/ ■> .^ -^*. v\ ^- >V» .* n'» m x ^<^^. 1^' i^ ■$ rSi^F^ • r - ^fi^M*:. k.V.' r. iM*' Igr;-. . ' ^ *>► V ail|p i.l. Bll iCtbrarii Nflrtb CEarolina ^tatp CCoUcge NA3I B78 This book must not be taken from building. the Library ferwLCLiAeiA^ i^isiw^ OKTW r\A • Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2009 with funding from NCSU Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/dictionaryofarcOObrit Dri'irrii iiV G-.CdlUct.t.oIp S . FOUCH . KINeS COLL: CliAl^El .XAiMI.K.IDO"E . Kn^n od Kfuji A DICTIONARY OF THE ^vtUttttnvt anlr arcfiaeologg OP THE MIDDLE AGES: INCLUDING WORDS USED BY ANCIENT AND MODERN AUTHORS IN TREATING OF SlrcSitcctural aitt! ofljtr ^ntiquitiesl : WITH ETYMOLOGY, DEFINITION, DESCRIPTION, AND HISTORICAL ELUCIDATION: ALSO, BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES OF ANCIENT ARCHITECTS. By JOHN BRITTON, F.S.A., AUTHOR OF THE ARCHITECTURAL, AND THE CATHEDRAL ANTIQUITIES OF ENGLAND, AND OF OTHER PUBLICATIONS. ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS By J. LE KEUX. "Out of monuments, names, words, proverbs, traditions, private records, and evidences; fragments of stories, passages OF books, and THE LIKE, WE DO SAVE AND RECOVER SOMEWHAT FROM THE DELUGE OF TIME." — Bacon On the Advancement of Leartiiiig. LONDON: LONGMAN, ORME, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, PATERNOSTER ROW; AND THE AUTHOR, BURTON STREET. M.DCCC.XXXVJIL LONDON: PRINTED BV JAMES MOVES, CASTLE STREET, LEICESTER SQUARE. TO HER MOST GRACIOUS MAJESTY, THE QUEEN. Sanctioned by your Majesty's royal command, I, a sexagenarian, dedicate tliis volume, on Architectural Antiquities, to the most youthful female Sovereign that ever occupied the throne of Great Britain. The circumstance, the time, the august epoch of your Majesty's coronation, involve many impressive and conflicting reflections ; for the past and the present condition of our country are matters of commanding interest, whilst its future destinies are subjects for anxious specula- tion. The commencement of your Majesty's reign is full of excitement, and of hope : — art, science, and literature ; trade, commerce, manufactures, and legisla- tion, are all approaching to a fulness and an altitude which cannot fail to astonish even human wisdom. Other nations and former ages have risen to certain stages of eminence and glory, and have also sunk to ruin, and even extinction. The 130110 IV DEDICATION. wars and vices of governments have led to both of those events. It is the duty of princes and legislators to profit by the lessons thus afforded, and to guard their respective states against foreign warfare and domestic disunion. The art of peace is the fostering parent of all other arts ; for it nurtures and ripens the national flowers and fruits in the great garden of civilisation. It also administers to the true happiness of man ; whereas war impoverishes and degrades him in all his domestic and political relations. Unparalleled in the annals of Great Britain, as your Majesty's accession to the throne is, it is ardently hoped that your reign will surpass all that have pre- ceded it in the felicities of peace and of glory. Blessed with a most exemplary parent, your Majesty has, fortunately for yourself and country, been instructed in every thing calculated to adorn the character of a Queen. In every age the possessors of empire have acquired far greater renown, both contemporary and posthumous, from patronising the talents of their subjects, and encouraging science and the fine arts, than from any other deeds. Architecture, as pre-eminent amongst these, affords employment to the artisan, remuneration and fame to the professor, and laudable amusement to the rich. Pericles derived more glory from his architectural works in Athens, than from any other acts of his reign. Augustus boasted that he had found his imperial city formed of brick, and that he would leave it of marble. Trajan invited the artists of his empire to assemble in, and exert their talents to adorn, the same splendid capital. The arch of Ancona, the forum in Rome, the bridge over the Danube, were amongst the architectural works produced under his sovereignty and patronage. By building cities, temples, palaces, forums, baths, theatres, and bridges, some of the monarchs of Egypt, Greece, and Italy, secured honour to themselves, and conferred benefits on their subjects. Emulating such renowned examples, your Majesty may give to Britain a glory surpassing any foreign conquests. England has been long reproached for a want of magnificence in public buildings, commen- surate to its wealth, and to the professional talents of its architects. Excepting Windsor Castle, the royal palaces are a reproach to the monarchy and to the nation. That justly famed fortress-palace, however, which is full of historical DEDICATION. V associations, and is unrivalled in the commanding interest derived from site and surrounding scenery, has recently been adapted, by science and taste, to the be- coming luxury of a modern court. If the metropolitan parks had a royal palace adequate to their scenic character, and to the wealth and genius of the kingdom, we should not shrink from a comparison with any capital in the world. It is too true that lamentable failures have occurred in many of our public architectural works ; but it is expected and believed that the new Houses of Parliament will tend to vindicate English architecture and English talent. In addressing these observations to your Majesty, I need not apologise for their length ; nor will I compromise my Uterary integrity by any affected humility of language or sentiment. From the conviction derived from long experience, I firmly believe that sincerity of purpose need not employ the phraseology of polite hypocrisy to be heard and duly appreciated by an English sovereign. With all deference and respectful admiration, I subscribe myself Your Majesty's Obedient subject and servant, JOHN BRITTON. London, 2dlh June, 1838. PREFACE. " What toyle hath been taken, as no man thinreth, so no man eelieveth, but he that hath made the triall." Anthony Wood. " A VOCABULARY OP ALL THE TERMS USED BY THE MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTS WOULD REQUIRE A THICK VOLUME." Fosbroke: Encyclopedia of Antiquities. In announcing the present Dictionary for publication, some years ago, it was asserted that such a work ■was " a desideratum in literature ;" but, when that assertion was made, the author was not fully aware of the difficulty and labour which were involved in its execution. Could he have anticipated these, he would have shrunk from the task ; for, although he has generally found his courage and zeal increase with augmented responsibilities, he has repeatedly felt oppressed, and almost disheartened, by the tedious progress and incessant assiduity required for this Dictionary. Ardent, however, in temperament, — intensely anxious to fulfil every pledge made to the public, — fully aware that the critical eye is ever open to the "negligences and ignorances" of writers; and also that, witli the increased knowledge in, and growing partiality for, this species of literature, there is a constant readiness to cater for it, either by meritorious or meretricious speculators, the author has laboured onward in his toilsome journej', buoj'ed up by the hope of living to see the word finis, and of making his last to equal, if not to surpass, his former works. As already stated in the preface to the fifth volume of the Architectural Antiquities, the author has sedulously endeavoured to guard " against hypothesis and error, and to record nothing but undeniable fact, or inference from the best evidence. On a subject which has been so much dis- cussed ; on which such opposing and varied opinions have been entertained and promulgated ; which has engrossed the attention and diligent researches of many men of learning ; which involves in its nucleus much of the history, art, and science of distant ages, and of different nations, the author has thought it necessary to seek diligently and to write cautiously. At the same time, he has generally ^v^itten freely, and always in a tone and style of language proportionate to his own conviction of the value of the evidences before him. Had he been less scrupulous, or yielded more to the pressing emergencies of the moment, and the entreaties and complaints of friends and correspondents, he could have brought the volume to a termination four or five years back ;" but, ever fastidious, he has been more so in this than in any former publication ; and, often feeling extreme difficulty in satisfying his own mind, he has moved onwards slowly and deliberately ; he has examined, re-examined, analysed, and compared many conflicting testimonies ; has endeavoured to test the opinions and statements of different writers by the evidence of fact and demonstration ; and has also sought to furnish the reader with the most explicit and best accounts of each subject and of every word. He could easily have enlarged on many points which are but briefly discussed, and thereby have extended the volume to double its present bulk; but he has restrained his pen on occasions where materials were abundant, and where the subjects seemed to claim copious description and elucidation. The reader will readily understand the author's meaning, and it is hoped will accept this statement as an apology, by referring to the words Castle, Cathedral, Chapel, Church, Domestic Architecture, Doorv?ay, Man- sion, Spire, Tower, &c. Vii) PREFACE. In prosecuting researches and studies for the execution of five quarto volumes on the Archi- tectural Antiquities of Great Britain, fourteen others illustrative of the history and architecture of the Cathedral Antiquities of England, and several historical essays and lectures devoted to the same class of literature, the author may, without vanity, assert that his reading and inquiries have been extensive and laborious. Commencing the profession of an author without the advantages of a colle- giate, or even of an academic education, and under the oppressive disadvantages of poverty, the want of a proper library, and of that literary association which often supplies some of these deficiencies, he was necessitated to " pore in the dark," and proceed with the most timid and cautious steps. Every thintj was novel, — everything was abstruse; and many subjects, now of the most simple kind, were then quite unintelligible. One of the first desiderata was a knowledge of words; and a second, some notion of the elements of the peculiar sciences involved in topography and antiquities. On neither of these could he find either an efficient treatise, or a manual ; and most of the works to which he successively obtained access, seemed rather to embarrass and repel, than seduce and enlighten the uninformed student. Captain Grose's Antiquities of England, then recently published in a vulgar manner, and with engravings little calculated either to instruct, or to please the youthful eye, was the only original publication of the times. It was soon copied, mutilated, and deteriorated, in a work, issued in folio sixpenny numbers, under the title of BosicelVs Antiquities of England. Some new magazines and reviews, about the same time, courted public readers, and called forth the latent genius of many literary aspirants. These were cheap, and respectably executed. Among such books, the author must own that those on antiquities were the least attractive to him. Bailey's, Johnson's, Walker's, and Ash's Dictionaries, were constantly resorted to for the meaning of words, and for the explication of what otherwise would have been " unknown tongues." These became mines of intel- lectual wealth, — calculated at once to afford both ore and precious metal. Still, they furnished scarcely any information on archaeological and topographical subjects ; nor could the author find any work to initiate him into the arcana of those sciences. Perseverance, however, will overcome many obstacles; and this has proved both sail and rudder to him in his literary voyage. Some events and circum- stances of his public career have been detailed in the prefaces to the third volume of Beatities of Wiltshire, and to the Historij of Worcester Cathedral, to which the reader, who may be curious on such personal matters, is referred. The age in which the author commenced his literary life was exciting and eventful, and he entered eagerly into some of the most stirring scenes and associations of the British metropolis. The French Revolution had convulsed the political and moral world; — the old were alarmed and terrified, and the young were roused to enthusiastic and romantic aspirations. Frequenting some of tlio debating societies which were then popular, but almost interdicted by the Pitt administration, the author mingled in the political and literary controversies and conflicts which then prevailed. An accidental circumstance led him to study the history of his native county — Wiltshire, and that gave origin to the Beauties of England and Wales, the Architectural Antiquities, and the other works which he has produced on topography and the fine arts. When he commenced the Architectural Antiquities, in 1804, he experienced no small difficulty in obtaining something like a grammar and dictionary of that architecture whicli he had undertaken to illustrate and describe. The Essays by Warton, Bentham, Grose, and Milncr, had been collected and publislied in a small volume, by the late Mr. Taylor, of the "Architectural Librarj'," in Holborn, London; but his volume did not attract much publicity, at first: — the science of architectural anti- (fuitics was in its infancy, and, like human infancy, was uninformed, eccentric, and undisciplined. It is a generally admitted fact that the Beauties of England and Wales, and the Architectural Antiquities, which grew out of the former, created a new era — produced a new taste and ])artiality for the archi- tecture of the middle ages. Once awakened, the new spirit became active and t\dl of curiosity; and as antiquarian subjects, in different parts of Europe, were numerous and interesting, tliey commanded PREFACE. IX admiration, and induced autliors and artists to publish illustrations of their histories and characteristics. Within the last thirty years, more has been written on architectural antiquities than had ever before been produced. The result is an improved and enlarged appreciation of their manifold merits and intrinsic capabilities ; a more intimate acquaintance with the arts, the sciences, and the customs of bygone times ; a correction of many errors and prejudices ; and a disposition to apply some of the principles of mediaeval architecture to modern erections. ' From architectural and archssological glossaries and dictionaries, the author has not derived much essential aid. He has, however, sought information from all that has been published in that form, as well as from many other volumes and essays which have appeared in the English and in foreign languages. The works hereafter enumerated will serve to verify this assertion ; but many other authorities have been consulted ; and, it is hoped, that the numerous references made in the /following pages will be a guarantee for fidelity and zeal. Before the publication of Willson's Glossary, in Piigins Specimens, there was scarcely any thing approaching to accuracy or discrimination in explaining the architectural terms of the middle ages. Carter had given explanations of some words in the Gentleman's Magazine} but that gentleman was a fanciful theorist, and not qualified to impart the knowledge he possessed in written language. Mr. Willson's Glossary was highly creditable to his taste and knowledge. The large Architectural Dictionary, by Nicholson, is not calculated to afford satisfactory assistance for such a work as the present; for it is imperfect and erroneous in many of its essays. The greater part is reprinted, ver- batim, from Reess Cyclopadia. Of Stuart's Dictionary of Architecture, 3 vols. 8vo., it may be said that the author manifests diligence in its compilation, and care in treating of the numerous articles it embraces. This work, however, like the last, has but a small proportion of articles referring to mediaeval architecture. A General Bibliographical Dictionary of the Fine Arts, 8vo. 1826, by James Elmes, assisted by James Oilier, contains much original information on architectural subjects, under their respective heads. Fosbroke's Encyclopadia of Antiquities, 2 vols. 4to. 1825, includes a large mass of undigested mate- rials, calculated to furnish useful hints to the architectural antiquary. In a glossary by W. Hosking, appended to the article Architecture, in the seventh edition of the Encyclopadia Britannica, there is more learning and originality than in any other essay on the same subject. In 1836, appeared A Glossary of Terms used in Grecian, Roman, Italian, and Gothic Architecture, 8vo. This work is characterised in a learned critique on the subject, in the Athenceum, as a " superficial and hurried compilement." It has the merit, however, of being the first work devoted almost exclusively to the architecture of the middle ages. The following quotation from the preface to the fifth volume of Architectural Antiquities, is at once applicable to the present volume, to the author, and to the reader: — " In the ensuing pages, the author has endeavoured to guard against vague language, and has applied the terms Saxon, Norman, Pointed, &c., to designate the architecture which properly belongs to the respective ages, or characters, or classes of building ; whilst the word Gothic, as it conveys no definite meaning, or is descriptive of any peculiar class of architecture, has been generally omitted. In the following pages, the reader will observe a great number of references to authors and authorities ; for it has been the author's invariable practice to make every writer responsible for his own statements and opinions. Fidelity of quotation has been carefully attended to. Anxious and eager to do justice to all preceding and contemporary authors, and even to rivals and foes, the author has referred to every book and authority that has been used ; and he trusts it will be admitted that he has spoken candidly and generously of all. The petty passion of jealousy, and the unworthiness of literary envy, are degrading to the man who writes to inform and improve his fellow-creatures. If it ever formed a part of the author's character, he hopes b X PREFACE. it is wholly eradicated ; and trusts that the remainder of life will be passed in amity with all the literati, and the artists of his country." Instead of the unmeaning, because misapplied phrase, Gothic Architecture, the author has here, as in other works, employed the term Christian. He is aware of having incurred the sneers of certain professional critics, and the disapproval of some temperate, well-informed antiquaries ; but the former are unworthy of notice, and the latter has received the most attentive consideration of the author. Opposed as he is to all theorising; exempt, also, in his old age, from all prejudices, or petty vanities of establishing novelties in language, merely fanciful, he must continue to use this word, in preference to any other, from a conviction that it is the most apposite, the most correct, tlie most descriptive, and the best adapted to designate that architecture which originated with, and was progressively advanced through all its stages of improvement, variety, and beauty, by the Christian architects of the middle ages. It was at first a variation from, and a debasement of the Roman, and continued, from the fifth to the end of the twelfth century, to employ the semicircular arch, either plain, or variously orna- mented, with the short, simple pillar, and the base and capital of the Roman pattern ; and, in this arrangement, as well as subsequently, with the pointed arch, to the epoch of the dissolution of monas- teries in England, by King Henry VIII., this novel species of architecture, in its manifold varieties and beauties, was employed in every Christian edifice. As Pagan architecture applies to all the temples of Egypt, Greece, and ancient Rome, each of which is designated by a term applicable to itself, so the phrase Christian architecture embraces and extends to all the varieties of cluirches, monas- teries, and other ecclesiastical buildings, which the disciples and followers of Christ erected as places of worship, and as the residences of their respective fraternities. (See the words Christian, Gothic, Norman, and Saxon Architecture, in the following pages.) It remains for the author to testify both his thanks and obligations to those kind coadjutors who have contributed, con amore, to improve the volume by useful suggestions and corrections. His old colleague and long-tried friend, Mr, Brayley, has examined most of the proof sheets, and pointed out various improvements. To Mr. Hosking, frequently noticed, the author owes a lasting obligation, for many corrective criticisms made on reading the proofs. The Rev. Joseph Hunter, one of the Sub-commissioners of Records, and author of some valuable topographical works, very promptly lent useful aid for the ensuing pages. John Adey Repton, Edward J. Willson, Joseph Gwilt, the late William Hamper, and the Rev. Mr. Owen, of Shrewsbury, also rendered the author some hints and information at the commencement of the Dictionary. To the Rev. J. Parker, the author ofliers sincere thanks for judicious remarks on Pulpits, Screens, and Rood-lofts. LIST OF FORTY-TWO ENGRAVINGS, ILLUSTRATING MORE THAN TWO HUNDRED DIFFEKEN'T ARCHITECTURAL MEMBERS AND WORDS, DKSCRIBED, AND REFERRED TO, IN THIS DICTIOXARY. I. AncADES, PI. I — Thirteen varieties of plain, zigzag, and other ornamented aichivolt-mouldings, of semicircular, interlacing, and pointed forms; with pillars, having plain and ornamented shafts, capitals, and bases; string-courses and coriiel-mouldings of various kinds; plain and decorated ashlering, &c. The names of the build, ings, whence the examples are taken, are engraved on the plate. Figs. 5 and 7 have galleries, or open spaces, behind. For Castle Rising, read Castle Acre Piory Church. II. PI. II. Ninevarieties with trefoil, cinquefoil, and acute lancet- shaped arches ; with varied archivolt-mouldings, single and clus- tered pillars, both attached and insulated, plain and highly en- riched capitals, quatrefoil and cinquefoil openings: also, sculptured and diapered spandrils, and parts of triforia, clerestories, and tomb. III. PI. III. Of interlaced Archivolt Mouldings. Fourteen varie- ties, exhibiting peculiar instances of ornamental ashlering; roman bricks, or tiles : fig. 1 ; the most ordinary Anglo-Norman capitals (one in fig. 6, resembling the Corinthian) ; clieveron, lozenge, and cable-mouldings : and a very singular example of intersecting archivolt-mouldings, fig. 7; whilst the three varieties, figs. 9, 10, 11, display the fanciful decoratiims of the Normans in the ash. lering. For accounts of the above subjects, see Akcade. IV. Arches, PI. I Eighteen arches, of varied form, from dif. ferent buildings, and of different dates. The name of each is engraved on tlie plate, and the whole are described in the article, AncH. Sculptured and perforated spandrils ; paneling; capitals; hood-moulds; crockets; a finial ; the ogee ; part of an open-work timber roof, with pendants ; a chimney mantel-piece, &c., are shewn in this plate : also, the centres from which the curves of the arches are struck. V. Fl. II. — Twelve examples; semicircular, pointed, and of the horse-shoe form, fig. 9 ; exhibiting Anglo-Norman mouldings, ribs, and capitals; a flat arch within a semicircular one (fig. 8); and the Norman cheveron, in the archivolt of a pointed arch, fig. 12. VI. PI. Ill Twelve varieties, from the earliest to the latest pointed form ; the names attached, and the centres indicated. Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4, from buildings of the Noi-raan class. This plate contains some good specimens of capitals and pillars ; a fine ogee arch, with crockets and finial ; the internal moulding of an arch, curiously engrailed (fig. 1) ; a label-moulding from Alalmes. bury Ab. Ch. (mentioned in the article Porch) ; the billet- mouldings, perforated spandrels, tracery, &c. VII. Pl. IV. Twoarches of an irregular, crippled, depressed form, described in the article Arch. This plate shews also Norman bases, shafts, and capitals ; zigzags ; a label-moulding, with snake's head ; plain and ornamented windows ; a plain-arched and a groined roof (the latter having a third arch, equally singular in its form to the two principal ones) ; a shallow niche, with side-but- tresses and croketted gable, &c. It is presumed, that these arches were originally semicircular. For accounts of them, see Arch. VIII. Bases, Pl. I. — Nineteen varieties, of early date ; of which nine are from Canterbury Cathedral ; shewing the forms of shafts, from the simple cylinder to the complicated massive clustered pillar, fig. 17. The boldness and simplicity of ancient base-mould- ings are strikingly seen in the vertical section, fig. 19. IX. Pl. II. Eight examples from Wells, and Winchester Cathe- drals. The subjects of these plates ai-e described in the article Base ; and the component parts of each under the words Plinth, Torus, Casement, Scotia, Bowtell, Shaft, &c. X. Bosses and Rib-mouldings, Pi. I Twelve specimens, exhi- biting the freedom of design and executiou exercised by the ancient workmen, in foliage, as contrasted with their works, in imagery, or sculpture, of the human figure. Dog-tooth ornament on fig. 1. XI. Pl. II. Twelve specimens, of which four are from tlie Lady Chapel of Wells Cathedral, shewing the beauty of the sculptui'ed foliage with which that magnificent church is profusely adorned. See the words Boss and Rib. XII. Brackets — Fifteen specimens, with names attached. Those with the human heads, and the hand supporting them, are cor- bels ; fig. 10 is a sort of pedestal, with a projecting top for a piscina, and a groined soffit, or canopy; and fig. 15 has quatre- foils in panels, and an embattled parapet: fig. 12 is peculiarly elegant. See Bracket and Pedestal. XIII. Buttresses Nine specimens, in front and profile; serving, also, by their details, to illustrate the words Bracket, Crocket, Corbel-table, Niche, Pedestal, Gable or Pediment, Finial, Tablet, Set-off, Coping, Pinnacle, Gargoyle (fig. 5), Canopy, String-course, &c. XIV. Buttresses (Flying.) Pl. II Seven examplt-s, single and double, as named on the plate, and described in the article Buttress; shewing also embattled, foliated, and perforated parapets; pinnacles, of plain and ornamental design; crockets, formed of foliage and animals; finials ; open tracery and pa- nelling; and other details. XV. Capitals. Pl. I Eleven specimens, named on the plate, and described in tiie article Capital; all Anglo-Norman, and some exhibiting in the ftdiage a striking similarity to classical models. Curious neck-mttuldings, and groups of figures, with the forms and ornaments of tlie different shafts are also shewn. XVI. Pl. It Thirteen examples : for names and descriptions see the plate, and the word Capital. These are of different daces; some simply moulded, and others richly foliated : a sculptured vine (see Vinette) runs round fig. 8, with quatrefoil panels be- neath. This plate also illustrates the forms of shafts. XVII. Cathedral Churches. — Plan of Durham Cathedral, pointing out the following members, or parts of a cburcb, most of which are generally fonyd in the same situations : — A, the Galilee (see Galilee), or western porch; B, west end of nave; CC, western towers ; D, nave ; Ebl, ailes of nave ; FG, transept ; H, space under central tower; JJ, aile of transept; K, choir; L, presbytery, or space for altar; M, ailes of choir; N, modern vestry; O, chapel of the nine altars, the usual situation of the ladv-chapel; P (according to Carter), the parlour, locutory, or speche-honse, of the monastery ; Q, chapter-house, now destroyed ; R, cloister; S, lavatory or conduit; TTT, cells for monks; U, passage of communication, a kind of slyp; W, hall of the deanery ; XV, remains of buildings ; Z Z Z, crypt under ref'ec- tt)ry ; a, kitchen; b, offices ; c to b, rooms under the dormitory ; i, k, prebendal houses, gardens, &c. See Cathedral, Church, Chapter-house, Cloister, Nave, Choir, Aile, Tran- sept, Galilee, Porch, To%ver, Lavatory, Refectory, Staircase, Dormitory, Kitchen, Lady-chapel, &,c. XVIIL Cathedral Churches Compartments of the nave of Durham Cathedral ; and of the Trinity Chapel, and the small transept, Canterbury Cathedral. Ejcterior and interior. The references ti> the nave of Durham Cathedral will be found in the article Nave ; the parts indicated by the numbers affixed to the plan and elevation of the exterior of Trinity Chapel. Canterbury (D), are as follows: — 1, leaded roof; 2, plain parapet; 3, small loophole window; 4, roof of aile; 5, flying, and attached but. tresses; 6, main window of the chapel, with pointed bead; 7) ditto, with semicircular head; 8, windows of crypt ; 9 (in plan and in elevation), chief and bold projecting buttresses ; 10, pilaster xu LIST OP ENGRAVINGS. liuttresses. Canterbury Cathedra! — small transept — interior (C). 1, framework of roof; 2, 3, 4, vaulting, sliewing its thickness, and tlie elevations and sections of the main lilis ; 5, clerestory; (), triforiiiin ; 7i arcade over the main arches; 8, clustered column, shafts supporting rilis of vaulting ; !l, one of the main arches of the transept; 10, panelling of the side wall; 11, piscina and amhry ; 12, ground plan of semicircular recess or chapel. XIX. Cathedual CmrncnEs — Compartments of the naves of Siilisbury and of Ejeler Cathedrals. Exteriors and interiors. These have heen partially descrihed in the article Nave ; the remainder of their cliaracteristics are as follows : — The interior • elevation of A'«;isiu»-ji Cathedral shews, at the same time, a section of the west front, with the peculiar arrangement of the central porch, or jiortico mentioned in the article Porch : g, steps from such portico to the nave; h, the interior of the portico, with seat, panelling, &C. ; i, one of the main liuttresses of the west front; aiul k, the substance of the arch over the portico. Exterior, Salisburi/. — (A) a g, parapets; h, corhel-talde ; i, set-off of hut- tress ; k, hasenient; 1, hasement-mouldings, called a tablet by Rickman. Exterior, Eaetcr. — d g, porch, with embattled parapet, and traccried face ; e, staircase turret. Interior, Exeter. — a, framework of roof; d, music-gallery. This and the last plate ilhistrate several words in the Dictionary (as Arch, Arcade, Bl'ttress, Moulding, Panel, Parapet, Pjllau, Pin- nacle, Tracery, Window, &c. &c.). XX. Chapter-houses, Ground Plans of Twelve ; as named on the plate, and described under Chapter-house, a, b, c, and d, plans of the central pillars of the chapter-houses of Wells, Lich- Jiehl, Lincoln, and Salisbury Cathedrals. The groining of such of the examples as hnve vaulted roofs, and the panelling of the flat ceilings of the remainder, are indicated by dotted lines. The ves- tibules to ihiise of IJchJicld, Lincoln, Chester, and Bristol; parts of the cloisters of several of the catliedrals, and the seats, door- wavs, buttresses, walls, and windows of eacli building, are likewise slicvvn. The groined roof of York Cathedral chapter-house, is .shewn at large in one of the plates of Tracery. XXI. Chimney-Shafts One single insulated specimen, one double, a group of three, and another of ten, all formed of the beantifully moulded bricks used (almost exclusively for chimney- shafts) in the reigns of Henry V'll. and VIII. The introduction of Shields of arms on buildings is shewn in fig. 3. See Chimney-shaft. XXII. Columns, or Pillars Twelve examples, all supporting semicircular arches, described in the article Column. (See also Pillar.) These specimens illustiate also, the articles, ISand, Base, Capital, Impost, &c. XXIII. CoRHEL-TAHLES Ten specimens from different build- ings See CoRREL-TARLE. This jdale shews also trefoil arches, parapets, panelling, {(uatrefciil, zigzag, nebule, and scolloped mouldings, bases, and other members. XXIV. Crockets Eleven specimens, as named on the plate, and described under the word Crocket; remarkable for the beauty of their foliage, and the figures of angels and swans at figs. ',i and G. XXV. Crosses, Pl. I Six crosses : figs. 4 and 5, (S(. Deiii's, and Waltham), being monumental; and fig. (». Iron-Acton, a preach- ing cross. Niches, tabernacles, groined soffits, or canopies, figures, or effigies, shields, knots, parapets, quatrefoils, &,c., are here shewn. The cross at Waltham has been restored since the annexed plate was engraved. XXV'I. PI. II — .IIarket-crosses. — Those of Cheddar, Glaston- bury, Malmesbnry, and .Salisbury: having, in their details, para- pets, gargoyles (1, 2), buttresses, fiving buttresses (3), pintiacles, &c. In the back-grounds of figs. 1 and .'i, a tower, and steeple are shewn; in fig. 2, an old pump or conduit attached to the croNs ; and, behind, is the panelled front of the i)Id inn, the George, at Glastonbury ; and in that, and all the others, some examples of ancient dnniestic architecture and timber buildings, are shewn. XXVII. PI. III. Crosses on Garles Twenty specimens, as employed by architects on buildings; and exhibiting the principal ancient variations in the form of this Christian figure. The names are engraved on the plate. XXVIII. Crypts of Cavterrury Cathedral [Plan): are fully described in tlie article CiivpT. This plate illustrates the words. Pier, Pillar, Chapel, Groining, Staircase, Window, &c. XXIX. Crypts of Canterbury Cathedral (Views): de- scribed in the article Crypt ; and illustratiug the words Ghoik, Pillar, Rih, Tracery, &c. XXX. Doorways, PI. I Six varieties (see description in the article Doorway), illustrating the words Ashler, Arch 1 VOLT, Impost, Lintel, Moulding, Shaft, &c. XXXI. PI. I Six varieties (Doorway, fig. .'5, from Tattershall Castle, instead of Church, as on the plate), illustrating the words Corbel, Door, Hood-mould, Impost, Label, Pillar, Spandrel, Shield, &c. The forms of the arch-mouldings, and the sections of the jambs, are shewn beneath each elevation. XXXII. PI. II Four specimens, each forming the chief entrance to the respective building. (See Doorway.) These magnificent designs exhibit various arches, corbels, crockets, canopies, cusps, foliations, doors, finials, gables, images, masonry, mouldings, niches, pillars, quatrefoils, ribs, sculpture, shields, spandrels, statues, tabernacles, tracery, trefoils, &.c. XXXIII. Finials — Nine varieties, as named, and described under the word FiNiAL. See also Neck-mould, &c. XXXIV. Fonts Ten specimens, named and described under the word Font; and illustrating the words Arcade, Foliage, Panelling, Parapet, and Sculpture. XXXV. Porches One on the south side of King's College Chapel, Cambridge. (Kngraved title-page.) This beautiful sub. feet contains a profusion of the ordinary members of the latest and most elaborate pointed style : for instance, a doorway formed by a plain pointed, and an ogee arch ; the latter with elegant crockets and finial ; the royal arms occupying foliated circular panels in the spandrels; canopied niches, or tabernacles, on each side ; minute buttresses, pinnacles, pedestals, and tabernacle- work, connected with them; the Tudor rose, crown, and portcullis, in several places ; a very rich parapet, perforated with quatrefoils, and having demi-angels at each end ; the lower part of a large and elegant wiiulow, with muUions and transoms ; slender pillars, and other decorations. For other porches, see Cathedral Churches, Plan; and Compartments of Salisbury, and Exeter Cathedrals. Ribs, Rib-mouldings. (See Bosses, and Tracery of Vaulted Ceilings.) XXXVI. Spires. (Tf'ood-cut in page 435.) Eight specimens, enumerated in the article Spire. Of these the first four are analogous in form to pinnacles and turrets. XXXVII. Tracery of Vaulted Ceilings, PI. I — Ten speci- mens, in plan, section, and view, shewing the arrangement of the ribs of groined vaults ; and two elevations and sections of ribs (AB). XXXVIII. PI. II From the chapter-house of Fori Cathedral, as supposed to be seen in a mirror ou the ground. (See Tracery, and Chapter-house.) XXXIX. Six varieties. In some impressions of this plate the refer. ence-figures are wanting, and the names of the subjects incorrect. The specimen at the top of the plate is one compartment of the fan-traceried roof of King's College Chapel, Cambridge ; the two immediately beneath it are, that to the left, from St. George's Chapel, Windsor ; and the other from the Chapter-house of Cart- terbury Cathedral. The narrow strip beneath the laiter, and the largest of the two lower specimens, are also from iS'(. George's Chapel ; the sixth example being from the Dean's Chapel, Can- terbury. The three plates of Tracery may he referred to as contain- ing illustrations of bosses, ceilings, cusps, foliations, groining, fan. groining, pillars, ribs, shafts, vaulting, and windows. XL. Towers and Spires. ^Eighteen examples, named and de- scribed in the article Tower. (See also Spire and Steeple.) Amongst the many words illustrated by this plate, may be men- tioned Buttress, Doorway, Dormer-window, Gable, Lantern, Parapet, Pharos, Pinnacle, Pitch, Koof, and Window. XLI. Windows Thirty-six varieties, and sixteen horizontal sec- tions of nuillions. (See Window, Oriel, &c.) This plate exhibits arches, labels, or drip-stones, corbels, mouldings, shafts, bases, capitals, transoms, mullions, tracery, &c. XLI I. The Armorial bearings of Her Majesty, the Queen. This day is published. Part the First of A DICTIONARY OF THE ^rdjitecture anti 9lrrijaeciIosp OF THE MIDDLE AGES; INCLUDING THE WORDS USED BY OLD AND MODERN AUTHORS IN TREATING OF Qlrcj^itcttural anO otj^cr Slntiquitits : ETYMOLOGY, DEFINITION, DESCRIPTION, AND HISTORICAL ELUCIDATION. ALSO BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES OF 9[nci>nt 9[rrl)itfftsi, ILLUSTRATED BY NU5IER0US ENGRAVINGS, BY J. LE KEUX, OF ALL THE MEMBERS AND VARIETIES OF CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. By JOHN BRITTON, F.S.A. AND MEMBER OF OTHER SOCIETIES, BOTH FOREIGN AND ENGLISH. * What toyle hath been taken, as no man thinketh, so no man believeth, but he that hath made the triaU." — ^Ant. Wood. ADDRESS. The first portion of this Dictionary is submitted to the reader as a spe- cimen of a Work on which the Author has devoted much care and labo- rious investigation. Although it has been in preparation for many years, and he has acquired a large mass of materials, which he vainly fancied might have been easily prepared for the press whenever he sat down to the task, he found that fresh references, re-examinations, revisals, and rewriting, became almost endless. He could never satisfy himself — nor can he ever hope to attain this end. Having, however, long promised the Work, knowing that something of the sort is much wanted, and hav- ing incurred very considerable expenses for drawings, engravings, and other materials, he is impelled to prosecute the undertaking; first, to re- deem a public pledge, and, secondly, in hopes of obtaining some pecuniary return for money advanced. His constant practice in preceding publica- tions, of improving every Part in progress, will not be departed from in this his last literary undertaking ; but, on the contrary, it will be his aim to render it as perfect as due diligence, fastidious inquiry, and scrupulous discrimination, can make it. Not only all the Authorities enumerated in the List accompanying the First Part will be laid under contribution, but these and many others will be resorted to and analysed, with a view of b 11 obtaining precise, rational, and apposite elucidations of all words that have been applied to, and properly belong to, the Architecture of the Middle Ages. The Work now proposed has long been regarded as a desideratum in Literature, and has often been anxiously inquired for both by professional and amateur readers. It has been progressively forming for the last twenty-five years, during which period the Author has assiduously de- voted his mind towards elucidating the History, and illustrating the " Architectural and Cathedral Antiquities of England" He may therefore lay claim to some experience in the study ; and his literary and embellished works will fully shew that he has not been an idle or careless labourer in the vineyard of archreology. From the time of Warton (1762), Bentham (1771), and Grose (1776), to the present, both readers and writers have progressively multiplied in this department of literature ; yet much ambiguity and many discrepancies still prevail respecting the precise meaning of words and terms, even in common use. Such, how- ever, has always been the case when the technical phraseology of anv branch of science, or of art, remains unsettled and undefined, and when the subject has been discussed more by superficial than by learned authors. Precision in language is only attained by slow advances ; and until a correct Lexicon in architecture be formed, and generally, if not universally, recognised, writers will be likely to use both inaccurate and in-apposite terms. A cursory perusal of any one treatise on the Architec- ture of the Middle Ages will verify these assertions. Reference to the various encyclopedias and other dictionaries will further shew the want of a work expressly devoted to this subject. The author therefore ven- tures to otfer one which he has sedulously endeavoured to render superior to every preceding publication of the kind, and in which many words, with definitions, etymologies, and descriptions, will be found which do not occur in any other dictionary. In the aggregate, as well as in detail, the work will attempt brevity with perspicuity, and aim at usefulness rather than ornament. Whilst correct information on the numerous subjects included within ils range is furnished, the author has endeavoured to avoid all superfluous matter, and render his language at once explicit, apposite, and instructive. It is calculated that the volume now announced will be comprised in twenty sheets of letter-press, royal 8vo., accompanied by at least Forty Engravings ; and it is proposed to divide it into four Parts, or Numbers, to be published at 1 2s. each. A large and handsome edition will be printed, both on imperial and medium 4to., to class with corresponding sizes of the Auciiitectukal and Catiieuhal Antiquities. The largest paper will be 31s. &d. per Number, and the next size will be 24s. each. As only a small number will be printed of these sizes, it is recom- mended that early application be made, to prevent disappointment. *,* Ten Copies are printed, with Proofs of the Plates worked on India paper of the largest size, at 11. 10s. per Number. LONDON : — PUBLISH BD RY THE AUTHOR, BURTON STRBBTI LONHMAN, REB8, ORME. BROIVN, AND ORBKN, l-ATBRNOSTKR ROW; AND J. LK KKUX, PKNTON PLACE. TITLES OF BOOKS AND OTHER AUTHORITIES CONSULTED FOB, AND KEFERRED TO IN, THE ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY : FIRST GIVING THE ABBREVIATIONS tlSED ; AND SECONDLY, THE TITLE, AUTHOR, SIZE, AND DATE, OF EACH BOOK REFERRED TO. ARRANGED IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER. The reader is assured, that every work specified in the following list has been consulted for the terms or passages to which they are respectively referred, — that many other authors have also been examined, and used for the purpose of comparison and exemplifi- cation, — and that the utmost diligence and caution have been exercised to give authenticity and accuracy to this Dictionary . On these grounds, the author claims the confidence and liberal indulgence of his readers : if to industry he has added discrimina- tion, rational selection, and compression of materials, ivith judi- cious and correct application of words and sentiments to the sciences and arts intended to be elucidated, he feels assured that his labours will be didy appreciated, and be productive of benefit in this department of literature. The following list will be found useful to the reader who is desirous of extending his inquiries 7'especting the Architecture and Arche- ology of the Middle Ages. Abbreviations. — Angl.-Sax., Anglo-Saxon ; dim,, diminutive ; D., Dutch ; Eng., English ; Fr., French ; Ger., Gennaa ; Gr., Greek ; Heb., Hebrew ; Ir., Irish ; Ital., Italian ; Lat., Latin ; low Lat., low Latin, or the Latin used by the monkish writers ; Nor. Fr., Norman French ; p., page ; pi., plate ; Port., Por- tuguese ; pt., part ; So., Scotch ; Sp., Spanish ; Teut., Teutonic ; vol., volume. Aberdeen's Inquiry. See Wilki}is's Civ. Arch, of Vit. Angl. Sacr. Anglia Sacra; sive, Collectio Historiarum, partira antiquitiis, partim receiiter scriptarum, de Archiepiscopis et Episcopis Angliae, a prima Fidei Christianoe Susceptione ad Annum MDXL. [By Hen. Wharton.] 2 vols. fol. 1691. iv britton's architectural dictionary. Arch. Anticj. Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain. By J. Britton, F.S.A. 5 vols. 4to. 1805—1829. The fifth volume consti- tutes a complete and independent work, and is arranged as a Chro- nological History of Christian Architecture. It is embellished with eighty engravings, also arranged chronologically. Besides a dictionary of terms, it contains chronological tables of architects, churches, monuments, pulpits, fonts, and crosses ; a copious index, &c. Arch. Antiq. of Rome. The Architectural Antiquities of Rome, measured and delineated by G. L. Taylor and Edward Cresy, Archi- tects. 2 vols, folio. 1821. Arch, of Middle Ages. Architecture of the Middle Ages in Italy : illustrated by Views, Plans, Elevations, Sections, and Details of the Cathedral, Baptistery, Leaning Tower or Campanile, and Campo Santo of Pisa : from Drawings and Measurements taken in the year 1817; accompanied by Descriptive Accounts of their History and Con- struction. By E. Cresy and G. L. Taylor, Architects and F.S.A. 4to. 1829. Arch. Antiq. of Normandy. Specimens of the Architectural An- tiquities of Normandy, engraved by J. and H. Le Keux, from draw- ings by A. Pugin, Architect; edited by J. Britton, F.S.A. 4to. 1828. ArchcE. Archseologia ; or. Miscellaneous Tracts relating to Anti- quity : published by the Society of Antiquaries of London. 4to. Vol. I. 1770; vol. xxiii. 1830. ArchcB. Mliana. Archaeologia ^liana ; or Miscellaneous Tracts relating to Antiquity. Published by the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 2 vols. 1830. Arch. Notes. Architectural Notes on German Churches, with Remarks on the Origin of Gothic Architecture. (By Professor Whe- well.) 8vo. 1830. Baker's Northamptonshire. The History and Antiquities of the County of Northampton. By George Baker. Vol. i. fol. 1830. Batteli/s Cant. Sacr. Cantuaria Sacra ; or, the Antiquities of the Cathedral and Metropolitical Church, &c. of Canterbury, forming the second part of the 2d edit, of Somner's Antiquities of Canterbury. By the Rev. Nicolas Battely. Fol. 1703. Beniham's Ely, 2d edit. The History and Antiquities of the Conventual and Cathedral Church of Ely. By the Rev. James Bentham, M.A., F.S.A. 2d edit, by W. Stevenson, Esq., F.S.A. 2vols. 4to. 1812. AUTHORITIES. V Bingham's Works. The Works of the learned Joseph Bingham, M.A. ; containing the Origines Ecclesiasticse, or the Antiquities of" the Christian Church, &c. 2 vols. fol. 1726. There is an 8vo edition. Blare's Rutlandsh. The History and Antiquities of the County of Rutland. By Thomas Blore, F.S.A. Fol. 1811. Blare's Monuments. The Monumental Remains of noble and eminent Persons, comprising the Sepulchral Antiquities of Great Britain. Engraved from Drawings by Edward Blore, F.S.A. ; with Historical and Biographical Illustrations, (by the Rev. Ph. Bliss, D.D.); the Engravings by J. and H. Le Keux. Imp. 8vo. 1826. Booth's Anal. Diet. Analytical Dictionary of the English Lan- guage. By David Booth. 4to. 1806, &c. Brand's Pop. Antiq. Observations on Popular Antiquities, chiefly illustrating the Origin of our vulgar Customs, Ceremonies, and Super- stitions. By John Brand, M.A., Sec. S.A. ; arranged and revised by Henry Ellis, F.R.S., Sec. S.A. 2 vols. 4to. 1813. Brayleys West. Abbey. The History and Antiquities of the Abbey Church of St. Peter, Westminster ; including Notices and Biographical IVIemoirs of the Abbots and Deans of that foundation. Illustrated by J. P. Neale. The whole of the Literary Department by E. W. Brayley. 2 vols. 4to. 1818. Buckler's Cathedrals. Views of the Cathedral Churches of Eng- land and Wales, with Descriptions. By John Chessell Buckler. 4to. 1822. This volume contains 32 prints, drawn and etched by the Author, and chiefly copied from a series of large aquatinted prints, which IVIr. Buckler, senior, had published between the years 1799 and 1814. Carpentier Glos. Nov. Glossarium Novum ad Scriptores Medii M\\, cum Latinos turn Gallicos ; seu, Supplementum ad auctiorem Glossarii Cangiani editionem, &c. Collegit et digessit D. P. Car- pentier, O. S. B. 4 vols. fol. Paris, 1766. Carter's Anc. Arch. The Ancient Architecture of England. By John Carter, F.S.A., Architect. Two parts. Fol. 1794. Carter's Scul. and Painting. Specimens of the Ancient Sculp- ture and Painting now remaining in this Kingdom, from the earliest period to the reign of Henry the Vlllth. By John Carter. 2 vols, fol. 1780—1787. Carter's Cathedrals : Exeter. Some Account of the Cathedral Church of Exeter, illustrative of the Plans, Elevations, and Sections of VI BRITTON S ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. that Building. By J. Carter, Architect. Large fol. Published by the Society of Antiquaries of London. The Society has published accounts of the following distinguished edifices, in corresponding sizes and styles : — St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster ; Bath Abbey Church ; the Abbey Church of St. Alban's; Durham and Gloucester Cathedrals. Castell's Villas. The Villas of the Ancients illustrated. By Robert Castell. Large fol. 1728. Cath. Antiqs. — York, &c. The Cathedral Antiquities of England : History, &c. of York Cathedral, or of any other Cathedral, as named. By John Britton, F.S.A. Medium and Imperial 4to. This work is intended to illustrate the architecture, and develope the history, of the magnificent Cathedrals of England. Each church is fully displayed by a ground-plan, sections, elevations of the principal parts, views externally and internally, and details of particular orna- ments. To every cathedral is appropriated a quarto volume of varied thickness and price, according to the relative magnitude and architec- tural history of each subject. York Cathedral consists of 36 engrav- ings, and 96 pages of letter-press, price 'M. 12s.; and Bristol Cathe- dral conta.ms 13 illustrations, and 74 pages of letter-press, price H. 4s. Ciampini Vet. Mon. Joannis Ciampini Romani Vetera Moni- menta, in quibus preecipu^ musiva oppra, sacrarum, profanarumque Bedium structura, &c. 3 vols. fol. 1747. Collect. Cur. Collectanea Curiosa ; or. Miscellaneous Tracts re- lating to the History and Antiquities of England and Ireland, the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, &c. By John Gtitch, from the MSS. of Archbishop Bancroft. 2 vols. 8vo. 1781. Cotgrave's Diet. A Dictionary of the French and English Tongues. By R. Cotgrave. Re-edited by James Howell, fol. 1673. CotmansNormandij. Architectural Antiquities of Normandy. By J. S. Cotman; with Historical and Descriptive Notices by Dawson Turner, Esq., F.R. and A.S. 2 vols, folio. 1822. Cottingham's Henry VII.'s Chap. Plans, Elevations, Sections, Details, and Views of the magnificent Chapel of King Henry VII. at Westminster Abbey Church, with a History of its Foundation, &c. By Lewis Nockalls Cottingham, Architect. 2 vols, large fol. 1822—1829. This work contains 73 prints, ilhistrutive of the design, construction, and details, of the most splendid specimen of Christian architecture in Europe. D'Agincourt, Hist, de I'Art — Architec. Histoire de I'Art par les Monumens, depuis sa Decadence au IV' Si6cle jusqu'a son Renouvelle- AUTHORITIES. Vll ment auXVI% pour servirde suite k I'Histoire del'Art chezles Anciens. Par M. Seroux d'Agincqurt. Fol. 6 vols. 1823, &c. Dallaway's English Arch. Observations on English Architecture, Military, Ecclesiastical, and Civil, compared with similar Buildings on the Continent; including a Critical Itinerary of Oxford and Cam- bridge, &c. By the Rev. Jas. Dallaway, M.B. F.S.A. 8vo. 1806. D'Aviler, Did. d'Arch. Dictionnaire d' Architecture Civile et Hydraulique, et des Arts qui en dependent. Par Augustin Charles d'Aviler. Nouvelle edition, 4to. 1755. Drake's Eboracum. Eboracum ; or the History and Antiquities of the City of York ; together with a History of the Cathedral Church. By Francis Drake, Gent. F.R.S. Fol. 1736. Dii Canrje. Glossarium ad Scriptores mediae et infimee Latinitatis, auctoreCarolo Dufresne, Domino DuCange. 6 vols. fol. Paris, 1733. Dugdale's St. Paul's. The History of St. Paul's Cathedral, in London. By Sir Wm. Dugdale, Knt. With a Continuation and Additions, by Henry Ellis, F.R.S., Sec. S.A. Folio. 1818. Dugdale's Mon. Angl. Monasticon Anglicanum : a History of the Abbeys and other Monasteries, Hospitals, Frieries, and Cathedral and Collegiate Churches, &c. in England and Wales. By Sir William Dugdale, Knt. A new edit, by John Caley, Henry Ellis, and the Rev. Bulkeley Bandinel. Fol. 6 vols. ; the last volume is divided into three. 1817—1830. Durand's Parallel. Recueil et Parall^le des Edifices de tout genre, anciens et modernes, remarquables par leur beaute, par leur grandeur, &c., et dessines sur une meme echelle. Par J. N. L. Durand, Architecte. Folio. Paris, an ix. Elmes's Diet, of Fine Arts. A General and Bibliographical Dic- tionary of the Fine Arts, &c. By J. Elmes, Architect, &c. 8vo. 1826. Examples of Gothic Archi. Examples of Gothic Architecture ; consisting of a Series of Plans, Elevations, Sections, and Details, se- lected from some of the most admired Edifices of England, &c. By A. Pugin, Architect; with Accounts by E. J. Willson, Architect, F.S.A. 4to. 1830. Fosbroke's Brit. Mon. British Monachism ; or. Manners and Cus- toms of the Monks and Nuns of England. By T. D. Fosbrooke, M.A., F.A.S. 4to. 1817. Fosbroke's Enc. of Antiq. Encyclopaedia of Antiquities, and Ele- ments of Archaeology, classical and mediaeval. By the Rev. T. D. Fosbroke, M.A., F.S.A., &c. 2 vols. 4to. 1825. viii britton's architectural dictionary. Gough's Sepul. Mon. Sepulchral Monuments in Great Britain, with Introductory Observations. By Richard Gough, Esq., F.S.A. 5vols. fol. 1786. Gunn's Inquiry. An Inquiry into the Origin and Influence of Gothic Architecture. By William Gunn, B.D. 8vo. 1819. Gwilt's Vitruv. The Architecture of Marcus Vitruvius PoUio. Translated by Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A. 4to. 1826. Gtvilt's Rud. Rudiments of Architecture, Practical and Theoreti- cal. By Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A. Royal 8vo. 1826. Gwilt's Civ. Arc. A Treatise on the Decorative Part of Civil Architecture. By Sir William Chambers, K. P. S. With Illustra- tions, Notes, and an Examination of Grecian Architecture. By Joseph Gwilt, Architect, F.S.A. 2 vols. fol. 1825. Hall on Gothic Arch. Essay on the Origin, History, and Principles of Gothic Architecture. By Sir J. Hall, Bart. P.R.S. Edin. 4to. 1813. Halfpenny's Goth. Orn. Gothic Ornaments in the Cathedral Church of York. Drawn and etched by Joseph Halfpenny. 4to. 1795. This vol. contains 105 prints, with brief notices. Hamper's Life of Dugdale. The Life, Diary, and Correspondence of Sir William Dugdale, Knt., &c. Edited by William Hamper, Esq., F.S.A. 4to. 1827. Hawkins's Goth. Arch. History of the Origin and Establishment of Gothic Architecture. By J. S. Hawkins, F.S.A. 8vo. 1813. Hoare's I tin. The Itinerary of Archbishop Baldwin through Wales, A.D. M.c.LXXXViii. By Giraldus de Barri. Translated into English by Sir Richard Colt Hoare, Bart. 2 vols. 4to. 1806. Hunter's Hallamshire. Hallamshire : the History and Topo- graphy of the Parish of Sheffield, Co. York, &c. By the Rev. Joseph Hunter, F.S.A., of Newcastle. Fol. 1819. Hunter's South Yorks. South Yorkshire : the History and Topo- graphy of the Deanery of Doncastcr, in the Diocese and County of York. By the Rev. Joseph Hunter, F.S.A. Fol. vol. i. 1828. Jacob's Law Diet. A New Law Dictionary, containing the Inter- pretation and Definition of Words and Terms used in Law, &c., origi- nally compiled by Giles Jacob ; corrected and enlarged by J. Morgan, Esq. Fol. 10th ed. 1782. Jamieson's Etym. Diet. An Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language ; illustrating the Words in their different Significations by AUTHORITIES. IX Examples from Ancient and Modern Writers. By John Jamieson, D.D. F.S.A. Scot. 2vols. 4to. 1808. Johnson's Eccles. Laws. A Collection of all the Ecclesiastical Laws, Canons, Answers, or Rescripts, with other Memorials concern- ing the Government, Discipline, and Worship of the Church of Eng- land, from its first Foundation to the Conquest. By John Johnson, M.A. 2 vols. 8vo. 1720. Kelham's Bom. Book Illu. Domesday Book Illustrated. By Robert Kelham. 8vo. 1788. Kelham's Nor. Fr. Diet. A Dictionary of the Norman, or Old French Language, collected from such Acts of Parliament, Parliament Rolls, Journals, &c. as relate to this Nation. With the Laws of William the Conqueror. By Robert Kelham. 8vo. 1779. Kendall's Principles. An Elucidation of the Principles of English Architecture, usually denominated Gothic. By John Kendall. 8vo. 1818. A small volume of 50 pages and 23 engravings, taken from Exeter Cathedral, in which church Mr. Kendall made some restora- tions, particularly a new altar-screen. King's Mun. Antiq. Munimenta Antiqua; or, Observations on Ancient Castles ; including Remarks on the whole Progress of Archi- tecture, Ecclesiastical as well as Military, of Great Britain, &c. By Edward King, Esq., F.R.S. and A.S. 4 vols. fol. 1799—1806. Le Virloys' Arc. Diet. Dictionnaire d' Architecture, Civile, Mili- taire et Navale, Antique, Ancienne et Moderne, et de tons les Arts et Metiers qui en dependent; dont tous les Termes sont exprimes en Fran9ois, Latin, Italien, Espagnol, Anglois, et AUemand, &c. Par M. C. F. Roland le Virloys, &c. 3 vols. 4to. Paris, 1770. Lingard's Antiq. Ang. Sax. Chti. The Antiquities of the Anglo- Saxon Church. By the Rev. John Lingard. 2d edit. 8vo. 1810. L7jsons's Woodchester. An Account of Roman Antiquities disco- vered at Woodchester, in the County of Gloucester. By Samuel Lysons, F.R.S. and A.S. Fol. 1797. This work consists of 40 plates, with descriptions in French and English. Lijsons's Mag. Brit. — Bed/. Magna Britannia ; being a concise Topographical Account of the several Counties of Great Britain. By the Rev. Daniel Lysons and Samuel Lysons, Esq. Vol. i., Bedford- shire, Berkshire, Buckinghamshire. 4to. 1806. The other counties published are Cambridgeshire, Cheshire, Cornwall, Cumberland, Derbyshire, and Devonshire. X britton's architectural dictionary. Maffei on Amphitheatres. A Complete History of the Ancient Amphitheatres, more particularly regarding the Architecture of those Buildings, and in particular that of Verona. By the Marquis Scipio Maffei. Made English from the Italian by Alexander Gordon, A.M. 8vo. 17:30. Mauley's Interpreter. An Interpreter in Words and Terms in Common and Statute Laws of this Realm. By .John Cowell, LL.D. Continued by Thomas Manley, Esq., augmented and improved. 4to. 1737. Meyrkk's Armour. A Critical Inquiry into Ancient Armour, as it existed in Europe, but particularly in England, from the Norman Conquest to the Reign of King Charles II.: with a Glossary of Mili- tary Terms of the Middle Ages. By Samuel Rush Meyrick, LL.D. and F.S.A. 3 vols. fol. 1824. Milizia's Lives, by Cresy. The Lives of celebrated Architects, Ancient and Modern : by Francesco Milizia. Translated from the Italian by Mrs. Edward Cresy. 2 vols. Bvo. 1826. Miller's Ely Cath. A Description of the Cathedral Church of Ely, with some Account of the Conventual Buildings ; with Engravings. By Geo. Millers, M.A. 8vo. 1807. Milner's Treat. Eccl. Arch. A Treatise on the Ecclesiastical Architecture of England during the Middle Ages. By the Rev. John Milner, D.D., F.S.A., &c. 8vo. 1811. Milner's Winchester. The History, Civil and Ecclesiastical, and Survey of the Antiquities, of Winchester. By the Rev. John Milner, D.D.,'f.S.A., &c. 2vols. 4to. 2d edit. 1809. Mitford's Prin. of Arch. Principles of Design in Architecture, traced in Observations on Buildings, primeval, Egyptian, &c. By Wm. Mitford, Esq. 8vo. 1809. Moller's Denkmaehler. Denkmaelher der Deutschen Baukunst Dargestellt von Georg MoUer. Darmstadt, fo. 1815. This work is still in the progress of publication, and contains plans, elevations, and sections, of several churches and houses in Germany. The letter-press of part of the work has been translated into English, and published under the title of " An Essay on the Origin and Progress of Gothic Architecture, traced and deduced from the ancient Edifices of Ger- many." Small 8vo. 1 824. Murphy's Batalha. Plans, Elevations, Sections, and Views of the Church of Batalha, in Portugal, with the History and Description, by AUTHORITIES. XI Fr. Luis de Sons ; with Remarks. To which is prefixed, a Discourse on the Principles of Gothic Architecture. ByJ. Murphy, Arch. Fol. 1795. Nares's Glos. A Glossary; or Collection of Words, Phrases, Names, and Allusions to Customs, &c. By the Rev. R. Nares, A.M. 4to. 1822. Nichols's Royal Wills. A Collection of all the Wills known to be extant of the Kings and Queens of England, &c. ; with explanatory Notes and a Glossary. By J. N •, [John Nichols]. 4to. 1780. Nicolas's Test. Vet. Testamenta Vetusta ; being Illustrations from Wills, of Manners, Customs, &c. from the Reign of Henry the Second to the Accession of Queen Elizabeth. By Nicholas Harris Nicolas, Esq., F.S.A. 2 vols, royal 8vo. 1826. Nicholson s Arch. Diet. An Architectural Dictionary, containing a correct Nomenclature and Derivation of the Terms employed by Architects, Builders, and Workmen. By Peter Nicholson, Architect. 2 vols. 4to. 1819. Normand's Parallel. A new Parallel of the Orders of Architecture, according to the Greeks and Romans, and Modern Architects. With the original Plates, drawn and engraved by Charles Normand, Archi- tect. With the Text translated, and two additional Plates, by A. Pugin, Architect. Folio. 1 829. Owen and Blakeways Shrewsbury. A History of Shrewsbury. By the Rev. H. Owen and the Rev. J. B. Blakeway. 2 vols. 4to. 1825. Papworth's Civ. Arc. A Treatise on the Decorative Part of Civil Architecture. By Sir William Chambers, K. P. S. 4th edit. To which are added copious Notes, and an Essay on the Principles of Design in Architecture. By J. B. Papworth, Architect. Imp. 4to. 1826. Peck's Desid. Cur. Desiderata Curiosa ; or, a Collection of divers scarce and curious Pieces relating chiefly to Matters of English His- tory. By the Rev. Francis Peck, M. A. 2 vols. 4to. 1779. Raine's North Durham. A Parochial History of North Durham. By the Rev. James Raine, M.A. Fol. part i. 1830. Rep. Com. Pub. Rec. 1800 — 1819. Reports from the Commis- sioners appointed by his Majesty to execute the Measures recommended by a Select Committee of the House of Commons respecting the Public Records of the Kingdom, &c. fol. 2 vols. 1800—1819. Rickman's Attempt. An Attempt to discriminate the Styles of Architecture in England, from the Conquest to the Reformation. By Thomas Rickman, Architect. 8vo. 3d edit. 1825. Xn BRITTON S ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. Skinner's Etymo. Ling. Etymologicoii Linguee Anglicanae, seu Explicatio Vocum Anglicorum, &c. By S. Skinner, M.D. Fol. 1671. Smith's Antiq. of West. Antiquities of Westminster; the old Palace; St. Stephen's Chapel: with 226 engravings. By John Thomas Smith. 4to. 1807. (The account by J. S. H. i. e. John Sidney Hawkins.) Specimens of Goth. Arch. Specimens of Gothic Architecture, selected from various Ancient Edifices in England. By A. Pugin, Architect. With Accounts by E. J. Willson, Architect. 2 vols. 4to. 1821. Spelman's Glos. Glossarium Archaiologicum ; containing barba- rous Latin, obsolete Words, &c., with many additions by Dugdale. By Sir Henry Spelman, Knt. Best edit. fol. 1687. Staveley's Hist, of Chur. The History of Churches in England, wherein is shewn the Time, Means, and Manner of Founding, Building, and Endowing of Churches, both Cathedral and Rural, with their Furniture and Appendages. By Thomas Staveley, Esq. 8vo. ed. 1773. Storer's Cathedrals. — Canter., &c. Graphic and Historical De- scription of the Cathedrals of Great Britain. Svo. and 4to. 1817 to 1820. This work was i)ublished by J. Storer, engraver; the drawings and plates for which were made by himself, and his son, H. S. Storer. The letter-press was mostly written by Mr. Brown, a gentleman of considerable literary talents, but influenced by warm religious and political prejudices : these were frequently expressed in the course of his writings, and particularly in branding the Catholics and Monks with severe reprehensions. He also contended against the term Nor- man Architecture, and against the claims of the Normans to any merit or originality in the churches they raised. This pleasing and useful work was published in numbers, each appropriating a sheet of sixteen closely printed pages, and eight engravings, to a cathedral. Stothard's Man. Effirjics. The Monumental Effigies of Great Britain ; consisting of Etchings from Figures executed by the Sculptor, and introduced into our Cathedrals and Churches, &c. Drawn and etched by C. Stothard, Jun. 4to. 1813—1830. Strtitt's Chron. Eng. The Chronicle of England, from the Arrival of Julius Caesar to the End of the Saxon Heptarchy. By Joseph Strutt. 2 vols. 4to. 1777. Strutt's Hord. Ang.-cyn. Horda Angel-cynnan ; or, a complete View of the Manners, Customs, Arms, Habits, &c. of the Inhabitants of England, from the Arrival of the Saxons till the Reign of Henry the Eighth. By Joseph Stiutt. 2 vols. 4to. 1775. AUTHORITIES. XIU Stuart's Antiqs. of Athens. The Antiquities of Athens, mea- sured and delineated by James Stuart, F.R.S. and F.S.A., and Nicholas Revett, Painters and Architects. New ed. 4 vols. fol. 1817. The fourth volume of this work, published in 1830, contains a series of Essays, supplemental to the other volumes, by C. R. Cockerell, W. Kinnaird, T. L. Donaldson, W. Jenkins, Jun., and W. Railton, Architects ; illustrated by Engravings. Stnkeley's Itin. Cur. Itinerarium Curiosum ; or, an Account of the Antiquities and remarkable Curiosities in Nature or Art, observed in Travels through Great Britain. By William Stukeley, M.D., &c. 2 vols. fol. 1724—1776. Surtees's Durham. The History and Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham. By Robert Surtees, Esq. F.S.A. Fol. 1816 — 1830. 3 vols, are published. Tanner's Not. Mon. by Nasmith. Notitia Monastica ; or, an Account of all the Abbeys, Priories, and Houses of Friars, formerly in England and Wales. By Dr. Thomas Tanner, Bishop of St. Asaph ; edited by the Rev. James Tanner, and re-edited by the Rev. James Nasmith. Fol. Cambridge, 1787. Thorpe's Cust. Roff. Custumale Rofiense, from the original Manuscript in the Archives of the Dean and Chapter of Rochester: to which is added. Memorials of that Cathedral Church, &c. By John Thorpe, Esq. M.A., F.S.A. Fol. 1788. Vagnat, Diet. d'Archi. Dictionnaire d'Architecture. Par J. M. Vagnat, Architecte. 8vo. A Grenoble, 1827. Vetusta Mon. Vetusta Monumenta, quae ad Rerum Britannicarum Memoriam conservandam Societas Antiquariorum Londini sumptu suo edenda curavit. Vol. i. 1747, Vol. iv. 1815. Vol. v. in progress. Published by the Society of Antiquaries of London. Views of Churches. Views of the most interesting Collegiate and Parochial Churches in Great Britain ; including Screens, Fonts, Monuments, &c. By J. P. Neale and J. Le Keux. 2 vols. 4to. 1824. Ware on Arches. A Treatise of the Properties of Arches and their Abutment Piers. By Samuel Ware, Architect. 8vo. 1809. Webster's Dictionary. A Dictionary of the English Language, &c. By N. Webster, LL.D. 2 vols. 4to. 1830. Whitaker's Whalley. An History of the original Parish of Whalley, and Honor of Clitheroe, in the Counties of Lancaster and York. Bythe Rev. T. D. Whitaker, LL.D. 4to. 1806. ■ XIV BRITTON S ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. Whitaker's Craven. The History and Antiquities of the Deanery of Craven, in the County of York. 2d edit. By Thos. D. Whitaker, LL.D. &c. 4to. 1812. Whiler's Etymol. Univ. Etymologicon Universale ; or Universal Etymological Dictionary : on a new plan, &c. (By the Rev. Walter Whiter.) 2 vols. 4to. 1822. Whittington' s Hist. Surv. Historical Survey of the Ecclesiastical Antiquities of France. By the late Rev. G. D. Whittington. 2d edit, royal 8vo. 1811. Edited by the Earl of Aberdeen. Wild's Canterbury, &c. Twelve Perspective Views of the Exterior and Interior Parts of the Metropolitical Church of Canterbury ; ac- companied by two Ichnographic Plans, and an Historical Account. By Charles Wild. Large 4to. 1807. The same artist has also pub- lished similar volumes illustrative of Lichfield, Chester, York, Lincoln, and Worcester Cathedrals. Wilkins's Civ. Arch, of Vit. The Civil Architecture of Vitruvius ; comprising those books of the author which relate to the Public and Private Edifices of the Ancients. Translated by Wm. Wilkins, M.A. F.S.A., &c. : illustrated by numerous Engravings. 4to. 1812. With an Introduction, containing an Historical Review of the Rise and Progress of Architecture amongst the Greeks ; (by the Earl of Aberdeen). The substance of this Introduction was afterwards republished, with various additions and corrections, in small 8vo, 1822; and will be referred to under the abbreviated title of Aberdeen's Inquiry. Wilkins's Concilia. Concilia Magnse BritannitB et Hiberniae, ab Anno MCCCL. ad Annum MDXLV. 4 vols. fol. 1737. Woods' Letters. Letters of an Architect, from France, Italy, and Greece. By Joseph Woods, F.S.A., &c. 2 vols. 4to. 1828. Yates's Bury St. Edmund's. An Illustration of the Monastic History and Antiquities of the Town and Abbey of St. Edmund's-bury. By the Rev. Richard Yates, F.S.A. 4to. 1805. ADDITIONAL LIST OF AUTHORITIES. Besides the publications mentioned in the Preface, the following, with many others, have been referred to, as printed in italics, for the present Dictionary : — Bayleys Hist, of the Tower. The History and Anti- quities of the Tower of London, with Biographical Anecdotes of Distinguished Persons ; from original and authentic sources. By John Bayley, F.S.A. 2 vols, (parts) 4to. 1821. In the appendix to vol. i. pp. viii.-xxxiii. is an extract from a Survey of the Tower, made for a general repair in the 23d year of Henry VIII., and an account of repairs executed in the following year. BlomefieMs Hist, of Norfolk. An Essay towards a Topo- graphical History of the County of Norfolk, &c. By the Rev. F. Blomefield. 1 1 vols, royal 8vo. 1810. Bloxham's Man. Arch. A Glimpse at the Monumental Architecture and Sculpture of Great Britain. By M. H. Bloxham. 12mo. 1834. Brayley and Brittons Anc. Palace at Westm. The His- tory of the Ancient Palace and late Houses of Parlia- ment, at Westminster ; embracing Accounts and Illus- trations of St. Stephen's Chapel and its Cloisters, Westminster Hall, the Court of Requests, the Painted Chamber, &c. &c. By Edward Wedlake Brayley, and John Britton. 48 illustrations. 4to., royal 8vo., and demy 8vo. 1836. Brition's Pict. Antiqs. of Engl. Cities. Picturesque An- tiquities of the English Cities: illustrated by a Series of Engravings of Ancient Buildings, Street Scenery, &c. By John Britton, F.S.A. 4to. 1830. Davies's Anc. Rites of Durham Cath. The Ancient Rites and Monuments of Durham Cathedral. By J. D. (Davies) of Kidwelly. First published in 1672. A small duodecimo, without date, entitled " The His- tory of the Cathedral Church of Durham as it was before the Dissolution of the Monastery," is the same work, with additions. It is called, in the title-page, the second edition, and is the edition referred to in the present Avork. Dodswortlis Salisbury Cath. A Historical Account of the Episcopal See and Cathedral Church of Sarum, or Salisbury : with Notices of the Bishops, a Description of the Monuments, &c. By William Dodsworth. 4to. 1814. The literary part of this volume was by Mr. Hatcher, of Salisbury. Fenn's Paston Letters. Original Letters, written during the reigns of Henry VI., Edward IV., Richard HI., and Henry VIII., in Chronological Order, with Notes. By Sir John Fenn, M. A., F.S.A. 4 vols. 4to. 1787-89. Forsyth's Italy. Remarks on Antiquities, Arts, and Letters, during an Excursion in Italy in 1802 and 1803. By Joseph Forsyth, Esq. 2 vols. 12mo. 3d edit. 1824. Agreement for Fotheringhay Church. An Agreement, dated 1434, for the Erection of the Nave and West- ern Tower of the Collegiate Church of Fotheringhay, Northamptonshire. Printed in Dugdale's Mon. Angl., new edit. vol. vi. pt. iii. p. 1414. Fullers Church Hist. The Church History of Britain, from the birth of Christ till the year 1648 ; containing also Histories of the University of Cambridge since the Conquest, and of Waltham Abbey. By Thomas Fuller, D.D. Folio. 1655. Gages Hengrave. The History and Antiquities of Hen- grave, in Suffolk. By John Gage, F.S.A. 4to. 1822. Gage's Suffolk. The History and Antiquities of Suffolk. LIST OF AUTHORITIES. Vol. I.— Thingoe Hundred. By John Gage, F.R.S., Dir. S.A. 4to. 1838. Gentleman $ Magazine. This long-lived and respectable periodical contains a mass of materials on topography, archaeology, &c. Hunt's Exemplars. Exemplars of Tudor Architecture, adapted to Modern Habitations ; with Illustrative De- tails selected from Ancient Edifices, and Observations on the Furniture of the Tudor Period. By T. F. Hunt, Architect. 4to. 1830. Hope's Hist, of Arch. A Historical Essay on Architect- ure. By the late Thomas Hope. Illustrated (in a separate volume of plates) from Drawings made by liim in Italy and Germany. 8vo. 1835. Ingram's Memorials of Oxford. Memorials of Oxford. (Histories and Descriptions of the Colleges, Churches, &c., of Oxford, with numerous Plates.) By James Ingram, D.D., Pres. Trin. Coll. Numerous Engrav- ings by J. Le Keux. 3 vols. 8vo. 1837. Kempe's Loseley MSS. Manuscripts Illustrative of Eng- lish History, Biography, and Manners, from the reign of Henry VIII. to that of James I., preserved at Loseley House, in Surrey. Edited, with Notes, by Alfred John Kempe, F.S.A. 8vo. 1835. Kennctt's Antirjs. of Ambrosden. Parochial Antiquities, attempted in tlie History of Ambrosden, Burcester, and other Adjacent Parts in the Counties of Oxford and Bucks. By White Kennett, Vicar of Ambrosden. 4to. 1695. Loudon's Arch. Mag. The Architectural Magazine, and Journal of Improvement in Architecture, Building, Furnishing, &c. Conducted by J. C. Loudon, F.L.S., G.S., &c. 8vo. vols. i. to v. 1834-1838. Mollcr's Memorials of German-Gothic Architecture ; with additional Notes and Illustrations from Sticglitz, &c. By W. H. Leeds. 8vo. 1836. Nicolas' s Privy Purse Expences, Hen. VIII. The Privy Purse Expences of King Henry the Eighth, from November 1529 to December 1532; with Introductory Remarks and Notes. By Nicholas Harris Nicolas, Esq., F.S.A. 8vo. 1827. Northumberland Household Book. The Regulations and Establishment of the Household of Henry Algernon Percy, the fifth Earl of Northumberland, at his Castles of Wresill and Lekinfield, in Yorkshire. Begun a.d. 1512. Edited by Thomas Percy, late Bishop of Dromore. 8vo. 1827. Raine's Catterick Chu. A Correct Copy of the Contract for Building Catterick Church, in the County of York, dated in 1412 ; with Remarks and Notes, by the Rev. James Raine, M.A.; and with 13 plates by A. Salvin, Esq., Architect. 4to. 1834. Shaw's Anc. Furniture. Specimens of Ancient Furni- ture, drawn from existing Authorities. By Henry Shaw, F.S.A.; with Descriptions by Sir Samuel Rush Meyrick, K.H., F.S.A. 4to. 1836. Turner s Normandy. An Account of a Tour in Nor- mandy, undertaken chiefly to investigate the Archi- tectural Antiquities of the Duchy, with Observations on its History, &c. 2 vols. 8vo. 1820. WaJpole's Anecdotes, by Dalhnoay. Anecdotes of Paint- ing in England ; with Accounts of Artists, and Notes on other Arts. Collected by the late George Vertue ; Digested and Published by the Hon. Horace Walpole [Earl of Orf'ord]. With Considerable Additions by the Rev. James Dallaway. 5 vols. 8vo. 1826. Whitaher's Afic. Cath. of Cornwall. The Ancient Cathe- dral of Cornwall [at St. German's] Historically Sur- veyed. By John Whitakcr, B.D. 2 vols. 4to. 1804. Willemin's Monumens Frangnis. Monuraens Francais Incdits, pour servir k I'Histoire des Arts, des Costumes Civils ct Militaires, Armes, Armures, &c. Rediges, dessines, graves, et colories a la main, d'apres les Originaux. Par N. X. Willemin. Folio. Paris. Willis's Arch, of the Middle Ages. Remarks on the Architecture of the Middle Ages, especially of Italy. By R. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. 8vo. 1835. OF THE ENGLISH CITIES; CONSISTING OF A SERIES OF ENGRAVINGS OF ANCIENT BUILDINGS, STREET ARCHITECTURE, BARS, CASTLES, &c. WITH HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNTS OF THE SUBJECTS, AND OF THE CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF EACH CITY. By JOHN BRITTON, F.S.A., &c. This Work embraces Sixty Engravings, chiefly executed by J. Le Keux, from Drawings by W. H. Bartlett; also, Twenty-Four Vignette Engravings on Wood, — representing the most interesting specimens of the Architectural Antiquities still remaining in the English Cities. It also includes brief Descrip- tive Accounts of the Buildings delineated, and of the leading, historical facts belonging to each city. Six of the Prints are illustrative of the peculiar scenery and local features of Bath, Wells, Bristol, Worcester, and Lincoln ; whilst the remainder, with the Wood-cuts, represent the Bars or fortified Gate-houses, the Castles, fragments of Architecture, and Street Scenery, which tend to confer a certain character, and impart commanding interest to the respective places. This Work makes a handsome volume, price 11. As. medium 4to. ; and 12Z. imperial 4to., with Proofs of the Plates. There is one Copy for sale, super-royal folio, with Proofs and Etchings; and one Copy, imperial 4to., with Proofs and Etchings of the Plates. Executed at an expense of nearly three thousand pounds, and containing as it does such a Series of Illustrations of the Architectural Antiquities of English Cities, drawn and engraved in a style surpassing all preceding specimens, — the volume claims the especial attention of the Antiquary, Topographer, and Artist. It challenges comparison with the very finest Works of Con- tinental embellishment and literature. LONDON : PVBHSHED BY LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, AND GREEN ; THE author; and J. LE KEUX. XVI LIST OF CITIES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. York. — Views of St. Margaret's Porch ; of St. Mary's Abbey ; the Ouse Bridge ; Bootham, Walmgate, and Monk Bars ; Exterior and Interior of the Multangular Tower ; Laythorpe Postern and Bridge ; and Clifford's Tower, or Castle. Canterbury. — Gate-houses of Entrance to the City, to St. Augustine's Abbey, to the Cathedral Close, and to the Green Court ; also Ruins of St. Augustine's Abbey. Bath. — View of the City from the East. Bristol. — View from the South-east; Redcliffe Street and Tower ; Part of the Church ; Broad Street ; the Floating Dock ; Temple Tower ; Temple Gate. Chichester. — Two Views of the Cross. Coventry. — Entrance Gateway; Kitchen and Hall of St. Mary Hall; Bablake Hospital. Durham. — Elvet Bridge. Gloucester. — St. Nicholas' Church; the West Gate and Bridge ; and the New Inn. Hereford. — Blackfriars' Pulpit; and Old House. Lincoln. — Views of the City from the West and South; three Views of the Castle ; Newport Gate ; and an Ancient Conduit. London. — Old London Bridge; Fishmongers' Hall ; Ely Palace; Winchester Palace ; Savoy Palace ; St. John's Gate-house ; and the Old Guildhall. Norwich. — Erpingham Gate-house; Gate-house to the Bishop's Palace ; Ruins in the Bishop's Garden ; the Bishop's Bridge and Street. Peterborough. — Bishop's Palace and Cathedral; Entrance Gate-house to the Palace ; Saxon Monument, and part of the Cloisters ; Distant View. Rochester." — Exterior and Interior Views of the Castle. Salisbury. — Castle Street; High Street; Silver Street. Wells. — Views of the Palace and Cathedral; of the Ancient Hall; Crypt; Bastion Walls of the Palace; Entrance to the Vicar's Close, and Chapel in ditto; Market-Place and Old Conduit. Winchester. — Ruins of Wolvesley Palace, &c. ; West Gate- house; Cross; and the Brooks. Worcester. — View from the N.E. ; Friars' Street; Edgar Tower Gateway ; Timber Houses. DICTIONARY ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHiEOLOGY THE MIDDLE AGES. •»♦ The references to authorities, with the abbreviations and contractions, are fully explained, in alphabetical order, at the end of the Preface. ABACISCUS. Lat. ; from alSayjffy.og, Gr., the dimin. of a/3a;; abacisci, plur. Small tesseraa, or square stones, for tessellated pavements : also, small square, tablets, or brackets, used to support vases, and other ornamental objects. Abaculus. Lat. A small table, or desk. ^Abacus, Lat.; abaque, or abacus, »'fc> <,^ Fr. ; abaco. It. ; from ajSa^, Gr. ; der rechentisch, Ger. The upper member, or divi- sion, of a capital, on which the entablature, in Classic architecture, rests. It forms an essential part of the column in the Grecian and Roman styles, and is found in almost every variety of column in Christian architecture.* Its shape varies in all the classic orders. In those of the Tuscan and Doric, the abacus is plain, thick, and rectangular in plan ; but in the Corinthian, Ro- man-Ionic, and Composite, its sides are orna- mented, and, in the latter, are cut into eccentric cavities, or curves, each of which is generally adorned with a flower or other enrichment. In general practice, the angles of the abacus are cut off in segments of circles. In the Temple of Jupiter Olympius, at Athens, the angles terminate in sharp points. In Christian architecture, the abaci form the bases of arches, and in shape and * The term Christian architecture will be used, in the present work, in preference to Gothic, as more analogous, more correct, and more historical. — Vide Christian Architecture; also Architec- tural Antiquities, vol. v. p. 31. Bt H. HH-L LIBRARY North Carolina State College ornament are greatly diversified, as exemplified in the accompanying plates of Capitals and Columns. Mr. Rickman thinks that the square abacus is a sure guide to distinguish the Norman from what he calls " the early English," ^Attempt, p. 55] ; but several examples of Norman buildings may be pointed out where the abaci are circular, (as in Canterbury Crypt, Columns, pi. ii. no. 4), and octangular, (as in the choir of the same church, Capitals, pi. II. no. 2.) In the same plate are two examples of capitals (8 and 11), belonging to pointed arches, where the abaci are octangular. These eccentricities shew that we must not attempt to include all the varieties within a few systematic forms. In all the members of the column and arch, as in their sizes, proportions, and shapes, the monastic architects were unrestrained in their designs, and unfettered by arbitrary rules. Though not an invariable, it may be regarded as a general maxim in Christian architecture, that the abaci as well as the capitals were in the earliest examples square, next circular, then octagonal : they often varied from the form of the capital. — (See the plates I. and ii. of Capitals and Columns.) Gwilt's Rud. pi. II. III. Carter's Anc. Arch. vol. i. pi. xxxiv. p. 27. Abamueus. Low Lat., i. e. a muro ; contremur. Nor. Fr. ; contramuro. It. A buttress, or second wall, added to strengthen another. " Item transpositi sunt abamuri cum archeriis, quae non sunt redactaa ad pristinum statum ad mensuram unius tesse." — Carpentier, Glos. Nov. ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. ABA Abated. A word used in a document respecting the Beauchamp Chapel, at Warwick, wherein " the marbler" agrees that "all the champes about the letters are to be abated, and hatched curiously, to set out the letters." — Arch. Antiq. vol. iv. p. 13. Abat-jour. Fr. A sky-light; or, any sloping aper- ture for the admission of light to a room. Abat-vent. Fr. ; regillum, low Lat. ; tejadillo, Sp. ; kleinedeck, Ger. The sloping roof of a tower, or other edifice ; also a pent-house. Abat-voix. Fr. The sounding-board over a pulpit, or a rostrum. Abbathie, Abbathy. Synonymous with Abbey. This term occurs in Domesday Book, and in various ancient statutes. By stat. 31, Hen. VIII. c. 13, " Abbathies" were surrendered to the kins;. — J^d- ham's Dom. Hook Illu. p. 147. Abbey. A/3;3ar£/a, Gr. ; abhatia, low Lat.; abbai/e, Fr. ; badia, Ital.; ahadia, Sp. and Port.; abati, Armoric ; abbs, Nor. Fr. ; abtey, Ger., from abbas, Lat., an abbot, the root of which is the Hebrew DN% ab, father. An abbey properly means a series of buildings adapted for the domestic accommo- dation and religious ceremonies of a fraternity of persons subject to the government of an abbot, or an abbess. As such it is contradistinguished from a priory, friary, nunnery, hospital, and college, and from all other ecclesiastical and military houses. Although strictly and clearly different in name, it is not easy to separate and distinguish the abbey, the priory, or even the cathedral, in their architectural features and general arrangements, from each other. The different orders of monastic communities had distinctions in dress, and in certain rites and cere- monies ; but their dwellings and offices seem to have been designed more in accordance with the fashion — if the word may be allowed — or customs of the age when built, than by the rules of their respective orders. An abbey was of the highest rank amongst religious houses. Many of the go- vernors, or abbots, holding their temporalities per bdrouiam, were summoned by writ to sit in the national councils ; and, together with many others, had permission from the Pope to wear the mitre : hence called mitred abbots. In 49 Hen. III. sixty- four abbots, and thirty-six priors, were summoned to Parliament ; but Edward III. reduced the num- ber to twenty-five of the former, and two of the latter ; to whom two other abbots were afterwards added ; so that twenty-nine in all enjoyed this privilege until the dissolution. Next in rank to the mitred and parliamentary abbeys were those whose abbots were entitled to have the crosier, or pastoral staff, carried before them. The abbeys, and religious houses of the largest class, had sel- dom fewer than fifty monks on the establishment ; as at St. Alban's, Tewkesbury, and St. Mary, York ; but Bury St. Edmund's had eighty, and Gloucester above one hundred ; — those of the second class numbered about twenty, as Bath, Tavistock, Selby ; — the third class from eight to twelve; — and the smaller convents from three to six. There was likewise a proportionate number of servants : Tewkesbury had one hundred and forty-four, and Evesham sixty-five, besides grooms, porters, and farming men. — [^Oxven and Blakeiuny's Shrewsbury, vol. n. p. 48 — 50.] The larger abbeys, according to Dr. Whitaker, [Hist, of Whnlley, ed. 1806, p. 105], usually consisted of buildings sur- rounding two quadrangular courts, of different dimensions. One of them, termed the clausum, or close, comprised an area of from fifty to ninety acres, was enclosed by a high, and sometimes em- battled wall, and entered by one or two gate-ways. It included all the appendages of a large domain, as a grange, or farm-house, barns, stables, mill, &c. Around the principal quadrangle were disposed the church and its appendages, the hall, refectory, almonry, chapter-house, locutory or parlour, infir- mary, scriptorium, kitchen, and other domestic offices. The same author says, " This great mass of irregular, but doubtless, in general, stately build- ings, when all standing, must have presented the appearance of a small fortified town, with its embattled wall and turreted gate, surmounted by the great church shooting high above the roofs." , That of St. Edmunds-bury " has been generally | supposed to have exceeded, in magnificent build- ings, splendid decorations, important privileges, valuable immunities, and ample endowments, all other ecclesiastical and monastic establishments in England, Glastonbury alone excepted." — [Yates's Hist, of Bury St. Edmund's.} Tlie abbeys, of which the churches remain in the most complete state, are those of Westminster, St. Alban's, and Tewkesbury ; and numerous interesting and im- portant specimens of Christian architecture are to be met with in the extensive ruins of those of Fountain, Kirkstall, Glastonbury, St. Mary at ACC ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY York, Tintem, Netley, Bury St. Edmund's, Rie- vaulx, Roche, Shrewsbury, &c. By statute, 27 Henry VIII. (1535) cap. 28, all monastic houses, whose annual revenues were under 200/. were seized by the king, who sold or gave their lands and buildings to his favourite courtiers. About three hundred and eighty houses were thereby dissolved, and a revenue of 30,000Z. per ann. obtained by the crown, which also acquired at least 100,000/. value in plate and jewels. It is calculated that nearly ten thousand persons were thus deprived of homes and support. Thirty-one of these houses had license to remain in statu quo a short time longer. In 1537 a commission of visitors was appointed, and the remaining abbots and priors made " voluntary" surrender of their houses and possessions ; and, in 1539, an act of Parliament confirmed these pro- ceedings, as well as completed the dissolution of all monastic establishments, except hospitals and collesres. the former of which were not abolished until the 33d, and the latter until the 37th of Henry VIII. The king dying in the latter year, they were re-granted by another act to Edward VI., when ninety colleges, one hundred and ten hospi- tals, and two thousand three hundred and seventy- four chantries and free chapels, were suppressed. — \_Pref. Tanner's Not. Mon., by Nasmith, p. xxiii — XXV.] (See College, Convent, Friary, Hospital, Monastery, Nunnery, Priory; see also Cathedral, to which is annexed a ground-plan, with references to the various parts and appendages of a monastic church and its at- tached buildings.) Abbey Gate-house. In the exterior wall of every abbey was either one, two, or three gate-houses, forming lodges for warders, or porters. These were of various sizes and architectural features. That to the great abbey of St. Alban's is of the size of a considerable house. The chief gate-house of St. Augustin's at Canterbury is flanked at the angles with octagonal turrets of singular elegance. Two gate-houses of the abbey at Bury St. Edmund's are also striking examples, but in very different styles. One is a massive square tower, adorned with early Norman arcades, like the towers of Exeter and Durham cathedrals ; the other, a square house, is decorated with niches and pointed arches. The great gate-house of Evesham Abbey is a cam- panile, or bell-tower, decorated with pierced bat- tlements, high pinnacles, and entirely covered with panelling. That of St. Augustin's Abbey, now the cathedral, Bristol, has a large carriage arch- way, and a lateral passage, beneath it, both deco- rated with numerous ornamented mouldings and columns. An apartment over the arch was perhaps used as a small oratory, where early mass was cele- brated daily to the servants and labourers of the convent. The room over the beautiful gate-house to Thornton Abbey, Lincolnshire, retains its piscina. —Owen and Blakewui/'s Shrewsburi/, vol. ii. p. 48. Abbot's Lodging, in the larger abbeys, according to the authors just quoted, "was a complete house, with hall, chapel, and every convenience for the residence of a spiritual baron." It was placed generally on the south-west of the church, with which the abbot had a communication by a private passage into the cloister, where he was received by the monks, and conducted in procession to the choir. The principal apartments were the great hall, to which was frequently an ascent by nume- rous steps ; a chapel, a library, a great chamber, and various lodging-rooms. In early times the abbots had private oratories near the hall, called secret houses, whither they retired in Lent for reli- gious privacy, from early mass till dinner. {See Hall.) — Owen and Blakeivai/'s Shrewsburi/, vol. ii. p. 49, 91. Abreuvoir. Fr., from abreuver, to water. In ma- sonry, the joint between stones, to be filled up with mortar. Abutments, or Butments. From aboutir, Fr. to abut against. The ends of a bridge are usually so called ; and the term is sometimes applied synony- mously with buttress. {See Buttress.) Abut- ments are often strengthened with counterforts. {See Bridge.) Acanthus. Lat. ; ay.avhg, Gr., from ctxa^^a, a thorn ; acanthe, Fr. ; acanto, It. ; acantho, Sp. ; tvelsch bdrenklau, Ger. The plant Branca Ursina of Miller, called in English Bears-breech, the leaves of which are often imitated in decorating the Corinthian and Composite capitals of columns. Vitruvius relates a pleasing story about the origin of the Corinthian, or foliated capital, which seems rather more poetical than rational. Quatremere de Quincy tells us, that the leaved capital was used in Egypt long before the time of Callimachus. Accesses. Accessiones, Lat. from accedo, to approach. Passages of communication between the various apartments of a building; synonymous with cor- ridors. ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. ACC AccuBiTus. Low Lat., from ad and cubo, to lie down. A room annexed to large churches, in which the principal officiating clergy occasionally reposed. — Dm Cange. AcHELORS. (.See Ashlar.) Acoustics. From axovu, Gr., to hear. The doctrine, or theory of sounds ; and therefore entitled to the diligent study and attention of the scientific archi- tect. In the design and construction of theatres, churches, halls, lecture-rooms, 8cc. it is of the first consequence to adapt them for the conveyance of sound, without the inconvenience and detriment of an echo. Various essays have been written, and experiments made on the subject ; but, hitherto, without attaining scientific and satisfactory results. George Saunders, Esq., Architect, in a " Treatise on Theatres," and Benjamin Wyatt, Esq., Archi- tect, in an account of Drury Lane Theatre, have promulgated some judicious observations on the best forms and materials of rooms for the con- veyance of sound ; and the learned and scientific Michael Faraday, Esq. has recently instituted inquiries and made interesting experiments on this abstruse subject. AcKOPOLis. From a-z.^o;, Gr. the top or summit, and ToXis, a city. The fortress or citadel of a Greek city was so denominated because placed on elevated ground. It generally contained the temple of the protecting divinity ; as at Athens, where the temple of Minerva is on the Acropolis, and at Rome, where that of Jupiter Capitolinus is so placed. In the military architecture of the Middle Ages we recognise the Acropolis in the situation of the castle, or fortress, in every city and principal town ; as at Norwich, York, Old Sarum, Conisborough, Colchester, Sec. These citadels, or strong-holds, generally had chapels for the celebration of reli- gious rites. (See Castle, Keep, and Citadel.) AcROTERiUM. Lat., from axgwDjg/oi', Gr. A terminating member, or ornament, at the apex and angles of a pediment. Some writers contend that the acro- terium is the plinth, or pedestal, sustaining the ornamental finishing of the pediment ; and others, that it is the ornament itself. In Christian archi- tecture, the cross at the apex of a gable may be called the acroterium. Ai)iT. Aditus, Lat., from ad and eo, to go; passage, or entree, Fr. ; ziigang, Ger. The approach, or entrance to any place, as the adit of a house, circus, &c. ; but more particularly applied to the horizontal shaft, or sough, of a mine. The aditus of a theatre, in Roman architecture, was the door- way whereby people entered from the outer portico, or corridors, to their seats. Adytum. Lat.; aouroi/, Gr. ; adilo, It. Formerly this word applied to the whole interior of a temple, but it is now understood to denote that part only whence the oracles were pronounced, and to which none but the priests were permitted to enter. The sanctum-sanctorum of the Hebrew temples was of a similar nature. In Christian architecture it is the chancel, or altar end of a church. — [Biiig/iam's Works, vol. I. p. 298 ; where is an essay on the canons ordering the adytum to be kept sacred from the intrusion of the people. The Emperor Theo- dosius was not permitted to remain in the adi/tum after his oblation at the altar.] The only well- defined adytum of the ancients is considered to be that of the little temple at Pompeii, in which a statue of Isis was found. {See Chancel, and Sanctum-Sanctorum.) jEcclesiola. Dim. of acclesia, Lat., a church. A term of frequent use in Domesday Book, and gene- rally understood to signify a chapel subordinate to the mother church. After naming the church of Tarentefort (Darent) in Kent, (tom. i. fo. 2, b.) it is said, " extra banc sunt adhuc iii acclesiolm" At Postinges, in the same county, [ib. fo. 13], two (Tcclesiola occur, without any notice of a church. At Wallope, in Hampshire, [ib. fo. 38, b.] the (ecclesiola appears to have been also independent of the mother church. — [Rep. Com. Pub. liec. 1800 — 1819, vol. 1. p. 458.] At Street, in the county of Sussex, two (Ecclesiohe are also named in the same record ; yet the population of the manor would scarcely require two distinct places of worship, and it is not unlikely that it meant two chan- tries, or altars, in the church at Street. iEoES. Lat. Among the Romans an inferior kind of temple, not formally consecrated by the augurs, was called (udes. It is distinguished from the tetn- plum, which received the formalities of consecra- tion, and was very sumptuously decorated. By writers of the Middle Ages the teilii is often used to denote a chapel; and it is sometimes applied to a house. — Ciampini, Vet. Moti. vol. i. p. 12, 171. iEoicuLA. Lat., dim. o( (cdes. A small chapel, house, or building of any kind. The Romans sometimes used the term synonymously with cedes ; and it was I ALA ARCHITECTURAL DICTIO>fARY. not unfrequently applied to the niches, or taber- nacles, in a wall, which held statues of the lares, or penates. — Du Caiige. ^GEicANES. A name given to rams' heads, when sculptured on friezes, altars, &,c. ^LAMOTH. Heb. A vestibule, or porch. — Du Cange. iELFRic, an abbot of Malmsbury, who was promoted to the see of Crediton in 977, and died in 981. According to William of Malmsbury \^A}igt. Sacr, vol. II. p. 33] he was skilful in architecture, and either rebuilt, or greatly repaired and improved, the buildings of his abbey. .^EARiuM. Lat., from as, copper, and, by metonymy, money. A treasury. Among the Romans, the place where public money was deposited was called (Erarium. Age of Buildings. Owing to the destruction of documents; to the imperfect mode in which ac- counts of old edifices were formerly kept ; and to the unkind and unnecessary tenaciousness fre- quently exercised by the keepers of public records, we have very little contemporaneous evidence of the erection of old buildings. Hence, antiquaries and architects have suggested, and endeavoured to substantiate, rules or criteria from a comparison of forms and ornaments, by which the ages of' buildings may be understood and rendered definite. Although this, like all hypothetical and analogical reasoning, is liable to be involved in caprice and fanciful inference, it is a curious and important fact, that a certain style or peculiarity in the forms of arches, windows, doorways, and ornaments, did prevail, and was in general use, at certain epochs. The circular arch, with large plain columns, zig- zag mouldings, &c. may be said to belong to, and characterise, the Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman ages; whilst the pointed arch, with clustered co- lumns and other variations, distinguished the Christian architecture of a later period. Agger. Lat., from aggero, to heap. Earthen banks, or mounds, thrown up either for defence, as in encampments; or as boundaries, by the British, Roman, and Saxon occupants of Britain. Aguilla. Low Lat. ; aguglia or guglia, It.; aiguille, Fr., a needle. An obelisk ; or a spire of a church tower. — [Carpentier, Glos. Nov.] The two por- phyritic obelisks of Alexandria are termed " Cleo- patra's Needles." AiLE, or Aisle. Ala, Lat., It., Sp. ; aile, Fr. A wing, or any part of a building flanking another ; hence the French, " ailes de batiment, " the wings of a house. The term is usually applied to the side passages, or lateral division of a church, which are partially separated from the nave and choir by columns or piers, — "ad bases pilariorum murus erat tabulis marmoreis compositus, qui chorum cin- gens et presbyterium, corpus ecclesiae a suis late- ribus, quae alee vocantur, dividebat." — [Dm Cange.] The nave itself, or central part of a church, is sometimes, though improperly, denominated the middle aile. In the abbey church of Westminster, Redcliffe Church at Bristol, and the cathedrals of York and Ely, the ailes are continued on each side of the transept ; and in Salisbury, and some other cathedrals, on one side only. The naves of the ecclesiastical edifices of Great Britain have, with but one or two exceptions, only two ailes, while those on the Continent frequently have several, as in the cathedrals at Amiens, Milan, and Notre Dame at Paris, each of which has four; and it is recorded that old St. Peter's, at Rome, had the same number. Whittington, referring to the division of Notre Dame into four ailes and the nave, which he calls "Jive ailes," says, it is " a species of grandeur which never crossed the Channel." — Hist. Surv. p. 151. AiTRE. Aistre, astrc, auster, Nor. Fr. ; aire, Fr., from ater, Lat., black. A hearth, or chimney. " Tres- tour les astres." — [Kelham's Nor. Fr. Diet.] As- trum is sometimes used by Bracton, and other old law writers, to signify a whole house, or mansion ; i. e. pars pro tola, by a rhetorical figure, as witness "pro avis etfocis." Alabaster. Wa^aarody, Gr. ; alabastrites, Lat.; al- bdtre, Fr. ; alabastro. It. and Port. ; alabaster, Ger. A species of gypsum. " Gypsum (Greek yu^o;, plaster) is a mineral substance, chemically termed sulphate of lime, because, on analysis, it is found to consist of lime combined, in a certain propor- tion, with water and sulphuric acid. Gypsum, m its mineral state, more or less impure, is various in its structure ; such as earthy, stony, foliaceous, and crystallised. In some states it is resplendent, reflecting star-like rays. The compact, or stony gypsum, is often pure white, and is the alabaster of modern mineralogists. In ordinary language, the word alabaster (a Latin term signifying a white star), has never been very determinate, either 6 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY ALA in ancient or modem usage. It has been applied to difterent species of snow-coloured stones, some of them sulphates, some carbonates, of lime, and others compounded of both. The sparry and crys- tallised gypsums are, from the nature of their lustre, called selenites, or moon-stones, (Gr. aiXnuri, the moon); and selenitic has been sometimes writ- ten as the adjective, in place of gypseous or gyp- sine."— [BooM's Anal. Did. vol. i. p. 80.] By a slight calcination and grinding, gypsum is con- verted into Plaster of Paris, which is chiefly used for making casts and models : in a less pulverised state it is sometimes applied to the formation of floors in barns and dwelling-houses. In churches we frequently find the effigies of ecclesiastics cut out of blocks of alabaster. A LA Geeque. Fr. A term applied by architects to one of the varieties of the ornament called the fret, used in cornices, floors, and other works. It is frequently seen in the pavements of ancient Roman villas. (See Fret.) Alan de Walsingham. (See Walsingham.) Alatorium, or Allorium. Low Lat., from ala, a wing. A piazza, corridor, or covered way, in the flank of a building.^ — Da Cange. (See Cloister.) Alba. Low Lat. A beacon, or light-house. "Ascen- derit turrim, et album, et ad ignem quando necesse fuerit." — Du Cange. Albarii. Lat.; albini, low h^i. White-washers, dis- tinguished from pectores, or plasterers. Albarium. Lat.; album-opus, hvf Lzt. White-wash; or, according to Pliny and Vitruvius, a white stucco, or plaster, made of a pure kind of lime, burned from marble, and used to spread over the roofs of houses. Pectorium was a coarser kind of plaster. Albert, Archbishop of York in 767. According to Alcuin, who wrote a poem De Pontijic. et Sanctis Eccles. Ehor., Albert superintended, or directed, the completion of the cathedral which had been commenced by his predecessor, Egbert, about 742. The same Anglo-Saxon poet describes the church as of considerable height, supported by columns and arches, covered by a vaulted roof, and pro- vided with large windows. It had also porticoes and galleries, and thirty altars, the latter of which were adorned with various ornaments. — [Cath. Antiq. York, p. 28.] Albert founded a library in his cathedral, which is ascribed by William of Malmsbury to Egbert. Alberti (Leon Battista), a Florentine architect, painter, and sculptor, was employed by Pope Ni- cholas v., in conjunction with Rosselin, to make designs for the new church of St. Peter, at Rome, about the middle of the fifteenth century. The same Pontiff also engaged him to design several other architectural works. On returning from Rome to his native city, Florence, he was employed on different palaces, monasteries, and churches, both there, and at Rimini and Mantua. The church of San Francesco, at Rimini, is said to be the most beautiful building erected by this architect. He was author of a treatise, De Re JEdiJicutorid, in ten books, which has been translated into English and other languages; but, according to Milizia, it is " somewhat overcharged with useless erudition." — [^Lives of Architects, by Cresi/.] Alberti died in 1472. Aloha. Low Lat. A cellar, pantry, or an apartment for the reception of drinking-vessels, &c. — Car- pentier, Glos. Nov. Alcorans. Akoranes and alcorana, low Lat.; aho- rano, It.; alcoran, Fr. High, slender towers, com- monly called minarets, attached to mosques, whence the Mohammedans are summoned to prayers. — Du Cange. Alcove. Eng., Fr.,and Gen.; alcova. It. ; alcoba.Sp.; probably derived from the Arabic al-kauban, a tent, al-kaab, the cave. This word strictly means a recess in a chamber for the reception of a bed, separated from the other parts of the room by columns, antae, and balusters ; as in Windsor Castle, and in several baronial mansions. The word is used sometimes synonymously with bay. The French were parti- cularly partial to the alcove, using it almost always for state beds. They elevated the floor above that of the apartment, and did not raise the ceiling quite so high. The alcoves in the villas of Hadrian and Trajan were formed like niches. The term is commonly applied, in England, to ornamental and covered seats in gardens. Alcocke, or Alcock (John), was a native of Bever- ley, in Yorkshire, and became successively Bishop of Rochester, Worcester, and Ely. He was comp- troller of the royal buildings at Windsor Castle, ALM ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. temp. Henry VII. ; improved the episcopal palaces, and collegiate and parish churches of his sees ; founded Jesus College, Cambridge ; and rebuilt St. Mary's, or the University Church, in that town. The finest specimen of his architectural skill is the sepulchral chapel erected for himself at the east end of the north aile of Ely Cathedral. He died at Wisbeach Castle, Oct. 1, 1500.— Bent ham's Ely, 2d edit. vol. i. p. 181. Aldune, Bishop of Durham, is famed in the annals of ecclesiastical history as the founder and builder of the first church in that place, when it was a wil- derness. It was begun in 995, and finished in three years. This prelate is said to hare died from violent grief at the success of the Scottish army over the nobles and tenants of St. Cuthbert, 1016. — Surtees's Hist, of Durham, vol. i. p. xi. Aleaceria. Low Lat. A palace, castle, or other large edifice. Aleatorium. Lat. An apartment in a Roman house appropriated to the use of persons playing with ala, or dice. Aleois, Low Lat. Loop-holes in castle walls for dis- charging arrows through. (See ARBALEsxiNiE.) Alessi (Galeazzo), born at Perugia, in Italy, in 1500, studied architecture under Michael Angelo Buonarotti, and was one of his most distinguished pupils. He received applications from France, Spain, and Germany, to make designs for public edifices. His plan for the church and monastery of the Escurial was adopted; but he did not live to see it carried into effect. Alessi executed some magnificent buildings at Milan, Bologna, and Ge- noa. — Milizia's Lives, by Cresy, vol. ii. p. 1. Alexander, a native of Normandy, and nephew of Roger le Poor, Bishop of Salisbury, by whom he was educated, and through whose interest he was raised to the see of Lincoln, in 1123. Milner [Treat. Eccl. Arc. p. 42] asserts that he "was one of the greatest architects of his age." He not only erected ecclesiastical edifices, but built the castles of Banbury, Sleaford, and Newark, by which he excited King Stephen's jealousy, who seized the latter castle, and committed the prelate to prison. He afterwards employed himself in decorating and improving his diocesan church, which he rebuilt with a. roof of stone the year after his consecration. He died in 1147. — Archa. vol. iv. p. 152, and vol. V. p. 316; Angl. Sacr. vol. ii. p. 417. Alien Priory. (See Priory.) Alipterion. Lat. The anointing-room in Roman baths. Allette. Fr., dimin. of atVe. Used to express a small wing ; also applied to a pilaster, or buttress. Alley. Aau^w, Gr. ; Alleia, or aleya, low Lat. ; viot- tola, It. ; allee, Fr., from aller, to go ; alladh, Irish. A passage from one part of a building to another ; also the passage, or walk, between the pews of a church. In the old surveys of cathedrals, "the dean's alley," "the chaunter's alley," "the cross alley," See. are named. In the same sense are used the old words alur, alure, alura, and allieny. — [Smith's Aiitiq. of West. p. 191.] The latter terms also signify a gallery, or balcony : thus — " Upe the alitres of the castle the laydes thanne stode. And byhulde thys noble game, and whyche knyghts were god." Rob. Glouc. Chron. 7. 192. Lydgate also mentions — " Fresh alurcs with lustye high pinnacles." Siege of Troi), cap. xi., v. Almariol. (See Armarium.) Almery. (See Armarium.) Almonry, Almery. Almonarium, low Lat.; aiimo- nerie, Fr. ; ailmosenhaus, Ger. A room or place whence alms were formerly distributed to the poor. In monastic establishments it was generally a stone building near the church, on the north side of the quadrangle, and sometimes had a priest's hall, and other apartments, annexed to it. To keep beggars from the refectory doors, the almonry was, in some abbeys, removed to the gate-house. — [Fosbroke's Brit. Mou. 4to, p. 336.] At Christ Church, Can- terbury, certain scholars attached to the house constantly resided in the almonry. From the closet in which the alms were kept, it was frequently called the ambry. A place in W estminster, near the abbey church, is still knovvTi by that name; and in the Will of Agnes Vincent, of Canterbury, proved 1518, is a bequest " to the children of the ambrye of Christ Church that bring my body to burial, to spend among them, wd." — Nicolas's Test. Vet. vol. II. p. 566. (See Armarium.) Alms-house. Gerontocomium and ptochotrophium, Lat. ; maison de charite, Fr. ; ailmosenhaus, Ger. A building appropriated for the reception of poor aged people, and endowed with revenues for their support. Previous to the Reformation, alms-houses ARCHITECTURAL DICTIOXARA". ALN were seldom established ; but, after that event, it became a frequent practice for private persons to endow and bequeath large suras for that purpose. — [Nicolas's Test. Vet. Index.] They were some- times erected in churchyards, as may be seen in many English parishes; and, when extensive, were provided with chapels and chaplains. There are many alms-houses in and near London, supported by the chartered companies of the city. Alnwyk (William), a native of Alnwyck, in Nor- thumberland, was made Bishop of Norwich in 1426. He re-built the western door-way, and inserted the window above, in the cathedral church of that city, • as well as the principal part of the tower gate- house to the palace. At Lincoln, and at Cam- bridge, he is said to have executed other architec- tural works. — Cath. Antiq. No)wic/i, p. 63. Altar. Ara, Lat. ; altare. It. and Sp. ; autel, Fr.; altar. Port, and Ger. An elevated table of either stone, marbl^, or wood, dedicated to particular ■ ceremonies of religious worship. The earliest au- thentic notice of altars occurs in Holy Writ, where it is said that " Noah built an altar to the Lord." In the patriarchal times it is evident that they were made in the simplest manner, and generally of single blocks of stone. The principal altars, under the Mosaic ritual, were those of incense, burnt-offering, and the table of shew-bread. The first was small, and of shittim-wood, overlaid with plates of gold; the table for the shew-bread was of the same materials, but of a more extended size ; and that for the burnt-oft'erings was a large coffer of shittim-wood, covered with brass, within which, suspended from the horns of the four corners, was a grate of brass whereon the fire was made and sacrifices were laid. After the Jews returned from captivity in Babylon, the altar was differently con- structed ; but, in general, it was a pyramidal pile of stones. That erected by Joshua, at the com- mand of Moses, was of unhewn stone ; Solomon's was of brass and unhewn stones ; and the altar built by Zerubbabel and the Maccabees was of similar stones. All the nations of antiquity consi- dered large, massive, unhewn stones, to be emble- matic of dignity and power. The heathens made their primitive altars of turf: wood, stone, and marble, were afterwards used ; and, at Delos, the altar of Apollo was of horn. Their form, as well as material, varied considerably, being round, square, triangular. Sec. They were commonly placed to face tlie east; stood lower than the statues of the divinities to whom they were consecrated ; and were frequently adorned with sculptured representations of the gods, or of their symbols. According to the superior character of the divinity were their height and name. Those to the celestial gods were placed on lofty sub- structures, whence called altaria, from alta and ara, " a high or elevated altar." Those terres- trially consecrated were called aree, and were laid on the surface of the earth ; whilst others, in- scribed to the infernal deities, were placed in pits and excavations, and termed ^06^01 Xaxxoi, scrobi- culi. Before temples were generally constructed, altars were often placed in groves, and dedicated to certain gods; also by the sides of highways; and on the tops of mountains. In the great temples of ancient Rome, there were ordinarily three altars. The first, upon which incense was burnt, and libations offered, was raised in the sanc- tuary, at the foot of the statue of the divinity ; the second stood before the gate of the temple, and on it were sacrificed the victims ; and the third, upon which were placed the offerings and the sacred vessels, was portable. In the Roman houses, small altars were dedicated to the lares, penates, and genii. In the camps they were sta- tioned before the general's tent. Among the Greeks and Romans, altars were resorted to as asylums, or places of refuge, by slaves who fled from the cruelty of their masters; also by debtors, and cri- minals of every description. — '[Adams's Rom. Antiq. 6th edit. p. 327.] On many solemn occasions it was customary to swear by and upon altars. In the Celtic, or Druidical temples, there were altars ; and it is generally agreed that a flat stone, near the western part of the interior area of Stone- henge, was used for that purpose. Cromlechs are considered by some antiquaries to have been em- ployed as altars. In the Christian church, the principal altar is almost invariably situated at the eastern end of the choir, or presbytery. In the early ages altars were made of wood, and were mostly small, plain, and portable; but, on the establishment of Christianity under Constantine, stone was used. Pope Sylvester, in the early part of the fourth century, decreed that sto)ie altars should be generally adopted ; but the wooden one in the Lateran church at Rome was left as a memorial of former usage. The sixth canon of the council of Hippo forbade the con- ALT ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 9 secration of any altar unless made of stone ; and the same prohibition was repeated by the Epau- niensian council, in the beginning of the sixth century. Erasmus mentions a wooden altar as re- maining in his time at Canterbury Cathedral. — f_ArcfieE. vol. XI. p. 359 ; and Bingham s Works, vol. I. p. 302.] Where wooden altars were retained, a marble, or stone, slab was always used to cover them. " AUare portabile consecrationem amittit, ciim lapis a ligno avellitur." — ^DuCaiige.