C 55.13/2: NMFS-F/SPO-26/V.4 WORLD SWORDFISH FISHERIES Volume IV. Latin America Part A. South America Section 1 . Pacific Segment A. Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru /dP^^S^. U.S. Department of Commerce *\ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Marine Fisheries Service WORLD SWORDFISH FISHERIES An Analysis of Swordfish Fisheries, Market Trends, and Trade Patterns Past-Present-Future Libraries Volume IV. FEB £ 4 1998 Latin America Documents Collection U.S. Depository Copy Part A. South America Section 1 . Pacific Segment A. Colombia, Ecuador and Peru Prepared by The Office of Science and Technology Dennis M. Weidner Julio A. Serrano Graphics by Paul G. Lineberger Research and Data Systems Corporation November 1997 NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-F/SPO-26 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Marine Fisheries Service Silver Spring, Maryland Prepared by: Division of International Science and Technology (F/ST3) The Office of Science and Technology National Marine Fisheries Service National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration 1315 West- West Highway Silver Spring, Maryland 20910 U.S.A. Tel: (301) 713-2286 FAX: (301) 713-2313 E-mail: Dennis.Weidner@noaa.gov This part of the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) world swordfish study should be cited as: Dennis Weidner and Julio Serrano, "South America: Pacific," Part A, Section 1 (Segments A and B) in "Latin America," World Swordfish Fisheries: An Analysis of Swordfish Fisheries, Market Trends, and Trade Patterns, Vol. IV (NMFS: Silver Spring, Maryland, November, 1997). PREFACE The waters off Latin America, especially South America, are major world fishing grounds. Fishermen conduct fisheries both to produce fishmeal and edible products. Two countries (Chile and Peru) routinely report some of the world's largest fishery catches. The Peruvian catch has approached as much as 13 million tons. This massive catch is composed largely of small pelagic species (anchovy, jack mackerel, and sardines) which are reduced to relatively low-value fishmeal. Until the 1970s Latin American fisheries for edible species were primarily artisanal operations employing traditional methods and in many cases operating at near subsistence levels or producing non- export grade product sold for minimal prices on local markets. Until recently there was a relatively weak demand for seafood in much of Latin America, especially in the inland cities where the region's population has traditionally been centered. Most consumers showed a preference for red meat. In part this was due to the generally poor quality of the available product. Inadequate handling and processing standards meant that the fish available to consumers beyond coastal cities was often poor quality product. Most of the countries in the region are gradually modernizing their fisheries. The first modern commercial fisheries were often shrimp trawl fisheries which began to appear in the 1950s. Generally the first commercial fisheries to develop were those aimed at export markets because of the greater availability of funds for needed investments in vessels, gear and processing plants. Fishermen have gradually developed many other commercial and artisanal fisheries deploying a wide variety of gear and methods as well as new aquaculture industries. Many companies in the region now produce high-quality product meeting international standards and market it in both domestic and export markets. The development of modern commercial and improved artisanal fisheries in Latin America has many economic and commercial implications. The evolving Latin American fishing industries offer opportunities for U.S. shipyards, manufacturers (gear, electronic instruments, and processing equipment), consultants, fishermen, brokers, investors, etc. The information in this report may be of interest to those U.S. companies trying to access market opportunities in Latin America. Fisheries used to be an economic backwater in much of region. That has changed over the past two decades. Many countries in the region now list fishery products as one of their principal export commodities, remarkable considering the fact that there was virtually no commercial development before the 1950s. In many countries the fishing industry is now one of the most dynamically growing sectors of the national economy. The industry is creating well-paying jobs, producing food, and increasing export earnings. Several countries have resources that are not yet fully utilized and could permit continued expansion. Many countries report, however, greatly expanded fishing effort and declining yields. Government that just a few years ago were promoting the industry's development are now faced with the need to limit that effort to ensure optimal utilization. Available fishing fleet and catch data graphically show that Latin American fishermen are steadily expanding the fishing industry. Much of the effort has gone into purse seine fisheries for small and large pelagics and trawl fisheries for shrimp and groundfish. Some countries are making enormous progress with aquaculture. A wide variety of other gear and methods are being used on a smaller scale. Some fishermen are using gillnets and driftnets to catch a diverse range of species, including oceanic pelagics like tuna and swordfish. Much of the Latin American effort on oceanic pelagics has focused on tunas and several countries have developed important fisheries (Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, and Venezuela). Less attention has been devoted to the smaller swordfish resources. The first Latin American swordfish fisheries (Chile and Peru) in the 1940s and early 50s were at the time some of the most significant fishery operations in the region and for a few years dominated the local fishery. Since the 1950s, the species off Latin America was fished almost exclusively by foreign fishermen conducting longline operations on the highseas and to a lesser extent through a variety of access arrangements in coastal waters. Foreign fishermen have been active off both the region's Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Latin American fishermen, with the exception of Cuba, did not begin to target the species themselves until the mid-1980s with the deployment of both driftnet (Chile and Mexico) and longline (Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Uruguay, and Venezuela) fisheries. Foreign fishermen and vessels have played a major role in the longline fisheries in several of these countries (Brazil, Chile, Cuba, and Uruguay). The high value available for swordfish has meant that it is an attractive species for both local and distant-water fishermen. The efficiency of modern fishing gear, however, has also meant that valuable species, like swordfish, are often heavily targeted. in This is certainly case of swordfish and the massive effort deployed and declining yields has prompted Atlantic-coast countries to restrict fishing effort in the north Atlantic through the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) to bring the north Atlantic effort in line with the available resource. Two Latin American countries (Cuba and Venezuela) are especially concerned with north Atlantic swordfish. Foreign fishermen have responded by significantly shifting effort into the south Atlantic. The Spanish in particular have greatly expanded their swordfish catches in the south Atlantic, reporting larger catches than the two principal South American countries involved (Brazil and Uruguay). ICCAT has, as a result, implemented a management scheme for the south Atlantic. The expanded foreign fishing in the south Atlantic is of special concern to two Latin American countries (Brazil and Uruguay). Observers are now concerned about expanding fishing and falling yields in the Pacific. The major Latin American fishing country in the Pacific is Chile. Chilean fishermen have, however, reported a massive catch decline since the fishery peaked in 1991. Other Pacific-coast Latin American countries have smaller fisheries (Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Mexico). Several countries (Colombia and Peru) are assessing possible tuna/swordfish longline fisheries. The international community has given less attention to Pacific swordfish then Atlantic swordfish, but several international organizations are conferring increased attention on the species. Scientists have held symposia focusing specifically on Pacific swordfish. The bulk of the fishing in the Pacific have been conducted by a small number of distant-water countries (Japan, Taiwan, and the United States). Latin American countries are focusing increasing attention on swordfish, responding to the strong demand in international markets for high-quality fresh product. Latin American fishing effort on Pacific swordfish has declined somewhat since 1991 because of the decline of the Chilean fishery. Some countries (Costa Rica and Ecuador) which are developing longline fisheries, however, have reported improved catches. Several other countries (Colombia, Peru, and Mexico) are considering the deployment of longline fisheries. It would thus appear likely that Latin American fishing effort will increase in the next few years. The overall trends will be significantly affected by developments in Chile which has the largest commercial longline fishery and could significantly increase effort in both coastal and offshore grounds, if warranted by market conditions. Currently much of the country's longline fleet is deployed in bottom longline fisheries for demersal species because of favorable prices for those species. Several of those vessels could be deployed on surface fisheries for swordfish and tunas, depending on market conditions. Developments in other countries are likely to be slower, but two countries (Costa Rica and Ecuador) reported substantial catch increases in 1996. In some instances the local fishery deploys relatively small vessels (Costa Rica and Ecuador) while in others (Colombia and Peru) large foreign commercial longliners have been contracted. Major expansion of domestic effort in these countries, however, will require substantial investment in new vessels as well as the acquisition of foreign technology. Costa Rica and Ecuador have demonstrated the possibility of expanding operations by promoting artisanal fishermen with modest investments. It is unclear, however, as to how many countries could pursue this option. Other countries which have tried to deploy commercial longliners through foreign joint ventures (Brazil, Peru, and Uruguay) are now giving increased attention to small coastal longliners. The international community is currently addressing many difficult fishery issues, including high-seas fisheries, reflagging, straddling stocks, and responsible fishing. Increasingly world fishery managers are coming to the conclusion that effective management of fisheries requires expanded international cooperation. Talks are underway seeking to establish accepted international norms. These discussions have lead to some agreed international guidelines, but the complexity of the issues and the conflicting interests involved suggest that problems will persist for some time. One still unresolved issue, especially in the Pacific, is the problem of international management of a highly-migratory stock. It will not be an easy process to reach a consensus on swordfish. The data in this and accompanying regional surveys is designed to provide some basic information to the government officials assessing possible cooperative efforts. Biologists from several countries are giving considerable attention to swordfish and other oceanic pelagics. For the most part, however, little research is being conducted in Latin America, primarily because the species has until recently been of little commercial interest in most countries. In addition, research on highly migratory species is often difficult and costly, usually with no immediate return. The Chilean Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), however, has assigned considerable priority to its swordfish research program. IV Biologists as a result of the expanding body of research are beginning to better understand basic data about the stock structure and behavior of Pacific swordfish. While researchers are just at the beginning stage of collecting data, they are acquiring the data needed to effectively manage the species in the Pacific. Much of the research underway has been initiated by Japan and the United States and centered on the north Pacific. Data on the south Pacific is much more limited. The authors have attempted to summarize the Latin American research efforts as well as other foreign work which may help in the understanding of the species in the southeastern Pacific. Government officials are also concerned about the sometimes considerable by-catch associated with swordfish fisheries. Sharks are coming under increased fishing pressure and they are a major part of the by-catch in many tuna and swordfish fisheries, especially the coastal fisheries conducted in Latin America. Other by-catch concerns include seabirds, marine mammals, and billfish. Turtles are a special concern because of the precarious state of many species. Some environmentalists believe that the turtle by-catch from tuna/swordfish fisheries may be considerable. The incidence of interaction may be low, but given the heavy fishing effort, the overall impact could be significant. Biologists are especially concerned with the sharp drop in leatherback turtles and some believe that driftnet and longline fisheries in the southeastern Pacific may be a factor in the decline. Silver Spring, Maryland September 24, 1997 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Latin American section of this study focuses initially on the Pacific coast countries of South America. Planned future volumes will cover other Latin American countries. The next planned set is the Atlantic coast South American countries (Argentina north to Venezuela). The authors are indebted to the many contributors throughout the region who supplied information and guidance. The individuals named here are primarily those who contributed to the South American Pacific chapters. Those individuals who have contributed to the Atlantic coast studies will be acknowledged when those chapters are published. The authors have greatly appreciated the invaluable assistance from NMFS and other NOAA colleagues for their many patient hours unselfishly sharing their expertise. The staff of the NMFS Southwest Fisheries Science Center, both at La Jolla and Honolulu, (Norman Bartoo, Christofer Boggs, Robert Dollar, Peter Dutton, Dave Holts, Robert Humphreys, Russel Ito, Donald Kobayashi, Michael Lars, Richard Parish, Jeffrey Polovino, Gary Sakagawa, Michael Seki, and others) and the Southeast Fisheries Science Center (Jean Crammer, Albert Jones, Eric Prince, Gerry Scott, and others) patiently navigated the authors through the still evolving intricacies of swordfish biology as well as briefed us on their current research. Staff of the NMFS Office of Protected Resources (Wanda Cain, Tom Mclntyre, Barbara Schroeder, Angela Somma, and Dean Wilkinson) provided many valuable insights for the by-catch section. Staff of the Office of Sustainable Fisheries were also helpful. The Highly Migratory Species Division (Michael Bailey, John Kelly, Rebecca Lent, Ron Rinaldo, and Chris Roggers) provided important guidance on swordfish fisheries and management programs. The International Fisheries Division (Kimberly Blakenbeker, Paul Niemeyer, and Dean Swanson) provided background on IATTC, ICCAT, and various international negotiations and treaties. Staff of the Office and Technology (Ned Cyr, John Everett, Steve Koplin, and Jim Meehan) provide assistance understanding fisheries biology and oceanography as well as obtaining U.S. statistical data. The Office of Industry and Trade (Jerome Erbacher) provided helpful details on trade patterns. The Office of Inter- Governmental and Recreational Fisheries (Richard Schaefer) provided a great deal of information on recreational and historical fishing off Chile. Dick along with Allen Peterson, Director of the Northeast Fisheries Science Center, kindly gave the authors access to their exhaustive collection of books describing the history of recreational and commercial fishing around the world. Vernon Kousky with NOAA's Climate Analysis Center, National Weather Service, kindly provided details on the developing 1997 El Nino and detailed sea surface temperature maps for the eastern Pacific. Staff at National Climatic Data Center of the National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service (NESDIS) searched hundreds of satellite images to find one showing the Humboldt Current and upwelling off Peru. The task was difficult because of the lack of high resolution data and persistent cloud coverage. NESDIS did, however, succeed in finding two images for us. Various individuals from multilateral organizations, academic institutions, and U.S. companies were also extremely helpful to the authors. Assistance offered by the Fisheries Department of the Food and Agriculture Organization has proven crucial in obtaining up to date statistics. The authors are particularly indebted to Adele Crispoldi whose painstaking work compiling often hard to synthesize data is critical to the analysis of world fisheries. Without the work of Adele and her colleagues, the complication of this and previous works would have been virtually impossible. FAO provides an invaluable service to those of us involved in assessing international fisheries. We are most grateful to Adele for her unfailingly prompt and informative replies to our many queries. Fabio Carocci and Jacek Majkowski, FAO Fisheries Resources Division, published an informative atlas on tuna and billfish which proved helpful in efforts to assess seasonal patterns. They kindly assented to the reproduction of some of their graphics, but unfortunately technical problems prevented this. Gabriel Rodriguez Marquez, Officer in Charge of the FAO Office, in Montevideo helped organize appointments in Montevideo and provided much useful information on the local fishing industry and foreign activity. Roland Wiefels, Director of INFOPESCA, provided helpful Latin American trade data. Martin Hall, Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC), provided insightful data on purse seine by-catches in the eastern Pacific. Michael Hinton, another IATTC researcher, provided an overview of Pacific swordfish research. Matthias Tomczak, Flinders University of South Australia, and J. Stuart Godfrey, Commonwealth Science and Industry Research Organization, kindly permitted the use of some of their informative oceanographic maps. Peter Redmayne, Seafood Leader, provided a wonderful VI photograph of processing swordfish in San Antonio. Scott Eckert with Hubbs-Sea World Research Institute provided background information and satellite tracking data on turtles, especially leatherbacks, which are taken incidentally in swordfish and other fisheries. The authors are also extremely grateful for the enormous assistance and critical insights supplied by a multitude of devoted Latin American government officials and dynamic scientists, company representatives, and fishermen: Chile: The authors are especially grateful to the many highly professional Chilean officials, company representatives, and researchers who assisted with this study. NMFS and Chilean fishery agencies cooperate through a Fisheries Cooperation Program inspired by Chile's forward looking Director of the Servicio Nacional de Pesca (SERNAP), Juan Rusque. The authors are most grateful for the assistance provided by our many Chilean colleagues. Detailed acknowledgements are included in the Chilean chapter of this study. Colombia: Guerly Avila de Tabares with INPA/VECEP, forwarded some wonderful pictures of artisanal operations along the Caribbean coast. Javier Bentancourt, Manager, INPESCA, carefully described his company and the local fisheries. Martha Lucia de la Pava, INPESCA and Bahia Cupica, provided valuable details on Colombian companies and association with foreign longliners. Armando Herna'ndez, Executive Director, Camara de la Industria Pesquera, provided interesting photographs on Colombian fisheries. Luis Manjarres, INPA/VECEP, provided a great deal of valuable information on artisanal fishing. Adriana and Robert Osbina, Pescaderia Asturiana, provided insightful information on their company and association contracts with foreign longliners. Luis Alonzo Padilla, Coordinator of Marine Resource Evaluation, INPA/VECEP, described the local artisanal fishery in detail. Fernando Rey, Subdirector General, Desarrollo y Ordenamiento Pesquero, INPA, carefully explained Colombian fishing regulations. Luis Zapata, Marine Resource Coordinator with INPA/VECEP, provided some beautiful photographs of Pacific fisheries taken by his colleagues (Gilbert Acevedo, Julio Cesar Casquete, and Manuel Ramirez). Ecuador: Juan Benicasa with the Asociacidn de Exportadores de Pescado Blanco (ASOEXPEBLA) shared some excellent images of the artisanal fleet. The Asociacidn de Atuneros de Ecuador (ATUNEC) provided useful information on Ecuador's tuna fleet. Boris Buenaventura, President, Pesymar, provided a wealth of information on Ecuadorean commercial and artisanal fisheries and some excellent photographs, patiently answering our many questions. Orlando Crespo, Asesor del Sub-Secretario de Pesca, Direccidn General de Pesca, explained Ecuadorean fishing regulations. Fernando Felix Felix, Fundacidn Ecuatoriana para el Estudio de Mamiferos Marinos, kindly reviewed and added valuable insights on pinnipeds to the by-catch section of the report. Cecilia Marin, Biologist, Instituto Nacional de Pesca, provided current Ecuadorean data and explained the intricacies involved. Ramon Montano C. with ASOEXPEBLA also provided some wonderful photographs of the artisanal fleet. Alexandra Paez, Commercial Manager, Productos del Mar Santa Rosa Cia. Ltda. (PROMAROSA), described her company's operations and experience with El Nino and by providing some , interesting photographs. Eusebio Reyes, Manager, Agrol, described his company as well as Ecuador's commercial fishery in general. Otto Schwarz, President, MARDEX, described his company as well as submitted several interesting photographs. Peru: Emira Anotonetti, Instituto del Mar de Peru (IMARPE), provided valuable statistical data. Sergio Balarezo Saldana, Project Coordinator, IDB-UDEP Project, provided details on the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) fisheries development project and activities at Peruvian universities. Jorge Campos, Manager, Consorcio Pesquero/Productos Pesqueros Peruanos, briefed us on the company's efforts to launch a Peruvian tuna longline fishery. Maximo Collao, General Manager, Tuna Latin, guided us through his experience at trying to longline tuna by acquiring Japanese vessels and the difficulties encountered with the government. He also provided some interesting photographs over the internet. Jose Echeandi'a Zegarra, General Manager, TRAMARSA, briefed the authors on the port of Ilo and provided a wonderful set of photographs on swordfish transhipping. Ursino Gonzalez at the Hotel Merlin described the opportunities for recreational fishing off northern Peru. Eduardo Pastor, SIPECA, helped initiate the Peruvian chapter of this study by forwarding some fascinating historical reports and providing extensive background on Peruvian fisheries from his exhaustive experience in the industry. He also provided many excellent photographs. Gladys Liliana Rocha Freyre, Directora Nacional de Extraccidn, Ministerio de Pesqueria (MIPES), forwarded useful statistical data. Ramon Salas, a Chilean vessel captain working with SIPECA, described fishing off Chile as well as details on the results of 1997 trips off Peru, providing important vn details in vessel operations and swordfish stomach contents. Jorge Zuzunaga Zuzunaga, Director Ejecutivo, Instituto del Mar, kindly reviewed the manuscript and he and his staff provided several important suggestions as well as additional information. Robert Webster, Sea Sources, provided many valuable insights as well as several excellent photographs. Other: Many other individuals have assisted with the upcoming volumes on the other Latin American countries. These individuals will be mentioned in those volumes. Several of the individuals, however, provided information of use in the initial volumes and overview. Oscar Sosa-Nishizaki at CICESE (Mexico) provide invaluable information on Mexico's Pacific driftnet fishery and kindly permitted the use of important graphics from his study of swordfish seasonality in the southeastern Pacific. Freddy Arocha with the Universidad de Oriente (Venezuela) provided important information on Venezuela as well as valuable insights on swordfish biology. He is also contributing to the upcoming Venezuelan chapter of this study. Alberto Amorim and his colleague Carlos Alberto Arfelli at Brazil's Instituto de Pesca provided invaluable information on Atlantic coast fisheries went to great lengths to ensure that the author could observe swordfish being landing included a 100-mile trip late at night. J. Nelson Antero-Silva at CPERG/IBAMA helped obtain information on Taiwan Atlantic fisheries and joint ventures and graciously organized a fascinating tour of fishery facilities in Rio Grande do Sul. Alvaro San Pedro, Manager at Christophersen in Montevideo generously provided a wealth of information on vessel activity in Montevideo. preparing the Division's computers for this project. NMFS contractor Francesca Fontes helped finalized the formatting of the first four chapters and will participate in the research on the Atlantic coast countries. Last but certainly not last, the authors are indebted to our colleagues, William Folsom and Mark Wildman, for the unflagging assistance over several weekends in formatting the Chilean chapter, a daunting task with only basic desk top publishing software. Silver Spring, Maryland September 30, 1997 The Office of Science and Technology conducts an active summer intern program to introduce high school and college students to the Federal Government. These students have played an important role in preparing tables and graphics, conducting internet and library searches, preparing bibliographies, and formatting the text for publication. The individuals involved were Ebbon Allen, Rita Anderson, Joe Close, Chinhyen Nguyen, Nelsinia Wood, and Debbie Wade. Alfonso Zavala assisted with the interviews for the Peruvian chapter of the report. Many other individuals have played important roles in the study. Paul Lineburger with Research and Data Systems Corporation (RDC) is responsible for the extensive graphical presentation. He personally prepared over 300 graphics and was tireless in his support of our summer interns who also worked on graphics. The authors also appreciate the work done by Janet Dick and her RDC colleagues in Vlll NOTES The authors stress that this is not a scientific paper. The principal objective of the report is to provide and analyze timely statistical data for U.S. Government officials, company executives, consultants, academic institutions, and environmental groups, and others interested in Latin American fishery developments. The authors have sought to inform U.S. groups as to the full scope of opinions expressed in each country concerning the swordfish and other related fisheries. For this reason unverified press reports have been used extensively because they provide an indication of prevailing opinions and the range of ideas expressed in policy debates. A timely synthesis of available commercial, economic, and scientific information is needed to fully understand local fishing industries. The time required to prepare a thoroughly evaluated scientific paper would make the economic and commercial data in the report so dated that it would be of little value to U.S. readers, beyond marginal historical interest. The authors have decided instead to provide "snap shots" of selected countries giving the reader data as well as available opinions and projections on this rapidly evolving fishery. In some cases opinions have been presented that can not be substantiated by available data. A wide range of assessments are provided because the authors often do not have adequate data to determine who was correct. In other instances the authors have presented opinions with which they disagree to provide a full spectrum of thought from the region. U.S. businessmen and researchers working in Latin America, need to be aware of the full spectrum of views, even widely held opinions that may not be valid. Knowledge of the discussions currently underway and diversity of opinions among officials, researchers, and businessmen in the region is important to government officials and businessmen planning to work in the region. The authors have chosen to provide detailed notes to each of the reports in this volume. The level of documentation is admittedly unusual for a Government or even academic paper. The authors have decided to make such elaborate citations for the following reasons: Further research: Each country report, even the longer chapters, is only a superficial analysis of the local fishery. The references thus provide interested researchers a detailed account of sources which may prove useful in pursuing specific subjects on their own in greater detail. Evaluation: The authors have often been unable to obtain hard data on specific subjects and countries. In many cases such data simply does not exist. In other cases local,officials are unwilling to release data. Often the authors had to rely on the opinions of local officials and industry leaders. The notes identify those sources to help the reader evaluate the specific statements. Assessments: The authors have received many varied, and frequently conflicting, appraisals on the current situation from different local observers. In many instances, it was not possible to fully assess those appraisals. As a result, the authors have often presented a synthesis of different reports to give the reader an idea of the range of assessments. Unpublished: Much of the information did not come from published sources, but rather from telephone conversations and personal interviews, usually in Spanish. As one of the authors is not a native Spanish speakers, this creates the possibility for some misunderstanding. Obtaining information over the phone is difficult enough even in English, the intricacies of a foreign language compound the difficulties. The authors, as a result, felt it important to identify the individual source and date much more thoroughly than if more detailed published information had been available. Each of the interviewees was provided a draft of the report to ensure that their comments were correctly noted. The reader should not take the information on vessel lists, vessel imports, vessel construction, company catch and processing activities, joint ventures, and other matters as complete lists. While the authors attempt to follow announcements in fishery journals, many such developments are only reported in local newspapers which the authors can rarely obtain. Often such developments are not publicly reported at all. Thus the listings in this study are often incomplete and in many cases dated. While they can not be used as a complete inventory of such developments, they do provide a useful overview of the range and diversity of the activities involved, as well as a reasonably complete list of the established and major companies. The authors have not excluded specific companies, shipyards, joints ventures out of any policy decision, but rather because of the limited information available. In a few cases companies have declined to provide information or representatives asked that they not be cited. Individual companies that think their activities should have been mentioned in possible future assessments are encouraged to provide details on their operations to the authors. The preparation of this report has been significantly impaired by the paucity of reliable IX statistical and other published information. This is due to several factors: New fishery: The swordfish fishery is relatively new, and in most instances conducted by artisanal fishermen or small companies. Effective industry trade groups exist in only a few countries and in most cases these groups have little interest in swordfish. Limited statistical data: The Government agencies in many countries do not publish extensive fisheries data. This is particularly true for small, relatively minor species like swordfish in most countries. Several small countries have particularly limited data collection systems. It is not, however, just a function of the size of the country. Brazil in particular does not publish annual statistical reports. In addition, many countries have reduced data collection services during the 1980s as part of the overall economic retrenchment. Luckily for an assessment of Pacific swordfish, Chile does have an excellent statistical service and a great deal of data was available. Chilean researchers are expanding data a collection efforts, including catch data by fishing area. Suspicion: Industry sources in some countries are reluctant to provide information. This is partially due to the concern that such data will be used by Government officials to enforce tax and exchange rate regulations and partly out of a general unwillingness to release information for public dissemination. This reluctance has been exacerbated by trade actions brought by U.S. environmental groups. Many businessmen are concerned with additional such actions in the future. Whatever the reason, their reluctance has made it difficult to obtain accurate information on the swordfish fishery in several countries. Limited local assessment: General surveys of national swordfish fisheries, except in Chile, are rare. Few local observers have published detailed assessments synthesizing available scientific, commercial, economic, and social data. CONTENTS WORLD SWORDFISH FISHERIES Volume IV: Latin America Part A: South America Section 1: Pacific SEGMENT A PREFACE iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vi NOTES ix CONTENTS xi PERSONAL OBSERVATIONS xii 1. COLOMBIA Text 1 Sources 73 End notes 77 Appendices 105 2. ECUADOR Text 151 Sources 225 End notes 228 Appendices 246 3. PERU Text 275 Sources 367 End notes 371 Appendices 397 SEGMENT B ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii CONTENTS v PERSONAL OBSERVATIONS vi 4. CHILE Text 429 Sources 666 End notes 674 Appendices 728 XI Personal Observations Resource "Swordfish are not abundant off Colombia, probably because of the high water temperatures and minimal impact of the cold Humboldt Current." - Javier Betancourt, Manager, INPESCA (Colombia), February 20, 1997 "I would not conclude from the warm water temperatures and limited swordfish catches off Colombia that the fish are not present. It simply may be that current operations are not at the proper depth or time of the day to take the fish. Swordfish can be taken in relatively warm water." - Freddy Arocha, Universidad de Oriente (Venezuela), July 7, 1997. "The lack of cold water currents along the Ecuadorean coast limits swordfish abundance. As a result we have focused primarily on tuna. I have noticed, however, increasing interest with swordfish." - Boris Buenaventura Trujillo, Manager, PESYMAR (Ecuador), February 8, 1997 "The waters off Cabo Blanco in northern Peru are a sport fisherman's paradise, the only place in the world where anglers can take both swordfish and black marlin— the largest game fish species." - S. Kip Farrington, Jr., sport fisherman, 1953. "We initiated commercial longlining for swordfish in mid- 1997, the first Peruvian company to target swordfish with longlines. We have achieved moderately good catches off the southern coast, but very disappointing results off the northern coast. This could be due to the abnormally high temperatures associated with the 1997 El Nino." - Ramon Salas, vessel captain, SIPESA (Peru), September 1, 1997 Development "Ecuador has developed an efficient artisanal longline fishery, one of the most modern in Lain America. The fishermen are able to land high-quality product which meets the standards of U.S. importers. Our artisanal fishery is one of the few in Latin America with this capability." - Boris Buenaventura, PESYMAR (Ecuador), May 15, 1996 "Ecuadorean fishermen are gradually expanding longline operations. These operations have been primarily artisanal, but our company deployed a commercial longliner for swordfish in 1996." - Jorge Delger, Owner, Oro Marisco (Ecuador), May 24, 1996 "Exporters formed the Asociacidn de Exportadores de Pesca Blanca to identify and solve problems affecting the sector. For example, the association promotes cooperation between fishermen, brokers, and exporters so that all benefit and each receive a fair share of the revenue. In the past some unscrupulous brokers were exploiting the fishermen." - Boris Buenaventura Trujillo, Director Ejecutivo, Asociacion de Exportadors de Pescado Blanco (Ecuador), May 15, 1996 "I have tried for years now to initiate a tuna/swordfish longline fishery here in Peru. I arranged for the lease/purchase of modern Japanese longliners, but the Government's decision to change regulations forced me to cancel the project at huge cost. Such decisions to constantly change the 'rules of the game' is the major reason why our country has been unable to develop a modern fishery targeting these species." - Maximo Collao, General Manager, Tuna Latin (Peru), August 4, 1997. "Our fishermen have in recent years not targeted swordfish. This is probably due to the cost and advanced technology required to initiate this fishery. There are other available resources in coastal waters that can be developed at less cost and with technology more familiar to the fishermen." - Albertina Ameya K., Director de Estudios Economicos y Evaluacidn de Recursos Potenciales, IMARPE (Peru), xu August 14, 1997. "We are one of Peru's largest fishing companies. It is still unclear to me why our longline venture failed, but we are currently assessing the experience to guide future projects." -Javier Barendiran, Commercial Department, Grupo Sotomayor (Peru), June 11, 1997. "We have deployed three coastal longliners to target swordfish, the first Peruvian company to do so. We have decided to use relatively small coastal longliners delivering iced fish rather than large freezer vessels. We believe this could prove to be a valuable new export fishery for Peru." - Eduardo Pastor, SIPESA (Peru), September 26, 1997 Domestic Fishermen "Our artisanal longline fleet primarily targets sharks, although catches have dropped substantially in recent years. Operations are coastal and swordfish are rarely taken." - Javier Bentancourt, Manager, INPESCA (Colombia), February 20, 1997 "I have been working with the artisanal fishermen to promote surface longlining for pelagics. The fishermen, who have for years targeted demersal species, are very reluctant to shift, despite the good results we have demonstrated." - Luis Manjares, INPA/VECEP (Colombia), February 24, 1997 "I participated in surface longline trials for large pelagics, but have decided to continue the traditional fishery targeting demersals. I'm still skeptical about the profitability of longlining large pelagics off Colombia." - Juan Asi's, boat captain (Colombia), February 24, 1997 "Our artisanal fishery is not developed like the Ecuadorean fishery which has speedy fiberglass "lanchas" allowing them to reach the grounds, catch the fish, and return to port with high-quality fresh fish for export. Our artisanal fishermen are clinging to more traditional handline operations and rarely deliver export grade product." - Juan Valverde, INPA/VECEP (Colombia), February 24, 1997 "Our fleet has primarily targeted tuna with small swordfish by-catches in coastal waters. Some of our fishermen are now beginning to target swordfish in waters to the west of the Galapagos and reporting excellent results." - Jorge Delger, Owner, Oro Marisco (Ecuador), May 24, 1996 "We have been concerned for some time about foreign longliners off the Galapagos and their potential to harm the fragile island ecosystem. Now our domestic fishermen are deploying longliners to the west of the Galapagos and landing tuna and swordfish in Santa Cruz. We are at this time studying a possible enforcement system and regulations for companies operating off the Galapagos." - Alfredo Serrano Valladares, Diputado for Galapagos Province (Ecuador), May 23, 1997 Foreign Fishing "Colombia has one of the largest licensing programs for foreign fishermen. Most of the vessels, however, are either purse seiners or shrimp trawlers. Only a few longliners are involved." - Fernando Rey, Subdirector General, Desarrollo y Ordenamiento Pesquero, INPA (Colombia), March 11, 1996 "Our company works extensively with foreign longliners operating under licenses in Colombian waters. The major target species is tuna which is the great bulk of the catch, 80 percent or more. A by-catch of mostly shark, but also some marlin and sailfish is also reported. Swordfish by-catches are rare. "Swordfish by-catches in Colombian waters are unusual." - Roberto Osbina, Owner, Pescaderia Adsturiana (Colombia), March 24, 1997 xiu "Jobs are available on the foreign longliners licensed for fishing operations. Many of our fishermen, however, are reluctant to work on the mostly Asian vessels. They appear to object to the working conditions and long voyages." - Marta Lucia de Pava, Bahia Cupica (Colombia), February 26, 1997 "Many foreign longliners are active in the eastern tropical Pacific. In Ecuador we do not permit them to transship their catch through our ports. If they desire to operate in our waters, they need to obtain licenses. They must operate in association with Ecuadorean companies and hire Ecuadorean crew members. We believe that this system is important to introduce modern technology to our fishermen." - Orlando Crespo, Direccidn Nacional de Pesca (Ecuador), June 5, 1996 "The Spanish appear to be targeting grounds on the Nazca Ridge off Peru and Chile. They have been taking large quantities of juvenile swordfish there." - Hans Louis Schmidt, Pesquera Omega (Chile), April 8, 1996 Markets "The U.S. market is the major world market for swordfish and is the market we have targeted. Almost all of our swordfish is landed fresh and exported immediately to the United States as whole trunks." -Otto Schwartz, Manager, MARDEX (Ecuador), May 16, 1996 "Like other companies we have primarily exported swordfish to the United States as fresh product. Our company in 1996 also began to process small quantities of fresh fillets for the U.S. market." - Diego Franco, President, FRESMAR (Ecuador), May 23, 1996 Research "We have not engaged in research on swordfish or other billfish because until recently the species was not targeted by our fishermen. As the longline fleet is now targeting these species, we are considering a research program to provide information to the fishermen and to serve as a basis for fisheries management." - Cecilia Marin, Biologist, Instituto Nacional de Pesca (Ecuador), May 20, 1997 "Colombia has a limited fisheries research capability. Most of the work on marine fish is done by INPA, but very little research has been conducted on large pelagics like tuna and swordfish or other billfish. Now that Colombia has developed an important tuna fishery, more attention will be devoted to these species." -Luis Alonzo Padilla, Coordinator of Marine Resource Evaluations, INPA/VECEP (Colombia), February 28, 1997 "IMARPE conducts extensive plankton tows to assess the anchovy and other small pelagic populations for our large fishmeal industry. We have never detected swordfish larvae in those tows. This is a good indication that the fish are not spawning in the eastern Pacific." - Emira Antonietti, IMARPE (Peru), personal communications, March 24, 1997 By-catch "I believe that longlining is one of the least harmful fishing methods. Our operations result in a minimal by-catch of marine mammals and sea turtles." - Luis Correa, Vice President, PRFREEXPORT (Ecuador), June 12, 1996 "Sport fishermen are reportedly conducting a tag and release fishery for billfish out of the Galapagos. However, these species are beginning to appear in Galapagos fishery markets which means that not all of the catch is being released." - Jack Grove, Conservation Network International, July 11, 1996 xiv 1.1 COLOMBIA Colombia has no directed swordfish fishery. The species does not appear to be abundant in the country's coastal waters, although some observers caution that this apparent limited abundance may be due to the to the lack of directed fishing effort. Water temperatures off Colombia and Central America, both in the Pacific and Caribbean, are relatively high. While swordfish themselves can tolerate a wide temperature range, the warmer temperatures may not be ideal for the species which swordfish feed on, either directly or indirectly. Other oceanographic conditions also do not appear to be optimal, especially the lack of pronounced oceanic temperature fronts during much of the year. Small quantities of swordfish, however, are taken off Colombia, mostly by foreign fishermen. More substantial quantities are taken in oceanic waters at latitudes off Colombia, but much of this fishing is conducted into the central Pacific. The results reported by foreign fishermen, especially the Japanese, suggest that the latitudes off Colombia are the northern limit of their southeastern Pacific longline fishery. These results, however, may not precisely reflect actual swordfish abundance, especially as the Japanese generally were not targeting swordfish. The foreign results, however, constitute the best available data and at least provide an initial working hypothesis on possible distribution. Colombia manages the largest Latin American licensing program for foreign fishing vessels, but requires those fishermen to work in association with domestic Colombian companies. Most of the foreign tuna vessels licensed are purse seiners, but there are also a few longliners. Colombia has released no information on incidental swordfish catches of the licensed foreign vessels, but Japanese longline fishermen have provided data on swordfish catches showing limited results off Colombia. Some data is also available from the associated Colombian companies. The incidental swordfish catch of the domestic Colombian fishermen is very small. Colombia has in recent years developed a sizeable tuna fishery, but it almost entirely utilizes purse seiners (both foreign and domestic) which do not take significant numbers of swordfish. There is no domestic Colombian commercial longline fleet, but Colombian interest in a possible longline fishery appears to be growing. Several groups have worked with foreign, mostly Asian, longliners in fisheries for oceanic pelagics. One Colombian company reported some successful swordfish fishing during 1995, but did not pursue commercial operations because of high mercury content in the fish. Another company attempted to market fresh landings from an associated foreign longliner, but found it difficult to reserve air cargo space. Some activity has been reported in 1997. One company is refitting a shrimp trawler in 1997 for longline operations. Another company is doing test fishing in the Pacific with a Canadian longliner and is discussing possible longline association agreements with New Zealand and United States fishermen. Artisanal fishermen deploy a few small longliners, primarily for sharks. These fishermen report limited billfish (mostly sailfish and marlin) and tuna catches, but minimal quantities of swordfish. Most of the artisanal shark and much of the tuna and billfish is marketed domestically. Colombia exports virtually no swordfish, but does export small quantities of billfish to Japan. There is no known Colombian research underway on swordfish. TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction 1 I. Industry Overview 2 II. Species 7 A. Distribution 7 B. Stock structure 9 C. Migrations 11 D. Spawning 12 E. Seasonality 12 F. Stock status 13 III. Fishing Grounds 15 A. Oceanography 15 B. Fishing Areas 21 IV. Fleet 27 A. Artisanal 27 B. Commercial 28 V. Shipyards 32 VI. Fleet Operations and Gear 32 A. Colombian 32 B. Foreign 39 VII. Catch 41 VIII. Ports 42 IX. Transshipments 44 A. Foreign fishing fleet 44 B. Associated vessels 44 X. Processing and Products 45 XI. Companies 48 A. Trade associations 48 B. Companies 48 XII. Markets 54 A. Domestic 54 B. Trade 55 XIII. Government Agencies and Policies 57 A. Agencies 57 B. Law 57 C. Limits 57 D. Licenses 58 E. Promotion 58 XIV. Research 59 XV. By-catch 60 A. Pacific 60 B. Caribbean 63 XVI. International 64 A. International Relations 64 B. Joint ventures 69 C. Foreign Assistance 69 XVII. Enforcement 71 XVIII. Future Trends 73 Sources 73 Endnotes 77 Appendixes 105 I. Fishing Industry Overview Colombia has the smallest fishing industry of the larger Latin American countries. The entire fisheries catch was only about 70,000 tons (t) as recently as 1985 (appendix Bla). Fishermen reported relatively stable catches during the 1970s, but began to gradually increase output by the mid-1980s. The industry played a very small role in the national economy. One Colombian study in the mid-1980s estimated that the fisheries contribution to the economy was only about 0.4 percent of overall production. 1 The industry did, however, provide needed employment— although most of the employment was in the artisanal sector with relatively low earnings. While the industry played a modest nation-wide role, it had local importance to the economy of the coastal regions—which included some of the country's most economically depressed areas. The employment provided by the fishing industry was particularly important in these areas where relatively few alternative job opportunities exist. The industry also provided food for these isolated rural communities. Colombia's artisanal fishery, until recently, dominated the country's fishing industry— far outstripping production from the small commercial sector. Artisanal: The fisheries catch, especially product destined for the domestic market, has traditionally been harvested primarily by artisanal fishermen in inland waters. The gear and methods used by the fishermen were in most cases extremely primitive. The number of individuals involved, however, was significant. One press report indicted in 1989 that there were about 120,000 artisanal fishermen active in Colombia. 2 The large freshwater catch, entirely artisanal, averaged over 50,000 t and exceeded the marine catch until 1989. I — ?* * JV Panama Certain islands of the Afchtpieiago de San Andrei y Providencia (13°0Q'N, 81°30'W} and the tsta de Matpelo 3°S8'N, S1°35'W) belonging to Colombia are not shown on this /nap. NETHERLANDS ANTILLES I (Netherlands) Willemstad < 4 f \ '• / \\* / ""*-\ / \V \n f / _ ParnpTotial f Bucaraipafiga /, i North Pacific Ocean E/ i JF'V *§ ^ [XJr B< ? YACA '? CASANARE Base 800441 9-85 figure I. --Map of Colombia. Commercial: The primary commercial fishing activity during most of the 1970s and 80s was the shrimp trawl fishery conducted along both the country's Caribbean and Pacific coasts. The commercial fishery focused primarily on export markets and thus were an important source of foreign exchange earnings. Several major developments in Colombia's fishing industry have occurred in recent years which have significantly affected both the artisanal and commercial fisheries: Domestic fishery expanding: Both artisanal and commercial fisheries have expanded significantly. Colombian fishermen have greatly increased effort. Fishery catches, as a result, reached a record approaching 160,000 t in 1992 (appendix Bla and figure 2). The catch declined somewhat in 1993 and more sharply to 120,000 t in 1994, but was still well above levels reported during the 1980s. A sizeable decline occurred in the valuable tuna catch (appendix B3d). The fishermen reported a particularly successful year in 1995, achieving record results of more than 167,000 tons. The tuna catch recovered strongly from the weak 1 994 season. Expansion of marine Fishery: The increasing catch has come primarily from marine grounds. Very significant increases in the marine fishery were reported in 1989 and 1990, especially along the Pacific coast. The marine catches first exceeded freshwater catches in 1989. This was unusual in Latin America because in almost all other coastal countries the marine catch greatly exceeds the generally modest freshwater catch. Record catches were reported in the Caribbean during 1992 and in the Pacific during 1993 (appendix Bla). While a substantial catch decline occurred in 1994, the fishermen reported another record harvest in 1995. The increase was primarily due to expanding activity on marine grounds, mostly for small pelagic species reduced to fishmeal and oil (appendix Bib). Large foreign licensing program: Colombia has initiated an extensive vessel licensing program attracting 100- 200 foreign fishing vessels annually 1,000 Metric Tons o$ oN & «S> aJ f ^t> N # £? ^P $> N # ^ ^ N c?> N # ^ N c? N # N c? J> Year * Caribbean and inland catch unavalable Figure 2 —Colombia reported important catch increases during the 1990s. Most of the catch has been traditionally taken in inland waters, but the Pacific is now the country 's principal fishing grounds. (appendices Ala, A2, A5a-c, and A6a-d). This is the largest licensing program in Latin America and accounts for a substantial proportion of the overall commercial catch, especially the catch of tuna and shrimp. New shrimp culture industry: The shrimp harvest in recent years has been supplemented by the new shrimp culture industry. Colombia has become the second largest producer of cultured shrimp in Latin America. 3 Photo 1. -Colombia has expanded its commercial fishing fleet, adding several small tuna purse seiners, mostly less than 400 tons, in recent years Luis Zapata Photo 2— Colombian fishermen have significantly increased their tuna landings in recent years, primarily yellowfin and skipjack Armando Hernandez. levels in 1989-91. It recovered in 1992 and by 1994 was again over 50,000 t— comparable to the levels reported in the mid 1980s. Caribbean: Caribbean catches have increased significantly in recent years, peaking at over 30,000 t in 1992. The 1994 catch, however, declined to only about 18,000 tons. While down substantially from 1992, Caribbean catches during 1993-94 were still well above levels reported during the 1980s. The Caribbean catch is normally only about one-half or one-third of the Pacific catch (appendix Bla and figure 2). While relatively small, the Caribbean catch is more diverse than the Pacific catch and is composed of several high value species—including snapper, grouper, shrimp, lobster, conch, and others. Pacific: Pacific catches during the early 1980s were comparable to the small Caribbean catch. Pacific coast fishermen have since significantly expanded operations and the Pacific catch exceeded inland catches for the first time in 1989. The Pacific catch reached record levels totaling 83,000 t in 1993, but declined to only 54,000 t in 1994 (appendix Bla). Another new Pacific record was set in 1995 (figure 2). Much of the Pacific catch is composed of either tuna (mostly yellowfin) or anchovy and other low- valued small pelagics (appendix Bib and figure 3). New tuna industry: Colombia began developing a major tuna industry during the late 1980s. The industry processes and transships the catch of the international fleet operating in the eastern tropical Pacific (ETP). Tuna is now one of the country's two major fishery export sectors. It directly and indirectly generates about 10,000 jobs, many of which are well paying jobs in regions of marginal economic development. 4 In addition to the modern processing plants, Colombia has also acquired its own domestic fleet of modern purse seiners (appendix A5b and photo 1). The industry is primarily geared to supplying yellowfin and skipjack tuna to domestic and foreign canners Products.") (photo 2). (See "Processing and The Colombian fishery is conducted on three principal grounds (figure 2). Inland: Until recently the great bulk of the Colombian fisheries catch was taken in inland waters by artisanal fishermen. The inland catch has fluctuated somewhat in recent years, declining to low Considerable progress was made during the early 1990s to begin utilizing the country's marine resource potential. Colombian industry sources insist that the country has significant fisheries potential. They report a wide variety of species along both coasts which could be utilized by commercial fishermen, favorable environmental conditions, a dynamic private sector, and Government agencies giving increased attention to the fishing industry. 5 Private investors in recent years have focused on the tuna fishery, acquiring a few modern seiners and building several large, modern processing plants. Fishermen expanded the overall catch significantly during the late 1980s and early 1990s. The catch more than double between 1985 and 1992. The 1992 peak totaled nearly 160,000 t (appendix Bla and figure 2). Colombian catches, however, declined to only a little over 120,000 t in 1994—primarily because of significant reductions in the fleet. Both domestic and foreign fishermen have withdrawn vessels. The tuna catch fell to the lowest levels since 1988 (appendix B3d). Exporters reported record shipments in 1994, but this was primarily due to improved earnings from cultured shrimp and, to a lesser extent, canned tuna. Much of the capture fisheries sector reported financial difficulties in 1994. 6 The fishing industry appears to have since recovered strongly, setting a new all-time catch record of 167,000 t in 1995. The tuna catch exceeded 40,000t and, while not a record, was well above 1994 levels. Industry observers report, however, that the industry's development is constrained by the short-term outlook of many companies. The business climate, especially high inflation rates, partially explain the short-term focus of many companies. 7 Colombia conducts a small fishery for high-value finfish and shellfish. Fisheries for these high-value species are largely conducted by artisanal and small- scale commercial fishermen. 8 The Colombian fishermen producing high- quality fish have primarily targeted demersal resources and, with the 1,000 Metric Tons Figure 3 —Most of Colombia's non-tuna Pacific catch is anchovy and other small pelagic species exception of purse-seine caught tuna, the production of oceanic pelagics (tunas, billfish, swordfish, sharks, and other species) is more limited. A few foreign vessels working under association contracts are also involved in the fishery for high-value species, including a few longliners targeting oceanic pelagics. Fishing activity for many high-value finfish species are currently centered primarily in the Caribbean and focuses on grouper and other demersal species. 9 Industry sources, however, report declining catches and exports of several heavily targeted demersal species. 10 Shipments of fresh grouper to the United States, for example, declined from $1.5 million in 1993 to negligible amounts in 1996 (appendix E3c). Many companies are convinced of the need to diversify into new fisheries." Fisheries along the Pacific coast did not develop as rapidly as along the Caribbean because of the less well-developed infrastructure. The Pacific coast is lightly settled and the connecting transportation links with Colombia's main population centers are more limited—although greatly improved in recent years. i: The large catch taken in the Pacific are mostly composed of a small number of species, primarily tuna and low-value small pelagics such as anchovy which are reduced to fishmeal (appendix Bib and figure 3). It is likely, however, that as the fishing industry develops, Colombian fishermen will increasingly target still under-utilized Pacific resources. Photo 2A— Colombian tuna purse seine being retreived with power block after a set. The fishermen report a substantial by-catch, but rarely a swordfish. Manuel Ramirez II. Species Yield* A. Distribution Only limited information is available on swordfish distribution off Colombia. The species does not appear to be abundant along either the Caribbean or Pacific coast, although this assessment is based largely on catches from foreign fisheries in which swordfish was a by-catch. Some observers stress that extensive directed fishing operations have not yet been conducted on swordfish. The authors know of no stock study, but available catch data and anecdotal accounts suggest relatively low availability. This may be due, at least indirectly, to the relatively warm water found along both the Pacific and Caribbean coasts. Other oceanographic conditions could also be involved, especially infrequent pronounced temperature fronts through much of the year. (See "Fishing Grounds".) One local observer suggests that while swordfish abundance off Colombia may be limited, there could be cul de sacs of localized abundance. I3 Research: There is no Instituto Nacional de Pesca y Acuicultura (INPA) research program on oceanic pelagics, including swordfish. 14 The authors have been unable to identify any Colombian research on swordfish addressing stocks or describing the species behavior— understandable given the limited importance of the species in the local fishery. (See "Research.") Domestic fishermen: Available literature describing the Colombian artisanal, commercial, and recreational fisheries suggest low availability of swordfish. Actual catches may not, however, fully reflect availability. 15 Colombia has still not developed a domestic commercial longline fishery, although some research is underway. (See "Research.") Important commercial fisheries such as shrimp trawling and tuna purse seining do not normally take significant numbers of swordfish as a by-catch. The mesopelagic habits of swordfish and its non-aggregating behavior mean that swordfish by-catches in surface purse seines and bottom trawls are unusual. 16 Therefore, results from these fishing operations do not offer insights on swordfish abundance. Domestic longlining is mostly conducted by the small artisanal shark fishery, deployed primarily along the Pacific coast. A few trawler fishermen occasionally rig their vessels to deploy longlines. 17 There is also some limited longlining and driftnetting by small-scale artisanal fishermen in the Caribbean. (See "Fleet Operations and Gear".) Swordfish by-catches, however, are probably limited by the largely coastal nature and relatively shallow sets of these fisheries. 18 Much of ^ <<® ^ i$ ^ & * ^ <& O* ^ ^ ^ # 6- ^ J Figure 6— Artisanal fishermen have reported similar seasonal pattern for billfish landings each year during 1993-95. 12 Metric Tons Year ■ 1993 ««1994 ■1995 & <^> ^ ^ ^ # ^ ^ of Q & ^ Q# Figure 7— Commercial fishermen report billfish catches with no clear seasonal pattern. III. Fishing Grounds A. Oceanography Colombia has an extensive coastline along both the Pacific and Atlantic (Caribbean), extending about 2,900 kilometers. The area of the Caribbean Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is larger than that in the Pacific because the country's Pacific EEZ is squeezed by that of Ecuador to the south and especially Panama to the north (figure 8). Central America extends west into the Pacific, far beyond the longitude of the Colombian coast, severely restricting Colombia's 200- mile coastal projection into the Pacific (figure 8). 1. Pacific CARIBBEAN lanta Marta Barranquilla^^ \ Cartagena/ J\ ^> Territorial Sea — • No agreed boundaries Negotiated boundaries Figure 8. —Colombia claims a substantial portion of the western Caribbean as a part of its 200-mile EEZ, but the country 's Pacific EEZ is very small. Colombia's Pacific EEZ consists of only 330,000 square km because Central America (Panama and Costa Rica) extends far westward, effectively cutting into Colombia's coastal projection. As a result, Colombia has a relatively small Pacific EEZ compared to the two major Pacific-coast South American countries to the south, Peru and Chile (figure 8). Colombia does have one Pacific island, which has helped to extend the country's EEZ westward—Isla Malpelo (4°N, 82°W). The island is located about 450 km off Colombia's central coast. Without Isla Malpelo, Colombia's 200-mile EEZ would have been extremely limited. Colombia's Pacific coast is located at tropical latitudes (2°-7°N). The marine fauna are mostly tropical species. The species diversity is much less than off southern Ecuador because the northerly flowing cold Humboldt Current is relatively weak at latitudes above the equator. The underwater Carnegie Ridge runs west from central Ecuador at about 2°S to the Galapagos Islands. The Panamanian, Colombian and northern Ecuadorean coast are located in the partially enclosed Panama Basin. The Basin is confined by the Carnegie Ridge to the south and the Cocos Ridge running southwest from Costa Rica until terminating at the Galapagos (0°, 90°W), about 1,000 km off the Ecuadorean coast. Within the Panama Basin the major feature is Colombia's Isla Malpelo and surrounding shelf area. Fisheries productivity off Colombia is much more limited than off its southern neighbors (Peru and Chile), primarily because of the less extensive coastline, the much more limited coastal upwelling, and higher water temperatures (figure 9). 94 Colombian fishery catches trail even that of much smaller Ecuador. The shelf is narrow along most of the Colombian coast, providing only a limited shelf area of productive shallow water. While the available resource is smaller than that of the countries to the 15 SST (Deg C) 30N January 1995 130W 120W 110W 100W 90W 80W Figure 9 —Sea surface temperatures off Colombia and Panama are generally the highest reported in the eastern Pacific. Vernon Kousky, NOAA south, Colombia's modest catch is in part due to the limited fishing effort deployed. Until recently, Colombian fishermen only utilized a small proportion of the potential Pacific resource. Shelf: As with other Pacific coast countries in South America, the Colombian shelf is narrow—generally extending only about 25-50 km offshore. The shallow water on shelfs are often highly productive fishing areas. The country's narrow shelf places finite limits on the resource, especially demersal resources. Upwelling: The relatively narrow shelf off countries south of Colombia does not limit fisheries production because of the massive upwelling system along the western coast of South America which supports immense stocks of small pelagic species. This upwelling system extends from central Chile (about 40°S) into the equatorial latitudes off Ecuador where it blends into the equatorial upwelling belt. 95 Upwelling along the Colombian coast, while limited, does exist. The largest fisheries reported by Colombia's Pacific coast fishermen are anchovy and other small pelagic populations which are supported by coastal upwelling (figure 3). Currents: The waters off Colombia are a mixing area created by the convergence of the northerly flowing Humboldt Current and the easterly flowing North Equatorial Counter Current (figure 10). The mixing and current flow, however, are affected by the Cocos and Carnegie underwater ridges which enclose the Panama Basin. The semi-enclosed basin at tropical latitudes and relatively shallow depths partially explain the high water temperatures and limited seasonal variations often found within the basin and, as a result, Colombian coastal waters (figure 9). Humboldt Current : The Humboldt Current follows the western coast of South America from southern Chile north. The strength of the Humboldt Current at northern latitudes (off Ecuador and Colombia) is highly seasonal. The relative weakness of the Humboldt Current by the time it reaches Colombia also impairs productivity and may further limit populations of swordfish prey species. Ocean conditions are also periodically affected by warm water anomalies referred to as El Nino events. During an El Nino event the intrusion of warm equatorial water can significantly limit upwelling off Ecuador and Colombia. This can cause dramatic shifts in water temperatures and can have a major impact on fish abundance and distribution, although the impact is more pronounced off southern Ecuador and Peru where water temperatures are not normally as high as commonly found off Colombia. North Equatorial Counter Current : This is the second most important eastward flow in the equatorial current system. It is located at about 5°N and fed by the western boundary currents both from the south and the north. Its annual mean transport decreases uniformly with longitude, from 45 Sverdrup (Sv=km 3 per second) west of 135°E to 10 Sv east of the Galapagos Islands. As it approaches the Central American shelf, the current turns north, creating a cyclonic motion which results in a shallower thermocline. In the termination region of this current, its effect can be noted as the Costa Rica Dome (9°N, 88°E) where the thermocline averages only about 25 m in depth (figure 12). 96 South Equatorial Current : The major westward component of the southern equatorial current system 70W 16 is the South Equatorial Current. This current is often located a few degrees south of the equator. It is directly wind-driven and therefore responds quickly to variations in atmospheric conditions. It is also very seasonal, being strongest during the southern hemisphere winter (July-September), when the trade winds are the most pronounced. The South Equatorial Current is strongest during August when it reaches speeds of 0.6 m per second. This current starts moving water westward at about 2°S and 95°W, or about 500 km off the Ecuadorean coast. 97 Changing oceanographic conditions can cause substantial fluctuations in the ETP fisheries catch, especially the Ecuadorean and Peruvian catches. The Ecuadorean fishery catches since 1985, for example, have ranged from 0.3 million t (1993) to 1.1 million 90° t (1991) (Ecuador, appendix Bla). Peruvian catch fluctuations since 1970 have been even more dramatic, falling from a phenomenal 12.5 million t (1971) to only 2.3 million t (1973) in only 3 years, the most precipitous decline ever reported in world fisheries (Peru, appendix Bl). The species most affected are the small pelagic species which are normally taken in large quantities while the impact on demersal species is more limited. Colombian catches in the past have not been as significantly impacted by El Nino warming events and other climatic fluctuations as the other Pacific-coast South American countries. This is in part because the SSTs off Colombia are normally relatively high. In addition, the fishermen were not heavily using the available resource. Thus declines in stocks did not as severely affect harvests. Colombian fishermen also generally target tropical species which are not as adversely affected by El Nino conditions. In fact, many tropical species, such as penaeid shrimp actually benefit from the warmer water temperatures. Colombian fishermen in recent years have begun to more heavily utilize the available resource. Catches have increased relatively steadily since 1985 from about 70,000 t to nearly 170,000 t in 1995. There have been some declines associated with El Nino events, although modest in comparison to the devastating declines reported by Ecuadorean and Peruvian fishermen. Colombian fishermen, for example, reported a decline of only about 20,000 t in 1992. Figure 10~The waters off Colombia are a mixing area for northerly and easterly flowing surface currents. Matthias Tomczak and J. Stuart Godfrey Several oceanographic phenomenon appear to adversely affect swordfish abundance off Colombia's Pacific coast. The primary factor may be the relatively high tropical water temperatures (figure 9), although this appears to be 17 an indirect effect because the species can tolerate a wide range of temperatures. In addition, oceanic currents and resulting thermal fronts are less pronounced off Colombia and in oceanic water to the southwest (figure 11). Upwelling which is weaker along the Colombian coast than off the countries to the south may be another factor (Peru, photo 3). These features are associated with the productivity and aggregation of fodder species. Thus fluctuations affecting fodder species can also contribute to the relatively limited abundance of predator species including swordfish. The shallow thermocline off Colombia and Central America and relatively shallow depths may also affect swordfish abundance. Temperatures: Swordfish generally occur in temperatures from 13°-24°C and have an even wider temperature tolerance, the widest of all the billfish. 98 Temperatures of 23°C appear to be approaching the upper limit of water temperatures in which swordfish can be taken commercially. Researchers stress, however, that swordfish is predominately amesopelagic species and as a result sea surface temperatures (SSTs) themselves determinant of species range." food availability in the warmer water may be the critical factor. SSTs may thus affect the range and abundance of prey, including populations at various depths in the water column. This may be true for both species on which swordfish prey (such as squid or jack mackerel) or species that these prey items feed on (such as anchovy and sardines). Thus there could be an indirect relationship between SSTs and swordfish abundance. Food availability has an obvious potential impact on swordfish distribution. Notably, much of the fishing for swordfish in the Figure 11. —Thermal fronts are seasonally significant in the equatorial oceanic water off Colombia and Ecuador. The tight isobars shown above suggest the presence of pronounced temperature fronts. Kousky/NOAA are not a major The more limited HOW Figure 12 —The thermocline is relatively shallow in the eastern Pacific. It can be as low as 25 m on the Costa Rican dome. Tomczak and Godfrey Pacific by Japan, the United States, Mexico, Chile, and Australia are at temperate latitudes (north of 20°N or south of 20°S). Chilean fishermen, for example, report the largest catches at 18-42°S. 100 Researchers report the best Chilean results in water of about 16- 18°C. 101 This would seem to at least partially explain poor catches in the warmer water off Colombia (figure 9). 102 However, there is substantial fishing in warmer tropical waters of the southeastern Pacific. The Japanese oceanic longline fishery in the area, for example, focuses on tropical latitudes from 5°N-15°S. 103 In addition the historic Peruvian swordfish fishery was primarily conducted off the northern coast at tropical latitudes, about 3-8°S. 104 18 Ecuadorean fishermen are currently reporting good catches at latitudes near the equator in waters from 20-23°C. 105 Swordfish can thus clearly be taken in relatively warm tropical waters. 106 Japanese and Ecuadorean catches at tropical latitudes are achieved by setting along thermal fronts which are seasonally pronounced off Ecuador (figure 11). The Peruvian fishery was conducted at tropical latitudes in the Cabo Blanco area, but in water cooled by the Humboldt Current and coastal upwelling. The waters off Colombia, however, appear to be generally warmer than optimal for the species. SST temperatures off Colombia and Central America are normally the warmest in the ETP, usually above 25°C (figure 9). Some researchers dispute even an indirect impact of absolute SST on swordfish. As it is a mesopelagic species the impact of surface temperatures and fronts on its habitat is not well understood. 107 The authors note that very substantial populations of some oceanic pelagics, tropical tunas, are found off Colombia, explaining why fishermen, mostly using purse seiners, heavily target these species (photo 4). Thermal fronts: Swordfish seem to be more abundant in areas with relatively high temperature gradients. Researchers theorize such abundance is linked to habitat or food availability. Water temperatures appear to, at least indirectly, affect the geographic range of the fish, but thermal fronts may be more important in determining the availability of the fish in specific areas. 108 Thermal fronts are most commonly found near upwelling zones, areas where various water masses converge, and current flows. As such thermal fronts and upwelling are less pronounced off Colombia, in part because of the relative weakness of the Humboldt Current, swordfish catches and probably abundance are relatively limited. In contrast, SST maps of the ETP (the area where swordfish are taken to the southwest of Colombia and Ecuador) show relatively tight temperature isobars (figure 11). This suggests pronounced temperature fronts. Interestingly the clustering of catches and high yields in the eastern Pacific appears to have an east- west axis matching the area of important east- west current flows and pronounced temperature gradients (Ecuador, figures 6-8). 109 Upwelling: Coastal upwelling off Colombia is much less pronounced then off Peru and Chile. The resulting primary productivity thus does not support the massive population of small pelagic species noted further south off Peru and Chile. As small pelagics serve directly or indirectly as fodder species, the populations of some oceanic predators such as swordfish may be affected. The authors note, however, that notable quantities of some oceanic predators like tuna, especially skipjack, are taken in Colombian waters of the ETP. 110 Thermocline: The thermocline in a large area of the ETP from southern Mexico to northern Ecuador is unusually shallow, less than 50 meters. In some areas, such as the Costa Rican Dome, for example, it can be less than 25 meters (m) (figure 12).'" Such conditions may not be optimal for swordfish, although the relationship between the thermocline and swordfish is not known." 2 Some researchers do not believe it would affect swordfish abundance. 113 Many fishermen, however, have noted that swordfish tend to aggregate at the thermocline. One U.S. fishermen says that he seeks to "kiss the thermocline" when setting for swordfish." 