Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2009 with funding from NCSU Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/biltmorelectureOOsche BILTMORE LECTURES ON SYLVICULTURE ALBANY PAN! SYNOPSIS OF PARAGRAPHS. CHAPIKK I Foundations of Sylviculture. Parm*ra|>h. II I III [aln l\ rlva. \ I \ I I \ II \ III D( ilturr. *t CHAPTBB II Th. *t. I\ ' \ I \l l " ,1 \ 1 1 Mil tctual ; \l\ \\ I \\ I W Will \l\ \\ \ \\ 1 Wll Wll I \\l\ \ \\ \\\ I \\\n Prairie planting in particular. \\\lil Methodi 3 SYLVICULTl i; I. XXIX. Permanenl nurseries in particular. XXX. Seed planting in seed beds. XXXI. Transplanting in transplanting beds. XX XII. Protection of nurseries. XXXIII. Nursing in nurseries. XXXIV. Special nursery methods proclaimed by renowned sylvi- culturists. XXXV. Raising and planting hardwood seedlings on open ground. XXXVI. Raising and planting softwood seedlings on open ground. XXXVII. European results of planting experiments with American liardwoods. XXXVIII. European results of planting experiments with American softwoods. XXXIX. Difficulties of natural seed regeneration (Enesar). XL. Age of trees fit for natural seed regeneration (Enesai XLI. Methods of natural seed regeneration (Enesar). XLII. Types in which lumbering precedes natural seed regenera- tion. XLIII. Cleared compartment type. XLIV. Cleared strip type. XLV. Cleared group type. XLVI. Cleared selection type. XLVII. Types, in which lumbering coincides with natural seed regeneration. XLVIII. Shelterwood compartment type. XLIX. Shelterwood strip type. L. Shelterwood group type. LI. Shelterwood selection type. L1I. Types in which lumbering follows natural seed regenera- tion. LIII. Advance growth compartment type. LIV. Advance growth strip type. LV. Advance growth group type. LVI. Ad vane.' growth selection type. LVII. Regeneration of valuable species by natural seed regenera- tion with, amongsl and into companions of weedy character. LVIII. Pedagogy of the high forest. LTX. Cleaning in high forest. LX. Weeding in high forest. LXI. Improvement cut tin? in high forest. SYLVICULTURE. LXII. Thinning in high forest. LXIII. Priming in high forest. LXTV. Underplanting in high forest. LXV. Key to the forms of high forest. LXYL Critical remarks on high forest. LXV1I. High forest by species. CHAPTER III The Coppice Forest AS * rest. w LXVIII. Genesis of the coppice for LXIX. Pedagogy of the coppice forest LXX. Key to the forms of coppice forest. LXXI. Critical remarks on coppice forest. LXXII. Coppice forest by species. CHAPTER IV. The Coppice Under Standards Forest. LXXIII. Genesis of coppice under standards. LXXIV. Pedagogy of coppice under standards. LXXV. Key to the forms of coppice under standards. LXXVI. Critical remarks on coppice under standards. LXXYTL Coppice • under standards by species. CHAPTER V. Propagation of Forest Products Other Than Wood and Timber. LXXVIII. Raising of forest by-products. LXXIX. Combination of sylviculture and agriculture. 'JjmA*\ -r (?J^ J^-J HA*^*- t ytxj-i(y^J^^\ -M /S~ iro-e f LECTURES ON SYLVICULTURE. ? CHAPTER I. FOUNDATIONS OF SILVICULTURE. Paragraph I. Introduction. Sylviculture means the raising and tending of forest products (wood, bark, deer, stock and other by-products). Sylviculture was practiced by the ancients only for pai'k or orchard purposes. The first writings on Sylviculture proper appear in the so-called " House Father Literature." Sylviculture as a discipline was developed by George L. Hartig, Henry Von Cotta and Christian Hundeshagon. European standard books on Sylviculture of more modern tenure are those of Charles Heyer (adapted by Schlich) and by Charles Gayer. European Sylviculture in word and work has, in the course of years, petrified into a set of recipes. It is high time for Sylvicul- ture to be taught and practiced on the basis of Plant Ecology. For America, European Sylviculture at the present moment is of no more use than Chinese Sylviculture, owing to the great eco- nomic differences separating the old from the new country. The ecological principles underlying Sylviculture are, obviously, identi- cal for all countries. The planting of trees on a large scale is, in this country, now out of the question, since the expense of planting an acre of land usually exceeds the value of an acre of forest. The modern owners of woodlands are not far sighted enough — possibly not credulous enough — to anticipate the arrival of European stumpage prices for a time at which plantations now started will have developed into mature trees. If we can assume that stumpage in this country will be as valuable in 1980 as it is now in Germany, France and England, then forest planting must be, at least, as remunerative here as it is in the old country (small soil value in the United States). 7 I Mffr ^^k^xA\ ^AsxA** ft+J>^~* ^zAA.~t^A **J sj^O-^-^-^C*^ . SYLVICULTURE. The duration (number of days) of insolation is as important as the intensity of insolation. Within the individual tree the lower branches are killed gradually, being overshadowed by new upper branches. Without light no bud; without bud no leafing branch; without new leaves annually formed no limb can live. Within one and the same species a tree once acquiring superi- ority over its neighbors is apt to retain superiority until death. Since it enjoys more light, it assimilates better. Within rival species, owing to greater sensitiveness of chloro- phyll and thanks to more favorable inclination, form and position of leaves, some species exceed others in assimilation and vitality under tne same influx of light. Shade bearing are such leaves as assimi- late sufficiently (so as to bear buds at the axils) in spite of the fact that only little diffused light chances to strike them. Many dicotyledonous trees form a so-called "leaf mosaic," the lower tiers of leaves fitting themselves into the interstices of light left in the upper tiers. Many leaves alter their inclination toward the sun according to the hourly degree of insolation (photo-metric movement). The epidermis of light demanding and sun-exposed leaves is heavy, leathery. The leaves of shade bearers are thin and wither quickly when picked. Light demanding leaves are often sinn- ing, reflecting and whitish, so especially in tropical countries, and the leaf stomata are deeply sunk into the surface. On the same tree leaves growing in the shade are darker than those growing in the light: old leaves darker than young ones. The formation of spines and thorns indicates a ran plant; hair or down are usually found in light demanders more than in shade plants. III. Heat. For each plant and for each atep of its development can be determined a minimum, optimum and maximum of heat required or allowed. Without heat growth is impossible, since cell division is impossible. The formation of chlorophyll, breathing, assimilation, germination, flowering, fruiting and transpiration depend on heat. The distribution of the genera i- governed, pre-eminently, by heat. For some polar plants, life is possible below 32 degrees Faht. As a rule, however, plant activity begins to be observable at 50 degrees Faht. The maximum of heat compatible with plant life generally lie be- low 115 degrees Faht. Excess of temperature over maximum is more disastrous than deficiency of heat below minimum. Plants, however, temporarily fortify themselves against periodical extremes: s Y L V ICUL T U R E. 1. By non-freezing cell contents. 2. By reduced water contents (seed, rosin). 3. By lignification. 4. By dropping leaves during winter or during period of exces- sive drought. 5. By adequate covers (bark, hair's, hud scales, layers rich in air cells, reddish color, wrappings formed by last year's leaves). These covers, at least, allow the plant to escape rapid changes of temperature. Short periods of vegetation and long periods of rest result from deficient heat. Hence no annual plants in polar regions. Short shoots, evergreen leaves, preparation of flowers in year preceding fruit are characteristic of a polar flora, In tropical countries there are no periods of rest unless determined by periods of drought. IV. Moisture of air and precipitations. Water is at hand a. to increase the toughness of wood (imbibition water of cell walls) : b. to allow of solution of cell contents (cell sap) ; c. to serve as plant food, through assimilation; d. to allow of osmotic movement of sap; e. to assist in photometric movement of leaves (through swell- ing ana irritation) ; f. to reduce rapidity of change of temperature by evaporation. Only some lichens survive a process of absolute drying. Lack of moisture causes crippled growth, and frequently subterranean forests (mesquit). "^sAiter Henry Mayr, the minimum of moisture compatible with tre^e growth is two inches of rainfall and fifty per cent, of relative humidity during period of vegetation. Phanerogamous plants are unable to absorb water directly through the epidermis, obtaining it instead through the spongiolae of the roots and, in gaseous form, through the stomata of the leaves. Mosses and lichens, however, absorb water directly through the epi- dermis. The hygroscopic power of a dead cover of mosses on the ground equals that of a live cover. Wet climate creates evergreen woods (Pacific coast and Ant- arctic forests of South America). A dry climate gives rise to annual species, to a distinct period of rest, to rapid flowering and fruiting. Precipitations equally distributed over the twelve months of an entire year and precipitations falling during a few weeks result in 10 S Y L V I C U LTUB E. entirely different floras. Rain in summer stimulates growth much more than rain in winter. De Candolle divides our globe according to moisture and heat and on the basis of floral differences resulting therefrom., into rive regions in the fourth of which we are living. 1. Hydromegathermal region (water great heat). Mean annual temperature over 68 degrees Faht. (Amazon river region, wet tropi- cal zone). 2. Xerophilous (Dry loving) region. The region and binders of arid deserts, prairies, sunny slopes, etc., exhibiting a flora very modest in moisture requirements. ;i. Mesothenna] (medium beat) region, baring mean tempera- ture of 59 to 6S degrees Faht. (northern Florida, etc). 4. Microthermal i little heat i region of '■'•■2 to 59 degrees Faht. o. Hecistotherma] (leaat beat) region of Less than 32 degrees Faht. The most important representative of a Xerophilous charactei is the Yellow Pine. The hecistotherma] zone shows Spruces, Birches, Obttonwoods. V. Wind. Wind brings moisture and drought, heat and cold; it covers or uncovers vegetation with sand or Bnow drifts, tumbling, at prior geographical eras, whole mountains int < > the valleys (Loess formation). Severe wind dwarfs tree growth and forces branches to grow in leeward direction only. The influence <>f a slight ob- struction, preventing the access of wind at high latitudes, is splen- didly illustrated by the growth of Spruce and Fir on Pisgah Ridge. On high mountains tree growth is often entirely determined by wind (slope of Little Ball). Species resisting wind besl in Pisgah Fores! are Red Oak, Chestnut. Locust. Pieea alba and dwarf pines like l'inu- pungens and inontana show great strength in resisting wind. In the west Tsuga mertcn- siana. l'inu- albieaulis. l'inu- monticola, further western Juniper rank firsi among the tree- braving severe -tonus. Wind is essential for the breathing and for the perspiration of leaves and bark; for driving pollen or stigma to fertilize the seed: tor trimming the branches, thus forming clear boles; for dis- tributing seed. The investigations conducted by Fliche (French Forester) have, however, yielded the astonishing result that winged seeds travel much slower than heavy seeds covetted by birds. Fliche gives the following number of years as required by trees traveling from Nancy to Paris, a distance of 160 miles: 11 SYLVICULTURE. Beech 18640 years. Chestnut 12920 years. Pine 48680 years. Sarvis 1330 to 2000 years. VI. Structure of soil. Soil consists of natural rock; or of rock disintegrated under the influence of water, frost, heat, oxygen, carbonic acid, lichens, bacteria ; or of washings deposited by water, wind or glaciers. The components of soil are: a. Soil skeleton, large grains, principally quartz and stones. b. Soil flesh, minute semi-soluble particles, — the mud of the rivers. c. Soil fat, the humose particles giving the soil a dark color. d. Soil blood, the air and water, filling the pores of the soil. The size of the pores determines the capillary capacity. According to the resistance which soil offers to spade or plow, we distinguish the following classes: Light soil; Loose soil; Binding soil; Heavy soil; Stiff soil. VII. Air in the soil. Roots require oxygen for breathing. Like fish, they die from lack as well as from superabundance of oxygen. Subterranean air is rich in carbonic acid exhaled by roots, fungi, bacteria, animals. Swamp soil contains little air. Hence such species only find a living in swamps which have large inner air ducts (Cypress knees, Nyssa root, bamboo, cane breaks, sour grasses). Prairial soil is naturally so compact that it contains little oxygen. VIII. Water in the soil. It occurs : a. Chemically bound to minerals and salts. b. Absorbed by the hygroscopicity of soil. c. Raised by the capillary power of soil. d. As ground water — lakes, swamps, brooks being merely areas of open ground water. The size of the pores and the presence of humus govern the intensity and rapidity of water obtention and retention. Sand, for instance, allows water to enter its large pores quickly, but gives it up rapidly as well. Wet, moist, fresh, dry and arid soil are distinguished. 12 8 X I. VICULTURE. The degree of wetness of soil i- of the utmost importance for tree growth. At its southern limit, a species grows only in swamps or along watercourses. The water in the soil dissolves the mineral salts so as to form sap and seems to be of great intluence on the bacterial life in the soil. IX. Heat in the soil. It is derived from the earths own temperature, from chemical processes in -oil (notably fermentation) and from sun rays. In tin' latter case, t lie angle of insolation, the duration of insolation, the heal capacity of Boil, the color of soil, the porosity of -oil and its able cover Berve as influencing factors. A cold rool lias in. pumping power. Fine root fibres die from temperatures which line branches easily withstand. The actual influence of the heat in the >■ >il on tie.' growth is practically un- known, llie opening of tin- buds in spring and tin- fall of leaves in autumn air probably connected with the thermic changes occur- ring in the various strata of the soil, \. Depth of soil. I^H^rooted species easily obtain the superiority ,.ver tap- rooteil -peri,-- 1,11 -hallow -oil. T roots, however, are not apt to penetrate t,, a depth greater than -i\ feet. Shallow -oil in- creases danger from tire, drought, Btorm. A tap rooted species, planted on -hallow soil, produces only a stunted form. Shallow soil is well adapted to the coppice Bystem, in case of broad leaved tap rooted Bpecies. XI. Food in the soil. A tree, like a crystal, i- composed of various chemical element-. The available amount of that necessary elemenl which happen- t,, occur in the relatively -malle-t degree determines in both crystal and plant, the rate of growth actually taking place (Liebig's law). The superabundance of one component, even of a necessary com- ponent, prevents, on the other hand, the local existence of many species. The ten necessary element- found within a plan! in solid, liquid or gaseous condition are O. 11. t . I'. IV. K. Mg, (a. \. S. "Roots search food as if they had eyes."*— a rule easily proven in any nursery. Xlf. Species of soil. a. Rock. Most important rock formations are: (Jranite, gneiss, limestone, sandstone, slate and trap. 13 8YLVICU LT I I: I.. Vertical stratification facilitates decomposition and tree growth. The various species of rock differ in hardness, porosity, heat con- duction, and above all in soluble mineral contents. I). Quartz sand. Quartz sand is unfertile when pure, since silicic acid fails to be digested by the roots and fails to react with the acid- usually found in the soil. Quartz sand is loose, has small hygroscopicity, small capillarity and small heat-retaining capacity. It is hot during the day and cold at night. c. Lime. Lime when pure is a poor soil, although not quite a- dry and hot as sand. Lime, however, mixed with loam and clay (so-called marl) forms an extremely productive soil. d. (lay. Clay has great absorbing and hygroscopic power. It is wet and cold. Main components are aluminum-silicates. e. Loam. Loam is a mixture of sand and clay — the usual soil in agriculture and forestry. It is usually colored by iron (red loam at Biltmore). "We speak of a sandy loam or of a loamy sand according to the prevalence of one or the other component. Loam soil exhibits a happy medium of qualities favorable to tree growth. f. Humus. Humus results from the decomposition of^^retable and animal matter under co-operation of bacteria, fungi, r^^n-orms (Darwin i. larvae. Humus forms a solvent of mineral plant food. A bad conductor of heat and cold, it prevents rapid changes of temperature in soil, has great hygroscopicity and great water- retaining power and is a preventive to evaporation of soil moisture. Mild forest humus shows a basic reaction, whilst the sour humus of the swamps shows an acid reaction. Unfavorable is the dust humus formed by many Ericaceae. XIII. Physical versus chemical qualities of soil. Agriculture withdraws food only from the top layer of soil. It deprives that top layer of its rarest and mosl valuable com- ponents, by the annual crop of grain excessively rich in nitrates, phosphates and potash. The porosity, and through it the water capacity and the heat capacity of soil, are readily controlled on the held by the plow. It is necessary in agriculture, in the long run, to return to the soil in the shape of fertilizer annually as many pounds of nitrates, phosphates and potash as have been removed in the shape of crops from a given acre of land. "I he productiveness of agriculture depend-, above all. on the chemical qualities of the soil tilled. A crop of trees, on the other hand, takes from the soil very little, since the tree consists mainly of ( '. fi. II. or since wood i- nothing bul air solidified by sunshine. The phosphates, nitrate- and potash absorbed by the tree are 14 SYLVICULTURE. returned to the soil by the fall of branches, leaves, seeds, flowers, etc. The traces of chemical fertility locally removed in the shape of logs are, in addition, counterbalanced by the decomposing influ- ence on the rock exercised by roots and root-bacteria. Hence it is not likely that a rotation of crops, as is required in fields, has any advantages m the case of forestry. In primeval woods, we know that Mature allows a species to succeed itself. The physical qualities of the soil preeminently influence the tree species and the rate of its growth. The chemical qualities of the soil play the most potent role in the case of agricultural species. Soil fit for agriculture is not necessarily good forest soil (prairies). Soil fit for forestry (strong north slopes) is often utterly unfit for farming. XIV. Soil covers. Soil covers are either dead or living. Dead soil covers are snow, debris of leaves and twigs. Living soil covers consist of mosses ,^ g rasses, etc. ~-^J|^;eeps the -oil warm, prevents rapid changes of tempera- ture.^B^ftt- young plants covered by it from perspiring, prevents liftim^^T plants by frost. The debris on the ground feed million- of animal-; and fungi; 'y they harbor, on the other hand. mice, larvae and other enemies of plant growth. Debris frequently prevent reproduction from self- 9own seed and increase the severity of forest fires. Living as well as .dead soil cover influences evaporation of moisture, porosity of soil and water drainage. XV. Life in the soil (Compare Swiss L. F. F. 1904. May and June ) . The soil lives like a plant or an animal, since it -hows con- tinuous changes of form and of composition. Very little, however, is known of the life and the interdependence of millions <<\ live indi- viduals found in the soil. Certain it seems that tree growth is bound on the presence of certain fungi and bacteria living on the roots (Mycorrhiza). Mosi important are the bacteria capable of digesting the nitrogen of the subterranean air. Leguminous plants (('lover. Black Locust) are beset with root knobs, containing bacteria busily engaged in the assimilation of nitrogen. The hyphae of a fungus called Frankia play a similar role on the root knobs of Alder and Sweet Fern. After F. C. Mueller. Spruce will grow on poor sand lacking nitrogen if Pine is mixed with it. furnishing nitrogen through its mycorrhiza. 15 S Y L VICULTUR E. The maximum number of bacteria is said to be found two feet below the surface of the ground, and none exist below six feet. The number of bacteria per pound of soil varies from one hundred millh n to two hundred and fifty million. Important, too, in plant ecology is the life of the larger animals (worms, insects, centipeds) changing the vegetable matter of the soil into manure proper, mixing mineral soil and vegetable matter, increasing the porosity, drainage and aeration and neutralizing the acids 01 the soil. Shade, protection from wind and sufficient moisture are beneficial to animal life in the soil. Paragraph III. Influence of the sylva on the ecological factors. The influence exerted by the forest on local climate I heat, air, preeipitatii ns, etc.) is dwelt upon in the lectures on forest policy. Whilst the ecological factor- shown in the previous paragraph exhibit the important influence which the soil has on the tree, there exists at the same time, although to a lesser degree, an influence of the tree on the soil. This influence is invariably such as to facili- tate life to the tree itself and to its progeny. The prjjf^^on of humus is the main source of that influence. Governing factors are: A. Leaf canopy overhead. Evergreen as well as deciduous woods annually return to the soil by the leaf fall a large amount of dead matter readily assimilable. Shade bearers furnish a better humus than light demanders. excluding, at the same time, intensive insola- tion, -ii that the decomposition of the leaf carpet and the evaporation of the soil moisture is favorably retarded. A humus formed by Beech, Maple and Chestnut is considered especially good. Beech is justly called abroad the "Mother of the Forest " owing to its soil-improving qualities. The leaf canopy is particularly dense during the thicket and the pole-wood stage. Even light demanders. whilst young, improve the fertility of the soil. At a higher age, when the light demanders place themselves far apart one from another (say less than 100 trees per acre), the humus on the ground is destroyed, being replaced by a dense and impermeable matting of grasses or shrubs. Amongst the conifers, Yellow and White Pine seem to furnish the best humus. Spruce humus is too waxy. B. Rate of disintegration of leaves. This rate depends on insolation, on heat capacity of soil (sand versus clay), on atmospheric humidity. Usually, decomposition of leaf fall takes place within two or three years. The thin leaves of 16 SYLVICULTUR E. ticker than the I - of the oisture "t high altitudes tccumuJation "t large quanl — in the tropica rod. 1 1 iikle «l<>\\ 11 I no more 1 1 Soi i ith the fertility ot 1 a»fc iph IV The North A ra. i ' . u lii.-ii tiee on the w rotinent :l t To degrees latitude in v atitude in I at the ll'i ■ >n tin- 111. . i - 1 ».m w indfl supplie I and the Greal Lai on through ' the latitude inter depend* • the forest on tli<> nexl mountain chain I \ in^r to f Bl h ft. above see level; no foreal in Blue Mountains below i - lowest gap in 1 * 1 1 1 • • Mountains in Rockies below The ies concolor, Yellow and Sugar Pine. Regeneration easy, often in places previously occupied by the Pines. Pinus lambertiana (Sugar Pine), a White Pine since it has five needles in a sheath. Specific gravity even less than thai of Eastern White Pine (Pinus strobus). The biggesl Pine of the world. Very large cones. Optimum in Sierras at 5,000 feet elevation: occurs often with Sequoia, Libocedrus. Abies concolor. Yellow Pine. Pinus Jeffreyi. 'the latter, a very close relative to ponderosa and distin- 22 SYLVICULTURE. guished from it by bluish shoots and needles bent towards the shoots, occupies the lower Sugar Pine belt. It prefers moist ground and reaches only one-half the size of ponderosa. Mayr groups the above trees as follows, according to their de- mands on moisture: Demands on soil moisture: 1. Libocedrus decurrens, 2. Pinus jeftreyi. 3. Abies concolor, 4. Pinus lambertiana, 5. Pinus ponderosa. Demands on air moisture: 1. Abies concolor, 2. Pinus lambertiana, 3. Pinus jeftreyi, 4. Libocedrus decurrens, 5. Pinus ponderosa. Abies grandia (White Fir of Northern Pacific Coast). Tin- onlj fir on Vancouver Island. Optimum at coast in Oregon where it grows up to 300 feet high, standing alongside gigantic Cottonwoods; extends eastward across the Northern Rockies, and is the first Pa- cific fir met by the traveller going west on the Northern Pacific. Requires moist soil. Abies concolor (White Fir of Colorado and of the Sierras). Running south to the San Bernardino mountains, where it occupies elevations of up to 10,000 feet. Traversing Nevada, it occurs in Colorado (gardener's variety glauca). It accompanies Sugar Pine and Bigtree. After Muir. always mixed with Abies magnifica, occur- ring at altitudes ranging between 5,000 feet and 8,000 feet. Abies bracteata (Santa Lucia fir of high mountains) occurs in Southern California in moist cool dells. Tsuga heterophylla (Black Hemlock of low elevations). A fine tree, the progeny of which forms a dense undergrowth underneath Douglas fir. Heavy shade bearer, requiring plenty of moisture, occurring in Alaska, Coast Range and Cascades. Picea sitchensis (Tideland Spruce). Along coast on very moist soil in Washington, on dryer soil in Alaska, very shade bearing and branchy. Stinging needles. Up to 200 feet high. Sequoia Washingtoniana (Bigtree). Occurring only in the Sierras in scattered groups at elevations ranging from 4.000 to 7,000 feet. 23 S"5 LVII I l.Ti l; E. Enormous seeding capacity and sprouting capacity. Average di- ameter 20 feet, height 27-". feet, age up to 1,000 years. III. Pacific forest of moderately cold zone. This /"iK' i>. in 1905, economically of uo importance, although it i- tli.- foresl zone proper, owing to the impossibility of agricul- ture within this /nil,., it i- "The Canadian Forest Zone." Jt lies in the Sierras al 8,000 feet, in the Cascades at t. feet, and in Alaska at seashore. The forests ol the Northern Rocky mountains to it preferably. Pinus murrayana (Lodgepole Pine), shade hearing, in close stands, very branchy, very sappy, retaining cones, easily destroyed by lire, closely related to the -hick Pine of the east. Frequent on fill burns, typical t"i Yellowstone Park, going south to Arizona. ' Larix occidentalis (Western Tamarack). Splendid lumber tree, often in pure forests, optimum in Idaho, natural regeneration easy, rapid height growth, little sap wood, timber equal to Long Leaf Pine. Pinus Bexilis (Limber White Pine). More branchy and much shorter than eastern White Pine; forms open forests on south slopes oi Sierras and in Nevada at 7 ; 000 feet elevation: from Montana it extends southward to Colorado. Pinus monticola (Mountain White Pine). In Cascades, British 1 olumbia, Idaho, Montana, in the latter state more on slopes drain- ing westward. Alnes nobilis, amabilis, magnifica, the Red Firs of the west. Magnifica known in California as Larch. The two first named often associated with Abies grandis and more frequenl in Washington and Oregon than in California. Amabilis extends into Alaska. Red Firs are lacking in the Rockies. Needles are dark. Picea engelmanni (White Spruce). At home in middle and southern Rockies, on northern slopes at altitudes averaging 10.000 feet. Picea parryana (Colorado Blue Spruce). Needles very pointed and stinging, of a bluish tint. Occupies moist -round. IV. Pacific forest of the Alpine region. Typical trees are: Pinus albicaulis (Dwarf White Pine). Occurring in the Cascades and the Rockies (Utah). Pinus balfouriana and aristata (Fox-Tail Pine). White l'ine found in California at 8,000 feet to 12,000 feet elevation; twigs thin. retaining needle- for many years. 24 S Y L V I C UL T U K E. Abie-, lasiocarpa (Balsam). At edge of tree growth only a shrub. In Colorado at lower, warmer situations a valuable tree. Occurs in all states of the west. Larix lyallii (Larch of British Columbia). Occurs here and there in Washington. Idaho and Montana, at very high altitudes. Tsuga mertensiana (Hemlock). A storm -battered Hemlock, at high altitudes in Sierras. Cascades. Montana. A branchy tree up to 100 feet high, inaccessible and hence of no value. Paragraph V. General definitions and explanations. A. In Europe, under the term "Wood ' is understood an aggre- gate of trees of such uniform character that it can be subjected to the same manner of treatment. In the American virgin forests, "woods' 5 are rare. As a matter of fact the term "woods'-' as well as the term " forests " has no definite meaning in America. A fores- ter should keep in mind, however, that a plantation or a natural regeneration, whatever its age and its condition, must be classed under the heading " forests." A "group" of trees consists of even-aged specimens of the same species and is larger than a bunch, clump, or cluster. Xo recog- nized definitions of the term " group " and " clump " are at hand, un- fortunately, based on the space or the acreage covered by them as unit-. Groups, as understood in the following pages, are distinct aggregates of trees covering -^ to 4 acres. B. Pure forests, pure woods, pure groups or bunches are such as contain one timber species only, 5 per cent, admixture being permissible. Species able to form pure forests are termed gregari- ous or ruling species, sub-divided into distinctly ruling speci.'s. which are usually found in pure stands, and conditionally ruling species, which are occasionally found in pure stands. I. After Drude, the participation of a species as a mess-mate at the forest table is expressed by the following terminology: ,i. Social species, denoting the main character, the striking feature (in numbers and volume) of the forest: the rank and file of the forest; b. Gregarious species, occurring in clumps and groups, island like: c. Copious species, interspersed with others, the degree of fre- quency being interpreted by exponents, f. i.. copious 8 , copious 2 , copiou- : d. Sparse species, occurring isolated and in single specimens; l\ Solitary species, very isolated and very rare. s Y LVICU LTTJ RE. II. it illicit be preferable to express the ratio of the participa- tion in per cent. Social, Forming mi'; and over of growing -tuck. Gregarious, forming 40% and over of "rowing stuck. Copious, forming 2\) l / ( and over of growing stock. Sparse, forming \% and over of growing stock. Solitary, forming less than 1% of growing Btock. Intermediate stages mighl De indicated by a union of the given designations, f. i., " social-gregarious.' III. The configuration of the ground and the rapidity of its e.iange vitally influence the possibilities of a species as a coinp nt of the forest. IV. Species which arc not, or which are locally not, "riding" species are called " dependent " species. A species mighl he ruling in North Carolina, while it i> depend- ent in South Carolina. The distribution of the species i- limited by its demands on 80il and climate. Far away from the center of distribution a species is likely to be dependent. V. The ruling species in the south are: Long Leaf Pine, Bald Cypress, Loblolly Pine. Short Leaf Pine. Sweet Gum, Post Oak, (Jottonwoods, Chestnut. The ruling species in the west are: Lodgepole Pine, Finns ponde- rosa, Douglas Fir. White Fir (Abies grandis), Engelmann's Spruce, Western White Pine, Port Orford Cedar. Redwood. Sitka. Spruce. VI. Obviously the meek species are those that conquer the globe. With the inroads of civilization on the fertility of the soil, and especiallv on the water capacity of the soil, these meek species obtein additional chances to supersede the exacting species. C. Weapons of the species in the struggle for existence are: I. Shade-bearing qualities. II. Modesty as regards the fertility of soil, the moisture and the heat during the period of vegetation. III. Power of resistance to storm, sleet, -now. late and early frosts, droughts, tire. etc. IV. Immunity from forest ^insects and forest fungi. V. Longevity. <>ak lives longer than Beech; Sequoia longest of all. VI. Reproductive power, especially reproductive power from stumps, frequency and richness of 3eed years. VIL Portability and sensitiveness of - i~ : number of enemies of a 1-: germinating percentage of Beeds. VTIL Rapidity of height growth in early youth. SYLVICULTURE. D. Density of stand. Every ruling species shows a particular density of cover and a particular ramification during every stage of its life, when grown in pure forests. I. Density of leaf cover overhead. a. The form of the crown of the individual depends on side- shade, topshade, neighborly friction and quality of soil. b. Natural regeneration causes a greater density of cover than artificial regeneration, certainly during the thicket and pole stage. Other influencing factors are: quality of the soil, age of the forest, inroads by snow break, wind fall, fire, deer, fungi, insects. c. A dense canopy overhead produces clear boled timber and allows of a heavy layer of humus on the ground. The method of regeneration distinctly influences the value of the timber to oe formed. II. Number of trees per acre. Lender normal conditions an acre of pure forest contains the more specimens of equal height or diameter, the better the quality of the soil and the better the climate: and the more specimens of the same age. the poorer these factors are. For example — Yellow Pine Forests: Number of trees per acre. Soil. Boles 75' long. Diameter 12". Age (30 yrs. I quality. . . 320 24u 380 II quality. .. 24o 215 460 HI quality. .. 190 190 540 During the pole stage and tree stage -hade bearers exhibit per acre ot ground about 50% more trees than light demanders. The following curve illustrates the interdependence between age and number of trees per acre: 10,000 \ 5,000 '. Number 2,500 1.000 of 900 800 trees 700 600 per 500 400 acre 300 ' . 200 100 ""•-•... o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 30 90 100 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 Number cf years old. S Y LVIC l I. IT j; E. III. Growing space of a tree. In their early youth all species stand or even desire a dense cover overhead. W'lu'ii the food supply Btored in the seed shell is consumedj however, the seedling requires light to digest its food. With increasing age ; the tree boles getting longer, the crowns rub and beat one another intensely, swaying pendulum fashion in the wind. As a consequence each crown is surrounded with an air space, the relative width of which depends largely on the Length and the flexibility of the bole. It might lie stated that the growing space of a tree is a function of the square of the gradually lengthening bole. Trees differ in the ease with which waning neighbors lose their buds and shoots. Oak, for example, loses its May shoots easily, whilst Beecn, struggling with Oak, loses a few leaves only along its flexile swaying twigs. In heavy storms Yellow Pine often loses whole branches. "White Pine, on the other hand, does not easily lose its shoots. The top shoots of the taller individuals are immune from harm. Thus a tree, once in the lead of its competitors, has a good chance to retain the lead over them. IV. Grades of density of cover are: Pressed cover. Close cover, Light cover and Open cover. No strict definition of these terms can be given. Obviously the number of stems under pressed conditions is very large. Indications of a normal cover are: a. Relation between length of crown and length of bole. b. Normal diameter growth and height growth. c. Proper participation of the various diameter classes in the volume of wood at hand. The normal participation in a pure, even- aged wood i- for the 1st. Diameter class — 40% of total volume. •2nd. Diameter class — 24% of total volume. 3rd. Diameter class— 17% of total volume. 4th. Diameter class— 12% of total volume. 5th. Diameter elass — 7% of total volume. If cover overhead is too dense, the firsl class -how- over 40%> of volume and vice \ ersa. V. In nature, the same causes necessarily have the -am.' result. The cause- of timber production are -oil Mini atmospheric food "fall- ing " oiiio the -oil in the shape of sunshine, moisture and air. Eence, whatever the species are. it seems as if the acre of ground, fully stocked, nm-t produce on the annual average the same weight of timber nol 'he same volume of timber. Thus, ceteris paribus, 28 SYLVICULTURE. species uf light specific gravity are the best volume producers. Since. however, shade-bearing species are better digestors of atmospheric and terrestrial food, the largest growth per acre per annum is obtained from shade bearers of light weight (Hemlock, Spruce, Fir, White Pine). In the virgin forest the annual production of wood fibre is exactly offset by the annual death and decay of wood fibre. The virgin forest is a forest seemingly in economic stagnation. VI. The sectional area of a tree usually measured chest high (4y 2 feet above ground), inclusive of bark, is the area of the circle corresponding with the diameter measured chest high. The sectional area of an acre of forest is tin' sum total of the sectional areas of the trees standing thereon. It rarely exceeds one- half per cent, of the acreage of the ground, or 218 square feet per acre. E. Rotation. Under rotation is understood the number of years which a seed- ling requires to reach maturity. For a second growth in America, rotations will vary in length from 60 years to 160 year-, according to the species and local conditions. During a rotation a wood lot may pass through t lie cleaning stages, thinning stages, the stage of preparatory cutting, the seed-cutting stage and the stage of final removal. JF. Size classes and age classes. I. Pinchot adopts the following -even age classes or size classes of trees in his "Primer:" a. Seedlings, up to 3 feet high. b. Small saplings, from ."> to 10 feet high. C. Large saplings, 10 feet high to I inches diameter. d. Small poles, from 4 inches to s inches diameter. e. Large poles, from 8 inches to 12 inches diameter. f. Standards, from 12 inches to 24 inches diameter. g. Veterans, over 24 inches diameter. II. During the sapling stage, the specimens form a thicket; during the pole stage, they form a polewood; and during t he standard and veteran stage, a tree forest. III. During the thinning stage (pole stages) of trees in an even- aged wood, the following classes of mess-mates might be distin- guished: a. After Schlich, "Dominant," "Dominated."' ••Suppressed, yet alive." and " Dead." b. After Pinchot. "Dominant," "Retarded." and "Overtopped." s v lvicu i/rr ii k. e. The usual classification, adopted by German foresters after Kraflt is: 1. Predominating trees, having crown strikingly well developed. 2. Dominating trees, with well-developed crowns, forming the main cover overhead. 3. Condominating trees, with crowns of a fairly normal form, but of somewhat poor vigor, carrying, however, their crowns within the level of the main canopy. 4. Dominated trees with crowns more or less crippled or pressed from the sides, subdivided into two sub-classes, viz.: a. Most of crown free from cover overhead. b. Most of crown underneath cover overhead. 5. Trees absolutely suppressed, standing entirely under the cover of others. G. Even-aged woods: Woods, the components of which differ in age by less than "2.") years, are called "even-aged woods." In America, even-aged woods and hence the advisability of thin- ning is mighty rare. The struggle for existence between even-aged comrades can readily be alleviated by the forester's interference. In America, even-aged woods are formed, for instance: T. By Long Leaf and by Cuban Line. II. By Jack Pine and Lodgepole Pine. III. By Bald Cypress. IV. By Douglas Fir. A'. By Finns echinata, taeda. strobns. ponderosa. virginiana on abandoned fields. H. Distribution of species. The horizontal distribution of species depends on the latitude and the proximity of the ocean, or better . Eastern hardwoods: Beech — shade bearer. Hard Maple — shade bearer. Silver Maple- shade hearer. Red Maple— shade hearer. Black Gum — -hade bearer. Sourwood — light demander. Locust — light demander. Yellow Poplar — light demander. Chestnut — intermediate. Oaks — light demanders (White and Red Oak stand lots of shade when young). 33 SYLVICULTURE. Elm — shade bearer. Birch — light demander or intermediate. Black walnut — intermediate. Linden — shade bearer. Umbrella tree— less light demanding than Yellow Poplar. Cucumber— less light demanding than Yellow Poplar. Sycamore— medium shade bearer. Willows and Cottonwoods — light demanders. Liquidambar — light demander. Hickories — light demanders. c. Western Conifers: Douglas Fir — intermediate. Ponderosa — light demander. Nut Pines — intense light demanders. Lodgepole Pine — intermediate. Sugar Pine — intense light demander. Lawson Cypress — intense shade bearer. Tide-land Spruce — shade bearer. Redwood — shade bearer. Western Hemlock — intense shade bearer. Western Firs — intense shade bearers. Larch — intense light demander. Engelmann's Spruce — shade bearer. Colorado Blue Spruce — shade bearer. Paragraph VII. Pure versus mixed woods. A. Conditions inviting pure woods and mixed woods. Conifers are more apt to grow in pure forests, owing to their greater modesty. Abroad, up to a very recent time, the desire of the forester was to raise mixed woods, but quite recently the " Danish propaganda " has turned the minds of some foresters back to pure woods. Severe climatic conditions and poor soil conditions invariably give one species the preponderance, for example: Bald Cypress rules in the swamps of the South, Tamarack in those of the North; Nut Pines prevail in the semi-arid regions of the Southwest; Long Leaf Pine on poor sand in the South: Cuban Pine in half swamps of the South: Red Spruce on the "Black Slopes" of the Adirondack's; White Spruce in Northern Canada; Lodgepole Pines on old burnsj Jack Pine on poor sand in the Lake States. Pure forests are sometimes in the interest of the owner, for example: Pure Spruce near paper mills: Hickory near carriage works; Tan Bark Oak near tanneries. 34 . SYLVICULTURE. A high rotation often leads to a pure forest, a short-lived admixture being gradually pressed out. Abroad the forester is required to maintain the fertility and productiveness of the soil. Since light-demanding species allow the soil to be baked by the sun during the pole and tree stage of the forest when grown purely, admixture of shade bearers under such conditions is advisable, obtained, for instance, by underplanting Yellow Pine with Beech, when Pine is 50 years old. B. Kinds of mixture. A mixture may be temporary or permanent; a mixture may be even aged or uneven aged; the species may or may not differ in height growth; the mixture may be composed of single indi- viduals; of strips, rows, bunches, groups; or it may show an irregular character. In the course of time the original character of the mixture might be changed entirely by the forester or by nature. C. Advantages of mixtures. Mixed forests take advantage of differences of soil qualities; the moisture-demanding species gradually claiming the dells and more modest kinds obtaining preponderance on the dry plateaus or spur-. A mixture may form a preventive against late frost. A mixture is better protected against damages by fire, insects, fungi, storms, snow, etc. A mixture produces a better quality of humus (Pine and Oak humus is better than pure Oak humus or pure Pine humus). A mixture produces a larger quantity of limber for tin- above reasons in addition to the fact that a mixture allow- it- com- ponents to more fully utilize the productive factors of the air as well as those of the soil through a. Difference of crown formation, crown level-, crown density. b. Difference in root system (tap and flat-rooters mixed). c. Difference in mineral and light requirements. A mixture also tends to produce cleaner timber — certainly so for the benefit of light demanders when placed in mixture with shade bearers. For all these reasons a mixed forest may be said to produce a larger and safer revenue than a pure forest. Valuable species might be raised beyond the limits of their habitat in mixed forests. D. Objections to mixed forest. 35 SYLVICULTURE. The administrative and the sylviculture,] management of mixed woods is more difficult and hence more expensive than that of pine woods. In America logging expenses arc much increased where only one species can be utilized in mixed forests. Logging for Spruce on "Black Spruce Slopes" in the Adirondacks is relatively cheaper per thousand feet hoard measure than logging for spruce where Spruce forms only one-third of the growing stock. 'I his objection does not hold good, of course, where all species are marketable at the same time. E. Rules governing the composition of a mixture and rule- foi treating mixed forests (holding good for artificial and semi-arti- ficial forests) : I. Species selected for a mixture must improve one another. II. Each species should occupy that section of ground on which it thrives hot. III. The mixture should at least maintain the productiveness of the soil. IV. A light- demanding species mixed with a shade hearer must either be given an advance in age or else must naturalh possess an advantage in rapidity of height growth; otherwise it soon disappears. This relative height growth is not a fixed quantity: it usually differs according to the soil and to the climate. V. The denser the forest cover is, the earlier and the more intense must he the help given to the species likely to he suppressed (Sassafras and Locust in mixture with Chestnut). After Henry Mayr; species which are botanically different from the most natural mixture (Oak and Line at Biltmore; Birch and Spruce in Balsams: White Pine, Linden and Elm in Michigan). The exceptions to this rule are many (Norway and .lack Pine in .Michi- gan; Red Firs and White Firs in the Pacific Coast States). Paragraph VIII. Dr. Henry Mayr's (Munich) fundamental prin- ciples of Sylviculture. A. Forest is possible only where the mean temperature of the four months of most active growth averages 50 degrees Laid, or over. B. A mean summer temperature (May to August) of .">:: to ."iff degrees Faht. produces the Fir and Spruce /one of Europe, Asia and America. A mean summer temperature of .">'.) to ill degrees is productive of Beech, also of White Oak. Maple, Hemlock ami Chain- aecyparis. A knowledge of the summer mean i- essential when introducing exotics. A knowledge of the possibilities of forest 36 - S V L V I C V L T D R E. growth in a given country implies a knowledge of the mean summer temperature. Some very modest trees are unreliable as indicators or ther- mometers (i. e. Pinus echinata, Pinus ponderosa). C. A species may be grown far from its original habitation, provided that the local climate of the new region is analogous to that of the old. If the exotic conies from a warmer climate, it should be placed on south slopes with plenty of sun; if it comes from a colder climate it should be placed in moist soil and on cool aspects. There is no such thing as adaptation of trees to a different climate, or as acclimatization of trees. Walnut. Peach, and Black Locust have been grown in Germany for centuries, be- cause the climate of naturalization was and is essentially identical with that of the natural habitat of the tic-. D. Tree specimens of a cold climate do not possess in them- selves any special power of resistance to frost. It i> useless to import seeds from colder climates in the hope of obtaining greater hardiness (Douglas Fir from Oregon and from Colorado differ, how- ever, in hardiness). E. Species of trees growing in hot localities or else in open stands place comparatively small claim- on the fertility of the soil. All species bear shade better when broughl to a wanner climate and require more light when brought to a colder one (White Pine). F. In level countries, at not over 500 ft. elevation, the habita- tion of a species depends on latitude considerably modified by sea winds. In many countries, away from the ocean, that modification i> no strong a- to create a dependence of the habitation more on longitudes than on latitudes. In high mountain regions, altitude may produce effects similar to those of latitude: it is. therefore, a mistake to label one species as a mountain species and another as a plains' species. In Eastern North America Picea rubens, in Western North America Douglas Kir. also Abies grandis and ama- bilis. bear witness to this truism. C4. The climatic needs of a species are better characterized by the forest zone than by the latitude or the altitude at which or up to which it grows. Even a knowledge of altitude and latitude combined furnishes insufficient information relative to such cli- matic needs. H. If, in a given climatic zone, there are found two neighbor- ing species of the same genus, it is safe to. assume that these two species were not mixed originally, but that each had its dis- tinct habitation and that the mixture is due to the action of man. 37 (SYLVICULTURE. I. In primitive forests the species which harmonize are those which differ botanically. J. When two species are so alike as to be almost varieties but have, nevertheless, different climatic needs, then they are. in reality. true and distinct species (Douglas Fir in Colorado and Oregon). K. Frost injury is always due to the death of the plasmodium killed by the direct action of the frost. The plasmodium i- mosl sensitive during the time of cell formation and of active growth. The plasmodium in the inert stage, as in seeds, is actually insensitive. L. All species become mine hardy as they grow older. This is simply due to the trees rising above the cold layers of temperature near the ground and to the greater thickness and mass of the trunk, resisting rapid changes of temperature. M. The degree of moisture in the air required for forest growth is 50% relative humidity during the growing season. The broad- leaved trees and the two and three needled Pines are the species best adapted to regions of extreme dryness or of sudden changes in atmospheric moisture. N. The association of trees into a forest has the effect of in- creasing the relative humidity by not to exceed 10%. Hence the necessity of maintaining forest in regions where the tension of watery vapor is close to 50%. The partial destruction of a forest may entail the death of the remainder rendering reforestation impos- sible unless it is started from the nearest adjoining forest. Inside a forest the greater atmospheric humidity acts as beneficially as a moist ocean wind, lacking, however, the latter's violence. O. It is in moist, cool localities (mountains and northern cli- mate) that climatic variations are the least extreme during the growing season. It is here that the annual rings are equal, the grain fine and regular, and the timber of the greatest commercial utility. P. The moister the climate, the easier becomes forest culture, and the forester is apt to make the least mistakes in thinnings, regeneration, fellings, etc. Air moisture seems to exercise a favor- able influence on the straightness of the stems. Q. It is known that a failure of rain for several days may be fatal to young plants. The faculty of persistence increases with age, and the grown trees can endure long periods of drought. If, however, the lack of rain is such as to bring the sum total of precipitations during the four months of the growing season below the two-inch mark, then the forest disappears, even if the humidity 38 SYLVICULTURE. of the air remains above 50%. Exception — immediate neighborhood of lakes and rivers with their sub-soil percolation. R. A fairly moist soil is the best for all species in their optimum climate. In hotter places the locality must be more damp, while in colder ones it may be dry without hindering growth (White Pine in the Pink Beds in swamps, in Canada on dry soil; Sitka Spruce in Washington in swamps; in Alaska on dry land). S. Snow protects those parts of a plant which it covers; it increases the danger, however, for the parts just above the snow level. Snowy winters are, therefore, useful to low plants, but harmful to trees (except broad-leaved trees). T. As regards the winds, the most dangerous are those which follow the direction of the barometric minima, which in Eastern America travel from east to west; in Europe from west to east; in East Asia from south to north. Next dangerous are the winds traveling in the opposite direction, whilst those from other points of the compass are more harmless. Every mountain, however, cre- ates a deflection of the current and possibly a return in the oppo- site direction. U. In their youth trees are almost indifferent to the quality of the soil; with increasing age their exigencies increase. Thus plantations on poor soil may thrive well for a number of years, only to be suddenly arrested at the beginning of the pole stage. V". In their most suitable Bituation (natural optimum) a species succeeds on soil of any mineral description. In a less favorable climate the soil requirements of the species increase. W. The light most favorable to activity of the chlorophyll is not the light of the blazing sun, nor is it the diffused light coming through rain or fog, but that light which is reflected by brilliant white clouds. Leaf cover overhead is favorable when it filters the rays of a burning sun and unfavorable when it excessively reduces the intensity of insolation. Under a continental climate, cloudless days are more numerous than near the coast. The influ- ence of thinnings and removal cuttings on the remaining growth consequently depends on the continental position of a forest — not solely on species and soil. X. The regeneration of forests approaching exploitable age is easiest in their optimum climate. If the climate is too warm, seed will be more abundant, and the young plants will endure cover better. The moisture of the air, however, is wanting, and the 39 SYLVICULTl RE, denser cover overhead may intercept too much of the needed rain- fall. If the climate is too cold, the moisture of the air indeed increases; but the production of seeds and the persistence under cover decrease. Y. In mixed forests artificial regeneration is more difficult than natural regeneration. A clean felling results in a capricious com- plication of natural laws and phenomena whose contrary actions are not easily understood. Natural regeneration, a mixture of species suitable to the locality, a crop resembling as closely as pos- sible the primitive state, such are the conditions which the forester should seek to realize for the avoidance of dangers as well as for the greater possible yield of the most valuable produce. No method of treatment harmonizes better with nature's laws than the so-called selection system, when each tree is placed in a con- dition most favorable to its development, and when no single tree is removed for a purpose other than that of regeneration or im- provement of the crop. 40 CHAPTER II. Paragraph IX. Genesis of the high forest and its methods. Wood crops can be started either naturally I from stump shoots, root suckers and self-sown Beed) or artificially (by planting seeds, seedlings or cuttings). Forests starting from stump shoots, root- suckers and cuttings are called "coppice forests." Forests start- ing from seeds or - llings are termed "high forests." A. Planting in Europe. Up to 1830 Beed planting only was practiced to start high forests artificially. Since then seedling planting has gradually con- quered the European field, especially in the east' of Yellow and White Pine, Spruce. Ash, Maple and Larch. Bi h and Fir are invariably regenerated abroad from self-sown seed; also Oak in France, while in Germany acorns are usually planted. B. Advisability of planting in America. Excepting the case of the prairies and. possibly the case of fields abandoned by farmers in the Eastern state-, the idea of artificial propagation of forest crops (by planting) seems preposterous in America. As long as an acre of virgin forest can be bought for a 1 r sum of money than is required, in the same locality, for the successful reforestation of an acre of ground, the chances for a remunerative outcome of planting seem very -lim. However, the following points should not be lost sighl of: I. The stumpage prices apt to prevail in America in the year 1960 are likely to equal those now prevailing abroad. Hence the same practice which is now remunerative abroad must prove paying in this country: possibly more paying for the reason that the value of the soil on which the growing crop must yield an annual dividend i- abroad about ten times as high as it i- in the United States. IT. An expense for taxes and administration i~ incurred annually by the forest owner, whether the forest ground i- kept fully or only partly stocked: hence it seems a remunerative venture to— at least — reinforce natural regeneration by artificial planting. III. The growth of weeds naturally plentiful in primeval con- ditions cannot he overcome unless radical artificial remedies are adopted. £7 SYLVICULTURE. C. On the other hand, the following objections to planting must be considered: I. As long as the American forest is much endangered by fire, it is unwise to invest any money in young growth for which the danger of destruction by fire is excessive. II. Trees of a condition now considered "weeds" may gradually attain a stumpage value (as Chestnut at Biltmore). III. Even European forestry is now reverting to a natural propa- gation of forests owing to the dangers usually inherent to artificial planting. D. Definitions. The word reforestation is used if the area to be planted has been previously occupied by tree growth. The word afforestation is used if there was no tree growth on tha plot for a number of years beforehand. Paragraph X. The Seed. The quality of seeds is shown by their size, weight, color, scent. A tree standing in an open position, not too young and not too old, produces the best seeds. A. Seed years: The atmospheric conditions of the year or years during which the seed is formed further influence the quality of the seed. Drought in summer and early frosts in fall cause the seeds to drop immature. Black Oaks and Pines require two years for the formation of seeds. Juniper three years. It seems as if all trees require a number of years for the preparation of seeds, inasmuch as the medullary rays before a seed year are found full of starch, and after a seed year devoid of starch. This phenomenon may explain the periodical occurrence of seed years in Bamboo and Canebrakes, in Chestnut, Oak, Beech, Pine, etc. The length of the period elapsing between seed years depends on the local climate and the position of the trees, being short for trees standing in orchard-like positions on warm and sheltered ground where abundant heat allows of the rapid accumulation of starch. B. Rest: After dropping from the tree, all seeds undergo a period of rest in our climate. This rest is very short in the case of Cottonwood, Willow, Elm and Soft Maple. In the majority of cases, in Eastern North America, it lasts from November to April. In rare cases (German Ash. German Linden, Red Cedar, Hornbeam) the period of inactivity covers about seventeen months. Seeds which get too dry 42 SYLVICULTURE. while stored, often show a prolonged period of rest. For White Oak seed the period of rest is only two months; for Red Oak five months. The assumption that frost is required during the resting period for the benefit of the seed is erroneous. The germinating percentage is greatest immediately at the conclusion of the period of rest. 0. Tests: Germinating tests are made with from 50 to 200 grains. 1. Water test applicable to large seeds. Thrown in water the good seeds will sink, and the bad seeds will float. II. Cutting tests, made with a knife, used for testing acorns, chestnuts, nuts of Xutpines, also seeds of Ash, Yellow Popla Beech, etc. III. Hot-pan tests for conifers, which causes good seeds to jump and burst, poor seeds to burn and char. IV. Pot tests made in the following manner: Fill the lower half of a flower pot with sawdust, the upper half with sand in which the seeds are embedded. Place the pot in a basin partially filled with Winter, in a warm room. V. Ilannel test: Place the seeds between two strips of flannel kept moist by running their ends into a bowl of water standing at a lower level. VI. Test in the commercial-test apparatus, which consists of bottom plate (glass or china), a bell-shaped top (same material) and a clay disk containing 100 small groove, which tits into the bottom plate. All three parts are open in the center. The clay disk is burned in such a way as to retain good hygroscopic qualities, and is boiled for a number of hours (in water) before using, to kill adherent spores of fungi. Moist sand is kept hot ween the disk and the bottom plate. The grains are inserted into the grooves Paragraph XI. Preparations for planting seed on open ground. The germinating bed must offer the seed a proper, constant and equal supply of heat, oxygen and moisture. The actual amount of heat, oxygen and moisture required has not been ascertained scien- tifically. Observation in the woods is the best teacher of the condi- tions securing the largest possible germinating percentage for any given species. The preparation for seed-planting may extend over the entire area to be planted; or only over certain strips which may be inter- rupted or continuous: or it may merely involve the grubbing of plots or spots. Where the ravages of game or mice are feared, irregular working is advisable. 43 s VLV ICll/JT i: E. A. Removing the soil covers, such as briars, Kalmia. Chinquapin, mosses, dead leaves, humus. A plow and grubber (cultivator) it a barrow can usually nut he used for the purpose; the In"- (a strong make) i- largely used abroad; weeds arc removed with brush hooks or scythes or machetes or are, if possible, killed by deadening. In certain cases an iron rake might do. Often it i- necessary to remove the cover by tire: tire, however, produces a heavy growth of weeds on fertile soil (as in Pisgah forest). B. Loosening the -oil. Jnst after logging, the -oil has enough porosity to allow of the development of a second growth. On aban- doned fields or in prairies thorough working with the plow, often continued for a number of years, may or musl precede the act of planting. Paragraph XII. Securing and preparing the seeds. A. European tree seeds are usually bought from reliable dealer-. who rival in furnishing the best seed at the lowest price, guarantee- ing a certain percentage to germinate. In America, the forester musl secure seeds himself, collecting them by contract, or preferably, by day work. Some European sylviculturists in-i-t that seeds should be taken only from the best and strongest trees. Mayr considers special care superfluous. B. Under "coning' is understood the method of obtaining seeds of coniferous species from their cones. Coning of Spruce. Pine, Fir and Larch on a commercial scale is practiced in Europe by Henry Keller. Appel & < o. and A. Lecoq, all of Darmstadt. Germany. Certain Pine species (Nutpines) have wingless seeds. The wings of other Pine seeds hold the grain in a claw. The seed of Spruce lies in the wing as in a spoon; the seed of Larch and Fir is attached to the wing and is not easily separated. Among the broad-leaf cone bearers —Alders. Birches and Magno- lias — the coning of Magnolias only offers some difficulties. I. The methods of coning are a- follows: a. Coning by insolation, the oldest and safest method. Tray-, the bottoms of which contain open lath work or wire netting, are placed in the sun and removed to a shed if rain threaten- to fall. 'I he cones are -pread on the trays in layers not over two cones deep and are stirred with a rake. In place of trays, drum- mighl lie used to g 1 advantage. In a cold climate the sun process allow- ,,f obtaining the seeds only at a time too late for - 1 planting. The germinating percentage of seeds obtained by the sun process i-. otherwise, superior to that of seeds coned by other methods. b. Coning by stove heat. 44 S Y L V I C U L T U R E. It is essential that the heat in the coning room should not reach 110 degrees. Thorough ventilation is required to prevent sweating and moulding of cones. The cones are spread in the coning- room in thin layers on shelves or screens, through the interstices of which the seeds drop. The cones are stirred three or four times a day. It is unwise to have the stove in the coning-room. An American hot-air furnace in the basement is well adapted to furnish the heat. Many of the large European forestry administrations have such or similar establishments for coning. c. Commercial method. In the commercial establishments, heat i- supplied l>v steam pipes, controlled by automatic devices. The trays or drums arc kept in a constant rocking motion by machinery. The seeds, after falling through the crevices of the trays, arc at once conducted to a cool room. II. Separating seeds from their wings. In the case of Pine and Spruce seeds. Hailing is sufficient. It is not advisable to wet the seeds before flailing. For Larch, rubber millstones are used, the distance between the stones being equal to the smallesl diameter of the seed. III. Cleaning the seed from dust, needle- and wings. The seeds are freed from admixtures by tanning, shoveling, centrifuge or any grain-cleaning machine. The large commercial establishments drop the seeds on endless rolls of cloth, which are moving on an incline. The heavy seeds slide down, whilst dust and wings are carried uphill. IV. Statistical note-. a. Spruce in the Adirondack- latter Clifford lb Pettis). 1. Cost of picking cones 50c per bushel (green). 2. One bushel of green cones yields two bushels of dry ci nes, containing 1% lbs. equal to 1 \ •■ qts. of Spruce seeds. 3. One bushel of cones weigh- 60 lbs., one bushel of seeds 40 lbs. 4. One pound of seed contains 150,000 grains. 5. Tt costs 95c to collect, cone and clean one pound of seeds. 1>. White Tine at Biltmore. 1. 100 bushels of cones will weigh 2.21)0 lbs. (a "long ton"). 2. One bushel contains 000 to 700 cone-, and yield-, on an average, y z lb. of absolutely clean, wingless seeds. 3. One pound of such seed contains 2.1.000 to 30,000 grains. c. Yellow Pine ( ponder osa) in Xew Mexico (after Win. H. Mast). 1. One bushel of cones yields 1.55 lbs. of clean seed. 2. The expense of collecting, coning and cleaning averages 23c per pound. 45 SYLVICULTURE. (I. Colorado Blue Spruce in New Mexico (after Win. II. Mast). 1. One bushel of cones yields 1.2 lbs. of clean seeds. 2. The expense of coning, collecting and cleaning averages 23c per pound. c Short leaf Pine at Biltmore (Pinus echinata). One bushel of cones yields one pound of clean, wingless seeds at an expense of $1.00 per pound. C. Seeds stored beyond the duration of their natural period of resl snow a reduced percentage of germination. The percentage might be increased by the use of slightly acid solutions, lime water or hoc water. Coniferous seeds are often placed in cold water for from three to seven days previous to planting; seeds thus treated, however, must be supplied with moisture artificially after planting if drought sets in. D. ihe ''malting" of seeds (placing the seeds in heaps, moisten- ing them and stirring them in a warm room) is a rather dangerous procedure. After Weise, -Douglas Fir and White Pine seeds should be mixed with moist and fertile soil and stable manure, to be then exposed to a hot-house temperature until the germs begin to show. S. B. Green recommends to pour boiling water on the seeds of Locust. Honey-Locust and Coffee-tree, and to allow the seeds to remain in the water until it is cold, planting immediately there- after. Paragraph XIII. Actual planting of seeds on open ground. Seeds should not be planted on rainy days, especially not <>n clay soil. For broadcast planting, the area to be planted and the seed are divided into equal lots. The quantity of seed allotted to the unit of space is subdivided into halves. Each half is -own separately by Lining over the ground crosswise. Broadcast planting is rare nowadays. Rough nursery beds, (either running full length of the area or interrupted beds), furrows or banks are frequently provided. Nar- row trenches may be pressed into the beds or banks with the help of a board, a hoe handle or a wheel. The seed is usually sown by hand, possibly with the help of a I r bottle, a so-called seed horn and. rarely, with a seed- planting machine. The machine should only be used on ground as well prepared as a wheat field (prairies or abandoned fields). On land newly cleared, roots and stumps prevent the use of a machine. 4G S 1 L V I C U L T U R E. " Covering " purports to place or rather press the seeds into contact with the mineral soil on all sides; to prevent sudden changes of air temperature from striking the seed; to prevent the seeds from drying out under excessive exposure to the air. The cover must be such as to allow a young germ to push its cotyle- dons easily through the cover. The seeds keeping their cotyledons below ground (Oaks, Sassafras, Chestnut) allow of a heavy cover. In the case of coniferous seeds, a proper cover is secured with the rake or with a brush drag; or by marching the planters, a band of sheep or a herd of cattle over the plantation. Heavy seeds are often strewn on the ground without any preparation and then covered with a shovelful of dirt. In America seed-planting in the open is an unadvisable measure as long as the prices of seeds maintain their present figure. "Planting of cones" was the leading method used a hundred year-- ago by European foresters. The cones were strewn on the ground and stirred periodically by sheep, with good results. Seeds more than one-quarter inch thick, especially nuts, are usually dibbled with dibbling hammer, wedge, knife, hoe, spade, etc. The hole made should place the seed at the best depth. The hole is closed by side pressure, by the foot or the hammer, or by allow- ing a lifted sod to drop back in place. The common planting spade often puts the seeds too deep. A. The quantity of seeds used per acre depends on: Price of seed. Density of stand desired. Tenderness, sensitiveness and rate of growth of species. Local damage from' late frost, drought, weeds, insects, mice, squirrel-, rabbits, game, birds, etc. Quality of both soil and seeds. Fineness of prepared soil. Method of planting by hand or machine, regular or irregular, broadcast or in patchwork. Planting seeds in bands or strips only requires two-thirds or three-fourths of broadcast amount: planting in patches one-half, in holes one-fourth of the same. B. Figures adopted at Biltmore for broadcast planting arc. per acre: White Oak and Chestnut Oak. 12 bu. Red oak and Black Oak. 8 bu. Ash. 40 lbs. Beech. 130 lbs. Maple. 40 lbs. 47 s V L VI CULT l ■ l; I . Elm, :>4 lbs. Birch, 32 lbs. Kirs. 4.'. Lbs. Spruce, Hi lbs. Larch, in lbs. Ycilnw Pine, 8 His. White Pine, 12 lbs. ('. Small seeds: Number of seeds in one pound (approximately, all eoniferous seeds withoul wings): Ash '. . . . 6,200 Elm ~ 55,000 Silver Fir 9,000 Tamarack Td.iioii White Pine 30,000 Maple 5,000 Birch 80,000 Spruce 56,000 Yellow Pine 70,000 D. Large seeds: Number (if seeds in one bushel are: White Oak. 8,000; Red Oak. 3,00(1: Walnuts. 800. Paragraph XIV. Season for seed planting on open ground. For Cottonwoods, Elms (excepting Red or Slippery Elm). Soft Maple. Black, Birch and Mulberry, the besl time id' planting i- nature's time, — immediately after the fall of the seeds — in early summer. In the ease of the species enumerated, the period of rest is very short and the seedlings starting rapidly have time to lig- nil'y before winter. In all other cases the forester can plant either in fall or in spring. Planting in winter is usually prevented by the condition of the soil. A. Planting in fall invites: I. Inroads of animals in winter. II. Washing of seed when snow melts. III. Damage from late frost, since planted seed- sprout early in spring. P>. Spring planting necessitates: I. Expense for seed storage over winter. IT. Cheeks during storage, injurious to germinating percentage. III. Higher expense for planting, planting taking place at a time when labor is scarce. Spring planting forms the rule, except with fir. Beech, Chest- nut, White Oak. SYLVICULTURE. In semi-tropical regions or places of periodical drought, the best planting time is the fortnight preceding the rainy period. On dry soil seeds are planted as early in spring as possible so as to profit from the moisture left l>y melting snow. Seeds which naturally germinate 18 months after maturity (Red Cedar, Hornbeam, some Ashes, some Basswoods) require strati- fication: Place seeds, in dry soil, in a ditch ten inches deep and ten inches wide, to a depth of five inches. Cover seeds with straw and dry weeds, and finally with dirt. After the lapse of a year the seeds arc ready for planting. Paragraph XV. Auxiliaries to seed planting. A. .Means to protecl species needing shade in earliest youth. I. Plant seeds with oats, barley or summer rye. planting the grain seed in quantities nol to t'\rfr<\ 7-V ; ,,f the normal. Cut grain crops high. This method «^ used regularly loo year- ago, for European Tine and White Oak, possibly with a view to early returns, possibly re distract ravages of held mice and birds. II. Certain species, tender and shade demanding in early youth like Beech and Fir, cannot well he raised in the open, unless an usher growth 12 to 15 years older (of Yellow Pine, Sassafras, Black Locust, Birch) i- previously started on the ground. The usher growth i- graduallj removed when the seedlings underneath want "skylight." In semi-arid parts such usher growth is perhaps doubly advisable; further in prairies, where Poplars and Willows. Box Elders and Soft Maple might serve as ushers (also Locust). P.. Means to protect the seed plantation from animals and weeds. I. Against seed-eating animals. Planting in late spring offers some protection. Planting in sprouting condition protects heavj seeds from rodents; 3light coating of red lead protects conifers from birds. A watchman might he kept on large plantations, to scare the birds away. By coating large seeds with tar, crows might he kept away. II. Light cover of weeds i- no disadvantage. Where weed- arc heavy, seedlings should he planted, rather than seeds. Mowing (with scythe) weeds and ferns, crushing briars- preferably before weeds are seeding — is recommended. Where seeds are planted in rows or furrows on abandoned field-, cultivation check- weed-. ITT. Pasture is not allowed in seed plantations before the thicket stage is past. C. Reinforcing. Bare -pot- where seed planting has failed are tila^-vic^i Je*^ <~t^-^-*w ^^f - 5 LVICULTURE. usually reinforced by planted seedlings. The latter are taken from adjoining dense Bpots. In broad-leaved species., the blanks where planting has failed, had better be marked during the preceding summer. Paragraph XVI. Planting seeds of the broad-leaved species. A. Acorns. The germinating acorn leaves the cotyledons below ground. If the first shoot is killed another forms at once. A shelter (or usher) growth to husband a plantation during its first years is hardly needed. Still plantations of Yellow Pine made to protect the Oaks planted between the Pines are often found abroad. Its long tap root prevents the Oak from being lifted by frost. The soil cover given varies between one and three inches, according to the looseness and porosity of the soil. In case of spring sowing, germination requires from five to six weeks. At Biltmore, White Oak and Chestnut Oak acorns planted in fall are often found sprouting before Christmas. The germ in such cases, however, does not appear above the ground. Red Oak and Black Oak seem to sprout only in spring. Acorns may be sown broadcast, especially on abandoned fields. Formerly acorns w T ere planted often with oats and barley or summer rye. The cover is given with a harrow in case of broadcast planting. More often acorns are planted in furrows from two to seven feet apart. It is better to plant acorns closely within furrows far apart, than sparingly in furrows near together. The cover is given either by a second furrow or by hoe or rake. Cultivation between rows (during summer) is not practiced aoroad. On abandoned fields at Biltmore it seems required for the pin pose of checking mice, squirrels and rabbits. Where acorns are planted for mixture merely with Beech, Pine and Chestnut, the planting in irregular patches or else " oversoiling " are often used. In the latter case a handful of acorns is roughly covered by a shovelful of dirt. The usual method adopted abroad for raising Oak is dibbling. The answer to the question whether spring or fall planting is better, depends on the number of enemies preying on the acorns in winter. Since the Black Oaks are not much molested, it might be as well to plant them in fall. Black Oaks suffer little in germinat- ing percentage during winter storage. White Oak acorns, however, are much eaten by mice, squirrels, turkeys, hogs, etc., and would 50 S Y L V I OU L X U R E. be planted in spring it winter storage did not invite a large loss of germinating percentage. For wintering White Oak acorns, it i- best to place them (imitating nature) in slight layers under a cover of humus on fairly dry soil. After Charles Heyer: Large baskets are roughly made on dry soil, the bottom and walls lined with moss: within are placed alternate layers of moss or sand and acorns. The basket is roofed with straw. After Von Alemann: Ditches S feet wide by 10 inches deep are made on dry soil. The acorns must not be too wet when put into the ditch. The cover consists of a layer of vegetable matter. A_ rough hut is made all over the ditch, out of -labs. bark, twigs, etc. The acorns are stirred up twice a week during winter. Beyer's method also requires a steep-walled ditch around the place ( f storage to keep mice out. Possibly it might he wise to keep sacked acorn- submerged in running water. B. Chestnuts. Chestnuts require more fertile and hence better-prepared soil than acorns. The nut lias still more enemies than the White Oak acorn. Its germinating power is much reduced by dry storage over winter. The devices for storing acorns might he used as well for chestnuts. Possibly storage in the husk is preferable. At Bilt- more planting of Chestnut on abandoned fields is very unsuccessful, owing to enemies and poorness of soil. But abandoned fields in Pisgah Forest often show fair growth of chestnut — on better soil, especially on moister soil. Xo experience is at hand relative to nut- plantations on good land newly cut over. Chestnuts dibbled in at Biltmore to form a lower story beneath Yellow Pine are always eaten by squirrels. C. Walnuts. Walnuts, both Black and White, can be held over winter like potatoes, without loss. Yet fall planting is better where squirrels do not endanger the nuts. Walnut has done well planted in furrows on abandoned fields at Biltmore where soil was good, without cultivation: on poor soil the weeds are choking it to death. The dibbling of walnut into woods just cut over has been badly handicapped in Bilt- more and Pisgah Forest by Bquirrels. Otherwise dibbling is the best method in the woods. Possibly the attacks ,,f squirrels might he prevented by late-spring dibbling of nuts in sprouting condition. D. Birch. Bircn seeds are very small, two-winged. European price for Betula lenta. lutea and nigro, $2.50 per lb. : Betula papyrifera, 51 ^ S Y I. VIC r LT I i; E. 62c per II'.: for European White Birch (Betula alba), 8c per lb. Germinating percentage i- bad, especially it seeds me uo1 kepi in loose storage. The -oil requires little preparation for seed plant- ing. A large layer of humus must lie removed. Seed can be planted any time from tall to spring. The old foresters used t<> plant the seed on the snow, -so as to have the seeds washed into the soil by melting snow. The southern Birches, being solitary, tnighl he planted in irregular patches or trenches, or in places where the mineral -oil is exposed by the tali of trees whirled out of the ground with stump- and roots. European Birch is very modest, thriving well on dry soil. The seedlings are very hardy. They Buffer, however, from grass or leaves blown over them and depriving them of air and sunlight. Betula lenta, at Biltmore, i- apt to ••damp off/' E. Beech. Xut.; appear every three to seven years in the wood-. The nut- ripening in October had heller he planted at once after ripening, though much endangered in winter \<\ mice. Storage over. winter, possible as in White' Oak acorn-, requires -till more care. If spring planting is resorted to. nuts germinate within live or six weeks. Beech seedlings must have a shelter growth, arid cannol survive in the open (excepting moist mountain slopes). The prepara- tion of soil is made with hoe or spade roughly, to a depth of three inches. Abroad, Beech is often used for an undergrowth in pole woods of Pine, Oak, Tamarack. Ash. etc.. with a view to im- proving the humus and. indirectly, the holes of the tie.- forming the upper story. " Beech .is the mother of the -oil." because it furnishes tie' besl humus. B :h i- exacting; it requires strong and moist -oil. Pure forests of Beech are found at Biltmore at 6.000 feet elevation; and extensively in Swain country at 1,000- 4,500 feet, with Poplar- a- standards in an upper story. The price of German Beechnuts is two pounds for five cent-. P. Alders. The western Alder. Alnus Oregqna, ami the European Aldei are valueahle. while the eastern Alder is only a shrub lining the creek-. European Alder i- invaluable as a swamp tree and for plantations on very binding soil (clay pits). The seed of the European species is worth 10 cents per pound. Seeds ripen in Octobei am! arc liest kept over winter IV tin- cone-. The -mall seedling i- not sensitive t" heaf and cold, hut suffers under the heavy grass usually found in swamps. Since swamps are inaccessible . S V L V If U L T U R E. in early spring, — planting of seedlings is preferable to planting of seeds. G. Ash. ■ ^/ Seeds are abundant, showing about 70% germination. The seedling, in the first year, develops to a length of eight or ten inches, from seeds covered with three-eighths inches of dirt. Little preparation of soil is needed. During the first two years, on good soil, a heavy shelter overhead is easily borne. American White Ash may be grown in slightly swampy soil, or soil subject to long inundations. Prices of Ash see* European Ash 4c per pound: White . Ash. 25c per pound. * At Biltmore, White Ash seeds planted in rows six feet apart, on abandoned fields, have done well when soil cover was not too heavy. H. Maple. Hard Maple seeds ripen in September. Silvei seeds in June. H is wise to plant the seeds jusl daily American species. Price of seeds: Acer r pound; Silver Maple, $1.00 per pound: European species, 4c to 5c per pound: Sugar .Maple. 80c per pound. The green germ of Amer- ican Maples is said to die if the seds are not at once planted. Sofi Maples develop the seedling in the year of the seed. For seeds lo be planted in woods, the soil is prepared with the rake, and the seeds covered with one-half inch -it -oil. .Maple planted on abandoned fields on Northern slope-, well watered and well drained, is likely to be successful. 'I he young seedlings are sensitive, and a cover overhead is advisable, where late frosl prevails. On rocky soil in Northern cove-. Maple seed is often strewn on the rocks, the rain being expected to wash 1 he seeds into 1 he crevice-. At Kill more. Hard Maple is found only al elevations exceeding 3,500 feet. Sugar Maple is more exacting i in -oil) than Soft Maple. It doe- ii"t e-row as well in swampy -<>il a- Soft or Red Maple. Acer negundo (Ash Leaf Maple) doe- very well in 'the northern prairie-. Seeds ripen in fall. 1. Kims. Seed- Hat. roundish, winged, the wing surrounding the seeds. Seeds, ripening in June, must be planted at once, since they cannot be kept.in dry storage (except slippery Elm pubescens). Germinat- ing percentage is always small. Elms require such good -oil that they can be raised only on strong, northern, moist soil of agri- cultural value. Never planted broadcast; in suitable localities, seed SYLVICULTURE. mighl be planted in patches on soil roughly prepared with rake. \"ii \ little cover must be given. Seeds cost: Uhnus americana 22c per pound. Ulmus campestria (ic per pound. J. Buckeye. The Asiatic species is valuable in deer parks, its fruit being eaten by deer and boar. The American species are poisonous (flava and glabra). Seeds ripen in October, winter well, but can as well be planted in fall. After Weise, the seeds should be planted with the navel down. First class soil (Ohio) is required, or at Biltmore strong North coves at higher altitudes, where Buckeye is some: times found in small groves. Planted in furrows od abandoned fields (Biltmore), Buckeye has shown rapid progress during the first year, but has since made small shoots only. Seeds of the Asiatic species cost 2y 4 c per pound. K. Black Locust, 1 The seeds ripen in fall and are easily kept over winter un- injured by mice, birds or insects. To prevent seeds from lying over, S. B. Green advises to pour boiling water over them just before planting, a treatment causing many seeds to sproul at once. The fleshy, oval cotyledons and the primordial leaves are not pinnate. The tree is an exception to the rule of optimum depth of covering (the depth of long diameter of seed) since it dues best wiien covered 2 to 3 inches deep. The seedlings are sensitive to late frosts. The planting had better be delayed until the danger of frost is past. The price of seeds, 5-10c per pound, renders Locust seeds the cheapest - I obtainable since the germinating percentage is high. The seedlings grow until late fall, when they reach nearly two feet in height. At Biltmore, Black Locust is planted into Oak coppice on raked patches, with the rake, and on abandoned fields in furrows 5 to 6 feet apart. Five pounds per acre is enough. Plan- tations suffer from ground mice and. later on, from a moth. Locusl thrives on exhausted agricultural soil and is used in Europe exclusively to reforest the Hungarian prairies; further along rail- road cuts. Forest-grown Locust is much superior to field-grown Locust. L. Hickories. The nuts of the thin-shelled species (ovata and minimal can- not be held over winter and need fall planting. S 1 plantations suffer from mice and squirrels, and especially from voles, which bite off the seedlings below ground, row after row. Bitternui seems exempt from such attacks. The seedling, in the lir-i years, 54 SYLYI#ULTL RE. spends all its energy in developing a large tap root. The planta- tions at Biltmore made in furrows on abandoned fields might have been better, had they been cultivated continuously to check the mice and voles. Hickoria ovata, 13c per pound; Bitternut, Pignut or Mockernut, loc per pound. Hickory needs fertile, fresh the "Hickory flats" in virgin forest are convertible into superior farm land. *■"' M. Linden or Basswood. Seeds falling in early fall are always poor. The ripe seed (in bunches, attached to wingbracts) falls in late fall or winter. Linden is very exacting and pure woods are very rare. Planted in the forest, it serves only as an admixture. Seeds are planted in sprin on soil roughly prepared with rake or hoe. The cotyledon typically five-pronged, hand shaped. The young plant is so seii sitive that cover overhead is strongly advisable X. Cucumber tree. Seeds ripening in cones late in fall are removed with great trouble by hand. Many seeds lie over. The seeding develops on good soil a very long and strong shaft. For forest planting. Cucumber is used only in patches, mixed with Chestnut and Yellow- Poplar. / "^^BTTellow Poplar or Tulip Tree. Seeds appear annually: of wry low germinating percentage Nature plants the seed between October and May. slowly dis- membering the cone. Seeds may he planted in spring after loose storage. The cones are apt to heat and mould, if tightly packed. The cotyledons (size of a nickel) do not show the typical lack of the tip of the leaf blade. They drop oil' (in strong seedlings) before July 15th. Seedlings do not sutler from mice. Heavy rains, however, are apt to wash them out of the ground. The young seedling stands a good deal of shade. If deprived of ligbl entirely, it is certain to be killed by the first frost. Seeds cost 15c per pound. Large quantities are required for planting, say 50 pounds per acre. -Elajitations at Bilinear pare Miter t'ailuu 1 . - pr rvuri^rr jfrj out feUfgd . The seedling grows very fast when young; at the age of two years the seedling is three feet high, on good soil. Where planted in the woods it i- necessary to check the weed- especially on north slopes. P. Sassafras. It might lie planted on poor abandoned fields as usher growth. At Biltmore, seeds gathered in late summer have failed to sprout. whether planted in fall' or spring. The fleshy cotyledon i- kept S V L VI CULTURE. below ground at a depth of say one and one-half inches. Possibly, the seed must pass through a bird before ii can sprout, or the flesh be peeled off by hand or by malting. Q. I '.lack Cherry. Primeval trees arc found only on fairly rich soil. The Cherry, however, can be easily raised on abandoned fields not bettei than those at Biltmore. During early youth, until pole stage, mice and rabbits peel the bark badly. The end of the annual shoot is almosl always killed in winter. The small wm&^mul^ ripening in early autumn are eagerly eaten by biters'. The seeds, after passing through the bird, arc scattered all over the woods. The seeds are isily kept in winter, but lie over if kepi in a dry condition. A hot- water bath before planting might cause the seeds to germinate simultaneously. In woods. Cherry should be planted under one- half inch dirt cover, irregularly, with full enjoyment of light. Seed "•He per pound. The seeds might be planted in rows on abandoned tield-jnure cheaply than the seedlings. R. Black Gum. Xyssa sylvatica has never been raised on a large scale, owing to the low value of its timber. As an undergrowth or admixture with Hickory, Ash, Oak, etc., it might prove, however, a valuable tree, owing to its dense leaf canopy and owing to its shade- bearing qualities. The seeds, cherry-like, dark blue in fall, of acid taste, seem to appear annually, and old trees are often sur- ' rounded by an abundance of seedlings; the latter, very lighl colored, are four inches high by July, showing two heavy oval entire cotyle- dons, whilst the primordial leaves show the proper form. Seed- lings do not seem to suffer from frost, heat or animals. On abandoned fields, however. Black Cum seems to come up from Sprouts and not from seeds. The seed is not on the market. ^**^ Paragraph XVII. Planting seeds of the coniferous species. A. Firs. W~^+Jb£ SYLVK U LTLEE. Losing vitality quickly when winter-stored (unless stored in the c nes) are usually planted in tlie tall, in spite of impending ravages of mice and birds. The covering is from one-fifth to one-third ot an inch. Since the cones begin to dissolve in November, they mus! be gathered in early winter. Abies concolor, $3.00 per pound: Abies fraseri, $3.50 per pound; Abies amabilis, $4.50 per pound: Abies balsamea. $1.00 per pound: Abies grandis, $3.00 per pound: Abies magnifica, $5.00 per pound; Abies nobilis, $2.00 per pound; Abies pectinata. 5c per pound. B. Spruce. Seeds ripen in the year of the flower and are emitted from the cones, becoming pendulous, between November and April. The seeds arc easily wintered either within or without the cones; after some authors, preferably in the cones. Seed years occur at intervals of aboul five years. The germinating percentage i- high. The seeds are usually planted late in spring after bird migration, either broadcast on ground roughly raked, or more often on interrupted beds from' one to two feel wide, prepared witb hue and slightly raised over the general ground level. It i- -aid that a man can plant die acre of ground in eight hours, using the rake. Previous to planting it i- wise t" moisten the seeds in cold water for from three to five days, especially if the seeds are planted in late spring. The cover «^ should be one-fifth inch. Germination take- place after four weeks with from six to eighl cotyledons, serial* on the upper side. Young plant- are sensitive tB drougb.1 and readily raised by the frost. Spruce suffers from suppression by weeds and leave-. It- height growth is more rapid than thai of Fir. Prices of seeds: Picea canadensis, $1.10; excelsa, 13c; engelmanni, $5.50; rubens, ^4. J.">: pungens, $5.00; sitkaensis, $5.50 per pound C. bellow Pine < >n dry sandy soil, n i- wise co i find a moister seed bed. The young seedings do not suffer from late frosts and are not apt to he lifted by winter frost. The removal of stumps stops the attack- of -tnmp breeding lark beetles and snout beetle- (weavils). intensive loosening of the -oil invite- the attacks of junebugs, wire worms, etc.. and i- not needed on sandy soil. Broadcast planting i- advisable on -oil slightly covered with grass; the cover should just he scratched with the harrow. The -eed. mde-- planted with the rake, i- embedded in the -oil by driving sheep, cattle and hogs over it. Before planting it might he wise to tire the ground, notablv so in the case of Jack Pine. •n-i-. $5.50 per pound. . I. it i- wise to plant in early spring, so l ,0- S Y L V 1 C '■ U L T U R E. Lodgepole Pine and Norway Pine. Yellow Pine is never planted in patches, since it comes up in larger groups only, of even age. Planted under shelter it would not obtain enough sunlight. The seeds are often planted on long strips two or three feet wide, separated by trenches, the weeds and dirt removed from the trenches being heaped on the strips. On the very driest soil, Jack and Red Pine will do in the north: in the south, Long Leaf Pine. The moisture demands of Pinus taeda exceed those of Pinus mitis. Wet ground is required by Cuban Pine. Pinus ponderosa may grow on any soil and aspect, north and south. European Pine should not be tried in places where snowfall is heavy. The sand dunes at San Francisco are planted in Monterey Pine. A method much used abroad some 80 years ago was the planting of Pine cones (eight bushels of cones per acre). The cones were moved from time to time by a brush drag. Another old method for raising Pine consisted in planting the seeds on top of oats, barley or summer rye. The cover given should be one-fifth of an inch. The seeds are mulched for three to seven days, before planting, in cold water. Old seeds are apt to lie over for a whole year. Germination occur- In from three to four weeks. The first leaves stand singly, and not in sheathed bunches. The primordial leaves are strongly serrate. The germinating percentage is high, say seventy to ninety per cent. The seedlings of Pinus rigida^ creep on the ground the first two years as if dwarfed. Prices: banksiana, $5.00; murrayana, $10.00; inops or virginiana, $1.10; jeffreyi, $4.00; mitis, $10.00; ponderosa, $2.50; pun- gens, $4.50: resinosa, $9.00; rigida, $2.50; European Scotch Pine, 50c ; tuberculata, $4.50; taeda, $10.00; palustris, $4.50 per pound. In Jack Pine, Lodgepole Pine and Table Mountain Pine the seed is not emitted for a number of years from mature cones. At Biltmore, mitis drops the seed between November 1 and December 15; Palustris seeds seem to drop before December 15, since seedlings appear by middle of January. D. White Pine. White Pine seeds cannot be kept as easily over winter as Yellow Pine seeds. The seed matures at Biltmore aboul September 15, and thn falls at once. The European recipe, to gather the seeds when drops of rosin appear on the cones, is misleading. After gathering, the cones should be fully matured by exposure to sunlight. Cones placed in heavy layers — over six inches— after gathering are apt to mould, when the seeds will be destroyed. White Pine emits seeds easily, placed in light layers on wire netting, when heat is applied, and when the cones are stirred several times a day. The 58 Jis\A^~> Au^6m Jus*XlA >-« Z& %**r% •C&ward the end of September, are very small o&n (J 2 SYLVICULTURE. i aoms in which Uie coning takes place must be well ventilated. Seed year- occur in the South every three years — in the North say every -even years. Mulching before planting is absolutely neces- sary. Germination after three to four weeks: seven to ten cotyle- dons, primordial leaves singly. Seedlings sutler still more from fungi (honey fungus) than Yellow Pines. Owing to the high price of seeds of White Pine, the seed is usually planted in nurseries only. An ex- periment at Biltmore, namely planting of seed without preceding preparation of soil in patches with the rake, under light cover, has proved a failure. White Pine does well on abandoned fields after fires — except on East and Southeast slopes where flat-rooted plant- are apt to be lifted by frost. Germinating percentage only from forty to fifty per cent. Seeds cost about $1.50 per pound. K Hemlock. Seeds mature' easily removable. Seedling- are very -hade bearing and minute. Hemlock cannot be grown in the open. Price of seed being high and natural regeneration being easy, plantations will not be made on a large scale. Price of seeds: canadensis, $3.50; heterophylla. $8.00; mertensiana, $5.50 per pound. F. Larch. The cones are very tough and not easily opened by heat. It is hard to separate the wing from the seed. The germinating percent age is low. The seed is planted in spring on open ground, usually in patches, mixed with Pino. Spruces or Hardwoods. The planting of seed of Northern Tamarack in Northern swamps is out of the question. The height growth in early youth i> rapid. Larch puts heavy demand on light. Cotyledons, five to seven in number, appear four weeks after planting. The seeds are mulched in cold water foj at least a week before planting. The primordial leaves stand singly; brachyblast- are formed only from the third summer . 7."> per pound. H. Lawson's Cypress. (ones blue brown, globular, only -i\ scales, small, three - Ls under scale, seeds two winged. Wing one-twenty-fifth inch wide. Seeds mature in September and October, falling at once. 150,000 grains per pound. Sprouting with two cotyledons only, one fifth to one-third inch long. Young seedlings stand shade. In the sapling stage, fungi seem to play havoc in the plantations, a fact which may explain the small range of the species. Seed 60c per pound. I. Western Red Cedar (Thuja plicata). Scales of cones oval and upright, covering pairs of seeds. Seeds two-winged; wings one-quarter inch long, elliptical, drawn in at top. One pound contains 300,000 grains. Two cotyledons only. Seed cost $2.25 per pound. Seedlings stand heavy shade. Paragraph XVIII. Actual planting of seedlings: Introductory remarks. A. The forester uses seedlings one to ten years old or, better still, one to live years old. 'I he planting expenses increase at a cubical ratio with the increasing weight of the plants. B. Seedlings are planted either with or without " hall-" of dirt. They are taken from the oursery or from the wood-. Yellow Tines over three years must be planted as "ball plants." Ball planting is always safer, as it involves a small loss of root fibre. Under any circumstances, it is wise to leave as much dirt as possible attached to the root-, preventing the roots from drying and allowing them to quickly re-establish their sucking contact with the pores of the soil. ( '. The small stemlet of young seedlings might !»• cut oil' before planting (stump plants). Advantages of planting -tump-: L In case of Locust, etc. lack of thorns. II. In case of tap rooters I Walnut. Hickory. Oak- where |i -- of root fibre is great), rapid re-establishmen1 of the equilibrium pre- vious-h existing between water-sucking power and evaporation. 60 s Y L V I C I' L T I EEJ LLL Certainty of planting the seedlings neither deeper nor higher than they were in the nursery. Conifers cannot be stump planted. If stump plants of Ash or Maple are to be used, stumps one and one-half to two inches high should be left. In the case of Oak. the stemlet should he cut off just above the point of differentiation. Stumping seems practicable in the case of Chestnut as well, and is often applied to Catalpa, Locust and Honey-Locust. Stumping objectionable on account of the rabbits eating the new shoots ,,i where weeds are rank. D. Bunch planting is often practiced where very small seedlings, cheaply raised and not transplanted in the nursery, are thereafter exposed in the woods to atmospheric hardships or to damage by ani- mals. From two to thirty such seedlings form a bunch planted into one hole. Bunch planting is applied to German Spruce and Beech, although losing favor with the foresters abroad. E. Plants may be planted irregularly or else in triangles, square-, rectangles. The advantage of an exact regular arrange- ment, which may be obtained with the help of long planting strings, bearing blue and red marks, are: I. Saving of time and expense. Each workman is kept busy by the work of his neighbor, and none can fall behind. Supervision by rangers is facilitated. [1. I he number of plants needed is easily found and the probable expense is more accurately estimated. III. Small s llings ran he found easily in high weed- or grass. IV. A plantation may be opened to pasture at an earlier date. V. A mixture of species, and. later, underplanting are more readily obtained. VI. 'the cleaning, thinning and pruning of the plantation is facilitated. VII. Possibility of cultivation between the row- in prairie- and on abandoned fields. The triangular form gives the largest number of plants acre, distributes th.' growing 9pace equally, and i- therefore -aid to raise cleaner stems. The arrangement in squares allow- for a given planting distance 1.".', less plant- per acre than the triangular system. The rectangular system, though scientifically objectionable, practically prevails over the other-. The plantlets standi] g within a row assist one another from early time- on. Planting be- tween the rows and the cultivation of -lope- are facilitated within S Y I. V I '. I I.T i i; E. rectangles. Ii i> said, however, thai the saplings form large Bide branches and retain the same for a longer period pf years. Rectangu- lar plantations are known to suffer less from Bnowbreak. K. Usually it is best to make the holes for the plants before planting— unless, on clay soil, the holes are apl to fill with water. The making of holes takes more time, in many a case, than the planting itself. It should not be clone during the few spring days favorable to tree planting. <;. The rangers should make all needful preparations for plant- ing several days or weeks before planting, securing the seedlings, "heeling them in" close to the plantation and getting the imple- ments and tmd> in proper condition. Planting distance. 1 foot 2 foot 3 foot 4 fool 5 foot 6 foot Paragraph XIX. Criteria of good seedlings. A. The lent system: The rool system should lie as compact as possible and as rich in line hair fibres as possible, qualities which are only obtained in a well-fertilized nursery. It nm-t be remembered thai the small hair fibres are the feeders of seedlings, and that the stronger roots aci merely as bones or as the skeleton giving the plant a linn anchorage in the soil. \ -linn exposure to sunlighl and to dry winds kills the root hair-. Roots cannol live in air any better than fish, though requiring oxygen like fish. Toumey claim- that "many successful planters never sel evergreens until the rout tip- show Bigns of growth." This experience is entirely at discord with the universal European experi- ence. Conifers are very sensitive againsl l"-- of rool fibres. Fresh tips, evidently, are mosl apt to he injured in handling <>r by drought. The pruning of the mm system i- a necessary evil in the case of very long tap roots. I onifers dn nol allow of it. Badly damaged roots may he clipped with a -harp knife jusl above the damaged point. No. of plants No of plants per acre in pel acre m squan s, triangles. 4:;..".tii) 50,650 10,900 12,674 4.s:,l) 5,640 ■2.ri:> 3. It38 1,750 2,034 1,210 1.4H7 SYLVICUL T U R E. B. The shaftlet: Crooks are not injurious, the plant healing them quickly. Slender plants are not desirable, partly because they sway badly in the wind, thus getting loose in the soil; partly because slender shafts are due to excessively close position in the nurseries. In the case of broad-leaved seedlings one or two years old the shaft of spindling specimens may be cut off without lasting injury (not in confers). 0. Ihe buds: The buds must have a healthy color, a large size ana a goodly number. Small buds prove the plant to be weak; so that it has a poor chance to withstand the hardships of transplant- ing. In conifers, the condition of the buds is especially telling. Poor and few buds in hardwoods render it advisable to lop the stemlets. Paragraph XX. Age, size and number of seedlings used. A. Young plants are more easily transplanted than old plants, the loss of root system being smaller. Large saplings (10 ft. high to 4 inches in diameter) are transplanted only at great expense and great risk. They must be transplanted with big balls of dirt attached. B. The number of plants used per acre in Europe varies between 1,000 and 40,000 specimens per acre in case of Pines. Spruces and Beeches. The advantage of a large number of small plants is: 1. Better chance for nature to select the fittest. II. Bess reinforcing required. III. Even unexperienced planters can he used. IV. Plant material is very cheap. V. Larger returns from first thinning and clearer boles. On the other hand, the advantage of planting stronger seedlings, especially transplants three to six years old. lies in the following points: VI. On poor soil, strong plants have a better chance. VII. Older plants have already overcome the " measles " of child- hood — fungi, insect diseases — to a large extent. VIII. Such plantations suffer less from snowbreak. IX. Tne rotation is shortened by a number of years. In a White Pine plantation made with seedlings seven years old, instead of seedlings two years old, the rotation is reduced from fifty to forty-five years: and the original cost of planting may be 27^ higher, figuring at 5% interest ; 22% higher, figuring at 4% interest ; 13% higher, figuring at 3% interest. ('. Generally speaking, Oak. Hickory and Walnut should be planted one year old on account of the large size of the tap roots. 63 S i I. \ I ( I l.T I l; i. Spruce, l-ir and Hemlock should be planted three to five years old, after previous transplanting in the nursery. Ash should be planted six years old when used in half swamps baving luxurious growth of w Is. Yellow fine musl always be planted one or two years old. unless hall plant inn i- reported to. After Tourney: For the prairies, yearlings are best in case "i ( "Hi.iiw Is, Box Elder, Sofl Maple (Soft Maple sprouts in June and is very small in fall), Russian Mulberry, Catalpa, Walnut, Black Cherry, Locus! and II y-Locust. At Biltmore, Black Cherry trans- plants three years old do very well. Locusts two years old are clipped back. Maple and Ash are transplanted and used three to four years old; Yellow Pines are used one oi two years old; White Pines two, three or four years old; Catalpa one year old, etc. Paragraph XXI. Lifting seedlings from nursery beds. It is not advisable to plow the seedlings out of the ground oi to tear them oul with tongs. In the rase of species having small reproductive power (Conifers, Beech, Birch) additional care is needed. The -pade should be used; and the plant should be lifted togethei with large clumps of dirt which, thrown on the ground, collapse and allow of safe extrication of the plants contained in the clumps. It is wise, carriage charges permitting, to allow some dirt to stick to the roots. < >n more binding soil the hollow- cylinder spade might be used for lifting small plant-. Plants should be well cov- ered with burlaps, wel moss, dirt, etc., at once after digging. Plants left for a number of days between the plantation and the nursen should be heeled in thoroughly, shinglelike, one row- covering the other, in a shady place. Paragraph XXII. Transportation of seedlings. If the roots are thoroughly protected, a voyage from Europe to Biltmore, though it may take six week- time, will no! injure the p. ants. Plants are loosely put together in bunches of one hundred to two hundred pie. are placed iii baskets or open crate-, the roots ill the center, the tips at the circumference. Layers of plants alternate with layers of damp moss. S llings packed tightly, especiallv in boxes, are apt to mould. Plants merely taken to a nearbj plantation on wagons should be well covered with branches, moss or sacks, and should 1"' sprinkled during transportation. Ball plants ,|o no j need packing unit ss Kills dre eerj Iocs,., when burlaps are necessary. One liun- !red Fellow Tine ball plants, after Rankin, with halls ten inches S YLVI C U L T U R E. square, make up a tw.o-horse Load. Fifty thousand seedlings without balls and well watered, or eighty thousand seedlings slightly damp- ened, usually make a wagon load. Paragraph XXIII. Common methods of planting seedlings in the open. A. Planting in furrows. The furrows should be made deeply with a subsoil plow. The plants are distributed, at proper distance, in the furrows. Then another furrow is at once given with a turning plow, throwing the needful dirt over the plants, which are thereafter adjusted and pressed into proper site, by hand. This i> a quick method of planting, but is practical only on prairies or on abandoned fields. It involves the danger of reckless spreading of roots and of loose imbedding of the plant in loose soil. The plants are also apt to be placed too deep and to be shaken badly by wind. The method, however, yields good results in case of I. Stump planting (Oak, Locust. Catalpa). II. Planting many one-year-old seedlings (so that a large per- centage might be lost without great injury). III. Plants not sensitive to deep planting (not for White Pine and Spruce i. Plants placed too deep form a second root system close to the surface and develop a bushy bole, useless in forestry, pleasing in a garden. At Biltmore, the furrow method was used by Pinchot at the Shiloh Crossing plantation. A modification of the furrow method was used at the Pace farm in 1003. where deep furrows were drawn, the plants inserted by hand, covered by hand and adjusted by hand. A planting machine (Dr. Fernow's), resembling a tobacco planting machine, is not used. B. Planting in holes. The holes are either holes dug with the spade or clefts wedged into the soil. Most planters mulch the roots in loamy water so as to increase their weight and so as to reduce their spread before insertion into the hole. The root fibres suffer from this mulching, however, being 1. raided unnaturally. The root tips should not be bent upward. The depth and width of the hole should correspond with the actual size of the root. Several plants might be placed in the same hole to save expense. Theoretically it is best to place each plant in the center of its hole. At Biltmore, howver. planting in the lower edge of the hole is preferred because: I.- No root is hemispherlcally developed. II. Planting at the edge is the best preventive against deep planting, the planter holding the plant with the left hand at the * SYLVICU l-T I RE. jHinii of differentiation againsl the edge of the hole, when drawing with the righl hand the dirt required to till the hole. III. Such plants are firmly imbedded and are less shaken by the wind. On forest soil it is wise to place the top dirt dug from the hole around the root tips, and the bottom dirt of the hole close to the -in face. The workmen should be shown daily by the forester how to plant. It is of the utmost importance to pulverize and loosen the dirt first, and to then press and beat it tightly with fist, heel or mallet around the roots. Some planters give a trifle of forest humus into the hole; others carry fertile garden dirt in baskets to the plantations. The placing of stones on the hole (as refrigera- tors) is rec tended. One man's work at hole digging per day is 300 to 3,000 according to root-size and conditions of soil. C. The seedling musl stand, after planting: I. Firmly, the dirt being tightly packed around it- roots, so that it cannot be shaken and so thai the roots may establish their sucking conta< I s. II. Naturally, the roots having the same manner of spreading and ramifying which they had in the nursery. III. Erect and jusl as deep as it stood in the nursery (exception: barren sand). Paragraph XXIV. Special methods and tools used for planting seedlings in the open. A. Biermans spiral spade, costing $2.00, i- pointed parabolically, th' blade being 7'.. inches long and ."> inches wide When used bor- ingly, this spade forms a parabolic hole and loosens the soil. With the It't't hand the seedling i- pressed againsl the side of the hole, while the righl hand places some sod ashes (See Par. XXIX, D. VI.) iiiii liately over the fine rool fibres. Then the best part of the soil i- used to fill the near half of the hole, and the pooresl for filling tlic far half. The instrumenl is adapted to hardened soil. • in wel and binding soil, the dirt clogs in the curves of the spade. Capacitj per hand in Germany 320 plant- per day. I'.. The Planting Dagger 1 i- used for Yellow Pine - llings one or two year- old, to be planted on sandy soil. The dagger is three inches longer than the longest root. It is made of wood, iron shod at the point. It make- a narrow, funnel-shaped hole, which is closed bj pressure from another hole made a few inches from the first. <>n loose, sandj soil it is wise to plant Yellow Pine seedlings deeply up to firsl needles- 3ince Yellow Tine is nol affected, in thai soil, by deep planting. Daggering i- the cheapesl possible .it; SYLVIOULT V RE. method for planting Long Leaf Pine, Jack Pine. Lodgepole Pine, etc. Capacity 800 to 900 per day and hand. )LW C. The Buttlar Iron, once much used for thrusting holes into ^ ^ the -oil, is now in disfavor since it causes the seedlings to be BV BQ fc inserted into holes having walls as impenetrable as those of a ^^^^^\|l '"' flower-pot. Only plants one or two years old can be thus planted yjb% ("cleft planted"). gmP^ \| I). The Wartenberg Iron consists of a sword 18 inches long, &y\ attached to a heavy handle. Price .$2.25. Similar irons were made at Biltmore out of three-inch wagon tire, at a -mall cost. A deep cleft is made by the iron in which tap-rooted seedlings are readily inserted. On binding soil, however, or in a broomsedge field, the ttse $Cv** / ^"' u * of this iron cannot be recommended. E. The planting hammer is used to make small holes for small roots. The iron part of the hammer is about five inches long. The planting hatchet, a similar make, may be used to advantage for planting one-year-old plants. The holes arc closed by heating the dirt round the holes with the back of the hammer or with the hatchet. F. Von Alemann constructed a very heavy square spade which is pushed and drawn in a particular way, like the lexer of a handcar on the railroads, so as to make the lower pari of the whole wider than the middle part, the cross-section of the whole forming an X. If Oaks are planted, an extra hole i~- made at the bottom of that made with the spade, by means of a long dagger in which the tap root of the oak i- to lie imbedded. The hole is closed by pressure from the sides. It seems doubtful whether the soil will close entirely over the roots unless it be sandy. One man can plant 580 Oaks two year- old or 1,270 Yellow Pines two years old with this instrument on ] >lo\\cd ground. G. The Planting Beack. constructed by Baith. makes and empties a triangular hole, taking out the dirt tilling the hole. Plants one or two years old are placed along the vertical side of the hide. Then the dirt kept in the beak is filled in. The instrument is 3y 3 feet Ion- aim weighs 15 pounds. It is -aid to be superior to all cleft planting tools, whilst it works just as cheaply on loose soil H. Planting under sod cover, i Von Alemann). Two sod turned over, like the covers of hook-, and laid back, upside dow without loosening the " hinge " of the sods. The soil in the is deeply worked with a spade. In the middle of the hole the plant Q ^*Jt jA ^ hole. Then the two sods are turned hack into their original position, &>S\A \A^Q , down, ^/3j U . i hole ^H^fuv-t/ •*** placed, with the root- spread a- much a- possible within the entire nei 67 *4 SYLVII i l.T i I; E so that the seedling stands between them. This i- a good method on ground where frosl i- in !»■ dreaded, and is used for Ash, Alder and Water Birch one to three year- old. I. Mound Planting (Manteutfel). small unds are made con- ^■S *iy\J(* sisting of rich nursery soil to !><■ carried in baskets t<> the plantations. * The plant i- placed into the mound, it- roots touching the vegetable ' /2T~* —*+*>f mould underneath. The mound is covered with sods to prevent <-£-^ J£st erosion. The method works well on very drj and hard ground, i - About 100 plants are planted per day and per man after this method. • ■*** . .*__-. Its advantages are: -«*»**^-u | II,,. y-egetable cover of the Boil, by it- disintegration, fur- / nishes food for the rootlets. II. Tin' quafitj of the -nil surrounding the roots i- very good. III. The soil in the mounds is kepi moist with condensed atmos- pheric vapor, owing to it- greater porosity. IV. The planter is nut likely in plant the seedling tun deep. 'I'lic method is also applied on very wet soil. The mounds may be replaced by ridges. Experiments have Bhown thai planting in mounds does better in years of droughl than planting in holes. Modifications of the Manteuffel method are in common use. Ordinary -nil dug oul at the planting site may be used to make the mound: or, where there are heavy sods, a sod is turned upside down and left to rot fur a year. The mound thus made i- rich in plan! food -resulting from the disintegration of runt fibres ami \ .■•_■. stable malt rr. Disadvantages of mound planting are: a. The mounds are easily washed away on slopes unless under cover of mother trees. b. The be-t -nil i- washed mil if the mound i- no! covered with sods, stones or brush. c. Insects and mice find hiding and breeding places in t! covered mounds. d. Mound planting i* very expensive. .1. Ballplanting, with diaries Tfeyer's hollow cylinder spade. The cylinder spade can be used to best advantage on binding soil. It lifts the plant (seedlings, notably conifers one oi two years old) from the nurserj withoul loss of roots and prepares fur it a hole on the ground to be planted having the exact form of the ball of dirt adhering to the roots. The method is particularly safe and seems particularly adapted for prairie planting since it protects the seedling before, during and after the aet of planting; since it prevents the seedling from loosing 6 Edward V— SYLVICULTURE. its foothold in the soil under the intluence of high wine allow- of planting at almost any season of the year. i in -tony soil, the cylinder spade cannot be used Heyer's '* cone spade " facilitates the transfer of larger seedlings with heavier balls of dirt from the nursery or from the woods to new plantations. Paragraph XXV. Season for planting seedlings. Factors influencing the season are: Local climate. Labor available. Time available. Species planted. Theoretically seedlings should be planted during the period of inactivity of roots and buds, or in mid-winter. This theoretical demand, however, in a Northern climate, cannot be carried out, the ground being frozen at that time. Hence the choice only remains between planting in late fall and planting in early spring. After Engler, roots show two periods of active growth, viz.: a spring-and- sunnner period influenced by soil moisture, and a fall period in- fluenced by soil heat. The growth of the roots during August and September, between the two periods mentioned, is very weak. In spring, the growth of the roots starts in March and April and shows the highest activity in May, June and July. A. Spring Planting. The seedlings are planted before the opening of the buds. The moisture left in the soil by the melting snow is very favorable to their growth. Objections to spring planting are: I. Scarcity of labor, unless forest planting begins at a time at which fields are too wet to be worked. II. Larch. Maple, Cherry and Birch sprout so early in spring that it is impossible to adopt spring planting in their case. III. Moist ground, hummocks and swamps are not accessible in spring. TV. The soil is not packed as tightly around the roots on the arrival ol spring as is the case in fall planting. ±J. Fall Planting. Fall planting is preferred on wet areas and in the case of early Bprouting species. The disadvantages of fall planting otherwise outweigh the benefits combined therewith. I. Seedlings planted in fall are apt to be heaved up by the winter's freeze. *9 81 I. \ ' I ( i I. i I i: E. II. The severe winds of the winter loosen the foothold of coni- fers planted in fall. III. Fall-planted seedlings are re suhject to late frost, open ing their buds some ten days earlier than spring-planted seedlings. IV. (in weedj soil, fall-planting i- handicapped by the presence of a rank growth oi weeds which has rotted down at the arrival of spring. In tlic Southern Btates, even ai Biltmore, planting in January and February is very feasible, perhaps advisable in average years. Ball plant- can be planted ai any season of the year. In countries of periodical rainfall (California, India and Porto Rico) it i- besl to plan! jusl before the beginning of the rainy season. In swamps, summer planting or early fall planting 1- a necessity. } J- ~f ~ Paragraph XXVI. Cultivation of plantations. ^-LA-o-% \ Practice: The European forester never cultivate- any planta- )~J^rs^ 4 , -■* tions for the reason thai his plantations are made immediately after ' J lumbering, when the rootwork and the stumps on the ground render , ju cultivation difficult. Under the incident conditions of soil (humus: porosity), cultivation is usually not required for the success oi a plantation. Lrregular plantations cannol be cultivated. The forester afforesting -and dunes obviously objects to culti- vation. The forester afforesting swamps finds cultivation impracticable. B. Advisability: Cultivation i- advisable: Where there is neither humus nor rootwork in the ground; Where the soil, like prairie soil, i- compact and hard, lacking in aeration, porosity, capillary power, hygroscopicity ; Where competing herbaceous weed- threaten to smother -mall seedlings; Where mice or soil breeding insects prevail, which are disturbed, exposed or killed by continuous cultivation.' ( . Frequency. The forester may cultivate up to three times per annum, during one. t w more years sometimes till the leaf canopy overhead secures for the soil a solid layer of humus by dense shading. D Tools. A bull-tongue plow i- used, on rough ground, for plant rowB placed less than three t'eet apart. Cultivator- are used, a- in agriculture, where the soil i- loose, and where the rows are tar enough apart and the ground i- tree from si unip- or root- or bouldei s. 70 SYLVICULTURE. Hoes are used in exceptional cases only, where labor is cheap and where the soil does not allow of using teams and machinery. Mule- and horse- are muzzled to protect broad-leaved seedlings from being browsed. Paragraph XXVII. Prairie planting in particular. A. The prairie exhibits as marked climatic differences as the state of Georgia compared to the District of Labrador. "General prescriptions for prairie planting" are impossible. owing to these climatic diversities. B. The species used must be adapted to the quality of the soil, the intensity of summer heat, the duration of the summer, the soil moisture, the air moisture. Native tree- should be given the pref- erence in case of doubt. C. Prairie plantations are meant either for production of timber itie-. posts, etc.), or for -belter to stock, house, orchard and field. 1). specie- recommended for prairie planting are: I. For Canada: A\ bite spruce. Cottonwood, Balm of Gilead, Box-elder, Green Ash Russian Poplar; further Yellow Pine-. II. Tor Minnesota and Dakota: Cottonwoods, Soft .Maple-. Willows, Ashes, Box-elder, Tamarack in swamps, Bur Oak along rivers. III. For Nebraska and Iowa: The same species and Red Cedar, Russian Mulberry. I\~. For Kansas, Arkansas, Oklahoma and Missouri: Osage Orange, Flack Locust, Hardy Catalpa. Post Oak and White Oak. E. Naturally we should expect Xerophytic species, like Yellow Pines, to do best in the prairies, and the old stumps found buried in the ground bear testimony to their possibilities. Being evergreen the Pines protect the fanner- best from blizzards. Still, just Pines are most apt to meet with distress previous and after the act of planting. Ball planting should be tried. The European Finns mon- tana resists wind particularly well. F. ^reparation of soil: It is best to prepare the soil thoroughly by several years' field crops. Deep plowing is required (Tourney) in the fall previous to planting and in the spring of planting. G. Preparation of plants: The seedlings arriving at the farm should be removed from the package: heeled in under shade, pro- tected from winds and sprinkled if frost i- not to I e feared. Tourney 71 s \ i. \ I » l i.T i i: I.. wishes to puddle plants before heeling, and desires to plant the conifers invariably after the broad-leaved kinds. H. Planting: The planter must patiently wait for proper weather. Thorough protection of the roots during every moment of the act of planting is essential. Each individual musl be planted by itself no dozen methods! The plants should be sei closely within the rows; the soil must be packed tightly round the roots. Reversed sods or stones may be used to ballast the roots and to prevent the wind from shaking them loose. I. Cultivation: Cultivation is necessary up to the time when the trees cover the ground fully. littering it with humus. Where barefrost is dreaded, cultivation should end in late summer, Paragraph XXVIII. Methods of obtaining plants for planting. A. Frequently, seedlings are obtained from the woods nearby, a method which seems to recommend itself as cheap and natural. It is a fact, however, that the roots and the buds of wild seed- lings are badly adapted for the purpose of planting. The former are far-spreading; the buds are weak and few. In addition it is risky to take plants from the shelter of mother trees suddenly onto open ground. The use of wild seedlings over two years old is particularly unsuccessful. The failure of the timber culture act to prove efficient is largely due to the use of wild plants in prairie plantations. At Biltmore, seedlings of Yellow Poplar, Yellow Tine. Ash and Maple are often picked up with a spade and taken to the nurseries with good results. Such seedlings are taken at a very young age, without loss of dirt, to nurseries placed under lath screens. They are never removed direct 1\ to "pen plantations, with the exception of ballplants of Yellow Pine. B. Purchase of plants from commercial nurseries: During the last 15 years, a number of financially strong com- mercial nurseries have arisen abroad which, buying seed cheaply, located on suitable ground at good shipping points, enjoying many years' close acquaintance with the needs of Sylviculture, have sup- plied the various German administrations with cheap plants of a superior grade. The Biltmore Estate has often obtained plants raised by Heins Sons. Ilalstenbeek, near Hamburg, notably White Pines, which have been very successful in spite of a six weeks voyage. On il ther hand, American nurseries usuallj prepare plants only for ornamental purposes and not with a view of foster- ing the development of the tree hole. SYLVIGUL T U R E. since the rangers and the helper- in forest planting should know the sylvieultural need- of the seedlings, it is surely wise to offer them object lessons at home through self-administered nurs- eries. C. Nurseries proper, in charge of the forester. Where mice are much feared the nurseries should be sur- rounded by a deep, straight walled ditch. Fences are made of wire., lath, rails, etc., differing in material, strength, height and fineness of mesh according to the enemies locally dreaded. Proper nurseries yield the largest percentage of seedlings out of a given quantity of seeds. The seedlings raised therein have a better, more compact and more fibrous rout system than wild plants. Expensive and exacting species should always be raised in "forest gardens.'' There may be distinguished: Nurseries under tree cover. Shifting nurseries. Permanent nurseries. I. Nurseries under tree cover form the exception, being required only for the production of seedlings ot tender species; notably of Hemlock, Hard Maple. Beech. The nursery is formed by a pole- wood Heavily thinned and dug over with the spade. Here Beech- nuts are planted broadcast or in furrows and the seedlings removed when two years old, without transplanting. Hard Maple and Hem- lock should be raised as in open nurseries. It is a noteworthy fact that broad- leaved kinds often thrive best under conifers (Oak and Beech under Pine) and conifers best under broad-leafed kinds (Spruce besl under Beech. Maple. Birch). Only theoeretical explanations can be given for this truism, the best explanation being the difference of enemies attacking such species. Objections to nurseries under nee cover: a. Soil preparation is costly and insufficient. b. Plants raised cannot be planted in the open without loss. c. Nurseries under tree cover sutler badly from mice and squirrels and obtain insufficient rainfall. On the other hand, weeds and grasses are kept down by the shelter overhead. Nurseries under tree cover form the exception, not the rule. II. Shifting versus stationary nurseries. The advantages of stationary forest nurseries over shifting forest nurseries are: a. Reduced cost of tilling. b. Reduced cost of fencing. 73 b 1LVICULT I l; E. c. Reduced cosl of supen ision. On the other hand, stationary nurseries suffer from: 1. Excess of weeds. -.!. Higher cost of transportation of seeds and Beedlings. 3. Large needs of artificial fertilizing. 4. Danger from mice. insects and fungi for which such nurs- eries act as incubators. For raising ball plants, the shifting nurserj i- undoubtedly best; otherwise the selection between shifting ami permanent nurs- eries depends on local conditions; such a- the price of manure and of fencing; charges for transportation, etc. Seed plantations made on open ground arc often used a- shifting nurseries espe- cially so in the case of Yellow Pines. Paragraph XXIX. Permanent nurseries in particular. A. The size of "foresl gardens" (the German name for sta- tionary nurseries) depends upon the quantity, the age and the size of the seedlings annually needed. Further, on the presence or absence of transplanting beds, fallow beds and paths between the beds. Regular forest management has forest garden- fitted with: I. Transplanting beds, their total size being equal to trans- planting space by number of plants yearly needed by number of years which the transplants are left in such beds. II. Seed-beds, their total size being equal to one fourth oi size of transplanting beds for one age class by number of year- which the seedlings are allowed to stand unt ransplanted. III. Foot paths and roads equaling 30% of I and II. IV. Fallow beds equaling 100% of I, II, and III. ii seedlings and transplants are left for one year only in their beds; 50' II and III. if left for two years; and 33%, if left for three years. B. Form of beds. Bed- are usually four to six feel wide, separated by paths one or two feet wide, the beds preferably ele- vated over the paths by from three to twelve inches, so as to check the migration of insects, mice and nude-.: and so as to allow of better aeration of the soil. Sometimes the beds are kept in hoard frame-, an expensive though useful arrangement. C. The following factors must be considered in selecting the site of a nursery: I. Soil: A sandy loam or marl i- best for seedlings. The correct degree of looseness i- secured by mixing sawdust, spent tan, humus, ashes and weed- with the mineral soil. The soil should ha\e no 7+ S YLVICULTUR E. stones, in order to allow of proper seed planting and in order to facilitate the digging of the plant-. II. Exposure: The best expo-ure is a gentle n or thwest slo pe. The bottom of a valley js too frosty in spring. Southwest and south east slopes are subject to rapid atmospheric- changes . Easter n asp ects invite damage by frost. III. Proximity to water and possibility of irrigati on. IV. Accessibility and dista nce from ranger's house. D. Fertilizing: Stationary forest gardens require continuous fertilizing. Crops of seedlings exhaust the soil like grain. The following table exhibits, in pounds per acre, the amounts of fertilizing matter annually consumed by Pine seedlings, Pine poles and crops of rye. Yellow pine Yellow pine Crop of Fertilising matter. one year old. eighty years old. rye. Phosphoric acid '. 9.8 lbs. 1.7 lbs. L 6.7 lbs. Potash 20.7 lbs. 2.8 lbs. 24.2 lbs. Calcium 17.2 lbs. 10.1 lbs. 9.7 lbs. Magnesia 3.0 lbs. 2.0 lbs. 4.2 lbs. Sulphuric acid 0.0 lbs. 0.3 lbs. 1.1 lbs. The following fertilizer- are used in foresl gardens: I. Animal manure, which i- considered best. Cattle manure is preferred to horse manu re ; on clay soil, however, horse manure is better. Heavy weeds come up from stable manure which has not bad time to fully decompose. II. Commercial fertilizer-: Experiments conducted with super- phosphate, bone meal and so on have failed to yield conclusive results. T he best kalium fertilizer seems to be kainit (kali um chloride) ; the b est nitrogen fertilizer is sajt peter. After Von Schroeder, the following quantities of phosphates, potash and nitrates are needed to raise 4,000,000 plant- on an acre of nursery: 520 lbs. kainit. 60 lbs. superphosphate. 320 lbs. whale guano. III. Humus, the natural foresl manure, is the cheapest fer- tilizer obtainable in the wood-, lluinu- of Pines mixed with that of broad-leaved species is best. Humus just one year old is said to be richest in bacilli favorable to tree growth, and to be devoid of filiform fungi disastrous to plants. The weed- removed from nurseries furnish, through their de- composition, a valuable humus. SYLVICU I.Tl RE. A mixture of humus with street sweepings, kitchen refuse, loam, burnt lime, etc., is often placed in huge heaps near the nurseries. The heaps are kept in a rotation so that the heap made in 1903 is used only in 190G. The heaps are stirred up repeatedly so as to be acted upon by the air. IV. Vegetable matter other than humus. Such fertilizer may be obtained by raising, on the fallow beds, during the fallow year, cowpeas, clover, lupine (the latter on sandy soil) and other legumin- ous plants, all to be plowed under in fall. , Leguminous plants increase the nitrogen in the soil. V. Wood ashes: Excessive use of wood ashes is disastrous to sprouting plants, especially on sandy soil. Besides kalium, wood ashes contain from 5% to 20% of phosphoric salts. Wood ashes should be used, however, moderately in Yellow Pine nurseries. VI. Sod ashes are recommended where other fertilizers are too costly. Sods of grass, of weeds or of huckleberries are dried, the majority of the dirt removed and used to build a chimney and a kiln resembling a charcoal kiln, wherein layers of sod alternate with layers of brushwood, waste thinnings, etc. The kiln is covered with sods and wet dirt. Kilns burn, according to size, for from two days to two weeks. The sod ashes contain all mineral fertil- izers needed; have great hygroscopicity and are free from insects, fungi and other bearers of plant diseases. Sod ashes should be exposed to the atmosphere for a year he- fore use, and should then be well mixed with the top layer of nursery dirt. Paragraph XXX. Seed planting in seed beds. Seedbeds: Prescription for preparation: Plough and cross- plough to a depth of one foot; mix manure well with soil: heap the dirt taker, from the paths on top of the beds; remove stones. Seeds are planted either broadcast or in drills tn a depth gen- erally equaling their longest dimensions. A. Broadcast planting is always used in commercial nurseries while the sylvieulturists use it only for seeds of small germinating percentage (Birch, Elm, Beech, Alder and Yellow Poplar] or in case id' very light grained species which do not allow of any covering. Broadcast planting is permissible if seedlings are kept in the bed one year only. Economy in size of nursery and le>s weeding are the advantages of broadcast planting. With the help of a roller or, better still, of a heavy plank, the surface of the seed led i- pressed down until an even surface tj^t^fcCA* J *^~*. - IA vl ^"^ ^^^T^ /J*"*} SVLVICULTIEE. is obtained. Then the seeds are planted, dirt or fertilizer or sod ashes sifted on top, and the surface of the bed again pressed down as before. To prevent the formation of a crust, a cover of moss or leaves is often given, to be removed before the time at which the cotyledons are expected to appear. Better than moss or leave- are coverings consisting of pine branches (exception: on Pine seeds). B. Planting in rills. The rills are from one-fourth to three inches wide; made with a "rill board," a plank well seasoned to which mouldings are nailed. These mouldings may either be square or triangular in their cross section-. The rills are from five to ten inches apart. Double rills are preferred, lately, in Germany. In order to economize in the use of fertilizer and in order to obtain a compact rout system, trenches are sometimes made and filled with particularly fertile soil, at a distance apart equaling that of the rills. These trenches are made with a special ••trench hoe,' triangular in shape. The seed is put in the rill with the hand, with the help of a reduplicated playing card, a bottle of seed or, better, a -tick 2"x4" grooved on one side and as Ion- a- the width of the Led. or, best of all, a banged -utter into which the seeds are tilled by " thimblefuls " or "spoonfuls.'' evenly distributed in the base of the guttei. Th. miner i- placed over the rill and opened by pie-sing the two sides together, when the seeds drop through the "slot." To insure even distribution of the seed in the gutter, small niche- mav be provided at short, equal intervals at the base of the -utter, the ice size of the cavities corresponding with the quantity of seeds to be planted in each rill. Advantages of rill planting: I. Economy in seed. II. Stronger plants of more compact form grown at proper interval- apart. III. Economy in manure. TV. Seeds put at proper depth. V. The foot of plantlet can lie easily covered with moss leaves. VT. Weeding is made easy. I nless very experienced help can be had. rill-planting i- cer- tainly preferable. Undoubtedly, however, insects, mice and moles following the rill- do greater damage than in broadcast planting. The quantity of seed per square foot of seed bed depend- on the number of seeds in a pound: the germinating percentage; the quality of -oil: the number of years which the seedling i- meant f SYLVII i I - 11 i; E. f to stay in tin beds; rapidity of growth. <»;ik -' < oi a quart; B li and Chestnut, 4',; of a quarts Locust, Ash, Maple, Elm, Birch, .in grains; Alders, 4."> grains; Fir, 160 grains; yellow Pine, 15 grains; Spruce, 20 grains; Tamarack, 30 grains; avoirdupois — all per square foot. The figures given are illustrations, no! prescriptions. Eeavy seeds (nuts) are usually dibbled in, with a "dibhling board." Paragraph XXXI. Transplanting in transplanting beds. '|-nnMl!imii 1 '£j_>J^ It j nii-1 1 u- done at a time \\ li«-n fore-tal labor is anyhojv_J[uJi^^ cu|Heil . Transplanting i-. there- fore, resorted to onlj .\. In case of very expensive seeds or seedlings. 1!. In case of very slow growing seedlings. ('. In case of plants exposed in the open to severe (drought, frost, game, mice, insects, weeds). To amid transplanting, the following alternatives ai I . 'lj jo offspri n g of very ch eap -*w\tl s (Gorman iSpruce ) weaklings or indi\ idual- -tandine. ■ rowdedlv bein qui bj hand, o r be ing, cu_t _out_ l>v II. " .Hoot pJuninu " is a dopted fgled out. dangers ■e used: i- •• sin- om pact root roots J^y___rnt_^ng_^)fl'. will lon g .tap roots Tin' transplanting distance i-. at leasts three by six inches and i- governed by rapidity of growth expected and by the number of years which the transplant is to he left in the transplanting bed. Transplants are sel in clefts in the transplanting lied made witli the help of a transplanting dagger, or are placed into trenches made with a hoe or -pade. Planting hoards may I..' used, along which the seedlings, whilst pressed into equidistant slight grooves, are beld in proper posi- tion by a string tightly spanned. Tran-plant- an- often left for one year only hi the trans- planting bed, although the acl of transplanting weaken- the plant temporarily, thus cheeking the first year's growth in the trans- planting I ied. Conifers should no t l ie trans planted more than once. Hardwoods are rarely transplanted more than once, exceptin Ash, saplings of which are used for planting hummocks. Paragraph XXXII. A. Protect ion eh th covers, drain Protection of nurseries. nursery plant- against to, es, cornstalks Lrought : Lath covers, ring of slabs, laths, etc.; SYLVICULTURE. cultivating rows of plants; watering which must be continued if once begun. B. Protection of nursery plants against frost: Same measures as in "A" inclusive of watering: smoking lives: prosing seedlings lifted by frost back into the bed; no weeding from September <>n. ('. Protection against excessive rain (which washes the plants out, or splashes them with mud-pant-, or incrusts the surface): Top dressing of leaves, moss or Pine branches; "combing" mud- pants off the seedlings; lath or brush covers. Paragraph XXXIII. Nursing in nurseries. A. Weeding: Weeding is facilitated in nurseries by a regular arrangement of the plants and by narrow beds. Tools are: knife, fork, hoe or special weeding wheels. Wee. lino- should be stopped a month before frost comes in. The purpose of weeding is not onlv the removal of competitors; it is also aeration of the -oil. Weeding can he dispensed with in dense, broadcast seed beds: in thinly stocked beds planted broadcast it i- mosl oecessary and most difficult. B. Cultivation: Cultivation in the transplanting beds of com- mercial nurseries (Beadle ;it Biltmore) i- done by cultivators drawn by a horse. Cultivation in foresl nurseries proper purports to break the crust forming under the influence of heavy rain fall. Usually the act of weeding cultivates the so'il a- well. Cultiva- tion is most easily effected by drawing some strong nails driven into a stick along each rill. This cultivation, at the same time, disturbs and scare- away mice, voles and insect-. ( I. Carpeting the intervals between rill- or rows: Reversed mo--, spent tan, sawdust, straw, hay. twigs (always of another species), poles i never fresh cut pine ii.de-. which are incubators to snout beetles) ate often laid between the rills or row- so a- to preserve moisture, to prevent mud-pants from forming on the stemlets and to check weed-. These carpets, however, har- bor mice and insects. Large leaves in the carpet threaten to smother young seedlings if blown upon them. D. Trimming. The top shoot when killed by early frost or drought might he cut oil'. In no other case must it be touched. The side branches of broad-leafed species and of winterbald coni- fers might be clipped before or after planting and transplanting so a- to reestablish the previous equilibrium existing between water sucking power of the roots now checked by transplanting and water evaporation from the crownlets left unchecked by planting. Species having a heavy central pith column should not be trimmed too 70 bYLVIC I I. J l i; E. close to tlu- stemlet (Ash, Catalpa, Maple). Ash and Catalpa are apt tn Form forks which may be prevented by timely trimming. Large broad-leaved plants planted in furrows often die, when shaken loose by winds. They may be saved it' cut to the ground previous to June 15th. Paragraph XXXIV. Special nursery methods proclaimed by re- "■•*. nowned sylviculturists. A. Biermans' method. Peel the soil cover of an area four times the size of the seed bed and burn the sods thus gotten into sod ashes. Leave them over winter. In Bpring, mix one-half of the sod ashes with the stirred up top dirt of the intended seed bed. Spread the other one-half pure on top of the bed. Smooth the surface of the bed and press it with a board. Spread seeds broadcast as close together a- pos- sible, so thai the soil i- hardly visible between the grains. Covei seeds with sod ashes sifted on top, and press the cover down with a Imaiil. Transplant the young germs in June. Shorten the taproot n! Oaks by cutting with a sharp knife. Oak nurseries should lie underlaid with impenetrable soil. Yellow Pine and Larch should he used in the open when one year old: all other species two to three years old. This method yields very well incited seedlings. The use of sod ashes i-. perhaps nut an essentia] feature of the method; fer- tilizer nr manure might he taken instead. The striking point i- tlie transplanting of germs in June. ]'.. Von Buttlar method: Von Buttlar wants to raise long roots, nut compact roots, fur use in sandy soil. The nursery i- worked to a depth of three feet, the bottom soil being brought to the sur- face. Larch. Fir and Elm seed are planted broadcast: all other species in rills. No transplanting. All species are used one or two year- old. C. Manteuffel method. The plants required by Manteuffel musl bave short, flat roots. Consequently, the best -oil in the nursery shimld he the tup -nil. and the ground underneath should not he worked tu any depth. Remove by | ling the top layer of the soil, and heat the dirt out of the peeled -ml- onto the - 1 beds. Mix it with the dirt id" the underground in fall, hi spring, hum the sods and othe r ve getable matter at hand on the l>ed-. mixing tlie wood ashes thus (ihtained with tin- Eop soil Spruce -hall not he transplanted and i- tn be used when Ewo years old. Fir and all broad-leafed species must be i ransplanted. an SYLVICULTURE. • Paragraph XXXV. Raising and planting hardwood seedlings on open ground. Beech: Usual age of plants fit for use, two to five years. Transplants rarely used. Ball plants very successful. Bunch plant- ** ing best, especially for underplanting. Do not cut stemlet to the ground and avoid pruning. Plant ing in open hardly successful. Beech best for underplanting . Almost light demander on poor soil. Beech is exacting (good soil and moisture). Instruments used hoe, spiral spade, cleft irons. Black Locust: Seeds should be planted two to two and one-half inches deep, an exception from the rule considering the small size of the seed. Drills eight inches apart. Germinating percentage of seeds very high. Seedlings are tit for planting when one year old. Usually, however, they are left in the seed bed for two years, and are then planted directly in the open. The planting of stumps and fall planting are strongly recommended. Plantations handicapped by twigboring moth (Ecdytolopha species) and by voles. Locusi grown in the open is inferior to forest grown Locust. Linden: Is usually planted in the open as a transplant three to four years old, or as a hall plant two to three years old. Spring planting. Good -oil required. Pruning of branches a necessity. Plantations in Biltmore mad.' in '98 cm splendid soil, but without cover overhead, were -low to develop. Oak-: The nursery treatment differs greatly according to local like- and forestry authorities relied upon. The treatment of the tap tout i< a continuous point of dispute. Manteuffel cuts the tap coot one am! one-half inches below ground (just as the voles did in Biltmore nurseries). Butt la r ties a knot into the root. Alemann forbids any crippling of the tap root, making an extra cleft in the planting hole to receive the tap root. Levret prevents the development of a tap root by placing the acorns on small macadam. covering them with one inch of dirt. The ground underneath the macadam must be hard. Large areas of Oak planted in Northern Germany with the tap root cut off prove the success of Manteuffel's method. The hollow borer cannot be used. Trimming of branches is all right. Roots should be pruned, after Fiirst. with a sharp spade at six inches below ground in the second spring. Spring planting is best. Some planters remove the first germ of the acorn (" offgerming ") with « view to stopping the development of the tap root — very costly. Stump plants do very well, especially in the coppice woods. Usually 81 SYLVICUL T U R E. seedlings one and two years old arc planted. The use of saplings, transplanted repeatedly, is not advisable. Cleft planting of seed- lings on broomsedge fields at Biltmore proves unsuccessful; the weeds choking and the rabbits eating the seedlings. Cleft planting fn cut over woodlands, however, on fairly loose soil is a method to be strongly endorsed. In France the clefts are made inclined, not vertical; saplings 20 years old do not show any crooks due to the method. Planting of seedlings or of young transplants in spade holes, in furrows or in clefts made between the lid and the pit formed by reversed sods prove successful at Biltmore. Young plants are not subject to lifting by frost nor do they suffer from drought. The nursery should not be worked deeper than one foot while the success of the final plantation largely depends on looseness of ground at a greater depth. Generally Red Oak is more vigorous in early youth than White Oak. At Biltmore, Chestnut Oak is the best species for abandoned fields. Chestnut: Soil well worked to a depth of sixteen inches, kalium a necessity, lime disastrous. Seedling planting (plants one or two years old) forms the rule; planting of stumps is also good. Since Chestnut is very sensitive under changed conditions of growth, ball planting is probably the best method. Seeds are kept in the burrs over winter, or in layers alternating with layers of dry sand. Immediate fall planting, however, is best. Nuts are planted in drills two inches deep two. inches apart, the drills six to twelve inches apart. At Biltmore planting of seedlings has met with continuous failure. Planting under cover or under an usher growth is probably advisable. Chestnut is exacting, needing atmos- pheric as well as soil moisture. Tree Alder: It is usually planted as a transplanl three to five years old. Yearlings are too small; seedlings two years old can be ball planted. Trimming allowed. Seeds planted broadcast on the beds, o ne- fourth inch of dirt <>n too/' Sprinkling necessary. No protection against atmosphere needetl. < >n swampj ground, fall planting of transplants is best. Birch: Seeds very poor; those of Black Birch mature in sum- mer. Seed- mii-t be covered very slightly <>r. better perhaps, must be beaten with a shovel into the nursery soil after broadcasting. Formation of crust over seeds is besl prevented by a cover of Pine branches. Under lath screens, sterna are apj to damp off in .June. Seedling s are planted either as two year t£+* inches apart. Transplanting takes place when seedlings are one or two years old. Seedlings grow rapidly. Fall planting is pre- ferable. Planting in large holes is best, since Maple cannot form a compact root system. Sugar Maple planted at Biltmore on abandoned fields four years old did very well on North Slopes, in pure stands as well as mixed with White Tine. Maple is easily transplanted, and even yearlings or two year olds might be planted in the open on good soil. In swamps, Red and Soft Maple are preferable. Sugar Maple requires well drained soil. Yellow Poplar: Very poor seeds, hence broadcast planting. Cov- ering with spent sawdust, instead of dirt, seems advisable. Seed- lings transplanted either as germs in first summer or when one year old. Very rapid growth in first and second year. Easily transplanted in holes on suitable soil. Seedlings can be taken in June and July from wood roads to the nurseries, with balls of dirt. Abandoned fields at Biltmore, planted with four year olds did poorly except in northern depressions, strong soil needed. ** Compact soil not unfavorable. Catalpa: The favorite Kansas prairie tree. Very high germinat- ing percentage. Very fast growth in first year. Rills one inch by one inch by twelve inches. Seedling plants one year old are strong enough for planting. Stump plants are preferable. At 83 SYLVII i i. i i i: I. Biltmore the top -1 1 is often killed bj frost; il should certainly be 'Hi off after planting. ( atalpa rc( ) ii iiju^ yvlieat. s<;il in -ord er to ii'iin proper hole, and dot's 1 1 ■ . 