^ Chris- tian altars are generally in the form of small oblong tables, but they are sometimes made to resemble sarcophagi. The early Christians were accustomed to assemble for public worship at the tombs of saints and martyrs ; and they afterwards raised altars at the places where the bodies of such per- sons had been interred. Hence, probably, origi- nated the monumental shape, and the general usage of enclosing holy relics within them. These being inserted, the aperture was closed up with a small stone, termed sigillum altaris, and with mortar tempered with holy water. — [Du Caitge, in voce Malta; Ciampini, Vet. Mon. vol. i. p. 180.] The churches of the Greek Christians have but one altar to each ; and it is generally admitted that the Latin churches did not contain more before the sixth century. From that time altars appear to have become very numerous. Bingham remarks that there are no fewer than twenty-five, besides the high altar, in St. Peter's Church, at Rome [fVorks, vol. I. p. 302] ; and Battely enumerates thirty-seven altars in Canterbury Cathedral prior to the Reformation. Their increase became so extensive in the time of Charles the Great, that he ordered the number to be reduced. — IBattelj/'s Cant, Sac. pt. ii. p. 26, in which work is a dis- sertation on the subject.] In some parish churches, there were various altars dedicated to different saints; that of Lambeth, in Surrey, had five, be- sides the high altar. The decorations of Roman Catholic altars were often very splendid, being richly adorned with carving or embossed work ; they were also sometimes studded with precious stones and metals. The high altar in St. Augus- tin's Church, at Canterbury, was not only embel- lished in a costly manner, but was accompanied by eight shrines, containing relics : of this, an engraved representation is given in Somner's " An- tiquities of Canterbury," copied from an ancient drawing in Trinity Hall, Cambridge. On great festivals, all the relics of a church were displayed on the high altar, which was illumined by nume- rous wax tapers. — lOiven and Blakewat/'s Shrews- bury, vol. ii. p. 52.] In the cathedral church of York there were two altars covered with plates of gold and silver ; one of which, ornamented with a profusion of gems, supported a lofty and splendid crucifix. Above it were three ranges of lamps in a pharos of very large dimensions. — [Lingard's Antiq. Ang. Sax. Chur. p. 143.] Bequests were often made to provide candlesticks, sconces, lamps, and oil, for the different altars. — [See Nico/as's Test. Vet. Index; Dugdale's Baronage; and Webb's Essay on Gloucester Abbey, p. 10, in Cath. Antiq. Gloucester.^ In some parts of the country a tax, called leot-shot, was levied to furnish wax for the same purpose. — [Lingard, ut sup. p. 90.] On the accession of Queen Elizabeth, injunctions were issued for taking down the altars in parish churches, and substituting in their stead the plain commu- nion-tables. — \_Burnet's Hist, of the Reform., vol. III. book iii.] Numerous entries on this subject appear in the church-wardens' books, which prove a strict compliance with the queen's order. In the " Accompts of the Parish of St. Helen's, Abing- don, Berks," [Archa. vol. i. p. 11 — 23] are these items: "An. 1559. For takyng down the altere, 2Qd." — "An. 1560. Payde for tymber and making the communion-table, Qs. For a carpet for the communion-table, 2s. 8?Cadi;N8i.ve . 7, Saiisbury Cjuii;CUapiHo. 8 . Side Ajle Have .Bcvr aBcvTMinfltT Tbrifor^Naw.-! . BHJTTO K S AftCglTKCTDRAL MCTtO MAKY AKCAI3EB ; o]- k. £.Cuitl« Acre An-. 6. Bristol Ctixtn 7,W. ARC ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 17 triforium of the choir; No. 6 from that of the nave ; and No. 7 is one of the arched recesses, or seats, in the interior of the chapter-house. The arches here exhibit a number of mouldings, the inner one of which is turned in cinquefoil and trefoil, and springs from columns with foliated capitals and wide bases. No. 6 is a specimen of the open arcade, wherein four small arches are embraced by a sweeping archivolt moulding, with the spandrils pierced by a quatrefoil and a cinquefoil. No. 7 is remark- able for a display of elaborate sculpture on the wall above the arcade, and for a series of busts, or bracket-heads, which " are curious for their diversity of forms, characters, and expression." Of the fine apartment whence this specimen is taken, probably the design of Bishop Bridport, there are views, a plan, and an account, in Aiitiq. Salisbury Cath. Nos. 3, 8, and 9, are from Beverley Minster, Yorkshire, erected shortly after the destruction of the old church by fire in 1188. No. 3, a very acute arch, springing from slender columns, with capitals of numerous mouldings, and the inner archivolt decorated with the bulb, is from the clerestory of the nave. No. 8 is a trefoil-headed arcade, composed of a number of plain mould- ings, having sculptured bustS' at the junction of the label mouldings. No. 9 is from the triforium of the nave, and is similar in form to No. 8, but with this remarkable variety, that each trefoil-headed arch has under and behind it a dwarf column whence the halves of two pointed arches spring. — See Arch. Antiq, vol. v. p. 228, et seq. No. 4, from the triforium [error on plate] of the nave of Lincoln Cathedral, affords an exam- ple of the triplicated arcade, of two smaller arches under a larger ; the tympanum of the former is pierced by a quatrefoil. In that cathe- dral are many varieties of the open and paneled arcades, of singular beauty and interest. — See Arch. Antiqs. vol. v. Index. Plate 3, of Arcades of interlaced mouldings, shews fourteen different specimens, each varying from the others, and each manifesting much fancy and invention of the respective architects. No. 1, from the west front of the Priory Church of St. Botolph, at Colchester, Essex, is formed in a plain, rude manner, with thin bricks. apparently of Roman manufacture, the wall be- hind which consists of brick and rubble. Here is neither column nor moulding.-^ Vide Arch. Antiqs. vol. I. for illustrations and an account of this very interesting and unique fragment of a church. No. 2, from the church of Malimhury Abbey, ■ Wiltshire, adorns the west end, beneath the win- dows on the south side, and other parts of the walls. Contemporary with this decoration was a series of pointed arches, which separated the nave from the ailes of the church. Similar pointed arches are seen under the tower of St. John's Church, Devizes, in the same county, the belfry walls of which are decorated with the interlaced arcade mouldings delineated No. 4. In this ex- ample we perceive that one semicircular moulding intersects four others, and thereby forms three lancet arches. These two buildings are presumed to have been erected during the reign of King Stephen. No. 3, from the wall behind the altar of Nor- wich Cathedral Church, in which fine edifice there are many interesting and genuine members of Anglo-Norman architecture, illustrating the style and forms that were employed at the end of the eleventh century, when a large part of the build- ing was erected by Herbert de Losinga, bishop of the see. Its tower, semi-circular chapels near the east end, and apsis of the choir, are so many evidences of Norman design. — See Cathedral Antiq. Norwich. No. 5, from the western front of Castle Acre Priory Church, Norfolk, which was founded about 1085 by the first Earl Warren and Surrey, is rather an uncommon example : the moulding of the arch mitres and joins the upright mullion, which is of corresponding form. — [See Arch. Antiq. vol. hi. for plan, illustrations, history, and description, of this ruinous priory.] The ground-plan shews the forms and situations of several of the monastic apartments. No. 6. Interlaced arcade from the Chapter House, Bristol Cathedral, erected by Robert Fitz- harding, about 1 142, in which the cable moulding as well as cable column prevail. A bead orna- ment is also inserted in a cavetto moulding, both in the arch and in the ribs of the vaulting. Per- haps there is not a more interesting example of an Anglo-Norman chapter-room than that at D 18 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. ARC Bristol, and as such it demands preservation and restoration from its guardians. It is illustrated and described in Catli. Antiq. Bristol. No. 7. Interlaced mouldings, forming an ar- cade of singular character, on the north side of the chapter-room of Wenlock Priori/, Shropshire, built by Roger de Montgomery, who was Earl of Shrewsbury in 1080. In this building we find the architect giving latitude to his fancy, in dis- tributing various mouldings, as well as several capitals and ornaments, over the surface of his wall. The chapter-room, like that at Bristol, was of parallelogramic form. A history, and descriptive account by the learned historians of Shrewsbury, are given of it in Arch. Antiqs. vol. IV. No. 8. Croi/laiid Abbey, Lincolnshire. In a fragment of the west front of the church, pro- bably a part of the work of Prior Odo, in 1114, there are four varieties of arcades, in which, as in No. 5, the mouldings are very large in com- parison to those at Malmsbury and Devizes. — Arch. Antiq. vol. iv. Nos. 9, 10, 11. Three varieties from the frag- ment of St. Ethelbert's Tower, Canterbury, in which the triangular moulding, the semicircular, plain, and also enriched, together with the deco- rated wall, constitute so many examples of true Norman architecture. That tower, now destroyed, was a very interesting specimen of the luxuriant adornment which the architects employed, even on the exterior of their buildings, at the end of the eleventh century. — See Carter's Ancient Arch. vol. I. pi. XXX., where the tower is illustrated : it is described in p. 25. That eccentric artist says it was erected in 605. No. 12, from the west end of the church at Castle Rising, Norfolk, built by Odo, bishop of Bayeux, in the time of King William II. It shews the intersecting moulding, with a diamond ornament, and a semicircular moulding within the lancet arch. The columns are clustered, and some of the capitals are formed of busts of human heads. — [SeeArcA. Ants.,\o\. v., for illustrations of the front of that edifice, and p. 205 for an account of it.] This church, with that of Ilflcy, Oxfordshire; Stewkley, Buckinghamshire; and Barfreston in Kent, are so truly Norman in their general features and details, that they may be safely attributed to Norman architects. Tlie Bishop of Bayeux was lord of Castle Rising, and of Barfreston. No. 13 is a singular, perhaps unique, example of the union of the semicircular and pointed inter- secting mouldings, in which three varieties of the arch are displayed. It is in the western wall of St. James's Church, Bristol, where there is a small circular window of unusual character. No. 14. Part of an arcade from the exterior of the northern side of the Chapel of St. Joseph, at Glastonbury, Somersetshire, probably erected by Abbot Herlewin, about 1104. Not only the arcades of this chapel, but its two door-ways, staircase-turrets, windows, buttresses, &c. are en- titled to the especial study of the architect and antiquary. — See Arch. Antiqs., vol. iv. ; and Vet. Mon. vol. IV. Arch. From the Latin arcus, a. bow; arche, Fr. ; arco, Sp. and It. ; bogen, Ger. There being no word in the Greek language strictly meaning an arch, it is inferred that both the term and the object were imknown to that refined people. Dutens \_Recherches snr Ic tents le plus recule de I'usage des voutes chez les ancieiis^ adduces the Greek words a-^i;, -^/aX/;, za,aa^a, SioXoj, as syno- nymous with the Latin terms apsis, fornix, con- cameratio, tholus ; and also with the English words vault, arch, and dome. A learned writer in the Edinburgh lievieio, 1826 (the Earl of Aber- deen), objects to this inference. The Rev. Geo. W. Lemon [English Etymological Dictionary'] gives the Greek word y.ioy.og as corresponding with the Latin arcus, a vaulted roof. The tholos mentioned by Homer and other Greek authors, and which is usually translated a dome, is shewn by Lord Aberdeen to mean merely a building on a circular plan. Waving a point on which ety- mological critics may descant to a great extent without coming to any useful or satisfactory result, it will be more accordant to the object of the present work to seek for facts and demon- strations rather than theories. An arch in archi- tecture is a curvilinear arrangement of bricks or stones, generally turned on a temporary mould, called its centering, and intended to form an open space or aperture below, and a solid above. The stones or bricks thus employed are either formed in the shape of wedges, or, when square, are dis- posed with wider joints, filled with mortar at the ARC ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 19 upper edges ; by which means any superincum- bent weight presses and holds them together. Dr. Johnson defines the arch to be " a building in form of a segment of a circle." Arch is often applied to a concave ceiling, or inner roof of any building, whether it extends directly and is pa- rallel from wall to wall, or formed by intersecting curved lines, the junctions of which are called ribs. (See Vaulting.) Sir Henry Wotton de- scribes an arch as a narrow, contracted vault, and a vault as a broad or dilated arch. The sci- entific construction of the arch may be regarded as one of the most ingenious and most important operations in building. By its aid and combina- tion an architect is enabled to impart endless variety, and almost magical effects to his works. Whilst it gives the appearance of lightness and of buoyancy to solid and heavy materials, it is really strong, and of incalculable durability. Be- fore the arch was invented, all apertures in walls must have been made with horizontal lintels of stone or timber, either in a single block, or by several pieces projecting over and beyond each other, until the two uppermost met. Such is the case in some Egyptian and Grecian works. Since its first adoption, it has been employed in every species and variety of building ; and its diversity of form and extent, its manifold uses and beauties, shew at once its utilities and powers. Its chief application is to cover open spaces be- between columniations, in bridges, colonnades, temples, and churches ; also in the vaulting of crypts and churches, and in other large buildings ; in triumphal and other entrance gatehouses; in doors and windows. In some of the bridges and aqueducts of antiquity, we see the utility and durability of the arch exemplified ; but to shew the extent to which it may be carried and em- ployed has been reserved for modern times. Some of the bridges of France, America, and Great Britain, are evidences of the profound skill of their respective engineers, and also of the capa- bilities of this mode of construction. The centre arch of the new London Bridge, by Messrs. Rennie, measures 150 feet span, with a rise of 40 feet. An arch now building across the river Dee, at Chester, from the designs of Mr. Harrison, will be 200 feet in span, and 54 feet in height, from low water mark. In the iron bridges of the pre- sent time are exhibited arches of support and arches of suspension, of amazing span and of singular contrivance. That over the Menai, in North Wales, is a prodigious work. The component parts and members of an Arch. — Its supports are called abutments, butments, piers, and columns, according to their shape and position. The upper member of these is the impost, or platband, immediately above which are the springers. All the stones in the curvature are named arch-stones ; in French voussures. The under surface of the arch is the intrados or soffit ; and the outer, or upper line, is the extrados. The walls between the crown of the arch and a perpendicular line from its springing, are the haunches, Jianks, or spandrils. The central piece, or wedge, at the intrados, is the hei/, or l;et/-stone, and is the last inserted in the construction of the arch. A horizontal imaginary line extending between the springing on each side is named the chord, or span ; and another imaginary line rising perpendicularly from the middle of the span to the centre of the intrados, is the height of the arch. The origin, or antiquity of the Arch has been a theme of much controversy, and it is one of those facts which is not likely to be decided. Mr. Gwilt properly remarks, that its invention has proved one of the most important events in the annals of architecture. — [Treat. Civ. Arch. vol. I. p. 61.] Whatever may be the theories of antiquaries and other writers on this point, it may be safely said, that a genuine architec- tural arch was not known much before the Christian era. Many ancient and modern au- thors either assert or imply that arches were understood and employed in very remote ages ; but they fail in proving that they were ever used either by the ancient Egyptians, Persians, Jews, Babylonians, Indians, or Greeks. Mr. Gunn, in his Inquiry, has displayed much research and learning on this subject. Egyptians. — The quarries of Upper Egypt produced stones sufficiently large to cover in the dwellings of the inhabitants ; and thus precluded the necessity of substituting the arch for the straight lintel. The gallery in the large pyramid of Ghiza, though it has somewhat the appearance of arched vaulting, cannot be properly called an arch, for it consists of a series of stones placed horizontally on each other, and projecting till 20 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. ARC they nearly meet at the top, where a single stone crowns the whole. — [Pococke's Descr. of the East, vol. I. p. 41 ; Creaves's Pi/rami(Iogro]>/iiii, vol. i. p. 123.] A nearer approach to the form of the arch is seen in one of the tombs among the remains of Egypt; but this is cut out of the solid rock. As to the arches of Upper Egypt, men- tioned by Lucas, Pococke, and Norden, they must be regarded as of Roman or Saracenic, rather than of Egyptian construction. Pococke [Tfavels, vol. i. p. 220] says that the few spe- cimens he saw were executed subsequently to the establishment of the Greeks in Egypt; and Norden [Travels, vol. i. p. 92] informs us that he discovered Saracenic characters on the bridges near the pyramids of Memphis. Mr. Gunn, how- ever, says " he has ventured to assert, that the ancient Egyptians were too well versed in geome- try to be ignorant of the power and properties of the arch, scientifically formed." — Iiiqidii/,^. 185. Babylonians. — There is not sufficient evidence to induce us to suppose that the arch was known to this celebrated people. Speaking of the bridge over the Euphrates, Herodotus expressly says that it was first built of stone piers bound toge- ther with lead and iron, upon which were laid squared beams ; being wooden framing on stone piers. The tunnels of Babylon, mentioned by Diodorus Siculus, [lib. ii. cap. 1] were probably covered in the same way. Herodotus mentions a subterranean canal, or tunnel, which was covered with horizontal pieces of stone, si.\ or seven feet long by three wide. — Major liennel's Geographical System, p. 369. Greeks. — The ruins of Athens are destitute of the slightest trace of an arch earlier than the time already assigned to its introduction. The roof of the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, called the Lantern of Demosthenes, is formed by a single block of marble. The bridge over the llissus, as well as the building iuqiroperly called the Theatre of Bacchus, were erected by Herodes Atticus. The specimens remaining in Ionia bear decided marks of Roman .vorkmanship ; and, though arches have been found at Nola in Etruria, their date has not been fixed ; and we know that Nola was occupied by the Romans as well as by the Greeks. The same may be said of Agrigentum, Tauromenium, Catania, and Sy- racusa. The gate in the ancient wall of Paestum was most likely erected subsequently to the building with which it is connected. Mr. Hamilton [Archtc. vol. xv. p. 323] says, " Arches were unknown to the Greeks ;" but adds, " the only specimen of an arch 1 have seen in the Grecian buildings is the doorway of a small detached fort on a rock above Ephesus, where it seems to have been hewn out of the solid wall in the form of a Gothic arch." Visconti, on the authority of Plutarch, assigns the invention of the arch to Alexander himself. Let us profit by the remarks of a well-in- formed practical architect : " Till within a very few years, the ruins of Greece were unexplored ; and even when scientifically illustrated by the genius of Stuart and Revett, the examples of the arch given by them could not be attributed to a period prior to the time of the Romans. In vain have ancient authors been consulted to afford some clue to unravel this interesting ques- tion ; but from them we derive no assistance; for the arcliitectural terms are so obscure, and the meaning so dubious, as to leave us in as great ignorance as before." — [Stuart's Antiq. of Athens, vol. iv. Essay by T. L. Donaldson. '\ The discovery of a sort of domical roof in a sub- terraneous chamber at Mycenae led to these remarks, to which some writers refer as an example of the arch in Grecian architecture : Mr. Donaldson, however, properly observes, that although the form of the inner roof " resem- bled the shape of the arch, the true principle and peculiar property of the concentric con- struction of the vertical arch, deficient in this example, was thought to render the subterra- neous chamber inadmissible as a proof of its very early introduction in the construction of the Greeks; nor docs it appear probable, that the arch, in its perfect principle of application, was adopted in Greece before the time of Alexander or his successors, and thence communicated to the Romans." King [in Man. Ant. vol. iv. p. 268, and in the Suppl. to the same] comments on the statements and authorities adduced by different writers who contend for the early adop- tion of the arch by the Grecians, and asserts, that " Sicily was the country where this noble kind of ornament in architecture first appeared, and that, indeed, Archimedes was the first inventor of it." ARC ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 21 The Romans. — " In Italy we find the earliest traces of arches, and, whoever was the inventor, the Romans have certainly the merit of bringing them into general use, and of employing them for the most important purposes. If not the first example, at least one of the earliest is the con- duit at Tusculum, near Rome, which is a sub- terraneous channel carried under a mountain." — [See Stuart's Athens, Supplement, as before.] Other early examples are found in part of the ancient walls of Rome, built by Tullius; and in the Cloaca Maxima, supposed to have been formed by Tarquin the elder. That arched sewer, 16 feet wide by 30 feet in height, — large enough to admit a carriage laden with hay, — is now nearly closed up. The Theatre of Marcellus, in the same city, built in the time of Julius Caesar, contains a series of arches supposed to be next in point of time. The Romans having once perceived the im- portance and elegant effects produced by arches, introduced them into the whole of their public works, and not only imparted the curvilinear form to the apertures of walls, but adopted it in their decorated triumphal gates, &c. In the architecture of the Romans the arch was almost invariably of a semicircular shape; but the Moors, Christians, and some other nations, not only invented and introduced great variety in its curvature, but decorated it with numerous ornamental mouldings and sculptured enrich- ments. In the ecclesiastical edifices of the Christian architects, between the tenth and six- teenth centuries, we find numerous variations of curvilinear forms. Geometricians and mathe- maticians have endeavoured to characterise and define these varieties by terms borrowed from their own sciences. By the accompanying en- gravings, and the following brief notices of the different names given to arches, according to their varied forms, it is intended to furnish an account of the shapes of nearly every arch that may be found in the buildings of the Middle Ages. 1. The Semicircular Arch has its centre in the middle of the span, and is called, by way of eminence, " the perfect arch," — ihefornix integer of the Romans, and the arche en plein centre of the French. It is synonymous with " the arch of equilibrium," or that curve which is so per- fectly balanced in all its parts as to have no ten- dency within itself to alter its own figure, or to give way in any one place more than another. It is, therefore, considered the strongest and most secure of any form, the materials and all other circumstances being alike. This kind of arch continued in veiy general use until the middle of the twelfth century, when it was gra- dually superseded by the pointed arch, a variation creating a new and important era in Christian architecture. For examples, see the accompany- ing prints, — pi. 1. fig. 1; and pi. 2. figs. 1, 3, 7, — all of which arches will be further noticed in the sequel. 2. The Horse-shoe Arch, described from a centre placed above the springing line, contains somewhat more than a semicircle, and is so called from a seeming resemblance to the iron shoe of a horse. Arches of this shape are found in mosques of the East, and in the early buildings of the Anglo-Norman era. (PI. 1. figs. 3, 4, 9; and pi. 2. fig. 9.) 3. The Semicircnlar Arch, springing from a line above the imposts, had its origin in the necessity of ranging with other arches of wider span. Hence we find that the north arch in the central tower of Malmsbury Abbey Church, being narrower than that on the western side, was constructed in the form here alluded to. (PI. 1. fig. 4; and pi. 2. fig. 9.) 4. Elliptical Arches are usually formed by semi-ellipses, and are therefore struck from three centres. They were called by the Romans ybr- idces compositi; were formerly much used in the interiors of houses and public buildings ; and, from their bold and beautiful appearance, as well as strength and convenience, are particularly cal- culated for, and in the present time generally employed in bridges. Arches of this form are found in the crypts of some Norman cathedrals and large churches, in union with the semicircu- lar : they are not unfrequent over doors and windows as late as the fifteenth century. The entrance-tower to the deanery of Lincoln has an arched gateway of this form; and other instances might be adduced. (PI. 1. figs. 5, 14, 16 ; pi. 2. fig. 8; and pi. 3. figs. 11, 12.) 5. The Inverted Arch, as its name implies, is directly the reverse of the usual form, having all its members below, instead of above, the 22 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIOXARV, ARC horizontal chord. It is usually employed in substructures, but it is occasionally found in superstructures. This arch is of great utility in works where the piers, by their own, or super- incumbent, weight, tend to crush the foundation immediately under them, for it discharges the otherwise concentrated pressure from a particu- lar part, and diffuses it more generally over the foundations. A few instances of it occur in Christian edifices, as in Wells and Salisbury Cathedrals : the first under the great central tower, and the second in the line of the choir clerestory, forming an arch buttress to the tower. (PI. 1. fig. 7.) 6. The Catenarian Arch, not common, is one whose intrados takes a curve similar, but reversed, to that formed by a chain, or cord, hanging freely between two points of suspension, whether these points be in the same line or not. — Mur- phy's Bat. pi. 1. fig. 14. 7. The Imperfect Arch contains less than a semicircle, and is consequently flatter. It is likewise called the skene, scheme, and diminished arch ; and by the French arche en portion de cercle. The arch of the Rialto at Venice is an example of this form. (See pi. 3. fig. 2 ; also Murphi/s Bat. pi. 1. figs. 4, 5, 6.) 8. 9, 10. The Ci/c/oidal, Hyperbolic, and Parabolic Arches, are so called from having their intrados in tlie forms severally of a cycloid, hy- perbola, and parabola. — Murphy' s Bat. pi. 1. figs. 10, 11, 13. 11. The Moorish Arch may be classed with that of the Horse-shoe shape, from which it only differs in having a tendency to be pointed at the crown in some examples. THE POINTED ARCH, which may be considered as one of the third or fourth point, and is called by the Italians di terzo e quarto acuta, consists of two eccentric arcs meet- ing in an angle at the top : it is drawn by dividing the chord into three, four, or more portions. The origin and first application of the pointed arch, like the invention of the arch itself, has occa- sioned much controversy among antiquaries and architects. It would occupy too much space to notice all the theories and opinions that have been published on the subject; and many of them are too frivolous to deserve literary comment. The invention has been ascribed to the Goths, the Saracens, the Romans or Italians, the French, the Germans, and the English. The claims of each nation have been advocated by its respective authors, who, to substantiate their own opinions, have thought it necessary to impugn those of other writers. This has been called " learned trifling'' by the historian of architecture in the Encyclopedia Mctropolitana, vol. v. p. 354, who justly remarks : " The impossibility of supporting any one opinion by an appeal to historical evi- dence, renders it unnecessary to lose time in the effort to determine a question which most persons are now disposed to consider as involved in impe- netrable obscurity." One system is, that the pointed arch, called cusped by the writer above referred to, originated with the Egyptians, in placing two large stones in an oblique position, resting on jambs, or walls, at their lower edges, and with their other ends united at top, in the manner of children's card-houses. This sort of covering to a walled passage is found in some Egyptian works as well as in Grecian ; and also in cairns, barrows. Sec. supposed to be of Celtic origin. Other authors ascribe its invention to the intersection of two semicircular mouldings on the face of a wall, which forms the pointed arch in the shape of an equilateral triangle, with the sides curved. This opinion was maintained by Bentham, Milner, and others. Warbutton con- tends that the Goths invented it, in imitation of the interweaving and sweeping lines of branches of trees, as they appear in an avenue. This system, more fanciful than rational or probable, is partly supported by Sir James Hall, in a large and handsome quarto volume abounding with engravings, in which he deduces the origin of all buildings from trees : columns, arches, doors, windows, and the rib tracery of roofs, are also said to be imitative of and analogous to the boughs and branches of avenues. Forbearing to dilate further on the subject in this place, I must refer to Arch. Antiq. vol. v. for an analysis and review of the theories and opinions of nearly fifty different authors on the origin of the pointed arch, " Gothic Architecture," &c. 12. The Lancet, or Lance-headed Arch appears to have been adopted first of the pointed series. It is struck from two centres at the outside of the imposts. Arches of this shape were in general BHTTTpN.S /Jj Cm-rECTOB-AI. PICTKWAMf, I3run*wtli Ciiu:-2.Norwicii Cki2l: -S.Ciuiwrbury Coih-.Crypi . -4.Wiiiot»Mt«r Ciuli: -».QlDufl»*t»r Cwlli-. Crypt .-6.Ro(m«ry Chu: -7HS.arirtol Calli: S.B«v»rl«yi.Un«r-9.Abb:Aux Hommci. CKu: Cawn.-lOJLoniflOjr Chu: I1."W*U» Cwthi-B-Oiu-.S* Ouen.Rou«n.-l4.LincolT».Ch«i'3«llar!i OwAwiLy. 15.fcl8.S*G«orgtf»CKicj.;/ftiidBar. -lC.H«n7VU.Chaf:-a7.Wel^ C«*K-.-19. 2I.Poini«i ftRjortpn-at Po?iU*d.-iO.«>o«l)y Hail.Roaf . 22 Chmuiry piece. Fomnniif AlAicy ■ ARC ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 23 use at the beginning of the tliirteenth century ; and the cathedrals of Salisbury, Lincoln, Wells, and the minster at Beverley, afford various exam- ples. (See pi. 1. figs. 8, 10, 11, 13; and pi. 3. figs. 5, 7, and 12.) 13. The Equilateral Arch consists of segments of a circle whose diameter is equal to the span of the arch, and admits of an equilateral triangle being inscribed within the space between the crown and the reins of the arch. This kind of arch being more obtuse than that of the lancet, the opening it formed was wider in proportion to its height. (See pi. 1. fig. 2 ; and pi. 3. fig. 5.) 14. The Elliptical Pointed Arch has its sides of the regular pointed form, but is terminated with a flattened instead of an acute angle. It is not common. 15. Three-centered and Four-centered Pointed Arches and Three-centered Elliptical Arches were much used at the end of the fifteenth and begin- ning of the sixteenth centuries, and are often called mixed arches. (See pi. 1. figs. 14, 15, 16, 20.) 16. The Drop Arch is formed by portions of circles whose radius is shorter than the span of the arch, and is described about an obtuse-angled triangle. {Rickman's Attempt, pi. 5.) 17. Four-centered Pointed Arches afford great variety for decoration in the tracery of windows. They were divided and subdivided into as many openings as the space would allow, or the fancy of the architect might prompt. Exeter Cathe- dral abounds with these arches. 18. The Tudor Arch is also described from four centres struck from the same diagonal line : it is produced by dividing the chord of the arch into more or fewer parts, according to the fixed height of the arch. Arches of this shape are chiefly found in buildings erected under the reigns of the Tudor monarchs Henrys VII. and VIII. ; but its form was known and applied at least fifty years before the accession of the former king. (PI. 1. fig. 14 ; and pi. 3. figs. 11 and 12.) 19. The Ogee, or Contrasted Arch, from four centres, two in or near the springing, and two others above it, reversed. It was generally used over doors, niches, tombs, and windows; its in- flected curves weakening it too much to allow of its application for the support of great weight. It is usually much decorated with crockets, an inner moulding cusped. Sec, and a finial. The earliest specimen I know is in a monument of the north aile, Salisbury Cathedral, about a. d. 1246. (PI. 1. fig. 18; and pi. 3. fig. 9). 20. A Rampant Arch is that where the spring- ing wall rises higher on one side than on the other, and is mostly used in roofs and pediments. (See pi. 1. figs. 20, 21.) 21. The Extra-dosed Arch is that where the upper line is parallel to the under side. 22. The Straight Arch has its intrados and extrados of parallel straight lines, instead of curves, with the joints and sections of their wedges tending to one centre. It is generally used over doors and windows, where openings are not very wide. There are scarcely any speci- mens of this form in our old churches ; but the nearest approach may be said to be the extraor- dinary stone beam between the western towers in Lincoln Cathedral. A remarkable specimen of this arch is delineated in pi. 1. fig. 22, being a representation of a mantlepiece, over a fire-place, in Fountain's Abbey, Yorkshire. There is an arch constructed in a similar manner, but not quite so flat, over a door-way, on the north side of the conventual church, at Ely, apparently about the date of 1150. (See pi. 1. fig. 6 ; and pi. 2. fig. 8, k.) REFERENCES TO THE ANNEXED PLATES. Plate 1, Arches, displays twenty-two vari- eties of forms, dispositions, and combinations of this important feature of Christian architecture. The ingenuity as well as eccentricity displayed in this series, coming before the eye at once, cannot fail of exciting the attention and inquiry of the scientific architect and antiquary. No. I is a singular specimen of construction in English buildings, although common in the Roman edi- fices of the capital and provinces of Italy : it is from the Church of Brixworth, Northamptonshire, the walls of which, and also other similar arches, are of the same material and manner of work- manship. An account, and illustrations of this church, are given in Arch. Antiq. vol. v. ; and there is a description of it in Rickman's Attempt. As shewn in the engraving, the arch is formed by two rows of bricks placed perpendicular to the centre, and two other rows disposed at right angles with the former. Arches of similar con- 24 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. ARC struction and material are found in tlie Jewrij Wall, Leicester, and in the ruined church and pliaros within the outer vallum of Dover Castle. No. 2, and Plate 2, No. 2, are two arches from the nave of Surwich Cathedral, the work of Bishop Herbert de Losinga, in the beginning of the twelfth century. The archivolt is composed of several tori and cavetto mouldings, with the billet ornament on the label moulding. Nearly the whole of Norwich Cathedral is of the same style and date. See Cath. A>tii(js. Norwich. No. 3. An arch of the horse-shoe form, from the crypt of Canterbury Cathedral ; which crypt is certainly the largest and finest substructure of this class in England. (See Crypt.) It is de- scribed and illustrated by plans and views in Cath. Aiitifjs. Canterbury. In pi. 2, figs. 2, 4, 5, 6, are varieties of arches from the same crypt, one of which, No. 6, shews the pointed arch, of the same construction and style as the circular arch, and all evidently of as early date as 1184, when the Trinity Chapel was erected. The form of this arch was regulated by the intercolum- niation and height required to make it range with the others : it is struck from two centres above the impost. The next arch (f) is slightly pointed, whilst (e) is semicircular, and of wider span. No. 4. Semicircular, springing from a chord above the impost, from the south transept of Winchester Cathedral, where there are other arches of the same form. No. 5, from the cri/pt of Gloucester Cathe- dral, erected in the time of King William I., is a fine specimen of the true elliptical arch, which is now so generally adopted in bridges, and which is supposed to be of modern invention. Nos. 6 — 10, from the Church at Romsey, Hampshire, a fine and interesting specimen of Anglo-Norman architecture. Its arches and arcades are numerous and various, including the semicircular, the horse-shoe, the lancet and ob- tuse pointed, the flat, &c. Several of these are shewn in Arch. Autiqs. vol. v. No. 6 is from the clerestory of the nave, and displays some eccen- tric combinations of arches and columns. The intrados and extrados of one series are insulated, and form arch-buttresses. No. 10, the arch- mouldings of a door-way on the north side of the nave, where the two sides of the arch are almost straight, meeting in an obtuse point. The capitals are elaborate, and the cavetto mouldings filled with an ornament which was very generally employed about 1200, the age of this door-way. Nos. 7 and 13, from the Cathedral Church of Bristol ; the first being the style of the vesti- bule to the chapter-house, erected soon after 1174, when the abbey was founded. It has the true semicircular, and the first pointed combined, as shewn in this delineation. The columns consist of a cluster of four half cylinders, and the archi- volt mouldings correspond in form and arrange- ment with the shafts. Fig. 13 is one of the tall arches of the choir, springing from jambs with- out capitals or imposts. See Cath. Antiqs. Bristol, for history and illustrations of this church. No. 8, a door-way in the north transept of Beverley Minster, Yorkshire, a church replete with fine and interesting specimens of the union of the last circular and first pointed styles. The example here delineated shews the combination of two pointed arches in the door-way, covered by a semicircular archivolt of several mouldings, mitering with those of two blank arches of the acute lancet shape. No. 9 exhibits a similar arrangement and form, from the church of I' Abbaye aux Hommes, at Caen. That building was raised by William, Duke of Normandy, the first Norman monarch of England, in 1066, and displays in its design, arrangement, and most of its varied details, an important series of examples of the architecture which may be truly and unexceptionably called Norman. The part here delineated is from the clerestory of the choir, the construction of which we must not assign to the Conqueror's time, as the genuine pointed style, of the very first class, prevails in this part of the building. The arches, buttresses, windows, and mouldings, are all of that style, although the semicircular form is adopted in the archivolt of the triforium. The nave, crypt, and some other parts of the church, are, however, of the true Norman, or semicircular class. A series of architectural illustrations, with plan and description of this church, is given in Arch. Antiqs. Normandy, which work contains many other prints, and accounts of other ecclesiastical and domestic buildings in that province. tKtrt^ * "^ ^JLi'ixc-HluBi iacT: ov *» T . A»fgpc. — SEMICQICCLAR : POIirTEi;) : fc EOKSB SHOX. 7. IkiifiirA Qmr. & Cuxle Acre- fticr^ ja.ftr- iM^M AM(f*^ >r •*« .AirtM- JIPM^OV ARC ARCHITECTURAL DICTIOXARY. 25 Nos. 11 and 17, from the Cathedral of Wells: the first from the nave, and the second beneath the central tower. The nave is of the age of Henry III., when Bishop Joceline erected a great part of this magnificent edifice. The arch em- braces the equilateral triangle, and consists of several mouldings : it springs from piers sur- rounded by several shafts of purbeck marble. No. 17 is a singular example of the arch-buttress, or arc-boutant, formed by a mass of masonry disposed as two arches, one above the other, and the points of the two mitering into each other. The spandrels are formed by several mouldings, with circular apertures. This unique design was apparently adopted by the architect to support the weight of the lofty and heavy tower on the four tall arches which separate the nave, choir, and transepts of the building. I [A view, section, and account of this tower, ! and of the church, are given in Calh. Aiitiqs. Wells.'] No. 12. Nave of the Church of St. Oiieii, at , Rouen, Normandy, a magnificent specimen of I the Christian architecture of the early part of the fourteenth century. — Arch. Aiitiqs. of Xor- maiidi/, by Pugin, &c. | No. 14. Arch to a gateway in the Chancellor's House, Lincoln, a specimen of the Tudor era. Nos. 15 and 18, from the splendid Chapel of St. George, at Windsor : the first in the nave, and the latter covering an ornamental niche raised by Bishop Beauchamp. The curve of the latter is struck from six centres, as indicated in the en- graving, but, in all probability, it was originally ' formed by the hand ; and No. 15 is struck from four. The nave is part of Edward the Third's 1 work, between 1330 and 1370 ; and the ogee arch is about one hundred years later, as Beau- champ was made " master and surveyor of the works" in 1470. No. 16, from the Chapel of Henry VII., Westminster, is a flattened Tudor arch, drawn from four centres. Almost every part of this splendid building is covered with ornamental sculpture, among w^iich is a profusion of statues of saints, clergy, kings, &c. [The history of this edifice will be found in Arch. Antiqs. vol. n. ; Neale and Brayley's West- minster Abbey, vol. i.; and Cottingham's Henry the Seventh's Chapel. 2 Nos. 19 and 21 are diagrams, shewing: the mode of drawing the arch by hand. No. 20, the timber roof of Crosby Hall, London ; an interesting specimen of the carved work, with pendants and fine, corbels, which adorned the baronial halls of our ancient mansions. No. 22. A straight, or flat arch, being the mantel-piece of a fire-place in Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire. Plate 2. Arches: .Sew/aVcu/ar, horse-shoe, pointed, twelve varieties, shewing the progress from the plain semicircular Norman, or Roma- nesque, to the regular pointed form, struck from the springing line. No. 1, from the transept of the Abbey Church at St. Alban's, is strictly Roman in form and construction. Nos. 2, 4, 5, 6, from the crypt of Canterbury Cathedral, already noticed in PI. 1, Fig. 3, p. 48. No. 3. Doorway, north side of Malmsbury Abbei) Church, Wiltshire, now walled up. The ornaments resemble some of Greek design. In PI. 3, Arches, No. 2, is a pointed arch from the same church. No. 7. Doorway, Fairford Church, Berkshire, adorned with the Roman or heraldic embattled fret, and with the columns and capitals fancifully ornamented. No. 8. Double arch over the western doorwa\% Castle Acre Priory Church, Norfolk, founded in 1086, resembles many doorways in the churches of Normandy. (See Arcades, PI. 1, No. 1, p. 32; and Arch. Antiqs. vol. n., for account and prints of this church.) No. 9. Horse-shoe arch, Peterborough Cathe- dral, date about 1 180. This and the other arches, with the vralls, &:c. of the church, are peculiarly solid and substantial. No. 10, from the church of Creully, in Nor- mandy, with zig-zag and dove-tailed embattled mouhiings. A similar arch remains in the con- ventual church at Ely. No. 11 has been noticed under PL 1, No. 2, p. 48. No. 12. Pointed arch with numerous zig-zag mouldings, in the porch of St. Mary's Church, Devizes, Wiltshire. Plate 3. Arches : Twelve pointed, display- ing various curves, mouldings, and ornaments. E D. K HtkL fctBRARY North Carolina State College 26 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. ARC No. 1. Church of Wahokeii, Norfolk. Though pointed in form, this arch, as well as the old parts of the church, are of the Norman or circular class. The inner archivolt is unusually and fancifully adorned with a sort of cusped engrailed moulding. (See Cotman's Arch. Antiqs. of Norfolk, pis. 52, 53, 54.) No. 2, already noticed, Pi. 2 of Arches, Fig. 3, p. 51. . No. 3. Choir of Canterburi/ Cathedral, which was in progress in 1180, under the direction of William of Sens, as recorded by Gervase of Can- terbury. (See Cath. Antiqs. Canterbury.) The apsis of L'Ahbaye aux Hommes, at Caen, is very similar in columns, arches, &,c. \^Arch. Antiqs. of Normandi/.} No. 4. From the transept of Canterbury Cathedral. No. 5. From the nave of Salishury Cathedral Church; the most uniform, regular, and systema- tic Christian edifice of the larger kind, in England. It was raised by Richard Poore, Bishop of Salis- bury, between 1218 and 1258. An air of loftiness and lightness pervades the nave ; its columns are high slender shafts, clustered ; the arches nearly approach the graceful lancet shape ; and the mouldings, which are numerous, consist of deep inflections and bold rotund masses. No. 6. From the nave of Lincoln Cathedral, rebuilt about the same time as the nave of Salis- bury Cathedral. The capitals of the columns are foliated ; the mouldings are not so numerous, nor is the height of the arch so great, as at Salisbury. {Arch. Antiqs. vol. v. p. 233.) No. 7. From the nave of York Cathedral, which was commenced in 1291 and completed in 1330. The arches are highly pointed, but the mouldings are low and flat in comparison with the two preceding examples. No. 8. A flattened arch from the choir of Chichester Cathedral, erected about 1230, by Bishop Neville. No. 9, from the cloisters of the Abbey Church of Westminster, is another variety of the ogee arch, witli its pediment, &c. (See PI. 1 of Arches, No. 18, and p. 50.) No. 10. From the nave of Canterbury Cathe- dral, erected about 1400, by Archbishop Arundel. The spandrels are adorned with tracery. No. 11. Arch over a gate-way to one of the quadrangles. King's College, Cambridge, built in the time of Henry VI. (See Spec, of Gothic Arch. vol. II. pi. 20.) No. 12. Elliptical arch in Crosby Hall, London. This very fine apartment, with its appendant man- sion, was built by Sir John Crosby, about 1470. It is fully illustrated and described in Spec, of Gothic Arch. vol. i., and in Arch. Antiqs. vol. iv. Plate 4. Trco depressed Arches. No. 1. The chancel of Elkstone Church, Glou- cestershire, in which the columns and pilasters supporting the arches lean outwards, and the rudest sculpture appears on the mouldings. — Lysons's Glouc. Antiqs. p. 47. No. 2 is from the chancel of Avingdon Church, Berkshire ; " remarkable, being formed of the segments of two circles, having different centres. It is richly ornamented with zig-zag mouldings, and a great variety of grotesque heads, springing from two enriched piers, which lean outwards." [Lysons's Mag. Brit. Berkshire, p. 204.] Murphy IBatalha, Introd. p. 8], alluding to the arch at Elkstone, says, " I shall call it the Ulnar arch. It is generated by the arms of a man extended at full length, with his breast placed against a smooth wall, and marking, with a piece of chalk held in each hand, the revolution of the arms, moving inflexibly upwards till the hands meet in a point vertical with the crown of the head." AucH, Triumphal. A building of which an arch is the principal feature, to commemorate the achievements of eminent or illustrious persons in the state. Triumphal arches were often raised as monuments of gratitude or adulation,, — as those of Galienus at Rome, of Trajan at Ancona and Beneventum, and of Hadrian at Athens. They were often adorned with sculptures in low relief, representing the spoils of an enemy, sym- bols of conquered cities, triumphal processions, sacrificial groups. Sec. Triumphal arches had one, two, or three passages. Of the first are those of Trajan at Ancona, Titus at Rome, and Auo-ustus at Rimini. The arches of Septimius Severus, and of Constantine, at Rome, have each one larce and two smaller passages. The most considerable triumphal arch, in point of magni- tude, is that of Constantine at Rome, which was erected A.D. 312, and for the materials of which BBJTTON's ARCHITECTUKAT. DICTIOMAlLy, G-.CaHarmol* Ae\. iVRCHES; _ POINTED STYLE. ■ l.Walsokei. Cliu:horfi 2.Ma]msbury AW>: Chu: 3.Canurr?Calh-.ChoLr. i.SiUisb-ri.allii Have-. e.liurolu I'aih; feve. 7. York Ca A? a'WfesBnryUib^aciElcTr. 10.Caj.tr.i?Caili:Na.vc. ILCmibr. ICC. ChSLp. t.daixar! Cath.S.E.Trazis^ 8.ChicHcsler .Csuhv U.Ctxjsby Hall. LviJoft HtMLiitat ly Ui*AudurJutuLJ^3t>. PORBIOTTONS ARCHITECTITRAL DICTrCPTTAHy. TWO AHCHIES DEPRESSED. :tr;i,Elkstniie Oiuix-Oi, Gliracesterahnxe IVl 2.AvmsAoiv Clmxcli. Berlcs.- Zon^tfn'.Rihli.'fuxi (hi r/u- .iuih"- JuUi tlSSi' ARC ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 27 the arch of Trajan was despoiled of its chief ornaments. ARCHiEOLOGY, or Archaiology, from the Greek as'/aiog, ancient, and X070;, a discourse, or treatise. It embraces a number of subjects connected with the manners, customs, laws, arts, sciences, &.c. of ancient nations. All writiniis relating to the remains of former ages may be regarded as ar- chaeological. It is therefore a science of exten- sive application, and of unquestionable import- ance. Under the title oi Archccologia, the Society of Antiquaries of London has published many quarto volumes of miscellaneous essays, illus- trated by numerous engravings. They relate to the history and antiquities of different nations, but are more particularly allusive to those of Great Britain. Arch-butteess. Arc houtant, Fr., from arc, and aboutir, to abut. A piece of insulated masonry, usually called a flying buttress. It generally extends from the clerestory of a church, and over the roof of its aile, where it rests on the buttress of the outer wall. In some instances it is solid and plain, and in others ornamented with crockets, and perforated with quatrefoils, &.C. \_Arch. Antiqs. vol. iii. p. 55.] See Buttress. Archeion. Greek. A secret recess in a Grecian temple, for treasures appertaining to the deity to whom each temple was respectively dedicated. The term was also applied to a palace, to a seat of justice, or to places where government archives and valuables were deposited. Aecheria. Low Lat. A long narrow aperture in the walls of castles, &c., through which arrows were discharged. It differed from the arbalestina, in being perpendicular without any transverse opening. [Meyrick's Anc. Armour, vol. iii. Gloss.] — "Turci, qui Tper fenestriculas longas et strictas, quas archerias vocant, nostros lanceis et sagittis infestabant." — Du Cange. Archetus. Low Lat. A saw for cutting stones. Muratori used the word to signify a crane or pulley for raising heavy stones to the upper parts of buildings. Archia. Low Lat. Arches. " Unam de archiis pontis Pontisarse," Sec. occurs in a charter, anno 1228. — Dm Cai>ge. Arch IB A NOUS. Low Lat. A coffer, an armory. — Dm Cange. Architect, from the Greek a^x^, the beginning, origin, or cause, and rsuj^w, to contrive, construct, build : an originator, a contriver of structures, a chief and presiding builder ; one who designs and executes works of architecture : in which latter sense it is most generally applied. A^y^in-^rruv, Gr., Archilector, arcMtectits,adiJicator, and constructor, Lat.; architecte,FT.; architetto.lta].; ehnaestro de obsa parvaedissear, Sp. ; baumeister, Ger. The term architect is generally applied to a person who is not only skilled in the science of architecture, but who is well versed in making plans and designs for buildings, — who can esti- mate the value and quality of materials to be employed, — superintend and direct the execu- tion of all the processes of construction, — and adapt the whole, with judgment and taste, to its destined purpose. From the renowned re- mains of buildings in Egypt, Greece, Italy, and the civilised parts of modern Europe, we may infer that the architects of those edifices were well, if not profoundly, acquainted with all the sciences of the times. The durability of their respective works manifests both their integrity and their judgment ; whilst the variety, beauty, and grandeur of the designs, are evidences of the fancy, taste, and talent of the architects. Vitruvius specifies twelve qualifications essential to the formation of an accomplished architect, in his time ; but more might be enumerated, as required in the present age. Whatever may be said of the talents of the ancient Greeks and Romans, it is now generally admitted that the architects of the middle ages were more skilful in the science of construction, and certainly dis- played more originality in their designs. Of these men, their education and habits, we have no memoirs, and scarcely any contemporaneous evi- dence. In the monkish annals alone we find a few scanty notices and allusions to them. Ger- vase of Canterbury, William of Malmesbury, Matthew Paris, and some other choniclers, have transmitted a few facts respecting these men and their works : a Chronological Table is given of many of them in the fifth vol. of the Arch. Antiqs. ; and further accounts will be related as their names occur in this Dictionary. 28 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY ARC Architecture. From h^'/jTiiiTovia, Gr. ; arc/iitec- tura, architectoiiice, Lat. ; arc/iilelliiia, Ital. ; arte de edijicar, Sp. ; bauhunst, Ger. The art of desio-nino- and science of constructine; buildiniis. Architecture is divitled into two general classes, viz. civil and military; the first is again di- vided into domestic, municipal, sacred, and mo- uumental. Domestic architecture comprehends buildings adapted to the personal comforts and conveniences of man, from the cottage of the peasant to the palace of the monarch. Municipal architecture embraces the buildings within the walls of towns, or cities ; whilst sacred archi- tecture, as its name implies, is confined to reli- gious buildings, — as chapels and churches. Mo- numental architecture is designed to commemo- rate the dead, or record events and perpetuate deeds of the living, by tombs, obelisks, pyra- mids, triumphal arches, Sec. Military archi- tecture is employed in the erection of fortified walls, gate-ways, and castles, and, indeed, all kinds of offensive and defensive buildings. The essentials of architecture are utility, strength, and beauty. Utility is evinced in the proper distribution of parts, so that their purposes are duly answered, and that each has its correct situation ; strength arises from a sound and proper foundation, and the judicious choice and arrangement of materials; beauty is produced by the pleasing appearance and good taste of the whole, and by the proportions of all the parts harmonising and agreeing with each other. It results from analogous ornament, symmetry, and ])ropriety. The scientific part may be regarded as mechanical, and is to be attained by study and practice ; but the inventive, or creative, part, whicli ranks among the fine arts, is only possessed by men of genius and talent : it is this, indeed, that separates and contradistinguishes the ar- chitect from the builder. — Givill's Vitruv. p. 15. Architecture originated in the necessities of human nature. Wiiere wood abounded, men would build their houses in the form of a cone, resembling the wigwam of the American Indians, at the present day. Such was the hut of the nomadic tribes and the aboriginal Britons. Grecian architecture exhibits traces of this simple origin ; as the early Egyptian and Indian build- ings display an imitation of natural caverns. Chinese architecture indicates its descent from the tent. In fortifications, the first step would be a continued embankment and a ditch ; the raised wall and guarded gates would next follow, and in quick succession the towers and barbi- cans, for oft'ence and defence. {See Castle.) Hislun/. — -Respecting the history of scientific architecture, authors are divided in opinion ; some commencing with the Egyptian, and others with the Indian. On a subject so remote, and where evidence is wanting, we must leave this contro- verted point to those who prefer speculation to proof, and theory to demonstration. We may briefly allude to the architecture of different nations. Egi/ptian. — The architectural works of the Egyptians are remarkable for solidity, boldness, and originality; and of these the temples are the most important, except in magnitude, in which they are surpassed by the vast pyramids. To the temples are attached pylones of singular form and peculiar composition ; which are constructed with walls of singular thickness, but the temples themselves consist of numerous massive columns, of varied proportions, having capitals greatly diversified in ornament. The roofs were formed by large blocks of stone, extending from wall to wall, or from column to column. " Walls engra- ven with hieroglyphics, not inelegantly arranged ; stupendous blocks of granite and porphyry, highly polished ; tall obelisks and colossal sitting statues, each carved out of single pieces of stone ; and pyramids of tremendous dimensions, give the works of tlie Egyptians a more than human appearance, to which sentiment the perfect state in which they remain after a lapse of forty cen- turies not a little contributes." — [Givilt's Rnd. p. 154.] Herodotus states that, in the construction of the greatest pyramid of Memphis, the Egyptians employed one hundred thousand workmen at the same time, who were relieved by a similar number every three months. Ten years were occupied in hewing and conveying the stone, and twenty more in finishing that vast tomb. Indian. — The buildings of the Hindus exhibit some similarity in style to those of the Egyptians, and indicate a date equally, if not more, remote, particularly in the subterranean temples, and in the pyramids. Of the immense and spacious caverns and excavated temples, the most remark- able are those at Salsette and Elephanta, near ARC ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 29 Bombay; and at Ellora, in the Deccan of Hin- dostan. — Archaol. \o\.\\i. pp. 251 — 289; Seeley's Wonders of Ellora; Col. Tod's Annals of Raj a- sChan ; and Daniell's Oriental Scenery. The Jews, Persians, and many other nations of the east, employed a mixture of stone and wood in their buildings ; the first as a column, or pier-like support for the horizontal beams of the latter. Such was Solomon's temple among the Jews ; and another at Persepolis, where the marble columns bear marks of having been con- nected by cross-beams of wood, supporting a roof of the same light material. Grecian. — The first stone buildings of the Greeks are presumed to be the walls and gates of Mycenae and Tirynthus, the fabled works of the Cyclops. They consist of ponderous masses of rock heaped one upon another, with little aid from the chisel or saw. Grecian art may be classed under three epochs ; the first commencing with Rhsecus of Samos, and Theodorus, about seven hundred years B.C., and terminating with the introduction of Pericles into power, who raised the temple of Jupiter at Olympia; in which stone was used in the construction and marble in the decoration. The ruins of the temple of Jupiter Olympius, at Agrigentum, will afford some idea of the grand style of that period : each flute of the column would contain the body of a man. The second epoch extends from Pericles to Alexander the Great, a period of about 113 years. Architecture attained such excellence under Pericles, that, accordmg to Sir William Jones, " we can only imitate it at a servile distance ; but are unable to make one addition to it without destroying its graceful simplicity." The Parthenon, at Athens, the work of Phidias, Ictinus, and Callicrates, is said, by Lord Aberdeen, to be a building, which, " for majestic simplicity of the general design, the grandeur of its proportions, and the exquisite taste and skill displayed in its ornamental parts, is undoubtedly the most perfect, as. well as deservedly the most celebrated, production of Grecian art." It is stated, that a few years previous to the death of Alexander the Great, the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates was raised at Athens. It is one of the most exquisite and perfect gems of architectural taste, and the only pure specimen of the Grecian Corinthian order remaining. The third epoch extends from the death of Alexander to that of Augustus, when Alexandria was the principal school of the architects. (.See Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, C.-VRYATIDES.) Roman. — The earliest buildings of the Ro- mans, like those of the Greeks, are said to have been of wood. In the regal and consular times, stone and wood were used together. Under Hadrian, many fine edifices of the Corinthian order were raised, both in Rome, and in Athens, by the Romans. The Pantheon, the Colosseum, the Baths of Diocletian, with numerous palaces, temples, porticoes, triumphal arches, commemo- rative pillars, basilicas or halls of justice, fora, bridges, aqueducts, &c. are so many evidences of the architectural grandeur of the Romans. Anglo-Roman. — The buildings erected by the Romans in England do not appear to have been distinguished for grandeur of form or size, or for elegance of architectural decoration. Their villas, of which there are many remains, had all the apartments and offices on the ground floor : that at Woodchester, in Gloucestershire, the most magnificent yet discovered in Britain, was pro- bably of wood, stone, and brick. The principal features in the remains of these villas are the tessellated pavements, and the flues by which the apartments and baths were heated. Among the remains of Roman architecture in Britain are the ruined Pharos and Church in Dover Castle; a gateway at Lincoln ; Hadrian's wall, from Newcastle to Carlisle ; the Jewry wall at Lei- cester ; part of the walls at York, St. Alban's, Richborough, Silchester, &c., and Brixworth church, Northamptonshire. These exhibit evi- dences of the manner of constructing, and the materials used in their durable edifices. The Anglo-Saxon was a corruption or dete- rioration of the Roman architecture. Bede, Alcuin, Gildas, and other old writers, mention buildings of the Anglo-Saxon age; but they are not sutEciently explicit in terms to convey very satisfactory information. With their domestic architecture we are wholly unacquainted. In the seventh century, according to Eddius, Bishop Wilfrid built a church at Hexham, Northumber- land, " superior to any edifice on this side of the Alps." Richard, prior of Hexham, about 1189, notices the church as consisting of three stories. 30 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIOXARV. ARC one of which must have been similar to our triforiums. — [See Cath. Aiitiqs. York.'] In the time of Edward the Confessor, material improve- ments were made in Christian architecture, and it is believed that some arches of his church at Westminster are remaining. — See Arch. Aiitiqs. vol. V. ; and Neale and Braylcy's West. Abb. Anglo-Norman Architecture may be known by the numerous specimens of this workman- ship remaining in the cathedrals of Winchester, Canterbury, Rochester, Durham, Norwich, 8cc. It has been described by contemporary chroniclers, William of Malmesbury, Gervase of Canterbury, and other monastic chroniclers. — Arch. Aiitiqs. vol. V. See also Arch. Aiitiqs. of ISormandy. Pointed Architecture includes a peculiar and very numerous class of buildings, which branches into many varieties, both in its general form and extent, and in its diversified adornment. Com- mencing about the middle of the twelfth century, it continued to prevail in almost every nation of Europe till the beginning of the eighteenth cen- tury, when the neglected Roman orders were revived and adopted. The term Pointed Archi- tecture applies to a great variety of buildings, and several names have been given to each variety, as already noticed under the word Aucn, to which, and to the accompanying engravings, the reader is referred for the appellations peculiar to each form and distinct class. The earliest specimens of the Pointed style occnr, intermixed with the semicircular, in the Anglo-Norman church of Barfreston, Kent ; in the church of Buildwas Abbey, Shropshire, founded in 1135; at St. Cross, near Winches- ter, in progress at the same period ; and in the west front of the priory church of Dunstable, Bedfordshire. A rapid advance in this style took place in the reign of Henry II., as exempli- fied in tile pointed arch and vaulting of the choir of Trinity chapel, and of Becket's crown in Can- terbury Cathedral, erected between 1175 and 1184. Other specimens of the same period are observable in the Inner Temple Church, London ; and in Lincoln and Durham Cathedrals, than the latter of which no edifice is better calculated to display the transition from the Anglo-Norman to the Pointed style. In the reign of Henry III. this style attained its highest perfection in the cathedral of Salisbury, and in the eastern part of the Abbey Church, at Westminster. The for- mer is remarkable for uniformity and symmetry of proportion, and arrangement of parts, and is the only large church completed from one de- sign in this country. Westminster Abbey Church, from its eastern extremity to the entrance of the nave, was entirely rebuilt by Kings Henry III. and Edward I., and exhibits the pointed style more graceful in its proportions, more orna- mental in its details, more scientific in its prin- ciples, and lighter and more impressive in its effects, than at any former period. From the beginning of the reign of Edward I. to that of the long reign of Edward III., pointed archi- tecture attained its climax of excellence. During that period it abounds with grace, beauty, and almost endless variety. Richness of decoration, without exuberance, is its character, whilst sci- ence and skill are manifested in every part of a construction. The form of the arch then prin- cipally used admitted of an equilateral triangle being inscribed between the crowning point of the arch and its points of springing. Examples of this class may be found in the chapel of the Virgin built between 1308 and 1326 at St. Al- ban's; at Exeter, commenced in 1280, and com- pleted 1369 ; at Ely, in the priory chapel, erected between 1321 and 1340 ; and at St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster, constructed by Edward III., between 1330 and 1348. In the reigns of Edward I. and II. a great advance, both in intri- cacy and elegance of design, is evident, particu- larly in the richly-sculptured corbels, in the diversity of subjects ornamenting the key-stones or bosses, and in the variety of patterns in the tracery of the windows : those in Exeter Cathe- dral are peculiarly diversified. Within this period, the spire was very generally adopted. (See Spirk.) Of corresponding time and class are the beautiful monumental crosses in honour of Queen Eleanor, at Geddington, Northampton, and Wal- tiiam cross. {See Cross.) The Sepulchral memorials of the same era exhibit many fine examples of the richness which distinguished the pointed style. {See Monument.) Another period (with increased decoration), carries us to the beginning of the reign of Henry VIII., and exhibits a complete alteration both in the pro- minent features and in the ornamental forms of this style : it is generally called the Tudor style. ARE ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 31 and, by Mr. Rickman, the perpendicular. Strik- ing parts in the buildings of this era are the horizontal lines of the door-ways, the embattled transoms of the windows, and the vast pendants " hanging in the air," which, from their immense weight, seem calculated rather to draw down than to support the vaults they ornament. One of the first examples is the north front of West- minster Hall, erected between 1395 and 1399; and the next is King's College Chapel, Cam- bridge, commenced by Henry VI. about 1443^ " one of the most magnificent triumphs of architectural science in the kingdom." The col- legiate chapel of St. George, at Windsor, com- pleted about the tenth year of Henry Vlll., and Henry Vllth's chapel at Westminster, then follow, and exhibit a profuse increase of ma- sonic and sculptural decoration. The latter chapel is styled by Leland the "miracle of the world ;" and however extravagant that eulo- gium may appear, there is probably no other edifice on the globe in which such profound geometrical skill has been displayed, mingled with such luxuriancy of ornament. " It would seem, indeed, as though the architect had in- tended to give to stone the character of embroi- dery, and enclose his walls in the meshes of lace- work," so profuse and delicate is the tracery throughout the exterior and interior of this royal chapel and mausoleum. After this period pointed architecture de- clined : of which Bath Abbey Church is, though not wholly a departure from the character and forms of preceding buildings, an evidence. To investigate the peculiarities of Christian archi- tecture below this period would be foreign to the present work ; but all its beauties were super- seded by the heterogeneous forms of a debased Italian or Roman style, which prevailed in the time of Queen Elizabeth. Architholus. From a^x^, Gr., the chief, or princi- pal, and 6oXog, a round chamber. The sudatorium of a Roman bath. Akchitrave. From ao%jj, Gr., chief, and the Italian trave, from Lat. trabs, a beam ; unterbul- ken. Germ. In columnar architecture the archi- trave is the lowest member of the entablature, and rests immediately on the abacus of the ca- pital. iGwilt's Rud. of Arch. pp. 181—187.] The form of an architrave, as well as the num- ber of mouldings, faces, and members of which it is composed, vary in different orders. In Christian architecture there is no architrave, properly so called ; but the term is applied by some writers to distinguish the mouldings of an arch. — ArchcEol. vol. xi. p. 366; Rickman's At- tempt, pp. 60, 76, 120. Akchitrave-Cornice. An entablature, consist- ing of an architrave crowned with a cornice, without the intervention of a frieze. Archivault, or Archivolt. From arcus volutus, Lat. ; archivolte, Fr. ; mudeno, or archivolto, It. ; and schurbbagen, Ger. A collection of members on the face of an arch, concentric with the intrados, and supported by imposts. Archive. Archivum, archivium, archarium, creeps, low Lat. ; archives, Fr. ; and archivio, Ital. — Du Caiige. (See Archeion.) A chamber or apartment wherein records and other evidences of a state, or of a public establishment, are preserved. In the ordinary acceptation of the term, archives are the records themselves. Arcula. Lat. A small coffer, or box. — See Ar- CELLA and Ark. Arcus. Low Lat. The avenue or area usually in front of ancient basilicae. [Dm Caiige.} In this sense it is the same as Atrium ; but Bingham \_Works, vol. I. p. 291] says it was a porch, or gateway to a church, and so called from its arched construction. (See Atrium.) It was also called Apsis. (See Apsis.) Arcus EcclesijE, or Arcus Triumphalis, Lat., is sometimes applied to the arch between the nave of a church and the choir, or chancel. Arcus choralis has the same signification, accord- ing to Du Cange. Arcus Presbyterii. Low Lat. The arch of the apsis of a church. Ardesia. Low Lat. and Ital. ; ardoise, Fr. Slate used for covering roofs. — Du Canse. Area. Lat. ; aii'e, Fr. ; era, Sp. ; suolo. It. ; ort, Ger. The superficial contents of any enclosed space ; a court ; an excavation before the basement story of a building : also, a cemetery, or enclosed burying-ground. — Dm Cange. 32 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. ARE Arena. Lat., Tt., and Sp. ; arhie, Fr. ; hampfplalz, Ger. The grand area or floor of an amphitheatre, on which combats and shews took place : it is thus named from the sand strewed on it to pre- vent the gladiators from slipping, and to absorb and hide the blood of the combatants. The term was sometimes applied to tiie amphitheatre itself: also, to the body of a church. — £)« Cange. Akenauium. Lat. An amphitheatre, cemetery, crypt, or sepulchre. — Du Cange. Arerde. Old Eng. for reared, i. e. built, or raised up. — Rob. Clone. Chron., ed. Heme, vol. ii. p. 479. Akk. Area, Lat., It., Sp., and Port. ; Gpc, Sax. A large chest, or coffer. (See Arca.) Hunter [Ilallamshire Gloss. 5.] says it is " the large chest in farm houses, used for keeping meal or flour. The arks are usually made of strong oaken planks, which are sometimes elaborately carved ; they resemble the chests found in churches, which are never, as far as I know, called arks. Many of the arks are of high antiquity ; the making of them must have con- stituted a distinct trade, as we have the surname of Ark-wright. The strong boxes in which the Jews kept their valuables were anciently called their arks, arclias, a word which occurs in the royal warrant in the Foedera, 45 Hen. IIL, to search all the Jews' arks throughout the kingdom. As the Welsh have arkh in the sense of cofiin, it is not impossible that ark may be a relic of the Celtic." The press or cupboard in a vestry, where the clergy hung their vestments, was also called an ark. — A'/cAo/s' Hist, of Leic. vol. i. p. 303. Armarium. Lat.; almarium, low Lat.; armoire and anmuire, N. Fr. ; aimer i/, ambre, or ambry. A niche or cupboard at the side of an altar, in which the sacred utensils and robes were depo- sited. Davis \_Hislori/ oj Durham Abbeif] says " there were, at the end of the altar, four grand almeries, to preserve the chalices and silver cruets, with two or three vestments belonging to the said altar." In Smith's History of Westminster, ]). 204, Almariol implies a closet, or cupboard, in the vestry of St. Stephen's chapel, in which the ecclesiastical habits were kept. In Johnson's Diet, by Todd, ambrei/ is supposed to mean a little purse, to contain money for the poor. It meant also a hutch, or close place to keep meat. In the old language of the Irish, amri signifies a cupboard ; and Phillips, in his Dietioiuirij , says it is a north country word for a safe, or cupboard for keeping of cold and broken victuals, properly such as are to be distributed to the poor. The room or library of a religious house, in which the archives were deposited, was sometimes denomi- nated the almarium, or armarium. " Omnia ecclesias almaria confregit, chartas et privilegia quaedam igne cremavit:" — he broke open the almaria, and burnt the charters and privileges. — Jacob's Law Diet. Armour, n/ios, Gr. ; armus, Lat. Defensive clothing of steel, or other metal : also, warlike weapons. Armoury. Armoire, Fr. ; armameutario, It. A store-house, or room in which armour of every description is preserved. Arnulf, or Ernulph, an ecclesiastical architect, was born at Beauvais, in France, about 1040, came to England with Archbishop Lanfranc, and was successively Prior of Canterbury, Abbot of Peterborough, and Bishop of Rochester. At Canterbury he superintended the building of the choir of the cathedral, which was finished by his successor, Conrad ; and at Rochester he built a dormitory, a chapter-house, and a re- fectory. He was author of a work entitled " Tex- tus Rofl'ensis," and died in 1124. — Cath. Aiitiqs. Canterbury, p. 33 ; Thorpe^s Custumale Rojfense, p. 161. Arris. " The line of concourse, edge, or meeting of two surfaces." [Gwilt's Rucl. p. 181.] The term generally signifies the angle of stone, distinct from the edge. Arsenal. Arseiia, armarium, armamentarium, Lat.; arse>ial,Vv.\ arscnale, It. ; arzenal,Sp.; zeug/iauss, Ger. A public building or magazine for the con- servation of ammunition, arms, and other imple- ments of warfare. A naval arsenal is destined to hold marine stores, arms, and other necessaries for the equipment of shipping. Artificium BisANTEUM occurs in Acta SS. Bene- dict, sac. 6, pt. ii. p. 606. " Et lapideis pavi- mentis Bisantei artijicii stravit," according to Du Cange, means mosaic work. ATT ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 33 Aeula. Low Lat. A small altar ; the upper member, or tabular part of an altar. — Du Caiige. Arx. Lat. A fort, castle, tower, or place of defence, because generally erected on mountains or emi- nences. From azsa, Gr., the top, or citadel- The place set apart in Rome for the operations of the augurs was called arx. Arxicula. Dimin. of arx, a little tower. AscELLA. Low Lat. A term used by Gregory of Tours to signify an aile. — Du Cange. AscENsoRiuM. Low Lat. From ascendo, Lat., to ascend. A staircase. " Ascensorium, jxaejen, id est, gradus, scala ; a jTijan, scandere." — Dm Cange. AscETERiuM. Low Lat. A place where the athletffi performed their exercises ; also a monastery. — Du Cange. AsHELEY (Hector), an architect in the reign of Henry VIIL From an office book referred to by Lord Orford [Anecdotes, vol. i. p. 220. ed. 1826], it appears, that in the space of three years, above 1900/. were paid to Asheley, on account of build- ings at Hunsdon House, " but whether as archi- tect, or only as supervisor of the works, is not clear." Ashlar, or Achelor. Hewn stone, used for the facings of walls. In an account of the expense for repairing Louth Steeple, " 100 foot of achlere " is mentioned [Arch. Antiqs. vol. in.]. A con- tract for building Burnley Church, county of York, temp. Hen. VIIl. specifies " a course of achelors." [Whttaker's Historij ofWIialley, 1806, p. 298.] Wilham Benet, of Canterbury, " willed " that his executors should buy " 300 feet of ashler, of Folkstone, to make a wharf about the king's melle." [Nicolas' s Test. let. vol. i. p. 426.] In the contracts for building Fotheringhay Church, printed in the Moiiasticon, " clene hewen ashler" is repeatedly mentioned, as distinguished from " rough stone." When the work is smoothed, or rubbed so as to take out the marks of the tools by which the stones were cut, it is called "plane ashler." Tooled ashler is stone hav- ing its surface wrought in a regular manner, like parallel flutes, and placed perpendicularly in the building ; but when the surfaces are cut with a broad tool, without care or regularity, the work is said to be random tooled; when wrought with a narrow tool it is said to be chiseled, or boasted ; and when the surfaces of the stones are cut with very narrow tools, the ashler is said to be pointed. When the joints are sunk by cutting the arrises off the stones, or are chiselled into rectangular grooves, the work is said to be rusticated, or composed of rustic ashlar. Aston (Richard), Abbot of Peterborough, com- menced the east end of the conventual church, at the close of the sixteenth century. — Cath. Antiqs. Peterborough. Astragal. From aeroayaXoc, Gr., a vertebral joint ; astragalus, Lat. ; astragale, Fr. ; astragalo, It. ; staebgen, Ger. The French talon, and the Italian tondino, are nearly the same as astragal, which means a small semicircular moulding encircling a column, and is the same as torus. It is often cut into beads and berries, and is used in orna- mented entablatures to separate the faces of the architrave. — Gwilt's Rud. p. 181. Astre. N. Fr. A hall. [Kelham's Nor. Fr. Diet.] — See Aitre. Asylum. See Sanctuary, Atlas, pi. Atlantes. This term was applied by the ancients to statues, either in architectural compositions or singly, supporting an entabla- ture, or other great weight. The monkish chroniclers employed it to signify columns. It usually means an Herculean statue supporting a globe, or the world, on its shoulders. — Car- pentier, Glos. Nov. Atrium. Lat. A hall of entrance to a Greek or Roman house; also the fore-court or vestibulum. A court or cloister, at the western end of a church, was sometimes called the atrium, and was nearly synonymous with the narthex, or ante- temple of the Greek rituals. — Bingham's Works, vol. 1. p. 289. Attegia. Lat. From the Lat. ad and iego. A small house, hut, tent, or cottage. In Ethel- werd's Hist, of England, lib. 4, c. iii. it occurs, " Attegias figunt in oppido." — Jacob's Law Diet. Attic Order. A range of low pilasters, or square pillars, generally placed over columns or pilasters, F 34 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. ATT to decorate the upper part of a building. [Mr. VVm. Hoskins has given a novel view of the etymology and original application of this term, in the Archicologia, vol. xxiii. p. 412.] The low story, or range of chambers in, or imme- diately under the roof of a common domestic house, is called the altk, and the rooms are called allies. Attic Story. The upper floor or story of a house. Auditorium. Lat. From audio, to hear; audiloire, Ft. The place where the Roman orators and poets recited their literary compositions ; a por- tion of the nave of a church, where the audientes or catechumens stood ; or where the congrega- tion (who were not permitted to enter the choir) remained during the performance of religious ceremonies : hence the term is sometimes applied to the whole nave. [Bingham's Works, vol. i. p. 291.] The auditorium was also an apartment in monasteries, for the reception of strangers. In this sense it was called the salulatorium ; and in jElfric's Sax. Gloss, it is denominated the sprac-hus, parlour, or house of conference. In monasteries it signified the place where schools were held. — Du Cange. AuDLEY (Edmund), Bishop of Hereford and Salis- bury, died in 1524, after having built monu- mental, or chantry, chapels, for himself, in both of those cathedrals. — Cath. A ntiqs. Salisbur)/ and Hereford. Aula. Lat. From auXn, Gr., an area, or open place. In Greek and Latin writings the term is indis- criminately applied to a court, a hall, a vestibule, or to an open place ; to a house ; and to a royal palace. Ecclesiastical writers use it to denote the whole of a church, but sometimes limit it to the nave only. In Domesday Book this word generally implies a hall-house, or mansion be- longing to a manor. [Kelham's Dam. Book 111., p. 160 ; Reports from Com. Pub. Records, 1800 — 1819, vol. I. p. 441.] Hunter, in Hist, of Hallamshire, p. 17, says, " few aulae are men- tioned in Domesday Book ; and when they do appear, they are commonly found in the manors possessed by the prime Saxon nobility. They were the courts and places of residence of the persons to whom they belonged, and doubtless were as much superior to any ordinary manor- house, as is the mansion of any modern noble- man to the edifices which now bear that name. They were to the prime nobility what the aula regia of writers of a somewhat later period was to the king." Aula, in some cases, signified an area, and in others a forum, or market-place ; in the latter sense it is synonymous with the French /lalle. — ^ee Curia. AuLEOLuM. Low Lat. From aula, a little church, or chapel. — Du Cange. AuRiFiciNA. Low Lat. From aurum, gold, and facio, to make ; a place for melting and refining gold, &,c. — Dm Ca?tge. AuTEL, AuTER, AuLTRE. SeeAhTAH. — Kelkam's Nor. Fr. Die. ; Arch. Antiqs. voL ii. p. 18. ; Rot. Pari. vol. II. p. 205. AuvENTus. 5'ee Antevenna. Avenue, Fr. ; ad venire, Lat. A passage from one part of a building to another. AviTus (St.), Bishop of Clermont, in Auvergne, lived in the sixth century, and built the churches of Notre Dame, Du Port, and St. Genes de Their, and repaired the church of St. Anatolian. — Felibien, Vies des Arch. liv. iii. p. 147. AvoLTA. Voute, Fr. A place vaulted or arched over. — Matt. Paris, in Vitis Abbalurn S. Albani, ap. Du Cange. AwNER. An altar. " Arise up and go to Betell, and make there an owner to the Lorde." — Gold. Le«. fol. IX. 6th ed. AwNDiERNS. Iron bars, with legs to support logs of wood in fire-places ; so called in an inventory of household goods at Aston, near Birmingham, temp. Hen. VIII. AzoN. A monk, who was engaged in building the cathedral church of Seez, or Sens, in Normandy, in 1050. — Felibien, Vies des Arch. liv. iv. p. 194. B Bacca. Low Lat. Bake, N. Fr. A light-house, watch-tower, or beacon. In the latter sense, Gualterus in Vila S. Curoli, Com. Flandr. n. 20, says, "Signa quoque, quibus in sublime leva- BAL ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 35 tis . . . . bacchas lingua ilia vocare solebant." — Du Cange. Baeth-hus and Baeth-stede. Ang.-Sax. A bath-house. Bagnio. Bagno, It.; bain, Fr. A bath. In Tur- key and France, the term signifies a prison, baths being usually attached to such buildings. In Newgate Street, London, there is a bath, called a bagnio. In old writers, the word bagnio is applied to brothels. Baguette, Fr.; bacchetta, It.; bagueta, Sp.; from the Lat. bacillum, a wand, or little stick; steck- lein, Ger. A small moulding, like the astragal : when enriched with foliage, it is called a chaplet; when plain, a bead. Bailey. Ballium, low Lat. ; bailie, Fr. An area of ground, or court within the walls of a fortress. Some castles had two ballia, the outer and the inner, and others a third, separated from each other by embattled walls. In the inner ballium were the barracks, chapel, stables, hospital, See; and at one corner, generally surrounded by a moat, was the donjon, or keep. [See Grose's Military Antiq. vol. ii. p. 3.] Of the double ballium, or bailey, the remains of Oxford Castle and the Tower of London exhibit remarkable instances. — Memoirs of the Tower; King's Ves- tiges of Oxford Castle, fol. 1796. Bake-house. An apartment with an oven to bake bread. For a description of the ceremonies used in preparing the host, see Fosb. Brit. Mon. 4to, p. 373. On taking down some part of the church at Crickhowell, county of Brecon, a few years ago, a small room with an oven in it was dis- covered, which had been long shut up. \_Jones's Breconshire, vol. ii. part ii. p. 432.] In Theo- dulf's Capitula, supposed to have been translated by Elfric, Archbishop of Canterbury, about the year 994, the following express charge is given to the clergy: —"And we charge you that the oblation {i. e. the bread in the eucharist) which ye offer to God in that holy mystery, be either baked by yourselves, or your servants in your presence." In old times, tenants were compelled to bake at the lord's oven, as they were to grind their corn at his mill. This custom of baking still continues at Daventry, Northamptonshire. — Baker's iSorthamplonshire, vol. i. p. 303. Balaon, or Balloon. Ballon, Fr. ; from the Ita- lian ^a//o?(e, a great ball. A globe placed on the top of a pillar, or pediment, as an acroter or crowning, is called balloon. Balcony. Balcon, Fr. and Sp.; altan, Ger. An open gallery attached to the front of a building. The low Lat. terms balchiu, balco, and balconum, are mentioned by Du Cange as having the same signification; thus :— " Erant positi ad balchiones, et eum videbant gloriosum corpus cum proces- sione, sanabantur." — Acta S. Julii, torn. iii. p. 271. Baldachin. Eng. and Ger.; baldaquin, Fr. ; bal- dacchino. It. ; umbraculum, Lat. A canopy, usually supported by columns, and raised over altars, tombs, &c., but more particularly used where the altars were insulated, as was cus- tomary in the early churches. [Whittington's Hist. Surv.'l See Apsis. The term is probably derived from the old German baudekyn, a rich cloth, of which canopies, altar-cloths, ecclesias- tical vestments, &c. were frequently made. The Earl of Warwick's monument in the Beauchamp Chapel had formerly a covering of velvet. — Arch. Antiqs.vol. I v. Balisteeia, or Balistraria. Low Lat. A room in fortified buildings, wherein the balista, or cross-bows, were deposited. [D« Cange.'] Balis- traria, according to Dr. Meyrick, were cruciform apertures in the walls of a fortress, through which cross-bowmen discharged their arrows. [Critical Inquiry, &c. vol. iii. Gloss.] — See Arbalis- TERIA. Ballium. See Bailey. Balteum, or Balteus. Lat. A band, or girdle. According to Vitruvius, this word is used to denote the moulding on the bolsters or sides of the Ionic capital. Baluster, corruptly banister, from the Ital. balau- stro ; columella, Ltit.; ballustre,Fr.; bala-hustes, Sp. ; decke-zum, gelander, Ger. A small column, or pillar, used in a balustrade. The lateral part of the volute of the Ionic capital, termed by Vitruvius pulvinata, is denominated a bolster. Balustrade, Fr., from the It. balaustrata ; colu- mellarum septum, Lat. ; varanda, Sp. ; gelander, 36 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. BAN Ger. A range of small columns supporting a coping, or cornice, and forming a parapet on bridges, or the upper parts of buildings, also the front of terraces and balconies, to enclose altars, ik.c. Band. Fascia, Lat. ; hatide, Fr. ; benda, It. and Sp. ; hende, Dut. ; leiste, Ger. A term sometimes applied to the face, or fascia, of an architrave, and commonly called the plat-band, but properly signifying a narrow square member or moulding, smaller than a fascia, and wider than a fillet. Bandlet, or Bandelet, dim. of the preceding term. Taiiia, Lat. ; handehtte, Fr. ; fasciuola, It. ; kleine leiste, Ger. A small fillet, or flat moulding, applied to the vertical bands, or annulets, on the ovola of a Roman Doric capital. — See Annulet. Banister. See Baluster. Baptaterium, Baptitorium, Bastitorium, and Batanderium. A bark-mill, or fuUino-- mill. For various instances of the indiscrimi- nate use of these terms by the writers of the middle ages, see Du Catige. Baptistery. Barrrirngiov, Gr. ; piscina and baptiste- rium, Lat. A basin, pool, or place for bathing. In ecclesiastical writings it signifies the building in which baptism was and is performed by im- mersion. These edifices are generally circular or polygonal in plan, and placed near churches. In Veiiantius Fuitunatus, a baptistery is called aula baptismatis, the hall of baptism. The name is occasionally applied to a chapel within a church; also, by Du Cange, to a baptismal or parochial church. — See Robinsons History of Baptism, 4to, 1790 ; also a learned essay by Christie, in his Disquisitions upon the Painted Greek Vases, 4to, 1825; Gent.'s Mag. vol. xlvi. pp. 290, 406; Archaologia, Index to fifteen volumes. Bar, from the old French barri and barrium; barra, low Lat. The gate-house, or barrier, to a city or fortified town. Hence Temple-Zi«r and Holborn- bar, in London ; and also tlic fortified gates in York, which are called bars. — See Picturesque Antiqs. of English Cities. Bard I can, or Barracan. Barhacana, low Lat. and Sp. ; barbucanc, Fr. and It.; lock-in-ciner- maver, Ger. ; derived from the Sax. buph and ken'n, a place to view or ken from ; " commonly called barbican, or burhkenning, for that the same being placed on a high ground, and also builded of some good height, was in old time used as a watch-tower for the citie, from whence a man might behold and view the whole citie." [Stoiv's Surv. of Lond.] An advanced work before the gate of a castle or town, sometimes consisting of a plain wall, with a portal and draw-bridge, but more frequently constructed like a fortified gateway with the same appen- dages, flanked by towers ; from which, in case of siege, the approach to the fortress might be defended, or the movements of an enemy over- looked. [Archecol. vol. iv. p. 308, and Grose's Mil. Ant. vol. II. p. 2.] Here a porter was sta- tioned to keep watch and ward, to announce all state arrivals, and to detain strangers until their business was made known to the governor, and orders received for their admission. [Bat/lei/'s Hist, of the Tower of Lond. 4to, vol. i. p. 106.] In the above sense, this term is used in a passage quoted by Du Cange from Gulielmus Armoricus de Gestis Philippi, ann. 1203: — " Cepit per vim fortericiam, quam vulgus barbam- canam vocat, qua erat firmata in capite pontis." • — This part of a fortress was also denominated the ante-murale, pro-murale, and murus-exterior; and in a charter, anno Domini 1232, we find " Autcmurali qui dicitur borbacana, qui est murus brevis ante murum nostri orti." Of the first sort of barbican, the gates or bars of York exhibit fine specimens. — See Pic. Antiq. of Eng. Cities, p. 7, et seq. and the engravings. Barcella. Low Lat. A vessel for containing: incense : thus, in a charter quoted by Du Cange, " Barcellam unam aeneam et super auratani pro incenso immittendo." Barge-course. A part of the tiling or thatching of a roof, projecting over the gable, and filled up with boards, mortar, ik,c. Barge-board. The front or facing of the former, to conceal the barge-couples, laths, tiles, thatch, &.C. — Hunt's Tudor Arch. 4to, 1830, p. 73. Barkary, Bercaria, or Berquaria. Low Lat.; bergerie, or bercherie, N. Fr. A tanhouse; also, a sheepcote. — Du Cange. BEITXCNS AROnTECXUKAL DICTIOMAlOr. GCvaanaa> Bel. JLcKeax-Se. D A S F. S . l.2.4..'».0.MJ6.L6. Ciunerbury Caih: S/VBuchester Cath: Crypt. 7. Durharo Caih: R.Casim- Chu; 9.lD.5talisbur>' Caih :W. Front . r/.Cajii'! Caih'. Nave. 18. D? ChA^iHou: i9.4aucolu Catliedmil. Jl.U.'WestmmsterAb'b.ani: IS Norwich Cutli BRITTOWS ARCmTECTUHAI. DICTIOKAlLY. ^Jr.t-:m|i' '\r ' f#^..- 1 ^ O.CunjntuAt. Dal. J.UX«UicSe tVSzzs Cir///_l.2.Lady Chtp. _3.Chap:Hou: 4.Haaf Ran D? — i.N»w* 7.ft. Crypt. J.^ndtn. nMdfiua iytfu JvdUr. Jtmm t W0. BAS ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 37 Barmkyn, Bermkyn. Sc. The rampart, or outer fortification of a castle. If not a corruption of barbican, it may be derived from the tent, barm, bearm, orberm, a mound or rampart, and kin. — Jamieson's Etym. Die. Barra. Low Lat. Either a bridge, a bar, or a tower at one end of a bridge. — "Usque ad Barram Burdini, hodie Pont Bourdin :" also the sepUim curim in an ancient court of justice. Hence the term bar : " Coram quibus vocatus est Abbas, et coram eis stans ante Barias."- — Will. Thorn, ap. Du Cange. Barrack. Baroque, Fr. ; barraeca. It.; barraka, Sp. ; barake, Ger. ; casitla, Lat. From the low Latin and Italian barricading. Signified an assemblage of small temporary huts, constructed of turf, wattles, &c., in which an army lived during the winter. It is now generally applied to a large permanent building, appropriated to the reception and residence of soldiers. Barrier, Barium, Barrum, Barra, or Barica. Low Lat. Barriere, Fr. ; barriera, It. ; barrera, Sp. ; schranken, Ger. In a charter, dated 1 140, quoted by Du Cange, the term appears to sig- nify those houses without the walls of a town which compose the suburbs. Thus : '' Et domus vobis ilium Barrium ante ilia porta- . - .ut popu- letis ilium." Other authorities, quoted by the same author, render it the outer walls of a for- tress. Gates, or entrances, to fortified towns, where customs or tolls are paid, are also called barriers, as in the following passage: — "Super pontem quemdam soccum et quamdam Barram posuerunt, in quo denarii, qui exacti erant a prsstereuntibus, reponerentur." Frontier towns with castles are also thus denominated : — " In confinio Lotharingise et CampaniEe castrum ex- truxit, quod barrum, quasi Barram, nominavit." — Chron. S. Michaelis Virduii. ap. Du Cange. Bartizan, or Bartizene. From the old Fr. bretesche, a wooden tower. A turret, or small tower, on the top of a house, castle, or church tower. " That the morn afternoon the town's colours be put upon the bertisene of the steeple, &c." — Jamieaon's Ett/m. Diet. Barton, or Bertona. Low Lat. From the Sax. bepe, a barn, and con, a town. A hamlet, farm- house, or grange. The term is still used in the west of England for a manor-house, and in some places for out-houses, fold-yards, &c. In North- amptonshire and Lincolnshire it implies a manor, village, or parish; as Earl's-Barton, and Barton- on-Humber. Base. Basi;, Gr. ; basis, Lat.; base, Fr.; baso. It.; basa, Sp. ; nnterheil, Ger. The lower part of a pillar or wall ; also the block on which a statue is placed. In decorative architecture the term is chiefly applied to the member of a column on which the shaft stands. The Grecian Doric columns were without bases, resting immediately on the floor, or pavement ; the Tuscan base has only a single torus, or round member, on the plinth ; the Roman Doric has a torus and an astragal ; the Roman Ionic has a single laro-e torus placed over two scotite, separated by two astragals ; the Corinthian base has two tori, two scotice, and two astragals; the Composite base is similar to that of the Corinthian order. There is also another, denominated the attic base, which has two tori and a scotia. — Gwilt's Ru- dim. pi. II. p. 183. The accompanying engravings of Bases dis- play several varieties, which by their forms and mouldings indicate the ages and peculiar styles of columns and buildings to which they respect- ively belong. Plate I. shews nineteen varieties, mostly belonging to the first pointed class, and found in edifices raised in the twelfth century, except Nos. 15, 16, and 17, from Canterbury Cathedral, of later date. Plate II. contains representations of eight different bases ; six of these are from the cathe- dral of Wells, the greater part of which church was built at the beginning of the thirteenth century. Nos. 1 and 2 exhibit unusual designs, whilst Nos. 3, 5, and 7, from the chapter-house, nave, and crypt, are more analogous to the first pointed style. The central clustered column of the chapter-room is a rich composition of small shafts, with bases and capitals. The bases, as well as the shafts, capitals, &.c. of the architec- ture of the middle ages, exhibit a great variety of forms. 38 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. BAS Bask-Court. Basse-cour,¥r. The outer or lower yard of a castle, appropriated to stables, offices, &c. Leland, and other writers, in describing castles and old mansions, usually distinguish the base-court from the court of lodgings; the latter being surrounded by the best chambers, and, in many instances, divided from the base-court by the great hall. Basement. Stereobata and stylobata, Lat. ; soii- bassement and embasement, Fr. The lower story or floor of a building. In modern architecture, the story of a house which is below the level of the ground is called the basement story. Basilica. Lat., It., and Sp.; f3aeiXixri, Gr. ; basi- lit/iic, Fr. ; alte-kirc/ie, Ger. The basilicse of the Romans were public halls, or courts of judica- ture, where princes or magistrates sat to hear and determine causes. The term was also apphed to other buildings of royal foundation, such as state-houses, and exchanges for mer- chants; also to places of general assemblies. [Bingham's Works, vol. i. p. 274.] After the conversion of the Emperor Constantine to Christianity, many of these edifices were con- verted into Christian churches, still retaining their appellation. [Duraud's Rationale, lib. i. c. 1.] Hence the passage in Ausonius : " Unde iilud, basilica olim negotiis plena, nunc votis." The Roman basilica was divided by two colon- nades into three longitudinal parts, like the nave and aues of a church. Sepulchral chapels, raised over the graves of saints, were sometimes deno- minated basilicas. Thus we learn from Higden [Gale's ed. p. 273], that King Canute, in 1030, erected a basilica at Bury, over the body of St. Edmund: " Basilicam super corpus construxit." In an old law, quoted by Du Cange, the term apparently signifies a shrine, or tomb of pecu- liar magnificence; for it is said, — "qui tumbam aut porticulum super hominem movtuum expo- liaverit . . . solidos 5. Si quis vero Basilicam, super hominem mortuum expoliaverit, 30«. cul- pabilis judicatur." In another instance it is applied to an altar : thus, " Unum cereum ardens die noctuque continuo coram altari seu Basilica ipsius S. Anthonii apponatur." Charter, dated 1370. [Carpentier, Glos. Nov.] " The first basilica in Rome dates between the years 533 and 564, a. u. c. Victor enumerates nineteen, many of which became places of Christian wor- ship." — Gunn's Inquiry, p. 81. Basilicula. Low Lat., A\m. oi basilica. A shrine, oratory, or cenotaph. The term is used in the latter sense by St. Paulinus, in his 12th Epistle to Severus. — Gunn's Inquiry, p. 129 ; Ciampini, Vet. Mon. torn. i. c. xix. p. 183. Basso-rilievo in sculpture denotes those figures that are represented to project less than half their proper proportion from the back-ground ; when full half it is called mezzo-relievo : the French term, commonly used by the English, is bas-relief. Alto-relievo is high, or bold relief, where the figures are nearly detached from the back-ground. Bastida. Low Lat. ; bastide, Fr. In a charter dated a.d. 1204, ap. Du Cange, the term signifies a fortress, or place of defence : thus, " — possitis novas Bastidas sive munitiones sedificare;" but in a more modern sense it denotes a villa, or farm-house. — Le Virloi/'s Arc. Diet. B A STILE. Bastille, Fr. ; bccstillus, or bast ilia, low Lat. ; castello. It. A castle, tower, fortress, or any place of defence, principally used for secur- ing prisoners. Knighton states that bastiles were sometimes mere temporary wooden for- tresses : thus, — "Dux Brittania; fecerat unum bastile de mersemio;" but, according to Le Virloy, the term properly denotes, " a castle having many towers near each other." In a compendium of the privileges of the University of Paris, quoted by Du Cange, is mentioned the " — castrum quod Bastilla nuncupatur," a name which the state prison of that city retained until its demo- lition, during the French revolution ; and in Hearne's ed. of Elmham occurs, " municiones quasdam quas bastillos appellant." " The last vestige of feudal antiquity," observes Sir .John Sinclair, in his Statistical Account of Scotland, Berwick, vol. xiv.p.35, " was that of the bastiles. The Norman name of those prisons denotes their introduction, or their more frequent erection, by William the Conqueror. They were more nume- rous on the marches of the borders than else- where ; and not only served the purposes of prisons, but, taken together with the castles BAT ARCHITECTURAL DICTIOXARV. 39 or tower-houses of the chieftains near which they stood, they constituted a chain of fortresses running from almost one end of the county to the other." Bastion. From bastione, Ital. A rampart, bulwark, or earthen mound. In a passage quoted by Du Cange, " Et fecerunt circumcirca ipsum exer- citum unam Bastiam, ne aliquis posset exire de ipso castro, qui ipsum exercitum offendere posset." Batelling. a battlement. " And oft with thare rycht hand grip the hatalling wald." " Skarsement, reprise, corbell, and batellinges" Jamiesons Etym. Diet. Bath. Baech, Or Ba^, Sax.; balneum, Lat. ; bain, Fr.; bagtio. It. and Sp. ; bad, Germ.; derived from the Gr. (SaXavnov, a place to bathe in. The term is more particularly applied to a building containing baths, with accommodation for un- dressing and dressing. Among the Romans such buildings were denominated therma, from the Gr. Ssj.ttos, hot, a term properly applicable to hot baths only. These were distinguished from the common baths by having annexed to them places of exercise, such as the gymnasium and xystus. — [£«c. of Ant. vol. I. p. 46.] The balneum was peculiar to private houses ; but the bahie(Z were two public baths under the same roof, one for men, the other for women. — ILittleton's Die. ed. 1735.] Vitruvius, and other writers, describe ancient baths as varying in their construction ; but according to Montfau§on [jlwi. vol. iii. p. 129], the most complete consisted of the following apart- ments, termed, collectively, balneara. 1. The a'iTo&vTri^m of the Greeks, and spoliatorium of the Romans, where the bathers undressed, and where persons, termed capsarii, were stationed to take care of the clothes. 2. The Xourswv of the Greeks, and frigidarium, or cold bath, of the Romans. 3. The yOja^orri^iov, or tepidarium, or, as Pliny terms it, the cella media, the use of which was to prevent the ill effects of passing from the hot bath to the cold air. 4. The sudatorium, or sweating-room, called also the laconicum, heated by a subterraneous fire. 5. The ^i^ij,oXousia, or ISanTiarrioiov, of the Greeks, and the Roman callidarium, or hot-bath. 6. The aXeiTTniiov, or unctuarium, where bathers were rubbed with perfumes, both on entering and quitting the bath. Most of these rooms received heat from hi/pocausts, subterranean fur- naces, the bottoms of which formed an inclined plane, by a gradual descent from the opening where the wood was thrown in. — (For an account of the arrangements and parts of the baths of the ancients, see Gtoilt's ed. of Vitruvius, p. 152.) The style of building adopted by the Romans in the construction of their baths was very mag- nificent; for we are told, that the walls were adorned with paintings and gilt ornaments ; vases and statues were also much used ; the seats round the bathing-rooms were sometimes of solid silver ; the basins, or piscina:, were usually of marble, granite, or porphyry, and the pavement of mosaic work. — [Pliny, Nat. Hist. lib. xxxiii. c. 12 ; and Seneca's Epist. 86.] The ruins of the baths of Titus, Caracalla, and Diocletian, at Rome, are the most splendid re- mains now existing. A learned and interesting work was published by Mr. Cameron, on the Baths of the Romans, fol. 1772. Of Roman baths in Great Britain many remains have been found, viz., at Hovingham, in Yorkshire, in 1745, which is described in Camden's Britannia, Gough's ed. 1789, vol. iii. p. 85 ; and ten years afterwards, another of very large dimensions was found at Bath. — Camden, ut supra, vol. i. p. 79. For accounts of Roman baths at Caerleon, Dover, Wroxeter, and Nether- hall, in Cumberland, see Archaol. vol. ii. p. 7, vol. v. p. 325, vol. IX. p. 323, and vol. x. p. 141. See also Lysons's Reliquia Romanes, Woodchester, 8fc. Large baths were constructed in England during the middle ages, and were styled by the British and Anglo-Saxon monks, poisoned hotbeds (seminariavenemata). — ilfo?i. j4«g.ed. 1661. vol. i. p. 88. Leland [Itin. vol. iv. app.] states that Hugh, the sacrist of the abbey of Bury St. Ed- mund's, early in the 12th century commenced the " baineatorium" of his house, which was completed upon a very grand scale by Sampson, who was preferred to the abbacy in 1182. The baths at Bath, in England, have been, and son- tinue to be, the most distinguished and effica- cious of any in Great Britain : many treatises have been written on their qualities and uses by professional men. — See Britton's ed. of^«- stefs New Bath Guide. 40 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. BAU Batifoi.ium. Low Lat. A species of fortification similar to a bastion. — [Mei/rick's Critical In- me:fai^ Caxh.: P.WooTxm Ch:Hujita.- 10. Beans Chi>.:CimtT Cajii: U.Chepnow Castle. i2,S«lisbTa(||if-fcn«acc to ChlyHo: 13.14.W«n« Calh? b.Cioil^l Hull London. tfiftJ^.AiltfAitJ fy 6k^ jIuAurJuntllBM. BRA ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 45 examples of the earliest Norman bosses, on bold and simple rib mouldings. The five next in order, from York Cathedral, are of varied foliage; whilst the four numbered 8, 9, 11, and 12, contain figures in bdssi-relievi. In the second plate there is much fanciful and tasteful design in the playful variety of forms and ornaments : the four num- bered 8, 10, 11, and 12, are from the ceiling of one of the prebendal houses at Windsor. BoTERAss. (See Buttress.) BoTTEL, BouTEL, Or BowTELL, probably derived from bolt, an arrow. The shaft of a clustered pillar, or a shaft attached to the jambs of a door or window. The term is sometimes applied to any cylindrical moulding, such as a torus. William of Worcester mentions bowtells in his description of the great gate of RedclifFe Church, Bristol. [^Itin. p. 169.] The reredosses, or screens, at the back of the seats in the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, were ordered to have " a crest of fine entail, with a bowtel roving on the crest." \^Arch. Antiqs. voL iv. p. 11.] The bowtel here named is a round moulding like a staff", placed at the upper part of the leaves, which form the crest. — See Arch. Antiq. vol. iv. p. 11 ; also contract for building Fotheringhay Church, Dugdale's Man. Ang. vol. III. p. 162. In the latter the windows are directed to " have no bowtels at all." Bouquet. Fr. (See Finial.) BovA. Low Lat. ; from the old Fr. bove, a cave ; or the Sp. boveda, an arch. A wine-cellar : thus, " Johannes de le Val caveam seu bovam adivit, et cepit, causa potiis, tres caudas vini." — Car- pentier, Gloss. Nov. Bow. From the Teut. boghe. An arch, or gate-way. "The falline downe of the three botuis of the brig of Tay," &c. [^Jamieson, Etym. Die.'] The gates of Edinburgh were formerly called bows, and the streets in which they stood are so denominated to this day. " And first in the throte of the how were slayne," &c. [Knox, Hist. p. 81.] One of the gates at Lincoln is still called the Stone Bow. We recognise the ancient use of this term in Bow-bridge, Essex, Bow-bridge, Leicester, the church of St. Mary le Bow, London, &c. Bower. From the Sax. bup, a chamber; or from the Icl. baran, to dwell. \_Scott's Ballads, Gloss. vol. V. p. 1.] "A small chamber for ladies, richly wrought, and ornamented with circular or multangular windows." In the northern counties, bower is occasionally used for bed-chamber. BowTELL. {See Bottel.) BoYFiELD (John), Abbot of Gloucester, in the fourteenth century, was supervisor of the works in the time of the two preceding abbots, when great improvements were made in the choir of the cathedral. Mr. Dallaway says, — " To John Boyfield we may fairly attribute the stupendous vault of the choir; and he lived to see it finished, before 1381," in which year he died. The same writer conjectures, from the similarity of the workmanship, that the cloisters at Gloucester were projected by Boyfield, though the building of them was begun by the next abbot. — Obser- vations on Eng. Arch. pp. 73, 79 ; Cath. Antiqs. Gloucester. BoziGA. Low Lat. A house, or dwelling. — Du Cange. Bracket. A term, though originally used in car- pentry to denote a sort of wooden stay, in form of a knee, or shoulder, to support a shelf annexed to a wall, is now applied to the numerous stone and other shelves affixed to the walls of churches and other buildings, to support lamps, statues, ribs, &c. A bracket is the same as corbel. (See Corbel.) As shewn in the annexed engraving, these pleasing ornaments exhibit a great variety of design ; among which, Nos. 4 and 5, from the crypt under the chapter-house of Wells Cathedral, and No. 12, from the vestibule to the chapter- house of Salisbury, are very beautiful. No. 15 is a sort of truss, or cantiliver, to support the vaulted rib of the timber roof of Crosby Hall, London; and No. 10, from Canterbury Cathedral, ought rather to be called a pedestal than a bracket. Nos. 13 and 14 form bases, or supports, to small columns. Beamante (Lazzari, or d'Urbino),an Italian archi- tect, born at Castel Durante, in the territory of Urbino, about the year 1444. Cardinal Caraffa employed him to rebuild the convent della Pace, at Rome. On the accession of Julius II. he was appointed to superintend the buildings belonging 46 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. BRA to the holy see. Under that pontiff he made plans for rebuilding the church of St. Peter, at Rome, which work has immortalised his name : the foundation was laid in 1506, and the work proceeded with such celerity that the building was carried up to the entablature, and the four great arches to support the dome were turned, before the architect died, in 1514. — Milizia's Lives, &c. vol. I. p. 203 ; Wood's Letters of an Architect, vol. i. p. 361. Branches. In some old accounts the ribs of groined ceilings are called by this name. Branched-work. a name given to the carved and sculptured leaves and branches in monuments and friezes. Brass (sepulchral). A plate of metal commonly affixed to a flat grave-stone ; sometimes plain, but more frequently having effigies, armorial bearings, Stc. inscribed upon it. Brasses, bear- ing portraitures described by indented lines, were manufactured in Flanders, and are, therefore, most numerous in those parts of England which held commercial intercourse with that country. INicolas's Test. Vetust. note 1 . p. xxv.] Accord- ing to Mr. Gough {Sep. Mon. vol. i. Part i. p. c), flat grave-stones, inlaid with brass, both with and without inscriptions, were common in England as early as the beginning of the thirteenth century. He specifies the figure of Bishop de Luda, 1298, at Ely. Rudder, in his Hist, of Gloucestershire, notices one at Badmington, dated 1275. Gough states, that, at the commencement of the follow- ing century, the " brass figures were so common, that in 1308 a canon of Hereford could afford a very handsome one, though it is tlie oldest sepul- chral brass, now entire and well preserved, that I have seen." During the Reformation, many of these sepulchral memorials were torn from the grave-stones and sold. Queen Elizabeth, in 1560, issued a proclamation for the prevention of such sacrilege;* which not being strictly attended to, she twelve years afterwards commanded her justices of assize to punish offenders with great * Tlie writer of this note is in possession of a brass monumental effigy of a lady, wliich the incumbent of a parish in Warwickshire sold, from his church, to a furniture-broker at Daiibury, so recently as the year 1825! — \V. Hamter. severity. Many of the finest of these specimens have been dehneated by Hollar. Gough's Sepul- chral Monuments abounds with them, and con- tains also an essay on the subject. In Carter's Specimens of Sculpture and Painting are many interesting ones. Mr. Cotman has published a series from the counties of Norfolk and Suff'olk ; and many others will be found engraved in most of the English county histories. Brattishing. Carved open-work, mentioned in the description of St. Cuthbert's shrine, as form- ing a crest on its cover. — Davis's Antiqs. S^c, of Durham, ed. 1767, p. 8. (See Bretexed.) Bray, or Brace. Braca, or hracca, low Lat. ; from the Nor. Fr. brace, a rampart. Lodge calls it a " strong tower, or block -house, in the outworks of a fortification before the port," thus making it synonymous with barbican; but in the autho- rities quoted by Du Cange, the term signifies an earthen mound, or bank. Break. Any projection or recess from the general surface or wall of a building. Break-joiiNT. The arrangement of stones, or bricks, in the construction of a wall, in such a manner as not to allow two joints to occur immediately over each other. {See Bond.) Breort-weall. Ang.-Sax. A wall breast high ; in some cases equivalent to parapet. Brest-summer, Bressummek. A lintel, or beam, placed in front of a building to support an upper wall. BretachiyE. Wooden towers, attached to fortified towns, or camps. — Du Cange. Bretexed. Embattled. From the Fr. bretti, to indent. " And evcrie touir hntexed was so clene." Lydgute's Siege of Troy. Brick. From the British, brie [Whit. Manch. vol. II. p. 268]; or from the Dutch, brick; brique, Fr. ; later, Lat. ; ladrillo, Sp. ; der Back- stein, Germ. A sort of factitious stone, com- posed of argillaceous earth, or clay, sand, and ashes, tempered and formed in a mould, dried, and burnt in a clamp, or kiln. The earliest build- ings of Asia, as we learn from the Old Testa- ment, were constructed of bricks dried in the BRI ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 47 sun. The making of bricks was one of the labours to which the IsraeHtes were subjected during their servitude in Egypt. The Greeks and Ro- mans, according to some authorities, made use of bricks, both burnt and unburnt : most of the old houses of Rome were built of the latter kind. The first use of baked bricks is uncertain. Vi- truvius (lib. ii. cap. 3,) informs us that three sorts were used in his time, — the didoron, which was in general use among the Romans ; the tetradoron, and the pentadoron, chiefly used by the Greeks. This account, with trifling variation, is confirmed by Pliny \_Nat. Hist. ed. Hard. vol. II. p. 714]; but that the Romans had no exact moulds for their bricks, appears from a table of measurements of thirteen different specimens, all of which vary in their dimensions. [Archczol. vol. II. p. 185.] By the writers of the middle ages, we find mention of the lydion (12 in. by 6), the quadrellus, and the tavella (7 in. by 3i), and an inferior sort called biscottus. [Du Cange.'] The Jews inscribed mystical and other characters upon their bricks [ArchtEol. vol. xiv. pp. 55, 205] ; and the custom was continued by the Romans. In Lei. Collect, vol. i. preface, p. Ixxi. is an engraving of one, on which is represented the story of Sampson with the foxes and fire- brands. [ArcAffio/. vol. I. p. 139.] Brickwork was styled by the Saxons tgel geiveire. They and the Normans continued to make and use bricks, under the name of ivall-tiles, after the manner of the Romans, until the time of Henry II. During the wars in France and Flanders, by Kings Edward I. and II., the Flemish mode of making bricks was adopted in England, and an imitation of the high-pointed gables to houses was also practised by the English. [Arc/uEol. vol. IV. pp. 73, 109.] In the reign of the latter monarch, wall tiles were used in the construction of the Lady Chapel at Ely, and were then valued ■ at 35. 