Slip i. in. Bill ICtbrarg Nortl; Carolina Statr Imoeraitg Collections SD305 B36 aie ^2*&Pary. THIS BOOK MUST NOT BE TAKEN FROM THE LffiRARY BUILDING. ^^1 M M Digitized by tine Internet Archive in 2009 witii funding from NCSU Libraries littp://www.arcliive.org/details/sclioolsofforestrOObrow SCHOOLS OF FORESTRY IN GERMANY, WITH ADDENDA RELATIVE TO A DESIDERATED BRITISH NATIONAL SCHOOL OF FORESTRY. COMPILED BT JOHN CROUMBIE BROWN, LL.D., Formerly Lecturer on Botany in University and King's College, Aberdeen, subsequently Colonial Botanist at Cape of Good Hope, and Professor of Botany in the South African College, Cape Town ; Fellow of the Linnean Society ; Felloiv of the Royal Geographical Society ; and Horuyrary Vice-President of the African Institute of Paris, EDINBURGH : OLIVER AND BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT. LONDON : SIMPKIN, MARSHALL AND CO. 1887. KIKRCALOT : rRINTED BT J. CRAUB. il' PREFACE. In a brochure which 1 published in 1877, entitled The Schools of Forestry in Europe • a Plea for the Creation of a School of forestry in Connection with the Arboretum in Edinburgh ; and in a volume which I published last autumn (1886), entitled, School of Forest Engineers in Spain, indicative of a Type for a British National School of Forestry, I expressed and re-affirmed the opinion that, with the acquisition of that Arboretum with existing arrangements for study in the University and in the Watt Institute, there were required only facilities for the study of what is known on the Continent as Forest Science to enable these institutions conjointly, or either of them with the help of the other, to take a place amongst the most completely equipped Schools of Forestry in Europe, and to undertake the training of Foresters for the discharge of such duties as are required of them in India, in our Colonies, and at home. The following volume shows what is implied in such a statement. No one of the schools described is considered by me of a type which should be followed in a British National School of Forestry ; but the details may prove suggestive of much which might be done in the creation of such an institution. I have ready for the press a companion volume on Forestal Arrangements in Germany, comprising statements of the views entertained in Germany in regard to the position of Schools of Forestry in the educational arrangements of the Empire, and in regard to the iv PREFACE. appropriate site for such institutions ; details of arrange- ments and operations at Stations for Forestal Experimental Research at the sites oi Schools of Forestry ; and a report of arrangements for the administration and management of State Forests ia Bavaria. Bat the publication of the volume is deferred till the discussion of the expediency of estabUshing a British National School of Forestry may be more advanced. Information in regard to practicable arrangements by which such a British National School of Forestry as is indicated might to be created I have supplied in both of the treatises cited, and in evidence given by me before a Select Committee of the House of Commons appointed to consider whether by the establishment of a Forest School or otherwise our woodlands could be rendered more productive : which evidence in so far as it relates to this matter I have embodied in an Adden- dum to this volume. By that Committee, as by one appointed by the previous Parliament, valuable information was collected, and on the 18th June, 1886, they agreed to report to the House of Commons : — ' Your Committee have taken some evidence upon the matters referred to them, but have not had sufficient time to conclude their investigation on account of the dissolution of the present Parliament ; they have therefore agreed to report the evidence already taken to the House, and to recommend that a Committee on the same subject should be appointed in the next Parliament.' JOHN C. BROWN. Haddington, 14th February, 1887. CONTE NTS. PAGE Introduction ... ... ., ., ... 1 Early Literature of Modern Forest Science ; and General View of Modern Forest Economy. Chapiek I. — The Royal Saxon Forest Academy in Tharand ... ... ... ... ... 12 Transference to Tharand of the School of Forestry commenced by Cotta at Zillbach (p. 12); Subsequent changes till the Celebration of the Jubilee of the Institution on 17th June, 1866 (p. 13) ; Scheme of Instruction sanctioned by the Minister of Finance in December, 1871 (p. 38) ; Attendance of Students (p. 44); Description of Locality (p. 45.) Chapter II. — Royal Prxissian Forest Academy at Neustadt-Eberswalde ... ... ... 47 Historical Sketch of the Institution (p. 47) ; Regulations issued by the Minister of Finance in April, 1875 (p. 49) ; Unier- richts Plan or Programme of Study in Curriculum of two and a half years (p.54); Summary of Instruction given (p, 55); Annual Attendance of Students (p. 61); Requirements for Employment and Promotion in the Forest Service of Prussia (p. 62) ; Description of the School and Locality (p. 69). Chapter 111. — Royal Hanoverian Forest Academy in Munden ... ... ... ... ... 65 Site (p. 75) ; Past History (p. 76) ; Forest Economy and Administration (p. 78). Notice of Arrangements for the Transference of Provision for Instruction in Forest Science to the University (p. 113); and of the importance of the Establishment of Provision for the Prosecution of Forestal Experimental Researches (p. 114). CONTENTS. ▼« Chapter VI. — Royal Bavarian Central Forest Academy at Aschafenburg, and Classes for the Study of Forestry in the Royal Ludwig- Maximilian Uni- versity in Mimich ... ... ... ... 115 Account of the former condition of the School (p. 115) ; Account of the same from a Published Programme of what is required of Candidates for Admission to the Forest Service of the State (p. 120) ; History of the Institution from its origin (p. 129), and Arguments subsequently advanced for the entire transference of the Instruction to the University (p. 139) ; Present Condition of Arrangements for Instruction on Forestry in Bavaria, (p. 142. ) Chapter VII. — Royal Wurtemhurg Forestal and Agri- cidtural Academy at Hohenhelm, and Forestal Instruction in the University of Tubingen ... 145 Arrangements at Hohenheim, (p. 145) ; Former Arrangements for Forestal Instruction in the University of Tubingen, (p. 154) ; Transfer of Provision for Instruction in Forestry at Hohenheim to the University, (p. 155.) Chapter VIII. — Forestal Instruction in the Grand Duchy of Baden in the Polytechnicum in Carlsruhe ... 160 Educational Appliances, (p. 161) ; Curriculum of Study, (p. 163) ; Present Position, (p. 166.) Chapter IX. — Requirements for Admission into the Forest Service of German States, in which there do not exist Schools of Forestry ... ... ... ... 167 Mecklenburg-Schwerin,(p 167); Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg, Brunswick, Meinengen, (p. 16S) ; Altenburg, Coburg-Gotha, Anhalt, (p. 169) ; Schwartzburg-Sondershausen, Schwarz- burg, Rudolstadt, Waldeck, Reuss-Greitz, Schaumburg- Ldppe, Lippe-Dethold, (p. 170); Alsace-Lorraine, (p. 171.) Conclusion ... ... ... ... ... 172 Relation of Schools of Forestry to National System of Education in Germany, (p. 172) ; Stations for Experimental Research, (p. 175) ; Expense of Schools of Forestry on the Continent, (p. 176.^ ▼a CONTENTS. ADDENDA Relative to a Desiderated British National School OF Forestry. I.— Suitable Site for a School of Forestry ... ... 179 II. — Educational Arrangements deemed suitable for a British National School of Forestry ... ... 183 III, — School of Forest Engineers in Spain, cited as indicative of a type for a British National School of Forestry ... ... ... ... 193 IV. — Treatises on Matters Pertaining to Modern Forest Science and Forest Economy, proflFered for pub- lication in the English Language ... .. 203 [ Offers made to the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope (pp. 204 and 207) ; Offer made to Citizens of the United States of America (p. 210) ; Offer made to the Promoters of Edinburgh Forestry Exhibition (p. 223) ; Offer made to the Council of the Scottish Arbori- cultural Society (p. 225).] V, — Proffered Gift of Works on Modern Forestry to Free Public Libraries in any of the British Colonies, and in any of the United States of America .. 229 VI. — Matters Pertaining to Schools of Forestry, on •which the Author is ready to supply information to any Government Official, Public Association, or Private Individual, desirous of Establishing a British National School of Forestry ... ... 231 gCHOOLS OF FORESTRY IN GERMAN Y. INTRODUCTION. The history of forests and of forestry in Germany is not f(reatly dissimilar from that of forests and of forestry in France. Of tliis I have given some details in a volume entitled French Forest Ordinance o/' 1(309, with Historical. Sketch of Previous Treatment of Forests in France ; and that forest ordinance marks the commencement of an era in the history of the treatment of forests in the one country and in the other. Colbert of France, seeing the waste and destruction of f()rests going on in his day, gave expression to hitter feeling in words which have become famous : — ' France perira faufe de Bois' — France will perish through lack of wood. And in 1721 Reaumur presented to the Academy of Science a Memoir in which in reference to this fear he says : ' The feeling of uneasiness is general, and it is perhaps only too well founded. The interests of the State demand at the least that the quantity of wood should not be diminished while the consumption is being increased. It is to be wished that the lands still left in wood should be put into the highest possible condition in regard to their value, and above all things, that their produce should not be allowed to fall off.' And he showed how by a series of experiments it vvas 11 2 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. possible to ascertain at what age coppice woods could be felled with most advantage— regard being had to securing the greatest supply, and the best material, from the products of the forest. In reference to the statement by Reaumur, which I have quoted, M. Parade has remarked, 'This is not the place to inquire whether the Government of that day did all that might have been done to attain the end pointed out by Rcaunuir ; but let us tell, to'thc honour of science, that she was indefatigable in seeking out the proper remedies for the evil, and thus to allay the alarm of the country.' These could only be found in a more scientific culture of trees ; and science showed what were the measures to be successively adopted. These were, in a word, succes- sive tliinnings as a means of advancing and improving the growth of the wood, while obtaining an immediate produce ; and the prolongation of the term of years allotted for the working of the forests to the exact period neces- sary to augment the products to the greatest extent in a given time. This had to be determined, and science has accomplished her task. In 1757 a treatise on Forest Economy was published by Mo^er, in which he brought beGn-e his countrymen the nietl)od of management proposed hy Rcaumiu" four-and- twonty years before. And from statements made by Pfeil in a work entitled Die Forsitaxatioii in ihren ganzen Umfaiuje, published in Leipzig in 18-58, it appears that from the publication of this work by Moser date the earliest trials to determine with precision the future probable increase of wood in standing forests which were made in Germany. In 17G3 some of the works of Duhamel, one of the students of vegetable physiology in France, were trans- lated into German by Schollenbach, and published. About this time, say from 1760 to 1780, evils which were INTRODUCTION. 3 inherent in the so-called Regime a tire et aire (that to which the French Ordinance of 1669 had special reference), were making themselves apparent on all hands. In Prussia, towards the end of the reign of Frederick the Great, there was issued an Ordinance relating to the management of forests, in which it was enjoined ' that the fellings, instead of clearing all away, should be confined to simple thinnings of the trees, having for their object the removal at most of had wood and of matured wood in trees upwards of 70 or 80 years of age/ And this has been considered au indication that it began to be perceived that the artificial restorations, the forced consequence of utter extermination, in the resin yielding woods were difficult of accomplishment when they had to be carried out on groimd of great extent, and in circumstances little favourable to success. Corresponding complaints on other points arose against the employment of the system in question in timber fore.sts of beech, the restoration of which was not securetl either by new shoots or by seeds ; and a final grievance felt more particularly in the lesser states, in which the forest products constituted often a great part of the public revenue, came to demand a remedy for the great and grievous inequalities in the annual products which were obtained by the continued carrying out of the system. There was no unwillingness to persevere in the mode of operation sanctioned by the Ordinance ot 1609, technically called a tire et aire, which was uncpiestionably useful — namely, the orderly and regular exploitation of the forest ; but it was indispensably necessary to motlify the application of this, so as to secure the most perfect possible natural restoration of the forest, and to furnish to proprietors annual products pretty equxl in amount or value. The forests which had been subjected to jardinage, writes M. Parade, of Nancy, of whose historical sketch of the progress of the art of forest management the following 4 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. notice may be considered a free translation : — The forests which liad been subjected to jardinage, in which were felled here and there such trees as promised to supply the material desired for Avhatever purpose this might be — sale, shipbuilding, house carpentry, or aught else, leaving all others to grow on, if haply they were not crushed by the fall of the felled tree, or broken down in the bringing out of the felled timber — presented standing crops of most unequal density, and without any well- marked gradation of age to which the system h tire et aire could be strictly applied without giving rise to many inconveniences, of which the most serious were these: — 1. A great inequality in the successive annual fellings. 2. Considerable loss of increase proceeding not only from ffreat differences in the soil and in the denseness of the patches felled in successive years, but more especially from the circumstance that some portions were cut down too young, while in others many trees, and even entire clumps, were liable to decay before they came within the I'ange of the regular series of fellings. These were inconveniences to which it does not appear that any attention had been given in France, but which were felt by the foresters of Germany, and to remedy these inconveniences they devised in succession a number of measures, each of them, it may be, insufficient of itself to remedy the evil, but which, combined, resulted in consti- tuting a set of rules, applicable, some to coppice wood and some to timber forests, which have given rise to the publi- cation of numerous treatises on subjects which they embraced, or were connected therewith, wliich works proved useful not only at the time of publication, but also subsequently, inasmuch as they prepared the ground, and opened up the way for those master minds which have in later times definitely evolved the science of the art. The rules referred to may be briefly described thus : — 1. In the management of coppice wood, they required the division of these into as many fellings of equal extent as there were years on the rotation to be maintained, INTRODUCTION. 5 excepting in cases in which a very marked difference in the quality of the soil and the growth of the wood, com- bined with a necessity existing for obtaining annual pro- ducts nearly equal in quantity, might require that the extent of the fellings should be made in some respect proportional to the production. 2. In the management of timber forests, these forests, which were no longer the forests jardi?2ees of a former day, but which were coming, in Avhole or in part, under the operation of the system d tire et aire, were subjected to the following measures ; — 1. A general cropping of the forest. 2. A classification, according to ao^e, of all the standing crops, the oldest of which constituted together the group of exploitable woods, or of what were considered such. 3. The determination of the period of time necessary for the wood not yet matured to attain the predetermined age for felling. 4. The replacement during the succes.sive years of this period of the products obtained from the group of work- able woods, and with this in view the preparation of an estimate of the actual solid contents of these woods, and an estimate of their future cubic contents diminishing by progressive arithmetical decrease proportionate to the annual cuttings of the forest. By these estimates it could be seen at a glance what were the cubic contents of the forest then, and what it was likely to be five years thereafter ; ten years thereafter ; twenty years thereafter ; fifty years thereafter ; or at any subsequentary intermediate period. While the system of management of timber forests which has thus been described was being followed, it was found that the defects of the system were these : — First of all, the end for the attainment of which the whole system was devised — namely, the cstablisment of a well-sustained relation of equalisation ])etvveen the growth and the removal of trees was only imperfectly, and that very imperfectly accomplished. If, for example, 6 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. woods ot a medium age were deficient in the series, the period which must elapse previous to the felling of the younger woods must necessarily be very protracted, and this must to a great extent tend to prevent the possibiUty of ac- complishing the equalisation desired, as the old woods must be made to last to the end of this period, after which there would probably be a super-abundance ; or, if on the contrary, the old woods were in excess, and those of a medium age were of corresponding fewer numbers a beginning would be made with an abundance which must ultimately experience a great reduction. A. second and more serious defect of the system was the entire absence of any pro- vision for the improvement of the state or condition of the wood, in so far as this might be effected by the gradation of the ages, and the order in which they should succeed one another on the ground ; for such as the forest was found in both of these respects at the beginning of the rotation, such must it have been found at the end. In 1785 there appeared a remarkable work by Varenne do Fenille on the management of coppice woods, in which he thoroughly discussed the whole subject of production, and developed a theory in regard to the simple or absolute maximum of produce obtainable from coppice wood, and the compound maximum of small wood and of timber obtainable from such woods : — a theory which is still quoted in works on forest science and on forest economy, and which is known by his name. Meanwhile the increasing scarcity of wood, and the importance of securing as large a revenue as possible from the sale of wood raised on Crown forests, combined to secure in Germany a measure of attention to forest economy which led to an important application of science to the regulation of forest operations. The attempts to regulate there what in France is called the system of jardinage, in accordance with which, as has been stated, trees are felled then and there, according as they seemed fitted to meet the requirements of the wood- INTRODUCTION. ^ cutter, or showed symptoms of Laving begun to decay, had failed to accomplish what was desired. Subsequently the system of exploitation a tire et aire, according to which system of management the foresters divided into sections of approximately equal extent what are cleared in succession in periods of equal dui-ation, so deter.nined that by the time the last is cleared the forest will have been reproduced on the section first felled, had also failed ; and evils which were inherent in the system manifested themselves in Germany as they had done elsewhere. These forcing themselves upon the attention of Hartig, a man deservedly held in great respect by students of Forest Science, he set himself to study these evils with a view to the discovery or the devising of some remedy. About the year 1791 he published a treatise entitled * Instruction in the Culture of Woods,' in which he gave his views on the clearing of woods, and on the reproduc- tion of these by self-sown seeds. And in 1793 he published his developed system of forest economy. The work of tiartig was carried forward by Cotta, under whom the modern system of forest economy may be said to have received its completed development, if it be understood that this does not imply that it has been so perfected as to admit of no further improvement, and to have need of none. In this, as in much besides, the highest ever leads to a higher; and improvements have been devised, while others are still desiderated, but such as it is it has become associated with the names of Hartig and Cotta. As in the rising tide the advance made by each successive wave may be noted, and even where no apparent advance is made, but rather an appearance of retrogression presents itself, the results in establishing the hold of the tidal wave on the strips of shore previously captured, may be made subject of record — so has it been in the development of forest science and forest economy ; but, compared with what is done by each, the advance of the tide in its continuous How so far transcends the advance made by each wave or wavelet Iq succession on the shore, S FORESTRY IN GERMANY. that it is this which chiefly arrests and engages attention, and calls forth remark; and so it is here. Let all honour be rendered to each and all of successive promoters of forest science in bye-gone days ! they laboured, and we have entered on their labours, enjoying by inheri- tance the fruits of these. But the passing allusions which have been made to some of them have been made solely with aviewto make apparent the requirements for educated trained instructors to undertake the administration and management of forests, arising from the advancement of forest science and its embodiment in practical forestry, and the consequent necessity felt, if not also foinially declared, for the organisation of Schools of Forestry in which the necessary education, instruction, and training might be obtained, which Schools of Forestry in their turn, in their earlier development, were really schools for f(jroRters, and were n)ado subservient to the still further development of the science and art of forestry. It was with this in view that they were called into being. In a companion volume to this (ni the Scliools of Forest Engineers in Spain, I have had occasion to cite a work by Senior Don Carlos Castel y Clemente, in his ' Nocticia sobre la Fundacion y Desarrollo de la Esaida Especial de Ingenieros de Monies' published in 1877, an amplification of a memoir on the origin and development of the Special School of Forest Engineers in Spain, which he had prepared in accordance with orders received from the higher authorities of the State. In that he says: — ' In the seventeenth century there originatedinsome of the States of Germany the application of technical science to the treatment of forest masses. The rules, the aphorisms, and the whole of the directions which are comprised in the forestal knowledge of the ancients, are principles indefinite, obscure, uncertain, unconnected, destitute of method or systematized relations. Moser created in 1757 the first bofly of systematic teaching on the subject ; and to the impulse given to this by him, and the weighty energy of Laugen, Laspar, Zanthier, and others, are we INTRODUCTION. 9 indebted for the formation of the first plans of scientific treatment of forests begun in 1731 in the forests of the Dukedom of Brunswick. He, in his time, Langen being the first to do so, perceiving the necessit}' of entrusting the management of the forests to a specially educated and trained body of officials, possessing all necessary knowledge and information, with a view to raising up a l)ody of such men, established the first School of Forestry in WernigeroHe in the year 1772. But others consider as the first school that founded by Zanthier in Ilsenberg, which was followed some years later by the establishment of that by Haase in Lauterberg, that which G. Hartig founded in Hungen in 1791, that in Zillbach by H. Cotta in 179.'>, and various others, all due to the efforts of individuals, and manifesting that essentially practical character which was so requisite to meet the requirements of the time and the conditions in which the distinguished founders were placed, but devoid of means which would allow of there being given to them the influence and development which afterwards became needful.' While Cotta was proceeded, anticipated if you will, by others in feeling the need of appropriate instruction being given to foresters if there were to be obtained from them, and from their work, all the benefit to their country and to the world which these might be made to yield — who endeavoured to supply the desideratum, and did so according to their means and opportunity — it is the name of Cotta which has become most extensively associated with Schools of Forestry, and not improperly so, seeing that it is from the School of Forestry organised by him there has been developed and produced the advanced Schools of Forestry of the present day. I have a feeling of great respect for Zanthier, who is said to have been the first systematic teaclier of forest science and forest economy who taught on these subjects at Ilsenberg, a town in the county of Stolberg in Upper Saxony, situated not far from the Hartz mountains, and within the precincts of the old Thuringden forest. iO FORESTRY IN GERMANY. But, as stated in the work by Senor Castel, which I have cited : ' The primary organisation of the schools founded in Ilsenberg, VVernigerode, Lauterberg, Hungsn, Zillbach, Walterhausen, Rottenhaus, Castel, &c., in the period from 17GG to 1805, was that of several other private centres of instruction, which diei out with their founders, or suffered the fate which befell these in the course of their existence. All these made themselves remarkable by the great impulse and development which they gave to the ditfusion of forest science, and by their liaving raised up a numerous and distinguished body of men to assist and direct at a later time the work of bringing into order the forests of the districts in which they were situated. There stands out prominently amongst all these the school founded by Cotta. He, being charged with the reduction to an orderly con lition of the Forest of Fishbach, spent some years in the execution of this work, and during these years giving theoretic and practical instruction to the young men who assisted him there : thus was instituted the new centre of forestal instruction at Zillbach. Such reputation was acquired by this establishment of modern times, that in 1795 there was granted to it a subvention from the State, thanks to which be was able considerably to augment the means available then for the prosecution of study. 'In 1810 Cotta was appointed Director of Forest Manage- ment in Saxony. He at once perceived and pointed out the lack whicli existed of a staff of skilled officials, who should execute and assist in the execution of his projects ; and with a view to meeting this desideratum the promoted School of Zillbach was transferred to Tharand in IS 11, and ceded to the Government oq the 12th of May, 1816. Converted into a Government academy, and furnished with all necessary resources, the School of Tharand, devoted to the instruction of the forest engineers of the State, very soon HourisheJ beneficiently, attracting to study there the studious youthof many different countries, and serving as the sharp edge of a wedge for the general iktRODtrCTIdN. II diffusion of those truths which, spreading themselves a little later in different countries, proved tl)e occasion of there being opened other schools which take pride in calling themselves daughters of the Saxon Academy.' CHAPTER I. THE ROYAL SAXONY FOREST ACADEMY IN THARAND. The organisation of a School of Forestry was a natural sequence of the endeavours of Cotta to improve the method of exploitation of forests. We lack the data needful to enable us satisfactorily to differentiate sequences, which were most probably consequences of a common cause. But this much is manifest from the records — to impart to practical foresters the results of his cogita- tions was at once necessary to the execution of his scheme, and to the acquisition of additional data which were needed for the full development of his views. As has been intimated, in 178G Cotta began to give instruction in. regard to forests and forest products, and more especially in regard to the proper mensuration of woods and forests, and of forest trees, at Zillbach ; and there in 1795 he organised a regular school for the study of such subjects. This school may be considered as the germ of the first national School of Forestry, or as the see Uing which having been transplanted elsewhere, developed into such an institution, and reproduced its kind. This school he may be said to have removed entire to Tharand, a beautiful watering-place, a few miles from Dresden, the capital of Saxony, on his being called to that kingdom as Forstrath and Director of Forstvermessung, or Forest Surveying. Thither followed him, along with his assistants the greater part of his students at the time, and they constituted the body of a new Fui-stlehranstalt, or School of Forestry, which he 023ened on the 24th of May of that year, 1811. D. H. Hia LIBRARY ROYAL SAXONY FOBEST ACADEMY. 13 It lias apparently been more or less the case with all the Schools of Forestry in Europe that while they have been designed primarily, and perhaps exclusively, to educate and train foresters for the discharge of their functions as foresters, forest warders, Forst-meisters, and inspectors of forests, they have, by the col'ection of observations made being brought under the consideration of learned men familiar with like phenomena, enjoying a quietude and retirement favourable to study, called to instruct others in regard to these very things, and taking a special interest in such matters, done much to advance the forest science, and to improve the forest economy of the day ; and this was pre-eminently the case with the Forstlehranstalt and the Forst Academie of Tharand, under the direction of Cotta. From an address delivered by Cotta at the opening of the institute it appears he laid down as a principle that it should supply to the young forester not only an oppor- tunity to study the necessary accessary sciences, but also that which was peculiarly forest science, and the natural history of the game inhabiting the forest; and that this end could only be gained by a judiciously arranged com- bination of theory and practice. Apparently from the first he associated his students with him in his researches. The first Forstlehranstalt xirtuaUy consisted of a number of forest commissioners, who in summer carried on opera- tions in the different forests, under instructions from him as their chief, and in winter re-assembled at his residence, there to conduct, under his direction, the work of the fore-st bureau, and prepare plans of operations for the summer following. Such a group of educated, zealous, and laborious men supplied a most desirable instrumen- tality in the hands of such a master as he to be employed by him for such a purpose. In a report which was made by Cotta to the Koyal Privy College of Finance, under date of 12th September, 1815, he gives the following account of the progress and condition of the institute ;— 14 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. ' Scarcely had I gone thither when so many young men tcck up the study of forestry and of the chase that the number of my auditors, including land surveyors in the service of tlie State, and selected members of the joger corps, or huntsmen, during my first winter must have numbered about a hundred. In the following year, 1812, the collective number was considerably diminibhed, some of my older students having finished their course of study, some of the others leaving because they did not find here what tliey had in ample measure at the Zillbach school— a forest within a forest, for practice in forestry and in the chase, and many others leaving because they considered they had learned in the course of a year's attendance all that they needed to learn. Still the collective number of my hearers in the winter of this second year, inclusive of surveyors, was between 70 and 80. ' The war year, 1813, was, as it was to all other educational institutions, exceedingly detremental tothe Forsthhranstah at Tharand ; as the greater part of the students left the institute, and it was almost only the teachers who continued at their post. In the year 1814 some few students assembled, and bye-and-bye the lecture room gradually filled ; but not before the beginning of the current year, 1815, when it was reported everywhere that my Forstlehranstalt was being changed into a Eoyal Forst Academie, and that therel>y the practical instruction in the Tharand forest, should be entirely and more especially taken into account.' The change referred to was brought under the con- sideration of the Privy Finance College in 1814, iu consequence of a representation made by Cotta, and was understood to be carried out in accordance with his express desire. In the so-called Private Institute of Cotta he himself gave instiuction in all departments of forest science, forest technology, and forest botany ; and Dr John Adam Reum, as second teacher, assisted in giving instruc- tion in mathematics and in forest botany. eoYal saxony forest academy. 15 By a rescript of the 12th March, 1816, the transforma- tion of the private institute into a national Forst Academie, under the conjoint direction of the Privy Finance College and the Olerhofjagersmeister — anglice Master of the Hounds, was completed. Cotta, who was at the same time raised to the dignity of Oberforstrath, was nominated Director and forest teacher; as ordinary teachers to share the duty of instruction there were appointed Drs Reum and Krutzsch, both with the rank of professor ; and instruction in what related practically to the chase and to forest mensuration, in plandrawing, in the German language, in forest law, and in financial economy, was entrusted to others, in all six persons besides the director and professors. For the pur- chase of books, specimens, instruments, and implements, 600 thalers was appropriated ; for the support of poor but zealous students an annual allowance of 400 thalers was granted. The Academy had no forest of its own, but the forest lands of the Grallenberg Forest Circuit, and more especially the Tharand forest, was made available for practical instruction and demonstrations. The lectures were begun in the month of June. The number of students who had been entered while it was under the direction of Cotta was 62, of whom 40 remained in the school, the others were employed as assistants in forest surveying and forest conservation. By proclamation of 13th April, 1816, and by rescript of 10th June, 1816, the arrangements for study were authoritatively prescribed. The curriculum of study embraced mathematics, pure and mixed, in all departments — arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, mensuration, levelling, building, hydraulic engineering, in so far as this related to forestry, including dams, waterleadings, drinking places for man and beast, &c. ; Natural Science in all its departments, connected with forestry and the chase— zoology, forest botany, phy.siology of vegetation, with a more especial reference to the growth 16 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. of timber, orography, formation of earth and soil, mineralogy, physics, ' and chemistry, in so far as they might serve to illustrate anything and everything pertain- ing to forests ; Forstwissenschaft, or Forest Science, inclusive of sylvi- culture, forest conservation, and profitable exploitation, forest technology, and the administration of forests ; The chase, including the natural history of the game, the use of firearms, training of dogs, &c, ; and Business requirements — correspondence, and bookkeep- ing, forest laws and game laws, and political economy, in so far as this related to forest products of all kinds. The course of study was comprehensive and appropriate. In terms of the proclamation, practical instruction was to be the principal object aimed at in the instruction given to the students ; every lecture wa.s to have practical demonstrations so connected with it, that what was learned in the class-room should be illustrated and expounded in the forest ; and if it should happen that any unusual forest operation, or proceeding in connection with the chase, should occur in the time appropriated to class studies, for that day the class studies should be suspended. The proclamation, moreover, expressly specified that the students should be called whenever the arranging of sites of felling, or of sylvicultural operations were to be fixed, or other important forest work was to be done ; and they were to be informed what were the reasons for the work being done, and for that course, and no other, being adopted. The more advanced students were, according to the judgment of the director of the school, to take part in the work, to do other special work prescribed for them, and otherwise to have opportunity of practising all of the manifold operations required in the forest In view of this the 0'>erforstme'ister, or c'lit'f forester of the Grillenbnii; Forest Circuit was, by special rescript, ordered not only to allow the students of the forest academy to take part in forest operations, l)ut also to give to the sub- ordinate officials the necessary instructions; that they ROYAL SAXONY FOREST ACADEMY. 17 should not only give notice to the Oberforstrath Cotta of the more important forest operations wliich were about to be undertaken, but also of all fortst work, with specitica- tion of time and place, of which he should desire to be informed, that he might make the necessary arrangements for the students obtaining in the best way the practical instruction which these might be made to afford. Moreover to those scholars in the academy who mani- fested satisfactory skill and interest in their studies an opportunity was to be given to be present at the revision in the larger forest circuits, that thereby their knowledge of forestry and geneial information might be expanded, as well as a closer insight into forest operations and forest management might be obtained. And witli the same object in view they had once a-year at least to make a forest- excursion under the superintendence of a teacher, accord- ing to a pre-arranged plan, that they might be accustomed themselves to keep a journal of operations. For fou rteen years thereafter tlie /^ors< .4 caf/«/r*ie was simply a School of Forestry, in accordance with a proclamation of 13th April, 1816, and was devoted exclusively to the scientific and practical training of foresters. By the terms of that proclamation, besides the instruction given iu theoretical forest science, there was required to be given in it practical instruction in all departments of forestry and the chase, and this, in a course of two years instructiou, and six months of special lectures. Real hob- day rest was, according to the original prescription, enjoyed only during the weeks of Christmas and Easter ; but besides this, in place of the usual spring and harvest holiday.*', six weeks after Easter and six weeks after Michaelmas were spent in practical work in the forest, or otherwise in forest excursions and in the varied works of the chase. It being afterwards ol)jected that in the latter end of harvest there was a lack of opportunity for the students being exercised in forest work, iu ISID the harvest holidays were curtailed two weeks, and the pro- 18 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. gramme of study was so arranged that this shoukl be resumed regularly on the 1st of November. And in like manner in 1828 the time spent in practical work was shortened, several years experietiee having shown that this was desirable ; and the winter session was thereafter closed with the month of March ; the month of April Avas given to practical work ; and the summer session commenced on the 1st of May. In 1822 there were instituted two distinct abgangs pru- fungen, or exit examinations, at the close of the curriculum — a lower one, for Revierforsters or district foresters, and a higher one for those aspiring to higher offices in the forest service. It was optional with the students to which of these they would submit themselves ; and subsequently it was left free to the students to choose at what time they would submit themselves for examination. To the Director of the Forest Academy it was entrusted to see that the teacliers discharged their duties, to direct the general course of study in the Academy, to carry out, in concert with the other teachers, the discipline of the school, and so far as possible, personally to conduct the studies in forest science. In the absence of this official any of the teachers might be elected to discharge these functions. The teachers were appointed by the Royal Privy College of Finance, and were of two grades — the ordinary academic teacher, with the designation professor, and assistant teachers. The former met once a month under the presidency of the Director, and with the assistance of the Forstmeister, or master forester of the Tharand Forest Circuit, for the consideration of all that might relate to the good of the institution; and decisions were adopted in accordance with the majority of votes. Subsequently a special uniform, indicative of connection with the forest service was appointed for all connected with the Forest Academy. As means of education there were assigned to the ROYAL SAXONY FOREST ACADEMY. 19 Academy all the Forest Circuit of Grettenburg, and more especially the Tharaud forest, with at that time in all 9872 acres of forest land, and the pine woods in five Eeviers or districts, and the partially completed arboretum or forest botanic garden, with allowance for its main- tenance, and provision for the purchase of necessary books, collections illustrative of natural history, imple- ments, machinery, and apparatus, a physical and a chemical laboratory, a valuable geological museum, and a museum of woods and seeds. And from time to time additions were made to the buildings. The attention given to the combination of practical training with scientific instruction was maintained ; and the former had more time allotted to it. I have before me a copy of the time-table or Lehrstun- den for 1816 and 1817. In this, in accordance with the usage in Germany, is laid down the arrangement of classes meeting at the different hours of the day, but it is interesting now, chiefly as supplying, along with subse- quently issued tables,authorative prescriptions indicative of the gradations by which the existing system of study reached its present development. Successive extensions of the course of study continued to be made in the course of the fifteen years following. In 182 L Professor Kruzsch made a suggestion that the object of this academy should be so extended as to embrace the study of rural economy. And seven years later he submitted to the Royal Privy College of Finance a scheme of instruction Ijy which students could attend together classes in which were studied subjects required by both, and ot,her classes for the subjects peculiar to each. He afterwards showed that such a combination of schools had been carried into practical effect both in the Kingdom of Bavaria and the Grand Ducliy of Meiningen, and the measure was carrietl out by the appointment of Dr Schweitzer to a chair of rural economy, and the estab- lishment of a garden of economic botany, a library of rural 20 rOEESTEY IN GERMANY. economy, and a collection of models of agricultural imple- ments, and other machines pertaining to rural economy. Substqucntly, through the advice of the body of instnictors, and of the Eccnomical Society of Dresden, arrangements were completed for the erection of a com- l»incd Academy of Forestry and School of Rural Economy', and the foundation-stone of the extended buildings was laid by His Royal Highness Prince John, afterwards King of Saxony, accompanied by high officers of State, on the Soth June, 1829. The united colleges were opened on the lOth May, ISoO ; and the plan of the buildings was successively extended in 1846, in 1852, and in 1862. About the year 1830 the arrangements of the Academy were extended to provide for the study of rural economy as well as of forestry being pursued in the institution ; and on the 10th April, 1830, there was issued a Lehrplan or scheme of study, which continued to be followed for some sixteen years from that date. This combination subsisted for forty years, but not without changes. For sixteen years the two schools were distinct ; but in 181-6 they were interfused, and constituted a combined School of Forestry and Rural Economy. But in 1870 the combination was terminated, and the Academy became again one for the study of foiestry alone, and such it has continued ever since. In the lehrplan issued in 1830 the object of the School of Forestry was defined to be to train qualified forest eccnomists, and more especially skilful foiest masters and district foresters, for the Royal service ; and the object of the School of Rural Economy to be to supply to young men devoting themselves to rural economy, or desiring to study rural economy as an auxiliary science, and to obtain sound practical knowledge of this, an opportunity of acquiring sound knowledge of the science required in the attainment of this. In connection with the Forest Academy, two courses of study were now arranged — one extending over two voars, ROYAL SAXONY FOREST ACADEM^. 21 the other one which could be passed through iu one year. The latter supplied the instruction deemed necessary for a district forester in the Royal service ; the former, the higher instruction required by forst-meisters ; while a cjurse of three years' study was prescribed for those who aspired to superior positions in the forest service. According to a report of the institution, dated ^th November, 1839, the details were somewhat modifit^d, l>ut the principles were maintained, and tbe same may be alleged of other modifications which followed. Several other changes affecting the age, position, &c., of the student, the staff of teachers, the direction of the studies, and the discipline of the school, were introduced. Important among these was the establishment of a Chair of Agricultural Chemistry, with a laboratory and provision for the study of chemistry, theoretical and practical, in all its applications to vegetation ; and provision for the study of Veterinary Science, of Botany, Zoology, Ento- mology, and Natural History. The buildings were extended, and the educational appliances were increased. In the middle of the century there were organised in Saxony several so called Real-schulen, in regard to which additional information will afterwards be given ; here let it suffice to state that in these elementary instruction in physical science, as well as other branches of common school instruction, was given, and these Real-schulen were made available for increasing the efficiency of the School of Forestry by the provision made in them for the pre- paratory training of siudents. The two combined schools were again placed under different directors. Other changes in the internal arrangements were made affecting both the course of study and the discipline of the school. Increased attention was griven to oractical instruction in forestry ; and with the establishment of these changes, was completed the first half-century of the operations of the School of Forestry in Tharand. Modifications of the powers of the College Court of ii FORESTRY IN GfiRMANy. discipliae were made from time to time. Cliaages in the statf of teachers occurred through deaths and removals ; aud improvements, or what were designed to be such, were effected in the arboretum aud other educational appliances of the institution ; and from 1830 to 184)5 the efficiency of the Academy steadily increased. From 1846 to 1857 was a time of civil commotion, aud the institution suffered in consequence ; but there were also changes made in the Plans of instruction. According to one issued on 5th February, 1846, it was arranged that, instead of taking the form of two united schools, it should take the form of one combined School of Forestry aud Rural Economy, with a curriculum of study embracing two years, after passing through which aspirants for superior appointments in the service were required to spend a third year at the University. The studies prescribed were these : of G < undwistnscafien, or foundation sciences, there were studied in class during the first year of the Course — Simple and applied arithmetic and algebra, for 4 hours a-week in summer ; plane geometry aud elementary mensuration, for 4 hours a-week in winter ; physics, 4 hours in summer ; chemistry, 4 hours in winter, with 1 hours repit'Uorum ;* geognosy, 2 hours in summer ; mineralog)', 4 hours in winter ; general botany, 4 hours in summer ; vegetable physiology, 4 hours in summer ; zoology, and special natural history of animals interesting to forestal and rural economy, 3 hours a-week in winter. In the second year of the Course — Trigonometry and higher mensuration, 4 hours a week in summer ; cubic mensuration and forest mathematics, 3 hours in winter ; earth, soils, atmosphere, and climatology, 4 hours in summer ; forest botany, 2 hours in summer ; agricultural botany, 2 hours in summer ; Repititoram of natural history, * Tlie Repititorum is au examination; but in so far as it has come under my attention it seems desiffned not to test the attainments of the students, but their defects ; and this not for the liumiliation of the student, but to show the teacher wherein his teaching,' has been deficient, cither in itself or in view of the capabilities and attainments of diScrcui atudeuts. ROYAL SAXONY FOREST ACADEMY. 2S and especially of botany, 2 hours iu winter ; entomology, 3 hours in winter; political economy, 5 hours during two months in winter. Haupticissenschaflen or Special Sciences of Forestry in the first year of the Course — Foundations of forest science, 3 hours a- week in summer ; forest defence, 1 hour in winter ; the chase, 2 hours in winter ; agriculture, 5 hours in summer ; pastoral husbandry, 4 hours in winter. In the second year of the Course — Sylviculture, 4 hours in summer; forest exploitation, or profitable utilisation, and forest technology, 3 hours in summer ; forest taxation, or estimation of produce and probable proceeds, 4 hours in summer ; forest history and literature, 2 hours in winter; State forestry, 2 hours in winter; forestal Repititorum, 4 hours in summer and 2 in winter; professional rural economy, 5 hours during three months in winter ; practical rural economy, 3 hours in summer. Hilfswissenschaften or Accessary Sciences during the first year of the Course — Bookkeeping and coirespondence 2 hours in winter. In the second year of the Course — Technology of rural economy, 1 hoiu* in summer ; veterinary surgery, &c., 3 hours in summer and 3 in winter; rural constructions and building, 2 hours in summer ; legislation and juris- diction relative to forest and rural economy, 2 hours in summer and 3 in winter. Besides these studies in the class-room, there are given the following practical instructions : — Land Surveying, or practice in mensuration, two afternoons in summer; excursions for field studies in Natural History, 4 afternoons in summer; forest management one day weekly in summer and winter; exercises in shooting in summer, and in the chase in winter ; demonstrations of rural economy on Saturdays. Practical instruction in garden and forest agriculture every year in the Botanic Garden in the months of April and October. •21 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. Cliange.s or alterations in the plan of instruction thus prescribed could only be made with the permission of the Royal Ministry of Finance. With regard to the students, there was now a distinction drawn between those who entered with a view to attend the whole course of instruction given in the Academy, regular students of the Academy, designated in the corresponding language of the country as Intaner, Esoterics ; and those who did not enter themselves as full student-i were called Extraner, a designation corresponding to exoterics : designations which have given origin to corresponding designations in Schools of Forestry in other lands. And along with this division of the students, there were introduced some changes in the conditions of admission to the Academy, Of every applicant, it was required that he should be at least 17 years of age, and have spent at least a year in practical work, pertaining to forestry or rural economy, and produce evidence of his possessing the preparedness necessary to his understanding the lessons to be given. The certificates required were those of birth and domicile, and of good character from the authorities of the place in which he bad last resided, and of the school which he had last attended ; and if not independent, a certificate from his father or guardian, attested by the local authorities, that he had their permission to attend the Academy. Saxon subjects, moreover, who wished to tit themselves for the forest service of the country, and more especially for the charge of a forest circuit, were required, as they had been from the year 1849 onward, to show by submitting to examination, or by certificate from a national school, tliat they had attained the measure of scientific training required for entrance on the highest class of a gymnasium or Real-schule or other educational institution of the same standing ; and also to establish by certificate, attested by the Oherforstmeister of the district, that they had acquired the required practical preparation by an apprenticeship of at least one year in the forests. Such Saxon subjects, moreover, as desired to fit themselves for koYAL SAXONY FORt^^T ACADEMY. ^ the liigher departments of the forest service of the state, were required to produce from a national gymnasium a certificate of fitness for entering a University, and besides this, submit, if it should be desired, to an examination in mathematical science ; and produce a certificate from the highest forest official in the district that he had for one year (or better for two years) been acquiring the requisite practical knowledge in a Royal Saxon Forst- revier or circuit, by personally engaging in the work. All other students who, though they did not enter the forest service of the State, desired to go through the complete course of the Academy, and to receive on leaving, an exit certificate, were required to prove, by presentation of the necessary certificates from either Saxon or foreign schools, or by submitting to the corresponding examinations, that they possessed the required knowledge. But extraner were only required to show generally that they were qualified for attendance with profit on the lectures of the Academy. With regard to other matters, the commencement of the summer session remained the entrance time for Saxons who desired to devote themselves to forestry, and go through the entire course with a view to subsequently entering the Royal State service of Saxons.. Whilst extraner and sttidents of rural economy, and with them those foresters who did not intend to enter the Royal State Service, might also enter at the commencement of the winter session. Some few unimportant changes were also made in regard to matters of discipline ; but those arrangements which were finally adopted, and are now in force, seem alone deserving of special notice. In anticipation of a jubilee festival to be held on 17th June, 1866, in commemoration of the opening of the School of Forestry at Tharand, by Cotta, fifty years before ; and as part of the preparations for the due celebration of the event, there were prepared a number of 2h FORESTRY IN GERNtANY. documents which were published as a ' Year Book * specially designed for that year — the year of jubilee. In the frontispiece is given a plate of the Royal Saxon Academy for Forest and Rural Economy at Tharand, and in the first part of the volume is given a historical sketch of the Academy, divided into five marked periods, with an appendix containing a list of all the directors, professors, and other instructors who had served in the Academy ; a second appendix contains the names of all the students who had attended the Academy, with their nationalities and time of attendance; and a third appendix supplies additional information tabulated to show the age of the several students at entrance, and several other details,but these relatemoretothe forest economy of Saxony, as developed by the studies pursued at Tharand, than to the development of the school itself, to which alone attention is being directed here. These carefully prepared statistics of attendants and attendance during the first fifty years of the existence of the School of Forestry, supply all the information which could be desired in regard to the country, ago, attainments, &c., of the student. But it may suffice here to state that, besides students belonging to the kingdom of Saxony, there were students from thirty-three other countries, including, I may say, every country in Europe, five students from America, and one from Britain. The historical sketch is by Hofrath Dr Schober, Director of the Rural Economy Department of the Academy, and Professor of Rural Economy ; and the historical divisions svipply detailed information in regard to : I. The founding of the Academy and work previously done by Cotta in Zillbach ; II. The work of the school from 1816, when founded, to 1829, during which period it was exclusively a School of Forestry, but had then an Agricultural School, of School of Rural Economy, established in the same building; ROYAL SAXONY FORE.^! ACADfiMY. St III. This from 1830 to 1845, when the School of Forestry was combined with the School of Rural Economy ; IV. From 184G to 1851, a period of war and commotion ; V. From 1852 to 1866, from the celebratiou of the 40th anniversary of Cotta's commencement of his work at Tharand, to the 50th anniversary and jubilee of the opening of the Forest Academy in Tharand as a State institution. In the second part of this ' Year Book' for 1866 are given, with reference to a map, geognostic and climatic descriptions of the region around Tharand within a distance of three hours' excursion on foot — on the east to Dresden, and on the west to the extreme limit of the Tharand forest towards Freiburg; specifications of the altitudes of all the springs, streams, rivers, hills, and notable places in the district above the Zero of the Elbepegel or float measuring the flow of the Elbe at Dresden, and its level above that of the German Ocean ; a list of plants growing wild in the district, nearly 1000 in number, and of arborescent shrubs and trees in the Botanic Garden of the institution upwards of 500 in number; an account of the distribution, physiognomy, and flowering season of the vegetation of the district, with arrangements of excursions in the vicinity and to greater distances, and notices of the new plants likely to be seen within the different hours spent on these different excursions. In the third part are given several memoirs or reports which may be seen to relate rather to the forest economy of the country than to the history of the Academy, but which are intimately connected Avith this supplying manifestations of the great development effected in forest science and forest economy in the course of the previous half-century by the teachers and the taught in connection with the school. The first is a report by Oberforstrath Dr J. F. Judeich, the Director of the Academy, and first teacher of 26 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. Forstwissenschaft, embracing— 1. Finance ; 2. The uurmal method of exploitation and its results ; 3. The advanced and perfected method, the Fachwerkesmethode, devised by Cotta, an I matured by Hartig. The second is a report by Professor Roch, second teacher of Forstwissenschaften. On the development of sylviculture in Saxony, from the establishment of the Academy in Tharand in 181G — in which are reported in succession the earlier neglect of sylviculture an;l the reasons of this ; the culture of the birch, the tir, the larch, and the beech ; the earlier methods of renovation of forests ; and the methods of culture adopted since ISIG in regard to sowing and in regard to planting. The third is entitled ' A retrospect of the forestal and chemical physiological researches' undertaken in the laboratory of the Academy as an encouragement to the founding of forestal experimentation by Hofrath Professor Dr. A. Stoeckhardt. In this are decussed — 1. Varieties of mountains, and the action of the weather upon them ; 2. Varieties of soil ; 3. Chemico-physiological researches ; 4. Forestal technical investigations. The fourth is entitled ' The forest-borer of the newest construction for ascertaining increase of growth' ; its importance and practical use for technical forest researches, taxation, administration, and exploration, by Hofrath Professor Pressler, in which are discussed — 1. The advantage and necessity of fundamental and special observations of increase of growth ; 2. The instrument in question, and the use of it, which the writer feels himself called on to recommend ; and 3. Contributions made to the theory of technical calculations of increase, and observations of increase, with valuable appendices. An incident connected with the jubilee in anticipation, of which these documents had been prepared, I may not pass without notice. In accordance with the usages of the nation, and the devout religious feeUngs under which the work had been begun and carried on, the jubilee falling ROYAL SAXONY FOREST ACADEMY. 29 upon a Sal^bath, the Sabbath was appropriated to the soleninity. It is a peaceful valley in which the Academy is situated ; but there on that holy day, at the very hour at which they had hoped tl.at the students ot the past and the present, and the patrons and friends of the institution, would proceed in procession from the Church of God to the Festal Hall, the van of the Prussian army entered the vale I Throughoutthe previous century (the eighteenth), French students of forestry were steadily advancing to the discovery and device made by Hartig and Cotta. But war, civil war, and foreign wars, to which that gave rise, compelled them to abandon their peaceful studies at the very time when a new era of forest economy was about to begin. And now, when after fifty years peace, their fellow-students of forest science in Germany were preparing to hold a jubilee in connection with their peaceful triumphs, they must give place to the require- ments of war, and make way for the march of the warrior host ! The details which I have given of the history of the School of Forestry may be uninteresting to the general reader ; but I consider them not unimportant as indications of the growth and development of the institution from which the students of such establishments may learn much in addition to what may be learned from the study of a School of Forestry, created perfect in all its parts, as was Minerva, armed cap a pie, produced from the head of Jupiter. More recent details have not been given, because for the full appreciation of these, some knowledge of the circumstances wliich gave rise to the changes would have have been necessary, and information in regard to these might have proved distasteful to some who otherwise may become interested in the subject. But I shall indicate immediately where additional information may be obtained, if it be desired. Thus far the narration may be considered the history of so FORESTRY IN GERMANY. the origin and development through childhood and youth to manhood of the first National School of Forestry. The subsequent changes were not unimportant, but like the changes which pass upon man from early manhood to the full maturity of middle life, they are less marked than are some of those occurring in man, and in the earlier development of the school, within the same number of years in early life In 1870 the School of Agriculture, or Rural Economy, engrafted upon it in 1830, was, after forty years of companionship, separated from it, and it was constituted again a School of Forestry alone. In a letter which I received in the summer of 1883 from the honoured Director of the School, Oberforstrath Dr Judeich, he mentions that in 1870 the agricultural department was removed; and by an order of 14th December, 1871, a new programme, or general plan of instruction, was introduced, in accordance with which the students were required only to spend half a-year in preparatory practice, and two and a-half years in class studies in Tharand. As preliminaries to admission they were required to produce a Maturitd, or exit certificate, from a gymnasium or a Real-schule of the first class. In the scheme of instruction referred to by Dr Judeich, which was sanctioned by the Minister of Finance on the l^lh December, 1871,* it is declared : — (1.) That the design of the institution is to supply to foresters a comprehensive instruction in forest science, and the other sciences upon which this is based, or which are otherwise connected with it, so as to qualify them for the efficient discharge of their duties, and to promote the advancement of that science. (2.) That for the time being the statTof teachers consists of the director, who is also teacher of forest science ; a seconl teacher of forest science, who is also manager of the Tharand forest division ; three teachers of physical * Re-isiued substantially the same iu lji72, and again, with slight modification ia 1879. ROYAL SAXONY FOREST ACADEMY. 31 sciences ; two teachers of mathematics, and teacher of rural economy and general economicF, and of law and juris- prudence ; and a manager of the arboretum, who is also instructor in fruit culture ; and, as need may require, an adequate number of assistants. (3.) The duties of the Director are to exercise — 1. The control of the studies in accordance Avith the the prescribed plan ; 2. The control of the museums and educational apparatus, for which in subordination to him the several teachers are responsible in so far as they are severally concerned. 3. The immediate tenure of the property and inventories. 4. The payment of all accounts due from the funds of the Academy. 5. The calling of conferences of the college of teachers, and to preside and conduct these. (4<.) The ordinary teachers, under the presidency of the the director, constitute the College teachers. The duties of this college, in the deliberations of which the official agent in what relates to discipline, has a seat and vote, embraces — 1. The examination of applications for admittance to the course of study followed at the Academy, and decision on the same. 2. Deliberation and decision in cases of discipline. 3. Deliberation and confirmation of the special Ze/i7y?/a?i or scheme of study for the session. 4. The approval and granting of applications for bursaries. 5. Deliberation and filling up of proposals to the Minister of Finance relative to the filling up of vacant situations of teachers, ordinary or extraordinary, and also of assistants. 6. All matters of importance which the Director declines on any ground to decide by himself, or which may be expressly assigned to the college by the Minister of Finance. 32 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. As a rule, meetings are held once a month ; but special meetings may be called at any time by the Director. On proposal by the college, privat-decante/i , tutors, or lecturers on special subjects, may be appointed by the Minister of Finance. (5) To the College of Teachers, under the presidency of the Director, is entrusted the examination of certificates submitted by applicants for admission as students, and decision on the same. The trial and decision of cases of discipline, the consideration and decision of the Lehrplan or scheme and distribution of studies throughout the day, the sessicm, and the curriculum of study, the sanction and allocation of money grants to students in aid of their education at the Academy, the consideration and decision of proposals to be submitted to the Minister of Finance relative to stipends to teachers and assistants, and in general, the consideiation and decision of all matters which the Director may decline to decide on his own responsibility, or which the Minister of Finance may expressely assign to them for consideration. (6.) The College of Teachers meet monthly, and at such other times as may be necessary, and summoned by the director. (7.) Privut docenten, or tutors, may, by appointment of the Minister of Finance, be entrusted with specified duties. (8.) The curriculum extends over two and a-half years, and embraces the following studies : — 1. — Fundamental Sciences. 1. Physical Sciences — including (a) Chemistry, Agricul- tural Chemistry, Practical Chemistry ; (b) Mineralogy — Geognosy, with a special reference to the study of soils; (c) Botany, Structure and Physiology of Plants, and special Forest Botany ; (d.) Zoology, with a ."-pecial reference to important animals injurious, or the contrary, to forest economy, embracing more particularly forest Kntomology ; {e) Physics and Natural Philosophy ; (J) Meteorology. ROYAL SAXONY FOREST ACADEMY. ti 2. Mathematics — (a) Cursory revisal of Aritb.metic and Geometry, with a special treatment of sections in each which may be of importance to the forester ; (b) Analytical Geometry ; (c) Differential and Integral Calculus ; (c?) Mensuration, including the drawing of plans. 