4 Photo 4— Colombian and foreign fishermen harvest substantial quantities of tuna off Colombia, like these fish delivered to a Cartagena cannery. Armando Hernandez 19 Other: A variety of other factors such as bottom topography may also affect swordfish abundance. Relatively shallow water combined with a shallow thermocline, for example, may have some affect on feeding. Little definitive information is currently available, although foreign research is addressing this and similar subjects in other areas.' 15 2. Atlantic (Caribbean) Colombia claims an extensive area of the western Caribbean as a result of its possession of San Andres and Providencia— as well as other small islands and cays (figure 8). The country claims a Caribbean EEZ of nearly 660,000 square km, although the marine boundary has not yet been delimited with all of the Caribbean countries involved. Great difficulties have been encountered delimiting the marine boundary with Nicaragua and Venezuela. Several oceanographic phenomenon appear to adversely affect swordfish abundance off Colombia's Caribbean coast. The current structure and other factors such as absolute temperatures, at least indirectly, appear to explain the apparent low abundance of swordfish in the western Caribbean— off both Colombia's mainland coast and offshore islands. The temperature gradients associated with currents in the western Caribbean are much weaker than those associated with the Caribbean Current in the eastern Caribbean as it flows along the Venezuelan coast. 116 Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) in the western Caribbean are the highest generally reported in the western Atlantic. While swordfish are capable of withstanding a wide range of temperatures, prey items are not as common in the warmer water, even at the depths where swordfish forage. Other factors such as the shallow depths in areas of the western Caribbean may also affect swordfish abundance. Some observers stress, however, that the apparent low abundance of swordfish may be due primarily due to limited directed fishing effort." 7 a. Mainland coast Colombia's Caribbean coast extends about 1,200 km and is quite varied. Along the Guajira Peninsula in the east, the coast is inhospitable, arid, with low sandy beaches exposed to the sea. Beginning at about Santa Marta, the coast becomes higher and more rocky with many natural inlets. Further south to the Gulf of Uraba and the Panamanian border the coast is subject to heavy wave erosion. Rocky areas separate sandy and muddy beaches and areas of mangrove estuaries. The irregular coast offers many natural ports. There are especially large areas of mangrove estuaries in the Gulf of Uraba. Some coral reefs are found in this area. The shelf is very narrow. Along much of the coast, the shelf extends only about 25 km off shore, but in some areas is somewhat broader—out to about 50 kilometers. The Caribbean coast is heavily influenced by the Caribbean Current (CC) which primarily flows westward along the coast of Venezuela. 118 While important locally it is relatively weak and unstable compared to more pronounced currents like the Humboldt and Gulf Stream. The CC is diverted from Colombia's mainland coast by the northward projection of the Guajira Peninsula. The CC then continues west to Nicaragua where, upon striking the Central American coast, it divides. Part of the CC forms the Caribbean Counter Current (CCC) which runs south along Costa Rica and Panama before turning east and reaching Colombia. The CCC off Colombia is even less stable than the main CC, with less pronounced temperature gradients. The location and track of the CCC varies seasonally. b. Caribbean islands Colombian claims several island groups and cays in the western Caribbean, especially San Andres (12°N, 82° W) and Providencia (13°N, 81°W). These islands are located on the fringe of the extensive shelf area extending out from Central America (Nicaragua), and are actually closer to the Nicaraguan coast than Colombia's mainland coast. While the small Colombian Pacific EEZ is squeezed by its neighbors, the country has a very considerable Caribbean EEZ. The 200-mile projections from its Caribbean islands mean that Colombia has claim to a huge expanse of the western Caribbean (figure 8). 119 The country's Caribbean EEZ totals 658,000 square kilometers. As a result, the projection of EEZs from Colombia's insular claims means that Panama, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua all have extremely narrow Caribbean EEZs. Some of the western Caribbean areas claimed by Colombia are also claimed by Nicaragua, and disputes over fishing rights occasionally occur. (See "Enforcement".) Colombia's Caribbean EEZ, in addition to the main islands, includes several banks and cays: Albuquerque (12°N, 82° W), Bajo Nuevo (16°N, 78°W), Courtown (12°N, 81°W), Quita Sueno (16°N, 81°W), Roncador (12°N, 80°W), Serrana (14°N, 80°W), and Serranilla (16°N, 80°W) in addition to three submerged banks (Banco Alicia, a bank to the southeast of Serrana, and one east of Courtown). These islands and cays have similar characteristics. They are very low lying with 20 elevations of only about 20 meters. The shelf falls off along the eastern slope to depths of 1,000-2,000 meters. Many of these islands and cays are fringed by coral reefs. Number of Vessels 250 200 150 100 Vessels □ Foreign Domestic The oceanography of Colombia's Caribbean islands, like the mainland coast, is dominated by two currents. The most important is the Caribbean Current (CC), which after running along the Venezuelan coast is deflected northwest by the Guajira Peninsula toward Providencia and San Andres. The current has a major impact on the islands' climate. The CC flows to the west and then separates after hitting the coast of Central America. The southward flowing branch is the Caribbean Counter Current (CCC). The CC is usually stronger than the CCC with velocities of about 0.5 m per second, except at the beginning of the year (January-March) when the two currents (CC and CCC) divide, producing irregularities in the normal current flow. 120 Water temperatures in the western Caribbean tend to be the highest generally reported in the Caribbean, often approaching 30°C (figure 9). B. Fishing areas Very limited information is available to the authors on Colombian fishing grounds, other than a simple Caribbean/Pacific division. Colombia's fisheries catch along the more productive Pacific coast is much larger than in the Caribbean. The Pacific catch in 1994 was three times the Caribbean catch (appendix Bla and figure 2). The deployment of the Colombian fleet reflects the focus on the Pacific (appendix A3b and figure 13). Most of the Pacific catch, however, with the exception of tuna, is low- value anchovy and other small pelagics (figure 3). Over 85 percent of the 1995 non-tuna finfish catch, for example, was composed of small pelagics. Nearly all of the non-tuna commercial catch in the Pacific during 1995, for example, was anchovy and other small pelagics (appendix Bib and figure 3). Colombian Pacific waters are some of the best tuna grounds in the ETP. Colombian fishermen have developed a major tuna purse-seine fishery and processing industry in recent years. At first the industry relied almost entirely on foreign vessels to supply raw material. Gradually Colombian companies Pacific Coastal San Andres Caribbean Fishing Grounds Figure 13— Most of the Colombian fishing fleet is deployed in the Pacific foreign vessels comprise a substantial portion of the fleet along both coasts Associated have also acquired some purse seiners (appendix A5b and photo 5). The Colombian tuna catch is primarily taken in the Pacific with purse seines. Very detailed data is available on the grounds fished by the international tuna fleet in the ETP. 121 Colombian Pacific waters are especially productive grounds for skipjack. Colombian fishermen have not, however, developed a commercial tuna longline fishery, although artisanal fishermen do conduct semi- commercial operations for shark (appendix B4) which takes some tunas and billfish. (See "Fleet".) Colombian grounds along both the Pacific and Caribbean appear to be relatively poor swordfish grounds, although only limited information is available. Some observers believe that the low swordfish catches off Colombia may be more a reflection of the lack of directed fishing than limited abundance.' 22 Foreign fishermen do report some swordfish catches on offshore grounds. Domestic fishermen: Colombian fishermen report no significant swordfish catch. The authors have little Colombian data as the species is not targeted by the local fishermen. Colombian shark fishermen are active, especially along the Pacific coast. Few specific details are available on the grounds fished by Colombian artisanal fishermen targeting sharks with longlines and gillnets. 123 These fishermen conduct semi-commercial operations and report catches of some other oceanic pelagics, including billfish (mostly sailfish and marlin) (appendix B4). Available catch data indicates that most of the billfish is usually taken 21 on the Pacific grounds (appendix B3c3 and figure 20- 22). No information is available to the authors, however, on specific grounds along the coast where the sharks as well as smaller quantities of billfish and tunas are taken. It is known that the shark fishermen operate fairly close to the coast, often in the vicinity of river mouths. (See "Fleet Operations and Gear.") Some estimates suggest that operations are generally limited to 30-50 km and about 10-15 day trips. These fishermen report only rare incidental catches of swordfish along both the Pacific and Caribbean costs. The coastal nature of the fishery is one of the major factors preventing swordfish by-catches.' 24 The catches of sailfish and marlin by the shark fishermen suggest, however, that the fishermen might take small quantities of swordfish, if the species occurred in commercial quantities on Colombian coastal grounds. The failure to take even minimal quantities of Photo 5 —Colombian companies have acquired several tuna seiners during the 1990s and are no longer entirely dependent on foreigners to supply the new tuna processing industry. A. Hernandez swordfish as a by-catch could suggest low availability in coastal waters. One observer, however, is unconvinced and does not believe that the absence of swordfish in the billfish by-catch of the shark fishermen provides any useful data on swordfish abundance. 125 Foreign fishermen: Japanese longline fishermen do report small swordfish catches off Colombia and some data by large ocean area is available. This data provides some insights into swordfish fishing grounds off Colombia. One study of Japanese longline yields showed relatively low yields off Colombia's Pacific coast. In a few months, however, the Japanese did report moderately good catches in Colombian coastal waters. Generally the Japanese reported better yields to the south and west of Colombia (Ecuador, figure 8).' 26 There are also some Caribbean catches. (See "Species: Distribution".) The Japanese vessels operating out of Colombia, however, report minimal swordfish catches, but the target species was tuna (appendix B4 and figure 23). 1 . Pacific a. Colombian fishermen Colombian Pacific coast fishermen, with a few exceptions, mostly operate close to the coast. Little information is available to the authors on specific grounds, but the species composition of the catch gives some indication as to possible grounds. The essentially coastal nature of the domestic Colombian fishery significantly limits swordfish catches. Commercial: Colombia's commercial fleet is dominated by the coastal shrimp fleet and new tuna fleet. There were also about 55 other vessels in 1995 targeting other finfish and swordfish (appendix A3b). 127 These vessels take small quantities of dorado and sharks, but rarely swordfish. 128 The Pacific coast commercial fleet conducts some offshore operations, primarily the tuna purse-seine fleet and a small part of the shrimp fleet that is capable of deep- water operations. The bulk of tuna operations are conducted in the Pacific as most of the catch is landed in Buenaventura. Colombian companies have acquired a few large seiners in recent years and are capable of some fishing outside their own EEZ (photo 1). The commercial fishermen also take substantial quantities of small pelagics, anchovy ("carduma)" and other species such as sardines and thread herring. This small pelagic catch is conducted very close to the coast. 22 Artisanal: Most artisanal fishermen continue to operate very close to the coast. Fishermen targeting shark are some of the few operating at any distance from the coast, and one observer reports that even these operations are only 30-50 km offshore during trips of about 10-15 days. 129 Few details are available as to where along the coast, but the areas off river mouths appear to be favored. The overall species composition of the artisanal fleet confirms largely coastal operations. The fishermen primarily report catches of anchoveta, Pacific sierra, snapper, grouper, seabob shrimp, "pescadilla," seatrouts and corvinas, jacks, "picuda," and catfish, as well as smaller catches of tunas. I3 ° Swordfish catches by the artisanal and commercial fishermen are rare, but occasional landings are reported all along the coast, from the Panamanian border south to Gorgona island (3°N,78°W) off the southern coast near Tumaco. Minor catches are also reported off Malpelo Island (4°N, 82° W). m The industry representatives interviewed for this study stressed that such swordfish catches are highly unusual. Recreational fishermen also rarely report swordfish. One observer describing Pacific big game fishing for swordfish did not even mention Colombia. 132 b. Japanese longline fishermen The only available data on swordfish catches by area has been compiled by foreign longline fishermen. The Japanese, who primarily target tuna, reported only limited swordfish catches off Colombia's Pacific coast (10°N-0°) during the 1990s, but somewhat better results to the west and south in Ecuadorean waters (0°N-5°S) and in international waters outside of Colombian jurisdiction (west of 85°W). Catches to the north off Panama were comparable to results in Colombian waters. The best catches, however were reported well out into the ETP at latitudes off Ecuador and Peru (100°-155°W and 5°N-15°S) and along the Peruvian and northern Chilean coast (75°-90°W and 10°-25°S). 133 A compilation of all distant-water catches shows a similar pattern. 134 Additional Japanese swordfish CPUE data on tuna longlining for a much longer period 1952-85) show relatively poor results along much of the Central American and Colombian coasts (20°N-0°) of only 1 fish per 1,000 hooks. Somewhat better results of 2 fish per 1,000 hooks were noted to the south off the Ecuadorean and Peruvian coasts (0°-20°S). The highest yields off Latin America during this period were achieved off the Mexican and Chilean coasts. 135 Photo 6-Shrimp trawlers have traditionally been the primary commercial vessels operated from Cartagena and other Caribbean ports. Fred Beaudry. 23 2. Atlantic (Caribbean) a. Colombian fishermen Colombia's overall fisheries catch in the Caribbean is fairly small, rarely more than 15,000 t, although it has been increasing during recent years (appendix Bl). Most of the small catch of oceanic pelagics (with the exception of purse-seined tuna), like shark and billfish, are apparently taken along the mainland coast— but swordfish are rarely caught. Some caution must be used when relying upon official catch data. Some observers, for example, have noted billfish landings at San Andres which were not included in the official catch data. Colombian Caribbean coast inshore waters. 1) Mainland coast fishermen along the mainland operate primarily in coastal and The commercial fishery has been dominated by the shrimp fishery, although some diversification has taken place since 1992 with the growth of the tuna fishery. The artisanal fishery is more diversified, but generally has been restricted to inshore waters or coastal grounds very close to the coast. Commercial: Colombia's commercial fishery has primarily targeted shrimp. The shrimp trawlers operate primarily in coastal waters (photo 6). In recent years, a few tuna vessels have been added to the fleet and with the foreign vessels participating in Photo 7. — The primitive craft like this dugout ("cayuco") used along the Caribbean coast has restricted the artisanal fishermen to inshore waters. Guerly Avila de Tabares the fishery, tuna now represents more than half of Caribbean catches. INPA reports that in 1995, only six domestic commercial vessels, other than shrimp and tuna vessels, were active in the Caribbean (appendix A3b). All of these vessels, except for the tuna vessels, operate primarily in coastal waters. The commercial fishermen in 1995, with the exception of the tuna purse-seine fishermen, took only about 500 t of finfish and no single species in significant quantity. The only notable species (more than 100 t) besides shrimp and tuna were conch and lobster. 136 Artisanal: The artisanal fishermen have traditionally conducted operations extremely close to the coast. Artisanal catches in 1995 totaled about 4,000 tons. Until recently the great proportion of the catch was taken in coastal lagoons and other inshore waters. Artisanal fishermen, even those using dugouts, occasionally reported taking sharks of some size (photo 25). The Caribbean-coast artisanal fishermen report taking primarily sharks, snapper, bonito, crab, and lobster. 137 Fishing more than 10 km off the coast is still quite rare. Beyond 15 km, virtually all of the catch is taken by commercial or recreational fishermen. 138 Fishermen operating from Santa Marta (who report separately) were responsible for most of the catch, landing nearly 3,200 t in 1995, mostly "bocon," blue runner, bluntnose jack and other jacks, thread herring, "picuda," and snappers. There were also small shark and tuna caches. 139 The artisanal fishermen report only rare incidental swordfish catches along the mainland Caribbean coast. 140 One observer believes that most of the billfish caught along the mainland coast which INPA reports as having been taken by the artisanal fishermen, is actually caught by recreational fishermen. 141 Available research and reports from domestic and foreign fishermen, as well as recreational fishing activity, all suggest that swordfish catches are extremely limited in the Caribbean. 142 (See "Species: Distribution".) Fisheries for related oceanic pelagic species (sharks and billfish) are mostly conducted in the Pacific, although the pattern fluctuates from year-to-year and occasionally the Caribbean catch is also of some importance (appendices B3a2 and B3bl and figures 20-22). Detailed information on the specific grounds targeted is not 24 W- Photo 8 —While most artisanal fishermen are restricted to inshore waters, some like these snapper longliners operating in the Caribbean may take trips of up to 10 days. Guerly Avila de Ta bares available. Little domestic longline data is available to the authors. One experimental Caribbean fishing assessment with shark longlines showed no incidental swordfish catches. The lines, however, were set in inshore waters. 143 b. Japanese longline fishermen The Japanese have extensively deployed longliners in the Caribbean, primarily for tuna, but they have also reported extensive billfish by- catches, primarily sailfish and marlin. 15 " Japanese longliners reported some activity in the western Caribbean during 1993, the latest data available to the authors. 151 Presumably this was primarily fishing in association with Colombian companies, both within and outside Colombian waters. The authors do not have detailed species composition data, but based on conversations with associated Colombian partners, the primary target species was yellowfin tuna and virtually no swordfish was taken (figure 23). '" 2) Caribbean islands The fishermen on Colombian Caribbean islands report very small catches. They have focused primarily on snapper, grouper, jack mackerel, lobster, conch, and other demersal species taken in relatively shallow water. Oceanic pelagics are rarely reported in official statistics, but there is apparently a small catch- -mostly sailfish. 144 INPA reported a small catch of only 70 t in 1995, primarily snapper, lobster, yellowtail snapper, Spanish mackerel, and bluntnose and other jacks. 145 Observers have reported the presence of sharks, tunas, billfish, dorado, mackerels, and other species, although populations may be dispersed and not sufficiently concentrated to support a commercial fishery. 146 Colombian officials have expressed an interest in developing fisheries for pelagic species from the islands. 147 Little progress, however, has been made. Artisanal fishermen report only occasional incidental swordfish catches around the offshore Caribbean islands. 148 Available INPA data suggests that such catches are extremely limited. INPA reports, for example, virtually no catch of other oceanic species (sharks and billfish) off the islands, but as noted above, catches of some of these species are not being recorded. I49 25 Photo 9— The Bocana deploys driftnets ("malladores") along Colombia's Pacific coast. One of the principal species taken is sharks, but swordfish are rarely reported. Luis Zapata Photo 10—Lanchas like this one are replacing the traditional dugouts used by artisanal fishermen. Guerly Avila de Tabares 26 IV. Fleet Colombian fishermen have primarily deployed small artisanal boats, but the commercial fishery has expanded in recent years. Much of the growth has been in the tuna fleet. Colombian tuna fishermen deploy purse seiners. There are no domestic commercial longliners, but some artisanal fishermen deploy small semi-commercial longliners. long as 12 m were reported. Generally two persons crewed each canoe. In some villages only a few had outboard motors and instead used paddles. In other villages most of the fishermen had outboards. Sails were rarely used. In many cases, the larger dugouts ("bongos") equipped with sizable motors, were used primarily for transport of both people and freight, rather than for fishing. 155 As Colombia's marine fishery has developed, the fishermen have acquired larger boats ("lanchas") and moved into coastal waters. Many artisanal fishermen in the 1980s acquired outboard motors. 156 The modernization of A. Artisanal Cayuco/Bote 61% Colombia's artisanal fishery has traditionally been primarily conducted in inland lakes and rivers as well as coastal lagoons. The small marine artisanal fishery until the 1980s employed mostly primitive "canoas/potri 1 los/cayucos-botes/bongos- chalupas" (dugout canoes) (appendix A9 and figure 8). Much of the fishing was in fact conducted without boats, using fixed gear, beach seines, and a variety of cast nets. In recent years, artisanal fishermen have acquired more modern vessels ("lanchas"). Some of the fishermen have also initiated semi- commercial operations including longline and driftnet fisheries (photo 4). One of the principal species targeted by the small number of artisanal longline fishermen is shark. The fishermen are not yet taking significant quantities of tuna on their longlines, despite a considerable tuna resource in Colombian waters. The artisanal fishermen report only scattered swordfish catches, but do take some billfish. Chalupa 8% Parguera 1% Bongo 0% Lancha 31% 1997 Artisanal: 2,399 Boats Figure 14— The great bulk of the Colombian artisanal fleet is composed of either "cayitcos" or "lanchas" the fleet, however, still lags behind neighboring countries. One local observer reports that Colombian artisanal fishermen still lack large numbers of the speedy fiberglass boats which allow Ecuadorean fishermen to return to port quickly with high-quality fresh fish. 157 1 . Caribbean Available historical data show that the artisanal fishermen used mostly small, primitive boats ("cayucos/chalupas/botes"). Almost all the artisanal boats during the 1960s were extremely small and limited to inshore waters, primarily mangrove estuaries and coastal lagoons. 153 A decade later in the late 1970s the situation was little changed. Many of the craft employed were still flat bottom dugout canoes (photo 7 and 11). Few were motorized. 154 The artisanal fleet, however, varied from village to village. The least advanced villages had dugouts, 4.0-6.5 m long. In other villages fishing operations were somewhat more advanced. Some dugouts as Fishermen in recent years have begun to deploy larger, improved craft. There are currently two general types of artisanal vessels widely used along the Caribbean coasts. These vessels are distinguished primarily by the length of the fishing operations ("autonomi'a de pesca"): Day trips: The small Caribbean fishing vessels ("artesanal de costa") are used for short day trips. They generally fish within 8 km of the coast (in bays and other protected areas) and use a variety of fishing gears such as hook and line, gillnets, small longlines (surface and bottom), and traps. Some of these vessels deploy small, mostly bottom gillnets, to target snapper and groupers (photo 16). A few of these small-scale fishermen also occasionally deploy small 27 Photo 11 --Artisanal fishermen deploying a longline in the Pacific Note the fag and foal used to mark the line after the set and the fiberglass "panga" which are replacing dugouts Luis Zapata surface longlines and, to a lesser extent, driftnets. 158 Cayucos: Coastal and inshore artisanal fishing have traditionally been conducted with flat-bottom dugout canoes ("cayucos") ranging from 5-11 meters. These are still the most commonly used artisanal craft (appendix A9 and figure 14). The dugouts are also referred to as "botes" and the smaller ones as "chalupas" (3-5 m). The majority of artisanal craft in the Caribbean continues to be these small dugouts. They have a fishing autonomy of 1 day and are propelled by small outboard motors, although a few still use paddles and sails. Lanchas: Fishermen have in recent years begun acquiring more modern boats. The fishermen were reportedly using over 700 lanchas in 1997(appendix A9). Many are constructed of fiberglass ("fibra de vidrio"), but a variety of other materials (wood, wood reinforced with fiberglass, and aluminum) are also used. The launches are up to 11-m long and are all powered by outboard motors. They have a fishing autonomy of only 1 day. Extended trips: The other major type of artisanal craft is a newer design deployed in the past few years. These snapper launches ("lanchas pargueras") are used on extended trips of about 10 days for the offshore artisanal fishery ("artesanal de altura") (photos 12-14). The vessels are about 8-13 m long with ice holds of 2-4 tons. 159 The vessels are equipped with inboard motors. These mostly wooden vessels are generally manned by about five fishermen which use various hook techniques, including bottom longlines, to target reef fish such as snapper and groupers (photos 12- information. meters. 162 common 14). 160 A few of these bottom longliners were rigged for occasional surface longline and driftnet sets targeting sharks and other oceanic pelagics. The fishermen involved, however, have decided to continue bottom longlining for snappers and have generally discontinued their trials with surface longlines. 161 2. Pacific Artisanal fishermen are also active along the Pacific coast. Small-scale artisanal fishermen operate cayucos as is common along the Caribbean coast. The most sophisticated artisanal fishermen are those operating about 20 semi- commercial vessels deploying longlines and to a lesser extent driftnets (appendix B4). They include a variety of vessel types and construction materials, both wooden and steel hulls. The authors have received a variety of descriptions of these longliners with some conflicting One report indicates vessels of 15-30 Another observer reports that the most vessels are about 14-16 m long and have capacities of 20-30 tons. They are equipped with inboard motors ranging from 90-150 horsepower. The artisanal longliners have a potential range of about 20- 30 days, although most return to port after only 15 days of fishing because they handle fresh fish. 163 Other sources suggest trips of only 10 days. 164 Crews are generally about eight persons. 165 Some vessels serve as motherships towing 10-12 dugouts to the fishing grounds as is the practice in Ecuador. The dugout fishermen, however, do not tend to focus on sharks. 166 (See "Fleet Operations and Gear".) A fleet of smaller 6-m wood boats is based in Tumaco. These vessels make day trips and deploy hand lines and driftnets. 167 B. Commercial Colombia's commercial fleet in 1995 consisted of 360 vessels, about 190 domestic and 170 foreign (appendix Ala and figures 15 and 16). A large number of the foreign fishing vessels were from countries registering flag-of-convenience vessels (Panama, Honduras, and Belize), so the actual nationality of the vessels is unclear (appendix A2). Nearly half of the licensed vessels in 1995 were shrimp trawlers (147), but there were also a large number of tuna vessels (82) (appendix A3a and photos 1, 5-6, and 20). Almost all of the tuna vessels are purse seiners. 28 Shrimp 49% > ^- ^^^^k Tuna ^^# Multiple Gear 11% Small Palegics 4% ^I^^m Demersal 24% 1995 Domestic: 192 Vessels Figure 15— About half of Colombia's domestic commercial fleet is dedicated to the shrimp fishery. The Colombian commercial fleet declined sharply from 470 vessels in 1992 to only 330 vessels in 1994 (appendix Ala). Both domestic and foreign vessels were withdrawn from the fleet in 1993. Domestic companies withdrew over 100 vessels and the foreign fishermen withdrew about 65 vessels, but increased the number of vessels somewhat in 1994. Most of the vessels withdrawn were shrimp trawlers, but a substantial number of whitefish and lobster/conch vessels were also withdrawn (appendix A3a). The fleet recovered somewhat to 360 vessels in 1995. 1. Domestic Colombia has only a modest commercial fishing fleet, the smallest of all the major Latin American countries. Most of Colombia's commercial fleet is composed of relatively small vessels such as shrimp trawlers (photos 6 and 20), although fishermen have begun to expand the fleet somewhat in recent years. As recently as the 1970s the commercial fleet was almost exclusively limited to small shrimp trawlers. The fleet has since diversified and now includes a greater variety of vessels. Fishermen began to significantly expand the fleet in 1992 with the acquisition of larger vessels, mostly tuna seiners (appendix Alb). to Lloyd's of London in 1992 (appendix Alb). This data is roughly confirmed by the U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence which reported three large Colombian fishing vessels and one research vessel in 1993 (appendix A8a). The fleet has since increased and seven large vessels, all believed to be tuna seiners, were active in 1996 (appendix A5b and A8b). Current information on the major sectors of Colombia's fishing industry include: Shrimp: The shrimp trawl fleet is Colombia's most important commercial fleet. The domestic fleet totaled 95 vessels, all but 8 of which operate in coastal waters (appendix A3b and photos 6 and 20). There is no swordfish by- catch. Tuna: Colombia's domestic tuna fleet totaled about 17-22 vessels in 1995, about two-thirds of which were deployed in the Pacific (appendix A3b and A5a and photos 1 and 5).' 68 Most of the tuna vessels operating off Colombia are foreign, but the domestic fleet has been growing in recent years. All of the domestic tuna vessels are purse seiners. Colombian fishermen have yet to deploy tuna longliners. As a result, there is no swordfish by-catch of any importance.' 69 At least one company (Oceanos), however, is planning to deploy a small longliner in 1997. 170 Demersal species: Colombia also has a small fleet of vessels targeting a variety of demersal species (referred to locally as "pesca blanca" or whitefish) using lines (appendix A3b). Most of the vessels are deployed in the Pacific. There is no significant The most significant Colombian fleet development has been the acquisition of a modern fleet of tuna purse seiners. Colombia reported three large fishing vessels (500-GRT or larger) Tuna 36% Shrimp 31% Demersal 10% Conch 2% Small Palegic 5% Multiple Gear 13% Lobster 4% 1995 Foreign: 168 Vessels Figure 16- Over two-thirds of the foreign vessels working in Colombia are deployed in the tuna and shrimp fisheries. 29 swordfish by-catch. Longliners: Colombia has no domestic commercial tuna longliners. 171 Artisanal fishermen, however, deploy about 20 semi-commercial longliners for shark along the Pacific coast (appendix B4). (See "Artisanal" above.) While these vessels are classified as artisanal, they in fact conduct small-scale commercial operations. There is a small billfish by- catch, but only an occasional swordfish by-catch. Others: The commercial fleet is composed of a variety of other vessels, including small pelagic seiners, lobster, and conch boats, and multi-purpose vessels (appendix A3b). There is no significant swordfish by-catch from any of these vessels. 2. Foreign Many Colombian companies have decided to form associations with foreign vessel owners rather than make the substantial capital investment needed to acquire and operate a modern fleet of vessels. 172 (See "Foreign" below.) This is unusual in Latin America as most other countries have highly restrictive licensing procedures. While it is unclear why Colombia has pursued such a different policy toward foreign fishermen, it may reflect the extremely limited development of a national fishing fleet, even as late as the 1980s. Thus there was no extensive domestic fleet to protect by restrictive licensing policies. a. Vessel type Most of the foreign vessels operating off Colombia are shrimp trawlers, but there are also a significant number of tuna vessels as well as a variety of other vessel types. While most of the tuna vessels are purse seiners, there are also a few longliners. Purse seiners do not take significant numbers of swordfish. 173 The Colombian companies associated with the small number of foreign longliners report that these vessels off Colombia also take only small numbers of swordfish. Tuna: Most of the tuna vessels licensed for operations off Colombia are foreign, although Colombia has been steadily expanding its domestic fleet in recent years. Precise details on vessel characteristics, however, are unavailable to the authors. Colombia issued permits for 64-82 tuna vessels during 1992-1995 (appendix A3a). The foreign vessels in 1995 were about 75 percent of the tuna fleet deployed out of Colombian ports (appendix A3b). Purse seiners: The foreign tuna vessels deployed off Colombia are mostly purse seiners (appendix A3a and A5b). Vessels flagged in Belize, Cyprus, Ecuador, Honduras, Japan, Korea, Mexico, New Zealand, Mexico, Russia, St. Vincent, Spain, the United States, Vanuatu, and Venezuela participated in the fishery during 1995 (appendix A5b). Longliners: A few foreign tuna vessels deployed out of Colombian ports are longliners. The authors have, however, received varying estimates of the number of vessels involved. INPA reported that 16 licenses were issued to longliners in 1994. 174 Industry sources report a smaller number. The authors have only been able to identify three companies which currently work with foreign longliners; Bahia Cupica, Pescaderia Asturiana, and COPESNAR. 175 (See "Companies".) Two of these companies have worked for several years with five Japanese longliners, although one was registered in Panama. Japan: The Japanese are reportedly the principal country operating longliners under association agreements. One company (Bahia Cupica) works with Japanese longliners operating in the Pacific. Another company (Pescaderia Asturiana) works with Japanese longliners operating in the Caribbean/ Atlantic. Less is known about the third company (COPESNAR), but unconfirmed reports suggest that it is working with Chinese longliners in the Caribbean (appendix A7). 176 None of the licensed longliners target swordfish. All of the vessels involved are freezer vessels. There are no foreign longliners landing fresh fish. Bahia Cupica reportedly worked with the Japanese longliners Chiyoda Maru 11, Shoei Maru 28, and the Chidori Maru 21 during 1997. The company reports that there is no swordfish by-catch. 177 Pescaderia Asturiana worked with two longliners; the Panamanian flag-of-convenience vessel Victoria 8 and the Japanese Yushu Maru No. 51} n All five of these longliners are vessels of about 250-300 GRT. China: The authors have not been able to obtain any details on the two Chinese longliners reportedly working with COPESNAR out of Tumaco (appendix A7). It is possible that they could be Taiwan owned. Shrimp: Substantial numbers of foreign shrimp trawlers are also licensed, but in 1995 only about one- third the shrimp fleet was foreign vessels (appendix A3b). There is no swordfish by-catch. Other: Many additional foreign vessels are licensed to purse seine for small pelagics and harvest lobster, conch, and demersal species (appendix A3b). There is no notable swordfish by-catch in any of these fisheries. 30 b. Country Fishermen from a large number of foreign countries, both neighboring Latin American countries as well as distant-water fishing countries, deploy fishing vessels off Colombia. Most of the foreign countries are involved in the shrimp and tuna fishery, although a small number of vessels are deployed for small pelagics, finfish, and shellfish (appendix A3b). 179 The most significant deployment of foreign vessels is for tuna. In 1995 tuna vessels from 15 countries operated off Colombia. Most of the vessels involved were purse seiners. The largest number (26 seiners) were deployed by neighboring Ecuador. Many companies were deploying large, modern purse seiners (Belize, Cyprus, Mexico, Panama, the United States, Vanuatu, and Venezuela). Several of these countries (Belize, Cyprus, Panama, St. Vincent, and Vanuatu) appear to be registering foreign-owned flag- of-convenience vessels. 180 Belize: Five Belize tuna vessels were licensed in 1995; one was a relatively large seiner, the Charo (appendix A5b). Four Belizian-flag seiners were licensed in 1996 (appendix A6c). No details are available on these vessels, but they all appear to be purse seiners or combination vessels. Belize is known to have begun registering flag-of-convenience vessels in recent years. 181 This registration program appears, however, to be relatively small compared to those of Honduras and Panama. China: Two Chinese-flag vessels worked with the COPESNAR company out of the Pacific-coast port of Tumaco in 1996. 182 The authors believe that the two vessels are longliners, but have not been able to reach the company to confirm this (appendix A6c). Ecuador: Neighboring Ecuador furnishes the largest number of tuna vessels deployed off Colombia, greater than the number of domestic Colombian tuna vessels. Ecuadorean fishermen in 1995 deployed 26 tuna vessels, all believed to be small purse seiners (appendix A5b). The number declined slightly to 23 vessels in 1996 (appendix A6c). Honduras: Honduras is a major center for licensing foreign flag-of-convenience vessels. Many of these vessels are tuna longliners, often owned by Taiwan companies. 183 While many Honduran vessels are licensed to fish off Colombia, only one of those vessels in 1995 was a tuna vessel, the Pampamo I (appendix A5b). Given the small size of the vessel, it could be Honduran-owned. No Honduran-flag tuna vessels were licensed in 1996 (appendix A6c). Japan: Japanese companies deployed six tuna vessels off Colombia in 1995. Several are believed to be longliners (appendix A5b and A7). Most of the Japanese vessels operate out of Baranquilla. Japan is the principal country known to be deploying longliners off Colombia. At least one Japanese-owned longliner registered in Panama is also active in Colombia. The number of Japanese tuna vessels in 1996 declined to four (appendix A6c). Mexico: Mexican companies deployed six tuna vessels off Colombia in 1995. The vessels all appear to be tuna purse seiners, part of the large fleet acquired by Mexico during the 1980s (appendix A5b). 184 Only one Mexican seiner was licensed in 1996 (appendix A6c). Panama: A total of 14 Panamanian-flag tuna vessels was deployed off Panama in 1995 (appendix A5b). The vessels appear to include small Panamanian seiners as well as foreign-owned flag-of-convenience seiners and longliners. One Colombian company reports working with a Japanese-owned longliner flagged in Panama (appendix A7). 185 The number of licenses granted to Panamanian-flag tuna vessels declined to eight in 1996 (appendix A6c). United States: U.S. fishermen operated eight tuna vessels in association with Colombian companies during 1995 (appendix A5b). The number of licensed seiners declined to four in 1996, all operating in association with Frigogan (appendix A6c). All of these vessels are large purse seiners, based in Baranquilla and Cartagena. U.S. fishermen deploy swordfish longliners extensively in the Caribbean, but none are known to have sought Colombian licenses and operations in the western Caribbean are extremely limited. U.S. longline fishermen targeting swordfish are also active in the Pacific, but primarily work grounds to the north of the Hawaiian Islands. 186 Vanuatu: Colombian companies worked with 11 Vanuatu-flagged tuna vessels in 1995 (appendix A5b). The number declined to eight seiners in 1996 (appendix A6c). All of these vessels are believed to be large purse seiners. They appear to be foreign- owned flag-of-convenience vessels and primarily operate out of Cartagena. Venezuela: Venezuela like Mexico developed a modern tuna purse-seine fishery in the 1980s. 187 Venezuelan companies obtained licenses for 17 tuna vessels in 1995 and 1996 (appendices A5b and A6c). All of these vessels are large, modem tuna purse seiners. The vessels were deployed out of Baranquilla and Cartagena. Venezuelan fishermen also conduct a longline fishery for tuna and swordfish, but association contracts have not been arranged for these vessels. 188 31 V. Shipyards Colombia has only a few shipyards which have given little attention to the construction of fishing vessels. The country's largest shipyard, the Compania Colombiana de Astilleros (CONASTIL) located in Cartagena, has the capacity to build vessels of up to 10,000 t, and potentially could build tuna seiners and fisheries support vessels. CONASTIL has received technical assistance from Japanese shipyards through a joint venture. 189 The yard, however, is devoted primarily to vessel maintenance and repair. CONASTIL reportedly services a significant number of foreign-flag vessels each year.' 90 Small yards in Colombia also provide some support and maintenance services to fishing vessels, mostly shrimp trawlers. Most Colombian commercial fishing vessels are imported, primarily from the United States. 191 Colombia has also imported small numbers of fishing vessels from Cuba, Mexico, the Netherlands, Spain, and the United Kingdom. Colombia reportedly imported two 850-ton Atun-c\ass tuna purse seiners from Mexico in 1989 and 1991. 192 The Colombian Government has facilitated such imports to promote the development of the domestic fishing industry. Under Colombian law, all imports of vessels and equipment are exempt from taxes for 10 years from January 15, 1990.' 93 VI. Fleet Operations and Gear Colombian fishermen operating artisanal, commercial, and recreational vessels take almost no swordfish, although there is a small incidental catch of billfish. Foreign fishermen targeting tuna report a small incidental catch of swordfish as well as other billfish, mostly in the Pacific. A. Colombian fishery Colombian fishermen do not target swordfish. The country's fishermen do not operate any commercial longliners capable of taking the species. (See "Fleet".) The Colombian tuna fishery is a purse- seine fishery which does not take significant numbers of swordfish, even as a by-catch, especially when setting on dolphins. 194 Some of the artisanal operations deploying small longlines and a few driftnets for shark, however, result in limited billfish catches. (Much of this activity is semi-commercial. The dividing line between artisanal and commercial is appears somewhat arbitrary, but INPA has specific guidelines based upon the size of the vessel. 195 ) Most of the billfish taken is sailfish and marlin. Catches of swordfish are extremely rare. 1 . Artisanal fishery Colombia's traditional artisanal fishery until recently has been dominated by small-scale fishermen using cast nets ("atarayas"), small seines ("boliches"), gillnets ("transmallo" and "agalleras"), and lines ("lineas") in coastal estuaries, lagoons, and other inshore waters. Some of the nets were woven by the fishermen themselves. Fixed gear ("estacas"), traps ("nasas" "trampas"), bottom longlines ("palangre"), and small beach seines ("chinchorros") were also used. 1 " 6 The small number of fishermen venturing off the coast rarely went more than 2-3 kilometers. These fishermen mostly used handlines, fishing at a depth of 10-40 meters. The fishermen deployed a few gillnets, taking sierra and associated species such as tarpon ("sabalo") and shark. A few longlines ("palangre"), light attraction ("atraccion luminosa"), and lines ("ciempies") were also used. The light attraction method resulted in some catches of bigeye scad. 197 Much of the fishing was conducted from isolated coastal villages. Poor landing facilities and transportation links made it very difficult for the fishermen to market their catch and generate sufficient income to modernize operations. 198 Some modernization of the fishery occurred during the 1970s, but appears to have been highly localized. Through the 1980s, much of the artisanal fishery was still very primitive. Caribbean: Various reports suggest that fishermen in the Guajira Peninsula and near Santa Marta were the most advanced. 199 Even off the Guajira, however, the fishermen operated mostly on the shelf which is extremely narrow, only up to about 10 km offshore, using hand lines. 200 One report indicated that by the late 1970s the fishermen had begun targeting snappers a little further off the coast on the shelf slope. Further south, a variety of inshore fisheries for shellfish (shrimp and mollusks) were more important. 201 Given such operations, artisanal swordfish catches were unlikely, especially as the species does not 32 Photo 1 2 —These fishermen are setting bottom longlines for snapper and grouper in the Caribbean Guerly Avila de Tabares Photo 13— These artisanal fishermen operating from a lancha have baited their hooks for a longline set. Guerly Avila de Tabares Photo 14 —Retrieving the catch from a bottom longline set along the Caribbean coast Guerlv Avila de Tabares ^fcjil ^w LI WUHH 1 11 •■• ^ _l -■,- :r- a -. *' * i te, ■■.■ ;- Photo 15—Driftnet fishermen set their nets at dusk and retrieve them at dawn. The mesh used in the Pacific varies from 5-10 inches. Gilberio Acevedo Photo 16— A small surface gillnet used by artisanal fishermen along the Caribbean coast off the Guajira Peninsula. Guerly Avila de Tabares Photo 17— An artisanal purse seine about to be deployed from a small lancha Colombian fishermen are increasingly moving out of inshore waters Guerly Avila de Tabares Photo 18 —Artisanal longline fishermen taking dorado (mahi mahi/dolphm) along Colombia 's Pacific coast. Julio Cesar Casquete appear to be abundant off Colombia. Pacific: The authors have been able to find little historical information on artisanal fishing along the Pacific coast. One observer describes a fleet of about 50 artisanal boats operating from Tumaco. They make day trips landing small sharks and seasonally (May and August) tuna with hand lines and driftnets. The fishermen are able to target tuna during those two months as the fish reportedly often come into coastal waters. Occasional billfish and swordfish are sometimes taken, but such catches are infrequent. 202 shark ("tiburon") longlines to diversify Caribbean operations which are mostly handlines and driftnets. The study was conducted by INPA's Proyecto de Pesca Artesanal Maritima and consisted of test fishing during 1992-93 along the Caribbean coast to compare three different gears. Notably no catches of swordfish and other billfish were reported. 204 Fishing operations vary significantly, depending on the gear used by the fishermen. Virtually no swordfish is taken by the artisanal fishermen, but they do take some billfish (appendix B3cl-2 and figures 17-19). Driftnet: Some artisanal fishermen conducting semi-commercial operations along the Pacific coast deploy small driftnets ("malladores"), varying from 0.6- 1.5 km in length. 205 The primary target species are sharks (appendix B4). 206 Driftnet trials have been conducted in the The nets ("red de enmalle") evaluated were about 180 m long and about 13 m deep. They were generally deployed at 5:30-8:30 am and left active for 14-15 hours. 20 ' The principal species taken by the driftnets was snappers and relatively small quantities of pelagic species such as king mackerel ("sierra"). The shark catch was especially small. Bottom longlines: Caribbean coast fishermen extensively deploy bottom longlines from their lanchas pargueras, primarily from ports along the Caribbean. Colombia's marine artisanal fishery has expanded significantly in recent years, albeit from a low base. This, in part, is reflected in the increased Colombian fishery catches achieved during the late 1980s and 1990s (appendix Bla). Only limited information is available to the authors, however, on the current status of the artisanal fishery. 203 Artisanal fishermen in the Pacific do employ small longlines and driftnets and may, as a result, take very limited numbers of swordfish incidentally. Artisanal fishermen in the Caribbean have been more reluctant to diversify, but INPA has conducted some research to demonstrate possible results to the fishermen. One recent study assessed the possibility of using Metric Tons f 60 Marlin ^Commercial □Artisanal / A 50 40 30 20 10 / - 1 / "A / A H ■ / A M 1992 1993 1994 Year 1995 Figure 17.— Most of Colombia's marlin catch is landed by commercial fishermen 35 Metric Tons / Sailfish ^Commercial □Artisanal 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 / J / f -'M _ {■■■■■■ jk f 1992 1993 Year 1994 1995 Metric Tons Figure 18— Most of Colombia's sailfish catch in recent years has been taken by artisanal fishermen. Guajira Peninsula. Their longlines have up to 1,200 hooks separated by almost 2 m and extend about 2 kilometers. The fishing autonomy (trips) of these vessels is about 10 days. They fish generally in upwelling regions off the Guajira Peninsula. The Colombian bottom longliners have adopted the techniques developed by Venezuelan fishermen for snapper and grouper. Some of these vessels also deploy "ballestillas", which are manual lines with two- five hooks at the tip of the line. They have a metallic leader at the end to enhance the sensation of fishing bites for the fishermen. 208 The Colombian fishermen have been slow to adopt more modern gear to target other species (such as surface longlines for sharks and billfish). Surface longlines: Artisanal fishermen deploying surface longlines targeting sharks are active primarily along the Pacific coast. 209 Normally about 75-90 percent of Colombia's shark catch is taken in the Pacific, although occasionally (1993) the Caribbean catch approaches the Pacific catch (appendix B3bl). Some sources suggest that sharks are primarily taken by artisanal fishermen, but INPA reports catches by both artisanal as well as small-scale commercial fishermen (appendix B3cl- 2). Pacific: Both small-scale and larger semi-commercial operations are conducted in the Pacific. Small-scale: Small-scale artisanal fishermen using cayucos and other small craft, deploy longlines of about 150 meters. Vertical hook lines are spaced about every 5 meters. 210 Semi-commercial: One report indicates that 22 artisanal (semi- commercial) longliners were active during 1997 (appendix B4). They operate about 30-50 km offshore with crews of about eight persons. The fishermen target areas where river flows mix with seawater ("hileros"), looking for lines of debris at the surface to set their nets. The setting and retrieval of the line is quite similar to Ecuadorean operations. 211 The Colombian longline fishermen deploy 300-1,500 hooks baited with fish, squid, or eel. There is no significant swordfish by- catch, but a few fish are occasionally reported. Most of the vessels are based in Buenaventura and all of the catch is marketed fresh domestically. 212 Another report indicates that the fishermen deploy lines 4.5-9.0 km long with 200 150 100 Total Billfish ^Commercial □Artisanal Figure 19 -Colombian billfish catches, both artisanal and commercial, have declined sharply in recent years. 36 Metric Tons 120 100 80 1992 Sailfish BCaribbean □Pacific 1993 1994 1995 Year Figure 20.— Sailfish is the most important billfish taken by Colombian fishermen Catches are usually reported primarily in the Pacific. Metric Tons 60 50 40 30 20 10 / / t* Marlin □Caribbean □Pacific y P | I - ■!_ f 1992 1993 1994 1995 Year Figure 21 —Colombian marlin catches dropped sharply in 1995. Most of the catch is landed in the Pacific. Metric Tons 1992 1993 1994 1995 Year Figure 22— Most of Colombia's billfish is taken in the Pacific, but particularly poor Caribbean catches were reported in 1994-95 500-1,000 hooks. They set the vertical hooks lines about every 9 meters. Observers provide somewhat varied accounts on the catch composition. One observer reports that the catch is primarily shark and dorado. 213 Another reports sharks (tinto and bravo) as well as jack crevalle and tunas (yellowfin, skipjack, and bigeye). The vessels usually make trips of about 10 days, but may stay out longer if catches during the first few days are poor. 214 Caribbean: Some test longlining has been done in the Caribbean. In one study the longlines deployed were about 270 m long and have 30 vertical hook lines spaced at about every 9 meters. They were generally deployed at 3:00-7:45 pm and brought in from 4:10 am-7:15 am. The average soak time left active in the water was 13 hours. The catch varied significantly seasonally, but substantial quantities of sharks were taken, especially smalltail shark (Carcharhinus porosus). 215 In other trials, a boat captain using surface longlines in the Taganga region near Santa Marta reported deploying 1 km longlines with about 100 hooks spaced at intervals of 10 m and setting the hooks at depths of about 20-30 meters. The fishermen used 8-m fiberglass vessels with a hold capacity of 1 .5 tons and equipped with inboard motors of 20 horsepower. The four-man crews deployed the longlines twice per day (morning set/midday haul and early afternoon set/late afternoon haul). Each set was 3 hours long. They used thread herring ("machuelo") as bait. The fishermen took 3-day trips and took tunas, sierra, dorado, sharks, sailfish, and marlin which they marketed fresh in Taganga. They did not, however, take any swordfish. The main line of the longline was a 3/16 in polypropylene, and the vertical lines("reinales") were made out of 200-lb-test (91 kg) nylon. No swordfish was taken during the 3-month trial period. 216 The Caribbean fishermen appear hesitant to shift to surface longlines, despite the excellent results achieved in test fishing. Most have considerable experience with traditional bottom longlines targeting snapper (photos 12-14) and grouper and are hesitant to shift to surface longlining. 217 Hook and line: The principal fishing gear for many small-scale artisanal fishermen is hook-and-line, often basic hand lines. Fishermen in larger boats also deploy other hook and line systems. The catch can be quite diverse and vary significantly by grounds and seasons. One Caribbean gear study using handlines as a secondary gear complementing longline and driftnet sets reported taking primarily bigeye scad ("ojo gordo"). Much lesser quantities of snappers, groupers and other demersal fish were taken. Very small quantities of pelagics such as king mackerel and sharks were also reported. 218 Much of this fishing is conducted in relatively shallow inshore waters where swordfish catches would be unlikely. Most of the fishing for finfish from Colombia's offshore islands uses hook and line. 219 2. Commercial fishery Commercial fishermen in recent years have launched a tuna fishery using purse seiners to supply domestic canneries and export markets. There is no significant swordfish catch reported in this fishery. 220 Artisanal fishermen in the Pacific are conducting semi-commercial longline operations for shark which takes some billfish, but rarely swordfish (appendix B4). (See "Artisanal" above.) INPA reports a commercial shark and billfish catch in the Pacific (appendix B3c2). Colombia's billfish catch is in most years is landed primarily by the commercial fishermen (appendix B3c3 and figure 19). It is, however, unclear to the authors as to gear and operations involved. 3. Recreational fishery The authors have been able to find very few references to sport fishing in Colombia. U.S. fishermen attempting to develop a South American sport fishery during the 1930-50s generally showed little interest in Colombia. A U.S. Embassy report in 1977 noted that there was very little sport fishing. 222 The situation does not appear to have changed measurably. Pacific: Few references to Pacific big game fishing have been found. While swordfish is rarely caught, artisanal and commercial catch data suggest that sailfish and marlin are taken (appendices B3cl-2 and figures 20-22). A local source reports that some sport fishing occurs in the Pacific and that there are several international billfish tournaments. The most popular location is Bahia Solano along the northern coast. 223 Caribbean: There appears to be more sport fishing activity along the Caribbean coast. This is probably due to larger Caribbean ports with a more developed tourist infrastructure and greater number of recreational boats. The authors have been able to find a few references to Colombian sport fishing in the Caribbean. Some sports fishing is conducted from the Caribbean islands like San Andres, but billfish are generally not targeted. Some big game fishing is also conducted along the mainland coast. Colombia's big game fishing for billfish in the Caribbean occurs mostly out of Cartagena, Santa Marta, and Baranquilla. 224 One source reports that the Cartagena Club de Pesca hosts tournaments. 225 Both marlin and sailfish are taken. Based on artisanal and commercial catches, billfish appear much more abundant off the Pacific coast (appendix B3cl-2 and figure 22), but this may or may not reflect actual abundance. 38 B. Foreign vessels The primary foreign fleet operations for oceanic pelagics is the purse-seine fishery for skipjack and yellowfin. Fleet operations in this fishery have been described in detail by other authors, but are not relevant to this study as the incidental catch of swordfish is so limited. 226 Unlike other billfish, swordfish do not school and thus cannot be taken in any quantity by purse seiners which are designed specifically to set on schools. Foreign longline operations are much more limited than the massive purse-seine operations. Only a few licensed foreign vessels are longliners (appendix A6a-b and A7). The authors have, however, received varying estimates on the actual number of vessels involved. The primary country deploying longlines in tuna operations off Colombia is Japan. Countries involved to a lesser extent are Panama and China (and possibly Taiwan through flag-of-convenience registrations). At least one of the Japanese longliners has a Panamanian flag-of-convenience registration. Some Chinese longliners reportedly obtained licenses in 1996. Crews aboard the Japanese longliners can average about 22-23 persons. Only a minimal amount of swordfish are taken by these foreign vessels, and it is caught incidentally to directed tuna operations. Operations off Colombia appear to be similar to overall Japanese longline operations. 227 One basic difference between the operations of foreign vessels associated with Colombian companies and normal highseas operations is that the vessels operating in association with Colombian companies are required to land their catch at Colombian ports. (See "Transshipments".) Some basic data on grounds, Tuna 80% catches and yields by area, and seasonality of the Japanese fishery are discussed above in "Species" and "Fishing Grounds." A few foreign longliners are active in both the Atlantic/Caribbean and Pacific off Colombia. Both oceans: One Cartagena company reports working with two Japanese longliners during the late 1980s. The vessels were deployed in both the Pacific and Caribbean/Atlantic. Trips averaged 80-90 days and about 120-150 t of tuna and 30-35 t of by-catch, mostly sharks, were landed. 228 Caribbean/Atlantic: Another Cartagena-based company reports that the associated Japanese-owned vessel (flagged in Panama) is deployed in the Atlantic during the winter/spring (December-May) and in the Caribbean, within and outside Colombian waters, during the summer (June-November). The shifting grounds follow the migratory movement of the fish. Trips may be up to 60-90 days and the vessels average about 4-5 trips per year. 229 The vessels deploy mainlines about 150 km long. Each set deploys about 3,000 hooks approximately every 50 meters. A sardine-like species is used for bait and it is purchased from Ecuador or Japan rather than obtained locally. Hooks are set at depths of about 50 meters. The line is deployed during the early morning and retrieved at dusk, although occasionally they do the opposite. 230 Pacific: Colombian companies working with Japanese longliners reports that tuna comprises 80-85 percent of the catch. Most of the remainder (10-16 percent) is shark (appendix B4 and figure 23). There are small sailfish and marlin catches, but virtually no swordfish. The tuna catch is shipped to Japan, but most of the by-catch, including small quantities of billfish, dorado, and sierra are marketed domestically. 231 (See "Markets".) Another company reportedly worked with Chinese longliners out of Tumaco during 1996, but no details are available (appendix A6c). Colombian law requires that fishing crews generally be Colombian nationals, even on the foreign vessels fishing with Colombian licenses. 23 The regulations, however, are apparently not always enforced strictly. Marlin 2% Shark 16% Sailfish 2% Longline Catch Composition Figure 23 —One of the Colombian companies working with Japanese longliners reports that tuna comprise most of the catch and almost no swordfish is taken Some limited information is available on the contractual relationships and the crews of the foreign vessels. Positions: The captains and engineers on the Japanese vessels are Japanese. Colombian law requires the licensed vessels to have at least one Colombian crew member. Procedures vary from vessel to vessel. Colombian sources 39 complain that some of the foreign vessel operators will hire one Colombian in a non-technical capacity (for instances a cook) and then fill the other positions with foreigners. Recruitment difficulties: Some of the Colombian companies working with associated foreign vessels report that the foreign vessel operators claim that they have trouble recruiting Colombian fishermen because of cultural differences, trip duration, working conditions, and living accommodations. 233 They report that cultural differences and long trips appear to be especially important factors making it difficult to recruit Colombian fishermen. 234 Nationalities: Crew members are mostly non- Colombians, although this varies from vessel to vessel. The crew is commonly Japanese (usually the more technical positions), Latin Americans (especially Ecuadoreans and Panamanians), and Indonesians. A company working with three Japanese longliners reports that there are various Ecuadorean and Colombian crew members on the Chiyoda Maru II. However, on the other two vessels (Shoei Maru 28 and the Chidori Maru 21) there are only one on each (not necessarily a fisherman). A company working with Japanese vessels {Victoria 8 and Yushu Maru 51), albeit one flagged in Panama, reports crews of Colombians, Japanese, and Indonesians. 235 Commercial arrangements: The commercial arrangements involved vary. A common practice is for the Colombian company to provide the fuel, water, provisions, repairs, operating costs, and crew salaries. These costs are then subtracted from the amount received for the fish when the catch is landed. 236 Earnings: Colombian regulations do not address salaries aboard the foreign vessels. Each company arranges payment terms with the crew directly. According to a spokesman at Vikingos, the largest Colombian fishing company, individual companies generally have standard arrangements. Vikingos' crews receive 1 5 percent of the total value of fish at time of sale. This 15 percent is divided as follows: 45 percent to the captain, 17 percent to the machinist, and the remaining 38 percent to the crew (on average, four per ship). The by-catch is traditionally the property of the crew, and is divided however the crew sees fit. 237 Crew exchanges: Colombia is reportedly not used for crew exchanges. 238 This is somewhat surprising given the substantial number of foreign vessels being licensed. The foreign vessels are a potential source of data for INPA. Regulations currently require a Colombian observer during the experimental fishing operations, but after that, no fisheries observer is required. 239 Many of the purse seiners, however, carry dolphin observers. VII. Catch Metric Tons 250 200 150 100 50 / Species □Swordfish EJBillfish • -:::::::■ ^ CSS J A / £ 1 j j 1992 1993 1994 199 Year 5 1996 Available data suggest that significant quantities of swordfish are not normally harvested off Colombia (appendices B2a and B3al and figure 24). The few individuals occasionally taken are harvested as a by- catch. 240 For unknown reasons, an unusual swordfish catch of 29 t was reported in 1991. Artisanal, commercial, and sport fishermen report shark and small billfish catches— mostly sailfish and marlin (appendix B3al-2). 241 The relative importance of the artisanal and commercial billfish fisheries varies from year to year (appendix B3a2). The largest billfish catches during most years are reported in the Pacific (figures 22). Other sources report, however, that there is no significant catch of swordfish or billfish because the commercial harvest of these species is prohibited. 242 (See "Government Agency and Policy.") Presumably the billfish and small quantities of swordfish are incidental by- catches. There are no INPA regulations limiting by-catch levels. 243 Figure 24 —Colombian fishermen normally report no measurable swordfish catch, although billfish are caught Only limited data is available on the annual catch fluctuations of oceanic pelagics. Domestic fishermen targeting oceanic pelagics, with the exception of the tuna purse-seine fishermen, primarily focusing on sharks. They report 40 Photo ISA.-Artisanal driftnet fishermen took this 22-kg svordfish ("puercito") along Colombia's southern Pacific coast, about Wfl-km west of Gorgona Island Such catches are rare. G. Acevedo 41 Metric Tons 1,000 800 600 400 200 Grounds □Caribbean Pacific Year Figure 25.— Colombian fishermen take most of their shark catches in the Pacific Catches have declined sharply since 1992. virtually no swordfish, but their shark and billfish fisheries have fluctuated sharply in recent years. Foreign fishing vessels report their catches to INPA, but this data is not published. Given the limited swordfish catch data available, the authors have also turned to trends in other oceanic pelagic fisheries. 244 In addition import fluctuations in major target markets are used as an additional source of information on annual developments in the Colombian fishery. 1985-89: The Colombian shark longline fishery caught a record 955 t in 1986 (appendix B3bl and figure 23). Good shark catches were also reported in 1987 and 1989. Pacific catches were 75-90 percent of the total. Billfish and swordfish (mostly billfish) exports to Japan were relatively high totaling 77-89 t in 1986-87, but dropped to only 24 t in 1989 (appendix E4al). 1990-91: Shark catches declined sharply in 1990, totaling only about 620 t and a mere 350 t in 1991 (appendix B3bl). Caribbean catches declined to especially low levels. Colombia's only reported swordfish catch was taken in 1991 and totaled 29 t (appendix B2a). Billfish exports to Japan continued at low levels; 36 t in both 1990 and 1991 (appendix E4al). 1992-93: The shark catch improved in 1992, reaching 745 t (appendix B3bl). Caribbean shark catches were unusually high. The 1993 Caribbean catch was only slightly below that taken in the Pacific. Colombian fishermen also reported billfish (sailfish and marlin) catches of 150-190 t in 1992-93 (appendices B3al-2). Small quantities of swordfish were exported to the United States during 1992-93 (appendix E3a-b). Shipments of billfish and swordfish to Japan were unusually high, totaling 156 t in 1993, but the amount of swordfish in those shipments was probably relatively small (appendix E4al). 1994: The shark catch declined to less than 470 t in 1994 (appendix B3bl). Despite the lower shark catch, sharkfin exports to the United States increased (appendix E3c). The billfish catch also declined by over 50 percent to 60-70 t in 1994 (appendix B3al-2). The decline in the Caribbean billfish catch was particularly notable. These fluctuations appear to reflect the withdrawal of vessels and overall catch decline reported in 1994 (appendix Bla). Billfish exports to Japan dropped to only 22 t (appendix E4al). 1995: Results in 1995 showed some conflicting trends. The overall fisheries catch increased sharply in 1995 (appendix Bla). Despite the overall increase, the shark catch continued to decline to only about 210 t (appendix B3bl). Sharkfin exports to the United States, however, reached record levels (appendix E3c). Billfish catches stabilized somewhat, but catches of about 55 t were still lower than in 1994 (appendix B3a2). Despite the lower billfish catch, billfish exports to Japan increased to 35 t (appendix E4al). 1996: Few details are available on 1996 results. Tuna shipments to the United States fell precipitously (appendix E3fh but this was product from the purse- seine fishery. Most of the decline was due to the smaller shipments of loins. No fresh longline-caught tuna was shipped. Shark fin shipments to the United States continued at high levels (appendix E3c). Billfish exports to Japan increased sharply to 55 t (appendix E4al). 42 VIII. Ports Colombian ports have had limited facilities for fishing vessels because of the relatively small size of the domestic fleet. Although still of only minor importance, a few small artisanal longliners operate, mostly from Pacific ports. The small artisanal longliners deployed in recent years for sharks operate from Buenaventura and Tumaco. It is these vessels which land much of Colombia's billfish, shark, and other large pelagic catch. 245 Port facilities have been expanded in recent years, primarily because of the need to handle the large number of foreign vessels that currently operate out of Colombian ports. Facilities for artisanal fishermen have also been improved. Colombian ports (primarily Buenaventura and Cartagena) are now extensively used by the foreign tuna vessels leased by Colombian companies (appendix A5b). Foreign fishermen can obtain basic port services including fuel and supplies. Maintenance services are available in Colombian shipyards. 246 The recent development of a tuna purse-seine fishery has primarily been centered at the Pacific port of Buenaventura, although some effort has been deployed from Tumaco and other ports as well. Colombian and foreign vessels landed over 40,000 t of tuna in 1995, nearly 80 percent of which was landed at Buenaventura. 247 While most of Colombia's tuna purse-seine catch is landed and processed at Buenaventura, smaller quantities are also Photo 19— Cartagena is Colombia's principal Caribbean port, principal commercial fishery was for shrimp, but there is now industry. landed at Caribbean ports, especially Cartagena (photo 19). (See "Processing and Products.") The authors note that a substantial number of purse seiners operate out of Baranquilla, especially the U.S. seiners (appendix A5b). The small number of foreign longliners appear to be using primarily Cartagena and Buenaventura (appendix A7). Available information on Colombian fishing ports is as follows: Bahia Solano: The Japanese in 1988 reportedly agreed to help build a small fishing port at Bahia Solano along Colombia's northern Pacific coast. About 80 percent of the $15 million project was to be financed by the Japanese. 248 Bahia Solano is one of the more popular locations for sport fishing. Baranquilla: Several tuna loining and canning operations are conducted from this Caribbean port (Atunec and FRIGOGAN) (appendix C2). There is also some limited sport fishing. Buenaventura: Buenaventura is Colombia's principal Pacific port, but one of the country's poorest cities. This port is a major export center for coffee, cereals, and seafood. An industrial and commercial free zone is located next to the port facilities. It is the principal home port for Colombia's tuna purse-seine fleet and is a major center for tuna loining operations (appendices A5b and C2). Buenaventura is also the home port for most of the commercial fishing fleet operating along the Pacific coast (appendix A6b). The Colombian Government initiated efforts to build a modern $30 million fishing port at Buenaventura in 1978, but after many attempts the plan was shelved in 1985. Funds were obtained in the mid-1980s for a $150-million port improvement project which was completed in 1988. The channel was dredged, piers extended, new warehouses built, and equipment purchased. 249 The Corporacidn Regional del Valle de Cauca in 1989, sought to attract foreign investment for further improvement. 25 The new fishery facilities included basic port infrastructure, piers, ice plant, fueling facilities, a repair yard, and facilities for artisanal fishermen. The modern port facilities for both artisanal and commercial fishermen were scheduled to be opened in 1991. 251 The first modern tuna plant was opened in 1989 by COPESCOL. 252 The COPESCOL plant, however, closed in 1995. (See "Companies".) The ARPECOL and CIMAR plants at Buenaventura are still operating. Perhaps 150 small artisanal craft are Traditionally the an important tuna 43 longlining from this port." The fishermen, however, report dwindling catches and a serious pollution problem. 254 INPESCA works with the domestic longliners (appendix B4). While most of the tuna landed in Buenaventura is unloaded by purse seiners, the Bahia Cupica company also works with a small number of Japanese longliners (appendix A7). Cali: COPESCOL and CIMAR processed tuna in this Pacific-coast port (appendix C2). The COPESCOL plant closed in 1995. Cartagena: Cartagena is the Colombia's major Caribbean port (photo 19). The Colombian Government and private investors during the early 1980s made major improvements to the port, including a 8,000 ton synchrolift drydock, a 5,000 t cold store, and shops. 25 ' The Fondo de Desarrollo Photo 20— Cartagena is Colombia's most important shrimp port and the species dominated the local industry until the initiation of tuna processing in the 1990s. Fred Beaudiy new repair Rural with Dutch assistance in 1988 helped fund the construction of improved facilities for artisanal fishermen costing about $1 million. 25 ' Cartagena has for years been the center of Colombia's Caribbean shrimp trawl fishery (photo 20). Several tuna loining and canning operations are conducted from this Caribbean port (Atunes de Colombia, COPROMAR, EXPLOPESCA, FRIGOPESCA/Vikingos, and Industrial Pesquera C/Biana) (appendix A5c). The principal Vikingos plant is also located in Cartagena. There is some limited sport fishing. While most of the tuna landed in Cartagena is unloaded by purse seiners, the Pescaderia Asturiana company also works with a small number of Japanese longliners (appendix A7). Tumaco: This port is located along the southern coast, close to the Ecuadorean border. Local development agencies in 1987 began planning for a fisheries complex for both artisanal and commercial fishermen. 25 ' The Colombian Government in 1989 promoted the construction of a new fisheries complex. 258 Various press reports described a complex totaling 22,000 square m, and extensive piers. CIMAR has a tuna plant at this Pacific-coast port (appendix C2). One report indicated that Tumaco is the home port for most of the small artisanal longliners operating along the country's Pacific coast. 25 ' Available INPA data suggests that most of the Pacific artisanal shark catch was landed in Tumaco during 1993-94, but only about half in 1995 (appendix B3b2). One local observer describes a fleet of about 50 small wood boats, most of which are about 6 meters. The vessels land small sharks and seasonally (May and August) tuna. Only occasional billfish or swordfish are taken. 2 "" Very little of the commercial shark catch, however, is landed in Tumaco. The fishing port at Tumaco is administered by a non-profit company, COPESNAR. Profits from the port are invested in maintaining and expanding it, the new Escuela Tecnica de Pesca, and other social projects. COPESNAR is currently planning a new tuna cannery and loining facility. 261 Unconfirmed reports indicate that COPESNAR was working with two Chinese longliners out of Tumaco in 1997 (appendix A7). 44 IX. Transshipments Colombia is a major transshipment point for the international tuna fleet operating in the ETP. INPA has the authority to authorize the transhipment through Colombian ports of tuna and tuna-like species taken by vessels fishing under Colombian licenses. 