8d. per thousand ; the like number of floor tiles was worth 6s. or 7s., and the maker was paid \2d. for a thousand. [Bentham's Eli/, Suppl. p. 66.] The price of floor tiles was Is. per hundred, 10 Edward III., and in the 26th year, 12s. per thousand. {^Smith's Aniiqs. of Westm. p. 199.] Leland tells us [Itin. vol. i. p. 49], that in the time of Richard II. the town of Kingston-upon-HuU " was inclosed with diches, and the waul begon, and yn continuance endid and made all of brike, as most part of the houses of the town at that time was : in the walle be four principal gates of brike." The price of bricks was then 6s, 8d. per thousand. [ArchtEol. Ill supra.'] In the first year of Henry the Fourth, license [Rot. Chart. No. 21, in Turre], was given to Sir Roger Tenys to em- battle and fortify his manor-house of Hurst- Monceaux, county of Sussex, which is wholly of brick. According to Dean Lyttleton, it was built soon after the license had been obtained. The seat of the Tyrrels, at Heron Hall, co. Essex, which is instanced by the Dean as being of nearly coeval date, is said to have been erected by Sir John Tyrrel, overseer of the carpenters of the new works at Calais, temp. Hen. V. [Arclmol. vol. i. pp. 87 — 89.] Although it has thus been shewn that bricks, according to the present acceptation of the term, have been occa- sionally used from the earliest ages, yet it ap- pears, from the accounts of King's College Chapel, Camb., temp. Henry VI., that they were even then known by the name of wall tiles. In that reign, however, they seem to have become fashionable, and have continued in general use to the present day. During the reigns of Henry VIII. and the succeeding monarch, checkered compartments of flint, with diagonal lines of dark glazed bricks, were frequently introduced into the fronts of buildings. [Arch. Aniiqs. vol. I. account of Layer Marney Hall.] A gate, erected by Hans Holbein, about the year 1530, opposite the Banqueting-house at Westminster, was of this description ; but the buildings of the age were not unfrequently constructed of red bricks, checkered with others glazed and of darker hue. During the reigns of Mary and Elizabeth, the fronts of houses and the shafts of chimnies were frequently covered with the ornaments of the Italian orders, imitated in burnt clay. Subsequently, the walling consisted of two thin shells of bricks, filled up with rubbish. [Archaol. vol. IV. p. 107.] A better method was, however, introduced by Inigo Jones. The art of making bricks, as now practised, is said to have been adopted by Sir Richard Crispe, the friend of King Charles I. [Lysom^s Envir. vol. II. p. 402.] For further particulars respect- 48 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. BRI ing bricks, see the London Building Act, anno 14 Geo. III.; also, the Index to the first fifteen volumes of the Archaologia. Bridge, from bpyc or bpycje, Sax.; pons, Lat. ; pout, Fr. ; potite, It. ; die briicke, Ger. A work of carpentry, masonry, or iron, constructed over a river, canal, &c., for the purpose of carrying a road, or path-way, from one side to the other. The extreme supports of a bridge, whether it has one or more apertures, or arches, are called butments, or abutments; the parts sustaining the arches, or lintels, are n^xazA piers, or pillars ; and the fences on the sides of the road-way are called parapets. When a bridge is intended both for carriages and for foot-passengers, it has generally a road in the centre, and paved or other raised paths on each side. A noble, but simple and ap- propriate bridge, over a wide river, is among the most imposing works of architecture. In former times, as well as in the present age, there has been too much affectation of ornament and show in these edifices, which, unless in union with palaces and great public buildings, should be plain, sub- stantial, and formed of the most lasting materials. Without adverting to the histoiy and character- istics of the bridges of different nations, it will be expedient, and consonant to the plan of this Dictionary, to notice some of the most remark- able structures of this kind belonging to the middle ages. Before the invention of the arch, bridge- building must have been the work of the car- penter; and we find that the earliest stone bridges were raised by the Romans. Over the Tiber, at and near Rome, there were eight bridges, at an early age. They were, 1, Pons Mlius, built by the Emperor Hadrian, re-erected by Clement VII., now called Sant' Angelo; 2, a triumphal bridge, over which the emperors passed in grand proces- sions, on decreeing triumphs; ruins of which remain in the Tiber ; 3, Fons Janiculensis, now called Ponte Sixtus, having been rebuilt by Pope Sixtus IV., in 1475; 4, Pons Cestius, now called St. Bartolommeo, rebuilt by the Emperor Valen- tinian ; 5, Pons Fabricius, now named Ponte Quattro Cappi ; 6, Pons Senatorius, at present called Santa Maria ; 7, Pons Iloratius, formerly Hublicius, built by Iloratius Codes, and rebuilt by Emilius Lepidus ; ruins of it are still seen in the Tiber; 8, Pons Milvius, now Ponte MoUe, about two miles from Rome, on the Flaminian way. At Rimini, also on the same road, or via, was a bridge of five arches, which Palladio has described. Near Narni, on the road between Rome and Loretto, was a bridge of four arches, built by the Emperor Augustus, and considered one of the most magnificent works of the kind in ancient Italy. [Wood's Fetters, 8cc. vol. ii. p. 98.] The Romans raised many bridges in the provinces ; viz. in France, Spain, Germany, Britain, &c., some of which had arches or towers on them. One of the most eminent is that at Alcantara, on the Tagus, which town is said to take its name from its bridge, as the word in Arabic means the bridge. It consists of six arches, is 670 Spanish feet in length, and from the bottom of the river to the road-way measures 205 feet in height. Many other ancient Roman bridges are described by historians ; but their accounts are in many instances improbable, or so vague and unsatisfactory that no correct in- ference can be drawn from them. On the decline of the Roman empire, the arts and sciences also declined ; and we learn from Gautier, who quotes Magno Agricola, that traveUing was dangerous, and that robberies and murders were frequently committed. To check this system, and protect travellers, several reli- gious persons associated in fraternities, and formed an order called " The Brothers of the Bridge." Their object was to build bridges, establisii ferries, and receive and protect travellers in hospitals, raised near the passes over rivers. The author already referred to relates some marvellous stories of Benezet, a shepherd-boy, who was directed by supernatural agency to proceed to Avignon, and there build a bridge across the river. Proclaim- ing his mission in the public church, the bishop and magistrates treated him with contempt ; but, like another infatuated enthusiast, he persisted that he was inspired, — that the Deity had im- parted to him science and wisdom ; and that, although without knowledge or any experience, he was appointed to raise a bridge over the rapid river. The credulous writers of his life also tell us, that he undertook and prosecuted the work, and that many miracles were performed both during BRI ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 49 its execution and after his decease, which hap- pened in 1 184. Among these impious absurdities, they relate that his body was found uncorrupted, with the eyes " hvely and sprightly," in 1670. On the bridge was a chapel, dedicated to St. Nicholas, the guardian saint of navigators and watermen. The bridge at Avignon had eighteen arches ; it was begun in 1176, and completed in 1188. Mr. Woods says that it had twenty-two arches, and was 1200 paces in length. " Each arch is composed of four ribs, or series of vault stones, not bonded together. Like the Pont St. Esprit, it forms an elbow towards the current." {^Letters of an Archit. vol. i. p. 166.] The bridge was much injured in 1385, and further in 1602 and 1607 ; but the old pier, with the saint's chapel, remain. The latter was entered by a descending flight of steps ; but this being incon- venient, a vault was formed at half the height, and a new chapel built over the old one. The first has a semicircular apsis, with little columns, much like the Corinthian; the other is polygonal. [Letters, Sfc. ut supi'a.~\ Other large bridges were subsequently undertaken, and completed ; one at Lyons, of twenty arches ; another at St. Esprit, of nineteen arches. In 1354, according to Per- ronet, an arch was built at Verona, measuring 160 English feet span ; and in 1454, another was erected at Ville Brioude, in France, measuring 188 feet span, and 70 feet rise from the spring- ing. In Italy there are many curious and in- teresting bridges, particularly at Venice, in which city there are not fewer, according to Gautier, than 339 : the most eminent of these is the famed Rialto, of one arch, which is 98 feet span (Milizia says QQ feet), with a rise of 23 feet : it was de- signed by Giovanni Daponte, and raised between the years 1588 and 1591 ; its breadth is 48 feet, which is divided into two rows of shops, by three streets or passages. Both the bridge and shops are built of Istrian stone. In France are many bridges, both ancient and modern, of great ex- tent and interest : that of Neuilly, over the Seine, of five equal arches, and level at the top, is the most noted ; it was commenced by Perronet, in 1768, and finished in 1780.— See Woods' Letters of an Archt. Although there are few old bridges remain- ing in England, it may be fairly inferred that the Romans built some during their occupancy of the island. The late John Rennie, Esq., on building a new one over the Ouse, near Stony Stratford, discovered the abutment piers of a very old structure, which he considered to have been of Roman construction. The most remark- able monastic bridge in England, and most likely the oldest in an entire state, is that at Croy- land, in Lincolnshire : it is commonly, but er- roneously said to have been erected in 860 : it probably is not older than the middle of the eleventh century, when great additions, &,c. were made to the abbey church, in the vicinity. This bridge has three distinct approaches, and con- sequently communicates with three different roads : it is formed by three abutment piers, with the like number of obtusely-pointed arches, hav- ing groined ribs uniting in the centre. The ascent each way is very steep, and is formed by steps, with rough stones set edgewise. Though very rude in construction, and apparently left to the ravages of time and weather, it seems firm and substantial. It is only intended for foot- passengers. (A view and account of it will be found in the Architectural Aiitiqs. vol. iv.) The most interesting ancient bridge of Eng- land, in its extent and historical relations, is that of London, which forms a road of com- munication between the south-eastern extremity of the city and Southwark. The history of this edifice, its first erection, reconstruction, addi- tions, alterations, and eventful changes, have been minutely and judiciously narrated in a volume intituled Chronicles of London Bridge: also in vol. ii. of Illustrations of the Public Build- ings of London. Dion Cassius states, that the Gauls, about a.d. 44, passed a bridge on the Thames ; and Snorro Sturlesoni asserts that a bridge, wide enough for two carriages to pass each other, was standing at London in 1008. According to Stow {Survey of London, vol. i. p. 57), the monks of St. Mary Overies were the first builders of the bridge. With many houses, churches, &c., it was nearly swept away by a whirlwind, or hurricane, in November, 1091. In 1176, the first stone bridge was commenced here, by Peter, curate of Colechurch ; it was thirty-three years in progress, was 926 feet in length, 20 in width, and was 40 feet, in the H so ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARV BRI centre, above the surface of the water ; near the middle was a draw-bridge. It consisted of twenty- pointed arches, supported by massive piers of from 24 to 34 feet in tliickness. A chapel was built on the eastern central pier, in which the architect was afterwards interred ; and at the two ends of the bridge were fortified gates. If not at the original formation of the bridge, very soon afterwards, several houses were built on it ; for in the year 1213, a fire occurred on the Southwark. side, which produced very calami- tous effects : a concourse of people assembled on the bridge, and whilst they were occupied in extinsuishins: the flames on the south side, the city end took fire, and thus enclosed the people between the two conflagrations. Dismay and terror ensued ; many sought safety in descending to the sterlings and to boats, under the bridge ; but, according to Stow, " above three thousand persons were destroyed." To detail all the direct and incidental anecdotes connected with this bridge, — the tilts, tournaments, and markets held on it, — the decapitated heads of the Lol- lards and rebels exhibited on its tower and gate, — -the numerous royal edicts, charters, and pa- tents to levy tolls, obtain rates, and exact pont- age, — the many accidents which have occurred on and under it, — the complicated water-works attached to it, — would occupy much space, but would afford many striking facts illustrative of the customs and manners of the Londoners at different ages. The houses on each side were partly founded on the road-way, and partly sus- tained on timber-work rising from the sterlings. At three places there were parapets, admitting views of the river. With various additions, by widening and strengthening it, and by taking away a pier, and thus forming two arches into one, this bridge has continued to the present time (1831); but it is now destined to be taken down, a new one of five arches having been erected to supply its place, at a little distance westward. It will not be necessary, in the present work, to describe, or even notice, the many other old bridges which have been raised in diHerent parts of Great Britain : sufllce it to refer the reader to Goiigh's Topography, indexes vols. i. and ii.; and to L'liillipss, Blakcway and Owens Histories of Shrewsbury, for accounts of one with a tower gatehouse on it at that town. There were other old bridges, at Rochester, in Kent ; at Norwich ; at Monmouth ; at Durham ; at Bridgnorth ; at Hereford; at Wakejie/d, Yorkshire; at (ilouces- ter, 8cc. A very long bridge was built over the river at Burton-upon-Trent, in Staffordshire, in the tenth century, by Bernard, an abbot of the monastery of Burton. On an old bridge at Bradford, W\\i%\\\rQ, there is a sort of dungeon, or prison, raised on one of the piers. The reader who wishes for further information respecting the history, construction, and materials of bridges, is referred to Breicslers Edinburgh Encychpccdia, vol. iv. which contains a learned and scientific memoir on the subject, by Thomas Telford and Alexander Nimmo, Esqs. ; to Dr. Hut- tons Principles of Bridges, 8vo, 1801 ; to Tracts on Vaults and Bridges, 8vo, 1822, by Samuel Ware, Esq. architect, in which is a valuable essay on " the taking down and rebuilding of London Bridge ; also on the principles of bridges, with tables of bridges, of weights and measures, and of the strength of materials." — See also Woods' Letters of an Architect, Index. Beidport (Egidius de), Bishop of Salisbury, is said to have finished and covered with lead the cathedral of that city. He also built the college of Vaux, at Harnham, adjoining Salisbury. He died December 13, 1262, and was buried in his cathedral. Broach or Broicii, from the Fr. broche, a spit. A spire, or steeple. — Watson's Hist, of Halifax ; Arch. Antiq. vol. iv. Brunelleschi (Philippo), an Italian architect of the fifteenth century, was a native of Florence ; who, after studying the buildings of that city, in the early part of his life, visited Rome, to measure and make drawings of some of the famed edifices of that capital. He was employed to erect a dome to the church of St. Maria del Fiore, at Florence : he afterwards built the Abbey of Fiesole, under the patronage of Cosmo de' Medici ; and also erected the greater part of the church of St. Lorenzo, in his native city. The Pitti Palace was begun from his designs ; but perhaps his most successful work is the church dello Santo Spirito, at Florence. He died in the 70th year of his age. BUS ARCHITECTURAL DrCTIOXARY. 51 in the year 1444. — Tiraboschi Storia della Litt. ; Milizia's Lives. BuATA, BuBATA, BuACA. Low Lat ; from the Sp. bubedo, an arch, or chamber ; a crypt. In a deed, dated 1173, we find, " buata, qusB est subtus vetus palitium ;" by another passage in Du Cange, it apparently signifies an arch between the nave and choir of a church : " Ei vadunt per bubatam ad chorum." BuccA. Low Lat. An apartment in a monastery, where provisions were distributed to the poor ; probably synonymous with almonry. — Du Cange. BuLENTERiA, among the Greeks, were council- chambers, or public halls, for the accommodation of merchants, similar to modern exchanges. — Pliny, lib. xxxvi. c. 15. Bulwark. A fortress ; synonymous with rampart. An eye-witness of the siege of Harfleur, in Sept. 1415, thus mentions bulwarks : "And before the entrance of each of these gates, the enemy had erected a strong defence, which we term a barbican, but commonly called bulwarks ; that towards the king was the strongest and largest." Bundle-pillar. A term sometimes applied to a column, or pier, with others of smaller dimensions attached to it. BuoNAROTi (Michael Angelo). A distinguished sculptor, painter, and architect, born at Castello di Caprese, in Tuscany, in 1474, was educated at Florence. Acquiring extraordinary reputation, he was invited by Lorenzo de' Medici to assist in the foundation of an Academy of the Arts, at Florence. His works in sculpture, executed in that city, added to his fame ; but his most cele- brated performances are at Rome, particularly hisstatueof Moses, on the tomb of Pope Julius II., his painting of " The Crucifixion," and that of " The Last Judgment," on the wall of the Sistine Chapel, in the Vatican. He died in 1563, and was honoured by a splendid funeral, at the expense of Cosmo Duke of Tuscany. But his remains were, afterwards, by order of that prince, secretly conveyed to Florence, and deposited in a magnificent tomb, adorned with three marble statues representing the sister arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture. — " Michael Angelo," says the discriminating writer of the article Archi- tecture, in the Encyclopedia Britannica, 1831, " was a man of genius, but of very bad taste in architecture ; and to him may be attributed many of the bad qualities of the Italian style. His principal works are the buildings of the capital and the college of della Sapienza, in Rome, and the Laurentian library at Florence ; and these are all distinguished for their singular want of archi- tectural beauty and propriety, in every particular. Michael Angelo was the Dante of Italian painting, but the Bernini of its architecture." He succeeded San Gallo and Bramante in directing the building of St. Peter's church, and finished that magnifi- cent structure as far as the tambour on which the cupola is placed. He made a model for the cupola itself, which was finally executed from his design, in the pontificate of Sixtus V. — Temples Anciens et Modernes, «Sfc., par M. L. M., p. 231 ; Duppa's Life of Mich. Angelo Buonaroti, 4to, 1816. Burg, Burgo, or Burgus. A castle. Hence the term borough, which, according to some writers, signifies a number of houses erected under the walls of a fortress. — Du Cange. Burgh-kenning. Sax. {See Barbican.) Burg-ward, Burgwardus, or Burgwakdium. The custody or keeping of a castle. Burg-werk. From the Teut. burg, a castle or borough, and werk, work. The process of con- structing fortifications. — Du Cange. BuRSERY, Buksaria. Lat. From bursa, a purse. The exchequer of collegiate and conventual houses, or the place for paying and receiving monies. " a. d. 1277, computaverunt fratres Radulphus de Meriton et Stephanus de Oxon, de bursar, domus Berncester coram auditor."- — Kennett's Paroch. Antiqs. p. 288, edit. 1695. BuscHETTo DA DuLicHio, a Greek architect of the eleventh century, born in the island of Duhchium, in the Mediterranean, lived in Italy, where he was employed by the republic of Pisa, in 1063, to erect the cathedral church of that city, which was constructed and decorated with fragments of different buildings, procured by the Pisans from Greece and other foreign countries. In the general arrangement and union of these hetero- geneous materials the architect displayed consi- 52 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY, BUS derable skill. Mr. Hawkins remarks, that the vaultings of the ailes are of the kind termed by the Italians " volta di sesto actito ;" indicating an acquaintance with the principles of the pointed style. [Hist, of Goth. Arch. p. 88.] Buschetto died at Pisa, where he was interred, and a mo- nument was erected for him, with an inscription which commemorates his superiority over his contemporaries in knowledge of the mechanic powers. — Crest/ and Taylor's Arch, of the Middle Ages ; Woods' Letters of an Architect ; Vasari, Vile de' Pitt. t. i. p. 226; Martini, T/ieat. Basil. Pisan. c. in. ; Ftlibien, Vies des Archit. liv. iv. p. 187. Bust. Buste, Fr. ; busto, It. and Sp. ; hrustbild, Germ. In sculpture, that portion of the human figure which comprehends the head, neck, and breast, with or without the shoulders. BusTUM. A word figuratively used to signify a tomb. Butler ( ), an architect of the 17th century, is said to have been employed by Robert Cecil, Earl of Salisbury, in ornamenting a chapel at Hatfield, and in other works. — Walpole's Works, vol. 11. p. 75, edit. 1826. BuTMENT. A contraction of abutment. {See Buttress.) Buttery. Botellaria, low Lat. A buttery, or cellar, in which butts and bottles of wine and other liquors are deposited. In a record, anno 31 Edward I., is this passage : " veniet ad pa- lacium regis, et ibit in botellarium, et extrahet a quocunque vase in dicta botellaria invento, vinum quantum viderit necessarium pro factura unius pitcheri claretti." — Jacob's Law Diet. Buttery-hatch. A half-door between the buttery or kitchen and the hall, in colleges and old mansions. Buttress. A pilaster, pier, or mass of masonry, added to the exterior surface of a wall, to strengthen it at points where the pressure from above requires extraordinary resistance. There is great variety in form, proportion, and style of adornment in buttresses : those of the oldest buildings, attached to Norman churches, are fiat, straight on the face, without breaks, and some- times adorned with small cylindrical mouldings at the angles. {See plate of compartment, Durham Cathedral, for plan and elevation.) Thick walls and small openings for windows always accom- panied this buttress. The adoption of the pointed arch led to many other changes in all the com- ponent parts of an edifice, viz., wider arches, larger windows, thicker walls, and buttresses of greater substance and strength. Several speci- mens of buttresses are represented in the annexed engravings, in elevation and profile, shewing the progressive changes in form and decoration. Pl. I. Nos. I, 2, 3, and 4, from Canterbury, Salisbury, and Lincoln Cathedrals, are indicative, of the first pointed, or lancet-style, as employed in churches, between the years 1184 and 1240. Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, are ornamented with crockets and finials on the pediments, with niches, panelling, brackets, and bold rich mouldings; whilst that against the south wall of the aile of Gloucester Cathedral (No. 7) is of singular and highly enriched design : the lower division is de- tached from the wall; the next in ascent has a triangular pinnacle, with beads, pediments, and crockets. On the third story is a statue stand- ing on a pedestal, and crowned with a canopy : the whole is surmounted by a fine enriched em- battled pinnacle. The boldest and strongest buttresses, belonging to this class of buildings, is the series attached to the sides of King's Col- lege Chapel, Cambridge, where they project at least twenty-two feet from the wall, at the base. A continued row of chapels is thus formed on each side of the main chapel, and some of these com- municate with each other by door-ways cut through the buttresses. Plans, views, and ac- count of this chapel, are given in Arch. Antiqs. vol. 1. ; and a section is engraved in Ware's Tracts on Vaults, Sec, which sliews the projec- tion and graduation of the buttress. The same volume contains other interesting sections of York, Salisbury, Ely, and Lincoln Cathedrals, with the Chapter House of the latter, the Abbey Church, and Henry Vllth's Chapel, Westmin- ster, with the variety of attached and flying buttresses belonging to each. Plate II., of Buttresses, contains repre- sentations of seven varieties oi flying, or detached buttresses. No. 1, Salisbury Cathedral, nave. BHIITTONS ARCHITECT UKAl. raCTIONAR-Y- G.Ca:cteTmoje . dd.. BIXTTRE S SES . 2.Salisb? Caih: Nave. 3..r>? Clcdst^rs . S. lincoln Cath:- S.. End. 6. Beverley Minster. :Kgcve . l.Caitter?' Caih.:-E.tnd. 4.IiiicoliL Caih^-NarTe. 7. Gloui;es^ex Caxh^Uarc. 8. Louth Chu: E.End. Q.BTcmhaiii Chu:-"V/ilts. BRincatS ARCHITECT ORAL DICTIONAItTr. O.CkXtvxmolr.del. BUTTR'ESSES FLYING-. LS*liabr CMhUNsye. 2. CamerT CailiUNasre. 3.-Wesiin* AhV. Ch> Nave. 4.Lii.thed ly tJu AuiAirrJiiA^ 1.183^- :as ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 55 The trefoil leaf was generally employed in various parts of the buildings, and in different counties of England, in that age. No. 8, from the Lady Chapel of Winchester Cathedral, is exhibited as an uncommon example in form and ornament. Nos. 10 and 11 are from the cloister of Norwich Cathedral, which was built between a.d. 1297 and 1430. [The cloister is fully illustrated and described in Arch. Antiqs. vol. in., and also noticed in Cath. Antiqs., Nortvich.] No. 12, from the School-house at Norwich ; No. 13, from Catiterburif Cathedral, Chapter-house. Carilepho. {See Karilepho.) Carpenter (John), Bishop of Worcester, built the church of St. Mary's, or the University Church, at Oxford, about the middle of the fifteenth cen- tury, and died in 1476. — Pugin's Specimens Goth. Arch. vol. n. p. 8. Carrol, or Carol. Carola, low Lat. A pew, closet, or desk, with seat, placed under a window, where a monk or monks were engaged in copying writings. [Foshrooke's Hist. Glouces. p. 262.] A series of these carrols were disposed under the windows in the south aile or alley of the fine cloisters in Gloucester Cathedral. Caryatides, Cariates, or Carians. A name given to statues of females employed as columns to support entablatures, &c. Vitruvius relates a strano;e and fabulous account of the origin of this order ; and almost every subsequent writer has adopted the Vitruvian hypothesis. It has, however, been refuted in a short Essay, by Joseph Gwiit, Esq., in A Curso7y View of the Origi?i of Caryatides, %yo. 1822. The Roman critic assigns the invention of this architectural member or ornament to the Greeks, who, after conquering the Caryans, had statues made in imitation of their females, and placed them as columns or supports to the porticoes of their buildings. Mr. Gwilt contends that, as the Indians and Egyptians employed colossal statues in their buildings, it is more rational to conclude that the Greeks imitated this order or species of column rather from those early prototypes, than that they invented it as a mark of ignominy to a conquered country. In Grecian architecture, the " first statues whicii could be strictly called caryatides were either applied to temples of Diana, or were representations of virgins who were engaged in her worship." In the temple of Pandrosus, at Athens, the statues were pro- bably representations of" virgins who assisted at the Panathensea, and were called Canephorae." When male figures are used, they are called Perses or Persians. Mr. Gwilt properly repro- bates the imitation of these figures in modern sacred edifices. In some of the churches of the middle ages, in Italy, France, and England, there are statues introduced and used as columns in the door-ways. On the sides of the western portal of Rochester Cathedral are figures supposed to re- present a king and a queen. Casement. Casametito, It. Part of the glazed frame of a window, hung on hinges to be opened and shut ; a light or compartment of a window within two mullions ; a moulding deeply hollowed, resembling the scotia or trochilus of Italian archi- tecture. In describing the "north porch"- — or rather the south, of St. Stephen's Church, Bristol, William of Worcester mentions " a casement with levys," also " a casement with traylis." [Itin. p. 220.] At page 269 of the same volume is mentioned " a lowering casement." Castell (Thomas), Prior of Durham, lived at the beginning of the sixteenth century, and repaired the eastern gateway of the cathedral, erected a chapel over it, and restored the north window of the cathedral. He was buried in the nave of that church. — Account of Dur. Cath. hy the Society of Antiqs. of London, p. 6 ; Anglia Sacra, pars. i. p. 781. Castella. a name given to certain square towers in the celebrated Roman wall of Severus, which was raised by that general to separate the country of the Britons from that of the Scots. On this line of fortification there were three kinds of forts or places of residence, viz., the station, the tower, and the castella, the last of which was a square of 61 feet, cons' ;ucted of thick and lofty walls, with a ditch and bank on the north side. These castella were placed at the distance of about seven furlongs from each other, to guard the walls between the stations. Ac- cording to Vegetius, castella were towers raised 5G ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. CAS on the borders of an empire or province, and supplied with soldiers. — liorsley's Britannia Romana, and Hutton's Histori/ of the Roman Wall. Castle. From tne Latin castellum and castrum; castello. It. ; das sc/iloss, Ger. A fortified and strong mansion, situated, constructed, and ar- ranged for the purpose of protecting its inmates against the assaults of besieging enemies. Old writers applied the term to fortified towns or stations, surrounded by artificial ditches, banks, walls, 8cc. ; but in modern acceptation, a castle is considered to be a single and complete for- tified house, whether it be situated within the precincts of a town, or an insulated building in the country. The history of castles and castel- lated architecture is a desideratum in English literature ; for, though much has been written and published on the subject, by Grose [in Anti- quities of England, and Military Antiquities], King [in Munimenta Antiqua], Britton [in Arch. Antiqs. vol. in.], and other topographers and an- tiquaries ; yet a well-digested and discriminating essay, with appropriate illustrations, would prove a valuable and interesting publication. A work like the present is not calculated to enter into such historical detail ; but it will not, it is hoped, be deemed irrelevant, nor out of place, to fur- nish the reader with a brief essay on the sub- ject. Previous to the Roman colonisation of Britain, it is generally admitted that the inhabitants of the island had been engaged in warfare, and that they occasionally resorted to places called strong- holds, for shelter and protection against their foes. These are mentioned by CiEsar and Tacitus as merely plots of ground, surrounded by banks of earth and ditches, and sometimes additionally guarded by felled trees. In various parts of England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, there are numerous encampments which have been ascribed to the aboriginal inhabitants : they mostly occupy the summits of hills, and thereby gave advantages to the occupiers against their in- vaders ; but this position shews that they were only resorted to for occasional residence or re- treat. Among the most remarkable fortresses of this class are the Herefordshire Beacon, on the Malvern hills, in Worcestershire ; the Caer-Cara- dock, near Church Stretton, in Shropshire ; Moel Arthur, in Flintshire ; Chiin Castle, in Cornwall ; and Maiden Castle, in Dorsetshire. It is likely that some of the earth fortresses on the Wiltshire Downs are of the same era, and were formed by the same class of people. The settlement of the Romans in this island occasioned many consider- able changes in the civil, religious, and military features of the country, and the customs and government of the people : regular and good roads were made ; stations were established ; houses, temples, and villas were built ; and new systems of polity, religion, warfare, and domestic economy were adopted. The chief towns %vere fortified with lofty and strong walls, with towers and gateways ; and a barrier wall of great extent and strength was built across a narrow part of the island, separating the province of the Britons from that of the Picts and Scots. Londinum, London; Caina/odunum, Colchester; Verulamium, St. Albans ; Aqua: Solis, Bath ; Eboracum, York ; Glevum, Gloucester ; Feida Belgarum, Win- chester ; Rutupium, Richborough ; and many other important stations were established. As at Athens, Rome, and some other cities of the Grecian and Roman empires, there was an Acro- polis, occupied by military works ; so we may conclude that at London, Colchester, Winches- ter, Chester, &c., a particular site, the highest, and best adapted for defensive and offensive operations against hostile attacks, was chosen by the castellan or governor, for his chief strong-hold or keep-tower. Of Anglo-Saxon fortresses we have little evidence, though it cannot be doubted that the Saxons occupied some of the Roman castles and stations. Until the time of Alfred, the great and good, we do not meet with notices of their raising any new fortresses. According to Asser's statement, that monarch constructed some of wood, as well as of stone ; but the former must have been for temporary purposes. Elfrida, the daughter of Alfred, who presided over Mercla, not only led her subjects to battle against the marauding and merciless Danes, but built eight castles in the course of three years. [Henry of Huntingdon's Hist. p. 204.] William of Mahnesbury describes a castle built by Athel- stan, at Exeter, about the year 944, and uses CAS ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 57 these terms, — " Urbem igitur illam quani con- taminatse gentis repurgio defecaverat tuiribus mu- nivit, muro ex quadratis lapidibus cinxit." From the testimonies of our chroniclers, it is evident that the Anglo-Saxons did not build many fortresses ; and to this circumstance is ascribed the easy con- quest of the island by the Norman invaders. No sooner was William of Normandy seated on the English throne, than he parcelled out the country into districts, and appointed his earls and chief officers as governors over their respective lord- ships. As stated by Matthew Paris [Hist. p. 8, col. ii.], this new monarch " excelled all his predecessors in building castles, and greatly harassed his subjects and vassals by these works." All his earls, barons, and even pre- lates, imitated his example ; and it was the practice of each, on receiving a grant of ter- ritory, to build a castle upon it, both for re- sidence and for self-protection. There are forty- nine castles mentioned in the Doomsday -book, which also notices Arundel Castle as the only one named in the time of Edward the Confessor. According to the same record, the Conqueror built eight castles : ten were raised by the great barons, one by an under-tenant to Earl Roger, and eleven by other persons. All these castles are distinguished by a lofty mound and keep, " marking the peculiar style of architecture intro- duced into our castellated fortifications by the Normans, at their first settlement." [Reports from the Commissioners respecting the Public Records," fol. 1819, p. 439.] " A. D. 1069, King William wrought a castle at Nottingham ; and so ad- vanced to York, and there wrought two castles ; and the same at Lincoln, and every where in that quarter." [Saxon Chron. by Ingram, p. 269.] In the following year, the same authority says, the Danes " marching full merrily with an im- mense army, advanced to York, where they stormed and demolished the castle." The dis- putes about the royal succession in subsequent times kept up a spirit of warfare. William Rufus, according to Knyghton, " was much addicted to building royal castles and palaces, as the castles of Dover, Windsor, Norwich, Exeter, the palace ofWestminster, and many others, testify ; nor was there any king of England before him that built so many and such noble edifices." It must be remarked, that Rufus did not wholly erect the edifices here referred to, as some of them were previously begun ; and they were augmented by subsequent kings. In the turbulent reign of Stephen, between 1136 and 1154, there were many new castles raised, and others strengthened. The history of that reign abounds with domestic warfare, sieges, skirmishes, and massacres ; and it is related by the annalists of the time, that no fewer than 1115 castles were erected from the foundations in the short space of nineteen years. [Ralph de Diceto, col. 528.] Holinshed [Chron. vol. III. fol. 50] says that Stephen " began to repent himself, although too late, for that he had granted license to so many of his subjects to build castles within their own grounds." Next to the Castle, or Tower, of London, that of Windsor was the most considerable in Eng- land : it is stated, that it was commenced by the Norman conqueror, and that William Rufus and Stephen enlarged and strengthened it. Ed- ward III. and the celebrated William of Wyke- ham were, however, its greatest builders ; some very interesting particulars are recorded in Pote's History of Windsor, and in Lysonss Account of Berkshire, relating to this royal fortress. The Castles of Harewood, and of Spofford, in York- shire ; of Kenilworth, and of Warwick, in War- wickshire; and of Arundel, in Sussex; vied with that of Windsor. The monarch, finding the castles of the nobles and prelates — for most of the bishops' palaces were fortified — increasing so much in number and strength, deemed it ne- cessary to restrain his subjects from building others without an express license from the crown. Many instances of such grants, or licenses, are recorded in topographical histories. In common acceptation, a castle means any sort of fortress or place of personal residence, strongly guarded by nature or art, or conjointly by both : in a stricter application of the word, it implies a stone building constructed for per- manent residence, and calculated to guard its inmates against marauders, or foes. The larger castles were called in the Latin language, Castra, and the smaller, Castella. In old writings they are variously named, arx, turris, fossa, maceria, mota, firmitas, and munitio. In charters of the time of King Stephen are the following terms : — Castrum de Wallingford ; Castelliim de Belen- comber ; Turris Londoni; Mota Oxonford; Fir- i 58 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. CAS mitas LincoJnim ; Munitio Hamptonia. — Pile, Peel, and Bastile, are sometimes used to denote a small castle, or fortress : the first and second terms are still used in the north of England. A castle may be said to consist of valla and fossae, or banks and ditches, with walls occu- pying the tops of the former, and crowned by battlements, additionally guarded also by bastion towers, usually placed at the angles, or at bends of the walls. In the last were entrance gate- towers, with bridges, either permanent, or made to lift up, and guarded by portcullises and doors of great thickness. Windows and other aper- tures were very small; the former were seldom in the outer walls, but opened to inner courts. Within-side the walls, and immediately behind the parapets, were terraces for soldiers. The parts of a castle were, the ditch, foss, graff, or mote, over which was a bridge ; the barbican, an advanced work, either a raised mound, or a tower ; the outer walls flanked by semicircular, polygonal, or square towers, and with a terrace walk behind a breastwork, which was embattled, embrasured, or crenellated ; the entrance gate- house, which was flanked by towers, with projec- tions and apertures over the archway, called machicolations, through which scalding water, melted lead, stones, or other destructive ma- terials, were thrown on assailants. The outer hallium, or bailey, was generally separated from the inner by a strong embattled wall and a towered gate -house, and was usually occupied by stables, offices, &c. The inner ballium was appropriated to the baron, monarch, or governor, with the respective families and immediate re- tinue of either; and at one corner, or near the middle, was the keep-tower, donjon, or strong- hold of the fortress, having a state-apartment or hall : (as at Hedingham, Rochester, &c.) There were sometimes a well and a chapel in this tower. At Rochester, the well is formed in the wall which divides the interior of the keep into two apartments ; and at Coningsborough, the chapel is in the substance of the wall of one of the angular turrets. The white tower of London has a very large Chapel, with ailes, and a semicir- cular east end. The Welsh castles, says Sir Richard Hoare, " may be divided into three classes : the original British, situated on high and almost inaccessible mountains, such as Cam Madryn, near Nevyn, and Corndochon, near Bala, in North Wales ; and Crilg Howel, above the village of Crickhowel, in South Wales ; with nu- merous others dispersed about the hills in each principality, bearing the same characteristic fea- tures of rude and remote antiquity. The vulgar name of Cottiau-Gwyddelod, or huts of the wild men, attributed to them by the natives, arose probably from their mode of construction, being excavations made in the ground and rock, and surrounded by an enclosure of loose stones. Under the next head are those constructed with stone and cemented with mortar, and placed on less eminent situations. These are very similar in their plans, having generally an outwork and an artificial mound of earth, as a citadel : in- stances of these are seen at Pencadair, and Lanpeder, in South Wales. These appear to me to be the castles recorded in the Welsh Chronicle as having been so frequently destroyed and so frequently rebuilt ; and I am inclined to think that they were chiefly constructed with wood, otherwise they never could have been re- stored and re-fortified in the very short time specified in the Welsh annals. After the sub- jugation of Glamorganshire by the Normans, and the settlement of the Flemings in the princi- pality, a new and far more sumptuous mode of building was introduced ; of which we see many fine examples in the castles of Cardiff, Kid- welly, Pembroke, Cilgarran, &c. &c. The con- trast between the second and third classes may be seen at Hay, where the tumulus and site of the Welsh castle, and the ruins of the subsequent Norman fortress, are still visible. A great im- provement was afterwards made in military archi- tecture by King Edward I., who, at the same time that he shewed his good policy in erecting the stately castles of Conwy, Caernarvon, and Harlech, as bulwarks against the Welsh, dis- played his good taste and knowledge in military architecture. The picturesque superiority of these buildings is owing to the introduction of small turrets arising from the larger, by which the heavy castellated mass of masonry receives great additional lightness and elegance." — Itinerary of Archbishop Baldwin through Wales, by Sir R. C. Hoare, Bart., vol. ii. p. 401. (See Agard's Discourse on Castles, in Antiq. Discourses, vol. i. p. 188.) CAT ARCHITECTURAL DICTIOXART. 59 A complete histoiy and illustration of the castles of Great Britain would occupy a larger space than can be devoted to the subject in this dictionary ; it must suffice, on the present oc- casion, to refer to the best sources for informa- tion, in addition to the books already enu- merated. These are " Ancient Castles of England and Wales," engraved by W. Woolnoth, with historical descriptions by E. W. Brayley, Jun. 2 vols. 1825. " Collectanea Curiosa," by Gutch. 2 vols. " History of Dover," by the Rev. John Lyon. 2 vols. 4to. 1813. Leland's " Col- lectanea," vol. II., for an account of Sherborne, Thornbury, and Framlingham Castles. " Kenil- worth Illustrated" 4to. 1821. King's " Man. Antiq." Fol. 4 vols. — See also indexes to " ArchcBologia" and to the " Gentleman's Ma- gazine." — See Bai LEY — Barbican — Base- CouBT — Draw-Bridge — Dungeon — Em- brasure — Keep -Tower — Machicolation — Portcullis. Catabasion, a chamber for relics and sacred ves- sels beneath the altar of an ancient temple. Catabulum, a word sometimes applied in old writings to sheds, or common rooms, in which the early Christians officiated. Catacomb, or Catacumb, from the Gr. xara and xu/iQog, applied to a hollow recess, or subterranean chamber. If not strictly architectural, catacomb is an archaeological and historical term. It is commonly referred to a cave, a grotto, or an apartment in a rock, or beneath the earth, de- voted to a sepulchral purpose. Some writers say it was first used in reference to the chapel of St. Sebastian, at or near Rome, wherein the body of St. Peter is said to have been deposited ; contiguous to which, there are some extensive catacombs of mysterious origin, and connected with mysterious events. Mr. Woods describes them as consisting " of crooked, winding pas- sages in tufa, and pozzolana, in three stories — Forsyth says two — which, as the levels are not always observed, are easily made into seven by those who wish to increase the appearance of the marvellous. The niches for the bodies are square recesses about the length of a human body, and just big enough to receive it; but there are some larger ones forming an arch, at the bottom of which the body was placed : wherever these larger arched niches are found, there is a little apartment whose rude sides have been coated with stucco. They pretend to have found here the bodies of 174,000 martyrs, — a collection of itself sufficient to stock all Europe with relics." [Letters of an Architect, 11. 42.] Beneath part of the city of Paris are very extensive catacombs. Those of Egypt are very numerous, and have furnished many interesting mummies, sarco- phagi, &c. Catadrome, a race-course of any kind, whether for men, horses, or chariots. (See Hippodrome.) Catafalque, a name for a hearse, or frame of wood, coffin-shaped, placed in churches, at the altars, or over the graves of distinguished persons, where it usually remained for some months after interment. Hearse is now generally applied to the carriage used for conveying a coffin and corpse from the house to the grave. — Blakeivay and Owen's Shretvs. vol. i. p. 341. Catapulta, Lat., or Catapult, in military an- tiquity, an engine used for throwing arrows, stones, and other missiles, against castles and its besieged occupants. Fosbroke describes it as a " Syrian contrivance conveyed to the Syracusans, whence it was brought into Greece by Philip of Macedon." — [Enci/. of Antiq., vol. ii. p. 816.] Some of these engines were large and powerful enough to throw stones of a hundred pounds weight. Josephus notices the surprising effect of some of these engines. — James's Military Diet. Cathedral. Cathedra, Lat. ; from xaSi&oa, Gr., a chair or seat ; die dom kircke, Ger. from domi- nicum ; is the head, or chief church of a diocess, in which the throne, or chair, of the bishop is permanently fixed, and in which he is installed on being canouically established in his see. The word cathedral, though now limited to the church only, originally applied to all the episcopal build- ings of the see; but this is not precisely defined by the old writers. Staveley, in his illiterate " History of Churches," 8vo. 1773, affords but little information on this most important of all classes of buildings. He merely says, that " cathedrals retained a great pre-eminence above other churches ; for, though divine service might 60 ARCHITECTURAI, DICTIOXARY. CAT be performed in the lesser, or rural churches, yet the right of baptism and sepulture belonged an- ciently to the cathedral church, unless it were in case of necessity : and it was therefore called the mother chnrck." In another part he erro- neously states, that the bishops " do generally keep those excellent fabrics in due order and re- pair." In an octavo volume expressly devoted to the History of churches, the reader might reasonably expect to meet with more copious and more correct information than is afforded by this extract; but he will be disappointed. The latter passage is incorrect, as a bishop rarely ever takes charge of the repairs of a cathedral, that being one of the duties of the dean and chapter. Of the first cathedral, and its prelate, it is impossible to ascertain the date, name, and other particulars : for the early history of the Christian establishment is involved in impenetrable obscu- rity. At first the Christians were few in number, humble in station, and compelled to wander about, and perform their religious ceremonies in secrecy ; and it is not probable that they could locate tiiemselves in a sufficient body to build anything like a cathedral, until they became recognised, and even favoured, by the governing authorities. We find that Constantine, commonly called the Great, was the first Christian Roman emperor ; and he was saluted monarch in the famed Roman city of Eboracum, or York, a.d. 307. He con- vened a general Council of the church, at Aries, in Gaul, in 314, when three bishops from Britain attended : hence it nmst be inferred that dio- cesses and prelates were established at that time, and that Britain possessed at least three. That the Christians had churches for the peculiar rites and ceremonies of their growing religion, may also be inferred ; but these must have been in- considerable in size and architectural character. In the author's historical surveys of the metro- politan cathedrals of York and Canterbury, will be found much information on the controverted subject of the first foundations and successive enlargements of those churches, on the early history of the sees and prelates, and on other ecclesiastical matters. It is evident that the word cathedral was originally applied to the whole of the buildings belonging to the bishop's seat; but It has latterly been restricted to the diocesan church. Bishop Milner, in his very valuable " Historif of Winchester," contends that Lucius, a British monarch, erected " a stately cathedral" in that Brito-Roman city, between the years A.D. 176 and 189; but such a circumstance requires better authority than Rudborne, a monkish chronicler, or even than the learned Catholic, who quotes hira with implicit confi- dence, to substantiate. The modern historian describes this early church to have been 209 paces long, i. e. about 600 feet, and 92 paces high ! He also states that it must have been built in the Grecian style of architecture (ibid. vol. II. p. 2) ; but, being destroyed in the latter end of the third century by the Dioclesian per- secutors, another, on a smaller scale and of in- ferior architecture, was erected, which appears to have been converted into a heathen temple, to the worship of Thor, by Cerdic, King of the West Saxons, in the year 519 : as such it continued for nearly 130 years, when Kinegils, converted to Christianity by St. Birinus, commenced a new cathedral on a scale of the " greatest magnificence in his power." [Ibid. vol. ii. p. 5.] This was completed by the successors of Kinegils, and con- secrated in 648 ; but the same historian asserts, on the authority of Bede, and Henry of Hunting- don, that up to such time " the materials of churches were only the trunks of trees, sawn asunder, and placed beside each other with a covering of thatch." Benedict Biscop, the fa- mous abbot of Weremouth, made several jour- neys to France and Italy, whence he collected and brought home many books, sacred relics, and other treasures ; he also imported masons, gla- ziers, &c., to construct a new church and mo- nastery, in the " Roman manner." This was about the year 680. Wilfred, Archbishop of York, is described as the greatest improver of the cathedral, or church architecture, of his age ; having, according to Eddius, his biographer, to Richard of Hexham, and other writers, " erected a church of hewn stone, supported with various columns of porticoes, and completed it from the foundation to its utmost height." [Arch. Antiq., vol. v. p. 120, from Eddii Vita Wi/J'rida, cap. XVII.] That church is described in the volume here referred to. St. Ethelvvold, who was Bishop of Winchester from a.d. 9(i3 to 984, is described by Dr. Milner as the most " famous Anglo-Saxon architect ; that he erected many churches and CAT ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 61 monasteries in different parts of the kingdom," among which was " that of Winchester, which he rebuilt from the ground, with subterraneous crypts, &c." It was consecrated in 980, in the presence of King Ethelred ; St. Dunstan, Arch- bishop of Canterbury ; eight other bishops ; and a great concourse of persons. Of this famed Saxon cathedral, the learned Catholic author conceives that the present crypts, or subterranean chapels, are parts ; and Warton, in his " De- scription of the city," erroneously refers the ailes, at the east end, to the same age. In the Cathe- dral Antiquities, Winchester, is an account of the oldest parts of the church by Mr. Garbett, the architect attached to the cathedral, in which he contends that some of the crypts and the tran- sept are of Ethelwold's erection. If this be ad- mitted, it serves to display and define a series of truly interesting specimens of Anglo-Saxon architecture ; but, when the history and early parts of this church are impartially investigated, and all the variations of style, of form, and detail, carefully analysed and discriminated, it will be extremely difficult to concede to that opinion. It is generally admitted, that the Norman prelates and architects, on taking possession of the sees of England, usually rebuilt the churches on a larger scale than before, and in a species of architecture more enriched and scientific than had been prac- tised by the Anglo-Saxons. It is also satisfac- torily shewn, that Bishop Walkelyn, who presided over the Winchester diocess from a. d. 1070 to 1097, " undertook the greatest work which ever yet has been achieved by a bishop of this see, to rebuild the cathedral and adjoining monastery from the ground, at his own expense, and in a noble style of architecture, hitherto unparalleled." [Milners Hist. vol. i. p. 194.] Walkelyn, who was a relation and chaplain to the Conqueror, completed these works in 1093, when the church was dedicated in the presence of nearly all the bishops and abbots of England. The foregoing particulars are given as illustrative of the eccle- siastical buildings when the Saxon and Norman cathedrals were erected. It may be apposite to remark, that the cathedrals of Old Sarum, Exeter, Canterbury, York, Rochester, Worcester, Nor- wich, Durham, Lincoln, and some others, were commenced, and partly erected, during the early part of the Norman dynasty; when, also, the rich monasteriesof Gloucester, Tewkesbury, Mal- vern, Medeshampstead (Peterborough), &c. were founded and partly built. Several of these edi- fices contain and display varied and truly inter- esting specimens of the architectural styles and peculiarities of ornament and sculpture of the ages when erected. In Normandy, there are many fine examples remaining of analogous archi- tecture, several of which are delineated in the " Arch. Antiq. of Normandy," by Pugin, 4to. 1823 ; and also in Cotman's " Arch. Antiq. of 'Normandy," 2 vols. fol. 1822. In the history of cathedrals, the impartial reader will not fail to notice and regret that too much of romance and superstitious fable, relating to their founders and patrons, is blended with useful and authentic information. The writings of the venerable Bede, of Gildas, Alcuin, William of Malmesbury, Rud- borne, Matthew Paris, and other chroniclers, contain many improbable stories and silly narra- tives : which, whilst they serve to amuse and keep up religious prejudices in certain credulous persons, excite emotions of sorrow and disappoint- ment in the critical historian. The most interesting and rational accounts that have been preserved by contemporary writers respecting the archi- tectural history of certain old cathedrals, are those by Gervase, a monk of Canterbury, who describes the building of the choir, 8tc., of his church, in the year 1176, [See Decern Script, apud Ticysden, 1632, col. 1289 ; also, Cath. An- tiq. Canterbury], and by William de Wanda, of Salisbury, who wrote an account of the building, consecration, &c. of the fine cathedral of that city in 1220, &c. [See Dodsworth's " Historical Ac- count of Salisbury Cathedral.] It is a remarkable circumstance, that amongst the numerous records preserved in muniment rooms respecting cathe- drals, there have not been found any ancient drawings of the ground plans and architectural designs for those splendid national buildings. Dr. Mollor, in his folio work, " Denkmaehler der Deutschen Baukhunst," has published engravings from old drawings, on parchment, of the four- teenth and fifteenth centuries, which he describes as being preserved in the libraries of Germany. The only drawing of a similar kind that has been found in England, has been engraved for Ly- sons's Magna Britannia — Cambridgeshire, from a drawing in the British Museum. It represents 62 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. CAT a tower said to have been intended for King's College Chapel, and made in the reign of Henry VII. There are twenty-one old cathedrals, and one of modern erection, in England, and four in Wales ; there were thirteen in Scotland, and twenty-two in Ireland ; but some of those of the two latter divisions of the kingdom are much reduced in size, some in ruins, and others extinct. The cathedrals vary from each other in extent, ar- rangement, and parts; and also in their archi- tectural styles and features. It is evident that some of them are of Saxon foundation ; and it is contended by a few antiquaries tliat parts of those of Ely, Oxford, Canterbury, and Winchester, ex- hibit specimens of genuine Anglo-Saxon archi- tecture. Every other variety of date and style, from the Norman conquest to the revival and establishment of the Italian architecture, is to be seen in these cathedrals ; and it may be said, that these varieties are not only numerous, but exhibit almost a countless succession of inven- tions, improvements in form, arrangement, com- bination, and decoration. Intended by their religious and superstitious architects to surprise, delight, and awe the spectator, they were raised on a large scale ; adorned internally and exter- nally with a profusion of architectural members and sculptural enrichments ; provided with grand western facades, with enclosed porticoes, towers, spires, and pinnacles, and also with cloisters, chapter -rooms, chapels, chantries, and altars. A description of one will serve to explain the general arrangement of all. The accompanying ground-plan of' Durham Cathedral will display the parts and sub-divisions of a fine Anglo-Norman cathedral church, which, however, has some additions and alterations made at subsequent times. In the engraving, the church is marked darker than the other parts, and shews a sort of vestibule, B ; areas under two towers, C C ; a nave, D D ; ailes, E E ; north tran- sept, F ; south transept, G ; space under central tower, being the middle part of the transept, H ; eastern aile of the transept, 1 1 ; choir, from the organ-screen to the altar-steps, K ; place of the high altar, communion, or chancel, L ; ailes of choir, M M ; modern vestry, N ; chapel of the nine altars, the usual situation of the lady chapel, 0; an apartment of the cathedral, called a parlour of the monastery by Mr. Carter, where merchants " used to sell their wares," P. The original and fine Norman Chapter-House at Q, was indiscreetly destroyed by Mr. Wyatt and the officers of the cathedral, in 1800, and a modern room built on its site. (Mr. Carter has reprobated this destruction in the Gentleman's Magazine for 1801.) The cloister, R R R R; remains of a laver, or conduit, S ; small rooms, referred to by Carter as cells, or prisons for " offending monks," T T T ; passage from cloister to the deanery, U ; hall of the deanery, W ; the buildings of which, formerly those of the priory, are marked X; one of the old apartments of which, the crypt of the private chapel, is lettered Y. A crypt, or basement story of the refectory, is at Z Z Z Z. At the western end of the church is a singular and unique appendage, called the Gallilee, A, which is disposed in five ailes by four rows of columns. The other references are to great kitchen, a, formerly of the monastery, but now of the deanery ; its offices, bb ; rooms under the large dormitory, c, d, e,f,g, and h; whilst i and k mark the sites of prebendal houses, gardens, &c. Cathedrals are to be seen in all parts of the world where the Christian religion has prevailed to any extent and for any length of time ; but they abound more particularly in Italy, France, Germany, and Great Britain. Those of Italy a.te mostly on a large scale, are profusely adorned with sculpture and paintings; and most of them are built of white marble, interspersed and inlaid with others of varied colours. Unlike those of England, they are exempt from pews and galleries, whence the general architecture of the whole, the enrichments of the parts, and the effects of the original design, are fully and finely unfolded to the critical spectator. Plan, sections, and accounts of the cathedrals of Placentia, Modena, Parma, and others, are given in the " Archaologia," vol. XVI. by the Rev. T. Kerrich. The cathedral of Milan may be referred to as one of the most splendid and spacious of those buildings. Its architecture and history are judiciously described in Wood's " Letters of an Architect;" whilst its plans, sections, and details, are fully delineated in " La Mclropolitano de Milano e dettagli Ri- marcabili de questo edifcio, publicata ed illustratu per cura del Mse. Cavaliere Giachimo d'Adda." BRIITOUrS ARCEITEC TUHAI. DICTIOKABT TVom J Cart CI DTJRJTAM CATHEDB.AL- J. Le- Kfvnt it. Zffnjfm, FubU.- Remarks. Ex. In. Ex. In. •B l! em ^ 61) "3 CD C g .2P £» «= Si %% Is >J 05 CQ.| X ^ n'l S J n a; a ^ & isr s Canterbury 545 516 170 158 188 27 73 80 132 86 76 158 128 40 34 75' 79^ 230 153^ 132 132 93 107 'Easttrans. 'West trans. ^ S.-west tower. York 518 480 241 220 210 43 110 93 130 100 100 220 98 93 200 196 140 130 Bristol 203 174 127 113 76 69 54 174 29 50 133 Carlisle .... 242 210 130 116 ... 107 72 116 18 Storer's Calhs. Chester .... 375 312 112 100 120 41 84 80 84 100 44 iio 108 Wild's Ckes. Cath. Chichester 410 386 151 131 146 26 100 65 68 60 65 131 34 65 3005 95s C198 1121 S. side ) E. side) z\ ^ Including spire. ^ S. - west tower. \ —Storer's Calhs. Durham ... 507 476 104 170 203 37 82 70 93 79 70 170 59 210 143 145 145 117 105 Galilee at W. end. ** Account by So- ciety ofAntir/.' Ely 535 517 190 179 203 30 7-1 101 74 70 179 78 170' 215 142 112 ' Octagonal lant. ; J gal. or S. porch ; Miller'sElyCalh. Exeter 408 382 1:5 140 96 31 72 66 123 72 66 140 .30 72 153 113 100 North porch. Gloucester 427 406 154 142 160 33 85 68 110 83 85 142 35 70 223 147 i'47" 95 88 South porch. Hereford ... 350 326 174 145 125 28 70 63 76 72 60 145 106 53» 359 60 160 143 115'" 95 * N. end with aile ; S. end is 32 feet. ' East transept. '" In ruins. Lichfield 403 379 177 149 143 26 66 58 145 69 57 149 45 57 252" 200' 2 100 93 " Central spire. '^ W. spires. Lincoln ... 505 440 242 218 176 37 70 81 118 80 75 218 165 61 37" 74 264 209 118 90 175 132 IVild's Line. Cath. " E. Transept. Norwich ... 415 384 200 180 205 28 70 75 130 72 85 180 28 72 309'< 178 176 83 93 '•" Central spire. Oxford 168 156 116 102 61 22 53 45 54 52 45 102 21 45 145'= " Central spire. Peterhoro'. 480 427 198 184 234 35 79 73 90 79 183 58 73 143 150 155"* 153 li'5 '^ N.-west tower. Rochester . 383 362 170 144 140 32 73 55 145 85 55 122 90 32 58 55 55" 156 95'« 93 Thorpe's Cus(«»m/f Roffen. " E. tra. 's Guild. Tower. Salisbury . 474 450 230 206 196 32 78 81 152 78 81 206 145 57 44 81 81 •» 40420 ... 182 182 112 115 " E. transept. » Spire. Wells 415 385 155 130 164 32 70 68 82 32 73 130 68 68 165 125 164 154 148 115 Winchester 550 520 230 208 240 32 88 78 113 88 «7 208 81 80 148 128 130 M'orcester 425 386 145 127 174 30 78 67 90 73 61 127 31 60 193 120 118 " E. transept. St. Paul's . 512 462 283 228 170 121 24 66=' 360" 210 " 177 138 =' Top of cross ; 39 102 90 97 102 90 228 97 90 — Fine Arts of Westminst. English School. Abbey Ch. 530 475 215 195 154 30 68 105 136 72 105 196 73 105 225 146 135 110 141 liray'ley ^ Neale's Westm. Abbey. • To centre of west arch under tower. t Between the pillars. j From organ screen to altar steps. « To top of central pediment. CEM ARCHITECTUUAL DICTIONARY. 65 Cave A, from Cavitas, a hollow place. Cavo, in ancient amphitheatres, signified the place where the wild beasts were kept : the word was also applied to the middle part, or arena, and fre- quently denoted the whole interior, both of theatres and amphitheatres. Cavedium, Lat. Cava-ecdium, an open place, or area, of a house, analogous to the French cour, the Italian cortile, and the English quadrangle, clois- ter, or court. A reference to plans, &c. of any of the Pompeian houses will shew the meaning of the appellation. Vitruvius enumerates five diflferent cavedia : the Tuscan, Corinthian, tetra- style, displuviated, and testudinated. The cave- dium is the quadrangular court of private houses, such as abound in Paris, and many continental towns : the open court of Hungerford market, London, is a modern cavedium ; so also the clois- tered quadrangle of cathedrals. Cavetto, from the Italian verb cavare, to dig out ; it being the diminutive oi cavo, a hollow, or deep place : — cavetto, a little hollow. This term is applied to a simple concave moulding. Ceiling, from calum, heaven, or celare, Lat. to cover or conceal, the upper surface of an apart- ment, generally formed of laths and plaster. It is probably derived from the Lat. ctzlo, calare, to chase, or emboss, — supposing the term to have been restricted at first to carved and otherwise enriched soffits, or ceilings ; but, as the word seems peculiar to the English language, its ety- mon must be sought in some of the Teutonic dialects. Ceilings are either plain, and flat, or vaulted in different forms. In churches there are rarely any of the former kind. Cell, Cella ; Celtarium, Lat.; keller, Ger. from the verb celo, celare, to hide or conceal. The sanctum sanctorum of a heathen temple was there- fore properly distinguished as the cella, or cela, and called by the Greeks Naos. It does not apply exactly ui the same sense in its modern use, especially when the latter intends to dis- tinguish underground rooms, or store apartments beneath the level of the external surface. The etymological sense of cellar is, nevertheless, clearly concealment. Cell means a small dark apartment, used as a prison. Cell was sometimes applied to denote a lesser monastery subordinate to a greater. Cellar, Cellarium, Lat. a room beneath a building, occasionally analogous to a crypt ; the former being generally beneath a dwelling-room, and the latter under part of a church : the first is usually occupied by liquors, provisions, and other stores ; the latter devoted to reUgious and sacred pur- poses. Cells of Monks were either separate apartments in a monastery, or detached buildings, belonging, and subordinate, to an abbey. It is related that cells were erected on abbatial estates, for the occa- sional residence of one or more of the brothers, or to which they were sent from their convents for punishment. Celt, the name given to a metal or stone instru- ment, often found in barrows, encampments, &c., resembling an axe or a chisel. The manufacture and use of celts have caused much speculation and dissertation amongst antiquaries, as may be seen by reference to the indexes of the " Gentle- man's Magazine," the " Archgeologia," &c. In Vol. V. of the latter, is an essay by Dr. Lort on the subject. Thoresby and Borlase think they were heads of spears, or walking-sticks ; Whit- taker considers them as battle-axes; Stukeley regards them as used by the Druids for cutting the mistletoe ; Count Caylus and Du Cange deem them chisels. Sir Richard C. Hoare, in " Ancient Wiltshire," has given representations and notices of several curious specimens. The author has one in the original matrix, or case ; and another with an elastic ring and amber bead attached to it. Cement, Lat. Ceementum. Coagment would be a more correct term than cement for what is meant by the latter word. Camentiim, cement, is the term for a concretion of rubble and mortar, or coagment. In a curious tract on old Charing- Cross, it is strangely mentioned that it was " so cemented with mortar made of purest lime, Callis sand, white of eggs, and the strongest wort, that it defied all hammers and hatchets whatsoever." — Blakeway and Owens Shrews, vol. ii. p. 361. — (See Higgins's Art of Composing and Applying Calcareous Cements, ^c. 8vo. 1780). Cemetery, the same as churchyard, a piece of ground generally adjoining a church, and used for the interment of dead persons. In imitation of the ancient Romans, and other remote nations, K 6fi ARCHITECTUKAL DICTIONARY. CEN the French and English are at length adopting the rational practice of providing cemeteries at a distance frona great towns, and places of human habitation : such as the Pere- la -chaise, near Paris; the cemeteries near Liverpool, and also near London. Cenotaph, KtvoTdipiov, Gr. from y.ivog, empty; and rdfc,;, a sepulchre, or tomb — an empty tomb, an honorary monument after death. A monument erected to the memory of a person when the funeral rites have been performed in some other place, or whose body could not be found. Ceroff.rarium, the candlestick for holding the paschal taper. — Blak. aitdOiven's Shrews, vol. ii. p. 347. Chaillou, or Chayllowe (William de) ; was clerk and surveyor of the works at the Tower of London, and the palace of Westminster, temp. Edwards IL and IIL Chains, in military tactics, were formerly employed to guard, or fence the ends of streets, and the passages of rivers. At York, there was a piece of chain extending from the fortified ramparts on one side of the river to the opposite side. A curious fact relating to chains, is recorded in Bleioitt's" Panorama of Torquay." 8vo. 1832. Chair. Among the furniture of cathedrals and the larger churches, there was a substantial and often a splendid chair. The famous coronation chair in Westminster Abbey Church is amongst the most memorable objects of this class. It is formed of carved oak, and contains beneath its seat the celebrated stone on which the ancient kings of Scotland were usually crowned. [See " History of Westminster Abbey," by Brayley and Neale, vol. ii. p. 118, &c.] The indefati- gable and accurate historian of that interesting church has entered into a critical disquisition on the age and characteristics of the coronation stone, and recorded some curious particulars of the chair. In St. Mary's Hall, Coventry, is a very finely carved chair, a representation of which is given in Shaw's " Specimens of Ancient Furni- ture," in which are views of several other old chairs. A large stone chair, for the enthronement of the Archbishop of Canterbury, is preserved in that cathedral. In Winchester Cathedral is a very curious specimen of one made of iron, covered with leather, velvet, 8vc., which was formerly used for the same purpose. This resembles some of the Curule chairs of the Romans, which, when opened, resembled the letter X. Specimens are engraved in Montfaii^on's " Antiquities" also in Cayius's " Antiquities." In the summer of 1835, the frame of a Roman chair was found by Mr. J. Gage, in one of the Bartlow Tumuli, which contained, also, several other curious relics of Roman art. Chalcidicuini, a large room, or hall, in the city of Chalcis, belonging to a court of justice. The Chalcidicum was a spacious hall in ancient palaces, in which the sovereign presided to hear causes and pronounce judgment from his throne. Vitruvius applies the term to the auditory of a basilica. Chalice. Ku?./;, Gr. ; calix, Lat. ; culic. Sax. ; calice, Fr. a cup used at the altar for the admi- nistration of the sacrament. In the canons of the Catholic church it is prescribed that the chalice shall not be made of wax, nor wood, nor tin, but of gold or silver. — Lanfranc's Canons, a.d. 1071; Archbp. Richards' ditto, a.d. 1175. Chambisr, Camera, a room, or apartment in a nionasteiy or ancient mansion. The great-cham- ber, the little-chamber, and the priest's chamber, are often mentioned in records. " Camera im- plies a suite of apartments, including even a sacellum, or private cliapel;" [Raine's North Durham, p. 87. from a roll of 1344.] but this could only be an occasional or local application of the term. The great-chamber is supposed to correspond with the n^iodern drawing-room. Chamfer, from y.d/x'^Tu, Gr. to bend; xa/io-iXos, curved, rendered inflexed, or blunt : thus, a chamfer is a broken angle, a chafed edge, in buildings or in sculpture. To chamfer, as well as the Fr. chanjrain and chamfreincr, has descended from camera, for that which is vaulted is sup- posed to be rounded externally, and such is the effect of a chamfer. The Ijevelled face, or edge of the jamb of a door or window is said to be chamfered. Champ, the flat surface of a wall, &c. William of Worcester uses the expression, " a champ-ashler." The contracts for the brass work about the Earl of Warwick's tomb, order " all the champes about CHA ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 67 the letters to be abated and hatched, curiously to set out the letters." [Dugdale's Warwickshire; and Arch. Antiq. vol. iv.] Thus the letters ap- pear in relief, and not cut in, as was the more common way of engraving. Chancel, from Cancelli, Lat. ; cancellus. Low Lat. ; kantzel, Ger. the lattice-work, or cross-bars, which were formerly used to separate the eastern from the choir part of a church. The chancel is that portion of a large church bounded by the altar- screen, or communion table, to the east, and by another low screen, or rails, to the west, separat- ing it from the choir or presbytery. In parish churches, the chancel is usually the whole east end of the edifice, walled on three sides, and separated from the church by a screen, on which was formerly placed the rood, and hence called rood-loft. In the centre, under the eastern win- dow, was an altar-table, to the south of which, in the wall, was a niche, or recess, for a piscina, near which was an ambry, or closet, for the in- struments of the aitar. Adjoining, also, in some conventual and cathedral churches, there were three stone seats, or stalls, raised one above the other for three priests, who officiated at the altar, i. e. the bishop, or abbot, and two presbyters. By the Legatine Constitutions of a. d. 1268, the clergyman was required " out of the fruits of his church, or benefice," to repair his chancel. — See Ayliffes " Parergon," p. 455. According to Bingham, [Orig. Eccles. fol., p. 297.] " the third, or innermost part of the ancient churches was that which we now call the chancel ; but originally it was known by many other names," i. e. the bema, or tribunal ; or adi/tum ; or ho/j/ of holies. The highest part of the chancel, he says, was called apsis, exedia, or conchula-be- matis. Chancery, high court of, according to Mr. Whitaker, ^Cath. of Cormvall, vol. i. p. 152.] was formerly held in the south porch of Canter- bury Cathedral; and, as the archbishop presided, it was called by Selden " tribunal archiepisco- pale." — Battely's Survei/ of Canterbury . Chantry, or Cha UNTRY ; from cawo, Lat. ; chanter, Fr. ; singechor, Ger. ; chaunt, Eng., is an apart- ment in, or an appendage to, a cathedral or other church, and considered as a sepulchral chapel, founded and endowed by a person of property of the Roman Catholic religion, for a chantry-priest or priests, to offer up masses, by chaunting or singing, to release the soul or souls of the de- ceased from the pains of purgatory. The body of such founder was usually entombed near the altar, within the chantry ; for the preservation of which, together with its adjuncts, he be- queathed a sufficiency of lands. Before the passing of the Statute of Mortmain, in the reign of Edward IIL, the building and endowing of chantries were matters of testamentary disposi- tion ; but after that enactment it became neces- sary for their founders to obtain a charter, or a grant, specifically from the Crown, in order to secure the lands thus devised for their pious ends; and thenceforth all chantry - priests were accustomed to commence their prayers for " the good estate of the king living," and afterwards for the founder. [Fuller's " Church History," edit. 1655, p. 351.] The importance long at- tached to these posthumous rites is apparent in the circumstance that King Henry VIII., by his last will, revised a month before his demise, made provision for "a multitude of masses to be offered up, for ever, for his soul ; " the effect of which, however, was frustrated by the progress and triumph of that reformation which the monarch had confirmed. Chantries had their origin in the prohibition of private masses, by the bishops and abbots, at the high altars of cathedral and ab- batial churches, as incompatible with the dignity of their respective solemnities. [Fuller, ibid. p. 350.] There were forty-seven chantries in St. Paul's Cathedral, London, as appears from the returns made by the royal commissioners in the second year of King Edward VI. [Dugdale's " History of St. Paul's," edit. 1818. p. 380.] Fuller has given an account of the "odde seven," as " enough to acquaint us with the nature of all the rest," viz. — 1. Sir John Beauchamp's chantry, founded by himself, for one chaplain, to pray for the souls of himself and the progenitors of the Earl of Warwick. 2. Sir John Poultney, founded by his last testament, for three priests, to pray for his own and all Christian souls. 3. John, Duke of Lancaster, founded by his executors, for two chaplains, to pray for King Henry IV., then living, and the soul of himself. 4. Walter Sherington, founded by his executors, for two chaplains, both Englishmen and graduates, to 68 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. CHA pray for the good estate of King Henry VI. and his own soul. 5. Thoreias More, Dean of St. Paul's, founded by his executors, for three priests, to pray for his soul and others. 6. Walter Thorpe, founded by his executors, for one chap- lain, to pray for his soul. 7. Richard Fitz-Jaraes, Bishop of London, founded by Henry Hill, citizen and haberdasher, in the thirteenth year of Henry VIII., for one chaplain, to pray. Besides the chantry-masses thus provided for, there were cathedral -masses in daily course of celebration by the dean and chapter of St. Paul's ca- thedral. The stipends of the chantry- priests were varied in proportion to the piety and pro- perty of the founder, from forty marks for 2000 masses, to four-pence for a single mass ; and chantry-priests were not allowed to receive more than seven marks per annum, or three marks, with their board; but they contrived to increase their resources by performing " general and special obits for other men," besides their founders, and by " procession-pence." [Ai/liffe's " Parergoii," p. 61 ; Lynchoond's " Piovinciule," p. 240.] Secular priests were sometimes selected for the duties of chantries. It appears, by an instrument in the chapter-house of St. Mary, at Shrewsbury, dated 4th July, 1333, that mass was ordained to be chanted for ever at the altar of St. Winifred, within that monastery, for the soul of William de Mokely, abbot, and the souls of his predecessors and successors, by a secular priest, who should be bound by his oath to perform the same ; and for which service he was to receive, for his expenses and exhibition, a chamber, fitting his estate, in their almonry, and six yearly marks (about 100/.), by the hands of their almoner. [^Blakexuay and Owen's S/irews., vol. 11., 117.] Among the most remarkable chantries in this kingdon;, at the present day, rescued from spoliation, may be instanced those of Henry VII. and Henry V. at Westminster Abbey Church : the latter monarch bequeathed to his altar there, plate and vestments ; and directed such altar to be served by three monks, who are to say three masses daily ; eight wax- lights, of eight pounds each, were to be kept for ever burning on the tomb during high mass, and vespers every day; and bequeaths 100/. for its support." [" IJist. of West. Ahbetj" bi/ Bnujlcy and Keale, vol. ii, p. bo.] Fuller, referring to the celebration of chaunting, says, that " almost every one of the forty and seven chanteries founded in St. Paul's Church had their priest officiating either in several chapels or at several altars, probably not to disturb each other in their private celebrations." [Ibid. p. 352]. The splendid Chapel of Henry VII. at Westminster may be regarded as a chantry, it being built ex- pressly to contain his sepulchral tomb, with an altar, and was endowed for priests to offer up prayers. By the monarch's last will it is ordered, that " within the grate, at oure fete after a con- venient distance from oure towmbe, be maid an aultier, at which aultier we wol certaine priests daily sale masses for the weale of oure soule and remission of oure syiines ; under such man- ner and fourme as is convenanted and agreed betwext us and the abbot, priour, and convent." [Nic/iols's " Royal Wills."] Chantries were dis- solved by Act of Parliament, 1st Edward VI. c. 14; and " vast was the wealth," adds Fuller, " accruing to the Crown by their dissolution." He further observes that " their exact number, in all England, was unknown" at the time. Chantry-chapels are remaining in all the Cathe- drals, and in most of the large monastic, and also in many of the parochial, churches of Eng- land. The bishops and abbots generally provided such memorials either before death, or bequeathed property, and left testamentary directions for their subsequent erection. [L^icliols's " Royal and Noble Wills."'] Nobles and lords of manors often founded, endowed, and built chantries at the end of one of the ailes in parish churches, and appropriated them for the reception of family tombs, for heraldic insignia, and for portions of their armour. In the abbey church of West- minster; St. George's Chapel, Windsor; in Can- terbury Cathedral ; and in other great churches, there are many very fine and interesting speci- mens of royal and prelatical chantries, some of which exhibit splendid specimens of the archi- tectural and sculptural designs of their respective ages. The chantry -chapels of Henry V. and Henry VII., at Westminster; of Edward IV., at Windsor ; of Edward II., at Gloucester; and of Bishops Waynfleet, Beaufort, Wykehani, Sec, at Winchester, — are amongst the most splendid works of art belonging to their respective times. Most of these chapels consist of open screens. CHA ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 69 surrounding and enclosing monumental tombs, with effigies of the founders, and other sculptured decorations, with an altar at the east end, raised on a step ; and having a piscina, and an ambry, or closet, on the south side. Chapel. Capella, Lat. ; chapelle, Fr. ; capella, It.; capilla, Sp.; kapelle, Ger. a building appropriated to the performance of Christian worship ; but subordinate to, and generally dependant on, the mother, or parish church. There are many chapels attached to, and forming part of large churches, particularly cathedrals. Chapels are contradistinguished from churches in being served by a stipendiary chaplain — -in being deprived of a font, and the rites of baptism, marriage, and sepulture. Ca/?e//a, according to Johnson, [£cc/es. Laws MCLxxxviu pr.] " signifies a cabinet to contain holy reliques; and, in a larger sense, a closet' or chest for the repository of any thing valuable; hence it came to signify a little church: for no church or chapel could be ordinarily con- secrated without having the reliques of some saint to be kept therein." In ecclesiastical laws, chapels are classed under the heads of " royal, J'ree^ collegiate, of -ease, and private." The first, or Royal Chapels, possessed peculiar privileges, as having been raised and founded by monarchs. Of this class are the famed and highly interest- ing edifices, St. George's, at Windsor ; King's College, at Cambridge ; and that of Henry VII. at Westminster. These are nearly the same as Free Chapels, which were allowed in the time of Edward III. a.d. 1342, and were so named as being exempt from " all ordinary jurisdiction." The king had the power of erect- ing them, and also of granting license to any subject to found one. Collegiate Chapels are those belonging to col- leges, either monastic or secular; and are next in size and importance to royal chapels. Each college in the English universities has its re- spective chapel, in which the Protestant religious services are performed. In the Roman Catholic colleges, schools, and monasteries, there are private chapels devoted to the routine service of the Catholic religion ; and some of these are sumptuously decorated at and about the altar, and have lights constantly burning. It is re- marked by some writers, that chapels are ge- nerally dedicated to female saints. The Lady, or Virgin Mary Chapel, in cathedrals, is usually at the eastern extremity of the church. Those of Ely and Bristol cathedrals are on the north side. Some collegiate churches in France are called Saintes chapelles, from containing relics of saints — there is one at Paris, another at Dijon, and one at Bourbon. Private Chapels are those apartments, or build- ings in, or attached to, mansions and bishop's palaces, which exclusively belong to the lord, or prelate. It was provided by Archbishop Strat- ford that no priest should perform service in any unconsecrated building or apartment, without license from the bishop. By Anselm's " Canons," A.D. 1102, persons are prohibited to build chapels without consent of the bishop. The Legatine constitutions, a.d. 1268, Sec. 16, state that, " when a private person desires a proper chapel, and the bishop grants it for a just cause, he always used to add, ' so that it be done without prejudice to the right of another.' We ordain that chaplains ministering in such chapels restore to the rector of the mother church all oblations and other things." By the constitutions of Arch- bishop Stratford, a. d. 1342, priests are strictly forbidden to celebrate mass in private chapels ; but they were allowed to officiate in the "chapels and oratories erected, or to be erected, for the kings or queens of England, or their children." — [^Johnson's Eccle. Laws. A.D. MCCXLII.'] War- ton, in his interesting " History of Kiddington," (3d. edit. p. 26), thus notices a maneriul chapel : " Licenses for celebrating divine service in a manerial chapel, are very frequent in our epis- copal registers. As thus : Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester, grants license to Thomas Earl of Kent, and Alice his wife, to have a chapel in their mansion-house in the New Forest, for cele- brating mass and all sacraments ' per idoneos capellanos extra matricis ecclesiae prejudicium, &c.' Dat. Nov. 12, 1390. Registr. Wykeham. p. iii. fol. 102. Grosthead, Bishop of Lincoln, in some constitutions given to his diocess about the year 1250, forbids Earl Warren to have mass performed in the hall of his mansion-house at Graham, " Canibus ubique in ea discurrentibus et cubantibus, &c." He calls it " Aula de Gra- ham." [Broivne's Fascie, vol. ii. p. 345, ut supra.] By the ecclesiastical canons of 1603, 70 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. CHA ministers are prohibited from preaching, and administering the communion in private chapels, excepting in cases of " dangerous sickness or impotency." Cfiapeh-of-ease are dependant on the mother, or parochial churches, and built at some distance from the latter for the accommodation of persons who could not travel so far to attend vvorsliip. Hence, in hamlets remote from the parish-church, chapels are often raised ; and also in large and populous towns, where the whole of the inha- bitants cannot be accommodated in the old church. Dr.Milner, in his " Inquiry into certain Vul- gar Opinions," &c. 8vo. 1807, has given his opinion on the form, details, and decorations of Catholic chapels. Chapiter, Chapiteel, the capital of a column. The word occurs in this sense frequently in the English translation of the old Testament. {See Capital.) — See Harington's translation of Or- lando Furioso, 42. 70. CHAPTEu-Housii, and Chapter- room, Capitii- liiiit, Lat. ; chapitre, Fr. ; capitolo, It. ; deiprops/ci, Ger., the apartment in which the ecclesiastical councils, or chapters of cathedrals and conventual churches, assembled to transact their official business. In a roll of Exeter cathedral, 1412-13, dated this room is called dumiis capilularis. In architectural design, the chapter-house is ge- nerally an interesting, and often a very beautiful feature of a large church. In the buildings of different ages and different districts, it is varied in forni, proportion, size, and decoration. Those of the earliest date in England, /. e. of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, are mostly, if not wholly, of an oblong or parallelograniic shape, some of which arc terminated eastwaid, with a semicircular end, as at Durham. (See engraved ground plan of Durham Cathedral.) Others are circular, as at Worcester ; octangular, as Salis- bury, York, Wells, &.c. ; or polygonal, as Lich- field and Lincoln. The accompanying series of engraved ground plans of twelve chapttr-iwuses will serve better than language to point out the varieties in form of so many of the most remarkable specimens m England. Every cathedral, and nearly all the great conventual churches, were provided with chapter-houses, which were usually connected with, and approached from, the cloister ; as at Salisbury, Bristol, Exeter, Canterbury, Oxford, Westminster, &c. There are some, however, differently situated ; as at Wells, Lichfield, and York, where they are connected with the north transept. That of Wells is peculiar in position and design, being elevated considerably above the level of the church, and approached by a flight of steps. That of Westminster has also a crypt, and is entered by a flight of steps from the cloister. Appropriated as they were for the official meetings of liie monastic clergy — for certain religious ceremonies — and for occasional eccle- siastical meetings, we find that some of them are spacious in size, and most of them are much adorned with sculpture and stained glass. Sur- rounding each, and attached to the lower part of the wall, within-side, is a continued s'tone seat, backed with a series of niches or compartments, formed by columns, or mouldings, and intended as seats for the members of the chapter. At the eastern end, and facing the entrance, were three stone seats, generally raised above the others, and appropriated to the three higher officers of the chapter. A brief notice of the plans in the accompanying engraving, with references to other prints, will enable the reader to understand the chief architectural peculiarities of chapter-houses. Those of Anglo-Norman design and construction are -D«r//aw, already referred to; Bristol {fig. 11), Gloucester (fig. 8), and Caiiterbujy (fig. 7). That of Durham, perhaps once the very finest specimen in England, has been destroyed. It was adorned on each side, internally, with a series of arcades, formed by an interlaced semicircular moulding ; was vaulted over, and provided with ribs; whilst its east end was finished with a semicircular apsis. Bristol, as shewn in plan (fig. 11), is an oblong rectangle, entered from the cloister, through a porticus, or vestibule, supported by four columns. A doorway, with semicircular arch, and two windows similarly arched, each having a stone column in the centre, form openings from this vestibule to the interior apartment. Its side walls, as at Durham, are adorned with a series of arcades, the backs of which are slightly coved, or hollowed, for seats. An ornamented string- course crowns the arcade, and separates the side BRITTONS ARCHITECTintAL TlICTIONAKr. Crawa "by T-H dtafkt. Enp-Rvcd "by J Le J&ux CHAPTER MCnrSES. GBOTTO]) PT.ATTS OTF 12.TIZ. 1. Wells 2 Lictfield __S Yorlc _4 Exetei- ___5 Lxncoltx 6 Dnrharo . 7. CantoAniTT 8. raoucrster 9 Worcester _10 Oicster^U Ei-istol_12 Sahsbui-V Xondon J\ibU.thAi hv JJifittpn.,/tur £ /g33 CHA ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 71 walls into two divisions, the upper of which is enriched with reticulated, lozenged, and other forms cut in the stone facing. The whole of the west wall, or entrance end, is covered with columns, and archivolt mouldings, whilst the inner roof is vaulted, and adorned with orna- mented ribs springing from the angles, and diverging across the roof diagonally, with another extending across from one side-wall to the other. At the east end are two windows with semicir- cular arches ; and on the south side are two others. These, with the whole of the eastern wall, have been newly made under the direction of the learned dean, the Rev. Dr. Beeke. Before this restoration and improvement, there were sash windows, and other great absurdities : now the room is unrivalled in architectural style and cha- racter. This part of the church is supposed to be of the age of Robert Fitzharding, about 1142. A view of the interior, with ground plan; and a further account of it, will be found in Cath. Ant. Bristol. (See also Plate i. Arches, fig. 7.) The Chapter - House, Gloucester Cathedral [Plan, fig. 8] is a large, lofty rectangular room, on the east side of the splendid cloister, and to the north of that church. A semicircular-headed doorway communicates with the cloister. Each side-wall is adorned with attached columns sup- porting a continued arcade of semicircular archi- volt mouldings, and the east end is finished with three sides of an octagon, having a large window, of nine days, or lights. This end is of later date than the other parts of the room, as is the vaulted ceiling ; but the original design and workman- ship may be safely assigned to Bishop Serlo, about A.D. 1100, under whom some works were erecting in this edifice, then a priory-church. The Chapter-Houses of Chester [fig. 10] and Oxford [fig. 8, erroneously written Durham}, by their style and general design, indicate nearly the same age. The former is ascribed to Randal de Blundeville, who was made Earl of Chester in 1181, and died in 1232. As shewn by the plan, it is a parallelogram of three divisions, or severies, with a vaulted and ribbed ceiling, and three windows on the north side, two to the south, and a large one, of five lights, to the east. In front of the glazing is a series of tall and small columns, carrying an arcade of lancet-shaped arches. Exterior to the chapter-room is a ves- tibule, or porticus, arched over, and ribbed with diagonal mouldings, which spring from four in- sulated columns; other attached columns are at the sides. This vestibule is of different design to the chapter-room. — (See Wild's Account of Chester Cathedral, and Ormerod's Histori/ of Cheshire.) The Chapter- House, Canterbury Cathedral [fig. 7], resembles that of Gloucester in form, and in its connexion with the church and cloister, being to the north of the latter, and joining the eastern walk of the former. A series of columns attached to the side and east end walls, with arches, extend around, and rest on a stone seat ; and the number of seats exceeds that of any other chapter-room in England, whence it is inferred that the chapter of this metropolitan church was greater than any other. The roof is very lofty : there is a large window at the east end, and another at the west end, over the cloister. The date of the oldest part is about 1250, the time of Archbishop Boniface. — (See Cath. Antiq. Canter- bury, for a view and descriptive particulars ; and PI. 2, fig. 5, Arcades.) Exeter Chapter-House [fig. 4], though of the Norman shape, i. e. rectangular, has mullioned windows on each side and in the eastern wall, and presents very different columns, mouldings, dressings, &c. to any of the designs before no- ticed, and also to the others whose ground plans are given on the annexed plate. This building is satisfactorily referred to the prelacy of Bishop Bruere, who presided at Exeter from 1224 to 1244. — (See Cath. Antiq. Exeter, for a view of the interior, for architectural details, and descrip- tive particulars.) The Chapter- House, Worcester Cathedral [fig. 9], may be regarded as the first deviation from the rectangular form ; and this is seen to be nearly circular within, with ten faces, or sides, externally. It is approached immediately from the cloister, which is of much later date; is separated from the south transept of the church by a slyp, or passage, of true Norman archi- tecture ; has a single column in the centre, sup- porting a vaulted ceiling, with ribs diverging from it to brackets in the wall ; has a continued arcade of columns, and intersecting arch mould- ings all around, with a stone seat below, and a series of windows above. The original work and 72 AKCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. CHA design appear to be about tlie end of the twelfth century. An interior view, with remarlvs on its date and architecture, is given in Cath. Antuj. Worcester. Lincoln Chapter- House [fig. 5] is of singular design, having ten nearly equal sides, with flying- buttresses extending from each angle to the dis- tance of thirty feet from the wall ; whence it is said to represent a tent. In each face is a win- dow of two lights, and surrounding the interior is a stone seat, with a continued arcade. A similar arcade lines the side-walls of the vesti- bule, which forms an intermediate apartment between the room and the cloister. In the centre is a column composed of ten semi-columns (c), from the capitals of which diverge twenty ribs to the outer wall. The whole of this building is in the lancet, or first pointed style, and is said to have been erected by Bishop Hugh of Burgundy about A.D. 1200.— [See pi. 1, fig. 13. of Ar- cades.] Ware, in his scientific " Treatise on Arches," has given a section of this building, and in his account remarks, that the chapter- house of Salisbury owes much of its fame to the circumstance of its architect having avoided the defective construction apparent in that of Lin- coln. He thinks that the quantity of arch-but- tresses was not necessary to support the building. The Chapter - House at Westminster had also similar buttresses, but they did not extend so far from the wall. They were apparently unneces- sary, as the wall of the crypt, an apartment be- neath the chapter-room, is of great substance. The Chapter - House, Lichjield Cathedral [fig. 2], unlike any other, but in a corresponding style of architecture to that of Lincoln, is com- posed of ten sides, or faces, and disposed in an oblong, or nearly oval shape. Its measurement within is forty-five by twenty-eight feet, on the plan. A stone seat, with a series of stalls, ex- tends around the lower division of the building ; whilst eight windows, of two lights to each, occupy the upper divisions. It is said to have been erected during the prelacy of Bishop Sta- venby, about 1224 ; it is a very interesting speci- men of the architectural style of that age. Its capitals, brackets, &c. are elaborately sculptured, in imitation of foliage. (See views of parts of this edifice, and an account of it, in Cath. Antiq. Lichjield.) Chapter- House, Salishuri/ Cathedral [fig. 12], is attributed to Bishop Bridport, who died A.D. 1262. It has eight sides, and as many large windows ; all of which were adorned with " the storied pane," In tlie central clustered column, which supports the groined roof, we find this difference from the former examples, viz. that while in them the small shafts form a part of the solid mass, they are here detached from the chief, or clustered-pillar, and connected at inter- vals by horizontal bands. The floor was formed of richly-glazed tiles : the general decoration and scientific construction placed this among the finest buildings of its class. [The stalls are shewn in pi. 2, fig. 7, Arcades.] Chapter- House, York Cathedral [fig. 3] pre- sents a new and imposing design in this class of sacred buildings. Although fully equal in size to any of the foregoing examples of circular arrangement, the vaulting of this is carried across the building in a single span of forty- seven feet. (SeeGROiN, and Rib.) An enlarged plan is given in plate 1 ; and its architectural features are still further developed in plate 2 of " Tracery of vaulted ceilings." This is copied from a print in Sir James Hall's " Essay on Gothic Architecture," 4to, 1813 ; being a per- spective view of the vaulted ceiling, as supposed to be seen in a mirror on the floor. It is from an original drawing by Edward Blore, Esq. — [See Cath. Antiq., York; and Halfpenny's Go- thic Ornaments of York Cathedral, for views and an account of the chapter-house.] This building was erected about the year 1280. Wells Chapter-House [fig. I], standing over a crypt, is raised considerably above the level of the church, and is approached by a flight of steps from the great north transept. It is similar in its general arrangements to that of Salisbury ; but the form of the external buttresses is some- what unusual ; coming to a sharp arris in front, as is the case with those in the Lady Chapel (now a school-house) at Waltham Abbey, Essex. Wells Chapter- House appears to have been erected by Bishop de la March about the year 1300. Its sub-room, on the level of the church, is a fine architectural design, as well as skilfully executed. It has a single column in the centre, from which diverge bold ribs, forming very flat- tened arches ; near the door of entrance is a CHU] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 73 singular lavatory, or water-trough. An arched passage, or corridor, connects this crypt with the north aile of the choir : there is a circular stair-case from the crypt to the chapter-room. over it. The following tabular view of Chapter- Houses serves to point out their sizes, forms, and other peculiarities. — See plate oi Ground Plans of Chapter-Houses. LIST OF CHAPTER -HOUSES IN ENGLAND. From Cathedral Antiquities, except where otherwise named. RECTANGULAR. BniSTOl , Canterbury Gloucester Durham Chester OxroRD Exeter AV'inchester Llandaff BuiLDWAS Abbey Worcester LiNCOLN Lichfield Westminster Abbey Wells Hereford Salisbury York Wenlock Priory LENGTH. EBEADTH. HT. REMARKS. Int. Ext. Int Ext. Int. 43 53 25 36 26 Erected about 1142; adjoins S. transept ; approached from cloister by a vestibule ; vaulted roof. 87 99 35 45 52 N. of transept ; entrance from cloister ; vaulted roof with wood and tracery ; large windows at E. and W. ends. C8 77 .35 44 Very lofty ; entrance from cloister ; arched roof. 78 90 36 45 Erected in 1 133 by Bp. Rufus ; semicircular end. Taken down. — Account by Soc. of Antiq, 50 58 26 36 36 Wild's Chester Cath. 54 64 24 34 Temp. Hen. II. ; early pointed style ; S. of transept ; entrance from cloister. 55 62 28 38 50 Lower part about 1230; upper part, 1427. 88 38 One side remains; adjoins S. transept, with slvp between. 23 27 21 26 Early pointed ; central col. — Storer's Cathedrals. 41 52 31 42 About a.d. 1135 ; in ruins. — Arch. Antiq. vol. iv. OCTAGONAL, POLYGONAL, &c. 55 65 55 65 62 70 62 70 42 45 54 28 36 58 66 58 66 55 65 55 65 42 45 45 53 58 53 58 52 57 70 57 70 50 About 1150; separated from S. transept by passage; circular within ; ten faces without ; central col. ; ribbed roof. Before 1200; decagon; central col.; vaulted roof; 140 feet diameter, including buttresses. Ware on Arches Arch. Antiq. vol. v.; Wild's Cathedrals. About 1200 ; central col. ; vaulted roof; large vestibule. Temp. Hen. III.; octagon; central col.; modern roof: over crypt Brayley and JVcale's Westminster Abbey. Over a crypt ; octagon ; central col. ; small vestibule. Decagon ; fragment remaining. Octagon ; central col. ; S. of transept ; entered from cloister ; vestibule; about 1260. Octagon ; a.d. 1280 ; connected with N. transept by a vestibule; vaulted roof, of wood. One side and east end remain. See Arcades, pi. 3, fig. 7. — Arch. Antiq. iv. Char, Chare, Cyjajie, Sax., to hew, or work. In the will of Henry VI. relative to the building of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, it is ordered that the walls " be imbatteled, vawted, and chare - roffed ; " that is, vaulted loith wrought stone. — Arch. Antiq. vol. i. p. 3. Mr. Dallaway strangely says, " chare - roffed means a space having been left between the vault and the roof." [Observ. on Eng. Arch. p. 174.] The meaning was, that the whole vaulted- roof was made of hewn stone, and not partly filled up with rubble, and plastered. Charnel, from carnalis, Lat. ; Carnal, from caro, flesh ; carnell, Ger. ; camera, Sp. ; carnaio, It. ; charnel, Ft. Charnel-House, Charmer, Fr. a larder; a vaulted room under, or adjoining a church, in which human bones are deposited. The epitaph on Shakspeare's flat grave-stone in the chancel of Stratford church evidently alludes to the practice of removing bones from their place of interment to such depositories, wherein is the anathema of " Curst be he who moves my bones." The charnel-room at Stratford is on the north side of the chancel, immediately adjoining the Shak- speare Vault. It is now beneath the soil. In the charnel-house of Ripon Minster, perhaps the most remarkable in the kingdom, the bones are curiously piled up. On the north side of St. Paul's church-yard, London, was a chapel called "the Charnel," beneath which was a vault, wherein " the bones taken out of sundry graves in that cemetery were, with great respect and care, decently piled together." {Dugdale's L 74 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [CHA " Ilistorij of St. Paul's Cathedral," by Ellis, p. 89.] If this chapel and crypt were not built for the purpose of receiving bones, and accom- modating a chantry priest, they were found to be thus appropriated in 1540, when the whole were taken away, " and more than 1000 cart- loads of bones carried to Finsbury fields." CiiARTOPHYi-AciuM, from two Greek words denot- in"- charters, or writings of any kind, is a room or place of deposit, a receptacle to contain records. Chequers, a term applied when stones do not break joint, and are arranged diamond -wise. The chequers were the armorial coat of the Earls of Warren and Surrey; and, from being used on their hostels, or inns, were afterwards adopted as signs to public-houses. {See Exchequer.) Chequered, or Checkered. A surface of a wall is said to be checkered, when it is divided into a number of equal contiguous parallelograms, alternately coloured. The term is sometimes applied to reticulated masonry ; also to brick- walls where dark bricks are worked into the regular facing in diamond forms. (See Diaper- ed.) " The chequered lines of dark brick, very common in buildings of the age of Hampton Court Palace, are symptoms of degenerate taste." — Wilhon, in Pugin's " Specimens," vol. n. p. 2. Chest, a large wooden box with a cover or lid, fastened at the back by hinges, and generally provided with one or more locks in front, to secure the contents within. Old churches, castles, and mansions, generally contained several of these substantial and costly pieces of furniture, to pro- tect money, jewels, clothes, and other choice and valuable articles. Under the head of " Cista cum re/iquiis" in an inventory of jeivels, &c. belonging to Salisbury Cathedral, a.d. 1656, is the following list of chests, which specifies the names of dift'erent objects belonging to a Catholic church at that time, and also notices the variety and richness of these receptacles: — ""A fair chest, curiously and cleanly made, covered with cloth of gold, with shields of noblemen set with pearls, with lock, gemmels, and key, silver and gilt. — Item. One fair chest, painted and gilded, with precious stones and knops of glass, bordered with coral, seven of them wanting, and painted within like silver. — Item. Three other chests, very fair, and ornate with precious stones, with gemmels of silver and gilt. — Item. One chest containing relicks of the eleven thousand Vir- gins in four purses, with this scripture, jE.r dono Domini Asserii. — Item. Four chests covered with blue cloth, containing ten corporasses and divers relicks of cypress wood, and ornate with arms. — Item. Five corporasses cases contained in a chest painted. Also divers chests, some with clasps and keys, and others having none ; some covered with cloth of blue and silver, and others ornate with ivory, and gemmels, and locks." — Dodsworth's " Historical Account of Salisbury Cathedral," 4to. p. 229. In Pugin's " Specimens," vol. n., is an en- graved representation of a finely carved chest, in the possession of George Ormerod, Esq., the historian of Cheshire, with a description and some historical comments on it by Mr. Ormerod and by Mr. E. J.Willson. Shaiv's " Specimens of Ancient Furniture" contains representations of two very fine chests. Nicolas's " Vetusta Testa- meiita" contains several passages in wills, be- queathing such pieces of furniture to particular persons. It appears from that work, that the word Chest was sometimes used synonymously with coffin and coffer. Cheveron, Chevron, Fr. a sculptured ornament, or moulding, also called the zig-zag, which is common on the archivolts of the windows, door- ways, and string - courses of Norman arches. [.See Specimens in Plate of Arches, pi. I. fig. 12; and pi. I. fig. 1 of Arcades]. Cheveron is the name of one of the greater ordinaries in heraldry, which is formed by two lines placed pyramidically, and thus representing two rafters of a house : it resembles two sides of a triangle. Chevet, Fr. the eastern termination of a church when it is of a semicircular or polygonal form : the same as apsis, which see. Whittington uses the term to denote " the semicircular arcade {le iond point), at the eastern end of a church." — Eccles. Antiq. of France. Chillenden (Thomas), Prior of Canterbury, built the fine Nave of that cathedral church before the year 1411, when he died. It is also related that he erected parts of the cloister, and the upper part of the Chapter- house. His name appears on the stone-work of the great western window of the latter. — Cath. Antiq. Cant. p. 38. BUTTONS ARQllTKCrURJO. UXCTIOM AJUf . S.]Uyn«rd«l. CHIMNEY- SHAFTS . l.BadwfU Haal.SuffdlTt. 3.P,a5t BtLsham Han.NarfoUc. 