3. Mechanics and Machinery. 4. Architecture, Hydraulic Engineering, and Road- making. 5. General Economics. II.— Professional Sciences. 1. History and Literature of Forestry. 2. Forest Culture, and Forest Conservation. 3. Forest Mathematics, measurement of standing trees and of felled timber, cubic increase of wood by annual growth. Forest financial reckoning. 4. Forest Economy and Forest Technology. 5. Forest Partition in accordance with the requirements of Scientific Forestry. 6. Forest Management and Administration, wiih a special reference to these as carried out in Saxony. 7. Forest Police. 8. Game Laws. III.— Accessary or Complementary Sciences. 1. Science of Finance. 2. Law and Jurisprudence. 3. Rural Economy. 4. Meadow Culture. 5. Fruit Culture. The lectures are illustrated, when necessary, by practical exercises and demonstrations. (9.) Amongst provisions for aiding in instruction are : — 1. Tl\e Tharand Forest Eevier, or district, placed under the inspection of the director, and managed under the direction of the second teacher of forest science. 2. A Botanic Garden. 3. A Library. 4, Museums illustrative of Physical Science, Mathematics, and Forest and Rural Economy. 5, A Chemical Laboratory. D H FORESTRY IN GERMANY. (10.) For forest excursions, which can be accomplished in one or in two days, and which are made weekly in summer, facilities are afforded by Eevieren or forest divisions of the forest of Tharand beyond that connected with the Academy, and by the Dresden Haide or heath, and many other State forests and private woods easily reached by railway. And annually, at the close of the summer session, in the month of August, there is undertaken, under the guidance of one of the teachers, an excursion extending over ten days or a fortnight, which is not con- fined within the limits of Saxony. (11.) The curriculum is begun annually on the 15th of October. (12.) The holidays are Easter week, Christmas week, three full weeks in March, between the close of the winter session and the commencement of the summer session, and from the middle of August till the middle of October, the close of the summer and the commencement of the winter session. (13.) The Academy is open both to the subjects of Saxony and others. Saxons desirous of entering the forest service of the State are required to submit — 1. A certificate of having completed the course of study at a Saxon gymnasium, or a corresponding certificate from some corresponding Beal-sckule. 2. A certificate that he has passed through a preparatory training for six months in some specified Revier or circuit of the State forests. 3. An extract register of birth. 4. If under age, a document from his father or guardian giving consent to his studying at the Academy. Of others there are required only a passport or corres- ponding document ; and if the applicant be under age a notarial certificate from a German Consul that he believes the applicant has the consent of his father or of his guardian to study at the Academy. In the case of aspirants for employment in the forest service, it is further considered desirable that they should kOYAL SAXONY FOREST ACADEMY. 35 give evidence that they have attained theorectical and practical instruction sufficient to enable them understand the prelections. (14.) The entrant promises to obey the lavvs of the Academy, with a copy of which he is supplied. When his name is entered on the roll he receives a ticket certifying the same, for which he pays 5 Thaler s. In doubtful cases, the consent of the Minister of Finance is necessary to admission. (15.) Subjects of Saxony pay 25 Thalers each half-year, a,nd others S7 Thalers 15 (x/uscAg/t for instruction, irrespec- tive of the number of classes theyattend. Students entering when half the session has passed pay only half fees ; and students who are not preparing for the forest service of the State pay each session for the use of the chemical laboratory apparatus and re-agents : — If used 4 hours per week, . 3 Thalers. » " « • 5 j> „ 16 „ . 10 „ „ 24 „ . 15 „ (16.) Students desirous of employment in the forest service of the State submit to the followius: examina- tions : — 1. At the close of the first years' studies a written, and, at the option of the several teachers, also an oral examination on all the subjects which have engaged their study, except the higher mathematics ; and any who do not obtain on the average at least the mark 2, or Satisfactory/, cannot pass into the second division of .the curriculum. 2. At the close of the curriculum a written and an oral examination on all the subjects studied in the third, fourth, and fifth sessions of the course, with the exception of the higher mathematics, meadow culture, and rural economy ; and no one is passed who does not obtain the average mark 2, or Satisfactory, or who reoeives for the chief forest sciences — forest partitioning, forest culture, 36 FORk^TRY IN GKRMANY. ff)rest ecunoiiiy, and forest mathematics -the mark Uasathfactory. 3. Exceptional cases may be committed to single teachers to examine on specified subjects. 4. At both of the examinations students may voluntarily otter themselves for examinations on the subjects, the examination on which is not obligatory — the higher mathematics, meadow culture, and rural economy. With students who have not determined to seek employment in the forest service of the State it is optional to submit to examination in any, or all, or none of the subjects of study. (17.) The marks assigned as the result of examination of these — Unsatisfactory, Scarcely satisfactory. Satisfactory, Good, Very good, Distinguished, And there is entered the average yielded by the marks obtained in the whole of the examinations ; but this is only granted when examinations on all tlie prescribed subjects has been undergone. The conduct marks are these — 1. Reprehensible. 2. Nothing very culpable. 3. Irreproachable. Students not submitting to examination may obtain certificates of the time they attended, the classes in which they studied, and of their conduct ; and if they submit to examination on one or more subjects, certificates of their appearance in these are given. (18.) Candidates for the State service failing in one or other of the examinations, may present themselves for ROYAL SAXONY FOREST ACADEMY. 37 examination a second time. But with a second failure they lose all title to such employment. (19.) For promising candidates of limited means there are provided six whole and six half free scholai'ships — holders of the first paying no fees, holders of the second paying half fees; and a fund has been created from which a certain number, distinguished for their zeal, progress, and good l)ehaviour may obtain an allowance of from 10 to 50 thalers towards their personal expenses. All applications in both cases are submitted to the Minister of Finance, Deserving students of limited means, who have a long journey to make at the close of each session, may have granted to them, by decision of the teachers, from 00 to 100 thalers for travelling expenses. And there have been founded scholarships obtainable in accordance with prescribed conditions. (20.) Students are required to conform to the rules of the Academy. Each must be in his place at latest within ten minutes after the hour of lecture. If later, the ease is reported to the Director, The provided means of study must be used in accordance with the regulations, and all injuries must be made good. Everything whereby the laws or ordinances of the direction, the amenity of the place, the public safety, order, and peace, may be compro- mised, respect towards officials, superiors, or teachers, impaired, or private persons injured, must be avoided. (21.) The punishment to which transgressors are liable are these — (a) Reproof according to sentence, with or without report to the officers of justice, or to the college of teachers, in presence or in absence of the other students, with or without report to parents or friends. (b) Forfeiture of money grants. (c) Imprisonment. (d) Warning, with threatening of expulsion from the Academy. (e) Expulsion. 38 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. Two or more of the punishments may be combined ; and expulsion is always to be reported to the relatives.. There is issued at the commencement of each session a LehrpJan, or scheme of study, specifying how the lecture hours of each day are occupied. The following are translations of copies of those with which I was supplied : — >< < a m U Q e-i a a OS .a a _o o'S X Agricultural Chemistry. >> -s PQ 05 Exercises in Mensuration 3 5 s o OS OQ O 2.S S < O Ed e-i 1 1 d 1» d 1 2 o a o 2 * P'2, X Exercises in computing Produce and Products of Forests. 1 c o 1 O d Anatomy & Phy- siology of Plants. "g "Sin" d 2 '-S 2 d OQ d Plan and Architectural Drawing. •< Q o 2 c o « d i-i 3 "a _o |> '>. §■ o 3 2 s a O o eS <0 _d 1 O "3 J « >« (U s o 03 S a 4) .-3 d Geognosical and Mineralogical Excursions. Hours of the day. 7-8 8—9 O -H 7 7 C5 O (N 1 1 in 1 1 «5 % 03 s o a o 1 00 "2 ■a 1 § 00 uesdays, as well as ical Laboratory is sposal of Students sion begins on 9th in the middle of ion begins on the £ 3 O O d 1 ■a s ai S 3 o tJm 3?e«o -'^".^J P-S < o 1 1 1 1>> •C a> ^6 i 1 i 2 3 O O _5 05 ..- ai "§1 o a 0) i < a Eh 1 i 1 1 1 6 !| 9 a ^ ® o O +3 ^ o -»3 . 00 » £.2 3 S? .2 ^ oo oo c8 no 9 '£ 3 X 1 1 oq 3 5 C o 1 CO o -2 La 1 2 S "E 53 2 J* Wo-g .2.a^PM Hours of the day. CO I C5 1 CO 7 C5 7 IN 7 1 1 ■"" ' — ■ 00 o a . "*'« o >> v a .2 S as Si ki IS O '2 2 o a (V 3 ii j; PL, .2 S s. •■§2 >n <5 3 §"43 ft; S IN l-» o fe 3 43 Tl a d be s is §>, ^ 1 o ©■■*3 05 t< ^ a & 1 [is .2 8 1^ c 43 a .S 5 2 >. 1 5P a o « c >-< _e § p^ 00 Ph £ 01 02 N a 'S >> o 'c« a 1 o _ a? 3 u a, O tj c4 "C a 3 h:i 3 1 HP5 h^ on M < 1 5 1 a: 's o a o §■ . >1 g O 1 0) 2 2 a 0) ;^ £ S^ s ^ O SP General Mathemati Part 1. a> 'i o 1 a: i-i a -, «> o ^ (N T CO 7 1 O 7 1-4 JO 1 C4 1— 1 i-H «• S s 4a .^ c •i .2* "3 i 1 (1^ 00 [Z4 2 1 |-| .2 4jft5 ►^ fe.2 ai 1 ^■^ OJ 3 < o ■ 2 5 0!1 TS >> CO o a o"-5 eS bi -u ^£ •43.2 03 1 1 •i !• ^ £ ^0 .S 1 (8 2 s c 1 00 'a 4S 1 s o S o " n N q5 aj w >. u c • ^ 60 s o 0) 1 f2 4J (O 0^ fl u a, J3 « 43 to S (1 v in a ej Pm s £ >^ § frt o 43 . nS Q o .2 CO 00 £.2 ^1 a . .§1 1 w '3 §5^ •-S 3 '3 !JS s iz; .2 U 00 •3^ i ^ ^ 1 2 d S^ ?p 00 ^ d .2 1 >. i •—■5 • c8 rt <-< £ 1 1 1 1 N <0 1 1 2 1 .J " § S 1 1 ^ «. « J , iM 1 1 >^-S C5 w4 iM M ■«♦< »o »■" s *» 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 O 1 1 00 1 1 1 1 (M 1 1 o P^ ^^ 1 >• < p & "< 3 5 e i If $ a 3 Wq3 a o CO General Economics. Practical Vegetable Physiology. Practical Chemistry. i The Chase. Physics, < ai i S ■s CO in Forest Administration, Laying out of Forests. "s o V o 'S 2 Pli 1 i Sylviculture. History and Literature of Forest Science. Practical Chemistry. Integrate- Calculus. 1 1 •i 1 2 Chemistry. General Mathematics. Part 1. 8-9 9-10 10—11 11—12 1 1 1 1 ec 1 ^ 1 K? II 1 W M •* 44 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. In the Lehrplan there is given also, under each subject of lecture, the namo of the lecturer. In the communication received from Dr Judeich, already referred to, he mentioned that in 1869 there was founded, through the enterprise of Professor Nobbe, an Agricultural and General Physiological Experiment Station. Of the attendance of students, subsequently to the Jubilee, he gives the following returns :— SuMMKR Session. i Winter Session. Year. Students of Forestry. Students of Rural Economy. Total. Students of Forestry. Students of Rural Economy. 13 14 12 6 Total. Saxons. Foreigners Saxons Foreigners 19 23 25 26 1866 1867 1868 1869 55 65 52 29 20 24 24 18 17 12 11 8 92 101 87 55 56 64 49 26 88 101 86 58 After this, the Rural Economy Department having been withdrawn, there were only students of forestry in atttendance. Summer Session. Winter Session. Saxons. ForeijjTuera Total. Saxons. Foreigners. Total. 1870 20 23 43 19 30 49 1871 28 26 54 26 29 55 1872 32 28 60 36 25 61 1873 17 18 35 23 30 53 1874 20 32 52 29 34 63 1875 20 26 46 30 45 75 1876 23 37 60 33 51 84 1877 27 34 61 34 59 93 1878 2t) 51 77 38 72 110 1879 25 53 78 46 75 121 1880 33 58 91 ' 46 80 i 126 1881 37 50 87 57 69 126 1882 41 55 96 1 66 1 64 130 kOYAL SAXONV PORiJST ACADEMY. 45 The occasion of my visit to Tharand was my attend- ance at a Congress of German foresters, professors of forest science, and administrators of forests, held in the neigh- bouring capital, Dresden, in the autumn of 1881. I had been made acquainted years before with the history of the Academy. I found Tharand all that I had been led to picture it to myself; and I shall not soon forget the intercourse 1 enjoyed with the Director and his colleagues, which intercourse was all too short to satisfy the cravings which it gratified. I found Tharand, as I had read it described by another : 'Tharand is beautifully situated at the junction of three valleys, from two of which flow streams which unite and flow through the Planenschegrund into the Elbe. The neighbourhood abounds with pretty romantic walks. From the ruins of the old castle, the remains of a hunting seat of the ancestors of the Royal Family of Saxony, which may be reached in ten minutes from the inn, you look down from a promontory of rock on which it is perched into a deep and picturesque valley on either side. ' The Forest Garden is a nursery forest containing, it is said, 1000 different species of trees and shrubs attached to the Forest School. From this a fine view may be obtained, and there are pretty walks in it The same may be said of the Heilige Hall, an avenue of beech trees.' In the history of the Academy at Tharand, published on^the occasion of the Jubilee, it is stated in the conclusion of the account given of the fourth period of the history : — ' On the 17th of June, 1851, forty years after the removal of Cottars private institute from Zillbach to Tharand, the unveiling of the bust of the late Privy-Oberforstrath Gotta in the Botanic Garden was solemnised. On the same diy the bust of him by A. Reum was, in a becoming manner, erected and consecrated in the centre of his crea- tion, and in a place where he often taught — in front of the so-called Eundetheite, or circus, in the Garden.' The first- mentioned bust was presented by the Cabinet Miaister Count von Einsiedel ; the latter was erected at 46 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. the instance and expense of several admirers of the distinguished man. On the summit of the tree-clad hill, which forms a background to the Academy, stands the monument in question, surrounded by a wide circle of noble trees planted as saplings on that occasion by admiring grateful disciples, as a tribute to the honoured founder of the Academy. Thither the members of the Congress were conducted, many of us knowing not why or whither, and many a quip and jest, and hilarous laugh, seasoned our reasonings by the way ; but as we drew near, and realised the scene, every voice was hushed, even the footfall was made in silence pi-ofound, and collecting in the sacred enclosure, while more than one was apparently engaged in silent worship, fancy seemed to hear once more the voice, heard by the beloved disciple of our Lord in Patmos : ' And I heard a voice from heaven saying unto me, write : Blessed are the dead which die in the Lord from hence- forth ; Yea, saith the Spirit, that they may rest from their labours ; and their works do follow them.' CHAPTER n. THE ROYAL FOREST ACADEMY AT NEWSTADT- EBERSVVALDE. The route which I followed in going to the Congress of German foresters and others held in Dresden in 1881, my attendance at which gave me an opportunity of visiting the Royal Saxon Forest Academy at Tharand, led me through Berlin, and I availed myself of the oppor- tunity to visit the Royal Prussian Forest Academy at Neustadt-Eberswalde. It was one of the first of the schools of Germany established after that of Tharaud, It is situated on the Finow, a stream which is here connected by a canal, with the Oder on one side and with the Havel on the other. It is passed by the railway connecting Stettin with Berlin. The following is a translation of a historical sketch of the parent school, supplied some years ago by Dr Dankelmann, the director of the institution : — ' As early as the close of the eighteenth century there were, now and then, at the University of Berlin (if there happened to be qualified persons), lectures given on the science of forests, without, however, establishing a permanent professorship for this object, or imposing conditions upon candidates for the public forest service for the completion of their studies in forest science. It was then deemed sufficient to be conversant with the keeping of accounts, mathematics, and the science of natural history, thus entirely leaving technical education to be acquired by practice. The number, however, of qualified employees, thoroughly and systematically educa- ted with regard to technical knowledge, growing, in 48 FORESTRY IN GERMAi^Y. consequence of this system, constantly less and less, it was deemed proper to establish, in 1821, an Academy for forest instruction at Berlin, ' Dr Friedrich Wilhelm Leopold Pfeil, then Oberfor- strath, was intrusted with the superintendence of this institution, which, although organically not connected, entered into such association with the university as to employ the professors and means of instruction belonging to the latter, for teaching the fundamental and accessary sciences, while the lectures on the principal studies were given by technical instructors. This organisation, how- ever, soon proved inadequate. On the one hand the much-extended study of the fundamental accessary sciences produced an injurious effect upon the principal studies, and, on the other, there being no suitable forests in the immediate neighbourhood of Berlin, the theoretical lectures could not be explained, nor supplemented with practical illustrations. The more distant, but unfrequent excur.sions and forest journeys, could not efficiently remedy this inconvenience, and they proved insufficient to secure a close connection between the theoretic study and the living instruction of the forest. ' On the superintendent's advice, based upon these considerations, and strongly supported by the intercession of Wilhelm and Alexander von Humboldt, the Academy was, in 1830, removed to Neustadt-Eberswalde, and named the High Institution for Forest Science. In the immediate neighbourhood of this place there are two large forest districts which offer the students in high degree a fine opportunity for becoming familiar with their various features. Dr Pfeil continued to act as superintendent, and, at the same time, he was intrusted with the administra- tion of the said districts. In addition to Pfeil, who taught the science of forestry proper, there were appointed two other professors, one for the whole department of natural sciences, and the other for both mathematics and geodesy. In 1830 a chair was established for Prussian jurisprudence, with particular reference to forest matters. ACADEMY AT NEWSTADT-EBERSWALDE. 49 and, in 1851, a second teacher of forest science was appointed.* Pfeil remained in his position as superinten- dent till autumn, 1856, when he was succeeded by Ober- forstraeister Grunert. On the latter's resuming his former position in the administration of public foi-ests, the direction of the institution was onferred upon Dr Dankelmann, the present incumbent. Since 18(36 very important changes have taken place in the organisation of the Academy, with a large increase in the number of instruc- tors. At present there are officiating at the Academy, besides the Director, who occupies the first chair for forest science,, two more teachers of this science, a teacher of mathematics, physics, mechanics, and meteorology ; one of cliemistry, mineralogy, and geognosy ; one of botany, one of zoology, and one of jurisprudence; and, in addi- tion, a royal chief forest officer, as assistant teacher of roads, geodesy, and plan drawing ; and also a chemist as assistant teacher of geology.' The regulations for the Royal Forest Academy at Newstadt-EberswaMe, and that at Mlinden in Hanover, at present in force, were issued by the Minister of Finance under date of 5th April, 1875. In accordance with these : — The schools are under the control of the Minister of Finance. The Oberland Forstmeister is curator of both. The staff of teachers in each is cjmpo^ed of a Director, appointed by the King, who is instructor in forest science, a second professor of forest science, a teacher of mathematics, a teacher of natural science, and a teacher of law, in its relation to forests and to game ; and per- mission to any one to act as college tutor [Privaldocent) in a Forest Academy may be given with the sanction of the Minister of Finance. The arrangements in each of these Academies for the study of every department of forest science is complete, but part of an autumn vacation may be spent by the * Notwithstanding this, those who were destined for the superior functions of inspec- tion and conversation had, besides their two years and a-half at the school, to follow a course of some years at the university.— (See Revue rfes Eaux et Foretis, May, IbTC.) E 50 FORESTRY IN GERMANY, studeuts at one in the practical forest operations carried on in connection with the other. The course of study extends over two and a-half years, and embraces fundamental science, special science, and accessary science. Under the head of Fundamental Science are included^ 1. Physics, Meteorology, and Mechanics. 2. Chemistry, inorganic and organic. 3. Mineralogy. 4. Land Survey- ing and Geology. 5. Botany, including the structure, physiology, and pathology of plants ; special forest botany and microscope demonstrations. 6. Zoology, including special zoology, with a reference to forest economy and to game, and especially to forest insects. 7. Mathematics, including arithmetic, plane and cubic mensuration and trigonometry, elements of analytical geometry, elements of the higher analysis, land surveying and chart drawing. 8. Political Economy, with a special reference to forests. The special technical sciences in which instruction is given are these- 1. History and literature of forests. 2. Local or national doctrines of forests. 8. Exploitation of forests. 4. Forest protection. 5. Forest products and forest technology. (3. Forest taxation, mensuration of wood, forest raensur ition, an I all of those with special reference to Prussian usage 7. Valuation of forests and forest statics. 8. Forest statistics and forest management, with a special reference to the classifying of forests in Prussia, i). Forest rights, usages, and servitudes. The Accessary Sciences are — 1. Law, in theory and practice ; Prussian law, civil and criminal, and civil and criminal processes. 2. Forest- road making. 3. Game laws and the chase. The study of fundamental and of accessary science is strictly limited to what may be necessary to a scientific practice of forest economy, but it embraces all that is required for this. The means of instruction are — 1. The Royal forest districts of Biesenthal and Liepe, a AS'e^/tmenear Newstadt-Elerswalde, and those at Gabrenberg ACADEMY AT NEWSTADT-EBERSWALDE. 51 and at Cattenbuhl, near Miiaden. 2. Seed-kiln at Newstadt-Eberswalde. 3. Botanic Garden, and Arboretum illustrative of Forest Economy. 4. Chemical laboratories ; and cabinets of collections illustrative of. 5. Natural Philosophy ; 6. Land surveying; 7. Forestry and the chase. 8. A Library. The course of i-tidy extending over two years anda-half, is commenced with the summer session ; but students who have no intention of entering the forest service of Prussia may enter either then or at the beginning of the winter session. The summer session extends from Easter til] the 20th of August ; the winter session from the loth of October till fourteen days before Easter. The arrange- ments for lectures during each session is submitted to the Minister of State some weeks previous to the commence- ment of the session ; and it is published for general information. There are required of applicants for admission certili- cates : — 1. Of having passed with credit through a German Gymnasium, or Prussian High School of the first class ; 2. Of not exceeding twenty-four years of age ; -i. Of a fitness for a forest life ; 4. Of blameless moral character; 5. Of adequate means of support while at the Academy ; 6. Of having passed a university examination, or other equivalent examination, in land measuring ; and of having spent a seven months preparation in forest work. Students from the Huntsman's Corps (Fieldjagerkorps) required to attend the Academy are required only to produce the certificate No. 3, and to submit to the Direc- tor certificates corresponding to Nos. 1 and (J ; and of students who do not intend to enter the forest service of Prussia there are required only the certificates Nos 4, 5, and 6. Forest students and forest candidates, who have com- pleted their curriculum, are permitted, without charge, to go on the excursions, and to avail themselves of the collections, &c., belonging to the Academy as means of 32 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. instruction, so far as practicable, on authority obtained from the Director ; and also to attend particular lectures, &c., as HospUanteyi— hut the Director is authorised to require of such, if he think proper, a fee of 9 marks for every class attended ; and others, who have studied 2| years in a foreign School of Forestry may be admitted to the same privileges as Hospitanten on payment of 10 marks to the general fund as a fee for entrance ticket or matriculation. The entrance fee to either of the Academies is 15 marks, and for transference from the one to the other 10 marks ; and the fees for each session are 75 marks. But mcxnhQx^ oi \\\e Feldjagerkorjys, and of the Jagerbataillove, or State-huntsman, requiied to attend the Academy, and others holding Ladenberg hursarieft, are exempted from payment of these fees. Appropriate means of maintaining discipline are pre- scribed; and regulations are laid down in regard to students leaving the Academy ; and bye-laws have been added under the same authority regulating the use to be made of the various educational collections, &c., belonging to the Academy. Previous to the promulgation of these regulations in 1875 there were in force corresponding regulations pro- mulgated under date of 1st March, 1808. These were then superseded ; and under date of 80th J une, 1874, there were issued prescriptions for the training and testing of officers employed in the Royal Forest Service of Prussia; but this subject is not one which comes under consideration here, which is solely the educational arrangements in the Forest Academies, by which in part that training was , provided for. There is, however, one point on which a word of explanation may be necessary. According to an Order of the Minister of Finance of 6th April. 1871, and to sec. 1 of the prescriptions referred to — As an examination in land-measuring is required to precede that in regard to practical forestry, admission to that ACADEMY At NiEWStADT-fiBfiRSWALbE. 5S examination must be preceeded by two years occupation with land measurement and levelling, and these two years, in the case of students at the Forest Academy, intending to enter the forest service is, along with seven months attendance at the Academy, to reckon as one year in the two and a-half years embraced by the curriculum. In accordance with the practice generally adopted by Schools of Forestry in Germany there is issued before the commencement of each session a programme of the studies to be pursued, for the information ol any who may have under consideration the expediency of seeking aimission, as well as of those who have already entered on the curriculum. The following is a translation of that issued for the winter session 1882-83, at which there were in attendance about 50 Prussian students, besides foreigners. First section of the course of study, designed for students of the first year who had entered the school at Easter 1882. I. Forest Economy. Culture of Woods. — Five hours a-week : and so with the others. Wood-Cutting. — One hour a - week. Forest excursions. II. Natural Sciences. Meteorology and Climatology. — One hour. Inorganic Chemistry. — Three hours. Organic Ohemistry. — One hour. Mineralogy. — One hour. Chemistry applied to Tech- nology. — One hour. General Botany, Anatomy, and Vegetable Physiology. — Four hours. Structural Demonstrations by aid of the Microscope. — Two hours. Zoology. — Invertebrate Animals. Five hours. III. Mathematical Sciences. Repetitions and Exercises in Mathematics. — One hour. Geodesy. — One hour. Political Economy and Jurisprudence, and Civil and Criminal Law. — Two hours. 54 FORESTRY IN GERMANY, Second section of the course designed for students of the second year who had entered the school at Easter 1881. I. Forest Economy. Redemption of Servitudes.— Two hours. Exploitation of Woods and Technology. — Three hours. Rentahilitaets- lekre, or estate and area, and theory of the greatest return as an investment — Two hours. History of Sylviculture — Two hours. Cubic Measurement of Woods. — One hour. Road Making, and Establish tnent of Net- work of Forest Paths for the bringing out of Wood. — Two hours. Examination on Forest Economy. — One hour. Forest excursions, with exercises in practice, consisting of management of a regular timber forest ; management of a forest by Jardinage ; and redemption of servitudes burdening a large forest of woodland. II. Natural Sciences. Hepititonim* of Chemistry, of Mineralogy, and Geodesy. One hour. Practical operations in the application of Chemistry to the analysis of soils. — Two hours. Repititorum of Botany. — Two hours. Repititorum of Zoology. —One hour. III. Mathematics. Elements of the Higher Analysis. — Two hours. Elements of Analytic Geometry. — One hour. Political Economy and Jurisprudence. Commercial Management of Forests.— Two hours. Civil and Criminal Law.— Two hours a-\veek. The following is a translation of the Unterrichts-plan or programme of study for the complete curriculum of two years and a-half. It is one of an earlier date, extending from Easter 1870, to autumn, 1873. These are issued annually, but they are essentially the same. Repititorum, AA 1 have already intimated, is a term applied to cUns eximi ii- tions, desi'jned less to demonstrate the height of attiiumsuta m^de by the stuie its than their defects; and this less with a desire to expose the deficiency of th3 stadant thin that of the instruction given, that the teacher may know what he should say more or »ay differently than what he has said. AOA DEMY AT NEWSTADT-EBERSWALDE. 55 o o CO *H d fl.Q bo a n3 a> d "S 03 e3 CO 3 O 3 =3 bo Of .rt §^ "i xj ^ ^ . 5 o bnOJ §W 3 bo O O) d t- d 'bo'g 3- d d ^ o o d d -o , -u * 9^-^ o d '=*i 5 -►^ ^ 2 d Is 03 ^H d a JH 03 - d £ b^ CO 03 r^ if _d ^ •Sinoq |0 jaq -lunu aioq^v "sinoq JO aaq -umu aioqAV ^.2P _ n! 5 ■ ill •3 a 13 H M Q33 •sjnoq JO jaq -mnu aioqAl &0 O 00 -1 tn O o >-i S O ¥ ^ O -5 > Ob.;:-. ^■3 2 S « « o 03 o '7 S 2 a -S S6 FORfiSlTRY IN GERMAN^. •Bjnot| JO jaq O 1 O 00 1 t- to ec M •mnu 8ioqA\ ec «o (M 00 u ■ ^H • 1 • Ek^ • kl : eS a Lrf 13 -ta .2 c3 1 O J3 o 05 a S '5 en n3 B fi s to" m ■§ a> « « rt Is 1 1 o 1 s o 1 o t4-l '3 00 a 3 "o (D 09 60 « c 0. 2 ' *© ® 60 93 it "o : 1 V 03 a V J *• O 9J 4) OJ CL, Ph 0- CO c^ o o «o o c^ o •gjnoq }o jaq -* CCtJ c a ■>U3 _0! '-3 00 1 ; p. a «« j3 : « : ea . (U : oT : a • .5 5 03 g 1 ll OB V a s 3 o o io 05 > e c "o 2 2 ^ 00 3 > .£ 3.2 a t<-' a> rt : a 1 P fci S £ S £ S * ?= _g « t* « tSj3 '0 t^ eS >< fe 2 g a C ^ 4> eS ct QfQ P4 O H ►J >> a o i § £ 2 ss _ s E^ORESTRY IN GERMANY. 00 •* oo 00 ■* O (N C I 05 00 «o » 00 Ol IM i-H Co CO a Q o b H 0) o 00 _V .— < 'o _o _ Is J 6 g s a o H Academy at newstadt-eberswalde. Sd ' A fact is developed by this table, which is noticed in many other institutions, that the two years' course had become crowded by the unavoidable development of new studies, so that before the enlargement to five semesters, the recitations and exercises occupied 6.2 hours each day, besides the time given to study. This requirement was too much, and could not fail, if continue 1, to bring lassi- tude and inattention. The course of law was introduced in 1844, and that of forest constructions in 1873. Pro- fessor Mathieu, of Nancy (from whose article in the Bevae des Eaux et Forets, 1874, p. 15-5, the above table is derived), remarks concerning the more recent addition of studies as follows : — ' " We would specify among other subjects recently added to the programme of studies at Newstadt-Ebers- walde, microscopic examinations of vegetable tissues, and a general knowledge of the lower organisations, which, from their parasitic habits, are a determinate cause of a great number of maladies in plants and animals, and which are likewise agents in fermentation. Furthermore, we might specify the elements of organic chemistry, which are indispensable to an understanding of the laws of vegetable physiology ; some ideas of forest statistics, one of the principal and most urgent of the desiderata of every well- ordered administration ; a glance at the history of forests, and of the various phases through wiiich the sciences relating to it have passed ; and, finally, the elements of meteorology, which, by setting the forest agents to the pursuing of observations of this kind, will lead us to a certain knowledge of the influence still so controverted, as to the influence of the forests upon the climate of a country, and upon the delivery and maintenance of the sources of supply of the water which fertilizes it. All these new ideas are doubtless useful, and may, without difficulty, be included in our course of forest instruction." ' Since 1872 the principal station for experiments relating to forest matters in Prussia, on which there is conferred, at the same time, the management of the 60 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. transactions of the Association for German Experimental Stations relating to forest matters, is connected with the Academy at Newstadt-Eberswalde in this way, that the latter's superintendent is also the director of the principal station, and that, under his direction, the instructors of the Academy are elaborating the different divisions of the experimental work, viz., the forest technical, the chemical, physical, the meteorological, tiie zoological observations, and also what relates to physiology of plants. 'This opens, on one hand, a large field of scientific researches to the teachers, putting at their disposal new teaching matter, and gives, on the other hand, to students the opportunity of studying how to prepare the scientific solution of interesting and important problems, and of taking their own share in the respective elaborations. ' The results of active instruction at this Acadcjmy during the forty-six years of its existence are highly satisfactory. Almost all the Prussian employees near the administration of public forests — without, however, counting those from the provinces added to Prussia in 1866, and who entered into Prussian service — owe their perfection in forest science to this Academy. Besides a considerable number of private forest officers and forest proprietors of the country have here acquired the necessary skill in admin- istering their own forests or those committed to their charge. Finally, many foreigners have applied themselves at this Academy to the study of forest science. The following table, showing the annual number of students from 1830 to 1876, may be of service in judging of the Academy's operation : — ACADEMY AT NEWSTADT-EBEESWALDE. 61 •< 13:)U!A^ jauiuins I •^ t^ KO ^ ^'-o ^ ta -^ *n >n I m cooooocoocoooOGoaoxao jstamns QOooooaoooacooaoooooaoao jataiuns QoaoccooaDoocoooooQOcio«D ja^ui.W jaoinins aooocfooooooooox) — • Da 5 ^ » S 62 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. The following details of the requirements for employ- ment and promotion in the forest service in Prussia aie given in the Bestiiiimungeii ilber Ausbildung unci trufung fur den K'uniglichen Staatsfurstve?'waltangsdien^t : Require- ments for the education and examination of officials in the Prussian State Forest Service. The applicant to be received into the forest service must satisfy the following conditions issued by the Minister of Financ eon 30th June, 1874, with some verbal changes subsequently odered : — 1. ' He must have obtained a diploma of completed study in a gymnasium of the German Fmpire or in a^ea^- schule. 2. Be not above twenty-two years of age. 3. Have no bodily infirmity which would unfit him for the forest service. 4. Be of good conduct. 5. Give proof of possessing sutficient means to meet the expense of pre- paration for the work. ' This preparation commences with practical work done in the forest, under the direction of an Oberforster, during at least seven months, generally from October to April. ' The design of these preliminary exercises is to make the aspirant accpiainted with the work of exploitation, and with the principal kinds of trees, to make him practically acquainted with sylviculture, with the surveil- lance of woods, and the police of the chase, and at the same time with land surveying, all of which are things which lie at the foundation of his subsequent theoretical studies. ' To be appointed Forstbefiissener, or forest-aspirant, an application must be made to the inspector, or to the con- servator, of the administrative circuit; this application must be transmitted by the Oberforster to whom the pupil desires to be attaciied. * The papers to be supplied are five in number. 1. The diploma of stuily from a gymnasium or Real-schule of the first class. 2. Certificate of birth or baptism. 3. A medical certificate. 4. If the aspirant do not pass directly from the gymnasium to the service, a certificate of good conduct fVoin the time of his leaving the gymnasium. 5. ACADEMY AT KEWSTADT-EBEESWALDE. 63 An engagemeut by the father or guardian of the aspirant to provide for the maintenance of him during at least seven years. ' Further, the Oherforster must supply special informa- tion, in regard to the family and person ot the aspirant ; and then if there he nothing to hinder the aspirant being accepted, he receives his appointment from the inspector or the conservator. These have a right reserved to appoint the aspirant to another Oherforster than the one he has chosen, and even to remove him during the time of his preparation, after having referred the matter to the Minister of Agriculture, Domains, and Forests. ' If the aspirant on trial prove not quite satisfactory in the triple point of view, physical, intellectual, and moral, the Oherforster addresses a report to the inspector and to the conservator, who judge whether the aspirant should couTinue his studies ; in case of a ditlerence of opinion between them the minister decides. 'This stage passed, the Oherforster delivers to the candi- date a certificate testif)ing to the time spent in this stage, and to the work done. This certificate confers on the aspirant the title of forest pupil. To continue his studies the forest pupil should follow for at least two years and a-half the course of study of a School of Forestry, or of a Forest Institute annexed to a university ; those who may desire to follow that pursued in another school than those of Eberswalde and Miinden should previously assure themselves from the office of the minister that the time spent by them at this school shall be reckoned equivalent to the studies prescribed by the regulations ; and further they are required to study all the subjects comprised in the programmes of these said schools. 'These forestal studies completed, and, at latest within six years after the commencement of the preparation, the pupil addresses to the minister an application to be admitted to the examinations, and attaches to this the following papers : — 1. A currimlum vitae, or history of his previous course of life, entirely in liis own handwriting. 64 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. 2. The diploma of study in a gymnasium or Real-sckule. 3. The certificate of being a forest pupil. 4. The certifi- cate of his having attended a School of Forestry or a University in the course of his studies 5. A certificate that the pupil has taken the required part in works of land surveying, and the preparation of charts, at the School of Forestry or at the IJniversity. G. A chart prepared by the hand of the candidate, of some Royal forest of at least 500 hectares, on the scale of 1 to 5000, and this chart must be accompanied with an attestation that the work has been done entirely by the pupil. ' The design of the examination is to make it be seen that the pupil possesses the general instruction required, and that he has made with success the technical studies prescribed ; and to determine further that the pupil is fit to continue his studies. ' The knowledge required at this examination are these : — ' A. — In Special sciences. ' Exploitation, management, and es:imation of vvuods, technology, protection of the State forests, and forestal history and bibliography. 'B. — In Auxiliary sciences. ' 1. Mathematics. Elementary principles of statics and mathematics. 2. Natural History. — Principles of the classification of animals, plants, and minerals. A. Zoology. — Divisions of the animal kingdom ; mammalia, birds and insects looked at from a forestal point of view ; entomological nomenclature, structure and habits of insects in general, and special study of those which are useless or hurtful to forests. B. Botany. — Classification, description, physiology, and structure of plants, and special knowledge of those which are useful from a forestal point of view. C. Mineralogy.— General notions of geognosy and geology ; general idea of the formation and the upheaval of mountains ; influence of the subsoil on vegetation, and special study of the minerals and rocks useful to the forester. D, Physics and Chemistry. — ACADEMY AT NEWSTADT-EBERSWALDE. G5 General properties of bodies ; views entertained in regard to light, heat, inagnetism, and electricity; carbonisation, resin, and tannin. ' 3. Legislation and Jurisprudence. — History of Prussian law ; notions of civil and criminal law as applied to forests. ' The examination takes place in g>meral once a year, in September or October, before a commission appointed by theMinister of Agriculture, Domains, and Forests. This examination is held^ one part indoors, and another part in the forests ; if it prove satisfactory, the forest pupil receives the title of Forest Referendary. ' In case of failure he is allowed to recommence his trials, in whole or in part. ' To continue his preparafion, the forest referendary should devote himself to personal studies in the forest, and, moreover, take an active part in all forest works, in order that he may acquire, under an Ohn'forAtn\ all practical knowledge relating to forest economy and forest admitiistration. In the fir^t instance, he is free to choose the circuit in which he wishes to prosecute his studies; but the Minister reserves the right to send him officially to any specified circuit. ' The Oherforster, near to whom the forest referendary is sent, is his immediate superior, and the referendary should take for his guidance in the service the instructions issued to forest overseers. The duration of this stage imposed on a forest referendary is at least two years, He should pass eight successive months, which should always com- prise the interval between December and April, in discharofincr the duties of a forest guard in the same circuit, and in a particular part of the circuit, '1 his part is chosen by the Oberforster according to the indications made by the inspector, and the candidate should give himself entirely to all the works of the guards engaging in the surveillance, as well as in the exploitations, preparation of estimates, measurement of trees, sales, and the cultural operations going on. 66 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. ' During these eight months he cannot be employed in the office of the Obcrforster. ' The referendary ought then to visit different circuits : the design of these visits being to make him familiarly acquainted with all the kinds of trees growing in the forest, to give him explicit conceptions of different modesof exploitation and management, and in fine, to give him practice in all kinds of forest business by making him take part in all the operations of an Oherfortter. ' During this stage the referendary is required to keep a journal. This journal ought to indicate the circuits in which he has had a charge, their situation, their soil, and the exploitations and works of culture in which he has had to take part, &c. ' It ought, moreover, to contain notices of remarkable facts which have struck the referendary, and the observations which have been suggested to him by the study of the forest, and by the works which he has had to do in the office of the Of>erforster. ' The journal should be sent to the Oherforster on the fir.st of every month, and submitted to the superior agent in the circuit, if such there be. ' In fine, when the referendary leaves the circuit, the OherjovKhr bhould indicate the date of his departure, and give testimonials of his conduct. If there be occasion for obst^rvatioiis in regard to faults, to want of punctuality and obedieuce on the part of the referendary, or especially if he has shown a real incapacity for the work of forest service, the Oherforster is bound to make his report of his to the inspector and to the conservator. ' The Minister of Agriculture and Forests can exclude from tlie service any forest referendary who may have manifested gross misconduct or negligence, or any candidate whose progress may be considered unsatisfac- tory. ' Every Oherforster ought to send to the inspector, at latest on 5th January in each year, a statement of his opinion of the candidates who have passed in the course ACADEMY AT NEWSTADT-EBERSWALDE. fi7 of the preceding year more than four weeks in the circuit. The inspector adds to this his own observations. When the candidate has discharged tlie duties of an overseer, the inspector should give the results of the examination which he has made of the district entrusted to the management of the referendary. These documents are sent by him to the General Directory before the loth January ; they are collated and compared with those furnished by the conservator, and are then sent to the Minister to form the file of papers relating to the candidate. When the referendary has completed his course, done all the prescribed works, and satisfied the requirements of the military ser- vice, he may address to the Minister an application to be allowed to pass the State examination ; the time allowed fur this IS five years from the passing of the last examina- tion. ' To this application are attached the iollowing papers : 1. A curriculum viice. 2 The diploma of study at a gymnasium. 3. The diploma of forest pupil. 4. The certificate of diligence in the course of a School of Forestry. 5. The journal. 6. Lastly, for candidates who belong neither to the corps oi fthljager, nor to the batallions of chasseurs, a document attesting that they have satisfied the military service. ' When there is nothing to liinder authorisation being given, the person named is sent before a commission who inscribe it, and fix for him the date of his examination. ' This examination is conducted according to the instrnc- tions and regulations of the minister, partly indoors, and partly in the forest. The latter is by far the more import- ant, as it determines whether the referendaiy has acquired practice and knowledge of administrative questions. ' The examination turns on all parts of forest science and of forest economy in their connection, on the applica- tion of special law and common law to forest matters, and on the police and administration of the chase. ' The referendary having been subjected to this examina- tion, at once receives from the commission the title of 68 FOEESTEY IN GERMANY. Forst-Assessor, and is inscribed on the roll of officials going through their course of training. ' If the referendary do not pass the examination with success the commission decides whether or not he shall recommence his trials in whole or in part after a delay of at least six months, but which must not exceed twenty- four months. ' The Forst-Assessor is employed in the ro3?al adminis- tration so far as is practical until he receives his appointment, and he is bound to apply himself to the forest works which the minister may entrust to him. ' If the Forst-Assessor undertake the administration of communal forests, of public establishments, or even those of private persons, he ought to communicate this to the minister; and this undertaking is not in any way a reason for excluding him from the royal service ; but it is clear that the years spent thus, are not to be reckoned to him as years spent in the service. ' And in case a Forst-Assessor alter a certain lapse of time passed thus beyond the royal service, should refuse a work which the administration would give to him, he may, on the proposition of the minister, be removed from the roll of officials going through their course of training. 'Each Forst-Assessor is bound to make known, through the 06er/o?-A'^f;-,hispresence to the inspector and to the conser- vator of the circuit in which he finds himself, and whether he belongs to the royal service, or he be administering private forests. Likewise on each change of residence he should make a similar comraanication to the same agents. 'In order to acquire a more extended instruction, and perfect themselves in the general practice of business, aspir- ants to the forest service should, beyond their technical studies, go thiough a course of law and of political economy at a University. The candidate is free to make choice as to the time at which to pursue these studies, as that which may best suit him while prosecuting his preparation ; but it is preferable that he should take them up while he is a Forst-Assessor. ACADEMY AT NEWSTADT-EBERSWALDE. 69 The Forest- Assessors who, besides the ordinary pre- scribed forest studies, give themselves tor at least two half-year sessions to the studies of these political sciences, can, after having been attached for one year to a Directory of Finance, address to the Minister an application for permission to submit to an examination on the matters spoken of; which application should be accompanied by a certificateof his having followed a course ol study at a Univer- sity. Thisexaminationis conducted before thesuperiorcom mission of forests, by the Minister-adjunct of the special examiners for legislation and political sciences. It tuiMS on the applications ol civil law in Prussia to the adminis- tration of forests, and principally on the administration of law and political economy. But this is no longer required absolutely. The trials ought to show whether the candidate possesses the knowledge necessary to enable him to discharge in a satisfactory manner the duties and functions of a Member of a Forest Directory. The Forest- Assessors who pass this trial successfully receive from the Minister the title of Oberforster. The inspectors, or Forst-meisters, are chosen from among the Oberforsters^ who must have distinguished themselves in their service, and preferentially from amongst those who have passed the last mentioned examination. Captain Campbell Walker, formerly deputy-inspector of forests at Madras, writes of a visit paid by him to Newstadt-Eberswalde : — ' I visited the Forest Academy at Newstadt-Eberswalde, and had a most interesting conversation with the Director, Herr Ober-forstmeister Danklemann, on various subjects connected with the forestry in Europe and India. He is assisted by a staff of seven professors, with assistants, and there is an Experimental Garden attached to the Academy, with Oberforster Bernhard in charge of the strictly tech- nical portion, and other gentlemen tor the meteorological, zoological, atid chemical sections. The number of students 70 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. at the Academy averages 65. Oberforester Berahard kindly accompanied me round the gardens, and pointed out everything of interest, inchiding a building where the seed is dried and separated from the cones, known as a " Sammendarre^' extensive seed beds of spruce and fir sown in parallel lines, with the help of boards specially adapted for the purpose, which insure regularity, and the seed being all the same depth ; seed beds of willow, and treat- ment of the seedlings when transplanted ; and examples of trees of every description for botanical study, including many of the rarer description for the more advanced students. * Professor Dr Altum, the successor of the well-known entomologist Ratzeburg, author of a large work on insects destructive to trees and timber, accompanied me through the museum, which is rich in specimens of all sorts of birds, animals, and insects found in the forests, very neatly arranged in cases. Where the animal or insect does damage to trees, specimens of the branch, bark, leaf, root, or cone, in a healthy state, and after being attacked, are exhibited close to each, so that the student can see at a glance the nature of the damage, and connect it with the animal which causes it. Thus we have squirrels, rats, beavers, and mice, set up to represent nature, gnawing the barks, grubbing at the roots, &c., &c. Insects are shown in several stages of their existence, larvae, chrysalis, cater- pillar, moth, with their ramifications in the stem or branches of the tree. These, with specimen blocks of almost all descriptions of timber, form a most instructive and interesting collection, in which much time could be spent with advantage. ' Nothing struck me as more remarkable than the extent and varied nature of the studies required from the forest candidates or probationers in Prussia, and the number of years they are content to spend, first in studying, and then in waiting for an appointment. The would-be Oberforoter, which is the lowest of what we would call the " gazetted appointments," must, after passing certain ACADEMY AT NEWSTADT-EBERSWALDE. 71 terms at a Government school of the first class, spend a year with an Oberfurster in a revier, and then pass an examination as forest pupil, after which there is a two years' course at a Forest Academy, and an examination in scientific forestry, land surveying, &c., on passing which the pupil becomes a " Forstkandidat ;" then another two years' practical study, during at least nine months of which he must actually perform the duties of a forester, after which comes the final Government examination, on passing which he enters the grade of Oberforster-kan- didat. Tne difference betwixt the two examinations is explained to be that the first tests the candidate's know- ledge of theoretical forestry and cognate sciences, whilst the latter tests his ability to apply what he has learnt, and capability for employment as Oberforster and in the higher grades, ' After passing the final examination, the Oberforster- kandidat is employed as an assistant in the academies and control offices, in making forest surveys and working plans, and sometimes acting in charge of a revier, receiving certain daily or weekly allowances whilst so employed. After five or six years of this probation, he may look for- ward to being permanently appointed. ' Thus we have at least five years spent in study, and another five years spent in probation; the former without any pay, and the latter only with meagre allowances whilst actually employed, before the would-be first officer is installed ; and the time is generally much longer. Yot so great is the desire for Government service, and particu- larly forest service, in Prussia, and indeed in Germany generally, that there is no lack of competitors.' The impression made on my mind was similar. I was struck with the completeness of the collections in the several museums. The Aboretum, or Forest Garden, is extensive, but it appeared to me that no use was being made of it, beyond vhat could be made of one much less extensive. The walks and drives seemed to minister 7S J'OlRESTiRY IN GERMANY. greatly to the amenities of the town, which is much frequented in the summer months by families lodging there, but at other times resident in Berlin ; and though utilised for the instruction of the students, this appeared to me to be done more because they were at command, than as necessary and requisite. I made inquiry here, as I did also elsewhere, in regard to the design of giving instruction in rifle shooting, and in much beside relating to the chase ; and the information I received in reply was similar to what I received else- where, which was substantially, that it wa^ not without its use, which was explained ; but that it was more as an accomplishment than as a necessary qualification for forest management that such instruction was given ; and it had been observed that foresters who took an interest in hunting took more heartily to life in the forest, and felt less of the ennui and restlessness, and desire after city life, from which some others suffered. There are connected with the Academy, besides the Forest of Eberswalde, three others, with a totai area of 18,606 hectares, of which 17,148 are under wood. Of these of timber forest — 447 are of Oak. 2,272 Beech. 217 Alder and Birch. 13,721 Pine. 29 Fir. 220 Plantations. Of coppice wood their are 242 hectares. The ground is of Tertiary formation, Diluvium, and Alluvium. The contour of two is hilly and almost mountainous. The garden illustrative of forest botany is 190 hectares in extent. The Experimental Garden, illustrative of different methods of annual plant culture, which, is 484 hectares in extent, %vith uponanaveiragetwo millions and a half of plants; ACADEMY AT NEWSTADt-EBERSWALDE. 7S and ia Chorin, one of the forests, there is an Aboretum of 8 hectares. Connected with the Academy is one of the most important meteorological observatories in Germany. The museum was founded by Dr J. T. C, Ratzeburg, at that tiuie Professor of Naturwissenschaft in the Academy, a distinguished entomologist^ and author of a valuable work entitled, Die Waldverderber unci ihre Fiende, oder Be- schreibunq und Ahbildang der Schaedlichthten Forstiiis>'cten und der iiehrigen schaedlicken Wnidthnre, ; from five to six to mathematics ; and about two hours lo training in judicial procedure. 2. Examinations. — These have proved to be a means of instruction no less efficient, in as much as they, when properly conducted, reveal what deficiencies in the in- struction given require to be supplied, give opportunities for more ample explanation or illustration of difficult subjects, assist greatly the weak, and prove to all a wonderful stimulus to the prosecution of studies. To examinations on each of the subjects of study there is devoted at least one hour a week ; and towards the close of each session usually several hours a week are spent in examinations on different subjects. ' 3. To practical applications and excursions are devoted, without exception, every afternoon after two o'clock. * (a) Summer Session. — In the summer session either three or four afternoons in every week are devoted to exercises in surveying, that expertness may be acquired in the handling and u>o of the instruments, and an acquaintance with the different methods of measuring extensive plains, and limited patches, of taking levels, and altitudes, &c. In favourable weather the results to be obtained are wrought out in the class-room by logarithms, and trigonometrical calculations, and the preparation of charts and diagrams. ' {b) One afternoon in the week is devoted exclusively to forest excursions; the first of these is employed in a general survey of the conditions of the ground, and of FOREST ACADEMY IN EISENACH. 8& the forest trees, &c., in the wood appropriated to the instruction of the students ; in succeeding excursions each is devoted to the detailed study of some one object. And it is sought so to arrange these that the excursions shall be subservient to the instruction of the students by sight, such, for example, as the forestal peculiarities of different kinds of trees ; the different ways of managing forests ; the determining of sites for fellings, clearings, and thinnings, seed beds, and nurseries ; different methods of culture ; the measurement of trees, and estimation of their increase by growth ; forest road-making, &c., com- bining, as much as possible, theoretical and practical instruction, that these may go hand-in-hand together. And in order to every facility being given for this mode of instruction, to the Director is committed the unlimited direction and control of the forest production of the forests assigned to the school for purposes of instruction. ' Besides the regular afternoon excursions, there are also made regularly occasional longer excursions into the neigh- bouring forest districts, partly to see the forestal peculiar- ities of the different forest sites — gneiss, mica slate, and porphyry, in the Ruhla forest ; sechstein, variegated sandstone, and basalt, in the Markfuhl forest ; mussel chalk, lias, aud keuper, in the Kreusburg forest, &c. — partly to obtain illustrations of those forms of manage- ment which are not to be seen in the forests in the vicinity of Eisenach, such as low coppice, medium coppice, conversion of medium of mixed coppice in timber forests, second growth of timber forests, the management of mountain firs, &c., with the different devices practised in the conducting of successive fellings, &c, '(c) Moreover, there is in every summer session a com- plete regulation management, for an appropriated portion of Eisenach forest, gone through with all the preparatory work, exclusive of measurings, which would consume a great deal of time ; and, in this simple work, the peculiarities of the different methods of taxation and management are illustrated. This work serves, moreover, &5 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. as the basis of a detailed example of estimating the value of a forest. While these more extended practical trainings are going on, lectures are entirely suspended. '■(d) On one afternoon weekly, during the summer session, there is an excursion for the study of natural history, more particularly of botany and geology, for which the vicinity of Eisenach, with its manifold rare geological formations, and its corresponding rich flora, presents an excellent instruction ground. On the conclusion of these natural history excursions, every summer session there is carried out an excursion extending over some days, into the geologically interesting parts of the Thuringian forest, under the guidance of the teachers in this department of study. ' (e) In the winter session there are, on every second afternoon, exercises in mathematics, repetitions, or exami- nations, forestal calculations, geometrical problems, &c., for practice, for assistance to the weak, and for the com- pleting of the course of instruction of any who have not entered the school at the commencement of the course. Two other afternoons are set aside for practice in chart drawing. The excursions in the forests are confined to visiting fellings which are being carried on, in order to have here practical illustrations of some of the more important operations connected with fellings, such as the act of felling, trimming, preparing, and measuring logs, &c.' Dr Grebe says ' the systematic illustration and extension of theoretic instruction, by direct inspection and practice, we consider, after well nigh forty years experience, to be by far the most efficient and profitable mode of instruction, and one which cannot be compensated by any other method of instruction which may be adopted in a School of Forestry. The possibility of making available, for purposes of instruc- tion, the various incidents occurring constantly in the management of a forest, such as the annual preparation of schemes of exploitation and of culture, the determination of sites of fellings, of thinnings, and of preparatory clearings. The work connected with seed beds and nurseries, FOREST ACADEMY IN EISENACH. 91 sowings and plantings, and the preparation of inventories, and estimates of the cubic measurement of wood in a forest, and of the probable annual increase, by properly qualified agents, for the administration and management, the con- servation, exploitation, improvement, and extension of existing forests,' The experience of Dr Grebe, to which he appeals, shows what advantage may be found in having forest operations daily under review by students ; and of having every facility for taking immediate advantage of incidents as they may occur in connection with the management of a forest attached to a school. But it may be found that others, either losing sight of these, or in full view of these, consider that the advantages derivable from having a School of Forestry in connection with a University, or some other site of learning, more than counter-balance the advantage of having an independent site for such an institute : seeing that facilities can otherwise be obtained for the study and practice of the application of the instruction received in school. And, without pre- judice to the statement made by Dr Grebe, it may appear that others, with like facilities to those enjoyed by hira, have attached more importance to other arrangements for securing the same advantage to students. My sympathies are with these ; but I consider it a good preparation for entering upon the account to be given of the discussions which have taken place on this point, for the reader to give its full weight to this testimony by Dr Grebe. Growth, descriptions of the contents of the forest, and all the work in a model forest required to secure the continuous uninterrupted work which has to be done, can, he alleges, only be secured in an independent institute — and never in tlie complex system of education carried on in a University. A circumstance, this he adds, of great weight, which has been too much overlooked in the controversy which has been going on for some time in regard to the proper site for a School of Forestry. &2 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. We are about to enter on the consideration of the con- troversy to which Dr Grebe refers. His allusions to it burst upon us like the boom of the first cannon fired at dawn of a day of renewed strife in the assault and defence of some fortress, upon the scene of which we have come overnight, and we shall soon be looking upon the con- tending foes in the thick of the battle ; each party and each combatant contending for what he believes to be the just, the true, and the best — the best for all, and best for the interests of Europe and of the world ; in so far as these may be involved in preparation for work. The most important and most extensively used means of instruction in the Eisenach institution, are the forests attached to it ; and next to these, among such means may be reckoned the library and the museums. ' 1 What is reckoned here an indispensible appendix to a School of Forestry is a forest for field instruction. Here there are, in the first line, the Grand Ducal forest reviers or districts of Eisenach, Wilhelmsthal,and Ruhla ; and more distant, but still adjacent, being upon an average within range of a day's tour, the forest districts Marksuhl, Frauensee and Kreuzburg, in the Grand Ducal forest. ' The first-mentioned comprise an agregate circuit of 61,146 hectares ; and extends partly over existing mem- bers of primitive rocks —granite, gneiss, mica slate, porphyry, &c. — partly, and that for the greater part over the red clay, and lastly, partly on the borders, over different members of the Sechstein formation, with an unusually varied and complicated earthy covering. The second class of forests named, presents, on the other hand, in Marksuhl and Frauensee, different localities of coloured sand- stone, with basaltic eruptions of Muschelkalks in Kreuz- burg, and of Keupers and Lias. With the exception of the latest formation, there are also within reach of a day's excursion represented all formations providing a field full of instruction in geology, rural economy, and more especially in forest economy, such as is hardly to be found combined anywhere besides. FOREST ACADEMY IN EISENACH. 93 'These diversified conditions present for botanical study a very rich flora ; and, above all, a very varied condition of forest existence. The higher lying parts of the Ruhla forests have quite a mountain character, with a pre- ponderating covering of coniferge, and supply an oppor- tunity of studying the characteristic of this kind of wood ; the phenomena of windfalls, and injuries done by frost and snow ; the felling of such, and the manifold devices used for the protection of forests against such calamities ; and the regulation of the succession of fellings practised. In the forests of Eisenach and Wilhelmsthal there pre- dominate timber forests of beech. These supply, in great variety, illustrations of the felling of timber, with provision for the natural reproduction of the forest ; and therewith are found illustrationsof the process of converting broad leaved forests into forests of coniferae ; also, of the measures taken to promote the growth of seedlings and saplings, by the destruction of injurious weeds, and by successive thinnings. And again, altogether different is the tree growth and the treatment of this on the coloured sand stone of the Marksuhl forest, and on the Muschelkalk of the Kreuzburg forest : in the first of these are located the seed beds and nurseries, while in the latter are very instructive representations of the middle timber fore&t, and of the conversion of such into timber forests, and of the treatment of mixed timber and cuppice woods. ' 2. The library of the institution has a tolerably com- plete collection of all works treating of forestry, and of the more important works treating of mathematics, natural history, and political economy. It comprises, for example, about 2100 independent writings ; and a considerable portion of the grant from Government is spent on the maintenance and increase of the library. The use of the library is, as may be understood, open to the students under prescribed rules. 