin becomes hardened under the influence of a cooler temperature and the partial evaporation of its volatile constituents. This solidified resin, of whitish to yellowish color, called hard gum or scrape, contains only half of the quantity of the spirits of turpentine obtained from the dip or soft gum. By the distillation of the crude turpen- tine the naval stores of most importance to trade are obtained. SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE OR OIL 01' TURPENTINE. Spirits of turpentine, or oil of turpentine, is the volatile constituent of tlie resin. This liquid when freshly prepared is colorless, of a peculiar odor and taste, of a density varying between 0.S5 and 0.S7, volatile at ordinary temperatures, boiling between 3040 and 320° F. It turns polar- ized light to the right, a characteristic feature of the American spirits of turpentine, most of the spirits from other sources polarizing the light to the left. In its pure state this volatile oil is free from oxygen, being a hydrocarbon of the composition of GioHie. It is highly inflammable and ' It is still an open question whether this deteriomtiou is necessary or only owing to faulty manipulation. Experiments to settle this question are now in progress in the Forestry Division. 67 68 TIMBEK PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UXITEI) STATES. bnrus with a sooty flame. It is a good solvent for mauy resins, wax, fats, caoutchouc, sulphur, and phosphorus, and is used in the arts and industries for the preparatiou of varnishes, in paints, the rubber industry, etc. Before the introduction of kerosene oil it was used extensively for au ilhiininator; it is also used in medicine internally and externally aud often as an adulterant of various essential oils. The solid constituent of the crude turpentine which forms the residue remaining after its dis- tillation. It is of different degrees of heaviness, according to the quantities of volatile oil retained after distillation, is brittle, easily powdered, of a glassy luster, and of the specific gravity of 1.07, almost without taste, of a faint terebinthinous odor. It becomes soft at about 170° F., melts betweeu 194° and 212° F., and is soluble in the same solvents as crude resin. According to the nature of the crude turpentine, depending upon the number of seasons the trees have been worked, it shows different properties in regard to the transmission of light, aud in color. It is either perfectly transparent, translucent, or almost opaque; almost colorless, or a pale straw color to golden yellow, reddish yellow, through all shades to dark brown and almost black. The market value of this article is entirely regulated by these iiroperties. In tlie American market the following grades are distinguished: WW (Water White) and WG (Window Glass), the lightest and highest-priced grades, obtained from the "virgin dip;" N (Extra Pale), M (Pale), K (Low Pale), I (Good No. 1), H (Jfo. 1), F (Good No. 2), E (No. 2), D (Good Strain), C (Strain), B (Com- mon Strain), aud A (Black). PINE TAR. This is not exactly a by-product of the turpentine orchard, but is produced by the destructive distillation of the wood itself. It is chiefly produced in North Carolina, where this industry has been carried on since the earliest colonial times. Small quantities are produced in other sections of the Southern pine belt, mostly for home consumption. Perfectly dry wood of the Longleaf Pine, dead limbs and trunks seasoned on the stump, from which the sapwood has rotted, are cut iu suitable billets, piled into a conical stack, in a circular pit, lined with clay, the center communi- cating by a depressed channel with a receptacle — a hole in the ground — at a distance of 3 to 4 feet from the pile. The pile is covered with sod and earth, and otherwise treated and managed like a charcoal pit, being fired from apertures at the base, giving only enough draft to maintain slow, smoldering combustion. After the ninth day the tar begins to flow and continues for several weeks. It is dipped from the pits into barrels of 320 pounds, the standard weight. One cord of dry "fat" or "lightwood" furnishes from 40 to 50 gallons of tar. The price of pine tar is quoted as low as $1.05 a barrel. Since considerable quantities of tar are produced incidentally in the destructive distillation of wood in iron retorts for charcoal and other jiroducts, the price has been greatly depressed. COMMON PITCH. The best quality is obtained by boiling down tar until it has lost about one-third or more of its weight. The naval pitch of commerce has more or less rosin of the lowest grade added to it. Pitch is also obtained as the residue remaining from the dry distillation of rosin fo.r rosin oil. HISTORICAL REMARKS. The tapping of the trees for the crude turpentine and the manufacture of tar aud pitch was first resorted to by the earliest settlers of North Carolina, and iu later colonial times these products furnished the largest part of the exports of the colony. In the three years from 17G8 to 1770 the exports of crude turpentine, tar, and pitch represented on the average for each year a value of $215,000 of our present currency. Most of the crude turi)entine was shipped to England. Later the distillation of spirits of turpentine was carried on in clumsy iron retorts in North Carolina and in Northern cities. Tlie introduction of the copper still in 1834 resulted in a was largely increased yield of si)irits of turpentine, and the industry received a great impetus. With the new demand for spirits of turpentine in the manufacture of rubber goods, and its increased use as an illuminator, the number of stills increased greatly, and turpentine orcharding was rapidly extended south and west beyond its original limit. The large consumption of spirits of turpentine HISTORICAL REMARKS. 