262 Only vessels with Colombian licenses are allowed to transship through Colombian ports. The foreign-caught tuna being transshipped is fish taken by the international purse-seine fleet. These operations, however, are not the simple transfer of unprocessed frozen product. Most of the foreign- caught fish is being landed in Colombia for value- added processing into loins and thus are not precisely transshipments. The authors know of only limited transshipments and they are limited to fish taken by small number of foreign longliners associated with Colombian companies (appendix A7). The companies involved report that most all of the foreign-caught catch is tuna and the foreign vessels are reportedly catching almost no swordfish (appendix B4 and figure 23). A. Foreign fishing fleet Colombia does not permit foreign tuna vessels operating without a Colombian license to transship through Colombian ports. Details on foreign fleet operations, within and beyond Colombian waters, not in association with Colombian companies are covered in the various other country chapters of this study. 263 The Japanese are the principal distant-water country catching swordfish off the western coast of South America (Latin America, appendix C2b). Most of the Japanese catch, however, is transshipped at sea rather than bringing the fish into nearby ports. This allows the Japanese to avoid the complications and cost of entering foreign ports as well as enabling more control over the handling of the product. 264 One 1994 Japanese press report, however, indicated that Japanese fishermen were transshipping tuna and other species caught off Colombia and Ecuador through Central American ports, but provided few details. 265 B. Associated vessels Colombia does permit foreign vessels associated with Colombian companies to transship their catch. Purse seiners: Most of the tuna shipments through Colombia are fish caught by foreign-flag purse-seine fishermen who desire to unload at ports close to the fishing ground so they can remain in the region and continue fishing. Much of the product involved, however, are actually not transshipments. Many companies are taking advantage of the opportunity for low-cost loining at the large modern plants that have been opened during recent years (appendix CI -2). (See "Processing and Products.") Because of the value added this product could be considered a Colombian export rather than a transshipment. Longliners: The Government also licenses a few longliners. The vessels are nominally leased to Colombian companies, but the fishing operations are entirely in the hands of the foreign company and captain and the while the tuna catch is shipped through Colombian ports, unlike the purse-seine catch, it is not processed by the Colombian partner. Information on the operations of the small number of longliners involved is limited, but available reports suggest minimal quantities of swordfish are taken. Japanese vessels : Five Japanese-owned longliners in 1997 were operating with Bahia Cupica and Pescaderia Asturiana out of Buenaventura and Cartagena (appendix A7). One Colombian company reports that almost all of the catch is tuna, up to 85 percent of the total. The predominant species is yellowfin. Most of the remaining by-catch is shark and a very limited amount of sailfish and marlin and a variety of other species, but only an occasional swordfish (appendix B4 and figure 25). 266 The catch of these vessels, however, is not formally transshipped. The foreign longliners associated with Colombian companies are all required to land their catch in Colombia. It is then either exported or marketed domestically by the associated Colombian company. The associated longliners (mostly Japanese or affiliated with Japanese companies) are not permitted to transship at sea. The catch is all landed in a Colombian port. The Colombian company does not handle or process the tuna. The tuna catch is immediately loaded aboard a refrigerated cargo vessel ("trampero") for shipment to Japan. The Japanese fishermen sell the tuna to the associated Colombian company at prevailing international prices. 26 ' The Colombian company then formally sells the tuna to Japanese buyers, although the Japanese vessel owner provides the market connections and thus largely arranges the sale of fish in Japan. 261 The by-catch of other species, including small quantities of swordfish and billfish, is delivered to the Colombian partner. Most of the by-catch is marketed domestically. 269 Only limited information is available on the financial arrangements and contracts between the Colombian and Japanese companies. (See "Fleet Operations and Gear.") 45 X. Processing and Products The principal seafood processing conducted in the 1970s-80s was packing frozen shrimp (photo 21). The industry has diversified somewhat in recent years. Several large companies operate modern plants producing high-quality product (photo 22). Colombia has since the late 1980s developed a substantial tuna processing industry. Products include canned tuna High labor costs and fresh and frozen tuna loins, in the United States and Europe have created strong demand for low-cost production of loins. 271 Foreign canneries find it cost-effective to have the labor-intensive processing of loins done in Colombia. Seven companies operating from major Caribbean and Pacific coasts have installed a significant capacity to both loin and can tuna (appendix CI -2). Colombian companies do not process high-quality sashimi-grade seafood such as swordfish and tuna. 272 The limited landings of swordfish explain why swordfish is not being processed. It is less clear why Colombian companies are not processing high-quality fresh and frozen tuna. No Colombian company as of mid- 1997 was producing fresh or frozen sashimi-grade seafood, despite the country's substantial tuna resource. The tuna landed by both Colombian and foreign tuna seiners is targeted for loining and sale to foreign canneries. Purse seiners do not land fish with quality standards suitable for sashimi or other high- end product forms. The large Colombian companies operating the tuna canning and loining facilities are not participating in the expanding trade to supply high-quality fresh and frozen tuna to export markets. No Colombian company has deployed its own commercial longliners which would be capable of producing sashimi-grade tuna. A few companies (Antillana, COAPESCA, Oceanos, and Pescaderia Asturiana), however, have had trials or are considering possible longline operations in the future. Some companies, like Pescaderia Asturiana, are convinced that Colombia has the potential to support a commercial longline fishery and are looking for possible foreign partners. Only a few companies (Bahia Cupica, COPESNAR, and Pescaderia Asturiana) are working with foreign longliners. The catch, which is mostly tuna, is not processed by the Colombian companies. Colombian sources report that the frozen H&G trunks are exported without further processing to Japan. 273 Japanese statistics, however, report imports of small Photo 21 — Colombian companies have been steadily improving quality standards during the 1990s, partly due to the significant expansion of the shrimp and tuna industries Armando Hernadez quantities of billfish fillets (appendix E4a2 and figure 29). It is unknown who is producing these fillets. It is possible that some are produced aboard the vessel. Colombian companies are processing billfish and sharks landed by domestic fishermen. Much of the country's shark catch is filleted and marketed in the country's larger cities. The billfish by-catch (sailfish and marlin) of the shark fishery and dorado longline vessels is also filleted and sold through the same marketing channels. 274 (See "Markets".) The marlin, as it is wider, is sometimes cut into steaks, although it is also filleted. The more slender sailfish are most often til let ed, although some are sold as "utted trunks. 275 46 Photo 22 —Several companies like Vikingos in these photographs have high-quality processing standards and modern equipment Alfonso Morales 47 XI. Companies A. Trade associations The Colombian Chamber of Commerce (Asociacidn Nacional de Industrias, ANDI) has a specialized fisheries affiliate, the Camara de la Industria Pesquera (CIP). The CIP was established in March 1993 with the goal of promoting the country's fishing industry. The CIP seeks to promote the integration of the fisheries sector, coordinate international initiatives, improve the quality of exports, and encourage the enactment of sound fishery laws. The CIP is composed of Colombia's six largest fishing companies (Antillana, Atunec, Atunes de Colombia, Frigogan, Oceanos, and Vikingos) which include the major tuna exporters. These members account for 98 percent of the country's tuna exports, 65 percent of the country's shrimp exports, and 100 percent of the lobster and conch exports. 276 B. Companies Colombian fishing companies during the 1970s- 80s focused primarily on the shrimp fishery. The few large companies mostly targeted the export market. The industry has since expanded and diversified. Many well-capitalized firms have entered the industry and participate in a much wider range of activities. Shrimp: Shrimp companies operating trawlers or processing the trawl catch (Antillana, ARPECOL, COAPESCA, INPESCA, Oceanos, and Vikingos) began to diversify during the 1980s. Several gave increasing attention to marketing the finfish by-catch. A few of these companies (Oceanos and Vikingos) opened shrimp farms. 277 Many new companies entered the shrimp aquaculture industry. Some of the processors (INPESCA and Vikingos) also market the finfish catch of the artisanal fishermen. Several of the established processors as well as a few new ones (Bahia Cupica) work under association agreements with foreign fishermen to obtain raw material. Most of the vessels involved were trawlers, but a few companies also worked with longliners. Tuna: Several new companies (ATUNCOL, ATUNEC, CIMAR, COPESCOL, FRIGOGAN, and FRIGOPESSCA/Vikingos) have opened in recent years to participate in the new tuna industry. These companies have focused on the production of frozen loins and canned product. (See "Processing and Products".) There are currently seven tuna processing plants (appendix CI), located along both the Caribbean and Pacific coast. At first these companies worked with foreign tuna seiners under association agreements, but a few companies have since acquired their own vessels. Some companies (COAPESCA and Pescaderia Asturiana) have conducted or experimented in longline trials to supply fresh tuna, but no Colombian company has yet succeeded in establishing regular operations supplying oceanic pelagics. One company (Oceanos) in 1997 was converting a shrimp trawler for longline operations. Other finfish: Some companies in the early 1990s began to take advantage of the high prices in export markets for fresh finfish. Shipments of high-quality fresh product from marine fisheries to the United States, for example, more than doubled from $1.7 million in 1992 to $4.0 million in 1993 (appendix E3d). Most of this product was grouper and other species taken in demersal fisheries. Resource and other problems have adversely affected these fisheries. Shipments of fresh marine product, however, declined to only $0.8 million in 1996. None of the new tuna companies process high- quality fresh product or sashimi-grade frozen product. As there is no commercial swordfish catch, these and other companies do not handle swordfish. It is not clear, however, why they are not handling fresh tuna. Colombian exports of fresh tuna have been very limited and no tuna at all was exported to the United States since 1992. Shipments of other oceanic pelagics (shark, dorado, and other species) declined sharply in 1996. Most of the fresh finfish exported to the United States in 1976 was actually farmed tilapia (appendix E3c). There is some shipment of billfish to Japan which may include some swordfish. The quantity involved has exceeded 150 t (1993) (appendix E4al). This appears to be fish landed in Colombia by Japanese longliners and then exported frozen to Japan by the associated Colombian company. 278 The Colombian companies working with longliners, however, insist that they are not exporting billfish to Japan. 279 Bahia Cupica, COPESNAR, and Pescaderia Asturiana appear to be the principal companies involved, but a few other Colombian companies may be working with Japanese longliners (appendix A7). Frigopesca reportedly was also involved, working with Pescaderia Asturiana. Available details on individual Colombian companies is as follows: Antillana: This Caribbean-coast company is one of the larger Colombian fishing companies. The company in the early 1990s reportedly assessed possible longline operations, but decided against it. 48 ARPECOL: Armadores Pesqueros Colombianos (ARPECOL), located in Buenaventura, was established in 1974. The company is primarily involved with shrimp processing and exporting. It does not own vessels, but instead has association contracts with 18 domestic and foreign trawlers in 1997. Company officials are attempting to diversify operations because of Colombia's declining shrimp catch. ARPECOL did some tests on loining tuna in 1994, exporting about 80 t to a Spanish company. They have decided to pursue tuna loin processing and are currently installing the needed equipment. ARPECOL, which has not yet negotiated extensive association contracts with tuna vessels, reports they have held preliminary discussions with Colombian and Ecuadorean purse-seine operators to obtain raw material. One contract was negotiated with an Ecuadorean owner in 1996 to operate the Don Celso (appendix A6d). The company also processes other finfish, primarily the finfish by-catch of the shrimp trawlers. They do not handle swordfish. 280 Asturiana: See Pescaderia Asturiana. Atunes de Colombia (ATUNCOL): This large Cartagena company processes tuna loins. They reportedly packed about 60,000 t in 1994 (appendix CI). The company is a major operator of foreign vessels, working with 18 foreign tuna vessels in 1995 (appendix A5c) and 13 seiners in 1996 (appendix A6d). In addition to three of its own vessels, the company works with Vanuatu and Venezuelan seiners. ATUNCOL exports through its affiliate, Seatech. Company representatives do not desire to publicize their operations and declined to provide the authors with information regarding their fishing operations. 281 They are not believed to be working with longliners. ATUNEC: Atunes y Enlatados de Caribe (ATUNEC) is one of the larger Colombian fishing companies. It is located in Baranquilla and produces both canned and frozen tuna products. The company can process about 100 t of tuna daily (appendix CI). The company worked with eight foreign tuna vessels in 1995, but only one in 1996 (appendix A5c and A6d). They are not believed to be working with longliners. Bahia Cupica: This Buenaventura-based company was established in 1992. It is a vertically integrated company involved with fishing, processing, and exporting operations. The company has its own shrimp trawl fleet and it is associated with other trawlers and three Japanese longliners. Total annual production in 1996 was 800 t shrimp and 400 t of finfish ("pesca blanca"). 282 Nearly 90 percent of the shrimp ("gambas") is caught in deep water and exported to the European Union as frozen heads-on product. Some of the white shrimp is exported to the United States. The finfish is obtained from the three Japanese longliners that work in association with the company. These three longliners have been affiliated with the company since its establishment in 1992. The 200-240 NRT longliners are Chiyoda Maru 11, Shoei Maru 28, and the Chidori Maru 21 (appendix A6d). 283 The Japanese longline fishing trips are about 60 days. The crew composition varies on the vessels. The Chiyoda Maru 11 employs some Ecuadoreans and Colombians, but the other two longliners have few Colombian crew members. (See "Fleet Operations and Gear: Foreign".) The target species is tuna, which is frozen and stored at -60°C. It is transshipped at Buenaventura directly to a freezer boat ("trampero") which transports the fish to Japan. Bahia Cupica does not handle or process the catch destined for the Japanese market. All the tuna is theoretically sold to Bahia Cupica, although the Japanese vessel owner plays a major role in marketing the fish. Tuna makes up over 80 percent of the longline catch, mostly yellowfin and small amounts of bigeye (appendix B4 and figure 25). The resulting 15 percent by-catch is primarily shark (about 80 percent). There are small sailfish and marlin catches, but virtually no swordfish catches. Other by-catch species include dorado and sierra. All the by-catch is marketed domestically. Bahia Cupica representatives note that their firm is one of the few Colombian companies affiliated with large foreign longliners. 284 CIMAR: This company has processing plants in Buenaventura, Cali, and Tumaco. It has the capacity to produce 9.6 t of tuna loins daily (appendix A5c). No association contracts with foreign companies were reported in 1995, but agreements were signed with 11 Ecuadorean vessels in 1996 (appendices A5c and A6d), presumably all small purse seiners. CIMAR primarily ships to European countries. COAPESCA: This Cartagena-based processing company focuses primarily on shrimp and obtains raw material from associated foreign shrimp trawlers and local shrimp farmers. The company also handles some finfish, lobster, conch, and crab. Much of this product is supplied by an associated foreign lobster boat which deploys divers. Company officials indicate that they have never had formal association contracts with foreign longliners. The company did, however conduct experimental swordfish operations in 1995. While some swordfish were taken, the company decided not to pursue commercial operations because of high mercury content encountered in the fish taken. 285 The company was not one of the companies INPA reported as working with foreign tuna vessels in either 1995 or 1996 (appendix A5c and 49 A6d). 286 COPESCOL: Compariia Pesquera Colombiana (COPESCOL) has facilities in Buenaventura and Cali. The company was one of the first to re-enter the tuna industry in the late 1980s. 287 Colombian tuna canneries closed in the 1970s and significant canning operations were not resumed until the late 1980s. (See "Government Agencies and Policies: Promotion".) COPESCOL produced vacuum-packed tuna loins and canned products. Output during 1994 totaled about 5,000 t of tuna (appendix CI). COPESCOL was the most important operator of foreign tuna vessels and in 1995 planned to work with 22 vessels, mostly purse seiners. The company, however, reported that it encountered a variety of problems, including: the U.S. tuna embargo, management difficulties, El Nino conditions, and other adverse circumstances. As most of these problems were also faced by other Colombian companies, presumably management difficulties was the major factor forcing the company to close during 1995. 288 COPESNAR: Corporacidn Pesquera de Narino (COPESNAR) is a private, non-profit corporation responsible for the administration of the Tumaco fishing port. COPESNAR offers services (water, ice, fuel, food, and assistance obtaining Government permits). COPESNAR also provides refrigerated storage and areas for processing the catch, especially tunas and other large pelagics. Company officials report that in mid- 1997 that they were working with two small seiners (120 tons). COPESNAR, for example, has also reportedly worked with two Chinese longliners (Hua Yuan Yu 9 and 10) during 1996 (appendix A6d). Profits earned by COPESNAR are invested in the maintenance and expansion of the port, the Escuela Tecnica de Pesca, and the local Rotary Fund, were operating from Tumaco. The company has reserved space at Tumaco for a tuna cannery and loining facility with a capacity of about 40 t daily. 289 The company is planning a longline project and has contracted a Canadian longliner {Flaying Dart) to do test fishing. They are currently discussing arrangements with New Zealand and United States longline operators concerning possible future association agreements. 290 FRIGOGAN: Frigorifico Ganadero (FRIGOGAN) is one of the larger Colombian companies. It is was established in 1991 and is located in Baranquilla. The company produces eviscerated and loined frozen tuna and canned tuna. The company handles skipjack, yellowfin, bigeye, and other species and in 1994 produced about 32 t of loins and 16 t of canned product daily (appendix CI). FRIGOGAN in 1997 reports a capacity of producing 70 t of tuna daily. They also produce fishmeal. The company does not own its own vessels, but worked with 1 5 foreign tuna vessels in 1995, all purse seiners, and 14 foreign vessels in 1996 (appendices A5c and A6d). The foreign vessels during 1995 were flagged in Belize, Ecuador, Panama, the United States, Vanuatu, and Venezuela. Company officials describe efforts to process "dolphin-safe" tuna, but have experienced problems obtaining sufficient raw material from the associated vessels. The company exports about 80 percent of its production, primarily to Europe (Italy and Spain) and the United States (California and Puerto Rico). Most of the exported product is loins while the canned product is marketed domestically. 291 FRIGOMARINA: This company licensed Russian and Panamanian tuna vessels in 1995, but only Panamanian vessels in 1996 (appendix A5c and A6d). No further details are available. 292 FRIGOPESCA: Frigorifico y Pesca de Cartagena (FRIGOPESCA) is associated with one of Colombia's largest financial groups, the Grupo Bavaria. The Photo 23--Frigopesca's new tuna processing plant in Cartagena. Jaime Borda 50 company is located in Cartagena and primarily produces pre-cooked frozen tuna loins (photo 23). The loins are vacuum-packed in Cryovac plastic bags. The company handles primarily three species, yellowfin, skipjack, and bigeye, as well as some blackfin. The size of the loins vary with the species. The principal markets are canneries in the European Union (Spain and Italy) and the United States (Puerto Rico). 293 The company also handles a variety of other species, including swordfish and shark fins. 294 The facilities include a pier which can accommodate vessels up to nearly 8-m draft. The company has the capacity to process 40-50 t of tuna daily and a cold store which can hold 2,200 tons. FRIGOPESCA is developing a detailed Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) quality control system. 295 The company is a major operator of foreign tuna vessels, working with 18 vessels in 1995 from 8 countries (Ecuador, Japan, Korea, Panama, St. Vincent, Spain, Vanuatu, and Venezuela) (appendix A5c). The number of association contracts dropped to eight in 1996 (appendix A6d). Most of the vessels involved are purse seiners, but the company works with one longliner through Pescaderia Asturiana (appendix A7). 295 FRIGOPESCA, INDUPESCA, and Vikingos de Colombia all belong to the Vikingos Group. The company in 1996 was fully integrated into Vikingos and ceased operating as a separate company. INDUPESCA: This company associated with the Vikingos Group was reportedly exporting tuna during 1995. It was not one of the companies working with foreign vessels. INPESCA: INPESCA was established in 1962 and is involved in seafood processing and exporting. It does not own its own vessels, but instead purchases raw material from associated domestic vessels. The company is the largest shrimp processor in Buenaventura. Shrimp is the principal species processed, totaling about 80 percent of its output. INPESCA also has a tuna loining line. In addition, the company produces small quantities of fresh product from a variety of other species (tunas, sharks, billfish, jacks, and crabs). INPESCA works with 14 artisanal longliners operating out of Buenaventura. The fishermen reportedly deploy lines of about 4.5-9.0 km with 500-1,000 hooks. The shrimp is exported frozen to the United States, although the company is attempting to develop new markets in Argentina and Japan. The finfish (with the exception of the tuna loins) is sold frozen in the domestic market. 297 INPA reports that the company worked with a small number of foreign tuna vessels in 1995, all believed to be longliners. The four vessels were Japanese (Chiyoda Maru 11, Chiyoda Maru 33, and Sasano Maru 17) and one flag-of-convenience Panamanian flag vessel (Sun 701) (appendix A5c). INPESCA officials, however, report that this is an error and that the only longliners that they work with are small domestic vessels. 298 MARCOL: This Tumaco-based company was established in 1964. Its primary activity is currently tuna canning. The company has no vessels but purchases tuna from small purse seiners and other companies. Smaller quantities are obtained from artisanal fishermen fishing with hook and line and driftnets. Company officials report that tuna often come into coastal waters during May and August which is when most of the product obtained from the artisanal fishermen is purchased. The artisanal fishermen also land small sharks. Incidental billfish and swordfish catches are minimal. One unconfirmed report indicated that this Tumaco company was working with a foreign longliner, but company officials indicate that the report that this erroneous. 299 INPA reports that the company worked with two foreign tuna vessels in 1995 (Ecuadorean and Panamanian), but the vessel were seiners (appendix A5b). Marisol de Pacifico: This Buenaventura company reportedly worked with a U.S. tuna purse seiner in 1995, but not 1996 (appendices A5c and A6d). Oceanos: This Cartagena-based company was established in 1983. It is involved in fishing, aquaculture, processing, and exporting operations. The company primarily works with shrimp, but is planning to initiate tuna longline operations. The company processes and markets the shrimp harvested at its two farms. The company also operates three 22- m vessels (the Rosalin, Lorimar and Don Jose). The Rosalin, which is the only vessel actually owned by the company, is deployed in the lobster and queen conch fishery. The Don Jose, is a Venezuelan flagged shrimp trawler affiliated with the company. Company officials are planning to convert the Lorimar, which is currently inactive due to mechanical problems, from a shrimp trawler to a surface longliner targeting tuna. The company's major shrimp export markets are Spain and France and trial exports have been made to Japan. The company exports the lobster primarily to the United States. Oceanos was affiliated with two Japanese longliners during the late 1980s, (the Yushu Maru 51, and the Victoria 1) for approximately 4 years. According to company officials, the vessels operated in the Caribbean, Central Atlantic Ocean, and the Pacific Ocean. The average trip was 80-90 days long and the average catch was composed of about 120-150 t of tuna (mostly yellowfin and bigeye) and 51 composed of sharks (appendix B4). Also, small quantities of marlin, dorado, king mackerel and opah were taken. Swordfish catches were minimal. 300 Pescaderia Asturiana: This Cartagena-based company was established in 1985. It is involved in processing and exporting operations. The company has been affiliated with two foreign longliners, a Panamanian-flag longliner Victoria 8 (owned by Japanese company) and serves as a representative company for a Japanese-flag longliner, the Yushu Maru 51 (which is officially affiliated with Frigopesca) (appendices A5c and A6d). The crews are made up of Colombian, Japanese, and Indonesian fishermen. The vessels are about 180 GRT and they take trips of between 60-90 days. The vessels are deployed in both the Caribbean and Atlantic Ocean as far east as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (40-50°W). Pescaderia Asturiana has been affiliated with these vessels since 1991. The company provides the fuel, water, provisions, repairs, operating costs, and crew salaries. These costs are then subtracted from the amount paid for the fish when the catch is landed. Catches vary from 40-50 t on short trips to 130-150 t on the longer 2-3 month trips out into the Atlantic. Landings are primarily tunas (yellowfin, bigeye, and albacore) which can total up to 80-85 percent of the fish retained. The by-catch commonly is composed of sharks (10-16 percent), marlin (2 percent), and sailfish (1-2 percent), sierra (up to 1 percent), and a variety of other species (1 percent) (appendix B4). The sharks retained are mostly makos and blues. Swordfish are also occasionally taken, but the proportion is very small. Some sierra and dorado is also reported in the by-catch. The catch of the Victoria 8 is landed at Cartagena and the tuna loaded directly on to waiting Japanese freezer vessels. This is necessary to Photo 24.— Colombian companies like Vikingos have some of the most modern seafood processing plants in Latin America. Alfonso Morales 52 preserve the quality of the tuna which is kept at - 50°C. Such low temperature cold stores are not available at Colombian ports. The tuna is in effect purchased by Pescaderia Asturiana at international prices. The resulting shipments are considered a Colombian export, but the affiliated Japanese company, given its familiarity and contacts in the Japanese market, actually handles the details associated with marketing the tuna in Japan. The Yushu Marn's tuna catch is handled in the same way, but the exporting company is the official Colombian partner (formerly Frigopesca/now Vikingos). 301 Pescaderia Asturiana is the representative of the Japanese company in Colombia, and although it is not the official affiliated company, it does market the vessel's by-catch. The by-catch of both vessels is marketed domestically frozen (whole, fillets, and steaks) to restaurants, hotels, supermarkets, and central markets. The company also buys other seafood from artisanal fishermen and markets the product domestically (frozen) in two major forms: 1-lb boxes or trays ("plegadizas"). The major domestic markets besides Bogota are coastal cities where the population is accustomed to seafood (including Cali, Cartagena, and Barranquilla). 302 Pescaderia Asturiana has attempted to market fresh tuna in the United States, arranging for a Japanese longliner to deliver fresh fish. The company, however, reported difficulties coordinating the vessel landings with available air cargo space. Delays adversely affected the quality of the product delivered. Company officials believe that there is great potential in fresh fish and is attempting to find another partner for future such operations. 303 PROPESCOL: This Buenaventura company was reportedly exporting tuna in 1995. It was not one of the companies working with foreign vessels, but worked with two Colombian purse seiners in 1995 (appendix A5c). Seatech: This Cartagena company was reportedly exporting tuna in 1995. It is affiliated with Atunes de Colombia which worked in association with several foreign vessels. Seatech handles the export of the processed tuna. Company representatives have declined to provide the authors with information regarding the company's operations. 304 Supertuna: This Caribbean-coast company operated Ecuadorean and Venezuelan seiners out of both Barranquilla and Cartagena for the first time in 1996 (appendix A6d). Vikingos: Cartagena-based Comercializadora Internacional Pesquera Vikingos de Colombia is one of Colombia's oldest fishing companies (photo 24). It is the largest Caribbean shrimp trawl processor. While the company has traditionally focused on the shrimp fishery, it has recently diversified into high- quality fmfish. One 1995 report indicated that the company was also beginning to can tuna for the domestic market and produce loins for export, primarily to Spain and Italy. The tuna operations are reportedly growing rapidly and the processing capacity is currently 60 t daily. The company had association contracts with three purse seiners (from Vanuatu and Venezuela) in 1995 (appendix A5c), but expanded these operations to six seiners (from Ecuador, Mexico, and Venezuela) in 1996 (appendix A6d). The company does not, however, work in association with foreign longliners and does not handle fresh tuna or swordfish. Vikingos de Colombia, FRIGOPESCA/Vikingos, and Indupesca all belong to the Vikingos Group. '" Other companies: Several other companies worked with smaller numbers of foreign tuna vessels (appendices A5c and A6d). 53 XII. Markets A. Domestic Fisheries consumption in Colombia has traditionally been extremely low and confined primarily to coastal population centers. The habit of eating seafood is not well- established in interior cities and the relatively high prices of fishing products, as well as the popularity of red meat, restrict domestic seafood sales. 306 Until recently, much of the fish available in inland cities was the freshwater species harvested by inland fishermen. Handling procedures were extremely primitive and, as a result, the quality of the available product was poor. Marine fish was available in the large Bogota urban area, but availability was extremely limited and quality questionable in most other inland cities. 307 million cans of tuna domestically in 1994, equivalent to about 22,500 t of fish. 309 Domestic production of canned tuna has largely replaced imported product and Colombia now exports substantial quantities of its canned tuna. 310 Canned tuna exports increased from $4 million in 1991 to nearly $49 million in 1994. 311 S wordfish, because it is rarely caught by domestic fishermen, is only occasionally available in Colombian markets . 3 ' 2 There does, however, appear to be a strong domestic market for the shark taken along the Pacific coast, most of which is sold fresh in central markets of the larger cities- -especially Bogota, Medellin, Cali, and Pereira. The small billfish by-catch is marketed in the same channels. 313 Colombians prefer white meat fish, thus shark is popular and marlin is the preferred nearly doubled since 1991 to $170 million Colombian companies during the 1990s have been significantly increasing the quantity of seafood channeled into the domestic market. The growing Colombian economy and expanding middle class is helping to increase the demand for high- quality seafood. Middle class consumers, especially housewives and employed women, appreciate the convenience of frozen fish. Increases are reported in the quantities of canned tuna and fresh and frozen shrimp and whitefish marketed domestically. Most of the tuna marketed in Colombia is canned (about 60 percent) while the remainder is fresh (20 percent) or frozen (20 percent). 308 There is an especially strong domestic demand for canned tuna. Colombia marketed 53 Metric Tons 10 A Country □United States □Japan -TU / 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Year Figure 27.— Colombia has reported only rare swordfish shipments to the United States, but regularly ships small quantities of billfish to Japan 54 billfish. Red meat fish such as sailfish and pink meat fish such as swordfish do not command as high a price as the marlin. 314 The sailfish and marlin is marketed as fillets and steaks, primarily in central markets. 315 (see "Processing and Products".) The small quantity Metric Tons 200 150 100 Import □Swordfish OBlllflSh j zzj| ^\f-m N c?> N c?» ^ ^> ^ N # ^ N c?> s # N # N 401 Number of vessels 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Note: ICCAT is reporting vessels active in the Caribbean. Colombian fishermen have deployed several seines in the 1990s, but they are apparently mostly operating in the Pacific. * By tonnage Source: ICCAT. 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XI ro E ai (j 3 L_ en Oi 01 XI 4-1 Q- 0) CO E • f— 0) Ol XI 4-< 01 01 c_ Ol ro i_ en c ro — i o +-» Oi CO u o CO ro CO 01 z > ro o o 4-> CO 3 3 4-i 4-> Ol ■ i— CO 01 ■M CO L_ CO Oi ro c > Oi — ■ Ol L_ CO 01 Oi 0) SI (J -C h- c_ 1— 3 * O Appendix A7. --Colombia. Longliners operating from Colombian ports, 1997 Vessel Nationality Length Port Colombian partner Meters Chi dor i Maru 21 Chiyoda Maru 11 Hua Yuan Yu 9# Hua Yuan Yu 10# Lorimar## Shoei Maru 28 Victoria 8 Yushu Maru 51 Japan 41 Buenaventura Japan 49 Buenaventura Taiwan 31 Tumaco Taiwan 31 Tumaco Colombia 22 Cartagena Japan 48 Buenaventura Panama* 44 Cartagena Japan 44 Cartagena Bahia Cupica Bahia Cupica COPESNAR COPESNAR Oceanos Bahia Cupica Pescaderia Asturiana Frigopesca**/Pescaderia Asturiana Note: This list may not be all inclusive as it is possible that other companies may also be working with longliners that the authors have not identified. Other companies reportedly working with foreign longliners or previosly involved include: COAPESCA : One unconfirmed report indicated that COAPESCA was working with foreign longliners in 1995, but a COAPESCA representative indicates that this report was eronious. INPESCA : INPA reports that INPESCA was also working with foreign longliners in 1995 (appendix A5c). INPESCA officials, however, inform the authors that this is an error. The only longliners with which the company works are small, artisanal longliners. Boris Bentancourt, Executive Director, Asociacion de Exportadores de Pescado Blanco (Ecuador), personal communications, May 15, 1996, and February and March 21, 1997. Oceanos : Company representatives report that for 4 years during the late 1980s they worked with Japanese longliners the Yushu Maru 51, and the Victoria 1. * This is a f lag-of-convenience registration. The Colombian association partner reports that the owner is Japanese. The authors note that other tuna vessels with a similar name are Korean (appendix A5a). ** Frigopesca is now part of Vikingos. # The authors believe that these vessels are longliners, but have been unable to contact the company to confirm it. ## Shrimp trawler being converted for longlining. Sources: Marta Lucia De la Pava, Manager, Bahia Cupica, personal communications, February 26, 1997; Roberto Osbina, Owner, Pescaderia Asturiana, personal communications, March 24, 1997; Bernardo Erazo, Production Manager, C.I. Oceanos, personal communications, April 21, 1997; and Antonio Chalela Martinez, Manager, COAPESCA, personal communications, February 27, 1997. Appendix A8a. - -Colombia. Large* fishing vessels registered, 1993 Country** Class Size Built Vessel Vessel name type*** GRT Year Germany (GDR) ARC Malpelo 780 1981 566 Mexico Don Antonio Atun VI 1,178 1991 516 Don Fausto 1,178 1989 510 United States Top Wave 971 1973 510 * 500 GRT or larger ** ONI vessel types 510 - Trawler 516 - Tuna seiner 566 - Fisheries research vessel *** Country constructed Source: U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) 128 Appendix A8b. --Colombia. Large* fishing vessels registered, 1996 Country** Class Size Built Vessel type*** Registration changes Vessel name Country Date GRT Year Germany (GDR) ARC Malpelo 780 1981 566 Mexico Don Antonio Atun VI 1,178 1991 516 Mexico May 1993 Don Fausto 1,178 1989 510# Mexico May 1993 United States American Eagle 985 1975 516 Vanuatu October 1995 Enterprise 1,159 1977 516 United States June 1992### Grenadier 985 1975 516 Vanuatu November 1995 (El) Rey 971 1973 510 Vanuatu December 1993## Sandra C 990 1973 510 Vanuatu May 1995 * 500 GRT or larger. Three other smaller tuna seiners (El Dorado, Sea Rover, and Rocw) are also active. ** ONI vessel types 510 - Trawler 516 - Tuna seiner 566 - Fisheries research vessel *** Country constructed # Although ONI reports these vessels to be be trawlers (code 510), the authors believe them to be tuna purse seiners (code 516). ## Reflagged back to the United States in 1995. This vessel was probably the former Top Wave mentined in appendix A6a. ### Later transferred to Vanuatu and then back to Colombia in 1995. Source: U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) Appendix A9. --Colombia. Artisanal fishing fleet, Caribbean coast, 1997 Type Boats Number Chalupa* 180 Cayuco/Bote++ 1,460 Bongo+++ 8 Lancha+ 739 Parguera++ 12 Total 2,399 * Small duogout canoe (small cayuco) ** Dugout canoe *** Dugout canoe to which plywoods have been added to increase the craft's width and height. + Small vessels constructed of various materials (wood, aluminum, fiberglass, or fiberglass-reinforced wood) which are made from different parts and components. ++ The larger size of the vessels allows them to remain offshore for up to 10 days. These are the largest of the Colombian artisanal vessels. Source: Luis Manjarres Martinez, INPA/VECEP, personal communications, Arpril 17, 1997. 129 Appendix B1a. --Colombia. Fisheries catch, 1985-94 Year ] rounds Total Caribbean Pacific Inland 1,000 Metric tons 1980 5.1 24.1 46.9 76.2 1981 9.4 37.6 47.7 94.7 1982 6.4 16.0 49.0 71.4 1983 3.1 9.1 45.3 57.5 1984 7.5 17.7 59.4 78.5 1985 10.6 12.4 48.5 71.5 1986 10.4 17.0 56.0 83.4 1987 9.7 13.6 62.1* 85.5 1988 11.6 26.8 50.7 89.1 1989 10.4 49.1 38.8 98.3 1990 12.7 76.8 38.8 128.0 1991 10.7 73.5 25.0 109.2 1992 30.8* 79.4 48.3 158.5 1993 15.8 83.4 47.2 146.4 1994 17.6 53.5 51.7 122.7 1995 NA 91.1* NA 167.1* * Record Source: FAO. years. Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, various Appendix B1b. --Colombia. Pacific commercial reduction catch*, by port 1993-95 Year Tumaco Other ports All Pacific po rts Anchovy* Other*** Anchovy** Other*** Anchovy** Other*** Total 1993 1994 1995 106 4,692 2,570 15,312 352 Metric tons 24,240 1,870 14,761 891 15,550 521 24,240 1,976 19,453 3,461 30,862 873 26,216 22,914 31,735 * Excludes the tuna purse seine fishery. ** Carduma (Cetengraulis mysticetus) *** All other finfish, excepted tuna taken by purseseiners Source: INPA, Boletin Estddistico Pesquero, various years. 130 Appendix B2a. --Colombia. 1980-95 Swordfish catch, Year Billfish catch Swordfish Other Metric tons 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 29 1995 Source: FAO, Yearbook of Fishery Statistics , various years. Appendix B2b. --Eastern Tropical Pacific. Swordfish seasonaity in coastal waters, 1952-85 Month Area* Ecu/No. No. Peru Colombia Par lama C. Rica Nic./ El Sal Guate/ So. Mex Mexico** 1 ' r Coast Offshore South Central North Yields** January 3 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 4 February 4 3 3 2 2 3 2 2 4 March 3 4 3 1 2 3 3 2 2 4 Apri I 4 3 3 2 4 4 3 2 4 May 4 2 3 2 4 3 2 2 4# June 3 2 3 2 3 2 2 2 4 July 3 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 4 August 4 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 September 4 2 2 1 1 3 2 2 4 October 4 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 4# November 4 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 4 December 4 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 4 Note: The seasonality described above appears to differ with the 1991 catch data reported in Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Bill fishes, op. cit., map 13. * Rough country orientation of data in source. Except as noted otherwise, the area indicated is the 5° square immediately along the coast. ** Yields (fish per 1,000 hooks): 1 - 2 - <0.05 3 - 0.051-0.16 4 - 0.16 > *** The Mexican results cover several 5° squares and have been summarized into these three regions, # The lowest yields are reported from May through October. Source: Oscar Sosa-Nishizaki and Makato Shimizu, "Spatial and temporal CPUE trends and stock unit inferred from them for the Pacific swordfish caught by the Japanese tuna longline fishery," Bui. Nat. Res. Far Seas Fish., N 5 28, March 1991, pp. 80-85. I3I Appendix B3a1 .--Colombia. Bi I If ish catch, 1992-95 Year Catch B i 1 1 f i s h* Swordf ish 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Metric 190 150 59 55 197 tons Negl 29 Negl Negl Negl NA - Not avai I able * Sai If ish and marl in Source: INPA as cited in U.S. Embassy, message number 8912, June 29, 1995 (1992-94 data); INPA, Boletin Estadistico Pesquero, 1995 (1995 data); and Fernando Reyes Navarro, Subdi rector de Ordenamiento y Desarrollo Pesquero, Instituto Nacional de Pesca y Acuicultura, personal communications, April 8, 1997 (1996 data). Appendix B3a2. --Colombia. Bi I If ish catch, 1992-95 Species/ Year fishery 1992 1993 1994 1995 Car Pac Total Car Pac Total Car Pac Total Car Pac Total Sai If ish Art i sana I Commercial 22. 3# -* - 109.7* 22.3* 109.7* 137.9 3.4* 40.5* 46.1 62.3 62.3 0.9 9.1 10.0 15.1 18.2 33.3 0.6 49.5 50.1 Metric 15.1 80.5 95.1 1.5 58.6 60.1 tons 0.1 15.2 15.3 Negl 37.3 37.3 Total Marl in Art i sana I Commercial 22.3#115.6 2.8 0.6* 2.1 38.4* 4.9 41.2 0.1 0.1 15.2 15.3 38.5 53.8 15.3 15.4 38.5 53.9 Negl 0.1 37.3 6.4 11.7 18.1 37.3 6.5 11.7 Total 0.1 0.1 18.2 Total bi I If ish Art i sana I Commercial 25. 1# 0.6* 2.1 148.1* 27.2#156.8 25.7* 150.2* 175.9 0.9 71.4 72.3 15.7 67.7 83.4 16.6 139.1 155.7 0.2 30.5 38.5 69.0 30.7 38.5 69.2 0.1 43.7 11.7 55.4 43.8 11.7 Total 0.2 0.1 55.5 Note: Discrepancy with appendix B3a1 is unexplained. Car - Caribbean Pac - Pacific * Not including Tumaco. The country-wide totals do include Tumaco. # One INPA offical working with Caribbean artisanal fishermen reports that the 22.3 t of sai If ish was actually taken in the Pacific. Luis Manjarres, INPA/VECEP, personal communications, April 17, 1997. Source: INPA, Boletin Estadistico Pesquero, various years. 132 Appendix B3a3. --Colombia. Billfish catch, 1996. Species/ Fi shery Total Coast Art i sana I Commercial Metric tons Black Marl in Caribbean Pac i f l c - 137.3 137.3 137.3 Subtotal - 137.3 Blue Marl in Caribbean Pac i f i c Subtotal 2.8 2.8 13.1 13.1 15.9 15.9 White Marl in Caribbean Pac i f i c - 37.2 37.2 37.2 Subtotal - 37.2 Sai If ish Caribbean Pacific Subtotal 1.5 Negl 1.5 Negl Negl 1.5 Negl 1.5 Spearf ish Caribbean Pacific Subtotal 2.3 2.3 2.7 2.7 5.0 5.0 Swordf ish Caribbean Pac i f i c Subtotal Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Total 6.6 190.3 196.9 Source: Fernando Reyes Navarro, Subdi rector de Ordenamiento y Desarrollo Pesquero, Instituto Nacional de Pesca y Acuicultura, personal communications, April 8, 1997. Appendix B3b1 .--Colombia. Shark catch, 1985-95 Year Coast Total Proportion Caribbean Pacific Pacific Metric tons Percent 1985 55.0 419.0 474.0 88 1986 51.0 904.0 955.0 95 1987 83.0 838.0 921.0 91 1988 150.0 463.0 613.0 76 1989 143.0 789.0 932.0 85 1990 36.0 582.0 618.0 94 1991 23.0 327.0 350.0 93 1992 286.4 459.0 745.4 62 1993 307.2 316.0 623.2 51 1994 102.0 365.1 467.1 78 1995 45.9 161.6 207.5 78 Source: INPA, Boletin Estadistico Pesquero, various years. 133 Appendix B3b2.- -Colombia. Pacific catch of shark and related species, by port 1992-95 Year/ Art i sana I Commerc ial Total spec i es Tumaco Other Tumaco Other Tumaco Other Metric tons 1993 Dorado 119.3 170.0 3.0 57.8 122.3 227.8 Shark 123.3 58.9 14.5 119.3 137.8 178.2 Tuna* Albacore 8.9 3.9 - - 8.9 3.9 B i geye - - - - - - Skipjack - - - - - - Ye I lowf in - - - - - - Other** 10.1 101.6 - - - - Billfish Marl in 5.4 0.6 32.5 17.0 37.9 17.6 Sai If ish - 15.1 - 18.2 - 33.3 1994 Dorado 420.7 8.2 - 57.3 420.7 65.5 Shark 120.3 50.2 2.6 192.1 122.9 242.3 Tuna* Albacore 1.8 15.9 1.2 0.2 3.0 16.1 B i geye - - - - - - Skipjack 8.9 1.2 - - - - Ye I lowf in 6.5 - 0.2 - 6.7 - Other** 6.4 29.8 - 9.8 6.4 39.6 Billfish Marlin 14.0 1.3 - 38.5 14.0 39.8 Sai If ish Negl 15.1 - - Negl 15.1 1995 Dorado 36.4 15.4 3.8 233.7 40.2 249.1 Shark 55.1 54.4 15.7 75.0 70.8 129.4 Tuna* Albacore 10.2 33.8 - - 10.2 33.8 B i geye - - - - - - Skipjack 3.1 5.2 - - 3.1 5.2 Yellowfin*** 5.5 - - - 5.5 - Other** 36.5 83.9 37.7 0.1 74.2 84.0 Billfish Marlin 1.9 4.5 - 11.7 1.9 16.2 Sai Lf i sh 37.3 37.3 Note: The great bulk of the commercial catch (over 95 percent) in both Tumaco and other Pacific ports during 1995 was small pelagics for reduction to fishmeal (appendix B1b). * Albacore, skipjack, bigeye, and yellowfin, not including commercial tuna purse seine fishery. ** Other or unidentified *** Much of the tuna in other is probably yellowfin. Source: INPA, Boletin Estddistico Pesquero, various years. I34 Appendix B3c1 .--Colombia. Artisanal catch, by month, 1994 Coast/month Month Total species Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Auq Sep Oct Nov Dec Metric tons Caribbean* Billfish Marl in - - - 0.1 - - - - - - - - 0.1 Sailf ish - - - - 0.1 - - - - - - - 0.1 Dorado - - Negl 3.8 Negl Negl - Negl - - - - 3.8 Shark Toyo 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.6 1.1 2.3 1.0 0.7 2.1 3.0 14.4 Other 10.6 1.2 34.5 Negl 10.0 Negl 0.5 0.2 - - - - 57.0 Sierra 1.8 1.6 1.7 1.3 2.6 3.8 1.6 0.7 3.0 3.4 2.1 3.2 26.8 Tunas B I uef i n*** 34.6 - - - 10.5 - - - - - - - 45.1 Pac i f i c## Billfish Marl in 0.1 - 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.6 - - - Negl Negl 0.2 1.3 Sai If ish 0.2 - 0.4 0.7 10.3 3.2 Negl Negl - 0.1 0.1 0.1 15.1 Dorado 0.8 Negl 0.5 0.9 0.9 1.5 - 0.1 - 0.1 0.6 2.7 8.2 Sharks* 5.7 4.8 7.5 6.4 11.7 4.3 0.1 1.4 2.0 1.6 0.4 3.4 50.2 Sierra 39.9 16.8 22.0 8.0 10.5 24.0 4.1 1.9 14.5 2.0 16.2 0.6 160.5 Tunas** Albacore 0.5 0.1 3.4 5.8 0.5 3.1 1.2 - - 0.2 0.1 1.2 15.9 Blackf in 0.1 Negl Negl Negl 0.1 4.3 Negl - - 0.2 Negl Negl 4.8 B I uef in** 0.8 - 2.8 3.8 5.2 8.9 3.8 0.5 0.2 3.9 Negl Negl 29.8 Skipjack 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.4 Negl - - - 0.1 Negl Negl 1.2 # Does not include the catch off the Caribbean islands of San Andres and Santa Marta. The San Andres catch is very small, but bigeye tuna, sierra, and shark are landed in Santa Marta. The bigeye catch of 198 t is particularly notable. ## Except Tumaco * Toyo ** May be yellowfin Source: INPA, Boletfn Estadistico Pesquero, 1994. Appendix B3c2. --Colombia. Commercial catch, by month, 1994 Coast/month Month Total spec i es Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Metric tons Caribbean* Tuna*** - - - - - - - - - - - - - Dorado - - Negl - Negl Negl Negl - Negl Negl Negl - 0.1 Sierra 0.1 - - - - - Negl Negl Negl 0.1 - - 0.1 Shark** 1.6 0.8 1.1 0.6 0.9 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.2 7.5 Pac i f i c* Billfish Marl in 2.4 11.2 2.2 2.0 4.7 2.7 0.7 2.9 3.4 0.3 2.2 4.0 38.5 Dorado 10.6 24.3 8.3 0.9 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 1.0 8.3 1.4 1.8 57.3 Shark** 4.8 29.8 24.5 53.6 16.0 23.0 7.3 11.2 6.7 0.4 8.6 6.2 192.1 Sierra 1.7 1.1 Negl 0.6 Negl 1.0 Negl 0.2 0.6 0.8 - - 6.2 Tuna*** Albacore - Negl - 0.2 - Negl - - - - - - 0.2 Blackf in Negl - - - - - - - - - - - Negl B I uef in**** - • ■ ■ 9.8 - - - - - ■ " 9.8 # Except San Andres * Except Tumaco ** Toyo *** Does not include the landings of the country's large domestic and foreign purseseine fleet. appendix B3d for overall tuna landings. **** Probably yellowfin Source: INPA, Boletin Estadistico Pesquero, 1994. See 135 Appendix B3c3. --Colombia. Artisanal and commercial billfish catch, 1992-95 Coast /year/month species Month Total Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Metric tons Artisanal F ist lery Caribbean# Marl in 1993 - - - - Negl 0.2 1994 - - - 0.1 - - 1995 - - - - - - Sai I fish 1993 - - - - - - 1994 - - - - 0.1 - 1995 - - - - - - Pacif ic## Marl in 1993 0.2 0.1 0.1 - 0.1 - 1994 0.1 - 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.6 1995 0.3 0.3 1.6 0.2 0.1 1.1 Sai If ish 1993 - - 0.1 5.0 6.1 2.8 1994 1995 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 Negl 0.2 0.4 0.7 10.3 3.2 Negl Negl 0.1 0.3 4.6 3.2 25.5 1.7 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 - Negl 0.1 - 0.9 0.1 0.1 - Negl - 0.1 Negl Negl 0.2 Negl 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.6 1.3 4.5 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.2 15.1 15.1 37.3 Commercial fish ery Caribbean* Marl in 1993 - 0.1 0.1 0.5 Negl - 2.0 - - - 1.1 - 3.7 1994 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1995 - - - - - - - - - - - - - Sai If ish 1993 - - - Negl Negl - 62.3 - - - - - 62.3 1994 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1995 - - - - - - - - - - - - - Pacif ic## Marlin 1993 0.9 - 1.4 1.3 - - 4.0 1.3 1.5 3.1 0.4 3.3 17.0 1994 2.4 11.2 2.2 2.0 4.7 2.7 0.7 2.9 3.4 0.3 2.2 4.0 38.5 1995 2.9 3.4 1.9 0.4 2.7 - - - 0.4 - - - 11.7 Sai If ish 1993 18.2 - - - - - - - - - - - 18.2 1994 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1995 # Does not include the catch off the Caribbean islands of San Andres and Santa Marta. The San Andres catch is very small, but bigeye tuna, sierra, and shark are landed in Santa Marta. The bigeye catch of 198 t is particularly notable. ## Except Tumaco Source: INPA, Boletin Estddistico Pesquero, various years. 136 Appendix B3d. --Colombia. Tuna catch, 1980- 95 Year Tuna catch Ye I lowf in Skipjack Metric tons 1986 NA - 1987 NA - 1988 16,814 - 1989 28,920 - 1990 31,798 2 1991 30,246 1,653 1992 37,889 5,182 1993 35,589 12,635 1994 18,890 3,807 1995 34,771 7,391 NA - Not avai lable Source: fao, Yearbook of Fishery Statistics , various years. Appendix B4.- -Colombia. Species composition of retained longline catch Sector/ company Vessels* Grounds Catch Nationality Number Tuna Shark Martin Sail fish Swordf ish+Sierra Dorado Other Number Percent 1980s Commercial Oceanos Japanese Pacif ic/Car-Atl# 80 15 NA NA Negl Negl Negl NA 1997 Commercial Bahia Cupica*^ Japanese P. Asturiana*o Panamanian** Frigopesca*/ P. Asturiana** Japanese Pacific* 85* Caribbean/Atlantic* 85 Artisanal»» Colombian 3 Caribbean/Atlantic* 80*** 16» 22### Pacific coastal NA 12 10* Negl 2 Negl 1 -** Negl 1 Negl Negl 3 1 16* 2 2 Negl NA Negl Negl NA NA NA Negl NA NA NA## Note: INPA reports that INPESCA was also working with foreign longliners (appendix A5c). INPESCA officials, however, inform the authors that this is an error. The only longliners with which the company works are small, artisanal longliners. Javier Bentancourt, Manager, INPESCA, personal communications, February 20, 1997. This list may not be all-inclusive as it is possible that other companies may also be working with longliners. # Within and beyond the Colombian EEZ. Fishing operations in the Atlantic extend to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (40 o -50°W). ## Including sierra and bravo (English name unknown) ### Most of the vessels are based in Buenaventura (22), but a few (2) are based at Tumaco. * Individual vessels by company are detailed in appendix A6d. The foreign-flag vessels work in association with the indicated Colombian company. ** This is a f lag-of-convenience registration. The Colombian association partner reports that the owner is Japanese. The authors note that other tuna vessels with a similar name are Korean (appendix A5b). *** Primarily yellowfin, bigeye, and albacore. • Frigopesca is now part of Vikingos. •• Semi -commercial fleet operated by individual vessel owners. Many work out of Buenaventura with INPESCA. A few are based in Tumaco. Some of these vessels also occasionally deploy driftnets. ••• Primarily skipjack and bigeye # Mostly yellowfin and small amounts of bigeye «» Occasional swordf ish are taken, but the numbers are very limited ♦ Mostly blue and mako sharks. ♦♦ Rough multi-year average ♦♦♦ 1996 results + Despite the minimal swordf ish landings reported by the associated Colombian companies, Japanese longline fishermen through 1993 were reporting activity for swordfish along Colombia's Caribbean coast. ICCAT, "1994 SWO background document: Figures," ICCAT Collective Volume of Scientific Papers, XLIV (3) (ICCAT: Madrid, Spain, 1995), p. 91. Sources: Marta Lucia De la Pava, Manager, Bahia Cupica, personal communications, February 26, 1997; Roberto Osbina, Owner, Pescaderia Asturiana, personal communications, March 24 and April 10, 1997; Juan Valverde, INPA/VECEP, personal communications, February 24, 1997; and Benardo Erazo, Production Manager, C.I. Oceanos, personal communications, April 21, 1997. 137 Appendix C1 .--Colombia. Companies processing tuna, 1995 Company Capacity Production Production Storage 1994 Tons/hour Tons Tons ARPECOL 20* 1,500 8,600* Atunec 100 3,000 NA Atunes de Colombia 150 5,000 60,000 CI MAR 30 1,000 NA Copescol 40 3,500 5,000 Frigogan 60 3,000 NA Frigopesca 50 2,500 NA Note: Reports from the individual companies provide somewhat different data on capacity and production. The ARPECOL appears erronious. * ARPECOL reports that the above data is enrroneous. They did some tests on tuna in 1994, but production was only about 80 tons. They do hope, however, to increase tuna production. Jaime Bravo Lozano, Manager, Arpecol, personal communicatins, February 19, 1997. Source: U.S. Embassy, Bogota, "World swordfish fisheries study: Colombian information," mesage number 8912, June 29, 1995 and INPA, Subgerencia de Operaciones, Division de Registro y Control, unpublished data, July 23, 1995. Appendix C2.- -Colombia. Tuna processing facilities by port, 1995 Coast/ port Company Caribbean Baranqui I la Atunec Frigogan Cartagena Atunes de Colombia FRIGOPESCA* Pa i f i c Buenaventura ARPECOL CI MAR COPESCOL Cali COPESCOL CI MAR Tumaco CI MAR * Incorporated into Vikingos in 1996. Source: INPA, Subgerencia de Operaciones, Division de Registro y Control, unpublished data, July 23, 1995. 138 Appendix D. --Colombia, related fisheries Directory of agencies and companies involved with swordfish and Government Agencies Instituto Nacional de Pesca y Acuicultura (INPA) Diagonal 27 #1509, 3er Pi so Bogota COLOMBIA Tel: (57-1) 329-3866,320-3866, 340-2338 Fax: (57-1) 340-2338 Programa de Cooperacion Tecnica para la Pesca (VECEP) Apartado Postal 970 Buenaventura COLOMBIA Telfax: (57-224) 18991/92 VECEP Carrera 8 #26B-39 Apartado Aereo 1690 Santa Marta COLOMBIA Tel: (57-54) 212-721 FAX: (57-54) 212-455 PRODECOSTA AA 27770 Bogota COLOMBIA Projecto de Pesca Artesanal Maritima INPA/CIID/UNIMAGDALENA Address unavailable Proyecto CISP-CORPAMAG Camera 5N. 22-25, Of. 421 Edificio Vives Santa Marta COLOMBIA Tel: Research Organizations Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (INVEMAR) Ministerio del Medio Ambiente Apartado Aereo 1016 Santa Marta COLOMBIA Tel: (57-54) 214-413, 214-775, 211-380 FAX: (57-54)-211-377 Internet: olbaenaasantamarta.cetcol .net.co Diego Munoz /Monica Alfaro . Biologos Marino Apartado Aereo 20441 El Laguito Cartagena COLOMBIA Industry Trade Association Armadores Pesqueros Colombianos (ARPECOL) Km. 4 El Pinal Buenaventura COLOMBIA Tel: (57-224) 25-448 FAX: (57-224) 44-828 Camara de la Industria Pesquera Carrera 13# 2645 Pi so 6 Bogota Colombia Tel: (57-1) 334-9620 Fax: (57-1) 281-3188, 341-9988 Companies Atunes de Colombia/Seatech Via a Mamonal, Km. 8 AA 8237 Cartagena COLOMBIA Tel: (57-5) 668-5723 FAX: (57-5) 668-5648 Atunes y Enlatados del Caribe (ATUNEC) Zona Franca AA 51498 Baranqui I la COLOMBIA Tel: (57-5) 344-8462 Bahia Cupica Avenida Simon Bolivar 2288, Km. 4 Buenaventura COLOMBIA Tel: (57-224) 18-443/444/445, 48-328/329/330 FAX: (57-224) 46-098 CI MAR Km. 5 El Mangle No. 28-40 Buenaventura COLOMBIA Tel: (57-224) 483-32/33/34/35/36/37 (C.I.) COAPESCA S.A. Apartado Aereo 27 Cartagena COLOMBIA Tel: (57-5) 662-5154/5282/5410/5538/5666 Fax: (57-5) 662-6178 Compania Pesquera Colombiana (COPESCOL) Closed in 1995 139 Corporacion Pesquera de Narino (COPESNAR) Terminal Pesquero Isla el Morro Apt. Postal 399 Tumaco- Narino COLOMBIA Tel: (57-27) 272-977 FAX: (57-27) 272-385 Frigomarina Tel: (57-224) 18577/78 Frigopesca Tel: (57-5) 665-3793 Fax: (57-5) 668-5410 Frigorifico Ganadero (FRIGOGAN) Calle 2'-, No. 38-121 AA 51911 Baranqui I la COLOMBIA Tel: (57-5) 344-8495/8549 FAX: (57-5) 344-8993 Frigorifico y Pesca de Cartagena (FRIGOPESCA) Via a Mamonal AA 2012 Cartagena COLOMBIA Tel: (57-5) 672-147, 672-207 FAX: (57-5) 672-161 INDUPESCA See Vikingos INPESCA Apartado Aereo 656 Buenaventura Colombia Tel: (57-224) 27935 FAX: (57-224) 27937 (C.I . ) Oceanos Apartado Postal 4264 Cartagena Colombia Tel: (57-5) 668-5188 FAX: (57-5) 668-5266 MARCOL Apartado Aereo 6578 Cali Colombia Telfax: (57-2) 660-1554 Pesqueria Asturiana Barrio Prado Calle 22 #3007 Cartagena COLOMBIA Tel: (57-5) 662-7008, 662-6953 FAX: (57-5) 662-5521 Sea Tech: See Atunes de Colombia Sigma Consul tores Apartado Aereo 1578 Cali COLOMBIA UNIFEM Apartado Aereo 13458 Bogota Colombia Vikingos de Colombia Carretera Mamona Cartagena COLOMBIA Tel: (57-5) 668-5345 or 5211 FAX: (57-5) 668-5410 or 5028 140 Appendix E1 .--Colombia. Fishery exports, 1991-94 Product Year 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 US$ Million Fresh fish 1.4 1.0 1.2 1.6 Frozen fish 49.0 45.9 32.3 29.1 Frozen tuna*** - - - 2.3 Fresh/frozen fi I lets 14.3 31.4 18.4 21.6 Frozen shrimp 9.9 21.1 33.6 48.4 Canned tuna 3.9 10.1 13.8 48.9 Shark fins* - - - 2.3 Other products 12.6 11.5 10.5 14.4 Total** 91.1 121.0 109.8 168.6 * And other escualos ** Totals may not agree due to rounding *** The small entries for tuna are unexplained, presumably the source is not including product taken by foreign-flag vessels. Source: DIAN/ANDI in Armando Hernandez R., "Dinamica del sector pesquero en los anos 90," AMD I, March-April 1995, p. 75. Appendix E2a. --Colombia. Swordfish exports by destination, 1991-95 Destination Years 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Metric tons United States - - 5 4 - - - Japan* 2 2 2 8 1 2 European Union NA - - - - - Others** NA NA NA NA NA NA Total 2 2 7 12 1 2 # Through November * NMFS estimates that the swordfish portion of billfish shipments is about 5 percent. This may be a high estimate because sailfish appears to be taken in much larger quantities than swordfish. ** Swordfish shipments to other countries are believed to be non-existent or negligible. Source: Various 141 Appendix E2b. --Colombia. Tuna* exports, 1991-94 Destination Year 1991 1992 1993 1994 Metric tons European Union 4,461.8 12,386.9 7,289.1 18,986.7 Japan NA NA NA NA United States Continental - - 2,228.1 807.2 Puerto Rico 1,036.4 - 159.0 1,673.9 NA - Not available * Both frozen loins and canned product Source: U.S. Embassy, "World swordfish fisheries study: Colombian information," mesage number 8912, June 29, 1995 Appendix E3a. --United States. Swordfish imports from Colombia, 1975-94 Year Commodity Total Fresh Frozen Metric tons 1975 - 1976 - 1977 - 1978 - 1979 - 1980 - 1981 - 1982 - 1983 - 1984 - 1985 - 1986 - 1987 - 1988 - 1989 - 1990 - 1991 - 1992 5.3 1993 3.5 1994 - 1995 - 1996 - 5.3 3.5 Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census 142 Appendix E3b.- -United States. Swordfish imports from Colombia, 1975-95 Year Commodity Total Fresh Frozen U.S. $1.000 1975 - 1976 - 1977 - 1978 - 1979 - 1980 - 1981 - 1982 - 1983 - 1984 - 1985 . 1986 - 1987 - 1988 - 1989 - 1990 - 1991 - 1992 9 1993 12 1994 - 1995 - 1996 - 9 12 Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census 143 Appendix E3c. --United States. Fishery imports from Colombia, 1991-96 Product form Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 US$ 1,000 Fresh Tuna# 13 5 23 - - - - Swordf ish - - 9 12 - - - Shark - 3 4 11 - - - Tilapia, fillets - - 372 680 445 1,948 1,276 Grouper - 75 531 1,519 1,352 506 45 Snapper - 46 9 - 11 1 - Unspecifed## Marine f i I lets 291 650 540 344 165 1,014 332 Other 554 1,539 559 2,130 2,937 2,160 460 Frozen Tuna 1,281* 2,959* - - 5,393* 15,445* 6,107* Shrimp 31,199 36,627 24 ,582 25,500 29,301 24,842 26,453 Unspecified, Marine f i I lets 38 217 141 5 - - - Blocks - 242 - - - - - Other - 53 87 2 - - 4,289 Canned Tuna - - - 3,511 1,657 - - Shark fins* 20 - - 123 243 367 374 Other products 6,853 12,359 11 ,235 4,927 3,411 4,851 439 Totals Shrimp 31,199 36,627 24 ,582 25,500 29,301 24,842 26,453 Tuna 1,293 2,964 23 3,511 7,050 15,445 679 Non-shrimp/tuna 7,756 15.184 13 ,487 9.753 8.564 10.847 12.643 Grand Total** 40,248 54,775 38 ,092 38,764 44,915 51,134 39,775 # Yellowfin and/or albacore ## Small quantities of various specified marine finfish species (mackerel and various groundfish) not included. ♦ All or mostly loins * And other escualos ** Totals may not agree due to rounding Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census Appendix E3d. --United States. Fresh imports from Colombia, 1992-96 Year Fishery Total Freshwater Marine $1,000 1992 1,108 1,708 2,816 1993 727 4,016 4,743 1994 445 4,465 4,910 1995 1,989 3,832 5,821 1996 1,331 782 2,113 Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. 144 Appendix E3e. --United States. Fishery imports from Colombia, by product form, 1990-96 Product Year form 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 US$ M i 1 1 i on Live - - Negl - - - Negl Fresh 0.9 2.4 2.8 4.7 4.9 5.8 2.1 Frozen 37.0 49.4 32.8 29.0 37.1 43.8 36.8 Canned Negl - Negl 3.5 1.7 3.0 - Other 2.2 2.6 2.2 1.5 1.3 1.3 0.8 Total* 40.0 54.3 37.8 38.8 44.9 51.0 39.8 * Totals may not agree due to rounding. Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. Appendix E3f. --United States. Tuna imports from Colombia, 1990-96 Product form/ Year species 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Fresh Albacore - 5 Ye I lowf in 13 - Unspecified - - Frozen Albacore - - Skipjack - - Ye I lowf in Eviserated 8 3 Whole - - Unspecified Loins (>6.8 kg) 1,272 2,956 Loins (<6.8 kg) - - Other - - Canned Unspecified Not in oi I - - US$ 1,000 23 135 22 3,511 5,120 15,445 117 1.657 283 170 5,428 226 Total* 1,293 2,964 23 3,511 7,050 15,445 6,107 * Totals may not agree due to rounding. Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. 145 Appendix E3g.- -United States. Tuna embargoes on Colombia Type* Date Products covered Imposed Rescinded Primary 4/27/92 NA Purseseine caught yellowfin Intermediate 1/31/92# 10/30/92## All yellowfin Primary 9/28/94 Purseseine caught yellowfin ETP - Eastern Tropical Pacific NA - Not avai lable YFT - Yellowfin tuna * All of the embargoes on Colombia are imposed under the authority of the Marine Mammal Protection Act. # A U.S. District Court order (Northern District of California) on January 10, 1992, significantly expanded the scope and coverage of the intermediate embargoes. ## Intermediate embargo lifted on the basis of a new definition of intermediate nation in the International Dolphin Conservation Act signed October 26, 1992. Source: NMFS, Southwest Regional Office. Appendix E4a1 .--Japan. Billfish imports from Colombia, 1986-94 Year Quantity Billfi sh Swordf ish Metric tons 1986 77 4E 1987 89 4E 1988 31 2E 1989 24 1E 1990 36 2E 1991 36 2E 1992 41 2E 1993 156 8E 1994 22 1E 1995 35 2E 1996 55 3E E - Estimated swordf ish proportion of billfish imports (5 percent). Source: Japan Tariff Association, Japan Exports & Imports, various years. 1 46 Appendix E4a2. --Japan. Billfish imports from Colombia, 1986-96 Year Product form Total* Fresh Frozen Fillets Other Metric tons 1986 12** 65 77** 1987 16** 73 89** 1988 8** 23 31** 1989 9** 15 24** 1990 j** 29 36** 1991 11** 25 36** 1992 7** 34 41** 1993 27 129 156 1994 10 12 22 1995 14 22 35 1996 21 34 55 * Totals may not agree due to rounding. ** Until 1993 the fillets category included some tuna fillets. Source: Japan Tariff Association, Japan Exports & Imports, various years. Appendix F. --Colombia. Cost of INPA permits for businesses and vessels to fish for tuna and other species Permit Cost OH Business permit 372.00 Additional vessel 124.00 Fishing permit 19.84 (per net ton) Sport fishing license 14.88 Source: U.S. Embassy, "World swordfish fisheries study: Colombian information," mesage number 8912, June 29, 1995 I47 Appendix G. --Colombia. Species glossary Spanish Eng I i sh Scientific Caribbean coast Atunes Atun Atun Ojo gordo Bocon Bon i to Bonito Carite/carito Carite/carito Carite/carito Dorado Jurel Machuelo Marl in Peto Pez aguja Aguja/blanca Aguja azul Pez vela Pez espada Picuda Saba I o Sierra Sierra Sierra wohoo Tiburones Aleta negro** Cachona** Cornuda** Pardo** Tiburon** Tintorera** NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Tunas Blackf in Bluef in B i geye NA Little tunny Atlantic bonito King mackerel Cero Unknown Dorado/man i mahi Bluntnose jack Thread herring See "pez aguja" Wahoo Billfish Atlantic white marlin Atlantic blue marlin Atlantic sai If ish Swordfish NA Tarpon Spanish mackerel King mackerel Wahoo Sharks Blacktip Bonehead Scalloped hammarhead Small tail Silky Tiger Bignose Blacknose Sandbar Dusky Bull Night Reef NA Blue Shortfin mako White Thunnus sp. T. atlanticus T. thynus T . obesus NA Euthynnus alletteratus Sarda sarda Scomberomorus cavalla S. regal is S. brasi liens is Coryphaena equiselis and hippurus Hemicaranx amblyrhynchus and Caranx sp. Opisthonema oglinum Acanthocybium solandri Tetrapturus albidus Makaira nigricans Istiophorus albicans Xiphias gladius NA Mega I ops atlanticus Valenciennes Scomberomorus maculatus Scomberomorus cavalla Acanthocybium solandri Carcharhinus sp. and others C. limbatus Sphyrna tiburo S. lewini C. porosus C. falciformes Galeocerdo cuvieri C . a 1 1 i mus C. acronotus C. plumbeus C. obscurus C. leucas C. signatus C. perezi C. macu Prionace glauca Isurus oxyrinchus Carcharodon carcharias Pacific coast Atunes Albacora Aleta amari I la Atun Atun patiseca Barri lete Ojo gordo Dorado Machuelo Pez aguja Marlin azul Marlin negro Marlin rayado Pez vela Pez espada Puercito Tunas Albacore Aleta amari I la Bluef in Black Skipjack B i geye Dorado/mahi mahi Thread herring Billfish Indo-Pacific blue marlin Black marl in Stripped marlin Indo-Pacific sai If ish Swordfish See "pez espada" Thunnus sp. T. alalunga T. albacares T. thynus Euthnnus lineatus Katsuwonus pelamis T. obesus Coryphaena hippurus Opisthonema libertate Makaira mazara M. indica Tetrapturus audax Istiophorus platypterus Xiphias gladius 148 Sierra Tiburones Aletinegro Bravo Gato Marti I lo Tinto/tintoreras Toyos NA NA NA Pacific sierra Sharks NA NA Nurse Hammarheads Various* Sharks Pacific sharpnose Smoothhound Dogfish Scomberomorus sierra Carcharhinus sp. Carcharhinus coniceps NA Ginglymostoma cirratum Spyma sp. Carcharhinus sp. Rhizoprionodon Longurio Mustelus sp. Squalus sp. Note: Colombian authors vary somewhat as to the scientific names designated for various Colombian (Spanish language) names. This is especially true for carite and sierra Scomberomorus sp.). * The genus Carcharhinus encopasses several different species, including spinner, silky, bull, blacktip, oceanic whitetip, dusky, reef, sandbar, and others. ** Most common NA - Not avai lable Source: Various 149 1.2 ECUADOR Foreign purse-seine and longline fishermen have for years targeted tunas off Ecuador. The foreign longline fishermen also reported swordfish catches. They have historically reported some productive yields in grounds along the southern Ecuadorean and northern Peruvian coast, but have reported more significant swordfish catches in oceanic waters around and to the west and southwest of the Galapagos. The Ecuadorean Government does not allow foreign fishermen to transship through Ecuadorean ports. Several foreign fishermen, however, have signed association contracts with local companies to obtain access to Ecuadorean waters. The associated vessels are required to land their catch at Ecuadorean ports. Ecuadorean fishermen have developed a domestic longline fleet of small vessels targeting tropical tunas and dorado, but have generally reported only limited swordfish b>- catches. Swordfish do not appear to be as abundant off the Ecuadorean coast as along the coastal fishing grounds off Chile and Peru. Coastal environmental conditions off Ecuador appear less favorable than the coastal grounds to the south where the cold Humboldt Current is more pronounced, creating ideal conditions for swordfish. More favorable conditions appear to exist in the oceanic waters west of the Galapagos. Little historical data exists on Ecuadorean domestic swordfish catches, although available trade data suggests that there were limited catches during the 1970s. Significant Ecuadorean longline fishing did not begin until the mid-1980s. Fishermen caught about 500 tons of swordfish in 1986-87, but it is unclear as to precisely what vessels were involved. The fishery subsequently declined. Ecuadorean artisanal and semi-commercial fishermen began longlining for tuna and dorado during the mid-1980s. Ecuadorean catches during the 1990s appear to have ranged from about 250-350 metric tons, although the lack of detailed Ecuadorean data makes it difficult to assess catch patterns. Ecuadorean sources report sharply increased swordfish catches beginning in 1994-95, perhaps as high as 500 tons. The authors cannot, however, corroborate the local reports because such substantial catches during those years are not confirmed by export shipments. A few Ecuadorean companies have recently begun deploying longliners to the west of the Galapagos Islands in directed swordfish operations. A powerful El Nino is developing in 1997 and fishermen are reporting varied impacts as a result of the warming water temperatures. Some companies working with artisanal fishermen in largely coastal operations are reporting declining catches of tunas and swordfish, although they continue to land dorado. Other companies conducting more oceanic operations are reporting sharply increased catches. Ecuadorean companies export swordfish mostly to the United States, primarily as fresh product. Export shipments to the United States exceeded $1 million in 1996, a sharp increase over recent years, but still below the record levels reported in 1986-87. Exporters are continuing to increase swordfish shipments to the United States in 1997 and have begun to process small quantities of steaks. The increased shipments are in part due to fleet expansion and the initiation of directed swordfish sets in new grounds to the west of the Galapagos. Some companies are convinced that rising water temperatures in the eastern Pacific associated with the 1997 El Nino are also an important factor. Ecuador also exports to Japan, but these shipments appear to be primarily other billfish. Several companies are especially interested in expanding penetration of the Japanese market. There are also some swordfish exports to the European Union which appear to have increased in recent years. Joint venture activity is limited. There is no known Ecuadorean research specifically on swordfish, although Ecuadorean researchers have initiated some broader studies on tunas and other oceanic pelagics. ECUADOR: Fishing GALAPAGOS ISLANDS ! . :,'\w">iJriA tSLA" - ISABEIA I SAN SALVADOR i ! SANTA CRUZ I;. SAN ! CRISTOBAL f. SANTA 1 MARiA Coid (Peru) current •^t Warm (Equatorial) current 100-fathom line ^Manta Fishing port — ••— International boundary Provincia boundary @ National capital ® Provincta capital -H h- Railroad — Road Doto supplied by United States Fish and Wildlife Service. 37545 4 63 Talara '. •'MacaraTV __, Sullana PERU Boundaries are not necessarily tAose recognized by the U.S. (Government. Figure I. —Map of Ecuador TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction 151 I. Fishing Industry Overview 153 II. Species 159 A. Stock structure 159 B. Migrations 161 C. Spawning 163 D. Seasonality 163 E. Weight 164 F. Distribution 164 G. Other 165 H. Stock status 165 III. Fishing Grounds 166 A. Oceanography 166 B. Fishing areas 168 A. Domestic vessels 170 B. Foreign 174 C. Flag-of-convenience vessels 179 V. Shipyards 179 VI. Fleet Operations and Gear 180 A. Artisanal 180 B. Commercial 183 C. Recreational 185 VII. Catch 186 VIII. Ports 197 IX. Transshipment 197 X. Processing and Products 198 A. Fresh 198 B. Frozen 199 XI. Companies 200 A. Trade Associations 200 B. Companies 200 XII. Markets 207 A. Domestic 207 B. Trade 208 XIII. Government Agencies and Policies .... 214 A. Agencies 214 B. Fishery laws and regulations 214 C. Limits 214 D. Fishing licenses 214 XIV. Research 216 XV. By-catch 217 XVI. International 221 A. International relations 221 B. Joint ventures 223 XVII. Future Trend 224 Sources 225 Endnotes 228 Appendices 246 I. Fishing Industry Overview The fishing industry is one of Ecuador's leading economic sectors. Fisheries is an important source of food and employment, and is the country's second most important non-petroleum export commodity, after bananas. The Ecuadorean catch in recent years has declined sharply since peaking at 1.1 million metric tons (t) in 1985 (appendix Bla and figure 2). The catches during 1991-95 were relatively stable at about 0.3-0.4 million tons. Almost all of the decline since 1985 has been due to falling catches of small pelagics which formerly supplied a substantial canning and fishmeal industry. About half of the average catch in the past few years has been tuna and various whitefish (especially popular edible species referred to, locally, as "whitefish" or "pescado bianco") (figure 3). Fishermen also land important quantities of shrimp, tuna, various other finfish, and other species. 1 Shrimp: Shrimp has traditionally been one of the major Ecuadorean fisheries and currently dominates the industry (photo 1). Shrimp alone accounted for 16 percent of overall Ecuadorean exports in 1 994. 2 Much of the current production is harvested by shrimp farmers who have developed one of the world's leading shrimp culture industries. These farmers during the 1980s replaced fishermen as the country's most important shrimp producers. 3 Ecuador produces about $0.5 billion of shrimp annually. 153 Photo I. --As in most of Latin America, shrimp trawlers were some of the first commercial fishing vessels deployed in Ecuador. Dennis Weidner ♦ tiff - -!:*■ - OM "jswafflfflfc- . , : .. ........ - Photo 2—Ecuadorean companies have traditionally deployed small seiners for tuna, but are now gradually acquiring larger and more modern seiners. Boris Buenaventura Photo 3— The commercial fishing industry in Manta developed around canneries focused on tuna and sardines. Dennis Weidner 154 Figure 2 —Ecuadorean fishery catches peaked in 1985 and declined sharply after 1989 Catches since 1990 have been relatively stable. Tuna: Tuna is another important Ecuadorean fishery. The fishermen operate one of the larger Latin American tuna fleets. The fleet is composed of mostly smaller vessels which primarily operate in Ecuadorean waters, but fishermen are acquiring larger vessels (photo 2). The tuna fleet in 1992 totaled nearly 60 vessels, only about 7 of which were larger vessels (greater than 400 Gross Registered Tons-GRT) (appendix A4). The fishermen, by 1995, had acquired 36 large vessels, mostly purse seiners. 4 The Ecuadorean tuna fleet landed a total of 48,000 t of tuna in 1996. 5 The number of smaller tuna vessels, including longliners, has also grown during the same period. Part of the tuna purse-seine catch is canned for local consumption and for export to neighboring countries (photo 3). Most of the remaining seiner catch is exported frozen. Unlike several other Latin American fishermen, Ecuadorean tuna purse-seine fishermen do not set on dolphins. 