1 answer in a cold climate Spring planting in holes or furrows. Walnuts: The planting of seedlings is onlj permissible where mice, squirrels and hogs arc sure to gel the outs. Ver\ ling taps tnake planting difficult. Best soil needed. Small seedlings are choked mil by weeds. Plants one to three years old to be used. Avoid pure plantations! Cover in the nurseries three inche lis Mine apart lour to ten inches. Eickory: To be treated like Walnuts; during the first years, the stems remain very minute while a large tap root forms. Voles follow along the rows of plants and cul off the roots at a i>;«int about one inch below ground. Loose, porous soil is needed. Cherry: Planted in rills one-half inch deep and eight inches apart. Transplants two or three years old, transplanted when one year old are best for use in the open. Protection from rabbits peeling the stumps is required. Rapid growth in nurseries. Twig tips arc usually killed by the first frost since the twigs -row during the whole summer and fall. Pruning required. Black Chern doc-- weii on abandoned fields mixed with White Pine, Pine, Ash, Maple. Sassafras: Planting of seed in nurseries at Biltmore has been an entire failure. The seeds lived through the first summer but did not begin to sprout. Deep cover required, since cotyledons are kept under-round. The removal of the flesh enwrapping the Beed (by malting, etc.), seems required before planting. Paragraph XXXVI. Raising and planting softwood seedlings on open ground. Yellow Pines: Seeds arc covered two-fifths to three-fifths inches deep. Nursery soil to be pressed thoroughly before and alter seed planting. Planting of yearlings (from 5,000 to 10,000 per acre) forms the rule. The roots of such yearlings arc ten inche- long. (in sandy soil, cleft planting is universal (with planting dagger). On binding soil, ball plants one or two years old are best. Recently some foresters began to use transplants two years old which more readily overcome the infantile diseases. No mound nor lmnch planting. < >n verj sandy soil Yellow Pines are planted deeper (up to first needles) than they stood in the nursery. A plantation ten years old should densh cover the ground. 84 * V* SYLVICULTURE. •lack Pine (Pinus divaricata) does very well on the poorest i sand. It is, however, handicapped by deer; very rapid growth. V Pinus rigida crawls on the ground during the first and second year, J putting up a strong stem thereafter. Pinus sylvestris (Scotch Pine) y is the cheapest that can be planted and the most successful species ^ at Axton. At Biltmore it does exceedingly well on dry south slopes. - _7 % White Pine: Quite different from Yellow Pine is the ease with rT^ v which it is transplanted. Seedling s one_veai j jdd^_are very smalb/' V a nd apt to suffer f rom leaves smotheri ng the m. Seedlin gs two yea rs 7 old ha ve" been p lanted at Hi It mu re o n abandoned fie lds (in holes ) 3 ye ry~ successfully! Transplants "three ^ and^imrF~years old are usually a used. Owing to its greater shade bearing qualities White Pine may J be used also for temporary underplanting. Seedlings -utl'er badly - from fungi. White Pine is subject to damage from too-deep plant. - ^ bag. At Axton, the best and strongest individuals form a second ^ summer -1 t. the buds of which are killed by early frost, so that J no top shoot grows in the ensuing year. At Biltmore, the second -A- — ". * s hoot see ms tu be safe from frost. " ' '~ " yaM^t**** Relative To "other YVlnte Pines (llexilis. monticola, albicaulis, f \ Jambertiana , aristata) no information is available. Spruce: Nursery rills one inch wide, live inches apart. Trans- planting distance usually four by six inehe--. Slow growth at first. Smallest size that may be used are seedlings two years old. Ball planting best, bunch planting frequent in mountains. Trans- plants three to five years old are preferable . Plant in holes, never 4ff cleft s. Very se nsitive to deep planting . Spring planting forms the rule except in high mountains. High atmospheric moisture is a prerequisite for Spruce, pp not t rim. Number of plants per acre from 1,500 transplants to 10,000 seedlings. Picea excelsa might replace P. rubens (the former being cheaper), if the resistance to snow-breaks shown by rubens were equalled by excelsa. Planta- tions twelve years old should fully cover the ground. ___ Firs: Seed should be planted in fall. Pvills close, say four inches: cover, one half inch. .Early grow th ver y slow ; lath screens very essential, owing to sensitiveness of youngsters to heat and cold. Transplants five years old are best. Planting on op en ground is dangerous : underplanting is very advisable. Species most planted are Abies pectinata, balsamea, concolor. Larch or Tamarack : The Western. European and Japanese Larch are scattering species, doing badly in pure stands. Growth in early youth is rapid. Seedlings two years old and transplants^^" three years old are preferred for forest planting. The distance of/^-t- % SYLVICULTURE. the rills, and the transplanting distance must be comparatively wide. S Llings mighl be clefl planted; but 1 1 < > 1 c planting forms the rule. Fall planting necessary. Larch permits of heavy trimming. Mulch seeds for one week before planting. European Larch does ■well at Biltmore and in the Adirondacks. Eemlock: Grows very slowly in youth. Seedbeds require heavy sheltering (under cloth screens). Transplant the two year olds, and plant the five year olds under cover in the woods. Douglas Fir: Seeds are still expensive; hence transplants four years old are usual, though seedlings two years old are certain ot success. Hot-house treatment of seeds secures early and simultane- ous sprouting. Plant seedlings in open ground, not under cover. Plantations made near London, England, lose the long top shoots by sea winds: at Axton, they suffer from frost; at Biltmore, the growth is strikingly poor, possibly due to the deficiency in atmos- pheric humidity. Plants 14 years old are hardly chest high: plants 11 years old only knee high. In all cases the Washington variety i- used. Varietas glauca, of Colorado, forms one summer shoot only. grows slowly, and is said to be more hardy. Red Cedar: Juniperus virginiana : Seeds lies always dormant for one summer. Seedlings two years old are ready for planting. High lath screens in nurseries advisable (Green). Very -low g rowt h. Shade bearing. Lawson's Cypress: Maji ds intens e shad e, resists frosts, suffers from fungi; is well adapted to nnd^plantnig. Paragraph XXXVII. Results of planting experiments with Amer- ican hardwoods. For many years, the governmental forestry bureaus of the Ger- man Empire have been examining into the merits of some Leading American tree species. Locust and White Pine have been planted so extensively that they arc considered to be "naturalized forest citizens." In ;i cumber of instances, the European view- tail to tally with the results of American investigations made with reference to the sylvics of our leading species. A. Fraxinus americana: requirements a- in excelsa; stands in- undation better even long one- : Germination in firsl spring; no overlying. Plant Beeds in fall, or else in early Bpring after three days soak- ing. One ynr old, one foot high. 86 a: mild, fresh soil required, and long warm old, stron g tap-roots over one foot long; root -root tip. - old, the tap-ioot is over two and one-quarter 5 years old, ."> feet. 10 years old. 13 feet. 20 years old, 35 feet. SYLVICULTURE. Use transplants two or three years old. Root is a tap-root with many side r Mayr does not advocate its propagation anywhere in Germany. B. Catalpa speeiosa: suffers badly from short summers, often freezing down to ground. Hence frequently spreading growth. Seeds of high germinating percentage. Use either seedlings or transplants two years old. Light demanding, but fond of side shade. Mice peel at point of differentiation: all game are fond of Catalpa. C. Juglans nigra : summers. When one year fibres at end of tap- When two year; feet long. Height growth: Decidedly light demanding: fond of side shade in early youth. Yellow Pine shelter wood i< very good: More shade prevents lignification. In close stands, it is free from branches. Xuts sprouting late (being dried out) cause shoots to be killed by early frost: Hence pregermination advisa ble . Frost hard in sapling stage. Xo game or mice enemies. Plant nuts or yearlings on well-plowed ground, and cultivate. Plant close together, so as to avoid branchiness. Prune lignified branches only, owing to heavy pith column. D. Prunus serotina: Modest, provided soil is moist. Light demanding, but does well under slight Pine cover. Roots many tapped, strong. Height growth better than that of any European hardwood, save Ash. ^^ 5 years old. C feet high. k \1/A 10 years old, 13 feet high. Jr J^^^ 15 years old, 22 feet high. fi/^ Proof against all effects of frost! \\4t m Rabbits cut and peel (also mice) young plants. Seed-beds: plant in fall, to avoid lying over, or else soak in water for three days previous to planting in spring. SI LVI< I LTUB K. I se transplants three years old; planl close, to avoid >ide branches. E. Ace]- saccharum: Fresh, sandj loam, or fresh Band; forming stool-shoots on dry soil, and no stem. Growth quick; lighl demanding; strong root -ystem. Forms forks frequently 15 feet ahove ground. Height 35 feet, when 20 years old. Most t'nist bard of anj Maple species. Game and rabbits despise it. Seeds mature in June, and can be planted at once, but are just as well preserved and planted in spring. Use seedlings two years old, or transplants, four years old. F. Acer neguhdo: Requires strong soil; does not do on dry soil. Growth very quick to start with— up to G feel in - years, in 20 years 50 feet. Development of low, branchy crown. Light demanding, frost proof. Use seedlings one year old. Damaged by game and rabbits. \S'\i>fa. /ir Acer >aeeliarinum: Requires strong soil; not clay. Growth slower than in other Maples, up to fifth year. 20 years old 35 feet high. Apt to form forks. • p_ Sensitive agajpqj^jpfflj and drought : requires shade; does best when used for underplanting. Use transplanted small saplings. Never plant on open ground!!! Mayr recommends it only for sugar orchards — not for timber production. II. Betula lenta: Avoids wet frost dells and poor dry soil; forms tap-root on sand and flat-root mi clay. Height in 5 years 5 feet; in 20 years 36 feet. Growth bushy to start with, but soon straight, elect and free from branches. Decidedly light demanding, bul fond of side shade. No more frost -proof than Beech. Late and early frost damages it, especially on wet clay. Game, rabbits and mice are very dangerous. Seed-bed should not be dug over. Peel off the top cover of grass and weeds on humose sand: hoe the soil and then use roller. Plant broadcast, one pound for two Bquare poles; v^wy by sifting one- SYLVICULTURE. twenty-fifth inch of sand on the seeds and roll again with roller; keep Pine branches on the seed-bed until alter germination. Use tall transplants for planting in the open, owing to annual dangers. Red Birch is said to do well planted with Pine on abandoned fields, further united with natural regeneration of Beech. I. Hicoria ovata: All Hickories require strong, deep, fresh, soil. Not on clay. Pignut is satisfied With more sand. Mockernut is satisfied with more clay. Butternut requires water, more than the others, and stands inundation. All Hickories require hoi summers but stand severe winters; hence continental climate is preferable to sea climate. Tap-rooi of yearling one foot long; of two year old plant one and three-quarter feet; hence transplanting after two years very difficult. Height growth begins to set in from sixtli year, and i- good then. Age ."> years, average height 2.4 feet. Age 10 years, average height 7 feet. Age 15 years, average height 13 feet. Age, 20 years, average height 20 feet. Buds open late but shoot is quickly made. Nuts germinate slowly; hence malting or better repeated sprink- ling with liquid manure advisable: many nuts lie over, even for two years. Nuts thoroughly dried lose germinating power. Malting or " pregermination " advisable. In the case of Hickory and Walnut, the following recipe for pregermination is given: "Make a ditch three feel deep and wide: put nuts in the ditch to a depth of one foot: fill ditch with water up to top of nuts; then add a slight cover of straw; then dirt: then horse manure. •'In this ditch the nuts are kept until planting time, when the nuts will germinate a few weeks after planting (in May)." Plant seedlings one or two years old, or else nuts, on plowed ground. Cultivating advisable. Late frost is avoided by the late formation of shoots. Early frosts are bad, if seedlings did not have time to lignify owing to late germination. Avoid planting on open ground: shade is born readily for a number of years!! Straggling plantations often develop after natural or artificial reinforcing with other species. SI LVIUULTURE. Young plants Buffer from mice. Damaged seedlings Bhould be coppiced down. J. Hicoria minima-: Height growth quicker to begin with than in Shagbark. At 20 years, however, Shagbark catches up. Wood much poorer than in Shagbark (more brittle). K. Hicoria glabra: Like Shagbark; more modest as to soil; more sensitive as to frost (?). L. Hicoria alba: .Mure sensitive than Shagbark; same rate of growth: does well in the Westerwald, badly in river valleys. Paragraph XXXVIII. Results of planting experiments with Amer- ican softwoods. A. Pinus divaricata: Very modest: Stands frost and drought and does not shed needles. Root system tap-rooted, many fibred. Height growth very rapid, several shoots per summer. Better than Scotch Pine. 2 years old, 8 inches high. S years old, 5 feet high. 8 years old, 10 feet high. (lame and hares handicap it, still there is strong reproductive power. Seed one-half pound per square pole; seed has 60% germina- tion; cones fertile from sixth year on. Use yearlings or transplants two to three years old for the very poorest soil. B. Pinus ponderosa: Fails absolutely in (.ermanv. prob ably wi ng to insufficient summer heat. C. Pinus rigida: Very modest; does well in salty swamps; Buffers badly from snow-pressure. When 5 years old, 7 feet high. When 2H years old, 32 feet high. Growth is very rapid, but from 12 years on P. sylvestris catches up and then keeps ahead. Diameter growth better than in sylvestris, too. Strong reproductive power after insects, game, fire. Very lighl demanding, Cones seed-bearing from twelfth year on. More proof against late frost, more sensitive for early frost than sylvestris. Less shedding of needles; more danger from game. Use yearlings, or transplants two years old. 90 SYLVICLLTU JL^f sis: Requires moist soil and moist air. JL^*^( t ts as in P. excelsa. ^&l^t^lf Jt\ D. Picea e ngelmanni/ likes strong hut not wet soil — it is winter frost hard ; but suffers slightly from late frosts. Hoot system deep, many fibred; not flat. Dislikes top shade. Yearling only one to two inches high; two years old four inches high; five years old one foot high. Height growth always slow, hence easily outgrown, and pure stands required. Use transplants, five years old. E. Picea parravana: Very frost proof , more so than any other •Stands wet soil; not exacting. No top shade. Root system compact, fine fibred. Slow early growth, as in Engelmann's Spruce. Plantations 10 years old average one and three-quarter feet only in height. Animal proof. F. Picea sitchensis: Heat requirements Soil requirements less than in P. excelsa, growing both on sand and on clay. Not in stagnating moisture, but stands inundation well. Does well on seashore and on high altitudes. Height growth at first very slow; from fifth year on better than in excelsa. Short branches, slowly dropped; close stand required, fond of forking. No head shade! Side shade welcome but not required. Frost and drought only dangerous during first and second year. Game does not bother it. Seed-beds of mild, rich soil to strengthen weak seedlings. Use strong transplants, five years old. G. Abies amabilis: Plants live years old are still very sensitive against direct insolation and subject to late frosts. Rate of growth as in A. pectinata. H. Abies concolor: Spring shoots formed late; resists jfrost and any other climatic attacks well! Not exacting as to soil, doing well on Scotch Pine soil of second quality, provided that it be fresh. ^ttfU~ JLpjL^*2*j^ £ Tap-root formed in second year. Height groAvth in early youth better than in any other lir: plants eight years old have average height of three feet. 01 s \ LVICI I.T i R I-.. • in good soil even Spruce i- outgrown by it. ^ i '■ "•'■<• i*w- r rnv - n 3£U' Seedlings two years old are lit for planting. Sensitive against being planted tod deep. Seed-bed treatment as in A. pectinata. I. Allies grandis: Treatment as in pectinata, which it exceeds in height growth. Soil requirements are the same. ■ I. Abies nobilis: Frost firm in winter, even unprotected. Late spring shoots help it to escape late frosts. stands dry soil] from fifth year on, more light demanding. Forms strong tap-root, and sometimes several branch whirls per annum. Plantation seven years old is three and one-half feet high. l'lant seedlings two years old, or transplants four years old. i\. Pseudotsuga taxifolia: Suitable to any climate, fros^ proof. Soil should not be poorer than third-class Tine soil; no dunes; no swamps. Root tap-root on loose soil, flat on shallow soil or binding soil, showing great adaptibility. Height growth marvelous! Age 5 years height 1.7 feet. Age 10 years height 12 feet. Age 15 years height 29 feet. Age 20 years height 45 feet. Age 23 years height 53 feet. Diameter. 23 year- old, from three inches to ten inches, average sever, inches; number of trees per acre 350. Close stand required to clear from branches. Light and heat demands as in Picea excelsa. Snow and sleet throw it over, or break top -hoot, the latter h>-s being quickly replaced by side shout taking lead. Game is a very bad enemy. Use transplants three to four years old. L. Chamaecyparis lawsoniana: Does splendidly in Germany especially in the Eifel Mountains at 1,500 feel elevation. Lro -t-pro of j but sens itive in dro ught. l.xaeting like Beech, fond~~oF limestone. Flat-rooted: sutler- from -now. Shad" bearing in early youth: fond of half shade later on; always fond of side -hade. Slow in clearing itself from side branches; forms very close stands. 92 S V L VIOULTUE E. Very slow growth to start with; one year one inch high; two years four inches high; ten years eight inches high. Plant seed-beds broadcast. Cover completely. Use transplants four to five years old. Sensitive for too deep planting. Game are very bad: wood mice peel the stump, or cut the roots. Less sensitive in late frost because late sprouting; more so in winter frost. M. Tuniperus virginiana: Avoid poor or wet soil. Seeds lie over, always; seedlings one to two years old are very small and tender. Side shade always liked. Suffering from weeds and grass. Eed deer and Roe deer bite and beat it. Seeds kept in ditches over summer are planted in fall. Use yearlings and hole planting. N. Thuja plicata: Desires good, fresh soil. Xo swampiness! No dryness! Top shade or side shade i< well liked: do not plant in open ground. Deep root system. Height, growth slow to begin with, rapid from seventh year on: Age 1 year; height 1 inch. Age 5 years; height 4v, feet. Age 10 years; height 8 feet. Age 15 years; height 15 feet. Age 20 years; height 23 feet. Slow cleaning of bole; very dense thickets required. Seed bearing from fifteenth year on. Sensitive for frosts and drought during first year-. Game does not attack it: mice destroy young seedlings. Seeds are planted broadcast; slightly covered with dirt; shel- tered by lath screens. Strong seedlings three years old (not transplants) are used since the toot system is comparatively small, whilst the stem system is comparatively large 0. Tsuga heterophy 11a : Requires strong soil; demands side shade, but hates top shade. Cannot stand open situation s. Root is, a strong tap-root. Height growth good from third year on. Top-shoot-tips are frequently killed by first frost, without any apparent permanent damage! Use seedlings three years old, raised by broa dcast so wing . She lter seed-beds wel l! Sjgjrsjt jye against deep p la nting. Mayr prefers heterophylla to canadensis for planting in Ger- many. 9Z J SYLVICULTURE. Paragraph XXXIX. Difficulties of natural seed regeneration. American foresters frequently make the statement that the axe is the best sylviculture! tool inasmuch as its proper use secures a good regeneration free of charge. This statement is misleading. It is true that the density of the stand of the second growth obtain- able from natural regeneration is frequently better than that obtained from artificial planting. On the other hand, such a stand can only be obtained under favorable conditions and at a great increase of logging expenses. While the cash expense of natural reseeding might be slight, the actual expense consisting in lessened receipts frequently exceeds the expenses of artificial planting. In i lie primeval w Is additional difficulties of seed regeneration lie in the following points: A. ' i veraged trees have jioor seeds. B. Interference with the leaf canopy overhead at once invites danger from fire, increased by the debris on the ground, and by the impossibility of battling against fires in the underbrush. C. In the primeval forest, the age classes are usually mixed in an irregular manner; hence uniform measures for reproduction are out of the question. The forester cannot generalize; lie must individualize — a very expensive procedure in the face of low stump- age values. D. The virgin forest usually contains a mixture of species; the best ones only are removable; the weeds and worthless species are left on the ground; and from this fact arise additional difficulties to propagate the most valuable kinds. To this must be added the difficulty of properly gauging light and shade according to the individualities of the species mixed. E. In America the lack of a permanent system of transporta- tion necessitates the operations to extend at one stroke over large areas, whilst natural seed regeneration requires the gradual removal of mother trees, in imitation of nature's own way of proceeding, on small and restricted areas only. As a matter of fact, the lack of permanent means of transporta- tion in primeval woods is the mosi serious obstacle to regeneration from self-sown seed conscious of its aim and its effect. F. Natural seed regeneration requires cutting, according to the i jcurrence of seed years and according to the development and requirements of young growth. Hence the axe must be inde- pendent from the fluctuations of market or mill requirements, an impossibility in the United state- at the presenl time. 04 \ SYLVICULTURE. The term " natural seed regeneration " does not preclude arti- ficial help to increase the chances of regeneration. The term merely implies " seeding," or scattering of seed, in the main unaided by man. Man, however, may carefully prepare the seed-bed, by plowing or hoeing or digging, or may carefully press the seeds naturally fallen into contact with the soil; and may protect the seed and the seedlings, at great pains, against external dangers. Little help is given, where soil and stumpage are, and promise to remain, of small value. Under the reversed conditions, the expense incurred for natural regeneration often exceeds that required for artificial regeneration. In innumerable cases, natural and artificial regeneration are locally and irregularly combined. It might be asserted, that the forest has secured its own regeneration through many millenia, and that it will continue to do so unaided by human activity. Why then, it might be asked, is it necessary or advisable to now offer costly assistance in order to secure natural reseeding of and in a lumbered tract of woodland? There cannot be any doubt that nature, barring bad conflagra- tions or heavy pasturage, will start and develop after lumbering some kind of a second growth of forest. As a matter of fact, it is usually at hand, previous to lumbering, in an embryonic or incom- plete state waiting for the chance to shoot ahead after the removal of the older trees. This ready nucleus, however, consists as a rule of inferior or worthless species; of specimens crippled by fire, by the fall (accidental or otherwise) of nearby trees, by the logger's axe or foot, by teams and loads passing by, etc. In addition, many members of that nucleus will die when suddenly bereaved of the shelter (against drought, cold, hail, etc.), previously exercised by the old trees now removed. It must be remembered that a crop of weeds usually follows in the field after the harvest of valuable wheat; in the forest after the harvest of valuable timber. Such " weeds " are unable to secure for the owner of the land a sufficient rate of interest on the value of the soil and an adequate reimbursement of the taxes due on the soil. Another moment worthy of attention lies in the poor chances which a grain of seed stands, in nature's economy, to develop into a seedling, sapling, pole and tree. The probability is that only one grain of seed— out of millions of grains— produced by an individual tree during its lifetime succeeds in reaching tree size, replacing its progenitor on the forest floor. The ecologic incidents bringing about 95 S Y LVICULTTJ K E. i In- resuH are far from being elearlj undersl 1. si ill. it must 1..' the sylviculturist's aim to provide tor these incidents, it he desires t place the old crop, removed at an unnatural rale of rapidity, at an equally fast rate by an offspring resulting from self-sown seed. If the forester were satisfied to merely remove nature'-, mori- bunds, then he might gel along with a purely natural regeneration, entirely unaided by human -kill. As soon, however, a- hi- axe creates in the forest an unnatural death rate, the forester is compelled to also secure, bj intelligent means, a supernatural rate of birth. Human aid to natural regeneration should he denied where: a. The danger from forest tin- is such as in lender investments in second growth very unsafe. b. An outlay incurred for protection from lire is not apt to be refunded with interest by the value of the second growth. That much aid and that iimcli money should lie. in all other cases, -pent for the purpose of regeneration a- promises, in the owner's mind and according to the forester's forecast, the highest relative revenue on the investments made. At Biltmore, H>\ of the annual gross receipts are annually reinvested, to he applied to natural regeneration of the forest. Sylviculture and finance are continuously at loggerheads. From the business 1 standpoint, however, that Sylviculture is certainly besl which proves lastingly most remunerative. Where and as lone- a- the prospective value of seedlings is small, only a small expense can reasonably incurred on behalf of Hi sir propagation. Again, seedlings are more endangered by fire than trees. Where, and as lone- as the danger from fire prevails in the forests of the United States, investments made for raising seedlings are so risky as to be inadvisable. Paragraph XL. Age of trees fit for natural seed regeneration (Enesar). The age of perfect pubertj depend- on species, density of stand, quality of soil ami climatic conditions. Generally speaking, it lies ahout the eightieth year of the trees. Birch, Alder. I. arch and Yellow Tine-, may be seed regenerated from their twenty-fifth to thirtieth year on; Oaks, Beeches and Firs from their sixtieth to eightieth year on. Tree- of verv old age, say over 200 years old, have poor seeds and often defv natural regeneration if occurring in pure, even-aged -land-. IM\4 SYLVICULTURE. Paragraph XLI. Methods of natural seed regeneration (Enesar). A fixed method is applicable in the arts only where a fixed type of conditions exists. Fixed types rarely exist in primeval woods. Hence the impossibility, from a sylvicultural standpoint, to adopt any fixed European method of seed regeneration for direct application in American practice. A second growth, obviously, pre- sents a more fixed set of conditions (it certainly lacks everywhere the hypermature age classes) than a primeval growth; and conse- quently, it allows of a more methodical treatment. In Biltmore Forest methodical treatment is, therefore, permissible; in Pisgah Forest it is not or not yet indicated. The types of seed regeneration might be considered: A. According to the relative position of old and new growth: I. The young growth develops underneath the old growth: . A a. Whilst the old growth is left intact (natural seed regenera- tion by advance growth), or b. Whilst the old growth is gradually reduced (natural seed regeneration under shelter woods). II. The young growth develops at the side of the old growth (natural seed regeneration from adjoining timber). B. According to the size of the units of regeneration, which mavjbe : I. Compartments, i. e.. a cove, a slope, a top or a coherent part thereof, comprising from ten to one hundred acres. II. Strips, i. e., figures of a more or less rectangular form, in which the length is a multiple of the breadth, the latter not exceeding 500 feet. III. Groups, i. e.. aggregates of growth of a more or less cir- cular form, covering 0.-1 to :: acres. IV. Patches, i. e., areas covered by the crown of an individual. pk+jA tree, about one one-hundredths of an aero in extent. +t a ju he figures given are meant to illustrate, and are not meant to — define (in this paragraph as well as in the following fifteen para- graphs). C. According to the degree in which the soil and the youngest seedlings are directly exposed to the sky: I. Regeneration without exposure — by advance growth. II. Regeneration with short, slight, partial exposure — under she Iter wood. III. Regeneration with entire, heavy exposure — from adjoining timber. D. According to the timing of lumbering and of reseeding: f>7 S Y L V I U L T U R E. natural seed regeneration on (cleared compartment -<> I. Lumbering precedes reseedin clearings, namely : a. On uniformly cleared compartments type) ; b. On cleared strips (cleared strip type) ; c. On cleared groups (cleared group type); d. On cleared selected patches (cleared selection type). II. Lumbering coincides with reseeding— natural seed regenera- tion under shelterwood, namely : a. <»n uniformly sheltered compartments (shelterwood compart- ment type) ; b. On sheltered strips (shelterwood strip type); V c. On sheltered groups (sheltered group type) ; (1. On sheltered selected patches (shelterwood selection type). •>a' in. Lumbering follows reseeding — natural seed regeneration by * advance growth, namely: a. With uniform advance growth all over a compartment (ad- vance growth compartment type) ; b. With advance growth in strips (advance growth strip type); c. With advance growth in groups (advance growth group type); d. With advance growth in selected patches (advance growth selection type). E. According to the participation of ligneous weeds (bushes, seedlings, saplings, poles and trees of a negative value) in the V regeneration: ;l Totally successful seed regeneration; Groupwise successful seed regeneration; Patchwise successful seed regeneration: Individually successful seed regeneration; I nsuccessful seed regeneration. In America, it will be frequently advisable for the forester to merely work toward a "groupwise" or "patchwise" successful seed regenerate hi. F. According to the number and according to the distribution of standards left in the regeneration "area": Natural seed regen- cr.it inn a. With standards systematically left all over the compart- ments; b. With standards left in strips: c. With standards left in groups; d. With isolated scattering standards. The "compartment" types had better be called "uniform" types; the "selection" types had better be termed "patch" types. SYLVICUL T U R E. (Still the terms " shelterwood compartment system '* and " shelter- wood selection system" having become standard terms of forestal terminology, it seems unwise to throw them aside. A number of " pure types " may be, and usually are, combined int.) - bastard forms." Of course, only types more closely related allow of bastardizing. Bastard forms frequently found in the old country are: "Advance growth selection" and " shelterwood group" type; "Advance growth group " and " shelterwood compartment" type; "Shelterwood group" and "shelterwood strip" type; "Cleared strip" and "advance growth strip" type; "Cleared group" and "shelterwood group" type; "Cleared selection " and " shelterwood group ' type. Modern forestry abroad begins to despise methodical rules, gradually returning to nature with her irregularities. Pure, ab- stract types of seed regeneration are more and more discarded. The selection of a method or a combination of methods depends entirely upon the composition of the growing stock found; on local clangers; on local means of transportation: on value of stumpage and prospective value of seedlings. Where all age classes are mixed irregularly, individual selec- tion is, ceteris paribus, indicated. Where the age classes or the species appear in groups, the group method is or may lie advisable. In woods simultaneously maturing, the uniform type may recommend itself. The following paragraphs are arranged to conform with the view point given under " D." Paragraph XLII. Types in which lumbering precedes N. S. R. Where lumbering precedes regeneration, the area lumbered must be reseeded from the borders of adjoining woods. With increasing size of the area cleared of timber, the rapidity, the certainty and the quality of regeneration rapidly decrease. The fact that such regeneration is possible on a large scale, is readily proven by object lessons in the primeval woods (Long Leaf Pine; Bald Cypress; Lodgepole Pine: Douglas Fir) as well as in second-growth forests (White Pine in Lake States; Yellow Pine in the south; Spruce in the Karpathian Mountains). The chances for success depend on: A. The species, which must have light or winged seeds readily carried about by the wind tmany Pines, Spruces, Larches, Cotton- 99 s 5 i. \ l I i LTURE. woods, Birches, Yellow Poplar), and which musl no1 require, (luring their earliesl stages "t development, tin- presence of a shelterwood overhead. 11 The coincidence of the compass direction in which the clear- ing lies from the adjoining woods, with the direction of the wind preferably opening the cones and carrying the seed. C. 'J lie local danger from storm which might tear down, gradu- ally at least, the adjoining seed tree-. D. The condition of the cleared -oil and it- quality a- a ready seed-bed, influenced by the presence of weeds; by the decomposi- tion id' the humus; by the degree in which the mineral -oil ha- been laid bare in the course of logging operations; by the grade of the slope. E. lire- favorable or unfavorable; pasture favorable or un- favorable to regeneration, a- the case may he. F. The frequency of seed years, and the possibility of lumbering during a seed year. G. The size, the form and the environments of the area cut over. H. The possibility of preventing undesirable species (Gums, Black Jack Oak) and undesirable specimens, like low branched weed trees and spreading ''wolves," froi tcupying the area to be regenerated, and the possibility of regenerating all, a few, or only one species. According to the size of the clearing, we distinguish between: The cleared compartment type (large areas cleared); The cleared strip (narrow belts cleared); The cleared group type (fair sized groups cleared away); The cleared selection type (small bunches of trees or merely single trees cut). Paragraph XLIII. The cleared compartment type. A. The area bared at one stroke by lumbering comprises be- tween, say. ten ami one hundred acres. If the width of the clearing is less than 500 feet, the •■cleared strip" type i- reached. If the acreage cleared is much in excess of 100 aire-, the develop- ment of a second growth i- very -low. very poor, yerj doubtful, so that the character id' a sylvicultural type is lost. A number (say five) of s 1 year- are required to restock the ground. The bordering w Is, from which reseeding i- expected, musl not offei an unprotected front to the prevailing storm direction. The regeneration obtained i-. naturally, very heterogeneous and contain- a greal deal ol misshapen advance growth a- well a- o£ w 1 growth. 100 S Y L V I CU L T U E E. Weeds trees left on the ground might be girdled if belonging to an undesirable species (Beech in Galizia). A few seed trees might be left scatteringly (if wind firm) in groups or in strips, preferably close to the roads, often consisting of doty specimens without any value. An usher growth of Cottonwoods. Birches, Sumac. Locust, Sassa- fras, etc., frequently precedes the second growth desired on the ground. Fires preceding the seeding, and immediately in the wake of logging, greatly enhance the success of Yellow Pines. Douglas Fir, etc Yellow Poplar, on the other hand, is checked by the heavy growth of weeds following fires. Stock pasture is of advantage, where it presses the seeds into the soil, and where it checks the weeds. The clearing should comprise, if possible, only one side of a cove at a time or the lower part of a slope <>r the bottom of a cove, so as to allow of greater ease in reseeding. B. Actual application: This type lias been adopted, — not con- fessedly but actually — by the Austrian Government in dealing with the primeval woods of Galizia, consisting of Beech. Fir and Spruce. The Bureau of Forestry has tried to adopt it. in modified form, for the Minnesota National Forest Reserve and for the majority of it- business-working plans (Sawyer and Austin; Weyerhauser) . Thousands of acres of abandoned farm land all over the Eastern states have been reforested in tin- manner, frequently against the owner's will. C. Advantages: The cleared compartment type -h»w< the fol- lowing advantages: I. Greatesl ease in lumbering. II. Concentrated operations and concentrated supervision. III. Few permanent main links of transportation required. IV. Smallest deviation from the old-time manner of destruc- tive lumbering. V. Possibility of temporary use of the clearing for the pro- duction of field crops benefited by the fertilizing effect of the humus. VI. Ease of artificial reinforcing and possibility of soil prepara- tion by plowing and by tiring: of covering the seeds by pasturage. D. Disadvantage-: T. Applicability to few species only. II. Danger of partial or complete failure, especially in clearings covering 100 or more acres, or in case of border trees unfavorably situated. 101 ^ SYLVICULTUB E. UJ. Danger from heavy fires where the soil and the humus is baked by the action of the sun, with heaps of debris left on the ground after wholesale logging. IV. Second growth consists largely of wolves, and of spreading advance growth and of poles undesirably ramified. Expensive gird- ling or cutting of seed-bearing weed tree-, belonging to a worthless species. V. The running expenses for protection from fire and for taxes are, to a degree, independent from the quality of the young growth. They are relatively high, and hence absurdly unbearable, if that growth is poor, straggling and very slow to develop, all of which i> apt to be the case in this type of seed regeneration. Thirty years after_ clearing, the average age of the young gr owth is not jipt to exceed ten year s. ^ VI. (.roups ofadvance growth are almost sure to be destroyed or to be crippled by logging and by sudden change of environments. Paragraph XLIV. The cleared strip type. A. The width of the cleared strip is from two to five times the length of the mother tree. When one belt is seeded suc- cessfully, another strip is cut into the timber alongside the first belt, and so on. Soil work i- not required, provided the strip is cleared' in a seed year. Usually the soil is torn up sufficiently by the removal of a huge number of logs snaked or rolled or shot along the strip and over the strip to the nearest road. One seed year is rarely enough to secure full regeneration of a Strip. In the Alps, i'ine regeneration takes from twelve to thirty years. On hardwood soil, the weeds are to be dreaded, preeminently so on fertile ground after fires. It is wise to leave a few wind-firm mother tree- scattered over the strip, notably immature specimens of the most desirable species. Less desirable species on the nearby border might be girdled or removed by extending the removal of thai species into the bordering forest. In addition, valuable hypeiniature trees might be withdrawn from the nearby forest. The cleared strip type doc- not require a permanent system of transportation of great intricacy, the strip- themselves forming the main lines of transportation. The narrow edge of the strip merely is touched, on the valley side, by a road. According to the grade e taken in hand. V. The strips should be cut where the timber i- mosl mature at the time. — and not in a succession merely dependent on the con- dition of the young growth and on the necessity of proceeding against the prevailing storm direction. Paragraph XLV. The cleared group type. A. The groups cut comprise from 0.1 acre to three acres. The form is roundish, oval, square, etc., as the case may be, usually coinciding with a geological feature, f. i.. a dell, a spur, a spring- head. 'ihe incentive for group-cutting lies either in the simultaneous maturity of the trees stocking on it, or in the desire to obtain conditions particularly favorable to the reproduction of one of the species appearing in the old timber; or the group, previously stocked with an undesirable species, is to be seeded by a better kind. B. Actual application: This type has never played an important role in connection with natural seed regeneration. Sylviculturally 11 seems well adapted to Yellow Poplar. Long Leal' "Pine. Lodge - p ole Pine, White Pine, ahso to Hickory andJJak^ Where the groups run in the shape - of long tongues, parallel at regular intervals, they are termed "coulisses." The coulisses are usually meant for the regeneration of more light-demanding species; the "benches" separating the coulisses for the regenera- tion of more shade-bearing species. In Germany, the space formerly occupied by a cleared group is termed a "hole." Where the groups, after reseeding, are gradu- ally enlarged, the cleared group-type i- bastardized with the shel- terwood group type. C. Advantages: The soil of the group, thanks to a sufficient amount of side -had", retains its freshness and porosity. It is sheltered from severe winds and severe heat. Species too sensitive for reproduction in larger clearings or strips can be raised in 104 S Y L V I C I L T U R E. groups. \\ here the age classes appear in bunches, each bunch can be harvested at its proper age of maturity. No harm or little harm is clone to young growth during the logging season. D .Disadvantages: I. Operations are scattering. II. Intricate system of permanent roads, required . III. Groups surrounded by tall timber frequently a ct as "frost - holes" where young growth suffers badly from early frosts and late frosts in_clear_njghts. IV. Thin barked trees surrounding the group suffer from sun scald: flat-rooted trees suffer from storm. Paragraph XLVI. The cleared selection type. A. In this type, individual trees considered mature are selected for removal, either absolutely singly, or in very small patches formed by neighboring trees. The clearings made are so small that only shade-bearing species will regenerate thereon, unless the soil be particularly strong. The cut is so scattering, that the soil i- not sufficiently "plowed" by the loggers. Hence it will not act as a ready -cod-bed. In mixed woods composed of many species, only the most valuable kind is usually withdrawn, and the small gaps made are occupied by shade-bearing and often less valuable species. Beneath hypermature trees, the soil has frequently hardened and defies any attempt of seedlings to establish themselves after logging. The cleared selection type is almost invariably bastardized with the shelterwood selection type and with the advance growth selec- tion type. B. Actual application: In the tropics. Teak. Mahogany, Ebony, etc., are cut by -elec- tion, frequently regardless of the effect which logging will have on regeneration. In Europe, the type is found in the Fir forest- owned by farm- ers: in parks; in protective forests at the headwaters of rivers: on very steep slopes dotted with Larch, in the Tyrol. In America. Yellow Poplar. Walnut. Cherry. White Oak. etc., are cut by way of individual selection. — but with no regard to reproduction. Also White Pine in the Spruce and Fir woods of the Adirondacks where it never succeeds, withdrawn alone, to reproduce its kind. SYLVICULTURE. » . Advantages: I. The water- storing power of the soil is generally well pre- served under this type. II. The second growth is never endangered by snow or drought or frost or sleet; the old trees remaining do not suffer from storm or sun scald. III. Small wood lots may yield a stead; annual supply <>\ timber or wood under this type. IV. The type is well adapted to deer parks. D. Disadvantages: I. The operations are very scattering. Indeed, they cover con- tinuously the entire forest or a large percentage thereof. Diffi- culty oi supervision. II. An intricate system of permanent roads is required, since the axe returns every few years to the same compartment. It the intervals of years are long — say from ten to twenty years — the type is bastardized with the cleared group type or with the shelter- wood group type. '111. The type as a means of regeneration, in its purity, is pos- sible only where a. The compartments contain a mixture of all age classes, with the hypermature classes not too badly prevailing: 1 1. The species to be regenerated is an intense shade-bearer; e. The soil is strong enough to allow light-demanding seedlings a chance at surviving a long period of partial suppression. IV. The species removed — presumably the most valuable species — has reduced prospects of propagating itself, struggling against competing species, the number of its seed trees being relatively decreased. V. Small chance for reinforcing. VI. Impossibility of protection against Hies under headway. Paragraph XLVII. Types in which lumbering coincides with N. S. R. In these types of natural seed regeneration — so-called shelter- vrood types lumbering and resoeding go hand in hand, both pro- gressing seriatim, slowly, cautiously. In the pure types, no tree is removed, unless the removal has 8 distinci bearing — or is expected to have it — on the production of a progeny or on its further develop- ment. Seedlings less than five years old usually stand within a few yard- of their mothers. This distance is gradually increased — in the course of up to fifty year- until the youngsters do not SYLVICULTURE. require any more, or rather despise, the benefit of the parents' presence. Lumbering operations are carried on— in one and the same limited lot — during a number of years. Where the mother trees are very rapidly removed, after re- seeding, from the proximity of the youngsters, the pure shelter- wood types approach the types of cleared compartments, cleared strips, etc. Where the mother trees are very slowly removed, after reced- ing, from the proximity of the youngstser, the pure shelterwood types approach, or bastardize with, the advance growth types. The chances for success depend on: A. Sylviculture! talents of the forester in charge and of his staff, also on the size of the ranges. B. Frequency of seed years and time allowed for the entire operations. C. Shade-bearing character of youngsters and firmness of parents. D. Existence of a permanent system of transportation. E. Configuration. F. Danger from storm, sleet, fire, animals, etc. locally existing. <;. Size of timber, value of timber, percentage of debris and waste. H. Marketability of all species or of a lew. even of .me -ji.Mi.-~ only. According to the manner in which the forester selects the nuclei for reseeding, we distinguish the following types: I. Uniform type, or pure shelterw 1 compartment type, where the nuclei are geometrically and regularly distributed over the entirety of a large area (say over twenty to two hundred acres), the nuclei of the entire area being kept, during the entire progress of regeneration, in or about in the same uniform stage of development. il. Shelterwood strip type, where the nuclei proceed, like ad- vancing skirmishers, in regular military order from the leeward side to the windward side of a compartment (cove, slope, etc.). The nuclei to the leeward are kept in a more advanced stage of growth than those to the windward. III. Shelterwood group type, where the nuclei are carefully selected, irrespective of geometrical arrangements, merely on the basis of the fitness of the individual spot to act as a seed-bed. The groups are gradually enlarged, increasing in circumference like waves caused by stones thrown in the water, lit? ■ f J>. S \ l.Vk'l LT l J; E. IV. Shelters 1 selection type, where the mosl mature indi- viduals are everywhere and continuously selected for removal, individually or in small patches, with a view to simultaneous repro- duction of the species removed by seeds left on such patches. The patch does no! form a nucleus to !>e enlarged; it is to be retained for a long time in its original size. Paragraph XLVIII. The shelterwood compartment type of natural . S seed regeneration. A. This type is characterized by the uniform manner, in which lumbering and regeneration proceed over large areas. This uniformity is possible only in somewhat even-aged tracts. Great difficulties are experienced in mixed forests, owing to the difference of light requirements. The fixed conditions inviting the forester to adept this type arc of a rather rare character, almost absent from primeval woods. The education value of this type, however, is unparalleled. B. -Actual application: Shade bearers are better adapted to this type than light demanders. Beech is usually treated under this type; Maple and Ash frequently so; Oak largely in France, rarely in Germany: Fir and Spruce in parts of the Black Forest; Pine in the old country only rarely owing to its demands on light. This "military" type was created by George L. Haiti,-, toward the end of the eighteenth century. It was considered the ideal type of regeneration up to about 1S75. It is now far from being abandoned, maintaining its role as the most commonly used type of seed regeneration, although usually bastardized, in modern times, with the strip and the group type. C. Advantages: I. Thorough protection of the soil, of its productive capacity ami its porosity. II. Small risk of utter failure. III. Large tracts taken in hand at one and the same time TV. Methodical, military manner of proceeding which facili- tates instruction of the -tall' of rangers and proper execution of order- by the staff. V. Mother trees, standing above the young growth in is. dated position, yield an extra-increment of high value f" light increment ' ). VI. Young growth is well protected against climatic adversities. 1). Disadvantages: i. Difficulty of obtaining a desired mixture of species in the young growth. 108 S Y L V I OU L T I R E. LL Necessity for the entire number of old trees to reach maturity at or about at the same time. III. Even-aged forests are formed by this type which are badly endangered by insects, fungi, storm, snow, etc. IV. The young growth is badly damaged during the latter stages of logging operations, especially where heavy logs (not wood) are obtained and where the road system is deficient; further on steep slopes. E. The uniform system, being particularly instructive, deserves a most detailed consideration. To the mother trees is allotted a three-fold task, viz.: lo seed the "regeneration area." To protect the young growth from atmospheric hardships and weeds. To prevent deterioration of the soil during the early stages of the second growth. Three distinct stages of regeneration must be distinguished, viz.: I. The "preparatory stage, initiated by a preparatory cutting II. The "seeding stage," initiated by a seeding cutting. III. The - final stage." during which the final fellings take place. I. The preparatory stage: a. Purpose: The preparatory cutting intends: 1. To prepare the soil underneath the mother trees for a seed- bed, by increasing the rate of disintegration of vegetable matter. The soil is best prepared at a time when no w Is, but a few shoots ol sweel grasses appear her,, and there. The humus decom- poses at the quickest rate on limestone; at the slowesi rate on sana and sandstone. 1. To prepare the mother trees for regeneration by allowing them a larger crown space, thus inviting the development of seed bud-: further by increasing their stability, so that they may resist the storms when placed in a more isolated position; 3. To remove undesirable species, thus preventing them from propagating their kind. 4. To reduce the volume of the growing stock so as to facili- tate the maintenance of a normal growing stock and so as to have less material to remove when the young growth appears on the regeneration area. b. Duration: The duration of the preparatory stage depends upon the species and the soil. Shade-bearing species found in dense stands need a longer period of preparation than the light- demanding S Y LVICULTURE. species. On soil rich with lime and in the lowlands, the prepara- tory stage i> much shorter than on sandstone and in the highlands. c. Area: The area (in per cent, of the entire forest area) to be prepared depends upon the necessities of the market and of the mill (equal annual yield), on the prospects of a seed year, on the frequency of seed years, and on the urgency of other fellings. d. Trees: The preparatory cutting should remove all sickly trees and all undesirable species. Further, those which have the crowns low down to the ground, which will shade the young growth later on and which now lessen the rate of disintegration of vege- table matter. NO dominant trees should be taken out. Near the edge of the compartment it is wise to keep the leaf canopy as close ;i» possible, so a- to prevent the influence of drying winds. e. Marking: The forester himself should mark every tree to be taken out during the preparatory stage. When the wood cutters are not reliable, it is necessary to mark the stumps of the trees as well. f. Lumbering: Where it pays to dig out the tree by the roots, it is well to do so, because a better seed-bed is the result. Care should he taken that only trees marked are felled, and that those left are not damaged. There is no need to move the firewood and timber out to the roads, if the regeneration area otherwise allows of snaking, wagoning, etc. g. Pasture: Cattle should not be admitted any more for pas- turage during the preparatory stage. Pannage of hogs will be of good advantage. Mice and insects are eaten by them. Hogs break up the net work of roots, leaves and moss forming the soil cover and hindering germinating seeds from catching root. II. The seeding stage. a. Time: The best time for "seeding cutting" is a seed year. The forester should be able to tell from the looks of the buds whether a seed year is at hand. The frequency of seed years depends on the species and on the locality. If there is no prospect for seeds, the seeding cutting should he postponed, and if a sustained yield is desired, it should be made up by preparatory cuttings, final cuttings and thinnings. b. The area over which the seeding cutting should extend depends on the area prepared for regeneration, on the length of the period oi regeneration, on the periodical occurrence of seed years, on the requirements For ;i sustained yield and on the available market. The scarcer the seed years, the larger i> the area placed in the seeding stage when a mast year arrives. 110 SYLVICUL T U R E. The longer the period during which the seedlings require shelter, the larger is the area to be taken in hand at a seeding cutting. e. Trees: It is -wise to take the biggest trees first., as their removal at a later date will result in great damage to the young growth. If the forester is sure to be able to remove some more trees after the lapse of one or two years, a light seeding cutting is usually best. During the first two years of their lives the young seedlings stand a great deal of shade, even those of light -demanding species, on fair soil. The degree of light which should fall on the ground after a seeding cutting, depends on species, height of trees, form of trees and locality. In the case of tender and slow-growing species, the cover should be close. In the case of tall trees, slight interruptions of the leaf canopy is sufficient. On good soil, where weeds arc to be dreaded, the cover should be denser than under the reversed conditions. On a southern ex- posure, the cover should be dense. Fir, Beech and Spruce require a close stand of the mother trees on strong soil and at high elevations. Oak and Pine on alluvial sand of average quality should he tapped heavily. d. The proportion of trees left and trees cut might be gauged by: 1. The distance or space between the crowns. It is very diffi- cult to give any data as to the best distance of the crowns. The form of the crowns is so irregular that it is impossible to ascertain the best average distance. 2. The number of stems which gives a good idea of the cover overhead where yield tables are at hand, if the age and the locality are known. 3. The sectional area of the steins cut and of the stems remaining. 4. The volume cut and the volume remaining. e. Preparation of soil: Shade-bearing species maintaining the porosity of the soil better than light-demanding species often allow the forester to get along without any preparation of the soil. Under light-demanding species, on the other hand, the hardening of the soil at the time of seed cutting often necessitates the preparation of the ground so that it may serve as a seed-bed. This preparation may consist of: 1. Removal of leaves, weeds or moss. Ill SYLVICULTL K E. ■1. Working the ground by pasturing hogs. .*{. Wounding the soil in open spaces, with a hoe. 4. Breaking the soil with a strong plow. i. Lumbering. All cutting should be done as soon as possible after the seeds have dropped so as to bring them into contact with the ground at once. The wood or timber cut should be dragged to the roads previous to the germination 01 the seeds. The heavier the seed cutting is. the larger will be the percentage of seeds finding germination. Most of the seeds are imbedded by the steps of the woodsmen. Advance growth should be removed wherever it appears singly. ('are must be taken that remaining mother trees are do1 damaged by lumbering. g. Covering the seeds: The covering of the seeds is invariably left to nature or to hazard. It might l>e advisable, however, to secure a covering artificially with the help of a rake, or by plowing, after the seeds have dropped, or by pressing heavy seeds (nuts. acorns) into the ground with a blunt stick. h. Fire: After the seeds have dropped, the utmost care must be taken to prevent fire from running through the forest. A fire previous to the dropping of the s eed may he_ advantageous, espe- cially in the ease id' Yell ow Pin es! After the -ceding, however, it should he prevented. III. The Final stage. The removal of the seed trees left takes place during the final stage. a. Purpose: By the gradual removal of the mother trees, the young forest is gradually lead into a life under changed conditions, until it is ready to enjoy the full influence of sunshine, air and rain. b. Number of cuttings: The more gradual the removal, the le>> damage results for the young growth from the logging opera- tions and from changed environments. On the other hand, it is cheapest and best, from the logger's standpoint, to remove the seed I rees at one stroke. c. Beginning: The beginning of the final fellings depends on the development of the young growth. In the ease of poor Soil, or light- demanding species and of northern climate, fellings should start in the fall following the seeding. In the ease of shade-bearing species, strong soil and southern climate the second or third fall should be waited for. The drier the locality, the quicker must he the removal of the mother trees. d. Duration: The duration id' the final stage "depends on species. 112 SYLVICULTURE. on quality of soil, on success of seeding cutting, on occurrence of subsequent seed years and on climate. A tender, slow-growing and shade-bearing species allows of a protracted period of removal. A few trees left in isolated positions are apt to damage the young growth by the reflection of the sun's rays from the hark; this is the case especially in species having a whitish bark (Beech, Maple, Birch, Silver Fir). e. Marking for final removal: Broad-leaved trees should be marked in summer Avhilst the trees ana the young growth are in leaf. By the first final felling only small tire- -hall be removed, after Hess. From the second fall (after the seed cutting) on, the seedlings being stronger at that time, it is wise to take the largest tree-. f. Season: The cutting of the mother trees should take place when snow covers the ground, so as to do the least possible damage to the young growth. Fellings must be discontinued during hard frost. Broad-leafed species should not he cut before leaves are dropped as they will do more damage to their progeny when felled in leaf. Hess is in favor of cutting in fall, claiming that the young growth at that time is particularly tough and elastic. He does not attribute much weight to the presence of snow unless it covers the young growth entirely. g. Stumps and roots: If the trees are dug out by the roots, the force with which they hit the ground is considerably lessened. In coniferous forests, many parasitic insects breed in stumps, and in that case it may he necessary to dig them out id' the ground, or to poison them. Where the tree is entirely surrounded by young growth, digging should be prohibited. h. How to fell a tree: The tree to be cut should be thrown onto that place where it is likely to do the least damage — especially onto " blanks." It is wise to throw the crowns of several trees onto the same spot so as to centralize the damage. On the other hand, many sylviculturists prefer to throw the crowns of the trees into the very thickest young growth, claiming that the damage thereby done is considerably less, and that many youngsters will be left undamaged. i. Standards: In many cases, a few trees are left standing for a second rotation. Such trees are sailed " standards." Standards of Oak, Pine and Ash are frequently found. They should not be left unless they stand close to a road, or unless they are certain to outlast a second rotation. 113 SYLYIl I I-T I i: E. j. Pruning of mother trees: Low brandies which overshadow the young growth heavily should be cut. k. Transportation of wood: All wood and timber should be moved to the nearest roads as soon as possible alter the trees are cut. Speck removal is especially necessary in coniferous forests, the young growth having little reproductive power. A snow cover might be used to remove the wood on sleds; high-wheeled trucks will answer splendidly on level ground. The method of " roping " used in the Black Forest also saves the young growth. All wood and timber must be removed from the regeneration area previous to the opening of the buds. 1. Pasturage: There is no need to say that the young growth should be protected against pasture. m. Reinforcing: Blanks should be filled only when the mother trees have been entirely removed. The plants may be taken from dense places where the natural regeneration is complete or. better, from nurseries. Paragraph XLIX. The shelterwood strip type of natural seed regeneration. A. This type bears the same ratio to the shelterwood com- partment type of regeneration which the cleared strip type bears to the cleared compartment type. In the shelterwood strip type, as in the cleared strip type, fellings and regeneration begin at the leeward side of a compart- ment i cove, slope) and proceed gradually against the direction of the prevailing storms. Beavy-seeded species as well as light-seeded species allow- of the -nip type. Distinct light demanders. however, defy it on the poorer grades of soil. The nuclei are laid out geometrically in the shape of strips crossing the prevailing wind-direction at right angles. The most leeward strip is in the final stage; the most windward strip is in the preparatorj stage; the middle strip is in the seeding stage, provided thai the conditions are normal. The breadth of a strip depends on species, frequency of seed years, configuration of ground and so on. At a breadth of over 500 feet, the -nip type bastardizes with the compartment type. M«,re frequently, tne shelterwood -trip type i- bastardized with the shelterwood group type. Regeneration of a cove, slope, tract, etc. under tin' pure strip type, is exceedingly -low. mile-- there are at hand a number of - 114 S YLVlc ILT ike. " series of strips," all triplets, consisting of a preparatory, a seed- ing and a final strip. The first strips are usually made, as in the cleared strip type, in well-sheltered ravines or gullies: or at the windward edge of lake-, fields., young growth; or at the windward edge of storm-firm trees (Oaks), where there is a mixture of storm-firm species with species endangered by storm. The form of the strips need not be exactly rectangular. In the mountains, the strips usually run up and down the slopes— not horizontal— so as to facilitate the transportation of timber and wood removed from the strip. B. Actual application: This type is frequently seen in the coniferous woods of the European moderately cold zone; also in Beech woods and Oak woods. Like the uniform type, the strip type is not exactly natural. For that reason, the primeval woods do not exhibit any illustra- tions of the strip type. C. Advantages: The advantages of the shelterwood strip type are identical with those of the shelterwood compartment type— excepting advantage III. It is especially adapted to small pieces of property, which could not yield steady returns under the uniform type. Greater security from storm is characteristic for the strip type. D. Disadvantages: I. Difficulty of obtaining a desired mixture of species in the young growth. II. rrees at the extreme windward edge of a cutting series obtain an extravagantly high age, whilsl regeneration proceeds slowly and gradually against them. III. Tardiness of a complete regeneration of a whole compart- ment, slope or cove, where there are only a few points of first attack. IV. Operations are more scattering than in the shelterwood compartment type. Paragraph L. The shelterwood group type of natural seed regenera- tion. A. Characteristic features. I. species: All species can be dealt with in a group system; those endangered by windfall, however, require a modification of the system, or -mall rotation, or a regular progress of the groups toward the storm danger. 115 SYLVICULTURE. II. Beginning: In the shelterwood system, the nuclei for groups are formed at a time, at which the soil begins to be, here and there, a ready recipient for seed. In the nucleus, two or three trees are cut, to begin with, and a few seedlings soon enter an appearance. III. Continuation: The young growth gradually spreads out, more or less peripherically, from the nucleus, appearing at the feel of the nearest trees. 'Ihese trees, in turn, are gradually removed, whilst the groups of seedlings continue to enlarge. Finallj one group will flow into the other, and the regeneration will present a waving leaf canopy. The irregularity of the canopy depends "ii the rapidity with winch the groups could be enlarged. IV. Means of transportation: The type obviously requires a finely meshed, permanent network of transportation. The axe returns to the group under formation periodically, say every three to ten years, during a period of regeneration comprising from fifteen to fifty years. \. Soil protection: The soil is continuously protected from intensive insolation, and is hence kept in continuous productiveness. VI. Dangers: Protection from fire is very difficult; protection from storm difficult, although easier than in the shelterwood com partment type. Insects, fungi, and snowbreak are not to be dreaded much more than under the selection system. VII. Lumbering: .Mother trees are always felled in a manner forcing them away from the group. Hypermature trees close to the -roup are extracted at the same time. Lumbering operations are necessarily scattered. Hence the logging expenses and the cosi of supervision range very high. The removal (snaking) of the trees cut takes place through the benches of trees left between the groups so that the soil is stirred up continuously within the benches. The groups should be started, if possible, :l t the upper end of a 'slope so that the logs need not be snaked through young growth. VIII. Artificial help: To start regeneration of a nucleus, and to accelerate the enlargement of a group, mosses, weeds and litter on the ground may be removed previous to a seed year (bastardiz- ing with advance growth group type). The so-called "hair-dressing" of groups, by which misshapen and branchy growth is cut back, and the wave form of groups is maintained, maj he seen in the Black Forest. B. Actual application: The shelterwood group type appears to he a type of regeneration sometimes adopted by primeval nature in Beech. Maple. Fir and Pine w Is. 1 10 SYLVICULTURE. As a sylvicultural type, the shelterwood group system has been fathered by Charles Gayer. It is the most modern type of German n. s. r., applied especially in the natural seed regeneration of Spruce and Beech. C. Advantages: I. The type grants the forester the utmost liberty of action, by offering him a large number of points at which to start and at which to continue his logging operations. II. In mixed forests, the system allows of fostering the most valuable species and of checking the less desirable species or the weed species. III. The type does not take any sylvicultural chances. IV. The young growth is well protected against the usual atmospheric dangers. V. The good qualities of the soil are carefully husbanded. D. Disadvantages: I. The type makes unusual demands on the personal and local attention of the manager as well as of the stall, necessitating small ranges and high administrative expenses. II. Mother trees at the leeward side (if an enlarged group are subject to dangers from storm; on the northeast side of a group subject to dangers from sun scald. III. A large outlay is incurred for logging the tires owing to the scattering character of the operations and owing to the care required in felling and transportation, for the benefit of both young and old growth. IV. In the case of very large trees, covering by their crowns a- much as 500 to 1,000 square feet, the removal of an individual tears too big a hole into the forest and enlarges the group too rapidly at a stroke. V. The type does not allow of the removal of hypermature trees with proper expedition. They are removed only when the waves of the group begin to touch their feet. VI. The soil in the proximity of white barked trees bordering a group is scorched by reflected sun rays. Paragraph LI. The shelterwood selection type of natural seed regeneration. This type scarcely exists in a pure form. Where it exists, it is invariably bastardized with the cleared selection or the advance growth selection type of natural seed regeneration. The pure type would imply the immediate development (or rather the simultaneous development! of a seeding growth in the 117 S YLYICULT r I! E. very year (a seed year) in which the individual trees eery irregu- larly, very scatteringly, on the basis of their relative maturity- are selected tor removal. Where the removal leaves a blank, we meet the cleared selec- tion type. Where the removal allows an advance growth already at hand to fill the gap, there we meet the advance growth selection type. The premises for the shelterwood selection type are identical with those for the cleared selection type and for the advance growth selection type. Paragraph LII. Types in which lumbering follows after n. s. r. In these types of natural seed regeneration — so-called advance growth typo— no tree is removed unless its foot be already sur- rounded by a young progeny of desirable character which has pre- viously developed beneath the parent's or step-parent's leaf canopy. The case of exceedingly fertile soil and the case of step-parents naving a light leaf canopy excepted, absolute shade bearers only can be propagated by this type. So f. i., Hemlock. Fir, Beech, Maple, Lawson's Cypress, Western Red Cedar. In the hake States, White Pine is found as a regeneration formed in advance beneath mature Norway Tine- acting as step- parents (advance growth group type). Tn the Adirondacks, Spruce regenerates similarly underneath mature Cottonwoods acting as step-parents or, on very fertile soil, selectionwise beneath Beech, Maple and Birch. Striking it is thai species not absolutely shade enduring are. in many a case, loth to l>c regenerated, as an advance growth, at tli" Feel of their actual parents, whilst willing to lie suppressed beneatb step-parents of apparently similar density of foliage (Yellow Poplar at Biltmore underneath Oak or Short leaf Pine; Spruce underneath Cottonwoods). , Specie- regenerating under their own kin resemble altricial (nidi- cole) birds; species avoiding parental superstructure might he likened to precocial (nidifugal) birds. The chances for successful regeneration in these types 3eem ex- cellent. Still, the following points musl not he losi sighi of: I. Advance growth badly suppressed for a long time is fre- quently -,, badly crippled that it fail- to recover within a reasonable number of years. II. The advance growth is badly -mashed by and during the fell- ing operation-, unless the mother trees are pinned and lopped before us; BYLVICUL T U R E. felling, and unless the timber obtained is carried out either by hand, or on high wheel trucks, or on a heavy cover of snow pro- tecting the advance growth. Under any circumstances, fellings during the period of vegetation must be avoided. ill. Advance growth suddenly exposed to the full influence of sun, rain, snow, sleet, etc., is apt to suffer in case of sensitive species. IV. A minute system of permanent roads is required, the advance growth usually appearing in groups or patches. V. if the pure types of advance growth n. s. r. were strictly adhered to, a regulation of the annual cut according to the condi- tions of the market would be difficult to obtain. Hypermature trees would have to be left everywhere — merely because young growth if often slow to form on their feet. In such cases, artificial preparation of a seed-bed (f. i., by uncovering the mineral soil) seem- absolutely required, so a- to expedite the formation of advance growth. If the leaf canopy overhead is opened al the -a me time by felling operations, the types bastardize with the shelterwood t.\ pr- of n. s. r. According to the extent of the area covered by an advance growth of suitable character we distinguish Let ween: a. Advance growth compartment type of n. s. v., the areas uniformly covered by advance growth measuring from twenty to one hundred acres (rare). b. Advance growth strip type of n. s. r.. the area uniformly covered by advance growth appearing a- -tup- measuring up to 500 feet in breadth (very rare). c. Advance growth group type of n. -. r.. the groups covered by advance growth having an extent of from one-tenth to three acres (frequent). d. Advance growth selection type of n. s. r., the young seed- lings and saplings appearing in scattered ami small patches (very common ) . Under "advance growth" is understood an aggregate (small or large) of seedlings or saplings belonging to a desirable species and formed without any human intention or attention, solely by nature, beneath a totally or partially untouched leaf canopy overhead. Spreading advance growth appearing in bunches or groups can be doctored up with axe and brushhook and machetes, by an appli- cation of " hairdressing." Where the advance growth is not freed, by one single operation, from the superstructure of parents and step-parents overhead, the 119 SYLVICU LTURE. advance growth types are further bastardized with shelterwood types. Paragraph LIII. The advance growth compartment type of natural seed regeneration. A. The type i- applicable only where large areas exhibit on strong soil a uniform advance growth, consisting of seedlings, of saplings and possibly of small poles. Previous to lumbering, the leaf canopy consists of two tiers: an upper tier formed by the parents (or step-parents) and a lower tier formed by the advance growth. Lumbering removes the upper tier entirely and leaves the lower tier intact— if possible. In the safety of the lower tier lies the great difficulty of the system, especially on rough ground, in handling heavy logs of the superstructure, in dealing with cheap stumpage, in cutting soft woods characterized by small healing power and in the absence of an intricate system of transportation. Where the upper story of trees consists of say 10,000 feet b. in. per acre, or of more, the ground is literally littered witli logs or boles during the logging operations, and the advance growth has hut a slight chance to survive the death of its progenitors. B. Actual application: The type is found, in rare cases, abroad under the misnomer of a modified " selection system," where and when the logger returns for a wholesale removal of mature trees, at intervals of about twenty years, to the same compartments. The type is also practical where prolific seed years produce, in mild sites and on strong soil, a. uniform advance growth in even- aged Beech or Firwoods, without any previous human interference with the leaf canopy Overhead (so-called regeneration from a com- plete-growing stock ) . In the United States, compact advance growth is rarely found — possibly so in the case of Tsuga heterophylla. The destruction of the superstructure, however, usually followed by fires, tends to annihilate every vestige of advance growth. C. Advantages: Where the system can be carried through, it offers the follow- ing advantages : I. Concentrated logging. II. Well-preserved productiveness of the -oil. HI. Soil never idling, hut producing without any delay. 120 SYLVICULTU R E. D. Disadvantages: I. The type is applicable only to intense shade bearers; and these shade bearers are very apt to suffer from sudden changes of environments. II. The logging expenses are very badly increased in the attempt to save the advance growth from destruction. III. Under any circumstances, the rapid removal of mother trees inflicts scars upon the young growth apt to serve as entrance gates for fungi and insects. Paragraph LIV. The advance growth strip type of natural seed regeneration. A. Advance growth, being a chance product, is rarely found in symmetrical, long-drawn strips. Where the clear strip-type is in- troduced, however, a strip of advance growth is often and easily Btarted underneath the border trees joining the cleared strip to the windward. In that case, the advance growth strip-type is bastard- ized witli the clear strip type. • B. Actual application: The type is found only in the bastard form just mentioned. C. Advantages: I. Xo expense required for regeneration (unless weeds, leaves or moss are removed). II. Advance growth is readily saved, where the logs are removed through the adjoining woods. III. A road system touching the lower edge of the strip- is sufficient. IV. Soil is never laid bar.'. V. Little damage from rainfall. D. Disadvantages: I. Scattering operations. II. Type is not applicable to light demanders. III. Hypermature trees must be left in the woods until tiie strips, after many years, may approach them. IV. Points of attack from which cutting may proceed are apt to be lacking, unless the forester is able to maintain a very large number of narrow . cutting series, helped by the configuration of the ground. Paragraph LV. The advance growth group type of natural seed regeneration. A. In nature, advance growth usually appears in small bunches or in groups, for the reason that there is always a chance for many 121 SYLVICULTURE. seedlings to sproul and develop on a Bpot where light, humidity and soil allow a single individual to make a start alone. In the primeval woods, groups of advance growth formed by shade bearing species are almost invariably at hand. Even light demanders may form small groups of advance growth in spite of a superstructure over- bead, provided that the soil is strong enough to support them. Such groups, freed from the trees superstrueting them, will develop one or a number of saplings which in turn and in course of time may yield one or a few poles promising to grow into trees of a loggable size. Very frequently the groups arc formed not under the leai canopy of the parent species, but undereneath another species act- ing as a step-parent. Indeed, step-parents of a rather selfish kind, inimical to the children, are frequently encountered in tree life, handicapping and killing the young progeny thirsting at their feet for light and ram. The endurance of advance growth living under adverse condi- tions is at times remarkably great. Fir, Spruce, Beech and Maple may be met grown only six feet high when GO years old. ret aided by parental superstructure. The pure advance growth group type is frequently bastardized, in Europe, with the shelterwood group type when the forester u>e~ existing groups of advance growth as nuclei to be gradually enlarged, instead of using spots as nuclei for group regeneration on which the soil chances to be in a conceptions condition. Further, when a shelterwood group is forming, advance growth groups are frequently started, under the influence of side light on seedlings and humus, at a goodly distance from the shelterwood group, under- neath an apparently heavy superstructure of mother tree-. The advance growth group type pure and simple, however, merely implies the freeing of chance growth from a superstructure. It ha- nothing to do with the gradual enlargement of a group by ringwise cutting around the group. The "• hairdressing ' or groups of advance growth i- some- times commendable. B. Actual Application: Systematically, this type i- nowhere applied in its purity. Accidentally, however, the lumbermen of America happen to employ it in woods composed of Fir, Hemlock. Ma] ile. Beech, etc. Primeval nature employs this type quite largely I f. i.. in Chestnut-oak woods at Biltmore). SYLVIGUL T U R E. C. Advantages: The advantage- of the type are identical with those given under C, I, II and IV. in paragraph LIV. In addition, this type may often allow the forester to favor a desirable species of shade-bearing character. Under sylvieultural care, it renders regeneration an absolute certainty. The trees forming the superstructure frequently happen to be of a marketable size. The type does not require much sylvi- cultural understanding. D. Disadvantages: I. Border trees to the leeward of advance growth are subject to windfall and sun -raid. II. Advance growth groups continue to be badly suppressed, along the edge of the group, by border tree-. III. The logging operations arc -tattering, and an intricate system of permanent roads i- required. IV. Only intense shade hearers can be properly managed under this type: light demanders found in mixture with shade bearers must gradually disappear from the mixture. The shade bearers will readily form groups of advance growth underneath light demanders; but not vice versa. Paragraph LVI. The advance growth selection type of natural seed regeneration. A. This type is usually bastardized with the cleared and with the shelterwood selection type. The selection by the forester of trees to be cut might be either oy single trees or by very small bunches of trees underlaid with a carpet of advance growth covering about one one-hundredth acre of ground. The logging operations, as in all selection types, are exceed- ingly scattering: indeed, they ought to continuously extend, as a matter of theoretical principle, over the entire forest. Only shade hearers, notably Fir. Hemlock and Spruce, are well adapted to the type of advance growth selection. The type, like the cleared and the shelterwood selection type, renders the construction of an intricate network of road- neces- sary. Every tree, so to speak — not every strip or every compart- ment — must be continuously accessible. It might be necessary to prepare the soil, in scattered patches, where the layer of humus is too deep, and where the soil is so hardened or so covered with weed- a- to prevent any chance of n. s. r. 123 SYLVICULTU RE. Since the cuttings are comparatively light, the removal of the logs prepares the ground insufliciently for the conception of seed. Seedlings and saplings in advance growth stand under very heavy shade for many a year, usually in small bunches of a few dozen specimens. Misshapen seedlings and saplings, also those badly damaged during logging operations, should be cut, or cop- piced in the case of hardwoods. B. Actual application: Wherever the selection type is applied in Europe, it is pre- eminently applied in the shape of advance growth selection type; especially so in parks, in small farm wood lots and in protective forests. Usually, every compartment (cove, slope) contains a wild mix- ture of age classes of trees. The axe returns to a compartment in intervals of from one to ten years. The Beech, although an intense shade bearer, develops very branchy stems under such conditions (Beech forests in Bucking- ham-hire. England). In primeval nature, all or practically all scattering and sparse species are subjected to seed regeneration of the advance s selection type. The accidental death of trees in the superstructure allows a patch of advance growth found underneath to develop. Instances: White Oak and Scarlet Oak at Biltmore; also Spruce on hardwood slopes in the Adirondacks. It is surprising to find that scattering species are regenerated by primeval nature in a type which is considered by the sylvicul- ture only applicable to intense shade bearers. The explanation lies in nature's long-lasting patience and in her failure to be dis- heartened when failing in innumerable attempts. ( '. Advantages: I. The type protects the soil, and hence the waters, best of all. II. It protects the young growth from frost, drought, high winds, insects, sleet and snow. III. It is particularly pleasing, from the aesthetic standpoint by the unusually large variety of the pictures proffered. IV. Since every acre of ground continuously retains its leaf canopy, no sunshine, air and rain go to waste in young growth insufficiently covering areas laid bare. At the same time, continu- ous retention of moisture in the soil allows of greater fertility: hence the quantity of wood fibre annually produced is greater in the selection system than in any other. y. Small danger from windfall amongst parent tree-. 124 SYLVICULTURE. VI. Small danger from fire, since the humus is kept moist continuously. On the other hand, a fire once broken out is extremely hard to stop. D. Disadvantages: I. Logging operations are very scattering, and hence expensive. The fall of individual, large trees amongst the multitude of their companions is very apt to inflict wounds upon them, through which fungi and insects enter readily. (Cancerous Firs of the Black Forest.) II. A minute network of permanent roads is required. III. The primeval woods, wherever they represent the selection type, show a preponderance of mature and hypermature age classes. Since the type does not allow of the removal of groups of trees at all. and of the removal of individuals only where they are under- laid by an advance growth, the owner of primeval woods adopting this type is forced to bring heavy sacrifici - IV. It is very difficult to regenerate light demanders by this type, where they stand mixed with shade bearers. Paragraph LVII. Regeneration of valuable species from self-sown seed (n. s. r.) with, amongst and into companions of a weedy character. It is a veil-known fact that only a few of the hundreds of seedlings raised (artificially or naturally) l>y the forester have a chance to develop into poles, standards and veterans. Dense thickets, consisting of many saplings, are merely re- quired to maintain the fertility of the soil and to prevent, by natural pruning, the young boles from growing into brushy and branchy specimens ("orchard trees"). For the purpose al -take it i- immaterial, in a sense, whether the thickets consist of a "mob" of shrubby weeds mixed with a few "aristocrats" hailing from valuable species, or whether the entire thicket consists of ••aristocrats." More than that: unless the aristocrat has a value already as a sapling or as a small pole, the " mob " frequently is more conducive to proper soil protection and to proper development of the " aristocracy " into large poles and standards than a purely artistocratic crowd. The danger, of course, prevails continuously lest the aristo- crats might he overtopped and killed by the mob. A. Wherever the mob consists of even-aged seedlings (not of stoolshoots'i of shrubs, that danger i< -mall, shrubs usually exhibit- 1 2.-. S J I- V 1(1 I. T URE. ing a slow rate of height growth (Alder; Dogw 1: Hazel; Witch- hazel: Rhododendron, etc.). Stoolshoots of Bhrubs, on the other hand, frequently grow bo fast, so dense and bo rank that they are sure to overpower an artistocracj of seedlings of even age. If the mob promises to easily obtain the upper hand, then it i- usually wise to delay regeneration until the shrubbage slmw>. at a much later year, signs of a declining growth (Calmia); or else tn wait until the shrubs allow a deadening (Dogwood) - T or to fire the shrubbage in heavy seed years of the aristocratic parentage (Blackjack): or to lumber heavily if the shrubs are sensitive and if the artistocrats are hardy (Striped Maple). Certain weedy shrubs, f. i., Bamboo species, oiler periodically a chance for subdual, viz.. when death overtakes them gregariously during their own seed years. Other shrubs are eagerly eaten (or peeled) by sheep, goats or cattle, and might be brought to submission, in the winter fol- lowing the fruiting of the aristocrats, by heavy pasturage (Mohro- dendron for the benefit of Yellow Poplar). The purpose at stake, in .American Sylviculture, for years to come cannot consist in homogeneous regeneration of aristocrats evenly covering the regeneration area: it can only consist in that form, quality and density of regeneration- usually a partially suc- cessful regeneration— which the forester considers financially most desirable (compare paragraph XLI E). The extirpation of shrubs by pickaxe and pli>\v is usually impossible, unless it can be combined with " taungya." It is often sufficient for increased aristocratic regeneration to break or reduce the humus formed underneath the shrubbage. B. The battle against weed trees trying to propagate their kind in the forest is usually more difficult to win than that against Bhrubs since the progeny of weed trees does not stop to compete with aristocrats after the thicket stage. The forester must care- fully gauge the chances for a final victory— usually a partial vic- tory — of the aristocrats, footing on a knowledge of their relative height growth and their relative -hade endurance. Weed trees mighl be prevented from successful seeding by: I. Deadening or -tump peeling. II. Actual removal (unless resulting in rank stoolshoots). III. Sudden exposure of young progeny to draught or frost. IV. Maintenance of a dense humus, or of a dense leaf canopy. \ . I'a-t urage. 126 X S YLVICL'LTUR E. VI. Stopping all logging operations during seed years of the weed- tree species. VII. Fire. Any of these remedies will answer on a regeneration area pro- vided that it inflicts greater damage on the weed trees than on the aristocrats, and that the success is fully commensurate to the expense. A careful choice of the type of regeneration (cleared, shelter- wood, and advance growth types in compartments, strips, groups or patches) is. however, the best weapon in the hands of the forester against mobbish usurpation. The time may come when the forester will avail himself of plagues of fungi vertebrates and insects in the struggle against weed trees. Obviously, where the logger, followed by tires, removes every vestige of the aristocracy and every chance for its reproduction on deteriorated soil, there the sylvan battle is lost for the forester before it is begun. Frequently in nature's economy and ecology a crop of weed trees (Birches, Cottonwoods) intervenes between two generations of aristocrats. This " rotation of crops " resembles that of agricul- ture, and is hard to explain. Attempted explanations are: Exhaus- tion of soil in mineral matter required by the previous species. Presence of baccilli, bacteria, fungi, insects, etc., inimical to the previous species. Paragrapn LVIII. Pedagogy of the high forest. Forest pedagogy or forest tendance, the second part of the sylviculturists' activity, is of little importance in America at the present time since there are no wood crops at hand which might be profitably tended. Forest protection, usually considered a branch of forestry, is merely a branch of forest tendance. The following operations are here treated under the heading forest tendance : A. Cleaning ) T ,. ^ „, ,. v Indirect lv remunerative acts or investments. B. \\ ceding i C. Improvement cuttings ) Directly remunerative acts yielding D. Thinning f a surplus revenue. E. Pruning ) T ,. _ T , , , ,. L Indirectlv remunerative acts or investments. F. I nderpJantmg The definitions of the terms " cleaning.*" " weeding." " improve- ment cutting" and "thinning" are so indistinct that it is often 127 SYLVICULTURE. difficult t<> differentiate them. Definition- might be based either on the age of the wood crop tended, or on the purpose aimed at, or on the financial side of the tending. Cleaning and weeding are applied for the benefit of very young growth and usually require an investment. Pruning, thinning and improvement cutting arc applied for the benefit of polewoods or thickets. Improvement cuttings and thinnings usually furnish a surplus revenue whilst pruning succeeds only in rare cases to be directly remunerative. Paragraph LIX. Cleaning in high forest. Cleaning may occur during the seedling stage and the small sapling stage. It implies the removal of saplings forming a shrubby advance growth (wolves) ; or the removal of undesirable stoolshoots; or the removal of seedlings and saplings belonging to a less-desirable species competing for space in a young forest. In natural seed regenerations, cleaning is particularly desirable. In- stances: Removing poor coppice shoots which oppress by faster growth the valuable seedlings of Yellow Poplar. Removing Birch, Fire Cherry, Thorns and Briars in young plantations of White Pine, Yellow Pine and Spruce. Where a regeneration area of strong soil has been burned previous to planting, the competition of volunteer growth is frequently such as to make cleaning necessary. The for- ester should take care, however, not to extirpate species now of little value, but possibly of a fair future value. In mixed regeneration, cleaning offers a good means to regulate the proportion of species admixed. The expense incurred for clean- ing must be commensurate to the financial effect of the operation. Instruments used are axe and brush hook; also long-handled clean- ing shears. Paragraph LX. Weeding in high forest. A plant, either herbaceous or ligneous, which has a negative value is a -weed." It might lie a cripple of an otherwise very valuable specie- (fire crippled Chestnul in Pisgah Forest), or it migW belong to a -pecies having no commercial value (Rhododen- dron, Witch-hazel. Black Cum. JIalesia. Chinquapin). Weeding implies the removal of large saplings, poles and trees having the character of weeds. Weeding niin take place before regeneration, or after regeneration has been started. It maj act incidentally a- a preparatory cutting, a seeding cutting or a final 128 S V L V I C ULTU R E. removal. It pays only ;i- an investment since the stuff removed has a negative value. The purpose of weeding might be the extirpation of sup- pressors of young growth: or an exchange of unhealthy crooked, fire-scalded, flat-headed pules for new. vigorous stump sprouts (Spanish and White Oak at Biltmorei. Tho term "weeding" is not found in book- on Sylviculture: it forms, however, under present conditions often one of the most important and most remunerative sylvicultural acts. Weeds are either girdled (deadened) or cut. In the ease of weeds having a diameter of over 6 inches, girdling is often preferable, because cheaper than cutting. More- over, the cutting of broad leaf weeds often tend- to merely replace the weed by weed sprouts. To prevent this. j n the case of sapling weed-, crushing -hears might be used. Some cottonwoods cannot be extirpated by deadening. In that case, the peeling of a strip of bark three feet long at a point two feet above ground i- advisable. Cutting of weeds i n August reduces the chances of their recovery. In the Adirondacks, the weeding of Beech overshadowing Spruce might be advisable, because remunera- tive. Paragraph LXI. Improvement cutting in high forest. The term improvement cutting was introduced into Indian prac- tice by Sir Dietrich Brandis. Improvement cuttings are cuttings for revenue and for partial regeneration, combined with weeding. An improvement of cutting extracts from irregular woods: A. Hypermature or dead trees -till of value. B. Misshapen immature trees. ( '. Specie- of minor value. D. Weeds of pole -i/e and tree -ize. Essentia] it is for the character of an improvement cuttingj that it is intended to result, on the ai:i:re;:ate. in a surplus revenue. Cuttings^ on the other hand, which leave the premises in a materially decreased financial value can. oi course, not lie considered as im- provement cuttings. Again, cuttings made at a sacrifice, with a view to an increased prospective value of the forest, are "weedings '* or "cleanings" which must he considered a- investments, like the expenses spent for regeneration. I. The purpose of improvement cuttings is or may be: a. A surplus revenue. 120 SYLVICUL T U R E. b. Improved financial prospects of the remaining crop carried about by : 1. Removal of trees and poles acting as suppressors; 2. Removal of inferior trees and poles acting as competitors; 3. Partial removal of a superstructure on a regeneration area; 4. Removal of less desirable individuals acting as seed-trees. c. The effect of a preparatory cutting, a seed cutting or a final cutting in thin, irregular woods, without removing well-grown mother trees of desirable species. d. Reduced danger from fire, fungi and insects. II. Kinds of improvement cuttings are: a. Improvement cuttings in primeval woods. b. Improvement cuttings in culled woods. c. Improvement cuttings in woods maltreated by fire and pas- turage. III. Marking: Trees and poles to be removed in an improve- ment cutting must be individually marked by the sylviculturist. Generalizing rules for marking cannot be given; each tree or pole must be dealt with according to its individual merits and demerits. The marking by the forester if improvement cuttings is, con- sequently, a timetaking affair. IV. Localities: Irregular, thin woods composed of a multitude of species deserve improvement cuttings. The local market must allow of the— at least partial — utiliza- tion of suppressing, competing, superstructing and less desirable individuals. Paragraph LXII. Thinnings in high forest. Thinnings proper are practicable only in dense and fairly even- aged -roups or woods always under the proviso thai a permanent load system and a nearby market allow of a remunerative outcome of the act. In Pisgah Forest thinnings are out of the question as the woods are thin enough. At Biltmore. thinnings are made where polewoods of Yellow Pine occupy abandoned fields. Up north, from the merely sylvicultural standpoint, thinnings are possible in the Jack Pine wood-, in Balsam thickets, on Black Spruce slopes. in Lodgepole Pine thickets, etc. For many a year to come the American forester will have little opportunity to make any thinnings. A. Purposes of thinnings: I. To develop the log diameter of large saplings and poles at a time at which the log axis has been obtained. 130 SYLVICULTURE. II. To increase the volume increment per acre. III. To increase the quality increment of favorably predestined mess-mates. IV. To reduce the danger from forest fires (dead and dying trees), insect pests and fungi plagues. V. To remove cripples and wolves. VI. Early financial returns. VII. Reduction of investment. VIII. Shortening of the rotation by feeding a lesser number of mess-mates on a relatively larger amount of. food (viz. moisture, heat, light, mineral matter, etc.). IX. Regulation of the relative proportion of species in mixed pole woods. B. The season for thinning depends upon local climate, season- able prices of labor, advisability of peeling and intensity of thin- ning. The season usually selected for thinning in Europe is the late winter when the main cuttings are completed. C. The time for thinning. Thinnings should begin -in the late thicket stage and should be repeated, to begin with, in five-year intervals, say from the year thirty to sixty. Thereafter the inter- vals are increased up to the year eighty or ninety. A preparatory cutting, although conducted like thinning, is no thinning, since its purpose is regeneration. Thinnings stop at the end of the pole stage. Where poles are non-salable, for instance, in European mountain districts and almost everywhere in America (excepting Biltmore Estate), thinnings cannot be made. D. The material supplied by thinning may consist of firewood, pulp wood, mine props, fence posts, telephone poles, hop poles, hoop poles, tool handles, bolts for spokes, locust pins, tannin wood. etc. In European practice the number of cubic feet obtained by thin- nings during the course of a rotation per acre equals one-quarter or one-half of the number of cubic feet obtained by the final cut. Heavy thinnings, as practiced in Denmark, are said to yield as many cubic feet in the aggregate of a rotation as the final cut. The tool used for thinning is invariably the axe. E. Kinds of thinnings: The old doctrine was: "Thin early, frequently, moderately! " This rule has been gradually abandoned during the past twenty years. The method of thinning naturally differs according to the purpose of it. William Schlich distinguished between quality thin- nings, made to improve the timber quality of the trees left; and quantity thinnings meant to result in the maximum production of wood fibre per acre per annum. 131 SI I. \ ECU LTD 15 E. If left alone, a dense thickel grows slowly only, the Eood being subdivided among a large number of messmates. Toward the beginning of forestry, sylviculturists were satisfied with thinnings burying the dead and moribund trees. Later on, thinnings were extended into the suppressed classes. The European experiment stations are now deeply engaged in working out the "besl " method of thinning. Obviously, no method can be best for all sorts of species and for all sorts of local condition-. 1. The experimenl stations distinguish between: Grade 1. Light thinnings, removing the dead or dying. Grade 2. .Moderate thinnings, removing the dean, dying and suppressed. Qxade :'>. Heavy thinnings, removing also the condominating tf'des, or such of them which are not absolutely essential tor the maintenance of the main leaf canopy overhead. (hade 4. Very strong thinnings, placing a limited number of dominating and predominating trees in a free position. Results so far published allot the maximum volume production (exclusive of branches) per acre to Grade 3. All these four grades might be characterized as "thinnings from below" (Eclaircies par le has). French silviculturists are advocating, on the other hand, "thin- nings from above" (Eclaircies par le haut). The Frenchmen, as a matter of principle, leave alone the sup- pressed lower stems, protecting by them the quality of the -oil as well as the clearness of boles within the predestined class, hi addition, they relieve tic ten-ion. friction and struggle for food amongst the dominators by culling out the worst developed domina- tors, or a percentage of those dominators which stand too close together, and which have, consequently, one-sided crown-. The objection to the French method lies in the following points- a. Material without increment is left on the ground. b. Weaklings and dying tree- left increase the dangers threat- ening i he forest. c. Greater difficulty in marking tree- to be removed. However, where quality increment is at stake. 1 he French method seems highly advisable. III. Radically differenl from the system- of thinnings hereto- fore prevailing are the revolutionary views proffered by Borggreve, th,. "Bryan amongst European sylviculturists. Borggreve thinnings interfere or remove only the predominators and dominators the biggesi poles— closest to the besl log size. 132 S YLYR I LTURE. Such thinnings begin only at the year sixty of a woodlot; they withdraw every ten years the largest one-seventh of the stems containing about one-quarter of the total volume. Of course, high and early revenue is secured by such practice. On the other hand, the trees removed are those growing at the besl rate of interest. (From the sixtieth year on 00' c of annual accretion in a woodlot TsTupplied by the 40 fj [in number] of the largest trees y. The advisability of a Borggreye thinning largely depends on the reproductive power of a wood thus " maltreated." In the case of Yellow Pine and on poor soil, the reproductive power of a wood seems too small to allow of speedy repletion of the growing stock and of its leaf canopy. Much "food" goes to waste after Borg- greve thinnings. In the case of White Pine and Spruce, the danger from storm and sleet after Borggreve thinnings must be badly dreaded. IV. Wagener, at the year twenty-five of a forest, makes a thinning called " crown-free-cutting." surrounding the crown of each predestined tree with an air space two and one-half feet wide. Dominating trees left should stand seven yards apart after the Wagener thinning. Suppressed trees are not interfered with. Such cuttings are much heavier than Borggreve's. At the year twenty- five the bole of the dominators 1- not fully developed. Underplant- ing takes place at the same time. The dominators left stand in an orchard-like position and show a very rapid diameter growth. Only one log or so is expected to 1 btained from the bole; it is obtained. however, within an extremely short rotation. Obviously, for coniferous wood- exposed to storm and of poor quality if wide ringed, the Wagener system is out of the question, lhe Wagener thinnings, unless they result in a heavy growth of adventitious branches, might be used to advantage for Black Wal- nut, Black Cherry and Oaks. V. In mixed forests such species as reach maturity during the pole stage might be removed by way of thinnings; f. i.. Locust and Sassafras from a pole wood of Yellow Poplar; Hickory when reach- ing spoke bolt size from a mixture with Oaks; Chestnut when reach- ing telephone pole size from a mixture with Oaks, Black Gum and Yellow Poplar. Paragraph LXIII. Pruning in high forest. ,s\ A. The object at stake might be: I. Production of logs free from knots,— especially free from dead knots. Live or sound knots measuring one and one-quarter 133 SYLVICUL T U R E. inches in diameter affect the lumber price only slightly. The pre- vention of dead knots is, therefore, most important. No topshoot is formed without side shoots, and no section of a tree bole is free from branches and free from branch knots. Hence the advisa- bility of pruning the boles of such species which develop branches of large diameter and of great persistence when dead. Branches (excepting adventitious branches) invariably start from the central core. II. Increased height growth. ill. The production of cylindrical boles of high form figure (Pressler's law of bole formation). Obviously, " li " and "ill" are obtained only by removing live branches. IV. The reduction of the shade falling on a young, promising undergrowth. V. The reduction of danger from fire in coniferous woods close to public roads. B. Species: Hardwoods suffer less from the removal of green branches than softwoods. Green branches of over five inches in diameter should not be removed at all, except in case " IV,"' owing to the certainty of subsequent disease. Oak heals the wound inflicted by pruning best; Ash is likely to split; Maple is slow in closing a wound; Birch soon shows dis- ease; Yellow Pine covers the wound quickly with rosin. C. Actual European practice: The practice restricts pruning to the case " I " and within case "I" to: I. Dead branches. II. Polewoods forty years to sixty years old. III. Limited numbers of poles (say 100) per acre, namely, to the specimens presumably predestined to reach the end of the rotation. Pruning extends to a height reaching up to forty feet, is done by help of ladders, of a climbing apparatus (not climbing irons) or of saws attached to very long poles. The best saw is the "Alers " construction. In France, sharp, curved blades are preferred to saws, since they produce a smoother cut. The branch is cut off as close to the bole as possible. Large branches are cut off in sections to prevent the bole from being scarred. In the case of broad-leafed species and in the case of live branches, large wounds are always tarred. Tarring in spring is impossible. 134 SYLVICULTURE. Expense at Biltmore for pruning Yellow Pine to a height of 16 feet is two cents per tree. The best months for pruning are the months at which the sap is down. The advisability of pruning depends largely on the prospective price — difference between clear lumber and knotty lumber. Pruning at a late date, say 20 years before cutting, is of no use. Theoretically it is best to remove dead branches in the year of their death. Where pruning is practiced, natural pruning produced by dense planting and hence dense planting itself might be spared, a proposi- tion which cannot be generally indorsed. Literature: Translation of DeCourval by Massachusetts For- estry Association. Paragraph LXIV. Underplanting in high forest. An upper story of high forest might be underplanted during the pole stage either artificially or by natural seed regeneration. In the latter case, weed species may answer the purpose. Underplant- ing may improve the timber quality of the upper growth. It usually does improve the productiveness of the soil. Frequently the purpose at stake in underplanting is that of fully utilizing the productive capacity of the soil and of the atmos- phere which is not entirely used by the upper story of growth. In that case, underplanting cannot be considered as a method of forest pedagogy. A. The species to be underplanted are, notably, light demanders; for instance, Yellow Pines; Oaks; Hickories; Larches; Yellow Poplar, etc. In the primeval woods, Long leaf Pine, Yellow Pine, Yellow Poplar, etc., show a natural undergrowth. In practice, the wood to be underplanted is 40 to 60 years old. Heavy " thinnings from below " precede underplanting. B. The species used for artificial underplanting are shade bearers and, if possible, soil improvers, notably Beech, Hard Maple, Fir, Lawson's Cypress, White Pine, Chestnut, Hemlock, etc. Spruce is now disliked for underplanting, since it unfavorably affects the growth of the upper story. Seedlings one or two years old are commonly used for underplanting. Dogwood, Black Gum, Witch Hazel, Chinquapin, Witch Hopple, possibly Kalmia and Rhododendron might be used for underplanting where mere soil protection is desired. The primeval hardwoods of the Alleghanies are frequently and densely underplanted with a low jungle formed by Ericaceae. 135 S VLVICULTUR E. Paragraph LXV. Key to the Forms of High Forest. That general condition of a foresl is termed its " sylviculture,! I'd] in "" which is brought about l>y its type or types of pasl regenera- tion, hence by its display of age classes and by the arrangement of the species exhibited. The treatmenl allotted to the "form" by the forester, provided that it is a systematic treatment, is termed its " sylviculural system." The multitude <>f forms found in primeval nature is innumer- able, since the *' molds " from which the forms are cast, vary indefinitely with every wrinkle of the topography and every varia- tion of the climate. Man's interference has tended— at least temporarily — to further increase the multitude of forms. It is a hard task to differentiate amongst this huge collection of forms and to arrange the collection into " orders," " families," "' genera " and " species " composing it. A priori, two great groups of forms might he singled out. namely "primeval forms" the product of unbiased nature and "second growth forms,' the product of nature influenced by man's interference. This human interference might have been of a char- acter utterly disregarding sylviculture,] ends (••culled forms"); or human ait might have tried, successfully or unsuccessfully, to lend a helping hand ("cultured forms"). The manner in which the various age classes of the foresi are mixed within the "orders of forms" is of paramount interest. From this manner of mixing depend: I. The manner and the possibility of remunerative lumbering. IL The type method and the expense of regeneration and pedagogy. III. The dangers from insects, fungi, lire, storm, etc.. threaten- ing the forest. The functions of the mixture are BO all-important in forestry, that the synthesis of the age-classes must serve as a main criterion in the construction of a key to the sylviculture,] form-. It must not he forgotten, however, that age differences of. say. 20 years are verj conspicuous during the seedling, sapling and pole stage of the forest ; whilsi the keenest eye cannot detect these same diffrences in an old tree forest. In mixed forests exhibiting a large variety of species the analysis of the form presents particular difficulties. Such is the 13G 1. percivendible 2. multivendible 3. omniveriililile S YLVICULTUB E. case by far more frequently in primeval than in culled or cultured high forest. Sometimes a distinct form of a minor, scattering species appears to be "grafted" upon a distinct form of one or several major, gregarious species ("grafted forms"). Where two distinct forms in mixture occupy more equal shares (not minor and major shares) in the aggregate display, we may speak of "wedded forms.'' "Husb and and wife, thoug h distincj indi vidua ls, unite for a life in a household of their own." Synopsis of "Forms of High Forest." A. Primeval forms of high forest. a. Primeval selection form. b. Primeval group form. c. Primeval compartment fori d. Primeval standard form. B. Culled forms of high forest. a. Culled selection form. b. Culled group form. l - axe culled e. Culled compartment form. d. Culled standard form. 2 ' fire culled C. Cultured forms of high forest. a. Evenaged main forms, emanating from 1. cleared compartment of type of a. >. r. 2. short time shelter wood compartment type of n. s. r. 3. planting 4. underplanting b. Unevenaged main forms, emanating from 5. long time shelterwood compartment type "f n. s. r. 6. strip type 7. group type 8. selection type c. Auxiliary forms. 9. standard form 10. two storied high forest. A. Primeval forms of high forest. I. Characteristic for all primeval forms is a relative preponder- ance of the hypermature age-classes (veterans); a relatively deficiency of the youngest age-classes (seedlings, saplings and poles); the presence of a large number of dead, decaying or unsound speci- mens only temporarily excelled in the "culled forms;" a large number of dead corpses of trees spread flat on the ground; irregular confines of the parts composing the aggregates; irregular composi- tion of such parts by age-classes and species, many of which may be weeds; usually a heavy layer of humus on the ground; usually 137 SYLVICULTURE. the presence of a few strikingly large and spotless trees overtower- ing their neighbors; absolute lack of permanent means of trans- portation. II. Subdivision of primeval forms of high forest. According to the relative share held by species of " weed trees " in the mixture of species composing them, the primeval forests might be subdivided into pauci, multi and omnivendible forests. Primeval woods, in which only 10% of the timber species command a value, might be called " pauci vendible "; at 50%, the term " multivendible " and at approximately 100%, the term "omnivend- ible " might be applied. The vendibility of the members composing the forest, whilst it controls the possibility and the manner of its sylvicultural man- agement, does not influence, however, the actual display of the forest in the slightest degree. It will be best, consequently, to subjoin the viewpoint of vendibility to the viewpoint of actual composition of the forest as displayed in the size of its composing parts — notably of its age- classes. Thus we arrive at : a. A selection form, where the age-classes raised are mixed by trees or small patches — a very uneven-aged form; b. A group form, where the age-classes raised are segregated in groups occupying from one-tenth to four acres; c. A compartment form, where the age-classes raised are segre- gated in large, coherent areas (coves, slopes) covering from twenty to one hundred acres — a very evenaged form of forest. The epideta " paucivendible," "multivendible" and "omnivend- ible " added to the terms " selection form," " group form " and "compartment form" readily explain, in crude lines, the sylvi- cultural as well as the economic display of a primeval forest. The groups or the compartments often show a sprinkling of huge trees known as " standards," having a much higher age and frequently belonging to a species different from that or those form- ing the main growing stock. Instances are: Yellow Poplar standards in Beech compartments; White Pine standards in Balsam compartments; Yellow Pine standards in Oak groups; Cuban Pine standards in Cuban Pine groups; Long-leaf Pine standards in Cuban Pine groups. Naturally, where the standards belong to several age-classes and 138 SYLVICULTURE. do not form a distinct age-class by themselves, we merely meet a selection form. Standards in primeval woods are frequent enough to call for the singling out of a fourth form, namely: d. A standard form, which might be again subdivided into: A form of standards over groups; A form of standards over compartments. A variety of the latter subform found in the Chaparal thickets of California and in the Calmia thickets of North Carolina might be termed " form of standards over paucivendible compartments." The two-storied high forest is often formed by two or more distinct species appearing in distinct forms. It had better be con- sidered as a combination of forms, one form being grafted upon another (f. i., multivendible compartments of Douglas Fir grafted upon the paucivendible selection form of Hemlock) ; or one form being wedded with another (f. i., multivendible group form of Long-leaf Pine wedded with paucivendible compartments of Black Jack Oak). The term " two-storied high forest " properly applies only to a permanent combination of two tiers of trees (representing one or more species), each tier emanating from regeneration of the compartment type of n. s. r. It is a compartment form wedded with a compartment form. III. Treatment of primeval forests: The only treatment required i- of a protective, not of a sylvi- eultural character. As long as the forest retains its primeval display, unhampered by human interference, the regeneration of the primeval selection form is of the cleared, shelterwood or advance growth selection type; the regeneration of the primeval group form is of the cleared or advance growth group type: and the regeneration of the primeval compartment form is usually of the cleared compartment type. Obviously, with the beginning of logging operations the " primeval forms " are gradually, piece by piece, changed into '• culled forms." the display of which largely depends on vendi- bility and on fires. Rarely only the primeval forest enters at once or directly into a cultured form (Pisgah Forest of the Biltmore Estate; Xe-ha-sa-ne park; government forests in Galizia) without passing through the stage of " culled form. In the large majority of cases, the primeval woods pass through " culled forms " into " cultured forms," in the course of generations of men and of trees. 139 SYLVK l I. I l RE. I!. Culled forma of high forest: I. Characteristic for the culled forms of high forest is the aDsence of mature nr maturing trees belonging to a desirable species; the preponderance of weeds, unsound trees, undesirable species and of trees and poles badly crippled by the logging operations. Only diseased trees or relative small trees of the desirable species are left tO seed the ground. Advance growth is invariably spoiled where the trees are omni- veinlilile or multivendible. Characteristic for the culled forms is. further, the presence of large amounts of debris and of a parched humus. A- a rule, the culled forms show death and scars due to forest fires. Frequently, the culled forest displays an entirely new assort- ment of the species composing it. the previously prevailing species having been removed by logging. It is more "mobbish" than the primeval forest. II. Subdivisions of culled forms of high forest: The culled forest is usually more uniform than the primeval forest from which it emanates, owing to the uniform character of the logging operations. Still, the compartment form, group form and selection form originally exhibited are usually retained. In the compartment form and in the group form a few worth- less trees or veterans left standing and continuing to live fre- quent lv remind on the "form of standards in high forest" or on the "form of underplanted high forest." (Compare C, II, b, of the same paragraph.) III. Treatment of the culled high forest : Where fires are kept out, the chances for seed regeneration are good — unusually g I— owing to the condition of the seed-bed and to the unlimited food supply available for the seedlings. In the case of Yellow Pines, light fires seem even helpful to n. s. r. Since the valuable species form, however, the minority amongst the seed-trees, the worthless and less valuable kinds usually prevail in the young growth formed after culling. Cleaning and weeding are required to improve the prospects of the minority composed of noble species. Besides, improvement cuttings are indicated in the culled forms: ' The culled form is the form requiring improvement cuttings." The "aristocrats" frequently return only to the regeneration area after a score or two of years, the rash "mob" then acting -.1- nurse-trees or as ushers. 140 S Y L VI C I L T L l; K. Where heavy and extensive fires have swept the culled forest originally consisting of exacting species, patient waiting alone ran secure conditions mure favorable to artistocratic regeneration. Fires frequently convert a high forest of hardwoods into a coppice forest. The younger age-classes suffer more from fire than the older age-classes. A tire-swept, culled forest is deficient, at least tem- porarily, in seedlings, saplings and small poles. A few years after a tire, the culled forest often displays the feature, of the under- planted form of high forest (Par. LXV. C. II. b.) or of the coppice- under-standard form (Par. LXXIIIi. I - I ultured forms of high forest: I. Characteristic for the cultured forms f high fores! is great uniformity; lack of hypermature, unsound and misshapen aristo- crats; lack of weed-tree- lack of coppice shoots; complete cover overhead; multi- or omni- vendibility; permanent means of trans- portation. The cultured forest does not require weeding or improvement cuttings for the reason that cleanings and early thinnings have prevented the development of weed-trees and wolf-trees, whilst the hypermature veteran has been removed long ago. If the culled form is "the form of improvement cuttings," the cultured form might he termed "the form of thinnings." " II. Subdivision of cultured high forest: a. .Main cultured forms of high foresl : 1. Even-aged cultured forms, when the age-classes mixed within a compartment differ by up to 25 years. aa. Form emanating from the cleared compartment type of n. s. r. bb. Form emanating from the short-time shelterwood compart- ment type of „. s. v.. the periods f regeneration not exceeding 25 year-. cc. Form raised by planting seeds or seedlings over whole compartment-. dd. Form raised by underplanting seeds or seedlings over whole compartments, followed by (gradual) removal of the supef- structing tree- within less than 2."> year-. ■2. Uneven-aged cultured forms, when the age-classes mixed within a compartment differ by over lV) year-. aa. Form emanating from the long-time-fcheiterwood compart- ment type of n. s. r. bb. Form emanating from -trip type-, either restoeked by n. -. r. or by planting. 141 SILVICULTURE. cc Form emanating from group types of n. B. r., or from planted groups. da. Form emanating from selection types of n. s. r. b. Auxiliary cultured forms of high forest: aa. Form of standards in high forest, when a limited number of trees are left to grow amongst and with the young growth for a longer or shorter number of yen-. The standards might be left either in scattering groups or individually scattered over the second growth. In the latter case, only Btorm-firm species will answer. It is wise to leave the stand- ards in the proximity of roads so as to allow their removal without inflicting damage on the young growth. Species well adapted for standards arc: yellow Pines, Larches. White Oaks, Yellow Poplar, Black Locust, Hickory. Walnut. Black Cherry. Shade-bearers and flat-rooted species will not answer the purpose. It is unwise to leave standards unprepared by preceding cuttings for the life in the open. Standards set suddenly free will cover themselves rapidly with adventitious branches, will grow stag- headed, will suffer from storm and sleet, and will die without yield- ing the results for which they were left. Where the standards shade the young growth too badly, it may be necessary to remove their lower live branches. The number of standards left per acre does not usually exceed 2.1. Very good soil and short rotations allow of an increased num- ber. Standards may he. but need not be, of the same species which forms the undergrowth. Where the standards do not belong, approximately, to one and the same age-class, there the standard form bastardizes with the uneven-aged forms emanating from the group-type or from the selection type of n. s. r. bb. Form of two-storied high forest, when an upper and a lower leaf canopy is maintained in distinctly separate tiers. Species adapted to form the lower leaf canopy are: Beech, Hard Maple, Black Gum, Firs, Hemlocks. The species in the upper story had better have a light-demanding character. The form is created by raising a polewood (even-aged) of Yellow Pine. Oak, Hickory, Larch, etc.; by early and heavy thinnings from below; by very Heavy thinnings after the completion of the principal height growth (year forty to sixty); and by planting at the same time either seeds or preferably seedlings of shade-bearing 1 species. Should the undergrowth catch up with the upper growth, either the one •or the other must be removed. The undergrowth preserves the fer- 142 s Y L VICULTURE. tility of the soil by thorough shading, by the formation of a mixed humus and by increased leaf-fall. It improves the bole- quality of the upper growth, the crowns of the lower growth holding the boles of the upper in close embrace. In addition, it prevents any part of the timber-producing factors of the locality (atmosphere, light, moisture, soil) from lying unutilized. Usually the undergrowth produces firewood, the upper growth timber. The so-called " Seebach's modified high forest " has Beech in the upper as well as in the lower story. The lower story is obtained from self-sown seed of the upper story after very heavy thinning. Under and upper growth are finally utilized in the same year or in the same period of years. III. Treatment of cultured high forest. Regeneration in the cultured form of high forest takes place in any of the types of n. s. r., or by planting seed- and seedlings. As a rule, natural regeneration is now combined with partial plant- ing. Cleaning and thinning are usually idicated, whilst, as stated, weeding and improvement cutting are not required. Paragraph LXVI. Critical remarks on the forms of high forest. A. Attitude of the investor: It is almost amusing to observe the difference of attitudes which the statesman, the lumberman and the forester show with respect to the terms "primeval." "culled ' and "cultured" forests. Still, all of these forests arc justifiable, at least temporarily. and usually justified by the economic conditions evolving them. I. The primeval forest seems to be the "forest in economic stagnation." Still, fortunes haA-e been carved by many investors, buying and retaining primeval forests for their own benefit and incidentally for the benefit of later generations of men. With every parcel of primeval forest destroyed, the value of the balance left increases in estimation and in actual usefulness. Sylviculturally, no forest requires a more minute and more painstaking treatment than the primeval forest, when its conversion into cultured forest is at stake. Still, the small price obtainable for its products defies any attempt at a remunerative outcome of heavy sylvicultural outlays. What is the use of safeguarding or producing a second growth, by sylvicultural acts, which is devoid of any prospective value, or which is of a value inferior to the expense required to safeguard it or to produce it ? Tims, sylviculturally as well as financially it seems very fre- quently best to leave the primeval wood unattended, unregenerated, unconverted, for the time being. 143 S1LVI.C1 I.TI i; E. II. The culled foresl usually exists in Localities where timber has a higher value than in the primeval backwoods. Indeed, where the culling of the forest has made great progress in a state or in a county, there the culled foresl is getting rapidly ripe for sylviculture! treatment. Eeavy culling merely proves a high range oi stumpage prices, fostered l>y a near-by market and by good mean- of transportation. Wnere the foresl has been culled onlj of decidedly mature trees, there the chances for good results are bright, financially as well as s\ U iculturally. fhe attitude which the owner of culled forests adopts towards sylviculturaJ investments, necessarily depends on a diagnosis of the tut nre of the lumber industry appealing to him. III. The cultured forest is still a rarity in the United Stales. and will continue to he a rarity during our lifetime. Imagine for a moment, that the famous Black forest of Ger- many were suddenly transferred, with its fine Spruce woods, its splendid roads and its skilled laborers, into the heart of the Adi- rondack*! Would it be wise, financially, to continue its sylvieul- tural treatment as inaugurated in Germany? It certainly would; the logs salable in the Black Forest are also salable in the Adirondacks at a good profit. And a network of splendid roads would tend to cheapen transportation by exactly that many cents per standard, which the stumpage itself would gain per standard. On the other hand, that same Black forest transferred to the Pacific coast — say into the Olympic mountains — would certainly prove a financial ami therefore a sylviculturaJ failure. The better it pays to cull the forest, the closer at hand is the time of the cultured forest. It must he kepi in mind, however, that the change from the culled to the cultured forest requires, aside from a market for the products obtained and from the willingness of the owner to embark ii: sylviculturaJ investments. a. Investments in permaneni mean- of transportation; b. Relative safety from foresl lire-: C Time. Wherever the woods emerge ill a decrepit condition from the primeval stage after reckless lumbering, heavy fires, unlimited pasturage, there the adoption of a system will he found necessary alter scores of year- breaking entirely with the past and raising. 1 It S Y L V I C U L T I" R E. after thorough destruction of the past growth, by artificial means a new crop of valuable species. Large, continuous clearings badly resist reforestation like the prairies, although on a smaller scale. Extensive, even-aged woods form " incubators *' for disastrous diseases; suffer from snow, storm, drought, and frost. On the other hand, their management is greatly facilitated, so that reinforcing, cleaning, thinning, regeneration and utilization are much cheapened. B. Selection of form by the forester. I. The primevar»forms of high forest found by the forester u>uallv appear unretainable. Whatever the case be, the first stroke of the axe is sure to remove the mature and hyper-mature trees, the preponderance of which belongs to the character of any primeval form. However, when transforming primeval woods into cultured woods, the forester should endeavor to retain as much as possible the form originally sanctioned by nature. Such retention i- the safest way to sylvicultural success. Still, it usually necessitates heavy investments for permanent means of transportation, and where the owner is unwilling to make them, cuttings by com- partments or by strips are required, winch in turn lead to the adoption of the advance growth type, shelterwood type, or cleared type of n. s. r. The -trip form, a- mentioned elsewhere, seems to be particu- larly well adapted to meet American need-. IT. The culled forms of high forest must lie retained by the forester in the compartment, group or selection form first en- countered, unless the culling ha- been particularly light. Improve- ment cuttings are not apt to change the form of the forest. Where artificial reinforcing is resorted to, the forest will gradually develop even-aged form-. When after heavy culling the average growing -lock per acre is badly reduced, then forms allowing of short rotation- are indicated, so especially selection forms ami standard form-. Frequently in such cases, the high forest is aban- doned, and the coppice forest is resorted to. III. In the cultured forms, the trend of the time- favors uneven-aged forms, notably mixed group forms and narrow- -trip forms, on account of greater safety. Heavy •"thinnings from above" are in vogue, frequently in connection with underplanting lor underseeding by n. s. r.). Regeneration is effected either by planting compartments, -trips and groups, with or without a shelterwood overhead, or by the various types of n. s. r. 143 SYLVICULTURE. Where the deficiency of the growing stock lends to the. adoption of -lioit rotations, standard forms, two-storied forms, underplanted forms or coppice-under-standard forms must be resorted to. In the latter case, of course, the high forest form is thrown overheard. Paragraph LXVII. High Forest by Species. A. Oaks: The Oaks rarely appear in pure stands. I. Primeval woods. The primeval high forest exhibits the Oak: a. As the lower story planted in groups or compartments under- neath an upper story of Long-leaf Pine, Loblolly Pine, Short-leaf I'm.' : 1). In small pure groups sprinkled amongst the Bald Cypress and Red Gum of the southern hummocks; c. In the selection form grafted upon compartments of high forest of other hardwoods, notably of Chestnut, Hickory, Gum (Ten.); or grafted on compartments of Kalmia, Rhododendron, Chinquapin (X. C). d. In pure even-aged groups (prairie borders). e. In selection forests mixed with many other hardwoods also in -election form. II. Culled high forests: The culled forest of oak is usually axe-culled as well as fire-culled, thus partly losing its character as a high forest. The n. s. r. of White Oak. Chestnut Oak and Scarlet Oak at Biltmore proceeds selectionwise or in compartments, notably so on Indian fields in the Pink-beds; underneath Chestnut. Maples, and Oaks on Poplar hill; mixed with Hickory on the lower west slope of Avei \ s creek and so on. The Oaks endure shade well for a long number of years, trail- ing on the ground until freed from superstructure. Coccinea three years old i- only five inches high, being clipped back continuously by insufficient lignification of its top-shoots. Even-aged polewoods of Oak are found all over the Blue Ridge and tin' Piedmont Plateau. Examination will usually prove them to be lire-culled coppice formed by the lire-killed, younger age classes of primeval woods (seedlings, saplings and small poles). III. Cultured high forests. The cultured high forest at Biltmore is still in statu nascendi, in the plantations on abandoned fields as well as in the n. s. r.'s of comp. L02 (compartment type), the slopes of Ducker Mountain, etc. The growth of the Oaks during early youth is very slow. The soil is usually so badly hardened as to require artificial help to 146 S Y L V I C U LITE E. n. s. r. Oak seedlings and saplings are rare in Pisgah Forest (excepting 3-year-old Scarlet Oaks). The Oaks mingle with the Short-leaf Pine everywhere as an undergrowth started. by n. s. r.. or as a companion-growth in Pine polewoods. Here too, however, the fires have usually converted seedlings and saplings into stoolshoots. In the S. E., regeneration under shelter-wood or in advance of logging (by the group type or by the compartment type) seems advisable. In the mixture with the Oaks should be encouraged: Maples, Black Gums, Pines (White Pine grows and retain- its branches for a long time in the mixture). Chestnut. Hickory. "Walnut. Record of seed years at Biltmore: White Oak: good in L899. Post Oak: in 1900 the only mast-bearing oak. Black Oak: splendid, full mast year in 1901 in all situations. Spanish Oak: splendid, full mast year in 1901. Chestnut Oak: promises well in 1904. B. Chestnuts: I. Primeval fore-t - : Actually primeval forests of Chestnut seem very rare. The (best nut woods of the Appalachians have been ransacked by fires for many decade- of years. The n. s. r. seems to have been of the selection type. Chestnut seems to avoid limestone-soil and ceases to occur where limestone appears (Ky; Ten.). II. Culled high forests: The fire-culled forest shows an absolute lack of seedlings, sap- lings and poles. The axe-culled forest consists merely of coppice. Trees beset with dead branches are invariably wormy (Lymexylon). ,beed years seem to be getting scarce, possibly under the influ- ence of fires, to judge from the reports of mountaineers. The old trees are frequently stagheaded and fail to successfully regenerate their kind. Seedlings one year old are about eight inches high, when found in the woods. They appear individually scattering and not in groups. III. Cultured high forests: The cultured forest usually has the form of coppice or coppice- under-standards. Plantations in the United States are made more for fruit-growing than for timber-growing. The abandoned fields at Biltmore seem too dry for successful development. Chestnuts 147 SI I. \ I c ULTUE K. planted as an undergrowth below Oak and Pine have done poorly, owing to the ravages of squirrels. The poles and trees seem to badly resenl any sudden inter' ference with the leaf canopy and with tin- humus. Thinnings and cuttings in the shelters 1 system should be Light. The competition of stoolshoots invariably formed after cuttings reduces the prospects of seedlings simultaneously obtained. Stool- shoots cannot be entirely prevented by deadening previous to cutting. Cnestnul produces a splendid humus and is an excellent com- panion £or Oak.