69 caused such aa increase iu its production that the residuary product, rosin, became largely in excess of the demand, and, iu cousequence, much depreciated. This reduction of profits in the business caused the transfer of the stills from the leading markets to the source of the raw material, the forest. From that time, 1844, dates the great progress made in the extension of this industry. Up to that time more than half of the crude turpentine was distilled in North Carolina, but thenceforth the industry spread into the States of South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and the Gulf States to the Mississippi Eiver. At the close of the war the demand for spirits of turpentine was not so great as before, petroleum products of several kinds having been found to take its place not only for illuminating, but .also for other purposes. With the general extension of arts and manufactures all over the world, there has since been an increasing demand for spirits of turpentine and rosin. The exports of these articles in the year 1890 amounted to -^8,135,339 in value. ■rriU'KNTINE OHCIIARl)IX(i IX THK FOUESTS OF I.ONGLEAF PINE. In the establishment of a turpentine orchard and a still, two points must be considered, namely, proper facilities of transportation to shipping points and a suflScieut sui)i)ly of water for the condenser connected with the still. The copper stills generally in use have a capacity of about 800 gallons, or a charge of 20 to 25 barrels of crude turpentine. For such a still to be charged twice in twenty-four hours during the working season, 4,000 acres of pine land of a good average stand of timber are required. This area is divided into twenty parcels each of 10,000 boxes, as the' receptacles are called, which are cut into the tree to receive the exuding resin. Such a parcel is termed a crop, constituting the allotment to one laborer for the task of chipping. The work iu a turpentine orchard is started in the earlier part of the winter with the cutting of the boxes. Until some years past no tr'^es were boxed of a diameter less than 14 inches; of late, however, saplings undei 10 inches in diameter are boxed. Trees of full growth, according to their circumference, receive from two to four boxes, so that the 10,000 boxes are distributed among 4,000 to 5,000 trees on an area of 200 acres. The boxes are cut (see PI. VIII) from 8 to 12 inches above the base of the tree, 7 inches deep and slanting from the outside to the interior, with an angle of about 35°. In the adult trees they are 14 inches in greatest diameter and 4 inches in greatest width, of a capacity of about 3 pints. Tlie cut above this reservoir forms a gash of the same depth and about 7 inches of greatest height. In the meantime the ground is laid bare around the tree for a distance of 2i to 3 feet, and all com- bustible material loose on the ground is raked in heaps to be burned, in order to protect the trees against danger of catching fire during the conflagrations which are frequently started in the pine forests by design or carelessness. The employment of fire for the protection of the turpeutine orchards against the same destructive agency necessarily involves the total destruction of the smaller tree growth, and if left to spread without control beyond the proper limit, often carries ruin to the adjoining forests. During the first days of spring the turpentine begins to flow and chipping is begun, as the work of scarification is termed, by which the surface of the tree above the box is laid bare beyond the youngest layers of the wood to a depth of about an inch from the outside of the bark. The removal of the bark and of the outermost layers of the wood — the "chipping" or "hacking" — is done with a peculiar tool, the "hacker" (flg. 9, <,/"), a strong knife with a curved edge, fastened to the end of a handle bearing on its lower end an iron ball about 4 pounds in weight, to give increased force to the stroke inflicted on the tree, and thus to lighten the labor of chipi)ing. As soon as the scarified surface ceases to discharge turpeutine freely, fresh incisions are made with the hacker. The chipping is repeated every week from March to October or November, extending generally over thirty-two weeks, and the height of the chip is increased about 1 J to 2 inches every month. The resin accumulated in the boxes is dipped into a pail by a flat trowel-shaped dipper (fig. 9, (/) and then transferred to a barrel for trans])ortation to the still. In the first season from six to eight dippings are made. The 10,000 boxes yield at each dip 40 barrels of " dip" or "soft gum," as it is reckoned in Alabama, to be of 240 pounds net weight. The flow is most copious during the height of the summer (July and August), diminishes with the advent of the cooler season, and ceases in October or November. As soon as the exudation of the resin is arrested and 70 TIMBER PINES OP THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES^ tbe resiu begins to harden under the influence of a lower temperature it is carefully scraped from the scarified surface and the boxes with a narrow, keen-edged knife attached to a long wooden handle (fig. 9, b, c). In the first season the average yield of dip amounts to 280 barrels aud of the hard gum or scrape to 70 barrels. The first yields Gi gallons spirits of turpentine to the barrel of 240 pounds net, and the latter 31 pounds to the barrel, resulting in the production of 2,100 gallons spirits of turpentine and 260 pounds of rosin of higher and highest grades. The dippings of the first season are called " virgin dip," from which the finest quality of rosin is obtained, graded in the market as Water White (WW) and Window Glass (WG). In the second year from five to six dippings are made, the crop averaging 225 barrels of soft turpentine aud 120 barrels of scrape, making altogether about 1,900 gallons spirits of turpentine. The rosin, of which about 200 barrels are produced, is of a lighter or deeper amber color, and perfectly transparent, of medium quality, graded as I, H, and G. In the third and fourth years the number of dippings is reduced to three. With the flow over a more extended surface, the turpentine thickens under prolonged exposure to the air and loses some of its volatile oil, partly by evaporation aud partly by oxidation. In the third season the dip amounts to about 120 D Flci. 9.