6 As a result, Ecuadorean exporters have continued to maintain their export markets in the United States. Several small boat operators in recent years have deployed longlines to supply high-quality tuna to the Japanese and United States (California) sashimi market. 7 The tuna industry has had an important impact on the Ecuadorean economy, supporting thousands of workers during 1996 and attracting substantial investment capital. 8 Small pelagics: A fleet of small seiners target thread herring, sardine, and other small pelagics (photo 4). Most of the small pelagic catch is reduced to fishmeal. Some of the catch also supports a small canning industry. Catches have plummeted in recent years. The decline is probably due primarily to climatic conditions, but some observers believe that over fishing may also have contributed to the decline. The plummeting catch has resulted in sharply lower fishmeal production and exports. The $8 million of fishmeal exported in 1994 was only a fraction of the more than $50 million earned as recently as 1988. 9 Whitefish: Artisanal fishermen as recently as the early 1980s conducted very primitive operations primarily supplying local markets (photos 6, 9, 26, 33, and 42). The fishermen and companies in recent years have made great progress in producing high-quality dorado and other high-value fish which can be exported. 10 The fishermen setting handlines and small longlines also take tuna as well as some swordfish. Most of the domestic swordfish catch has been taken by these fishermen, but commercial longline fishermen are now increasing swordfish catches. The whitefish has come to rival the tuna purse-seine fishery in importance and whitefish export earnings first surpassed the value of purse-seine caught tuna in 1992." Whitefish exports exceeded $43 million in 1992. The growth of this Tuna 26% White Fish 24% Other 50% Average Catch: 340,000 Metric Tons Figure 3— Half the Ecuadorean catch is composed of tuna and whitefish ("pescado bianco"). The fishermen include several pelagic species (dorado, swordfish, billfish, and sharks) in the whitefish category. 155 Photo 4 —Seiners target small pelagics although the catch has declined significantly in recent years. Several artisanal longliners can be seen to the left of the seiners. Boris Buenaventura fishery is due to the expanding artisanal fleet which the Government has promoted in recent years. 12 A total of about 10,000 t of whitefish was exported in 1996 with an approximate value of $54 million. 13 The Ecuadorean fishing industry developed significantly during the 1980s. Two major developments in the industry enabled Ecuadorean companies to significantly increase seafood exports during the past 10 years. Aquaculture: The most significant development was the growth of a shrimp culture industry, the largest in Latin America (photo 5).' 4 The aquaculture sector now dominates the shrimp industry. Farmers are also beginning culture operations for other species. Diversification: The country's capture fishing industry has been diversifying in recent years. The former focus on seining for tuna and relatively low- value small pelagics has declined. Artisanal fishermen traditionally conducted primitive operations, producing low-quality product (photo 6). Considerable progress has been made in modernizing the artisanal fishery. 15 In addition, several companies have initiated more advanced semi- commercial operations employing modern Ionglines and drift gillnets. These companies are now supplying important quantities of high-quality fresh and frozen finfish, including swordfish, to export markets. 16 Ecuador has become one of the leading Latin American exporters of fishery products. Export shipments of fishery products have soared during recent years, nearly tripling from only $0.2 billion in 1980 to nearly $0.6 billion in 1991 (Latin America, appendix El). This increase has been primarily due to the expanding shipments of farmed shrimp (photo 7). Exports: Fishery commodities are some of Ecuador's principal export products. The fishing industry is among the nation's fastest growing sectors, with exports increasing 15 percent in value during 1994.' 7 The increase since 1985 has been especially striking. Shipments in 1994 totaled nearly $725 million, a 200 percent increase over the $250 million exported in 1985 (Latin America, appendix El). Notably the value of exports is increasing much more rapidly than the quantity, even discounting inflation— confirming that the industry is increasingly focusing on higher value product. Crustaceans: The principal fishery export commodity is frozen shrimp and shipments of fresh, frozen, and cured crustaceans (mostly frozen shrimp) totaled nearly $450 million in 1993, almost 80 percent of all fishery shipments in that year. These shipments increased to nearly $540 million in 1994, about 75 percent of all fishery shipments. Finfish : Through the mid-1980s, much of Ecuador's finfish exports were canned product (photo 8). Shipments of fresh and frozen finfish totaled slightly more than $75 million, or 13 percent of total 1993 156 Photo 5 —The shrimp culture sector which developed during the 1980s now dominates the country's shrimp industry Dennis Weidner shipments. While still only a small part of total fishery exports, finfish shipments are expanding. In 1994 shipments of fresh and frozen finfish increased nearly 50 percent to $1 10 million. Finfish exports are one of the fastest growing sectors of the industry. Finfish shipments totaled less than $20 million as recently as 1985, but the growth through 1994 has totaled more than 430 percent. The primary finfish export commodity has la—a^MMg. been frozen tuna imported by foreign canneries. Shipments of high-quality fresh and frozen fish (tunas, especially bigeye, billfish, dorado, and shark, as well as small quantities of swordfish) are now . becoming increasingly important. The growth rate for tuna commodity exports during 1994 was greater than for all other fishery commodities. Imports: Ecuador does not import significant amounts of seafood due to the limited local demand and generally low personal incomes. Seafood prices tend to be relatively low in Ecuador, attracting little interest on the part of foreign exporters. (See "Market/Local".) Ecuador imported only about $9 million of seafood in 1994, while seafood exports totaled more than 75 times that amount! There are no known tuna or swordfish imports. Photo 6- Many artisanal fishermen, even in the 1980s, conducted primitive operations. Their catch was often processed in unsanitary conditions on the beach. Dennis Weidner 157 Photo 7— Cultured shrimp is Ecuador's principal fishery commodity and export shipments annually earn about $0.5 billion. Dennis Weidner Photo 8 —Most of Ecuador's fmfish exports during the 1960s, 70s, and early 80s were canned product. Dennis Weidner II. Species A. Stock structure Swordfish are known to occur off Ecuador, both within and beyond the country's 200-mile Territorial Sea (TS). 18 Few actual studies, however, are available on the stock structure and relationship to other Pacific populations. The authors have little hard evidence on swordfish stock structure off Ecuador, but there are reasons to believe that the population is part of a southeastern Pacific stock which extends south along the Chilean and Peruvian coasts and into adjacent ocean areas. No tagging studies exist to confirm this relationship. 19 Several other factors, however, suggest the likelihood that the fish along the South American Pacific coast are all part of the same population, although the authors stress the available evidence is not conclusive. The theorized southeastern Pacific stock may be separate, but it is not isolated from the wider pan-Pacific stock which includes fish found in the northern and western Pacific. Biologists continue, however, to be uncertain about the stock structure of Pacific swordfish and considerable discussion on the issue continues. 20 proportion of the Chilean population follows the Humboldt Current as far north as the Ecuadorean waters. 22 Catch patterns: An assessment of catch patterns provides some support for the theory that swordfish off Ecuador are part of a single stock which ranges south as far as central Chile, although the available evidence is far from conclusive. Seasonal: The lack of detailed Ecuadorean catch data makes it difficult to assess catch patterns. (See "Seasonality" below.) In addition, the apparent seasonality of swordfish catches may be related more to the impact of adverse weather conditions which inhibit fishing effort rather than actual abundance. This may be especially true of the Ecuadorean fleet which uses relatively small boats that cannot be deployed in rough ocean conditions. The generally rougher seas from June to November often restrict operations, especially in offshore areas. Thus the fish Several factors suggest the possibility that swordfish in the southeastern Pacific are a single, common stock: Oceanography: The Humboldt Current creates a coherent large marine ecosystem (LME) off the western coast of South America. Fishery-related data suggest that swordfish in some areas follow current flows for at least part of the year. 21 The Humboldt Current is strongest off Chile and Peru and weakens considerably by the time it reaches Ecuador. As a result, there are significant seasonal fluctuations in the strength of the current (figures 4 and 5). (See "Fishing Grounds".) The limited swordfish catch off Ecuador suggests that only a small SST (Deg C) 30N February 1995 25N 20N 15N 10N-- 20S- 30S 130W 120W 110W 100W 90W 80W 70W 13 20 Figure 4 — The Humboldt Current is generally most pronounced off Ecuador at the beginning of the year. Vernon Kausky, NOAA 1 59 SST (Deg C) 30N 25N September 1995 130W 13 20 Figure 5— Thermal fronts to the west of Columbia and Ecuador are often pronounced during the second half of the year. Vernon Kausky, NOAA may be present, but the fishermen are unable to deploy their lines or even leave port. 23 Foreign longline data is available, although it is compromised in terms of assessing swordfish trends because the target species was primarily bigeye tuna. The available data suggests that abundance in coastal waters off Ecuador and northern Peru appears to be less seasonal than in coastal waters off southern Peru and Chile. 24 Although the seasonal fluctuations are less marked, there appears to be an inverse relationship with the abundance reported off Chile. The fish off Ecuador and northern Peru are most abundant during the first quarter in the year. 25 (See "Seasonality" below.) This is the season when swordfish are not abundant off Chile (Chile, appendix E2cl-2). 26 This inverse seasonal relationship, while weak, suggests the possible migratory movement of a common stock. The authors note, however, that seasonal patterns reported by foreign longline fishermen in the equatorial latitudes of the eastern Pacific are highly varied. 27 It is thus difficult to discern pronounced patterns and the authors stress that foreign seasonal swordfish catch data is especially suspect as the fishery targeted tuna. 28 Annual : Limited Ecuadorean catch data makes it difficult to compare annual results with Chile to determine if annual fluctuations are related. 29 If fluctuations were related, it would support the contention that swordfish in the southeastern Pacific are a separate stock, although the authors note that even within the range of coherent stocks, fishermen have reported localized patterns of abundance. Data submitted by Ecuador to FAO and NMFS estimates (based on imports from Ecuador) suggest catches have declined during 1992- 93 (appendix B2a). 30 This would correspond with the significant declines reported off Chile after 1991 (Chile, appendix E2al), 31 supporting the single stock theory. Recent data supplied to the authors by the INP (appendix B2b2), however, suggest very significant Ecuadorean catch increases since 1994, which would question the relationship between the fish off Ecuador and Chile. The increase since 1994, however, appears to have been caused by opening a new fishery and grounds rather than fluctuating results in an existing fishery. Geographic: Japanese and other distant-water longline fishing patterns show a distinct clustering of catches and high yields in the southeastern Pacific (figures 6- 8). These patterns strongly suggest the existence of a relatively, but not completely, isolated southeastern Pacific population. 12 This clustering is important evidence of a separate population and unlike seasonal data, is not as tainted by the fact that swordfish were not the primary target of the Japanese and other foreign longline fishermen. 33 The reader should note that the Japanese report a similar clustering of the target species (bigeye tuna) in the southeastern Pacific. 34 Thus it is possible that the swordfish cluster may in part be a reflection of a more intense effort. The available swordfish yield data also shows 70W 160 E 100 120 140 160 E 180 160 W 140 120 100 80 W 40 20 20 40 iiiiiiimmiinniimmiij Oiji AM/ SWORDFISH Tiffe Ji ihp -■■= CPUE \'4% r^'l JULY li.Li r 1 i 5- * [tlttlUinit imiiiii:! -■ LVinf A .=. ! . ^=L ^1 = ;;i[M!ijMj;;i !i '■■% 40 20 - iSh, r * * 20 40 E 100 120 140 160E 180 160W 140 120 100 80 W Monthly CPUE: Fish per 100 hooks * < 0.050 • 0.051 - 0.160 = 0.160 < Figure 6 — The Japanese report that historic (1952-1985) swordfish yields are highly seasonal. Compare results in July with October results (figure 7). Sosa and Shimizu a southeastern cluster. 35 This suggests that it is not merely a reflection of more intense effort aimed at bigeye. Genetics: Some preliminary genetic studies based on comparisons between swordfish samples from Ecuador and Chile to other Pacific fish have found little genetic diversity between the Ecuadorean and Chilean fish, but significant diversity with other Pacific fish. This suggests that the fish off Chile, Peru, and Ecuador are part of a single stock separate from swordfish in the wider Pacific. 30 This conclusion, however, is still tentative and not shared by all genetic researchers. A Japanese geneticist, for example, using different methods from the U.S. research group has not found evidence confirming a separate southeastern Pacific stock. 37 B. Migrations The authors have no available information on swordfish migrations off Ecuador. There are no tagging studies. Swordfish appear to be present in commercial quantities off Ecuador all year round, but Japanese longline yields suggest modest seasonal fluctuations, with populations peaking from August through December (figure 7). 38 Notably, this is a period when swordfish off Chile become increasingly less abundant. 39 The close correspondence of offshore yields to seasonal patterns off Chile suggests that fish off Ecuador could be part of a migratory movement of a theorized southeastern stock. Such migratory movements, however, are unclear. Notably, swordfish are generally not abundant in some areas between Ecuador and Chile, especially the north central Peruvian coast. 40 The authors stress that plotting possible migration tracks by assessing seasonal data is tenuous, especially because the most complete data sets come from the foreign tuna longline fishery in which swordfish is not the target species. 41 Given the time constraints, the authors have assessed available evidence for possible insights into migratory patterns, but stress the findings are meant to only suggest possible scenarios for future assessment when better data is compiled and tagging studies can be carried out. Genetic studies suggest some mixing of southeastern Pacific and the wider pan-Pacific stock in the waters off the United States (California) and Mexico (Baja California). Swordfish taken off California and the Baja show a mixed genetic pattern. The migratory track of the southeastern stock to and 161 N 40 20 20 40 S E 100 120 140 160 E 180 160 W 140 120 100 80 W ii SWORDFISH |j CPUE OCTOBER i i i ! I :' ! \ ' ■■ j. . ■ &. • | > ; illiiffi! N 40 20 20 -40 S ii Mi: ili ■.:'_!.:■ ii VS ■ ^^^=.-^= ZH _ = : l-=^ ^{jljjlj ;■ V":' 'T. ^-- -^l^l = = = = ==L.^=.j^.^.i^.^=_^= = - ' i - - • i _ s 1 ^-^-.-si i ij Jh" ;=—,= --—--:—=- I H i i i i ! I ! t i i 1 1 ' IJXI ^: T T T ! ! ! & . ^=-^--. is is: - " i =. "WW- - ■ : ! -. - j~t_. 1 - *ii%* ; ;i; ; ; ;i; I ; ;i; * * ;;; j ; ; ; J 5 ^ i j i = ? - . X ! 3'-'U- = i " ,<--- \ - ~M, ~.~iM\Z\ ! Iu 7 « III ! * >il ! I !j» * i i\i I ilii i m i I g[i X'^^^'-X-J** LirK"'^ : : :;: 5 : 5 ;! : * I ! i , .IjfTS'iigii' : ' ; ; -if- ' I ; **** Jh' ; "--:iI:l: T s: * e *! * » ! i ! .... . i I S I "•-iiiki E 100 120 140 160E 180 160W 140 120 100 80 W Figure 7— Japan longline fishermen often reported good swordfish yields off Ecuador during the second half of the year, especially during September and October. Sosa and Shimizu from the Baja, however, is unknown. Swordfish may not migrate all the way from Chile to the Baja. Fish in the southeastern Pacific probably do not have one single migratory track. As U.S. researchers note little genetic diversity between Ecuadorean and Chilean samples, interactions appear to be mostly to the south with the fish off Chile rather than off the Baja. The genetic mixing found off the Baja, however, suggests some limited exchanges northward. It could be that some southeastern Pacific swordfish are less migratory than others. apparent lack of genetic diversity in the southeastern Pacific. Such scenarios, however, are only speculative at this stage. Exchanges with wider-Pacific stock: It is unclear how the interactions between the southeastern and There are several possibilities to explain swordfish movements. Within the southeastern Pacific: The fish off Ecuador and northern Peru and in oceanic equatorial waters may have a different migratory track than the fish off Chile and southern Peru. All of the fish may spawn in the same oceanic equatorial waters, explaining the 40N 30N 20N 10N 10S 20S 30S 40S 50S •«««•••• • • •••••«•• • •!• Fish per year 2000 < 1000 < 500 < 100 < < - 160W 140W 120W 100W 80W Figure 8- Japanese longline fishermen report a tight clustering of swordfish catches in the eastern Pacific during the 1990s. Uozumi and Yokawa 162 wider-Pacific stock occur. The seasonal pattern suggests some fish move north along the Central American coast. 42 The extent of such movement appears limited. Available catch and effort data indicate generally small swordfish catches and low yields off much of Central America and southern Mexico. 43 This suggests that the possibility of other migratory paths in oceanic areas. Available catch and yield data show that swordfish occur throughout the eastern Pacific and that exchanges are also possible in offshore areas. 44 Some data shows that catches in certain offshore areas are seasonally significant, suggesting the possibility of offshore fish movements and thus exchanges. 45 C. Spawning may have affected results of their plankton studies. Still no swordfish larvae have been reported to date. Ecuadorean research: Ecuadorean researchers through 1994 never encountered swordfish larvae. Researchers report, however, that in one 1995 plankton study focusing on small pelagics that a few swordfish larvae were found in the Gulf of Guayaquil (81-82°W). 49 This is the only ETP report of swordfish larvae know to the authors. The authors do not yet know if this was an anomaly. There are no other Ecuadorean reports of swordfish larvae to corroborate the presence of swordfish larvae. Another 1995 experiment studying tuna in waters between the Galapagos and the Ecuadorean coast (81°-90°W) found large quantities of albacore larvae, but failed to find swordfish larvae. 50 No information is available on the maturation of swordfish off Ecuador. Spawning patterns can be inferred based on the presence or absence of larvae. Foreign researchers, from both distant-water and neighboring coastal countries, have noted the absence of larvae in the eastern Pacific which suggests that the fish are not spawning in the area. One Ecuadorean researcher, however, reports that Ecuadorean plankton studies have detected a few swordfish larvae. Foreign research: Available plankton studies by distant-water countries and the United States off its Pacific coast have so far found no swordfish larvae in the eastern tropical Pacific (ETP), east of 108°W. 46 While the research effort in the ETP has been more limited than in the western and central Pacific, the available evidence suggests that the fish do not spawn off the Ecuadorean coast. Scattered larvae have been found west of 108°W which would be about 300 kilometers (km) west of the Galapagos. The most comprehensive plankton study was conducted by the Japanese National Research Institute of Far Seas Fisheries (NRIFS). The Japanese researchers found increasing quantities of swordfish larvae at 10-12°S, which would be latitudes off northern Peru, but south of Ecuador. Unfortunately NRIFSF did not conduct tows south of 12°S, so the spawning area for the theorized southeastern Pacific stock is unclear. 47 Neighboring country research: Neighboring countries (Colombia, Peru, and Chile) have also reported an absence of swordfish larvae in the eastern Pacific. 48 Researchers in these countries (especially Colombia and Peru) have not been looking specifically for swordfish and thus it is possible that this D. Seasonality The authors have no Ecuadorean data on swordfish seasonality. Some fishermen have offered anecdotal accounts. Other insights into seasonality are available from foreign fishing data and export trends. These various sources, however, describe substantially different seasonal patterns. To some extent this may be explained by differences in fishing grounds, strategies, and vessels. The authors note, for example, that the Ecuadorean fleet recently initiated directed swordfish sets on offshore grounds during 1996. Such shifting strategies and grounds can significantly change the seasonality of catches. The discrepancies and differences in the available data sets make it impossible to reach any firm conclusions at this time. 25 Percentage Year — 1990 1991 — 1992 —1993 — 1994 —1995 — 1996 Figure 9— U.S. fresh swordfish imports from Ecuador are highly variable and it is difficult to detect any discernable seasonal pattern in landings. 163 Ecuadorean reports: The authors do not have actual Ecuadorean seasonal swordfish catch statistics to assess catch patterns. Ecuadorean fishermen have only recently begun directed swordfish operations. Catches before 1 996 were almost entirely incidental to directed tuna operations. In addition, the fishermen have shifted grounds and are beginning to operate on new grounds west of the Galapagos, where swordfish appear to be most abundant. Operations west of the Galapagos are conducted primarily from December through May. As a result, current Ecuadorean swordfish catches are reportedly highest during this period. 51 The authors note, however, that the seasonality of catches and yields may be related more to the impact of ocean conditions limiting fishing pressure rather than the seasonality of swordfish abundance itself. The relatively calm ocean conditions reportedly prevalent during December to May allows the small Ecuadorean longliners to safely reach and operate in the area. During the rest of the year (June through November), fishing pressure decreases in the grounds west of the Galapagos because rough ocean conditions make it more difficult and dangerous for the smaller longliners to operate at any distance from the coast. Foreign catch data: Japanese longline data from grounds off Ecuador suggests a sharply different seasonal pattern. The authors stress the limitations of the Japanese data as it comes from a fishery targeting tunas. Japanese longline catch data from 1952-85 show that yields are best in coastal waters from August through December (figures 6 and 7). In addition, the offshore fishery out to 1 30-1 40° W at latitudes off Ecuador shows the best yields from October through January. 52 This seasonal pattern corresponds closely to the period in which the Chilean catches (1986-95) and yields begin to decline off northern Chile and begin to increase again (March) off southern Chile. 53 The Japanese longline shows the southern Peruvian and Chilean yields beginning to increase in April and May. 54 This data, however, must be assessed with caution. More current Japanese catch data show that the best catches west of the Galapagos are taken in the second half of the year, especially July-September although the pattern changes dramatically further west. 55 This pattern is sharply different along the coast and in the waters between the coast and the Galapagos. Catches along the coast are best during the beginning of the year. Between the Galapagos and the coast catches are best during the middle of the year from April through September. 56 Export trends: Most of the Ecuadorean swordfish catch is exported fresh to the United States. (See "Markets.") As a result, the seasonal export trends correspond closely to catch trends. U.S. trade data, however, show a highly mixed pattern with substantial monthly variations (figure 9). During the 1990s, shipments have generally, with the exception of 1992- 93, been highest during the second half of the year. Some of the best months are often June-August and December-January (appendix D2h and figure 9). E. Weight The authors have limited information on the weight of the swordfish being landed by the commercial and semi-commercial longliners operating off Ecuador. One local observer, however, who owns a Manta-based company which is affiliated with a foreign longliner, reports that the average swordfish dressed weight ranges between 35-45 kilograms. 57 The authors cannot confirm how representative this is of the sizes taken by other Ecuadorean and foreign longline fishermen. It does appear to be quite similar to the results reported by Chilean longline fishermen who averaged about 40 kilograms (kg) in 1994-95 (Chile, appendix B5c6). The other major species targeted by longliners off Ecuador is bigeye. According to a local observer, bigeye caught in the fishing grounds west of the Galapagos (ranging from 32-45 kg) is smaller than fish caught east of the Galapagos (45-110 kg). 58 F. Distribution Many observers beginning in the 1930s have noted the presence of swordfish in the eastern Pacific on both coastal and offshore grounds. One Chilean study of the eastern Pacific longline fisheries beyond the Chilean, Peruvian, and Ecuadorean 200-mile zones reported a swordfish by-catch along with the tuna catch. 59 The catch results of Japanese longline fishermen also substantiate that the fish are present in commercial quantities. Japanese swordfish catches, which in part reflect actual abundance, have varied substantially from year to year, but at least some fishing has been reported from Colombia south to Chile. 60 Japanese longline fishermen have compiled the most extensive data base. Different assessments of this data all show a distinct clustering of yields and catches in the southeastern Pacific, with some variations in the precise distribution and seasonal patterns involved. This could in part be due to variations in the assessments, such as the use of catch or yield data and the varying time periods covered. The fact that swordfish is not the target species is another problem. Despite these limitations, the authors do not believe that the Japanese data should be discounted. The Japanese catch data during the 164 1990s show that the best catches were reported off southern Peru, but some good catches were reported off Ecuador. The Japanese catch data suggests that the best swordfish catches off Ecuador were reported on the grounds around the Galapagos Islands. 61 Japanese yield data from 1952-92, however, shows good results off Ecuador and Peru, but the best yields off northern Chile. 62 An FAO assessment of longline catches during 1991-93 showed good swordfish fishing in coastal areas off Ecuador/northern Peru, but the best results off southern Peru. 63 Ecuadorean fishermen have made some anecdotal comments to the authors on swordfish distribution. Many observers are convinced that swordfish are not abundant in Ecuadorean coastal waters. One local fisherman, for example, maintains that swordfish are not present in great numbers off Ecuador and catches are incidental. He stated that the weakness of the northerly flowing cold Humboldt Current by the time it reaches Ecuadorean waters limits swordfish abundance/catches in the area. 64 Recreational fishermen, even those interested in swordfish, have not reported taking the species off Ecuador. 65 Other fishermen believe that the species is more abundant and that limited catches in the past are due to the lack of directed effort. Several fishermen have acquired larger vessels and initiated directed fishing operations in recent years, in particular targeting grounds to the west of the Galapagos. (See "Fleet Operations and Gear.") G. Other Given the limited extent of directed swordfish fishing, Ecuadorean fishermen report few details on swordfish behavior off Ecuador. One Ecuadorean observer, however, reports that the limited swordfish catch is mainly taken during full moon phases. 66 A similar phenomenon has been noted in swordfish fisheries off Chile, the Hawaiian Island, and other areas. H. Stock status The authors have no Ecuadorean data on swordfish abundance. Although Ecuador's small research community has done some work on tuna, little work has focused on swordfish (See: "Research.") Catch data suggests that swordfish catch rates off Ecuador are actually increasing despite major declines registered off Chile and moderate declines reported by Japanese distant-water fishermen in the southeastern Pacific. The authors caution that fisheries-dependent data is not necessarily a good indicator of stock status because other factors such as fishing strategy, effort, grounds, oceanographic fluctuations, market trends, and other factors can affect catches. Very little other data, however, is available. Research: The authors have been unable to identify any Ecuadorean research on swordfish addressing stocks or describing the species behavior. The Instituto Nacional de Pesca (INP), however, is currently conducting an assessment of swordfish abundance and catches, focusing on different biological parameters. 67 Domestic fishermen: Local observers report that swordfish catches have been declining since the early 1990. Some attribute the decline to changes in environmental conditions. 68 Such reports, however, primarily described fluctuations in the by-catch from directed tuna fisheries. It is difficult to assess trends from available catch and trade data because of discrepancies between available sources (appendix B2a). The most recent reports from the INP indicate major catch increases during 1994 and 1995. The 1994-95 increases are not confirmed by U.S. import data. The U.S. data does show a major increase in 1996 (appendix D2a). While the available data is somewhat contradictory, it clearly does not show any major decline in stocks off Ecuador. The most recent data in fact shows improved results, although this may be due to changes in fishing strategy and grounds rather than resource trends. Foreign fishermen: Currently only two countries besides Ecuador are heavily fishing swordfish in the southeastern Pacific, Chile and Japan. The Spanish are taking smaller amounts. Japan : Japanese stock assessments in the southeastern Pacific as a whole suggest that yields have declined since the mid-1970s— but are well above the extremely low levels reported in 1983. 69 Chile : Chilean researchers have not yet made any stock assessments, but are conducting needed preliminary research for future assessments. The Chileans have, however, reported very dramatic catch declines since the fishery peaked in 1991, suggesting possibly serious resource problems. 70 Spain : The authors have no data on Spanish assessments, but notice that Spanish fishermen withdrew from the Pacific in 1994. This probably suggests that the fishermen concluded stocks were declining or oceanographic conditions were unfavorable, but other factors may have been involved. 71 A few Spanish vessels returned in 1996 (Peru, photos 36-46). 72 165 III. Fishing Grounds A. Oceanography Ecuador has the smallest coast line of the four Pacific-coast South American countries. The country is located at tropical latitudes (2°N-3°S). The marine fauna predominating are thus mostly tropical species, although seasonal intrusions of cold water supplied by the Humboldt Current provides some degree of diversity, especially along the southern coast. Species distribution is affected by the Carnegie Ridge jutting outward from the country's central coast. The ridge forms the southern limit of the Panamanian Basin. The generally warm water temperatures within the Basin mean that the marine fauna is composed of tropical species, largely common stocks shared with neighboring Colombia. The Galapagos Islands (Archipielago de Colon) located about 1,000 km off the coast (O , 90° W) are part of Ecuador. The Galapagos are located at the intersection of the Cocos Ridge running southwest from Costa Rica and the Carnegie Ridge running west from central Ecuador. Fisheries productivity off Ecuador is much more limited than off its southern neighbors, primarily because of the shorter coast and the much more limited coastal upwelling. The shelf is narrow along most of the coast, except for an extensive area in the Gulf of Guayaquil. The fisheries catch can fluctuate significantly, in part due to the varying impact of the northerly flowing Humboldt Current and related periodic oceanic events known as El Nino. Shelf: As with other Pacific coast countries in South America, the Ecuadorean shelf is fairly narrow, extending only 25-100 km offshore. The most significant shelf area is along the southern coast in the Gulf of Guayaquil. Upwelling: Ecuadorean fishermen conduct small pelagic fisheries along the southern coast. Small pelagic populations there are supported by coastal upwelling. Ecuadorean fishermen have, as a result, reported catches exceeding 1 million tons. The world's strongest upwelling system is located along the western coast of South America. The system extends from 40°S into the equatorial latitudes off Ecuador where it blends into the equatorial upwelling belt. 73 The upwelling, however, is much stronger to the south, explaining the massive small pelagic catches reported by Chile and Peru. Currents: The waters off Ecuador are a mixing area created by the confluence of the northerly flowing Humboldt Current and the easterly flowing North Equatorial Counter Current (Colombia, figure 10). 74 Humboldt Current: The Humboldt Current flows north along the western coast of South America. The strength of the Humboldt Current off Ecuador is highly variable giving rise to significant fluctuations in SSTs off Ecuador (figures 4 and 5). Ocean conditions are also periodically affected by warm water anomalies referred to as El Nino events. During an El Nino event the intrusion of warm equatorial water and other climatic factors can limit the strength of the Humboldt Current off Ecuador and significantly reduce upwelling. As a result, oceanographic conditions off Ecuador are highly variable, giving rise to substantial fluctuations in the quantity of annual fishery catches (especially small pelagic species) as well as the species mix. North Equatorial Counter Current : This is the second most important eastward flow in the equatorial current system. It is an easterly flowing current which is fed by the western boundary currents both from the south and the north. Its annual mean transport decreases uniformly with longitude, from 45 Sverdrup (Sv~ cubic kilometers per second) west of 135°E to 10 Sv east of the Galapagos Islands. As it approaches the Central American shelf, the current turns north, creating a cyclonic motion which causes a relatively shallow thermocline. In the termination region of this current, this effect is known as the Costa Rica Dome (9°N, 88°E) (Colombia, figure 12). South Equatorial Current : The major westward component of the southern equatorial current system is the South Equatorial Current. This current is directly wind-driven and therefore responds quickly to variations in atmospheric conditions. It is also very seasonal, and is most pronounced during the southern hemisphere winter, when the trade winds are strongest. The South Equatorial Current is strongest in August when it reaches speeds of 0.6 m per second. This current moves water westward from the ETP. 75 Oceanographic events: Periodic El Nino events, or the intrusion of abnormally warm waters into the ETP, have major impacts on fisheries. The warm water significantly reduces the primary productivity, affecting populations of small pelagic species and other stocks. As a result, Ecuadorean fishery catches have fluctuated widely. Catches since 1985, for example, have ranged from 1.1 million t (1985) to 0.3 million t (1993) (appendix Bla). These large fluctuations in populations of fodder species may have major impacts on the populations and distribution of oceanic predators such as swordfish. A particularly powerful El Nino is developing in 1997 (Chile, figure 26). 76 166 Oceanic conditions and long term climatic trends significantly affect swordfish populations and distribution. One of the most significant factors appears to be water temperature, although the existence of thermal fronts may be a more important factor than absolute temperatures. Other phenomenon are upwelling and thermocline depths, factors also associated with temperature, which may affect swordfish. Bottom topography is another possible factor. Temperatures: Swordfish occur in temperatures from 13°-24°C, but the most productive fisheries are reported in the cooler temperate waters, between 18- 23 °C. The warm water found off Ecuador may be at the upper range of temperatures suitable for the species (figures 4 and 5). Most swordfish fisheries are conducted at more temperate latitudes." Very substantial populations of tropical tunas, however, are found off Ecuador, explaining why the longline fishermen primarily target these species. The best Ecuadorean swordfish grounds are reportedly located about 30-130 km west of the Galapagos Islands. According to a local observer, the presence of cooler waters in this area is the main reason for the increase in swordfish abundance, in comparison with other grounds within the Ecuadorean TS. 78 Researchers caution, however, that swordfish is a mesopelagic species and it is not yet clear how they are affected by surface temperature fluctuations. Thermal fronts: Swordfish appear to be most abundant in areas with sharp temperature gradients. These areas are most commonly found near upwelling areas, zones where various water masses converge, or along pronounced ocean currents. As a result of the convergence of the Humboldt Current and the North Equatorial Counter Current, significant ocean thermal fronts are often encountered in Ecuadorean waters and ocean areas to the west and southwest of the Galapagos (figures 4 and 5). This in part explains why swordfish are taken in significant quantities, despite the tropical water temperatures found seasonally off Ecuador. The ocean area to the west of the Galapagos is in fact the major swordfish fishery in the tropical Pacific. Catches there are much higher than reported at comparable latitudes of the western Pacific. 79 Sea surface temperature maps show especially narrow temperature isotherms and thus sharp temperature gradients in Ecuadorean waters and ocean areas to the west at latitudes from 5°N-5°S. The temperature isotherms off Ecuador tend to be strong during much of the year, except from January to March (figures 4 and 5). 80 The narrow temperature isotherms and resulting sharp temperature gradients extend well out into the central Pacific. Notably the Japanese longline fishery in the ETP is conducted from 5°N-15°S in the tropical convergence zone. This is the area between the easterly flowing North Equatorial Counter Current (about 5°N) and the westerly flowing Equatorial Current (about 15°S). 81 Climatic trends: Foreign researchers have demonstrated that swordfish populations and distribution are affected by long-term climatic trends. 82 The authors know, however, of no Latin American research in the ETP assessing the impact of Photo 9— Artisanal fishermen operating from dugouts in coastal waters regularly landed sharks, but rarely even a small swordfish. Dennis Weidner climatic trends. Upwelling: Coastal upwelling is vertical ocean currents which draw up cooler, nutrient-rich water to the surface level of the water column. This process enriches surface waters and supports important stocks of small pelagics. The western coast of South America has the world's strongest upwelling system. Off Ecuador the strength of the upwelling system varies notably from year to year and is much weaker than the stronger Peruvian and Chilean systems to the south. The primary productivity involved, however, does support important small pelagic stocks which can 167 reach significant levels, even off Ecuador. The populations, or at least distribution, of oceanic predators which feed directly or indirectly on these fodder species may in turn also be affected by fluctuations in the small pelagic populations which can vary greatly from year to year. Thermocline: The thermocline in a large area of the ETP from southern Mexico to northern Ecuador and the Galapagos is unusually shallow, often less than 50 meters. 83 The thermocline off central and southern Ecuador and to the south and west of the Galapagos is deeper. This may provide more appropriate conditions for swordfish. The authors know of no research assessing the relationship between swordfish and the thermocline, but fishermen have reported a significant relationship. Some fishermen are known to try to set their hooks at the thermocline. 84 Bottom topography: Bottom topography is known to affect swordfish behavior. The authors know of no assessment of the relationship between bottom topography and swordfish off Ecuador and the other Pacific coast South American countries. Some research, however, has been conducted in other areas. 85 B. Fishing areas 1) Artisanal Ecuadorean artisanal fishermen have traditionally conducted operations in inshore coastal waters. The small size of the traditional artisanal craft limited the fishermen to inshore grounds. The artisanal fishermen during recent years have considerably expanded operations off the mainland coast. The fishermen have been forced to move to new offshore grounds as heavy fishing pressure has depleted inshore stocks. The small-scale artisanal fishermen take sharks, but rarely report swordfish (photos 6, 9, 26, and 33). Many fishermen, however, have difficulties reaching offshore grounds in their small boats. (See "Fleet".) In order to economize fuel and at the same time reach more productive fishing grounds, some artisanal fishermen attach their 7.5 m boats ("fibras") to larger semi-commercial (15- 28 m) vessels on their way to and from distant offshore fishing grounds (photos 15 and 16). Once the larger vessels reach the fishing grounds, currently as far as 190-320 km offshore, the artisanal fishermen detach their boats and deploy relatively short longlines or begin hook-and-line operations. 86 Some artisanal longline fishermen have also began to fish around the Galapagos Islands and out of Galapagos ports. Unconfirmed reports indicate that the fishermen have been delivering fish to foreign longliners. 87 The fishermen would like to further expand operations around the Galapagos, but Government approvals have been delayed, in part because of objections of international environmental groups concerned with the preservation of the fragile Galapagos ecosystem. 88 Very serious incidents have occurred between the fishermen and scientists at the Charles Darwin Research Station and in 1997 with park rangers who have been shot at and attacked with bottles and clubs. The Ecuadorean Government is considering limitations on immigration from the mainland and possibly easing land use restrictions. The bill was abandoned when the Bucaram Government fell in 1997. The new Government has established a committee to redraft it. 89 2) Commercial Ecuadorean commercial operations are conducted almost entirely in the country's 200-mile TS. Ecuadorean fishermen do not conduct significant distant-water operations. There is some limited effort off neighboring countries, primarily Colombia. The vessels involved are mostly seiners. Given the size of the Ecuadorean 200-mile zone, especially the 200-mile zone around the Galapagos, some operations in Ecuadorean waters are conducted at considerable distance from mainland ports. Operations beyond the Galapagos, for example, have been conducted more than 1 ,000 km from Manta. Operations are now being conducted out of Galapagos ports. If current trends continue, expanded Ecuadorean operations outside the country's 200-mile zone to the west and southwest of the Galapagos are conceivable. Tuna seiners: The tuna fishermen operating large purse seiners probably make the longest voyages, but all of their operations are conducted in the ETP, primarily within Ecuadorean waters. A few fishermen, mostly purse-seine operators, however, purchase licenses to fish off neighboring countries. The primary country involved is Colombia which has a major program to license foreign fishing vessels (Colombia, appendices A5b and A6c). 90 Peru has had more restrictive policies toward foreign fishermen. The issue of access for foreign fishermen has proven much more politically charged in Peru and some foreign fishermen have found themselves emersed in complicated political and legal proceedings. 9 ' The Peruvians have licensed relatively few purse seiners, but have licensed longliners (primarily Japanese) for years. Longliners: Ecuador's semi-commercial and commercial longliners concentrate their fishing operations between 190-320 km off the mainland coast to the east of the Galapagos. According to a local observer, Ecuadorean semi-commercial and 168 profitability of the fishery and the expanding technical capabilities and experience of Ecuadorean fishermen, such an expansion is likely. The Galapagos provides a ready base for fresh shipments, a profitable option unavailable to the Japanese fishermen. The impact on the Galapagos of expanded commercial and artisanal fishing activity concerns many environmental groups. Photo 10.— An increasingly modern fleet of small vessels operates on grounds off Manta, Salinas, and other ports The vessels produce high- quality product suitable for export. A. Paez associated longliners fish along the entire length of the country's coast, from Peru to Colombia. According to this observer, swordfish abundance in coastal waters are highest off the northern coast, around Esmeraldas, and farther south, off Salinas. 92 The larger longliners, however, are operating well beyond coastal waters, both in international waters and inside the Ecuadorean 200-mile TS surrounding the Galapagos Islands. This means that some of the longliners are operating more than 1,000 km off the mainland coast. 93 The Kona Wind, for example, one of the larger commercial longliners affiliated with an Ecuadorean company, during 1997 was targeting bigeye and swordfish 30-130 km west of the Galapagos Islands (photo 23). 94 The larger longliners targeting bigeye and swordfish concentrate on fishing grounds west of the Galapagos Islands, where yields are better due to current and temperature patterns. (See "Fishing Grounds: Oceanography".) Ecuador's small semi-commercial longliners are, however, often only able to reach these productive fishing grounds seasonally-usually from December to May. The rough seas conditions prevalent from June through November make it dangerous to operate smaller vessels. As the Ecuadorean fleet continues to expand, it is likely that these operations to the west of the Galapagos will increase. This means that the Ecuadoreans are moving into offshore areas already heavily fished by the Japanese (figure 8 and Chile, figure 13). The number of Ecuadorean vessels with such capabilities are still limited, but given the 169 IV. Fleet Ecuadorean fishermen and companies deploy a substantial number of small artisanal and commercial vessels in addition to foreign vessels contracted under association agreements. The authors have received widely varying accounts on the number of vessels involved but some observers believe that there may be as many as 4,000 active vessels, mostly small artisanal craft. A. Domestic 1. Artisanal Artisanal 93% Other 7% 1996 Total: 3,971 Vessels Figure 10— The great bulk of the Ecuadorean fishing fleet is still composed of artisanal vessels. The artisanal fleet is very important from a socio-economic point of view since it is the major supplier of fish for domestic consumption and is an important source of employment. The bulk of the Ecuadorean fishing fleet is still composed of small artisanal boats. Local observers estimate that approximately 25,000 artisanal fishermen actively participate in the industry. 95 Accounts vary but there seems to be a total of about 4,000 active fishing vessels in Ecuador, over 90 percent of which are artisanal (appendix A2 and figure 10). Some observers estimate an even larger number of vessels, Number of Vessels Vessel Types ElSemi-Com.-WoocI Boats □Art-Sailboats ■Art-Rafts □Art.-Canoes □Art-Wood Boats ■Art-Fiberglass Ports Figure 11 —The artisanal fleet is quite varied and primarily operates from the three ports: Esmeraldas, Manta, and Santa Rosa. There is also some activity at Puerto Bolivar. up to as many as 6,000-8,000 in 1996. 96 The discrepancies between these numbers may be due to the fact that there are many inactive vessels. Artisanal fishermen have significantly improved their operations in recent years and many now produce export-grade dorado and other hook-and-line and longline-caught fish, including tuna and swordfish. The growth of this fishery is in part due to the expanding artisanal fleet which the Government has promoted in recent years and the relative ease of access to the lucrative U.S. market. 97 The Ecuadorean Government reports that the artisanal fishery is concentrated in Manta, Esmeraldas, Santa Rosa/Salinas, and Puerto Bolivar (appendix Al and figure 1 1 ). The vessels targeting tuna, however, are mostly centered in Manta. These are the vessels that have been reporting a small swordfish by-catch in recent years. Other observers report that Manta is even more important than indicated by official statistics, with as much as 75 percent of the artisanal fleet operating out of the port (appendix A2). 98 Artisanal fishermen operate two principal classes of vessels, both small traditional craft as well as larger more modern boats: 170 Photo 11 .--One of the authors building a balsa raft m Ecuador during the late 1960s Julio Cezar Mora a. Small craft Artisanal fishermen have traditionally used small dugout canoes. Some artisanal fishermen still operate these dugouts, but such operations are becoming a much less important sector of the artisanal fleet (figure 1 1 ). Balsa rafts: These craft ("balsas") are made by tying together three or four lightweight balsa logs (photo 11). The balsas can be propelled by paddles or sails. There were about 50 balsas operating from the 8 major Ecuadorean artisanal fishery landing sites during 1995 (appendix Al). 99 Canoes: These very narrow dug-outs ("canoas or bongos") are carved from a single tree trunk and were traditionally powered by oars (photos 12). Many now have small outboard motors. There were about 170 dugouts operating from the eight major Ecuadorean artisanal fishery landing sites during 1995 (appendix Al). 100 b. Medium boats More advanced vessels now dominate the artisanal fleet. The fishermen deploy two basic types of medium- sized vessels which use longlines: fiberglass ("botes fibras") and sail ("botes velas'V'balandras") boats (figure 11 and photos 14-16). Local observers provide widely varying accounts on the numbers of these vessels, ranging from about 1,600 to 4,200. The wide variation may be due to the fact that many of these vessels in 1996 were reportedly inactive. Apparently only a fraction of the fleet was deployed because of declining yields on heavily fished coastal grounds and the limitations of the smaller vessels which are not able to reach new offshore grounds. Other factors are rising operating costs and weak prices (especially for dorado). Fiberglass: The smaller boats, known as "botes fibras," or "pangas", are 6-8 m fiberglass vessels (photos 13-16). 101 Generally these vessels are equipped with 40-85 horsepower (HP) outboard motors. Ecuadorean observers vary substantially as to the number of these boats, ranging from 1,200-4,000. The INP estimates that there were a total of 1,750 "fibras" based at the eight major landing sites during 1995.' 02 Some estimates are much higher. Another INPA report estimated the number of "fibras" at nearly 2,400 in 1994.' 03 According to one local observer there are a total of about 4,000 fibras, but only about 500 fibras were active in 1996. Reportedly, the apparent decline in stocks on heavily fished coastal grounds and falling earnings have caused most of these artisanal fishermen to cease operations. The range of these boats limits them to depleted inshore grounds where productivity has declined substantially. These vessels do not have the Photo 12 — Dugouts were the traditional craft used for inshore fisheries in coastal lagoons as well as marine fisheries in the open sea. Dennis Weidner 171 range to reach more productive, but distant offshore fishing grounds. I04 Another INP official estimated the number of the smaller artisanal vessels targeting "pescado bianco" (including some oceanic-pelagic and demersal species) with longlines at around 1,200 craft. Motherships: Several larger commercial vessels operate in association with the small "botes fibras." (See: "Commercial" below.) Sailboats: Ecuadorean fishermen also deployed about 200 larger (14-15 m) artisanal longliners in 1995. These sailboats known as "balandras" or "botes vela," are equipped with small inboard motors, ranging from 30-190 horsepower. Ecuadorean observers vary somewhat as to the total number of balandras. According to an industry representative, the number of this type of vessel has reportedly increased significantly since 1993 from about 60 to 200. 105 A more conservative estimate of 69 in 1995 is reported by Government officials. 106 The apparent increase in the number of the sailboats within the Ecuadorean fishing fleet has been prompted by sharp fuel price increases (photo 14). The fishermen operating these sailboats save fuel by limiting the use of their motors, usually to the time when actually deploying and retrieving the longlines. 107 2. Commercial Ecuadorean observers also vary somewhat as to the number of commercial vessels. Fishermen have deployed shrimp trawlers and small pelagic and tuna seiners for several years. In recent years the fishermen have also begun to deploy small commercial longliners. Ecuadorean observers report that the longline fleet in recent years has significantly expanded. Some report that the fleet in 1996 may total as many as 300 vessels or about 7 percent of the fleet (figure 10). There are two basic types of commercial longliners in Ecuador, smaller wooden vessels and larger steel vessels. Some of the larger wooden vessels serve as motherships for the artisanal vessels. Wooden hulls: The first type is composed of 15-18 m wooden-hull vessels, known as "barcos maderas" (figure 1 1 and photos 17-20). Reports on the number of these vessels vary widely. According to an industry representative, the number has significantly increased since 1993 from about 75 to 300 in 1995. 108 The Direccidn General de Pesca (DGP) reports that although there may be about 300 such Photo 13 -Typical artisanal fiberglass "panga" or "fibra", which have largely replaced the traditional dugouts. Otto Schwarz 172 Photo 14— Some boats deploying longltnes are equipped with sails as an economy measure Juan Benicasa Photo 15— Many "fibras" are towed to fishing grounds by mother ships, distant grounds in their small boats Juan Benicasa This not only conserves fuel but permits the fishermen to reach t h t Photo 16 --A row of "fibras" at the port of Manta, ready for a fishing trip. Ramon Montano Photo 17— A variety of vessels like this small trawler have been converted for longlining Ramon Montano Photo 19 --Typical small wood-hull artisanal vessel Otto Schwartz vessels, only a fraction are actively conducting fishing operations. DGP officials report that the high estimate of approximately 300 longliners includes many vessels still under construction. 109 An even more conservative estimate of 35 in 1995 was reported by another Government official. 110 While estimates vary, the fleet does appear to be expanding, primarily due to the growing interest among fishermen in exploiting high-value pelagics. These vessels are mostly powered by inboard 140-455 horsepower (HP) motors. 111 Many of the wood-hull vessels discussed above serve as motherships to the smaller "botes fibras" on their fishing trips. (See "Fleet Operations and Gear".) Steel hulls: The other category of commercial longliners, or true commercial longliners, is composed of larger 30-40-m steel hull vessels of foreign origin that have been acquired by some Ecuadorean companies (appendices A3a, A3b, and A3d). Again, estimates of the actual number of vessels vary. One fishing company representative estimated that there were about 10 of these larger vessels which were acquired from foreign owners after a period of association." 2 For example, Transmarina, one of the major Ecuadorean fishing companies, owns three 55-m freezer longliners of Japanese origin and shares ownership of a fourth similar vessel. The vessels were previously operated in association with the company. (See "International: Joint venture".) They were subsequently purchased by Transmarina and between 1985- 1996 registered under the Ecuadorean flag (appendix A3a)." 3 Some of these foreign ventures failed and the vessels abandoned (photo 22). B. Foreign Foreign longliners have operated off Ecuador for many years. Most of the vessels are Japanese, but longliners from several other countries have also been active (photo 21). The owners of the foreign longliners operating in Ecuador's 200-mile TS have had to arrange association or leasing contracts with local processing/exporting companies to purchase the catch. A variety of vessel types were involved, but in most years longliners were the primary type of vessel. Some squid jiggers have been active in the 1990s. 1975-79: Initially the foreign vessels were mostly leased, but by 1979 the association contracts were becoming more popular (appendix A5al). Ecuadorean companies signed leasing and association contracts for 17 vessels in 1977, but the number subsequently Photo 20 —Another small artisanal vessel landing fresh fish. Otto Schwarz 176 declined sharply. 1980s: The Ecuadorean Subsecretan'a de Recursos Pesqueros (SRP) reports that the number of contracts with foreign vessels during the 1980s has ranged from 11 (1982) to 32 (1988). Virtually all of the contracts involved were association, not leasing contracts. The vessel tonnage involved at the 1988 peak was over 6,000 NRT (appendix A5al)." 4 Some press reports provided somewhat different assessments. Two observers report that there were a total of 12 foreign longliners, from Japan and Korea, operating in Ecuadorean waters under these association contracts during 1982. This foreign longline fleet had a combined capacity of 2,300 NRT, each vessel ranging from 150-240 t and a range of 60-90 days at sea." 5 1990s: The SRP reported 20-24 foreign association contracts during and two leasing contacts during the early 1990s (appendix A5al and figure 20). About half of this activity was squid jigging and not longlining." 6 The U.S. Embassy reported that in 1992 that about 24 foreign longliners from Japan, Korea, Panama, and the United States were active (appendix A5c). The authors have received varying accounts as to the countries and number of vessels involved during the 1990s. The Government has not released current details on its licensing program. A local observer reported that the total number of foreign vessels operating within Ecuador's 200-mile TS in 1996 was between 20-25 Photo 21.— Asian longliners have operated extensively off Ecuador, both in international waters and within Ecuadorean waters under association contracts with Ecuadorean companies. vessels, including 18 longliners. The countries involved were Japan, Korea, and Canada." 7 (See "International: Joint Venture".) A local business representative estimated the number of foreign longliners during 1996 at 15-20 vessels, all Japanese, except one 30-40-m commercial New Zealand longliner. Transmarina appears to be the principal Ecuadorean company associated with foreign vessel owners during 1996 (appendix A3a). Statistics recently received from the Ecuadorean Government indicate that since 1993 the number and size of the foreign vessels obtaining authorization to operate in Ecuadorean waters has increased, from 20 vessels in 1993 to 30 vessels in 1996 (appendix A5a2). This substantial increase has been accompanied by a gradual increase in the sizes of the vessels GRT in 1997." 8 deployed, from 455 1993 to 628 GRT in Photo 22— Efforts by Ecuadorean companies to acquire and operate large commercial longliners have proven unsuccessful. These Korean longliners were abandoned in the port of Mania. R. Montana The foreign fishermen involved are primarily Japanese, but association/leasing contracts have been signed with fishermen from several other countries: Canada: According to Ecuadorean Government officials, there were about 4-5 Canadian longliners operating under an association contract 177 with a local company in 1996." 9 Although not confirmed by the company, one report suggests these longliners were associated with LUBAR. (See "Companies".) Japan: The Japanese longliners, like the Ecuadorean commercial longline fleet, target bigeye tuna. These longliners are steel hulled vessels that are approximately 30-40 m in length. 120 The vessels generally range in size from 280-400 GRT (appendix A5c). 121 The precise number of vessels, however, is unavailable. Several Japanese longliners were fishing in association with Ecuadorean companies during the early 1980s. 122 A Government official reported that since 1985, the number of foreign longliners operating in association with Ecuadorean companies has been fairly stable at about 15-20 vessels. 123 There were between 10-20 Japanese longliners operating in Ecuadorean waters under such association contracts in 1989. 124 The U.S. Embassy, for example, reported 18 Japanese longliners in 1992 (appendix A5c). The authors do not know precisely how many Japanese vessels were operating in 1996 due to discrepancies in accounts from local sources. Several different Ecuadorean companies work in association with the Japanese. For example, Transmarina is associated with six 55-m Japanese freezer longliners (appendix A3a). 125 According to one Ecuadorean observer, there were about 10 Japanese commercial longliners fishing within Ecuador's 200-mile TS in early 1996. 126 Another local observer reported a substantially larger number of vessels during 1996, indicating that about 21 Japanese longliners were active. 127 The authors believe, based on these reports, that the number of Japanese commercial longliners in recent years has ranged between 15-25 vessels. Korea: The Korean vessels that have worked off Ecuador are quite similar to the smaller Japanese longliners (appendix A3d and A5c). Many were in fact built in Japan. There have been some Korean longliners operating in association with Ecuadorean companies during the 1980s.' 28 Two Korean longliners were active in 1992 (appendix A5c). According to a Government official there were about five 40-50-m Korean longliners operating in Ecuador under association contracts during 1996. 129 Other: The characteristics of the relatively small number of longliners deployed by the other countries vary substantially. Longliners as small as 57 NRT have been reported (appendix A5c). A New Zealand longliner was working with PESYMAR during 1996- 97 (photo 23). Photo 23 -A New Zealand company deployed the 28-m longliner Kona Wind in waters west of the Galapagos through a 1996 joint venture and is considering operations off Colombia Terry Smith 178 C. Flag-of-convenience vessels V. Shipyards Ecuadorean Government officials report that the country does not make flag-of-convenience registrations. Officials also report that no flag-of- convenience longliners are authorized to operate in Ecuadorean waters. 130 Two Central American countries (Honduras and Panama) authorize large numbers of flag-of-convenience registrations, often of Taiwan-owned vessels. 131 The authors have received a few scattered reports of flag-of-convenience longliners operating in Ecuador. According to one local observer there were about two or three large longliners based in Manta registered under Honduran and other flag-of-convenience flags. 132 The authors are unsure how to reconcile these conflicting reports. While large numbers of vessels are not involved, a few flag-of-convenience vessels have been observed in Ecuadorean ports. Possibly they are vessels in the process of being sold to Ecuadorean companies and thus not considered as flag-of-convenience vessels by the local authorities. Ecuadorean shipwrights and shipyards build most of the small vessels deployed by domestic fishermen, especially the artisanal fishermen. Ecuadorean yards, however, build very few vessels in excess of 100 GRT, although one yard is known to have built a 318-GRT seiner. Little information is available on specific Ecuadorean yards, but construction is believed to be primarily shrimp trawlers and small vessels for the hook-and-line fishery. The authors know of no domestically constructed commercial longliners. A number of small yards or shipwrights construct the semi-commercial wooden longliners. (See "Fleet.") Many of these small yards are based in Manta, although there are also a few located in other coastal towns such as Esmeraldas and Jaramijo. Astillero Panchana' and Astillero El Rapido are among such small shipyards located in Manta. Astilleros Panchana and El Rapido, like many small yards, specialize in the construction of wooden longliners ranging from 20-28-m in length. 133 There are five artisanal shipyards in Guayaquil which specialize in the construction and maintenance of wooden longliners. 134 The smaller artisanal boats (fibras) are built by small companies specializing in fiberglass construction, such as Italfibra. 135 There are two principal shipyards in Ecuador (Astinave and Botadora) which service commercial vessels. Both of these yards are located in the Guayaquil area. These yards specialize in shrimp trawlers and small seiners as well as a range of other vessel types. Astinave, for example, also builds oil tankers, cargo ships, tugboats, speed boats, and multi- purpose fiberglass vessels.' 36 Neither build commercial longliners. According to a local observer, these shipyards provide only limited maintenance services to the foreign commercial longliners operating in Ecuador, as most of the foreign fleet is usually serviced in their national shipyards. 137 According to company officials, Astinave provides general maintenance services to commercial longliners at their docks. 138 179 1,000 Metric Tons 50 40 30 20 10 Species ■Sharks □Dorado □Swordfish □Albacore □Bigeye □Skipjack □Yellowfin Artisanal Commercial 1994 is taken by longlines. Most of the bigeye and yellowfin tuna catch is landed by the commercial fishermen (appendix B2cl-2 and figures 12 and 13). Ecuador has an important fleet of small purse seiners which target tuna, but the catch is used for local canning or frozen product to supply foreign canneries (photo 28). Small pelagic: This category is composed of small coastal pelagic species, such as sardines and thread herring, which are primarily caught with purse seines. 140 This fishery has fallen significantly in recent years because of declining stocks. A. Artisanal 1) Small-sized boats 1 ,000 Metric Tons Figure 12 - The species mix of the artisanal and commercial fleet is quite varied, but neither groups have until 1 996 reported significant swordfish catches. VI. Fleet Operations and Gear Ecuadorean finfish fishermen divide their fishing operations into three different categories, depending upon the target species. Oceanic pelagics are an important portion of the whitefish and tuna catch and both artisanal and commercial fishermen are active, however, swordfish has been of minimal importance (appendices B2cl-2 and figures 12 and 13): Whitefish: This category, known locally as "pescado bianco" is composed of pelagic and demersal species, such as corvina, dorado, grouper, marlin, sailfish, shark, snapper, albacore, swordfish, and wahoo, that are caught primarily with longlines (surface or bottom) and gillnets. I39 Much of the swordfish catch has been taken by these artisanal fishermen (appendix B2b and figure 18). Tuna: The second category is composed of all species of tuna, which are caught with longlines or purse seines. Almost all of Ecuador's catch of high quality tuna, swordfish, and other oceanic pelagics The authors have limited information on the operations of small-scale artisanal fishermen in Ecuador. Until recently most of these fishermen earned very little and conducted essentially subsistence fisheries (photo 25). This has changed significantly in recent years as the expanding shrimp culture industry has created well paying jobs in isolated coastal areas. In addition the development of export markets has significantly increased the income of fishermen who have Artisanal Commercial 1995 Figure 13 — Ecuador's fishermen land most of commercial fleet takes the bulk of the tuna catch, but artisanal the albacore 180 Photo 24 —Dorado was the principal "whitefish" taken by artisanal fishermen, but catches have fallen in recent years. Dennis Weidner Photo 25 —Through the 1970s, living standards for fishermen in isolated coastal communities were very low, as the fishermen had virtually no access to mainland markets. Tom Healev Photo 26. —Some artisanal fishermen targeted sharks on the open ocean from small dugout canoes Some of the sharks were nearly as large as the dugouts Dennis Weidner improved their fishing and handling techniques to meet the demanding export standards of foreign countries. Much of the artisanal fishery was conducted in inshore waters such as coastal lagoons (photo 12). Many intrepid fishermen, however, also ventured on to the open ocean. One 1950s report indicated that the artisanal fishermen fishing off the coast were taking large black marlins with handlines from dugout canoes. 141 Many artisanal fishermen in the 1970s and early 1980's were still using primitive handlines from rafts, canoes, and other small craft. The fishermen have since significantly modernized their operations. Balsa rafts: Ecuadorean fishermen use balsa rafts for fishing trips of no more than 8 hours. The primary fishing gear utilized by the fishermen in the "balsas" is hook and line. Among the most common species of fish caught by these fishermen are catfish, corvina, and a range of other low-value species. M2 Canoes: Fishermen utilizing canoes can generally conduct fishing operations for up to 8 hours. The primary fishing gear used by the fishermen is also hook and line. Similar to the rafts, the most common species of fish landed are catfish, corvina, and a range of other low-value species. 143 Often the fishermen go out at night and return in the early morning. Some canoes are used as reefers to land fish taken by larger boats. The authors have observed some fishermen approximately 7.5 landing sharks that were nearly as long as their dugout canoe (photos 26, 33, and 42). The fishermen also take sea turtles, but no information is available on the numbers involved (photo 43). 2) Medium-sized boats Ecuadorean artisanal fishermen using medium-sized boats are reportedly deploying longlines and drift gillnets to take oceanic pelagics and other species on inshore grounds. 144 The artisanal fishermen conduct a variety of operations, however they have not targeted swordfish. The primary target species are bigeye tuna and dorado, which are generally caught with hand lines and longlines, respectively. Fiberglass: The smaller longliners, "fibras", are m in length and carry three fishermen. They can only remain offshore for short periods—generally 1 or 2 days when operating individually. The artisanal vessels are sometimes equipped with 50-100 hook surface longlines measuring up to 2 kilometers. 145 Somewhat longer longlines of up to 4.5 km are reported by another industry representative. 146 Most of the fishermen operating these artisanal vessels fish with hand lines. Dorado is seasonally an important target species. Other vessels are equipped with bottom longlines "espinel de fondo" to target demersal fish such as corvina, grouper, and snapper. Some are also equipped with surface drift gillnets to target billfish and tuna. 147 "Fibras," without the assistance of motherships, can generally operate only about 50 km offshore. 148 According to a local observer, the fishermen target mostly bigeye. The average size of each bigeye tuna caught by these vessels range from 45-1 10 kilograms. Wooden hulls (Motherships): Artisanal fishermen have reported sharp increases in fuel prices and declining catches on inshore grounds. As a result, many rely on commercial motherships to pull groups of 5-10 "fibras" to more productive offshore grounds (photos 15 and 16). Not only does this permit the fishermen to reach the more productive distant grounds, it also reduces their fuel expenses. The fibras working with motherships can remain offshore for longer periods, further increasing their fishing and 182 Photo 27— Artisanal fishermen unloading dorado on the beach at Manta Otto Schwarz fuel efficiency. I49 In addition, the motherships supply the artisanal fishermen with bait, fuel, ice, food, shelter, and water, as well as store the catch in ice holds. Access to ice holds is critical in meeting the quality standards of export markets. Working with the motherships allows the artisanal fishermen to remain offshore for periods of up to 10 days and still deliver high-quality fish. Upon arrival on the fishing grounds, the smaller vessels detach from the mothership and begin fishing with longlines, normally between 2.0-4.5 km long, or with hook-and-lines. The catch of the smaller vessels is transshipped to the mothership, where it is headed and gutted, and stored in the hold with an ice-water slurry. 150 According to an industry representative, the fishermen in the small "fibras" take most of their bigeye with hook- and-lines, while the dorado and shark are caught mainly with small longlines. 151 The motherships, which range from 12-40 m in length, also conduct fishing operations after towing the smaller vessels to the fishing grounds. An increasing number of these vessels are targeting grounds to the west of the Galapagos (photo 23). Some of the catch is landed and air-freighted through Santa Cruz in the Galapagos Islands. 152 According to a local observer, the fishermen operating the semi-commercial motherships which target bigeye with handlines and longlines east of the Galapagos Islands catch fish ranging from 45- 110 kilograms. The mothership's catch is composed of tuna (60 percent), sharks (20 percent), swordfish (5 percent), various species such as marlin, grouper, wahoo, and dorado (15 percent), a similar ratio to that of the artisanal fibras. 153 Generally, the motherships conduct fishing trips of 7-10 days. 154 According to an industry representative, the motherships deploy longlines of up to 500 hooks (about 15 km long). 155 This type of vessel (mothership) is described variously by some Ecuadorean observers as artisanal and as semi-commercial by others. Sailboats: The other type of longliner is composed of about 200 14-15 m sailboats, known as "balandras" which are also equipped with outboard motors (photo 14). The balandras can generally remain offshore for periods between 6-8 days. 156 These vessels usually deploy 150-hook longlines of up to 4 km in length. 157 The fishermen mainly target bigeye tuna, although dorado, shark, blue and striped marlin, and swordfish are also taken. 158 Conflicts exist between the artisanal and commercial fishermen, as is common in many Latin American countries. The commercial fishermen are especially critical of expanding artisanal driftnet operations. The authors believe that much of the driftnet effort is coastal and the catch of tunas, swordfish, and other oceanic pelagics is therefore limited. The commercial fishermen seem most concerned about the shrimp catch as the fishermen are using fairly small mesh driftnets, 10-15 centimeters (cm). One report suggests the nets range from 1.5-2.0 km in length. 159 Details on the deployment and catch, however, are unavailable. B. Commercial The two major types of commercial longliners fishing off Ecuador conduct significantly different operations. Most of these vessels primarily target tuna and report only limited swordfish by-catches (appendix B3b). One report suggests, however, that interest in swordfish is growing and five vessels during 1997 were targeting swordfish. The authors have received widely varying reports on the number of vessels involved. (See "Fleet".) 183 Photo 28— Landing bigeye tuna taken in fisheries east of the Galapagos by the joint venture Prime North Ecuador Terry Smith Medium vessels: The first type is 15-28 m, mostly wooden-hull vessels equipped with 6-km longlines deploying up to 300 hooks. It is this type of vessel which serves as a mothership to the smaller artisanal longliners. (See "Artisanal" above.) These vessels can remain on offshore fishing grounds for 6-15 days. They generally conduct fishing operations 190-320 km from the coast, although some travel as far as the Galapagos, located around 1,000 km off the mainland, and a few are now operating beyond the Galapagos. The longliners targeting bigeye usually set the hooks between 90-130 m deep. They generally start deploying the longlines in the afternoon, around 5:00 pm, and retrieve them the following morning, around 7:00 am. This general pattern varies depending on the captain's view on when the fish are feeding. 