94 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. ' 3. In the museum are provided collections of different kinds : (o) A pretty complete collection of all mathema- tical and metrical implements in use in forest economy ; the latter, for example, comprising several specimens of each for use in practical instruction in surveying, for training in which the students are divided into sections. (J) A pretty complete collection of implements and of models, especially of such as pertain to the culture of seedlings and trees, the transport of wood, the economic use or sale of wood, and the improvement of forest products — including modelsofbuildings, bridges, and sluices, of appliances for the procuring of secondary products, charcoal-kilns and kilns for the manufacture of pitch, tar, lamp-black, &c. (c) An instinctive mineral and geological collection, {d) A rich herbaiium, comprising the more important kinds of exotic wocds ; a collection of models of the more impor- tant fungi — Her Royal Highness the Grand Duchess of Saxony having presented to the institution a valuable collection of the same, known as " 1 he Arnold Collection of Models ; " and collections of seeds and of different kinds of wood, (e) A collection of the more important insects, and specimens of their destructive work. ' But the collections of objects of natural history, through limitation of space and of funds, are some- what limited, and cannot be compared with those in some of the larger forest academies. They are confined to what are deemed absolutely indispensable for purposes of instruc- tion, and they only suffice for this through the richness of the surrounding country in geological and botanical specimens.' With regard to the expense of maintaining the institu- tion, it is stated that, according to an arrangement in the finance department of the Ministry of the State of the Grand Duchy, there is given to the institute only an auxiliary pecuniary contribution. This has been for the twenty years — 1830-1849 — 559337 marks, a yearly aver- age of 280 marks; for the thirty years— 1850-1879— FOREST ACADEMY IN EISENACH. 95 50228"29 marks, averaging 1668 marks a year; for the fifty years — 1830-1879 — 55821"66 marks, on an average 1116 marks a year.* These contributions are used mainly in aid of salaries paid to individual teachers, and the maintaiuance of educational appliances, namely, the library and collections of objects — on the latter, ior example, have been expended, since 1850, not less than 17,541 marks or about thirty- five per cent of the whole. But in connection with this it should be borne in mind that the Director of the institu- tion is at the same time president, and the teacher of mathematics is a member of the Grand Ducal Forest Taxa- tion Commission, and the payment of the salary of the former has been entirely, and that of the latter to a great extent, taken over by that court ; and about half of what is thus paid may be considered expenditure on the institu- tion. The conditions on which students are received into the institution vary according as they may be aspirants for employment in the State Forest Service of the Thuringian States — those in the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Coburg Golha, in the Duchies of Saxe-Meinigen, &c., and in the princi- pality Swarzburg-Rudolstadt, and Saxe-Sondershausen — or aspirants from other countiies— or, lastly, are received as hospitanten. According to existing arrangements, there are two instructors in forest science ; the director, who is first teacher in this department, and a teacher of mathematics ; two of natural science ; one assistant as a teacher of political economy. There is required of students at admission the exit certiticate of a gymnasium or of a 7'eal- gymnasium, and one year's preparatory' study. The course embraces two years ; but aspirants are free to attend some other * III this last amount are included contributions which were made from btate funds on the occasion of the Congress of the foresters of Thuriiifjia being held in Eisenach in 1858, and of the (Joir^ress of the forester* of Gerniany being held in Eisenach in 90 FOEESTRY IN GERMANY. School of Forestry. Annually, at the close of the winter session, there is held a Tentamen, which extends to all the branches of instruction in forestry. Special stress is laid on mathematics, but without including the higher depart- ments of tliat science. As forests appropriated to instruc- tion, there are, as has been stated, the six forest reviers or districts of the Eisenach inspection, with which the Director is entrusted. The number of students in the summer session of 1885 was 168 ; in the winter session of 1885-86, 71 ; of whom, respectively, 12 and 13 were from the Thuringian States. The institution founded by Koenig in 1808 at Ruhla was originally a private enterprise, and such it remained till 1830, when it became a State establishment; and such it has remained. Eisenach is the site of the palace of the Grand Duke of Saxe Weimar, and here, in the Wartzbiirg, Luther was imprisoned. A relict of his imprisonment is shown to travellers, in a black smutch upon the wall of his cell — produced, it is said, by the ink in the inkstand, thrown at the head of an apparation considered by him to be the devil. We are here in the centre of a forest region, to the north-east are the Hartz mountains,also associated with tales of diablery, and covered with the remains of the Thuringian forest ; while to the south stretch away successive vestiges of the Black Forest, scarce less interesting to the worshipper of ancient remains. A guide book well known to travellers tells: — 'The Thuringian Forests. — The Thuringarwald is a hilly, Avooded tract of country, extending from thesourcesof the Werra, north-west to near Eisenach. It is a part of the ancient Hircynian forest, and is about 70 miles long, and a breadth varying from 1) to 16 miles. It is thinly peopled ; but it is rich in metals, particularly iron and cobalt. Its highest peaks range from 2000 feet to 3200 feet. It is covered with fruits in almost every direction. FOREST ACADEMY IN EISENACH. 97 It is traversed by only two great roads. It gives rise to a number of streams which flow into the adjacent plain, and eventually into the Main, the Weser, and the Elbe.' By proceeding from Eisenach to Frankford an oppor- tunity of visiting several outlying portions of the Thuringian forest may be had. From Gotha the Hartz mountains may easily be reached. This was my route on the occasion of a previous visit to Eisenach. Shortly before crossing the boundary of Hesse Cassel, in travelling to Giessen, the traveller passes throuo-h Marburg, a town on the Lahu, built on the slopes of a hillside, and the site of the first university founded in Germany after the Reformation. It was founded in 1527. It has, or had, forty professors, but not a proportionate number of students. On the Schlossberg rises proudly the ancient Casth of the Landgraves of Htsse, a structure of the chivalrous ages, now dismantled, commanding a fine prospect. The houses inhabited by Luther and Zwingleu during the theological discussions which they carried on in the presence of the Langraves of Hesse, still exist ; but it is Giessen which is now our destination. CHAPTER V. FORESTAL INSTRUCTION AT GIESSEN IN HESSE- DARMSTADT. The several Forest Academies which have been brought under our consideration, thus far are all of them properly- designated Forest Academies. They are technical insti- tutions, designed exclusively for instruction in forestry, and fulfilling for a time, and that a long time, that function alone. Ihe study of rural economy was prosecuted in the same institution as the study of forestry in the Saxon Academy at Tharand ; but, since 1870, it has not been so. At Giessen there was formerly such an institution, but it has been combined with the University which is there — a University well known by name at least in Britain, as the seat of learning in which Liebig and his disciples pursued their researches in agricultural chemistry, with great benefit to the nations. And then there is brought before us another phase of Schools of Forestry. With regard to the School of Forestry in Giossen, as with regard to that at Eisenach, I have to state that I had only one evening, or rather part of an evening, and the early morning of the following day to spare for seeing the interesting town in which it is situated ; and beyond seeing the locality, I could not, by personal observation, or enquiry at the honoured officials entrusted with the instruction of students, make myself acquainted with the existing arrangements in connection with this; but what I thus missed learning on the spot, was subsequently supplied by correspondence with Dr Hess, the professor of forestry in the Uni versify, and by published and official information supplied to me by him, FORESTAL INSTRUCTION AT GTESSEN. 99 Giessen may boast of being the site of one of the original Schools of Forestry, established a hundred years ago, inasmuch as from 1795 till 1825, forestry appear to have been taught in the University as a branch of the instruction given in the study of political economy. PVom the introduction to a pamphlet, written by Dr Hess, on the organisation at present existing for the study of forest science in the Ludwig University of the Grand Duchy of Hesse, in Giessen, published in 1877, it appears that the School of Forestry of Giessen was first established as a distinct institution, by Ordinance dated 24th March, 1825. The first director was Dr Johann Christian Hundeshagen, to whom was given the titular rank of Oberforstrath, and who held the appointment of ordinary professor in the University. Dr Hundeshagen had, from 1818 to 1821, laboured in '1 iibingen as Professor of State-Forest Management ; in 1821 he was called to the office of Director of the Forst- Lehr-Anstalt of the Electoral Principality of Hesse at Hersfeld, whence he was called, and transported to Giessen by Decree of 19th May, 1824. By Decree of 24th March, 1824, Carl Heyer, then Revierforster at Greinberg, was nominated provisionally as second teacher in the institute. Dr Hundeshagen announced two courses of lecture.^!, and one Fxaminatorium in the winter session 1824-25, but whether these were actually held does not appear from the records. The records preserve also both a manuacript and a printed list of lectures, for the summer session of 1825. But after giving the prescribed notice, the pro- posal to lecture on forest science came to nothing, and he delivered only his course of lectures on rural economy {^Laude-wirtschajt und Lande-wirtschaftlisihe FoHze.) And in the winter session, 1825-26, the course of lectures on forest science had the same fate. In the course of these three sessions there only appeared as students one Hessian, Gustav Hoffmann, from Biidingen, and two foreigners. It was not till the summer session of 182G that the MO FORESTRY IN GERMANY. lectures en forestry were fairly established. In this session Dr Hiindeshagen lectured on Forst Benufzuvg or (xploitation, and Forst -^'chutz or conservation ; and Carl Heyer gave instruction in forest botany and Waldhan. The latter appeared in the class-room only occasionally, while he gave himself mainly to his functions as Bevierf order in the town forests of Giessen and other communial forests ; and to him, on this account, it was generally given to go on excursions with the students, and to give to them practical instruction in the furest. These seem to have been first entered on in the summer session of 1827, when ten new students enrolled themselves. Here many students of previous years still remained. What number of students attended during any one of the earlier sessions does not appear from the records. By Decree, beaiing the date of 20th September, 1827, Dr Johann Ludwig, Klauprecht, who had previously taught forest science, mathematics, and forest natural history in Asschaffenburg— the Forest Academy of Bavaria — was licensed or installed as Privaf-Bocent, or college tutor m Giessen, more especially for forest science ; and he began his lectures in the winter session of 1827-28. The relative duties of the two recognised teachers in the forest institute, Hundeshagen and Heyer, was further regulated by instructions issued 17th November, 1830, and the curriculm was fixed as comprising three sessions. As subjects of lectures, besides practical instruction to be given by them, there were prescribed Forstans I.attungs- Kunde, or instruction regarding the duration of continuous supplies to be expected from forests in a given condition, together with forest botany, Waldhan or Sylviculture, and Forst-Schutz, or forest conservation. Meanwhile Heyer had been promoted by Decree of 28tli December, 1829, to be forest inspector at Giessen, together with his appoint- ment of second teacher in the institute. But shortly thereafter, in consequence of various misunderstandings between the two teachers, by Decree of 12th April, 1831, I'OREStAL INSTRUCTION AT GIESSEN. lOl he was released from both appointments that he might enter on the office of For^t-Mcister in the service of Graff- vou Erbach-Fiirstenau. And on his own application, Hundeshagen was, by Decree of 14th June, 1831, relieved of the direction of the forest institute, and it was arranged that the teachers and students of forest science should stand in every way in the same position and relation as teachers and students in the other departments in the State University. ' By this measure,' says Dr Hess, ' the Forest Institute, which had existed for a few years as a distinct establish- ment associated with the High School, was elevated in every way ; and instruction in forestry became completely incorporated with the instruction given in the University. This arrangement continued unchanged ; and the terms F orstinstitut and Director des Forstinstitut, when they are used, have a reference only to internal arrangements. He writes ; — ' The Forstgarden of the Institut, which was transferred to the University at this time, continued to require and to receive appropriate management and superintendence as an important means of instruction ; and the forest museum, or collections of products, implements, &c., must be maintained and increased. There are many grants for these purposes to be expended. The sums expended for the utilisation of the ai Is to instruction, for the annual outlay on the management of the Aboretura, for the engagement of labouerrs, and assistance when required in the practical services and the excursions, &c., must be regularly calculated and accounted for, and there is much correspondence necessarily connected with all of these matters. These business arrangements are laid upon the first teacher for the time being, and are attended to by him as Director of the Academy Administration Com- mission. But the term Forest Institute and the Director of the Forest Institute have nothing to do with the instruction in forestry which is given.' Such are the statements of Dr Hess in regard to the historical development of the Giessen School of 102 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. Forestry, and he goes on to state that Dr Hundeshagen, aiter ceasing to be director of the institute, confined him- self to the duties of his professorship of forest science. Oberforster Dr August von Klipstein stepped into the place of Dr Carl Meyer, and by Decree of 12th November, 1831, he was nominated as second teacher of practical forest science in the University of the State, which position he held till 1836, when, by Decree of 81st October, he was appointed Ordinary Professor of Mineralogy in the State U niversity. Dr Klauprecht, who, in connection with Hundeshagen, had continued to give instruction in Forestry, was, by Decree of 5th June, 1832, nominated Extraordinary Professor of Forest and Political Economy ; but by Decree of 20th November, 1834, he was released from this that he might be free to accept a call to the Polytechnicum at Carlsruhe, which had been given to him. In the same year, on the 10th February, Hundeshagea died, in the 51st year of liis life ; greatly honoured by his associates in the University for his profound learning, the more commendable that his life was somewhat embittered by nervous irritability arising from disease ; and the loss sustained by the University through his deatli, was deeply felt. He was succeeded as Professor of Forest Science by his former associate — Dr Carl Heyer. With him was asso- ciated Dr Carl Zimmer ; and he attended mainly to the theoretical, while the latter attended mainly to the practical departments ui tlicir sultject. Finding himself unable to attend to liis own satisfaction to his duties as piofessor, and to those of forest inspector, to which he had been appointed with the rank of Furstmeister, he got assistance in the discharge of the latter duties ; and sub- sequently his son, Dr Gustav Heyer, became successively lecturer and successor of Dr Zimmer in his professorship when he died, and after the death of his father. Professor of Philosophy, and Extraordinary Professor of Forest Science. FORESTAL INSTRUCTION AT GIESSEN. 103 With him was associated Dr Edward Heyer as second teacher of forest science, till, in 1868, Dr Gustav Heyer was called to the newly-established Royal Prussian Forest Academy at Miinden. This led to the appointment of Dr Hess, who, in the dis- charge of his duties, found that the assistance given by a teacher holding an official appointment as a State forester was productive of serious inconvenience, arising in part from the circumstance that the University was under the superintendence of the Minister of the Interior, while the forest administration lay with the Minister of Finance. The Senate of the University, at his instance, solicited, through the Minister of the Interior, the establishment of a special Extraordinary Professorship of Forest Science, 'free from the distracting influence of a forest charge', and, in consequence of this, Foiest Assistant Dr Tuisco Lorey, of Darmstadt, now Professor of Forest Science in the University of Tubengan, and Director of the station for forestal experimental research there, was, by decree of 13th October, 1873, nominated Extraordinary Pro- fessor to the Faculty of Philosophy, and second teacher of forest science. In addition to what interest may attach to these details in themselves, they acquire some interest from the circum- stances that the expediency of combining Schools of Forestry with educational institutions of a more com- prehensive character, instead of organising and main- taining them as separate establishments, was becoming one of the questions of the day amongst forest officials on the Continent of Europe, and may be one of some impor- tance to those who may be disposed to advocate the establishment of Schools of Forestry elsewhere. There are national usages giving form to the evolution or development, but the general principles underlying these may be discerned ; and now only can the school be con- sidered as having attained its special development. 104 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. Dr Hess has laboured zealously to perfect, if possible, tho course of instruction in forestry, scientific and practical, which is given at Giessen. Of the scheme of instruction which is at present being carried out, the following, embracing the time from Easter 1877, to Easter 1879, are details as given by him : — During the summer session of 1877, or the first session of the course, daily from 10 to 11, or from 10 to 12, so as to secure eight hours a week for the purpose, instruction was given by him in the encyclopaedia and methodology of forest science, in connection with a historical intro I ac- tion, and with a speci il reference to forest statistics, for forest economists, rural economists, andfinancers; and the Saturday afternoons were devoted to a course of practical instruction in Waldbaii, or Sylviculture. During the same session Dr T. Lorey, the second professor of forest science, twice a week, from 2 to 4 o'clock, gave instruction in forest road making, and spent with the students the Wednesday afternoons in excursions and demonstrations, and on one day in the week, from 11 to 1, in a Repititoruin, or examiaation, on the application of geodesy, or land-surveying, to the special requirements of forest measurement and forest divisions for culture and exploitation. In the summer session of 1878, the third of this course, instruction was given by Dr Hess one hour on five days of the week, on Wall'mu,, or Sylviculture, with pr ictical exercises and excursions, to which were devoted the Saturday afternoons ; and by Dr Lorey instruction was given for one hour twice a week on Forstaus/ialtinifjskunde, or the time which forests in given conditions will holl out in yielding products of a given quantity. And on three days a week one hour was devoted to a Repititorum, relative to forest road engineering, to the study of which Wednesday afternoons also were devoted. In the winter session of 1878 Dr Hess gave instruction for one hour, five days a week, on forest conservation, Forst Schiitxe, and on Forsibenutzung, or exploitation, with PORESTAL INSTRUCTION AT GIESSEN. 105 practical exercises and excursions, to which the Saturday afternoons were devoted. Dr Lorey, on four days a week, gave instruction for an hour oa wood mensuration, in connection with forest surveying, &c. ; the Wednesday afternoon-! W3re devoted to the latter, and on Saturday two hours were spent by him in giving instruction in matters relating to the chase. In the winter session of 1878-79 — the fourth of the course, Dr Hess gave instruction for one hour, on four days of the week in Waidertragsregeluag, or regulation of the produce of forests so as to secure sustained production ; and one hour a day, on two days a week, to instruction applicable to the management of State forests ; and a practical course of instruction in Forstbenutzung or ex- ploitation, to which were devoted the Saturday afternoons. Dr Lorey, in the same session, gave on two days a week, two hours' instruction in Waldivert/ii-echnung, or the estimating of the value of forests, and in forest statistics ; and two hours on Tuesday to a EepitUorum relative to exercises in wood measurement, to which Wednesday afternoons were devoted. Full courses of lectures were given every year by pro- fessors in the University on the following fundamental and accessary subjects pertaining to forest science — Mathematics, geodesy or land surveying, physics, chemis- try, zoology, systematic botany, physiology of plants, mineralogy, geognosy or physicil giigraphy, g;olo^/, political ecconomy, law in its various applications, civil engineering, technology, &c. j besides which, lectures were given by professors and University tutors on mineralogy, law, architecture, and civil engineering and on the following subjects in botany in reference to the special re- quirements of the forest department of study : — 1. An exposition of forest plants. 2. Discussion of diseases of cultivated plants, with a special reference to lignous vegetables. 3. Mineralogy and soils, in relation to woods and forests. 106 FORESTRY IN GERMANY, 4. Forest laws, 5. The drawing of diagrams, &c. 6. And agricultural analysis, &c., in the laboratory for rurul and forest conomy. And in every session an introductory lecture, open to all, was delivered by the forest teacher. The study of forestry was included in the Faculty of Philosophy. As has been intimated^ their were two professorships of forest science, a first and a second ; the former an ordinary, the second an extraordinary professor, being so appointed in accordance with a usage in Germany — both being independent, but the ordinary professor only having a seat in the Senatus Academicus. In a Verzeichniss, or notice of the lectures and practical exercises in the department of forest science, and funda- mental and accessary sciences pertaining to it, to be held in the University, arranged as a Lehrplan, showing on what days, and at what hours, in all of the sessions in the course of study from Easter 1881, to Easter 1883, issued by Dr Hess, these would be held — there are given the classes held by between twelve and twenty different pro- fessors which may be attended without interfering with each other; and in a preface he gives to students, who at Universities on the Continent have much greater liberty in regard to attending or absenting themselves from class lectures than is the case in Scotland, his advice in regard to the course of study wiiich they should follow with a view to the acquisition of instruction in forest science. In this he says: -1. 'If it be at all possible, tlie lectures on mathematics, physics, chemistry, and land-surveying, should be attended in the first session, and even before entering on the special studies of the department, if this be practicable, in order that the preliminary examinations which may be passed by candidates without having attended a University for any specified period, may be undertaken as soon as possible. ', 2. * With advantage, other lectures in fundamental and FORESTAL INSTRUCTION AT GlESSEI^. lO? accessary scieaces may be attended during the first session : such as botany, theory of political economy, and with this the science of finance, jurisprudenc, and forest law ; and the encyclopasdic study of rural economy and other accessary studies had better be deferred to a subse- quent session. 3. ' The Forest Science lectures, according to this pro- gramme, will be most advantageously attended in the second year of the course ; it would, however, be expedient for students commencing at this time, Easter 1881, to attend at least the encyclopaedic lectures on forest science at once, as these are not again delivered until the summer session of 1883 ; and moreover, they will thus be placed in a position to undertake their true professional forestal studies in any subsequent session which they may choose. 4. ' The attendance on the practical forestal course of instruction, relative to sylviculture, forest exploitation, the making of the forest roads, the science and practice of measuring timber, &c., with or without attendance on lectures, presents itself for the same reason as a course of instruction to be followed from the very commencement of the course. Tbis course of study is, in other lands, required as a preliminary to entering a forest institute. 5. ' It is greatly to be desired that the students, with a view to the utilisation of the advantages for general culture, which the University offers in such abundance, in comparison with the isolated Schools of Forestry, should not rest satisfied with attending thosQ lectures which relate to subjects embraced in II>cksc'iule or State examinations : but that they should also attend the lectures in the departments of forest zoology, history, and philosophy strictly so called,' It is added that the professors of forest science will always be ready to give information and advice to students in regard to their studies ; and there is appended to the programme a list of treatises on ditierent subjects of study recommended to students. At Giessen, as at several other Universities in lO^ FORESTRY IN GERMANY. Germany, it has long been the custom, and was the custom then, that there is no required course of study prescribed. Every student is free to choose what course of lectures he may wish to attend. He has only personally to wait upon the teacher whose class he desires to attend at the commencement of the session, and enrol himself on the class list. Without special permission of the teacher no one can attend as a visitor above three times, and attendance beyond this is considered equivalent to a declaration of a purpose to attend as a regular student ; but it does not relieve him of the necessity of formally announcing this to the teacher. And on demand every student receives a half year's certificate in regard to the regularity, diligence, and improvement with which he has attended the meetings of the class. The summer session begins, or did then, between the middle and the end of April ; the winter session at the end of October. The educational helps in the study of forestry consisted of:— 1. Collections of wood, charcoal, seeds, insects, birds, beasts, foods, stones, implements, models, &c. 2. The academy forest garden, or arboretum, 6 hectares, or 14 acres in extent, with a special forest museum and overseer's dwelling, all under the superin- tendence of the forest teacher. 3. The forests of Giessen and Schuffenberg, both in the immediate vicinity of the town. And the helps in the study of general science were these : — A chemical laboratory; cabinets of physical, meteoro- logical, surveying, mathematical, technological, and minera- logical apparatus and substances ; a botanical museum ; a botanic garden ; the institute of rural econom}', the institute of fine arts, the institute and cabinet of zoology and comparative anatomy, the cabinet of art, science, and antiquities, &c., &c., and finally the Univer- sity library and reading-room. FORESTAL INSTRUCTION AT GIESSEN. 109 The forest exercises and excursions conducted by the two teachers had for their object the execution of work required in the management of forests connected with sow- ing and planting, the determination of sites of fellings, and the actual felling of trees ; or the execution of appointed exercises in land mensuration, in forest surveying, levelling, and staking out of forest roads ; or the profes- sional inspection of characteristic or typical management of forests in the vicinity, oak coppice, beech timber- forests, pine clearings, &c. Of these excursions and exercises, or at least of a portion of them, a formal report was required from the students ; beside which, in every summer session, a vacation tour, extending over eight days or a fortnight, was made under the guidance of one ' or other of the teachers, to some of the larger forest districts at a greater distance. The fees for attendance throughout the session for a course of lectures, which occupied from two to three hours a week, was eleven marks; if it occupied from four to six hours a week, sixteen marks; if fiom seven to nine hours a week, twenty-one marks. The mark is equiva- lent to a shilling. For a course of lectures, with which excursions and associated experiments were combined, at least double these fees were payable. Attendance a second year on the same course was charged only half the amount of the first fee. In order to matriculation a native of the principality was required to produce — (a) A MaturiUitszeugniss, or certificate of complete attendance at a gymnasium or at a real schule of the first order— that is a school in which not only languages but the arts and sciences are taught — or of some equivalent institution. {h) A dismissal or exit certificate of some previously attended University or professional educational institute ; — and as licenciates, might be received those who, in lack of such certificates, produced corresponding certificates in regard to their general education. 110 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. A foreigner required, besides the education necessary to understand the academy lectures on general science, only a credible statement from his parents or guardians of consent to his attending the University, and a certificate from any educational institute which he might hava previously attended. Dr Hess has zealously and successfully made use of the press to create, sustain, and intensify an interest in their professional work amongst students who have come under his influence, and to diffuse a corresponding interest in this amongst others; and thus he has done much to promote the study of forest science, and to facilitate this by aspiranis for employment in the forest service of the State. In 1873 he published a scheme of lectures on the encyclopaedic and methodology of Forest Science * with copious — I had almost said innumerable — citations of the titles of books, in which the subjects of different chapters are treated of I do not know of a more valuable repertory of the same, and from statements in the preface something may be learned of the conditions of forest science at the time he entered on his professional duties. In this preface, while stating that there did not exist any such work which could be said to supply a simple and exclusive encyclopisdic; view of forest science, which could be made the basis of acadium study, he says in regard to the methodic scientific of forestry, that the work of the immortal Hundeshagen, of which an edition had been published by Klauprecht, must ever be assigned the first position.* [Hundeshagen : Encyclopsedie der Forstwissenchaft, Herausgegeben von Klauprecht 3, Abtheilung, Fubengen. 1. 'Abtheilung : Forstliche Productionslehre, 4 Auflage, 1842.' (1821); * Qrundrm zu Verlesxmg uber Encyclopcedie und Methodologie der Foistwisenchaft «t-<;. Giessen : J. liecher'sche, Buchhandhmd, 1S73. PORESTAL INSTEUCTION AT GIESSEN. Ill 2. ' Abtheilungen : Forstliche Gewerbslehre, 4 Auflage, 1843.' (1822); 3. ' Abtheilung : Lehrbuch der Forstpolizei, 4 Auflage, 1859.' (1831).] 'The contents of this work, however, are to some con- siderable extent antiquated, having been published previous to the later forward bounds made by forest science— since it has become an essential of all true pro- gress to take into account mathematical data, to which formerly less attention could be given. The Grxivdriss of Cotta,* and the generally commend- able, and, in some of its parts, most excellent and elaborate Lehrbuch of Fischbach [Fischbach, C. : Lehrbuch der Forstwissenschaft, 2 Auflage, Stuttgart, 18(35,] are. at least for the requirements of students at Giessen, insuffi- cient, mainly on this account that they treat the depart- ment of forest mathematics with neglect. In neither is the subject of forest statistics treated of, and this on the ground, it is alleged by Fischbach (p. 82), that this department of forest science is, or was at the time he wrote, as yet too imperfectly developed, and for beginners, moreover, difficult to be understood. And the scheme of lectures had been prepared with a special view to the re- quire ments of students of forest economics and of finance, it being his opinion that after the knowledge of Betriehshhre exploitation, and especially (;f statistics, if not to be placed in the same category, there is scarcely a more important, or indeed more interesting branch of study than the science of production. * The Forstwinhschaft of Pfeil, edited by Prissier [Die Forstwirthschaft nach rein Practischer Ansicht, 6 Auflage Herausgegeben von Prissier, Leipzig, 1870,] comes very near to supplying what is wanted in a preparatory school, in which the object is to instruct the students how to obtain pecuniary returns from an appropriate manage- ment of forests, and in a school of financial economy ; * Cotta, H. : Grundri»s der Forstwigsenfchaft, 6 Auflage, Herausg-egebeii voii S^ine EuUlens Heinrich i.n\d grnat von Cotta, Leipzig-, 1S72. (Is31.) IKi FORESTRY IN GERMANY. but, as its title indicates, it was designed to supply a desideratum other than tliat which is under consideration. As a handbook supplying the ini'ormation generally required by those who are, or purpose to be, forest managers, it will do good service ; but it is not suitable as a manual of instruction for academic lectures, and objec- tion may be taken to the plan of the work. ' Hartig's System nnd Ahitung zum studium der Forst- wirthschaftslehre [Leipzig, 1858], contains many excellent thoughis, but the peculiar form and manner of the entire grouping is so very different from the system of the course of instruction in forestry followed in the School of Forestry at Giessen that I cannot base my course of instruction upon it. The same remarks may be made in regard to the last edition which has appeared oi G. L. Hartig's Lehrhvh fiir Forster [10 Auflage, herausgegeben von G. L. Hartrig. Stuttgart, 1861,] the first volume of which Kaicely comes within the designation Fachwissenschaft. The ttrsthhre of Grunert is calculated to meet the requirements of Prussian foresters. Also, the old Lehr- luch filr Forster of G. L. Hartig, re\ ised by Berggreve [1871], can only be viewed in this light ; and, lastly, the Forstencyklopadie by Piischel, in consecjuence of the alpha- betical arrangement followed, can only be used as a book of reference.' He says it Avas thus that it was rendered necessary for him to prepare a Forest EnGijclo2Kvdin of seven volumes, the publication of which was necessarily deferred ; and that the brochure, which was little else than a table of contents, was published for the assistance of his auditors. Funda- mentally, the system first used was that of the Hundes- hagen school ; but in the working out of the several parts he had followed the two Heyers, Carl and Gustav. In the discussion of forest police, of which he had only to treat within the narrow limits of Privaiforstwirthschaftslehre, he had not followed the limits of any particular school, and the same might be said in regard to certain portions FORESTAL INSTRUCTION AT GIESSEN. 113 which he had introduced in the introduction, and in the parts relating to statistics. With regard to the several works cited, he says he would by no means have it understood that these are all the works pu Wished on the matters to which they severally referred. To beginners the teacher, according to my mind, says he, should only recommend tried leader?. This volume, as stated, was published in 1873. In the periodical, Deutsche Zeit-und Streit-Fragen, for 1874, published in Berlin, is a paper occupying two entire numbers, entitled Die Forstliehe Unlerrichtsfroge, by Dr Hess, in which are given details of the previous history of the question whether Schools of Forestry should be associated with Universities and Colleges, or be maintained as independent institutions ; reasons for the combination of the Schools of Forestry with the Hochschulen ; state- ments of the advantages offered by Universities for giving instruction in forestry and forest science, and a review of objections to the measures which have been raised. To this subject much attention has been given of late years ; and the combination of arrangements for the study of forestry with those of existing Universities, and similar institutions, should not be considered an innovation, but a return to an early practice. It was [in the University of Berlin that forestry was first taught in Prussia, and thus was it in Giessen, And in view of that early arrangement, not only may Giessen claim to have been the first University in Europe in which this arrangement has been restored, but it may lay claim to be considered the first, or one of the first. Schools of Forestry established in Europe, taking precedence both of that founded by Cotta in Zilbach in 1795, and of one founded in Hungen by Martio in 1791, and long before that giving origin to the Academy in Eisenach. In a volume published by Dr. Hess in 1831, entitled Die Forstwissenscaftlichen Unterricht an der Universiidt Giessen in Vergangenheit und Oegenwart: Instruction in forest I 114 FOEESTRY IN GERMANY. science in the University of Giessen, in the past artd in the present — he divides the past history of instruction in forestry in the University of Giessen into three periods— the first of which he designates that of instruction in forest science in the University in connection with political economy, which he states to be the period comprising from 1788 to 1824; the second period in which this was taught in a special School of Forestry from 1825 to 1831, a comparatively short period of six years ; the third period that of the existing university forest instruction from 1832 to 1881 inclusive, comprising half a century. In this volume are given details of the existing arrangements for the study of forestry; of the expense of the organisation and the instruction imparted ; and of the duties of the teachers, with tabulated statements of the nationalities of the students in each session since 1825 to the present time, and of the College attendance, and present professional position of all surviving students. In 1876 he published a Scheme of Lectures on Forest Economy. And, in the same year, he published an intro- ductory lecture, delivered before the University, Uber die orgunisation die forstlichen Versuchswesens : On the organisation of forestal researches — a matter which has of late years commanded much attention. He had previously published pamphlets on the same subject in 1870 and in 1872. He has issued also numerous fly leaves for the guidance and help of students and foiest otficials in making observations prosecuting experiments and calculating results in furtherance of the advancement of forest science, and larger works designed to advance the same. The instruction at Giessen is regulated by order of 31st July, 1879, with alterations according to order of 22nd December, 1883. As has been intimated, there is no special forest district for purposes of instruction but forests around Giessen, and the railway combinations afford excellent facilities for reaching these. The number of students in the bummer of 1885 was 44 ; in the winter of 1885-86, 47; of whom 7 were not Hessian subjects. CHAPTER Vr. THE ROYAL BAVARIAN CENTRAL FOREST ACADEMY AT ASCHAFFENBURG, AND CLASSES FOR THE STUDY OF FORESTRY IN THE ROYAL LUD WIG-MAXIMILIAN'S UNIVERSITY IN MUNICH. The University of Giessen in Hesse Darmstadt, has be- came famous through the result of researches by Professor Baron von Leibig, and the numerous students whom his enthusiasm, and science, and skill, attracted to the laboratory under his charge ; and the Royal Bavarian Central Forest Academy at Aschatienburg has been made famous by the researches of Professor Dr Ernst Ebermayer, who here laboured as professor, and here began and con- ducted observations and studies of climatology in connec- tion with the meteorological influences exercised by forests, which have commanded a world-wide commendation. I have not had an opportunity of visiting Aschaffen- burg, .having passed through Bavaria much further to the south, via Munich, en route to Vienna, to visit the International Exhibition held there in 1873 ; but the history of forestal studies in the Academy has been long known to me. Aschaffenburg is situated in the northern part of Bavaria, and is easily reached by railway from Darmstadt, or from Frankfort. It is a town which has had its origin traced, or at least attributed, to its having been the station of the 10th and 23rd legions of the Roman army. The School of Forestry designated Der Koniglich Bayerischen Central-Forst-Lehranstalt, stands in the Alex- andra Strasse. It is a three-storied building of freestone, 116 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. ISO feet long, standing in an open court ; and behind this is the botanic garden. On the ground flat are two large lecture rooms, a chemical laboratary, a hall containing objects and equip- ments connected with the chase, and a collection of models, with apartments for the use of the house steward and the beadle. In the second storey there is the business room of the director, the office of the actuaries, a lecture room, a large room for the drawing classes, the library, a hall containing mathematical instruments and apparatus pertaining to natural philosophy, &c. ; and in the third storey are six halls containing other collections of objects and apparatus used in the institution. As may be gathered from some of these statements, there is, or was, for I write of the past, provided for school pur- poses a collection of instruments and implements, and models of structures employed in forest ecconomy ; a collection of forest products, natural and manufactured ; a collection of objects connected with the chase, one of agricultural implements, a zoological collection, a mineralo- gical collection, a botanical collection aud garden ; a collection of mathematical instruments, and of apparatus illustrative of all departments of natural philosophy ; a collection of drawing instruments, a library of works in all departments of forest science, and a chemical laboratory with all requisite apparatus and requirements, and similar work rooms for the study of zoology and other depart- ments of natural history and physical science. Thus was the Academy equipped when I had occasion to make enquiries on the subject ; but there have been changes of which more particular mention will after- wards be made, and I have not at command information in regard to effects which these have had on the equip- ments which then existed. In a brochure entitled The Schools of Forestry in Europe : A Plea for the Creation of a School of Forestry in connection with the Arboretum in Edinburgh, which I pub- fHE BAVARIAN FOREST ACADEMY. 117 lished in 1877, I stated that, preparatory to entering this institution, students were required to have passed through a gymnasium satisfactorily, and, with the sanction of Government, to have passed through a preliminary instruc- tion of eight months, extending from September to May, under a revier, or district forester, approved and appointed by Government ; to be not above 23 years of age ; and to possess means of support during the period required for attendance at the forest school. The instruction given in the school embraced — (1) Forest Science, or theory of forest administration in all that relates thereto ; the physiology of arboreal and arbores- cent vegetation; forest culture; forest economy and technology, including road making, bridge making, and house building, the preparation of charcoal, potash, tur- pentine, tar, and lamp-black ; the theory underlying forest conservation and forest management in the practical regulations of operations throughout an extensive district. (2) Physical science, more especially general and economic botany, the latter having special regard to plants of importance to the well-being of the forest and the interests of the country, with practical instruction in gardening ; mineralogy, including geognesy and geology, with the use of the blow-pipe ; zoology, embracing the natilral history of animals interesting to the forester, the huntsman, and the agriculturist, and more especially that of noxious insects and of game ; and finally, natural philosophy, including organic, inorganic, and analytic chemistry, in their application to forests and agricultural operations, with experimental analysis of soil, of ashes of plants, of water, of air, and of manures. (3) Mathematics, including algebra, plane geometry, cubic mensuration, trigonometry, statics, dynamics, optics ; mensuration, with practical applications ; instruction in preparation of charts, in taking levels, and in estimating the condition and value of forests. (4) The theory of State management of forests, forest 118 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. police, forest legislation, forest administration, and the practical management of forests. (5) Agriculture, with a special reference to soils, culture, manure, meadow culture, grain culture, and the theory of administration. (6) A comprehensive theory of the chase : principles and rules for the management of game, reviern with deer, boar parks, and plieasantries,and for the utilisation of game — for the hunting or taking of game ; and those of thegame laws. Instruction was given by encyclopaedic lectures, with illustrations of the practical application of theoretic state- ments in excursions conducted by the professors, in forests near and distant; and necessary assistance toward meeting the expenses of such excursions was given to the poorer students. The year of study began fourteen days after Easter, and extended over 2^ year.s. In addition to this, those who aspired to the higher forest appointments —e.g., those of forest master and upward— after finishing their course at the forest school, were required to prosecute the study of science at one or other of the State Universities at Munich and Wurtzburg ; and after this, as at the conclu- sion of their course at Aschaffenburg, to undergo an examination on the required subjects of study. Promotion to a higher appointment in the forest service was also dependent on a strict examination, and not more than one opportunity of passing was allowed. Non-pnifessional students aud foreigners might join the forest school, but only on condition that they possessed the necessary qualifications for understanding the instructions given, and that they gave a written declaration that it was not their intention to enter the Bavarian forest service. For Bavarian subjects the fee was 12^ florins (25s), and for foreigners 2.5 fls. (50s) per half-year. Besides this, every candidate had to pay a matriculation fee of 4 fls, (8s), aud a similar fee lor certificate at the close. Candidates were subject to a rule of discipline, and were TfiE BAVARIAN FORES'! ACADEMY. 119 bound to a prescribed college course. Foreigners might obtain from the director a dispensation from particular studies. For the sons of Goverament officials, and more especially of those who were in the forest service, who were without the means of meeting the expenses, there were, provided five scholarships of 2 50 fls. (£25), ten of 200 fls (£20), and ten of 150 fls. (£15), and also five scholarships of 250 fls. (£25) for forest candidates of limited means who desired to go to the Universities named to prosecute their studies. The college staff consisted of a director, who, together with the first professor of forest science, had the rank of a Government and Circuit Forest Councillor, and four other professors with the rank of forest masters, and a revier or district forester, who acted as lecturer and as actuary clerk. The direction and control of the school was vested in the Minister of Finance and the Church and School Depart- ment of the Bureau of the Minister of the Interior; and in subordination to them was the director of the school. To the director pertained the maintenance of order, the superintendence of the course of study and instruction, the granting of certificates, and everything connected with the management of the institution which had not been specially and expressly committed to the director and professors conjointly. Students on finishing the curriculm at Aschaffenburg either entered on further practical training in the forest or in a forest ofl&ce, or on attendance at a course of lectures on Political Economy at the University ; and they after- wards received appointments to Government employment in the order of the excellence of the testimonials they have obtained. In general the practitioner was not allowed, without forfeiture of all title to Government employment, to leave the service till he had attained the first or lowest grade of a Government official ; but in special cases exemption from conformity to this requirement might be granted by the Government of the Kreis, Circuit or District. lao FORESTRY IN GERMANY. The following is a more detailed account of later arrangements derived from the published Programm und Satzungen fiir die Candidaten. The Institution was under the iramediate control of the Minister of Finance and the Minister of the Interior for Rehgion and Education. The body of teachers was comprised of a Director, appoin- ted by the Crown, and who was also first Professor of Forest Science ; with two or three Ordinary Professors also appointed by the Crown. (a) A Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy, (b) A Professor of Malliematics and Physics, (c) A Professor of State Forest Economy and Surveying. And, (a) A Lecturer on the Management of Forests. (6) A Lecturer on Botany, (c) A Lecturer on Zoology, {d) A Lecturer on Road- making and the Chase, (e) A Lecturer on the Mensuration of Woods and Forests, and (/) A Lecturer on Political Economy in its reference to Forest Science and Forest Laws. Of all candidates for admission to the Institution, there were required — 1. Gymnasium certificate. 2. Certificates of having spent eight months in forest work in the State forest. 3. Certificates of age and of baptism. 4. Certificates of health and of possession of the bodily vigour requisite fir the forest service, and of perfect sight and hearing. 5. Declaration of consent of parents or of guardians, when the candidate was not himself of age. 6. Legal guarantee of the possession of means of subsistence while under instruction. Within eight days after matriculation they must find lodgings and report their address, and subsequently report any change in this, and they must at all times be prepared to produce, ou demand, their ticket of residence obtained from the police. Candidates who were foreigners required only to produce evidence of their possessing the education necessary to enable them to understand the instruction given, of their good moral character and of THfi BAVARIAN S"ORfiST ACADEMY. 121 the approval by their parents or legal guardians of their attending the institution. Aspirants to employment in the forest service of the State, or uf the larue forest proprietors, and also sons of the latter, who could nut produce all tlie pre-requisites to admission as regular students, but who could produce certificates of good moral character and of possessing the education necessary to their understanding the instruction f;iven, might, as also might foreigners, be received at the Institution as Hospitunten. Regular students were required to attend every class in its order ; but to the Hospitanten, whether Bavarians or foreigners, it was allowed to choose what classes they should join, and of both of these classes there was required a promise of submission to the laws and bye-laws of the institution, copies of which were shown to them on their entrance. Thecurriculum of study at Aschaffenburg embraced three different courses, and extended over two and a half years. The first course began eight days after Easter, and ended on the 31st of July. The second and third began on the 31st October, and ended on the 31st July in tiie following year — with a vacation of fourteen days at Easter. In accordance with a resolution of the Minister of State, under date of 24th January, 18G5, No 415, slightly modified subsequently as occasions required, the first course consisted of introductory studii s. Three hours weekly were given to the study of botany, the province of which science was explained, with the terminology employed, combined with illustrations in the gaiden ; tlie requisites of vegetation were shown to be foil, moisture, air, light, and heat ; and the distribution of plants was explained and accounted for. Two hours a week were devoted to zoology, the organisa- tion of animals, and the classification founded on this, and the characteristics of the vertebrata. Four hours a week were given lo chemistry, including exposition of chemical affinity and chemical notation, is^ Forestry in Germany. specific gravity, of combining proportions of elementary substances, and the special study of the non-metallic substances and their compounds, which have a special interest as nutriment of plants, or as constituents of tlie earth and of different kinds of mountains. Three hours a week were given to physics, more especially statics and dynamics of solid bodies, with ex- periments illustrative of the mathematical laws by which these are regulated. Three hours a week were given to mathematics, more especially to plain geometry ; and three hours a- week to algebra. Four hours a week were given to chart and plan drawing, with instruction in the theory of projection ; and in the nature of materials used in the construction of instruments employed, and in illustration of the use of them ; and two hours a week were given to the study of political ecconomy. The second course of instruction was carried through two sessions. In the first, or winter session, of the second course, three hours a week were given to the study of forest management, and the profitable production of wood. Two hours a week to instruction in the game laws and the chase. Four hours to botany, embracing the study of embryos and of forms of the elementary organs of plants, and the functions of the several organs, the nourishment and growth of plants, the classification of these, and forest botany, with demonstrations in the garden. Three hours a week wi re given to zoology, embracing the natural history of vertebrate animals profitable or injurious in connection with forests, and of forest game, with demonstrations on collections of these belonging to the institution. Two hours a week were given to inorganic chemistry and the study of the lighter metals, and of their more THE BAVARIAN fORlEST ACADEMY. l23 important compounds, with a special reference to the analytical decomposition of these. Three hours a week were given to mineralogy — crystal- lography, physical constitution of minerals, their pheno- mena under the blow-pipe and in solution, and the determination of different kinds of mineral substances. Five hours a week were given to physics, embracing the study of atomics, hydrostatics, pneumatics, heat, accoustics, optics, magnetis m, electricty, and meteorology and modes of making and recording meteorological observations Three hours a week were given to mathematics, trigo- nometry, and the mensuration of solids, and four hours weekly to plan drawing and the representation of various natural and artifical objects and crops, by the pen. In the summer session there were devoted to the study of forest management four hours weekly ; and two hours to forest protection, in so far as it does not come within the range of forest management, zoology, and meteorology ; two hours to matters pertaining to the chase ; two hours to botany, with the use of the microscope, in studying the histology of plants ; to zoology and the study of the vetebrate two hours ; to inorganic chemistry and the study of the htavy metals and their com.pounds two hours ; the chemical anaylsis (qualitative) of soils, of ashes, of plants, of limestone, and of water, &c., two hours, and to mensuration three hours ; and to plan drawing of various kinds four hours were given weekly in the course of the session. The third course of instruction also extended over two sessions. Jn the winter session of the third course four hours were given weekly to the study of systematic forest management, including the study of the object to be arrived at in the work, and of the ditiferent means by which the attainment of it had been sought, and the historical order of development of forest economy j 124 f OkESTRY IN GERMANY. three hours weekly to the pecuniary profit of woods, including instruction in regard to the felling of trees, the bringing out of timber, the transport of wood, and the preparation and disposal of other forest products ; three hours a week to the study of the management of State forests, embracing the study of the function of forests in nature and in States, and the duty of States in relation to forests belonging to the State, to communes, and to private proprietors ; two hours to zoology of insects, pro- fitable or hurtful to forests ; two hours a week were given to the study of organic chemistry, in vegetable products; one hour weekly to agricultural chemistry, embracing everything relating to the chemistry of vegetation ; one hour weekly was g-iven to the study of soils and everything relating to them, and two hours to geology and mineralogy ; three hours to the study of forest engineering, embracing road-making, levelling, bridge building, and dam-making; three hours a week to mensuration in all its departments and details, with two hours a week to the measurement of cubic contents of growing trees, and of wood contents of forests. In the summer session of the third course — the fifth and last of the curriculum — four hours a week continued to be given to the study of systematic forest management, embracing the practical application of instructions pre- viously given, the description and the estimation of con- tents of woods, and the whole round of forest operations were more minutely studied in excursions ; three hours a week were given to the study of forest laws, three to that of forest administration, three to that of rural ecconomy, soils, tillage, manures, thet)ry of fallows, and of alternations of crops, and the study of cerial and other crops and meadows ; two hours a week to the estimation of pecuniary value of forests ; and three hours a week to forest engineering, embracing what of hydraulic engineering relates to forests, and all connected therewith — hydro- metry, evaporation, mensuration of water-flow in fountains and streams, drainage and irrigation, consolidation of river THE BAVARIAN FOREST ACADEMY. 125 banks, &c. ; erection of houses and other structures re- quired in connection with forestry. Along with these arrangements for the communication of instruction in the class-rooms, corresponding arrangements were made for demonstrations and exercises in the practical application of what is learned in the academy — which was given in the foret-t, there being very great facilities presented in the immediate vicinity of Aschaifenburg. In the immediate vicinity of the town were public parks, presenting features characterstic of a scientific arboretum ; not far off there were facilities for making geological, observations on the western boundary of the Spessart; and in this forest, which is the property of the State, were upwards of a hundred thousand Tagwerken, or well- nigh a hundred and twenty thousand acres of oak and beech woods ; — while within the forest and around it there were works in which forest products were used ; andfacilitiespresented themselves forthe study of thechase. At somewhat greater distance in IJesse, might be studied the forest ecconomy of coniferaj ; and various forms of forest management might be studied in Odenwald, on the plains of the Ehine to the west of Aschaffenburg, and in the Palatinate. At a greater distance were the beech forests of the mountains of the Rhone and of the Steiger- wald, and the pine and fir forests of France, and those of the Black Forest. And the railway intercommunication is such that all of these cculd be reached with little waste of time. The arrangements for excursions were the followmg : — The Director of the Academy, who was also first Professor of Forest Science, in the second course of instruction, illustrated and establibhed his instruction in forest management by practical operations in forests around Aschaffenburg, and availed himself for this purpose of every case of a forest district presenting anything remark- able in its culture or exploitation ; and by experimental Bowings and plantings of different kinds of seeds, and this with different kinds of implements. 126 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. lu the third course of instruction he was required to illustrate his instruction in systematic forest management by devoting from fifteen to twenty days at least to practical measurenents, calculations of annual increase, estimates of pecuniary value, determinations of vig(Mir of vegetation, and descriptions of trees And be was requiretl every year to go through, with the students on the ground, the whole system of management to which a ibrest is subjected, for which the public forests in the vicinity supplied admirable facility ; and a complete plan of operations, founded ou this, had to be prepared by the students. The second professor of forest science in his excursions with the students, had mainly to do with the ingathering and utilisation of forest products, the manufacture and disposal of these, the collection of accessary products of woods, such as bark, peat, &c., and the fixation of sand downs, and all that relates lo the chase. The professor of botany and zoology gave his attention to botanical demon. strations and exercises, the determina- tion and cla.«sification of plants, according to the Linnean and the natural systems, and to similar entomological demonstrations, for which injured pine trees abounding in some of the public forests in the vicinity of Aschaffen- burg, presented a good opportunity. The professor of mineralogy and rural economy took his students on excursions for illustrations of his instructions in these subjects. And the professor of mathematics exercised the students in all departments of the practical application of these required in the management of forests, in land surveying, levelling, and road projecting — with the pieparation of diagrams of the same, and calculations of the cubic contents of earth required, or of earth to be removed, &c. Besides the excursions which could be accomplished in a single day, to which the Saturdays were as a general rule devoted, there were excursions to the forest districts of the Spessart, to the Odeuwald, to the plains of the THE BAVARIAN FOREST ACADEMY. 127 Rhine, the Black Forest, the Taunus mountains, and the mountain ranges of the Rhine, which occupied from eight to fourteen days, and which were determined by circum- stances, and conducted by the professor of forest science, with the assistance of the professor of geognosy or physical geography. And while these were being carried out, the other piofessors gave their time to all the students who remained in the Academy. As these excursions were an integral part of the course of instruction, attendance was obligatory, and with this view provision was made for the expense of the longer journeys, being, in the case of students of limited means supplied to them. On approval, admission and matriculation, Bavarian students, as has been stated, paid a fee of 12| florins for the first part of a single session, and of 25 florins a year for each of the other courses. Foreigners paid fees of 25 florins and of 50 florins for these respectively. Besides this every candidate, without exception, paid 4 florins for his ticket of matriculation, and a like amount for his certificate on leaving the institution. For sons of officers of limited means, in the service of the Crown, and more especially in the forest service, attending the institution, there were set aside annually : — 10 bursaries of - - 150 florins. 10 Do. - - 200 5 Do. - - 250 And, besides these, 4 bursaries of 250 florins yearly. To forest candidates of limited means, who had acquitted themselves well at the institution, and who wished to attend the course of lectures on political economy at the University in Munich or Wurzburg, and to candidates in the first course of a single session a small portion of the aforesaid bursaries might be advanced. The bursaries might be forfeited by want of diligence in study, or by culpable misconduct ; and to remove tempta- tion to submit to undue privations, or culpably to contract debt and injure their parents or creditors, the certificate 128 FOIIESTEY IN GERMANY. to be given at the close of the session might, with the sanction of the director, be pledged in anticipation for debts for medical attendance and medicine to the full amount ; or for food, cloihes, or books, to the amount of 20 florins ; for lodgings, goods, shoes, stationery, and washing, to the amount ot 10 florins, but not more ; and all pawning of possessions was prohibited. General or trial examinations were held at Easter to enable tlie professors to judge of the progress being made by the students, and in autumn to determine their admission to the more advanced course of instruction. It was not compulsory on foreigners to submit to these exami- nations, and it was allowed to them to undergo separate trial examinations, for which special times were appointed by the professors. Numerical values wore attached to the measures of success with which stutlents passed through the different examinations, and, accoid.ngto tlie sum of these, was the certificate which was given to the student determined. The certificate related to ddigence, to attainments, and to behaviour while in the institution. In the exercise of discipline, various degrees of censure were sanctioned. The simplest was admonition, and the most severe was censure followed by expulsion. Records were preserved of all censures and pnnishments inflicted, and by these the terms of the certificate granted to the students on leaving the institution might be modified. Such was the School of Forestry at Aschaffenburg when I had occasioi to make myself acquainted with its arrangements ; and as supplying information in regard to such institutions, the report will hold good for all time. Reference has been made to changes which have taken place since thise regulations were issued, and the history of the school is not devoid of interest. The f(illowing is a translation of a narration of this to the time at which it was issued ; — THE BAVARIAN FOREST ACADEMY. 