— Tools useil 111 turpeutiue oruhariUng: a, dipper; h, pusher; c, open puller; i(, closed puller; f, /. liiicker (Iroiit ;iud roar view). barrels and the scrape to about 100 barrels, yielding about 1,100 gallons spirits of turpentine and 100 barrels of rosin of a more or less dark color, less transparent, and graded as F, E, and D. In the fourth and last year three dippings of a somewhat smaller quantity of soft turpentine than that obtained the season before and 100 barrels of scrape are obtained, with a yield scarcely realizing 300 gallons of spirits of turpentine and 100 barrels of rosiu of lowest quality, classed as C, B, and A. After the fourth year the turpentine orchard is generally abandoned. Owing to the reduction in quantity and quality of the raw product, it is not considered profitable by the larger operators to work the trees for a longer time. It is only iu North Carolina that the smaller landowners work their trees for ten or more successive seasons, ijrotect the trees against tire, and, after giving them a rest for a series of years, apply new boxes on spaces left between the old chips — " reboxing.'' The process of distillation is carried on in the ordinary way, and requires care and experience to obtain largest quantities of rosin of highest grade aud to guard against overheating. After heating the still somewhat above the melting of the crude turpentine, a small stream of tepid water from the top of the condenser is conducted into the still and allowed to run until the end of the process. A large quantity of water runs over with the spirits of turpentine, which is IMPROVED METHOD OF ORCHARDING. 71 collected in a barrel, where it separates from the water aucl is then immediately transferred iuto barrels. After the oil has ceased to run freely the heating of the still and the influx of water has to be carefully regulated. After all the spirits of turpentine has been distilled over, the fire is removed and the contents of the still are drawn off by a tap connected with the bottom. This residuum, molten rosin, is at first allowed to run through a wire cloth and is immediately strained again through coarse cotton cloth or cotton batting, made for the purpose, into a large trough, from which it is ladled into barrels. The legal standard weight of the commercial package is ;28() pounds gross. A turpentine distillery, on the basis of twenty crops, produces on the average during the four years that the boxes are worked 2,400 casks or 120,000 gallons of spirits of turpentine and about 12,000 barrels of rosin or 2,800,000 pounds, the •lowest grades, B and A, excluded, a total value of about $00,000 at average prices. The prices of spirits vary at present from 28 to 40 cents a gallon, even through the same season, according to supply and demand in the market. The average quotations on December 30, 1892, at Wilmington were 28 cents for spirits and $1.91 for a barrel of rosin down to grade 0. COST OF ESTABI-ISHING A PLANT AND WORKING TIIK CHOPS. Timber lands with the privilege of boxing the timber for a term of four years are rented at the rate of $50 per crop of 10,000 boxes, or 200 acres. The establishment of a plant for the working ot twenty crops, or 4,000 acres of timber land, requires an investment of about $.5,000, including the buildings, stills, machinery for pumping water, tools, and teams. Accord" ing to the statements of an experienced operator, the cost of working the trees of one crop during the four years, which is mostly done by the job — that is, the making and cornering of the boxes, inspecting the same, raking around the trees, chipping, dipping, scraping, hauling the crude turpentine to the still, including cost of barrels for spirits of turpentine, and for the rosin, and superintending the crops — amounts to about $2,300 per crop, or $46,000 for the twenty crops. If to this amount the interest, C per cent per annum, on the capital invested and the deprecia- tion of the value in the plant during the four years is added, with some other incidental expenses (taxes, etc.), the cost of the production of the 120,000 gallons of spirits of turpentine and 12,000 barrels of merchantable I'osin foots up to not less than $50,000. A method of improving on the present practice by. employing an earthen pot instead of the injurious "box" has been patented and practically introduced by J. C. Schulcr, of West Lake, La. The arrangement is repre- f.«. io.-in>,.rovedmeti,o,i .,f tnnuntincor.hardiug. sented in lig. 10, its main feature being an earthen pot which can be moved as the scar is lengthened, thus reducing the distance over which the resin has to flow, and with this the amount of volatilization and loss of spirits of turpentine. The method resembles that employed in France (see Report of Chief of Forestry, United States Department of Agriculture, 1892, page 347), and, though its general application in this country is not yet secured, it is certainly a step in the right direction. Mr. Schuler admits that the first cost for providing the cups, putting them up, and removing them the second season raises the expense of working a crop of 10,000 cups for two seasons to 84C0, against $190 for cutting 10,000 boxes expended under the old system iu working one crop for two seasons, all other expenses connected with the work being considered eciual. On the other hand, Schuler claims that the difference is vastly overbalanced by the increased yield of crude turpentine obtained by his cup method, amounting for one crop worked two years to 195 barrels, at $3.50 per barrel; after deducting the extra expense involved by his method, this would leave a net balance of 8410 per crop in favor of the cup system. He also claims that this amount is still further augmented if the larger quantity of spirits of turpentine and the higher (piality of resin obtained 72 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. ^ from the dippings under his system are taken into account. On the first point he says that fully "^ one-eighth of the crude turpentine brought to the still from the boxes consists of