160 Large vessels: The other type of commercial longliner is a larger 30-40 m, mostly steel- hull freezer vessel built in Asian shipyards. There are about five of these vessels currently active (appendix A3b). They deploy longlines with up to 1,000 hooks. According to an Ecuadorean Government official, these vessels land approximately 100-150 t offish (mostly bigeye) per trip, which is normally about 30-40 days. 161 Most of these vessels are foreign longliners associated with Ecuadorean companies. For example, the Kona Wind, a 28-m steel longliner is owned by a New Zealand company associated with a local export company (photo 23). The Kona Wind, which is crewed by 10 people, generally deploys 800 hooks, although it can deploy up to 1,200 hooks by adding more segments to the motherline. The longline, which is American-style, measures 37 kilometers.' 62 The commercial longliners targeting swordfish set the hooks at approximately 90-130 m, depending on the water temperature. The longliners targeting bigeye set the hooks at approximately the same depth. The large commercial longliners targeting bigeye and swordfish usually deploy the longlines around 5:00 pm and retrieve them at around 7:00 am. 163 These larger vessels, like the Kona Wind are the primary vessels that have begun to fish on the new offshore grounds to the west of the Galapagos. The Kona Wind, as a result, reports substantial swordfish catches (figure 14). 184 C. Recreational The first known recreational fishery off Ecuador occurred around 1940 when a U.S. citizen living in Ecuador reported taking a black marlin. He also reported good catches of roosterfish and wahoo. Reportedly, an Ecuadorean friend purchased a 21-m yacht which they used for sport fishing. Their success attracted other fishermen. Salinas became the center of the small recreational fishing activities which developed during the 1940s and early 1950s. Salinas is a resort for the large metropolitan area of Guayaquil and thus an ideal site for a recreational fishery. The waters off Cape San Lorenzo, to the north of Salinas, were the preferred grounds. Fishermen in the 1950s reported seeing many marlin moving north as well as sailfish. In contrast to northern Peru, recreational fishermen active during this period out of Ecuadorean ports did not report any significant sightings of swordfish.'" 4 No significant development of the potential for recreational fishing, however, ensued from these activities during 1940-50s. 165 The sport fishermen have reported diminishing results in recent years. 166 A local observer reports that there are a total of approximately 50 relatively large sport fishing vessels in Ecuador which are regularly deployed in the sport fishery for blue marlin, sailfish, striped marlin, swordfish, and tunas. These mostly fiberglass vessels range from about 12-15 meters. Of the 50 vessel total, most are located at Salinas (25) and Guayaquil (20). A few (5) are also located at Manta. In addition to this fleet, there is another fleet composed of about 50 smaller (8.5 m) fiberglass vessels that have been equipped for sport fishing. According to a local observer, most of these vessels are located in Salinas (approximately 30), while the remaining are based off Manta (20 vessels). This fleet targets the same species. 167 The Ecuadorean Parque Nacional Galapagos (PNG) in 1994 asked the Estacion Charles Darwin (ECD) to evaluate the feasibility of a sport fishery within the Reserva de Recursos Marinos de Galapagos (RRMG) making party boats available to tourists. 169 The ECD informed the PNG that it did not recommend a sport fishery within the RRMG. The ECD recommendation was based on the absence of adequate data on marine resources to make informed management decisions. They stressed that careful management is particularly important in a fragile ecosystem like the Galapagos with so many unique species. The ECD was particularly concerned about the potential impact of the expanded infrastructure needed to support a recreational fishing industry. 17 " The PNG formulated a new sport fishing initiative in the Galapagos as an alternative for artisanal fishermen who some conservationists believe are over-exploiting the Galapagos sea cucumber and other resources. The proposal has been studied by the Ecuadorean Congress. 171 One local observer reported four boats fishing billfish during May 1995. I72 This may be part of CONSEPAC's fishing operations. (See: "Companies".) The whole issue of commercial and recreational fishing off the Galapagos has become highly politicized. Hard pressed Ecuadorean fishermen have migrated from the mainland and strongly object to government actions limiting their activities. Groups of these fishermen have occasionally surrounded the ECD and closed the Santa Cruz (Galapagos) airport. Violent incidents have been reported. 173 The Government sent 150 Marines in 1996 to control the situation. Other residents in the Galapagos understand the need to protect the fragile local resources and have formed an association, the Comite de Paz y Buena Voluntad. I74 Ecuador also has a small sport fishery based in the Galapagos. It is centered in Wreck Bay, San Cristobal, where six boats are based: Maria Beatriz, Misamiras, Obsesion, Sea Baby, Texan Girl, and Thalassa. One vessel is operated by a processing plant owner. This Galapagos sport fishery targets billfish among other species. The sport fishermen are reported to be conducting a "tag and release" fishery but locals indicate that marlin and other billfish are appearing in the Baquerizo Moreno market for the first time. 168 185 VII. Catch Ecuador developed a modest, but profitable domestic longline fishery during the 1980s in operations between the Galapagos and the mainland. The fishermen reported substantial catches of tunas (primarily bigeye) and dorado. Swordfish catches, however, have been limited and incidental to the directed fisheries. The Ecuadorean effort is significant. Accounts vary, but as many as 4,000 small artisanal longliners and 300 semi- commercial longliners are reportedly active (figure 10). (See "Fleet".) Despite this considerable fleet, swordfish landings have been minor. Informal discussions with some of the principal fishing companies suggest that swordfish represented only about 5 percent of the domestic longline catch. 175 (See: "Companies.") Government officials reported incidental swordfish catches comprised only 1.5 and 2.7 percent of the commercial longline catch in 1993 and 1994, respectively. 176 assess. Other problems exist besides the paucity of data. Serious unexplained discrepancies exist between available sources. Even INP data sets are inconsistent, presumably because the species has been only of minor importance (appendices B2bl-2). Confusion may occur because Ecuadorean officials often report the catch of the associated foreign vessels as part of their domestic catch (appendix B2b2). Even if accurate catch data was available, as the species was not directly targeted, fluctuations might reflect changing fishing strategies for the target species rather than actual swordfish abundance. Historical trends: Virtually no historical domestic Shark 40.0% Swordfish 25.0% Other 20.0% Ecuadorean fishermen beginning in 1 996 initiated operations to the west of the Galapagos. The fishermen on these new grounds are reporting much higher swordfish catches. One company in 1996 deployed Ecuador's first large commercial longliner (Don Casi II) to conduct directed swordfish operations. The vessel reportedly achieved some success and, as a result, six longliners are now targeting the species (appendix A3b). Some of these vessels are tuna longliners which were shifted to swordfish operations. Others are new vessels that have been added to the fleet. These new vessels are semi-commercial longliners which target swordfish, mainly on fishing grounds west of the Galapagos Islands (appendix A3b). The Kona Wind, a New Zealand-flagged vessel fishing in association with a local company was, for example conducting fishing operations for swordfish west of the Galapagos Islands during 1997. The vessel's total catch was composed of shark (approximately 40 percent), swordfish (25 percent), tuna— mostly bigeye (15 percent), and various species including marlin, dorado, wahoo, among others (20 percent) (figure 14). 177 Only limited time-line data are available on Ecuadorean swordfish catches, making patterns in Ecuadorean domestic swordfish catches difficult to Tuna 15.0% Monthly 1997 commercial longline catch: 8 tons (KonaWind) Figure 14 —Ecuadorean and associated longliners are reporting increased swordfish catches along with substantial shark and tuna catches. catch data exists. The only available time-line estimates can be calculated by analyzing foreign import data. Catch data : Ecuadorean officials have given little attention to swordfish as the species has been of only marginal importance to the country's fishermen. It is likely that at least some swordfish was taken before 1990, but none has been reported by the Ecuadorean Government (appendix B2a). Import data : The authors have attempted to estimate historic trends by calculating the live-weight equivalents of U.S. import data (appendix Dla and figure 15) which is probably a fair reflection of catch trends. 178 The relatively long time series available on imports provide some possible insight into historical trends. Some shipments were reported during the 1970s, but significant swordfish catches were minor or negligible until the mid-1980s when the 186 Metric Tons 600 500 400 300 200 100 / B t^Z^^m 1 1 ^m *■ HI m w& jM .-RiWlfllPlI 1 975 1980 1985 Year 1990 1995 Import data : U.S. import data B2a and figure 15) Figure 15— U.S. import data provides a rough indication of Ecuadorean swordfish catch trends which can be used to assess years in which catch data is unavailable tuna/dorado longline fishery began. Imports were particularly significant during 1986-87 suggesting catches of about 500 t (appendix B2a). Recent developments: The Ecuadorean Government began reporting a domestic swordfish catch in 1990. Trends during the 1990s are difficult to assess because the authors have received a variety of often conflicting reports—especially for the period since 1993. The INP reported very large swordfish catches during 1994 -95, United States and other foreign import data should reflect catch trends as such a large part of the swordfish catch is exported. The foreign import data (appendix B2d and figure 17), however, does not confirm the higher level of catches noted by the INP during 1994-95 (appendices B2a, B2M-2, and B2cl-2 and figure 16). U.S. import data does show increases in 1996, but only accounts for about half of the fish reported by the INP (B2a). The authors note, however, that U.S. import data does suggest substantially higher catches during early 1997 (appendix D2h). Catch data: The INP estimates of domestic catches during the early 1990s ranged from 200-360 t (appendix B2a and figure 16).' 79 Ecuadorean data reported to FAO confirm that catches in the early 1990s were about 350 t, but declined sharply in 1993 (appendix B2a). The authors do not have INP time- line data, but the INP has reported catches of about 500 t during 1994-95. (appendix provide a longer time-line than the available Ecuadorean catch data. As much of the catch is exported to the United States, the authors believe that U.S. imports are a reasonably good reflection of actual catches. U.S. import data appears to have reflected catches of at least 350 t in the early 1990s (1990-92), then falling to 260 t (1993), and about 100 t (1994-95). The U.S. data then shows a significant increase to about 275 t in 1996. Preliminary data for 1997 suggests major catch increases in early 1997 (appendix D2h). Computing the live-weight equivalents of other foreign imports (the European Union and Japan) would suggest even higher Ecuadorean catches. European Union and Japanese imports (appendix B2d and figure 17), however, are almost all frozen and thus are probably fish taken by associated foreign longliners working with Ecuadorean companies (appendices A5al-2 and B2b2 and figures 18 and 20) and not fish caught by domestic fishermen. Discrepancies: There are serious discrepancies between the available catch (both FAO and INP) as well as data provided by different INP researchers (appendices B2a and B2bl-2). The foreign import data suggests catches exceeding 500 t were first reported in 1986, although this level of effort is not confirmed by Ecuadorean catch data until 1990. Recent swordfish catch data is even more confusing. The Ecuadorean Government reported a major decline to FAO in 1993, indicating that the catch was only about 35 t (appendix B2a). Since 1993 the Government has reported negligible catches to FAO. The INP, a unit of the Ecuadorean Government, however, reports 1994-95 catches of 450-525 tons. U.S. import data in some years confirms available catch data (1990-92) (appendix B2a). Since 1992, however, there have been major discrepancies between Ecuadorean catch and other foreign trade data. This suggests a major statistical problem because swordfish is primarily an export commodity in Ecuador and catch trends should presumably be reflected in foreign trade trends. 187 Available details on annual catch patterns are as follows: 1970s: The Ecuadorean Government in 1974 enacted its General Fisheries Law to manage and promote the country's fishing industry. One important provision allowed processing/exporting companies to lease foreign fishing vessels or sign association agreements with foreign vessel owners. Several Ecuadorean companies took advantage of the opportunity. Initially the leasing arrangements were the most common, but by the end of the decade the Ecuadorean companies concluded that the association contracts were the most beneficial (appendix A5al). Many of these association contracts with foreign, often, Japanese companies, involved tuna longliners. As a result of these agreements, Ecuadorean companies began exporting small quantities of swordfish for the first time Metric Tons (Live Weight Equivalents) 1,000 800 600 400 200 Source E3INP □FAO □NMFS f 4 7 7 7 Year Figure 16 —Different statistical sources provide widely varying estimates of Ecuadorean swordfish catch trends during the mid-1970s. The United States began importing significant amounts of swordfish from Ecuador in 1977. U.S. data suggest that 1977 imports totaled about 67 tons. Based on this amount, the authors estimate the 1977 swordfish catch (live weight) at about 85 t (appendix B2a and figure 15). The source of these shipments could not be determined. However, it is likely that they were swordfish caught by the foreign vessels associated with Ecuadorean companies. Notably leasing contracts with foreign companies peaked at 13 in 1977 and subsequently declined. Such shipments were discontinued and no swordfish exports were noted in 1978 and 1979. This corresponds with a rapid decline in the number of leasing contracts with foreign companies (appendix A5al and figure 20). Early 1980s: Swordfish catches were apparently negligible during the early 1980s. While actual catch data is unavailable, U.S. import data shows that Ecuador was not exporting swordfish to the United States during the early 1980s (appendix B2a and figure 15). This suggests that the catch was negligible because it is likely that this species would have been marketed primarily in export markets if it was being harvested in any quantity. Ecuadorean companies formed increasing numbers of association contracts with foreign vessel owners during 1980-81. The number of contracts ranged from 11-17 during 1980- 81 and reached 17 in 1983 (appendix A5al and figure 20). This is roughly confirmed by available journalistic reports. 180 These vessels, however, targeted bigeye uina and swordfish catches seem to have been minimal. 1984-85: While no catch data is available, U.S. import data suggests that Ecuadorean domestic fishermen began landing swordfish in 1985. This corresponds to the period when Ecuadorean fishermen were beginning to develop a more modern artisanal longline fishery. The authors believe that because the U.S. imports were fresh rather than frozen product, they were probably being landed by the small vessels which artisanal fishermen began to deploy in the mid-1980s that were heavily targeting dorado. (See "Vessels" and "Fleet Operations and Gear".) The artisanal fishermen began catching substantial quantities of dorado. 181 U.S. import data suggests that the Ecuadorean swordfish catch probably totaled about 12 t in 1985 (appendix B2a and figure 15). CONSEMAR, one of the principal Ecuadorean companies exporting high-quality fresh and frozen finfish, began operating in 1984 and played an important role in helping artisanal fishermen improve the quality of their landings. TRANSrvlARINA, another important Ecuadorean company which played an important role in developing fisheries capable of delivering high-quality fresh and frozen product meeting export standards, acquired its first longliner in 1985 (appendix A3c). 182 The number of 188 associated foreign vessels increased to 22 in 1984 (appendix A5al). 1986: Ecuador reported no significant swordfish catch in 1986. Available foreign import data, however, shows that beginning in 1986, very significant quantities of swordfish were shipped from Ecuador. U.S. imports totaled nearly 500 t (live- weight equivalent) in 1986 (appendix B2a and figure 15). As this was almost all fresh product, the authors believe that it was mostly the catch of domestic artisanal fishermen. No details are available, however, explaining such a sharp catch increase. PESYMAR, another company handling high-quality fresh product, opened in 1986 (appendix A3c). Japan also reported limited frozen imports, but this may have been product from foreign longliners associated with Ecuadorean companies (appendix B2d). 183 The Government, at the time, was promoting association agreements in order to help develop the country's fishing industry. 184 The number of association contracts was relatively stable at 20 vessels during 1986 (appendix A5al). 1987: Ecuador continued to report no swordfish catch, but foreign import data continued to suggest that the fishermen landed very significant quantities. U.S. imports from Ecuador peaked at over 535 t in 1987 (live-weight equivalent) (appendix B2a and figure 15). Again, as this was almost all fresh product, the authors believe that the shipments were mostly the catch of domestic artisanal fishermen. Another small company (MARDEX) was opened in 1987 to process the catch, but did not acquire its own vessels until 1990 (appendix A3c). reported increasing amounts of frozen imports of swordfish from Ecuador, totaling nearly 100 t in 1987. These imports, as they were frozen, most likely were product landed by the associated foreign longliners and not fish harvested by the domestic fishermen (appendix B2d). Notably the number of association contracts increased to 25 vessels during 1987 (appendix A5al). 1988: The Ecuadorean Government did not report swordfish catches in 1988. Foreign import data, however, suggests that Ecuadorean swordfish catches significantly decreased. U.S. imports, which the authors believe reflect domestic landings, declined to only 68 tons—a decline of over 85 percent from 1987 levels (appendix B2a and figures 15 and 17). The authors have little information Japan also explaining such a precipitous decline in the domestic fishery. Although the INP noted no swordfish catch in its official statistics, Government officials acknowledged that some swordfish was being landed and confirmed that catches declined in 1988. One official reported that the catch declined primarily due to a decrease in swordfish abundance. DGP officials charge that large numbers of foreign vessels were deploying drift gillnets outside the country's 200-mile territorial sea. 185 The authors have no information confirming this allegation. A variety of other explanations are plausible such as climatic conditions affecting availability. Associated foreign vessels also seem to have experienced a catch decline. Japan reported declining imports of swordfish from Ecuador and shipments fell to only 50 tons. The authors believe that these shipments were product landed by the associated foreign vessels. Inexplicably the actual number of association contracts increased to a record high 32 vessels (appendix A5al). 1989: The Ecuadorean Government continued to report no swordfish catches to FAO as late as 1989. Based on U.S. import data, however, swordfish catches increased slightly over 1988 levels, but still were well below the peak years of 1986-87. U.S. swordfish imports from Ecuador approached 150 t (live weight) (appendix B2a and figures 15 and 17) which presumably means that the Ecuadorean fishermen had to catch at least this amount. Japan also reported increasing swordfish imports from Ecuador, totaling over 60 t (liveweight) (appendix B2d and figure 17). This frozen product, however, may have come primarily from the associated foreign Metric Tons (Live Weight Equivalents) Year *EU 1996 not available Figure 17— Combining foreign import data provides a possible estimate of Ecuadorean catches, although Japanese and European import data may include some swordfish caught by non-Ecuadorean fishermen. 189 vessels. The INP reports that the associated vessels landed 22 t of swordfish in 1989, the first year in which reports were required. 186 The number of associated contracts fell in 1989 to more normal levels, about 24 vessels (appendix A5al and figure 20). 1990: The Ecuadorean Government reported a swordfish catch to FAO for the first time in 1990 of 350 t (appendix B2a). Available U.S. import data also show a substantial swordfish catch increase. U.S. swordfish imports from Ecuador increased to slightly over 350 t (live weight) (appendix B2d), confirming the Government catch data. The U.S. import data suggests a significant catch increase in 1990, more than double the 1989 catch estimated from imports (appendix B2a and figures 15 and 16). The authors believe it was primarily due to the expansion of the Ecuadorean artisanal and semi-commercial longline fleet (appendix A3c). (See "Fleet" and "Fleet Operations and Gear".) Many Ecuadorean companies began a major vessel acquisition program in 1990 (appendix A3a and figure 24). Government officials also described increased swordfish abundance off Ecuador in 1990 based on results reported by the fishermen. 187 In addition, Japanese imports increased sharply to nearly 150 t (live weight) (appendix B2d and figure 17). The authors believe that this may have been due to an increasing number of foreign longliners associated with Ecuadorean processing companies. The INP reports increased landings by associated vessels (appendix B2b2), but not nearly as large as the increase suggested by the Japanese import data. There were association contracts for 20 foreign vessels in 1990 (appendix A5al). 1991: The Ecuadorean Government reported virtually the same catch to FAO in 1991 of 350 tons (appendix B2a and figure 16). Available U.S. import data again confirms this data as shipments totaled about 360 t (live weight) in 1991, only slightly above 1990 levels (appendix B2d and figure 17). Companies continued adding new longliners to the fleet (appendix A3a and figure 24). Oro Marisco, another small company, was opened during 1991 to process and export the catch of artisanal fishermen (appendix A3c). Japan also reported increasing imports of swordfish from Ecuador with shipments totaling nearly 170 t (live weight) (appendix B2d). Expanded Japanese swordfish imports from Ecuador may have been caused by an increase in the number of foreign longliners fishing in association with Ecuadorean companies. This is largely confirmed by sharply increased landings from the foreign associated vessels (mostly Japanese), which grew to nearly 100 t (appendix B2b2). The number of association contracts increased to about 24 vessels in 1991, but some of these were jiggers deployed in the new squid fishery (appendix A5al and figure 20). 1992: The Ecuadorean Government continued to report a swordfish catch of 350 t to FAO in 1992 (appendix B2a). The INP reported, however, that Ecuador's domestic fleet caught only 260 t (appendix B2bl). 188 Estimates based on U.S. import data indicate a catch of about 340 t, suggesting that the larger amount reported to FAO may be the most accurate (appendix B2a and figure 16). While the estimates vary somewhat, the 1992 domestic catch appears to have continued at about 1991 levels- although Japanese trade data show a substantial decline (B2d and figure 17). The landings reported by the associated vessels (mostly Japanese) confirm this decline, although the drop in landings is much sharper than the Japanese imports (appendix B2b2). 189 Developments in the fishery indicate a gradual expansion of the new longline fishery. A small company (FRESMAR) was opened during 1992 to process and market the catch of their own vessel and associated vessels (appendix A3c and figure 24). At least four small new longliners were added to the domestic fleet (appendix A3a). The number of association contracts were little changed in 1992 at 24 vessels, but several of these vessels (the squid jiggers) were withdrawn in October when the Government closed the squid fishery (appendix A5al and figure 20). 1993: Reports on the 1993 swordfish catch vary substantially. The Ecuadorean Government (presumably the INP) reported to FAO a substantial fall in the swordfish catch to only 33 t for 1993. The INP reported, however, that the domestic catch totaled 265 t, little changed from 1992 (appendix B2bl). 190 Based on U.S. import data, the authors estimate the Ecuadorean annual swordfish catch at about 260 t (appendix B2a). This confirms the decline reported to FAO (but the quantity differs significantly) and is close to the INP catch data (but the trend differs). The authors are unable to reconcile these conflicting reports. Domestic catches probably declined in 1993, but nothing as drastic as the data reported to FAO suggests. Japan reported increased imports from Ecuador which totaled over 100 t (appendix B2d), but the landings of the associated vessels increased sharply to over 90 t (appendix B2b2). The Government reports a substantial increase in the number of foreign vessels operating with Ecuadorean companies, but the vessel types are unavailable (appendix A5b2 and figure 17A). Ecuadorean companies, (such as MARDEX and Oro Marisco) continued acquiring longliners, but they were deployed in directed tuna fisheries (appendix A3a). 1994: Reports on the 1994 swordfish catch also vary substantially. The authors note very sizeable 190 Number of vessels 35 30 25 20 15 10 r i 1993 1994 1995 Year 1996 1997 * Through August 14 Figure I7A—The Government in 1994 substantially increased the number of foreign fishing vessels permitted to operate in Ecuadorean waters, but vessel types are unavailable differences between Ecuadorean catch data and foreign import data which are unexplained. The Ecuadorean Government reported negligible catches of swordfish to FAO. The INP, however, reported that the domestic catch totaled 450-500 t, a sharp increase from 1993 levels and apparently an all-time record (appendix B2bl-2 and figure 18). m The authors cannot confirm this substantial catch increase. Based on U.S. import data, the authors estimate the Ecuadorean annual swordfish catch at about 103 t, suggesting a sharp decline from the estimated 1993 catch (appendix B2d and figure 17). The U.S. import data in 1994 and 1995, however, may not be good indicators of the catch. This sharp decline in U.S. swordfish imports from Ecuador may have been caused by a redirection of some of the catch to the European Union in significant quantities for the first fleet was expanding, several associated foreign longliners withdrew. One local observer reported that only about 18 foreign longliners operated in association with Ecuadorean companies during 1994, compared to an average of 20- 25 longliners which operated during the early 1990s (appendix A5al and figure 20). More recent Government data shows an increase in the number of foreign vessels (appendix A5a2 and figure 17A), but some of these could be squid vessels. 1995: Ecuadorean catch patterns continue to be confusing. Very significant differences between Ecuadorean catch data and foreign imports continued during 1995. INP officials reported a domestic swordfish catch of over 500 t, relatively unchanged from 1994 (appendix B2b2). The number of domestic, semi-commercial longliners increased in 1995. For example, both LUBAR and TRANSMARINA (which are among the principal fishing companies in Ecuador) acquired several tuna longliners in 1995 and 1996 (appendix A3a and figure 24). In addition, Oro Marisco deployed one of its tuna longliners for directed swordfish operations (appendix A3b). Discrepancies between available sources, however, continue to complicate assessment of catch trends. The Government reported negligible quantities of time. " Japanese import data totaled over 70 t (live weight), a decline from 1993, but INP landings indicated that the catch of the associated vessels was little changed at about 90 t (appendix B2b2). The authors are unable to explain the discrepancies between the different sources. Several new tuna vessels were added to the fleet during the year (appendix A3a). While the domestic Metric Tons 1,000 800 600 400 200 Fishery □ Foreign □ Domestic 1994 1995 Year Figure 18 — The INP reported swordfish catches increased in 1995, but because of increased foreign landings, Ecuadorean fishermen reported lower landings 191 swordfish taken in 1995 to FAO. In addition, the authors note that the large increase reported by the INP was again not confirmed by foreign import data. U.S. import statistics suggest a catch of only about 100 t, the same as 1994 (appendix B2d). 193 It is highly unlikely that large quantities of swordfish are marketed domestically given the sizeable prince Metric tons Year □ 1995 □ 1996 ■ 1997 ** «# # ^ ^ ^ * ^ c? O* ^ ,c?> y y Year ^ ^ y ^ ^ Figure 34 —Prices of Ecuadorean fresh swordfish exports to the United States have been relatively stable, but adjusted for inflation they were lower in 1996 than in 1986 US $/kg 10.00 8.00 — 6.00 4.00 ^^ ^^^^M 2.00 1 00 1 & <& <§> N kJP y f y y Year f £ y y Figure 35— Prices of Ecuadorean frozen swordfish shipments have fluctuated sharply, but the quantities involved are minimal ?CUADOR I Photo 41 —Ecuadorean companies are actively promoting high-quality fresh product in export markets. Alexandra Paez through July 1997 totaled 1.7 tons. This is a departure for Ecuadorean companies and comes at a time when Chilean companies are curtailing processing and shipping a greater proportion of their catch as unprocessed trunks. Processing is still, however, a minor activity in Ecuador, constituting only 1 percent of total swordfish shipments to the United States. Other: Ecuadorean fishing trade associations, such as the Camara Nacional de Pesquen'a, have been negotiating trade agreements with MERCOSUR (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Paraguay), in order to promote the export of seafood. The large Brazilian market is of particular interest to Ecuadorean seafood exporters. Trade agreements addressing the export of tuna products are among the issues being promoted by the Ecuadorean trade associations. 264 Chile has had considerable success with its seafood on the Brazilian market. The authors, however, know of no Ecuadorean swordfish exports to Brazil, which itself exports much of its catch. 265 2. Imports Ecuador does not import swordfish. 213 XIII. Government Agencies and Policies A. Agencies The Ecuadorean fisheries agency is the Subsecretarf a de Pesca (SSP) within the Ministerio de Industria, Comercio, Integracidn, y Pesca. The SSP consists of four line agencies: Direccio'n General de Pesca (DGP): The DGM is the principal fishery agency responsible for fisheries management and regulation. The Instituto Nacional de Pesca (INP): The INP conducts fisheries research and provides quality control services. The Empresa Pesquera Nacional (EPN): The EPN assists the Ecuadorean fishing industry by promoting the domestic fishery markets. The Escuela de Pesca de Manta (EPM): The EPM provides fishing and boating education to local fishermen. B. Fishery laws and regulations The current Ecuadorean general fisheries law, the Ley de Pesca y Fomento Pesquero, was implemented in 1969. The law is now badly outdated and does not reflect the substantial development and modernization which has taken place since the 1960s. A multitude of amendments and implementing regulations have created a confusing patchwork regulating the industry. Industry officials are highly critical of the current fisheries legislative regime. They are urging the Government to enact a new, more coherent law reflecting the changes which have occurred in the fishing industry during recent years. Juan Carlos Correia, President of the Asociacion Ecuatoriana de Armadores de Barcos Pesqueros y Camaroneros, insists that it is urgent for the country to have a coherent fisheries law that would promote and regulate the sector. 266 The SSP was reportedly developing a new Fisheries Law with the assistance of FAO during 1996 to promote development and improve fisheries management. 267 Ecuador has no fishing regulations specifically regulating swordfish or longline fishing operations. According to a local observer, the reason that there are no regulations directed specifically at the swordfish fishery is that until 1996 there were no directed swordfish operations even in 1997 only a few vessels were involved in directed operations. 268 The INP is currently collecting and analyzing biological and longline catch data to better assess the fishery. This data will serve as a basis for subsequent management and regulations, including regulations on specific species such as swordfish. 269 Commercial fishermen are highly critical of the driftnets deployed in coastal waters by the artisanal fishermen. One trade association, representing commercial fishermen (ASEARBAPESCA) is trying to convince the Government to restrict the use of driftnets. 270 The DGP, however, has not yet done so. C. Limits Ecuador declared a 200-mile Territorial Sea (TS) in 1966. 27 ' Unlike most other countries which have claimed 12-mile TSs, Ecuador has insisted on a 200- mile TS claim. Ecuador has also established special areas closed to foreign vessels and specified mandatory navigational routes 78 miles north and 145 miles south of the Galapagos Islands. 272 Further, Ecuador claims jurisdiction on the continental shelf beyond 200 miles, along the submarine Carnegie mountain range, measured 100 miles from the 2,500- m depth isobath. 273 The United States protested the claim in 1986. Ecuador has signed marine boundary agreements with neighboring countries: Colombia (1975), Costa Rica (1985), and Peru (1975). Ecuador has not, however, signed the Law of the Sea Convention. D. Fishing licenses Foreign fishermen may currently operate in Ecuador's 200-mile TS only if they have an association contract or lease arrangement with an Ecuadorean company. Leased or associated vessels can then operate in Ecuadorean waters and, for the most part, be treated as an Ecuadorean-flag vessel. The leasing arrangements were common in the mid- 1970s, but since 1978 most foreign fishermen have operated under association contracts. 274 Most of the foreign vessels leased by Ecuadorean companies are Japanese longliners. Data available for 1992, however, suggest that longliners and purse seiners are also contracted from several other countries. 275 Licenses: The Government issued licenses to foreign tuna fishermen during the I960s-70s. The Government in 1991 required interested foreign fishermen to work with Ecuadorean companies. 276 Leasing arrangements: Leasing arrangements were common during the 1970s, but have generally been replaced with association contracts (appendix A5al and figure 20). 214 Association contracts: Since 1980, association contracts have been the primary mechanism for foreign participation in Ecuadorean fisheries (appendix A5a and figure 20). The number of contracts peaked at 32 in 1988, but there were still 24 in 1992 and 18 in 1996 (appendix A5a). 277 Most of these contracts have involved tuna longliners and seiners, but in the early 1990s quite a number were for squid jigging. The Government prohibited squid fishing in October 1992, causing 12 of the foreign vessels to withdraw. 2 ' 8 Association contracts can only be arranged for vessels of 600 GRT or less. Foreign vessels with association contracts receive the same treatment under Ecuadorean law as national vessels as long as the contract is in force. 279 This means that the owners do not have to purchase Ecuadorean fishing licenses. The associated vessels cannot, however, fish within 40 miles (64 km) of the coast, either along the mainland or off the Galapagos Islands. Foreign fishing vessels without such association contracts are prohibited from entering Ecuador's 200-mile TS, except for repairs at an Ecuadorean shipyard or in the case of emergencies. 280 fees collected are utilized by the Ecuadorean Government to finance fisheries research. (See "Research".) Fishing licenses: The associated vessels do not have to purchase any fishing licenses to catch swordfish or tuna and are treated as domestic vessels under Ecuadorean law. 282 Landings: The by-catch includes amberjacks, blue and striped marl in, and several species of shark, among others. The target species are tuna and to a lesser extent swordfish and mako shark. 283 Virtually all of the high-quality catch of these species is exported. Financial arrangements: The authors do not have details on the financial arrangements involved. Local observers, however, reported that the foreign vessels are required to sell all the catch to the associated Ecuadorean company. 284 The by-catch caught by the foreign vessel, or at least 15 percent of the total catch, must be sold to the associated Ecuadorean company at prevalent market prices. Japanese officials indicate, however, that Ecuadorean regulations require that the shark catch be frozen and landed at Ecuadorean ports where it is donated for popular consumption. 285 Association agreements have been encouraged by the Ecuadorean Government since the mid-1970s in an effort to promote the development of the country's fishing industry. Associated foreign vessels can operate as domestic vessels and do not need to obtain the license that foreign vessels normally need. The DGP, as the Ecuadorean fishing fleet develops and becomes more efficient, plans to reduce the number of foreign vessels operating off Ecuador under association contracts. Current plans involve ending access for foreign vessels by 1999. 281 The Government has established basic requirements for these association agreements: Crew: The crews have to be composed of at least 75 percent Ecuadorean nationals. Technology: The vessels have to be equipped with modern gear and equipment to facilitate the acquisition of such technology by the Ecuadorean fishermen. Domestic partner: The Ecuadorean processing/export companies must be classified as a class "Special" or "A." These categories relate to the volume of product processed and exported annually and to the ownership of vessels. Small processing companies that do not own any type of fishing vessels are not permitted to sign association agreements with foreign vessels. Observers: There must be a local observer aboard the vessel to collect catch data. Fees: The foreign vessel owner must pay an annual fee of $20,000 to the Ecuadorean Government. These 215 XIV. Research Several organizations conduct fisheries research in Ecuador. Most of this research is focused on the important commercial fisheries, such as the shrimp trawl fishery. Research directed towards the still small longline fishery has been limited. However, the authors believe that the growing importance of the artisanal and semi-commercial longline fishing fleet in terms of catch and export revenues will result in increased future research. The following are the main agencies and organizations conducting fishery research in Ecuador: Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC): IATTC is a multilateral organization focusing on tuna management. The organization also conducts research studies which focus mainly on the tuna purse-seine fishery. IATTC operates a statistical office in Manta. IATTC sponsors some limited research on other oceanic pelagics such as swordfish. See "International".) Instituto Nacional de Pesca (INP): Fishery research in Ecuador is primarily conducted by the Guayaquil- based INP, which is a dependency of the SSP. The INP conducts research on fishery resources, physical and chemical oceanography, marine pollution, biology of marine and freshwater species, and processing of fish products. 285 The INP has been assessing catch data from the longline fishery since 1992. The observer program for the associated foreign longline vessels has collected extensive data on the oceanic pelagics like swordfish. 287 Other than recording the foreign longliner's catch and monitoring the artisanal catch, at the country's eight major landing sites, the INP has not conducted any specific study related to swordfish. 288 The INP partially funds all its research efforts, such as the maintenance and use of its research vessels through foreign licensing/leasing/association fees. The INP has two principal research vessels, the Tohalli (a 33-m vessel utilized to study oceanographic variables and pelagic resources) and the Proteo (an 8-m boat utilized mainly to study coastal fishery resources). In addition to these vessels the INP has several smaller boats used to conduct research studies on coastal fishery resources. 285 The INP is also responsible for inspecting seafood exports to ensure product quality. Ecuadorean companies must obtain an INP sanitary certificate to export fishery products. 290 Programa de Cooperacio'n Tecnica para la Pesca Union Europea (VECEP): This multilateral development program was established in 1993 by the European Economic Community (now the European Union) and Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. VECEP's objectives are to promote artisanal fisheries, evaluate selected fishery resources, and transfer fishing industry data and technology to the local fishermen through training programs. The program provides funds and technical assistance to the INP's research programs. VECEP research and training programs promote the development of different industry sectors, such as the small pelagic and demersal artisanal sectors, as well as the commercial trawl fishery. 291 VECEP in 1996 provided technical and financial assistance to the INP for the Evaluation of Fishery Resources Project. This project's main objectives are to: 1) estimate the biomass of several small pelagic and coastal demersal species; 2) collect data on artisanal landings, and 3) evaluate coastal oceanographic conditions. 292 PRAPESCA: The German Government sponsors this fisheries assistance program which seeks to develop the country's artisanal/semi-commercial fisheries through technology transfer and research. See "International relations" below. Others: There are other organizations conducting fisheries research, such as the Universidad Eloy Alfaro de Manta and the Universidad Tecnica de Manabi'. However, the authors know of no research on tuna, swordfish, and related species conducted by these institutes. 216 XV. By-catch Little information is available on the by-catch taken in tuna, swordfish, and related fisheries for oceanic pelagics. The small domestic swordfish effort but the larger suggests that the by-catch is limited, domestic longline fisheries for tuna, dorado, and other species is more important with a larger potential by- catch. The only available information is limited anecdotal accounts (appendix A3b). Extensive foreign commercial longlining also suggests a significant by- catch. The authors know of no study on the Ecuadorean or foreign longline by-catch in the ETP. Some work has been done on foreign longliners in the western Pacific which provides some guidelines for assessing possible ETP by-catches. Target species: Ecuadorean longline fishermen target primarily bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus) rather than swordfish. There has also been considerable effort deployed for dorado (Coryphaena hippurus). Artisanal longliners report that tuna is normally about 60 percent of their catch (appendix B3b). 293 Until recently there were no directed swordfish operations, but small quantities were taken as a by-catch in the tuna fishery. The longliners that have begun targeting swordfish west of the Galapagos are continuing to take substantial bigeye catches, as much as 1 5 percent of their catch. Several other species are also caught with the longlines (appendix B3b). 294 Sharks: Ecuadorean companies began considering a shark fishery in the 1980s. Some traditional artisanal fishermen took sharks with hand lines and other gear, in some cases from small boats (photo 42). 295 Artisanal tuna longline fishermen report sharks constitute about 20 percent of their catch (appendix B3b). 296 The longline fishermen initiating directed swordfish operations during 1996-97, reported higher shark by- catches of up to 40 percent. 2 '" U.S. imports of fresh shark from Ecuador increased sharply in 1995 and 1996 (figure 36). The catch includes several species of shark, including blacktip (Carcharhinus limbatus), blue (Prionace glauca), mako (Isnrus oxyrinchus) and thresher (Alopias vulpinus). The Government regulates the exports of shark fins. 29 * Illegal foreign fishing targeting sharks for the fins, especially off the Galapagos, has been sharply criticized in the Ecuadorean media. 2 "' Billfish: The Ecuadorean tuna longline fishermen report incidental catches of Indo-Pacific blue marlin (Makaira mazara), striped marlin (Tetrapturus audax), and sailfish (Istiophorus albicans). Foreign fishermen have reported varying distribution of billfish off Ecuador. The foreign longliners reported during the early 1960s that striped marlin was the major species, Photo 42.— Some artisanal fishermen operating on the open ocean from dugout canoes reported shark catches, a dangerous occupation. Dennis Weidner 217 Metric tons 60 50 40 30 20 10 Year ■ 1990 ■ 1991 ■ 1992 S1993 □ 1994 ■ 1995 □ 1996 Dried Fins Frozen Fresh Frozen Fresh Dogfish Shark Product Figure 36—Ecuadorean companies have begun exporting sharply increased quantities of fresh shark to the United States in 1995 and 1996 but during the mid-1970s, swordfish predominated. Foreign catches have been more mixed during the early 1990s with notable catches of swordfish, striped and blue marl in, and small catches of black marlin. 300 Swordfish: Ecuadorean tuna longline fishermen have reported only a small swordfish by-catch in coastal waters (appendix B3b). Government officials estimate the swordfish by-catch of the longline tuna fishery during the early 1990s at only 1-3 percent. 301 Several of the companies involved in the fishery report slightly higher estimates of about 5 percent (appendix B3b). (See "Companies".) This has begun to change in the mid- 1990s as a few domestic longline fishermen have begun to conduct swordfish fisheries in further off the coast. The that have initiated directed operations west of the during 1996-97 are yellowfin tuna {Thimnus albacares). Other species caught in lesser quantities with surface longlines are listed in appendix E. Sea turtles: Several sea turtles, including Pacific green, (Chelonia mydas agassizi), olive Ridley, (Lepidochelys olivacea), hawksbill, (Eretmochelys imbricata), and leatherback {Dermochelys coriacea) are present in Ecuadorean waters. The most common species (olive Ridleys) nest in Mexico and Central America and migrate as far south as Ecuador and Peru in search of food. 303 Green turtles actually nest along the Ecuadorean coast and on the Galapagos Islands. The green turtles extensively nest on the Galapagos (Baltra, Bartolome, Floreana, Isabela, Santa Cruz, and Santiago Islands) and along islands off the mainland, such as Isla de Plata and Santa Marianita (Manabi'). 304 Notably some of these areas are near Manta, Ecuador's principal fishing port. Also, modest numbers of hawksbill and leatherback turtles nest on the beaches in and around Machalilla National Park (Manabi')- Little information is available, however, concerning the populations of marine turtles off Ecuador. 105 Artisanal fishermen have conducted a directed turtle fishery as well as taking them incidentally (photo 43). The government closed the directed offshore fishery for olive ridleys during the mid-1980s. FAO confirms that the commercial harvest, which had been directed operations fishermen swordfish Galapagos reporting swordfish catches of up to 25 percent. 302 Other fin fish: The tuna longline fishermen report that most of their catch is bigeye tuna and sharks. About 1 5 percent of the catch is various other species, primarily billfish and swordfish (appendix B3b). A few other species are also of some importance. The fishermen report an incidental catch of other finfish such as wahoo (Acanthocybium solandri) and Metric Tons Country □Peru □Ecuador - 800 600 400 200 V /^J >£=PlA> _S}^£=P£J^£j/ 1 Year Figure 37 - Ecuador reported substantial turtle catches until 1990 when the harvest dropped sharply because of increased enforcement of regulations 218 Photo 43 —In addition to a directed fishery, artisanal fishermen during the 1980s routinely reported incidental sea turtle catches m coastal waters. Dennis Weidner significant, ended in 1986 (appendix B3a and figure 37). Press reports indicate that some turtle processing plants were active in Manta during 1987. 306 The Government permanently ended the directed turtle fishery in 1990, prohibiting the catch as well as domestic and export marketing. 307 Longline fishermen targeting bigeye and swordfish report minimal by-catches of sea turtles. According to a local observer, incidental catches of sea turtles and marine mammals by commercial fishermen are very rare. 308 Other observers report that such interactions do occur. The authors have observed artisanal fishermen landing turtles (photo 43). There also appears to be at least some turtle interactions with commercial fishermen. Ecuadorean authorities have seized turtle skins aboard Japanese longliners. 309 The authors, however, know of no detailed assessment of the by-catch involved. One study suggests that foreign longline fishermen in the western Pacific seldom or rarely take turtles and do not retain them. 1 " 1 U.S. Hawaii-based longline fishermen report more substantial turtle interactions with hook rates in I year amounting to 0.12-1.15 turtles per 100,000 hooks set. 3 " Possible turtle mortalities from longline and driftnet fisheries are of concern because of the depleted state of some species. Biologists are especially concerned with the precipitous decline in leatherback nestings. Mexican officials report that leatherback nestings have reached critically low levels. 312 Anecdotal accounts and tag returns have noted incidental catches of Ieatherbacks from Mexican and Costa Rican beaches in the southeastern Pacific as far south as Chile. Recent satellite tagging data shows that after nesting on Mexican beaches, Ieatherbacks move due south through oceanic areas off Central America to the Galapagos. The turtles then appear to be moving on to Peru and Chile, although only preliminary data is available (Peru, figure 30). 313 The current Ecuadorean tuna/swordfish fishery almost certainly takes some Ieatherbacks. The expansion west to the Galapagos suggests that incidental catches may be an increasing problem, although the depletion of leatherback populations may mean that actual number of turtles from the depleted stock are not increasing. Interactions may also occur with other Ecuadorean 219 fishermen. Artisanal fishermen operating in coastal waters, for example, are expanding the use of driftnets. The composition of the turtles species taken by the commercial and artisanal fishermen is not available. Pinnipeds: The authors have no information on longline interactions with pinnipeds off Ecuador. The fishermen generally report that such interactions are rare or non-existent, but the authors know of no scientific study confirming this. Ecuadorean biologists believe that interactions do take place because of the remains of sea lions observed washed up on the beach. 314 Pinnipeds are relatively rare along the mainland coast. Sea lions (Otaria flavescenslbyronia) are occasionally noted along the mainland. 31 " A populations of fur seals (Arctocephalus galapagoensis) occurs on the Galapagos. 116 There is also a population of Galapagos sea lions (Zalphus californiamis wollebaeki), a different subpopulation than California sea lions. 117 As the commercial longline fishery shifts further westward toward the Galapagos, the possibilities for interactions increase. Based on an assessment of western Pacific fisheries, however, interactions may be rare. 118 U.S. Hawaii-based longliners do not report pinniped mortalities, but local populations are small. 319 Cetaceans: The authors have no information on cetacean interactions off Ecuador with longline fishermen. There are occasional reports of artisanal longline fishermen using dolphins as bait. 120 The fishermen, however, were generally reluctant to discuss the issue because of the problems several countries have encountered marketing tuna in the United States as a result of U.S. dolphin protection programs. Whales are protected under Ecuadorean law. Catches are prohibited and a sanctuary has been created around the Galapagos Islands. 321 The most common large cetaceans off Ecuador are sperm whales (Physter calodon)? 22 The presence of squid, a preferred prey item for swordfish, also draws sperm whales. 321 Sei (Balaenoptera borealis and fin (B. physalus) whales have also been observed. 324 Other species, especially killer whales, are regularly sighted around the Galapagos. The presence of killer whales suggests that the potential for interactions with the longline fishermen exists. 32! It appears that the primary problem with cetaceans is that the animals learn to feed on the longline by-catch. This is a serious problem reported elsewhere in Latin America. 32 ' Some incidental hookings or tangles are possible with the animals playing or feeding on the bait or hooked catch. Such interactions are probably limited as given the cost to the fishermen, they will usually avoid areas in which cetaceans, especially killer whales and false killer whales, are found. 327 U.S. Hawaii-based longline fishermen report substantial cetacean interactions, but few mortalities. 328 Some Ecuadorean fishermen deploy driftnets. The authors have little information on the extent of the fishery and the by-catch involved. This appears to be primarily an artisanal fishery targeting coastal species. Catches of oceanic pelagics appears to be limited. Ecuadorean commercial shrimp fishermen have complained to the Government about the use of driftnets by the artisanal fishermen. According to ASEARBAPESCA, the driftnets are taking increasing amounts of shrimp and, in some cases, these nets have caught marine mammals, even sperm whales. 329 220 XVI. International A. International relations Ecuador has few bilateral government-to- government contacts with other countries concerning the longline fishery. Most of the contacts have been with private companies and trade groups rather than with the foreign governments. The primary interest of the foreign fishermen has been to obtain access to Ecuadorean tuna grounds. There appears to have been limited interest in swordfish because the foreign, mostly Japanese fishermen, were mostly concerned with bigeye tuna. There have been some contacts with foreign governments connected with aid programs. Various countries and multilateral agencies have supported development programs, including fisheries for oceanic pelagics. 1. Multilateral if and when it begins work, it will almost certainly focus on tuna. Swordfish would likely be a low priority, if addressed at all. OLDEPESCA: The Organizacidn Latinoamericana de Desarrollo Pesquero (OLDEPESCA) has attempted to coordinate regional approaches to developing the tuna resource. OLDEPESCA has also focused primarily on the ETP tuna purse-seine fishery. The authors do not know of any OLDEPESCA projects concerning longlining off South America, but OLDEPESCA does coordinate a Central American fisheries development project financed by the EU which has attempted to introduce modern longlining methods. 331 European Union: The Programa de Cooperacidn Tecnica Para la Pesca Union Europea (VECEP) is a technical cooperation program financed by the EU to modernize fishing industries from South American countries (Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru). VECEP activities have included efforts to help modernize the Ecuadorean artisanal and semi- commercial fishery, including the transfer of modern longline gear and methods. VECEP also promotes research. (See "Research".) The primary multilateral organization concerned with oceanic pelagics in the ETP is the IATTC. While IATTC has focused primarily on tunas, it is expanding work on swordfish and other billfish. EPOFTA: The United States attempted to negotiate an interim tuna management regime in the ETP during the early 1980s. Several Central American countries, especially Costa Rica and Panama, participated in the discussions. Ecuador did not participate. The agreement covered tunas and focused on the purse- seine fishery. While an agreement was signed in 1983, the Eastern Pacific Ocean Tuna Fishing Agreement (EPOFTA), an insufficient number of ratifications were obtained to bring it into force. 330 IATTC: Ecuador was a brief participant in the IATTC. The Commission was founded in 1950. Ecuador joined in 1961, but withdrew in 1968 because Ecuadorean officials concluded that the IATTC limited their fisheries management authority. The Ecuadorean Government permits the IATTC to operate a statistical office in Manta. IATTC focuses on tuna purse-seine fisheries, especially the yellowfin fishery, but in recent years efforts to prevent dolphin mortalities in that fishery have assumed considerable importance. IATTC also sponsors more limited research on other oceanic pelagics such as swordfish, other billfish, and sharks. LATO: This organization was created in 1995 as a result of a long series of negotiations sponsored by OLDEPESCA. Ecuador was an active participant in these negotiations. The agency is not yet active and 2. Bilateral The authors know of no bilateral government-to- government contacts specifically addressing the swordfish fishery. Ecuador has licensed foreign tuna longliners (mostly Japanese) or arranged leasing/association contracts, but these arrangements are made by a Japanese tuna cooperative industry group (Nikkatsuren) and not through the Japanese Government. Other arrangements with foreign fshermen have also been made with individual companies and not the foreign government. One foreign government (Germany) does sponsor a bilateral fisheries assistance program. Canada: Canadian fishermen operated five longliners under association agreements in 1996. (See "Joint Ventures.") Costa Rica: Costa Rican fishermen during the 1990s developed a small longline fleet, primarily targeting tunas. 332 Unconfirmed reports in 1996 indicate that the expanding Costa Rican fleet is taking fish, including swordfish, in international waters off the Galapagos. 333 Costa Rica reported sharply increased swordfish exports in 1996. European Union: Ecuador has no significant international exchanges with the European Union (EU) on swordfish. There have been, however, discussions on other related seafood issues. The EU assists Ecuador and other Andean countries with its anti-drug program, offering special reduced tariff rates for some seafood products— including canned and 221 frozen tuna. These incentives, however, are subject to some restrictions—such as the origin of the tuna being exported. To qualify, the product being exported has to be caught by the country's domestic fishing fleet or within the country's jurisdictional waters. EU inspections of Ecuadorean tuna exports have revealed that the origin of some of the tuna was not in compliance with those regulations. 334 Most of this tuna, however, is taken by purse seiners and not the country's longliners which report very small swordfish by-catches. 335 In addition to direct contacts with the EU, Ecuador also has exchanges with two EU member countries (Germany and Spain). Germany: The German Government sponsors a fisheries assistance program, PRAPESCA, to transfer technology to the artisanal/semi-commercial fishery which includes modern longlining technology. This program has focused its efforts in Esmeraldas Province along the northern coast. Japan: Most of the foreign longline fishermen operating off Ecuador have been Japanese. The arrangements have been made by an industry trade group, the Nikkatsuren. (See "Joint Ventures.") Japanese longliners have targeted tunas, but report a substantial swordfish by-catch. The Japanese operate within the 200-mile coastal zone, outside of a 40-mile coastal strip. They report their best catches around the Galapagos (figure 8). The principal fishery, however is conducted to the south and west of Ecuador and off southern Peru. 336 The Ecuadorean media has been particularly critical of reported illegal Japanese fishing. 337 Some seizures of Japanese vessels and other legal sanctions against Japanese fishermen have been reported. Ecuadorean authorities in 1985 seized turtle skins aboard a Japanese fishing -A ! y. e n 3 f .i ^■rsti Photo 44 —The US Pacific swordfish longline feet operates primarily in the north Pacific and does not fish along the western coast of South Weidner vessel in Manta. 338 The Navy in 1989 seized the Tenyu Maru 38 which was working with LUBAR as a result of charges concerning shark finning. 339 Japanese officials denied the charges. 340 Another press report indicated that the Navy seized the Japanese longliner Shoei Maru 28 off Isabela Island (the Galapagos) with 20 t of shark fins during September 1944. Local artisanal fishermen were observed in the area and authorities believe the artisanal fishermen operated in protected Galapagos waters and delivered the catch to the Japanese and other foreign fishing vessels. 341 Korea: Korean fishing activity off Ecuador has varied in recent years. The Koreans reported very good longline catches in 1988, but no fishing in 1989- 90. Limited catches were reported in 1991-92. 342 Korean fishermen operated five longliners under association agreements in 1996. (See "Joint Ventures.") Spain: Several Spanish fishermen have negotiated commercial arrangements with Ecuadorean companies. Some of these operations deal with oceanic pelagics (especially tuna) but focus on the purse-seine fishery supplying local canneries. Several Spanish longline fishermen (mostly individual vessel owners) are known to operate in the Pacific, primarily for swordfish. The authors believe that their operations, however, are normally conducted south of Ecuadorean waters. One observer, however, reports occasional Spanish longlining as far north as Ecuador. 343 The Spanish fishermen transship their catch through Peruvian ports, but fish as far south as central Chile. 344 Little information is available on Spanish Pacific longlining as the Spanish are not reporting the catch to FAO. The authors know of no arrangements with Ecuadorean companies or transshipments through Ecuadorean ports. United States: Several U.S. fishermen have negotiated commercial arrangements with Ecuadorean companies. However, as with Spanish fishermen, the arrangements made by U.S. fishermen have concentrated on the tuna purse-seine fishery. U.S. Pacific swordfish operations are primarily conducted north of the Hawaiian Islands (photo 44). Some limited effort has been reported off Chile. 345 The authors, however, know of no U.S. effort off Ecuador. Others: Several other foreign fishermen have negotiated commercial arrangements with Ecuadorean companies. Some of these operations deal with oceanic pelagics (especially out of Honolulu America Dennis 222 tuna) but focus on the purse-seine fishery supplying local canneries. (See "Joint Ventures.") B. Joint ventures Ecuador's domestic longline fishery is primarily conducted by wholly-owned Ecuadorean companies. Foreign companies played an important role in the country's tuna purse-seine fishery, but they have not been equity partners in the longline fishery. The authors know of only one joint/venture equity arrangement involving longlining, Prime North Ecuador which has a New Zealand partner. There is, however, some foreign involvement as Ecuadorean companies (such as CONSEMAR, LUBAR, TRANSMARINA, and USTI) have entered into special agreements or associations ("contratos de asociacidn") with foreign companies. These arrangements are leasing/association contracts and not equity ventures. These arrangements have been reported since 1975, peaking at 32 contracts in 1988 (appendix A5a). No current data is available, but one local observer estimates that there were about 10 Asian vessels operating in association with local fishing companies in 1996. 346 Some of these vessels were subsequently purchased and reflagged in Ecuador. Press reports suggest that a number of vessels are involved. One Japanese press report in 1992 estimated that Asian countries (Japan, Korea, and Taiwan) flagged nine fishing vessels in Ecuador. 347 Other reports confirm that several Asian longliners have been registered in Ecuador (appendix A3d). Information on the ownership and operations of these vessels, however, is very limited and it primarily describes association contracts. One estimate suggests few Asian longliners have actually been reflagged in Ecuador (appendix A4c). Some problems have been encountered by the vessels that were reflagged (photo 22). Countries whose fishermen have been active off Ecuador include: Canada: About five 25-m Canadian longliners operated in association with an Ecuadorean company during 1996. Unconfirmed reports suggested that these vessels were operating in association with LUBAR. (See "Companies".) A Canadian company is also doing some test fishing out of neighboring Colombia. Japan: Japanese longliners have been regularly operating under association contracts since the mid- 1970s. Approximately six Japanese longliners were operating under association contracts in 1982. By 1989 the number of longliners operating under these contracts had risen to 10-20 vessels. 348 Reports vary as to the number of large Japanese freezer longliners fishing during 1996. However, based on various anecdotal reports, the authors estimate the number at 15-25 vessels. Several Japanese longliners have been acquired by Ecuadorean companies after association relationships. For example, TRANSMARINA, one of Ecuador's major fishing companies has acquired and registered seven Japanese vessels under the Ecuadorean flag. (See "Companies".) TRANSMARINA is currently associated with a Japanese company through the VENALUM joint venture. The joint venture company, which is involved in tuna longlining operations, owns the Altar N° 7. Korea: Korean vessel owners also established association agreements with Ecuadorean companies since the early 1980s. Six Korean longliners were transferred to the Ecuadorean flag in 1982. About 20 percent of their catch was marketed in the domestic market, while the rest was exported by the associated Ecuadorean company. 349 Operations with some Koreans vessels have failed and they have been abandoned at Manta (photo 22). About five large Korean 55-m freezer longliners operating in association with a local company during 1996. 35( New Zealand: The New Zealand company Prime North Corporation established a joint-venture company (Prime North Ecuador) with PESYMAR, an Ecuadorean company, in 1996. PESYMAR will export all the catch caught by the associated vessel Kona Wind through the joint venture. The vessel is owned by the Prime North Corporation. The joint- venture company (Prime North Ecuador) operates the vessel, primarily targeting bigeye tuna. According to a company spokesman, the joint venture is attempting to market high quality bigeye tuna in the Japanese market. 351 The New Zealand company is now considering operations out of Colombia. Other: Ecuadorean fishing companies have formal association relationships with other companies in countries such as Spain and the United States. However, these agreements involve primarily companies operating tuna purse seiners, in which virtually no swordfish is taken. 352 223 XVII. Future trends not participated in the international swordfish symposia, but until recently the domestic catch has been quite limited. Ecuador is one of the few South American countries to develop a tuna/swordfish longline fishery. The Ecuadoreans have contracted foreign companies to operate large modern longliners producing frozen product. Domestic fishermen in Ecuador are unique in that in addition to small coastal longliners they have organized the fishery so that a substantial number of artisanal fishermen deploy fast fiberglass can deliver a high-quality product and thus participate in lucrative, export oriented fishery. Artisanal fishermen in "lanchas" often work in association with larger, but still relatively, small motherships. A few companies are also deploying commercial longliners capable of fishing beyond the Galapagos. Ecuadorean fishermen have primarily focused on tuna, but have reported some directed swordfish operations since 1996. Many small new companies are pursuing operations delivering high-quality fresh product to export markets. The companies are expanding the fleet and extending the range of operations which now reaches grounds to the west of the Galapagos. Companies began to report increased swordfish exports in mid- 1996 and have continued shipments at above average levels through mid- 1997. The industry appears to be gradually growing. Fishermen will report an important catch increase in 1997 and should be able to continue doing so for the rest of the decade— although the impact of the 1997 El Nino is yet to be determined. Some observers are concerned about the impact of expanding commercial and artisanal fishing effort out of and around the Galapagos Islands and their irreplaceable natural fauna. The impact of the fishery on the Galapagos ecosystem is of special concern. Any major expansion of the fishery west could have significant harmful affects on the Islands. Such an expansion could also adversely affect a variety of species taken incidentally, but the extent of that impact is yet to be determined. The willingness of Ecuadorean officials to cooperate in any international management effort is unknown. Ecuadorean officials except for a few years have not participated in efforts to manage ETP tuna through the IATTC. Their participation in the OLDEPESCA regional tuna discussions leading to the EPTO suggest a reluctance to cooperate even with other Latin American coastal countries. Ecuador has Note: The layout of this chapter was designed and formatted by Nelsenia Wood, a senior at Parkdale High School in Riverdale, Maryland. Ms. Wood worked with the National Marine Fisheries Service during the summer of 1997 as part of District of Columbia Metropolitan Consortium for Minorities in Engineering (METCON). 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Dennis Weidner and David Hall, "Latin America", World Fishing Fleets, Vol IV (Silver Spring, Maryland, 1993), p. 359. Whitefish are high-quality species, usually groundfish, with white flesh. However, the Ecuadoreans also include some pelagic species such as dorado. 2. "Ecuador", The World Fact Book, 1994, (CIA: Washington, D.C., 1995). p. 124. 3. For details see Dennis Weidner, Tom Revord, Randy Wells, and Amir Manuar, "Ecuador," World Shrimp Culture, Vol. II, Part 3 (NMFS: Silver Spring, September 1992), pp. 883-949. 4. IATTC, Quarterly Report July-September 1995 (IATTC: La Jolla, California, 1995), p. 24. 5. Boris Buenaventura, Owner, PESYMAR, personal communications, March 10, 1997. 6. U.S. Embassy, Quito, April 23, 1992. 7. U.S. Embassy, Quito, April 23, 1992. 8. "La industria atunera", Ecuador Pesquero, Ano 1 N° 1, June- August 1996, pp. 18-19. 9. FAO, Yearbook of Fishery Statistics (commodities), various years. 10. Ecuador conducts the largest dorado fishery in the eastern tropical Pacific (ETP). Several good studies exist describing this fishery. See J.R. Scott, "A review of the dorado fishery of Ecuador," Inf. Int. (Institute Nacional de Pesca, 1992), 34p. and K.R. Patterson and J. Martinez, "Exploitation of the dolphin-f.sh Coryphaena hippurus L. off Ecuador: Analysis by length-based virtual population analysis," Fishbyte, December 1991, pp. 21-23. 11. David Secler, U.S. Embassy, Quito, personal communications, October 8, 1993. 12. U.S. Embassy, Quito, September 22, 1993. 13. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 21, 1997. 14. For details on the Ecuadorean aquaculture industry see Weidner, et. al., "Ecuador", op. cit., pp. 883-949. 15. As recently as the 1970s the artisanal sector was extremely primitive, incapable of supplying high-quality product. The Institute National de Pesca (INP) during the 1960s published an excellent series of reports prepared with FAO assistance describing the artisanal fishery in coastal provinces. Raul Jaramillo del Castillo, Pedro Valverde A., Domingo Quiroga, "Apuntes e informaciones sobre las pesquerias en la provincia de El Oro," Boletin Informativo, Vol. 1, N°l (INP: Guayaquil, December 1963), 30p.; Instituto Nacional de Pesca, "Apuntes e informaciones sobre las pesquerias en la provincia de Manabi," Boletin Informativo, Vol. 1, N°2 (INP: Guayaquil, 1964), 64p.; INP, "Apuntes e informaciones sobre las pesquerias en las provincias del Guayas y Los Rios," Boletin Informativo, Vol. 1, N°4 (INP: Guayaquil, 1964), 84p.; Domingo Quiroga and Anibal Orbes Armas, "Apuntes e informaciones sobre las pesquerias en el Archipielago de Colon," Boletin Informativo, Vol. 1, N°5 (INP: Guayaquil, 1964), 18p.; and Domingo Quiroga and Anibal Orbes Armas, "Apuntes e informaciones sobre 228 las pesquerias en la provincia de Esmeraldas," Boletin Informativo, Vol. 1, N°6 (INP: Guayaquil, 1964), 26p. 16. A good recent review of Ecuadorean fishing industry developments is available in Peggy Parker, "South America looks to the future," Seafood Business, November/December 1995, pp. 18, 20. 17. "Ecuador Pesquero", Editorial, Vol. I, N° 1, June-August 1996. p. 3. SECTION II. (SPECIES) 18. Unlike most other countries, Ecuador claims a 200-mile Territorial Sea (TS) instead of an Exclusive Economic Zone. Ecuador has not signed the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention. The Government in addition has established special area closures which it requires foreign fishing vessels to avoid when transiting the country's 200-mile zone. The Government has also established mandatory navigational routes to keep vessels at least 125 kilometers (km) north and 233 km south of the Galapagos Archipelago. Ecuadorean note to IMCO, May 2, 1980. The U.S. and other Governments have protested the TS claim. 19. Even in the better studied north Pacific, very limited tagging data is available. Christofer Boggs and John Gunn, "Status of tagging programs and swordfish movement," paper delivered at the Second International Swordfish Symposium, Turtle Bay, Oahu, Hawaii, March 5, 1997. 20. See the Latin American overview of this report for a review of theories on the stock structure of Pacific swordfish. 21. This behavior appears most pronounced in areas of strong current flows such as the Humboldt Current and Gulf Stream. Other observers have not noted this association with currents in other areas and seasons. See the Chilean and Venezuelan chapter of this report for more details. 22. Some observers are justifiably cautious about using the limited catches to date to conclude that swordfish are not abundant in Ecuadorean coastal waters, especially as the longline fishermen have targeted tunas. Actual catches are, of course, not necessarily a good indicator of abundance, but they are currently the only indicators available to the authors and should not be discounted. Ecuadorean fishermen are reporting improved swordfish catches in 1996-97, but this appears to reflect both a change in grounds (further away from the mainland coast beyond the Galapagos) and fishing strategy (directed swordfish sets). 23. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 21, 1997. 24. Fabio Carocci and Jacek Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes: Atlas of Commercial Catches, (FAO: Rome, 1996), map 13. 25. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes, op. cit., map 13. 26. For details see the Chilean chapter of this report. 27. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes, op. cit., map 13. 28. The utility of the Japanese longline data is severely limited because swordfish was not the principal target species. The authors believe that using the resulting data to assess abundance may be somewhat more valid than to assess seasonality. The reader, however, needs to bear in mind the significant limitations of the data. The authors are attempting to present the existing data in an effort to make preliminary assessments within the time frame of this research project. In fact adequate data simply does not exist at this time that can be used to form any firm conclusions. While the data, given its limitations, is not definitive, it does provide some useful indicators for further research. 