-. Hickories, Walnut. Black Cherry, Ash and Yellow Poplar; also for White Pine and Hemlock. It regenerates in mixture with Yellow Poplar on small abandoned fields of Pisgah Forest to a limited degree. Seed years: Fairly good mast in 1898. On the mountain tops, where Chestnut stands in an orchard-like position, seed occurs annually. C. Hickories: I. Primeval forest : The Hickories appear regenerated in the selection type and in the group type. II. Culled high forest: The Hickories suffer badly from fires. Fires do not kill the poles, but cause the butts to bursl subject- ing them to decay. Weeding and heavy improvement cuttings are beneficial. III. Cultured high forest: From the early pole stage on, the crowns should be placed in a tree position so as to cause the formation of wide rings. At Biltmore, the boles are apt to be very branchy, the tough limbs being very persistent. In the mountains, on stronger soil, the boles clear themselves readily. The Hickories regenerate by n. s. r. in abandoned fields in mixture with Black Gum, Sassafras, iellow Poplar, Locust. Oaks, etc. In the plantations on abandoned fields at Biltmore, Bitternut al.me promises to be successful. The other species are badly handi- capped by rodents and seem to be of very slow growth. The Hickories seem to be immune from damage by frost in their native country; not so in Germany. Seed years are not of record. D. Walnut-: 1 is S YLVICULTUK E. I. Primeval forests: The Walnuts appear in the primeval woods invariably in mix- ture with other species, on strong soil, seemingly regenerated by the selection type. II. Culled high forests: The Walnuts seem remarkably fireproof from the early pole stage on. Seed regeneration is rare in the woods, but more fre- quent on old deadenings close to habitations, where the squirrels were held in check. III. Cultured high forests: Without artificial help. n. s. r. seems very problematic. Under any circumstances, the rodents must he kept off. Plantations are frequently found and do very well in early youth, unless the soil is badly hardened and impoverished. The siands should he dense, whether pure or mixed with Oaks etc., so as to produce clean boles. Plantations seem to fail in the close proximity of old trees. Tlie plantations at Biltmore have failed invariably in the woods, owing to the ravages of squirrels; toungya on leased farms shows poor success, owing to the unreliability of the lessees; plantations of seedlings three year's old tailed badly; plantations of yearlings freeze to the ground annually on all slopes; plantations of nuts on small fields have done very well, where the ground was good; and the change from good to bad. brought about by the undula- tions of the soil, is very marked. Failures on i r s,,i] are now doctored up by a nursegrowth of Yellow Pines. — a remedy promis- ing SOine success. E. Beech: I. The primeval forest exhibits the compartment, group and selection type of u. s. r. The humus is usually very heavy and so moist thai fires have a poor chance to spread. In the South, at lower altitudes.. Beech merely fringes the river hanks. II. The culled high forest shows many stump sprouts, stumps three feet high forming the sproilts on the top of the stump. In the Blue (Irass Region, huge park trees are frequently found in a dense undergrowth of seedlings and saplings. Here the more valuable species have been culled out many years ago. and the Beech is left in exclusive possession of the soil. III. The cultured high forests of Beech are easily regenerated in the shelterwood- compartment type. The selection type yields branchy boles. Beech is the best companion imaginable for faster- 140 SYLVICULTURE. growing species; is splendidly qualified for an underwood planted beneath aristocratic species; is exacting and sensitive. Plantations on abandoned fields are out of the question, except at high altitudes. No seed years are of record at Biltmore. The trees on the river banks fruit annually. F. Bass wood: I. Primeval forests: In the Lake States and in the Alleghanies, Basswood exhibits the form emanating from the selection type of n. s. r., grafted on the compartment type of White Pine, or of Hard .Maple, or else mixed with Hard Maple, Elm, Chestnut, Red Oak, Yellow Poplar. II. Culled high forests: The regeneration follows the selection type; fires clip the seed- lings and saplings; larger poles and trees seem to withstand well. Hi. Cultured high forests: Young seedlings develop very slowly : they are less sensitive than their shade-endurance would indicate. Pure forests are found only in Russia. Seedlings planted at Biltmore on old fields, of strong quali- ties, have hesitated to develop for six years, growing bushy and crooked; in 1904. they promise good results. Linden underplanted below Oaks and Chestnuts after moderate chinning on North slopes seems to answer admirably, forming long and straight, although overhanging topshoots. Seedyears in Pisgah Forest occur annually. The majority of the seeds, however, seem to drop immature. (i. Yellow Poplar: I. Primeval forests: Yellow Poplar appears invariably in the selection type, or in the form of standards. II. Culled high forests: IIm' species attempts unceasingly to propagate its kind by n. s. r. The heavier the destruction by the axe, the better are its chances for success. Fires, on the other hand, annihilate the -<■<■,!- lings and check the chances for regeneration thereafter, owing to a rank growth of weeds following the fires. In Pisgah Forest, seed- lings and saplings were entirely lacking, until fires were stopped. The regeneration on old fields, on the other hand, is prolific and easy. Cattle press the seeds into the ground and check the competing weeds. Sassafras, Locust and Pine frequently act as 150 SYLVICULTURE. ushers. The old fields are usually protected from fire by the owners wishing to protect their fences. ]\o known species prunes itself as readily from branches as Yellow Poplar, the dead branches popping off without leaving any stumps. III. Cultured high forests: No species at Biltmore is as easily regenerated by n. s. r. as Yellow Poplar. In Biltmore Forest, the group type is readily carried through with the help of three or four mother-trees to the acre. The other companions of the mother trees, notably Oaks and Chestnuts, are gradually cut away; spreading Dogwoods are deadened to prevent them from forming stoolshoots. In Pisgah Forest, regeneration is helped by preceding pasturage (especially in early spring, before the seeds of Poplar germinate) and by weeding following in the wake of n. s. r. The seeds will never sprout in the humus; seedlings born late in spring (June) and showing the cotyledons still in September are sure to be killed by frost; also seedlings growing in the shade of weeds. The logging roads and log yards are real " nurseries " for Poplar. On steep ground, the seedlings are washed out by the rain. The growth is very fast. Seed years are annual; hollow trees are likely to furnish very poor seeds. Plantations of 3-year-olds at Biltmore on poor old fields did badly: on good soil, especially where a volunteer growth of Locust has joined the plants, the success is complete. H. Maples: I. Primeval forests: Here the regeneration follows the compartment type (Adiron- dacks, Missouri valley), the group type and the selection type (Biltmore, Northern Minnesota). Maple usually appears in mixture with other hardAvoods, with Spruce and White Pine. Soft Maple occurs in low, moist sites as well as on dry ridges. Hard Maple demands well-drained and strong soil, preferring Northern aspects. II. Culled high forests: After culling, the younger stages of Maple are usually left in possession and develop in dense thickets, preventing more valu- able species from establishing themselves. In the Adirondacks, Soft Maple is frequently found on Spruceflats after windfalls (asso- ciated with Yellow Birch). III. Cultured high forests: Dr. Fernow at Axton succeeded in establishing, in places, a 151 S Y 1. VI CULT I I; K. splciiilid regeneration obtained from advance growth n. >. r. of the compartment type, removing the parents at one stroke. In Europe, the shelterwood compartment type answers admirably. Biltmore Forest i- deficient in Maple, still. Han! Maple planted on abandoned fields, pure or in mixture with White Pine, has done admirably, excepting dry S. W. slopes, dry spurs, and verj moist river bottoms. In Pisgah Forest, Red Maple usually appears a- a weed over- shadowing aristocratic seedlings. I. Ashes: I. Primeval forests: The Ashes usually regenerate and stand in patches or groups, occupying the moister sites. II. ( ulled high forests: Protected by moist ground, the Ashes stand a good chance to escape the iires. During early youth, the seedlings endure remark- ablj heavy shade. Weeding and improvement-cuttings produce splendid results. III. Cultured high forests: Regeneration in the group type is easy, if helped by cleaning (Ducker .Mountain of Biltmore Estate) and gradual removal of the obstructing trees. On old fields, on moist slopes. White Ash is often accompanied by Yellow Poplar and II Plantations of 3-year-old Green Ash ha\ more on dry. hard soil. Plantations of 3-year-old White Ash ii well; also seed plantations on good soil in The early growth is very last. Seeds arc profusely produced from the pole stage on. J. Red Spruce: I. Primeval forests: The primeval Spruce woods appear as more or less even-aged compartments in the swamps and sloughs of the Lake States and on the dry. shallow South -lope-, of New England; in the cleared group form and in the selection form in Western X. C. at altitudes exceeding 5,000 feet, mixed with Aides fraseri (selection); in the selection form, grafted upon compart- ments of Beech and .Maple, on the hardwood slopes of the Adiron- dacks. In the latter case, spruce never regenerates in the heavy layer of broad-leafed humus, but selects invariably the half-rotted corpse of a dead tree for a seed-bed. II. Culled high forests: Tn slightly culled forests immune from tires. Red Spruce seems to reproduce with remarkable ease. On fired ground; Birches and Cottonwoods frequently act a- ushers. Ms 152 le fi sia. 1 i ll lerlv a t Bilt- h alt S\\ amps .I i very lie ga I'- Of a rn Ige. S YLVICULT U R E. persistence below an impenetrable leaf canopy of Beech or Maple is surprising. Freed from superstructure, after long years of suf- fering, it answers the chance for rapid growth almost immediately. III. Cultured high forests: Spruce requires high atmospheric moisture: is satisfied with shallow soil: can be readily reproduced by n. s. r. as well as by planting. Seed years: Prolific in North Carolina in fall 1901. The trees, top heavy with cones, were mowed down by storms. K. White Pine: I. Primeval forests: The White Pine of the primeval woods appears in compartments, almost even-aged, or in groups, either pure, or with an admixture of Hard Maple. Linden. Elm. Yellow Birch; or in the form of standards over Red Spruce and Balsam; or in the selection form, as in the Calmia thickets of the Pink-bed Swamps. It is flat-rooted, subject to windfalls, in the North not tolerant of shade. II. Culled high forests: The gorgeous White Pine forest- of the Lake Stale-, after culling followed by lire-, are invariably surrendered to a shrubbage of hardwoods. Second growth i- found in beautiful groups underneath Norway Pine: individually sprinkled amongst .lack Pine. Bassw 1. Birch, etc: also on old burns in extensive, even-aged compartments; along roads and at the edge of clearings; in New England on old fields. In Western X. ( '.. White Pine regenerates readily on broom- sedge fields; in mixture with the Oaks on the uplands: in mixture with Red Maple and Red Birch in the river swamps, etc. III. Cultured high forests: At Biltmore, the n. s. r. of White Pine started by a few seed tree- succeeds easily in the group type. White Pines planted under dense shelter require freeing soon (com- partment 4.")). Individual trees are very retentive of branches. Plantations on several hundred acres have done admirably. White Pine i- the easiest Pine to plant on old fields or in groups in the woods after clearing. Seed years are frequent at Biltmore. recurring at interval- of two or three year-, f. i.. fall of 1902 and 1904. L. Yellow Pine-: I. Primeval forests: The pure group form (Black-hills) or the group form wedded with the compartment form of Oaks reach- ing a lesser height than the Pines seem to be typical. Pine standards are often left. The compartment form of P. taeda is also frequent. P. divaricata and murrayana invariably occur in 153 SYLVICULTURE. even-aged compartments j P. paluatris and P. heterophylla usually occur in groups. II. Culled high forests: The culled forest is usually visited by fires which gradually convert an undergrowth of hardwoods, where it exists, into coppice. Beneath Longleaf Pine, this undergrowth begins to sprout only when the mature Pine is removed. P. rigida and P. echinata less than 6 inches in diameter are also coppiced (Xew Jersey Pines) to a limited extent. Where the pure high forest continues, fire has usually improved the chances for n. s. r. by preparing a ready seed-bed and by lessening the severity of future fires. All Yellow Pines regenerate prolifically on abandoned fields, often in stands which artificial planting could not produce equally well. III. Cultured high forests: The n. s. r. of P. echinata in the Biltmore woods creates nuclei for small groups which are freed and gradually enlarged. Heavy thinnings from the early thicket stage on prevent crowding in the pole stage and thereby check the chances for successful attacks by the bark beetles. Pruning 100 decidedly predestined trees per acre seems remunerative (dead branches only) at Biltmore. Standard form of P. echinata seems indicated at Biltmore. All Yellow Pines are easily planted when one or two years old and get along without cultivation on old fields. Heavy growth of weeds, on good soil, however, is sure to smother them. In pure and large natural regenerations, it is wise to leave some hardwood standards with a view to securing an admixture of hardwood seedlings in due course of time. In mixture with White Pine, Yellow Pine is soon subdued on good soil, white it retains the lead on poor soil. Seed years of Pinus echinata at Biltmore occur every seven years. The fall of 1902 was a prolific breeder of seeds even in pole- woods :;;> years old (Walker-nursery at Biltmore). CHAPTER III. THE COPPICE FOREST. Paragraph LXVIII. Genesis of the coppice forest and its methods. The coppice Eoresl is either the result of stump-shoots or is obtained from rootsuekers. layers and cuttings. 154 A*.v ' / ' SYLVICULTURE. A. Stumpshoots (or stoolshoots or coppice shoots). I. Species: All hardwoods whilst young form stump shoots wherr cut just above the callus. Amongst the softwoods, the Sequoias exhibit enormous stump sprouts. Amongst the Yellow Pines, P. rigida and echinata, after F. E. Olmsted also P. taeda, are capable of developing sprouts from stumps measuring less than six inches in diameter. White Pines, Spruces, Firs, Larches, Hemlocks, etc., never form coppice shoots. II. Diameter: The sprouting capacity^ rapidly decreases, usnnlly with_ incr easin g diameter of the stumjx The diameter at which* the principal height growth is completed usually denotes the limit permissible for coppice rotations. This rule is particularly well illustrated by the behavior of Yelow Pine, Birch, Maple, Yellow Poplar, Oaks, Hickories, etc. Chestnut and Sequoia do not seem to follow the rule. III. Soil: Good soil allows big stumps otherwise unproductive of sprouts to form stoolshoots. Good soil produces stronger, but less sprouts than poor soil. PV. Life of stumps: The life and hence the sprouting capacity of stumps repeatedly coppiced is closely connected with the resist- ance offered by the timber to decay. White Oak, Chestnut, Se- quoia and Locust are persevera.nl sprouters, the scars on the stump being protected from rotting by the antiseptic qualities of the sub- stances incrustating the heart wood. The reproductive power of Birch, Beech, and Maple is not sus- tained for a long time. Ash and Basswood show greater persever- ance. It might be said thai a long-lifed species is also a perseverant sprouter. The sprouting capacity is especially g 1 in species capable of forming a separate and detached root system for the sprout inde- pendent from the mother stump. This is the case in species forming sprouts from the base of the stump (at the root collar). V. Optimum number of stumps per acre: The optimum depends on the length of the rotation. It is con- sidered to be: For German Oak coppice, rotation 20 years, 2,000 stumps per acre; for Osier culture, rotation one or two years, 80,000 stumps per acre. VI. Manner of coppicing: The use of the axe is preferable to that of the saw. Stumps should be as low as possible, to begin with. In case of stumps — notably Beech and Birch — coppiced a number of times it is better to cut in the new wood. The scar should allow the 155 SYLVK I l.T l J; E. water to inn off, instead of collecting it like a saucer. The expense of the genesis of the coppice forest i- practically nil. VII. Season of coppicing: It , the wood must he pee led, tin- cul -hould he made in early 3Pring. Late spring cutting -uhject- the new -pront- to earlv fro-ts, ( « >] >|»i4. claim- to have found that Fir and Spruce in the Presidential Range of the White Moun- tain- propagate their kind by the natural and unaided formation of suckers developing from long horizontal root-. (. Layer-: A low, long branch of a standing tree i- partly buried in a trench one-half foot deep, held in place by hook-, pins or stones, the end of the branch protruding above -round. The branch thus embedded form- roots and si ts. The latter are severed from each other a year or two before planting in the open. Layering i- a gardener's method only locally used in park-. At very high altitudes, under the influence of very great atmospheric moisture, the low Spruce branches naturally form root- and shoots in a similar manner. 1). ( uttiiiL:-: Willow- and Poplar- are usually propagated by "cuttings," \i/..: pieces of branches one foot long and two years old, tipped with a piece one year old. The. cuttings arc inserted obliquely, 156 SYLVIC CJLTURE. the tips barely showing above the ground. Planting dagger or turn- ing plow are the tools used. Care must be taken to prevent the bark from peeling off. It is claimed that the constant use of cut- tings causes a deterioration of growth. Cuttings of sapling size taken from strong and long branches are also planted in good nursery soil for a number of years and planted in the open -round after catching root. Willows and Poplars allow of heavy trim- ming. Among conifers, only Sequoia permit- the use of cuttings. It i- claimed that Sequoia-chips sprout successfully in the moist climate of the I oast Range. Paragraph LXIX.. Pedagogy of the coppice forest. The coppice forest 1- tended by cleaning, weeding, and thinning; also by improvement cuttings and pruning. A. Cleanings: To prevent undesirable shoots from developing, the -tump- producing them must he removed, stump- ,.f undesira- ble species (Blackgum, Hazel. Alder) can he removed only by dig- ging, or by heaping dirl upon them, or by Bring heaps of debris placed on the -tump-. Usually, it i- preferable to deaden undesira- ble tree- instead of trying to prevent their -tump- from forming sprouts. In some species, -tump- three feel high will form poor sprouts, a quality which might he taken advantage of. B. Weeding: Misshapen trees or pojes of a desirable hardwood species, nit level with the ground, will at once produce shoots of good quality. Poles badly damaged by fires should he cut for an increase of vitality. Trees left because worthless should he .lead- ened, unless they belong to the aristocracy, or unless they improve the good sprouts a- well a- the -oil in the role f subordinate companions. ('. Thinnings: Thinnings in European coppice woods are rare; in tanbark coppice they usually purport to improve the quality of the hark. Where mad.', the thinnings usually remove the weaker shoots of a -tump for Hie hem-tit of the Letter and stronger shoots. The rotation- of European coppice being short, heavy thinnings tend to deteriorate the quality (branchiness and shape) of the -hoot- as well as of the soil; and light thinnings are rarely remunerative. In America, coppice of Catalpa, of Chestnut, of Locust and ttickory may invite heavy thinnings where fen.-.' posts, telephone posts, railroad ties, wagonstock, etc.. find a ready market. In case of Bickory, thinnings periodically removing the he-' tree- (a la Borggreve)" might seem indicated. 157 SYLVICULTURE. D. Improvement cuttings: Improvement cuttings are necessary in culled coppice forest emerging directly from primeval hardwood forest heavily cut or heavily Bred. Such forest is invariably en- cumbered wiili bushy and worthless standards (if the standard have a value, the forest belongs to the form of coppice under stand- ards described in Par. LXXIll-Par LXXVIII) interfering with the development of the shoots; or with undesirable species left by the logger. The mob frequently prevails over the aristocrats. The first final cut at the end of the firsl coppice rotation usually answers the purpose of an improvement cutting. E. Pruning: Pruning is required to prevent coppice of Catalpa, Locust and Ash from forming forks or heavy branches. Naturally, pruning is expensive and dangerous at the same time since live branches are removed. The danger is particularly great where the rotations are long, the pruned stump shoots being left for decades of years after pruning. In the pollarding form, pruning or rather lopping obviously comprises the harvest of the crop. Paragraph LXX. Key to the forms of coppice forest. Although coppicing is called a type of natural regeneration, it is an absolutely unnatural measure never adopted by primeval nature. Primeval forms of coppice forest proper do not exist. Species propagating their kind, at least partially, by root- suckers frequently form rootsucker forests closely resembling cop- pice forests proper. Chestnuts, Locusts and many other hardwoods broken down by storm may form natural sprouts as well from the stumps. Still. these cases are probably so scattering as not to deserve the name of "form of primeval coppice forest." Thus there remain only two large groups of coppice forests, namely "Culled Coppice Forests" and "Cultured Coppice Forests." In both cases we have to deal only with the la rue- area form or com- part meiit form of coppice. Woods seemingly consisting ol uneven-aged coppice shoots, mixed in groups or individually, are dealt with as "Forms of eop- pice-under-standards" (Par. LXX Ill-Par. LXXVIII), unless the stanaards are worthless and promise to remain worthless. A. Culled forms of coppice: These forms emerge either directly from omnivendible primeval forms, or else have passed through the intermediate stage of "culled -coppice under standards." 15S S Y L V I C U L T U K E. I. Characteristic for culled coppice is: An even display of growth. A surprising density of stand. The presence of some weathered and worthless snags and stumps protruding from the even sea of coppice. II. Subdivision of culled coppice: Uniformity being characteristic for culled coppice, sub-forms can scarcely be singled out, unless the means of coppicing — fire or axe — serve as a criterion. Hence there might be distinguished a. The form of fire — culled coppice, and b. The form of axe — culled coppice. This distinction is not made on the basis of different display; but on the basis of difference in treatment required by the two forms. HI. Treatment of culled coppice: l'he culled coppice is regenerated by being coppiced anew. In the case of fire-culled coppice, it is wise to delay the second cut as little as possible. Coppicing in patches or small groups is not advisable, the young shoots requiring all the Iighi available for rapid lignification. An insufficient number of stumps may call for artificial re- inforcing. Improvement cuttings convert pour coppice shoots interfering with their neighbors from above into healthy coppice shoots press- ing their neighbors helpfully from below. B. Cultured forms of coppice: No form of cultured foresl can be obtained more easily and more cheaply than the form of cultured coppice. In the European hardwood forests, the cultured coppice of the past has often served as the forerunner of the cultured high forest of the present sylvan era. I. Characteristic for cultured coppice is an even stand, a dense stand, freedom from undesirable competitors and tree weeds. II. Subdivisions of cultured coppice forms are: a. The simple form of cultured coppice, where all shoots have the same age. , , b. The two-storied form of cultured coppice, where the growing stock displays two tiers of leaf canopy, viz.: an upper and a lower tier, the age of the tiers differing by the length of a rotation. In addition, a form of "high stumps" is usually distinguished, where trees are cut some six to ten feet above ground and where the shoots forming on that high stump are cut at short intervals. This 159 SYLVICULT1 i: E. form, adapted particularly for the production of fascines a1 Levees, i- known as: c. The pollarding form of cultured coppice. In this form, rotations of one to five years are usually adopted, and the "lopping" takes place in the "new wood." III. Treatment of cultured coppice forms: Regeneration in the cultured forms of coppice is, of course, by coppicing, helped by planting stumps, cuttings, suckers and layering. Regeneration may proceed against the direction of the wind which brings the heavy frosts of spring and fall (blizzard-direction). Clean- ing ami thinnings arc often indicated. Paragraph LXXI. Critical remarks on coppice forests. The coppice foresi generally furnishes small-sized timber, nota- bly firewood and farm supplies, but no or little esaw timber. Its production is not so many-sided as that of the high forest, and for that reason rio1 equally safe. On the other hand, allowing of shorter rotations, the timber investment is much smaller than in high forest, and the returns from "final yields" are more frequent. A comparatively small area may produce, under a coppice form, a regularly sustained yield. The soil of the forest is frequently exposed, and shows a thin layer of humus. Shallow soil is. however, sufficient for the welfare ol a coppice forest. The water-retaining capacity of the coppice forest is small. Coppice forest i- less exposed to storm, tire. snow, and insects (being broad-leafed usually), and more exposed to late and early frosts than high forest. As a stock pasture, it is much more pro- ductive than high forest; hut also much more damaged by pasture. The expense of regeneration and of pedagogy i- slight;. The species forming shoots from below the .-round and those forming root-suckers usually allow of long rotations. Paragraph LXXII. Coppice forests by species. A. Oaks: I. ( lulled ( lak coppice: lulled <)nk coppice is usually fire-culled. The stumps do no! tire 01 emitting shoots after each lire, still, the shoots become weak, stunted and bushy-crowned and refuse to grow in diameter as well as in height. L60 S Y L V I C U L T U E E. It is remarkable to find that these worthless shoots may be re- placed by strong shoots after coppicing with the axe. The poorer the fire-culled Oak coppice, the greater is the im- provement obtainable by axe-coppicing. II. Cultured Oak Coppice: In Europe, Oak coppice is the form in which Oak bark is raised for tanning purposes, under a rotation of fifteen to twenty-five years. In America, coppiced Oak is used only for charcoal and fire- wood — rarely for railroad ties. Rotations yielding ties will not allow ot ready reproduction under the coppice form, unless the soil is very strong. At Biltmore. Post Oak three inches through. White Oak ten inches through. Black Oak and Scarlet Oak twelve inches through are unlikely to sprout. A rotation 01 not to exceed forty years seems indicated. Such a rotation might also yield hoop poles, poles for sphtwood fabrics and minor wagonstock. B. Beech: Beech coppice yields firewood only, charcoal and so-called retort- wood for dry distillation. Ihe sprouting capacity of the Beech invites short rotations. Strong soil is required. 0. Hickory: Hickory coppice promises good financial results on strong soil only, irires must be strictly kept in check, owing to the heavy scars which they inflict on Hickory, notations of about twenty years, low stumps and winter cutting seem required. On Biltmore soil, stumps over six inches in diameter usually re- fuse to sprout. D. Locust : Locust coppice densely planted on old fields seems to be a good investment, although the poles thus produced consist of sappy wood undesirable for fence posts. The young shoots suffer from a pith- boring moth (Ecdytolopha species). The sprouting capacity is very good, helped by the ready forma- tion of rootsuckers. In Germany, wagon stock is obtained in rotations of twenty years. E. Chestnut : Chestnut is the American species best adapted for the coppice forest. Stumps of any diameter emit sprouts. A rotation of twenty 161 SYLVICULTURE. to forty years will yield vineyard stakes, hop poles, telephone poles, posts, rails., ties and wood for the extraction of tannic acid: a rota- tion of five years is said to be used for the production of hoop poles for barrel hoops. The European complaint doe- not seem warranted in America that rotations exceeding twenty year- invite a disease known as " heart-rot." In Alsace-Lorraine, thinnings take place in the tenth year: the cut is made in early winter, and the stumps are sometimes pro- tected from the influence of frosl by hen].- of brush. In the Appa- lachians, such precautions are not called for. It i- unnecessary, if not unwise, to reduce the Dumber of sprouts starting from one stump artificially. Spring cutting and high -tump- art' objec- tionable. On dry and impoverished -oil. or under the regime of tire-. ( nestnut coppice i- hopelessly lost. F. Cottonwood: ( oppice forest of Cottons 1 produces match stock and pulp- wood. The stumps have little vitality and will not endure more than four rotation- of twenty year- each. Very low stumps are re- quired to insure healthy sprouts and to encourage the production ol rootsuckers. The growth i- very fa-t in the tir-t year-. G. "Willows (Osier-culturei: Osier culture i- considered a money maker in Germany where labor i- cheap. It i- now in vogue in New York and in Sew Jersey. The best species are Salix viminalis, Salix amygdalina, Salix pur- purea. Salix acutifolia (caspica). The rotation comprises one or two year-. With the exception of Salix caspica, a moist -oil i- re- quired (meadow land in river bottom- i by the willow-. The stumps do not yield a return for more than twelve to -i\- teen years. For the formation of an Osier grove, shoots two feci long are used, of which about 80.000 are put in per acre. It i- stated that the more shoots there are per acre, the better i- the quality of the Willow, as branchy stuff' cannot be used for baskel making. Cultivation between the rows i- -aid to be very advisable or even necessary, especially in the first year. There are many insects feeding on the leaves and many fungi besetting the leaves of the Willows. A one-year rotation i- best. After three or four year-, however, a two-years" rotation frequently intervenes, so a- to allow the root to develop unhampered. The -hoot- two year- old are used for the 1G2 BYLVK I 1. 1 1 i in July ami rotation in the overwood, and r represents the length of the rotation in the underwood. The normal difference of age between consecutive classes is "r" year-. III. Normal formation: The overwood is composed of " stand- ards •' regenerate!!, at the year of coppiced underwood, from self- sown seed falling from the overwood or, in the cultured forest, from planted seedlings. The seedlings of the overwood grow up im- merged and often badly endangered in the new underwood. When this is coppiced at the age of r years, an improvement cutting taxes place simultaneously removing misshapen or damaged stand- ards of the various older classes as well as the weaklings in the youngest class. By this improvement cutting the leaf canopy of the standards, which has had ample chance of enlargement during the past r years, is cut back to a normal limit. The older an age-class is, the smaller is the number of its constituents. C. Aonormal formation of overwood and underwood: A normally proportioned and normally formed overhead is never found. Deficiencies lie 1. In a lack of one or the other age-class; 2. In an abnormal number of constituents per class; 3. In the fact, that the overwood is partially recruited from stoolshoots and not from seedlings. Abnormal coppice over-standards is the usual consequence of the culling of primeval hardwoods or of primeval pineries forming a superstructure over Oaks, Hickories. Gums, etc. The burned slopes and outskirts of the Alleghanies usually belong to the coppice-under-standard form. The fire-coppiced under- wood here consists of Soft Maple, Oalinia. Rhododendron, Chestnut, Oaks. Hickories, Black Gum, Sourwood, Ealesia, etc.. etc.. all of which are usually devoid of value. Culled and fired forest of Pinus echinata, taeda and paustris frequently belong to the same form, with Oaks in the underwood and the Pines in the overwood. Paragraph LXXIV. Pedagogy of coppice-under-standards forest. Coppice under standards i- or may be tended by cleaning.. w ling, improvement cuttings, pruning and thinning. 164 SYLVICULTURE. Thinnings are applied to the underwood only: whilst the over- wood alone is the object of pruning. A. Cleaning purports to eliminate undesirable shoots in young coppice, or removes desirable shoots liable to interfere with the development of ovenvood seedlings imbedded in the coppice. B. Weeding removes weed trees, usually tending to form new sprouts from the stumps of the weed trees removed. Weeding is a necessity where a culled forest is to be converted into a cul- tured forest, the culled forest containing a large number of weed trees. At Biltmore, the weed trees removed are Black Gum over- shadowing the coppice and the Pine seedlings standing therein; fire-scalded Oaks or Hickories, bent and low crowned; wolfs of Yellow Pine; pretentious Dogwoods or Halesias and so on. C. Improvement cuttings improve the prospects of the over- wood, remove undesirable members of the overwood and regulate the number of the constituents forming an age-class of the over- wood. '"The normal cuttings in the overwood are improvement cuttings." In semi-normal woods, the oldest class of the overwood is entirely removed. Class II is reduced to the former membership of Class I: Class III is reduced to the former membership of Class II, etc. It stands to reason, that the least desirable mem- bers of a class should be thus removed. In semi-normal woods, the improvement cuttings take place at the time at which the underwood is ripe for coppicing. The improvement cutting yields timber of all sorts and of all sizes obtained from the A-arious age-classes. The improvement cutting does not regularly intend to help regeneration. Frequently, of course, the stumps of trees removed by the improvement cutting form sprouts partaking in the coppice- tier. D. Pruning: Dead branches of the overwood trees might be removed to develop timber clear of dead knots. Live branches of overwood trees formed low on the bole are removed to lessen the intensity of the shade to which the under- wood and the seedlings imbedded therein are locally subjected. The members of the overwood, owing to their free position, are apt tc form and retain heavy branches. The act of pruning in coppice under standards corresponds with that described in sec- tion sixty-three for high forest. The coppice is pruned only in rare instances, f. i., for the im provement of oak tanbark. 165 s Y L V I C ULTURE. E. Thinnings are sometimes indicated in dense coppice in order to increase the f 1 and light supply of the youngesi age-class of overwood imbedded in the coppice; or in order to increase gradually the air -parr surrounding the members of that class, so as not to subject them to the shock of sudden exposure at the time of cop- picing: or to obtain the ends of Par. l.XIl. A., especially where the overwood classes appear in groups; or to improve the quality and the quantity of the bark in tanbark coppice. In all cases, the thinning must yield a surplus revenue. Paragraph LXXV. Key to the forms of coppice-under-standards torests. The primeval woods do not contain any form of coppice under standards. In culled hardwood forests, on the other hand, these tonus are almost regularly met with. A. Culled forms of coppice under standards. I. Characteristics: Primeval hardwood forests are usually paucivendible only. After lumbering the merchantable species and sizes, a rank growth of coppice -1 ts frequently enters an appear- ance under the assistance of fires, overshadowed by poles and trees of all age-classes devoid of present value. Many individuals of the overwood are badly burned; or are hollow, fungus decayed, worm riddled, etc. Thus whilst the underwood consists of fire coppice or -1 ts sprouting from the stumps of merchantable trees, the overwood con- sists of undesirable species and of immature trees usually crippled by firing and felling. In addition, there are plenty of weed trees left on the ground. The younger age-classes of the overwood are usually absent. In forests originally composed of a Pine overwood and of a hardwood underwood — a form once frequently found all over the Southeast — the lumberman usually remove- merely the taller Tines scaling over ten inches in diameter. The -mailer Pines, if fireproof, henceforth join with the hardwood trees and hardwood poles in the formation of an overwood. The underwood consisting of miser- aide tire sprouts i- continuously clipped by foresi fires. The butts of these "suae-" are flattened on the ground, as if liquid wood had hardened on it. The -hoot-, weakly inserted on the callus, can lie torn oil' easily. If these snags are cut. fresh shoots will form, of much greater vigor and of greater strength at the point of insertion. 1GG SYLVICUL T U R E. II. Subdivisions of culled coppice under standards: The number of forms of coppice under standards is particularly great, owing to the variations occurring in the tiers of forest, viz.: the overwood and the underwood. a. Ine overwood is omni, multi. or pauci vendible, as the case may be. It is arranged either in groups or in patches (individuals) imbedded in the coppice. Thus we obtain: 1. The form of culled coppice under standards raised in the group type, and 2. The form of culled coppice under standards raised in the selection type. b. The leaf canopy of the standards covers a certain percentage of the ground. This percentage, where high, forces the underwoods into a minor role: where small, it allots to the underwood the major part. The Longleaf Pine woods of the Smith, after heavy culling, illustrate the latter form; the Shortleaf Pine woods of the Bilt- more Plateau exhibit the former form. These forms might be designated as: 1. The form of prevailing coppice under standards; 2. r ihe form of coppice under prevailing standards, c. According to the means of coppicing, I line should be dis- tinguished 1. The form of fire-culled coppice under standards; 2. The form of axe-culled coppice under standards. III. Treatment of culled forms of coppice under standards. Improvement cuttings and. where improvement cuttings cannot be made, weeding are usually required. Fire coppice should be cut down, wherever the growth is stagnant. An undue preponderance of standard-, may be checked by the use of the axe. Planting of seedlings can usually be dispensed with. Where it is advisable to plant seedlings, the coppice must he cut clean to begin with. B. Cultured forms of coppice under standards: I. Characteristic for the cultured forms of coppice under stand- ards is the lack of weed trees and of unhealthy standards; further the geometric regularity of the figures considered as compartments and sub-compartments. The overwood is composed only of storm-firm and light-demand- ing species. 1(37 S V L V I C U L T I R E. II. Subdivisions of cultured forma of coppice under standards. As in the culled forest there should be distinguished: a. The form of cultured coppice under standards raised in the group type with 1. Prevailing coppice, or with 2. Prevailing standards. b. The form of cultured coppice under standards raised in the selection type with 1. Prevailing coppice, or with 2. Prevailing standards. the standards might he planted in regular rows (diaries Heyer's idea) or in regular groups or — irregularly — in suitable places; or they might be recruited from self-sown seed under the selection type. III. Treatment of cultured forms of coppice under standards. The regeneration of the overwood as well as its pedagogy is difficult, unless the group type is carried through. Individual seed- lings are very apt to be suffocated in the mass of faster-growing coppice and require continuous, careful attention. Thinnings are required to prepare the youngest elass of standards immerged in the coppice for its future task. The overw 1 is sometimes pruned — in this case of dead as well as of live branches. Paragraph LXXVI. Critical remarks on coppice-under-standards forest. The coppice-under-standards forest combines the good qualities of the high forest with those of the coppice forest. It furnishes timber of all sizes in the largest possible variety. It requires a moderate investment sunk into the growing stock and allows the overwooa to grow into log size at a very fast rate. It is a good form for the owners of small woodlands desiring steady returns. It protects the fertility of the soil better than the coppice form. The logs furnished by the overwood raised selectionwise are necessarily branchy and wide ringed, with the incident had and good qualities of such logs. The trees usually do not yield more than two saw logs. Where the underwood is unsalable or low priced, stress must be laid on a prevalence of the overwood. Where it is valuable as a tanning material or as wagon stock, the underwood is favored. The danger from fire — since hardwoods are usually at stake — is not very great. The density of the brushy underwood, however, aggravates the difficulties confronting the fire fighter. 168 SYLVICULTURE. In Europe, " coppice -under- standards " is more and more aban- doned and restricted to the inundation districts along the rivers. Here, on strong soil, the undergrowth endures an enormous amount of shade, and the overwood develops fairly long boles in spite of a free position. The coppice-under-standards form in Europe requires careful, minute and honest management: careful, because the leaf canopy of the overwood rapidly increases during the rotation of the under- wood ; minute, because individual trees or groups of trees must be continuously watched; honest, because an unscrupulous forester or a thoughtless owner may easily and heavily reduce the capital of the forest whilst claiming to merely withdraw revenue pro- duced by it. In America, in the hardwood forests of the Alleghanies and in the pineries of the South, the form is destined to play a most important role. The form exists and will have to be retained for decades of years to come, owing to its tempting financial merits; the ease and cheapness of regeneration; the short period of waiting between remunerative cuts: the variety of produce; the fast rate' of growth; the small amount of growing stock required for •■ sustained " yields and so on. In the course of time, curtailing the cut of standards or allowing the coppice to grow into larger sizes, the forester may gradually convert the coppice-under-standards fores! into a high forest. The average growing stock, per acre, in the high forest contains about twice as many cords of wood as the average grow- ing stock in the coppice under-standard- forest. On the other hand, by removing all standard-, the form of simple coppice is readily obtained. In the Oak-coppice-under-Pine-standard forest of Biltmore it has been observed that the Pine poles suffer less from bark beetles than they do in the denser polewoods of the high forest of Pine. Paragraph LXXVII. Coppice-under-standards by species. By culling and firing, every primeval forest of hardwoods existing in the United States is converted into coppice under stand- ards. Again, many, nay, almost all two-storied high forests in the South having Pine in the overwood and hardwood in the under- wood present the form of coppice-under-standards in a modified manner. The number of constellations of species for a place in the over- wood and in the underwood is endless. 160 SYLVK ULT1 I: E. A few remarks on characteristic forms must suffice. A. ( hestnut-coppice under standards of 5fellow Poplar, White, Chestnut and Red Oak, Hickory, Ash, Locust, — the Pisgah Forest form. ( t rtain age-elasse- of the standards— the sapling stage and the pole stage, arc invariably absent, owing to the fires of the last decades. The number of Chestnut stumps is deficient. The weed species of the forest (Halesia, Soft .Maple Dogw 1. Calmia, etc.) readily replenish the coppice-stratum. The standards regen- erate their kind readily where the weeds are not too rank. Xo means arc known by which to extirpate the tree and bush weeds preventing n. s. r. of the standards in a sufficiently promising way. Heavy pasturage in early spring practiced before the Chestnut stumps had time to sprout and before the seeds of the standards (excepting Chestnut Oak and White Oak) had time for germina- tion may solve the problem. Such pasturage, whilst it checks the weeds, presses the seeds of the standards at the same time into the mineral soil. Other remedies are: Deadening: cutting with high stumps left: bark peeling; removing side branches with a brush axe, etc. However, entire extirpation of the [igneous weeds due- not seem financially advisable at the present time. Frequently it might be best to leave the weeds untouched for the time being,. postponing the battle until the undergrowth of seedlings and cop- pice shoots requires increased influx of light. Then. too. the cutting of the weeds will force them to lie satisfied with a subsistence below the level of the underwood. Chestnut standards should not be left, since the -hock of a sudden change of surroundings causes them to sicken. The adjoin- ing wood- will tend to reinforce the regeneration area by n. -. r. of Chestnut, where the compartments simultaneously coppiced are -mall or narrow. Artificial reinforcing seems unnecessary although the planting of Walnuts in suitable places may prove remunerative. B. Oak coppice mixed with Hickory coppice under l'ine standards. This form prevails on the Biltmore Plateau and over vast areas in Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama. North Carolina. South Carolina, etc. Sylvicuitural treatment i- possible only where the Oak can be removed to a nearby fuel-market. Rotations of thirty to forty year- for the coppice -cent best. Shorter rotation- are required where the coppice j., badly damaged by tin-. 170 s. r. S YLVICULTUE E. In seed years of Yellow Pine, the coppiced area should be as large as compatible with the market. It might he ^e to cut ear, ]n ta.l and to burn the coppice before the Pine seeds be^ to fall. Seed rears of Pine at Biltmore occur at intervals of seven years Lnprovement cuttings should make up the sustained "eld" a, tai as possible, m years of deficient seeding; or such comLrt ments should be taken in hand, fa winch the coppLe growls richly beset with Pine poles and Pine saplings In the course of the improvement cuttings, the nuclei of n s of Pine require careful attention. Weeds like Chinquapin' an Back gum are checked wherever they obstruct the Lirwood; where they form part of the vndenv 1. especially under group pro Metier " e thaDkfUlIy ^ ^ - — «* i During ^"7* ^ a ' la, ' t '"' '" the f ° raati0n " f sta ^rds. During ; the earlier stages. ]t retains its branches badly where T m . (hlk e °PP ice - «**« ^e later pole stage, it is apt f " SUff " ^ - ndfaH - Groups of White Pfae standard *X answer better than standards individually scattered. CHAPTER V. PROPAGATION OF FOREST PRODUCTS OTHER THAN WOOD AND TIMBER. Paragraph LXXVIII. Raising of forest by-products In many cases better revenue i tafaed from the by-products ;.; , '» '''■ "-'■ tl»»" from t,,, w I and timber. fabackwood ^,7/ clos «d to traffic, forest pasture often yields the only means I; a t!?T g ,VV :"! U "- <»<'•—>>- led districts, the combination tuZTZ \ Z^ thiSOften ^ iS&hle - ^e main prod- ucts thus obtained and the industries connected with then pro- duct ion are: l A. Tanbark and raising f tanbarfc: The thickness of the hark used for tanning purposes and ob- ained either under a high forest or under a coppice Lest system number of '" ^ "*"**• '" ^ ^ ^^ ^ the ™ , T PS PM aCFe ta aW 2 > 000 > ^inforced by stump Planting at each cutting The healthier the growth of the shoot" the better are the tanning contents of the product In America, at the present time, no difference is made in the ^s oil obtained from healthy, large trees. G. Rubber and guttapercha. H. Truffles and champignons. I. Gingseng i Alalia quinquef olia) : Gingseng grows in the Alleghanies in well- sheltered north and northwest coves of greatest fertility. The young roots are easily transplanted into nursery beds. The cultivation of ginseng in the woods, however, is not practicable. J. Sumach leaves: The leaves, used for tanning on a large -rale, are gathered on abandoned fields in Virginia. No care seems to be devoted to the reproduci ion. K. Pharmaceutical weed-: A large number of forest weeds bav< a pharmaceutical value and might be locally propagated and fostered. L. Peat bogs: Peat bogs reproduce themselves where the top layer- only are taken oil' periodically. Small benches are left between the pits utilized. M. Fish and game: In the Prussian stale forests, twelve per cent of the annual revenue is obtained from hunting and fishing leases. Private owners in the Adirondacks and in the Smith draw large revenue from leasing the exclusive privilege of bunting and fishing. For par- ticulars regarding the raising and nursing of Fish and Game see lectures on "Fish and Game Keeping." Paragraph LXXIX. Combination of sylviculture and agriculture. As the woodlol belongs to the farm 30 does the farm embraced by woodland belong to the forest. Strange as it sounds: The forester abroad i- sometimes charged with the administration of more farmland than of woodland. A fair practical knowledge of agriculture is indispensable for the administrator of forests. Truly agricultural land within the foresl -i Id he cleared in due course, in pursuance of the maxim that every acre of ground must lie placed under the (permanently) most remunerative industry. The foresl farm produces victuals for the lumber camp and forage for the tennis and yokes: it yields the best possible tilt' lanes. 174 SYLVICULTURE. Under these circumstances it is not to be wondered at that a local, permanent or temporary combination of sylviculture and agriculture is frequently indicated, in coppice forests as well as in high forests, in cultured forests as well as in culled forests. A. Reasons prompting the forester to adopt "agriculture" may lie in the following moments: I. Frequently it due- not pay to eradicate the ••weed-"* in the forest previous to artificial or natural regeneration by n. s. r. In such cases, the forester may take advantage of the fertility stored up in the humus, using it for a number of year- for the production <>f field crops and freeing the soil incidentally from competing weeds. II. similarly the forester i- often at a loss to save his regen- erations from the attacks of wild or tame animal-. Allowing the plantation- to pass their earliest youth in the midst of farm crops which pay for the expense of protection from animal- by imme- diate return-, protection tor the plantations i- obtainable at a reduced charge. III. The fertility stored away in the accumulated humus, al- though exhaustible within three or four year-, frequently furnishes a snug revenue (especially where farmland i- scarce, a- in all mountain districts) defraying the outlay, or part of the outlay, required for successful reforestation. IV. In the prairie-, agriculture must precede the tree plantation, which will not thrive in -oil devoid of porosity. The plantation of trees, on the other hand, will protect the farm from drought in summer and from high wind- during winter: it will shelter the stock during severe blizzards, etc. Henry von Cotta, a- early a- 1819, advocated plantations of trees in row- twelve feet to fifty feet apart, the intervening spaces to be used for agriculture. The trees and the row- were to lie decimated gradually, and were again to be reinforced in compliance with the requirements of the farm. Cotta's plan might he successful where drought i- to he dreaded during summer, scorching the grass meadow and the grain field. B. Modern application : I. Field crop- intervening between two generations of the forest. All over the pineries of the South where abandoned fields pro- duce splendid polewoods of Pine, the woods are cut at the thirtieth to sixtieth year of the trees: the -oil is then used for the produc- tion of corn, cotton or small grain for a number of years and thereafter allowed to revert to Pine planted by n. s. r. from adjoin- 175 S Y LVlCTJ I.T I RE. ing woods. The same system is followed by thousands of farmers in the old country. II. Field crops temporarily raised amongst and together with forest crops. a. In coppice forests: In Germany, the owners of coppice woods, after coppicing, fre- quently burn tlie debris on the ground, ploughing the soil roughly thereafter and using it for growing small grain or potatoes as long as the fresh stool shoots do not overshadow the farm crops too severely. This system allows the farmer to continuously (although inter- mittently i produce field crops on steep slopes liable to wash, with the help of fertility furnished by the humus and by the activity of the tree roots. 0. In high forests: 1. In the early stages of sylviculture, acorns and pirn ids were frequently planted (like red clover) with barley, oats or summer rye. Compare Par. XV for details. •2. Sir 1). Brandis has established in Burmah a system named " toun.Lrya *' by which seedlings of Teak, planted with rice by native lessees on government reserves, obtain protection from wild animals and tires as well as from the Bamboo threatening to suffocate the seedling-. 3. A similar system has been practiced since 1810 in the German Rhine valley where splendid polewoods of \\hite Oak have thus been raised. Here in years past the returns from toungya used to more than cover the expense of forest planting and protecting. The field crops shade the *)ak slightly and tend to protect it from the effect 01 late frosts as well as from the attacks of grub worms (Melolonthidae). 1. hi Western X. ('.. the expense of clearing the forest for field crops amounts to ten dollars or twenty dollars, according to the density of the growing stock and according to the yield derivable from the sale of timber removed. < »n g 1 forest soil a few year- of corn crops are apt to refund tl utlay incurred for clearing. Thereafter the Pines the (inks. the Yellow Poplars and the Ashes of the adjoining wood- will quickly produce a superior plan- tat [on of t rees. Where the -oil i- stocked with tree weeds, and where no immature tree- mu-t he sacrificed, the system can be strongly endorsed. 170 SYLVICULTURE. Alphabetic index A PAGE Acclimatization of trees 18 Acorns, planting of 50 Advance growth types 118 Advance growth compartment type 120 Advance growth group type , 121 Advance growth selection type 123 Advance growth strip type 121 Agriculture in the forest 174 Air and tree growth 8 Air in soil 12 Alder, planting of seedlings 82 Aider, planting of seeds • 52 Alemann's method of winter- storage 51 Alemann's planting spade 67 Alpine forest 24 Altitude and tree growth 37 Ash, high forest of 152 Ash, planting of seedlings S3, 80 Ash, planting of seeds 53 Atlantic forest 18 B Bacteria in soil 1G, 17 Ball planting 68 Barth's planting beak 67 Basswood, high forest of 150 Basswood, planting of seeds 55 Bastard forms of types of enesar 87 Beech coppice 161 Beech, high forest of 149 Beech, planting of seedlings 87 Beech, planting of seeds 52 177 INDEX. PAGE Biermans' nursery mei hod s| > Biermans' spiral spade 66 Birchj planting of seedlings 82, ^s Birch, planting of seeds 51 Blue spruce, planting of seedlings 91 Borggreve thinnings 132 Buckeye, planting of seeds 54 Bunch-planting 01 Buttlar's nursery method 80 Buttlar's planting iron 07 C Catalpa, planting of seedlings 83, s; cherry, planting of seedlings 84, >7 Cherry, planting of seeds 56 Chestnut coppice 1G1 Chestnut coppice under standards 170 Chestnut, high forest of 147 Chestnut, planting of seedlings 82 Chestnuts, planting of seeds 51 Cleared compartment type of enesar loo Cleared group type of enesar lot ( leared selection type 105 Cleared strip type of enesar 102 Cleaning 165 Commercial nurseries 72 Coning of seeds 44 Coning, statistics of 45 Coppice forest 1 ~>4 Coppice under standards 163, 166, 168 Corkoak industry 172 Cottonwood coppice 162 Culled forms 127. 128, 158, 164 Cultivation oi nurseries 7'.) Cultivation of plantations 70, 72 Cultured forms 136, 140. 14 1. L45, 159, L67 ( iylinder spade 08 D Density of cover overhead 2S Density of stand 27 178 INDEX. PAGE Dependent species 2(i Depth of soil 13 Dominant, dominated 29, 30 Douglas fir, planting of seedlings 86, 92 E Eclaircies par le haut 132 Ecological fa ctors S Elm. planting of seedlings 83 Elms, planting of seeds 53 Englemann's .Spruce, planting of seedlings 91 Evenaged forms 141 Evenaged wood .'!() f Fall planting 69 fertilizing in nurseries 75 final cuttings 112 final stage 112 firs, planting of seedlings 85, 91 Firs, planting of seeds 56 Floral zones 11 Food in the soil 13 Forest gardens 74 Forest pas! ure 170 Forest regions of I '. S IS Forms of coppice foresl 158, 159 forms of high foresi 136, 14:: fruit-raising in the inns) 173 G ( lenesis of high forest 41 Gum, planting of seeds 50 Grafted forms 137 (iron]), definition of ' 25 II Hair-dressing of groups L 15, 122 Seat and tree growth 10, 38 Heat in soil 13 Hemlock .planting of seedlings 80, 93 Hemlock, planting of seeds 59 179 i x l) E \. PAGE Hickories, planting of seeds 54 Hickory coppice 1G1 Hickory, high forest of 148 Hickory j planting of seedlings 84, 89 Horizontal distribution of species 30 Humus 14, 1G I Improvement cutting 127, 129, 157. ir>-"> Intolerant species 32, 22, 24 J • lack Pine, planting of seedlings 85, 90 L Larch, planting of seeds 59 Latitude and tree growth 37 Lawson's Cypress, planting of seedlings sii. 92 Lawson's Cypress, planting of seeds GO Layering 156 Leaf canopy 16 Leaf-mosaic 9 Light and tree growth 8, 39 Light-demanders 32, 33, 34 Liu lit -demanding leaves 9 Linden, planting of seedlings 87 Linden, planting of seeds 55 Locust coppice 161 Locust, planting of seedlings 87 Locust, planting of seeds 54 Al Manteuffel's nursery method so Maple, high forest of 151 Maple, planting of seeds 53 Maple, planting of seeds 53 Messmates, classification of 29 Messmateship, degree of 25 Mexican forest 20 Mixed woods 34, 35, 40 Mixed woods, advantages of 35 Mixed woods, disadvantages of 30 180 INDEX. PAGE Mixed woods, rules for mixing 36 Moisture and tree growth 10, 38 Mound planting 68 Mycorrhiza 15 N Natural seed regeneration after lumbering 99 Natural seed regeneration, difficulties of 94 Natural seed regeneration, help to 95 Natural seed regeneration, methodology of 97 North American Sylva 17 Nurseries 72, 84 Nurseries, protection in 78 O Oak coppice 1 60 Oak coppice under standards 170 ( >ak. high forest of 146 Oaks, planting of seedlings 81 ( inks, planting of seeds 50 < teier culture 162 < )vcr\vood 163 P Pacific forest 21 Pasture 110. 114. 120. 120 Pedagogy of coppice foresl 157. 158 Pedagogy of coppice under standards 164 Pedagogy of high foresl 127 Planting, advisability in U. S 41, 42 Planting dagger 66 Planting hammer 6/ Planting, historically 41 Planting in furrows and in holes 65 Planting in prairies 71 Planting in squares, triangles, quadrilaterals 61 Planting under sod-cover 67 Pollarding 158, 159 Prairie planting 71 Preparatory cutting 109 Preparatory stage 109 Primeval forest 14'i 181 INDEX. PAGE Primeval forms 136, 137 Protection of seed plantations 49 Pruning 127, 130, 158, 165 Pure woods 25, 34 Purpose of regeneration in America 126 Q Qualities of soil 14. 39 Quality of soil and its influence on number of trees 27 Quantity of seed required per acre 47 R Red Cedar, planting of seedlings 86, 93 Red Cedar (Thuja plicata I, planting of set ds 60 Regeneration of aristocrats and of mob 125, 141 Reinforcing . . 49 Rootpruning 7s Rootsuckers 156 Rotation 29 Rotation of crops : 15 Rotation of forest crops 127 Ruling species 25, 26 S Sassafras, planting of m edlings 84 Sassafras, planting of seeds ')'■> Sea -, m for planting seedlings 09 ^Season for seed planting 48 Second growth forms 130 Seebaeh's modified high forest 143 Seeding cutting 110 Seeding stage 110 Seed, indications of good qualities of 42, 43 Seed-planting 43, 46, 48 Seedlings, age, size and number of 63 Seedlings, criteria of good 62 Seedlings from wildwoods 72 Seedlings, lifting of 64 Seedlings, planting of 60, 65 Seedlings, transportation of 64 Seed-planting in nurseries 70 Seed-planting in rills or broadcast 70 182 I X I) E X. PAGE Seed, quantity required pei acre ' ... 47 Seed tests 43 s 1 years 42 Selection type 105 Shadebearei - 32, ::::. :; t Shade-bearing leaves 9 Bhelterw 1 compartment type 108 Shelterw 1 group type 115 Shelters 1 selection type ....... 117 Shelterw 1 — T 1- i 1 • type.. 114 Shelterwood types 106 Sitka Spruce, planting "i Beedlinga 9] Size-classes -t trees Snow ami t grow t li Sod-ashes ;., Soil, air and water 111 ... 12 Soil-covers ... 15 Soil, heal and t" I in ... 13 Soil-species . ... 13 Speed of foresl extension 1 1 Spring planting 69 Spruce, high foresl ..i . 152 Spruce, planting "t Beedlinga Spruce, planting <>i seeds 57 Standards 1 13, 139, 1 12 Struct lire of -"il ... 12 Stump-planting, advantages of ... 60 Stumpshoots 155 Subtropical foresl 19, 20, 21 Summer temperature and tree growth 37 Suppressed 29 T Tanbark i;i Thinnings 127. 130, 136, lii". Tolerant Bpecies ::2. ::::. .".I Two-storied coppice 159 Two-storied high foresl 139, 1 12 Toungya 12.;. 17. ; Transplanting in nurseries 7S Trimming in nurseries 79 Types of enesar 07 • IND E V U VM.V. Qnderplanting 127. 130 Underwood 163 Ushergrowl h 49 Vendibility influencing the form 138 W Wagener thinnings 133 Walnut, high forest of 149 Walnut, planting of seedlings 84, 87 Walnuts, planting of seeds 51 Wartenberg's planting iron 67 Water in soil 12 Weapons of species in struggle for existence ■ 2G Wedded forms 1 38 Weeding 127, 128, 157, 165 Weeding in nurseries 79 White Pine, high forest <»f 153 White Pine, planting of seedlings 85 White Pines, planting <>f seeds r 58 Willow coppice lt>2 Wind and tree growth ' 11, 39 Wintering of acorns 51 Y yellow Pine, planting of seedlings 84, 90 Yellow l'ines. high forest of 153 Yellow Poplar, planting of seedlings 83. Yellow Pines, planting of seeds 57 yellow Poplar, high forest of 150 Yellow Poplar, planting of seeds 56 1S4 UM LECTURES ON FOREST POLICY By C. A. SCHENCK, Ph.D. Director of the Biltmore Forest School, and Forester to the Bilrmore Estate, N. C. Second Part FORESTRY CONDITIONS IN THE UNITED STATES." Biltmore Forest School, Directors' Office. Biltmore, N. C, January I, 1904. Dear Sir — My lectures on Forest Policy appear in print, pri- marily, for the benefit of the students attending the Biltmore For- est School. Forestal text-books fit for American use not being available, I have been forced, for a number of years, to lengthily dictate the essence of my lectures. The following pages merely record the dictation. They are not intended for public sale. I most sincerely request, dear sir, that you may lend me your aid in checking and correcting the data concerning your State, namely, , given on page f. f., so that this little volume, duly filed and controlled by collabora- ting friends, may thereafter publicly appear, in a better garment and improved contents, for the benefit of the American student of forestry. Thanking you for any kindness that you may deem fit to show me in connection with the improvement of my lectures on ''Forest Policy," I am, dear sir, Most truly yours, LECTURES ON FOREST POLICY By C. A. SCHENCK, Ph.D. Director of the Biltmore Forest School, and Forester to the Biltmore Estate, N. C. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF ALABAMA: i. Area: 38,300 square miles, or 74% of total area, are wooded. 2. Physiography: The Cumberland Mountains force the Tennessee River into Alabama, where it forms a huge curve. The Appalachian Mountains send a double chain of mountains, in a northeast to southwest direction, from Chattanooga to Birming- ham. Tombigby River and Alabama River join just before emp- tying into Mobile Bay. Chattahoochee River on Georgia line. Southern section of State undulating, swamps alternating with slightly elevated dunes. Mountains near Birmingham bear coal and iron. 3. Distribution: The southern third of the State is oc- cupied by long leaf and Cuban pine; the former on dry, the latter on wet land. Four large isolated tracts of long leaf pine (unaccompanied by Cuban pine) in the northern half of State. Taeda occurs all over the State in varying proportion, accompanying here long leaf, there echinata or hardwoods. Echinata is found, generally, outside the region of Cuban pine and does not proceed to the coast. Best stumpage of echinata on upland, with oak undergrowth. Pine stumpage estimated, in 1880, to be 21 billion feet b. m. Enormous cypress swamps along the rivers. Outside the long leaf pine sections, the hardwoods, notably black, Span- ish and post oak, prevail in number, but not in importance. In the curve of the Tennessee River, the southernmost sentinels of the fine hardwood and red cedar forests once typical for Tennes- FOREST POLICY. see. In the mountain section, the flora of the Cumberland plateau (see under Tennessee), with some little white pine and hemlock. 4. Forest ownership: 525 firms own 1,224,000 acres of forest. The federal government, State railroads and homestead- ers are the chief owners. 5. Use of timber: Destructive lumbering only of recent date. Huge deserts are nowhere left by the lumber jack, as is the case in the lake States. No pine resists fire better than long leaf. Cuban pine is protected by its position. The industry threaten- ing ruin to the forests is the turpentine industry, which leaves only taeda intact. The output of the saw mills was in 1880 $ 2,700,000 1890 8,500,000 1900 12,900,000 The cut in 1900 consisted of: — Yellow pine 1.012,000,000 feet b. m. Other conifers 32,000,000 feet b. m. White oak 61,000,000 feet b. m. Other hardwoods 44,000,000 feet b. m. Total 1,149,000,000 feet b. m. Mill investments average $5,251 with 1,087 mills. Logs on stump are worth $1.20, at mill $4.30 per 1,000 feet b. m. Cooper- age stock production, in 1900, is valued at $200,000; miscellaneous sawn products at $400,000; shingles, notably cypress shingles, at $460,000. In 1885, the naval store industry yielded $851,000. Leather industry surprisingly large, producing, in 18 tan- neries, $1,098,000 worth of leather and using 18.651 cords of oak bark, worth $62,628. Paper and pulp industry: None. 6. Forestry movement: None. 7. Laws: Fire laws of 1852, against wilful or negligent firing. Firing turpentine orchards is under a fine of $100 to $1,000, or punishable with hard labor for not more than 12 months. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: 89 acres of land were irrigated, in 1899, for tiuck farming. No rice fields enjoyed irrigation. 4 FOREST POLICY. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF ALASKA: i. Area: The total area of Alaska is 590.000 square miles. The area of woodlands can scarcely exceed 60,000 square miles. 2. Physiography: The territory of Alaska forms a square, traversed by the east and west course of the Yukon River and framed by the ocean on three sides, with two appendages, namely: (a) In the S. \Y., the Aliaskan Peninsula, with Kadiak and Apognak Islands. (b) In the S. E., the mountainous coastal belt, 60 miles wide by 500 miles long, with over 1,000 islands (notably Sitka Island) fronting the coast. Mt. McKinley, in the Alaskan Range, lying somewhat south of the center of the territory, 20,464 feet high, is drained by the Kuskokwim River. The Kuro Shiwo causes abundant (60 inches to 160 inches) rainfall and high atmospheric along the southern coast. Eternal snow, however, lies above the 2,000-foot contour line, even in the coast range and St. Efias Mountains. The moun- tains are beset with the hugest glaciers on earth, outside the polar region. Short growing season. Geologically, Alaska is one of the latest portions of the continent. 3. Distribution: The south coast, east of Kadiak Island, shows splendid coniferous forests, stocked with Sitka spruce, bal- sam fir (grandis?) hemlock, red cedar (Thujaplicata) and yel- low cedar (Chamaecyparis Nutkaensis). Amongst the hardwoods, cottonwood alone reaches commercial size. Sitka spruce pene- trates, in stunted form, to the Arctic Circle. The hills of the lower Kuskokwim River have little wood; heavy spruce forests, however, exist on the mountain slopes of its upper course, whilst the valleys exhibit splendid summer prairies. The northwestern hills are bare. Woodlands are found along the west coast up to Norton Sound. Arctic tundra — a treeless plain full of ponds and swamps — extends from the Yukon northward to the Arctic Ocean. Dwarfed spruces and willows dot it far to the north. 4. Forest ownership: Practically all woodland belongs to the federal government, though the Russian Greek Church may own comparatively small tracts. Lack of surveys prevents land entries. 5. Use of timber: Most lumber is imported from the FOREST POLICY. Pacific States. Coal (sulphurous) is found in many places, re- stricting the consumption of wood. The population scarcely ex- ceeds, in 1902, 90,000, of which two-fifths are native. Yellow cedar is used by the natives for huge dugout canoes. The bark of the balsam fir is employed for tanning. The com- mon local timber tree is the knotty Sitka spruce, used for house building, mine props, sledges and firewood. The large output of the fish canning industry (over 51,000,- 000 lbs. salmon in 1899) requires packing crates and slack barrels. The 12th census reports a cut of 6,500,000 feet b. m. lum- ber, mostly spruce, valued at $90,000. Much unlawful cutting on vacant timberland. 6. Forestry movement: None. 7. Laws: None. 8. Reservations: The Apognac Forest and Fish Culture Reservation lies north of Kadiak Island and comprises 403,640 acres. The Alexandria Archipelago Forest Reserve covers 4,506,240 acres. 9. Irrigation: None. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF ARIZONA: 1. Area: 16,000,000 acres, or 22% of entire area of Terri- tory, are reported under forest. 2. Physiography: Arizona consists of a high plateau, 5,000 feet elevation, sloping gently towards Gulf of California, inter- sected in northwest by the Grand Canon, and diagonally traversed from the northwest to the southeast by a chain of mountain ranges, many tops of which rise to 10,000 feet elevation. This chain drains towards west into the Rio Gila and towards east into the Little Colorado, both of which are tributaries of the Colorado River. The rainfall, especially during the summer months, often evaporates before reaching the ground. Streams are frequently smaller at the mouth than at the head, due to dry- ness of the atmosphere. 3. Distribution: Below 3,500 feet elevation occur deserts, with cactus, yucca and agave. The river canons are deeply cut into the plateaus and are fringed with broad-leaved species, i. e., FOREST POLICY. cottonwoods, willows, alders, ashes, hackberries and cherries. The foothills around the deserts show scattered scrub pines; scrub oaks occur notably on the hillsides; Mesas exhibit stunted oaks and pines. Above 5,500 feet elevation, open, park-like for- ests occur, notably of yellow pine (ponderosa), which, in the San Francisco Mountains near Flagstaff, are said to form the largest pure pine forest in the world. Trees are short, branchy and sappy. On the northern slopes, at about 6,500 feet elevation, occurs Douglas fir. The Rocky Mountain white pine (P. flexilis) and foxtail pine (P. balfouriana) are found at similar elevations in the San Francisco Mountains. Above them, large, often pure forests of Arizona cypress (Cupressus Arizonica). At the timber line, after Fernow, Engelmann's spruce and Arizona cork fir (Abies Arizonica) occur. The plateau north of the Colorado Canon is almost tree- less. A large number of coniferous species peculiar to Arizona are found in the southern part of the diagonal chain. Here the forest forms narrow stretches of fringe at altitudes exceeding 7,000 feet elevation. The best known mountain ranges are the Bradshavv Mountains, with 25 square miles of forest, the lower slopes dotted with nut pines (monophylla and edulis). The Mazatzal Mountains contain about 70 square miles of forest (yellow pine, white pine. Douglas fir, white fir). The White Mountains contain about 100 square miles of forest. Here, near the natural bridge, a splendid, almost pure forest of Arizona cypress occurs. The Chirihahua Mountains contain 160 square miles of for- est, a strip four miles wide and forty miles long. The Arizona pine (Pinus Arizonica) and the Chirihahua pine (Pinus Chiriha- huana), further, the Mexican pine (Pinus cembroides) and a white pine (Pinus strobiformis) are additions to the tree flora in these southeastern mountains, which otherwise consists of yellow pine (ponderosa). white pine (flexilis), Douglas fir and California white fir (Abies concolor). Between the deserts and forests there is invariably found a belt showing pinons and scrub oaks. Tim- ber species are generally wanting on mountains less than 7,000 feet high. 4- Forest ownership: The United States reserves aggre- gate, in 1002, 6.740,000 acres. Large Indian reservations, notably the Moqui and Navajo, in the northeast and in the White Moun- FOREST POLICY. tains. Lumbermen own 409,000,000 feet b. m. yellow pine stump- age on 202,000 acres. 5. Use: Most prominent use of the forest is that for cat- tle and sheep pasture. Forest fires do little damage, forests being open. Sheep grazing in the reserves from April until December. Output of lumber industry in 1900 was 36,250,000 feet b. m., worth $547,000. Log stumpage, $1.03. Saw logs at mill, $7.50. Only 14 saw mills, with average capital of $26,000. No pulp or leather industry. Mining industry, near Prescott, obtains sup- plies from the Bradshaw Mountains. Saw mills turn out largely yellow pine ties. Percentage of i's and 2's in the lumber net over 7%. 6. The forestry movement in Arizona is nill. 7. Laws: Forest fire laws punish negligent or wilful firing as a misdemeanor. 8. Reservations: The Grand Canon forest reserve is not a forest reserve proper. It contains forest only south of the Colorado. It occupies 1,851,520 acres. The Prescott forest reserve covers 423,680 acres; the Black Mesa forest reserve 4,658,880 acres. The latter extends to the New Mexico line, forming a narrow belt of forest at high ele- vations. The San Francisco Mountain forest reserve, with Flagstaff in the center, lies between the Grand Canon and Black Mesa re- serves and contains 1,975,310 acres. This reserve will be imoor- tant for lumbermen in the near future. In April, 1902, the Santa Rita forest reserve of 387,300 acres was created. In July, 1902, there were created three new re- serves, namely: — Mt. Graham forest reserve (118,600 acres); Santa Catalina forest reserve (155,520 acres); Chirihahua forest reserve (169,600 acres). All reserves lie on the diagonal mountain range referred to, and are well selected. 9. Irrigation: In 1900, 190,000 acres of farm land were irrigated. Area is small, owing to irregularity of precipitations and lack of steady supply. The necessity and, at the same time, the opportunity for farms irrigated from storage reservoirs is great. 8 FOREST POLICY. Some tribes of Aborigines have irrigated their farms long before the advent of the whites. Irrigation in the Salt River Valley, near Phoenix, shows results similar to those obtained in southern California. Fruits put on the market slightly earlier and freight rates to the east slightly better, give Arizona a certain advantage over California. The value of the irrigation works constructed is $4,400,000; the value of the irrigated products $2,200,000 (anno 1809). FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF ARKANSAS: 1. Area of woodlands 45,000 square miles, equal to 84% of the State. Probably maximum percentage amongst the States. 2. Physiography: Undulating plains. Ozark Mountains traverse northwest corner of the State in a belt 80 miles wide and from 1,000 to 2,000 feet high. Arkansas River traverses State from west to east, joined by the White River close to its junction with the Mississippi. Red River in the southwestern part of the State. 3. Distribution: Forest everywhere. A small tract of prairie in east central part of State. South of the Arkansas River and west of the Mississippi bottom lands gigantic virgin forests of pine occur (echinata and taeda mixed, the former prevailing on pine ridges, the latter prevailing on pine flats). Both pine species sold under the name of "short leaf pine." Stumpage of both species very heavy, say 6.000 feet b. m. per acre. Sargent estimated, in 1880, the stumpage of short leaf pine at 41,315,000,- 000 feet b. m. per acre. Bald cypress found in vast swamps in the bottom lands of the rivers. Stumpage about 5,000 feet to the acre. The hardwoods prevail north of the Arkansas River and all along the Mississippi; further, in the bottoms of the Red River. Here the trees are said to be unsurpassed in size. Black walnut is said to be particularly abundant in the valley of the Red River. The leading hardwoods are white and red oaks, cot- tonwoods, sweet gum, black gum, yellow poplar, beech, ash, hick- ories, cow and texan oak. Pinus echinata shows some important bodies north of the Arkansas River as well, whilst taeda is here lacking. The composition of the forest at Pine Bluff, after F. E. 9 FOREST POLICY. Olmsted, on an average acre, excluding trees of under 12 inches diameter, is as follows: — On Pine Land. In Hardwood Bottoms. Echinata 5.9 trees Hickory 5.8 trees Taeda 5.3 trees Cow oak 48 trees White oak 3.8 trees White oak 3-5 trees Post oak 3-3 trees Holly 2.1 trees Black Oak 07 trees Ash 1.3 trees Gum 2.1 trees Basswood 0.6 trees Spanish oak 1.2 trees Post oak 0.2 trees Hickory 0.8 trees Pines 1.2 trees Miscellaneous 0.7 trees Miscellaneous 1.5 trees Apparently the pines form little over half of the growing stock on pine lands. Hardwoods not marketable on pine land. 4. Forest ownership: 28% of the hardwood land is re- ported attached to farms. 517 lumber firms own 1,497,000 acres, of 6,700 feet b. m. average stumpage. 5. Use of timber: Logs on stump are worth $1.09, and logs at mill $4.74- Logging in the pine woods by cattle and high wheel trucks, or by donkey engines. Mill investments, for 738 mills reporting, are $9,224 on an average. The lumber industry has grown very rapidly of late — more so in Arkansas than in any other State of the Union. In 1880 the lumber output was valued at. . . .$ 1,800,000 In 1890 the lumber output was valued at. . . . 8,900,000 and in 1900 the lumber output was valued at. 30,000,000 The cut in 1900 consisted of: — Cypress 108,000.000 feet b. m. Yellow pine 1,1 13.000.000 feet b. m. Cottonwood 11 7,000,000 feet b. m. Red gum 61,000,000 feet b. m. White oak 226,000,000 feet b. m. Other hardwoods 40,000,000 feet b. m. Forests are little used for pasture, other than hog pasture. The railroad freight consists largely of lumber and timber. Three small tanneries. No pulp or paper mills. FOREST POLICY. 6. Forestry movement: "To get rid of the lumber" is the only demand. Conservative lumbering attempted near Pine Bluff, since cut-over pine land is scarcely salable. 7. Laws: The usual fire laws are unobserved. 8. Reservations: None, excepting a military reserve at Hot Springs. 9. Irrigation: None. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF CALIFORNIA: 1. Area: 28,600,000 acres of forest, equal to 22% of area of State. I 2. Physiography: The Valley of California, drained by Sacramento from the north and San Joaquin from the south, and embraced by Coast Range and Sierra Range, opens towards bay of San Francisco. Towards the south the Coast Range emits irregular sentinels, notably the Santa Lucia Mountains, San Ga- briel Mountains, San Bernardino Mountains, rising up to 10,000 feet elevation. Deserts along the Nevada, Arizona and Oregon line. 3. Distribution: California excels in the number of conif- erous species, the variety of forest growth depending on the peculiarities of her climate. Rain winds in southern California are, strange to say, northeast winds. Rainy season begins in Sep- tember, preceded by three or four months of drought. Coast Range contains no commercial forests south of Santa Cruz. Water courses deep seated, torrents in winter, mere threads in summer, unfloatable. Immediately along the ocean shore, stunted conifers only grow. Above shore belt, the famous redwood belt of the Coast Range, consisting of Sequoia sempervirens. The redwood belt extends from the Oregon line southward to Santa Cruz; it is composed of large, pure redwood forests, exhibiting greatest stumpage of any tree per acre. Accompanying redwood are found, principally, Douglas fir, yellow pine, sugar pine, incense cedar, tideland spruce and three firs (Abies grandis, magnifica and no- bilis), which run up to the crest of the range. The coniferous woods are intersected with tracts where chestnut oak and madrona (Arbutus Menziesii) dot the brush covered slopes. The east slope of the Coast Range, towards the Sacramento Valley, shows a 11 FOREST POLICY. scattering growth of pines and oaks, often imbedded in brush thickets. The bottom lands of Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers have a park like growth of huge oaks, which are now rapidly re- moved by the farmers. Ascending the Sierras from the west we find the lowest belt, below 2,000 feet elevation, to consist of gray (digger or nut) pine (Pinus sabiniana), the favorite nut tree of the Indians, occur- ring in very open growth, alternating with oaks and the knob cone pine (Pinus attenuata), which regenerates only under the influence of fire. The typical tree of the next higher belt, from 2,000 to 4,000 feet elevation, is the nutmeg tree (Tumion Californicum), which is found along the borders of streams. The hillsides show a com- paratively poor growth of pine and fir, the Douglas fir being fre- quently of the "yellow" variety. Above this zone, from 4,000 to 10,000 feet elevation, extends the famous timber belt of the Sierras. Rainfall is 50 to 60 inches. Typical for the California Sierras is the lack of any woody under- growth on the ground. The soil is covered with a growth of flowering weeds. Imbedded in this belt are, island-like, ten groves of the big trees (Sequoia gigantea). This species, unlike its sis- ter, the redwood, never grows in pure forests. The companions are Douglas fir, sugar pine, yellow pine, incense cedar and firs (Abies magnifica and concolor). At elevations ranging between 3,000 and 8,500 feet, incense cedar frequently replaces the big tree. On old burns, lodge pole pine is found in pure stands. Amongst the nut pines, the one-leaf pine is highly thought of by the Indians. In addition, there oc- cur the bull pine (Pinus Jeffreyi) and the big cone pine (Pinus Coulteri). The highest belt, reaching up to the timber line at 12,000 feet, is the home of the firs proper. Here the red fir (Abies mag- nifica) and the white fir (Abies concolor) prevail. Timber line itself shows the Alpine hemlock, young trees of which are buried in snow all winter. Pinus monticola, the white pine, is said to excel in power of resistance to storms. The limber white pine (Pinus flexilis) and the white bark pine (Pinus albicaulis) are also found. Two typical species for this zone are the foxtail pine (Pinus Balfouriana) and the bristle cone pine (Pinus aristataV FOREST POLICY. In addition, twisted pine (Pinus contorta) occurs on high moun- tain pastures. Crossing to the east slope of the Sierras, the growth soon gets poorer, for lack of rain. Only pine species are found here, especially lodgepole pine, yellow pine and bull pine. Close to the Nevada line desert growth only occurs, such as mesquit and yucca. In southern and southwestern California there are scarcely any commercial forests. Along the Arizona and Nevada line the Mohave desert and Colorado desert cover millions of acres. The plains, close to the sea and rivers, have dense groves of willows and sycamores. Majestic oaks occur scatteringly in the river valleys. In addition there are huge cottonwoods. On the edges of the deserts, in slight depressions, two Prosopis species are found, i. e., mesquit (Prosopis juliflora) and screw bean (Pro- sopis odorata). Pihons or nut pines are also found. The Cal- ifornia palm (Washingtonia filifera) is found in canyons opening toward the deserts. In the deserts themselves are scattering yuc- cas. Ascending the mountain ranges the trail winds through end- less chaparral thickets, dotted with live oaks and scrub pines (piiion). Forests occur at high altitudes on the Sierra Madre. San Bernardino, San Gabriel, Cuyamaca and San Jacinto Moun- tains. Here prevail yellow pine, Coulter's big cone pine, big cone fir (Pseudotsuga macrocarpa), white fir (concolor), in com- pany with sugar pine, incense cedar, lodgepole pine and limber white pine. In the semi-arid zone reaching up to the 5,000-foot contour line are at home juniper, single leaf pine and gray pine, whilst the moister slopes and canyons, or the water courses, ex- hibit live oak, sycamore, walnut, alder, willow and cottonwood. The bristle cone fir (Abies venusta), a large fir of the canyons, seems unique in the Santa Lucia region. 4. Ownership: Farmers are said to own 1.673,000 acres of forest land. The United States forest reserves cover 8,800,000 acres; the United States parks 1,100.000 acres; both together about one-third of all the forests and 8.6% of the area of the State. According to the last census. 156 lumber firms control 1.177,000 acres of forest land, mostly situated in the Coast Range, and containing one-sixth of the timber of the State. 5. Use: There is scarcely any hardwood fit for cooperage, carriage works and furniture. Firewood is costly in southern California. Large lumber operations are conducted on the Coast T3 FOREST POLICY. Range only, supplying South America and the far east. Here a yield of 1,000,000 feet b. m. per acre is amongst the possibilities. Logging is done by railroad and donkey engines. Commercial species, aside from redwood, are sugar pine, Douglas fir, incense cedar and red fir (Abies magnifica). Redwood is said to furnish the best tank material and railroad ties, if tie plates are used. From the Sierras, lumber is exported into Nevada and Arizona for the use of the mines. The Alpine meadows of the Sierras offer good pasture, but are said to suffer severely from sheep pasture. Regeneration in Sierra belt is said to be poor, no undergrowth being at hand. On old clearings, near mines, sugar pines and yellow pines are said to show a good second growth. The tannin industry of California occupies the tenth rank among the States, using during the last census year 36,123 cords of chestnut oak bark, valued at $16 per cord. Production is largely sole leather. The paper and pulp industry is nill, five plants having died during the last decade. The products of the lumber industry were worth: — In 1850 0.9 million dollars. In 1870 5.2 million dollars. In 1890 8.8 million dollars. In 1900 13.8 million dollars. The total cut in the census year was only 864 million feet b. m., drawn from a growing stock of 36 billion feet b. m., owned by private individuals. Log stumpage is worth $1.16. Logs at mill are worth $4.63. California leads in the use of traction en- gines, which are employed on undulating ground. The mill es- tablishments are large, next in size to those of Minnesota and Wisconsin, the investments averaging $29,300. Eucalyptus planta- tions are made in the timberless regions of the south to obtain posts and firewood. Species recommended are: Eucalyptus globu- lus, rostrata, viminalis, corynocabyx, leucoxylon. 6. Forestry movement: California has been sensible of the dangers threatening from forest destruction and forest fires, since agriculture depends largely on the possibility of irrigation, safe- guarded by forests. A State Board of Forestry was established in 1885, drawing a good appropriation, writing some valuable re- 14 FOREST POLICY. ports and establishing some experiment stations. In 1891, polit- ical decrepitude caused the board to lose its foothold. A promi- nent member of the board was Abbot Kinney. To him is due the introduction of Eucalyptus. The tree botany of the State has been advanced by J. G. Lemmon. The California legislature has memorialized the United States government to set aside all forests for reserves. When, in 1897, all western reservations were opened to pasture by Bin- ger Hermann, the California senators opposed the move and se- cured exemption for their State. At the university of South-Cal- ifornia a forestry school was established in 1899. The Sierra Club (John Muir, President) and the California Water and Forest As- sociation (since 1898) are taking up the work of the defunct State board. Sheep owners are the only people in California opposing the forest reserve policy. 7. Laws: The usual fire laws. The State Board of For- estry demanded of Congress, but in vain: — (a) The temporary repeal of the timber and stone act. (b) A law providing for sale of stumpage only from for- est land, the government retaining the fee simple rights. State law of 1903 appropriates $15,000 to assist the Bureau of Fores- try in a canvass of the forest resources. 8. Reservations: The total area reserved, in 1902, is 8.8 million acres. The reserves are well selected, covering the tops of the Sierra Nevada and the high mountain ranges of the south. No reserves on the Coast Range. The Sierra forest reserve, aggregating 4,096,000 acres, lies south of the Yosemite National Park, is about 200 miles long by 50 wide and comprises the Sequoia National Park, General Grant National Park and Mount Whitney Military Reservation. North of the Yosemite National Park lies the Stanislaus forest reserve, covering 691,200 acres. The Lake Tahoo forest reserve, of 136,335 acres, is the only reserve drained by the Sacramento. The highest summits of the Sierras are in the reserves. 85% of the reserves are timbered and 15% are covered with snow or gla- ciers. 70% of the 85% have, however, suffered from fire. The southern reserves form links in a long chain running, approximately, east and west, and consist of the Pine Mountain and Zaca Lake forest reserve (1,644,594 acres). IS FOREST POLICY. San Gabriel Timberland reserve (155,520 acres). Santa Ynez forest reserve (145,000 acres). San Bernardino forest reserve (737,280 acres). Trabuco Canon forest reserve (109,920 acres). San Jacinto forest reserve (668,160 acres). The reserves were established solely to protect the water supply. The brush thickets occupy from 50% to 90% of the re- served tracts. The Yosemite National Park comprises the Yosemite Val- ley, which was ceded to California by Congress in 1854, and is now in charge of three commissioners said to be lacking in good taste. 9. Irrigation: Value of products from irrigated land ex- ceeds those in any other State. The average size of the irrigated farms is 75 acres. Cost per acre of irrigation system is $16.80 and average yearly cost is $1.70. In 1903 the State appropriates $45,000 to assist federal departments in mapping and surveying reservoirs and in studying methods of water distribution. The "district law" of 1887 causes great ease in bonding ir- rigation districts, and hence throws heavy burdens on the irriga- tionists. Many of the bonds issued are now worthless. The irrigation systems were constructed at an expense of $19,200,000. Irrigation in the north is rather the exception. In the south it forms the rule. Along the Sierra streams, water is lavishly used. In the south, the greatest economy prevails. Shipments of oranges raised in the south, in 1899, were $7,000,000 in value. In 1899, 1,600,000 acres were irrigated. Value of irrigated crops was $33,000,000. Irrigation prevails, where the precipitations and the flow- age of streams are least; on the other hand, where there is no danger from frost. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF COLORADO: 1. Area: 33.500 square miles of woodland, or 32% of the area of the State. 2. Physiography: The 105th meridian separates the eastern 16 FOREST POLICY. third from the western two-thirds of the State. The eastern third is a treeless plateau, falling from 6,000 to 4,000 feet, towards the Kansas State line. Little rainfall. The central third of the State is the crest of the continent and is covered with irregular ridges rising up to 14,000 feet elevation. From here the South Platte and Arkansas Rivers run east; the Rio Grande south; the tributaries of the Colorado River (the Green, White, Grand and San Juan Rivers) west; the North Platte river north. The western third of the State is a high plateau, intersected by high, detached mountain ranges and peaks. Large parks are characteristic of this mountain section. In winter the snow at Durango, in the southwest, is said to be six feet deep. The rain- fall west of the crest is much greater than east of the crest. Forest fires have played more havoc in Colorado than in any other State. 3. Distribution: The central crest is sparingly timbered with yellow pine, lodgepole pine, limber white pine and foxtail pine. Engelmann's spruce, usually associated with balsam (lasio- carpa), yields the best logs and must be considered the main timber tree of Colorado. It is found at elevations ranging from X.000 to 12,000 feet. On moist sites, forests are formed by Colo- rado blue spruce and the gray modest variety of Douglas fir, fol- lowed by quaking aspen after devastation. All over the foothills pinon dots the ground (edulis), often replaced by the one-seeded juniper. Along the rivers, a fringe of hardwoods (especially cot- tonwoods, box elder and ash) is found. The best timber is said to stand in the southwest. It seems that the western third of the State has some timber everywhere, although it is not heavily timbered anywhere. Lodgepole pine is the prevailing species in the parks. The Rocky Mountain oak (Quercus undulata) forms brushy thickets on all exposures. Rivers fringed with cotton- wood, box elder, elm and ash. 4. Forest ownership: Most forest land belongs to the fed- eral government. Lumbermen own 92,000 acres only. 44.000 acres of forest are said to be attached to farms. One-seventh of the wooded area is reserved. 5. User The forest is subservient to irrigation and mines. Majority of cut is yellow pine. Total cut in census year was 135,000,000 feet b. m., worth $1,627,000. Stumpage of yellow pine on best holdings 8.000 feet. 17 FOREST POLICY. Logs on the stump are worth $1.12 per thousand; at mill, $4.99. There are 155 saw mills of $3,883 average investment, 59 of which are said to control 671,000 feet b. m. stumpage. Mineral products of the State are worth $30,000,000 annually. Stock pas- ture plays a very important part. 6. Forestry movement: Colorado's constitution is the only constitution emphasizing forestry. State forestry association since 1884. Various attempts to transfer custody of the United States forests, for protective purposes, to the State. Irrigationists strongly in favor of reserve policy. 7. Laws: In 1885 a State forest commissioner and "forest conservators" (justices of the peace and county commissioners) for the protection of forests. Fire law notices to be kept posted by the conservators. Law of 1897 creates a Department of For- estry, Fish and Game; its forest commissioner is charged with forest extension, with water preservation and with the care and records of all woodlands at any time belonging to the State. The State agricultural college has four experiment stations and offers a course in arboriculture. A law of 1901 practically prohibits lumbering on public domain above irrigation districts. Campers must secure permits. Non-resident hunters must secure "game and forest wardens" for guides. Railroads are required to keep right of way cleared, to supply engines with spark arrest- ors, to be responsible for damage by fire started by locomotive sparks. The Denver and Rio Grande has the privilege of obtaining repair material from United States forests. 8. Reservations: The reserves, in 1902. cover 4,849 square miles, which is 5% of area of State and 15% of wooded area They are well selected and should be increased in the southwest. The South Platte forest reserve (683.520 acres), Plum Creek tiniberland reserve (179,200 acres) and Pike's Peak timberland reserve (184,320 acres), north of Colorado Springs, are extremely valuable for mines and irrigation purposes. They contain little merchantable timber, due to cutting and burning. The Battlement Mesa forest reserve contains 858.240 acres; the White River forest reserve, 1,129,920 acres. These two reserves drain towards the Colorado River. The standing live timber of these two reserves, after Sudworth, consists of the following stumpage. in million feet b. m.: — 18 FOREST POLICY. In White River reserve: Spruce, 930; balsam, 310; aspen, too: lodgepole pine, 50; Douglas fir, 25. In Battlement Mesa reserve: Spruce, 112; balsam, 37; as- pen, 65. 9. Irrigation: The products of irrigation are forage crops and coarse grain staples; further, cantaloupes, peaches, potatoes. Farming depends entirely on irrigation. On the South Platte and Arkansas Rivers irrigated farming is highly developed, handicapped in its progress by private ownership of water stor- age at the headwaters. The irrigated area of Colorado, 1,611,000 acres, exceeds that of all other States. The value of the irrigated products was, in 1899, $15,100,000. The irrigation system constructed cost $11,- 700.000. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF CONNECTICUT: 1. Area under forest, 1,900 square miles, or 39% of the State, are classed as woodland. 2. Physiography: The Connecticut River traverses the State centrally, running north to south. Low mountains and hills stretching in the same direction show rugged and stony slopes. 3. Distribution: The primeval woods are extinct. A third or fourth growth of coppiced chestnut, oak, birch, ash, elm, hick- ory, basswood and cottonwood forms the woodlands, mixed with white pine said to readily reproduce on old fields and wood lots. The usual coppice rotation is 30 years. 4. Forest ownership: 50 mill firms own 9,195 acres of for- est. Average stumpage is said to be 9,200 feet b. m. (?) 90% of the woodlands are attached to farms. 5. Use of timber: Stumpage costs $2.90; logs at mill, $7.88 per 1,000 feet b. m. 187 saw mills, mostly along the rivers, report an average investment of $3,567. The output of the lumber indus- try is rising in value. In i860 $ 572,000 In 1880 1,076,000 In 1900 1,118,000 19 FOREST POLICY. The cut in 1900 aggregated 107,600,000 feet b. m., in which white pine participates with 23,800,000 feet b. m.; chestnut with 64,500,000 feet b. m. The coppice woods produce large quantities of fuel. Leather industry: The output of 7 tanneries is valued at $891,000. It consumes 495 cords of hemlock bark, worth $3,810; 133 cords of oak bark, worth $1,041; 3.516 barrels of bark extract, worth $37,909; 205 bales of gambier; 494 barrels of quebracho; in tons of sumac, and chemicals worth $1,791. In 1900, 50,000 hides and 300.000 sheep skins were tanned. The output of the paper industry is valued at $3,565,000. No cord wood is used; only rags, waste paper, manilla, imported pulp and imported fiber. 6. Forestry movement: Some interest is manifested in plant- ing waste sand land. The Connecticut forest association is pre- sided over by the State forester. 7. Laws: Fire laws of 1886. Tax exemption on planta- tions made on abandoned fields, consisting of 1,200 saplings 6 feet high, for 20 years. In 1901 the office of State forester (Mr. Walter Mulford) was created, charged with the acquisition of waste land at a price not to exceed $4 per acre. Appropriation, $2,000. Seed is to be used for planting. The expense of reforestation is not to exceed $2.50 per acre. The State pays taxes on her own woodland. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: 56 farms, situated along brooks, have 471 acres under ditch; expense of system $34.21 per acre. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF DELAWARE: 1. Area: 700 square miles, or 35% of State, are wooded. Very little merchantable timber left after 12th census. 2. Physiography: Delaware occupies the northeastern por- tion of the peninsula formed by the Chesapeake and Delaware Bays. Soil sandy, slightly undulating. 3. Distribution: In the northern half of the State the broad-leafed species prevail. Here appears, scatteringly attached to farms, a struggling second growth of oaks, maple, poplar and 20 FOREST POLICY. gum. In olden times "Delaware white oak," coming from this section, was famous as shipbuilding timber. In the southern half of the State, woodlands consisting of pines (mitis; rigida; virginiana) and broad-leafed species predom- inate over the farms. 4. Forest ownership: 10 firms own 2,203 acres. 5. Use of timber: Logs on stump are worth $3.52; at mill, $5-55- 76 saw mills report an average investment of $3,255. The output of the mills rises in value from census to census, in spite of supplies reported as waning. It was in 1850 $236,000 1880 411,000 1900 471,000 The cut in the census year consisted of: — Conifers 30,000,000 feet b. m. Hardwoods 6,000,000 feet b. m. After Fernow, in 1887, 200,000 cords of firewood were cut, selling at $3 to $4 per cord. The Dupont Powder Works use willow charcoal, obtained from their own plantations. Staves and headings locally produced are worth $37,000. The local pro- duction of furniture and carriage stock, etc., is practically nill. The leather industry is important, its output (from 20 firms) being $9,500,000 in the 12th census year. The product, however, consists almost entirely of goat skins. These skins are not tanned by the vegetable tanning process, but chemicals (chromium, alum- inum and other salts) are used. The price of the chemicals con- sumed alone is $244,000. The consumption of hemlock bark amounts to 1,316 cords only; that of oak bark to 300 cords only. The paper and pulp industry produces $600,000 worth of goods. It consumes large amounts of fiber and pulp produced elsewhere. There are used, however, 21,320 cords of poplar wood, locally produced and valued at $131,467 (for soda fiber). 6. Forestry movement: None. 7. Laws: Delaware has excellent laws relative to the main impediments to forestry, which are taxes and fires. (1) Property is taxed only on its rental value. Hence woodland is almost exempt from taxation, the rents being ex- ceedingly small. 21 FOREST POLICY. (2) Firing of woodlands is punishable unconditionally and everywhere. The only fires allowed are those kindled between March 10 and May 1 by land owners intending to burn their clearings previous to plowing. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: None. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF FLORIDA: 1. Area: 37,700 square miles, or 70% of State's area, under forest, mostly stocked with commercial timber. 2. Physiography: Southern section consists largely of swamps and hummocks, impassable from June to October (Lake Okeechobee). North of the 28th degree of latitude, the country is level, rarely undulating. Here the swamps are found more near the coast. The western section of the State, near Tallahassee, is higher than the rest (average about 250 feet above sea level), inter- cepted with low mountain ranges. Frost is rare; the summer climate is unhealthy in the south. The Everglades show from 1 to 3 feet of water even during the dry season of the year. Drought frequent from February to June. 3. Distribution: Sargent estimates, in 1880, the stand of pine at 6,615,000,000 feet b. m. A line drawn from Charlotte Har- bor to Cape Malabar divides the State into a northern three- fifths and a southern two-fifths. (a) Northern section. It contains long leaf and Cuban pine, with some little Taeda. Long leaf pine, on its way south, loses continually in volume and in quality of timber. Along the shore, evergreen oaks, notably live oak, are found in place of pine; further, palmetto and scrub pines. In the western coun- ties, near Tallahassee, broad-leafed species of northern character prevail besides the pines. Large yellow poplars, ashes and hick- ories occur here along the water courses. In the bottoms, cypress and gum swamps are said to scale 10,000 feet b. m. per acre. Evergreen broad-leafed species (mag- nolias, oaks, bays) fringe such swamps. A species peculiar to this region is the "stinking cedar" (Tumion taxifolium) and the FOREST POLICY. pencil cedar, the latter of splendid quality on hummocks and bot- tom land. Palmetto occurs everywhere on moist soil and aban- doned fields as a weed. There is practically no echinata. (b) Southern section. The southern section has only one pine, the Cuban pine, to show, which grows on saftd dunes in the Everglades. Cypress swamps prevail everywhere. Along the coast and on the "Keys," the northern sentinels of the West Indian tropical flora occur in small specimens. Their occur- rence is commercially unimportant. Amongst them are mahog- any and lance wood (Ocotea catesbyana Sarg.). 4. Forest ownership: 113 lumber firms own 1.318,000 acres; balance of forests belong to State, federal government, farmers and holders of old Spanish land grants. 5- Use of timber: 368 saw mills of $16,588 average in- vestment. Logs on stump worth $1.22, at mill $6.23. Value of mill output was in 1880 $ 3,100,000 1890 5.500,000 icx>o 10,800,000 The cut in 1900 consisted of Cypress 110,000,000 feet b. m. Yellow pine 712,000,000 feet b. m. Hardwoods ' 2,000,000 feet b. m. Red cedar (Virginiana) output is not given by the 12th census. The largest pencil cedar mills of the world exist at Cedar Keys. Cypress is used for door, sash, shingles, fish and syrup barrels; long leaf pine for railroad ties, car sills, trestle bridge timbers, doors, blinds, flooring and general house build- ing purposes, also for shingles. Value f. o. b. steamer, on an average, now $14 per 1,000 feet b. m. (in 1895 only $9). Conservative lumbering has been practiced along the Gulf coast by lumbermen for dozens of years, unknowingly, since only prime stumpage used to be convertible into lumber. Logging was done in former days by canals (which in many cases were 20 miles long), dug as connections between trees, swamps and water courses. No leather industry, although the mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) forests of the tropical south might yield bark extremely rich in tannin. 23 FOREST POLICY. No paper industry. 6. Forestry movement: None. 7. Laws: Wilful firing of woodlands punishable. Fires rare, after Sargent, owing to multitude of swamps. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: Florida leads among the humid States — the rice-growing States excepted — in the value of irrigated prod- ucts and in number of irrigated farms (only 1,485 acres). 180 truck farms (winter farming) report irrigation. Cost of system, $101.52 per acre (very high). FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF GEORGIA: 1. Area under forest 42,000 square miles, or 71% of total area, containing, after 12th census, mostly (?) merchantable for- ests. Sargent, in 1880, estimated stand of pine at 16,800,000,000 feet b. m., a figure found much too low. 2. Physiography: The extreme northwestern eighth of the State is traversed by the Table Mountain and Alleghany Ranges, spurs of which protrude to Rome and Atlanta. Southeast of the mountains the Piedmont plateau occupies two-eighths of the State, separated by a line running through Augusta, Macon and Columbus from the remaining five-eighths of the State formed by the level or slightly undulating coastal plain. The huge Okefe- nokee Swamp lies in the extreme southeast. 3. Distribution: The mountainous section has the species of the southern Appalachians, namely, white, red, scarlet and chestnut oak; chestnut, walnut and hickory; yellow poplar, cu- cumber, sweet and yellow birch; cherry, beech, locust, rigid and table mountain pine; also white pine and hemlock. In the Pied- mont plateau, oaks and hickories, with or under Pinus echinata (usually) or taeda. A stray island of long leaf pine is found on the Alabama line in the northwest. The lowlands of the coastal plain show long leaf pine on sandy soil, mixed with taeda on moister sites. Huge swamps near coast and rivers are stocked with cypress and gums. White cedar prefers the half-swamps Evergreen broad-leafed species (Persca, Magnolia) line the swamps. Cuban pine grows far inland, up to 100 miles from shore, occupying the wet dells in the long leaf pine woods. 24 FOREST POLICY. 4. Forest ownership: 453 firms own 1,108,000 acres of for- est, containing 3,800 feet b. m. average stumpage. The balance of the wood lands belongs to farmers, or to counties and State under tax-forfeitures. 5. Use of timber: Long leaf pine was and is frequently sold as "Georgia pine." The woods are far from being exhausted. The inroads of the turpentine industry seem more injurious to the perpetuity of the forest than those of the lumber industry. 1,202 mills of $4,274 average investment. Logs on stump are worth $1.01; at mill, $4.4t- Logging by railroad and by rafting. Value of output in i860 $ 2,400,000 1870 4,000,000 1880 4,900,000 1890 6,500,000 1900 13,700,000 The cut of 1900 consisted of: — Yellow pine 1.295.000,000 feet b.m. Other conifers 18,000,000 feet b. m. Hardwoods 39,000,000 feet b. m. Cooperage and miscellaneous industries are small, their out- put amounting to only $135,000 in the census year. The leather industry produces in 36 establishments $1,187,000 worth of products and consumes 23,217 cords of oak bark (valued at $87,000); 85 cords of hemlock bark; 5,107 barrels of oak bark extract (worth $41,000). and 950 barrels of quebracho extract (worth $16,800). Paper and pulp industry: None. 6. Forestry movement: In 1887 a bill asking for a forest commission, etc., seems to have failed. 7. Laws: Firing of woods by the owner must be preceded by notice given the adjoining land owners (excepting the months ot March and April). 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: 7,856 acres of rice fields were irrigated in 1899, constituting 35% of the total rice area and yielding 72% of the total rice product. Cost of system, per acre, is $31.85. 25 FOREST POLICY. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF IDAHO: 1. Area: 35,000 square miles, or 42% of the State, are wooded. 2. Physiography: Southern third is traversed by the east and west course of the Snake River and consists of barren plains. The northern, wedge-shaped part of the State, contains the moun- tainous Coeur d'Alene region. The Teton and Yellowstone Ranges form the boundary towards Wyoming; the Bitter Root Mountains the boundary towards Montana. The mountains of central Idaho drain southward towards the Snake River, north- ward towards the Salmon River. 3. Distribution: Southern lava plains, destitute of timber and vegetation, except sage brush. The Salmon River Mountains are unexplored and contain, after Gannett, little timber. The Rockies show yellow pine, Douglas fir, lodgepole pine and west- ern white pine. In the Bitter Root Mountains, Douglas fir and yellow pine prevail below 6,000 feet elevation, lodgepole pine above 6,000 feet elevation. In the extreme north a dense forest cover, originally found, is now badly burned. Here yellow pine and Douglas fir cease to be prevailing; white pine (monticola) and larch (Larix occidentalis) preponderate, numerically and in vol- ume. In the Priest River Mountains three zones may be distin- guished. In the highest zone, above 4,800 feet, balsam (Abies lasiocarpa) and white bark pine preponderate. The zone between 2,400 feet and 4,800 feet is the largest and contains white pine and larch. In the lowest zone, Douglas fir is mixed with yellow pine, lowland fir and western red cedar. Lodgepole pine is found all over the northern and eastern part of Idaho, taking advantage of heavy fires. Black hemlock, lowland fir and Engelmann's spruce also occur. 4. Forest ownership: 4,147,200 acres of forest land are reserved. Lumbermen own only 84,000 acres in the lowest zone, with 6.900 feet average stand per acre. Over 200,000 acres lie in the Indian reserves. Over 600.000 acres of forests are attached to farms. 5. Use: Timber is mostly used for mining props. The mill cut in 1000 was worth $937,000, and consisted largely of yel- low pine. The stumpage is worth $1.09. Logs at mill are worth 26 FOREST POLICY. $3.95. 114 saw mills report an average investment of $4,759. No paper, pulp or leather industries. 6. Forestry movement: Nill. 7. Laws: Usual fire and camper's laws. Arbor Day law. 8. Reservations: Bitter Root forest reserve, meant to pro- tect irrigation in Washington, contains 4,147,200 acres, of which 690,000 acres lie in Montana. The Priest River forest reserve, part of which (104,000 acres) lies in Washington, comprises 645,120 acres. 9. Irrigation: Only possible from small feeders in outskirt valleys. The products of irrigation are forage crops (alfalfa) and small grain at the higher elevations of 4,000 to 5,000 feet; orchard fruit at elevations of 2,000 to 3,000 feet, notably along the lower course of the rivers (Snake River). The irrigated area, 600,000 acres, has produced, in 1899, $5,400,000 worth of crops from irrigation systems costing $5,100,000. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF ILLINOIS: 1. Area: 10,200 square miles or 18% of area of State are classed as woodland. 2. Physiography: Gently rolling prairies. Mississippi River on western line. Illinois River traverses State from north- east to southwest. 3. Distribution: The southern third of the State once con- tained good to splendid hardwood forests stocked with the hard- woods of the Mississippi River Basin, in addition to cypress swamps. The northern two-thirds are prairie, excepting a belt along the lake, on which white pine is sparingly found. The oak openings on the prairie are stocked with burr, scarlet, red, black and post oaks. 4. Forest ownership: All woodland is attached to farms, excepting 162,000 acres of 4,800 feet b. m. average stumpage, owned by 167 lumber firms. 5. Use of timber: Chicago is still the most important lum- ber distributing center in the United States, fed by the pineries FOREST POLICY. of the Lake States and by the hardwood forests of the Missis- sippi Valley. There are found in the State 825 saw mills, of $3,815 average investment, and 280 large planing mills, of $25,000 average investment. The output of the lumber industry is rising, being $5,000,000 in 1880 and 1890, and $7,600,000 in 1900. The cut of home grown timber in 1900 consisted of: Conifers 138,000,000 feet b. m. Cottonwood 19.000,000 feet b. m. White ook 170,000,000 feet b. m. Other hardwoods 63,000,000 feet b. m. Logs are worth on stump $2.64 and at mill $8.36 per 1,000 feet b. m. The leather industry has used in the census year 18,312 cords of hemlock bark (imported) and 22.846 bales of gambier. Products are valued at $7,800,000. The pulp and paper industry uses only 864 cords of native wood, and depends on straw, rags, waste paper and pulp of for- eign manufacture for its raw material. 6. Forestry movement: None except Arbor Day and bounties for prairie planting. 7. Laws: Firing of woods and prairies permissible only from April 15 to October 15. Railroads liable for fires starting from sparks. Bounty of $10 per acre for forest plantations. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: None. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF INDIANA: 1. Area: After 12th census, 10,800 square miles, or 30% of State, are wooded. No large forests exist. After recent official investigations, 250,080 acres are stocked with heavy timber; 834,506 acres contain second growth, and 3.733.456 acres are described as thin wood pasture. 2. Physiography: Undulating land. Main river is the Wa- bash. 692,738 acres are classed as waste lands in 1903. 28 FOREST POLICY. 3- Distribution: Prairie only in some .northern counties where the forest is said to be expanding. Entire balance of In- d:ana, ioo years ago, was heavily wooded with 12 species of oak 3 of elm, 2 of walnut, 7 of hickory, 3 of maple, 3 of birch, 4 of ash, yellow poplar, linden, buckeye, black and honey locust,' dog- wood, catalpa, sassafras, hackberry, red mulberry, sycamore iron- wood, chestnut, beech, cottonwood, white pine, gray pine and Virginia pine, bald cypress, tamarack and red cedar. All trees show splendid bole development. The requirements of the farmer and home seeker have caused the forest to be considered a mere encumbrance of the ground. Only small groves now exist. 4. Forest ownership: 162 lumber firms, in 1900, owned 104.000 acres of woodlands. The rest is attached to farms. 5- Use of timber: Indiana leads the United States in the output of wagon stock (raw material), producing 33% of the en- tire output. In furniture stock, Indiana is second only to Ohio. One-half of Indiana's manufactures rely on the forest for their raw material. Log stumpage worth $5.39 (maximum amongst Union States); logs at mill worth $9.39 per 1,000 feet b. m. There are 1,829 saw mills of $4,500 average investment. Output of the lumber industry In 1870 was $12,300,000 In 1880 was 14,300,000 In 1890 was 20,800,000 In 1900 was 20.600,000 The cut in 1900 was: — Conifers 3,000,000 feet b. m. White oak 646,000,000 feet b. m. Other hardwoods . . . .336,000,000 feet b. m. Toral 985.000,000 feet b. m. The leather industry, comparatively small, produces $1 - 500,000 of leather and consumes 700 cords of hemlock bark, 7,000 cords of chestnut oak bark and 5,000 barrels of oak bark extract. The pulp and paper industries are said to use 6,300 cords of domestic (?) spruce, 10,500 cords of Canadian spruce, 20,300 cords of poplar and 4,200 cords of miscellaneous woods, in addition to 29 FOREST POLICY. a large quantity of rags and straw (120,000 tons). 39 mills produce $4,200,000 of paper products. 6. Forestry movement: Recent, but energetic propaganda, influenced by John P. Brown (of Connersville). State forest association. 7. Laws: Fire laws since 1818. A unique forest reservation law (of 1899) encourages private reserves. Such reserves (which must not exceed in acreage an eighth of a tract individually owned, trees per acre) are assessed at $1 per acre only, whilst the aver- age assessed value of farm land, in 1898, was $20. In 1901 there existed 284 private reserves, covering 5,312 acres. Law of 1901 creates a Board of Forestry, consisting of five members, one of them drawing a salary (W. H. Freeman). Its duties are: — (1) Collection of statistics. (2) Forestry education. (3) Formulation of plans for private and State forest re- serves. Insufficient appropriations. 8. Reservations: 2,000 acres of State forest reserves are set aside by law of 1903, as a demonstration forest and for nur- sery purposes. 9. Irrigation: None. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF IOWA: 1. Area: Area of woodlands is 7,000 square miles, equal to 13% of area of State. Settlement has reduced the woodland area by 50%. Planted forests said to aggregate 120,000 acres. 2. Physiography: Level or undulating land, extending from the Missouri to the Mississippi. 3. Distribution: Broad bottom lands of the Mississippi bore, and still bear splendid hardwoods, the best in the south- eastern section. In the western prairie section the streams are skirted with hardwood groves from one-half to 4 miles wide. Of the northeastern flora there occur in the hardwood bottoms: shag bark and bitternut hickory; burr, red, black and white oaks; green ash, hard and soft maple, box elder, basswood, white 30 FOREST POLICY. elm and butternut. From the southeast enter the Kentucky cof- fee tree, honey locust, swamp white oak, pin oak, laurel oak, red bud, Ohio buckeye, mocker nut, pecan and black walnut. The only conifers found are white pine, scattered in extreme north- east, and red cedar. 4. Forest ownership: Practically all woodland belongs to farmers. 43 lumber firms own 56,160 acres, stocked with 4,900 feet b. m. on the average acre. 5. Use of timber: Woodlands are used for pasture. Dur- ing seasons of drought, young growth is frequently found dying. The lumber industry, in addition to the cooperage industry, is about to exhaust the fine hardwoods. Logs on stump are worth $4.95; logs at mill, $12.16 (maximum of the United States). Still there are now left 264 mills of $18,885 average investment. The largest of these mills are located on the Mississippi River, and saw pine rafts coming from Minnesota and Wisconsin. The value of the sawn product in 1870 and 1880 was $6,000,- 000; in 1890 it was $12,000,000; in 1900 it had dropped to $8,700,000. The output of the mills in the census year was 303,000,000 feet b. m. of conifers and 40,000,000 feet b. m. of hardwoods. Since there is but little white pine found in Iowa, it seems as if white pine, not home grown, composed the bulk of the output of softwoods. Lumbermen, however, are said to still own. inside the State, 231,000,000 feet b. m. of conifers (?). Leather industry, none. Paper industry uses straw (12,- 350 tons of straw in census year). 6. Forestry movement: Arbor Day since 1874. Prairie planting still practiced, the favorite species being soft maple, green ash and box elder. The Agricultural College at Ames has given instruction in tree planting for almost 30 years. 7. Laws: Prairie fire law. A law exempting almost $6,000,000 worth of property from taxation, in order to encourage tree planting, is now repealed. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: No data available. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF KANSAS: 1. Area: 5.700 square miles, or 7% of the State's area, are wooded. 31 FOREST POLICY. 2. Physiography: Undulating prairies. Arkansas River, from Colorado, traverses the western half. 3. Distribution: A few yellow pines occur in the higher ridges of the western section, which is otherwise treeless, ex- cept for the fringes of popiar and willow in the river canyons. The eastern section shows wide belts of hardwood forests along the streams, the best timber being found in the extreme southeast, where the heavy timbered outskirts of the Mississippi River hardwood bottom lands appear. 4. Forest ownership: About 1,000,000 acres of forest are said to be attached to farms. Not quite 8,000 acres are owned by 22 lumber firms, stocked with 3,500 feet b. m. on the average acre. 5. Use of timber: Lumber industry in Kansas has de- clined since 1880, when 146 establishments were cutting 45,000,- 000 feet b m. of lumber. In 1900 there were in existence 54 mills, showing lowest average investment in the United States, namely, $1,070. Value of product, $104,000, against $683,000 in 1880. Log stumpage worth $2.17; logs at mill, $7.84 per 1,000 feet b. m. Fuel and fencing are badly required by the farmers. Lumber for building purposes obtained from the east and south. Paper, pulp and leather industries: None. 6. Forestry movement: Usual Arbor Day enthusiasm. The State Agricultural Board reports 119,000 acres planted in forest since 1884. Some of the best catalpa plantations are found on rich prairie soil in Kansas. In 1885 the office of Commissioner of Forestry was created, issuing reports and distributing seedlings. The State Horticultural Society tries to centralize interest in tree planting and issues a Tree Planter's Manual. Kansas City boasts of employing a "Forester." 7. Laws: Bounty Law of 1868 is repealed. Wilful firing is fined $500. It is the sworn duty of the justices of the peace to bring incendiaries to judgment. 8. Reservations: 94,732 acres of sandy land, south of Ar- kansas River, are withdrawn from entry to be used for planting trees. No presidential proclamation issued so far. 9. Irrigation: In the census year 24,000 acres of land were irrigated (2,000 acres from wells). 32 FOREST POLICY. The irrigated crop was valued at $226,000. The construc- tion expense of the irrigation system was $530,000. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF KENTUCKY: 1. Area: Area of woodlands 22,000 square miles, or 53%. 2. Physiography: Ohio River on the north. Mississippi River on the west. The Big Sandy, tributary of the Ohio River, on West Virginia line. Cumberland Mountains in the extreme southeast, giving rise to the Kentucky River, which runs north into Ohio, and to the Cumberland River. Undulating plateau well watered. The Cumberland Mountains, where limestone formation pre- vails, have coal and iron mines. Middlesborough about the center of the coal industry. 3. Distribution: Kentucky •"barrens" in the southwest, very productive of tobacco, hemp and grain. Here the pioneers found big stumps called "stool grubs," the remnants of a splendid for- est, probably burned by the Indians. The black oak forest (black jack, black post and Spanish oak) is gradually invading the "barrens." The bottoms of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, subject to inundations, exhibit in the swamps bald cypress, sweet and black gum. On very wet soil, cottonwoods, cow oaks, gums, ashes and hickories of splendid development occur. On somewhat drier soil, beech, red oak, yellow poplar, white oak and burr oak prevail. In the "Blue Grass Region," gigantic red cedars, walnuts, poplars, hickories, beeches, sycamores, lindens, locusts, coffee trees and white oaks have been cleared away, and only groves or fringes of these species are now left. In the mountain section, walnuts, chestnuts, chestnut oaks, yellow poplars, ashes, hickories, three maples, locusts, white, red and black oaks of splendid de- velopment form the bulk of the timber. The section above the falls of the Curhberland River was practically untouched as late as 1880. The pines form only a small percentage of the timber. White pine, accompanied by hemlock, occurs at the higlfer alti- tudes of the Cumberland Mountains. Echinata is scattered over 33 FOREST POLICY. the southern two-thirds of the State, especially in the east, never forming pure forests, groves on abandoned fields excepted. Pinus Virginiana seems to develop unusually good boles in the eastern half of State and is locally used for custom lumber. Rigida is found, like echinata, running up higher into the mountains. 4. Forest ownership: 208 mill firms own 382,000 acres of forest, having 4,700 feet b. m. average stumpage. After the 12th census this stumpage includes 125,500,000 feet b. m. black walnut, which figure seems largely overestimated. 5. Use of timber: The value of the sawn product was in 1850 $ 1,500,000 i860 2,500,000 1870 3,600,000 1880 4,100,000 1890 7,900,000 1900 13,800,000 The cut in 1900 consisted of: — Conifers 34,600,000 feet b. m. Ash 4,900,000 feet b. m. Black walnut 2,100,000 feet b. m. Poplar 279,000,000 feet b. m. White oak 392,800,000 feet b. m. Other hardwoods 63,100,000 feet b. m. Total 776,500,000 feet b. m. In the census year there were further produced 60,000,000 shingles, worth $115,000; 63,000,000 (mostly) oak staves, worth $1,042,000; 3,500,000 sets of heading worth $234,000. Furniture, wagon and agricultural stock is valued at $1,358,000. Kentucky ranks 6th in cooperage and 8th in miscellaneous timber indus- tries. The ratio of forestry in wages, investments and products to all other industries, in 1900, was that of 14 to 100. 1,232 mills showed an average investment of $4,658. Logs are worth on stump $2.67, and $6.86 at mill. Logging in mountains by oxen; elsewhere by oxen, horses and mules. Transportation largely by raft, or loose driving. Small portable mills in tracts far from rivers and railroads. Big mills on Cumberland River. 34 FOREST POLICY. Leather industry yields, in 1900, a product worth $3,750,000, and uses 1,080 cords of hemlock bark, worth $9,440; 29,840 cords of oak bark, worth $22,400; 13,300 barrels of bark extract, worth $139,000; besides some quebracho, gambier and sumac. Paper and pulp industry is insignificant. 6. Forestry movement: Little; recently stirred up by Fed- eration of Women's Gubs. Berea College gives, through Prof. S. C. Mason, excellent training in conservative forestry to farm boys. Agricultural reports allude to forestry and its importance. 7. Laws: In a number of counties the firing of woods is forbidden. Constables are required to extinguish fires at expense of county. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: None. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF LOUISIANA: 1. Area: 28,300 square miles, or 62% of the total area of the State, are wooded. 2. Physiography: Undulating land, alluvial soil, river bot- tom lands subject to continuous inundations. Mississippi River forms the eastern line. Red River of the South traverses the State from northwest to southeast. Sabine River is on the Texas line; the Pearl River on the lower Mississippi State line. A mul- titude of water-courses form a help to the utilization of the for- est and to the prevention of fires. 3. Distribution: After the 12th census, the southwest por- tion is prairie. Long leaf pine in two large bodies, separated by the Red River, aggregating 4,300,000 aces of densest stump- age (4,000 to 6,000 feet and over per acre) often untouched. No Cuban pine. Echinata and Taeda extend from Red River north- ward to State line. The former species frequently shows an un- dergrowth of Spanish oak, black jack, post oak and hickories. Cypress grows in enormous swamps, with red gum and black gum. Along rich bottoms, evergreen magnolias, water oaks, red oaks, gums, cottonwoods, burr oak, white ash, pecan, persimmon, sas- safras and beech. In drier localities, cow oak and burr oak. 35 FOREST POLICY. 4. Forest ownership: The State owns large swamp tracts. The farmers own 35% of all the woodlands. 170 lumber firms own 1,500,000 acres of 6,700 feet average stumpage. 5. Use of timber: The use of cypress for cooperage was large as early as 1880, when the pine woods were still untouched. The main center of long leaf pine mills is now at Lake Charles (Calcasieu River). Main center of short leaf pine mills is at Shreveport (Red River). In 1900, 405 mills existed, of $25,800 average investment. Logs were worth, in 1900, on stump, $1.22, and at mill, $5-59- New Orleans is not a mill center, but is the largest south- ern shipping point of the lumber and cooperage industry. Moss ginning is an industry turning out, in 1880, $550,000 worth of material. There are no later statistics. Turpentining is only recently introduced, tending to ruin the prospects for con- servative lumbering, owing to the danger of fire connected with it. In 1880, Sargent's fire statistics show a loss of $6,000 worth of timber only, virgin pine being fireproof and the other species protected by swamps. Sargent, in 1880, estimates the stand of pine at 48,200,000,000 feet b. m. The products of the lumber in- dustry are valued, in 1880, at $1,700,000; in 1890, at $5,700,000, and, in 1900, at $17,400,000; a very rapid increase. The cut in 1900 consisted of 1,200,000.000 feet b. m. (800,- 000,000 yellow pine, 340,000,000 cypress, 50,000,000 cottonwoods, 5,000,000 white oak). The average stand of white oak is said to be 7,800 feet b. m. per acre (?). Swamps cleared of cypress are doomed to lie barren. No pulp industry. Three small leather concerns use a few cords of oak bark, sumac and a few barrels of extract. 6. Forestry movement: None. 7. Laws: Unknown. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: Louisiana, leading the States of the Union in rice production, irrigates from water-courses and from wells 202,000 acres of rice fields. The cost of the irrigation system averages only $12.54 per acre. 36 FOREST POLICY. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF MAINE: 1. Area: Woodlands comprise, after 12th census, 23,700 square miles, or 79% of State. In 1893 the State assessor reports only 15,000 square miles of forest. After report of the forest commissioner in 1903 forest lands comprise 21,000 square miles, and 14,800 square miles are taxed as "wholly wild land." 2. Physiography: The north and northwest are said to be mountainous. Mount Katahdin, the highest peak, is 5,385 feet high. The south and southeast is hilly. Lakes, valuable for for- est transportation, are found all over the State. The coast line is deeply indented. The most important rivers are the Andros- coggin, Kennebec, Penobscot and St. John, the latter on and close to the New Brunswick line. 18,000 square miles are abso- lute forest land. 3- Distribution: The conifers of the northern pine belt (white pine, red spruce, white spruce, hemlock, balsam, tamarack, white cedar) occur mixed with maple, white and yellow birch, beech, ash. oak, hickory and basswood in varying proportions. Large bodies of hemlock used to exist in the southeast. Valuable bodies of poplar are found, especially on the Kennebec. Only the immediate coast region between the Kennebec and Penobscot lacked the conifers. The State is largely cleared in the south, and the north is culled of its white pine. Pulp wood has been removed from one- half of the wild lands. Still lumbermen alone in 1900 were re- ported to be owners of over 1.000,000,000 feet b. m. of white pine. Good second growth of white pine is found all over the southern counties. Regeneration of spruce is frequently met be- neath an ushergrowth of gray and white birch, poplar and pine. The sustainable yield of the spruce woods amounts to 637,- 000,000 feet b. m. (after Ralph S. Hosmer) per annum. Forest Commissioner E. E. Ring publishes the following figures as the result of recent explorations:— Stumpage of coniferous timber (9 inches and over in diameter) in million feet b. m. D s r y = e %™» p x b e r K & bec And ^« T & nor S P ruce 6.942 5.166 3,883 3.248 2.000 Pine 427 153 Cedar 1,830 438 37 FOREST POLICY. 4. Forest ownership: 204 saw-mill firms own 2,108,000 acres of 2,000 feet (only?) stumpage. Paper firms own several hundred thousand acres of woodland, largely cut over. 22.4% of woodland is attached to farms. 5. Use of timber: The State contains 832 saw mills, of $11,754 average investment. Stumpage costs $2.52; logs at mill, $8.15 per 1,000 feet b. m. Value of output of saw mills and timber camps was: — 1850 $ 5,900,000 i860 6,600,000 1870 1 1,400,000 1880 7,000,000 1890 11,800,000 1900 13,500,000 The cut for saw mills in 1900 consisted of: — Spruce 425,000,000 feet b. m White pine 220,000,000 feet b. m. Hemlock 89,000,000 feet b. m. Other conifers 87,000,000 feet b. m. Hardwoods 29,000,000 feet b. m. Total 850,000,000 feet b. m. There were produced in the census year $903,000 worth of shingles, $408,000 worth of cooperage stock, $364,000 worth of lath, $600,000 worth of boxes, $20,000 worth of baskets and wood- enware, $294,000 (60% of output of United States) worth of bob- bins and spools (white birch) (Ring reports a production of 800,- 000,000 spools, worth $1,000,000, for 1903). The hardwood industries are increasing with the expansion of the railroads ("Hardwood Novelty Mills"). Modern lumber- ing is astonishingly conservative and never destroys the chances of a good second growth. Conservative lumbering in pure spruce woods ("black growth") is, however, apt to be followed by sweep- ing blow-downs. Logging for pulp, consuming about 275,000,000 feet b. m. annually, is less wasteful than logging for lumber. Saw mills, on the other hand, are less interested in permanent supplies than puip mills. Average age of spruce logs is about 200 years. The use of the cross-cut saw is novel in the Maine woods. Logs are usually peeled (which requires summer cutting), and FOREST POLICY. long lengths of logs are held out. Railroading is gradually su- perceding river driving. Leather industry: 31 firms produce $2,451,000 worth of leather and consume 40,600 cords of hemlock bark, worth $229,- 000; 4,000 cords of oak bark, worth $28,000; 1,080 bales of gam- bier, worth $7,370; 200 barrels of extract, worth $2,740; 125 tons of sumac, worth $7,675; chemicals, worth $5,615. Paper and pulp industry: 35 mills produce in the census year $13,200,000 worth of material and consume: home-grown spruce, 265,000 cords, worth $1,325,000; Canadian spruce, 20,600 cords, worth $170,000; home-grown poplar, 49,000 cords, worth $199,000; Canadian poplar, 500 cords, worth $1,700; other pulp- wood, 6.500 cords, worth $21,700. 6. Forestry movement: Public sentiment is aware of the inter-dependence between the State's prosperity and the safety of the forest; hence forest fires are not allowed to roam at ran- dom. The memory of famous fires, like the Miramichi fire of 1825, has helped to mould public opinion. The fire warden sys- tem, however, is still inadequate. The public are interested in developing the resort charac- ter of the woods. Pine offspring in farming sections is carefully husbanded. Good reports by Chas. E. Oak and Austin Cary in 1894 and 1896; by E. E. Ring in 1902. 7. Laws: The State Land Agent (now E. E. Ring) acts as Forest Commissioner, since 1891. His duties are: — (1) Forestry education, through public schools. (2) Preparation of circulars relative to care of woodlands, to be furnished upon application to any citizen of the State. (3) Distribution of fire reports (blank forms) amongst fire wardens. (4) Posting fire law notices. (5) Collecting forest, lumber and fire statistics. (6) Prevention, control and extinguishment of forest fires in unorganized townships. Guides are licensed and charged with protection of the forest. Fire wardens are (a) In unorganized townships appointed by the forest com- missioner (since 1903), paid by the State at the rate of $2 per day. Helpers summoned by the warden are paid 15c. per hour. An 39 FOREST POLICY. emergency fund of $10,000 annually is set aside for this purpose by the legislature. (b) In organized towns recruited from the selectmen, each selectman serving ex officio as warden for a specified district, at the expense of the town, which also pays for helper's services. The fire wardens shall submit to the forest commissioner reports on the extent, damage and cause of forest fires; further, on the remedial measures taken to subdue fires within their wardships. Fire wardens seem, however, not punishable for neglect of duty. The forest commissioner has, unfortunately, no control over the fire wardens in organized towns. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: 11 farms irrigate 17 acres for truck produc- tion. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF MARYLAND: 1. Area: 4,400 square miles, or 44% of State. After 12th census very little of wooded area contains merchantable timber. 2. Physiography: Three sections. Western section in Alleghanies and Blue Ridge Mountains, with altitudes of over 3,000 feet. The Potomac, forming the West Virginia and Virginia line, breaks through the Blue Ridge on extreme east corner of West Virginia. The middle section presents a plateau, falling from the Blue Ridge down to Chesapeake Bay. The eastern section of lowlands consists of two peninsulas formed by the Chesapeake Bay, Potomac River and Delaware Bay. 3. Distribution: The mountain section was, originally, heavily timbered with white pine, hemlock, maple, birch, beech and spruce — the Adirondack forest at an elevation 1,000 feet higher than it is found in the Adirondacks. Now little virgin forest is said to be left. The central section was, originally, covered with hardwoods. Now chestnut coppice prevails, or a second growth of white oak, black oak, hickories and gum. The eastern peninsula shows a second or third growth of pitch and scrub pine, mixed with hardwoods. 40 FOREST POLICY. 4. Forest ownership: 114 firms own 66,928 acres of 3,700 feet b. m. average stumpage. 5. Use of timber: The lumber manufacture has never been prominent in Maryland. After the census reports, however, it continues growing, in spite of the lack of primeval supplies. The output of the Maryland mills was valued in 1850 $ 585,000 i860 605,000 1870 1.501,000 1880 1,813,000 1890 1 ,600,000 1900 2,650,000 The cut in 1900 consisted of: — Yellow pine 79,000,000 feet b. m. Hemlock 21,200,000 feet b. m. White pine 1,600,000 feet b. m. Spruce 3.500,000 feet b. m. Miscellaneous conifers 4.300,000 feet b. m. Oak 66,000,000 feet b. m. Chestnut 5,000,000 feet b. m. Poplar 5.000.000 feet b. m. Miscel. hardwoods . . . 2.300,000 feet b. m. Logs on stump are worth $2.92: at mill. $6.75. 366 mills represent an average investment of $3,643. The cooperage industry was important in olden times; had greatly declined in 1880, and depends in 1900 almost entirely on the use of imported cooperage stock, turning out $700,000 worth of products. The home grown staves and headings are worth only $15,000. No furniture stock and little carriage stock is ob- tained inland. The box factories turned out, in 1000, $1,800,000 worth of boxes, and seem to depend on imported stock for raw material. Leather industry: There are 21 tanneries of $1,754,000 an- nual output. They consume 3,116 cords of hemlock bark, valued at $21,888; 12,087 cords of oak bark, valued at $80,603; 309 barrels of oak bark extract; in tons of sumac and chemicals; 25 tons of quebracho. The paper and pulp industry produces, in 21 mills. $2,600,000 ■worth of products and uses 23,229 cords of home-grown spruce, 4i FOREST POLICY. worth $147,615; 4,616 cords of poplar, worth $30,825; 20,623 cords of other woods, worth $135,825. 6. Forestry movement: None. 7. Laws: A bill, failing in 1902, provided for: — (a) State Board of Forestry, consisting of three members, one to be a scientific forester, two to be owners of 100 acres of farm land. Commissioners hold office at Annapolis, are supplied with a secretary and receive $600 each annually. Their duty is to purchase woodland at the headwaters, at a price not to exceed $8 per acre, or else deforested land in other sections of the State. No price limit is given for the latter purchases. An appropria- tion of $30,000 annually is set aside for land purchase, and $6,000 for salaries and expenses. (b) Bounties of 10 cents a tree shall be paid for every locust, black walnut, hickory, red and black oak planted according to certain regulations; also a bounty of 5 cents for every chestnut thus planted and for trees of other species fit for fence posts. $5,000 are annually provided for bounty payments. Only malicious firing is punishable. 8. Reservations: None, the above cited reserve law hav- ing failed to pass. 9. Irrigation: None. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF MASSACHUSETTS: 1. Area under forest: After 12th census, 4,200 square miles, or 52% of the State, are wooded. A State canvass of 1885 gives, however, only 1,390,000 acres of woodland classed as follows: — 317,000 acres of timber over 30 years old. 993,000 acres of growth under 30 years old. 6,000 acres of planted forest, 74,000 acres of woodland not classified. 2. Physiography: The western half of the State is moun- tainous. Here the Taconic and Hoosac Ranges, with the Berk- shire Hills, rising in Mount Graylock to 3.535 feet elevation. The eastern half is hilly, or flat in the southeastern peninsula. 3. Distribution: Massachusetts forms part of the north- ern pine belt, stocked originally with white pine, hemlock and spruce, mixed with hardwoods in varying proportions. The hard- 42 FOREST POLICY. wood coppice now existing consists of maple, chestnut, oaks, gray- birches, hickories and pitch pine. Scattering red cedar and a few groves of white pine or hemlock are frequently met. 4. Forest ownership: The Boston park system now ag- gregates 6,784 acres. 162 lumber firms own 41,000 acres of 9,000 feet b. m. stumpage. Cities near South Orleans, after Sargent, have fully 10,000 acres planted in pitch pine. The balance of the woodlands is attached to farms. 5. Use of timber: Stumpage costs $2.64; logs at mill, $949- 534 saw mills, the larger ones placed along the Connecticut, report an average investment of $7,518. The value of the sawed output is constantly rising: — 1850 $1,500,000 i860 2,200,000 1870 3,500,000 1880 3,100,000 1890 5,200,000 1900 6,500,000 The cut of the mills in 1900 consisted of: — Spruce 29,000,000 feet b. m. White pine 261,000,000 feet b. m. Hemlock 12,000,000 feet b. m. Other conifers 2,000,000 feet b. m. Chestnut and oak 42,000,000 feet b. m. Total 346,000,000 feet b. m. A large proportion of this cut seems, however, to have orig- inated in Vermont and New Hampshire. Farm lots are said to produce nearly 600,000 cords fire wood and over 400,000 railroad ties. Woodenware, manufactured from second growth white pine, forms an important industry (notably near Winchendon). Large production of hoop poles. The miscellaneous indus- tries are otherwise insignificant. The box, casket and barrel in- dustries rely entirely on stock imported from other States for a production valued at $5,500,000 per annum. Leather industry: Massachusetts is second only to Penn- sylvania in leather production. 119 plants produce $26,000,000 worth of leather and consume 62,000 cords of hemlock bark, worth 43 FOREST POLICY. $498,000; 1. 000 cords of oak bark, worth $9,000; 15,500 bales of gambier, worth $106,000; 17,000 barrels of extract, worth $170,000; 3.600 tons (!) of sumac, worth $190,000; 500 tons quebracho, worth $8,000; chemicals worth $307,000. Paper and pulp industry: Massachusetts is second only to New York in these industries; still her consumption of wood is small, consisting of home-grown spruce, 21,200 cords, worth $110,- 000; Canadian spruce, 13.800 cords, worth $113,000; home-grown poplar, 3,000 cords, worth $18,000; other wood, 1,000 cords, worth $5,000. Enormous amounts of rags, manilla, waste paper; further, imported pulp and fiber form the chief raw material. 6. Forestry movement: The Massachusetts Forestry As- sociation is backed by wealthy and educated tree lovers, and employs a forester (T. F. Borst). The Arnold Arboretum, at Jamaica Plains, offers unrivalled advantages to the student of dendrology. Chair of forestry at Harvard since 1903. 7. Laws: The selectmen of towns appoint annually one or more fire wardens, paid according to the pleasure of the town. Unique and interesting is a law allowing cities and towns to con- tract loans and to secure State contributions (50% of expense) for forest park purposes. Tax exemptions are granted for ten years on plantations, consisting of 2,000 saplings over 4 feet high (per acre), made on abandoned fields. Sand dunes at Cape Cod are being replanted under State law. 8. Reservations: City reserves are small, but of great local importance. Three State reserves, called the Mount Tom, Gray- lock and Wachusett State Parks, were established in 1902 and placed in charge of a State forester. 9. Irrigation: 28 farms irrigate 134 acres, for truck pro- duction. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF MICHIGAN: 1. Area: Area of woodland, inclusive of stump land, is 67% per cent of State area, or 38,000 square miles. Fernow gives 38% only. 2. Physiography: Two peninsulas. Ground level or undu- lating with sandy or gravelly ridges. Splendid shipping facilities via the lakes. Rivers important in the white pine industry are the Muskegon, Manistee, Shiawassee. Kalamazoo and Saginaw. 44 FOREST POLICY. 3. Distribution: Prairies only in the extreme south of the lower peninsula. South of the 43d degree of latitude, broad-leaved species prevail on land pre-eminently fit for agriculture. Here are found elm., ash, basswood, maple and white oak of splendid development. The northern part of the lower peninsula and the entire upper peninsula were occupied by the famous pineries of Michi- gan, sprinkled with swamps of tamarack, cedar, spruce and bal- sam, and sand barrens stocked with jack pine, poplar, birch and scrub oak. In the pineries there are mixed with the white pine, often as an undergrowth, ash, sugar maple, beech, oaks, hemlock, bass- wood, elm. In 1880 the standing hemlock was estimated to be seven billion feet b. m., carrying seven million cords of bark. The maple sugar industry is important, Michigan ranking third in 1880. 4. Forest ownership: The State claims 3,000,000 acres of so-called tax homesteads, which are held for sale to ignorant im- migrants. 320 lumber firms own 2,750,000 acres stocked with 5,300 feet b. m., on an average. In the southern section wood lots are usually owned by farmers. 5. Use of timber: From 1862 to 1887 the State produced $870,000,000 worth of white pine. In 1880, Sargent reports for white pine a growing stock of 35,000,000 feet b. m., whilst Fernow, in 1896, estimates it at 6,000,000 feet b. m. (underestimate). An- other five years will, probably, bring about the end of the white pine in Michigan. In lumber production Michigan has recently lost its leader- ship, held since 1870, to Wisconsin. The value of the saw mill products was in 1850 $ 2,500,000 i860 7,000,000 1870 32,000,000 1880 52,000,000 1890 83,000,000 1900 54,000,000 45 FOREST POLICY. The cut of 1900 consisted of: — White pine 1,300,000,000 feet b. m. Hemlock 850,000,000 feet b. m. Cedar 370,000,000 feet b. m. Other conifers 1 10,000,000 feet b. m. Ash 86,000,000 feet b. m. Basswood 46,000,000 feet b. m. Elm 1 10,000,000 feet b. m. Maple 400,000,000 feet b. m. White oak 135,000,000 feet b. m. Other hardwoods. . . 52,000,000 feet b. m. Logs are worth on the stump $3.06; at mill, $7.60. 