chips, sand, and other foreign matter, contaminations from which the product of the cups is entirely free. On the second point he refers to the high grades of rosiu resulting from the distillation of the crude turpentine from the cups, which almost entirely classes with the highest and higher grades. EFFECTS OF THE PRODUCTION OF NAVAL STORES UPON THE TIMlSKIt, THE LIFE OF THE TliEE, AND THE CONDITIONS OK THE FOREST. In the present management of the turpentine orchards in the Southern pine forests a great deal of crude turpentine is wasted, much of the valuable spirits of turpentine is lost by volatilization in passing over the long chip face on its way to the box, and much of the resin is lowered in its grade and value by oxidation consequent to exposure and by admixture" of foreign substances — bark, coal, dust, etc. Concerning the effect of the tapping of the trees upon the timber, there exists no reason on l^hysiological or anatomical grounds for .considering it injurious, and the opinion held by many, that the qualities of timber are impaired by bleeding, finds no support when it is considered that the heartwood remains unatfected. The resinous contents of the heartwood being solidified and the formation of the resin taking place only in the newly formed wood, the heartwood can not participate in the tiow of the resin, the discharge being necessarily confined to the sapwood. This fact has been fully substantiated by the work of the Division of Forestry, by which it has not only been shown that the strength of the heartwood, the most important if not the only jiart of the tree used for lumber, has in no wise been diminished, but also that the durability of the timber, as far as it depends upon its resinous contents, can not be impaired by bleeding. It is only in that part of the butt log around the chip that the quality of the timber becomes somewhat impaired — the wood becoming highly charged with resin is rendered more brittle and harder to work, with a tendency to gum up the tools. Indirectly, howevei', a considerable proportion of the boxed timber becomes damaged if not utilized shortly after having been bled. It is often left standing for a number of years, exposed to various destructive agencies, such as insects and fire, followed by parasitic fungoid growth. Large Capricorn beetles bore their way through the callus surrounding the chip and through and beyond the sapwood. Through the innumerable fissures which are caused by fires, air and water charged with the spores of parasitic fungi find entrance to the body of the tree, causing disease and decay. The damage from these causes increases every year, so that from them alone the timber from a turpentine orchard abandoned for a dozen years was found damaged to the extent of fully 20 i^er cent. Although the loss of its resin by bleeding results physiologically in no direct injury to the tree, the wound infiicted by tapping, like any other wound, interferes with its healthy growth and, particularly in the case of trees of smaller size, causes their early decay. While the exuded resin covering the excoriated surface of the tree acts as an eflicient antiseptic, aflbrding a firm protection against the access of the spores of fungi, it endangers the life of the tree, if exposed to fire, by its greater inflammability, the heat produced by its flame being capable of killing the trees outright. Under the crude and inconsiderate manner of cutting the boxes, all of the trees of smaller size and many of the larger trees are blown down, and a considerable number of those remaining with their excoriated surfaces out of proportion to the recuperative power of the trees are doomed to perish sooner or later in consequence of such treatment. These injuries inflicted upon the individual trees, in connection with the fires started with the opening of the season one year after another, cause such damage to the forests as to effect tiually their total destruction. Fire being allowed to sweep over lai-ge areas, its force increased in the turpentine orchards by the exposed resinous surfaces of the trees, and by trees blown down and the debris covering the ground, an immense amount of timber is destroyed. Trees which have not been killed outright by the fire, or have altogether escaped the danger, are doomed to speedy destruction by bark beetles and pine borers, which find a breeding place in the living trees prostrated by the winds during the summer, the broods of which rapidly infest the standing trees, which invariably succumb to the pest the same season. In consequence, the forests invaded by turpentine orcharding present, in five or six years after they have been abandoned, a picture of ruin and desolation painful to behold, and in view of the destruction of the seedlings and, the younger growth all hope of the restoration of these magnificent forests is excluded. LOXGLEAF PINE IN HIGHLANDS. 73 LONGLEAF PINE IN HIGHLANDS. Under date of August 5, 1890, Dr. Molii- sends the following interesting note descriptive of a tract of Longleaf Pine grown at the remarkable altitude of 2,000 feet: la my investigations of the flora of the region of greatest elevation iu Alabama I was surprised to find the Longleaf Pine, -which forms the greater part of the tree growth ou the flanks of the mountains in the region of the State, to ascend to a height of 1,600 to 1,700 feet above the sea — (Chenawhaw Mountain, Olay County, 2,400 feet). \\'hereas I found the tree to disappear at an elevation of about 1,500 feet ou the lilue Mouiitaiu nr Talhulega Mountain Range about Chandler's Spring, Talladega County, and on the isolated ridges of the Alpine Mnuiitains in the same county (in 1893), Prof. E. 8. Smith and Mr. Brewer, assistant geologist, found at points of t lie same mountain range, .") or 6 miles farther to the south, the Longleaf Pine at an elevation little short of 2,000 feet. From my observations in former years I was convinced that the pine forests of the me [amorphic regions of Ala- bama deserved no mention among the timber resources of the State, however valuable they might be as a