229 29. Available Ecuadorean catch data is limited. The best and longest time-line data available are probably estimates computed from foreign, especially U.S. import data (appendix B2a). In addition, the catch data and import data that has been compiled is compromised because swordfish was a largely incidental catch. Thus trends in domestic swordfish catches may reflect varying strategies used to target other species, primarily tunas. 30. FAO data shows a massive decline in 1993. U.S. import data shows a moderate declines in 1992-93 and a substantial decline in 1994 (appendix B2a). 31. See the Chilean chapter of this report. 32. See figure 1 displaying the geographic distribution of swordfish catches in Yuji Uozumi and Kotaro Yokawa, "Country report for the swordfish fisheries in the Pacific Ocean," paper delivered at the Second International Swordfish Symposium, March 3, 1997, Turtle Bay, Oahu, Hawaii, p. 6 and Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes, op. cit., map 13. 33. Swordfish catches and yields and yields would of course be affected by strategies aimed at the target species. These strategies in the southeastern Pacific are fairly uniform. Thus the swordfish by-catch data would appear to offer a reasonable estimate of abundance if used cautiously. The readers, however, need to bear in mind the limitations of using fisheries related data, especially from a fishery targeted at tunas. 34. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes, op. cit., map 3. 35. Sosa-Nishizaki and Shimizu, "Spatial and temporal CPUE trends ...," op. cit., 36. Carol Reeb and Barbara Block, "Genetic analysis of Pacific swordfish populations using mtDNA and microsatellite markers," paper delivered at the Second International Swordfish Symposium, March 5, 1997, Turtle Bay, Oahu, Hawaii. 37. Naritoshi Cho, "An attempt to clarify genetic stock structure of swordfish using nuclear gene markers," paper delivered at the Second International Swordfish Symposium, March 5, 1997, Turtle Bay, Oahu, Hawaii. 38. Sosa-Nishizaki and Shimizu, "Spatial and temporal CPUE trends ..., op. cit., pp. 80-85. 39. For details see the Chilean chapter of this report. 40. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes, op. cit., map 13 and Sosa-Nishizaki and Shimizu, "Spatial and temporal CPUE trends ...," op. cit., pp. 80-85. 41. Freddy Arocha, Universidad de Oriente, personal communications, July 7, 1997. The limitations of using the data are discussed in more detail in the Colombian report and thus will not be repeated here. 42. Swordfish off Costa Rica and Nicaragua during 1991-93 were prevalent during the third quarter of the year while further north off the Baja and California they were most prevalent during the fourth quarter. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes, op. cit., map 13. 43. Uozumi and Yokawa, "Country report ...," op. cit.; Nakano, "Stock status ...," op. cit.; Sosa-Nishizaki and Shimizu, "Spatial and temporal CPUE trends ..., op. cit.; Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes, op. cit., maps 8-11 and 13. 44. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes, op. cit., maps 8-11 and 13. 45. Japanese yield data suggest that extensive offshore exchanges appear to occur from October through January, but very limited exchanges are noted in coastal waters. Sosa-Nishizaki and Shimizu, "Spatial and temporal CPUE trends ...," op. cit., pp. 80-85. 230 46. The most comprehensive Pacific study of oceanic fish larvae has been conducted by the Japanese National Research Institute of Far Seas Fisheries (NRIFSF). Researchers with the NRIFSF failed to find any swordfish larvae east of 108°W, although they did not test waters south of 12°S. Nisikawa, Honma, Yueyanagi, and Kikawa, Average Distribution of Larval Oceanic Species of Scombroid Fishes, 1956-81 (Far Seas Fisheries Research Laboratory: Shimizu, Japan, 1985), Series S No. 12. Other larval studies have included: CALCOFI, EASTROPAC 1 and II, and the Soviets R/V Akademick Kurchatov (cruise 17). They have all failed to find swordfish larvae east of 108°W. While these surveys were not designed specifically for swordfish, they did encounter larvae of similar species (such as frigate mackerel and sailfish). If swordfish larvae had been present- the researchers would have presumably also have encountered some. Larvae of several other oceanic species such as bigeye and yellowfin tuna were also i.bsent or extremely rare. Researchers are unsure as to why spawning does not appear to be taking place in the ETP, despite appropriate temperatures and salinities. Robert Humphreys, "Review of larvae and juvenile distributions with inference towards spawning habitat," paper delivered at the Second International Swordfish Symposium, March 5, 1997, Turtle Bay, Oahu, Hawaii. 47. Nisikawa et. al, "Average distribution...", op. cit., 1985. 48. Maria Angela Barbieri, IFOP, personal communications, March 4, 1997; Fernando Rey, Instituto Nacional de Pesca y Acuicultura (INPA) (Colombia), personal communications, April 8, 1997; and Emira Antonetti, Instituto del Mar de Peru (IMARPE), personal communications, May 19, 1997. 49. Cecilia Marin, INP, personal communications, May 9, 1997 and Doris Ortega, INP, personal communications, May 12, 1997. 50. Marin, op. cit., May 9, 1997 and Ortega, op. cit., May 12, 1997. 51. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 21, 1997. 52. Sosa-Nishizaki and Shimizu, "Spatial and temporal CPUE trends ..., op. cit., pp. 80-85. 53. For details see the Chilean chapter of this report. 54. Sosa-Nishizaki and Shimizu, "Spatial and temporal CPUE trends ..., op. cit., pp. 81-82. 55. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes, op. cit., map 13. 56. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes, op. cit., map 13. 57. Boris Buenaventura, owner, PESYMAR, personal communications, March 12, 1997. 58. Buenaventura, op. cit, March 12, 1997. 59. The study focused primarily on tuna, but there was a swordfish by-catch reported. Carlos Martinez, "Prospeccidn de atunes y peces espadas en el Oceano Pacifico oriental al este de los 110°W: Segundo semestre de 1971," (IFOP N° inven: 740002), December 1974. 60. Norman W. Bartoo, Atilio L. Coan Jr., "An assessment of the Pacific swordfish resource," in Richard H. Strod, (ed.) Planning the Future of Billfishes: Research and Management in the 1990s and Beyond (National Coalition for Marine Conservation: Savannah, Georgia, 1989), pp. 143-144. 61. Uozumi and Yokawa, "Country report ...," op. cit. p. 6. 62. Nakano, "Stock status ...," op. cit. figure 2. 63. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes, op. cit., map 13. 231 64. Boris Buenaventura, Executive Director, Asociacion de Exportadores de Pescado Blanco, May 15, 1996. Sr. Buenaventura is also the owner of PESYMAR. 65. S. Kip Farrington, Jr., Fishing the Pacific: Off Shore and On (New York: Coward-McCann, 1953), pp. 108- 110. 66. Otto Schwarz, President, MARDEX, personal communications, May 16, 1996. 67. Franklin Ormaza, Director, Instituto Nacional de Pesca, personal communications, May 30, 1996. 68. Eusebio Reyes, Manager, AGROL, personal communications, July 24, 1996, and February 19, 1997. 69. Nakano, "Stock status of swordfish ...," op. cit., fig. 8. 70. For details see the Chilean chapter of this report. 71. The fact that all the Spanish fishermen withdrew indicates that it was not a problem related to the operations of a single vessel or company, but wider systemic developments such as declining yields. 72. The Spanish operate out of Peruvian ports. For details see the Peruvian chapter of this report. SECTION III. (FISHING GROUNDS) 73. Mathias Tomczak and J. Stuart Godfrey, Regional Oceanography: An introduction (Elsevier Science Inc.: Tarrytown, New York, 1994), p. 144. 74. An excellent review of the current structure in the ETP is available in Klaus Wyrtki, "Circulation and water masses in the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean," Oceanology and Limnology, 1967, pp. 117-147. 75. Tomczak and Godfrey, Regional Oceanography, op. cit., p. 119. 76. Current information on the developing 1997 El Nino event is available on a NOAA internet site: http://www.ogp.noaa.gov/enso/ 77. The relationship between temperature and swordfish abundance is discussed in more detail in the Colombian chapter of this report. 78. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 21, 1997. 79. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Bill fishes, op. cit., map 13. 80. A more complete collection of recent SST in the eastern Pacific are included in the Chilean chapter of this report. 81. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfish, op. cit., map 13. 82. Richard Parrish, "Regime scale climatic variations in the north Pacific and implications for highly migratory species," paper delivered at the Second International Swordfish Symposium, Turtle Bay, Oahu, Hawaii, March 5, 1997. 83. Tomczak and Godfrey, Regional Oceanography, op. cit., p. 126. 84. Jack Hogan as cited in Roger Fitzgerald, "Of mercenaries and monofilament," Seafood Leader May-June, 1996, p. 69. 232 85. Guillermo Podesta, "Aspects of swordfish oceanography in the Atlantic," Second International Pacific Symposium, Turtle Bay, Hawaii, March 4, 1997. 86. Boris Buenaventura, Executive Director, Asociacion de Exportadores de Pesca Blanca, personal communications May 23, 1995. (For details on fishing operations, see "Fleet Operations and Gear.") 87. "Illegal fishing for sharks in the Galapagos," El Comercio, September 10, 1994. 88. Fiona Holland, "Fin soup demand threatens Galapagos sharks," Eastern Star, May 19, 1995. 89. Allison Abbott, "Fishermen fight rangers in conservation battle for Galapagos," Time April 17, 1997, p. 638. 90. Weidner and Hall, "Latin America...", op. cit., 1993. p. 364. For further details see the Colombian chapter of this report. 91. For details see Weidner and Hall, "Latin America," op. cit., pp. 428-449. 92. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 21, 1997. 93. Buenaventura, op. cit., May 23, 1996. 94. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 10, 1997. SECTION IV. (FLEET) 95. Programa de Cooperacion Tecnica para la Pesca, Union Europea-VECEP, June 11, 1996. 96. "Pesca artesanal", Ecuador Pesquero, Vol. 1, N°l, June-August 1996, pp. 9. 97. Weidner and Hall, "Latin America...", op. cit., 1993. p. 360. 98. Gonzalo Mora L., "Breve memoria del puerto de Manta en el campo pesquero," undated report provided by ATUNEC on February 20, 1997. 99. Ormaza, op. cit., May 30, 1996. 100. Ormaza, op. cit., May 30, 1996. 101. Orlando Crespo, Asesor del Sub-Secretario de Pesca, Direccion Nacional de Pesca, personal communications, May 15, 1996. 102. Ormaza, op. cit., May 30, 1996. 103. Arriaga, op. cit., April 7, 1997. 104. Buenaventura, op. cit.. May 15, 1996. 105. Buenaventura, op. cit., May 23, 1996. 106. Ormaza, op. cit., May 30, 1996. 107. Crespo, op. cit., June 5, 1996. 108. Buenaventura, op. cit., May 23, 1996. 233 109. Crespo, op. cit., June 5, 1996. 1 10. As estimated in 1995 by the Proyecto de Pesca Artesanal, Instituto Nacional de Pesca. Ormaza, op. cit., May 30, 1996. 111. Ormaza, op. cit., May 30, 1996. 112. Foreign flag vessels can fish in Ecuadorean waters if they sign association contracts with local companies. (See "Government Agencies and Policies".) 113. Pablo Delgado, Manager, Transmarina, personal communications, June 3, 1996. 114. Luis Torres Navarrete, Asesor Tecnico, Subsecretar ia de Recursos Pesqueros, personal communications, September 24, 1993. 115. Tim Bostock and Douglas Herdson, "Tiburdn: Un nuevo recurso para la industria," Aquanet, September 1984, N° 3. p. 133. 116. Torres Navarrete, op. cit., September 30, 1993. 117. Crespo, op. cit., May 15, 1996. 118. Departamento Administraci on Pesquera, Subsecretan'a de Recursos Pesqueros, Ministerio de Comercio Exterior, Industrializaci on y Pesca, personal communications, August 14, 1997. 119. Crespo, op. cit., June 5, 1996. 120. Buenaventura, op. cit., May 15, 1996. 121. For a more detailed description of the Japanese longliners see Wildman "Japan", op. cit. 122. Bostock and Herdson, "Tiburon: Un nuevo recurso...," op. cit., p. 133. 123. Crespo, op. cit., June 7, 1996. 124. Ichiro Fujisaki, Counsellor, Japanese Embassy, "Shark-fishing charge denied," The Times, London, July 2, 1989. 125. Delgado, op. cit., June 3, 1996. 126. This does not include several other Japanese owned longliners which were reportedly operating under flag- of-convenience flags. 127. Schwarz, op. cit., May 21, 1996. 128. Bostock and Herdson, "Tiburon: Un nuevo recurso...," op. cit., p. 133. 129. Crespo, op. cit, June 5, 1996. 130. Crespo, op. cit., June 5, 1996. 131. Weidner and Hall, "Latin America", op. cit., pp. 20-27. 132. Anonymous source, personal communications. May 30, 1996. 234 SECTION V. (SHIPYARDS) 133. Buenaventura, op. cit., May 23, 1996. 134. Crespo, op. cit., June 5, 1996. 135. Eusebio Reyes, Manager, Agrol S.A., personal communications, February 18, 1997. 136. Hernan Moreano, General Manager, Astinave, personal communications, June 6, 1996. 137. Crespo, op. cit., June 5, 1996. 138. Moreano, op. cit., June 6, 1996. SECTION VI. (FLEET OPERATIONS AND GEAR) 139. Crespo, op. cit., May 15, 1996. 140. Crespo, op. cit., May 15, 1996. 141. Farrington, op. cit., p. 110. 142. Ormaza, op. cit., May 30, 1996. 143. Ormaza, op. cit., May 30, 1996. 144. Holland, "Fin soup ...," op. cit. 145. Buenaventura, op. cit., May 15, 1996. 146. This estimate is based on a total of 150 hooks and a spacing of 30 m between hooks. Eusebio Reyes, Manager, Agrol, personal communications, February 20, 1997. 147. Ormaza, op. cit., May 30, 1996. 148. Crespo, op. cit., May 15, 1996. 149. Schwarz, op. cit., May 16, 1996. 150. Gonzalo Corral, owner, PEFRESMAR, personal communications, May 22, 1996. 151. Jorge Delger, Owner, Oro Marisco, personal communications, May 24, 1996. 152. Alfredo Serrano Valladares, Diputado for Galapagos Province, personal communications, May 23, 1997. 153. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 24, 1997. 154. Schwarz, op. cit., May 21, 1996. 155. Reyes, op. cit., February 20, 1997. 156. Ormaza, op. cit., May 30, 1996. 157. Buenaventura, op. cit.. May 15, 1996. 235 158. Schwarz, op. cit., May 16, 1996. 159. "No! a las redes a la deriva 6 trasmallo electrdnico!," Tecno Agro, Ed. 7, 1996, p. 38. 160. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 24, 1997. 161. Crespo, op. cit., May 15, 1996. 162. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 10, 1997. 163. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 24, 1997. 164. See the Peruvian chapter of this report for details. 165. Partington, Fishing the Pacific, op. cit., pp. 108-110. 166. Conservationist Network International, "Galapagos: The new sport fishing capital of the world?" press release, CNIPR7a.95, June 3, 1995. 167. Buenaventura, op. cit., July 2, 1996. 168. Jack Grove, Conservation Network International, internet message, July 11, 1996. 169. PNG oficio 1163-94, August 29, 1994. 170. Rodrigo H. Bustamente and Chantal Blanton, "Criterios de evaluacion de factibilidad de una posible pesca deportiva commercial a desarrollarse en las aguas de la Reserva de Recursos Marinos de Galapagos," Estacion Charles Darwin report, October 27, 1994, 7p. 171. Conservation Network International, "Galapagos: The madness continues," press release, CNIPR 6.95, June 1995. 172. Richard J. Polatty, "Galapagos update," Internet message, May 30, 1995. 173. Abbott, "Fishermen fight rangers ...," op. cit., p. 638. 174. Grove, op. cit., July 11, 1996. 175. Coral, op. cit., May 22, 1996. SECTION VII. (CATCH) 176. Ormaza, op. cit., May 30, 1996. 177. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 12, 1997. 178. U.S. import data is not a perfect reflection of catch trends. It will not reflect, for example, the small quantity of swordfish caught by artisanal fishermen and marketed domestically. Most of the catch of acceptable quality, however, is landed and exported as fresh product, primarily to the United States. (See "Markets".) Thus the authors believe that U.S. import data can be used to roughly estimate Ecuadorean domestic catches (appendix B2d). The frozen product imported by Japan and the European Union is probably swordfish landed by associated foreign longliners which are equipped with freezers. 236 179. The INP has kindly provided extensive catch data to the authors. The data provided at different times and by different researchers has varied (appendices B2a, B2bl-2, and B2cl-2). The authors have been unable to resolve the discrepancies between these sources. As a result, the most-recently supplied data (appendix B2a and B2b2) is the data primarily used in this report. 180. Bostock and Herdson, "Tiburon: Un nuevo recurso...," op. cit, p. 133. 181. Paterson and Martinez, "Exploitation of the dolphin-fish ...," op. cit., p. 21. 182. For details on these companies see "Companies." 183. There were probably Japanese imports prior to 1986, but that data is not available to the authors. 184. Crespo, op. cit., June 7, 1996. 185. Crespo, op. cit., June 7, 1996. 186. Mann, op. cit., June 3, 1997. The discrepancy between the estimated swordfish exports to Japan (appendix D3a) and INP landings data (appendix B2b2) could be due to several factors, especially the lack of a separate Japanese customs category for swordfish. 187. Crespo, op. cit., June 7, 1996. 188. Ormaza, op. cit., May 30, 1996. 189. The fact that the Japanese imports are frozen suggests that the primary source was the associated vessels landing high-quality frozen product. 190. Ormaza, Op. cit., May 30, 1996. 191. Ormaza, Op. cit., May 30, 1996. 192. The authors are unsure as to the source of the European imports. As it was frozen product, it may not have been landed by domestic fishermen. Several industry sources were unaware of significant shipments to the European Union. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 21, 1997. It is possible that the product was supplied by associated foreign vessels. 193. As mentioned above, some of the catch may have been marketed in the European Union (appendix B2d). Even so, combined U.S. and EU shipments are only a fraction of quantity that the INP reports was caught (appendix B2a, B2bl-2, and B2cl-2). 194. Crespo, op. cit., June 7, 1996 and the Departamento Administracidn Pesquera, op. cit., August 14, 1997. 195. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 24, 1997. 196. For details see the Chilean chapter of this report. 197. The authors have obtained several different data sets from the INP. INP staff kindly offered to explain the discrepancies, but at the time of publication had not yet done so. It is likely that if the species continues to increase in importance that more reliable data sets will become available. 198. Reyes, op. cit., February 19, 1997. 199. Alexandra Paez, Commercial Manager, Productos del Mar Santa Rosa Cia. Ltda. (PROMAROSA), personal communications, June 24, 1997. 237 200. Departamento Administraci on Pesquera, op. cit., August 14, 1997. SECTION VIII. (PORTS) 201. Alfredo Torrez, Manager, CONSEMAR, personal communications, June 5, 1996. 202. Crespo, op. cit., June 5, 1996. 203. Carlos Villon, Fisheries Researcher, INP, personal communications, May 9, 1997. 204. Gonzalo Mora L., "Breve memoria del puerto de Manta en el campo pesquero," undated report provided by the Asociacidn de Atuneros del Ecuador (ATUNEC) on February 20, 1997. 205. Buenaventura, op. cit., May 15, 1996. 206. Schwarz, op. cit., May 21, 1996. 207. Buenaventura, op. cit., May 15, 1996. 208. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 21, 1997. Air cargo companies operate flights from Manta which can accommodate planes as large as Boeing 707s. Much of the air cargo shipments from Manta are flowers and fish. One cargo plane operated by Million Air, a Miami-based cargo carrier owned by a Colombian company, loaded with fish and flowers, crashed in 1996. About 84 persons were killed or injured in the Manta neighborhood near the airport. "Cargo plane crashes in Ecuadorean city," Washington Post, October 14, 1996. 209. Mora, "Breve memoria ...", op. cit. 210. Villon, op. cit., May 9, 1997. 211. Serrano Valladares, op. cit., May 23, 1997. 212. Buenaventura, op. cit.. May 21, 1997. SECTION IX. (TRANSSHIPMENT) 213. Villon, op. cit., May 9, 1996. SECTION X. (PROCESSING AND PRODUCTS) 214. Buenaventura, op. cit., May 23, 1996. 215. Schwarz, op. cit., May 16 ,1996. 216. Serrano Valladares, op. cit., May 23, 1997. 217. Parker, "South America ...," op. cit., p. 20. 218. Mark Wildman, "Asia" World Swordfish Fisheries, Vol. Ill (NMFS: Silver Spring, Maryland, 1997). SECTION XI. (COMPANIES) 238 219. "No! a las redes...," Tecno Agro, op. cit., Ed. 7, 1996, p. 38. 220. "Sector pesquero, sin Dios ni ley", Tecno Agro, Ed. 1996. pp. 27-28. 221. Eusebio Reyes, Manager, AGROL, personal communications, July 24, 1996, and February 19, 1997. 222. Medardo Cevallos, General Manager, PECIA, personal communications, March 10, 1997. 223. Alfredo Torrez, Manager, CONSEMAR, personal communications, May 30, 1996. 224. Grove, op. cit., July 11, 1996. 225. Rodrigo Calderdn, Manager, Ecuafresco, July 18, 1996, and Joseba Gonzalez de Langarica, Owner, Ecuafresco S.A., August 8, 1996. 226. "Ecuador mira hacia el Pacifico", Ecuador Pesquero, Vol. 1, N° 1 June-August 1996. p. 30. 227. Patricio Biteri, Manager, EMPROCEANICA, personal communications, January 15, 1997, and Madardo Cevallos, General Manager, PECIA, personal communications, March 10, 1997. 228. Another report indicates that the Nautilus is owned by CONSEPAC. 229. Diego Franco, President, FRESMAR, personal communications, May 23, and July 25, 1996. 230. Jorge Diaz, Manager, Gondi, personal communications, July 24, 1996. 231. "Se suspendio permiso de pesca a barco japones," El Telegrafo, June 6, 1989. 232. Javier Barcia, Manager, LUBAR, personal communications, May 23 and June 5, 1996. 233. Reyes, op. cit., February 19, 1997. 234. Schwarz, op. cit., May 16, 1996. 235. Delger, op. cit., May 24, 1996. 236. Luis Correa, Vice-President, PEFREEXPORT, personal communications, June 12, 1996. 237. Corral, op. cit., May 22, 1996. 238. "Ecuador mira hacia el Pacifico", Ecuador Pesquero, Vol. 1, N° 1 June-August 1996. p. 30. 239. Cevallos, op. cit., March 10, 1997. 240. Reyes, op. cit., February 19, 1997. 241. Buenaventura, op. cit., May 30 and July 24, 1996. 242. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 10, 1997. 243. Buenaventura, op. cit., July 2, 1996. 244. Paez, op. cit., July 10, 1997. 245. Paez, op. cit., April 23, 1997. 239 246. Paez, op. cit, June 24, 1997. 247. Pablo Delgado, Manager, TRANSMARINA C.A., personal communications, June 4, 1997. SECTION XII. (MARKETS) 248. FAO, "Ecuador," Fishery Profiles, February 1988. 249. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 24, 1997. 250. "Nuestros recursos marinos", Ecuador Pesquero, Vol. 1, N°, Junio-Agosto 1996, p. 22-23. 251. Buenaventura, op. cit., May 15, 1996, and Schwarz, op. cit., May 16, 1996. 252. FAO, "Ecuador" op. cit. 253. Significant exports to the United States had been reported in 1977 (appendix D2a), but the authors are unsure as to the origin of these shipments. They probably were product landed by foreign leased vessels (appendix A5a). 254. Some of the uncertainty concerning the Ecuadorean swordfish catch is due to the appearance in EU import data of shipments from Ecuador for the first time. If shipments of 60-80 t (85-115 t live weight) did take place in 1994-95 (appendix D4), it would help substantiate the sizeable catches reported by the INP (appendices B2a and B2M-2). Even combined with U.S. imports, however, the total is still far short of the catch data INP is reporting. In addition, the imports are frozen product while Ecuadorean fishermen are mostly landing fresh swordfish. Several Ecuadorean company representatives interviewed by the authors are skeptical about such large shipments to the EU. It is possible that the swordfish reported by the EU, almost all frozen, may have been landed by associated foreign vessels which do land frozen product. 255. Delger, op. cit., May 24, 1996. 256. Holland, "Fin soup ...," op. cit. 257. Swordfish may have constituted about one-third of billfish shipments if the species mix of exports to Japan reflected the same mix as catches. The swordfish shipments to Japan, however, may have been smaller given the strong market for the species in the United States. 258. The authors believe that much of this product is landed by Japanese longliners working in association with Ecuadorean companies. The species composition of these billfish shipments is unknown, but based on overall Japanese operations about one-third of the billfish catch is usually swordfish. 259. One local industry representative, however, reports somewhat larger shipments to the United States of 120 t in 1995. Buenaventura, op. cit., May 15, 1996. It is possible that U.S. Customs understates swordfish imports as some product may have been included under miscellaneous marine fish. Steve Koplin, NMFS, personal communications, December 27, 1996. The authors note that shipments from Chile, for example, appear to be under-reported by U.S. Customs. For details see the Chile chapter of this report. Such mistaken classification by U.S. Customs seems most likely when the product involved has been processed into steaks or fillets that are not easily recognizable. This may explain much of the discrepancy with Chilean shipments because Chilean companies process a sizeable proportion of the catch. Ecuadorean companies currently process only minimal quantities. 260. NMFS estimates of Ecuadorean swordfish catches are based on calculating the live weight of imports as most of the Ecuadorean domestic catch is exported fresh to the United States (appendix B2). This estimate, however, may be invalid for 1994-95 as Ecuadorean companies may have marketed unusually large quantities of swordfish in the EU during 1994-95 (appendix D4). 240 261. "Depending on the goods and dependency of the orders, customs officials asked for important sums of money for each container imported." Marcelo Merlo, Executive Secretary of the Committee of Business Chambers and Business Associations (Quito) as cited by Thomas T. Vogel Jr., "Foreigners rang early alarm on Ecuador," Wall Street Journal, February 10, 1997, p. A 14. U.S. Ambassador Leslie Alexander reported in January 1997, that one Ecuadorean customs agent demanded a $12,000 bribe to get an $8,000 container out of customs. Vogel, "Foreigners rang...," op. cit, February 10, 1997. One estimate cited by Ambassador Alexander was that illegal payments may have totaled $100 million during the 6-month term of President Bucaram. Gabriel Escobar, "Ecuador counts losses to allegedly epic corruption," Washington Post, February 16, 1997, p. A33. 262. Merlo, op. cit., February 10, 1997. 263. Buenaventura, op. cit., February 12, 1997. 264. "A la conquista del Mercosur y Brasil", Ecuador Pesquero, Vol. 1, N°l, June-August 1996, pp. 33-34. 265. For details see the Brazilian chapter of this report. SECTION XIII. (GOVERNMENT AGENCIES AND POLICIES) 266. "Sector pesquero, sin Dios ni ley", op. cit, pp. 27-28. 267. "Flota artesanal," Ecuador Pesquero, op. cit. 268. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 10, 1997. 269. Ormaza, op. cit.. May 30, 1996. 270. "No! a las redes...," Teco Agro, op. cit., Ed. 7, 1996, p. 38. 271. Decree Law No. 1542, November 10, 1966. 272. Note to IMCO, May 2, 1980. 273. Presidential Proclamation, September 19, 1985. 274. Weidner and Hall "Latin America", op. cit., p. 364. 275. Weidner and Hall "Latin America", op. cit., p. 364. 276. "Suspenden los permisos de pesca a navios extranjeros," El Universal, November 14, 1991 and Seckler, op. cit., October 8, 1993. 277. Available press reports confirm Government data on the foreign vessels (appendix A5a). One observer, for example, reports that there was a total of 12 foreign longliners operating within Ecuador's waters in 1982. Bostock and Herdson, "Tiburdn: Un nuevo recurso ...," op. cit., p. 133. 278. U.S. Embassy, Quito, September 30, 1993. 279. Ley de Pesca as described by Torres Navarrete, op. cit., September 24, 1993. 280. U.S. Embassy, Quito, September 30, 1993. 281. Crespo, op. cit., June 5, 1996. 282. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 10, 1997. 241 283. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 21, 1997. 284. Schwarz, op. cit., May 16, 1996, and Crespo, op. cit., June 5, 1996. 285. Ichiro Fujisaki, Counsellor, Embassy of Japan, "Shark fishing charge denied," The Times (London), July 2, 1989. SECTION XIII. (GOVERNMENT AGENCIES AND POLICIES) 286. FAO, "Ecuador," op. cit. 287. Ormaza, op. cit, May 30, 1996. 288. Luis Arriaga, Biologist, VECEP, personal communications, April 7, 1997. 289. Crespo, op. cit., June 6, 1996. 290. "Exigente control de calidad", Ecuador Pesquero, Ano 1 N°l, June-August 1996, pp. 35. 291. Programa de Cooperacidn Tecnica Para la Pesca, Union Europea-VECEP, op. cit., June 11, 1996. 292. Luis Arriaga, Asesor Pesquero, Programa VECEP, personal communications, June 14, 1996. SECTION XV. (BY-CATCH) 293. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 24, 1997, 294. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 12, 1997. 295. Bostock and Herdson, "ITiburon!: Un nuevo recurso ...," op. cit., pp. 130-137. The authors have observed artisanal fishermen during the 1980s landing large sharks. Dugouts were used as reefers and the sharks were then butchered on the beach. 296. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 24, 1997, 297. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 12, 1997. 298. Acuerdo N°001, July 20, 1989. 299. "Illegal fishing for sharks in the Galapagos," El Comer cio, September 10, 1994; "Navy reinforces vigilance," Hoy, September 10, 1994; "Marine resources," Hoy, September 13, 1994; and Jorge Vivanco, "Blind destroyers," Expreso, September 13, 1994. 300. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and BUI fishes, op. cit., maps 8-10. 301. Ormaza, op. cit., May 30, 1996. 302. Buenaventura, op. cit., March 12, 1997. 303. U.S. Embassy, Quito, "Toward a meaningful marine turtle protection policy," message number 4381, April 30, 1992. 242 304. Mario Hurtado G., Gerardo Corrales, and Kathina Muentes, "Participacidn de estudiantes universitarios en el programa de tortugas marinas," Boletin Informativo, Vol. 2. No. 5. (Instituto Nacional de Pesca: Guayaquil, September 1981), pp. 27-28, and Mario Hurtado, "Registros de anidacion de la tortuga negra, Chelonia mydas, en las Islas Galapagos," Boletin Cientifico y Tecnico, Vol. VI, No. 3, (Instituto Nacional de Pesca: Guayaquil, 1984). p. 77. 305. U.S. Embassy, Quito, "Ecuadorean compliance with USG marine mammal and turtle conservation statutes," message number 8389, July 10, 1990. 306. "Ecuador takes a giant step backwards," Marine Turtle Newsletter, June 1987. 307. Subsecretario de Recursos Pesqueros, Decree N°212, July 31, 1990. 308. Buenaventura, op. cit., July 2, 1996. 309. "Turtle skins seized," Fishing News International, May 1985. 310. Kevin Bailey, Kevin. Peter G. Williams, and David Itano, "By-catch and discards in Western Pacific tuna fisheries: A review of SPC data holdings and literature," Oceanic Fisheries Programme Technical Report, No. 34 (South Pacific Commission (SPC): Noumea, New Caledonia, 1996). 311. The higher hook rates were reported within the U.S. 200-mile EEZ. Robert A. Dollar, "Annual report of the 1993 Western Pacific longline fishery," Southwest Fisheries Center Administrative Report H-94-06, August, 1994, pp. 9, 24-25. 312. Rene Marquez, Mexican National Turtle Coordinator, comments at Mexican-United States Fishery Cooperation Talks, September 4, 1997, Huatulco, Mexico. 313. While the satellite tracking devices were attached to only a few turtles, the preliminary results are striking. All of the tagged turtles moved due south toward Chile. Scott Eckert, Hubbs-Sea World Research Institute, personal communications, September 25, 1997. 314. Felix, op. cit., August 8, 1997. 315. Fernando Felix, Ben J.M. Haase, Jorge Samaniego, and Jennifer Oechsle, "New evidence of the presence of the South American sea lions Otaria flavescens (Carnivora, Pinnipedia) in Ecuadorean waters," Estud. Oceanol., 1994, pp. 85-88. Biologists still do not agree on the nomenclature, but some Ecuadorean biologists are using O. byronia rather than flavescens. Some experts believe that this species is more common than Z calif ornianus, because of the number of carcasses found beached. There is no known resident colony of O. flavescens along the coast while a small non-reproductive colony has been noted on La Plata Island. Ecuadorean biologists also report another species, an unidentified a fur seal, that is infrequently observed along the mainland coast. They are currently using genetic testing in an effort to identify it. Fernando Felix, op. cit., August 12, 1997. 316. See for example A.W. Trites, "Thermal budgets and climate spaces: The impact of weather on the survival of Galapagos (Arctocephalus galapagoensis Heller) and northern fur seal pups (Callorhinus ursinus L.)," Funct. Ecol, Vol. 4, no. 6, 1990, pp. 753-768. 317. D.M. Palacios, F. Felix, L. Florez-Gonzalez, J.J. Capella, D. Chiluiza, and B. Haase, "Sightings of Galapagos sea lions (Zalphus californianus wollebaeki) on the coasts of Colombia and Ecuador," Mammalia, 1997, Vol. 61:1, pp. 114-116. 318. Bailey et. al., "By catch and discards ...," op. cit., table 4.7. 319. Dollar, "Annual report ...," pp. 24-25. 243 320. F. Felix and J. Samaniego, "Incidental catches of small cetaceans in the artisanal fisheries of Ecuador," Rep. Int. Whal. Commn. (Special Issue 15), 1994, pp. 475-480. 321. Resolution Ministerial N° 196, May 9, 1990. 322. V. Papastavron, S.C. Smith, and H. Whitehead, "Comportamiento del buceo de la ballena de esperma Physeter macrocephalus, frente a las Islas Galapagos," Canadian Journal of Zoology, Vol. 67, No. 4, pp. 839-846. 323. "Riesgo para la recuperacid n de la existencia de cachalotes en el Pacifico sureste debido al desarrollo de la pesca de la pota," Aquarius, July-December 1993. 324. Harold Loesch, "Observaciones de ballenas en aguas ecuatorianas," Boletin Cientifico y Tecnico, Vol. 1, No. 4 (Instituto Nacional de Pesca: Guayaquil, June, 1966). A good review of whaling in the southeastern Pacific is available in L. Arriaga M., "Actividad ballenera en el Pacifico suroriental," Revista de Comision Permenente en el Pacifico Suroriental, Vol. 5, 1976, pp. 165-172. 325. Gary Robinson, Friedemann Koster, and Jose Villa, "Reporte sobre el varamiento de las ballenas gansas, Ziphius cavirostris, en Las Islas Galapagos," Boletin Cientifico y Tecnico, Vol. VI, No. 3 (Instituto Nacional de Pesca: Guayaquil, 1984), pp. 161-163. 326. See the individual country chapters on Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay. 327. The authors have no specific data on Ecuador, but some useful background information is available on the western Pacific. Bailey, et. al. "By-catch and discards ...," op. cit., p. 4.12. 328. Dollar, "Annual report ...," op. cit., pp. 24-25. 329. "No! a las redes...," Teco Agro, op. cit., Ed. 7, 1996, p. 38. SECTION XVI. (INTERNATIONAL) 330. For details see the Costa Rican chapter of this study. 331. For details see the Central American chapters of this study, especially the Costa Rican chapter. 332. For details see the Costa Rican chapter of this study. 333. "Finfish market," Seafood Leader, July/August 1996, p. 6. 334. "Colombia tampoco cumple," Industrias Pesqueras, June 10, 1995. p. 21. 335. Recent studies indicate that purse seiners take small amounts of billfish including an occasional swordfish. The number of swordfish taken varies significantly depending on the fishing strategy. Purse-seine fishermen setting on dolphin, for example, take only about three to five billfish per thousand short tons of yellowfin tuna. Purse seiners setting on schools and logs, however, report 12-94 billfish per thousand short tons of yellowfin. Martin A. Hall, "On bycatches," Reviews in fish biology and fisheries, Volume 6, 1966. p. 335. 336. Uozumi and Yokawa, "Country report ...," op. cit., p. 6. 337. "Navy reinforces vigilance," Hoy, September 10, 1994; "Marine resources," and Hoy, September 13, 1994. Some of the charges, however, are somewhat fanciful. One commentator charged in 1994 that "... an entire fleet of Japanese boats, more than a hundred it is said, are trying to change their flags for Ecuadorean ones in order to fish the inshore waters of the Galapagos." Jorge Vivanco, "Blind destroyers," Expreso, September 13, 1994. 338. "Turtle skins seized," Fishing News International, May 1985. 244 339. "Se suspendio permiso de pesca a barco japones," El Telegrafo, June 6, 1989. 340. Fujisaka, "Shark-fishing ...," op. cit. 341. "Illegal fishing for sharks in the Galapagos," El Comercio, September 10, 1994. 342. National Fisheries Research and Development Agency (NFRDA), "Fishery statistics and fishing grounds for the Korean tuna longline fishery, 1988-1992," Technical Report of NFRDA (NFRDA: Seoul, December 1993), 465p. 343. Ramon Salas, SIPESA (Peru), personal communications, August 27, 1997. 344. For details see the Peruvian and Chilean chapters of this report. 345. For details see the Chilean chapter of this report. 346. Delger, op cit., May 24, 1996. 347. "Assumption of the number of tuna vessels reflagged to flags of convenience," Suisan Keizai Shinbun, July 29, 1992. 348. Fujisaki, "Shark-fishing..," op. cit., July 2, 1989. 349. INFOPESCA, op. cit., August 1, 1983. 350. Crespo, op. cit., June 6, 1996. 351. Buenaventura, op. cit., July 2, 1996. 352. Hall, op. cit., "On bycatches," p. 335. 245 APPENDICES Series A: Fleet Series B: Catch Series C: Agencies/Companies Series D: Trade Dl: Overall D2: EU D3: Japan D4: United States Series E: Glossary Appendix A1 .--Ecuador. Artisanal and semi -commercial fleet by landing site and vessel type, 1995. Vessel Landing sites Total type* Esmeraldas Manta San Mateo Anconcito Sta. Rosa Engabao Playas Pto. Bolivar Number of vessels 143 237 447 51 55 102 144 21 31 2 - ... 2 .... . 35 Total 582 633 147 288 502 123 175 434 2,874 * The vessels are described in detail in the "Fleet" chapter. ** Many local observers describe these as advanced artisanal or semi -commercial vessels. Source: Franklin Ormaza, Director, Instituto de Pesca, personal communications. May 30, 1996. Artisanal Fiberglass 420 510 Wooden boats 40 24 Canoes 121 - Rafts - - Sai I boats 1 66 Semi - commerc i a I ** Wooden boats - 33 - 1,747 384 800 50 171 - 52 - 69 Appendix A2. --Ecuador. Manta -based fishing fleet, 1996. Vessel type Number of vessels Number Artisanal/ 3,680 outboard engines Commercial/ 196 inboard engine Tuna purseseine/ 64 up to 1,500 t Foreign/ 31 Association Source: Escuela de Ciencias del Mar de la Universidad Eloy Alfaro de Manabi . Taken from Gonzalo Mora L., "Breve memoria del puerto de Manta en el campo pesquero," provided by the Asociacion de Atuneros del Ecuador (ATUNEC) on February 20, 1997. 246 Appendix A3a.- -Ecuador. Local commercial longlining fleet, 1996. Company/ Length Size Year acquired Vessel name Capacity Vessel or associated Meters NRT GRT AGROL (Manta) Company owned Miry Ann D3 NA 600 NA CONSEMAR~(Esmera Idas) NA NA NA CONSEPAC (Manta) Associated (Foreign) NA NA 2.500 NA ECUAFRESCO (Manta) Associated — (Domestic) Adonay 16 22 Angela Eugenia 12 10 Don Cesar I 17 30 Don Ramon 16 22 Mirella 13 12 Umina 09 14 15 Associated (Domestic) Cat ipso 12 10 Don Juan Mero 15 18 Dona Rosario 17 30 Maria Angelica 12 10 Pelicano 14 15 EMPROCEANICA Lashkmy 1 NA NA Lashkmy 2 NA NA Centauro NA NA Nauti I us NA NA FRESMAR (Manta) Company owned Altair 23 46 Vessels (Domestic)* Alfaro 16 NA Don Enrique I 18 NA Don Enrique II 18 NA Don Jaime 21 NA Don Jaime 1 1 22 NA Don Jorge 18 NA Julio Antonio 18 NA Patricia I 20 NA Patricia II 20 NA Soraya 22 NA Gondi (Manta) Angelica Maria 16 9 Alfonso Gregorio 16 9 Don Javier 16 9 Sajea 16 9 LUBAR (Manta) Company owned+ Ana Be I en 15 10 Andrea 15 10 Carlos Geovanny 15 10 Carlos Humberto 15 10 Don Rafael 15 10 Javier Jr. 15 10 Karl a Tat i ana 15 10 Lolita 15 10 Luciola II 15 10 Maria Lorena 15 10 Marimar 15 10 Millo 15 10 Nelly 15 10 Associated Various (Foreign) 25 20-2' 96 91 94 93 93 94 94 94 96 94 93 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 1995 1995 1995 1995 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 247 MARDEX (Manta) Company owned Don Casi 14 6 Enero** NA NA Gaviota 24 34 Mana 15 8 Martes 11 4 Luce io la 17 15 Lunes 14 16 Pajaro Azul 12 4 Vi ernes 16 10 1992 NA 1994 1992 1991 1993 1990 1990 1992 ORO MARISCO (Guayaquil) Company owned Don Casi II*** 17 15 1993 Associated (Domestic) Others (3) 17 10 A NA Pefresmar (Manta) Company owned Nizan 19 4E 1990 Barco de Progreso 25 10E 1996 Associated (Domestic) Others (28) 18# 4'E NA PEFREEXPORT (Manta) Associated (Domestic) Various (10) 15-25 NA 1995-1996 Pesquera Reyes (Manta) Company owned (powered- engine boats) Adonay I-X+++ 25 25 NA Adalberto 25 25 NA Angel Jr. 20 5 NA Carlos Enrique 25 25 NA Cirilo I 23 20 NA Cirilo II 18 15 NA Cirilo III 18 16 NA Coimbra 25 20 NA Don Cesar 25 20 NA Don Eduardo 20 15 NA Don Jhonny 25 20 NA Ivan 20 15 NA Los Mena 14 5 NA Los Mena II 20 15 NA Maria Angelica 25 20 NA Posi 27 25 NA Rey Adonay 35 30 NA Simon Bolivar 27 25 NA Soraya 27 25 NA (Sai I boats) Don Jose 15 10 NA Don Juan 15 10 NA Dos Hermanas 18 12 *■ NA Genesis 17 10 NA Dragon del mar 16 10 NA Maria Pilar 17 10 NA Tuna Mar 18 10 NA Yenifer 17 10 NA PESYMAR (Manta) Assoc iated### Kona Wind 28 NA 1996 Prime North Ecuador (Manta) Assoc iated### Kona Wind 28 NA 1996 248 Transmarina (Guayaquil) Company owned Altar 50 154 1990 Altar # 7 A " NA NA NA Altar # 10 55 NA 1996 Altar # 11 49 120 1995 Altar # 18++ 50 261 1990 Altar # 68++ 51 174 1991 Associated (Foreign) Daikoku Maru # 78 55 NA ## Koei Maru #11 55 NA ## Kyoshin Maru # 3 55 NA ## Kyoshin Maru # 8 55 NA ## Kyoshin Maru # 10 55 NA ## Fukujo Maru # 38 55 NA ## E - Estimated a Purseseiner This company does not own any vessels. However, they are associated with various large Japanese freezer longliners. — These vessels are owned by company owners and not the company itself. * These vessels are associated through special agreements with the company. ** This vessel sank in 1995. *** This is, reportedly, the only Ecuadorean longliner targeting swordfish. Average dimensions of the vessels associated. ~~ This vessel is owned by VENALUM a joint venture company between Transmarina and an unknown company. + These vessels were acquired from 1995-1996. ++ Sold in 1996 to an Equatorial Guinean company. +++ These 10 vessels are all 25 m long and have a capacity of 25 tons. ## These vessels were acquired from 1985-1993. ### This vessel is owned by Prime North (New Zealand) but is operating for Prime North Ecuador, which is the joint venture company between Prime North and PESYMAR (Ecuador). Source: Various Appendix A3b. --Ecuador. Commercial longliners targeting swordfish, 1996-97. Vessel Name Company Operations initiated** Casi Dos 0R0MARISC0 1995 Cesar Enrique Cesar Fernandez Cevallos Group 1996 Kona Wind PESYMAR* 1996 Lady Esther FRIGOLAB-San Mateo 1996 Unknown Unknown 1996/97 Unknown Unknown 1996/97 Note: These vessels in 1997 were targeting grounds west of the Galapagos. * This vessel is a New Zealand-flagged longliner affiliated to PESYMAR. ** Year in which swordfish operations were initiated. Some of these vessels were previously deployed for tuna. Note: There are approximately two other longliners targeting swordfish in addition to these four vessels. Source: Boris Buenaventura, President, PESYMAR, March 21, 1997. 249 Appendix A3c- -Ecuador. Company longline fleets Company Created Fleet* Company Foreign AGROL 1995 1995 None CONSEMAR 1984 None 1984** CONSEPAC NA 1996# None EMPROCEANICA 1992 NA NA FRESMAR 1992 1992 None Gondi 1993 1995 None LUBAR 1976 1995 NA MARDEX 1987 1990 None OROMARISCO 1991 1993 None Pef resman 1990 1990 None Pesquera Reyes 1984 1984 None PESYMAR 1986 1996 None TRANSMARINA 1981 1985 1985 USTI NA NA NA*** * First year longline vessels acquired or foreign association contracts signed. ** Consemar representatives declined to indicate when they began association contracts with foreign companies, but it could have been as early as 1984. *** The company has association contracts with foreign companies, but no information is available. # The authors have no details on the company's mainland operations but the company deployed a large mothership and four launches off the Galapagos in 1996. Source: Interviews with company representatives. Appendix A3d.- -Ecuador. Ref lagged longliners' Name Ownership* Aldgeles II Andreas 1 1 Sabrias II Others** Korean Korean Korean Note: These longliners are mostly 150-200-GRT vessels * Unconfirmed ** At least 6 other Asian longliners are believed to have been ref lagged in Ecuador. Most were previously flagged in Panama. Sources: Various 250 Appendix A4a. --Ecuador. Tuna purseseine fleet (ATUNEC members), 1996.* Owners Vessel name GRT Jose Agudo and A I i ze 500 Rodrigo Agudo Mario de Genna and Lucia T. 600 Lucia F. de Genna Joselito 120 Don Mario 600 Angel Diaz and Don Bartolo 600 Jose Diaz Jorge Corral and Saturno 100 Rafael Corral Fabricio de Genna Maria 120 Carlos Velez and Romeo 120 Romeo Fernandez Vicente Peralta and Don Quijote 350 Celso Peralta Daniel Buehs and Bernardo Buehs Ricardo Buehs Southern Queen 160 Javier Chopi lea Ciudad Manta 120 Ramoncho 90 Ugabi 1,200 Ivo Cuka Betty Elizabeth 250 Yelizava 600 Betty C 700 Eusebio Reyes Miry Ann D 600 Carlos Cevallos Sajambre 350 (Emproceanica) R i badese 1 1 a 350 Domingo F I ores and Adriana 120 Jorge Corral (Pesmanta) * There are various other members that are not included in the list because they are under regulatory observation. Source: ATUNEC, information provided on February 20, 1997. 251 Appedix A4a.- -Ecuador. Large Ecuadorean tuna vessels (over 400 GRT), 1992 Vessel Size GRT NRT Connie F 1,023 271 Elizabeth F 991 354 Erasno F 1,023 271 Pedro F 991 354 Manuel Ignacio F 1,023 271 Isabel Dos 984 373 Isabel Cuatro 984 373 Note: Ecuadorean fishermen also operated 50 smaller tuna boats in 1992. Source: U.S. Embassy, Quito, April 23, 1992. Appendix A4b.- -Ecuador. Large fishing vessels registered, 1993 Country built/ Size Year Vessel Vessel name Bui It type GRT Peru Erasmo F 814 1975 516 Connie F 814 1989 510 Elizabeth F 990 1983 510 Manuel Ignacio F 814 1983 510 Monte Christi 513 1978 510 Pedro F 990 1983 510 Rosa F 814 1989 510 Spain Isabel Cuatro 824 1974 510 Isabel Dos 824 1974 , 510 United States Victoria A 1,007 1968 510 * 500 GRT or larger ** Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) vessel types 510 - Trawler (These vessels are probably mis-identified seiners) 516 - Tuna seiner Source: U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence. 252 Appendix A4c. --Ecuador. Large* fishing vessels registered, 1996 Country bui It/ Size Built Vessel Registration changes Vessel name type*** Country Date GRT Year France I le Aux Moines 750 1974 510 France November 1995 Ribadesel la 709 1970 510 France August 1995 Italy Maria Franc i sea 1,280 1984 516 Mexico Vanuatu July 1994 October 1995 Japan Halcyon No 1 589 1976 510 Liberia Vanuatu April 1991 October 1993 Tatsumi 810 1979 510 Japan Panama July 1992 September 1995 Peru Connie F 1,022 1989 510 Elizabeth F 990 1983 510 Erasmo F 814 1975 516 Fiorella L 612 1977 510 Lucia T 990 1983 510 Manuel Ignacio F 814 1988 510 Monte Cristi 601 1978 510 Rosa F 814 1989 510 Netherlands Don Celso 565 1974 510 Ecuador Panama September 1994 December 1994 Spain Alize 832 1974 510 Panama St. Vincent June 1993 May 1994 Isabel Dos 824 1974 510 United States Gloria A 597 1970 510 United States February 1993 Victoria A 1,007 1968 510 Panama July 1993 * 500 GRT or larger. ** Country constructed *** ONI vessel types 510 - Trawler ( Many of these vessels are 516 - Tuna seiner Source: U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence. mis identified seiners and long liners. 253 Appendix A5a1 .--Ecuador. Number and tonnage of foreign vessels operating off Ecuador, 1975-92 Year Contracts Tot al Association Lease Vessels Tonnaqe Number Number NRT 1975 - 5 5 246.5 1976 - 9 9 719.8 1977 4 13 17 2,190.1 1978 3 5 8 1,783.5 1979 6 4 10 2,529.9 1980 14 1 15 3,345.9 1981 15 - 15 2,637.5 1982 11 - 11 1,853.3 1983 17 - 17 2,770.0 1984 22 - 22 4,167.0 1985 18 - 18 3,317.0 1986 20 - 20 4,118.0 1987 25 - 25 4,922.0 1988 32 - 32 6,043.0 1989 24 - 24 3,921.5 1990 20 - 20 3,132.3 1991 24 2 26 4,496.8 1992* 24 2 26 6,420.4 1993 NA NA NA NA 1994 18 NA NA NA 1995 12 NA NA NA 1996 18 NA NA NA Note: It is unclear if this data is compatable with the data in A5a1 , NA - Not available NRT - Net registered tons * Twelve vessels dedicated to squid fishing left the country after this activity was prohibited in October 1992. Source: U.S. Embassy, Quito, September 30, 1993. Based on information furnished by Ing. Luis Torres Navarrete, Asesor Tecnico, Subsecretaria de Recursos Pesqueros, personal communications, September 24, 1993 (1975-92 data) and Orlando Crespo, Asesor del Sub-Secretario de Pesca, Direccion General de Pesca, personal communicatiins, June 7, 1976. Appendix A5a2. --Ecuador. 1993-97* Foreign fleet operating in Ecuador, Year Vessels Average Number Size size Number GRT NRT 1993 20 9,108 4,066 455 1994 28 12,790 5,882 456 1995 31 15,104 7,036 487 1966 30 15,263 7,086 509 1997* 18 11,311 4,639 628 Note: It is unclear if this data is compatable with the data in A5a1 , * Through August 14 Source: Departamento Administracion Pesquera, Subsecretaria de Recursos Pesqueros, Ministerio de Comercio Exterior, Industrial izacion y Pesca, personal communications, August 14, 1997. 254 Appendix A5b.- -Ecuador. Large Ecuadorean tuna vessels (over 400 GRT), 1992 Vessel Size GRT NRT Connie F 1,023 271 Elizabeth F 991 354 Erasno F 1,023 271 Pedro F 991 354 Manuel Ignacio F 1,023 271 Isabel Dos 984 373 Isabel Cuatro 984 373 Note: Ecuadorean fishermen also operated 50 smaller tuna boats. Source: U.S. Embassy, Quito, April 23, 1992. Appendix A5c- -Ecuador. Foreign tuna vessels operating in Ecuadorean waters, 1992 Country*/ Type Size Vessel name GRT NRT Japan Chokyu Maru 37 Long I ine 379 148 Hosei Maru 11 Long line 300 154 Hosei Maru 58 Long I ine 343 178 Hosei Maru 68 Long I ine 398 197 Isuzu Maru 23 Long I ine 284 144 Kaigata Maru 52 Long I ine 284 144 Nankay Maru 38 Long I ine 300 154 Sasano Maru 17 Long I ine 300 156 Sasano Maru 28 Long I ine 850 230 Shoei Maru 5 Long I ine 379 224 Shoei Maru 7 Long I ine 344 172 Shoei Maru 28 Long I ine 379 236 Taiho Maru 1 Long I ine 293 108 Taishin Maru 25 Long I ine 299 146 Tenyu Maru 8 Long I ine 299 150 Tenyu Maru 18 Long I ine 299 143 Tenyu Maru 38 Long I ine 379 169 Tenyu Maru 68 Long I ine 379 175 6,488 3 ,028 Korea Tae Woong 502 Long I ine 284 144 Fae Woong 503 Long I ine 284 145 568 289 Panama Star 101 Long I ine 195 86 Spain Isabel Cinco Purse seine 1,065 490 United States Diamond Blue Long I ine 98 57 Vanuatu El Dorado Purse seine 417 167 Total 8,831 4,117 Source: U.S. Embassy, Quito, April 23, 1992. 255 Appendix B1a.- -Ecuador. Fisheries catch, 1980-95 Year Catch 1.000 Metric tons 1980 ~~ 643 1981 564 1982 665 1983 312 1984 841 1985 1,087 1986 1,003 1987 680 1988 876 1989 740 1990 391 1991 384 1992 347 1993 331 1994 340 1995 340 F F - FAO estimate Source: FAO, Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, various years. Appendix B1b. --Ecuador. Estimated average annual catches of major fishery product groups Species Average annual catch Metric tons "Pesca Blanca'VWhite fish* 80,000 Tuna** 90,000 Other 170,000 * Includes dorado, sharks, and other high quality white meat fish (excluding tuna). ** Includes only purseseine catch caught by members of ATUNEC. Source: Escuela de Ciencias del Mar de la Universidad Eloy Alfaro de Manabi. 256 Appendix B2a. --Ecuador. Swordfish catch, 1975-95. Year Catch FAO INP* NMFS* Metric tons ( I ive-weighl : equivalents) 1975 _ NA 4E 1976 - NA 8E 1977 - NA 85E 1978 - NA - 1979 - NA - 1980 - NA - 1981 - NA - 1982 - NA - 1983 - NA - 1984 - NA - 1985 - NA 12E 1986 - NA 479E. 1987 - NA 539E 1988 - NA 68E 1989 - NA 144E. 1990 352 NA 352E 1991 350 NA 361 E 1992 350 NA 339E 1993 33 NA 261E 1994 Negl 525 103E 1995 Negl 504 103E 1996 NA NA 274E E - Estimate NA - Not available Note: NMFS cannot explain the wide discrepancies between different INP data sets (appendices B2a, B2b1-2, and B2c1-2). * NMFS catch estimate based on U.S. import data • In most years almost all of the swordish shipped to the United States was fresh. Small quantities of frozen product were noted in 1986 and 1989. This could have been fish taken by foreign longliners. ♦ This is the live-weight equivalent of the dressed (H&G) weight data provided by the INP and includes the domestic catch which the INP refers to as the "artisanal" catch. Details on the foreign associated catch, which the INP refers to as the "industrial" or commercial catch, is available in appendices B2b1-2. ♦♦ Unusually large Ecuadorean shipments were reported to the EU in 1994-95 (appendix D4). If this was product landed by domestic fishermen, then the estimate based on U.S. import data under-reports actual catches. Source: FAO, Yearbook of Fishery Statistics , various years (FAO data), trade data of major importers (NMFS estimate) (appendices D2a, D3a, and D4a), and Franklin Ormaza Gonzalez, Deputy Director, Instituto Nacional de Pesca, personal communications, May 30, 1996 (1992-94 data); Cecilia Marin, Biologist, Instituto Nacional de Pesca, June 3, 1997 (1989-93 data); and Dr. Mario Cobo Cedeno, Director General, Instituto Nacional de Pesca, personal communications, March 26, 1997 (1995 data). Appendix B2b1 .--Ecuador. Swordfish landings, INP, 1992-94. Year Catch Total Foreign# Domestic## Metric tons (live-weight equivalents)* 1992 NA 262 NA 1993 NA 265 NA 1994 NA 456 NA Note: Discrepancies with other INP data sets are unexplained (appendices B2a, B2b2, and B2c1-2). * Live weight equivalents calculated using a 78 percent conversion ratio from live- weight to H&G. # Foreign vessels associated with Ecuadorean companies. ## Domestic vessels are reffered to as "artisanal" in Ecuadorean statistics. Source: Franklin Ormaza Gonzalez, Deputy Director, Instituto Nacional de Pesca, personal communications, May 30, 1996. 257 Appendix B2b2.-- Ecuador. Swordfish landings, INP, 1994-95. Year Catch Total Foreign* Domestic## Metric tons (live-weiqht equivalents)* 1989 22** 1990 31 1991 99 1992 19 1993 91 1994 92 525 6 1995 285 504 71 * Live weight equivalents calculated using a 78 percent conversion ratio from live-weight to H&G. ** The foreign vessels were required to report their landings for the first time in 1989. # Foreign vessels associated with Ecuadorean companies. ## Domestic vessels are reffered to as "artisanal" in Ecuadorean statistics. Source: Cecilia Marin, Biologist, Instituto Nacional de Pesca, June 3, 1997 (1989-93 data) and Mario Cobo Cedeno, Director General, Instituto Nacional de Pesca, personal communications, March 26, 1997 (1994-95 data). Appendix B2c1 .--Ecuador. Ocean pelagic landings, INP, 1994. Year/Species Catch Commercial Artisanal Total Metric tons 1994 Tunas Yellowf in Skipjack Bigeye Albacore Swordfish Dorado Sharks* Blue Hammerhead Thresher Tiger Mako Smoothounds Carcharhinus sp Subtotal 22,577 89 15,284 1,855 6,155 141 - 10,343 72 409 8 14,256 NA 359 NA 335 NA 2,019 NA 3 NA 666 NA 828 NA 676 936 4,886 22,666 17,139 6,296 10,343 481 14,264 359 335 2,019 3 666 828 676 936** Total 45,032 31,979 77,011 * All the shark species are included under a basket category for the commercial catch. ** This includes only the commercial catch subtotal NA-Not available Source: Dr. Mario Cobo Cedeno, General Director, Insituto Nacional de Pesca, personal communications, March 26, 1997. 258 Appendix B2c2.- -Ecuador. Ocean pelagic landings, INP, 1995. Year/ Catch Total spec i es Commercial Artisanal Metric tons 1995 Tunas Yellowfin 15,809 43 15,852 Skipjack 30,910 2,226 33,136 Bigeye 13,576 NA 13,576+ Albacore - 13,861 13,861 Swordfish 222 394 616 Dorado 9 11,588 11,597 Sharks* Blue NA 141 141 Hammerhead NA 201 201 Thresher NA 1,113 1,113 Tiger NA NA NA Mako NA 137 137 Smoothounds NA 782 782 Carcharhinus sp. NA 429 429 Subtotal 1,548 2,803 1,548** Total 62,074 30,915+ 92,989+ * All the shark species are included in a basket category for the commercial catch. ** This includes only the commercial catch subtotal. + This figure could could be higher since it is missing data. NA-Not Available Source: Dr. Mario Cobo Cedeno, General Director, Instituto Nacional de Pesca, personal communications, March 26, 1997. 259 Appendix B2d. --Ecuador. Swordfish catch estimated from foreign imports, 1975-96. Year Country Total EU Japan US Metric tons* 1975 - NA 4 4 1976 - NA 8 8 1977 - NA 85 85 1978 - NA - - 1979 - NA - - 1980 - NA . - 1981 - NA - - 1982 - NA - - 1983 - NA - - 1984 - NA - - 1985 - NA 12 12 1986 - 27 479 506 1987 - 92 539 631 1988 - 45 68 113 1989 - 63 144 207 1990 - 146 352 498 1991 - 169 361 530 1992 3 122 339 464 1993 3 101 261 365 1994 119 71 103 293# 1995 68 78 103 249 1996 NA 171 274 NA * Live weight equivalents based on data in appendices D2a, D3a, and D4a. Conversion ratios European Union: Loin conversion rate--about 65 percent: (loins accounted for approximately 75 percent of all swordfish imports). H&G conversion rate- -about 78 percent: (H&G accouted approximately 25 percent of all swordfish imports). Japan: H&G conversion rate- -about 78 percent United States: H&G conversion rate--about 78 percent # Based on foreign import data. Ecuadorean observers, however, question the EU import data (appendix D4). If the shipments reported to the EU are not included, the 1994 total would only total 177 tons. Source: Appendices D2a, D3a, and D4. Appendix B3. --Ecuador and Peru. Turtle catch, 1985-94 Year Catch Ecuador Peru Metric tons 1985 124 36 1986 715 9 1987 - 305 1988 - 32 1989 - 79 1990 - 101 1991 - 9 1992 - 20 1993 - 4 1994 ■ " Source: fao, Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, 1994. 260 Appendix C1 . --Ecuador. Companies participating in longline fishing or marketing swordfish, 1996. Companies Location Established Activity* Vessels** Swordfish (Owned Associated) production Year Number Metric tons Members of the Asociacion de Exportadores de Pesca Blanca AGROL/Pesquera Reyes Manta 1995 F,P,E 36 - NA+ Bajespec Manta NA E» NA NA NA DOCAPES Manta NA E^ NA NA NA FRESMAR Manta 1982 F,P,E 1 10 11 FRIGOLAB San Mateo Manta NA E» NA NA NA Gondi Manta 1993 F,P,E 4 - 30 Grumodus Manta NA E» NA NA NA LUBAR Manta 1976 F,P,E 13 NA# 11 MARDELIT Manta NA E» NA NA NA MARDEX Manta 1987 F,P,E 9 - 18 Oro Marisco Guayaqui I 1991 F,P,E 1 3 25 PECIA++ Manta NA F,P # E NA NA NA PESYMAR Manta 1986 F,P,E - 1 11 Pef resman Manta 1990 F,P,E 2 28 30 PROMAROSA Salinas 1986 P,E - - - PEFREEXPORT Manta 1995 P.E - 4 9 OLIMAR Manta NA F,P,E 2 - - Non-members CONSEMAR Esmeraldas 1984 P.E - NA*** 20 CONSEPAC NA NA F 1 - NA ECUAFRESCO Manta 1993 F,P,E - 11 Negl EMPROCEANICA Manta 1991 F 4»» - NA Pesca Fresca Manta 1991 F,P,E 4 15 Negl Transmarina Guayaqui I 1981 F,P,E 3 6*** 90 USTI Santa Elena NA NA NA NA*** NA Total 255+++ NA - Not avai lable * Activities: E - Exporting F - Fishing P - Processing ** See appendix A3a for details on the company's vessels. *** Japanese vessels + Pesquera Reyes sells all its swordfish catch to Gondi. ++ This company is associated with Pesca Fresca and EMPROCEANICA. +++ This is the minimum for 1996, since catch data from many companies is unavailable. • These companies may also be involved in fishing and processing operations. •• EMPROCEANICA operates Pesca Fresca's four longliners. # Apparently, LUBAR is associated with various Canadian longliners. Note: Companies located in Manta Source: Boris Buenaventura, Executive Director, Asociacion de Exportadores de Pesca Blanca (ASO-EXPEBLA), personal communications, May 15, 1996. 261 Appendix C2. --Ecuador. Fishing companies directory Country telephone code: City codes: Guayaquil: 4 Manta: 5 593 GONDI P.O. Box 13-05-4761 Manta ECUADOR Tel: 922-554 FAX: 923-370 Government Agencies Direccion General de Pesca Subsecretaria de Pesca Ministerio de Industrias, Comercio y Pesca Victor Manuel Rendon 1010 y Lorenzo de Garaycoa Guayaqui I Ecuador Tel: 561-296, 306-144 Fax: 308-413 Instituto Nacional de Pesca Subsecretaria de Pesca Ministerio de Industrias, Comercio y Pesca Letamendi 102 y la Ria Caja Postal 09-04-15131 Guayaqui I Ecuador Tel: 401-773, 401-779, 407-680 Fax: 402-304, 405-859, 401-776, 401-773 Companies AGROL Calle 25 Avenida M3 Detras de la Iglesia Perpetuo Socorro Manta ECUADOR Tel: 621-694 TelFax: 626-126 BAJESPEC Cdla. Adace Calle 7ma y Calle A Solar #3 Manta ECUADOR Tel: 286-478 FAX: 288-511 Bloque F, Local #4 Docapes CC El Terminal, Manta ECUADOR Tel: 297-331 FAX: 297-330 Ecuaf resco Manta ECUADOR Tel: 620-050 Fax: 627-297 FRESMAR Km. 3 1/2 Via Montecristi Manta ECUADOR Tel: 923-319 FAX: 924-089 FRIGOLAB San Mateo Km. 4 1/2 Via San Mateo Manta ECUADOR Tel: 626-412 Cellular: (593-9) 743-390 FAX: 416-485 Grumodus Mapasingue Oeste Av. 1* #107 Manta ECUADOR Tel: 351-310 FAX: 350-905 INEPACA Av. Domingo Comin y PJ Bolona (Interior Ofic. El Rosario) Manta ECUADOR Tel: 445-214, 625-584, or 626-100 FAX: 445-067 LUBAR Km 4 1/8 Carretera Manta-Portoviejo Apartado 13-05-924105 Manta ECUADOR Km. 3 1/2 Via Portoviejo Manta ECUADOR Tel: 920-531, 923-629 FAX: 924-105 MARDELIT Manta Ecuador Tel: 613-243 Fax: 625-879 MARDEX Apartado Postal 3894 Manta ECUADOR Tel: 625-971 FAX: 625-832 OLIMAR Casilla Correo 13-05-239 Manta ECUADOR Tel: 627-500 Fax: 627-498 Pecia Edif. Elvigia M-109 Manta ECUADOR Tel: 608-010 PEFREEXPORT Avenida 2 entre calle 11 y 12 Edificio del Banco de Pichincha 8vo Pi so, Oficina 804 Manta ECUADOR Tel: 624-440 Fax: 624-425 email: lcorreaaecua.net.ec 262 PEFRESMAN Calle 113, Av. 103 Manta ECUADOR Tel: 610-646, 621-470 FAX: 625-666 PESYMAR Malecon Los Esteros Manta ECUADOR Telfax: 628-312 Programa de Cooperacion Tecnica para la Pesca Comunidad Economica Europea (VECEP) Quisquis 1502 y Tulcan Edificio Ramisa Piso N°7 Guayaqui I Ecuador Tel: 292-402 Fax: 292-401 Source: Various Oro Man* sco Km. 9 1/2 Via Daule Manta ECUADOR Centro aereo 2047 P.O. Box 522970 Miami, Florida 33152-2970 Tel: 251-180, 256-489 FAX: 255-200 PROMAROSA Avenida 10 de Agosto 103 y Malecon P.B. Ofc. 11 Guayaqui I ECUADOR Tel: 320-867 Fax: 325-775 Ocean Pac Km. 7 1/2 Via Daule Manta ECUADOR Tel: 251-011 FAX: 251-018 Transmarina Ave. Quito 806 Piso 9, Oficina 905 P.O. BOX 3794 Guayaqui I ECUADOR Tel: 920-316, 922-805, 282-520, 282-364 Fax: 621-114, 280-225 Other organizations Asociacon de Exportadores de Pesca Blanca (ASO-EXPEBLA) PO Box 3894 Manta ECUADOR Tel: 627-665 FAX: 627-663 Email: asoexpeama.pro.ee Comision Asesora Ambiental de la Presidencia y de la Comision Permanente de Galapagos Quito ECUADOR Tel: 540-455 FAX: 565-809 263 Appendix D1a. --Ecuador. Swordfish exports by destination, 1991-96 Destination Years 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Metric tons United States 274 282 265 203 80 80 214 Japan* 114 132 95 79 55 61 133 European Union NA - 2 2 81 46 NA Others** NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Total NA 414 362 284 216 187 NA * Estimated swordfish portion of billfish shipments ** Swordfish shipments to other countries are believed to be non-existent or negligible Source: Various Appendix D1b. --Ecuador. Swordfish export prices, 1993-95 Commodity/ Apparent price destination 1993 1994 1995 1996 (US$/Kg) Fresh United States 2.71 3.38 4.34 5.00 Japan* NA NA NA European Union 9.28 11.90- NA NA Frozen United States NA 11.22 NA 2.86 Japan* 3.49 7.09 4.68 European Union NA 3.63 3.72 NA * The Japanese apparent prices shown refer to both marl in and swordfish, since the Japanes combine these species under the same import category. Currency exchange rates: EU: 1993= 1.16 $/ECU 0.86 ECU/$ 1994= 1.19 S/ECU 0.84 ECU/S 1995= 1.30 S/ECU 0.77 ECU/S Source: Various 264 Appendix D2a. --United States. Swordfish imports from Ecuador, 1980-96 Year Commodity Total Fresh Frozen Metric tons 1975 NA NA 3.3 1976 NA NA 6.3 1977 NA NA 66.5 1978 - - - 1979 - - - 1980 - - - 1981 - - - 1982 - - - 1983 - - - 1984 - - - 1985 9.7 - 9.7 1986 363.5 10.4 373.9 1987 419.8 0.3 420.1 1988 53.0 - 53.0 1989 94.5 17.5 112.0 1990 274.3 - 274.3 1991 281.7 - 281.7 1992 263.0 1.5 264.5 1993 203.3 - 203.3 1994 79.6 0.1 79.7 1995 80.2 - 80.2 1996 213.1 0.7 213.8 Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census Appendix D2b. .--United States. Swordfish imports from Ecuador, 1975 ■96 Year Commodity Total Fresh Frozen U.S.S1 ,000 1975 NA NA 7 1976 NA NA 13 1977 NA NA 79 1978 - - - 1979 - - - 1980 - - - 1981 - - - 1982 - - - 1983 - - - 1984 - - - 1985 27 - 27 1986 1,469 36 1,505 1987 1,259 2 1,261 1988 158 - 158 1989 430 63 493 1990 1,149 - 1,149 1991 924 - 924 1992 700 7 707 1993 551 - 551 1994 269 1 270 1995 348 - 348 1996 1,069 2 1,071 Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census 265 Appendix D2c1 .--United States. Apparent prices of fresh swordfish imports from Ecuador, 1980-96 Year Imports Apparent Quantity Value price Metric tons US$1,000 US$/kg 1985 9.7 27 2.78 1986 363.5 1,469 4.04 1987 419.8 1,259 3.00 1988 53.0 158 2.98 1989 94.5 430 4.55 1990 274.3 1,149 4.19 1991 281.7 924 3.28 1992 263.0 700 2.66 1993 203.3 551 2.71 1994 79.6 269 3.38 1995 80.2 348 4.34 1996 213.8 1,071 5.00 Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census Appendix D2c2. --United States. Apparent prices of frozen swordfish imports from Ecuador, 1980-96 Year I mpo rts Apparent Quantity Value price Metric tons US$1,000 US$/kg 1985 - - ,. 1986 10.4 36 3.46 1987 0.3 2 6.67 1988 - - - 1989 17.5 63 3.60 1990 - - - 1991 - - - 1992 1.5 7 4.67 1993 - - - 1994 0.1 1 11.22 1995 - - - 1996 0.7 2 2.86 Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census 266 > C/1 4-» ( () ■*-> +-* c ra j :e st o o st o o c 01 Q. < so >o CO (M o in st o r\j is- st cm st c-- >o «- o in O CO st in «- st en tj> c c st , fs. vO o *■; , "^ "5 "D o <\J OS |s- o o > C • O D "5 1- (/> c E O 01 o +> CJ l_ H- CD 01 st , o OS *~ | st , st T> 3 .c T3 -m PO CO O CO (\J *"" (U > i_ 01 O D (J C CO C/) 01 * * L_ >s • OI * 0) * Q_ (0 CO (_ 0) .*: — ■ (_ E • o O) i- ra o ra *-> 3 E c O -M E *-t c C/1 < >- o o 01 4-» E 4-» c ■M E L_ ra •• .C — ■ CO ra 3 X) Q) ra -Q ra +-» Oi CO (0 o 6.8 kg) Loins (<6.8 kg) Other Subtotal 13,638 10,933 4,479 14,558 22,879 43,333 63,393 Canned Albacore (Not in oil not > 7 kg) - 56 - 3 39 - 144 Unspec i f i ed I n o i I Not in oil (not>7 kg) 1,721 Not in oil (not>7 kg in quota) 1,268 Total* 19,418 17,816 15,882 27,572 50,353 74,074 96,084 * Totals may not agree due to rounding. Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. - - - 1 - - 561 28 4,707 2,038 369 523 1,637 - 199 1,192 369 185 Appendix D2f. --United States. Fishery imports from Ecuador, by product form, 1990-1996 Product Year form 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 US$ Mill ion Live - - Negl Negl Negl - - Fresh 22.0 28.6 35.5 31.4 44.6 52.1 56.2 Frozen 291.2 357.5 370.7 358.9 456.3 459.7 379.9 Canned 6.6 4.9 0.8 6.3 5.0 2.3 2.9 Cured - Negl - - Negl Negl Negl Other 20.6 19.9 17.0 31.5 30.4 42.9 60.2 Total 340.4 410.9 424.0 428.1 536.3 557.0 499.2 Source: US Census of Bureau 268 Appendix D2g. --United States. Fresh imports of oceanic pelagics from Ecuador, 1990-1996. Species/ Year form 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 US$ 1,000 Shark Dogfish 861.7 1,048.7 932.2 527.6 1,307.6 32.3 - Other - - - - - 1.344.0 1,376.3 1,978.7 Subtotal 861.7 1,048.7 932.2 527.6 1,307.6 1,978.7 Swordf ish 1 ,149.0 924.3 700.0 550.5 269.1 347.7 1,068.5 Tuna Albacore 1 ,765.8 2,785.4 3 ,993.4 1,658.5 1,531.4 1,194.6 247.2 Ye I lowf in 64.4 280.5 109.3 89.4 411.6 299.6 1,248.2 Skipjack - - - - 2.3 - - Bluef in 2.2 - - 3.3 4.9 9.0 - Other 959.5 1,562.9 7 ,272.6 6.353.6 22,253.7 28,498.8 30,343.5 Subtotal 2 ,791.9 4,628.8 11 ,375.3 8,104.8 24,203.9 30,002.0 31,838.9 Total 4 ,802.6 6,601.8 13 ,007.5 9,182.9 25,780.6 31,726.0 34,886.1 Source: US Census of Bureau Appendix D2h1 .--United States. Fresh swordf ish imports from Ecuador, by month, 1993-97 Month Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Metric tons January 12.0 17.6 47.7 21.4 11.1 2.2 8.8 23.3 February 5.9 3.3 2.7 24.5 10.2 4.4 23.9 30.2* March 12.3 13.0 38.6 36.8 5.4 3.5 3.5 17.0* Apri I 16.5 32.5 21.0 17.7 5 6 7.9 6.2 16.1 May 14.4 27.9 13.1 10.9 0.7 7.0 5.5 20.1* June 8.6 24.8 10.2 13.7 10.8 9.4 12.7 24.5* July 44.5 44.7 20.5 12.0 11.8 6.0 21.1 38.9 August 57.9 25.9 30.2 15.5 7.1 10.5 25.5 September 12.3 36.9 11.6 18.7 3.4 7.7 32.3 October 21.5 31.6 18.3 5.4 4.8 5.7 21.1 November 23.0 15.5 22.5 10.7 4.7 8.0 21.8 December 45.4 7.9 26.6 15.8 3.9 8.0 30.9 Total** 274.3 281.7 263.0 203.3 79.7 80.2 213.8 * Totals may not add up due to rounding. ** Includes small quanties of processed product (steaks) Source: Bureau of the Census 269 Appendix D2h2.- -United States, by month, 1993-97 Fresh swordfish imports from Ecuador, Month 1990 Year 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Percent ages January 4.4 6.3 18.1 10.5 14.0 2.7 4.1 February 2.2 1.2 1.0 12.0 12.8 5.5 11.2 March 4.5 4.6 14.7 18.1 6.8 4.4 1.6 Apri I 6.0 11.5 8.0 8.7 7.0 9.9 2.9 May 5.3 9.9 5.0 5.4 0.9 8.7 2.6 June 3.1 8.8 3.9 6.7 13.6 11.7 5.9 July 16.2 15.9 7.8 5.9 14.8 7.5 9.9 August 21.1 9.2 11.5 7.6 8.9 13.1 11.9 September 4.5 13.1 4.4 9.2 4.3 9.6 15.1 October 7.8 11.2 7.0 2.7 6.0 7.1 9.9 November 8.4 5.5 8.6 5.3 5.9 10.0 10.2 December 16.6 2.8 10.1 7.8 4.9 10.0 14.5 Total* 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 * Totals may not add up to 100.0 due to rounding. Source: Bureau of the Census Appendix D3a. --Japan. Swordfish and marl in imports from Ecuador, 1986-96 Year Quantity Total B i 1 1 f i sh Swordfish Metric tons 1986 43E 21E 64 1987 145E 72E 217 1988 71 E 35E 106 1989 97E 49E 146 1990 227E 114E 341 1991 263E 132E 395 1992 191E 95E 286 1993 157E 79E 236 1994 109E 55E 164 1995 125E 62E 187 1996 265E 133E 398 E - Estimated billfish and swordfish proportion of the Japanese basket bi I If ish/swordf ish import category. The authors stress that this is a very rough estimate based upon the minimal data available. Source: Japan Tariff Association, Japan Exports & Imports, various years. 270 Appendix E3b. --Japan. Billfish (including swordfish) imports from Ecuador, 1986-96. Product form Year Fresh Frozen Fillets** Other Metric tons 5 59 16 201 29 77 14 132 17 324 35 360 22 264 11 225 19 145 54 133 Total* 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Negl 64 217 106 146 341 395 286 236 164 187 1996 60 338 398 * Totals may not agree due to rounding ** Until 1993 the fillets category included some tuna fillets Source: Japan Tariff Association, Japan Exports & Imports, various years. Appendix D4. --European Union. Swordfish imports from Ecuador, 1991-94 Country Commodity Year 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Germany Fresh Frozen Frozen Fi I lets Frozen Meats Italy Frozen Netherlands Frozen U.K. Fresh Negl Metric tons 1 Negl 1 4 42 5 38 48 Negl Total 81 58 Source: EU. Eurostat. 271 Q_ 01 o x 01 T> Ss, U c l_ (li 01 m <) CL