1,613 mills of $20,900 average investment are reported. Michigan still leads the United States in the value of miscellaneous forest products (furniture, wagon, agricultural, cooperage and flooring stock), the output being $6,700,000. In the shingle production, worth $3,200,000, it is second only to Washington. The splendid railroad systems developed in the past now facilitate the logging of hardwoods. A State cen- sus of 1884 estimates the cord wood consumption at S Z A million cords annually, worth 8.9 million dollars. Paper industry uses 12,300 cords of home-grown spruce and 83,000 cords of Canadian spruce. Total value of product is $4,200,000, for 1900. Leather industry consumes in census year, in 27 tanneries, 62,000 cords of hemlock bark, valued at $498,000; 1,000 cords of oak bark, valued at $8,800; 3,700 barrels of hemlock bark extract, worth $45,000, and 13,500 barrels of oak bark extract, worth $124,000. 6. Forestry movement: The impediments to conservative forestry are: Agricultural qualities of white pine soil, excessive taxation, total lack of means to check fires, difficulty of conserva- tive lumbering in scattering holdings of virgin woods subject to wind fall. In 1875 a forestry commission was created, dying after two years of existence. In 1887 the State Board of Agriculture was constituted as a "Forestry Commission." Forestal agitation is lead by Senator C. W. Garfield, assisted by the university, the agricultural college, farmers' institutes and women's clubs. 46 FOREST POLICY. In 1899 the "Forestry Commission" (appropriation $2,000 annually) was revived as a commission of inquiry and legislative advice. It consists of three scientific members, but no lumber- men. Allowance $2,000 a year, to be spent for gathering statistics. A department of forestry was established in 1901 at the State Uni- versity (now under Dr. F. Roth), and 57,000 acres of land for- feited for non-payment of taxes were turned over to the commis- sion to be worked for two years. In lieu of these 57,ooo acres a recent law has turned over to the commission all State holdings in three townships at the head waters of the Muskegon River. By the aid of a continuous appropriation of $7, 500 a year, the commission is gradually acquiring the contiguous lands, so as to make these reserve holdings more solid. The attempt of reserving all land forfeited for non-payment of taxes (and of a protective character) for State reserves failed in 1901. 7. Laws: Fire laws since 1817. Not enforced. Loss from fires reported by Sargent is $1,000,000 in 1880. 8. Reservations: Now 64,000 acres at the head of the Muskegon River. 9. Irrigation: None. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF MINNESOTA: 1. Area: Woodlands, inclusive of stump land, cover 52,000 square miles, an area equal to 66% of the State. Stand of white pine after Sargent, in 1880, eight billion feet b. m.; after Gen. C. C. Andrews, in 1895, seventeen billion feet b. m. ; after Horace B. Ayres, in 1900, twelve billion feet b. m. 2. Physiography: Undulating. 10,000 lakes and lakelets, the largest being Red Lake, Leech Lake and Millelac Lake. A multitude of swamps increase in size and number towards the north. Hills are rare. The Rainy River and Rainy Lake form the boundary line towards Ontario; the St. Louis River empties at Duluth; the St. Croix River runs on the Wisconsin line; the Red River on the Dakota line; the Mississippi starts in Lake Itasca and is navigable from Minneapolis southward. 3. Distribution: Two-fifths of the State is prairie, ad- joining the Dakota and Iowa lines; another fifth, next to prairie, shows hardwoods prevailing over the softwoods; the remaining two-fifths is pine land and swamp land. 47 FOREST POLICY. The northwestern pine belt of the United States readies its western limit in Minnesota. The species prevailing in the hardwood belt are black oaks, sugar maple, birches and cotton- wood. In the pine belt, white pine, Norway and jack pine are found, according to the soil. The poorer the soil, the more jack pine. White pine occurs, usually, with an undergrowth of lin- den, maple and hazel. In the swamps, black spruce, balsam, white spruce, white cedar and tamarack. On the wind-swept side of lakes, conifers are missing. No hemlock is found, a fact denied by H. B. Ayres. Birches and poplars occupy cut-over white pine land and secure, acting as nurses or ushers, if fire is kept out, a gradual recurrence of white pines. White pine underneath white pine is never found, whilst Norway pine immediately replaces Norway pine, and whilst jack pine invariably follows in jack pine's wake. 4. Forest ownership: 85 lumber firms own 2,025,000 acres of 3,900 feet average stumpage per acre. State owns between 2 and 3 million acres of land forfeited for non-payment of taxes. The United States own enormous tracts still. 30 townships re- main unsurveyed north of the continental divide. Large Indian reserves. 5. Use of timber: The value of the products of the lum- ber industry in Minnesota gives it third rank as a lumber produ- cing State. Minnesota came slowly to the front, having in 1880 an output of $7,400,000; in 1890, $25,000,000, and in 1900, $43,600,000. The cut in 1900 consisted of: — White pine 2,250,000,000 feet b. m. Norway pine 108.000,000 feet b. m. Other conifers 20,000,000 feet b. m. Spruce 1,000,000 feet b. m. Hardwoods 62,000,000 feet b. m. Total 2,441,000,000 feet b. m. The miscellaneous industries (furniture, cooperage, wagon stock, flooring, spools, etc.) yielded, in 1900, only $1,300,000. White pine and hardwoods in Minnesota are, on the average, inferior to white pine and hardwoods in Wisconsin and Michigan. 404 saw mills of $60,848 average investment (maximum in- vestment, by far, of United States). Logging by rail is taking the place of log driving, on which the mills of Minneapolis used 48 FOREST POLICY. to depend. Skidding by horses during the winter months forms the rule. Sleighing over ice roads to the lakes or rivers. Wages of workmen about $28 (with full board) per month. Large amount of timber consumed by the iron mines of northeastern Minnesota. Logs are worth $3.40 on stump, and $8.09 at mill. The leather industry is small, hemlock lacking. Nine tan- neries use 107 cords of bark, 37 barrels of extract and a little gambier and quebracho. Relative to paper and pulp industry, no data are given by the 12th census. Possibilities are very good, since there is plenty of spruce. Big Weyerhauser mill near Duluth. 6. Forestry movement: Since 1876 a forestry association encourages prairie planting. Bounties for prairie planting since 1891. Arbor Day since 1883-1884. The Hinckley fire, of Septem- ber 1, 1894. through which a large number of lives and many mil- lions of dollars worth of stumpage were lost, caused the creation of a forest fire warden system, effective enough to prevent a sec- ond Hinckley conflagration, but insufficient for the absolute safety of forestal investments. The legislators hailing from the prairies antagonize outlays benefitting the wooded portion of the State. The State auditor is "forest commissioner." Town supervisors and the mayors of cities are constituted fire wardens and are fined for neglect of duty. Remuneration only $2 per day for not to exceed 15 days annually (two-thirds paid by county and one-third by State). The chief fire warden ($1,200 salary) is appointed by the State auditor; he maintains and superintends the activity of the fire wardens; has authority to mass them at points of danger; controls an emergency fund of $5,000 for suppression of fires. Annual forest statistical reports of great value, by General C. C. Andrews. Forestry lectures by Prof. S. B. Green at the Minnesota State College of Agriculture. The proposition to establish a national park at the Chip- pewa Indian reserve ceded to the United States was enthusiasti- cally upheld by the Minnesota Federation of Women's Clubs and by the railroads. The influence of the lumbermen caused partial defeat of the park bill. As the law stands, the agricultural lands of the Chippewa reserve are to be opened to settlers; the pine lands, after the timber is sold at public auction, will form (with- out the President's proclamation) a national forest reserve. 5% 49 FOREST POLICY. of the timber, however, will be left according to the selection of the Bureau of Forestry. The friends of forestry now endeavor to obtain a national park in the northeast, close to Lake Superior. 7. Laws: "Staples bill" forbids the removal of timber previous to payment of back taxes. "Cross bill," of 1899, makes State forestry feasible on land either donated by lumbermen or set aside by the State for reserve purposes. Practically no appropriation and practically no dona- tions. Companies are forbidden to own over 5,000 acres of land. Fire warden law, see under "forestry movement." 8. Reservations: The Lake Itasca State forest reserve is insignificant. The Chippewa or "Minnesota National" forest reserve will be gradually established after timber is sold, and is expected to finally comprise 225.000 acres. 9. Irrigation: None. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF MISSISSIPPI: 1. Area: Area of woodlands, 32.300 square miles, or 70%. 2. Physiography: Alluvial and diluvial soil. Huge bot- toms between Mississippi and Yazoo Rivers. The Pearl River on the Louisiana line. The Tombigby River drains the north- eastern part. 3. Distribution: Originally the forest Avas half pine and half hardwood. Long leaf pine prevails in the south, extending northward to the latitude of Vicksburg and Meridian, on sandy soil, especially on former dunes. A belt along the Mississippi, some 30 miles wide, is free from long leaf pine. Cuban pine, with the long leaf, up to 60 miles from the coast, occupies moist soil, on which it regenerates freely. It is not found west of the Pearl River. Echinata is not found close to the coast, begin- ning where Cuban pine ends. It often appears mixed with long leaf and taeda pine, and prevails on the divide separating the Tombigby from the Yazoo Rivers on 5,000 square miles. Trees are more scattering than in Texas and Arkansas, the hard- woods taking a larger share in the composition of the forest. Taeda occurs everywhere east of the Yazoo, from the coast up to the Tennessee line, under the name of short straw pine, lob- 50 FOREST POLICY. lolly, swamp, slash and rosemary pine. It occupies moister and more loamy soil, and is often found in inundation districts. The undergrowth or suite consists of black and sweet gum, red oak and magnolia on wet soil; of hickories, Spanish oak and black jack on drier soil. Spruce pine (glabra) occurs in small clumps on rich, terraced soil. Cypress fills huge swamps along the Mis- sissippi and Yazoo Rivers. White cedar occurs, with taeda, in half-swamps. In the bottom lands are found cottonwood, both gums, white oak, cow oak (prevailing); Texan oak, water oak (nigra), magnolia and beech. Further, walnut, shagbark hickory, yel- low poplar, sycamore, mulberry, elm and holly. Burr oak and red oak are here wanting. Overcup oak (lyrata) occurs under the name "swamp oak." 4. Forest ownership: 349 firms own 1,214.000 acres, stocked with 7,600 feet b. m. per acre. The United States, the State and railroads, notably the Mobile and Ohio, own large tracts. The balance is owned by farmers. 5. Use of timber: In the census year, 820 mills of $9,400 average investment. In 1900, log value on stump, $1.30; at mill, $460. The output of the saw mills was valued in 1880 at $ 1,900,000 l8 90 at 5,700,000 1900 at 15,600,000 The cut in the census year consists of Yellow pine 064.000,000 feet b. m. Other conifers 37,000,000 feet b. m. Cottonwood 39,000,000 feet b. m. Red gum 23.000,000 feet b. m. White oak 102.000.000 feet b. m. Other hardwoods . . . 42.000,000 feet b. m. Total 1,207,000,000 feet b. m. Hardwood logging is very expensive; yellow pine logging, with four yoke of oxen hitched to a high-wheel cart, is very cheap. The average logging distance, for pine, slightly exceeds one-third of a mile. Expense of logging (cutting and hauling), $1.25; of railroading, 50 cents per 1,000 feet b. m. 51 FOREST POLICY. Railroad grades are fearful. Minimum log diameter of long leaf pine admitted is 10 inches. Average log size about 220 feet b. m. Turpentine industry is now tapping the pole-woods as well as the tree-woods. Lumbermen box two or three years before cutting. Echinata and heterophylla as well as palustris are boxed. Leather industry: Insignificant. Paper and pulp industry: None. 6. Forestry movement: None. 7. Laws: Firing on vacant land is allowed only during the three spring months. On appropriated land, malicious firing only is prohibited. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: In 1899, 40 acres were irrigated; 30 acres in rice and 10 in- truck. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF MISSOURI: 1. Area: 41,000 square miles, equal to 60% of the area of the State, are classed as woodlands. 2. Physiography: The Mississippi River forms the east- ern line; the Missouri River traverses the State from west to east. Undulating plains. Highest mountains are the Ozarks, from 800 feet to 1,000 feet high. 3. Distribution: The northwestern portion is prairie, with the usual forest groves along the rivers. The south-southeastern part exhibits short leaf pine (echinata) on the hills, notably on the Ozarks, alternating with stretches of post oak barrens. The undergrowth underneath pine is formed by oaks (scarlet, black, post, white), hickories and black gum. Altogether, 3.000,000 acres of pine are said to be found, the average stumpage being only 2,000 feet b. m. (after Mohr, often 3,000 to 4,000 feet b. m.). The lower dells of the east, south of the Missouri, show splendid broad leaf forests, where oak, walnut and ash, of prime quality, are still found away from the railroads. In the deep swamps of the southeast, cypress and tupelo gum prevail. In shallow water, swamp maple, swamp plane tree, swamp white ash and water honey locust occur. In the damp woods, gigantic cottonwoods, burr oaks, gums and cypresses. Here, perhaps, is 52 FOREST POLICY. the best remaining supply for white hickory. Gigantic Texan oak, sweet gum, willow, water and scarlet oak are also met. 4- Forest ownership: In south, much forest owned by speculators. 274 lumber firms control 869,545 acres, of 5,500 feet b. m. average stumpage. Farmers own two-thirds of woodlands. State owns 500,000 acres. 5- Use of timber: 1,169 (I) mills, with an average invest- ment of $5,336, beset the forests. Large cooperage concerns using cottonwood, elm and oak. White oak cut for railroad ties and bridge timber. Stumpage price averages $1.89. Logs at mill worth $6.91. Leather industry uses 774 cords of hemlock bark, 2,936 cords of oak bark and 869 barrels of bark extract. Output of industry, $816,000. The cut of the census year was: — White oak 250,000.000 feet b. m. Pine 269,000,000 feet b. m. Cypress 10,000,000 feet b. m. Cottonwoods 76,000,000 feet b. m. Elm 28,000,000 feet b. m. Red gum 51,000,000 feet b. m. Other hardwoods 35,000,000 feet b. m. No paper and pulp industry. Value of saw mill products rose from 6.3 million dollars, in 1870, to 11. 2 million dollars in 1900. Hardwood bottoms are invariably thought to be convert- ible into excellent farm lands. 6. Forestry movement: Arbor Day established in 1886. Forestry lectures at State Agricultural College. Residents seem to vie with one another to steal the timber belonging to non- residents. 7. Laws: Fire fines up to $500. No inclination of jurors to punish timber theft and incendiarism. 8. Reservations: None. 9- Irrigation: No data available. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF MONTANA: 1. Area: 42.000 square miles, or 29% of State, is wooded. 2. Physiography: The 109th meridian divides Montana in half. The eastern half consists of high plains fit for pasture 53 FOREST POLICY. only, traversed by the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers, the courses of which are cut 600 to 900 feet deep into the plateau. This eastern half contains, practically, no forests. The western half contains barren land only in the extreme north (Maria River Basin). Three main mountain chains may be distinguished in the western half. (1) The Coeur d'Alene and Bitter Root Mountains on the Idaho line. Water runs towards the Pacific from both slopes via Columbia River. (2) The main Rockies, lying between the Flat Head Basin and the Missouri River, which drain westward on the west slope and eastward on the east slope. (3) The northern extension of the Yellowstone Range ex- tending northward to the center of the State. Water runs from both slopes entirely towards the Atlantic, via the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers. All these mountains are less rugged and by 3,000 feet lower than those in Colorado and Wyoming. 3. Distribution: The best forests of Montana and of the entire Rockies are found in the chain of the Coeur d'Alene and Bitter Root Mountains. On the mountain chain forming the crest of the continent the forests are equal to the best of those in Wyoming On the third mountain range, draining solely east- ward, the forests are equal to those of the Yellowstone region. The western cedar (plicata) is scarce and small. It is found in best valley soil only at low elevations. Lowland fir and Engelmann's spruce occur in moist bottoms associated with Douglas fir. Lodgepole pine forms very extensive forests at medium altitudes. Limber white pine and balsam (lasiocarpa) are found in great bodies, especially on the eastern drainage; larch, white pine (monticola) and hemlock prevail on mountains draining towards the west. Along the rivers, cottonwoods and box elders occur. Quaking aspen replaces the conifers after heavy burnings on north slopes. 4. Forest ownership: Lumbermen own very small tracts only, since taxes are high. Indian reservations and railroad grants cover large tracts. (Northern Pacific and Great North- ern Railroads.) The forest reserves cover about 7,500,000 acres. Over one-fifth of Montana still belongs to the United States. 5. Use: The mining interests of Montana stand para- mount. Montana is second in the production of gold and silver, 54 FOREST POLICY. and first, by far, in the production of copper, amongst the States of the Union. Next in importance are the livestock interests. The stock consists of: — 1,000,000 cattle. 2,800,000 sheep. 200,000 horses. The forest is meant to subserve the mines, supplying props, fuel and ties; and agriculture, supplying water for irrigation pur- poses. To the west are the large plains of Washington. To the east those of the Dakotas and Montana, which can be irrigated only, it is claimed, by using water coming from the Montana Mountains. Log stumpage is worth $1.18 on an average, and logs at mill $4.11. Mill investments average $13,475- 38 lumber firms control about 600,000,000 feet stumpage, said to average 6,600 feet per acre. Mill products were worth in 1870 $ 430,000 1880 527,000 1800 1,182,000 1000 almost 3,000,000 In 1900 the cut of timber was 257,000,000 feet b. m., three- fifths of which was yellow pine, the balance consisting mainly of red fir and tamarack. The destruction by fire is said to be beyond belief. 6. Forestry movement: Numerous petitions to Congress led to the establishment of the central reserves. Geo. P. Ahern delivered lectures on forestry at the Montana College of Agri- culture, at Bozeman, for a number of years. 7. Laws: Penalty for wilful or careless firing. County commission required to keep fire laws posted. Tax rebate on forestry plantations. 8. Reservations: Only 690,000 acres of the Bitter Root reserve lie in Montana. The Flathead forest reserve, comprising 1.382.400 acres, and the Lewis and Clarke forest reserve, com- prising 2,926.080 acres, both lying on the crest of the Rockies, have been recently combined into one reserve under the name of the latter. At the same time, the reserved acreage was in- creased, making the new "Lewis and Clarke forest reserve" 1,670,270 acres. 55 FOREST POLICY. The Gallatin forest reserve of only 40.320 acres, near Boze- man, is unimportant. The Madison forest reserve (736,000 acres), bordering the Yellowstone Park, and the Little Belt Mountain forest reserve (501,000 acres), both established in 1002, seem important for irri- gation at the head of the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers. On the Lewis and Clarke forest reserve, western larch is by far the prevailing species, having twice the stumpage of Douglas fir and five times the stumpage of yellow pine. In the same reserve there seems to be more spruce than either yellow pine or lodge- pole pine. The Canadian larch and spruce are sentinels of the British Columbia forest flora. The Absaroka forest reserve of 1,311,600 acres, recently established, lies north of the Yellowstone Park. It has been consolidated with the Yellowstone and Teton reserves by Presi- dential proclamation. 9. Irrigation: Montana is third in irrigation, 950,000 acres being irrigated. Irrigation practicable only near the mountains at the present moment. Irrigation necessary for the cultivation of crops, notably barley. The canal of the Minnesota and Montana Irrigation Com- pany in Yellowstone County is 40 miles long, with an average width of 35 feet and a depth of 5 feet. Another canal in Chateau County is 75 miles long. The great eastern plains, with very rich soil, are almost unsettled, owing to the difficulty of irrigation. The best farms are found in the Gallatin Valley, near Bozeman, and along the Yellowstone River. Winter forage is required for the development of the rap- idly increasing livestock interests. In 1889, 950,000 acres of irrigated farm land producen $7,300,000 worth of crops from irrigation works constructed at an expense of $4,700,000. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF NEBRASKA: 1. Area: 2,300 square miles, or 3% of the area of the State, are wooded. 2. Physiography: Prairie traversed by the Platte River midway from west to east. The Niobrara flows along the north- 56 FOREST POLICY. ern boundary line; the Missouri forms the eastern boundary line towards Iowa. One quarter of the State north of the Platte River is occu- pied by the ''Sand Hills," which are not sand dunes, but give rise to springs and offer pasture. 3. Distribution: In the broad Missouri Valley of the extreme east were once found splendid groves of hardwoods, notably of burr oak, walnut, ash, box elder, honey locust and Kentucky coffee tree. The canyons of the rivers coming from the west show cottonwoods, willows and red cedar. Further west, some yellow pine, quaking aspen, cottonwoods and birches occur. Yellow pine covers several narrow ridges 5,000 feet high near the Wyoming line. Red cedar is found sparingly everywhere, the original growth being cut away for fence posts. In the Sand Hills, logs and stumps of yellow pine are found buried in the sand. After Dr. C. E. Bessey, pine groves (ponderosa) were found 50 years ago even in the eastern half of the State. About 300.000 acres (?) of forest plantations are now in existence. Honey locust, cottonwood and green ash are said to do best. The European pines are reported thrifty. 4. Forest ownership: The federal government still owns the Sand Hills. 321.000 acres of forest along the rivers are at- tached to farms. 5. Use of timber: The hardwoods of the Missouri bot- toms are practical^ used up. In 1880 there were 38 firms pro- ducing annually 14,000.000 feet of cottonwood and burr oak lum- ber. In 1000. 23 mills, of $1,000 average investment, were in existence. Output in 1900 is not given. Stumpage is worth $2.29 per thousand, and logs at mill bring $5.69. Firewood and fence posts are the leading requisites. Leather and pulp industry: None. 6. Forestry movement: John Sterling Morton, Cleveland's Secretary of Agriculture, was the soul of a vigorous movement in favor of prairie forest planting. He introduced Arbor Day. A State agricultural society offers three premia to the largest tree planters. The ''Nebraska Park and Forest Association," founded in 1899, tries to influence the newspapers. Instruction in forestry at the University of Nebraska by Dr. C. E. Bessey. 57 FOREST POLICY. 7. Laws: Tax exemption laws of 1869 were found uncon- stitutional. Towns are required by law to plant trees and au- thorized to levy taxes for that purpose. There are the usual fire laws. 8. Reservations: The Dismal River forest reserve (85,- 123 acres) and the Niobrara forest reserve (123,779 acres) are to be planted up, by the federal government, in yellow pine, jack pine and red cedar. 9. Irrigation: 148,000 acres of irrigated farm land have produced, in the census year, $983,000 worth of crops, helped by irrigation works costing $1,000,000. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF NEVADA: 1. Area: Under forest is 200,000 acres, or 0.3% of the State. Wooded area, after census of 1900, is 3,904.000 acres, or 6% of the State. 2. Physiography: In the western part, the east slope of the Sierras, with Virginia City and Carson City. Scarcely any water leaves the State. In the central part, narrow mountain ranges run north and south, and rise to over 8,000 feet altitude. 3. Distribution: Stunted junipers, and above these moun- tain mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius) skirt the barren land. Higher up, slopes dotted with nut pine, and still higher with yellow pine (Jeffreyi and ponderosa). The limber white pine is said to form extensive forests at elevations from 7,000 to 10,- 000 feet. 4. Forest ownership: Mines and railroads own little. The United States own practically all of Nevada. The State obtained from Congress a grant of 2,000,000 acres, to be located as the State pleased, in place of the usual school sections 16 and 36. The State sold the 2.000,000 acres rapidly in large tracts along all water courses at $1.25 per acre to cattle men. 5. Use: Mining timber is paramount. Limber pine, yel- low pine and red fir (magnifica) are used for props. The tim- ber works of the Comstock mines are said to be of marvelous construction. Since 1870, $55,006,000 worth of timber is said to have been buried in the mines. Nut pines, mountain mahogany and juniper are used for fuel and charcoal. Lumber is worth $23 per thousand; mine props, $10 per cord. SB FOREST POLICY. 6. Forestry movement: Kill. 7. Laws: None. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: A State irrigation law of 1903 declares all water courses public property and fixes maximum use of water per acre of irrigated land. The development of the State depends on the possibility of constructing reservoirs (notably on Humboldt River) and on the chances of artesian wells. The existing irrigation works, costing $1,500,000, irrigate 500,000 acres of land and produced, in 1899, $2,800,000 worth of products. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE: 1. Area: 5,200 square miles, or 58% of the State, are wooded. 2. Physiography: Northern section of the State is moun- tainous, containing the headwaters of the Androscoggin, Merri- mac and Connecticut Rivers ("the Switzerland of America"). Mount Washington, in the Presidential Range of the White Mountains, is 6,290 feet high. Southern section of the State is hilly, with some peaks over 3,000 feet high. Many summer tour- ists attracted. 3. Distribution: The growing stock was and is formed of white pine, hemlock, spruce, balsam and cedar, mixed with sugar maple, birch, beech; further, chestnut, ash, basswood and oak. After Fernow, hardwoods with spruce prevail in the northern section; pine and hemlock in the southern section. In 1900 the lumbermen alone owned 3,800,000,000 feet b. m. of stumpage, 2,000.000,000 feet of which are spruce. Large areas stock them- selves with white pine after lumbering. Since 1850, 1.750,000 acres of improved farm land have reverted to unimproved land, most of which is coming up in white pine. 4. Forest ownership: 159 lumber firms own 664,000 acres of forest, 43% of the woodlands are attached to farms. Paper companies and speculators own very large tracts. . 5. Use of timber: The forest has been culled for decades of years — to begin with, of prime white pine only. Fires used 59 FOREST POLICY. to be severe. The stand of virgin spruce often averages 20,000 feet b. m. per acre on large tracts. Logging by water or by rail. Some firms begin to survey the sleigh roads with great care. Stumpage costs $2.68; logs at mill cost $6.96 per 1,000 feet b. m. The State contains 535 saw mills, of $10,200 average investment. The output of the saw mills was valued in 1850 $1,100,000 i860 1.200,000 1870 4.300,000 1880 3,800,000 1890 5,600,000 1000 9,200,000 The cut of 1900 consisted of Spruce 188.000,000 feet b. m. White pine 310.000,000 feet b. m. Hemlock 45,000,000 feet b. m. Other conifers 2,000,000 feet b. m. Hardwoods 23.000,000 feet b. m. The miscellaneous mill stock produced in 1000 was worth $875,000. Hoop poles, excelsior, shoe pegs and maple sugar are produced in large quantities. Leather industry: 12 tanneries report an annual output of $2,265,000 of leather and a consumption of 5,700 cords of hem- lock bark, worth $25,400; 712 bales of gambier, worth $4,600; 40 barrels of bark extract, worth $480, and of chemicals, worth $6,400. Paper and pulp industry: 29 firms produce an output worth $7,200,000. The raw material consists of domestic spruce, 109,000 cords, worth $655,000; Canadian spruce, 87,000 cords, worth $479,000; other wood, 720 cords, worth $3,430. 6. Forestry movement: A Forest Commission, appointed in 1881, submitted a good report in 1885. Lectures on forestry are offered at the State Agricultural College. The inhabitants are not inclined to check forest fires. The "White Mountain State Park" movement, in 1892, failed to be successful. A bill of 1901, intended to limit the cutting of conifers to trees of over 10 inches stump diameter, failed to become a law. 60 FOREST POLICY. The "Society for the Protection of the New Hampshire Forests'' employs a forester (Philip W. Ayres) and intends to work the park scheme through Congress. Its propaganda, based on merely economic grounds, is most commendable. 7. Laws: A law of 1893 establishes a forestry commission, consisting of the governor and four members appointed by him. The member acting as secretary draws a salary of $1,000. Duties of commission are: — (a) Gathering forest, lumber and fire statistics. (b) Forestry propaganda at public meetings. (c) Suggesting legislation in annual reports. (d) Appointment (since 1895) of special fire wardens upon application by forest owners, applicant and county equally shar- ing the expense of the service. In organized towns, the selectmen are fire wardens ex officio, paid by the town. Where no town organization exists, the county commis- sioners are empowered to appoint fire wardens serving at the county's expense. Fire laws are uninforced. A law of 1903 provides $5,000 for the examination, by the National Bureau of Forestry, of the White Mountain forests. A joint resolution of the Legislature authorizes the federal govern- ment to establish, by expropriation or otherwise, a national for- est reserve in the White Mountains. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: None. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF NEW JERSEY: 1. Area: The woodlands cover 3,234 square miles, or 43% of State. The forest area is said to be increasing. 2. Physiography: The Delaware River and the Delaware Bay on the west side: Hudson River, Raritan Bay and Ocean on the east side. Shipping facilities and sea climate supply New Jersey with economic and forestal conditions similar to those of England. A belt 12 miles wide, stretching along a line running 61 FOREST POLICY. from Wilmington, Del., to Hoboken, is covered by cretaceous clays and marls. North of this belt lies the mountain zone of New Jersey, formed of red sandstone with trap outcrops, replaced further north by gneiss and granite highlands and yielding, in the extreme north, to the limestone and slate formations of the Kittatinney Mountains. South of the cretaceous belt lie "The Pines," a slightly rolling plain, with gravelly and sandy soil of post-tertiary origin. 3. Distribution: All timber is second or third growth. In the clay and marl belt, chestnut coppice prevails in small wood lots attached to farms; growth thrifty, protected by farm- ers. Pinus virginiana and echinata are found, with little rigida. In the highlands and mountains of the north, the farm lots in the valleys are well stocked with hardwoods, especially chest- nut. In the Kittatinney Mountains, conifers, especially Pinus rigida, are mixed with hardwoods. Slopes and ridges are in- variably in woods. In the mountains, tracts are large and hence more frequented by fires and trespassers. In "The Pines," pure pitch pine forests of a stunted growth prevail on pure sand, the trees formed by stool-shoots after fires. On better soil, black oak and black jack oak are mixed with pitch pine. On wet soil dense stands of white cedar occur, or hardwood swamps, stocked with sweet and black gum, maple and yellow poplar. The trap rock ridges, breaking through the red sandstone, show a stunted coppice growth of poor oak, chestnut and red cedar. The woodlands of the northern highlands and those of "The Pines" may be of indirect importance by shielding the water supply for a growing population. A colony of Russian Jews practice osier culture for basket- making. 4. Forest ownership: 47 mill firms own 7.576 acres of forest, reported to contain 3.600 feet b. m. average stumpage. The balance of woodlands belongs to farmers and to owners of small private reserves. 5. Use of timber: The iron industry in "The Pines." during the 18th century, drew heavily upon the virgin forest for charcoal. In 1850 the whole State was already cut over. 62 FOREST POLICY. The output of the saw mills was valued in 1850 $1,123,000 i860 1 .608,000 1870 2.745,000 1880 1 .627,000 1890 1 ,225.000 1900 1.859.000 The cut in 1900 consisted of: — Yellow pine 27.000.000 feet b. m. White cedar 10.000,000 feet b. m. Other conifers 4.000,000 feet b. m. Chestnut 10,000.000 feet b. m. Oak 19.000.000 feet b. m. Other hardwoods ... 3.000,000 feet b. m. Total 73.000,000 feet b. m. Logs on stump are worth $3.93; at mill, $7.56. 197 saw mills exist, of $4,357 average investment. The miscellaneous wood industries furnish only $157,000 worth of stock. The con- sumption of forest products, other than lumber, is said to con- sist of 800,000 cords of wood for fuel. 1,250,000 railroad ties; 14,000 telegraph and trolley poles and $365,000 worth of fencing. The usual rotation in coppice woods and pineries is from 35 to 50 years. Leather industry: 77 tanneries produce $13,700,000 worth of leather and consume 4.016 cords of hemlock bark, worth $39,600; 15,150 cords of oak bark, worth $170,830. In addition, large amounts of gambier, quebracho, sumac and chemicals are used for tanning. The paper and pulp industry works in 34 plants, produ- cing $3,200,000 worth of paper. No cord wood, however, is used. The raw material consists of rags, straw, pulp and fiber obtained from outside the State. 6. Forestry movement: Public opinion is well aware of the benefits derivable from a sound forest policy. Forestry bills are continuously introduced and continuously fail of passage. The Geological Survey of New Jersey, since 1885, deals with the forest problem, and, under a law of 1894, has issued, in 1899. a very good report on the forests of the State. No action 63 FOREST POLICY. was taken upon it. A State Forestry Association seems to have died. The splendid public road law of New Jersey should greatly facilitate conservative forestry. What New Jersey needs is an enthusiastic and unselfish leader of propaganda for forestry. 7 Laws: Since 1792, county officials act as fire wardens and are privileged to summon help. Railroads are responsible for damages caused by spark fires, and locomotives must be sup- plied with spark arrestors. The "Minch bill," of 1902, providing salaried fire marshals, seems to have failed. Arbor Day since 1884. 8. Reservations: None, except small private reserves. 9. Irrigation: Only on 73 acres producing hay, vegetables and corn. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF NEW MEXICO: 1. Area: 2.3,700 square miles, equal to 19% of total area of Territory, are wooded. 2. Physiography: Rocky Mountains traverse Territory from north to south. Average elevation of Rockies, north of Santa Fe, 10,500 feet. Drainage chiefly towards the Gulf of Mex- ico, via the Rio Grande from the west slope of the Rockies, and via Pecos and Canadian River from the east slope of the Rockies. River beds sunken 200 feet into the table lands. Rainfall averages less than one inch per month, except in the higher altitudes. Mean altitude of the whole territory is about 5,600 feet. . 3. Distribution: Arid plains east of the Pecos River (Llano Estacado), with some mesquit. In the southwest, nar- row mountain ranges separate wide plains on which Madrona, Spanish Bayonet and Palo Verde grow. ''Journanda del Morte," along the Mexican frontier, is said to be the worst of all des- erts. The mesas show scattering scrub oak with groups of red cedar, western juniper and pinon. In the depressions of the mesas occur fine groves of mesquit. Splendid grazing on the mesas. Along the rivers appear fringes of box elders, willows and cottonwoods. The mountain ranges show, at the highest elevations, a cupressus species forming dense forests (probably Arizonica); lower down, on the north slopes, white pine (flexilis), Douglas fir and Engelmann's spruce, which are replaced, after heavy cuttings and burnings, by quaking aspen. On south slopes 64 FOREST POLICY. yellow pine preponderates in open forests (ponderosa). The foot- hills show juniper, cedar, pinon, scrub oak. The best forests are in the central north and in the southwest, where the diagonal mountain chain traversing Arizona enters the territory. 4- Forest ownership: Lumbermen own i. 518.000 acres. At- tached to farms are 10% of the forests. The railroads and mines are said to control large tracts. Reservations cover 3.258.080 acres, equal to 4% of the territorial area. 5- Use: Forests are mostly used for pasture, especially in the yellow pine region. In the foothills' forests, yellow pine is the most valuable timber. Cedar and juniper are used for fence posts. Scrub oaks and pinion are used for fuel. In the census year the cut was 203.000 feet b. m. of Engelmann's spruce and Douglas spruce, and 31,637,000 feet. b. m. of yellow pine, averaging 1,700 feet b. m. to the acre. Merchantable timber is found only on the higher mountains. Mill investments average $5,200. Lumbermen control 1.000,000,000 feet b. m. of spruce and 1,300,000.000 feet of yellow pine. No pulp or leather industries. Stock raising stands paramount. Fires are said to do little dam- age, excepting north of Santa Fe. 6. Forestry movement: None. 7- Laws: Usual fire laws. Liability for all damages. Denver and Rio Grande railroad is the only road privileged to cut timber for repairs from government land. 8. Reservations: The Pecos River reserve, of 431.000 acres, lies northeast of Santa Fe and comprises the sources of the Canadian and Pecos Rivers. The Gila River forest reserve is large (2,327.040 acres) and compact and drains, through the Rio Grande, westward into the Pacific. In July. 1902. the Lincoln forest reserve of 500.000 acres was created in the central south of the Territory. 9- Irrigation: 88.900 acres. Agriculture possible only in the canons of the main rivers, depending on irrigation. The Aborigines have irrigated their farms from time im- memorial on. Agricultural chances are best along the southern broad-bottomed course of the Rio Grande. Ditches, roughly constructed, are usually held in common by the Mexican inhab- itants. The farms have the form of oblongs, the narrow side joining the river. 65 FOREST POLICY. The largest reservoir is on the Pecos River, in the south- east of the State near Carlsbad. The irrigation works existing in 1889 were constructed at an outlay of $4,100,000 and irrigate -'04.000 acres of farm land, producing $2,800,000 worth of crops. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF NEW YORK: 1. Area: 18,700 square miles, or 39% of the State, are classed as woodlands. 2. Physiography: Whole State slightly mountainous. Western section more level. Catskills on west bank of Hud- son; Adirondacks in extreme north, rising in Mount Marcy to an elevation of 5,345 feet (with gneiss and granite for underly- ing rock). A large number of inland lakes in north and west facilitate transportation. 3. Distribution: The western section is the farming sec- tion of the State. Originally the broad-leafed forest of the Mis- sissippi Basin covered the entire State, excepting: — (a) The Adirondacks, where maple, birch and beech pre- vail in irregular mixture with spruce, hemlock, white pine and • red pine, the spruce forming pure stands on the poorest soil, whilst wet depressions are occupied by balsam, tamarack and white cedar. (b) The low hills bordering the Hudson and extending westward along the Pennsylvania line, in which the coniferous species of the northern pine belt preponderate. In 1900. the forests, with the exception of those in parts of the Adirondacks. consist of second growth. Many a so- called "virgin forest'' of the Adirondacks has lost its stand of white pine for many a year. 4. Forest ownership: 276 firms own 648.000 acres, stocked with 5.600 feet b. m. per acre. The State reserves comprise 1,325." 000 acres in the Adirondacks and 82.000 acres in the Catskills. 5. Use of timber: The stand of conifers in New York was estimated, by Sargent, in 1880, at ^.3 billion feet b. m., and by Fernow, in 1896, at 5.3 billion feet b. m. 66 FOREST POLICY. The value of the output of the saw mills, since 1850, shows unexplainable fluctuations. It was in 1850 $13,100,000 i860 9.700.000 1870 21,200.000 1880 14,300.000 1890 17.100.000 1900 15.800.000 New York stepped down gradually, as a lumber producing State, from first rank in 1850 to 12th rank in 1900. The cut in 1900 consisted of: — Hemlock 314.000,000 feet b. m. Spruce 256,000,000 feet b. m White pine 122.000.000 feet b. m. Other conifers 6,000.000 feet b. m. Maple 51,000,000 feet b. m. Oak 43,000,000 feet b. m. Basswood 30.000.000 feet b. m. Elm 16.000,000 feet b. m. Chestnut 14.000.000 feet b. m. Birch 13.000.000 feet b. m. Ash 9,000,000 feet b. m. Hickory 1,000.000 feet b. m. Stumpage is worth $3.12, and logs at mill are bought at $7.75 on an average. 1.742 mills report an average investment of $6,163. The shingle production is valued at $342,000; the pro- duction of miscellaneous stock at $1,101,000. In barrel and box manufacture, further, in the manufacture of baskets and wooden- ware, New York occupies first place amongst the States. 159 box factories turn out $7,900,000; 413 barrel factories, $6,500,000; 180 basket and woodenware factories, $1,000,000. The expense of logging in the Adirondacks averages $-(.50 per 1. 000 feet b. in. Horses only are used in skidding and sleigh- ing. Logs are driven down the rivers, frequently with the help of splash dams. The average growing stock in primeval parts of the Adi- rondacks shows, per acre. 31.5 spruces. 4.5 hemlocks, 4 balsams, 0.2 white pines. 0.1 cedar. 14 birches, 10 beeches, 6 hard maples, 2.5 soft maples and a few ash and cherry, making a total stand of 73.4 trees of over 10-inch diameter per acre. 67 FOREST POLICY. Leather industry: 147 tanneries yield annually $23,200,000 worth of products and consume 179,000 cords of hemlock bark, worth $1,200,000; 4,000 cords oak bark, worth $33,000; 19,000 bales of gambier, worth $123,000, 2,100 barrels of hemlock bark extract, worth $25,000; 526 barrels of oak bark extract, worth $5,500; 615 barrels of quebracho, worth $9,500; 2,150 tons of sumac, worth $104,000; and chemicals, worth $330,000. Paper and pulp industry: New York leads the United States, in the 12th census year, by producing $26,700,000 worth of pulp and paper." 179 firms consume: Home-grown spruce, 363,000 cords, worth $1,985,000: Canadian Spruce, 141,000 cords, worth $945,000; domestic poplar 32,000 cords, worth $181,000; Canadian poplar, 9,600 cords, worth $57,000; other pulp wood, 9,500 cords, worth $40,000. After Fernow, more spruce is now consumed for pulp than for lumber. 6. Forestry movement: New York, as late as 1884, was still the owner of some woodlands in the Adirondacks, and Cats- kills. The Adirondack Park Association stimulated further ac- quisitions by the State. The New York State college of forestry was expected to demonstrate the feasibility of practical forestry on 30,000 acres of experimental forest and to supply the State with scientific foresters. 7. Laws: Law of 1886 allows the State to pay taxes on her own land. Law of 1889 provides penalty of $25 for every tree cut or stolen from the State's land. In 1897, the Adirondack Park law was enacted. Since 1893, forest utilization in the Adirondack forest pre- serve is forbidden by a constitutional clause. In 1895, the Forest Commission was combined with the Fish and Game Commission (See XXXI.). In 1900, the office of chief fire warden was created and the Commission authorized to employ three expert foresters to act as deputy fire wardens, attend reforestation, etc. In 1901, the Forest, Fish and Game Commission was con- solidated with the Forest Preserve Board. D. C. Middleton, of Watertown, is the forestry member of the Commission. Col. Wm. F. Fox is Forest Superintendent. The law makes it the duty of the Commission (a) To take care of the State forest preserves. (b) To promote "further growth" in the preserves. 68 FOREST POLICY. (c) To husband the people's interests in forestry and tree planting, and especially with reference to forest fires. The law authorizes the Commission to employ a superintendent, an assist- ant superintendent, a land clerk. 12 "foresters and game pro- tectors" and 35 "forest rangers," the latter drawing a salary of $500 per annum. Outside the State preserves the town supervisors act ex officio as "fire wardens," empowered to summon help (at $2 per diem) and instructed to annually report to the Commission on the number, extent and cause of forest fires occurring in their respective precincts; further, on the remedial measures taken to fight fires. The town pays half of the fire warden's wages ($2.50 per diem). If the fire wardens neglect proper discharge of their duties, then the Justices of the Peace or the Commissioners of High- ways shall act as fire wardens in their stead. Aside of these fire wardens ex officio, the Commission may rely, "in forest towns," on the vigilance of fire wardens specially appointed by the Commission. A forest town may be subdivided into two or more fire warden districts. In 1901, the chief fire warden had a force of 617 fire war- dens at his command, with whom he kept in contact by contin- uous visits. A booklet. "Instructions to Fire Wardens," was issued in 1901. The negligent or wilful firing of woodlands is punishable by a fine ranging between $50 and $500. 8. Reservations: The Adirondack Park exists only on the map and comprises that land which eventually should become the property of the State. It covers 3.226,144 acres, including over 2,000.000 acres of private holdings. The Adirondack forest preserve (the majority of), which lies inside the park, comprises 1.163,414 acres. It is entirely (excepting a few cases of divided rights) owned by the State, and contains 450.000 acres of forest proper, 590.000 acres of woodlands heavily lumbered, 40,000 acres of deforested land, 60,000 acres of water surface, 4.600 acres in farms. The spruce stumpage on the preserve is estimated to be 1.5 billion feet b. m. The Catskills forest preserve comprises only 82,330 acres. Both preserves are gradually increased by purchase, the prices ranging from $1 to $9 per acre. Tree planting on waste land, within the preserve, was begun in 1902. 69 FOREST POLICY. 0. Irrigation: 123 acres on 11 farms producing vegetables ind tobacco. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF NORTH CAROLINA: 1. Area: 35,300 square miles of woodlands, or 73% of the State, are reported as "mostly timbered." 2. Physiography: The western mountain region occupies 6,000 square miles. It is formed by the Blue Ridge on the South Carolina line and the Great Smokies on the Tennessee line. Cross ridges connecting these chains show the highest elevations. Mount Mitchell, of 6,711 feet elevation, is the highest mountain east of the Rockies. Normal precipitation. 57 inches annually. Normal average temperature, 50 degrees F. Rivers running northward, breaking independently through the Great Smokies. The Piedmont plateau, 400 to 1.500 feet high, occupies 22.000 square miles. Its configuration is rolling, in the west hilly. This fertile plateau is drained by the Catawba and Yadkin Rivers; further, by the headwaters of the Cape Fear, Neuse and Roanoke Rivers. Its elevation averages about 900 feet above sea level; its precipitations, 50 inches; its annual temperature, 59 degrees F. The coastal plain of North Carolina, an area of 24.000 square miles, falls from 400 feet elevation down to sea level. North of the Neuse River the soil is loamy; south of it more sandy. Normal precipitations, 55 inches. Normal temperature, 61 degrees F. Large swamps along coast. 3. Distribution: (a) Mountain region: (1) Lower mountains. There are 6 species of oaks, 4 of hickories, chestnut, dogwood, black gum, sourwood and chin- quapin. Post and Spanish oak are said (by W. W. Ashe) to be rather local. Pinus echinata. rigida, virginiana. strobus and (after Ashe) pungens prevail. White pine is said to cover 200,- 000 acres, notably in counties close to the Virginia line, reaching its finest development at altitudes ranging between 2,800 and 3,800 feet elevation. The .lower mountains are practically deprived of virgin growth. (2) Higher mountains. (3.000 feet to 5.000 feet elevation.) On the north slopes, hemlock, birches (lutea and lenta), red oak, 70 FOREST POLICY. beech, basswood, cherry, yellow poplar, white ash. cucumber, chestnut and buckeye occur, frequently with a dense undergrowth of rhododendron. On the south slopes, white, scarlet and chestnut oaks; chestnut, locust and hickory prevail. Table mountain pine on dry ridges. North Carolina hemlock on eastern slopes. Woods virgin (3) Mountain summits (over 5,000 feet elevation). Black spruce (Picea rubens) and balsam (Abies fraseri) cover the moun- tain sides, protected from storms. Buckeye, beech and sweet birch; further, mountain ash are mixed with the soft woods, the two first named often in groups. The undergrowth is a tangle of laurels standing on a dense matting of mosses. On the wind-swept side of the mountains "balds" occur, fit only for pasture, covered with Ericaceae, dotted with stunted red oaks, chestnut- and a locust here and there (b) Piedmont plateau. Uplands show an irregular mix- ture of broad-leafed species (notably black oak) with pines (echinata and taeda). On red sandstone a pure growth of taeda and echinata is frequently found without admixture of hardwoods. On fertile red clay (tobacco land), hardwoods (black, white and red oak: white, shagbark and small nut hickory: yellow poplar; white ash) occur without pines. The virgin forest is practically removed. Along the large streams, sweet and black gum. over- cup and swamp (cow) oak, sycamore and hackberry occur. Along the smaller streams are found red and white oak. yellow poplar, beech, maples and hop hornbeam. (c) Coastal plain. Maritime forests along seashore are broad-ley fed and evergreen, composed of water (nigra), laurel (laurifolia) and live (virens) oak, devilwood (Osmanthus amer- icana). mock orange (Primus caroliniana), sweet bay, yaupon (Ilex vomitoria) and palmetto. The pine belt uplands, adjoin- ing the maritime forests, show long leaf pine or taeda or both, according to fertility of soil. The lowlands in the pine belt ex- hibit so-called "Oak Flats," with cow, overcup, white, water and Spanish oaks, in company with ash, elm, gum. Cottonwood and red maple; or swamps stocked with gum and cypress; or so- called "Bays." where white cedar prevails: or "Pond pine swamps," formed by Pinus serotina. mixed with oaks and taeda pine. 71 FOREST POLICY. 4. Forest ownership: 629 lumber firms control 1,714.000 acres. Balance of woodlands is owned by farmers and speculators. 5. Use of timber: There are altogether 1.751 saw mills. The average mill investment is $3,572. The mill output in North Carolina amounted in the year 1850 to i860 to 1870 to 1880 to 1890 to 1900 to ; 900.000 1. 100.000 2.000,000 2,700,000 5.900,000 14.900,000 The cut of 1900 consisted of Yellow pine ] Cypress Other conifers Poplar White oak Other hardwoods ,228,000,000 feet b. m. 31,000,000 feet b. m. 11,000,000 feet b. m. 51,000.000 feet b. m. 86,000.000 feet b. m. 8,000.000 feet b. m. The naval store products, in 1885, were $1,320,000. Then, already, the industry was on the decline, the output having de- creased (after Fernow) since 1880 by 30%. The main shipping points for naval stores are Wilmington and Norfolk. After Sar- gent, the stand of yellow pine, in 1880, was 5,200,000.000 feet b. m. Since 1880. however, at least 15 billion feet of yellow pine have been cut. The stumpage in the mountain section after IT B. Ayres and W. W. Ashe, in 1901. amounts to 10.650.000000 feet b. m. or 2,640 feet b. m. to the acre. In addition, the stand of firewood in the mountain section is estimated to be 16.83 cords per acre. The various species participate in said stumpage as follows: — Oaks 41.41% White pine 2.68% Spruce 0.80% Ash i.43% Basswood 2.69% Beech 1.06% Maple 2.67% Pitch pine 1-34% Locust 0.67% Chestnut 17.20% Hemlock 5-30% Poplar 1.85% Buckeye 2.00% Black gum 1.64% Cucumber 0.84% Birch 3.03% Hickory 3. 16% Echinata 0.43% Miscellaneous 9.80% 72 FOREST POLICY. The miscellaneous industries (producing stock for furni- ture, wagons, agricultural implements, lath, bobbins and spools), in 1900. show an output of $644,000. Little cooperage stock (value $30,000) and boxes (value $76,000) were produced. Log< on stump are worth $1.34: at mill, $4-45- The leather industry consumes, in the census year, in 75 tanneries, 1.808 cords of hemlock bark, worth $8,524: 20,467 cords of oak bark, worth $107,242: 270 barrels of oak bark extract, worth $3,294. The value of the leather produced is $1,502,000. The paper and pulp industry is nill. The spruce forests of the high mountains are still inaccessible; in addition, freight rates are too high for good prospects of paper mill investments. 6. Forestry movement: The "North Carolina Forestry Society" is inactive. A forester, attached to the North Carolina Geological Survey, draws $1,000 per year salary (W. W. Ashe). 7. Laws: Good fire laws, on the statute book, are a dead letter, since there is no staff charged with their enforcement. A recent law, practically prohibiting the export of logs for manufacture, is, probably, unconstitutional. 8. Reservations: The "Appalachian National Park" (or Reserve?), now planned, is located, largely, in the Great Smokies of Western North Carolina. Congress is asked to appropriate $10,000,000 for the establishment of such a park covering 4,000,- 000 acres. North Carolina and the adjoining States have passed laws authorizing the United States to establish and manage such a park. Main difficulty to be met is the problem of local taxation. 9. Irrigation: 101 rice plantations, covering 3.283 acres, or 15% of the total area in rice, were irrigated in 1899. pro- ducing 30% of the total rice yield of the State. Tide water is utilized for irrigation. The cost of the sys- tem averages $34-35 per acre. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF NORTH DAKOTA: 1. Area: 600 square miles are wooded, an area equal to 1% of the entire State. No State of the Union has a smaller percentage of wooded area. 73 FOREST POLICY. 2. Physiography: Plains are unsheltered from the north. There are low hill ranges near the Canadian line. i. e.. Turtle Mountains. The Missouri, after taking in the Yellowstone River, runs eastward and then southward through the State. The Red River of the North forms the boundary towards Minnesota. 3. Distribution: All river bottoms show disconnected groups of burr oak (macrocarpa). sycamore, cottonwood, box elder and green ash. The low northern mountains contain cot- tonwoods mainly. 4. Forest ownership: Several thousand acres (40.000?) of artificial forest planted under the timber culture act. 5. Use: Hardwoods used for firewood. Xear Canadian line, wood is worth $1.50 per cord. Building timber obtained from Minnesota. Twelfth census reports 4 saw mills of $2,000 average capital. Logs worth $1 on stump and $5 at mill. No pulp and no leather industry. 6. Forestry movement: An association formed in 1887 seems to have died since. The .timber culture act gave rise to enthusiastic but mostly unsuccessful planting. Arbor Day move- ment since 1884. Much interest in forest planting maintained by the press. 7. Laws: A bounty of $2 annually to everyone planting one acre or more in trees. A plantation of five acres exempts a quarter section, plus $1,000 worth of improvements, from taxa- tion for ten years. Usual prairie fire laws. Owner must fire his land in March. April or May. and give 24 hours' notice of his intention to do so to all people living within one mile. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: Possibility of reclamation along main Mis- souri River is limited. The irrigated area, in 1899. aggregated less than 5.000 acres, yielding crops worth $28,000. Only $18,000 has been spent for irrigation systems up to 1899. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF OHIO: I. Area: Originally entire State was wooded. Forest area statistics are annually derived from data furnished by tax 74 FOREST POLICY. assessors. In 1853 forest area was 55%; in 1870. 38%; in 1886, 22%; in 1896, 17.4%. After the 12th census, however, the area of woodlands was 23% of area of State, or 9.300 square miles. 2. Physiography: No mountains, no dry or rocky soil. Undulating, rich table land, every square foot fit for agricultural purposes. Lake Erie in the north and Ohio River in the South facilitate transportation. 3. Distribution: Scattering groves of long boled hard- woods appear everywhere (hickory, sycamore, oaks, chestnut, ash. maple, yellow poplar, walnuts, elm, beech, etc.). Original forest is, probably, left in swamps only. White pine along the Pennsylvania line in a narrow belt. 4. Forest ownership: All woodlands are attached to farms, except 80,700 acres, of 4,100 feet b. m. average stumpage, con- trolled by lumber mills. 5. Use of timber: Ohio occupies seventh rank as a lumber producing State of the Union, having maintained its position admirably in spite of reports of declining supplies. Ohio leads in the production of furniture stock. Logs are worth at mill $9.47, and on stump, $4.92. There are 2.023 mills, of $4,638 average investment. Value of products of lumber industry averaged, in 1870, 1880, 1890 and 1900 respectively, $10,000,000, $14,000,000. $15,000,000 and $21,000,000. The cut in 1900 consisted of: — White oak 593,000,000 feet b. m. Other hardwoods 325.000,000 feet b. m. Conifers 42.000.000 feet b. m. Leather industry: 58 tanneries use 5.500 cords of hemlock bark, 23,800 cords of oak bark, 10,000 barrels of bark extracts and a little gambier, quebracho and sumac. Total product of tanneries equals $5,200,000. Paper and pulp industry has 51 plants using rags, waste paper, straw and manila grass preferably, in addition to 5,000 cords of home-grown (?) spruce, 2,000 cords of Canadian spruce, 10,000 cords of home-grown poplar. 2.000 cords of Canadian poplar and 12.000 cords of miscellaneous woods. 6. Forestry movement: State Forestry Association inac- tive. Woodland is considered only as farmland bearing the wrong crop. A bill for forestry school defeated in 1897. 75 FOREST POLICY. Forestry lectures by Wm. R. Lazenby, at State University. Cincinnati Forestry and Improvement Association formed in 190.3. 7. Laws: Fire laws since 1805. State forestry bureau created in 1885. Officers unsalaried and now inactive. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: None. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF OKLAHOMA AND INDIAN TERRITORY: 1. Area: In Indian Territory. 65% of the total area or 20,000 square miles are wooded. In Oklahoma, 11% of total area or 4.400 square miles are wooded. 2. Physiography: Undulating plateau, drained by rivers flowing west to east, notably the Canadian River and Cimarron River. The Red River of the south forms the southern boundary. The highest mountain ranges in the Ozark plateau are the Arbuckle and the Boston Mountains. The Cross timbers enter from Texas. The Wichita Mountains, in the southwest, are over 2,000 feet high. 3. Distribution: Western section is prairie, with green ash, hackberry and cottonwood along the rivers. Red cedar is said to have been found 20 years ago on the edges of all canyons. Middle section has woodlands of blackjack oak and post oak, notably in the Cross Timbers. Further, some burr oak, hackberry, white oak, shittim wood and wild china berry tree occur. These species are said to be gradually extending towards the west. After W. L. Hall, black walnut, catalpa and locust can be planted successfully within the original oak forests. In the eastern section (Indian Territory), south of the Canadian River, Pinus echinata and taeda are found in large, valuable bodies on the ridges. The lowlands in the east are splendidly timbered with the hardwoods of the Mississippi bot- toms. Here the best black walnut of the United States is said to exist. Further, red oak, cow oak, hickories, white ash, gums, 76 FOREST POLICY. cottonwood, sycamore, mulberry, maple, osage, orange and pecan. 4. Forest ownership: In Indian Territory, 32,347 acres are owned by lumbermen, with stumpage averaging 3,800 feet per acre. In Oklahoma, lumbermen own 10,940 acres, of 1,300 feet average stumpage. 5. Use of timber: In Indian Territory, the sawn products of 1900 were valued at $200,000, consisting of 16,000,000 feet b. m. Logs on stump worth $1.21 and logs at mill worth $4.61. There were 48 mills, representing an average investment of $1,911. In Oklahoma there were 33 mills, of $1,423 average in- vestment, which have turned out, in the census year, $63,000 worth of lumber. Logs on the stump are worth $2.54 and at mill $5.82. Leather, paper and pulp industries: None. 6. Forestry movement: Some forest planting in Oklahoma. 7. Laws: Unknown. 8. Reservations: The Wichita forest reserve, of 57.120 acres, in the Wichita Mountains of Oklahoma. 9. Irrigation: Irrigation is unimportant, being practiced, in 1899, on 2,300 acres only. The systems of irrigation cost $22,000. The irrigated crops are valued at $16,000. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF OREGON: 1. Area: The forests occupy 34.750,000 acres, equal to 57% of total area of State. Fernow gives only 20,000,000 acres and the vice-president of the defunct Oregon Forest Association only 16,000,000 acres of forest. Reason for difference is the dif- ference of definition of forest. The great commercial forests cover about 10,000.000 acres. 2. Physiography: Coast Range separated from the Cas- cade Range by the Willamette, Umpqua and Rogue Rivers. The heavy rainfall in the Coast Range is due to the Japan current (Kuroshivo). In the northeastern part of the State the Blue Mountains extend into Washington. The southeastern third of the State is without forests, exhibiting deserts close to Nevada. 77 ? % A \ * \ % < 1 N * * \ u 5 -p > \ ^ *» b ft ^ FOREST POLICY. 3. Distribution: Similar to that in Washington. (a) Coast Range. Tideland spruce close to the ocean. The bulk of the forests consist of Douglas fir and red cedar. Lawson's cypress forms a forest of great commercial value in the southern third of the Coast Range, where it exhibits splendid silvicultural qualities, i. e., abundant regeneration. In the ex- treme south of the Coast Range, sugar pine, winter bald white oak and also California chestnut oak are met with. (b) Cascade Range. On west slope, most important tree is Douglas fir, forming pure forests below 2,000 feet elevation and reproducing splendidly on clearings. Red cedar, hemlock and, higher up, white pine (monticola) are next in importance to Douglas fir. The firs (noble, amiable and grand) run high up on the mountains, fringing Crater Lake (10,0 00 feet eleva- tion). In southern extension of cascades, sugar pine occurs. On east slope: Below 5.000 feet an open forest of yellow pine is found; above 5.000 feet, Douglas fir. lodgepole pine and lowland fir are mixed with yellow pine. In addition, Engel- mann's spruce, western larch and white pine occur. At timber line white bark pine and hemlock are found in open forests. The river bottoms between Coast Range and Cascade Range exhibit heavy, broad-leaved groves composed of cotton- woods, alders, ashes, willows and white maples; also the ever- green California laurel. • (c) The Blue Mountains (in northeast corner of State) show open stunted forests of yellow pine. Douglas fir and larch, and, above 4,000 feet elevation, a heavy growth of lodgepole pine. 4. Ownership: Farmers own 1.5 million acres. Lumbermen, mostly Michigan and Wisconsin men, com- posing 212 firms, control 825,000 acres, of 25.000 feet b. m. per acre average. United States reserves cover close to 4.5 million acres on the Cascade Range. None exist on the Coast Ran ge, The Warm Springs and Klamath River Indian reserva- tions cover about 1,000,000 acres each, but are not heavily forested. 5. Use: The hardwoods are largely used for woodenware, ^ <=■ cooperage and furniture. The California laurel is the finest wood . for cabinet work and ship building on the coast. The center ^ of the hardwood industries is Portland. The cut in the census ^ 78 "3 FOREST POLICY. year was 740 million feet b. m. only, which is equal to 0.3% of the growing stock of 225 billion feet b. m. This growing stock is composed as follows: — Red fir 150 billion feet b. m. Yellow pine 40 billion feet b. m. Hemlock, spruce and cedar 35 billion feet b. m. Mills smaller than in Washington, the average investment being $12,300. Stumpage prices lower than in any other State, being 66c. per 1.000 feet b. m. Saw logs at the mill cost $4.46 per 1,000 feet b. m. The paper and pulp industry used in 1000. 150.000 cords of spruce in 5 establishments. The leather industry had 16 tan- neries, worth $11,000 on an average, reporting to be annually using altogether 936 cords of hemlock bark and 1.247 cords of oak bark ( ?). Very important for Oregon is the live stock industry. The stock consists of 14.000.000 cattle. 24.000.000 sheep. 2,000.000 horses, 500,000 mules. Sheep are driven to the summer range in the high cascades, so as to leave all pasture in the lowlands to the heavier stock. Annual value of the wool product is over $1,500,000. In the reserves, only 60 owners with 188.000 sheep in 86 bands. 6. Forestry movement: In 1888- 1889 Legislature petitions Congress to establish reserves. In 1897 outbreak of antagonism against "Reserve Policy." backed by the Wool Growers' Asso- ciation (John Minto). In 1898 forest reserves were opened to limited sheep pas- ture, and the antagonism to reserves has since subsided. 7. Laws : State fire laws of 1893 impose fines on malicious or careless firing of woods, but are ineffective. The public do- main is protected under special fire laws. New fire law of 1903 was passed by both houses, but vetoed by governor. 8. Reservations: Reserves cover 13% of wooded area and 7.2% of total area of State. The Ashland forest reserve (18,560 acres) in the extreme south and the Bull Run timber land reserve (142.080 acres) in the extreme north of the Cascade Range are small and unim- 79 FOREST POLICY. portant. The Bull Run reserve includes Mount Hood. Between the two reserves stretches the Cascade Range forest reserve, a reserve of 4,436,120 acres enclosing the Crater Lake National Park of 150,000 acres. The reserves extend, practically, from the Washington line to the California line, are 50 to 100 miles wide, lie largely above 7,500 feet above sea level and include many summits above timber line. 9. Irrigation. The agricultural development of central Oregon depends on the possibility of utilizing for irrigation the scanty and intermittent streams of the region. The success of a deep well system would allow of an enor- mous increase of the cattle and sheep industry. In 1899, 388,000 acres of farm land, producing $3,100,000 worth of crops, were irrigated from works constructed at an out- lay of $1,800,000. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF PENNSYLVANIA: 1. Area: The woodlands comprise 23,000 square miles, or 51% of total area. The forest is said to be, in a great part, de- pleted of its merchantable timber. 2. Physiography: A belt of mountains 50 miles wide and 240 miles long traverses the State diagonally from southwest to northeast. The mountain ranges are from 1,000 to 2,000 feet high, Negro Mountain forming the highest peak, at an altitude of 2,826 feet. Northwest of the mountain belt are the broad Allegheny Uplands, rolling high plateaux covering over one-third of the State. Southeast of the mountain belt appears the northern extension of the Coastal Plains at an average elevation of 500 feet. The Susquehana drains the eastern half of the State, together with the Delaware on the New Jersey line. 3. Distribution: Pennsylvania was originally covered from end to end with heavy forests. White pine and hemlock formed vast forests on both flanks of the Alleghanies. East and west of the mountains the conifers gave way gradually to a heavy growth of broad-leaved species. In the southeastern section, white oak was and is the most valuable species. The second growth of hardwoods is otherwise 80 FOREST POLICY. composed of hickories and birches; further, chestnut, locust, maple, walnut and cherry. In the Allegheny Uplands the hardwoods of the Missis- sippi are found, notably, red and white oak, beech and sugar maple. In the southwest of this region occur the Kentucky cof- fee tree, honey locust, chestnut and yellow poplar. West of the Allegheny River no white pine, but some hemlock occurs. East of this river, hemlock; then white pine increases in proportion on the way toward the mountains. In the mountain belt prevail, below 1,800 feet, white pine, hemlock, pitch pine, sugar maple, black and yellow birch, beech and cherry. On rocky soil, especially in the southern part, occur chestnut oak, chestnut and locust. Above 1,800 feet the Canadian tree flora sets in, consisting of "spruce (Picea rubens), balsam and larch, with some white pine, Norway (red) pine and hemlock. White pine stands averaging 25,000 feet b. m. per acre on tracts comprising several hundred acres are no longer found. In 1880 white pine virgin forests occurred only island-like on their original domain, whilst hemlock was then scarcely touched. In 1900, on burned white pine slashes, yellow and black birch, bird and black cherry, maple, chestnut and beeches come up in profusion. Regeneration of hemlock is nill; that of white pine very poor. In 1896, Dr. Rothrock and Dr. Fernow estimated the stand of conifers as follows: — White pine 500,000,000 feet b. m. Spruce 70,000,000 feet b. m. Hemlock 5,000,000,000 feet b. m. 4. Forest ownership: In 1894, over 1,500,000 acres, i. e., over 5% of State's area, were advertised for sale by the counties for tax forfeiture. 614 lumber firms own 645,000 acres of forest, said to be stocked with 9,300 feet b. m. on an average. 83% of the woodlands are said to be attached to farms. The State reserves now aggregate several hundred thousand acres. 5. Use of timber: Logs on stump are worth $2.94; at mill, $6.71. 2,280 mills report an average investment of $10,083. Penn- 81 FOREST POLICY. sylvania, leading the United States lumber industry in i860, has dropped to fourth rank in 1900, although she succeeded in vastly increasing the value of her output within these 40 years. The output was in: — i860 $11,000,000 1870 29,000,000 1880 22,000,000 1890 29,000,000 1900 36,000,000 The cut in 1900 consisted of: — Hemlock 1,608,000,000 feet b. m. White pine 238,000,000 feet b. m. Other conifers .... 19,000,000 feet b. m. Chestnut 51,000,000 feet b. m. Oak 342,000.000 feet b. m. Other hardwoods . . 140,000,000 feet b. m. Total 2,398,000,000 feet b. m. The shingle mills turned out, in the census year, $370,000 worth of shingles, largely using the old remnants of white pine and hemlock, also a little oak and chestnut. Cooperage stock produced in 1900 was valued at $762,000 (notably for sugar barrels); the miscellaneous industries furnished $1,443,000 worth of home-grown stock. Very little wagon and furniture stock. In forest utilization, the rivers, notably the Susquehana, are made use of. Skidways and sleds are little used. The logs are moved over so-called "slides," V shaped troughs, consisting of hemlock poles placed on hemlock ties, with an ice crust formed by sprinkling. Six to forty peeled logs form a log train, pulled by horses in a tow path. At the Williamsport boom, the proportion of hemlock and pine logs was, in 1875, 1 to 10; and in 1893, s l A to 1. Leather industry: Pennsylvania excels amongst the States of the Union in the output of the leather industry, which output is valued at $55,615,000. 254 tanneries consumed, in the census year, 565,062 cords of hemlock bark, worth $3,460,000; 64,392 cords of oak bark, worth $437,000; 2,800 bales of gambier, worth $17,000; 304 barrels of hemlock bark extract worth $3,368; 5.615 barrels of 82 FOREST POLICY. oak bark extract, worth $56,700; 3,775 barrels of quebracho, worth $50,700; 206 tons of sumac, worth $10,000. The chemicals used were worth $919,600. The output of Pennsylvania's tanneries is mostly sole leather. In paper and pulp industry, Pennsylvania has 4th rank, producing $12,268,000 worth of paper in 73 mills and consuming: Home-grown spruce, 16,697 cords, valued at $85,504; Canadian spruce, 25,442 cords, valued at $167,200; other pulp wood, 2,26a cords, valued at $11,000. 6. Forestry movement: Pennsylvania is more awake to the necessity of forest preservation than any other State, thanks to the energy of Dr. Rothrock. A Forest Association backs his work and publishes "Forest Leaves," since 1885. Forestry lectures are occasionally given at the universities. Arbor Day since 1886. 7. Laws: Since 1887, forest plantations of at least 1,200 seedlings enjoy a tax reduction of 90% to their tenth year; of 80% to their twentieth year, and of 50% to their thirtieth year. From 10th year on, 600 saplings per acre are considered a suffi- cient growing stock. Similar inducements are granted to owners of second growth, consisting of sound tree seedlings, covering not to exceed 50 acres. In 1897, the Forest Commissioner was authorized to pur- chase forfeited land at a price not to exceed back taxes and other "unseated" land at a price of not over $5 per acre, such lands to become part of a forest reservation system. The constables of townships are ex officio fire, fish and game wardens, entitled to a premium of $10 for each offense (fire) reported. They are privileged to summon help, and obliged to report to the court of quarter sessions any case of violation of fire, fish and game laws. The expense of the fire warden system is equally divided between county and State. The county, however, is not required to incur an outlay exceeding $500 per annum. The law of 1897 authorizes the acquisition of three tracts at the head waters of the Delaware, Susquehana and Ohio Rivers by expropriation for the forest reserve. Each tract is to comprise 40,000 acres in a solid body. In 1901 the Division of Forestry was raised to the rank of a department. The revenue from the reserves is to be divided between township and State, to reimburse the former for the inevitable 83 FOREST POLICY. loss of taxes. The forest commissioner, as superintendent of the reserves, is empowered to enact rules for management and pro- tection of the reserves; may employ detective service and lawyers in case of forest fires; must publish forest statistics, and may spend $25 annually per mile for improvement of public roads in the reserves, $12.50 per mile for improvements outside the reserves. The reserve policy is handicapped by a constitutional clause forbidding the State to take up loans for such purposes of in- vestment as a forest reserve represents. 8. Reservations: 575,000 acres of State forest reserves have been created within four years, during the administration of Governor Stone. The reserves are scattered over 22 counties. Only two reserves cover an acreage exceeding 100,000 acres. 9. Irrigation: 758 acres are irrigated; 93% of this land yields hay crops valued at $23.64 per acre. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: 1. Area: After Capt. Geo. P. Ahem, 25% to 50% of the islands (or an area of 20,000,000 to 40,000,000 acres) are public forest lands. Mindoro and Paragua contain 5,000,000 acres of virgin forest. Mindanao is almost entirely covered with virgin timber (20,000,000 acres). 2. Physiography: The Philippines, consisting of more than 1,000 islands, separate the Pacific from the Chinese Ocean. The configuration is mountainous, with active volcanos in the south. Mount Apo, on Mindanao, is over 10,000 feet high. The climate is tropical; rainy period from June to November; dry spell from December to May 3. Distribution: The number of native tree species ap- proximates 700. 4. Forest ownership: The federal government and, to a certain extent, religious orders, own all forest land. 5. Use of timber: Forest utilization suffers from the dif- ficulty of transportation, the lack of efficient labor and the vari- ety of growing stock, containing a large number of commercially untested species. 84 FOREST POLICY. Gum, rubber and gutta percha trees, dye woods, ylang- ylang, cocoanut palms (in Romblon), etc., have been utilized under Spanish rule. The occurrence of a pine (Pinus insularis) in a tropical cli- mate is geographically interesting. The price of logs in Manila ranges from 6oc. to $3 (Mexi- can) per cubic foot. Carabao oxen are used in log transporta- tion. Lumber is hand sawed by the natives. The white ant is the enemy destroying all lumber and timber used and utilized, excepting three or four species. 6. Forestry movement: A Bureau of Forestry, established under G. P. Ahern, succeeded the Spanish forest administration (since 1S63) after American occupancy in 1898. The administra- tive staff is now supplied by American foresters passing the civil service examinations. The forestry movement centered in the bureau is, nat- urally, in the direction of forest exploitation only. The botan- ical and technical characteristics of the timber species are studied and tested. All timber cut on public land is cut by license. For- estry officials, stationed at all important logging centers, inspect, stamp, classify and appraise all shipments of timber cut under license. The cutting of certain species and of certain sizes of trees is prohibited on public land. The licensee pays from ic. to 14c. (Mexican) per cubic foot of timber removed from public land. A forestry school, after the pattern of Dehra Dun, India, should be organized. 7. Laws: The Spanish forestry laws and regulations have been adopted with slight alterations — a course highly com- mendable. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: Not applicable. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF PORTO RICO: 1. Area: The island area totals 2,304,000 acres. It is dotted with many trees, park-like; but deforested as a whole, with the exception of eight square miles of inaccessible primeval forest on Mount El Yunque. 85 FOREST POLICY. 2. Physiography: The climate is tropical. The south is drier than the north. The mountains (volcanic) are continuously bathed in moisture. 3. Distribution: The mountain tree flora is composed of a large number of species, including palms and tree ferns, none of commercial importance. The coastal forest is said to be often chaparal-like. Fruit trees (orange, lime, lemon, banana) are common all over the island. The coffee plantations often appear as dense forest thickets. 4. Forest ownership: No information available. The fed- eral government owns but little land. 5. Use of timber: Fruit trees are most valuable. There is not one saw mill in the island. Natives drag logs cut and roughly squared to the nearest oxe-trail. Logs are often whip- sawed into planks or boards. About $300,000 worth of timber and timber products are annually exported. 6. Forestry movement: None. Avenues of shade trees frame the Spanish highways. Reforestation of denuded slopes seems advisable. 7. Laws: No information available. 8. Reservations: The Luquillo forest reserve, in the east- ern part of the island, was established on January 17, 1903. g. Irrigation: For the cultivation of the staple crops of the south coast, irrigation is practiced with great skill and at considerable expense. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF RHODE ISLAND: 1. Area: Area of woodlands, 400 square miles or 40% of the State. 2. Physiography: Flat and sandy. Maritime climate. 3. Distribution: Originally all the island was covered with forest. Now, coppice of chestnut, oak, hickory, ash and birch, with some stray white and pitch pine, are found to form a meager second growth. Trees along the coast are stunted and scarce. 4. Forest ownership: 13 lumber firms own 1,673 acres. Balance of woodland is attached to farms. FOREST POLICY. 5. Use of timber: Firewood commands a high price, owing to density of population (250 pro square mile). Stumpage costs $3.02; logs at mill cost $7-15 per 1,000 feet b. m. 33 saw mills report an average investment of $3,131. The census gives the value of the output of the lumber mills, since 1870, at about $250,000 annually. The cut in 1900 is reported to consist of 18,000,000 feet b. m., including 14,000,000 (?) feet b. m. of white pine. Leather industry: 5 tanneries, of $293,000 output, consume 26 cords of hemlock bark, worth $260, and $5,000 worth of chemicals. There is no paper or pulp mill. 6. Forestry movement: None. Some private plantations on sand land. 7. Laws: Fire laws. No case was ever prosecuted. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: 2 farms produce on 40 acres $32,000 worth of vegetables (?). FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF SOUTH CAROLINA: 1. Area: 20,500 square miles, or 68% of total area, are said to be stocked, generally, with merchantable forest. Sargent's estimate of yellow pine supplies, existing in 1880. was 5.3 billion feet b. m. 2. Physiography: On the North Carolina line, in the ex- treme northwest, the Blue Ridge Mountains. The Piedmont plateau lies to the east and south of these mountains and extends to a line 150 miles from the coast, where the lowlands of the coastal plain set in. 3. Distribution: In the tier of mountain counties occur the species typical for the southern Appalachians (see Georgia). In the Piedmont section, the hardwoods (especially white, chest- nut and red oaks, poplar, hickory, ash, chestnut and Cottonwood) occur with Pinus taeda and (less) echinata. The coastal plain has long leaf pine for the main timber tree. Cubensis gives out near Charleston. On moist ground, Pinus taeda of splendid growth, often mixed with red oak and white cedar. Huge swamps are occupied by cypress and gums, the hummocks showing elm, hick- FOREST POLICY. ory, yellow poplar and red oak. The coast swamps are lined with live oak, magnolia and bays, often with palmetto for an under- growth. 4. Forest ownership: 251 lumber firms own 454,000 acres of 4,400 feet b. m. average stumpage. Vacant State lands were sold at auction for a song, about 1895. 5. Use of timber: South Carolina seems backward in the lumber industry. The activity was never great. The rivers are not as good for rafting as those in adjoining States, being bor- dered by broad swamps. Logs are worth $1.23 on stump and $4.16 at mill. Mill investments average $4,097, with 716 firms. The output was valued in 1880 $2,000,000 1890 2,100,000 1900 5,200,000 The cut of 1900 consisted of: — Cypress 32,000,000 feet b. m Yellow pine 433,000,000 feet b. m. White oak 11,000,000 feet b. m. Other hardwoods . . . 6,500,000 feet b. m. In 1880, South Carolina lead in the production of tar and turpentine. Since then, the industry was forced westward. The miscellaneous forest industries (furniture, wagon, coop- erage stock, etc.) produced $168,000 in the 12th census year. The leather industry is very small, using 305 cords of oak bark and producing $18,000 worth of goods. The paper industry is nill. 6. Forestry movement: Nill. 7. Laws: Stock law prevails over entire State. Fire law provides heavy fines for firing turpentine orchards. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: 648 planters irrigate, in 1899, 30,000 acres of rice fields. Rice irrigation has been practiced in South Carolina since 1700. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF SOUTH DAKOTA: 1. Area: 2,500 square miles, equal to 3% of the area of the State, are wooded. 2. Physiography: Missouri River running from north to FOREST POLICY. south to the center of the State and thence towards the southeast corner. Mountains appear only in the southwest, i. e., the Black Hills on the Wyoming line, drained by the Cheyenne River. A strangely large number of rivulets have their sources in South Dakota. 3. Distribution: South Dakota, like all other prairie States, is the meeting ground of the eastern and western tree flora, the former represented by the hardwood groves in the river bottoms (burr oak predominating, in addition, sycamore, cottonwood, willow, box elder, green ash); the latter (western flora) occurring on hillsides and represented by western yellow pine. This species shows in the Black Hills splendid natural re- generation and better trunks than in the Rockies. White spruce (canadensis) occurs in the Black Hills near streams, on high northern slopes. Aspen and canoe birch appear on moist slopes in dense thickets after fires. 4. Forest ownership: Farmers own little aside from prairie plantations. Six lumber firms control 6.000 acres. The federal government has reserved 76% of the wooded area in the "Black Hills reserve." 5. Use: Yellow pine only used for timber and for the lead mining interests centering at Deadwood. The cut of timber in census year equals 30,000,000 feet b. m., drawn from a growing stock of 1,500,000,000 feet b. m. Logs are worth, on stump, $1.80 per thousand; at mill $5.25. There are 28 saw-mills of $5,000 aver- age investment. 5,000 head of stock find pasturage in the hills. A plague of bark beetles occurred in 1900. Hardwoods largely used for firewood and fences. Planted forests have perished, usually through fire or neglect, in the majority of cases. 6. Forestry movement: Arbor Day for ornamental plant- ing. South Dakota Agricultural College makes tree planting ex- periments and issues bulletins bearing on forestry questions. 7. Laws: As in North Dakota. 8. Reservations: The Black Hills forest reserve comprises 1.211,680 acres, one-third of which lies in Wyoming. The opportu- nity for forest management in this reserve is unrivalled. The financial problem is easy, since stumpage values are high and the demand good. The silvicultural problem is easy, since regenera- tion is excellent, and since only one species has to be dealt with. There are no "weed trees." Finally, utilization is easy, the moun- 89 FOREST POLICY. tains having gentle slopes. Even firewood can be disposed of to a certain extent. Fires and insects, however, handicap the forest- er's work. The Wind Cove national park, in the southern Black Hills, created in 1902, is said to be a Yellowstone without geysers. 9. Irrigation: During the census year, 44,000 acres of farm- land, irrigated from works (notably deep artesian wells) costing $285,000, produced crops valued at $208,000. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF TENNESSEE: 1. Area: 27,300 square miles, or 65% of the State, are under forest. 2. Physiography: Vast bottom lands along the Missis- sippi, subject to inundation. Cumberland River in the north and Tennessee River in the south. Cumberland and Alleghany Mountains in the east, the latter with summits over 6,000 feet high. Low mountain ranges in central part. 3. Distribution: The Mississippi bottom lands show gi- gantic hardwood forests without undergrowth and a sprinkling of swamps stocked with cypress, red and black gums. Cypress is said to be of poor quality. Amongst the hardwoods are found cottonwoods. gums, red and cow oaks, hickories, elms, beeches and white oaks of huge proportions. In the middle division of Tennessee (Blue Grass region) agriculture has entirely superceded the forest. Here have grown, originally, the finest red cedar, black walnut and yellow poplar. Now farm wood-lots even are strangely absent. In the original forest there were further found white, red, green and blue ash; white, chestnut, burr, cow, yellow, chinquapin and Texan oak; red, black, sugar and ash-leaved maple; white linden, hackberry, honey locust; winged and American elm. On dry hills, fire has played havoc with the forest. Here white and post oak are rap- idly removed for cooperage, whilst black, Spanish and scarlet oak, chestnut and black hickories are badly handicapped by fires. Chestnut is usually dying or dead. The "Black Jack Lands" (marilandica) are large stretches of strongly calcareous soil, stocked with a stunted growth of black jack, extremely monotonous and much less productive than 90 FOREST POLICE. the "Kentucky Barrens." Pinus echinata occurs in island-like groups all over middle Tennessee. Pinus taeda forms a narrow belt along the Alabama line. In the Cumberland Mountains the limestone coves show, or used to show, a splendid growth of all valuable hardwoods (white, red and chestnut oak; hickory, notably shag bark; black walnut and black cherry; yellow poplar, cucumber, ash and bass- wood; red cedar on dry cliffs), whilst the sandstone plateaus overlying them exhibit a poor growth, badly burned, of black, Spanish, post and white oaks; further, sourwood, black gum, chestnut and red maple, with occasional tracts of Pinus echin- ata, virginiana and rigida. Pinus pungens occurs at an altitude of about 3,000 feet and upwards. Good white pine tracts, heavily stocked, are hidden in the backwood coves of the Great Smokies, accompanied on moist and sheltered land by hemlock, or else occur on long, sharp ridges. Spruce and balsams at elevations from 5.000 to 6,000 feet. The hardwoods of the Great Smokies are those of Pisgah forest. 4. Forest ownership: 1,138,000 acres of land are owned by lumber firms. Average stumpage, 3,900 feet b. m. per acre. 5. Use of timber: Logs are worth $2.18 on stump and $6.58 at mill. Logs frequently measured in midst of log. Cedar logs bought by the pound. Lumber centers are Memphis and Nash- ville. The product of the lumber industry in Tennessee was valued in 1870 $ 3,400,000 1880 3,700,000 1890 9,100,000 1900 18,100,000 The cut consisted of: — Conifers 82.000,000 feet b. m. Ash 18,000,000 feet b. m. Poplar 275,000,000 feet b. m. Red gum 52.000,000 feet b. m. White oak 408,000,000 feet b. m. Other hardwoods 114,000,000 feet b. m. Total 949,000,000 feet b. m. In 1900 Tennessee leads all States in the produced value of staves (181,000,000 staves, worth $2,500,000) and furnishes 17,- 91 FOREST POLICY. 000.000 sets of heading, worth $441,000. Furniture, agricultural and wagon stock are worth $1,245,000. Leather industry: Value of output, $2,800,000. The tan- neries consume 846 cords of hemlock bark and 37,050 cords of oak bark, worth $210,000; further, 58 barrels extract. Pulp and paper industry: None. 6. Forestry movement: The "Tennessee Forestry Asso- ciation" was formed two years ago. The Bureau of Forestry has made and published a working plan for a 7,000 acre tract at Sewanee. 7. Laws: Fire laws absolutely ineffective. Arbor Day. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: None. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF TEXAS: 1. Area: Woodlands cover 64,000 square miles or 24% of the total area of State. 2. Physiography: The Rio Grande River on the Mexican line, the Red River along Indian Territory and the Pecos River traversing the extreme western section are the principal streams. The western prairies arc underlaid with limestone; the east is diluvial and alluvial, taversed by the Ozarks and Cross Timbers. 3. Distribution: Deserts in the extreme west (Staked Plains). Undulating prairies destitute of timber in the middle west. Western red cedar found along the canyons. Western high hill ranges, between Pecos and Rio Grande Rivers, show New Mexican flora. Mesquit extends to the desert borders. East of the 06th degree of longitude, the maritime pine belt ex- hibits splendid forests of long leaf pine, loblolly pine and short leaf pine (echinata). Stumpage of long leaf pine averages heavier than anywhere else, on 2,900,000 acres. The low flats between the pine hills show impenetrable thickets of hawthorn, holly and magnolia. Bald cypress forms extensive forests in the river bottoms. Pecan, live oak, holly and Carolina poplar show their finest development along the rivers of the east. Osage orange is a common tree in the east. The Cross Timbers are covered with poor post oak and black 92 FOREST POLICY. jack oak woods. These same species extend westward in open groves, ending abruptly where limestone appears. Hackberry said to be found everywhere. 4. Forest ownership: All deserts and outskirts of the Rockies and large forest tracts in the eastern part belong to the State, which, when admitted to the Union in 1845, was allowed to retain its lands and land laws. Federal government owns but a few military reservations. Lumber companies, in 1900, own 10 billion feet stumpage on 1.671,000 acres. Under the State's general land act of 1895, amended in 1897, the purchase, by individuals, of large tracts be- longing to the State is not prohibited. 5. Use of timber: Mesquit and red cedar used for fuel and posts. Cypress said to be of poor quality. Cottonwoods unused so far. The pine belt has been developed rapidly and re- cently at rising stumpage prices. The output in 1900 was 1,250,- 000 feet b. m., valued at $16,300,000. There are 601 saw mills, of $14,000 average investment. Logs are worth $1.17 on stump and $4.47 at mill. The eastern pine forests are most valuable for Texas, since they have to supply the constantly growing population of the treeless three-quarters of the State. The most important industry of Texas is cotton growing. Stock raising is a close second. The naval stores industry gradually adopts dangerous pro- portions, since it injures the prospects for a second growth. Paper industry attempts to use pinewood in the soda process. There are nine tanneries, producing about $60,000 worth of leather and using about 390 cords of oak and hemlock bark and 137 barrels of bark extract; balance of material used is gambier. 6 Forestry movement: A State "Forestry and Water Sup- ply Association," formed in 1886, seems inactive. A forestry commissioner cannot be obtained from the leg- islature. Remarkable is the necessity for the large Kirby Lum- ber Co. to practice conservative lumbering, owing to stipulations contained in its mortgage bonds. 7. Laws: No information available. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: Irrigation on the enormous cattle ranches of central Texas is practically unknown. 93 FOREST POLICY. The Mexicans along the Rio Grande and Pecos have irri- gated small farms for centuries. In the east the flooding of rice fields by pumping has re- cently gained favor. In 1899, 50,000 acres of farmland were irrigated, yielding crops worth $539,000 from irrigation systems costing $1,028,000. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF UTAH: 1. Area: 13% of the State, or 10,000 square miles, are wooded. 2. Physiography: The western and eastern thirds of the State are barren. The central third is traversed by the Wahsatch Range, which drains eastward into the Colorado River and west- ward into Salt Lake, Utah Lake and Sevier Lake. 3. Distribution is little known. In the foothills scrub oaks, nut pine, cedar and juniper occur. Best timber (very poor) ob- tained from the limber white pine. Higher up in the mountains occur blue spruce (Picea pungens). white spruce (Engelmann) and Douglas fir. Yellow pine seems rare, except in the San Pete and San Pitch Ranges. Near Salt Lake the mines have con- sumed all accessible timber. Canons are lined with cottonwoods and box elder. 4. Forest ownership: Reserves contain 1,029,760 acres. Large Indian reservation in the northeast called the Uintah Indian reservation. Railroads own alternating sections as usual. Lum- ber firms own very little. 5. Use: Mine props and fence posts are in chief demand. Coal is cheap. All timber is practically cull; still, log run limber white pine sells at $40 a thousand. Value of timber output, in 1900, only $214,000, less than the figures given in the last three census. Stumpage is reported worth $1.32; logs at mill, $53 T - Eighty-one mills of $1,224 average investment. Two very small tanneries, but no pulp industry. 6. Forestry movement: People and legislature are appre- hensive of the necessity of forest protection, as shown by peti- tions to Congress and the Governor's messages. Shade trees planted in cities and on farms, especially box elder, sycamore, cottonwood and lombardy poplar. 94 FOREST POLICY. 7. Laws: Usual fire laws since 1876. Tax exemption of $500 worth of property for five years for every acre planted in trees, and of $50 for every 100 trees planted on streets or streams. 8. Reservations: The Fish Lake forest reserve (67,840 acres) in the San Pete and San Pitch Range of the Wahsatch Mountains. The Uintah forest reserve (875.520 acres) along the Wyoming line at the head waters of the Green River. The Payson forest reserve of 86,400 acres lies south of Utah Lake. The Manti forest reserve of 584,640 acres has been estab- lished recently in central Utah; the Logan forest reserve of 182,080 acres in northern Utah. 9. Irrigation: The communal organization of the Mormons has admirably subserved the mutualistic cause of irrigation. Dry farming, for wheat and barley, is possible only on some high bench lands. Generally speaking, however, irrigation is essential for the raising of forage, grain and fruit crops. The waters of the northeast, emerging from deep canyons, cut into the mountain sides, are diverted into canals, watering the bench land at the foot of the canyons. Large reservoirs are rare. The value of products raised on 630,000 acres of irrigated land with the help of irrigation works costing $5,000,000 amounted to $7,500,000 in the census year. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF VERMONT: 1. Area: 3.900 square miles, or 43% of the State, are under forest. 2. Physiography: The Green Mountains, running north and south through the heart of the State, rise to peaks over 4,000 feet high. Lake Champlain and the Connecticut River are the most important water ways. 3. Distribution: Originally, white pine, hemlock and spruce were imbedded in a forest of hardwoods (beech, maple, yellow birch and some little basswood, butternut, ashes, red, white and burr oak and chestnut oak on red sandstone). Spruce, with bal- 95 FOREST POLICY. sam, prevails on the ridges. Great bodies of white pine were found on the Connecticut River and in the northwest. 4. Forest ownership: 330 firms own 372.000 acres. 80% of woodlands are attached to farms. 5. Use of timber: White pine is practically exhausted. Quantities of spruce and hemlock are still left. The lumber in- dustry begins to decline slightly. The value of the output of the saw mill* was in 1850 $ 600,000 i860 900,000 1870 3,500,000 1880 3,200,000 1890 6,900,000 1900 6,100,000 The cut in 1900 consists of 376,000,000 feet b. m., comprising 261,000,000 feet b. m. spruce; 43,000,000 feet b. m. hemlock; 21,- 000,000 feet b. m. white pine; 51,000,000 feet b. m. hardwoods. 657 mills report $6,304 as the average investment. Stump- age is worth $2.09; logs at mill cost $5.80. The maple sugar industry produced, in 1880, 11,000,000 lbs. of sugar. The leather industry has consumed, in 1900, 4,990 cords of hemlock bark, worth $30,000; 163 bales of gambier, worth $1,200; 100 barrels of extract, worth $1,200. Eight plants produce $186,000 worth of leather. Paper and pulp industry: 27 plants produce, in 1900, $3,400.- 000 worth of paper and pulp. There were consumed 3i>5°o cords of home-grown spruce, worth $172,000; 25,500 cords of Canadian spruce, worth $167,000; 2,262 cords of miscellaneous wood, worth $11,000. 6. Forestry movement: A Forest Commission, appointed in 1882, produced a good report in. 1884. No action was taken upon it. 7. Laws: The State pays a premium on forest destruction by exempting the wood lands of saw mill owners for five years from forest taxes. Malicious firing only is punishable. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: None. 96 FOREST POLICY. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF VIRGINIA: i. Area: 23,400 square miles, or 58% of State, are woodland. 2. Physiography: — (a) Mountain section, a belt 60 miles wide along the West Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee lines, covering two or three tiers of counties and forming 25% of State. (b) Piedmont plateau, drained in the main by the James River, lying southeast of "a" and forming 50% of State. (c) Coastal plains, a belt up to 100 miles wide, extending as far as tidewater in the streams. Swamps near the coast. notably the Dismal Swamp. Soil sandy. The plains cover 25% of the State. 3. Distribution: On Virginia soil the northern tree llora meets the southern. The long leaf and taeda pines do not ex- tend further north than Virginia. Mountain section: The hardwoods of the southern Appa- lachians (see under North Carolina) prevail here, with some hemlock and white pine. Spruce at high altitudes. The moun- tain forests were practically untouched in 1880. It is now claimed that certain species, notably chestnut oak, are exhausted. Piedmont plateau: In the virgin woods, black oak was the prevailing timber; further, white oak, hickories and black gum. Now no virgin forest is left. Vast areas of fields, exhausted by tobacco growing, come up in Jersey pine (virginiana), rigid pine. echinata pine, sumac and sassafras: further, hardwood brush of chestnut, gum and oaks. Little taeda pine. Coastal plains: The original growing stock, alter Michaux, consisted of belts of taeda pine, alternating with belts ni echinata. Now a second growth of taeda forms 75% of the growing stock from the seashore to the meridian of Richmond, whilst echinata appears scatteringly. Long leaf pine is commer- cially unimportant, reaching its northern limit in stunted speci- mens near Norfolk. The swamps near the coast show cypress, gums and. after Fernow, red cedar. 4. Forest ownership: 418 lumber firms control 402.000 acres of forest, stocked with 4-3°o feet b. m. on an average. 5. Use of timber: Main source of lumber is 2d and 3d growth of loblolly pine, sold under the trade name "Virginia pine," which is said to reproduce exceedingly well. Trees 50 97 FOREST POLICY. years old are said to yield three logs. Large quantities of loblolly firewood and kindling are shipped to New York. Sumac leaves are gathered for tanning purposes on such a scale that the railroads reported, in 1885, shipments amounting to 10,300 tons — a good indication of the enormous extent of abandoned fields. Mill investments average $3,934. the number of mills being 1,234. Logs on stump are worth $179; at mill, $8.35. The value of the lumber product was in 1850 $ 1.000,000 i860 2,200,000 1870 2,100,000 1880 3.400,000 1890 5,600.000 1900 12.100,000 The figures prove a rapidly increasing production, although the virgin woods have gone for many a decade. The output in 1900 consisted of: — Hemlock 1,400.000 feet b. m. Yellow pine 710,000.000 feet b. m. Yellow poplar 86,000,000 feet b. m. White oak 143.000,000 feet b. m. Other hardwoods 13.000,000 feet b. m. Total 953,400.000 feet b. m. The miscellaneous industries report a product worth $436,- 000; the cooperage firms, $587,000; the box concerns. $900,000. The leather industry is developed on a large scale. 65 tanneries produce $4,717,000 worth of leather and consume 73.646 cords of oak bark, worth $468,000; 420 tons of quebracho, worth $5,400; 6 tons of sumac, worth $233. Little extract is locally used, but large amounts are manufactured for exportation. The paper and pulp industry works in seven plants and con- sumes 2.917 cords of spruce, worth $6 per cord; 8,513 cords of poplar, worth $4.50 per cord, and 3,200 cords of miscellaneous wood, worth $2.30 per cord. 6. Forestry movement: Nill. The system of forestry actu- ally practiced on abandoned fields may be classed as "intermit- tent forestry." FOREST POLICE. 7. Laws: Stock law in many counties. The laws, existing since 1802. are unobserved. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: None. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF WASHINGTON: 1. Area: 71% of the State is classed as forests (H. Gan- nett). Of this area, however, much is burned and cut over. Of the original timber, 55% stands intact, 22% is burned and 23'. is cut over. 2. Physiography: The southeastern part of the State is practically destitute of timber, excepting the region south of the bend of the Snake River, owing to insufficient rainfall. The Coast Range extends northward into the Olympic Mountains where there is the heaviest rainfall in the United States. The valleys of the Chehalis and Cowlitz Rivers, separating the Coast Range from the Cascade Range, are not densely wooded. Mt. Tacoma (Rainier) has highest elevation in the Cascade Range. Irregular mountain chains, sparsely timbered, running north and south are found in the northeastern part, mostly covered by Col- ville Indian Reservation. 3. Distribution: The Cascade and Coast Ranges bear the heaviest continuous forest belt in the United States. The Coast Range is timbered down to seashore, a strip of dunes excepted. Predominating species are red fir (Douglas fir) and red cedar (Thuja plicata). Tideland spruce (Sitka) is sai 1 to run only 50 miles inland. Black hemlock forms an almost tropical undergrowth and is the smallest among the giants. Sar- gent denies fires ever having swept the virgin forest. Pinchot finds cinders below the vegetable litter all over the Olympics. On the Cascade Range, we must strictly distinguish be- tween west and east slope, owing to great difference in rain all. The west slope has at its highest altitudes alpine fir, hem- lock, alpine larch (Lyalli) and white bark pine. Descending from the crest we meet Engelmann's spruce, white pine (monticcla), lowland fir. amiable fir and noble fir. Lower down, Alaska cedar (Ch. nootkatensis). western hem- lock and western red cedar are met with, and Douglas fir in- 99 FOREST POLICY. creases in proportion until it forms the prevailing species at lower altitudes. Near the Gulf, tideland spruce occurs. On the east slope, below the timber line fringed by white bark pine and alpine hemlock, we strike Engelmann's spruce and Douglas fir. Lower down, we enter upon forests of yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) and groves of lodge pole pine. The Blue Mountains in the southeast contain yellow pine, Douglas spruce, Engelmann's spruce and lodge pole pine. The irregular mountain chains in the northeast are said to show timber in the valleys only (?). Yellow pine predominates; in addition, lodge pole pine, Douglas fir and tamarack larch are found; further, Engelmann's spruce, lowland fir, western white pine and red cedar. A tree alder (Alnus Oregona) is remarkable for its size. The Columbia River and its tributaries are fringed by gigan- tic broad-leaved species, notably cottonwoods, maples, ashes and willows. 4. Forest ownership: The United States reservations ag- gregate 7.0 million acres; 0.4 million acres are owned by farmers; lumbermen control the Coast Range and own one-tenth of entire stumpage. 5. Use of timber: Lumber industry is modern. Invest- ment in a saw mill averages $23,500. 24 million staves of cotton- wood were manufactured in 1898. In the coniferous forests a yield of 200,000 feet b. m. per acre is not exceptional. 20,000 square miles in one plot are said to average 25,000 feet b. m. p< r acre. Mining is undeveloped and requires little timber. Clear- ing of heavy timbered land costs $100 to $200 per acre. Timber claims in 1898 were sold at $10 per acre. The stumpage price after 12th census is 80 cents per 1,000 board feet; logs at the mill are worth $5.14 making logging expenses $4.34. Washington employs three-fourths of all steam power used in logging in the United States (railroads and donkey engines). The waste in logging is from two-thirds to three-quarters of entire tree. Fires destroy enormous amounts of timber and in- variably the hemlock left after lumbering. During the census year (1900) Washington produced 2.3 bil- lion feet b. m.. worth $30,000,000. holding 5th rank among States. There is no paper, pulp and leather industry. (The latter industry consumes only 400 cords of bark, though red fir bark and hem- lock bark are rich in tannin.) FOREST POLICY. Tideland spruce is used mainly for car linings and interior finish; cedar mainly for shingles; hemlock is only beginning to be used at all. Douglas fir is used for all building purposes, trestle bridges and ship building. The growing stock of timber in Washington consists of Red fir 90,000.000.000 feet b. m. Spruce 8,000,000,000 feet b. m. Cedar 23,000,000.000 feet b. m. Hemlock 42,000.000,000 feet b. m. - Yellow pine 13,000.000,000 feet b. m. Miscellaneous 20,000.000,000 feet b. m. Total 196,000.000,000 feet b. m. As we are cutting 2.3 billion feet b. m.. we are cutting 1.17% of the growing stock per annum. 6. Forestry movement: State association in 1898, comp >se The Inland Press, Asheville, N. C. PREFACE This book on "forest protection" is being printed, pre-eminently, for the benefit of the students attending the Biltmore Forest School. In American forestry, the most important duty of the forester consists in the suppression of forest fires. If forest fires were prevented, a second growth would follow invariably in the wake of a first growth removed by the forester or by the lumberman; and the problem of forest conservation would solve itself. If forest fires were prevented, a second growth would have a definite, prospective value; and it would be worth while to treat it sylviculturally. If forest fires were prevented, our investments made in merchantable timber would be more secure; and there would be a lesser inducement for the rapid conversion of timber into cash. The issue of forest fires stand paramount in all forest protection. Com- pared with this issue, the other topics treated in the following pages dwindle down to insignificance. I write this with a knowledge of the fact that the leading timber firms in this country place an estimate of less than 1% on their annual losses oft timber due to fires: These firms are operating close to their holdings; and if a tract is killed by fire the operations are swung over into the burned section as speedily as possible; and the salvage may amount to 99% of the timber burned. These firms do not pay any attention, in their estimate, to the "lu- crum cessans," nor to the prospective value of inferior trees, poles, saplings and seedlings. The "prospective forest" is the forest of the future; and this forest is annihilated by the fires. Merchantable trees of immediate value cannot be killed any "more dead" by fires, nor by insects, nor by strom. than by the legitimate use of axe and saw. Where the means of transportation are ready, the damage inflicted upon the forest and upon its owner by catastrophies may be reduced to a minimum. In writing the paragraph on "forest insects," I have availed myself of many hints obtained from Dr. A. D. Hopkins. My own knowledge of forest insects amounts to little; and on the basis of past experience, I strongly recommend to all foresters a "lack of self-reliance" in forest entomological questions. Consult Dr. Hopkins before spending any money for fighting insects ! Mr. C. D. Couden has revised and rewritten my manuscript on forest insects, eliminating many mistakes made by a layman. My sincerest thanks are tendered to him herewith. 4 FOREST PROTECTION Whatever I know of American tree diseases and of timber diseases in- duced by fungi, I have learned from Dr. Hermann von Schrenk. The errors only which may have crept into the 7th paragraph of this book deal- ing with fungus diseases are my own. The graduates of the Biltmore Forest School, and all other gentle readers are earnestly requested to assist me in the elimination of errors and mis- takes contained in this book on forest protection. Biltmore, N. C, October 1, 1909. C. A. Schenck. FOREST PROTECTION DEFINITION AND SYNOPSIS. The term "Forest Protection" comprises all the acts of the forest-owner made with a view to the safety of his investments. Forest Protection as a branch of science is divided into the following parts and chapters: PART A: Protection Against Organic Nature. Chapter I: Protection against man. Chapter II: Protection against animals. Chapter III: Protection against plants. PART B: Protection Against Inorganic Nature. Chapter I: Protection against adverse climatic influences. A— Heat. B— Frost. C — Snow and sleet. Chapter II: Protection against storm, erosion, sanddrifts, noxious D — Wind and storm. E — Erosion. F — Shifting sand. G — Noxious gases. The English literature on Forest Protection consists, in the main, of the following: Dr. Wm. Schlich, Vol. IV. of "Manual of Forestry." Dr. A. D. Hopkins, Bulletins of the West Virginia Agricultural Station. Bulletins of the U. S. Bureau of Entomology. Tubeuf and Smith, "Diseases of Plants." Dr. H. von Schrenk, bulletins of the Shaw School of Botany, bulle- tins of the U. S. Bureau of Forestry and of the U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry. Lectures on game protection, on protection of forest-roads and forest- railroads, on protection of forest industries — of vital interest to the owner of forests — are not included in the following paragraphs. The author's excuse for this omission lies in the word "precedent." FOREST PROTECTION CONTENTS IN PARAGRAPHS. Par. 1. Protection against adverse possession. Par. 2. Protection against forest fires. Par. 3. Protection against domestic animals on pasture. Par. 4. Protection against wild vertebrates. Par. 5. Protection against insects. Par. 6. Protection against weeds. Par. 7. Protection against fungi. Par. 8. Protection against parasites other than fungi. Par. 9. Protection against frost. Par. 10. Protection against heat. Par. 11. Protection against snow and sleet. Par. 12. Protection against wind and storm. Par. 13. Protection against erosion. Par. 14. Protection against shifting sand. Par. 15. Protection against noxious gases. FOREST PROTECTION Part A : Protection Against Organic Nature CHAPTER 1. PROTECTION AGAINST MAN. Par. 1. Protection Against Adverse Possession. Adverse possession and its consequences are best prevented by con- tinuous, open and notorious possession of every acre of land comprised in the property. To that end, a proper survey is necessary, coupled with de- markation of the boundary lines by proper marks or by fences; of the cor- ners by proper corner trees and witnesses. Wooden stakes as corner signs are objectionable; iron "T" stakes, 5' long, costing 35 to 60 cents apiece, are extensively used at Biltmore. The exactness of the survey depends on the acre-value of the forest. The lines of the property, established by the demarkation, must be maintained by continuous patrolling. The posting of trespass notices and the trimming of bushes along the lines are advisable, if not legally required. Foremen, tenants and guards should know the lines perfectly so as to be witnesses available in lawsuits. In the case of disputes with neighbors, refuge to "processioning pro- ceedings" is taken. The forester should endeavor to straighten the lines of the forest by purchase or exchange, and to substitute natural boundary lines for arti- ficial lines. Squatters, with the help of state grants or other colorable title, — or without title but with distinct boundary lines and with distinct possession — become owners within a few years. In real estate law, the written word is decisive rather than the gist of a contract. The lessee surrenders to the lessor all claim to the property on which he lives. All deeds pertaining to a piece of property should be placed on pub- lic record. Suit should be brought in the federal courts, preferably. In the distant future, the increased value of real property will force the states to "legalize" the individual holdings after careful survey. The administering forester must command a good knowledge of real estate law; he should leave no means untried to ferret out the trespasser and to secure his conviction. The most important laws in this connection are those concerning Destruction of corner marks Larceny of wood and timber Entering land when forbidden Arrest Proceedings at court. 8 FOREST PROTECTION Par. 2. Protection Against Forest Fires. Protection against forest fires means, practically, protection against man who, intentionally or carelessly, causes the very large majority of all forest fires. Fires due to lightning are of rare occurrence in the East. A: Causes of Fires: I : — Fires are intentionally set : — To improve pasture. To uncover minerals for prospecting. To gather chestnuts. To force the owner of woodlands to purchase interior holdings. To chase deer or turkeys. To drive bees or coons from trees. To improve the huckleberry crop. To facilitate access to thick woods. To get a job at stopping fires. To surround farms, pastures or forests with a safety belt of burned land. To mask trespass by fishing and hunting. To take revenge for supposed acts of animosity. II: — Fires carelessly started result from: — Locomotive sparks and cinders. Sparks from forest cabins. Campers' and hunters' fires. Charcoal burning, rock blasting, tobacco smoking, burning ad- joining fields or pastures. B: Kinds of Forest Fires: Fires are distinguished as: — Surface fires. Jftidsrground fires. Top fires. C: Damage by Fires: The damage done by forest fires consists of the loss of present values or of the loss of prospective values; seedlings are killed; saplings burst open; stool shoots replace seedling growth. A heavy growth of weeds, frequently following in the wake of forest fires, prevents natural or artificial regeneration. A deterioration of pro- ductiveness is the natural consequence of deteriorated soil, due to destruc- tion of humus. Trees weakened by fires cease to resist the attacks of insects and fungi. Trees burned at the stump are subject to breakage by sleet or snow. FOREST PROTECT 10 X 9 D: The Factors Influencing the Amount of Damage are: — The age of the woods. The aspect of the slope. The severity of the wind, and the uphill or downhill direction of the wind. The season of the year and the preceding duration of drought. The silvieultural system. The amount of debris and humus on the ground. The species forming the forest (conifers have less reproductive power; light demanders usually have fireproof armor of bark; thin or thick layer of sap wood.) E: The Measures Taken Against Forest Fires .are Either of a Pre- ventive or of a Remedial Nature: I. — Preventive measures: — Education of the people and of the legislature through the news- papers and from the pulpit. Friendly relations with all neighbors. Securing proper fire laws and publishing notices giving the essence of such laws. The purchase of all interior holdings. Settlements of tenants within the forest. Telephone connection in the forest. Fire lanes (in India up to 400' wide) kept clear from inflammable material. Such lanes exist along all European railroads. In America the main advantage of a fire lane lies in the possi- bility of back firing with the lane as a basis. Trails or roads, further strips of pasture along the ridges and strips of farmland along the creeks form the most useful fire lanes. Burning all around the forest at the beginning of the dangerous season. Burning debris after lumbering — a measure of doubted expediency. Removing debris from the close proximity of valuable trees. Proper contracts for all work in the woods by which the liability for damage caused by fires is thrown upon the contractor. Annual burning of the woods intended to prevent the accumu- lation of vegetable matter or mould. (Pineries of the South). Removing duff from the close proximity of turpentine boxes. Stock law. Associations of forest owners, as in Idaho, Washington and Oregon. Pasture by cattle and hogs to cause a more rapid decomposition of the vegetable carpet. Unceasing patrol of the forest during the dry season or during dry spells, day and night, by an increased staff of watchmen, thor- oughly acquainted with their beat and with the people living in the neighborhood. 10 FOREST PROTECTION II. — Remedial Measures: — a. — Main principles: — Have one man in full charge and hold him alone responsible. Have helpers and relays for helpers ready in the various ranges {scattering the work) during droughts, employing them in lumbering or in silviculture until their help is required at a fire. The foreman, upon arrival at the fire, must first ascertain the speed of the fire and the length of the line of attack; fur- ther, the distance from the next fire lane (trail, brook, pasture), and the amount of help locally available. The foreman must not hesitate to abandon the burning dis- trict, up to the next or second next fire lane. Food and water for the fire-fighters must be provided. The fire is subdued only when the last spark is extinguished. The edges of the burned area must be watched for 24 hours succeeding the fire. b— Tools:— The axe, hoe, spade, shovel, rake (preferably wooden teeth); brooms; plows on abandoned fields; water buckets and sprinkling cans; pack-train, or railroad-velocipedes prop- erly equipped; fire extinguishers. c. — Actual Work: (1) Underground fires can be stopped only by digging ditches and by turning water into them. (2) Surface fires are stopped By plowing or digging a furrow around the fire. By beating the fire out with brooms or green twigs. By removing the humus and debris from a narrow line in front of the fire by hand or rake. By throwing dirt on the fire. By sprinkling in front of the fire. By the use of extinguishers against the flame itself. By back-firing from the next point of vantage with due regard for the speed of the fire — the best and only remedy in the case of heavy conflagrations. (3) Top fires can be stopped only by providing broad fire lanes on which the trees are cut, and by back-firing from such lanes. (4) Stem fires burning in hollow trees are stopped by filling the holes in the trunk with dirt or by cutting the tree down. Fires going down hill, against the wind and in the hours following mid- night are the easiest to subdue. For the history of some famous forest fires, see Pinchot's Primer, Part I. FOREST PROTECTION 11 For a number of tree species (notably Douglas fir, Yellow pines, Jack pine, Lodgepole pine, Aspen) fire must be considered as an excellent silvi- cultural tool or as a means of securing regeneration. F: — Treatment of Injured Woods. The treatment of injured woods differs according to species, age of woods, market facilities and severity of damage inflicted. I — Thickets of broadleaved species it is best to coppice, or else to clip down with the help of long handled pruning shears. Thickets of conifers are either so badly damaged as to require re- generation anew or are so little damaged as not to require any help. II— Pole Woods. Pole woods of broadleaved species are most severely damaged by spring fires, and should be cut where salable. Pole woods of conifers, if apt to die, should be made into money immediately, where possible. If coniferous pole woods are apt to live, careful trap-tree prac- tice will tend to avoid more severe injury from insect plagues. III.— Tree Forests. Broadleaved tree forests are not apt to be injured by surface fires sufficiently to cause the death of the trees. Hence, usually, the trees are allowed to stand. If, however, a majority of the trees are killed, speedy utilization is necessary. In coniferous tree forests, trees are either at once killed by the fire, requiring immediate removal, or else not sufficiently touched to be doomed. In the latter case, the use of trap trees is required to prevent insect plagues from developing. The presence of permanent means of transportation connecting the forest with a ready market is, under all circumstances, the most important factor in preventing material damage from striking the owner of merchantable forests killed by conflagrations. 12 FOREST PROTECTION CHAPTER II: PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS. Par. 3. Protection Against Domestic Animals on Pasture. A — Introduction. Forest pasture is a legitimate forest industry. The waste pro- duction of the soil, in addition to shoots and branches of trees, are util- ized by pasturing stock. Vegetable matter transformed into flesh or wool adopts a more marketable and a more profitable shape. Forest pasture is, obviously, best adapted to woods of low stump- age prices; of difficult access; of scant timber production (East slopes of the Cascades; ridge between Pisgah and Balsam mountains). Forest pasture plays a role in the forest similar to that which field pasture plays on the farm. Whether forest pasture pays better in connection with tree growth or regardless of timber production, — that is a financial question to be answered by every land owner on the basis of local experience and of individual forecast. Abroad, since times immemorial, forests have been pastured and are still pastured to a surprising extent. Pasture frequently acts as a silvicultural tool; hogs are used to break the soil and to destroy insects; cattle or sheep driven over seed plantations or through the woods after seed-fall imbed the seeds to a proper depth; they destroy rank weeds overshadowing valuable seed- lings. B — The Damage by Pasture in the Forest is Threefold: — I. — To soil. Pasture hardens hard soil and loosens loose soil. II. — To trees. This damage consists of: a. — Browsing on buds, leaves and shoots. b. — Eating seeds and uprooting seedlings. c. — Tramping down seedlings and over-riding saplings. d. — Tossing-off the tops of saplings. e. — Peeling hardwood poles in spring. III. — To roads and road drainage. C. — Factors of Damage are: I. — Species of trees: Those most exposed are ash, maple, locust, chest- nut, linden, elm; less exposed are yellow poplar, willows, oaks (horses like oaks), birch, fir, hickory and walnut; least endangered are larch, spruce, pine. Practically safe is red cedar. II. — Age of trees: The seedling stage suffers most. III. — Silvicultural system: Systems in which the age classes are mixed 6uffer most, notably selection system and group system. FOREST PROTECTION 13 IV. — Locality: Steep slope, loose soil and shifting sand suffer severely. V. — Species of animals: The animals may be arranged in the follow- ing schedule, placing the damage done by a horse at 100: Horse or mule foal 150 Horse or mule 100 Yearling cattle 75 Grown cattle 50 Goats 25 Sheep 10 Since a goat weighs 80 lbs. and a horse 10 times as much, the dam- age done by the goat is relatively great. In addition, goats prefer woody shoots and buds to mere grass. The rates charged for forest pasture in Pisgah Forest correspond more or less with this schedule, viz: Horses 90 cents per head per month Cattle 50 cents per head per month Sheep 10 cents per head per month In the pineries of the South, the lease receipts from pasture offset the taxes frequently. Foals destroy pasture more by their mere frolics than by their appetite. After Hundeshagen, 10 to 12J^ acres of forest are required for the pasture of one head of cattle. VI. — Season of the year. Spring pasture is more destructive than summer or fall pasture. D. — Closed Time. In Central Europe young woods are closed to pasturage for a number of years. AGE OF WOODS WHEN PASTURE BEGINS, IN YEARS. SPECIES OF ANIMALS HIGH FOREST, BROAD LEAF HIGH FOREST, CONIFERS COPPICE FOREST Horses Cattle 18 to 24 14 to 18 12 to 20 9 to 16 6 to 14 4 to 10 -Duration of Pasture In Western North Carolina, cattle are pastured in the woods from May 1st, to October 15th, whilst sheep and hogs are kept on pasture dur- ing the entire year, fed only slightly after a heavy snow fall. In the pineries of the South, cattle, sheep and hogs are kept in the woods during the entire year. Cattle are fed slightly, in addition to the pas- ture, during the four winter months. The much disputed pasture in the Sierras and Cascades is used only during the three summer months when the pasture in the lowlands dries out. 14 FOREST PROTECTION F. — Pasture in the National Forests: The pasture of sheep and goats is generally prohibited; cattle pasture generally allowed . Sheep ranges and cattle ranges are kept strictly apart. The Secretary of Agriculture determines annually the amount of pas- turage permitted for each forest, viz: a. — The number of horses, cattle, sheep and goats to be admitted; b. — The beginning and the end of the grazing season; c. — The ranges actually to be grazed. The stock of residents owning holdings within the forests is given pre- ference over "neighboring stock." Only citizens of the State are en- titled, to grazing privileges. Under any circumstances, permits must be obtained through the super- visor by stock owners intending to pasture on the reserve (the stock of travelers and prospectors excepted). Sheep must be herded by a herdsman. The sheep ranges are allotted separately, usually according to the re- commendation of the local Wool Growers' Association. Promiscuous sheep grazing is strictly prohibited. Permit holders are required to prevent and to fight fires without com- pensation. G. — Protective Measures Meant to Safeguard the Timijer Interests of the Land Owner: — I. — Animals: a. — Limit the number of animals admitted. b. — Exclude goats. c. — Prevent cattle from following sheep. II.— Time: a. — Prevent pasture in early spring. b. — Insist on close time during regeneration and up to the thicket stage. c. — Close forest pasture periodically so as to allow tree seedlings to escape the mouth of browsing animals. III. — Fencing: For cattle pasture, two or three strings of barbed wire are suffi- cient. For sheep pasture three or four strings. 100 lbs. of barbed wire form a string 1,600 to 1,900 feet long. Individual trees or seedlings, like orchard trees, are sometimes protected by screens placed around the tree. IV. — Seedlings should be planted within the "bays" of tree stumps after clear cutting wherever artificial regeneration is resorted to. Seed planting should be avoided. FOREST PROTECTION 15 Par. 4. Protection Against Wild Vertebrates. Amongst the wild animals preying upon the forest the mammals figure as well as the birds. The role played by the vertebrates in the " house- hold" of the forest is little known. Birds and mammals may injure the forest directly — by eating vege- table matter produced in the forest, — or indirectly — by killing the friends of the forester. Utility of a wild animal is frequently combined with noxiousness, e. g. in the case of the crow, blue-jay, fox. Useful animals may help the forester either directly— by seed distri- bution, — or indirectly — by killing the enemies of the forest. -Protection Against Mammals Forming the Object of Chase. I. — Deer. a. — The damage done consists in: — Eating fruits. Browsing on shoots and seedlings. Peeling the bark of saplings and poles (notably of spruce, oak, ash). Rubbing off the bark when freeing the antlers of velvet. Tramping down plantations or natural regenerations. The objects of damage are, above all, the rare species, or species arousing the curiosity of the deer. b. — Protective measures are: — Proper regulation of the number of deer. Compatible with the objects of silviculture are, per 10,000 acres, 50 head of elk or 150 head of Virginia deer, provided that nurseries are fenced. Feeding during winter by cutting soft woods or by providing hay stacks. Mast-bearing trees should be encouraged; grass meadows should be maintained; a few patches should be planted in turnips, potatoes, clover, etc. Maintaining salt licks, es- pecially with a view to preventing bark peeling in spring. Hohlfeld's game powder is said to answer the purpose still better. Fencing nurseries and young growth. Sprinkling seedlings with kerosene, liquid manure, blood, cotton residue or, better, covering the fall shoots, exclusive of bud, with coal tar. Coal tar is especially effective in the case of fir and spruce. Thinnings should be delayed as long as possible. Planting is preferable to sowing, especially to sow- ing in the fall. II. — Wild Boar. Boar are particularly disastrous to nurseries, nat- ural regenerations and plantations. The only remedies are strong fences. 16 FOREST PR0TECT10X III. — Hares and Rabbits. The damage done consists in the biting- off of top shoots (notably of oaks, maples, firs, but also of pine); further, in gnawing-off the bark of locust, crata?gus, cherry, hard maple, linden. At Biltmore. rabbits feast especially on the shoots of the Buffalo nut (Pyrularia). The seedlings of Pinus echinata, in certain years, were bitten-off in the nurseries. Plantations of acorns at Biltmore have been annihilated by the rabbits, the shoots being clipped year after year. Thus the oak seedlings were prevented from successfully competing with the weeds (broom sedge). Nurseries require a fine meshed fence. Remedies lie, above all, in the protection of the fox, 'possum, skunk, marten, weasel, hawk, coon, mynx. In addition, sprinkling with coal tar (not on buds!) and wrapping of top shoots in cotton waste is recommended. The planting of rabbit-proof species (notably Picea pungens and Picea Sitchensis) is advisable. B. — Protection Against Mammals which do not Form the Object of the Chase. Obviously, all carniverous animals are friends of the forester, whilst most herbivorous animals appear as his enemies. Amongst the plant eaters, the rodents excel in the amount of harm done. I. — Squirrels. a. — Damage done. Squirrels eat the seed on the tree as well as the seed planted by nature and man, preferring sweet oaks, beech, chestnut, walnut, cucumber-tree, hickories, pines. They eat the coty- ledons, buds and cambium of young shoots and destroy the nest brood of some useful birds. In the Pink Beds, the top shoots of white pine are cut off by the squirrels. Plantations of the heavy seeded broad leaved species have been destroyed at Biltmore repeatedly. b. — Protective measures. Protect the fox, marten, skunk, coon, o'possum, hawk, owl, cat (wild and tame) and all other enemies. Remove hollow trees forming the hiding and nesting places of the squirrel. Plant seedlings or, possibly, nuts after sprouting, and if seeds must be planted, resort to spring-planting of the same. c. — Remedial measures. 1 — Shoot the squirrel. 2 — Poison it by bathing the seeds in strychnine before plant- ing, a means found ineffective at Biltmore. II. — Chipmunk. Similar damage and same remedies as for the squirrel. Its main enemy at Biltmore is the black snake and the rattlesnake. FOREST PROTECTION 17 III.— Mice. a. — Damage done. The mice live on buds, seeds, seedlings and the cambium layers of seedlings. The field mice undermine the ground in nurseries and planta- tions following the rows of plants and cutting the roots about one inch below the surface of the ground. Frequently they seem to follow in mole mines. The damage done by gnawing is conspicuous in plantations of locust and black cherry. In seed plantations on abandoned fields at Biltmore, mice have done enormous damage to oaks and hickories. Planted locusts are bitten-off below ground. In the Biltmore nurseries, oak seed beds have suffered severely by the mice cutting the roots. Transplanted white pines were severely decimated, by gird- ling, in February, 1909. b. — Protective measures. Avoid autumn Bowing. Plant seeds broadcast instead of planting in rills. Have nurseries far from grain fields and from abandoned fields. Keep deep and clean pathways between the beds. Surround nurseries by deep and steep-walled trenches. Insert pit falls in the bottom of such trenches. Work the nurseries contin- uously. Do not cover the nurseries with mould or moss form- ing hiding places. Keep the sedge grasses and weeds down in nurseries and re- generations, possibly by pasturing with cattle and sheep, thus disturbing the mice and tramping down their mines. Burn abandoned fields before planting. Pigs admitted to the woods just before a seed year destroy the mice whilst preparing the soil for natural regeneration. Protect the mouse-eaters, especially those which are fond of voles as owls, crows, fox, o'possum, cats. c. — Remedial Measures. Kill the mice by trapping or poisoning. In this latter case, place grains of wheat poisoned by immersion in strychnine, arsenic or phosphorus into dram pipes so as to check the possi- bility of accidentally poisoning singing birds or quail at the same time. Comp. Farmers bulletin No. 369, Biological Survey. The root of certain Scylla species, chopped into sausages, kills the mice by causing their bladders to burst. Gypsum is said to have a similar effect, solidifying in the stomach. The lat- ter remedies are not injurious to the mouse-eating animals which are frequently poisoned by catching the poisoned mice. The vaccination of the mice with the so-called "typhoid dis- ease" has not been sufficientlv successful so far. 18 FOREST PROTECTION d. — Treatment of injured plants. Broad leaved seedlings merely chewed above ground should be clipped back. Oak seedlings, cut off below ground, have been successfully transplanted at Biltniore and have replaced the lost tap-root by a multitude of rootlets. IV. — Ground Hog or Wood Chuck. Dr. Fernow reports that his coniferous nurseries at Axton were badly plundered by woodchuck. After Schaaf, white oak saplings are peeled by woodchucks up to five feet from the ground, near fields. Stomach analysis at Bilt- more show only ferns. V. — Porcupine or Hedgehog. It peels the bark, especially that of spruce, basswood and hemlock, close to the base of the tree, pre- ferring saplings up to 5" in diameter. VI. — Beaver. It is now so rare that the damage done to the forest is insignificant. C. — Protection Against Birds. I. — Grouse. The grouse bite-off buds and cotyledons, and eat the fruit of certain tree species (buds of birch, maple, cottonwood; seeds of red cedar, beech, witch hazel, calmia and rhododendron). On the whole the damage done by grouse is inconspicuous. II. — Wild Turkey. The turkey is useful by eating some noxious in- sects and by scratching the leaves, thus burying certain tree seeds. At Biltmore, however, on Ducker Mountains, plantations of scarlet oak acorns have been practically destroyed by the turkey. In forest nurseries, as well, the turkey is apt to do considerable harm during the winter. III. — Pigeons and Doves. Pigeons live during spring and winter on coniferous seeds, beech nuts, buds and cotyledons. Remedies in nurseries are lath or wire screens or coverings of thorny branches. Pigeons may be shot at anise licks. IV. — Crows and Bluejays. These birds live on large seeds (acorns, beech nuts, chestnuts) and are especially dangerous in nurseries. They plunder the nests of useful birds. On the other hand, they may assist the forester in destroying mice and noxious insects; they underplant whole forests with acorns, beech nuts, hickory nuts and chestnuts. V. — Finches and Cross-bills. The damage done consists in the de- struction of seed plantations of conifers made in nurseries or in the open. It occurs during the spring migration of the birds when they appear in large swarms. The cotyledons are bitten off and eaten as well as the seeds. Some cross-bills split the scales of coniferous cones into two, withdraw- ing the seed from underneath the scales. FOREST PROTECTION 19 Protective measures are: Screens of wire or lath over nursery beds. The mesh must be fine, and the distance between the lath must not exceed % inch. Shooting some birds, keeping the balance scared off. Coating the seeds in red lead (very efficient), one pound of red lead being sufficient to cover seven pounds of coniferous seeds. Shortening the period of exposure by planting the seeds in late spring after three to eight days mulching. VI. — Woodpeckers. Woodpeckers withdraw the larvge of wood boring insects from their mines with the help of a long, thin tongue. They withdraw useful as well as harmful insects. They do damage by opening cones and by eating the seeds thereof. The damage done by picking holes into the cambium layers of certain trees is small. The holes made in sound yellow poplars rather denote a high quality than the presence of defective tim- ber. The holes made in oak and chestnuts are usually made in rotten or decaying wood, or in wood of no commercial value. There exist four theories attempting to explain the curious girdles of holes made by the woodpecker. a. — Incubator Theory. Holes are picked to invite the ovipositing of insects in such holes. b. — Napkin Theory. The woodpecker cleans its beak from particles of rosin. c. — Calendar Theory. Due to observation that woodpecker returns at regular inter- vals to same tree, d. — Sap-sucking Theory. 20 FOREST PROTECTION Par. 5. Protection Against Insects. A. General Remarks. I. Insects are the most serious animal enemies of the forest. More than that, they are the worst enemies of the forest within organic nature. But in a certain sense, many insects seemingly injurious, are in fact beneficial, since they form one of the means by which nature selects the fittest individuals for the propagation of our trees. II. Almost all of the orders of insects contain families, some or all the members of which are directly beneficial. These bene- ficial forms are usually zoophagous, and may be — o. Predaceous insects feeding on eggs, larvae, pupae, or imagines of injurious species, notably — Order Coleoptera: Families Coccinellidce, Cicin- delidce, Carabidce, Elateridce, Cleridce, Trogosilidce, Colydiidce. Order Diptera: Families Asilidce, Syrphidce. Order Hymenoptera: Superfamily Formicoidea. Order Hemiptera: Family Reduviidce. Order Orthoptera: Family Mantidoe. Many Neuropteroid insects.