resource for fuel in connection with the mineral resources of these parts of the State. I was not a little surprised to hear, on my trip of last week, of a sawmill with a daily output of from 65,000 to 70,000 feet of lumber of Longleaf Pine, situated in the lower part of Clay County, at the outskirts of the geological formation mentioned. Yesterday morning I visited the pine forests from which the supplies of this large and well-condncted establishment, at Hollins, on the Georgia Pacific Railroad, are drawn. There I found the foothills and narrow v.alleys between them, at an elevation of from 1,400 to 1,.")00 feet, covered with a truly magnificent forest of Pluua jmhistrb, yielding to the acre as much merchant- able timber as the best class of pine lands in the coast pine belt from Alabama to Texas. The trees are tall; some of them measured ou the ground were found from 110 to 118 feet total height, with the crown GO feet above the grouud, and the shaft clear of heart and limb for almost the whole of that length; two cuts of 20 feet each above the stump are generally free from blemish. The surface soil appeared as arid and poor as that found on the steep declivities of the main ranges. Its pine timber growth w.is to me indeed an enigma, which, however, soon found its solution by examining in a deep cut the sub.soil condition; the decomposeddioritie schist, forming a kind of soft marl for a great depth, oft'erod no obstacle to the long taproot of the pine. These hills extend for a length of about 6 miles in a northeasterly direction, by a width scarcely exceeding 2 miles. I could not learn that any other locality is found in the same geological formation of an equal extent with the same conditions of the timber growth. 25666— No. 13—02- ADDITIONAL NOTES ON LONGLEAF PINE. By FiLUiERT Roth. (September 1, 1897.) Tliougli this species is well recognized wherever it grows, aud receives almost uuiversally the name of Longleaf or Lougstraw Piue, the two terms "Yellow Pine" and '• Pitch Pino" .are often confusing. Unfortunately, these names are most common at the points of manufacture and with men who know but little about the trees themselves. Whenever used knowingly, the term " Yellow Pine" refers to very old, slow-grown trees of Longleaf, with a very flue, smooth bark, extremely line grain (narrow rings), and with very narrow sai>wood (1 inch or less). The term " Pitch Pine," on the other hand, refers to younger trees, of more rapid growth, wider sap, and consequently with more pitch or resin. It is self-evident from this that, as these trees grow older, intermediate forms occur to which one man gives one name, the next man another. In its distribution the Longleaf presents some vei-y interesting features. In I^forth Carolina, on the north side of the Albemarle Sound, this tree is frequently wanting over large tracts, and then again covers several hundred acres almost to the exclusion of other pines. Along the western coast of Florida it goes as far south as Fort Myers, on the Oaloosahatchee Eiver, comes right up to the salt marshes or bluffs, with but a slight fringing of Cuban and Pond Pine, except in the few cases where large hammock swamps, like the Gulf Hammock and Chessahowitzka Swamp, occupy the space between pinery and ocean. In Texas the Longleaf is rather sharply limited, and the transition is very abrupt from Longleaf Pine forest into a pinery of Loblolly and Shortleaf mixed with hard woods. As mentioned in the monograph, the dimensions to which the tree grows do not vary greatly in different sections from East to West. There are just as fine trees in North Carolina as occur in Georgia or in Louisiana and Texas. An exception to this occurs in the case of the extremely barren, dry sands of Florida, where this tree commonly attaiiis a height of scarcely GO feet, with about 25 to 3.5 feet of log timber. Frequently thousands of trees are seen on a section with a total height of less than .50 feet, and the top flattened, resembling more that of river-bank cypress than pine. Injustice to this pine, however, it must be said that what it lacks in size it fully makes up in quality, for there is no finer-grained, heavier, and stronger pine in the market than is cut on these pine sand barrens of Florida. Strange to say, even on these dry and barren sands the development or the growth of the young tree is most astonishing. Leaders (end shoots) of over 24 inches in length on trees G to 15 feet high are common, and the increase in diameter is fully in keeping with this rapid upward growth. In the Caroliuas, Georgia, and Florida there are springing up multitudes of groves of young Longleaf Pines, and all stages may be seen, from the seedling, resembling much more a large bunch of coarse grass than a pine, and the sapling with its straight, stiff, few-limbed but never bush-like form, to the pole size, 40 to GO feet high and 8 inches in diameter, with its small crown and a shaft well cleaned of branches, wliether grown in the open or in the midst of a thicket. Unfortunately, many of these fine young groves fall victims to the universal bleeding for turpentine, followed by fire, which, however, in many localities is now recognized by the prudent resident as fast becoming a curse to the community, not only by destroying a valuable source of revenue, but by alienating people from their legitimate business of farming. Turpentine orcharding is still continued everywhere in the pinery of North Carolina along and west of the Wilmington and Weldon Railroad. Tlius far the very narrow sapwood, ijromising but a small yield and frequently leading to " dry faces," i. e., a drying up of that portion of the tree, seems to 74 LOJfGLEAF PINE. 75 have held back the industry from the slowly grown pines of Florida. Some operators, however, claim that the long season more than makes up for this defect. To what extent this is correct remains to he seen. In Louisiana and Texas bleeding is not carried on even to the extent to which it is commendable. How long trees of this species can withstand bleeding and its effects is well illustrated by