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CD ro r-s s— s* sO CO s— o oj in K ros tft ro cm oj ro so ■— i «— oj co .—1 oj «— ro OJ "-'-'- Os oo «— Os *— in -4 "4- ~4 -st O ro ro o so Is. ro cm s— «- N. so rs. as * - oj in in so .—1 —■ O is- CO Os VO Is. in co ro cm N. vt ro ro in o) vt co oj sO ^H is. in oj «- CM CO is- sQ -4 CM 0) -o co ro oj in i NsOsO CO CO SsJO CD CM sO 00 IS (/) -C SZ <- * vo x: (0 i- •i- U) J2 0) O 1r~ ■- C T3 "O 4- — (D i • —■ til 01 I_ O ■— V- 3 l_ o 3 ro ro — ■ x: Ol/I (OZ 1DI- ut (D Ol ■i- U) o vs- •— c to -c: T3 "O M- •— 00 rot ■ — ' oj oi c_ o it- L. 3 i_ o 3 ro ro — > jz oj q oo co s: co i— o Os ro i- QJ to x: •i- to o x: Dl/l (O E CO h 10 to ro O 4- ■— C 0) "D "O M- — ro s • — > j^ to o <- ra c ro c x: 3 >. to -l-i ro o ra oi •■ ■m c 0) o x: o i — i — t— 3 * O * * CO Appendix D5b.- -Ecuador. Export products available from selected ASO-EXPEBLA companies Species Season Product Dorado* Marl in, blue Sharks Mako Thresher Swordf ish Tuna, bigeye December-Apri I May-December Year round Year round May-December May-December Fresh H/G, Frozen fillets Fresh H/G, Loins Fresh H/G, Frozen Fresh H/G, Frozen Fresh H/G Fresh H/G * Mahi -mahi Source: Boris Buenaventura, Executive Director, Asociacion de Exportadores de Pesca Blanca (ASO-EXPEBLA), personal communications, May 15, 1996. Appendix E. --Ecuador. Common, English and Scientific names of major species caught with longlines. Common Name (Ecuador) English Scientific Atun Albacora*/aleta amarilla Bom" to barn" lete Ojo grande Bom" to pata seca Corvina de Roca Corvina plateada Colorado Dorado Huayaipe Congrio Meros Pargos Perela Pez de Gallo (gallo) Pez espada Picudos Picudo (marl in) azul Picudo banderon/pez vela Picudo (marl in) gacho Picudo (marl in) negro Sierra Tiburones Azul Aleta negra Cazon Cazon Cazon Cuero duro Marti I lo (cachona) Marti I lo Marti I lo Marti I lo Rabon zorro Tigre Tinto/mako Toro (nato) Tol lo pata negra Tollo (cazon de leche) Ye I lowf in tuna Skipjack tuna Bigeye tuna Black skipjack Pink brotula Seatrout spp. Gulf coney seabass Dorado (Mahi Mahi) Amberjack Kingclip Groupers Snappers Southern rock seabass Roosterf ish Swordf ish Indo-Pacific blue marl in Pac i f i c sa i I f i sh Striped marl in Black marl in Wahoo Blue shark Blacktip shark Galapagos shark Whitenose shark Pacific sharpnose shark Smalltail shark Scalloped hammerhead Great hammerhead Bonnethead Smooth hammerhead Thresher shark Tiger shark Mako shark Bull shark Carcharhinus sp. Sicklefin smoothhound Thunnus albacares Katsuwonus pelamis Thunnus obesus Euthynnus lineatus Brotula clarkae Cynoscion spp. Epinephelus acanthistius Coryphaena hippurus Seriola spp. Genypterus spp. Serranidae Lutjanidae Paralabrax callaensis Nematistius pectoral is Xiphias gladius Makaira mazara Istiophorus platypterus Tetrapturus audax Makaira indica Acanthocybium solandn" Prionace glauca Carcharhinus limbatus C. galapagensis C. velox Rhizoprionodon longurio Carcharhinus porosus Sphyrna lewini S. makarran S. tiburo S. zygaena Alopias spp. Galeocerdo cuvieri Isurus oxyrinchus Carcharhinus leucas C. sp. Mustelus lunulatus * Some locals use the name albacora to identify the bigeye tuna. Source: Various 273 1.3 PERU Peruvian fishermen have conducted one of the largest swordfish fisheries in Latin America. Historical catch data is limited, but available information suggests catches in 1950 of about 2,500 tons and some estimates are substantially higher, nearly 7,000 tons. Most of this huge catch was taken off the northern coast. As the fishery was conducted with harpoons, it involved an enormous effort by artisanal fishermen. The Peruvian harpoon fishery has since ended and during the 1990s only minimal quantities of swordfish have been harvested incidentally by Peruvian fishermen. It is unclear why the Peruvian swordfish fishery declined. It does not appear to have been primarily a resource problem, but rather a diversion of effort. The changing economics of harpoon fishing and the allure of more attractive alternate job opportunities for the artisanal fishermen in the booming anchovy fishmeal and mining industries may explain the reduced harpoon effort. Shifts in abundance and distribution, to which the artisanal fishermen in their small boats with limited range could not adjust, could also have been involved. Such shifts could have been caused by a variety of factors, such as possible climatic changes or massive harvests of fodder species. Some Peruvian specialists, however, do not believe the massive shifts in anchovy abundance have affected swordfish. Peru has not developed a substantial longline or driftnet fleet to target oceanic pelagics such as swordfish or tuna, as has been done in Chile and Ecuador. Peruvian fishermen have deployed few commercial longliners during the 1990s, but with little success. Some of the companies involved had difficulties managing unfamiliar commercial longline operations. Other companies point to Government policies which they claim impaired operations. Peru implemented a tuna management plan in 1994, but few companies have since successfully initiated tuna or swordfish longline operations. Artisanal and small- scale commercial longline fishermen do target sharks and dorado in coastal waters. Notably shark catches have fallen to extremely low levels in the early 1990s. Limited Peruvian construction and high tariffs restricting vessel imports has impeded the development of a domestic longline fishery. Peru has conducted little research on oceanic pelagics including tunas. No research has been conducted specifically on swordfish. Some companies have attempted to catch and export high-quality tunas, swordfish, and other oceanic pelagics. These efforts, however, have had little success. Shipments are still very small and trends erratic. Despite the difficulties experienced, Peruvian companies continue efforts to develop longline fisheries. One company (Pesquera Atlantis) is operating commercial longliners. One of Peru's most important fishing companies (Sindicato Pesquero) has deployed three small longliners for swordfish in 1997 and has targeted swordfish with some success. Another smaller company (Pesquera Eraz) has begun targeting swordfish with its coastal longliner in 1997. The onset of an El Nino event in 1997 is stimulating increased interest as increased billfish catches are being reported in coastal waters, even by artisanal fishermen in small boats. Peru reported small exports of swordfish during the 1990s, generally ranging from 0-31 tons, with the exception of 1992 when 155 tons was exported to the European Union. The source of the unusually large 1992 swordfish shipments is unclear, but was probably not harvested by domestic Peruvian fishermen. In contrast to the difficulties experienced by Peruvian fishermen, foreign fishermen continue to catch swordfish off Peru. The foreign fishing is conducted primarily off the southern coast, both inside and outside the 200-mile limit. The Japanese and Spanish are the most active. The Japanese primarily target tuna and have obtained some Peruvian fishing licenses. The Spanish target swordfish and theoretically operate outside the 200-mile limit, but they transship their catch through Peruvian ports. It is unclear why Peruvian companies are having so much difficulty initiating a commercial longline fishery. A substantial resource is clearly available as foreign distant-water longline fishermen have been successfully fishing oceanic pelagics off Peru for years. Neighboring Chile and Ecuador also have successful longline operations. Peruvian fishing companies have considerable experience and managerial capabilities. They conduct some of the largest fishing operations in Latin America. It may be that fishermen who are used to easily taking tons of fish in easily accessible coastal grounds are apparently finding it difficult to shift to much more demanding fisheries in which only small quantities of fish may be landed, even though the economic returns may be greater in the long run. Other factors include the investments need to build longline vessels, the availability of other species requiring smaller investments and less advanced technology, and a costly regulatory regime TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction 275 I. Industry Overview 276 A. Overall industry 278 B. Oceanic pelagics 283 II. Species 285 A. Stock structure 285 B. Distribution 291 C. Migrations 293 D. Spawning 294 E. Seasonality 295 F. Sizes 297 G. Feeding behavior 297 H. Stock status 298 III. Fishing Grounds 301 IV. Fleet 305 V. Shipyards 313 VI. Fleet operations and gear 315 A. Peruvian fishermen 315 B. Foreign fishermen 318 VII. Catch 320 VIII. Ports 324 IX. Transshipments 329 X. Processing and Products 335 XI. Companies 338 A. Trade Associations 338 B. Companies 338 XII. Markets 344 A. Domestic 344 B. Trade 344 XIII. Government Agency and Policy 347 A. Fisheries agency 347 B. Fisheries law 347 C. Limits 347 D. Management 347 E. Promotion 348 F. Licenses 348 XIV. Research 351 XV. By-catch 352 A. Swordfish fisheries 352 B. Other fisheries 357 XVI. International 358 A. International relations 358 B. Joint ventures 361 C. Foreign Aid 362 XVII. Enforcement 364 XVIII. Future Trends 365 Sources 367 Endnotes 371 Appendices 397 I. Industry Overview Peru has only a brief history of commercial fisheries, despite the massive harvest the country's fishermen now report. Fishermen as recently as the 1930s reported only negligible artisanal catches to supply a small domestic market. From such primitive beginnings in the 1930s, Peruvian fishermen have built one of the world's largest fishing industries. The country's fishermen by the 1960s were harvesting massive amounts of anchovy and other small pelagics to produce fishmeal and oil. Fishermen set world records, making Peru the leading fishing country in several years. Few other countries, however, focused their fishing industry so narrowly on one species and commodity. Peru's fishing industry has undergone tumultuous shifts during its brief history. Fishermen have been buffeted by powerful climatic changes and periodic El Nino events which have had massive impacts on fish populations and distribution. In addition, domestic political differences over the role of the Government in fisheries has discouraged investors and, as a result, the development of the industry. Few investors are willing to commit significant capital if they believe that the Government in a few years or even months will radically change the regulatory structure. The Government and private industry have attempted to diversify the industry away from the dependence on anchovy. Despite Government efforts and numerous private initiatives to diversify, Peru's fishing industry today remains largely dependent on the anchovy fishery and the fishmeal reduction industry. Catches during the 1990s have approached record levels and officials are worried about the increasing fleet capacity and rising effort. Industry observers are worried about 276 the warming water temperatures in 1997 and possible impact on the key anchovy stock. Important resources such as oceanic pelagics are still not being significantly utilized by the country's domestic fishermen. A. Overall industry The first important commercial fishery developments in Peru occurred during the late 1930s and early 1940s when fishermen began landing large quantities of bonito (photo 1). World War II provided a significant impetus to the industry's development. Peruvian investors began to take advantage of the abundance of fish off Peru at the same time that World War II increased the demand for vitamin A and D in the United States. Bonito livers were an excellent source of these vitamins. At first the carcasses were discarded, but a small canning industry soon developed in an effort to utilize the carcasses. The canneries exported the bonito to the United States as canned tuna. The War created an enormous demand for canned food products in the United States and other combatant countries. Bonito exports declined after the war in the late 1940s as U.S. domestic tuna production increased and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) ruled that the bonito could not be labeled as tuna. As the Peruvian canning industry developed, some canneries had begun using the bonito scraps to produce a low-quality meal and occasionally used anchovy and other species for raw material. A Peruvian-United States joint venture built the first fishmeal plant dedicated to anchovy in 1950. Throughout the 1950s, fishermen acquired vessels to supply a growing number of fishmeal plants (photo 2). Peru by the late 1950s was beginning to land and process very substantial quantities of anchovy and by the 1960s had developed a major fishmeal industry. 1 Small pelagic catches to supply fishmeal plants reached enormous quantities, exceeding the catch levels of the major traditional fishing countries. The country's fishermen during the early 1970s landed nearly 13 million metric tons (t) (appendix Bl and photo 3), most of which was anchovy that was reduced to fishmeal and oil. Peru became the world's largest producer and exporter. resulting recruitment failure caused the anchovy stock to crash in 1972. The Peruvian catch fell from 12.7 million t in 1970 to a mere 2.3 million t in 1973 (appendix Bl and figure 1). As a result of this precipitous decline, almost entirely in the anchovy catch, the production of fishmeal and oil plummeted. This was the largest decline any country has ever experienced in its fisheries catch and production. The resulting crisis in the fishing industry induced Peru's left-wing military government in 1973 to nationalize much of the floundering fishing industry. The Government assumed responsibility for a huge seiner fleet and large number of reduction plants, as well as the employment of the crews and workers. A state fishmeal company, the Empresa Nacional Pesquera (PESCA-PERU), was created to oversee the nationalized assets. Many seiners and plants, however, were idled because of the severe raw material (anchovy) shortage (photo 4). Thus the government found itself forced to pay the salaries of thousands of inactive crews and plant workers and maintain a huge network of plants, many closed or working only occasionally because of the shortage of raw material. Peruvian military and civilian governments for the next 20 years made extensive, costly efforts to manage the country's mammoth fishmeal industry (photo 5). These efforts, however, were largely unsuccessful in returning the industry to profitable operation. Financing deficits amassed by state fishing companies required substantial annual Government allocations. 2 Rather than generating revenue, many state companies required massive appropriations to subsidize continuing operations, the state companies that did not run deficits, however generally The massive fishing effort, based primarily on anchovy, combined with an especially severe El Nino event and a Figure 1.— Peruvian fisherman have experienced wide fluctuations in their fisheries catch. Catches during the mid-1990 's are approaching the record level set in 1970. 278 Base 37307 2-64 Figure 2.— Map of Peru. Photo 2 —Peru during the 1960s built a massive fleet of small seiners ("bolicheras") to harvest anchovy for reduction to fishmeal S. Lerrein (FAO) Photo 3 —Peruvian fishermen landed massive quantities of anchovy during the 1960s Fishermen were easily able to fill their ~)QCi holds during short trips R Coral Photo 4 — After nationalizing the fishing industry in 1973, a military government assumed responsibility for large numbers of idled fishermen and plant workers. D. Weidner produced little income for the Government and no tax revenue as they were state entities. In effect, the Government was taxing profitable, efficient private operations to support inefficient state operations. In addition, Government policies to support the state companies, especially PESCA-PERU, impaired the operations of the more efficient private companies which during the 1970s and 1980s continued to produce canned and frozen products. Fishery catches fluctuated widely during the 1970s and 1980s, primarily because of climatic factors and the lingering effect of over fishing in the 1960s and early 1970s (appendix Bl and photo 6). These enormous annual catch fluctuations severely affected the operating results of both state and private fishing companies. The financial burden of subsidizing the deficit-plagued state fishing companies finally proved unsustainable for financially strapped Peruvian Governments and efforts were initiated to reduce the burden. Successive Administration's gradually managed to pare back the state role in the fishing industry during the late 1970s and early 80s. First the fleet was re-privatized. This was accomplished with relatively little controversy in 1976. The second Belleunde Administration in 1980 began closing surplus fishmeal plants and laying off workers. In contrast to the fleet privatization, efforts to rationalize the fishmeal plants gave rise to a great deal of controversy. The social cost was significant and the re-privatization policies resulted in sharp criticism of Photo 6.— The large anchovy catch reported during the 1950s plummeted after the 1972 El Nino. Milton hinder Photo 5— Penis massive fishmeal industry was for nearly 20 years run by a military government. The industry, as a result, developed very differently then in neighboring Chile. D Weidner the Administration's policies. Populist politicians criticized Administration efforts to privatize a multitude of state enterprises, including those in the fisheries sector. These and other economic austerity measures, played an important role in the election of the populist Aprista Party in 1985. The Aprista Administration, following a philosophical commitment to state involvement in the productive sector, reversed the privatization policies of previous administrations. The Administration made another effort to expand the government role in the economy, including fisheries. Some Aprista officials appeared openly hostile to private companies and some press reports described APRA as having "declared war" on private fishing companies. 3 The new Aprista Administration initiated a ;'•■■' further series of costly, but even less successful, efforts to support state-owned fishing companies. The results were another series of financial disasters. Some of these efforts such as the attempt to develop a state tuna fleet through Peruana de Pesca (PEPESCA), a state fishing company labeled by the previous administration as an "elefante bianco," resulted in massive deficits. 4 The current Fujimori Administration has taken several major fishery initiatives. The Administration renewed the privatization process with increased vigor and has succeeded in again sharply reducing the state role. 5 It is in the process of selling the remaining assets of 281 PESCA-PERU and other state-owned fishing companies. Assets sales have grossed the Government over $100 million through 1996. 6 The World Bank has provided assistance in the privatization process. Most PESCA-PERU plants have been sold, but the Government is reporting difficulties selling the remaining assets. 7 Bids were let on five remaining PESCA-PERU plants in May 1997, but only two attracted bidders. 8 Further auctions have been held at gradually lower base prices. 9 The Fujimori Administration has also streamlined the country's patchwork body of fisheries legislation composed of several decades of unrelated and sometimes contradictory fishery laws and regulations. The Government enacted a new general fisheries law in 1992 and subsequently issued implementing regulations. One of the primary goals was to encourage the private sector and attract both domestic and foreign investment. In the process, opportunities have been created in areas previously reserved for state-owned companies. I0 Another primary goal has been to develop a modern fisheries management system ensuring sustainable development. (See "Fisheries Agency and Policies".) Peruvian fishing companies in recent years have benefitted from the best catches in years. The 1994 catch exceeded 1 1.6 million t, approaching the record levels of the late 1960s and early 1970s (appendix Bl and figure 1). Many observers are concerned, however, about the sustainability of the massive fishing effort currently under way. One long-time Peruvian specialist warns that the biomass was greater during the early 1970s before the 1972 crash than it was in late 1995." This suggests that significant future catch declines are possible. The 1995 catch, in fact, declined sharply, but still totaled over 8.9 million tons (appendix Bl and figure 1). Peruvian observers reported in 1996 that catches continued at high levels, running well in excess of Government-imposed catch quotas. Government officials are concerned by the steadily expanding fleet and have been studying possible management options. ' : Preliminary reports suggest a 1996 catch of about 9.6 million tons. Fishing companies are, however, very concerned about the warming water temperatures in 1997. Some observers are projecting a strong 1997-98 El Nino event and substantial Photo 7. -Many new seiners investors declined lo register Peruvian and Chilean catch declines in 1997-98. I3 Private companies during the 1990s are making major investments in the fishing industry, purchasing new vessels and expanding processing facilities (photo 7). Peru's fishing industry is still largely dependent on the production of fishmeal from anchovy and other small pelagic fisheries, but many companies are attempting to expand production of fresh, frozen, and canned commodities for direct human consumption. M Most observers, however, believe that Peru is still not fully utilizing many available resources. The Peruvian fishing industry continues to focus on a relatively small number of species such as anchovy, hake, jack mackerel, sardines, and a few others. The fishmeal sector continues to be the most profitable sector of the industry. 15 One industry observer, for example, contends that of the 712 species occurring off Peru, the industry is only significantly utilizing 16 species. 10 Swordfish may well be one of those species. Peruvian companies are reporting significant increases in fishery exports. Shipments have expanded substantially from the-mid 1980s. Exporters shipped only about $220 million worth of fishery products during 1985, but increased shipments to $685 million in 1993 and a record $980 million in 1994, before declining in 1995 (appendix El and figure 3). Shipments are still dominated by the key trade in fishmeal and oil. Edible products were only 11-13 percent of exports during the early 1990s, although the absolute value of these shipments rose from less than $50 million in 1990 to nearly $90 million in 1993. Edible shipments increased sharply in 1994 to 17 percent of fishery exports valued at almost $170 and some trawlers were added to the fleet during the 1990s Some their vessels in Peru because of tax regulations. 282 1,200 1,000 800 600 400 200 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 Year Figure 3 —Peruvian exports approached $1 billion in 1994, but the great bulk of shipments are still fishmeal and oil. million. The 1994 results represent a significant expansion of the edible fisheries sector, but the long- term trends are still unclear. Edible shipments, for example, declined in 1995. Peruvian shipments to the United States are mostly edible product, primarily frozen (appendix E2c and figure 4). After peaking in 1995 at $53 million declined to less than $40 million in 1996 (appendix E2b). B. Oceanic pelagics Peru has extensive resources of oceanic pelagics. The principal Peruvian oceanic pelagic resource appears to be tunas. 17 Foreign seiner and longline fishermen have at times reported extensive fisheries off Peru, both inside and outside the 200-mile limit. Despite several attempts, Peruvian fishermen have never succeeded in developing a successful tuna fishery to utilize this resource 18 . In contrast, foreign distant- water fishermen have conducted successful tuna fisheries off Peru and they have also reported substantial swordfish catches. Neighboring Ecuador has for years pursued a profitable tuna fishery and in recent years has reported success with longlining, including a few vessels targeting swordfish. Chile has developed both an artisanal driftnet and commercial longline fishery targeting swordfish. 10 Peruvian artisanal fishermen, with assistance from U.S. tuna fishermen deploying freezer vessels as motherships, initiated a major swordfish fishery in the late 1940s and early 1950s. At the time, the Peruvian swordfish fishery was the most significant fishery in Latin America and the quantities involved were much larger than are currently reported by other Latin American countries. Since the 1950s this fishery has declined, with the exception of a few years in the early 1970s. Peruvian fishermen have primarily attempted to use seiners in their unsuccessful efforts to harvest oceanic pelagics. The only commercial longlining until recently has been by foreign fishermen. A few companies and academic groups are now beginning small number of longliners, but results to deploy a have been mixed. Bonito seiners: The fishermen developed an extensive bonito fishery in the 1940s using purse seiners to supply plants producing vitamins and subsequently canneries. Peruvian fishermen, however, turned to the abundant anchovy resource as the immensely profitable reduction fishery grew during the late 1950s and 1960s. Anchovy and bonito stocks were decimated by the 1972 El Nino event. The bonito catch fell from 64,000 t in 1972 to only 7,000 t in 1974. Tuna seiners: Peruvian private and state companies attempted to initiate a tuna purse-seine fishery in the US$ Millions 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 Species □Shark IfflSwordfish ■Tuna 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Year Figure 4— Peru's exports of fresh oceanic pelagics to the United States are minimal and shipments through 1996 are not increasing. mm&am*** Photo 8 —Peruvian efforts to initiate a commercial tuna fishery m the 1980s proved disastrous Some new vessels were never even deployed and, like this vessel, eventually abandoned. D Weidner 1970s and 80s. Vessels were imported from Mexico, Peru, and the United Kingdom. A few small tuna seiners were built in Peruvian yards. Each of the attempts, however, proved financial disasters. 20 Some of the vessels were not even deployed (photo 8). The vessels that were deployed reported disappointing results. Longliners: Academic and commercial groups beginning in the late 1980s have attempted to launch a domestic longline fishery. The most significant attempt deploying large commercial longliners has been Tuna Latin. 21 Other projects have been more modest. Many of the vessels involved are small, but a few companies are introducing improved technology and gear. While the principal target species are tuna and sharks, small incidental swordfish catches are reported. The commercial tuna longline ventures have failed. One company (Sindicato Pesquero) is deploying new vessels in a directed swordfish fishery. The longline catches are still relatively limited and shipments of high-quality fresh products produced in the fishery remain minor. There has been some growth in recent years. Shipments of fresh oceanic pelagics to the United States, Peru's primary market, reached nearly $190,000 in 1994, but have subsequently declined (appendix E2c and figure 4). Most of the shipments are tuna. Despite the failures, some of the companies involved are still optimistic about the country's potential, even though 1996 exports to the United States were well below 1994 levels. The overall trend of fresh fish exports does not appear to confirm any successful expansion of the longline fishery for high-value oceanic pelagics. (See "Markets".) The involvement of Sindicato Pesquero, Peru's largest fishing company, could bring the managerial and technical resources needed to successfully initiate a new fishery. The limited results achieved to date by other Peruvian companies, however, may reflect a marginal commitment by Peruvian companies rather than resource limitations. Fishing companies are assessing the failed projects in the 1990s to determine the causes. One company (Tuna Latin) is convinced that onerous regulations passed by Congress are responsible. 22 Government officials often reply that the industry simply has shown little interest. 23 Other companies (Grupo Sotomayor) are still unsure about why their longline ventures failed. 24 Some local observers note that the success of Peru's fishermen and companies in easily landing tons of small pelagic fish from coastal operations has created a mind set that is difficult to break. This experience has made it hard to convince fishermen and companies to invest in unfamiliar and costly gear, equipment, and vessels requiring more sophisticated operations and new skills. The results are much smaller quantities. Even though the smaller catch may be more valuable, it requires a much different mind set and it may be difficult for experienced fishermen to adjust. Government officials believe that the cost of building dedicated vessels and the unfamiliar technology involved discourage many potential new entrants. Many alternative species are apparently accessible to artisanal fishery with substantially lower investments. The size and cost of vessels capable of reaching potential swordfish grounds and storing such large fish requires investments beyond the means of many artisanal fishermen. 2 " The significant profits from the fishing industry still come from the flshmeal industry. As a result, the industry's attention remains fixed on flshmeal. 2 " 284 II. Species Little information is available on swordfish behavior off Peru. Despite the country's enormous fishing industry, the Peruvian fisheries research effort supporting fisheries is limited. The severe financial problems encountered by Peru during the 1980s caused the Government to severely restrict spending and even well-respected research groups like the Instituto del Mar (1MARPE) have been adversely affected. The research still conducted is very narrowly focused. IMARPE is the country's principal fisheries research institute and is recognized as one of the premier fisheries research institutes in Latin America. The budgetary limitations have, however, severely constrained its operations. Most of the research work conducted has concentrated on the country's massive small pelagic fishery and a few other important resources such as hake. (See "Research".) Very limited resources have been available to work on other species such as oceanic pelagics (even tuna) which are not heavily targeted by domestic fishermen. No studies at all have been conducted addressing swordfish stocks and behavior off Peru. Some preliminary assessments, however, are possible using available catch and trade data. The authors have also noted a few references to Peruvian swordfish in a variety of press reports and general studies, mostly work by foreign fishermen and researchers. A. Stock structure Swordfish occur off Peru, both within and beyond the country's 200-mile EEZ. Historical records suggest that the swordfish population has at times been substantial. (See "Catch".) No actual studies, however, are available on the stock structure and relationship to other Pacific populations. Even the Japanese who have fished swordfish for years in the eastern Pacific are unsure about the relationship between swordfish off Chile and Peru. 27 Several researches have considered the structure of the Pacific swordfish population and some tentative theories have been postulated. There is a growing consensus that swordfish in the northern and western Pacific appear to be part of a large pan-Pacific stock, although considerable discussion on the issue continues. 28 Some indicators suggest that the population off Peru may be part of a separate, but not isolated, southeastern Pacific stock occurring along the South American Pacific coast (Chile, Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia) and adjacent offshore waters. The authors stress, however, that such a conclusion is still tentative. Several factors support the theory that swordfish in the southeastern Pacific are a single stock, probably separate from other Pacific swordfish. Evidence in some areas is weak, data limited, and some reports contradictory. Most significantly, no tagging studies exist to confirm a separate southeastern Pacific population. Overall there is, however, evidence suggesting the existence of a possible separate, but not completely isolated southeastern Pacific stock. Oceanography: Swordfish abundance appears to be associated with current flows along the South American coast and in offshore areas. Coastal waters : The northward-flowing Humboldt Current creates a coherent Large Marine Ecosystem (LME) and swordfish movement in the southeastern Pacific appears to be associated with it for at least part of the year. (See "Fishing Grounds".) Such currents and the LMEs associated with them are play important roles in the movement and distribution of species, including highly migratory species like swordfish. Swordfish are known to take advantage of current flows in some areas for at least part of the year. Different swordfish populations within such an LME would be unlikely. The Humboldt Current is the dominant oceanographic feature along most of the Pacific coast off South America, although its influence varies seasonally along the northern coast off northern Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia. The impact of the Humboldt Current is partly reflected in the similar species mix and shared stocks, including prey species, found off northern Chile and Peru. Thus, it seems plausible that the swordfish population off southern Peru is the same as that found off central and northern Chile. Swordfish movement within the Humboldt LME is unclear. The authors, however, know of no study assessing the impact of the Humboldt and other currents off Chile and Peru on swordfish. The limited current swordfish catch off Peru may mean that only a small proportion of the large Chilean population follows the Humboldt Current into Peruvian coastal waters or, more likely, it may reflect the small Peruvian effort targeting swordfish. 21 ' Foreign catches, confirm that swordfish are present in commercial quantities in coastal waters off southern Peru. If swordfish were simply following the Humboldt Current north, one might expect catches in coastal waters all along the Peruvian coast. Several sources have reported catches off both northern and southern Peru, but there also appears to be an area along the northcentral coast where swordfish is normally not taken in significant quantities. 30 The relationship with swordfish off southern and northern Peru and in inshore and offshore areas is not clear. 285 Photo 9 —Foreign longliners, like this Spanish vessel, are deployed for tuna and swordfish in the southeastern Pacific off Chile and Peru Jose Echeandia Zegarra Offshore waters : Sword fish catches are often associated with oceanic current flows, especially the areas of strong temperature fronts associated with these areas. 31 This also seems to be the case in the southeastern Pacific where catches and yields (Ecuador, figure 8 and Peru, figures 9 and 10) appear to cluster with an-east-west axis in offshore waters. 32 This matches the east-west axis of the oceanic current flows (Colombia, figure 10) and thermal fronts (figures 12 and 13). This clustering pattern suggests that swordfish may be primarily associated with westerly flowing currents, but the data available to the authors is not sufficiently precise to confirm this. 33 Annual catch trends: Available swordfish catch data from the southeastern Pacific show some similarity in annual patterns which would support the common southeastern Pacific stock theory. Most but not all of the active fisheries are reporting declining catches. The available data, however, has serious limitations and significant lapses. The Japanese have collected a comprehensive data set from their longline fishery, but the fact that swordfish was not the target species seriously compromises the data. Some coastal countries have not collected or published detailed swordfish data. The Peruvian data may not reflect resource availability as much as economic and employment trends. Chilean trends, however, do correlate somewhat with the Japanese trends. Chilean trends, especially off the northern coast, are probably a good reflection of the situation off southern Peru. Peruvian data : Peruvian swordfish catch trends have fluctuated significantly in recent years, although available catch data describing these fluctuations are somewhat limited. Historical data showing increases during the 1940s and subsequent declines in the 1950s are somewhat similar to the Chilean pattern, although the Peruvian fishery appears to have peaked in 1950 and the Chilean fishery earlier in 1946 (appendix B2a and Chile appendix E2al). There is no similarity in catch trends since the mid-1980s when Chile initiated a major fishery for swordfish. Given the limited Peruvian fishing effort during the late 1980s and 1990s, the recent fluctuations in the Peruvian domestic fishery are probably not statistically significant and do not reflect species abundance. Thus they would not necessarily fluctuate like the Chilean fishery, even if there was a common stock. Spanish fishery : While no catch data is available, the withdrawal of Spanish fishermen operating from Peruvian ports in 1994-95 may be a better indication of catch trends then actual Peruvian catch data (photo 9). The withdrawal tends to suggest declining catches and thus confirms the Japanese and Chilean trends, further evidence of a common stock. There were, however, a few Spanish fishermen who returned to the southeastern Pacific in 1996 (appendix A2 and Chile, appendix D4). 34 Ecuadorean data : Available Ecuadorean data is confusing and can not be used at this time to assess annual patterns (Ecuador, appendix B2a). 35 Anecdotal reports in 1996 and 1997 suggest that swordfish catches are increasing, a trend which has been *■ confirmed by U.S. import data (Ecuador, appendix D2a). This aberration from a general catch decline in the southeastern Pacific appears to reflect the opening of new, formerly unfished grounds rather than trend lines in the existing fishery/ 6 Japanese longline data : The Japanese longline fleet in the southeastern Pacific (FAO area 87) has conducted the primary fishery harvesting the species during the 1960s-80s. Correlation with coastal state patterns could be possible evidence of a single southeastern stock. The authors stress, however, that the Japanese fishery is a multi-species fishery which in recent years has primarily targeted bigeye. Thus fluctuations in the swordfish catch may not necessarily reflect actual swordfish abundance. The Japanese swordfish catch peaked in 1992 at 1,027 t (Latin America, appendix C2b). The Japanese catch had since declined to only 286 J ' i" -.«. 9 Photo 10— Chile has developed Latin Americas largest swordfish fishery deploying both commercial longliners as well as a variety of artisanal boats which primarily use driftnets. D. Weidner 689 t in 1994. Peru does not currently catch sufficient swordfish to develop statistically meaningful catch patterns. The Japanese pattern is, however, similar to the Chilean pattern, part of which is conducted off northern Chile adjacent to southern Peru. Chilean data : The Chileans like the Japanese have reported major catch declines in the 1990s (photo 10). The Chilean fishery peaked at over 7,250 t in 1991 and has since declined to only 2,600 t in 1995 (Chile, appendix E2al). This is similar to the Japanese catch pattern, although the Chilean decline has been much more precipitous. Seasonal catch patterns: Similar seasonal patterns would be another indicator of a possible common southeastern Pacific stock. Available data does suggest some common patterns in the southeastern Pacific. The seasonal fluctuations, however, are highly complex and there appears to be significant differences in northern and southern areas where the fish is caught. Peruvian data: The authors have catches reported in 1968 were January to March, but this shifted during the 1970s to March through May. Then during the 1980s the best catches were reported during January-February and June (appendices B4a-b and figure 8). While the months have varied, IM ARPE has consistently reported that the best fishing season in the north was during the first half of the year. Chilean data : The Chilean commercial longline fishery is generally conducted to the north of the artisanal fishery, primarily off the northern and north- central coast. 37 I hus catch patterns in the fishery could be similar to patterns off the southern Peruvian coast. The Chileans report that the great bulk of the catch is taken from March through August, although there are some annual variations (Chile appendices E4al-2). The most important months are generally April through June. Japanese longline data : Japanese longline catch data show sharply contrasting seasonal patterns off northern and southern Peru. Some of the available statistical assessments of the Japanese data indicate varying patterns, perhaps resulting from differences in analyzed available Peruvian catch data from 1968-95, but the time series is incomplete and during recent years the quantities involved have not been statistically significant. In addition, during these years, landings were almost entirely reported in northern ports with the exception of swordfish taken incidentally by factory vessels (appendix B3c2-d2 and figures 5-7). The best Metric Tons 250 200 1975 1976 1977 1978 Year 1979 Figure 5.— Peruvian fishermen landed almost all of their swordfish catch at northern ports during the 1970s, especially Mdncora. 287 Metric Tons Port □Mancora ■Caleta Cruz □Zorritos □Acapulco ■Cancas □Talara EQPaita Year Figure 6— Peruvian fishermen continued to land most of their swordfish in the north during the 1980s The importance of each port varied significantly from year to year. Metric Tons 350 / 300 250 200 150 100 50 f Coast □Southern Coast □Foreign By-catch ■Northern Coast y "'■! ' ' _» I p =7 u- 1990 1991 1992 1993 Year 1994 1995 Figure 7— Peruvians continued to land swordfish catches in the north during the 1990s, but very small quantities Foreign fishermen landed swordfish by-catches in the south. Percent Month Figure 8 — Peruvian swordfish seasonal patterns have varied somewhat since the 1960s, but generally the best catches are reported at the beginning of the year. the time period covered. Northern coast: Along the northern coast there is little seasonal variation, although in recent years (1991-93) catches are somewhat better at the beginning of the year. 38 This generally confirms the available Peruvian data. An historical study of Japanese longline yields (1952- 85) shows a more mixed picture, providing no clear seasonal pattern along the northern coast (figures 9 and 10). The best months off Ecuador and northern Peru were February, April-May, and August-December. 39 Northcentral coast: Along the northcentral coast the seasonal pattern during recent years was similar to the northern coast, but yields were much lower. 40 An historical yield study Monthly CPUE: Fish per 100 hooks * < 0.050 • 0.051 - 0.160 = 0.160 < E 100 120 140 160 E 180 160 W 140 120 100 80 w : :Vii] i: :"T| . !: : — Y:7;7:j-: —77777 _ - : , ;r: r __._. j — — I "^ : i ; - ; tt^=: j-rrn ' ; -' : ? N SWORD CPUE FEBRU FISH ARY : ' »j* ,•»;*, , Tp^Tp^T ' ? * t : * ^f~ ■* _."-_.. r ; *7-.m . ,- JK^ifi : iili'i ::!::: s U 5 - s ■; * s $ # n ? x a". ! i§ 3 # #ft ^*; T- s ii i I y&i E 100 120 140 160E 180 160W 140 Figure 9 —The Japanese reported relatively good fishing off northern Peru in February, but the seasonal pattern is difficult to determine Sosa-Nishizaki and Shimizu. confirmed poor yields along the northcentral coast and the resulting lack of effort makes it difficult to assess a seasonal pattern. 4 ' Southern coast: Along the southern coast and adjacent offshore areas the best catches are reported in the second and third quarters. 42 This generally confirms the Chilean data. An historical study of Japanese longline yield also generally confirms the pattern; the best months were April, July, and September. 43 Geographic catch patterns: Geographic catch patterns provide some of the strongest evidence of a separate southeastern Pacific stock. The principal swordfish fishery in the south-eastern Pacific has been the Japanese fishery, which clearly shows a distinct clustering of good catches and high yields in the south eastern Pacific (Ecuador, figure 8). When coastal catches (Ecuadorean, Peruvian, and Chilean) are added to the assessment there is even a more pronounced clustering (Chile, figure 13). Japanese longline data : Japanese longline fishermen during the 1990s reported good swordfish catches in the southeastern Pacific, stretching from latitudes off Colombia to southern Peru, out to about 150°W. 44 Japanese catch data, for example, show an unbroken area of swordfish catches stretching from the Ecuadorean and Peruvian coasts (70- 80°W) out to about 145°W, before beginning to fall off. 45 Other authors have also reported a clustering of catch or yields in the southeastern Pacific, although the pattern and extent of that cluster 4 6 varies. Notably one of the enduring features in the southeastern Pacific cluster is a persistent area off the northcentral Peruvian coast where little swordfish was taken. The lack of fishing reported by the Japanese off Chile in recent years probably reflects Chilean enforcement capabilities and the policy of not licensing foreign swordfish fishermen. Japanese longline data covering a longer period show similar clustering and very high yields off northern Chile. 47 The relatively tight clustering produced from a visual plotting of Japanese 40 20 20 40 120 100 80 W 289 longline catches and yields strongly suggest a relatively, but not completely, isolated southeastern Pacific population (Ecuador, figure 8 and Peru, figures 9 and 10). 48 Japanese longline fishermen, especially in recent years have reported no swordfish catch along the Chilean coast. 49 This appears to reflect Chilean exclusion of foreign fishermen from its 200-mile zone, rather than an absence of fish. Peruvian data : Peruvian catch data shows swordfish taken almost exclusively along the northern coast (appendices B3 series and figures 5 and 6). The absence of catches reported along the southern coast appears to reflect lack of Peruvian effort because N 40 20 20 40 S E 100 120 140 160 E 180 160 W 140 120 100 80 W SWORDFISH I CPUE SEPTEMBER ■ J .. . ? -= • I* *^lii!!iiilll! ■ij;'i ;, in:>ir^. f :' ,' N 40 20 20 -40 S ^ = ^. ^. .=, ".■:'' . : ..j. - Laj_ _ i 1 — n _iii — _-. — j 1 — ^ — t : i'H 1 ;;: \i\\\im *\ 1||^ ^!* i § *;* = - =^^ ~ = ^^ ' r ii- ! 1 1 ! ! i ! ! lillii^HI 7W "^ ~ s j j I j j - 5 | t } 4 ( :T|ri ■-■ i __ i i f-ij : *|* * «■ *|* * * *i* s s ;|f'; * ilfiiiii l~££~^l-lYr7f ' : " i " ' T " ; " " " * ; " . . ... . . ~ "Jl^i": " "" :''!%'' '^ =r ' =-it -r tr * J - » - ~ \ ' - ■ ■= 1"^=^ rL-* *^j?&fl--*\.t - , *;* c « »|« 3 * * i 1 I 1 * & ' j:T ; iTg ^jplUJiiik :■: ,; .■*#♦#♦ *'* ! *1* * * * 1 * * ;l| i :fW i i 1 1 1 i 1 1 ! i i i : ""N E 100 120 140 160 E 180 160W 140 120 100 80 W Spanish data : The authors have no data on Spanish Pacific grounds. Given that the fishermen operate primarily from Ilo in southern Peru and desire to operate from Chilean ports to the south, they clearly are fishing in the southeastern Pacific, as far south as 43°S. Anecdotal reports from Peru and Chilean Naval data confirm this (Chile, appendix D4). 5 ' The Spanish appear to be fishing primarily at latitudes off southern Peru south to central Chile. Some reports suggest they may fish as far north as Ecuador. 52 (See "Fishing Grounds".) Thus the Spanish activity provides more evidence of a clustering of swordfish catches in the southeastern Pacific, presumably enlarging the area suggested by Japanese data to the south. It is not know, however, with any precession how far into the oceanic waters of the eastern Pacific that the Spanish vessels Figure 10— The Japanese reported some of their highest yields off northern Peru in September. Sosa-Nishizaki and Shimizu Japanese and Chilean fishermen report catches in the area. The Peruvian data adds to the southeastern Pacific clustering reported by the Japanese. Chilean data : Chilean fishermen since the mid-1980s have reported very substantial catches along its central and northern coast in both coastal and offshore areas (Chile appendices E2el, E2g and E2hl-2). 50 The substantial Chilean catches also provide further evidence of a notable clustering of catches in the southeastern Pacific. When added to the cluster of Japanese yields and catches (Ecuador, appendix 8 and Peru, appendices 9 and 10) it shows and even more distinct cluster extending down to coastal waters off central Chile. operate. One Chilean source 3 2 0-800 kilometers. 53 Another source indicates Spanish operations out to 8 4 ° W which would be about 1,500 km off Chile, but less off Peru as the coast runs northwest. 54 Yield trends: Yield trends reported in the southeastern Pacific appear similar, but not identical. Chilean researchers have since 1991 reported very significant declines in yields. 55 Japanese fishermen have reported declining yields since 1986, but not nearly as drastic as those reported by the Chileans during the 1990s. 56 Peruvian data shows extremely limited swordfish catches (appendix B4a), but no data is available on effort. (See "Stock status" below.) The withdrawal of the Spanish swordfish vessels in 1994-95 suggest that their operations from Peruvian ports were experiencing disappointing yields, although a few vessels returned to the Pacific in 1996 (appendix A2). 290 Genetics: Chilean researchers are planning a genetic electrophoresis to attempt to assess the relationship of swordfish off Chile with that off Peru and the southeastern Pacific as a whole. 57 The authors know of no genetic work in Peru. Preliminary studies by U.S. researchers, however, have found fish off Chile and Ecuador to have basically identical genomes. 58 The U.S. researchers also note significant diversity with other Pacific fish. 59 Although no samples have yet been studied from Peru, if Ecuadorean fish are genetically identical to Chilean fish, almost certainly fish off Peru will also have identical genomes. This is strong evidence that Peruvian fish are part of a population occurring off Ecuador south to Chile which may be separate, but not isolated from a larger pan- Pacific stock. 60 This conclusion, however, is still tentative and not shared by all genetic researchers. A Japanese geneticist, for example, using different methods from the U.S. research group has not found evidence confirming a separate southeastern Pacific stock. 61 Migratory patterns: Migratory movements also provide some indications that the swordfish off Peru are part of a separate southeastern-Pacific stock. The fish off southern Peru appear related to the large population off Chile as the fish begin to appear off southern Peru about the same time that they move out of Chilean waters. (See "Seasonality" and "Migrations" below.) This appears to be part of a circular movement of fish extending west and then south before turning east again to approach the Chilean central coast. 62 Migratory movements off northern Peru, however, appear more complicated. The seasonality and thus migratory movement of the fish in the north appear markedly different than off southern Peru. In addition there is an area along the northcentral coast where swordfish do not appear abundant. (See "Distribution" below.) Thus there may not be a significant movement of the fish north along the coast from southern to northern Peru, despite the prevailing northern-flowing Humboldt Current. Exchanges may be more prevalent in offshore waters. B. Distribution Swordfish are known to occur off Peru, both within and beyond the 200-mile EEZ. No stock assessment studies, however, providing information on swordfish distribution off Peru are known. The authors know of no Peruvian or foreign studies describing swordfish distribution and changes over time. Information on swordfish distribution off Peru is based almost entirely on data derived from the fishery. Both domestic and foreign fishermen have compiled catch and landings data. Some information is available on the grounds targeted and the landing sites, providing possible insights on species distribution. 61 Historical Peruvian landings data provide some insights, although the Peruvian catch in recent years has been so small that it does not provide a useful indication of distribution. Increasing activity in 1997 may provide more useful data. Foreign studies and fishery statistics provide more insight into the possible current distribution off Peru. Japanese longline fishermen provide the most extensive data set. Japanese swordfish catches, which in part reflect actual abundance, have varied substantially from year to year, but at least some fishing has been reported annually from Colombia south to Chile. 64 The historical Peruvian fishery appears to have been primarily off the extreme northern coast around Cabo Blanco. The foreign fishermen active in the 1990s have generally focused their effort off the southern coast. Neither Peruvian nor foreign fishermen, however, have ever reported significant catches along the northcentral coast. Peruvian fishermen: The primary focus of the directed fishery in the late 1940s through the 1970s was primarily coastal waters along the extreme northern coast (north of 5°N). Subsequent Peruvian fishing has been much less intense and has included reports of good yields off the southern coast at some distance from the coast. Primarily northern : No historical Peruvian data is available by fishing areas. IMARPE has, however, published some landings data by port. Given the limited range of the harpoon vessels, the location of the landing site is probably a good, albeit rough, indication of where the fish was caught. The large catches reported during the late 1940s and early 1950s (appendix Bl) were primarily landed at ports along the extreme northern coast (north of 5°N), in all but a few exceptional years (appendices B3 series). The most important ports were usually the northern ports of Cabo Blanco, Caleta Cruz, Mancora, Talara, and Zorritos. All of these ports are located at or north of 5°N. Cabo Blanco is more important than suggested by the data. Many fishermen operating off Cabo Blanco landed the catch at other nearby ports with larger fishery markets rather than at Cabo Blanco. The company (Sindicato Pesquero) planning to initiate swordfish longlining in 1997 confirms that the area around Mancora has traditionally been the most important fishing area. 65 The abundance of swordfish off northern Peru apparently is in part due to the confluence of the cold Humboldt current with the warmer equatorial water off northern Peru and Ecuador. (See "Fishing Grounds".) Historical reports also suggest some limited fishing off the southern coast. 66 The authors do not, however, know of any 29! significant catches along the northcentral coast and none have been reported by IMARPE (appendices B3 series). The company (Sindicato Pesquero/SIPESA) which has begun to longline swordfish, reports the best early results in the south off Matarani and Ilo during 1997 (appendix B8al). One of the captains involved believes that poor 1997 catches off the northern coast may be due to abnormally high water temperatures in the north as a result of the developing El Nino. 67 Primarily coastal: Reports during the early 1950s indicate that the fishery was conducted relatively close to shore, 65-80 kilometers (km) from port. This may reflect the limited range of the small artisanal vessels in use at the time and thus does not indicate that the fish were not abundant further offshore. Some reports suggest that the fishermen occasionally fished up to 400 km off the coast, but such effort must have been relatively rare given the small vessels used. Peruvian commercial fishermen have since reported catches both within and beyond the country's 200-mile zone. One Peruvian company which has now ceased operations (Consorcio Pesquero) reported catches as far as 1,600 km off shore during 1995-96. 68 The authors believe that few other Peruvian fishermen are conducting such distant operations. SIPESA's swordfish trials in 1997 have been up to 600-700 km off the southern coast (appendix B8al). Artisanal fishermen taking swordfish in 1997 because of the unusual El Nino conditions report catches with driftnet and lines very close to the coast. 69 Foreign fishermen: Fishermen from several foreign countries have reported swordfish catches off Peru. Foreign catch and effort data provide further clues as to possible distribution patterns, although considerable caution is required when using this data as swordfish was not the target species. 7 " Currently the major foreign effort is deployed by Japan and Spain. Unlike the Peruvian fishermen who landed much of their catch in the north, the Japanese and Spanish have reported catches off the southern coast. This may in part reflect varying yields from inshore and offshore fisheries because the Peruvians off the northern coast fished close to the coast while the foreigners in the south generally fished further off shore. Japanese fishery : The most detailed reports have been compiled by the Japanese longline fishermen. The Japanese catch and yield data provide some suggestions as to the distribution of swordfish off Peru, but should be treated with considerable caution. 71 The Japanese fishery in the ETP during the 1990s has been primarily conducted well out into the Pacific, west of 100°W. They have also been active in coastal waters off southern Peru (10°-20°S), and to a lesser extent off Ecuador and extreme northern Peru (0°-5°S). The Japanese, like the Peruvian fishermen, report negligible catches off Peru's northcentral coast (5°-10°S). 72 Available Japanese yield (CPUE) data for 1952-92 showed a similar pattern of fish being taken off Ecuador and northern Peru (0°-10°S), and to the south off southern Peru and northern Chile (20-30°S). Notably there was also an area in between, off northcentral Peru (5- 10°/15°S) where swordfish appear much less abundant. 7 ' Another study of Japanese longline data for 1952-85 confirms that for much of the year swordfish availability along the northcentral coast is limited and that the best grounds are either extreme northern Peru (0°-5°S) and southern Peru/northern Chile (15°-25°S) (figures 9 and 10). 74 Spanish fishery : Spanish longline fishermen have been active in the eastern Pacific during recent years. (See "International".) While they have not released data on their operations, they appear to have focused primarily on latitudes off northern Chile and southern Peru. Much of the Spanish effort appears to be conducted off Chile as far south as 35°S, roughly off Talcahuano. One Chilean source indicates that the Spanish operate as far south as Coquimbo (about 30°S). 75 A Peruvian source roughly confirmed the Chilean estimate, indicating that Spanish fishermen operate from 5°S-35°S and that grounds 500 km west of Chile's Juan Fernandez Islands were particularly important. 76 A Chilean fishermen working with a Peruvian company reports operations are primarily conducted from central Chile to southern Peru, but some activity is reported from 43°S north to Ecuador. 77 Such operations are roughly confirmed by Chilean Navy data (Chile, appendix D4). Various reports have been received concerning the distance off the coast that the Spanish operate. One report suggests operations as far as 84°W. 7S This would mean about 1,500 km off northern Chile, but somewhat less off Peru because the coast runs to the northwest. Other- foreign fisheries: Chilean fishermen began longlining in the late 1980s and have done some test fishing at latitudes off Peru and Ecuador. One Chilean study of eastern Pacific longline fisheries beyond the Chilean, Peruvian, and Ecuadorean 200- mile zones reported a swordfish by-catch along with the tuna catch. 70 Other foreign fishermen deploying longliners (Korea and Taiwan) in the southeastern Pacific have not targeted swordfish in recent years (Latin America, appendix C2b). Thus no insights are available on swordfish distribution. Taiwan is active in the south Pacific (10°-35°S), but well to the west of Peru. Taiwan in 1992, for example, did not report billfish (including swordfish) any closer to the South American coast than 110°W. 80 This is in sharp contrast to the much more active fishery along the Atlantic coast of South America, although the primary 292 target species in the Atlantic are tunas (albacore, bigeye, and yellowfin). 81 Korean longliners have reported some activity in the ETP: off Ecuador and Colombia (1988-89), off Peru (1990), off Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Chile (1991), and Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru (1992). 82 The Koreans reported tuna catches, but very little swordfish (Latin America, appendix C2b). Normally tuna longlining would also take incidental swordfish catches, but Korea has reported no swordfish catches in the area since 1991 and no significant catch since 1980. C. Migrations The authors know of no studies describing swordfish migrations off Peru which can only be confirmed with certainty through tagging studies. Seasonal fluctuations in the fishery and a few scattered observations, however, provide some insights into possible migratory movements. Available catch and yield data suggest that swordfish seasonality off Peru appears highly complex, especially at tropical latitudes. Attempts to use the data to construct possible migratory patterns has proven difficult. 83 One clear conclusion is that there are clearly sharp differences in swordfish behavior off the southern and northern coast. Distinct seasonal patterns off the southern coast suggest a distinct circular migratory pattern in the southeastern Pacific, although there appears to be a residential population of juveniles on the Nazca Ridge. Migratory behavior along the northern coast is less clear. The authors at this stage can only speculate on migratory behavior using the limited seasonal data available because the absence of tagging data makes it impossible to draw any firm conclusions. Seasonal trends: The seasonality of swordfish appears to vary significantly off the northern and southern coast. The fish appear to be present in commercial quantities off northern Peru all year round, although they appear to be more abundant at the beginning of the year. There are much more marked seasonal fluctuations along the southern coast suggesting an annual circular migratory route. 84 (See "Seasonality" below.) Northern coast : Migratory movements based on the available seasonal data are highly complex and difficult to assess off northern Peru. Southern coast : Seasonality off the southern coast suggests a circular pattern running from feeding grounds along the central Chilean coast north and then west to spawning grounds in oceanic waters and then south and west back to the Chilean central coast. The seasonable pattern off southern Peru, corresponds closely to this theorized migratory pattern. 85 Such a close correlation suggests that the fish may be moving north from central Chilean to northern Chile/southern Peruvian before turning west into oceanic waters. There is some evidence suggesting that the swordfish off Chile may be following the migratory track of jack mackerel for at least part of the year. Juveniles: Large numbers of juveniles have been noted off Peru's southern coast on the Nazca Ridge. This may in fact be a nursery area for juveniles which may not make the long migrations many of the adults appear to make. The juvenile population on the Ridge may be partly due to the availability of appropriate prey items. 86 (See "Feeding behavior.") Little has been written about the distribution of juvenile swordfish or presence on submarine structures. 87 Studies assessing sea mounts in the north Pacific, for example, have found they tend to aggregate swordfish, but available reports tend to describe adults and not juveniles. NMFS researchers working on swordfish in the north Pacific around the Hawaiian Islands have noted that juveniles are caught in relatively greater proportion at lower latitudes than adults. Notably the Hawaiian Islands and the Nazca Ridge are at similar latitudes. 88 Studies describing other oceanic predators often describe a different, more equatorial distribution, for juveniles than adults. Such differentiation may be especially true for swordfish as they do not school. Juvenile swordfish would seem to be vulnerable to cannibalism if they moved in the same area as adult fish. 1 . Southern Peru While no Peruvian data is available on swordfish off southern Peru, Japanese longline data suggest the fish off northern Chile and southern Peru are most abundant from April-June, but then appear to move west. The Japanese report that the fish are especially abundant in off-shore waters (80°-100°W) from July- September and later from October-December even further west (100°-145°W). 89 This suggests that the fish occurring off Chile and southern Peru may be moving west into oceanic areas during the latter half of the year. The close correlation of the seasonal pattern off Chile, suggests that swordfish off southern Peru may be involved in the same circular movement in the southeastern Pacific that is theorized for the fish off Chile. 90 The two leading reasons for swordfish migratory movements are feeding and reproductive behavior. Little data, however, is available on these two factors off southern Peru. Feeding: Chilean researchers have identified jack mackerel ("jurel") as an important swordfish prey item. 91 Swordfish off Chile appear may be following the northern movement of jack mackerel along the coast. The seasonal and geographic pattern of Chilean swordfish and jack mackerel fisheries are similar. 92 293 Less data is available on southern Peru. One fishermen has noted that the stomach contents are primarily squid and lesser amounts of horse mackerel ("caballa") in 1997 operations off southern Peru. 93 Peruvian fishermen , however, take little squid off the southern coast (appendix B7b2). Only limited data is available to the authors on the Peruvian jack mackerel fishery. One study indicates that jack mackerel occur in Peruvian waters as far north as about lCPS. 9 '' IMARPE reports that jack mackerel are regularly taken as far north as Paita (5°S).' 5 Peruvian catch data suggests that jack mackerel off Peru are not as seasonal as off Chile, although the authors do not have data on jack mackerel seasonality by region. IMARPE reports catches off Peru throughout the year (appendix B7a). 96 Catches off southern Peru are currently limited (appendix B7bl-2 and figure 11). Peruvian fishermen are, however, just beginning to take jack mackerel in significant quantities, 0.3 million t in 1995 (appendix B7a). The species require larger vessels to assess grounds further off the coast than those vessels which target anchovy. As a result, current catches probably do not reflect the actual distribution of the species. Reproduction: There is reason to believe that there is extensive spawning of swordfish south of 10-12°S in waters east of 110 o W. (See "Spawning" below.) There appears to be a movement west of swordfish off Chile and Peru. The fish off Chile and southern Peru appear to be present in coastal waters at 70 o -80°W (second quarter), 80°-95°w (third quarter) and 95°- 145°W (fourth quarter). 97 This brings them into waters where the fish are believed to spawn. The authors note the presence of large numbers of juvenile swordfish to young to spawn on the Nazca Ridge off southern Peru. The movement of larval and juvenile fish, however, are unknown. 2. Northern Peru The movement of swordfish off northern Peru and Ecuador is more difficult to assess. Both the Japanese and Peruvian catch data suggests an area along the central Peruvian coast where little swordfish is taken, suggesting a possible division at least in the coastal distribution. This is confirmed by the differing northern and central seasonal patterns. The fishery off the coast of northern Peru and Ecuador is less seasonal than in the south. Several interrelated factors could explain this, such as the less pronounced seasonal changes at tropical latitudes and the more moderate monthly fluctuations in prey items such as jack mackerel. The limited seasonality of the swordfish may reflect a less migratory group of fish, although not genetically distinct. The rarity of larvae in coastal areas, suggests that the fish are not spawning, even at the tropical latitudes of northern Peru and Ecuador.'' 8 The varying seasonality in Japanese longline catches as one moves west also suggests possible migratory behavior. 99 Feeding behavior in the north may be distinct to the pattern along the southern coast. There appears to be a sizeable squid resource off northern Peru which may affect distribution. The squid population, however is highly variable which could affect swordfish distribution. The squid population can decline dramatically when the water cools. 100 The foreign companies purchasing Peruvian squid licenses, for example, reported a disastrous squid season in 1996.' 01 The differing seasonal patterns of prey species could partially explain the different swordfish seasonal patterns off northern and southern Peru. 3. Mixing Genetic studies suggest some mixing of southeastern Pacific and the wider pan-Pacific stock in the waters off the United States (California) and Mexico (Baja California). Genetic researchers report that swordfish off California and Baja show a mixed genetic pattern. 102 The migratory track of the theorized southeastern stock to and from the Baja/southern California is unknown. No tagging studies have been conducted. I( " Available catch and effort data, however, show severely limited swordfish catches and low yields along much of the coast off Central America and southern Mexico. 104 While catches are limited, there does appear to be a seasonal shift north from latitudes off Colombia (second quarter), Nicaragua (third quarter), and Mexico (fourth quarter).'"' This suggests that primary exchanges between the southeastern Pacific and northern Pacific fish in a mixing area off the Baja may not be along the coast. D. Spawning No data is available to the authors on swordfish maturation off Peru. Some observations, however, especially the absence of larval swordfish and substantial quantities of immature fish suggest that the fish do not spawn off Peru. Absence of larvae: Peruvian researchers report that they have not detected swordfish larvae. IMARPE has for years conducted extensive plankton surveys. IMARPE's primary focus has been on small pelagic species, but researchers have never noted a swordfish larvae in their plankton work. 106 Researchers in most neighboring countries (Colombia and Chile) as well as in Mexico and the United States have also failed to detect swordfish larvae in ETP coastal waters, although one Ecuadorean researcher reports 294 finding some. I07 Distant-water researchers have also failed to find swordfish larvae in oceanic waters of the ETP. No swordfish larvae have been noted in ETP plankton studies, east of 108°W." IS While the research effort in the ETP has been much more limited than in the western and central Pacific, the absence of detected larvae strongly suggests that the fish do not spawn off the South and Central American coast, even though temperature levels are appropriate. Low gonadal indices: The Chilean Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (I FOP) has published the only known study on swordfish maturation in the ETP. The IFOP researchers found that swordfish off Chile had very low gonadal indices (Chile, appendix B7). 109 The indices are so low off Chile that the fish are unlikely to reach spawning readiness even 1-2 months after leaving Chilean waters. The recreational fishermen active off Chile and Peru in the 1940-50s collected data on swordfish, including gonad weights, but the authors have been unable to find the tabulated results. Presence of juveniles: The substantial number of juveniles reported off southern Peru, especially on the Nazca Ridge off southern Peru, are fish not yet capable of spawning. (See "Sizes" below.) Details on the movement of the small post-larval fish to the Nazca Ridge and migratory movement off the ridge are unknown. Oceanic larvae: There is some evidence suggesting that swordfish spawning takes place well west of the Peruvian coast. Scattered larvae have been found west of 108°W which would be about 300 km west of Ecuador's Galapagos Islands. The most comprehensive Pacific plankton study has been conducted by the Japanese Far Seas Fisheries Research Laboratory (JFSFRL). They found increasing quantities of swordfish larvae at 10-12°S, which would be latitudes off northern Peru."" Unfortunately JFSFRL did not conduct tows south of 12°S, so the spawning area for the theorized southeastern Pacific stock is still unclear. E. Seasonality Some limited information is available on seasonal swordfish patterns off Peru. All of the data is fisheries-dependant, however, and must be used with some caution, especially as the target species was bigeye tuna and not swordfish. Considerable differences exist between available sources, perhaps due to the different time periods, gear, and/or grounds covered in the various studies. Despite these differences, some discernable patterns are apparent. The most obvious pattern is significant seasonal differences between swordfish off Peru's northern and southern coast. Not only are seasonal patterns less pronounced in the north, but the monthly pattern is different from that noted in the south. Peruvian harpoon data: The authors have reviewed monthly Peruvian catch data, although the data set available to the authors is incomplete with many missing years. Some of the data suggests catches peaking early in the year, especially during January and February. Catches in 1968, for example, were mostly taken at the beginning of the year (appendix B4a-b and figure 8). (No other 1960s data is available.) Catches during the 1980s also peaked at the beginning of the year, although some substantial catches were reported through July (appendices B4a-b and figure 8). This suggests the highest catches were taken after the peak Chilean season ended in August and September. The Peruvian catch data for the 1970s, however, shows a more mixed pattern. Peruvian fishermen reported substantial catches (appendix B4a-b) during what was to become the peak Chilean season (Chile, appendix E2cl, E2dl, E2el, E3al, and E4al). '" Current Peruvian fishing: Sindicato Pesquero which plans to begin longlining swordfish in mid- 1997 reports that swordfish are most abundant in the north off Mancora during the summer (late November to March)." 2 This roughly confirms the 1980s data mentioned above. Japanese longline data: Japanese longline data provides some indications on seasonal patterns. Swordfish seasonality is clearly different along the northern and southern coasts with an area along the central coast where the species appears less abundant. Different authors, however, provide somewhat conflicting assessments of the actual monthly patterns involved. Northern coast (3°-5°S): The best northern ground appears to be from 0°-5°S, which is Peru's northern- most coast and much of the Ecuadorean coast. Swordfish abundance along Peru's northern coast does not fluctuate as widely as in the south, but there are seasonal fluctuations. Available sources provide conflicting seasonal assessments, although it is possible this may be due to the different time periods covered in the different studies. One study of longline yields, based on historical data (1952-85), indicates that high yields were reported during the later half of the year (August-December), but there were also several good months in the first half (February and April-May) (figure 9 and 10)." A more recent study (1991-93) of longline catches indicated that the best catches were reported from January to March, but the seasonal fluctuations were not nearly as marked as off the southern coast."' Central coast (5°-10/15°S): Several studies of the Japanese longline fishery reveal poor yields or limited fishing along Peru's north central coast (5°-10 o /15°S), 295 Other * 96.9% North Coast 3.1% 1992 Squid Catch: 107,100 Tons * Foreign factory vessels Other * 87.4% North Coast 12.6% 1994 Squid Catch: 188,800 Tons * Foreign factory vessels South Coast 6.1% Central Coast 37.1% Other 0.6% North Coast 56.2% 1992 Jack Mackerel catch: 51,200 Tons * Foreign factory vessels South Coast 1.5% North Coast 66.5% Central Coast 32.0% 1994 Jack Mackerel catch: 151,300 Tons Figure II -Almost all of Peru 's domestic squid catch is reported and most of the foreign factory vessel catch is also reported in the north. 296 south of Mancora and Cabo Blanco." 5 Seasonality in this area is mixed. Recent catch data suggests it is similar to that off Ecuador in coastal waters, but similar to southern Peru in offshore waters." 6 Southern coast (10715°-19°S): An historical study found yields to be highest in the south during July and September, but immediately to the south off northern Chile there was a much longer period of high yields (June through October). Recent catch data shows the best season is April-June in coastal waters and July-August further off the coast." 7 This suggests that the fish appear off southern Peru several months before appearing in oceanic waters to the west and off Ecuador to the north. Yields in the offshore fishery off southern Peru out to 1 20-1 40° W appear to improve in October and last through January."" This pattern correlates with available data on Chilean catches which generally begin to decline after August along the country's central coast. Chilean catches subsequently do not become significant again until March (Chile, appendix E2cl)." 9 F. Sizes The authors have no statistical data on the sizes of swordfish harvested off Peru. The recreational fishermen active in the 1950s reported small swordfish off Peru. 120 The population was, however, not limited to small fish. There have also been large swordfish taken off Peru. One U.S. recreational fisherman active in Peru during the 1940-50s reports that artisanal fishermen landed a 680-kilograms (kg) fish in 1941. Another U.S. recreational fishermen reported that he saw the biggest swordfish he ever encountered. The fish were feeding off Cabo Blanco during the 1940s. 12 ' One report of the artisanal landings during the late 1940s at the peak of the fishery indicated that the fish being landed averaged about 135-180 kg which yielded trunks of over 100 kilograms. 122 Currently observers have noted the presence of small, juvenile swordfish off Peru, especially on the Nazca Ridge. 123 The authors have no data on the sizes of fish being taken by Peruvian and Japanese fishermen. One report suggests that the Spanish have been taking large quantities of juvenile swordfish and transshipping them through Ilo. 124 One of the areas targeted by the Spanish is reportedly the Nazca Ridge. An official of the Peruvian company handling the shipments, however, denies the Spanish are transshipping small swordfish. He reports that most of the swordfish are 80-320 kg, but some are as small as 20 kilograms.' 25 The authors have no independent data to assess these conflicting reports. Given that the Spanish conduct extensive operations off Chile, the size distribution of the catch may be similar to that reported by Chilean longline fishermen. 126 G. Feeding behavior Swordfish feeding behavior off Peru is not well documented. Some work has been done on feeding behavior in the north Pacific, but virtually none in the southeastern Pacific.' 27 Information is only available on feeding activity off the northern coast and it is limited to anecdotal reports from sport fishermen during the early 1950s. The authors know of no recent Peruvian studies. Northern coast: Swordfish off northern Peru may feed primarily on squid, although only limited information is available to support this thesis. One sport f sherman in 1951 reportedly examined the stomach contents of 50 swordfish, and found that all contained squid and only one included a bonito. 128 As the sport fishery was conducted primarily off the northern coast, these observations were almost entirely from fi sh taken out of Cabo Blanco. Peru's squid resource occurs primarily off the northern coast. While highly variable, a substantial resource does appear to exist. Catches, mostly by foreign fishermen, have approached 200,000 t (appendix B7M-2). Such a resource could support a substantial swordfish population. Southern coast: The authors know of no observations as to the stomach contents of swordfish taken off the southern coast. Adult swordfish off southern Peru may feed on squid, jack mackerel, horse mackerel, and a variety of other species as appears to be the case off Chile. I2q Commercial fishermen on offshore grounds off Chile report finding squid as the primary species in stomach contents assessments off the coast. 1 ' At least one study shows jack mackerel and demersal finfish may be more important in the fish taken by artisanal fishermen along the central coast (Chile, appendix B2a). There does not seem to be an important squid resource off either southern Peru or Chile. 11 ' The swordfish may, however, simply be better at finding the species than the fishermen who do not target it. But such assessments of feeding behavior off Peru are pure conjecture at this stage. The large juvenile population on the Nazca Ridge may be related to the abundance of crustaceans (lobsters and crabs) and squid in the relatively shallow water (300-1,000 meters). These species appear to be preferred prey items for juveniles (individuals from 15-30 kg). 1,2 The different seasonal patterns off northern and southern Peru may reflect differing prey species or stocks. Notably the squid fishery off Peru, a primary prey item, is conducted primarily along the northern coast. '" Most of the domestic catch has 297 traditionally been landed there (figure 11). The foreign fishery is also conducted there. In addition, historical Japanese swordfish yields along the northern coast appear to be somewhat higher from August through December, although there are some other months with high yields. 134 This also appears to roughly correspond with the squid catch which in 1991-92 began to increase in June, but was highest from September through December (appendix B7a). 135 If squid catch data reflects actual distribution it could partially explain why swordfish migratory patterns appear to be different off the northern coast—although more data is needed to establish a valid statistical connection. IMARPE reports that the squid resource off Peru fluctuates sharply from year to year as a result of temperature variations. Particularly good squid catches are reported when the water off northern Peru warms during El Nino years, perhaps explaining why swordfish catches can also increase. H. Stock status The authors have no actual data on the status of swordfish stocks off Peru, nor is the relationship between swordfish off the other Pacific-coast South American countries and adjacent oceanic areas known. This makes possible stock assessment work problematical. (See "Stock structure" above.) The size of the resource and status of the stock is simply unknown. Peru may have a substantial swordfish resource. There is no stock assessment data, but catch data provides some indicators. Current Peruvian catches are minimal, but this does not mean that the species is not present in commercial quantities as foreign fishermen are taking the species. Previous catch: Peruvian fishermen reported swordfish catches of about 2,500 t during the 1950s, and some estimates suggest much higher catches of nearly 7,000 t (appendix B2a and figure 16). (See "Catch".) The fact that such a large catch was previously report does not mean a large stock currently exists, but it does suggest the possibility of such a stock. Current catch:The minimal current catches appear may primarily reflect a lack of domestic fishing effort, rather than an absence of fish. Foreign fishermen report catches within and outside the country's 200- mile coastal zone, substantiating that swordfish is present in commercial quantities. It is possible that climatic changes may have impacted the abundance and distribution of the species and the large catches reported during 1947-52 are no longer possible. Valid stock assessment studies require extensive data collection and sophisticated analysis of the collected information. Often such work is not possible because of budgetary limitations. This is a particular problem in developing countries. The authors have been unable to identify any Peruvian research on swordfish addressing stocks or describing the species behavior. As a result, the only indicator available on swordfish abundance is catch data from the fishery. While there are significant problems associated with using fisheries-dependent data (catch and effort statistics) to assess stocks, such data does provide a readily available indicator. When viewed with other information, fisheries data can help assess stock status. When only fisheries-dependent data is available, it must be used with considerable caution. Catch data is an especially good indicator when the fishery is fully utilized, although uncontrolled catches can adversely affect the stock and result in plummeting catches during subsequent years. As Peruvian fishermen do not target swordfish, catches during recent years have been minimal (appendix B2a and B3dl). Assessing the current stock status with Peruvian catch data is thus not possible. Data from other countries involved in the fishery, however, provide some possible indicators as to the status off Peru. Catch trends in neighboring countries and in offshore areas could provide some insights as to the stock status off Peru, if swordfish in the southeastern Pacific are a single stock. Most of the available catch data from the southeastern Pacific does appear to show a similar pattern of a heavily fished, declining stock: Neighboring countries: Chilean and Ecuadorean fishermen have been reporting lower catches, although the Ecuadorean pattern is mixed as the fishermen have initiated an expanded fishery on new offshore grounds. Chile : Detailed data is available on Chilean catches which show a very sharp decline since the fishery peaked in 1991 (Chile, appendix E2a2). Differences exist, however, in the inshore artisanal fishery off the central coast and the offshore commercial fishery off the northern coast (appendices E2hl-2, E3bl, and E4dl). Presumably abundance off southern Peru will be similar to that off northern Chile. 