2.Baxtan.ls)<> ofWiglit, 4.aaro.Sui5'ollc. LtitdiM. iUHuKed &f tAf jIu^Amt'/t^i* ll»30. chr] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 75 Chimney, Cami?ius, Lat. ; Cheminie, Fr. ; Camino, It. ; Kamin, Ger., is that funnel, or aperture, in the wall of a building, which communicates with the fire-place of a room, and usually terminates by a chimney-shaft at the top of a house. The origin and early use of chimneys have afforded themes for conjecture and dissertation. There is much difference of opinion amongst antiquaries respecting the employment of chimneys in ancient classical buildings. Beckman [History of Inven- tions, vol. II. p. 66. edit. 1797] has given some of their opinions, and for himself comes to the conclusion that there were not any before the end of the thirteenth century. Winkelmann, not finding any among the ruins of Herculaneum, infers that they were not used by the Romans. Coals were, however, found in some of the rooms at Herculaneum, whence he concludes, that the inhabitants made charcoal fires. [^Observations on the Baths of the Ancients.'] In the foundations of the Roman villa at Bignor, in Sussex, Mr. Lysons represents and describes a fire-place as being in one of the rooms. — Archceologia, vol. xvi. " Grates and chimneys," says Whitaker [His- tory of Whallei/, p. 93], " were beginning to be introduced about 1370." " TSToinc J)at5 ccljc incite a nilt, to caUn be Ijim stUc In a pritiic parlur (or poorc mens safec, (§t in cl^ambrc toBtl^ a chymney anU IcaiJt tje cljitfc ^allE." 1st Edit. Pierce Plowman, fol. XLiii. There are examples of chimneys in the Anglo- Norman castles of Rochester, Hedingham, &c. ; and there is one in an Anglo-Norman house at Winwall in Norfolk. — See Arch. Antiq. vol. v. p.211. In the following volumes of the Gentleman's Magazine are dissertations on the antiquity and use of chimneys. Vol. lvii. pp. 79, 92, 112, 408, 677; vol. lxxii. pp. 505, 988, 1109; and vol. Lxxv. p. 433. The chimney -shafts in houses, built in the reigns of Henry VII., VIII., and Queen Elizabeth, are variously and elaborately ornamented, as at Eton College, Buckinghamshire ; East Basham Hall, Norfolk ; Hampton Court, Middlesex, and in many other old houses. — See Arch. Antiq., vol. ii. and Pugin's " Spec." vols. i. and ii. for some interesting representations of chimney- shafts, and chimney-pieces, with descriptions by E. J. Willson. The accompanying plate of Chimney Shafts represents a cluster of three, variously ornamented, from Badwell Hall, Suf- folk ; another group of two, from Barton, Isle of Wight ; a cluster of ten, richly embellished, at East Basham Hall, Norfolk ; and a single shaft, from Clare, Suffolk. A specimen of a curious chimney-piece, from Fountains Abbey, is engraved in plate I. of Arches, fig. 22. Choir, from ^ogos, Gr.; chorus, Lat. ; the chorus, or choir of singers and performers, occupying an orchestra, stage, or other place appointed for them. In sacred edifices the choir, in Fr. chaur. It. coro, is a portion of the church appropriated to stalls for the canons, priests, deacons, and assistants, and seats for the chor- isters; in which the cathedral and other church service is performed. The choir is popularly called quire in England, and the singers quir- istors. Bingham [Origin. Eccles. fol. 298] says that " in some canons it had the name of chorus, whence comes our English quire." The fourth council of Toledo appoints " the priests and deacons to communicate before the altar, the inferior in the quire, and the people without the quire." It appears that the choir was not separated from the nave before the age of Con- stantine, after whose time it was railed in and curtained off from the other parts of the church. In the large Protestant churches, the choir is kept distinct from the chancel, and communion- table, generally by steps, and altar -rails ; and from the nave, or body of the church, by another screen, on which the organ is usually placed. In churches wherein the service is not chanted, it is not easy to define the site and extent of the choir : it is not correct to call the aile, or area of a parish church in which the usual Pro- testant service is performed, the choir. Chrismas (Gerard), architect and sculptor, design- ed the Gatehouse at Aldersgate, London, in the 17th century. He is said to have built the front of Northumberland House, in the Strand, London.' — Walpole's Works, 4to. vol. in. p. 173. Christian Architecture, a phrase applied to all the classes of buildings which were invented and erected by the Christians, and which essentially varied from the Pagan architecture of the Egypt- ians, Greeks, and Romans. It includes all the varieties of design used in churches and monas- 76 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [CHA teiies, from the sixth to the end of the sixteenth century. — See Arch. Autiq. vol. v. p. 31. Church, k-jsiw olxog, and ly.7iXr,eia, Gr. ; ecclesia, Lat. ; eglise, Fr. ; iglesia, Sp. ; chiesa, Ital. ; cipce, Sax.; kirche, Ger. ; kirk and ki/rk, Scot.; an edifice expressly erected and appropriated for the celebration of Christian worship. The various terms which have been applied, in dif- erent ages, to these buildings, refer to the pur- poses for which they were erected. The Greek, the German, and the Saxon, as above given, all imply the House of God; and the English word church, with the Latin, domiiiicum, which is said to have been anciently used for church, may be referred to the same root and origin ; while the Latin, ecclesia, and its modern derivatives were originally intended to convey the notion of an assembly, or congregation of Christians, and only applied to the building itself in a secondary sense. In the early days of Christianity, its primitive disciples often assembled, for the sake of safety, in private houses, and also in subterranean vaults, or burying-places, and especially at the graves or monuments of their martyrs. [Bingham's " Orig. Eccles." fol. vol. I. p. 277.] In the first century, the Christians appear to have associated in certain houses which were set apart by pious persons for the purposes of devotion : and to such private chapels, or places of worship, the term oratory, or home of prayer was given: in ancient times, this word was also applied to a public church. [Ibid. p. 274.] As Christianity increased in influence and security, separate edifices, expressly devoted to Divine service, began gradually to be erected. After the conversion of Constantine to Christ- ianity, the basilica:, or public halls, and courts of judicature, and some of the heathen temples, being first divested of emblems of idolatry, were consecrated as Christian churches ; hence the terms basilica and templum were employed by St. Ambrose, St. Austin, and other writers of the fourth and fifth centuries, to designate churches. The munificence of Constantine and some of his successors in converting the sumptuous heathen temples into churches, and also in erecting new edifices, in various cities, contributed to increase Christianity and also the number of its believers; and, consequently, additional and larger churches were soon required. [Bingham, ibid. p. 285.] Between the reigns of Constantine and Justinian almost every part of the Roman empire was provided with ecclesiastical edifices, many of which attested the ostentation, as well as the piety of their founders. Churches had become so numerous in England at the time of compiling the Domesday -book, a.d. 1086, that no fewer than 1700 are mentioned in that record ; and the whole number named in that Survey, " falls considerably under what there are grounds for concluding they must have amounted to about, or soon after, the time of the con- quest." [Appendix to 2nd general Report from Commis. Pub. Rec. p. 456.] The primitive churches in Britain are commonly said to have been small and badly constructed, and it is re- lated that they were so imperfect, even in the days of Alfred, that the candles used in them were often blown out by the wind. Erroneous opinions prevail on the subject of Saxon churches: some of them, before the Norman conquest, were unquestionably built of wood. The church at Lindisfarne, or Holy Island, raised by Bishop Finan, about 635, was of wood : William of Malmesbury mentions a church, or chapel of wood at the village of Doultinge, in Somerset- shire. There were wooden churches also at Sharnburn, in Norfolk, and at Elmham, in Suffolk ; and even after the conquest, we find a wooden church mentioned in Domesday-book as standing at Begeland, in Yorkshire. [Arch. Autiq. vol. V. p. 115.] The first stone church is stated by Bede to have been built on the borders of England and Scotland by Bishop Nynias, in the sixth century, and he says, that it was " not usual among the Britons: they called the place ' Candida Casa,' the M'hite- house." [Bede, " Eccles. Hist." ed. 1723, p. 185.] King Edwin is also said to have budt a stone church at York, on the foundation of one formerly con- structed of wood, for his baptism, in the year 626. [Bede," Eccles. Hist." ib\d. p. 158.] The ancient church of Brixworth, in Northamptonshire, which still remains, was most probably built in the Roman times. The account given by Bede of the monastciy and church of Wearmouth, built about the year 675, by Biscop, who imported artisans from Rome to construct them of stone after the Roman manner, — and the particulars CHU] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 77 recorded of the sacred edifices raised by Bishop Wilfrid, at Ripon, and at Hexham, in a style of grandeur previously unknown, prove that some, at least, of the early churches were both costly and extensive. [Arch. Antiq. vol. v. pp. 107-122.] Bentham, in his History of Ely ; Millers, in his Description of that Cathe- dral, 8vo. ; and JMessrs. Lysons, in Magna Brit. Cambridgeshire, p. 48, contend that portions of the conventual church of Ely, of which some interesting parts remain, were built during the " latter part of the seventh century," and that other parts were " undoubtedly of the reign of King Edgar, in the 10th century." Although these eminent antiquaries are so positive on the subject, the writer of this article cannot subscribe to their evidence, nor acquiesce in their opinions. The English cathedral and conventual churches were generally rebuilt with the funds of the ec- clesiastics, aided by large contributions of the laity; but the original builders in most instances were sovei'eigns, or noble families. Some of the Saxon monarchs also zealously contributed to- wards the erection and renovation of religious structures ; and the parish churches were mostly raised by lords of manors. — Arch. Antiq. vol. v. p. 125. The forms of the early churches were various. The great church of Sancta-Sophia at Constan- tinople, built by the emperor Justinian, was " oblong in the figure of a ship; the church which Constantine built over our Saviour's sepul- chre, at Mount Golgotha, was round ; that which he built at Antioch, was an octagon." [Bing- ham, ibid. p. 288.] The form of the cross was, however, the most common, and was employed in the arrangement of the magnificent church of the Apostles at Constantinople, " which," as Eusebius describes it, " was vastly high, and yet had all its walls covered with marble, its roof overlaid with gold, and the outside, instead of tiles, covered with gilded brass." [Bingham, ibid. p. 286.] The earliest churches in England consisted of one pace, or room, with the eastern part divided off by rails and an arch ; as at Stewkley, Buckinghamshire; Barfreston, Kent; and many others in different parts of England. Some of them were terminated at the east with a semicircular end, or apsis, as that at Pang- bourn, in Buckinghamshire, and others in Here- fordshire, &c. The next form was that with a cross aile, or transept, as at Castle -Rising, in Norfolk. [Arch. Antiq. vol. v. p. 205.] An advance and enlargement of plan was next made by dividing the nave and choir longitudinally, into three parts, by two rows of columns extend- ing from east to west ; and another change was afterwards made by dividing the transept into two spaces, or ailes, by one row of columns arranged north and south, as in Peterborough and SaUsbury cathedrals. An extension was again made in giving additional width to the transept by another row of columns, and thus dividing it into three parts ; as Winchester cathedral, which also exhibits the singularity of having the ailes of the transept continued round the extreme north and south ends. Many of the large Anglo-Norman churches, in imitation of their prototypes in Normandy, have semi- circular east ends, and two towers at the west end, as at Southwell; while the cathedral church of Exeter has two Norman towers at the ex- tremities of the transept; — but that arose from extending the church westward, at a subsequent period. The rarest form of churches in Eng- land is the circular, which was probably in- troduced by persons who returned from the crusades, and had seen the church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. The oldest round church in England is supposed to be that of St. Sepul- chre, at Cambridge, which is referred by Mr. Essex to the reign of Henry 1.: St. Sepulchre's in Northampton is also circular, and may be dated at the end of the twelfth century. There is another at Little Maplestead, in Essex. [See an interesting history and illustration of it, by W. Wallen, Esq.] The Temple church, in London, is the most interesting as well as most beautiful example of this class of buildings. Though these churches are popularly called round, it is proper to observe, that besides the circular portion of the building, there is another open space, or choir, towards the east, separated from the former by one or more arches of communication. The round part in all the churches referred to, as well as in the circular churches at Rome, was separ- ated into two spaces by columns which sup- ported arches, triforia, and clear-stories. [The reader is referred to Durand's Parallel, for plans 78 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [CHU and sections of the round churches at Rome, and for other circular buildings ; and to the Arch. Anliq. for plans, views, &c. of those in Eng- land.] Some writers contend that all these circular buildings were originally intended for baptisteries. — See Robinson's " Ilistori/, 6jC. of Baptism;" and Christie's " Painted Greek Vases," 4to. 1825. p. 142. The various subdivisions, or open spaces of a large church are aile, chancel, chantry, chapter- house, cloister, choir, nave, porch, and tower. [See under each word.] In the ground-plan of Durham cathedral annexed, is displayed the arrangement and members of a large Anglo- Norman church, with its appendages. In the ancient churches, according to Wheler and Bing- ham, there were, 1st, the narthex, porch, or ante- temple, in which the penitents and catechumens stood, and where heretics were allowed to re- main to hear sermons ; 2nd, the naos, or nave, where the communicants had their respective places; and, 3rd, the bema, or chancel, where the bishop and clergy stood to officiate at the altar. Between the outward porch and the church was the area, or atrium, an open court surrounded with porticoes built upon columns ; this was the only place in which the bodies of tlie dead were allowed to be buried for many years after burying- places were permitted in cities ; hence the council of Nantes expressly directs " in ecclesia nullatenus sepeliantur, sed in Atrio, aut Porticu, aut in Exedris Ecclesise." [Cone. Nannetens, c. 6. quoted by Bingham, p. 290]. The bema was separated from the rest of the church by rails of wood " curiously and artificially wrought in the form of net -work" which were called cancelli, and hence the term chancel. Anciently there was only one altar in a church ; the practice of introducing many altars originated with the Roman pontiffs, and is still confined to the Roman Catholic church. — Bingham, ibid. p. 302. The state and extent of the ancient church dominion may be estimated by tlie following enumeration of some of the early diocesses. In Africa, there were, in the days of St. Austin, 466 bishoprics, and no less than 500 clergy were attached to the church of Carthage. In Egypt, Lybia, and Pentapolis, there were 100 bishoprics; 21 in Arabia; and 48 in Palestine. In the Patriarchate of Antioch there were 87 bishoprics; and 388 in the 28 provinces of Asia Minor; there were nearly 300 in Italy and Sicily; 122 in Gaul, including Helvetia,' Ger- many, and Belgium ; and 75 in Spain and its dependent islands. — Bingham's " Origines," pp. 351-395. It is remarkable, that among the 1700 churches recorded in Domesday-book as exist- ing in England at the time of that Survey, " 222 were returned from Lincolnshire, 243 from Norfolk, and 364 from Suffolk ; whilst only one is noticed in Cambridgeshire, and none in Lancashire, Cornwall, or even Middlesex, the seat of the Metropolis." — Append, to 2nd Report, Com. Pub. Rec. p. 456. In the twenty-fifth volume of Archceologia is an Essay, by John Gage, Esq., on " the Anglo- Saxon ceremonial of the dedication and conse- cration of Churches, illustrated from a pontifical in the public library at Rouen." The reader will find much useful and in- teresting information respecting English parochial churches in a small volume by Professor Whewell, entitled, " Notes on the Cambridgeshire Churches." 8vo. 1827. The same learned writer has pub- lished a still more valuable work, " Architectural Notes on German Churches," 2nd ed. 8vo. 1835 : this volume contains much varied information. Respecting the churches of Italy, and the great variety of their forms and architectural details, the reader is referred to " Remarks on the Archi- tecture of the Middle Ages, especially in Italy," hy R. Willis, M.A. 8vo. 1835: this volume is replete with critical and discriminating informa- tion. The reader is also referred to Woods' " Letters of an Architect," 2 vols. 4to. which contains remarks on more than 240 churches in Italy and Greece, and on 62 cathedrals. An Essay on the origin, forms, and peculi- arities of Churches will be found in Arch. Antiq. vol. v., in which is included a review of the theories and opinions of different antiquaries on Saxon architecture, and early ecclesiastical build- ings. " Churches, that is, appropriate places for Christian worship ; both in and ever since the apostles' times. A Discourse, at first more briefly delivered in a colledge chappell, and since en- larged." By Joseph Mede, B.D. 4to. 1638. " An Account of the Churches of the primitive cir] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY, 79 Christians ; from the churches of Tyre, Jerusalem, and Constantinople, described by Eusebius." By Sir George Wheler, Preb. of Durham, 18mo. 1687. " Origines Britannica, or the Antiquities of British Churches, with a preface concerning some pretended antiquities relating to Britain." By Edw. Stillingfleet, D.D. fol. 1685. " The History of Churches in England; tvherein is sheivn the time, means, and manner of founding, build- ing, and endowing of churches, both cathedral and rural, with their furniture and appendages." By Thomas Staveley, Esq., 8vo. 2nd edit. 1773. The following work, in 2 vols. 8vo. 1824, contains much interesting information respect- ing the history, architecture, and peculiarities of Enslish churches, with numerous beautiful en- gravings ; viz. — " Views of the most interesting collegiate and parochial churches in Great Britain; including screens, fonts, monuments," S^c. By J. P. Neale and J. Le Keux. For a dissertation on the forms, and fittings- up of early churches, See Gunn's " Inquiry into the origin and influence of Gothic Architectm'e." Svo. 1819, p. 139, Sec. Dr. Wilson's " Orna- ments of Churches considered," a volume in 4to. 1761, contains much valuable information on the origin of churches. Chuech-House, an apartment appropriated for the transaction of parish business, generally contigu- ous to the church, and sometimes over the porch. — Lysons' Env. of London, vol. in. p. 531. Chyrton, or Chyryton (William de). Abbot of Evesham, rebuilt the central tower of the mon- astic church there, in 1319, and also "built the stately gate -house of the monastery with its chapel and apartments, fortifying the abbey from thence to the river with the existing stone wall." He died in the year 13A4,. — May's History of Evesham, Svo. 1834. CiBORiUM. xiQtL^iov, Gr., a cup, an arched vault, or canopy raised over the high -altar, in imita- tion of what was termed the mercy -seat, above the ark, in the Jewish temple. [Du Cange, Gloss, in verb.l A mere canopy or baldachin was usually substituted for it in the English churches. [See ante, p. 35.] " In the beginning of the fifth century, as appears from St. Chry- sostom, the term was applied to the pillars, cur- tains, canopy, and the whole shrine, or taber- nacle. Before Christianity was fully established, and for some ages after, the practice of m'aking ciboria serve as domestic chapels, from the ex- ample of Constantine, and the general tincture of paganism still remaining, must have been universal." — Ledtvich, in Archaologia, vol. viii. p. 172. Cilery, in the " Builder's Dictionary, 1703," is said to be drapery, or levage, upon the heads of pillars. CiMBiA, a fillet, band, or cincture, round the shaft of a column, as calculated to give it strength, or support. CiMELiARK, a vestry, or room, where the vest- ments, plate, and other church furniture are kept. — Builder's Dictionary. Cincture, Cinctura, Lat., a ring, list, or fillet, at the top and bottom of a column; it represents a ferule, or hoop of metal, anciently used in wooden columns to keep them from splitting. The cincture at the top of a column is also called coUarino. — See Astragal. CiNQUE-FoiL, Cinque -feuille, Fr. an ornament in pointed Architecture, consisting of five cuspi- dated divisions in the tracery of windows and panels. CiNTA, CiNTUM, Lat.; Enceinte, Fr. the exterior wall of a castle. — Meyrick Anc. Armour, vol. iii. Glossary. Cippus, low Lat.; cepiel, N. Fr. the keep of a castle, or rather its prison. Among the ancients the term was applied to a low column with an inscription commemorating some event. The milliary columns are thus called. In the British Museum are several sepulchral cippi. Circus, from xi^xog, Gr.; circus, Lat.; cirque, Fr. The circus was either a large building enclosing an arena or area, or for gladiators, or wild beasts, in the shows of the Roman festivals ; or a public place, and open circular site for the chief temples and edifices. The Circus Maximus at Rome, originally built by Tarquin, was re-built by Julius Csesar; it was oblong, having one end semicircular, and the other straight. It was three stadia and a-half in length; and the circuit of the entire building was eight stadia. The 80 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [CIT term circus designates in modern towns a public place surrounded by houses, built in a circular form. Citadel, Citadelk, Fr. a fort, or fortified place, either within the walls of a town, or at the extremity of them, and formed with four, or more bastions. This portion of a military town is generally intended to guard and protect the inhabitants in case of invasion. Thus, the Tower of London may be regarded as its citadel ; the Acrojiohs of Athens was that of the Athenian capital ; and Norwich Castle, that of Norwich. Clams, from clavis, Lat., a key; the key-stone of an arch. As the key-stone completes the arch, it may be said to fasten and secure it as with a key. {See Key-stone.) Clavy, and Clavel, a mantel-piece, or shelf over a fire-place. A word familiar in most parts of England. Clauster, a word in old writings for cloister, which see. Clear-story, and Clere-story, the upper divi- sion of the nave, choir, transept, and tower of a church ; but it is most commonly applied to that of a church only. Some antiquaries derive clear- story, from the French clair, light; expressive of the quantity of daylight admitted into that part of a church, where an upper tier of w-indows is formed. Messrs. Blakeway and Owen [Histori/ of Shreiushiiry, vol. ii. p. 57] consider that the term is derived from the story of the building being " clear of joists, rafters, or flooring." It is called double-storye in a very curious survey of Bridlington Priory in Yorkshire. — Archaologia, vol. XIX. p. 272. In a contract for building the collegiate church of Fotheringay, Northamptonshire, founded by Richard, duke of York, a.d. 1425, is this pas- sage, " And (in the nave) shall be tenn arches, and above every arche, a wyndowe of foure lights, in all points like unto the clerestory of the said quere." In the same indenture it is further agreed that when the steeple shall be raised to the height of the church, its " square forme shall be chaunged and tournyed into vui paynes, and in the said stepyll above both flores vni clerestory wyndowes sett in the niyddest of the wall, eche wyndowe of iii lights." Blomefield in " History of Norfolk," 8vo. vol. IV. p. 67. has the following passage: — " In 1431, the window over the cleristories, that is, the seats in the wall on the south side of the altar, on which the clerks sat in stories one higher than another: viz. the priest, deacon, and subdeacon, was new glazed." In this the topo- grapher has misapplied the term. Again, in vol. VI. p. 220, is the followiug extract from the will of William Bruges, 1449-50.— " Item. Y ordeyn 8c bequethe that the ii chapelles of our Lady &, Seinte George be closid with ostrich boarde 8c cleave- storyed after such quantitie as the closure of pleyn borde there now conteineth." In another place the same author uses the word clarestory. The situation and peculiarities of the clear- story are shewn in the design and forms belong- ing to four distinct epochs of time, in the ac- companying plates of sections and elevations of Cathedral Churches: viz. that of Durham, Nave, A exterior, B interior, figs. 4 4. Canterbury, Triiiiti/ Chapel, C interior, D exterior, figs. 4 4. Salisbury Cathedral, Nave, A exterior e, B in- terior c. Exeter Cathedral, Nave, C exterior f, interior c. Nearly all the cathedrals and large churches have clear-stories, or a tier of arcades and win- dows, over the ailes and triforia. In the priory church of Bath, there is no triforium, but a series of large and lofty windows form the clear-story. The choir of Bristol cathedral has neither tri- forium nor clear-story. Cliffe (Thomas), overseer of the works of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, in the time of King Richard III. — Lysoiis's Mag. Brit. Camb. p. 114. Cloaca, from xXu^w, I wash axoay, Mx^ong the an- cients, was a subterraneous aqueduct, or common sewer, for the reception and discharge of the waste water and drainage of a city, or town. According to Livy, Tarquinius Priscus directed the first Cloaca in Rome to be made about A.ti.c. 160; but the great sewer of that city, called Cloaca-Maxima, was supposed to have been built many years before that time. Much has been written by antiquaries respecting this famed piece of arch-work, both as to the precise time of its construction, and its original formation. King, in " Munimenta Autiqua," enters into a long CLO] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY, 81 disquisition on this subject. He says, " it may be concluded that the real work of Tarquin was, in some parts, mere excavation of the rock, and in others formed of strong side-walls covered with a kind of vaulting, or else with timber ; and that the whole was, after many ages, in the time of Augustus only, arched over by Agrippa." On this subject the author combated the opinion of the Rev. M. P. L. Dutens, with whom he carried on a long controversy on the invention of the arch. Mr. Hosking, author of the article "Architecture," in the Encyclopcedia Britaimica, considers the arched part of the Cloaca Maxima, to be of the time of the Em- pire. Other CloacsB remain in old Roman towns, and also in some of the principal stations in Britain. Throsby, the historian of Leicestershire, wrote and published a pamphlet in 1793, de- scriptive of a Roman sewer which had been recently discovered in Leicester. In Londi- nium, Verulam, Camalodunum, and other Roman towns, specimens of these subterraneous drains have been occasionally found. Connected with all the great monasteries there were arched sewers, which the illiterate are in the habit of refering to, as passages of secret communication between abbeys and nunneries. The immense extent of the Cloacae, or sewers of London, ex- ceeds those of ancient Rome, or of any old or modern city of the world. Mr. Gunn, in Ati Inquiry into the Origin of Gothic Archi- tecture, 8vo. 1819, has a learned dissertation on the Cloacae of ancient Rome. Clocharium, Clochier, c/ocAer, Fr. ; a tower, or building appropriated to a clock, with a bell or bells. The clochier, or bell-tower of old St. Paul's cathedral, London, which stood at the east end of the churchyard, contained a bell which was rung to summon the citizens to the Folkmote, in the reign of King Edward IL This tower was surmounted by a spire of timber, and leaded, in Henry the Third's time. [Dugdale's St. Paul's, by Ellis, p. 87]. The clochier belong- ing to the ancient palace of Westminster is mentioned in records relating to that edifice at the beginning of the fourteenth century. At Chichester, the clock, or bell-tower, is a detached building : and in the cathedral yard of Salisbury there was formerly an insulated tower for bells and a clock. Clock, klok, D. ; glocke, Ger. ; cloche, Fr. ; a bell, and named from its sound, by striking. The word coincides in orio;in with clack and cluck. Some ancient clocks, of complicated construc- tion, are still remaining in cathedrals and other churches. In the fifth volume of the Archcco- logia is a learned essay by Daines Barrington, on the earliest introduction of Clocks. Derham published a curious volume in 1696, called " The Artificial Clock-Maker." There was a celebrated tower, connected with the ancient palace of Westminster, evidently as old as the time of Edward I. called " the Clock-house" or Clochier. In the year 1292, is the following entry amongst records relating to Canterbury Cathedral, " No- vum Orologium Magmtm in Ecclesia, pretium, 30/." In Beckmanu's History of Inventions, Sfc. edit. 1797, vol. u. p. 419, &c. is an interesting essay on the antiquity and history of " Clocks and Watches," in which the opinions of different writers are given and discussed : and the author comes to the conclusion, that the earliest horo- logia, or clocks with weights, wheels, &c. are to be referred to the eleventh century. It is also inferred, that the Saracens were " the in- ventors of Clocks, as well as of most of the mathematical sciences." In the year 1232, the Sultan of Egypt sent a horologium to the emperor Frederic the Second. " In the fourteenth cen- tury, mention is made of the machine of Richard of Walingford, which has hitherto been con- sidered as the oldest clock known.'' [^Beckmami, ibid. p. 435.] The first clock (in the fourteenth century) publicly displayed, and placed in a tower, is said to have been put up at Padua, by Hubert, prince of Carrara, and was made by James Dondi, whose family afterwards were named Horologio. In the year 1356, a clock was placed in a tower at Bologna. In 1364, Charles V. of France caused a large clock to be fixed in the tower of his palace, and invited Henry de Wyck from Germany to visit and re- main in Paris to execute the work. The follow- ing particulars of two celebrated church clocks afford some information on the subject. " In the north transept of Wells Cathedral is a curious, ancient, and complicated clock, M 82 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [CLO which is traditionally said to have been executed by Peter Lightfoot, a monk of Glastonbury, about the year 1325. Its circular dial repre- sents the hours of the day and night, the phases of the moon, and other astronomical signs ; and at the summit is a piece of machinery with figures of knights on horseback, or cavalry, which revolve round a centre at the time of striking the hours. At one ancjle of the transept is a statue of a seated man, which is connected with the clock by rods, and strikes the hours and quarters with iiis foot against a bell. This fio;ure, without any intention of punning, is popularly called Peter Lighlfovt." [^Cath. Aiitiq. We//s, p. 116.] "The clock [in Exeter Cathe- dral] merits particular attention both from its remote age, and from the peculiarity of its mechanism. It was constructed on the now ex- ploded principle of astronomy which regarded the earth as the centre of the universe, and it shews the hour of the day, and the age of the moon. On the face, or dial, wiiich is about seven feet in diameter, are two circles: one marked from 1 to 30, for the moon's age ; the other figured from i to xii twice over, for the hours. In the centre is fixed a semi-globe, representing the earth, round which a smaller ball, the moon, painted half white and half black, revolves monthly, and, by turning upon its axis, shews the varying phases of tlie luminary which it represents. Between the two circles is a third ball, representing the sun, with a Jieur-de-l'is, which points to the hours as it daily revolves round the earth. Some additional works were added in the year 1760, to shew the minutes, which are painted in a circle over the ancient dial. This machine is wound up daily : the hours are struck upon the great bell." From fabric rolls, in possession of the Dean and Chap- ter, it is inferred, that this clock must have been constructed in the time of Edward III. In one of these rolls, for 1376-7, is the remarkable entry of 10/. 65. bid. for " Sova Camera pro JIurohgio." There are many other items for small expenses on the same machine. One of them, for the year 1424-25, serves to mark the customs of that age. " Expenses of John Woolstun and John Umfray riding with two horses from Exeter to Biirnslable, there to seek Roger Cluckinaker, for mending the clock: vix. going, remaining there, and returning with Roger aforesaid, and his horse for three days, 5s. 3rf. ; for the hire of two horses for the three days, 2s." [Catk. Aiitiq. Exeter, p. 116. See a long and interesting Essay, under the word Clock, in Rees's Cyclopadia.']. Cloere, a prison, from the British, whence might be derived the old Lat. cloeria, which Du Cange conjectures to have been a corruption of clau- seria, a close place of restraint. The dungeon, or inner prison of Wallingford Castle was called Cloere Brieii. [Keniiett's Antiq. of Anibrosdeu, p. 97]. Cloghead, a name applied to certain slender round towers annexed to various Irish churches, the origin and object of which have occasioned much discussion. \_Fosbroke' s ArcheEolog. Dict.'\ {See Tower.) Cloister, Cloisters, clauptp, Sax. ; claiistrum, Lat. ; cloitre, Fr. ; kloster, Ger. ; is, in a general sense, a close, or inclosed place, surrounded by walls ; but, according to common acceptation the word is now almost universally applied to a covered range of building, attached to a large church, or to a monastery. " Monasteries, as well as nunneries, are occasionally termed clois- ters (from the Latin claitdo, I shut), because they were surrounded by walls ; and hence those monks who lived within the monastery were called cloistered motiks. The cloister was par- ticularly applied to denominate the central square formed by the surrounding building." — Booth's Anal. Diet. I. 33. A cloister is usually square in plan, having a plain wall on one side, a series of windows, with piers and columns, on the opposite side, and arched over with a vaulted ceiling, which is variously ornamented. It forms a passage of communication from tlie church to the chapter- house, refectory, and to other monastic, col- legiate, or cathedral buildings. In England, a cloister appears to have been attached to all the cathedrals, and to most of the collegiate churches : there were some belonging to nunneries, to col- leges, and to abbeys. In Italy, Germany, and France, the cloister is a common appendage to a large monastery, and is, in some instances, of great extent, is variously adorned, and, in some instances, occupied by tombs and paintings in CLO] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 83 fresco. In hot countries, it becomes an appro- priate and pleasant place for protection from the heat of the sun ; and in cold, wet climates, it affords useful and agreeable shelter from winds and rain : hence, in the former, its windows and arches are open ; whilst in the latter, they are either wholly or partially filled up with glass. A common appendage to the cloister, both in England and on the Continent, was a lava- tory, or stone-trough, at which the monks washed their hands previous to entering the Refectory. [See Lavatory.] The cloisters of Norwich, Durham, Worcester, Gloucester, Wells, and other English cathedrals, exhibit many different examples of this appropriate appendage. From a MS. in the library of Corpus-Christi College, Oxford, it appears that Bishop Alcock, on his installation to the see of Worcester, in 1476, was led in procession, accompanied with all the authorities of the city, " about y' clois- ters with solempne ryte, and synging " Salve Festa," to the station accustomed ; where my lord preched a solempne sermon unto the peple, full grete of audience." — Green's Hist, of Wor- cester, App. p. xxxiv. By one of Archbishop Langton's ''Constitu- tions," A.D. 1222, the monks, nuns, and canons, are enjoined to preserve silence ; and " that neither men nor women come within the bounds of a cloister, without leave of the superior." [Johnson's Eccl. Laws, 1222, sec. 43.] On the Continent are several cloisters of an early date. " Those of the Latin Church," says Mr. Hope, " are all of them in the Lombard style : some, such as those of San Lorenzo and Santa Sabina, at Rome, and of San Stefano, at Bologna, are small and rude, and more like the courts of a mean habitation ; others, as those of San Giovanni Laterano, at Rome, and those of San Zeno, at Verona, are spacious, and formed of columns of the most fantastical shapes; some coupled, twisted, and with spiral flutes; and glittering — those at Rome, with white marble, inlaid with porphyry, with serpentine, and with gilt enamel ; and those of Verona, with the gold coloured marble of the Euganean mountains. The cloisters of the cathedral at Zurich, and of the monastery of Subiaco, in the papal states, are among the most elegant of continental ex- amples. The latter was erected in 1235 ; and that of San Zeno, at Verona, in 1123." — History of Architecture, pp. 282, 3; and pis. 4, 5, 25, 44, and 45. Dallaway [Discourses on English Architec- ture^ says, the continental cloisters are inferior in architecture to those of England ; but the deficiency is partly made up by the paintings which they contain. Whewell [Arch. Notes on German Churches] refers to small cloisters, or courts adjoining the west fronts of some churches in Italy and Germany. The Campo-Santo at Pisa, Italy, is among the most noted cloisters in Europe, its central area having been filled with sacred, or holy earth, brought from Mount Calvary. Its form is an oblong square, or irregular parallelogram, measuring 430 and 415 feet, in its longest ex- tent, by 136 and 139 feet, at its ends. The width of each walk is about 32 feet. It was commenced in 1278, by Giovanni di Pisa; and a chapel, adjoining its east end, was completed in 1464. Between the covered walk and the enclosed area is a series of 62 windows, having semicircular arches, and adorned with varied tracery, supported by tall, light columns, which divide each space into four lights. Some of these were formerly glazed, but the others were left open. The floor is paved with white marble, having bands of blue ; and the inner roof is formed of timber. On the walls are numerous old paintings of " great interest, being some of the first productions on the revival of that art at the beginning of the 14th century. There is also a fine collection of marble sarcophagi, fragments of sculpture," &c. — [Cresy and Tay- lor's Arch, of the Middle Ages, 4to. 1829.] In the Archecologia, vols, xv., xx., and xxiii., are essays by Sir Henry Englefield, R. Smirke, the Rev. W. Gunn, Arthur Taylor, and Sidney Smirke, on the date and characteristics of the Cariipo- Santo, and particularly respecting the age of the mullions and tracery of the windows : the last writer is decidedly of opinion that the filling in of the windows is of subsequent date to the main building. The Cloister attached to the Monastery of Batalha in Portugal, was erected about the end of the 14th century. It is extensive, and highly enriched ; the arched vaultings being filled with beautiful tracery. There are openings from each 84 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [CLO avenue into the quadrangle, which is laid out as a garden, having, in the centre, a cistern ; and in one angle is a large fountain. Length of each walk, 182 feet, by 17 feet 7 inches in width. Many other distinguished Cloisters might be referred to in Italy, France, Normandy, Spain, Portugal, Germany, &,c. but it may suffice to mention some of the most remarkable in Eng- land. That the Norman architects and monks had this appendage to their larger churches, may be inferred from the arcades remaining at the cathedrals of Chester, Winchester, and Can- terbury. The Cloister of Salisbury/ Cathedral, on the south side of the nave, was erected about the middle of the 13th century, and consists of a continued arcade, with a wall on one side, and a series of pointed windows on the other; each window being divided into four openings, by a clustered column and two single shafts, which descend nearly to the floor. The upper portion of the windows appears to have been originally glazed. From the piers, between the windows, buttresses project into the central area. (.See Plate I. of Buttresses, fig. 3.) Dimetisiojis.— Length of each walk, 181 feet, 9 inches; width, 18 feet; height of vaulting, 20 feet, 3 inches ; interior area, a square of 140 feet. On the north side of Lincoln Cathedral, is a Cloister, which was erected in the beginnino; of the 14th century, with the exception of the north walk, which was built by Sir Christopher Wren, with columns of Doric character, and semicir- cular arches; having above it a library in the same style. The vaulting is entirely of wood, with ribs and ornamental bosses. Dimemioiis. — North and south walks, 118 feet; east and west, 90 feet long; width, about 13 feet. The Cloister, on the south side of the nave of Westminster Abbei/ Church, was erected at dif- erent times, between the early part of the 13th, and the end of the 14th century. The windows are of different sizes, dates, and patterns ; but the mullions and tracery of six of tliem have been lately removed, and another has been filled up with masonry. In the eastern avenue, which IS loftier and more elaborate than the other three, are the mutilated remains of an ornamental doorway to the Chapter House ; and various grave-stones, and monumental tablets, are dis- tributed over the walls and floor. The south transept of the church is without a western aile, the site of which is occupied by the eastern walk of this cloister; and the buttresses of the south wall of the nave, are constructed over the cloister, and are based in its central area. Dimensions. — South walk, 150; north walk, 155; west walk, 139; and east walk, 145 feet long. Their width, from 15 to 18 feet; height of vaulting, from 18 to 25 feet. (See Neale and Brai/leifs West. Abbey, and the accompanying Plate III. of Arches, fig. 9.) Exeter Cathedral had formerly a spacious and very fine Cloister, which was in progress from 1331 to 1410, when it was completed by Bishop Staflx.rd. In a Roll of 1331-2, William Cannon, of Corfe, agrees to furnish " twenty-nine columns for the cloister for 21s. 9d. ; the price of each, 9d." [Britton's Cath. Antiq.- Exeter, p. 93.] This cloister was, however, destroyed during the Commonwealth. The Cloister adjoining Norwich Cathedral was commenced in 1299, and finished in 1430. Its windows were originally glazed ; and their tracery exhibits the progressive changes in the style of architecture during the time of their erection. Amongst the forty-five windows of which it consists, there are no less than ten different patterns in the tracery. There are two lavatories at the south-west angle, and the roof is enriched with numerous bosses, shields, and sculptures, at the junction and intersection of its ribs. Dimensions. — Length of the avenues, from 175 to 177 feet; their width, 14 feet 9 inches; height of vaulting, 15 feet. [This cloister is fully illustrated in Britton's Arch. Antic/, vol. III.; and several of its details are delineated in the accompanying plates. See more particularly Plate II. ofCAPiTALS, figs. 10 and 11 ; Finials, fig. 3; Plate II. of Tracery of Vaulted Ceilings, figs. 2 and 7.] Attached to the Cathedral of Worcester is a Cloister, which was erected about the year 1380; and consists of seven windows in each walk, with intermediate piers projecting into the avenues ; the softits of the arches between the windows are filled with tracery. The piers are pierced CLO] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 85 horizontally with square apertures at the height of a few feet from the floor, a feature peculiar to this cloister. The ribs of the vaulting are ornamented with various sculptured bosses, shields, and figures. Dimensions. — East walk, 125 feet; west, north, and south walks, 120 feet long; width of each, 16 feet; height of vaulting, 17 feet. Gloucester Cathedral has a Cloister (com- pleted in 1390), of the most highly decorated class in the kingdom ; the roof being covered with elegant and elaborate fan-tracery ; and the windows, which are raised very high above the pavement, having been formerly filled with stained glass. In the north walk is a spacious lavatory, still remaining, and a small recess in the wall, for the towels, with groined and ornamented ceiling. In the south walk are the remains of some recesses, formerly termed carols, or carralls, which contained seats and desks, to which the monks are supposed to have retired for the pur- pose of study, or to copy ancient manuscripts. In a " Survey of the Toiuer of London," 24 Henry VIII., is the following entry: "Item made new in the Quene's dynyng chambre a greate carrall xuyndow stounding on the west syde, and lenyng places made new to the same." Bayley's History of the Tower, pt. I. app. xix. " This cloister," says the account by the Society of Antiquaries, " is acknowledged to be the most elegant and perfect in England. The pro- portions are extremely beautiful, and the orna- ments superb." Dimensions. — Length of each walk, about 147 feet; width, from 12 to 14 feet; height of the vaulting, 17 feet. At the Abbey Church of Tewkesbury, are the remains of a Cloister, which appears to have been very richly ornamented, and somewhat in the style of that of Gloucester Cathedral. — Ben- nett's History of Tewkesbury, p. 146. The Cloister at Durham Cathedral, built about the beginning of the fifteenth century, is chiefly remarkable for the regularity of its form, and the simplicity of its vaulting. Its form is delineated at R. in the accompanying Ground Plan of Durham Cathedral. At S. are the re- mains of an octagonal lavatory. Length of each avenue, 145 feet by 15 feet in width. At Lacock Nunnery, Wiltshire, is the most perfect domestic Cloister in England. It bounds three sides of a quadrangle. Its windows were formerly glazed : the roof is still ornamented with bosses and shields. It was erected about the time of Henry IV., and is of comparatively small dimensions, the length of each walk being only 81 feet by 8 feet 9 inches in width. The Cloister on the south side of Wells Cathedral was erected by Bishops Bubwith and Beckington, between the years 1407 and 1465. Like that at Lacock Nunnery, it bounds only three sides of a quadrangle ; the fourth side of which adjoins the nave of the church. It has a vaulted roof, with numerous bosses : there is an ancient lavatory, or well, within the area. The eastern avenue has a library above it, and over the western avenue are other rooms used as the registry. Dimensions. — East and west walks, 1 62 feet ; south walk, 158 ; by 13 feet in width. The Colleges of Oxford and Cambridge were mostly provided with Cloisters, some of which are still preserved, but others have been de- stroyed. In Oxford, that of Magdalen College is the most celebrated; but that of Christ Church, designed and executed at the cost of Cardinal Wolsey, was the largest in England. It is now entirely gone. The Cloister of Magdalen College, was erected by Bishop Waynflete in the 15th century. The arches of the windows are flat ; their tracery rudely executed ; and the ceiling, which is com- posed of ribbed oak, is plain and low. — See Buckler On the Architecture of Magdalen Col- lege, p. 49-56. New College, Oxford, has also a Cloister, which was built by William of Wykeham to- wards the end of the 14th century. It has a roof of oak, and its central square and walks are appropriated to interments. At Cambridge, the Cloister of Trinity College is an open arcade of the Doric order, with three Doric portals. Attached to the collegiate chapel of St. Stephen, Westminster, are the remains of one of the most highly enriched and beautiful Clois- ters in England, which was erected by Dean Chambers in the time of King Henry the Eighth. It is the only example remaining of a cloister of two stories : it has two oratories, or chantry 86 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [CCEN chapels, projecting into the quadrangle, and approached respectively from the upper and lower western avenues. The roof is vaulted, covered with fan-tracery, and adorned with finely sculptured bosses and shields. Stow tells us that these cloisters of " curious workmanship," were erected at " the charges of 11,000 marks." Dimensions. — East and west walks, 89, north and south walks, 75 feet, long ; height of the lower avenue, 14 feet, upper story, 13 feet; width, 12 feet, 6 inches. [See Brittou and Brai/lei/'s Ancient Palace of WestminsterJ] The Cloister which adjoined the south side of Old St. Paul's Cathedral, London, was also in two stories, and within the space which it inclosed was the chapter house, perhaps the only instance of such a situation. This cloister is said to have been erected in 1260; each walk was 91 feet long by 10 feet wide. The north side remained till the year 1549.— Dugdales St. Paul's, p. 87. Cloose, or Close, (Nicholas), was a fellow of King's College, Cambridge, at the time of its first foundation, and was, in 1452, Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry. Henry VI. made him overseer and manager of all his intended build- ings for King's College ; and Hearne, in the preface to his HistorT/ of Glastonbury, p. Ixv., says it appears from the books of the College, that his father, who was a Fleming, was the architect of the chapel of that college. — Britton's Arch. Antiq. vol. i. p. 4 ; Wa/pole's Anecdotes, by Dallaway, vol. i. p. 177. Closet, ciypan, Sax. ; clausum, Lat.; a cupboard, an inclosed place, or a small apartment attached to a larger. Formerly closets adjoined chapels, as private oratories ; the Will of Henry VI. contains directions for making a " closet with an altar therein," on each side of King's College Chapel, Cambridge. {Arch. Antiq. vol. i. p. 11.] Le- land, in his description of Wressel Castle, says, " the haule and the grete chambers be fair, and so is the chapelle and the closettes." — Itinerary ; vol. VI. p. 54. Clota, low Lat.; an arch; a vaulted room. In a French record dated in 1387, the word dote occurs with the same signification. — Carpentier Glos. Nov. Clotonus, low Lat.; a subterraneous vault. The term appears to denote a crypt in the following passage from an account of payments in a record of the year 1334 : " Item, Solvi pro oleo lampadis, qua comburit in dicto clotono, in die Ascensionis Domini, iiij. den. obol." — Carpentier Glos. Nov. Clusella, Clausella, from the Lat. clusus, in- closed, or shut up ; a fort, or small castle, within an inclosure, or a close. In the Statutes of Ray- mund, Count of Toulouse, 1223, it is ordered that Clusella, within suspected or ill-reported places should be destroyed or shut up. " Omnes ca- band suspectae a communi castrorum habitatione remotae, et speluncas inforciatae, et Clusella, in locis suspectis et diffamatis destruantur vel ob- turentur." The word clausella is used, with the same signification, in the acts of the Council of Biturges, in 1246. — Dm Cange. (See Castle.) Clustered Column. (See Column.) CoAME, to crack. Googe in his " Whole Art of Husbandry," p. 100, says, " the squared and the round, or the whole timber, doth coanie and gape, specially the round, because it is fuller of pith, and therefore renteth and coameth in every place." CoB-WALL, a wall made of straw, lime, and earth. The cottages of the poor in many parts of Somer- setshire, Devonshire, and South Wiltshire, are wholly constructed of these materials. Cochlea, Cochleare, Cogla, low Lat.; a lofty round tower, with a corkscrew staircase leading to the summit; thus named from the Lat. cochlea, winding stairs. Isidor. Origin, lib. xv. cap. 2. Cochlea also signifies a secret passage in the walls of a building. " Cochlea sunt viae muris intervolutae latenter." — Durand. Rational, lib. i. cap- 1, num. 37. — Du Cange. CocKEY, a common sewer. — Parkin's History of Norwich, p. 239. Cockle Stairs, a winding staircase. {Fosbroke's Enc. of Antiq. p. 123*.) CtELUM, concameratio lacunar, Lat. ; cielo di camera, Ital. ; the ceiling, or roof of a church is thus styled by Gervase of Canterbury, in his Treatise de Combustione et Reparalione Dorobern. Eccles. " Coilum inferius egregie depictum, superius verd tabulae plumbcae ignem interius ascensum celave- runt." — See also, Tho. Slubbes, in Pontif. Eborac. Angl. Sacr. Ccenale, a tavern, or a dining-room. The ccena- col] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 87 culum was the supper-room in ancient Roman houses. CoF, CoFA, Cove, a chamber, or a bakehouse. Coffer, coffre, Fr., from cof, Welsh, a hollow trunk ; a chest, or a box. In architecture it signifies a panel in the ceiling of a room, or portico, or a square depression or sinking in each interval between the modillions of the Corinthian cornice. Coffin, probably from cope, copa, Sax. a cave ; whence coppne, a coffer ; coffre, Fr. ; cofano, Ital. ; cqfin, Sp. ; corresponding by analogy to the Greek xoipivoi, a basket : the chest, or box in which a dead human body is buried, or deposited in a vault. This word appears to owe its origin to the ancient custom of burying the dead in caves, a practice which prevailed 'not only among many civilized nations of antiquity, but also with the barbarian tribes, and is still, we believe, not un- common in some half-civilized countries. The coffin was made of stone, lead, or wood, — those of stone, of the oldest sort, were commonly sunk into the ground up to their lids, upon which were inscribed the names and titles of the persons they contained, with no other ornament than a cross, or a pastoral staff. [See Chest.] In the north aile of the choir of York Cathedral are two ancient Roman stone coffins of extra- ordinary size and character, which were dis- covered under ground at Clifton, about a mile north of the city. Each consists of a single block of stone, measuring seven feet in length. A skeleton was found in one of them. [Bnttn)i's Cath. AiitkjS., YorkJ] Stone coffins appear to have been appropriated to persons of high rank, and to the dignitaries of the ancient church. " Earthen coffins, and sepulchres formed of tiles, were in some instances made use of by the Romans. These, as well as the stone coffins, have been found to contain not only the remains of bodies buried entire, but also cinerary urns. Coffins of lead have likewise been dug up in burial places of the Romans. A stone sarcopha- ' gus, or coffin, inclosing a skeleton, was dis- covered in 1813, in the suburbs of St. Aibans, the Roman Verulamium. It was in the form of an oblong trough, perfectly plain, of the same width throughout, and without any circular in- closure for the head, as in the stone coffins of the middle ages ; the lid was five inches thick. Besides the skeleton, the coffin contained three glass vessels of different forms, which were found standing in different parts of it. This coffin was afterwards removed to St. Michael's Church." — Bloxam's Monumental Architecture and Sculp- ture; and see Cough's Sepulchral Monuments. Coin, Quoin, cuneus, Lat. ; coin, Fr. ; a corner, or wedge : the corner of a building, a corner- stone. The term occurs in the latter significa- tion in Smith's Antifjuities of Westminster, in records relating to the building of St. Stephen's Chapel. Generally, all quoins in buildings pro- ject from the regular plane. Cole (John), was the architect, master mason, or builder of the spire, or broach, of Louth Church, in Lincolnshire, between the years 1501 and 1505. For particulars respecting which. See Arch. Antiq. vol. iv., and Archaologia, x. 72. CoLECHURCH (Peter), was the curate or chaplain of St. Mary Colechurch, London ; and, in the year 1176, began to erect the first stone bridge across the Thames at London It is also stated by Stow, that he had previously erected a bridge of elm across the same river. That of stone, however, he did not live to complete, but, dying in 1205, was interred in a chapel which he had built within its central pier, and dedicated to Thomas a Becket. The bridge was thirty-three years in progress, was 926 feet in length, 20 feet in width, and rose 40 feet at the centre above the surface of the water. There were as many as 20 pointed arches supported by piers of from 25 to 34 feet in thickness. [Britton and Fugin's Public Buildings of London, ii. 304; and see Thompson's Chronicles of London Bridge, p. 68-91.] Notwithstanding the numerous al- terations made in different ages, some extensive remains of the work of this architect were found on removing the late bridge. Collar, the same as cincture, a hollow moulding near the capital or at the base of a column. Collar-Beam; abeam in the roof of a building, above the rafters, and occasionally framed into a queen post in trussed roofs. College, from coltigo, which forms collegium, Lat. a fraternity, or society, living under the same statutes or rules : also the edifice for the 88 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [col residence of such society, supposed to be de- tached from the world for the purposes of study or religion. A number of colleges together constitutes an university. An English college generally consists of one or more spacious courts, surrounded by buildings, which contain the sleeping apartments, a hall, or refectory, a chapel, and lecture rooms. The most famed universities of England are those of Oxford and Cambridge. The establishment of colleges or universities is a remarkable era in literary history. The cathedral and monastic schools were first confined to the teaching of grammar and music : but when colleges were regularly established, professors were appointed to teach other sciences. Authors differ in opinion respecting the first established college, both as to time and place. [See the Histories of Oxford and of Cambridge.'] Besides the colleges of those two eminent Universities, there are others at Edinburgh, Aberdeen, and Glasgow, in Scotland ; at Dublin, in Ireland : and the following in London still retain the name : viz. the College of Civilians, commonly called Doctor's Commons; Gresham College; College of Heralds ; College of Physicians ; Col- lege of Surgeons, S)X. The colleges of Italy, par- ticularly the Collegio de Gesuiti, and the Collegio della Sapienza, are among the finest edifices in modern Rome ; and the Jesuits' Colleges at Genoa are distinguished by the beauty of their architecture. At Ashridge, in Buckinghamshire, a college was founded at the end of the 13th century, by Edmund, Earl of Cornwall, for a rector and twenty canons, called Bonliommes. Of this re- ligious order there was no previous establish- ment in England ; and there were never more than two or three of them. — Todd's History of Ashridge. Collegiate Church, or Chapel, a Christian . edifice to which belongs an ecclesiastical es- tablishment of different clergymen, denomi- nated deans, wardens, and fellows. " Collegiate churches and chapels," before the Reformation, " consisted of a number of secular canons, living together under the government of a dean, warden, provost, or master ; and having, for the more solemn performance of divine service, chaplains, singing-men, and choristers belonging to them." [Tanner's A'o?. Man., by Nasmith, pref. p. xv.] The principal collegiate edifices in England, are those at Southwell, Nottinghamshire ; West- minster, Middlesex ; Ripon, Yorkshire ; Windsor, Berkshire; and King's College, Cambridge. There were two classes of collegiate churches: namely, those of royal, and others of ecclesiastical foundation, both of which were governed by deans and chapters. CoLLici^, CoLLiQui^, Lat. ; pipes, gutters, gut- ter-tiles. CoLLisA Porta, low Lat., parte coulice, Ft., from the Latin cnllisus, dashed, or thrown together; battered ; and porta, a gate : a portcullis. In the Chronicon Senoniense, cap. 13, quoted by Du Cange, it is said that " some one ascended the gate of a fortress and let down the portcullis (poitam collisam) from above." — [See Portcul- lis.] Colonnade, from coliimna Lat., a column ; colon- tiata, Ital. ; a range, or series of insulated columns supporting an entablature, or a succession of open arches : one of the most imposing works of architectural design. Colonnades are various in form, design, and application, and are com- posed of an indefinite number of columns. In temples and porticoes, where a colonnade of four columns support the entablature, the temple is termed telrasti/le ; when six, hexastyle; when eight, octastyle ; and when ten, decastyle. When the colonnade is in the front of, and projecting from, a building, it is termed a portico ; when it surrounds a building, a peristyle ; and when it is double, as in many of the ancient temples, it is called polystyle. The ancient Egyptians employed the colonnade as an ornament for the interior of their temples to a great extent. The Greek temples present many colonnades of great beauty and simplicity in their arrangement; but there is not any evidence that the Grecian architects ever employed coupled, grouped, or clustered columns, in any of their works. The ruins of Palmyra and Baalbeck, the Temple of Jupiter Olynipius, at Elis, and the splendid ruins of the Parthenon, at Athens, with the magnificent Temple of Neptune, at Psestum, afford, perhaps, the finest known examples of external colonnades in the world. The celebrated wings, or colon- nades oi San Pietro, at Rome, erected by Bernini, COLj ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 89 consisting of 280 columns, each 40 feet in height, are considered the finest architectural works of the kind in Europe. (See Column, Portico, Tem- ple). Colosseum, from the Greek primitive word -/.oXoneoi, applied generally to any thing of great magnitude, and particularly to a large statue, is the name of the Flavian amphitheatre at Rome, once the largest building of the kind in the world, and so called from its extraordinary magnitude. It was built A.D. 72, by the Emperor Flavius Vespasian, after returning from his victories over the Jews. It occupied five years in building, and no less than 30,000 Jewish captives are said to have been engaged in its construction. It was finished by Titus, who commemorated the dedication of it to his father, by the sacrifice of five thousand wild beasts, and by a series of combats and games, which lasted for one hundred days. The Colos- seum was divided into three parts, or tiers : the orchestra, or lowest division, being set apart for the emperor, senators, and other persons of rank ; the equestria, for those of the equestrian order ; and the popularia, for the people. It would ac- commodate 87,000 spectators, and was of an ellip- tical figure ; the exterior circumference of the ellipse being 1763 feet : the greatest diameter, 660 feet; and the height of the building, 160 feet. — See Maffei on Amphitheatres ; Foiita7ia's Aiifi- teatro Flavio ; Cresey and Taylor's Arch. Antiq. of Rome, and the article Amphitheatre. Colossus (derivation and signification as above). The formation of large statues was common amongst different nations of antiquity. The Chinese and other Asiatics, the Egyptians, and the Greeks, have been celebrated for works of this class. The Cavern Temples of India, the ruins of Egypt, of Athens, and of Rome, afford numerous specimens of gigantic statues. Many colossal figures, and fragments of colossi, have been found by travellers in different parts of Egpyt, and some of the latter have been removed to England. Among the most interesting of these, may be mentioned the bust now in the British Museum, which has been denominated the " Head of the younger Memnon." That of the Apollo, called the Colossus of Rhodes, the work of Chares, a disciple of Lysippus, was esteemed one of the seven wonders of the world. It was 105 feet in height. The colossal statues of Phidias, accord- ing to the testimony of Pausanias, Cicero, Pliny, and other classical writers, were among the most noble works of ancient art. The Colossus of Tarentum, by Lysippus, is also recorded as a per- formance of exceeding beauty. The Roman colossi were scarcely inferior to those of Greece ; the bronze Colossus of Apollo, erected by Augustus, the Jupiter of Leontium, in Sicily, the Jupiter Capitolinus, the Farnese Hercules, the Flora of the Belvidere, the magnificent Dioscuri on the Monte Cavallo, the statue of Alexander the Great, in the Colonna Palace, and the Colossus of Antoninus, may be enumerated among the finest specimens of ancient sculpture. Columbarium, from columba, Lat., a dove ; a term originally applied to a dove-cote, or pigeon-house, and afterwards to the apertures made in the walls of ancient Roman cemeteries, for the reception of funeral urns. Columella, Lat., small pillars; synonymous with Balusters ; usually placed on the upper parts of buildings, in balconies, staircases, and terraces. CoLUMEN, Lat., a principal support in building; a main beam. Column, columna, columen, Lat. ; colonna, Ital. ; colnmna, Sp. ; colonne, Fr.; coulouenn. Arm.; colon, Welsh; a stalk, stem, or prop: derived from a Celtic word signifying the stem of a tree, ■which is said to have been first used for the pur- pose. (See Pillar and Shaft.) In strict- ness, the shaft of a column consists of a single block of a cylindrical form, whether of stone, marble, iron, or other material : if formed of many pieces, it is a pillar, from pile, but these names are often confounded by the most critical writers. Having aheady treated of the upper and lower members of the column, under the words Base and Capital, the shaft only remains to be con- sidered. This is usually of a circular, or cylin- drical form, but it is occasionally square, oval, octagonal, and polygonal. The column is a distinguishing and important feature in architecture, and is one on which artists of different ages and nations have exercised their fancy ; controlled, in some cases, by the canons of science and taste, but wantoning with every de- gree of licentiousness in others. In the early N 90 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [col ages of the civilized world, in India and in Egypt, we find many grotesque and capricious specimens ; also in Lombardy and in the Western parts of Europe in the middle ages. Those of Greece and in parts of Italy, in the classic times, are generally referred to as examples of harmonious propor- tions, of dignified forms, of graceful symmetry : but there are many in the Christian edifices of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, which are equally entitled to the admiration of the architect and artist. They are replete with variety ; they manifest novelty ; and peculiarly belong to, and harmonize with, the light, lofty, and poetical archi- tecture in which they constitute a marked feature. With bases, shafts, and capitals of great variety and beauty, they become useful in construction, and ornamental in composition. Insulated in shafts of masonic materials, or in a single stone, clustered, and compounded of numerous mould- ings, both convex and concave ; grouped in four or five cylinders, and braced by bands of mould- ings, the great churches of Europe present them in endless diversity of design. Almost every half century, from the tenth to the middle of the six- teenth century, some new variety of form, pro- portion, or ornamental detail, was invented and applied to this member of a building. To define and characterize all these varieties would occupy a larger space than can consistently be devoted to one subject, and would, in fact, embrace the history of civil architecture : it must suffice to notice some of the most remarkable examples, and refer the reader to illustrations, to examples, and to books. Columns are chiefly designated and distin- guished by the forms of their capitals ; but they also exhibit abundant variety in the figures, pro- portions, and decorations of their shafts. They may be classed and arranged under the following heads: Egyptian; Indian, of ancient and of mo- dern date ; Grecian, of the several classic orders, namely, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian; Roman, of two orders — the Tuscan, derived from the Grecian Doric, and the Composite, from the Co- rinthian; and the columns used in the religious buildings of the middle ages. Some varieties of the latter class are represented in the accompany- ing engraving, and will be referred to in the sequel. The column is of high antiquity in architec- ture, being mentioned both in the Scriptures and in the Odyssey. The Temple of Solomon and the Palace of Ulysses are said to have had co- lumns of wood. Pausanias states that timber was employed for the same purpose in the Temples of Neptune, in Arcadia, as also in those of Elis. Egyptian columns are of various forms and proportions, but are mostly of stone, in single blocks, as the abundance of that material, in Egypt, allowed the architects to employ it in their magnificent temples. The Egyptian column sel- dom has a base, and, when this member is added, it is generally a simple plinth. The shaft is in some instances square, in others polygonal, and sometimes ornamented with convex flutings. The capital is adorned with foliage, and resembles a vase, or sometimes a reversed bell. — " Genuine Egyptian pillars, as a general rule, are of an irregularly rounded form, but of a diameter vary- ing in different parts of the height; and the inter- columniations, perhaps, differ but little from the proportions of the old Doric temple. There is a peculiarity in the columns of the portico of Ash- mounein, not found, we believe, elsewhere in Egypt. Instead of being formed of large masses placed one above another, they consist of irregular pieces, fitted together with such nicety, that it is difficult to detect the lines of junction ; and this illusion is aided also by the form of the columns. The bottom is like the lowest leaves of the lotus, after which we see a number of concentric rings, binding the column just like the hoops of a cask ; and again, above them the column is worked in Buch a way, by vertical cuttings, to present the appearance of a bundle of rods, held together by hoops ; the whole has the appearance of a barrel : the columns are about 40 feet high, including the capitals. Their greatest circumference is about 28 J feet, at the height of 5 feet from the ground, for the column diminishes in thickness both towards the base and the capital. These columns were painted yellow, red, and blue. Similar pillars are found in the temple at Gournou." — Hamilton's jEgi/ptiaca, and British Museum, Egyptian Anti- quities, vol. I. In the stupendous Cavern Temples of Ellora and Elepliauta, in Hindoostan, the column is com- monly short, stunted, and massive; varying not only in size but in decoration. — (See Daniell's Vieivs in India.) — The capital, which appears Britton s Archuectdkai. Diction AR.Y. S. Rayner, Del. JI-oRpuit Sc. Columns.- CIRCULAR styxe. IXarls Barton Chu: Tower. 2.AVinrh<--sUT Csuixi Crypt. S.U.Cajiierlmry CathrCiyiA. 4.6. S'ftteia Oui. Crypt j Oxford. 5.Ma3insbuxy Abl>:Chu: 7. Canventiml ChxuEly. B.RcirtnnChMiCrvpt. S.WalUiajn AbbiChu: XO.aimcf S! IVtrr Neath? 12 .Cha;af S! Cross. Z<"i,l>n.JLif*^Afd yW.'/ tSSt col] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 91 literally to support the whole superincumbent roof of solid rock, often represents a cushion com- pressed by the immense weight above. The bases of Hindoo columns are sometimes octangular, graduating upwards to a multangular shaft, which frequently terminates in a circular upper shaft. Many of these are elaborately adorned with sculp- ture. The splendid column of Benares, accord- ing to Hodges, is in its elements essentially Indian, while its ornaments are purely Greek. In the ancient Jain Temple of Komulmair, the columns differ from the general massive style of Hindoo architecture : in the elegant colonnaded portico of that remarkable temple they are slight and tapering, and are crowned by projecting cor- nices. Engravings of three singular Hindoo columns are given in Colonel Tod's elaborate work on " Rhajast'haii," from the Temples at Chandravati, and exhibit an extraordinary variety of enrichment in every part of the base, shaft, and capital. The columns of Persepolis, the principal exist- ing remains of Persian architecture, are of white marble, and are surmounted by figures of mon- strous animals. In the early ages of Greece and Rome columns appear to have been low and massive : Pliny {Nat. Hist, xxxvi. c. 22.) describes their height to have been about one-third that of the whole building, but, in later times, their altitude increased. The five classic. 1 orders of architecture are known to be characterised by the forms and proportions of their columns, respectively. [See Order.] In all the remains of Grecian buildings, and in many of the Roman, as in the portico of the Pantheon, the shaft is always the frustum of a cone or conoid, tapering from the base to the capital : the practice of giving an entasis [see Entasis], or swell to the middle of the shaft, is obscurely mentioned by Vitruvius, and has been much fol- lowed by modern architects. The most distin- guished ornament of the classical column is the fluting of its shaft, which produces a beautiful variety of light and shade on the surface. In the Roman orders these flutings are occasionally filled in with torus mouldings which reach one-third of the height of the shaft from the base. The ancients occasionally formed columns of gravel and flints of various colours, cemented to- gether, which hardened sufficiently to bear a polish. Some of these have been discovered near Algiers among the supposed ruins of Julia Ccesarea ; and the manufacture of them having been revived in modern times under the name of scagliola, they are much used for interior decora- tions. Columns were also made sometimes of precious and costly materials, — as the crystal columns of the theatre of Scaurus, mentioned by Pliny, and those of translucent alabaster in the church of St. Mark, Venice. The shafts of many large single columns, as that of Trajan, at Rome, are formed of many courses of stone, or blocks of marble. Smaller columns are formed of three or four pieces, and are called by the French colonnes par troncons. They often build them in courses, corresponding with the courses of the ashler work, as in the cyclostyle of the drum of the church of St, Genevieve, formerly the Pantheon. In different times and countries, single co- lumns havebeen erected for a variety of purposes : for astronomical observations, — chronological re- cords, — funeral monuments, — boundari/ marks, &c. Some were raised to denote distances from one place to [another, and were called miliarif columns ; others to indicate the ebb and Jiow of tides ; and others to serve as lighthouses. Columns ornamented with rostra, or the sculptured prows of ships, were intended to commemorate naval victories; and. besides these, and others which might be mentioned, were the well-known com- memorative, honorary, or triumphal columns, which constitute the most splendid ornaments of the kind in ancient and modern art. The most celebrated of these were the two raised in honour of Trajan, and of Antoninus Pius, at Rome : that commonly termed Pompej/'s Pillar, near Alex- andria, in Egypt, and the remains of the trium- phal column of Arcadius, at Constantinople, were probably of the same class. Buonaparte's column, in Paris, is justly noted. In Great Britain, we have the Monument of London, designed by Sir Christopher Wren, a memorial of the great fire of 1666 ; and one raised to the memory of the Duke of York, near Pall Mall, of the size and propor- tions of Trajan's column : there is another to the memory of Lord Nelson, on the Calton Hill at Edinburgh. Trajan's Column, at Rome, is commonly con- 92 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [col sidered to be of the Doric order, though called Tuscan by the Vitruvians. Its shaft consists of 34 pieces of Greek marble, which are covered with sculptures, arranged spirally round it, representing military exploits. It is raised on a pedestal 19 feet in height, the shaft being 13 feet in diameter at the base, and the whole is 132 feet high. A folio volume, with numerous engravings, illus- trating the construction and embellishment of this column, and of that of Antoninus, was published by Piranesi. The column of Antoninus Pius, in Rome, is also of the Doric order, and of the same general character in embellishment as that of Trajan, though much inferior in its execution. Its shaft is eleven feet and a half in diameter; and its height (including a pedestal of 26 feet high) is 123 feet. Povipcys Pillar, at Alexandria, in Egypt, is of the Corinthian order, with a shaft of a single block of granite, well polished, and of the most skilful workmanship. The whole height is a frac- tion more than 92 feet, of which the shaft alone is between 63 and 66 feet. The Monument of London is the loftiest, if not the most beautiful, of modern columns. It is of the Italo-Vitruvian Doric order, with a fluted shaft, and measures 202 feet in the whole height ; the diameter of the shaft being 15 feet at the base. Forsyth's remarks on the columns in the church of St- Paul, Rome, are deserving of attention : " The columns which support the nave are admir- able for their marble, their proportions, and their purpose. Here, indeed, they are aliens, removed it is said, from Adrian's tomb, and forced into these ailes as a matter of convenience. In the cloister are other columns, true natives of the place, tortured into every variety of ugliness; some spiral, some twisted, some doubly twisted, some spiral and twisted at once, with the hideous addition of inlay." [Remurks on Italy, i. 192, 3d ed.] Again, his comments on a circular ar- rangement of columns in the church of St. Stephen, in Rome, are characteristic of the originality of his views and criticism. " So admirable is the efl'ect of insulated columns and of a circular plan, that all the barbarisms of that ambiguous temple, or church, or bath, or market-place, called San Stefano Rotondo, cannot defeat it. Those ill-set and ill-assorted columns, that hideous well in the roof, that tower of Babel in the middle, that slaughter-house of saints painted round the wall ; all those are disarmed and lose the power of disgusting ; for the very plan alone fascinates the mind with the full perception of unity; of a whole varied but not concealed ; while the two circles of the peristyles change their combinations at every step, and the shadows projected from one luminous orb play fancifully on the pave- ment. A third ring of columns is lost in the v/^W'—Ibid. 193. Mr. Hope \_History of Architecture, pp. 251-7, 432] enters into a full enumeration of the different varieties of columns which characterise the early Lombard churches : — he says " the base is usu- ally a mere block, rounded at the summit and squared at the sides ; the shaft is in general equal in diameter from the root to the summit ; its height bearing no fixed proportion to its dia- meter. Where strength is necessary, or their materials less compact, the columns appear a short thick trunk, as at Norwich, Gloucester, Durham; [See Plate, Co/«;jar^ Cath. Churches'], &c., but the interiors of these columns have been found to be filled up with rubbish, or small stones bedded in mortar. Where they are merely orna- mental, the shaft grows to a tall slender reed, and is sometimes divided by moulded bands and string courses into different articulations before it reaches the capital ; and sometimes, from one division of the shaft rises a higher one of less diameter. When supporting any great weight they are large, insulated, or single ; but against walls and piers, they have smaller shafts before or beside them. Where they support light arches they are either single or doubled : and they are coupled indifl'erently either along the face, or in the depth of the impost. In the cloister of San Lorenzo, and Santa Sabina, at Rome, the coupled columns are arranged in both these ways, alternately ; the single columns carrying brackets in order to give as deep a base to the imposts of the arches as those which are double. Sometimes, as in the church of Boppart, they are quadrupled ; but in the Lombard style, co- lumns are never so clustered that each shaft or stalk should be prolonged above the capital in the rib of an arch. Sometimes, especially in porches and tombs, small columns, instead of com] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 93 rising from the ground, rest on the backs of monsters; a species of base, which, in the Dome of Worms, is continued throughout a whole colon- nade ; whilst, at other times, the columns rise from brackets at some distance from the ground. The larger and more essential columns are generally round and plain, the smaller frequently polygonal, fluted or reeded, or formed of ribands or basket-work, or consisting of smaller columns twisted together perpendicularly, spirally, or in zigzags, and in other whimsical ways. Examples of twisted columns occur in the Bal- dacchino of St. Peter's Church, Rome, the Clois- ters of San Giovanni Laterano, and San Paolo, at Rome, and in many other buildings. A zigzag moulding was often carved horizontally, as at Waltham Abbey Church [See fig. 9, Plate of Columns], and sometimes vertically as at Bar- freston, Kent, and South- Weald, Essex. The spiral fluting is exemplified in fig. 3 of the same Plate, from the crypt of Canterbury Cathedral. The south door-way at Earl's Barton has a co- lumn wreathed with circular mouldings, which, from its resemblance to a rope, has been called the Cable moulding, of which pattern there exists numerous examples. Other columns are adorned with diamond-shaped net-work, as at Iffley Church, near Oxford. — See Britton's Arch. Antiq. vol. V. The capitals of columns in the Lombard style are either rude imitations of the Doric, Corin- thian, or Composite, or ornamented with spear- heads, foliage, or scroll-work. In some places they are formed of inverted cones with the four sides flattened, as in St. Ethelbert's Tower, Can- terbury. Many capitals are composed of imita- tions of animated beings of all sorts, real and monstrous, as in Canterbury Cathedral, and in many other English and foreign buildings. The column in buildings of the middle ages generally carries either a rude and clumsy architrave, on which rests the imposts of an arch, or the corbels of the wall-plate. In the more advanced periods, however, of the pointed style, the columns, which had been formerly distinct, but, close to each other, were united at the base and capital into one single mass : but the architects of the period still gave to the entire body the appearance of a bundle of separate cylinders, each branching out into the arches, or ribs of the roof; and the column thus formed has received the name of a clustered co- lumn. The annexed Plate of Columns, with their respective archivolt mouldings, exhibits twelve specimens, mostly of the Anglo-Norman era. No. 1, from the tower-window of Earl's Barton Church, Northamptonshire, resembles some at Brixworth, in the same county; both having been assigned to the Saxon period : 2, from the greater, or Ethelwold's, crypt at Winchester : 3, from the western crypt of Canterbury Cathedral, and 11, from the eastern crypt of the same church : 4 and 6, from the crypt of St. Peter's Church, Oxford : 8, from the crypt of Repton Church, Derbyshire : 5, from Malmsbury Abbey Church, Wiltshire : 7, from the Conventual Church, at Ely : 9, from Waltham Abbey Church : and 12, from the church of St. Cross, Hampshire: 10, is a shaft of lighter proportion from St. Peter's Church, Northampton, which affords an early instance of the moulded band, near the middle of the shaft. Mr. Garbett, in a letter quoted in Brittoji's Winchester Cath., contends, that the column, fig. 2, is a genuine specimen of Anglo- Saxon work of Ethelwold's erection, at the end of the tenth century. Bentham [History of Ely Cath.], Millers [Description of Ely Cath.] and Lysons [Mag. Brit. Cambridgeshire] are decidedly of opinion that the Conventual Church at Ely [column, fig. 7] was erected in the seventh cen- tury. In the two Plates of Capitals, three of Arcades, three of Arches, and, more particu- larly, in the two of Bases, several varieties of the column are shewn : and it should be observed, that each marks a different age and class, or style of architecture. For the position of columns in a building, as well as for their relative sizes, it will be expedient to refer to the engraved Plan of the Ceypt of Canterbury Cathedral Church; to the two Views of the same crypts ; to the ground-plan of Durham Cathedral ; to the plate of Durham Cathedral, nave, B ; to that of Canterbury Cathe- dral, interior of small transept; to the plate of Salisbury Cathedral, interior of nave, B ; and to that of Exeter Cathedral, nave, D. CoMBLEA,CoMBLUS,low Lat.; comble,Fr.; culmen, Lat.; a roof of a building : the timber frame-work 94 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. con] of any edifice supportinsj a covering of tiles, lead, or any other materials. " Item pro una alia quercu xxxij. pedum longitudinis ad sustinendum Comblum navis juxta campanile, viij. lib." — Corn- put. MS.fabr. S. Petri Insul. an. 1469. Car- pentier, Glos. Nov. CoMMANDRY, CoMMANDERY; a religious house belonging to a body of Knights of the order of St. Bernard and St. Anthony. A commandery amongst the Hospitallers was the same as a pre- ceptory with the Knights Templars. [Tannei's Not. Mon., by Nasmith, Pref. xvii. See Pre- ceptory]. At the dissolution of religious houses, in the reign of Henry the Eighth, there were more than fifty commanderies subordinate to the great priory of St. John of Jerusalem. Commissure, Fr. ; commissura, Lat.; the joint be- tween two stones in masonry. Common Pitch, an old term still applied by country workmen to a roof in which the length of the rafters is about three-fourths of the entire span. — Piigiii's Specimens, i. 21. Communion-Table, a piece of church furniture usually placed near the wall of the east end of the chancel, and inclosed by rails, within which the clergyman stands to administer the sacrament. The communion-table was substituted for the altar at the time of the Reformation, but was removed from the wall to the middle of the church by some of the first English Reformers. — (See Altar.) Compartition, the division or distribution of the ground-plan of an edifice into its various apart- ments. Compartment, compart imeni, Fr.; compartimento. It. ; a division, or separate part of a general design : • but applied more particularly to any one division of an edifice, serving as an example of other divi- sions. Annexed are two plates, exhibiting: in- terior and exterior compartments of the nave of Durham Cathedral ; of the small transept, and the Trinity Chapel, Canterbury Cathedral; and of the naves of Salisbury and Exeter Cathedrals. Compass-he a DEn, a term sometimes applied to a round, or semicircular arch. Com PASS-ROOF, one in which the timbers of the roof from a sort of segmental or circular arch, by the inclination of the braces, as in the nave of Romsey Abbey Church. [Brittori's Arch. Antiq. vol. v. pi. 37.] Some roofs of this kind are ceiled with panels, as in the choir of Merton College Chapel, Oxford. Compass-window, Compassed-window, a cir- cular bay-window, or oriel, being a variation of the ordinary bay-window with rectangular corners. Leland, in his Itinerary, has the term " cumpace- wi/ndowe." (See Oriel.) Composite Order. (See Order.) Composition, the disposition or arrangement of the various parts of an architectural design so as to form a harmonious whole. The term applies to all the fine arts. Compound Archway, a series of arches of difl^erent sizes, enclosed within one of larger dimensions. The smaller arches often recede gradually from the external face of the wall ; in which case, the term receding archway is used. The forms of internal arches are not always the same as those used externally ; — thus, where the latter are pointed, the former may be trefoiled, and others may have two or more openings. These succes- sive arches, or the mouldings of which they are formed, are either continued down the uprights to the ground, or base, or terminate in columns. The buildings of the middle ages present numer- ous specimens of the compound archway, which generally forms the entrance to a building. Most of the Doorways, in plates ii. and ui. have compound arches. (See Doorway.) Compound Pier, a term sometimes applied to a clustered column. (See plate ii. of Bases, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 9.) Concameratio, Lat. arched work; from concamero, to arch over. Fuller, in his Church History, book vi. p. 286, calls by this name, an arched room between the east end of the church and the high altar, so placed that the priests in procession might surround the same. Blakeway and Owen {Ilistory of Shrewsbury, ii. 53] state it to signify a passage, corridor, or ambulatory ; but it appears in fact, to apply to any arched or vaulted apart- ment. Concha, low Lat. ; the semicircular vaulted end of a church ; thus named from concha, Lat. a shell ; in reference to its shape. — Du Cange. con] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 95 Conclave, Lat. from con, and clavis, a key; an inner room to which access can only ba gained by means of a key. A private, or secret council is called a conclave, but the term is more particularly applied to the meeting of the Roman Catholic Cardinals for the election of a Pope. The room in which such meeting is held is also called by the same name. Concrete, from cowcresco, Lat., to grow together; a composition of lime, sand, pebbles, or other ma- terials, and commonly used for the foundations of buildings. It is supposed that many of the ancient bridges, temples, churches, and other edifices were raised on foundations of this kind. [See a learned and ingenious essay on the subject, by George Godwin, Jun., in the " Transactions of the Insti- tute of British Architects," \o\. I. 1836.] From documents of the date of 1292, relating to the building of St. Stephen's Chapel at Westminster, it is inferred that its foundation was of this ma- terial. — Britton and Brayley's Anc. Palace of Westm., p. 425. Quarterly Review, May 1837. CoNDiTORiuM, Lat.; a secret place; a vault; a sepulchre ; an armoury ; an arsenal, or repository of arms. Conduit, conducere, Lat. to conduct; conducto, Sp. ; condotto, Ital. ; wasserlietung, Ger. ; a canal, channel, or pipe, either above or under ground, for the conveyance of water ; an aqueduct ; also, a narrow passage, for secret communication be- tween two or more houses or apartments. Al- though the name is properly applicable to the whole channel through which water is conveyed, it is often more emphatically given to a building erected in a market-place, or other open space in a town, from which water is supplied to the public. Some of these buildings of ancient date still re- main in many cities and towns, both in England and on the Continent. London, in particular, had several conduits : the name of the White Con- duit, at Islington, is still retained ; and it is only recently that the rude but ancient stone building so called, built over a spring which formerly sup- plied the Charter-house, has been removed. In Paddington, at the western extremity of London, is a plain building of stone, with a stone roof, called the Conduit, whence water is conveyed for the supply of Bond Street, and its neighbourhood. There was formerly a conduit on the site of the present Conduit Street, Bond Street (known in the sixteenth century as Conduit Mead) ; others near the street called Lamb's Conduit Street, and several within the City, at Tyburn, and at Hackney. The careful preservation of these conduits was formerly a matter of great importance ; and, until the metropolis was supplied with water from sources which rendered them less valuable, the lord mayor, aldermen, and other authorities, were in the habit of periodically inspecting their con- dition. On many occasions of public festivity, some of the conduits were made to flow with wine. At Lincoln is a stone conduit, supposed to have been erected about the year 1540. It pre- sents the appearance of a small chapel, its orna- ments being probably the fragments of some highly decorated chantry-chapel. — Britton's Pict. Antiq. of English Cities. In the market-place of Wells, there stood, until lately, a lofty and ornamental conduit, built by Bishop Beckington, for the use of the town's- people. Its place is now supplied by a very paltry piece of masonry. — Picturesque Antiq. of English Cities. In the market-place of Durham is a conduit, or pant, built of stone, on an octangular plan, surmounted by a statue of Neptune. The water was first conveyed to this place in 1451. — Beau- ties of England and Wales. — Durham. At Northampton is a plain, octagonal edifice, used as a conduit, having an open parapet, and terminating with a pinnacle at each angle. The City of Rouen is supplied with water from five different springs, by means of conduits, from which it is distributed to the inhabitants by as many as thirty public fountains, or conduits, the water flowing from most of them in a continuous stream. Of these, two of the most interesting are the Fontaine de la Croix, and the Fontaine de la Croix de Pierre. The former projects from a wall, and presents five faces, with canopied niches in each. These are surmounted by tracery in the style of the fifteenth century; and the whole is crowned by a short truncated pyramid. The other, erected about the year 1500, is insulated, and re- sembles the Queen's Crosses in England. It con- sists of three stories, of varied design ; in the first and second of which are canopied niches, with pedestals and tracery. It is about 33 feet high. 96 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [con — Pugiii and Le Keiix's Arch. Antiq. of Nor- mandy. Cotman's Normandy, vol. ii. 90. The magnificence of the ancient Roman con- duits, or aqueducts, is proverbial. From the cir- cumstance of their being generally above ground, some antiquaries have supposed the Romans were ignorant of the principle which impels water car- ried through close tubes to rise to the level of its source ; but the circumstance might have arisen from tlie practical difficulties which then existed, to prevent the construction of subterraneous channels. The inhabitants of modern Rome have numerous fountains, which display great variety of design and execution, from a simple vase to a pompous allegorical composition of sea-gods and other monsters. The term conduit is now rarely used to signify a secret or subterraneous commu- nication. CoNFESSio, low Lat. ; a term applied by early eccle- siastical writers to the sepulchres of martyrs and confessors ; and hence the term confession. Con- fessio has been used to denote a crypt, beneath the great altar of a church in which the relics and bodies of saints were buried ; the crypt under the high altar of St. Peter's Church, at Rome, has been especially thus designated. " Locum, qui in plerisque ecclesiis sub altari majori esse solet, ubi SS. martyrum corpora requiescunt, qui martyrum seu confessio appellatur." [Ceremoniale Episcop. lib. I. cap. 12.] "Ad hsecaltaria nonnullisgradi- bus ascendebatur a choro cantorum, quam cryptam vel confessionem Romani vocant." [Gervas. Doro- bern. in Descript. Eccks. Cant.} The word con- fessio likewise sometimes signifies a church (ba- silica), or an oratory. — Du Cange. Confessional, a recess, closet, or seat in a Catholic church, at which penitents make confessions to tiieir priest. The term has been improperly ap- plied to certain seats in churches, used only for the clergy to sit in during parts of the service; an instance of which misapplication of it occurs in St. Mary's Church, Oxford. [Piigin's Exam- ples of Gothic Architecture, 1st Series.] A chair with high wooden sides, having a few small holes, is sometimes used in foreign countries as a con- fessional. The act of confession, may, however, be performed in any place, provided that none but the priest and the penitent be within hearing. Confraternity des Fonts, a religious society of masons, or freemasons, whose duty it was to con- struct and superintend bridges, &c. for the accom- modation of travellers. St. Benedict, the con- structor of the bridge across the Rhone, between Avignon and Villeneuve, established near the former place an hospital of religious persons, de- nominated les Freres du Pont, whose office it was to preserve the fabric and assist travellers. This was perhaps the origin of the cotfraternite, who, amongst their other works, are supposed to have erected a bridge across the Rhone, near Lyons, about the year 1244, and another called the Pont d'Esprit, three thousand feet in length, between the years 1265 and 1309. [Whittington's Hist. Surv., 60-71.] The science of bridge building, as well as all the other arts and sciences then known, were, from the fifth to the fifteenth cen- tury, confined to the monastic clergy : and even in ancient Rome it was committed to a class of priests called Pontifces. — (See Bridge and Benedict.) Conge, (See Apophyge.) CoNOPEUM, Lat. ; a canopy, a pavilion, the tester of a bed, a curtain. Conrad, a prior of Canterbury, at the beginning of the twelfth century, built the choir of the cathe- dral church, which had been commenced by Ernulph, his predecessor, and was called "the glorious choir of Conrad." It was subsequently destroyed by fire. — Britton's Cathedral Antiqs. Canterbury, p. 34; Batteley's Cant. Sacr., 112, 114. Consecration, consecratio, Lat.; the act or cere- mony of sanctifying, or making holy ; the dedica- tion, or setting apart of any person or thing to religious uses. The consecration of churches and altars was a ceremony of great importance in the middle ages ; and was generally performed with much solemn pomp and magnificence. The first authentic record of the formal consecration of a church, occurs in the case of that erected by Con- stantine, over our Saviour's sepulchre in Jerusa- lem, in the year 335; whilst the earliest authorized form for consecration in England, is contained in an ordinance of a synod held at Colchyth, under Wulfred, Archbishop of Canterbury, in the year 816. By this it is ordained, that on the walls of the oratory, or in a table, as also on the altars, the name of the saints to which they are dedicated con] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONART. 97 shall be written. [Bingham's Works, I. 324. Johnson's Eccles. Laws, 816.] Not only sacred edifices, but men and beasts, houses, fields, church-bells, candles, crosses, pictures, and an infinite variety of other articles, applied to Cath- olic purposes, have been consecrated by different ages, and in different countries : its use is limited by the Protestant hierarchy to the consecration or dedication of a sacred edifice. Bishops are also made by consecration. In the 25th volume of the Archaologia, is an interesting paper by J. Gage, Esq., on the Anglo-Saxon ceremonial of dedication and consecration of churches. CoNsiSTOEiUM, Lat. ; the privy-councils of the Roman emperors, kings, nobles, and abbots; also a spiritual court, or assembly of the college of cardinals, at Rome. Consistory Court; a spiritual court, formerly held in the nave of the cathedral church, or in some adjoining portion of it, in which the bishop presided, in person. It is now held, however, by other officers of the bishop, for the determina- tion of matters of ecclesiastical cognizance hap- pening within the diocese. — Burn's Ecclesiastical Law. — Kennett's Antiqs. of Amhrosden, p. 773. Console, modiglione, Ital. ; canecillo, Sp. ; a truss, or projecting member in a building, used in front of the key-stone of an arch, or to support the lable moulding of a doorway. Though sometimes em- ployed only as an ornament, it is generally applied to support a cornice, a bust, or a vase. In the palace 6f Diocletian, at Spalatro, consoles form the support of an entire series of columns. (See Ancones.) Construction, Lat. constructio, from the insepar- able preposition con, together, and the verb struere, to build, or place in order; is the art of combining and skilfully arranging the various materials of which a building is to be composed, for the completion of the same. The materials, for the most part, are stone, brick, and timber, the combination of which is, in some cases, aided, and in others effected, by sand and lime, as mortar, and by iron and some other metallic substances in the form of cramps, nails, bolts, bars, &c. These combinations are made by a mason or bricklayer, and carpenter, to whom a smith and other less important artificers are auxiliary. To the opera- tions of the plumber, slater, or tiler, joiner, plas- terer, glazier, and painter, the term construction will hardly apply ; these are either merely sub- sidiary, or decorative ; for, though an edifice may depend on some of them for protection from excit- ing causes, as on the plumber and slater for the exclusion of rain, the construction must be com- plete before their operations are even applicable. Construction does not consist in the jointing and bedding of stones and bricks, in mortising and tenoning timbers, nor in placing them together in such a manner as to produce certain impres- sions ; but in the applied uses of scientific, mathe- matical, mechanical, and chemical principles, whose results are the certain, determinate efl^ects required. The artifice of the mason would have been inefficiently wasted in an attempt to raise the spire of Salisbury Cathedral, or the super- structure of St. Paul's Cathedral, without the con- structive science which is independent of it; and this alone could have executed the wonderful piece of carpentry which the roof of Westminster Hall exhibits. An interesting paper on the construc- tion of Anglo-Norman buildings will be found in the Gentleman's Magazine for January 1833. CoNTiGNATis, conttgnatio, Lat.; con, and tignum, a beam ; a frame of beams. The term is more particularly applicable to the joists forming the support of a floor. Contignation is the act of framing together, or uniting beams in a fabric. Continuous Imposts, a term given by the Rev. R. Willis to those " mouldings of an arch which are continued without interruption down the up- rights to the ground or base, the impost point having no mark or distinction of any kind." [Remarks on the Architecture of the Middle Ages, p. 28]. The western doorway of IfHey Church, and the exterior arch of the southern porch of Malmsbury Abbey Church exhibit early and per- fect specimens of this " continuous impost." " It pervades the whole buildings of the cathedrals of Orleans and Louvain, to the complete exclusion of capitals or impost mouldings of any kind." — ( Willis, p. 29.) [See Impost.] Convent, conventus, Lat. from convenio, to come together; an assembly of persons devoted to a life of religious seclusion; also the building in which they dwell. A convent of men is termed a monastery; and a convent of women a nunnery: the inmates being respectively called monks and o 98 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [coo nuns. When the convent is under the control of an abbot or an abbess, it is termed an abbey ; and, if subject to a prior or a prioress, it is a priory : though, in the latter case, it is e;enerally subordinate to an adjacent abbey. The term convent, however, is strictly applicable to each of them. — (See Abbey, Monastery, Nunnery, and Priory.) Coopertorium, low Lat. ; tectum, Lat. ; the roof of a building. "Ad faciendum coopertorium turris Exolduni, xviii 1." Computus mini 1202 apud D. Brussel. torn, de Usu Feudorum. Du Gauge. Coopertura, couverture, Ft.; the roof or covering of a building. " Coopertura tegularum," a tiled roof. — Madox, Formul. Anglic, p. 145. Du Cange. Cope, Coping, from co(;)>e, Sax., the head, or top of any thing; the upper course of masonry on a wall, parapet, or buttress, forming a projecting or covering course, for strength and for defence from the weather. Coppe-House, from copeus, Lat., a mason's tool, occurs in the accounts of expenses for erecting St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster, as the name of an apartment within the palace : it is supposed to mean a tool-house. — Smith's Antiqs. of West- minster, p. 70. Coppire Domum, low Lat., to cope a house, or to lay the roof and covering on the top of it. " Johanni Coventre de Banbury tegulatori capienti in grosso ad coppiendam praedictam domum, iv. lib. i. den."' — Ketinett's Antiqs. of Ambrosden, p. 575 ; from '^ Accounts of the Priori/ of Burcester," 3d and 4th Henry VL CoRB, CoRBE, a term used indefinitely by Spenser, and other old writers, for any architectural orna- ment. Corbel, corbis, Lat. ; from the French corheille; a piece of stone, wood, or iron, projecting from the vertical face of a wall ; intended to support some superincumbent object. It is one of the com- monest members of the pointed style of architec- ture ; and is sometimes in the form of a modillion, a console, or a small bracket. The interior roof of a church, or the main beams of a floor, some- times appear to be supported on corbels, the ends of which are often carved into figures of angels holding shields; and into a variety of other forms. The machicolations of a fortress, and the projec- tions of a small tower, or oriel window, from the perpendicular surface of a building, are also fre- quently supported in the same manner. The pro- jection of one stone beyond another, in the manner of a corbel, is termed "corbelling out," and is occasionally imitated in brick work. The word has also been applied to a niche, or hollow in a wall. (See Corbel-table.) Corbel-sous, corbeilleand sous, Fr. ; an underprop, a supporting corbel ; distinguished from a corbel w'hich was merely ornamental. .By an indenture in the Pell Office, dated in the 18th of Richard n. (1393), it appears that Kichard Washbourne and John Swalve (Swallow), masons, engaged to heighten the walls and roof of Westminster Hall, to the extent of two feet; and to fix securely in the inner walls, twenty-six souses or sustaining corbels of Caen stone, every corbel to be carved in conformity with a pattern shewn them by the King's treasurer. For each of these corbels, and certain connecting facings of Reigate stone, the contractors were to be paid 20s. — Brayley and Britton's Anc. Palace of Westm. p. 437. Corbel-step, a term applied to the gables of some old buildings, when the parapet is broken into several steps or ledges, converging from the eaves to the apex. Corbel-table, a projecting part in the face of a wall, beneath a parapet; an arcade; a series of windows; or the eaves of a building, supported by numerous corbels, which are variously orna- mented. In the accompanying Plate of Cor- bels are ten different specimens, from as many buildings, all varying in design and detail, but all calculated to adorn the masonry of the respec- tive edifices. In the early Norman buildings, the corbels are mostly grotesque heads, or mon- sters, as in figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4: fig. 6, exhibits the corbel in its simplest form ; in fig. 7, it is a small bracket with a regular capital ; whilst fig. 9 is a somewhat unusual specimen. In some of the annexed examples, the corbel-table is formed by a succession of small arches : these, in fig. 7, are trefoil-headed; in fig. 8, triangular; and in fig. 10, semicircular. Corbets, Corbetts, Corbettis, have all been used as synonymous with corbels; but corbets BRITTOXS ARCHrrECTlj-RAl. DICTIONAKY. C.Haricgj- Uml. J.LvKctacSe. CORBEL TABLE S . L2.4. Castor OlUiKortlil 3. s: Fsters Qiii: Oxford, i. S! Peters Ch^i: North- e.lSQ^ ChuiOrford.! 7. Salisbary C«ih! 8.Adal ChvirYorfcshire. S.Peteiioro Cath! 10. Keann Chu: Northampton Slar«. /.wr^^n JliMuA^ re*-> J- JAV. cor] ARCHITECTUUAL DICTIONARY. 99 seem more particularly to signify niches for images : Chaucer uses corbettis in this sense. CoRBEYUS, lowLat.; corbeau,Fr.; acorbel. " Cor- beyos de lapidibus talliatis," are mentioned in a charter, dated 1417, quoted in the Supplement to Du Cange. Corbie-steps ; " a term yet used in Scotland for the battlement rising like steps up the sides of gabels on many old houses. From the French corbeau, a crow ; those birds being observed to perch upon such steps." — Wilhon in Pugin's Specimens. — Glossary. Corinthian Order. (See Order.) Cornel, " the forepart of a house." — Ritson's Metrical Romances. Cornice, from the Latin, coronis; corniche, Fr. ; the crown, or highest part ; a projecting mem- ber, consisting generally of a congeries of mould- ings, and serving as the crowning or finishing of that part of a composition, whether external or internal, to which it is affixed. Its application extends to doorways, piers, chimney-pieces, walls, and other members. [See Entablature, and Order.] When it forms the termination of a pedestal, it is called its cap. Cornu-altaris, Lat. the horn of the altar; or that side on which the Epistle or Gospel was read. — Fosbroke's Archtzological Dictionary. Corona, Lat. a crown; the deep vertical face of the projecting part of the cornice, between the upper and lower mouldings. It serves to discharge the rain water in drops from its lower edge, and thus to protect the subordinate parts of the cornice ; and is thence called by the Italians, gocciolatios and lagrimalios ; by the French, /ar»z/er ; and by the English, drip. Vitruvius uses the word to signify the whole cornice. Corpse-gate, Lich-gate, liechen-gang, Ger. ; a shed, or covered place, at the entrance to a churchyard, intended to shelter the corpse and mourners from rain. A description, with an en- graving, of one at Birstall, Yorkshire, may be seen in the " History of Morley," by Morison, p. 289. Corpus Ecclesi^, the nave, or body of a church. Corrants ; a term used in old contracts, the mean- ing of which is not well defined : in an ' ' Abstracte of certayne reperacions done within the Kyng's Tow" of London," in the 24th of Henry VIII., the following entry occurs, under " Bricklayers' work :" " It'm, in the same frame, at the gabqll end, on the northe syde, the bryngyng up w' ragge-stone and brycke. It'm, more for the corrants of the same frame, alle the hole length." — Bayley's Hist, oj' the Tower, Appendix, xxiv. Corridor, curritorium. Low Lat. ; corridore, or corridoro, Ital., from curro, Lat., to run ; a gal- lery, or passage, leading from one part of an edi- fice to another. Gray, in his poem of " The long story," char- acterises the corridors of the Elizabethan houses as " passages that lead to nothing." CoRRODY, corredo, Ital., provision; an allowance of meat, drink, or clothing, or a sum of money : a right of maintenance formerly claimed by the monarch from every religious house of royal foundation, for the benefit of any one of his chap- lains or servants. The word was occasionally used to signify, generally, a maintenance for life. According to Black stone, the king was entitled to a corrody out of every bishopric, and might send any clergymen to be maintained by the bishop until the prelate promoted him to a benefice. In Owen and Blakeway's Shrewsbury, II. p. 105, is an account of the resistance made by the abbey to certain writs of Henry VIII. command- ing the abbot to settle a pension, or corrody upon William Hill, Clerk, which the abbot refused to do, stating that his abbey was not of royal founda- tion. CoRSERiA, a passage from one tower to another, either in the walls of towns, or castles. Cortile, a small court, inclosed by the divisions or appurtenances of a building. The cortile was an important adjunct to the early Christian churches, or basilicas, and was usually of a square form. Mr. Hope supposes that it was more generally adopted in the buildings of Byzantium than in those of Rome, because the former city afforded more space to the Romans than the latter. "It still subsists in those Greek churches which the Turks converted into mosques ; and the Greek artists have since erected the Mohammedan mosques with the same appendage." — History oJ Architecture, p. 123. 100 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [cor In the Christian buildings of Italy, the cortile is often embellislied with columns and statues. Cortina, Lat., a tripod-table, according to Virgil, whence the oracles of Apollo were given by the Pythia, or Pytlionissa : hence, the room in which it was placed was called Cortina le. CoRTis, in the middle ages, signified a court sur- rounded by edifices : also a rustic habitation for a farmer ; a manor, or mansion house, and some- times a whole street which had been added to a villa. — Fosbioke's Archaological Diet. Cottage, from cot, Sax., a bed ; a small habitation erected for the accommodation of labourers and poor persons. Cottages were formerly constructed exclusively for the poor ; and were built of the commonest, and least expensive materials ; which will account for there being none of ancient date remaining. The poorer cottage is generally built of clay and straw, or of turf, with a roof of steep pitch : it has seldom more than two floors, and is commonly thatched with straw. Couched, laid close, as in a stratum. [^Webster's Dictioiiari/.l " The seller couched with bere, with ale, or wine." — " This tombe was shining with silver and pure golde — so gayly couched and set with precious stone." — Ship of Fooles, 169, a. Coulisse, Fr. ; any piece of timber which has grooves in it; also, pieces of wood which hold the flood-gates in a sluice. {James's Military Dic- tiuuari/.'] See Portcullis. Counter-Fort, a pier, buttress, or oblique wall built up against a wall to strengthen and support it. It is used in fortification to resist the pres- sure of a rampart, or of the ground on one side of a ditch. Counter-Guard, in military architecture, is an outwork formed to retard the formation of a breach in a fortress. CouNTERVALLATioN, in military architecture, is a chain of redoubts raised about a fortress to pre- vent sorties of the garrison, — the works being either unconnected, or united by a line of parapet. That formed by the Lacedaemonians at the siege of Platiua, consisted of a line of palisades ; whilst that executed by Csesar, at the siege of Alesia, was a rampart of earth, with turrets at regular intervals. Couple : Sandys, in his description of the mausolea in Turkey, says, " they are built all of white mar- ble, round in form, coupled at the top, and having stately porches." — Travels, p. 26. Coupled Columns, columns disposed in pairs. (See Column.) CouRCY, Robert de, completed the church of St. Nicaise, and the cathedral at Rheims in France, and died in the year 1311. — Whi/tiiigton's Hist. Surv., pp. 73, 164. Course, cours, Fr. ; a continued range of stones, or bricks, in the wall of a building: also the face ofan arch ; the arch-stones being called voussoirs, or ring-stones. Course of Plinths, otherwise String-course, a continued plinth, or moulding in the face of a wall, to mark the division of an edifice into separate stories. (See String-course.) Court, cour, Fr. ; an uncovered area, either within the walls of a building or adjoining it: the word is equivalent to the Roman cavedium. (See Base Court ) Court op Guard, a guard-room. Cousin ET, Fr. a cushion; a stone on the impost of a pier designed to receive the first course of an arch : also that part of the Ionic capital be- tween the abacus and the echinus. (See Cushion Capital.) Cove, cop, cope, Sax., a cave, a recess, a den; any kind of concave moulding; the concavity of an arch, or of a ceiling. The term alcove is origin- ally from the Arabic language, meaning a cave, or recess : it passed into other European languages through the Spanish. Coved Ceiling, the upper surface ofan apartment formed in an arched or coved shape at its junction with the side walls. (See Ceiling.) Cover, similar to Louvre, which see; a turret on the roof of a hall, or kitchen, with openings for the escape of smoke or steam. [See Leland's Itinerary, viii. fol. 66']. The kitchen of Glaston- bury Abbey has a curious cover. Covered-way, in military language, a narrow pass- age between different parts of a castle or castra- metation for the protection of soldiers in a garrison. Coving, the exterior projection of the upper parts of a building beyond the limits of its ground-plan. CRO] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 101 Id former times, the higher floors of houses often extended considerably beyond the groundfloor ; as may be seen in many houses at Bristol, Tewkesbury, and in other old towns. Coving of a Fire-place, the vertical sides, inclin- ing backwards and inwards, for the purpose of reflecting the heat. In the old Norman house at Winwall, Norfolk, the fire-place is thus formed. Cowl, a cover for the top of a chimney, made to turn round by the wind, and used to facilitate the escape of smoke. Sir John Harrington, in his " Metamorphosis of Ajax," written at the close of the sixteenth century, describes the cowl as being then in use for the above purpose. Credence, a shelf-like projection placed across a piscina, or withm a niche, as a place for sacred vessels used at mass : also a buffet, or side-board for plate. — Archa. xi. 355. Crenelle, Kirnal, from crena, Lat. ; crenellatus, low Lat. ; a notch ; the open part of a battlement, either in castellated, ecclesiastical, or domestic architecture. In the first year of the reign of Richard I., Ralph Erghum, bishop of Salisbury, obtained the royal license to crenellate (kernel- laudi), or fortify, his palaces in Wiltshire, Berk- shire, and in London. — Tanner's ^ot. Man. bt/ Nasmitk, under Salisbury/. Crenellation, the act of making crenelles ; fre- quently applied to the loopholes in the walls of a fortress, in the form of a cross, for the passage of arrows, — the same as Eyelet or Oilet. Cresset, an open frame, or lanthorn for a light to be used as a beacon, attached to a pole. It is described by Cotgrave, under Fulot, as being "made of ropes wreathed, pitched, and put into small and open cages of iron." The word seems to be derived either from croiset, a crucible, or, open pot ; or croisselte, from the circumstance of beacons having frequently small civsses attached to them. Portable cressets were formerly much used in the ceremonials of the church, and Mr. Sharp, of Coventry, had one which belonged to the Cappers' Company of that place. It was a piece of open framework, or small grate, fixed so as to swing between the forked ends of a long pole. The following extract from the Accounts of the Com- pany alludes to the subject; 10th Hen. VIII., " Itm for makyng of iiij. cressets v. s. viij.d. Itin for lyght to the cressets, ij. s. viij. d. I tin to the berers of the cressets, vj. d." In the '26lh of Hen. VIII., we find the item " paid for vij. ston ofcresset lygth, ijs. iiijd." On one of the turrets of Hadley Church, near Barnet, Middlesex, there was formerly a small pot filled with combustible matter to serve for a cresset, or beacon. (See Beacon.) Crest, crista, Lat. ; cresta, low Lat. ; carved work on the top, or other ridge of a building. The copings of battlements, and the tops of gables and pinnacles, were also termed crests. The word is used by heralds to signify the device set over a coat of arms, which device was formerly the same as that worn by its owner on the top of his helmet : in which situation it received the same designation. The Cathedral at Exeter has orna- mental crests of lead placed along the ridge of its roof. Cresta, the battlement of a fortress with square apertures resembling windows, through which soldiers might discharge missiles at their be- siegers : " Pro portu mille lapidum in sua barca aportarum, ad faciendam crestas per murum dicti portalis." — Chart a an. 1370, ex Tabid. Massil. Du Cange. Crest-Tiles, ridge tiles placed along the apex of a roof of a building. They were sometimes moulded in the form of small battlements, of crockets, or leaves, and examples of them are still occasion- ally seen. Crestyde, Crested, crestatus, low Lat. : con- structed with a crest, or crenellated battlement. The word occurs in "a survey of the Tower, 23d year of Henry VIII.," in which part of the wall, from the Bell Tower to Beauchamp Tower, is directed to be " ventyde, garyted, coped, lowped, and also crestyde."- — Bay ley's History of the Tower, pt. i. appendix, ix. Criplings, short spars at the sides of houses. — Du Canae. " Tigna brevia latera aedium." — Skinner's Etymo. Ling. Crista, Lat., a crest; the apex or highest part of a shrine. — Du Cange. Crocia, Crochia, low Lat. ; a crosier, or the pas- toral staff" of a bishop, or an abbot; so called from its resemblance to a cross. " Virga pastoralis 102 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [CRO quam vulgus crociam vocat." Hariulfi Chron. Centuleiis, lib. iv. cap. 28. " Crochiani unam cum boculo de ebure." — Charta Johaiiiiis Arc/iiep. Capuan. 