129 In 1SU7 there came together at Aschaffenburg several professional students, and admioistrators of forest economy, to arrange a course of study which might advantageously be followed at a forest school with a view to the establishment of one there as a private institute. In this they succeeded, and as such the institute existed for a considerable time. The Prince Primate took a hearty interest in the scheme, and adopted measures to raise it to the position of a State Institute. He granted for it a locale in the Schbnthal, and a portion of the Spessart for its maintenance and use. There were political diflaculties in the way of the Pr.nce Primate doing all he desired, and the elevation of tlie institute to the position in question was a gradual work. In ISl-i, whtn the Principality and the L'ity of Aschaf- fenburjy were embodied in the Kinodom of Bavaria, there were seven teachers in the institute, ol which one only was appointed to teach forest science, and that relating to the chase. The director was charged with the duties of the Spessart Forstmeister. He, as well as the other teachers of the institute, of which three were professors in (;ther schools in the place, and one a physician, were remunerated by fees ; only ten drew a salary from the State, and that amounted only to 150 florins — say £15. The fees charged foreigners were one Caroline or louis-d'or per session, others paying hah that amount i and there was allowed by the State, for experiments in physics and chemistry, 110 florins; for an attendant, 10 florins ; and for fuel, 67 florms 20 kreutzcr. With this addition the institute was assisted by the State to the extent of 1397 florins 2 kr. — say £140. Of candidates for admission it was required that they should be able to write legibly, swiftly^ and free from mistakes in spelling, be acquainted with the four simple rules of arithmetic, and be able to read fluently. Lectures in the first course of instruction were given four days a week, from the beginning of November, till K 130 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. the end of May. Friday was reserved for study, and Saturday for chart drawing. The month of May was spent entirely in the Spessart forest. From the first of June till the last of September was occupied with the second course of instruction ; and October was spent in practical work in the forest. And thus, in the course of a year, the student completed his study of the forest science of the day. Aschaffenburg, belonging now to Bavaria, by a Rescript of 22nd September, 1815, it was announced that the institute, having then nine students, should retain the possession theretofore enjoyed ; but it was not deemed equal to what was then required of a forest institute, and considerable changes were devised and submitted for consideration by the teachers : one special ol>ject being to separate the course of instruction given to candidates for the higher from that given to candidates for the subordinate departments of the forest service of the State, and this to be so effected that in the first section youths to be employed as forest warders or guards might pass through their pre- paratory studies in six months, and then enter upon their further training in the forest; and that this course of school instruction should prove preparatory for superior students passing into the second section of the institute, in which they might be, in the course of a year, further instructed, so as to befitted for the administration service ; and in a third section, by a course of two years' longer instruction they might be trained for the inspector service. In view of this the teachers, in 1816, and again in 1817, commended the institute to the favourable con- sideration of the Government; and, by petition under date of 29th March, 1817, the magistrates of tlie city, representing the depressed condition to which this had been reduced by effects of war, and by the withdrawal of officials from it as a seat of Government, prayed that it miglit be assisted to recover a state and con\ould be exceedingly desirable; but there are many young men who support themselves by teaching while at the University; and if the arrangements of the hours Avere such, and a forester wished to support himself by engaging in work in the nursery, he might then attend the evening classes of the Watt Institute for all the accessary subjects, mathematics, geology, road-making, and everything of that kind. 236. Then he would pursue his course of instruction during the ordinary curriculum of his University education? —Yes. 211. Hitherto I have asked you questions with regard to the advantages which might be derived from the instruction given to the students ; would you suggest that in such a school, if established, there should be any opportunity for research as to the different circumstances affecting forest products ? — I consider that it would be exceedingly desirable. There are now established at the seats of several of the Schools of Forestry upon the Continent stations for research ; they are not connected with the school, they are supported by the Government, but placed at the seat of the school in order that the students may have the benefit of the professor there ; and 192 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. in some of the schools I have referred to, as in that in Spain, where they have failed to secure such an experimental station, very great advantage has resulted from the students being encouraged by the professor to engage in research upon a smaller scale. 212. Would you propose that such a school should likewise make any experiments with regard to the suitability of particular soils, exposure, the combination or association of different trees one with another, and other similar problems ? — There are no objections to their doing so. These stations for research, to which I have referred, have an international connection ; when one is formed they communicate with the others, and state the particular department to which they intend to give their attention, and they leave the rest to the others, so that no two of them shall bo occupying the field of research. III. — School of Forest Engineers in Spain, Cited AS indicative of a Type for a British National School of Forestry. In 1877 I published a brochure, entitled Schools of Forefttrt/ in Europe : a Plea for the Erection of a School of Forestry in connection with the Arboretum in Edinburgh, in which I stated that with the acquisition of that arboretum, and existing arrangements for study in the University, and in the Watt Institute, there were required only facilities for the study of what is known on the Continent as Forest Science, to enable these institutions conjointly, or either of them, with the help of the other, to take a place amongst the most completely equipped schools of forestry in Europe, and to undertake the training of foresters for the discharge of such duties as are required of them in India, in our Colonies, or at home. In May, 1886, I gave evidence on the subject before a Committee appointed by the House of Commons to con- sider whether by the establishment of a Forest School or otherwise, our woodlands could be rendered more productive, and in illustration of a statement made by me in doing so, I subsequently published a volume entitled School of Forest Fngineers in Spai7i, indicative of a type for a British School of Forestry. In this I have given informa- tion in regard to advantages offered by Edinburgh as an appropriate site for such an institution ; information in regard to what might be done by the organisation of a School of Forestry there under the Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education, or by the establishment of a Professorship of Forestry in the University, or a lectureship on that subject in the Watt Institute, or in connection with some public body, with details of the advantages offered by each of these alter native measures, inclusive of the question of expense, 194 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. The characteristic type of the Schools of Forestry in Germany is that they are adapted to fit into the other educational arrangements of the country, which are different from what have as yet been introduced into the transitional development of national education in Britain. But the arrangement of the Schools of Forest Engineers in Spain are free from all trammels which might operate prejudicially if imposed on students of forestry iu this country. The similarity of the climate and conditions of soil in Spain to what exist in more than one of our colonies, and the encyclopaedic character of the education, instruction, and training given under the conditions of of Spain to fit the aspirants for admission into the Corps of Forest Engineers, seemed to me, when questioned on the subject by a Committee of the House of Commons, to indicate a type of the kind of school required in Britain. I have in common, I presume, with all who know them, an unbounded admiration for students of forest science in Germany engaged in the prosecution of investigations pursued in the stations for forestral experimental research at the sites of several of the Schools of Forestry in Germany and elsewhere, and for the professors and practitioners of forest science and forest economy in that land, and I consider it no disparagement of their attainments or of their work to consider that what meets the requirements of their country would not exactly meet the requirements of ours. Again, my testimony was not of a model but of a type which may be reproduced with divergences which could be inconsistent with con- formity to a model, — conformity to a type, leaving the projector free to incorporate in his scheme anything and everything compatible with ideas which he may find anywhere if it can be shown to be desirable for the accomplishment of what is designed ; and I have referred to the School of Forest Engineers in Spain only as indicative of the kind of school, which, according to my views, is required to meet our case ; and it is all the more so that it ADDENDA. 195 ftdmits of the incorporation of an indefinite number of sug- gestions which may result from the most extensive acquaintance with what is being done in Schools of Forestry anywhere. It has been gratifying to me to find that my volume the School of Forest Engineers in Spain has been approved by competent authorities there ; and as the volume may be considered to possess some interest as an account of that School, irrespective of the suggestion that it may supply a type for a British School of Forestry, I cite the following notices of the volume which have appeared in Spanish Reviews : — Notice in Revista Contemporanea, by Senor Don Rafael Alvarez Sereix, Engineer of the First Class in Corps of Forest Engineers, Member of the Spanish Geographical and Statistical Commission, and author of the following works : — Deter minacion de la masa leilosa dt un monte, por P. Nioo (trad. del Italiano).— Madrid, 1880. Mementos de tasacion forested, por P. Piccoli (trad, del Ttaliano). —Madrid, 1880. Cartas de Navarra, — Madrid, 1880. La desamwtizacion fm'estal. — Madrid, 1883. Estudios botdnico — forestales (1.^ serie). — Madrid, 1884. Geografia botdnica — Lugo, 1884. Estudios botdnico — forestales {2.^ serie). — Madrid, 1885. Cuestiones cientificas. — Madrid, 1885. La opinion de la prensa sobre los montes publicos. — Madrid, 1886. Discursos pi'onunciados en la Asociacion de Agricultmrs de Espaiia. — Madrid, 1886. Adicio7ies y enmiendas a la ultima edicion del Diccionaaio de la Academia EspaFwla. — Madrid, 1886. ' If we had not known long the distinguished author of this work ; if we had not known that he is a naturalist of advanced age, of great erudition and of wondrous activity Professor for some years in Capetown, Cape of Good Hope, and in the University of Aberdeen ; if we bad uot 196 rOKESTBY IN GEEMANY. read before now valuable works by him on a multitude of.oB questions, mainly forestal, in which he gives an exposition ^v of modern ForestEconomy, describes the Forests of England, of Norway, of Finland, and of Northern Russia, treats of the celebrated French Ordinance of 1669, of the planting of the sandunes of the adjacent Republic, of the works of reboisement in that country, of the hydrology of South Africa, and of the influence of forests on humidity of climate, &c. — even if all these had been unknown to us, the publication of this work. School of Forest Engineers in Spain, would have been sufficient to awaken in us interest and to quicken affectionate sympathy. For how can we do other than feel an extraordinary interest in a respected man of science, who, well-nigli an octogenarian in age, undertakes a journey to Spain, establishes himself at the Escurial, examines in detail the School of Forest Engineers there — that school of which many Spaniards are oblivious, and, sad to tell, utterly unknown by not a few —going through its cabinets, examining its rich library, studies with diligence the Spanish language, and, supplied with many of the works which have been published in regard to our forests, liberally presented to him by the authors, returns to his home in Haddington, glances through them full of enthusiasm, reads and re-reads, meditates upon them for hours, and at last composes the work to which we refer ? ' In this he first gives an account of the origin of the Corps of Forest Engineers of Spain. In the second and third chapters he occupies himself with the origin and development of the School of Forestry, from its being founded in the village of Villaviciosa de Od«m to the present time ; details the branches of study taken each year, the extent to which this is carried, and the manner in which the instruction is given. Dr Brown devotes the fourth chapter to an examination of some of the valuable works in the library, and, with a prediliction for those written by the foiest engineers, he devotes attention on these. With a view to methodising this work he divides this chapter into seven sections, in which he ADDENDA. 197 treats successively of those relating to mathematics, chemistry, meteorology, botany, sylviculture, &c. ; and in succeeding chapters he applies what had been seen in Spain to demonstrate the indubitable benefit which would result to the United Kingdom from the organisation of a National School of Forestry, and the abandonment of the system of sending young men who are required for the service of the Government in management of State forests to study in the School at Nancy. * It is now a good many years since Dr Brown, impressed with the necessity of some such reform to meet the re- quirements of his country, first directed his energies to demonstrate the benefits to his country which might thence result, and to endeavour to provide for its being effected. Adhering ever since unwaveringly to his con- viction on this point, he has been called on to take part in several commissions created in view of this ; and besides giving evidence before a Committee of Parliament, in illustration of which evidence this volume has been pub- lished, he has supplied trustworthy information on this question in other works which he has published ; and now in that country, parsimonious hitherto in what it has done, the idea seems to be making way ; and already not ... a few consider that at least a trial to give effect to it Rfi- should be made. _ , ;•*. We trust that ere very long this will be done, bringing }o much good to that powerful nation ; and that Dr Brown ©j, may live to hail the day as one of the most happy in his .. long and useful life. ' We who feel ourselves honoured by his devoting a volume to the study of our School of Forestry, pray fervently that that day may cotne ; and meanwhile we send to him in his quiet home, in which he is engaged in the, preparation of other works, an expression of our gratitude, and an assurance of our admiration. (Signed) R Alvarez Sereix.' 198 FORESTRY IN aERMANY. Notice in Revista de Monies, by lUustrisimo Seuor Don Castel y Clemente, Chief of Second Class in the Corps of Forest Engineers, Deputy to the Cortes, Superior Deputy Chief of the Civil Administration, Chevalier of Isabel, the Catholic, &c., and author of the following works : — Monograjia dasogrdjica del hay a. — Madrid, 1873. Memoria sohre la infl.uencia de la luna en la vegetacion. — Madrid, 1875. Noticia sohre la fundacion y desarollo de la Escuela especial de Ingenieros de Mantes. — Madrid, 1877. EstudAos sohre el tanino. (Memoria premiada por la Real Academia de Ciencias). — Madrid, 1879. Descripcion fiscia, geognostica, agricola y forestal de la i^fovincia de Gtcadaljara. (Publicada por la Gomision del Mapa geologico de Espafia). — Madrid, 1882. Memoria sohre las condiciones naturales y produccion agricola y forestal de la Peninsula Escandinava. — Madrid, 1883. Conihustihles vegetates : Teoria y practica de la comhustion, carhonizacion y destilacion de la madera. — Madrid, 1885. ' The surprise which undoubtedly will be felt by the greater part of the readers of the Revista on the announcement of this work I experienced, and candidly acknowledge that such was the case, on my receipt of the neatly-bound volume, with a most kind dedication, for which I am truly grateful to the distinguished and learned author of it, who has during some years past devoted his great activity to the study and diffusion of Forest Science, and to the advocacy of the establishment of a School of Forestry in Britain. The name of Dr John Croumbie Brown is familiar to all students of that science following the literary movements in connection with it during these late years. ' The Revista de Modes — Forest Review — has repeatedly taken occasion to bring under considera- tion the more important works amongst the publica- tion of this distinguished naturalist ; and on more than one occasion, while expressing admiration of the prodigious fecundity, and remarkable persisting perseverance of the author, intimated the satisfaction that a writer of such ADDENDA. 199 authority, and one who has such an acquaintance with the organisation of the other Schools of Forestry in Europe, should give his attention, and concede special importance to that of Spain as one indicative of a type deemed suitable to be followed in the organisation of some future School of Forestry in Britain, the creation of which was being advocated by him. To add that Dr Brown, in his last published volume, speaks of things in Spain as one well acquainted with them, detailing facts and citing data which have not previously been published in Spain, will not appear to be an extravagant statement to those who know on the one hand the searching diligence of the forestal chronicler from the other side of the British Channel, and on the other hand the indifference with which is regarded amongst ourselves what relates to the prestige of that which we, having such important interests involved, should take special care to secure that it receives due appreciation in the country. ' The first chapter of the book to which we refer treats of the origin and development of the Corps of Forest Engineers, and of the special school of the Department in our country. He is a faithful chronicler of facts, coincid- ing in his judgment with the auhor of the Notitia sohre el origen y desarrollo de la Escuela de Ingenieros de Monies en Espanna — Notices of the origin and development of the special School of Forest Engineers in Spain. The first pai't serves as a requisite introduction to the other parts of the volume ; and it also serves to show that the neces- sary reforms have not been impositions practised on the villages, but that in these, and in their evolution or suc- cessive developments, they have given a permanent influence to the special character and inherent conditions of the primary impulse at the time of the creation. He describes, in continuation of the School of the Escurial, the studies pursued there by the students, giving in an abbreviated resumS the programmes of study in the diiBferent branches, and the subjects which consti- tute the course of instruction required to be given to the 200 FORES'tRY IN GERMANY. engineers. Taking occasion of the examination of this, and in methodic order based on the different departments of science taught to them, the author gives an analysis, with considerable detail in most cases, of all and each of the works written by the Spanish Forest Engineers, and of some which are not so, in reference to the subject matters of this instruction, constituting with regard to this the most complete bibliography which has been pre- pared and published on this important department of the scientihc activity of the forest officials of our country. ' I shall not say a word in commendation of the ele- vated standard and the careful solicitude with which Dr Brown has prepared this chapter of his work, as the cor- respondence of our views gives me a personal interest in the matter. ' In the chapter headed Excursions, the respected Ex -Professor from the Cape gives an account of all of the more important excursions made from the founding of the school till now by the professors or students for the study of forest practice ; and also those which have been made by professors and forest engineers into foreign lands, either in connection with commissions to visit the International Exhibitions held in London, Vienna, and Philadelphia, or to study particular points connected with instruction, the reboisement of dunes, forest industries, &c. 'Dr Brown,who under the snow of age, gallantly sustained by a vigorous constitution, knows what it is to carry a heart always open to recollections and enthusiasm, not depressed by disappointment, but elevated by hope, has made his own the hymn of the first foresters of Spain, transcribing first in Spanish and then in English that hymn with its opening strophe A I campo marchemos ! Nor less thrilling than the concluding strophe was the effect produced on me by reading in English that anti-strophe or chorus so often sung in our excursions in 1867 to the forests of the Guadarama — " Cotta the learned ! thy children in Spain Invoke thy name which is now immortal." Addenda. i^: 201 ' The remaining chapters are devoted to making manifest the conveniences which exist for establishing forestal instruction in Britain, discussing all the questions which present themselves at once relative to the choice of a site for the establishment of a school, the extent and form of instruction required, the expense which provision for this would entail, &c. ' It is nothing new for us to hear well- merited commendations bestowed upon the establishment and organisation of the School of Forestry in Spain. We know the opinions of illustrious foresters in Germany, published some years ago, in accredited reviews of that country, according to which our former school in Villa- viciosa, for its programme of study, its regulations, the riches of its museums, and the special stamp which has always characterised it, was presented as a model in that classic land of forest science, which delights to see order, method, and discipline, as the distinctive characters of all its institutions ; but it is none the less satisfactory that that judgment should be maintained in the present: and after all, throwing aside all idea of presumption, which would be ridiculous, it is always pleasing and strengthen- ing to conviction to see that there is something deemed deserving of imitation in a country looked upon with such indifference, and that perhaps not altogether unjustified, by its own not unjustifiable neglect. ' The continuous advocacy by Dr Brown during these latter years has been followed with the effect that the opinion is spreading in his country with manifest indica- tions of conviction that the views which he urges in this matter are of grave import to Great Britain, not only in relation to its home territory, but more and more par- ticularly in order to the increase of commerce and pro- duction in the vast territories of her colonies. In this matter, if I be not greatly mistaken, it is my belief that at no distant time there will be established a School of Forestry in Edinburgh ; and meanwhile, without waiting for that, I invite all ray associates, who see in Dr Brown 202 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. an enthusiast in our science, and a loving friend of the Forest Engineers of Spain, to unite in fraternal saluta- tions to him ; and in conclusion, in the behalf of these foresters, we send to him, with sincere gratitude, these pages of this Revista. ' Madrid, 25th October, 1886. ' (Signed) Carlos Castel.' IV. — Treatises on ]^Iatters pertaining to Modern Forest Science and Forest Economy, Proferred FOR Publication in the English Language. Pending the creation of a public opinion in favour of the establishment of a British National School of Forestry, useful information in regard to Forest Economy, based on the advanced forest science of the day may be disseminated through the press ; and thereafter the publications em- bodying this may prove helpful to students desirous of extending their studies beyond the instruction communi- cated in the classes attended by them. In the volume entitled School oj Forest Engineers in Spain, indicative of a type for a British National School of Forestry, I had occasion to state ; ' We have an extensive and valuable literature relative to Arboriculture. For this there is, and ever has been, a demand : but with works on Sylviculture, Modern Forest Science, and Modern Forest Economy, it is otherwise. Nor is there yet such a demand for works of this kind as would make it pecuniarly remunerative to any to engage largely in the publication of such works ; but as the demand increases so will the supply. ' But a beginning has been made. In so far as I have taken part in this I have done so in anticipation of a future demand, and not in consequence of any manifesta- tion of a felt want. In reference to the rapid supply of works on forestry in the Spanish language of late years, which I have noted, I may remark that this did not occur until after several successive batches of students had entered upon the active duties of their profession. It was then that it became manifest wherein the existing forestal 204 FORESTJRY IN GERMANY. literature of the country was deficient in view of the requirements of the day ; and then that the desire for infor- mation induced purchase and perusal. And it is note- worthy that even still in connection with the publication of almost all of the Spanish works referred to, including the most expensive and least popular of them, the writers are relieved of the expense of publication. It is not so with us.' In connection with this statement there are given notices of the contents of several treatises which I have published. I am prepared to proceed with the publication of others ; but I am straitened by lack of funds. Silver and gold have I not ; but what I have I am prepared to give. My attention was first given to the Forestry and Hydraulic Engineering of Spain,in consequence of the similarity of the climatic conditions of the Peninsula to those of South Africa, which I had studied with some attention, and of a perception that the remedial measures adopted in Spain were adapted to meet and counteract corresponding evils in South Africa. With both I have long been familiar, but I had occasion to visit Spain in the summer and autumn of 1885, when I had many facilities afforded me of verifying and extending information I had previously procured ; and in the end of the year I sent a letter in triplicate to editors of newspapers, published at the Cape of Good Hope, of which the following is a copy : ' Haddington, 16th Deer., 1885. ' gir, — May I ask of you in the interests of the Colony to give publicity to the following statement ? ' During the years 1863-1866 I held at the Cape of Good Hope, along with the Professorship of Botany in the South African College, the office of Colonial Botanist, — an office established in 1858, created with the twofold object — 1st, of ascertaining and making generally known the economic resources of the Colony as regards its indi- geneous vegetable productions, and its fitness for the ADDENDA. 205 i' growth of valuable exotic trees and other plants ; and 2nd, of perfecting a knowledge of the flora of South Africa, and thus contributing to the advance of botanical science. 'Appended to my report as Colonial Botanist for the year 1886 was a list of upwards of 460 names of South African trees, shrubs, and arborescent herbs, upon the natural history, or botanic characters, or economic uses of which a report was forthcoming, if desired ; the list consist- ing of English, Dutch, Kaffir, Sechuana, Damara, or Hotten- tot names, by which these are known at the Cape, alpha- betically arranged with their botanic synonyms. 2. An abstract of a memoir prepared relative to the forests and forest lands of South Africa. 3. An abstract of a memoir prepared relative to the forest economy of the Colony. 4. An abstract of a memoir prepared relative to arbori- culture in the Colony. 5. An abstract of a memoir pre- pared on the hydrology of South Africa. 6. An abstract of a memoir prepared on irrigation and its application to agricultural openitions in South Africa. And, 7. Observa- tions on the agricultural capabilities of the Colony, and requirements for the developments of these. ' Since my return to Europe I have repeatedly, in cor- respondence with South Africa, made mention of the similarity of the climate and physical conditions of Spain to those of the Colony, and of the appropriateness for adoption in South Africa, of the measures adopted in Spain to secure the conservation aad scientific exploitation of forests, and the retention and economic application of the water furnished by the rainfall, as conjointly means of arresting the desiccation, and counteracting the aridity of the country. ' Similar measures I advocated unceasingly during my tenure of office at the Cape, and in a volume which I pul)- lished in 1875, entitled: ' Hydrology of South Africa, or Details of the Former Hydrographic Conditions of the Cape of Good Hope, and of Causes of its Present Aridity, with Suggestions of Appropriate Remedies for this Aridity,' I 206 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. endeavoured to show that the appropriate remedies are the erection of dams to prevent the escape of a portion of the rainfall to the sea ; the abandonment or restriction of the burning of the Veldt ; the conservation and extension of existing forests ; and the adoption of measures similar to the reboisement and gazonnement carried out in France, with a view to prevent the formation of torrents, and the destruction of property occasioned by them. ' This year I spent two months in Spain in frequent intercourse with distinguished members of the Corps of Forest Engineers, with some of whom I have had correspon- dence on such matters for years ; and by them I was afforded every facility I could desire for verifying and in- creasing the information I had previously collected. I have now completed the arranging of the information I thus procured, and incorporating with it the information I had previously obtained ; and the whole I have em- bodied in a series of treatises or reports on the following subjects, viz. : 1. Forestry in Spain ; 2, Forestal and Hydraulic Engineering ; 3. Forestal and Rural Industries, including, amongst others, the production of cork — the collecting of resin from conifers — the collecting of esparto grass — the treatment of merino sheep — the culture of the olive — the preparation of silk — and the making of wine. 4. The natural history of the phylloxera, and appliances adopted to prevent its ravages. 5. The natural history of the locust, and measures applicable to its destruction. ' It is not my intention to publish these on my own account, or otherwise, than as a contribution towards the development of the agricultural capabilities and rural economy of South Africa, in furtherance of the design of the office of Colonial Botanist which I held at the Cape ; and I am preparetl to carry through the press, free of all expense, beyond the charge of the printer for paper and work, an edition of 100 copies, or of such other number as may be desired, if provision be made for meeting that expense, leaving me free, if I think proper, to have at my own expense other copies thrown off before the types may ADDENDA. 207 be distributed : these extra copies to be at my disposal for distribution by sale or otherwise. ' I take the liberty to offer through you to do this, and to add I shall feel gratified if that offer be accepted. — I am, Sir, respectfully yours, John C. Brown.' The offer has lapsed, but I now renew it, and extend the offer to all who may be willing to co-operate with me in the enterprise. In the communication made in triplicate to newspapers published at the Cape of Good Hope there are mentioned several memoirs or reports which I prepared while hold- ing the office of Colonial Botanist and Government Botanist in that Colony. One of these related to rivers of South Africa, with notices of inundations by which they are characterised, and of irrigation works by which they might be utilised, and of difficulties, physical and other, in the way of works of extensive irrigation being carried out at the Cape, and the means of accomplishing these which are at command. To this I have since added similar notices of the most important rivers of Africa — the Zambesi, the Congo, and the Nile. In regard to that memoir I addressed, under date of loth September, 1881, a memorial to the Legislative Assembly, stating that, m view of what had been accomplished in Spain, I con- sidered that it would be pecuniarly advantageous to the Colony that the Commissioner of Crown Lands and Public Works, the Members of the Legislature, and others, should have access to the information embodied in it, and offer- ing to carry through the press an edition of it, free of all expense to the Colony, beyond what might be charged by the printer for his work, and for paper and binding. Others related to forest management at the Cape of Good Hope in times past, latterly, and at present ; to the forests and forest lands of South Africa, from the Cape of Good Hope to the Zambesi — to which I have since added similar information in regard to the forests of Central Africa 208 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. between the Zambesi and the Sahara ; and with regard to these the Report on South African trees, arborescent shrubs, and bushes ; and the memoir on arboriculture in South Africa, with details of what has been done, and of what may be done, in planting trees at the Cape of Good Hope, with a view thereby to securing ornamentation, moisture, shelter, fuel, or timber. I addressed to the Legislative Assembly, under date of 13th September, 1881, a memorial stating that abstracts of these were appended to the Report of the Colonial Botanist for 1866, which was submitted to Parlia- ment while it was engaged in carrying out sweeping measures of retrenchment ; that in the light of the information I had obtained in regard to the advanced forest economy of Continental Europe, and in view of the reported appointment of a Forest Commission in the Colony, I considered it would be pecuniarly advantageous to the Colony that the said Commission, and also the Commissioner of Crown Lands, the Members of the Legislature, and others, should have access to these Memoirs, and offering to carry through the press copies of the original reports, which were still in my possession, and to do so free of all expense to the Colony, beyond what might be charged by the printer for his work, and for paper and binding what copies might be required. In illustration of the importance of the matters to which these refer, I may mention that Count de Vasselot, now Superintendent of woods and forests in the Colony, reported in 1882 of these, which twenty years before were being recklessly destro}'ed, and were bringing in to the treasur} a clear revenue of but a few hundreds of pounds. 'The first step in enlisting professional knowledge has been taken, allowing us to begin systematic forestry ; minor considerations should not be allowed to turn us aside, or impede progress in the path on which we have entered. I may, in conclusion, once more repeat my opinion that the Crown Forests, regularly worked, ADDENDA. 909 would produce a revenue of at least £235,000 — this being the sum which leaves the country every year to pay for imported wood. Its forests ought to be a mine of gold to the Colony ; while the plantations, and re-foresting of mountains will, in conjunction with hydraulic works, turn to the best account the rainfall of the country. Irrigation would then be easier, and agriculture a veritable mine of diamonds.' In illustration of the importance of what is thus alluded to, and of the subjects treated of in the memoir On the Rivers of Africa, I may cite the following statement from the Preface to a volume entitled : Rehoisement in France, or Records of the Replanting of the Alps, the Cevennes, and the Pyrenees, with Trees, Herbage, and Bush, with a vieiv to arresting and preventing the destructive consequences and efecU of Torrents, published in 1876 — ' I have before me details of destructive effects of torrents which have occurred since I left the Colony in the beginning of 18G7. Towards the close of that year there occurred one, the damage occasioned by which to roads and to house property at Port Elizabeth alone was estimated at from £25,000 to £30,000. Within a year thereafter a similar destructive torrent occurred at Natal, in regard to which it was stated that the damage done to public works alone was estimated at £50,000, and the loss to private persons was estimated variously from £50,000 to .£100,000. In the following year, 1869,atorrent in the West- ern Province occasioned the fall of a railway bridge, which issued in loss of life and loss of property, and personal injuries, for one case alone of which tlie railway pro- prietors were prosecuted for damages amounting to £5000. In Beaufort West a deluge of rain washed down the dam, and the next year the town was flooded by the waters of the Gamka ; and the next year, 1871, Victoria West was visited with a similar disaster. Such are the sums and the damages with which we have to deal in con- nection with this question, as it affects the case; and ? 210 FORESTRY IN GERMANY. these are only the most remarkable torrents of the several years referred to. ' Towards the close of last year, 1874, still more disas- trous effects were produced by torrential floods. Accor- ding to the report given by one of the Colonial news- papers, the damages done could not be estimated at much less than £300,000. According to the report given by another, the damage done to public works alone was esti- mated at £350,000.' There are other countries, besides South Africa, in which the information embodied in these treatises might be useful; and I am prepared to carry through the press an edition of any one or more of them on the same terms as those stated in the offer made to the Cape Parliament : That is to say, free of all charges beyond those of the printer for paper and work, provided I be allowed, before the types be distributed, to have extra impressions thrown off, at my own expense, for dis- tribution by me, by sale or otherwise as I may deem expedient. Some years since, in correspondence with the late Dr Franklin B. Hough, when he was at the head of the Forestry Division of the Department of Agriculture, in the Government of the United States in America, I had occa- sion to state what aid I could give in the accomplishment of an enterprise in which he was engaged heart and soul,, calmly and coolly, but with all the self-denying energy manifested by not a few of his compatriots in endeavours to serve their generation according to the will of God. In connection with this correspondence, I prepared a letter to be addressed to five or six of my correspondents in America, who were like-minded, more than one of whom pre-deceased Dr. Hough, and more than one have followed him to the great gathering — the General Assembly of the First-born in Heaven. It was found preferable to writing out copies to have the letter printed ; and this being done ADDENDA. 211 extra impressions were ordered, and these were somewhat extensively distributed. Of this letter the following is a copy : — 'Haddington (Scotland), 10th December, 1879. ' My Dear Sir, ' In view of the interest you have manifested in the advancement of Forest Science and Forest Economy, I take the liberty to solicit your kind aid in the matter referred to in the following lines. ' I expect to be able in the course of this winter to bring toward completion a compilation, and, when necessary, transla- tion, of oflBcial and other notices of Forestry in the different countries of Europe, a work on which I have been engaged for several years past. I have made such arrangements that these compilations shall, I hope, in no case prove to have been made altogether in vain ; but, by the death within these last few months, of more than one of my near relatives of the same age, by the death, withiu a period somewhat longer, of more than one of my correspondents in this work, and by a con- sciousness of ray strength bf inn of Forests. 42. Algiers, and adjacent countries on the Southern Coast of the Mediterranean, and the Extensive Planting Operations which are being carried on there. 43 Former Forests of Palestine. 44. Forestry in Turkey and Greece. 45. Forests and Moisture. 46. Natural History of the Eucalyptus Globulus, or Blue Gum, its properties, and effects produced by the cultiva- tion of it. 47. Tree Culture on the Sand Plains of Northern Europe, with Notices of the Composition of Sand. 48. Manufacture of Wood Pulp, and uses to which the product is applied. This offer, also, I renew, and in doing so extend it to any who may be disposed to co-operate in the execution of such a scheme— publishers or others, including editors or proprietors of periodicals who may see their way clear, in accordance with a practice more prevalent on the Con- tinent than in Britain, to append such brochures to the successive issues of their publications, taking this into account in the price charged.. -. .. . V. — Prof ERRED Gift of Works on Modern Forestry TO Free Public Libraries in any of the British Colonies, and in any of the United States OF America. While a British National School of Forestry might be made available for instruction in Modern Forestry to any party who may desire this through the medium of the English language, I know of no insuperable diffi- culties in the way of such institutions being organised in any of the States of the American Union, or in any of the Colonies of the British Empire, in connection with existing educational arrangements of their own. As a contribution of information, which might be of use to any residents in these, in determining what might be done in the matter, I am prepared to deliver free, to any address in Edinburgh or London, which may be given to me, a copy, in sheets, of any or all of the following- works, to be placed in a Free Public Library in any of these States or Colonies, on an application to me certified by the Government of the State or Colony. 1. Origin and History of Schools of Forestry in Ger- many, with Addenda relating to the Desiderated School of Forestry in Britain — This volume. 2. The School of Forest Engineers in Spain, indicative of a type for a British School of Forestry. 3. Introduction to the Study of Modern Forest Economy. 4. French Forest Ordinance of 1669, with liistorical Sketch of Previous Treatment of Forests in France. 5. The Forests of England, and the Management of them in by-gone times. 6. Forestry of Norway. 7. Finland— its Forests and Forest Management. 3, Forestry and Forest Lands in Northern Russia, 230 ADDENDA. 9. Forestry in the Mining Districts of the Ural Moun- tains in Eastern Russia. 10. Forestry in Poland, Lithuania, and the Baltic Provinces of Russia. 11. Pine Plantations on Sand Wastes in France. 12. Reboisement in France ; or Records of the Replanting of the Alps, the Cevennes, and the Pyrenees, with Trees, Herbage, and Bush, with a view to arresting and preventing the destructive consequences of torrents. 13. Hydrology of South Africa; or Details of the former Hydrographic Conditions of Cape of Good Hope, and of Causes of its Present Aridity, with Suggestions of Appropriate Remedies for this Aridity. 14. Water Supply of South Africa, and Facilities for the Storage of it. 15. Forests and Moisture; or Effects of Forests on Humidity of Climate. The editions of some of the works are nearly exhausted, and I deem it expedient to reserve a limited supply of each for any demand which may arise for them in Britain ; but subject to this limitation, copies of all will be sent to early applicants in the order in which their applications may be received. In some States or Colonies there may be more than one Free Public Library to which such a grant might be acceptable. To any such certified by the Government, subject to the limitations which have been stated, I am ready to send copies of Nos. 1, 2, and 3, and copies of selections from the others, determined by the greater or loss numbers of them which may happen to remain in stock. The expei diture which I have already incurred, is my excuse for not offering to deliver the copies bound ; but arrangements have been made according to which any may be bound here at a uniform charge of sevenpence per volume ; and I shall hold myself bound by this proffer for gix months from the date of publication of this volume. VI. — Matters Pertaining to Schools of Forestry, on WHICH THE Author is ready to Supply Infor- mation TO any Government Official, Public Association, or Private Individual, desirous of Establishing a British National School of Forestry: — 1. The need of scientific training in forestry for the administration of indigenous forests in British colonies. 2. The difference between British Forest Economy and what is required for such forests. 3. The advantages of scientific training for British Foresters. 4. The origin and development of Schools of Forestry. 5. The instruction in political economy and jurisprudence given in Schools of Forestry on the Continent. 6. Stations for Experimental Research attached to several Schools of Forestry on the Continent. 7. The extent to which a British School of Forestry should be conformed to the model of such Schools on the Continent of Europe. 8. The expediency of combining with such, facilities for research, and the expediency of including in these carpenters' workshops, &c. 9. Where an eligible site for a British National School of Forestry might be found, irrespective of the contiguity of a forest. 10. What eligible arrangements could be made in Edin- burgh if this were made the site of a School of Forestry? 11. The advantages and disadvantages of a School of Forestry founded by private enterprise. 12. The advantages and disadvantages of a Professor- ship in a University. 13. The advantages and disadvantages of a Class for the Study of Forestry in the Watt Institute in Edinburgh, 232 ADDENDA. 14. The special advantages of forming a School of Forestry in the Museum of Science and Art under the Com- mittee of Council on Education, in Edinburgh. 15. The salaries paid to instructore in Schools of Forestry on the Continent. 16. The entire expense of some existing Schools of Forestry. 17. The curriculum of study appropriate for a British School of Forestry. 18. Where qualified Teachers might be found, and salaries which might be offered to such. 19. What has been done of late years, and what pre- vious endeavours have been made to secure the establishment of a School of Forestry in Britain. 20. What has been done to originate some small classes for the study of Forestry. 21. What has been done of late years to introduce the study of Forestry, &c., into Primary Schools. 22. What has been done through the Press to make known Modern Forestry. 23. What has been done to raise money to establish a School of Forestry. 24. The propriety of spending State funds on the establishment of a British National School of Forestry. THE END. INSERT FOLDOUT HERE SCHOOL F O I\E ST EnGINEE R^S IN SPAIN. SCHOOL OF FOREST ENGINEERS IN SPAIN, INDICATIVE OF A TYPE FOR A BRITISH NATIONAL SCHOOL OF FORESTPwY. COMPILED BY JOHN CROUxMBIE BROWN, LL.D., Formerly Lecturer on Botany in University and King's College, A herdeen ; subsequently Colonial Botanist at Cape of Good Hope, and Profesiior of Botany in the South African College, Cape Town ; Fellow of the Linnean Society; Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society; and Honorary Vice-President of the African Institute of Paris. EDINBURGH : OLIVER AND BOYD. TWEEDDALE COURT. 1.0ND0N : SIMPKIX, .MARSHALL, AND CO, 18 96. PREFACE. In the spring of 1877 I published a brochure entitled : The Schools of Forestry in Europe : a Plea for the Creation of a School of Forestry in Connection with the Arboretum at Edinburgh, in which I submitted for consideration the opinion that with the acquisition of this Arboretum, and with the existing arrangements for study iu the Univer- sity and in the Watt Institution and School of Arts, there are required only facilities for the study of what is known on the Continent as Forest Science to enable these Institutions conjointly, or either of them with the help of the other, to take a place amongst the most completely equipped Schools of Forestry in Europe, and to under- take the training of foresters for the discharge of such duties as are now required of them in India, in our Colonies, and at home. On the 15th of May, 1885, it was ordered by the House of Commons that a Select Committee be appointed to consider whether by the establishment of a Forest School or otherwise our woodlands could be rendered more remunerative. By this Committee valuable evidence was collected, and on the 24th of July they agreed to the following report : — " Your Committee are of opinion that at this late period of the session it will not be in their power to conclude their investigation ; they have there- vi PREFACE. tore agreed to report the evidence already taken to the House, and to recommend that a Committee on the same subject should be appointed in the next session of Parlia- ment." And this was done ; but in like circumstances, and with like result. Meanwhile, at the meeting of the British Association for the advancement of science held in Aberdeen in the autumn of the year, the general Committee of that body adopted a resolution that Sir A. Taylor, Professor Bayley Balfour, Dr. Croumbie Brown, Dr. Cleghorn, and Sir John Lubbock, be a Committee for the purpose of considering whether the condition of our forests and woodlands might not be improved by the establishment of a forest school. I was called to give evidence before the Committee of the House of Commons appointed last summer to consider this matter. In reply to a query then put to me I stated, amongst other things, that I could not name any School of Forestry which I could propose as a model for a School of Forestry which would meet the wants of Britain, but that the School of Forest Engineers in Spain was one of a type which might be followed with advan- tage in the organisation of a British National School of Forestry if it should be determined to establish one in Edinburgh, which offered special facilities for the establish- ment of such a School. The following compilation has been made to illustrate what is implied in the opinions which I then expressed. I adhere to these opinions, but I consider that valuable suggestions which might be utilised in the organisation of a British National School of Forestry may be derived from a knowledge of what arrangements exist in other Schools of Forestry on the Continent of Europe than PREFACE. vii that specified ; and I have prepared for the press a companion volume on the Schools of Forestry in Germany, the Fatherland of Modern Forest Economy^ and the land in which Schools of Forestry originated. In this I have given accounts of the Schools of Forestry in Saxony, Prussia, Hanover, Saxe Weimar, Hesse Darmstadt, Baden, Wurtemburg, and Bavaria ; with notices of an exhaustive discussion of the relative advantages of having a School of Forestry in the country in immediate proximity to a forest in which the students might be exercised in forest operations, or of having it established in connection with a University, or some similar seat of learning ; and of stations for experimental research and observation established at the sites of Schools of Forestry. In connection with this intimation I may mention that in the Plea, &c., to which I have referred, I have given notices more or less extended, of the existing Schools of Forestry in Russia, Saxony, Hanover, Hesse Darmstadt, Wurtemburg, Bavaria, Austria, Poland, Russia, Finland, Sweden, France, Italy, and Spain. In the Journal of Forestry information is given in regard to the course of study followed at Hohenheim, in Wurtemburg, vol. i., pp. 81-87; at Carlsruhe, in Baden, pp. 394-398; and at Evois, in Finland, pp. 5t5-551, 701- 707. In regard to this last, details are also given in a volume entitled : Finland : its Forests and Forest Manage- ment. In a similar volume entitled : Forestry of Norway, information is given in regard to instruction in Sylvicul- ture given in the Agricultural School at Aas ; and in one entitled Forestry in Poland, Lithuania, and the Baltic Provinces of Russia, are given the code of regulations Viii t»RES'ACE. prescribed for the iDstitution of Agriculture and Forestry at Novoi Alexandra. It is my belief that a light will be fouad thrown upon any or all of these notices of Schools of Forestry if the reader have, previous to the examination of them, glanced at a volume published by me entitled : Introduction to the Study of Modern Forest Economy ; and in connection with this, another entitled French Forest Ordinance of 1669, with Historical Hketch oj Previous Treatment of Forests in France. JOHN C. BROWN. Haddington, \Oth September, 1886. CONTENTS. PART I. PAGE Chapter I. — Origin of Corps of Forest Engineers in Spain, ..... 1 Chapter II, — Origin and Dfvehjpmeiit of School of Forestry, ..... 9 Origin of Schools of Forestry in Germany (p. 9) ; and in other Countries (p. 11) ; Spanish Ordinances regarding Schools (p. 13) ; Opening of School at Villaviciosa (p. 15) ; Development of Programme of Instruction (p. 17) ; Eemoval of School to the Escurial (p. 22). Chapter III. — School of Forestry in the Escurial, . 24 Entrance Examination (p. 25) — First year's Studies : Topography (p. 2S) ; Applied Chemistry (p. 28) — Second year's Studies : Applied Mechanics (p. 30) ; tieodesy (p. 31); Meteorology and Climatology (p. 33) ; Constructions (p 34) — Third year's Studies : Applied Geology and Mineralogy (p. 35) ; Applied Botany (p. 37) ; Applied Zoology (p. 41) ; Sylviculture (p. 42) — Fourth year's Studies : Xilometry (p. 44) : Forest Ordenacion (p. 44) ; Forest Industries (p. 45) ; Jurisprudence (p. 46) ; Political Economy (p. 47) ; Drawing (p. 47). Chapter IV. — The Library, . . . .48 Section I. — Books appropriate to Studies of First Year, 49 Sub-Section I. — Applied Mathematics (p. 49). Sub-Section II, — Applied Chemistry (p. 49). X CONTENTS. Section II. — L'uoka appropjiaie to Sttidies of Second Year, . ■ . ' . • .50 Sub-Secticn T. — Meteorology, Climatology, Stations of Ob?ei ration and Experimental Eegearch (p. 51). Snb-Section II.— CoDstruction (p. 59). Section III. — Books ajrproiyriate to Studies of Third Year, ... . . 64 Sub-Section I. — Mineralogy and Geology (p. 64) ; Sub-Section II.— Applied Zoology (p. 66). Sub-Section III.— Applied Botany (p. 69) ; Excursion into the Field of Botany (p. 70) ; The Temperature of the Tree (p. 77) ; Topical Botany (p. 84). Sub-Section IV.— Sylviculture (p. 86), Section IV.- — Lools a2J2r/02y)iaie to Studies of Fourth Year, Xilometry and Forest Ordtnacion, . 90 Section V. — Boohs relative to Forest Industries, . 100 Sub-Section I. — Preparation of Timber, Firewood, and Charcoal (p. 101). Sub-Section 11. — Collection and Manipulation of Resin (p. 103). Sub-Section III, — Collection and Manipulation of Bark and Cork (p. 113). Section VI. — Books relative to Jurisprudence and Political Economy, . . . • .118 Organisation of the Guvernment of Spain (p. 120). Section VII. — General Forestal Literature, . .135 Chapter V. — Forest Excursions, . . .145 Excursions (p. 145) ; Excursion to Geroua (p. 153) ; to Austria (p. 155) ; to Scandinavia (p. 155) ; to America (p. 156) ; to Algeria (p. 158) ; to Naples (p. 160). Chaptek Vf. — Corps of Forest Engineers and Staf of Teachers^ , , , , .162 CONTENTS. xi PART II. Practical Arrangements in accordance with those in the School of Forest Engineers in Spain, sintahle for a British Natio7ial School of Forestry^ . ,168 Chaptek I.- — Appropriate Site for a British National School of Forestry, . . . .170 Advantages offered by Edinburgh (p. 171) ; Additions required (p, 173) ; Facilities for Practical Training (p. 175). Chapter II. — Scholastic Arrangements, . . 178 Section I. — GoncUtions^ . . . .178 School under Science and Art Department of Com- mittee of Courcilon Education, (p. 17S) ; Profes!=orship of Forestry in University (p. ISO) ; or in connection with Watt Institute (p. 183 ; or in connection with some Public Body (p. 184). Section II. — G\irricnlum of Study, . . . 186 Object aimed at (p. 186) ; Teachers (p. 187) ; Students (p. 189) ; Suggested Programme (p. 190). Section III. — Expense, . . . .195 Expen.se of such Schools on the Continent (p. 195) ; Expense of Royal School of Mines in London, and of "Royal College of Science in Dublin (p. 198) ; Scholar- ships for Students in connection with these (p. 198) ; Expense of British Students of Foi-estry at Nancy (p. 200), aad at Cooper's Hill (p. 201). Chapter III. — Relative Importance to a School of Forestry, of Scholastic Surroundings, and of Adjacent Forests, . . . . 20.'5 Prevalent Feeling in favour of Adjacent Forests (p. 205) ; Opinion of Dr James Brown (p. 206) ; Extent to which a different feelinf; prevails on the Continent (p. 212) ; Exhaustive Di.scussion of the Subject at Congress of German Forestal Authorities (p. 214.) xii CONTENTS. Chapter IV. — Forestal Literature, . . ■ 218 Limited Forestal Literature in Britain in Comparison with that of the different Countries on the Continent (p. 218) ; Late Increase in the Publication of such Works in Britain (p. 220) ; Reason of past want of Interest in Modern Forestry (p. 230) ; Notices of Pecuniary Returns (p. 232.) ERRATA. AGS LINS ton MAD 2 12 de Don. 5 9 Ley La La Ley. 7 11 Arices Arias. 7 37 Francesco Goercia Francisco Garcia. 14 19 los Horas las Heras. 19 9 jardine Jardin. 21 27 unsabo no sabe. 55 14 Frederico de Botello Frederico de Botella. 55 23 Torea Teoria. 58 26 and 27 Ildefonsa Ildefonso. 58 28 Fomenta Fomento. 58 38 Guadalajara Segovia. 67 17 adeocuardos adecuadoa. 69 32 Seriex Sereix. 84 9 Sciencas Ciencias. 86 18 des del. 87 15 Pamagua Paniagua. Page 167.— By later information, I learn that now the allowance for travelling expenses is to students 40 reals, or 8s, and to professor* ioO reals, or £1 a- day, when on excursions. SCHOOL OF FOREST ENGINP^RHS IN SPAIN. CHAPTER I. ORIGIN OF A CORPS OF FOREST ENGINEERS IN SPAIN. The treatment of forests in Spain for many ag'^s seems to have differed little from that of the treatment of forests in other countries, differing chiefly in this : for while in many other lands the disposition to practice a wasteful destruc- tion of forests was to some extent held in check by measures adopted by kings and nobles to secure for them- selves what are called the pleasures of the chase, and this leading them to punish unmercifully the destruction by others of trees which afforded covert tor their game, — this does not seem to have been the case, or the case to the same extent, with the successive rulers of the Peninsula, who were all of them of different races from the later conquerors of Central Europe. The present endeavour to secure the conservation,economic exploration, improvement, and so far as practicable and expedient the replenishing and extension of existing forests in Spain may be said to have originated, or taken a fresh departure in the issue of General Ordinances in reference to these in 1833. There had been previous legislation in regard to the forests; and some of the laws and official instructions which had been issued were not unimportant. Among those deserving of notice are such issued by Don Fernando and Donna Isabel in 1496, and others by Don Carlos 1, and I)onna .Juana in 1518. And a memoir on a 2 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. the then state of agrarian law by the illustrious Jovellanos, published towards the close of the last century, made manifest the necessity which there was for a development and improvement of the agricultural capabilities of the country, and arrest of the bad administrative management to which were being subjected the extensive but fast dis- appearing masses of the public forests. It was published originally in 1796; successive editions appeared in 1814* and 1820, and yet another edition followed in 1834. It is entitled Informe de la Sociedad Economica de Madrid, al Real y Supremo Consejo de Castilla, en el Eo'pediente de ley Agraria Extendido por su Individuo l)e Numero de Melchor Gasjyar de Jovellanos a JS'omhre de la Junta Encargada de sa Formacion y Con Arreglo a Sus Opiniones. — ' Statements of the Economical Society of Madrid to to the Royal Council of Castile in regard to the Agrarian Law, prepared by one of their number in the name of a Committee charged with the work, and in accordance with their views.' The edition of 1820 is considered the most trustworthy of the earlier editions, as it was prepared under the auspices and direction of the Economical Society, following most scrupulously the original, corrected by the author, so as not to reproduce inaccuracies which had appeared in other editions. Amongst points discussed, which relate more imme- diately 10 forestal matters, are those connected with com- mons, lands belonging to communal councils, and public forests, which, with some trifling exceptions, it was at that time considered would be best protected from destruction by their passing into the hands of private proprietors. It is a prevalent opinion amongst students of forest science that while coppice woods may be exploited by private proprietors, without detriment to public interests, timber forests, and more especially timber forests from which are expected trees of very large growth, can only he satisfactorily administered by the State. It has thus come to pass that importance has been attached as a point of ORIGIN OF FOREST ENGINEERS IN SJ'AIN. 3 some interest, to what were the views of Jovellanos on this matter. In a Catalogue Raisonue prepared and printed for private circulation, by lino Sr. Don Jose Jordanay Morera, of upwards of eleven hundred books, MSS. and charts in Spanish, original or translated, bearing upon forest science, the author writes thus of a treatise included in a collection of published works by Don Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, entitled Representacion de la Villa de Gijon para que se prorogue el arbitrio de vino y sidra para Fuentes, Calles y Plantios : — 'For this work we are indebted to the illustrious author of the Informe Sohre La Ley Jgraria, which, notwithstanding its unpretentious appearance, is one of the greatest importance in deter- mining precisely what were the opinions of that enlightened patriot in regard to the nature, the advantage to the country, the utilisation, and the possession or tenure by the State ot the public forests, in regard to which many, misled it may be by the brevity or conciseness of his statements, have supposed that he spake doubtingly, rather than with certainty, in regard to the question of the absolute and entire alienation or sale of the forest possessions of the country. From the text of the Representacion it is apparent at least that his opinion did not go so far as this, but rather that on the contrary he assigns to public forests advantages, and a utilisation of a national character impossible to be obtained from forests held only in the interest of a private proprietor.' And he remarks in regard to the Representacion : — 'One of the most noteworthy paragraphs in it is the following : — Nor is less certain the necessity of creating on the approach to this town a plantation of pines on tlie extensive sand plain stretching away to the east ami the south, the sand composing which is kept in continuous movement by the wind, enters the streets and accumulates in them, obstructing and embarrassing the public way to the great tro\ible of passengers, and the great discomfort and annoyance of tlie inhabitants, 4 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. ' It is the case that with a view to remedy this evil there have been coDstructed protective banks, in regard to which this town addresses a separate representation to your Highness ; but much more important would be such a plantation of pines as has been spoken of which would be productive of two great benefits — one arresting and breaking the force of the winds, and the other clothing and solidifying the ground, delivering this beautiful town for all time coming from an enemy which has been destructive to it in many ways, and proportionally producing an abundance of wood so necessary at the entrance to a port which has its little shipbuilding yard, where are being constructed continuously boats, pinaces, launches, and other vessels used in fishery and commerce. * This is the more desirable because it would lead the town to extend other plantations in its immediate vicinity, for which it holds lands more extensive and well adapted for the purpose than may be imagined, affording protection to the new highway which is being constructed by orders of his Majesty ; and giving shade to the new promenade and canals of the Humedal, made by permission of your Highness ; and crowning with trees the forest of Santa Catalina, which protects this coast town on the north. ' All of these plantations, and many others which might be made in the vicinity of this town, were proposed to our Town Council by our compatriot D. Caspar Melchor de Jovellanos.' It has been for many years past a subject of keen contro- versy, I may say of bitter dispute, between the Govern- ment and the students of forest science in Spain, whether it would tend to the saving or the ruin of the country to alienate the State forests, which, it isalleged, would almost certainly issue in the destruction of them ; and it supplies to the opponents of alienation a sentimental satisfaction to find that Jovellanos, to the publication of whose In forme Sohre ley Agrnria is attributed the modern development of forest science and forest economy in Spain, of whom it had been alleged thathe was opposed to their views, was OillGlN OF FOKEST ENGI^EfiUS IN SPAIN. § really at ouc with them. What however chiefly interests us is that this work of Jovellano's marks the rise of" the present interest in forestry manifested in Spain. In a work by Sr. Don Francisco Garcioa Martino, entitled Los Monies y el Cuerpo de Ingenieros en las Cortes Con- stituents — the Forests and the Corps of Forest Engineers in the Cortes and Legislative Assembly, the author, hav- ing referred to the work, proceeds : — 'The well-remembered Informe Sobre ley la Agrarla of the distinguished Jovel- lanos produced a profound sensation in the beginning of the present century amongst the illustriouii men of the country who realised the necessity of developing more fully the productions of our soil. The doings denounced in that celebrated document, with impreguable proofs of the vices inherent in the administrative management of our public forests, led to the serious consideration of that department of spontaneous products, which, with the abrogation of certain ordinances relative to the marine trade, were left abandoned and at the mercy of interested persons, and the ever-increasing pecuniary necessities of the municipal proprietors. Under the inspiration of the views of Jovellanos, they broke the fetters which pre- vented liberty being enjoyed by agriculture. Thus was extended its sphere ot action ; but under the pretext of convenient, useful, and even necessary forest clearings, there were committed such abuses in the forests, and our best forest masses were felled in such a way that the Covernment saw itself under the necessity of legislating anew in regard to forest property, and of doing so in accord- ance with the prevailing views of the day. Reformed France and cultured Germany set the example of restrain- ing and repairing destructions which ignorance and administrative errors on the one hand, and wars and political confusion on the other, had produced in their forest riches.' Sr. Marti nos, in his introduction to this work, having 6 ^^ORESTRY IN SFATN. alluded to tlic iinportant measures which had beett previously adopted with a view to the development of the agricultural capabilities of Spaiu, to the good service which had beeu done by the several corps of engineers, and to what more might have been done, writes: — 'The law of the 22nd December, 1833, promulgating the general ordinances relative to forests, recognised the fact of the progressive destruction of these, and to meet them created a General Directory, to the charge of which Avere committe 1 all those denominated public forests. The Admiralty lost then all the privileges it had previ- ously exercised in regard to inspection, marking and appropriating trees. This was a reasonable and just arrangement ; but on the other hand the interests of the State were doomed by the limitation in Art. 24- that no other proofs will be admitted beyond authentic titles of pro- prietorship and uninterrupted possession for more than thirty years ; which is a period far too brief in a matter pertaining to lands without fixed boundaries, and aban- doned from remote times. Moreover, while there is mani- fested an interest in the proper regulation of this branch of the service in these ordinances, comprising in all 23G articles, of arrangements in regard to administration, conser- vation, sales, felling, utilization, policy, legal proceedings and penalties, there is apparently a lack of sound doctrine and of special knowledge of the matter in hand. It is a collection of practical rules, some of them contradictory and others impracticable, but they tended, beyond all doubt, to restrain abuses by imposing severe penalties for these. It is an almost literal translation of the French code, applied without sufficient study to our country ; it opened the door to great abuses ; and it was the occasion of no small destruction of the riches, the conservation of which it was designed to secure.' What was now felt to be of imperious necessity was that those employed in this department should possess the requisite special knowledge. To meet this it was there OktGiN OF FOUEST ENGINEERS iN SPAIN. 