* b. Parasitic insects, ovipositing on or in the bodies of injurious species. The more important are — Order Diptera: P'amily Tachinidce. Order Hymenoptera: Superfamilies Ichneumon- oidea, Proctotrypoidea, Chalcidoidea. c. Parasitic insects, paralyzing their prey by stinging, and carrying them into their nests where the eggs of the parasite are deposited. Order Hymenoptera: Superfamilies Sphegoidea, Vespoidea. Many families are neither injurious nor beneficial, and are there- fore of no economic importance. Other groups which may be either injurious or beneficial to man, are not mentioned here, because they bear no direct relation to forest trees. Amongst the phytophagous insects, there are however, very many forms that are injurious to our forests. Those living on tree weeds must, of course, be considered as beneficial; but speaking gen- *The old order Neuroptera, has been divided into several orders in modern systems of classification. The group as a whole is of little economic importance to the forester, and for that reason, the inclusive term, Neuropteroid, is used. FOREST PROTECTION 21 erally, phytophagous insects found in the forests, are more or less injurious. The families which contain most of the injur- ious species are — Order Coleoptera: Families Cerambycidce, Bu- prestidce, Elateridce, Ptinidce, Scarabaeidce, Chryso- melidce, Curculionidce, Brenthidce, Scolytidoe. Order Lepidoptera: Families Arctiidce, Bomby- cidce, Cossida*. Hesperidce, Liparidce, Noctuidce, Pa- pilionidce, Zygaenidce. Order Hymenoptera: Superfamilies Tenthredi- noidea, Cynipoidea. Order Hemiptera: Families Coccidce, Aphididce, Cicadidce. Order Diptera: Families Cecidomyiidce, Syrph- idce. Order Orthoptera: Families Locustidce, Phas- viidce. III. Insects are divided into three groups, according to the rela- tion that exists between the younger stages and the adults. a. The Ameiabola. which includes a single order, the Thysaneura, in which the young and adults differ only in size. b. The Hemimetabola, in which are included the Orthop- tera, the Hemiptera, etc., etc. In this group the young and adults differ not only in size, but in several other characters, and the young become more and more like the adults after each molt. c. The Metabola, in which are included the Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, etc., etc. In this group, the young and the adults are totally un- like, and before taking the mature form, the larva? go through a resting stage. The first stage of the insect is the egg, and after hatch- ing, it arrives at maturity through a series of molts. On hatching, the young of the Metabola are called larva? (caterpillars, maggots, grubs); and in the Ameta- bola and Hemimetabola, they are called nymphs. There are several molts during the larval or nymphal stage, and the period between any two of them is called an instar. The quiescent stage during which the larva? of the Metabola change to imagines, is called the pupa; 22 FOREST PROTECTION and the mature or reproductive stage of all insects is called the adult, or imago. The pupa of a butterfly is very often called a chrysalis, and the silken sack spun by many insects in which to pupate, is the co- coon. Larvae of Diptera and of some other insects, pupate within a tough outer covering commonly sup- posed to be simply a pupal skin. The true pupa is, however, entirely within it, and the tough outer cover- ing is distinguished by the name puparium. After reaching the adult stage, the insect does not become any larger, and does not molt; its only function is to mate, and lay eggs. Some species are unable even to feed after becoming adult, and in almost all cases, the larvae or nymphs are much more voracious than the mature insects. In general, then, the greater part of the insect damage to our forests is done before the in- sects responsible become mature. The Ambrosia beetles form a notable exception to this rule. The sum total of the stages of development of an insect is termed a generation, and a given species may be single-brooded, double-brooded, treble-brooded, etc., according to the number of generations which occur during a single year. Many insects require more than a single year to complete a generation, and are then called biennial, triennial, etc. A species of the Cica- didse is known to have a life round of seventeen years. IV. Climatic and Seasonal Conditions Affecting Insect Life. In general, the number of species of insect life decreases as altitude or latitude increases, while at the same time, the num- ber of individuals of a species becomes larger. The number of generations of a given species is also affected by the climate; for instance, a species which is "double-brooded" in the Mid- dle States, may become "treble-brooded" in the Southern States, and "single-brooded" in Canada. Insects spend the winter months in a resting or hibernating stage which varies for the different species. That is, a given species may hibernate either in the egg, larval, pupal, or adult stage. They are protected against the cold either by their own coverings, or by the hiding places selected by them in the trees, in the bark, in the moss and leaves, in the stumps, or in t lie ground. Extreme cold is no more likely to injure the insect than it is to kill the tree itself; but sudden changes of temperature and moisture, especially cold wet spells in late spring, or after a premature thaw has drawn the hibernating FOREST PROTECTION 23 insects from their winter quarters, may be disastrous to large numbers of certain species, particularly during the molting periods of the larva?. V. Insect Plagues. A succession of favorable springs, free from late frosts and wet spells, is apt to result in an anomalous mul- tiplication of a species. Hence, according to European re- cords, insect plagues, like successions of favorable climatic conditions, occur and recur after periodic intervals. The ef- fects of parasitism however, are very likely to be confused with climatic effects in these records, and too much dependance should not be placed on them. These periodic plagues of in- sects are very likely to occur in spite of all human ingenuity. But experience teaches us that, in the great majority of cases, nature may be trusted to restore the balance that has been so disturbed. An abnormal increase in the numbers of a given species not only is likely to reduce the natural food supply of such a species so that many individuals will die of starvation, but the parasitic and predaceous enemies of the species also enormously increase in numbers, being encouraged to do so by the abundance of the food on which they exist, and by the ease with which it may be obtained. For the same reason, bacterial and fungous diseases have a better opportunity to spread from one individual to another. The years following an insect plague are, therefore, very likely to be exceptionally free from the particular species involved. Consequently, a plague of this sort usually lasts for but one or two years, al- though in exceptional cases it may last for three or four years. In the forest, an insect plague, in which several species are often involved, is likely to follow in the wake of a destructive fire or storm, or of an attack by fungi. In any case where such a plague has swept through the forest the dead trees should be marketed immediately if the conditions are at all favorable. Otherwise the result ing loss will be much more serious. The amount of damage done by a serious outbreak of insects in a forest will depend very largely on the nature of the species involved. If the species is "monophagous," that is, depen- dent for its food supply only on a single species of tree, it is likely to cause serious losses only in localities where pure stands of the particular tree occur, or, at least, where the trees of that species are not so scattered through the forest as to make it difficult for the adult females of the injurious insect to find a suitable place for oviposition. Polyphagous insects, on the other hand, affect many host trees; and while they are likely to distribute their injuries, so that their effect on the forest is less noticeable, still the ultimate losses extending over a period of years, may be very great. A species imported ac- 24 FOREST PROTECTION cidentally from one country to another, is much more likely than a native species to cause serious losses, because of the absence of native parasites and other enemies which serve to keep it in check in its original habitat. The extensive ravages of the Gipsy Moth in Massachusetts, which have lasted over a long period of years, is without precedent in European countries, although the species has been abundant over a large part of the continent of Europe, probably for several centuries. It may be that insect plagues play a role in the natural change of species of plants coinciding with geological periods, but the question is one of speculation, not demonstration. VI. Species of Trees Affected. There are no species which are not liable to insect attack, but some are much less sus- ceptible than others. Conifers have, on the whole, less re- cuperative powers than broad-leaved species, and consequently succumb much more readily to insect attacks. In this coun- try, the spruces and pines, wherever occurring in pure and even-aged forests, are the species which suffer most. VII. Condition of Trees Affected. We may divide injurious insects into three classes according to the condition of the trees attacked. a. Certain species, notable those that feed on leaves and pith, usually prefer healthy to diseased plants. They may either kill the tree outright or weaken it to such an extent that conditions are made favor- able for the attacks of — b. species which generally prefer unhealthy trees. Or- dinarily these species never attack healthy plants, but in years of plagues they may lie forced to do so. Thus in years of extreme abundance, millions of bark-beetles may be drowned in the resin of healthy pines before the weakened to an extent sufficient to allow subsequent millions to propagate the species. c. Certain other species only attack the trees after they have been killed. Dead timber, either standing or on the ground, should be marketed as soon as pos- sible as a precaution against damage. Decayu and stumps are always found infested with numerous species of insects which cannot be classed as injur- ious since they merely hasten the process of decay. Those insects of this class which are injurious are FOREST PROTECTION 25 of less importance to the forester than to the pur- chaser of his product. Some of them cause serious losses in lumber yards, ship yards, bark sheds, fac- tories, etc. Insects of classes "a" and "b" above are sometimes called "parasitic" because they attack living plants, as distinguished from those of class "c," which feed only on dead timber, and are called "saprophytic." The term "parasite," however, is commonly used in Entomology to denote a species of insect which has another species for its host, and the student should be careful in his reading to distinguish between the broader and narrower uses of the term. VIII. Part of Tree Attacked. No part of the tree is entirely free from insect injury. According to species, insects may feed upon the buds (caterpillar causing the fork in the ash), the leaves (elm leaf-beetle), the fruit (chestnut and acorn weevils), the pith (locust shoot -borer), the cambium (larvae of the so-called bark-beetles), the heart-wood (chestnut borers), the sap-wood (many of the longicorn borers), the roots (larvae of May-beetles), and the bark (notably tan-bark). IX. Degree of Damage. According to the amount of damage done, insects may be classed as a, Damaging insects; b, Des- tructive insects, and c, Pernicious insects. Insects are called physiologically obnoxious if they check the growth or propa- gation of plants, and technically obnoxious if they destroy or reduce the technical value without checking the growth. The Hemlock bark-maggot furnishes a good example of the last named class. B. REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES IN GENERAL AGAINST INSECT INJURY. I. Select the proper species for reproduction on a given soil. II. Encourage mixed forests. III. Avoid large continuous clearings. IV. Use the ranger staff in controlling the insects. V. Remove the weak trees, and strengthen the remaining indi- viduals by means of thinnings. VI. Protect and improve the productiveness of the soil. VII. Protect the forest from damage by storm, sleet, or fire in the wake of which insect plagues frequently follow. 26 FOREST PROTECTION VIII. Remove or poison stumps if they are found to form the incu- bators or food-objects of a noxious insect during one of its stages. IX. Peel off the bark where logs are left on the ground for any considerable length of time. X. Encourage hog pastures in the case of certain species of in- sects. With other species, steep walled ditches may prevent the enemy from spreading in nurseries and plantations. XI. Protect the insectivorous animals, notably: — a. Bats, moles, weasels, foxes, etc. b. Woodpeckers, tits, owls, etc. c. Amphibia. d. Spiders. e. Centipedes, millipedes, etc. XII. Collect and destroy the insect in that stage which best allows remedial measures to be taken. a. Egejs may be tarred or covered with creosote when they are placed in masses in conspicuous positions. b. Larvse may be destroyed by spraying the food plant with arsenicals or other stomach poisons, or the in- sects themselves with kerosene or other contact poi- sons; by trapping them en or below bands of burlap or tree tanglefoot; by the use of trap trees; or by burning their winter quarters or the object (bark) forming their abode. c. Pupse may sometimes be collected and burned, par- ticularly when the insect hibernates in this stage. d. Adults may be beaten off the bushes during the early morning; may be collected during the hot hours of the day in artificial hiding places; or may be caught by means of pit-falls, tanglefoot or burlap rings, trap trees, or electric lights. The selection of a method of treatment depends not only upon the species of insect concerned, but upon many factors enter- ing into the local conditions. In general, prevention is better than the application of a remedy. This is particularly true in the present stains of American forest conditions; and the use of insecticides is only profitable in rare instances. Indeed in America the forester irill frequently be -prevented from adopt- ing any measures whatever, remedial or preventive, because the cost will exceed the value of the benefit to be derived. But in no FOREST PROTECTION 27 case should a remedy be attempted by one who is not fully informed as to the life history and food-habits of the insect enemy, and with the remedy to be used. In either event more damage than benefit may result. For instance, trap- trees may often be successfully used against certain insect pests; but unless destroyed at the proper time, just before the emergence of the adults, the numbers of the enemy will be increased rather than diminished. The advice of a com- petent Forest Entomologist should be obtained wherever pos- sible. C. INSECT ANATOMY. I. The body of an adult insect is divided into three regions. a. The head consists of a single segment, and bears exteriorly a pair of antennae, a pair of compound eyes, the ocelli, which vary in number and are often absent, and the mouth parts, consisting of the labrum, two mandibles, two maxilla, and the labium. Maxillary and labial palpi are also present, sometimes so modi- fied however as to be not easily recognizable. The difference between "biting" and "sucking" mouth parts is important both in classification and as re- gards methods of treatment. b. The thorax consists of three segments, the prothorax, the mesothorax, and the metathorax. Each segment bears a pair of legs, and the mesothorax and meta- thorax normally bear the fore and hind wings. The legs are also segmented, the joints bearing the fol- lowing names: The segment attached to the thorax is called the coxa, then come in order the trochanter (sometimes made up of two short segments), the femur, the tibia, and lastly the tarsus made up of several segments on the last of which are borne the claws. The wings are composed of two membranes held to- gether by supporting rods called veins, or nerves, and are sometimes covered with hairs or scales. In the case of the Coleoptera, the fore wings (Elytra) are hard and leathery, and the veins are absent. c. The abdomen consists of several segments, some or all with stigmata or breathing pores. The external reproductive organs are usually borne on the last or anal segment of the abdomen. In certain species an ovipositor (laying-tube), or a saw-like instrument assists the female in oviposition. 28 FOREST PROTECTION II. The Larva. In the larvae of the Metabola, as in the adult insect, the first segment is the head, the next three make up the thorax, and the remainder of the body is called the abdo- men; but the three regions are not so distinct as is the case with the imago. The mouth parts are almost always for "biting," and have the same names as in the imago. The spinnarets of certain caterpillars, situated in the mouth, are the apertures of long glands, which traverse the entire body. If present, the antennae are rudimentary. If legs are present, there are always three pairs, situated on the ventral side of the thoracic segments. Sometimes there are also legs on some of the abdominal segments, but these are more prop- erly called pro-legs, and are not segmented. III. The Nymph. In the Ametabola and the Hemimetabola, the anatomy of the younger stages is similar to that of the imago. IV. The Pupa. The pupa is called carved or masked, according to the ease with which legs, antenna?, mouth parts, etc., can be distinguished through the pupa case. The outer web of silk spun for protection by many Lepidoptera and Hymen- optera is called the cocoon. V. The Egg. Insect eggs vary greatly in form. They may be cup-shaped or kidney-shaped, crater-formed or mucronate, round, oval, or canoe-shaped. Very rarely they are stalked. VI. Internal Anatomy. In an insect, this consists of a, the Endoskeleton; 6, Musculature; c, the Digestive System; (oesopha- gus, crop, proveatriculus, stomach, hind-gut, salivary and other glands. Malpighian tubes, etc.); d, the Nervous System, (brain, subcesophageal ganglion, thoracic and abdominal gang- lia, nerve cord, motor and sensory nerves); e, the Circulatory System, (the heart and blood); /, the Respiratory System, (stigmata and trachse or trachaeal-gills); and g, the Reproduc- tive Organs, (ovaries, ovarian tubes, and oviduct in the female; spermaries and vasa deferentia in the male). {FOREST PROTECTION) 29 INSECT FAMILIES ARRANGED ACCORDING TO FOOD OBJECTS IN THE FOREST. Compare Page of Ent. Bul. No. 48 I. Infesting the Cambial Bark. Bark Beetles Scolytidse (excepting Platypini, larvae and adults) ... 9 Flat and round Buprestida?, Cerambycidae (mines often extending into headed borers: wood prior to pupation) 10 Bark weevils: Curculionidae 10 Powder post ^ beetles: Ptinidae, (in peeled tan bark) 11 II. Infesting the Wood. Ambrosia or timber beetles: Scolytidae (larvae and adults) 10 Wood-boring caterpillars: Sesiidae . . .^*~ . . . , ->n^. \ . .*. . . -fVlO True woodboring jy^ ^^V beetle-grubs: Lymexflonidae, Brenthidae.r\ x 10 Bark and wood boring grubs: Curculionidae, Cerambycidae, Buprestidae 10 Carpenter worms: Cossidae 11 Horn tails: Siricidae 11 Powder post beetles: Lyctidae, Ptinidae, Bostrichidae (dead wood only). . . 11 III. Injuring Leaves or Needles. True Caterpillars and measuring worms: Lepidoptera (practically all families of the order). . . 11 False caterpillars Tenthredinidse j .. . ■ - r i ) _ 12 Leaf beetles: Chrysomelidse . bstf.sj&LK. -. U^CA. . 12 Gall insects: Cynipidae. Cecidomyiidae. Aphididae 12 Plant lice: Aphididae, PsyUidae . , yJr. 12 Scale insects: Coccidae . dtJuGC^'. : \ , \^.l 12 IV. Infesting Twigs. Twig mining beetles: Scolytidae, Buprestida?, Cerambycidae 12 Twig weevils: Curculionidae 13 Twig caterpillars: Tineidse, Tortricidae 13 Scale insects: Coccida? 13 Plant lice: Aphididae 13 Gall insects: Cecidomyiidae and Cynipidae 13 Cicadas: Cicadidae 13 V. Infesting Young Seedlings in Nurseries. Cutworms: Noctuidse Junebugs: Scarabaeidae 30 FOREST PROTECTION Click beetle-larva; (Wire worms) Weevils:. Crickets :- Cicadas:- G Weevils: Cone and nut worms: Gall flies: % Elateridse Curculionidaj Cryllida? --- ?C Cicadidse ././ ..-...." VI. Infesting Fruits or Seeds. Curculionidse 13 Tortricida?, Phycitidas 14 Cynipidse 14 \ FOREST PROTECTION 31 Means of Protection I. PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS INFESTING THE CAMBIAL BARK OF THE TRUNK A. Against Scolytid.e (Bark Beetles). (1) Conduct the logging operations at that season of the year at which the logs are apt to become infested; and after infection, remove the bark, entirely or partially; or move the logs rapidly to water or mill. In other cases, conduct logging at that season at which the debris left are not apt to form incubators for Scolytidee; or else long before swarming (e. g., cut pine at Biltmore in early winter, to avoid Dendrodonus frontalis). Com- pare Agric. Year Book, 1902, p. 275 for D. frontalis and p. 281 for D. pon- (2) Girdle, peel, lodge, fall or blaze trap trees of inviting diameter, shape and position prior to the time of the swarming of the Scolytida?. Com- pare Agric. Year Book, 1902, p. 269. Trap trees might be prepared in the district to be logged next. Try to destroy the trapped Scolytidae without injury to the Cleridse and their allies. (3) Remove or burn logging debris; or swamp the tree tops left, thus creating unfavorable conditions of moisture. Sometimes it is possible to use the debris as traps. Compare, however, Entom. Bui. No. 21, p. 23, for advice to leave the debris, so as to divert predatory Scolytidee from sound trees to debris. (4) Leave all trees (also trap trees) in the woods which prove to be incubators for Ichneumoiudse, Braconidse, Chalcididse. Remove the outer bark so as to assist ovipositing Ichneumons in reaching their prey. Intro- duce and breed parasites. (Bui. West Va. Agr. Station, p. 326.) (5) Counteract reckless deadening by farmers engaged in c learing their - fields. (6) Adopt proper diameter limit in logging where a Scolytid attacks only trees of certain diameter classes. Remember, e. g., that the spruce having under 10" d.b.h. is safe from D. piccaperda. (7) Begin logging in districts recently damaged by fire, storm, sleet. (8) Remove even worthless trees, if they are apt to act as incubators. Keep in mind, on the other hand, that trees with a ^\] cambium ?™ Tint a ttacked b y fisynhinm hnrinp; S colytidae. Have at hand, ready for use, permanent means of transportation so as to be able to operate when and where you ought to operate; particu- larly, when and where timber begins to die. (10) Conduct thinnings in a manner and at a time counteracting in- fection by Scolytidae. Remove dying and, injured (by lightning) trees, also trees weakened in vigor. \. FOREST PROTECTION (11) Watch for spider webs showing saw dust: for drops of rosin (pitch tubes) appearing on the bark; for a local increase of woodpeckers indicating an increase of foot! material; for a slight change in the tint of the pine-crowns. (12) Apply sprays or washes, twice or thrice per season, to particu- larly valuable trees (Forest Bui. No. 22, p. 56), e. g., lime and Paris green, mixed to a mass of light green color; or soft soap, adding enough washing soda and water to reduce the mixture to the consistency of a thick paint; or a thick wash of soap, Paris green and plaster of Paris; or a mixture of one pint of carbolic acid, one gallon of soft soap and eight gallons of soft water. Arsenate of lead may be used instead of Paris green, and has a greater in- sect icidal value. B. Against Buprestid.e and Cerambycid.e (Flat-headed and Round-headed Borers). Prepare trap trees, or use trees accidentally injured or weakened Remove, peel, burn or immerse in water, trees in weakened con- Begin logging in districts containing such trees (e. g., blowdowns, Prevent ground fires which weaken the trees, burst their bark and render them liable to successful attacks by Buprestids and Cerambycids. Try to retain the fertility of the soil. (4) Protect insectivorous animals (compare Bureau of Entomology Bulletin No. 28. p. 23.) (5) Prevent trees left in the course of logging from being recklessly injured by axe, by felled trees striking them, etc. (6) Where you remove a portion only of the trees standing in the woods, log in winter (not in spring and summer). C. Against Curculionid.e ("Bark Weevils"). (1) Remove the trees which appear injured by axe, lightning, storm, sleet or the fall of a neighbor. (2) Prepare trap trees, and destroy the brood of Curculionids develop- ing therein in due season. D. Against Ptinid.e. Mind that the bark is safe from powderpost beetles for two years, and do not store any tan bark for more than two years. FOREST PRGTECTWN 33 II. PR0TECTI0N AGAINST INSECTS BORING IN W©@© AND TIMBER. * A. Against Scolytid^e ("Ambrosia Beetles"). (1) Remove infested trees or logs prior to swarming. (2) Cut low stumps, or poison or char the stumps. (3) Remove bark from all logs liable to be affected or throw the logs into water. Do not leave in the woods any summer-felled logs. (4) Log all blow-downs and brules as rapidly as possible. (5) Have all parts of the woods continuously accessible to logging, by establishing permanent means of transportation. (6) Prevent ruthless deadening by farmers. Girdle cypress, oak and ash — preparatory to driving or rafting — after the swarming season of the Scolytids. (7) In orchards or gardens, coat the treetrunks with dendrolene; spray them with kerosene; plug the holes bored, leave a nail therein, or use a de- terrent wash (compare Bureau of Forestry Bulletin No. 46, p. 66). (8) Do not leave any logs in the woods or in the log yard for any length of time. In case of logging in spring and summer, peel off the bark. B. Against Lymexylqnid.e and Brenthid^e. (1) Reproduce the chestnut from seedlings, not from sprouts. Re- / A^Xx^i move dead limbs quickly, and cover the scar with tar. (2) Prevent the bark of the chestnut from being injured and opened by fires, by the fall of neighboring trees, by axe wounds, etc. On the other hand, scarify a number of trees to be cut and removed in the course of your operations in the. near future. Strip off the bark in nar- row bands, or blaze and hack through- it as high as the axe will reach. Do this towards the time when the chestnut begins to bloom. The swarming insect deposits her eggs into the scars made, and all trees thus treated act as trap trees. (3) Do not leave any cord wood' or any logs of chestnut in the forest after June 15, so as to remove insects contained therein before hatching. (4) Keep the forest dense, dark, moist, cool. C. Against Cerambycid^e (Round-headed Borers). (1) Cut in summer and peel the bark of the logs cut; or remove a hor- izontal strip of bark along and on top of the log. The moisture gathering in the gutter thus made prevents the grubs from developing. (2) Log rapidly after heavy conflagrations, blowdowns or plagues of bark beetles. Readiness to remove dead timber minimizes the damage by Cerambycids. If removal is impossible, throw the logs into water, char or peel them. (3) For shade trees, prevent oviposition by a wash consisting of soap and carbolic acid (compare Report N. Y. Forest, Fish and Game Commis- sion, Vol. IV, p. 21). The borer-holes might be stopped with putty after inserting a little carbon bisulphide (explosive). B 34 / FOREST PROTECTION D. Against Lyctid^e, Ptinid.e, Bostrichid.e (Powderpost Beetles). Use heartwood sticks for sticking in lumber piles. Do not dead pile. Spray piles with naphtaline or creoline-Pearson three times, per Impregnate all sapwood before using it. Keep an eye on all parts of the yard continuously. Infested pieces of timber should be thoroughly steamed, or im- pregnated, or liberally treated with gasoline, kerosene, creoline, or kept submerged for a number of weeks (compare Bureau of Entomology, Circu- lar No. 55). III. PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS INJURIOUS TO LEAVES, NEEDLES AND BUDS. A. Against Lepidopterous Caterpillars. (1) Remove — possibly by fire — leaf mould, mosses, brush found at bases of trees where such material forms the winter quarters for the insect. (2) Apply to the trees bands of burlap, 10" wide (compare Farmers' Bulletin No. 99, p. 20), or bands of "Tree Tanglefoot"; in the latter case either after the removal of the ross on the tree, or on a sheet of oiled paper fastened round the tree. Usually, heavy thinnings precede the application. (3) Burn the webs of web worms. (4) Moisten egg heaps with creosote oil (e. g., for tussock moth). Use a 6teel brush to destroy the eggs by rubbing. (5) Spray with washes, remembering, that the underside of the leaves must be sprayed and that the job is well done only when the tree drips. A common wash consists of one pound of Paris green and one pound of quick lime dissolved in 150 gallons of water. An excellent wash is made from arsenate of lime which adheres long, shows its presence by its white color and is harmless to the leaves. See for recipe, also for description of power- Bpray, New York Forest, Fish and Game Commission, IV. report, p. 10. (6) Protect insectivorous birds, snakes, lizards, toads. (7) Confine collected caterpillars as closely together as possible, so as to breed deadly diseases amongst them (e. g., Empusa), or so as to invite counter-plagues (Microgaster , Pimpla, etc.) (8) Catch the swarming moths by exhaust fans placed near strong electric lights. (9) Allow of hog pasture. B. Against Tenthredinid.e (Nematus), Aphidid^e, Coccidje, Psyllid^e. (1) Use of soap wash, prepared by dissolving soap in boiling water, adding kerosene (New York Forest, Fish and Game Commission, IV. re- port, p. 31); or arsenical insecticides, caustic washes, etc., (for which com- pare Bureau of Entomology, Bui. No. 7, pp. 33, 37, 45, 51). FOREST PROTECTION 36 (2) Protect insectivorous animals. (3) Destroy infested plants or, in the case of Nematua erichsonii, in- fested woodlands. IV. PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS INFESTING BRANCHES, TWIGS, SHOOTS. A. Against Scolytid.e. (1) Collect and burn affected shoots before the larvae begin to pupate therein. (2) Use logging debris as traps. (3) Burn logging debris, or swamp the crowns of felled trees. B. Against Curculionid.e (Twig Weevils). (1) Avoid logging and thinning of pinewoods near young pines in the seedling or in the sapling stage. (2) Remove the top shoots of white pine attacked by Pis.sodes strqbi, and keep them in a barrel covered with netting, in the nursery, so as to kill the weevil without destroying its parasites. (3) Remove, char, peel or poison fresh pine stumps. (4) Apply to the terminal shoots of white pine, during April or May, a spray consisting of fish oil soap, Paris green and carbolic acid diluted in water (Bureau of Forestry, Bui. No. 22, p. 59). (5) Use trap trees for oviposition, consisting of fresh-cut pine billetB buried obliquely with one end protruding above ground. Burn these traps after the eggs have hatched.' (6) Collect the adults underneath large pieces of fresh pine bark placed on the ground. The adults spend the hot hours of the day underneath the bark attracted by the smell of rosin. C. Against CerambyctD;9e. (1) Collect limbs broken off by wind and infested by Elaphidion (Oak pruner). (2) Cut off shoots or saplings affected by larvae. D. Against Tineid.e and Tortricidje. (1) Remove infested shoots. (2) Apply insecticides. E. Against Cicadid^. (1)- Collect larva?. (2) Protect crows and owls. 36 FOREST PROTECTION V. PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS AFFECTING SEEDLINGS IN NURSERIES. A. Against Curculionid^e. (1) Do not leave any pine stumps in or near nurseries. (2) Raise healthy transplants, on well-manured soil. (3) Collect adults under bark traps, and collect larvae on billets buried obliquely. B. Against Scarab^eidvE ( June Bugs). (1) Collect adults in early morning from bushes. (2) Cultivate four or five times that section of the nursery which is lying fallow. (3) Protect insectivorous birds. (4) Trap the larvae beneath reversed sods of grass. (5) Separate the beds by deep trenches. (6) Irrigate freely — if possible, raising the water in the trenches from time to time to the level of the beds. (7) Cultivate the beds heavily and frequently, particularly during the winter months. C. Against Noctuid.e (Cut Worms). (1) Catch adu.ts at night with sugared apples. (2) Poison caterpillars with cabbage sprinkled with arsenic and laid along the nursery beds. (3) Irritate caterpillars by continuous cultivation of 6oil. D. Against Cicadid.e. Do not keep any broad-leaved trees or bushes in or near the nursery on which the eggs might be deposited. Injection of bisulphide of carbon into soil is recommended by Bureau of Entomology, Bui. No. 14, p. 111. E. Against Gryllidje (Crickets). (1) Protect moles, crows, etc. (2) Keep deep trenches between the beds, and use short beds. (3) Insert earthenware pots at the intersection of trenches. (4) Propagate a fungus disease (Empusa Grylli) for which see Bureau of Entomology, Bull. No. 38, p. 53. (5) Plow the beds deeply before using them. FOREST PROTECTION 37 VI. PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS INFESTING FRUITS OR SEEDS, i. e., AGAINST CURCULIONID.E, TORTRI- CJDM, PHYCITID.E. (1) When wintering chestnuts or acorns, store them in the natural way, not allowing the seeds to become dry. See lectures on Sylviculture. (2) Plant seeds as soon as possible after collecting. II. CD it" a. 13 a j1l al.g 3 c lii > > o ■8*1 ill CO^ CO O-r ft s o 8 o ■3 ►3 EJ.S o«3 ■a-. is CN CO CN 1) 00 ^ o oo" . S? cu 3 2 > o — . | ill i i-i s Cj5 CO a, — (3 8 85 1 cu •" K 11 x w w > I s .3 cu s 3 0) 3 > -3 CO a o c o 4) CO 5 O S« n < 5 C S «1 c M o »a t- 2 ©a CN M 2 Go z z a h < m H M <£ s H P O lit o-*8 * c .J3 iji .o'Sg g 2 1 1 .3 13 o fa .si >. 3'E £ fa g a CO M -3.5-2 3 & CO HI Hi! >- fe " S, c -2-7! 5P M .5 IS 1 < « o s o & £ a CU o a o 0) 4) O CD fa cu 3 cu^S c «u £ Ial ai O a Z » 8 * III C *> CU -3 T-. c £ "9 o c ° i>-a Sg Mm" c C . .£ c «S CX $ 2 S« •3 0> c 0) C J3 B S| CO ,r, i> p. a co r 4i c * >S ■a te »a |II 03-gX Isl fa O >• &3 .5j-ro 0) -^ 3^ Sim a- "S^ 3 J -■§§ = S£ E C z z o M fa c s 3.2 ^3T3 CU JT--3 _iL M S s 5 < W ft. s 2 0) 0. a 6 1 1 o O 1) "5 a S 6 01 01 & s o o 2 a c"ft M a o w a K O « «j aj CO & <0 C 4, S, O -H » S 3 <3 jQ u ft g sir g m o ^^3 cu •& / c a .Pi 5 !i O CD ■a "s co O a.s -^ ii ■" CO ^ s 2 o a 5 o 2 a; T3 ^3 a> cu X A — *•' S >. o ri 1 03 w 2 - — &H .7 o 03 >, L. XI w cy y. O % ►) a> s 3 FOREST PROTECTION 39 REFERENCE LIST Compiled by F. D. Couden and C. A. Schenck The following pages will refer the student to publications, most of which should be in the library of the up-to-date forester, where accounts, more or less complete, of certain species of insects injurious to forest and shade trees may be found. The list is by no means complete, and it is very likely that a few even of the important species have been omitted. The study of Forest Entomology is still in its infancy; but the literature, while not yet voluminous, is so scattered that it would not be profitable for the pre- sent purpose to go through it with a fine-toothed comb. A great many errors will undoubtedly be noticed by Entomologists, particularly as to synonymy; but it is hoped, nevertheless, that the list will be of some value to the students of Forest ry for whom it is designed. The arrangement is faulty in that many polyphagous species of insects are not listed under all of their host trees. Porthetria dispar, for instance, is listed only under Quercus, whereas the caterpillars of the Gipsy Moth feed indiscriminately on the foilage of almost any tree within their range. The use of the "index," however, will enable the student to find the refer- ences to any insect listed, without regard to the host under which the re- ference is given. Here follow the complete titles of all the publications used in the pre- paration of the list. The abbreviations used in the list proper are printed here in Black-Faced Type, and are followed by the titles, names of authors' and years of publication. UNITED STATES PUBLICATIONS 5th Rept. Ent. Com. U. S. Fifth Report of the United States Entomolog- ical Commission. Insects injurious to forest and shade trees. By A. S. Packard. 1890. Ag. Yr. Bk. for 1895 U. S— Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1895. The Shade Tree insect problem in the eastern United States. By L. O. Howard, pp. 361-384. 1896. Ag. Yr. Bk. for 1902 U. S.— Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1902. Some of the principal insect enemies of coni- ferous forests in the United States. By A. D. Hopkins, pp. 265-282. 1903. Ag. Yr. Bk. for 1903 U. S— Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1903. Insects injurious to hardwood forest trees. By A. D. Hopkins, pp. 313-328. 1904. Ag. Yr. Bk. for 1904 U. S.— Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1904. Insect injuries to forest products. By A. D. Hopkins, pp. 381-398. The nut weevils. By F. H. Chittenden, pp. 299-310. 1905. 40 FOREST PROTECTION Ag. Yr. Bk. for 1905 U. S.— Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1905. Insect enemies of forest reproduction. By A. D. Hopkins, pp. i-iii and 249-256. 1906. Ag. Yr. Bk. for 1907 U. S.— Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1907. Notable depredations by forest insects. By A. D. Hopkins, pp. i-iii and 149-164. 1908. Bulletins of the Bureau (Formerly Division) of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture. Ent. Bui. No. 7 U. S. — Some miscellaneous results of the work of the Di- vision of Entomology. The ambrosia beetles of the United States. By H. G. Hubbard, pp. 9-30. Insect injuries to chestnut and pine trees in Virginia and neighboring states. By F. H. Chittenden, pp. 67-75. 1897. Ent. Bui. No. 14 U. S.— The Periodical Cicada. By C. L. Marlatt. 1898. Ent. Bui. No. 21 U. S. — Preliminary report on the insect enemies of forests in the Northwest. By A. D. Hopkins. 1899. Ent. Bui. No. 28 U. S. — Insect enemies of the spruce in the Northwest. By A. D. Hopkins. 1901. Ent. Bui. No. 32 U. S.— Insect enemies of pine in the Black Hills. By A. D. Hopkins. 1902. Ent. Bui. No. 37 U. S. — Proceedings of the fourteenth annual meeting of the Association of Economic Entomologists. On the study of forest entomology in America. By A. D. Hopkins, pp. 5-32. 1902. Ent. Bui. No. 38 U. S. — Some miscellaneous results of the work of the Di- vision of Entomology. Notes on the Rhinocerus Beetle. By F. H. Chittenden, pp. 28-32. 1902. Ent. Bui. No. 48 U. S. — Catalogue of exhibits of insect enemies of forest products at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, Mo., 1904. By A. D. Hopkins. 1904. Ent. Bui. No. 53 U. S. — Catalogue of the exhibit of Economic Entomology at the Lewis and Clrak Centennial Exposition, Portland, Oregon, 1905. By Rolla P. Currie. 1904. Ent. Bui. No. 56 U. S.— The Black Hills Beetle. By A. D. Hopkins. 1905. Ent. Bui. No. 58 U. S. — Some insects injurious to forests. Parts I, II, and III. By A. D. Hopkins and J. L. Webb. 1906-07. Ent. Bui. No. 71 U. S.— The Periodical Cicada. By C. L. Martlatt. 1907. Circulars of the Bureau (Formerly Division) of Entomology of the United States Department of Agriculture. Ent. Cir. No. 24 U. S.— The Two-lined Chestnut Borer. By F. H. Chitten- den. 1897. Ent. Cir. No. 29 U. S.— The Fruit-tree Bark-beetle. By F. H. Chittenden- 1898. F9RESTJPR9TECTI9N 41 Ent. Cir. No. 55 U. S. — Powder-post injury to seasoned wood products. By F. H. Chittenden. 1903. Ent. Cir. No. 82 U. S. — Pinhole injury to girdled cypress in the South At- lantic and Gulf States. By A. D. Hopkins. 1907. Ent. Cir. No. 83 U. S — The Locust Borer, and methods for its control. By A. D. Hopkins. 1907. Ent. Cir. No. 90 U. S— The White-pine Weevil. By A. D. Hopkins. 1907. Ent. Cir. No. 96 U. S.— The Catalpa Sphinx. By L. O. Howard and F. H. Chittenden. 1907. Ent. Cir. No. 97 U. S.— The Bagworm. By L. O. Howard and F. H. Chit- tenden. 1908. Bulletins of the Forest Service (Formerly Bureau of Forestry) of the United States Department of Agriculture. For. Bui. No. 22 U. S.— The White Pine. Insect enemies of . By F. H. Chittenden, pp. 55-61. 1899. For. Bui. No. 31 U. S.— The Western Hemlock. Insects of the . By A. D. Hopkins, pp. 16-21. 1902. For. Bui. No. 38 U. S.— The Redwood. Insects of the . By A. D. Hopkins, pp. 32-40. 1903. For. Bui. No. 46 U. S. — The Basket Willow. Insects injurious to . By F. H. Chittenden, pp. 63-80. 1904. Other Publications of the United States Department of Agriculture. Far. Bui. No. 99 U. S. — Farmer's Bulletin No. 99. Three insect enemies of shade trees. By L. O. Howard. 1899. Far. Bui. No. 264 U. S.— Farmer's Bulletin No. 264. The Brown-tail Moth, and how to control it. By L. O. Howard. 1906. Far. Bui. No. 265 U. S.— Farmer's Bulletin No. 265. The Gipsy Moth, and how to control it. By L. O. Howard. 1907. F'ld. Pr'g'm. F'st. S'ce.-April, 1907, U. S.— Field Programme of the Forest Service for April, 1907. STATE PUBLICATIONS. New Jersey. Geol. Rept. for 1899. N. J.— Annual Report of the State Geologist of New Jersey for the year 1899. Part III. Report on Forests. The role of insects in the forest. By J. B. Smith, pp. 205-232. 1899. New York. G'de. L'fl't. No. 16 A. M. N. H.— Guide Leaflet No. 16, American Museum of Natural History. The insect galls of the vicinity of New York City. By William Beutenmuller. 1904. Ex. Sta. Bui. No. 233 Cornell.— Cornell University. Agricultural Experi- ment Station of the College of Agriculture. Bulletin No. 233. De- partment of Entomology. Saw-fly leaf-miners on European elms and alders. By M. V. Slingerland. 1905. 42 FOREST PROTECTION Ex. Sta. Bui. No. 234 Cornell. — Cornell University. Agricultural Experi- ment Station of the College of Agriculture. Bulletin No. 234. De- partment of Entomology. The Bronze Birch-borer. By M. V. Slinger- land. 1906. For. Rept. No. 4 N. Y. — Fourth annual report of the Commissioners of Fish- eries, Game, and Forests of the State of New York. Report for 1898. Insects injurious to maple trees. By E. P. Felt. pp. 367-395. 1899. For. Rept. No. 7 N. Y. — Seventh annual report of the Forest, Fish, and Game Commission of the State of New York. Report for 1901. Insects affecting forest trees. By E. P. Felt. pp. 479-534. 1902. St. Mus. Bui. No. 53 N. Y.— New York State Museum Bulletin No. 53. (En- tomology 14). 17th Report of the State Entomologist on injurious and other insects of the State of New York. By E. P. Felt. 1901. St. Mus. Bui. No. 103 N. Y.— New York State Museum Bulletin No. 103. (Entomology 25). The Gipsy and Brown-tail Moths. By E. P. Felt. 1906. St. Mus. Bui. No. 109 N. Y— New York State Museum Bulletin No. 109. (Entomology 27). White-marked Tussock-moth and Elm Leaf-beetle. By E. P. Felt. 1907. St. Mus. Bui. No. 110 N. Y.— New York State Museum Bulletin No. 110. (Entomology 28). 22nd Report of the State Entomologist on injur- ious and other insects of the state of New York. By E. P. Felt. 1907 St. Mus. Mern. No. 8 N. Y. — New York State Museum Memoir 8. 2 vol- umes. Insects affecting park and woodland trees. By E. P. Felt. 1905-06. Ohio. Ins. Bui. No. 7 Ohio. — Ohio Department of Agriculture. Division of Nur- sery and Orchard Inspection. Bulletin No. 7. The insects affecting the black locust and hardy catalpa. By E. C. Cotton. 1905. Pennsylvania. For. Rept. 1901-02 Penn. — Statement of work done by the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry during 1901 and 1902. 1902. West Virginia. Ex. Sta. Bui. No. 35 W. Va.— Bulletin of the West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station No. 35. Defects in wood caused by insects. By A. D. Hopkins. 1894. Ex. Sta. Bui. No. 66 W. Va. — Bulletin of the West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station No. 56. Report on investigations to determine the cause of unhealthy conditions of the spruce and pine from 1880 to 1893. By A. D. Hopkins. 1899. MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS. Comstock's Manual. — Manual for the Study of Insects. By J. H. Com- stock. 1895. Ratzeburg Vol. III. — Die Forst-Insecten, volume III. By J. C. Ratzeburg. Berlin, 1844. The Forester for 1901. — The Forester. A periodical published by the Amer- ican Forestry Association at Washington, D. 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H 392 • cs >> CO d a a CO «S<» o> X 3^ CO 'S £w K^ O o gg 9 a w U 1-1 an . o d P3"^cb 1 1 05005 1 ' w 322 • ! 1 ooo I 1 ■*■>*•* £ cu is w ^6«i co ! com ' ed U«* CO ' coco 00 i t-t» ' > Q 95 H O U CO integer Say pennsylvan ahdominali albicornis flavipennii CO \ » ! D Z H o Nematus. Campono Urocerus Urocerus Urocerus 3 < .1 '• tt ' ii 1 i 5*2 a o S' a © "S H (KM FOREST PROTECTION 95 Damage to Populus spp. by Hymenoptera Tenthredinidae Janus Pteronus. Parts Suffering integer Nort Twigs, . ventralis Say ■ Leaves. Literary References For. Bui. St. Mus. Mem. No. 46 No. 8 U. S. N. Y. Damage to Alnus glutinosa by Hymenoptera Genus Species Parts Suffering Literary References Family Ex. Sta. Bui. No. 233 Cornell Tenthxedinidse Kaliosphinga... dohrnii Tischb Leaves 58 a V S(X ?>< 00 |&% to co ^ co ., | K H § h3 «6^ R O w gSS !? fa t=~. .Q 3co . PQ^CO ; ; cfc'-' i i o> C/3 pco . 3 PQ^CC [ | o I* 0) d i i o o ■aa o £cS« -* CO o> o o r^ *** r-C CN CO CCS a O (0 S £ a H 5 M 03 — co > 1) O J ^ « ^ 1 >> a § J J B >> S 3 w t- >- " 0. » O e CO ^ « 1 d .2 .2 in B !5 o tji Z H ■ga « e s 2 w c ill a 1 c. 1 W 3 COt~K_, fa CM >. _: .q ,2® ■ CM i 02 fc< CO s« . 3 K^M i 1^ i OS 1 CO I o W ~=2 • i CM i > 3 ej eg CO o o V ^ -- N c S s s 3 3 : o"2 H 8 K c e. e 8 3 to .«5Q = g-«. u g.5 ; j ■ i ca 2 "? -s O a ill 1 S* >> 8. i a :§|« s ° o toH OS FOREST PROTECTION a; ^ J£z CD go GO H O Z m °o jj « i u«g 3 « o._„ . tf> a> 2 2 E fa 8 ft ►3 "5 m . O (23 "5 CO Oi 03 & • w 300 . PQ^GO >, o rQ cL M ■ «23« 05 V-i 3«' & CO 0) Sh < o P a> fl U) i b co Q -> W •Q jg^co , , CO *» 6-; ! loo 3 *§ g S £6" ■xt- • .atP £-£- i o ' - — o 0) oS &JD < 5 CC «w a p <: a ^ M 3) c3 b 8Tg P ZHH J | S^ a ^d o a i* CO || ■si =-. a> H a s o II OOc- 8 >< >> S fa a o 2 i 100 FOREST PROTECTION Damage to Hicoria spp., by Diptera Genus Species Parts Suffering Literary References Family G'de. L'flet. No. 16 A. M. N. H. Cecidomyiidae Cecidomyia Cecidomyia Cecidomyia caryacola O. S hfjldnrha O. S tubicola 0. S Leaves Leaves Leaves 27 26 27 Damage to Quercus spp., by Diptera Cecidomyiidae Cecidomyia I Cecidomyia I Cecidomyia niveipila O. S Leaves. ■piluloz Walsh Leaves. pocidum O. S Leaves. Parts Suffering Literary References 5th Rept. G'de. L'flet. Ent. Com. No. 16 U. S. A. M. N. H. Damage to Liriodendron spp. by Diptera Genus Species Parts Suffering Literary References Family G'de. L'flet. No. 16 A. M. N. H. Cecidomyiidae Cecidomyia Cecidomyia liriodendri O. S tulipifera 0. S Leaves Leaves 25 25 Damage to Cornus florida by Diptera Genus Species Parts Suffering Literary References Family G'de. L'flet. No. 16 A. M. N. H. Cecidomyiidae Cecidomyia clavula Beuten — Twigs 29 Damage to Acer spp. by Diptera Genus Species Parts Suffering Literary References Family 5th Rept. Ent. Com. U. S. G'de. L'flet. No. 16 A. M. X. H. Mycetophilidae ocellata O. S Leaves 411 33 FOREST PROTECTION 101 § s °°^' i CJ i** os I t-- i B >< M 3 i CNCN m 1 -H J a . o . c £££ '? ■ lO >, t- J2 3c ; ^ 00 O O i 00 00 I 1 TJ( o J)H o ! b si ! ! ! ; bjO h 2 ;H i od 1 03 5 i si a g g '5 n HPC 13 £HH H J J j I .g 1 jg 1 on £ 1 .g ] ! £ CO '"?- i E ; i | '1 1 f i 1 1 ! > ! ; | 1 «' e Z B 1 1 °° l| h S3 a a 1 11 -1 o^ i -1 1 ;.;. S ^ * 1 1 B !2 '3. ^ •I g o a. < a a 102 FOREST PROTECTION a V "SCO • . .on 09 IBP X z ^J 1 DQ ■a 1 if -^ 3 ■gco . , 1 rl^ w w t>, 3oo . 1 ^ !co 1 ICN 1 d. H p* "S-l KJ 55" eo i i j="S & 10 1 1 00 1 • & o oW "J CO i i i 00 C BH H Q '2 ! CO B '. 1 CO ' w 3 » ! •3-2 ! co ■§ c II J ■ E I o III i i X 1 si '•3 "* fe 1 1 < u FOREST PROTECTION 103 Damage to Juglans spp. by Hemipt era Genus Species Parts Suffering Literary References Family Geol. Rept. for 1S99 N.J. ? Twigs 210 Damage to Hicoria spp. by Hemiptera Genus Species Parts Suffering Literary References Family Geol. Rept. for 1899 N. J. Guide Leaflet No. 16 A. M. N. H. St. Mus. Mem' No. 8 N. Y. Aphididae Phylloxera. Lecanium.. carycecaulis Fitch. Lvs. & Twigs Twigs 209 210 38 331 Damage to Alnus spp. by Hemiptera Genus Species Parts Suffering Literary References Family 5th Rept. Ent. Com. U. S. Com- stock's Manual St. Mus. Mem. No. 8 N. Y. Aphididae Pemphigus tessellatus Fitch.. _ Lvs. & Twigs »637 U61 195 'As Schizoneura tessellata. Damage to Fagus spp. by Hemiptera Genus Species Parts Suffering Literary References Family Com- stock's Manual Aphididae Schizoneura imbricator Fitch. ._ Lvs. & Twigs 161 104 FOREST PROTECTION t&i III ! : H 111 FOREST PROTECTION 105 Damage to Ulmus spp. by Hemiptera Genus Species Parts Suffering Literary References Family St. Mus. Mem. No. 8 N. Y. Aphididae Coccidae Callipterus Schizoneura Colopha Chionaspis Gossyparia ulmifolii Monell.. americana Riley. _ ulmicola Fitch americana Johns.. spuria Mod Leaves Leaves Leaves Bole & Twigs Bole & Twigs 176 177 186 207 203 Damage to Liriodendron spp. by Hemiptera Genus Species Parts Suffering Literary References Family Geol. Rept. for 1899 N. J. St. Mus. Mem. No. 8 N. Y. Coccidae Eulecanium tulipifera Cook Twigs •210 208 l As Lecanium. a 01 "°°>; 2 6 . :§8 CMOS T| i 1 I-*-* 1 1 life i ir~r- i i CO 41 3 !o5 ! i i '" !S ! ! I ! ! ! a> ^ Z ty. !eo i « CZZ, ICO 1 1 £ "a— 1 . pqi-cc 1 i i : : i i I \ 1 >3 ■:;::: , . 0) w "3 1 ' ' ' • ' 1 ' >. _• U2 an . ; ; ; ; ; ; 05 0505 1 1 1 1 : ; "Boo . cu ffl^CG I!!! ] | o *i Ok :■- < M coco i i i • 2 •c-S ir t-OJ l l l 1 ; ; bJ3 sf 3 - 55 ! ! ! ! ! I a Q £w i i i i i i i i H 2 « a < h J » » ' s s 00 05 Ph 6. i Si &•£ „! > > > > » W > Twi Twi I.im Boli Lea Lea (3 d a 05 r- h-W ■S Mill £V£ : i« | J 00 z H w °«S *s S o (3 a« • A «=?c •+-> #-< a CO o 3 UOSpH ■¥ a fa^ ^2 "3m . pq^cn c/3 OS 05 1 |P 00 « H "3s9 • pq^oo -d 9 > rl*^ CO CO ed W U t^ o *j p CO 1 In »oW PQ M! , 00 3 is 2 H « O ■« i > (1, £ CO . > o ! c -I-" 1 a , H 1 o W CO I 1 Q 1 J D f j •t 1 Z a O <5 * « « •O T3 | 'a '-8 fa s 3 ja o 0, h j FOREST PROTECTION 109 CHAPTER III: PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS. Par. 6. Protection Against Weeds. Weeds are plants, herbaceous or lignaceous in character, the pre- sence of which in the woods is financially undesirable. A. Influencing Factors. I. A plant may appear as a weed in one locality whilst it is useful in another. Kalmia, e. g., is useful on steep slopes by holding the soil; whilst it is harmful on areas in regeneration. Grasses and herbaceous weeds are valuable on forest pas- tures; they may interfere, however, with natural regeneration from seeds. II. A plant may be considered as a weed at a certain stage of certain sylvicultural operations. This is the case with black gum, witch hazel, box elder, halesia which forms a superstructure in- terfering with the regeneration of yellow poplar, chestnut, and yellow pine. On the other hand, these same species may be valuable as an un- dergrowth or as a companion growth with yel- low poplar, chestnut, pine and oak after the thicket stage. III. A plant of a usually valuable kind may be classed as a weed when it is hopelessly deformed; e. g., decrepit, hollow, burned chestnuts; fire shoots of hickory and oak. Thus the forester might distinguish between "ab- solute weeds," which are always damaging, and "relative weeds," which are damaging only under a given set of conditions. B. Most weeds injure the forest only indirectly. Direct damage is done by parasitic weeds, in rare cases. The most note-worthy cases of indirect injury are the following: I. Smilax, grapevine, blackberry interfere with the transportation of wood goods and with the ease of access to the woods. II. Sedge grass, heather, blueberry form a matting through which water or air cannot pass. 110 FOREST PROTECTION III. The mineral fertility of the soil is absorbed by the weeds (especially the fruiting weeds) competing with the trees for a food supply. IV. The weeds, notably those produced after fires, inter- fere with the natural regeneration of the best species of the forest; they prevent, through dense shade, the lignification of the valuable seed- lings during summer. Instances are: Chinqua- pin and gum in the case of yellow pine regener- ation at Biltinore; witch hazel, dogwood in yel- low poplar regeneration in Pisgah forest; black jack oak in long leaf pine forests. V. Some weeds distort and oppress the seedlings and saplings after climbing to their tops. Grape- vine on yellow poplar; Convolvulus on many tree seedlings. In tropical countries, the tree climbers (sometimes parasitic) are particularly troublesome, notably in felling trees. VI. Certain weed species (notably Ericacce) produce, through their leaf fall, an unfavorable, dusty humus. VII. Weeds harbor and hide mice and damaging insects. VIII. Dead weeds increase the danger of fires, especially in the spring. IX. The dead mould spread on the ground by many weeds prevents the germinating seed of valuable species from sending its rootlets into the mineral soil. X. Certain weeds play an important part in the path- ology of the trees, the weeds acting as hosts for the second generation of certain fungi. C. Means of Protection. I. Preventive measures. a. Maintain a complete cover overhead — a pious wish in the primeval forests. b. Underplant light demanding species with shade bearers at a time at which the leaf canopy overhead, through friction of crown against crown, be- comes excessively open — another pious wish under the present con- ditions confronting American silvi- culture. c. Work towards immediate reforestation after making a clean sweep of the old crop. FOREST PROTECTION 111 d. Insist on thorough protection against ground fires which, above all, foster the growth of weeds and are in- jurious to the nobility amongst the forest species. Kalmia, chinquapin, alder, soft maple, gum, halesia ob- tain the upper hand in the forest through fires. On fertile soil the growth of annual and biennial weeds after fires is especially luxuriant. In the Adirondacks, the reforestation of fire-swept tracts is handicapped by the excessive growth of forest e. Admit for pasture cattle, hogs, sheep and goats, thus checking at the same time the danger from fires. II. Restrictive Measures. a. Cut (with a mowing scythe) herbaceous weeds before the seed ripens. b. In forest plantations, cultivate the rows of plants, or raise farm crops to- gether with seedlings. B \ Plow abandoned fields thorouglhy before reforestation. ft , d. Crush blackberry briars; decapitate ferns; iVj skin thorns; deaden gum, dogwood, maple, beech; remove the bark for 2 ft. above the stump on cotton- woods to prevent the growth of root suckers. e. Cover the stumps of undesirable hard- woods with dirt or brush; poison the stumps; peel the stumps down into the roots; set fire to brush heaps massed upon such stumps in cop- pice woods. Weed Species. I. Andromeda, huckleberry, etc., are expelled by the continued use of a briar scythe, preferably in early August. Valuable seedlings are planted on reversed sods when placed in thickets formed by the above species. 112 FOREST PROTECTION II. Kalmia and Rhododendron may be checked by burn- ing. They sprout luxuriantly after such burn- ing. They do not catch up, however, with the more rapid development of the seedlings planted at the same time. In other cases, it is better to allow ivy and laurel to grow unharmed. The stems when over 4" in diameter can be dead- ened readily. III. Chinquapin may be deadened with crushing tongs in spring. IV. Dogwood may be deadened. Dogwood sprouts grow vigorously from the stumps; hence it will not suffice to cut the dogwood with an axe. V. Large trees of black gum are skinned or deadened. It is impossible to get rid of small shoots. VI. Hazel, Vaccinium and Azalea on mountain pastures can be checked by the use of a colter, by re- peated mowings or, possibly, by pasturing goats. VII. Blackberry is expelled by crushing its shoots or by skinning them between two pieces of timber. VIII. Ferns should be decapitated in early spring. IX. Climbers {Clematis, Vitis, Ampclopsis and others) are checked by cutting close to the ground. FOREST PROTECTION 113 Par. 7. Protection Against Fungi. The diseases of our American trees caused by fungi have been studied by Dr. Hermann von Schrenk, of the Shaw School of Botany. Still, it must be admitted that our knowledge of the diseases of trees induced by cryp- togamic parasites is deficient or inadequate. In the forest, obviously, the present conditions confronting forestry do not allow of "tree doctoring." Nurseries and young plantations in which fungi may cause enormous dam- age are practically absent from our forests. Fungi di r ectly causin g__the death of tree s, of^ aver 12 inches d.b.h., are practically unknown. Saplings and poles killed by fungi die from below, whilst those killed by insects die from above. A. Effect of Fungus Infection. Observations in the United States are at hand only with re- ference to fungi of a technically damaging character. Such fungi may cause: — I. Disintegration of lignin, leaving the shining white fibres of cellulose untouched. II. Disintegration of cellulose leaving a brittle brown mass resembling charcoal. III. Disintegration of entire cell walls, leaving a hole or holes. IV. Liquification of the rosin incrustating the heart- wood, in which case the rosin exudes at branch holes where it solidifies by oxidation, forming knots, galls or streaks of rosin. B. Parts of Tree Infected; and Methods of Infection. Fungi may attack the heartwood, or the sapwood, or both heartwood and sapwood. Heartwood fungi (which never kill a tree directly) enter through insect mines; through axe scars; through branch stubs having heartwood, or through tops broken off by snow, by sleet, by failing neighbors or by storm. For the latter reason, diseased timber prevails fre- quently along wind swept ridges and shores. Sapwood fungi may use the same channels of access, or may enter the wood through lightning streaks and through fire clefts. Sapwood resists the attack of fungi much beuer than heartwood ag Ignfl a ff f ^ ft trp f ^ vp _g- The sapwood is the life* zone of the tree in which it defends itself readily, by thick- ening its cell walls or by cell wall incrustations, or by form- ing cork against the spread of hyphse. In dead trees, on the other hand, sapwood decomposes much more readily than heartwood owing to the absence of 114 FOREST PROTECTION incrustating substances and owing to the presence of more moisture, more starch and more albumen. The insects co-operate with the fungi to an unknown ex- tent. Corky bark being fungus-proof, many spores enter the galleries of boring insects either carried by the wind or car- ried in the "fur" of borers and enemies of borers. It might be stated that the insects distribute spores in the same man- ner in which the birds or the rodents distribute seeds. A par- ticularly interesting case is that of "Ambrosia," a fungus supposed to be raised by the Ambrosia beetles. Cyllene ro- binise makes possible the inroads of Polyporus rimosus. Dis- coloration of the sapwood coincides with the attacks of Den- droctonus frontalis and follows the "steamships" in oak lum- ber. A fungus-lawn is found in the mines of Lymexylon. Infection is performed (a) most frequently by spores, 1. in dew or rain (notably— the lower fungi); 2. by wind (notably — the higher fungi); 3. by insects (rarely, after Tubeuf); 4. by forcible ejection of spores from sporocarps, asci and sporangia. (b) more rarely by mycelium, 1. notably when the mycelium lives in the earth, or rather in the roots (Trametes radiciperda, Agaricus melleus " (Rhizo- morphs)"; 2. also above ground, the mycelium spreading from plant to plant {Trichosphceria, Herpotrichia). Many fungi appear immediately after the affection of the tree by other detrimental influences (e. g. after insects, fire, storm, drought), so that it is possible to decide upon the immediate cause of damage inflicted only by the test of arti- ficial infection. The fungi found present upon a dead tree can never be considered, eo ipso, as tree killers. In many cases the mycelium of the tree killer has dis- appeared when the tree is dead; and only sporocarps may be still present. Many parasites on the other hand develop sporocarps only saprophytically on a dead substratum. Certain timber fungi stop work at once when the tree is cut, e. g., the yellow rot fungus of black locust and the peck- iness fungus of bald cypress. The progress of decay, in such cases, ends with the death of the tree. The speed at which a fungus disease spreads from a given point of attack is entirely unknown. This speed is very fast in the case of saprophytes working in dead sapwood; it is prob- ably very slow in the case of parasitic fungi attacking the heartwood of grown trees. FOREST PROTECTION 115 The tales of cruisers to the effect that a tract will "be- come punky in ten to fifteen years" do not seem to deserve any credit. An old tree is, ceteris paribus, more readily affected, and more apt to be found affected by disease, than a young one. C. Beneficial Fungi. The symbiosis of certain fungi with certain trees (dis- covered by Frank) seems to be beneficial to both; possibly essential to both. Many of our trees and shrubs are dependent upon cer- tain fungi, at least for such foods as are derived from humus. These fungi consist of delicate, cobwebby threads such as are seen on mouldy bread. These threads spread through the soil and either enter the outer cells of the root or simply form a mantle (Mycorrhiza) about the root. The fungi live upon decaying animal and plant matter, and transfer a por- tion of this food to the root and doubtless secure in return certain benefits from the root. This mutual helpful relation- ship of two plants is termed connnensalism. The majority of our heaths, evergreens, poplars, willows, beeches and oaks have become dependent upon these fungi and do not thrive in soils where the fungi are not found. Some herbaceous plants, like the Indian-pipe, have be- come entirely dependent upon these fungi for food and have, as a consequence, lost all their chlorophyll. This field of forest ecological study is practically un- touched, though it will form the basis of future silviculture. Certain fungi might be used, technologically, for the prepar- ation of pure cellulose. D. Signs of disease. The signs of disease are visible only on a tree, usually, when it is too late to save the patient. These signs are: — A. Hypertrophical swellings, f.i., knots on Spanish oak and tumors on yellow pine at Biltmore. B. Exudations of rosin in galls or in seams. C. Appearance of sporophores. which are rare in some species, but are frequently seen on diseased red oak, locust, and ash. When decaying holes ap- pear on a tree, the forester is apt to find the whole tree diseased. Yellow poplar trees are sound within one foot, and white oak logs are sound within two feet from the actual end of a cavity. 116 FOREST PROTECTION The tree weeds, e. g., Halesia (Mohrodendron), gum and calmia, might be exterminated in days to come with the help of their fungus enemies. E. Synopsis of the orders of damaging fungi. I. Order Phycomycetcs. Family Peronosporece. The mycelium is unicellular. The propa- gation is effected by numerous branching hyphse forming at their tips little sacs or sporangia in clusters or chains (conidia). These are carried by wind to other plants where they germinate at once, forming a tube that penetrates the leaf. If the leaf is wet, the contents of the sporangia break up into a number of zoospores which de- velop the characteristic hyphae of the fungi. Sexual reproduction occurs in most species and consists of a gametangia cut off from the ends of the hyphae and fertilized by male gametes developed on branches (antheridia) of the game- tangia bearing hyphse. The resulting thick walled gametospore tides the fungus over winter. American representatives are not fully known. Some bad nursery fungi belong to this family (notably Phytophlora omnivora). II. Order Ascomycetes. 1st. Family — Pyrenomycetes. Flask-shaped frutifications (peri- thecia) are characteristic of this fam- ily. Within the perithecia, which are open at the top (angiocarpous), occur numerous asci, each containing eight spores. Preceeding the formation of perithecia, conidiospores are usually formed which are especially efficaci- ous in disseminating the fungi. Ex- amples: Nectria on maple and beech. 2nd. Family — Discomycetes. Distinguished by open gymnocar- pous apothecia (cup-shaped recepta- cles, bearing freely exposed asci). The Discomycetes are unimportant for the American forester, none being observed as damaging our trees. Rhy- tisma acerintun frequently forms large black incrustations of pseudo-paren- chyma on the leaves of maple, conidia developing in the summer and mature FOREST PROTECTION 117 apothecia in the succeeding spring. The most important representative of this family in Europe is Peziza. III. Order Basidiomycetes. Spores carried on basidia of definite shape and size, and bearing a fixed number of spores. 1st. Family— Uredineoe. All are injurious parasites, the mycelium being in the intercellular spaces of the tissues (particularly in the leaves) of higher plants. These fungi change their hostplants, showing a double generation, and develop sev- eral kinds of asexual spores, according to the season and to the host; aecidio- spores and pycnoconidia in spring; uredospores in summer; teleutospores in autumn, which in the following spring develop basidiospores. The my- celium from the basidiospores enters the first host and develops the seci- dium stage (formerly the genus Ae- cidium) with aecidia and pycnidia. The next stage on a different host develops the uredospores (formerly genus Ure- do), and in autumn the thick walled teleutospores. 2nd. Family — Hymenomycetes. Basidia imbedded in a common hymenium which clothes, in Agari- caceos, a series of radial lamellae on the under side of the pileus, and in Poly- poracece and Boletacece, the inner sur- face of pores. In a few genera no distinctive fructifications are formed (Exobasi- dium vaccinii, parasitic and causing hypertrophy on Ericaceae). Another arrangement of the orders and families of fungi might be made with reference to pathogeny: a. The groups 6 J Uredine& Ustilaginece contain parasites only, (so-called "Smuts") so that no proof of Peronosporece [parasitism is required. Exoascew (witch broom) J 118 FOREST PROTECTION b. The groups Pyrenomycetes Ducomycetes I contain parasites as Hymenomycetes V well as saprophytes so Myxomycetes / that proof of parasi- And several groupsV tism is required. of lower fungi and] bacteria. This proof is obtained by artificial infection only. Infection reveals, — (1) parasitic nature of a fungus, (2) exact species of fungus, (3) relationship of hetercecious Uredinece and their host plants (uredinal, telial and acidial stages), (4) various forms of reproductive organs, (5) conditions favorable to attacks. The fungi might be further divided into two large groups, namely: (a) Physiologically obnoxious species (tree killers and tree deformers) belonging to the orders Phycomycetes and Ascomycetes and to the family Uredinece of the order Basidiomycetes. (b) Technically obnoxious species (wood disin- tegrators) belonging notably to the fam- ily Hymenomycetes; this group may be sub-divided into fungi living on dead trees (Saprophytes) and fungi living on live trees (Parasites). Group (a) is of greatest importance in Germany and France; whilst group (b) is of greatest importance in tha United States. F. According to parts attacked, the forest fungi might be subdivided as follows: I. Nursery fungi and plantation fungi. II. Root fungi in saplings and poles. III. Leaf and twig fungi. (Bulletin Bureau of Plant In- dustry No. 149, page 18). IV. Fungi causing hypertrophical formations (witch brooms). . V. Fungi discoloring lumber or timber. K-\f VI. Fungi destroying the cambium and the sapwood of standing trees or poles. FOREST PROTECTION 119 VII. Fungi destroying the sapwood of dead trees and of logs. VIII. Fungi destroying the heartwood in living trees. S. IX. Fungi destroying timber, ties, poles and posts after manufacture and whilst in use. Fungus species worthy of note which are physiologically obnoxious. I- Agaricus jmell eus (honey fungus) is a champignon attacking and killing conifers four to fifteen years old. White pine suffers very badly. The disease spreads underground through the so- called rhizomorpha (strong threads of mycel- ium). The soil at the basis of affected plants is charged with exuded rosin. Comp. Bull. Plant Industry, No. 149, page 23. II. Aecid v um pint , attacks the needles and the young bark of pine saplings. The spores enter by a wound and the spread of the mycelium in the v-w*"*" cambium causes hypertrophical formations, es- pecially on the main stem. The teleutosporous generation has a Senecio species for its host (Coleosporium senecionis). III. Peridermium cerebrum (family Uredinece) kills two year old lodgepole pines as well as other pines. (Agric. Year Book 1900, p. 200). IV. Peridermium strobi, known as the blister of the white pine, has Purus ccmbra for its original host.\ Whilst it does not injure this species seriously, its attacks are deadly to our white pine during - its juvenile stage. In old trees well protected by heavy bark, the tops and branches alone are ,-p affected. The disease is frequent abroad; and ', stringent measures should prevent it from en- tering into the United States. The uredal form of the fungus (Cronartium ribicolum) forms blotches on the leaves of the currant (Ribes). Compare Quarterly Journal of Forestry, July, 1909, p. 232. V. A Gymnosporangium causes the "Cedar apples" of ; ' red cedar; see Bull. 21, Div. of Pathology, p. 8. For. Bull. 31 (Red Cedar) p. 25. VI. Hysterium pinastri causes the shedding disease dreaded in nurseries. Pine seedlings up to four years , >^l./( old drop the needles of a sudden in spring. White pine is little affected; strong seedlings are im- mune. The disease spreads through old needles on which the fungus lives saprophytically. Not observed in America so far. V uMM* (&L(^ 120 FOREST PROTECTION Diap orthe -p arasitica (discovered by Dr. Murrill) is the worst treekilling disease yet described in the United States. It tends to exterminate the ' chestnut trees from New York to Virginia, and is spreading southward. Entering the cambial layers of the tree and notably those of its branches without the requirement of preceding wounds, the mycelium actually "girdles" the living trees (W. A. Murrill, in Jour. N. Y. Bot. Garden 7: 143-153; Bull. No 149, Bureau of Plant Indus- try, p. 22). VIII. Hypodcrma strobicola is the "needle blight" of the white pine and appears to be a dangerous para- site on Pinus Strobus. Compare Tubeuf's "Dis- eases of Plants," english edition by W. G. Smith, p. 233. Tubeuf claims that the disease may devastate whole tracts of forests. A disease of the white pine similar to that described by Tubeuf has been reported from Massachusetts (various articles in Woodland and Roadside), from Wes- tern North Carolina and from eastern Tennessee, and is being studied by the pathological divis- ions of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Compare Circular No. 35, Bureau of Plant Industry. IX. " Damping-off " is a disease of seedlings soon after germination dreaded by all nurserymen, and decimating many natural regenerations (birch!). The fungi causing the disease are undescribed. H. Fungus species worthy of note which are technically obnoxious. The genus Polyporus (including Trametes, Fomes, Boletus, Polystictus, and Dcedalea) is responsible for the decomposi- tion of heartwood in living trees frequently brought about by the help of an enzym. Overaged timber is almost invariably attacked by Poly- porus. The sporophores may appear in branch holes or scars, and are, although the disease might be common, rare in many species. Most noteworthy are the following Polvpor i : — I. Polyporus annosus (or Trametes radiciperda) , a root fungus of conifers, attacks pole woods. Sporo- phores under ground in roots. Wood turns brown to begin with and is finally hollowed out. (Agric. Year Book 1900, p. 207). II. Trametes pint causes the heartwood rot (known as "red heart") of pine; the punkiness and per- haps the ring cracks of fir, long leaf, short leaf, ■ FOREST PROTECTION 121 and sugar pines; the speckled rot or red heart of Douglas fir; the cork of western hemlock. A^^\. ^ is found only in trfifts nvej fnrty ypars nlrl usually more in the top of the tree, — but in Pinus monticola close to the gound. The_woQcL never rots out entirely and the absence of cavi- Reference Bull. For. 33. p. 15; F. & I. 1902, p. 62; Agric. Year Book 1900, plate XXII. and XXIV. and page 206. III. Polyporus juniperinus creates long holes coated white in the heartwood of red cedar. (For. Bull. 31, p. 25; Agric. Year Book 1900, p. 20S; Bull. 21 of Div. of Vegetable Pathology). IV. Polyporus carneus causes the red rot of red cedar and of arbor vitae. The wood splits into small cubes, charcoal like. (Bull. 21 of Div. of Vege- table Physiology and Pathology; For. Bull. 21, p. 26). . V. Polyporus versicolor causes the soft rot of live catalpa, Polyporus catalpce the brown rot of the species; Bull. Bureau Plant Industry, No. 149, page 47 and pp. 53 to 56; Bull. 37 of Bureau of Forestry, pp. 51-58; also in oak and hemlock and beech -f * (For. Bull. 51, p. 31) as a saprophyte on ties. - VI. Polyporus rimosus causes the yellow rot of black locust, in its heartwood. Holes made by locust '' borers (Cyllene robinice) serve as entrances. (Agric. Year Book 1900, p. 207); Contr. Shaw J] L Jh School of Botany, No. 17; Bureau Plant Indus- J try Bull. No. 149, p. 45. 4f ■■>■ ■ VII. Polyporus schweinitzii causes the "butt rot," "ground rot" or "root rot" of all conifers, notably of Douglas fir and hemlock. Fungus enters at the base of the tree through insect mines. Trees die in patches; sporophores are short-lived. (Bull. For. 33, p. 15; F. & I. 1902, p. 61; Agric. Year Book 1900, p.p 203 and 206, and plate XXIV). VIII. Polyporus fraxinophilus occurs in white ash having over seven inches d.b.h. The hypha; seem to enter by the water niches left by broken branches. Wood becomes straw colored. Very frequent. Reference Bull. 32 and Bull. 149, page 46, of Bureau of Plant Industry. 122 X. XI. XII. XVII. XVIII. p /IX . FOREST PROTECTION Polyporus nigricans attacks beech, birch and poplar in the New England States causing standing timber to rot. (Agric. Year Book 1900, p. 207; Bulletin Bureau Plant Industry No. 149, p. 42). Polyporus sulfureus causes the brown rot of many conifers, also of oak, walnut and cherry. (Bull. Bureau Plant Industry No. 149, page 37; Agric. Year Book 1900, p. 207). Polyporus igniarius occurs everywhere on beech and oak. (Agric. Year Book 1900, p. 207; Bulletin Bureau Plant Industry, No. 149, pp. 25 to 37). Polyporus libocedris causes the peckiness of bald cypress and the pin rot of incense cedar. The pecks consist of disconnected holes (or pockets) about 4" long ending abruptly and partially filled with brown powder. Found in trees over 100 years old. Reference: Contr. Shaw School of Botany, No. 14. Polyporus pinicola. Western conifers, four years after death, are found entirely destroyed by Poly- porus pinicola. Reference: F. & I., 1902, p. 60; Agric. Year Book 1900, pp. 202 and 209 and plate XXV. Polyporus obtusus is a common cause of the sap rot in dead oak trees (Bull. Bureau of Plant In- dustry, p. 41). Polyporus fulvus causes the so-called "red heart" of the birch (Bull. Bureau of Plant Industry, p. 47). Polyporus squamosus causes "white rot" in various hardwood trees, e. g. maple, oak, beech, birch and ash. (Bull. Bureau of Plant Industry, p. 48). Polyporus pergamenus causes the "sap rot" of trees and logs — often after fires — in many hardwoods (notably oak); its work is particularly quick, and so is the rapidity of its fruiting (Bull. Bureau of Plant Industry, No. 149, p. 56). Polyporus betulinus and fomentarius may parasiti- cally weaken living birches and beeches (Mayr), or may be satisfied to cause the decomposition of weakened and of dead wood (Von Schrenk). (Bull. Bureau of Plant Industry, No. 149, p. 49). Polyporus applanatus is reported as the killer (?) of cottonwoods (Bull. Bureau of Plant Industry, No. 149, p. 58). FOREST PROTECTION 123 XX. Polyporus ponderosus n. sp., described in detail by H. von Schrenk in Bull. 36 of Bureau of Plant Industry, p. 37 f.f.g., causes the red rot of Pinus ponderosa killed by insect pests at the lapse of two years. The fungus is a saprophyte closely resembling Polyporus pinicola. I. Aside of the Polypori, the following technically obnoxious fungi deserve attention. I. Lenzites sepiaria is a saprophyt preying on hemlock, long leaf and short leaf pine — notably on rail- road ties. (Reference For. Bull. 51). II. Schizophyllum commune attacks railroad ties of short leaf pine, hemlock, etc. saprophytically. (Ref. For. Bull. 51). III. Unnamed fungus, the sporophores of which are un- known, attacks Sequoia sempervirens and causes "brown rot" (or "butt rot" or "pin rot"), the decay beginning in the inner rings of heartwood near the ground. The fibre is converted into pockets, usually twice as broad as long, filled with dark brown matter. (Reference: For. Bull. 38, pp. 29-31, and plates X. and XI). IV. Ceratostomella (Sphceria) pilifera, a saprophyt of the /V*^ y^Av. v I family Discomycetes, causes the bluing of sap- wood in the lumber and in the dead boles (killed lt*6*~ by Dendrodonus) of Pinus ponderosa. This fungus does not interfere with the strength of the tim- ber; it decreases its fissibility — a disadvantage in cutting of railroad ties. The spores seem to enter through the ladder mines made by the Ambrosia beetles— but do not seem to develop into Ambrosia. Reference: Bull. 36, Bureau of ^M Plant Industry entire. "The bluing" of the sap wood in logs and v * »~ '/ ' lumber is disastrous notably to the value of / poplar logs driven or rafted to destination dur- ing spring and summer, of poplar sap lumber, pine saps, sap gum and the like, sawed and slowly air dried during spring and summer. These in- juries are due to undescribed fungi. V. Echinodontium tinctorium attacks western hemlock causing "cork," — like Trametes pint; also in spruce and red fir. (Reference: For. Bull. 33, p. 15). 124 FOREST PROTECTION J. General remedies against fungi on live trees. I. Extermination or removal of the fungus itself; (1) in case of seeds, by sterilization with hot water, or copper "steep-mixtures." (2) in case of leaf-fungi, by dusting or spray- ing with mixtures containing copper or sulphur. (3) in case of Agaricacece and Polyporaceae, by removal of sporophores, by excision; (4) in case of dead parts of plants carrying sporocarps, or other reproductive stages of fungi, by dead-pruning, or removal of dead litter on ground. II. Extermination of living host or of affected parts of A (1) Removal of living host. (2) Removal of complimentary (heteroecious) host. III. Avoidance of conditions favoring infect ; on. (1) no wounds, or antiseptic treatment of same; (2) avoidance of localities favorable to disease; (3) no large, even aged, pure forests; (4) no selection systems, no summer cutting; (5) rotation of crops; (6) no planting of heteroecious hosts together; (7) mixed forests; short rotation; suppression of boring insects; no artificial pruning of living branches; (8) raising strong trees of individual power of resistence and independent for help from c . neighbors; p* (9) improvement cuttings and thinnings, K. General remedies against fungi in nurseries. (1) ^Change of species, notably in nursery beds (2) Sterilized soil in nursery beds. (3) Deep trenches between nursery beds. (4) Drenching the beds with a weak solution of sulphuric acid (one ounce of acid to one gallon of water) prior to seed planting and after the sprouting of the seedlings. Compare Circular No. 4, Bu- reau of Plant Industry. (5) Production of fungus proof varieties. (6) Spraying of affected leaves or shoots, or beds with Bordeaux mixture, consisting of a 3% solution of copper sulphate and lime (Recipe, Tubeuf & Smith, page 69). FOREST PROTECTION 125 L. General remedies against fungi in young regenerations. (1) Use very strong plants. Av-tc-vu^ dU\. (2) Do not buy plants Tronf nurseries known to be infested. (3) Toungya. (4) Avoid foreigners. (5) Plant only kinds known to suit the locality. (6) No regeneration from mother trees in pine {Hyster- iuml) in beech (Phytophtoral) etc. (7) No seedlings of conifers near stumps of hardwoods. M. General remedies against fungi in lumber, ties and poles. (1) Wet storage; preservation in ponds (mill), saltwater (tamarack), running water (Caesar's Rhine bridge), swamps (Ky. walnut). ^mS (2) Dry storage (like furniture) under shelter; dry kilnH J ^V- < (3) "Antistain," or "painting," or exposure to sun and ^& U wind; or else interruption of logging and mill- ^^^. ing from April to September. (4) Impregnation either of the wood, or of the medium in which the wood is kept. (Compare H. von Schrenk, in Bull. 14, Bureau of Plant Industry; further Lectures on "Utilization" by C. A. Schenck, paragraph XLIV). 126 FOREST PROTECTION Par. 8. Protection Against Parasites ©ther Than Fungi. A. A number of phanerogams live parasitically upon various trees, notably in the tropics. In the United States, the common mistletoe (Phwaden- dron flavescens) and the dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium cryp- topoda and pusillum) are worthy of note. (Bull. Bureau of Plant Industry No. 149, pp. 14 to 17). Arceuthobium occi- dcntale deforms the bole and the branches of western hem- lock, causing cancerous tumors (Plate VI, Forestry Bulletin No. 33, p. 16). The damage done by these parasites is so insignificant that remedies are nowhere indicated. B. Tree mosses, tree algae and tree lichens are variously reported as malefactors when occurring in such quantities that young leaves and fresh shoots are smothered by them. It is possible also that they interfere with the function of the "lenticels." Tillandsia usneoides and Usnea barbata may be mentioned as representatives of this group. The former called "Spanish moss" is a flowering plant, common on trees in the Southern States; the latter, a lichen, is abundant in northern swamps and woods. Compare Bulletin No. 149, Bureau of Plant In- dustry, page 17. Part B : Protection Against Inorganic Nature. CHAPTER I: PROTECTION AGAINST ADVERSE CLIMATIC INFLUENCES. Par. 9. Protection Against Frost. Frost May be Beneficial By checking insect plagues (late frost), also mice and other rodents, decimating them in cold and protracted winters; By clipping back inferior species competing with aristocrats (beech vs. oak at Viernheim); undesirable coppice sprouts, cut in Aug- ust, are apt to die; By furnishing ice on lakes and on iced roads, creating conditions favor- able to transportation by sleds, and steady weather for logging, skidding, etc.; By increasing the value of firewood, and oftentimes by forcing men to take employment in the woods when other occupations are barred by frost. A. Frost is Injurious to Utilization By Interfering 1. in the south with the logging operations, — owing to the unreliability of the occurrence of frost; the necessity of shoeing cattle; the formation of jams in flumes; the interference by late frost with tan bark peeling, etc.; also by bursting trees, when felled in frozen con- dition; by toughness of fibre so as to retard the feed of the saw-carriage; by danger to water pipes, con- nected with engines, boilers, locomotives, donkey engines, etc.; by necessity of changing the setting of the teeth, and the temper and the speed of the saw. 2. in the north with water transportation on the lakes (no- tably Great Lakes) and rivers (notably St. Lawrence). B. Frost is Injurious Physiologically (Sylviculturally) By killing leaves, buds, shoots, branches (notably sappy shoots), flowers and fruits, seedlings and (rarely) saplings. There is no proof at hand of poles or trees of native species being killed by frost. Foreigners (e. g., palms, eucalypts and many species tried in nor- thern prairies) are subject to frost. 127 128 FOREST PROTECTION Absolute cold is not injurious, eo ipso, to native species, which know how to protect themselves by leaves dropped by non-freezing cell contents by lignification by cork layers, bud scales, hairs by color by position (rolled up rhododendron leaves) by beginning growth late and by finishing it early. The death of a specimen, or of parts of it, is brought about, in all probability, by a rapid transition from cold to warm (cite various theories, and experiments made to support them). Hence it is that the severe frost of winter, or frost occurring at a time at which plants are protected, is less injurious than a light early frost in fall or a light late frost in spring. Frost occurring unexpectedly is most injurious, — and particularly eo to the young parts of an old plant or to a plant, all parts of which are young and tender (e. g., germinating seedlings). (a) Influencing factors are: Locality (frost holes), latitude, altitude, exposures (eastern) ; Atmospheric conditions preceding and following a cold spell; Snow cover; Condition of plant (germs sprouting; buds open- ing; shoots lengthening; lignification unfin- ished) ; Size (age) of plants; Presence or absence of wind. (b) Consequences of frost are: Failures of nursery beds; Failure of natural seed regenerations; Failure of seed years; Failure of seedlings to compete with weeds (e. g., sedgegrass and walnut at Biltmore), and with rabbits (e. g., maple and chestnutoak at Biltmore); Saplings and seedlings growing bushy or forking (cherry, loosing tips of shoots incessantly; larch, at Biltmore, on Bradley Plantation, due to September frost, 1906; echinata at Biltmore, everywhere, due to September frost, 1906); Aristocrats smothered by mob (walnut at Bilt- more overtopped by hard maple, owing to frost); FOREST PROTECTION 129 Shortened growing season; Restricted number of species locally producible; Double rings of wood, and possibly windshakes in wood; Weakened condition of a tree, subjecting it to ir.sects and fungi, and also to breakage by storm, snow and sleet, owing to the reduced elasticity of the fibre, (c) Sr-EOES afflicted: The species known to suffer, in one way or an- other, from frost are called "sensitive;" the others are known as "hardy" species. HARDY SENSITIVE AT BlLTMORE Chestnut Beech Maples Oaks Black Gum Catalpa Scotch Pine Oregon Ash White Pine Oregon Maple Rigid Tine Box Elder Halesia Pinus ponderosa Cottonwood Pinus lambertiana Hickories Pinus echinata Spruces Edgeworthia Douglasia Walnut Yellow Poplar Buckeye (d) The remedies against frost are almost entirely FREVENTIVE I (Restrictive measures are possible only in nur- series, and consist in watering the beds after very cold nights). 1. In nurseries: Late planting of seeds in spring, where late frcst is dreaded; or else early planting where early frost is feared in fall; Lath screens, or nursery under cover (unless lignificat ion is handicapped) ; Clouds of smoke on frosty mornings; Avoidance of east aspects; Heeling-out transplants, so as to retard sprout- ing in spring; 130 FOREST PROTECTION Avoidance of dense stands in seed beds (ash seed- lings at Biltmore failed to lignify in 1905, excepting those at outer edge). In plantations: Remark: A seedling once crippled by frost is apt to be crippled again, and again, and again, owing to the fact, that the replace- ment of organs once lost takes time; so that the growing season is shortened. The wal- nuts and buckeyes at Biltmore, once clipped back by frost have been clipped back an- nually. Early planting in spring to avoid early frost; Late planting in spring to avoid late frost; No experimenting with the introduction of new species; Natural regeneration of Pinus echinata (also White Pine in Adirondacks) to avoid for- mation of double whirls; Planting sensitive species beneath a light cover overhead, so as to prevent excessive height growth, or premature formation of spring shoots. Use of strong stocky seedlings, since minute plants are prevented from lignification by shading weeds. Selecting species suiting the soil (walnut on best soil, where it will lignify; echinata on poor soil, where it will form one shoot only), the exposure, and the climate (prairie plant- ing); Cultivation, so as to stimulate insolation and lignification; possibly pruning to same end; or else to give the lead to one side shoot amongst several when the leader is frost- killed. In natural seed regeneration: Progress of the axe in shelterwood-types accord- ing to the requirements of the seedlings, viz., slow, where late frost is feared, so as to retard the act of sprouting in spring; or else rapid, where early frost is feared, so as to allow of lignification; Untimely and sudden removal of mother trees may shock tender plants (even spruce 5' high), on the other hand. FOREST PROTECTION 131 D. Frost may be invited on purpose to check a less desirable species in mixture with a hardier and more desirable species. Frost is Injurious by lifting (uprooting) seedlings ln nurseries and plantations. Subject to damage are: Flat rooted species growing slowly in early youth, notably conifers (yellow pine yearlings, white pine yearlings, spruce, hemlock); Moist localities and loose soil; East exposures, and notably steep east aspects. (a) Remedial measures are: Pressing seedlings back, soon after accident. (b) Restrictive measures are : 1. In nurseries: Drainage by deep paths (middlings) between the beds ; Proper deration of soil; Seedbeds planted broadcast; Strong seedlings, and long roots; Shading beds, and covering space between the rows of plants; No weedin g in early fall. 2. In plantations: Planting on reversed sods; Mound planting: Planting three year-olds (two year old trans- plants in case of yellow pine); Planting ball plants; Planting under shelter overhead. Frost is Injurious by causing frost cracks in hardwoods only , notably in case of injured trees and of species having strong medullary rays. Insect disease and fungus disease follow in the cracks. Remedy: Timely thinning or improvement cutting. Cracks occur, notably, along lower part of bole; on standards over coppice; on south side of trees; on medium sized trees (1^2 '-3'). in moist localities. 132 F0REST PROTECTION Par. 10. Pr«tectien Against Heat. A. Heat Causes Harm ®nly : When it invites forest fires; When it fails to be balanced by the moisture in the air or soil (wood lots in the prairies; old park trees); When it occurs suddenly, striking the trees in a state of non-pro- tection (e. g., new plantations and trees isolated of a sudden). B. The Plants Protect Themselves Ordinarily Against Heat: By dropping leaves; By resinous cell contents; By closed stomata; By color and position of leaves; By coverings of cork, hair and that like. C. Remedies: 1. In infant forests: (a) in nurseries: Secure irrigation} Provide lath screens or cloth screens; Maintain a cover of mould on the soil; Cultivate so as to increase the porosity of soil; Plant the seeds early in spring before the winter moisture has vanished; Transplant early and transplant deeply. ^-^. - , (b) in plantations: Use strong transplants; Adopt mound planting; J. . . • Plant under cover; Adopt ball planting; Avoid loss of root fibres during act of out-planting; Cultivate. (c) in natural seed regenerations: Remove mother trees slowly; Remove trees reflecting heat unto young growth. (d) Generally : Maintain a dense cover overhead, and a good layer of humus underneath. 2. In pole forests and tree forests: Characteristic for damage (so-called sunscald) is: Bark scaling off; Sap wood turning brown; Discoloration and decay within a distinct sector of bole, (a) Prevent sunscald by avoiding sudden changes of the influx of light; FOREST PROTECTION 133 Notably so in the case of dense stands of beech, spruce, white pine, ash; Notably on the West-South-West edge of a wood lot. At Biltmore, Oak saplings along the macada- mized roads; chestnuts on the arboretum road; and hickories of small diameter have been visited by the disease. (b) Do not remove the trees affected by sunscald; their removal will merely expose the trees in the rear, and the damage will continue. (c) Do not remove, from endangered trees, by pruning, any living branches. (d) Time the progress of the axe properly in thinnings, preparatory cuttings, seed cuttings and removal cuttings. 134 FOREST PROTECTION Par. 11. Protection Against Snow and Sleet. Snow is Beneficial: By preventing fires; By storing water and by preserving soil moisture; By facilitating the logging operations; By covering sensitive plants; By removing dead side branches; By preventing frost from entering deeply into soil; By reducing the felling damages. A. Snow is Technically Obnoxious: By preventing the use of wagons or railroads; By endangering skidding on steep slopes; By increasing sledding expenses (when snow is too deep); By causing extra outlay in cutting stumps low to the ground; By reducing the accessibility of the woods. Remark: Winters of excessive snow are known as winters of re- stricted output of lumber. B. Snow is Physiologically Obnoxious: By bending down saplings and poles with or without their roots; By breaking off branches and crowns or by breaking down poles and trees with the roots; By causing rodents and game to attack trees and saplings for food; By exposing trees after breakage to the attacks of insects and fungi; By increasing storm damage at a time when the trees are loaded with snow or sleet. C. Factors of Damage. Species and mixture of species; Age and size of trees; Method of regeneration and notably the density thereof; Climatic constellations (e. g., coincidence of storm; succession of thaws and snows; occurrences of snow in Octover, before the fall of the leaves); Preceding treatment by thinning; by removal cuttings; by leaving standards after coppiceing; by road making. Locality, elevation and aspect: Steepness of slope; Depth of soil (Coxehill); Rate of growth (fast grown yellow pine and top whirls of fast grown white pine at Biltmore;) Prior injuries by fire, by boxing, by insects and fungi (black locusts). Remark: Remember the following illustrations: White cedar in swamps of South Carolina; Cuban pine in Alabama; FOREST PROTECTION 135 Poplar tops in Pisgah Forest; Topped white pines in the Pink Beds; Black locusts and hickory on mountain tops; Plantations of rigid pine in Black Forest; Spruce saplings in the Balsams, in the early spring of 1908. Remedies : Selecting the proper species for planting or for natural seed re- generations, in keeping with the requirements of the locality and of the climate; Group system of natural seed regeneration; Planting in rows instead of planting in triangles (Hess); Thinnings properly made beginning early in very dense regenerations; Pollarding; Readiness of permanent means of transportation so as to make possible the salvage of broken timber. CHAPTER II: PROTECTION AGAINST STORM, EROSION, SANDDRIFTS, NOXIOUS GASES. Part 12. Protection Against Wind Storms. Wind is Beneficial: By restoring the chemical balance of the atmosphere; By distributing pollen and seeds; By preventing excessive formation of side branches; By bringing rain. A. Damage is Caused by Wind Storm (aside of forest fires spread or fanned) : (a) in plantations: By loosening the anchorage of tall seedlings and saplings; (notably, after planting in furrows, in the prairies, on sand dunes); By drying out roots and shoots and leaves and soil (notably in the early spring); By removing the protecting cover of snow; By allowing the "mob" to whip the top shoots of "aristocrats." (b) in exposed localities: By one-sided (seashore or Pisgah ridge) or stunted growth. (c) IN TREE FORESTS AND IN LARGE POLE W r OODS: By breakage of crowns or branches, thus allow- ing access to fungi and to insects; By breakage of stems at their point of least re- sistence; By uprooting trees singly, in avenues, or in large blocks; By endangering the logging operations. Factors of Damage are : (a) Species: Flat-rooted conifers are most endangered; a mix- ture of species in advisable. (b) Size class: Poles and trees over 8" in diameter are most subject to damage. (c) Locality: Leeward sides of lakes; Mountain slopes and mountain tops on leeward side; Moist spots; Shallow soil. FOREST PROTECTION 137 (d) Prior Treatment: Partial logging, leaving a freshly bared front exposed to the prevailing storm; Standards over coppice; Single seedtrees over regeneration; Borggreve thinnings; Turpentining by the box system; Interference with anchorage of roots by making ditches or roads. (e) Shape of trees: Cylindrical trees are more top heavy than coni- cal trees. (f) Accompanying circumstances: Heavy rains soaking the soil; Heavy seed years when the tops of the trees are loaded with cones; Sleet; Snow. Preventive measures: (a) Sylviculturally: Ball planting, deep planting, sod covering on shifting sand. Fostering hardwoods or mixture therewith; Early and moderate and regular thinnings; Pruning or lopping to reduce top-heaviness; No standards; No single tree method of natural seed regeneration; Proper preparation in due time of frees intended for an isolated position; (b) Technically: Avoidance of logging methods leaving points favorable to the attack of storms; Progress of the axe against the direction of the barometric minima; Herty method of terpentining; Proper "cutting series;" Timely "severance cuttings." Restrictive Measures: Readiness of means of transportation (railroads and roads) after wind falls; Removing the bark from wind falls; Throwing wind falls in water. 138 FOREST PROTECTION Par. 13. Protection Against Erosion. The adult forest does not require any protection from erosion — usu- ally so. It must be remembered, on the other hand, that "civilization" (by ditching the slopes on the hills; by cutting roads and railroads into the soil; by draining the bottom-lands for farming purposes) increases the rapidity of the subterranean and of the superficial drainage; that it results in a par- tial destruction of the soil on the hill sides. Erosion, in the present geological acra, is not so active, nevertheless, as it was in prior periods. A forest plantation on the hill side suffers during its early stages from erosion where the soil consists of clay, and where the plough has preceded the establishment of the embryo-forest. Some seedlings are washed out of the soil whilst others are covered by detritus. At Biitmore, erosion has harmed particularly the so-called "old school house" plantation, in its earliest stage of development. As soon as the forest covers the ground fully, viz.: when the branches of neighboring specimens interlace, all erosion is usually stopped and stopped for good. Oftentimes deep gullies are cut into the side slopes during and after agricultural occupancy of the soil; in such cases, the stopping of the gullies by wicker works or hurdles can be recommended. These wicker works should not protrude more than one-half foot above the surface of the soil. They should be made, particularly, at the upper end of the gully. It is useless to make them at the lower end alone. These wicker works will hinder erosion to a certain extent; will quiet the soil within the gully; and will allow the grasses and the weeds to occupy the sides of the gully. The most interesting case of erosion met in Eastern America is, pos- sibly, the erosion exhibited in the immediate proximity of the smelter works at Ducktown, Tenn. Here, the hillsides were laid bare entirely at a time at which the smelters used the timber for charcoal. Following this deforestation, the bared areas were used for roasting (by the open heap method) of the copper-bearing ores. As a consequence, every vestige of vegetation has been annihilated on the hillsides and eros- ion has had a chance to work in an amazing degree of intensity. Erosion may be checked by horizontal ditches — or ditches running at a very light grade; by the planting of grasses or weeds between horizon- tal ditches; and finally, by afforestation. There is no means better than successful afforestation by which the soil can be fastened or anchored to the underlying rock. Afforestation as a topic of lectures belongs into "Sylviculture" and into "Forest Policy." FOREST PROTECTION 139 Par. 14. Protection Against Shifting Sands. Instances are rare in which the forest requires any protection against shifting sands. On the other hand, the forest frequently tends to protect from damage the farms, the railroads and other human interests. In other words: The forest requires, rarely, protection against shift- ing sands; and it acts frequently as a protector against shifting sands. Famous instances of the role which the forest plays in this connection are those of Cape Cod, Mass.; of Hatteras Island, N. C. (Compare Collier Cobb's article in the National Geographic Magazine entitled "Where the wind does the work"); in Central Hungary; in the Landes of Gascogny, France; in the Rhine Valley near Darmstadt, Germany; along the Colum- bia River in Oregon and Washington; and so on). A. Shifting sand along the seashore is found notably in the form of sand dunes moving landward, fed and driven by ocean winds. It would be unwise to attempt any afforestation of the dunes nearest the ocean. Afforestation may set in at some distance from the ocean in protected depressions found between parallel dunes. The dunes are fixed, to begin with, by rough palings forming the heart of the dunes and causing a constant growth of the height of the dunes. The sides of the dunes are fortified by sandgrasses and sandweeds. The species used for afforestation belong to particularly modest genera: Cottonwoods, willows and pines are recommended. Obviously, the forester restocking shifting sands is interested in the fixation of the sands more than in a direct revenue derivable from plantations made at a very high expense on very sterile soil. B. The case lies somewhat different on sand areas found inland. Here, afforestation is frequently indicated as a means toward a revenue obtainable from soil lying otherwise unproductive and threaten- ing, at the margins of the sand fields, destruction to adjoining farm- land. The usual method of proceeding is the following: Sods of grasses or else sods of heather are laid on the soil, checker-board fashion. Within the sods are planted longrooted yellow pines, preference being given to transplants two years old or else to ball plants one year old. There is no harm in "deep planting." Afforestation should begin on the windward side of the sand area, in protected spots. The most famous attempt made in America toward the afforestation of inland sands is that of the Forest Service trying to establish, on the "Bad Lands" of Nebraska, a planted forest on a large scale. 140 FOREST PROTECTION It is obvious that small plants are pulled out of a loose soil readily by the wind — notably so in the case of evergreens; and that large transplants suffer badly from the shock of outplanting and from the inadequacy of the water supply available on sterile sand. Wheresoever the soil is apt to become shifting, the law should prohibit the removal of the trees by their owners. The influence in that direction exercised by a commonwealth is dealt with in the lectures on "Forest Policy." ts^ FOREST PROTECTION 141 Par. 15. Protection Against Noxious Gases (Sulphurfumes). By the term "sulphurfumes" are understood certain gases formed by the oxidation of sulphur. Huge amounts of these gases are produced wher- ever sulphur-bearing minerals are treated in the presence of atmospheric air. Contamination of the atmosphere is one of the evils adherent to civili- zation, or, which is the same, adherent to an increase of population at cer- tain centers. The breath of any man or any animal and, more than that, the smoke rising from any building (dwellings as well as factories) contami- nate the air. After Angus Smith, the atmosphere at Manchester, England, contains a little less than the one-millionth part of S0 2 on the average of the year. The rain water investigations made by the same English author show the rapid increase of sulphuric acid in rain water near industrial centers. The sulphur contained in common coal averages 1.7%, of which 1.2% develop into noxious sulphurfumes. In other words, 85 tons of coal will develop on the average 2 tons of noxious S0 2 . Since the consumption of bituminous coal in the United States is in excess of 200,000,000 tons per annum, it appears that we send into the at- mosphere (pre-eminently in the northeast) annually about 4,700,000 tons of sulphurous acid. A. Nature of Damage to Leaves. There is not at hand, at the present time, any scientific explana- tion of the strange physiological effect which sulphur fumes exercise upon vegetation. After Prof. Naegeli, S0 2 checks the normal movement of the live plasma in the leaves. Von Schroeder finds that the transpiration from the leaves is that function which is most vitally reduced by inhalation of SO». During night, transpiration from the leaves is naturally reduced to a minimum, and it is interesting to note that there is little difference in the evaporative function of leaves during night, whether they be exposed to S0 2 or whether they be left in an atmosphere free from S0 2 . When the sun shines, the difference between the evaporation in leaves exposed to S0 2 and in leaves exposed to a pure atmos- phere is very striking. Reduced transpiration appears to be noticeable before discolora- tion of leaves occurs in a sulphurous atmosphere. After von Schroeder, very small quantities of S0 2 continuously acting produce the same final result (always in the glass case) which large quantities will produce acting for short periods only. This observation does not tally with the results of Freytag's experiments made in the open air. 142 FOREST PROTECTION Darkness reduces the damage by S0 2 more than dryness. In the presence of light, heat and humidity, the discoloring and dead- ening action of S0 2 is most intense; which is to say: It is strongest when the vital functions of the leaves are most active. Parallel experiments show no discoloration as a consequence of the absorption of S0 2 in the dark room (at night), although such absorption takes place actually. Wet leaves show much more discoloration than dry leaves in the same sulphurous atmosphere. The main difficulty met in ascertaining the dilution at which SO 2 becomes innocuous lies in the disturbing influence of light and moisture. After Freytag (experiments in the open air) damage is possible only in humid air, or when the leaves are slightly wet from drizzling rain and from dew. Again, after Freytag, air containing less than 0.003% (of weight) of S0 2 is innocuous, even under adverse hydrographic con- ditions and in spite of continuous fumigation, applied during a number of weeks. Freytag's experiments are the only open-air experiments which have been conducted with scientific correctness. S0 2 and S0 3 are absorbed in the same absolute quantities by the leaves when present in the air in equal proportions. Discol- oration of leaves, however, and decrease in transpiration from leaves are, simultaneously, much smaller in an atmosphere of SO 3 than in an atmosphere of S0 2 . Consequently, all conditions which favor the formation of SO 3 in the air before the air touches the leaves must decrease the damage — espec- ially so in the case of chronic affections. The assumption that clouds of smoke interfere with the admis- sion of light and hence with the assimilation of the leaves is erroneous. There is no such thing as the "stuffing up" of the so-called stomata found on the leaves (through which inhalation and transpira- tion takes place) caused by soot or solid particles contained in the fumes. Experiments made by Stoeckhardt prove this thesis beyond a doubt. B. Chemical Remarks. Sulphurous acid (II 2 S0 3 ) is unknown in the free state; it is likely to be contained in the solution of gaseous S0 2 in the water. Sulphurous acid forms primary and secondary sulphites; its salts are obtained by saturating a base with a watery solution of SO 2 . If sulphurous acid is eliminated from its salts by the action of stronger acids, then it forms its anhydrid and water. FOREST PROTECTION 143 Since a large number of calories of heat are set free by the union of S and O, in forming the S0 2 , the anhydrid is a constant combination. S0 2 is readily reduced, by H 2 S, into water and sulphur. In watery solutions as well as in gaseous form S0 2 readily oxidises into SO s, when exposed to the influence of the atmosphere, 32 calories of heat being liberated by such oxidation. On the other hand, S0 3 at red heat dissolves into oxygen and S0 2 . It stands to reason that with increasing distance from the smoke-stack the contents of the smoke are more S0 3 than S0 2 . After von Schroeder, the gases of S0 3 are, without a doubt, less damaging to vegetation inhaling them than the gases of S0 2 . Within the leaves S0 2 is very quickly converted, by oxidation, into SO 3 . A few hours after gas-poisoning, only S0 3 (not S0 2 ) can be proven to be present within the leaves. Chemical analysis of leaves can only fix the territory infested in a random way. It can never be used as a measure of damage locally found. The damage can be assessed only according to the effects discernible with the naked eye. So-called "in- visible damages" have never been allowed by the Courts. The chemical analysis of leaves suspected to be poisoned deals only with an abnormal (unnatural) surplus of S0 3 . All leaves contain, in nature, certain amounts of S0 3 , the amounts depending on the composition of the soil and on the species. Hence a comparative analysis of the leaves is absolutely necessary where it is intended to establish the influence of sulphurfumes on vegetation. This analysis must allow for the difference in the soil and the difference in the distance from the smelters. At the same time, the leaves examined must be taken from the same part of the tree and from the same side of the tree; further, the leaves must be in the same stage of development. After recent experiments the sulphuric contents in the leaves within the lower part of the crown are much higher than the sulphuric contents in the upper part of the crown. The ashes obtained from trees growing in low lands are relatively poorer in SO 3 than the ashes from trees growing on mountains. Weak limbs show more S0 3 than strong limbs. The Merits of the Chemical Analysis. Science has not established any absolutely reliable means to connect death or injury of trees with a poisoning effect of S0 2 or S0 3 suspended in the air surrounding such trees. 144 FOREST PROTECTION An anatomic — microscopic proof of injury due to S0 2 or SO, can- not be given (Haselhoff and Lindau, p. 93 and p. 37). A number of injurious influences (frost, heat, desiccation of soil, insects, fungi (Schroeder and Reuss, p. 110) fire, etc.) bring about, within the leaves and needles, identical or similar al- terations of the cell-structure (Haselhoff and Lindau, p. 12 ff). The consensus of opinion, amongst scientific specialists (R. Har- tig, p. 6; Winkler, p. 379; Schroeder and Reuss, p. 126) is to the effect that excessive contents of SO s within the leaves are not necessarily injurious. Injury due to sulphurfumes can be assumed only when there are at hand A. death visible to the naked eye; B. no other plausible cause of such death; C. contents of SO s in the leaves which are unmistak- ably increased by the reaction of the leaves and needles on sulphur fumes. Unmistakably increased contents of SO t proven chemically within the leaves are a. not identical with abnormal con- tents; b. not such contents as exceed the av- erage contents of leaves within territories acknowledged to be beyond the reach of sulphur fumes; in other words, c. not particularly high percentages of SO s found within the leaves. General averages holding good for the contents of SO» within the leaves of healthy trees do not exist (Haselhoff and L ndau, p. 67). If the contents of SO» found within the in- jured or uninjured leaves and needles of a given tree exceed those obtained by averaging a large number of analytic re- sults obtained from the tests of healthy leaves and needles, then and in such case the excess is frequently due to any one, or to a combination of the following :es: (a) Soil: A soil naturally rich in SO s or irrigated with water containing SO«, produces FOREST PROTECTION 145 leaves and needles sur- charged with S0». Such surcharge has no detrimen- tal influence on the state of health of the trees (Hasel- hoff and Lindau, p. 46, p. 51, p. 55, p. 56). (b) Age: Old needles contain more SO » than young needles. (Haselhoff and Lindau, p. 67; Schroeder and Reuss, p. 128). (c) Season: Young leaves contain more SO s than old leaves. (d) Position : On the same healthy- tree, the sulphur contents of the leaves vary accord- ing to the position of the leaves,which position might be at the base or at the top of the crown, on the inside or on the outside of the crown. (e) Elevation: On the slope of a hill, the sulphur contents in the healthy leaves of the same tree-species exhibit variations depending on the elevation above sea-level (Schroeder and Reuss, p. 126). The sulphur contents of given leaves and need- les are "unmistakably increased" by the reaction on sulphur fumes in all cases where it can be proven that none of the causes of increase above enumerated has or have brought about such increase. It is advisable, as a consequence, (1) to back the chemical analysis of the leaves by the chemical analysis of the soil on which such leaves were produced, so as to prove that an in- 146 FOREST PROTECTION crease of leaf-sulphur is not due to an increase of soil- sulphur (Haselhoff and Lin- dau, p. 378); (2) to compare the analytic results of such leaves and needles only which were picked equally old; equally situated with- in the crown of the trees; equally situated with reference to eleva- tion. All experts agree that short, sudden, strong attacks by sulphur fumes are apt to be deadly; still, such attacks do not cause a very marked increase of S0 3 in the leaves. On the other hand, long-continued, but slight attacks by sulphur fumes result in a heavy increase of S0 3 in the leaves; still, such attacks do not cause a very marked injury to the trees (Wislicenus, Journal of Applied Chemistry, 1901, p. 28). It is evident, consequently, that conclusions based on the chemical analysis of leaves and needles are apt to be rash; and that so-called chemical proofs must be viewed with great precaution (Wieler, p. 380). D. Unreliability of Glass-Case Experiments. Experiments touching the poisonous effect of fumes made with plants placed in a glass case cannot be so telling as experi- ments made in the open, because: a. In the glass case, the gas is admitted from below so as to infest the lower surface of the leaves, which lower surface is known to be more subject to sulphur attacks than the upper surface. b. Sulphurous anhydrid, in statu nascendi, is increas- ingly active and pre-eminently corrosive. c. The discoloration of the leaves in nature differs from the discoloration usually observed in glass case experiments. FOREST PROTECTION 147 d. In nature, S0 3 is largely mixed with S0 2 , the former being less active than the latter. In the glass case, usually, only S0 2 is developed. E. Factors of Dama3e. Without a doubt, a slight admixture to the atmosphere of either SO 2 or SO 3 has a certain influence on vegetation; such in- fluence being irregularly proportioned to the amount of the admixture. After Stoeckhardt, the one-millionth part of the air consisting of SO 2 results, in the course of time, in discoloration (335 fumi- gations discolor wet leaves in six weeks, dry leaves in eight weeks). The degree of injury depends on a. The continuity of the fumigation which is governed by the steadiness of the wind direction and which decreases, step by step, with increasing distance from the smelters. b. The sensitiveness of the plants which is governed by species, quality of the soil, preceding injury by fire, pasture or general neglect. c. The number of months per annum during which the leaves show physical activity. In the case of hardwoods, this number is about 3J/£, extend- ing from May 1 to August 15. d. Atmospheric conditions which may allow the gases to remain in bulk after emission from the smoke- stack, thus concentrating the damage on such parts of the country toward which the smoke happens to drift in bulk. It has been proven by experiments as well as by the experience of all observers in nature, that days of great atmospheric hu- midity, days on which fog forms and days following nights of heavy dew are particularly prolific in breeding acute dis- coloration or damage. On the other hand, very bright weather as well as heavy rains seem to minimize the damage by inten- sive dilution and may prevent damage entirely. The toxic influence of sulphur gases might be considered either as an acute or as a chronic disease. Acute cases appear only in the near proximity of smelters where clouds of smoke kept in bulk under certain atmospheric constellations actually ex- ercise a corroding influence on the leaves. On the other hand, where the diluted gases are inhaled by the plants during a long number of days under the influence of a steady wind, there chronic discoloration and chronic disease will enter an appearance. 148 FOREST PROTECTION F. Damage to the Soil. Conclusive experiments prove that soluble sulphuric salts of cop- per (like blue vitriol) fail to cause any damage to the plants, whether applied in the form of dust or in the form of watery solution. Very concentrated solutions, however, cause cor- rosion; also dust falling on leaves wet with dew. Although the roots of plants are unable to refuse entrance to dam- aging liquids, it has been found that soluble salts of copper, when entering the soil, form at once an insoluble chemical combination with the bases of the soil. It is possible, how- ever, that poor quartz-sand, in the immediate proximity of the smelters, can be affected by soluble salts of copper. Insoluble salts of copper are, obviously, harmless in the soil. Absolute proof for or against soil-poisoning can be obtained only by planting seeds and seedlings into soil supposed to be poi- soned, after removal to a point far from the smelters. Plant- ing experiments made by Reuss have failed to prove any posion- ing of the soil, even under extreme conditions. The sulphuric acid contained in the soil is by no means propor- tioned to the damage appearing in the trees. On the other hand, trees stocking on sulphuric soil (e. g. gypsum soil) show invariably a high percentage of sulphuric acid within the leaves. It seems as if sulphuric acid obtained through the roots is innocuous, whilst sulphuric acid inhaled through the leaves is noxious. If by condensation of the gases at the smelters the atmosphere is purified, the soil in the proximity of the smelters is as ready to produce as ever. In other words, there is no such thing as irreparable damage caused by smelterfumes. Experiments with plants watered with a solution of S0 2 prove conclusively that no damage results from such watering. On the contrary! After Freytag, plants watered with a solu- tion of SOj have shown better yields than those which were not watered with S0 2 . In other words, sulphuric acid has a chance to become a blessing to agriculture, especially where the soil contains insoluble phosphates; and there is, decidedly, no such thing as (he "poi- soning of the soil" through S0 2 or S0 3 , applied in gaseous form or liquid form, as salt or acid. G. Damage to Farm Crops and Fruit Trees. Within the vegetation economically used, farm crops suffer less from fumes than trees. In the case of farm crops potatoes seem to be least sensitive, cereals follow next, whilst legumi- nous plants are more sensitive. FOREST PROTECTION 149 Fanning can be carried on remuneratively in closer proximity of the smelters than forestry. Obviously, in the case of annual plants, there is no cumulative influence of SOj due to many a year's exposure. The fact that farm crops are more resistant to smoke than forest crops may be explained ,also, by the higher reproductive power of the former and by the greater height of the latter, the leaves of which are exposed to more concentrated gases of SO s . In case of fruit trees, mulberries seem to be least sensitive; then follow apples, pears, peaches, plums, with cherries as the most sensitive fruit trees at the rear end. Wherever fruit trees are well attended by cultivation and by fer- tilizing, the damage by sulphur fumes is minimized. The "floral organs" of the fruit trees seem to be less affected by smoke than the "pulmonary organs," which means to say the fruiting of the trees is not badly interfered with by SO t and SO 3 . H. Damage to Forests. The forest trees, according to species and individuality, exhibit a very varying degree of sensitiveness to the influence of sul- phur fumes. The degree of liability to damage is in no way proportioned to the readiness with which the trees inhale sul- phuric fumes. For instance, the conifers are more affected by sulphur fumes than are the hardwoods. Still, exposed to the same atmosphere charged with sulphuric fumes, the coni- fers will inhale smaller quantities of toxic gases than the hard- woods. The power of resistence which the various species show to the in- fluence of sulphur fumes is, on the other hand, directly pro- portioned to the power of reproduction (power of recovery) which the various species show. It is obvious that this power of recovery is particularly good in hardwoods, which must recover, every spring, from the natural loss of foliage sustained in the preceding fall. In the case of broad-leaved species, any loss of vital organs is readily made up, whilst in the case of conifers the reproductive power is comparatively low. Amongst the conifers, those which retain their needles for a num- ber of years are more apt to suffer from sulphuric fumes than those which retain their needles for one or two years only. Inasmuch as the resistence which the trees offer to injury by sul- phurf times is proprotioned to their power of reproduction, and inasmuch as this power of reproduction largely depends on the fertility of the soil, it is obvious that all species suc- cumb on impoverished soil more rapidly than on good soil. 150 FOREST PROTECTION This observation is backed by the facts exhibited near Ducktown, Tenn., where the shade trees in the gardens seem to do re- markably well in close proximity to the smelters. Ceteris paribus, the following schedule has been arranged as the result of investigations for the trees in the Ducktown region having over 7" diameter, the trees most easily killed by SO a being placed at the top of the schedule: Susceptibility to Actual Injury. White Pine Hemlock Scrub Pine Pitch Pine Birch Chestnut Hickory Oaks Yellow Poplar Maple Black Gum This schedule tallies well with the schedule given by European authors for closely related species. If a similar schedule is formed according to the ease of discolor- ation, entirely different results are obtained: Susceptibility to Discoloration. very easily medium not apt to be discolored discolored discolored Black Oak Poplar Black Gum Hickory White Oak White Pine Scarlet Oak Chestnut Oak Maple Chestnut Post Oak Pitch Pine Spanish Oak Hemlock Noteworthy it is that the power of resistance to fumes is more increased by the power of reproduction than decreased by the sensitiveness of the leaves. In nature, wherever grave deviations from exact schedules of sen- sitiveness are found, it stands to reason that other influences, aside from sulphurfumes, are simultaneously responsible for the death or for the discoloration of the trees. The best time for any observations in the forest is the late sum- mer or early fall (the time between August 15 and October 1). Sulphurfumes cannot be held responsible for the local death of trees within a "smoke region," (1) if species known to be more sensitive are less affected than species known to be more resistent; FOREST PROTECTION 151 (2) if tall specimens are no more affected than short specimens; or if the trees die from below; (3) if the dying trees are affected with a fungus-disease (e. g. White Pine blight and Chestnut blight) or an insect disease causing the death of the trees outside the smoke region; (4) if death and discoloration are confined to one species only; (5) if the owner of the forests, allowing indiscriminate logging, or allowing forest fires to rage, is guilty of contributory negligence; (6) if discoloration is caused by late frost, or draught, or leaf fungi; (7) if the death rate within the smoke region is no greater than the death rate without, under otherwise equal conditions (of geology, soil-fertility, as- pect, forest fires, desiccation, storms, insects, fungi and prior treatment of forests); (8) if dying and living trees are normally covered with tree mosses, algae and lichens; (9) if the death rate at the windward edge of the for- ests is not larger than the death rate in the in- terior; (10) if the size of the annual rings of accretion is not ab- normally small; (11) if there are at hand, in the affected region, other plausible causes of discoloration and of death. I Preventive Measures. 1. In the source of damage: (a) Dilution of fumes by emission into the upper atmosphere from mountain tops or from high smoke-stacks; by accelerated conversion of S0 2 into SO*; by artificial draught increasing the rapidity of dilution; by manufacture of sulphuric acid. (b) Other means suggested: by running smelter plants at night (possible in pygmean operations only); by discontinuing operations in May, June and July (impossible where hundreds of workmen depend on continued employment); 152 FOREST PROTECTION by smelting in the regions where the hardwoods prevail; where the forest has little value; on islands; in deserts or prairies. 2. In woodlands adjoining: (a) Conversion of woodlands into farms or pastures; oJ of high forest into low forest; (b) Cutting affected and dying trees; (c) Maintaining the fertility and, notably, the water con- tents of the soil through protection from fire and by keeping a dense undergrowth; (d) Avoidance of partial logging. I. Index to Malefactors. Acanthocinus nodosus Fab., 48. Acanthocinus obsoletus Oliv., 48. AcmcEo pulchella Hbst., 57. Aecidium pini, 119. Aegeria acerni Clem., 88. Agaricacece, 117. Agaricus melleus, 114, 119. Agrilus anxius Gory, 64, 65. Agrilus bilineatus Web., 67, 68. Agrilus otiosus Say, 73. alder 111. Allorhina nitida Linn., 62. Ambrosia, 114. Ametabola, 21. Ampelopsis, 112. Andromeda, 111. animals, 12. Anisota rubicunda Fab., 88. Anisota senatoria S. & A., 85. Anisota stigma Fab., 85. Apatela americana Harr., 86, 88. Aphididce, 21, 29, 34, 101, 102, 103, 105, 106. Aphrophora paralella Say, 101. Apion nigrum Hbst., 73. Arceuthobium cryptopoda, 126. Arceuthobium occidentale, 126. Arceuthobium pusillum, 126. Ar chips fervidana Clem., 85. Arctiidce, 21, 77, 82, 85, 86, 87, 88. Arhopalus fulminans Fab., 43, 67, 68. Ascomycetes, 116, 118. Asemum mozstum Hald., 43, 48, 50. Asemum nitidum Lee, 53, 54. Asilidm, 20. Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst., 104. Aspidiotus tenebricosus Comst., 106. Asterolecanium variolosum Ratz., 104. Attelabus analis, Web., 62. Automeris io Fab., 88. Azalea, 112. Balaninus, 67. Balaninus nasicus Say, 63, 68. Balaninus proboscidus Fab., 67. Balaninus rectus Say, 63, 67. Basidiomycetes, 117. Basilona imperialis Dru., 77, 82. beaver, 18. beech, 111. Bellamira scalaris Say, 65. birds, 18. blackberry, 109, 111, 112. Blastobasidce, 85. blueberry, 109. bluejay, 18. boar, wild, 15. Bombycidw, 21. Bostrichido?, 29, 34. box-elder, 109. Brachys aeruginosa Gory, 66. Brenthidce, 21, 29, 33, 57, 66, 67, 68, 69. Buprestidoe, 21, 29, 32, 43, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 73, 74. Buprestis apricans Hbst., 48. Buprestis aurulenta Linn., 43, 48, 50, 56. Callidium areum Newm., 67. Callidium antennatum Newm., 48, 61. Callidium janthinum Lee, 59. Callivterus ulmifolii Monell, 105. Callosamia promethea Dru., 90. Camponotus herculeanus Linn., 97. Carabida, 20. Carphoborus, 44, 47, 51, 54. caterpillars, Lepidopterous, 34. Catocala spp., 85. Cecidomyia carywcola O. S., 100. Cecidomyia clavula Beuten, 100. Cecidomyia holotricha O. S., 100. Cecidomyia liriodendri O. S., 100. Cecidomyia niveipila O. S., 100. Cecidomyia piluloz Walsh, 100. Cecidomyia pinirigidoz Pack., 99. Cecidomyia pocidum O. S., 100. Cecidomyia resinicola O. S., 99. Cecidomyia tubicola O. S., 100. Cecidomyia tidipifera O. S., 100. Cecidomyiidae, 21, 29, 99, 100. Cedar apples, 119. Cerambycidce, 21, 29, 32, 33, 35, 43, 45, 47, 48, 50, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76. Ceratocampidce, 77, 82, 85, 88. Ceratogr aphis pusillus Kby., 48. Ceratomia amyntor Geyer, 86. Ceratomia catalpos Boisd., 91. Ceratomia undulosa Walk., 90. Ceratostomella pilifera, 123. Chaitophorus aceris Linn., 106. Chalcidoidea, 20. 154 FOREST PROTECTION Chermes abietis Linn., 102. Chermes pinicorticis Fitch., 101. Chermes sibiricus Chold., 102. Chertnes strobi Hart., 101. Chion ductus Dru., 63, 67, 68. Chionaspis americana Johns, 105. Chionaspis pinifolice Fitch., 101. chinquapin, 110, 111, 112. chipmunk, 16. Cfialcipfwra virginiensis Dru., 43, 48, 50. Chramesus icorice Lee, 63. Chrysobothris dentipes Germ., 48. Chrysobothris femorata Fab., 63, 67, 68, 74. Chrysobothris 6-signata Say, 65. Chrysomela scalaris Lee, 75. Chrysomelidce, 21, 29, 48, 63, 68, 69, 73, 75. Cercopidce, 101. Cicada, 104, 106. Cicadidce, 21, 30, 35, 104, 106. Cicindelidtt, 20. Cimbex americana Leach, 97. Citheronia regalis Fab., 82. Clematis, 112. Cleridce, 20. climbers, 112. Coccida, 21, 29, 34, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106. Coccinellidoz, 20. Cocldidiidw, 85. Coleoptera, 20, 21, 38, 43-76. Colopha ulmicola Fitch., 105. Colydiidce, 20. Componotus pennsylvanicus Deg., 94 Conotrachelus elegans Say, 63. Conotrachelus fuglandis Lee, 62. Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst., 63. Convolvulus, 110. Corthylus columbianus Hpk., 66, 68, 70. Corthylus punctatissimus Zm., 74. Cossidce, 21, 29, 85, 86, 87, 88. Cotalpa lanigera Linn., 64, 68. cottonwoods, 111. Crepidodera rufipes Linn., 73. Cressonia juglandis S. & A., 82. cross-bills, 18. crows, 18. Cryphalus, 50, 55, 56. Cryptorhynchus, 67. Cryptorhynchus parochus Hbst., 62. Crypturgus atomus Lee, 43, 50. Crypturgus pusillus, 48. Curculionidce, 21, 29, 30, 32, 35, 36, 37, 43, 44, 48, 50, 51, 56, 57, 62, 63, 67, 68, 69, 73. Curius dentalus Newm., 57. Cynips spp., 96. Cyllene picta Dru., 63. Cyllene robince Forst., 73, 114, 121. Cynipida;, 30, 96. Cynipoidea, 21, 29, damping-off, 120. Dantana angusii G. & R., 85. Dantana integerrima Dru., 82. Dantana ministra G. & R., 82, 83, 85, 89. deer, 15. Dendroctonus, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49. Dendroctonus approximatus Dtz., 47. Dendroctonus brevicomis Lee, 44, 47. Dendroctonus engelmanni Hopk., 51. Dendroctonus fontalis , 31, 43, 48, 50, 114. Dendroctonus monticoloz Hopk., 44, 45, 46, 47. Dendroctonus obesus Mann., 48, 51. Dendroctonus piceaperda Hopk., 31, 50. Dendroctonus ponderosce Hopk., 47. Dendroctonus pseudotsuga Hopk., 54. Dendroctonus similis Lee, 49, 54. Dendroctonus terebrans Oliv., 43, 48. Dendroctonus valens Lee, 43, 46, 47, 48. Diapheromera femorata Say, 108. Diaporthe parasitica Murrill, 120. Dicer ca lurida Fab., 63. Dicerca obscura Fab., 63, 74. Dioryctria reniculella Grote, 78. Diptera, 20, 21, 38, 99, 100. Discomycetes, 116, 118. dogwood, 110, 111, 112. Dolurgus pumilis Mann., 51. doves, 18. Drepanosiphum accrifolii Thos., 106. drought, 114. Dryocartes, 43, 50. Dryocartes affaber Mann., 51. Dryocartes autoyraphus Ratz., 50. Dryocartes eichhoffi Hopk., 65. Dryocartes granicollis Lee, 50. Dryophilus, 59. Eburia quadrigeminata Say, 63, 76. Ecdytolopha iyisiticiana Zell., 87. Echinodontium tinctorium, 123. Elaphidion villosum Fab., 63, 68, 74. Elaieridce, 20, 21, 30. Enarmonia bracteatans Fern., 77. Enarmonia car y ana Fitch., 82. INDEX TO MALEFACTORS 155 Epargyreus tityrus Fab., 87. Er aunts tiliaria Harr., 89. Eryates spicidatus Lee, 47, 48. Ericacce, 110, 117. erosion, 138. Endocimus mannerheimii Boh., 57. Euclea delphinii Boisd. , 85. Eulecanium tulipiferce Cook, 105. Eulia politana Haw., 77. Eunomos magnarius Guen., 84. Euproctis chrysorrhea Linn., 85. Eupsalis minuta Dru., 57, 66, 67, 68, 69. Euschausia argentata Pack., 77. Euvanessa antiopa Linn., 86. Evetria comstockiana Fern., 77. Evetria frustrana Comst., 77. Evetria rigidana Fern., 77. Exoasceaz, 117. Exobasidium vaccinii, 117. ferns, 111, 112. finches, 18. fire, 8, 114. Formicidos, 94, 97. Formicoidea, 20. frost, 127. fungi, 113, 115. Galerucella luteola Mull., 69. Gaurotes cyanipentiis Say, 62. Gelechiida>, 77, 78. Geometrida, 78, 84, 86, 89. Glyptoscelis pubescens Fab., 48. Gnathotrichus, 47. Gnathotrichus materiarius Fitch., 43, 48, 50. Gnathotrichus sidcatiis Lee, 53, 54, 55, 59. Goes oadatus Lee, 63. Goes pidchra Hald., 63. Goes pidrcrulcntus Hid., 66. Goes tesselata Hald., 68. Goes tigrina DeG., 63, 68. Gossyparia spuria Mod., 105. grapevine, 109, 110. Graphisurus fasciatus DeG., 68. ground-hog, 18. grouse, 18. Gryllidai, 30, 36, 107. Gryllotalpa borealis Burm., 107. Gryllus spp., 107. gum, black, 109, 110, 111, 112. Gymnosporangium, 119. Halesia (Mohrodendron), 109, 111, 116. Halisidota caryoe Harr., 82. Halisidota maculata Harr., 86. Halisidota tesselaris S. & A., 85, 86, 88. hazel, 112. hazel, witch, 109, 110. heat, 132. heather, 109. hedge-hog, 18. Hemerocampa leucostigma S. & A., 86, 87, 88, 89. Hemileuca maia Dru., 85. Hemimetabola, 21. Herniptera, 20, 21, 38, 101-106. Hepialidce, 84, 87. Herpotrichia, 114. Hesperidoe, 21. Heterocampa bilineata Pack., 89. Holcoccra glandulella Riley, 85. Homoptera lunata Dru., 88. huckleberry, 111. Hylastes cavernosus Zimm., 43. Hylastes porosus Er., 47. Hylastinus rufipes Eichh., 69. Hylecatus americanus Harr., 68. Hylecaitus lugubris Say, 67. Hylesinus, 53, 54, 55. Hylesinus aculeatus Say, 76. Hylesinus granidatus Lee, 55. Hylesinus nebulosus Lee, 54. Hylobius pales Hbst., 43, 48. Hylotrupes amethystinus Lee, 59. Hylotrupes ligneus Fab., 61. Hylurgops glabratus ZerL, 43. Hylurgops pinifex Fitch., 48. Hylurgops rugipennis Mann., 51. Hylurgops subcostulatus Mann., 44, 45, 46, 47. Hymenomycetes, 117, 118. Hymenoptera, 20, 21, 38, 92-98. Hyphantria cunea Dru., 87, 90. Hyphantria textor Harr., 85. Hypoderma strobicola, 120. Hysterium pinastri, 119. Ichneumonoidea, 20. Incurvaria acaifoliella Fitch., 88. insects, 20. Isoptera, 107. Ithycerus noveboracensis Fst., 68. J units integer Nort., 95. Kaliosphinga dohrnii Tischb., 95. Kaliosphinga idmi Sund., 97. Kalmia, 109, 111, 112. Kermes, 104. Lachnus strobi Fitch., 101. Lagoa crispata Pack., 85. Lapara bombycoides Walk., 77. Lapara coniferarum S. & A., 77. 156 FOREST PROTECTION Lasiocampidce, 85, 88. Lecanium, 101, 103. Lecanium nigrofasciatum Prg., 106. Lenzites sepiaria, 123. Lepidoptera, 21, 29, 34, 38, 77-91. Leptostylus aculiferus Say, 70. Leptura canadensis Fab., 50, 52. Leucotermes flavipes Koll., 107. Liparida', 21, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89. Lithocolletes hamadryella Clem., 85. Locustidoe, 21, 108. Lophyrus abbotii Leach, 92. Lophyrus lecontei Fitch, 92. Lyctidoe, 29, 34. Lyctus spp., 63, 76. Lyda, 92. Lygaonematus ericJtsonii Hart., 93. Lymexilonidce, 29, 33. Lymexylidce, 67, 68. Lymexylon sericeum Harr., 67, 68. Magdalis armicollis Say, 69. Magdalis barbata Say, 69. Magdalis olyra Herbst., 66. Malacosoma disstria Hubn., 85, 88. Mallodon dasystomus Say, 63, 68. Mallodon melanopus Linn., 68. man, 7. Mantidce, 20. maple, 111. Mecas inornata Say, 64. Megalopygidce, 85. Melandryidoe, 50, 56. Melanophila, 49. Melanophila drummondi Kby., 53, 54. Melanophila fulvogidtata Harr., 52. Melasoma lapponica Linn., 64. Melasoma scripta Fab., 64. Metabola, 21. mice, 16. Microcentrum laurifolium Linn.,10S. Mohrodendron (Halesia), 116. Monohammus confusor Kby., 48, 50. Monohammus scutellatus Say, 43, 45, 48. M ycelophilido' , 100. Mytilaspis, 101, 103. Myxomycetes, 118. Nectria, 116. Nematus, 34. Nematus erichsonii, 35. Nematus integer Say, 94. Neoclytus capraza Say, 76. Neoclytus erythrocephalus Fab., 57, 71, 74, 76. Neophobia menapia Feld., 77, 79. Neuroptera, 20. Noctuidce, 21, 29, 36, 85, 86, 88. Notodontida, 82, 83, 85, 89. Nototophus antiqua Linn., 85. Nymphalidce, 86. oak, black jack, 110. Odontota dorsalis Thunb., 73. Odontota rubra Web., 75. Odontota scutellaris Oliv., 73. Oecaidhus pini Beut., 107. Oeme rigida Say, 57. Oncideres cingulata Say, 63, 68. Orthoptera, 20, 21, 38, 107, 108. OrOiosoma brunneum DeG., 48. Pachylobius picivorus Germ., 43, 48. Pachyta monticola Rand, 56. Paleacrita vernata Peck, 86. Pantographia limata G. & R., 89. Papilionidce, 21. Paralechia pinifoliella Cham., 77. Parharmonia pini, Vrell., 77. pasturage, 12. Paururus hopkinsi Ashm., 92. Paururus pinicola Ashm., 92. Pemphigus tessellatus Fitch., 103. Peridermium strobi, 119. Peronosporeoe, 116, 117. Peziza, 117. PJiasmidoe, 21, 108. Phenacoccus acericola King, 106. Philedia punctomacularia, 78. Phlarosinus, 57. Phlarosinus cupressi Hopk., 58, 60. Phlarosinus dentatus Say, 61. Phlarosi?ius punctatus Lee, 59, 60. Phlarosinus sequoiaj Hopk., 58, 59. Phoradendron flavesccns, 126. Phycitidce, 30, 37, 77, 78. Phy corny cetes, 116. Phylloxera pallida Linn., 64. Phymatodes decussatus Lee, 58. Phymatodes variabilis Linn., 64. Physwnemum andreoz Hald., 57. Phytophtora omnivora, 116. Pieridce, 77, 79. Pinipestis zimmermanni Grte., 77. pigeons, 18. Pissodes, 44. 51. Pissodes dubius Rand, 56. Pissodes strobi Peck, 43, 48, 50. Pityogenes, 43, 45, 55. Pityogenes carinulatus Lee, 47. Pityogenes cariniceps, 47. Pityogenes plagiatus Lee, 48. Pityophthorus, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 55, 65. Pityophthorus cariniceps Lee, 50. INDEX TO MALEFACTORS 157 Pityophthorus confinis Lee, 47. Pityophthorus minutissimus Zimm., 68. Pityophthorus nitidulus Mann., 45, 51, 54. Pityophthorus pruinosus Eichh., 68. Pityophthorus pubipennis Lee, 68. Pityophthorus puncticollis Lee, 45, 47, 51. Pityophthorus querciperda Schw., 68. Plagionotus speciosus Say, 74. Platypus, 43, 53, 54. Platypus compositus Say, 57, 67, 68. Polygonia interrogationis Fab., 86. Polygraphus rufipennis Kby., 50. Polyporaceaz, 117. Polyporus annosus, 120. Polyporus applanatus, 122. Polyporus betulinus, 122. Polyporus carneus, 121. Polyporus catalpce, 121. Polyporus fomentarius, 122. Polyporus fraxinophilus , 121. Polyporus fulvus, 122. Polyporus igniarius, 122. Polyporus juniperinus, 121. Polyporus libocedris, 122. Polyporus nigricaus, 122. Polyporus obtusus, 122. Polyporus pergamenus, 122. Polyporus pinicola, 122, 123. Polyporus ponderosus, 123. Polyporus sehweinitzii, 121. Polyporus squamosus, 122. Polyporus sulfureus, 122. Polyporus rimosus, 114, 121. Polyporus versicolor, 121. porcupine, 18. Porthetria dispar, Linn., 85. Prionoxystus robinio3 Peck., 85, 87. Prionus laticollis Dru., 48, 64, 67, 68. Proctotrypoidea, 20. Pseudococcus aceris Gceff., 106. Psychidce, 81. Psijllidw, 29, 34. Pterocyclon fasciatum Say, 57. Pterocydon mali Fitch., 50, 57, 66, 68, 72. Pteronus ventralis Say, 95. Ptilinus ruficornis Say, 74. Ptinidce, 21, 29, 32, 34. Ptininidce, 47, 59, 63, 74, 76. Pulvinaria innumerabilis Rathy, 106. Pyralidce, 89. Pyrenomycetes, 116, 118. Recurraria obliquestrigella Cham., 78. Reduviidw, 20. Rhagium lineatum Oliv., 43, 48, 50. Rhizococcus, 101, 102. Rhododendron, 112. sand, shifting, 139. Saperda, 72. Saperda calcarata Say, 64. Saperda concolor Lee, 64. Saperda discoidea Fab., 63. Saperda tridentata Oliv., 69. Saperda veslita Say, 75. Saturniidce, 82, 83, 85, 88, 89, 90. Scara&o-uto, 21, 29, 36, 62, 68, 76. Schizoneura imbricator Fitch., 103. Sci'ara occllata O. S., 100. Scolytidce, 21, 29, 31, 33, 35, 43-61, 63, 65-70, 72, 74-76. Scolytus, 50, 55. Scolytus praceps Lee, 55. Scolytus quadrispinosus Say, 63. Scolytus rugulosus Ratz., 72. Scolytus subscaber Lee, 55. Scolytus unispinosus Lee, 49, 54. Schizoneura americana Riley, 105. Schizophyllum commune, 123. ssedge, broom, 16. sedge-grass, 109. Selandria diluta Cress., 96. Serica trociformis Burm., 68. Serropalpus barbatus Schall., 50, 56. Sesiida?, 29, 77, 80, 88. Sinoxylon basilare Say, 63. Siricidce, 29, 92, 94, 96, 98. sleet, 134. smilax, 109. snow, 134. Sphingidce, 77, 82, 86, 90, 91. Sphinx Kalmice S. & A., 90. squatters, 7. squirrels, 16. Sthenopis argenteomaculatus Harr., 84. storm, 114, 136. sulphur fumes, 141. sunscald, 133. Symmerista albifrons S. & A., 85. Syrphidce, 20, 21. Systena marginalis 111., 63. Telea polyphemus Cram., 82, 83, 85, 88 89 Tent'hredinidce, 29, 34, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97. Termitidce, 107. Tetr opium cinnamopterum Kby., 50. 158 FOREST PROTECTION Thyridopteryx ephemerccformis Haw. 81. Tibicen septendecim Linn., 104, 106. Tillandsia usneoides, 126. Tineidce, 29, 35, 85, 88. Tomicus, 45, 50, 55. Tomicus avulsus Eiehh., 43, 48. Tomicus balsameus Lee, 50, 56. Tomicus cacographus Lee, 43, 48, 50. Tomicus ccelatus Eichh., 43, 48. Tomicus calligraphm Germ., 43, 47, 48. Tomicus concinnus Mann., 51. Tomicus confusus Lee, 47. Tomicus integer Eichh., 46, 47. Tomicus latidens Lee, 44. Tomicus monticola Hopk., 44. Tomicus oregoni Eichh., 47. Tomicus pint Say, 43, 46, 48, 50. Tortricidce, 29, 30, 35, 37, 77, 78, 82, 85, 87. Tortrix fumiferana Clem., 78. Tortrix quercifoliana Fitch., 85. Trachinidce, 20. Trametes pini, 120. Tramctes radiciperda, 114, 120. Tremex columba Linn., 96, 98. Trichosphaeria, 114. Trogositidas, 20. Trypodendron, 65. Trypodendron bivittatum Mannh., 48,50,51,52. Trypodendron fasciatum Say, 74. Trypodendron mali Fitch., 74. turkey, wild, 18. Uredinece, 117. Urocerus abdominalis Harr.. 94. Urocerus albicornis Fab., 94. Urocerus flavipennis Kb v., 94. Urogr aphis fasciatus Horn., 62, 63, 67, 68, 71, 74. Usnea barbata, 126. Ustilaginece, 117. Vaccinium, 112. Vespamima sequoia Hv. Edw., 77, 80. Vespoidea, 20. Vitus, 112. weeds, 109. windstorm, 136. woodchuck, 18. woodpeckers, 18. Xyleborus, 57. Xyleborus, ccelatus Zimm., 50, 74. Xyleborus celsus Eichh., 63, 68. Xyleborus dispar Fab., 70. Xyleborus fuscatus Eichh., 68. Xyleborus obesus Lee, 52, 68, 74. Xyleborus politus Say, 50, 66, 74. Xyleborus pubesceus Zimm., 48, 67, 74. Xyleborus saxeseni Ratz., 52, 54, 63, 64, 66, 68, 72, 74. Xyleborus tachygraphus Zimm., 70, 74. Xylochinus, 50, 56. Xylotreckus colonus Fab., 63, 67, 68, 74. Xylotrechus undulatus Say, 52, 54, 55. Zeuzera'pyrina Linn., 86, 87, 88. Zyganida, 21. J II. Index of Species Affected. Abies balsamea, 56. Abies concolor, 55. Abies fraseri, 56. Abies grandis, 55. Acer, 74, 88, 98, 100, 106. Alnus, 103, 111. Alnus glutinosa, 95. Arbor-vitae, 121. ash, white. 121, 122, 133. hasswood, 18. beech, 18, 121, 122, 129, 133. Betula, 65, 83. birch, 18, 122, 150. black gum, 129, 150. buffalo-nut, 16. Castanea, 67, 84. Catalpa. 91, 121, 129. cedar, incense, 122. Chamcecyparis, 61. Chamcecyparis lawsoniana, 60. cherry, 16. 122. 128. chestnut, 19, 109, 120. 129, 133, 150. conifers, 107, 119, 120, 122. Comusflorida, 100. cottonwood, 18, 122, 129, 139. Crataegus, 16. currant, 119. cypress, bald, 114. 122. Douglas fir. 121. 12!). Fagus, 66, 103. fir, 16, 17, 120. fir, Dousrlas, 121. fir, red, 123. Fraxinu-s, 76, 90. hazel, 18. hemlock, (see Tsuga), 18, 121, 123, 131, 150. hemlock, western. 121, 123. hickories, 17, 129, 135, 150. Hicoria, 63, 82, 100, 103. Incense cedar, 122. Juglans, 62, 103. Jvnipcru-s, 81. Juniperus virginiana, 61. Kalmia, 18. Larix, 93. Larix occidentals, 49. linden, 16. Liquidambar , 71. Liriodendron, 70. 100, 105, 129. locust, 16, 17, 114, 121, 135. maple, 16, 18, 122, 128, 129, 150. oak, 16. 17, 19, 121. 122, 129, 150. oak, chestnut. 128. 150. oak. scarlet. 18, 150. oak. white. 18, 150. Picea, 50. 51, 78, 94, 102. Picea engdmanni, 51. Picea pungens. 16. Picea sitchensis, 16. 51. pine. 16. 120, 135, 139. pine, seedlings, 119, 131. pine, white. 119, 131, 133, 150. pine, yellow, 109. Pinus, 76. 92, 99, 101. Pinus ctmbra, 119. Pinus echinata. 16, 48, 129, 130. Pinus flexilis, 45. Pinus jeffreyi, 47. Pinus lambertiana, 44. 129. Pinus monticola. 45. 121. Pinus murraijnna, 46. Pinus palustris, 48. Pinus pondcrosa, 47, 123, 129. Pinus resinosa. 4S. Pinus rigida, 48, 129, 150. Pinus strobus. 43, 120, 129, 130, 131. Pinus keda, 48. poplar, 122. poplar, vellow, 109, 115, 135, 150. Pop-ulus\ 64, 95. Pseudotsuga, 54. P>/rularia, 16. Pyrus. 72. Qucrcus, 68, 85, 96, 100, 103. red-cedar, 18, 119, 121. Rhododendron, 18. Riots, 119. Robin ia, 73, 87. Sequoia, 58, 80. Sequoia sempervirens, 123. spruce, (see Picea), 18, 123, 129, 130, 131. 133. Tarodimn distichum, 57. Tilia, 75, 89. Tsuga. 79. Tsuga canadensis, 52. Tsuga heterophylla, 53. Thuja gigantea, 59. limits, 69, 86, 97, 105. walnut, 122, 128, 129, 130. willow, 139. REST UTILIZATION chemical fibre. § 29. Shoe pegs, § 30. Excelsior mill §31. Manufacture of wood pufjTa § 32. Tannery. § 33. Charcoal. § 34. Lampblack and brewer's pitch § 35. Pyroligneous acid and wood alcohol § 36. True aethyl alcohol. § 37. Artificial silk. § 38. Oxalic acid. § 39. Maple sugar. § 40. Naval stores. § 41. Vanillin. § 42. Beechnut oil. § 43. Pine leaf hair § 44. Impregnation. FOREST UTILIZATION. S I. DEFIXITION. The term "forest utilization" comprises all acts by which forests — the immobile produce' of nature — are converted into movable goods or commodities. Considered as a science or as an art, forest utilization constitutes the -major part of forestry now practiced in our new country, abounding in forests. As a discipline, forest utilization may be divided into two main parts, namely: "logging operations" and "manufacture," arranged in the following five chapters : Chapter I. Labor employed in the forest. Chapter II. Cutting operations. Chapter III. Transportation. Chapter IV. Foundations of manufacture. Chapter V. Manufacturing industries. § II. LITERATURE. There exists, unfortunately, no handbook on American forest utilization, although forest utilization shows a higher development in the United States than in any other country. Among the foreign literature on forest utilization, publications of the following authors are particularly worthy of note : Carl Gayer, Richard Hess, William Schlich, Hermann Stoetzer, Carl Grebe, Wilhelm Franz Exner, Carl Schuberg, Heinrich Semler, H. von Noerdlinger, Carl Dotzel, E. E. Fernandez, L. Boppe, M. Powis Bale. Ipart A. logging Operations. CHAPTER I. LABOR EMPLOYED IN THE FOREST. § III. MANUAL LABOR. A. Duration of employment. I. Determining factors are : (a) Climatic conditions : (b) Economic conditions; ( c ) Local custom. In the South, work lasts all the year round. In the Lake States and in New England, late fall, winter and early spring (from four to eight months) comprise the usual period of activity. In the European mountains, logging is restricted to the summer months; in the European lowlands, to the winter months. II. Advisability of continuous employment in conservative forestry, especially in the case of foremen and sub-foremen, leads to the adoption of means tending to attach the laborer to his job and i< i his employer. Such means are : ( a ) Advances fur t< ids. (b) Kent of cabins and farms at reduced rates. Help in case of sickness and accidents. (d) Wholesale purchase of victuals so as to give the work- men the benefit of a reduced price. (e) Firewood, forest pasture and forest litter free of charge. (i) Permission of agricultural use, for a number of year.-. of clear cut areas. (This last system is called in India "tongya." I (g) Employment during the season when cutting is stopped, in road building, fire patrol, planting, weeding, nursery- work etc. (h) Possibility for hands to rise to a foreman's position. (i) Encouragement of home industries SO as to keep the workmen busy on rainy or cold days. i. e., baskel weaving, shingle making, wood carving, sieve making. It seems mosl important to supply the family of the dworker with a comfortable home and school and church, advantages. 1!. Remuneration. I. Means of remuneration. (a) Money. Wages in the South are from 50 to 75 cent- ' day. At Biltmore, now $1 per day. even in the moun- tains. On the Pacific coast, $2 to $3 per day. In Lake States, $18 to $32 per month, plus board; dry day- only included. (4) ^^Jtd^r-^i ^*i *"<&' / ^ ULtA - ' FOREST UTILIZATION TlOh (b) Commissary bills. This method of payment is used in the South only, in connection with colored labor. (c) Privileges (house, farm, pasture). (d) Board. Expense at Biltmore, per capita, 25c to 30c; in Lake States, 40c to 50c per day. Wages of camp i cooks in Lake States, $50 and over per month ; £ at Biltmore. $15 to $30 per month. Victuals required per capita, see "Lumber and Log - Book." page 144. II. Scale of remuneration. Wages depend on the effect of labor or on the values created by labor. Influencing factors are: I a ) Density of population. (b) Human strength and technical skill required. (c) Silvicultural understanding required. (d) Hardships endured and risks taken. (e) Prices of the necessary victual-. (f) Length of day during cutting season. Compare page 162, •Lumber and Log Book." Where contract work prevails, the following additional factors come into play : (g) Tools supplied by employer or employee, (h) Softwoods or hardwoods. (i) Amount to be cut per acre. (j) Configuration of ground and remoteness from roads. (k) Distance from In -me village. (1) Possibility of continuing work during rain. Experiments have shown that workmen paid under con- tract per one thousand feet b. m. earn more money in big timber than in small timber, and that a system of payment according to the diameter of the log is far more just. C. Method of employment. In France the woodworkers are employed by the purchaser of stumpage; in Germany, invariably by the owner of the forest. In America, both systems are found, the former prevailing. Whether the German or French system is preferable is an open question. I. Hands are usually recruited from farm laborers, hence advisa- bility of locally combining agriculture and forestry. In addition, the employees of the building trades, unoccupied during winter, supply help for the lumber camp. II. Day work is advisable in preference to contract work (a) Where quality (effect) of labor cannot be controlled, nota- bly in nursery work ; (b) Where experienced hands must be trained; (c) Where contract labor cannot be obtained (Pacific coast); " 6 ^// V FOREST UTILIZATION <<1) Where contract legislation is bad. (Lien laws in Minne- sota; $1,500 exemption clause in North Carolina.) Contract work is generally prefera ble to- day work because it -4v cheaner. Contract work is doubly advisable where em- } ployer's liability laws work against the employer. Contracts should always be in writing. The specification sheet should be kept apart from the paragraphs of agreement, so as not to en- cumber the contract. The main clauses of a contract cover : (a) Time allowed to complete work; (b) Installments and payments; (c) Building of snaking roads, sleigh roads and skidways ; (d) Scaling of defective logs and of sound logs; (e) Employer's liabili tyj (f ) Fines for fire, stock at large, fishing, hunting and drunken- ness, and demand for discharge of culprits; (g) Shanties and log houses and commissary bills; (h) Supply of tools; deduction for loss and spoliation of tools; (i ) Fines for cutting trees not marked or of too small a diameter; (j ) Fines for leaving marked trees uncut : (k) Fines for poor work and unnecessary damage; (1 ) Possibility of speedy termination of contract in emergency cases ; (m) e to avoid suits in case.of discrepam- # , Frill r-iu-inn- nAintc • ***T^ Nomination of umpire to avojd suits m case^of di^crepaii cies. *>U , The specifications cover the following points: Height of stumps; peeling of bark; separating product accord- ing to quality: length, diameter, weight of product; nosing logs; cutting defects out (unsound knots etc.); placing the product on sticks (so as to allow it to dry) or on skidways; method of carrying or moving products; swamping (removal of branches); use of road poles (breast works); skidways; road building. , Subdivision of labor. The leading principle is that one division gang must push the other. I. Lumbering. (a) Cutting or felling crews, consisting usually of two hands; sometimes a third man to drive wedges and to make the axe cut. (b) Log makers, dissecting the bole into logs. A foreman should be an ex-sawyer or an ex-lumber inspector. (c) Swamping crew, to clear trees of branches and to open suspicious knots. (d) Snaking crew — at Biltmore five hands for a three-yoke team : three men to get the logs ready and to remove brush (debris) and two men to accompany the load. (e) Skidway crew — two hands rolling logs onto skidways. FOREST UTILIZATION ' 7 (f) Road crew— meant to prepare snaking or sleigh roads; to sprinkle and sand ice roads. II. Firewood or cordwood making (for pulp, distillation, cooper- i age etc.). a. b. and c are the same as in "I.