old trees in Bertie County, N. C, which were bled fully eighty years ago, and much injured by fire which "ate into the box and " face." These trees are generally sound, have good crowns, and show a fiiir growth for trees of their size and age. Owing to peculiarities of the market, the butt cut of these logs is usually rejected, and therefore left in the woods. Longleaf Pine is still largely cut into timber, i. e., pieces thicker than 4 inches; much is sawn to order, the entire trunk, therefore, being generally cut into one or two lengths in logging. Special sizes, and also boards of great length and odd widths, are manufactured in great quanti- ties for export. The bulk of Longleaf is still cut with circular saws and is not dried in kilns, though both baud saw and dry kiln have been and are used successfully. Among the diseases to which this tree is subject, the disease of the cones, recently discovered and studied by Dr. W. T. Swingle, deserves attention. The cones are attacked during the firs year of their existence, and instead of attaining only about 1 inch in size, they swell up to the size of a second-year cone (3 inches and mqre), and take on a bright orange color. Only cones of this species and of Finus hcterophyJla have so far been found affected. 13, Division nf Foi THE CUBAN PINE. (PINUS HETEROPHYLLA (ELL.) Sudw.) Geographical Distribution. Products. Classification and Komenclaturk. Description and Morphological Characters. Progress op Development. Rei^uirements for Dkvelop.-ment. Additional Notes on Cuban Pine. THE CUBAN pine:. (Pinna iKhrophijna (Ell.) Siuhv.) Synonyms: Pmus Tada var. hekrophylla Elliott, Sk., li, 636 (1824). Piiiua CuhenaU Grisebach, in Mem. Am. Acad., viii, pt. 2, 530 (1863), not Hort. ox Gord. (1858). Piinta Cultensxs var. teittirocarpa Wright iu Grisebacli, Cat. PI. Cubeii., 217 (186(5). Piiim Elliotlii ringelmaim ex Vasey, Cat. Forest Trees, 30; in Kep. Com. Ag. 1875, 178 (1876). Pitim EUioiln Eugelinann, in Trans. St. Louis Acad., iv, 186, t. 1, 2, 3 (1879). Pinus helcrophiilla (Ell.) Sudworth, in Bull. Torr. Hot, CI., XX, 45 (1893). COMMON OK LOCAL NAMES. Blash Pine (Ala., Miss., Ga., Fla.). I'itcli Pine (Fla.). Swamp Pine (Fla., Miss., Ala.), in part. She Pitch Pine (Ga.). liastard Pine (Ala. lumbermen. Fla.). She Pine (Ga. and Fla.). Meadow Pine (Fla., E. Miss.), iujiart. Spruce Piue (So. Ala.). THK CUBAN PINE. By CuAiii.Kw MOHR, Ph. 1) INTRODUCTORY. Confined withiu narrow limits along the coast of tbe extreme Southern States east of the Mississippi River, little known and mostly confounded with its allied species, the value of the Cuban Pine has been scarcely recognized. A closer investigation of the properties of its wood, of its life history, and of the part it plays among the forest gron^th soon discloses its economic importance. Convinced that to meet proper appreciation tlie merits possessed by this pine need only to be made more generally known, their consideration in this place among the biological investigations of the more important timber trees of the coniferous order will explain itself. This tree was not known to the earlier American botanists. Elliott first ' took notice of it as a distinct form, and he regarded it as a variety of the Loblolly Pine. It remained still practically unknown as a separate species for another half century, until near the beginning of the past decade, when it was again brought to the notice of botanists by Dr. Mellichamp, of Bluffton, S. C; Dr. Engelmann exhibited clearly its specific characters, and for the first time directed attention to the economic value of this pine by discussing the development of the tree and the qualities of its timber.- On account of the coarser grain of its wood and the large amount of sapwood, this timber was held to be of little value, and the tree received little or no attention by the lumberman. It is only very lately, especially since kiln-drying has become more general, that its value is being recognized and appreciated, and under the name of "Slash Pine" it is cut and sold without discrimination with the Longleaf Pine, with which it is usually associated. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTBlBUTtON. The Cuban Pine is a tree of the coast regiou in the subtropical region of North America east of the Mississippi Kiver, and also of the neighboring tropics, being found in Honduras and Cuba (see PI. III). In the United States the tree is confined to the eastern belt of the Austro-ripariau or Louisianian life zone of American biologists, from 33^ north latitude in South Carolina along the coast to the extremity of the peninsula of Florida. Toward the west the tree extends along the coast of the Gulf to the Pearl River Valley. It is principally restricted to the coast plain, but on the (rulf Coast and along the water courses it extends inland to a distance of fully 60 miles from the sea. On the Atlantic Coast it penetrates the interior nearly to the limit of the coast pine belt, as has been observed in Georgia in the valley of the Ocmulgee River, over 100 miles distant from tide water, (iroves of the Cuban Pine skirt the low shores of the numerous inlets and estuaries of these coasts, and cover the outlying islands. More or less associated with the Loblolly and the Longleaf Pine, it forms a part of the timber growth of the open pine forests which in unbroken monotony cover the fiats for long-distances. It is only in the lower part of Florida, where the tree extends from the Atlantic across to the Gulf of Mexico, south of Cape Canaveral and Biscayne Bay, that, as the only pine there, the Cuban Pine forms forests by itself. Toward the interior it occurs scattered among the varied growth of broad-leafed evergreens and cone-bearing trees which cover the swamps along the streams. Since it is invariably cut and sold 'Elliott, Sketches of the Botany of South Carolina and Georgia, Vol. II, page 263, 1821. - Eugelmaim : Revision of the genus Pinii-i and description of riniis eUiotiii. Transactions St. Louis Acad. Sci., Vol. IV, 186, 1879. 