1301. — Dtt Gauge. (See Crosier.) Crocket, Crochet, Crotchet, from croc, Fr., a hook; kroff, Dan.; crocus, low Lat. ; a curl, or hook : a sculptured leaf, or foliated ornament, placed at the angles of pinnacles, canopies, gables, and other members of Christian architecture : it usually terminates in a larger ornament at the apex, termed a finial. — [See Finial.] On the tower of the church of Than, in Normandy, the crockets resemble hooks, and appear to serve the purpose of fastening together the parts which form the mouldings at the angles of the roof. — Cotmait's Arch. Anliq. of 'Normandy, vol. i. p. 15, pi. 16. The early crocket resembled a trefoil, branching outwards from the moulding to which it was attached, and curving backwards and downwards, of which form, figs. I. and 11., in the annexed plate, are examples, from Salisbury Cathedral, about A. D. 1240. Subsequently, the leaf was pointed upwards, as in figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, and 11, of which the crockets on Queen Eleanor's crosses present some of the earliest ex- amples. The foliage represented by crockets, be- came gradually complicated and diversified to a surprising extent, and for many centuries formed a beautiful and prominent ornament of the style to which they respectively belonged. Instead of foliage, animals were sometimes used as crockets, of which there are instances on the flying but- tresses of Henry the Seventh's Chapel, West- minster, and at the gables of the hall at Hampton Court Palace. Figs. 3 and 8, in Plate of Crockets, are examples of rare occurrence : the former from the monument of Archbishop Kempe in Canterbury Cathedral, about the end of the fifteenth century, and the latter from the monu- ment of Bishop Bingham, in Salisbury Cathedral, A.D. 1246. The former are figures of swans, very beautifully carved, and the latter angels. In the Account of Louth Steeple, Archcp. vol. x. p. 80., is the charge, paid " for 54 foot crockytts, price, 1 foot, 2c?. ; 38s. 4J." The crockets to the pinna- cles of the Oxford buildings are of unusual shape ; they project nearly at right angles from the pin- nacles.— See Pugin's Specimens of Goth. Archit. Croft, cjiopt. Sax., a small indosure attached to a dwelling-house, and used for pasture, tillage, or other purposes. The terra is also used in the same sense as crypt, probably from its connexion with the Greek y.^vrrru, to conceal. Cromlech, Cromeleche, Gromlec, Welsh, from crom or arum, bent or bowed ; and lech or leac, a broad stone : a tabular or altar-wise assemblasre of stones, composed of three or more uprights supporting another of large dimensions. These singular and interesting relics of antiquity are found in many parts of England, Wales, Scot- land, and Ireland, also in France, &c., and have excited much discussion as to their origin and use. Gough, in his Sepulchral Monuments of Great Britain, represents the cromlechs as Danish monuments ; but other writers, with more proba- bility, attribute them to the Druids. Rowlands [Mona. Antiqua'], Toland \_Uistory of the Druids], and King \_Munimenta Antiqua] consider them as Druidical altars for sacrifice ; but Borlase [4«rrrECTUR.-vL DrCTIOKARY, l.I,aii3iem,e. Cornwall. 4.JIeai* ST Denis. Rrance. CROSSES. S.Margaia Soixt}i "Wales. 5."Waitham, Efeex 3. S* Patricks C? of Louth. e.Iron Acton. Gloucestersku'e . II CRO] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 105 was another variety, called a weeping-cross, used for that purpose alone. Of preaching-crosses, perhaps, the most celebrated was that of St. Paul's, London, which was a pulpit formed of wood, raised upon a flight of stone steps, and covered with lead. Those still remaining at Hereford, and at Iron Acton, Gloucestershire, may be considered the most perfect examples. The former was attached to the Monastery of Blackfriars, in that city, and is described in Britton's Picturesque Antiquities of English Cities ; whilst the latter is represented in Plate I. fig. 6, of Crosses, and was probably erected in the reign of Henry the Fourth. There is another at Holheach, in Lincolnshire ; and at- tached to the wall of the Abbey, at Shreiusbury, is an octagonal stone pulpit, ascended by a flight of steps, covered with a canopy, and open at the sides ; though the latter, from its situation, is not strictly a preaching-cross. A fine specimen of this class is that now placed in the grounds of Stourhead, Wiltshire, taken from the College Green, Bristol. The Market-cross may be said to have been originally formed like the monumental crosses of Queen Eleanor ; with the exception only of its basement being open at the sides, and having a central shaft for the support of the superstruc- ture ; as in that at Winchester, and another at Leighton- Buzzard, Bedfordshire. This plan was probably afterwards further carried out by the omission of the steps on which it was raised, by extending the circumference of the walls and roof, and the bulk of the central pillar, and by arching over the roof; the height of the whole structure being at the same time much reduced. This is the form in which it exists at Cheddar, Malms- bury, and Salisbury. The first of these was erected at two very different periods, its central column having been a cross with single shaft raised on steps ; and the lateral piers, with the roof, being erected at a later time. That of Malrasbury is one of the most beautiful market- crosses remaining : its plan is octagonal, the sup- porting piers terminating in pinnacles, and the central shaft being continued above the roof in an ornamental turret, supported by flying but- tresses. It is supposed to have been built towards the end of the fifteenth, or the beginning of the sixteenth century, l-eland, who was at Malms- bury, in the time of Henry VIIL, says, " there is a right, faire, and costely peace of worke, for poor market folkes to stand dry when rayne cummeth : the men of the towne made this peace of worke in hominum memoria" [Itinerary, vol. ii. p. 26]. The cross at Salisbury, erected at the beginning of the fourteenth century, and intended to accommodate persons who sold poultry, is hexagonal, with a central column [Britton's Pict. Antiq. of English Cities'\. In the celebrated monastic town of Glas- tonbury was a large market-cross of singular de- sign, which, after having remained to adorn the place for nearly three centuries, was taken down, with the adjoining conduit, at the beginning of the present century [Britton's Arch. Antiq., vol. i.] The above four crosses are represented in the annexed Plate II. of Crosses. Of other mar- ket-crosses, those of Chichester and Leighton- Buzzard are the most important. The former, which appears to have been erected about 1480, is fully illustrated in the Pict. Antiq. of English Cities: the latter is pentagonal, in two stories, raised on steps ; the lower story being open, and supported by a central shaft and five buttress- piers at the angles, each having small columns attached : the roof is groined. In the second story are five statues in canopied niches. The shape of the arch indicates this cross to be of the time of Henry the Eighth. The cross at Coventry was, perhaps, the most splendid edifice of the kind in Enoland. The indenture, or acrreement for its construction, dated in the 38th Hen. VIII., is printed in the " Liber Niger,'' and states, that it was to be constructed of good free-stone from the quarries of Attilborough, or Raunton, in War- wickshire, and set up in a place called " crosse cheeping." It was to be ornamented with pinna- cles and images ; and its covenanted cost was 197/. 6s., to be paid by instalments. Figs. 1, 2, and 3, in the accompanying Plate I. of Crosses, are specimens of three varieties of the same design, consisting of a single shaft fixed in a base. These are differently ornamented with fioures of the crucifixion, and one is adorned with bassi-relievi of numerous figures. Cross, Palm. Frequent mention o{ palm-crosses is made in old wills. Thus, in 1462, John Turner gave forty shillings for making a stone-cross, called a palm-cross, to be set over his grave. An old p 106 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARV. [CRO French topographer describes a cross at Caen, which seems to have been something of the kind : " This large and fine cross," he says, " was of a singular form. The body of it [la masse] fifteen feet high, and thirty in circumference, supported five columns, twenty feet high, and six inches in diameter; and upon these was another masse, • seven feet high, and two feet and a half in dia- meter. Round it were four figures, five feet high ; and upon the jointing of the capital [Vammortise- meiit du chapiteait] was fixed a fair cross five feet high, with other figures and carvings. Round this structure ran a flight of steps, by which the Catholics ascended on Palm Sunday and received the sign of the cross, which brought to their re- membrance the Passion of our Lord." — Owen and Blaketvaif s Shrewsbury/, ii. 358. A cross was erected in the church-yard of Hadley, in Norfolk, by the direction of the will of Henry Bunn, dated 1500, and was "ornamented with palm branches on Palm Sunday ; — -p. palmis in die ramis palmarum offerendis." — BlomeJiehV s Hist. ofNorJ'olk, vol. x. p. 141. edit. 1809. Cross-Somer, a beam of timber. "A roffe made complete, w' a cross-somer, and joystes to the same ; " is mentioned in a document relative to reparations at the Tower, 24th Henry VIII., pre- served in the chapter-house at Westminster. — Baylei/'s Hist, of the Totuer, pt. i. App. p. xix. Cross-Springer, in groined vaulting, is the rib which extends.diagonally from one pier to another. Cross-Vaulting, is formed by the intersection of two or more simple vaults of arch-work. Crota, low Lat., a vault, or vaulted apartment. In a charter dated in 1417, and quoted in the Sup- plement to the Glossary of Du Cange, this term is used to signify the substructure of a tower : " Quamdam crotani sen fundamentum turris, sita: in loco de Sabrano." The analogous terms, Crote and Crouste, occur in French records of the fifteenth century, cited in the same work. CROunE, Crowde, the crypt, or undercroft of a church ; a subterraneous vault, such as that under old St. Paul's, London, which was formerly called " the croudes," corruptly for the crypt. [See . Shrowds, and Dugdale's St. Paul's, by Ellis, p. 75.] ■ lliggins, in his translation of Junius's , Nomenclator, explains the term Crypto-Porticus, as "a secret wallt, or vault underground, as the crowdes or shrowdes of Paules, called St. Faith's Church." — p. 188. (See Crypto-Porticus.) Croupe or Crop, from copp or cpopp. Sax., the top or head of any thing; croupe, Ft., a top, ridge, or termination. In the description of St. Ste- phen's Church, Bristol, William of Worcester gives the altitude of the tower, from the " erth table to the crope which finishes the stone work." [Itin. p. 282]. Chaucer uses the term in the same sense. From its application by the French to the semicircular end of a church, which had generally an ar '■hed roof, the word has been ex- tended to mean a vaulted roof generally, in which sense it agrees with the Latin term, tectum testudi- natilm. Crown, the uppermost member, or finishing part of a work ; applied to the corona and its superior mouldings in an entablature. Crown of an Arch, that line, or point upon its surface, which is the highest, or most elevated from its springing. Croylanb, (llichard de) ; Abbot of Croyland, Lin- colnshire, from 1281 to 1303, is said to have erected the transept of the Abbey Church. — Cough's Hist, of Croyland, p. 87. Croyland, (William de) ; was master of the works in the same edifice, during the abbacy of Upton, who presided from 1417 to 1427. He is said to have built the nave and ailes. — Cough's Hist, of Croyland, p. 88. Crucifix, crucijixus, Lat., from crucis and Jixus, fixed to a cross ; a representation, either carved or painted, of Jesus Christ fastened to the cross. Tlie crucifix was extensively used in the proces- sions, devotions, and decorations of the Roman- Catholics: it was frequently made to contain relics of saints. Crvpt, cri/pte, Fr., from zoutVw, Gr., and crypto, Lat., to hide ; a vault, or subterraneous apart- ment beneath t church. In the early ages of Christianity, when the Cliurch was harassed 'by persecution, it was necessary for its members to meet in the most secret places; subterraneous chambers under dwellings, and the vaults contain- ing the tombs of martyrs were generally selected for this purpose. Hence, the term used to signify BRITTOH's ARCHLTECTUILiL mCTIONiBT. CAKTEHBTTRT CATHEDRAL CHTTRCH. ciurrTS tMiIan fulli*f.fd iLITECTDRAL DlCtlVEUHCT. CIUdcFi' Ar\ (t'niv Slipirlipu li^ C. Cutcnoolc. CAWTERBtTRY CAXll>;nRAi. . CKYj ARCHITECTURAL. DICTIOX ART. 107 such concealment became the name of the place : a church underground, or that portion of it where the congrregation assembled. Furnished with altars and oratories, it is evi- dent, that crypts were used by the early Christ- ians for certain religious ceremonies; and it is also apparent, that parts of them were appropri- ated for the interments of the most distinguished officers of the church. Crypts are found in some of the most eminent of the ecclesiastical edifices of Great Britain, as well as in those of France, Italy, and Germany. Mr. Rickman considers the crypt of the Church of St. Gennaiiis, Rouen, to be of the fourth century [Attempt, S^'c, p. 313] ; and the small crypt, under the space be- tween the altar and Lady Chapel, Winchester Cathedral, has also been referred to a remote period in the Anglo-Saxon annals, [by Mr. Gar- bett, in Britton's Cath. Antiqs., IVinchester, p. 58.] The greater, or western crypt, however, which extends under the choir of that cathedral is attributed, by the same gentleman, to St. Ethel- wold, who presided over the see from 963 to 984 : the solid and ponderous character of its masonry may be seen by referring to the Plate of Columns, fig. 2. The Crypt at Lastingham Church, Yorkshire, is certainly of great antiquity, though we have no direct documentary evidence of its date. It is recorded, that the church and monastic build- ings were rebuilt about the year 1080 ; and the solid and rude character of the architecture of the crypt, justifies the conjecture of its being part of the works then executed. The plan of this crypt is square, with a recess at the east end ter- niinatino- in a semicircle. At St. Peter s in the East, Oxford, is an an- cient crypt, measuring thirty-six feet by twenty- one, and supported by two rows of columns. It is nine feet high, and is generally of lighter pro- portions than either of the preceding. It has been attributed by some writers to St. Grymbald, who lived in the time of King Alfred, but it was most probably not erected until soon after the Norman conquest. The Rev. W. Coneybeare has given a learned essay on this church and its crypt in Britten's Architectural Antiquities, vol. iv. in which he contends, that the latter is subsequent to the Norman invasion : but the Rev. Dr. In- gram, in Memorials of Oxford, vol. i., says there is not " any reason to doubt it was built before" that event. Beneath the east end of Repton Church, Derbyshire, is an early and singular crypt, which has four slender spiral columns, and eight pilasters with panels on their faces, giving the whole a close resemblance to Roman work. From these appear- ances this crypt has also been classed, by some antiquaries, with the remains of early Norman architecture; but Messrs. Lysons ascribe it to the Anglo-Saxons, who founded the conventual church here before the year 660. [Magna Bri- tannia, Derbyshire, p. ccxix.] In that volume is a ground-plan, section, and view of the crypt. To Canterbury Cathedral we must refer for the most extensive, interesting, and important of these curious apartments. Like those at Win- chester, the crypts of Canterbury Cathedral ap- pear to have been built at different times. Their eastern termination is semicircular; which form has been also observed in the small lateral chapels. The interior length of the Canterbury Crj-^pts is 286 feet ; and the width, at the western part, is 33 feet 6 inches. The age of the oldest part has long been the subject of controversy; but from its similarity to the crypt at Oxford, it may be re- garded as contemporaneous with that ; it was most probably the work of Lanfranc, about a.u. 1080. The larger, or western crypt is divided into a nave and four ailes by two rows of massive piers, and by a double range of small columns : whilst the piers and walls of the ailes have semi-columns to support the vaulting. Branching laterally from each aile is a vault, or chapel : that on the south side, the vaulting of which is adorned with many ribs, beai's evident marks of innovation, and is supposed to have been converted into a chantry- chapel by Edward the Black Prince, whose arms are seen among its ornaments. Towards the east- ern end of this crypt (at 7. in the accompanying Plan) was a chapel, inclosed with screen-work, and dedicated to the Holy Virgin. The crypt under the Trinity Chapel, or east end of the cathe- dral, is singular in form and character. Its plan assumes the figure of a horse-shoe; and is divided into a nave and ailes by a series of eight piers, each formed of two columns, engaged about one quarter of their diameter, supporting four semi- circular, and five pointed arches, their respective forms being influenced by the width of the inter- 108 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [CRV columniations. In its central division, or nave, art- two small insulated shafts, with larn '1>.^«J, J U Koux- re l-l NIA LS . LLa.vciii»jn Chu: Suilbx. .^.tltisttrs. t-Junsioh Ciuh. -l.C.SaliaM C«hi BT Brtdponm Manl J.D? B? »iug\nun« Ui 7.aen:Vll.Cha4): titvat ilw *l.W\nchcstor Okth! fi.S^Oeo: Ou4>*.Wtnditor.Nldu> u> Br Boauchuuip. FL OJ ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 125 and Corinthian columns are called fillets. {Sze Annulet ar.d Band.) FiNiAL, FiNOL, (rom Jliiis, Lat., the end; a carved or sculptured ornament forming the apex of a pinnacle, canopy, pediment, gable, or other pyra- midal member of a building, in the pointed style ; and nearly corresponding with the Acroterium in Greek architecture. Its most usual form is imi- tative of clustered flowers, of fruit, or of foliage; and towards it the crockets beneath appear natur- ally to merge. Sometimes figures of men and animals are used as finials, as at Peterborough Cathedral, &c. Their forms, indeed, are infi- nitely diversified in buildings of different ages, and frequently in different parts of the same building. The nine examples in the accompany- ing Plate, and others which may be found in the Plates of Buttresses, Arches, Sec, serve to shew the elegance and variety which this beautiful ornament was made to exhibit. In ancient documents we sometimes find the entire pinnacle designated by the term finial. In the will of King Henry the Sixth, the walls of the chapel of his college, at Cambridge, are directed to be " sufficiently butteraced, and every butterace fined with Jinials." "The botterasses of the collegiate church of Fotheringhay were also to be ' fynished with fynials,' meaning tall pinnacles." — -Dugdale's Mon. AngL, vol. iii. new edit. By an indenture of the 24th Henry VIII., the north and south " hylings " (ailes) of Burnley Church, Lancashire, were contracted to be re- built, with eighteen buttresses, " every buttress having 2i funnel upon the top, according to the fashion of the funnels upon the new chapel of our LadyofWhalley."— PF/«7a/ter's Whalky, p. 298. Fitz-Odo (Edward), was employed as director, or master, of the works "carried on by Henry the Third, at the Palace of Westminster. In some records he is called Edward of Westminster, hemg the sonof Odo, the Goldsmith, who had previously held the same office. Fitz-Odo was appointed treasurer of the exchequer in 1246, in conjunc- tion with the Archdeacon of Westminster; and, shortly afterwards, his uncle, John le Fusor, transferred to him the office of fusor, or melter of the king's exchequer, in consideration of the sum of twelve marks of silver, towards the expenses of his voyage into the Holy Land. — Biayley and Brittons Anc. Palace of Westm., pp. 51-53. Fitz-Stephen (Raljih), chamberlain to King Henry the Second, built the new church of St. Mary, at Glastonbury, which was dedicated in 1186. — Dug- dale's Mon. AngL, new edit., vol. i. p. 5. Flamineje, low Lat., from famen, a priest; a term applied to houses near a church in which the clergy resided. Flamboyant, a name applied by Mons. de Cau- mont, of Normandy, and adopted by other French and English antiquaries to designate a peculiar class of Christian architecture common in France after the year 1400, and chiefly marked by the peculiar tracery of the windows. This diverges from the perpendicular mullions, in flowing, or waving lines, said to resemble the flames of fire ; but the term is neither descriptive nor very appo- site. (See a window of Magdalen Church, Ox- ford, in Sir J. Hall's Gothic Arch., pi. xii. ficr. 1.; and windows of Dorchester Church, in Brit- ton's Arch. Antiqs., vol. v.) Flank, the side, or return wall of a building. Flecked; arched, vaulted. From the French^^ecA/, bent, or bowed. — Cotgrave's Diet. Flemish Bond, a mode of laying bricks, or stones in buildings, having alternate headers and stretchers in the same course: i. e. the ends and sides of the bricks alternating in the front of a wall. (See Bond, and English Bond.) Floor, plori, plope, Sax,, the bottom, or lower part of a building, or room, formed of planks of tim- ber, of cement, or paved with brick or stone : the word extends also to the frame-work supporting the platform or floor. The Romans devoted much labour and skill to the formation and de- coration of the floors of their temples, baths, and villas ; the best being composed of small pieces of brick or stone, inlaid in cement, so as to form mosaics of various patterns. The ecclesiastics of the middle ages also constructed the floors of their churches, and other religious buildings, with glazed and unglazed bricks or tiles, with stones, calcareous cement, boards, and other materials. Inlaid floors, formed of small pieces of wood, fastened together by means of pins or dowels, and arranged in various devices, are also of frequent and more recent occurrence. The floors of old 126 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [flo buildings in England were often strewed with straw, rushes, herbs, or flowers, and, occasionally, tapestry cloths were partially used. Fitz-Stephen, the secretary of Thomas ti Becket, informs us that the apartments of that prelate were covered every day in winter with clean straw, or hay, and, in summer, with green rushes, or boughs ; and this practice was argued as a proof of his extrava- france. Earthern, or cenientitious floors are often used in cottages, in malt-houses, &.C., and are usually composed of loam, lime, sand, and iron dust. Florid Style, a term employed by some writers on " Gothic architecture," to imply that highly enriched and decorated species which prevailed in the fifteenth and at the beginning of the six- teenth centuries. (See Akchitecture.) Wil- liam of Malmsbury applies the term Jiorida-com- positioiie to the buildings of Alexander, bishop of Lincoln, who died in 1147; consequently they were termed florid only in comparison with pre- ceding specimens, and not to the degree exhibited in buildings to which that term is now applied. Flue, from Jiuo, to flow; a passage, or open space, in a wall for the conveyance of smoke, or for the purpose of conducting heat from one part of a building to another. Flute, a perpendicular concave channel or cavity in the shafts of some of the classical columns and pilasters; the flutes collectively being called flut- ings. Flying Buttress. (See Buttress.), FoLi AGE,feHillage,'FT.;fogUame, Ital.; from folium, Lat., a leaf; a carved or sculptured representation of an ornamental assemblage of leaves of plants and flowers. Foliation. (Same as Featherings, which see.) The Rev. R. Wil/is, in his Remarks on the Archi- tecture of the Middle Ages, has appropriated a chapter and a plate to Foliation. VoriT, foiite, Fr. and Ital.; /ohs, Lat., a fount, or spring; the vessel, or basin in a church, or bap- tistery, appropriated for the ceremony of baptism. The term was originally applied to a lake, river, or stream, in which the early Christians were baptized. According to Stavelcy, artificial foun- tains were first used in the houses of the perse- cuted Christians: and afterwards an appropriate edifice was erected for the performance of bap- tismal rites. This, called a baptistery, was placed amongst the exedraj, or buildings annexed to a church ; and the reservoir within it, containing the water, was still named a font, or piscina. There was anciently but one public font, or bap- tistery in a city, and that was connected with the' principal church, a custom which prevailed in Italy to the time of Durandus, who died in 1296. Baptisteries, separated from churches, continued in use until the sixth century, when the adoption of infant baptism superseded their general use. A large basin of stone, or of some other material, was then employed, and continued to retain the original appellation. The font, as being the instrument of a Christ- ian's admission or initiation to the religious faith he professed, was at first placed in the porch of a church; but afterwards it became the practice to fix it in the narthex, or western part of the building. The hallowing or consecration of fonts usually took place on the eves of Easter and Whitsuntide, in each year ; the sacrament of baptism being then chiefly administered. Fonts were generally formed of stone, though there are some of lead ; and one of brass was conveyed from Holyrood Chapel, by Sir Richard Lea, in 1544, to St. Alban's Abbey Church, where it was destroyed by the Puritans. (See Beauties of England, vol. v'l'f., Hertfordshire, p. 89.) The cathedrals and other churches of England con- tain numerous ancient fonts, exhibiting great varieties of form and decoration. Many of these have been illustrated in the Archccutogia, the Gentleman's Magazine, and in other antiquarian ancf topographical works. Mr. Simpson has pub- lished engravings of a Series of Ancient Baptismal Fonts, arranged chronologically, and classed under the heads of Norman, early English, De- corated, and Perpendicular;. thus adopting the nomenclature and classification of Mr. Ricknian. The earliest fonts were simply blocks of stone, of cubical, barrel-shaped, octagonal, and similar forms, placed upon a rude base, having their sides ornamented with foliage, scroll-work, and arcades. They were aflerVvards of square, or cir- cular forms; supported by a central shaft, and by others at the angles, or in the circumference; raised upon one or more steps, and decorated with historical or emblematical bas-reliefs. Subse- aWTTOW'g ARCmXECTU KaL Lui -noK AKY. !fe^Mfe#' !lll}^s:%^i U^di^^^' Ij^^i^l' TX" POKTS. l.Esat Uroa Ctiui S^^vrbury Qra: &S! MlebuU Chui SoutA* 4.Boajulu Chu: ^.btrmhUl Chu; 6.I«stwithiKi Ohu; 7.Waii8ford Ctiu: North! B.BiuneGk Chu: I' . S.Dorobrslirr Chn:Oscford? lO.Brldckirli Oiu: Cumliednjia. J.L«K»uxS.- /.^n^-H./^M^A^ M^.t.t^JI. fon] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY 127 quently, armorial bearings and architectural orna- ments were introduced on their sides. Inscrip- tions are also occasionally found on them. The font was sometimes surmounted by a pyramidal frame-work of wood suspended above it, executed in a style corresponding with that of the font itself: this was occasionally locked to the font. One of the constitutions of Edmund, archbishop of Canterbury, dated 1236, ordains that "bap- tismal fonts be kept under lock and key for [fear of] sorcery." Johnson's Eccles. Laws, 1236, sec. 9. The font in Luton Church, Bedfordshire, is enclosed within an octagonal screen of stone, the lower part of which, except on the side of en- trance, is filled up with panelling, the upper part forming a groined canopy. (See Simpson's An- cient Baptismal Fonts.) Norfolk abounds with fine fonts. One of these, at Walsingham, is re- presented and described in Arch. Antiqs., vol. i. Another, at East Dereham, is etched in Carter's Ancient Sculpture and Painting, vol. ii. p. 1., in which there are some curious particulars, with items of the expense of making it, in 1468 : the whole amounting to 12/. 13s. Qd. A font covered with niches, canopies, and sculpture, is preserved in Norwich Cathedral, an account and view of which are given in Cath. Antiqs., Norivich. In the fifth vol. of the Arch. Antiqs. are views, with short notices, of six varieties, all of early date. The accompanying Engraving represents ten different old English fonts: — Fig. 1, in East Mean Church, Hampshire, is square, on a circular basement, supported by four colunms at the an- sles, and ornamented with rude and interestino- sculptures. It is supposed to have been executed soon after the Norman conquest, and bears so great a resemblance to that in Winchester Cathe- dral (described and engraved in Britton's Cath. Antiqs., Winchester), that they have been sup- posed to have been made by the same hand. Fig. 2, from Avebury Church, Wiltshire, is a circular basin, placed on a square basement, and adorned with an arcade of interlaced mouldings, and rude scroll-work. Fig. 3, from St. Michael's Church, Southampton, has a square basin sup- ported by a central pillar and four others at the angles, and has three circular compartments on each side. Fig. 4, from Bodmin Church, Corn- wall, is a curious specimen ; the basin being ap- parently suspended from the capitals of four co- lumns, at the angles, and again supported by a central shaft. It is ornamented with rude and grotesque sculptures. The font in Bremhill Church, Wilts (fig. 5.), is curious for its sim- plicity of form and ornament. That in Lost- withiel Church, Cornwall (fig. 6.), is octagonal, having masks on two of its sides, and rude sculp- tures on the others. It stands on clustered co- lumns. Fig. 7, from Wansford Church, Nor- thamptonshire, of lead, is circular in form, the sides representing a series of eight semicircular arches, six of which contain figures, and the other two ah ornament of foliage. It is sup- ported on five pillars, and was probably executed about tlie middle of the twelfth century. The font of Barneck Church, in the same county (fig. 8.), is octagonal, having its central pedestal sur- rounded by eight piers supporting trefoil arches. That in Dorchester Church, Oxfordshire, is re- presented in fig. 9. The lower is much less an- cient than the upper portion of it; the latter being of lead, and very similar to that at Wans- ford. The last portion of the Plate exhibits the four sides of a celebrated font at Bridekirk, in Cumberland, mentioned by Camden in his Bri- tannia, and described by Bishop Littleton in the 2d vol. of Archccologia. It is square in form, each side having certain rude sculptures, amongst which is a representation of the baptism of Christ. On another side is an inscription in Runic and Saxon characters, which Hickes, Bishop Littleton, and many other antiquaries, read as commemo- rating the conversion of Ekard, a Danish general, and several of his countrymen. Mr. Hamper, in vol. xix. of Archccologia, gives a very different interpretation, by stating that it means " Richard he me wrought ; and to this forme me diligent/j/ brought." — See Robinson's History of Baptism, 4to. 1790. FoNTANA (Domenico), a native of Mili, on the lake of Como, Italy, was patronized by Pope Sixtus v., who employed him in 1586, to raise the great obelisk in the centre of the court before St. Peter's, Rome. It weighed nearly 759,000 pounds, and was erected by means of some complicated and ingenious machinery, of which he published a description in a folio volume, en- titled " Transportazione dell' Obelisco Vaticano Roma," 1590. For the skill with which he 128 ARCHITECTURAL DICTION'ARY. [foo accomplished this task he was raised to the dig- nity of a Roman noble, by the Pope. He was extensively employed at St. Peter's, the Vatican, the Quiriiial Palace, and other buildings in Rome ; the Royal Palace at Naples, Sec; and died in 1593, aged 64. FooT-rACE, the raised floor, or dais at the upper end of a dining-hall. That at Richmond Palace had a " fay r foot-pace in the higher end thereof." It was called in French " le haut pas." [IVi/l- soii, in Piigin's Specimens of Goth. Aicfi.] In the Builder's Dictionary, 1703, the word is de- scribed as signifying a broad resting-place on a flight of stairs. Foot-stall, the plinth, or base of a pillar. FoKMA, Lat., is used by Vitruvius, and some writers of the middle ages, to signify an aqueduct, or artificial canal. — Du Caiige. Formaret, Fr., the rib moulding placed at the junction of a vault, with the vertical wall of a building. Fort, Fortress, from fortis, Lat., strong ; any place or building fortified, or strengthened by artificial means ; consequently, all castles are forts, although the term is usually applied more particularly to one of small size. The forts of the Britons, Saxons, and Danes, consisted chiefly of ditches, mounds, and terraces of earth. (See Castle.) FoRTALicE, a small castle. "In a list of Nor- thumbrian fortresses taken during the minority of King Henry the Sixth, several fortified parson- ages are enumerated amongst the fortalicia, or lowest order of castelets." — Surlees' Dur/tam, vol. i. p. 157. Foss, Fosse, an artificial trench, or ditch, extending round a fortress, generally very steep on each side, in order to render the place more difficult of access to assailants. Foundation, the basis, or lowest portion of a building, or that part on which the superstruc- ture is raised. Vitruvius recommends the use of piles of scorched or charred wood and ashes for an artificial foundation, a method frequently adopted by ancient architects. Concrete was also used for the more important edifices. (See Concrete.) The custom of depositing coins in the foundations of buildings is very ancient, having been practised by the Romans, Saxons, Danes, Normans, and most other people. The foundation-stone of a Christian church was usu- ally inscribed with a cross; and, amongst other ceremonies, it was blessed, and sprinkled with holy water and salt, as an exorcism to keep away evil demons. — Archecologia , xxvi. 219. FouNDYNG (William), described in old accounts as a freemason, was employed in some repairs at the cathedral of Exeter, in the year lo9G, at an annual salary of 26*. 8d. — BriKou's Cath. Antiqs., Exeter, p. 96. Fountain. (See Conduit.) Fox (Richard), bishop of Winchester, erected a sumptuous chantry chapel in his cathedral, and directed the execution of other works there. He died in 1528. — Britton's Cath. Antiqs., Win- chester, p. 68. Fratery, Fratry, Frater-House, the brethren's hall, an apartment in a convent used as an eating- room, or refectory : according to Fosbroke it was provided with a dresser, cupboards, and a desk with a Bible. (See Refectory.) Freda, low Lat., an ornament, orcanopy placed over a shrine of a saint. — Du Canse. Free-Masons. (See Masons.) Free-stone, a name given in England to stone which can be easily squared and wrought for building. All the oolites, of different qualities, are included under this name. The price of free- stone, 43d Henry 111., is thus named in an issue- roll of that date : "for two hundred weight and three quarters of free-stone for tlie use of the chimney and laundry, 16s. Qd." — Devon's Issues. (See Ashlar.) Fresco, Ital. fresh, a mode of painting, in colours, on stucco, or plaster, whilst that substance is wet and fresh enough to imbibe the colours as laid on. This process was practised by the Egyptians and by the Greeks. From the latter nation it was adopted by the Romans ; and thence descended to the time of Michael Angelo, one of its greatest masters, and to the painters of the middle ages in all parts of Europe. The ancient palaces of the kings and nobles of England, and some of the churches and chapels, were ornamented with FY I.] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY 129 paintings in fresco. Henry III. kept several painters in his service : the apartments of the tower of London, and of the palace of Westmin- ster, were thus painted ; and, in the time of Edward III., even the bedchambers of private individuals were similarly ornamented. The apartment at Westminster, so well known as the painted chamber, derived its name from paintings on its walls of "the warlike histories of the Bible," with explanatory French inscrip- tions. — See Brayley and Britton's Westm. Palace, pp. 46, 419. ¥uET,fretu?n, Lat.; a labyrinthine ornament formed of one or more small fillets, alternately disposed in a vertical and horizontal position, and extend- ing to nearly equal distances in each direction. It is very common in classical architecture, and the Norman builders also introduced some varie- ties of it in their archivolt mouldings : the prin- cipal of these are the embattled fret, consisting of a single fillet, arranged as above mentioned, and bearing some resemblance to the continuous line of the battlements of a fortress; and the zigzag, or cheveron fret, formed by a line crossing diagon- ally from one side of the moulding to the other. Fret-work, minute carving, or entail. Fretted, made rough, or variegated with frets, or other small ornaments. William of Worcester {Itin- erary, p. 268.) describes the roof of Redcliffe Church, Bristol, a.s fretted; and its western door- way as " fretted yn the hede." Friary, yVere, Fr., from frater, Lat., a brother; a brotherhood, or community of men, devoting their lives to what they called religion ; also the con- vent, or cloister, in which they resided. The difference between a friar and a monk consisted chiefly in the original import of the names by which they were called. The word monk is de- rived from fjjom'xpg, Gr., solitary ; being descrip- tive of the mode of life adopted by the early monks, which was essentially different from the fraternal associations, or friaries. The various orders of friars had different regulations and also separate designations : the principal being the Augustin; the Dominican; the Black, or Preach- ing; the Franciscan ; the Gray, or Begging ; and the Carmelite, or White friars. — Booth's Anal. Diet. p. 32. (See Abbey, Convent, and Monastery.) Frieze, Frize, Freeze, //egw, Ital.; from phry- gionius, Lat., enriched or embroidered ; the prin- cipal member of a classical entablature, separating the cornice from the architrave, and consisting of a broad band, ornamented, in the Doric style, with triglyphs and intermediate sculptures: in the Ionic and Corinthian styles, it is both plain and ornamented. Its name is derived from being adapted to receive sculptured enrichments, either of foliage, or figures. Front of a building; its principal exterior face, or elevation. The term is also indiscriminately ap- plied to any side, or elevation before, or opposite the spectator, and distinguished by the terms back-front, side-front, &c. The west fronts of cathedrals and large churches are their most important and interesting exterior features. Frontal, Fronton, is a term sometimes applied to a small pediment, or the segment of a circle, placed over a porch, a door, a niche, or other member of a building. Frontella, low Lat., a piece of drapery attached to a Catholic altar. By a statute of the dean and chapter of York, made in 1291, directing what furniture and ornaments were to be pro- vided for the altars of chantry chapels, " three front ah" are mentioned. — Drake's Eboracum, p. 520. Frontispiece, the principal ornamented front of a building. More usually applied to a decorated doorway. Frosted, ornamented with a species of rustic work in imitation of irregular icicles. Froucester, or Frowcester, (Walter), abbot of Gloucester from 1381 till his death, in 1412, com- pleted the magnificent cloister attached to the abbey church, which had been commenced by Abbot Horton, his predecessor. (See Cloister.) — Britton's Cath. Antiqs., Gloucester, p. 26. Funticus, Fonticus, low Lat., an exchange, a market-house, or a warehouse. Bernard de Bray- denback, in his Itinerary, torn, i., speaking of Alexandria, says : " There is a fonticus, a large house, where merchants assemble, warehouse their goods, and hold a market of them." — Du Cange. Fylletory-Gutters "to convey the waters from the wallys," occur in an account of repairs to the s 130 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [gab tower of London, 24th Henry VIII. — Bai/ley's History of the Tower, pt. i. app. xxi. Gab\on, gabbia, Ital., a cage; a wicker basket filled with earth and used in fortifications to shelter men from an enemy's fire. Du Cange employs the word gabia to signify a prison. Gable, Gabf.l, gavael, Welsh, a hold, or grasp; the vertical triangular wall on the flank of a building, closing one end of the roof: sometimes applied to the whole end of a building. Gavel- head, or gavel-eiid, is still used in some parts of England. A peak of one of the mountains in Cumberland is called " the great gavel," from its resemblance to the gable-end of a house. The gable is profusely introduced both at the ends and in various parts of the fronts of old English buildings: it corresponds in form with the pedi- ment of the Italian and Grecian porticos; but, instead of being ornamented on its face, and enclosed within a cornice, the gable is usually plain ; with the exception of bold copings on each side, which, in some of the old English mansions, are of carved oak, or other wood, and called barge-boards. The gables of churches and halls were usually occupied by a large window, and oinamented with pinnacles, crockets, and finials. Some curious examples occur in the hall of Hampton Court palace, and at Great Chalfield, Wiltshire; and many others are represented in the second volume of the Architectural Aiiticjui- ties. Gable-Roofed, having a roof converging to an apex in the manner of a gable, the sloping rafters being left open to the interior, without the inter- vention of cross beams, or an arched ceiling. The nave of Ely Cathedral is described by Browne Willis, as being compass-roofed, and the great transept ^^ gabeil-roofed, in a sloping fashion." — Survey of Caths., ii. 334. Gaulet, a small gable, or gable-shaped decoration, frequently introduced on buttresses, tabernacles, screens, &c. Cablets, or gabtctz, are mentioned in the contracts for the tomb of Richard II. (Rymer's I'wdera, tom. vii. p. 798); and "gab- bletts" are enumerated among the appendages to a tower, or turret of King's College Chapel, Cambridge. — Walpole's Anecdotes, by Dallaway, i. 179. Gable-window, a window in the end, or gable of a building ; or a window having its upper part shaped like a gable. (See Window.) The word occurs in the will of Henry the Sixth, in allusion to the college of Eton. Gainsborough, or Gaynisburgh, (Richard de), an architect, or mason employed at Lincoln Ca- thedral, in the thirteenth century. His grave- stone still remains, and bears the following in- scription :— " Hie jacet Ricardus de Gaynis- burgh, olym cementarius hujus ecclesie, qui obiit. duodecim. Kalendarura Junii, anno Domini, Mccc" — (the concluding figures are obliterated). — Walpole's Anecdotes, by Dallaway, i. 211. Galilee, a porch, or porticus annexed to a church. It was used for various purposes : public penitents were stationed in it; dead bodies were there de- posited, previously to their interment; religious processions formed ; and it was only in the galilee belonging to certain reliijious houses that the female relatives of the monks were allowed to converse with them, or even to attend divine ' service. Much speculation has been excited as to the origin of this name. (See Beutham's Ely Cath., p. 282, and Stevenson's Supplement, p. 133 ; Miller's Ely Cath., p. 43; Milner's Treatise on Eccles. Arch. p. 106; and Wild's Lincoln Cath., new ed., p. 24.) The most commonly received opinion (founded chiefly upon a passage in the writings of Gervase of Canterbury) is as follows: — When a female made an application to see a monk, she was directed to the porch, usually at the western extremity of the church, being answered, in the words of Scripture, " He goeth before you into Galilee; there shall you see him." (Milner's Treatise on Eccles. Archil., p. 106.) The only English buildings to which the term Galilee is applied, are those attached to the cathe- drals of Durham and Ely : the former of these is an highly ornamented building, measuring 50 feet by 80, and divided into five ailes, by clustered colunnis and semicircular arches. It was erected by Bishop Hugh de Pudsey, towards the end of the twelfth century, and repaired about 1406 : it originally contained three altars : a portion of that dedicated to the Holy Virgin (to whom also the Galilee was dedicated) still remains. A gat] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 131 marble stone, covering the remains of the vener- able Bede, is also contained in the Galilee. That of Ely Cathedral is much smaller. It is still used as the principal entrance to the church, and is without columns, or other internal support. The walls on each of the interior sides are occu- pied by two large pointed arches, comprising within each two tiers of smaller dimensions, be- neath which is a stone seat. It is generally attributed to Eustachius, who presided over the see from 1197 to 1215. A porch, at the south end of the great transept of Lincoln Cathedral, is also sometimes called a Galilee. It is richly ornamented with columns and arches in the style of the beginning of the thirteenth century. The same word has been used to designate the nave of a church; and also a small gallery, or balcony opening towards it, from which visitors might view processions : probably, however, in the latter instance, the name is confused with that of a gallery. Gallery, a word of uncertain derivation, signifying a passage, or apartment of greater length than breadth. It is applied to passages of communica- tion between different apartments, — to long rooms for dancing, for the exhibition of pictures, or for similar purposes; — and, more recently, to bal- conies, or floors projecting from a wall, and sup- ported on brackets, or columns. A covered part of a building, used as an ambulatory, or walking place, was similarly designated. Galleries, in houses, are mentioned by Ana- stasius, under Pope Hadrian : Sidonius calls them lengthened porticos, and deduces them from the crypto-porticus. The galleries of the English mansions in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Eliza- beth were usually large apartments applied to the reception of visitors, for conversation, dancing, music, and other amusements. Howell mentions a gallery used for viewing hunting in the park belonging to a mansion. Charles I. kept his statues in a gallery, grated in front. Galleries, or balconies in churches were erected beneath the ailes of some of the earliest Christian churches and basilicas ; as in St. Mark's church, at Venice, and the cathedrals of Zurich, Andernach, and Bonn. — Hope's Hist, of Architecture, p. 95. Gaol, geola, gaola, low Lat., a cage; geole, Fr. : a prison. The word was used in the reign of Henry III. — Dm Cange. Garetta; garite, Fr. ; from the English gMartZ, and ward, a small tower. Turrets on houses and cas- tles were called guerites, or gar ites, from affording protection to persons within. [Du Cange.} Cot- grave renders garite " a place of refuge and of safe retyrall in a rout, disaster, or danger : the recourse of such as are discomfited, (hence) also the dungeon of a fortresse, whether the belea- gured soldiers make their last retire and flyght; also a sentrie or little lodge for a sentinell, built on high." Gargoyle, Gargle, Gargyle, and Gargylle, a sculptured representation of the face of a human being, an animal, or a monster, the mouth of which serves as a spout for the discharge of water from the roof of a building. This singular orna- ment is very cohnmon on the cornices and para- pets of English edifices. The gargoyle partook equally with all the other decorations of Christ- ian architecture in the variety and irregularity which characterize that style. The collegiate buildings of Oxford afford numerous varieties. Garland, guirlaride, Fr., probably from the root of gyrus, Lat., a circle, or circlet ; a wreath, or chaplet of branches, of foliage, or of flowers : also a sculptured representation of them on a frieze or other part of a building. It is frequently used on triumphal arches, altars, &C. Garret, from garite, Fr., the uppermost apartment of a house, immediately under its roof. Garrets were formerly left open to the rafters without a ceiling. The Scottish word garret, retaining its allusion to a lofty situation, has been applied to a watch-tower, or the top of a hill. Garretyd, Garyted, Garyttede, &c. In a document of the 23d of Henry VIII., preserved in the chapter-house at Westminster, various parts of the walls of the tower of London are ordered to be "copyde, lowpyd, garretyd, and crestyd," by the masons. Probably the provid- ing them with small turrets, or garites, may be intended. — Bayley's History of the Tower, pt. i. app. ix. Gate, ^ate. Sax., signified originally a road, avenue, or opening ; and was afterwards applied both to the opening or passage into an enclosure, or a 132 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [gat building, and to the frame of boards, planks, or timber, which closed such passage. Although the term gate-way is, in point of fact, a pleonasm, (the words gate and ivai/ having properly the same signification) ; yet, as in the case of door and doorway, it is probably advisable to continue it, as applied to the passage itself, and to the build- ino- within which the wooden frame is enclosed; and to confine the word gate to the latter only. The word gate will thus signify a frame of timber, differing only from a door in being of larger dimen- sions, and usually opening in the manner of fold- ing doors. Most old cities, castles, abbeys, and mansions, were entered by a gate placed .within a Gateway, or Gatehouse; and these gates were often carved in the style of architecture prevalent at the time of their erection; thickly studded with large nails ; protected by bars, bolts, and locks; and placed in charge of a porter, or gate-keeper. Many gates had small openings or wickets in one of their leaves, through which was the usual mode of entrance ; the entire gate being only opened on remarkable occasions. The word gate is employed synonymously with street in many towns of England ; as in Shrewsbury, where there is an Abbey Vovegale, and a Castle- gate : a street in Worcester is improperly called Foregone Street. Gateway, a passage, or way through a wall, or, as above defined, the building in which a gate is fixed. These structures are, however, generally so large as to be called Gatehouses. Gatehouses were of various kinds. They were placed in the walls of cities, castles, abbeys, col- leges, and mansions ; and constituted the resi- dence of the gate-keeper. In London, Lincoln, York, Canterbury, Southampton, Bristol, Eve- sham, St. Edniundsbury, &,c., are remains of several of these ancient buildings; some of which are represented and described in Brilton's Pint. Aiitiqs. of English Qties. In addition to the great archway, many of them were provided with one or two smaller by-gates, or puslenis, the latter being used by foot passengers, whilst the former were devoted to carriages and horsemen. These, as well as those of castles, were of great strength, and well adapted for purposes of defence. Those attached to mansions and abbeys (see Abbi:y Gatehouse) were of a more ornamental cha- racter; and those of colleges were frequently decorated with niches, statues, buttresses, and pinnacles. The ceiling of the open portion of the gatehouse was often groined and ribbed, and a tower was raised upon, or formed the gate- house. Large windows, probably used for recon- noitering, are also found. The interesting struc- ture called St. John's Gate, at Clerkenwell, London ; and the arches of communication be- tween the inner courts of mansions (as at Hamp- ton Court, Middlesex) are exdnnpXes o( gatehouses. Gentese. William of Worcester states that the west door of Redcliife Church, Bristol, is " fretted yn the hede with great ge«fese and small." [Itiii. p. 268.] Genie, otjaiite, is the old French word signifying the felly, or felloe, of a wheel; the rim of which is formed of curved pieces of wood re- sembling the segments, or featherings, of which architectural trefoils, quairefoils, &.C., are com- posed ; hence those featherings have received the name o( gentese. — Wilkon, in Glossary to Pugin's Specimens of Goth. Arch. Gerbier D'Ouvily, (Sir Balthazar), was born at Antwerp, in 1591. In 1613 we find him a re- tainer of Villiers, duke of Buckingham. Lord Orford says he " was both architect and painter, thouo-h excellent in neither branch." According to Lysons [Environs of London, vol. ii. p. 31.] he established an " academic for forrain lan- guages, and all noble sciences and exercises." On the restoration of Charles II. he designed the triumphal arches which were erected as entrances to the city of London. Gerbier wrote a small and trifling volume on architecture, fortification, &c. He died in 1667, and was interred in the church of Hempsted Marshall, where he was engaged ia building a mansion for Lord Craven.-^ H'a/po/e's Anecdotes, by Dallauay, vol. ii. p. 114. Geknerium, Lat., is a word used in an order for repairing the White Tower, London, to signify a granary. " Prsecipimus vobis quod gernerium infra eandem turrim reparari," Sec. — Bayleys History of the Tower, pt. i. p. 107. Germain, (Saint), bishop of Paris in the sixth cen- tury, is reported to have given the design for a church founded by Childebert, near Paris, and to have been sjnt to Angers by that monarch to construct another building. He also erected a GLOJ ARCHITECTURAL DICTIOXART. 133 monastery near Mans. — Felibien Vies des Arch., lib. iii. p. 146. Whittington's Hist. Surv., p. 22. GiBBES, (William), the last prior of Bath, continued the building of the priory church of that city until the dissolution of monasteries. — Britton's Bath Abbey Church, p. 36. Gild, Gild-Hall. (See Guild-Hall.) Girder, abeam of timber, or iron employed to lessen the bearing of the joists of a floor. Girdle, a small circular band, or fillet, round the shaft of a column. Glass, jlaj-, Sax., an artificial, transparent sub- stance formed by fusing sand, or silicious earths with fixed alkalies, the invention and general application of which produced great changes and improvements in architecture. Previous to its use in windows, the doors of buildings and other small apertures were the principal means by which an apartment was lighted. Talc (under the name of lapis speculari), phengites, beryl, crystal, horn, lattice of wicker, and various other materials, were used in England and by the an- cients, before glass was so appropriated ; a cir- cumstance which did not take place at Rome until the end of the third century, nor in Eng- land until the seventh. The ancient Egyptians and Phoenicians were well acquainted with the arts of making and colouring various small orna- ments of glass. It is mentioned by several of the old classical writers; and its alleged accidental discovery is particularly detailed by Pliny, but with some appearance of fable. Small pieces of glass have been found in Roman mosaics; and plates of it have been discovered at Herculaneum sufBciently large to induce some antiquaries to believe they had been used in windows. The earliest positive authority, however, connecting glass with windows, occurs in a passage of Lac- tantius, written about the close of the third cen- tury. Pennant supposes the Druids manufac- tured orlass beads and amulets before the Roman invasion. Bede expressly states, that artificers skilled in making glass were brought into Eng- land from Gaul, in 674, to glaze the windows of the church and monastery of Weremouth. The windows of private houses were not glazed till about 1180, and even so late as the reign of Queen Elizabeth many large farmhouses were totally without glass. The glass of Alnwick castle is stated to have been removed from the windows in 1567, for preservation during the absence of the owner. Venice was long the most celebrated place at which glass was manufac- tured ; and, that foreign glass was esteemed superior to English, is evident by the agreement for glazing the windows of the Beauchanp Chapel, Warwick, (25th Henry VI.) which stipulates that the glass used shall be from " beyond the seas." " Fortunatus, who lived towards the end of the sixth century, in a poetical description of the church of Notre Dame, at Paris, gives a pomp- ous account of its painted glass." \_Hawkins on Gothic Architecture, p. 150.] Other, and more accurate authorities, prove the employment of coloured glass in the ninth century ; and Lysons describes some of the oldest in England (of the date of 1244) as being in Chetwode Church, Buckinghamshire. \_Magna Britainiia, Bucks, p. 488.] The indenture for glazing the great east window of York Cathedral, dated 1405, with stained glass, is still preserved. By this docu- ment John Thornton covenants to execute the whole in three vears, for £35, payable by instal- ments, and £10 more, in silver, if done to the satisfaction of his employers. After the Reform- ation, the use of painted glass in churches was deemed superstitious, and the greatest havoc and destruction took place: it was only introduced into some of the mansions and palaces of the Elizabethan era, and then chiefly in the shape of portraits and armorial bearings. The Abbot's Hospital, Guildford, presents examples of the time of James 1. Gloucester, (John de), is styled in a precept of Henry III. " cementario suo" (his plasterer) ; and is granted a freedom for life from all tallage and tolls throughout the realm. The nature of his services are unknown, except that in another precept he is directed to make five statues of kings, carved in free-stone, to be given by the kinc to the church of St. Martin, London. — Walpoles Anecdotes, by Dallaway, i. 25. Glover, (Moses), made a survey of Sion, Middle- sex, and the adjoining villages, containing views of the neighbouring royal houses and seats, in the reign of James I. This survey is still preserved at Sion-house, and on it he is termed a "painter 134 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [gly and architecter." From some letters found on the front of Northumberland house, London, when partly rebuilt, it was inferred that Glover was its architect. — Walpole's Anecdotes, hj/ Dalla- way, ii. 73. Glyph, an engraved, or cut channel or cavity. (See Trfglyph.) Gnomon, Gr., an index; the style, or pin of a sun- dial, indicating the hour of the day by its shadow. Columns, or obelisks, were anciently used as gnomons. GoBBETTs, a term employed in the accounts for building St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster. " June, 1330. To 400 Caen Stones, called gobbetts, price, each hundred, £4; £16." — Braj/lej/ and Brilton's Ancient Pal. of Westm., p. 150. GoLDCi.iFF, (Hugo de), an architect of the twelfth century employed at. St. Alban's Abbey Church. —M. Paris, Vit. Abb. S. Alban. p. 103. GoLDiNG (John) ; appears, from the patent rolls of the year 1438, to have been the chief carpenter, disposer, and surveyor of the king's works, in the palace of Westminster, and at the tower of Lon- don, with a yearly fee of £20. — Brayley and . Britton's Ancient Pal. of Weslm., p. 314. GoLDSTONE (Thomas), was appointed prior of Christ Church, Canterbury, in 1449, and died in 1468, during which time he, at the expense of Arch- bishop Chichely, erected the south-western tower and the porch of the cathedral; and also a beau- tiful chapel, dedicated to the Virgin Mary, now called the Deans chapel. — Britton's Cath. An- tiqs., Canterbury, p. 38. GoLDSTONE (Thomas), the second of that name, was prior of Canterbury from 1495 to about 1516, and, in conjunction with Arciibishop Morton, built the central tower of the cathedral, called the Bell Harry steeple. His works there are indi- cated by a rebus sculptured upon them expressive of his name. — Britton's Cath. Antiqs. Canter- bury, p. 38. Gouge, Fr., a cavetto, or concave moulding, some- times applied to the cyma-recta. GoRGERiN, the neck of a capital, or, more com- monly, the part forming the junction between the shaft and the capital. This is cither a pro- jecting fillet or moulding, or a concave channel. (See Hypotracheliijm.) Gothic Architecture, is a phrase very generally used by writers and speakers, to contradistin- guish the buildings of the middle ages from those of ancient Greece and Italy; but scarcely one of those persons apply the term with any precise or definite meaning. Some embrace within its scope all the varieties of building, however difi'erently formed in arches and details, which have been used from the decline of the Roman orders till their revival in the sixteenth century ; others limit the phrase to the architecture of the Lom- bards, the Saxons, and the Normans, in which the semicircular arch is the marked feature, some contend that the Pointed style is the Gothic, whilst others extend its application to all devia- tions from what is called classical architecture. At first the term la mauiera Gotica, or, the Gothic manner, was employed by Italian writers to stig- matize the architecture which the Goths and other demi-civilized nations adopted and made essentially different to the Greek and Roman orders. Mr. Evelyn (in « Treatise on Architec- ture,) and Sir Christopher Wren (in his Paren- talia) gave currency to the appellation in Eng- land, applying it to the pointed as well as semi- circular arched buildings, though Wren also used the word Saracenic in reference to pointed archi- tecture. To shew the prejudiced and absurd notions which those writers entertained, we need only notice their language on the subject of the pointed style. Evelyn says, " Gothic architec- ture is a congestion of heavy, dark, melancholy, monkish piles." And Sir Christopher's language is equally absurd and inappropriate. He calls the Enolish cathedrals and churches " mountains of stone; vast, gigantic buildings; but not wor- thy the name of architecturfe. This," he adds, " we now call the Gothic manner : so the Italians called what was not after the Roman style." In another passage he reprobates the builders for "setting up misshapen pillars, or rather bundles of staves, and other incongruous props to support ponderous arched roofs without entablature." At the time these writers lived it was the fashion to ridicule the architecture in question, and to con- sider it as unworthy of study or imitation; but later architects and authors have regarded it with gre] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 135 very different feelings, and described it in very different terms. It is at length duly appreciated ; and, within the last half century, has been skil- fully and amply illustrated by artists, and de- scribed by authors, alike in England, Germany, and France. Still there is much discrepancy of opinion and confusion of ideas, even amongst the best informed, as to a proper and judicious nomen- clature of it. Warton, the learned historian of English poetry, and who had projected a "His- tory of Gothic Architecture," in speaking of Salis- bury Cathedral, denies that it is Gothic, although he says that " the true Gothic style is supposed to have expired in the reign' of Henry VIII." The Rev. James Bentham, and Captain Grose, pronounce Salisbury Cathedral " entirely in the Gothic style." Warton divides, what he calls, Gothic architecture, into four classes, or orders, in a chronological series ; namely, a sort of Gothic Saxon, commencing about 1200, "in which the pure Saxon began to receive some tincture of the Saracen fashion;" the absolute Gothic, from about 1300 to 1400 ; the ornamental Gothic, lasting till about 1440; and, finally, ihejlorid Gothic. Mr. Rickman, in " an Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of Architecture in England," uses the terms Norman, Early English, Decorated English, and Perpendicular English, to designate the chro- nological varieties of pointed buildings. The per- plexity and uncertainty of an ordinary reader must be increased by the different senses in which the terms ancient architecture, modern architecture, Saxon architecture, Romanesque architecture, English architecture, and many others are used by different authors. The best essay on the sub- ject is by the Rev. Dr. Milner, in his " Treatise on Ecclesiastical Architecture,'' 8vo. 1811. The same author published his opinions also in Rees's Cyclopedia, under the head Gothic Architecture, and in a Letter to Mr. Taylor, which appears in a volume of " Essays on Gothic Architecture," by the Rev. T. Warton, the Rev. J. Bentham, and Captain Grose, 8vo. 1808, 3d edit. This letter is a reprint of an essay which he first published in the second volume of " the History of Win- chester," 4to. 1809. Sir James Hall published a 4to. volume in 1813, with the title "Essay on the Origin, History, and' Principles of Gothic Architecture," with 60 engravings, from designs by E. Blore. The theory advanced by the author is, that all the forms and details of Gothic archi- tecture are derivable from rods, branches of trees, wicker-work, &c. J. S. Hawkins, Esq. pub- lished an 8vo. vol. 1813, entitled "A History of the Origin and Establishment of Gothic Archi- tecture," iiic. (See Architecture, Christian Architecture, Norman, Pointed, and Saxon Architecture.) Gradarium, low Lat., a staircase ; a series of steps from one floor to another in a building. (See Gradus.) Gradatory, any ascent by steps. Gradus, Lat., a step, denotes, in old documents, a flight of steps; as the "gradus chori" of the royal chapels of Eton and Cambridge, mentioned in the Will of their founder. According to Bu Cange, the pulpit, or reading desk of a church, being ascended by steps, was called by the same name. The Italian terms gradini, and to gradi- nate, are still used by architects, instead of the English, steps and to graduate. Grange, Fr.; grangia, low Lat.; granarium, Lat.; properly a granary, or barn. Hence the word is applied to a farm with all its buildings, and also to a residence connected with a farm, or granary. The houses termed granges on the lands of mon- asteries were usually substantial timber buildings, and often richly decorated. The bailiffs, or over- seers of tne farm, who resided in them, were often called " the Priors of the Grange." Barns, formerly connected with the Granges at Ely, Abbotsbury, and Glastonbury, still remain, and claim attention for their architecture and magni- tude. Graver, occurs in old documents for a sculptor. See Archaologia, xvi. 84. Grecian orGREEK Architecture. (SeeARCHi- TECTURE.) Grees, Gres, a degree, or step, is variously written grese, gryse, greece, greces, gressys, all from the Lat. gressus, a step. William of Worcester, de- scribing the meeting of four cross-ways in Bristol, says: " the second waye goyng northward by a high grese, called a steyr, of xxxii steppys, ynto Seynt Collas strete." The will of Henry VI., describing his intended college at Eton, says: 136 AKCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [gri " Item, I have devised and appointed six greces to be before the high altare." A flight of stone steps leading into the cathedral close of Lincoln, are called the Grecian slairs, from a supposed corruption of this term. — Willson, in Glossary to Pugin's Specimens. Grimbai.d, or Grymbald, (Saint), an ecclesiastic said to have been invited to England by Alfred the Great, and conjectured, by some antiquaries, to have built the crypt of St. Peter's Church, at Oxford, still remaining. Mr. Conybeare, bow- ever, supposes that the crypt in question is not older than the time of the Norman conquest. — Arch. Antiqs. vol. iv. p. 123. (See Crypt.) Groin, the diagonal line of junction formed by the cross vaultings of buildings. In some ancient Roman works, and in those also of the earlier class of the middle ages, the groins were plain and simple ; but in later times they were multi- plied in number, and progressively ornamented with ribs, or projecting mouldings, extending from the springing of each arch. Groined arches are said to be found in the vaulted parts of the Colosseum, and in the baths of Dioclesian, at Rome. The word is often improperly applied to the ribs which cover the diagonal lines of the groins. In the accompanying view of the crypt under the choir of Canterbury Cathedral, the groined arch is clearly represented, divested of any rib-moulding; whilst the view under the Trinity Chapel shews the situation of the groins covered with bold ribs. Grosteste (Roger), bishop of Lincoln from 1235 till his death in 1253, built the lower part of the present central tower of the cathedral, and made some additions to the choir and great transept. — Wild's Lincoln, new edit. p. 23. Grotto, a building in imitation of a natural cave : it is generally of rustic work, with a profusion of shells, fossils, &c. Ground-plan, the delineation of a horizontal sec- tion through the walls of a building, on a level with the surface of the ground. The Greek com- pound word, ichnography, and the term ground- plot, were formerly used in the same sense. The ground-plot, however, is more properly applicable to the ground on which a building is placed. Guest-Hall, Guestern-Hall, alarge apartment annexed to a monastery, but separated from the cells of the monks, and destined for the reception and entertainment of pilgrims, or visitors. These kospilicE, as they were occasionally termed, were often large and magnificent. It is recorded that John of Hertford, abbot of St. Albans, in 1260, built a noble hall there for strangers, " adding many chambers to the same, with an inner par- lour, having a chimney with a noble picture, and an entry; also a small hall." ^Willis's Mitred Abbeys.'] That at Canterbury is said to have been 150 feet long, by 40 feet broad; and that still remaining at Worcester Cathedral is 65 feet by 35. The latter was erected in 1320, and is now appropriated to festive entertainments at the annual audit of the chapter. — Brit ton's Cath. Antiqs., Worcester, p. 26. Guild, jdb, ^lelb, Sax., from jilban, to pay; an association, fraternity, or company of persons, forming a commercial and social society. Mer- chants, manufacturers, and tradesmen, formerly associated together in most of the old cities and towns of England, binding themselves by local laws, and assembling at certain festivals in their respective halls. The guilds of the Anglo-Saxons were instituted both for the purpose of carrying on commerce, and for the interment of their mem- bers ; as in the benefit societies of the present time. Subsequently the different trades, both in England and on the Continent, were associated under the same name ; were licensed by the king ; possessed each a hall ; and were governed by rules of their own. The various companies of London are, in fact, the successors of ancient guilds, and still possess their respective halls of meeting. The corporations of towns and cities were guilds, or associations for the government of the respective places. 'Ihe freemasons are a prominent and influential guild. Guildhall; a house, or building belonging to a guild, or fraternity of merchants, or tradesmen. At these places the business of the respective guilds was transacted, and, in some instances, they served as market-houses for the sale of the goods of the associated members. The houses of corporations were, and still are, in some places, called guildhalls, although the term town-hall is more common. (See Town-hall.) The guild- hall of London is the most distinguished building hal] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 137 of the kind in England. The hotels de ville on the Continent are of the same class. GuiLLocHE, from yvm, Gr., a member, and Xo;^^o;, a snaie; an interlaced ornament resembling net- work, frequently used in classical architecture to enrich the torus and other mouldings. Several examples are represented in plate xxi. of Lysons's Woodchester. GuLA orGuEULE, sameasCymatium. (SeeGoLA.) GuNDULPH, a monk of the abbey of Bee, in Nor- mandy, was invited to England by Archbishop Lanfranc, and made bishop of Rochester in 1077: he died in 1108. He is regarded as the greatest improver of castellated architecture among the Normans after the conquest, and is recorded to have purchased the favour of the king (William Rufus) by expending sixty pounds in repairing the walls, and in commencing " a new tower of stone" at Rochester. The keep-tower of the castle of that place is supposed to be alluded to, and is generally attributed to him. He is also supposed to have erected parts of Rochester Ca- thedral, and Mailing Abbey; and also the chapel within the keep of the tower of London. His successor, Ernulph, says of him : " Episcopus Gundulphus in opere cementarii plurimum sciens et efficax erat." GuNZo, a monk of the abbey of Clugny, in France, furnished the designs for, and superintended the erection of the present abbey church, which was commenced in 1093, and finished in 1131. The building contains an early instance of pointed arches, those of the nave and of the vestibule being thus formed, but those of the clerestory are semicircular. (See Hawkins's Gothic Arch., p. 135, plates i. and ii., and the authorities quoted by him). The nave of Malmsbury Abbey Church is very similar in its arches, and is of about the same age. GuTT^, Lat., drops ; the small conical or cylindrical pendants attached to the mutules and triglyphs of the Doric entablature. H Habenries" are mentioned by Chaucer amongst the architectural ornaments of the House of Fame ; but in some editions the word barbicans is sub- stituted. Habeiia, Lat., signifies a bridle, strap, or thong ; but the nature of the ornament alluded to is not easily to be explained. — Willson, in Glossary to Pugin's Specimens of Goth. Arch. Hall, Sax., aula, Lat., salle, Fr.; a large apartment in a dwelling-house; also the chief room in the council, or town-house of a corporate place. Many of the country houses of the nobility and gentry of England are called halls ; as Hengrave Hall, in Norfolk; Woliaton Hall, Nottingham- shire, &c. Some of the colleges in the two Eng- lish Universities have the same name. The guild- halls of the cities and old towns of Great Britain are interesting and ancient specimens of civil architecture. In many old mansions, castles, and palaces, the hall was usually occupied for feasts, and for the administration of justice. The great hall of the royal palace at Westminster was used occasionally for the assembling of parliaments, for the trial of important legal causes and other matters. The law-courts of the kingdom, and the houses of parliament, are still connected with this national building. This hall, which was erected by William Rufus, and partially rebuilt by.Richard the Second, is not only the largest, but the most magnificent apartment without co- lumns in England. The skilful construction of its immense timber roof is proverbial. The in- ternal length of it is 238 feet, and its width 68. [See Illustrations of the Public Buildings of Lon- don, and Brayley and Britton's Ancient Palace of Westminster. ~\ The halls of the royal palace at Eltham, in Kent, and of the archiepiscopal palace at Lambeth, are similar to that of Westminster, but are smaller and less ancient. Those of Hampton Court Palace, and Penshurst Place, Kent ; that built by Sir John Crosby, near Bishopsgate Street, London ; those of the col- leges of Oxford and Cambridge, of the Middle Temple, and other courts of law, in London, and many others, present interesting and beautiful architectural features. For particular accounts of some of these, with illustrations, the reader is referred to Britton's Arch. Antiqs., vol. ii., and Picturesque Antiqs. of English Cities. Their most distinguishing features were a dais, or raised floor at the upper end, with an oriel window on one side, and occasionally one on the other side ; other windows considerably above the paved floor ; 138 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [hen and an ornamental screen at the lower end, con- nected with a passage to the buttery, kitchen, &c. The fire-place was usually on the floor, in the centre; in which case the smoke escaped through an open lantern, or louvre, in the roof; or in a fire-place at one side of the room. Over the screen, or in some part of the wall, was a gallery for musicians, or for visitors. (See GuESTHALL and Guildhall.) Ha LP ACE, Halpas, a corruption of the French " haut pas;" a dais, or raised floor. (See Foot- Pa ce.) In some accounts of repairs to the tower of London (24th Henry VIII.), quoted in Bai^- lei/'s Hist, of the Tower, pt. i. app. xix.,a "hal- pas" is said to have been made before the chimney in the king's great chamber; and, in the queen's dining-chamber, "a great carrall wyndow made nev\, and a halpace under fote new joysted and bourded." Ham, Sax., a house or dwelling-place; also a street, village, or field near home. The word is an affix to the names of many English towns and cities; as Buckingham, Chippenham, &c. Hammer-Beams, horizontal pieces of timber fre- quently used in the roofs of old English*build- ings, in pairs on the opposite sides of the same roof. Each beam extends some distance from the side wall, without reaching half-way across the apartment : it is usually supported by a rib springing from a corbel, beneath ; and, in its turn, supports another rib, forming, with that springing from the opposite hammer-beam, an arch. The extremities of these beams are often carved into a variety of devices, amongst which that of angels holding shields is of frequent occur- rence. Hangings, drapery hung against, or fastened to the walls of a room. (See Tapestry.) Paper was used for this purpose about the commencement of the seventeenth century : whence the person employed in the work was, and is called & paper- hanger. Hatch, from hacher, Fr., to engrave, to mark with lines, or to cut. "The champes (See Champ) about the letters" on the tomb of the Earl of Warwick, in the Beauchamp chapel, were cove- nanted to be " abated and hatched, curiously to set out the letters."— 4-7-cA. Anlkjs., vol. iv. p. 13. The word is synonymous with a wicket, or low door; as the buttery-hatch, &c. Hatch'd-Moulding, an ornamental member much used in Norman buildings, and marked with notches, or indentations, appearing as if done with a hatchet. In string courses, and archivoit mouldings, it is chiefly employed. Hearse, Herse, from heipan, or hypj-tan, Sax., to honour ; a frame, platform, or carriage, on, or within which a corpse is borne to its place of interment. A temporary monument over a grave. — Weever. The place, or the case in which a dead body is deposited. — Fairfax. The word is now confined to the carriage in which a dead body is conveyed to the grave. Escutcheons affixed to a tomb were formerly called herses. The effigy of the earl of Warwick, in the Beau- champ Chapel, is covered by a fiame-work of brass, on which drapery was originally sus- pended ; and which is called a hearse in the agreement for its erection. (See Arch. Autiqs., vol. iv. p. 13. pi. V.) Shakspeare uses the word to denote a monument raised over a grave. The portcullis employed in the fortification of build- ings was similarly denominated. Hearth, heopp, Sax., a pavement, or floor on which a fire is made to heat an apartment, or for culi- nary purposes. That of the Anglo-Saxons was the bare earth. Until the fourteenth century English hearths were often in the middle of a room, and were made of brick or stone. Hearth-money, and Hearth-penny, was a tax laid on houses with fire-places. It is called chimney-money in Blackstone's Commentaries. Heil, to cover a building with tiles, or other mate- rials. Piers Plowman notices the cloister of a convent as "j///^/e.u,aTa;, Gr., from Xa/iTru, to shine; a vessel containing an inflammable mate- rial to be burnt by means of a wick. Lamps were employed in various forms by the Greeks and Romans, and many examples of them remain, in baked earth, bronze, glass, and other mate- rials. They were placed in sepulchres by the Pagan-Romans, and by the early Christians, where they are still occasionally found. During the middle ages they were kept burning before certain shrines, and during particular religious ceremonies. Lancet-Arch (see Arch), an opening in a wall having its upper part acutely pointed : supposed to be so called from its resemblance to the point of the surgical instrument called a lancet. {Lan- cettc, Fr., a small arrow or dart. See ilaickinss Gothic Arch., p. 45, Note.) The first pointed arches introduced into the ecclesiastical buildings of England, at the besinninsx of the thirteenth lat] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIOXARV 149 century, were of tliis form: they were chiefly employed in windows. Lancet arches prevail in Salisbury Cathedral, Beverley Minster, &c. Lan FRANC, a native of Pavia, in Italy, and arch- bishop of Canterbury from 1070 till his death, in 1089, commenced rebuilding his cathedral church from the foundations " in a more magnificent manner than had before been made use of in the kingdom :" the choir was again rebuilt soon after his death ; but the nave and certain other parts remained, as left by him, until the beginning of the fifteenth century. The greater, or western crypt of the cathedral is, with probability, attri- buted to this prelate. — Brittons Cath. Antiqs., Canterbury , p. 30 ; Battelys Cantuaria Sacra, p. 9. Langton (Walter de), nominated bishop of Lich- field in 1296, presided over the see for twenty- five years, and was interred in the cathedral on his decease. This prelate " surrounded the close with a high stone wall, and constructed two beautiful gates on the west and south sides of the close; enclosed the relics of St. Chad in a mag- nificent shrine, at the expense of two thousand pounds ; founded and raised part of the Lady- chapel, and constructed the vaulted roofs of the transept; but, dying before it was finished, he' bequeathed a sum of money for its completion." — Brittons Cath. Antiqs., Lichfield, p. 28 ; Angl. Sacr., pt. i. pp. 441, 447. Langton (John de), bishop of Chichester at the end of the thirteenth century, expended much money on the works of the cathedral : viz. £3 10 in erect- inf the chapter-house, and in forming and glazing the window of the south transept with stained glass; and £100 towards the repairs of other parts of the church. The central spire, and the bell-tower, are traditionally ascribed to him. He was appointed one of the ordainers, or private advisers of Edward IL, besides which he held a number of ecclesiastical preferments. Lantern, lauterna, Lat., laiiterne, Fr., linterna, Sp. ; a case, or vessel intended to contain a light, and formed of horn, glass, or metal, with holes for the light to pass through. Lanterns have been found amongst the ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum ; and a curious one, of the time of Henry the Seventh (incorrectly attributed to the Saxon era), is preserved in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. This, which is represented in Shaw's Ancient Furniture, is of bronze, studded with crystals, for the transmission of light. Lanterns of horn are said to have been first introduced into England by King Alfred, about the year 887, to preserve the candles from the wind, and which he em- ployed to measure time. The word lantern is applied to a small turret, or cupola, with apertures, raised upon the summit of a building, for the purpose of giving light to the interior. This species of tower was frequently formed over the central part of a church, and on the roof of a hall, or kitchen. It occurs in the central towers of Durham and York Cathedrals, where it is square, and at Ely Cathedral, where it is octagonal. Over halls, we find it at West- minster, Penshurst, Crosby, and Eltliam ; and, over kitchens, at Durham, Glastonbury, Raby- castle, &c. When intended only to give lio-ht, the openings of the lantern were glazed ; but in kitchens they were left open for the escape of smoke. The small octagonal termination of a square tower, if pierced with windows, is also called a lantern. That of St. Botolph's Church, at Boston, in Lincolnshire, was probably intended to have been lighted up at night for a sea mark. The church of All Saints, at York, is known to have been thus illuminated in former times; and the steeple of old Bow Church, London, was pro- vided with small lanterns for the same purpose. [jlrcA. Antiqs., iv. 119.] A small turret on the summit of a cupola, and any raised portion of a roof containing vertical windows, though covered in horizontally, are still termed lanterns. (See Cover and Louver.) Lardose, a corruption of the French term Variirre dos, employed to designate the high altar-screen of Durham Cathedral. — Ancient Rites and Monu- ments oj' Durham, 12mo. Latch, or Locket, loquet, Fr., a small piece of iron or wood used to fasten a door, and raised by a lever, or string to open the door. A species of cross-bow used in the time of Henry VII. was also called a latch. — Fosbroke's Enc. of Antiqs., p. 816. Latten, Laten, Laton, Latoun, Latyn, Lat- TiN (thus variously spelt), laitou, leton, Fr., a l.OO ARCHITECTUKAl. IJICI lO.VAKV [lea metal frequently mentioned in old records, the exact nature of which is not ascertained. By the notices it appears to have been different from copper, iron, tin, steel, and some other metals. Todd {Dictionary) supposes it was a mixture of copper and calamine ; Douce, who is followed by W'illson (in rw^ins Specimens), says it was brass ; whilst Dr. Meyrick thinks it was copper gilt. The first is probably correct, as it appears to have been of oreater value than common brass ; but, as it still exists on the tomb of the Earl of \\ arwick, in the Beaucham]) chapel, it is rather singular that there should be any doubt upon the subject. It appears to have been used for crosses, candlesticks, plates for tombs, effigies, basins, and various other objects. Of the manner in which it is mentioned, the following quotations aflbrd instances: — In the agreements for the tomb of Richard,' Earl of Warwick, already men- tioned, the effigy and numerous scutcheons, images, and ornaments, are directed to be made of /atteii; and the large "/alien" table whereon the chief statue is laid, was to be "oftliejinest and thickest CiiUen plate." The finest latten is supposed to have been that which bore the nearest resemblance to gold. Cnllen, or Cologne plate came from Cologne, and was much esteemed. In the Ancient Rites and Monuments uf Diiiham, a large branching- candlestick in the cathedral is described as of " most fine and curious candle- stick-metal, or /alien-metal, glistering like gold itself." The effigies on the tombs of Edward III. and Richard II. are distinguished in the deeds copied into Ri/mer's Fccdera as of copper and " laton" (vol. vii. p. 797). Lady Manley, in 143^, bequeathed twenty marks "for a marble stone, with her portraiture thereon in copper, or latten, gilt." (Nicolas's Testamenta Vetusta, p. 233. See several other passages in the same work.) Latten, or luttin now signifies the thin plates of iron, covered with tin, of which the couimonesl domestic utensils are formed ; and which are usually called by the name of tin. Du Cange and Nares consider latten as synonymous with tile orichalcum of the ancients. (See Aiclii- teclitral Antitjs., vol. iv. p. 12; Privy Purse Ex- penses of Ihnrij VI II., Index; Fosbroke's Enc. f»/'yi«/(Vys., 413-888; Bray ley and Neales West- minsler Abbey, Index; and the above cited au- thorities.) Lattice, latlis, Fr., from lalle, Ger., a lath; the frame of a window formed by laths, rods, bars, or strips of lead, crossed diagonally. Latticed windows were formerly extensively used in build- ings of higher architectural pretensions than at present. (See Cancelli.) Lavacrum, a small hollow, or basin near an altar in a church for water to wash the priests' hands at certain times during the performance of divine worship. (See Piscina.) The word /arafory is often similarly applied. Lavatory, Laver, lavatorium, low Lat., a vessel, trough, or basin to contain water for purposes of ablution. Small lavatories, or basins of stone, similar to piscinas in churches, were often placed at the entrances to ancient dining halls; but the commonest forms of lavatories are those of a long stone trough, a fountain, or conduit. In the former shape lavatories are found in York Cathe- dral, and in the cloisters of Norwich, Worcester, and Gloucester Cathedrals: in the centre of the quadrangle of the cloister of Durham Cathedral, are the remains of an octagonal fountain ; and, in a similar situation at Wells, is a walled space, open at the top, and approached by steps to a stream which flows through it. Lead, was extensively employed by the old English builders in covering the roofs of churches, &c. Ornamental fonts, water-spouts, and window- frames were amongst the other purposes to which it was applied. According to the venerable Bede (lib. iii. eaj). 25) lead was employed in covering the roof of the church at Lindisfarne as early as the year 652: which practice afterwards became general. At Exeter Cathedral, a series of small ornaments, of the same material, decorate the ridge of the roof. (See the article Chest, and the elevation of part of Exeter Cathedral in one of the Plates of Compartments of Cathedral Churches.) King Stephen was interred in a lead coffin as early as 1154: such coffins were fre- quently fitted to the shape of the body, and en- closed in an outer coffin of wood or stone. — Bloxanis Monumental Architecture, p. 56. Lea.ning-plaoe : " It'm, made new in the queue's dynyng chambre [in the Tower of London] a great carrall wyndow stoundyng on the west syde, and tenyng places made new to the same." — Survey, Lie] AUCHITECTURAL DICTIONAKY. 151 23d Henry VIII., cited in Appendix to Bayley's History of the Tower, pt. i. p. xix. Lectern, Lecturn, Lettern, from lego, Lat., to read ; a reading-desk. In the choirs of 'some ancient churches lecterns of elaborate workman- ship, generally of brass, were placed. Two ex- amples, now in the cathedrals of Wells and Nor- wich, are represented in the illustrations to the author's work on the Cathedral Antiquities. The latter (as well as many qthers elsewhere) is so formed that the book rests upon the back and expanded wings of an eagle. A reader of homi- lies, or expounder of the scriptures, was termed a lector, or lecturer, and the book from which he read, in some instances, called a lectiouart/. (See Reading-Desk.) Ledger, Ligger, an oblong flat stone, or piece of timber. Horizontal timbers employed in scaffolds are termed liggers, in the Records oj Louth Steeple (Arch. Antiqs., vol. iv. p. 4) ; and the same word, with the more modern orthography given above, is still used in a similar sense. Ledgment, or Liggement (from lejep, Sax., a layer) appears formerly to have meant a horizontal course of stone, or mouldings in a building. It occurs in an agreement relating to the church of Fothering- hay, dated in 1434. — Dug c?a/e's Mon. Augl., vol. iii. Lewis, an instrument said to have been used in Eng- land by the builders of the middle ages to raise stones of more than ordinary weight to the upper parts of a building. It is now in common use, having been revived by a French artisan during the reign of Louis XIV. (See Archceologia, x. 126.) It operates by the dovetailing of one of its ends into an opening in the stone, so formed that no vertical force can detach it. An extraordinary instance of the power of the lewis was exemplified by raising a vast stone over the gateway of the prison, in Tothill Fields, London. LiBERGiER (Hugues), a French architect, is recorded to have designed the church of St. Nicasius, at Rheims, and to have superintended its erection, from its commencement in 1229, until his death in 1263. (Felibien, Vies de Arch., p. 207.) This building is considered by Hawkins (History of Gothic Arch., p. 142) to have been one of the earliest specimens of" unmixed Gothic" in France. Library, lihrarium, libraria, Lat., from liber, a book, bibliothique, Fr., Ubreria, Ital., bibliotliek, Ger. ; a collection of books belonging to any par- ticular person, or public body ; also the apartment in which such books are preserved. Diodorus mentions a library in the palace of Osymandyas, at Thebes, the entrance to which he states was inscribed with words implying " Place of cure for the soul." The celebrated Alexandrian library, founded by the Ptolemies, was partially destroyed by fire in the 48th year before the Christian era, and again, totally, by the Saracens, in the seventh century. It is said to have contained, at one time, as many as 700,000 volumes, or rolls. The libraries of the ancient Romans were often paved with marble, and ornamented with gold, the walls adorned with ivory, and the presses for the books made of cedar and ebony. The collegiate and monastic establishments of our forefathers were generally provided with manuscript books, tran- scribed and illuminated by the monks, which were placed in a room provided with presses, chests, and shelves, for their reception. Over one side of the cloister at Wells Cathedral is a long room erected by Bishop Bubwith, about the year 1420, which has been used as a library from that time to the present. Over p<>rt of the cloister of Salis- bury Cathedral is a similar library ; whilst, in the cloister of Gloucester Cathedral, the recesses in which the monks wrote and illuminated manu- scripts, are still to be seen. The scarcity of books, however, before the invention of printing, precluded the erection of any building, or apart- ment of magnitude or architectural pretensions as a library. Subsequently, several public collec- tions were formed, and buildings were erected for this purpose, particularly at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. The Bodleian library, in the former, and the Public library at the latter, are of vast dimensions, and contain very large collections of books and manuscripts. The royal library, in the British Museum, London, is a large and handsome room. Lich-gate, from he, hce. Sax., a dead body; a covered shed, or gateway at the entrance to a churchyard. (See Corpse-gate.) A similar gate to that mentioned in the article re'ferred to, formerly stood near Gloucester Cathedral. It was called the Lych-gate, and the lane leading 152 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY [loo to U Lych-lane. The corpse of King Edward II. rested there on its way to interment; and, pro- bably, from having been rebuilt by his successor, it was and is called King Edward's gate. — Brit- toii's Cath. Afiti'/s., Gloucester, Supplementary Essay, p. 14. Li ernes, an old French term denoting the ribs which cover those angles of a vaulted roof, and which present a convexity or ridge, in opposition to such as cover a concavity, or groin. — Willis's Arch, of the Middle Ages, p. 83. Light, the upright space between two mullions of a window. A window having four vertical mul- lions and two jambs is said to be a window of five lights. William of Worcester {Itinerary, pp. 235, 287, 293, &c.) employs the Latin terms lux, luces, pana, panelia, and parva fenestra in the same sense. The word bays, used for the transverse compartments of a roof, is sometimes applied to the upright divisions of a window. The word days is similarly used, but neither of them with strict propriety. I-INCOLN (John de), was master of the works in St. Stephen's chapel, Westminster, in the year 1350. Pat. 24 Edw. HI., part i. m. 26, dorso, cited in Smith's Antiquities of Westminster, p. 83. \a'st¥.l, Uuteau, Fr., Unlet, Sp.; a horizontal piece of timber, or stone, covering a door-way, or a win- dow. List, Listel, lisleau, Fr., a ])lain, narrow mould- ing, or band employed in classical architecture to separate or combine other mouldings, or the flutes of a column. (See Annulet, Band, and Fillet.) Lock, loc. Sax., an instrument of iron, or other nietal, used for fastening a door, or gate, or tlie lid of a chest, or box, by means of a bolt moved by a key. Many curious specimens of locks are to be found in the old mansions of England, shewing that, in the fifteenth and sixteenth cen- turies, those useful articles partook of the profu- sion of ornament whicii characterised most works of the period. By some entries in "The Privy Purse Expenses of Henry the Eighth.'' it appears that those for the king's chamber-door were ciir- riid about by the household Smith wherever his majesty went. A beautiful specimen, from Bed- dington Hall, Surrey, is engraved in Pugin's Examples of Gothic Arch., vol. i., and others in Shaw's Ancient Furniture. Locker, a small cupboard : the recess, or niche, frequently observed near an altar in a Catholic church, and intended as a depository for water, oil. Sec. Locus, Lat., was frequently employed by ancient writers to signify a religious house. " Locus Benedictus," a monastery of Benedictines. — Whitaker's Whalley, p. 48. " Locus excelsus," as used in the Will of King Henry V., appears to have signified a loft. — liymer's Fadera, ix. 289. LocuTORY, locutorium, low Lat., an apartment in a monastery in which the monks were allowed to converse, when silence was enjoined elsewhere. Sometimes a garden and bowling-green were at- tached to it, for the recreation of the novices. (See Parlour.) Loft, a gallery, or chamber, raised upon or within a larger apartment ; as a music-loft, singing-loft, organ-loft, rood-loft, &c. (See Locus, Organ- loft, and Rood-loft.) Loggia, Ital., an avenue, or gallery, in a building, with an open colonnade, or arcade on one or both sides. LoM BARDIC Architecture, was defined by the late Thos. Hope as that style which arose in Lom- bardy after the decline ofthe Roman empire ; was thence introduced into France, and afterwards (variously modified in its progress) proceeded to Normandy and into England. It is essentially the same as that commonly called the Norman style, by recent English writers. — Hope's History of Architecture, p. 250. (See Architecture.) London (Richard de), abbot of Peterborough from 1274 to 1296, erected " the great steeple for the bells :" probably one of the towers at the western front ofthe cathedral. — Britton's Cath. Antiifs., Peterborough, p. 57. Longitudinal Vault. (See Vault.) LoocH, Loch, occurs in the Records of Louth Stee- ple {ArchcBologia, x. 70-98), and signifies a shed to place stone in for building purposes. Loop, Loophole, a narrow aperture in the wall of a church, or castle, giving light to a staircase, closet, or platform. In the survey of the tower MACJ ARCHITECTURAL DICTIOXART. 153 of London, 24th Henry VIII. (already frequently referred to), various parts of the building are directed to be "lowped," or provided with loop- holes ; and in one wall, in particular, " iij . loppy s " were to be made with "Cane (Caen) asheler, ij. fote brode ; and, in heygth, iiij. foot." — Bayley's Hist, of the Tower, pt. i. app. p. xxix. Loop- holes in castles were always of small dimensions externally, but widened inwards. LoRciGNES (Guerin de), is recorded, in an inscrip- tion above the portal of the collegiate church of St. Sepulchre, at Paris, to have commenced that building in 1326, and finished it, for the perform- ance of mass, in the succeeding year. — Whitting- ton's Hist. Surv. p. 77. Losing, or Lozinga, (Herbert), the first bishop of Norwich, removed his see from Thetford to that cit}', and there erected a cathedral, a palace, and other monastic buildings. The choir and its ailes, the east end, with its chapels, and the transepts of the present cathedral, are ascribed to this pre- late. He ruled over the see from 1094 till 1119. — Brittons Cath. Antiqs., Norwich. Lote (Stephen), one of the principal masons em- ployed in constructing the tomb of Richard II., at Westminster. — Brayley and Neale's Westm. Abbey, vol. i. p. 111. Louver, Loover, Lover, from I'onvert, Fr., a turret, or lantern over a hall, or kitchen, with openings for the escape of smoke, or steam. (See Cover and Lantern.) The gallery called the Louvre, at Paris, is said, by some writers, to de- rive its name from an appendage of this nature. Louvre-windows are those in church towers which are left open, or crossed by bars of wood, placed so as to exclude the rain, but admit air, and allow the emission of sound from the bells. These bars of wood are termed louvre-boards, corruptly, luffer-boards. Lozenge-moulding, an architectural ornament pre- senting the appearance of a series of diagonal ribs inclosing diamond-shaped panels. It occurs in buildings of the Norman era, and is repre- sented in Plate III. of Arcades, fig. 12, and in King's Mun. Atitiq., vol. iii. pi. v. LoziNG (Robert), Robertas Lotharingus, or, Robert of Lorraine, bishop of Hereford from 1079 till 1095, is said to have commenced rebuilding the church and other monastic edifices, in which (ac- cording to William of Malmesbury) he adopted as his model, the church of Aix-la-Chapelle, in Germany. The nave, and the south transept of the present cathedral, are attributed to him. — Britten's Cath. Antiqs., Hereford, p. 8. Lucy (Godfrey de), bishop of Winchester from 1189 to 1204, built parts of the east end of that cathe- dral. — Britton's Cath. Antiqs., Winchester, p. 60. Lunette, Fr., an aperture in a concave ceiling to admit light. Lusarche (Robert de), a French architect of the thirteenth century, commenced building the ca- thedral of Amiens, in the year 1220. — Hawkins's Goth. Arch., p. 138. LuTHERN, Lucaine, lucsrna, Lat., a light, or lan- tern ; a window in a roof lighting a garret, or upper apartment. (See Dormer-window.) Lyntel. (See Lintel.) Lynton, an old orthography of the word lintel : " ij lyntons made for ij wyndowes." — Bayley's Tower, pt. i. app. xxii. M Machicolation, Machecoulis, Maschecou- Lis, Machicolamentum, a term applied to a groove, or opening in a fortified building, through which soldiers annoyed their assailants by throw- ins stones, molten lead, hot sand, boiling water, arrows, and other missiles. jNIachicolattons abound in the remains of almost all ancient fortresses, and are either simple perforations over the arched wall of a gateway, or passage, or formed at intervals in the parapet or face of a tower. In some in- stances the whole extent of the parapet is pro- jected from the wall upon a series of corbels, the intervals between which are left open, and thus form machicolations. This mode of construction is met with in the gatehouses of Winchester and Southampton ; Oxburgh Hall, Norfolk ; Leeds Castle, Kent ; Tattershall ; Warwick ; Windsor ; Carisbrook, and many other castles; and is one of the most striking and picturesque features of castellated architecture. Sometimes small bar- tizans, or turrets are attached to the angles of great towers, by corbels with openings between X 154 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [mar them. Machicolations appear to have been em- ployed in fortification in some ancient Roman buildings : tliey abound in those raised through- out Europe in the middle ages, and in Moorish fortresses. The name is derived, by Spelman (Glossarium Archaologicum, iii. p. 372), from mascil, or tnascliil, (maiidibulum) and coulisse; a passage, or opening through which any thing is thrown down. Some examples are illustrated in detail in Carters Arte. Arch., plates 47, 51, and 52. — See Grose's Military Antiquities, Pugiiis Specimens, and King's Man. Antiq. Maeukmium, Maerennum, marisme, mahereme, old Fr., timber, frequently occurs in Latin records to signify building materials of stone, or timber ; but rarely the former. It generally applies rather to waste or refuse materials than to those fit for use. — Glossary in Rennet's Antiqs. of Ambrosden. Maiden-Tower : the keep, or principal tower of a castle has sometimes been so called ; probably a corruption of the old Fiench word magne, or mayne, great. Maiden-castle is the name of a large castrametation in the vicinity of Dorchester, and of several others. The term is also applied to those fortresses which have never been cap- tured by an enemy. — See King's Mun. Antiq., vol. i. p. 40. Maignaud, a Canon, built the entrance to the church of St. Genevieve, at Paris, in the tentli century. — Whittington's Hist. Surv. p. 44. Malverne (Alduin de) was architect, or surveyor of the works, of a bridge over the Wye, at Here- ford, in the reign of King Henry the First. — Le- land's Itin. vol. viii. p. 58. Manor-House, the country residence of the lord of a manor. (See Boekia.) Mansion, mansio, Lat., a resting-place, from maneo, to remain ; a place of residence, a dwelling : generally a large house; the chief habitation of the lord of a manor. The characteristics of the old provincial palaces and mansions of England are exemplified in Britton's Arch. Antiqs., vol. ii. ; Walpole's Anecdotes by Dalluway; Fugin's Ex- amples of Goth. Arch. ^c. (See Domestic Architecture, House, and Hall.) Mansio canonicorum, the country house of a religious fra- ternity ; mansus presbyteri, the manse of a parish priest, or the parsonage; and mansum capitale, the chief house, or court (curia capitalis) of the lord of the manor. Mantel, Mantel-tree, a beam resting on the jambs of a fire-place, and supporting the wall above. The place of this beam is now generally supplied by an arch of brick work ; formerly, when left exposed, it was ornamented with carv- ings. The mantel-piece, as distinguished from the above, is the projecting shelf over a fire-place. Marble, marbre, Fr., marmor, Lat., from /iag/j,aoo;, Gr., a while or shining stone; a term applied to the finer varieties of limestone, of hard and com- pact substance, and susceptible of a high degree of polish. Different marbles have been employed by all civilised people for statues, busts, monu- ments, and ornaments. The Pentelic and Parian marbles of the ancients, and the produce of the quarries of Carrara, in Italy, are unrivalled in beauty and value. Great Britain affords marble of excellent quality, particularly from the Derby- shire, Devonshire, and Anglesea quarries. None, however, but the Petworth and Purbeck marbles appear to have been extensively used by ancient English architects. These were employed for columns, pavements, gravestones, and monu- ments, and are still to be met with in most of the cathedrals and larger churches built in the early part of the thirteenth century : viz. in Westminster Abbey Church, Salisbury Cathedral, Exeter Cathedral, Lincoln Cathedral, the Temple Church, London, &,c. Amongst the entries con- nected with St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster (about a.d. 1350), is the following: "For 144 yards of marble stone, bought to make columns for the chapel, at 6c?. a foot, with carriage and boatage from Co)f to the king's bridge, West- minster, £10. 