— a, b and c." (d) Carriers cr carrying crew— often with hand sleighs or roll- ers or grapple hooks. (e) Splitters— with heavy axes which have broader, thicker cheeks than cutting axes. , (f) Piling crew — a very careful, honest man is required for to piling the wood. I § IV. ANIMAL LABOR. A. Countries. In Europe, even in virgin forests, practically none is required. In * India and possibly in the Philippines, elephants are used. In the United States, in the Southern and Pacific States, as also in the Appalac^jans. oxen are used. In the Lake States, Pacific States and New England States, horses are preferred. In the South, mules are used for small logs and especially on tram roads. ' B. Horses. < I. The numerical ratio between hands and horses in Northern camps varies from 2 to i to 6 to i. ^ The standard amount of work for one horse is: m (a) A haul of 1.600 lbs. inclusive of wagon, on a level road over 23 miles per day. (b) An output of 2/3 horsepower per minute, equal to 320 horse- ,. power per day of eight hours. II. Horses are employed for » 1 (a) Skidding or snaking. /, (b) Rolling logs on skidways. l^ (c) Sleighing, trucking (two wheels) and wagoning (four wheels). k, (d) Go-deviling. (e) Loading on railroad cars. Jj (f) Supplying power for portable mills. III. Food for horses. n (a) Interdependence between feed and effect in foot pounds per 1,000 lbs. horse flesh during a day's work is: Straw . '. 2 lbs. 2 lbs. 2 lbs. Hay 19 lbs. 15 lbs. 1 1 lbs. Oats 2 lbs. 6 lbs. 10 lbs. Effect 3.000,000 9.000.000 15.coo.ooo (b) Food required. After Thaer, per 1,000 lbs. of horse flesh, 25 lbs. of good hay and oats. After the "Lumber and Log Book," 50 lbs. of oats and 40 lbs. of hay per team per day. FOREST UTILIZATION (c) Feed values equivalent to too lbs. of good hay, after Has- wt.ll, are = 54 lbs. of barley. • = 57 lbs. of oats. = 59 lbs. of corn. = 275 lbs. of green corn. = 374 lbs. of wheal straw. = 4C0 lbs. of cornstalks. ('. Mules. I. They are employed fur : (a) Light logs on good ground and for long distances. (lii For wagoning lumber and provi io (c) For. hauling on rail trad - (wooden and iron rails). (d) For hoi on inclines. For plowing and scraping in road and railroad building. II. Food for i.ooo lbs. mule flesh, as for horsi Mules require less care than horses, taking care of themselves and resisting overwork. They are frequently not fed at nnnn. | Price per team at Biltmore, $200.) "I). Oxen. [. Price per yoke is from $8o to $120. weighl from 2,000 to 2,500 lbs. Ox yoke> form the rule, although efficiency of oxen in harness is superior. Shoeing for each claw separately — difficult and risky, but necessary on bard ground. Special training takes place from second year on. Fitness for hard work begins in the fifth year, when ossification of hones is com- pleted. Special training for leaders. II. Employment. In the South for snaking >g 1 rains in Oregon; for hauling logs suspended underneath high two-wheel trucks in the pineries; rarely for loading cars or wagons. I i I Standard work. An OX walks 14 miles per day with load. An ox yields in eight hours of work 270 horsepower, hence he produces only four- fifths of the effect of a horse. After Thaer, an ox produces only one-half as much power as a horse of the same weight. IV. Feed. (a) It is much cheaper to feed oxen per i.oco lbs. living weight than to iwil horses of same weight. Ruminants have four stomachs and thus digest their food r. No feed I- given in the middle of the day, and no expense is incurred during idle periods, where pasture is available. (b) Careful treatment and good stables required. Oxen must not be hurried. Soft yokes, proper salting and regular watering. 1 -Ccfe-V ^^>^ FOREST UTILIZATION 9 In .the South, at the present time, cottonseed meal and hulls form the cheapest food. Food requirement- per yoke per "day are 25 lbs. of meal and 40 lbs. of hulls. Present prices of meal $25 per ton and hulls $8 per ton, delivered at _ Brevard. X. C. CHAPTER II. CUTTING OPERATIONS. § v. woodsmen's tools and implements. A. Axe. It consists of a handle, 32 inches to 42 inches long, made of hickory, ash, locust or mulberry, either straight or "S" curved, and of a blade or head forming a steel wedge of particular temper. The etieeks of the wedge are slightly curved in the midst, falling down gradually towards the upper and lower line. The weight lies either close to the bit or close to the handle, according to local predilection. The best make is the Kellv axe_ Double bit axes, requiring straight handles, are largely used in the Northeast. Special splitting axes, of greater weight and broader cheeks, are rarely used (for sugar barrel bolts and retort wood). For hardwood, a thin and light axe (a cutting axe) is preferred, while for softwood a broad and heavy axe is used (a tearing axe). A box of axes contains an assortment of various weights. In Europe the bit is relaid With steel, after wearing off. The axe is used I. For cutting trees entirely or partly. ' II. For swamping (axe to be l /t lb. heavier). III. For splitting. [V. For nosing logs. V. For driving wedges. Price of axes from $6 to $8 a dozen. Handle., are Si a dozen. B. Adz and broadaxe. The adz and broadaxe are used for trimming and barking export logs, squares, ties and construction timber. The blade of the adz stands at right angles to the plane of the sweep and has such curvature as corresponds to the curve of the sweep through the air. The cutting edge is ground concave on the inner side. The broadaxe is either right or left sided, the plane of the blade forming an angle of 5° to io° with the plane of the handle. The handle is usually short, the blade very heavy and wide. C. Peavies. The peavy is a typical American tool, not used elsewhere. The best make is Morley Bros.' line of blue tools. The hooks are distinguished as round bill, duck bill and chisel bill hooks, made of hammered steel. The socket is either solidor con- sists of rings. The square pick (point) is driven cold into the round bored point of the handle. The handle is 4 to 6 ft. long, straight, 2 l / 2 inches to 3 inches through and is made of hickory, ash, or usually hard maple. Price per dozen is $10 to $22. FOREST UTILIZATION A peavy must answer the following requirements: 1. Hook adapted to any size log. II. Bill to be so constructed as to catch securely through any layer of bark. III. Proper length, greatest strength and low weight. K Cant hooks. Tlie cant lunik is a peavy, lacking the pick (point). The socket consists of two rings only joined by a narrow bar. Cant hooks are used more in the mill and yard, peavies more in the woods. , Cross-cut saws. I. Radius experiments '-how a radius of 5 feet 2 inches to be best. The straight drag saws require excessive strength and are deficient in dust chambers. II. Width of blade. 1 1 is at the widest point about 8! 2 inches. The hollow back saws, a very recent invention, have only about 4 inches width all through. III. Thickness of blade. The back of the saw is always somewhat thinner than the gauge of the teeth. Henry Disston gives the saw backs 4 or 5 gauges less thickness than the saw teeth. Atkins gives the teeth ''14 gauge," the back at the handles "16 gauge" and at the center of the back "19 gauge." IV. Uniformity of temper and proper temper are obtained by spe- cial processes. No hammering of blades. Cheeks are per- fectly smooth. V. Construction of teeth is very variable. Dust room between the teeth should be twice as large as the teeth. For hardwoods more teeth are necessary than for softwoods. There are two kinds of teeth, namely: (a) The cutting teeth, a couple or trio of which might be arranged on a common stock, to form "Tuttle or Wolf Teeth." Only the points of the cutters actually cut into the fibre. (b) The raker or cleaner teeth, meant to plane oft" the fibre severed by the cutlers and to shift the sawdust out i>f the kerf. European experiments prove the useless- ness of cleaners. They simply occupy valuable dust room. The point of the rakers should recede by 1/32 of an inch from the cutting line of the cutting points. VI. Length of saw is from 4 ft. to 8 ft. At Riltmore 6'/> ft. and at Pisgah 7 ft. is preferred. Local crews use the "diamond cross-cut," the "champion teeth" and the "hollow back" saw. VII. Saw handles should be easily detachable. The material of the handle is maple, birch and hickory. Handles are fixed FOREST UTILIZATION n (.usually) vertically to back of saw. Sometimes, however, they are in the direction of the radius of the saw. Large "bow" saws allow of a very thin blade and have a bow instead of handles. They are not used in America. VIII. The effect of a saw is equal to the number of square inches cut by one man per minute. The effect is small in pole- woods, increasing gradually up to a diameter of l}% ft. and decreasing thereafter owing to increasing friction. In cutting longleaf pine, the saw is continuously sprinkled with turpentine. The effect of curved saws is from 40 f 'r to 50 '""c higher than the effect of straight saws. The saw overcomes ( a ) The resistance of the fibre by the sharp points acting as knives and planes; (b) The friction at both cheeks of the blade by smooth cheeks and by a gauge narrowing toward the back; ( c ) The friction of sawdust by deep teeth, curved line of teeth, perforation, large dust chambers and possi- bly by "cleaning teeth." IX. Dres-ing of cross-cut saws. (a) "Jointing" means filing all cutting teeth down to exactly the same circumference. The tool used is called a jointer. A file is placed in the joints and by a screw pressed into the proper curvature. (b) "Fixing the rakers" means filing them down with the help of a raker gauge. The rakers act as brakes if they project into the cutting line. Outside and forks of rakers are slightly filed to remove case hardening, and the point is sharpened to a planer edge. A raker swage is being introduced to spread the points of the rakers and to give them a hook-like point, which is said to tear out long slivers instead of tearing out dust. (c) "Setting the cutter teeth*' is done under the control of a "set gauge" with the help of a "set block and hammer." giving 3 to 4 taps (the best method when done by experienced men) or with the help of a "saw set." "Saw sets" are constructed either wrench-like or after the hammer and block prin- ciple. Rules of setting are : 1. Setting should never go lower than half the length of the tooth. 2. It should never exceed twice the gauge of the teeth. i FOREST UTILIZATION 3. More set is required for long saws and for soft woods than for short saws and hard woods. 4. When hammering, strike tooth fully % inch from point m|n^r marack and white B^ cracks and wind shaki gradual Further, ro, t find any incubators and agi cultural i: uined in cut- g from j in finishing the loggin] • I. workmen. 1 1. Total net val III. Wastefulm I\'. Possibility of throwing the tree in the desired direction. I > Pollarding before felling : 'I he branches or the tree top> in European logging are frequently 1 off before felling, for the following r< I. The younger generation of trees surrounding the tree to he cut re» injury. II. Lopped trees tooch the ground all along the bole at one and the same time. Hence no danger of the boles breaking or ' , splitting. In addition, a reduced crown causes the tree to A fall with decreased force. /) ;£-> •/** *~^_ c^~^z. c^jttZj JLUl^ i p "he ;£ ">' ^ fTl- "*< cut-x/ the*^ / / 9 I v >^ fv T'l i FOREST UTILIZATION E. Felling rules: 1. The trees must be thrown in such a way as to do least damage to themselves, to surrounding trees and to undergrowth. II. The felled tree should lie in a position allowing of easy dissec- E bole and of easy removal i I III. Operations must be stopped' during -tonus and blizzards. IV. Trees over 6 inches in diameter should be sawn down, coppice woods excepted. V. No more trees should be felled than can be worked up within reasonable time after felling. VI. The stumps should not be higher than the tree's diameter. VII. All trees marked for cutting, and none else, must be cut. VIII. The tops should he swamped so that they may come in contact with the ground. § VII. DISSECTING THE BOLE OF THE TREE. A. Purpose of dissection. I. Reduction of freightage. II. Better adaptation to different methods of transportation re- quired for different assortment-. III. Better accommodation of buyers requiring different assortments. IV. Obtaining manageable size of logs and wood. As much net value should be obtained from the bole as possible. Waste is advisable wherever it pays to waste. In no forest on earth is all the woodjk^jstance produced mar- ketable. The amount of offal (waste^erjris) depends merely on the expense of transportation to markets within nearest reach. It is better to waste wood than to waste money. The modern lumberman gathering logs of 4 inches diameter and the modern forester objecting to any waste frequently neglect this rule. B. Factors influencing the dissection: I. Requirements of the market governed by custom. II. Distance from market: the longer the distance, the better must be the quality of the product. III. Locality (f. i. steepness of slope; swampiness). IV. Local laws ( f. i. in North Carolina relative to 8- foot firewood). V Available means of transportation and their construction. VI. Freight rates varying with the degree of conversion. VII. Size of cars and wagons. VIII. Length of mill carriage and of feedwork-. C. The main divisions of woody produce obtained from dissected 1» iles are : I. Piece stuff, i. e. logs, blocks, construction timber, sold by the foot, the standard, the pound. II. Numbered stuff, i. e. poles, posts, mine props, scaffolding poles and shingles, boards and staves, sold by the dozen, by the hundred, by the thousand etc. FOREST UTILIZATION ' I? III. Space : stuff, i e. industrial cordwood (for insulator pins, bobbins, pulp, tannin etc.). tanbark and fuel, sold by the cord. In the case of bark. 2.240 lbs. are usually considered tne equivalent of one cord. The specifications governing the dissection describe- I. The dimensions, i. e.. the range of length and diameter de- sired for each section obtainable. II. T he quality of each section and the defects allowed and pro- hibited therein. (a) Saw logs for lumber. 1. Dimensions. Douglas fir on the Pacific coast used to be cut in logs 24 ft. long. The minimum diameter per- missible was 30 inches. Spruce in New England is often cut 13 ft. 4 inches long with a diameter of 6 inches and up. For yellow pine logs, any length and any diameter over 8 inches are permissible. Hardwood logs have a length ranging from 6 ft. 4 inches to 18 ft. 4 inches, arranged in intervals of 2 ft Odd lengths are scaled down. A deficiency of % ft. in length of board or less is. however, often disregarded. Export logs of yellow poplar are 8 ft. and 16 ft. long. Jack pine logs for cheap box lumber are often cut 6 feet 6 inches long, the diameters ranging from 4 inches up- ward. 2. Treatment. Saw kerfs at either end of log should be made perpendicular. Branches should be swamped off knots cut level and laid open. Bark in the case of corn- ers is frequently peeled off in Maine and in Europe. Bark rings are sometimes left at the ends. Defects Of bole must be concentrated in one log, or must be sawn out. Nosing is required for loose driving and for snaking. Painting of end faces with red lead is pre- scribed for export logs. Very heavy logs are sometimes split in two. Putting logs on sticks to prevent spoliation of sap and to reduce specific gravity is often advised. (b) (c) (d) (e) Blocks for woodenware. Poplar, for large bowls, must be entirely freo from defects. White pine blocks are often cut between the whirls of branches. Hub blocks must be butt logs, the length „ ing to cut either two or four out of the block. Construction timber is hewn according to local requirements. Minimum diameter at small end most important. Construction timber abroad is sometimes whip sawn. Poplar^ and walnut squares run from 4" x 4" to 10" x 10". They are whip sawn in the back- woods of western North Carolina. :en cut aIIow^V|i*A* 18 FOREST UTILIZATION (f) Telegraph poles. The smallest diameter, the diameter at or close to the'big end, the length, crooks and treatment of bark must be consid- ered. Sometimes pointing of the small end is specified. (g) Fence posts. Species, length, smallest dian straightness, method of manufacture etc. must be considered. Usual length is 6}/ 2 feet. ih) Railroad ties. Specifications are very variable. Face is usually from 6" x 6" to 7" x 9". Sawed railroad ties are used, especially in the yellow pine section. Great waste in hewing ties from trees just too small to yield two ties. Speci- fications cover allowance of sap, wind shakes, wany edge and dote. (i) Shingle boll i. Lengths are multiples of 16" and 18", usually. (j) Mine props. Middle diameter from 3" to 8". (k) Stave and heading bolts. Basswood heading bolts used in Michigan. Length 18" or $7" and diameter not less than 8". If from 12" to 18", split into halves. If over 18", split into quarters. White oak bolts used at Wilming- ton measure 36" for stave bolts and 24" for heading bolts ; core must be hewn out ; mini- mum face at inner edge 4". Heading bolts for sugar barrels in the Adiron- dacks consist of spruce cut in lengths forming multiples of 22" with a diameter minimum of 6". Stave logs for sugar barrels consist of birch, beech and maple, the lengths forming multi- ples of 32", with a diameter minimum of 8". (1) Bolts for carriage spokes. Material is black or shellbark hickory, white oak, white ash and post oak strictly free from imperfections. Minimum diameter 12"; length (>'__■ feet, ;_• feet, 8'/_> feet and so on. (m) Paper pulp. Logs scale 6" and upwards; no dead timber. In the State of Maine pulp logs are peeled in the wood-. in) Veneering blocks. Hardwoods preferred, of the biggest possible diameter, but certainly over 18" diameter. Blocks from 2 to 6 feet long, (o) Tannin extract wood. Length of wood 5 feet, Split fn>m logs to inches and over in diameter. Wormholes allowed. Fibre must be abso- lutely sound. A cord consists of 100 cubic feet. FOREST UTILIZATION 10 Higher price for peeled wood. Butt logs pre- ferred. Cutting of saw logs out of same tree forbidden, (p) Fuel cordwood. Advisability for piles to contain one cord. Weight of pieces should be such that one man can lift them easily. Splitting facilitates the process of drying; in pine wood it also prevents rotting. V ♦ P CHAPTER III. TRANSPORTATION. § VIII. TRANSPORTATION WITHOUT VEHICLES ON LAND. following methods of such transportation are en vogue: Carrying stove wood, pulp wood, extract wood etc. on men's shoulders, a method of transportation very largely used abroad and in India. Carrying distances abroad range up to one-eighth of a mile. In India railroad ties are carried by the Hindoos over much longer distances. '"Stretchers" are sometimes used where slope is not steep, or "timber carrier*." Morley Bros.' lughooks are used in America. At Biltmore firewood is carried to the roads over an average distance of 150 feet on men's shoulder^! Dragging logs by human force where vehicles or water js near and where produce does not weigh over a ton. The front end of a log is placed on a tray (lizard) to prevent it from boring into the ground. Barked or peeled and well trimmed logs are easily dragged. Silviculturally, dragging is, of course, inferior to carrying of wood products. Rolling logs by human labor is necessary almost everywhere. Peavy, cant hook and "krempe" are used for the purpose. On a slope of about 15 %, after removing obstacles, logs will roll easily. Shingle blocks, stovewood blocks and other short round wood may be spanned in a frame. This method of transportation badly damages young growth and trees left standing. Shooting logs down chutes. A dell in the slope of 30 % or more is often filled with (peeled) logs ; then the top logs are shot down the dell over the other logs below. Three kinds of chutes proper may be distinguished : I. Pole chutes; II. Board chutes; III. Earth chutes. I. Pole chutes have been largely used in the United States, costing about $300 a mile. They are said FOREST UTILIZATION to last from seven to ten vears and should have ^^^Aa^jim^-J^ ,on s i (, ps- abort logs* railroad tles._ \J the following grade For For For iuug logs, short logs-railroad Dry chute 15-20% 25 35%rY" 26% Iced chute 4-8% 8-12% 6% « #■ Watered chute 3-6% 5-8% / '*/! ~* */• Y^ Heavy curves must lie avoided and the outside of ^p ^ ; _ ^ X light curves fixed with a number of "saddle cILuAx f^~-29/w ~?o\z chutes consist of a trough made of four to six poles. The pole chute is about three feet wide and requires cribs or yokes for a foundation where it is not laid on the ground. Water, ice and soap are used for lubrication. Chutes made of hardwoods are said to run smoother than those made of conifers, owing to the greater elasticity of conifers. Where the grade is light, poles should be peeled and hewn on the inside. The grade of inlet must be very steep ; the outlet should open into a pond. Frequently, when the job of chuting is finished, the poles or ties composing the chute are shot down them- lj , ._ **"X selves, thus dissolving the chute. c^^I^ha ^ - \lT._, Board chutes, which are frequently movable, con- » ' I la^-m «"r^ s ' st °^ I_mcn or 2-inch boards. They are used •^\. ^>\A\, t j n carr yi n g firewood and other short stuff down ^*\y9^% f\ «. J » / slopes of 25% to 35%. The rougher the produce. ' the steeper must be the grade and the wider and smoother must be the trough. Sprinkling is re- ?^w quired during dry weather, sanding during wet O N*k » spe ll ? . M^ III. Earth chutes. These resemble snaking roads of a r v^ steady grade, which grade must be: (a) Where snow or ice crust is available, 8 to > 10%. ^^ (b) Where split cross ties are used, laid .about S feet apart; for logs 16 feet long or longer, from io^4 to 18%. (c) Where dry earth is used, 25% and over. Road poles must be used on the valley side, es- ^5 pecially so in curves, and bridges must cross all V the gullies. ^^ ^Jfc.. "Roping" is a method employed for moving long and heavy logs in the "Black Forest." A rope is fastened at the small end of the log to a ring dog and swung once or twice around the stump of a tree nearby. The log is started by the "krempe." and its speed is controlled by loosening or tight- i J «^ ^ cning the loop around the tree. When the rope is run out > ; sK FOREST UTILIZATION it is fastened anew, after stopping the log, to a tree lower down on the slope. The best slope is about 35%. Snaking logs or skidding logs. [II. Attachment by chains 12 to 16 feet long and 1/3 inch to y 2 inch thick ending in dogs. When a chain link breaks, a "cold shut" is put in its place (cost $3 per 100 for 5^-inch chain). For smaller logs skidding tongs are used in place of dogs, at- tached to main chain by three rings, swivel' and hook, and costing, per dozen, about $50. In the case of horses, stretchers are used to prevent the traces from hurting their legs. On muddy soil, the nose of the log is frequently placed on a tray, or a lizard, or a triangle. Snaking dogs are usually hand made and should be driven by a maul. Plain points on dogs seem to be preferred. Logging dogs 10 inches to 12 inches long are quoted at $15 per dozen. Animals. For long distance hauling, mules or horses are preferred to oxen. Ox harness is rarely used. In the South three yokes form a "team" usually, the chains running from yoke to yoke. Leaders (oxen) require special training. The teamster manages the yokes of oxen by Shouting, applying the whip as little as possible. Roads for skidding or snaking. (a) Uphill grades must be strictly avoided; even level stretches are disastrous. The grade de- pends on the season of usage. Where ice and snow are available 1% or 2% are ample. On dry rocky ground 50% is the maximum. On the average, for "Biltmore" conditions, 20% seems best. (b) Curves must be strictly avoided, especially ~^LJdr3 ur7e^^ HereinTles ,he greatest difficulty of "snaking road build- ing in sections where the mountain slopes are deeply gullied. (c) In the Appalachians the surface of the road is 2]/ 2 to zY 2 feet wide and road poles laid on the valley side prevent the logs from jumping the road. Swampy and moist places are corduroyed • lengthwise with the road.' Creeks must be bridged. It must be kept in mind that one bad spot in a snaking road requires the use of additional teams over the entire length of road. FOREST UTILIZATION Regular troughs made of fwo strong poles resting on cross ties are used in Pennsyl- vania, where grade is deficient and distance long. Out West cross ties 7 feet apart are placed on the road. In both cases long log trains are formed. It is claimed for such ns that the pull or strain on the animals is evened or equalized, some logs sliding down hill while other logs of the same train overcome impediments. Means of lubrication are: Sprinkling with Mi- en '-- ties or length mg of logs / greasing the ties Means of hraking the logs are : Sprinkling earth, sand, hay and hranches on the road; throwing chains on the road, or tying chains around the logs. Snaking distance. Snaking distances range up to one mile (usually), averaging about one-third of a mile. Where many logs, say 30.000 board feet of logs or more, must be transported on the same road over an aver- age distance greater than one-third of a mile, other means of transportation are usually preferable to snaking. In the Appalachian hardwoods the expense for i,oco board feet snaked over J/^-mile amounts to about $4. In the Adirondack's skidding costs 40c to 50c per 1,000 board feet, the dis- tances being short, since the logs are merely skidded to the skidways arranged alongside the sleigh roads. G. Drums. I. Hand drums or winches are used for yarding logs and especially for hoisting logs up hill on steep inclines, the distances not exceeding 300 feet. G. B. Carpenter quotes single "drum grabs," weighing 275 pounds and having 2 tons power, placed in strong oak frames, at $27. Power capstans might be used for the same purpose. II. Drums with horses as motive power are used in eastern Tennessee for hoisting logs up to the rim of the sand- stone plateaus. III. Steam power is now universally used out W'est in connec- tion with drums known as "Bull Donkey" and "Donkey"' engines. Skidding or snaking roads are usually dis- pensed with. Steel cable (^-inch plow steel) is used on the drums. The distance of haulage should not ex- \^ / ceed 1,200 feet. The main cable is pulled out by jX HsvM FOREST SU44JKJLK <^*** UTILIZATION 2-mch endless cable ("tripline") running into the dis- trict to be logged over a number of tackle blocks. Zig-^ zags can be made by using tackle blocks on the hauling ^ line as well. One engineer and one fireman are all the^ crew required in addition to two loaders. Frequently ™ the engine loads logs on railroad cars at the same time. The engine's cylinders are about 8 inches by 10 inches. Engines are moved from place to place by their own power. Price for an engine f. o. b. Biltmore is $1,400. Boilers are of the upright type. The wire cable is usually made of 6 strands, each containing 19 wires, wound around a hemp center. Running cables should never be galvanized . The proper' load of a cable is only one-fifth of the breaking strain in tons. Steel ropes (cables) have twice the strengt h of charc oal i ron ropes. One-inch steel wire cable cost s/ioc a foolfr ^veTghs about * 1 : 2 pounds per foot and has a breaking strain of 33 tons. Its proper load is 6 tons only. Silviculturally this method of steam logging is objectionable. §ix. WATER TRANSPORTATION. mber are driven loosely or floated in rafts. Loose driving is a method used in eastern America for short logs, pulp wood and firewood. Specific gravity of material driven must be reduced below 1.00. Heavy species might be deadened a year before driving, like teak in India, to attain this end, provided that attacks from fungi or insects, on the deadened trees, are not to be feared. Under favorable conditions, where the creeks are narrow and well watered, no special arrangements for driving are re- quired. L Splash dams. The proper site for a splash dam is the ^» rocky narrows of a water course below a broad bottom t of little fall, or else at the outlet of a natural lake. ^ Large splash dams must be placed on rock foundations. The expense of building increases at a cubic ratio with the height of the dam. sh dams built in tributaries are preferable to dams the main creek, provided that they can be filled uickly enough. A system of dams of first, second and third importance is frequently formed. The distance of effectiveness of a dam depends on the size of the water reservoir, the width of the water course below the dam. and the rapidity of its fall. On "Big Creek" in Pisgah Forest the distance of effective- ness was four miles. Splash dams meant to be perrhanent must be built of stone and are exceedingly expensive. FOREST UTILIZATION T he usu al splash dam consists of timber cribs filled with r ock an d joined by logs laid" crosswise. "'I he tront of the dam mu st be slanting and is covered" with a double l ayer of board's": The gateway^rrfTTie^dam must allow of rapid drawing (or opening) of the basin. The gates are either constructed barn door fashion, held in place by a strong key and lever, or consist of (vertical) piling, the individual piles to be lifted by a crowbar or drum. I Half-moon-shaped gates ^ ire used in the Lake S States and in the Adirondacks. »r The smaller the water supply and the greater the pressure «*^ the tighter must be the gate. w. The expense of a splash dam of the first order is from x $i,coo to $2,000. A timber splash dam lasts from six to \ ten years. Frequently additional small gates are made to give » "fore-water," meant to loosen the logs in the creek below the dam. The actual splash rather presses the logs down the creek, instead of floating the logs. . II. Dams in the creek bed itself are sometimes required to raise the water in a shallow section. III. Before driving begins, the creek bed must be cleaned out by removing old log jams, leaning trees and huge boulders. Sharp bends of the creek must be cut through, so as to straighten the creek bed. g IV. Fixtures along the bank of the creek are required to pre- vent logs from getting smashed when striking a bluff; from being thrown on the bank in a curve of the creek; from destroying the banks, and further to prevent the spread of water and loss of force, where a splash is expected to overrun adjoining flats. Such bank fixtures consist of: Pole cribs filled with rock, the poles lying solid, pole to pole, toward the creek, or of inclines of poles laid horizontally, supported by strong uprights from be- hind, or of alternating layers of fascines and stone, joined together by strong piling driven into the ground; or, finally, of brush laid on the sloping bank and irreg- ularly covered with rock. V. The bottom of the creek is sometimes paved with stone or poles laid lengthwise, where the bottom consists of clay. This is especially necessary in artificial channels or canals dug through sharp curves of the creek, or dug close to the connecting booms. VI. Booms. (a) European booms are rake booms, the teeth of the rake formed by strong palings. The tops of the teeth are connected by strong ^4 two sections, an j liagonally across i ?e boom stretch- ^8 "'t FOREST UTILIZATION 25 timber bars, which are held in place by stone cribs. These booms arc stretched diagonally across the river. The logs or wood are merely diverted by the boom and forced into an artificial side canal ending in a reservoir near the mill or„ depot. A gridiron or sieve, filtering the river at a water- fall and retaining the wood on the gridiron, ha^ been used in the Tyrol by the Bavarian Govern- ment for many decades, (b) The American boom consists of upper shear boom spanning di the stream and a lower storage ing for miles along the river bank, where the water is quiet and the current slow. Both* booms are floating booms consisting of one or two strings of prime logs, the logs joined by anchor chain. The booms are kept in place either by wire cables .}^-inch to an inch in diameter or by stone filled cribs. It is ad- visable to have the storage boom consist of yx independent sections so that the breakage of""*^ the boom empties one section only. Fre quently several mill concer ns form Room com- jianie s, A The logs are lifted out of the booms by "jack ~ works" or "log hoist-." VII. Driving and splashing must be considered a backwoods method, applicable to very cheap stumpage. It is not practiced on the Pacific coast, where we have very cheap stumpage, owing to the size of the logs and poor water facilities. Where there are plenty of natural lakes, in a coniferous country as in the Adirondacks, Michigan and Minnesota, the method continues to be practiced. Splashing is the more advisable : (a) The smaller the specific gravity of timber. (b) The shorter the logs. ■ (c) The lower the stumpage price. (d) The more reliable the rainy season and the gauge of the river. (e) The better the natural conditions are at the dam sites, in creek bed and at boom site. * (f) The poorer the natural conditions are for railroad 1 building and wagon road building. (g) The less land owned by other parties is traversed by splashed logs. ^ 31 ^ 26 FOREST UTILIZATION The more saw timber improves while being bathed in running water. ( i ) The longer the distance. (j ) The more inclined the log owner is toward taking risks and the less affected he is by reduced fertil- ity along the river bank. Remarks: In the pine woods of the South in olden times ditches were dug about three feet wide, connecting stumpage with swamps and rivers. The outlay per i.coo board feet in splashing and driving is from 50c to $1 (for manual labor only). River driving of cord wood at Biltmorc from the upper end of the estate to Asheville, inclusive of piling at the boom, costs 50c per cord. B. Rafting. Loose logs are tied into rafts at a place where the flow* of the creeks and rivers begins to be more gentle. Only rarely are rafts used in connection with splash dams on very rapid streams. (Black Forest. I According to the size and species of logs, rafts are formed either with the logs lying with the stream (longleaf pine rafts etc.), or with the logs lying square to the stream. In this latter case the length of the logs should not exceed eighteen feet. Square rafts consist usually of hardwood logs. I. Logs with the stream. (a) The logs are joined into raft sections, each sec- tion one log long; the narrow end of the log points down stream: joining usually by rope, cable or chain; ring dogs or eye dogs are used, or wooden pins in connection with auger holes. (b) At the tail section the rear ends of the logs are allowed to spread fan shaped. (c) The raft is directed by long rudders (sweeps), by brakes (poles which are pressed against the 1 iot torn of the river) and pike poles. (d) The width of the raft and the tightness of bind- ing depend on rapidity of the stream, span of bridges to be passed, sharpness of bends of river and width of river bed. Remarks: Ring dogs for rafting weigh about \V 2 pounds, are tour inches long and have a 2 T /2-inch ring, through which rope is run. Price 10c apiece. Eye dogs are made of ^-inch round iron, are six inches long and cost 6c per pound. II. Logs square to stream. (a) The ends are joined by cross poles, sometimes im- bedded in the logs and held in place by pins {■ FOREST UTILIZATION 2 - y driven into auger holes, or by chain raiting dogs, consisting of two small wedges joined by two rings and five links of chain. Weight 2 1 ] pounds. Price 12c. (b) The logs must have about equal length. Species' not floatable otherwise are. tied up with floaters of pine, yellow poplar, cottonwood and linden. In the .Mississippi two oak logs are floated by three cottonwood logs. (c) Such rafts are naturally stiff and cannot be used on rapid streams. The narrow and wide ends of the logs should alternate so as to keep the sections straight. C Flumes. Flumes resemble chutes made of boards. They must be water tight. They are largely used on the Pacific coast. I. A V-shaped cross section has proven best. Side boards are equally long, about 16 feet, in double layers. Angle of the Y= 110°. Top width is 3 feet to 4 feet. II. An even constant grade of from 1% to 3% is necessary, ^ also slight curves and large water supply, which is often v obtained from artificial reservoirs. High trestle bridges^^ are sometimes required. III. The main flume has a number of tributaries. A crew is f stationed along the flume; special attention is given to * the inlets of tributaries. Patrol trails along the flume. /*L IV. The flaming of logs is said to be unsuccessful. In the / ' West, anyh ow, the size and, weight o f t he logs would prev ent fluming.. Xowadayseither plains" or heavy di- mension stuff, to be resawn at the outlet of the flume, - are sent down. Only coniferous lumber is flumed. £ The lumber in the flume forms one continuous chain : ^ this arrangement prevents the lumber from sticking and catching at the side walls of the flume. V. Famous flumes are those at Chico— Sierra Nevada range (40 miles of flume'), the flume of the Bridal ' Veil Lumber Company and the Great Madeira flume, all in California. The last is 54 miles long and has a •V* daily carrying capacity of 400,000 feet of lumber. It / cost only $5,000 per mile. 7 The scarcity of water in California is the greatest ob- stacle to the continuous use of flumes. D. Water transportation over lakes and sea is effected in the fol- lowing way : I. In the "fiords" of the Pacific coast, logs standing upright are chained together so as to form a stockade in which the other logs are similarly placed, filling it tightly. Such stockades hold about half a million board feet of yt%u /^u-* , 6^-^ ^o-e<_^ ^^4^ ls^t d *^- £& FOREStf UTILIZATION f lumber at a time and form a seaproof raft, pulled to the mill by tugboats. II. Logs chained together in the form of a cigar-shaped raft after various patterns have proven a failure. These rafts were taken from the Oregon and Washington coast to San Francisco, being launched like a steamboat and towed by tugboats. To judge from newspaper re- ports cigar-shaped rafts of boards have proven a suc- cess. - The steamship companies consider cigar-shaped rafts a great danger to navigation. III. In carrying logs across the lakes in the Adirondacks and Lake States, light ring booms are used. The logs are placed in such booms at "the landing'' and are rafted (driven) to the outlet of the lake either by wind, cur- rent or tugboat. § X. . TRANSPORTATION UN LAND WITH VEHICLES. A. Sleighs and sleds. I. Hand sleighs, home made, very light, are frequently used abroad at grades of 10% and more. Man sits in front of load and directs with legs and side brake. On steep slopes such sleighs are used in summer as well. Fifty cubic feet is an average load for one man. The work- man carries his sleigh back uphill on his shoulders for the next load. Sleighing roads for summer sleighing frequently have cross ties at short intervals to be kept greasud^tslight grades. BL II. The American sled has nothing in commorWB^the European sled. A team of horses is always used for motive power. The sleigh, or sled, consists of two sets: The front set has a tongue of rock elm or pak and a front roller in which the tongue is set. Runners are 7 feet to 9 feet long, 3 inches to 4 inches wide, shod with ^2-inch steel shoes or cast iron shoes either below only or both above and below; they are either slightly convex or flat. The front of the runner should be of a natural curve or crook, not hewn. Material is white oak. The cross beams, either ironed or plain, rest in saddles or nose plates with knees. The "back roll" of the hind set is coupled to the front set by chains attached to the center of the front cross beam. There is no tongue to the hind set. III. Log binders are used on loading chains to take about half a foot of slack out of the chain, unless the same end is secured by poles and the twisting of the binding chain. > t^ FOREST UTILIZATION 29. IV. The usual load of a sleigh is five tons, while a wagon car- ries only two tons on an average. The actual load depends on distance, grade and condition of road. In the Adirondacks about 2,000 board feel form a load; in Ontario 1,500 feet of white pine or spruce. V. Sledding roads are constructed in the Adirondacks at an expense of $25 to $150 per mile. The sledding dis- tance is said not to exceed three miles, usually. The teaming expense is about 10c per 1,000 board feet per mile. The relative distance of snaking and sledding depends on configuration and density of stand. Sledding roads- are preferably built on swampy soil. Heavy grades re- quire a heavy outlay for sanding; insufficient grades a heavy outlay for icing. Carelessness in surveying sleigh roads is extremely expensive in short, mild, snowless winters. The modern lumberman surveys his roads with instrument in hand, completing them before snow- fall. To begin with, an empty or lightly loaded sleigh is run « over the road to mark and set the track. B. Transportation on two-wheeL-rs. I. High wheelers, wheels 7 feet to 10 feet high, are used in the pineries of the South, in California, and to a cer- tain extent in the Lake States for hauling coniferous logs of i'i feet average diameter and of extra long" length. Logs are loaded underneath the axle, either by using the tongue as a lever or with the help of a second axle having the form of a winch (Southern method). Logging distance in the South not to exceed half a mile, average one-quarter of a mile. Expense $1 per i.ooo board feet. The best makes are: Bodley Wagon Co.. Staunton, Va. ; Snyder Wagon Co., Shreveport, La. Prices from $100 to $150. II. Low wheelers, usually called "Bummers." the wheels con- sisting of a solid tree section held by iron rims i l / 2 feet in diameter. The top of the axle is even with the top of the wheels. The tongue is only six feet long and merely used as a lever in loading. The bummer is pulled by chain attached to point of tongue and is loaded by placing axle parallel to log close to center of log. with the tongue standing perpendicular, the log being fastened to the axle by short chains and dogs. 30 / FOREST i High and low wheelers are used on undulating ground for downhill pull on soil free from rock, swampy places, debris and brush. C. Log wagons. Log wagons are entirely used for transportation in the old country, where the forests arc traversed by a net- work of well graded stone roads. Wagons are always hand- made, of light weight and carry up to 1/ tons of logs" v [n carrying long boles, the front and hind trucks are separated. Steep curves can be made if the rear ends of the logs are fast- ened underneath .the axle of the hind truck. The American wagon has a track width, from center to center of tire, of 4 feet 6 inches or 5 feet. Wheels are usually made entirely of white oak. The wood is well seasoned. The tire is 3 inches, 5 inches and over. Front and hind wheels usually equally high — 2 feet to 3^ feet. Eight wheelers are now widely advertised. Skeins are preferably made of welded steel instead of cast, 3 inches to 5 inches in diameter. Steel axles have not proven a success, owing to difficulty of repairs in the backwoods. Bolsters should reach to or over the top of the wheels. The reach should allow of changing distance between front and rear set. Main requirements are: I. Strength. IT. Possibility of repair- in the woods. HI. Low point of gravitation. IV. Ease of loading. V. Ease in turning. VI. Light weight of wagon it -elf. Prices for log wagons range from $80 to $200 according to carry- ing capacity. Weight from 800 to i.S-: OKI- ST UTILIZATION top of the rail was shod with a strip of ^-inch iron, the ends joined by hook and pin, and by hole and pin. Steel sectional tracks of 2V2-inch gauge are manufactured by the C. W. Hunt Co., New York. The trucks used have the wheel flange outside. Curves and switches are ready made. Straight sections are 6 feet to 20 feet long. II. Stationary track. (a) Grade. A proper survey is very essential. For steep grades (over 7%) a soft rail is required. Grades of 11% are feasible on straight track for locomotives having eight drivers. High percentage for very short distance is, how- ever, permissible. Logging roads in the South have grades running up to 15% for uphill traffic, obtaining the neces- sary impetus by a corresponding downhill grade. The expense of maintaining the track and the x frequency of accidents render steep grades highly C-xpensive. The standard railroads have never ov-er 4% grade. (b) Curves. The minimum radius of curves depends on gauge of track; distance between axles of front and hind trucks ; length of timber to be carried and grade in the curve. Curvature is measured by the subtended angle, the (secant) chord of which is 100 feet. Standard railroads do not allow of an angle exceeding 10%. In curves, to relieve the increased friction, and, further, to prevent the trucks from jumping the track, owing to centrifugal force, three remedies are required : 1. Lessened speed and reduced grade. In practice for standard gauge of 56^2 inches, for each degree of curvature the grade is released by 0.02% ; for narijow gauge by 0.03%. 2. The outer rail is elevated for standard track by ^4-inch for every degree of curvature; for 36-inch gauge (usual nar- row gauge) by 1-3 inch for each degree of curvature. 3. The track is widened in curves by 1-16 inch for every 2 l / 2 degrees of curvature. (c) Rails. The form is usually the T rail. Grooved rails, flat rails, rails inclined toward center of track etc. are freaks merely. In logging rail- ^ 1 O *r- FOREST UTILIZATION 33 roads the rails are often fastened lengthwise on sawn or hewn stringers, which arrangement allows of light rail. The gauge is measured inside the tops of the rails if the flange is inside, and outside the rails if the flange is outside. If the wheel has a double flange, measure from center to center of rails. In lumbering operations, the standard gauge (56^2 inches) is generally preferred, since heavier loads can be taken and since the rolling stock can be disposed of more readily at the end of operations. Of the narrow gauges 36 inches is best, since the odd gauges prevent ready exchange of addition to and sale of rolling material. In mountainous sections narrow gauge is preferred. Here the expense of wide gauge track is too high, since it requires flatter curves, smaller grades and largely increased outlay for roadbed. In standard lumbering operations a heavy (56 pounds) rail is now preferred, the up-keep of track being cheaper. 'he bed for the track being less expensive and fewer ties being required for the heavy rail. Light rails are so twisted, after short use, that they cannot be sold at second hand. For 36-inch gauge a rail weighing 16 pounds to 20 pounds is best. Rule for number of tons of rail required per mile : 1. Tons of 2.000 pounds. Multiply the weight of the rail by 7/4 and you obtain the number of tons required per mile. For example, 20-pound rail x 7/4 = 35 tons. 2. Tons of 2,240 pounds (after which rails are usually sold). Multiply weight of rail by 11/7 instead of by 7/4. The price per ton of rail (steel) varies from $25 to $35. The interdependence between locomotive's weight and minimum weight of rail per- missible is given by the following equa- tion : wherein w stands for weight of locomo- tive in tons ; 11 stands for number of *j nve in tons ; n stands 1 34 FOREST UTILIZATION drivers; r stands for minimum weight of rail in pounds. Estimates of cost of track, exclusive of rolling stock and bridge arrangements, vary from $1,300 to $4,300 per mile for ? easy grading. One-half of the expense in this case is for rails, spikes and splice joints (fish plates). The grading and laying of track costs from $300 to $i,coo per mile for easy grading; and cross tics cost about as much. Estimate of cos1 per"mile for 1. Sixteen-pound steel rail, requiring ^| 25 tons of rail @ %?>2 per ton.$ 80^00 1.7S0 pounds of 3 T/ jx->s in. spikes ^^ at 2C per pound 35-6o 357 splice joints at 20c T . 71. 40 2,640 cross ties at 15c 39fj.oo Grading and track laying 500.00 Total $[,803.00 J 2. 40-pound steel rail, requiring 63 ^ * tons oi rail at $30 per ton $1,890.00 4,696 pounds of 4x^/2 in. spikes at 2c a pound 93-8o 357 splice joints at 40c each 142.80 2,640 cross ties at 25c each 660.00 Grading and laying track 1,000.00 J *V >^ Total $3.786.'o7 r (d) Cars. Cars consisting of two trucks, of two axles each, form the rule The trucks should be very low and should have short distance between axles where curves are heavy. For narrow gauge tracks, special trucks are constructed costing from $50 to $80. While steel trucks are more satisfactory in the old country, in America trucks with wooden framing and wooden bolsters arc usually pre- ferred, owing to greater case of repair far from factory. The bearings are frequently outside as well as inside the wheels, so as to have the frame sup- ported at eight instead of at four points of the two axles. The bolsters, swiveled on the Frame, are very frequently much longer 1 v (wider) than the axles. [y^LO* ^ FOREST UTILISATION fl /I The weight and capacity of logging cars should be as follows : /Capacity J fright in lbs. in board feet. 4 wheel cars 3.000 lbs. T,ooo b. ft. 4 wheel cars 4.000 lbs. 1,500 b. ft. 4 wheel cars 5,000 lbs. 2,000 b. ft. . • 3 N^ 4 wheel cars 6,000 lbs. 2,500 b ft J 1J 8 wheel cars 6.000 lbs. 2,000 b. ft J ^ 8 wheeI cars 8.400 lbs. 3,000 b. ft. w W . 8 wheel cars 9,600 lbs. 4,000 b. ft. ( j ^jk 8 wheel cars 11,000 lbs. 5,000 b. ft. « * ? . (e) Locomotives. Vx ^$ ^v^ Logging locomotives are manufactured by the Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia; ^ft \ H. K. Porter, Pittsburg, Pa. ; ^tK * 3 Climax Mfg. Co., Corry, Pa.; Stearns Locomotive Co., Erie, Pa. (for Heissler . V geared locomotives). The price is practically independent of the gauge, being influenced more by horsepower. Four driving wheels are usually sufficient. On steep grades, six wheels and, on very steep grades, eight wheels are used. The resistance to be overcome by the tractive force is: jT ^ W £ l - Gravity, which increases in exact propor- 3 «r i r ti0n t0 steepness of g rade expressed in S .T C 4 P er cent - Thus it is always 20 pounds A M ^^^y per ton for each per cent. O ^ 2 - Friction of the journals and of the wheel ^0^*f **\ *\^^ flanges against the rails, which depends, \} I J J^^^ aside fr om curvatures, on quality of the track and of rolling stock. It is at least 5 pounds per ton ; it amounts to I \ ^*^S*^ 6 ^"' P° unds for first class equipment; p ^T^^ *° 2 ° P° unds to 40 pounds for bad J ^sy equipment, and in extreme cases it rises to 100 pounds. Tractive force is understood to be one- fifth of t he weight, in pounds, on the~driving * wheels, expressed in to n s. For instance: Weight on driving wheels 25,000 pounds, divided by 5=5,000 pounds; and 5,000 tons is therefore the tractive force of the engine. 36 FOREST UTILIZATION The hauling capacity of an engine is : tractive force divided by the sum of the fric- tional and gravity resistance, both ex- pressed in pounds, deducting the weight of the locomotive from the quotient. For example : Weight of locomotive on 4 driving wheels = 20,000 pounds. Tractive force is 4,000 tons. First case — Frictional resistance 8 pounds per ton, grade level. Then the hauling ca- pacity equals 4,000 tons over 8 (friction) plus o (gravity) minus 10 = 490 tons. 4000 -minus 10 = 490 tons. 8+0 Second case — Frictional resistance same as above, grade i%. 4CO0 minus 10 = 133 tons. 8+20 Third case — Frictional resistance 8 pounds, grade 2%. 4000 minus 10 = 73 tons'. 8+40 The cost of hauling logs on a standard rail- road, per carload of 40.006 pounds, amounts to $5 for distances of one to fifty miles, and to $6 for distances of fifty to one hundred miles. Porter's catalogue gives the cost of hauling as ranging from 30c to 60c per 1,000 h. ft. for a logging distance of from five to ten miles. At Chicora, Ala., two standard trains provide daily, to- gether, ico.oco b. ft., coming from a distance of about eight miles. Small (narrow gauge) locomotives haul from 60,000 to 120,000 b. ft. per week over distances of from five to ten miles. Where grades are nol excessive, a locomotive should cover daily 60 to 80 miles, the hauling distance varying from 2 to 10 miles. G. Mono rail. The mono rail portable railway is a French invention (Caillet) and has been tried to a limited extent in India. It consists of one rail only, resting on steel sole plates at intervals of a few feet, and is laid down direct on the surface of the ground. Rails are joined together by scab- bard fish plates. The trucks have two low wheels, grooved #£*—» ^^ w '^ '*^^7^,~c^ >^iV^ FOREST UTILIZATION 37 at the rim, the carriage hanging between the wheels a few inches above the rail. Cars are balanced by a telescopic rod and kept in balance, like a bicycle, by the motive power itself, which consists of an animal hitched in a frame along- side of the carriage. The mono rail system might be applicable in the transporta- tation of bark, cordwood and minerals. Cable way logging. The logs are suspended from a cable and are not dragged on the ground. I. On steep slopes, the grade being 35% to 50%, the logs slide down by gravity, being suspended from two trolley blocks held apart by a strong rod or pole, about 15 feet long. At the upper end of the cable, curved iron rails lead, like a bridge switch, onto the cable. The cable is kept tight by heavy drums, over which the cable runs at the ends. It is said to wear out in about eight years. The :peed of the block carriage is regulated by manila rope, wire or light wire cable, and the empty block carriage is carried backward by the same rope without any motive power other than that of a loaded block- carriage going down hill. Proper switches allow the empty block carriage to pass the loaded one at a half-way point. The price of i-inch wire cable is about 15c per foot. In Switzerland lines two miles long are found, without any supports. In the Hartz Mountains supports are given every 700 feet and the expense is $800 per mile for entire equipment. In Oregon and western North Carolina short cable con- duits of this character are in successful use, and in India (in the Himalayas) the most extensive plants of this character are said to exist. II. In swamps of the Atlantic coast, where railroading is difficult, the system of the Trenton Iron Co. and of the Lidgerwood Manufacturing Co. have been tried which move the block carriage holding the logs in suspense over a cable either by steam power or by electricity. (a) In case of steam power, the engine is placed either on a scow swimming in the swamp, in the river, in the logging canal cut by powerful dredges, or on a railroad car, the logging outfit costing about $7,500 per mile (including lateral rig), consisting of: One-inch carrying cable and double traction rope: 3 8 FOREST UTILIZATION Double block carriage with differential hoist and log grip ; Brackets, supporting the cable; Steam engine with hoisting drum ; Lateral hauling-in rig, by which logs are dragged to the main carrying line over distances running up to 1,000 feet, (b) In case of electric power, the outfit, costing $6,200 per mile, consists of: One-inch carrying cable and J^-inch single current rope, which is swung thrice over a grooved sheave ; Generating machines and 20-horsepowcr st«am engine ; Carriage, including the log support and th« motor with sheave, which has a speed of six miles an hour. I. Loading arrangements are required, wherever vehicles are used, except for bummers. I. Loading on wagons. (a) Sliding logs from a higher bank onto vehicles. Only one layer can thus be loaded conveniently. (b) Rolling logs up an incline, either with peavies or rope, the top of the incline resting on the tops of the wheels. (c) A (drum) winch in front of wagon, incline be- hind wagon, pulling logs up by rope. (d) Tackle block attached to a tree, the wagon stand- ing between the tree and log; the end of rope attached to outside wheel and the free end pulled by animals. (e) The skidway scheme. Trained horses running on prepared track opposite the skidway. Two poles leading from skidway to wagon ; rope running from outer wheel of wagon under and around the log and back over the wagon to the horses. (f) A jack, consisting of a gear wheel and a toothed iron rod. (g) German lever arrangement. II. Loading on railroad cars. Additional methods. (a) A huge tripod and Weston's differential hoist. (b) A drum and wire cable rig. the loading cable running over a tackle block suspended over track. (c) Cranes or derricks as used on the harbor docks, a special make of which is known as the w ^wh^ ^ ^^-^ ^f* sj*~*7 FOREST UTILIZATION 39 "Decker log loader." There is some mechanical difficulty in constructing loaders of a sufficient' angle of leverage. § XI. CHOICE BETWEEN THE VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF TRANSPORTATION. Conditions governing the selection of means of transportation are: A. Topography. Steep grades make it advisable to send products down by their own weight, so that animals and vehicles need not reascend the grade. B. Periodicity of rain and snow fall (West Virginia for^spring rains, Lake States for snow fall, California for spring drouth) invite the use of means relying on water supply, on layers of snow, on dry soil. C. Roc^y soil entails blasting expenses and thus b%s railroading and road building, Wet or swampy soil requires an artificial surface ori which means of transportation ^e placed. D. Existence of drivable creeks and rivers, theirWrade, rockiness, curves, steadiness of flow, the spans and number of bridges crossing them, the danger or help expected from freshets are factors bearing on the advisability of water courses used as means of transportation. Electric power derivable from water falls might be used as motive power in days to come. « E. Availability of building material in the forest, especially the price of rails and ties and quality of stone etc. F. Ttotal amount of stumpage, aftd stumpage per acre to be carried away from a given locality annually, periodically or . once only. G. Maximum weight and size, also average weight and size of pieces to be handled. H. Price and effect of day labor and prospects of changing prices under the influence of labor laws and socialistic legislation. : I. Relative price of team labor and of manual labor. The ratio between price of hand labor and team labor abroad is I to 8. In this country it is i to 2^; in Lake States even less, viz., I to 2. J. Condition of existing public means of transportation; roads, railroads and navigable rivers. K. Laws relative to rights of way and relative to damage inflicted on outsiders in the course of transportation, i. e., by splashing logs ; raising water level of lakes and thus destroying trees etc. L Mileage of the various links forming the chain of transportation and speculation as to the building of additional public links of transportation. M. Silvicultural considerations, or choice between conservative and destructive lumbering. Donkey engines are the destroyers of any second growth left on the ground and should be used only in clear cutting. High two wheel logging carts are used abroad to save young growth. • • ^^ 40 FOREST UTILIZATION N. Possibility and amount of damage to logs and loss of logs in course of transportation. Loss of bark. Loss of sap-wood. Deterioration by fungi and insects. Theft. Loss of interest on value of logs. O. Regularity and reliability of means of transportation. P. Possibility of using the means of transportation for purposes other than carrying forest products (access to mines and farms; passenger traffic; »pplies for lumber camps; use of snaking roads as fire lanes, patrol trails, sport trails). ^ The general political and economic condition of the country (settled or unsettled): the possibility of financial surprises. T^x. J ■^i A* tr',.> • a* ■<-* (^ fltoirt If If . flDanutacture tf uci### prOucts. •HAPTER IV. F#UNBATI#NS •¥ MANUFACTURE. § XII. THE AMERICAN F^ESTER AS A LUMBERMAN. In the old country, a large portion of the products grown in the forest go to the holders of prescriptive rights (easements). The balance is sold either under private contract or at public auction or under sealed bids. tn France, standing stumpage is sold, while in Germany the trees are dissected, at the owner's expense, into assortments required by the local manufacturing trades. Usually, in the old country, the raw products of the forest are not refined by the forest owner. The forest industries are in the hands of parties who do not own or control an acre of woodland. In Canada, timber leases or timber limits are sold at public auction. The purchaser pays, aside from the auction price, an annual rental (so called ground rent) and, further, for every i^BPfeet b. m. cut, a specified royalty. Neither ground rent nor royalty is object of the auction sale. On the forest reserves of the United States auction sales are meant to form the main method of disposal of forest products, exceptions being made only in the interest of local residents. The private owner of woodlands in the United States, and his forester, is and will be compelled to be a wood manufacturer for many a year to come. The lumberman need not be a forester; but the forester must be a full fledged and experienced l umberman. Woe to conservative forestry in the United States it the forester; satisfied to give theoretical advice, fails to devote to lumbering and manufacture the larger part of his energy! § XIII. MOTIVE I'OW a> Motive power is supplied by : A. Actual animal power said to be used in Texas for running port- able saw mills. B. Wind-mills, which furnish an insufficient and unreliable power. Water-mills. The horse power of falling water is : v X h X 62.5 33000 wherein stands : v for volume of discharge in cubic feet per minute ; and h for height of fall in feet ; and wherein 62.5 represents the weight of a cubic foot of water and 33,000 equals one horsepower per minute. \ (41) 42 FOREST UTILIZATION For example, if cross section of a race is = 2 sq. ft., water velocity = 660 ft. per minute, height of water fall 30 ft., then the 2X30X600 ■ 62.5 =75 H. P. ■-. * * SSOJ0 § • % Water wheels are either vertical, i. e., overshot, breast or under- shot wheels, or horizontal wheels, i. e., turbines. I. Oversh ot whee l. Effective power is 60% to 70% of pos- "siDle' power. The proper velocity at the circumference is S feet per second and at best if it is equal to 0.55 of velocity of water. In falls of 20 feet to 40 feet and over, overshot wheels are more effective than turbines. The buckets, framed by the shrouding, should be curved or elbowed and not radial. They should have a capacity three times as large as the volume of water actually carried, a depth of 10 inches to 12 inches and a distance apart, from center to center, of 12 inches. Ventilated buckets, having holes in the bottom and allowing air to escape, are said to have a better effect. It is difficult *?# transform the slow speed of an overshot into the rapid speed required for a circular saw. Trans- formation is either by countershaft or by cog wheel. • II. The breast wheel has an effective power of from 45% to 65%, is best applied to falls of from 5 feet to 15 feet and to a discharge of from 5 to 80 cubic feet per second. While in the overshot the water works by weight only, it works in the breast wheel largely by impact. The velocity of wheel should be such as to fill the buckets to 0.5 or 0.6 of their volume. The buckets here are usually called blades and must he ventilated. The wheel runs in a curb or mantle, formed by the inclined and tffsed end of the sluicewaV The distanc ^jrf the blades, from center to center, should equal the depth of the shrouding, both being from 10 inches to 15 inches. The clearance between the curb and the shrouding must be at least half an inch. "High breast" wheels are semiovershot and "low breast" wheels are semiundershat wheels. The "flutter" wheel is a low breast wheel of small diameter ~~ and high speed. It is largely used in western North Carolina for saw-mill purposes where water is plenti- ful and fall about 12 feet. III. Undershot or current whee h>_have an efficiency of from 27% to 45% only and are usually kept anchored in rapid streams, so as to he independent of water gauge. No- buckets, but lung blades instead. V FOREST UTILIZATION 43 The diameter of the wheel is from 13 feet to 16^2 feet; usually 12 blades, the depth of which is 3 feet to 4 feet. The blades should be completely submerged when pars- ing underneath the axle. IV. Turbines have an efficiency of 60% to 80^2. The water does not work by weight, but by impact, pressure, reac- tion and suction. The speed is much higher than in vertical wheels and hence is well adapted for circular saw mills. A turbine, however, is badly affected by variations of water supply and suffers from debris and sand and ice. The effect of the water is greatest when the turbine is entirely under water, the flow of water filling the curved channel completely. T u r b in es arej _ (a) Outward flow turbines, water fed from near the center. (b) Downward flow turbines, water fed and press- ing from above. (c) Inward flow turbines, water fed from the perim- eter. (d) Reaction turbines, working after the principle of a lawn sprinkler. (e) Impulse turbines, principle of flutter wheels. Modern turbines are worked both by im- pact and reaction and, if possible, by suc- tion. A 9-inch turbine, furnishing 14 horsepower, costs $j;o. plus $100 for setting it in masonry. The advantages of water mills are: no fuel, no fireman, no engineer, no explosion, less insurance, possibility of using dust and slabs for stable bedding, laths etc. Disadvantages are : usually small power, small speed and small capacity. Power less controllable, less reliable than steam power and not portable. Small capacity does not justify a large outlay for good saw- mill machinery. D. Steam mills. For circular saws, the number of horsepower required is about = 1/3 the diameter of the saw. For example, a 48- inch circular saw requires 16 horsepower. Ten horsepower are said to manufacture 5.000 b. feet daily in circular saw- mills, and 30 horsepower will cut 30,000 b. feet daily. Every additional horsepower should increase the capacity by 1,000- b. feet. In large mills each horsepower ought to manufacture 1,000 b. feet ; in small mills only 500 b. feet. 44 FOREST UTILIZATION Boilers in common use are designated ;is : I. Internally fired boilers, when firebox and waterbox are /* comprised by one and the same steel shell ; so all port- able boilers and all locomotive boilers. (a) Cornish boiler: large flues below and return Hue above water through entire length of boiler. (b) Lancashire boiler: divided Hue below and divided flue above water through entire length of boiler, so as to even the draft when firing, and so as tn strengthen the broad heating surface. (c) Galloway boiler: like Cornish but V-shaped tubes besel the boiler proper, thus increasing -the-bcut- ing surface and strengthening the flue^^- (d) Locomotive boiler: firebox -smTrounded by a waterleg on all sides, excepting at the grate below. A bank of small tubes carries gases to an "extension" or "snioke__box" in front of smoke stacfc- ~"~~ II. Externally fired boilers: masonry firebox underneath boiler which is traversed by a large number of tubes, (iases pass first to combustion chamber at rear end and then through tubes back to front. To II belongs the water tube boiler, with inclined tubes, a horizontal top vessel and vertical tail tubes, cre- ating a continuous circuit of water. (a) Pointers about boilers. welve square feet of heating surface of boiler furnish one horsepower. Each nominal horsepower requires one cubic foot or yy'i gallons of water per hour. 3. Mud drum at base of boiler to receive impurities deposited by water. Where no mud drum exists, boiler should be blown off weekly through a bot- tom valve ( mud cock). 4. Steam and water capacity must be suf- ficient to prevent any fluctuation in pressure or water level. 5. A large water surface (horizontal ver- sus uprighl boilers) prevents steam from bearing water particles along. Usefulness of dome is doubtful as a means to secure the return of watery particles to the boiler. (1. Water should occupy three-quarters of boiler space. t'omt t pcMest UTILIZATION 45 Water space should be divided into sec- tions, an arrangement improving the circulation of water and reducing the severity of any explosion. 7. Modern boilers are tubular boilers, which have the largest heating sur- face. Diameter of tubes is measured outside, including metal. 8. Combustion chamber should allow of full combustion of fuel and gases. Draft area should be one-eighth of grate area. Return flues pass the gases to the entrance of the combustion chamber. Heating surface should be as nearly as possible at right angles to the current of escaping gases. 9. Very best water gauges, safety valves, injectors and steam gauges are pre- requisite-. All boiler fixtures should be readily accessible. 10. Safety valves must be tried once daily. The water level should be controlled by gauge cocks, glass gauges alone being unreliable. 11. Cold water should not be fed directly into boiler and should never come in direct contact with the boiler metal. Steam injectors will not lift hot water as well as cold water. 12. Steam pressure gauge must stand at zero when pressure is off. 13. In case of low water and danger of ex- - plosion, cover fire with wet earth. 14. If fire is fed from mill refuse, steady heat can be retained only with boilers of large water capacity. The larger the boiler the greater the fuel econ- omy, (b) Pointers about engines. 1. Horsepower of engines is: Sectional area of piston in square inches times pressure times velocity in feet over 550. Deduct io7o to 20% for friction. Pressure on the piston is not much over one-half of pressure in the boiler (60%). A 6 F0REST UTILIZATION 2. Interdependence between size of cylin- der and horsepower actually devel- oped is approximately: Diameter, Inches I 81 9!10|12|12|12jl4|16 ir, ir> if, ir, -o l>4 -jt :;.i I [orsepon er I21o!20|25i30|35|50|85 These figures hold good for single cylin- der engines and are much lower than the usual catalogue figures. A new engine develops more power than an old one. 3. The flywheel should weigh 600 pounds for every inch of cylinder diameter. 4. Double cylinders are more effective than single cylinders, especially if not hitched tandem fashion, which ar- rangement, however, allows of using one piston rod. 5. Center crank engines are preferable for small portable saw-mills, since they allow of exchange of flywheel and main driving pulley. 6. Machines cannot get along any better, without care, than horses. Repair and watch the smallest defects. Have the firmest possible foundations. Saw-mill engines are put to the sever- est possible tests owing to frequent and rapid change of strain. § XIV. TRANSMISSION OF POWER. A. Belts. Belts in woodworking establishments are always dry and dusty and are kept at a high and often irregular rate of speed. Dust materially decreases the transmitting power of belts. The heavier the belt the more powerful ; use light belt on small pulleys, however, for high speeds. I. Pointers about belts . (a) Belt tighteners are required where a belt itself is not heavy and not long enough to cause suffi- cient sag. (b) T he say sl-innbl nKvnvs hf on, top anH not on the bottom. (c) The angle of belt against the horizon should not exceed 45 °. •(d) Placing one pulley above another requires tight belt, which causes heating in the bearings and destruction to the belt. F0REST UTILIZATION 47 (e) Belts should run off a shaft in opposite directions to relieve one sided friction of shaft in hearings. (f) The pulley must be wider than the belt. (g) The larger the pulley the greater the tractive power of the belt, (h) Be sure that the belt does not rub against any beam or other solid object, (i) Long belts, have greater adhesion than short belts because they have more weight. (j) Belt dressing, to prevent slipping off of belt, is objectionable, because it gathers dust and dirt, except perhaps linseed oil used on rubber belts' (k) Belts will slip if: 1. The pulleys do not run in one and the same plane. 2. The shaftings are not parallel. 3- The pulley is not as wide as the belt. 4- The belt ends are improperly joined. 5- The speed is too high for the weight of the belt. II. Kinds of belts : (a) Leather belts. — -v Leather belts are either single or double. They ( come in rolls of from 200 feet to 300 feet, are ^~ run with the grain side in and are preferably joined with studs— not by leather laces requiring holes; belt cement is now largely used, laps being joined to a fine edge. Leather belts must be very well protected from moisture, grease, lubricating oil etc. Transmitting power of a single belt is only 70% of that of a double belt. The price of a 7-inch single belt per running foot is $r. For double belt $2. (b) Rubber belts. Rubber belts withstand moisture better than leather belts. They are cut from % inch to % inch shorter per foot than the circuit on which they run and are run with seam side out. They are sold as 2, 4, 6 or 8 ply rubber belt, the 4 ply being equivalent to single leather belting and the 6-ply to double leather belting. The price of 4-ply 7-inch rubber belting is 70c per running foot; of 6-ply, $1. The ends are joined either by belt cement or by lace leather. The laps are strengthened by a strip of leather on the outside. Never use metal studs in rubber belts. F0%ES1 UTILIZATION Pulleys. Pulleys are made either of iron or of wood. The adhesion of leather to wood is much greater than to iron, hence greater transmitting power of wooden pulleys. Split wood pulleys are preferable. The best make is the Dodge Split wood pulley, costing for 24-inch diameter and 10-inch face $11.20. The so called clutch pulleys consist of two wheels wedged one into the other, the inner one loose, the outer one fastened onto the shaft. Iron pulleys must be absolutely symmetrical Pulleys for stationary belts are slightly crowning, while thi shitting belts are straight faced. Pulleys for heavy work should be placed close to bearings of shaft. The main driving pulley must stand between bearings not over four or five feet apart. The ratio between the speed of driving and driven pulley is inverse to the ratio of the diameter. Remarks relative to starting and stopping machinery: I. Machinery is started by belt tighteners, the belt running over flanged pulleys, by clutch pulley, by tight and loose pulley with shifting belt, by eccentric boxes and by fric- tion pulleys. II. A rotation is reversed by crossed belts (belt turning 180°) or by paper friction pulleys or by forcing the belt against a driven pulley remaining outside the belt cir- cuit. 111. A rotation is turned at right angles by giving the belt a quarter-twist (go°), or by gear and pinion or by beveled friction. Shafting. ('old rolled shafting is said to have a torsional strength 30 % greater than that of hot rolled shafting. The usual diameters of shafting in saw mills are from i'j inch to ,V_. inch. The proper speed for shafting is 300 to 400 revolutions 1 » x R and its transmitting power is given a- - = horsepower. 80 Herein stands: V) for diameter of shafting; R for revolutions of shafting per minute; 80 for a constant factor. Couplings by which the sections of shafting are joined should be close to a hanger or a support. They should be easily detachable without driving keys. E comes in sections usually 12, 14. 16 or 18 feet long. The section closest to the main driven pulley is often Stronger than the oilier sections. UTILIZATION 49 The bearings should be long, say four times as long as the shafting is thick, and should have self-lubricating devices. Hangers for 3-inch shafting and of 3-ft. drop cost about $20. Bearing-boxes are lined with an anti-friction alloy melting easily and offering little friction even under severe pressure. A space of % inch to V2 inch is left between the cast-iron box and the shafting (journal) to be supported. The box is held in a "bab- bitting jig" while the melted alloy is poured from a ladle. Bab- bitt metal (invented by Isaac Babbitt) consists of about 96 parts tin, 4 parts copper and 8 parts antimony. Rules for shafting are: I. Be sure that line of shafting is parallel to axis of driver. II. Place all heavy work on the main shaft and close to the main driver. III. Oil freely and watch bearings constantly. • Oil after stop- ping work, while hearings are still warm. IV. Drive only minor machinery from gear wheels. Price of shafting is about 5c or 6c per lb. § XV. TECHNICAL USE MADE OF THE TREES. BY SPECIES. A. Hardwoods. Cucumber tree: Ox yokes; pump logs: water troughs: cabinet making; ceiling; flooring; invariably mixed with and substituted for yellow poplar. \ Tulip tree or yellow poplar: Panels; flooring; molding; clap- boarding; sheathing; shingles; siding on railroad oars; interior finish of Pullman cars; coffins; cheap furniture; bodies of car- riages and sleighs; sides and bottoms of farm wagon beds; wood- ^ enware; bungs; slack barrels and tobacco hogsheads (staves and ^^ heading); hacking for pianos and for veneers; boxes, especially^ biscuit boxes and cigar boxes; scroll saw work; wood carving; A wood burning; matches; excelsior; paper pulp. Linden or basswood: Mirror and picture backs; drawers and backs of furniture; molding; woodenware; panels and bodies of carriages ; ceiling ; wooden shoes abroad : inner soles of shoes; cooperage heading; slack barrel staves; butter churns; laths; boxes; grape baskets; excelsior; parts of pianos and organs ; fine carving ; papier mache ; paper pulp. The flowers V are used for tea; the inner bark for coarse cordage and matting. Holly or ilex: Mallets; edging and engraving blocks; fine cabinet work; painting on wood; tool handles; mathematical instru-^, ments. Buckeye: Artificial limbs; woodenware; paper pulp; wooden hats ; fine wood carving. Maple (western): Furniture; axe handles: frames of snowshoes. Maple (eastern): Furniture (curly and birdseye) ; flooring; sugar barrels; mantels; runners of sleighs; peavy handles; ox yokes; axe handles; sides and bridges of violins; wooden- 1 /< i So FOREST UTILIZATION ware; wooden shovels; shoe pegs and lasts; gun stocks; sad- dle trees; teeth of wooden gear wheels; piano keys and ham- mers; wood split pulleys; framework of machinery; ship build- ing; maple sugar*; surveyor's implements; plane stocks : wooden type-: Faucets; clothespins; charcoal; acetate of lime; wood alo ifa I. Sumach: Tanning; dyeing and dressing skins; Japanese lacquer work'. Black locust: Police clubs; fence posts; insulator pins; construc- tion work (bridge); turnery; wheelwright work; tree nails (pins); ship building (ribs); hubs of wheels; house founda- tion. Mesquit: Fence posts and rails; used extensively for fuel (de- structive to boilers). Black cherry: Fine furniture; cabinet work; interior finish; tool handle-; surveyor's implements. Crabapdle: Pipes, mallets; wooden measure rules; tool handles. Witch hazel : Pond's extract. Dogwood: Tool handles; spools; bobbins; shuttles; mauls; wheel hubs; machinery bearings; engraving blocks. Black gum: Heavy (wagon) hubs; rollers in glass factories; mangles; ox yokes; stock of sledge hammers in steam forges; veneers for berry baskets and butter dishes; slack barrels; in cheap furniture, for backing and drawers; barn flooring. Tupelo gum: Chemical paper fibre; slack barrel staves (rotary veneer cut); wooden shoes and woodenware; the corky root is used under the name of corkwood for bicycle handles and float- ers of fishing nets. Sweet gum: Known in Europe as satin walnut and used for fine furniture and cabinet work, in America For cheap furniture; cheap building lumber; flooring; plug tobacco and cigar boxes; wagon beds; slack barrels; strawberry boxes; veneer cut dishes; coiled hoops; street paving. Sourwood: Tool handle-; machinery bearings; sled runners. >Rhododendron : Bruyere pipes; tool bandies; turnery; toys; rustic furniture. Persimmon: Bobbins; spools; shuttles; tools; golf club heads; plane stocks; shoe lasts; wood engraving. The black heart is cut into veneers and used for ebony. White ash: Wagons and carriages (poles, shafts, frames); in- terior woodwork; inner parts of furniture; mantelpieces; sport- oods (bats etc.), oars and gymnastic bars; lances; agri- cultural implements; tennis racquets; snowshoes; skis: wooden pulleys; barrel hoops ; pork barrel slaves; baskets; dairy pack- ings (firkins, tubs etc.) ; tool handles. * A Catalpa: Fence posts; railroad ties ; telegraph polo- -K Sassafras: Light skiffs; fence posts; rails; cooperage; insect- proof boxes; ox yokes. Roots v.^-<\ to make sarsaparilla. r ard^ gun stocks; tool handles - Ch< r 9W •T UTILIZATION S1 California laurel: Ship building; cabinet work and interior finish. Elms: Wheel stock, (.specially hubs; fence posts; ribs of small boats; top spans in covered railroad cars; railroad ties; tongues for sleighs and sleigh runners ; saddletrees; flooring; exported for inner lining of boats ; butcher blocks and churns (butter) ; cheese boxes; imitation oak furniture; sugar and flour barrel staves; patent coiled hoops for slack cooperage ; agricultural implements; bicycle rims; basket making; gun stocks; frame timber of piano cases ; wheelbarrows ; hockey sticks. Hackberry: Fencing: occasionally for cheap furniture; names. Mulberry: Fencing; cooperage; in the South for boat building; axe handles. Osage orange: Fencing; paving blocks: railroad ties; wheel stock ; toothpicks ; fine mallets. Sycamore: Furniture; plug tobacco boxes ; butchers' blocks terior finish; beehives (hollow log sections); butter and 1 trays : wooden bowls. Walnuts : Interior finish ; furniture cabinet work: boat building. Hickories: Axe handles; wagon stuck, especially whiffletrees; neck yokes; spokes; tongues; felloes; skeins; backboards; rustic furniture: barrel hoops; screws: mallets; parts of tex- tile machinery; farm implements; wooden rails (top) ; baskets; bows of ox yokes; boat building; hickory bark for flavoring (to imitate maple syrup). bite and burr): Furniture: wagon and carriage stock, especially spokes, fell, es, hubs, tongues, hounds, bolsters, sand- boards, readies, brake bars, axletrees-, whiffletrees; railroad ties; affreight car building (framework); shipbuilding: house build- ng and interior finish; shingles: agricultural implements; bridge building; mining timber; wine, beer and whisky barrels: par- quet flooring; staircases; split wood baskets; hogshead and barrel hoops. Post oak: Fencing: railroad ties; construction; staves; carriage and wagon work; farm implements. Basket oak: Baskets; cooperage; wheel stock; fencing; agri- cultural implements: construction. Chestnut oak: Bark used for tanning; fencing; bridges; railroad es; substitute for white oak. but objectionable in tight cooper- age, e oak: Ship building; furniture. Red oak: Shingles; furniture; interior finish: tight and slack coperage. exas oak: Same as red oak. Said to check less than red oak. Black oak: Plow tfeams; furniture; lumber: bark for tanning and quercitrin. Tanbark oak: In California bark used for tanning. Chestnut: Tannin extract; coffins; furniture; interior finish; shingles; fencing: railroad ties; sheathing: Jacob staff for com- JC \ TT^ SUgar ' FOREST UTILIZATION passes; bridge building (trestles); telephone poles; backing of piano veneers; '-lack barrel hoops and sawn staves. Beech : Wood alcohol ; wood ashes ; charcoal ; shoe lasts ; plane stocks; clothespins; handles; wooden bowls; horse collars (hames) ; parquet strips; flooring; street paving; railroad ties ; sugar barrels. Beech furniture made out of veneers of three or four thicknesses, or bent after steaming. Hop hornbeam : Posts ; levers ; tool handles ; wagon brake ; shoes ; wedges. Hornbeam : Used for same purposes as above, and teeth of gear wheels. White birch: Toothpicks; shoe pegs and lasts; wood pulp; spools ; clothespins ; screws ; flooring ; veneers ; furniture ; bob- bins and spindles ; wooden skewers ; hand-made barrel hoops. Gray birch (yellow) : Furniture (usually mahogany finish) ; match boxes; wheel hubs; tool handles; buttons; brush backs; shoe pegs; clothespins; sugar barrels; dry distillation for wood vinegar: wood alcohol; charco;il etc. River birch : Furniture ; woodenware ; wooden shoes : ox yokes. Cherry birch (sweet birch): Imitation cherry furniture; ship building; bark distilled for oil of wintergreen. Oregon alder : Furniture ; cigar boxes ; mining props and water conduits ; charcoal in gunpowder. Black willows: Osier culture (imported species); pollarded for fascines; the Missouri species for fence posts after thorough seasoning; bats for baseball; a drug, salicylic acid, made from the bark: charcoal for smokeless powder. Cotlonwoods : Boxes; wood pulp and fibre; slack barrels; wooden- ware; flooring; excelsior; backing for veneers in organs and pianos; matches ; cheap building lumber; cheap furniture; wagon beds; turnery; woodenware; fence boards. Conifer v "^#* Incense cedar : Water flumes ; fencing; furniture; interior finish ; laths and shingles. White cedar (northern): Posts; fencing; telegraph poles; rail- road ties ; ^tanks -and imckgts ; shingles; street paving; boat Huing ^tf^C JU~fJLtU~~^^ - White cellar (Southern): Woodenj^tre ; tanks; buckets; barrels; telegraph polos and fence posts; shingles; railroad ties; boats; lampblack. Red cedar (Pacific): Canoes of Indians; interior finish; fencing; shingles; cooperage; tanks; buckets. Porl Orford cedar (Lawson's cypress) : Lumber; inside finishing; flooring; railroad ties; fence posts; matches; ship building. The rosin is a powerful insecticide. Western juniper: Fences. Red cedar (of the East): Tanks, posts, buckets; telephone poles; cigar boxes; chests; pencils; interior finish. <^jjt^^<^^^^ (^JU^ (™ FOREST UTILIZ z'atios ) 53 and finishing; shingles; fencing; stakes; railroad ties; car lining; aid cypress: Tanks: shingles; doors; house building; interior finish; sashes; blinds; molasses barrels; railroad ties; posts; car siding ; flooring and covering ; wharf piles. Big tree : Lumber ; fencing ; shingles ; construction ; water con- duits. Redwood : House building telegraph poles; vineyard tanks ; coffins. Yew. In Oregon for bows and fishing rods. White pine: House building and finishing; boxes and crates; sash, doors and blinds; shingles; backing of fine veneers; ex- celsior; matches; laths; woodenware; slack barrels ; framing of machinery; furniture; patterns for casting metals; ship masts ; baled shavings for filtering gas, bedding for horses, pack- ing for crockery. Sugar pine: Same uses as white pine; cooperage; shakes (large board shingles). Lodge-pole pinef Cheap lumber; mining timbers; railroad ties^ used where other timber is not available* Loblolly pine; Common lumber and cheap veneers, usually mixed with "echinata"; shingle-: house building purposes altogether; mining timber; boxes; rice and potato barrels; laths. Shortleaf pine (echinata) : Same use as above; boxes for naval stores. Table mountain pine: In Pennsylvania used for charcoal. Longleaf and Cuban pine : House building : dimension shingles; tanks; flooring; interior finish; railroad ties; road bridges; car sills and framework of cars; furniture; doors and blinds; framework of machinery: mining timber; ship building; masts; wagon tongues and beds; naval stores. Scrub pine (Virginiana) : In Kentucky, for lumber4(i*^t^( ljh>± Jeffrey's pine: Coarse lumber ; mining timber. 7* Bull pine (ponderosa) : ^timber; railroad ties; mine props; shingles; boxes; slack barrels. Jack pine (divaricata) : Ties and piling; cheap lumber; boxes; laths. Norway pine: Lumber generally; ship building; construction; fl^fcring: masts; piles of wharves; covering; lining; siding; floor- ing and sills of railroad cars ; railroad ties. Eastern spruce: Chemical fibre and paper pulp (down to 5"- diameter) ; matches; excelsior: construction; posts; railroad ties; fresh-water ship building; clapboards; flooring; ceiling; stepladders; sounding boards (from butt logs); oars; spars; wharf piles ; telegraph poles ; toys ; wood type : butter buck- ets ; slack cooperage; wooden thread (for mattings); chewing gum ; vanillin. In Europe spruce bark is used for tanning. Engelmann's spruce: Used in Colorado for common lumber. Tideland spruce: Lumber; construction; outer finish; wooden- ware ; »a»er \v\\ stuff; rail- sash, rrrr 54 +1^^ FORFQA rTIU/.ATlOX" ■ [emlock: Coarse rat-proof lumber; dimensii n stuff and construc- tion; shingles; railroad tics; fencing; paper pulp; bark for tanning. Douglas fir: All building lumber; construction; railroad ties; trestle bridges; piles; car sills; ship building; masts; mining timber; bark sometimes used for tanning. Fir^ : Taper pulp. In the East for corduroying. In the West for local lumber; packing cases; cooperage; interior finish; mine props. Tamarack (Eastern): Fence fraph poles; ship's knees ; railroad ties. Tamarack (Western): Posts; railroad ties; car construction; dimension stuff. C. Tropical and subtropical timber. Yucca: Paper pulp and fibre for ropes; pincushions. Eucalyptus: Street paving; railroad ties; mine props; piles; ship building; wagon making; orchard paling. Mangrove: Bark very rich in tannin. Palmetto; Wharf piles ; pincushions; brushes. Lignumvitae: Bowling balls; blocks for pulleys; tine interior finish and furniture; railroad ties in Panama. Teak: Ship building and flooring; railroad cars; street paving. West India cedar: Racing boats; cigar boxes. Olivewood : Turnery; inlaying; furniture; backs of hair brushes; wood carving. The fruit yields the best oil for table use. Quebracho: Tanning: paving; railroad lies. Lancewood: Fishing rods. Mahogany: Furniture: ship building; pianos; fine interior finish. § XIV. TECHNICAL QUALITIES OF THE TREES. A. Botanical structure of the trees. I. Botanical structure of hardvJcods. 'I he cells forming the woody tissue arc: (a) Ducts (pores, vessels) formed by the resorption of the partition walls in a vertically running string of cells. Such ducts are characteristic of hardwoods. (b) Sclerenchyma, cells of heavy walls and small lumina, usually forming long fibres. (c) Parenchyma, cells of thin walls and large lumina, fre- quently containing grains of starch. Medulla or pith is found in the central column, in the primary, secondary, ternary rays and (rarely") in medullary spots (birch). The central pith is: Heavy in ash, maple, elder, catalpa; Triangular in birch, alder; Quinquangular in hornbeam. Broad leaved species are called "ring porous,'' if the spring w 1 of the annual ring contains strikingly ' FOREST UTILIZATION large pores, or else "diffuse porous," if the ducts are evenly distributed over the entire ring. Sapwood and heartwood are merely distinguished by a differ- ence of color, caused by incrustations of pigments, lignin, tannin etc.. in the walls of rings formed a number of years before. The number of years elaps- ing before incrustation takes place is small in catalpa, chestnut, locust : and larger in yellow poplar, white oak, walnut where it is about thirty or forty years old. Beech, maple, basswood etc. do not form any heartwood. Medullary- Rays. Scarcely risible. GENERIC STRUCTURE OF HARDWOODS. Diffuse porous. ( Ringporora always with Diner pores ; heart. more numer ■ -us. always I with heart. Fores absolutely even With heart. Without heart. I Castnnea Robinia i Praxinus Hicoria I Olmus | Mi rus J Ailinith Rhamnus Sj rlnga <^.^A r^^r Pyrus communis egus Betula Aesculus Populus Tilia Ai er Corylug 1'arplnus Ilex l'latanus "" ;gus II. Botanical structure of softwoods. (a) The tissue of softwoods is more homogeneous than that of hardwoods. It is mainly formed by tracheae. The cell walls formed in early spring are thinner and the Iumina formed in early spring arc larger than those formed in summer. (b) Parenchyma is found in the medullary rays and around the rosin ducts. (c) Ducts of the form found in hardwoods exist only close to the central pith column. (.d) The medullary rays are very fine (microscopic), usually only one cell wide and about a dozen cells high. The lowest string of cells in the ray is usually formed by tracheae (exception — red cedar). (e) Rosin ducts are not cells merely, but, unlike the ducts of hardwoods, hollow tubes, the walls of which are formed by parenchymatic cells. These ducts are run- ning horizontally as well as vertically in picea, pinus, larix. pseudotsuga. The tissue of the genera abies, taxus, juniperus. thuja, tsuga, chamaecyparis etc. lacks the ducts. ?6 FOREST UTILIZATION (f) Heartwood and sapwood of conifers are distinguished merely by a difference in color, due to incrustations of rosin in the inner heartwood rings. Pinus echinata lias, usually, about thirty sapwood rings. Spruces, firs and hemlocks have no heartwood. Heartwood is con- spicuous iu the pines, red and white cedars, lawson cypress, yew, larches and douglas fir. B. Chemical qualities of wood. I. The walls of the tissue are formed by cellulose (Ci:H 2 ,Oi.i) and by lignin |CH,,0 ; ). Cellulose transforms, entirely or partially, in the very year in which the cell is built, by incrustation and reduction into lignin. If a branch or a seedling does not enjoy enough light during summer to allow of thorough lignification, then that branch or seedling is necessarily killed by the winter frost. II. Wood and bark contain on an average 45 % (weight) of water. Conifers contain less water than broad-leafed spe- cies. The percentage varies irregularly with the seasons and with the precipitations. III. Other substances found in the woody tissue are: (a) In the sap and medulla — albumen, starch, sugar, oils. (b) In the cell walls — tannin, rosin and pigments. IV. The specific gravity of pure wood fibre is 1.56. C. Outer qualities, or qualities discernible by eye, touch or pcent. I. Texture. The texture is fine or rough according to the ease with which parts composing the tissue can be distinguished. The texture is : (a) Very fine — yew. box, holly, persimmon. (b) Fine — pear tree, hornbeam, black gum. (c) Pretty rough — spruce, fir. magnolia, cotton woods. (d) Rough — cherry, sycamore, maple. (e) Very rough— oak, elm, locust, beech. II Color. Color is an advantage in the furniture trade and a disadvantage in the manufacture of paper. The heart of seasoned wood is always darker than the sap- wood. Tropical species are particularly rich in color. Wood exposed to air changes its color more or less visibly. The heart of yellow poplar changes to a dark brown. Alder changes from white to red. Ash from white to light violet. Mahogany from brown to black. Walnut similarly. III. Gloss. Gloss is due to evenness, number and size of medul- lary rays. Shining species are maple, ash, elm, beech. Medium shining are oak, alder, hornbeam. Dull are peach, pear, conifers. FOREST UTILIZATION 57 Quarter sawing increases the gloss. IV. Odor. Odor is important for the use of wood in the package industry. The strong odor of wood is usually lost in the course of seasoning. The following species retain, however, a characteristic odor: Cherry, birch, sassafras, red cedar. D. Inner qualities, or qualities discernible by mechanical tests. I. Specific gravity. (a) Pure wood fibre forms in fresh wood, with broad leafed species of temperate climates, about 35 % of the entire weight, while conifers show an aver- age of about 25 %. (b) Air dried wood still retains from 10% to 15% of water. If the dry kiln reduces the percentage of water below that figure, the hygroscopicity of the wood will speedily cause it to return. (c) Factors influencing specific gravity of air-dried wood within the same species are: 1. The width of the rings, in ring porous hardwoods and in conifers forming heartwood. 2. The incrustations of rosin, tannin and pigments in the heart. 3- The age of the tree. 4. The decay of the fibre. 5. The section of the tree, since roots are very light, butt logs heavy, bole fairly light and branches fairly heavy. In the case of the diffuse porous hard- woods and of conifers destitute of heart, no rule can be given relative to specific ^ gravity of inner and outer layers, of wide and narrow rings. A| (d) Air dried lumber has. on an average, the following £■ weights : - . Weight of bpecies— Specific gravity. 1,000 ft. b.m. Turkey oak, hickory, servi.-e lnish. over o.7.> over 4 iiini lbs. Ash, white and red oak. locust, beech, hornbeam, hard' maple, pear tree . 0.70-0.75 abont 3,750 lbs. i.lm, soft maple, apple tree, svea- more, birch 0.6M).70 about 3,400 lbs. Horse chestnut, chestnut, tulip tree, alder, larch, longleaf pine 0.55-0.60 about 3,000 lbs. Yellow pine, douglas fir. spruce, fir. willow, eottonwood 0.45-0.55 about 2.600 lbs. White and sugar pine under 0.4.', about 2.20,Hbs. (e) Rule Specific gravity times 5.200 equals the weight of i,o»o feet b. m. of sawn lum- ber. Reason— 1,000 superficial feet of water one inch deep weigh 5.200 lbs. 5 8 FOREST UTILIZATION 2. Specific gravity times 8,000 times cordwood reducing factor equals the weight of a cord of w 1. Reason — 128 cubic feet of water weigh 8,coo lbs. ; a cord of wood contains from 20 % to 85 % of wood, the e being air. 3. Specific gravity air dry times 5.200 times 23 equal- the weight of 1.000 feet b. m. in the log. Reason a green l< g has about 10% bark, about 27% of water, to be removed by drying, and loses 33% for slabs and kerf in band -awing. Hence the weight in 1,000 feet b. m. air dried and band sawed lumber i- only 0.9 times 0.73 times 0.67 of the weight of a log scaling 1,000 feet b. m. Doyle. The weight of a green log is 2.3 times the weight of air dried lumber obtainable from it by the band saw. For broad- leafed species and for circular saws the figure is higher than for conifers and band saws. (f) Heavy planks do not dry as thoroughly as thin boards. (g) Weight determines freight and customs charges. Also adaptability to packages, floatability in flumes and rafts and possibility of loose driving. , Lumber freight rates from Asheville, X. C, are: JjL^ll^O* per ico lbs. to New York. / 23V2C per 100 lbs. to Philadelphia, per 100 lbs. to Atlanta. ^ ww Lumber 8c per 100 lbs. to Washington. • 100 lbs. to Norfolk. ^ Ereight rate from Portland, Ore., to Chi- ■per too lbs. to Norfolk. £ffr*0 hs%Jt** 99 ' Lumb •* Vt *-t-*» cago i 1 - about 50c per ICO lbs Steamer rate to Europe from Norfolk is 14c per IOO lbs. of lumber. The freight rate on logs for 50 miles is at least $5 per carload; for too miles at lea I [ardm By hardness is understood- the resistance of the fibre to axe and saw worked vertically to the fibre. Factors of hardness are : (a) Density; wide rings in oak and narrow rings in pine increase the hardn (bi Incrustation; heartwood is harder than sap 1 Moisture contents: dry wood i-. on the whole, harder than green wood. With some broad- species 1 if 1 ise tissue ( willow- and COt- FOREST UTILIZATION 59 SCHEDULE OF HARDNESS. Hard. Medium. Soft. Hickory Ash Chestnut Dogwood Oak Tulip tree Sugar maple Elm Sweet gum Sycamore Beech D uglas fir Loeust Cherry Fir Hornbeam Mulberry yellow pine Persimmon Birch Larch Sour gum Linden Longleaf pine Horse chestnut II mlock Cottonwoods III. tonwoods), however, moist wood is tougher and therefore harder as well, (d) Frost increases the hardness. Very soft. White pine Sugar pine Sequoia Paulownia Willow Cleavability or fissibility. Cleavability is the resistance of fibre to axe, saw and wedge, worked lengthwise in the direction of the fibre. .Radial cleavage is usually by 50% to 100% easier than tangential cleavage (except in black gum). Factors of cleavability are: (a) A straight, long, elastic fibre. (b) Heavy and high medullary rays. Straightness of gr< uih. Branchiness. Moisture (very green and very dry wood splits best). Frost (reduces tin.' cleavability). Hardness and softness (extremely hard and ex- tremely soft wood splits badly. This rule holds good only in hardwoods >. (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) SCHEDULE he CLEAVABILITY. Hard to split. Medium Black gum On k Elm Ash Sycamore Larch Dogwood Cottonwood Beei b Linden Holly JCellOW ]K pi; Maple Hickory Birch Hornbeam Easy to split. Chestnut PI ies Spruce Fir Cedar IV. Pliability. Under pliability we combine flexibility and elasticity. (a) Flexibility; wood which is easily bent without breaking is flexile (flexible). Softwoods are nat- urally less flexile than hardwoods. Flexibility depends on: 1. Toughness and cohesive force of fibre. 2. Moisture, which increases it very much. 3. Heat, which increases it. 4. Age of tree, inasmuch as young shoots are tougher than old wood. 5. Impregnation, natural as well as artificial, 6o FOREST UTILIZATION (b) check? flexibility. (Heartwood less flexi- ble than sapwood.) 6. Root wood more flexible than stem wood. Remarks : Heat and moisture as a means to in- crease flexibility are applied in these industries: Cooperage; for bending staves and hoop poles. Carriage works; for bending poles, shafts, felloes, top frames, seats etc. Furniture; bent wood furniture. Ship building. Veneer peeling. Basket work. Manufacture of musical instruments. Elasticity and flexibility are not always found in the same piece of wood. On the contrary, quali- ties which increase flexibility frequently reduce elasticity, and vice versa. Elasticity is the force with which an object resumes its old shape when pressed out of shape and released. The factors of elasticity are : 1. Long and straight fibre. 2. Narrow rings in conifers. 3. Dryness (moisture reduces elasticity). 4. Frost (which destroys elasticity). 5. Excessive contents of rosin (which in- creases the elasticity). V. 'erj elastic an YoW Larch Fir LOCUSt Chestnut Hickory Osage orange Red cedar Lancewood Spruce White pine Ash Oak SCHEDULE OF ELASTICITY. re: Less elastic are: Cottonwood Birch Maple Kim Alder Walnut Yellow pine Yellow poplar Beech Strength. Strength (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 1- resistance to : Tension; to which timber is usually not exposed. (Yoke of oxen pulling the cart by the pole.) Compression (arches, pillars, scantling). Torsion (shafts, screws, axles). Shearing. Transverse straining (beams, girders, joists). Factors of strength are: 1. Specific gravity. 2. Soundness of tissue. 3. Freedom from branches. Timber, like any other material, should never be FOREST UTILIZATION 61 loaded to over one-fourth of its indicated strength. Transverse strength is always proportioned to length of girder: to width of girder; and to the square of the depth of girder. It is the quality of tim- ber which is most required in timber used for building purposes. VI. Hygroscopical qualities. (a) Timber changes form, coherence and volume with greater or lesser ease under the influence of moist- ure, applied in gaseous or liquid form. Hence shrinking, swelling, warping, checking, cracking, casehardening and working. (b) Water invariably saturates the cell walls ; in addi- tion, it may or may only partially fill the lumina. (c) Sapwood invariably contains more water than heart- wood. (d) Rate of dryness depends on the species, looseness of tissue, dimensions of object to be dried, presence or absence of bark cover in logs, preceding treat- ment by floating, deadening, steaming, prevalence of sapwood or heartwcod, season of year, ex- 1 ire to wind, climate etc. (e) Boiling and steaming reduce the hygroscopicity and produce, consequently, a more even shrinkage. (f) The evaporation from the cross section bears to that of the tangential and to that of the radial section the ratio of 8 to i to 2. (g) In the dry kiln, temperatures of 160 degrees to 180 degrees Fahrenheit are gradually produced. Dry- ing is accomplished by hct air, steam and moving air. Conifers stand the dry kiln process much better than hardwoods. The better qualities of hard- woods undergo air drying before being kiln dried, especially so in wagon, furniture and barrel fac- tories. The dry kiln saves insurance and interest on large stocks of lumber and allows the lumberman to rapidly fill pressing orders for lumber, (h) Wood is least permeable for water in the direction of the tangent or vertically to the medullary rays — a fact important for tight cooperage. I. Shrinkage. It is least along the fibre : it is up to 5 % along the radius and is up to 10 % along the tangent. Shrinkage of over 5 % of green volume fe F0REST WTILIZATI+N occurs in walnut, linden, beech, elm, chestnut, birch. Shrinkage of 3 % to 5 % occurs in oak, maple, sycamore, ash, cottonwood, yellow pine. Shrinkage of 2 % to 3 % occurs in spruce, larch, fir and white pine. A large per. sin, narrow annual rings and light specific gravity reduce shrinkage within the same species. Checking. pends on the rapidity of Uie drying process ; on size and dimension of ob- ject; on peeling of logs; on homogeneity of tissue. Checks are often of a temporary nature, disappearing when the inner layers are as dry as the outer layers. Hardwoods check much worse than soft- woods; and rift sawed or quarter sawed lumber checks less than bastard sawed lumber. Remedies against checking of logs are: Winter cutting; strips of bark left near the end of peeled logs; felling with the roots and leaving the crown on the un- dissected bole; deadening; "S" shaped iron clamps driven into logs; boards nailed onto the ends of the logs; earth cover at the ends of the logs ; red lead painting fur export logs. Remedies against cheeking of lumber are: Quarter sawing; slow air drying under sheds; veneer sawing: steaming or boil- ing; sticks placed close to the ends of tiers in lumber piles. Checks are radial since the tangential shrinkage is greatest. The so-called wind (..r ring) shakes are no) caused by the hygroscopicity of the timber; they are merely a form of I timber, due to frost, heat, fire or insect plagues inter- fering with the radial cohesion of ad- joining rii Swelling, warping and working. These phenomena are due to reabsorption of water after drying. The swelling is i illy. I [eartwood warps ■8 Q FOREST UTILIZATION } 63 less than sapwood than a"aidWUUdi>. and conifers warp Boards obtained' trom close Lo We 1 skib warp worst of all. Remedies against working are steaming; varnishing: forming boards by gluing fine veneers one upon another ; allowing framework of ■' . sufficiently grooved for receiving the panels. Duration of wood. (a) Duration of wood depends on: 1. The surrounding conditions; i. e., tropics or arid deserts : presence of insects (ants and fungi) : contact with clay, limestone or sandy soil ; immersion in water (toredo) ; exposure to atmos- phere : moisture conditions ; presence of preserving matter (salt water, cop- per mine water). 2. The natural qualities of wood, especially the presence or absence of rosin, tannin and other preservatives; the specific gravity : the percentage of sapwood ; the susceptibility to fungus and insect diseases. Locust, red cedar, sequoia, bald cypress, are less subject to such dis- • - - when dead than when alive. (b) Remedies against destruction arc: Impregnation or painting; charring the part imbedded in the soil; winter cutting: change of species when replac- ing ties; kiln drying and steaming and smoking; raising buildings high above ground. (c) Bulletin No. 10 gives the following data for the average "life" of ties : White and chestnut oak, 8 years Chestnut, 8 Tamarack, Cherry and walnut, Elm. Longleaf pine, Hemlock. Spruce. Red and black oaks. A.sh, beech, maple, Locust, cypress, Red cedar. 7-8 7 6-7 6 4^> Redwi . 9 64 / OREST UTILIZATION 1 'livable. Short lived. Ash Beech Larch Sycamore Yellow pine Birch Spruce Linden Fir Cottonwood Yellow poplar White pine Douglas fir (d) Schedule for lumber / 'cry durable. Walnut Locust Sequoia Cedar White oak Catalpa Sassafras Chestnut Longleaf pine Heating power. f Heating power or fuel value bears a direct ratio to specific gravity air dry. All wood fibre having the specific gravity i. 5'). equal air dry weights of our common species furnish equal heat. On the other hand, light weight means greater inflammability and a quicker heat, which naturally lasts for a short time only. The heating power of hard coal is to that of lignite and to that of wood as 5.2 : 4.3 : 1. In other words. 5.2 lbs. of dry wood yield as much, heat as 4.3 lbs. of lignite or as 1 lb. of coal. Influencing factors are found in the following moments: (a) Presence of rosin increases the heating power by about 12 %. (b) A cord of wood containing 45 % moisture has. after German experiments, the heating power of half a cord of air dried wood. After Sargent, the dis- crepancy is not as great. One cord of green wood contains 250 gallons of water, and the calories of heat required to convert this large amount of water into steam are lost for heating purposes. (c) Unsound wood has a reduced heating power, the cell walls being decayed. (d) Chestnut, and to a certain extent larch and spruce. are despised in open fires owing to crackling and emission of sparks. Black gum is despised be- cause it is difficult to split and therefore difficult to season. Hornbeam, birch and alder are said to furnish a particularly quiet flame. (e) Schedule of the heating power of wood per cord: IX. Best. (rood. Moderate. Bad. Hickory Oak Spruce White pine J Beech Ash Fir Abler Hornbeam Birch Chestnut Linden Locust Maple Hemlock Cottonwood Heart pine Sap pine iscellaneous technical qualities of wood. (a) Adaptability to planing and molding ; varnishing and polishing; painting and gluing. FOREST UTILIZATION 65 (b) Nail holding power, which is said to be excellent in chestnut, white pine and hemlock. (c) Twisted growth, which is frequent in chestnut. Italian poplar and horse chestnut. Certain twists are due to a hypertrophical growth of the tissue and are highly prized by the trade under the names of birdseye maple, curly poplar, curly ' -rp ^J '/Vl ' / walnut, curly cherry and curly ash etc. It is im- ^^ ^y / y* possible to sa y whether a standing tree is "curly " / Jef^ c~f~e c r is a sound knot, the diameter of which varies ac- cording to local inspection from i%" to 1 34". Dry, dead and unsound knots throw a board into the mill cull pile. Usually, the knotty part of a log is sawn into dimension stuff. The core of a log, even in yellow poplar, necessarily shows knots, since there is no height growth without simultaneous formation of side branches, (e) The discoloration of the inner layers of certain species which are not classed as heartwoods (beech and maple) is a disease often found in old trees and causes rejection for certain applications in the trades (impregnation). CHAPTER V. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES. § XVII. THE SAW MILL. A. The saw. Three kinds of log saws are used : I. Straight saws, viz : Vertical straight saw; Gang saw- : Horizontal frame saw. II. Circular saws. viz. : Solid tooth single saw ; Solid tooth double saw ; Inserted tooth saw. III. Band saws. viz. : Single cutting band saw ; Double cutting band saw. I. Straight saws. (a) Single vertical straight saw. At the toothed edge this saw has a thickness of from 5 to 10 gauges. Its blade is 8 inches wide and at least twice as long as the log diameter. 66 FOREST UTILIZA A short blade yields the finest work, since it can be spanned more tightly. The gauge along the hack should be finer than the gauge along the cutting line. The saw can cut any thickness of trees. The saw cuts only by the down stroke while the log is moved against the saw during the up stroke. The saw is spanned in a guide frame and is given as many inches inclination toward the log as the feed of the carriage per stroke amounts to. If the saw were not inclined all the work would b» done by the lowest teeth. The usual set is still the spring set and not the swage set, although the latter is sure to be su- perior. Usually the ends of the boards are not sawn through but are held together by the "comb," which is finally split with the axe. In filing mill saws, obtain sufficient pitch of teeth to prevent saw from kicking out of the cut. Too much pitch, however, causes chattering. Gullets must be kept carefully rounded. (b) Gang saws. They are used in large mills for in- ferior logs. The best make is Wickes Bros..' Saginaw, Mich. Enormous stone foundations are required. The saw frame has an oscillating motion which presents Ehe saw to the cut in an easy raking sweep, forcing each tooth to do its full share of the work. Gang saws are not fed from a carriage. The logs are run through feed rolls, feeding the logs into the saws. Blades are 6 to 10 inches wide and of 8 to 16 gauge. Horsepower required is said to be for friction, 3 horsepower: for first blade 4 horsepower, and for every additional blade 7 _• horsepower more. Where log heaps (up to 12 logs) are run through the gang saw, the logs are slabbed by a "] or "log siding machine." so that the logs can be placed one upon another. (c) Horizontal frame saw. It is used to cut fine veneers and valuable timber. Its advantage lies in the fact that very little weight rests on the saw, tliat the saw can cut on both trip- (to and FOREST UTILIZATION 67 fro), that high speed may be applied and that a thin gauge can be used. The best make is Kirschner's, Leipzig, Germany. II. Circular saws. (a) Power. Ten horsepower should manufacture 5,000 b. feet per day ; 20 horsepower should manufacture 10.000 b. feet per day ; 30 horsepower should manufacture 30,000 b. feet per day. and each ad- ditional horsepower should add 1,000 b. feet to amount cut. This amount depends on size of logs. Five horsepower is required for a 20-inch to 30- inch saw : 12 horsepower for a 30-inch to 40- inch saw: 15 horsepower for a 48-inch to 50- inch saw : 2^ horsepower for a 50-inch to 62- inch saw. (b) Right hand and left hand mills. If the carriage is to the left of the observer while the saw runs towards him, the mill is a left hand mill, and vice versa. A right hand saw is screwed to the arbor by a left hand nut and is usually driven by a left hand steam engine. Center crank engines can be used for either right or left hand mills. (c) Speed. The proper speed at the rim of any circular saw is 9.000 feet per minute. There should be a speed indicator to control the saw's speed. It costs 75c. If the power is too light to run. the mill at stand- ard speed, portable mill men usually increase the speed of the engine, putting a larger receiv- ing pulley on the saw mandrel. (d) Proper qualities of a saw. 1. The usual thickness is 7, 8 or 9 gauge. Frequently the center is one gauge heav- ier than the rim. 2. There should be a sufficient number of teeth for the amount of feed. Each tooth should cut as much as is of- fered to it at a revolution. To cut one inch of lumber one may use either : Eight teeth, cutting l i inch each at a revolution, or Sixteen teeth, cutting 1-16 inch each at a revolution, or 68 FOREST UTILIZATION Thirty-two teeth, cutting 1-32 inch each at a revolution. The number of teeth for one inch of feed should be, in hard timber, 16 teeth ; in medium timber, 12 teeth, and in soft timber. 8 teeth. The usual feed is from 1 to 6 inches per revolution. The quicker the feed the more teeth are required to do the work. The saw must be perpendicularly hung; must slip on the mandrel against the fast collar easily, so as not to twist the saw out of true, thus causing it to buckle when the loose collar is tightened up. The loose collar is hollow at the center (small saws excepted) and has about 6 inches diameter and 34 inch rim. By pressing a layer of writing paper be- tween the cellar and the saw the saw may be slightly bent toward or away from the carriage. The saw must be evenly set (either spring or swage set). The teeth, filed square (not to a point but to a cutting edge), must form an exact circle and must re- tain that form in the course of operation. The teeth must have the proper pitch. A shallow tooth cuts the smoothest lum- ber, but forbids of rapid feeding. The modern shape of teeth is such as will facilitate filing and as will preserve the original pitch. A tooth gets dull over as much of an inch as it cuts. The gullet of the tooth must be larger for soft wood than for hard wood. Large gullets weaken the saw. small ones in- crease the friction very badly. A tooth should be filed two to four times a day. The backs of the teeth must never protrude beyond the point. Gullets must be kept circular carefully. Any sharp edge in a gullet is sure to cause a crack. The mandrel must not heat in the jour- nals. The boxes require frequent rebab- bitting. The stem of the mandrel must be exactly level and perfectly straight. FOREST UTILIZATION 6o Mandrels run hot owing to excessive fric- tion in bearings, to excessive tightness of belts, insufficient lubrication or heat- ing of the saw in the center. A hot mandrel expands the saw in the center, causing crooked sawing. (e) Lining of the saw with the carriage into the log. The saw must "lead into the cut" just sufficiently to keep the saw in the cut. The proper lead is Y% inch in 20 feet. Too much lead into the cut causes the saw to heat at the rim. A lead out of the cut causes the saw to heat at the center. The Y% inch lead in 20 feet is obtained by sighting over the saw and fixing the saw plane for a radius of 10 feet. This may be done by putting two staffs vertically into the ground 10 feet from the saw center behind and in front of the saw ; that done, a horizontal stick is fastened to a head block so as to just touch the forward staff. Then the carriage is gigged backward to the other t vertical staff where the horizontal stick must lack exactly % inch from touching. (f) Filing room. Automatic sharpeners and glimmers are required' for mills having over 15,000 feet daily capacity. Setting instruments for spring set are similar to those used with cross cut saws, constructed either after the wrench principle or after the block and hammer principle. The spring set is gradually discarded for the swage set. In swaging use oil on the point of the tooth, after filing to a sharp point. Swaging should draw the tooth out and should not shove it hack. The set or swage of teeth should increase the gauge at the rim by at least 3-32 of an inch. The pitch of the tooth might be controlled by a so-called trammel. Gumming is required to preserve the original hook or rake of the tooth as well as the original round- ness of the gullet. Gumming as well as sharpening are usually done with emery wheels. Emery wheel rules are as follows : \. Do not put too much pressure on emery wheel so as not to change the temper of the tooth (bluing and casehardening and consequently crumbling of the tooth). -o FOREST UTILIZATION 2. Do not try to fix a tooth fully at one time. Treat it gradually at five or six revolu- tions of the saw. 3. Proper speed for emery wheels at the riitj is 4,500 feet per minute. 4. After gumming remove the irregularities at the edges with a side file, since cracks in saw are apt to start from them. 5. Hammering becomes necessary when the use of emery wheels has caused the saw to expand ("let down") at the rim. For small mills gumming with a file or a butt gummer is preferable to the use of emery wheel. Soft wood requires more set or spread and less pitch than hard wood. Swaging is also called upsetting or spread setting. (g) Inserted tooth circular saws. 1. The insertion into each socket of the rim consists of a holder and of a chisel point. These points are extremely hard: still they can be filed and swaged with the help of specially constructed files. It does not pay, however, to spend much time in filing since new points are cheap, and since they are readily inserted with the help of a special wrench. Points are oiled before being inserted. When renewing one individual point be sure to have it dressed down to corre- spond to the line of old points. If the saw guide is not properly adjusted it may touch the holder and smash the saw. 2. Advantages of inserted tooth saw are : Less experience is required for dressing a saw. Less filing and gumming. Less saw repairs in backwoods. Diameter of saw remains unchanged dur- ing its use. 3. Disadvantages of inserted tooth saw are: The saw kerf is very heavy. The teeth arc large and hence few, so that feed must be comparatively slow. The price of the inserted tooth saw is higher than that of the solid tooth saw. FOREST UTILIZATION 7I T h , , _ £*.<**?* PS lhe best makes are the ^rirrrrs and DiootOH . saws. (h) The double circular saw. For big logs and high speed a double circular saw must be used. The width of the widest board which a single cir- cular saw may cut equals radius minus three inches. Hence much valuable material is wasted in the common circular saw mill sawing heavy logs. The double circular saw shows an under or lower saw of 56 inches or 60 inches and an upper saw of 30 inches or $6 inches diameter. The top saw should have a reversed motion (so as not to throw sawdust into the lower saw), an arrange- ment which it is difficult to secure. A hanger top saw can be added readily to any sin- gle saw. Both saws should have the same speed at rim. The top saw should remain inactive so as not to use up power when small logs are sawn. Inserted teeth are not used at the double mills. The advantages of the double saw mill are: 1. Less chattering and truer cut than would be possible for one big saw. 2. Thinner kerf. 3- Faster feed. 4- Cess expense for saws. 5- Less repairs. (1) Remarks relative to "putting up" portable circular saw mills: The minimum yard required is 50,000 board feet. The expense of tearing down and putting up again is about $50. For foundation timbers, place two pieces 8 x 10 inches x 11 feet long on either side of the saw pit (3 feet deep) and underneath the "husk." One piece 4x6 inches x 7^ feet long is saddled into the two big pieces, spanning the saw pit under- neath the far rail of the track. Construct the carriage track absolutely straight and level on the track ties (16 to 25 in number) and on the saw pit span. Place carriage with rack shaft, feed and gig works in place and fasten the track by cleats and nails solidly to the foundation timbers. Then place the husk on them at a distance of about 6 inches from the track, putting wedge blocks between the FOREST UTILIZATION husk and track. Then spike the husk to its foundation — to hegin with in two places only, viz. : at the sawyer's corner and at the middle of the opposite side, so as to enable the sawyer to change the lead by wedging the blocks. Then fix or hang the saw, set the saw guide and fire away. III. Band saws. (a) The blade. The blade material is steel. The width of the blade for log band saws is from 10 inches to 16 inches — 14 inches being usual. Gauge of blade is from 19 gauge to 13 gauge. Under tension of blade is understood the curvature across the width, which is increased or decreased by hammering at center or at edge. The tension gauge with curved edge guides the filer. (b) The tooth. Its width is from 1% inch to 2% inch. The hook or pitch is from 40 to 65 °. The depth should be as shallow as possible, with gullets kept round, since cracks usually start from a corner in the gullet. For sharpening the tooth, a medium soft emery wheel should be used and should not be crowded too hard against the saw, so as to prevent case- hardening. The teeth are swaged — never spring set — like gang saws. The full amount of set should not exceed 9 gauge in a 14 inch saw. Side filing or side dressing, after swaging, is usually practiced, although objected to by the saw makers. . For gumming, either a gumming press or the emery wheel is used. (c) The filing room. Every band saw mill has a separate filing room equipped with automatic dressing machines, i. e., automatic sharpener, automatic swage, automatic swage shaper, saw stretcher In the band saw mill, the filer is considered more important than the sawyer for the success of the mill. Saws are changed three or four times a day. "Brazing" of a band saw means joining the loose ends, uniformly beveled or ground to a feather edge Y\ inch long. A strip of silver solder is placed between the cleaned laps, which are then taken between the cheeks of the brazing clamps heated tn a bright red heat. After pressing the FOREST UTILIZATION 73 clamps together for several minutes and allow- ing them to cool, the braze is dressed down with a file to the proper thickness. The filer arrests cracks by punching a small pin hole or dot at extremity of crack. (d) The wheels. The band saw runs, belt like, over two wheels weighing from 1.500 to 3,000 pounds (the lower heavier than the upper) ; the lower wheel driving the upper by the band saw. The strain on the saw. which should not exceed 5.000 pounds and by which slipping off is pre- vented, is obtained by raising the upper wheel. The diameters of the wheels are 8 to 10 feet, the face about 11 inches, the teeth overlapping the wheel. The crown of the tire is up to 1-64 inch. The entire length of the log band saw varies from 30 feet to 70 feet. The saw guides, lined with wood or babbit metal, prevent the cutting part of the blade from bend- ing toward the carriage or toward the wheels, while the guard rolls, standing about 2 inches back of the saw. prevent it from slipping back- ward at the approach of the log. The maximum diameter of logs that can be handled by band saws is about 90 inches. The weight of a band saw mill complete is 20.000 to 40,000 pounds. (e) The "Allis" double cutting telescopic band saw. The saw blade has teeth on both edges, so that a board is obtained at each trip of the carriage. The entire mill i-. rai:-ed or lowered by hydraulic pressure with a view to bringing the top of the logs immediately underneath the upper wheel. IV. Conclusions. (a) The superiority of the band over the circular saw lies in a saving of 1.000 board feet in every 16,- 000 feet of 4/4 inch boards obtained. In heavier planks the saving is less, in lighter boards more. The boards obtained have a better width. Logs over four feet through cannot be handled by circular saws. Further, the band saw allows of a more rapid feed. Hence it is used preeminently for valuable logs, for big logs and for high out- put. Frequently mills of large output employ simul- taneously band, circular and gang saws, allotting the logs according to their quality, the best to IEST UTILIZATION the band saw and the poorest to the gang saw. Two edgers and one trimmer can take care of such a combined output, (b) Mammoth mills are now considered uneconomical, since it is difficult to take care ol the output of boards at the outlet from the mill door. The output per mill hand in big concerns is up to 7,5C0 hoard feet daily. Four acres of mill pond hold up to 1,000,000 hoard feet. Two standard gauge trains supply an output of 100,000 hoard feet from an average distance of TO miles, daily. R. The carriage. I. The composing parts are: The truck with head blocks, knees, dogs, set works, and the driving machinery. The carriage is subject to the roughest treatment. Still, its proper alignment is as essential as that of the saw. (a) 'Idie truck is made of timber at least 6 inches square, thoroughly seasoned and strongly braced and bolted. Construction material is: Up North — Norway pine, birch and maple. Down South — Yellow pine and white oak. The length should correspond with the maximum size of logs. So called screw block trailers may he added, in- creasing the length (in longleaf pine mills) up to 72 feet. (b) The head blocks, iron with steel face, are let into the timbers of the truck and form a groove for the tongue of the knee, which slides on the head blocks, being moved forward and backward by the set works. The head block and knee form a right angle into which the log is firmly pressed. (c) The knee is either solid or hollow and carries the dogs. The dogs are hook^ or clamps or teeth, meant to grasp the log. They are fastened either inside or outside of the knee. Two tooth bars, playing inside the hollow knee and pressed by a powerful lever, replace the original dogs in modern mills. "Underdogs" are used in quarter -awing. The number of head blocks, knees and dogs is variable. The minimum is two of each. FOREST UTILIZATION 75 (d) The set works consist of: ■ The set beam, a shaft running underneath the car- riage from head block to head block, with a pinion at each head "block. This pinion corre- sponds with a rack forming the tongue or basis of each knee. The index disc and ratchet. The set lever, handled either by the sawyer, in small saw mills, or by the setter, in larger mills. The set works are usually double acting, so that the knees advance with the to and fro motion of the set lever. In addition, each knee can be moved individually i n iis rack by the so-called taper movement. The knees, before a new log is loaded, are receded either by a spring device or, on the gig motion of the carriage, by a friction device. The brake wheel on the setshaft acts as a buffer when logs are loaded on the car. (e) The wheels. The wheels are attached either to the carriage or to the floor. The near wheels are flat on the tire and the far wheels, called guide wheels, are grooved on the tire. In band saws, an automatic off-set is required to prevent the face of the log from striking the saw on the gig motion. The steel rails are invariably placed on stringers. II. Driving machinery. The to and fro trips of the carriage are known as feed- ing and gigging. In small mills the motive power is derived from the saw arbor by : (a) Rack and pinion device. (M Chain, rope or cable running over one or several sheave drums. The speed is regulated either by so-called cone pulleys (two. three or four on the same shaft) or by a paper friction device. The so-called Reamy Disc Friction allows of freely varying the speed. The usual feed, with the cone pulley, is from ^ inch to 3 inches per revolution of saw. In large saw mills the piston of a steam cylinder pushes the carriage to and fro (so-called shot- gun feed). In that case the carriage usually runs on three rails (center guide rail). 76 FOREST UTILIZATION C. Additional parts of high grade saw mills: I. "The log haul up" (elevator) consists of a flanged foot wheel and an inclined trough, on the bottom of which runs a -strong endless chain driven by sprocket wheels. The chain has steps (called welds) at intervals of about 6 feet. The haul up is driven by a separate engine or from the main shall by double sear wheels. It consumes a great deal of power. At the upper end of the haul up, a log flipper "boxes" the lugs out of the trough onto the log deck, which is usu- ally inclined toward the carriage. On the log deck, the logs are freed from dirt and bark by hand. 11. "The nigger," handled by the sawyer, throws the logs on the carriage and turns them by a boxing movement. III. "The hog" is a steel hex within which the edgings and trimmings are cut into small slices by very strong knives rapidly rotating. IV. "Dust conveyors" convey the output of the hog and the sawdust automatically to the boilers. D. The edger. The boards, falling from the log, are conveyed automatically or by hand to the edger. I. Parts of the edger are: (a) One or several circular saws of (2 inches to 28 inches diameter. (b) Feed works, either power or hand driven, consist- ing either of a carriage or of feed rolls or of barbed chains by which the hoards are fed into the saws. (c) Edger table. II. Task of the edger is: (a) Removal of defects, knots, bark edge at the side of a board. (b) Splitting hoards into pieces of different quality. (c) Rapid sawing to proper width required for special purpose-. III. Kinds of edgers. (a) Hand feed edger, with one or two saws. (b) Power feed edger. Usually with a single saw. (c) Gang edger. IV. Pointers. (a) The distance between the various saws in gang edgers is regulated by overhead levers or by hand wheels. (b) Several hoards can be h'i\ at one time. (c) The attendant of the edger must be a lumber in- FOREST UTILIZATION 77 spector at the same time, so as to turn out the maximum value of edged product. (d) The boards are taken to the edger from the live rolls onto which the board drops from the log. either by hand or automatically, by chain con- veyors. (e) The boards are conveyed from the edger to the trimmer by hand. E. The trimmer. In large mills, trimming follows edging. In small mills, edging follows trimming. I. Parts of the trimmer are : (a) One or several circular saws about 18 inches in diameter. A one saw trimmer is called a "cut- off." ( b ) Feed works, viz. : live rolls or carriage or barbed chains running over sprocket wheels, (c) Table. II. Task of the trimmer is: (a) The shortening of boards to standard lengths of 6. 8. io. 12 and up to 20 feet, allowing 2 inches extra for shrinkage. (b) The removal of defects at either end, so as to raise a board into a higher grade. (c) The cutting of straight ends. III. Pointers. (a) Where two saws are used, the distance between ■ them is changed by a lever or by a screw wheel, shifting one of the saws, while it is in motion, along the shaft. (b) Chain power fed trimmers are used in all large mills. The saws are either jump saws, easily pushed from below the table in pairs, or swing saws, hanging above the table and, similarly, pressed down by the attendant in pairs by a touch on hand or foot levers. F. Yard work. (Sorting and piling.) I. Sorting. The board after leaving the trimmer is taken up by a chain or cable conveyor and passes by the lumber inspector, who pencil-marks its quality. The various qualities are either at once thrown into parallel gutter conveyors, leading to separate chutes, below which a wagon or truck is in waiting, or are transferred to the piles by endless chain conveyors, by hand trucks and wagons. Frequently elevated roads traverse the yard on which and below wdiich such conveyance takes place. FOREST CT1L1ZATI0X Piling. Strong, high, horizontal ground sills are of the utmost importance. The front sill should be higher than the middle and hack sills, except in shed drying. In some yards the front of the piles is given an overhang- ing "batter," to protect it from rain, an arrangement feasible only in low piles. The usual pitch of the pile is i foot in 10 feet or more. The tiers of boards are kept apart by three or four well seasoned cross pieces called sticks — sawn I inch square and placed directly one over the other. The usual width of the piles is from 6 feet to 10 feet. The distance between the piles is at least one foot and should be three feet. In order to prevent end cracks, the sticking should be placed exactly at the ends, slightly projecting over the ends. Each pile must contain equal lengths, as "overlaps'' are sure to get spoiled. Valuable wide boards are often painted at the ends. Oak, ash, hickory and elm require at least four months for air drying; lynn, poplar and pine about two and a half months. Slow drying involves a loss of interest, large yard room, large insurance and slow filling of orders. Still in the case of high grade hardwoods, the use of the dry kiln i- disastrous to th< lumber, check badlv as thick lumber. Thin lumber does not Squares check worst of all. A fermentation and incidentally a discoloration takes place where two fresh sawn surfaces touch one another. Each pile should have a roof 12 inches high in front and 6 inches high in back, projecting in all four directions over the pile. Proper curing of lumber is as important as proper sawing of lumber. III. Dry kiln. A dry kiln consists of shed with gates closing tightly ; lumber conduit ; heating apparatus. The heat is supplied — slowly — either by a hot air fan ; or by a system of steam pipes; or by steam admitted into drying room. The air in the dry kiln must be kept in constant move- ment, so as to prevent unequal drying of the lumber in the piles. B. F/3 REST PflLIZATIOX * Lumber can be more evenly dried by steam than by hot air. Sapwater heated t» boiling p»int expands 6«# times. C«i- sequently, \\0»i. at 212° F. contains only i/»>t «f the water #riginally found therein. Before building a mill be sure to consult insurance com- panies, submitting mill plans. The insurance company prescribes the distance between the yard, boiler house, engine h#use, mill and dry kiln. The rate of insurance «n a mill is 5% and •ver. § XVIII. WOODWORKING PLANT. Planing (surfacing, dressing or sizing). The planer consists of cylindrical cutter heads carrying two to four knives and making 3,oco to 5,000 revolutions per min- ute. It is preferably belted at both sides. The smaller the diameter of the cylinder with its knives, the smoother is the planing. The feeding is done either by two to four feed rolls (above) and friction rolls (below) or by a traveling bed. The entire cutting length of the knives should be uniformly used. The top cutter should do the heavier work in double surfacers. The knives are usually sharpened automatically. Lumber is fed into the machine at the rate of 20 feet to 150 feet per minute. Hardwoods more slowly than the soft woods. The chip breaker is merely a front pressure bar preventing long splinters from being torn off. Price of single planers is $100 to $400; of double planers $400 to $800. No machine should have wood in its construction. Flooring. The flooring machine is a surfacer having an additional outfit of two side cutters revolving on ratchet spindles, cutting tongues and grooves. The machines weigh 5 tons and more. The usual flooring made is hard maple. Planers and flooring machines must be provided with a folding hood connected with an exhaust fan, so as to prevent the shav- ings from clogging up the machinery or from pressing them- selves into the planed surface. Resawing. Resaws are either circular or band resaws. The use of a resaw involves a great saving, since it takes a very fine kerf and at the same time relieves the work of the main The feed is automatic and consists of four rolls. Circular resaws have as low as 19 gauge at the rim and are fre- quently built as segment saws. j / / 8o FOREST UTILIZATION I). Ripping. The rip saw is a circular saw running on a bench and allowing. by a gauge arrangement, to cut any desired width of board or strips. It is usually hand fed. A power fed gang rip saw is merely an edger. E. Cut off saws. Cut off saws are either swing saws, jump saws, stationary saws with carriage moved by hand or automatically, or traveling railway cut off saws when the saw is moved horizontally against the timber.- F. Sand papering. I. Belt sand papering, for carriage spokes, axe handles, buggy poles etc. II. Disc sand papering, notably for hoxes. III. Spindle sand papering, for small tool handles. IV. Cylinder drum sand papering. The object to be sand papered is always fed onto the ma- chine by hand. G. Scraping. Under "scraping" is understood the removal of an extremely thin (not over 1/64 inch ) layer of tissue from a planed surface. It is meant to replace and to cheapen the process of sand papering, and is not intended to reduce the thickness. The scraper consists of power driven, smooth feed rolls and of one stationary knife, over which the hoards are passed. Corky or stringy lumber cannot lie scraped. H. Mitering. In mitering the stock is run along the so-called "fence" against a circular saw. the plane of which forms a variable angle with the plane of the saw table. I. Moulding. Mouldings are either one, two or four sided. Cutter heads, into which cutters of variable size and form are inserted, secure any variety of patterns of moulding. Moulders are often called "stickers." Miscellaneous. Under "matching" is understood the cutting of a tongue and groove into the edge of box l>oards, flooring boards etc. The work is done by a knife and cutter head. Under "gaining" is understood the ditching across a piece. Under "plowing" is understood the ditching along a piece. "Tenoning" is especially required for doors and blind slats — single and double tenons being distinguished. Door panels go through a "panel raising" machine. Sash and door "relishing" means the biting or sawing of large teeth into the tenon. FOREST UTILIZATION 81 §X] VEXEERIXG PLANT. Veneers are either sawn or peeled (sliced). The furniture factory and the package trade use veneers, with entirely different ends in view, on a daily increasing scale. The thickness of sliced veneers ranges down to 1/120 inch; veneers less than 1/40 inch thick, however, are rarely used. Sawn veneers are 1/20 inch thick or thicker. A. Veneer saws. Any saw of a fine gauge is a veneering saw. Largely used are the: I. Horizontal mill saw ; II. Fine band saw; III. Circular saw ground to a fine gauge (19 gauge) at rim. strong (5 to 10 gauge) at center: there is only one col- lar, to which saw is screwed. Veneer saws consisting of sections screwed to a common centerpiece are com- mon. B. Veneer cutting machines. Logs are boiled or steamed (in exhaust) for several hours be- forehand. Usually, logs 3 to 5 feet long are used, the length of the log almost equaling the length of the knife. I. The rotary machine peels any log of. say. over 18 inches diameter, notably poplar, lynn. gum and cottonwood. Into thin layers by revolving the log slowly against a sharp stationary knife. A clipper cuts the roll into pieces of proper size for strawberry boxes, staves, potato barrels, box boards, furniture backing etc. The core of the log. some 6 inches in diameter, does not allow of peeling. II. The stationary log cutter consists of a knife set in a sash. frame removing at each -troke a thin slice or board. £ Advantages of veneering. I. There is little or no loss of timber for kerf and sawdust. Valuable logs (for furniture, cigar boxes) are invariably veneered nowadays. Logs too short for lumber are fit for peeling. II. Veneers show little shrinkage and little checking. Hence they allow of rapid seasoning. For that purpose, the veneers are frequently passed between heated rollers. III. The rotary machine yields very large veneers often en- tirely free from knots which are merely contained in the core left unpeeled. § XX. BOX FACTOR V. A. Kinds of boxes. (a) Planed or unplaned. ( b ) Knocked down or set up. (c) Nailed, lock-cornered or dovetailed. B. Material. Wood as light as possible— readily planed, nailed and treated. 8§ » FOREST UTILIZATION £7 t The best is white pine; next are spruce, basswood, poplar and, more recently, yellow pine, hemlock, gum, Cottonwood. Elm and sycamore are used for special purposes. C. Machinery. A well equipped plant contains planers, resaws, rip saws, cut off saws, box board matchers (which tongue and groove com- posite sides), lock corner machine (or nailing machine or dovetailing machine), sand paper machine and printing ma- chine (drum pattern). D. Business side. The skill of the box maker is shown by working up, without waste, the proper proportions of widths and thicknesses. Careful piling of lumber in the yard, separating according to width and thickness, is very essential. The interdependence between crop prospects and box prices is easily felt by the box makers. For large boxes the nailed pattern is preferred, being the strongest. Box shook fasteners and box strapping increase the strength. The lock cornered box is preferred for starch, plug tobacco and small boxes. Lock cornered boxes are required either by the bail qualities of the lumber or by the quality of the stuff packed. Locked corners demand gluing. "Bevel locked" corners and ''inclined locked" corners are scarcely used. The dovetailed box does not require gluing. The mechanical process for stamp locked corners (dovetails stamped into thin boards) is not yet perfected. Expense of manufacture. I. The manufacture of i,oco feet of lumber into shooks in- volves a bill of $4 for labor and $1 for wear and tear. II. One thousand small lock cornered boxes — 9x6x3 Aches, 54 inch thick for frame and 3/16 inch for top and bot- tom — require 700 board feet of lumber worth $8.50 in case of white pine; $5.10 for labor; $2.72 for glue, wear and tear; $-'.50 for ten packing crates. § XXI. BASKETS. A. Willow baskets. They are hand made, mostly from cultivated shoots of Salix viminalis, aniygdalina and caspica. Shoots 1 to 2 years old are used, being cut either in fall or in spring. In the first case, the bundles of shoots are kept in water over winter. The shoots are peeled after the rising of the sap by being passed through an iron or wooden fork; then rapidly dried to retain the white color. In this condition the material may be stored away for years. The shoots arc bathed in water before weav- ing to restore flexibility and toughness. The bottom of the basket is made first, and then, frequently with the help of a FOREST UTILIZATION " . 8.3 model, the standards or uprights of the wall are fixed. The manufacture has been introduced into New Jersey and New York. B. Wooden baskets. They are used for picking and transportation of bulky farm produces. Sizes l / 2 bushel to 2 bushels. I. The hand made basket, from thin strips split and shaved from baske t oak and white oak f HIT — "ii ^ II. The Briggs stave basket consists of radial ribs cut from 2^4 inch oak planks ; cross cut into lengths varying from - 12^ inch for l / 2 bushel to 18 inches for 2 bushel baskets. ^ The ribs are jointed and pointed to an exact fit for a round center plate and then bent over a model form hav- ing grooves indicating the proper position for each rib and for the strong elm hoop clasped around the rim. III. The common wood basket is made of straight long ribs up to 14 inch thick, cut on a rotary veneer machine. No center piece, no pointing and no jointing are required. The ribs are bent over a model form. A workman is said to make about 300 baskets in a day. § XXII. 'COOPERAGE. A. Terminology. I. "Slack" cooperage turns out barrels for packing lime, vegetables, cement, salt, nails, crockery, sugar, flour, etc. II. "Tight" cooperage deals with barrels for liquids and for meat (pork). B. Material used : Any species may be used for slack cooperage. Alcoholic liquors must be cased in white oak (Quercus alba, michauxii, prinus, macrocarpa, minor etc.). Red oak will not hold whisky, but is used for other staves, flour barrel heading, sawn and coiled hoops. White ash is used for pork staves and butter tubs. Elm yields the best coiled hoops and the best slack staves. Cottonwood and gum are cut for staves on a large scale. Chestnut is used for cheap slack barrel hoops ; yellow poplar for tobacco hogsheads ; basswood for flour barrel headings ; beech and maple for sugar barrels; second growth of hickory, birch and ash for hoops. For buckets, red and white cedar; for tanks, cypress and red- wood are preferred. C. Specifications : I. Flour barrels contain 196 pounds, or 3.57 bushels, or 32 gallons of flour. The diameter of the head is 17 inches; the length of the staves 28 inches. ^4 FOREST UTILIZATION The forms preferred in slack cooperage, either locally en- for given goods, vary to such a degree that figures descriptive of the forms cannot he recorded. II. The "Tight Coopers' Union" specifies: (a) Whisky barrel staves — length 34 inches to 35 inches, thickness % inch, width 4J4 inch after jointing, measured across bilge on the outside. (b) Wine barrel staves — length 34 inches, thickness 11/16 inch after drying and planing, width 4 r / 2 inches. (c) Oil, tierce and pork staves have similar dimen- sions, allowing, however, of sap, one or twoP sound worm holes and knots showing on one side only. Variations of ' x inch in length and 1/16 inch in thickness are permitted in all staves (so called equalized staves). Pipes, butts and puncheons contain over 100 gal- lons and are used for port, rum etc. A hogshead of claret is 46 gallons. D. Statistical note- : I. One thousand feet board measure in logs — Doyle's rule — yield 2,500 sawed flour staves, 3.200 veneered staves, 4,000 cut hoop-; or 3.000 sawn hoops. II. One cord of bolts, with the bark, will make 1,000, or, without bark. 1,200 slack staves. III. In Tennessee, eight white oaks (of over 18 inches diam- eter) are said to average 1,000 half barrel beer staves. E. Prices and their tendency: Staves— Apr. 1, 1901. Fob. 10. 1904. No. 1. flour barrel, per 1,000 .* o.on $11.00 to $13.50 No. 1. cottonwood. per 1,000 6.00 No. i. gum, per 1.000 10.00 to 12.00 Memphis white oak. without sup i20.<"> 44.00 Headii ■_ No. 1. Hour barrel, per set 06% .08 to .osvi No. l. gum, per sot 04 .07% to .08 Hoops- Coiled i im hoops, per 1,000 T.o i o.oo to 10.00 Hickory hoops, per 1.000 6.00 6.25 to 6.75 Barrels Flour. 12 hickory hoop barrel - .41 .45 to .48% Floor, s patent hoop barrel .TO .46 Flour mugwump i in hickory hoops) 39 .45 oil (52 gallon) 1.45 The price of white oak material has risen rapidly and musl continue to rise indefinitely, substitutes for white oak being impossible. In slack cooperage, on the other hand, raw material continues to be plentiful, and new, cheaper forms of packages enter into daily competition with the barrel. The cost of making tierces at Chicago is: Stave- ($21 per I.ooo), 39 cents; heading. 