7 were issued special decrees on the 30tb April and on the 1st May, 1885. It was said in Art. 7 of the former: — ' There shall be created in the corps of the civil engineers other two bodies (besides those of roads and of mines), geographic engineers and Avoodland forest engineers, so soon as the formation of primary schools of both shall admit of their being established.' The second postpones till the 1st of October following the creation of a special school for forest or woodland engineers, under the direction of the inspector of forests, Don Sandalio de Arices ; and in Art. 7 it says : — ' When it shall be the case that there shall be created a corps of wood- land or forest engineers, the director of the school shall be assigned rank and position in this, with due considera- tion of the services which up to that time he may have rendered.' The civil war, and other matters of greater importance demanding attention, prevented the realising of this patriotic purpose at this time. But subsequently both purposes were carried out ; and in studying the general question of forestry in Spain we find that the develop- ment of the School of Forestry, La Escuela esijecial de Ingenieros de Mantes, and that of the corps of forest engineers, Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Monies, were con- current, each reacting upon the other, the instruction and training received in the school qualifying the members of the corps to make a progressive advance in the discharge of their professional functions, and this making new demands on the teachers of aspirants for such appoint- ments. Thus, in marked parallelism, may be observed what is stated in regard to the development of the School of Forestry in a work by Sr. Don Carlos Castel y Clemente, entitled Noticia Sabre la Fundacion y Desarrollo de la Escuela Especial de Ingenieros de Mantes : Notice of the Foundation and Development of the Special School of Forest Engineers, and in the arguments of the treatise by Sr. D. Francesco Goercia Marti no, entitled Les Mantes y el Cuerpo de Ingenieros en los Cortes Constituents. CHAPTER 11. ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY. The Cuerpo de Ingcnieros de Monies, or Spanish Corps of Forest Engineers, is recruited exclusively from the Scljool of Forestry, EscueJa Es^Mcial de Ingenieros de Monies. Such a school was instituted by decree of the 1st May, 1835 ; but many modifications were subsequently made in the arrangements and organisation, more especially in 1843 and 1846, when the school acquired something of the development which it now presents as a State institution under the Minister of public works and the Director General of public institutions. It was for a considerable time located at Villaviciosa d'Odon, near Madrid ; but in 1869 it was transferred to one of the buildings pertaining to the palace of the Escurial, not far from the Sierra Guadarama, about two hours' distance by rail from Madrid. To Sr. Don Carlos Castel y Clemente we are indebted for much information in regard to the early history of the diffusion of forest science in Spain by schools of forestry. In the latter end of 1876, in accordance with instructions given to him, he undertook to collect information which might serve as the basis of a memoir on the subject ; and in the following year the substance of this was published by him in a brochure entitled Noticia Sabre la Fundaoiony Desar- rollo de la Escuela Especial de Ingenieros de Monies, in the introduction to which honour was done, as was most meet, to Sr. D. Bernardo de la Torre Rojas, founder, and for many years Director of the first school of forestry in Spain, the acknowledged ' father of the Spanish School of Forestry.' After sketching briefly the reckless destruction of forest ot^IgYn op the sc'ho6l op forestry. & wealth in Central Europe in byegone times, to arrest which was again and again attempted by legislation in France and other countries, but with little effect, he refers them to what was done in Germany : — ' In the seventeenth century originated in some of the States of Germany the application of technical science to the treatment of forest masses. The rules, the aphor- isms, and the whole of the directions which are compressed in the forestal knowledge of the ancients, are principles indetinite, obscure, uncertain, unconnected, destitute of method or systematized relations. Moser created in 1757 the tirst body of systematic teaching on the subjects and to the impulse given to this by him, and the .weighty energy of Langen, Laspar, Zanthier, and others, are we indebted for the formation of the tirst plans of scientific treatment of forests begun in 1731 in the forests of the Dukedom of Brunswick. He, in his time, Langen having been the first to do so, perceiving the necessity of entrusting the management of the forests to a specially educated and trained body of officials, possessing all necessary know- ledge and information, with a view to raising up a body of such men, established the first school of forestry in Wernigerode in the year 1772. But others consider as the first school that founded by Zanthier in llsenberg, which was followed some years later by the establishment of that by Haase in Lauterberg, that which G. Hartig founded in Bungen in 1791, that founded in Zillbach by H. Cotta in 1795, and various others, all due to the efforts of individuals, and manifesting that essentially practical character which was so requisite to meet the requirements of the time and the conditions in which the distinguished founders were placed, but they lacked means which would allow of there being; oiven to them the influence and development which became needful. ' Contemporaneously with the schools there were pro- duced also new methods, or systems of exploitation ; and the names which have been cited are those of men who proved authorities of the highest rank, who have opened 16 FotlEstilY IN SPAIN. up new paths in forest study. For me it is impossible, nor does space permit me, to produce a chronological and critical narrative of the principal phases through which the newborn forest science passed iu its evolution and succes- sive development ; fresh in the memory of many in Spain must be the remarkable articles written under the title, Sistenias Forestales, by the erudite Forest Engineer, His Excellency Sr. D. Agustin Pascual, the first Spanish writer on dasanomy, and formerly professor in our School of Forestry, to whom it is enough that I thus refer while passing on to state succinctly the new form, and report the multiplication and general organisation of forestal schools which occurred iu Germany and in some other countries in Europe. ' The primary organisation of the schools founded in Ilsenberg, Weruigerode, Lauterberg, Hungen, Zillbach, Walterhauseu, Rottenhaus, Castell, &c., in the period from 1766 to 1805, was that of several other private centres of instruction, which died out with their founders, or suffered the fate which befell these in the course of their existence. All these made themselves remarkable by the great impulse and development which they gave to the diffusion of forest science, and by their having raised up a numerous and distinguished body of men to assist and direct at a later time the work of bringing into order the forests of the districts in which they were situated. There stands out prominently amongst all these the school founded by Cotta. He, being charged with the reduction to an orderly condition of the forest of Fishbach, spent some years in the execution of this work, during these years giving theoretic and practical instruction to th(j young men who assisted him there : thus was insti- tuted the new centre of forestal instruction of Zillbach. Such reputation was acquired by this establishment of modern times, that in 1795 there was granted to it a sub- vention from the State, by means which Cotta was enabled considerably to augment the means available then for the prosecution of study. In 1810 Cotta was appointed DhlCtN OF THfe SCliOOL Of FORESTRY. U Director of forest management in Saxony. He at once perceived and pointed out the lack which existed of a skilled staff of officials, who should execute and assist in the execution of his projects, and with a view to meeting this desideratum the forest scliool of Zillbach was trans- ferred to Tharand in 1811, and was ceded to the Govern- ment on the 12th of May. 1816. Converted into a Govern- ment academy, and furnished with all necessary resources, the school of Tharand, devoted to the instruction of the forest engineers of the State, very soon flourished bene- ficently, attracting to study there the studious youth of many different countries, and serving as the sharp edge of a wedge for the general diffusion of those truths whicli, spreading themselves a little latter in different countries, proved the occasion of there being opened other schools which take pride in calling themselves daughters of the Saxon academy. ' In their turn, in Austria and Russia — nations which, if they did not take the first step, followed at once the advancing march of the States of Germany — there had been organised Schools of Forestry; those in Austria hav- ing the character of a private establishment in the begin- ning, but those of Russia being Government institutions from the first. Amongst those, the first established— that founded in 1770 by Ehrenwerk in Rotherhaus, in Bohemia— continued till 1791. This was succeeded by another, established in the beginning of the present century in Kruman ; and coincident with its appearance we meet with the schools of Eisgneb in Moravia, Eisgenstadt in Hungary, and Gratzen in Bohemia. ' Passing from private seminaries to public and Govern- ment institutions, there were founded the schools of Datschetz in Moravia, and that of Plass in Bohemia, opened in 1823 and 1880, in which there is some Govern- ment intervention, but this is very limited. When the Government was once convinced — as was the case like- wise with the Government of Germany — of the urgent necessity there was for entrusting the administration of ii FORESTRY tS Sl»AlK. forests to a staff of officials cudoweJ with special scieutiBc knowledge, they arranged in 1805 the opening of a course of practical instruction in sylviculture in Purkersdorf, near Vienna ; and subsequently, in 1813, increasing the staff of professors, and with a well-considered plan of instruction, this school was transferred to Mariabrun, not far from the capital of the empire. In 1827 the plan of study was changed, and the subjects of study were divided into four aemestres, or half-year sessions ; ulti- mately, in 1852, this was reorganised by distributing over three years the study of the different prescribed subjects which comprised the course followed by forest engineers. ' Other schools exist in Austria, due — some to the initiation of private individuals, others to the action of provinces, and most to the exertions of forestal associa- tions, which have increased in that country. Such, for example, is the school of sylviculture in Weisswasser, that in Aussee, that of Kreuz, and others. ' A faithful imitator of Germany, and endowed with a great amount of practical spirit, Russia in the beginning of the present century introduced the forestal instruction imported from the academies which were founded years before by those who well merit the name of Fathers of the present forest science. The schools of Zarsko-Selo and Kafelskoy, created in 1803 and 1804, propagated the movement which was being initiated by the successful scholars of the Gerinan schools. These being reorganised in 1813, the school was removed to St. Petersburg, where, in 1829, the new school received the name of Forest Institute, and was some time later made more complete by the establishment of a school of practical forestry at Lissenoy. Russia has now additional schools, which may be reckoned amongst the means available for forestal instruction. These are called schools of the Steppes, amongst which, deserving special mention, is that opened in 1842 in Anadol, the highest lying and most barren spot in the Steppes of Ekatheriuoslav ; the primary object of which is to educate and train sylviculturists for the ORIGIN OF THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY. 13 management of steppe lands of that extensive dis- trict. 'In regard to France, into which the ideas prevailing in Germany penetrated without difficulty, they then perceived also the necessity of entrusting the administration of public forests to a staff of officials possessed of a know- ledge of the several departments of forest science ; and, to secure this, they instituted in Nancy, in the year 1824, the school where the forest engineers thenceforward have received instruction. The first director of this school, M. Lorentz, having been educated at Tharand, the school was formed after the model of the earlier schools of Germany, and its organisation was accordingly similar to that of those schools ; and it has long maintained a well-deserved consideration for the zeal, and energy, and work of its professors. ' Such, in rough outline, is a sketch of the history of forestal instruction in Europe, reflecting the dominating ideas of different nations in which schools of forestry had been established, when first there was heard in Spain a voice with authority proposing to open for her also a road which might lead to the consideration and restoration of her diminished forest riches.' Sr. Castel, in his treatise on the origin and develop- ment of the school, writes, in accordance with what has been stated in the preceding chapter in reference to the General Ordinance of 1833,cited in the preceding chapter,as issued to prevent a progressive devastation and destruc- tion of forests in Spain. In reference to the General Ordinance of 1833, he says : ' While these General Ordi- nances put an end to some vicious practices and privileges which could not be sustained, and created a General Directory, to the charge of which wei-e committed all the forests now designated public, they did not break with the traditions and proceedings of established usage comingdown from the olden times, manifesting a lack of special know- ledge of the matter in hand, and great if not absolute 14 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. ignorance of the good doctrine which found its birth, some fifty years before in the schools of Germany, and had cast its dawning light upon the northern slopes of the Cordilleras of the Pyrenees.' Two years later, by Royal decree of 30th April, 1835, it was established, that within what was called the corps of civil engineers, there should be established a depart- ment designated Inspector of Woods, so soon as the creation of the necessary school should admit of this being efficiently organised ; and next day (1st May), there was prepared a Royal decree, according to which the said school of forest engineers was established in the capital of the kingdom, in October of the same year, under the direction of Don Antonio Sandalio de Arias. The year, however, closed without the project being realised, and the subject might seem to be forgotten. But some years later a son of Cotta, who with Hartig founded the original school of forestry in Saxony, was invited by Senor Don Martin de los Horas, Intendente de la Real Casa y Patrimonio, to come and organise a scientific management of the forests of the Royal patrimony. He could not come : and to meet the more pressing require- ments of the case two young men were sent, at the charges of the Royal treasury, to the forest academy at Tharand, to go through the course of study required of them as forest engineers; and on 16th March, 1843, there was issued by the Regent of the kingdom a decree ordering anew the establishment in Madrid of a special school of forest engineers, and practical schools of sylviculture, land sur- veying, and mensuration, in the provinces of Cuenca, Huesca, Jaen, and Santander. Along with this decree there were issued regulations for the schools, but like the first attempt to accomplish the same object this second proved abortive. A Royal decree, issued on the 18th November, 1846, had, however, happier results, and ou the 10th January, 1847, by Royal order, Senor Don Bernardo de la Toire Rojas was appointed Director of the projected sc lool. ORIGIN OF THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY. 15 Regulations were prepared.and professors were appointed to give instructions in the school, and befitting premises, worthy of the school of sylviculture was found first in the ancient palace-castle of Villaviciosad'Odou, a chaste and beautiful building erected in times anterior to the com- mune of Castile, destroyed partially on that account in 1520, and restored internally in the year 15S4, according to plans by the celebrated Juan de Herrera, honoured of Spain, and the creator of many of her architectural treasures. By a Royal decree of 1.8th August, 1847, the regulations were confirmed, and the school was opened on the 2nd of January, IS-tS, under the director and four professors, with a vice-director and assistant professor superadded. All of these are spoken of in terms of high commendation. Villaviciosa was situated, as has been stated, some four leagues and a-half from Madrid. Senor Castel writes : — ' If we advert to what has been said elsewhere in regard to the conditions of the place where the school was to be located, it may be remembered that according to the arrangements laid down in 1835 and 184:3, it was required that the school was to be created in the Capital. The Royal decree of 18th November, 1846, is the first public document from which it appears to have been determined that the school of forestry should be established in some locality near to this — and in consequence — though the statement is but vague — away from Madrid, the centre of superior instruction in all Government civil careers, and in many of the militar_y ones. It may be asked — what was it which determined this resolution, which was maintained in the Royal decree of 1847, and to which practical effect was given in appropriating for the purpose the palace- castle of Villaviciosa, in which the classes were opened on the 2nd January, 1848? ' Two principal arguments which suggest themselves at once as fundamental ones which may have weighed with the Government are these : The belief that a school of sylvi- culture would find its natural and appropriate place in the 16 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. midst of fields, and near to a forest where the practical application of the fundamental studies might be possible and easy; and the knowledge that there did not exist in the city a property with suitable buildings : this might make the acceptance of the offer of that building- more easy for the founder than to take from the general funds an amount, necessarily large, for the construction and fitting up of premises destined for an establishment which in truth owed its birth more to the personal energy of one resolute person than to any spontaneous and creative interest taken in it by individuals occupying a prominent place in the administrative centres concerned.' And he proceeds : — ' We may here glance for a moment at the primary pre- requisites of such an institution, and at the measure in which the castle of Villaviciosa met these, as these had led to the preference being first given to Madrid by Professor Don Maximo Laguna in 186G, and supported in his remarkable memoir, Excurcion Forestal por los Impeiios de Austria ?/ liu.ssta, he considering that f)om the par- ticular character of the fields around Villaviciosa and, the insignificant population there, with the absence of all scientific appliances beyon[ , the average or medium height of these, and the variation found by substracting from the greatest height at 3 P.M. the lowest at 9 A.M. ; the maximum and minimum tem- perature; the variation and the medium temperature of the ground; the relative humidity at the same hours; the rainfall ; the direction and the force of the wind ; and observations in regard to the clouds in connection with the state of the winds. The studies comprised under the head of Constructions THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY IN THE ESCLTRIAL. ^^ are — 1. The general conditions of a good construction, and the materials employed, including an examination of the qualities, extraction, preparation, and fabrication of these materials. 2. Foundations, and operations relative to the establishment of these in different cases; sinking wells; raising piers. 3. Construction of walls, partitions, and roofs. 4. Stables, sheds, bridges. 5. Hydraulic works : tracing and locating confining walls and dykes ; arrange- ment and construction of leading canals, and of canals of derivation. 6. Application of principles of construction to seed-drying stores, and stores of timber and firewood, pitch kilns, and saw-pits or saw-mills. 7. Road-making : high- ways, foiest wood tracks, and forest bridges. In the studies of the third year are comprised — Mineralogy and Applied Geology, Applied Botany, Applied Zoology, and Sylviculture. The programme of study in Applied Geology comprises — 1. Definitions and divisions of geology, and specifications of its relations to the other sciences, and e,«peeiallv to sylviculture. 2. General geography, which treats of mountains, and in particular the geography of Spain. 3. Physical geography. 4. Petrography, or natural history of rocks and stones ; origin of rocks, their characteristics and analytical decomposition. -3. Natural decomposition of rocks, nature and forestal conditions of the land thus produced. 6. tTCologic periods, natural histor\^ of stratifi- >:ation. 7. Description of the different geognostic formn- tions which constitute the terrestrial crust, and their forestal applications. 8. General notions of palaeontology, and description of the principal fossils (characteristic of e.-ich formation. Instruction in what is designated Applied Mineralogy comprises — 1. Fundamental ideas, and the characters .and chemical and physical properties of min<^rals. 2. Ghrystalo- gvaphy, systematic mineralogy, different classifications of minerals. 3. Analysis of minerals. 4. Description ot the more important kinds of minerals, with .special attention 36 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. given to those which enter into the composition of the rocks and the soil found in forests. For use in the study of geologic mineralogy the school possesses two collections : one chrystalographic, the other raineralogical. The chrystalographic collection is composed of 336 models in plaster of Paris, formed and arranged according to the system of Naumann, and containing in each chrystaline system representatives of its typical holo^dric and hemiedric forms, and of the more remarkable combi- nations of one form with another, &c. Double crystals, or hemitropes and anomolous and imperfect forms : there are in this collection crystals and models representative of the fundamental forms of the recognised systems of these, and of their primary deriva- tion. The mineralogical collection contains 770 specimens, each of which is representative of a type, a variety, or n. different locality. It comprises 17'"> distinct species, amongst which are representatives of the 1.5 classes of Naumann, on whose sysl em they ore arranged ; there being largely represented the classes - 1, metallic oxides ; *5, haloids ; 5, geolites ; and fJ, anfoterolites ; these being considered the most important for study in the career of a forest engineer. And for instruction in geology tiiis ninseum contains, as important auxiliaries, a petrographic, and also a palffiontological collection. The former is composed of 800 specimens of rock, of which the greater number are Spanish, and some are French, representing the most varied types and varieties of the principal species found in the Peninsula. The collection of fossils consists of 1200 specimens, classified according to different characters of ground, after the method of d'Orbigny, and bringing together types of the most characteristic species of all of these. The total number of species represented is about a thousand. THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY IN THE ESCURIAL. 37 Under the head of Applied Botany, or botany in its connection with the studies and subsequent vvoric of the forester, there are included in the prescribed programme of the class — ]. Definitions and general ideas in regard to organised bodies. 2. Characteristics of plants or vege- tables, organography and morphology. 3. Anatomy, physiology, and nosology of plants. 4. Methodology, classification in general, artificial systems of classification. 5. Natural classification 6. General description of the principal families of plants, with a special and detailed description of the woody plants of the flora of Spain, 7. Geographical botanical association of vegetables, affinities and analogies determioing their distribution. 8. Agents influencing the distribution of plants. 9. Distribution of trees and shrubs in the forests of Spaiii. In the Cabinet of Botany, in the museum, there were contained, according to Scnor Castel in 1877, the herbarium of the Senores Boutelou, presented to the school by Dona Maria Soldevilla de Boutelou, in the year 1848. In this herbarium there are 9244 species of plants from different countries, a great proportion of them being from America ; another European herbarium of 3000 species, the greater part of them being French, but the collection being increased from day to day, chiefly by the addition of Spanish plants ; and a herbarium of 500 species of Spanish lignous plants prepared by the ' Comision de la Flora Foresta ' ; * a herbarium composed of plants found in the viciuity of the Escurial, in which are more than 800 species of phanerogams ; a collection of 120 species of ferns from the Phillipines, presented by the Ilmo Senor D. Isidro Sainz de Baranda ; various collections prepared by Professor Rabenhorst, comprising in all 5030 species of cryptogams, distributed into the following groups: vascular " Aiuouffst works illustrative of the natural history of forest trees and other plants, a prominent plaee must he assigned to the works prepared by the ' Comision de la Flora Korcsta,' hy which was presented to tlie museum of the school this herbarium of 000 sueoies of lif^nous plants. Of this, descriptive of the collection of specimens, and of similar works from the I'hillippines, an account will afterwardti be fjiven. These are made mention of here as bupplyiuif facilities for the study of the t(* specimens oi these, of perfect construction, and arranged witli great taste. They comprise implements used in turning over earth, such as spades, hoes, pickaxes, two- ]»rouged forks, rakes, avu ed-hooks, &c.; together with these arc lliose used in the ^surveying and treatment of trees, among which the most important arc axes and saws of a great many ditferent forms.'^' There are also an abuudanci' of mattocks, knives, adzes, hooks, mallets, hammers, rammers, gouyes, auoius, jjimlets, i-crapers, shears, Sec, &c. ; and there are not awanting those modest aids in sylviculture — sowers, planters, transplanters, pruners, &c. Fruit gatherers, tree ladders, resin collectors, scrapers, resin tree openers, hooks for use in rafts of wood, timber, scythes, Sec, complete the collection, which, when shown at some exhibitions, has had awarded to it tlie highest distinction granted for this class of objects. This cabinet contains also a collection of 60 ploughs, harrows, rollers, levellers, rakes, scythes, axes, mattocks, two-pronged forks, and sowing machines, perfectly executed on the scale of .|th and ^th of full size. In the studies of the fourth year are comprised xilometry ; forest ordenacion ^nd exploitation; forest industries; political economy and administration of law ; while drawing IS practised continuous from the commencement of the curriculum till its close. Among the axes iii this cabinet there deserve special notice the pruning- hand-axu nsed in Arragon ; the French hand-axe ; the common axe with one cutting edge, huca ; the common hatchet witli long handle ; axe used in cutting for resin in Coeu ; small jiitch-maicer's hatchet for cutting pitch-wood; hatchet for splitting wood; French liatcliet for testing; pitch-makers a\c with shield; pitch-maker's hatchet without shield, for use on foot ; testing hatchet with two edges, used in Cuenca ; testing hatchet used in Jaen ; pointed axe used in charcoal making in Cuenca ; common wood-cutter's asc ; American testing axe ; workman's a\c used in Segovia; testing and fellin": axe used in Jaen, called the Riscayau axe ; axe of Dabie; axe of Chaudiray ; axe of Aiacoii, called TaiUtiiuiic ; Leipzig axe ; tircman's pointed axe ; marking hatchet used in forestral districts ; English woodmau's axe, Ac. ii FORESTRY IN SPAIlS'. Tlje prugraiuiuc ot studies iu Xilometry cuiuprise : — 1. A discussion of the geueral forms affected by the different parts of a tree; the geometric and dendometric volumes of these. 2. Descri])tion of deudometric instruments, and the tnauagement and comparison of these o. The deter- mination of the cubic contents of trees considered isolated or individually. 4. The apparent, and the real volume ol wood; xilometers: description, comparison, and use ot them. 5. The determination of the normal co-efiicient. (J. Methods of determining the value in respect of the weight and density of the timber. 7. Increase of wood in growth, and determination of future and of maximum increase. S. The branding or marking of timber. In the cabinet of xilometry are various compasses for the determination of diameters in the trunks of trees ; tape measures, and other metrical cinctures; rules for marking of timber tit for cutting ; ordinary circumference meters; circumference meters of Bouvart ; dendrometer by right angled triangles ; dendrometers by arc of a circle; dendrometers by tlie square or the perpendicular. In connection with the study of the ordenaclou ol forests for successive thinnings and fellings, or the partition and arrangement of sections, attention is given to — 1. Detinitions of terms in use in Dasonomia, or forest science, a term derived from Daso forest, and Nomos law. The object of dasocracia and divisions of the subject. 2. The leo-al and natural condition of the forest. 3. Forestal condition ; dasometry, forest measurement; and dasography, or preparation forest maps. 4. Forestal condition, deter- mination and survey of partitions designed for fellings, and epidometry, or measuration of the trees. 5. Selection of kinds of trees to be felled, and of treatment to be adopted ; that of coppice-wood or timber forest, and duration of cycle of operations. 6. Methods of exploitation ; exposition of that devised by J. L. Hartig and by E. Cotta. 7. Rational or scientific methods. 8. Geueral plan of exploitation. 9. Special plan of operations iu the first THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY IN THE ESCURlAL. 45 period. 10. Determination of the maximum possible production ; reserves, and successive revision of scheme of exploitation, 11. Systematic management of irregular forests. 12. Valuation of forests, interest, dues, profits. 13. Value of the soil. 14. Value of the vegetable oovermg of the ground. 15. Value of the forest. The programme of studies under the head of forest industries embraces:— 1. The physical properties of different kinds of woods, and deductions from these relative to principal applications which may be made of them in civil and naval architecture. 2. The exploitation of primary and secondary products of forests ; and the transport of these by land and water. 3. Storage, and storage charges of wood ; its conservation by means of substances injected into it; and the preparation of wood pulp. 4. The collection of resin, and preparation of products derived from resin. r>. The preparation of charcoal, charcoal fuel, and potash. (>. Barking of trees, the disposal of bark, and the manufacture of cork. 7. Collection and preservation of seeds for employment in manufactures. 8. Manufacture of oiKs, essences, and .ncids from forest seeds. 0. Panago and swine herding, and disposal of prunings. in. TTfilisa- rion of dead wood, V)ranches, leaves, and pea). In one section of the Cabinet of Forest Industry, confined to objects from Spain, there is a collection of models representing a secherie for drying seeds; fanners for dislodging fine seeds ; vertical and horizontal furnaces used in Sweden in the fabrication of vegetable carbon ; three carts for transport; and peguiras, or piles of pine wood burnt to make pitch, from Sierra Segiira; tools used in disbarking the cork oak, and in the manufacture of corks; and the more important implements used in the collecting of resin ; various collections of wood arranged in boards of different sizes, comprising specimens from the different provinces of Spain ; and a collection of 2(10 species of these woods, the produce of indigenous plants, arranged according to the method of Rossmoessler : cojlec- 46 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. tions of charcoals and potashes, ashes, barks, resins, gums, corks, esparto grass, and palms. In a second section, containing colonial products, are preserved products of the Island of Cuba — a forestal collection presented to the school by D. Francisco de Paula, a member of the corps of forest engineers — composed of 3(5 cases, each containing leaves, branches, a board speci- men of the trunk, charcoal, firewood, bark, and any other product of the plant to which it is dedicated, and a collection of woods comprising 200 specimens. Of products of Porto Eico there are two collections of woods in boards, and composed of 200 specimens of forest trees produced in that island, and another collection of woods in blocks from the same localivy. Of products of the Philippine Islands there are a collection of woods consisting of 90 species, comprising the principal kinds growing in the Archepelago, and a collection of textile m.iterials, and articles fabricated of forest] al products of the Philippine Islands. The programme of study in the administration of justice comprises: — 1. Fundamental principles in regard to the State, the Government, and the Administration ; and the (character and range of the administrative organisation of the country. '2. The administrative organisation of the country, and territorial limitations of the authorities, ol' the functionaries, and of corporations in active administra- tion, in consultation, and in settlement of disputes. .'». Duties and legal position of public employees in general ; h^'gislation in regard to administrative matters of general application, such as those relative to undertaking public service, responsibility, &c. 4. General idea of ancient legislation in the branch relating to forests. 5. Special legislation relative to the facultative or professional, and the administrative service in the public forests; forest exploitations, delimitations, watching, fi^res,&c. 6. Transfer of property ; acrpusition of forests by the state; excambs ; ex-appropriation, 7. Policeof the State forests; penal portion of the ordinances ; forests belonging to private proprietors, THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY IN THE ESCURIAL. 47 The study in Political Economy comprises: — 1. Defini- tions and general idea of the science, 2. Production and capital, and natural differences observable in capital. 3. Natural agents concurring in production. 4. The study of labour; of the general conception of this, and of advantages and disadvantages resulting from division of labour. 5. Idea of value in things ; prices ; interest. 6. Influence of the quality and quantity of the production on the increase or diminution of population. 7. Consumption of products. Drawing is practised from the commencement to the close of the professional curriculum. The instruction in this per- taining to what may be required in the work to which the students aspire, comprises: — 1. Topographic drawing; the representation of lands, according to the generally accepted principles of procedure ; hand-drawings, washed with China ink, or with an application of colours and conven- tional tints. '2. Drawings of machinery, and elevations of buildings. '^. Phytographic drawings, or representations of species of vegetables. 4. Dasographic drawings, com- prising plans or charts; phytographic, gengnostic, forest partitions, &c., &c. CHAPTER IV. THE LIBRARY. Together with the liberal provision which has been made in the School of Forestry in the Escurial, for the prosecution of studies prescribed for candidates for admission into the corps of Forest Engineers in Spain, inclusive of an extensive museum, with apartments devoted to the exhibition of implements and objects pertaining to nach department of study, and appropriate laboratories, rhere is a spacious library, richly furnished with works treating of all the subjects embraced in the course of study. From the work of Senor Castel on the foundation and development of the school it appears that in 1877, when that work was published, th-'re were in the library 2505 scientific and professional treatises, comprising 5349 volumes of letterpress, and r31<» atlases of plates, diagrams, and maps, pertaining to these works. Tn theseworks there are supplied the means of prosecuting Ihe study of any or all of the subjects brought under the consideration of the student in the class, or otherwise ensaginof his thouohts — 659 treated of Mathematical Sciences ; 231 ot Physics ; 1189 of Natural History ; 182 ot Ethics and Politics ; 71 of ]-.iteratnre and Language ; 83 of History and Geography ; 24 of Arts and Manufactures; and 6G were Encyc1<>pa)dias or classed as Miscellanies. The numbers have been increased since tlien, and every Itranch of study is well reprosonted. tflE LIBRARY. 4^ Section 1. — Studies of First Year. As lias beeu stated, the studies during the first year of the professional course relate to Topography, Integral and Differential Calculus, Descriptive Geometry, Applied Mathematics and Applied Chemistr}'. Sub-Sediou {.--Applied Af at hematics. In the Library there were 6 works on subjects pertaining to Mathematics, 218 on Pure Mathematics, and 435 on Mixed and Applied Mathematics; in all, 1015 volumes. ^ul) Section 2. — Applied Cketiiistry. Amongst subjects to which attention is given in the study of applied chemistry is Tannin. A good illustration of the mode and exhaustive character of the instruction given in Applied Chemistry is supplied by a treatise on Tannin by Professor Don Carlos Castel,which is at the command of the students. The subject in this is thus stated : — To determine the intrinsic value of the tannin or astringent substances pertaining to tannin, produced by the vegetables of tivc or more of the province of Spain, and in regard to each to state with the nearest approxima- tion attainable, tlie age of the plant, and thereafter its growth, habitat, seasons of the year most favourable for the collecting of the produce, and the routes or means of export or transport of this to market ; a treatise adopted by the Royal Academy of Exact Physical and Natural Sciences at their annual meeting in 187G. In the introduction to this treatise, citing words with which M. J. Pelouse in 1833 opens his valuable work on tan- nin and its sources, to the effect that there is no organic sub- stance, in regard to which there have been so many enquiries, and yet in regard to which the history is so greatly desid- erated— Senor Castel cursorally reviews what had been done by chemists in different countries during the forty years pre- sb FORESTRY IN St'AiN. ceding the date of his memoir. In successive chapters he discusses the uature and properties of taunin ; the question, Is the tannin contained in different vegetables identical V and the physiological action of tannin. Treating next of analysis, he states the general ideas involved in these ; examines different methods of analysis; and gives — 1. A detailedexpositionof the methods of Monier and Lowenthal; he then gives tabulated results of analysis performed to determine the quantity of tannin contained in different plants ; analysis performed by various observers giving the popular and scientific names of the plants ; conditions of the plant in regard to age, or aught else deserving of notice, in regard to the season of the year at which the bark was collected, &c. ; the part of the tree subjected to an analysis, the percentage of tannin obtained, and the name of the experimenter. 2. Analysis made by Neubauer, giving specification of bark operated on ; the percentage of tannin soluble in cold water; the additional percentage obtained by solution in warm water, and the sum of the two. o. Analysis made by T. Hartig, in regard to which are specified relating to the material, a number of parti- culars, including the part of the oak whence each was taken, fruit, bark, leaves, or roots; the character of the forest — timber-forest, coppice- wood or medium ; from what part of the tree the bark was taken, the degree of shade under which it grew, and the season of the year at which it was collected — some of these particulars being given in regard to some, others in regard to others, of the specimens operated on, and all of these strictly classified. There are stated then the ([uantity of extract obtained from a gramme of material in the open air, according as this was in winter, or spring, or in both; next, the tannic acid contained in one gramme of dry material, as calculated by tlie volumetric method, and as calculated by precipitation, and in both cases according as it was in winter or in spring, and in many cases in both. 4. Analysis of plants gathered in Spanish localities, in which are given the names of the plants; the province and the pueblo or THE LIBRARY. b\ towDship ; the age of the plant ; the month in which it was gathered ; the portion or part of the plant analysed ; the colour produced by the salt of iron, and the tannin contained in 100 parts of dry material ; and the results of experiments on the influence of light. In the next chapter are discussed tannin plants, aud causes determining the greater or less abundance of tannin, under the headings of general ideas, flowers, fruits, leaves and galls, barks, and determination of the times most favour- able for the debarking of the trees in regard to the conserva- tion and development of these; does the richness of the bark- ings vary with the season in which the debarking occurs ? the ai^e at which the debarking should be executed, and the methods of utilisation most convenient for the Casquizales ; the influence of heat, humidity, soil, and light on the pro- duction of the tannin ; methods of disbarking trees. And the chapter closes with a detailed account of the principal lignous plants made use of in the tannin industries. Section 2.— Studies of the Second Yeak. The studies of the second year embrace, as has been stated, theory and application of Mechanics, Geodesy, Meteorology and Climatology, Construction and Drawing. Sub-Section 1. — Meteorology and Climatology. In Spain, as in other similarly situated countries — in which are included some of our colonies and dependencies — questions connected with meteorology and climate, and as pertaining thereto, means of preventing disastrous conse- quences from drought, torrents, and inundations, and of securing an equitable diffusion in time and space, if not also an increased rainfall, and humidity of soil and climate, are of importance. In illustration to what students have thus been trained to attempt and accomplish, I may refer to papers of 0-i FORESTRY IN SPAtk. forctjtral, meteorological, aud other coguate subjects, by vSeuor Don Eafael Alvarez Sereix, member of the Corps of Forest Engineers, an eleve of the School of Forestry, and now Director-General of Geography aud Statistics in Madrid, whicli have appeared in Spanish periodicals, and been ii'-|)ubl!shcd in two scries, entitled Estudios Botanico- I'mestales ; and others which have been published in a vulunie entitled Cuestiones Cientijicas, copies of which are at the command of the students. One of the papers published by Senor Alvarez, under the title of Estudios Botanlcv-Eorestalea, is entitled 'The Influence of Forests on Climate,' based on the valuable treatise on the subject by M. A. C. Becquerel, In this the term rendered forest is used as one applicable to a con- siderable extent of country covered with a spontaneous growth of an arborescent vegetation. And following Humboldt, the author says the climate of a country is the result of the calorific, aqueous, aerial, luminous, and electric phenomena, which may cause one determinate locality to [)rescut a different meteorological character from another of the same latitude aud geologif-al conditious. Assuming that of the influences specified heat exercises the greatest influence, aud next to this the (quantity of the rainfall in the different seasons of the year, and next to these the humidity or aridity of the air, the predominating winds, the number and distribution of storms in the course of the year, the degree in which the heavens are clouded, the nature of the ground, and of the vegetation covering it, aud whether this be spontaneous, or the result of culture, Senor Alvarez proceeds to discuss the questions which will determine w^hat is the effect of woodlands on the climate of a country, whicli questions he assumes to be these : — 1. In what degree do the forests act as a protection against the winds, and in what measure do they retard the evaporation of the water of the rainfall ? 2. How do they modify the hydrometric condition of the surrounding atmosphere by absorption by roots, and by evaporation from leaves ? THE LIBRARY. 5S 3. How they modify the temperature of a couutiy ? 4. Have forests any influence on the rainfall as to its frequency, or its abundance and distribution, and do they regulate more or less equallythe flowofstreamsand springs? 5. To what extent do they prevent the erosion of mountains and lesser slopes'? 0. Do forests draw otf electricity from thunder-clouds, and if they do so do they to an extent corresponding to this action effect the region of the woodlands? And 7. What kind of influence do they exercise upon the public health ? But with these preliminary points determined it is neces- sary, he says, in order to determine the effects of forests on any district.to know also the geographical position of this,its geological character, its latitude.its proximity to or distance from the sea, the composition of its soil, and of its subsoil, and whether this may be permeable or the reverse — calcareous or argilaceous — all of which particulars can only be determined by observation. And he further states that the action of forests on the climate will be more or less pronounced according to — 1. The extent, elevation, and nature of the soil and subsoil. 2. Its exposure in regard to heat or cold, and in regnrd to the humidity or aridity of the winds. fi. The season of the year in which fellings are made ; whether the kinds of trees be those with deciduous, or with persistent leaves ; and the evaporation and radiation Soino: on in the different seasons. 4. According as the season of rains be the spring, the autumn, or the winter ; and .5. The proximity of pestilential lakes, &c. All of these points are discussed in an exhaustive manner, commencing with a permeable soil with a per- meable subsoil, and a permeable soil with an impermeable subsoil ; and an impermeable soil with an permeable subsoil, and an impermeable soil with an impermeable subsoil. 54 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. Another of the papers published by Senor Alvarez is one under the title Trabajos de Ebermayer. On the works of Ebermayer, in which are discussed successively the influence of forests on the humidity of the atmosphere ; on the humidity of the ground ; on the temperature of the ground ; on the temperature of the atmosphere ; and on the constituents of the atmosphere. The views of Ebermayer are also brought forward at great length in a brochure entitled Breves Consideraciones sobre Estatica Quimica — Brief remarks on forestal chemical statistics — by Senor D. Luis de la Escosura y Coronel, Chief in Corps of Forest Engineers. In this the author sought to give as detailed an analysis as possible of the valuable work by that distinguished Professor of Agricultural Chemistry and of Geognosia, in the Royal Central School of Forestry at Ascaffenburg, entitled Die gesammte Lehrc der Waldstreu, mit Huecksicht auf die chemische Statik des Waldbaues. Unter Zugrundlecfung der in dem Kcenigl, Staatsforsten Bayerns angehtellten Untersuchungen — a work, to follow a description given of it by M. Grandeau, methodical in the highest degree, and written with sobriety and lucidity, the perusal of which is lightsome and inter- esting, notwithstanding the numerous statistical and analytical data which it contains ; and beyond all manner of doubt one of the most important forestal works of our age. The author commences with the study of the formation of the coveriog of the forest ground ; that is of the condi- tions of the fall of the leaves, comprising the causes, the times, the quantative importance according to species of trees, the altitudes at which they grow, &c. In the second chapter he takes up the data procured by analysis, in reference to the chemical composition of the ground covering, and of the wood ; determining thus the chemical statistics of the forests. In the third he brings under considera- tion the physical properties of that covering, and the influence which this exercises on the physical properties of the ground. In the fourth, attention is given to TH^ LIBRARY. 55 chemical modifications experienced in the ground-covering of forests, and its chemical action on the ground. In the fifth and last chapter are brought under consideration the influence on the forest of the removal of the leaves and other debris coustituting tiie ground-covering of the forest. In an appendix is given a statistical comparison between agricultural and sylvicultural productions, and tabulated statements of numerous data which had served as a basis for the conclusions of the author. In 1879 was published a brochure entitled Liundacionefi y sequias medios de defensa — Informe redactado por acuerdo d°, la Junta Directiva de la Sociedad Geografica de Madrid, con motivo de la Inundaciones de Murcia ; por El Exmo, So.nor Don Frederico de Botello y de Homos — which is full of important and interesting details, illustrative of the production of torrential rains, and consequent torrents in niDuntainous regions, and wide-spread inundations on plains ; all which, it is shown, might in man}' cases, if not also in every case, be prevented by planting the basin rereiving the rainfall witli herljngo and Itnshes and trees. In the following year (1880) was published, Lluvias e Inundaciones : Dt'sfribucion general de las aquas en toda la suptrjicie del (jloho y pariicuiannenle en Kspanna ; Torea de las Avenidas, de los rios y medios de evitarlas y resistirlas ; por D. Vincentc de Vera y Lopez, Doctor en Ciencias, Qui- mico del Ayuntamiento de Madrid; con un prologo, de D. Manuel Maria Jose de Galbo. After notices of the general distribution of the rainfall over the surface of the globe, and illustrations of the effect of circumstances upon this, the author takes up the con- sideration of the rainfall in different regions in the Peninsula, and the local conditions of these. There is given then an exposition of the theory of floods, with details of the action of geographical position in regard to latitude on varying degrees of humidity in the atmosphere ; of the influence of the geological character of the ground ; 86 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. details of different phenomena of rivers flowing over permeable and impermeable lands ; of the action of vege- tation on the rainfall. Passing then to the consideration of great inundations, details are given in regard to inun- dations of the Amazon, of the Mississippi, and of inundations within the temperate zones, and local conditions by which they are affected. The author next proceeds to the consideration of torrential inundations in Spain, in Almeria. and ill the basin of the Lorga ; floods of the Saagonera and of the Segura ; floods in the great Cuencas ; inunda- tions of the Duero and of the Rodauo ; and the inundations of 1857. Information is given in regard to the effects of inundations, and to the alluvial deposits left by inundations. There follows a review of the hydrography of the Peuinsuk, in which it is shown that to the mountainous character of the country is attributable the fact that there are no great rivers there ; with notices of the various slopes of the country toward the sea, and of the districts included in each. In discussing means of preventing inundations there are brought under considei'ation, in succession, tlie contour of the country, and the effects of vegetation ; the geological character of the gruund in each locality ; the permeability of the ground, pantanos, or large reservoirs ; lateral or littoral deposits ; canals ; the riches lost in the sea ; and the extent to wliich the water might be utilised. In the conclusion of the woi'k the author refers to the importance of international arrangements of meteorological observations, and of works designed to prevent the abrasion of the banks of rivers by dykes and other works of defence, a measure wliich had commaMded .ittcntion in many countries. The advanced forest economy of tiie day is based on scientific observations, and scientific reasoning. In the first-formed schools of forestry, such as those under Hartig and Cotta, observation was combined with instruction and practice. The importance of this was felt deeply by two German foresters, Handshagen and Von Wedekind, and in THE LIBRARY. 57 18^6 the latter made an effort to organise a society to conduce to prosecuting forestal experiments, bnt did not succeed. In 1868, at a congress of German foresters, held in Vienna, the subject was brought under discussion. A committee was appointed to consider on what plan such forestal experiment stations as were considered desirable should be organised. ' They agreed '—says Mr Ad olphe Leue, in a paper read before a Convention of the Ohio State Forestry Association, held in Cincinnatti in August, 188.3 — ' On a plan of organisation, and questions to be subjected to investigations and experiments. The report was adopted by the German Foresters' Congress, and submitted to the several Governments, which were to bear all the expenses of these stations. ' The first station was organised on the 16th April, 1870, at Baden, Saxony, Prussia, Wurtemberg, Austria, Bavaria, Bnmswick, and Hesse followed in the order mentioned. ' The great aim of these stations is,' he says, ' to furnish a scientificfoundation for arational management of forest, based upon exact experiments and careful investigation. They are intended to determine the significance of forests in the economy of nature, to try the various methods of forest management, to examine the advantages which one method may have over the other, and, finally, to establish a plan of forest administration, which will enable the owners of forests to realise the greatest possible profit from forests, and at the same time reduce the expenses of their administration. ' Among the many problems to be solved through the agency of these stations, are the following : to determine the influence of forests upon soil and climate ; to investi- gate the relative value of the several methods of thinning ; to establish reliable tables of increase, and methods of valuing forests ; to study the foes of the forest, both animal and vegetable, and to devise means of successfully com- 58 FORESTRY TX SPAIN. bating them ; to deteriaine the value of forest-Utter upon the growth of trees ; to test the relative value of forest implements; to devise new methods of obtaining forest products, and to find new uses for the same; in short, they are intended to furnish the means by which to increase the wealth of the owners of forests, and thus that of the entire country, and to furnish legislative bodies with the foundation necessary for a just taxation of forests, and for a wise and beneficient code of forest-laws.' These stations are State institutions, connected with schools of Forestry. In Prussia, with the Forest Academy at Eberswalde. In Bavaria, with the University at Munich. In Saxony, with the Forest Academy at Tharandt. In Wurtemberg, with the University of Tubingen. In Baden, with the Poletichnicum at Carlsruhe. In Thuringia, with the Sohool of Forestry at Eisenach. In Hesse, with the University of Giesson. A desire was felt by elcves of the Scliool of Forestry in Spain that they should be enabled to join the union, and take part in the prosecution of observation and experiment; and that to them should be allotted observations connected with meteorology and climatology : and in 1SS2 was published, under the title Estacion Meteorologlca- Forested de San lldefonm — a project for the creation of a Meteoro- logical -Forestal Station in San Ildefonsa — which had been presented to the Minister de Fomenta in the year 1874, by the Commissioners entrusted with arrangements for the systematic management of the forests of Balsain, a royal appenage in the vicinity of Madrid, lying between that city and Guadalajara. Having stated and detailed the origin of the union, the writers add : 'Since Septem- ber, 1872, there have been conformed and brought into reciprocal communication the stations of Prussia, with those of Wurtemberg, Baden, Elesse, Bavaria, Saxony, and THK LIBRARY. 59 Thuiingia, according to an agreement adopted at a re-union of German foresters held in Brunswick. Tlie stations in Prussia are ten in number, besides other three which have been created in Alsace-Lorraine. The regulations of these stations were made on 11th March, 187-, and according to the arrangements made the central station is organically united to the Academy of Forestry in Neustad-Eberwald ; and all the others are subordinate to this. In general, the studies or investigations are divided into five sections — the forestal, properly so-called ; the chemico-physical ; the meteorological ; that of vegetable physiology ; and zoology. But the central station has the whole of these sections, the others have only forestal and meteorological sections, or only one of these. Referring then to the stations in Bavaria, under the direc- tion of Dr.Ebermayer,as models deservingof imitation, there are stated the points to which attention is given in these ; and the results which might be expected h'om the con- sideration of data obtained. There are next described what apparatus it would be desirable to have, and sugges- tions are submitted in regard to the organisation and service of the station proposed, with an estimate of the prices of at which the apparatus might be procured in Munich, amounting in all to 1570 pesetas or francs — ot the expense of establishing the observatory amounting to 550 pesetas, and of the probable annual expenses amounting to 2150 pesetas. So far as known to me nothing resulted from this memorial in the form submitted for consideration ; but the matter to which it had reference has been taken up, in connection with the other arrangements made for the study of aspirants to the forest service of the country, in the School of Forestry in the Escurial. Sub-Sect ion 2. — Construction. In the sameyear, under the head of construction, attention is given to the construction of forest-roads and highways, bridges, sheds, forest huts, and homes for forest officials, 60 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. who are required to reside permanently or occasionally within the precincts of the forest; and to works of hydraulic eugineering : wells, tanks, canals, and works of irrigation. In connection with the information which has been given in regard to published works, to which the students have access, on matters pertaining to meteorology and climatology as departments of forest science, I think it well first to make mention of works on hydraulic engineering, and thereafter to advert to works connected with the others. Of treatises on subjects pertaining to hydraulic engine- ering the most instinctive is one entitled Tratado de aguas y lii'egos, por Don Andres Llaurado, Ivgeniero de monies Jefe de Pi ir.ieri Clase, Professor de Construction y Mecanica Jplicota en la Escnela especial der Cutrpo, (^•c.,4-c. — A treatise on rivers and iirigation works, by D. Andv^s Llaurado, Chief of the first- class in Corps of Forest Engineers, and Professor of Constructions and Applied Mechanics in the School of Forestry. It is a treatise which, published in 1870, has reached a second edition, and meanwhile has procured for the distinguished author high honours in orders of knighthood in his own country, in Portugal, and In France and Italy,— and membership in numerous scientific and agricultural societies in different parts of Spain, in Russia, in Italy, in Piedmont, in France, and in the United States of America. After an introduction, in which is given a brief review of irrigation works in Spain, and a statement of economic considerations involved in the enterprise, and of means by which it might be further developed, the author devotes the first part of his treatise to preliminary matters, discussing in successive chapters : — 1. The importance of irrigations, and the climate of Spain. 2. The composition and nature of waters of irrigation, and their effects on vegetation, and on different crops. 3. The quantity of water required for irrigation. 4. The price of recovering water, and employing it in irrigation. •'», The current or flow, and the leading tttfe LIBRARY. Rl off of water. 6. The distribution of water led off, and the effecting,' of this in determined proportions. 7. The distribution of water in fixed quantities. Tlie second part is devoted to the consideration of means of 2)rocuring water, in regard to canals of irrigation ; and after determining preliminaries, there are discussed scliemcs of operation and works of execution. In regard to reservoirs, tlicre are discussed certain general principles connected with them, and the construction of them ; followed Ijy an account of reservoirs in Spaiu. Fountains or springs from subterranean sources are next discussed, with special reference to the discovery and opening up of subterranean sup^jlies; the geological strata, and the general conditions of tlie strata in which they exist ; the directions in which the water fiows in subterranean channels ; the most favour- able points for discovering these ; the depths at which they exist ; the delivery which may be expected from them ; rules proposed in olden times for discovering and opening up such supplies; and different methods which have been employed in modern times ; artesian wells ; raising of water by mechanical appliances ; machines whicli are in use. The third part is devoted to irrigation, and there arc discussed the iriigation of arable lands, and of meachjws. in connection with the latter are discussed certain pre- liminary matters ; general ideas regulating the operation ; and methods employed. The fourth part is occupied with the reclaiming or improvement of wet lands. Here are brought under discussion drainage; warping; drying up of lagoons; reclaiming of land from the sea ; the planting of sand dunes in Andalusia; and the reclaiming of salt soils. Such are the contents of the first book. The second book is devoted to works of irrigation in Spain. In succession are brought under consideration tiiose on the Northern or Cantabrian slope of the country ; those on the Western slope ; those on the Southern Oceanic slope i those ou the Southern Mediterranean slope ; 6^ FORESTRY IN SPAIN. and those on the Eastern slope. In regard to each information is given relative to the Jands and water supply, and to irrigation works of every description mentioned in the previous book to be found in the basins of the (-lititereut rivers by which it is traversed. There arc several works on irrigation, and matters pertaining thereto, in the Spanish language, and distinct references to these are given, in some cases with copious citations. Under the head of forestal construction, in the programme uf study followed in the School of Forestry, is comprised also tbe construction of forest huts and homes. In connection with this department of study there were published in 1882, Proyecta de una casa, para Guardas de viontc y Gapataces de. Gutivos, en la Dehesa del Moncayo de Tarazona, por Jose Bragat, Ingeniero, Jefe de mo}ites y Jefe del Dictrito Forestal de Zaragoza ; and in 1885, Proyecto de casa de Guardas ara el moiite Pelonuo. And in illustration of the character of the studies pursued in this department, I may cite these projects, and estimates for the erection of foresters' houses. The first is a project for the erection of forest cottages for forest warders, and foremen superintending planting operations in the pasture lands of the Moncayo of Tarazoua. In this are given details of the zone of the Moncayo; of the pasture grounds in question ; of forests comprised in these, or adjacent thereto ; and such information in regard to all of these as might be deemed necessary to the forma- tion of a correct opinion of the necessity or importance of the work. The papers to which this is introductory consist, in accordance with Article 8 of Regulations for the carrying out of the law of 11th July, 1877, of specifications of the works re([uiredj of the materials to be employed; of the manner in which the works are be executed ; and general arrangements in regard to reporting the progress of the work, and the taking over of this when completed. It was prescribed that the work should be done Vjy contract, THE LIBRARY. 63 aud executed within a specified time; aud there are appended to the specifications a tariff" of diti'erent wages to be allowed to different kinds of workmen ; of charges for means of transport of material, including drivers ; and for lading, Irausportiug, and discharging the loads, based on the cubic measure of the whole, or by cubic metre per kilometre of distance; of payments to be made for excavating earth, according to specified unit of measurement ; a statement of the average distances of transport from different localities, with accounts of the quality of the materials yielded by each; the condition in which these exist, and that of the state of the roads from those to the site of the building ; and a statement of the expense of the several works, according to these estimates, with a summary of the whole, which amounted to O-lOUlo pesetas — to which was added, to cover unforseen expenses 1 per cent. 6499 ; expense of direction and administration 5 per cent. 324!'90 ; profit to contractor, including 3 per cent, for money advanced, 9 per cent. 5S-t'92 : in all, 74-74- 02. To tlie whole are added general directions issued by the directory of public instruction, agriculture, and industry, to be followed in the erection of the house. The project and specifications, and estimates, included thefurnishinfr of a room for the use of the forest enjjiueer when visiting the district. This comprised a sofa, bedstead and bedding, wash-stand, cupboard, writing table, lamp, drawing-board, and all retpiisites for the preparation of charts and reports — the sum allowed for all which was 400 pesetas, aud this was included in the general estimate. The second was a project for a warder's cottage in the Pelonno forest, with plans and elevations. In this the preliminary statement was more brief, but the tabulated statements more full. These comprised specihcations of measurements; estimate-; of expenses ot each kind of work, according to unit of measurement ; general estimate of the whole, and summary, with additions of .'> per cent., and of 9 per cent., giving a total of 100"8t) 32 pesetas. 64 forestry in spain. Section 3.— Studies of Third Year. lu the third year ot" study atteutioD is given to Mineral- ogy and Applied Geology ; to Applied Zoology ; to Applied Botany ; and to Sylviculture. 8ub-Secliou 1. — Mineralogy and Geoluyy. Besides other works on geology and mineralogy, there has been published under the title of Lecciones de Petro- raphia Aplicada Explicada en le Escuela Especial de Ingenieros de Monies j^or el Inyeniero del Cueipo y Pro- fessor de la misma D., Juan Jose Munnos de Madariago, Lectures on Applied Petrography expounded in the School of Forest Engineers by Senor Munnos, Forest Engineer and Professor of Mineralogy in the school. In this are giveu details in regard to some GOO different rocks, including the scientific and the popular names under which they are known, and is a work spoken of in terms of high com- mendation by the Junta Oonsultativa, or Council of Advice, of the corps, by which the publication was recommended. Ill this volume, after some preliminary observations, notices of the bibliography of the subject, and a definition of the designation, there are discussed: — 1 Under the head of Hilolgy the division of rocks according to their constitution, with the distinction between phaneromeric and cryptomeric rocks. 2. Under the head of Histology there are discussed the forms and dimensions of the elements of rocks ; the forms and structure of accessory masses ; the general forms (jf structure ; particular structures of rocks ; cross sections and fractures. 3. Under the head of Morphology are discussed forms of stratification, of aggregation, and of concretion. 4. Under the head of Synopsis there are given the classification of Naumann, with a tabulated classification of the rocks according to this ; the classification of rocks, according to Cordier ; the classification of rocks •tHE LIBRARY. 6S considered mineralogically, according to Broigniart ; the ciassitlcatiou of rocks considered mineralogically according to D'Omalius : D'Halloy ; the mineralogical classification of rocks according to Coquand ; the classification of Coquand modified by Vilanova ; and the dichotomous classification of rocks. The different species are then described according to classes, and orders, and families. 5. Under the head Petrogenia are discussed succes- sively eruptive rocks and neptunic rocks, in a normal con- dition, divided into those formed by chemical sediment, and those by mechanical sediment ; metaraorphic rocks, and rocks of organic origin, divided into those formed of animal remains, and coal formations of vegetable origin. 