14.6." (Smith's Antiqs. of Westm., p. 203.) The ecclesiastical buildings of conti- nental Europe exhibit a great profusion of marble decorations. The cathedral of Milan is con- structed almost entirely of white marble ; so is also the front of that at Como. The western facade of the cathedral of Siena is inlaid with black, red, and while marbles, relieved by other colours, and with painting and gilding. The same church contains a white marble pulpit, exe- cuted, in 1226, by Nicolas of Pisa, and supported by columns, resting on figures of lionesses and their cubs. — See Wood's Letters of an Architect ; mas] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 1 53 and Hope's Hist, of Arch.: also observations by Essex, in Archaologia, iv. 104. Market-Cross. (See Cross.) Market-House, a building in a market-place, to shelter its frequenters from inclement weather. Most of the old market-houses were formed oi timber, open at the sides, and supported by several pillars. Specimens remain at Leominster, at Hereford, and in many other towns. Marquetry, marqueterie, Fr., from marque, mar- queter, to spot; a kind of mosaic or inlaid work formed of small pieces of wood, and occasionally enriched with valuable materials. The Italians in the fifteenth century, and the French of the seventeenth, carried this art to great perfection. From France it was introduced into England ; the floors of several mansions built at the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth centuries, being thus constructed. Amongst ex- isting examples are floors in the British museum ; the library at St. Paul's Cathedral ; and some apartments in Windsor Castle. Parquetiy was often employed synonymously. (See Par- quetry.) Martyn (John), prior of St. Augustine, Bristol, now the cathedral, was " master of the new works," about the year 1491. — Brittoiis Cath. Antiqs., Bristol, p. 49. Marty ROLOGiuM, a register of benefactors to a reli- gious house, with the dates of their respective deaths ; compiled in order that prayers for their souls might be offered up on each anniversary. Mascall, or Marshal (Eustace), who died in 1567, was clerk of the works at Christ Church College, Oxford, and clerk of accounts for all the buildings of King Henry VIII. within twenty miles of London. — Lysons's Mag. Brit. vol. i. p. 561. Mascall (Robert), bishop of Hereford from 1404 till 1416, built, or rather contributed to build the choir, presbytery, and bell-tower of the church of the Carmelites, or White Friars, London. — Brit ton's Cath. Antiqs., Hereford, p. 22. Masonry, is the art of preparing and combining the stones in a building, so as to present a firm construction, and an uniform or ornamental sur- face. A mason is the person employed to execute the work. The derivation of the word mason (mafon, Fr.) is uncertain. Some trace it from machio, low Lat., a machinist ; others from ma- ceria, the fence, or wall enclosing a mason's work-place ; and others, from mas, an old word signifying house. The art of masonry appears to have been successfully studied by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. Vitruvius de- scribes six diff'erent methods of arranging and binding stone walls, most of which have been practised by succeeding builders, to the present time. The transcendant skill of the masons em- ployed on the churches and other edifices of the middle ages is proberbial. At a period when nearly every other art made but gradual ad- vances, that of masonry attained great perfection, — a circumstance which was attributable, it is reasonably supposed, to the peculiar combination of its professors as a fraternity of " Free and Accepted Masons." Although some such associ- ations of artificers may be traced to the classical nations of antiquity, it is sufficient for our pur- pose to state that, originating in this peculiar form in Italy, they spread over the whole Christ- ian world, under the patronage and protection of the pope. Sanctioned by his diplomas, their proceedings were tolerated by all Christian princes, and their ranks joined by artisans and ecclesiastics of every country into which they penetrated. In England, the great architectural works (both mili- tary and ecclesiastical) effected in the eleventh and in the two succeeding centuries caused the introduction of numerous foreign architects, or master masons, as they were then termed, as well as workmen, whose fraternities, enlarged by the admission of English artisans, gradually increased in influence and stability. Finding their rules of art productive of a lucrative monopoly, it is not to be wondered at that the associated artificers were anxious to keep them secret. They ad- mitted, or accepted no one as a member of their body, until he had served an apprenticeship ; they invented private signs for the mutual recognition of the initiated ; established funds for the relief of their indigent brethren ; and adopted every possible means to render their corporatioa exclu- sive and inviolate. As both their fraternities, and the styles of architecture which they prac- tised were intimately connected in the public mind with the Roman Catholic faith, and the 156 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [mel ponti6cal dominion, it was reasonable to suppose that, on the decline of the latter, that of its architects and of its architecture would ensue. In the year 1424, King Henry the Sixth declared all corporations of freemasons to be illegal, and threatened with fine and imprisonment those who should continue to hold chapters and meetings. From this time their societies gradually declined : — though their secret formalities were kept up, they no longer had opportunities to display their constructive powers ; and the masons who prac- tised after the dissolution of monasteries were compelled to have recourse to the more simple revived Italian style, from their inability to exe- cute that which was branded with the name of Gothic. The numerous cathedrals, and other churches of Europe, proclaim to distant ages the magnitude and variety of this much traduced style of architecture, and exemplify the inventive senius and mechanical skill of the Freemasons. Of the ancient practice of masonry in Britain we have not very authentic particulars. There can be no doubt that distinguished prelates often gave designs, which their own clergy assisted to execute ; but the merit of many others has been transferred from the architect, or master mason, to the founder, or benefactor, who supplied the funds for their execution ; and, in some instances, to persons who were merely comptrollers of the accounts, or clerks of the works. For some of the varying denominations of ancient masons, particulars of the estimation in which they were held, the rate of wages which they received, the regulations which, in some instances, governed their labours, their contracts, agreements, and epitaphs, with other details for which the present work affords no space, the reader is referred to Hope's Hist, of Architecture, Preston's lUitstra- tioiis of Free Masonry, Dallaway' s English Arch., Gage's Hengrave, Weever's Funeral Monuments, Dugdale's Monasticon, new edit. vol. vi. pt. iii. p. 1414, Brayley and Brit ton's Anc. Palace at Westm., Britton's Arch. Antiqs., Cath. Antiqs., York and Eseter ; an essay by G. Godwin, jun., in the third volume of Loudon's Architectural Magazine: and the works of Gunn, IVhittington, Hawkins, and other writers on the architecture of the middle ages. In the account of Roslyn Chapel, Scotland {Arch. Antiqs., vol. iii.), are some interesting particulars relating to the free- masons who built that singular edifice. (See the articles Em PLECTON,ExTRUCTOR,Fo UN DYNG, Guild, Henry Latomvs, Hylmek, Inser- TUM, Reticulatum, Semekk, and Wastell.) Mauresque or Moorish Architecture. (See Moorish, and Architecture.) Maurice, or Mauritius, bishop of London, died in the year 1107. The cathedral of St. Paul, being roofed with timber, was destroyed by fire in 1083, when Maurice began the foundation of a most maarnificent edifice in its stead. He is stated to have built all the body of the church, with the north and south cross ailes. — Dugdale's St. Paul's, by Ellis, p. 4. Mausoleum, Lat., a magnificent tomb, or sepul- chral building. Artemisia, the widow of Mau- solus, king of Caria, having built a stately monu- ment to the memory of her husband, other sub- sequent tombs, or monumental edifices, were called after his name. Remains of the mausoleum of the Emperor Augustus still stand in Rome; and the celebrated castle of St. Angelo, in the same city, was originally erected to receive the remains of Hadrian, though since converted into a fortress. Both of those edifices were raised by the respective emperors whose names they bearj the former apparently for the interment of him- self, his family, and dependants ; and the latter as the sepulchre of Hadrian alone. The mau- soleum of Theodoric, king of the Goths, at Ra- venna, is a singular building of the kind. It is described and illustrated by Mr. Sydney Smirke in the Archeologia, vol. xxiii. Maynard (John), and John Bell, painters, were among the artists eniployed upon the tomb of King Henry the Seventh, at Westminster. — Wal- pole's Anecdotes, by Dallatuay, i. 176. Medieval Architecture, is a term used in this and other works to denote the architecture pre- valent in Europe during the middle ages: more particularly that of which the pointed arch forms the chief characteristic. (See Architecture, and Middle Ages.) Melsonby (Thomas), prior of Durham from 1233 till 1244, removed the timber roof of the nave of Durham Cathedral, and substituted in its place the present groined roof, of stone. He also com- menced the chapel of the nine altars, being the minJ ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 157 eastern termination of the building. — Carter's Cathedrals, Durham. Members, membra, Lat., applied indefinitely to all the various details of a building ; as doorways, windows, mouldings, &c. Menagerie, Fr., a building, or enclosure in which rare animals are kept. The Romans occasionally had small paddocks for this purpose attached to their villas. Merchants' Mark. (See Monogram.) Meselle-House, from measle (obsolete), a person afflicted with leprosy ; an hospital, or lazar-house. — Glossary to Hearne's edition of Langtoft's Chronicle. Metope, /utovhi, Gr., a middle space ; the square panel, or recess between the tryglyphs in a Doric frieze; sometimes occupied by sculptures. Meulan (Waltier de), completed the rebuilding of the abbey church of Bee, after Ingelramme had retired from the work, about the year 1215. — Whittmgtons Hist. Surv., p. 66. Mewe. "The Mewe" at Charing Cross, in the time of King Henry the Eighth, was the place where his hawks were kept, whilst moulting; and thence, when afterwards employed as stables, was called the king's mews. In the reign of Edward II. the manor of Broughton, in Oxford- shire, was held by John Manduit, " per serjan- tiam mutatidi," &c. — Glossary in Kennel's Antiqs. of Ambrosden, v. Muto. The " king's mews," at 1 Westminster, (unquestionably the same as the I "Mewe" mentioned above), is several times no- ticed in the accounts entered on the chancellor's roll of the 5th of King Edward I., now in the British Museum. The gerfalcons' bath and her- bary, the curtain of the mews before the said falcons, the chapel of the king's mews, and an earthern embankment surrounding the mews, are all included in these notices. — Brayley and Brit- ton's Anc. Palace at Westm., pp. 81-83. Mezzanine, mezzanino, Ital., dim. of mezzo, the middle ; a low story between two principal sto- ries : called by the French entresol, or inter- story. (See Entersole.) Middle Ages. The architecture of the middle ages is a phrase indefinitely used by authors. Pro- perly speaking, it includes the varieties of build- ing prevalent throughout Europe from the eighth to the fifteenth centuries : for want of a more settled nomenclature, it is chiefly employed to designate pointed architecture. Middle-post, the same as King-post (which see.) Military Architecture, is that particular man- ner of building employed in constructing for- tresses. (See Castle.) Mill, mola, Lat., miln. Sax., moulin, Fr., moler, Sp., molino, Ital.; in its general acceptation, a machine for grinding corn, or other substances, to flour; also the building containing such ma- chine. Warton (Hist, of Kiddington, p. 36) ob- serves, that mills are very generally remaining on sites where they are alluded to in the Domes- day Survey. Anciently, a mill was the property of the lord of the manor : his tenants were not permitted to have their corn ground elsewhere, nor could they erect mills without his permission. Mills are likewise employed for expressing oil, and for a great variety of other purposes. Milliare, Lat., a stone post, or pillar placed by the Romans in a public road, at the distance of one mile from a similar mark. Several of these stones, with inscriptions, have been found in dif- ferent parts of England ; and that now fixed against the church of St. Swithin, in Cannon Street, London (called London Stone), is sup- posed to have been placed on one of the sites whence the Romans measured distances from Londinium. Another stands in one of the streets of Leicester. Minaret, a small tower, or turret, generally of circular form, and provided with one or more external balconies : the minaret belongs to the mosques and other Mohammedan edifices of Oriental nations. Minster, mynj-repe, Sax., a large monastic, colle- giate, or cathedral church : frequently synony- mous with monastery, in which sense the corre- sponding word {miinster) in the German language is still employed. Since the suppression of mon- asteries in England, the term minster is applied only to churches formerly connected with a few of the most eminent of them. This is the case at Ripon, Beverley, York, and Lincoln ; also at Sherborne and Wimborne, in Dorsetshire. The church of West-minster {Westmonasterium, low 158 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [mod Lat.) was so called from its situation to the west of London, or of the minster, or cathedral of St. Paul. Minstrel-Gallery, a gallery, or balcony at one end, or side of a hall, or other large apartment, intended, as its name imports, for musicians on festive occasionis. A similar projection on the north side of the nave of Exeter Cathedral, sup- posed to have been occupied in the same manner, has its front beautifully sculptured with repre- sentations of angels playing on musical instru- ments, in a series of highly ornamented compart- ments. This gallery is fully represented and de- scribed in Brilton's Cath. Antiqs., Exeter: and also in Plate of Compartments of Cathe- drals, — Exeter, at d. A smaller and less orna- mental minstrel-gallery is attached to one of the clear-story windows on the south side of the nave of Wells Cathedral {Britton's Cath. Antiqs., Wells, p. 116, pi. xii.); and a tribune over part of the north aile to the nave of Winchester Ca- thedral, now the consistory court, is conjectured to have been formerly a minstrel-gallery. — Biil- ton's Cath. Antiqs., Winchester, p. 88, pi. v. Minute, the sixtieth part of the diameter of a co- lumn, at its base. (See Module.) Miserere, Misericord, a small movable seat placed in a stall of the choir of a church; as in Lincoln and Winchester Cathedrals, and else- where. Dr. Milner, in his History of Winches- ter (vol. ii. p. 37), states, that it was so con- trived that if, during the performance of religious ceremonies, the monk slept, he would be liable to fall on the floor : from which circumstance the name was derived. This is not a satisfactory explanation. — See Britton's Cath. Antiqs., Win- chester, p. 92, and Wild's Lincoln Cath., new edit. p. 27. Mitre, /i/rga, Gr., tnitra, Lat., Sp., and Ital., mitre, Fr.; a peculiar covering for the head, formerly worn by all archbishops and bishops, and by certain abbots on solemn occasions. The mitre, as still worn by prelates in France, and in Eng- land, at coronations, &c., is a round cap of metal, having a lofty pyramidal apex, which is cleft at the top, and pendants hanging down upon the shoulders. In Whitaker's Cornwall, vol. i. pp. 203-214, is a long disquisition on its origin and antiquity, in which the author traces it from the high priests of the Hebrews to the Persian monarchs and the priestesses of Cybele. The mitre was worn by the prelates of the Roman Catholic church in the tenth century, and, ac- cording to Whitaker, by English bishops before the Norman conquest. Until the fourteenth cen- tury it was comparatively low, but afterwards increased to a very disproportionate height. Some mitres were of cloth, linen, or silk, embroidered and garnished with jewels ; and others, particu- larly those of later date, of metal. That of William of Wykeham, preserved in New College, Oxford, is of silver gilt. The mitres of abbots were granted to them by the pope on account of their wealth and power, or in consideration of certain payments. The privilege was accom- panied with episcopal jurisdiction within the ab- bot's sphere of dominion, and those so distin- guished were called mitred abbots, and had some- times seats in parliament; though the latter privilege was dependant upon certain manorial tenures. (See Abbey.) The jealousy of the bishops on this account, gave rise to certain regulations respecting the form and ornaments of abbatial mitres, so as to keep them subordinate to, and distinct from those of the bishops; but such regulations were not constantly observed. The same kind of head-dress was anciently worn by some of the inferior clergy, and even by cer- tain secular princes, as well as by the pope and cardinals. — See Tanner's Not. Mon., by Nasmith, preface ; and Willis's Mitred Abbeys. Moat, Mote, mota, low Lat., matte, Fr., motta, Sp. ; signifies, literally, a heap, or hillock of earth, but is corruptly applied to the ditch, or fosse which surrounds a fortress, and which is often separated from the enclosed area, or the exterior surface, by a bank, or mound. Moats were usually very wide and deep, and either contained water, or were left dry, as convenience suited. That side of the moat next the fortress is usually termed the scarp ; and the opposite side, the counter- scarp. Alternate ditches and banks are the principal component parts of ancient British and other earthworks, or castrametations. (See Cas- tle and Foss.) Model, modulus, Lat., modelle, Fr. ; a diminutive form of a building according to which the ori- mon] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 159 ginal itself is to be erected. Models, or, as they were formerly termed, yVames, are known to have been prepared, in many cases, for the erection of mansions : in particular, we may refer to Hen- grave Hall, Suffolk, in the mason's contract for which, that artificer bargained to make the house "according to dL frame which he had seen at Comby." (See Gage's History of Hengrave, p. 51.) A model, in wood, of Audley End, Essex, is generally supposed to have been pro- cured by the Earl of Suffolk, from Italy, at a cost of £500. Of this model, some mutilated frag- ments are still preserved. — Britton's Arch. An- tiqs., vol. ii. p. 113. (See Mold, Pattern, and PORTKAITURE.) MoDiLLioN,OTo<:?M/i«, Lat., a measure of proportion, modiglione, Ital.; an enriched block, or horizontal bracket. A series of modillions, ranged at regu- lar distances apart (whence their name) serve to support the corona of the Corinthian and Com- posite cornices. Less ornamented, they are some- times used in the Ionic entablature. (See Can- tilever, Console, and Mutule.) Module, modulus, Lat., from modus, a measure, or rule ; is a term used in describing the proportions of the different parts of an order. The diameter of a column at the base is usually taken as the module: this is divided into sixty parts, or minutes, and any part of an architectural com- position is said to be so many modules and minutes in height or breadth. Mold, Mould, an old term for a form according to which any thing is to be made. In the Accounts of Louth Steeple is the item, " Paid to John Cole, master mason of the broach, for making molds to it, by four days, 2s. 5d." In the inden- ture for vaultinor the roof of King's Colleo;e Chapel, Cambridge, John Wastell, the master mason, covenants to provide stone for the work, " together with lyme, sand, scaffolding, cine- tores, moles, ordinaunces, and every other thyng concerning the same vawting." — Britton's Arch. Ajiliqs., i. 13, 14. (See Model and Pattern.) Mole, mael. Sax., moles, Lat., mole, Fr. ; a pile, or heap : a name applied to a pier of stone project- ing into the sea, to protect a harbour from the violence of the waves. The Romans used the word for a mausoleum, as the mole of Hadrian, now the castle of St. Angelo, at Rome. Monastery, //.omartiiiov, Gr., from /^otoi, sole, sepa- rate, or solitary, monasterium, low Lat., monastere, Fr., monastero, Ital., monasterio, Sp.; the abode of an assemblage of persons devoted to religious retirement, or seclusion. The persecutions to which the early Christians were subjected, com- pelled many of them to seek safety by retiring to solitary and secluded places. These persons were therefore termed hermits, or monks {fiova^o;, Gr., solitary); and when their religion became more openly practised, the reputation which the excessive devotion of these ascetics had procured for a retired life, induced many other persons to adopt it, — modified, however, by their mutual combination into small societies, or associations. The latter, as distinguished from the hermits, or true monks, were termed conventual-monks, or coenobites {xoivog, Gr., common, and /3/o;, life). It is supposed that some monasteries were established in England as early as the fifth cen- tury. On the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons many new ones were erected; and throughout several succeeding centuries they were exten- sively multiplied by the munificence of monarchs and wealthy individuals. After the reign of Edward III., however, colleges, hospitals, and chantries were founded, and monasteries com- paratively neglected : indeed, so early as the time of Henry III., the enormous wealth and influence which the monasteries had gradually acquired, and the abuses alleged to be practised in them, had excited the complaints of the nobi- lity, and measures were taken to abridge their power and influence. Several acts of parliament were successively passed to reduce the number of these establishments; and, during the reign of King Henry the Eighth, they were dissolved, and their revenues confiscated to the crown. The number of religious establishments recorded to have been thus abolished is upwards of 3000 ; the number of persons contained in, or belong-' ing to, which, amounted to about 50,000, and their annual revenues to £150,000; — statements which will serve to give some idea of the extent to which the system had been carried. Monas- teries were, in different places, under the control either of abbots, or priors, whence they were called respectively abbeys or priories. The whole of the English cathedral churches were formerly connected with monastic establishments. The- 160 ARCHITECTUUAL DICTIONARY. [JIOO buildings of the principal English monasteries were extensive, and many of them magnificent. Theirchicfparts were the church, with its chapels, cloister, and chapter-house ; the guest-hall, refec- tory, dormitory, kitchen, &c. The characteris- tics of each of these are explained under their respective names ; in addition to which the reader will find some information under the articles Abbey, Antistitium, Convent, Friary, Nunnery, Priory, &c. The pointed style of architecture, having been very extensively em- ployed in the monastic buildings now remaining, has been called Monastic Architecture by some writers. — See Tanner's Not. Mon., preface, Fosbroke's British Monachism, Brit ton's Cath. Antiqs., Gloucester, IVhitaker's Cormuall, vol. ii. &c. Monogram, /iov6j, Gr., sole, and yga/i/ta, a letter; an abbreviation of the name of a person, formed by two or more letters of the name. The mono- grams most employed by Christian architects were those indicating the name of Christ, by the letters I.H.S. and X.P.I. IMany monuments and parts of buildings in England have sculptured monograms and rebuses on their walls, com- memorating the names of persons at whose ex- pense they were erected. Thus, in the abbey church at St. Alban's, the works of Abbots Ram- ridge and Wheathamstead are indicated respec- tively by figures of a ram, and ears of wheat. (See other instances, under the articles Gold- stone, IsLTP, KiRTON, and Morton.) The owners of mansions often adopted the same prac- tice ; and merchants and tradesmen, who were not allowed to bear arras, and sometimes those who were, assumed emblematic or arbitrary marks, which were painted on windows ; also carved on friezes, and other architectural members. The practice is alluded to in Piers Plowman's Crede. (See Knot and Rebus.) Monopteros, /j.on;, Gr., one, and ttsook, a wing; a temple composed of a circular range of columns supporting a dome. The term cyclostyle would be more appropriate. Montereau (Pierre de), who died in the year 1266, built the Holy Chapel, at Vincennes ; various parts of the monastery of St. Germain des Prez ; and the Sainte Chapelle, at Paris. On his tomb. at St. Germain des Prez, is his eflBgy, with a rule and compass in one hand. Montreuil (Eudo de), was employed by Louis XI., the French monarch, to erect certain churches in Paris, and to fortify the gate and city of Jaffa. He died in 1289. Monument, monunientum, Lat., from moneo, to ad- monish, or remind; a single stone, a piece of sculpture, or an edifice, formed to perpetuate the memory of some person or event. Heaps of stones were raised, with this object, by the pa- triarchs in the earliest ages of the world. The tower of Babel, the pyramids and obelisks of Egypt, the columns and triumphal arches of ancient Rome, all come under this denomination. The most ordinary monuments, however, have always been those for individuals. During the middle ages these appeared under the various forms of grave-stones, brasses, tablets, ornamental altar-tombs, 8cc., with or without the efiigies of the deceased. (See Brass, Coffin, Column, Cross, Dos d'ane, Effigy, Epitaph, Image, Inscription, and Tomb.) Monumental Chapel, a small chapel, or chantry, for the interment of an individual, or a family, and containing their tombs, or epitaphs. These chapels were frequently built by lords of manors in parish churches, and by bishops, and other distinguished persons, in cathedrals. MoNYALL, Moynell, Moynicle, tcmis used in ancient documents to signify the mtiUion of a window. — See Bayley's Hist, of the Tower, app. p. xviii.; Brai/ley and Brilton's Anc. Palace at Westminster, p. 157. Moorish, or Moresque Architecture, is a pe- culiar manner of design in building, which the inhabitants of Morocco, in common with most other Mohammedan nations, employed in mosques and other public edifices, and which api)ears to have previously prevailed in Persia and Constan- tinople. Its chief features were pointed, de- pressed, scolloped, horse-shoe, and ogee arches, lofty elongated cupolas, and a profusion of elabo- rate tracery, and sculptured detail. In Spain it prevailed whilst that country was under the Moorish dominion, and many interesting exam- ples of it remain in the Alhambra, at Grenada. (See Arabesque, Aeabo-Tedesco, Arch, and mul] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 161 Cathedral.) Murphy has published an ela- borate work illustrative of this architecture. See also Hope's Hist, of Arch., chap, xiii ; Roberts's Sketches in Spain, folio, 1837 ; the Arabian Anti- quities of Spain, folio, 1816; and Goury and Jones's Illustrations of the Alhambra, folio, 1837. Moot-hall, from monaii, Sax., to meet; a public building in a city or corporate town, appropriated for persons to meet, or assemble together; the same as town-hall, a court of judgment. In the moot-balls formerly connected with inns of court, imaginary, or moot-cases were argued by the stu- dents at law. The mote-bell was the bell used for assembling such meetings. Mortar, mortier, Fr., mortero, Sp., mortel, Germ.; a mixture of lime and sand, or other materials, with water, as a cement for uniting stones and bricks in building. The mortar employed by architects in the classical ages of antiquity, also in the old Christian churches and the fortresses of Great Britain, w-as strong and binding. (See Cement and Concrete.) Morton (John), archbishop of Canterbury from 1486 to the year 1500, erected part of the archi- episcopal palace at Lambeth, and, in conjunction with Prior Goldstone, also the central tower of his cathedral. On the latter is sculptured his monogram ; the letters mor, and a tun. (Brit- ton's Cath. Antiqs., Cauterbiiry, p. 39.) Leland {Ititi. vol. vii. p. 129) says that he " made a great building at Charing, in Kent." His monument is in the crypt of Canterbury Cathedral. Mosaic, mitsivum, Lat., mosaiqne, Fr., mosaico, Ital., mosayco, Sp.; a species of inlaying with small pieces of coloured glass, wood, baked earth, enamel, or other materials, so as to form various ornamental patterns. This art was probably known to the Phcenicians; it was practised by the Greeks, and afterwards by the Romans, as shewn in the many tesselated pavements and similar works of that people. The excavations at Pompeii, and the Roman villas in Britain afford some beautiful specimens of the art. It was so extensively manufactured by the Greeks of Byzantium as to receive the name of " opus GrcBCum," or " Grcecanicum." Apollonius, one of these artists, decorated the cathedral of St. Mark, at Venice, with some mosaics, amongst which was an elaborate pavement, still preserved. Mr. Hope {History of Arch., p. 164-170) enu- merates many Italian churches in which mosaics were introduced for pavements, external and in- ternal walls, on screens, reliquaries, altars, thrones, ciboria, &c. In England the pavements of nume- rous churches were formed of stained, or glazed tiles, ornamented with armorial bearings, and other similar decorations. Examples remain in the Cathedrals of York, Gloucester, and Salis- bury ; in Great Malvern Church, &,c. The tiles are generally from three to five inches square, and one inch thick; their colours black and red, with white and yellow patterns. An elaborate pavement, in the abbey church of Westminster, is described in Brayley and Neale's History of that edifice, vol. ii. pp. 39-43. — See Hawhins's Gothic Arch., p. 21, Lysons's Heliqua Romance, and the articles Pavement, Tessera, and Tiles. Moulding, properly, any ornament of a building worked in, or according to, a mould, or appear- ing to be so worked. In classical architecture the mouldings are projections from the surface of a building, variously curved (in profile, or sec- tion), and intended, by producing effects of light and shade, to relieve the monotony attendant on flat and angular surfaces. They are generally horizontal in their course ; whilst those employed in Christian architecture are vertical, or partake of the direction of the members they adorn. In the latter class of architecture, any narrow course sculptured with the continued repetition of a similar ornament, is termed a moulding. Thus, the billet-moulding is formed by a hollow, in which are placed, at regular intervals, certain small cylindrical pieces of stone ; and the cable- moulding, by a cylindrical string-course, on which a series of spiral lines are regularly cut, or are made to project. Some of the principal mouldings introduced into the buildings of our ancestors are described under the heads of Bil- let-moulding, Cable-moulding, Cheve- RON, Dancette, Dogtooth, Hatched- moulding. Hood-mould, Label, Lozenge, Nail-head, Nebule, Trowel-point, and Zigzag. (See also Drip-stone, Dressings, Fret, and String-course.) MuLLiON, Munnion, from molurc, Fr., and munio, Y 162 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARV. [nav Lat., the vertical post, or bar dividing a window into separate lights. The former term is now mostly employed. (See Light, Monyall, Transom, and Window.) Mural, muralis, Lat., from w(«n/s, a wall ; belong- ino- to, or connected with, a wail : thus a monu- mental tablet affixed to a wall is called a mural monument ; an arch inserted into, or attached to a wall, is named a mural arch; and columns placed within, or against a wall, are mural co- lumns. MuTULE, mululus, Lat., a stay, or bracket ; an orna- ment of the Doric order, corresponding in situa- tion and purpose with the modillion of the Ionic and Corinthian cornice. It varies from it, how- ever, in form, being a rectangular block attached to the soffit of the corona, and having a number of guttae, or drops depending from it. N Nail, from nasjel, Sax., tlie nail of the human finger ; clou, Fr., nagel, Ger. ; a small pointed piece of metal, intended to fasten one piece of timber to another. Nails of bronze and other materials have been found at Mycena;, Herculaneuni,Rome, &c., and others, of iron, in the British barrows. Mr. Carter (in Gentleman's Magazine, vol. l.xxiv. p. 135.) states tliat they were unknown to our ancient workmen, who, in addition to the inge- nuity they displayed in the junction of their tim- bers, inserted wooden pins to secure a permanent union ; but nails are frequently used as ornaments in the doors of churches, in chests, furniture, &c. (See doors to the churches of Higham Ferrars, and of Horn, in the accompanying Plates of Doorways.) TheNAiLHEAD moulding, com- mon in buildings of Norman architecture, is so called from being formed by a series of projec- tions resembling the heads of nails, or square knobs. (See Spyking.) Nags, vaoi, Gr., a temple ; is a word sometimes used instead of the Latin, cella, as applied to the inte- rior, or sacred portion of a temple ; but, strictly, it means the body of the edifice itself. The naos of an ancient church, or basilica (according to Bingham and Wheler), was the place for the communicants to assemble in, as distinguished from the bema, or chancel, where the priest stood to officiate. The term Nave (which see) is nearly synonymous. Narthex, according to Bingham, who enlarges con- siderably upon the subject, referring to Eusebius, and other ancient writers, was the name of the ambulatories of a cloister, or enclosed court, at the west end of an early Christian church; and also of a vestibule, or covered space, immediately within the building. These he distinguishes as the exterior and the interior narthex. Some writers confine its application to the latter only : indeed, the vague and conflicting manner in which such terms as narthex and porticus were frequently employed, render it almost impossible to define accurately their particular meaning. The only point quite certain is, that the word narthex denoted a sort of vestibule. (See Bing- ham's 0)-ig. Eccles., b. viii. ch. iii. iv. Naval Architecture, the art of building ships, or other vessels, for purposes of navigation. Some curious and interesting particulars connected with the history of naval architecture in Britain, are to be found in a paper by Mr. Ralph WjUett, in the eleventh volume of the Archaologia. See also Charnock's Marine Architecture, 3 vols. 4to. 1800. Nave, na}:a, Sax., nef, Fr., nave di chiesa, Ital., schiff, Ger., from iiavis, Lat., a sliiji, or vaog, Gr., a temple; the body, or chief part of a large church, and extending from the principal, or western entrance, to the transept. Tlie situation of the nave, in connexion with the other portions of the building, is exemplified in the articles CHURtii, CiioiR, Naos, Narthex, and Tran- sept. In the accompanying Ground Plan of Durham Cathedral it is indicated by the letter D. The nave is generally defined to extend from the western doorway to the screen which encloses the choir, wherever such screen may be placed ; but, properly, it extends no further eastward than the west side of the transept. The nave is generally divided by two ranges of columns and arches into three walks, or avenues, the centre of which is more particularly called the nave, and the other two (E.E. in plan) its ailes. This form of building prevailed in the Roman basilicas, and in some of the earliest Christian churches : the terms nave and ailes occur in Anglo-Saxon writ- ings ; but the nave was generally called the body xer] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 163 of a church by the old English architects. (See the contract for building that of Fotheringhay.) Immediately over the main columns and arches dividing the nave from its ailes, some churches have a gallery with open arches, termed the tri- forium. Above the last, are the clear-story win- dows. These particulars are fully illustrated in the articles Aile, Triforium, and Clear- story, and in the two Plates of Compart- ments of Cathedral Churches. Exterior and interior compartments of the nave oi Durham Cathedral are represented at A. and B. in one of those plates. In the former, 8 marks the prin- cipal window of the aile ; 6, the triforium win- dow ; and 4, the clear-story window. As shewn at 7, 7, the external compartments are divided from each other by buttresses, which, in other and later examples, are infinitely varied in form. In the interior compartment, 1 is the timber frame-work of the roof; 2, the arch forming the eastern termination of the nave, and supporting the western side of the central tower; 11, the clustered column belonging to such arch ; 3 and 4, the stone vaulting of the nave; .5, the clear- story; 7, the triforium; and 10, the main co- lumns and arches of the nave. The part siiaded darker is the aile ; a doorway and arcade in which are marked figures 12 and 13. In the compart- ments of Salisbury Cathedral, i marks the aile and its windows ; d, the triforium, which is here fully developed, though there are no triforium windows; f, the roof of the aile; and c, the clear-story windows. In the interior compart- ment of Exeter Cathedral, e is the aile ; f, a pillar of the nave; d, the triforium, of low pro- portions, and without windows ; and c, the clear-story. The buttresses of the nave rise, in the latter example, to the parapet, and terminate in crocketed pinnacles. The ordinary accessories of this portion of a church consisted chiefly of a few altars, which were placed between the co- lumns, so as to leave a free passage for proces- sions. Occasionally, tombs were placed in the same situation ; as in Winchester and Durham Cathedrals. (See Internal Compartment, Durham.) A font (see Font) was usually placed near the west entrance. Confessionals were sometimes fixed against the walls; and doorways communicating with the cloister and other buildings in the north, or south wall. The nave of a church was usually separated from the choir by a screen of wood or stone, elaborately sculptured, and supporting the rood-loft. Rushes were formerly laid on the floors of churches : whence rush-bottomed chairs are still used in Roman Catholic churches on the Continent, and rush hassocks and rush mats for the seats and floors of pews in country churches in England. In many of the continental cathedrals the naves are larger than those of England. In several churches of Normandy the main piers and arches are surmounted by others of the same dimensions, to the summit of which the ailes are carried up. In the cathedrals of Cologne and Milan, the naves have two ailes on each side ; and, at Antwerp, as many as three; whilst nearly all of the above, as well as those of St. Ouen, and the cathedral at Rouen, far surpass the naves of English churches in height and other features. (See the table given under the article Cathedral.) Navis, Navicula, low Lat., a small metal dish, or vessel, to contain frankincense. It often occurs in the inventories of church furniture, and one is represented in Carter's Anc. Sculp, and Painting, pi. xxxii. p. 45, new edit. Nebule Moulding, probably from nebulosiis, L?it., {nebula, a cloud) an heraldic term ; applied, ia architecture, to an ornament, the edge of which forms an undulating or waving line, and which is introduced in corbel-tables and archivolts. As it appears on a corbel-table, at Peterborough Cathedral, it is represented in fig. 9 of Plate of Corbel-tables. Neck of a capital, the narrow part between the astragal and the annulet. The same as the Hy- potkachelium of the Greeks. Neck-mould, a small convex moulding surround- ing a column at the junction of the shaft and capital : also a similar member at the union of a finial with the pinnacle. Needle-work, " a term used by Dr. Plott for the curious framework of timber and plaster, witii which many old houses were constructed. It appears to have been a common term in his time." — Willson, in Glossary/ to Pugin's Speci- mens. Nervures, a name applied by some French archi- 164 AUCHITECTITRAL DICTIOXAllV. [nor tects to such ribs as bouiul the sides of any groined compartment of a vaulted roof: contra- distinguished from those ribs which cross the compartment, diagonally. The latter were termed formarets : the tiervures, when they abutted on a wall, were also termed ivrill-ribs. Those nervures which lie parallel to the longest side of a com- partment are called longkudiiial, and those pa- rallel to its shortest side, transverse rihs. — Wil/is's Arch, of the Middle Ages, p. 83. All ribs are indiscriminately called nerves, or branches, by some modern writers. Newel, an upright central pillar, or cylinder in a winding, or neioel staircase; around, and some- times forming part of which the steps are placed in succession from the bottom to the top. The word " nowells" occurs in documents dated in 1365. — Brat/ley and Brittons Anc. Palace at Westm.,^. 188. Niche, vioseia, Gr., a nest; niche, Fr., nicho, Sp., probably from nicchia, Ital., a nook, or corner; a recess in a wall adapted to contain a statue, vase, or other ornament. There are no traces of niches in ancient Grecian temples, and but few in those of the Romans ; the latter are mostly square in their plans, and square headed. The niches of the Saxon and early Norman era, in England, appear to have been but slightly recessed, square in plan, enclosed within a semicircular headed arch, and occupied by a single figure. (See ex- amples in doorways of the churches of Lulliiig- ton and Hadiscoe, engraved in the 3d and 5th volumes of Britton's Arch. Antiqs.) In the pointed style, those of early date were often placed in a series, divided by small columns, and enclosed by a trefoil or cinquefoil arch within a semicircular or pointed one. The whole of the west front of Wells Cathedral (erected about 1215) is profusely decorated with niches of this description, all originally occupied by statues. During the fourteenth century niches appear with gables or acute pediments over them, and small buttresses on each side. Those at the west front of Exeter Cathedral (1330) are of this cha- racter, and contain many curious statues. (See Brittons Cath. Antiqs., Exeter.) Subsequently, statues resting on brackets were surmounted by projecting canopies, without any, or with only very slight recesses in the wall. To this variety the term Tabernacle is applied. Figures placed in niches were generally those of saints, benefactors, and prelates. For examples of niches see the accompanying Plate II. of Doorways ; Brittons Arch. Antiqs., index to vol. v. ; Bray ley and Britton's Anc. Palace at Westm. ; and Pugin's Specimens, and Examples of Gothic Arch. Nicholson (James), " of Seint Thomas Spyteil, or Hospitall, in Southwerke, Glasyer," is one of the contracting parties for glazing the windows of King's College Chapel, Cambridge (18th Henry VI 11.) With three other glaziers he binds him- self to " glase and sett up eightene wyndows of the upper story," including the great east and west windows, " with good, clene, sure, and per- fyte glasse, and oryent colors, and imagery." Also to furnish " true patterns, otherwyse called a vidimus, for to forme, glasse, and make." — Britton's Arch. Antiqs., vol. i. p. 16. Nodus, low Lat., a knot, key-stone, or boss. A fabric roll relating to Exeter Cathedral, anno 1437, records a payment to John Budde, " peyn- tor," for painting 57 nodi in the south ambula- tory. — Britton's Cath. Antiqs., Exeter, p. 96. NoKMAN Architecture, is that class, or character of building which was practised in Normandy, and other parts of France, in the tenth and two succeeding centuries. It was based upon the heavy forms of the Lombards, being chiefly cha- racterised by massive round pillars and semicir- cular arches, deeply recessed doorways, and small windows. Many peculiarities and improvements were introduced by the Norman architects, who may be considered as the inventors of the cheve- ron, billet, hatched, and lozenge-mouldings, the sculptured embattled fret, and several other forms and ornaments employed in archivolts, string- courses, &c. The same species of architecture both for churches and fortresses, was much em- ployed in England from the Norman conquest till the end of the twelfth century, when it was superseded by the pointed system. Fine speci- mens of it may be seen in the noble churches at Winchester, Rochester, Durham, Norwich, Peter- borough, Malmesbury, and Lindisfarne ; and also in a number of other edifices of inferior impor- tance. — See Britton's Arch. Antiqs., vol. v.; the works of Ducarel, Cotman, Daivson Turner, Pu- giii, 11. G. Knight, Mollor, and others ; and the ODO] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 165 articles Arch and Architecture. The pillars, or columns, capitals, bases, and other details of Anglo-Norman architecture are described under the respective words, and represented in the plates there referred to. Nosing, the projecting edge of a moulding: the same as Drip. Amongst workmen, the exterior edge of the tread of a stair, which projects be- yond the riser, is called the nosing. NoRTHwoLD (Hugh de), bishop of Ely from 1229 to 1254, erected the presbytery, or lady-chapel in his cathedral church, the cost of which was £5350 18s. 8d. He also finished one of the great western towers with a spire of timber covered with lead. The same prelate rebuilt great part of the bishop's palace at Ely, and expended large sums in repairs of the various episcopal houses. — Bentham's History of Ely, edit. 1814, p. 148. Nunnery, a Roman Catholic building for an asso- ciation of Nuns, or females devoted to a life of religious seclusion. The word mm is derived from iioiina, nonnana, or tioniiaiiis, Lat.; terms first used for penitents, and afterwards for pro- fessed religious personages. Their communities were governed either by abbesses, or prioresses, and their houses were termed, respectively, ab- beys, or priories. (See Abbey, Convent, Monastery, and Priory.) By some modern writers the word nunnery has been singularly applied to the triforium of a large church ; as that at Westminster Abbey. This originated, probably, from the situation of the nuns-choir in some female convents, being a gallery raised above the public congregation. The triforium of Westminster Abbey Church is supposed to have been occupied by the nuns of Kilburne, when they visited the abbey, to which their house was subordinate. O Oak, chestnut, and walnut, were the woods princi- pally employed by artificers in the middle ages, for the stalls, screens, seats, roofs, and carvings of their buildings. Obelisk, o^iKiaxog, Gr., from ojSiXo;, a sharp pointed instrument; obeliscus, Lat., aiguille, Fr., guglia, Ital., properly signifies a single block of stone. of a quadrilateral form, the width of each side diminishing gradually upwards, its summit being formed by a small low pyramid. Obelisks were placed in pairs by the ancient Egyptians before the doorways of their temples. Rough stones resembling obelisks appear to have been fre- quently raised by the early inhabitants of Bri- tain, as sepulchral monuments ; and some ancient crosses have a similar form. For accounts of the principal obelisks of Egypt and Italy, see Zoega's folio volume, De Usu et Origine Obeliscorum ; Burton's Excerpta Hieroglyphica ; Library of Entertaining Knoiuledge, Egyptian Antiqs.; and an interesting essay, by G. Godwin, jun., on the Egyptian obelisk recently elevated in Paris, in the 4th volume of Loudon's Arch. Mag. Observatory, observatoire, Fr., from observo, Lat.; a buildinor erected for facilitating astronomical observations. Octagon, oxm, Gr., eight, and ywwa, an angle ; ocio- gonon, Lat.; a figure with eight sides and eight ano-les. The octagonal form was common for pedestals, canopies, Sec, in the middle and later times of the pointed style: some of the English chapter-houses, and most of the spires, are octa- gonal in plan. (See Chapter-house and Spire.) Octostyle. (See Portico.) Odd, termed in an old record " Coementarius," was employed in building the tower of the church of St. Lucien, at Beauvais, about the year 1078, when that church was rebuilt. — Whilington's Hist. Surv., p. 54, and Hawkins's Goth. Arch., p. 107. Odo the Goldsmith (Aiirifaber), was master, or keeper of the works (custodi operationis), at the Palace of Westminster, in the reign of Henry III. His name occurs in some Latin precepts, direct- ing certain payments to him for making pictures (picturas faciendas), and for oil, varnish, and colours {oteo, vernici, et coloribus) : he is sup- posed to have been the father of Edward Fitz- Odo, who afterwards held the same situation. — Walpole's Anecdotes, by Dallaway, i. 10-17 ; Brayley and Britton's Anc. Palace at Westni., 46, 47 ; and the articles Fitz-Odo, and Paint- ing. Odd, Prior of Croyland during the supremacy of IGG ARCHITECTURAL DICTIOXARV, [ORC Abbot JoffritI, superintended the re-erection of the church and monastic buildings which had been destroyed by fire in 1091. He was assisted by Arnold, a lay brother and experienced mason, — " cementariae artis scientissimo magis- tro." (Continuation of Ingulphus's Ilistorj/, by Peter of Blois, p. 118.) A second conflagration, about 1163, destroyed all the works of this archi- tect. — Britlon's Arch. Antiqs., iv. 88, 99. Office, officium, Lat., an apartment for the transac- tion of particular business. The oJjicincE of old documents, and offices of the present time, in- clude the out-buildings connected with a large house. Offset, or Set-off, the splay, or narrow slanting course of stone, or brick, serving to connect two portions of a wall, the uppermost of which re- cedes from the face of that beneath. Ogee, Ogive, Ogyve, Augee, Au give, from awge, or auget, old French words signifying a trough, or any thing hollowed out; is applied, in archi- tecture, to an arch, or its mouldings formed by a peculiar curve. The moulding commonly called the ogee (and some years ago denoted by the letters O.G.), is the Cyma, or Cymatium. The ribs (called ogives, or croisie d'ogives by certain architects of France) are those which crossed a groined vault diagonally. (See Diagonal Rib, and For.maret.) Cotgrave defines^he word to be "a wreath, circlet, or round band,. in archi- tecture." — Dictionary. The ogee, or ogyve-arch, also called the contrasted arch, partakes of the same curve as the ogee moulding. (See Arch, and Plates there referred to.) Oliver (John), was master mason to King James I. One of his descendants, of the same names, was a skilful painter on glass, at the middle and latter end of the 17th century. — Walpoles Anecdotes, hi/ Dalluway, ii. 33. Oi'isTHODOMus, Gr., the posterior portion of an ancient temple occupied as a treasury, or safe place for public records, sacred images, utensils, &c. OppinuM, Lat., a city, or walled town. Oi'us, Lat., manner of masonry ; mode of workman- ship. Opus rcticnlatum, reticulated masonry ; opus Romunum, the Roman manner; &c. Oratory, oratoire, Fr., oratorio, oratorium, low Lat., from oro, Lat., to speak, or pray; a small religious building, or apartment for private devo- tion, attached to, or formed within a mansion, church, or monastery. The remains of a small Doric edifice, at Girgenti, the ancient Agrigen- tum, are called the Oratory of Phalaris ( Wood's Letters, ii. 344). In the early ages of Christ- ianity, the term appears to have been applied indefinitely to any small church which had not obtained parochial privileges ; but its most usual application, and that to which it afterwards be- came confined, was to an apartment in a castle, or mansion (usually near a bedroom — Froissart), fitted up with an altar, crucifix, Sec. Oratories, not being consecrated, were not allowed to be used without a bishop's license ; nor, unless by the bishop's permission, were masses allowed to be celebrated in them. Nevertheless, they were supposed to lessen the influence and profits of parish priests, and were, therefore, condemned by several ecclesiastical synods. Small chapels, or chantries, attached to churches, are occasion- ally termed oratories ; as the beautiful examples in the cloister of St. Stephen's Chapel, West- minster. — See Brayley and Britton's Aitc. Palace at Westm. Orb, orbis, Lat., or be, Fr., a boss, or knot. (See Boss, Knot, and Nonus.) The following ex- tracts shew the various ways in which the same word was formerly employed. In William of Worcester's Itinerary, p. 28"2, the arched win- dows of St. Stephen's church, Bristol, are called orbcc. In the accounts relative to Louth steeple {Archaolugia, x. 71), are the words, " to the gal- lery within the steeple, 50 foot grofls, and 10 orbs." In the contracts for the tomb of Richard II. and his queen (Rymer's Fadera, vii. 795), orbes seem to denote panels, enclosing quatre- foils; whilst in those referring to King's College Chapel, Cambridge, " battlements, orbys, or crosse quarters," are mentioned. The two latter quo- tations induce the supposition that orbs were similar to what we now term quatrefoils. It appears from the first reference, and from others which might bo given, that the word also signi- fied an arch, or any thing of a curved form. Orchyarde (William), was architect to Magdalen College, Oxford, under the direction of the ord] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIOXARY. 167 founder, Bishop Waynfleet. — Chalmerses Hist, of the Univei'sity of Oxford, i. 201. Order. The columnar architecture of the Greeks and Romans was characterised and divided into orders by the Italian architects and writers of the fifteenth century. Mr. Hoskino; judiciously de- fines an order to be " a species of columnar arrangement, differing in its forms, general pro- portions, and leading features, from any other." (Vide Architecture, Encyclopedia Britaiinica, 7th edit.) An order, or perfect columnar composi- tion comprises the Basement, or Stylobate, with the Column, and its Entablature. (See under each word.) The earliest columnar order employed by the Greeks is that known by the name of Doric : this was applied to the most sacred of their tem- ples, and was characterised by massiveness of the principal parts, simplicity of detail, and harmony of effect. Next to the plainness of its capital, the division oi \\\e frieze, into alternate triglyphs and metopes (see each of those articles), is its dis- tinguishing feature. [See a very able and valu- able essay on this order, with numerous plates, by Edmund Aikin, Architect.] The Parthenon, or Temple of Minerva, at Athens, is the finest example of the Doric order. In noticing the difference between the Doric order of Pffistum, and that of the Parthenon, Forsyth observes : "The proportions of an order are but a matter of convention. They often vary in the same age, in the same country, nay, in the same edifice ; and, surely, a Phidias, working in the metropolis of Grecian art, with its two best architects, and the Pentelic quarry at his command, might well pro- duce more elegance than contemporary, or even later artists, who were confined to the ruder ma- terials and tastes of a remote colony." — Remarks on Italy, vol. ii. p. 86. An important refinement on the simplicity of the Doric consisted in making the column thinner in proportion to its height, and, by ornamenting the capital with volutes and other decorations, thus producing the Ionic Order. A fine speci- men of this order is found in the Erectheum, at Athens ; which is imitated in St. Pancras' Church, London. The third and last of the Greek orders — the Corinthian — is distinguished from the pre- ceding by the introduction of a profusion of grace- ful foliage in the capital, and a corresponding degree of enrichment throuohout all its members. The Choragic monument of Lysicrates, at Athens, is the only example of this order in the Grecian Capitol. The Romans adopted and repeated the three Greek orders, adding, however, to each more florid decorations : they formed, besides, a fourth order — the Composite, which was an orna- mented variety of the Greek Corinthian. From the principles laid down in the then newly discovered work of Vitruvius, the Italian architects of the fifteenth century formed a fifth order, called the Tuscan, being a medley of two out of the four described by that writer; and thus were completed the Five Italian Orders of architecture. Proceeding further on the Vitru- vian theories, the same school of architects have systematised the relative proportions of the parts of each order, and theoretically inferred that they were emblematic of the human figure: the tri- glyphs and columns of the Doric order, they also say, represent the ends of rafters, and the trunks of trees, employed in the primitive huts of Greece. But the strictness of their rules is entirely at variance with ancient practice, and has done much more to perplex than to enlighten the architectural student. The Greeks sometimes substituted for an ordi- nary column, the figure of a human being sup- porting the entablature ; such figures represent- ing Carian slaves taken by the Greeks. The arrangement in question has been termed the Caryatic Order, and the figures. Caryatides. (See Caryatides.) Respecting the varied details of the different classical orders, as exhibited in the localities where their remains are found ; the fanciful theo- ries of the Vitruvian school ; and other branches of the subject, the reader will find much curious information in the article by Mr. Hosking, already referred to ; also in the Encyclopedia Melropoli- tana, under the word Architecture : in Hope's Hist, of Arch., chap, v.; in Wood's Letters of an Architect: in Forsyth's Remarks on Italy; in Loudon's Architectural Magazine, &c. B. Lang- ley and Mr. Carter applied the word order to the different classes of architecture of the middle ages {Gent's, Mag., Ixxiv. 136); but the imaginative 168 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIOXARY, [org character and ever-varying proportions and de- tails of that truly poetical branch of art, appear to forbid such an employment of the word. Ordinance, a perfect composition of some parti- cular kind of architecture : it is not restricted to a composition of columns, but applies to any species which is subjected to conventional rules for its arrangement. The masons employed on King's College Chapel, Cambridge, covenanted to provide " lyme, sand, scaffoldyng, mooles (see Mold), ordinautices ;" but the last word proba- bly means engines. Organ, osyavov, Gr., organnm, Lat., organo, Ital., orgiie, Fr. ; the name of the largest, most com- prehensive, and most powerful of musical wind instruments ; on which account it is called ' the organ,' by way of eminence. Its invention is certainly very ancient, although at first it was only small and imperfect. In the year 757 an organ was sent from Constantinople to France, as a present to King Pepin. William of Malmes- bury says, that St. Dunstan constructed two of these instruments, himself, and presented a third to the abbey church of Malmesbury. One organ of the Anglo-Saxon age is mentioned as contain- ing copper pipes ; whilst another, of that period, belonging to Winchester Cathedral, is described by Wulstan, in his prologue to the Life of St. Swithin, as an instrument of astonishing magni- tude and power. He says that it had 400 pipes, twelve pairs of bellows above, fourteen below, and required seventy men to work it. Before the Reformation most large churches were provided with organs, which were usually placed on one side of the choir: some churches are stated to have been provided with more than one. In the years 1531-2, payments were made by Henry VIII. to " Sir John, the organ-maker," whom Sir Harris Nicolas supposes to have been a priest (Privj/ Purse Expeiices of Henri/ VIII., Iiidea). In 1553, Henry Hatche, of Faversham, be- queathed the sum of £'26. 13s. 4d. for "buying a new pni/r of organs" for his parish church. The prints which illustrate the works of Dr. Burney, Strutt, and Hawkins, shew the clumsy nature of ancient organs. Sculptured represent- ations of this instrument are seen over the west window of York Minster, and over a doorway in the Cathedral of Utrecht. The use of the organ was proscribed by the early Protestants, as appears by accounts of one of the churches of Shrewsbury, where, under the date of 1589, is an order for the sale of " t/ie organes," for the sum of £4, for the purpose of repairing the bells, and purchasing a new " sylver cuppe" for the use of the communion. (Oiven and Blakeway's Shrewsbury, ii. 359.1 In cathe- drals and large churches the organ is now gene- rally placed oil a screen dividing the nave from the choir; in which situation it disagreeably in- terrupts the perspective effect of the vaulting. Of modern organs, the most celebrated for its magnitude is at Haarlem ; whilst, in size and power, is that of the Church of the Benedictines, at Catania, in Sicily. There are others of impor- tance at Hamburgli, Amsterdam, and Seville ; and some still older in Exeter Cathedral, St. Paul's Cathedral, and the Temple Church, Lon- don, St. Mary's, Oxford, Trinity College, Cam- bridge, &c. The most powerful in England are those erected in York Minster, since the fire, and in the new town-hall at Birmingham. For further information on the subject, see T)r. Barney's History of Music; Mason's Essay on English Church Music; Whitaker's Anc. Cath. of Cornwall, i. 129, 8cc. Organ-loft, the floor, or gallery for the organ. Organ-screen, an ornamental stone wall, or piece of timber framework, on which a church organ is placed, and whici), in English buildings, com- monly forms the western termination of the choir. The oroan-screens in the Cathedrals of \ork and Canterbury are perhaps the finest examples in England : each is perforated by a magnificent doorway, and the remainder of the surface is adorned with a series of niches occupied by statues of British monarchs. That at Canter- bury was erected at the end of the 13th, and the other in the 15th century: both are of stone, and embellished with a profusion of tabernacle- work, canopies, pinnacles, &.c. They are deli- neated in the author's Cath. Anliqs.; and that of York, to a larger scale, in a beautiful engraving from a drawing by F. H. Abraham, Architect. In Exeter Cathedral, the organ-screen, which is of stone, has a projecting gallery, or balcony, on the western side, supported by four clustered columns, with ogee arches : on the front of the osmJ ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY 169 gallery is a series of thirteen oil paintings of reli- gious subjects (see Cath. Antiqs., Exeter). At Winchester Cathedral, the organ is placed in a gallery beneath the north arch of the central tower; which situation was chosen some years ago, when the dean and chapter made alterations in that fine old edifice. Much difference of opinion then prevailed amongst the clergy and certain antiquaries respecting the usual and proper place for the organ ; and several essays were written, containing much learned disquisi- tion on the subject. After the fire at York Minster, some of the officers recommended the removal of the organ-screen from its situation : this proposition also occasioned much contro- versy, and produced several pamphlets and essays. (See Rood-loft and Screen.) Oriel, Oriol,Oryall,Oryole, amongst modern writers signifies a large bay, or recessed window in a hail, chapel, or other apartment. It usually projects from the outer face of the wall, either in a semi-octagonal, or diagonal plan, and is of varied designs and sizes. In large halls it usu- ally extends from the floor to the ceiling, inter- nally, and rises from the ground to the parapet on the outside ; in other cases it constitutes only a small window, supported by corbels, or by masonry gradually projecting from the wall to the sill of the window. Much disquisition has been employed by antiquaries on the original signification, and etymology of the word. Mr. Hamper, in an able essay on the subject, in vol. xxiii. of Archaologia, adduces instances of six different applications of it; viz. 1, to a pent- house; 2, a porch attached to any edifice; 3, a gatehouse ; 4, an upper-story ; 5, a loft ; and 6, a minstrel-galleiy. The first of these — a pent- Louse, or covered way — he considers to have been the original and most ordinary application of the term ; and, accordingly, conjectures that it may have been derived from opep-helan. Sax. : — over-hele (by elision o'er-kele) being an esta- blished old English word, signifying to cover over. (See Heil.) Some writers, supposing the name to have been always employed in its present sense, observe that an oriel projects from an apartment, in manner of an ear from the head ; or that it was formed for private conversation : hence they derive oric/, or aurial, from auricularis, Lat., belonging to the ear : others, supposing oriels to have been originally on the eastern sides of halls, trace their name from oriens, orientalis, Lat., the east, or source of light. Some writers consider them to be so called from having occa- sionally served as oratories ; whilst others have sought the etymology of the word in the Hebrew tongue. Fuller and Fosbroke assert, that the part of a monastery in which monks slightly indisposed were allowed to remain, was termed an oriel. Milner {Hist, of Winchester, ii. 283) properly distinguishes between the bow-window, and the oriel, or balcony-window : the former projected circularly, and was formerly called a compass, or embowed window ; the projection of the latter was made up of angles and straight lines, forming generally the half of a hexagon, octagon, or decagon ; and was more generally known under the denomination of the bay-witidow, the shot- window, or the outcast-ivindow. The distinction, however, is not generally observed. In the Squyr of Low Degre, an old poem published in Ritson's Metrical Romances, the word is employed with perhaps the nearest approximation to its present meaning : — " In her orijall there she was, Closed well with royall glas." See Bay-window, Window, and Plate of Windows, Du Cange v. Oriohim, Nares's Glos- sary, Fuller's Church History, b. vi. p. 285, Fos- broke's Brit. Mon., p. 236, 1'Villiam of Worcester's Itinerary, p. 89, Warton's History of English Poetry, i. 175, and Ptigin's Examples, vol. ii. Orologe, Orologium. (See Clock and Horo- loge.) Orthography, orthographia, low Lat., oohypcKpia, Gr. ; a word formerly used to denote the geome- trical elevation of a building, or of any of its parts. (See Elevation.) Orthostyle, op6o;, Gr., straight, or true, and arn'/.og, a column ; any straight range of columns : a term suggested, to be used in that sense, by Mr. Hosk- ing instead of peristyle. Osmund, bishop of Sarum from 1078 till 1099, completed the cathedral which had been com- menced by his predecessor, Herman. — Britton's z 170 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [pax Catli. Antiqs., Salisbury, p. 7 ; and Dodsworth's History of Salis. Catk., p. 17. OsTEL. (Sec Hostel.) OsTRicii-BOARDE, occurs in the will of William Bruges, dated 1449. (See CLEnE-STORY.) In accounts of Burcester, temp. Henry VI. is a charge for " vi estregbords, ii.s. iii.d." which Kennett renders tvainscots. — Antiqs. of Ambros- deii, p. 575 ; see also Brayley and Brilton's Arte. Pal. at Westm., p. 164. Oswald (St.), bishop of Worcester from 959 to 972, was translated to York, where he died in 993. In the year 983, he erected " a new cathe- dral" at Worcester, which was, however, de- stroyed in 1041 by the soldiers of Hardicanute. — Britton's Cutli. Antiqs., Worcester, p. 10. OvALo, OvoLo, from ovum, Lat., an egg : the same as Echinus, which see. OvERATGNEs, gutters. On the rolls of parliament of the 14th Edward I. is a petition from Thomas of Northampton, merchant, for the payment of £34 IO5. Od., due to him for lead furnished for the overaigiies of the king's palace at West- minster. — Rot. Pari., i. 378 ; Brat/ley and Bril- ton's Anc. Pal. at Westm., 112. Over-story, Overhistorye, Ovystorie, an upper-story; the clere-story of a church. — Wil- liam of Worcester's Itin., pp. 78, 82, 222, &c. Overiiarde. Robert Browne, Comptroller to the Earl of Arundel (1509), directed his body to be buried " before the rood of Pity, in the over/iarde" of the abbey church of Faversham, in Kent. — Nicolas's Test. Vet., 487. Padua (John of), an architect named in warrants of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. By a patent, dated 1.544, he is termed " Devizor of his Ma- jesty's Buildings." Several payments are re- corded to iiave been made to him by King Henry VIII., besides a grant of two shillings a-day, which was confirmed by Edward VI. In a note to Wulpole's Anecdotes of Painting, Dallaway states, that " John of Padua enjoyed the pa- tronage of the Protector, Somerset ; for whom. in 1549, he designed and built his great palace in the Strand. It is said to have resembled the mansion at Longleat, Wiltshire; which, accord- ing to a received tradition, was also erected under the superintendence of John of Padua." The same writer also attributes to him the design of Sion House, Middlesex. In the Vetustu Mon- umenlci, vol. iv. the Porta Honoris, at Caius College, Cambridge, there delineated, is ascribed to the same architect. The real name of John of Padua, and his works abroad, if any, are totally unknown ; unless, indeed, he was the same person known as John Thorpe. This idea is strengthened by the fact that plans of Somerset House, in London, and Longleat, in Wiltshire — the most generally acknowledged works of John of Padua — are amongst Thorpe's drawings in the Soane Museum. See Rymer's Fadera, tom. xv. p. 34, Walpole's Anecdotes, by Dallaway, i. 216, Britton's Arch. Antiqs., i. 106, 110, Datlaway's English Arch., p. 352, and the article Thorpe. Pace, in the agreements for the tomb of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, appears to have signified a step, or plinth, forming its basement : "a pace to be made round about the tombe, of like good marble, to stand on the ground ; which pace shall contain, in thickness, vi. inches, and, in bredth, xviii. inches." — Britton's Arch. An- tiqs., iv. 12. The same word implies a step, or the distance from one foot to the other in the act of walking. Pagoda. (See Tower.) Painted Window. (See Glass and Window.) Painting, as an architectural accessory, appears to have been employed by artists in all nations, and in the earliest annals of the building art. That the ancient inhabitants of Egypt and Mexico used colours in adorning their temples is evident from the condition in which many of those buildings still remain; and that the Indians and other eastern nations practised a similar art, may be reasonably inferred. The Greeks, who carried the arts of design in architecture and sculpture to the highest degree of excellence, do not appear to have advanced that of painting to any thing like a similar scale in the standard of taste. That they did apply colours to heighten and embellish their temples was affirmed by Stuart and Revett ; PAl] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 171 but such practice has only recently attracted the especial attention of architects and antiquaries. Mens. Hittorff, of Paris, asserts, that colour was employed systematically on all the architectural members of Grecian buildings. A discussion and correspondence on the subject of such poly- chromic, or many-coloured embellishments has been carried on, in France, by M.M. Raoul Rochette, and Latronne ; in Prussia and Ger- many, by the Baron Von Klenze, Dr. Kugler, and M. Chateauneuf ; and in London, by Messrs. Donaldson, Hamilton, Bracebridge, and others. The investigations made, and likely to be made, may probably be the means of ascertaining the principles involved, as well as some of the rules by which the practice was governed, and the effects which it produced. (See Transactions of the Institute of Brit. Archs., i. 13, and Woods's Letters, ii. 237.) The frescoes, mosaics, and other decorations of the temples, baths, and dwellings in ancient Rome, fully prove that the effects produced by colour were not neglected by the refined and intellectual people of Italy. The names of some artists in this branch of decoration are recorded by Pliny. Sudden and violent changes in the religious observances of a community are seldom favour- able to the arts. Thus, on the introduction of Christianity, its professors avoided every thing approaching to ostentation in their places of worship. The Emperor Theodosius ordered the destruction of those images and pictures which had been employed and displayed by the Pagans ; and the strictness of the new faith precluded the introduction of others. Paintings of religious subjects do not appear to have been employed in Italian churches until about the end of the fourth century ; and then they were but little like reali- ties — either from a fear that the copies might be reverenced instead of the abstract qualities they delineated ; or, more probably, from want of skill in the monks who produced them. Human figures, and even the Deity, were represented as stiff, inanimate, and ungraceful in form, but glittering with the most gaudy colours and gild- ing. Gradually, however, paintings and mosaics were improved in style and character, and were more generally introduced; until, on the revival of art, some of its most celebrated professors were employed to decorate palaces and churches. The works of Michael Angelo, Raffaelle, and other eminent painters, still adorn the palatial and ecclesiastical edifices of Rome. In England, the same process, though later in each of its successive stages, took place. The introduction of paintings has been attributed to Benedict Eiscopius, and to St. Augustin ; and some ex- amples of very early date have been found in the abbey church at St. Alban's, and in Winchester Cathedral. Walpole, in his Anecdotes of Paint- ing, has furnished much valuable information on the early history of English painting, by which it appears that oil was employed for mixing- colours in England before the alleged discovery of it by Van Eyck. Painted and gilded roofs, altar-pieces, monuments, screens, &c., were of frequent occurrence till the end of the fifteenth century; but, although this species of architect- ural decoration was frequently adopted to in- crease the effect of a building, paintings of scrip- tural subjects on walls, panels, and tablets, were of more ordinary occurrence. These were distin- guished by richness of colour, and an almost total absence of shadow. In the royal palace at Westminster, the polychromic art seems to have been introduced, perhaps, more extensively than in any other edifice. (Ample and interesting notices of the decorations of St. Stephen's Chapel, the Painted Chamber, and other parts of the palace, will be found in Brayley and Britton's Anc. Palace at Westm.; an account of St. Ste- phen's Chapel published by the Society of Anti- quaries ; Britton's Arch. Antiqs., vol. v. &c.; see also Arch. Antiqs., vol. iv. p. 11.) The Reformation, in the time of Henry VIII., may be said to have produced a similar effect to that of the introduction of Christianity. Paint- ings were again banished from churches ; nor — except during the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- turies, on monumental figures, — have they since been admitted into them. But the mansions of the Tudor period were ornamented with painted and gilded ceilings, friezes, panels, and similar details. Charles I. employed Rubens to paint the ceiling of the Chapel Royal, at Whitehall; and Verrio was engaged by Charles II. on ceil- ings and staircases at the royal palaces, as well as by different noblemen. Laguerre was also a popular painter of ceilings at the same time. 172 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [pan The works of the two last-named artists were emulated and surpassed by Sir James Thornhill, in St. Paul's Cathedral, and in Greenwich Hos- pital : but since his time the practice of architect- ural painting has declined. — See Woods's Letters, vol. i. p. 277 ; Britton's Cath. Antiqs., Exeter, p. 96; Carter's Aiic. Sculpture ami Painting, new edit. p. 46, ut sup.; and the articles Clois- ter (Campo Santo), Fitz-Odo, Fresco, Odo THE Goldsmith, Picture, and Table. Palace, Pales, Paleys, palais, Fr., palatiitm, Lat., palazzo, Ital., palacio, Sp., pj'alz, Ger. ; a large and magnificent mansion ; the house of a monarch, pope, prelate, or other distinguished personage. To trace the history of palaces is to give the history of architecture ; for, wherever civilisation and art has prevailed, palaces have been built. From the Pharaohs of Kgypt to the nionarchs of the present age their civic and rural dwellings have ever been amongst the most dis- tinguished architectural works of the respective countries. Connected with a vast temple of Egypt, it is supposed that the palace vied with the sacred edifice. In Greece, we may also infer the same : and it is known, both by architectural remains and the records of history, that the papal and imperial mansions of Rome were large, splendid, and replete with every luxury. Ac- cording to some critics the word palatium is de- rived from the house, or its site, of tlie Roman Emperor Augustus, on the Palatine Ilill. Hence- forward monarchical residences were called pa- laces : in modern times the title has extended, by courtesy and custom, to the mansions of a pope, cardinal, duke, an archbishop, and a bishop. In modern times the nionarchs and rulers of dif- ferent empires and states occupy mansions of varied, but of the most imposing architectural skill and adornment. Those of Rome, Russia, Paris, Vienna, Madrid, Berlin, and other cities, are amongst the most splendid buildings of the respective countries ; and it cannot but excite the surprise and regret of the English historian that, excepting the noble castle of Windsor, the British monarch has not a palace worthy of the national character, and the national wealth. Some remains of episcopal palaces are still to be seen at Wells, Peterborough, St. David's, iu Wales, and at Elgin, in Scotland. Pall, from pallium, Lat., a cloak; an article of dress eagerly sought, and extravagantly paid for by metropolitan bishops and archbishops in former times. It was only to be obtained from the pope, and was worn solely on the most solemn occa- sions. — See Dodsworlh's Salisbury Calk., p. 18. Palm-Cross. (See Cross.) Pane, paneau, pan, Fr., from pannus, Lat.; a word employed in old documents to denote any one of many divisions. The side of a spire, or tower, or the front of a building, as well as each side of a court or cloister, are so named. Thus, in the Will of King Henry the Sixth, the north "pane," or front of the college of Eton is mentioned. It also implied the light (see Light) of a muUioned window, and still applies to a piece, or square of glass in a window. Paned, according to Mr. Willson, signifies composed of broad strips of diflerent colours, either in paintings or tapestry. — Glossary to Pugin's Specimens. Pane, " a piece of any thing in variegated works ; a pane of cloth," or counterpane. — Donne. See William of Worcester's Itin., and Kempe's Loseley MSS., p. 68. Panel, paneau, Fr., panellum, low Lat.; a space, or compartment on a ceiling, or wall, enclosed within a raised margin. (See Coffer and La- cunaria.) On monuments and fonts panels are found of a very early date ; and the arcades beneath the windows of Norman and early pointed churches may be considered as the first examples of panelling in buildings. (See Plate I. of Arcades.) For another early specimen of panelling, the Plate shewing compartments of Salisbury Cathedral may be referred to. The parapet of that building is ornamented by a series of trefoil-headed panels. The era in which panelling became most general and elaborate in England is that of the Tudors — from about 1400 to 1500: during which period edifices abounded with this species of decoration; as may be seen ill the chapels of King's College, Cambridge ; of St. George, Windsor; and of Henry VII., West- minster; also in Redclifrc Church, Bristol; and many other Somersetshire churches. The varied designs of panels constitute a subject of great beauty and interest. From the plain and simple specimens of the Norman and early pointed class, to the very elaborate ones of the time of Henry par] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY, 173 VIII., there will be found an almost infinite number of different and beautiful designs. Within a square frame is often included a diamond, a circle, a quatrefoil, a rosette, a fleur-de-lis, a shield, a bust, a rebus, or other rabulded orna- ment, or device. (See pi. 36 of Pugiiis Speci- mens, vol. i., and pi. 74 of Brittons Arch. An- tiqs., vol. V.) During the reign of Elizabeth, and afterwards, the walls of apartments were lined with wainscoting, which, as well as the ceilings, were divided into rectangular panels, sometimes plain, but oftener ornamented. The naphin panelling is of the same era. (See Hunt's Exemplars of Tudor Arch., p. 13, and the arti- cles Seelin g, Time er-Buil ding, and Wains- cot.) Pant, a reservoir, or conduit: so called in a grant by Thomas Billingham to the corporation of Dur- ham (dated in the 15th century), in which it was engaged that the water of a spring should be con- veyed to " the pant, or reservoir," in the market- place of that city. (See Beauties of England and Wales, p. 97, and Conduit.) The word is still common on the borders of England and Scot- land, and denotes the mouth of a well, or foun- tain. Some old erections over conduits in New- castle-upon-Tyne are called pants. Pantheon, from •^av, Gr., all, and hoi, god ; a tem- ple dedicated to all the gods. One of the most celebrated edifices of Rome, formerly so dedi- cated, but now used as a Christian church, is called the Pantheon by way of pre-eminence.- — • See Forsyth's Italy, i. 161, and Burgess's Antiqs. of Rome, ii. 86. Paradise, a name formerly common for any fa- vourite place ; as a garden, a library, or a study : a great and a little paradise are sometimes named in the same house. Leland {Itin. i.48, 58) men- tions a paradise at Leckingfield manor-house, and another at Wressel Castle, Yorkshire. A plot of ground, at the north-east angle of Winchester Cathedral, and a garden which belonged to the White Friars' Monastery, at Oxford, are both named Paradise. Parapet, compounded from the Greek preposition Ta^a, against, near to, or before ; and the Italian word petto, from the Latin pectus, the breast. Originally a military term, applied to the low walls, or breast-works on the terraces of a castle, or other fortification : applied generally to a low wall bounding a terrace, balcony, or bridge; and to that part of the wall of a building which stands above the springing of a roof, and guards a gutter. The word also applies to the upper- most edge of a screen, or monument, when it resembles that of a building. When a parapet is divided by crenellations, it is said to be embattled, or is termed a battlement. (See Battlement.) This member of a building frequently projects from the wall on a corbel-table, as shewn in figs. 7, 8, 9, and 10, in Plate of Corbel-tables : its face is sometimes ornamented with tracery, divided into panels ; and, when the latter are cut away, and only the mouldings left, the parapet is said to be open, or pierced. The forms and deco- rations of parapets frequently differ from the general style of the buildings they belong to, as parapets were frequently added to the latter at different periods. Anglo-Saxon and Norman parapets are plain and simple ; whilst those of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are highly ornamented. (See Plates of Compartments of Durham, Salisbury, and Exeter Cathedrals ; of Market-Crosses, and Towers and Spires.) Embattled parapets crown the walls of most an- cient castles, and are also seen in many large churches. Both these, and perforated parapets, are of various design, and some of them are very rich and elaborate in detail. On the summit of Boston Church Tower, Lincolnshire, is a parapet with four tiers of pierced compartments rising, at the centre, to a pediment; and on that of Skirlaw Church, Yorkshire, each division of the parapet terminates in a finial with crockets. The chapels of St. George, Windsor, of King's Col- lege, Cambridge, and of Henry the Seventh, Westminster, contain some highly enriched per- forated parapets. At regular intervals along the copings of some specimens are groups of sculp- tured figures: and over the front parapet of the porch of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, are small ornamented gables. (See Engraved Ti- tle.) Examples of almost every variety of para- pet may be found in the plates illustrating the author's Arch. Antiqs. of Great Britain (see In- dex in vol. v.): also in his Cathedral Antiqs. of England, and in Pugin's Specimens, and Exam- ples of Gothic Arch. 174 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [pat Parclose, a word occurring in the agreements for the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick. " The car- penters do covenant to make and set up, finely and worknianly, a parclose of timber about the organ-loft, ordained to stand over the west dore of the said chapell." — See Britton's Arch. An- tiqs., vol. iv. p. 11, pi. iii. A small balcony, or gallery, still remains over the doorway, and is supposed to be part of the parclose. Par ELL. In accounts relating to the Tower of London (24th Henry VIII.) are the following words: — "for the settyng of vij new parells in vij chymneys of the foreseid chambre, of Rygate stone, ev'y pareW v. fote in wydnes." — Bayleifs Hist, of the Tower, pt. i. app. p. x.\ix. Pargetting, a peculiar kind of finished plaster- work, for external and internal walls, with raised, or indented patterns: much used in houses of the Tudor period. " The plaisterers hath p'gitted the gallery w'in and w'oute.'' (Accounts temp. Henry VIII., in Bayley's Hist, of the Tower, pt. i. app. p. xviii.) " Opus albarium" is defined in Abr. Hemiiigs Nomenclature, p. 198b. as " white liming worke, or pargetting worke." Plasterers are still termed pargetters in some parts of England. Parlour, Parlor, Parler, parloir, Ft., from purler, to speak; parlatorio, Sp. and Ital.; a room in a convent where the monks assembled for conversation, and received visitors: thespeche, or speke-house of certain old documents. (See LocuTORY and Speche-house.) Summer^nd winter parlours are mentioned in old household accounts. For details of the furniture of parlours temp. Henry VIII., see Hunt's Exemplars of Tudor Arch., p. 144. Parquetry. (See Marquetry.) Parson AGE-iiousE, a building in the vicinity of a church, occupied as the abode of the incumbent. Whitaker, in his Ancient Cathedral of Cornwall, ii. 135, states, that parsonage-houses were fre- quently called colleges, because they contained a " collegiate kind of family, and a collegiate kind of school." They were often embattled and for- tified, and had various appendages, including, in some instances, a small chapel, or oratory. (See Mansion and School.) Parvis, Parvise, Pervyse, an old term of very obscure derivation. It appears to have signified a porch, portico, or court of entrance to a large church, or palace. Dugdale mentions the "per- vyse" of St. Paul's Cathedral. Whitaker, in his Ancient Cathedral of Cornwall, i. 149-155, dis- cusses, at some length, the derivation of the word, and the purposes to which the parvis was applied. The room over a porch is called a parvis by some writers. Whatever its situation, however, it seems to have been sometimes devoted to the holding of a court, at which lawyers attended, and also as a school for the religious instruction of children. (See Porch.) " A Sargeant at Law ware and wise, Tliat had often been at tbe parvpse." Chaucer. Paschal, according to Davies (Ancient Rites and Mon. of Durham Cath.), was the name of a handsome monument set up in the choir of that cathedral, from Maunday Thursday till the Wed- nesday after Ascension-day. It extended nearly the width of the choir, and reached almost to the vaulting. On the top was placed " a great, long, squared taper of wax, called the paschal (taper), having a fine convenience through the roof to light the taper," The paschal lamh was often represented in sculpture and painting, in churches ; also on monastic furniture, &c. Passage, passage, Fr., pasage, Sp., passagio, Ital.; a corridor; a narrow enclosed part of a building leading from one room to another. (See Corri- dor.) Patand. In the agreements for constructing the desks in the Beauchamp Chapel, " reredoses of timber, and patands of timber," are mentioned. Willson supposes the patand to be the sill, or plinth, on which the rest of the timber-work is framed : from patin, or patte, Fr., the base of a pillar. — Britton's Arch. Anliijs., iv. 11, Glossary to Pugin's Specimens, Cotgrave's Diet. Patera, Lat., according to some writers, a goblet, bowl, urn, or cup, used by the Romans in their sacrifices; others define it as a shallow dish, or flat circular vessel, similarly employed (see Arch- cBologia, index to fifteen volumes). In architect- ure, the word signifies a circular sculptured orna- ment, resembling the instrument last named, which was introduced in the friezes of temples and other ancient buildings. On the arch-mould- I'AVJ ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 175 ings of some Anglo-Norman churches, a similar ornament is met with. Examples from Malmes- bury Abbey Church, Wiltshire ; Barneck Church, Northamptonshire; Steyning Church, Sussex; and LuUington Church, Somersetshire, are en- graved in the third and fifth volumes of Brittou's Arch. Antiqs. Patesle (Thomas), archdeacon of Ely, is supposed to have erected the chancel of Great Shelford Church, Cambridgeshire — and probably the whole edifice — between the years 1396 and 1411. — Li/sons's Mag. Brit., Cambridgeshire, p. 296. Patrone. (See Pattern.) Pattern, a drawing, or model for the guidance of workmen. Nearly all the work connected with the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, and the tomb of the Earl of Warwick, its founder, was cove- nanted to be done " according to patterns." In the glazier's contract, it is stated that these " patterns, in paper," after their delivery to the contractor, by the earl's executors, should be " newly traced and pictured by another painter, in rich colors, at the charges of the said glasier." The patterns for the images on the tomb are particularly mentioned as "of timber." — Brittou's Arch. Antiqs., vol. iv. 11-14. In an estimate for the tomb of King Henry VII., at Westminster, the first item is " for makinge the patrones in timber." — Neale and Brayley's Westm. Abbe if, vol. i. p. 55. (See Model, Mold, Plot, Por- traiture, and Vidimus.) Pauline le Peyvere, steward of the household to King Henry III., built a castellated house at Toddington, in Bedfordshire, which, according to Matthew Paris (p. 281), excited universal ad- miration for its extent and magnificence. The wages of the artificers employed are said to have amounted to ten marks in every week. — Wal- pole's Anecdotes, by' Dallaway, i. 36, Lysons's Mag. Brit., Bed/., 143. Paulinus, sacrist of Rochester Cathedral from 1125 till 1137, is stated to have built the church of Frendsbury, in Kent. — Thorpe's Custumale Rqf- fense, p. 162. Pavement, pavimentum, Lat., from pavio, to beat; the Roman pavimentum being the earthen floor of a room, beaten, or rammed, to make it hard and consistent. The modern use of the word is to denote a layer of stone, brick, or other hard material, forming the floor of a room, court, pas- sage, or road. In this sense pavements are con- temporaneous with the buildings of the oldest civilised nations. The Grecian temples were usually paved with slabs of marble, as were also the earliest and largest buildings of the Romans; but, as the latter people increased in wealth and luxury, they became additionally ostentatious in all their architectural works. Some of the mosaic pavements in the Roman baths, temples, palaces, and even villas, were of costly materials, and of most elaborate workmanship. Engraved repre- sentations of several of them have been published by Comte Alexander de la Borde, and by the late Samuel Lysons ; the latter, in a very interesting work entitled Reliquia Romance. His volume, also, on the Roman Antiquities at Woodchester, in Gloucestershire, contains delineations of some magnificent specimens. In imitation of these splendid and laborious works, the Christian archi- tects of the middle ages laid down very curious and costly pavements before high altars, and shrines ; also in chapter-houses, lady-chapels, monumental chantries, and other parts of their sacred edifices. These pavements were generally composed of glazed and coloured bricks, of dif- ferent sizes; but in Westminster Abbey Church, small cubical dies, or tessera, each of a single colour, were employed, forming what is usually termed a mosaic. The tiles and tessera were baked almost to vitrification, and were calculated to resist moisture and friction for a great length of time. The Roman tessera were mostly small dies, or pieces of stone and brick from half an inch to two inches square ; whilst the tiles em- ployed by the Christian architects were of various sizes, forms, and materials. They were evidently either cast in moulds, or worked by the hand to fit into, and form parts of given patterns. An oven, or kiln adapted for baking such paving tiles was discovered at Great Malvern, in Worcester- shire, a few years since : it is represented and described by Harvey Eginton, Architect, in Card's Dissertation on the Antiquities of Great Malvern, 4to. 1834. Some tiles were painted on the sur- face, the colours being burnt in ; whilst others appear to have had the coloured figures inserted into stamped, or indented lines. The colours chiefly employed were yellow, green, dark red. 176 ARCHITECTUUAL DICTIONARY. [pax brown, white, and sometimes blue : and the pat- terns represented comprised circles and other geometrical forms ; coats of arms of founders and benefactors; scrolls, wreaths, and rebuses; griffins, spread eagles, and other heraldic ani- mals; flowers and foliage; mazes, or labyrintlis, of the most intricate nature, and spreading over numerous tiles, to the extent, sometimes, of ten feet in diameter; with figures of knights, eccle- siastics, and other personages. In a palace at Caen, supposed to be of the time of King John, there was a curious pavement, formed chiefly of coats of arms, and a labyrinth : it is described in Diicarel's Avglo-Nortnan Autiqs., pp. 59, 60. In several parts of Great Malvern Church are numerous tiles ornamented with arms, letters, &c.: others at Harrington, in Northamptonshire, York Cathedral, and elsewhere, are represented in coloured prints published in 1801, by William Fowler of Winterton. The chapter-house at Sa- lisbury is paved with tiles, having grifiins, &.c. upon them ; and other curious examples remain in Gloucester Cathedral, the church of St. Mary- Ottery, Devonshire, and in many parochial churches in diff'erent parts of England. The de- sign and construction of a curious pavement, in the Priors' Chapel, at Ely, are exhibited in the tenth and fourteenth volumes of the Archaologia. In the year 1449, William Bruges, Garter King- at-Arnis, bequeathed a sum of money for "paving the hole cliirch of (St. George, at Stamfod), body and quere, with broad Holand tyle." The pave- ment of the Beauchamp Chapel, at Warwick, is laid in black and white diagonal squares, accord- ing to the original contract, dated in 1457 ; by which it was stipulated to be of " good and well coloured marble, in pieces of two inches thick, and of a convenient breadth." Tiiat of Henry the Seventh's Chapel is also in diagonal squares of black and white marble, being the gift of the Rev. Henry Killegrew, who died in 1699. The paving of roads and streets with stones and other hard materials is of remote antiquity. Mr. Donaldson, in the supplementary volume to Stuart's Athens, in describing the entrance to Messene, distinguishes the Greek from Roman street pavements; considering the former to have consisted of oblong, and the Roman of polygonal blocks of stone. " The latter were of immense thickness, having the interstices of the angles filled with flints, and wedges of iron and granite, thus resembling tlie vertical face of a Cyclopean wall." Part of the Via Appia, near Albano, presents a fine specimen of this method of paving. The carriage-ways of Pompeii were paved with lava, having a raised footway on each side. It appears that the streets of London were not paved at the end of the eleventh century. In 1315 and 1353, writs were issued by the king, commanding the repair of the road, or pavement — " pava- gium" — between Temple Bar and the palace at Westminster ; the expense of which was to be defrayed by local rates and tolls. Holborn and other streets were first paved in 1417, and many more in the reign of Henry VIII. For fuller details of the above facts, and for information on collateral points, see the articles Bleo-staning, Brick, Mosaic, Tessera, and Tile; Blaheway and Owen's History/ of Shrews- bury, vol. ii. p. 74 ; Nicolas's Testamenta Vetusta, p. 267; Brittons Arch. Antiqs., vol. iv, p. 12; Brayley and Brittons Anc. Palace at Westm., pp. 129, 222 ; Fosbroke's Enc. of Antiqs., pp. 29, 105; Dallaway's Heraldic Enquiries, p. 107; Forsyth's Italy, vol. i. pp. 119, 121, and 157. Pavilion, properly signifies a small insulated build- ing; also a projecting part of a large building. The name is given to the monarch's palace at Brighton. Pavy, Pavice, Pavise, a shield sufficiently large to cover the whole body. " Paid for xix pavics of steel, and other ware, xxxiiij.li. xij.s. viii.d." — Privy Purse Expenses of Henry VIII., p. 5. Pax, a small tablet, book, or other article, having a representation of the crucifixion, which was kissed during mass by the Roman Catholics. So named from the practice being a substitute for the primi- tive kiss of peace (pax, Lat., peace). In an in- ventory of the jewels, &c. belonging to St. Mary Magdalen's Ciiurcli, Bermondsey (dated 6tii Ed- ward VI.), " ii lattyn pyxsys (pixes), and ii paisys (paxes), of copper," are mentioned. — Kempe's Loseley MSS., p. 168. (See Pix.) The com- monalty of the town of Louth, in Lincolnshire, being indebted upwards of £36 to the alderman and brethren of the guild, "laid in pledge with the said aldermen and brethren, two silver crosses, one of their best chalices, and their silver pax." pen] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARV. 177 — Archaologia , x. 79. The pax was also known as the osculalor^. — Johnson's Eccles. Laws. Pedestal, from vovg, Gr., a foot, and eruXog, a co- lumn ; piidestal, Fr., piedestallo, Ital.; an insu- lated basement, or support for a column, a statue, or a vase. The pedestals supporting ancient statues, or columns of the classical orders, are usually divided into three parts — the base, the dado, and the cornice, or surbase. (See under each word.) In Christian architecture, the pe- destal is chiefly employed for supporting a statue in a niche. Fig. 10, in the accompanying Plate of Brackets, partakes of the most ordinary form of pedestal employed in this class of archi- tecture. The word is spelt " pedistori/," in the agreements for repairing Coventry Cross, dated 1668. — BriltoHs Arch. Autiqs., i. 16. (See Perch.) Pediculus, low Lat., a prison in which the feet were kept in chains. — Fosbrokes Enc. of Antiqs., p. 445. (See Prison.) Pediment, in classical architecture, that triangular part of a portico, bounded by the top of the entablature and the sloping edges of the roof. The Roman architects made their pediments of much loftier proportions than the Greeks ; over the doorways and windows of their later works they introduced broken pediments, or small tri- angular ones, and others forming segments of circles. In Christian architecture, the ends of sloping roofs are more generally termed gables, and are still more lofty than those of the Romans. The gables of the east and west fronts, and of the transepts of large churches, were usually much decorated and enriched with windows, statues, sculpture, and panelling. Over the principal doorways, and also over the windows of conti- neiital cathedrals, most elaborate gables are often introduced. Of this practice an English example is to be found in the west doorway of York Cathedral, delineated in one of the annexed Plates of Dookways. (See Gable and Tympanum.) Peel, Peel-Tower. (See Tower.) Pend. "The roof is arched, being what is here called a pend, and covered with flag-stones." {Grose's Description of Seton Church, in Antiqs. of Scotland, i. 66.) Mr. Willson, in Glossary to Pugin's Specimens, observes upon this, that a pend is " a roof vaulted with masonry, but not groined." (See Groin and Vault.) He further remarks, that " roofs entirely constructed with stone were anciently common in Scotland." Pendant, from pendens, Lat., hanging; an orna- ment suspended from the roof of a building in the later class of Christian architecture. Pen- dants, or pendentives, as they are called by some writers, are, in many instances, large, of consi- derable weight, and elaborately decorated. In Henry the Seventh's Chapel, Westminster, there are many beautifully panelled, and ornamented with foliated mouldings ; other examples have niches and figures in their sides, minute but- tresses, pinnacles, and other ornamental details. The timber frame-work of the roof of Crosby Hall has a series of enriched pendants along its centre. One of them is represented in Plate I. of Arches, at fig. 20. In Roslyn Chapel, Scot- land, are some of the most remarkable examples remaining. These are of varied design, covered with foliage, and some of them have a number of sculptured figures. Pendants are often attached to the ends of the hammer-beams in timber roofs, as in the halls of Wollaton and Eltham. A fine foliated pendant from the roof of the Lady-chapel, at Caudebec, in Normandy, is represented in Pugin's Arch. Antiqs. of 'Normandy. The cathe- dral, and the colleges at Oxford, contain many varieties. Pendants are also found in canopies to niches, tabernacles, and tombs. In the con- tract for the nave of Fotheringhay Church {Dug- dale's Monasticon, new edit. vol. vi. pt. iii. p. 1414), it is agreed that " the pillars and chapetrels that the arches and pendants shall rest upon, shall be altogedir of freestone." This is supposed, by Mr. Willson, to refer to the timber arches of the roof; as " the springers of arches resting on shafts, or corbels, are called pendents by ancient writers."' — Glossary to Pugin's Speci- mens. Pendentive. (See Pendant and Vault.) Penitentiary, a small house in which a penitent confined himself. {Fosbroke's Enc. of Antiqs., p. 695.) That part of a church to which peni- tents were admitted during service is sometimes called by the same name. (See Galilee, and Hoare's Giraldus Cambrensis, vol. ii. p. 29.) A a 178 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [pew Pentastyle. (See Portico.) Penteys, a pent-house. In an account of repairs at Stafford Castle (30th Henry VI.), are the words for mending " unius penteys supra gradus inferioris garett' ibidem." — Archaoiogia, voL.xxiii. p. 106. The modern word pent-house is a cor- ruption of appenticicc, Lat., attached, or supple- mental buildings. AppeiUiciis and pentices occur in old manuscripts. Peny (John), abbot of Leicester, erected certain brick buildings at his abbey. He was afterwards bishop of Carlisle, and died in 1520. — Leland's Itin., vol. i. p. 18. Perch, Perk, V earc», pertica, Lat., a small pro- jecting beam, corbel, or bracket, near the altar of a church, ornamented on festivals with statues, reliquaries, &c. Mr. Willson mentions taberna- cles with perches; considering the latter as syn- onymous with pedestals. He also states, that " pearcher was an old term for a large wax candle formerly used in churclies." — Glossary to Pugin's Specimens. Perclose. (See Parclose.) Pergetting. (See Pargetting.) Pekibolus, T£f(, Gr., around, and jSaXXoi, to throw, or gird ; an enclosm-e ; also the wall surrounding the precincts of a temple. Peripteral. (See Temple.) Peristyle, teo/, Gr., around, or about, and erj^o;, a column ; a range of columns surrounding any edifice, whether circular or quadrangular; also a range of columns in almost any situation when they do not form a portico. In the latter sense Mr. Hosking suggests the employment of the word orthostyle. (See Orthostvle.) Perpendicular Style, a name adopted by Mr. Rickman in classifying the ecclesiastical archi- tecture of England, to designate its latest variety : viz. that prevalent from 1377 to 1546, a period of about 170 years. He remarks that few, if any, entire buildings were executed in this manner later than the reign of Henry VIII.; but that, in additions to previous works, and in rebuilding, it was employed — though often much debased — as late as I63U or 1640. "The name," he states, "clearly designates this style; for the muUions of the windows, and the ornamental panellings, run in perpendicular lines. Many buildings of this style are so crowded with ornament as to destroy the beauty of the design. The carvings are generally very delicately executed." — An At- tempt, (5fc. 4th edit. p. 44. Mr. Willson, in Pugin's Specimens, vol. ii. p. 14, remarks, "The sound of this term seems rather barbarous at first; but the analogy on which it is formed is fair and scientific. The extent of its application by Mr. Rickman seems liable to certain objec- tions, founded on the striking difference of style which the obtuse arch produced, after the middle of the fifteenth century." In Brittons Chrono- logical History of ChrUtian Arch, in England, p. 170, are the following observations: — "The term perpendicular gives no idea of the increased expansion of window^, nor of the gorgeous fan- like tracery of the vaultings, nor of the heraldic nature of the enrichments, which peculiarly dis- tinguished this period ; neither does it convey any information of the horizontal lines of the doorways, nor of the embattled transoms of the windows, nor of the vast pendants suspended in mid air, that constituted such important features in this class; and, in fact, combined with its other variations, render it impossible to be pro- perly characterised by any single and particular phrase." The buildings of the period alluded to have also been designated by the appellations of Florid, Pointed, and Ornamented Gothic;^ the names Tudor and Filizabethan Architecture also indicate the works of different parts of this era. Perpent-stone, Perpin, Perpender, perpins, perpeigne, Fr., a long stone extending through a wall, with both ends exposed and smoothly wrought. Two walls, dividing part of the nave of Fotheringhay Church from tiie ailcs, are called perpyn-walls in the original contract {Dtigdale's Monasticon, new edit. vol. vi. pt. iii. p. 1414); probably from their being wrought on both sides. Perpender, a coping stone. — Johnsons Dictionary. Persian Architecture. (See Architecture.) Peter of Colechurch. (See Colechurch.) Pew, piou, Fr., probably from appui, a prop, stay, support; an enclosed seat in fi church, said to be derived from puye, a Dutch word. Before the Reformation in England, people generally knelt - during the services of the church : the congrega- pic] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARV. 179 tions are also represented in old prints and draw- ings as standing, or sitting on the floor. Chairs and other movable seats were and are generally employed in the Roman Catholic churches. Fixed benches appear to have been but seldom used be- fore the Reformation; and pews, in their modern acceptation, not until long afterwards. An en- closed seat, however (and sometimes a stall and desk), was generally provided for the patron of the church. This ma'rk of distinction is noticed in documents as old as 1240 ; the pew so occu- pied being sometimes called a cage. In 1450, William Bruges, Garter King-at-arms, bequeathed a sum of money for " pui/ing" a church ; but, though the word was then used, it probably meant only benches with backs, but without doors. In 1458, we have another bequest for " pui/irige," besides many before the Reformation for "seating" churches. In 15Q2, legacies were left for " stolyng," or providing stools, or benches, for a church; and, in 1582, another church was ordered to be provided with formes. Formerly there were the shriving pews, or confessionals ; and reading pews, or lectionaries. Stow, ia 1599, describes as petves what appear to have been only a set of uniform benches. Blakeway and Owen say that the use oi pews (as at present formed) is " a practice unknown to every church on the Con- tinent, except for the magistracy and lords of manors," and that the Germans and French have no word synonymous with peiv. Separate pews were sometimes allowed to sick persons and brides. — Surtees's Durham, vol. ii. p. 145. See Blake- way and Owens Shrewsbury , ii. 357 ; Wartoris KiddingtoH, p. 12 ; Blomejield' s Norfolk, iii. 511 ; Kennett's Antiq%. of Ambrosden, 596 ; Whitaker's Whalley, 227 ; Lysonss Mag. Brit., Cheshire, 492. Pew (our Lady of the) ; our Lady de la Piie, &c. (See Lady-Chapel.) This phrase is derived from pue, Fr., dim. ofpitie, and signifies our Lady of Pity. An engraving from a sculptured figure of our Lady of Pity, in Battlefield Church, Shrop- shire, will be found in the 14th volume of the Archaologia. Messrs. Blakeway and Owen in- correctly state, that the chapel of our Lady of Pew, in the old palace at Westminster, was so called from the well (puits, Fr.) near which it stood. — History of Shrewsbury, ii. 357. Pharos, PharuSjPh ARUM, from paog, Gr., alight; a light-house, watch-tower, or beacon. A tower of Roman workmanship, within the precincts of Dover Castle, is called a pharos ; and is supposed to have been built as a watch-tower by the Roman conquerors of Britain. Engravings and an ac- count of this building are published in Stukeley's Itinerarium Curiosum\ vol. i. p. 102, and an elevation of it, in the accompanying Plate of Towers. In old churches pharus, or pharum, was the name of a branch candlestick, lamp, or chandelier, to suspend, or support a number of lights. (See Farossium, Tower, and Fos- broke's Enc. of Antiqs., p. 282.) Phane, Vane. (See Fane.) Piazza, Ital., an open space, or square : corruptly applied in England to an arched way, or covered walk, supported on one side by piers, pillars, or columns, and arches ; as that surrounding the quadrangle of the late Royal Exchange, and that which bounds part of Covent Garden Market. Pjcts-house, a name applied to a peculiar sort of building, different examples of which are said to have been raised by the Picts before and after their arrival in Britain. Picts' houses are fre- quently found in the Islands of Scotland : they were circular in plan, and of conical shape, with an opening at the top. Large stones, without cement, were employed in their construction. The internal area was often considerably less in dia- meter than the thickness of the wall, within which were sometimes staircases, and small cell-like rooms. In Roj/'s Military Antiqs. is a ground- plan and view of one called Arthur's Oon, or Oven. — See Barry's Orkney Islands; and Pen- na)U's Tour in Scotland, vol. iii. p. 229. Picture, the painted representation of any object. In old writings the word is variously applied. " Pictors," or monumental effigies, of white mar- ble, and of brass, are mentioned in wills and other documents. " The burial-chapel of the family of Heneage, at Hainton, Lincolnshire, retains its old name of ' The Picture House' from the monu- ments with painted eflSgies within it. Portraits in stained glass were also called pictures." — Will- son, in Glossary to Pugin's Specimens ; see also Nicolas's Testamenta Vetusta, and the articles Effigy, Portraiture, and Tomb. 180 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [PIL Pier, piene, Fr., a stone; a mass of brickwork, or masonry between the arches of a bridge ; also between windows, and arches, in other buildings. It is sometimes, thoug;h improperly, applied to the cylindrical pillars of the churches of the Nor- mans. Large rectangular masses, properly called piers, and generally with attached pillars, or pilas- ters, are seen beneath arches in the naves of St. Alban's Abbey Church, in Brixworth Church, and in other early Christian edifices. (See Plate, Compartment oi Durham Calhedral, interior, 11.) A construction of stone projecting into a large river, or the sea, to protect a harbour, or form a landing-place, is also termed a pier. (See Mole.) PiETRO Cavilini, an artist employed by King Henry III., and his successor at the end of the thirteenth century. An inscription on the shrine of Edward the Confessor, in Westminster Abbey Church, mentions him as " Petrus duxit in actum Romatius civis." Besides this shiine, and that of the martyrs, Simplicius and Faustina, now at Strawberry Hill, the tomb of King Henry III., also at Westminster, are acknowledged as his works. These are in a debased Roman style, and are remarkable for their mosaic decorations. Wal- pole suggests that he designed the " Queen's Crosses;" but this is by no means probable. — h'eale and Bra^lej/'s Hist, of Westminster Abbey, vol. ii. p. 70. Pilaster, /?(7a, Lat., a pillar, and astro, Ital., indi- cating an inferiority; pi/iistre, Fv., pilastra, Sp.; an inferior sort of square pillar, usually inserted in a wall, and projecting a little from its surface. PiLASTER-MASs, Pilaster-strip, terms employed by Professor Whewell in his Arch. ]\oles on Ger- man Churches, p. 101; the first, to denote a rec- tangular pier, or mass of wall with impost mould- ings ; and the latter, a flat buttress-like projec- tion from a wall, with the form and proportions of a pilaster, but merging into the corbel-table without any capital, or impost mouldings. Pile, jji'/e, Fr., pila, Ital. and Sp., from pila, Lat., viXoi, Gr. ; a mass, or heap of materials elevated above the surface of the ground ; as a pile of stones, &c. : also a large building, or mass of buildings. The same word, with a ditl'erent and uncertain derivation, signifies a large stake, or piece of timber, pointed at one end, to be driven into the earth; a number of such piles serving to support a building, or other superstructure. This sort of foundation is adopted where the ground is soft. Piers of bridges are generally built on piles; at Amsterdam, and in some other cities similarly situated, the foundations of all the prin- cipal buildings are thus laid. The practice in question was common amongst the ancients. It is mentioned both by Virgil and Vitruvius; and Ingulphus, the historian of Croyland, informs us that when the monastery of Croyland, in Lin- colnshire, was erected, in the early part of the eighth century, the nature of the soil rendered it necessary to form an artificial foundation, by driving piles into the ground. — See Iiigulph. Hist. Croyland, in Script. Post. Bed., and Brittons Arch. Antiqs., vol. iv. p. 91, and vol. v. p. 123. Pillar, pi/ier, Fr., pi/iere, Ital., pilar, Sp., pfeiler, Ger., from pi/a, Lat., literally a constructed pile, or heap ; hence it denotes any columnar, or ver- tical support in a building, particularly when formed of two or more pieces. The word has, by writers, been applied indiscriminately to an as- semblage of slender clustered shafts ; to a single column ; and to a massive pier. Sir Henry Wot- ton {Elements of Architecture, published in 1624,) speaks of the word column as then of recent in- troduction. As column properly signifies a sup- port in the form of a single cylinder, and usually in one piece; — as it generally denotes one of the members of a Greek or Roman edifice, which has been subjected to fixed rules of proportion ; — and as the columnar supports, employed in Christian architecture, are so various as to render a similar classification of them impossible, the word pillar may be regarded as especially applicable to the latter. Designating, as it also may, those used in Egyptian temples, and in Indian excavations, it is not liable to misconstruction, and is certainly much better than either pier or shaft, both of which have been employed by different writers on Medi-.Bval architecture. The pillars of the differ- ent classes of Christian buildings from the Anglo- Saxon age to the time of Henry the Seventh, are described in the article Column, and illustrated by the Plates there referred to. Rlurphy, in his Illustrations of the Church of Batalha, p. 21, attributes the grand effects of Christian churches pis] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIOXARV. ISI to the judicious distribution of pillars, and their proportions in relation to those of the whole build- ing. The pillar, unlike the column, was always of the same diameter at base and capital. (See Column.) Anciently, the word pillar was also employed to signify a buttress against a wall, and, indeed, still has that meaning amongst masons in the north of England. For some interesting observa- tions on stone pillars of memorial, see a paper by T.Astle, in the thirteenth volume o^ ArchcBologia ; also Pennant's Tour in Scotland, vol. iii. p. 167. Pillowed, or Pulvinated, a temi applied to a rounded frieze. Pinnacle, Pinnakyll, p/«ac/e, Fr., pinacolo, Ital., pinnaculum, low Lat., from pinna, Lat., or pen, Celtic, a summit, a lofty apex ; an ornament placed on the top of a buttress, as a termination to an angle, or gable of a house, church, or tower ; on different parts of a parapet ; at the sides of niches ; and in other situations. Its form is usually slender, and tapering to a point. The word was sometimes applied to a turret, and a spire ; and, indeed, to any tall perpendicular member on the summit of a building. In a Sur- vey of Richmond Palace, Surrey (1649), small cupolas on the tops of turrets are called pinna- cles. {Vetusta Monumenta, vol. ii.) The pinna- cle, the spire, and the large window, with its elaborate mullions and tracery, are amongst the many novel and original designs belonging ex- clusively to the Christian architecture of the middle ages. The pinnacle, as well as each of the others, was gradually and progressively im- proved in form and ornamental detail, from the plain, conical spire which crowned the turret, or angle, of a building of early date, to the time of Henry the Seventh, when its faces were adorned either with canopied niches, or with ornamental panelling, its angles with piirfled crockets, its apex with a rich finial, and the lower angles of its minute pediments with sculptured birds, beasts, and human heads. Some varieties of the pinna- cle are represented in different Plates of this volume, particularly in Plates I. and II. of But- tresses; plate of Cathedral Churches, CoMPARTiiENTS, Exetcr, exterior, at c; and the Porch of King's College Chapel, Cambridge (engraved Title-page) : but it is presumed that nearly one hundred specimens of varieties might be selected from the numerous churches of Eng- land, France, Germany, Italy, &c. In some of the later examples, as at St. George's Chapel, Windsor, the pinnacle consists of a vertical mass, square in horizontal section, and terminating in an embattled crest, without crockets or the usual pyramidal summit. These, as well as the pinna- cles of Henry the Seventh's Chapel, Hampton Court Palace, Chichester Cross, Sec, are known to have been surmounted by small metal banners, turning with the wind, and supported, in some instances, by animals in a rampant posture. (See Fane.) A kind of cupola form was frequently employed at the top of a turret, or pinnacle, be- tween the reigns of Henry V. and Henry VIII. : this was sometimes covered with sculptured orna- ments like fish-scales, or net-work. Occasionally the cupola assumed the ogee form ; and, at other times, the termination of a pinnacle resembled a pine-apple. In the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., obelisks were placed as pinnacles on the angles of monuments; and the same orna- ment occurs on the gateway of Caius College, Cambridge. Numerous instances of piiniacles formed by single figures, and groups of two or more representing men and other animals might be referred to; as at Lincoln, and Peterborou<^h Cathedrals ; the Manor House of Great Chal- field, Wiltshire; Berkeley Church, Gloucester- shire; the George Inn, Glastonbury, &c. — See Pugin's Specimens, vol. i. pi. iv., vol. ii. pis. i. and ii.; Brittons Arch. Antiqs., vol. v. index. The pinnacles on gables of timber buildings pre- sent greater diversity of form than those con- structed of stone. Piscina, Lat., bassin, Fr., hacino, Ital., from piscis, Lat.; signified amongst the Romans, first, a fish- pond ; secondly, a shallow reservoir for bathing ; and thirdly, a place for watering horses, and for other purposes. A small pool, or basin of water in a public square, and the basin, or reservoir in a baptistery, containing the water, was also formerly called a. piscina. Its modern application is to the lavacrum, or stone basin, generally placed on the south side of the altar of a church ; and intended for the use of a Catholic priest before he celebrated the sacred offices. It was some- times called a sacrarium, and a font. " We 182 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [PLA order," says an ancient synod, "a font for wash- ing the hands of the officiating priests, which mav be either pensile, or affixed to the wall." (Dti Cause.) This catholic appendage to an altar varied considerably in its form and decorations in different ages. It is sometimes found in a niche, or cavity, with the waste pipe in the thickness of the wall. It is also placed on an ornamental pedestal with base and cap mould- ino-s, and enclosed within a foliated arch. Some piscinas are seen in pairs within a double arch, as at Salisbury Cathedral, and other buildings of the same age. Some are plain, whilst others are elaborate in design, and rich in sculptured de- tails. In some churches they are fixed in the wall near a doorway, and frequently within the screened enclosure of a chantry-chapel. One of the finest examples in England is in the south wall of the nave of St. Alban's Abbey Church; and another beautiful specimen is delineated at fig. 10, in Plate of Brackets. (See Bing- ham's Oiigiiies Eccles., book viii. chap. 4; Li/- sous's Mag. Brit., vol. ii. p. 61 ; Carter's Ancient Arch., pi. Iviii. ; Archaologia, vol. xi. p. 347 ; and Britton's Arch. Antiqs., vol. v. index. Also the articles Aquamanile, Baptistery, Bena- TURA, Chancel, Credence, Font, Lava- tory, Porch, and Sacrarium.) Pitch, the anole formed by the sides of a sloping roof; the proportion between the height and the span of a roof. When the length of sloping rafters is equal to the width of the building, it is called a roof of Gut/iic pitch. (See Roof.) Pity (Our Lady of). (See Lady-Chapel, Pew, and Neale's Churches — Lung Me/ford, p. 13.) Pix, Pyx, pyxis, Lat., a small box, or shrine, some- times called a tabernacle, intended to contain the host, or consecrated wafer, used in certain cere- monies of the Roman Catholic church ; and some- times enclosing also relics of saints. Its form was frequently that of a niche, under an orna- mental gable, with buttresses and pinnacles on each side. Its materials were ivory, silver, and sometimes gold, enriched with precious stones. Two " pyxys of lattyn," witii " ij pyxys clothys of sylke," are mentioned in documents printed in Kempe's Loseley MSS., p. 168. A box contain- ing the standards, &c. employed in testing the accuracy of gold and silver coin is also called a pii. This box is carefully preserved in an an- cient apartment adjoining Westminster Abbey Church; thence called the Chamber of the Fix, and presumed to be as old as the time of Edward the Confessor. The ceremony of trying the coin- age, called the Trial of the Pix, is of rare occur- rence. — Bray ley and Neale's Westm. Abbey, vol. ii. p. 299; Gent's. Mag., September 1815. Placia, Placiam, low Lat., a place, or plot of ground ; the site of a house, or other building. Walter Ingram, of Kirtlington, about the year 1230, gave to the prior and canons of Burcester, " totam illam placiam quae se extendit." — Ken- iiett's Anticjs. of Ambrosden, Glossary. Place is often appended to the local name of a large house or mansion, as Place-House, at Fowey, Cornwall; New Place, Stratford, &,c. Plan, a geometrical representation of any thing drawn on a plane, as a house, church, town, or city. Different sorts of plans are termed maps, charts, Sec. Architecturally, it denotes a hori- zontal section through the walls and other solids of a building. (See Ground-Plan and Ichno- GRAPHY.) Plaster, a composition of lime, sand, and hair, or straw, employed in covering the interior and ex- terior faces of walls. From the remains of Roman villas, it is evident that many of the rooms were plastered, and afterwards coloured. The Saxons and Normans also employed plaster in castles and churches. It was also extensively introduced into old English timber buildings. In some instances small pebbles and fragments of glass were mixed with plaster; and the composition thus formed was called rough-cast, making, according to an old writer, " a brilliant display when the sun shone, and even by moonlight." Shakespeare, in A Midsummer Night's Dream, makes Bottom say : " Some man or other must present wall ; and let him have some plaster, or some lame, or some rough-cast about him, to signify wall." (See Pargetting.) The albarium opus of Vitruvius denotes plastering. Plat, Platte, Plot, a plan, or a model. In the will of King Henry the Seventh it was ordered that his tomb should be at such a distance from the high altar of the chapel at Westminster, as was ordered " in the plat made for the same pom] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIOXARY. 183 Chappell." (Britton's Arch. Antigs., vol. ii. p. 16.) The provost and scholars of King's Col- lege Chapel, Cambridge, on receiving £3000 from the executors of Henry VII., covenanted to " vawte the churche of the saide coUeg after the fourme of a platte therefor devised and subscribed with the hand of the said executours." (Brilton's Arch. Antiqs., vol. i. p. 5.) " A plat of Hast- ings and Rye," executed by Vincent, the king's painter, for the sum of £3. 