16 cenls; hoops. 20 cents; wages. 2$ cents ; total. $1. FOREST UTILIZATION 85 F. Manufacture of heading, staves, hoops and barrels. I. Heading. Heading for tight cooperage is sawn from split bolts. These bolts are obtained in the woods by halving, quar- tering and splitting (by hand and always with the grain) round blocks which slightly exceed in length the diameter of the heading. The heart of the bolt is not removed. The bolts are wagoned or sledded to the heading plant, where they are inspected, sorted, piled and air dried. Twenty-five horsepower are said to be required at a head- ing plant. The output at a "setting" of the plant aver- ages 200.000 sets of heading. The tight heading plant usually contains a sawing ma- chine, an equalizer and jointer. (a) The heading sawing machine consists of a vertical circular saw (44 inches diameter) screwed to the arbor without a loose collar; a pendulum swing with "grate" and "dogs" to receive the bolt : a slide guiding the swing ; a gauge, ad- justed by screws; a separator throwing the sawed slats to the side. Price $300. (b) The equalizer contains a tilting table or a carriage, which is forced against a pair of circular saws. (c) The jointer edges the slats. It consists of a strong wheel carrying on its side 4 to 6 straight knives. The wheel is covered by a hood. Price $140. For tight cooperage the joints are made secure by blind wooden nails and by coopers' flag (Typha latifolia) glued into the joints. Two more machines are required to finish the heading prepared by the apparatus mentioned . under a, b. and c, viz. : (d) The heading planer carries knives 16 inches to 24 inches wide and has a capacity of 8.500 headings a day. (e) The heading turner cuts the heading circularly and carves the required bevel edge. It usually • carries a concave saw, to cut through the boards, and on the same mandrel a small, thick circular saw which gives the bevel. The heading, held in clamps, rotates obliquely against these saws. Price $235. Capacity 5.000 a day. Heading is usually kiln dried. For slack heading, quarter sawing is usually not required. Ordinary lumber can be used. The slack heading plant may or may not contain all of the machines enumerated under a, b, c, d and e. 86 FOREST UTILIZATION The tight heading plant of the woods contains the machines a, 1) and c, while the machines d and e are usually combined with the cooper works, unless they form a separate establish- ment. II. Staves. (a) Staves for barrels containing the more valuable beverages are hand made (rived staves). The riving of staves wastes timber. Proper bilge and curvature are obtained either by hewing (Ger- many) or in the finishing plant (America). The white oak timber used must come from straight trees of over 18 inches diameter. Such trees are found in clumps only. Hence the. ne- cessity of a portable finishing plant, using from 15 to 35 horsepower. At each set or site — now usually 15 miles from the railroad- — at least 100,- 000 staves are manufactured. Six hundred rough staves have the weight of i.ooo finished staves. Hence it is wise to bring the plant -close to the timber. The felled tree is sawed (by hand) into blocks of two inches more than stave length, which are placed on their larger ends. Then the sap line is demarked with a pencil, and inside the sap line, with the help of a pattern showing the cross section of a stave, as many staves are pencil-marked as possible. By axe, wedges and wooden mauls the block is then halved and quartered (and rehalvcd and requartered in case of heavy blocks), the clefts following the pencil marks. The sectors are then split, along the annual rings, into rough staves — always following the pencil marks. The core of at least four inches diameter, con- taining the small limb-stubs, is thrown away. The rough staves are inspected and sorted and piled hogpen-fashion for air drying, either be- fore or after sledding or wagoning to the fin- ishing plant. It might be added here that this finishing plant is — contrary to expectation — never combined with a heading plant, (b) The "stave bucker," by which three-fourths of all rived staves made in the United States are re- fined, dresses and planes both sides of the staves to proper curvature and bilge. A rack forces the rough staves through the narrow passage left be- tween two knives (either straight knives, or FOREST UTILIZATION g 7 curved to correspond with the periphery of the finished barrel) which are fastened in a rocking frame. (c) The "stave dresser" frequently takes the place of the bucker. It carries knives on two cutter- heads, dressing and hollowing the stave on both sides to- proper thickness and leaving either an abrupt or a gradual shoulder (d) The stave saw yields staves of equal form, but greater permeability, more economically than the hand. Stave bolts must have the following minimum dimensions: thickness with grain 5 inches; width close to heart 3 inches. The bolts are barked and hearted in the woods, being split from logs having at least a diameter of 15 inches inside the bark. The stave saw consists of: 1. A hollow steel cylinder, having the diam- eter of the barrels to be made and car- rying saw teeth at one end. 2. A carriage with clamps passing the saw cylinder. 3- A stave holder running into the cylinder _ and removing the sawed staves. ' Capac- ity 12,000 staves per day. (e) In slack cooperage, a stave cutter is often used, consisting of a circle (20 inches for fruit bar-, rels) with one knife attached, making 150 revolu- tions per minute. The stave bolts are steamed beforehand. The knife separates at each revo- lution of the circle, or by each singie stroke, a stave from the bolt. Capacity 140,000 per day. Price $130. Horse^* power, 4. (f) The rotary veneer machine is now also used to cut 4 inch or 4 1 /, inch gum staves. (g) The stave equalizer trims the ends and gives the staves the proper length. It consists of two circular saws and a tilting bed or a carriage, (h) Stave listers or jointers edge the staves in such a way that the edges coincide with a plane through the axis of the barrel. Staves for export are straight listed and without bilge. The stave jointer is either a circular swing saw or it consists of two circular saws; or of a number of inclined knives held by cutterheads; or of one knife running in a sash frame; or it resembles a heading jointer (star jointer). a FOREST UTILIZATION (i) In the '"slave planer." a steel pattern passing through the machine with the stave lifts the cutters in such a way a- to allow the shoulders of the .-laves to retain a greater thickness than the middle of the staves. III. Hoops. In tight cooperage, steel or iron hoops are used, driven over the barrel by hoop drivers or trussing machines and sometimes fastened by hoop fasteners. In slack cooperage, wooden hoops are still preferred and wire hoops are only occasionally used. Wooden hoops are either hand made, especially the long white oak hoops used on tobacco hogsheads, or sawed from plank by a hoop machine, or finally knife-cut on a rotary machine or a sash frame machine. A machine by which sawed hoops are obtained directl from logs does not seem to be much used. By special machinery hoops are planed, pointed, lapped and punched. A hoop coiler rolls the hoops into bundles; usually the outfit of a "sawed hoop" plant consists of a saw bench, a saw machine and a coiler. IV. Barrels. Putting up a barrel requires : ' a i Heating, in order to increase the flexibility of the staves held together by an iron form and by one or two hoops. (b) Bending in an apparatus consisting of screw and rope, windlass and rope, or of a funnel press. (c) Crozing, i. e.. making a groove for the insertion of the heading, either by a hand planer or by a power groover. The finished barrel is automatically planed on the outside; if it does not assume the exact form of a doubly truncated parabolloid, it is pressed into shape by a barrel leveler. § XXIII. WAGON WORKS. The raw material must be tough and strong and, above all, air dry. The dry kiln often follows after two or three years of air drying. Second growth of black or shell bark hickory is used for tongues, shafts, spokes, rims, axles, neck yokes, whiffletrees and eveners. White oak or burr oak is used for spokes, tongues, bolsters, hounds, reaches and axles. Black birch, rock elm, white oak and locust are used for hubs. Wagon beds are made of yellow poplar, pines, cottonwoods, the composing boards being either ship lapped or tongued and grooved. i^^ /l^T^g FOREST UTILIZATION )uble] ^ callyp> tised) V White ash, bending easiest and best of all woods, is used for rims, bent seat-;, bent bows, shafts etc. B. The manufacturing machinery is usually supplied by the Defiance Machine Works, Defiance, Ohio. I. Hubs are cut direct from log to proper length by dor equalizing saws and are turned on outside automatical on a lathe; bored for boxes (thimbles) ; chisel morti for spokes ; and set with two to four iron rings. II. Spokes are obtained from bolts by rip sawing into squares which are turned on a lathe : tenoned at the big end : equalized in length ; sandpapered and polished ; and driven into hubs by automatic hammers. III. Rims and felloes are either bent to proper form or sawn ^ from straight bolts. In the first case, the bolts are steamed or boiled ; then bent and pressed in an iron pattern when hot ; then cased up and dried ; then boreci^V^ to receive the spokes; rounded on the inside ..-with a slight elevation left around the hole : planed and finally sandpaper polished. Very wide plank is required for sawn felloes, which are obtained either by a set of concave saws, having the required curvature, or by a narrow band or scroll saw which follows the pencil marks of a pattern made for each piece on the plank. , IV. Axles are turned on a lathe according to a steel pattern i?J spanned in the lathe ; are gained to receive bolster- and hounds ; and have the thimble skeins driven on by hydraulic pressure. I V. Shafts and poles are sawn from plank 1V2 inch to 2J4 inch thick and Sy 2 to 12 feet long; are heated and bent, cased, dried, rounded and belt polished. C. Few establishments^ make entire wagons . Usually shafts, spokes , rims, axles etc. are made in factories close to the woo ds, w hile o ther fact ories closer to the cities or to railroad centers pu t the wagons together af ter buying their component parts. 1 — § XXIV. SHIXGLE MILLS. A. Material. Breasted, shaved, rived or rifted shingles (meaning hand made) are used in the backwoods only. At Biltmore, shaved shingles made of chestnut cost $2 per M., while so called boards, two feet long and six inches wide, split from white oak, cost $3 per M. Shaved shingles cannot be laid so neatly as sawn shingles. For machine made shingles are used: On the Pacific coast, red cedar ; In the Lake States, white pine, white cedar, spruce, norway pine and hemlock ; In the South, cypress, longleaf pine and shortleaf pine. ♦ F0RBST UTILIZATION Durability. The durability is said to be for : White pine rived, 20 to 35 years. White pine sawn, 16 to 22 years. White pine (sappy) sawn, 4 to 17 years. Chestnut rived, 20 to 25 years. Cedar sawn, 12 to 18 years. Spruce sawn, 7 to 1 1 years. Specifications. The usual size of sawn shingles is: 16 inches or 18 inches long; 4 inches wide; 1-16 inch thick at small end; y 2 inch thick at butt end. A bundle of shingles contains 250 pieces, is 20 inches long and has 24 tiers. A carload of white pine shingles, weighing 22,000 pounds, contains 70,000 16-inch shingles; a large car of red cedar shingles con- tains 170,000 pieces. #ne thousand shingles cover 100 square feet of roof, each show- ing 14.4 square inches to the weather. A rule for the number of shingles required for a roof is: ascertain number of square inches in one side of roof; cut off the last figure, and the result is the number of shingles required for both sides of the roof. In this case, each shingle shows 20 square inches to the weather. Shingles are usually laid to show 4 inches of their length, which arrangement yields, in 16-inch shingles, a quadruple layer of shingles on the roof. The higher the grade of the shingles, the larger is the weather face permissible. Machinery. The machinery used in a shingle plant consists of: I. Drag saw, either driven from a countershaft or acting directly from the piston, cutting the logs into shingle lengths. II. Roller, a circular saw cutting the round blocks into bolts, the thickness of which equals the width of the shingle. Bolts split with an axe vivid a better grade of shingles but cause a large waste of timber. A knot saw may be used after bolting to remove knots, rot, sap etc. III. Shingle machine, constructed in a variety of forms: (a) A knife is spanned in a sash frame moving up and down and severing a shingle at each stroke from steamed bolts. This system, furnishing "cut shingles," is not much used. (b) The shingle saw machine uses a circular saw lacking the loose collar and screwed onto the fast collar. The gauge at the center of the saw may be very heavy while the gauge at the rim is from 15 to 20 only. The shingle blocks are fastened into either a slid- FOREST UTILIZATION 91 ing frame or a rotating frame and are tilted con- tinuously, so as to alternate edge and butt cuts. The sliding frame is either hand fed or power fed. A machine takes from one to ten blocks at a time. IV. The jointer is meant to give a rectangular shape to the shingle. It is either a single or a double rip saw (two saws 4 inches apart) or a wheel jointer consisting of a steel wheel carrying, close to the circumference, 4 to 8 knives radially or almost radially set and of a hood covering the machine and connected with a blowpipe to remove shavings. The shingles are placed opposite an opening in the hood and pressed by hand against the knives, which make about 500 to Soo revolutions per minute. V. The shingle packer, used for 16 inch and 18 inch shingles, consists of a bench and two slotted and overhanging steel rods. The attendant pressing the rods down by hand or foot packs the shingles tightly with their fine ends overlapping. VI. Shingle planers, fancy butt shapers and dry kilns are found in up to date plant?. After dry kilning, bundles require tightening up. § XXV. LATH MILL. The usual length of laths is 4 feet; the weight per 1.000 is 500 pounds. One thousand laths cover 70 square yards, and a cord of slabs yields 3,000 laths. All softwoods, further yellow poplar, cottonwood and linden form the raw material for lath. The machinery used consists of: A. Slab resaw, by which the last board is cut out of the slab. It contains a circular saw and feed works pressing the slab in to the saw. B. Lath bolter, consisting of a single or double cutoff. C. Lath machine, which is either an ordinary rip saw having up to six small circular saws and an automatic feed, or a cutter- head and knife machine. The latter machine makes the so called "grooved" lath. D. Lath bundling machine, which presses the laths together by a foot or hand lever and facilitates binding. § XXVI. CLAPBOARD MILL. The cross section of clapboards is either square or. more usually, beveled, with the big edge from }i inch to y% inch thick. They are manufactured either from boards 1 inch thick fed through a resaw, the feed rolls of which are inclined toward the saw, or by special clapboard machinery directly from the log. Logs, in the latter case, are cut in pieces of proper lengths (4 feet to 6 feet) bv a drag saw; 92 FOREST UTILIZATION are turned on a lathe and then spanned into a sliding frame (between pins). Frame and log pass a circular saw with and not against the rotation of the saw. After passing, the log is automatically turned by an angle corresponding with the bevel of the clapboard. This process leaves a four inch core unused. A planer, molder or jointer dresses the sides and a butter or trimmer dresses the ends. § XXVII. NOVELTY MILL. Novelty mills have sprung up, in recent years, all over the Northeast, manufacturing trays, wooden dishes, wooden wire, rules, pen-holders, flasks, skewers, toys and thousands of playthings of the hour. The variety of the raw material used is as great as the variety of the goods manufactured. Still, birch seems to be the acknowledged leader for novelty makes. Wooden dishes' and wooden wire may deserve particular mention. A. Wooden dishes. I. Material. Yellow poplar is used for large wooden trays. Second growth white pine (cuts taken between whirls) is said to be used in New England. Maple is preferred for small oval wood dishes, turned out by a special machine automatically. II. Manufacture of oval dishes. These oval dishes are obtained from sawn blocks, scal- ing from 6 inches by 8 inches to 7^4 inches by g l / 2 inches. The dishes are cut with the grain from the side face. Blocks are thoroughly boiled. The cutting knife, revolving circularly, makes 25 dishes to the inch and 75,000 per day. Two facing knives shave the block clean between every two cuts, carving out true edges. A screw fed carriage automatically feeds the block into the knives. No skilled labor is required. The attend- ant merely removes the remnants of a spanned block and places a new block in the carriage. B. Wooden wire. Wooden wire is used for mattings, screens, inner rack of ladies' hats etc. The raw material consists of willow, basswood and poplar plank. A series of planing knives, in the form of sharp rimmed, tine steel cylinders, plies in a sliding frame over the plank, severing at each stroke a series of wires having the len^ih of the plank. A straight planer knife follows in the wake of the fine cylinders, removing the irregularities left on the plank. V FOREST UTILIZATION 93 § XXVIII. MATCHES AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. Wooden matches are either round or square. A. Round matches are made on a machine resembling the wooden wire machine described in Section XXVII. B. Square matches are made from blocks 16 inches to 24 inches long which, after steaming or boiling, are peeled on a rotary veneer machine into layers having the thickness of a match. I. The veneers are automatically clipped into sheets having a length of 6 feet and width equaling 5 to 12 match lengths. These sheets are heaped up in packs contain- ing 50 to 60 tiers. II. A knife system, with vertical spur-knives, plays in a vertical sash and cuts from each tier, at each stroke, 5 to 12 matches. The pack, after each stroke, is moved forward the thickness of a match. The machine has a daily capacity of 25,000,000 matches. III. The matches are then dried and cleaned by sifting. C. The treatment thereafter is identical for round and square matches, consisting of the following operations: I. Causing the match pegs to lie parallel, by rocking them in an oscillating drawer. U. Fixing about 2,250 matches at a time in a clasp or frame. III. Dipping the clasp (for fine matches) wholly into paraffine and the tips thereafter into a chemical compound (mastic) which forms the inflammable head. The mastic consists of one or more oxidizing substances (chlorate or bichromate of potash), often mixed with a particle of some explosive, so as to allow of ignition by friction on any rough surface. D. The raw material for matches is derived from cottonwoods, linden, sapwood of yellow poplar, white pine, spruce. A white, soft and long fibre is required. § XXIX. SHOE PEGS AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. \. Wooden shoe pegs are used to fix the "uppers" to the shoe sole and to construct the heel. The pegs are automatically fed from a pegging machine. Pegs are 3/ 8 inch to Ji inch long, square with a prismatic head. The raw material consists of birch and hard maple. 3. Manufacture. I. The blocks are cut into discs. 3/ 3 to 7/ 8 inch thick, by a circular saw. II. The discs are pointed in a pointing machine, which plows parallel grooves, lengthwise and crosswise, into the discs. The distance between two furrows equals the width of the peg. 94 F0RES1 UTILIZATION III. The splitting machine severs, by the gradual strokes cf a knife (first stroke down to l /i, second stroke down to 24 of thickness of disc), the disc into strips of pegs and, playing crosswise, into individual pegs. After each stroke of the knife the disc is moved toward it by the width of one furrow. During the operation the disc is held in a leather frame. IV. The wet, red pegs are then bleached by applying sulphuric acid; then dried in heated drums; then cleaned from splinters and irregularities by sifting. § XXX. EXCELSIOR MILL. A. Grades of product, First Grade — Fine wood wool, thickness from 1/500 inch to 1/64 inch. Second Grade — Common fine wood wool. Third Grade — Mattress stock. The greatest demand is for stock 1/100 inch thick and from 1/32 to 1/8 inch wide. B. Usage. Excelsior is used for upholstering and for packing (glass- ware, furniture, confectionery etc.). It is preferred to straw owing to its greater elasticity and to its lack of dust. It is easily colored. A limited amount of excelsior is woven into mattings and rugs. C. Kinds of wood. Basswood is best ; balm of gilead, cottonwood and yellow poplar come next. Pine and spruce also arc used. One cord of wood will yield 1,500 pounds of excelsior. D. Process of preparation. The wood is peeled, cut into 38-inch blocks, and the blocks split into slabs 5 inches to 6 inches thick. These slabs are thoroughly air seasoned under cover, and finally cut into two lengths of 18 inches each. Frequently the core of blocks peeled on the rotary veneer machine is used for excelsior. E. Machinery. Excelsior machines are small, upright knife machines, or carry the knives on a disc set in rapid rotation. The modern machine, however, is an eight block horizontal machine consisting of: T. Two sliding steel frames carrying eight tool heads into which the knives and the comb-like spurs are spanned. The sliding .frames are moved by powerful cranks and pitmans on maple slides. II. Two stationary frames, above the sliding frames, each having four sets of rolls, each set pressing a block by its rotation downward against the knives. III. The shavings, falling through the sliding frame, are car- ried out by bread belts. FOREST UTILIZATION 95 IV. The daily capacity of an eight block machine is 4,000 pounds of fine wood wool, or 10,000 pounds of mattress stock. V. Additional machinery consists of automatic knife grinders, baling presses, cut off saws etc. VI. The price of the machinery for a modern plant is about $2,000. About 30 horsepower are required. § XXXI. GROUND WOOD PULP AND CHEMICAL FIBRE AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. . Historical remarks. Up to 1854 paper was made from cotton, linen and hemp fibre, precipitated from a mush in the shape of a matting. Wood grinding was invented in 1854. Since 1867 the ground wood is refined by chemical processes which separate the wood into thinner strings of cells and free it from rosin, tannin, albumen, gums e tc. In the United Stales there were, in 1800. 82 mills producing $4,600,000 worth of wood paper, while the value of the output in 1900 approximated $20,000,000. Rags, manila, straw and waste paper used as raw material for paper -till outrank in value (in 1900) the wood used as raw material. In 1900, close to 2,000.000 cords of wood were consumed, worth nearly $10,000,000: three-fourths being spruce and one-fourth poplar and miscellaneous. If the United States shall conquer the Swedish and German export and supply the entire consumption of wood paper at home, 6,000,000 acres of well managed wood lands will be required to produce the raw material. Statistical remarks. One cord of wood yields one ton of ground pulp wood (mechanical fibre) or \' 2 ton of chemical fibre. In the so called "news grade" 80% of pulp is mixed with 20% of chemical fibre. Japanese paper is made of the inner bark of a mulberry tree (Brussonetia). For highest grades of writing paper, cotton and linen are used. An average mill produces 2^, tons a day. - A modern pulp plant requires annually, at least, 6,000 cords of wood ; a modern fibre plant at least 25,000 cords. The price of the product loco factory is about: For ground wood pulp. $13 per cord; For soda fibre, $20 per cord ; For sulphite fibre, $25 per cord. The plant. The plant requires an outlay of about $10,000 per ton of daily production. Unlike a saw mill, a paper mill cannot be shifted when the nearby supply of raw material is exhausted. go FOREST UTILIZATION A plant must be located : J. Close to water; water is not so much used for motive power as for the dissolution of the fibre in the washing process. 11. Close to cheap wood supply: wood must be plentiful and uniform, of a long, straight fibre, readily interlacing and white. Spruce is considered best, the price at river tri ints being about $3.50 per cord and at mill from $4.50 to $5.50. Cottonwoods and poplar are next in impor- tance. Price at river fronts $2. Hemlock and balsam are mixed with spruce in a daily growing proportion. I'.irch, beech and maple can be used only for wrapping paper and cardboard, the fibre being short, brittle and unbleachable. The use of pine is handicapped by the expense of the removal of the rosin. The Pacific spruces and o-t ton woods may have a great future. 111. Close to cheap coal, since the coal consumption per pound of paper amounts to 5/16 of a pound of coal. So much coal is required for heating, drying and bleaching, that all excepting 15% of the machinery can be driven free of charge. D. Process of manufacture. The manufacture is either purely mechanical (ground wood pulp) or also chemical. In the latter case, distinguish between the soda process, the sulphite process and the sulphate process. The electric process, though very promising, is still in early infancy. The principle of manufacture is: Grinding and beating of wood in water until it forms a fluid pulp: allowing water to run off leaving a matted stratum of wet fibre; bleaching; drying; pressing. I. Ground wood fibre. (a 1 The wood is cut into bolts one foot long and five inches thick. The bark is removed, and the knots are usually bored out. Mi) The bolts are pressed against stone mill-wheels which turn slowly under constant influx of water. Bolts must be ground in the direction of the fibre. I he fluid pulp is carried through sieves retaining the long splinters, which are transferred to a pulp engine for mechanical refining. ( A ) The fibre is ground a second time both in stamp- ers and rotary mills. The fluid is separated according to fineness by sieves of different mesh which allow the water to run off. The filtered mass is taken up by FOREST UTILIZATION 97 endless belts of cloth which carry it as a thin matting through a series of heated rolls, (f) The mattings are dried by superheated steam, by pressure or in the air. Pulp is shipped in rolls about 3 feet long and \y 2 feet in diameter. It is not paper but merely the leading raw material for ordinary paper. II. Soda process. This process consists of: (a) Sawing wood into discs about i inch thick. (b) Grinding and dissecting the discs into fragments about 1/24 inch by I inch in size. (c) Packing the material into perforated iron boxes which are placed in digestors containing a solu- tion of caustic soda. (d) Boiling the wood for four hours under a pressure of 125 pounds. (e) Grinding between stones. (f) Repeated washing and sifting. (g) Bleaching with chlorate of lime and washing. (h) Taking up mass by endless rolls of cloth and dry- ing it between heated rollers. (i) Reclaiming caustic soda by boiling and melting. III. Sulphite process. Same as the soda process, excepting points "c," "d" and "g." The wood fibre is first cooked without chemicals and then boiled for 60 hours with calcium sulphite — a cheap chemical usually prepared at the mill itself. No or only little bleaching is required, the fibre being free from color when leaving the digestor. The expense of manufacture per ton of sulphite fibre is said to be as follows : Two tons of spruce $ 9.00 Coal 3.00 Sulphur 3.30 Lime 70 Labor inclusive of office force 7.00 Wear and tear 2.50 Total $25.50 These figures may seem to be unusually high. The sulphite process offers the following advantages : (a) It is cheaper (no bleaching, cheap chemicals). (b) It does not interfere with the strength of the fibre. (c) It yields a larger output of fibre per cord. Hence the sulphite process is rapidly superseding the soda process. Exception in poplar. 9 S FOREST UTILIZATION IV. Sulphate process. It is adopted in mills originally arranged for caustic soda process. The chemical used is sodium sulphate, the price of which is only one-third that of caustic soda. It is reclaimed out of its watery solution by evaporating id melting. This process gives the old soda mills a new lease of life which were about to be forced to the wall by the superiority of the sulphite process. V. Electric process. The electric current is used to obtain from an 8% solu- tion of common salt (Na Ci) its composing parts, viz., caustic soda and hydrochloric acid. These substances, alternatingly acting upon the wood pre- pared in the manner described under II, a, b, and c, dis- solve the lignin and destroy the incrustations of the fibre, so that pure cellulose remains in the digestors. Two digestors are used, connected with the positive and the negative electrode of the current respectively. The process is said to be faster and cheaper than the sulphite process. No bleaching recpiired. § XXXir. TANNING MATERIALS AND TANNERIES. A. Tanning materials. Tanning materials used in the United State- were in 1900: Hemlock bark, 1,170.000 cords. Oak, 445,000 coi Gambier, 128,000 bales. Hemlock bark extract, 13,000 barrels. Oak bark extract, 54.000 barrels. Quebracho bark extract, 20,000 barrel-. Sumac bark extract, 8,500 barrels. Chemicals, $2,225,000 worth. In the sole leather, belt leather and harness leather industries, vegetable tanning material is still preferred. Mineral or chem- ical tannage, however, has been developed during the last ten years to a degree threatening to entirely supplant the old methods. Since 1900, extracts obtained from chestnut wood have gained both favor and importance. B. Tanbark in particular. I. Notes on tanbark. (a) The corky layers of bark do not contain any tan- nin and are usually shaved off. In Europe, young oak bark not having any cork is prefer- ably used. (b) Fresh bark contains on an average 45% water and shrinks heavily during the drying process. FOREST UTILIZATION 09 (c) While oak bark must be peeled in spring imme- diately when the sap begins to rise (April-May), hemlock bark may be peeled at any time from May to September. (d) Bark peeling season for oak is from early April to the end of June. Trees in the bottoms peel earlier than those higher up. The bark on the uphill side of a tree is thinner than the bark on the downhill side. Trees exposed to the weather, isolated, on unpro- tected slopes, have short boles but a heavier bark than those growing under the reverse con- ditions. Dying trees will not peel. II. Peeling process. (a) Girdle the tree about four feet above the ground; remove bark from stump and roots; fell the tree in such a way as to leave the bole well raised above the ground. (b) Notch (with axe) a line along the tree and rings around the tree every four feet. Have two men with "spuds" peel the ringed sections, and see that the pieces peeled are as wide as possible and, as near as possible, four feet long. Large pieces will dry well and will save expense in handling. Handling costs more than peeling. (c) Lean the peeled pieces against the felled bole, preferably flesh side out, as high above ground as possible, and see that the air circulates freely around them. (d) See that the bark is as little shaded as possible. Peel before leaves are out. Never leave bark to dry in a moist gully. (e) Toward evening, turn the flesh side of the bark toward the object supporting it so as to protect it from dew. The expense of "curing" is so high, however, and the danger of spoliation by rain so great, that bark is now usually placed at once "bark side out." (f) Pile the bark after two to three days, provided it is not wetted, close to the tree in loose piles. These piles are left for weeks in the woods. Bark is sure to mold if a rainy season sets in. Free access of air greatly reduces the danger of damage. (g) Finally sled the bark, by hand sleds, cattle or mules, over rough trails (best grade is about 20%) to the wagon roads, to be removed to tannery or railroad. o FOREST UTILIZATION III. Remarks. (a) The minimum diameter of trees and branches peeled depends on the price of bark and the price of stumpage. At the present time, far from the tannery, it does not pay to peel pieces of less than 10 inches diameter. (b) The expense of the harvest of oak bark is per cord: Roads, 45c; felling, 27c; peeling, 57c; piling, 72c. On the average a man will peel per hour from 0.3 to 0.38 cord. (c) Tannin percentages of dressed bark are, after Sargent : Mangrove 30 % Burr and red oak... 4.6% Sumac 18 % Chestnut 6.7% Sassafras root 58 % Douglas fir 13.8% f German oak 14 % Eastern hemlock. .. .13.1% Cal. Chest, oak 16.5% Western hemlock... .15.1% Live oak 10.5% Eastern spruce 7.2% Chestnut oak 6.2% German spruce 8 % Spanish oak 8.6% German fir 6 % Black oak 5.9% Larch 7 %' White oak 6 % Birch 4 % C. Wood extracts in particular. I. Tannin extracts are manufactured from bark, chestnut wood, quebracho, mangrove and oak. Quebracho wood contains 24% of tannin; chestnut wood 14% (?) of tan- nin. II. The wood is shredded in a chipper and the tannin ex- tracted (not entirely) by steam or hot water under pressure. The liquid obtained is condensed. III. While in France the sappy branches and young shoots of chestnut are preferred, in America the heart wood and especially the butt is preferred. IV. The wood is cut 4 feet to 5 feet long. The leather trust uses a cord of 160 cubic feet = iJ4 cords of 128 cubic feet. V. Clear water, cheap transportation and cheap fuel are required for successful manufacture. Only sound wood is used ; wormholes in chestnut, however, do not interfere with its value. VI. Extracts exposed to air or exposed to heat spoil rap- idly. VII. Extracts are shipped in barrels of 56 gallons capacity or in tank cars. VIII. The price of chestnut extract is 1V2C to 2c per pound. At FOREST UTILIZATION 101 a price of ij^c, extract is cheaper than oak bark at $6 per cord. IX. One cord of chestnut wood yields 500 pounds of extract containing about 25% tannin. D. The methods of tannage employed nowadays are: I. Tanning by means of aluminum salts. II. Chamoying by means of certain oils or acids of oils. III. Tanning by salts of chromium. IV. Vegetable tanning, using the wood of quebracho, chestnut and oak; the bark of various oaks, hemlock, spruce, douglas fir, birch, larch, willows; fruits, cups and galls, i. e., divi-divi, catechu, myrobalans; further, the leaves of sumac. Instead of using these vegetable matters, their watery extracts frequently are applied. E. Object of tanning. Tannage tends to render the skin permanently supple and durable by impregnation with tannin. Aside of the mechanical imbedding of molecules by impregnation, a chemical action ( fermentation > may take place in the case of bark tannage, due to the presence of microbes in the bark, chemically binding the tannin to the albumen and gelatine of the skin. F. Criteria of a good method of manufacture are : I. The weight of the leather produced. Since leather is sold by th,e pound, the tanner tries to press into the hide the maximum amount of tannin, tannin being much cheaper than hides. Beyond a certain point, this extravagance of impregnation fails to increase the wearing qualities of leather and is therefore useless to the buyer. II. The color of the leather produced and the adaptability of the leather for coloring. III. The possibility of tannin being washed out through wear and tear. From chromium tanned leather even a boil- ing process will not remove the tannin. IV. Quickness in filling orders and amount of capital re- quired. V. Cheapness of manufacture. The best leather is produced slowly only by use of materials rather poor in tannin. G. Statistical notes. I. One ton (2,240 pounds) of hemlock bark will tan 300 pounds of sole leather or 400 pounds of upper leather; 4 to 5 pounds of good oak bark are required to produce 1 pound of sole leather. One acre of hemlock wood is said to yield about 7 cords of bark, and 1,500 board feet of timber are said to carry one cord of bark. One acre of hardwoods will yield on the average not over one-half cord of chestnut oak bark. z FOREST UTILIZATION One cord of chestnut wood yields one barrel of extract. II. The price of bark at the tanneries ranges from $4 to $16 per cord. The cord of bark is not measured, but is weighed, 2,240 pounds being called a cord. The price of a cord of chestnut wood f. o. b. cars is $2.50 to $3. III. One hundred pounds of dry hides yield 150 to 185 pounds of leather; 100 pounds of green hides yield 60 to 80 pounds. The cost of the hide amounts to from 50% to 75% of the cost of production. IV. The number of tanneries in the United States has greatly decreased from the year 1880 (5,628 plants) to 1900 (1,306 plants). The small tanneries using old fashioned and wasteful methods have been killed by the large and intelligently conducted modern plants. The leather trust controls over 100 of the largest plants. The investment of capital has increased from $73,000,000 in 1880 to $174,000,000 in 1900. The cost of raw material, $155,000,000, and the value of the product, $204,000,000, have remained almost unal- tered during the same period. V. "Hides" are obtained from oxen, cows and horses; "kips" from yearling cattle; "skins" from calves, sheep, goats and pigs. Calf skin is used for upper leathers of shoes; sheep skin for cheap shoes, linings and gloves ; goat skin for fine upper leathers and gloves. Hides often are split and the so called grain and flesh splits are used in place of goat and calf skin. H. Manufacture. The old fashioned methods used from time immemorial consisted of rinsing skins ; scraping off the flesh ; treating the hair with lime ; placing alternating layers of crushed oak bark and of skins in rough vats. The time consumed in this process of manufacture frequently exceeded a year. The best leather, however, is produced in this way. The modern process in manufacturing sole, belt and harness leather is : I. Soak in soft water (heated to less than 70 F.) to remove salt and blood and to restore the original soft- ness and pliability of the skin. II. Loosen hair by either liming green hide in milk of lime for three to six days or sweating dry hides at ~o° in a close room, inviting a partial decomposition of the hair sheath. The sweating is preferred for acid hemlock tannage. III. Remove on the "beam," by hand or machine, flesh, hair, blood, lime, dirt. -<#■ EST UTILIZATION 103 IV. Prepare the liquors in the leech house The liquors contain often from 5% to 6^4% of tannin only. Cold water extracts only part of the tannin from either bark or wood. Very hot water may extract all, extracting with it, however, undesirable coloring matters and kill- ing the fermenting microbes. V. The tannage itself is either "Acid hemlock tannage" or "Non-acid hemlock, oak and union tannage." (a) Acid hemlock tannage consists of: 1. Coloring in a dilute solution of tannin. 2. Placing skin for 2 to 4 days in a sulphuric bath (of 10% to 30%) by which the hide is swelled to a great thickness. 3. Placing the hide in a strong, concentrated solution of tannin. (b) Non-acid hemlock, oak and union tannage (2-3 hemlock, 1-3 oak bark) : 1. Treat the hide, to begin with, with very weak solutions of tannin. 2. Gradually increase thereafter the concen- tration of the liquors. If a hide is at once hung in a strong liquor, its outer layers only are tanned. The hide will not swell, and the inner layers will fail to be impregnated. VI. The operations finishing the process of manufacture are: Washing; scouring off the so called bloom; stuffing (which means bathing in grease); drying; dampening and rolling under pressure ; redrying ; glossing on a brass bed by brass rollers. § XXXIII. CHARCOAL BURNING IN CHARCOAL KILNS. Distillation of wood. Destructive distillation of wood, under reduced admission of air, yields chemically the following proportion of substances: I. 25 % of non-condensable gases, viz. : carbon monoxide acetylene carbon dioxide propene marshgas ethylene II. 40% of condensable vapors, viz. : acetone formic acid furfurol butyric acid methyl alcohol crotonic acid methylamine capronic acid acetic acid propionic acid 104 FOREST UTILIZATUX III. 10% of tarry liquid, viz. : tar cresol creosote phlorol toluol naphtalene xylol pyrene cumol chrysene methol paraffin 25% of solid residue, viz. : charcoal inorganic salts IV. B. The kiln process. In the kiln process of destructive distillation of wood, all of the above substances are allowed to escape unused, excepting the solid residue. Modern technology succeeds in catching and utilizing several of the substances given under II and III, as appears from Section XXXV. Still, the large majority of the charcoal commercially used is produced by the old and wasteful charcoal kiln. C. Characteristic qualities of charcoal. I. Charcoal has per cubic foot a larger heating power than wood. II. Owing to its lesser weight, it is very cheaply transported. III. Its freedom from sulphur and phosphates makes it valu- able for metallurgic work (Swedish charcoal iron). D. The work at the kiln. " ' I. For use in kilns, wood must be thoroughly seasoned, free from heavy knots. The billets must have equal length. The kilns should be charged with one species and one assortment of wood only at a time. II. The work consists of: (a) Preparation of ground near water by leveling and hoeing the soil, by removing roots and stones,. by raising the center of the circle to be occupied by the kiln about 10 inches over its circumfer-; ence. The diameter of the circle is from 15 feet to 30 feet usually. The best soil is loamy sand, which secures proper regulation of the draft. The site should be protected from wind. Twigs are woven into a wind screen on the windward side, if necessary. (b) Erecting the "chimney" by placing three or four poles of even height at one foot distance from a center pole, fastening them together to the cen- tral pole by withes. The chimney is cylindrical if kiln is lighted from above, pyramidal if kiln is lighted from below. FOREST UTILIZATION 105 The chimney is filled with inflammable sub- . stances (dried twigs etc.). (c) Constructing the kiln proper.^ The kiln should have a parabolic form. It con- sists of two or more tiers of billets placed almost vertically, the bark turned outward, the big end downward, the finest pieces near the chimney and near the circumference, the largest pieces half way between. These tiers are topped by a cap, consisting of smaller billets placed almost horizontally. A cylindrical chimney extends through the cap A pyramidal chimney is closed by the cap. In the latter case a lighting channel is left on the ground running radially on the leeward side from the bases of the pyramidal chimney to the circumference. This channel, too, like the chimney, is filled with easily inflammable ma- terial. (d) Stuffing all irregularities, interstices, cracks etc. showing on the outside of the kiln with small kindling. (e) Covering the kiln by two draft-proof layers so as to exclude or restrict the admission of air. 1. The green layer, }A to 34 feet thick, made of green branches, grass, weeds and moss. 2. The earth layer. 4 inches to 6 inches thick, consisting of wet loam, charcoal dust etc. If kiln is lighted from below, a belt about 1 foot high running around the circum- ference on the ground is left without earth cover until fire is well started. The earth layer and the green layer are thoroughly joined by beating with a pad- dle. In large kilns a wooden frame (the armor) consisting of T sections is used to pre- vent the cover from sliding down. III. The kiln is lighted early in the morning on a quiet day. The cylindrical chimney is stuffed up with wood from above and then closed on top by heavy covering after the fire is well started in the cap. The lighting channel, in the case of a pyramidal chim- ney, is similarly stuffed and closed. IV. The regulation of the fire and of the draft are the most important functions of the attendant who guides the fire io6 FOREST UTILIZATION evenly and gradually from the cap down to the bottom. The means of guidance are: (a) To cluck draft, increased earth cover. To increase draft, holes of about i]/ 2 inches diam- eter punctured through the cover with the pad- dle reversed. If wind is strong, all holes are closed and earth cover increased Cracks forming in the cover must be closed at once. In dry weather the kiln is continuously sprinkled. The kiln may explode if cover is too heavy and draft too strong. The color of the smoke escaping through the punctures indicates the completion of the char- ring process above the holes (transparent bluish color). The holes are then closed, and another row of punctures is made about two feet below the closed holes. Refilling is required where dells are forming irregularly, while the kiln gradually collapses to half of its original volume. For refilling, the cover over the dell is quickly removed, all holes having been closed beforehand, and the dell is rapidly filled with fresh wood. When the bottom holes show the proper color of smoke, the charring process is completed. All holes are then closed and the kiln is allowed to cool. The duration of the charring process is from six days to four weeks, according to size of kiln. The contents vary between four and sixty cords. The kiln is gradually, beginning at the leeward side, un- covered, and the crust of earth, after hoeing, is thrown .on again. The earth, trickling down, quenches the fire. After another twelve to twenty-four hours, preferably at night, the coal is taken out in patches. Water must be ready at hand, since fire usually breaks out when coal is drawn. E. Statistical note^. The loss of weight in the charring process is 75 %. The loss of volume is 50 %. In America charcoal is sold by the bushel, a bushel weighing about 25 lbs. F. Appendix. In Norway, Sweden and Russia kilns of trapezium form are built of peeled logs 15 to 30 feet long. The lighting channel runs lengthwise on the ground. \ I. VII. FOREST UTILIZATION W7 The kiln is lighted at the narrow end and covered with green branches and earth in the usual manner. The side walls being almost perpendicular, the cover is held in place by slabs spliced against the walls. No refilling is required. Fire is conducted from the top of the kiln at the big end toward the bottom of the kiln at the little end. The process lasts six to eight weeks. The billets are placed horizontally, skidway fashion, the largest billets being put in the center and the smallest at the head and at the foot of the kiln. 8 XXXIV. LAMPBLACK AND BREWER'S PITCH, AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. The former is used in the manufacture of patent leather; the latter for pitching beer barrels. A. Raw material is spruce rosin. B. The process consists in a combined melting and pressing of rosin. The brewer's pitch runs out through a pipe connecting the bases of the melting vats with a cooling vat. C. The solid residue remaining in the vats is slowly burned in an oven. The smoke passes through a cool room and into a smoke room, the top opening of which is covered by a common bag. In this room pine soot or lampblack is deposited. The draft is regulated by the attendant according to the shape or bulge which the bag assumes under the influence of the smoke. D. Some turpentine can be derived at the same time if the vats are closed air tight and if the escaping gases are condensed in a worm. 8 XXXV. PYROLIGNEOUS ACID, WOOD (METHYL) ALCOHOL, AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. A. Raw materials : These are, preferably, broad leafed species— beech, birch, maple— which must be thoroughly seasoned. Heavy stuff is preferable, it is said, to small stuff. B. Distillation: The process consists in a dry distillation of the wood, differing from the charcoal kiln process merely by allowing the gases to condense. The distillation takes place in large horizontal iron cylinders, usually about 10 feet long by 5 feet in diameter, into which the wood is run on steel trucks. After closing the cap of the cylin- ders (admission of air reduces the output of pyroligneous acid) the cylinders are slowly heated to a redhot. The gases forming are led through long worm pipes into a condenser. Not all of the gases formed allow of condensation. The uncon- densable gases are conducted to the fire room. At the bottom of the cylinder, tar is forming and is let out by a system of pipes into a collecting basin. Conifers yield more wood tar than hardwoods. 108 FOREST UTILIZATION C. Further treatment. The gases, condensed to a liquid a large proportion of which is water, are then treated with lime. Lime neutralizes the pyrolig- neous acid, forming acetate of lime. The liquid is then redistilled, wood alcohol going over first, water next. The residue is boiled down in open pans to the consist- ency of a sugar, the acetate of lime of commerce. From it acetic acid and its salts are derived in chemical works. D. The output. One hundred volumes of air dry wood furnish up to forty-eight volumes of pyroligneous acid. One and three-quarters cords of beech yield 2,650 pounds of liquids, 25 gallons of tar and 700 pounds of charcoal. The 2,650 pounds of liquids furnish 200 pounds of acetate of lime and 9 gallons of 82% wood alcohol. E. Use : Acetate of lime is used by the chemical industry in the manufacture of acetic acid and of the salts of acetic acid. Wood alcohol is used largely in the manufacture of varnishes, dyes, celluloid and especially for heating. It is poisonous. § XXXVI. TRUE OR AETHYL ALCOHOL AND ITS MANUFACTURE. A. Principle underlying the process. Wood boiled under pressure in the presence of acids yields sugar (dextrose). This sugar, freed from the acid admixed, is allowed to ferment under the influence of yeast and changed into aethyl alcohol. B. Raw material : Cottonwoods, linden, yellow poplar are said to be superior to the heavy hardwoods as well as to conifers. Possibly chestnut wood, from which the tannin is withdrawn in tannin extract factories, may answer as a raw material. Unless sawdust is available, the wood is prepared, sawed and pounded as if it were to be used in the manufacture of chemical fibre. C. Process : The acid used doe^ not enter into any chemical combination with the wood. It merely acts by its presence and is said to be most efficient when in statu nascendi. Sulphuric acid, sulphurous acid, hydrochloric acid or a mixture of these and similar acids are used. The temperalure of the lead-coated vats containing acid and wood is gradually raised to about 250 F. Hydraulic pressure is also applied, either before or after the boiling process. As a matter of fact, the partial conversion of cellulose into starch seems to be due to pressure— not to boiling. The acid is then neutralized and the temperature reduced to about 85 F. By the addition of j'east (fed on phosphates of potash and of ammonia") a violent fermentation of the sugar is started, ending within thirty-six FOREST UTILIZATION iog hours, when the yeast has dropped down to the bottom of the vat while the sugar has been converted into alcohol. The liquid is distilled and redistilled, yielding alcohol of any de- sired concentration. The wood remaining — only 20% of its weight seems convertible into sugar — might be used for paper manufacture or as fuel for the boilers. Classen claims, after his methods, to obtain at least 30 % dextrose from absolutely dry wood. D. Output. One hundred pounds of dry wood are said to actually yield about 5 pounds of 96 % alcohol. The process of manufacture is far from being perfect. A number of chemists, notably Classen, are hard at work to further improve and to cheapen the process. Cheap alcohol — a fuel, a source of light and a source of tech- nical energy — manufactured from wood will be a boon for household, industries and forest. § XXXVII. ARTIFICIAL SILK MADE FROM CELLULOSE. A. History. Artificial silk was first prepared by Hilaire de Chardonet in 1884. Today many patents and numerous factories to exploit them exist in the old country. B. Process. • There are two main processes in use, namely : I. A solution of nitrocellulose, a compound of nitric acid and cellulose in ether or alcohol, is pressed through minute capillary pipes, appearing in long, silky threads. Additional chemicals (methods of Vivier, Lehner) re- duce or entirely destroy the inflammability of the product. II. Pure cellulose is readily dissolved in a few chemicals only.notably in concentrated copper oxide dissolved in ammonia. This solution forms a waxy mass which is pressed through minute capillary openings and appears in the form of supple, long, silky threads, immediately entering a bath of sulphuric acid. Here cellulose is set free, now a solid thread, while blue vitriol and sul- phate of ammonia result at the same time. The threads are spun exactly like threads of natural silk. C. Qualities of product. Artificial silk has an exquisite shine and is easily colored before the pressing process. The tearing strength of silk obtained from nitrocellulose, however, is now only 33% of that of true silk, its toughness only 45%. Artificial silk is used on a daily increasing scale in silk weavings. New methods and modifications of manufacture continuously increase its chances as a substitute for natural silk. no FOREST UTILIZATION S XXXVIII. MANUFACTURE I CD FROM WOOD. A. Principle. Any wood heated to about 400 F. in the presence of caustic sub- stances \iclds, among many other products of disintegration, a goodly percentage of oxalic acid. M. Raw material. Any wood finely ground or pulverized, and especially sawdust and mill refuse, is well adapted to the process — oak as well as beech, pine, chestnut etc. Cottonwood is said to lie rather poor as a raw material. C. Process. A mixture of caustic soda, caustic potash ami sawdust is heated, under continuous stirring, in open pan- I '• ■ foot deep and 6 feet square) by superheated steam or air. The temperature is grad- ually raised to 480 (not over) F., remaining at that figure for about 1^2 hours. The melted mass, consisting of oxalate of sodium and of carbonate of potassium, is thrown into water and allowed to cool, when the oxalate forms a dough of minute crys- tals. This dough is freed from water by centrifugal power, then treated with lime and thereafter with sulphuric acid, with the result that gypsum is precipitated from a solution of oxalic acid. D. Output. One hundred parts of.wood yield up to 80 parts of oxalic acid. The cptantity of output depends on proper mixture v\ caustic soda and potash, and on proper regulation of the temperature. § XXXIX. THE MAPLE SUGAK INDUSTRY. In the sap of all broad leafed species considerable quantities of sugar arc found. This quality is commercially important, however, only in the case of hard maple. In 1000 there were produced 51,000,000 pounds of maple sugar and about 3,000,000 gallons of maple syrup. New York, Vermont and New Hampshire lead this industry. Seven- teen percent of all granulated sugar made in the United States is obtained from the maple tree. Vermont protects its maple sugar industry from counterfeits by State inspection and official stamp. A. Tapping the I. Time. End of January and February is best. Cold nights and hot days necessary for best results. II. A hole is made, with an auger, T < inch to ?4 inch in diameter, slightly slanting towards the entrance, to a depth of 2 inches to 8 in< int 2 to 3 feet above ground. Holes on north side of tree said to be most productive. Holes 10 feet above ground do not yield any sap. TIL A wooden or galvanized iron spout (3 to 8 inches long with a hook at the end to suspend the bucket) is in- serted into the hole. IV. Buckets are emptied at least daily, as the sap ferments FOREST UTILIZATION m easily. The sap, poured into large tanks resting on sleds, is quickly taken to the sugar shed. Buckets must carefully be kept clean. V. Production per tree is 4 lbs. of sugar per season. The sea- son lasts not over a month. The trees are not affected by tapping, either in quality or vitality. A new hole is made every year. B. Boiling process. Immediately after gathering, the sap is boiled down in open pans. I. Manufacture of sugar. Syrup is boiled to the consistency of wax, poured into forms and stirred to prevent formation of large crystals. Crystalization takes about 12 hours. Fifty quarts of sap yield 2 lbs. of sugar. II. Manufacture of syrup. The sap is boiled down to a lesser consistency and«at once canned or bottled. § XL. NAVAL STOKES, THEIR PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURE. A. Statistics. In 1902 the United States produced 600,000 bbls. of turpentine worth $13,200,000; 2,100,000 bbls. of rosin or colophany worth $4,200,000. One acre of orchard yields in three years' tapping 25 gallons of spirits of turpentine, worth $8, and 800 pounds of rosin worth $4, at a labor expense and manufacturing expense of $10. Thus a profit of $2 per acre is left to the owner. Orchards are leased actually at $1 to $2 per acre for three years. B. Methods of orcharding. I. Southern method (also Austrian method). (a) Species used: Longleaf pine (used now down to 8 inches in diameter); Cuban pine; echinata (small trees preferred) ; after W. W. Ashe, also Taeda; in Austria, Pinus Austriaca. (b) Operations of the first season: 1. Boxing: The tree is cut into, 8 inches above ground, with a narrow, thin- bladed "boxing axe." Usually two boxes to a tree, on opposite sides. Width of box is 14 inches; depth horizontally 4 inches, vertically 7 inches ; height of the tip above the lip about 10 inches. Box- ing takes place in January and Feb- ruary. 2. Cornering: Immediately after boxing the tree is "cornered." Cornering im- plies the removal of two triangular strips of bark and sapwood above the FOREST UTILIZATION box, running as high as the tip. The resulting grooves act as gutters for the rosin. 3. Hacking: Hacking or chipping begins in early March and is continued until October. The "hack" is a bent-bladed, sharp instrument which is used obliquely across the tree, producing a series of V shaped grooves in the outer layers of sapwood above the box and the corners. The points of the Vs stand in a vertical -line over the tip. The surface thus scarified is called a face. The chipping removes ]/ 2 inch of sapwood. The face of the first season is from 18 inches to 24 inches high and always remains as wide as the box. 4. Collecting: The virgin dip accumulating in the box during the first season is dipped out seven or eight times ; the rosin, hardened on the face, is scraped off. (c) Operations of subsequent seasons: In the following seasons, the face is gradually car- ried upward until the working becomes unprofit- able. The output of dip, now called yellow dip, decreases from year to year, with the increase of distance between freshly hacked face and box. The scrape preponderates over the dip. Longleaf pine may be tapped for an indefinite num- ber of years, if intermissions of a few years per- mit the trees to recuperate. II. French method (Hugues system). (a) Species used: Pinus maritima, which grows on the sand dunes fringing the western shore of France, is exclusively treated to this method. (b) Operations : w Remove the rough bark around the tree to prevent pieces of bark from falling onto the face. 2. In early March make a scar close to the ground 4 inches wide and \Y A feet high, removing 2/5 inch of sapwood. The instrument used is a bent-bladed, crooked-handled axe. 3. Insert a toothed collar, made of zinc or EST UTILIZA1 ,,., into an incision cut with a sharp curved knife at the bottom of the scar. 4 Hang a glazed earthen pot on a nail ini- tely under the lip of the collar. Th« nches at top and 3 inches wide at 1 I the 4-im : W cck rd until October, taking each time .. . final length of the face reached in a mini' is up to 30 spring unwater t than - ■ lid, t' III I ■ 02 in the ■ - lii^li ■ i. cut ■ J ll lilt' the h lit to tilting- contrivance. Th r pro the mouth . in earthen cup of a capacity equal- ing tl ■n the side of the upper gutter in such a way that inch . and that the nailhole le from the spoilt. The ii4 FOREST UTILIZATION nailhole should be two inches below the rim of the cup. 5. Chipping as in method I ; cups emptied from time to time into collecting buckets. (c) Operations of subsequent seasons: Next season, the uppermost chipped channels are used for the insertion of the gutters. The cup is fastened at the upper end of the face made in the previous year. (d) Equipment: Equipment required for 10,000 boxes is : 10,500 cups (cost i J /ic each = $131.25) ; gutter strips made from 1,886 pounds of galvanized iron, 29 gauge (cost of materiaf $103.27; cutting and shaping gutters cost $4) ; 10,000 six-penny nails (costing $1.05) ; freight charges are about $30; labor at the trees requires an outlay of $80. (e) Results: Dr. Herty justly claims financial superiority of this method over the old Southern method, due to an increased output of turpentine. C. Manufacture of naval stores from pine products. I. From rosin of longleaf pine etc. (a) Melting crude rosin in order to separate from the liquid constituents pieces of bark, wood and a pitchy residue. (b) Dry distillation of the latter in a copper distilling apparatus, heated usually from an open fire be- neath the apparatus; but preferably from steam of high temperature. (c) Cooling of gases in a worm and condenser where there are obtained : 1. An upper layer of turpentine which is redistilled. 2. A middle layer of rosin (colophany) of a light yellow color, which is sifted re- peatedly into different qualities. 3. Water forming the lowest layer. II. From roots, branches and stumps of pine, the stumps to be dug out a few years after the trees are cut. (a) Cut the wood into kindling. (b) Fill it (from above) into a gasproof brick still- room, 15 feet high and 6 feet through, holding from 5 to 6 cords of kindling. The top and bottom of the still are funnel shaped and pro- vided with pipes. The still is surrounded by the fire room. FOREST UTILIZATION 115 (c) After closing the upper funnel, apply heat very gradually. Within 24 hours turpentine begins to escape through the top pipe which leads through a worm into a condensed. When the gases appear dense and thick, the top pipe is closed and the gases (now largely containing pyroligneous acid) are forced through the bot- tom pipe to be condensed in another con- denser. Light (at a later stage dark) tar is let out through this same pipe. The fires are checked when the tar begins to flow freely. (d) The process takes, for heating. 3 days; for cool- ing, 8 days. Charcoal is left in the still room. Proper regulation of temperature is most essen- tial. (e) One cord of pine kindling yields about 25 gal- lons of tar, 1 to \y 2 gallons of machine oil, y 2 to 1 gallon of turpentine, some pyroligneous acid and l /z cord of charcoal. III. Uses of naval stores: (a) Spirits of turpentine are used for colors, paints, varnishes, asphalt laying, solvent for rubber. (b) Colophany is used for glue in paper manufacture, varnishes, soap making, soldering, manufacture of sealing wax. (c) Wood tar made of conifers is lighter than water (owing to spirits of turpentine therein con- tained) ; made of broadleafed is heavier than water. It contains tolnol, xylol, cumol, naph- talin, paraffin, phenol, kreosol, pyrogalol and many other carbohydrates. Caustic soda causes the solution of the aromatic alcohols contained in wood tar. From this solu- tion true creosote is derived. Dry distillation of wood tar yields : 1. Light wood oil ; 2. Heavy wood oil ; 3. Shoemaker's pitch, a residue. D. Conifers other than pines are used only to a limited degree in the manufacture of naval stores. (a) The larch yields the so-called Venetian turpentine, which is obtained by boring (with V/ 2 inch auger) a deep hole into the heart of the tree. The hole is closed by a plug. After a year the turpentine, entirely filling the hole, is extracted. (b) Spruce was tapped for turpentine on a large scale in the old country before the orchards of the South were developed. Only scrape is obtained i if) FOREST UTILIZATION from long and narrow faces. The scar invites red rot, badly checking the value of the timber. The output in ten years is, per acre, 73 lbs. of crude spruce rosin, (c) Fir has rosin ducts only in the bark. Blisters or bubbles of the bark filled with rosin yield the so- called "Canada balsam" and "Strassburg tur- pentine," collected in tin cans. The blisters are opened with the rim of the can. § XLI. VANILLIN. Vanillin, a substitute for vanilla, which has caused the price of bean vanilla to decline rapidly and permanently, is obtained from spruce (fresh cut) by removing the bark and collecting the sap either with sponges or ,broad-bladed knives. The sap is then boiled, strained and condensed in the vacuum pan to one-fifth of its former volume. In the cooling room, crystals of coniferine are formed from the syrup. Coniferine, when treated witli potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid, is oxydized into vanillin. The syrup obtained as a by-product is distilled and used in the manufacture of alcoholic beverages. Eighty gallons of sap yield one gallon of coniferine. § XLTI. BEECHNUT OIL. Mast years of beech occur, according to climate, every 3 to 8 years. The nuts are gradually dried, slightly roasted, peeled and cleaned of shells; then either ground, applying moderate heat, or pounded in mills by stampers. The oil oozing out is strained and placed in a cool room (in earthenware vessels), where the clean oil forms a top layer to be poured off gradually. The residue is pressed into cakes and used as feed for stock. Two hundred pounds of dry beechnuts yield 5 quarts of oil. § XLIII. PINE LEAK IIAIK. Pine leaf hair, or curled pine straw, is used as a substitute for wool and cotton in upholstering, carpets etc. The stuff is mothproof. Three hundred to 400 pounds of needles yield 100 pounds of wool. The price is $3 to $12 a cwt, according to the quality. A by-product is known as pine needle extract, used by the perfumer. The process of manufacture consists of: Drying the freshly cut needles; steaming; fermentation; crushing and disfibreing in pounding mills; repeated washing of the feltlike mass; loosening on sets of oscillating sieves; drying and bleaching. The product has a greenish or yellowish color. It is called "pine hair" in North Carolina, where the industry, now extinct, promised a successful career twenty years ago. FOREST UTILIZATION 117 § XLIV. IMPREGNATION OF WOOD. Impregnation tends to increase the durability of wood by injecting an antiseptic liquid and may mean a desirable or undesirable change of color, and in some cases fireproofing. Little is known about the latter. Pour principles may be applied: A Immersion: I. The oldest method used was immersion in a strong solu- tion of salt. European railroads place ties for eight days in large tanks tilled with a light solution of ■con sublimate. Nio other work required. The method is called "Kyanizing." Drawbacks are that the liquid is washed out on wit ground: that spikes do not hold well in the timber. Expense per cubic foot. 6 1 1 "Metalized" w 1 is obtained Immerse the wo, 1,1 in a solution of sulphate of iron: then ir the w 1 with chloride <>i calcium. In the outer layers of the wood gypsum ( Sulphate ot lime) is formed gi ther with chloride of iron. Such wood is impermea- ble to water and has a metallic shine. B Boilini I. Boiling in salt water or in a solution of borax seems to be a method rarely practiced. Roiling, however, with ex- haust Steam, when a black juice i- forced OUt of )!• i> frequently -em abroad. In the latter case the log is practically -team dried. II "Franks" mixture consists 0195$ liquid manure and 5 ' i • lime. It is pumped into within which the w 1 1- Boiled for .? to 8 day- The liquid enters to a deptli of about 3 inches and darken- the wood to a ma- hogany tint. Ill A method called "-iderizing" injects by a boiling process lOlution of copperas. The wood is then dried, and liquid glass (a hoi solution of silicate of aluminum) smeared on the surface. By a chemical reaction silicates of iron are formed in the outer layers, which are insolu- ble in water and resist decomposition. The wood at the same tune obtain- a beautiful gloss. 1 I -<■ of hydrostatic pressure : A solution of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol") is used after herie. It is kept in a tank 30 ft. to 40 ft. above ground. The timber must be fresh cut with the bark on and is spread on a rough log-deck. At the big end of each stick a ring made of rope is held in place by a board or heading nailed to the log. A hose connected with the tank inject- the liquid into the -mall cleft forme. I between log and heading. After a few hours, drops of vitriol appear at the small end. -bowing that the process is complete. The pressure being slight, only the outer sappy layers are impregnated. This method is largely used abroad, often in FOREST UTILIZATION the woods themselves, for telegraph poles of A)ine/spruce, fir etc. Expense per cubic foot, 4c. Use of steam pressure : The wood is dried thoroughly, then placed on small steel cars run- ning into long cylinders or boilers, closed by a strong head. A vacuum pump removes the sap water and causes a vacuum to form in the wood itself. Then an antiseptic liquid is pressed into the boilers; temperature of liquid is 150° to 200 . The liquids used are: (a) Chloride of zinc. (b) Creosote or rather cheap coal tar oils. (c) Gases of tar oils (so called thermo-carbolization). The creosoting method is used for ties and paving blocks. Creo- soted timber holds nails well; creosote is not washed out by rain ; on the other hand, the darkened color of the wood is sometimes objectionable. It is claimed that creosoting in the United States has failed, probably because an extravagant amount of the liquid has been pressed into the timber. In Germany the expense per tie is only 63c as against $1.25 in the United States. Results : Heart wood is not as permeable and hence not as impregnable as sap wood. Maple, birch, beech, spruce, sappy pine etc. are more benefited by impregnation than white oak, longleaf pine etc. Generally the duration of life of impregnated ties is increased at the following ratio : Beech, 400% ; yellow pine and oak, 200% ; spruce, 50%. Obviously, every additional pound of preservative pressed into the fibre has a lesser effect on the lastingness of the wood than the preceding pound. For every woody species the limit must be found at which additional impregnation proves unremunerative. FOREST MENSURATION By C. A. SCHENCK, Ph.D. Director Biltmore Forest School, and Forester to the Biltmore Estate MCMV THE UNIVERSITY PRESS */SEWANEE TENNESSEE PREFACE Dear Readers : In the following pages an attempt is made to treat ''Forest Men- suration" from a scientific-mathematical standpoint as well as from the view point of practical application. Naturally, pamphlets of as restricted a character as this treatise on forest mensuration address themselves to a very restricted circle of readers ; and the expense of printing is never covered by the returns from sales. Thus it becomes necessary, in order to reduce the expense of pub- lication, to omit all, or practically all, lengthy explanation of a mathe- matical nature which the teacher at a forest school can easily supply in the course of his lectures. The present Biltmore pamphlet on Forest Mensuration is intended, above all, to assist the students enlisted at the Biltmore School. It con- tains the teacher's dictation which the students, in former years, were compelled to take down in long or shorthand, to the annoyance of both teacher and students. It cannot be expected that a present-day lumberman will take a direct and personal interest in any of the following paragraphs. Still, in con- servative forestry, in destructive forestry, and in any other business en- terprise, the truism is worth remembering that "knoivlcdge is the Inst of assets." Knowledge certainly forms the only unalienable factor of production. With the advent of high stumpage prices, the owner of woodland will be inclined to consider, under many circumstances, the advisability of forest-husbandry — an idea which was as preposterous in past decades of superabundance of timber as the raising of beef cattle, some sixty years ago, in the prairies then abounding in buffalo. Financially considered, a proper outcome of forest-husbandry is and must be based on a proper application of the theories and principles involved in forest mensuration. I shall be deeply grateful to a kind reader who, discovering mistakes or incongruities in the following paragraphs, will take the trouble of sending me a timely hint. Most truly, C. A. SCHENCK, Director Biltmore Forest School, and Forester to the Biltmore Estate. August I, 1905. LECTURES ON FOREST MENSURATION Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. Par Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS BY PARAGRAPHS. I. Definition and subdivision. CHAPTER I.— VOLUME. Section I.— Volume of Trees Cut Down. II. Units of volume. III. Mathematical form of trees. IV. Cylinder V. Apollonian Paraboloid. VI. Cone. VII. Neill's paraboloid. VIII. Riecke's, Huber's and Smalian's formule. IX. Hossf eld's formule. X. Simony's formule. XI. Sectional measurement. XII. Measuring the length of a log. XIII. Measuring the sectional area. XIV. Instruments for measuring diameters. XV. Units of log measurement in the United States. XVI. Board-rules. XVII. Standard-rules. XVIII. Cubic foot-rules. XIX Equivalents. XX. Xylometric method. XXI. Hydrostatic method. XXII. Factors influencing the solid contents of cordvvood. XXIII. Reducing factors for cordwood. XXIV. Local peculiarities with reference to stacked wood. XXV. Bark. Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. Par. Section II. — Volume of Standing Trees. XXVI. Methods of obtaining the volume of standing trees. XXVII. Helps and hints to find the volume of standing trees. XXVIII. Scientific methods of ascertaining the cubic contents of standing trees by mere measurement. XXIX. Form factor method. XXX. Kinds of form factors mathematically. XXXI. Kinds of common form factors in European practice. XXXII. Means for exact mensuration of standing trees. XXXIII. Measuring the height of a standing tree. XXXIV. Factors influencing the exactness of hypsometrical ob- servations. vi. Forest Mensuration Par. XXXV. Indirect mensuration of diameter. Par. XXXVI. Pressler's telescope. Par. XXXVII. Auxiliaries for calculation. Par. XXXVIII Tree volume tables. XXXIX. Par. XL. Par. XLI. Par. XLII. Par. XLIII. Par. XLIV. Par. XLV. Par. XLVI. Par. XLVII. Par. XLVIII. Par. XLIX. Par. L. Par LI. Par. til. Par. LIII. Par. LIV. Par. LV. Par. LVI. Par. LVII. Par. LVIII. Par. LIX. Par. LX. Par. LXI. Par. LXII. Par. LXIII. Par. LXIV. Par. LXV. Par. LXVI. Par. LXVII. Par. LXVIII. Section III. — Volume of Forests. Synopsis of methods for ascertaining the volume of forests. Estimation of forest volume. Principles underlying the exact mensuration of forest volume. Field work for exact valuation surveys. Basal assumptions. Selection of sample trees. Draudt-Urich method. Robert Hartig method. Average sample-tree method. Exact mensuration without cutting sample trees. Combined measuring and estimating. Form factor method. Form height method. Volume table method. Yield table method. Distance figure. Algon's Universal Volume Tables. Schenck's graphic method. Factors governing the selection of a method of valuation survey Factors influencing the selection of sample plots. Sir D. Brandis method. Pinchot-Graves method on Webb estate. The gridironing method. Forest reserve methods. Sample squares. Pisgah Forest method of 1896. Pisgah Forest method for stumpage sale, bark sale and lumbering operations. Henry Gannett's method, adopted for the Xllth census. A forty method used in Michigan. Dr. Fernow's forty method used at Axton. CHAPTER II.— AGE OF TREES AND OF FORESTS. Par. LXIX. Age of trees cut down. Par. LXX. Age of standing trees. Par. LXXI. Age of a forest. Forest Mensuration CHAPTER III.— INCREMENT OF TREES AND OF FORESTS. Section I. — Increment op a Tree. Par. LXXII. The kinds of increment. Par. LXXIII. Height increment. Par. LXXIV. The current height increment. Par. LXXV. The average height increment. Par. LXXVI. Relative increment of the height. Par. LXXVII. Diameter increment. Par. LXXVIII. Sectional area increment. Par. LXXIX. Relative increment of diameter and of sectional area. Par. LXXX. Volume increment. Par. LXXXI. Section analysis. Par. LXXXII. Noerdlinger's paper-weight method. Par LXXXIII. Schenck's graphic tree analysis. Par. LXXXIV. Wagener's method and stump analysis. Par. LXXXV. Pressler's method. Par. LXXX VI. Breyman's method. Par. LXXXVII. Factors influencing the cubic volume increment. Par. LXXXVIII. Volume increment percentage of standing trees. Par. LXXXIX. Interdependence between cubic increment and increment in feet b. m., Doyle. Par. XC. Construction of volume tables. Section II. — Increment of a Wood. Par. XCI. Increment of forests. Par. XCII. Method of construction of normal yield tables. Par. XCIII. Gathering data for normal yield tables. Par. XCIV. Normal yield tables, their purpose and contents abroad. Par. XCV. Retrospective yield tables. Par. XCVI. Yield tables of the Bureau of Forestry. Par. XCVII. The increment of a woodlot. Par. XCVIII. Ascertaining the increment of woodlots by sample trees. Par. XCIX. Current increment ascertained from average increment. Par. Par. CHAPTER IV.— LUMBER. C. Units of lumber measure. CI. Inspection rules and nomenclature. Par. CHAPTER V.— STUMP AGE-VALUES. CII. Stumpage-values. t? I FOREST MENSURATION PARAGRAPH I. DEFINITION AND SUBDIVISION. Definition : By "Forest Mensuration," the forester ascertains the vol- ume, the age, the increment and the stumpage value of trees, parts of trees and aggregates of trees. As a branch of forestry, forest mensura- tion may be divided into the following five parts : I. Determination of volume of trees cut down, of standing trees and of forests. II. Determination of age of trees and of forests. III. Determination of increment of trees and of forests. IV. Determination of sawn lumber. V. Determination of stumpage value. Circular 445 of the Bureau of Forestry defines mensuration as "the determination of the present and future product of the forest." American literature is found in Bulletin 20, Division of Forestry; Bul- letin 36, Bureau of Forestry; S. B. Green, page 132; Lumber & Log Book and Lumberman's Handbook, edited by the "American Lumberman." CHAPTER I.— VOLUME. SECTION I.— VOLUME OF TREES CUT DOWN. PARAGRAPH II. UNITS OF VOLUME. The volume of a tree or of a tree section is expressed : 1. For scientific purposes, on the basis of exact measurements, in cubic feet or cubic meters. 2. For practical purposes, by estimates according to local usage, often assisted by partial measurement, in local units (feet board measure; standards; cords; cubic feet; cord feet; etc.). PARAGRAPH III. MATHEMATICAL FORM OF TREES. Trees do not grow, like crystals, according to purely mathematical laws. Tree growth is deeply influenced by individuality, by surroundings, by accidental occurrences, etc. 2 2 Forest Mensuration The body of a tree, considered as a conoid (a solid body formed by the revolution of a curve about an axis), is very complicated, being formed by a curve of high power. This is the case even in straight and clear boled conifers. The tree bole shows, however, in certain sections of its body frequently a close resemblance to a truncated neilloid, cylinder, paraboloid and cone. The longitudinal section of conoids is outlined by a curve correspond- ing with the general equation y j _ px n in which y is the ordinate (corresponding with the radius of the basal area), x the abscissa (representing the height of the conoid), n the power of the curve; whilst p is merely a constant factor. The volume v of the conoid is obtained by integral calculus : v = y 2 ™ n + 1 It is equal to sectional area, s, times height, h, over (n + i). The truncated volumes are developed by deducting a small top conoid from a large total conoid. Sjhj — s 2 h 2 vol. tronc.= n + 1 In the general curve equation y 2 = px n we find represented: A. For n equal to o, the cylinder ; B. For n equal to i, the Apollonian paraboloid, wherein the ratio between sectional area and height is constant ; C. For n equal to 2, the cone, wherein the ratio between radius of sectional area and height is constant; D. For n equal to 3, Neill's paraboloid, the truncated form of which is found at the basis of our trees. The top of the tree resembles a cone or Neilloid ; the main bole resembles the cylinder or the Apollonian paraboloid. The cross section (see Par. XIII.) through a tree taken perpen- dicular to its axis shows a more or less circular form. Near sets of branches and near the roots, however, the outline is irregular. The center of the circle usually fails to coincide with the axis of the tree. PARAGRAPH IV. CYLINDER. The cubic contents v of a cylinder are equal to the height h of the cylinder, multiplied by the sectional area J of the cylinder. vol. cylinder = h.s Forest Mensuration 3 PARAGRAPH V. APOLLONIAN PARABOLOID. The volume v of the Apollonian paraboloid is equal to height multi- plied by J^ sectional area, or equal to V* of a cylinder having the same height and the same basal area. h.s vol. apol. = The volume t of the truncated Apollonian paraboloid may be ascer- tained as : A. Height of trunk times arithmetical mean of top sectional area and base sectional area. Sj + s, t. apol. = h B. Height of trunk times sectional area in the midst of the trunk. t. apol. =h.si PARAGRAPH VI. CONE. The volume of the ordinary cone is equal to height of cone times 1/3 sectional area at the base. h.s vol. coDe = 3 The volume t of the truncated cone is equal to 1/3 height of trunk times sum total of top sectional area Si, basal sectional area S2, and V si S2 h , t. cone = — (Sj -\- s 2 -f- Ks 1 s 2 PARAGRAPH VII. NEILL's PARABOLOID. The volume of the Neilloid equals *4 ot its height times sectional area at the base. h.s vol. neil. = 4 The volume of the truncated neilloid t equals t. neil. = — I s t +s 2 -f f ' s x s 2 L^ s i + ^• S 2 J ) wherein h denotes the height of the trunk; s x and s 2 the top sectional area and the basal sectional area of the trunk. 4 Forest Mensuration PARAGRAPH VIII. riecke's, huber's and smalian's formule. Formules of practical and scientific application, used here and abroad, to ascertain the contents of logs, are those published by Smalian, Riecke and Huber. Riecke's formula holds good for n equal to o, I and 2, and is almost correct for the neilloid. Smalian over-estimates and Huber under-estimates the actual contents of the truncated cone and of the truncated neilloid. Riecke — Vol. of trunk = — (Sj -f- 4s • -f s 2 ) Huber— Vol. of trunk = h.sj ^l^JL^^J^J^^^tt^ Ot*^*^' h Smalian — Vol. of trunk = — (s x -f- s 2 ) Si designates the sectional area in the midst of the trunk, whilst Si and S2 represent basal sectional area and top sectional area. PARAGRAPH IX. hossfeld's formule. The formule given by Hossfeld is : h Vol. of trunk = — (3 s> -f s 2 ) 4 It holds good for cylinder, cone and paraboloid. Si designates the sec- tional area at $ of the height of the trunk. PARAGRAPH X. simony's formule. Simony's formule requires measurements of sectional areas at %, J / 2 and Y\ of the height of the trunk, thus avoiding the irregularities caused by the roots at the base and by the branches at the top of a tree-trunk. h Vol. of trunk = — (2 sj — sj + 2 sj ) This formule holds good for the four standard conoids. PARAGRAPH XI. sectional measurement. The formules given in Paragraphs III. to X. have, in C. A. Schenck's opinion, a historic interest only when applied to whole trees. It is much safer to ascertain the volume of a tree bole by dissecting it into (imag- Forest Mensuration 5 inary) log sections of equal length, considering each of such sections as a cylinder or as a truncated paraboloid. The shorter the length of the sections, the greater the accuracy of the result. In scientific research, the length of a section varies from 5 feet to 10 feet. Obviously, at the top of the bole an uneven length is left, which it might be wise to ascer- tain as a cone (or paraboloid — Bulletin 20). The volume of the total bole, from stump to tip, equals, if the length of such full section is "1," and that of the top cone is "b," and 1) if sectional areas si, S2, S3, s n are measured at the big end of each section : 1 b.s n vol bole = — (s x + 2 s 2 + 2 s 3 + s n ) + -— & 3 2) if sectional areas Sx,Sn, Sm, s m are measured in the midst of each full section, and sectional area s n at the basis of the top cone: b.Sn vol. bole = 1 (si -f- sn -+- Sm -f- sm) -f The former formula is based on Smalian and the latter on Huber. In a similar way, and with still greater accuracy, the more complicated formulas of Riecke, Hossfeld and Simony might be adapted to sectional measurements. Remark: If the diameter in the middle of a log is larger than the arithmetical mean of the end diameters, then the log contains more vol- ume than the truncated cone, and vice versa. If the sectional area at the midst of the log is larger than the arith- metical mean of the end sectional areas, then the log contains more volume than the truncated paraboloid, and vice versa. PARAGRAPH XII. MEASURING THE LENGTH OF A LOG. The length of a log is measured with tape, stick or axe handle. In American logging, logs are usually cut in lengths of even feet, increased by an addition of two inches to six inches, which addition allows for shrinkage, for season checks, for damage to the log ends inflicted by snaking or driving, and for the trimming in the saw mill required to removed such end defects. In Continental Europe, the standard log lengths are multiples of even decimeters. An excess-length of up to eight inches is neglected. Crooked logs are made straight by deductions either from the length or from the diameter. Crooked trees should be dissected into very short logs. The standard length of a New England log is 13 feet. In the case of big logs, great care must be taken by the sawyers to obtain end-cuts perpendicular to the axis of the log. The sum of the lengths of logs cut from a tree is termed "used length." The total length of that portion of a bole which is merchantable under given conditions is called "merchantable length." 6 Forest Mensuration PARAGRAPH XIII. MEASURING THE SECTIONAL AREA. The sectional areas are ascertained with the help of measuring tape, caliper, tree shears, tree compasses, Biltmore measuring stick, etc. The sectional area is thus derived from the measurement either of the diameter or of the circumference. For exact scientific investigations the planimeter or the weight of an even-sized piece of paper may be used. It is best to consider the sectional area of a tree as an ellipse, the surface of which is: ■K surface = — D.d, 4 the big diameter D being measured vertically to the small diameter d. Usually, however, the average diameter of the tree at a given point is found as the arithmetical mean of the big and small diameter at that point measured crosswise and not as the square root of the product of such diameters. Since D + d , — >^D.d, the average diameter is invariably, though slightly, over-estimated by crosswise measurement. Hence it is wise to drop, as an arbitrary offset, the excess of fractions of inches over full inches. The arithmetical mean of the sectional areas belonging to diameters measured crosswise leads to still greater mistakes. PARAGRAPH XIV. INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING DIAMETERS. Log calipers are made of pyrus wood or of metal. American make (Morley Bros., Saginaw, Mich.) cost $4.00 each. The moving leg of the caliper is kept in place by a spring or a screw or a wedge. The best European makes are the "Friedrich" and the "Heyer and Staudinger." Wimmenauer's "addition-caliper" counts the trees and adds their sectional areas automatically. Short legged calipers, named "Dachshunds" by C. A. Schenck, can be used for trees the radius of which exceeds the length of the legs. The diameter is, in that case, indirectly found by the help of the secant joining the tips of the legs, which are about 5" long. "Tree compasses," opening from six inches to thirty-six inches, and made of nickel-plated steel, cost (at Morley Bros.) $7-50. "Tree shears" (Treffurth) find the angle formed by the shear-legs when pressed against the tree and directly derive therefrom the diameter or the sectional area of the tree. The "diameter tape" slung around the tree usually yields too large a diameter, since the circle embraces the maximum of surface by the min- imum of length. Forest Mensuration 7 The "Biltmore Measuring Stick" can be well used in timber cruising. It requires the exact adjustment of distance between eye and fist of ob- server (usually 26 inches), and gives directly the diameter at the point of the stick where the sight line passes the tree tangentially. The stick is held horizontally against the tree. 26-inch Biltmore Measuring Stick. Length on the stick. Diameter with bark. Contents of butt log. Contents of two logs. Contents of three logs. 2.8" 5-4" 7-7" 9.9" 3" 6" 9" 12" Allowing three inches for bark and three inches for taper, per log; assuming that all logs are 14' long. 1 1.9" 13-8" 156" 17.3" 15" 18" 21" 24" 22 ft. b. m. 56 " " 106 " " 171 " " 29 ft. b. m. 78 " " 162 " " 277 " " 39 ft. b. m. 85 " " 1S4 " " 333 " " 18.9" 20.4" 21.9" 23-3" 27" 30" 33" 36" 253 " " 350 " " 463 " " 591 " " 424 " 603 " " 813 " " 1054 " " 530 " 774 " 1066 " 1404 " " Mr. Snead recommends to measure the circumference outside the bark at the big end and to divide the result by 4. He claims that the quotient yields the diameter at the small end inside bark in such a way as to offset mistakes made by Doyle, who under-estimates small logs and over-esti- mates big logs. Snead's suggestion is good, provided, that the cross sec- tion of the log is fairly circular, and that the difference between the small diameter inside bark at the small end and the big diameter outside bark at the big end, amounts to about 7 inches. Diameter at small end inside bark. Contents of 16 foot logs, in feet b.m. Doyle. Snead. Actual saw cut. 10 inches. 15 20 25 30 35 36' I2l' 256' 441' 676' 96l' 8i' 169' 289' 441' 625' 841' 70 157' 279' 436' 628' 8.56' The multiples of sectional area (derived from the diameter in inches, but expressed in square feet) by length of log are readily obtained from cylinder tables published by various authors. The log scale or log rule used by the lumbermen (Lufkin rule) gives at a glance the contents of logs 8 to 20 feet long, according to their diameter. 8 Forest Mensuration PARAGRAPH XV. UNITS OF LOG MEASUREMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. The units of log measurement used in the United States differ greatly. Graves' Handbook gives 43 '"rules." The rules can be subdivided into three main grops : Board feet group (Par. XVI.); Standard log group (Par. XVII.); Artificial cubic foot group (Par. XVIII.). PARAGRAPH XVI. BOARD-RULES. A foot board measure is a superficial foot one inch thick, in boards one inch or more in thickness. It is a superficial foot, irrespective of thick- ness, in boards less than one inch in thickness. The "board rules" merely guess at the number of feet board measure obtainable from logs of a given diameter. The guess is based upon either graphical considerations, circles of specified diameters being sub- divided into parallelograms \~%, inch thick (diagram method), or else on mathematical considerations, with a view to the fact that a cubic foot of timber should theoretically yield 12 board feet of lumber, whilst the actual loss for slab, saw kerf, etc., will reduce the output by 30% to 50%. In the Biltmore band saw mill, by over one thousand tests, the actual loss for logs 12 inches to 40 inches in diameter has been found to amount to 30%, or close to 1/3. Consequently, it is safe to say that the band saw obtains from a cubic foot of log 8 board feet of lumber. The number of board feet which a log actually yields depends on: 1. The actual cubic volume of a cylinder having the length and small- est diameter inside bark of the log. 2. The defects of the log (heart rot, wind shake, bad knots, crooks), which are usually eliminated by edger or trimmer. 3. The gauge of the saw, on which the saw kerf depends. The kerf of band saws amounts to % inch, of circular saws to usually % inch, of inserted tooth saws (of large diameter) to Y$, inch, of resaws to 1/16 inch. 4. The exactness of the work, especially depending on trueness of saw, proper lining of saw and sawyer's skill ; further, on the exactness of the setworks. 5. The thickness of boards obtained ; the minimum width of boards permitted ; the amount of lumber wasted in the slabs ; shrinkage in drying. The following table compares the contents of logs in cubic feet with their contents in feet board measure as found by C. A. Schenck through a thousand tests of actual yield in yellow poplar, as given by Doyle's rule and by Lumberman's Favorite rule. The figures given in columns c, f and i show the contents of a log in feet board measure after Schenck's findings, Doyle's and Favorite Forest Mensuration rules. They are converted into cubic feet (columns d, g, and j) by divid- ing by 12. The loss incurred in sawing is shown by percentages (col- umns e, h, k) representing the ratio between the actual cubic con- tents of a log (as given in column b), and the cubic contents of inch boards (columns d, g, j) obtained from such log. It will be observed that the loss in the actual yield according to Schenck forms a nearly constant proportion of the cubic contents of a log in the case of all diameters, whilst, according to Doyle's and Favorite rules, the figures of loss vary greatly. The table refers to logs 12' long sawed into i-inch boards. Diameter Contents. Schenck. Doyle. Favorite. of Cubic Log. Feet. Feet Cubic Loss Feet Cubic Loss Feet Cubic Loss Inches. b. m. Feet. % b. m. Feet. % b. m. Feet. % a. b. c. d. e. f. g- h. i- j- k. 8 4 2 1 2 0.9 1.6 76 70 65 61 9 10 5 6 3 5 19 27 37 48 23 3-i 4-0 1 1 8 12 9 4 "78' "e>: 5 31 57 49 4.1 "56' 13 11 96 8.0 27 61 51 54 62 5-2 53 14 12 S 112 9-3 27 75 6.3 5i 74 6.2 52 15 14 7 129 10.7 27 9i 7.6 48 . 90 7-5 49 16 16 8 146 12. 2 27 108 9.0 46 107 8.9 46 17 18 9 162 13-5 29 127 10.6 44 125 10.4 45 18 21 2 180 15.0 29 147 12.3 42 148 12.3 42 19 23 6 197 16.4 30 169 14. 1 40 170 14.2 39 20 26 2 212 17-7 32 192 16.0 39 186 15-5 4i 21 28 9 230 19. 2 34 217 18. 1 37 214 17.8 38 22 3i 7 248 20.7 35 243 20.3 36 243 20.3 36 23 34 6 266 22. 2 36 271 22.6 35 268 22.3 36 24 37 7 298 24.8 34 300 25.0 33 294 24-5 35 25 40 9 33i 27.6 32 33i 27.6 32 326 27.2 33 26 44 2 362 30.2 32 363 30.3 3i 358 29.8 33 27 47 7 394 32.9 3i 397 33- 1 30 390 32-5 32 28 5i 3 422 35-2 3i 432 36.0 30 422 35-2 3i 29 55 456 38.0 3i 469 39- 1 29 448 37-3 32 30 58 9 488 40.7 3 1 507 42.3 28 474 39-5 33 3i 62 9 5i8 43-2 3i 547 45-6 27 509 42.4 23 32 67 556 463 3i 588 49 27 544 45-3 32 33 7i 3 596 49-7 30 631 52 .6 26 589 49.1 3i 34 75 7 634 52.8 30 675 56.3 26 634 52.8 30 35 80 2 670 55-8 30 721 60. 1 25 662 55-2 3i 36 84 8 710 59-2 30 768 64.0 25 690 57-5 32 37 89 6 755 62.9 30 817 6S.1 24 734 61.2 32 38 94 5 806 66.7 29 867 72.3 23 778 64.8 3i 39 99 5 850 70.8 29 910 75-8 24 824 68.7 3i 40 104 7 901 75o 28 972 81.0 23 870 72.5 3i From column e it is evident that the bandsaw wastes close to 1/3 of the cubic contents of a cylindrical log, or 4' b. m. out of every cubic foot. Consequently, from hardwood logs 12 feet to 16 feet long, the band- io Forest Mensuration saw will obtain the following actual number of feet b. m. (in 4/4" thickness) : D 2 X 0.78 X 12 X 8 (a) from 12 foot logs: , almost equal to D 2 X-5 144 D s X 0.78 X 14 X 8 144 D 5 X 0.78 X 16 X 8 Hence it can be stated generally, for logs of medium length "L," that their contents in band-sawed inch lumber approximate D 2 L — 2 — X feet b. m. 10 2 PARAGRAPH XVII. STANDARD RULES. The standard rules do not estimate the contents of a log according to output in board feet, but compare the log with a local average log. Such average logs used to have, in the Northeast, formerly, a diameter of either 19 inches (Adirondacks) or 22 inches (Saranac River) or 24 inches, and were in all cases 13 feet long. The 19 inch standard log rule is known as Dimick's rule. Here the "standard" or "market" is a log 13 feet long and 19 inches thick. On a 22 inch base it is 13 feet long and 22 inches thick. On a 24 inch base it is 13 feet long and 24 inches thick. The standard contents of a given log are found by dividing the cubic volume of the standard log into the cubic volume of the given log. d'Xh v (in standards) equals: H 19 2 X 13 Scientifically and mathematically the standard rules are superior to the board rules. One market, at a 19 inch base, is generally considered equivalent to 200 board feet ; at a 22 inch base, to 250 board feet ; at a 24 inch base, to 300 board feet. It is easily shown that the output of small logs is not as badly under- estimated, and the output of big logs not as badly over-estimated on the basis of standard rules, as is the case when Doyle's rule alone is applied. PARAGRAPH XVIII. CUBIC FOOT-RULES. In a third group of rules, a new unit, the "artificial cubic foot," is introduced. This group of rules is established by law in Maine and New Hampshire. (See Graves' Handbook, page 45.) J-xmJ- Forest Mensuration n The artificial cubic foot corresponds with a log 12 inches long and 16 inches thick, which naturally contains 1.4 cubic feet. The rule as- sumes that 40/140 or 28.5% of a log goes to waste in the sawing process dust or slab. To quickly transform artificial cubic feet into board feet, the laws pre- scribe certain arbitrary equivalents, instead of allowing 12 board feet to equal one artificial cubic foot of timber. In New Hampshire, 10 board feet equal one artificial cubic foot. In Maine, 11.5 board feet equal one cubic foot. The rules might be used in connection with a cylinder table, deducting 28.5% from the table data and multiplying the remainder by 10 or by 11.5. Remark : According to the Forest Reserve Manual, logs over 24 feet long are treated as 16 foot logs and fractions thereof. PARAGRAPH XIX. EQUIVALENTS. One cubic meter equals 35.316 feet or 1.308 cubic yards. 1,000 board feet of sawn lumber, 1 inch and more thick, correspond with 2.36 cubic meters of sawn lumber. A product of one cubic meter per hectar (2^ acres) equals a product of 14 cubic feet per acre. One gallon equals 231 cubic inches in liquid measure, or 268.8 cubic inches in dry measure (which is also l /z peck). One liter equals 1.0567 quarts; one cubic foot equals 7.4805 gallons or 28.3 liters. Logs yielding when split one cord of wood, will yield, when sawn: For log diameter: Feet board measure: 20" 25" 30" 35" 40" 515' 566' 605' 629' 649' The Forest Reserve Manual adopts 2 cords as equivalent to 1,000 cubic feet b. m., provided that the wood is split from timber 10 inches in diam- eter and over. [2 Forest Mensuration Table Showing Relative Contents of Logs Without Bark. Log diameter. 20 25 30 1 cubic foot equals ft. b. m. Doyle 1 cubic meter per liectar corre- sponds with ft. b.m. Doyle per acre : 1 cubic meter of log yields ft. b. m . Doyle : 1000 ft. b. m. Doyle equal cubic ft: 1000 ft. b. m. Doyle equal cubic meters Artificial cubic feet per 1 ft. of log No. of legal N. H. feet b. m. per 1 ft of log: Ft. b. m. Doyle per 1 ft. of log. . . 44. a •87.4 4.12 57.68 1455 242.7 6.87 •4 4- 2.3 6.2 86.8 218.2 161. 8 4-39 •9 9- 7-5 7-3 102.2 258.8 136.4 3-86 1.56 15-6 16. 8.09 113.26 285.7 123.6 3-5 2.45 24-5 27-5 8.64 120.96 303 -7 PARAGRAPH XX. XYLOMETRIC method. The so-called "physical methods," by which the volume of a (partic- ularly irregular) piece of a tree may be accurately found, require either the submersion of the piece in water (xylometric method) or the weigh- ing of the piece after finding its specific gravity (hydrostatic method, §XXL). The xylometric method can be applied in three ways, thus : a. Submerge the wood in a graded cylinder partly filled with water and find the water level before and after submersion. b. Submerge the wood in a barrel partly filled with water; dip out the water with a gallon measure until the water is as low as it was before submersion. The number of gallons dipped out equals the volume of the wood submerged. One gallon equals 231 cubic inches. c. Place a piece of wood in an empty barrel of known contents; fill to the rim with water by the gallon. The difference between the known contents and the number of gallons required gives the quantity of wood in gallons. In a, b and c it is necessary to use wood dry on the outside, to leave the wood in the water a short time only, and to stir it up while in the water so as to remove air bubbles. PARAGRAPH XXI. HYDROSTATIC METHOD. The hydrostatic method deals with specific gravities. Specific gravity is weight of an object divided by the weight of an equal volume of Forest Mensuration 13 water. In the metric system, it equals weight in kilograms over cube- decimeters of volume. The specific gravity is found by weighing a given body, and then weighing it again immersed in water. It equals weight outside water over loss of weight submerged in water. The division of the metric weight of a large body by the specfic gravity of a sample piece yields the volume of the body in cubic decimeters. Since wood is lighter than water, usually, a piece of lead must be attached to the wood in order to submerge it. There must be ascer- tained: 1. The absolute weight of the piece of lead, H; 2. The weight of the same piece submerged in water, h; 3. The absolute weight of the wood and of the lead, G; 4. The weight of wood and lead submerged in water, g. The weight of the wood alone is, consequently, (G — H). The specific gravity of the wood is G — H (G- h) g)-(H The volume, in cubic feet, of a quantity of wood weighing n pounds, and having the specific gravity s, is volume 63 16n 1000s The figure 63 represents the weight in pounds of one cubic foot of water. The specific gravity of wood is greatest close to the stump and in the branches. For some species the outer layers show the greatest specific gravity; for others the inner layers. Species. Spec, gravity, air dry. Weight of lumber per 1000 ft. b. m. in lbs. Weight of one cord in lbs. White oak Beech Hard maple .... Yellow pine .... Spruce White pine •75 .66 ■52 •45 •39 3900 3692 3432 2704 2340 2028 3985 3767 35io 2761 2391 2069 Rules to convert specific gravity into weight per 1,000 feet board measure or into weight per cord read as follows : 1. Multiply specific gravity by 5,200. The result is the weight of lumber per 1,000 feet board measure in pounds. 2. Multiply specific gravity by percentage of solid wood contained in a stacked pile; then multiply the product by 8,050. The result gives the weight per cord in pounds. 14 Forest Mensuration PARAGRAPH XXII. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SOLID CONTENTS OF CORDWOOD. The solid contents of wood stacks depend on the size and the form of the pieces composing them and on the method of piling. The solid con- tents of a cord can be found only by the methods described in Para- graphs XX. and XXI. The European experiment stations have collected data to that end on a very large scale, and have established the following laws : a. The bigger the pieces of wood in a stack, the larger are the solid contents of the stack. b. The longer the pieces of wood, the smaller are the solid contents of the stack. c. Pieces piled parallel and tightly greatly increase the solid contents of the stack. d. During the drying process, hardwoods shrink approximately by 12%, and soft woods by 9%. The shrinkage is partly offset by the cracking of wood. These rules are important in the pulp, tanningwood and firewood trade. >/ PARAGRAPH XXIII. REDUCING FACTORS FOR CORDWOOD. The countries using the metric system pile wood in space cubic meters. One space cubic meter equals .274 cord. The pieces contained therein are 3.28 feet long. For such conditions the following figures hold good : a. First class split wood, obtained from sound pieces 12 inches in diameter, contains per cord 102.4 cubic feet of solid wood (reducing fac- tor 80%). b. Composed of inferior split wood, obtained from round pieces having a diameter of 6 inches, a cord contains 96 cubic feet of solid wood (re- ducing factor 75%). c. In heavy, round branch wood (diameters of about 6 l / 2 inches) 87 cubic feet of solid wood are found in a cord (reducing factor 68%). d. In round pieces of branch wood, 4 inches in diameter, 77 cubic feet are found in a cord (reducing factor 60%). e. In faggots, 25 to 51 cubic feet make a cord (reducing factor 20% to 40%). The percentages for broad leafed species are smaller than those for conifers, owing to the latter's straight growth. At Biltmore, one cord of 8 foot split oak contains about 80 cubic feet; one cord of kindling finely split about 90 cubic feet; one cord of blocks 12 inches long about 100 cubic feet of solid wood. Forest Mensuration 15 In the sale of tannin wood it is well to sell 5 foot sticks finely split rather than heavy blocks 4 feet long. In the sale of pulp wood, 12 foot sticks yield much higher returns than 4 foot sticks, if sales are made by the cord. PARAGRAPH XXIV. LOCAL PECULIARITIES WITH REFERENCE TO STACKED WOOD. Tannin and pulp wood industries sometimes figure at a cord containing 160 stacked cubic feet, equal to 1% ordinary cords of 128 stacked cubic feet. After Graves (page 65), a cord of firewood is in certain sections under- stood to be 5 feet long, 4 feet high and 6 l / 2 feet wide. Under "a cord foot" is understood a stack 1 foot by 4 feet by 4 feet (yi cord or 16 stacked cubic feet). Under "a cylindrical foot" is understood a stacked cubic foot equal to 1/128 cord. The number of such feet (a misnomer for stacked cubic feet) in a stick is d*Xl 144 (/ equals length of stick in feet; d equals its diameter in inches). In New England, a cord of pulp wood is sometimes measured by calipering the round sticks composing it, and tables are constructed to facilitate calculation. Proceed as follows : Ascertain diameter of sticks in inches, square them singly, total the results and divide by 144. Multiply the quotient by length of sticks in feet and divide by 128. PARAGRAPH XXV. Bark is usually sold and bought by the cord. The tanneries, however, instead of measuring a cord of 128 cubic feet, apply the misnomer "one cord" to a weight of 2,240 lbs. (the long or European ton). Twelve cords of bark fill one common (old) freight car. A stack of bark contains from 30% to 40% solid bark. The specific gravity of fresh oak bark is 0.874; dried, it is 0.764. The bark of white oak has been found (at Biltmore), to comprise: In trees 20 years old, 55% of the wood, or 35% of the whole bole; In trees 60 years old, 41% of the wood or 28% of the whole bole; In trees 100 years old, 29% of the wood or 22% of the whole bole; In trees 140 years old, 21% of the wood or 17% of the whole bole. i6 Forest Mensuration Chestnut oak peeled at Biltmore yields the following results per tree, arranged according to the diameter of the trees 4^2 feet above ground: Diameter of tree Dry Bark in Kilogram = -j-^ cord, per Tree. chest high in inches. Minimum Average. Maximum. 6 5 13 27 7 6 17 36 8 8 24 48 9 12 33 61 10 18 45 77 11 26 60 95 12 37 73 114 13 50 88 135 14 65 105 158 15 81 126 180 16 98 150 204 17 116 172 234 18 136 195 266 19 159 224 3i4 20 181 250 365 21 205 275 22 230 305 23 265 336 24 275 375 If the percentage of bark in a log or tree (scaled with the bark) is p, then the bark percentage in ratio to the solid wood alone is : 100 X p 100 — p According to thickness of bark and diameter of logs, the following percentages can be given for the ratio: bark bark plus timber Thickness of bark. Diameter with bark — inches. \" 1" \\" 2" 10 19% 36% 51% 64% 15 12% 24% 36% 46% 20 9% 19% 27% 36% 25 7% 15% 22% 29% 30 6% 12% 19% 24% Forest Mensuration SECTION II.— VOLUME OF STANDING TREES. PARAGRAPH XXVI. METHODS OF OBTAINING THE VOLUME OF STANDING TREES. The volume of standing trees may be ascertained By estimating it (Far. XXVII.) ; By measuring heights and diameters (Par. XXVIII.) ; By the form factor method, which combines estimates and meas- urements (Par. XXIX. f.f.). By these means can be obtained the volume of the bole (from roots to top bud), or the volume of saw timber in any of the 43 log scales, or the volume of firewood in cords, etc., or the total volume, including brush and roots. Under "used volume,'' Circular 445 of the United States Bureau of For- estry understands the sum of the volumes of logs cut frem a tree; under "merchantable volume" the total volume of that portion «f the tree which is merchantable under certain conditions. PARAGRAPH XXVII. HELPS AND HINTS TO FIND THE VOLUME OF STANDING TREES. It is difficult to estimate the cubic contents, wood contents or lumber contents of a standing tree. In the case of estimates in board feet, the result depends on the exclusion or inclusion of crooked and defective pieces, on the taper of the bole, on the soundness of the heart, and on the minimum diameter admissible in the top log. Compare end of Par- agraph XXXII. Most hazardous is the volume estimate of over-aged trees, especially in the case of hardwoods (chestnut). The following helps might guide the novice: 1. The volume of a sound tree bole, in cubic meters, is equal to 1000 for example, diameter (breast high) 30 c. m. ; contents 0.9 cubic meters. 2. The contents of a standing tree, in cubic feet, are about o — D 2 10 for example, diameter (breast high), 25 inches; contents (from butt to tip), 125 cubic feet. 3. The number of feet Doyle in a tall sound tree equal 3 D- ^JjtI^Xjlj^J^ 1 8 Forest Mensuration for example, diameter (breast high), 20 inches; contents 600 feet board measure. 4. The contents of a tree in feet Doyle approximate, assuming that the bole is cut into 16 foot logs, and that the tree tapers 2 inches per log : NX D (D— 12) wherein N represents the number of logs obtainable; D the diameter of the butt log without bark at breast height. 5. The cordwood contained in a sound bole is : D 2 X C 1000 wherein C amounts to : 1.5 in the case of trees 8" through ; 2.0 in the case of trees 16" through; 2.5 in the case of trees 24" through. PARAGRAPH XXVIII. SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF ASCERTAINING THE CUBIC CONTENTS OF STANDING TREES BY MERE MEASUREMENT. The cubic volume of the bole, on the basis of diameter measurement and height measurement, in the case of a standing tree, may (with the help of climbing iron, ladders, camera or instruments constructed for the purpose) be figured out: 1. According to the formulas of Hossfeldt, Riecke and Simony. In this case, the upper diameters must be measured indirectly. 2. According to Huber's and Smalian's formulas, the diameters of equal sections of the trees being indirectly measured. 3. According to Pressler's formula, which is, for the volume of the bole lying between chest height and top bud, 2/3 of sectional area "S" at chest height times "rectified" height of bole. The rectified height "r" is the distance of chest height from that point of the tree bole which has l / 2 of the chest height diameter (from the "guide point"). The equation 2/3 r x S holds good for paraboloid, cone and, at a slight mis- take, for the neilloid. The volume of that part of the tree bole which lies below chest height is ascertained (as a cylinder) as being equal to sectional area chest high times 4.5. Remark: 4.3' is the chest height usually recognized by the authors; Pinchot adopts 4.5'. The Pressler formula does not hold good for truncated boles. Forest Mensuration 19 PARAGRAPH XXIX. FORM FACTOR METHOD. The form factor or form figure method relies on the measurement of the sectional area — usually the one at breast height, — the measurement or the estimation of the total height and the estimation of the form figure. The form factor is a fraction expressing the relation between the actual contents of a tree, in any unit, and the ideal contents which a tree would have if it were carrying its girth (like a cylinder) up to the top bud undiminished. The form factor may be given in reference to the volume of the entire tree, inclusive of branches in cubic feet; or in reference to the volume of the bole only; or in reference to the merchantable part of the bole; in the latter case either in feet board measure or in standards or in cords. Historic Remarks : Some of the older authors on mensuration saw in the cone and not in the cylinder the ideal form of the tree, basing their s X h form factors on the ideal volume — . PARAGRAPH XXX. KINDS OF FIRM FACTORS MATHEMATICALLY. Scientifically we distinguish between : 1. The absolute form factors which have reference only to the volume standing above chest height. They can be readily ascertained with the help of Pressler's formula. Generally speaking, V equals Sx H x F. After Pressler, V equals S x 2/3 x r; thus \~ equals F. H For the cone the absolute form factor is one-third ; for the neilloid one-fourth ; for the paraboloid one-half, whatever the height of the tree may be. Hans Rienicker, the author of these form factors, finds for trees up to 50 years old a form figure of 35% to 43% (in regular, dense German woods); in trees 50 to 100 years old, F increases up to 50%; thereafter occurs a slight decrease below 50%. 2. The normal form factors which were recommended by Smalian, Pressler and other old-time authors. They have reference to the entire volume and necessitate the measurement of the diameter at a given frac- tion (usually 1/20) of the total height of the tree. Frequently, in case of tall trees, the point of measurement cannot be reached from the ground. The bole form factor for diameters measured at 1/20 of the height is : For a paraboloid, 0.526; for a cone, 0.369; for a neilloid, 0.292. These form factors, like the absolute form factors, are independent of the height. 3. The so-called "common form factors" which do not express, as a matter of fact, the form of the tree, since they do not bear any direct ratio to the degree of the tree curve. They should be termed, more 20 Forest Mensuration properly, "reducing factors." These form factors alone are nowadays practically used. They are based on diameter measurements, chest high, and have reference not merely to the bole of the tree, but as well to any parts of the bole, to root and branch wood, to saw logs, etc. These form factors depend entirely on the height. If, for instance, a paraboloid is one rod high, the form factor is 0.673; and if it is 8 rods high, the form factor is 0.517. PARAGRAPH XXXI. KINDS OF COMMON FORM FACTORS IN EUROPEAN PRACTICE. The following kinds of form factors may be distinguished: 1. Tree form factors. The tree is considered as bole plus branches. 2. Timber form factors. The term timber, in Europe, includes all parts of the tree having over 3 inches diameter at the small end. 3. Bole form factors. Bole is the central stem from soil to top bud. For America, form factors would be of great value ascertained by exact measurements and arranged according to diameter, height and smallest log diameter used. Tables of form factors may be constructed, for instance, for shortleaf pine, on the basis of Olmsted's working plan, pages 17-33- PlNUS ECHINATA. Diameter. Merchantable length Cubic feet Form fig. Contents of bole. Ideal cylinder. b. m. Doyle. 16" 36' 50.3 3-6 180 18" 47' 83.1 3 6 300 20" 5i' 112. 1 4 440 22" 56' 147.8 4 600 24" 59' 185.3 4 2 780 26" 61' 224.9 4 4 980 28" 62' 263.1 4 5 1 190 30" 62' 6" 306.7 4 6 1420 32" 63' 351-8 4 7 1680 34" 63' 6" 400.3 4 8 1930 36" 64' 457-3 4-9 2200' The influence of age, soil, density of stand, height, diameter and species on the various form factors, with cubic measure as a basis, has not been fully ascertained. For the tree form factor, the most important influence, in the case of trees less than 150 years old and raised in a close stand, seems to be that of the height of the tree ; with increasing height the tree form factor decreases — e. g., for Yellow Pine: One pole high 93 Two poles high 65 Four poles high 53 Six poles high 49 Forest Mensuration 21 The timber form factor, based on cubic measure of a tree, rises with increasing age and increasing height up to a certain point (for Yellow Pine at 3 poles), provided that the term timber includes all stuff over 3 inches in diameter. The timber form factor is a function more of the diameter than of the height. Timber form factors of Yellow Pine are: Trees 1 pole high 07 Trees 2 poles high 36 Trees 3 poles high 48 Trees 4 poles high 46 Trees 7 poles high 45 The timber form factor in shade bearers is a little higher than that in light demanders (within an age limit of 150 years, for trees in close stand). The bole form factor can be found, in fact, only for species forming a straight bole free from large branches (hence especially for conifers). The bole form factors, to begin with, are large; with increasing height, they decrease gradually to a par with the timber form factors — c. g., for Yellow Pine: 1 pole high 70 3 poles high 49 2 poles high 55 4 poles high 47 7 poles high 45 European common form factors are collected by thousands of measure- -^ ments taken in a large variety of localities. It must be remembered that a form factor read from a table is never applicable to an individual tree, and is only applicable to an average tree amongst thousands. For trees less than 120 years old, the branch wood (stuff less than 3 5; inches in diameter) comprises from 15% to 28% of the entire tree vol- ume; this figure, in the case of broadleaved species, rises from 25% up. ^ to 33%. For trees as now logged in America, the branchwood percentage^, — is naturally very much smaller. The tree form factor equals stump plus bole plus branches ideal cylinder The timber form factor equals all stuff having over 3" diameter ideal cylinder The bole form factor equals bole from ground to tip ideal cylinder ^~ By form height is meant the product of height (total height of tree) times form factor, or else that much of the height of the ideal cylinder which the tree volume, poured into the ideal cylinder, would fill. Since the form factor on the whole decreases with increasing height, the form height is a fairly constant quantity; at least for trees of merchantable size. Hence the helps and hints given in Paragraph XXVII (to quickly find the volume of standing trees from mere diameter-measurement) may 22 Forest Mensuration lay claim to correctness in many cases. For instance : The cubic con- tents of a tree are supposed to be equal to After Paragraph XXVII T> D 2 X H X F 144 •11 •> 2, these contents are o -X D 2 10 I)- 5 " = D 2 X 78 X H X F H X 288 F = =37 7.8 As a matter of fact, the form height of trees I foot to 2 feet in diam- eter is close to 37. And for such trees the equation holds good. The form height may also be defined as "volume (standards, cords, bark, etc.) per square foot of sectional area chest-high." PARAGRAPH XXXII. MEANS FOR EXACT MENSURATION OF STANDING TREES. The means used to find the exact solid volume of standing trees are instruments for measuring the total height of the merchantable length of a tree; instruments for measuring the diameter at given heights; fur- ther tables based on scientific research and experience, or tables merely meant to facilitate calculation. Instruments for measuring diameters far above ground are needed for the use of the formulas given by Riecke, Hossfeldt, Pressler, etc. The six paragraphs following next dwell upon these topics. PARAGRAPH XXXIII. MEASURING THE HEIGHT OF A STANDING TREE. The height of a tree can be measured by comparing its shadow with the shadow of a stick, say io feet long. The "Lumber and Log Book" gives another old method (page 133) of height measurement. If the observer places himself in such a way that a small pole stands between him and the tree at a distance e, and if he marks on the pole two points where his sight, directed towards the top and base of the tree, touches the small pole, and if he further ascertains the distance E separating him from the tree, then the height of the tree H equals E — X h e wherein h represents the number of feet between the two points marked on the pole. Forest Mensuration 23 Instruments (hypsometers) for height measuring are sold in many 7* forms. The following are frequently used : Rudnicka's instrument ; Press- >/ ler's "Mea suring Jack ; " Faustmann's "Mirror Hypsometer;" Weise's Tel- escope; Koenig's "Measuring Board;" Brandis' "Clinometer;" Klausner's . instrument; Christen's "Non plus ultra?' ~* Vv > -"""V Compare Woodman's Handbook, pages 136 to 137, for staff method; page 138 for Faustmann's; page 140 for tangential clinometer; page 143 for mirror clinometer. Christen's stick is not accurate enough for the measurement of trees over 100 feet high. It does not require the measurement of distances. Its form is improved by Pinchot. PARAGRAPH XXXIV. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EXACTNESS OF HYPSOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS. The best results are obtained if the distance between tree and observer equals the height to be measured. In sighting towards the spreading top of a hardwood tree, the observer is apt to overrate the height, the tip being buried in the spreading crown. The line of sight strikes the edge of the crown instead of striking the apex of the crown. Timber cruisers are usually satisfied to determine the number of logs obtainable from the bole instead of determining the length of the bole. As a matter of fact, where the tree furnishes saw logs only, the total height of the tree is a less reliable indicator of the total contents than the length of the merchantable bole. Instruments like Faustmann's, Koenig's and Pressler's cannot be used in windy and rainy weather. Dense undergrowth and dense cover over- head render exact measurement impossible. PARAGRAPH XXXV. INDIRECT MENSURATION OF DIAMETERS. The following instruments are used to measure the diameter of the tree at any point of bole : a. Winkler, an addition to Koenig's measuring board. b. Klausner. c. An ordinary transit. d. Wimmenauer's telescope. PARAGRAPH XXXVI. pressler's telescope. Pressler's telescope is used to find the "guidepoint" and the "rectified height," as defined in Paragraph XXVIII., 3. The diameter chest-high is taken between the nails at the end of the instrument. Then the tele- scope is pulled out to a length double the original, divided by the cosin 24 Forest Mensuration of the angle found between the horizon and the probable sight to the "guidepoint" (at which the observer expects to find one-half the diameter chest-high). Thus, actually, the instrument merely examines the correct- ness of an original estimate. The Pressler telescope can be used for finding the merchantable length of any bole. Merely place a stick, equal in length to twice the minimum diameter permissible in a merchantable log, at the foot of the tree, catch it between the nail points and proceed as described. PARAGRAPH XXXVII. AUXILIARIES FOR CALCULATION. Auxiliaries for calculation are : i. Sectional area tables (Schlich, Vol. III.) ; engineering books like Haswell's; Bulletin 20; also Green.) 2. Ideal cylinder tables (Schlich and Bulletin 20). 3. Multiplication tables and logarithm-tables. 4. Tables showing contents of logs in any of the 43 rules, according to length and diameter. PARAGRAPH XXXVIII. TREE VOLUME-TABLES. Tree volume tables have been constructed on a very large scale for the leading species in the old country. In the United States, the Government is now beginning to make such tables. The tables give the cubic, lumber and cord wood contents of trees, according to species, diameter and some- times according to total height and merchantable height (number of logs). Bulletin 36 reprints the following tree volume tables: A. According to diameter measure merely. Page 92. Adirondack White Pine, volume in standards. Page 94. Pennsylvania Hemlock, volume in feet, b. m., Scribner. Page 94. Adirondack Hemlock, in standards. Page 95. Adirondack Spruce in standards. Page 96. Adirondack Birch, Beech, Linden, Sugar Maple in Scribner, feet, b. m. Page 96. Adirondack Balsam, in standards. Page 97. Adirondack White Cedar, in standards. Page 98. Arkansas Shortleaf Pine, in feet, b. m., Doyle. Page 98. Missouri Ash, Elm, Maple, Cypress, Gum, Oak, Hickory, Poplar, in feet, b. m., Doyle. Page 99. Western Yellow Pine, in feet, b. m., Doyle (Black Hills), dis- tinguishing between the volume of first and second growth. Page 99. Yellow Poplar in Pisgah Forest in feet, b. m., Doyle, distin- guishing between good, average and poor conditions of growth. Forest Mensuration 25 All tables, except Yellow Poplar tables, are based on the measurement of a large number of trees. The Yellow Poplar tables are based on stem analyses of a small number of trees. B. According to measurement of height and diameter combined. Page 93. Wisconsin White Pine (height expressed by the number of logs obtainable from merchantable bole) in feet, b. m., Doyle. Page 103. Adirondack Spruce expressed in feet, b. m., Scribner, the total height of trees being measured. Page 104. The same in cubic feet. Page 105. The same in cords for pulp wood. Page 106. New Hampshire Spruce in feet, b. m., in New Hampshire cubic feet sanctioned by law. Pages 108 and III. Adirondack White Pine with bark, expressed in cubic feet. Page no. Adirondack White Pine in feet, b. m., Doyle. Monographic investigation into the growth of the leading American spe- cies is of great importance. The trees of virgin forests are very defective, however, and tree tables can never be constructed giving the contents of defective trees. SECTION III.— VOLUME OF FORESTS. PARAGRAPH XXXIX. SYNOPSIS OF METHODS FOR ASCERTAINING THE VOLUME OF FORESTS. The methods used to find the volumes of entire forests, of forest com- partments, tracts, quarter sections, coves, etc., are : 1. Estimating (Par. XL.). 2. Exact calculation after measurements (Par. XLL, f. f.). 3. Combined measuring and estimating (Par. IL., f. f.). Obviously, measuring without estimation is possible only in forests con- taining little unsound timber. PARAGRAPH XL. ESTIMATION OF FOREST VOLUME. In primeval woods, where a few assortments only are salable and where stumpage is cheap, the estimation of stumpage necessarily takes the place of the measurement. If any measurements are taken, they are merely meant to back the estimation of the cruiser. The more defective the trees are, the more preferable is judgment and local long experience in the mill and in the woods on the side of the cruiser to mere measuring. 26 Forest Mensuration The volume of a wood is ascertained by cruisers' estimates in the fol- lowing ways : a. By estimating the number of trees and the volume of the average tree with due allowance for defects. b. By counting the trees and estimating the volume of average trees with allowance for defects. c. By estimating the volume of each tree separately, sounding it with an axe, when necessary, and judging its soundness from all sides. The above methods {a, b, c) are applied either to sample plots or to sample strips or to the entire area. A blazing hammer is often used to prevent duplication; the revolving numbering hammer might be used in case of scattering trees, so as to allow of control of the estimates by the owner, his forester or the pros- pective purchaser of stumpage. In irregular forests— hardwood forests of the United States— the only safe way is separate estimating of each individual tree after careful in- specting. Incredible errors result from wholesale and rapid estimates. In the case of even aged woods, a look at the height growth and a knowledge of the age gives a good idea of the forest's volume. Under very poor conditions of growth, the annual timber production per acre and year is as little as 15 cubic feet; under the best conditions it is as much as 250 cubic feet per acre and year. On an average (on absolute forest soil), 50 cubic feet per acre and year may be considered as the production of healthy and densely stocked forests. PARAGRAPH XLI. PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE EXACT MENSURATION OF FOREST VOLUME. The basis of any exact measurement of volume is formed by a survey of the sectional area, combined with an account of the number of stems ; sectional area and number are found by calipering (valuation survey). Whatever rule of log measurement may be at stake, the total sectional area of the forest is always of first importance for a survey of forest volume. Next in importance is the calipering of sample trees, followed by an exact survey of their volume. The ratio r existing between the volume of the sample trees (expressed in any unit or mixture of units) and the sectional area of the sample trees is identical with the form height (compare Par. XXXII. , towards end) of the sample trees. The form height of sample trees properly selected is the form height of the forest. The sample trees are usually cut and worked up into logs, cord- wood, tannin wood, etc., for the purpose of volume survey. V v f. h. s. — = — = and V — S. f. h b S S Forest Mensuration 27 If the trees of the forest are defective, the sample trees should exhibit average defects. PARAGRAPH XLII. FIELD WORK FOR EXACT VALUATION SURVEYS. The valuation survey requires : 1. Calipering of all trees; the diameter is taken in inches or in multi- ples of inches. Each species and each height class or age class are or may be taken separately. 2. Entering the takings on tally sheets, arranged as follows : Diameter. Spruce. Beech. Height classes. Height classes. I II I II 10" 11" 12" 13" etc. The larger the trees are, the bigger is the permissible interval of calipering. If trees average two feet in diameter, an interval of 3 inches is permissible, provided that a large number of trees are calipered. It is a strange fact that the diameter measured from east to west is larger on the whole than the diameter from north to south. PARAGRAPH XLIII. BASAL ASSUMPTIONS. The only assumption made in calculating the volume of the forest after Paragraph XLI. is that the form height of the sample trees equals the form height of the forest. No other estimate or assumption is being made. This premise is much safer than the assumption that the volume of the forest bears the same ratio to the volume of the sample trees which the number of trees in the forest bears to the number of the sample trees. More unsafe is the assumption that the volumes of forest and sample trees bear the ratio of the acreage occupied by the forest on the one hand and by the sample trees on the other hand. 28 Forest Mensuration PARAGRAPH XLIV. SELECTION OF SAMPLE TREES. Sample trees are selected either irregularly or after a regular plan. In the latter case, it is best to distribute them equally among the diameter classes composing the forest (Draudt-Urich method and Robert Hartig method), instead of selecting sample trees of average diameter. It is more important that the sample trees should have proper average class-form height (and average defects) than that they should have exact average class-diameters. PARAGRAPH XLV. DRAUDT-URICH METHOD. The Draudt-Urich method is in common use abroad for measuring the -forest. The trees of the forest are divided into a number of classes (usually five). Each class contains an equal number of trees, class I containing the largest and class 5 the smallest trees. In each class an equal number of sample trees, having about the average diameter of the class, are felled and worked up into logs, cordwood, ties, poles, etc. The form height of all sample trees is obtained as the quotient of their volume (in any unit or mixture of units) divided by their sectional area. Mul- tiplying the sectional area of the forest with this form height, the exact volume of the entire forest and its composition (logs, poles, cords, etc.) are given by one operation. Sample trees of the average diameter of a class are found by dividing the sectional area of the entire class by the number of trees per class. It is wrong to find the average diameter by dividing the sum total of the diameters by the number of trees. Diameter Breast High. Number of Trees. Diameter Classes of Trees. Number of Sample Trees. Average Diam- eter of Sample Trees. 40" 35" 30" 25" j 20" ., j | 310 240 506 1226 I n 29" 9 1040 1233 II 11 17" 1847 435 III 11 14" ■o» \ 2282 IV 11 10" 2282 V 11 10" PARAGRAPH LXXVII. / •IAMETER INCREMENT. The current diameter increment is obtained by counting and measuring the rings on a disk through the tree. It is generally best to count from the bark towards the center, aling tw# radii standing perpendicular to each other. The general laws of diameter growth are identical with those of height growth relative to culmination, decrease and increase of absolute (Par- agraph LXXV.) as well as of relative (Paragraph LXXVI.) increment. If we exclude the butt-piece below chest-height, the annual rings along the tree bole measured at various elevations above ground show a grad- ual increase of width with elevation, provided that the leaf canopy of the forest is complete and uninterrupted — e. g., the width of the ring 50 feet from the ground, formed in 1903, is greater than the width of the ring formed 20 feet above ground in the same year. For trees standing in open crown-density, the width of the ring de- creases with the elevation above the ground, especially within the crown itself. A tree standing in a thin crown-density may show an even width of ring all over the tree bole. For very old trees in closed stand it is sometimes found that the diam- eter, say 40 feet above ground, is larger than the diameter, say, 20 feet above ground. The rings on a disk are not actually circles; they more closely ap- proach the form of eccentric ellipses (see Paragraph XIII.). J PARAGRAPH LXXVlII. SECTIONAL AREA INCREMENT. The increment of the sectional area is obtained from the increment of the diameters. Where greater exactness is required, and especially in case of irregular rings, the planimeter or the weight of a piece of paper having the form of the sectional area may be used for measuring to good advantage (Paragraph XIII.). The increment of the sectional area at chest height depends on the crown density overhead ; further, on the quality of the soil. At chest height the culmination of the current annual sectional area increment takes place, in the case of dominant trees, fast growing species and com- plete cover overhead, between the years 40 and 70. The culmination of the current annual sectional area increment occurs always later than the culmination of the current height and diameter in- crement. After culmination it remains uniform for a long time. The absolute increment of a sectional area higher up on the bole, com- pared with the absolute increment at chest height, is found to be equal to it in the case of dominant trees ; larger in the case of suppressed trees ; and smaller in the case of isolated trees. V. ~*-+-^C~m Foresl/hlensiti-ation ( / 4$ Pressler establishes as the "law of bole formation" the following rule : "The absolute increment of the sectional area at any point of a b»le is directly proportioned to the leaf surface above that point." This rule is, on the whole, correct. An unexpected swelling, however, is often found at 9/16 of the height of the tree. Within the crown of the tree, the decrease of sectional area increment is rapid. PARAGRAPH LXXIX. RELATIVE INCREMENT OF DIAMETER AND OF SECTIONAL AREA. The increment percentage at any point of the bole, like all increment percentages, forms a constantly but irregularly descending progression. At any point of the bole the increment percentage of the sectional area is the double of the increment percentage of the diameter. Schneider gives a handy formula for the sectional area increment per- centage, viz. : 400 P equals nd wherein d represents the diameter at the beginning of the period of ob- servation, and wherein n indicates the number of rings per inch at the time of observation. The percentage of the sectional area increment increase along the bole with increasing height of the disk measured, excepting, however, possibly, the case of very isolated trees. The average sectional area increment percentage of the bole is found at a point a little below one-half of the total height, namely, at about 0.45 of the total height from ground. PARAGRAPH LXXX. VOLUME INCREMENT. The (current and future) volume increment of standing trees is of great interest to forest financiers ; it can be estimated only, and cannot be measured exactly. The volume increment of trees cut down may be ascertained as follows : 1. By the sectional method, or by "section analysis" (Paragraph LXXXL). 2. From the increment of sectional area chest high, height increment and form figures (Paragraph LXXXIV.). 3. From the increment of sectional area in the midst of bole (Para- graph LXXXV.). 4. On the basis of the average annual increment (Paragraph LXXXVIL, last 4 lines). 5 5« Forest Mensuration PARAGRAPH LXXXI. SECTION ANALYSIS. The section-method is a complete tree analysis by sections. The entire bole is divided into a number of sections, preferably of even length, at both ends, or, better, in the midst of which the periodical increment of the sectional area is ascertained (compare Paragraph XL). In the latter case, multiplying such sectional areas (in square feet) as belong to the same age of the tree by the length (in feet) of the sec- tions, the volumes (in cubic feet) of the different sections at given ages are obtained. The "top pieces," however, must be figured out separately, their length differing from the even length of the sections. These top pieces are usually considered as cones, and their volumes are ascertained as one-third height times basal area of top piece. The basal area of the top piece is identical with the upper area of the uppermost full section of a given age. Example for Huber-Sections Ten Feet Long. Total height 25 feet. 40 feet. 67 feet. 20 years. 40 years. 60 years. Sectional area of Section i 0.34 sq. ft. 0.78 sq. ft. 1.23 sq. ft. Sectional area of Section 2 0.15 sq. ft. 0.45 sq. ft. 0.87 sq. ft. 0.25 sq. ft. 0. 64 sq. ft. 0.03 sq. ft. 0.53 sq. ft. 0.25 sq. ft. 0.04 sq. ft. Summary of sectional areas 0.49 sq. ft. 1. 51 sq. ft. 3.56 sq. ft. Summary sectional areas x 10 4.90 cu. ft. 15.10 cu. ft. 35.60 cu. ft. 0.05 cu. ft. 0.09 cu. ft. 0.08 cu. ft. 4.95 cu. ft. 15.19 cu. ft. 35.68 cu. ft. The volume of the top pieces forms in the older age columns an insig- nificant part of the total volume. If the logs as cut in the woods are used as sections, then each section has a separate length and its volume must be separately ascertained for every decade of age of tree. Remark : It is wise to first ascertain the full age of the tree, allowing for stump years. It is further wise to throw off that number of years which exceeds full decades — c. g., in case of a tree 117 years old, 7 years. Forest Mensuration 51 At the stump the rings had best be counted from the inside out, allowing for stump years. Instance: Age of tree, 117; stump years, 4 years; count- ing on the stump, from the inside, 6 rings establishes the ring formed in the year 10. Continuing, the rings of the years 20, 30, 40, 50, etc., up to year no, are pencil marked. The outside seven rings are thrown off. At all other disk-sections, count and measure from the outside in, after discarding the 7 years exceeding full decades of tree life. PARAGRAPH LXXXII. noerdlinger's paper weight method. The total length of the tree is divided into 8 Huber sections, and cuts are made in the midst of these sections, at the height of 1/16, 3/16, 5/16, 7/16 and up to 15/16 of the bole. On each cross section the radii are measured, not with the rule, but with dividers. On a piece of paper folded 4 times and thus divided into 8 sectors the measurements are entered with the help of the dividers, one sector being allotted to the first cross section, the next sector to the next cross sec- tion, etc. Multiplying the total weight of the zone indicating, say, the year 70, by height of the tree and dividing the product by the weight of a square foot of paper, the volume of the tree when 70 years old is directly obtained in cubic feet. Similarly the zones corresponding with the year 50, 60, etc., are cut out, weighed and multiplied. If the volume increment percentage p alone is to be obtained, then it is enough to divide, say, the "weight" of the year 70 by the weight of the year 60, and the 10th root of the quotient will equal i.op. PARAGRAPH LXXXIII. schenxk's graphic tree analysis. Graphic tree analysis offers the following advantages : 1. Mistakes are impossible, being at once noticeable on the diagram paper. 2. The volume in feet Doyle can be readily obtained for any stated minimum diameter. 3. The graphical sketch is adaptable to any of the 43 scales in use in the United States, as well as to the metric system. 4. The thickness of heart wood and sap wood and bark readily appears. 5. It is immaterial whether measurements are taken in meters or in feet, the graphical sketch readily allowing of transfers into other units. 6. Height growth and diameter growth appear at the same time, and from the same entries. 7. The length of the sections taken need not be uniform. The method of proceeding is as follows : On millimeter paper a system of co-ordinates is established ; heights are entered as ordinates, diameters 52 Forest Mensuration or radii as abscissas. The scale for the height entries should be much smaller than that of the diameter entries. Diameter points, at the different section-heights, corresponding to a given decade of years are joined (beginning at the outside), by which procedure the outline of the tree at that decade is established. Th top cones are obtained by prolonging such outlines arbitrarily until they intersect with the height-axis. The merchantable bole for each decade is dissected, on the diagram, into logs the length and diameter of which are measured on the diagram. PARAGRAPH LXXXIV. wagener's method and stump analysis. Wagener recommends a partial stem analysis for cases in which a knowledge of the absolute increment, not a knowledge of the absolute tree volume, is required. Tree volume is sectional area chest high times height of tree times form factor. Wagener analyses : a. the height growth by counting the rings at various altitudes along the bole; b. the growth of the sectional area at chest height by measurement in decades in the usual way. Wagener then estimates the form factor according to form factor tables. In the latter proposition, obviously, lies the danger of mistakes. Since, however, increment is a difference of volumes, merely the difference of mistakes — a comparatively small item — enters into the problem. Age in years 60 80 100 120 14- 17- 19. 21 . Sectional area b. h 0.25 o.35 0.50 0.71 Height in feet 75- 85. 93- 105. 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 9-4 13- 23- 36. Increment in cubic feet 3- 5 ic ). 1 3- The "stump analysis" (compare Paragraph LXXII.) introduced by the Bureau of Forestry rests on premises similar to those proffered by Wagener. If the form height for the stump-diameters (or the number of feet b. m. per square foot of stump area for given stump diameters) is known, the rate of volume increment can be quickly ascertained by mere stump analysis. Forest Mensuration 53 It is, however, a well known fact that the diameter growth at the stump — especially at a low stump — is particularly unreliable as an index of volume growth, owing to the exaggerating influence on stump growth exercised by light, by water, by depth of soil and by superficial roots. Stump analysis as a means to bring a volume in reference to a sec- tional area at the stump is permissible only as a necessary evil. ' PARAGRAPH LXXXV. pressler's method. Frequently the task before the forester is merely that of ascertaining the increase of bole volume during the last 10 or 20 years. Then after Pressler, one single investigation into the growth of the sectional area is sufficient when made with the help of the accretion borer in the midst of the "decapitated" bole. The volume increment in cubic feet equals the sectional area increment in question multiplied by the height of the tree. The bole is decapitated by that number of top shoots which have been formed during the period of observation. This operation corresponds very well with the usual practice of judging the bole increment per- centage from the sectional area increment ascertained at 0.45 of height of tree. Pressler measures the sectional area at the end of the period of observa- tion too large, measuring it at too low a point. He multiplies this sec- tional area, however, by too small a height — namely, the decapitated height; thus a mistake made in the positive sense is apt to be eliminated by a mistake made in the negative sense. The axe can be used to better advantage frequently than the accretion borer. PARAGRAPH LXXXVI. breymann's method. Breymann gives the following formula : 1. For the current annual volume increment T: 8 (44) wherein "S" and "X" denote the annual increase of diameter "d" and length "1" respectively. 2. For the corresponding increment percentage P : p = ioo( 2 - +T ) It appears that for trees of old age and hence of little height growth the increment percentage is merely dependent on the diameter increase. 54 Forest Mensuration Breymann, however, neglects : 1. The change of form figure, during the period of observation; 2. A number of small factors which ought to be embraced in the formula. For stopping height growth or for \ = , the term given for P can be easily reduced to the term given by Schneider for the sectional area increment percentage. PARAGRAPH LXXXVII. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CUBIC VOLUME INCREMENT. The culmination of the current annual volume increment takes place at a later year than the culmination of the sectional area increment at breast height. Naturally so, because with increasing age of a tree, its root sys- tem as well as the branch system, the feeders of the body, show contin- uous increase. Big and long branches, of course, require a great deal of wood fibre to increase and maintain their own strength, like levers increased in length. Hence, from a certain size of branch on, all wood fibre produced by the branch is used up within the branch itself, for its own purposes, instead of being added as increment to the merchantable bole. After Dr. Metzger, the crown of a tree yields the maximum of bole increment if its crown diameter is, and if the number of trees per acrf are: Quality of soil. Diameter of crown, in feet. No. of trees per acre. Very good. 16.5 203 Good 14-7 256 Medium 12.7 343 Poor 9-3 640 Very poor 8-3 807 From the theoretical standpoint it seems wise, consequently, to force the lower branches of a tree to die, with the help of proper tension and friction within the leaf canopy, when they exceed a length of 8.25, 7.35, 6-35. 