79 80 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. without distinction, no figures can be given of its annual consumption, nor is it possible to form even all approximate estimate of the standing supplies. The old timber soes, of course, as fast as that of the Longleaf Pine, but in its reproduction it outstrips the latter. Wherever in the coast plain the original growth of the Longleaf Pine has been removed, the Cuban Pine takes, in a great measure, possession of the ground, in some localities associated with the Loblolly Pine. Young forests in every stage of growth are seen covering tracts of greater or lesser extent, promising important supplies of resinous products, timber, and fuel. As a timber tree the Cuban Pine is little inferior to the Longleaf Pine. It furnishes sticks of large dimensions free from blemish, rivaling in that respect that superior variety of the Loblolly Pine called Itosemary Pine, and there is no doubt that it was often confounded with this tree in the shipments of masts and long spars made in former years from the southern Atlantic and eastern Gulf ports. In the lumber mills on the Atlantic Coast the timber of this tree is indiscriminately sawn and shipped with that of the Longleaf Pine. It remains yet to be proved whether the coarser structure of the wood of the Cuban Pine would render it less durable. It is certain, however, that this very cause, which might interfere with its resistance to atmospheric influences or to contact with the soil, will be found an advantage if the preservation of the timber is to be secured by its impregnation with antiseptic solutions, more open structure permitting readier infiltration. Eesinott.s producU. — This pine abounds in resinous matter. The oleoresin, resin, or crude turpentine, when freshly exuded, is perfectly limpid, of honey-yellow color, less viscid than the resinous product of the Longleaf Pine, and to all appearances richer in volatile oil or spirits of turpentine, judging bj' the smaller amount of hard gum or scrape formed on the tree. A sample of the dip of the first year from South Carolina was to all appearance exposed for a short time in the box to atmospheric iufiuences. Examined by Prof. E. Kremers, University of Wisconsin, the resin showed an emulsion-like appearance and .separated upon standing into heavier granules and into a lighter, transparent, yellowish liquid. Its specific gravity at 20° C. was found 1.0253. 0=32,423° (determined in 1G.26 per cent alcoholic solution). Distilled with water, the sample yielded 16 per cent of oil of the specific gravity 0.865 (20° C). D=9.G20. In view of the rapid destruction of the forests of Longleaf Pine, the principal source of resin, the future importance of the Cuban Pine in the production of naval stores becomes at once apparent, especially when it is considered that it reproduces itself .so much more readily. Even now, on the coast of South Carolina and Georgia, a large proportion of resinous ])roducts is derived from the young growth of this pine, which, after the removal of the original timber growth, took possession of the ground. It is claimed by the turpentine gatherers in these States that at an age of from thirty to forty years the trees are sufliciently large for tapping with advantage, and that protected against fire a spontaneous renewal takes place, and after a period of forty years the new crop is ready for profitable exploitation. In Washington County, Ala., on the more or less extensive flats that intervene between the low ridges covered with Longleaf Pine, the Cuban Pine furnishes considerable supplies of crude turpentine of superior quality. In this section the tree is known under the name of Spruce Pine, a misnomer, leading to its confusion with an entirely difterent tree, the true Southern Spruce Pine [Pinus glabra). CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. Pinus heterophyUa is closely allied to the Longleaf Pine, forming with this and two other species inhabiting the nearest tropical regions — Cuba aud Mexico — under the subgenus pinaster, a natural group of trees with heavy resinous wood, rigid long leaves from two to five in a sheath, and subterminal or lateral, horizontal or reflexed cones, designated by Engelmanu as the group of the Euaustrales, or longleaf pines. First distinguished by Elliott as Pinus ta-da var. heterophylla and remaining subsequently unknown for more than fifty years, the specific characters of this pine were first recognized and fully described by Dr. Engelmann, who in honor of its discoverer distinguished the tree under the name of Pinus eUiottii, finding himself soon afterwards convinced of the identity BOTANICAL DESCKIPTION CUBAN PINE. 81 of his species witli Pinus cubensis of GriseJ)ach. Recently these various forms were foiind to be the same as Elliott's, to which they have been referred with his varietal name hetero))ltylla raised to specific rank. The tree is little known among the inhabitants of tlie region of its growth; it is generally regarded as a mere variety or bastard form of the Longleaf or the Loblolly Pine. In Florida, where best known, it is distinguished as the Slash Pine, or Swamp Pine; and in the flat woods along the seashore in Alabama and Mississippi as Meadow Pine. In a few localities in Alabama it is erroneously called Spruce Pine. DESCRIPTION AND MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. The leaves, two or three in a bundle, are surrounded by a smooth sheath from one-half to nearly an inch in length, which, close and smooth durini;- the first season, become loose and shriveled in the second year (PI. X, d). The leaves arc tidin s to 12, mostly 9 inches in length and three-fourths of a line wide, glossy, of a deep-green color and closely serrulate, with a short, rigid point, rounded on the back, the binary leaves deeply concave and the ternate bluntly keeled. They arise from the axils of fringed deciduous bracts, are densely crowded toward the end of the branches, and are shed by the close of the second season. Bundles with two leaves are most frequently observed in younger trees and almost invariably on the fertile branchlets. The