10s. Od., is mentioned in the Privy Purse Eipeiices of' King Henry VIII. Platband, any plain band, or fillet with small pro- jection ; as the fascia of an architrave or impost. Plebania, Lat., a mother church, with depending chapels. — KennetVs Antiqs. of Ambrosdeu, Glos- sary. Plinth, from •^KiMg, Gr., a square tile; a project- ing vertical faced member, forming the lowest part of the basement of a column, pillar, wall, or tomb. (See Patand.) Plumbers' Contracts, dated 1367 and 1370, for work at York Cathedral, are still preserved amongst the archives of the dean and chapter. — Brittons Cath. Antiqs., York, p. 80. Podium, a dwarf wall, or basement. Pointed Arch. (See Arch.) Pointed Architecture, is that manner of build- ing in which the pointed arch is the distinguish- ing feature. Dissertations and essays, in various forms, and by several English, French, German, and Italian antiquaries, have been published on this architecture, and many theories have been promulgated ; but neither the time nor the^lace of its invention and systematic adoption have been satisfactorily ascertained. The Rev. Thos. Warton (Notes to Spenser), the Rev. Jas. Ben- tham {History of Ely Cath.), Captain Grose {Atitiqs. of England), the Rev. Dr. Mihier (Trea^ tise on Eccles. Arch, in England), J. S. Hawkins {History of the Origin of Gothic Arch.), the late Thomas Hope {An Historical Essay on Architect- ure), the Rev. J. Haggitt {Two Letters on Gothic Arch.), and many other authors have published their opinions on the subject. The last gentle- man endeavours to prove that this system origi- nated in the East. He also enumerates and points out three eras of the pointed architecture, and refers to four instances of the pointed arch " of earlier date than any in England," (p. 10.) The Rev. G. D. Whittington {Historical Survey, &c.), contends that it was practised much earlier in France than in England; whilst Mr. Hope, and some of the German antiquaries, are zealous in claiming for Germany the honour of the inven- tion. Without disputing, however, about its origin, or speculating on that or other obscure matters, it is quite clear that, in a very short time after the invention and application of the true pointed arch, it was gradually, but rapidly, established in a novel, symmetrical, and beauti- ful system of architecture. Not only in the form of the arch, but in every member of a church, a harmony and unity of design produced, at an early date, the simply grand effects exhibited in such edifices as the Temple Church, London, Salisbury Cathedral, and many others. A brief sketch of the history and peculiarities of this system — for it cannot properly be called either a style or an order — will be found in the article Architecture — Pointed: but a full elucida- tion of them would require an elaborate disserta- tion, with numerous engravings. (See Brittons Chron. Hist, of Anc. Arch., ch. i., and the articles Gothic Architecture, Christian Archi- tecture, Flamboyant, Florid, Perpendi- cular, and Tudor Architecture.) PoiNTELL, PoYNTiLL, Poyntell, is a term used • by some old writers to denote a floor paved with lozenge-shaped stones. " Ypaved with pointill, each point after other." — Pierce Plowman's Creed. PoLYCHROMY, !7o?.y;, Gr., many, and yjoi/j.a, colour, a new compound word denoting the employment of different colours on architectural works. (See Painting.) • PoLYFoiL, an ornament formed by a moulding dis- posed in a number of segments of circles. (See QuATREFOiL.) A curious niche in the western gable of Wells Cathedral is adorned by as many as ten Foliations, or Featherings. PoLYST YLE, rroXii;, Gr., many, and er-jXdg, a column ; a term applied to an edifice with many columns. (See Colonnade.) VoyiEL, poynellum, Lat., from pomum, an apple; a globular protuberance, or knob, terminating a pinnacle, or similar ornament. A large copper 184 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY [POR ball on the summit of a timber spire of Lincoln Cathedral is so called in the records of that buildin"-: and see Brmilcy and Brilton's Aiic. Palace at Weslm., pp. 80, 167. PoNTAGiuM, Lat., a toll paid by travellers, or pas- sengers, over a bridge, towards its maintenance and repair. — Keiiiiell's Parochial Aiitiqs., Glos- sary. PoNTiFicEs, an association of bridge-builders. (See Bridge, and CoNFUATERNiTt des Fonts.) PooKE (Richard), bishop of Salisbury from 1217 till 1228, transferred the seat of the bishopric from Old to New Sarum, and officiated at laying the foundations of the cathedral, the erection of which he superintended during his continuance in the see. — Brittoii's Cnili. Antiqs., Salisbury, p. 19; Dodsworth's Hist, uf Salis. Cath., p. 107. PoppY-HEAD, Poppy, Poop, povpe, Fr., poppa, Ital., (from puppis, Lat., the stern of a ship) : the apex of a vertical board at the end of a seat, or desk, which was usually carved into an orna- mental finial, porael, or crest. In the contracts relating to the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, " a pair of desks of timber, with poppies, seats, sills," '&c., are mentioned. {Brittons Arch. Aii/ic/s., iv. 12.) The " dextis" in the library of Christ Church College, Oxford, were to be made like those of Magdalen College, " excepte the popie heedes oft' the seites." {llearne's Antiqs. ofGlas- tonburi/.) The most usual form of poops, or poppy-heads, is that of an elaborate finial; they also frequently represented figures of men and angels. One of those in King Henry the Seventh's Chapel, at Westminster, is a figure of that mon- arch. It is delineated in Piigins Specimens of Gothic Arch., vol. ii. pi. xl. Porch, Porche, porche, Fr., porticus, Lat., from porta, a gateway, entrance, or passage, das portal, Ger.; an exterior appendage to a building, form- ing a covered approach to one of its principal doorways. The porch may be regarded as an adaptation of tiie principle and the pro])erties of the Grecian and Roman portico to the Christian and domestic buildings of the middle ages. It is as peculiarly a])plicable and eligible for the climate of the northern, as the portico was for the more southern parts of the globe. Whilst the one was intended to admit every current of air, the other was adapted to furnish comfort and protection both from wind and rain. But, al- though adaptations of the same principle, these members difl'er from each other in many impor- tant particulars. The portico constitutes the most prominent ornamental feature of an ancient tem- ple ; whilst the porcli is rarely placed at the prin- cipal front of a building, and is rather an object of utility than of paramount beauty. One is adapted for a climate of sunshine and heat; the other for cloud and cold : one is meant to com- mand and arrest the whole of the spectator's attention; the other is only a title-page, or in- dex, to the splendid volume within. The porch isof varied design ; indeed, much more diversified in form, size, and architectural decoration, than the portico. The porch is properly a covered apartment, usually closed at the sides, and having two doorways ; one to the open air, and the other to the interior of the building. In several of the largest and most magnificent examples, as at Lincoln and Hereford Cathedrals, Grantham Church, Lincolnshire, and some of the churches in France, Germany, Sec, there is also an en- trance at each side of the porch. There are not any positive examples of porches to Anglo-Saxon churches ; nor do the early Nor- mans appear to have introduced them generally. We do not find them in their two celebrated churches at Caen ; and there are but few Norman specimens in England. The most remarkable are those of Malmesbiiry, in Wiltsiiire, and South- well, in Nottinghamshire. The former is a re- markably interesting specimen, being truly ori- ginal and unique. It projects from the south aile, near the west end of that famed abbey church. The covered area is nearly square in plan, with very thick piers bounding its south side ; between which is a large semicircular arch- way of entrance, formed by a series of eight archi- volt mouldings, diminishing in span as they re- cede from the exterior. Each of the mouldings extends from the ground around the whole of the arch, and is covered with a jirofusion of sculp- tured ornaments, many of them representing, in oval panels, events in Scripture history. Some of the mouldings have lozenge-shaped panels, and others foliated scroll-work. The label, or weather-table, is terminated by two snakes' heads at the springings of the arch. Similar labels por] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 185 bound the pointed arches of the nave; and others of the same character are attached to the fine western doorway of Lincoln Cathedral : plainly shewing that those works were both executed about the same time, and probably even by the same architect, or builder. On two stone benches within the porch, at Malmesbury, rest attached columns, sustaining archivolt mouldings ; over which, on each side, is a group of human figures, in bold alto-relievo, nearly as large as life. Each group consists of six sitting figures, with a seventh extended horizontally over their heads, and apparently in the act of flying. The inner doorway is tall and narrow, with a semicircular arched head ; the upper part, from the springing of the arch, being closed by a stone lintel, with a sculptured representation of the Deity, and angels holding censers. This porch was origi- nally vaulted, and had bold ribs extending dia- gonally across, from columns in each angle. Above it was an apartment, approached by a staircase in an octagonal turret at the north-east angle. This fine porch is illustrated in Britton's Arch. Antigs., vols. i. and v. Its age is about the reign of King Stephen. Another good speci- men of an Anglo-Norman porch is attached to the north wall of the Collegiate Church of South- well. It retains nearly the whole of its original form and details. It is almost square ; has an exterior archway, rather flattened, but probably once of semicircular form ; springing from impost mouldings, which unite with, and form part of a string course of zigzag ornaments, extending round the whole exterior and interior of the build- ing. Over the outer arch, in a gable, are three windows, with semicircular heads, adorned with columns, zigzag, and other mouldings, and ad- mitting light to a small apartment. At the two front angles of the porch are circular pinnacles terminating in spires, which appear to be parts of the original design. On each side of the inte- rior, this porch, like that at Malmesbury, has a stone seat, and a series of attached columns with interlaced archivolt mouldings. The doorway of entrance to the church has five columns on each side, sustaining as many sculptured arch mould- ings. Altogether, this porch is a very interesting example of Norman design and enrichment, and, with the whole of the church, is well entitled to the diligent study of the architectural antiquary. Dickinson published two quarto volumes on the Antiquities of Southwell, but has given scarcely any information of this interesting church. A correct view of the porch is published in Clarke's Antiquities of Southtvell Church. In St. Mar- garet's Church, York, is a fine projecting Norman doorway, with several archivolt mouldings charged with sculptures, amongst which are the signs of the zodiac. In this instance the arch mouldings rest on columns. It is illustrated at large in Carter's Anc. Sculp, and Painting. The porch to the church of Bisliop's-Cleeve, Gloucestershire, is a genuine specimen of Anglo-Norman design and execution. A doorway with a semicircular arch, formed of several mouldings, with two small columns on each side, constitutes the entrance ; whilst another doorway, of similar design, but with varied mouldings, forms the entrance to the church. The label-moulding of the latter door- way represents two snakes, with their heads at the imposts, and their tails interlaced at the apex of the arch. Bold embattled and zigzag mould- ings, with beads, adorn the archivolt. On each side of the porch is an arcade of intersecting arches, springing from richly carved foliated ca- pitals, over which two pointed arches, formed under the semicircular architrave moulding, are again adorned with trefoil mouldings. The ceil- ing is vaulted, and ornamented with diagonal ribs, each having two zigzag mouldings enclosing a torus. Over the porch is a large room, to which there is a pointed-arched window. Tliis very curious porch is similar in architectural style and detail to the circular part of the Temple Church, London, and may be referred to the latter part of the twelfth century. A curious porch, con- taining semicircular and pointed arches of en- trance, with arched ceiling, and arcades at the sides, is attached to the south side of the ancient church at Barneck, Northamptonshire. Its outer roof is formed with the same kind of stones, in large masses, and laid in the same manner, as the walls. Porches of the first class of Pointed Archi- tecture are numerous; many of them being large and richly ornamented with columns, buttresses, pinnacles, niches, and arches, with several mould- ings. Those on the north sides of Salisburi/ and of Wells Cathedrals are amongst the finest exam- ples in England. That of the latter church has B B 186 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [POR a lofty archway of entrance, adorned with several mouldings springing from foliated capitals. On each side, within, are three tiers of arcades; and facing the outer arch is an enriched doorway of entrance to the church. Over the vaulted ceiling is an apartment; and at the extreme angles are flat buttresses crowned with octagonal spire-pinnacles. The date of this porch is about the year 1200. Besides the north porch of Salis- bury Cathedral, that church has three porches, or rather porticos, at the west front; each pre- senting, under three acute pediments, as many pointed arches, supported by clustered columns. These porticos stand somewhat in advance of the main wall, with which they are connected by vaulted ceilings ; they are separated from each other by buttresses, and the central arch of each corresponds respectively, in form and position, with the doorways to the nave and to the ailes. Their date is about the middle of the thirteenth century. (See Britton's Cath. Antiqs., Salisbury, and Wells.) The west front of Peterborough Minster pre- sents the most magnificent porch, or portico, in England, if not in Europe. Three lofty arches occupy nearly the whole height and width of the facade, and these are crowned with as many acute and highly ornamented gables ; in each of which is a circular, or catherine-wheel window, and a gallery, or open arcade, with niches and statues. Each arch is composed of several mould- ings, having deep hollows, and bold tori, with the dog-tooth ornament, springing from a number of tall, slender pillars, which are banded in three divisions, and thus apparently bound, or united, to their respective piers. The arches are divided and supported by two substantial, but ornamental piers, and flanked, at the extremities, by two square towers, forming abutments. The lower part of the central archway is occupied by a building of two stories ; the lowermost forms a vaulted entrance to the nave ; and the upper- most, lighted by a large and handsome window in its western face, is appropriated as a library. It is attached to the two piers, and may be con- sidered as a buttress, or strengthening support to those members of the building. This porch is supposed to have been erected between the years 1299 and 1321 ; whilst the remainder of the western front is ascribed to the very com- mencement of the thirteenth century. (See Brit- tons Cath. Antiqs., Peterborough.) A great number of porches were added to churches in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries ; but, as their design and detail exhibit such numerous varie- ties, we must limit our review to a short notice of a few more examples. The north porch of Exeter Cathedral has lofty pedimental tracery on the outside, with an octagonal staircase turret at one angle, as shewn in Plate of Compart- ments of Cathedral Churches, C. g. On the north side of Redcliffe Church, Bristol, which is built on a natural terrace, and approached by several steps, is a double porch of singular de- sign. It consists of an inner and an outer apart- ment ; the first nearly square in plan, and exe- cuted early in the thirteenth century ; the latter of hexagonal form, highly adorned, both inter- nally and externally, with niches, pedestals, cano- pies, buttresses. Sec. The doorway is formed of several sculptured mouldings, which, with the arches, are engrailed. {Britton's Essay on Red- cliffe Church, 1813.) On the south side of the same church is another large and decorated porch. The principal porches of Durham, Ely, and Lin- coln Cathedrals are commonly termed Galilees, and have been already noticed under the word Galilee. St. Peters Church, Oxford, has a beautiful porch, erected about 1416. {Pugin's Examples of Gothic Arch., vol. i.) That of Trinity Church, Cambridge, is illustrated in Pugin's Spe- civiens, vol. ii. pi. xix.; and those of churches at Taunton, Stamford, Thaxted, Loug-BIelford, Sac. in Neale's Views of Churches. The south porch of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, is repre- sented in the engraved Title-page to the present volume. The exquisite delicacy with which all its details are finished, is an admirable illustration of the proficiency of ancient artisans in carrying such elaborate designs into execution. The porch lately on the south side of the church of St. John the Baptist, Cirencester, was erected early in the reign of Henry the Eighth. It con- sisted of three stories, the lowermost having a central and two lateral doorways : all of which were square-headed upper stories. These were divided into three upright compartments ; in each of whicli was a bay-window. (See Neale's Churches.) The rooms above the entrance were occupied as the town-hall ; and in them the por] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 187 general sessions were frequently held. This is a vestige of the ancient practice of holding law- courts in the porch of a church. (See Parvis.) The porch of S^. Mary's Church, Oxford, erected from the designs of Nicholas Stone, about the year 1630, is an example of the cinqne-cento- style, having twisted columns, and similar de- tails : that of St. Mary's, Bury St. Edmond's, erected early in the sixteenth century, and repre- sented in Britton's Arch. Antu/s., vol. iii., is a curious example ; and another, of about the same time, at St. Michael's Church, Oxford, is deli- neated in Pugin's Specimens, vol. ii. On the Continent of Europe we find some very elaborate and singular porches. In Pugin's Arch. Antiqs. of Normandy , pis. 44, 45, and 63, are engravings of those of St. Michael's Church, Caen, and St. Vincent's, Rouen ; and in Cotman's Normandy, vol. ii. p. 93, is a view of that at the church of Louviers, which, in the arrangement of its archways, and its projection before the build- ing, bears some analogy to a portico. The porches of Italian churches have a general resemblance to those of England and France ; but, in Italy, very early examples are more numerous than in England. The pillars which ornament the sides are often resting on statues of animals. (See porch of San Ciriaco, at Ancona, in pi. 13 of Hope's History of Architecture.) Porches attached to old English Mansions partake generally of the same character as those of churches, and have decorations analogous to their respective ages. Some good examples of domestic porches remain at Penshurst Place, Kent, Armingham Hall, Norfolk {Cotmajis Nor- folk, pi. xxi.), &c. The outer porch, or portions, is mentioned by some of the older writers as a part of the exedrce of an early Christian church. They describe it as detached from the narthex, or inner porch, by an open court; in which, as well as in the porch itself, it appears, by a canon of the Council of Nantes, held in 685, and by other authorities, that bodies were frequently buried. The Will of King Henry the Sixth directed that there should be in " the south side of the body of the church [of the college of Eton] a fair large dore, with a porch, and the same for christeninge of children and weddinges :" which practice was formerly of common occurrence. {Nichols's Royal Wills, p. 297.) The piscina, or holy-water stoup, in one of the angles of the porch at Malmesbury, and in many other porches, may have served as a font, as well as for persons to dip their fingers in, on entering the church. In the hexagonal porch at RedclifFe Church, Bristol, already men- tioned, is a recess in the wall which has been called a confessional. The room over a porch was occupied either as the residence of an officer of the church, for a school, or as the receptacle of the church-books and papers ; for which chests and shelves were provided. At Grafton Church, Worcestershire, it is called the Evidence-house. The employment of the porch as a place of tuition, and as a court of law, has been noticed under the word Parvis. (See also Church-house, Galilee, Hood, Narthex, Portico, Por- Ticus, and Propyl^um.) An instance of a different application of the word porch to that at present in use, is to be found in the following extract from Davies's Anc. Rites of Durham Cath., p. 22:— "At the east end of the north alley of the quire, betwixt two pillars opposite one to the other, was the goodliest fair porch, called the anchorage ; having in it a marvellous fair rood, with the most exquisite pictures of Mary and John, with an altar for a monk to say daily mass." (See Portico.) Porphyry, a stone common in Egypt, varying in colour ; and occasionally used in the mosaic and other decorations of the middle ages. On each side of the tomb of King Henry the Third, in Westminster Abbey Church, is a slab of dark red porphyry, nearly three feet long, and sixteen inches wide. Port, a harbour, or haven; as the port of London, the port of Liverpool, &.c. In this acceptation the word is derived from the Latin partus, a shelter. The suburbs of some cities, as forming approaches to them, are also termed ports ; from porta, Lat., a gateway, or entrance. An instance may be cited from Lincoln, where the northern suburb is called Newport. Portal, from porta, Lat., portail, Fr., the arch over a door or gateway ; the frame- work of a gateway ; a lesser gate where there are two of different dimensions. The French apply the word portail to the highly decorated doorways in the west fronts, and transepts of their cathedrals. 188 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [POR PoRTCULLis,PoRTCHOLLis,por^e-coMZ«se,Fr.,from couler, to flow, or slip down ; coulisse signifying a groove, or gutter; a strong frame-work of tim- ber, resembling the agricultural instrument called a harrow, having a row of iron spikes at the bottom. It was hung in grooves, within the chief gateway of a fortress, or a town, and let down to stop the passage in case of assault. The portcullis seems to have been used by the Ro- mans at an early age, and is mentioned by Livy under the name of cataracta. It still retains its place in many Anglo-Norman castles, and in continental fortresses. The term herse, or herce (a harrow), was formerly employed to designate it ; as also the word Sarrasin : the latter, proba- bly, from its use having been learnt during the crusades. The portcullis, with the chains by which it was moved attached to its upper angles, formed an armorial ensign of the house of Lan- caster; and is of frequent occurrence as a sculp- tured ornament on buildings erected by the mon- archs of the Lancaster family. An example, in the porch of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, is delineated in the engraved Title-page of this volume. The same engine is still the crest of the Dukes of Beaufort, descendants of the royal house in question, and is also used as the arms of the city of Westminster. (See Cullis, with the other articles there referred to; and Whitaker's Anc. Cath. of Cornwall, i. 251.) Portico, an Italicisni of the Lat. porticus, from porta, a gateway, or doorway, or from partus, a shelter; portique, Fr.; "an open space before the doorway, or other entrance to a building fronted with columns. A portico is distinguished as prostyle, or in antis, as it may project from, or recede within the building" (lloskiiig). In the former, the front row of columns is entirely detached from the walls; whilst, in the latter, the side walls extend to and range with the outer columns. Porticos are also named accord- ing to the number of columns in front, and the disposition and arrangement of others between that line and the cella of the temple. If there are only two in the front line, it is called distyle ; if four, tetrasti/le; if six, liexastyle ; if eight, octasti/le ; if ten, decastyle ; &c. When columns thus arranged are in the rear of a building, they form a poslicum. Although the legitimate portico originated with, and constitutes a marked feature of the Greek temple, it may be said to have been employed by the Egyptians in their vast edifices, and by the Indians in their cavern excavations. Columns of varied designs, and of different ar- rangements, belong to the temples of both those people : some of the porticos are evidently in- tended both to shelter and to adorn the chief entrance. At Essenay, in Egypt, there is a small temple, having six columns in front, with antae, and another with four ; whilst all the large temples have columnar arrangements within the courts, and an enriched covered fagade, with columns of entrance to the inner vestibule and adytum. So in the caves of EUora and Ele- phanta, their respective designers formed entrances resembling porticos. In the Greek temples the architects made various designs, both in Athens and in the provinces, for the porticos of their sacred buildings. Some of them have only two columns in front, with antae ; whilst others have not only ten in the front row, but other rows between that and the cella, also continued colon- nades on the sides, and along the rear, or back of the building. The Propylaaa, the temple of Minerva, and the compound temples of the Erec- theum, &c., on the Acropolis, at Athens; and others at Agrigentum, Psestum, Sec, are amongst the most eminent of the Grecian specimens. The Romans continued the same system, or principle, in the numerous and splendid temples which they erected ; but, in some instances, they further in- creased the number of columns, and added greatly to their architectural enrichments. The remain- ing fragments of the temples of Jupiter Tonans, and Jupiter Stator, at Rome, will exemplify this remark. The portico of the Pantheon is perhaps the most perfect and most splendid work remain- ing of the class. See Burgess's learned Topo- graph!/ and Antiquities of Rome, 2 vols. 8vo. Of modern designs, and applications of the portico to churches, chapels, mansions, theatres, private houses, street architecture, Stc, the instances are as countless as they are capricious. Too many of them are common-place imitations of classical examples, misapplied, and tastelessly employed. Inigo Jones's portico for the west front of old St. Paul's Cathedral, London, was a lamentable instance of inappropriate adaptation. Sir Christ- opher Wren, in his design for the west front of PRi] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 189 St. Paul's Cathedral, London, has placed a colon- naded porch before the entrance, with a sort of gallery-portico above, arranging his columns in pairs. (See Ante-portico, Colonnade, Pe- diment, Porch, Porticus, and Temple.) PoRTicus, Lat., is, by some writers, considered to be the same as portico ; but it seems more pro- perly to refer to an arched portion of an early Christian church, or basilica. Bentham {Hist, of Ely Cath.) says " the word porticus occurs several times in Bede, Alcuin, Hedduis, and other ancient Saxon writers, and is generally translated by the English word porch; and so misleads us to think it synonymous with atrium, or vestihulum, denoting a building withoutside the church." To what particular part of the building it applied, antiquaries have differed in opinion. Bede says that monarchs and prelates were interred " in porticu." Some churches are said to have had more than one; each being dedicated to a particular saint. It plainly ap- pears, in some instances, to have meant a porch detached from the main building by means of a square court, or cloister. Bentham (Hist, of Ely Cath., edit. 1812) conjectures that it denoted an aile, or part of the aile, of a church; but he is opposed by Wilkins {ArchcBologia, x. 294), who considers it to have indicated a small chapel, adjoining the western entrance of a church. King (Man. Antiq.) coincides in the latter opinion, and believes that the porticus meant also one of the small chapels at the east end of a large church ; as at Westminster, Gloucester, and Tewkesbury. Whitaker {Ancient Cath. of Cornwall, i. 116) supposes the porticus to have meant a crypt, or concealed chapel; whilst Collier {Church Hist., i. 136), who is followed by many other writers, simply defines the porticus to be a porch. One of its most general significations was evidently that of a sheltered passage, or arched part of a building; in which sense it enters into the com- bination of the words crypto-porticus, and quadri- porticus. (See Crypto-porticus, and Por- tico.) Portland Stone. (See Stone.) Portraiture, Pourtraicture, a picture, or statue of a person : also a pattern, or model. Testators frequently directed portraitures of them- selves to be placed upon their tombs : the monu- ment of the Earl of Warwick was to be made according to a " pourtraicture ;" — either a draw- ing, or a carved model. — Britton s Arch. Antiqs., vol. iv. p. 12, Postern, ■ptterne, Fr., from post, Lat., behind, or after; a small doorway, or gateway at the back of a building. In ancient castles, posterns were small doorways for private communication with the exterior. The word denotes, generally, any small door, or gate, and, in particular, a small entrance by the side of a larger one. (See Gate- house, and Wicket.) PosTicuM, Posticus, Lat., a portico at the back, or rear of a temple. (See Portico, and Por- ticus.) Pot-metal, a species of stained glass, in which the colours have been incorporated whilst the glass was in a state of fusion, and, therefore, pervade the whole mass. For a description of some specimens, of the beginning of the fifteenth century, see Brayley and Neale's Westm. Abbey, ii. 142. Preaching Cross. (See Cross, and Pulpit.) Prebendal Stall (see Stall), the seat occupied by a prebendary in a cathedral, or a collegiate church. Preceptory, a provincial house of the knights' templars, subordinate to their temple, or prin- cipal house in London. It corresponds with the commandery of the knights' hospitallers. (See CoMMANDERY.) Presbytery, 'Tr^isjSur's^iov, Gr., presbyterium, Lat., that part of a Catholic church exclusively used by the officiating priests. It sometimes meant the space enclosed by the altar-raiUngs ; at others it included the whole of the choir. An extension eastward of the cathedral at Ely, now occupied as the choir, was formerly called the presbytery ; and a similar portion of Lincoln Cathedral, be- hind the altar-screen, retains the same name. (See Prismatory, Bentham's Ely Cath., p. 284, ed. 1812, and Wild's Lincoln Cath., p. 11, ed. 1837.) Prest (Godfrey), one of the contractors for Richard II.'s tomb at Westminster. — See Brayley and Neale's Westtn. Abbey Church, ii. 107. Priory, prieure, Fr., prioria, Ital., priorey, Ger.; 190 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [pro a building occupied by a society of religious per- sons, the chief of whom was termed a prior, or a prioress. In some priories the chief was chosen by the monks, and exercised similar jurisdiction to that of an abbot; but, in others, the establish- ment was subordinate to some abbey, by the superior of which the prior was nominated, or removed. In the first case the prior is. sometimes termed conventual, and, in the latter, clauslral. Some priors, as well as abbots, were formerly summoned to parliament. Alien priories were those which were subordinate to foreign monas- teries. (See Abbey, Convent, and Monas- tery.) Among the interesting architectural remains of priories, in England, are those of Binham, Norfolk; Lanercost, Cumberland ; Dun- stable, Bedfordshire; Tynemouth, Northumber- land ; and Llanthony, Monmouthshire. (See Tanner's Not. Mon., hi/ Nasmith, Preface.) PiusMATORY, a word the plural of which, prisma- tories, occurs in the contract for building Cat- terick Church, Yorkshire (dated in the year 1411), to denote the three seats, or sedilia, on the south side of the principal altar. The Rev. J. Raine, in the notes to his edition of that curious contract (p. 9), supposes the word to be an error for presbyteries. He "admits that the whole space within the altar rails was called the jyresbylery; but sees no reason why seats there, which are known to have been occupied by priests alone, should not more especially be designated by that appellation." (See Presbytery, Skat, and Sedilia.) Prison, {pris, Fr., taken, prendre, to take), prendo, Lat., prision, Sp.; a building, or apartment for the confinement of captives taken in war, crimi- nals, or debtors. Most ancient fortresses have a room, or cell of this sort. (See Dungeon, and Donjon.) In the archbishop of Canterbury's palace, at Lambeth, are still shewn the tower and cells in which the Lollards were confined. By the constitutions of different synods, bishops were directed to provide prisons for the confinement of such of the clergy of their diocesses as had de- served punishment. King {Mtin. Antiq. vol. iv. pp. 128 and 154) mentions several cells within the walls and pillars of the cathedrals, and other churches: as at St. Alban's, Gloucester, Canter- bury, Leicester, Glastonbury, Ewenny, in Glamor- ganshire, Dantzic, in Germany, and elsewhere. These were but just large enough for the con- fined person to stand up, or lie down in : had no other lisht or air than was admitted through a small loop-hole, or grating ; which, at the same time, generally afforded the culprit a view of the high altar and the celebration of mass. In the Temple Church, London, there is one of these cells ; and in the north aiie of the choir of Wor- cester Cathedral is a bay-window, represented in the Plate ofWiNDOws, supposed to have been connected with a monk's prison. (See Deca- NiCA, Pediculus, and Secretarium.) Profile, projil, Fr., prqfilo, Ital.; the outline, or contour of a building, or of any of its members. A perpendicular section of a building gives the profile of most of its parts. (See Section.) Pronaos, tjo, Gr., before, and moc, a temple; a vestibule, or inner portico to a temple. In most Egyptian temples the propi/laum, or outer portico, leads into a vestibule, or to a court-yard ; from which the pronaos, another portico, forms the entrance to the adytum, or most sacred part of the edifice. In a similar manner, the space be- tween the outer portico of a Greek temple, and the doorway into the cella, is usually termed the jironaos. It corresponds with the narthex of an early Christian church. (See Narthex.) Propyl^eum, o-^o, Gr., before, and -^ruKri, a portal; in a general sense, any court, or vestibule before a building, or before its principal part; more particularly the entrance to such court, or vesti- bule. The propylasa of the magnificent Egpytian temples sometimes consisted of two towers, rec- tangular in plan, and in elevation resembling a truncated pyramid, having a wall, or screen be- tween them, pierced by a doorway. Attached to some of the pyramids of Nubia are propylaea re- sembling the covered porches of churches. One of these, described as having an arched roof with four stones keyed together by a fifth at the centre, is delineated in one of the illustrations of the volumes on Egyptian Antiqs., in the Library of Entertaining Knoxcledge. The word is now chiefly applied to the building forming the entrance to the Acropolis of Athens. This is commonly called the Prupi/ltea, without any other addition. It appears to have been originally a building with hexastyle Doric porticos before and behind. pul] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 191 Attached to each of its interior angles was a small temple, and between them two pedestals supporting equestrian figures. (See Stuart's Athens, vol. ii. p. 96.) In the writings of the old Greek Christians the word is applied to the porch of a church, or basilica. — Bingham's Orig. Eccles., b. viii. Prostyle, *go, Gr., before, and (rruXos, a column ; a portico in which the columns stand in advance of the building to which they belong. The com- mon phrase, a prostyle portico, is a pleonasm ; as every prostyle forms a portico. (Hosking, article Architecture, Enc. Brit.) Prudde (John), of Westminster, Glazier, cove- nanted to glaze the windows of the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, " with glass beyond the seas, of the finest colours, of blew, yellow, red, purpure, sanguine, and violet,and to make rich and em- bellish the matters, images, and stories," ap- pointed by the executors of the Earl of Warwick " by patterns in paper." He was to be paid " for every foot of glass ii.s., and so for the whole xci.li. i.s. x.d." Dated the 23d June, 25th Henry VI. (1447). — Britton's Arch. Antiqs., vol. iv. p. 11. Prynt, Prey NT, Print, probably either an orna- ment formed of plaster, or a coloured figure, or pattern. In the accounts of St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster (a.d. 1332), are entries of payments to workmen for labour in " laying on gold and pryntes in the chapel," — for " laying on the gold, as well on the said walls as on the placing of the preynts on the marble columns in the chapel." — Brayley and Britton's Anc. Palace at Westm., p. 173. PuDSEY (Hugh), bishop of Durham from 1153 till his death in 1195, erected the Galilee, at the west end of the cathedral ; a Shrine for the relics of St. Bede ; and a Church and episcopal resi- dence at Darlington. — Surtees's Hist, of Durham, vol. i. p. XXV. (See Galilee.) PuE, or Pity (our Lady of). (See Pew, Pity, and Lady-Chapel.) PuLLisH, an old orthography of the word polish. Bartholomew Lambespring, Dutchman and gold- smith, of London, covenanted (in 1449) to *' re- paire, whone, and pullish," and make perfect to the gilding, an image of latten of a man armed, for the tomb of the Earl of Warwick, and all the apparel belonging to it, for xiii.li. — Britton's Arch. Antiqs., iv. 14. Pulpit, pupitre, Fr., pulpito, Ital. and Sp., pid- pitum, Lat., an elevated place, an enclosed stage, or platform, for a preacher in a church. It is analogous to the ancient ambo, tribunal ecclesia, jube, and reading desk. Respecting the different parts of a church in which it was formerly placed, see Bingham's Origines Eccles., b. iii. c. 5, and b. viii. c. 5; Gunn's Inquiry, pp. 216- 223, and the authorities there cited. Its modern situation is within the choir, or chancel, and its most usual form that of an enclosed platform, approached by a flight of steps, supported by one or more pillars, and enclosed by a high parapet. Its materials are marble, bronze, stone, or wood : most usually the last. Some elaborate stone pulpits are met with in the Italian churches, as at Pisa, Siena, &,c. (See Marble, and Forsyth's Italy, vol. i. p. 12.) One composed of white, green, and red marbles, and executed in a style approaching to the pointed, stands on the plat- form of the Mosque of Omar, the site of the temple of Jerusalem. Carved pulpits are of com- mon occurrence in other Turkish mosques. In Milan Cathedral, the metallic pulpits form semi- circular galleries attached to the pillars of the central tower. Few pulpits of any great anti- quity remain in English churches. They are most numerous, perhaps, in Devonshire ; their form being either square, hexagonal, octagonal, or multangular, but rarely circular. They were often richly painted and gilded ; had canopies, or sounding-boards over them ; and attached to some were clocks, or hour-glasses to regulate the extent of the preacher's discourse. In St. Ka- tharine's Chapel, Regent's Park, London, is a fine one, removed from the old church near the Tower. It is of carved oak, of which material many other pulpits still remain. An elaborate example, of the latest pointed class, is in the chapel of Luton Park, Bedfordshire. (See Shaw's Luton Chapel.) Oi stone pulpits there are some good specimens in the churches at Cheddar, Somersetshire ; Wolverhampton, Staffordshire ; and in the cathedrals of Bristol and Worcester. The last is dehneated in pis. xlii. and xliii. of 192 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [pVR Pugin's Specimens of Gothic Arch., vol. ii. The pulpit in the ruins of the Abbey at Shrewsbury, is a beautiful specimen of the style of the earlier part of the fourteenth century. It formed part of the refectory, grace being said, and passages from scripture read in it. Its form is octagonal; three sides projected externally from the wall as a glazed oriel ; three others projected, in a similar manner, into what was the interior of the refec- tory; and the remaining two were closed by the wall, within which was the door of entrance. The whole is of stone, well wrought, but not in good preservation. ( Owen and Blukeiuay's Shreivsbiiri/, vol. ii. p. 88.) In Davies's Rites of Durham Cath., p. 61, "a fair iron pulpit in the Galilee" is mentioned, "with bars of iron to support the monks in going up." In the Fabric Rolls of Exeter Cathedral (1318-1325) are entries of pay- ments for four columns, with bases, sub-bases, and capitals; several great bars of iron; 243 feet of marble steps; and 2000 tiles, "pro la pid- pytie;" which was a distinct building on the north side of the church, where lectures and sermons were occasionally delivered. {Brittons Cath. Antiqs., Exeter, p. 91.) "Four pair of capitals and bases," for the " ambos" of St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster, appear to have been purchased, in 1352, for one shilling. — Smith's Antiqs. of Westm., p. 203. On the continent, the Flemish pulpits of the seventeenth century have attracted much notice from their excessive costliness, and extravagance of composition. They consist of large trunks of trees with carved leaves and branches supporting and overshadowing the stairs and body of the pulpit. Figures of Adam and Eve, of saints and angels, as large as life, with various other de- vices, are frequently placed under these artificial branches, forming altogether a motley mass of incongruous workmanship. (See the article Ambo; a list of old English church pulpits, in the appendix to Britton's Arch. Antiqs., vol. v.; and views and descriptions of several in Lysons's Collection of Gloucestershiie Antiqs.; Magna Britannia: and Wild's Etched Outlines.) Besides church pulpits, small buildings were occasionally raised at the sides of roads, for the purpose of preaching from. Some of these preach- ing crosses, as they are termed, are described under the word Cross. PuNCHONS are mentioned in a document relating to the Tower of London, in the year 1532, as fol- lows : " a new borde ladye in the lenyng place of the bay wyndow, w'in the same dore, [a dore goying into the kyng's watching chamber warde], and viij punchons sett up over the same dore, to enclose the gutter and the roffe." — Bayley's Tower, pt. i. app. p. xx. In modern usage, pufichions, or stanchels, are the subordinate ver- tical timbers in a roof. PuRBECK-STONE. (See Marble and Stone.) PuRFLED, from pourfler, Fr., to embroider; archi- tecture ornamented with sculptures, or carvings representing embroidery, or flowers. It is a word of modern application, and chiefly denotes knots, crockets, or foliage at the angles of canopies, niches, pinnacles, &,c. The " purfed pinnacles" terminating the buttresses of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, have been defined as " little spires, with flower work." (Britton's Arch. An- tiqs., vol. i. p. 3.) Purfed work signifies any delicately sculptured tracery. Purgatory, amongst the Roman Catholics, a sup- posed place for purification of the soul after death, before its admission into heaven. This place is represented in ancient sculptures, paint- ings, and prints, by certain human figures enve- loped in flames; from which angels are repre- sented as praying to relieve them, or from which they are rescued by the arm of the Deity. — Car- ter, in Gent's. Mag. for 1804, p. 232; Pugin's Examples, vol. i. p. 7. Purlin, Pur line, one of the timbers of a roof. Pycnostyle, •ju'x^vo;, Gr., dense, and sruXoc:, a co- lumn ; a term applied to buildings where columns are placed near together. Pyking. "Paid to William Palmer for slicing bell- strings, making bell-colars, /)^/a'«g the bells — 2s." — Accountsfor Louth Steeple, Archceologia, vol. x. p. 89. Pycher-house, the name of a portion of the build- ings of the palace at Westminster. " A litel house called the p;/cher-house, conteyning in length X. fote, and, in brede, vij. fote, which John Randolf, squier, late had." — Brayley atid Britton's Anc. Palace at Westm., p. 337. Pyramid, -ru^a/j.!;, Gr., pyramis, hat., pyramide.Fr. qua] ARCHITECTURAL DICTION^ARY. 193 and Ger. , piramide, Ital.; a solid body having a triangular, square, or polygonal base, and gradu- ally decreasing in circumference from the bottom to the top. Mounds of earth, or barrows of the pyramidal, as the most enduring of all forms, were raised as monuments — chiefly sepulchral — by many ancient people. Silbury Hill, in Wilt- shire, is probably the most remarkable example ill the world : there are many others, of the same class, but of smaller dimensions, on the downs of Wiltshire, Dorsetshire, and in other parts of England. The temple of Belus, at Babylon, is described by Herodotus as a kind of pyramid ; and the aboriginal inhabitants of Mexico adopted nearly the same form, on a large scale, in the constructions of certain sacred monuments, called TeocalU. Amongst the building-s of the Indians and Chinese the pyramidal form is frequently met with ; whilst the Pyramids of Egypt are uni- versally celebrated. A group of these, near the village of Jizeh, or Giza, comprise the largest buildings of the kind in the world. They have been copiously described and illustrated by dif- ferent writers on Egyptian antiquities: who, how- ever, differ essentially from each other, not only as to their object and peculiarities, but even in the statements of their dimensions. The best and most recent authority respecting them is Wilkinson's Topography of Thehes, with his ela- borate and beautiful map of their site. That they were sepulchral seems generally admitted. The tomb of Caius Cestius, at Rome, exhibiting the shape of a pyramid, was evidently adopted by the Romans from Egyptian models. The py- ramidal form prevailed, almost to the exclusion of every other, in the pointed architecture of the middle period. This is evinced, both in the general contour of the edifices (strikingly ex- emplified in the cathedral at Milan), and in the spires and pinnacles with which their minuter parts were so profusely decorated. Leland uses the word p'yramis to denote the spire of Salisbury Cathedral. (See Spire.) Q Quadrangle, from quatuor, Lat., four, and angulus, an angle ; a rectangular space enclosed by build- ings; as a cloister, or a court-yard. The build- ings of many old fortresses, monasteries, and mansions, either for privacy or security, were ranged around one or more quadrangular courts. Quadrant, occurs in the Will of King Henry the Sixth, to denote a quadrangle in the College of Eton, and is similarly employed in other old documents. Quadri-porticus, a quadrangle with porticos, galleries, or ambulatories, on each side. (See Portico, and Porticus.) Quarrel, Quarry (variously spelt Quarrell, Quary, See), words of uncertain derivation and indiscriminate use ; signifying, 1st, an arrow with a diamond-shaped head, adapted for a crossbow ; 2dly, a rectangular pane of glass ; more par- ticularly the lozenge-formed pane, of such uni- versal occurrence in ancient windows; and,3dly, a place, cavern, or pit, whence stone, slate, &c., is quarried, or dug for building, and for other purposes. The Latin words quadra, and quad- rilla, and the French carri, quarrt, and carreau, — all bearing reference to a quadrangular form, — have been cited as tending to illustrate the de- rivation of these terms, {^ee Archccologia,vo\. x. p. 71 ; Brillou's Arch. Antiqs., vol. iv. p. 2; Con- tracts for Catterick Church, Yorkshire, Raine's edit. p. 7 ; Booth's Anal. Diet., p. 390; and the articles Stone, and Marble.) Quarter, an old term signifying a square panel. The tomb of the Earl of Warwick was to have, "under every principal housing, a goodly quarter for a scutcheon of copper and gilt to be set in." — Britton's Arch. Antiqs., vol. iv. p. 12. Quatrefoil, quatrefeuille, Fr., a modern term employed to denote an ornament of frequent occurrence in Christian architecture, formed by a moulding disposed in four segments of circles : so called from its alleged resemblance to a cer- tain expanded flower having four petals. Mould- ings, spandrels, parapets, corbel-tables, panels, the tracery of walls and windows, and almost all the other members of Christian edifices, of the later ages, are profusely decorated with tre- foil, quatrefoil, and cinquefoil ornaments. The quatrefoil is either plain, or enclosed within a square, a lozenge, or a circle. In the former shape it is delineated in Plate of Corbel- taeles, fig. 9; within a square panel, in Plate c c 194 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIOXARV [rat of Brackets, fig. 15; and within a circular panel, in Plate II. of Doorways, fig. 3. Mr. Gunn contends that this characteristic ornament has no reference to any type in the vegetable kingdom; but that it was originally a repre- sentation of the Greek cross (a form much re- verenced by the early Christians,) rounded at the extremities : and that the cinquefoil, trefoil, &c., were modifications of it, gradually introduced by different architects. {Inquiry, pp. 96, 210.) The old terms cross-quarters, and orbs, appear to have designated quatrefoils, or something resembling them. (See Orb, Cinquefoil, Cusp, Fea- thering, Foliation, Gentese, and Tre- foil.) Queen-post, a vertical timber supporting one of the rafters of a trussed roof. (See King-post and Roof.) Quern, Querne, cpypn, ceopn, Sax., a handmill for grinding corn, &c.; supposed to be of greater antiquity than either the wind, or the water-mill. A field near the site of the Roman wall, at Cirencester, is called the querns: it is covered with small hills, having the appearance of tumuli, and was, probably, at one time, used as a burying- place. — S. Lysons, in Archaologia,y(A.x. p. 132. Quire, Quier, Qwere, an old orthography of choir. (See Choir.) Quirk, from fwired, Welsh; literally, a turn; a deep indent; a hollowed part of a capital under the abacus moulding. Quoin, coin, Fr., and cuna, Sp., a corner; ancon, Lat., an elbow, or corner, from ymia, Gr., an angle ; a word denoting the corner, or angle of a wall; and more particularly a brick or stone placed at the exterior angle of a building. Rustic quoins, or corner-stones, are made to project somewhat from the general surface of the wall. (See Coin.) Quoins and quyiiys are named in accounts relating to St. Stephen's Chapel, and the Tower of London, dated re- spectively in 1331 and 1531. R Rabbet, or Rebate, a cut made on the edge of one board to receive the lapping over of another, so as to unite the two, and preserve a level sur- face : the junction thus eflfected being called a rabbet-joint. " Mendyng of the rabetts of the wyndowes," occurs in a survey of the Tower of London, temp. Henry VIII. {Bayley's Tower, pt. i. app. p. xviii.) : probably the cuttings for the insertion of glass. (See Rebate.) Rafter, nsejrceri, Sax., from sfspw, Gr., to cover, o^ofvi, a roof; one of the timbers of a roof, ex- tending from the wall plate to the ridge. The chief rafters are usually called "the principals." Rafter-Roof (see Roof). Ragg, Ragge-stone. (See Stone). Ralph, or Ranulph Flambard, bishop of Dur- ham, the favourite minister of William Rufus, continued the erection of the cathedral which had been commenced by his predecessor, Karilepho. He also built a bridge across the river, near the castle of Durham, founded Norham castle, and executed other architectural works. — Surtees's History of Durham, vol. i. p. xx ; and see Karilepho. Ralph de Salopia, bishop of Bath and Wells from 1329 to 1363, and Ralph de Erghum, who presided over the same see from 1388 to 1400, are both said to have contributed to, and super- intended tiie fortification of, the episcopal palace at Wells. The former prelate seems, however, to have tlie greatest, if not the entire, claim to the particular works alluded to. These are de- scribed as the formation of " a deep moat, and an embattled wall flanked by semicircular towers." The interesting building in question is described, and partially illustrated, in Britton's Pict. Antiqs. of English Cities, and Pugins Examples of Goth. Arch., vol. ii. Rampart, rampart, Fr., riparamento, Ital., pro- bably from rampe, Fr., a slope ; a stone wall, or mound of earth surrounding a fortress. Ramsey (William de) was appointed, in a.d. 1336, to the office of chief mason at the Tower of London, and overseer of the royal works in all castles south of the Trent. His salary was fixed at 12(1. per day, and a robe yearly. — Maitland's London, vol. i. p. 152. Rath, a name given by the ancient Irish to a cas- tramctation, or fortress. Some of the rude forti- fications so denominated are described in Gough's edition of Camden's Britannia, vol. iii. pp. 482, ref] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 195 543 : see, also, Brewer's Introd. to the Beauties of England, Index. Spenser employs the word to denote a hill. Ravy (John), an architect, or master-mason, em- ployed for thirty-six years — in the earliest part of the fourteenth century — in completing the cathedral of Notre Dame, at Paris. — Whit- tington's Hist. Siirv., p. 78. Reading-desk, a frame-work to support a book. Some curious desks of oak, brass, and other materials, exhibiting the skill which was formerly bestowed on the design and execution of these beautiful appendages to churches, are repre- sented in Shaw's Anc. Furniture, Strutt's Man- ners and Customs, and Dresses and Habits of England, and Willemin's Monumens Franpais. The figure of an eagle, prominent in many old reading-desks, is said to designate St. John the Evangelist. (See Aquila, and Lectern.) Rebate, from rebattre, Fr.; an old word of frequent occurrence, signifying a diminution. Thus, re- bated rims, or edges, are those which are slightly chamfered, or sloped off; a rebated &viO\di had its point bent, or turned backwards. Rebus, Lat., an enigmatical representation of the name some of person, or object, by figures, or pictures, instead of words. Bishops, abbots, and other distinguished persons, sometimes adopted rebuses to indicate their names ; and these are frequently found on the buildings which they erected. (See Dal/aivay's Heraldic Inquiries, p. 121; Gough's Sep. Mon., Introd. to vol. ii. p. 47 ; Pugin's Examples of Goth. Arch., vol. i. pp. 60, 62, and vol. ii. pp. 40, 42; and the article Monogram.) Recess, recessus, Lat., from recede, to retire ; a niche, or cavity in the face of a wall. Reclusoey, reclusorium, low Lat., a hermitage. That dedicated to St. Peter, or St. Eustace, and situated behind the royal chapel of St. Peter, in the Tower of London, is so denominated in Rot. Claus. 37th Henry IIL m. 2, 21. (Bay- ley's Hist, of the Tower, pt. i. p. 129.) Rectokia, low Lat., properly denotes a house at- tached to a rectory, and occupied by a rector ; but the word was often applied to any parsonage- house. Rede, or Read (William), bishop of Chichester, erected the original library at Merton College, Oxford, of which he was a fellow ; and also a castle at Amberley in Sussex. The latter he com- menced in the year 1379, and is said to have been employed on it ten years. In Dallaway's Western Sussex it is remarked as peculiar, that the towers at the angles of this fortress are built in the base-court, and do not project from the exterior face of the building. See, also, Wal- pole's Anecdotes by Dallaway, vol. i. p. 211 ; and Dallaway's Eng. Arch., edit. 1833, pp. 26 and 114." Redoubt, in fortification, a small square fort, de- fended in front, and encompassed by a ditch and a rampart. Reeding, a small convex moulding. Several reed- ings are often placed parallel to each other, and project from, or are inserted into, the adjoining surface. Refectory, refectoire, Fr., refectorium, Lat., from reficio, to refresh ; an eating-room ; the hall, or apartment in a monastery where the monks took their meals, and where, on high solemnities, the superior of the establishment dined with them. This apartment was generally a parallelogram in form, and was always connected with the cloister and the kitchen. At the upper end of the refectory was a raised floor, or dais ; and, on the wall above, a large crucifix, which was, in some instances, adorned with paintings, or tapes- try. In one avenue of the cloister was generally a doorway opening immediately into the refec- tory : under which apartment, at Winchester Cathedral, the kitchen was situated ; whilst over the refectory, at Castle Acre Priory, is supposed to have been the dormitory. In the monasteries at Whalley, Winchester, and Worcester, the re- fectory adjoined the southern side of the cloister ; but at Netley, and at Durham (see Plate, Ground-plan of Durham Cath.), it is placed to the eastward. The refectory at Worcester is now occupied as a school-room ; that at Durham as the library; and that at Winchester is divided into an upper and a lower room. Of the other refectories named above, as well as those of Glas- tonbury, &c., little more than the foundations and some fragments of the walls are standing. " Perhaps the two most perfect conventual re- 196 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARV [rem fectories are those of Chester and Worcester : the former 98 feet by 34, and lighted by hand- sonic windows, with a noble one at the east end, now blocked up; the latter, including the vesti- bule, 120 by 38. That of St. Edmonds-bury, according to William of Worcester, who measured it, was 171 feet by 40." {Owen and Blakeway'n Shrewsburi), vol. ii. p. 87.) The refectory was usually under the care of an officer called the refedioner , who attended to its cleanliness, took charge of the utensils, summoned the monks to their meals by ringing a bell, and superintended the general arrangements of the room. Whilst the monks were in the refectory, or in the fratery, as it was more commonly called, they were not allowed to converse ; but the Bible, or some other religious book, was read to them from a desk, or pulpit (see Pulpit), by a chap- lain. Richard II. held a parliament, in 1378, in the refectory at Gloucester; and, on this and similar occasions, the severity of monastic dis- cipline was relaxed : the whole establishment was crowded with guests, and all was festivity and bustle. The abbey of Glastonbury once received 200 knights and their retainers ; and that of Bury had stables for 300 horses within its walls. (Willis's Mitred Abbeys.) For some curious de- tails of such portions of the monastic discipline as related to this apartment, see Fuller s Churdi History, b. vi. p. 285, Fosbroke's Brit. Mon., p. 397, and Miliiers History of Winchester, vol. ii. p. Ill, where is also a minute descrip- tion of the refectory at Winchester. (Sec also the articles Beddern, and Fratery.) In Pierce Ploxumans Creed, a refectory is described as — "An hallc for an hygli kynge an household to holden, M'ith brode hordes abouten ybenched well clene, With wyndoes of gloas wroght as a chirch." The dining-halls of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge correspond with the refectories of ancient monasteries. Reglet, Regula, regula, Lat., a rule, or square; a flat, narrow moulding, employed to separate panels, or other members; or to form knots, frets, and similar ornaments. Regula denotes also the small fillet, or rectangular block, ap- pended to the taenia of the Doric architrave. Regnum, Lat., "a golden circlet, or crown in its most simple form." Regna, with crosses, and lamps attached, were suspended ip various parts of ancient churches. (Gunu's Inquiry, p. 132.) A crown of gold, offered by Canute at the altar of Canterbury Cathedral, is said to have been preserved there till the Reformation. — Dart's Canterbury Cath., p. 7. Relics of saints and martyrs, — that is, some real, or pretended portions of their mortal remains ; of their apparel; or of something connected with their lives or deaths, sufferings or triumphs, were formerly, and still are, held in superstitious ve- veneration, and carefully preserved by Roman Catholics. (See Wallen's Little Mapleslcad, note A., Turner's Normandy, vol. i. pp. 60, 172, and Staveley's Hist, of Churches, p. 200.) The de- positary, or casket, in which a relic was kept, was termed a reliquary. This was sometimes a ring, a tablet, a portable shrine, or other vessel of costly materials, and enriched witli architec- tural and other decorations. (See Pix, Sci- RiNUM, and Shrine.) In Shaw's Anc. Fur- niture, are engravings of reliquaries. Relief, Fr., Relievo, Ital., from rilevare, to raise, or remove ; denotes a part of any carved or sculp- tured ornament projecting from the surface to which it belongs. The compound Italian words alto-relievo, basso-relievo, and mezzo-relievo, sig- nifying, respectively, high, low, and medium, middle, or half-relief, are employed to intimate the relative degrees of projection of the objects to which they are applied. (See Alto-relievo, and Basso-relievo.) The curious carvings under the seats in churches, and the sculptures on the west fronts of Wells, E.xeter, and other cathedrals, afford elaborate examples of basso and alto-relievo. Remigius, a monk of the abbey of Fescamp, in Normandy, came to England with William the Conqueror, and was appointed by him, in the year 1067, or, as some authors state, in 1070, to the bishopric of Dorchester. He immediately transferred the see to Lincoln, where he began to erect a cathedral. The lower parts of the present west front, and of the towers at its angles, appear to be tiie work of this prelate. — Wild's Lincoln Cath., edit. 1837, pp. 3-5. rib] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 197 Rendering, a name for the first coat of plastering to all walls, and to the interior of chimney flues. It is also called pargetting. Reredos, Rerdos, Reredosse, arriere dos, Ft., behind the back; the back of a fire-place; also an altar-piece, a screen, or partition-wall. In Holingshed" s Chronicles we are told that, before chimneys were used in mean houses, " each man made his fire against a reredosse in the hall, where he dined, and dressed his meat." "The reredosse at the high altare," in Eton College Chapel, and "the reredos bearing the roodelofte, departing the quier and the body of the church," at King's College, Cambridge, are mentioned in the will of the founder. {Nichols's Royal Wills, pp. 297 and 302.) In the fabric roll of Exeter Cathedral for the year 1389-90, is a charge of 20s. for labour in cleaning " the front called the rerdos behind the great altar." {Brittoii's Cath. Antiqs., Exeter, p. 98.) One of the agreements relating to the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, directed that there should be constructed " a pair of desks of timber, poppies, seats, sills, planks, reredoses of timber, and patands of timber, and a crest of fine entail, with a bovvtel roving on the crest." {Britton's Arch. Antiqs., vol. iv. p. 11.) (See Dos d'ane, Dosel, Doser, Rood-loft, Screen, and Soursadel.) Respond, Responde, Responder, Respound, terms occurring in various old contracts, in a manner similar to the following: — "And the cler-story shal,be made of clene-asheler groundid upon ten mighty pillars, with four respounds; that ys to say, two above joyning to the qwere, and two beneth, joyning to the end of the said bodye." {Contract for the Nave of Fotheringhay Church, Dugdale's Man. Angl., vol. vi. pt. iii. p. 1414.) The breadth of the nave of Eton Col- lege Chapel, " between the responders," was di- rected, by the Will of King Henry the Sixth, to be 32 feet. {Nichols's Royal Wills, p. 296.) From these, and similar passages, it appears that a half column, or a pilaster attached to a wall, or to a pillar, and responding, or corresponding, to another on the opposite side of the building, was called a respond. Ressaunt, Ressant, (probably from ressentir, old Fr., meaning a return), a name employed chiefly in the Itinerary of William of Worcester (see pp. 220 and 269). It meant some moulding, and, probably, from its form, the ogee. In one pas- sage a double ressaunt is mentioned. A ressaunt lorymer, which he also names, might have been so called from the circumstance of its outer edge being curved, so as to form a drip, or larmier. ( Willson, Glossary to Pugin's Specimens.) Retable, a word of French origin, employed to designate an altar-screen. Reticulated Work, a species of masonry, or brickwork, formed externally by small square stones, or bricks, placed lozenge-wise, and pre- senting the appearance of net-work. This, which corresponds with the opus reticulatum of the Romans, was introduced amongst the latest spe- cimens of Tudor architecture, as at Hampton Court, £cc. (See Chequers and Chequered.) It was also imitated by mouldings, crossing each other diagonally, on pillars of some Norman churches. (See Compartment of Durham Cathe- dral, interior.) Retro-Choir. (See Lady-Chapel.) Reve (Thomas), " of the pai-yssh of Seint Sepul- chre, without Newgate of London, Glasyer," in conjunction with Galyon Hoone, of the parish of St. Mary Magdalen, Southwark, Richard BouNDE, of the parish of St. Clement Danes, and James Nicholson, of St. Thomas's Hos- pital, Southwark, also Glasiers, covenanted with the provost, &c., of King's College, Cambridge, to glase 18 windows of the chapel, and to per- form other works there, as already stated under the name of Nicholson. {Brittoii's Arch. Antiqs., vol. i. p. 16.) Revels, Reveals, from revello, Lat.; as applied to a doorway or a window, denote their vertical sides between the faces of the wall, and the door, or the window-frame. Revestry, an old orthography of the word vestry, (See Sacristy and Vestry.) Rib, from jiib. Sax,, a moulding on the interior of a vaulted roof. In the earliest periods of the art of vaulting, the ribs were generally flat and square- edged (seeFiew of Crypt, Canterbury Cathedral); subsequently they presented a convex surface, and were variously moulded, clustered, and orna- mented. They are generally placed on the groins of the vault, and sometimes, also, on different 1-98 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIOXARY [rom parts of the surface, between the groins. For representations of ribs, and full particulars of their ordinary arrangements, see Plates of Bosses and Rib-mouldings; Tracery of Vaulted Ceilings ; the articles Groin, Tra- cery, and Vault; and Willis s Arc/i. of the Middle Ages, chap. vii. sec. 2. The mouldings of timber roofs, and those forming tracery on walls, and in windows, are sometimes called ribs. Richard the Carver, in conjunction vvith one brother Rowshy, a monk, was employed on some repairs in the church of St. Mary, at Stamford, in the reign of King Henry the Sixth. He is called a sculptor by Walpole. — Peck's Antiqs. of Stamford, lib. iv. cap. 5. Ridge, the upper edge of a roof, which was often ornamented with moulded tiles, called ridge-tiles, OT crest-tiles ; also with lead. (SeeCREST-TiLEs.) Willis, in Arch, of the Middle Ages, p. 72, applies the word ridge to the intersection of two surfaces of a vaulted ceiling. Rode, Rode-soller. (See Rood, Rood-loft, and Solarium.) Rodeburn (Thomas), chancellor of the university of Oxford, in 1420, and bishop of St. David's, built the chapel of Merton College, Oxford. — Chalmers's Hist, of the University, vol. i. p. 9. Roger, bishop of Sarum from 1107 till his death in 1139, is styled, by some of our chroniclers, as " the great builder of churches and castles." The principal works entitling him to such a deno- mination were the castle at Devizes, considered as one of the most stately edifices in England ; anotlier at Sherborne, little inferior ; and a third at Malmesbury : he expended large sums of money in completing and embellishing the castle and the cathedral at Old Sarum. — Dodsxuorth's Salisbury Cath., pp. 22, 24 ; Britton's Cath. Antiqs., Salisbury, pp. 11, 12. Roger, archbishop of York from 1154 till 1181, commenced rebuilding his cathedral after its de- struction by fire. The old choir, with the crypt beneath, were parts of his work : the former was taken down and rebuilt in the fourteenth cen- tury; but a part of the crypt still remains. — Britton's Cath. Antiqs., York, p. 30. Roll and Fillet-moulding, a convex moulding with a square fillet projecting from its face. This form prevails both in horizontal string-courses, and in the small attached shafts of pillars in the early examples of pointed architecture. Roman Architecture, is that method or style of composition in building practised by the ancient Romans. It is said to have been derived ori- ginally from the Etruscans ; but the Romans subsequently adopted the Greek orders in their public and private edifices, — corrupting, however, the beauty of their originals by tasteless varia- tions of their forms and ornaments. Perhaps the greatest novelty and merit of Roman architecture consisted in the invention and extensive applica- tion of the arch. In Rome and in her colonies are magnificent remains of temples, amphitheatres, baths, palaces, circuses, aqueducts, cloaci, fora, basilicas, raausolea, triumphal arches, and co- lumns. The introduction of Christianity, and the decline of Roman power, greatly modified, as well as deteriorated, the architecture of the Ro- mans. By employing ranges of arches resting upon columns, without the intervention of a per- fect entablature, as in the palace of Diocletian, at Spalatro, &c., a new variety of architecture was produced, which Gunn, and some other writers, have termed Romanesque ; and in which the character of the pure Roman architecture was first essentially altered. In Britain there are nu- merous fragments of walls, towers, villas, &c., erected by the Romans ; several of the best authenticated of which have been already enu- merated in the article Architecture — Anglo- Roman. (See also Arch, Domestic Archi- tecture, Mosaic, Order, Pavement, Tem- ple, and Villa.) The ecclesiastical architecture of Europe is commonly traced backwards from the pointed to the semicircular arched system, and from the latter to the Roman. That the earliest English churches were imitations of Ro- man buildings, may be fairly inferred from the fact that most contemporary writers describe them as in " the Roman manner." (See Romanesque.) Roman Bricks, or Tiles, are amongst the ves- tiges of the architectural works, in England, attributed to the Romans. They are generally found, in horizontal layers, at regular intervals in the height of a wall of rubble, or similar materials; and frequently round the curve of an ROO] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY 199 arched doorway, or window. (See Plate I. of Arches, fig. 1 ; Plate I. of Doorways, fig. 1 ; and Plate ofWiNoows, figs. 1. and 2.) Their thickness varies from one to two inches, and they usually measure fourteen inches long, by eleven inches in width. Rickraan (Aii Attempt, Sfc, p. 300) considers that similar bricks were made and employed by the Saxons some time after the departure of the Romans from Britain. (See Brick.) Romanesque Architecture, a name employed by Gunn in describing that variety of architec- ture which prevailed after the decline of the Ro- man empire ; viz. from the reign of Constantino till the introduction of the pointed arch. In most of its details the Romanesque was, as its name indicates, a rude imitation of Roman archi- tecture. (^Historical Inquiry, p. 6.) Professor Whewell approves of this application of the term, observing that it embraces all the varieties which have been denominated Saxon, Lombard, Nor- man, Byzantine, Sic. {Arch. Notes on German Churches, p. 31, edit. 1833; and see Pugin's Examples of Goth. Arch., vol. ii. p. xii., where the term is similarly adopted by Willson.) Rood, Roode, pobe, jiob, Sax., a cross ; a crucifix, or image of Christ on the cross, placed in a church. The holj/ rood, as it was commonly termed, was a cross, with an effigy of our Saviour, generally as large as life. It was ele- vated at the junction of the nave and choir, and faced the western entrance to a church. To render it complete, figures of the Virgin Mary and St. John were placed at the sides of the cross (allusive to 29th chap, of St. John, v. 26). In the case of" the black rood of Scotland," in Durham Cathedral, these figures — and, in Win- chester Cathedral, the rood also — are said to have been made of silver, but they were commonly of wood. {Davies^s Anc. Rites, S)C., p. 24, and Milner's Winchester, vol. ii. p. 33.) In most large churches the rood was accompanied also by figures of the patron saint, angels, and sometimes other personages. (See Bingham's Orig. Eccles., b. viii. ch. vi. s. 8; Staveley's Hist, of Churches, p. 199; Fullers Church Hist. — Hist.ofWaltham, p. 16; Fosb. Brit. Mon., p. 501; and the ar- ticles Overharde, and Roodloft.) The rood was sometimes called a patible, from patibulum, Lat. {Owen and Blakexcay's Shrewsbury, vol. ii. p. 51.) ''A paynted cloth to hang before the roode in Lent," is named in an old document printed in Kempe's Loselcy Manuscripts, p. 168. Rood-loft, Rode-soller, Perke, terms em- ployed to denote a loft, or gallery, in a church, containing the rood and its appendages. The name rode-soller is derived from rood, and so- larium, Lat., a loft, or garret : in a similar manner the bell-soller was a loft in a tower for ringfers {Blomefeld's Norfolk, vol. vi. p. 69, 8vo. edit.) The rood-loft was termed the perke in several testamentary documents ; legacies being be- queathed " to find lights to burn before the perke." {Blomefeld, vol. iv. p. 499.) It was called pegma in some Latin writings ; and, on account of the figures it contained, the statu- arium in others. The loft, or gallery, thus variously denomi- nated, was generally placed over the chancel screen in parish churches, and was an addition peculiar to the church of Rome. The rood-loft, or gallery, had its real support from tie-beams, which connected it with the walls of the build- ing ; but, in the decorative construction, it ap- peared to rest on a range of arches, or mullions, below : so that, although both the loft and the screen are generally (as in the remainder of this article) included under the name of rood-loft, they were, in point of fact, totally independent of each other. Rood-lofts are formed both of stone and wood . Examples, of the former material, still remain in several English cathedrals. Those in York, and in Canterbury Cathedrals (already described underORGAN-scREEN) displaygreat richness of workmanship, but are exceeded in point of de- sign by several others. That in Lincoln Cathe- dral is regarded by some antiquaries as the best. At St. David's, a rood loft, of the fourteenth century, formerly of surpassing beauty, is at pre- sent almost a ruin; having been injured by the sinking of the central tower. This was, in fact, as were some wooden rood-lofts, double ; the spaces on each side of the central archway, be- tween the eastern aiid western screen, being oc- cupied by monuments. In the double screen at Gilden-Morgan, Cambridgeshire, the corre- sponding places are appropriated as pews. Other 200 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [roo stone rood-lofts of fine design are remaining in Exeter (see Britton's Cath. Antiqs., Exeter), and in other cathedrals: also in St. Alban's Abbey Church, and some other churches. Wooden rood-lofts are of two kinds; viz. vaulted, and panelled. Vaulted rood-lofts (some- what resembling that of stone at Exeter) are constructed upon pillars and open arches ; being generally of rnther earlier date than panelled ones. That of Clynog-Vavvr, in Carnarvonshire, was perhaps erected late in the thirteenth cen- tury : that of Llanrwst, in Denbighshire, — ^a sjjlendid work, removed from the abbey of Maenan, — early in the fourteenth. At Conway is a very rich one, of later date, with fan- groining; resembling, in its general effect, that of Dartmouth, in Devonshire. (See Lj/sons's Mag. Brit., Devonshire.) A panelled rood-loft is usually placed upon a range of mullions with tracery between them. Over the mullions there is usually a rich running border, in a casement moulding, displaying the wildest varieties of the carved vine. Above the latter, the east and west faces of the gallery project upon a coved ceiling ; which ceiling has generally rectangular panels covered with tracery disposed in circles, and many other geometrical patterns. The upright faces of the galleries consist, both in the vaulted and panelled rood-lofts, of statues under canopies facing the west, and elaborate tracery on the side next the altar; or of tracery on both sides. In each of these varieties there is a basement, about three feet high, interrupted only by tlie central arch. This arch, in the panelled rood-loft, is the richest part of the work, and is often placed between two others, east and west of it, higher than itself, helping to support the gallery ceiling, and resting on distinct piers. In this complex arrangement, which nothing but a model could render clear to those who have not seen it, the architects of the middle ages have manifested much fancy and originality. The central archway was closed either by doors, gates, or curtains ; and the loft above was reached by means of a straight or winding staircase, placed either in the wall of the church; in an exterior turret, which rose above the summit of the building; or at- tached to one of the piers of the central tower. Part of a beautiful rood-loft, in St. Patrishew's Chapel, near Crickhovvel, Brecknockshire, is re- presented in Hoare's Giraldus Cambrensis, pi. v. fig. 3. In the church of Newtown, Montgomery- shire, is a part of that which once belonged to Abbey Cwmhir, in Radnorshire, and which re- tains much of the gilding, and the white, red, green, and blue colours, with which this, as other rood-lofts, was profusely decorated. At the church of Pennant Melangell, in the same county, the remnants of a rood-loft exhibit the legend of St. Monacella, executed in coarse carv- ing on the running border; and it may be ge- nerally observed that a wild freedom, both of design and workmanship, is peculiar to this kind of screen-work. The rood-loft, according to Dr. Milner {Hist, of Winchester, vol. ii. p. 33), and a writer in the Gentleman's Magazine (vol. Ivii. p. 661), was the place whence sermons were addressed to the con- gregations in the naves of churches, on four Sun- days in every year. This opinion is, however, controverted by Mr. Gunn. (See Hist. Inquiry, p. 220, and the article JuisE.) In Protestant churches, the place of the rood-loft is now occu- pied by the organ (see Organ-screen); and, according to some authorities, the rood-loft was used by musicians in Roman Catholic times. {Milner, ut sup.; and Fosb. Brit. Mon., p. 283.) It appears that, in some instances, a plain beam of timber, extending across the church, was the only support for the rood. This is still the case in many foreign cathedrals {Woods's Letters of an Arch., vol. i. p. 212), as at Milan, &c. ; and the beam still remains in some Eng- lish churches. At Salisbury Cathedral a timber so placed, and, in all probability, so appro- priated at an early period, was removed during the alterations made by the late Mr. Wyatt. {Dodsworth's Salisbury Cathedral, p. 181.) For observations on, and representations of, ancient rood-lofts, see Oiven and Blukeway's Shrewsbury, vol. ii. p. 51 ; Peck's Desiderata Curiosa, p. 305; Collie's Illustrations of Glasgow Cathedral, folio (1836), pis. 15, 18; Bridgens's Sefton Church: Wild's Lincoln Cath., pis. 8, 13; Lysoiis's Mag. Brit., Camb.,p.59 ; Kempe's Loseley Manuscripts, p. 162; and the articles Reredos, Rood, and Screen. Rood-Tower, Rood-Steeple, were phrases some- times applied to the tower, or steeple, at the in- ROO] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 201 tersection of the nave and transept of a church. (See Church, Steeple, Tower, and Tran- sept.) Roof, pop, hjiop, Sax., o|o^rj, o^otpog, Gr., from sgjyw, to cover; toil, Fr., tetto, Ital., dach, Ger. ; the exterior covering of a building. The roofs of Egyptian temples were generally flat, formed by large slabs of stone ; and, their lower, or inner surfaces, or ceilings, were painted with various devices. Those of the Greek temples were very slightly inclined, to allow the rain to run off; their peculiar form producing low and flattened pediments at each end. Roman roofs were of various forms. The knowledge of the science of vaulting in stone and brick, enabled the Romans to employ those materials in cupolas and other roofs: and of their skill in timber-roofing, we have evidences in the different details given by Vitruvius. In the middle ages roofs were gene- rally framed of wood ; whilst the large churches were usually finished, internally, by vaulted ceil- ings, of stone. A very singular roof, covering a chapel attached to Willingham Church, Cam- bridgeshire, is delineated in Li/soiis's Mag. Brit., Canih., p. 285. It is constructed entirely of stone, without any timber, having bold ribs springing from corbels: it has an acute pitch. Another, of a similar construction, covers the porch of Barneck Church, Northamptonshire. Some other varieties of stone roofs will be noticed in the article Vault: on the present occasion the re- marks will be confined to those of timber. These roofs generally consisted of two sloping sides, formed by rafters and inferior timbers, and con- nected at their lower extremities by tie-beams. They were usually covered, externally, by lead, shingles, slates, tiles, or other materials ; and, when left open to the interior, the rafters were frequently moulded into ornamental ribs, form- ing, by their intersections, rectangular panels. At these intersections, painted and gilded bosses were frequently placed ; and the panels were also sometimes painted. In this form they were called rafter-roofs, or beam-ceilings. Some beautiful and curious examples of open timber roofs remain in the abbey church at St. Alban's, the churches of Cirencester, Great Malvern, Lavenham, Strat- ford-upon-Avon, and Yarmouth, and in many other buildings. The collegiate, castellated, and palatial halls of England afford, perhaps, the most magnificent examples of ancient timber roofs in the world. To enumerate the beauties and peculiarities of these, would require more space than the limited extent of this volume can afford. That of Westminster Hall, with others at Eltham, Hampton Court, and the colleges of Oxford, are engraved and described in Pugins Specimens, and Examples of Gothic Arch.; and , others at Crosby Hall, London, Wollaton Hall, Sec, in Britton's Arch. Antiqs. of Great Britain. That of Lambeth Palace is represented and de- scribed in Brayley's History, 6;c. of Lambeth Palace. See Plate I. of Arches, fig. 20, for a part of the roof of Crosby Hall, London; and, for other ancient roofs, see the Compartments of Exeter, Durham, and Canterbury Cathedrals, in the accompanying plates. The pitch of a roof is the angle which it forms with the wall of the building. In eastern countries the roofs of houses and public buildings are flat, or but slightly in- clined. In the more western and northern na- tions, the pitch is comparatively lofty, to throw off snow and water. In many instances in Eng- land, roofs were at first very highly pitched ; and afterwards, when repairs were necessary, they were lowered. This is shewn by the marks left on many old central towers, where roofs of lofty have been removed for others of lower pitch ; as at Hereford and Oxford Cathedrals, &c. (See Wood-cut of Spires, fig. 5; and Plate of Towers, fig. 9.) See, also. Smith's Engraved Specimens ofAnc. Carpentry, consisting of Framed Roofs from various Ancient Buildings, 4to. 1787 ; and the articles Chare-roffed, Collar-beam, Comblea, Common-pitch, Compass-roof, Crest-tiles, Cupola, Dome, False-roof, Gable, Gothic - pitch. Hammer -beam. King-post, Lantern, Lead, Louvre, Pe- diment, Queen-post, Rafter, Ridge, Shin- gle, Tie-beam, Thatch, Tile, and Vault. Room, pum. Sax., chambre, appartement, salle, Fr., camera, Ital., raum, Ger.; an interior space, or division of a house, separated from the remainder by walls, or partitions, and entered by a doorway. The principal rooms of ancient houses and mon- asteries are noticed under their respective names; as Gallery, Hall, Parlour, Refectory, 8cc. The floors of the rooms in old buildings D D 202 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARV [rus were formed either with boards, stones, earth, or other materials, and were generally covered by rushes, or rush-mats ; their walls by tapestry, or wainscot-panelling ; and their roofs by elaborate timber-work. (See Domestic Architecture, Drawing-room, Kitchen, Paradise, &c. &c.) Rose, Rosette, an ornament sculptured on each face of the abacus of some Corinthian capitals ; also an ornament resembling a rose, frequently occupying the soffit of a corona, or the coffer of a ceiling, in buildings of the classical orders ; and also in the mouldins: of an arch in some Anglo- Norman edifices. As a badge of the Tudor family, the same flower is sculptured in many parts of the buildings erected whilst they reigned in England. (See Engraved Title-page.) RosE-wiNDow. (See Window.) Rostrum, Lat., literally, the beak of a bird; also, the beak, or fore-part, of the head of a ship : the elevated platform, or stage, in the forum of an- cient Rome, from whence public orators addressed the people : so called from its basement having representations of the prows of ships. Generally speaking, a rostrum is any platform in a hall, or assembly-room, whence a speaker addresses an audience. Rotunda, rotondo, Ttal., a building circular in plan, both internally and externally. The most cele- brated building of this class is the Pantheon, at Rome. (See Round Church.) Rough-cast, a species of plaster to cover the ex- terior of a building, containing a mixture of lime, small shells, or pebbles, fragments of glass, and similar materials. Rough-setter, a mason who only built with rough, or hammered stone; in contradistinction to the J'ree-masori, who wrought with the mallet and chisel. William Horwode, Free-mason, the con- tractor for building the nave of Fotheringhay Church, was to set " nether mo nor fewer free- masons, rogh-setters ne leyes," upon the said work, than he had authority for. (Dugdale's Mon. Aiigl., vol. vi. pt. iii. p. 1415.) Round, an old term signifying a turret or tower, of a circular, or nearly circular, form ; also, a room within such a turret. Round Church. (See Church.) Round Tower. (See Tower.) Rovezzano (Benedetto da), called also Benedict the Carver; a Florentine sculptor, employed by Cardinal Wolsey to construct a tomb in the tomb-house at the east end of St. George's Chapel, Windsor. King Henry the Eighth afterwards employed him to complete the same tomb for him, in a more sumptuous manner. It was to have comprised, in carvings, 133 statues, and 44 stories, or bas-reliefs ; but, the artist dying soon after 1550, it was never finished. In 1646, it was demolished by order of the parliament. ( Wal- pole's Anecdotes, by Dallatuay, i. 184.) RowsBY (Brother), a monk, was engaged, in con- junction with Richard the Carver, on some re- pairs in the church of St. Rlary, at Stamford, in the reign of Henry the Sixth. {Wa/pole's Anecdotes, by Dullawaij , i. 71.) Royal Glass, RyallGlas, painted glass. "Roiall glas fulfyiled with ymagery," is noticed in tiie Kiquire of Low Degree. RuNic-KNOT, Danish-knot, a twisted ornament common on buildings of the Anglo-Saxon, or Danish era. (See Knot, and Plate I. of Crosses, fig. 1.) Rushes were formerly used on the floors of churches, and also on those of private rooms, for carpets. Ilentzner slates that the floor of the presence chamber at Greenwich was strewed with hay. In accounts relating to St. Mary's Church, Shrewsbury, is an entry of payment for " seven burthen oi rushes — Is. 96?." {Owen and Blake- wai/s S/irewsbiiri/, vol. ii. p. 359) ; and in others of Hengrave Hall, Suffolk (1527), " for rushes for the chambers, ij.s." {Gage's Hengrave, p. 48.) A manuscript in the British Museum (Coit. Claud., b. vi. 195, 196) enumerates certain fes- tival days on which the choir of a church was strewed with rushes, hay, sand, or ivy-leaves. It was formerly a practice to celebrate the con- secration of a church, or the anniversary of the saint to whom it was dedicated, by carrying gar- lands of rushes and flowers in procession to the church door. This practice is still continued in some parts of England. Russell (John), was bishop of Lincoln from 1480 SAl] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 203 to 1494, having previously filled the see of Ro- chester. He added a chapel on the south side of the cathedral of Lincoln, and built great part of the episcopal palace at Buckden. {Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ix. Lincolnshire, p. 622.) Rustic Work, a mode of building in which the faces of the stones employed are left rough, only the sides where they are intended to unite being wrought smooth. Several examples of this mode of workmanship are found amongst the buildings of antiquity ; and in the designs of the Italian architect, Bruneleschi, it formed a prevailing fea- ture. Rustic Quoin, a stone at the angle of a building, projecting from the surface of the wall, and having its edges bevelled. (See Coin and Quoin.) Ryfa AT, possibly from refente, Fr., a cleft, or groove ; a word applied to the gables of a turret of King's College Chapel. In one of the original agree- ments for the erection of the edifice in question, are " fynyalls, ryfaat gabbletts," &,c. Rysts : — " vj. dayes worke for stoppyng of the rysts in the roffe [of the king's great chamber in the Tower of London] for colors laying." (Survey, temp. Henry VIII., in Bayley's Hist, of the Tower, pt. i. app. p. xix.) Saceli.um, a monumental chapel within a church (see Chapel) : also a small chapel in a village. {Fosb. Enc. of Antiqs., p. 523.) Sacuarium, Lat., a small family-chapel in a Roman house, devoted to a particular deity : also, the cella, penetrale, or adytum of a temple. As de- noting a receptacle for any thing sacred, the word was sometimes applied to the sacristy and the piscina. (See under each word.) Sacking Bell. (See Saint's Bell.) Sacristy, sacmfz'e, Fr.,sac7istia,Sp. and Ital., from sacer, Lat., sacred ; a strong room in, or attached to, a church, where the sacred vestments and the utensils belonging to the altars were placed. It was also termed the sextry, the vestiary, the salu- tatorium, and the secretarium : its modern name is the vestry. It was the duty of the officer of the sacristy (who was termed a sacrist, sacristan, or secretarins) to take charge of the vestments, bells, and clocks; to ring the saint's bell; and to perform a variety of other offices. (See Se- cretarium; Fosb. Brit. Mon., pp. 185, 377; and Milner's Winchester, vol. ii. p. 30.) Saint, from sanctus, Lat., a person sanctified, or canonized, by the church of Rome. The Ca- tholic calendar commemorates an immense num- ber of persons regarded as saints. Alban Butler has devoted eight octavo volumes, abounding in the most marvellous and romantic fictions, to a description of their lives, miracles, privations, mortifications, and sufferings. Staveley ( Hist, of Churches, pp. 121-126) contends that churches were not dedicated to the worship of the saints whose names they bore, but were merely so named to excite a reverence for, and emulation of, their presumed virtues. By certain ecclesiastical synods and decrees it appears that parishioners were re- quired to place an image of the patron saint, or a tablet inscribed with his name, in every church. Besides this figure, a number of effigies of other saints were sculptured, both on the exteriors and interiors of large churches, and painted on the glass in their windows; each figure being iden- tified, and distinguished from the others, by its peculiar attribute, or emblem. Some chapels in France are called Saintes Chapelles, from containing a number of relics of saints. (See Chapel and Reliquary, sub. Relics.) Saints'-bell, Sancte-bell, Sanctus - bell, Saunce-bell, Sance-bell (from sancte and sanctus, Lat.), and Sacring-bell (from sacri, Fr., sacred); a small bell rung when the priest repeated that verse of the Te Deum — " Sancte, sancte, sancte, Deus sabaoth." It was either portable, or fixed in a turret on the roof of a church. In the latter case its rope descended into the choir near the altar. Warton mentions " a low, square tower (at the west end of Kid- dington Church, Oxfordshire), containing three large bells, and a sanctus-bell, or saint' s-bell." {Hist, of Kiddington, p. 14.) In an inventory relating to the church of St. Mary Magdalen, Bermondsey, is the item "iiij. bells and a sance- bell." {Kempe's Loseley MSS., p. 169.) Du Cange, v. Rota, mentions a wheel, full of small 204 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [SAN bells, which was attached to the wall near the altar, and whirled round at the reading of the ])assage in question. (See Given and Blakewai/'s Shrewsbury, ii. 344 ; and Walker's Contin. of Piigin, pt. iii.) Sais, or S£ez (John de), abbot of Peterborough from 1114 to 1125, laid the foundation of a new church there in 1117; generally supposed to be the origin of the present cathedral. He died, however, before its completion. — Britions Cath. Anlifjs., Peterborough, pp. 16, 86. Sally-port, a postern gate, or passage under ground, from the inner to the outer works of a fortification, intended as a passage for the gar- rison to sally from, or pass through. Saloon, salone, Ital., from sala, a hall; salon, Fr. and Sp.; a lofty spacious apartment in a house, palace, or theatre. Saloi'ia (Ralph de). (See Ralph de Erghum.) Sanctuary, sanctttaire, Fr., santuario, Ital. and Sp., sancluarinm, Lat., from sanctus, sacred; a sacred place. In the Bible we find the word particularly applied to the temple of Jerusalem, and to its most sacred part. (See Sanctum Sanctorum.) The same term is often em- ployed to designate the sacred parts of Egyptian, Greek, and Roman temples (see Cell, Cella) ; and to the presbytery, or space surrounding the high altar of a Christian church. In a sense not far removed from this. Captain Smyth mentions " a sanctuary (in the cathedral of Messina) for the reception of what are said to be sacred bones, and other food for bigotry. It is a sort of adytum inside a little chapel to the left of the great altar, where, in caskets and phials, are preserved an arm of St. Paul, some blood of St. Mark," &c. &.C. {Smyth's Sicily and its Islands, p. 120.) The word became gradually applied, also, to the whole of the buildings, and even to the suburbs of a church. (See Calmet's Diet, of the Bible, sub. voca ; and Bingham's Origines Eccles., b. viii. ch. ii. s. i.) In the middle ages a sanctuary, or asylum, was a building, or place, devoted to the observ- ance of a very peculiar custom, and is thus de- fined by Mr. Pegge: — "a building, or place, privileged by a sovereign ; whence such criminals or debtors as fled to it for protection could not be forcibly taken without sacrilege and impiety." {Archceologia, vol. viii. p. 3.) This privilege has been traced by some antiquaries, but with little probability, to the time of Nimrod. It was most probably established by the Hebrews from ten- derness to those who might have committed accidental often c es : — from that people the cus- tom was adopted by the Greeks, who gave to it the name of affuX/a; and to the deity who pre- sided over a sanctuary, that of ho; oLauhaioi. The Romans seem to have abused the privilege to a considerable extent, and the Christians of the middle ages still further. There are several in- stances of grants from Anglo-Saxon monarchs of the right of sanctuary to particular places : amongst which may be mentioned those to West- minster, Beverly, and Ripon, which were amongst the most celebrated of ancient sanctuaries. The Temple, and the churches of St. Martin le Grand, and St. Martin le Bow, London, had also the same privilege specially granted them : but all churches and churchyards were regarded as sanc- tuaries till the time of Henry the EigiUh. The peculiar regulations of the sanctuary at Durham are detailed in Hutchinson's Durham, i. 39, ii. 227 ; Davies's Anc. Rites, p. 53 ; and some general regulations of such places in the essay by Mr. Pegge, on the history and peculiarities of sanctuaries, already referred to. {Archceologia, vol. viii.) A remarkable instance of the violation of the privilege of sanctuary by murder, within the abbey church at Westminster, in the year 1378, with the punishments inflicted in conse- quence, by the archbishop of Canterbury, is nar- rated in Brayley and Britton's Anc. Palace at West7n., p. 257. Any violence committed within the precincts of a royal palace was severely punished ; nor is an arrest there allowable by law at the present day. The palace of Holyrood, Edinburgh, is still a refuge for debtors, having a peculiar and exclusive legal jurisdiction. Besides privileged sanctuaries, there were formerly parts of London where illegal associa- tions afforded proteation to the worst of charac- ters. Such was the White Friars, or, as it was formerly termed, Alsatia. A frightful picture of the enormities practised at this place is exhibited in Sir W. Scott's novel of the " Fortunes of Nigel;" serving, in conjunction with .the abuses of legal sanctuaries, to shew the imperative neces- sca] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 20-5 sity of parliamentary interference. In the reign of James the First, the right of sanctuary was abolished throughout the kingdom. In the first volume of the Archeeologia, p. 41, are plans, an elevation, and a section, with a de- scription, by Stukeley, of a square building ad- joining the abbey at Westminster, which he terms the sanctuary. It had, on each of its two floors, a singular cruciform apartment; the angles of which, on the lower floor, were built up, and, on the upper floor, formed smaller detached rooms. This building, Stukeley attributes to the time of Edward the Confessor. See Staveley's History of Churches, pp. 165-177 ; Fosb. Brit. Mon., 363, 451 ; and Kempe's Hist. Notices of St. Martin s le Grand. Sanctum Sanctorum, or Holy of Holies ; the most sacred part of the temple of Jerusalem, contain- ing the ark of the covenant. Into this apart- ment the high-priest only was allowed to enter, and that but once in a year. The same term was applied to a corresponding part of the taber- nacle in the wilderness. Both in this sense, and in its occasional application to Egyptian, Grecian, and Roman temples, and to Christian churches, the term is synonymous with sanctuary. (See Calmet's Diet, of the Bible, Cell, Cella, and Sanctuary.) Sandstone. (See Stone.) Sangallo (Antonio de), a Florentine architect, was employed under Bramante, in 1512, and after- wards succeeded his uncle, Giuliano, as architect of St. Peter's, at Rome, in conjunction with Raphael. The model of his design for that church is represented and described in Woods's Letters of an Arch., vol. i. p. 363 ; and his principal works, with those of his brother, and of his two maternal uncles — all of them architects, but of less repute than Antonio — are enumerated in Milizia's Lives. Saracenic Architecture, a term employed by some authors to designate the pointed system, vi'hich they suppose to have been derived by Europeans from the Arabs, or Saracens, during the Crusades. Sir Christopher Wren seems first to have given publicity to this assertion ; and his theory has been partially or entirely adopted by Stukeley, Strutt, Warburton, R. P. Knight, Haggitt, and other writers, and still prevails to a limited extent. (See Pointed Architect- ure, and Brittou's Chron. Hist, of Christian Arch., pp. ix.-xii.) The opinion, however, that the pointed style was a gradual modification of the architecture of Byzantium, effected through the medium of the Lombards, Normans, Sec, has a greater degree of probability. (See Hope's Hist, of Arch., pp. 147, 376.) Sarasin, Sarrasine, a portcullis. (See Port- cullis.) Sarcophagus. (See Tomb.) Saxon Architecture, or Anglo-Saxon Archi- tecture, denotes the manner of building adopted in England in the four centuries preceding the Norman conquest. Whether any perfect edifice erected in that period remains, is a question which has excited ample discussion. Stukeley, Carter, and King, attributed many buildings of the Anglo-Norman class to the Saxons ; and Rick- man has given a list of twenty churches, or parts of churches, in England, which he supposes to be anterior to the Norman conquest. {An At- tempt, &^c., At\\ edit. p. 301.) For the opinions of different writers, the student may consult a paper by Mr. Wilkins, in the twelfth volume of the Archaologia ; Whitaker's Anc. Cath. of Corn- wall, vol. i. pp. 104-143; Turner's Hist, of the Anglo-Saxons, vol. ii. p. 41 1 ; Pugin's Specimens, vol. ii. p. xi.; Hope's Hist, of Arch., pp. 217, 251, 279; Dallaway's Engl. Arch., pp. 22-29, 68; Brittou's Chron. Hist, of Christian Arch., pp. 113-133; and the articles Architecture, Tower, and Window. Saxulphus, was nominated abbot of Medehamp- stead (afterwards called Peterborough), on the foundation of the monastery, by Peada, king of Mercia, about the middle of the seventh century. According to the Saxon Chronicle, he immedi- ately erected the necessary buildings of the esta- blishment, on an extensive scale. (See Brittou's Cath. Antiqs., Peterborough, p. 5.) ScAGLioLA. (See Column.) Scala, Lat., a ladder, a staircase. Scala Santa, Ital., a building at Rome, erected from the de- signs of Fontana, with three flights of stairs. The building is so called because the middle flight consists of twenty-eight steps, said to have been 206 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [sCR passed over by our Saviour in his progress to the house of Pilate. They were sent from Jerusalem to Rome by St. Helena, and are an object of reverence to Roman Catholic pilgrims. (See Woods's Letters, vol. i. p. 389.) ScALA CoELi. Henry, lord Marney, in his will, dated in 1523, directed that mass should be said for the souls of himself and family, " at Scala Call, in Westminster," and at other places. — Nicolas's Testamenta Vet., p. 609. Scape, scapus, Lat., a contraction of escape. (See Escape and Apophyge.) Scarp (See Moat.) School, from sckola, Lat., discipline and correction (Dm Cange); a room, or building, where persons are instructed in any species of learning. In many monastic establishments, a school-room for the novices, and children sent for their educa- tion, was included. These scholars were con- signed to the tuition of the abbot, and sometimes received instruction in the church itself. Music, both vocal and instrumental, Latin, the rules of monastic life, and the church ceremonies, formed the chief subjects of tuition. (See Owen and 'Blakeway's Shrewsbury, vol. ii. p. 50; and Whit- aker's Auc. Cath. of Cornwall, vol. ii. p. 136.) On the dissolution of monasteries, the monastic schools were suffered to decay, and new colleges and grammar-schools were endowed. Hence there are few buildings remaining which are known to have been devoted to scholastic pur- poses prior to the reign of Edward VI. ScLATTE, an old orthography of the word slate. ScoLLOPED-MOULDiNG, an Ornament common in Anglo-Norman edifices, is represented in Plate of Corbel-tables, fig. 2. Sconce, a branch to place a light in ; also, a screen, or partition, to cover, or protect any thing ; a head, or top; and a small fort, or bulwark. William of Worcester {Itin., p. 196) uses the words " cjualuor sconci," implying arched but- tresses. (See Squinch.) Scotia, exona, Gr., shadow, or darkness; a concave moulding occurring in the base of a column and elsewhere : so called from the deep shadow it produces. Its form is that of a segment, greater than a quadrant of a circle; resembling, indeed. a reversed ovalo, or the mould of an ovalo. It is sometimes called a trochilus (rjox/Xov, Gr.), and, by workmen, a casement. The plates to receive the inscription on the tomb of the earl of War- wick were to be of such breadth as " to fill justly tl. ■ casements provided therefore." {Britton's A. ■>.. Antiqs., vol. iv. p. 13: and see Case- ment.) Screen, Skreen, Skrene, escran, old Fr., from excerno, Lat., to separate, to shelter, or protect from danger, or inconvenience ; a movable frame- work to keep off an excess of light, or heat; a partition separating one part of a building from another. Fire-screens, with feet and claws {clavis), are mentioned in 1333 {Du Cange v. Fabuleria). In the Privy Purse Expences of Henri/ VIII. (see Sir H. Nicolas's volume, pp. xxvii. and cxx.), a payment is charged " to Sakfelde, the grome- porter, for stoles, formes, and skrenes, xx.s.;" and, from another document of the same era, it appears that Luke Hornebaund, a painter, pre- sented Henry VIII. with a skreen as a new-year's gift. There can be no doubt that the latter was painted ; but the majority of such screens were ornamented with needlework. Amongst the fur- niture of the great chamber at Hengrave Hall, Suffolk, in 1603, are mentioned a " great fould- ing skreene of seaven foulds, w"' a skreene-cloth upon it, of green kersey; .... one lesser skreene, of fower foulds, w"' a greene cloth to it ; .... and one little fine wicker skreene, sett in a frame of walnut-tree." {Gage's Hengrave, p. 27.) In ecclesiastical architecture, the word screen denotes a partition of stone, wood, or metal ; usually so placed in a church as to shut out an aile from tlie choir; a private chapel from the transept ; the nave from the choir ; the high altar from the east end of the building; or an altar- tomb from one of the public passages, or large areas, of the church. In the size, form, and ornamental detail of screens, the ancient archi- tects have exercised their usual latitude of fancy, their ingenuity and taste. The English cathe- drals, conventual, and even parochial churches, abound with screens of the most elaborate design and skilful workmanship, far surpassing in num- ber those of Continental churches. Under the words Organ-screen and Rood- loft, the screens which separate the naves and scu] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARr. 207 choirs of churches have been already noticed. Some fine altar-screens adorn St. Alban's Abbey Church, York and Winchester Cathedrals, and the churches of Christ Church, Hampshire, and of St. Saviour's, Southwark (recently restored). Norwich, Exeter, and other cathedrals, have, and Henry the Seventh's Chapel formerly had, the ailes partitioned off by screens; whilst Tewkes- bury Abbey, and Canterbury, Gloucester, Win- chester, and Oxford Cathedrals, present some of the most beautiful screens to chantry and monu- mental chapels in the kingdom. Westminster Abbey Church, and Henry the Seventh's Chapel, still contain many and various examples ; amongst which those of Abbot Islip's, and Edward the Confessor's Chapel, and that enclosing the tomb of King Henry the Seventh, are pre-eminent. The latter, of gilt brass and copper, is a very singular and elaborate performance. It is admir- able as a fine specimen of casting; but its style is of debased, or Italianized architecture. In documents of the period of its formation, it is termed a " Closure." Most ancient screens are covered with elaborate tracery, having their upper parts perforated : the whole of some examples were often richly painted and gilt. The niches of the altar-screen at St. Alban's Abbey Church were evidently intended for statues, as large as life. In the halls of old English mansions, the lower end was generally separated from the re- mainder by a timber screen. This appears to have been formerly termed the spere ; and the same name is still employed in the north of Eng- land to denote a partition within the entrance to a room. The passage thus screened off was termed " the screens." Some interesting domestic screens remain in the halls of Penshurst, Haddon, Ock- wells, Wollaton, Audley-End, Knole, &c. In the modern imitations of Grecian and Roman architecture, screens are occasionally em- ployed. These consist, in general, either of a wall with attached columns, pediments, and simi- lar decorations; or of an open colonnade, raised on a basement. Of the former class, are those supplying the place of the ancient rood-loft in so many of the old churches of Europe ; and those before the Admiralty Office, and Burlington House, London. That which separated Carlton Palace from the street is an example of the latter class. For representations and descriptions of ancient screens, see Britten's Architectural and Cathedral Antiquities; Pugin's Specimens and Examples of Gothic Arch. ; Brayley and Neale's Westm. Ab- bey ; Brayley and Ferry's Antiqs. of Christ Church; Brayley and Britton's Anc. Palace at Westm.; Clutterbuck's Hist, of Herts, vol. i.; Rayner's Haddon Hall, 8cc. See, also, the article Spere. ScRiNiuM, a small box, or chest, usually circular, in which the ancients deposited rolls of MSS. Scrinia reliquiarum, a reliquary. Scriptorium, or Writing-room, from scribo, Lat., to write; an apartment attached to a mon- astic library, or to a part of the cloister, where persons were employed in transcribing manu- scripts. Besides the leiger-books of the esta- blishment, and other private documents, music, the sacred writings, and historical chronicles, were copied by the persons here mentioned. A grant of tithes to the abbey of St. Alban's, for the purpose of employing copyists, is mentioned, by Whitaker, as occurring at the end of the eleventh century ; and, in later times, such grants were very common. (See JVhitakei-'s Anc. Cath. of Cornwall, vol. ii. p. 351 ; Fuller's Church Hist., b. vi. p. 285 ; Tanner's Not. Mon., by Nasmith, pref., p. xix.; and King's Mun. Antiq., vol. iv. p. 152.) Scripture, scriptura, Lat., a writing, an inscrip- tion. In one of the agreements for the tomb of the earl of Warwick, it was directed that certain parties should write upon the two long plates that went round about it, " all such scripture of declaration as the executors should devise." {Britton's Arch. Antiqs., vol. iv. p. 13.) The same word was also applied to a text painted on glass, and in other different ways. (See Gage's Suffolk, vol', i. p. 140.) Scroll, a convolved or spiral ornament, applied to a common arrangement of the tessera of a Roman pavement, and to the volute of the Ionic and Corinthian capital. Sculpture, sculptura, Lat., from sculpo, to carve; the art of imitating visible forms by chiselling and working solid substances. The word pro- perly includes images of clay, wax, wood, metal, and stone ; but is. generally restricted to those of 208 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [sea the last material ; the terms modelling, casting, and curving, being applied to the others. The buildings of the middle ages were profusely deco- rated with carved and sculptured basso-relievos, alto-relievos, and statues. The rude crosses of the earliest Christian era, the capitals and archi- volts of Anglo-Saxon and Norman churches, the doorways, buttresses, screens, capitals, corbels, crockets, finials, parapets, and pendants of the middle and later periods of pointed architecture, all afford interesting examples of ornamental sculpture. Tombs and monumental effigies, the crosses erected to the memory of Queen Eleanor, and the western fronts of cathedrals, were pro- fusely and beautifully adorned with sculpture. Fluxman, in his Lectures on Sculpture, gives representations of several single figures and his- torical compositions from Wells, Lincoln, Peter- borough, and Worcester Cathedrals, Waltham Cross, and Henry the Seventh's Chapel; and, in his first lecture, enters into a review of the his- tory of sculpture in England. Some interesting particulars of the various modes in which sculp- ture was employed in churches are to be found in the Gentlemun's Magazine, vol. ciii. pt. i. p. 599. See also Walpole's Anecdotes, hij Dalla- viaif, vol. i.; Hope's Hist, of Architecture, pp. 159, 193, and 290; Brewer's Lit rod. to the Beauties of England and Wales; and the articles Effigy, Image, and Tomb. ScuTABLE, an old term occurring, as follows, in the accounts relating to St. Stephen's Chapel, West- minster: — "pieces of Caen stone, wrought for scutables, for the new alura [gallery]." {Smith's Anlirjs. of Westm., p. 207.) Probably from ecu, escu, a shield, and table, any plane or flat sur- face; and denoting escutcheons, or shields, for the front of the gallery. ScuTAGK, scutagium, Lat., a tax on those who held land by kniglit service. Scutcheon, Scouchon, Scoucheon, Esco- CHEON, an escutcheon, or shield for armorial bearings. (See Escutcheon and Shield.) Tiie term scutcheon occurs several times in the agreements for the tomb of Richard, earl of Warwick, in the Beauchamp Chapel; as, "a goodly quarter for a scutcheon of copper and gilt to be set in;" "ten scutcheons of armes," in ten panels ; and " fourteene scutcheons of the finest latten." (Britten's Arch. Anliqs.,vo\. iv. pp. 12, 13.) Richard Fouler, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, ordered that over his body there should be " no tomb, but only a flat stone with images and scutcheons." (See his will, dated 1477, in Nicolas's Testamenta Vetusta, p. 344.) In the curious agreement relating to Fothering- hay Church, Northamptonshire (13th Hen. VL), are the following words: — "and when the said stepil [at the west end of the nave] cometh to the hight of the said bay, then hit shall be chaungid and turnyd in viij. panes, and at every scouchon a boutrasse fynysht with finial, according to the fynials of the said qwere and body." (Dugdale's Mon. Angl., new edit. vol. vi. pt. iii. p. 1414.) As here employed, the term appears to denote the angle of a tower; but why it bears such an application it is difficult to ex- plain. The tower in question has its first and second stories square, over which is an octagonal lantern, with buttresses and pinnacles. (See Plate of Towers, fig. 16.) Seabrooke (Thomas), abbot of Gloucester from 1450 till his death in 1457, commenced the erec- tion of the central tower of the cathedral. — Brit- ton's Cath. Antiqs., Gloucester, p. 27. Seal, fijel, fijle, Sax., siegel, Ger., scean, Fr., sigillum, Lat. ; a hard substance having a device or inscription engraved on it; also its impression on wax. Kings, bishops, and prelates, from an early period, were accustomed to use privy, or individual seals; besides which, monarchs, and ecclesiastical, or corporate bodies, had public, or official seals. The latter class exhibit much beauty, ingenuity, and variety; as is fully evinced by engravings from many of tiiem in the new edition of Dugdale's Mon. Angl.; the Appendix to the Reports on the Public Records of the King- dom ; Surtees's History of Durham ; Leivis's Essay on Seals; and other authorities. Seat, siege, Fr., sedia, Ital., sede, Sp., sett, old Ger., from sedes, situs, Lat.; any thing on which a person may sit. (See Chair, Chancel, Mise- rere, Pew, Poi'py-head, Stall, Subsel- LUM, Throne, and Pugin's Examples, vol. i. p. 42.) The works of Strutt, Willemin, and Montfau^on, contain representations of some cu- rious ancient thrones, chairs, benches, and other seats. In Westminster Abbey Church; the seg] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 209 bishop's palace, Wells ; at Glastonbury ; St. Ma- ry's Hall, Coventry ; Penshurst Place, Kent, and many other old mansions, are chairs and benches variously carved and ornamented. The stone seats in porches and in chapter-houses have been mentioned under those words ; and, in the ele- venth and twelfth volumes of the Archaologia, are essays by the Rev. Samuel Denne, and Mr. C. Clarke, on bishops' thrones, and the stone seats in the south walls of old chancels. The semicir- cular end of an ancient church was often occu- pied by the bishop's throne, and a coiicesstis, or seat for the clergy, on each side. In the Cathe- dral Church of Sens (in France) there are, on one side of the chancel, five connected seats, placed side by side, rising one above another, and intended to be occupied by the celebrant, two deacons, and two subdeacons, during certain parts of the service : at a little distance from the lowermost, is a detached seat for the archbishop. This arrangement, on a smaller scale, is very common in England. The insulated seat is gene- rally wanting, and the usual number of connected seats, or stalls, is three. In some churches there are four; in others, tivo; and, in a small build- ing, where a single priest was employed, only one. These seats are called, by old writers, sedes, sella, sedilia parata, and presbyteries. (See Prisma- TORY.) Mr. Clarke, who is followed by other mo- dern writers, calls them sedilia. In the churches of St. Martin, at Leicester, St. Mary, at Oxford, and in some other buildings, the three seats are on the same level. They form recesses, or niches; are divided from each other by columns, or but- tresses ; and are surmounted by arches. A very splendid example remains in the chancel of Dor- chester Church, Oxfordshire. (Skeltojt's Aritiqs. of Oxfordshire, Dorchester, pi. iv. See also Ca?'