465 and 4.15 feet respectively (the halves of the diameters). Metzger's investigations are interesting, but his conclusions seem to be too sweeping. P. P. Pel ton recommends the lopping of branches in order to shorten the length of the branch-levers. The average annual volume increment of dominant and sound trees Forest JMensuration V? culminates at a very high age only, if ever, owing to the late culmina- tion of the current annual average increment. The volume increment percentage forms — as in all cases of increment — a steadily but irregularly decreasing progression. This percentage is in- variably equal to or higher than the sectional area increment percentage at chest height. Roughly speaking, the volume increment percentage amounts to from I to 1.75 times the sectional area (at chest height) increment percentage, or, as Pressler gives it, to from 2 to 3^ times the diameter (at chest height) increment percentage. Height Growth. Crown covers part of bole Seemingly nil. Medium. Good. Excellent. \ or more. Jtoi Less than \. 2-33 2.50 2.67 2.67 2.83 3.00 3.00 3-17 3-33 317 3-33 Since the average volume increment of a tree is equal or closely equal to the current annual increment at a high age only, it is usually not permissible to substitute the average increment, which is easily ascer- tained, for the current annual increment. PARAGRAPH LXXXVIII. VOLUME-INCREMENT PERCENTAGE OF STANDING TREES. In the case of standing trees the volume increment percentage cannot be measured, owing to the impossibility of ascertaining a change of form height. The Pressler data given in the preceding paragraph allow of estimating the volume increment percentage of standing trees on the basis of a diameter-increase, measured at breast height. The Pressler "accretion borer" is used for the purpose, or an axe. Stoetzer, Director of the Forest Academy at Eisenach, modifies the Schneider formula for sectional area percentage, writing it C P = n7 wherein n indicates number of years (rings) required to form one inch; d represents the diameter at the beginning of the period of investigation, whilst C (the so-called "constant factor of increment," which is not a constant factor at all) must be ascertained for a given species, soil, diam- eter, age and position by actual tests on felled trees. In old dense beech woods C is, e. g., 540. After a seed cutting in the same woods during the final stage of regeneration C is only 450 (observa- tion by Dr. Wimmenauer). 56 Forest Mensuration Trees growing as cones would grow, have C equal to 600; trees grow- ing as Apollonian paraboloids would grow, have C equal to 800; after Stoetzer, C might amount to as much as 930, in case of suppressed trees. The minimum possible (in sound trees) for C is 460. The Pressler values given in the table of the preceding paragraph closely correspond with the constant factors of increment ascertained after Stoetzer. In the case of the Pressler table (at end of Paragraph LXXXVII.) we find, for medium height growth and very small crown, a factor 3.00 by which the diameter increment percentage is to be multi- plied. This factor 3.00 corresponds with 600 for a constant factor of in- crement. If the diameter in the midst of the bole is l / 2 of the diameter at the end, then the tree, it seems, is conical, and an increment factor of 600 might be assumed. If the sectional area in the midst of the bole equals y 2 the sectional area at the end, then the tree is a paraboloid, and the increment factor seems apt to be 800. It must be remembered, however, that a tree forming a paraboloid grows as a paraboloid only, if its percentage of height growth is equal to its percentage of growth of sectional area — a rare case in merchantable trees. Similarly, a tree growing as a cone must have the height increment percentage equal to its diameter increment percentage. If n and v represent the number of rings per inch added to original diameters d and 8 at chest height and at 0.45 of the height of the tree respectively, then the "constant factor of increment C" is found as follows : 400 C p (volume) — " = — - vo nd nd C = 400 v8 PARAGRAPH LXXXIX. INTERDEPENDENCE BETWEEN CUBIC INCREMENT AND INCREMENT IN FEET B. M. DOYLE. Doyle's rule under-estimates the contents of small logs and over-esti- mates those of big logs. Consequently, the growth of a tree bole in feet b. m. Doyle is (for small trees yielding logs under 28" diameter) relatively faster than the growth of a tree bole expressed in cubic feet. The figures of Column D denote, in the following table, this excess rate of growth : Forest Mensuration 57 A 5 C D No. of ft. b. m. per Differences of con- "Extraordinary" Diameter of logs one cu. ft. of tim- secutive figures in percentage of incre- without bark. ber estimated Column B. ment Doyle co-in- after Doyle. ciding with 1" growth. 12" 509 8.1 0.41 13" 5 50 o.35 6 4 14" 5-85 o.33 5 7 15" 6.18 0.26 4 2 16" 6.44 0.27 4 3 17" 6.71 0.22 3 3 18" 6-93 0.14 2 1 19" 7.07 0.26 3 2 20" 7-33 0.18 2 5 21" 7-5i 0.16 2 2 22" 7.67 0.15 2 23" 7.82 0.13 1 7 24" 7-95 0. 14 1 8 25" 8.09 0. 11 1 4 26" 8.20 0. 12 1 5 27" 8-33 0.09 1 1 28" 8.41 0. 11 1 1 29" 8.52 0.08 1 30" 8.60 For the standard rules, the increment percentage of a tree can be ascer- tained by cubic measure as well as by standard measure. If n years are required to form one additional inch of diameter, then the extraordinary percentage of Doyle-increments amounts annually to n . V 1.0 D, wherein D represents the values of Column D in the foregoing table. By this factor -j/l.OD, the cubic volume increment percentage of a bole may be converted, ceteris paribus, into Doyle increment percentage, provided that 58 Forest Mensuration 1. The cubic increment percentage of the total bole coincides with the cubic increment percentage of the merchantable bole; 2. The merchantable bole does not increase in length during the period of observation. PARAGRAPH XC. CONSTRUCTION OF VOLUME TABLES. Volume tables are "tree yield tables" from which the volume of a tree of given species, given age, given diameter breast high or stump high, given height, given merchantable bole, given position (suppressed, dom- inant, etc., or isolated, crowded, etc.), given locality and so on can be readily read. The units of volume are cubic feet, board feet, standards, cords, etc., according to the requirements of the case. Obviously, volume tables give, or should give, the volumes of average trees; they may give, in addition, the maximum and minimum volume possible in a tree of stated description. Volume tables are constructed either on the basis of hundreds (thou- sands) of measurements taken from trees actually felled in the woods (possibly also sawn at a saw mill, to ascertain the grades) or on the basis of a smaller number of complete section analyses. The rapidity of volume growth of a species and the development of its form height depend on many local factors — notably on climate, soil, sylvi- cultural systems at hand, influence of fires, fungi, insects, etc. Owing to the multitude of local factors influencing the volumes and the changes of volumes, local volume tables alone are entitled to a place in exact mensuration. Volume tables for second growth are more reliable than volume tables for first growth. Circular 445 of Bureau of Forestry defines volume table as "a tabular statement of the volume of trees in board feet or other units upon the basis of their diameter breast high, their diameter breast high and height, their age, or their age and height." The method of construction of volume tables is either mathematical or graphical. 1. Mathematical method. The volumes ascertained for trees of a given diameter (breast high or stump high with or without bark), a given merchantable length or total length, a given age or a given quality or locality are added up. The sum total of these volumes divided by the number of trees forming it yields the average volume of the tree of stated description. These averages are shown, for the various diameters, lengths, ages and localities, in tabular form. The volumes corresponding with such diameters, lengths, ages and lo- calities, for which sample trees were not cut and measured, are found by arithmetic interpolation. Forest Mensuration 59 Finally, the differences in volume shown by average trees of similar description (*. e., differing but slightly in diameter, length, etc.) are formed and rounded off in a manner causing the volumes to show a more steady mathematic progression. 2. Graphic method. The volume of each tree measured is entered as the abscissa on a diagram-system of co-ordinates, whilst the diameters of the trees (or the age, etc.) are registered on the ordinate axis. Similarity of length is in- dicated by color of mark representing the tree ; similarity of locality is indicated by the form of the mark (square, triangle, cross, circle, etc.). Corresponding marks are then joined by chains (having square, cir- cular, triangular links) of the proper color. Finally, average curves as well as maximum and minimum curves are drawn for the various colors and forms of marks. Maximum and minimum curves should not represent the very best and the very worst possibilities; they should represent the average of very good and very bad trees. The graphic method is more reliable, because less depending on mere figures, than the mathematical method. Both methods are frequently combined. A number of complete tree analyses furnishes more reliable results than a large number of mere volume measurements because it yields more reliable curves (guide-curves) of development for one and the same lo- cality, and because it prevents the forester from drawing curves of growth at random. If the sample trees (or sample logs) are sawn up at a saw mill where the lumber is properly graded according to the inspection rules prevailing for the species in question, the volume tables may also give the actual average output of specified trees in lumber of the various grades. SECTION II.— INCREMENT OF A WOOD. PARAGRAPH XCI. INCREMENT OF FORESTS. The volume increment of the virgin forest is on the whole nill. In America the value increment of a primeval forest is based more on a price increment of stumpage than on a volume increment of trees. The volume increment, in addition, can scarcely be ascertained with sufficient accuracy for a given piece of forest at a reasonable expense. In second growth forests, on the other hand, say in Virginia, an abso- lute knowledge of the productiveness of the forest renders forestal invest- ments safer in the eyes of the owner ; and the safety of the investment it is which alone can tempt the capitalist to invest in forestry. A knowledge of 60 Forest Mensuration the increment in second growth woodlands can be obtained from tabulated statements ("yield tables") showing the rate of growth for woodlands of a given species in a given locality. Under normal yield tables are under- stood such tables which give the rate of growth for even-eged, pure, nor- mally stocked, well thinned woodlots for given localities (compare Para- graph LIII. and XCIV..). Such normal yield tables are constructed abroad for beech, pine, spruce, fir and oak. In this country they exist only in Pinchot's and Graves' yield tables for white pine. In America, pure even-aged woods are found in rare cases only (taeda, echinata, rigida, jack and longleaf pines, tama- rack, coppicewood). In the construction of normal yield tables the following points require consideration : 1. The different methods of construction (Paragraph XCIL). 2. The combination, interpolation, adjustment and correction of the results (Paragraph XCIIL). 3. The contents and use of yield tables (Paragraph XCIV.). PARAGRAPH XCIL METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION OF NORMAL YIELD TABLES. Normal yield tables may be based on : A. Repeated survey of some typical woodlots during their entire life- time. B. Repeated survey of different woods standing on an equal quality of soil, during a period of years equal at least to the longest difference in age found amongst them. C. One-time, simultaneous survey of a very large number of woods of different ages standing on different qualities of soil. Missing links are here obtained by graphic or mathematical interpolation (Paragraph XCIIL). If tables are constructed by repeated survey of several woods (B), it is often found that the links cross one another for unexplainable reasons. PARAGRAPH XCIIL GATHERING DATA FOR NORMAL YIELD TABLES. In order to see whether or not two woods, in the case C of the pre- ceding paragraph, belong to the same chain of growth, two methods are in use : a. The horn or curve method, after Baur. b. The stem analysis method. Forest Mensuration 61 Remarks on a. The contents and age of all woods (normal) surveyed are plotted in a diagram, the age forming the abscissa and the volume the ordinate of the system. Curves are then drawn outlining the maxima and minima of growth observed. The horn-shaped space between these curves is divided into a number of sectors equal to the number of yield classes to be distinguished. The middle line of each sector illustrates the productiveness of its class. The average height growth is obtained in a similar way, the height data forming the ordinates in a system of co-ordinates. Baur finds that the allotment of a given plot to a volume-sector corre- sponds with its allotment to a height sector. In other words, the height is, after Baur, an absolutely reliable indicator of the quality of the soil, or, what is the same, of the yield class. The growth of sectional area, height and volume being known, the development of the form factors for the various sectors is readily ob- tained from the fraction sXh Remarks on b: An analysis of the average stems in lots surveyed would not throw any light on their connection as members of one and the same chain of observation. After Robert Hartig, the 200 strongest trees are analyzed. After Wagener, the ideal cylinders merely of these 200 strongest stems are analyzed by ascertaining their height growth and their diameter growth at breast height. Weise and Schwappach are satisfied with an analysis of the heights merely of the 200 best stems. The selection of sample plots is not easy, even in second growth raised under forestal care. A valuation survey establishes for each plot the number of stems and the sectional area for each diameter class of stems (usually divided into 5 classes) ; further, the average age and the average height of the plot. The volume is then figured out, usually, according to the Draudt-Urich method. The experiment stations maintained by the European Governments control the growth of a large number of experimental plots, which should not be smaller than Yz acre each. The sample plots are corner marked, and, more recently, the individual trees contained therein are numbered consecutively. Surveys of these plots are made every five years. The point of measurement is indicated by a chalk line. In America normal sample plots have not been established as yet by the Bureau of Forestry in second growth. The sample plots at Biltmore do not represent a normal second growth. 62 Forest Mensuration PARAGRAPH XCIV. NORMAL YIELD TABLES, THEIR PURPOSES AND CONTENTS ABROAD. Normal yield tables are especially used for the following purposes: 1. To ascertain the quality of the soil (e. g., for taxation). 2. To ascertain the volume of the growing stock. 3. To ascertain future yields of the forest. 4. To solve problems of forest finance, especially those of forest ma- turity (length of rotation). German normal yield tables have the following contents : A. Tables for the main forest — the secondary forest comprising such trees on the same lot as are about to be removed by way of thin- ning: (1) Age, graded at five year intervals. (2) Number of trees. (3) Sectional area at chest height, inclusive of bark. (4) Average diameter. (5) Average height and height increment. (6) Volume in cubic measure arranged according to assortments as logs, fuel, bark, etc. (7) Periodical and average annual volume increment. (8) Increment percentage. (9) Form factor. (10) Normal growing stock. B. Tables for the secondary forest, giving merely its volume, which, as stated, is to be removed by way of thinning. Circular 445 of the Bureau of Forestry defines "future yield tables" as follows : "A tabular statement of the amount of w r ood which, after a given period, will be contained in given trees upon a given area expressed in board feet or some other unit." PARAGRAPH XCV. RETROSPECTIVE YIELD TABLES. In "retrospective" yield tables an attempt is made to rebuild the grow- ing stock as it was before lumbering from the stumps found on the ground and from stem analyses of the trees now standing. Prerequisite is a knowledge of the year in which lumbering took place and of the conditions of growth since prevailing. Method of proceeding: 1. Make stem analyses and construct tree volume tables, showing the probable contents of trees for stumps of a given diameter and for given diameters b. h. Forest Mensuration 63 2. On land cut over n years ago, find by valuation survey and stem analyses : a. The present volume "F." b. The volume "y" of the trees now standing as it was "n" years ago with the help of tree volume tables. c. From the stumps the volume "x" of the trees logged "n" years ago. 3. A product of "F" units (with an undergrowth not fit for logging) has been derived in "n" years from an original stand aggregating "y" plus "x" units of volume. 4. Grouping hundreds of sample plots together, yield tables for local use are obtained. Misleading is, of course, the multiplicity of conditions (mixture of species, soils, original stands, pasture and fire) surrounding , a second growth which check the applicability and the combination of the tables found. The tables are way signs, not ways, toward a true knowledge of the productiveness of cut-over woodlands. PARAGRAPH XCVI. YIELD TABLES OF THE BUREAU OF FORESTRY. Bureau yield tables are meant to show the growth on cut-over land occurring within the next 10, 20 or 30 years, if a tract is logged to a 10", 12" or 14" (or any other) limit. Bureau yield tables are based on tree volume tables and on an account of the numbers of tree individuals found in the various age classes of forest, viz., diameter classes of trees. The influence of the different qualities of soil on tree growth is not given, only one average volume table being constructed. The volume tables show the number of years which a tree requires to increase its diameter b. h. by one inch. The volume tables record, in addition, the volume increase corresponding with such diameter increase. Applying these findings to the stumpage presumably left after logging, the volume can be ascertained which is expected to be on hand 10, 20 or 30 years later. The volume growth is forecasted, as if it were taking place under primeval conditions. The Bureau neglects entirely the death rate of trees, due to natural causes and especially high amongst seedlings and saplings, or else due to the logging operations themselves. The results forecasted in this way must be invariably too high. Pinchot's Spruce Tables (The Adirondack Spruce, p. 77) are based on similar premises : a. Construct volume tables by stem analysis (stump-analysis) on land cut over for a second time, thus showing rate of growth for trees left standing at the first cut. b. Construct tables, by actual measurements in the woods, giving the 6 4 Forest Mensuration number of trees of the various diameters, composing a stumpage of from 1,000 to 12,000 feet board measure. c. Predict the number of trees and their exact diameters to be found 10, 20 or 30 years after logging, according to severity of logging (diam- eter limit). d. With the help of the volume tables, give the contents of these trees. In these tables as well, the death rate amongst trees is disregarded. For normal death rate, compare Pinchot's "White Pine," p. 80, ff ; also remarks at end of Paragraph LIV. PARAGRAPH XCVII. THE INCREMENT OF A W00DL0T. The current as well as the annual average increment of normal, even- aged woods culminates at a much earlier date than the increment of the trees composing such woods. The explanation lies in the death rate of the trees. Under a close crown density in even-aged, normal woods, the stronger half of the trees yield, from the pole stage on, practically all the incre- ment, the weaker half of the trees being almost inactive. The better the quality of the soil, the earlier occurs the culmination of the increment; consequently, on good soil, shorter rotations are apt to be advisable than on poor soil. Light demanding (intolerant) species show an earlier culmination than shade bearers (tolerant) species. For white pine woods, after Pinchot, the years of increment culmina- tion are as follows : Culmination For entire volume with bark in cu. ft. For volume Doyle in ft. b. m. of I. II. III. I. II. III. Current inert Average inert . . . 40th 60th 50th Soth 60th yr. 1 ooth yr. 70th i35th 70th 1 60th 110th yr. 210th yr. I denotes best; II denotes medium, and III denotes poorest quality of soil. The increment of a woodlot, whether normal or abnormal, can be obtained : a. With the help of yield tables. b. By special investigations made into the rate of growth of sample trees (Paragraph XCVIII.). Forest Mensuration 65 c. With the help of the average annual increment of the woodlot (Par- agraph XCIX.). The increment of a past period is never exactly equal to that of a future period, unless the age of the woods is close to that year at which the increment culminates. The increment percentage during a past period is always larger than the increment percentage during a coming period (aside of temporary increase due to light-increment). The general laws (Paragraph LXXV.) relative to the culmination, increase and decrease of increment hold good for the volume increment of woodlots as well as for that of trees. PARAGRAPH XCVIII. ASCERTAINING THE INCREMENT OF WOODLOTS BY SAMPLE TREES. The current annual volume increment and the volume increment per- centage of a wood, from which its maturity largely depends, can be cor- rectly found only by a valuation survey, combined with an investigation into the present rate of growth exhibited by a number of sample trees. Borggreve recommends to gauge the increment of the sample trees by the Schneider increment percentage. This is usually insufficient. The correct volume increment percentage p of a woodlot is obtained from the volume increment percentage pi, P2, p3, P4 and p 5 of the class sam- ple trees — which represent class-volumes vi, vg, v 3 , v 4 and v 5 — as = v i Pi + y {P 8 + v 3 P3 -I- v< Vi + V 5 p 5 V l + V 2 + V 3 + V 4 + V 5 Where the form heights of the classes differ slightly only, the sectional areas of the classes may be substituted for the volumes of the classes. Again, where classes of equal sectional area are formed (after Robert Hartig), there the volume increment per cent, of the woodlot equals the arithmetic mean of the volume increment percentages of the sample trees, so that Pi + P2 + Ps -4- P4 + Ps PARAGRAPH XCIX. CURRENT INCREMENT ASCERTAINED FROM AVERAGE INCREMENT. Within certain limits, a short time previous and a short time after the culmination of the average annual increment, the annual average incre- ment equals the current increment and can be used in its place as a basis for yield calculation. European Governments frequently prescribe this modus operandi for yield forecasts in working plans. 66 Forest Mensuration CHAPTER IV.— LUMBER PARAGRAPH C. UNITS OF LUMBER MEASUREMENT. For rough lumber one inch thick, or thicker, the unit of measure, known as one foot board measure, is a square foot of lumber one inch thick. This unit is the i/i2th part of a cubic foot. For rough lumber thinner than one inch, the unit of measure, also known as one foot board measure, is the superficial square foot, and the thickness of the lumber is here entirely disregarded. All dressed stock is measured and described as if it were the full size of the rough lumber necessarily used in its manufacture. "Inch flooring," e. g., is actually 13/16 inch thick; and "Y% inch ceiling" is actually 5/16 inch thick. Standard thicknesses are: fiJi fj I. !, J 4> lj,2,2|, 3X4". Standard lengths are: in hardwoods 6 to 16 feet; in softwoods 10 to 24 feet. In both cases, lengths in even feet (not in odd feet) are required. A shortness of 1" or 2" in the length of hardwood boards is disregarded. Standard defects are : I. In hardwoods: one sound knot of \\" diameter; one inch of bright sap ; one split, its length in inches equalling the contents of the board in feet b.m. II. In softwoods: sound knots, viz.: (a) pin-knots of not over \" diameter; (b) standard knots of not over \\" diameter ; (c) large knots of over \\" diameter; pitchpockets, viz. : (a) small pitchpockets \" wide; (b) standard pitchpockets up to §" wide and up to 3' long; pitchstreaks, viz. : (a) small pitchstreaks not wider than x \ the width and not longer than \ the length of board ; (b) standard pitchstreaks with dimensions up to twice as large as given under (a); sap, viz. : (a) bright sap; (b) blued sap; splits, wane, scant width, tongues, less than &" long. Forest Mensuration 67 The point at which a defect is located greatly influences its effect on the grade of the lumber. The two faces, the two edges and the two ends of a board must be parallel. In case of unevenness, the thinnest thickness, the narrowest width and the shortest length are measured. Lumber is measured with the help of a lumber rule (Lufkin rule) which yields for inch boards of given lengths and given width the correspond- ing contents in feet b. m. In measuring the widths, fractions of an inch are neglected in rough lumber. PARAGRAPH CI. INSPECTION RULES AND NOMENCLATURE. The lumber inspection prevailing in a given market is governed by local custom or by agreement within the body of local associations of lumbermen. The tendency of all inspection rules is directed toward a gradual lower- ing of rigidity. The wholesaler's inspection is generally stiffer than that of the manu- facturer. Diversity of rules is a sadly demoralizing element in lumber circles. Lumber sawn for special purposes (e. g., wagon bolsters) must be in- spected with a view to its adaptability for such special purpose. A. Hardwood. The grade of a board depends on 1. Its width and length; 2. Its standard defects ; 3. The percentage of clear stock contained therein ; 4. The number of cuttings yielding such clear stock. The following table shows average specifications prevailing for the various grades of hardwood lumber in the U. S. markets. The defects specified invariably indicate the coarsest stock admissible in a given grade. 68 Forest Mensuration Hardwood Lumber Specifications. Designation Minimum Actual Allows of of Grade. Len'h Wi'th Length Width No. of Rate Con'd in feet. inch- feet. inches. standard of clear c't'ngsnot es. defects. stock. more than Firsts IO 8 io & over 8&9 none 6 io & over io & over one Seconds 8 8 8 8&9 none >> j>-> 8 io & over one IO 6 io & over 6&7 none o s io & over 8&9 one o io & over IO & II two 2 rt io & over 1 2 & over three eu No. i Com... 6 6 6 6 to 8 none all j 6 9 & over one all I 8 4 8 4 none all I 8 5 one all I 8& io 6 & over * 2 12 to 16 6 & over § 3 No. 2 Com... 6 3 6 to io 12 to 16 i J - 4 No. 3 Com... 4 3 1 B. Softwoods. Softwood lumber is inspected from its best side Under "edgegrain" is understood lumber the face of which forms an angle of less than 45 degrees with the plain of the medullary rays contained in the board. All other lumber is termed "flat grain" or "slash grain," also "bastard grain." I. Finishing Lumber, 1" to 2" thick, dressed one or two sides. 1. First and second clear, up to 8" wide ; absolutely clear ; 10" wide; one small defect permitted; 12" and over wide; J of stock may have one standard knot or its equivalent. 2. Third clear, allows of twice as many defects. II. Floorifig, 1" thick and 3" or 4" or 6" wide before dressing; either with hollow back or with solid back ; 1. A, B and C flat grain flooring; wherein "A" is clear and "B" al- lows of one or two standard defects ; 2. A, B and C edgegrain flooring; with the same allowance; 3. No. 1 and No. 2 fence flooring. Forest Mensuratio7i 69 III. Ceiling, f, £ and | inch thick; 3, or 4, or 6 inches wide. 1. "A" ceiling and "B" ceiling, with small defects only ; 2. No. 1 and No. 2 common ceiling, with one and two standard de- fects, or their equivalent. IV. Drop Siding, which is either "shiplapped" or "tongued and grooved;" it is |" thick and i\ or 5J inches wide. Grades A, B and No. 1 common. V. Bevel Siding, which scales T y at the thin edge and \" at the thick edge, resawn from stock dressed to \\" x 5^". Grades as under IV. VI. Partition, measuring §" x 3J" or f" x 5^". Grades as under IV. VII. Common Boards, graded as No. 1, No. 2 and No. 3 common boards, 8", 10" or 12" wide, dressed one or two sides, or rough. VIII. Fencing, graded as No. 1, No. 2 and No. 3 fencing, 3", 4" or 6" wide. The grade "No. 3" includes defective lumber with knot-holes, red rot, very wormy patches, etc., on J of the length of the board. Fencing is either dressed or rough. CHAPTER V.— STUMPAGE VALUES PARAGRAPH CII. STUMPAGE VALUES. Forestry is a business ; the forest largely represents its business invest- ment; its purpose is the raising of money, of dividends. Thus it is with investments and the dividends therefrom that the fores- ter is concerned ; and it is the task of "forest finance" and "forest manage- ment" to ascertain the factors and to regulate the components of such investments. Forest mensuration, as a subsidiary to forest management, may well devote a chapter to the measurement of the stumpage value of trees. Stumpage value is the price which a tree brings or should bring if it were sold on the stump. The stumpage-value of a tree depends on the value of the lumber con- tained therein and obtained therefrom, deducting the total expense of lumber production (logging, milling, shipping, incidentals.) Since the value of lumber fluctuates, as well as the cost of production, stumpage values are subject to continuous variation. The tendency of stumpage prices, all over the world, is a tendency to rise — especially so in countries of rapid development, rapid increase of population and in- adequate provisions for re-growth. yo Forest Mensuration The cost of production is composed about as follows : i. Expense of logging and log transportation, varying locally be- tween $2 and $5 per 1,000' b. m. 2. Expense of milling, varying between $1.50 and $5 per 1,000' b. m. 3. Expense of freightage of lumber to the consuming market, amounting per 1,000' b. m. to $1.50 for very short hauls ; to $12 for a haul from Atlanta to Boston; to $21 for a haul across the continent from Portland (Oregon) to New England. Freight rates have, in the long run, a decided downward tendency. Still, with a majority of the lumber produced in the U. S., the item "freight'' forms the chief expense of production. For Pisgah Forest a reduction of freight rates equalling 1 cent per 100 lbs. involves a net gain for the owner of approximately $60,000. In this possibility lies one of the strongest arguments for conservative lumbering. An increase of the price of lumber from $20 to $21 at the place of con- sumption endears the lumber to the consumer by 5% ; the owner of the forest now valuing his stumpage at $5 will eventually experience this in- crease as a 20% increase of stumpage values. The only factors of stumpage-values, which the owner himself — unaided by the development of the country — may influence, consist in the expense of logging and log freighting, and in the expense of milling, the former largely depending on the quality of available means of transportation, the latter governed by the quality of the sawmill. In ascertaining the stumpage-value of a tree the forester considers : a. The cost per 1,000' b. m. of logging it, of milling it and of freight- ing its timber; b. The volume of timber contained in the tree, by grades; c. The value of such lumber, by grades. If a tree contains 45% of lumber worth $31 per 1,000' b. m. It is necessary to find Stoetzer's constant factor of increment or to ascertain the relative increment of the sectional areas of the sample trees at 0.45 of their heights. 35% of lumber worth $21 per 1,000' b. m. 15% of lumber worth $16 per 1,000' b. m. 5% of lumber worth $8 per 1,000' b. m. then the lumber value of the tree, per 1,000' b. m., is 45 X 31 + 35 x 21 + 15 x 16 4- 5 X 8 = $24.10 100 Deducting from this figure the expense of logging, milling and freight- ing, the actual stumpage-value, per 1,000' b. m., is derived. The actual prices paid for stumpage in the U. S. fall deeply below the figures which a test-calculation is apt to yield. Forest Mensuration 7i This discrepancy may be explained, above all, by Ignorance of owners of stumpage; Agents' and dealers' profits ; Incidental expenses overlooked. Stumpage-values show a rapid decrease with the increase of the dis- tance separating the tree from the nearest railroad or stream. The grades of lumber and their proportion obtainable from logs of given species, diameter and soundness (including presence and location of defects) can be ascertained only by test-sawing in the mill. This has been done in 1896 for yellow poplar at Biltmore (bandsaw mill). The stumpage-values then ascertained are shown by the follow- ing table: Market Value of Poplar Stumpage in Western North Carolina, Per Tree, in Cents. -0 ! Under good conditions. Under average conditions. Under poor conditions. rt s . CO Logging and Milling expenses being per 1000 feet B. M. Logging and Milling B I Q.S Logging anil Milling ng per >> 5 .2 "5 Q.S 1000 feet B. M. 1000 feet B. O.H s 9 Sio Sn $9 $10 | $11 s 9 Sio SlI 100 Nega- tive. Nega- tive. Nega- tive. Nega- tive. Nega- tive. Nega- tive. Nega- tive. Nega- tive. Nega- tive. 120 18.8 8 .< .. « « « « « .. 140 21.3 40 25 " 18.2 4 " '« " " ' 160 1 So 23-5 25-7 105 265 72 170 2 98 20.4 22.4 22 67 5 35 „ " ,, , 200 220 27.7 29.6 445 620 465 23O 350 24 -3 26.0 160 287 103 200 30 109 18.5 20.0 7 ' 240I 260 280 27-5 430 330 460 2IO 330 21.3 22. 1 27 60 3 25 45 \ 300 320 JO Footnote : Dots below a column of figures indicate higher values, not specifically ascertained. The values above the columns of figures are all negative and were not ascertained specifically either. It is to be hoped that similar tests will be made for our leading species on a large scale by the U. S. Forest Service or by the various associations of lumber manufacturers. Conservative forestry as a business badly re- quires data allowing to estimate the actual value of logs, and hence of trees, if the uncertainty of financial results now checking the progress of conservative forestry in America is to be definitely reduced. FOREST FINANCE / f to C ^S y Guide to Lectures Delivered at the Biltmore Forest School By C. A. SCHENCK, Ph. D. FORESTER TO THE BILTMORE ESTATE i~ / 1909 THE INLAND PRESS ASHEVILLE. N. C. 7? /»/* rn> A A & A ho >iS* i.oi 7 1, of 1,0* ,0 ; 2kT Biltmore, N. C, January 1, 1909. In usum Delphini: The Biltmore lectures on Forest Finance appear in print since it is nec- essary to place in the hands of the Biltmore students some basal findings con- cerning the financial side of forestry, which findings it is not easy for them to obtain elsewhere. In America, forest finance is and will be the most important branch of forestry; the very difficulty of the financial problems involved in American forestry is enticing; and I am interested, personally, more deeply in the scien- tific and practical development of forest finance than in that of any other branch of American forestry. Special students desirous to attend the Biltmore lectures on forest finance, and otherwise excluded from the Biltmore School, will be welcomed at Bilt- more hereafter. This arrangement is made for the reason that the lecturer is anxious to study forest finance through and with the students — the regulars as well as the specials. Co-operation between teacher and pupil is essential to the development of American forest finance. The interest tables attached to this book are obtained, by extraction and addition, from those published by the Mutual Life Insurance Company of New York. C. A. SCHENCK. (l . 6 I ^ & '/> - / FOREST FINANCE SYNOPSIS OF PARAGRAPHS Par. I. Introduction; Par. II. Mathematical principles of finance; Par. III. Increasing or decreasing prices; Par. IV. Receipts and expenses in forestry; Par. V. Taxes; Par. VI. Protective expenses; Par. VII. Capital and money; Par. VIII. Interest; Par. IX. Expectation values; Par. X. Sale values; Par. XI. Gauging the merits of an investment; Par. XII. Maturity of trees. FOREST FINANCE PARAGRAPH I.— INTRODUCTION. I. Definition. Forest Finance deals with forestry as an investment. Treated as a branch of science in European literature, it consists of two parts: First Part: Forest Valuation which ascertains the values of forest in- vestments and the values of their components. Second Part: Forest Statics which compares the investments with the returns obtained. Forestry, from the standpoint of a commonweal (federation, state, county, town, city) deals, to a large extent, in abstract or ideal values, — values which are not expressible easily in dollars and cents. It neglects, usually, financial considerations entirely or partially. With the private owner of forests, the financial outcome of his invest- ments is the first and last consideration. The private owner cannot be ex- pected to supply this country with forest products unless forestry is as remun- erative an investment as agriculture is found to be, or as manufacture is sup- posed to be, — industries which supply this country with food products and with manufactured products. The mathematical principles involved in Forest Finance are identical with those confronting the bankers, the insurance companies, — in fact, confronting all business men and all business enterprises that look ahead into the future. Forest statistics, deficient unfortunately in the United States (as in any other country of rapid development), are important as a basis for financial calculations. Forestal forecasts in the countries famous for conservative forestry are made easily and with a high degree of certainty. In Canada, in Russia, and generally in the United States, such is not the case. II. History. Forest Finance is one of the most modern branches of forestry. Abroad, it was unknown, or unheeded by the practitioners, previous to Max Pressler (about 1860). Pressler's theories were developed and enlarged upon by Gus- tav Heyer. Dr. Wm. Schlich's, and Prof. Charles Wimmenauer's writings are entirely in line with Heyer's teachings. Financial considerations were despised generally by European foresters until recently. The government of Saxony was first to adopt financial suc- cess as the goal of its forest policy. AO 3 uJi. u FOABSf FJIMBO? III. Literature. The only book on forest finance written in English is Schlich's Vol. IIJ, Part II. The interest tables of the various insurance companies may be used to solve forestal equations, in preference to tables of logarithms. PARAGRAPH II.— MATHEMATICAL PRINCIPLES OF FINANCE. The ratio existing between principal invested (V) and amount obtained (N), or the ratio between "pre-value" and "aft-value" of an investment is- expressed by the following equations [in which (p) represents the rate of in- terest and (n) the number of years covered by the investments] : — N = VXl. Op D (A) N -yv= N (B) ~ 1. Op ff H 1. Op n = (C) V By payments (a) regularly occurring at given intervals of time a "geom- etrical progression" is formed after the pattern a + ar + ar 2 4- ar 3 + ar 4 + ar(n - 1) The summary of this geometrical progression is r°— 1 a (D) r — 1 If the last term of the progression is expressed as "1"' (with the view to the elimination of "n"), the summary is r 1 — a r — 1 rl" might be designated as "the term beyond the last", or as the term "before which the progression stops". Similarly, the sum total of periodical payments (R) due at intervals of (m) years, for the first time due after fa} years and altogether (n) times is, considered as a pre-value, 1. Op mtt — 1 1. Op m ~ a R X (E) 1. Op m — 1 1. Op mn On the other hand, for the aft-value of such periodical payments (R), the sum total is 1. Op nm — 1 ^itjAf *£^-r*Mr (F) In the case of an annuity, (m) and (a) are equal to 1. Consequently, the summary of such annuities considered as a pre-value is 1. Op n — 1 R 1. Op n X0. Op The aft-value of such annuities is 1. Op n — 1 FOREST FINANCE 7 (G) (H) 0. Op The aft-value of single payments, annuities and periodical payments at the end of an indefinite period is itself indefinite ( OO )• The pre-value of a single payment due after an indefinite period of years is equal to zero. The pre-value (V) of annuities or periodical payments running for an indefinite number of years is, however, something very definite, namely, dis- counted backwards to the present day, in the case of an annuity: R v ° inr (I) 0. Op or P R 100 V It appears at a glance that this pre-value (V) derived from never-failing annuities — is merely the capital from which a perpetual revenue of p% is expected. Unknowingly, the investor usually figures at indefinitely long per- iods of never failing returns when capitalizing such returns at a given rate of interest. It is only too well known, however, that all investments, except- ing pure real estate investments, have a merely temporary lease of life. As an illustration, we might mind the fact, that the majority of all insurance policies are surrendered, — the insured being unable to pay his dues when he meets with financial reverses : Business investments, in the majority of cases, seem to end unluckily for the investor. The pre-value (V) of periodical payments (R) hereafter due at the end of every 'mth" year until infinity is R V = (J) 1. Op m — 1 The influence on present values exercised by payments (receipts or ex- penses), expected after 100 and more years, is very small. For the financial prospects of an enterprise, the current expenses and receipts of the first (n) years are (1. op n — 1) times as influential as the current expenses and receipts of any and all years following after the nth year. The above factor of influence, viz. (1. op n — 1), equals 10 within 50 years, in case of 5% investments; 63 years, in case of 4% investments; 83 years, in case of 3% investments. 8 FOREST FINANCE "PROVIDED THAT THE RATE OF INTEREST IS HIGH, THE HAP- PENINGS OF A MORE DISTANT FUTURE ARE IMMATERIAL TO THE INVESTOR." The following is a synopsis of the preceding formulae, wherein: — p equals rate of interest. n " number of payments. m " duration of periodical intervals between two payments. a " years after which a periodical rental is due for the first time. R " rentals or payment. V " pre-value. N " aft-value. At the end (aft-value) At the beginning (pre-value) A sum of money equals V x l.Op" N 1.0p n Summary Periodical Payments R(1.0p nm — 1) 1.0p m — 1 R(1.0p nm — l)1.0p m -a (l.Op™— l)1.0p nm Temporary " Rentals Annual Payments Rd.Opn— 1) O.Op Rd.Opn— 1) O.Op x 1.0p n r Periodical CO R x 1.0p m -« of Perpetual Rentals 1.0 p m_ 1 Annual i» payment* OC R O.Op No capitalist and no forester is forced to adopt a financial formula or equation when determining the merits of an investment. THE EQUATION MERELY ILLUSTRATES A LOGICAL MANNER OF FINANCIAL THINK- ING, WHICH IS GENERALLY ADOPTED BY THE INSURANCE COMPAN- IES, BANKERS, AND FAR-SIGHTED BUSINESS MEN. PARAGRAPH III.— INCREASING OR DECREASING PRICES. Stumpage prices are rising in America, — possibly at the rate at which the population increases, possibly faster, — promising to reach the present European level within a few decades of years. Consequently, stumpage now worth "S" dollars per thousand feet will be worth at "x%" rise, after "n" years, SXl. Ox n . The present value of such stumpage, to be harvested after "n" years, is discounted backwards at "y" per cent, and amounts to SXl. Ox n 1. Oy n FOREST FINANCE In place of this term, it is permissible to write: S 1. 0(y - x)° provided that "x" and "y" do not exceed, say, 8% and provided that the per- iod of calculation does not exceed 100 years. Mathematically, the substitution is incorrect; for practical purposes, however, it is permissible within certain limits. If x equals 4.7% and y " 3% and n " 100 years, the mistake made by the "short cut" equals 5.2%. The mistake increases: (1) With the increase of the price percentage (x) and discount per- centage (y). (2) With increasing discrepancy between price percentage (x) and dis- count percentage (y) ; (3) With the increasing number of years (n). Generally, the mistake does not exceed 5%. An advantage of the "short cut" is the larger scope it offers to financial imagination or to differences of opinion relative to the rise of stumpage prices or relative to the proper rate S SXl. 05 n of discount. Thus, might be interpreted as or as 1. 03 n 1. 08 n SXl. 04° SXl. 03» or as 1. 07 n 1. 06 n "THE BASAL RATE OF INTEREST IN AN EQUATION MAY NOT REP- RESENT THE DIVIDEND WHICH THE OWNER EXPECTS TO DERIVE FROM HIS INVESTMENTS." In the cases just given, the investor will realize 8% if stumpage prices rise at 5% ; 7%, if they rise at 4% ; 6%, if they rise at 3% ; or only 3%, if the stumpage prices do not rise at all. If the prices are increasing at the SAME rate at which the values are discounted backward, the summary of the pre-values is (for annuities as well as for intermittent rentals), nXR. l.op m mth year: 2mtb year: R l.op m 1. op 2m 1. op 2m Summary = nXR. Obviously, the summary of prevalues, in this case, is GO for indefinite rentals. It is unreasonable to suppose, that prices will ALWAYS rise and continue to rise. 10 FOREST FINANCE The growth of trees expressed in dollars and cents is composed of the following factors: A. — Increase of volume, due to the annual formation of a new ring or, better, of a new coat all over the old body. B. — Increase of value, the larger diameter fetching a higher price per thousand feet board measure than the smaller diameter (difference in value of different sized logs at the same time). C. — Increase of price (difference in price of the same sized logs at dif- ferent times), due to an increase of population, to increased logging facilities and to waning supplies. The forester speaks of the volume increment, the value increment and the price increment of a tree; and of the volume increment percentage "&%", the value increment percentage "b%", and the price increment percentage "c%" of a tree or of a forest. Thus, a tree now worth "S" dollars is worth after "n" years SXl.Oa 11 Xl.Ob n Xl.Oc n ; which term is almost equal to SXl.O (a+b+c) n . In the case of young and sound timber all percentages can be assumed to range between 1% and 4%. In the case of primeval timber of large diameter, volume and value in- crement is insignificantly small. On the other hand, primeval timber is getting scarce so rapidly (walnut, cherry, white pine, yellow poplar, white oak) that a large price increment percentage can be depended upon. Learn to differentiate between the merits of investments in first growth and of investments in second growth !1 An interesting case of a declining VALUE increment may be found in hickory poles at a time at which they begin to form heartwood; or in poplar poles at a similar time, when they begin to be less fit for match stock or for fibre. An interesting case of declining PRICE increment (aside of panics, aban- doned use of given woods, replacement of one species by another, change of tariff, export prohibition, Panama canal) may be found in small trees left by conservative lumbering. These trees had a better value BEFORE than AFTER the breaking up of the means of transportation. PARAGRAPH IV.— RECEIPTS AND EXPENSES IN FORESTRY. I. — The revenue in forestry may consist of: — A. — Yields derived from sale or lease of forest pasture; from hunting privileges; from water privileges (power or reservoir); from mines, quarries, peat bogs, etc.; from turpentine and maple sugar orchards; from tan bark, cork, mosses, grasses, pharmaceutical herbs, litter, nuts, seeds and so on. B. — Increasing volume of growing stock; increasing value of growing stock and of soil without any lumbering (so-called latent yields). C— Usually, during and after the installation period, yields obtained from sale of wood products, notably, FOREST FINANCE 11 (a) Stumpage (French system) ; (b) Log yards (German system) ; (c) Manufactured products like lumber, staves, shingles, telephone posts, ties, blocks for carriages, pulp wood, tannin, fence posts, etc. (American system). II. — Timber yields are ascertained by : — A. — Cruising or valuation surveys. B. — Yield tables (applicable only to even aged and pure forests, fairly well stocked). C. — Volume tables (applicable only to sound trees). D. — The increment percentage. In the United States, reliable statistics relative to the growth of the foresta — especially of second growth — and of the trees are badly lacking. III. — Present timber values. The present values of timber (stumpage values) depend, for a given species, on the expense now required for its utilization, — notably on the charges for transportation which are governed by: A. — Distance from the market. B. — Availability of water, ice, snow, railroads and public roads as means of transportation. C. — Volume of stumpage per acre and volume on the entire tract. D. — Quality of the logs (percentage of firsts and seconds, common, cull, mill cull, etc.). E. — Climatic conditions (malarial climates, long and cold winters, short logging seasons). F. — Specific gravity of timber. In the far backwoods, stumpage even of the best trees frequently has a negative value. Near the market, even utterly poor trees assume a positive value. IV.— Future Timber Values. The study of future timber values is of paramount importance with the forestal investor. Similarly, the capitalist is interested in the advancing value of real estate, the coming dividends of railroad stock, etc. He must consider A. — For a country : The probability of a general change of timber prices due to: a. Competition of metals and stone (building stone). b. Waning virgin supplies. c. Importations from Canada, the tropics and Europe. d. Increasing population. e. Coming prosperity or coming depression of all industries. f. New uses of timber, especially in the spinning and weaving in- dustries, in the food industries, in the production of alcohol. g. Wages rising or dropping, h. Gold standard. i. Automobile traction. 12 FOREST FINANCE B. — For a species: The possibility of price alterations in favor of or to the detriment of a species locally prevailing (chestnut in Pisgah For- est; spruce in the Adirondacks; cottonwood in Arkansas; remember laws causing the price of wood-alcohol to drop from 67c to 39c per gallon in 1907.) C. — For a locality: The chances for improved access to a special market by improved railroads, improved navigation (Panama canal), and improved public roads; the chances for the opening of new local markets, or for enlarged foreign markets. Opinions relative to future developments necessarily differ in forestry as well as in agriculture, railroading and industrial establishments. On ex- change, such fluctuations and such diversity of opinion are particularly pro- nounced. V. — The expenses in forestry are : A. — Ordinary or running expenses, viz., 1. Outlay for logging and milling; 2. Administrative expenses; 3. Taxes; 4. Protective expenses; 5. Maintenance of boundaries and land marks; 6. Natural or artificial reforestation (this expense equals, in Ger- many, from 10% — 20% of the net stumpage values annually disposed of); 7. Forest pedagogy; 8. Up-keep of investments, notably of the means of transportation (this expense equals, in Germany, from 6% to 15% of the net stumpage values annually disposed of). Many of these ordinary running expenses must be considered, during the installation period, as extraordinary investments. B. — Extraordinary Investments. 1. Soil and, usually, trees. 2. Permanent means of transportation. 3. Wood working establishments. 4. Buildings, farms, pastures, ochards. 5. Surveys and working plans. 6. Fire lanes. 7. Fences for pastures, game, etc. 8. Afforestation. All over the world, but especially so in the United States, the capital now invested in a forest is not that which promises to yield the highest rate of int- erest for the next period of years. The principal investment requires addi- tions here and reductions there. The time at which alterations should be made depends upon local factors as well as upon personal opinion. The components of the final investment in conservative forestry are those enumerated under B. — Naturally, there is no need for all of them to be at hand in every case. The share which each component takes or should take FOREST FINANCE 13 in the aggregate investment, again depends upon local conditions and upon personal opinions. Forest investments, in this connection, do not play any exceptional part. In agriculture, e. g., the final investments are composed of soil, improvements, roads, clearings, live stock, machinery, buildings, etc. Likewise, mining in- vestments do not consist of mineral soil merely; but, in addition to soil, of machinery, buildings, railroads, shafts, etc. A forest must be considered "normal" when the investment which it rep- resents has reached, for the time being, in the owner's opinion, the highest stage of relative remunerativeness, with all of its (the investment's), components balancing in proper equilibrium. Naturally, the owner alone can decide whether this stage is actually reached or not. PARAGRAPH V.— TAXES. In America taxes usually depend upon the market value of a taxable object and amount, in the wooded states, to about 1% ad valorem of the same. If the market value "V" of a given forest grows at the annual rate of "x%" during "n" years, the taxes (theoretically at least) increase likewise at the rate of "x%". They accumulate at the rate of "p%" in such a manner as to amount, at the year "n", to the sum total V 1.0x n — 1.0p n X Xl.Ox (M) 100 1.0x — l.Op Case I: x equals p Then the aft-value of every single tax payment equals, V (1.0x n ) 100 The summary of the aft-values equals n 5 fl.Ox n (100 ) or n% of the forest aft-value (which is VXl.Ox n ). Thus, if "n" equals 25, the taxes consume }i of the aft-value; if "n" equals 100, the taxes consume the entire aft-value. Case II: x is smaller than p Then 1.0x n is much smaller than 1.0p n ; the summary is much larger than V (1.0x n ) or much larger than 100 n the part of the forest aft-value. 100 Thus, if "n" equals 25, the taxes consume more than \i of the aft-value; and if "n" equals 100, the taxes consume more than the entire aft- value. 14 FOREST FINANCE Case m : x is larger than p n Here the taxes consume less than the part of the aft-value, e. g., 100 if "n" equals 25, the taxes consume less than }4 of the aft-value; and if "n" equals 100, the taxes consume less than the entire aft-value. Deductions from the above: — RULE I. Destructive forestry is indicated where a long number of years is expected to elapse before a second cut can be obtained; where taxation ad valorem is high; where the value of the forest grows slowly (x being smaller than p). RULE n. The forester, bent on forest conservation, must endeavor to shorten the period of waiting between cuts by leaving sufficient stumpage and sufficient means of transportation to allow of frequent cuttings within the same forest. RULE in. The damaging effect of taxation depends pre-eminently on the period of waiting; the rate of interest being more irrelevant, "x" being usually equal to or close to "p". After the wholesale removal of the primeval forest, the period of waiting is excessively long. The forester's activity should be called upon before and not after the first inroads of the axe into the primeval woods. PARAGRAPH VI.— PROTECTIVE EXPENSES. The influence exercised on the prospects of conservative lumbering by expenses for forest protection is analogous to the influence of taxes. The decision whether and what protection should be given to a forest, solely rests with the owner. The following may illustrate the influence of the protective expenses on a forest conservatively managed: FIRST. An unprotected forest, "V", may yield an annual net surplus revenue "R" as long as it escapes fires and theft. R y equals or 100R equals yV V 100 SECOND. Sacrificing annually "D" dollars for protection, the owner retains a revenue, "R — D", and the interest percentage "y" is reduced to "z" per cent., whilst "V" remains much unchanged as long as no fire happens to occur. R — D z V 100 FOREST FINANCE 15 THIRD. Hence and D y — z R y If D equals s% of R Rs equals 100D s y — z then and 100 (N) (0) FIFTH. For "y" ranging from 2% to 8% and for "s" ranging from 5% to 30%, the percentage of net revenue "z" is reduced as appears in the table following:— s equals 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% y equals 2 ... 18 1.7 16 15 14 y " 3 2 85 2 7 2 55 2 4 2 25 2.1 y " 4 3 8 3 6 3 4 3 2 3 2.8 y 5 4 75 4.5 4 25 4 3 75 3 5 y " 6 6 7 5 4 5 1 4 8 4 5 4.2 y " 7 6 65 6 3 5 95 5 6 5 25 4.9 y " 8 " 7.2 ... ... 6 6.6 IrLthe case of a forest which does not yield an annual surplus revenue, the influence of the protective expenses is somewhat different from the above, as is illustrated by the following considerations: — FIRST. Such a forest "V" grows in "n" years at "x%" to a value of V(1.0x n ) wherein "V" equals the sale value. SECOND. The same forest "V" protected at an annual expense of "w"% shows a net aft-value, omitting the influence of taxes, etc. \ 1.0p n — 1 V(1.0x n ) — V (P) 100 ( O.Op where "p" equals the per cent, of capitalization selected by the owner. THIRD. The sacrifice brought by the owner for protection's sake is: w V (1.0p n — 1) (Q) 16 FOREST FINANCE FOURTH. If the ratio equals y±, then the sacrifice P V equals (1.0p n — 1) 4 w If the ratio equals 1/10, then the sacrifice equals P V (1.0pn — 1) 10 Absolutely taken, the sacrifice greatly increases with the length of the period of waiting. Relatively considered, the sacrifice does not increase nec- essarily, p equals 4% x equals 5% n 1.04*1-1 Sacrifice w 1 7*T Sacrifice w 1 p 10 1.05 n to find z w 1 7~7 w 1 p ~10 l.Oz" z 1.0z n z 10 yr. .48 12V 05V 1 63 1 51 4.0 1 58 4.75 20" 1 19 30V 12V 2 65 2 35 4 3 2 53 4.75 SO" 2 24 66V 22V 4 32 3 72 4 5 4 10 4 8 ! 40" 3.80 95V 38V 7.04 6 09 4 6 6.66 4.8 50" 6.11 1.63V 61V 11 47 9 94 4 7 10 86 4.85 The produced value, y equals figures in the last and third last columns give the rate of interest in a forest protected at an annual expenditure of w% of its original the rate of interest produced in the unprotected forest as long as all goes well, per cent, of revenue sacrificed for protection, the original sale of the forest. number of years that elapse before the forest is cut. rate at which the forest grows in value, if fires are barred, rate of interest expected by the owner. per cent, of the original value spent annually for protection, rate of interest produced in the protected forest. PARAGRAPH VII.— CAPITAL AND MONEY. A. — Any object or thing having earning power is a capital. By "earning power" is understood the power to furnish commodities coveted by man. B. — "Money" is not "capital"; it is merely the "legalized measure of values", and hence frequently the measure of "capital". Different countries legal- FOREST FINANCE 17 ize or use different units of measure, and within the same country, time causes the unit to vary (cattle in the United States; platinum in Russia; silver in some of the Latin countries; glass pearls with the Indians; ccurie shells with the Siamese). Money, in other words, is nothing but a unit of measuring, having func- tions like those of the yard, the bushel, the pound (all being subject to fluc- tuations) to wit, the functions of measuring. C. — AU production originates with nature, and all capital consists, in part, of natural creations or natural objects, namely: 1. Natural gifts (soil and soil products) ; 2. Natural forces (wind, water, fire, gravity, electricity, heat, rainfall). D. — Accumulated human labor forms, usually, a part of a capital actually producing (field, wind mills or water mills). E. — Merely natural capitals to which no human labor (accumulated) is at- tached, are usually unproductive; although their earning power might be at hand (most of our waterfalls; the prairies a century ago). Mines and fields, without the addition of accumulated labor, cannot prove their earning power. The forest and the pasture — under certain conditions at least and for limited periods — may create new commodities without requir- ing labor to be previously performed. F. — As long as the population increases, the individual's share in the "gifts" and in the "forces" of nature — especially in the gifts— DECREASES and the units of such gifts and forces increase in value. On the other hand, capital consisting largely of accumulated human labor depreciates under the same circumstances. The more a capital consists of— f^^ ade } —components, the better are its chances to gradually — j T J^ > — in (exchange) value. Rule a. As long as capital, labor, population and money in circulation re- main the same, values remain the same. Rule b. If capital alone decreases (population, labor and money stagnating) less products are available and $1.00 can buy less products or less capital than heretofore. (This rule holds good, especially, in the case of the necessities of life.) Rule c. If population alone grows (capital and money stagnating), $1.00 can buy less natural products or capital than heretofore and can buy more man-made capital or products than heretofore (since labor is cheapened). Rule d. If money alone increases (population and capital stagnating), $1.00 can buy less products, labor or capital than heretofore. As a matter of fact, population and circulating money are on the increase in the United States, whilst capital consisting of natural gifts is decreasing and whilst capital consisting of natural forces remains the same. H. — All economic factors combine as a consequence to continuously lessen the purchasing power of the dollar in the United States. The legalized 18 FOREST FINANCE measure of value getting shorter in its effect, the number of units of value (or dollars) equalling a capital or a product increase necessarily. I.— Gold. The world's production of gold (the money of the leading nations) has increased and continues to increase at an alarming rate. This increase has had the tendency, unavoidably, of cheapening gold, or of reducing its power to purchase other goods. If man were actually to realize the enormous increase of the production of gold, the decline of its purchasing power would be more patent — it would become acute. A commodity (gold is a commodity like silver or iron or wheat, after all) drops in value at a time when it is known (or supposed) to be produced in excess of the demand; — not at a time when it actually happens to be excessively produced. In the case of gold, in the author's opinion, mankind has not begun to realize the enormous increase of the supply; and it is far from anticipating a still more gigantic increase of the supply in the near future at a time when new technical and chemical methods of "gold making" come into play. A demoralizing "slump" in our entire monetary system is unavoidable as soon as gold can be produced at a greatly reduced expense of labor. The knowledge of a slight over-production causes the price of cereals and cotton and lumber to decline perceptibly; similarly, the knowledge of a slight excess production of gold must cause its depreciation. In the past decades, this depreciation has been prevented by a number of countries rapidly adopting the gold standard and accumulating gold in their treasuries. In the future, this depreciation must be marked. If the purchasing power of gold decreases at the rate of 2% per annum (and the author anticipates a more rapid decline), the consequences will be: a. for the possessor of bonds, mortgages, life insurance policies, etc., a heavy loss of capital as well as of interests. b. for a "country of bondholders", and therefore pre-eminently for European countries, heavy losses; c. for "countries of stockholders", and countries rich in pastures and forests and farms, a decided superiority over others not so blessed. A man owning 4% bonds rated at par will do well — if he desires to remain equally wealthy — to consume not over J 2 of the interests obtained and to re- invest the other J ■£ with a view to counterbalancing the tendency of gold to depreciate. Conclusions. A man owning $100,000 cash in 1908 is less wealthy than the man owning the same amount in 1898. A man who has let out, in 1898, $100,000 and who has consumed in the meantime all interest derived therefrom, is getting less wealthy. He should have saved a portion of the interest actually obtained adding it to the original $100,000. FOREST FINANCE 19 On the other hand, a man letting out, in 1898, 10,000 acres of land and retaining them in 1908 in equal productiveness, is absolutely as wealthy now as before; relatively wealthier than before, although he was allowed to con- sume all interest or revenue obtained from the lease. PARAGRAPH VIII.— INTEREST. I. — Definitions. A. — Interest (gross) is the price paid for the use of capital. B. — As freight is the price of "site-difference", so is interest the price of "time-difference". C. — Net interest is the difference of a capital's "earning power" at the beginning and at the end of a season plus the value of the product in the meantime produced by capital and not by labor. D. Interest may mean either the net or the gross product of capital, i. e., of any object having earning power. E. — The price of the use of labor equals the value (of product, or of capital) which the employer hopes to create thereby. The price of the use of capital equals the value (of product, or of new capital) which the employer hopes to create thereby. p. interest is the product of capital; its price is the price of the product 1 In loans of capital, it is usual to loan the "measure of capital" (gold) and to turn over to the owner thereof the "measure of the product" (gold.) The borrower may use a loan to pay WAGES and in that case he ACT- UALLY borrows LABOR, reconverting "ACCUMULATED" labor into "RUN- NING" labor. II. — Gross Interest on Money Loans. This is the product of capital employed in another man's production. It consists of the following parts: — a. The true, net, actual, clear yield of capital "(fa)". b. "Risk quota", or remuneration for risk taken, or capital secretly repaid, or capital apt to be consumed in the course of the pro- duction. This quota is meant to rebuild that much of the origina capital as is liable to incidental destruction "(fb)". c. Remuneration for labor, financial sagacity and discomforts requiredl from the owner in harvesting the yield of capital "(fc)". d. Quota which must be saved and added to the original in order to allow the owner to remain equally wealthy whilst the purchasing power of money declines "(fd)". The investing capitalist invariably over-estimates the true or net yields of his investment (fa) and proceeds to consume (fb) and (fd). Few families remain equally "wealthy" in the long run excepting those owning entailed real estate. in.— Interest on merely natural investments (farms) consists of "(fa)" and of "(fc)". The risk "(fb)" is little since the soil, at least, is safe. There is no "(fd)". 20 FOREST FINANCE IV. — Interest on capital consisting of accumulated labor has a very large "(1fb)". This is proven by the following: — 1. It can be outranked and reduced in value by other and better labor- accumulations (e. g., sulphite fiber process superseding soda fiber process; Southern cotton factories outranking Northern cotton fac- tories; steamships superseding sailing craft). 2. The real necessities of life are more a soil product than a labor pro- duct. In the case of unnecessary articles, fashions and inventions cause continuous fluctuations of the remunerativeness of the in- vestments producing such unnecessary articles. 3. If a production, basing largely on accumulated labor, is found to be remunerative, it is at once overdone; and competition kills the yields (e. g., bicycle manufacturing). 4. Labor-made capital (machinery) is usually consumed in the course of the production. V. — It may be said that no man who wishes to be on the safe side, on an aver- age, should annually consume over 2% on his investment; or that no man should rate the true earning power of his investment at a figure exceed- ing 2%. The financial genius, of course, can do better and can credit himself with a large "( r c)"; he foresees the development of the future correctly; at an outlay of $1,000, for instance, he creates or acquires a capital producing $100 of true net "(<»", which is worth $5,000. Thus, he owns five times as much as before at the end of the production. Theoretically, the genius obtains wealth by buying productive capital actually under-rated by the majority of the owners, and by selling productive capital actually over-rated by others. The blunderers foresee the coming events wrongly; they sell on a rising market, and they buy on a falling market. During the year, the investors change their opinion frequently, relative to the outlook of the future; hence continuous fluctuations on exchange. The ratings placed by two men on the same investment coincide in rare cases only; hence few transactions on exchange, a trade being made only when two men happen to agree. VI. — Additional factors influencing the rate of interest: — 1. Unhandy credit systems; 2. Partial or slow courts; 3. Danger of foolish legislation; 4. Amount of indestructible assets. The factors 1, 2 and 3 increase, and the factor 4 decreases the rate of interest. The rate of interest charged for loans and bonds increases whenever the industries prosper. The available money is then withdrawn from loans and put into industrial engagements. VII. — Limits of Interest. 1. The lowest limit is the figure at which the owner prefers to hide or consume his belongings. FOREST FINANCE 21 2. The upper limit is the actual effect of the investment for which means and bounds do not exist. If the investment cannot be duplicated (Standard Oil), the rate of interest becomes a personal matter being governed by the capitalization which the owners choose to adopt. VHJ. — The net or true interest 1. has the tendency of equalization A. in loans, because interest is merely the price of such loans re- sembling the price of any other commodity; B. in investments, because universally remunerative investments are soon over-crowded by competition where duplication is pos- sible. Where this is not possible, there abnormal revenue is at once capitalized, the new capital value being added to the ori- ginal ("watered investments"); 2. has the tendency of sinking because the wealth of the nations is rising at a faster rate than the chances at remunerative employment of wealth. IX.— Justification of Interest. 1. The Church, since 325 A. D., has condemned interest after Luke VI : 35. In the early Christian era, loans for consumption only were known, not loans for production. 2. After Adam Smith, the capitalist would not care to take any risk, temporarily parting with the full control of his property, if he did not see any inducements. 3. After Senior, interests are payments due to the owner for abstaining from the immediate consumption of his property. 4. After Marx and La Salle, interest is cut-off from the wages properly belonging to the wage earner. 5. Merely natural capitals (deer, buffalo, trees, grass lands) produce annually. Thus, interest on capital is natural,— is part of the econ- omy of nature. X.— Rate of Interest in Forestry. 1. Conservative Forestry. a. There is no '-(lib)" or "(W to be deducted from the gross rate of interest, since there is no risk and no influence on the investment due to the declining purchasing power of money. b. The rate of interest compares favorably with agricultural interest because the products of the forest can be stored free of cost, and are exposed but little to drought, inundation, boU weevil, etc. If the products are killed by storm, fire and insects, forestry can bring them to the market, usually, at a scarcely reduced price (see American Lumberman, September 19, 1908). The rate of true interest in conservative forestry is about 2}4% (in Sax- ony, on an average for the year 1905, 2 Vl0%5 see Thar. Forst Jahrbuch, 1907, 1st issue.) and compares very favorably with 4% on bonds and 6% on industrial investments. 22 FOREST FINANCE 2. Destructive Forestry. The net revenue cannot be separated easily from the capital gradually withdrawn from the forest. If only soil (S) remains after complete exhaus- tion, within (n) years, of a forest of the original value (Q) whilst surplus re- ceipts, Ri, R2, R3, etc., are obtained during the (n) years of destructive lum- bering, then the rate of interest, (x), is illustrated by the following equation: — QXl.Ox n =Ri (1.0x n_1 )+Ra (1.0x n - 2 )+R 3 (1.0x n ~ 3 ) + . . . R n + S. XI. — Saxon Statistics show: — 1. That the State forests have paid, since 1816, 2% net on the annual average. 2. That the money value of the forest, since 1816, has risen by 3% on the annual average, a rise largely due to the declining purchasing power of gold and partly due to improvements and additional in- vestments. XII. — The decision in the problem confronting the owner: "Shall I practice conservative forestry or destructive forestry?" must be based on the true rate of net interest obtainable from the one and from the other. It re- mains for the forester to demonstrate the difference between net interest and gross interest. The chances for conservatism in forestry to be superior to radicalism are, on the whole, extremely good and especially so in the United States, since 1. The American lumber market is almost continuously overstocked beyond its digestive capacity. The virgin supplies are being ex- hausted, and are apt to be entirely exhausted by 1960. In the mean- time the stumpage prices of all good timber must increase steadily. 2. It must be remembered that the now wealthy lumbermen have made their wealth by buying stumpage when and where it was under- valued and by holding it for a number of years. Fortunes have never been made by any particular skill in lumbering, milling or sale of lumber. Strange as it may sound: Inactivity has paid better in the case of in- vestments in American forestry than hard work spent in lumbering and milling. There is no reason to anticipate that the future will materially differ from the past. XIII. — Interpretation of the rate of interest on which a calculation is based : X 1) The sum may mean l.op n a) that the calculator expects with a faith in his forecasts expressed by p% receipts or expenses (X) to occur (n) years from date of calculation, or b) that the calculator expects, with a faith in his forecasts approx- imated by (p + y), receipts or expenses X or XXl.oy 11 l.oy n to occur n years from date of calculation. FOREST FINANCE 28 This possibility of interpretation allows of the expression of widely dif- ferent forecasts by a mere change of the rate of interest underlying the cal- culation. The basal rate underlying an equation does not or need not design- ate the actual dividend expected by the calculator. It is the mathematical outcome of his fears and his hopes, of gloomy and of rosy anticipations. PARAGRAPH IX.— EXPECTATION VALUE. The actual value of any object to its owner, or to anybody else (cow, house, railroad bonds, mining stock) equals the pre-value of the expected ser- vices or yields, diminished by the pre-value of the expected expense required to obtain such services or yields. Obviously, the rate of discount is of para- mount importance relative to the result of the calculation. 'Individual opin- ion" governs the rate of discount as well as the anticipations'of future events. Values rise with the expectation of rising yields, of sinking expenses and or reduced rates of interest, and vice versa. Obviously, the selection of the rate of interest, and the forecasts of future yields and expenses, depend, above all, on personal opinions which may be pessimistic or optimistic, bearish or bullish. Applied to forestry, we find the following expectation values: 1. Value of a regular second growth forest (m) years old: thn a thnb thn c f.c+s.v. +V + + + V 1.0p a - m 1.0pb- m 1.0p c - m 1.0p r - m wherein thn a , thnb, thn c stands for thinnings in the year a, b, and c of the forest; f.c, for value of final cut; s.v., for soil value after final cut, and V for a perpetual rental defraying taxes and admini- strative expenses reduced by annual receipts for leases, etc. 2. The value of bare, absolute forest soil, planted up at an expense of "pig" and weeded at an expense of "weed" equals thn a X 1.0p r " a + thn b X l.Op^b +f >c .— pig —weed X 1.0p r_m V— pig (1.0p r — 1) 3. The value of an ideal forest in which all age classes are present, which is conservatively managed, close to a ready market (so that in every year of the future there may be obtained a yield from a thinning in a woodlot "a", "b", "c" years old and also a final yield diminished by reforestation expenses, whilst the expense of administration is an- nually "v" for the entire forest) amounts to thn a +thn b +thn c + (f.c— pltg) — v O.Op thn equals thinnings p " rate per cent. f.c. " final cut pltg " planting. in which 24 FOREST FINANCE PARAGRAPH X.— SALE VALUE OF WOODLANDS IN U. S. It is customary to buy timberland merely at the price of the stumpage standing thereon. The purchaser neglects: B / 1) that he can not cut all of the timber at once; and such parts, as Z \ he cuts only after some years, should not be assessed at full value; **■* J 2) that taxes, etc., accrue, whilst the timber is cut gradually; .£ \ 3) that an expense for legal and timber investigations must be covered; {§) / 4) that timber values might be destroyed by fire; e I 5) that there is danger of fool-legislation against alien corporation!. a) that soil has value; b) that stumpage prices (and merchantability, hence volume) will increase ; c) that there is a second growth already at hand; d) that local means of transportation increase; e) that taxes might be decreased, and that protective legislation will come; f) that freight rates decrease; g) that population increases, also demand; h) that new uses are found for wood; i) that investments in forestry are remarkably safe, compared with stocks, bonds, etc. j) that the agricultural value of the soil increases, absolute forest soil becoming absolute farm soil, as the years go by; k) that forest pasture, chase, minerals (rock, clay), waters and water- powers promise an increasing revenue. PARAGRAPH XI.— GAUGING THE MERITS OF AN INVESTMENT. The success of a business (in farms, mines, forestry) is evidenced by its net gains. Expenses and yields can be compared either by forming their difference which comparison shows an "entrepreneur's" gain or loss; or by forming their ratio which method shows the actual dividend obtained from the business. I. — Entrepreneur's gain and loss. Influencing factors are: — a. Lapse of time. b. Constellation of economic conditions. c. Personal foresight. d. Rate of interest introduced into the calculation. An undertaker's gain may be figured out retrospectively or prospectively. An undertaker's gain is fictitious until, the property changing hands, it can be demonstrated to be a fact. FOREST FINANCE 25 The undertaker's gain or loss disappears when the financier introduces a rate of interest at which the discounted expense equals the discounted yields. II. — The forest dividends show what actual rate of interest the owner has made in the past or may earn in the future on his investments. The actual rate of interest introduced in the financial equation causes any undertaker's gain to vanish. The forest dividend is deeply influenced by the price increment of trees (improved means of transportation; enlarged markets, etc.) In the forest, it is difficult to distinguish between actual revenue drawn from the forest and capital withdrawn, since the trees are capital as well as product. In conservative forestry, careful stock taking is required period- ically, so as to show the actual status of the investment. PARAGRAPH XII.— MATURITY OF TREES. I. — In the botanical sense, wood fiber is mature almost after the conception of the cell. A tree 3 inches in diameter is physiologically just as mature as a tree 3 feet in diameter. The highest stage of botanical maturity is the so-called heartwood. II. — From the people's standpoint, timber must be considered mature at a time at which it is best adapted to general usage in the wood consuming industries. The older the tree gets, the larger is, on the whole, its diver- sity of utility. The rotation best adapted to supply the industries of a country is called the "technical rotation". III. — The sylviculturist regenerating the forest from self-sown seed cannot select a rotation which does not allow the trees to profusely propagate their kind. In coppice woods, since the sprouting capacity decreases with increasing diameter, the rotation must be so low as to allow of luxuriant production (sylvicultural rotation). IV. — From the financial standpoint, trees or forests must be considered mature when the net true interest obtained from them ceases to bear a sufficient ratio to the sale value of such trees or forests. Wherever the woods are stocked with even aged and even sized trees, all of the trees reach maturity at or about at the same time. The primeval woods of America do not exhibit, usually, such even aged conditions. The American forester had better speak of the maturity of trees than of the maturity of forests. Factors influencing the maturity of trees in America are, pre-eminently : — a. The price increment, which, in the case of large trees, far exceeds the volume increment and value increment. Stem analyses and volume tables are of little value, consequently, for the financial diagnosis of primeval trees. 26 FOREST FINANCE b. Means or arteries of transportation and the permanency of their char- acter. Where the means of transportation are considered as a permanent investment and not as a temporary expense to be re- imbursed by current operations, a higher age of maturity results naturally. c. In many cases the taxes per acre are not or are scarcely influenced by the severity of the cut. Here it is irrelevant, from the tax payer's standpoint, whether he proceed to log certain sizes or kinds of trees or not. Where, on the other hand, taxes are changed ac- cording to the stumpage found per acre, the standing tree must be charged with that much of the tax per acre as corresponds with its individual contents. Take, e. g., a forest of white pine contain- ing 6,000 ft. per acre consisting of 12 trees averaging 400 ft. b. m., taxed at 30 cts. per acre. The soil has little value. A tree con- .30 X 400 taining 400 ft.b.m. must annually defray -.024, which 6000 expense of .024 must be charged against the tree and must be de- frayed from the annual increase, if any, of the value of the tree. d. Trees acting as mother trees propagating their kind should be credited with the prospective value of the progeny produced by them, on an average. On the other hand, trees acting like weeds and re- tarding the growth of a younger progeny of seedlings and saplings beneath them must be charged with the loss of prospective incre- ment incurred by such second growth. e. Since protective and administrative expenses are governed more by area than by the density of the stands, it is necessary in rare cases only to charge a pro rata of the protective and administrative ex- penses against the individual tree. These expenses incumber the soil like prescriptive rights. f. The question of maturity is a question to be answered in the first and last instance by the owner who is governed by his personal attitude regarding the rate of interest obtainable from his invest- ment; by the prospects of price increment as they appear to him and by personal moments like the lack of cash to defray running expenses, mortgages, etc.; chance of remunerative investment elsewhere; desire to distribute risks; tastes and predilections. Trees of defective character infested by insects or fungi have reached maturity, generally speaking, since the spread of the disease checks their financial increment, and may cause the increment to be negative. V. — In Europe the following number of years denote, on an average, the ma- turity of timber: pine 100 yrs.; spruce 90 yrs.; fir 120 yrs.; beech 120 yrs.; oak 160 yrs.; oak coppice 18 yrs.; willows 1 and 2 yrs. In America, naturally, fixed rotations have not been adopted, since the cutting takes place, usually, in the primeval woods. In Virginia, a second and third growth of pine is cut under a rotation of about 60 years. Catalpa FOREST FINANCE 2T is coppiced under a rotation of about 10 years. The very prime trees, notably hardwoods, of a primeval wood are immature from a financial standpoint, if the owner believes that the greatest advance in prices will come to them, such giants getting rare and more rare, year by year. In many cases, the price of inferior stumpage does not promise to rise as much as the price of prime stumpage. On the other hand, in many a case, the indicating percentage of trees promising a large percentage of "cull lum- ber" is manifestly superior to that of trees containing a large percentage of "fas lumber". In Europe, the question of maturity is largely a question of age or (which is almost the same) of diameter. In America, on the other hand, the question is one of conditions — condition of transportation, danger from fire, condition of health, the chances for their improvement or deterioration. Thus, a diam- eter limit or age limit can scarcely denote maturity. The American forester in charge of large districts is confronted many a time with the necessity of treating individual trees according to their financial merits, whilst his Euro- pean colleague in charge of small ranges has to deal with even aged aggre- gates resulting from second growths. VI. — The term "indicating percentage" denotes the current dividend obtain- able from a tree or woodlot. This percentage indicates the maturity of a tree or of a woodlot. A tree or woodlot is mature and should be removed when it ceases to yield (latently, of course) the dividend desired by the owner. The owner or investor discards an investment in forestry as well as in stock when the dividend seems to fall below the limit obtainable by him in other enterprises of similar safety. If he discards at the right time, he will make money; and otherwise not. In the following remarks, the indicating percentage is called "x"; the forest percentage denoting the "limit" just mentioned is called "p". Previous to maturity, "x" is larger than "p"; at maturity, "x" equals "p"; after maturity "x" is smaller than "p". The indicating percentage of a woodlot, for a period of 10 years, is as follows, if the stumpage is now worth "S.S." dollars; if it is worth, after ten years, "S.S 10 "; if the cleared soil is worth "C" dollars; if administration and taxes are "v" dollars per annum, forming an administrative capital "V": — (SS+C+V) l.Ox 10 =SS 10 + C+V or (n (l.Ox^-l) (SS + C) l.Ox 10 + v -C+SSio O.Ox According to Krafft, the indicating percentage had better be considered as a dividend on stumpage merely whilst the soil and the administrative cap- ital should yield the forest dividend required by the owner. Krafft's "x" is more sensitive than the "x" commonly applied since it bears a ratio to part of the investment only. Krafft's "x" is found as follows : — SS x l.Ox 10 + (C+V) l.Op 10 = SS 10 +C+V 28 FOREST FINANCE In conservative logging when a portion only of the trees are removed from •very acre, the indicating percentage had best be considered as a tree dividend. Whether and how much of the taxes and administrative expense (e) should be charged to the tree, depends upon the local circumstances. Trees occupying soil and preventing, by their presence, a second growth from de- veloping, must be charged with the interest on the value of the soil thus oc- cupied. On the other hand, trees acting as mother trees must be credited with the value of the progeny resulting from their presence. The tree indicating percentage might be expressed, adopting Krafft's method, as follows : (1.0p°-l) T x 1.0x n +e + (soil) 1.0p n -T n + soil + value of progeny O.Op in which "T " equals the tree value now. Where the forest stocks on agricul- tural soil, all trees unable to defray the interest on such valuable soil, appear to be mature, or hypermature. VII. — The forester making a working plan for pine and spruce woods is usually confronted by the question of the best diameter limit. The plan advises the owner as to the limit yielding the highest entrepreneur's gain or the highest forest dividend. The heavier the present cut, the smaller is the investment left, whilst the protecting expenses remain the same. On the face of it, it seems unwise to cut clear without considering the financial prospects of trees which might be left on the ground, having 10", 12", 14", etc. in diameter. Obviously, the logging expenses per M feet b. m., are smaller in the case of heavy cutting, than in the case of light cutting, particularly so when the logger must avoid any damage to the trees left standing. Again, obviously, the longer the period of waiting for a second cut, the less are the chances for a good return from conservative logging. The diameter limit might be tested either with the help of the indicating percentage or by the method of the entrepreneur's gain. INTEREST TABLES (EXPLANATORY) Column I indicates the number of years. Column II gives the present value of S1.00 due at the end of the number of years indicated in column I. An Column III gives the present value of $1.00 per annum due every year _ ; during the period of years indicated in column I. Column IV gives the aft-value of $1.00 left invested for the number of years indicated in column I. Column V gives the aft-value of $1.00 payable annually and left- invested for the number of years indicated in column I. 80 H PER CENT. I n in mi V 1 .9950 .9950 1.0050 1.0000 2 .9901 1.9851 1.0100 2.0050 3 .9851 2.9702 1.0151 3.0150 4 .9802 3.9505 1.0202 4.0301 5 .9754 4.9259 1.0253 5.0503 6 .9705 5.8964 1.0304 6.0755 7 .9657 6.8621 1.0355 7.1059 8 .9609 7.8230 1.0407 8.1414 9 .9561 8.7791 1.0459 9.1821 10- — .9513- 9.7304- 1.0511- 10.2280 11 .9466 10.6770 1.0564 11.2792 12 .9419 11.6189 1.0617 12.3356 13 .9372 12.5562 1.0670 13.3972 14 .9326 13.4887 1.0723 14.4642 15 .9279 14.4166 1.0777 15.5365 16 .9233 15.3399 1.0831 16.6142 17 .9187 16.2586 1.0885 17.6973 18 .9141 17.1728 1.0939 18.7858 19 .9096 18.0824 1.0994 19.8797 20.. 9051.. .9006 — .18.9874 — 19.8880 1.1049 — 20.9791 21 1.1104 22.0840 22 .8961 20.7841 1.1160 23 . 1944 23 .8916 | 21.6756 1.1216 24.3104 24 .8872 22.5629 1 . 1272 25.4320 25 .8828 23.4456 1 . 1328 26.5591 26 .8784 !' 24. 3240 1 . 1385 27.6919 27 .8740 | 25 . 1980 1.1442 28.8304 28 .8697 1 26.0677 1 . 1499 29.9745 29 .8653 £26.9330 1.1556 31.1244 30.- --.8610- --27.7941- 1.1614— 32.2800 31 .8567 28.6508 1 . 1672 33.4414 32 .8525 29.5033 1 . 1730 34.6086 33 .8482 30.3515 1 . 1789 35.7817 34 .8440 30.1955 1 . 1848 36.9606 35 .8398 32.0354 1 . 1907 38.1454 36 .8356 32.8710 1 . 1967 39.3361 37 .8315 33.7025 1.2027 40.5328 38 .8274 34.5299 1.2087 41.7354 39 .8232 35.3531 1.2147 42.9441 40-. — .8191- .8151 — .36.1722.. 1.2208— 44.1588 41 36.9873 1.2269 45.3796 42 .8110 37.7983 1.2330 46.6065 43 .8070 38.6053 1.2392 47.8306 44 .8030 39.4082 1.2454 49.0788 45 .7990 40.2072 1.2516 50.3242 46 .7950 41.0022 1.2579 51.5758 47 .7910 41.7932 1.2642 52.8337 48 .7871 42.5803 1.2705 54.0978 49 .7832 43.3635 1.2768 55.3683 50. _ .-.7793- .7601 ...44.1428-. 47.9782 1.2832.. 56.6452 55 1.3156 63.1200 60 .7414 51.7020 1.3488 69.7600 65 .7231 55.2764 1.3829 76.5800 70 .7053 58.9364 1.4178 83.5600 75 .6879 62.4745 1.4536 90.7200 80 .6710 65.7988 1.4903 98.0600 85 .6545 69 . 1099 1.5280 105.6000 90 .6383 72.3268 1.5665 113.3000 95 .6226 75.4747 1.6061 121.2200 100. _ .-.6073- .5923 ...78.5449.. 1.6467- 129.3400 105 81.5306 1.6882 137.6400 110 .5777 84.4531 1.7309 146.1800 115 .5635 87.2985 1.7746 154.9200 120 .5496 90.0736 1.8194 163.8800 1 PER CENT. 31 I ii in mi V 1 .9901 .9901 1.0100 1.0000 2 .9803 1.9704 1.0201 2.0100 3 .9706 2.9410 1.0303 3.0301 4 .9610 3.9020 1.0406 4.0604 5 .9515 4.8534 1.0510 5.1010 6 .9420 5 . 7955 1.0615 6.1520 7 .9327 6.72S2 1.0721 7.2135 8 .9235 7.6517 1.0829 8.2857 9 .9143 8.5660 1.0937 9.3685 10.. _._.9053__ 9.4713.. 1.1046 10.4622 11 .8963 10.3676 1.1157 11.5668 12 .8874 11.2551 1 . 1268 12.6825 13 .8787 12.1337 1.1381 13.8093 14 .8700 13.0037 1 . 1495 14.9474 15 .8613 13.8651 1.1610 16.0969 16 .8528 14.7179 1.1726 17.2579 17 .8444 15.5622 1 . 1843 18.4304 18 .8360 16.3983 1.1961 19.6147 19 .8277 17.2260 1.2081 20.8109 20 8195.. 18.0456 ....1.2202 . .22.0190 21 .8114 18.8570 1.2324 23.2392 22 .8034 19.6604 1.2447 24.4716 23 .7954 20.4558 1.2572 25.7163 24 .7876 21.2434 1.2697 26.9735 25 .7798 22.0232 1.2824 28.2432 26 .7720 22.7952 1.2953 29.5256 27 .7644 23 . 5596 1.3082 30.8209 28 .7568 24.3164 1.3213 32.1291 29 .7493 25.0658 1.3345 33 . 4504 30 ...7419 .7346 25.8077 1.3478 .34.7849 31 26.5423 1.3613 36.1327 32 7273 27.2696 1.3749 37.4941 33 7201 27.9897 1.3887 38.8690 34 .7130 28.7027 1.4026 40.2577 35 7059 29.4086 1.4166 41.6603 36 6989 30.1075 1.4308 • 43.0769 37 6920 30.7995 1 . 4451 44.5076 38 6852 31.4847 1.4595 45.9527 39 6784 32.1630 1.4741 47.4123 40 6717 6650 32.8347 33.4997 1.4889 ..48.8864 41 1.5038 50.3752 42 6584 34.1581 1.5188 51.8790 43 .6519 34.8100 1.5340 53.3978 44 .6454 35.4554 1.5493 54.9318 45 6391 36.0945 1 . 5648 56.4811 46 6327 36.7272 1.5805 5S.0459 47 6265 37.3537 1.5963 59.6263 48 .6203 37.9740 1.6122 61.2226 49 .6141 38.5881 1.6283 62.8348 50.. .6080.. .5786 ...39.1961.. 42.1430 1.6446 64.4632 55 1.7284 72.8400 60 .5505 44.9521 1.8166 81.6600 65 .5238 47.6247 1.9093 90.9300 70 .4983 50.1644 2.0066 100.6600 76 .4742 52.5841 2.1090 110.9000 80 .4500 54.8858 2.2166 121.6600 85 .4292 57.0742 2.3296 132.9600 90 .4084 59.1750 2.4485 144.8500 95 .3886 61 . 1394 2.5733 157.3300 100.. _._.3697__ ...63. 0259.. 2.7046.. 170.4600 105 .3518 64.8197 2.8425 184 . 2500 110 .3347 66.5272 2.9875 198.7500 115 .3185 68.1518 3 . 1399 213.9900 120 .3030 69.6979 3.3001 230.0100 32 iy 2 PER CENT. 1 1 ii m mi V 1 .9852 .9852 1.0150 1.0000 2 .9707 1.9559 1.0302 1.0150 3 .9563 2.9122 1.0457 3.0452 4 .9422 3.8544 1.0614 4.0909 5 .9283 4.7826 1.0773 5.1523 6 .9145 5.6972 1.0934 6.2290 7 .9010 6.59S2 1 . 1098 7.3230 8 .8877 7.4859 1.1265 8.4328 9 .8746 8.3605 1 . 1434 9.5593 10__ _...8617._ .8489 9.2222.. 10.0711 1.1605— ...10.9027 11 1 . 1779 11.8633 12 .8364 10.9075 1 . 1959 13.0412 13 .8240 11.7315 1.2130 14.2368 14 .8118 12.5434 1.2318 15.4504 15 .7999 13.3432 1.2502 16.6821 16 .7880 14.1313 1.2690 17.9324 17 .7764 14.9076 1.2880 19.2014 18 .7649 15.6726 1.3073 20.4894 19 .7536 16.4262 1.3270 21.7967 20.. 7425.. .7315 ...17.1686.. 17.9001 1.3469 — 23.1237 21 1.3671 24.4705 22 .7207 18.6208 1.3876 25.8376 23 .7100 19.3309 1.4084 27.2251 24 .6995 20.0304 1.4295 28.6335 25 .6892 20.7196 1.4509 30.0630 26 .6790 21.3986 1.4727 31.5140 27 .6690 22.0676 1.4948 32.9867 28 .6591 22.7267 1.5172 34.4815 29 .6494 23.3761 1.5400 35.9987 30.. __..6398__ .6303 _. .24.0158.. 24.6461 ....1.5631.. ._ 37.5387 31 1.5865 39.1018 32 .6210 25.2671 1.6103 40.6883 33 .6118 25.8790 1.6345 42.2986 34 .6028 26.4817 1.6590 43.9331 35 .5939 27.0756 1.6839 45.5921 36 .5851 27.6607 1.7091 47.2760 37 .5764 28.2371 1.7348 48.9851 38 .5679 28.8051 1.7608 50.7199 39 .5595 29.3646 1.7872 52.4807 40.. 5513.. .5431 ...29.9158.. 1.8140.. 54.2679 41 30.4590 1.8412 56.0819 42 .5351 30.9940 1.8688 57.9231 43 .5272 31.5212 1.8969 59.7920 44 .5194 32.0406 1.9253 61 . 6889 45 .5117 32.5523 1.9542 63.6142 46 .5042 33.0565 1.9835 65.5684 47 .4967 33.5532 2.0133 67.5519 48 .4894 34.0426 2.0435 69.5652 49 .4821 34.5247 2.0741 71.6087 60.. ....4750.. .4409 ...34.9997.. 37.2715 2.1052.. 73.6828 56 2.2679 84.5296 60 .4093 39.3803 2.4432 96.2147 65 .3799 41.3373 2.6320 108.8000 70 .3527 43 . 1549 2.8355 122.3640 75 .3274 44.8409 3.0546 136.9670 80 .3039 46.4073 3.2907 152.7110 85 .2821 47.8603 3.5450 169.6600 90 .2618 49.2099 3.8189 187.9300 95 .2431 50.4618 4.1141 207.6000 100.. 2256.. ...51.6247.. 4.4320.. 228.8030 105 .2094 52.7036 4.7746 251.6330 110 .1944 53.7055 5.1436 276.2380 115 .1805 54.6351 5.5411 302.7330 120 .1675 55.4985 5.9693 331.2880 2 PER CENT. 33 1 n in IIII V 1 .9804 .9804 1.0200 1.0000 2 .9612 1.9416 1.0404 2.0200 3 .9423 2.8839 1.0612 3.0604 4 .9238 3.8077 1.0824 4.1216 6 .9057 4.7135 1.1041 5.2040 6 .8880 5.6014 1 . 1262 6.3081 7 .8706 6.4720 1 . 1487 7.4343 8 .8535 7 . 3255 1.1717 8.5830 9 .8368 8.1622 1.1951 9.7546 10 8203.. — 8.9826 1 2190 10 9497 11 .8043 9.7868 1.2434 """l2;i687 12 .7885 10.5753 1.2682 13.4121 13 .7730 11.3484 1.2936 14.6803 14 .7579 12.1062 1.3195 15.9739 15 .7430 12.8493 1.3459 17.2934 16 .7284 13.5777 1.3728 18.6393 17 .7142 14.2919 1.4002 20.0121 18 .7002 14.9920 1.4282 21.4123 19 .6864 15.6785 1.4568 22.8406 20.. 6730- .6598 — .16.3514.. 17.0112 1.4859- 24.2974 21 1.5157 25.7833 22 .6468 17.6580 1 . 5460 27.2990 23 .6342 18.2922 1.5769 28.8450 24 .6217 18.9139 1.60S4 30.4219 25 .6095 19 . 5235 1 . 6406 32.0303 26 .5976 20.1210 1.6734 33.6709 27 .5859 20.7069 1.7069 35.3443 28 .5744 21.2813 1.7410 37.0512 29 .5631 21.S444 1.7758 38.7922 30.. 5521.. .5412 —22.3965 22.9377 1.8114 .40.5681 31 1.8476 42.3794 32 .5306 23.4683 1.8845 44.2270 33 .5202 23.9886 1.9222 46.1116 34 .5100 24.4986 1.9607 48.0338 35 .5000 24.9986 1.9999 49.9945 36 .4902 25.4888 2.0399 51.9944 37 .4806 25.9695 2.0807 54.0343 38 .4712 26.4406 2.1223 56.1149 39 .4619 26.9026 2.1647 58.2372 40. _ 4529.. .4440 -.27.3555.. 2.20S0 .60.4020 41 27.7995 2.2522 62.6100 42 .4353 28.2348 2.2972 64.8622 43 .4268 28.6616 2.3432 67.1595 44 .4184 29.0800 2.3901 69.5027 45 .4102 29.4902 2.4379 71.8927 46 .4022 29.8923 2.4866 74.3306 47 .3943 30.2866 2.5363 76.8172 48 .3865 30.6731 2.5871 79.3535 49 .3790 31.0521 2.6388 81.9406 50.. 3715.. .3365 -.31.4236.. 33.1748 2.6916.. __.84.5794 65 2.9717 98.5865 60 .3048 34.7609 3.2S10 114.0520 65 .2760 36.1973 3.6225 131 .1250 70 .2500 37.4986 3.9995 149.9780 75 .2265 38.6763 4.4158 170.7900 80 .2051 39.7445 4.8754 193.7720 85 .1858 40.7111 5.3828 219.1400 90 .1683 41.5869 5.9431 247.1570 95 .1524 42.3800 6.5617 278.0850 100- 1380.. __ -43.0984. . 7.2446- 312.2320 105 .1250 43.7489 7.9987 349.9300 110 .1132 44.3382 8.8312 391.5590 115 .1026 44.8719 9.7503 437.5150 120 .0929 45.3554 10.7652 488.2580 34 2H PER CENT. I ii in IIII V 1 .9756 .9756 1.0250 1.0000 2 .9518 1.9274 1.0506 2.0250 3 .9286 2.8560 1.0769 3.0756 4 .9060 3.7620 1 . 1038 4.1525 5 .8839 4.6458 1.1314 5.2563 6 .8623 5.5081 1 . 1597 6.3877 7 .8413 6.3494 1 . 1887 7.5474 8 .8207 7.1701 1.2184 8.7361 9 .8007 7.9709 1.2489 9.9545 10.. ..7812.. 8.7521- 1.2801.. 11.2034 11 .7621 9.5142 1.3121 12.4835 12 .7436 10.2578 1 . 3449 13.7956 13 .7254 10.9832 1 . 3785 15.1404 14 .7077 11.6909 1.4130 16.5190 15 .6905 12.3814 1.4483 17.9319 16 .6736 13.0550 1.4845 19.3802 17 .6572 13.7122 1.5216 20.8647 18 .6412 14 .3534 1.5597 22.3863 19 .6255 14.9789 1.5987 23.9460 20 ....6103.. .5954 15.5892- 16.1845 _ 1.6386 25.5447 21 1.6796 27 . 1833 22 .5809 16.7654 1.7216 28.8629 23 .5667 17.3321 1.7646 30.5844 24 .5529 17.8850 1.8087 32.3490 25 .5394 18.4244 1.8539 34 . 1578 26 .5262 18.9506 1.9003 36.0117 27 .5134 19.4640 1.9478 37.9120 28 .5009 19.9649 1.9965 39.8598 29 .4887 20.4535 2.0464 41.8563 30 ....4767.. .4651 20.9303 21.3954 2.0976 43.9027 31 2.1500 46.0003 32 .4538 21.8492 2.2038 48.1503 33 .4427 22.2919 2.2589 50.3540 34 .4319 22.7238 2.3153 52.6129 35 .4214 23 . 1452 2.3732 54.9282 36 .4111 23.5563 2.4325 57.3014 37 .4011 23.9573 2.4933 59.7339 38 .3913 24.3486 2.5557 62.2273 39 .3817 24.7303 2.6196 64.7830 40 ....3724.. .3633 25.1028 2.6851 67.4026 41 25.4661 2.7522 70.0876 42 .3545 25.8206 2.8210 72.8398 43 .3458 26.1664 2.8915 75.6608 44 .3374 26.5038 2.9638 78.5523 45 .3292 26.8330 3.0379 81.5161 46 .3211 27.1542 3.1139 84.5540 47 .3133 27.4675 3.1917 87.6679 48 .3057 27.7732 3.2715 90.8596 49 .2982 28.0714 3.3533 94.1311 50 ....2909- .2571 ...28.3623- 29.7140 3.4371 .97.4843 55 3.8888 115.551 60 .2273 30.9087 4.3998 135.992 65 .2009 31.963 4.9780 159 . 120 70 .1775 32.898 5.6321 185.284 75 .1569 33.645 6.3722 214.888 80 .1387 34.452 7.2096 248.383 85 .1226 35.096 8.1570 286.280 90 .1084 35.666 9.2289 329 . 154 96 .0958 36.171. 10.4416 377.664 100- 0846- __.36.614... ___11.8137„ 432.549 105 .0748 37.007 13.3661 494.644 110 .0661 37.355 15.1226 564.902 115 .0584 37.664 17 . 1098 644.392 120 .0517 37.934 19.3581 734.326 3 PER CENT. I n m IV V 1 .9709 .9709 1.0300 1.0000 2 .9426 1.9135 1.0609 2.0300 3 .9151 2.8286 1.0927 3.0909 4 .8885 3.7171 1.1255 4 . 1836 6 .8626 4.5797 1.1593 5.3091 6 .8375 5.4172 1.1941 6.4684 7 .8131 6.2303 1.2299 7.6625 8 .7894 7.0197 1.2668 8.8923 9 .7664 7.7861 1 . 3048 10.1591 10- — .7441- 8.5302- 1.3439- 11.4639 11 .7224 9.2526 1 . 3842 12.8075 12 .7014 9.9540 1.4258 14.1920 13 .6810 10.6350 1.4685 15.6178 14 .6611 11.2961 1.5126 17.0863 15 .6419 11.9379 1.5580 18.5989 16 .6232 12.5611 1.6047 20.1569 17 .6050 13.1661 1.6528 21.7616 18 .5874 13.7535 1.7024 23.4144 19 .5703 14.3238 1.7535 25.1169 20- ....5537- —14.8775- 1.8061- 26.8704 21 .5375 15.4150 1.8603 28.6765 22 .5219 15.9369 1.9161 30.5368 23 .5067 16.4436 1.9736 32.4529 24 .4919 16.9325 2.0328 34.4265 25 .4776 17.4131 2.0938 36.4593 26 .4637 17.8768 2.1566 38.5530 27 .4502 18.3270 2.2213 40.7096 28 .4371 18.7641 2.2879 42.9309 29 .4243 19.1885 2.3566 45.2189 30 4120— — .19.6004 — 2.4273.. 47.5754 31 .4000 20.0004 2.5001 50.0027 32 .3883 20.3888 2.5751 52.5028 33 .3770 20.7658 2.6523 55. 0778 34 .3660 21.1318 2.7319 57.7302 35 .3554 21.4872 2.8139 60.4621 36 .3450 21.8323 2.8983 63.2759 37 .3350 22.1672 2.9852 66.1742 38 .3252 22.4925 3.0748 69 . 1594 39 .3158 22.8082 3.1670 72.2342 40- 3066- —23.1148- 3.2620- 75.4013 41 .2976 23.4124 3.3599 78.6633 42 .2890 23.7014 3.4607 82.0232 43 .2805 23.9819 3.5645 85.4839 44 .2724 24.2543 3.6715 89.0484 45 .2644 24.5187 3.7816 92.7199 46 .2567 24. 7754 3.8950 96.5015 47 .2493 25.0247 4.0119 100.3965 48 .2420 25.2667 4.1323 104.4084 49 .2350 25.5017 4.2562 108.5406 50.. ....2281- —25.7298- 4.3839.. — .112.7969 55 .1968 26.7744 5.0821 136.072 60 .1697 27.6756 5.8916 163.053 65 .1464 28.452 6.8300 194.333 70 .1263 29 . 123 7.9178 230.594 75 .1089 29.702 9 . 1789 272.630 80 .0940 30.201 10 .6409 321.363 85 .0811 30.701 12 .3357 377.857 90 .0699 31.002 14.3005 443.349 95 .0603 31.323 16.5782 519.273 100- 0520- —31.599— — 19.2186- 607.288 105 .0449 31.838 22.2797 709.323 110 .0387 32.043 25.8282 827.608 115 .0334 32.220 29.9420 964.733 120 .0288 32.373 34.7110 1,123.70 V. ? -^&-- 'f* 4 PER CENT. y I n in im V 1 .9615 .9615 1.0400 1.0000 2 .9246 1.8861 1.0861 2.0400 3 .8890 2.7751 1 . 1249 3.1216 4 .8548 3.6299 1 . 1699 4.2465 5 .8219 4.4518 1.2167 5.4163 6 .7903 5.2421 6.0021 lit53 1^159 6.6330 7 .7599 7.8983 8 .7307 6.7327 1.3686 9.2142 9 .7026 7.4353 1.4233 10.5828 10- 11 .6756— 8.1109 — 1 4802— 12.0061 "".'6496 8.7605 1.5395 13.4864 12 .6246 9.3851 1.6010 15.0258 13 .6006 9.9856 1.6651 16.6268 14 .5775 10.5631 1.7315 18.2919 15 .5553 11.1184 1.8009 20.0236 16 .5339 11.6523 1.8730 21.8245 17 5134 12.1657 1.9479 23.6975 18 .4936 12.6593 2.0258 25.6454 19 .4746 13.1339 2 . 1068 27.6712 20- 21 4564 .4388 —13.5903- 14.0292 2.1911 — 29 7781 2^2788 31.9692 22 .4220 14.4511 2 . 3699 34.2480 23 ■ 4057 14.8568 2.4647 36.6179 24 • 3901 15.2470 2.5633 39.0826 25 .3751 15.6221 2.6658 41.6459 26 .3607 15.9828 2.7725 44.3117 27 .3468 16.3296 2.8834 47.0842 28 • 3335 16.6631 2.9987 49.9676 29 • 3207 16.9837 3.1187 52.9663 30- 31 3083- ■ 2965 — 17.2920- 17.5885 3 2434 — 56.0849 " 3^3731 59.3283 32 .2851 17.8736 3.5081 62.7015 33 2741 18.1476 3.6484 66.2095 34 .2636 18.4112 3.7943 69.8579 35 .2534 18.6646 3.9461 73.6522 36 .2437 18.9083 4.1039 77.5983 37 .2343 19.1426 4.2681 81.7022 38 .2253 19 . 3679 4.4388 85.7903 39 .2166 19 . 5845 4.6164 90.4091 40- 41 -..2083- .2003 19.7928— 4.8010— 95.0255 "l9" 9931 4.9931 99.8265 42 .1926 20 .1856 5.1928 104.8200 43 .1852 20.3708 5.4005 110.0124 44 .1780 20.5488 5.6165 115.4129 45 .1712 20.7200 5.8412 121.0294 46 .1646 20.8847 6.0748 126.8706 47 .1583 21.0429 6.3178 132.9454 48 .1522 21.1951 6.5705 139.2632 49 . 14G3 21.3415 6.8333 145.8337 50- 55 1407- .1157 21 4822 — 7.1067— 152.6671 "~22:i086 8.6464 191.159 60 .0951 22.6235 105196 237.991 65 .0781 23.0466 12.7987 294.967 70 .0642 23.3945 15.5716 364.290 75 .0528 23.6281 18.9453 448.642 80 .0434 23.9154 23.0498 551.245 85 .0357 24.1085 28.0436 676.090 90 .0293 24.2673 34.1193 827.983 95 .0241 24.3977 41.5114 1,012.785 100.. 0198. __.24.5050- —50.5049. __ 1,237.622 105 .0163 24.5931 61.4470 1,511.175 110 .0134 24.6656 74.7597 1,843.992 115 .0110 24.7251 90.9566 2,248.915 120 .0090 24.7741 110.663 2,741.558 37 38 4K PEF CENT. I ii - in IIII V 1 .9569 .9569 1.0450 1.0000 2 .9157 1.8727 1.0920 2.0450 3 .8765 2.7490 1.1412 3.1370 4 .8386 3.5875 1 . 1925 4.2782 5 .8022 4.3900 1.2462 5.4707 6 .7679 5.1579 .1.3023 6.7169 7 .7348 5.8927 1.3609 8.0192 8 .7032 6.5959 1.4221 9.3800 9 .6729 7.2688 1.4861 10.8021 10.. 6439— .. 7.9125 1.5530— 12.2882 11 .6162 8.5289 1.6229 13.8412 12 .4897 9.1186 1.6959 15.4640 13 .5643 9.6829 1.7722 17.1599 14 .5400 10.2229 1.8519 18.9321 15 .5167 10.7395 1.9353 20.7841 16 .4945 11.2340 2.0224 22.7193 17 .4732 11.7072 2.1134 24.7417 18 .4528 12.1600 2.2085 26.8551 19 .4333 12.5933 2.3079 29.0634 20. _ — .4146- — 13.0079- 2.4117- 31.3716 21 .3968 13.4047 2.5202 33.7831 22 .3797 13.7844 2.6337 36.3034 23 .3634 14.1478 2.7522 38.9370 24 .3477 14.4955 2.8760 41.6892 25 .3327 14.8282 3.0054 44.5652 26 .3184 15.1466 3.1407 47.5706 27 .3047 15.4513 3.2820 50.7113 28 .2916 15.7429 3.4279 53.9933 29 .2790 16.0219 3.5840 57.4230 30- 2670- .2555 — 16.2889- 16.5444 3.7453.. 61.0071 31 3.9139 64.7524 32 .2445 16.7889 4.0900 68.6662 33 .2340 17.0229 4.2740 72.7562 34 .2239 17.2468 4.4664 77.0303 35 .2143 17.4610 4.6673 81.4966 36 .2050 17.6660 4.8774 86.1640 37 .1962 17.8622 5.0969 91.0413 38 .1878 18.0500 5.3262 96.1382 39 .1797 18.2297 5.5659 101.4644 40.. — .1719- .1645 — 18.4016- 18.5661 5.8164-. 107.0303 41 6.0781 112.8467 42 .1574 18.7235 6.3516 118.9248 43 .1507 18.8742 6.6374 125.2764 44 .1442 19.0184 6.9361 131.9138 45 .1380 19.1563 7.2482 138.8500 46 .1320 19.2884 7.5744 146.0982 47 .1263 19.4147 7.9153 153.6726 48 .1209 19.5356 8.2715 161.5879 49 .1157 19.6513 8.6437 169.8594 60.. .- .1107- .0888 _. .19.7620- 9.0326— 178.5030 55 20.2480 11.2563 227.9180 60 .0713 20.6380 14.0274 289.4980 65 .0572 20.9509 17.4807 366.2380 70 .0459 21.2021 21.7841 461.8700 75 .0368 21.4118 27.1470 581.2670 80 .0296 21.5653 33.8301 729.5580 85 .0237 21.6951 42.1585 914.6330 90 .0190 21.7992 52.5371 1145.2700 95 .0153 21.8828 65.4708 1432.6840 100.. 0123- —21.9499- —81.5885- — 1790. 8600 105 .0098 22.0036 101.674 2237.2000 110 .0079 22.0468 126.704 2793.4300 115 .0063 22.0815 157.897 3486.6000 120 .0051 22.1093 196.768 4350.4000 5 PER CENT. I n • in mi V 1 2 .9524 .9070 .9524 1.S594 1.0500 1 . 1025 1.0000 2.0500 3 .863S 2.7232 1 . 1576 3.1525 4 .8227 3.5460 1.2155 4.3101 5 6 . 7S35 .7462 4.3295 5.0757 1.2763 1.3401 5 . 5256 6.8019 7 .7107 5.7864 1.4071 8.1420 8 .6768 6 . 4632 1 . 4775 9.5491 9 .6446 7 . 1078 1.5513 11.0266 10— .6139 — .—7.7217- — 1.62S9- 12.5779 11 .5S47 8.3064 1.7103 14.2068 12 .5568 8.8623 1.7959 15.9171 13 . 5303 9.3936 1.8856 17.7130 14 . 5051 9.89S6 1.9799 19 . 5986 15 .4810 10.3797 2.0789 21.5786 16 .4581 10.8378 2.1829 23.6575 17 .4363 11.2741 2.2920 25.8404 18 .4155 11.6896 2 . 4066 28 . 1324 19 20-_ 21 .3957 — .3769- .3589 12.0853 — 12.4622- 12.8212 2.5270 2.6533- 2 . 7860 30 . 5390 33.0660 35.7193T 22 341S 13.1630 2.9253 38 . 5052 23 24 .3256 .3101 13.4S86 13.7986 3.0715 3.2251 41.4305 44.5020 25 2953 14.0939 3.3864 47.7271 26 .2812 14.3752 3.5557 51.1135 27 . 2678 14 6430 3.7335 54.6691 28 .2551 14.89S1 3.9201 58 . 4026 29 30- 31 .2429 2314- .2204 15.1411 — 15.3725- 15.592S 4.1161 4.3219- 4.53S0 62 . 3227 __ 66.43S& 70.7608 32 .2099 15.8027 4.7649 75.2988 33 .1999 16.0025 5.0032 80.0638 34 .1904 16 . 1929 5.2533 85.0670 35 .1S13 16.3742 5.5160 90 .3203 36 .1727 16.5469 5.7918 95 . 8363 37 .1644 16.7113 6.0814 101 . 6281 38 39 40__ 41 42 43 .1566 .1491 — .1420- .1353 . 128S . 1227 16.8679 17.0170 17 1591 — 6 . 3855 6.7048 _-7. 0400- 107 . 7095 114.0950 120.7998 """17/2944 17.4232 17.5459 7.3920 7.7616 8.1497 127.8398 135.2318 142.9933 44 _1169 17.6628 S.5572 151.1430 45 46 .1113 .1060 17.7741 17.SS01 8.9850 9.4343 139.7002 168.6852 47 .1009 17.9810 9.9060 178.1194 48 .0961 18.0772 104013 188 . 0254 49 .0916 18 . 16S7 10.9213 198.4267 50 0872— -18.2559- -.11.4674- 209.3480 55 .0683 18.6335 14.6356 272.7130 60 .0535 18.9293 18.6792 353 . 5840 65 0419 19.1191 23.8399 456 . 7980 70 75 .0329 .0257 19.3427 19.4849 30.4264 38.8327 588 . 5290 756.6540 80 .0202 19.5965 49.5614 971.2290 85 .0158 19.6838 63.2544 1,245.0880 90 95 .0124 19.7523 80.7304 1.594.6100 .0097 0076. 0060 19.8058 _ 19.8479. 19.S808 103.035 131 .501 2.040.7000 2.610.0300 100 _ 105 " 167.833" 3,336.6600 110 0047 19.9066 214.202 4.264.0300 115 120 .0037 .0029 19.9268 19.9427 273.382 348.912 5,447.6400 6,958.2400 39 10 6K PER CENT. I ii in mi V 1 .9479 .9479 1.0550 1.0000 2 .8985 1.8463 1.1130 2.0550 3 .8516 2.6979 1.1742 3.1680 4 .8072 3 . 5052 1.2388 4.3423 5 .7651 4 . 2703 1 . 3070 5.5811 6 . 7252 4.9955 1.3788 (i NN.S1 7 . 6854 5 . 6830 1.4547 8.2069 8 .0516 6.3346 1.5347 9.7216 9 .6176 6.9522 1.6191 11.2563 10- — .5854- 7.5376- 1.7081- .... 12.8754 11 .5549 8.0925 1.8021 14.5835 12 . 5260 8.6185 1.9012 16.3856 13 .4986 9.1171 2.0058 18.2868 14 .4726 9.5896 2.1161 20 . 2926 15 .4479 10.0376 2.2325 22 . 4087 16 .4246 10.4622 2 . 3553 24.6411 17 .4024 10.8646 2.4848 26.9964 18 .3815 11.2461 2.6215 29.4812 19 .3016 11.6077 2.7656 32.1027 20- 3427- . 3249 — 11.9504 — 12.2752 2.9178 . - 34 . 8683 21 3.0782 37.7861 22 .3079 12.5832 3.4275 40.8643 23 .2919 12.8750 3.4262 44.1118 24 .2767 13.1517 3.6146 47.5380 25 .2622 13.4139 3.8134 51.1526 26 . 2486 13.6625 4.0231 54.9660 27 .2356 13.8981 4 . 2444 58.9891 28 .2233 14.1214 4.4778 63.2335 29 .2117 14.3331 4.7241 67.7114 30- — .2006- .1902 — 14.5337- 14.7239 -_ 4.9840 71.4355 31 5.2581 77.4194 32 . 1803 14.9042 5.5473 82.6775 33 .1709 15.0751 5.8524 88.2248 34 .1620 15.2370 6.1742 94.0771 35 .1535 15.3906 6.5138 100.2514 36 .1455 15.5361 6.8721 106 . 7652 37 . 1379 15.6740 7.2501 113.6373 38 .1307 15.8047 7.6488 120.8873 39 .1239 15.9287 8.0695 128.5361 40- — .1175- .1113 — 16.0461- 16.1575 — 8.5133 136.6056 41 8.9815 145.1189 42 .1055 16.2630 9.4755 154.1005 43 .1000 16.3630 9.9967 163.5760 44 .0948 16.4579 10.5465 173.5727 45 .0899 16.5477 11.1266 184.1192 46 .0852 16.6329 11.7385 195.2457 47 .0807 16.7137 12.3841 206.9842 48 .0765 16.7902 13.0653 219.3684 49 .0725 16.8628 13.7838 232 . 4336 50- — .0688- — 16.9315— — 14.5420- 246.2175 55 .0526 17.2251 19.0046 327.3563 60 .0403 17.4498 24.8381 433.4200 65 .0308 17.6216 32.4623 572.0364 70 .0230 17.7630 43.4150 771.1818 75 .0176 17.8614 56.7414 1.(113.4800 80 .0138 17.9309 72.4703 1,299 4600 85 .0106 17.9898 94.7152 1,703.9127 90 .0081 18.0349 123.7883 2,232.5145 95 . 0062 18.0694 161.7855 2,923.3727 100- 0047- — 18.0958— -.211.4463- -3,826.2963 105 .0036 18.1160 276.3503 5.006.3691 110 .0028 18.1315 361.2768 6,550.4873 115 .0021 18.1433 472.0413 8,564.3873 120 .0016 18.1523 616.9357 11.198.8309 6 PER CENT. I ii in mi v 1 .9434 .9434 1.0600 1.0000 2 .8900 1.8334 1.1236 2.0600 3 .8396 2.6730 1.1910 3.1836 4 .7921 3.4651 1.2625 4.3746 5 .7473 4.2124 1.3382 5.6371 6 .7050 4.9173 1.4185 6.9753 7 .6651 5.5824 1.5036 8.3938 8 .6274 6.2098 1.5938 9.8975 9 .5919 6.8017 1 . 6895 11.4913 10.. ....5584.. 7.3601.. 1.7908.. 13.1S0S 11 .5268 7.8869 1.8983 14.9716 12 .4970 8.3838 2.0122 16.8699 13 .4688 8.8527 2.1329 18.8821 14 .4423 9.2950 2.2609 21.0151 15 .4173 9.7122 2.3966 23.2760 16 .3936 10.1059 2.5404 25.6725 17 .3711 10.4772 2.6928 28.2129 18 .3503 10.8276 2.8543 30.9057 19 .3305 11.1581 3.0256 33.7600 20.. ....3118.. ..11.4699.. .../3.207O ^3.3996 36.7856 21 .2942 11.7641 3 J. 9927 22 .2775 12.0416 3.6035 43.3923 23 .2618 12.3034 3.8197 46.9958 24 .2470 12.5504 4.0489 50.S156 26 .2330 12.7834 4.2919 54.8645 26 .2198 13.0032 4.5494 59.1564 27 .2074 13.2105 4.8223 63.7058 28 .1956 13.4062 5.1117 6S.52S1 29 .1846 13.5907 5.41M 73.639S 30.. _.1741__ .13.7648.. 5.7435 79.0582 31 .1643 13.9291 6.0S81 84.8017 32 .1550 14.0840 6.4534 90.8898 33 .1462 14.2302 6. 8406 97.3432 34 .1379 14.3681 7.2510 104.1S38 35 .1301 14.4982 7.6861 111.4348 36 .1227 14.6210 8.1473 119.1209 37 .1158 14.7368 8.6361 127.2681 38 .1092 14.8460 9.1543 135.9042 39 .1031 14.9491 9.7035 145.0585 40.. .0972.. ..15.0463.. ...10.2857.. 154.7620 41 .0917 15.1380 10.9029 165.0477 42 .0865 15.2245 11.5570 175.9505 43 .0816 15.3062 12.2505 187.5076 44 .0770 15.3832 12.9655 199.7580 45 .0727 15.4558 13.7646 212.7435 46 .0685 15.5244 14.5905 226.5081 47 .0647 15.5890 15.4659 241.0985 48 .0610 15.6500 16.3939 256.5645 49 .0575 15.7076 17.3775 272.9584 60 ...0543.. .0406 ... 15.7619.. 15.9905 ...18.4202.. 290.3359 65 24.6507 394.1783 60 .0303 16.1611 32.9883 533.1383 65 .0226 16.2891 44.1458 719.0966 70 .0169 16.3845 159.0772 9.67:9533 75 .0126 16.4558 ' 79.0587 1,300.9783 80 .0095 16.5091 105.7985 1,746.6416 85 .0071 16.5489 141.5827 2,343.0450 90 .0053 16.5787 189.4698 3,141.1633 95 .0039 16.6009 253 . 5538 4,209.2300 100.. 0029- ...16.6175.. ..339.3125.. - 5,638.5416 105 .0022 16.6299 454.0770 7.551.2833 110 .0016 16.6392 607.6591 10,110.9850 115 .0012 16.6461 813.1S67 13,536.4450 120 .0009 16.6513 1.088.2280 18,120.4667 41 42 7 PER CENT. I ii in mi V 1 .9346 .9328 1.0700 1.0000 2 .8736 1.8043 1.1449 2.0700 3 .8163 2.6228 1.2250 3.2142 4 .7629 3.3857 13108 4 . 4400 6 .7130 4.0986 1.4026 5.7514 6 .6663 4.7657 1.5007 7.3529 7 .6227 5.3886 1.6058 8.6542 8 .5820 5.9700 1.7182 10.2600 9 .5439 6.5143 1.8385 11.9786 10.. 11 5083 — 7.0228— 1.9671 — 13.8159 .4751 7.4971 2 . 1049 15.7843 12 .4440 7.9414 2.2522 17.8886 13 .4150 8.3557 2.4098 20.1400 14 .3878 8.7442 2.5785 22.5500 15 .3624 9.1071 2.7590 25.1286 16 .3387 9.4457 2.9522 27.8886 17 .3161 9.7686 3.1588 30.8400 18 .2959 10.0571 3 . 3800 34.0000 19 .2765 10.3343 3.6165 37.3786 20 — .2584- --10.5928- 3.8697- 40.9528 21 .2415 10.8343 4.1406 44.8657 22 .2257 11.0600 4 . 4304 49.0057 23 .2109 11.2714 4 . 7405 53.4343 24 .1971 11.4685 5.0724 55.3200 25 .1842 11.6528 5.4275 63.2500 26 .1722 11.8242 5.8075 68.6786 27 .1609 11.9857 6.2140 74.4857 28 .1504 12.1357 6.6490 80.7000 29 .1406 12.2757 7.1144 87 . 3346 30- 31 .1314 — .12.4071 — 7.6124 — --. 94.4628 " . 1228 12.5300 8.1452 102.0742 32 .1147 12.6457 8.7154 110.2700 33 .1072 12.7528 9.3255 118.9500 34 .1002 12.8528 9.9783 128.2618 35 .0937 12.9457 10.6768 138.2400 36 .0875 13.0343 11.4241 148.9157 37 .0818 13.1157 12.2239 160.3414 38 .0765 13.1914 13.0795 172.5642 39 .0715 13.2628 13.9950 185.6428 40- ....0668-- ...13.3300- ...14.9747.. 199.6386 41 .0624 13.3928 16.0230 214.6143 42 .0583 13.4514 17.1446 230.6371 43 .0545 13.5057 18.3448 247.7828 44 .0509 13.5571 19.6290 266.1428 45 .0476 13.6043 21.0030 285.7571 46 .0445 13.6485 22.4332 306.1886 47 .0416 13.6900 24.0463 329.2328 48 .0387 13.7314 25.7888 354.1257 49 .0363 13.7657 27.5306 379.0086 60- -...0339-. ...13.8000-. ...29.4577.. - -406. 5386 55 .0242 13.9385 41.3162 575.9458 60 .0173 14.0371 57.9482 813.5458 65 .0123 14.1085 81.2755 1146.7928 70 .0088 14.1585 113.9929 1614.1844 76 .0062 14.1959 159.8823 2141.1757 80 .0045 14.2200 224.2440 2269.7471 85 .0032 14.2385 314.5138 3160.6285 90 .0023 14.2514 441.1230 4478.7682 95 .0016 14.2614 618.7000 6287.4714 100- ..-.0011- ...14.2685- -867.7600. ...8824.2857 105 .0008 14.2728 1217.0812 12382.2855 110 .0006 14.2757 1707.0235 17372.5886 116 .0004. 14.2785 2394.1978 24371.7642 120 .0003 14.2800 3357.9923 34188.5400 8 PER CENT. I ii in IIII V 1 .9259 .9250 1.0800 1.0000 2 .8573 1.7825 1 . 1664 2.0800 3 .7938 2.5762 1.2597 3.2463 4 .7350 3.3112 1.3605 4.5062 5 .6806 3.9912 1.4693 5.8366 6 .6302 4.6212 1.5869 7.3362 7 .5840 5.1987 1.7138 8.9225 8 .5403 5.7450 1.8509 10.6363 9 .5002 6.2462 1.9990 12.4875 10- 4632- 6.7087- 2.1589- 14.4862 11 .4289 7.1375 2.3317 16.6463 12 .3971 7.5350 2.5182 18.9775 13 .3676 7.9037 2.7196 21.4950 14 .3405 8.2425 2.9372 24.2150 15 .3152 8.5587 3.1722 27.1525 16 .2919 8.8513 3.4260 30.3250 17 .2703 9.1200 3.7000 33.7500 18 .2502 9.3712 3.9960 37.4500 19 .2317 9.6025 4.3157 41.4463 20- — .2145- 9.8175- 4.6610- 45.7625 21 .1987 10.0150 5.0339 50.4237 22 .1839 10.2000 5.4366 55.4575 23 • 1703 10.3700 5.8716 60.8950 24 .1577 10.5275 6.3413 66.7663 25 .1460 10.6737 6.8486 73.1075 26 .1352 10.8087 7.3964 79.9800 27 .1252 10.9337 7.9882 87.3525 28 .1159 11.0500 8.6272 95.3400 29 .1073 11.1575 9.3174 103.9675 30- — .0994- — 11.2562- — 10.0629- _...113.2862 31 .0920 11.3487 10.8678 123.3475 32 .0852 11.4337 11.7371 134.2138 33 .0789 11.5125 12.6763 145.9537 34 .0730 11.5862 13.6904 158.6300 35 .0676 11.6537 14.7853 172.3163 36 .0626 11.7162 15.9684 187.1050 37 .0580 11.7737 17.2460 203.0750 38 .0537 11.8275 18.6249 220.3113 39 .0497 11.8775 20.1159 238.9488 40- — .0460- — 11.9237- —21.7250- 259.0625 41 .0426 11.9662 23.4630 280.7875 42 .0395 12.0050 25.3400 304.2500 43 .0365 12.0425 27.3672 329.5900 44 .0338 12.0762 29.5567 356.9588 45 .0313 12.1075 31.9213 386.5163 46 .0290 12.1362 34.4750 418.4375 47 .0269 12.1625 37.2330 452.9125 48 .0249 12.1875 40.2117 490.1463 49 .0230 12.2112 43.4207 530.2588 50- 0213- — 12.2325- —46.9029- 573.7863 65 .0145 12.3175 68.9160 848.9500 60 .0099 12.3750 101.2605 1253.2563 65 .0067 12.4150 148.7849 1847.3113 70 .0046 12.4412 218.6150 2720 . 1875 75 .0031 12.4600 321.2177 4002.7213 80 .0021 12.4725 471.9761 5887.2013 85 .0014 12.4812 693.4888 8656.1100 90 .0010 12.4862 1018.9649 12724.5613 95 .0007 12.4900 1497.1993 18702.4913 100- 0005- ...12.4925- .2199.8838.. ..27486.0475 105 .0003 12.4950 3232 . 3656 40392.0700 110 .0002 12.4962 4749.4130 59355.1625 115 .0001 12.4975 6978.4677 87218.3463 120 .0001 12.4975 10253.6792 128158.4900 > 10 PER CENT. r~ ii 1 in mi r—^) i .9091 0.908 1 . 1000 1.0000 2 .8264 1.735 1.2100 2.1000 3 .7513 2.486 1.3310 3.3100 4 .6830 3.169 1.4641 4.6410 5 .6209 3.790 1.6105 6.1050 6 .5645 4.354 1.7716 7.7160 7 .5132 4.867 1.9487 9.4870 8 .4665 5.334 2.1436 11.4360 9 .4241 5.758 2.3580 13.5800 10 -..3855... .3505 6 144. 2.5938— 15.9380 11 6.494 2.8531 18.5310 12 .3186 6.813 3.1385 21.3850 13 .2897 7.102 3.4523 24.5230 14 .2633 7.366 3.7976 27.9760 15 .2394 7.605 4 . 1773 31.7730 16 .2176 7.823 4.5950 35.9500 17 .1978 8.021 5.0545 40.5450 18 .1799 8.200 5.5600 45.6000 19 .1635 8.364 6.1160 51 . 1600 20- I486.. 8.513— 6.7276- 57.2760 21 .1351 8.648 7.4004 64.0040 22 .1228 8.771 8.1404 71.4040 23 .1117 8.882 8.9545 79 . 5450 24 .1015 8.984 9.8500 88.5000 25 .0923 9.076 10.8349 98.3490 26 .0839 9.160 11.9184 109 . 1840 27 .0763 9.236 13.1103 121.1030 28 .0693 9.306 14.4213 134.2130 29 .0630 9.369 15.8634 148.6340 30.. 0573— 9.426— —17.4498- 164.4980 31 .0521 9.478 19.1948 181.9480 32 .0474 9.525 21.1143 201 . 1430 33 .0431 9.568 23.2257 222.2570 34 .0391 9.608 25.5483 245.4830 35 .0356 9.643 28.1032 271.0320 36 .0324 9.675 30.9135 299 . 1350 37 .0294 9.705 34.0049 330.0490 38 .0273 9.726 37.4054 364.0540 39 .0243 9.756 41.1460 401.4600 40- -..0221.. .0201 9.778— —45.2605- 442.6050 41 9.798 49.7866 487.8660 42 .0183 9.816 54.7655 537 . 6550 43 .0166 9.833 60.2420 592.4200 44 .0151 9.848 66.2662 652.6620 45 .0137 9.862 72.8928 718.9280 46 .0125 9.874 80.1822 791.8220 47 .0113 9.886 88.2004 872.0040 48 .0103 9.896 97.0207 960.2070 49 .0094 9.905 106.7228 1057.2280 50.. — .0085.. 9.914— ..117.3926- ...1163.9260 55 .0053 9.946 189.0668 1880.6680 60 .0033 9.966 304.4944 3034.9440 65 .0020 9.979 490.3932 4893.9320 70 .0013 9.986 789.7876 7887.8760 75 .0008 9.991 1271.9648 12709.6480 80 .0005 9.994 2048.5188 20475.1880 85 .0003 9.998 3299 . 1742 32981.7420 90 .0002 9.997 5313.3659 53123.6590 95 .0001 9.998 8557.2549 85562.5490 100- .-.00007. —9.9992.. 13781.6139- .137806. 139f 221945.1020 105 .00005 9.9994 22195.5102 110 .00003 9.9996 35746.1983 357451. 983# 115 .00002 9.9997 57569.8666 575688. 666t 120 .00001 9.9998 92717.0213 1 927160. 213t N OTES on nil'. Mammals and Summer Birds \\ ESTERN NORTH CAROLINA H.IKK) (.. O'BERHOLSER m Yc* Published for the uu of students by the JlLTMORE FOREST SCHOOL i: I I. T M o R E, N. C. September, 1905 Introduction. The following notes are intended to supplement the nom- inal list recently published, although owing to limitations of space many details are necessarily omitted. The list of mammals includes all that are known to have been recorded from Western North Carolina. The list of birds contains those that, with a few exceptions specifically mentioned, have been detected during the so-called summer season. — that is. from the latter part of .May to the first week of August, — and there- fore constitutes practically a catalogue of the breeding species df this area. Aside from the Biltmore and Pisgah Forest obser- vations, both these lists have been compiled almost entirely from published sources. For the present purpose, Western North Carolina is held to be only thai part of the State lying west of the contour line of approximately l.ono feci elevation, including Gaston, Ire dell, and Stokes counties. It thus comprises a strip of conn-, try some 7.") miles in width and rather more than -Oil miles in length from norlheasi to southwest. Pisgah Forest, to which reference is frequently made, forms a considerable part of the estate of Mr. George W. Vanderbilt, and is situated some dis- tance southwest of Asheville, chiefly in the northern half of Transylvania County. Places in Pisgah Forest may be located as follows: Pisgah Ridge i average altitude ."..limi feet) forms the boundary line between Transylvania and Haywood coun- ties; and Chestnut Bald (altitude 6,040 feet), a peak on this ridge, lies a little northeast of the point where Transylvania. Haywood, and Jackson counties meet. Gloster (altitude about .'{.odd feet i is in the southern portion of Pisgah Forest, some- what west of the central part of Transylvania County. David- son River, a tributary of the French Broad River, is in the north central part of Transylvania County; the altitude of its lower course, to which the records refer, is approximately 2,100 feet. The Pink Beds (altitude about 3,300 feet) are in a broad valley in the extreme northern corner of Transyl- vania county, at the headwaters of the South Fork of Mills River, another branch of the French Broad. The titles of publications added are not intended as a complete bibliography of the subject, but simply as a ready means of reference to a few of the more important published sources of information. The Mammals of Western North Carolina. Order MARSUPIALIA. Family didelphidab. 1. DlDELPHIS VIRGINIANA Kerr. — Opossum. Common a1 the lower levels, ranging w> 5,000 feet. I las been taken a1 Biltmore, and in Pisgah Fores! al Gloster, Pink Beds, on Davidson River and Pisgah Ridge. Order UXGULATA. Family cervidae. _. Odocoileus virginianus (Boddaert). -Virginia Deer. Formerly abundant; now occurs bu1 locally, chiefly in the mountains; common in Pisgah Forest. .".. Cervus canadensis (Erxleben). -American Elk. Occurred in colonial times, ;ii leasl until aboul the year 1750. Family bovidae. 4. Bison bison (Linnaeus). — American Buffalo. Originally ranged over much of Western North Carolina, but exterminated aboul 170(1. Order GLIRES. Family sciuridae. ."». Sciurus carolinensis Gmelin. — Southern Gray Squirrel. Tolerably common, at leasl up to 4.. ".nil fori ; found al Bilt- more and al various localities in Pisgah Forest. (>. Sciurus hudsonicus gymnkus Bangs. Northern Red Squirrel. Common in the balsam belt, above 5,000 feci; taken on Chestnul Bald, Pisgah Forest. 7. Sciurus hudsonicus loquax Bangs. Southern Red Squirrel. Common throughoul the mountains below 5,000 feet; speci- mens taken at the Pink Beds, Pisgah Forest. s. Sciurus rufiventer neglectus (Gray). Northern Fox Squirrel. Rare; recorded from Asheville and Cherokee County; said in occur in the Greal Smokv Mountains. 9. Tamias striatus {Linnaeus). — Chipmunk. Common, except on the highest parts of the mountains; taken at the Pink Reds. Pisgah Forest. 1<). Marmota monax (Linneaus). — Woodchuck. CommoD in the mountains below 5,000 feet; one of the most abundant mammals in Pisgah Forest ; taken at Biltmore, and in Pisgah Forest at the Pink Beds, on Pisgah Ridge and David- son River. 11. Sciuropterus volans ( Linnaeus ). — Southern Flying Squirrel. Common up t<> the summits of the mountains; n specimen secured at the Pink Beds, Pisgah Forest, Augusl ■"». 1904. Family Castoridae. 12. Castor canadensis carolinensis Rhoads. — Southern Beaver. Very rare; recorded from the Dan River, in Stokes County, and the Yadkin River, between Yadkin and Stokes counties; formerly occurred near Asheville; extincl in Pisgah Forest. Family muridae. Ld. Mrs ALEXANDRINUS Geoffroy Saint Hihiirr. — Roof Rat. The common house rut of North Carolina, in the western part of apparently rather recent introduction; taken at 3,300 feet in the Pink Beds, fMsgah Forest, in August, L904. feet I 14. 4. Mrs musculus Linnaeus. — House .Mouse. This introduced species is abundant, occuring about build- ings even in the woods; taken at 3,300 feet in the Pink Beds, Pisgah Forest, in August. L904. L5. Pi:i;o.MYS< IS CANADENSIS NUBITERRAE {RJlOads) . — Cloud- land White-footed .Mouse. Abundant in the balsam belt, above 5,000 feet; obtained at 6,000 feet on Chestnut Bald. Pisgah Forest. August 15, 1904, and July 24, L905. Previously recorded from only Roan Moun- tain. 16. Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis {Fischer). — North- ern White-footed .Mouse. Common below about .".000 feet. 17. Peromyscus nuttalli i Harlan). — Golden Mouse. Tolerably common in Buncombe County up to about 2,500 feet. is. Sigmodo:s hispidus Say and Ord. Cotton Rat. One specimen from Elkin, Surrey County, has been recorded by Mr. Vernon Bailey. 1!). Xkoto.ma Pennsylvania Stone. — Allegheny Wood Rat. Reported by Mr. S. X. Rhoads from caves <>n Roan Moun- tain. 20. Evotomys carolinensis M. Mephitis eloxgata {Bungs). — Florida Skunk. Common in at least the southern half of the mountains; obtained at Biltmore. and in Pisgah Forest at Gloster, Pink Beds, and on Davidson River. 37. Spilogale ringens Merriam. — Little Spotted Skunk. Common throughout the mountains from Roan Mountain to Cherokee ; taken at Biltmore, and in Pisgah Forest at Gloster, Pink Beds, and on Davidson River. 38. Lutreola vis.i.n MTiiKoi kimi.m.a [Harlan) . — Large Brown Mink. Apparently of local occurrence; common ;n Biltmore and in some of the streams thai drain the Pink Beds in Pisgah Pores! ; taken also on Davidson River. 39. Putoeius noveboracensis notius Bangs. — Southern Weasel. Tolerably common in the mountains; obtained in Pisgali Forest at the Pink Beds and on Davidson River. 4(1. Mustela pennant] Erxleben. — Fisher. Rare; recorded from the mitains by Mr. S. X. Rhoads, but probably now extinct. V; 'KOCYONII'AK. 41. Procyon lotob (Linnaeus). — Raccoon. Common and generally distributed; taken at Biltmore, and in Pisgah Foresl at the Pink Beds, on Pisgah Ridge and David son River. Family iksihak. 42. L'rsus a.mkkkam s Pallas.— Black Bear. Not uncommon in the mountains; occurs iir Pisgah Forest. Order [NSECTIVORA. Family soiucidae. 43. Sorex personatus Geoffroy tioinA Hilaire- -I*ong-tailed Shrew. Recorded from the balsam bell above 5,000 feet on Roan Mountain; probably occurs also on other high summits; one specimen obtained in the Pink Beds, Pisgali Forest, ai :'». :?<)<» feet. July 26, L905. . M. Sorex fumeus Miller. — Sooty Shrew. Known in North Carolina from only the summil of Roan Mountain, where apparently not uncommon. !•>. Blarina brevicauda {Say). — Short-tailed Shrew. Common throughoul the mountains; taken in the Pink Beds at 3,300 feet. Augusl 2, L904, and at 6,000 feet on Chestnut Bald, Pisgah Forest, Augusl L5, L904. Family talpidae. 46. Scalopus aoi Anns [Linnaeus). -Easteni Mole. Common, at least up to 4. nun feet. 47. Parascalops brewer] i Bach ma in . — Hairy-ta iled Mole. Recorded from Magnetic ("iiv. bill from nowhere else in the State. 48. CONDYLURA CRISTATA \ I .i II linens ) . — Star-nosed Mole. Rare, but occurs throughout the mountains. Order CHIROPTERA. Family vespertjlionidae. 4!>. Myotis lucifugus (Lc Contc). — Little Brown Hat. Recorded from Roan Mountain ami from Buncombe County; one taken in the Pink Beds, Pisgah Forest. Augusl L9, 1!»<>4. 50. Myotis subulatus (Say). — Say Bat. One specimen taken at 3.300 feet in the Pink Beds. Pisgah Forest. Transylvania County, August 12, 1!)04: and another in the same locality, July 25, 1905. 51. Lasionycteris xoctivaoans (Lc Conte). — Silver-haired Bat. Apparently tolerably common in the mountains. 52. Pipistrellus subflavus (Cuvicr). — Georgia Bat. ( !ommon in Buncombe ' 'ounty. 53. Vespertilio fuscus Bcauvois.— Large Brown Bat. Recorded by Mr. C. S. Brimley from Buncombe County; common in The Pink Beds, Pisgah Forest, where taken on July 13, 16, and 20, 1905. ."4. LASIURUS BOREALIS I .1/ Itcllcr I . — Bed Bat. Apparent |y common. 55. Lasiurus cinereus (Bcauvois). — Hoary Bat. lias been taken in Buncombe County. 56. Nycticeius humeralis (Rafinesque) . — Rafinesque Bat. Common in Buncombe County. 57. Corynorhixus macrotis (Le Conte). — Big-eared Bat. One taken by Mr. J. S. Cairns al Weaverville, April 7. 1895; an adult male obtained by the writer in the Fink Beds, Pisgah Forest (3,300 feel i. July 20, 1905. HI LITERATURE. Elliot, D. G. — A Synopsis of the Mammals of North Amer- ica and the Adjacenl Seas. Field Columbian Museum. Pub- lication 45, L901, pp. XV and 471 ; pis. XLIX. Stone, Witmer; and Cram, William Everett. — American Animals. A Popular Guide to the Mammals of North America North of Mexico, with [ntimate Biographies of the more Fa- miliar Species, pp. xxiii and 318. New York. Doubleday, Page and Co., 1902. Miller. Gerrit S., Jr. — Key to the Land .Mammals of North eastern North America. Bulletin of the New York Stale Mu- seum, No. 38; Vol. VIII, L900, pp. 61-160. Brimley, C. S. — A Descriptive Catalogue of the Mammals of North Carolina. Exclusive of the Cetacea: in the Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, XXI. No. 1. li>nr». pp. 1-32. ('on:. E. D. — Observations on the Fauna of the Southern A I leghanies: in the American Naturalist, IV. L871, pp. 392-402. Merriam. Dr. C. Hart. — Remarks on the Fauna of the Greal Smoky Mountains; with Description of a New Species of Red- backed Mouse (Evotomys carolinensis) : in the American Journal of Science. Series :;. XXXVI, 1888, pp. 458-460. Rhoads, S. N. — Contributions to the Zoology of Tennessee. No. 3, Mammals: in Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, L897, pp. L75-205. The Summer Birds of Western North Carolina. Order CICONIIFOEMES. Family ardbidab. 1. Butorides virescens i Li nnaeus i . — Green Heron. A tolerably common summer resident, except on the higher mountains. 2. Florida caerulea {Linnaeus). — Little Blue Heron. Young birds have been observed by Mr. J. S. Cairns during July in Buncombe County; one in the white phase taken July 1, 1905, in the Pink Beds, Pisgah Forest, by Mr. R. G. Burton. 3. Ardba herodias Linnaeus. — Great Blue Heron. Tolerably common except on the high mountains; breeds along the larger streams. 4. Botaurus lentiginosis {Montagu). — American Bittern. Has been taken by Mr. .J. S. Cairns in Buncombe County in every month from April to October inclusive, but not found actually breeding. Order ANSERIFORMES. Family anatidae. 5. Aix sponsa {Linnaeus). — Wood Duck. Not common excepl locally; breeds. order FALCONIFORMES. Family cathartidae. <;. Cathakista \k\v.\- {Vievllot). — Black Vulture. An irregular summer visitor; reported from only Buncombe County. 7. Cathartes ai ha septentrionalis {Wied). Turkey Vol lure. An abundant resident, ranging everywhere. Family falconidab. 8. Falco peregrinus anatum {Bonaparte)- Duck Hawk. ^ Tolerably common in parts of the mountains; breeds. !>. Cbrchneis sparveria {Linnaeus). — American Sparrow ' Hawk. Common ; breeds in April and May. 12 I ;iiim|\ Bl i i - [DAE. 10. Circus hudsonius (Linnaeus). Marsh Hawk. Has been occasionally seen by Mr. ■). S. Cairns "ii the French Broad River in summer. 11. ACCIPITER VELOX (Wil80n) . Sharp-shinned Hawk, i, Resident; nol common; breeds from the middle of May to the middle of June. \'l. Accipiter cooperi] ( [Bonaparte ) . — Cooper Hawk. A tolerably common resident, particularly in the mountain region. Breeds in May. l-"». Aquila chrysaetos (Linnaeus). — Golden Eagle. Resident; no1 very uncommon; breeds in the mountains. 14. Haliaeetus leucocephalus [Linnaeus). Bald Eagle. A rare residenl in (lie mountains; breeds. Lo. Buteo borealis (Gmelin). — Red-tailed Hawk. Resident; common; breeds in March and April. L6. Buteo lineatus {Gmelin). — Red-shouldered Hawk. Tolerably common; not observed above 3,500 feet; breeds in March and April. 17. Buteo platypterus (Vieillot). — Broad-winged Hawk. Common, particularly in the mountains to above t'». ()()(» feet; the most numerous hawk in Pisgah Forest ; breeds in April and May. Family pandionidae. is. Pandion haliaetus uarolinensis (Gmelin). — American Osprey. Rare summer visitor; said to breed along the streams. Order GALLIFORMES. Family meleagrididae. 1!). Meleagris gallopavo silvestris (Vieillot). Wild Turkey. A common resident in parts of the mountains, including Pisgah Forest ; breeds in May and June. Family tetraonidae. 20. BONASA UMBELLUS I Li H II 'I'll S ) . Untied (Irouse. Common resident in the mountains; breeds in May, down to 2,000 feel ; more numerous above 4,000 feet. 13 Famih pj rdicid u L'l. Golinus virginianus ( Linnaeus ) . — Bobwhite. Abundant resident up to 5,000 feel ; said to have been taken on the summit of .Mount Mitchell. Rears two or three broods; nests sometimes as late as September. Order GRUIFORMES. Family rallidab. 22. Creciscus jamaicensis (Gmelln). — Black Kail. Rare summer residenl ; eggs taken in duly. 1887, near Weaverville, by Mr. .1. S. Cairns. -I). Kali. is elegans Audubon. — King Rail. Rare summer visitor in Buncombe County. Order CHARADRIIFORMES. Family charadriidae. 24. OXYECHUS VOCIFERUS I Li It IKK US I . Ivilldeer. Rare summer resident ; breeds. Family scolopacidae. 25. Actitis macularia (Linnaeus). — Spotted Sandpiper. Tolerably common along some of the streams. 26. Rhyacophilus solitarius [Wilson). — Solitary Sandpiper. Rare summer visitor in Buncombe County; observed by Mr. George B. Sennet t in July and August near Cranberry and Roan Mountain. _ 27. Philohela minor (Gmelin). — American Woodcock. Not common; breeds in April. Family columbidae. 28. Zknaiiu'ua macroura {Linnaeus). Mourning Dove../ Tolerably common at least up to 3,000 feet; much less frequent at higher altitudes. 29. COLUJIBIGALLINA PASSERINE TERRESTRIS ( ' lid /KIKI it . — Ground Dove. Rare; one seen by Mr. J. S. Cairns in Buncombe County. May 29, 1891 ; another shot some years previously. It breeds in Davidson County, just east of our present limits. Order CUCULIFORMES. Family cuculidae. 30. Coccrzus brythrophthalmus (Wilson). Black-billed ( Juckoo. Rare; breeds. 31. Coccyzus americanus (Linnaeus) . Yellow-billed Cuckoo. Common, bu1 less frequently observed al the higher alti- tudes; breeds from May to July. oi.lcr CORACIIFORMES. Family picidae. 32. Colaptes auratus auratus (Linnaeus) . — Flicker. Common in the southern part of the region up to 4,000 feei ; breeds in May and June. 33. Colaptes auratus i.iteis Bangs.— Northern Flicker. Replaces true auratus in the northwestern pari of the State; ranges up al least to 5,000 feet. J4. Centurus carolinus (Linnaeus). — Red-bellied Wood- pecker. Tolerably common locally up to 4,000 feet. 35. Melanerpes erythrocephalus i Linnaeus). — Lied-headed Woodpecker. Tolerably common; taken as high as 6,000 feet; breeds in May. 36. Ceophloeus pileatus (Linnaeus). — Pileated Woodpecker. Tolerably common; breeds in April. 37. Sen vKAincis varius (Linnaeus). Yellow-bellied Sap- sucker. Rather uncommon except locally; found principally mi the higher mountains; breeds in April. May, and June. 38. Dryobates pubescens (Lmnae-ns). Southern Downy Woodpecker. Common resident, occui*ring to the summits of the high mountains; breeds in .May and June. •'!!>. DRYOBATES VILLOSUS VILLOSUS [Linnaeus] . 1 1 a i r \ Wood pecker. Not common; breeds on the higher mountains down at least to about 5,500 feet. 40. Dryobates villosus audubonii (Swainson). — Southern Hairy Woodpecker. Tolerably common up to about 5,000 feci; breeds in April. Family alcedinibae. 41. Ceryle alcyon {Linnaeus). — Belted Kingfisher. Tolerably common; less frequent above 4,000 feet; breeds in May. Family ASIONIDAE. 4l'. Asio magellanicus virgixianus (Gmelin). — Greal Horned Owl. Common resident : breeds in January and February. 4-'!. Orus asio {Linnaeus). — Screech Owl. Common resident; breeds in April and May. 44. Syrnium vakiiwi (Barton). — Barred Owl. Tolerably common up to 5,000 feel at leasl ; breeds. Family capri uulgidae. 45. Caprimulgus vociferus Wilson. — Whip-poor-will. Common up to 3,500 feet: breeds in April and May. 4»>. Chordeiles virgixiaxus [Gmelin). — Xigbthawk. Tolerably common; breeds in April and May. Family micropodidae. 47. Chaetura pelagica {Linnaeus). — Chimney S\a if r. Abundant; breeds to the tops of the highesl mountains; nesrs in dune. Family trochilidae. 48. Trochilus colubris Linnaeus. — Ruby-throated Humming- bird. Common to the summits of the mountains; breeds in May; often ver\ alnindant in August. Order PASSERIFORMES. Family tyranxibae. 41). Empidonax minimis {Baird). — Leas! Flycatcher. Rare; ranges up to about 4,500 feet; breeds. n; 50. Empidonax virescens {Vieillot). -Green-crested Fly- catcher. Common below 3,000 feet; reaches 3,300 feel in Pipgah Por- es! : breeds in May and June. 51. Borizopus virens {Linna&iis) . Wood Pewee. Common up to 4,000 feel ; breeds in June. 52. NuTTALLORNIS BOREALIS ( Siniinsoii | .-— 01 ive-sided Fly- ca t cher. Tolerably common locally above 4,000 feet; breeds. 53. Sayornis phoebe {Latham). — Phoebe. Common below about 4,000 feet, but occurs even on the sum in i t s of the liighesl mountains. Breeds in May. 54. Myiarchus crinitus {Linnaeus). — Crested Flycatcher. Common up to aboul 4,500 feet; less frequenl for another thousand feet. 55. Tyrannus tyrannus {Linnaeus). — Kingbird. Tolerably common up to the lower slopes of the mountains. Family mimioae. ."it;. Toxostoma aupuat {Linnaeus). — Brown Thrasher. Common up to 3,000 feet; less frequenl to 1,000 feet; nests in April. 7)1. Galeoscoptes carolinexsis ( Li imaeiw). — Catbird. Abundant; ranges to at least 6,300 feet; round nesting in June. 58. Mimus polyglottos {Linnaeus). — Mockingbird. Common locally below 2,000 feel ; rare elsewhere. Family ti rdioae. 59. Siai.ia sialis {Linnaeus). — Bluebird. Common; occurs in places al leasl to 6,000 feet, bul more numerous below 4.000 feet ; nests as early as March. 60. Mkimi.a migratoria achrustera Batclwlder. — Southern Robin. Common from at leasl L,800 feel to the tops of thehighesl mountains; breeds from March to July. 61. Bylocichla fuscescens {Stephens). SVilson Thrush. Common from 3,000 to 6,000 feel ; aests in May. 17 62. Hylocichla mustelixa (Crmelin).- Wood Thrush. Common; ranges to 5.000 feet: breeds in May. Family sylviii»ak. <».'!. Polioptila cabri lea (Linnaeus). — Blue-gray Gnat- ca teller. Common at least to 3.50(1 feet; breeds in May and June. Family regulidae. 04. Regulus satrapa LichtenMeAn. — Golden-crowned Kinglet. Common above 5,000 feet, chiefly in the balsam belt; breeds in June. Family troglodytidae. 65. Olbiorchilus iiik.mai.is iVieillot). — Winter Wren. Tolerably common in the balsam belt, above 5,000 feet; breeds. b'fi. Thryomanes bewicku (Audubon). — Bewick Wren. Common in the mountains, chiefly in towns, but ranges also to the tops of the highest peaks: nests in April and May. 07. Thryothorus unovMi ams (Latham).— Carolina Wren. Common up to 4.000 feet ; breeds regularly from April to July, sometimes as late as October. Family certhiidae. 68. Certhia familiaris americaxa (Bonaparte). — Brown ( Jreeper. Common above 4,000 feel : breeds in May. Family sittidae. 69. SlTTA CANADENSIS Li >i iHKlts. — Red breasted Nuthatch. Common above 5,000 feet; occasional down to 4. (Mil) feet; breeds in May. 70. Sitta carolixensis Lath-am. — White-breasted Nuthatch. Common, ranging at leasl to 6,000 feet : breeds in April and May. Family paridae. 71. Penthestes carolinensis \ Audubon) ■ — Carolina Chicka- dee. Common up to 5,000 feet: breeds in May and June. IS 72. Penthestes atbicapillus i Linnaeus) . — Chickadee. Tolerably common above 5,000 feel : breeds in May and June. 7."!. Baeolophus bicoloe I Lin urn us i . Tutted Ti t mouse. Abundant; ranges up to 4,000 feet; breeds in April. May. ;in<] June. Family cobVioae. 74. Cyanocitta cbistata (Linnaeus). — Blue Jay. Common resident; ranges t<> the lops of the lii.uliesi moun- tains; breeds in April. 7.~>. COBVUS BBACHYBHYNCHOS Urchin. — American ( 'row. Abundant resident, though less frequenl above 3,500 feet; breeds. 7<)() feel ; breeds in March, April, and May. 99. Dexdroica pexsylvaxica i Linnaeus). — Chestnut-sided Warbler. Common in the mountains, from 2,000 to 1,000 feet; breeds in May and June. 1.00. Dexdroica domixica (Linnaeus). -Yellow-throated Warbler. Tolerably common locally up to 2,500 feet; breeds in May and June. 101. I ) i:\dko i (A blackburxiae i (l iik I'm i . — Blackburnian Warbler. Common above 3,000 feel : breeds. 102. Dexdroica virexs (Gmelin). — Black-throated Green Warbler. Common above 4,000 feet; ranges down to 2,000 feet; breeds. ID."!. Dexdroica caerulescexs cairxsi Cones.— Cairns Warb- ler. Abundanl above 3,000 feel : breeds in May and June. lot. Dexdroica maculosa (Gmelm). — Magnolia Warbler. Rare; young birds said b\ Mr. J. s. Cairns to be common in July in Buncombe County. 105. Dexdroica aestiva (Gmelin). — Yellow Warbler. Tolerably common below l'.siiii feet LOO. Compsothlypis americaxa ( Lhinut us\. — Parula Warbler. Common, except on the highest parts of the mountains; breeds in May and June. 21 107. Yermivoka pinus (Linnaeus). — Blue-winged Warbler. Rare summer visitor at the lower altitudes; breeds. ins. Vermiyora chrysoptera i Linnaeus). — Golden-winged Warbler. Tolerably common from 2.000 to 4. Km feel ; breeds in May and June. 109. Helmitheros vermivorus (Gmelin). — Worm-eating Warbler. Rare, except locally at the lower levels, panging to 4,00(1 feet ; breeds in May and June, sometimes in July. 110. Mniootlta vakia (Linnaeus). — Black and White Warbler. Abundant up to 5,000 feet, and in less numbers reaches the summits of the highest mountains; breeds in April and May. Family [CTERIDAE. 111. Sturnella magna (Linnaeus). — Meadowlark. Rare; found at all altitudes; breeds. 112. Agelaius phoeniceus (Linnaeus). — Red-winged Black- bird. Tolerably common in the lower valleys. 113. [cterus galbula \ Li n miens \ . — Baltimore Oriole. Tolerably common ; breeds. 114. [CTERys SPURIUS [Linnaeus) . — Orchard Oriole. Tolerably common up to about 2,500 feet; breeds. 11.". Quiscalus quiscula (Linnaeus). — Purple Grackle. Not common: breeds at Asheville in May. lib. Molothrus ater (Boddaert I . — Cowbird. Observed by Mr. George 15. Sennett at Cranberry, in August, L886; seen by Mr. R. O. Pond in the Pink Beds, Pisgah Forest, duly 31, L905. Family tanagridae. 117. Piranga erythromelas V-ieillot. — Scarlet Tanager. Common in the mountains from about 2.000 to 5.000 feet. casually to 6,000 feet; breeds in May. 118. Piranga rubra (Linnaeus). — Summer Tanager. Common at the lower altitudes; breeds. Family frixgillidae. 11!). Cardinalis cardinalis (Linnaeus). — Cardinal. Common up to 3,500 feet, ranging also occasionally to 6,20(1 feet; breeds from May t»» August, rarely also in September. Il'ii. Zamelodia ludoviciaxa [Linnaeus). — Rose-breasted Grosbeak. Tolerably common above .*!..~>iui feel ; breeds in May. l'_!l. Guiraca caerulea [Linnaeus). Blue Grosbeak. Rare; probably breeds at the lower altitudes. li"_'. Cyaxospiza cyanea i I. ilium -us) . Indigo Bunting. Common; ranges to the tops of the mountains, bul more numerous below 5.000 feel : breeds. L23. I'll'll.o BRYTHROPHTHALMl'S ) I .i U iliirii s \ . ('hcwillk; Townee. Common mi all altitudes; breeds in April, May. and June. 1 lit. Melospiza cinerea melodia (Wilson). Song Sparrow. Common ai Cranberry, and along the !><»<' River on the north side of Roan Mountain; also ai Biltmore, ami in the Pink Beds, L'isgah Forest (3,800 feet); undoubtedly breeds. 1 -."►- Spizella pusilla (Wilson). -Field Sparrow. Common up to 3,500 feel ; breeds from May to August. \-i\. Spizella socialis (Wilson). — Chipping Sparrow. Common, excepl in heavy forest; breeds in May ami June, probably also later. Il'7. Junco hyemalis carolinensis Brewster. Carolina Junco. The mosl abundant species above 5,000 feel ; ranges in di- minished numbers down to 8,000 feel ; breeds from April to August. 128. AlMOPHILA AESTIVALIS BACHMAXI1 I . 1 Nihil, nu) . I'.nrlimnil Sparrow. Hare; ranges to about 2,000 feet; breeds. L29. Ammodramus savaxxarcm passerixus i Wilson).- -Grass- hopper Sparrow. Tolerably common up to 2,300 feet; breeds. i:; I dunlin i . \ »-s|»t'r Shallow . Tolerablj common in Buncombe County, beginning to breed about the middle «»f April; observed at Pisgah Forest Station, Transj Ivania County, July 31, 1905. l.'.l. Chondestbs gbam&iaccs [Hay). Lark Sparrow. A full mown young ol the year, which had probably been bred not far away, u.i^ obtained b\ Mr. George B. Bennett ran berry, al about 3.000 Feel altitude, August 9, 1886. 1 32 1 ' Linnat u* I . I louse Sparrow . This foreign species is bos tolerabh common in sou f the towns. \ ,..i,.m\ was established in Asheville about December, 1884 i ii apt ski - I '/<«< ini i . I*urple Pinch. Ifr William Brewster round thin species abundant, in full ■ong, and apparently breeding, at Old Fort, McDowell County. i:: i Astb m m.im b tb American < loldflnch. Common resident, at least up to 5,000 feet; breeds in July and ' 135. Spin i i i sua [Wilton). l*ine Siskin. \l,- William Brewster found it common in June, 1885, in the balsam belt ol the Black Mountains above 5.200 feet 136 Loxu tosrnu minob (Brehm). American Crossbill. Tolerably common In the mountains above 5,000 feet ; Observed bj Mr t ■•■■ ' nnett Bear Cranberrj ►0 feet | in August, i vvl > LITERATURE. I{ W ay, EtouBi A Manual of North American Birds. Illustrated bj »•'•» outline drawings ol the generic characters. Second Edition, 1896. pp. siii and 653; pis. CXXIV. I'hiladel phm. J. B. Lippincott Company Oo, , Kej to North American Birds. Fifth Edi Hon, 1903. Vol. 1. pp. sli and l 535; Vol. II. pp. ri and 53fr i [52 Boston. Dana Bates and Company. Chapman Frank M. Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America. L805. pp. d? and 121. Ne* 5Tork. D. Appleton and i tampan ) 24 Atkinson, George F. — Preliminary Catalogue of the Birds of North Carolina, with Notes on some of the Species: in the Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, IV. No. 2, 1887, pp. 44-S7. Batchelder, Charles F. — The North Carolina Mountains in Winter: in The Auk. III. 1886, pp. 307-314. Brewster, William. — An Ornithological Reconnaissance in Western North Carolina: in The Auk, 111. 1886, pp. 94-112; 173-179. Cairns, John S. — A Lisl of Birds of Buncombe Co., North Carolina: in Ornithologist and Oologist, XII, 1887, pp. •'!-♦>. Cairns, John S. -The Summer Birds of Buncombe County, North Carolina: in Ornithologist and Oologist, XIV, 1889, pp. 1 7-23. Cairns, John S. List of the Birds of Buncombe County. North Carolina. [1902.] pp. 18. Privately printed. Jeffries, W. A.; and Jeffries, J. A. — Notes on Western North Carolina Birds: in The Auk, VI. 1889, pp. 119-122. Loom is, Leverett M. — June Birds of Caesar's Head. South Carolina: in The Auk, VIII, 1891, pp. 323-333. Rhoads, Samuel N. — Contributions to the Zoology of Ten- nessee. No. 2, Birds: in Proceedings of the Academy of Nat- ural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1895, pp. 4«;:s -~>m . Senxett, George B.— Observations in Western North Caro- lina Mountains in 1886: in The Auk. IV. 1887, pp. 240-245. Smithwick, 4. W. P. — Ornithology of North Carolina: Bul- letin 144. North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station. 1S!I7. pp. 193-228.