resin ducts are internal, variable in size, and in number from four to six and over, close to the thin-walled bundle sheaths, which inclose two closely approximate flbrovascular bundles, often coalescing. The flbrovascular region, like the ducts, shows no hypodermal or strengthening cells. The hypodermal cells underlying the epidermis are as large as the epidermal cells, in the angles of one or several layers. Flowers. — The catkin-like nmle flowers (PI. X, a, b), from l.i to 2 inches long, are of dark purple (royal purple) color, supported on a short stalk and surrounded by about a dozen involncral coriaceous bracts, of which the lowest pair is sti'ongly keeled (PI. X, b, slightly magnified), the others being oblong with fringed edges. From ten to twenty of these cylindrical flowers are crowded in dense clusters below the apex of the youngest shoots, and are shed almost immediately after the discharge of their abundant pollen. The anthers are crowned with a purplish crescent-shaped denticulate crest. The female flowers form an oval, pink-colored anient borne on a stalk, from one- half to 1 inch in length, which singly, more frequently several in number, are produced close to the terminal bud of the shoot of the season (PI. X, d). First erect, they ai'e, at the lapse of a month, horizontally reflected, the shoot bearing them increasing rapidly in length during the same time, long before the unfolding of its leaf buds. The involncral scales or bracts wliich surround the female catkin are more numerous, narrower, longer, and more membranaceous than those form- ing the involucre of the male flowers. The carpellary scales are round, with a slender, erect tip, their lower half covered by the broad refuse bract. A tree discovei-ed by Dr. Mellichamps near Blufftou, S. C, showed the remarkable anomaly of i^roducing androgynous flowers regularly every season. In most of the specimens examined every one of the male flowers clustering around the base of the terminal bud of the very young shoot had the upper part of the floral axis covered with I'emale flowers, appearing like a distinct inflorescence superimposed upon the staminodial column, occupying generally one-third of its height. In one of the flowers they were seen to extend near to its base. In a single instance it was observed that the female flowers extended on one side of the staminodial column in a narrow streak among the stamens. In a specimen from the same locality the terminal shoot of the season, exceeding in length the male flowers by which its base was surrounded, was bearing a normal subterminal female ament. The short- stalked cones are ovate or conical, rather obtuse, horizontally reflexed, from 4 to 5 inches long, about 2i inches greatest width, of glossy leather-brown or hazel color (PI. XI, a and b); scales about 2 inches long, averaging flve-eighths of an inch in width, somewhat flexible, the prominent ridge of the pyramidal striated umbo with a short, mostly straight, strong prickle (PI. XI, c and d). By the end of the first season the conelets are scarcely an inch long (PI. X, d). Before the close of the summer of the succeeding year, the cones have reached their full size, maturing during the month of October. In the ripe cones, already described, the apophyses of the scales in the lower rows are almost pointless, becoming on the upper strongly mucronate. The cones remain on the tree until the approach of the next summer, leaving on their separation the lowest rows of the scales behind. EXPLANATION OF PLATE X. [Figures natural size, uxcept Avhere otherwise noted.] Fig. a, branch with yoiiug shoot of the season bearing a cluster of male flowers; h, male flower detached showing basal iuvolucral brai'ts, magnified three diameters; e, branch bearing three subtcrminal female flowers; (I, d, characteristically reflexed immature cones of one season's growth. 82 PiNUS HETEROPHYLLA : MALE AND FEMALE FLOWERS. WOOD OF CUBAN PINE. 83 The triaugrtlar black roughisli seeds 2J to a little over 3 Hues long, with a few faint ridges; the brown, obtuse, and somewhat oblique wing (PI. XI, e,/, Swamp soil; slu Exposure free ; Undercover of ] DEVELOPMEXT OF CUBAN PINE. 87 II. — Growth of Cubiiii Pine during middle and last stages of life, from forty lo one hitiidnd aiulfurty-ftve years. Rings stamp. Diameter. Height. Locality. Xo. of tree. Breast high. Across Below Mean. Total height. Length crown, clear. Length crown. Remarks. : 40 43 51 52 55 55 50 60 70 87 101 no 110 126 133 127 132 145 145 I7,ches. Hi 12 124 17 1« 20 20 16 21 20 24 22 20 26 24 20 22 20 12i 7«cAm. Inches, j Inches. Feet. 60 60 87 74 82 79 90 83 85 08 90 113 130 118 Feet. I 51 SO 40 50 47 59 « 71 78 60 SO 73 73 21 Feet. ' 24 ■ Mobile. Ala 32 ; Ridgeland. S. C ... Whistler. Ala.... 36 Mobile, Ala Stockton. Baldwin Oountv. Ala. 32 Mobile, Ala 32 ! do 31 ; Ridgeland b C 42 do SoVRidgeiand •? C 30 42 Whiatbi \\l Midst of grove, crowded: damp, sandy loam: clay subsoil : surface flat. Exposure free; edge of swamp; soil per- 'letuallv cUiTiip. F,I^. .v,„M|. -nil fresh todamp; growth •'«« 17i I;:;::".".".". 25 24 13J .....i-r -,,,„,, :,ud gravelly. Kxpoflurc in-i-: open grove. s::::::::::: I? :::::::: 289 : 288 i.'. ,„,~.|, ,,,'.,', •' .. ,,,||V i: [in , 1 ^Aauip' soilfresh- 2''7 2-'5 52 24 do do do do -^ '^. !-■■:. ...Hi.., :.-feet: sap, 2i g 25 14i 2U KxpiMurv Irii-: soiucwliat suppressed by luugleafpine; edge of swamp. 119 54 feet. Base of bill: a flnelooking tree: timber 116 67 do do 7J ' sw:i.np; M.ilpuresaml.raostlvcuv.ivd with water. From Table III the rapid growth of this species is quite apparent. It will be observed that good trees are about 20 feet high at ten, 45 feet at twenty, and over SO feet high at fifty years of age, when the rapid rate of upward growth comes to a stoj). It appears, also, that the greatest mass of wood for any decade is formed at the early age of fifty, the growth in volume being nearly 15 cubic feet for these ten years, and that at ninety the growth in volume is only about two-thirds of the maximum: that at one hundred years the average annual growth nearly e