- ter's Anc. Arch., pis. xxiv. Iviii. and Ixxvii.; and Pugin's Examples, vol. i. p. 42.) The word seat, in England, denotes a house in a park ; as a countri/-seat. Secretarium, from secretus, Lat., secret; one of the names applied to the sacristy of a church. (See Sacristy, andGunn's Hist. Inquiry ,p.223.) Bingham says, there were sometimes three secre- taria attached to one church. Two of these were within the building, and the third was amongst the exedrse. Of the two in the interior, one was also termed the diaconicum hematis, and the sceno- phylacium. The exterior secretarium, or diaco- nicum magnum, was the principal of the three, being properly the vestry ; and was called also the receptorium, salutatorium, 8cc. These secre- taria, or parts of them, occasionally served as decanica, or ecclesiastical prisons. — See Bing- ham's Orig. Eccles., h. viii. ch. vi. sec. 22, 23; cli. vii. sec. 7; and the words Decanica, and Diaconicum. Section, sectio, Lat., from seco, to cut off, to sepa- rate ; coupe, Fr., durchschnitt, Ger. ; a geome- trical drawing, or print, shewing the whole, or a portion of a building, as if cut through, verti- cally ; and intended to exhibit the height of the stories, the height, breadth, and thickness of walls, floors. Sec. A horizontal section is commonly called a plan. The terms profile and sciagraphy, have been similarly employed till within the last few years. Sedi LE, sedilia, plural, from sedes, Lat., a seat. (See Seat.) Seeling, the same as ceiling (see Ceiling). In the following extract it appears to denote also a framed wainscot for the walls of a room. This employment of the word, in all probability, pro- duced the phrase, an "upper seeling" formerly applied to the roof of an apartment: — " vij. chambers benethe, .... to be seeled w' y" tremors, vj. foote on heyghte; and y^ chapel, vij. foote." The same document affords a still greater varia- tion from modern practice in the application of the word fioor to what is now termed a ceiling. For example : " all y'' rest of y^ hall to be seelyd, to y° heygth of y" windows, w' a frett on y" floor w' hangyng pendants ; voute facyon :"...." two parlors to be seelyd, to the heygth of the^oor." — Gage's liengrave, p. 42 ; see also Bayley's Hist, of the Toicer, pt. i. app. p. xxxi. Seffrid, the second bishop of Chichester of that name, rebuilt part of his cathedral between the years 1185 and 1199. — Hay's Hist, of Chichester, p. 444. Segment, segmentum, Lat., from seco, to cut off; any part of a circle, whether greater or less than half a circle. A segmental arch is one the curve of which forms part of a circle. e e 210 ARCHITECTURAL DICTION'ARY. [SER Sellynge (William), prior of Canterbury, began to erect the central tower of that cathedral in the year 1472. It was completed by the second prior Goldstone. — Biitton's Cath. Antiqs., Canterbury, p. 1 1 1 ; and see Goldstone, ante. Semerk (Henry, or "Kerry"), " oon of the war- dens of the kynge's workes, at the kynge's col- lege royal, at Cambridge," with John Wastell, master-mason of the same works, agreed to " make and sett up a good, suer, and sufficient vawte for the Crete church "of the college, "according to a plat thereof," signed by the executors of King Henry the Seventh. They were to provide stone, and all other necessary materials; to " fynysh all the said vawte within the space of three years;" and to be paid for the same £1200. This agree- ment (dated 4th Hen. VIII.), as giving the names of the artists who constructed that masterpiece of skill, the vaulted roofof King's College Chapel, is one of the most interesting records of ancient architecture, extant. It is printed in Brittou's Arch. Antiqs., vol. i. p. 12. Sens (William of) " Senonensis," a French archi- tect, was employed to make restorations and additions to Canterbury Cathedral, after a fire in 1174. The present stone vaulting of the choir is a part of the works executed by him. Having received an injury by a fall from the scaffolding, he was succeeded by William, surnamed the Eng- lishman, to distinguish him from his predecessor. — See Gervas. Doroborn., in 'Twi/tidcn's Decent Scriptores, where the works of William of Sens are eulogised; Archeeologia, vol. ix. p. 13; and Brilluns Cath. Antiqs., Canterbury, p. 37. Sentences, mottoes, proverbs, and "posies," were frequently painted on the walls, ceilings, win- dows, and other parts of ancient ecclesiastical and domestic edifices. Several specimens are given in Hunt's Exemplars of Tudor Architecture, and in Pugin's Examples. " In the church at Caudebcc, on the Seine, the parapet is formed of a passage from the Psalms, in Gothic letters, and the etl'ect is very beautiful." — Donaldson on Ileraldri/ in Gothic Arch., p. 17. Sept, a railing. Erasmus describes a chapel of the Virgin Mary, formed by a part of the crypt of Canterbury Cathedral, " enclosed with a double sept, or rail of iron, for fear of thieves ;" as the chapel was " laden with riches" about the altar, &c. — Britton's Cath. Antiqs., Canterbury, p. 61. Sepulchre, sepulchre, Fr., sepolcro, Ital., sepulcro, Sp. and Port., from sepulchrum, Lat. {scpelire, to bury), a grave, tomb, or place of interment. (See Cenotaph, and Tomb.) A peculiar custom of the Romish church was the interment, in a sepul- chre on the north side of the chancel, of an image, or picture of our Lord on the cross. This was done on Good Friday, and the figure was raised from the sepulchre on Easter day ; great cere- mony being observed on each occasion. The sepulchre was, in some instances, left in the church till after Ascension day. During the night before Easter day it was watched by the deacon, sexton, or some other officer of the church. Godwin (de Presulibus), mentions mi- nisters of the holy sepulchre, at York ; also, charges " for watching the holy sepulchre on Easter eve ;" and other references to this practice are common in many old church accounts. In some places the sepulchre was a temporary wooden erection ; in others permanent, and of stone. It is still to be seen in many churches ; as at Bampton, in Oxfordshire, &c. For interesting notices on this subject, see an essay by the late R. Gough, in Vetusta Monumenta, vol. iii.; Owen and Blake- way's Shrewsbury, vol. ii. p. 346, and the autho- rities there cited ; Whitaker's Richmandshire, vol. i. p. 5; Blomejield's Noifolk, vii. 132; Da- vies's Bites of Durham Cath., p. 13; and Neale's Churches (Long Melford), vol. ii. p. 13; also the word Paschal. Sepulchral Arch, an arch over a sepulchre, or tomb. Sepulchral Chapel. (See Chapel, Sacellum, and Tomb.) Sepulchral Monument. (See Monument and To MB.) Serlo, abbot of Gloucester, commenced the founda- tion of a new church, after a fire had destroyed the abbey iii the year 1088. His edifice was completed in 1100, but was partly destroyed by another fire, two years afterwards. — Britton's Cath. Antiqs., Gloucester, p. 7. Serpent, a reptile very generally worshipped by ancient nations, particularly the Chaldeans and sha] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 211 Egyptians, under the names of Ob, Ops, and Python. Dr. Stukeley (Abiay ; a Temple of the British Druids, fol. 1743) imagines that the ser- pent was also worshipped by the Druids, and that the avenues of the vast and mysterious tem- ple, at Avebury, in Wiltshire, and of some others, were arranged in flowing lines, in imitation of the form, or natural action of a serpent. This theory has been adopted by the Rev. J. B. Deane {Archccologia, vol. xxv.), who suggests as a name for such assemblages of stones, dracoutia, or ser- pent temples ; but this, like many other anti- quarian theories, seems more calculated to amuse the imagination, than to inform the judgment, or lead to rational deduction. The architects of the middle ages seem to have regarded the ser- pent in the popular acceptation of an emblem of the evil spirit. Over some of the Anglo-Norman doorways in the cathedral at Lincoln, and in the churches of Malmesbury, Bishop's-Cleeve, &c., the label-moulding terminates, at each end, in the head of a serpent. The siiake's-head moulding is one of the names applied to a Norman mould- ing, having a series of heads of monsters. Ser- pents and dragons are amongst the figures fre- quently sculptured on fonts, and on other ap- pendages of old churches. Set-off, a sloping face of masonry between two divisions of a wall, or buttress. (See Off-set.) Severey, Severee, Severy, Civery, a separate portion, or division of a building, corresponding with the modern term cotnpartment, and analo- gous in its employment to the verb to sever, to divide. The contractors for the " vawte" of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, were to be paid, "for every seue?^/ in the seidchurche, 100/." (See Brittons Arch. Antiqs., vol. i. p. 13.) Wil- liam of Worcester mentions le civers, and les civery s of the cloisters of Norwich Cathedral. — Itin., p. 302. Sewer, from asseour, old Fr., a subterraneous vaulted channel, or gutter for draining and carrying off superabundant water, filth, &c. (see Cloaca) : also, in former times, the name of an officer, or clerk of the kitchen. Sextry, one of the names of the sacristy of a church. (See Sacristy, and Secretarium.) At the abbey of Gloucester, a chamber, where the under steward dwelt, with a garden attached to it, was called the sextry. — Britton's Cath. Antiqs., Glou- cester, JEssai/, p. 13. Shaft, j-ceap'c, Sax., schqft, Dut., Ger., and Belg., Jut, Fr., scaptts, Lat., a term applied to the body of a column, or pillar; or, that part extending from its base, below, to its capital, above. (See Base, Capital, Column, and Pillar.) As applied to columns of the classical orders, the wordsfiist and trunk are sometimes used. The principal characteristics of the shafts of Egypt- ian, Indian, Grecian, and Roman columns, as also, in a great measure, those of Christian archi- tecture, have been adverted to under the articles Column and Pillar. Of the shafts in Christ- ian churches, the Plates comprised in this volume afford numerous examples, from the ear- liest to the latest date. The term boltel (evi- dently, as well as the word shaft, derived from archery) was commonly employed to designate one of the slender shafts attached to, and form- ing part of, the elaborate clustered pillar of an old church ; the ancient architects calling such clustered pillar a shaft. Willis, in Arch, of the Middle Ages, ch. iv. p. 34, applies the word shaft to the whole pillar, including its base and capital ; and proceeds to designate the diflferent shafts [pillars] of the pointed system, as vaulting shafts, bearing shafts, sub-shafts, face shafts, edge shafts, and nook shafts. Rickman {Ati Attempt, &c., 4th edit. p. 110) observes, that the attached shafts (boltels) of a clustered pillar do not support any thing themselves, and are merely ornamental ac- cessories of the central or main part of the pillar. (See BoTTEL, or Boltel, Marble, Purbeck, Roll and Fillet-moulding, Stone, Sec.) There are four shafts in the church of Sta. So- phia, at Constantinople, each of one block of Egyptian granite, and measuring, including the base and capital, 40 feet in height. The new church of St. Isaac, at St. Petersburg, is sur- mounted with a cupola, having a peristyle of 24 granite columns, each of a single block, 42 feet hio-h : and, in the same city, a granite column, 96 feet high, in a single piece, has been erected by M. Montverrand, a French architect. (See Haivkins's Hist, of Gothic Arch., p. 28; Lou- don's Arch. Mag., vol. iii. p. 527 ; and Librari/ of Ent, Knowl., Egyptian Antiqs., vol. ii. p. 376.) 212 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [sHI The shafts of pillars, in Christian architecture, rarely consisted of large pieces of stone. The word shaft formerly denoted, also, a tall spire, or pinnacle. Shafted Impost, a term applied by the Rev. R. Willis {Arch, of the Middle Ages, p. 29) to those imposts which have horizontal mouldings ; the sections of the arch above, and of the shaft, or pier, below such horizontal mouldings, being dif- ferent. The latter point is the distinction be- tween what he terms shafted and banded imposts. In banded imposts, the sections above and below the impost-moulding are alike ; the shaft, or pier, seeming to pass through its capital. Shambles, from j-camol. Sax., and scamnum, Lat., a bench, or stool ; the stalls on which butchers expose their meat for sale : hence, also, a flesh- market. Shank, or Leg, the space between the channels of a triglyph. Sheriffs' Posts, two ornamental posts, or pillars, set up, one on each side of the door of the house of a sheriff, or chief magistrate. Proclamations and public notices were afBxed to them ; and they were often abundantly carved and painted. On a new magistrate entering upon office, it was customary for him to repaint these posts. Two pairs of them are engraved in the I9th volume of the ArchcBoIogia, where, in a brief essay on the subject, Mr. J. A. Repton gives several quota- tions from old dramatists referring to the cus- torn. See, also, Hunt's Exemplars of Tudor A rch., p. 48. Shield, fcylb, Sax., schild, Dut. and Ger., scutum, Lat., ecu, and ecussoii, Fr. (see Escutcheon, and Scutcheon); a broad piece of defensive armour, carried on the left arm in time of battle, or in tournaments. The shield varied consider- ably in size, form, and materials, in different ages and nations. Amongst the earliest people of the world shields of wicker-work were used ; after- wards they were made of wood, covered with leather, and ornamented with metal plates; and, during the middle ages, entirely of metal. (See Mej/rick's Ancient Arms and Armour.) In the age of chivalry the arms, or device, of a knight were painted on his shield; hence, in heraldry, a coat of arms is emblazoned on a field in the form of a shield ; and it became a practice to commemorate an individual by shields, or scut- cheons, with his own arms, and those of his con- nexions, sculptured upon his tomb. The builders and renovators of churches were also honoured, during tlieir lives, either by their arms being sculptured on the stone or timber work, or painted on the windows of the buildings they had contributed to erect or repair. As shields continually varied in form throughout the dif- ferent periods of history, those introduced into buildings afford, by their shape, an important guide in determining the age of an edifice. Without entering into a classification of them, we shall merely refer to the sixteenth volume of the Arcliceologia, p. 194, where are representa- tions of twenty-two different shields from English buildings and monuments, dating between the twelfth century and the reign of Queen Eliza- beth ; and fully exemplifying the form prevalent at any particular epoch. Mr. J. A. Repton, who contributed these illustrations, observes, that, as strictly architectural ornaments, he has not dis- covered shields earlier than the 13th century; that the bottom of a shield generally partakes of the form of the arch prevalent at the particular time ; that the forms of shields, as well as the mode of architecture, became progressively more diversified ; and that, in the sixteenth century, a profusion of scrolls, or volutes, were added as borders to the sliields. It may be added, that the surfaces of shields were convex in the earlier, and concave in the later ages; that they were rarely perfectly flat; and that they were mostly executed in relief — few indented examples being met with. — See JV. L. Donaldson s Essaj/ on the Connexion of Heraldry with Gothic Arch.; ^Yhit- aker's Richmondshire, vol. i. p. 372 ; and the word SCUTABLE. Shingle, shiridel, Ger., scindulo, Lat., from scindo, to divide; a sort of wooden tile; a piece of thin board, from eight to twelve inches long, by four inches broad, thinner at one edge than the other. The buildings of Rome had no other covering than shingles till about the year 300, b.c. {Fosb. Enc. of Antiqs., p. IIG); and, in England, this mode of covering was common for churches and steeples. The stone-coping of some of the but- shr] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIOXARF. 213 tresses of Lincoln Cathedral are cut in imitation of shingles ; and many stone spires on the Con- tinent are similarly marked. Shingle /tails are mentioned in the accounts for erecting St. Ste- phen's Chapel. — Braylet/ and Britton's Anc. Pa- lace at Westm., p. 191. (See engraving of Spikes, fig. 5, in page 435.) Shovel-board, or Shuffle-eoahd, as frequently called, a table on which the game so named was played. The board was marked with a line at about four inches from one end, and another at a distance of four feet. Each player had flat weights of metal ; and his skill consisted in slid- ing them from the first line, so as to pass the second without falling into a trough beyond it. These tables are still seen in the servants' halls of some old mansions. The shovel-board fre- quently served, also, for the dining-table. — See Strutt's Sports and Pastimes. Shrine, fcpm. Sax., schrrin, Ger., ecrin, Fr., scrigno, Ital., from scrinium, Lat., a desk, or cabinet; a case, or box, particularly one in which sacred things are deposited : hence applied to a reli- quary, and to tile tomb of a canonised person. Dr. Stukeley (P/iilos. Trans., No. 490, p. 580) clearly distinguishes two sorts of shrines : the first were small and portable, generally contain- ing only a single relic, and were called J'eretra. (See Feketory.) They were similar to what are now called reliquaries ; were commonly placed in different parts of a church, particularly about the high altar ; and were carried in processions bv the priests. The other sort of shrines were, in fact, tombs; differing only from the generality of such monuments in the richness of their deco- rations, and in the sanctity of the personages whose remains they enshrined. This latter class was often, though incorrectly, styled J'eretra. The coffin of a popular saint was sometimes re- moved from a fixed shrine, and carried in some of the most solemn processions in the same man- ner as the common feretra. The most ordinary shape of the portable shrine, or feretory, and, indeed, the primitive form of both, was that of a small church with a gable roof, and enriched with valuable appendages. From this peculiarity of form they were occasionally called basiliculae. (See Basilicula.) In Somiier's Antiqs. of Can- terbury is a curious print, shewing the high altar in St. Augustine's Church, Canterbury, with se- veral small shrines ranged on each side of it, each exhibiting the form of a small church, or chapel. The fixed shrines (properly so called) were generally placed in the space behind the high altar. They varied considerably in design ; were constructed of stone, or timber, and were frequently covered with a great profusion of gold, silver, and precious stones, — the produce of the offerings made at small attached altars. The coffin of the saint was enclosed in the lower part, and, if containing a person of peculiar sanctity, was elevated a few feet above the pavement. The shrine of Becket was covered by a frame of timber, which was drawn up when the shrine was exhibited ; and many others had elaborate canopies, to which, rather than to the shrines themselves, the decorations were attached. Such canopy was called jMandiialis, Ripa, &.C., and was covered, for its preservation, during Lent. (See Du Cange v. Ripa.) At Canterbury, and at Durham there were several officers appointed to take charge of the respective shrines of Becket, and of St. Cuthbert; and a custosferetri is men- tioned both at Westminster, and at St. Alban's. Near the site of the shrine of St. Alban, there still remains a small wooden enclosure for the person who had charge of it. Of fixed shrines, one of the most perfect now remaining is that of Edward the Confessor, in Westminster Abbey Church. It is the work of Pietro Cavalini, designed in a debased Roman style, and is nearly 15 feet high. It is repre- sented and fully described in Brai/ley and Xeale's Westm. Abbey, vol. ii. pp. 63-71. In Oxford Ca- thedral is the shrine of St. Frideswide, executed in 1480, and constructed of wood. The shrine of St. David, in St. David's Cathedral, Wales, also still remains, as well as that of St. Wer- burgh, in Chester Cathedral; both, however, are much mutilated. Amongst other celebrated shrines, were those of St. Thomas the Martyr [Becket], at Canterbury; described, from Eras- mus and Stow, in Brittons Canterbury Cath., p. 57; of Birinius, at Dorchester, Oxfordshire; of St. Cuthbert, at Durham, described in Davies's Rites of Durham Cath., p. 5 ; of St. Alban, at the Abbey Church of St. Alban's ; of St. Hugh ; of Hugh the martyred child (engraved in Stuke- ley's hill. Curios.); of D'Alderby, at Lincoln; 214 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [SIL and of Bishop Cantelupe, the last Englishman who was canonised, in Hereford Cathedral. The last is represented and described in Brittons He- reford Cath., pi. xiv. p. 56; and, in the same volume (p. 19), some of the miracles said to have been effected through the medium of prayers and offerings to this saint, are enumerated. These will serve to shew the nature of the monkish statements respecting other celebrated shrines. Amongst portable/ere^/Y/ may be enumerated the mosaic shrine of St. Simplicius and Faustina, formerly the property of Horace Walpole, Lord Orford ; the shrine of the venerable Bede, at Durham ; one from Croyland Abbey Church, represented by Dr. Stukeley ; and another, from Mr. Astle's collection, engraved in the Vetusta Monumenta, vol. ii. pi. vii. The word shrine is often applied, metaphorically, to the tomb of any individual ; that, especially, of one of the Percy family, in Beverley JMinster, is so called ; and occasionally that of Bishop Drokensford, in the Lady-chapel at Wells. The altar of a church is sometimes called a shrine; and altars dedi- cated to particular saints, with the small chapels containing them, were similarly denominated. For further information on shrines, in general, and on particular examples, see the articles Altar, and Tomb; papers by J. Loveday, and S. Lethieullier, in the Archaologia, vol. i.; see, also, vol. X. p. 469 ; Hoare's Giraldus Cambren- sis, vol. ii. p. 26; Vet. Mon., vol. i. pi. 16; tiicolas's Test. Vet., pp. 345, 349, 645; and Giinn's Inquiry, p. 129. SnuiNE-woiiK. Woods (Letters of an Arch., vol.i. p. 35) mentions the " slirine-ivork" round the choir of Chartres Cathedral. Dallaway (Engl. Arch., edit. 1833, pp. 61, 200) states " shriiie, or tabernacle-work," to be a piirase of the old master-masons. Its proper application is to the elaborate tracery of tabernacles, canopies, gables, &c. SuRown, Shrowde, a crypt; as, the " shrowdes of Paules." (See Croude.) Shute, or Shoote (John), " paynter and archi- tecte," as he styles himself, was patronised by the Duke of Northumberland, who sent him to Italy in 1550, to pursue his studies. In 1563 lie ])ublished " The first and chief groundes of Architecture, used in all the auncientand famous monyments," a folio volume, dedicated to Queen Elizabeth. (Walpole's Anecdotes, by Dallaway, vol. i. p. 306.) Sideboard, a table with drawers, &c., for dining utensils : a common article of furniture in old mansions. Amongst that of Hengrave Hall, in the sixteenth century, is mentioned " one side borde with a faste frame to it, with foulden leaves." {Gage's Hengrave, p. 29.) Several side- boards, or buffets, in the elaborate late pointed, and the plain Elizabethan styles of decoration, are given in Willemins Monumens Francois ; and in Geo. Ilixners Thurnier buch. (Meyrick, in Shaw's Furniture, p. 12.) See Cupboard. SiGiLi.uM, Lat., a seal, or the impression of a seal. Signet also denoted a seal, but, more particu- larly, a privy-seal, or the private and peculiar seal of an individual. (See Seal.) SiGILLUM AlTARIS. (SccAlTAR.) Sign, a carved, or painted figure, placed outside a house to intimate the occupation of the person residing within. Some of the shops of Pompeii appear to have had emblems of the trades of their occupants fixed to the walls. The chequers on the sides of the doorway of one house is said to have indicated an inn; although some per- sons think it was a gaming-house. The same device was a common sign for an inn in England. (See Chequers.) Of signs in general, many were heraldic; as the White Hart, the White Swan, and the Blue Boar, — devices, respectively, of Richard II., Henry IV., and Richard III., — and the George and Dragon. The George Inn, Glastonbury, retains the stone truss, or bracket, to which the sign was formerly attached. The cornice of this bracket has several small shields, and the initials of its owner, the abbot of Glas- tonbury, sculptured upon it. {Pugin's Examples, vol. ii. p. 54.) Signs were often embellished with carvings and paintings of expensive work- manship. Sill, or Sole (sometimes, but improperly, written Cill), fyll, ryl'J, Sax., settil, Fr., schwelle, Ger., from solum, Lat., a threshold ; is most generally applied to the lower horizontal part of tlie frame of a door, or window. Workmen make a dis- tinction between the stone sill of a window, and the wooden sill of a window frame. The sle] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 215 lower horizontal part of a framed partition is also called a sill; and a groimd-sil I denotes, 1. a threshold, and 2. a beam placed on the ground to support, with others, the superstructure of a timber building. In some old houses in England the lower part of the door was cut away to ad- mit of the rushes for the floor extending to the threshold ; the latter being raised a few inches to prevent the wind from rushing in at the open- ing thus formed. This peculiarity is illustrated, from a doorway at Thornbury Castle, in Pugin's Examples, vol. ii. p. 37. (See Apron, Sole, andTHR ESHOLD.) In Smith's Westminster, p. 207, and Britton's Arch. Anticp., vol. iv. p. 11, are old documents, in which scills are mentioned. " The soles of the windows." {Agreement for Fotheringhay Church, Diigdale's Mon. Angl.) " The soyles and jawmes" of two windows. . . . " Sowlyng of iij. wyndowes." {Bayleys Hist, of the Tower, pt. i. app. pp. 17, 27.) SiMA : the term cyma is occasionally spelt thus. (See Cyma.) Simons, or Symonds (Rodolph), an architect em- ployed in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, on some of the colleges at Cambridge. His portrait, which is still preserved in the gallery of Emanuel Col- lege, has the following inscription: — "Effigies Rodolphi Simons, Architecti sua cetate peritis- simi, qui (pragter plurima eedificia ab eo praeclare facta) duo collegia, Emanuelis hoc, Sidneii illud, extruxit integre : magnam etiam partem Trini- tatis recocinnavit amplissime." ( Walpole's Anec- dotes, hy Dallaway, vol. i. p. 323.) SiNCRESTE, Sencreste, a crest of some peculiar form. {Accounts of St. Stephens Chapel.) Sisseverne (Gilbert de), prior of Redburn, was entrusted by John and William, successive abbots of St. Alban's, with the rebuilding of the front of the abbey church, and he continued to superin- tend the works at the abbey for the whole of the first 30 years of the thirteenth century. He rebuilt the refectory, the dormitory, and several portions of the church. — Newcome's Hist, of St. Alban's, pt. i. pp. 99, 118. Site, situs, Lat., the situation of a building; the plot of ground on which it stands. Skew, an old word occurring several times in an " abstract of freemason's worke," at the Tower of London, temp. Henry VIII.; for instance: — " a bottres made w' harde asheler of Kent, I. foot, and, in Cane asheler, a shew vj. foot ;" " at the Juell Hows doore iij. spaces covered w' skew and crest, amontyng[to] xxxvj . fote of stone." {Bayley's Hist, of the Toicer, pt. i. app, p. xxix.) " Taking down of my skewe," occurs in an ac- count, dated 1506, in Gage's Suffolk, i. 142. Mr. Gage supposes it to mean a scaffolding. As an adverb, the term skew, or askeiv, now signifies awry, or obliquely ; and, as an adjective, it enters into the name of a skeio arch — an arch built ob- liquely. Some novel, interesting, and skilful examples of these arches have been built on the lines of most the railways of Great Britain. Skirlaw (Walter), bishop of Durham, was the per- son at whose expense the central tower of York Minster was chiefly erected. His arms are seen in different parts of the interior. He also built a chantry chapel in the same cathedral; the chapter-house and great tower of the beautiful collegiate church of Howden, now in ruins ; and a chapel at Swine, in Yorkshire, his birthplace. He died in 1406. {Surtees's Hist, of Durham, vol. i. p. liv.; Britton's Arch. Antiqs., vol. iv. p. 128 ; and Cath. Antiqs., York, pp. 31, 32.) Skirting, a narrow board forming a plinth to an internal wall. Slate, schistose, Lat., from e^inroc, Gr., easily split, or rent; an argillaceous stone, readily splitting into thin laminse, and thus employed to cover buildings. Slates, for roofs, with iron pins, have been found in Roman remains : they were simi- larly employed, though not to the same extent as lead, by the Saxons, Normans, and old English architects. Sleeper, a piece of timber employed to support others, and laid asleep, or with a bearing along its whole length. Sleepers denote, more parti- cularly, those timbers which are placed length- wise on walls, to support the joists of a floor. (See Dorman-tree.) Slefoed (John de), master of the wardrobe to King Edward III., built the church of Balsham, in Cambridgeshire, which is called by Lysons "a large and handsome structure." He died in the year 1400, and was interred in the chancel. {Lysons's Mag. Brit., Carnb., p. 55.) 216 ARCHITECTrRAL DICTIOXARY. [sou Slyp, Slype, a narrow passage between two build- ings. The word is several times employed by William of Worcester in this sense. (See Itin., p. 192.) 4 passage on the south side of Win- chester Cathedral is still called " the slyp." (See Brittons Cath. Aiitirjs. Winchester.) Smitiison (Robert), who died in 1614, at the age of 79, and is buried in Wollaton Church, Not- tinghamshire, is described in his epitaph as " architector and surveyor unto the most worthy house of Wollaton, with diverse others of great account." He was most probably united with, or succeeded, Thorpe in superintending the erec- tion of Wollaton Hall. Huntingdon S.mith- soN, another architect, who died in 1648, and is buried in Bolsover Church, Derbyshire, was sent to Italy by his patron. Sir C. Cavendish, to prepare, or collect, designs for Bolsover Cas- tle, which was rebuilt in 1613. He also com- pleted the celebrated riding-house at Welbeck, for the Duke of Newcastle. John Smithson, son of the last named, was also an architect, and died in 1678. Walpole has made much confu- sion between these artists. (See Anecdotes, by Dallaway, vol. ii. p. 74; and Dallawat/'s EtigU Arch., edit. 1833, p. 357.) Socage, an ancient tenure of land. Soffit, Soffita, from sojitta, Ital., a ceiling; the lower surface of a vault, or arch ; a word applied to the under horizontal face of an entablature between columns; more generally denoting the under surface of the corona of a cornice ; the same member which is called in French, plafond and larmier; and, in English, drip. In the Co- rinthian order, the soffit of the corona is occu- pied by modillions, alternately with panels of roses; and, in the Doric order, by tablets, hav- ing each eighteen drops in three rows depending from them. A conmion application of the word soffit is to the intrados, or under surface of an arch. (See Arch.) This, where its thickness was at all considerable, was divided into orna- mental compartments, and sometimes into a series of niches for statues. The ceiling of a canopy is also sometimes called its sojfit. In a document relating to Hengrave Hall, and dated in 1538, John Eastawe, Mason, agrees to " macke all the inder court w' a fyne sotivett," which Mr. Gage defines as " a fretted band, or cornice." {Gage's Hengrave, p. 42.) Following the analogy of its derivation, some writers employ the word soffit to denote a timber ceiling of ornamented com- partments. Solar, Solarium, Lat., from sol, the sun ; denoted 1, a sun-dial; 2, a balcony; 3, a platform on the top of a house ; and 4, a light upper room, a loft, a garret. The word Solar was variously spelt; — as Soller, Soler, Solver, Solary, &.C. The rood-loft was called solarium sanctcB crucis, and, colloquially, the rood-soUer. Other instances occur as follows : — " Dedi .... unam shoppam cum solaria superaedificato." (Cowel/, ex Veteri Carta.) Aula Solarii, Solere Hal/, was the name of an ancient hostel in Cambridge. ( Warton's Hist, of Poetry, i. 432.) " The solyer where the souper of Jhesu Cryst and of his Ap- postles was made." {Golden Leg. xix. 6.) Sole, Soyl, Sowl, j-ol. Sax., solum, Lat. a thres- hold ; generally, the lowest member of a build- ing ; more particularly, the sill of a door, or window. (See Sill.) "SoNDELETs of iron, for the windows" of St. Ste- phen's Chapel, 90 of which, weighing in all 198 pounds, are charged at 2d. per pound, occur in documents relating to the building of that edi- fice. (See Brayley and Britlon's Anc. Palace at Westm., p. 166; and Smith's Westm., p. 197.) Sounding-board, Sound-board, a canopy over a pulpit, intended to diffuse the sound of a preacher's voice through a church. (See Pul- pit and Tester.) Source, Souse, Souste, from sous, Fr., under, beneath; a support, or under-prop. In a con- tract for " reforming" Westminster Hall, temp. Richard II., the words sous and corl/el-sons occur (see CoRBEL-sous), both, apparently, with the same meaning: and, in the charges for St. Ste- phen's Chapel, " pieces of marble for sources" are named. {Smith's Westm., p. 207.) SouRSADEL-REREDOs, occurs also in the accounts of St. Stephen's Chapel, anno 1332: — " 100 beech boards, eight feet long each, to cover the soursadel-reredos in the east gable — 6s. 8d." {Brai/ley and Brillon's Anc. Palace at Westm., p. 155; and Smith's Westm., p. 185.) The latter author adds in a note, " Query, the joists of the screen ?" spe] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 217 SoYLE, SowL. (See Sole.) Span, or Chord, of an arch, an imaginary line extending between its springing on each side. (See Arch.) Spandrel, Spandril, Spaundre, probably from span; an irregular triangular space formed be- tween the outer curve, or extrados of an arch, a horizontal line from its apex, and a perpendi- cular line from its springing : also, a space on a wall, between the outer mouldings of two arches, and a horizontal line, or string-course, above them: likewise between similar mouldings and the line of another arch rising above, and en- closing the two. This space is found in the naves and choirs of all churches, and in the label-headed doorways of buildings of the last pointed era. In the earlier periods spandrels were mostly plain. At Lincoln Cathedral, some of them are occupied by sculptured figures of angels. Trefoils, quatrefoils, cinquefoils, foliage, rebuses, knots, tracery, shields of founders and benefactors, &c., were common in the spandrels of other buildings. The accompanying Plates exhibit some very curious ornamented spandrels; particularly several of early date, in Plate II. of Arcades, figs. 1, 4, 5, 6, and 7; others, of later dates, in Plates I. and II. of Door- ways; Plate I. of Arches (in which, see an unique example from Wells Cathedral,) fig. 17; Engraved Title-page (porch of King's Col- lege Chapel), exhibiting the royal arms of Eng- land, and other elaborate ornaments ; and Plate III. of Arches, figs. 10, 11, and 12. In Tur- ners Normandy, vol. ii. p. 250, are delineated several sculptured spandrels from Bayeux Cathe- dral, exhibiting somewhat of the Moorish, or Tartarian, mode of workmanship. The word is spelt spaundre in the French contract for reform- ing Westminster Hall, dated 1393. (See Arch.) Spanish Architecture. (See Architecture, Cathedral, &c.) During the dominion of the Moors in Spain, the prevalent architecture was Moorish, or Mohammedan, as exemplified in the Alhambra, the Alcazar, Sec. When the Christ- ians succeeded the Moors, they continued the same architecture for a considerable time, but ultimately adopted the elaborate pointed, as ex- emplified in the cathedrals at Burgos, Seville, &c. (See Hope's Hist, of Arch., p. 249; Mur- phy's Arabian Arch.; Goury and Jones's Alham- bra: and Roberts's Landscape Annual for 1837 and 1838.) Spar, sparren, Ger., a piece of timber employed as a common rafter in a roof. In ancient docu- ments, doors are frequently said to have been sparryd, or sperd ; that is, fastened by means of wooden bars. In an old house at Rotherfield, in Sussex, is a large oak-spar, placed in a groove in the wall, and drawn across the door at night as a fastening ; and there are many others in dif- ferent parts of England . Sparke (John), constructed the bay-windows, and, probably, the gate-house, of Hengrave Hall, Suf- folk, in the sixteenth century. {Gage's Hen- grave, p. 54.) Spech-house, Speke-house, a room for conver- sation. (See Parlour.) Until the 26th Henry VI., the court-house at Canterbury (now called the guildhall), and the common gaol annexed to it, were each called the spech-house. (See Som- 7ier's Antiqs. of Canterbury , by Battely, p. QQ.) Spence, Spense, dispense, old Fr., formerly denoted a buttery, or larder; and an eating-room. The word is still used in the north of England. Spere, a screen across the lower end of a hall. (See Screen.) "Y** said hall tohaveij.coberdes, one benethe at the sper." (Gage's Hengrave, p. 42.) This word, in the north of England, denotes any partition within the entrance of a room. Sperver, Esperver, Sparver, Speeware, old words variously applied. Sperver, sparver, and esp'ver, seem to have denoted a canopy fixed over the holy sepulchre (see Sepulchre), or carried over the sacrament in processions; also, the frame, or tester, at the top of a bed; and, occa- sionally, the whole of a bed. (See Willson, in Glossary to Pugin's Specimens, and the autho- rities there cited; Hunt's Exemplars, p. 161; and Archaologia, vol. iv. p. 313.) In the con- tract for the nave of Fotheringhay Church (Dug- dale's Man. Angh, new edit. vol. vi. pt. iii. p. 1414) are the words "til aither isle shall be a spericare enbattailement of free ston throwgli out." Other parts of the church were to have a " sqivare enbattailement." Mr. Willson supposes the " sqware" embattlement to be an error of the F F 218 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIOXARY. [SQU transcribers for •' spvare" in the original— an abbreviation of " sperware." Sphinx, Sf'-/;. or s^/yyo;, Gr., a fabulous monster having the head and breasts of a woman ; the body of a dog, or other animal ; and the claws of a lion. From its mysterious nature, the sphinx appears to have been regarded by the ancient Eo-yptians, Phoenicians, Indians, Greeks, and Romans, as a symbol of religion. Each of those people placed sculptured sphinxes in connection with their temples ; greatly varying, however, in their component parts. Sometimes they had the heads of rams, or lions, and frequently the wings of birds. An avenue of sphinxes, 1500 feet long, is supposed to have formed the principal approach to the vast temple at Carnak, in Egypt. The Great Sphinx, as it is called, is a colossal repre- sentation of one of these monsters, situated near the famed pyramids of Jizeh. Nothing but the head and neck, at present, remain above the sur- face of the ground. Its entire length is computed at 143 feet; and the circumference of its head, round the forehead, is 102 feet. A very curious specimen of a sculptured sphinx, preserved in the Hospital at Colchester, Essex, was found amongst the Roman antiquities of that ancient station. Spire, spera, low Lat., spira, Lat., cspira, Sp. ; a pyramidal mass of brickwork, or masonry, either hollow or solid. Spires sometimes rise immedi- ately from the ground, and are carried up to a great height ; in other instances, they are placed upon round, square, or polygonal buildings, called towers. They are also occasionally employed to decorate the angles of a building. In the latter case, they correspond with, and are more properly termed, pinnacles. The accompanying Plate ofTowERs and Spires, and the annexed Wood- cut, contain several examples of spires. In this place we shall merely name the buildings on which the originals of the annexed eight speci- mens are to be found ; referring the reader for observations on their peculiai- characteristics, and on spires, steeples, towers, and turrets, in general, to the articles Steeple, Tower, and Turret. The series here delineated shew the origin and progressive changes in the form of the spire — from a stunted, pyramidal pinnacle (as fig. 1), to the lofty and slender spire, or broach. J gA; ^ ^--1 Ul ft Fis. 1. summit to one of the turrets at the east end of St. Peter's Church, Oxford. Fig. 2, from the south angle of the west front of Rochester Cathedral. Fig. 3, one of two spires, or pinna- cles, at the angles of the west front of Bishop's- Cleeve Church, Gloucestershire. Fig. 4, the py- ramidal roof of the tower of Than Church, near Caen, Normandy. The width of the side of the tower shewn in the engraving is 14 feet. Fig. 5, the central spire of Almondsbury Church, Glou- cestershire, with the tower on which it is placed. Fig. 6, the central spire, and part of the tower of Salisbury Cathedral. Fig. 7, central spire, and part of the tower of 5'<. Mart/'s Church, Chel- tenham. Fig. 8, spire, and part of a tower at the north-west angle of Bayeux Cathedral, Normandy. Spital, Spittel, Spyttle, Spyteil, a corruption of the word hospital, and bearing the same signi- fication. (See Hospital, and Nicholson.) To the north of the city of Lincoln is a village, with a hospital, bearing this name ; and one of the parishes of London is called Christ Church, Spital-Jields. Splayed, from disploi/er, old Fr., to spread out; spread or turned outwards. Applied to the jambs of a door, or window, when one part of their surface forms an oblique angle with the remainder. Springer, the impost, or point where a vertical support terminates, and the curve of an arch begins ; sometimes applied also to the rib of a groined roof. (See Arch, and Cross-Springer.) Springing-Course. the range of stones at the springing, or lowest part of an arch. Square, place, Fr., piazza, Ital.; an open area, generally of a quadrangular form, and partially, sta] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 219 or entirely surrounded by buildings. (See Piazza and Quadrangle.) Squillery, a scullery; frequently so spelt in old inventories, and in other documents. Squinch, occurs in the records of Louth steeple, as follows : — Paid for " squinches of 18 inches high, and 15 [broad, or thick?] at the least." (Brit- ton's Arch. Antiqs., vol. iv. p. 3 ; Archaologia, vol. X. p. 80.) Probably analogous to sconce, as used by William of Worcester. (See Sconce.) Stage, a floor, story, a degree. A stage of a but- tress denotes that part extending between any two of its splayed faces. William of Worcester has the words " in altitudine trium stagarum dictarum bay windowes." {Itin. p. 287.) Stair, degre, Fr., from j-rsejep. Sax., sieigen, Dut. and Ger., to step, to go ; a stone, or a frame of wood, by which a person rises one step. A series of steps, or stairs, ascending from the lower to the upper parts of a building, with the walls and balustrades enclosing them, form a staircase. Each stair consists of an upright portion, called the riser, and an horizontal part, called the tread. A series of stairs ascending in a straight line, is called a Jiight of stairs. " A payer of steres," and "a steyr" are old phrases with the same meaning as a. Jiight ; but, at present, a pair of stairs denotes two flights, or that part of a stair- case between any two floors of a building. Wind- ing stairs are those which rise in a spiral curve. The most ordinary word in ancient use for a stair was gre.ss. (See Degree, Gradarium, Gradus,Grees, Staircase, Step, and Vice.) Staircase, escalier, Fr., scala, Ital., that part, or subdivision of a house, church, castle, or other building, containing the stairs by which persons are enabled to pass from one floor to another. There are some curious staircases amongst the ruins of ancient Egypt ; and it is probable that they were used also, though rarely, by the Greeks. The ancient Roman houses being almost wholly of one floor, rarely required staircases; but there have been some interesting examples discovered at Pompeii. In the lofty and complicated build- ings of the middle ages, they were essential parts ; and we find that the architects exercised as much ingenuity and skill in designing them, as in the greater and more ostentatious divisions of a building. The staircases of castles were some- times on the outside, as well as within the walls, — occasionally passing in straight flights, but more frequently winding within circular, or square turrets. In churches, they were greatly varied, and sometimes much ornamented. The newel, or corkscrew, staircase was the most usual : it formerly bore, also, the names of turnpike, vice, and cochlea. In a document, temp. Henry VII. (Gage's Suffolk, vol. i. p. 142), " a vise (staeir) of breke" [brick] is mentioned. (See Coch- lea, Cockle-stairs, Newel, Turnpike, and Vice.) Examples of ancient newel staircases are to be seen at Colchester, Hedingham, and Rochester Castles ; the Painted Chamber, West- minster ; and in nearly all the English cathedrals and large churches. The usual situations of stair- cases in the latter class of buildings may be seen in the annexed Plan of Durham Cathedral, where the angles of the west front, and of the transept, have staircases ascending to the triforia, clerestories, and roof. Similar staircases were continued to the summits of towers : and some- times a small staircase was inserted in a spire, and in the substance of a massive pier; as in the abbey church at St. Alban's. At Canterbury, is a part of a curious exterior staircase of early Nor- man workmanship, placed before, and evidently leading to, what was formerly the Strangers' Hall ; now a school-room. (See Caveler's Speci- mens of Gothic Arch., pis. i. ii. &c.) At Ro- chester Castle, the ascent from the ground to the Jirst story of the keep-tower was by a stair- case on the exterior of the building, extending around parts of two sides. (Brittons Arch. An- tiqs., index, vol. v.) A circular turret attached to the western face of the tower of Brixvvorth Church (see Plate of Towers, fig. 5), contains a winding staircase of very early date. The round tower, or keep of Windsor Castle, is ascended by a noble staircase of a hundred steps, in one flight. A staircase, of singular design and application, leading from the transept to the chapter-house of Wells Cathedral, and to the vicar's close adjoining, is represented in pis. i. and xviii. of Brittons Wells Cath. Some mag- nificent open staircases were constructed in the mansions of the time of Elizabeth and James I.; several of which still remain. The handrails and balusters are often massive and bold, presenting 220 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [STA an appearance at once picturesque and secure. They were elaborately carved, the posts at the angles frequently supporting the family crest, with scrolls, foliage, and other devices. Exam- ples may be seen at Hatfield House, Hertford- shire ; Eastbury House, Essex ; Crewe Hall, Cheshire, &c. Aubrey describes a very curious one at Verulam House ; Dr. Percy mentions two at Wressel Castle, Yorkshire; and a remarkable one, at Wimbledon, is described, from an old document, in the Archaologia, vol. xviii. p. 399. The cathedral, and the church of St. Maclou, at Rouen, both contain very singular and elaborate open-work stone staircases, which are illustrated in Fugin's Arch. Autiqs. of Normaiidi/, pis. 59, 60, and 67. The spires of the cathedrals of Bur- gos, in Spain; of Antwerp, and of Fribourg, have curiously constructed staircases within their perforated walls. In modern palaces, mansions, and public buildings, the grand staircase is gene- rally an important feature ; and London has several excellent specimens. Such are those of Chesterfield, and of Sutherland Houses ; Drury Lane, and Covent Garden Theatres, &.c. For further information on, and representa- tions of, the various staircases referred to, see Brilton's Arch. Antiqs., index to 5 vols.; Bray- ley and Brittons Auc. Palace at Westrn., p. 121 ; Clarke's Account of Eastbury ; Hunt's Exemplars of Tudor Arch., pp. 27, 85 ; Pugin's Examples of Gothic Arch., vol. ii. p. xviii.; Carter's Anc. Arch., pi. xxix.: also the articles Ascensorium, Foot-pace, Scala Santa, and Stair. Stall, /brma, low Lat.; stallum, stahulum, Lat., from stando, standing; the place occupied by a monk, canon, dean, or prebendary, in the choir of a church ; sometimes applied also to the sedilia, or presbyteries for the officiating ministers in the wall of a chancel. (See Seat.) Stalls were generally made of timber, and elaborately carved. There are some highly decorated, of stone, in the collegiate churches of Beverley and South- well. In most English cathedrals a small open range of pillars, supporting gables with crockets, finials, canopies, and other decorations, consti- tutes the face of the stalls. In some churches the occupant of each stall had a desk before him, called the antica; the hinder part, ov pos- tica, containing a folding-seat, or misericord (see Miserere, and Subsellum), which afforded, in its different positions, a broad and a narrow resting-place. Where there was a second row of seats, before and somewhat beneath the first, the two were distinguished as " prima et secunda furmcB." The stalls of the dean and sub-dean at Westminster Abbey Church, and in most cathe- drals, are loftier than the others. We are told that all the stalls of churches were formerly hung with tapestry on festivals. Salisbury, York, Winchester, Lincoln, Worcester, St. David's, and other cathedrals; Beverley Minster; Henry the Seventh's Chapel; St. George's Chapel, Windsor; Sefton Church, Lancashire ; and the Luton Chapel, Bedfordshire, contain a variety of elegant stalls; whilst many of the cathedral and conventual churches in Italy, France, and Germany, are adorned with stalls of the most elaborate work- manship. They are occasionally found in parish churches, where they were placed for the accom- modation of monks, or nuns. " Stolyng" a church seems to have meant providing it with either stools, or stalls. See Pew, and Blome- field's Noifullc, 8vo. vol. iii. pp. 511, 512. For a view of the series of elaborate stalls in the choir of York Cathedral, see Brittons Cath. An- tiqs., York: see also his History of Winchester Cathedral, for a view of the dean's stall, &c., in that church. Stanchel, Stancheon, estavfon, Fr., from the Latin verb, sto, stare, to stand ; a prop, or sup- port; a piece of timber supporting one of the main parts of a roof: also, one of the vertical bars (whether of wood or iron) of a window, a screen, a railing, &c. Standart, a wooden closet with an opening in front; also, a large branch candlestick. Robert Harre, by will, dated 1500, bequeathed his "two great standards of laten" to the altar of Don- nington Chapel. — Lysons's Mag. Brit., Berk- shire, p. 716. Standelf, a corruption o( Stone-delf; an old pro- vincial term for a stone quarry. (See Delf.) — Oiven and Blakeway's Hhrewsbury, vol. ii. p. 462. Staple, probably from stapelen, Ger., to heap up; stapula, low Lat.; denoted a wholesale market, or a market-place. The English towns to which merchants carried their goods for sale were called ste] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 221 staples; besides which, some of our monarchs appointed Bruges and Antwerp to be the towns to which merchants should be required to export the staple commodities of England for sale. On the capture of Calais by Edward III., that town was also made a foreign staple. Hence we have the appellation, " a merchant of the staple of Calais," &c. The " statute-merchant" was a law for facilitating the recovery of debts due to mer- chants, in certain towns, by proceedings before the mayor and the " clerk of the statute-mer- chant" of the respective places. London, Win- chester, Bristol, Shrewsbury, and many other towns, enjoyed the advantages of this law. (See Owen andBlakeways Shrewsbury, vol. ii. pp. 213, 542; and Niculas's Testamenta Vet., pp. Ill, 273.) Star, Stae-Chamber. The practice of ornament- ing- the internal roof, or ceiling;, of a building: with painted, or gilded stars — most probably in imita- tion of the firmament — is of remote antiquity. According to Diodorus, the ceiling of a part of the palace of Osymandyus, in Egypt, was painted blue, and decorated with stars. That it was adopted very early in England, appears from a royal precept dated in 1238, directing the sheriff of Hampshire to cause the walls of the chamber at Winchester to be painted green, with gold stars. Representations of such rooms occur in many illuminated manuscripts; and the timber ceilings of several old churches still retain these peculiar ornaments. In 1521, Sir Thomas Wynd- ham directed a chapel, at Norwich, to be " wawted after the workmanship of the church there, as well in stars and colours, as in gilding loith sterrys." The time of the institution of the celebrated Court of Star-Chamber, at Westminster, is uncertain. It is said to have been so called because the room in which its judges originally sat was decorated with stars ; but its name was, more probably, derived from the verb stare, to stand ; to stand impeached, or to be charged, or arraigned : hence a place for trial. " Camera stellata" occurs as the name of a room in the palace, as early as 1372; but there is no reason to believe that the court then existed. The jurisdiction of that court was extended by Henry VII. and Henry VIII.; bat, in consequence of the arbitrary powers usurped by its judges, it was finally abolished by the legislature, in 1641. The room in which the court sat from the end of Queen Elizabeth's reign till its abolition, is engraved in Brayley and Brittons Anc. Palace at Westni., pi. xx. See an essay, by Mr. Bruce, on the origin, functions, and practice of the court, in Archaologia, vol. xxv. p. 342 ; see, also, IValpole's Anecdotes, by Dalla- way, vol. i. p. 10; Brayley and Brittons Anc. Palace at Westm., p. 231; Nicolas's Test. Vet., p. 582 ; Rymers Foedera, vol. iii. pt. ii. p. 951, edit. 1830; Archaologia, vol. viii. p. 404; and Shaw's Anc. Furniture, p. 4. Stater A, Lat., the Roman steel-yard. — Lysons in Archaologia, vol. x. p. 134; and Fosb. Enc. of Antiqs., p. 330. Statue, Statua, from slatno, to place, from stare, to stand ; — a statue proper is a standing figure : that which is set, or fixed ; an image ; a carved, moulded, or sculptured representation of a man, or other living being. Without commenting on Egyptian, Grecian, Roman, or other statues of foreign workmanship, the reader is referred for remarks on those of the middle ages to the articles Effigy, Image, Rood-loft, Sculpture, and Tomb. At the commencement of the thirteenth century, it was customary to adorn the west fronts, and other parts of cathedrals, and the larger monastic churches, with statues of bishops, mon- archs, knights, &c., as shewn at Salisbury, Wells, Peterborough, 8cc. On the monumental crosses of Queen Eleanor are some beautiful specimens of ancient statues. (See Flaxman's Lectures on Sculpture.) Giants, or janitors, with clubs, were often placed at the sides of the gateway of an old mansion, as if to protect the entrance. There are two of brick at East Basham Hall, Norfolk ; and those at the Guildhall, London, supply the places of others of more ancient date. Steeple, j-repel. Sax., a lofty erection attached to a church, and intended chiefly to contain its bells. Steeple is a general term, and applies to every appendage of this nature, whether its form classes it as a tower, or as a spire; or if it exhibits the ordinary arrangement of a tower surmounted by a spire. (See Spire and Tower.) Steevens (Richard), a native of Holland, practised in England, in the sixteenth century, as a sta- tuary, a painter, and a medallist. He executed the tomb of Thomas Radcliffe, Earl of Sussex, 222 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [STO in Boreham Church, Suffolk, for which he was paid 292/. — Walpole's Anecdotes, by Dallawai/, i.Sll. Stele, .»i, Gr., a cippus, or small sepulchral mo- nument (see Cippus); also, the ornament on the ridge of the roof of a temple. — Hoskvig, Encyc. Brit., article Architecture. Step, synonymous with stair; socalledfrom a single stair being ascended at one step. (See Stair.) Stephen, the king's painter, received payments for whitewashing and decorating the Great Hall, at Westminster, in 1273. — Brayley and Britton's Anc. Palace at Weslm., p. 436. Stereobate, ereoeog, Gr., firm, or solid, and '^aaig^ a base; the lower part, or basement of a building. The basement of a portico, or colonnade, is often termed a stereobate, though the word sti/tuliate would be more correct. — Hosking, Encyc. Brit., article Architecture. Stevyns (Thomas), copper-smith, in conjunction with a marbler, and a founder, agreed to make the latten plate, and hearse, for the tomb of the Earl of Warwick, in the Beauchamp Chapel (a.d. 1457). — Britton's Arch. Antiqs., vol. iv. p. 12. Stoa, maUTECTt:S. ^>i. BRITTOX^ ^RCHITF ntrTT'TNARY ME ¥ J Le l£*~ax- fc. TRACERY OF VATTLTED CIELIWGS . 1- Kings CoIL Cliap..Caxiibxia^e- ?: . -L 5 . St Oearpe's Chap; Wmdsor. 3. Cliacpter HJoTuse. CanterhinTv- Catli: 6. Deanls Ckap: D? Z,-ndfft. JiiHifhed fy lA^ jiiunt^ Ji.m IJ^^O. ' t-.»^J.Sri:-J^.r- i tum] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 237 of the ailes : " above the door it was likewise trel- liced," and " on the height of the said treUice iron spikes were stricken." The trellice-moulding is a name sometimes applied to a Norman mould- ing of diagonal i-ibs intersecting each other. Tribune, Tribunal. (See Apsis-gradata.) The bema, or tribunal, was one of the names employed by different writers to denote, 1. the ambo, or reading-desk ; 2. the altar ; 3. the seats, or thrones, for the bishop and presbyters; and 4. the whole space where these were placed. {Bingham's Oiig. Eccles., b. viii. c. vi.) (See Chancel.) Triclinium, the principal apartment of an ancient Roman house. Triforium, Lat., the gallery, or open space, be- tween the vaulting and the roof of the ailes of a church ; generally lighted by windows in the external wall of the building; and opening to the nave, choir, or transept, over the main arches. It is found only in large churches, and is varied in the arrangement and decorations of its open- ings in every succeeding" system of architecture. Four varieties of triforia are shewn in the Plates of Compartments of Cathedral Churches; viz. Durham (exterior, 6, interior, 7); Canterbury (interior, 6); Salisbury (exterior, f, interior, d); and Exeter (interior, d). Specimens of arcades from the triforia of Salisbury Cathedral and Be- verley Minster, are delineated in Plate II. of Arcades, figs. 2, 6, and 9. For the use to which the triforium was applied, see the article Nunnery, and Whewell's Arch. Notes on Ger- man Churches, p. 90. Triglyph, r^iis. Or., three, and y'ku(pri, a channel; a tablet on the Doric frieze, having two angular channels on its face, and a half channel, having the effect of a chamfered edge, at each end. The Doric frieze consists of triglyphs and me- topes. (See Glyph and Metope.) Trimmer, in modern practice, denotes a stnall beam receiving the ends of several joists, and to which they are adjusted, or trimmed. In an account of repairs at the Tower of London (anno 1532), are tlie words "ij. trymer peces, made and sett up under the ij. wyndowes in the chambre in the kyng's garden ;" and in the Plasterer's Con- tract for Hengrave Hall (dated 1538), are the following passages : — "y' chapel to be seeled (see Selyng) w' y' tremors, vj. foote on heyghte." " The hall to be seelyd, at y' daysse xv. foot of heyghte, w' a tremor ij. foote brode." The latter seems to imply something similar to a skirting. {Baylcys Hist, of the Toiver, pt. i. app. p. xxii.; Gage's Hengrave, p. 42.) Triumphal Arch. (See Arch, Triumphal.) Trochilus, the same as Scotia (which see). Trough, an incorrect orthography of the word Through. The western aileofthe transept of Chester Cathedral, in a plan executed soon after the suppression of monasteries, is termed the trough (through) aile, from the number of throughs, or gravestones, it contained. — Li/sons's Mag. Brit., Cheshire, p. 452. (See Through.) Trowel-point, a triangular indentation in a wall, or string-course ; so called from its resembling a pressure from the point of a trowel. It is indi- cated in Plate I. of Arcades, fig. 10, h. Truss, trousse, Fr., to strain, support, or keep tight. Thus a trussed roq/'is one which, by means of the tie-beams, rafters, king-posts, &c., is strained, or held together in its proper position : trussels, tressels, or trestles, are legs, or props, to support a table, or other article : a truss is a large corbel, or modillion, supporting a mural monument, or any other object, projecting from the face of a wall. Trymer. (See Trimmer.) Tudor Architecture, or, as it is commonly called, the Tudor Style ; that variety of building which prevailed in England during the reigns of the Tudor family, viz. Henries VII. and VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. (See Per- pendicular Style, Elizabethan, &c.) TuF, Tufa. (See Tophstone.) TuLLEY (Robert), a monk of the abbey of Glou- cester, and afterwards bishop of St. David's, com- pleted the tower of his abbey church. He died in 1482. (Britton's Cath. Antiq. Gloucester, p. 27 ; Ballaway's Engl. Arch. ed. 1833, p. 63.) Tumulus, Lat. {tunieo, to swell) ; a heap, or mound, of earth. The Celtic and other nations raised tumuli, or, as they are commonly called, barrows, of various sizes, over the bodies of their dead. Of the different varieties of these interesting 238 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [VAM memorials (of which specimens are abundant in Great Britain), and of their contents, the best account is to be found in the Introduction to the first volume of Sir Richard Colt Houre's Historif of Ancient Wiltshire. See, also, Gough's Sepul- chral Moimmeiils, Douglas's Necnia Britamiica, and ArchcBologia. Tunnel, a subterranean channel, is a name some- times applied to a chimney, or flue. Turnpike, Turnpike Stair, a winding, or newel staircase. (See Staircase.) TuRRELLUM, low Lat., E turiet. (See Bayley's Hist, of the Tower, pt. i. app. p. iii.) Turret, turris, Lat., tourelle, Fr., torrecella, Ital. and Sp. ; a small tower, attached to, and forming part of, another tower, or placed at the angle of a church, or gatehouse. A turret is usually oc- cupied as a staircase ; it rises above, and forms an ornamental appendage to the other parts of the building. Sometimes it is crowned with a cupola, and sometimes with a spire, or with pin- nacles. (See Tower.) Tuscan Order. (See Order.) TussEs. In the contract for Catterick Church, Yorkshire, it is provided, that " the forsaide Richarde sail putte oute tiisses for the makyng of a Revestery." The Rev. J. Raine, in a note to this contract (p. 9), observes, that the word tusses implies " the projecting-stones left in the masonry at proper distances upwards, by which a contemplated building might, in due time, be attached :" and so called from their resemblance to teeth, or tusks. Tushes is still so used in some parts of England ; and the same kind of work is called toothing in London. Tylle, Tylle-thakker. (See Thatch, and Tile.) Tymjjue, i'ormerly a common term amongst heralds to denote the crest or device upon a helmet. It was also occasionally applied to a bell-turret on the roof of a hall. On the spire of the old kitchen at Stanton-IIarcourt, Oxfordshire, is the crest of the family to whom the estate belonged ; and it appears to have been a frequent practice to place a family crest on the summit of a lantern, or bell-turret. ( Willsoti, Glossary to Pugin's Spe- cimens.) See Tabernacle. Tympanu.m, the triangular recessed space enclosed by the cornice of a pediment : in some temples it was entirely plain ; in others, enriched with sculpture. Type,Tippe. Under the head of "Plomar'sWorke," at the Tower of London, in 1532, is mentioned " the takyng downe of the iiij. types upon the great White Tower, and castyng and chasyng of the same iiij. types." " The carpentry work of the said types," ..." that is to sey, joyst peces and bolts to the top of them," &c., is said to have been " a chargeable pece of worke to doo ;" " hythning of the iiij. types with biycke- worke," and " rowghcastyng of those types," also occurs. {Bayley's Hist, of the Tower, pt. i., app. pp. xix. xxiii. xxvii.) U Undercroft, a subterraneous apartment, or crypt. (See Croft and Crypt.) University, an assemblage of colleges, with pro- fessors to give instruction to students. (See Col- lege.) Novices of the monastic times, as stu- dents in large schools at present, were sent to the universities to prosecute, or finish, their studies. Urn, urua, Lat., a vase of common character. Urns are frequently found, of various sizes and pat- terns, in the burial-places of the ancient Britons : the largest contained human bones and ashes ; and the smallest, probably, balsams, or precious ointments. Urns, and similar vessels, of earthen- ware, metal, and glass, are also found in Roman sepulchres. {%&e Hoare's Anc. Wilts, Iiitrod., and Browne's Urtie Buriall, 12mo. 1658 ; also Ar- chcBologia, Index, vol. xv.) V Vallum, Lat., a wall, high bank, or bulwark. The walls of Adrian, Agricola, Antoninus Pius, and Severys, were erected to restrain the Picts and Scots from devastating Britain. (See Wall.) The encampments and other earth-works of the ancient Britons and Romans consist chiefly of, or are surrounded by, alternate banks and ditches. Vamer. " The walke under foote, called the vamer, to be repayrede w' Cane stone by the masons." — (Bayley's Hist, of the Tower, pt. i. app. p. ix.) vid] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY". 239 Vane. (See Fane, and Phane.) Vase, vasa, Lat., an earthen, or metal vessel, used for sacrificial and for various other purposes. The domestic vases of the Greeks and Etruscans were remarkable for the beauty of their forms and de- corations. The immense number of ancient vases which have been disinterred from the tombs and tumuli of the Greek, Roman, and Celtic nations, shew that these vessels were manufactured skil- fully, and to a great extent, by those different people. (See Christie's Disqiiisitious iipoji the Painted Greek Vases, 4to., 1825; and a Collec- tion of Engravings after Antique Vases in the Collection of the Chevalier Hamilton, folio ; also, Hoove's Ancient Wiltshire; and ArchcEologia, In- dex to 15 vols. 8cc.) Vault, Volta, Vowte, Vatjte, voiite, Fr., volta, Ital., an arched ceiling, or roof. The arch of a bridge is, strictly speaking, a vault ; and a cupola is another of the simpler kind of vaults. When two or more vaults intersect each other, they pro- duce what is called a groined vault. The Romans were acquainted with the science of vaulting, and introduced it into the northern and western parts of Europe; the Christian architects of the middle ages vaulted nearly all their churches. The Rev. W. Whewell {Arch. Notes on German Churches, ch. i. sec. 2, 4, 5, 6) has investigated almost every variety of vault employed, and has given to each an appropriate name. For further informa- tion, see Annular Vault, Arch, Avolta, Crypt, and Plates, Cupola, Groin, Pend, Rib, Roof, Toph-stone, Tracery of Vaulted Ceilings, and Plates, and Vosura. Vaulting- pillar is a very descriptive name, applied by the Rev. R. Willis to one of the pillars between the triforium windows of a church, rising to, and sup- porting, the vaulting. Vecti (Martin de), abbot of Peterborough, built a gate-house to the monastery, soon after the year 113-3. He is described as " a great builder ;" and he repaired, or rebuilt, some of the conventual premises. {Britton s Peterborough Cath., y). 55.) Vertue (William). See Hylmer. Vesica Pisces, Lat., the name of a symbolical repre- sentation of Christ under the figure of a fish ; formed by the intersection of two equal circles cutting: each other in their centres. This figure was held in peculiar reverence by the early Christ- ians. Windows of this elliptical form occur in the old churches of Rurasey, Hampshire ; St. Leonard, Stamford (Plate of Windows, fig. 21); Salisbury Cathedral (fig. 22), &c. : and Mr. Ker- rich {Arche., vol. xvi. p. 314) supposes that one half of it, employed for the head of a window, or doorway, instead of a semicircular form, gave rise to the system of the pointed arch. Vestibule, vestibulum, Lat., an open space before a building ; or an ante-room, or entrance to one of its principal apartments. Large churches, besides the external vestibule, or porch, had frequently an ornamental ante-room before the entrance to the chapter-house. At Lichfield, Chester, Lin- coln, Bristol, and Salisbury Cathedrals, such vestibules are large and richly decorated. (See Plans of Chapter Houses, figs. 2, 5, 10, 11, and 12.) Vestry, Vestiary, Vestiaria, Revestry, an apart- ment in, or attached to, a church, where the sacred vestments and utensils were preserved. (See Diaconicum, Revestry, Sacristy, and Secretarium.) Vice, Vyce, from vis, Fr., a screw; a winding, or spiral staircase. The word occurs in the agree- ment for Fotheringhay Church {Dugd. Mon. Angh, vol. vi. pt. iii. p. 1414); the Account Rolls of St. Stephen's Chapel {Brayley and Britton's Anc. Palace at Westm., pp. 121, 168, 188, and Smith's Westminster, pp. 186, 7); an account of repairs at the Tower of London {Bayley's Hist, of the Toioer, pt. i. app. pp. ix. xxix.), 8cc. In these authorities, and in Cotgrave's Dictionary, the word appears in the following different forms : — " les vuz," " le vig," " vis hriste," " vis S. Gilks," and " vis a jour." In an old manuscript, in the possession of Mr. Willson of Lincoln, it is defined a " iurn-grece." (See Gress.) Vidimus, Lat., in the indentures for glazing the windows of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, signifies a cartoon, or drawing, from which the glass was to be painted. " According to such patrons, otherwise called vidimus." {Brittons Arch. Ants., \'o\.\.^.\G . SeeSYMONDES.) Pro- bably the drawings were so called from their having been seen and approved of by the per- sons employing the artists. {Willson, in Pugins Specimens.) 240 ARCHITECTHRAL DICTIOXARV. [WAT Vignette, Vinette, vigne, Fi., a vine; an orna- mental carving, in imitation of the tendrils and foliage of a vine. " Vinelles running in case- ments." (See Casement.) Lydgate's" Boke of Troy." Du Cange mentions, amongst the deco- rations of illuminated manuscripts, vincoUs, or vignettes, evidently foliated ornaments. i^Fos- brokes British Man., 352.) Villa, Lat., and Ital., Ville, Fr. ; an insulated country house. The most distinguished villas of tile Romans were probably constructed on the Greek model : they consisted of several apart- ments, arranged on the ground-floor, and were ornamented with much magnificence. Pliny (lib. ii. Ep. 17) gives a minute description of his villa near Laurentum; from which, with the assistance of Vilruvius ; from CasteWs Villas of the Ancients, folio, 1728; and Moule's Roman Villas, 8vo., 1833; some idea of these luxurious habitations, both in Italy and in Britain, may be obtained. Lysoiis's Accounts ofWoodchester, and of Bignor, contain illustrations of two of the most extensive Roman villas in England. (See Lysons's Reli- fjuicB RomancB.) \ iLLA REGiA, a name given to those places where a monarch had a country seat. (Kemtet's Ants, of Ambrosden. Gloss.) Vitrification, vitrum, Lat., glass, ^nA facio, to make ; the process of glazing, or converting into a substance similar to glass, by means of heat. The singular fortifications in Scotland, which present an appearance of having been vitrified by natural or artificial means, have already been noticed under the article Dun. Some examples of them are described in the fifth and sixth volumes of the Archaologia. (See, also. King's Man. Antiqua.) Vivarium, low Lat., any place for the reception, or confinement, of living animals ; as a park, a warren, or a fish-pond. (Rennet's Antiqs. of Ambrosden.) Volute, volutum, low Lat., the convolved or spiral ornament placed at each angle of the Ionic, and of the Corinthian and Composite capitals. The common English term is scroll. Volute, scroll, helix, and cauliculus, are used indifferently for the angular horns of the Corinthian capital. Vyce. (See Vice.) W Wages. Some curious and interesting documents, shewing the price of labour in difl^erent parts of England, at various times, are to be found in the Account Rolls of St. Stej)hen's Chapel (Smith's Westm. p. 200, et seq., and Brayley and Brit- ion's Anc. Palace at Westm. p. 148, et seq.); the spire, or broach, of Louth Church, Lincoln- shire (Archce., X.70; and Britten's Arch. An- tiqs., iv. 4) ; Gage's Hengrave, p. 72 ; Hunt's Exemplars, pp. 17, 20, 115; Oiven and Blake- way's Shrewsbury, vol.i. pp. 123, 131, 545, 549; Archcc., vol. xvi. p. 231 ; Spencer's Life of Chi- chele ; the agreements for Fotheringhay Church ; King's College, Cambridge ; St. George's Chapel, Windsor; the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick; and Catterick Church, Yorkshire ; Fleetwood's Chron- icon Preciosum, S)-c. At St. Stephen's Chapel, in the year 1292, carpenters were paid od. per day ; other workmen, 2iJ., 3d., and 3^fi^. AtRhuddlan Castle, in 1282, the wages of the architect, or " master mason," were 6d. per day ; those of " masons," 4d. ; and other workmen, 3d. At All Souls' College, Oxford, carpenters and saw- yers had 6d. a-day ; masons, Hd. ; stone-diggers and common labourers, ^^d.; joiners, from 6d. to 8d. ; a " dawber," 5d. ; the master-carpenter, 3s. 4d. a week ; and the carvers and image- makers (besides their bed and board), 4s. Hd. per week. Allowing for the decrease in the value of money, these and similar payments appear to have been generally higher, and, in many in- stances, nearly double the present rate of wages. Workmen were frequently pressed into the ser- vice of the monarch, under a special mandate to a sheriff, whenever their services were required. (See Lysons's Magna Britannia, Berkshire; and Br it ton's Exeter Cath.) Wainscot, the name of boards employed to line the internal walls of an apartment; so called from u foreign species of oak, named wainscot, being first used for such a purpose. (See Panel, and Selyng.) This mode of ornamenting walls suc- ceeded the use of tapestry. The Rev. Dr. Whi- taker (Hist, of Whalley, p. 412) doubts the em- ployment of wainscoting before the time of Queen wal] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 241 Elizabeth ; but an old manuscript in the British Museum {Cotton. Vitellius) states, that, in the reign of Henry the Eighth, the sides of the par- lour in the house of Richard Fermor, of Enstone, gentleman, " were celyd with luenskett." In many mansions of the Elizabethan period, the ceilings, as well as the walls, are covered with wainscot; divided into variously formed panels by moulded ribs ; and elaborately carved with foliage, armorial bearings, and similar decorations. The ceilings are often coved, and have elegant pendants. The long gallery at Haddon Hall, Derbyshire, affords a beautiful specimen of carved wainscoting. (See Rayner's Haddon Hall, 4to. 1837.) Wakefield (Henry), bishop of Worcester, from 1375 till his death in 1394, made extensive additions to his cathedral church, and other buildings. Amongst these, the west end of the choir; the north porch ; the vaultings of the nave, choir, and transept; and St. Mary Mag- dalen's chapel ; are enumerated by different au- thorities, or inferred from their architectural peculiarities. (See Brittons Calh. Antiqs. Wor- cester, -pp. 18,22,27,32.) Waldon (Watkin), the " warden" of Henry Zeneley, or Yevele, is mentioned as delivering to the ma- sons, Washbourn and Swalve, " a form and model devised by" Zeneley ; according to the purport of which they were to make certain additions to Westminster Hall, in the reion ofKingRichardll. (See Swalve, Warden, Washbourn, and Zeneley.) Walkelyn, bishop of Winchester, from 1070, till his death in 1097, appears to have erected the oldest parts of the present cathedral. These are the crypts ; the internal parts of the piers and walls of the nave ; parts of the chapter-house, transept, and tower. {Britton's Cath. Antiqs., Winchester, pp. 46, 139.) Wall, peal, Sax., vallum, mitrus, Lat., miir, Fr., muro, Ital. ; a continuous work of masonry, brick- work, or other materials, raised to some height, and intended for an enclosure, or defence. The original meaning of the Latin vallum was pro- bably a palisade, or fence of stakes ; from vallus, a stake, or post. Walls form the universal exte- riors of houses, temples, churches, and other buildings; and are also frequently raised around a town or city, to defend it from the assaults of enemies. The rude, but massive stone walls, heaped together by the early inhabitants of Greece, have been mentioned under the article CYCLOPiEAN Architecture. Those of the Greek and Roman temples, and other buildings, are minutely described by Vitruvius, under the names of Isodomum, Emplecton, Insertum, Reti- culatum. Sec. The walls of Rome consist of brick, of stone, and of concreted rubble. The Wall of Hadrian, in the north of England, was simply a rampart of earth, extending from the eastern to the western coast of Britain ; and intended, in conjunction with other fortifications, to keep the Picts and Scots from invading England. The Wall of Severus was erected in the same district, and was nearly parallel to the former; but it was chiefly of stone, and had a number of castella, or forts, and watch-towers at intervals, along its course. Many vestiges of these are still remain- ing. (Vide Huttons History of the Roman JVall, 8vo., 2d edit., 1813.) The towns of St. Albans and Colcliester, also Richborough, &c., still dis- play considerable remains of Roman walls ; con- sisting of rubble, with regular courses, or layers, of bricks or tiles, at intervals. The walls of the Roman villa at Woodchester, in Gloucestershire, were formed partly of squared stones, with similar layers of tiles. {Lysons's Woodchester, p. \\.) At subsequent periods, the walls of English buildings consisted of a mixture of flints with unsquared stones and rubble; or squared flints and stones in regular courses; sometimes disposed in alter- nate squares ; and ultimately faced with neatly worked ashler. (See Carter's Anc. Arch., pi. xlii., where tlie formation of several varieties is exem- plified.) Of their general durability, the nu- merous castles and churches remaining, and the difficulty [as at old St. Paul's Cathedral, and Ethelbert's Tower, Canterbury,] of destroying such as have been removed, bear ample evidence. Prior to the introduction of the pointed system, walls were of great thickness, being, in fact, the only support to sustain the vertical pressure of the semicircular arch; but, subsequently, when the pointed arch produced a lateral thrust, the walls were made less thick, and with more fre- quent openings ; and buttresses (previously mat- ters of ornament more than of use) were carried , I I 242 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. [war out to a considerable distance, so as to support the upper parts of a building. The external and internal ornaments of walls are mentioned under Ashler, Buttress, Corbel-table, String- course, Painting, Panel, PARcfeTTiNG, Plastering, Selyng, Tapestry, Wainscot, &c. Wall-plate, a piece of timber placed along the top of a wall to receive the ends of the roof- timbers, or so placed on a wall as to receive the joists of a floor. The word is ancient. William of Worcester, in giving some dimensions of the Divinity School, at Oxford, has the words, " in altitudine a fundo usque ad superiorem waiplate de freestone 80 pedes." {Ilia. p. 282.) Walred (Nicholas), in the reign of King Henry II., constructed a bridge across the Severn at Glou- cester. Whilst it was in progress, Walred formed the workmen employed upon it into an associa- tion, or college ; which was afterwards incor- porated and endowed by Henry III., under the title of St. Bartholomew's Hospital. The bridge in question was demolished in the year 1809. (See Brillon's Pictiiresf/ue Antiqs. of Engl. Cities, p. 54 ; which volume contains two views of that interesting bridge.) Walsingham (Alan de), vpas appointed sub-prior of Ely, in 1321; sacrist soon afterwards; and prior in 1341. Walsingham, the historian, de- scribes him, in 1314, as an ingenious " fabricator" in gold and silver. In 1321, he laid the founda- tion of St. Mary's Chapel, Ely Cathedral, for which he is supposed to have furnished the de- signs ; and, whilst sacrist, he began the choir. This, as is evident from a Latin eulogium in Cotton MS. Titus, A. 1, he also designed and superintended. Many other parts of the mon- astic buildings were erected by him ; and the fall of the central tower of the cathedral, soon after 1321, afforded him, by erecting the present elegant octagon and lantern, an opportunity of displaying his talents as one of the most skilful of monastic architects. This exquisite monu- ment of the inventive and constructive powers of Walsingham was completed in the year 1328 ; and restored by the late Mr. Essex, between the years 1757 and 1762. {Bentham's Ely Cath., 2d. edit. p. 221.) In Ldand's Collectanea (ed. 1774, ii. 604), Walsingham is styled " Vir vene- rabilis, et arti/iciosus frater." Walter of Coventry is supposed by Hay {IJis- tory of Chichester, p. 384) to have been the architect employed by Seffrid, bishop of Chi- chester, to rebuild his cathedral, after its confla- gration in 1187. (See Seffrid.) Walter de Weston. (See Weston.) Walter (the Painter), "MagistroWaltero Pictori," is mentioned in the wardrobe accounts of Ed- ward I. (anno 1300), as receiving payment for making, painting, and gilding a step at the foot of the new chair, which contained the stone from Scotland — " Unum gradum faciendum ad pedem novffi cathedree in qua petra Scocie reponitur." This document furnishes the age of the celebrated coronation chair, still preserved in Westminster Abbey Church. Master Walter was apparently the same person who had painted the king's chamber, in the palace at Westminster, for Henry III.; and was piobably employed also on the decorative works at the adjacent abbey. ( Walpole's Anecdotes, by Dallawat/, vol. i. p. 28 ; Brayley and Neale's West. Abbey Ch., vol. ii. p. 133; and Braylei/ and JBiitton's Anc. Palace at Westm., p. 72.) Walton (Nicholas) is mentioned in the Patent Rolls of Richard II. (17, m.3), as "master car- penter and engineer of the king's works for the art of carpentry." The great halls of Westmin- ster, and Eltham, having been completed in the reign of Richard II., Walpole conjectures that their timber roofs may have been designed by this carpenter. {Anecdotes by Dallaway, vol. i. p. 208.) Warden. The various bodies of free-masons em- ployed on different buildings, were each under the general control of a master-mason, who was in many instances the architect ; but in others, merely the builder, who carried into effect the designs of his monastic, or noble patron. Subor- dinate to the master-mason were his wardens, who also exercised control, and entered into contracts, either alone, or jointly with the mas- ter-masons. Tliat the terms master-mason and warden were formerly in common use with these significations, is apparent from almost every an- cient architectural agreement now extant, (See wel] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY 243 the articles Masonry, Semekk, Waldon, Wastell, and Hylmer.) Ware (Richard de), or Warren, abbot of West- minster, from 1258 till 1283, imported from Rome the curious mosaic pavement placed before the great altar of the abbey church. {Brayley and Neale's Westm. Abbey, vol. i. p. 64.) Warren (John) was the architect of St. Mary's Church, Cambridge, commenced in 1478, and finished in 1519. He is interred in the church, as intimated by a tablet against the east wall of the chancel. {Li/so)is's Mag. Brit., Cambridge- shire, p. 149.) Warwick (Richard Beauchamp, Earl of), in the reign of Henry VI., died in France. His body, as stated in his epitaph, " was broght to Warre- wik . . . and was leide, with ful solenne exce- quies, in a feir chust made, of stone in this chirche [St. Mary's, at Warwick] afore the west dore of this chapel, according to his last wille and testamente, therin to rest, till this chapel hy him deuised in his lief, were made." The latter words refer to the Beauchamp Chapel, so frequently mentioned in the present volume. {Britton's Arch. Antiqs., vol. iv. p. 9.) Washbourne (Richard). See Swalve. Wastell (John), " master-mason" of the works at King's College Chapel, Cambridge. (See Semerk.) Water-drain, any small channel, or aperture for the escape of water; as in a piscina. Water-table, a string-course, or cornice mould- ing, with an inclined upper surface to carry off water. Waterville, or Vaudeville (William de), abbot of Peterborough from 1155 to 1193, built the tran- sept and part of the central tower of his minster; founded the chapel of Thomas a Becket, adjoin- ing ; also the hospital of St. Leonard (now called the spittal), near Peterborough ; built St. Mary's Church, Stamford ; and built and repaired other conventual buildings in Peterborough and Stam- ford. (Britton's Cath. Antiqs., Peterborough, pp. 19, 20, 86.) Waynflete (William of), so named from his birth- place, in Lincolnshire, was educated at Oxford and Winchester; and, becoming master of the college at the latter city, was, in the year 1440, entrusted by King Henry VI. with the care of his college at Eton. In 1447, he was appointed bishop of Winchester, which see he continued to occupy till his death, in 1486. He was a benefactor to the collegiate buildings at Eton ; erected the altar screen in Winchester Cathe- dral ; and is supposed to have superintended the building (in the same church) of the elaborate and beautiful chantry, or sepulchral chapel, in which he was afterwards interred. His most celebrated works are those at Magdalen College, Oxford, which was founded in the year 1457 ; the buildings (designed by himself) were com- menced in 1474, and continued during the five succeeding years. His contracts with Orchyerd, the master-mason, for constructing these build- ings, are still extant. (See Chandler's Life of William of Wayiifiete, 1811, p. 137; Britton's Cath. Antiqs., Winchester, pp. 96, 97, 101, 122; and Pugiu's Examples of Gothic Arch., vol. i. pp. 10-12.) Weather-moulding, a label, canopy, or drip- stone, over a door, or window; intended to keep off water from the parts beneath. (See Hood- mould, and Label.) Weeper, a term occurring in the agreements relat- ing to the tomb of the Earl of Warwick, in the Beauchamp Chapel; as follows: — "xiv. Images embossed, of lords and ladyes, in divers vestures, called weepers, to stand in housings made about the tombe, ... to be made to xiv. patterns made of timber." {Britton's Arch. Antiqs., vol. iv. p. 13.) The custom of placing small statues of the children, or friends of an individual, on the sides of his tomb, seems to have begun in the fourteenth century. The tombs of the Burghersh family, at Lincoln, have Edward III. and his sons as weepers, each with his shield of arms over his imase. Similar figures are found on tombs of the time of Charles the First. (See Gough's Sep. Monuments; Weever's Funeral Monuments; Blox- ham's Monumental Arch.; and Glossary to Pugin's Specimens.) Well, pell, Sax., a spring, or fountain ; hence, also, a pit, cylindrical shaft, or hole, sunk in the earth to obtain a supply of water. In Warton's Angl. Sacr., pars. ii. p. 13 ; Lelund, de Scrip. Brit., p. 92 ; and Itin., vol. iv. p. 117, the use of wells. 244 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY [WIL in monastic discipline, is referred to. Certain relin:ious persons perfornaed their devotions whilst standinc; naked in the water of a well, or bath. The celebrated well called St. Winifred's, in North Wales, and others in diflPerent parts of England, are the objects of many superstitious customs, and are covered in with buildings. (See Conduit.) Well-staircase, a winding staircase of ascent, or descent, to different parts of a buildins; : so called from the walls enclosing it resembling a well. West tkost, ffl^ade occidentale, Vv.,facciata occi- dentale, Ital., loestliche fronte, Ger. The west front of a cathedral, or other large church, is usually more elaborately decorated than any other part of its exterior. On the ditFerent modes in which this important part of a church was formerly designed, see the articles Cathe- dral, Church, &c.; also, Whittiiighams Hist. Sinv., p. 163; and Willis's Arch, of the Middle Ages, p. 140. Westminster (Edward of). (See Fitz-Odo.) Weston (Walter de), "clerk of the works at the king's palace of Westminster, and at the Tower of London," from the year 1331 to 1341. His account roll of the expenses attending the erec- tion of St. Stephen's Chapel, and other works, is still preserved in the queen's remembrancer's office. Some interesting extracts from it are printed in Braylei/ and Britton's Anc. Palace at Westm., p. 162. Whatteley (John), succeeded John Golding as " chief carpenter, and disposer and surveyor of the king's works," at the sanre places as de Weston, in the year 1445. (Patent Rolls, 23d Henry VI.; Biai/lei/ and Britton'f Anc. Palace at Westm., p. 314.) Wheatiiamstead (John), abbot of St. Alban's from 1421 to 1464, is supposed to have designed the duke of Gloucester's monument, and the altar-screen in his abbey church ; and also to have superintended parts of \MtV '-^_J t^ s^l ^^ U J -L-* "/'^ w ^i/^ w ^y \7 0^ "-I -i •I. K.Ttiini4>an>ii d*l . (N.-1- 111.' -itn-U- WUifliiwj l.^nJ.m ruhfijitf*! hu J Rfitt.yn .Jl^. /Al.t avin] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 245 parts of the transept, and erected the east end of the choir, the Trinity Chapel, and Becket's Crown, between the years 1178 and 1220. {Brit- ton's Cath. Antiqs., Caitterburif, p. 37.) William the German, employed with Bonano, in 1174, in commencing the campanile, or bell- tower, at Pisa. {Milizias Lives, hij Cresy, vol. i. p. 142; and Hawkins's Gothic Arch., p. 2.) William the Painter (" majistro Willielmo pictori"), is mentioned in a precept, dated 1251, as having received orders from the king for painting the king's cloister, at Windsor Castle. In rolls of subsequent date, the names William, the monk of Westminster, and William of Flo- rence, appear to denote the same person. (See Walpole's Anecdotes, by Daltaway, vol. i. pp. 21-27.) William of Sens. (See Sens.) Williamson (Francis). (See Symondes.) WiMMBOLDE, and Odo, denominated " cementarii," rebuilt the church of St. Lucien, at Beauvais, about the year 1078 : the former appears to have constructed the body of the fabric, and the latter the tower only. ( Whittiiigtons Hist. Siirv., p. 54 ; Felih. Vies des Arch., iv. 193.) Wind-beam, a term occurring in old accounts, to denote a large timber arch in the frame-work of a trussed roof; serving to obviate the effects of a high wind upon the steep external sides of the roof. This term is still used by provincial workmen. (See Pitgins Specimens of Gothic Arch., vol. i. p. 22, where it is illustrated with reference to the roof of Westminster Hall.) WiNDFORD (William). See Wynford. Window, ventana, Sp.,fe?iestra, L&t., fenetre, Fr., finestra, \ia\.,fenster, Ger.; an aperture, or open- ing, in the wall of a building, for the admission of light and air to the interior. Before the in- vention and general use of glass, it is presumed that windows were of small dimensions, and usually closed at night by wooden shutters. The first glazing of such apertures constituted an im- portant epoch in the art of building. To trace the history, and enter into a description of the various forms, sizes, and other characteristics of windows, would occupy a goodly sized volume ; for it would involve inquiries into the peculiari- ties of those belonging to ancient and to modern nations ; to hot and to cold climates ; to Pagan and to Christian edifices ; to the thick walls and gloomy cells of castles ; and to the domestic ha- bitations of man in all parts of the civilised globe. Anterior to the adoption of the arch, most win- dows and doorways had flat lintels, or were ter- minated by two sloping sides, as is evident from the apertures in Egyptian, and in the oldest Gre- cian temples. It also appears, from those exam- ples, that the jambs, or sides, converged from the sill to the lintel, making the opening wider at the bottom than at the top. The architects of the middle ages, from the commencement of the thirteenth to that of the sixteenth centuries, made a countless variety of designs for the win- dows of their different buildings — from small loopholes of about six inches wide, to openings of 75 feet in height, by 34 feet in width. The window at the east end of York Cathedral, of the latter dimensions, is adorned with eight up- right mullions, two transoms, and a profusion of tracery within the limits of the archivolt mould- ings. It is also filled with stained, or painted glass, of rich design and elaborate execution. (See Thornton.) The lower part of the win- dow has a second unglazed frame of stone mul- lions and transoms withinside. A particular illustration of the numerous windows which are to be found in the ecclesiastical edifices of Eu- rope, would require a great number of engrav- ings. Suffice it for the present Dictionary to point out some of their most prominent charac- teristics, with particular references to the exam- ples delineated in the prints of the present volume. Recent discoveries at Pompeii have proved that glass was used in the windows of its houses ; and that the Romans had glazed windows in their buildings, in Britain, may be reasonably inferred from the discovery of glass in some of their stations : as at Camalodunum, Colchester; Aqua-Solis, Bath, &,c. The win- dow, fig. 1, in the annexed Plate, from the church of Brixworlh, Northamptonshire, may be regarded as illustrative of Roman form and cha- racter. (See Arch. Antiqs., vol. v. p. 190.) Fi"-. 2, a double window, from the tower of St. Albans Abbey Church, having a small pier between the openings, the whole built with brick, may be considered as characterising the 246 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARV. [win debased Roman, the Anglo-Saxon, and the ruder class of Norman architecture. Fig. 8, from the upper story of the same tower, is of similar de- sign in form and character, but has a regular Norman pillar between the two openings, and two demi-pillars for jambs. The tower from which these specimens are taken was probably built by Paul, the first Norman abbot of St. Al- ban's, between 1077 and 1093. Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, indicate so many varieties of Anglo-Norman windows of frequent occur- rence, and adapted to the peculiarities of their respective buildings, or positions. Fig. 3 is from the Abbaye-aux-Hommes, or church of St. Ste- phen, Caen ; fig. 4, from Witlbtgham Church, Norfolk ; fig. 5, from Gilliiigham Church, Nor- folk ; fig. 6, from St. Sepulchre's Church, North- ampton ; and fig. 7, from the Church uf St. Cross, Hampshire. Fig. 17, from Barfreston Church, Kent, about the year 1100, shews the union of the semicircular and pointed arch ; fig. 12 is a double window from Basbigham Church-Totver, Norfolk; and fig. 15 is one of three windows at the east end of the church of Castle Ilediiig- ham, Essex. In the Plate of Elevation of Durham Cathedral, nave, are shewn the exte- riors and interiors of three windows of genuine Anglo-Norman design, erected about the year 1100; and specimens both of the semicircular headed, and first pointed (of about the date of 1184), are shewn in the Compartment of Trinity Chapel, Canterbury Cathedral. Fig. 14 (Platk of Windows), from a build- ing called Pythagoras's School, at Cambridge, about 1180, is amongst the earliest examples of trefoil-headed windows; having above the lights a small perforated lozenge, enclosed by a semi- circular arch. This building is mentioned in a charter, dated 1252. Beneath its floor was a crypt of similar, or even ruder architecture than that of St. Peter's, Oxford. Fig. 9 is a very richly decorated Norman window, from St. Cross Church, Hampshire, in whicli the cheveron ornament jjrevails to the exclusion of all others; fig. 10, of plain but neat workmanship, is from St. Stephen's Church, Caen; fig. 13, from Ingworth^Church, Norfolk, is remarkable for the acuteness of its arches. Fig. 18 is a finely proportioned window in the Painted Chamber, Westminster, about the middle of the thirteenth century; and fig. 19 is an ex- quisite example of a triple form of window, one of the chief characteristics_ of the first pointed system. Of this variety of window, the Temple Church, London, and the Church of St. Saviour's, South wark, present several examples. Some elegant windows of early pointed, and elaborately decorated character, are shewn in the Compartments of Salisbury and Exeter Cathedrals. Fio-. 32 (Plate of Windows), of the beginning of the fourteenth century, is from Ely Cathedral. The window engraved in the centre of the Plate, fig. 31, is from the north aile of the choir of Worcester Cathedral. It is recessed within an arch, of which the intrados is engrailed, and which is supported on insulated shafts with bands and foliated caps. The window itself has two mullions, a transom, and tracery. It is glazed with plain glass ; but some figures, fre- quently seen in ancient stained glass, are here indicated. Fig. 33 is an oriel, or bay-window (see Oriel), projecting into the north aile from the wall of the same Cathedral; and figs. 34, 35, and 36, from Aylsham Church, Norfolk, St. Giles's Church, Northampton, and St. Thomas's Hospital, Sandwich, are of the Tudor period. At the bottom of the plate are horizontal sec- tions through the mullions of windows, of dif- ferent dates. Those marked a, b, c, d, e, and f, are indicative of the period from William the Conqueror, to Henry 111. ; g, h, i, and j, from Henry 111. to Edward II.; and the remainder are chronologically arranged from the time of Edward II. to that of Henry VIII. Circular windows are of frequent occurrence in the larger edifices of the end of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries; and, according to the ramifications of their respective mouldings, have been fancifully called Catherine-wheel, Ruse, and Marygold windows. Of these magnificent archi- tectural features, the cathedrals of France con- tain some fine specimens. In England, the east and west ends, and the transepts of churches, had most frequently large windows resembling that of Yoik, already mentioned ; but Lincoln and Exeter Cathedrals, Westminster Abbey Church, and some other large churches, have very beau- tiful circular windows in their gables. The Plate of Windows contains seven examples of this class: viz. fig- 11, pluin^ a small opening without wre] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIOXARY. 247 tracery, from Chichester Cathedral; fig. 28, with- out tracery, but having the inner moulding orna- mented, from a building at the west end of ISIor- wich Cathedral ; fig. 27, with tracery curiously interlaced, and a cheveron moulding in the outer part of the circle, from the west end of St. James's Church, Bristol, about 1100; fig. 23, divided by six mullions, and having six trefoil openings, from St. Nicholas Church, Guildford,Aho\xi 1180; fig. 20, from the west front of Peterborough Ca- thedral, with six mullions, or pillars, branching from the centre to the circular moulding, which is ornamented with engrailed work ; fig. 25, a small circular opening with flowing tracery, from the church of the monastery of Batalha, in Por- tugal; and fig. 24, a beautiful gable window to the great hall of the Bishop of Winchester's Pa- lace, Southwark. The plate also contains views of two windows, of an elliptical form (see Vesica Pisces); the first, fig. 21, from St. Leonard's Chapel, Stamford ; and the second, fig. 22, more ornamented, from the west front of Salisburif Ca- thedral. There are also quatrefoil and cinquefoil openings, figs. 16 and 30; the former from St. Augustin's Church, Canterbury, and the latter from Romsey Church, Hampshire : and triangular windows; from Lichjield Cathedral, fig. 26; and from Dorchester Church, Oxfordshire, fig. 29. Although we have written evidence that glass was used in England for windows as early as the seventh century, yet until the reign of Queen Elizabeth that material was exceedingly scarce : and even in the year 1567 certain surveyors re- ported, that, on the departure of the Earl of iVorthumberland from his castle at Alnwick, " yt were good the whole leights of eviry windowe were taken doune and lade upe in safety ; as now the decaye thereof shall be verie costlie, and chargeable to be repayred." — {Northumber- land Household Book, pref. p. xvii.) For other information on other -branches of the present subject, see the articles Bay, Bow, Casement, Glass, Jamb, Light, Mullion, Oriel, Painted Glass, Pane, Tracery, Transom. &.c. Wolsey (Cardinal), though not recorded as himself an architect, was one of the greatest patrons of architecture of his age. York Place, Whitehall (the palace of the Archbishops of York); the palace at Hampton Court, Middlesex ; and the college of Christ Church, Oxford; are all attri- butable to his ostentatious magnificence. Wolston (John), the name of a " free-mason" em- ployed on certain works at Exeter Cathedral, in the year 1427. {Britton's Cath. Autiqs., Exeter, p. 97.) WoLVEY, or Wolvesey (Thomas), master-mason, or surveyor of the king's stone-works, in the fifteenth century. — See JVeever's Funeral Monu- ments, 1767, p. 344, where his epitaph, dated 1430, and that of Richard Wolvey, " La- thonius," both interred in the church of St. Mi- chael, at St. Alban's, are given. (See also Cough's Sepulch. Mon., vol. ii. p. 95.) Wood, or Wode (John), "masoun," contracted, in 1439, with the abbot of St. Edmondsbury, for the repair and restoration of the great bell-tower of the abbey, "in all mannere of things that longe to free masonry." He was to be provided with " borde for himselfe as a gentilman, and his ser- vaunt as a yoman, and thereto, two robys, one for himself after a gentilmany's livery." A working mason's wages were then three shillings a week, in winter, and three shillings and four- pence in summer. — Archa., vol. xxiii. p. 331. Wood, Wooden Churches. (See Timber, Tim- ber-Building.) Workmen. (See Wages.) Wren (Sir Christopher), who was born in 1632, knighted by King Charles II. in 1674, and died in 1723, designed and superintended the erection of the Cathedral Church of St. Paul, London. That magnificent building was commenced in 1675, and completed in 1710. Sir Christopher also erected a commemorative column, called " the Monument," to record the fire of London ; and several eminent buildings in the revived classical style, in the metropolis, and other parts of the kingdom. In " Gothic," or, as he pro- posed to term it, " Saracenic" architecture, he was certainly not a successful practitioner; al- though, in the adaptation of the steeple — a form peculiar to pointed architecture — to Roman build- ings, he has manifested much ingenuity, and pro- duced some light and graceful forms. The west- ern towers of Westniinster Abbey Church, and the tower of St. Dunstan's in the East, London, 248 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIOXARY. [XYS are the most decided proofs of his incapacity to assimilate judiciously his own designs with those of the old English ecclesiastical architects. — See Brayley and Neale's Weslm. Abbey, vol. ii. In- dex ; and for the names of, and criticisms on^ other works by Sir C. Wren, and for further biographical details, see Parenlalia, or Memoirs of the Famili/ of Wren, folio, 1750; Elines's Life of Sir C. Wren, 4to. ; and Walpole's Anecdotes, by Dal/awai/, vol. iii. WuLRiCH, or WooLRicFj (John), preceded John Wastell, as master-mason at King's College Cha- pel, Cambridge : being mentioned as such in an indenture, dated 1476, and preserved in the ar- chives of Caius College, Cambridge. — Walpole's Anecdotes, by Dallaway, vol. i. p. 180. WuLSTAN, bishop of Worcester from 1062 till 1095, the second bishop of that name, was, after his death, canonised by the pope. He is supposed to have built the crypt of Worcester Cathedral, the eastern parts of the transept, several door- ways, and other details. {Brilton's Cath. Antiqs., Worcester, pp. 15, 32.) Wygmore (John), abbot of Gloucester from 1329 to 1337, — successor to Thoky (See Tiioky), — built the choir of the present Cathedral Church of Gloucester, the aile of St. Andrew (supposed to mean the north transept), and other parts of the abbatial edifices. {Brilton's Cath. Antiqs., Gloucester, pp. 21, 22.) Wykeiiam (William of), so named from bis native place, in Hampsliirej was born in the year 1324. Uvedale, governor of Winchester Castle, patronis- ing him on account of his mathematical talents, he became a resident in that castle, and, at an early age, directed several repairs there. He was also patronised, or employed by Edington, bishop of Winchester, by whom he was (about 1347) recommended to King Edward III. In a docu- ment dated 1352, he is styled "■ cleric as ;" and from 1356 till 1373 he was clerk, or surveyor of the king's works, at Windsor, Queenborongh, Dover, 8ic. During that period, the royal castle at Windsor was almost entirely rebuilt, and that of Queenborough erected. In 1367, Wykeham became bishop of Winchester, where, si.v years afterwards, he founded and built a college which is still subsisting ; and, in 1380, he founded New College, Oxford, where his crosier is still pre- served. The present nave of Winchester Cathe- dral, with its ailes, were altered and finished under the superintendence of this illustrious architect. Lowth infers from a passage in the will of Wyke- ham, that he merely superintended the works at Winchester, and that William Wynford, therein mentioned, was in fact the architect : but Wyke- hani's qualifications in the mathematics are men- tioned by all authorities; and Wicliff, who was contemporary with him, alludes to his skill " in building castles." He died in the year 1404, and is interred in a chantry chapel in the nave of his cathedral. Besides the works already men- tioned, William of Wykeham rebuilt parts of several churches, and restored the hospital of St. Cross, near Winchester, to its original chari- table purposes. The buildings with which he was connected rank, in architectural desio-n and magnificence, far before the other works of his age. For further particulars, see Lowth's Life of William of Wykeham, 8vo. 1758; Britton's Cath. Antiqs. Winchester, pp. 93, 118; Milner's His- tory of Winchester, vol. i. p. 291 ; Hunt's Exem- plars, pp. 23, 24 ; P II gin's Examples, vol. i. p. 5 ; Dallaway s Eng. Arch. edit. 1833, p. 421 ; and Walpole's Anecdotes, by Dallaway, vol. i. p. 211. Wynford (William), is supposed to have been the architect, or master-mason, during the alterations made in the Cathedral of Winchester, from 1394 till 1403. (See Wykeham, Loiuth's Life of Wykeham, p. 195; and Walpole's Anecdotes, by Dallaway, vol. i. p. 211.) X Xaintes, or Saintes (Isembert). (See Isem- BERT OF Saintes.) Xenodochium, Gr., a room in a monastery for the reception and entertainment of strangers, pilgrims, or paupers. (Lingard's History of the Anglo- Saxon Church, p. 145; Fosb. Brit. Mon. p. 36.) X. P. I., the initials of the Greek names of Christ; a monogram, frequently represented in paintings and mosaics, by the Christians. Xystus. (See Ambulatory.) zoo] ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 249 Yard, Yeed, is used by William ofWorcester {Itin., p. 260) to denote a spar, or rafter, in a timber roof. " The yerdys called sparres of the hall ryalle conteyneth yn length about 45 fete of hole pece." The word now denotes a court enclosed by walls, or other buildings ; also, a measure of three feet. The yard, or mete-yard, is a common measure of extent in old surveys. Yevill, Yevele, Yeveley, or Zeneley (as the name is differently spelt). (See Zeneley.) Ymber (Lawrence), " Kerver," is mentioned in an estimate for a proposed tomb to the memory of Henry VII., as being intended to make " the patrones in timber." (See Biayley and Neale's Westm. Abiey, vol.i. p. 55.) Walpole, supposing this estimate to refer to the existing tomb, incor- rectly states Ymber to have been employed under Torregiano, the sculptor thereof. Under the word Kerver this error has been inadvertently re- peated. Yrun, Irun, old orthographies of the word iro7i. Yv es, bishop of Seez, about the middle of the eleventh century, rebuilt his cathedral, as directed by Pope Leo IX. (Hawkins's Gothic Arch., p. 98.) Zeneley, or Yevele (Henry), in conjunction with Stephen Lote (see Lote), contracted with King Richard II. to erect the stone-work of the tomb of his first queen, in which tomb the king was also interred, in Westminster Abbey Church. They are styled " citizens and masons ;" were to execute the work, according to a pattern, in two years, from 1395; and to be paid 270/. In the year 1396, the same artist "devised" the "form and model" according to which the walls of the Great Hall at Westminster were to be heightened. (See SwALVE, and Yevill; Rymer's Fad., tom. vii. pp. 794, 795; Brayley and Neale's Westm. Abbey, vol. ii. p. Ill ; and Brayley and Brittons Anc. Palace at Westm., p. 437.) Zeta, or Zeticula, Gr., a small apartment. Ap- plied by some writers to the room over the porch of a Christian church, where the sexton, or porter, resided and kept the church documents. (See PoKCH.) Zigzag, a term commonly applied to a moulding, formed by lines arranged in the manner of the heraldic cheveron. This word appears to have been first so used by Bentham, Hist, of Ely, edit. 1812, p. 34. Other writers have called it the cheveron moulding, or dancette. (See those terras.) A zigzag ornament has been found on a fragment of the great Roman wall, near New- castle ; and the zigzag moulding was very com- mon in Anglo-Norman buildings. Fig. 9, Plate of Windows, shews the manner of its employ- ment; and, in fig. 19, it appears in conjunction with the pointed arch ; but, after the date of the latter specimen, the introduction of the zigzag moulding was discontinued. ZocLE, a name given to a low, plain, square member, or plinth, supporting a column. ZooPHORus, Z,oiov, Gr., an animal, and (psgiw, to bear; a term used in the same sense as frieze : so called because sculptures comprising animals are some- times introduced on a frieze. FINIS. D. H. HILL LIBRARY North Carolina Stafe CoHeg« LONDON : PRINTED BY JAMES MOVES, CASTLE STREET, LEICESTER SQUARE. g Cabiilar Cftronolcsical (Epitome of tin HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND. By GEORGE GODWIN, JUN., Architect, ASSOCIATE OF THE INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS. An attempt to shew, at one View, an approximation to the Dates, Duration, and Characteristics of the principal Styles which have prevailed ; with References to Examples; and Names of eminent Architects. Romans invaded Bii-i tain 55 years bef.Clirist. j Saxons arrived, a.d. 450 Egbert, Istking of Eng- land Alfked His successors, to DATE. STYLE AND ITS DURATION. ANGLO-ROMAN. About 300 years. 828 872 1066 \r 1 1. Li AM, the Conqueror lOCG William 11 I0fi7 Henry 1 1100 to 1135 AN GLO-SAXON. About 450 years. ANGLO-NOKMAN. About 85 years. ( Continuing in use some time after inlroituclion of the Pointed Style). LEADING FEATURRS, EXAMPLES. . r St. nianin's Church, Canter-] Remains shew frequent use of flat red bricks ; |,jjj.y ^'e„po,•t Gateway at Lin- oftentimes alternately with beach stones. Circular J |,|j,||_ Ridiboro' Castle. Tacitus' j arches sometimes ornamented with them. Reti- j spg^j^g „f temples, &c., but of [ culated Wasoniy. [ ^^^^^ ^^ k„ow little. f Doubtful whether any entire"! Earliest buildings, probably were in imitation Saxon building remains. The of Roman, or Byzantine structures. Circular toner of Earls Barton, North- arches on short columns, or square pillars. Tri- ^ amptonshiie, and Barton, Lin- angular arches occur occasionally. hatched mouldings. Zigzag and I colnsliire, admitted to be of this era. Grymbald's crypt, Oxford, L disputed. Stei'iien 1135 Henry II 1154 Richard I IIKI) John Henry III. to EARLY-POINTED. Termed also the " Lan- cet Stvle."and "Early linn I English." '-'*'l About 140 years. 1272 J Buildings of larger dimensions, and greater regularity than Saxon. Circular arches resting on massive cylindrical, square, or multangular pillars (which were sometimes adorned with spiral grooves). Groining simple. Doors deeply re- cessed, and presenting occasionally a series of figures enclosed in mouldings. Interlaced cir- cular arches : zigzag, fret, and billet mouldings. [Instance of pointed arch occurs in reign of Henry I.] Many castles built during this period. ^ f Narrow-pointed (lancet-headed) windows : af- terwards wider and divided by muUions, with tre- foil and quatrefoil ornaments. Vaultings pointed. J naves Columns, lx.c., less massive than during the last period; ordinarily divided into several shafts. [In the reign of Henry III. this style was perfected.] Naves of Rochester, and Ely cathedrals, St. Bartholomew's ch. London, Barfreston ch.. Castor , ch., N.irtharaptonshire, St. Cross, Hanlp^hire, Rochester Castle, Clilfoid's Tower, Vork, St. Al- ban's abb. ch. The Temple Church, Loinlon. Parts of M'inchester cath. The f Lincoln and of Wells caths. Salislmry cath. Part of Durham cath. Choir of West- minster Abbey. Edward 1 1272 Edward II 1307 Edward 111 1327 to 1377 J RichaudII 1.377^ Henry IV 131)0 HenkyV 1413 Henry VI 1422 Edward IV 14(il ;. Edward V 14153 Richard in 1483 llExnvVII 1485 la 1 509 J HenuyVIII 1509J Edward VI 1547 I Mary 1553 1 Elizabeth 1658 f James 1 10031 ■ to l(i25 POINTED STYLE. Called by some " Pure Gothic." About 1 10 years. An increased grace and elegance. Arches better proportioned. Windows divided by numerous mullions with tracery. Ribs of groining more elaborate than heretofore. Pinnacles, finials, and crockets generah Spires. Ornamented flying but- tresses : rich corbels and canopies. Exeter cath. Crosses at Ged- dington, Northampton, and AVal-^ tham. Trinity church, Ely. St. ' Stephen's chapel, Westminster. FLORID POINTED. Termed also " The Per- pendicular." About 140 years. {Including part of Henry VIIl. reign). Windows very large ; occasionally with hori- zontal embattled transoms. General lines of mul. lions^ &c., perpendicular. Horizontal labels, over doorways, with ornamented spandrils. Lofty turrets and cupolas. Elaborate panelling; rich, fanlike tracery to vaultings. Heraldic ornaments. Pointed arches obtuse. Details overwrought. In private residences, security less studied than duriug preceding periods, and convenience more. Part of Westminster Hall. M'est front Winchester cath. King's College chapel, Cambridf^e. " St. George's cliapel, Windsor, Henry VII. chapel, Westminster EMINENT ARCHITECTS. Uncertain. Benedict Biscop(7th century). Wilfrid. Eanbald (8th). Alcuin. Ediioth of Worcester (10th). Lanfranc (ob. 1089.) Walkeylu (ob. 1097-) Gundnlf of Rochester (ob. 1108). HenryofBlois(ll(J3). William of Sens (1175). ^ William of England. Bisliop Hugh (ob. 1200). Bishop Poore(ob.l •-'37). I. f Henry Latomiis (oh. 1319). Will. Boyden (132(;). HughdeEvers- den (ob. 132(!). Alan de Walsingham (1363). Wm. of Wykeham (ob. 1 1404). f A rchhp. Chicliele (oh. 1443). Cloos(ob. 14.';2). Bp. Wayneflete (ob. 148G). Bp. lieauchamp (ob. lllil). Bp. Alcock (ob. 1500). Sir Reg. liray(ob. 1,103). John Hvlmer(1507). Prior Bolton (1532). Called the Stvle." " Tudor ELIZABETHAN. or, " Late Tudor." About 120 years. CUARLE3 I I(i25] THE REVIVAL. The perverted use of forms received from Greece and Rome. Grotesciue pilasters; small columns, sometimes tapering to the bottom. Escutcheons, cognizances, &c., in baked clay. Vitrified bricks placed in squares or diagonal lines as ornaments. Many private residences of great extent built during this period. ( Columns and Entablatures of the established ' Orders of Architecture, viz. Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, 'i^ Coriuthiaa and Composite. Longleat, Wiltshire. Hatfield House. Schools at 0.xford. Chim- neypiece in (^ueen Elizabeth's I Gallery, Windsor Castle. Audley 1 End, Essex. Front of Northum- berland House, London. The BanquettingHouse,White- hall. JohnofPadua(1544). Holbein ( 1544). Sir R. Lea. John Thorpe. R. Adams (ob. 1595). T. Holte. Stickles. Oe. rard Christmas. Inigo Jones (oh. [ 1052). .-•^ •r# ij.y. 9?' '•' . :. • ■# ^ '«•>; Jll\ '^^ t.. *-«^ '^^^f'