6. Under the head of Aleofologia, or the decomposition of rocks, are discussed the various rocks thus produced. And this is followed by a discussion of the general constitu- tion of earths ; of the component parts of these ; of the influence of these upon the properties of the earths thus formed ; the physical properties of earths ; and the classi- fication of earths according to the method of Hundeshagen of Masure, and of Columelo. Of this sixth section of the work the Junta Consultiva speak in terms of the highest commendation. It appears from their statements, and the statements of others, that facts which are met with scattered and dispersed in various treatises on sylviculture, mineralogy, o-eology, and other allied subjects, are here presented iu such collocation and combination that with ease and advantage there maybe deduced from the composition of the soil the vegetation with which it should be covered, and vice versa ; and be determined with certitude the case frequently submitted to the forest engineer — to what should be destined certain lands requiring to be replenished ; or what species of trees should make way for others for which the land is better adapted : and this department of study is presented in the work in a simple and attractive aspect, — deducing so naturally from the composition of the soil, and the course of the alterations in the nutritive principles F U FORESTRY IN SPAIN. which it contains, and from its qualities, physical, chemical, and mechanical, the requirements which should be satisfied, and the relations which, within definite limits, should exist between the soil and vegetation which it prefers— that in this part of the work the forest engineer has a safe guide in the discharge of one of the most important of the services required of him. They allege that Senor Munnos has (it may be unintentionally, but not on that account the less meritoriously) so carried out his idea as to elevate it to a place amongst those ideas which are of much avail in the development of the practical applications made of physical science ; showmg that appliances which are oftimes found to be a burden on the memory appear as corollaries or consequences like to those which are derived from mathe- matical problems, and satisfying suspicions and doubts which naturally arise as the horizon is extended, by the demonstration that what happens could not but happen, and could not have been brought about otherwise. Sub-Section 2. — Applied Zoology. Like attention has been given to provision for the study of Zoology and Botany in their application to forestry. An extensive acquaintance with both sciences is a pre-requisite to admission to the school in the Escurial, but the information otherwise obtained has to be brought to bear upon phenomena presenting themselves to the forest engineer in the discharge of his functions, so as to secure the conservation and healthful development of forests under his charge or administration. What may be considered a handbook, which may be used in diagnosing vegetables and animals coming under his notice in connection with his profession, as might be used the Petrography of Munnos in diagnosing rocks and soils, is a volume entitled GLaves Dicotomicos, para la deter- minacion de los typos, ordenes y Familias, en los reinos, animal y Vegetal, by Senor D. Adolfo Parada y Barreto, Forest THte library! 67 Eagiaeer-iQ-Chief of the second class, and Professor of Applied Zoology in the School of Forestry. And information in regard to methods of prosecuting microscopic investigations, so necessary in the study of ento- mology, in relation to injuries done to forests by insects, is embodied in a volume printed by Royal order, under the title La Estacion Zoologica de Napoles, y sus procedimientos, para el examen Microsopico, The zoological station at Naples, and its proceedings by microscopic examinations — a memoir presented to the illustrious the Director-General of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce, by Don Joaquin Maria de Castellarnau y de Lleopart, Forest Engineer. Illustrations of the practical application of a knowledge of entomology, to the study of damage done to forests by insects, are supplied by a memoir entitled, Estudia de la Invasion de los Monies de la Provincia de Salamanca, del Insect llainado vidgarmente Lagarta, y medios mas adeocuardos, para evitar sus estragos — A Study of the Invasions of the Forests of the Province of Salamanca, by the insect popularly called Lagarta ; and the most efficient means of averting its ravages— by Don Antonio Garci Maceira, Forest Engineer- in-Chief of the second class. In consequence of great devastation being occasioned in the forests of Salamanca by an insect, the increase and spread of which was imperilling the existence of the woods and forests in the province, by Royal order of 21st May, 1883, a commission of enquiry was appointed ; and Senor Maceira was entrusted with the commission. He proceeded to the province, prepared a report, which was submitted for examination to the Facultative Junta, or Professional Council of Forests, by whom it was highly approved, and its publication for general information was advised. This approval and advice were forwarded by the Director- General of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce, to the Minister of Fomento, and publication followed. In the memoir by Senor Maceira there is given the history of the invasion and its rapid spread ; there follow 6^ 'FORESTRY IN SPAti^. notices of the generic and specific characters of the insect, and of its natural history, with general observations on the causes and occasion of its rapid increase in the province. There are adduced climatic observations, with statements of contributory effects, direct or indirect, which climatic conditions may have had in favouririg the rapid increase of the insect. There are next stated effects which may be attributed to the diminution of carnivorous insects, parasitic insects, and insectivorous birds, with references to the occasion of this. Next are specified extensive changes which had taken place in the cuhure of different crops in the district, but not in adjoining districts, with the effects of diminishingthe woodlands in it, and so affecting the, climate ; of starving out certain insects, and as a conse- quence dimiuishing the aliment of insectivorous insects and birds ; and, as a second consequence, leading to the diminu- tion of these, but increasing at the same time the vegetation supplying food for the Jjogarta — the Bombyx Dispar of Latreille, the Liparis Dispar of Linnseus ; and thus producing an extraordinary increase of the insect, and of its ravages in tlie forests, with disastrous consequences. IS'ext, with courtesy but firmness, there are reported as contributory causes the apathy and negligence of the people ; the unsatisfactory condition ot the municipal guard as forest watchmen, and that of watchmen supported by private proprietors of forest lands ; and in connection with this the iuefficacy of the law as it exists to secure the destruction of injurious insects; and the desideratum of associations of forest proprietors and foresters for consulta- tion and action in matters affecting the interests of owners of forests and woodlands. A more commanding illustration of the application of the knowledge of entomology to the averting of a threatened calamity is supplied by what occurred to Spain, on the invasion of Europe by the Phylloxera vastatrix. In many of the vine-growing communities of Europe, on the appear- ance and rapid spread of the Phylloxera, there was great THE LIBRARY. CO and wide-spread consternation, and that not without reason. Spain was not an exception to this panic, but at once the forest engineers in various parts of the country came to the front spontaneously, or at the call of the Government, or the entreaty of their compatriotss, and the result showed that they were thoroughly competent to deal with such a case. It would fill a volume to detail what they did in prescribing and advocating preventive protective measures, which were adopted and Droved efficient; and what they did to expose the insufficiency or other means which elsewhere had become famous. Details of what was done in both of these departments of operations are embodied in a report, published by Government, by His Excellency Senor D. Mariano de la Paz Graells, Professor of Com- parative Anatomy and Physiology, in the University of Madrid, entitled La Phylloxera vadatrlx. In it is a large volume with an atlas of illustrative plates. It gives details of the natural history of the inject ; of what had been published in regard to it elsewhere ; and of what had been done to avert the evil in Spain and different parts of Europe. Sub-Section 3. — Applied Botany. As with the provision made for the study of Applied Mineralogy and Applied Zoology, so with the provision made for the study of Applied Botany. It was, as might have been anticipated from the immediate relation of botany to forestry, still more copious. One valuable contribution to the provision made for aspirants to the membership of the corps of Forest Engineers, enabling them to make themselves acquainted with the latest discoveries in modern forest science, are various publications by Senor D. Rafael Alvarez Seriex, of some of whose writings mention has been made. Amongst these are Geografia-Botanica ; and Estudios Botanico- Forestules. Of the lEitter two series have been published, most of them 70 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. being translations or resumes of papers or larger works by men of note in other lands, given in a flowing popular style, attained without detriment to the scientific precision of the origmal— or papers giving the result of his own observations, or of observations made by others under his eye. With these may be classed one entitled Incursion por la Botanica. Of this,the following translationwill supply a better idea of his treatment of such matters than I could give by a brief notice or summary. The design was, as may be seen, to supply an indication of the state of botanical science among students of forest science ; and taking as a motto that line of Virgil, Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas, he proceeds : — ' The vegetable world presents to the view of the attentive observer who studies it, marvellous charms and mysteries of complicated and but little comprehended organisation ; all in beautiful harmony with the eternal Hosanuas which heaven and earth are giving forth ; producing admiration, and presenting motives prompting the spirit to meditate — the infinitely great, but also the infinitely small ; the milky way, with the innumerable stars of which it is formed, but also the microscopic ephemera, which is born, lives, and reproduces its kind, and dies all in a space of time of a few moments duration. So man}' and such are the transfoi- mations of matter brought about by vital force, the reality of which is indisputable although its essential nature is unknown, that not even imagination can grasp such an immense combination, in which it appears as if we found an infinite within another infinite, and in wondrous harmon- ious co-operation, always working, and always unvarying, the laws by which all is moved by the Sublime Architect of so grand a work. ' Shall man go on progressing without end ? Will there come a time, more or less remote, in which he will be able to give account of the causes originating all that comes under the cognisance of his senses ? We believe not. His perfectability is limited with his intelligence; there is ^nf. LTBRAk'Y. 71 something at the bottom of all the problems which he proposes to himself to solve that is inherent to his own personal imperfection. He does not know the connection of the subjective and objective ideas; and in Lis laudable endeavour to obtain possession of the truth he encounters obstacles which he cannot remove, and which it is not given him to interpenetrate and fill. ' It became possible, after a lapse of centuries, and con- tinued observation, to discover the existence of sexes in plants. The middle ages having passed a dark night of huTian intelligence, Camerer wrote his famous letter in J 694, in which he declares that the anther is the funda- mental portion of the flower ; and somewhat later, on the 10th of July, 1717, Vaillant delivered an erudite discourse rejecting the hypothesis of Samuel Morland, and affirming that " the stamens trans nit to the ovules— not the grains of pollen — but the vapour or volatile spirit, which is emitted by them ; " and J. B. Amici examines the Portulaca oleracca (a species of the Purslane), and opens to science, with his description of the pollen tube, a wide field for investiga- tion, in which there distinguished themselves Broigniart, Schleiden, Fritzsche, Mohl, Hofmeister, Radlkofer, Schaeht, and many other distinguished naturalists. Let us study the progress of fecundation ; let even the different speed with which the pollen tube advances from its formation be determined ; let it be followed, and be seen to penetrate the microphile, in which it shows a remarkable incisory force — and this having been done, when the triumph seems complete and the phenomena explained, there presents itself the insuperable difficulty of ascertaining what may be the action of the extremity of the pollen tube upon the embryotic vesicle, from which it is kept apart by a membrane which is not perceptibly modified, and the basis being awantiug we begin to diverge into the dangerous field of hypothesis — ingenious, no doubt, but it may be fa,r from correct, 72 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. ' What a beautiful world is the world of plants ! and what a time man has lived without giving to them the attention they claim, believing them to be the gratuitous gift of nature — manna which might be enjoyed without any trouble about its preservation ! A silent and solitary world living by itself alone : a beautiful carpet which covers the earth, and forms, with the blue of the heavens, a landscape of charming lovliness such as no painters — not even the most illustrious — have been able to depict and perpetuate upon their canvas ! Overwhelming is the thought in considering only the infinity of the numbers of the individuals of which it is composed, from the gigantic Wellingtonia, whose head is lost in the clouds at the height of a hundred metres, and the twisting twining Calamus, a thousand yards in length, to the Moss and the Lichen, which cover with green tints the abandoned lordly towers; or the Algae, which float lightly on the waters of the murmuring brooks. Just as they exist on the burning sands of Africa, and quench by their juice the thirst of the lost caravan, and with their shade protect from the burning rays of the sun, and cover and save from the terrible -Sirocco, are they found likewise in reduced size in the regions of perpetual snow. ' It is they which mainly contribute to keep the atmosphere in fit condition for the support of animal life. During tlie day their cellules, which contain chlorophyll, tix the carbon for the growth of the plant, and set free the oxygen, for which great blessing we are indebted to them as a boon, as thus we owe to them life and unappreciable joy, to which we cling the faster the nearer we are about to finish our pilgrimage and go. * Vegetables are also vast deposits of solar heat, which they store up and keep by their chemical action, assimilating it for their growth, and which they subsequently give forth entirely and without reserve, so that, as was affirmed by the unfortunate Lavosier : In nature nothing is lost, and THE LIBRARY. 73 nothing created. These mines of coal, of which London consumes annually six millions of tons— what are they but immense antediluvian woods hidden by geological deposits? We can fully enter into the views expressed when interpreting, for the first time, the movement of the locomotive on roads, Stephenson said to Buckland, who was looking on with astonishment, " Do you know what gives movement to this machine ? The sun, which more than than two million years ago darted to earth with its rays of light, those same fires which are now to-day con- verting the water into steam." 'Blissful nations are ye in which all the importance which it deseives is allotted to the vegetable kingdom, and in which it is studied in its different manifestations, with a view to secure to it all the means of life which it requires. — Nations in which a tree is sacred, and forests are not devastated to meet some momentary requirement, without any eye for the future ! Base spirits are they which reckon for merit their hardihood, and their ignorance for glory! 'Aproof of the attention which is now given to these is sup- plied by the fact that the most abstract theories have been under discussion, and even such as the satisfactory deter- mination of which would, as their only consequence, have brought about a scientific triumph ! Known to every one is the marked fixity with which the root tends towards the centre of the earth, and the stem towards the zenith — a constancy which was made the more manifest by the experiments of Duhamel and Dutrochet. Well then, the attempt has been made to gain an explanation of this, Astrue supposing that it was due to an accumulation of sap ; Dodar believing that the sun attracted the stem, and the earth the roots; La Hire imagining that the roots direct themselves to the centre of the earth, dragi^ed down l)y the weight of the nutritious sap, which is reduced to a state of vapour in the stem, through the etfect of the elaboration of the plant; Darwin attributing it to humidity; and Knight U ^ORteSTRY IX S^Al^^ making the action of gravity to come into play. If they have not yet resolved the question satisfactorily — if there be still awanting the theory which will account for the same force of gravitation causing the root and the stem to take opposite directions — the various conjectures manifest at least the power of the human mind, and tliey are all of them deserving of commendation. 'More important, doubtless, it would have been to have been able to determine whether vegetables possess the property of selecting the nourishment which suits them, and refusing what would be noxious; or whether, on the contrary, they absorb all indiscriminately. And great advances in the somewhat complicated art of cultivation would have been made if we had been able to discover whether vegetables excrete at the extremity of their rootlets, and what it is which they excrete. Although it is nearly a century since Brugman submitted to botanists his views on this last point, and although Macaire, Chatin, AJeyen, Garreau, Brauwis, Goldman, Sachs, linger, Walser, and others, have studied the matter judiciousl}' and carefully, we only know after all that the Rotation of Crops of De-CandoUe has no certain basis to stand upon, having been followed because it was expounded by so illustrious a master — as genius, like the sun, blinds its satellites, and leads them blindly to follow- on, without subjecting their procedure to reason. 'Another problem, however, and that one more difficult to solve, is to determine clearly whether plants have feeling. In presence of the phenomena presented by curious movements, and sptcial attitudes, it is customary to say that these are caused l)y the irritability of the tissues, but never by sensibility, which is generally repudiated as an absurd hypothesis; but, bear with me if I ask : Where does sensibility terminate, and irritability begin? What are the limits which separate them y It is an old trick of man to try to cheat himself by the employment of words which do not express ideas explicitly. We may feel assured THE LIBRARY. 75 that it is not known in any deterroinate manner why the name has been given to what is called The sleep of plants (The Somnus Flantarum of Linaeus), and what difference of constitution occasions this phenomenon so pronounced in some, and imperceptible or awanting in others. When the sun declines below the horizon, and the long twilight comes on, it may be observed that the leaves of certain species of plants, as those of the Cassia jlorHmnda^ turn their leaflets in such a way that they approximate one another considerably, a movement which is generally manifested by the acacias, which are extensively cultivated in our gardens as an ornamental tiee: And who has not heard of the sensitive plant, Mimosa pudica L., whose move- ments, like the natural and periodic ones of sleep, are originated so easily by a passing cloud obscuring for a time the light of the sun, or the distant galloping of a horse, or by the excitation which an insect produces by alighting on the leaves ? Who is not aware that it is enough to touch the extremity of one of its leaflets, in order that all the leaves, and even a b anch, close up as if fiightened by the imprudent mortal who has taken the liberty to come near it? 'Remarkable also are the movements of the Htdysarum girans L. ( Desmodium girans D.C.), a curious plant, discovered in Bengal by Lady Monsen, in which a large odd leaflet is in constant motion ; and the other two, a good deal less in size, ktep up a lively oscillation of a peculiar kind, on which the vertex, or extremity, of each describes an elipsis— the plane of which is oblique to the axis of the leaf. And we may lastly cite the Dioncei Muscipula L. (the Venus Trap-fly), which, tugetherwith the Drosera.io the ISaracenia, and the JS tpanOniii,\iQ_ii by its movements given rise to a lengthened controversy, in which Darwin, Hooker, Eeess, and Will, have displayed their genius and vast experience, as they have discussed with all earnestness the fact whether they be carnivorous plants or not, ' In 1866, Ligersan and Divers having made curious experiments on the sensitive plant, found a remarkable 76 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. relation between the movements of this plant, and the nervous system of man, and believed the influence to be ill its origin of the nature of magnetism. Ligersaa experi- enced a painful impression, produced or communicated apparently by this plant, it being observed that its contrac- tions were more rapid and persistent through contact with an organic body than through contact with a mineral, ' To bring to a close these unconnected statements,imperfect expressions of unconnected ideas, it is but right that we should give place to the immortal Goethe, poet and naturalist, and author of the theory of Morphology, which is now almost universally accepted. He sings one of his beautiful compositions in memory of Schiller, glorious son of Germany, and says eloquently : " The coloured leaf feels the divine hand.and contracts on being touched; its slender forms enfold themselves,and find themselves destined to embrace; they appear in graceful pairs re-united around the sacred altar. Hymen covers them with his wings; and with the diffused precious aromatic perfumes they are deliciously inebriated ; and then they develope in seed the numerous germs which the ovaries enclose. ' " Thus uniting themselves as a new link to that which went before, the mysterious chain is carried across our times, and the type is preserved as well as the individual. ' "Turn now, friend, never to be forgotten, thy gaze to the whirlwind which is agitating all around thee, and to thy spirit there will be nought of conl'usion : every plant will speak to thee its eternal laws; every flower will speak to thee in language more explicit ; and if thou knowest how to read in them the thoughts of the gods, thou shalt know how to comprehend them in all their parts, and under whatever form they present themselves— the same in tne hydra, which turns round embracing itself, as in the butterfly which disports itself in the sunshine, and in man, who artificially disfigures his true physiognomy.'" jV second paper, by Senor Alvarez, in this department of THE LIBRARY. '77 study — Applied Botany — written more in the severe style of the scientist in dealing with the data and scientific deductions of inductive science, than in that which befits the expression of emotions called forth by the contempla- tion of discerned truth, is one entitled Cmisas dela Ascension de la Savia, or sap, based on tlie able works of Dr Boehni. Another paper by Senor Alvarez which I may cite in illustration of the character ol the studies in research pursued in tljis department of forest science in the School of Forestry in the Escurial, and of the kind of publications to whicli students may have access in the prosecution of their studies, is one entitled Temperatur del Arbor, Tem- perature of the tree. The following translations of excerpts from this will, I think, better indicate the character of it than would any summary I could give of its contents. In introducing his subject the author writes : — ' Amongst the repeated experiments which have been made on the temperature of trees, those made by Boehm and Breitenlohner, which we are about to brinjx under consideration, deserve special attention.* ' Krutzsch, professor in the Forest Institute of Tharand, * published observations made by him during the years 1852 and 1853,t and Becquerel has published in a series of dissertations his experience, the principal object of which was to determine the thermometric or climatic influence of the forest,+ In the meteorologico-forestal observations of Bavaria and Switzerland, the internal temperature of trees has also been the subject of observa- tion ; but up to this time there has only been published a resume of the data obtained during the first years.§ ' From these and other experiments, it appears tliat the periodical and irregular changes of temperature influence ditferently different parts of the tree, from the roots to the branches. The atmosphere and the soil are two factors * V. Bauil LXX. Der Sitz. der K. Akad. d. Wisiensch., I. Abth. Mai Heft. t Untersitchunyeii iieber die Teiiipaiatur der ISaunm, etc., 1S64. t Meinoires dc L'Acadeinie des Scieiicen, 18til-64. ^ Zeitichrift der VnUrreichischeti deseUncha/tfuer Meteorologie, Band IW 78 Forestry in sj'ain. which almost exclusively determine the temperature of the tree, both in its aerial and its subterranean parts. The influence of the temperature of the soil extends from the roots to the trunk, but only to a certain height, which is determined by the temperature of the air which surrounds the tree. * The temperature of the roots is imparted by the soil. The origin and nature of the soil and the subsoil, its mechanical and physical properties, the degree of humi- dity, the absence or presence of subterranean water, the superficial covering of the ground, and the varying degrees of sunshine and shade, are so many other factors which influence that by modifying the character and degree of temperature imparted to the roots. With change of temperature in the soil, which in most kinds of land are very slight even in the warm days of sutmner at a depth of one metre from the surface, the temperature of roots must change in the same proportion. The portion of these roots situated more than a metre in depth will only be affected by the heat of the ground throughout the year, which varies very little ; while the roots at a less depth experience the daily changes of temperature in the superficial layers. A long, large, deeply-penetrating tap- root will produce in the warm months a diminution, and in the cold months an increase, in the temperature of the superior roots. Humidity exercises a very great influence on the thermometric conditions of the soil and roots. From this it may be inferred that the influence of the heat of the soil is not confined to the roots, but through the ascending sap makes itself to be felt to a certain height in the trunk. To determine by experiment this hypothesis, Hartig made some observations on two oaks of the same magnitude and same age, 200 years. At the height of a metre from the ground, he introduced ther- mometers to three different depths, and noted the ther- mometric condition of both trunks during the winter's lethargy, as well as during the season of active vegetation. ' The aerial parts of a tree are exposed to the direct tHE LIBRARY. t6 action of the temperature of the air, and to the occasional sunshine, so that the degree to which it is heated or cooled down, depends, when the conditions are the same, on the degree and duration of the sunshine or the shade. And in this respect the trees which are in a clump are differently affected from those which are isolated. The rapidity with which, other things being equal, the mass of a tree becomes warmed, depends on the surface and thick- ness of the bark, and on the conducting power of the roots and the wood in regard to heat. Wood in general is a bad conductor of heat, but all species are not alike in this respect. The influence of the specific heat of the bark and wood, as well as the chemico-physiological func- tions of the tree, however, we shall not here take into account. ' Differences in the size and diameter of the tree pro- duce differences in its temperature. The daily oscillations and the maximum temperature of the trunk are so much the greater as the diameter of the trunk is less or as the point of examination is nearer to the surface. The ther- mometer shows a higher temperature in the branches than in the trunk ; and so much is it so as to show the tem- perature indicated by thermometers introduced into the trunk branch and branchlet to be in inverse proportion to the respective diameters of these. ' From this, then, it is deduced that the internal tem- perature of a tree takes a character related to and is produced by a great many circumstances having a reaction upon one another. It is therefore necessary, iu order to similar observations being comparable together, that they should be made under identical conditions, and exact accordance in the location of the thermometers, in the height and depth of their position, the diameter of the trunk at the point at which the temperature is observed, and finally in the measure of suushine or shade. ' All of these particulars serve as a basis to determine at three different heights the influence which the cooling effect of the roots and the crown of the tree exercises on 80 FORESTRY IN SPAIl^. the temperature of the same. Tu experiiiieatiog, the cooling effects proceeding from the roots is produced by abundantly watering the ground ; and that of the crown of the tree by suspended apparatus acting as a covering or shade. To ascertain with exactitude the cooling effect thus produced, it is required to have two trees, one of which may serve as a subject of experiment, and the other, under natural conditions, to serve as a tree for verification or comparison of results obtained. ' To find two trees of the same species, development, girth, and height, and equally exposed to the action of light, presents some difficulty. Others also presented themselves to Boehm and Breitenlohner, arising from the necessity there was that there should be within a certain distance abundant water, and that the tree used for verification should not be so remote from the subject of experiment as to render impossible the comparison of conditions. ' Two birches were chosen, which, however, did not fulfil all the conditions, as they were not in every respect exactly alike. The tree selected for experiments was in every respect weaker than the other which was to serve for comparison. In three different ways could be carried out the idea of placing thermometers, one at the foot of the tree, another half-way up the trunk, and the third in the branches — viz., first, placing them vertically equidistant without regard to the diameter of trunk or branches ; second, without regard to equality of vertical distances, to seek for equal diameters; third, without regard to diameters, to place the thermometers at equal distances, and at equal depths in the trees. It was necessary to avoid a mixing of these three methods, iu order not to complicate and confuse the observations. ' Through the central layers of the birch constituting soft wood through which circulates the sap, it presents a possibility of placing the thermometer in the medulla of the tree. By adopting the first of the methods specfied, the depth at which the thermometers would have been THE LIBRARY. 81 placed in corresponding points in the two trees would have been ver}' different ; and by adopting the second, the distances of the points of observaLion would have been rather great, especially in the lower p»rt of the trunk. 1'he principal object to be attended to, was the determin- ing the •influence of the temperature ot the soil on the thermometric condition of the trunk in relation with the ascending movement of the sap. Taking as a fundamental fact that the temperature of the soil influences the internal temperature of the trunk the more, the less distant the p )int is from the ground, and the younger are the wood circles, the experiments ought to be male at equal distances from the ground. In the first case, the temperature of the tree is intimately connected with the volume of the trunk or branches, and with variations in the themometric conditions of the air. And the effects of teujperature of this and of the sunshine propagate themselves transversely, while the temperature of the ground is propagated from bti-low upwards. The direct comparison of the temperatures of the trees in the first two cases being excluded, this determined the naturalists Boehm and Breitenlohner to adopt the third method possible, that is, equal heights and equal depths. The two birch trees selected presented the following measurements : — Horizontal distance between the two trees, . . 55 metres. Height of birch experimented on, . . . 15"5 ,, Height of birch of verification or comparison, . . 1- «> Distance of lowest point of observation from ground, . 6'3 ,, Distance of middle point from lowest. . . . ti ,, Distance of highest point from middle one, . . (j ,, Q (9 » S 5£a X a> X It- 03 Q.S Z o Is S 3 QS 55 g.S «:: |s W5 11 t- M i5.= 33 S-H 0. "% >0 i« ■y, 2g !-• I-- 3 3 C^ -I n\ 'j^ .2 a ;: ea a* Cd o S pq 5 2 >o o >o D ^^ "-^ C« C 2 55 H as °y U5 LO >c i^ ;= = 00 i» aH as X • .^^ s?-, 11 •< , , X! O ^ ^ Ss O ^ « I ? ^ r3 so s SB bf H PL, w H O inotnuedxo )o »9J4 aq) ui u^qi iiosi«dinoo }0 88J5 aqi UI ja-jBi jnoq U« 8J9M samaj^xa aqx— 'SNOUTAaasao | lit 3 = o I-l o OS ^•s 5«< ,c S a on t-- T3 a J, - £ r.; tt— o o o •5 *- ■^3 l>-t^ -t> H Hisj n 05 00 00 g.l H s S O ■»t< iH ^H !5 O c = .2 S ^^ 2 o 3 .S e o C<5 CO a< fi.y ^H ^H o O (5*" 5 .s 3 .«d a ^ C 3 i. es3 3 CO (N 05 o O •=5;2 u£ 1 o « a g S —4 a 05 1 ^ ^ giP'" 5fii:z=o 'E * << « = 1 ffi •a « Hi*^ 2 HH- ^"S o o o III Si 00 OO -^ 1 Cd B3 c . "^o sj tete -* z:, iH Z .2 £ •<*- "S 3 ?■ • as 3 13 Q o a M a^ cu ^ -^ ~i ^ ?. .^ 3 ,^ 3 (N a !» c VtM 1% g a) o 1 2 1"' 1 * (N o OO X o « i^ aj 3> '3 3 'a 60 Oh 3 S OG Lowest. Middle. Highest Point. Averages. 18 30 18-58 18-49 18-4tJ 18-30 18 50 18-38 18-39 0-08 Oil 0-07 THE LIBRARY. 83 The tables oa the preceding page are tabulated resalts obtained, omitting remarks ma le on each, and on many of the details of each. Temperature [probably Centigrade] of the air around the trees. Averages of fifteen daily observations from 2 1st August to 10th September: — Experiment Tree, Comparison ,, Difference ,, Temperature of the trees from 21st August to 10th September. Average of fifteen daily observations : — Lowest. Middle. Hi','hest Point. Experiment Tree, ... 1668 1683 17-57 Comparison ,, ... 1703 16-88 1713 Uitlerence ,, . . . +0-35 +0-J5 -0 44 Thermometric difference between the air and the tree : — Lowest. Middle. Highest Point. Experiment Tree, . . . -162 -172 -092 , Comparison ,, . . . -1-27 -162 -1*25 In a comparison of the two trees, it is seen that the comparison birch is in its lower part as much hotter, as in its upper part it is as much cooler than the tree which was the subject of experiment. The higher temperature of the lower part of the former is attributable to the greater accumulation of heat in its greater volume; and on the other hand, that in the upper part is smaller through the greater diamater retarding the occurrence of the extremes.' There has been published also by Senor Alvarez another paper entitled Transpiracion de las Plantas — Transpiration of Plants — a paper based on the works of M. J. Dufour, and on a memoir, Ueber das steigen des Transpiracion stromes bei hol-plamen, published in the Arbeiten des Botanishen Instituts in Wurzbourg III. Heft I. ; and another entitled Formncion de los Nitratos en las Plantas, 84 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. It may be long before Botany takes a place among the so-called exact sciences, but much was done to impart to the studies prosecuted under the designation of Applied Botany somewhat of the character of these. In 1877 there was published by El Illmo. Senor D. Maximo Laguna, one of the fathers of the School of Forestry, of whom mention has been made, an inaugural discourse, delivered by him before the Royal Academy of Science in Madrid — Disairso leido ante la Real Academia de Sciencas Exactes^ Fisicas, y Naturales, por El Ilmo. Senor D. Maximo Laguna, en su Reception Ptihlica. Some years since, by Royal order, a commission was given to this distinguished naturalist, as Inspector- General of of the Corps of Forest Engineers, and others to be associated with him, to prepare a report of the forest flora of Spain. In 1883 the first part of their report was printed at the expense cf the Government. It comprises a description of the trees, shrubs, and bushes, indigenous or naturalized, in Spain, with short notes and observations on the culture and economic uses of the more important. There are given the most generally-used systematic names ; the popular names; references to plates besides those accom- panying the report which have been examined ; a detailed description of each plant ; the areas throughout which they are found ; the locality in Spain in which each is found ; con- ditions of the locality in which it flourishes ; and brief remarks on its culture and exploitation. And it was intimated that probably theie would afterwards be issued as an apptndix to this woik, a description of the trees and shrubs most frequently cultivated in Spain ; but that this woidd be strictly a flora, and not a treatise on sylviculture, nor on exploitation or forest management ; there would be given, however, some indications of the products and the culture of the more important. In the following year there were issued, at the expense of the Government, 1000 copies of 38 plates, executed in chromo-lithograph, illustrative of the first part of the report of the commission. Every precaution necessary was taken THE LIBRARY. 85 to secure a perfect re-production of the drawings which had beea prepared ; and the work has been beautifully executed, representing the leafage, flowers, and fruit, with the organs delicately drawn and exquisitely coloured, having been completed under the charge of Senor Don Justo de Salinas, by whom the drawings were prepared. While this work was in progress, there was published by Sr. Laguua a pamphlet, entitled Coviferas y Amentaceas Espanolos — Spanish Coniferae and Amentaceae. In the preface to this he intimates that the Forest-Flora Commission had presented to the Minister of State a report in manu- script, illustrated by drawings, of their work in regard to conifers and amentuaceae, in which details were given of some species of special interest to forest engineers engaged in sylviculture ; but not knowing what time might elapse ere this should be published, he considered it might be of use to some meanwhile in classifying species belonging to these groups, the principal ones of Spanish trees, to have this key, which was arranged dichotomously. The portion relating to Conifers had been published in 1874 in the lievista Forestal, Economica y Agricola, vol. VII., and with some corrections and additions made to it it was added now to a like key to the Amentacege In 1870 and in 1872 had been published R^sumds, the former of the work done by the Commission in the years 1867 and 1868 ; the latter of this done in the years 1869 and 1870. In 1 880 there was published by the same author, a paper read at a Conference on Agriculture, held in theConservatorio de Artes in Madrid on the 11th April in that year, entitled Plantas Cryptogamas, su importancia en la Agricultura — Crytogamic plants, and the importance of them in con- nection with agriculture. In the following year was published by him another monograph, Un Mesto Italiano y varios Mestos Espannolas- An Italian Oak, and sundry Spanish Oaks; and in 1884 a paper entitled Caracteres 8fe tOEESTRY IN SPAIN. de la Flora Espannola — Characters of the Spanish E^lora. A paper read at a Conference held in the Athenasum, Madrid, on the 11th March in that year. And in the Revista de Monies, or Forestry Review, for January, 1881, appeared the first of a series of papers by him on Cypress— like plants, their habits and their homes. Thus has been made, and is being made, provision for aid in the prosecution by students in the School of Forestry, of the studies in Applied Botany. Of the ferns from the Philippine Islands in the Museum, there is a descriptive catalogue by Senor Laguna ; and by the same author a description of an oak found only in these Island^-. There is a memoir on the productions of the forests of the Philippine Islands, by Senor D. Ramon Jordana y Morera, Chief of the first-class of the Corps of Forest Engineers ; and in 1885 was published a large volume by the same author, Bosquetjo Geograjico e Historico- Natural des Archipielago Filipino - A Geographical and Natural History Sketch of the Philippine Archepelago — with additional notices of the productions of the forests, of which for many years he had been inspector; and a systematically arranged catalogue of the lignous forest and cultivated plants, collected in the forests of Manilla by Forest Engineer D. Sebastian Vidal y Soler, with notices of localities in which each had been found — a work of merit; and thus are the students supplied with works of reference in regard to all the forest products of the Philippines stored in the museum of the school. Sub-Section 4, — Sylviculture. Sylviculture on the Continent corresponds to arboriculture in Britain. The difference is mainly this : the former regards the wood or furest as the object with which it has to deal; the latter looks to the trees individually, whether growing solitary or in a mass of greater or less extent, as the subject of its consideration. There is more in this difference than may at first be supposed; but it may be fdE LIBRARY. 87 that the difference in the treatment of woods and forests in the countries in which these terms respectively are used, is in a great measure the result or consequence of the new departure taken by forest economy within the present century ; and many of the treatises on subjects connected with sylviculture, published in Spain, are not greatly dissimilar to works which have been published in Britain on arboriculture. In 1842 there was published byD. Pablo Bentelou,Director of the Royal Gardens of Alcazar, Memorioe, SfC, a Memoir on the Acclimitisation of Foreign Plants, treating of climatic transplantation and acclimitisation ; with a list of foreign plants suitable, in the opinion of the author for introduction into Spain, stating their habitat and properties. In 1845 was published D. Jose Maria Pamagua, Pro- fessor Emeritus of Agriculture, and member of several scientific societies, Manuel del Podador, &c. — The Pruner's Manual, or directions for the treatment of forest trees, in forests, woods, or plantations — in which physiological phenomena, the knowledge of which is necessary to the intelligent practice of pruning, are detailed ; and the operation is described in its application in different ways, and to a great many different kinds of trees — being a compilation from various French authors, and instruments employed ; with notices of the appropriate seasons of the year for such operations. In 1844 was published in Madrid El ArboUsta Practico, treating of the art of cultivating all kinds of trees ; of the preparation and division of each ; of the multiplication of them ; of diseases from which they suffer ; and of insects injurious to them ; with a description of all kinds of forest and garden trees ; the culture which each requires ; its properties and uses. It is a manual, one of a series published about that time, under the collective title of Agricultura Popular, The directions are compiled from the most distinguished writers of the day. $8 FORESTRY IN S?a1N. Ill 1862 was published a work entitled Calendario del Agricaltor and Ganadero Para, 1862, d:c. — Almanack of Agriculture and Pastoral Husbandry — by D. Doniiuga de la Vega y Ortis, illustrated by 17 engravings, and a beautiful agricultural map of Spain and Portugal. It contains, amongst other tlungs, an article entitled Arboles de liibera — Trees of the Coast — divided into three parts, which treat of the importance and usefulness of these ; of the storing of the water, and the amelioration of the climate ; and of the utilisation and equalisation throughout the year of the flow of rivers and running streams. And in all, much is said of the utility of extending the woodlands as a means of increasing the salubrity of the country, or diminishing the duration, frequency, and intensity of droughts : of ensuring the perennial flow of rivers by increasing lignous productions, and by other appliances of importance; and information is elsewhere supplied in regard to the proper treatment of timber. The article of which mention has been made was re-produced in the Gaceta de Madrid of the 29th October, of the year of its publication, 1862. . Jn 1863 was published a volume entitled Manual de Selvicultara P»acadth of 11 centimetres, a length of 2 decimetres, and a depth of 1 centimetre. 'To collect the resinous material there was followed the method of M. Hughes, there being used small vessels of clay, glazed inside, in the shape of a truncated cone — like a small flower pot — and about a quarter of a litre in size. At the bottom of the incision there were fixed some iron holdfasts, slightly bent, along which the resin might run, flowing without loss into the receivers. As the incisions are enlarged the receivers must be raised, which is done by their being suspended from a nail by a hole in their side. ' It may be observed that with this species of pine the receivers i-equire to be renewed every third, or it may be in some cases every fourth day, this depending on the vegetative vigour of the tree and the state of the atmo.s- piiere. When, as is frequently the case in summer, the tast wind prevails for some time, the evaporation of the spirit of turpentine, and the aqueous constituent with which the resin is combined, evaporate with great rapidity ; the turpentine becomes solidified, and it is thus kept from tiifi LIBRARY. 105 flowing into the receiver, and the resiniferous vessels of the tree become obstructed, the flow of the liquid is arrested. To meet this it is necessary to change the receivers every three days. When the wind is north-west and west the air is cooled, and the turpentine flows till the fourth day without any necessity to change the receivers. ' It has also to be stated, that when the incision penetrates the sixth ring of the alburnum, there are thence obtained only slight indications of turpentine ; that from the second and third layers are obtained the largest quantities ; that from the first and fourth there flows less, and still less from the fifth. Amongst the trees chosen for observation those from 35 to 45 years of age yielded proportionately the greatest quantity of turpentine; and of these those which were growing with greatest vigour and luxuriance. 'The collecting of resin was continued till the 15th of October, giviug seven months of a resin harvest, or, as it is designated, resination. Collected conveniently in a receptacle prepared for the purpos(^ the whole quantity measured 7335 litres, which was equivalent to about I'Z litre per tree. From this, when manipulated in manner at)d form to be afterwards detailed, there were obtained 3G8 litres, or 32 arrobas — the arroba is a weight of 25 pounds — of boras, or earth, impure resin, mixed with small fragments of chips, bark, &c., or 5 per cent of the material extracted and measured ; 5369 litres, or 4G7 arrobas, of colofonia or resin, amounting to 78 percent; and 1471 litres, or 128 arrobas, of spirits or essence of turpentine, equivalent to 20 per cent. ; and 147 litres, or 12 arrobas, of water and other matters were lost by evaporation. ' To determine the expense, and returns of the resination of these 5000 trees, it is only necessary to state the value of the products at the fabrique or manufactory un the pinery of Villanueva : 467 arrobas of colofonia at 11 reals* = 5137 reals ; 128 arrobas of aquarras, or spirits of turpen- * The real is equal to 2ibre la parte forestal de la Exposicion de Londres de 18G2.— Madri.l, 1863. Memoria sobre la inundacion del Jucar en 1864. — Madrid, 1 866. Parte forestal de la ultima Exposicion de Paris. — Madrid, 1869. BrAGAT Y VlNALS (D, Jos>e). Guia practica para combatir y atnjar la phyloxera vastatrix. — Zaragoza, 1878. Iiijiuencia de los montes en la hidrJ.ogia de un pais. — Zaragoza, 1879. Brenosa y Tejada (D. Rafael). Estacion mtteorologico-forestal de SanlUlefonso. — Madrid, 1882. La pnrfirita^ y microdiuritas de San lldffonso y sos contorw.s. — Ma.irid, 1834. Una macla de yeso. — Madrid, 1885. El dimorfismo del basil icato de cat. — Madrid, 1885. Giiia del Meal Sitio de San Ildefonso (En colaboracion con el Sr. Castellarnau). — Madrid, 1885. Campuzano y Brochowski (D. Antonio). Sistema de podas de arbolado, con notas. — Madrid, 1864. Castel y Cle.mente (D. Carlos). Monogr ; / dasograjica del hu^ a, — Madri 1. 1873, ]3S FORESTRY IN SPAIN. Memoria sohre la Injiuencia de la luna en la vegetation. — Madrid, 1875. Memoria sohre la fundacion y dessarrollo de la Escuda especial de Ingenieros de Monies. — Madrid, 1877. £stndios sabre el tanino (Memoria premiada por la Real Acaderaia de Cieiicias). — Madrid, 1879. Descri])cion fisica, geognostica, agricola y /•vestal de la provincia de Guadalajara. (Publicada por la Comision del Mapa geologico de Espaua.) — Madrid, 1882. Memoria sohre las condiciones naturales y produccion agricola y forestal de la Peninsida Escandinava. — Madrid, 1883. Combustibles vegetales : Teoria y practica de la combustion, carbonizacion y destilacion de la madera. — Madrid, 1885. Castellarnau y de Lleopart (D. Joaquin Marie de). Estudio ornithologico del Real Sitio de San Ildefonso y sus alrededores. — Madrid, 1877. Estudio micrografico del tallo del pinsapo. — Madrid, 1881. Estudio micrografico de la madera de la coniferas espanolas, y especialmmte del (jenero ('Pt/iJiwsj.— Madrid, 1884. Guia del Real Sitio de San Ildrfonso. (Eu colaboracion ' con el Sr. Brenosa).— Madrid, 1885. Vision microscopica. — Madrid, 1885. La estacion zoologica de Napoles y sus procedimientos para el examen microscopico. — Madrid, 1885. Descrip>cion micioscopica de la madera del Quercus Jordance. — Madrid, 1885. Ceron y Martinez (D. Salvador). Ctdfivos de las estepas y dunas de las provincia de Cadiz. — Madrid, 1877. Industriaforesial-agricola. — Cadiz, 1879. Estudio sohre los materiales y efectos iisados en la marina. — Cadiz, 1883. CoMPANO Y RossET (D. Manuel). Aptuntes de hotanica. — Fitografia, — Escorial, 1884. Diaz Oyuelos (D. .Jose). Prontvario forestal. — Burgos, 1877, TEE LIBEARY. 139 Diaz Rocafull (D. Aurelio). Legislacinn del ramo de monies. — Madrid, 1881. DiEz DE Andino (D, Julian). CnrtiUa dr selvicultiira . — Santauder, 1860. EscosuRA Y CoRONEL (D. Luis de la). Manual del capotaz de cultivos. — Madrid, 1877. La Phylnxera. — Madrid, 1878. Breves, condderaciones sobre estaiica quimica forestal. — Madrid, 1879. EscRiRANO Y Perfz (D. Jose Maria). Pomona de la provincia de Mitrcia. Memoria premiada por la Keal Academia de Ciencias. — Madrid, 1884. Fenech y Artells (D. Antonio). El vote particidar del S?: Moret. — Pontevedra, 1883. Los monies publicos de Galicia. Memoria premiada por la Sociedad de Juegos florales de Pontevedra. — Madrid, 1884. Garcia Maceira (D. Antonio). La agricaliura salamantina ; sus 7nales y siis reinedios. — Salamanca, 1871. La carta de azucar. — Madrid, 1875. Apuntes y noiicias sobre la agriculiura de los arebes espanoles. — Salamanca, 1876. Beiiffidos de las aves insectivoras . Obra premiada en concurso publico.— Madrid, 1882. Estudio de la invasion en los monies de la provincia de Sala- manca del i)}sccto llamada vidgarmenie Lagaria. — Madrid, 1885. Leyendas salmantinas. — Madrid, 1885 y 1886. Garcia Martino (D. Francisco). Historia y literutnra de la cieticia foresial en Alemania. — Madrid, 1869. Consider aciones economicas sobre la jyrojncdad foresial . — Madrid, 1869. Un problema de la ciencia de monies. — Madrid. 1869. 140 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. Memoria sohre los trohajos ejecidodos por la Direccion general de Fatadistira. — Madrid, 1870. Los mnntes y el Cuerpo de Ivgenieros en las Codes Constihi yentes. — Madrid, 1871. HocEJA Y RosiLLO (D. Javier). Manual de entomologia. — Dos toraos. — Madrid, 1881 y 1882. hijltiencias del arbolado. — Madrid, 1883. JtjRDANA Y MORERA (D. Jos6). Apunfes hihliogirificoforestales. — Madrid. 1875. Loa montes y la colouizacion en Australia. Tasmania y Niieva Zelanda. En colaboracion con D. Juan Morphy. — Madrid, 1878. Apimtes sobre los montes y la agricidtura norteamericana. En colaboracion con D. S. Vidal. — Madrid, 1878. La agricidtura, la industria y las bellas artes en el Japon. — Madrid, 1879. La agriciiltura y los montes de los Estados Unidos. — Madrid, 1880. La produccion agricola y forestal de la A rgelia. En colabora- cion con los Srs. Madrid-Davila y Robles. — Madrid, 1882. Notas sobre los alcornocales y la industria corchera de la Argelia. — Madrid, 1884. Curiosidades naturales y caracter social de los Estados Unidos. Madrid, 1884. El Monasterio de Piedra visto al natural. — Madrid, 1885. Novelas norteanierica7ias (trant^lated from the English). — Madrid, 1885. JoRDAXA Y MoRERA ( D. Ramon). Memoria sobre la produccion de los montes puhlicos de Filipinos en el ano economico de 1871-72. — Madrid, 1874. Idem de 1872-73. — Madrid, 1874. Idem de 1873-74.— Madrid, 1876. Idem de 1874-75 y 1875-76.— Madrid, 1879. Manual de la cria de animales domesiicos. — Madrid, 1882. Manual de podas e ingertos de arbol es frutales y forestales. — Madrid, 1882. Bosqifjo geografico e historico-natural del Archipelago ^lipino. —Madrid, 1885. " Guia del viajero de Earcelomi a. Manila por el canal de Suez, —Madrid, 188(5. filE LIBKARY. iii Laguxa y ViLFAxuEVA (D. Maximo). Mciiioria de reconocimiento de Los mantes de Sierra BuUones pertenecientes a Espann. — Madrid, 1861. Memoria de reconocimiento de la Sierra de Giiadarrama bajo el punto de vista de la repoblacion de sus monies. — Madrid, 1864. Lxrursion forestal 2>os los Imperios de Austria y Rusia. — Madrid, 1866. Resumen de los trabajos verificados por la Comisioa de la flora forestal Espanola. Dos toraos. — Madrid, 1870 y 1872. Un neuvo roble de la flora de Filipinas. — Madrid, 1875. Discurso leido ante la Real Academia de Ciencias exactas, fisicas y naturales. — Madrid, 1877. Coniferas y amentaceas espannolas. — Madrid, 1878. Cien helechos de Filipinas. — Madrid, 1878. Un mesto italiano y varios mestos espannoles. — Madrid, 1881. Que son las plan tas. — Madrid, 1883. Flora forestal espanola. Con uu atlas de 50 laminas cromo- litografiadas. — Madrid, 1883. Caracteres de la flora Espannula. — Madrid, 1884. Leon del Rivero (D, Roqiie). Memoria de ordenacioti de la Reales Maf-as de Vahain. — Madrid, 1886. Llaurado y Fabregas (D. Andres). Tratado de aguas y 7'iegos, Dos tomos. — Madrid, 1886. Monies y Perez (D. Victoriano). Dictamen sohre la scausas que influyen en las coiitiiiuadas seqtiias que experimenta la 2irovincia de Almeria y medios que tenderian a corregirlas. — Madrid, 1879. MuNOZ de Madariaga (D. Juan Jose). Lecciones de petrografia aplicada. — Madrid, 1878. Manual de mineralogia. — Madrid, 1880. Manual de geologia — Madrid, 1881. Lecciones de quimica aplicada. — Madrid, 1886. 142 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. Navarro Reverter (D. Juan). Del Tnria al Danubio : Memoria de la Exiiodcion universal de Viena. — Valencia, 1875. Olazabal y Altuna (D. Lucas). Sutlo, rluiia, ridtivo agrario y forestal de la i^i'ovincia de Vizcayo. Memoria premiada pur la Real x\cademia de Ciencias. —Madrid, 1857. Proyecto de ley de monies. — Madrid, 1877. Ordenacion y valoracion de monies. — Madrid, 1883. Sabre la desamortizacion de los monies jtublicos proyectada iwr el Sr. Camacho, — Madrid, 1884. Parada y Barrkto (D. Adolfo). Claves dicotomicas para la delerminacion dr los tipos, clasps, ordenes y f ami lias en los reinos animal y vegetal — Madrid, 1878. Paudo y Moreno (D. Edtiardo). A^iuntes sobre el espiario. — Madrid, 1865. Pascual (D. Agustin). Esiudios forestales. — Madrid, 1852. Resenna agricola de Esj'^ana Se publico en el Anuario de i^'s-^rtf/is^ica correspond iente a 1858, — Madrid, 1859. informe de la Junta Facultiva dd Guerpo de Ingenieros de Monies con motivo de la desamortizacion forestal. — Ms.drid, 1855. ISobre el vocablo forestal. — Madrid, 1869. Sistemas forestales. — Madrid, 1 870. Discurso leido ante la Real Academia Espianola. — Madrid, 1870. Pla y Rave (D. Eugenic). Maderas de consiruccion naval. — Madrid, 1875. Marcos de maderas paras la consiruccion civil y naval. — Madrid, 1879. Tratado de maderas de consiruccion civil y naval. — Madrid, 1879. Manual de cultivos agricolas. — Madrid, 1879. Mannal de cultivo de arboles fruiales y de adorno. — Madrid, 1880. THE LIBRARY. 143 Manual de cultivu de arholes foredales. — Madrid, 1880. Manual del viaderero. — Madrid, 1882, PuiG Y Valls (D. Rafael). Breves consideraciones sobre la Importancia ladustrial, viinera, agricola y torestal de la alta cuenca del Llobregat. — Madrid, 1881. Romero y Gilsanz (D. Felipe). Articulos sobre una cuestion de niontes. — Valladolid, 1883. Ruiz Amado (D. Hilarion). Manual de legislacion y ad ininislracion forcstal. — Geroua, 1851). Estudios forestales: Los vionte tn sus relaciones con las necesi- dades de los pueblos, Dos tomos.--Tarragoaa, 1870 y lir72. Tablas (aquimctricas. — Barcelona, 1885. Ugaldezubiaur (L>. Santiago). Meniorla descriptiva de laprovincia de Manila. — Madrid, 1880. ViDAL Y SoLER (D. Domingo). Maauol del niaderero en Filipinas. — Mauihi, 1877. La flora, filpino agustlniana, — Manila, 1877. ViuAL Y SoLEK ( D. Sebastiaii). Memorla sobre 'l ramo de monies el la Islas Fdipinas. — Madrid, 1874. Apuntes sobre los monies y la agricultura norteamericana. En colaboraciou con D. J. Jordaua. — Madrid, 1878. Catalogo nietodLo de la plantas lenosas sUvestres y cultivalas observadas en la provincia de Manila. — Madrid, 1880. Resena de la'flora del Archipelago filipino. — Manila, 1883. Sinopsis de familias y gennros de pAantaa lenohas de Filipinas. Con un atlas de 100 laminas. — Manila, 1883. Phinerogamoi C uniingianoe philippinarain — Manila, 1885, Xerica e luiGORAs ( D. liamou de). La tearia y la practica de la resinacion. — Madrid, 1869. 144 FORESTRY IN SPAIIf. In this list is included a volume, which was printed in 1873, not for sale, but for distribution, by Don Josd Jordana y Morera, to which reference has areadly been made as a Catalogue Raisonm, of upwards of eleven hundred books, manuscripts, maps, and chartvS, bearing upon forestry and forest science, which had been published in the Spanish language. It is entitled Apuntes Bihliographico Forestales, o sea breve resumen de los Libros, foUetos, articulos, impressos, manuscriptos, mapas, pianos, y demas trabojos originales o traducidos,por Autores Espandes, relatives a La cria, cultivo aprovechamiento administracion, legislacion y economia de los monies, armolados, plantios, prados. cazay pesca — Forestal Bibliographic Notes, or short resumes, of books, pamphlets, papers, short treatises, manu- scripts, maps, charts,an(i other original works, or translations, by Spanish authors, relative to the creation, cultivation, exploitation, administration, legislation, and economy of forests, woodlands, plantations, meadows, the game, and fisheries. The list comprises works published previous to 1860. By Senor D. Rafael Alvarez Sereix, now of the Govern- ment Department of Statistics and Geograph}', there was prepared and printed a list of works on forest science, published in Spain between the years 1860 and 1881 ; and he has since prepared a list in manucript of works published since 1881 to the present time. In these appear most of the works included in the foregoing list of works published by members of the Corps of b^orest Engineers. CHAPTER V. FOREST EXCURSIONS. At Villaviciosa there were man}^ local advantages enjoyed by the students engaged in prosecuting their studies, and there was formed si campo fo/rst'il i'or their benefit. Tliis took much of the character of an arboretum, in which the students might familiarise their minds with the habits of different kinds of trees, acquire some knowledge of the general appearance and natural history of these ; and acquire some experience in planting, transplanting, and sowing. But there was no campo e without any kind of rhyme, which differs from prose only in the number of feet, and the orderly interchange of the long and short syllables ; verses with perfect rhyme, which they call coasoaaates ; and what they call asonantes, in which are written almost all their old plays, and many of the modern ones. These commonly, says .Nl Bourgoing, begin in a series of true verses, coa^onantes, either in common rhyme, and with equal feet or in alternate rhyme and unequal measure. After a scene or two, sjinetimes only a speech or two, comes the turn of the asonantes, which generally last to the end of the piece, unless in some part the consonates reappear for a little time. These asonantes are a string, often very long, of cadenced phrases subject to a certain measure. Each of them is a verse ; 152 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. but the asonante returns only every other line, and makes no rhyme. It is sufficient that the two last vowels are the same. In illustration are given quotations from classic dramas, in one of which sirve and vides ; in another tema and era ; in another rarafi and casos, plantas, and vrohanza, are asonantes ; and he goes on to say : without being acquainted with this beforehand, a foreigner might ftrequent the Spanish theatre for years without perceiving the existence or effect of the asonantes ; and though he be put into the way he will often have much trouble to trace them when he hears them on the stage. But what is so difficult for him to catch at does not escape a Spaniard for an instant, however unlearned he may bo. After the second verse of a long string of asonantes he discovers the final vowels which govern ; he listens at the proper places, and an actor could not with impunity dis- appoint him : this is a rare quality, owing to the delicate organisation of the people, and to the habit of declama- tion which the most obscure and vulgar acquire. I leave to my readers to classify the song. In accordance with what I have stated in regard to the usage coming down from what some would call the olden time of 18i7 and 1848, provision is made for excursions to neighbouring forests, and even forests at a considerable distance from the school, being made by the students in company with one or more of the professors — including provision for meeting the expen.ses of all on such excursions, — and for excuisions being made by the professors into the furest lands of other nations for pur- poses of observation and report. Uf what may thus be done, and has been done, an illustration is supplied by a Report already mentioned, published by official authority, entitled ' Memoria Rela- tiva a la Excursion Verificada por los Aluminos de tercer Anno de la Escuela Especial de Ingenieros de Montes a los Montes Publicos, Dunas y Alcornocales de la Provincia de Geroua por el Venmo de 1882, Escrita por Don. FOREST EXCURSIONS. 153 Primativo Artigas, Ingeniero Jefe de Monies, y Professor de Selviciiltura, Meteorologia y Cliniatologia de la Escuela Especial de Ramo. Publicata con Authorizacion Ofioiai'— Memoir relative to the Excursions made by the Students of the third year of the School of Forest Engineers to the public forests, dunes, and cork-tree woods of Gerona, in the spring of 1882 — written by Don Primitivo Artigas, Chief in the Corps of Forest Engineers, and Professor of Sylviculture, Meteorology, and Climatology in the School of Forestry, and published with official authority. The report of the tour of tjbservation shows such tours to be made not in a desultory manner, but with some special obj(,'ct to be accomplished, as in this case in fultil- ment of a commission given to the Professor, with authority to take students with him to see what he sees, and learn from him what he may consider it of importance that they should know. The tour was made by an order of the Minister of the State, issued on 8th June, 1882, in fulfil- ment of arrangements sanctioned by Royal order in the May of the preceding year. It was submitted by the Professor to the Council of the School of Forestry, with explanatory statements, and on their recommendation it was published at the expense of the State. The report, interesting tons chiefly as illustrative of the kinds of objects to which the attention of the students was directed, comprises accounts of Barcelona, of the large manufactory of land and naval engines there, the carpet manufactory, the saw mills, the ships and shipping, and the public park — with lists of trees, shrubs, and interesting herbs, indigenous and exotic, seen there ; of the public forest of the province of Gerona; of an inundation which had occurred, and the need there was for an increase in the staff of officials employed. Of Gerona itself accounts are given of the saw mills; of the mauuficture of paper pulp ; of the public park, and trees and plants seen there ; the geology of the district ; the institution of secondaiy education : and the Archaeological Museum. There are next 154 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. described the pineries of Palafargell; the lighthouse, and the academy. To this succeeds the accounts of the cork-oak, and the cork manufacture, which has been cited [ante p. 11 4] and of the dunes on the coast ; of measures adopted for fixing these, with notices of the climate^ and of legal questions relative to the proprietorship of these ; a list of 125 articles used or produced in the forestal industry of the district, collected and deposited in the museum of the school ; lists comprising 100 specimens of plants, minerals, and rocks, also collected and so deposited ; and a resume of the whole, with practical and scientific conclusions arrived at. Passing next to Torroella de Montgri, accounts are given of the mansion and forest La FonoUera ; of the dunes of -Bagur ; of the invasion of the phylloxera in Ampurdan ; of the forest Montana Gran, and its management ; reasons why the forests of Torella de Montgri should, with other- classified State forests, be exempted from sale ; of the agricultural productions of the district, with notices of the importance of establishing there a forestal meteorological observatory. To this follows a report of the dunes, which has been reprinted and published in a separate form ; in this accounts are given of the dunes of the first, the second, and the third zones; remarks on the fixation of dunes; on the climates of the dunes ; opinions relative to the fixation of dunes ; a question at law relative to dunes ; and there is discussed the question of the appointment of a Commission on dunes, with some account of what has been done in other lands in connection with the fixation of dunes. There follows a catalogue of objects of forestal industries, of plants, of minerals, and of rocks, collected by the students in the course of the tour, and deposited in the School of Forest Engineers in the Escurial. These lists fill eight pages of large 8vo. In article 23 of the Reglamenta of the school is stated : every year one of the professors appointed in turn shall go abroad during the summer, in order personally to see what improvements or additions might be introduced into the FOREST EXCURSIONS. 155 course of instruction followed in the school ; and shall embody in a memoir the results of his observation, which, having been submitted to the council of the school, shall be transmitted by them to the Minister de Fomento. And according to article 30 of the Beglamenta of the school, when the professors prepare memoirs, lessons, or relative treatises, on matters comprised in the course of instruction, or in the programme of preliminary examination, they are entitled to special grants in remuneration on a proposal to that effect of the Junta Facultative of the corps, on the previous report of the professors. The amount of the remuneration is determined by the Government. Such a tour of observation was made in 1864, by Royal order of the King of Spain, by Sr. Don Maxima Laguna y Villanueva, Forest Engineer in Chief, and Professor in the School of Forestry in the Escurial. The report made by him, published in 1866, by Royal order, treats of the instruction in forest science and practical forestry in Austria m the schools and academies of Mariabrunn, Schemnitz, Weiswasser, Ausee, and Kreul, comparing it with that given in Villaviciosa in Spain ; and suggesting certain modifications in this deemed likely to be useful. It discusses also the forest service in Austria, in Bohemia, in Hungary, and in Saxony, together with the instruction in forestry given in Russia, and in the School of Practical Forestry in Lissino, and in those of the Steppes; and the general administration of forests in Russia. Senor D. Carlos Castel y Clemente, Commander of the Order of Isabel la Catholica, and Chief of the Second Class of the Corps of Forest Engineers, made a tour through Norway and Sweden, and by Royal order the observations submitted by him to the Facultative Junta, or Council of the Corps, were printed in an edition of GOO copies, under the title ' Memoria sobre las condicione.s naturales y produccion Agricola y Forestal de la Peninsula Escandinavia.' Under successive chapters there are detailed the geographic condition of the Scandinavian 15G FORESTRY IN SPAIN. Peninsula, embracing : — 1. The situation, boundaries, and area ; the geography, and the hydrography of the land. 2. Factors of production : the soil, climate, and people. 3. The agricultural production, with details of the different botanic regions, and of agriculture. 4. The forests, comprising the mode of tenure by which they are held, and the condition and products of the forests. 5. Forest industries, embracing the transport and sawing up of tim- ber; the fabrication of wood pulp; of charcoal, and of lucifer matches ; and other products of the forests. On the occasion of the International Exhibition in Philadelphia being held in Pennsylvania, again Senor Don .Tosd Jordana y Morera, Chief in the Corps of Forest Engineers, author of the 'Catalogue Raisonne of Spanish Works on Forest Science,' of which mention has been made, was sent as a commissioner and director of the agiicultural department of Spanish exhibits, and Senor Don Sebastian Vidal y Soler, Chief in the Corps of Forest Engineers in the Phillipine Islands, and official in the order of the royal crown of Prussia, as commissioner from the Minister of foreign affairs, and by them a report was made under the title of ' Apuntes Sobre los Montes, y la Agricultura Norde-Americana, Memoria Elevada al Exmo. Sr. Mini.stro de Fomento' — Notes on the Forests and Agriculture of North America : a Memoir submitted to the Minister ot Agriculture, Public Works, Trade, and Commerce— which was published in 'ElTiempo,' and in the 'Boletin Oticial del Ministerio de la Ultramar' — Foreign affairs ; and subsequently reprinted and published tor general use. In this there are given reports of the boundaries, area, orography, hydrography, geology, geognosy, temperature, and rainfall of the territory of the United States ; which is followed by a lengthened review of the forestal condition of the country throughout its extent, based on data obtained from the work by Professor Brewer of Yale College, New- haven, and the " statistical atlas of General Walker, It l^OREst EXCURSIOiSfS. 157 comprises: — 1. Prevalent ideas on fbrestal matters, as advanced by distinguished writers, and by scien title societies. 2. Forestal legislation in regard to the Union and to individual States. 3. Instruction given to officials, and methods of management followed in the existing forests. 4. A forestal sketch of the country, specifying the wooded areas, and the kinds of trees growing. 5. ISylvi- culturai conditions of such species as might be introduced advantageously into Spain. G. Forest industries, more especially those connected with the trade in timber, and the exploitation of resinous products ; and an account of maps and works and forest products which might be useful in the instruction given in Spain, which they had collected. This is followed by a more condensed review of the agriculture of the United States, in which are tabulated the respective money value of the several agrieultm'al products of the country, aad of the different kinds of animals reared and tended : the population of the different States ; and the number of bushels of maize raised in each, with the number of bushels of wheat to each inhabitant ; the value of cotton raised ; the value of the annual production of sugar during the preceding five-and-twenty years in the State of Louisiana and throughout the United States ; and in con- clusion there are enumerated as deserving of study : — 1. Special articles of culture : cereals, roots, forage plants, tobacco, sugar cane, and rice, with the adaptation of the first mentioned three for culture in the Peninsula, and the remainder in the foreign dependencies of the country. '1. Implements, apparatus, and machines for the improvement of culture, and subsequent preparations of the afore- mentioned, according as the produce is required for the market, or for agricultural reproduction, o. Systems of breeding and rearing cattle, and the best breeds for draught, and for the. production of flesh, wool, milk, and leather. 4. The jDiincipal schools of agriculture, and methods of instruction followed in these. 5. Works, maps, and agricultural works of all kinds which might be of l:)eneht for Spain. G. An agricultural and pastural sketch of the United States. 158 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. In the spring of 1.881 there was held in Algiers what in Britain would be called an Agricaltiiral Show, the comprehensive character of which led to considerable importance being attached to it by those living in Northern Africa and elsewhere, who were desirous of becoming acquainted with the agricultural capabilities of Algeria, and the development which these had received The Government of Spain commissioned again Senor D. Jose Jordana y Morera, Chief in the Corps of Forest Engineers ; Senor D. Alfre o de Madrid Davila, mining engioeer ; and Senor D. Eduardo de Robles, agricultural engineer, to attend, make their observations, and report. Every facility they could desire was afforded to them by the authorities in Algiers. The Exhibition continued from the 2nd to the lltli of April. On the 14th there was assembled a Cougress of Science, which was continued till the 20th ; after which several scientific excursions, for which preparations had been made, were undertaken by the members ot tne Congress. This was attended by the Spanish Commissioners ; and these giving their attention chiefly to matters pertaining to agriculture and forestry, availed themselves of the arrangements made to visit, and recouoitre with the greatest extent and precision jjossible, the Cedar mountains of the Atlas range ; the agricultural exploitations of Bouffarik ; the fruit cultures of Blida; those of the Huerta of Perreguex ; those of the Secano, or dry arable land of Sidi Bel Abbes ; and the system of irrigations and pantanos or reservoirs of the Cuenca, or basin of the Habra. Their report comprised, with a critical account of the Exhibition, a detailed description of the agricultural and forestal cultures, of the cattle stock, of the fixed property, and, in a word, of everything constituting the territorial strength of that fertile country. It was illustrated by- numerous drawings, and accompanied by a detailed account of the excursions and professional visits of inspection made by the several members of the Commission to estates and districts remarkable in connection with some of the i'OREST EXCURSIONS. 159 matters interesting to agriculture; with interesting an I useful stateiueats of comparisons between the agriculture of Algeria and the agriculture of Spain, aud recotntneuda- tions of innovations by which the productions of Spanish lands might be improved. By the Government it was recognised that the report by the multiplicity of matters which it embraced, and the character of its details, con- stituted it an excellent agricultural and forestal description of Algeria, such as was not to be found in the Spanish language, it such an account of that country existed in any language ; and it was by Royal order published at the expense of the Ministry de Fomento, under tlie title of La produccion Agncola y Forestal de la Argelia en el Concuso de Argel de 1881 — The Agricultural and Forestal Productions of Algeria in the Colonial Exhibition in Algiers in 1881. In an introduction is given an account of the country ; and there is added a list of the more important of the works, printed books, pamphlets, aud periodicals made use of by the Commissioners in the pre- paration of their report, constituting avaluable bibliography of Algeria. Details are given of agricultural exploitations in ditfeteDt parts of the colony, and of the works of irrigation ; descriptions of the cattle, oxen, sheep, and goats ; of asses, mules, and horses ; of camels, dromedaries, and swift dromedaries, me^a/'is ; of poultry and domestic animals under acclimation ; accounts of machinery, implements, aud tools, including hydraulic apparatus, steam engines, aud wind-mills ; detailed notices of agri- cultural and forestal products, aud industrial manufactures connected with these, including sericulture, apiculture, pisciculture, &c., horticulture, arboriculture, the culture of the eucalyptus, and that of the cork tree, and the collec- ting of esparto grass ; and agricultural aud forestal maps of Algeria, includiug charts of the orange producing region, of that of the vine and the olive, of the zone of the esparto grasses, and of the so-called iner ctalfa. In further illustration of the breadth aud comprehensive- 160 FOEESTRY IN SPAIN. ness of views takea ia Spain in regard to what should be doae under the provision made in the lieglaiaeata of the school for excursions in foreign lands, such as have been mentioned, I may state that a commission was given in accordance with a Royal order to a member of the Corps of Forest Engineers, Senor D. Joaquin Maria de Castell- arnau y de Lleopart, to visit the zoological station at Naples, study proceedings there, and report. This he did in a memoir entitled ' La Estacion Zoologica de Napolesy sus Procedimientos par el Exameu Microscopico,' which was presented to the Minister De Fomento, the Minister of Agriculture, Trade, and Commerce, and published. Senor Castellarnau spent at the station the first three months of 1883 ; and in his memoir he sought to give a definite and correct idea of the station, of tlie facilities for study afforded by it, and of the importance, and even necessity, which there is for such stations, if zoology is to be made a true science founded on observation ; and tiiereafter to discharge the commission with which he had been entrusted, by describing the methods and special proceedings at the zoological station at Naples, omitting all such generalities, formulas, and modes ot operation as may be met with in treatises on the microscope, but narrating some which might not have been previously described. In the first part is supplied information relative to the necessit}^, the object, and the importance, of such observatories ; the history of this zoological laboratory, in which there are 22 tables, supported by different nations, including one supported by the British association for the advancement of science, where any one nominated by the association may prosecute researches; and two were formerly supported by associations in the United States of America, at one of which a young lady was then engaged in thti study of cephalopods;— publications which had appeared communicating the, results of observations made ; means which had been adopted there and in other countries for the preservation of marine animals; and the aquarium of FOREST EXCURSIONS. l6l the station. And with this information is given a detailed account of the fauna of the Gulf of Naples. In the second part there is given copious, explicit, and valuable information, such as might be desired and found satisfactory by any parties desirous of establishing a similar institution, or deciding on the expediency of pro- ceeding thither for study of the protozoas, both general and special, and in regard to proceedings followed in the study of marine animals in general : first, proceedings connected with the killing, setting, and preservation of these ; and the application made of these to the different classes— protozoas, sponges, and corals, the actineaj or sea anemones, and madrepores, the medusae, &c., &c., the crustacean, the molluscs, and the vertebrates; operations connected with dissection, with colouration, and with making and mounting sections. In an appendix there is given informa- tion in regard to photo-micrography; and in each section there is given the bibliography pertaining to the sul)ject. By the Minister De Fomento the report was submitted to the Junta Facidtaiiva de Monies, or Forestal Professional Council, in accordance with the regulation cited. By them its publication and distribution amongpersonsand establish- ments dedicated to the study of natural sciences was cordially recommended. In their report they enlarge on its relating chiefly to study of the aquatic protozoa, but recogni.se the bearing of a knowledge of the natural history of these on the natural history of all higher organised structures, animal or vegetable; and thus they indicate the comprehensive character of the views enter- tained by them of what is comprised in forest science. M CHAPTER VI. CORPS OF FOREST ENGINEERS AND STAFF OF TEACHERS. By the Revisfa de Monies there was published an Escalafon, or classified list of the members of the National Corps of Forest Engineers, arranged according to their rank, on the 1st July last (1886). In an appendix to this it is stated that the title National Corps of Forest Engineers is given to the Association of Engineers, so designated, who have charge of the conservation, replenishing, improvement, and exploitation of the public forests of the kingdom. By Royal Decree of the I7th of March, 1854, there was created this Corps of Forest Engineers, for the facultative or professional service of the department; and it was arrano-ed by Royal Decree of the IGth March, 1859, that this should be composed of three inspectors-general ; fifteen district inspectors; forty chief engineers of first class ; fifty chief engineers of second class ; sixty enoineers of first class ; seventy engineers of second class. According to article 14 of the organic regulations of the Corps, it is obligatory on the Engineers to make use of their distinctive badges in acts of service, and of their uniform in solemnities and public acts in which they are required to take part. There is also a subaltern service, composed of 25 assistants of first class, and 350 assistants of second class, and of 400 foremen planters, created by the law of nth July, 1877. The custody of the public forests is entrusted to the civil guard. FOREST ENGINEERS AND STAFF OF TEACHERS. IG.'l From what is stated in this appendix to the Fscalafoa, it appears that the School of Forest Engineers at the Escurial is governed by the regulation of 27th October,! 879. It was in the summer of 1885 that [ visited Spain. h\ the account of the School, which I have given in a pre- ceding chapter, I have stated [ante p. 20]—' By the Decree of 23rd October, 1868, the prescribed course embraced a period of three years ; by the Decree issued under date of 24th October, 1870. it was so extended as to embrace a period of four years; but by a temporary or provisional arrangement it is at present completed in three years.' And again [ante p. 24] — 'The second period of study embraces four years spent in the School/ and the studies assigned to each have been detailed. And according to the statement in the appendix to the Escalafon, in the re-organisation of the School on the 18th August, 1847, the course of instruction embraceil four years. I have never heard of any Royal order, or other act, authorisinof a change ; but it appears from what is subsequently stated here that at present the curriculum extends over five years. In accordance otherwise with what I have stated, to enter as a student the aspirant must pass an examination in arithmetic, elementary and higher algebra, rectilinear and spherical tiigotiometry, physics, and the French language ; and he must present a certificate of academic examinations in geography, history, Spanish, and Latin, or grammar. The instruction in the School is now distributed thus: — First year, descriptive geometry, differential and integral calculus, theoretic mechauics,and general chemistry. Second year, topography, app'ied mechanics, zoology, and applied chemistry. Third year, botany, mineralogy, geulogy,andgeodes3'. Fourth year, sylviculture, meteorology, and climatology, administrative justice, and legislation relative to forests. Fifth year, ordenacion of forests and xilometry, forestal industries, and political and forestal economy ; and thi"oughout all the years of study there is coutinuous instruction in drawing. 164 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. Having concluded tbeir studies, and spent some time in practical work in a forestal district, the students then receive the appointment of forest engineer. The salaries of the six grades of forest engineers are respectively 12,500, 10,000, 7,500, f.,500, 5000, and 4000 pesetas or francs. In field work the inspectors have also an allowance of 25 francs a day; chief engineers one of 20 francs; engineers of first class and second class one of 15 francs or pesetas. Spain is divided into 46 forestal districts ; three less than the number of provinces and departments. The forests in each of these are under the charge of a Chief Engineer. Besides the forestal district court there is a Junta Facultativa, or Professional Council, composed of eighteen inspectors ; the Commission of forestal flora ; that of a forestal map, and another of the catalogue of forests reserved from alienation ; one of replenishing exhausted forests ; and one of the Sierra de Guadarama. For conductingthe studies in the School there are appointeil a Director, who is head of the school ; ten professors of the corps of engineers; two assistants, who must also be engineers; and to these are joined the follo\Ning subor- dinates: — a collector, preparer, and conservator of objects of natural history ; an official assistant secretary ; an official assistant librarian; two clerks; a steward; a resident in charge of the school forest ; a porter ; three servitors ; necessary warders and sub-warders for the protection of the land and mountains appropriated to the service of the school ; and labourers and peasants required for work on the same. The professors, previous to appointment, must each have completed five years of active service in the Corps of Forest Engineers ; the assistant professors must have completed two years of such service ; and of the Director of the School it is required that he must have attained to the position of an Inspector in the corps. They all continue to receive the salary attached to their Foil EST ENGINEERS AND STAFF OF TEACHERS. 165 positions in the service, and with this an annual allowance determined by the Government, with a definite increase at the termination of every period of fi veyearsservice, continu ed annually during the next period, the successive augmenta- tions being equal in amount to half the allowance made during the first five years; and should the requirements of the service at any time interrupt the discharge of the duties of the professorship, either during the currency of one quinquennial period or between two, as may happen, this takes place without detriment to the right acquired by previous service in the School; and the Director of the School receives in addition to his salary, as Inspector of Forests, an allowance determined by the Government, in accordance with the same rule as to increase. Of the officials, the Director and the janitor alone reside in the school buildings. From the Budget of the Mmister De Fomento for 1881- 1882, the latest to which I had access, it appears that at that time the gratuity to the director was 2000 pesetas; to one professor, a member of the Corps, 2000 ; to ten professors, 1500 = 15,000; to two assistant professors, 1500 = 3000; to the collector, preparer, and con- servator of objects of natural history, were paid 2000, and as a gratuity to the same for special work, 250 ; to the secretary, a salary of 1500, and a gratuity for special work, 750 [sic] 1750; second secretary, 1250; and to a consierge, 1500 ; a porter, 1000 ; three lads, 750 each = 2250 ; an overseer of the campo forestal, 1000 ; a watchman of this, 750 : in all, 33,750 pesetas. To this has to be added the expense of the establishment, which is given as: maintenance of the school buildings, 500 pesetas ; expenses of the secretariat, 500 ; the campo forestal, labour, cultivation, plantations, and tools, 2000 ; three day labourers at 1*50 of days' wage, 821 ; library and collections in the museum, 1000 — in all, 4,821 : together, 38,750 pesetas or francs. As has been intimated, the allowance to the Director and to the professors is in addition to the salaries which 166 FORESTKY IN SPAIK. they draw as members of the Corps of Forest Engineers, which varies with their rank in the service, hence it is designated gratificacion, allowance, or gratuity. The instruction is given (1) by oral lectures and lessons in drawing by the professors ; (2) by written exercises, calculations, and analyses on the subjects embraced by these lectures ; (3) by the detailed study of the animals, rocks, plants, and forest products preserved in the collections and adjuncts of the establishment ; (4) by the practice of topography, land surveying, the study of natural history and orography in the field; (5) by excursions to the plantations and mountains. The school sessions extend, with specified holidays, from the 1st of October of one year to the 3lst of May in the year following. Field exercises ai'e included in this session, but according to what may be required in different classes the^^e may be extended over the months of June, July, and August. The material provisions for study, as has been intimated, consist of the buildings, lands, forests, nurseries, gardens, and their dependencies, appropriated to the school ; the meteorological observatory ; the furniture of the institution, a library and collections of charts and drawings ; a labora- tory and cabinet of chemistry, with apparatus and reagents; collections and museums of topography, land surveying, and cabinets of illustrations of natural history, of moun- tains, of mechanics, and of foreit industries ; the collection of iron implements employed in the practical working of the school lands or in the studies of the pupils; herbaria and collections of plants and of fruits ; and in conclusion, the workshops and machinery, with all the iron tools belonging to these, and the equipments and arms of the warders and dependents. The students do not live in the school; but each is required to Lodge his address with the secretary of the school, and to keep him informed of any change of residence made by him. They are required to supply themselves with all text-books, mathematical instruments, writing and drawing FOREST ENGINEERS AND STAFF OF TEACHERS. 167 implements, and the uniform prescribed to the students ; but beyond this I know of no pecuniary charge made upon them. Regular and punctual attendance, studious atten- tion^ and respectful and orderly behaviour are enjoined. Occasional absence, even with consent of the instructor, want of punctuality, inattention, &c., are punished by deductions from the numerical value attached to the attendance required in order to obtain a diploma at the close of the course ; disobedience, insubordination, &c., are punished by expulsion, or suspension till the decision of the Government is obtained. They are not required to have previously engaged in work of practical forestry ; but, as has been intimated, there is provision for this being done where it may be desired, and for excursions being made to forests, under the guidance of one or other of the professors, in the course of the curriculum. On these excursions their travelling expenses are met from the funds of the school, with an allowance of 10 reals, or about 2s a day, and the professor in charge has an allowance of 25 reals, a little more than OS, for provisions. PART II. Practicable arrangements in accordance with those in the school of forest engineers in spain, suitable for a british national school of forestry. In the session of the British Parliament in 1886, a Select Committee of the House of Commons was appointed to consider whether, by the establishment of a School of Forestry, or otherwise, our woodlands could be rendered more productive. Before this I was called to give evidence in regard to the constitution of Schools of Forestry; when I stated, amongst other things, in reply to successive queries, in substance that there was no one School of Forestry on the Continent of Europe which I could propose as a model for a British National School of Forestry, if such should be organised ; nor one which I could recommend as a type ; but that I considered the School of Forest Engineers in Spain one organised after a type which it might be advantageous to follow, in organising any such School in Britain for the training of officials to administer and managi extensive forests in our colonial possessions, and other similarly conditioned countries. One ditference which may be remarked in the School of Forest Engineers in the Escurial, and others in Central and Northern Europe, is that while these generally are in accordance with a system of graded schools there existing and are adapted to a forestal condition of the country, similar, if not identical, in all of them ; that in the Escurial is, to a considerable extent, indepen- feRItisH KATIONAL SCHOOL OF FORESTRY. 1^9 dent of any such organised school system, and is designed to meet the requirements of a state of things considerably different from that which exists in these other lands; and this is a state of things very similar to what I have seen at the Cape of Good Hope, and what 1 have reason to believe to be existant in others of our Colonies. It is in view of this that 1 cited it, not as a model, or as a type to which it is expedient that a National School of Forestry in Britain should be conformed ; but as illustrative of the category of schools of forestry, which are desireable amongst the English speaking nations, and Colonies in which modern forest science and appliances might, in accordance with national school organisations, be adapted to meet national requirements. This has been done efficiently in Spain ; and I am persuaded that mutatis mutandis it might be done in Britain, and other lands similarly conditioned. Under this impression I proceed to discuss some of the facilities presented in our country for the execution of such an enterprise ; bringing under consideration thoss which relate to an appropriate site ; those which relate to scholastic arrangements adapted to the site recommended — including conditions, curri- culum of study, and expense — and those which relate to the creation of forest literature, similar to the modern forest literature of the Continent. CHAPTER I. APPROPRIATE SITE FOR A BRITISH NATIONAL SCHOOL OF FORESTRY, The selection of a site for a National School of Forestry is a matter of considerable importance. The original idea, or one at least v/hich was entertained at a very early period in the considerations of arrangements to be made for the establishment of a School of Forest Engineers in Spain, was that the school should be established in the capital. Difficulties experienced in securing suitable house accom- modation for the school in Madrid proved almost fatal to the scheme. To cite the phraseology made use of, it had become a question of To he or not to he? when the discovery was made that suitable accommodation might be obtained at Villaviciosa ; and subsequently the discovery was made that, all things being considered, still more suit- able accommodation mightbe found intheEscurial: and thus was determined the sites successively adopted. Both of these sites were, by what seems like a legal fiction, considered to be covered by the praseology employed in the Royal Decree, which required it to be located in the vicinity of the Court, by which was meant, in the capital. These locations successively commanded the assent of His Excellency Senor D. Maximo Laguna y Villanueva, by whom, after making himself acquainted with the conditions of Schools of Forestry elsewhere, the location of the school in Madrid had been advocated ; and the assent of His Excellency Senor D. Bernardo de la Torre Royas, by whom the school at Villaviciosa had been organised ; but the original design was that indicated, that the school should be located in the capital, and this was desired because of the educational advantages which could be commanded there. BRlnsH NATIONAL SCHOOL OF FORESTRY. 171 In giving evidence before the Select Committee of the House of Commons, I stated in reply to a query put that Edinburgh affords special advantages, and such as are unequalled elsewhere, for the site of a National School of Forestry. Among the more manifest advantages of Edinburgh as a site for a National School of Forestry may be mentioned the following: — Adjacent to the city is an Arboretum pur- chased by the inhabitants at an expense, it is said, of £20,000, and presented to the nation in the hope that it might be utilized for the study of forestry. Conterminous with this, and connected with it, there is a large well- equipped and well-stocked Botanic Garden, supported by the nation. In this there is a large comprehensive museum of all kinds of vegetable products. In the Museum of Science and Art, maintained by the Committee of Council on Education, in close proximity to the Universitv buildinsfs, there is alreadv a large and valuable collection of woods and other forest products, and well-selected specimens of illustrations of mineralogy and geology, of entomology, ornitliology, and mazology ; and in the report of this Museum for 1884 it is stated : — ' Considerable additions have accrued to the forestry section of the Museum from the International Forestry Exhibition which was held in the city during the last year. The whole of the Johore collection of forest products have been presented by His Highness the Maharajah of Johore, G.C.M.G., K.C.S.I., &c. A large portion of the extensive Indian collections has been received fro'u Her Majesty's Minister of State for India, and an extensive selection of the products of British Guiana, Sierra Leone, Gambia, and St. Vincent, has been given by the Commissioner in charge, the Hon. William Russel. From the Japanese Commissioners to the International Health ExViibition, Messrs Tegima and Nagai, interesting collections of educational objects and food products have also been received.' Nearly three tiiousand articles were thus added to the Museum. Corresponding collections of articles from 1% FORESTRY IN SPAIN. the International Exhibition, placed at the disposal of a Committee appointed to take measures for the establish- ment of a permanent Museum of forest products, have been transferred to this Museum by that Committee ; and along with these, according to a report made to that Committee, a large collection accumulated during many years by the Scottish Arboricultural Society, all to be arranged for exhibition, so soon as contemplated additions to the building are made. There are numerous nurseries in the immediate vicinity of the city, and well-kept woods and plantations of easy access. There is an Arboricultural Society, a Botanical Society, and a Field-Naturalist Club, to the membership of all of which it is presumable students of forestry might be eligible. Thither gravitated the publication of Forestry, a Journal oj Forestry and Estate Management ; and there are resident the gentlemen with whom originated the idea, and by whom were carried out the arrangements for the International Forestry Exhibition, and those who, from their known interest in the enterprise, have been com- missioned to endeavour to secure the establishment there of a National School of Forestry. And there are situated the headquarters of the Highland and Agricultural Society empowered to grant certificates of attainments in know- ledge of forestry. In the University are taught the following subjects, by professors whose names are annexed : —Jiai/iema'/cs — Prof. Chrystal ; Natural Philosophy — Dr Tait ; Chemistry — Dr C. Brown; Agriculture — Prof Wallace; Botany — Dr Dickson ; Geology and Mineralogy — Dr Geikie ; Natural History — Dr J. C. Ewart ; Engineering — Prof. Armstrong ; Commercial and Political Economy and Mercantile Law — Prof. Nicolson ; Conveyancing — Dr J. S. Tytler ; Anatomy — Prof. Turner; Surgery — Prof. Chiene. In summer, tutorial classes for the study of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy are conducted by the assistants of the professors of those subjects, for students who have attended a winter course therein. fetllTISH NATIONAL SCHOOL Of FOfeESTRV. 1^3 And means are afforded for practical instruction during winter and summer in the following subjects : — Practical Chemistry, under the superintendence of Prof Crum Brown ; Practical Physiology, under the superintendence of Prof Rutherford ; work in Physical Laboratory, under the superintendence of Prof Tait ; work in Natural History Laboratory, under the superintendence of Prof Ewart ; and in Herbarium and Botanical Museum, under the superintendence of Prof Dickson. During winter — Bandaging and Surgical Appliances, under the superin- tendence of Prof Chiene ; work in Mineralogical and Geological Laboratory and Museum, under the superin- tendence of Prof Geikie. In the summer— Practical Botany, by Prof Dickson ; Vegetable Histology, by Prof Dickson ; Practical Natural History, by Prof Ewart. In the Watt Institution and School of Arts provision is made for the instruction of classes in Chemistry Theore- tical and Practical, Natural Philosophy, ]\Jathematics, Arithmetic, Engineering, Architectural, Mechanical, Geo- metrical, and Machine Drawing', Sanitation, English Language and Literature, History, Animal Physiology, French, German, Agriculture, Botany, Geology, Biology, Freehand Drawing, Bookkeeping, and Writing. With such provision for preparatory and accessory instruction, all that is further required is provision for professional studies. These may be classed under the following heads : — Part I.— Forest botany, embracing the structure, physiology, scientific classification, and natural history of herbs found in woods, and arborescent shrubs and trees. Forest Pathology, or diseases, and the natural decay and death of trees. Forest Mycology, or natural history of fungi found in forests, and of fungi injurious to trees and timber. Forest Entomology, or natural history of insects injurious to forest products. 1^4 FORESTRY iN SPAIKI Forest Ornithology, treating of birds injurious or beneficial to the forests. Forest Mazology, treating of quadrupeds, &c., injurious to forests. Part II.— Destruction of Forests by Man. Forest Conservation in France and in Germany. History of Forestry. Advanced Modern Forest Economy. Sylviculture in accordance with the Advanced Modern Forest Economy. Forestry of different Countries on the Continent of Europe. Forestry and Arboriculture of Britain. Improved Forestry in India. Treatment of Forests in British Colonies. Destruction, Conservation, and Extension of Forests in the United States of America. With many, the proximity of a forest in which students may be familiarised with practical work, is considered necessary to the efficiency of a School of Forestry in Britain. Such an adjunct has not been found necessary in Spain ; but no one will deny that it might be advan- tageous to any School of Forestry to have such an adjunct. In the number of the Journal of Forestry for December, 1880, reference is made (p. 4!)0) to the proprietor of an estate in Midlothian being willing to feu to the Govern- ment, at a low rate, a highly eligible an 1 conveniently situated piece of land, stretching from the environs of Edinburgh to the top of the Pentland Hills, for experi- mental purposes in arboriculture, agriculture, and horti- culture. It is stated that the land in question comprises a great diversity of soils and aspects, suitable for the growth and cultivation of all kinds of trees, and a burn, or watercourse, which affords a plentiful supply of water, BRITISH NATIONAL SCHOOL OF FORESTRY. 175 and which could easily be made to form a highly attrac- tive as well as useful object in the landscape. It is stated, further, that it presents a considerable range of altitude, rising from about 200 feet above the level of the sea to a height of about 1,600 feet. In some of the Schools of Forestry on the Continent the students remove with their teachers to some forest at a distance in spring, and spend the summer in practical work. I do not suppose that any difficulty would be experienced in finding foresters of established reputation willing to supply practical instruction in the forests under their charge to students who were able to avail themselves of such an advantage ; nor is it impossible that satisfactory arrangements might be made for such practical training being obtained in some of the Crown forests in England. By Mr Mackenzie, superintendent of Epping Forest under the Corporation of the City of London, there was submitted to the Epping Forest Committee of the Court of Common Council in 1881, a memorial, in which he unfolded a scheme fur the estalilishment of a School of Forestry in connection with that forest. There appears to be little probabilit}' of effect being given to his suggestion; but there is one point in regard to which he makes some important statements, of which advantage might be taken in endeavours to secure practical training for students who have no access to forests in Scotland in which to gain a knowledge of the practical work in which they desire to engage. Writing to the Epping Forest Committee of the Loudon Court of Conmion Council, he says : ' You possess about 6000 acres of land all more or less forest, neglected, detached, and inharmonious in effect by reason of its having been, from circumstances well known to you all, so very much subdivided, that an effort must be made, as soon as the outlying portions are restored to your care, to blend them all into one harmonious, albiet diversified, whole ; consequently the land must be carefully surveyed, and mapped out accurately, in order that a reliable plan 1^6 for^strV tK s^A^^^ may be obtained on which to work out a scheme which may guide the conservators of the forest for all time ; and lastly, that much planting, and the carefid thinning and prunning of existing trees, must be judiciously prosecuted for many years.' It is added : ' The execution of all these works would form the best possible groundwork for the practical training of the foresters in the future.' And in the programme of study which he submits, he says : ' If the course of study should extend over four years, the first two to be spent at Epping Forest, where the trees have been neglected for so many years, it will be the object of the staff to organise order, and produce regularity out of disorder and chaos ; the third year should be spent in the New Forest, which is a tract of sufficient extent, having over 60,000 acres, and which, having been in Government keeping, may be supposed to be a farther advance and development of the principles pursued by the student during his first two years at Epping ; the fourth year should be spent at Windsor, where may be seen the full development of the principles commenced by the student at Epping. After this course of training, those pupils who have diligently applied themselves to their studies during the four years should be drafted off to other fields of usefulness, either at home or abroad.' Should it be deemed desirable, as I think it is, that provision be made for still higher or more varied training being given to a select number of the more promising students, the desideratum can be met. In more than one of the most celebrated Schools of Forestry on the Continent, provision is made for the attendance of foreigners, and these enjoy all the educational advantages of the alumni on specified terms. Assuming that the teacher of Botany — if there be but one — or one of them, if there be more, be qualified by knowledge of the language spoken, such advanced students might be sent under his direction to attend at one of these Continental Forest Schools for a summer session ; and possibly permission might be obtained from the same or some other School of BRITISH NATIONAL SCHOOL OP FORESTRY. 177 Forestry for the British students to accompany the students of that country on their autumnal excursion, and to take part with them in the forest work, to the great advantage of teacher and taught, and through them to that of the country at large. N CHAPTEK TI. scholastic arrangements. Section 1. — Conditions. Supposing Edinburgh selected as the site of a National School of Forestry, there are four practical arrangements by any one of which the advantages derived from this selection might be secured at a moderate expense: — 1. The creation of a Professorship of Forestry or Forest Science in the University. 2. The creation of a Lectureship on Forest Science in the Watt Institute. 3. Tlie creation of such a Lectureship in connection with the Royal Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. 4. The creation by the Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education of a School of Forestry in Edinburgh, resembling the Royal School of Science in Dublin, and the Royal School of Mines and Practical Geology in London. In the Normal School of Science, and Royal School of Mines and Practical Geology in London, under the Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education, instruction was given in the winter session 1883-84, the latest of which I have a report, in chemistry, physics, mechanics, &c , mathematics, geology, and miner- alogy, biology, botany, metallurgy, mining, agriculture, and astronomy. In the summer course of 1884 instruction was given to students in chemistry, mechanics including mechanical drawing, heat, metallurgy, hygiene, and agri- culture; and lectures were given to working men in mineralogy, mechanics, and chemistry. In the Royal College of Science in Dublin, under the Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council SCHOLASTIC ARRANGEMENTS. 179 on Education, instruction was given in the same session, (1883-84), to students of the first year in pure mathematics, elementary mechanics, descriptive geometry with lessons in geometrical drawing, theoretical chemistry, and experi- mental physics. To students of the second year instruction was given in pure mathematics, general mechanics, mechanical drawing, practical physics, practical chemistry, biology, and mineralogy. To students of the third year instruction was given in mechanism and thermo-dynamics, applied mechanics and hydro-dynamics, engineering, drawing, surveying, geology, palseontology, mining, metal- lurgy, applied chemistry, assaying and analytical chemistry ; and there were special courses of instruction given in botany and practical botany, and in zoology and practical zoology. The total number of individuals w,ho attended the stated lectures was eighty, of whom twenty-nine were as-sociates, students prosecuting the whole three years' course with a view of obtaining tlie diploma of associate. The corresponding numbers in the preceding year were fifty-nine and twenty-one respectively. While England and Ireland have such institutions under the Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education, Scotland has none. But it has under that dcpaitment of the Government exceptional facilities for the organisation of a School of Forestry on the lines I have suggested. In the Museum of Science and Art, which is under their direction, there is, as has been intimated, a valual)lo colltction of forest products, enriched by a contribution of well-nigh 8000 articles obtained from the Forestry Exhibition, enriched also with those placed at the disposal of the Committee appointed by the Conference held at the close of that Exhibition, and according to credible report, to be further enriched with the copious and valuable collection of the Scottish Arboricultural Society, making it probably the most comprehensive and extensive collection of such articles in Britain, if not in Europe or in the world; and in 180 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. the same Mugeum are well-selected illustrations of ento- mology and other departments of zoology, of mineralogy and geology, &c. And adjacent to the Museum is the Watt Institute, receiving grants from the Department, reported in 1885, amounting to £179, where it may be assumed accommodation for classes might be obtained, and where, as in the University, contiguous to the Museum, accessory studies might be pursued. By the nearest possible approximation to unanimity, the Committee appointed at a meeting held in the International Forestry Exhibition in Edinburgh to con- sider the means necessary to the establishment of a School of Forestry in that city, have advocated in preference to the organization of classes for the study of Forestry in Edinburgh by the Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education, the establishment of a Professorship of Forestry in the University.* Amongst other advantages of such an arrangement, the expense — subject to the disadvantage of not having a number of teachers of equal rank in many departments of forest science and of forest economy which it is expedient should be comprised in the curriculum of study, would be very much less; and this being determined there would be little probability of its being subsequently increased, unless the advantage of this should become manifest. There would be secured for the study, and for successful students, a prestige which might operate favourably both in securing students able to meet the expense of University instruction, and in securing the services of teachers of higher grade than might be found willing to undertake the work in connection with the more extensive arrangements which have been under * The followinsr are the names of the members of that Committee : — The Most Hon. The Marquis of Lothian, K.T., President ; The Riffht Hon. Thomas Clark, Lord Provost of Edinburgh ; Sir Wilham Muir, K.C.S L, Principal of the University of Edinburgh; Alexander Dickson, Esq. of Hartree, M.D., Professor of Botany, Edinburgh ; Colonel Murdoch Smith, R.E., Directorof Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art ; Sir Alexander Christison, Bart., M.D. ; Robert Hutchison, Esq. of Carlowrie ; P. Neill Eraser, Esq, ; J. Croumbie Brown, LL.D. ; Hugh Cleghorn, Esq. of Stravithie, M.D. : Malcolm Dunn, Esq. ; W. A. Belfrage, Esq., C.E. Colonel Dods, Convener, SOttOLASnC ARRANGEMENTS. 181 consideration, and arrangements might be made for the students graduating in the University. A.t a meeting of the Council of the Edinburgh Univer- sity held in the month of July last (1886), on considera- tion of a communication from the Senatus as to the proposed rules for graduation in science in tlie Depart- ment of Agriculture, the draft of a resokition embodying the proposed rules was approved, and it was ordered that it should be submitted to the General Council of the University at their next meeting for their consideration, in terms of sec. xii. (2) of the Universities (Scotland) Act, 1858. It was also ordered that any communication which might be received on the subject from the directors of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland should be transmitted to the General Council for consideration in connection with the proposed rules The following is a copy of the proposed rules : — ' 1. In the Department of Agriculture the degree of Bachelor of Science shall be the only degree conferred. 2. The rules as to a preliminary examination on subjects of general education shall be the same as those for graduation in the Department of Physical and Natural Science. 3. The rules as to attendance on qualifying classes for three sessions shall be the same as those for graduation in the Department of Physical and Natural Science ; provided always that instead of one of such three years of attendance, a year may be spent on a farm or farms, in pursuance of the practical study of agriculture. 4. Each candidate must produce a certificate of attend- ance upon a qualifying class on each subject of examina- tion, if that subject is taught in the University; and if the subject be not taught in the University, he must produce a certificate of attendance on lectures on that subject, at an institution recognised by the University for the purpose ; and should he, instead of one of the three years of attendance required in section 3, have spent a year in the practical study of agriculture, he must produce a certificate to that effect. 5. There shall be two 182 FORESTRY IN Sl»AlN. examinations for the degree of Bachelor of Science in tlic Department of Agriculture. These examinations shall Ije written, oral, and practical. 6. The first examination shall be in — (I) Agriculture, to such extent as may from time to time be fixed by the Senatus ; (2) Chemistry, to the extent required for tlie first examination for the corresponding degree in the Department of Physical and Natural Science ; (3) Engineering, with .special reference to field work and draining ; (4) Biology, (a) botany or {h) natural history— either subject at the option of each candidate. In either case the examination shall be to the extent required for the first examination for the corresponding degree in the Department of Physical and Natural Science, 7. Candidates who have passed the first examination may present them- selves at the end of six months for the second examination. 8. The second examination shall be in — (1) Agriculture, the whole subject ; (2) Chemistry, as applied to agriculture ; (3) Geology, in so far as bearing on agri- cultural science ; (4) Veterinary hygiene, to such an extent as may from time to time be fixed by the Senatus. 9. Candidates who have passed the second examination shall be recommended to the Senatus for the degree of Bachelor of Science. 10. The examinations shall be conducted by University examiners appointed by the University Court, and an additional examiner in agriculture, to be appointed by the University Court, after communicating with the Council on Education of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, and considering any recommendation by them. 11. The fees for the degree ot Bachelor of Science in the Department of Agriculture shall be — (1) For the preliminary examination, or for registration of any exempting qualification, £1 Is ; (2) for the first Bachelor of Science examination, £2 2s ; (3) for the second Bachelor of Science examination, £2 2s = £5 5s.' On consideration of a minute of Senatus, it was resolved to recognise the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire as one of the institutions at which two of SCfiOLASTIC ARRANGEMENTS. ISS the three academic years of study of candidates for the degree of Bachelor of Science may be passed. It seems reasonable to suppose that in the event of a Professorship of Forestry or of Forest Science being estab- lished in the University, similar arrangements might be made for students passing satisfactorily through this class, being also allowed to graduate in science. In conjunction with such arrangements, or irrespective of them, arrangements might be made for the study of forestry being pursued in the Watt Institute. The advantages of such an arrangement, amongst others, would be these : — It is a popular institution of compre- hensive technological study, many of the classes of which might be made subservient to the study of forestry by students giving their attention to this ; and such a degree of completeness might be thus given to a prescribed programme of forestal studies that, without detriment to any other course of studies followed there in some of the same classes, a fully equipped School of Forestry might be represented as one of the constituent parts of the institution. It would allow of expansion being easily given, temporarily or permanently, to the course of study in forestry, if this should at any time be deemed expedient, or of contraction or change in this, if such should appear advisable ; and that Avithout requiring radical or funda- mental change, or such modification as would justify captious censorious remark. The fees charged, if in accordance with the fees charged in the other classes, would be such as might be met with- out difficulty by students of limited means; while the hours of study, if like those of other classes, being in the evening', would suit the convenience of those who are engaged in daily labour; and others, who, from any cause, might prefer studying accessory subjects in the course of the day in the University, which is adjacent, would have the opportunity of doing so, — while the proximity of the Museum of Science and Art, with its invaluable collection \ki FOKESTJIY IN SPAIN. of forest products, &c., would give every facility for the study of these. From what has beeu commuuicated to me, on what I consider good authority, students at the Watt Institute, whatever their skill and attainments might be, would not, according to existing arrangements, be eligible for admission into the forest service of India, which is at present the only very eligible career open to educat<3d foresters ; but I have no doubt that students, trained as they might be in classes in the Watt Institute, would prove themselves the equals in every respect but that of social position, of those in that service who have studied in Nancy; that when this came to be seen, and recognised as a fact, their services would be in demand for even the Indian service ; that whether they were admitted to the Indian service or not, they would soon in India, or elsewhere, create their own prestige; and other students succeeding them, if such arrangements be carried out, would reap the benefit of this, and the School would rise in favour. On these points I have no misgiving or doubt. Failing all of these plans whereby might be established a National School of Forestry in Edinburgh, or meanwhile until the necessity or the importance of something of the kind indicated being done, permanent or provisional arrangements might with advantage be made by existing organisations, or by private enterprise, to organise arrangements for the study of forestry there. The latter was what was contemplated by the Committee of which mention has been made as having been appointed at a meeting held in the International Forestry Exhibition, and it was only when they found that they could not obtain the requisite funds that they resolved to advocate the establishment of a Professorship in the University. As has been intimated, a large collection of implements, specimens of wood, seeds, fibres, &c., was, at the close of the Exhibition, placed at the disposal of this Committee for use in connection with a proposed School of SCHOLASTIC AKRAkGEMENTlS. ^85 Forestry. lu a circular which they issued under date of 28th January, 1885, the Committee intimated that they felt difficulty in suggesting a definite scheme for the organisation of the School until they had some knowledge of the amount of funds which might be placed at their disposal ; but that they contemplated the establishment of a Professorship of Forest Science for the instruction oi" students in all that pertains to practical and to scienti6c forestry, including the physiology and pathology of trees, the climatic and other effects produced by forests, the different methods of forest management in use in this and other lands, the economic uses to which forest products have been, or may be applied, and forest engineering and forest administration generally : the instruction being communicated by lectures, examinations, written and oral, excursions, &c. Andshould their funds permit,that the large collection of forest implements, produce, and specimens of various kinds illustrative of forest science and forest economy, with such addition? as from time to time might be available, should be placed in a permanent museum in connection with the contemplated School of Forestry ; for the accomplishment of all of which they considered £10,000 would be requisite. In the end of 1885 it was found that a mercantile establishment, in which free storage had been generously given for the large collection of articles placed at their disposal, required the premises in which these were stored. In these circumstances the Committee deemed it expedient to make over the whole to the Museum of Science and Art, in which, along with others which have been procured, they may be permanently exhibited, so soon as the necessary accommodation for this can be provided ; and the sub- scriptions placed at their disposal, amoimting only to £660, they resolved to advocate the establishment of a Professorship of Forestry in the University. Should their original design be carried out by any, in so far as it related to study and instruction, whether this were done by private enterprise or by some one or other 186 FORESTRY JN SPAIIf. of existing organisations, such as the Royal Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, or the Scottish Arbori- cultural Society, this would give an opportunity of seeing, and of showing, what can be done with even limited means; and by inference, what might be done with greater or better means at command; and it would afford oppor- tunities for experimenting, and so preparing for the perfecting of a scheme, which, placed on a more satisfactory basis, might achieve all that is desired. It is possible that the insecurity in regard to continuance attaching to such arrangements, together with the absence of prestige, might have a prejudicial effect on the supply both of teachers and of students ; but even should it prove onl}-- a temporary arrangement, it might, in the absence of some- thing more commanding in promise and in effect, do much good. Section 2.— Currkjulum of Study. I do not happen to know of a more eligible site for a British National School of Forestry than Edinburgh would be ; and in proceeding to bring under consideration what I consider suitable curriculum of study for adoption, I assume hypothetically that others will feel with me that such is the case. This assumed, it is requisite to the satisfactory pro- jection of a programme of instruction to know something of the object to be kept in view ; of the teachers to be employed — their number and their qualifications; and of the students who are to study there — their capabilities and the time they can give to their studies. If the sole object aimed at be to impart the instruction necessary for the satisfactory management of woods and plantations in Britain, or for the satisfactory management of forests and plantations in India, or in one or another, or more — in any or all of our colonies, the curriculum might properly be determined by the circumstance of which 1 BOHOLASTIC ARRANGEMEKTS. 187 oue of these objects was to be the object aimed at ; but as at comparatively little additional expenditure of teaching power and of money, there could be imparted the instruction which is required in common by all of these, together with much beside, which might be advan- tageous, in every way, this is wliat is desirable in a British National School of Forestry, and what alone would render any School worthy of such a name. With this point settled, there arises the question of the number and qualification of the teachers to be employed, and the question. Where may qualified teachers of forestry and forest science be looked for with some hope of their being found? There are three qualifications which I deemed desirable, if not requisite, in teachers in a School of Forestry — the necessary knowledge ; power of communicating to others the knowledge which it is desired they should impart ; and aptitude for teaching. It may be necessary in the commencement of a School of Forestry to abandon the hope of securing in a teacher or teachers, otherwise eligible, one or more of these qualifications, whether it be determined to organise a school in a fully equipped con- dition, or one in what may be called an embryotic form. Which should be sacrificed may depend on circumstances too varied to be specified. Subject to this caveat I may mention that in the Plea for the orgaanisation of of a School of Forestry in connec- tion with the Arboretum in Edinburgh, issued by me in 1877, I stated:— ' The laying out of such grounds can be executed only by a professional forester. But thereafter it may be open to question whether the curatorship of them should be entrusted to a practical or to a scientific officer, and if the latter should be resolved on, there is provision made for the experiment of introducing the study of forest science at little additional expense. ' I presume if this were done, and if it were extensively isS FORESTRY IN SPAIN. made known that this was the case : that there was au Arboretum, about 30 acres in extent, adjoining the Botanic Gardens and Experimental Gardens, in extent some 20 acres more, with a view described " as one of the most magnificent views of Edinburgh which could be -obtained," and " as one of the finest in Europe, including as it did the northern portion of the city, with its spires and domes, and the outstanding eminences of the Castle, Calton Hill, Salisbury Crags, and Arthur's Seat,'' and that related studies could be carried on under such men as- Sir Wyville Thomson, and Professors Balfour, Kelland, Tait, Jeukiu, Wilson, Geikie, Hodgson, Stuart Tytler, and Alexander Crum Brown, with such assistants as they have, and such men as are gathered around Dr Stevenson Macadam and Mr Lees in the Watt Institution, there will be no lack of candidates for the work. ' I consider that there must be many of the officers of the Forest Service in India well fitted, by previous training and experience, for conducting such a course of study as I have proposed Failing this, there might be found, by correspondence with students of forestry on the Continent, able men who might be willing to master the English language and give lectures on some or all of the subjects I have enumerated. ' I have, for some years, myself been engaged in the compilation of information on subjects connected with Economic Botany, with a view to this being, if not previously printed, or otherwise used, deposited in manuscript in the Public Library, Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope, for con- sultation by scientific and practical men seeking to develope the vegetable resources and the agricultural capabilities of that colony ; and I have ready, compiled and translated, all the material requisite for such courses of lectures on Forest Science as I have spoken of. If other duties permitted, I should esteem it an honour, as any man might do, to be entrusted with an opportunity of testing the practicability of establishing a British School of Forestry in connection with the proposed Arboretum ; I SCHOLASTIC ARRANGEMENTS. 189 and from this I conclude, that no difficulty need be anticipated in procuring teachers, if onl}' the necessary arrangements for the teaching were made/ This speaks of the past, not of the present ; but as I felt then^ many, I doubt not, will feel now, or as soon as measures may be matured for the opening of the School, I anticipate a plethora, and not a lack of candidates. In order to the projection of a satisfactory programme of study, it is necessary to know something of the attain- ments and other qualifications of the teacher or teachers whose services can be obtained. But beyond this there are to be taken into account the number and capabilities of the students, the period over which the curriculum is to extend, and ihe number of hours which the students can daily spend in class studies. In lack of all these data it is impossible to speak with the precision which might otherwise have been practicable : they are important, but they are as yet unknown qualities. With these unknown, I may state that in the Plea for the establishment of a School of Forestry in connection with the Arboretum in Edinburgh, which I issued in 1877, I submitted the following, as what I deemed at that time practicable and suitable ; mentioning that 1 still deem them so. ' Since my return to Europe, some ten years ago, from the Cape of Good Hope, where I held the appointments of Colonial Botanist and Professor of Botany in the South African College, I have, with the exception of a brief period, been in constant communication, personal and epistolary, with professors and students of forest science, and officials entrusted with the management or admini- stration of forests in Britain, on the Continent of Europe, in the United States of America, in the British Colonies, and in India, having in the course of that time visited the United States a second time, and travelled extensively in France, Bavaria, Austria, Russia, Finland, Prussia, and 190 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. Belgium, to obtain and to verify information otherwise obtained in regard to forest economy and forest science. And I submit for your consideration the opinion that, with the acquisition of this Arboretum, and with the existing arrangements for study in the University of Edinburgh, and in the Watt Institution and School of Arts, there are required only facilities for the study of ^vhat is known on the Continent as Forest Science to enable these Institu- tions conjointly, or either of them with the help of the other, to take a place amongst the most completely equipped Schools of Forestry iu Europe, and to undertake the training of foresters for the discharge of such duties as are now required of them in India, in our Colonies, and at home. ' I have before me the Programme de I'enseignement h L' Ecole Forestiere, at Nanc}', and the official Report of the prescribed studies in the Central- forstJehr-Anstalt, at Aschaffenburg, and I am more or less acquainted generally with the courses of study followed at most of the other Schools of Forestry in Europe ; and i consider that some such course of study as the following would be equivalent for the purposes of our countrymen to that followed in any one of these valuable institutions, with the advantage of not requiring the acquisition of a foreign language, which few of our foresters and sons of foresters have facilities for eft'ecting, or at least of effecting to such an extent as to enable them to understand instructions as thoroughly as tliey would instructions given in their own tongue : — 'FIRST YEAR. ' Winter Session — ' Instruction to be given in the structure and physiology of Trees and Shrubs ; in the geographical distribution of Forests ; in the treatment of Forests by Sartage, hy Jardinage, by a. tire et aire, andhy tes Compartemenin, or the Fachiierke Methode of Germany ; in the applica- tion of this to coppice wood, with a view to securing, SCHOLASTIC ARRANGEMENTS. 191 along with other advantages, a sustained production of wood ; and in the application of it to timber forests, according as the object may be to secure from these a maximum size of timber, or a maximum produce of wood, or a maximum pecuniary return, along with natural reproduction, sustained produc- tion, and progressive improvement of the woods ; and in measures to be employed in the conversion of coppice wood into timber forests, of timber forests into coppice wood, of mixed woods into either, and of either into mixed woods ; ' With attendance on the classes in the University for the study of Natural History, of Mathematics, of Engineering ; or with attendance on the classes in the Watt Institution and School of Arts for the study of Mechanical Philosophy, and of Mathematics. Summer Session — 'Attendance on the classes in the University for the study of Botany and Vegetable Histology ; and of Practical Natural History ; and of Practical Engin- eering; or attendance on classes, if open, in the Watt Institution for the study of Botany, and of Mechanical and Geometrical Drawing. Autumn Months — ' Tours of observation, with or without the teacher, in woods and forests in Britain, in France, in Germany, or in the North of Europe. 'SECOND YEAR Winter Months— ' Instruction in regard to Forest Economy, Forest Legislation, and Forest Literature in Britain ; in France and in Germany, countries in advance of all others in Forest Science, and in the practical applica- tion of it to the management of forests ; in Russia, where arrangements are being made to introduce and to carry out extensively the improved forest manage- 192 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. meiit practised in Germany and in France ; in Finland, where arrangements have been made to manage the forests in accordance with the require- ments of Forest Science ; in Sweden, where the latest arrangements suggested by Forest Science are being carried out with vigour ; in British Colonies ; in the United States, and in India where have been introduced many of the suggestions of modern Forest Science, and the Forest Economy practised on the Continent of Europe ; ' With attendance at the classes in the University for the study of Theoretical Chemistry and Practical Chemistry, and Natural Philosophy, and the practical application of the same ; or with attendance at the classes in the Watt Institution and School of Arts for the study of Chemistry, of Engineering, and of Geology, ' Summer and Autumn Months — 'Practical experience in the management of Woods, or in the management of Nurseries, to be acquired under the direction of approved foresters or approved nurserymen. 'THIRD YEAR. ' Winter Session only — 'Instruction in the Chemistry of Vegetation and of Soils ; in the Meteorological Effects of Forests on Moisture, on Temperature, and on Constituents of the Atmosphere ; in Sylviculture, as applied in Belgium, &c., to utilise waste lands, — in the Landes of France, to arrest and utilise drift sands, — in the Alps, the Cevennes, and the Pyrenees, to prevent the disastrous effects and consequences of torrents, — on the Karst, in Illyra, to restore fertility to a land rendered sterile by the destruction of trees, — in the [Jnited States of America, to prevent anticipated evils, — in India, to .secure desiderated good, — in SCHOLASTIC ARRANGEMENTS. 193 Britain, to increase amenity, covert, and shelter 3 and instruction in the injurious effects of animals, birds, insects, and various diseases on trees ; ' With attendance on the classes in the University for the study of Geology, of Agriculture, and, if it be desired, any of the following : for the study of Political Economy, of Conveyancing, or of Bandaging and Surgical Appliances ; or with attendance on the classes in the Watt Institution for the study of Animal Physiology, of German, or of French. ' In the curriculum which I have sketched, I have had regard to all that is required in Continental Forest Schools, and only to what is required in some, if not in all, of these institutions, in the study of what is included under the designation of Forest Science. I have also had regard only to the teaching power of the University of Edinburgh, and of the Watt Institution and School of Arts, as existing provision for the teaching of the classes specified. 'In many of the institutions referred to, the provision for practical ti'aining in woods and forests is much more ample than is at present at command in Britain ; but there is here a corresponding reduction in the time allotted to the curriculum ; and tiiis is so arranged that it may be entered upon at the commencement of any one of the sessions. ' It is contemplated that the studies should be conducted by the use of text-books, by lectures, by oral examina- tion'5 at which the students should be encouraged to ask questions of the teacher, by written exercises of various kinds, and by formal discussions by the students under the presidency of the teacher. ' And it is contemplated that the class should meet for an hour five days a week, at a time which would not interfere with the classes attended at the University, or in the Watt Institution/ In the enumeration of clas.ses in the University and o 194 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. in the Watt Institution which might be attended by students of Forestry, I gave the names of the professors, lecturers, and teachers then in charge of those classes. Many of the honoured men whose names were then cited, ;ire no longer amongst us, but others have entered upon their labours, men to be associated with whom many would esteem to be an honour and a privilege. For thoroughly efficient and satisfactory teaching in the subjects of special study mentioned, there would be required a staff of at least three teachers, one giving instruction in forest science ; a second, in forest economy and sylvicul- ture ; and the third, in arboriculture and the management of woods and plantations such as are seen in Britain. But neither is it necessary to have so many teachers from the first; nor is it necessary to have only these, or no others until these may have been installed. A commencement might be made with one te cher, and I had almost said, with a teacher in any one of these departments of study. Suppo.sing a commencement made with a teacher of forest science ; a teacher qualified for conducting the studies of a class satisfactorily in forest science would be one qualified for communicating instruc- tion in both of the other departments; and with such instruction in these as might be given by him, the promoters and supporters of the school might rest satisfied till the necessity for an addition being made to the teaching power of the institution began to manifest itself. Then, another being added, the first would be relieved of having to give instruction in the department assigned to the new teacher, whether this should be one or other of those mentioned, or some one or more of departments of study comprised under the comprehensive designation Forest Science ; and thereafter successive differentiations could be introduced as circumstances might require or warrant. It may be questionable whether this could be done with a Professorship of Forestry in the University ; SCHOLASTIC ARRANGEMENTS. 19') but so far as appears, it might be done if arrangemeuts were made for the study of forestry in connection with the Watt Institute, the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, or in connection with the Museum of Science and Art in Edinburgh, on terms similar to those of the Royal School of Mines ami Practical Geology in London, and the Royal College of Science in Dublin, all of which admit of expansion and curtailment, and changes being made more easily than could de done with a professorship in the University, Section 3.— Expense. The expenditure which might be entailed, by arrange- ments such as had been under consideration, should not, even with the expenditure already incurred on the annual mainteuance of the Museum, make the total expenditure of the Department in Edinburgh equal to the expenditure on the Normal School of Science, and Royal School of Mines, in London ; or approximate by thousands of pounds the expenditure on the Royal College of Science, and the Museum of Science and Art, in Dublin. Nor would it involve an expenditure on a National School of Forestry out of keeping with what is spent on such institutions elsewhere. There is some difficulty in stating what may be con- sidered the total expense incurred in the maintenance of almost any of the Schools of Forestry on the Continent : from this circumstance ann)ng others — in the puljlished accounts no mention is made of what might be considered the equivalent of rent for the premises in which the school is located, and of the grounds connected with these — whether a simple arboretum, or an extensive forest as the case may be. I know not an exception. The premises and grounds, sometimes a mansion, sometimes a palace, with corresponding appointments, is granted by the Government free of reckoning. The rent of such premises, 196 FORESTRY IN SPAIN, if charged, would add greatly to the actual expenditure. But so would it be here. On examination I find in the Forest Budget of Spain for 1882, and I have no reason to suppose that that was in any way an exceptional year, the credit asked and granted for the School of Forestry was 33,7 oO pesetas or francs ; but this did not include the salaries drawn by the director, professors, and assistant professors, as members of advanced grades in the Corps of Forest Engineers, amounting to a much greater sura, probably about 70,000 pesetas ; in all, 103,750 pesetas, say £4,000. In the French Forest Budget for 1880, and in that of the preceding year, 1879, there was asked and granted for instruction in forestry 208,785 francs, about £8,700, of which sum 98,800 francs were designed for the School of Forestry at Nancy ; and it is this alone perhaps with which we need concern ourselves here. There existed at that time an oi'ganisation for imparting what is called secondary instruction in forestry in other schools situated at Villers-Cotterets, Grenoble, and Toulouse, to which forest engineers under forty years of age were admitted without being subjected to an entrance examination. The course of instruction extended over seven months ; this was attended by men in active service, and any who passed satisfactorily the final or exit examination were eligible for appointment as (rarde-general adjoint. But it was found b}^ a sul)- committee of the Chambre, to which had been submitted questions relative to the instruction in forestry, that the system followed at these schools failed generally to produce men fitted for the duties which the holders of that office were, by the forest regulations, required to discharge ; and the committee recommended that these schools should be given up as not accomplishing the object for which they were organised. The instruction given in these schools represented an annual expense of 22,300 francs. The credit granted also included provision for the Ecole Forestiere at l)es Barres-Loiret, founded by M. Vilmorin, SckoLASTIC ARKANGEMENT8. 197 and so designated by hiui in contradistinction on the one hand to a nursery, a designation borrowed from domestic lite; and in c mtradistinction on the other haad to a plantation or forest, it being a collection of trees raised from seed obtained from forests or from nurserymen or seedsmen of note, and reared with a view to the study of their habits, their identity, and their differences : an establishment such as an arboretum might be made. Subsequently to the death of the founder it became State property. Since then it has been greatly extended, and there are received into it, after passing satisfactorily an entrance examination, sons of forest overseers, for two years' study, to prepare them for employment as gardeners or as forest warders ; instruction being given to them in French, drawing, mathematics, laud surveying, sylviculture, and all details of forest service. For this instruction there was allotted 20,610 francs, to cover the salaries of a director, of a garde-general or warder, and of a brigadier, the wages of the students, and other expenses for materials. The grant for the whole of the Schools was, as has been stated, 208,785 francs— say X9,280. I cannot conceive of any circumstances in which the expenditure on a National School of Forestry in Edin- burgh, if regulated l)y reasonable economy, should approximate that incurred on the maintenance of the School of Forestry in Nancy, or the School of Forestry in the Escurial, unless itexpanded far beyond the arrangements found sufficient in these institutions ; nor is it necessary that the expenditure at first should exceed what might be required to make efficient the teaching of one instructor, or afterwards be increased unless the first lectureship or professorship should produce results such as would make it manifest that it would be pecuniarily advantageous to the empire to perpetuate and extend the arrangements aiade. And these amounts are much short of the expenditure insured on the existing Royal School of Miaes in Lonlou, and the Royal College of Science in Dublin. 108 FOKESTHY IN SPAIN. On the Normal School of Science and Royal School of Mines in London there were expended in the financial year terminating on 31st March, 1885, £14,313, 2s 5d; on the Royal College of Science, Dublin, £0804, Is 4d ; with £14,056, 15s lOd for the Dublin Museum of Science and Art, The expenditure on the Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art was £10,689, '2s lid, and such an arrange- ment as I have submitted for consideration would at first, or even when fully developed, re([uire no such expenditure as tliese. And the expenditure would be entailed largely by provision lor the support of students prosecuting their studies. The arrangements for the support of students is similar, if not identical, in London and in Dublin, I may then take for illustration the Royal School of Science in Dublin. This supplies as far as practicable a complete course of instruction in science applicable to the industrial arts, especially those which may be classed broadly under the lieads of mining, engineering, and manufactures, and it is intended also to aid in the instruction of teachers for the local Schools of Science, Students may enter as associates or as non-associates. By ' associate students' is meant all those whu enter for the three years' ' curriculum of the col- lege ' in any department. There are nine ' royal exhibitions ' ^f the value of £50 per annum, entitling the holder to free admission to all the lectures and to the laboratories ; these are tenable for three years. And there are four ' royal scholarships ' of the value of £50 yearly each. And there are thirty-six ' national scholarships,' Tliese are of the value of 30s a week during the session of about nine months for three years, and they are tenable at the option of the holders at either the Royal College of Science, Dublin, or the Royal School of Mines, London, They also entitle the holders to free admission to all the lectures and all the laboratories. Of the Royal Exhibitions, there arc three open for competition annually. Of the Royal Sciiolarships, two SCHOLASTIC AUUANGEMENTS. 19'J arc offered for competition each yeaj- to studeuts, not being royal exhibitioners, on the completion of their first academic year. Of the National Scholarships, twelve are open for competition annually to persons who have taken a tirst or second certificate in the advanced stage in any subject of science in the exarninatit^ns of the Science and A.rt Department, and who show that they are hona-Jide science teachers. Holders of these may attend all the day lectures gratuitously, provide 1 that they be examined on in at hjast one subject, and that they pay a fee of £1 for each course in which they propose to be examined. The fees charged to associate students for lectures and laboratories average £15 a year. Students wishing to make one payment for the whole three years' course of lectures are allowed to compound for £25 in addition to the laboratory fees. The fees payable by non-associate students are £2 for each separate course of lectures, with charges for laboratory instruction, graduated in each class according to the time attended. A non-associate student taking a complete course of instruction is admitted at the same fees as are charged to associate students ; and in any case such receive certificates after examination, if they have attended two-thirds of an entire course of lectures. By these arrangements provision is made for enabling students of limited means to meet the expense of board and education without loss of self-respect. They are similar to those carried out in London ; and if such were made in connection with a School of Forestry in Edinburgh they would bring the course of study prescribed, in whole or in part as the student migh.t wish, within reach of a great number of intelligent young men, who could not meet the expense of University life and University fees, with the advantage supjra'idcd that the holder of the exhibition or scholarship would have the satisfaction of knowing, and of having it known by his -fellow-students, that this he has secured by giving evidence of his qualification for engaging in the studies to which he aspires,— which may be more than they could 200 yORESTllY IN SPaIN. liavc done. And at the same time, a certificate ut' liis having obtained such exhibition or scholarship, with certificate of his having passed satisfactorily both the entrance and the exit examinations of such a Government institution, might have assigned to it a definite value in any application the holder might make for a Government appointment at home or abroad. If similar provision were made for students of forestry, should a School be organised in connection with the Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education, this would only be in keeping with what has hitherto been done for aspirants for employmeul in the Forest Service of India. In an editorial note in the number of the Journal of Forestry issued in March, 1879, it is stated : — ' We regret to find that no attempt has yet been made to reduce the enormous expense to which the country, and the parents or guardians of a pupil, are put to pay for his training in the Forest School at Nancy, an institution, too, be it observed, that does not at all meet the requirements necessary for the proper training of first-class forest otficurs for the management of the forests in British India or in the Colonies. Each pupil costs, for fees and mainten- ance, £220 per annum, of which heavy sum the parents are held liable to pay £183, which may be reduced to an average of £120 per annum by the industry and good con- duct of the pupil; in reward for which the Government, at its discretion, pays the difference, £60 per annum. ' Such heavy charges can only be afforded by the opulent classes, and very much exceed the cost of training for any other profession in this country. They are also quite prohibitory to the young men best qualified by nature and early training for filling the office of forest officers in India or elsewhere. For less than half that cost per head per annum we train our clergy, doctors, lawyers, naval and military officers, engineers, &c. ; in fact, we do not know of any professional training which necessarily requires such .SCHOLASTIC ARllANGEiMENTS. 20l EQ enormous expenditure tor such poor results. Suppose there is an annual average of fifteen pupils being trained at Nancy for the Indian forest service. This would give a total cost of £3000 per annum. Such a large sum properly expended in training forest students in a Forest Depart- ment in connection with any of our Universities vvfould train fifty students in place of fifteen, and make much superior men of them for the duties they are called on to perform in the management of our home, colonial, and Indian forests. The special training for India, or any colony, should be taught in that country. The science and technics of forestry can be better and more economically taught in Britain than anywhere else, and the practical training specially necessary for any particular country cannot be so well taught anywhere as on the spot where it has to be put into practice.' Mr W. G. Pedder, revenue secretary, India Office, in giving evidence before a Select Committee of the House of Commons in July 1885, it is reported in a subsequent issue of that periodical, September 1885, stated, in regard to candidates for employment in the Forest Department in India : — ' It was found that the young men sent to France were not sufficiently well acquainted with the French language to acquire knowledge through that medium. A change has consequently been made. The young officers selected were sent to undergo a course at the Royal Engineering College at West Hill, where they were instructed in the ordinary engineering education, and in addition were taught Forestry, and Botany, and Forest Law, and Jurisprudence. ... No application had been received from other than the Indian Depart- ment ; but no doubt other students would be received, who would pay the fees of £180 a year, including every- thing excepting pocket-money.' At much less expense than this, then, might be provided in Edinburgh, education, instruction, and training, equal to what has hitherto been given to candidates for appoint- 20*2 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. ments as forest officials iu India ; and such, it may be assumed, would suffice for candidates for similar appoint- ments in our colonies and at home. In an editorial note in the Journal of Forestry for March, 1886, it is stated : — ' The fees for the course of training at the Forestry School at Cooper's Hill are, accordinc,^ to the evidence given by Mr Pedder before the Select Committee on Forestry, fixed at £180 a year for each student. This sum covers all expenses except pocket money, viz., board and lodgings, lectures, and a six weeks' tour annually to the Forest School at Nancy. The sum is large, so large indeed as to be prohibitory to all poor aspirants for distinction in forestry science; we do not, however, say nor imply that the amount is too large to cover the expenses of the scheme on which the school is founded. This is a point we do not at present intend to touch upon. What strikes us as most objectionable in connection with these high fees is the fact that they will narrow the field whence forestry students may be drawn, in such a way as to exclude the whole of those who may be reasonably expected to be specially fitted by the circumstances and associations of their early years to enter on the study with a bent in its favour that would assure the highest success. We allude to the sons of practical foresters, and to young foresters generally. It may fairly be presumed that young men who have been associated with trees and with woodland management for many of the earlier years of their life, have acquired a large amount of information of a practical kind respecting these subjects, and also a love of trees, which not one in a thousand candidates from any other field can possibly possess. Yet this valuable element is to be excluded from the public service because they are unable to pay the fees which are required to cover the expenses of the scheme of training decided upon. Surely this is matter for deep regret from all points of view. The annual fee is in point of fact three or four times the amount of the yearly salary of the average English forester. It is therefore obvious SCHOLASTIC ARRANCEMENT.s. 203 that he caunot place his son at Cooper's Hill Forestry School, let his capacity and bent for such a career be ever so conspicuously marked. This we consider is a serious mistake, alike in national and individual interests, at which should be speedily rectified by some means, either at Cooper's Hill, or by the establishment of a less costly school elsewhere. The six weeks' annual sojourn of the students iu France must add very materially to the costs of the establishment at Cooper's Hill, and^ it may be asked, for what good :* It is difficult for any one outside the pale of officialism to conceive what practical advantage will accrue to the Indian Forest Service (in whose interests this annual continental visit of students is planned) from a mere holiday of a few youths to the forests in connection with the school at Nancy, during which in the circumstances they can see and learn little that they may not see and learn in India, where a similar system of forest manage- ment is in practice. Obviously it must be a matter of very little consequence whether these youths reach India with or without twelve weeks of such experience, if they have undergone the course of scientific and technical training prescribed in all other respects satisfactorily. It would be incredible to suppose that such a meagre insight into the practical features of sylviculture as may be obtained in the circumstances would be considered sufficient qualification in the estimation of the authorities to place these young men in posts of responsibility — as, for instance, to direct or control labour in the forest without superior control — immediately on their arrival in India. Although we are told by the same witness, in the same report that only the inferior grades of forest officers are trained in India, it is too absurd to imagine that there is no course of training for the young men who have passed at Cooper's Hill as quaUfied at from 19 to 24 years of age after their arrival in India. If then, as we are bound to assume is the case, these students arrive in India incapa,ble of undertaking even subordinate responsibility in practical forest work, after they have finished their course of study •204 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. at Cooper's Hill, would the omission of their annual visit to Nancy of six weeks for two successive years be a regrett- able matter in any way ? We think not, but leave practical people to draw their own conclusions.' CHAPTER III. RELATIVE IMPORTANCE TO A SCHOOL OF FORESTRY, OF SCHOLASTIC SURROUNDINGS, AND OF ADJACENT FORESTS. In discussing in a preceding chapter the question of an appropriate site for a British National School of Forestry, I have adverted [ante p. 174] to the practicability of securing by feu, property in the immediate vicinity of Edinburgh, on which might be created a forest, in the creation and subsequent management of which students might hereafter be exercised in all that pertains to practical forestry, if Edinburgh should be selected as the site of such a School of Forestry. This matter demands further consideration in connec- tion with the subjf'ct of the immediately preceding chapter — that of expense. Is such a forest really necessary to the efficient teaching of forestry and forest science ? Many will say yes ; beyond all doubt or question it is. That advantage might be derived from the creation of such a forest may be freely admitted ; and that thus the efficiency of the teaching might bo increased need not be denied, but the expense would be considerable, and I do not consider it necessary that that expense should bs incurred. It may be asked, Is it not necessary to the efficiency of a School of Forestry to have adjacent to it a forest, in which the students may be exercised in various departments of forest work ? There prevails in Britain an opinion that it is. Rut I consider this a pi'ejudice, by which I mean an opinion formed a priori, and not the result of observation ; and one which has retarded the establishment of a School of Forestry in Britain, by suggestions of an enornfious expenditure for which it would be difficult to provide. 206 FOEESTEY IN SPAIN. Dr James Brown, in his treatise on Forestry,* already referred to, laments thatthere is notaschool in Great Britain where yonng men can learn efficiently all the branches of study in connection with forestry ; and he gives the following- advice as to the way in which a self-supporting institution for that purpose might be established : ' Let an arboricul- tural association be formed of some of the leading landed proprietors in the country, with a few men of science among them, having for their object the cultivation of trees on the most approved and improved principles of the age, and the training up of young men as foresters according to these principles, in order to fill the places of the existing foresters of the school, and thus as early as possible bring about an improved state of arboriculture for the general welfare of the country. ' Then, supposing that such an association were formed, where and how is the field of their operations to be had ? Of course, they could not undertake anything in a definite and practical way in respect to forestry without this. Such a field may be easily had, as there are many landed pro- prietors in this country who have more estates than one, and who would be willing, I have no doubt, to give over the woodlands on one of them for the purpose of forming an arboricultural school of it, of course under safe and proper conditions to both parties. The outline of the conditions might be made somewhat as follows : The proprietor, R. V., lets to the association , for a period of, say forty years from date, all the woodlands at present on the estate of A., extending to about 2000 acres, as per plan of the property to be referred to, at an annual rent of £ . The several crops embraced to be thinned, and otherwise to be dealt with for their improvement in health and value by the said association, and according to a mode to be proposed by them and approved of by the said R. F., the proprietor, who is to sell the timber and * ' Forestry; or, A practical treatise on the planting, rearing, and general manage- ment of forest trees.' Fourth edition, Williani lilackwoocl & Sons, Edinburgh and J^ondon. 1871, RELATIVE IMPORTANCE TO A SCHOOL, &c. 207 other produce for his own behoof, the association to be paid by him for the labour performed by them in dealing with the works of thinning and otherwise improving the crops, as may be agreed upon, all at the usual rates for such works ; these to be agreed on between the associa- tion and the said proprietor's agent at the beginning of each year, and before the works commence for the season. And the said R. F., the proprietor, lets also to the said association, for the said peiiod of forty years, for the purpose of being planted by them from time to time with suitable kinds of trees, as may be agreed on between the parties, that piece of waste land known as , and extending to 1800 acres, at the annual rent of £ . This portion of land is let to the association on the under- standing that, at the end of their lease, the said R. F., the proprietor, shall take over all the crops that shall then be found growing on it, at a valuation to be settled by two neutral men of skill, mutually chosen, when the said R. F., or his heirs, will pay the association the full value that may then be made in respect to the crops of trees that may have been planted by them on said laud. And it is to be understood that during the currency of the lease the said association shall have full power to manage the woods they ma_y plant on said waste laud in their own way aud as they may think fit, and to use for their own behoof all proceeds arising from them ; it being understood, however, that all the crops they may plant shall be properly treated and trained, so as to insure their being valuable to the estate as a crop on the land, when they are handed over to the proprietor of the land at the end of the lease. And it is also agreed that the said association shall have no power to clear any portion of said crops or trees they may plant, or any portion of any crops, whatever, without the consent of the proprietof of the land 'A president and vice-presidents, with directors, would have to be appointed, as also a secretary, a treasurer, and auditor. Next, the working-resident .staff might be a manager, who would be accountable to the president and 208 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. directors for the proper working of the objects of the association. He would be assisted by a professor of botany and vegetable physiology, and one of geology and chemistry, the latter combining physical geography and climatic science ; while he, the manager, would also have the assistance of a first-class practical forester, whose duties would be to carry out all the practical operations, under the directions of the manager, ia dealing with the woods, aud at the same time instruct and guide the pupils while at their various works in the woods. ' To accommodate a staff of this kind, together with, say fifty or sixty pupils, a convenient house would require to be provided, and as to whether the pupils would be resi- dent in it or not, would of course depend on a careful consideration of all the circumstances in connection with the locality iu which the field was situated. At all events, one-half of the pupils would require to attend at a given hour every morning, to hear lectures and other instructions on the subjects to be taught by the professors, while the other half would go out to work in the woods. These would return in the afternoon to get their course of instructions, while those who were studying in the morning would go out and take their places in the woods ; and in this way the routine of daily theoretical and practical instructions Avould be carried on. Of course a portion of the waste land would be taken up for planting every year, in order to have the young men trained to the proper way of doing it, as also thinning in the different plantations, with bark-stripping, pruning where necessary, draining, &c. In short, all these branches of work would be undertaken every year on some portion of the crops ; and as all the works would be performed by the pupils themselves, under the direction of the forester, every one would have the full opportunity of gaining practical experience, as well as theoretical knowledge, on the various branches of forestry. And it would be necessary to keep all the woods under the management of the association in the very best possible condition, so that- RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF ADJACENT FORESTS. 209 their character mii^ht become a model for all others to imitate. And, h -sides, it would be desirable for the manager and his professors to visit, from time to time, the woods on other properties, and take with them their pupils to see them, when they would have an opportunity of comparing the uianagenient of other woods with that of those on their home district ; and in this way the pupils would get much useful information and experience, within the shortest possible time, under the guidance of their teachers, and thus render them more intelligent and experienced than they would be were their observations confined to the woods on the home field alone. . . . ' In dealing witli the pupils, the amount of fees they would pay would, of course, depend upon whether they were lodged in the institution or not, and had bed and board provided for them. I should say that they should be resident in the institution, and all receive like treat- ment as to education, board, and lodging. If they were not resident lodgers, irregularity would be certain to ensue, and want of proper rule. Then, if lodged, £50 a year might be a fair charge for each pupil. At all events, it should not exceed this sum. In accounting with the pupils they ought to have put to their credit, and deducted from their fee? at the end of each term, when settlement is made, the vahie of the work they perform in the woods, at a fixed rate per hour or per day, as may be arranged. This would make them more industrious than they othervvi.se would be, and make them take good interest in the works they were engaged in. This value of work would, of course, be refunded to the association by their account against the proprietor of the woods for the work performed in them by their pupils. ' In order that tlie pupils might be properly instructed in all the branches beaiing on arboriculture, and to secure the professors arri all concerned doing their duties, an examination of the progress maiJe by the pupils should be made by the president and directors at the end of every six months, and afterwards put to the credit of the most proficient and de trving SlO FORESTRY IN SPAIN. ' As the young men became proficient in all the branches (after three years' residence at the institution), theoretical and practical, of forestry, and leave the insti- tution, they should have each his certificate or diploma, staling his general acquirements and abilities, and whether he \s first, second, or third class in his profession. These certificates should of course be given by the presi- dent and directors, and signed also by the professors ; and they should form a guarantee to landed proprietors who might be in want of foresters that the holders are men of undoubted professional abilities, and worthy of being trusted with the mangement of their woods.' In the first editorial article in the Journal of Forestry it is said, vol. !., p. 9 : ' It is necessary for a properly equipped Forest School to have a large extent of forest attached to it, having a variety of elevations and soils suitable for the profitable cultivation of all our hardy trees, besides the warden, nursery, or arboretum, which forms the nucleus or head-quarters for the schools. By proper arrangements, such an extent of suitable land could be got within easy reach of Edinburgh, along the slopes amongst the glens, and upon the Pentland Hills; or if for a school in England, amid the uplands of Surrey and Hants, or among the hills of Derbyshire, or in Wales, where trees thrive to perfection, and the land is of comparatively small value for any other purpose.' At a meeting of the English Arboricultural Society held last summer — 1886, there was advocated by Mr Wallace, laud agent for Ravensworth, the purchase, with Government assistance, of a large tract in the Northum- brian Hills tor a Forest School on a large scale. It was with the design that this should be in addition to any- thing which might be done in Scotland, it being alleged that it was well known that trees growing luxuriantly in Scotland will not live in the north of England. RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF ADJACENT FORESTS. 211 In the evidence givenbefore the Select Committee of the House of Commons by others, the same idea was advanced. I have intimated that I think otherwise. The earlier German Schools of Forestry were instituted in connection with forestal operations, and consequently in connection with extensive forests; and the earlier Schools of Forestry instituted in accordance with them as a model were naturally established in connection with some extensive forest. But after a more extended experience had been gained, and greater facilities for travelling great distances at comparatively little experse were created, the Schools of Forestry were removed from the forests to seats of learning in the cities and towns, and combined with Universities and Polytechnicums, and Schools of Agriculture and Rural Economy, and only in connection with like educational institutions do I know of Schools of Forestry having been of late years organised. It appeared to me in visiting Schools of Forestry and in reading of their origin and existence, that most, it not .ill, of the old-established institutions were adjacent to forests, while most, if not all. of the Inter foniuled schools wore not; and that some of these made much more use of forests somewhat remote from them for the practical training of students than did some of the former appear to me to make of like facilities for the work at their own door. I have met with convictions in favour of different forms of ecclesiastically prevailing on this side, and on that of geograpliical boundaries ; and so have I seen it with these t^ouflicting opinions in regard to such forests. In the older Schoolsof Forestry in Germany,which are in the northern part of the Empire, we have the former; in the later formed schools in the south we have the later. And certainly it was the case that practical training was not neglected by any — I never heard a complaint made of wanti-5. J. Scptumbcr, ISH, iii). -1- sl\o. Ucrliii, ISTj. Vurlag voii Julius Spriu^'cr. •J 10 FORESTRY IN bPAIN. Hoyer, Director of the Forest Acadeuiv of Miinden, iu Hanover, and Privy Councillor of the kingdom of Prussia. The question gave occasion for a discussion occupying six hours, which was conducted with ability, and listened to throughout with marked attention, tlie sederunt, com- mencing at S A.M., being continued with an houi-'s interval till three o'clock in the afteruoon. It appears to have been a continuation or resumption of a discussion of the sauie subject at Mithlhausen the year before. Two dis- tinguished students of forest science had been appointed to open the discussion by reavling papers, each stating the case in favour of that one of the arrangements which he approved. The discussion was opened by Oberforstmeister Pro- fessor Dankelmanu, Professor of the School of Forestry at Neustadt-Eberswalde, in Prussia, defending the organi- sation of forest academies in preference to the substitution for these of arrangements for the study of forest science in Universities or other seats of learning. The second speaker appointed to open the discussion was Dr Von SeckeudortF, from Austria, Professor and Councillor of State, who spoke in support of the proposal to combine Schools of Forestry with Hoch.schulen in which other studies were prosecuted, and stated — in reference to an allegation which had been made, that the movement liad originated entirely with professors and candidates for professors' chairs, and not with practical foresters, or forest administrators — that the opinion held by him he had found shared by numerous forest officials with whom he had been brought into contact in other lands, and more especially by those of them who had studied at forest academies, a very great majority of whom had spoken of a combination of Schools of Forestry with the Hochschuhn as a thing demanded by the honourable stan ling of forest science and of the forest service. Before the introducers of the discussion had commenced the delivery of their addresses, several gentlemen, all from Prussia, had announced their intention to speak in IMPORTANCE OF SCHOLASTIC SURROUNDINGS. 217 defence of the tnainteDauce of the special professional schools. It was now proposed, and agreed to, that as in the meantime a great many friends of the Allgemeiae Hochschule had added their names to the list of intending speakers, speakers pro et contra should alternately address the meeting There spoke in succession Dr R. Hartig, Professor in Neustadt-Eberswalde, in Prussia ; Oberforster Heiss, from Neustadt, in the Palatinate ; Oberforster Use, from Beuriof-Saarburo-, near Treves ; Forstmeister Ganghofer, from Wurtzburg, in Bavaria; Forstmeister Bando, trom Neustadt-Eberswalde, in Prussia ; Dr Borggreve, Professor in Bonn (Poppelsdorf), on the Rhine. Dr Lothar Meyer, Professor in Carlsruhe, in the Grand Duchy of Baden ; Dr Gerstner, Professor in Wurtzburg, in Bavaria; and Professor Dankelmann replied. Thereafter the President desired those who wished to give their vote in favour of professional school instruction in forestry being combined with that given in the Allgemeine Hochschulen to stand up, when the whole assembly seemed to rise with loud cheering. Then those who were in favour of the continued maintenance of separate Schools of Forestry were requested to stand up, when sixteen members only of the assembly stood up. Thus was the decision of the Congress given in favour of the former arrangement. CHAPTER IV. FOKESTAL LITERATURE. Unique as may be our position amoug- the nations of Europe, in not having either in Britain or in any of our Colonies, a School of Forestry, or provision for the stud}' of Forest Science, beyond arrangements made for candidates for employment in the Forest Service of India, which have been latterly introduced into the College of Engineering at Cooper's Hill, our position is scarcely less unique in regard to forest literature. In my Plea for the creation of a School of Forestry in connection with the Arboretum, published in 1877, in illustration of the difference in the amount of literature existing in our language and in the language of Continental Europe, and as indicative of the magnitu(ie of the change which is passing over different lands in which the English language is the language of the people, I asked to be allowed to make the following statement, though in its commence- ment personal to myself: — '1 went to the Cape of Good Hope to act as Colonial Botanist in the beginning of 1863. On my arrival I was officially informed that the office had been created some five years before with the two-fold object (I) of ascertain- ing and making generally known the economic resources of the Colony, as regards its indigenous vegetable produc- tions, and its fitness for the growth of valuable exotic trees and other plants ; and (2) of perfecting our knowledge of the flora of South Africa, and thus contributing to the advancement of botanical science. ' On making my first tour of the Colony to see its flora and its capabilities, I found myself face to face with a FOKESTAL LITERATURE. 219 (Jifticulty ill the way of the developement of these capabili- ties, arising from a reckless destruction of forests and of forest products which was going on, and a progressive desiccation of the climate, accompanying or following the destnictiou of forests and the burning of herbage and bush in connection with agricultural operations and pastoral hiiRbandry. And I knew not tlien, nor do I know now, of a single work published in England from which I could then have procured information in regard to the treatment required Ijy aboriginal forests, to secure their conservation and improvement, excepting Forests and Gardens of South India, by Dr Cleghorn, then Conservator of Forests in the Madras Presidency; The Forester, by Ur James Brown ; the Arboretum et Fruticetum britannlcuia, by Louden ; and English Forests and Forest Trees, an anonymous work published by Ingram, Cooke, & Co., London, But none of these supplied the information I required. ' Contrast with this the richness of continental languages in literature on such subjects. I have had sent to me lately Ofversight af Svenska i^kogsliteraturen, Bibliograjiska Studieren a/Axel Cnattingius, a long list of books and papers in Forest Science published in Sweden ; 1 have also had sent to me a work by Don Jose Jordana y Morera, Ingenero de Montes, under the title of Apuntes Bibliographic Foresta/e, a catalogue raissone of 1120 printed books, MSS. &c., in Spanish, on subjects connected with Forest Science. ' I am at present preparing for the press a report on measures adopted in France, Germany, Hungary, and elsewhere, to arrest and utilise drift-sand by planting them with grasses and trees ; and in J)er Furopaeiscke FLug sand und seine Kulticr, von Josef Wessely General-Domaenen-Inspektory und Forst'Academie-Direktor, published in Vienna in 1873, I find a list of upwards of 100 books and papers on that one department of the subject, of which 30, in Hungarian, Latin, and German, were published in Hungary alone. 'According to the statement of one gentleman, to whom application was made by a representation of the Govern- ment at the Cape for information in regard to what suit- •220 FORESTRY IN SPAIN. able works on Forest Ecouoray could be procured from Germauy, the works on Forst- Wissenschafi, Forest Science, and Forst- Winkxchaft, Forest Economy, in the German language, may be reckoned by cartloads. From what I know of the abundance of works in German, on subjects connected with forestry, I am not surprised that such a report should have been given. And with the works in German may be reckoned the works in French ' In Hermann Schmidt's Fach Katalogue, published in Prague last year (1876), there are given the titles, &c., of German works in FovKt-nnd Jagd-Literatiii\ published from 1870 to 1875 inclusive, to the 31st of October of the latter year, amounting in all to 650, exclusive of others given in an appendix, containing a selection of the works published prior to 1870. They are classified thus : — General Forest Economy, 93 ; Forest Botany, 60 ; Forest History and Statistics, 50 ; Forest Legislation and Game Laws, 56 ; Forest Mathematics, 25 ; Forest Tables and Measurements. &c., 148 ; Forest Technology, 6 ; Forest Zoology, 19 ; Peat and Bog Treatment, 14 ; Forest Calendars, 6 ; Ft)rest and Game Periodicals, 27 ; Forest Union and Year Books, 13 ; Game, 91 ; Forestry and Game in Bohemian, 44— in all, 652. Upwards of a hundred new books published annually. Amongst the works mentioned is a volume entitled Die Literatur des letzten ■si,ebe)i Jahre (1862-1872) aus dem Gesammtgehiete der Land uiid Foi'st-ioirthschaft diU Emschliisz der landw. Geioerhe u. der Jagd, ill Beutscker. Franzosischer a. Englisher Sprache Ilencusg, 0. d. Biich/tandl. v. (jrerold &, Co., U Wieu, 1873, a valuable catalogue of 278 pages in large octavo. ' Since the time of which I have spoken, fifteen years ago, a change has manifested itself in the different lands in which the English language is spoken. By an order of the House of Commons, dated 17th August, 1871, there was printed the " Return to an address of the House, dated 15th May of the same year: a selection of dispatches and their enclosures to and from the Secretary iP'ORESTAL LITERATURE. 221 of State for India in Council, on Forest Conservancy in India, showing the measures which have been adopted, and the measures which are going on, in the several presidencies and lieutenant-governorships, beginning with the dispatch from the Governor-General in Council, of 21st day of May, ISG2, to the present time." And the Return comprises two printed volumes, consisting of 1071 folio pages on India, one of 441 pages on Madras, and one of oo7 pages on Bombay — in all, 2469 pages folio. And they report an approved estimate of expenditure, for the year 1871-1872, on forests in the Indian Empire of 45,11,000 rupees, and an estimated income of 57,34,000 rupees; or, according to another account, an annual expenditure of upwards of £450,000, with annual returns of upwards of £570,000. ' In 1871 a commission was appointed by the Govern- ment of Victoria to report amongst other things on the best means of promoting the culture, extension, and preservation of State Forests in Victoria, and the intro- (Uiction of such foreign trees as may l)e suitable to the climate, and useful for industrions purposes, which Committee has gone to considerable expense and trouble in collecting and printing information from New Zealand, India, the United States, Hanover, Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, Austria, Baden, Italy, and Sweden, as well as Great Britain, availing themselveslargely of the pubHshed report l)v Captain Canipl)!ll Walker on State Forests and forest management in Germany and Austria, which I have cited in speaking of the Forest Schools of Germany 'In the Report of the Commission of Agriculture, laid before the Senate and the House of Representatives of the United States, in 1805, there was embodied a Memoir on " American Forests — their Destruction and Preserva- tion," by the Rev. Frederick Starr, of St. Louis, Missouri, of which Report 105,000 copies were ordered by the House of Representatives to be printed, and within a week 20,000 " extra copies " were ordered by the Senate/ 222 FORESTRY IN SPAllf. The work by Sennor Jordana cited in this quotation was published in 1875, and referred, as has been stated, to works which had appeared in Spain previous to 1800. Apart from the forestal literature which was in exist- ence in Spain previous to the establishmeut of a School of Forest Engineers, there has b<;en issued in connection with demands felt in connection with operations resulting from that enterprise, numerous works on subjects connected with Forest Science and modern Forest Economy. There have been given in a preceding chapter [ante pp. 136-143] the titles of a hundred and fifty of these, with the dates of publication, and the names of the writers — forty-two in number — all of which works may be considered works designed to meet a felt want ; and most of them have been published within the last ten years. We cannot compare with such progress ; but a beginning has been made in the publication of similar works in our language. The " Plea " issued by me was published in the spring of 1877. Within a month thereafter there was issued the first number of the Journal of Forestry/. The first paragraph of the Introductory Editorial Notes urged the establishment in the British Islands of a School of Forestry. From that day till the close of the publication of the periodical with the issue for April last, prominence has been given to this matter in the pages of that journal ; and in it valuable contributions have been made to the forest literature of our country. Long before that there had been organised the Scottish Arboricultural Society ; one of the first subjects brought before them was the expediency of securing some such institution, and with like pertinacity to that of the Journal of Forest?-?/, the published transactions of the Society have urged this measure, and added to our stores of information in regard to forests and forest operations in Scotland. During the period Avithin which these transactions have been pub- ^ORESTAL LITERATURE. 223 lished repeated new and enlarged editions have appeared of The Forester: a Practical Treatise on the P hinting. Rearing, and General Management of Forest Trees, by Dr James Brown, lately deceased, one of the fathers and founders «»f the Society. This work of Dr James Brown constitutes a kind of connecting link between the past and the present. It is likely long to hold its place as an authority on the subjects of which it treats — different from, but related to, other matters brought forward in connection with the advanced forest science of the day, but gracefully, and of right, taking its place amongst these. And something similar may be said of many other works, published in Great Britain both before and since ; prominent amongst which are some of the works of Loudon. It may have lieen noticed that amongst the forestal works published in Spain, within the last fifteen years, are many prepared in accordance with the arrangement in connection with the School, whereby professors and others are commissioned to visit foreign lands, on special errands relating to some one or more departments of research or of practical operations pertaining to forestry ; and to report the results, for consideration in connection with corres- ponding researches or forestal operations carried on in Spain, provision being made for their expense.^ being paid by the State, and for the report being published at the expense of the State, if this be recommended by the Facultative Janta, and approved by the Minister of State entrusted with the cognisance of the School. Some years ago, in the Scottish Arboricultural Society, there was mooted by Mr Hutchieson of Carlovvrie, one of the vice-presidents of the Society, the project of an International Forestry Exhibition ; and when the project was carried into effect it was with a view to promote a movement for the establishment of a National School of Forestry in Scotland, as well as with a view of furthering and stimulating a greater improvement in the scientific ^^4 FORES'i'RY IN SK\ti^. management of woods in Scotland and the sister countries which has manifested itself during recent years. At the meeting at which the movement for the accomplishment of this was formally initiated, all of those who were present formally pledged themselves to give their best etforts and endeavours to render the Exhibition a success, and of such importance and general interest as to make it worthy of the name of International. In redemption of this pledge I published popular treatises on the following subjects: — /. — Introduction to the Study of Modern Forest Economy. In this there are brought under consideratioa the extensive destruction of forests which has taken place in Europe and elsewhere, with notices of disastrous consequences which have followed — dinainished supply of timber and firewood, droughts, floods, landslips, and saud-drifts — and notices of the appHances of Modern Forest Science successfully to counteract these evils by conservation, planting, and improved exploitation, under scientific administration and management. //. — The Forests of England ; and the Management of them in Bye-gone Times. Ancient forests, chases, parks, warrens, and woods, are described ; details are given of destructive treatment to which they have been subjected, and of legislation and literature relating to them previous to the present century, ///. — Forestry of Norway. There are described in successive chapters the general features of the country. Details are given of the geographical distribution of forest trees, followed by discussions of conditions by which this has beeu determined — heat, moisture, soil, and exposure. The effects of glaci il action on the contour of the country are noticed, with accounts of existing glaciers and snow-fields. And information is supplied in regard to forest exploitation and the transport of timber, in regard to the export timber trade, to public instruction in sylviculture, and to forest administration, and to ship-building and shipping. IV. — Finland : its Fotrsts and Forest Management. In this volume is supplied information in regard to the FOliESTAL LITERATUKE. 225 lake?) and rivers of Fiulaud, kuowu as The Land of a Thousand Lakes, and as 2'he Last-bor/i Dai(;/hter of the Sea ; in regard to its physical geography, including notices of the contour of the country, its geological formations and indications of glacial action, its flora, fauna, and climate ; and in regard to its forest economy, embracing a discussion of the advantages and disad- vantages of Svedjaudu, the Sartage of France, and the Koomaree of India ; and the details of the development of Modern Forest Economy in Finland, with notices of its School of Forestry, of its forests and forest trees, of the disposal of its forest products, and of its legislation and literature in forestry are given. V. — Forest Lands and Forestry of N^orthcrn Russia. Details are given of a trip from St. Petersburg to the forests around Petrozavodsk on Lake Onega, in the government of Olouetz ; a description of the forests on that government by Mr Judrae, a forest oflicial of high position ; and of the forests of Archangel by Mr Hepvvorth Dixon, of Lapland, of the laud of the Samoides and of Nova Zembla ; of the exploitation of the forests by Jardinage, and of the evils of such exploitation ; and of the export timber trade, and disposal of forest products. In connection with discussions of the physical geography of the region information is supplied in regard to the contour and general appearance of the country ; its flora, its forests, and the palseoutological botsmy of the regions beyond, as viewed by Professor Heer and Count Saporta ; its fauna, with notices of game, and with copious lists of coleoptera and lepidoptera, found there by Forst-Meister Gunther, of Petrozavodsk. VI. — Forestry in the Mining Distncts of the (Iral Mountains in Eastern Russia. Information is in this volume supplied in regard to forest exploitation in the government of Ufa ; an account of the country passed through in a journey thither from St. Peters- burg, and of mishaps and difficulties experienced in travelling there ; information in regard to the country and people to tlic east of the Ural Mountains ; the metallurgic works there established ; the mines and forests in the Ural Mountain Range ; the forest exploitation of the region ; abuses practiced in connection with this ; and conditions occasioning a diminished supply of wood ; with glimpses of life in the district ; of the cou- 220 FOKESTKV IN SPAlK. ditiou of the labouring population ; and notices of the Russiari conquest of Siberia. VT[. — Forests and Forestry in Polatid, in Lithuania, in the Ukraine, and in the Baltic Provinces of Russia ; with Notices of the Export of Timber from Memel, Dantzig, and Riga. In relation to Poland information is supplied in regard to the journey thither from St. Petersburg; the history of Poland ; the area, distribution, management, exploitation, and produce uf the forests in the Vice-Royalty ; its Schools of Forestry ; and forestal literature. In relation to Lithuauia information is supplied in regard to the country and its people, and the Jewish population, who trafl&c largely in forest produce ; in regard to the forests of the Dnieper ; forest exploitation ; and forest game. There follow accounts of the forests of the Ukraine, and of the appearance of the country ; of the timber exports by the Baltic ; and the forest lands, forest administra- tion, and general appearances at different seasons of the Russian Baltic Provinces of Couriand, Livonia, and Estonia. VI 1 1. — French Forest Ordinance of 1669 ; ivith Historical Sketch of Previous Treatment of Forests in France. The early history of forests in France is given, with details of devastations of these going on in the first half of the seven- teenth century ; with a translation of the Ordinance of 1669, which is the basis of modern forest economy ; and notices of forest exploitation in Jardinage, in La Methode d Tire et Aire, iind in La Methode des Compaj'tements. Besides these, I had previously published ou subjects counected with Forest Science and Forest Economy : — /. — Pine Plantations on Sand Wastes in France. in this are detailed the appearances presented by the Landes of the Giroude before and atter culture, and the Landes of La Sologue ; the legislation and literature of France iu regard to the planting of the Landes with trees; the characteristics of the s md wastes ; the natural history, culture, and exploitation of the maritime pine, and of the Scots fir; and the diseases and injurious influences to which the maritime pine is subject. PORESTAL LITERATURE 227 //. — Rehoisement in France ; or, Records of the Re-planting of the Alps, the Cevennes, and the Pyrenees, tvith Trees, Herbage, and Bush, loith a view to arresting and pt^'event- ing the destructive conseqiiences of torrents. In this are given a resume of Surell's study of Alpine torrents, of the literature of France relative to Alpine torrents, and of remedial measures which have been proposed for adoption to prevent the disastrous consequences following from them — translations of documents and enactments, showing what legis- lative and executive measures have been taken by the Govern- ment of France in connection with rehoisement as a remedial application against destructive torrents — and details in regard to the past, present, and prospective aspects of the work. ///. — Forests and Moisture ; or Effects of Forests on Humidity of Climate. In this are given details of phenomena of vegetation on which the meteorological effects of forests affecting the humidity of climate depend — of the effects of forests on the humidity of the atmosphere, and on the humidity of the ground, on marshes, on the moisture of a wide expanse of country, on the local r.iin- fall and on rivers — and of the correspondence between the distribution of the rainfall and of forests — the measure of correspondence between the distribution of the rainfall and that of forests — the distribution of the rainfall dependent on geographical position, or determined by the contour of a country — the distribution of forests affected bv the distribution of tho rainfall — and the local effects of f( rests on the subsequent distribution of the rainfoU within the forest district. TV. — Hydrology of South Africa; or Details of the Former Hydrographic Condition of the Cape of Good Hope, and of Causes of its Present Aridity, with Siiggestions of Appropi'iate Remedies for this Ariditity. In this the desiccation of South Africa, from pre-Adamic times to the present day, is traced by indications supplied by geological formations, by the physical geography or the general contour of the country, and by arborescent pi-oductions in the interior, with results confirmatory of the opinion that the appropriate remedies are irrigation, arboriculture, and an improved forest economy : or the erection of dams to prevent the escape of a portion uf the rainfall to the sea — tl*e abandon- S2S FORESTRY IN SPAIN. ment or restriction of the burning of the herbage and bush in oonuection with pastoral and agricultural operations — the conservation and extension of existing forests — and the adoption of measures similar to the reboisement and gazonneinent carried out in France, with a view to prevent the formation of torrents, and the destruction of property occasioned by them. V. — Water S%ipply of South Africa, and Facilities for the Storage of it. In this volume are detailed meteorological observations on the humidity of the air and the rainfall, on clouds, and winds, and thunder-storms ; sources from which is derived the supply of moisture which is at present available for agricul- tural operations in the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope and regions beyond, embracing the atmosphere, the rainfall, rivers, fountains, subterranean streams and reservoirs, and the sea ; and the supply of water and facilities for the storage of it in each of the divisions of the colony — in Basutoland, in the Orange Hiver Free kitates, in Griqualand West, in the Transvaal Territory, in Znluland, at Natal, and in the Transkei Territory. In view of the requirements of South Africa, with a view to the developnaent of its agricultural capabilities, I have also prepared and placed at the service of the Govern- ment and community of the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope, like reports to these on forestal engineering in Spain ; on hydraulic engineering in Spain ; on the forest industries of Spain ; on the phylloxera inSpain, with details of the invasion of Europe by it, and reports of measures of defence adopted in different countries against its devasta- tions ; and on the locust in Spain and Southern Europe, Asia, Northern Africa, South Africa and America. Together with special reports on forestal, hydraulic, and agricultural requirements of the Colony. Amongst the reports procured by the Executive Committee of the Edinburgh International Forestry Exhibi- tion is an exhaustive one on the forestal literature of other lands, and English works exhibited there, prepared by the jurors appointed to report on these. FORESTAL LITERATURE. 229 Not a little has been done by members of the forest service of India to make their acquirements of knowledge and of forestal skill subservent to the advancement of forestry in other lands besides India. Amongst other names which suggest themselves at once are those of Dr Cleghorn, Colonel Walker Campbell, Colonel Michael, and Colonel Pear.son ; and good service is being done by the Indian Forester, a valuable periodical. It is impossible to speak in too high terms of treatises published by the late Baron Von Mueller, of Victoria, Most valuable practical inform ition is embodied in Reports, Memoirs, and Manuals, issued by Mr J. E. Brown, Conservator of Forests for the Government of South Australia. And the forest reports annually published in various of our Colonies, and the official reports issued by the Government of the United States of America, are producing a large and valuable body of forestal literature in the English language. Besides these, many valuable treatises on subjects connected with fqrestry, and pertaining to forest science, have been published both in Britain and in America. Several of these are known to me, and highly valued by me, but I am not able to supply a complete list of the works which have been published ; and it might seem invidious, and prove misleading, were I to give a partial list, and it is such alone which I coald supply. We have an extensive and valuable literature relative to Arboriculture. For this there is, and ever has been, a demand ; but with works on Sylviculture, Modern Forest Science, and Modern Forest Economy, it is otherwise. JSor is there yet such a demand for works of this kind as would make it pecuniarly remunerative to any to engage largely in the publication of such works ; but as the demand increases so will the supply. But a beginning has been made. In so far as I have taken part in this 1 have done so in anticipation of a future demand, not in consequence of any manifestation of a felt want. And in reference to the rapid supply of 2.i0 FORESTRY IN SPAtX. works on forestry in the Spanish language of late years, which I have noted, 1 may remark that this did not occur until after several successive batches of studentshad entered upon the active duties of their profession. It was then that it became manifest wherein the existing forestal literature of the country was deficient in view of the requirements of the day ; and that the desire for information induced purchase and perusal. And it is noteworthy that even still in connection with the publication of almost all of the Spanish works referred to, including the most expensive and least popular of them, the writers were relieved of the expense of publication. It is not so with us. To quote again from my " Plea for the Establishment of a School of Forestry in connection with the Arboretum in Edinburgh ":— ' I have been asked — How has it come to pass that so little has been done in Britain, while so much has been done on the Continent of Europe, to raise up a body of foresters, highly educated for the discharge of their duties? My answer must be — Hitherto the problem to be solved in Britain did not require the amount of information which was required for the solution of the complicated problems demanding solution there. On the Continent they were threatened in many quarters with a lack of fuel, with a lack of timber, with ruinous desiccation, and Avith destructive torrents, all consequent on the de-truotion of their forests, and with the devastation of fertile lands by drift sands, which could only be arrested and utilised by the planting of trees. In Britain we find fuel in our coal mines, and in many country districts in our peat bogs ; excepting for a short time about the beginning of the present century, when war was raging, we could get timber of every description from beyond the sea; and we know little of drought, of torrents, and of drift sands, and the difference has even told upon our language. While our French neighbours speak of Stjlvicuhure, the culture of woods, we speak of Arhoncultitre, the culture of trees. KORKSTAL LITEKATURE. 231 While tlicy, iu speakiag ot" Les Forets aud ot La Code Forestiere, refer to a eouDtry covered more or less with trees, we, in speaking of The Green Wood aud of Forestry, hitherto have thought chiefly of the game aud of the chase, or of the shooting of deer. Our forest laws relate maiuly, if I may uot say exclusively, to hunting, these laws having nothing to do with shrubs and trees, except- ing in so far as they may supply shelter or covert for game. I speak advisedly when I say, that, according to the technical use of the term in Euglisli law, a forest need not contain a single tree, and a dozen of contiguous counties might be covered with trees without these constituting a forest. The totally different circumstances in which the different countries have stood in regard to the requirements of forest products account for the difference in the attention hitherto given on the Continent and in Britain to the study of what is known there as Forest Science. ' It may be asked, seeing it is so —Why should we not go on as we have been doing hitherto ? The answer is— in our Colonies, and in the Indian Empire of India, evils which have existed long are being experienced aud remedied ; and those whom the country would engage to go forth to meet the evils must go, at the country's expense, to acquire the necessary education in other lands, and in a foreign language unknown to most young gardeners and foresters, and sons of foresters, whose life has been spent in connection with the management of trees, and which is so taught in many of our schools, that few even of the young men of our country who have had a liberal education could understand instruction given ia it as they could instruction given in their own tongue.' The pecuniary returns, I may add, are likely far to exceed in amount the expenditure likely to be incurred. In the yeai's 1860-64, during which years I held the office of Colonial botanist, and thus had my attention directed to this matter, the annual revenue derived from 232 FORESTRY tN SPAIN. the whole of the Crown forests at the Capo ot Good Hope was then only about £250 a year in excess of the expenditure on what was called the conservation, but included a wasteful sale of the produce; and thereafter the free revenue rapidly diminished, and the forests were rapidly disappearing. But latterly Count do Vasselot, an cicve of the Forest School of Naucy, was appointed Commissioner of Forests in the Colony ; and from a Colonial notice of an official report of his, it appears that these Crown forests, if regularly worked, would produce a yearly revenue of £235,000 ! At the time referred to (1863-64) comparatively little was being done to obtain the greatest possible good from the Colonial forests of South Australia. In the interval the defence, exploitatiou, and extension of these forests has been entrusted to Mr J. E. Brown as Conservator of Forests. For eights years past there has been expended on these works, under his advice, well-nigh £G000 a year ; but this has been repaid within a small amount by revenue derived from the forests ; while the value of the permanent improvements and extension of the forests is estimated at £100,000. Again., from a statement in the Indian Pioneer, it appears that the Indian forest revenue for official year (1883-84) amounted to £1,040,000, and the charges to about £000,000, leaving a clear revenue of £440,000. In France the revenue and expenditure of the forest department were £1,405,104 and £041,508, according to a quotation by Dr Braudis. But the French State forests cover less than 4000 square miles. Those of the Indian Government, including the second-class reserves, cover over 89,000 square miles, and a large proportion of the expenditure in India is occasioned by extensive planta- tions. In Prussia, from 10,000 square miles of State forests, there is derived a net gain of nearly a million sterling annually. THE END.