298 Ecuador: Very little data exists on Ecuadorean catches, but the limited available data also showed a notable catch decline since peaking in 1990-92. A new directed fishery on untapped grounds to the west of the Galapagos, however, have resulted in increased catches since 1995-96 (Ecuador, appendices B2a). Abundance in coastal waters off Ecuador will probably be similar to that off northern Peru. Japanese assessment: Japanese researchers at the National Far Seas Fisheries Research Laboratory (JFSFRL) have assessed catch and effort data from the Japanese longline fleet since 1952. They caution that swordfish is not the fleet's primary focus and that some swordfish fluctuations may have been caused by changing fishing operations directed at tuna, the primary focus of the fishery. The Japanese researchers have, however, attempted to correct for those problems. They report that the swordfish catch reached record levels in 1992, but that yields have declined since peaking in 1976. Published yields data in 1992 were only about half of those reported in 1976, but well above the very low levels reported in 1983. 136 Japanese researchers in 1994 noted a moderate decline in yields, but not as sharp a decline as reported by the Chileans. 137 Japanese researchers caution, however, that the increasing catch and declining yields may be signaling declining abundance and the fishery should be carefully monitored. 138 Swordfish stocks are affected by a variety of fishery and non-fishery factors. Catches may, as a result, fluctuate widely from year to year, in some cases irrespective of abundance. The massive decline of the Peruvian fishery from the peak years in the late 1940s and early 1950s are largely unexplained. The decline may have resulted from various climatic, fishery, economic, and other factors. It is unclear if the decline in the catch has reflected a corresponding decline in the available resource or if Peruvian fishermen are just not effectively or intensively targeting the resource. It appears that a substantial swordfish resource is available to Peruvian fishermen, but is not being utilized. A variety of possible factors, however, affect swordfish abundance. Climatic: U.S. researchers have shown that swordfish fisheries in the north Pacific fluctuate significantly over extended periods as a result of the climatology. 13 '' Japanese researchers stress that a variety of climatic/oceanographic factors can affect swordfish vulnerability to longlines-irrespective of abundance. Factors include variability in the depth of the fish caused by changes in the vertical thermal structure, oxygen levels, and prey abundance/availability. 140 The authors are unaware of any studies attempting to correlate climatic changes since the 1950s with swordfish abundance off Peru. This subject, however, needs to be assessed in detail. Fishery: Both foreign and domestic fishing could be depleting the stock, but the evidence explaining the decline during the 1950s as a result of over-fishing by harpoon fishermen is not convincing. Several other fishery-dependent developments, however, may have impacted the resource. Coastal over fishing : It is possible that the significant Peruvian and Chilean swordfish fishery during the 1940-50s may have depleted the resource, but given the use of relatively inefficient harpoons, this appears unlikely. Peruvian stocks could have also have been affected by the Chilean directed swordfish fishery which developed during the late 1980s. This fishery at its 1991 peak was harvesting more than 7,000 t of swordfish annually. 141 This level of effort, including longliners taking juveniles, combined with the offshore distant-water effort does appear to have reached levels which potentially could affect abundance. Domestic fishing for fodder species: Peruvian and foreign fisheries target species the swordfish feed on, or species supporting swordfish prey species. Small pelagics: Peruvian small pelagics fisheries have expanded enormously since the 1950s and may have directly or indirectly altered available fodder populations. While this would not explain Photo 11 —Massive anchovy harvests since the 1950s may have affected swordfish stocks, but other economic and climatic developments could have also have impacted the Peruvian fishery. 299 Photo 12 —The fishmeal industry created many new jobs, often paying higher salaries and offering less arduous, safer working conditions then faced by artisanal fishermen R. Coral fluctuations during the early- 1950s, the small pelagic fishery by the late 1950s was reaching levels which could be affecting stocks of predator species (appendix Bl photo ll).' 42 Swordfish catches do not coincide precisely with the overall Peruvian fisheries catch (largely anchovy and other small pelagics). Good swordfish catches (1967-70) have been reported since the Peruvians began harvesting large quantities of small pelagics and swordfish catches have increased in years the small pelagic catch has increased (1967 and 1970). In addition, the swordfish fishery began to decline in the early 1950s before Peruvian fishermen began harvesting large quantities of anchovies (appendices Bl and B2a). In general, however, it can be said that with the exception of a few years around the massive 1 972 El Nino event, Peruvian fishermen have not harvested substantial quantities of swordfish since the development of the anchovy reduction fishery in the late 1950s. Squid: Squid appears to be a preferred prey item for swordfish in many ocean areas. Various squid species are targeted by swordfish. There appears to be a sizeable but highly variable giant squid ("pota") resource off northern Peru. (See "Feeding behavior" above.) Peruvian fishermen have not significantly targeted this resource and until the early 1990s, only small quantities of squid were harvested. The Government began to license foreign jiggers beginning in 1991 and by 1994 catches were approaching 200,000 t (appendix B7a). The development of this fishery could affect stocks of swordfish which formerly preyed upon squid. In addition, natural fluctuations in this highly variable resource could affect swordfish abundance and/or distribution. Foreign longline fishing : The development of a distant-water tuna/swordfish fishery by Japan and other Asian countries in the 1950s, may have reduced the possible swordfish catch off Peru. The authors note that Japanese longline fishermen since the mid-1960s have reported substantial swordfish catches in the ETP, although they primarily targeted tunas. 143 The Japanese in current years have reported rapidly increasing swordfish catches in the ETP beginning in 1986 (Latin America, appendix C2b). 144 One of their most productive grounds was off southern Peru. This, combined with the Chilean fishery, which was also beginning to report significant catch increases during the late 1980s, could have over-stressed the southeastern Pacific stock. Economic factors: The decline of the swordfish fishery could also have been due to factors which did not affect abundance. Economic factors such as the fishermen seeking safer, better paying jobs in other fisheries (bonito canning and fishmeal processing factories or as crew aboard anchovy seiners and other commercial fishing vessels) or other economic sectors (mining) may have reduced fishing effort. The focus of Peruvian investors on the new fishmeal industry caused companies to abandon other more difficult and less profitable fisheries (photo 12).' 45 Jobs in the bonito fishery began opening up in the 1940s. Many more jobs were created in the anchovy/fishmeal fishery during the late 1950s. This appears to correlate somewhat with the declining swordfish catches by the mid-1950s (appendix B2a). 146 300 III. Fishing Grounds Peru's 3,000 km coastline is one of the most productive in the world. Peruvian waters are not nearly as diverse as those off Chile to the south which has sub-Antarctic conditions along its far southern coast. The oceanographic conditions along much of the Peruvian coast are quite similar, except for the extreme northern coast around Paita (5°s) and Cabo Blanco. Near Ecuador and the Gulf of Guayaquil (3°S) the seasonal intrusion of warm equatorial water and the waning influence of the Humboldt Current create environmental conditions distinct from the rest of the Peruvian coast. In addition, a peninsula juts off from the coast (Punta Negra and Punta Aguja, 6°S) which interacts with converging ocean currents. The distinct topography and oceanography of the far northern coast appears to create ideal conditions for Big HSr^r. &" -* "M 4S P*? f % ~jjS5» £ w • 1 k ' -irlkr* \ ^ 4 Photo 13. --The light colored areas along the Peruvian coast indicates the cooler water associated with the Humboldt Current and coastal upwelling. NESDIS/NOAA swordfish. Notably, Peruvian fishermen have reported their swordfish catches along the far northern coast. Peru does not have extensive claims to off-shore islands, unlike Ecuador and Chile. The largest Peruvian island is Islas Lobos de Tierra (60°S, 81°W), just a few kilometers off the northern coast. Thus Peru does not have any important insular claims to jurisdiction extending out into the ETP. The principal underwater feature off Peru is the Nazca Ridge ("Falla de Nazca") which runs southwest from the central Peruvian coast (about 15°S, 77° W) near Pisco and Nazca until it connects with the Sala-y-Gdmez Ridge (about 25°S, 85°W) to the west of Chile's Isla San Felix. The Nazca Ridge is important to the southeastern Pacific swordfish population and several observers have noted the presence of juvenile swordfish throughout the year. Their presence appears to be related to feeding. (See "Feeding behavior" above.) The Continental Shelf is narrow along most of the Peruvian coast. Along the southern coast the shelf is especially narrow, extending only about 25 km from shore. Along the central coast off Chimbote, Trujillo, and Chiclayo (7- 10°S) and off Callao (12°S) the shelf broadens, at times approaching 100 kilometers. The sea floor beyond the narrow continental shelf drops sharply into the Peru-Chile Trench to depths of 6,000-6,300 m off Peru and over 8,000 m off northern Chile. This is substantially deeper than depths in the Panama Basin to the north off Panama, Colombia, and northern Ecuador where there is more shallow water of only about 2,500-3,700 meters. High fisheries productivity off Peru is largely attributed to the movements of oceanic water masses and to associated changes caused by prevailing winds. Humboldt Current: In the southeastern Pacific south of 45°S off Chile's far southern coast, there is a net eastward movement of water. This movement is caused by the West Wind Drift and rotation of the earth (Chile, figure 62). The surface current transported east is rich in plankton and approaches the Chilean coast at about 50°S where it divides. A southern branch flows southeast around Cape Horn. The other branch becomes the Humboldt or 301 Figure 12- The Humboldt Current transported cold water well north of the equator during March 1995. Vernon Kousky/NOAA Chile/Peru Current which flows northward along the Chilean and Peruvian coast. 147 The Current is sufficiently powerful to lower sea surface temperatures (SSTs) along the Pacific coast of South America several degrees from the zonal average. 148 Its effect is normally felt seasonally as far north as Ecuador (figure 12). The Humboldt Current appears to have a major impact on temperatures, especially at depths from 30-125 meters. 140 The area off the northern coast around Cabo Blanco, near the Ecuadorean border, is often a major mixing area between the northward flowing Humboldt Current and the eastward flowing South Equatorial Counter Current. It is thus not by accident that several world record game fish have been taken on the grounds off Cabo Blanco. Peruvian coastal waters are dominated by this northerly flowing cold Humboldt Current. Thus relatively cold water temperatures can be noted at Ecuadorean equatorial latitudes, creating pronounced thermal fronts which are often associated with swordfish (figures 12 and 13). The impact of the Humboldt Current partially explains why Peru is the only country harvesting several million tons of fish at tropical latitudes. Upwelling: Embedded in the Humboldt Current is a strong upwelling circulation which lowers the temperature of coastal waters (within 100 km from the coast), already affected by the cold Humboldt Current, another 2-4°C (photo 13). 150 At various locations along the Peruvian coast, southerly and southeasterly winds carry surface waters away from the coast, setting up vertical currents drawing up colder waters from moderate depths toward the surface, a process known as upwelling. Coastal areas affected by upwelling are some of the richest fishing grounds in the world. Upwelling systems provide optimal conditions for primary productivity. The colder upwelled water, rich in nutrients, enhances the growth of plant plankton which is the basis for the abundance of marine resources off Peru. 151 The upwelling system off Peru and Chile is the most productive in the world. 152 This explains why Peru, a country with very limited shelf area, has produced nearly 13 million t of fish in a single year (appendix Bl) and is consistently one of the leading fishing countries in the world. The upweiling zone off Peru extends all along the Peruvian coast, from the Chilean border north to the border. Swordfish abundance off Peru appears to be affected by both thermal fronts and currents as well as underwater topography. There is a strong relationship between the abundance of oceanic predators and thermal fronts along the Chilean and Peruvian coast. The high productivity of the frontal zones has long been understood by fishermen. One observer reporting during the peak of the recreational fishery in the early 1950s, maintained that the occurrence of swordfish was related to action of the cold, northerly flowing Humboldt current. 153 Giant squid, anchovy, and dinoflagellate blooms are abundant in these fronts, thus attracting swordfish and other pelagic predators. 154 The Nazca Ridge, the principal submarine feature off Peru, appears to offer a suitable habitat for juvenile swordfish. 302 SST (Deg C) 30N May 1996 25S 30S 130W 120W 110W 100W 90W 80W 13 20 Figure 13— The Humboldt Current can influence temperatures and help create thermal fronts well out into oceanic areas of the eastern Pacific as it did during May 1996* Vernon Kousky/NOAA Peruvian domestic swordfish catches have historically been reported primarily off the northern coast, but foreign fishermen have reported the highest catches and yields off the southern coast. Limited directed swordfish fishing in 1997 is reporting the best catches off the southern coast, but this may be, at least in part, the impact of the developing 1997 El Nino (appendix B8al). Northern coast: Peruvian fishermen during the 1940-50s and in the early 1970s reported significant swordfish catches, mostly off the country's northern coast (appendices B3a2, B3b2, B3c2, B3d2 and figures 5 and 6). The best fishing in the north was reportedly off Cabo Blanco (between Mancora and Paita). This area is just north of an area where the Peruvian coast juts out into the ocean, deflecting the flow of the Humboldt Current. Reports suggest that the Peruvian fishermen during the 1950s conducted operations from 50- 400 km off the coast, depending on the autonomy of their vessel. 155 Directed swordfish trials in 1997 have reported very poor results off the northern coast (appendix B8al), but effort is very limited and the warm water temperatures resulting from El Nino may be affecting results, making it impossible to draw any conclusions on possible abundance at this time. Southern coast: Peruvian fishermen during the 1950-60s, reported limited fishing off the extreme southern coast near the Chilean border. The best southern fishing during the 1950s was reportedly off Mollendo and Ho. 156 Peruvian fishermen initiating operations in 1997 are reporting good results off the southern coast (appendix B8al). Foreign fishermen have been active in the south. Currently much of the activity for swordfish in the south is conducted by the Spanish out of Ilo. As they do not have Peruvian licenses, the Spanish fishermen are reportedly fishing outside the 200-mile limit off both Peru and Chile. One of their grounds is reportedly the Nazca Ridge, which is partly beyond Peru and Chile's 200-mile zones. The Nazca Ridge extends southwest from the southern Peruvian coast south of Pisco (about 15°S) into the Pacific Ocean (as far south as 24°S). The Ridge begins in Peruvian waters; the southern area is mostly in international waters where it intersects with the Sala y Gomez Ridge to the west of Chile's Isla San Felix. Swordfish are reportedly abundant on the Ridge, but are mostly juveniles. 157 Foreign fishermen targeting tuna and swordfish in recent years have been more active off Peru than Peruvian domestic fishermen. Japanese longline fishermen have also reported substantial catches on and to the west of the Nazca Ridge, as far south as 25°S. 158 Chilean and Peruvian sources confirm that the Spanish fish extensively off southern Peru and northern and central Chile, outside of the 200-mile limit. The grounds they have targeted are discussed in more detail under "Species: Distribution" above. 70W 303 Photo 14— Foreign recreational fishermen reported considerable success with swordfish off Cab o Blanco during the early 1950s Peruvian waters have been described as a sport fisherman's paradise. One noted sport fishermen writing in the 1950s described Peruvian waters, especially off Cabo Blanco, as the only place in the world that an angler can take swordfish and black marlin— the largest game species. He also described Cabo Blanco as the location where the greatest number of other game fish (especially striped marlin, sailfish, mako sharks, bigeye tuna, and many other species) can be taken virtually year-round (photo 14). Swordfish in the 1950s could reportedly be found extremely close to the coast, only about 8-13 kilometers. The swordfish were found especially close to the coast during the Peruvian winter (July- September). 159 304 IV. Fleet A. Peruvian domestic fleet Peruvian commercial and artisanal fishermen deploy one of the largest fishing fleets in Latin America. The commercial fleet is primarily a fleet od small seiners focusing on small pelagics and some trawlers targeting hake. It does not report a swordfish by-catch. The artisanal fleet is composed of a wide range of vessels and in recent years has reported a small swordfish by-catch. Peru's commercial fishing fleet is composed of more than 700 well-equipped small seiners ("bolicheras") primarily targeting anchovy and sardines. The vessels vary greatly with holds ranging from 35-600 m 3 and deploying seines ranging from 290-920 m in length and 42-130 m in depth. The small trawl fleet primarily targets hake along the northern coast and is composed of modified seiners. The trawlers have holds varying from 35-300 m 3 and engines from 300-1,100 HP. A few factory vessels are deployed by joint ventures. ' 60 Various groups have attempted to deploy tuna purse seiners and longliners, but without success. Peruvian artisanal fishermen are now mostly motorized and deploy various types of lines with virtually no swordfish by-catch. The artisanal fishermen, unlike the commercial fishermen in recent years have reported a small swordfish by-catch. Some artisanal fishermen deploy small longlines and are conducting semi-commercial operations, primarily for shark and dorado. The commercial fishermen continue to focus primarily on small seiners taking anchovy and other small pelagics. As with the artisanal fishery, there is virtually no swordfish by- catch, although factory trawlers have reported some swordfish by-catch. Peruvian companies have had little success in deploying commercial longliners for tuna and swordfish. Companies are now attempting to deploy a few longliners to deliver high quality fresh and frozen product, but results have been mixed. Photo 15 — A wide range along the coast. 1. Fleet overview Peru in the mid-1980s reported about 12,000 artisanal fishermen deploying nearly 4,500 small boats. More recent accounts suggest about 5,000 artisanal boats are active (photo 15). More than 90 percent of those vessels by the 1980s were motorized. A variety of vessel types are active, including a few semi-commercial longliners operate off the northern coast. Palangeros (longliners): Peru's artisanal surface longline fleet is based in northern Peru. This is the most advanced sector of the artisanal fleet and could be classified as semi-commercial. The authors have received varying accounts about the number and size of the vessels involved. One report describes a fleet of about 30 vessels ranging from 8-18 m based in Paita (photo 16). 161 Another observer describes a fleet of about 100 vessels operating out of ports from Cuboid north to the Ecuadorean border, but primarily Paita. They are about 20-m long with wooden hulls and ice holds of 10 tons. Almost all have diesel motors, but there are still a few sailboats. 162 of vessels are deployed by artisanal fishermen at villages located all 505 Photo 16— A Peruvian longliner which lands fresh fish, but not export-grade product. Robert Webster Photo 17—Artisanal fishermen deploy many different types of small boats, both decked and undecked, which utilize a wide variety of gear. Robert Webster 306 »■■ /V/oto /S.--/1 Ma// ope« boar fishing out of Matarani which is used to deploy longlines targeting sharks. Eduardo Pastor 307 Purse Seine - Meal 76% Photo 19.— Peruvian fishermen used to deploy large numbers of balsa rafts, many in the swordfish industry, but the rafts are now becoming increasingly less common. D Weidner Cortineros: These vessels vary from 6-8 m with motors of 25-45 horsepower. There appear to be three classes of these boats, varying by hold size: San Jose (1.0-1.5 t), San Andres (1.5 t), and Callao (2-4 t). The vessels have crews of two to three persons, except for the larger Callao class which averages about 5 crew members. They deploy a variety of gear (photo 17). Pinteras: Most of the pinteras are San Jose-type vessels, usually about 5-7 m long and often called "botes". A smaller number are under 5 m and referred to as "chalanas". Hold capacity varies from 1.0- 1.5 tons. These vessels deploy a variety of gear (photo 17). A few of these small open boats also deploy longlines (photo 18). Extractor: These larger boats are used in fisheries requiring divers and are generally 7-11 m long. Their holds vary from 1-3 tons. Multipurpose: These small motorized seiners are often San Andres, or Callao-type boats, usually from 10-12 m long. Holds range from 4-8 tons. Besides seines they also deploy gillnets ("redes agalleras") of different mesh. Depending on the species targeted, the fishermen refer to these nets as ("cojinoveras," "boniteras," and "macheteras," etc). 1 " Balsillas: Balsa rafts are composed of about 5 balsa logs. Most are about 2.5-3.8 m long. There is no hold and propulsion is by oars and sails. 104 Some The Peruvian commercial fishing fleet focuses primarily on the country's enormous small pelagic resources. Massive quantities of anchovy, mackerel, and sardines are harvested by a large fleet of seiners ("bolicheras") for reduction to fishmeal, or to a lesser extent canning (photos 20 and 21). These purse seiners harvesting both to supply reduction and seafood plants constitute more than 80 percent of the fleet (appendix Al and figure 14). Government and private groups have shown some interest in diversifying the fleet. State corporations have attempted to do so, but with little success. Now with the current Government's emphasis on private enterprise, several private companies have begun to expand fleet operations. One report indicates that private companies have invested more than $400 million during recent years in new plants and vessels. Much of this has gone into modernizing the fishmeal industry (photo 22). " >s Some of the investments are, however, going into operations producing edible Tuna fleet 0% Trawlers 5% Purse Seine - Edible 8% Small-scale 11% Total Capacity: 156,000 GRT Figure 14- The great bulk of Peru's fishing fleet is still small purse seiners which land small pe logics for reduction lo fishmeal. products."'" Several companies have launched new projects and others are under consideration. One U.S. consulting group has recently made a number of suggestions, including acquiring longliners and gillnetters capable of offshore operations. 167 Such operations could result in expanded tuna catches as well as the revival of the swordfish fishery. are deployed from larger artisanal vessels (photo 19). 308 Photo 20 -Peruvian companies have added many new seiners to the fleet in recent years. Robert Webster Photo 21 -Peruvian companies during the 1990s have reported catches approaching the record set m the early 1970s, but the catch is reportedly lower in 1997. Eduardo Pastor Photo 22— Private Peruvian companies like SIPESA have made major investments in the fishmeal industry during the 1 990s Eduardo Pastor Peruvian companies have achieved minimal success in deploying commercial longliners in pelagic fisheries. Some companies have had a degree of success with demersal longlining, but pelagic operations have proven more difficult. The new vessels acquired during the 1990s allowed fishermen to increase exports of high-quality fresh ocean pelagics for the United States to nearly $190,000 in 1994, but shipments have since fallen back to only $50,000 in 1996 (appendix E2c). Efforts to pursue pelagic longlining continue, despite some notable failures. One company's (Consorcio Pesquero) plans in 1995 to produce high-quality sashimi-grade exports have been cancelled, but another company (Sindicato Pesquero) plans to initiate directed swordfish operations in 1997. (See "Companies" for details.) design and size. Most were small boats of about 6-13 m with a plank extending over the bow to enable the harpooner to get a good strike. Initially many of the vessels did not have motors, but used sails. Crews of about three fishermen were common. The last significant harpoon fishing occurred during the early 1970s. One 1996 report indicated that Peruvian fishermen no longer operate harpoon vessels as the gear is now prohibited. 168 Trolling: A few artisanal fishermen troll for pelagic species, including bigeye tuna and jack mackerel. Swordfish are rarely taken. 169 Longliners: Peru's small longline fleet reports limited swordfish catches, mostly incidental to tuna catches. Peruvian fishermen have mostly deployed artisanal longliners, but three companies reportedly acquired a few large commercial longliners during the 1990s. The vessels have not, however, successfully deployed in pelagic fisheries landing fresh or frozen product. 170 Peruvian companies in 1996-97 have deployed a few small longliners in an effort to land high-quality fresh product. Artisanal: Artisanal fishermen deploy small surface longliners, varying from 8-20 meters (photo 23). These longliners are generally poorly equipped and even lack hydraulic power to bring in the line. They land fresh product, which is rarely high-quality export grade. Commercial: There are only a small number of large fishing vessels in the Peruvian fleet. 171 Accounts on the number of commercial longliners vary and several 2. Tuna/swordfish vessels Peruvian fishermen have operated three types of vessels reporting swordfish catches. Peru's directed swordfish catches during the 1940s-50s were taken almost entirely by artisanal harpoon vessels. During the 1970s the harpoon fishery declined and the gear is no longer authorized by the Government. This ended the directed swordfish fishery in Peru. Small longliners and, to a lesser extent, gillnet vessels currently take most of the limited incidental swordfish catch. Harpoon vessels: Peruvian fishermen have primarily used harpoons in a directed swordfish fishery. Many vessels were converted from other fisheries and varied substantially in Photo 23 — A small artisanal longliner operating out of Matarani. Eduardo Pastor 310 vessels have been acquired and sold in recent years (appendix A2). Fresh fish: One observer in 1990 reported that Peru had five modern longline vessels, but only the vessel owned by a single private company was operational. 172 A more recent observer reported three tuna longliners. 173 The fishermen have generally had more success with bottom longlining for demersal species than pelagic longlining. These longliners average about 18 meters. They have fairly limited ranges of about 10 days, primarily because they use ice holds and are not equipped with refrigeration. Peruvian companies in recent years have added a few small longliners to the fleet. At least one company (Sindicato Pesquero) in 1997 was planning directed swordfish operations with newly-built 20-m longliners. Frozen fish: Three companies in the 1990s have attempted to use large commercial longliners to produce high-quality frozen fish. Consorcio Pesquero operated two large (25 and 90 m) freezer longliners in 1996 (appendix A2). The vessels were both capable of extended voyages of up to 4-6 months. 174 The vessels were sold in 1996-97, one to a foreign company and the other to Cazamar. 175 Tuna Latin attempted to use Japanese longliners. Pesquera Atlantis also is attempting to use Japanese longliners during 1996-97. A 50-m longliner donated to the Universidad Nacional de Piura (UNP) was idled in port during 1996 (appendix A2). No current details are available. Gillnetters: Artisanal fishermen operate a variety of small boats deploying gillnets. Like the artisanal longliners, these boats are generally from 6-10 m long and poorly equipped. 176 Details on the Peruvian commercial longline fleet are as follows (appendix A2): Andrew: Pesquera Atlantis purchased this 23-m squid jigger in Japan during late 1995 and refitted it for longlining. Audaz: This 18-m longliner has been deployed by Sindicato Pesquero in the bottom longline fishery for seabass. Audaz 1: This 20-m longliner was being constructed in 1997 at the Transmar Luz shipyard for Sindicato Pesquero. Christopher: Pesquera Atlantis purchased this 23-m squid jigger in Japan during late 1995 and refitted it for longlining. Eraz I: This 14-m longliner is a fresh-fish vessel and is equipped with an 8-t ice hold. It was launched in July 1996. It is owned by an individual associated with Trabajos Maritimos, S.A. (TRAMARSA) and other associated investors. The vessel is the first Peruvian-built longliner. (See: "Shipyards.") It has primarily been used in demersal fisheries, but the owners are redeploying it for oceanic pelagics as a result of the warming water temperatures beginning in mid-1997. 177 Ibaraki: This Japanese freezer longliner was donated to the Universidad Nacional de Piura in 1994 for test fishing. Efforts to use the vessel were reportedly unsuccessful. One July 1996 report indicated that the vessel was idled in port because of a lack of funds. As of mid- 1997 it was still laid up in port. (See: "Research.") Inca Mar: Tuna Latin acquired the Inca Mar in 1980 and has attempted to deploy it in tuna/swordfish operations. The ventures have proven unsuccessful and this large 300-GRT longliner is currently used as a floating cold store by Tuna Latin (photo 53). (See: "Companies.") Juliana: This small 6-m longliner was reported abandoned and adrift off Ecuador in 1992. It was owned by a U.K. national (Peter Sucksmith) resident in Peru. No further details are available. Mari'a Jose: This 25-m freezer vessel was operated by Consorcio Pesquero from 1993-96. The company had hoped to produce sashimi-grade tuna and swordfish. Operations, however, proved disappointing. (See: "Companies.") The vessel was sold to Cazamar in 1997. 178 Paloma: This 90-m longliner is the largest longliner currently operated by a Peruvian company, Consorcio Pesquero. (See: "Companies.") The vessel is registered in Panama. It was sold to a foreign company in 1997.' 79 Pena Cayetano: This steel hull longliner is 17 m long with a draft of 2.9 meters. It is usually deployed on voyages of about 10 days delivering fresh fish. It has an ice hold and no freezing capability. The vessel has a 10-man crew. Pionero: This 18-m longliner has been deployed by Sindicato Pesquero in the bottom longline fishery for seabass. Pionero 1: This 20-m longliner was being constructed in 1997 at the Transmar Luz shipyard for Sindicato Pesquero. Rossie: Pesquera Atlantis purchased this 23-m squid jigger in Japan during late 1995 and refitted it for longlining. SIPESA: This 80-GRT longliner is 18 m long with a draft of 4 meters. The vessel has a steel hull and usually conducts 10-day trips with about 5 days on the fishing grounds. It has an ice hold for fresh fish, but no freezing capability. The vessel is operated by a 14-man crew. Triunfador: This 20-m longliner was being constructed in 1997 at the Transmar Luz shipyard for 31 Sindicato Pesquero. Others: Several small artisanal longliners and small commercial longliners landing fresh product reportedly operate under contract to companies in Paita (such as Agro-Pesca). These fishermen tend to harvest primarily shark and dorado. Few details, however, are currently available. 3. Recreational fleet Foreign fishermen were active during the 1930- 50s in an effort to develop recreational fishing. 180 A fishing club was organized in the 1950s which acquired some vessels. 181 Anglers reported some record catches and journalists wrote glowing accounts of fishing off Peru, especially off Cabo Blanco. The recreational fishing industry and fleet, however, never developed. It is unclear why the industry failed to develop. (See "Fleet Operations and Gear".) The authors have obtained little current information on the recreational fleet. As of January 1997 one report noted a few boats active along the northern coast at Cabo Blanco near Piura. 182 One boat operator has a 7-m wooden boat and he reports that two other boats are active. Local observers report that the lack of foreign participation has made it impossible to develop the industry and to acquire larger, more modern boats. 183 Some recreational boats also operate from the La Punta Yacht Club in Callao. 184 A few other hotels and tour operators offer a variety of boats for inshore fishing, but they do not have the high-powered vessels needed to target billfish. 185 B. Foreign fleet Foreign fishermen have deployed longliners for Pacific operations off Peru and neighboring countries: Japan: Most of the foreign longliners operating off Peru are modern Japanese vessels (appendix A2). 186 The foreign longliners fishing with Peruvian licenses in 1995 were all large Japanese freezer longliners, about 100-120 m in length. 187 Spain: The Spanish have deployed a relatively small number of longliners in the Pacific off Chile and Peru (appendix A2). 188 Only limited information is available on the vessels as the owners involved have proven difficult to contact and hesitant to discuss their vessels and operations. The vessels reportedly range in size from about 170-500 GRT, although most fall into the 170-300 GRT category. One of the vessels, the Maicoa, is relatively large for a Spanish vessel. It is 36-m long and totals 400-500 GRT. 189 It has - 60°C blast tunnels and a 185 t hold capacity capable of maintaining the catch at -30°C. The Maicoa I is even larger, at about 550 GRT (photo 24). 190 Photo 24 - Several Spanish longliners like the Maicoa I have been active in the southeast Pacific during the 1990s Jose Echandia Zegarra 312 V. Shipyards Peruvian shipyards have one of Latin America's greatest capabilities to build fishing vessels. Peruvian yards, however, have focused primarily on building relatively small seiners ("bolicheras") for the country's massive fishmeal reduction fishery (appendix A5). 191 As a result of spectacular 1994-96 results in the small pelagic fishery, Peruvian shipyards have reportedly been very busy. 192 The yards received many new orders for fishing vessels, especially seiners, and have expanded operations and steadily increased the sizes of the vessels they are building (South America, appendix A4). At least one yard has the capacity to build large seiners that can target offshore mackerel resources. 193 SIMA is, for example, currently building seiners with hold capacities of 900 tons. SIMA has also worked on a large 1,000-ton tuna purse seiner originally purchased in the 1970s for tuna. It is currently being refitted to catch jack mackerel in an offshore fishery. Most of the Peruvian construction, however, is seiners in the 300-600 ton range designed for coastal operations. Larger seiners for offshore operations are often imported from Chile (Latin America, appendix A4). In addition, to the larger shipyards, many smaller yards service commercial fishing vessels (photo 25). Photo 25. -Small shipyards, like this one at Tierra Colorado in Paita, vessels at many Peruvian ports. Eduardo Pastor The major Peruvian shipyards have reported considerable activity since 1994. Almost all of the activity has focused on small pelagic seiners to supply canneries and fishmeal plants. However, some activity to supply a few small vessels designed to deliver edible fresh fish has also been reported. Activity as of late 1995 and early 1996 at the major Peruvian yards included: Andesa: 8 commercial fishing vessels, varying from 350-500 tons. Navinsa: 12 commercial fishing vessels, varying from 350-750 tons. The shipyard reports that as of January 1 996, two 3 1 0-ton seiners were ready for delivery and 10 others were in various stages of development. 194 Remesa: 13 commercial fishing vessels, varying from 350-550 tons. SIMA: 10 commercial fishing vessels, varying from 120-900 tons. SIMA is also building 23 small artisanal boats of about 30 tons. The shipyard in late 1996 began construction on the first Peruvian seiner to carry a spotter helicopter. 195 Shipyard representatives in early 1997 reported that had a backlog of orders. Many believe, however, that the Government is planning to restrict further expansion of fishing effort so future orders may be limited. 196 Any decline in the 1997 catch would curtail orders. Peruvian yards have no experience in building modern longliners or gillnetters that could be employed in the swordfish fishery. One shipyard official reported that no Peruvian yards were building longliners in 1995. I97 Various recent accounts indicate some scattered activity in 1996-97: Astilleros Ho: An Ilo shipyard (Astilleros Ilo) in 1996 built a small longliner (25 GRT), the Eraz I for a group of Peruvian investors associated with TRAMARSA. (See "Companies".) The authors believe that this is Peru's first domestically built service small commercial fishing lon°liner The vessel 313 is a 14-m, 20-GRT longliner with an 8-t ice hold. It is capable of trips of up to 14 days. 198 Transmar Luz: This small Callao shipyard in 1997 was building three 20-m longliners (Audaz I, Pionero 1, and Triunfador) for Sindicato Pesquero. The vessels are to be deployed for swordfish and are equipped with ice holds for fresh product. 199 All of the larger Peruvian yards have the capacity of building commercial longliners. Even large commercial longliners are smaller than some of the seiners currently under construction. The Peruvian yards would, however, probably have to contract foreign experts experienced with longlining and driftnetting. Domestic yards could theoretically build or refit such vessels once Peruvian fishermen decided to seriously enter the longline fishery and obtained needed financing. The established yards, however, are reluctant to initiate a new product line because of the substantial start-up costs and still unproven domestic demand. Peruvian shipyards are protected by stiff import duties and taxes. Import duties for foreign-built fishing vessels are currently 15 percent. 200 The importer also faces the standard Peruvian sales tax (Impuesto General de Venta~IGV) of 18 percent. One company which was considering importing foreign-built longliners reports that they would have faced duties and taxes of over 40 percent. 201 Such high duties make it virtually impossible to import longliners even though Peruvian yards have little experience building such vessels. The current tariff regime is thus a major impediment to launching a substantial Peruvian longline fishery. 314 VI. Fleet Operations and Gear fish per year. The fish averaged about 135-180 kg which yielded trunks over 100 kilograms. 203 b. Current A. Peruvian fishermen 1 . Artisanal and commercial a. Historical Peruvian harpoon fishermen off the northern coast during the 1940-50s operated only a few kilometers from their ports. They operated sailboats and a few motorboats. The fishermen often found the fish in the morning, at the surface. Swordfish off Chile and Peru sun at the surface to warm up after feeding in deeper, colder water at night. While basking in the sun, their Photo 26— Peruvian harpoon fishermen in the 1940s-50s used sailboats and then tended their catch to balsa rafts dorsal fin is exposed out of the water, providing an opportunity to sight the fish and approach for a harpoon strike. The best fishing times were thus usually in the morning. The fishermen often tried to strike the fish with two harpoons as kegs were not used. One observer reported that in the late 1940s- early 50s he observed a fleet of 21 sailboats and 8-9 motor boats operating out of Cabo Blanco. On two occasions they harpooned over 300 swordfish in a single day. 202 The fish were then tended from balsa rafts (photo 26). The fishermen normally made trips of about 8 hours, but carried no ice to maintain the quality of the catch. Ice was not available in the ports at the time, nor were the small harpoon vessels equipped to carry it. The fish were simply stored aboard the usually undecked vessels. Fishermen averaged about four fish per fishing day or about 750 Since the end of the harpoon fishery there has been no directed Peruvian fishing operations for swordfish. The limited landings are now primarily the incidental landings of other fisheries, primarily artisanal fisheries. There have also been a few unsuccessful efforts to longline tuna which also took swordfish incidentally. There are in 1997, however, some directed swordfish operations using small longliners. Artisanal: Most of the small billfish catch is taken by artisanal longlines along the northern coast. Fishermen deploying handlines and driftnets will also take an occasional billfish. Swordfish catches during the early and mid 1990s were very rare. The fishermen in mid- 1997, however, have been reporting unusually good catches of billfish and swordfish with driftnets and lines very close to shore. Most observers attribute this to the rising water temperatures associated with El Nino (photo 27). 204 Longlines: Peruvian fishermen until 1997 have not targeted swordfish with longlines. Some of the unsuccessful tuna longline operations tool swordfish, bit it was not the target species. The directed artisanal swordfish operations used harpoons and not longlines. The artisanal or semi-commercial fleet does report minor incidental swordfish catches using longlines of about 5 km and 500 hooks deployed in shallow water no deeper than 100 meters. Operations are conducted up to 80 km offshore, but normally no more than 50 kilometers. 205 Catches are mostly shark (60-70 percent) and dorado (15-20 percent) and the remainder is tuna, sailfish, marlin, and swordfish. 206 Some of the fishermen reportedly target tunas. 207 Observers describe current methods as "crude and ineffective." Net handling systems are mostly done by hand and few boats have hydraulic systems. 208 Little care is given to maintain the quality of the catch and, as a result, the landings are generally not of export grade (photo 54). Shark production exceeded 2,000 t in 1992, but has since declined sharply (appendix C3 and figure 19). The Peruvian shark and ray catch has plummeted in recent years from nearly 27,000 t in 1988 to only 5,000 t in 1994. Fishermen reported a slight increase in 1995 (appendix B5b and figure 26). A few fishermen and university groups are experimenting with more 315 Photo 27— Artisanal fishermen in June 1997 landed this swordfish and a marlin Such catches had been rare until water temperatures began warming- modem longlines. The catch is landed fresh. The shark fins and mako shark is exported. The blue shark, billfish (including swordfish) and most of the tuna are marketed domestically. A few large tunas (yellowfin and bigeye) are occasionally exported fresh to Japan. 209 SIPESA's longliners deployed in 1997 are the first to target swordfish with longlines. They are using gear and methods developed in Chile and based primarily on Spanish methods. They deliver the catch as fresh product. 21 " 1 la ndlmc.s and mllnets : Peruvian gi I Inciters primarily work out of northern ports, Callao, Chimbote, Paita, and others. The single most important port is Paita The fishermen work coastal waters rarely moving more than 20-30 miles offshore. The nets are set at depths of 30-100 m and left in the water for 12-18 hours. They are then recovered by hand or in some cases with small deck capstan winches. As a result, the fishermen can take up to 6-7 hours to recover a 3- km gillnet. The fish landed is generally of poor quality, inadequate for export markets. Swordfish are rarely taken. 211 Water temperatures have been warming in 1997 and as a result the small artisanal vessels deploying handlines and driftnets have reported increased billfish catches (especially sailfish and marlin) catches. Swordfish are, however, still less commonly taken by these fishermen. 212 Commercial: Commercial fishermen conduct longline operations landing both fresh and frozen product. Fresh : Few details are available on the operations of the longline fishermen landing fresh product. One IMARPE report indicates that these vessels are mostly based in Paita and target primarily shark. There appears to be a small incidental swordfish catch totaling about 0.8 t monthly. The fishermen report trips of about 2-days duration. They fish between 100 km to the north of Paita to 65 km to the south of the port (4°20'-5° S), about 50 km from the coast. 213 Peru's first domestically built longliner, the Eraz I was added to the fleet in mid- 1996. The owners conduct trips of up to 14-days duration. Initial 1996 operations deployed bottom longlines, but the company is shifting to pelagic operations in 1997 because of rising water temperatures. 214 Another company (Sindicato Pesquero) is deploying three new longliners in 1997 for directed swordfish operations (appendix A2). 215 Frozen: Two companies (Tuna Latin and Consorcio Pesquero) in the 1990s deployed large longliners landing frozen tuna, swordfish, and other oceanic pelagics. (See "Companies".) Tuna Latin had been attempting such operations since the 1980s, but encountered difficulties with Government regulators. Consorcio Pesquero's results were disappointing and the vessels were sold to foreign and domestic buyers in 1997. A new company (Pesquera Atlantis) has attempted operations during 1996-97, but the few details are available on the results. 2. Recreational The authors have little information on marine recreational fishing off Peru. Foreign sport fishermen were active in the 1930s-50 off both Peru and Chile. The effort centered in Chile, but some activity was also reported off Peru. 216 Swordfish were one of the primary target species off both Chile and Peru. The swordfish were reportedly smaller off Peru, but a wider range of game fish were reported off Peru and sport fishermen were amazed that fishing could be conducted virtually year-round. 217 The first recreational fishing off Peru was reported in 1935 when a Canadian businessman rigged a boat and 316 Photo 28. Swordfish taken by recreational fishermen in 1997. Recreational fishermen as well as the artisanal and commercial fishermen are benefiting from the warmer temperatures. tested the waters off Cabo Blanco. This was followed in 1939 by a U.S. group, including an executive of the then Pan American Grace Airways. 218 Outdoors journalists as well as companies like Grace, hoping to build traffic, attempted to promote the fishery. One noted angler reported that both the Chilean and artisanal fishermen were "well trained as rod and reel guides and ... are fearless when it comes to handling big fish and handling a boat as she should be handled." The fishermen trolled with baited hooks. The smaller swordfish common off Peru were reportedly more likely to pursue the bait than the larger fish off Chile. Such recreational fishing appears to have been mostly conducted by foreign fishermen. Only a few Peruvians appear to have participated. 219 The interest of the recreational fishermen helped to stimulate the artisanal fishery which developed in the late 1940s and early 50s. Considerable recreational activity was reported during the early 1950s. The Cabo Blanco Fishing Club had boats operating in 1951 and erected a club house in 1952. Local captains and crews were trained. The first party reportedly took 44 billfish in 10 days. Records for several species were reported (photo 14). 220 Despite the success reported by the recreational fishermen, activity declined after the early 1950s. It is not clear to the authors why the recreational fishery declined. Excellent fishing was being reported. One local observer suggests that the unstable political situation and suspicion toward foreigners on the part of political leaders may have been factors. 221 Peruvian recreational fishing is currently very limited, but there is some activity. IMARPE reports that an international sports fishing tournament was held in llo during 1996. 22 ' Peruvian officials report that some big game fishing is still possible from Cabo Blanco and two hotels located there cater to anglers. The Cabo Blanco Fishing Club Hotel as of early 1997 was closed for repairs. The Hotel Merlin, however, was open and its owner has a boat available for fishing and provides an experienced fishing guide. 223 Two other boats were also active in 1997 from Cabo Blanco. The fishermen generally troll with baited hooks and lures. The major species taken are striped and black marlin, albacore tuna, and dorado. Swordfish strikes are extremely rare, but the fishermen currently do not pursue fishing strategies specifically directed at swordfish. The Peruvian fishery is not well publicized nor does the coast of Peru offer many modern tourist amenities. As a result, there are currently relatively few foreign anglers participating in the fishery. 224 Peruvian sources suggest that billfish could be targeted in other areas off Peru, but the lack of a developed recreational fishing industry, especially the shortage of boats, provide anglers interested in billfish few opportunities. One American sport fisherman took his boat {Francesca III) to Peru in 1997 and operated with Peruvian sports fisherman Juan Raffo. They fished along the northern coast off Mancora and reported excellent catches of stripped marlin as well as plentiful dorado and bigeye tuna. 225 Peruvian officials do report some limited recreational fishing opportunities for other species from Mancora and ports near Lima. 226 Recreational as well as artisanal fishermen in 1997 are reporting particularly good swordfish and sailfish catches. Fishermen from the La Punta Yacht Club, for example, at the end of May 1997 caught a 235 kg 317 Photo 29 —Spanish longlmers targeting swordfish in the southeastern Pacific have primarily operated out of llo in southern Peru Jose Echeandia Zegarra swordfish near the Hormigas de Afuera Islands, about 65 km from Callao (photo 28). It is unusual to take swordfish around Callao and the fishermen believe that the appearance of swordfish and billfish is associated with the warming water temperatures in 1997.227 appears to center at latitudes off Chile, but some fishing is reported as far north as Ecuador. (See "Fishing Grounds".) Fishing operations vary somewhat as the vessels involved differ substantially in size. One of the vessels, for example, is only 170-GRT {Alicante) while another is 500 GRT (Maicoa) (appendix A2). The longlines deployed range from 8-65 km with from 500-4,000 hooks. Trips are lengthy (2-4 months) as the fish is frozen aboard and stored in refrigerated holds. The fishermen use bait shipped from Spain which they generally pick up in the nearby Chilean port of Arica because it is the busiest port in the area with the most frequent traffic of Spanish cargo vessels. 230 Some activity in 1997 has also been reported at A variety of bait is used, including sardine, mackerel, and squid. Presumably, local Peruvian species could be used for bait, but the fishermen are unfamiliar with the local species and do not want to risk experimenting— given the potential cost of unsuccessful trials. The catch is largely Iquique. 2 B. Foreign fishermen The authors have only limited information on foreign fleet operations off Peru and neighboring countries. Japan: The authors have few details on Japanese fleet operations off Peru. 228 The vessels appear to be managed by the Japanese Association of Tuna cooperatives (Nikkatsuren). Nikkatsuren keeps in touch with the vessels through long-range radio transmitters in Mia Perfecture. A few of the Japanese longliners fishing in Peruvian waters were associated with Tuna Latin from 1979-82. Tuna Latin subsequently tried to purchase seven longliners in 1992-93 (appendix A2). (See: "Companies" and "International".) Peruvian fishermen are employed aboard some Japanese vessels. The fishermen are recruited by Servinave. (See: "Companies.") The Japanese report their best coastal swordfish catches in the southeastern Pacific during the 1990s off southern Peru and lesser quantities off northern Peru and Ecuador. Catches along the northcentral coast were minimal. The bulk of the Japanese swordfish catch in the region, however, is taken well beyond the western coast of South America (95°-145°W) at latitudes from Colombia south to Peru (5°N-15°S). 229 Spain: The Spanish operate freezer longliners, mostly out of the southern port of llo (photo 29). Fishing Company 65% Crew 35% Tuna Contracts: Share Allocation Figure 15— The company keeps almost two-thirds of the proceeds from the catch and the crew gets about one-third swordfish and sharks. The authors do not have detailed catch data, but the Maicoa I in July 1996 transshipped 180 t and 115 t (over 60 percent) of the retained catch was swordfish. 21 " (The percentage would be much lower if the weight of the discarded shark carcasses was calculated.) The remainder was 45 t of shark ("marrajo"), 15 t of "quella" (English equivalent unknown), and 5 t of shark fins. 233 The crew consists of both Spanish and foreign fishermen, mostly Peruvian. The crew on the Maicoa / is 15 318 persons. The Peruvian crews are contracted through TRAMARSA. (See: "Companies.") The catch is mostly landed in Ilo, although Pisco and Callao are sometimes used, depending on the schedule of Spanish cargo vessels because most of the catch is shipped to Spain. 214 Increased activity in 1997 has been reported at Callao. 235 Fishermen working on the foreign vessels are well paid by Peruvian standards. The crew receives a portion of the catch, depending on their position (appendix F and figure 15). The resulting earnings are well above average Peruvian wages, although there are some disadvantages for the workers. Trip lengths are much longer than Peruvians are accustomed to in their largely coastal domestic fishery. Living conditions in many cases are not ideal. In addition, on the Asian longliners, cultural difference are often a problem. 319 VII. Catch Peruvian fishermen have for centuries taken swordfish. Although historical accounts describing the swordfish fishery do not exist, fishermen since ancient times are known to have taken occasional swordfish. Archeological reports describe finding swordfish bones in pre-Colombian communities. Fishing in the colonial period was minimal. The first modern reports known to the authors are accounts in the 1930s and 1940s describing fishing by foreign sport fishermen which helped stimulate the artisanal fishery. There was no significant commercial development, however, until after Word War II. Peru had no fish-freezing plants and thus the fishery was limited to supplying the domestic market where prices were very low. The fishermen thus had little incentive to target swordfish which required labor- intensive, often dangerous, fishing methods and specialized gear. A significant fishery developed during the late 1940s when the growing international demand combined with the availability of freezer facilities made it possible for Peruvian fishermen for the first time to initiate much larger scale operations supplying lucrative export markets). 236 The artisanal fishery in the late 1940s and early 50s landed significant quantities of swordfish. Export data suggest that landings reached about 3,300 t, but some catch estimates approach 7,000 t (appendix B2a and figure 16). Such quantities are larger than those currently being landed by any Latin American country. By the 1960s, the fishery had declined to minor levels and exports ceased, although a few good years were reported during the early 1970s. The reasons for the decline are not clear, but probably are related to the developing fishmeal industry. By the early 1990s, the harpoon fishery has disappeared. Most of the current swordfish catch is the incidental landings from semi- commercial artisanal longline fishermen primarily targeting sharks, and dorado— although a small number of other artisanal fishermen may still land an occasional swordfish. Some sizeable quantities are occasionally reported, but the source appears to be mostly foreign vessels. Some slightly higher catches were reported in 1992-93 as various Peruvian companies have initiated longline fisheries to enter the lucrative export market for high-quality fresh fish. Swordfish is one of the species they target, but their operations have varied widely from year to year. The 1994 domestic swordfish catch appears to have been only about 7 t from domestic operations (appendix B2a). 237 Thus despite efforts to develop the commercial longline fishery, there has been no significant increase in the catch. Efforts to deploy large commercial freezer vessels in pelagic fisheries, including two particularly important efforts (Tuna Latin and Consorcio Pesquero), have failed. 238 Few details are available on a third company (Pesquera Atlantis) currently operating commercial longliners. Several Peruvian groups believe that Peru might fare better using smaller longliners geared to supplying fresh fish, including tunas, swordfish, and other oceanic pelagics. Companies to date have achieved little success with such efforts. 239 Efforts continue and companies in 1996-97 have deployed a few Peruvian-built longliners designed to deliver high- quality fresh fish. At least one project (Sindicato Pesquero) is targeting swordfish. Annual developments in Peru's swordfish fishery are as follows: 1930s: Peruvian fisheries as late as the 1930s was a marginal economic sector consisting of the limited operations of artisanal fishermen who supplied local markets with fresh fish. Overall fishing catches were negligible. The artisanal fishermen would occasionally land a swordfish or other billfish. Foreign residents working in mining and other sectors noticed these landings. Some were recreational anglers and reported the availability of big game fish off Peru and Chile, attracting the attention of other Figure 16 —Peruvian fishermen reported a massive swordfish catch in 1950, but the catch has since declined to minimal levels. 320 anglers in the United States. The interest of the foreign anglers in turn began to draw the attention of the artisanal fishermen. The foreign recreational activity reportedly "opened the eyes" of the local artisanal fishermen to the possibility of targeting swordfish. 240 Even so, catches were limited during this period and fishermen sold the fish at relatively low prices in the domestic market. 1940-45: Unlike neighboring Chile which developed a swordfish fishery during the 1930s, a significant Peruvian fishery did not develop until the 1940s. 241 Virtually no catch data is available, but one estimate suggests that only about 60 t were caught in 1940 (appendix B2a). The involvement of foreign sport fishermen was interrupted by World War II, but artisanal fishermen gradually increased catches. Peruvians began exporting swordfish to the United States during the war years, although no statistics are available on this trade. One observer reported exports of swordfish to the United States throughout World War II (1941-45). 242 Shipments may have been canned product. The authors can not, however, confirm this. The artisanal fishermen continued their small fishery during the War. Swordfish appears to have been relatively abundant, the primary factor limiting the fishermen was their inability to access lucrative export markets. There were no air cargo carriers which could transport fresh fish at reasonable cost and no domestic freezing plants so that landings could be frozen for export to the distant foreign markets. The fishermen had to rely primarily on the domestic market, but prices there continued to be far below international levels. As long as the fishermen could not market their catch abroad, the economics of the fishery were not attractive. Harpoon fishing required considerable skill and labor-intensive, often dangerous, operations to produce relatively few fish. Despite these constraints, however, fishing for swordfish expanded during the war years. Prices for swordfish on the domestic market were low, but they were still higher than for most other species. 243 In addition, many fishermen reportedly liked the "manly" ("macho") challenge of landing such a powerful fish. After the war, U.S. anglers again looked to the waters off Peru and Chile, further stimulating the interest of the local artisanal fishermen. 1946-52: The character of the Peruvian fishery changed significantly after World War II as the capability of freezing their catch first became available. U.S. tuna companies began running freezer vessels to Peru to freeze tuna. 244 The first U.S. vessels began working off Peru during the mid- 1940s. Some of the vessels which worked with Peruvian companies apparently began processing the catch of the artisanal fishermen. The Peruvian artisanal fishermen delivering the fish used a wide variety of small craft and continued fishing almost entirely with harpoons. Fish were delivered fresh to the U.S. tuna vessels which served as motherships for freezing the catch. The U.S. fishermen worked with seven Peruvian companies and by 1950 had deployed nearly 20 freezer vessels. The Peruvian companies purchased the swordfish from the artisanal swordfish at sea or in ports and the U.S. fishermen operating the freezer vessels worked under contract. The principal ports were reportedly in the north, such as Paita. The prices paid to the fishermen were well above those available on the domestic market, making the swordfish fishery an especially profitable enterprise for the first time. With the incentive of higher prices, Peruvian fishermen rapidly expanded their effort on swordfish. A substantial fleet of artisanal boats operated from Paita to Mancora. 245 Sizeable catches were reported in Peru beginning in 1947, although accounts differ substantially on the precise quantities involved. Catches reported to FAO totaled 1,100 t (1947) and 2,600 t (1948) (appendix B2a). Another source based on export data suggests a much more modest, but still significant 540 t swordfish catch in 1948, based on product weight shipments of 420 t (appendix B2a). The first freezer facilities were U.S. freezer vessels brought to Peru, but they were soon followed by onshore freezer plants built at Paita and Ilo during 1950. Peru during this period reported some of the world's largest swordfish catches. Substantial catches were, however, landed during only a few years. The Peruvian catch appears to have peaked in 1950. Accounts differ widely on the actual quantities. Peru exported 2,585 t in 1950 which would have necessitated a catch of about 3,300 t (appendix B2a). FAO reports a mammoth catch of 6,900 t, but the authors have no other evidence confirming such a large catch. These levels are some of the highest swordfish catches ever reported by a Latin American country (appendix B2a). 246 1950s: The fishery declined significantly after 1950, falling to only 400 t by 1955. The catch then leveled off at 400-600 t for the rest of the decade (appendix B2a). It is unclear why the fishery peaked in 1950 and declined to such low levels, but a variety of factors seems to have been involved. One possibility is over fishing, but given the use of harpoons, an enormous effort would have been required. Asian longline fisheries began to develop in the 1950s, but would not have affected catches off Peru in the early 1950s. Climatic changes could have affected both stocks as well as distribution. The small boats used by the artisanal fishermen gave them little flexibility as to where they fished. The vessels were not capable of high-seas operations and without ice holds they were restricted to a very limited range, having to return to port within a very short period after taking 321 a fish. Thus minor shifts as to where the fish appear could have had a major impact on the fishery. Probably the key factor in the fishery's decline was economic development during the decade which appear to have adversely impacted the fishery. Peru began developing a major fishmeal industry during the 1950s and by the late 1950s was beginning to harvest very substantial quantities of anchovy (appendix Bl). The jobs associated with this new fishery as well as in other economic sectors may have drawn fishermen from less lucrative and more arduous artisanal fishing. In addition, the increasing anchovy harvests may have affected populations of other species, like swordfish, which at least indirectly may fed on anchovy. Peruvian biologists are, however, skeptical that the declining swordfish catch was related to the increasing harvests of anchovy. They point our that anchovy is highly coastal. Swordfish off Peru, in contrast, appears to be associated with waters of equatorial and oceanic origin and prey on the fauna in these waters. Biologists at IMARPE believe that high swordfish catches are related to climatic events like El Nino when oceanic fauna approaches the close along with the intrusion of warm tropical water into the coastal areas usually dominated by the cold Humboldt Current. 247 1960s-70s: The Peruvian fishmeal industry founded during the 1950s reached major proportions in the 1960s. Massive catches of anchovy were harvested and delivered to an expanding number of fishmeal plants (appendix Bl). The changes described above associated with the fishmeal industry may have impacted the artisanal swordfish fishery. The impact may have been more economic than the result of changes in ecosystem because of the removal of large quantities of anchovy. 248 Peruvian fishermen during most of the 1960-70s reported catches of only 200- 400 t, although a few relatively high swordfish catches were reported during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Fishermen reported, for example, a swordfish catch of 2,400 t in 1970 (appendix B2a). After 1973, however, the catch plummeted again to less than 200 t in 1979. Peruvian companies continued to export during the 1960s, but only a fraction of production (appendix CI). Significant exports ceased and most of the small Peruvian swordfish catch during the 1970s appears to have been marketed domestically (appendix C2). No export shipments were reported, for example, in the mid-1970s (appendix E2al and figure 24). 1980-82: Swordfish catches continued at low levels during the early 1980s, falling below 100 t in 1981 (appendix B2a). Most of the catch was marketed domestically. Only minor quantities of frozen product were exported (appendix E2al). 1983-84: Fishermen reported improved landings in 1983 of about 230-240 t (appendix B2a). 249 Most of the 1983 catch was landed at Chimbote which is usually not an important port for the swordfish fishery (appendix B3cl). IMARPE reported that a substantial portion of the catch (73 t) was not taken by domestic fishermen, but rather landed as a by-catch of the Soviet factory trawler fleet (appendix B3c2 and B6). 250 No details are available on Soviet operations, but they are known to have extensively used mid-water trawls off Chile and Peru as well a few bottom trawls along the northern coast. 251 Peruvian fishermen reported a substantial increase in 1984 to 300-340 t, while FAO and IMARPE data differed slightly. IMARPE reports that much of the 1983 catch and almost all of the 1984 catch was the incidental catch of factory trawlers operating off northern Peru (appendix B3c2). 252 Virtually all of this catch appears to have been marketed domestically. No exports were reported in 1983 and only a minimal 1.6 t in 1984 (appendix E2al). 1985-89: The status of the swordfish fishery during this period is very difficult to assess. FAO and IMARPE report very different results. FAO, for example, reported a catch of nearly 130 t in 1988 while IMARPE reported only about 55 t (appendix B2a). 253 It is unclear why the two vary as the Peruvian Government is the source of the data published by FAO. FAO reports that Peruvian fishermen continued catching swordfish in 1989, taking over 80 tons. However, IMARPE reports that by 1989 the catch had fallen to negligible levels. Changes in the number of factory trawlers and resulting by-catch appear to have been the primary cause of the catch fluctuations reported by IMARPE. The by-catch declined sharply in 1985 and was not reported at all during 1986-89 (appendix B3c.2). Virtually all of this catch appears to have been marketed domestically. Only minimal exports were reported during 1985-89. The largest shipments were 1 1 t to the United States in 1989 and 1 t to Japan (appendix E2al-E4a and figures 22 and 24). Although minor, the first fresh swordfish exports were reported in 1985 and all of the 1989 shipments were fresh product. 1990-91: Peruvian fishermen reported virtually no swordfish catches during 1990-91. Both FAO and IMARPE report catches of only 1-3 t (appendix B2a). Such minimal catches are generally confirmed by U.S. import data which show no shipments in 1990 and only 5 t in 1991 (appendix E2a2). The fact that the 1991 imports were fresh product confirms that it was landed by domestic Peruvian fishermen. 1992: Small catches increases were reported beginning in 1992. Even so, the 1992 catch was still a modest 16-21 t (appendix B2a). The European 322 Union reported substantial swordfish shipments from Peru in 1992 (appendix E3 and figure 21). The authors believe, however, that this may not be fish caught by Peruvian fishermen, but rather transshipments from Spanish fishermen operating in the Pacific. Spanish fishermen are known to have been active out of Peruvian ports during this period. (See: "Transshipments" and "International".) 1993: IMARPE and FAO report domestic catches of about 20 t in 1993. This is complicated somewhat by an additional 55 t of by-catch that IMARPE reports was taken by factory vessels (appendix B3d2). The authors have been unable to obtain details on the vessels involved. Unlike the by-catches reported in the 1980s, they do not appear to have been Russian vessels. The United States and Japan reported no imports, but the European Union imported 31 t (appendix E2 and figure 21). 1994: Accounts differ significantly as to the 1994 catch. FAO reports only 5 tons (appendix B2a). IMARPE, in contrast, reports catches totaling 310 t (appendix B3d2). The authors note that almost all of the 1994 catch was landed in Ilo. Only 7 t was reportedly taken on the traditional northern fishing grounds. The source of the remaining 303 t is unclear. The authors have been unable to explain the sizeable Ilo landings. Several possibilities exist. They could also be due to the acquisition by Consorcio Pesquero of a larger freezer longliner (the Maria Jose) in 1993 (appendix A2). 254 The Consorcio, however, generally used Callao for its vessels. The increased 1994 catches could possibly be due in part to the longline vessels which the Japanese reportedly donated to university groups, although observers report the results were disappointing. (See: "Research" and "Foreign Aid".) Another possibility is transshipped product taken by foreign fishermen or the catch of associated foreign vessels. Spanish fishermen operating outside the 200-mile limit were active out of Peruvian ports, especially Ilo during the early 1990s, but they reported disappointing catches during 1994 and withdrew from the fishery. 255 The virtual absence of exports during 1994, only about 8 t to Japan, suggests that actual domestic catches were probably limited to the 7 t reported by IMARPE on the traditional northern grounds (appendix E2). 1995: Swordfish catches in 1995 were minimal. FAO reports no catches and IMARPE reports only 7 t (appendix B3d2). Consorcio Pesquero acquired another large freezer longliner in 1995, but as it was registered in Panama, the catch would not be included statistically in the Peruvian catch. Consorcio Pesquero, at the time the major Peruvian company conducting pelagic longline operations, reported a 1995 swordfish catch of about 50 t, but much of this was taken with its Panamanian-flagged vessel (appendix A2). 256 (See: "Companies".) Spanish fishermen suspended Pacific operations in 1995. 257 Trade data suggests a slightly higher catch than reported by IMARPE. Exports totaled about 29 t, mostly to the European Union (appendix E2). 1996: No data is available on Peruvian 1996 swordfish catches, but they were probably similar to 1995. Such catches continued to be incidental to the Peruvian effort directed specifically at tuna, sharks, and other species. The major Peruvian company operating longliners, Consorcio Pesquero, reported disappointing results. 258 Peruvian exports of oceanic pelagics to the United States in 1996 increased somewhat, but were still less than 1 t (appendix E2al). A few Spanish fishermen returned to the southeastern Pacific and reported good swordfish catches outside the 200-mile limit off southern Peru and northern Chile. 259 1997: No 1997 catch data is available, but fishermen should report a substantial catch increase. Consorcio Pesquero, one of the principal Peruvian companies conducting commercial longline operations, ceased longline operations in 1996. The company had reported disappointing longline catches. 260 Other companies are, however, reporting catches. Pesquera Atlantis is reportedly operating its longliners, but no details are available. Some significant swordfish catches may be reported toward the end of the year. Another company, Sindicato Pesquero, has deployed three small longliners which it has deployed for swordfish. 261 The company has reported some success in trials off southern Peru (appendix B8al). In addition, artisanal fishermen in 1997 reported that they were taking unusually large numbers of billfish in addition to some swordfish in their coastal shark longlines. Local observers believe that warming ETP water temperatures are the primary reason. Sindicato Pesquero rushed the deployment of its new longliners to take advantage of the favorable oceanographic conditions. 262 323 Photo 30 —Artisanal fishermen m many areas have to land their catch directly on the beach with no sanitary or support facilities. Robert Webster VIII. Ports Peruvian observers report that the lack of adequate port facilities is a major impediment to the development of a modern fishing industry. Many artisanal fishermen continue to operate with virtually no port infrastructure (photo 30). Much of the country's commercial port infrastructure used by the fishing industry were built in the late 1950s and 60s by fishmeal companies and are now inadequate and deteriorating. 263 Peru as part of its overall process of privatizing state corporations is preparing to sell the state companies currently operating Peruvian ports. 264 Trade associations representing companies working at the ports are concerned about the current process. The companies involved, for the most part, accept the Administration's privatization policy, including port services. Many are concerned, however, with the privatization of the piers and adjacent areas. They have expressed reservations about both future operations and the financing of needed port infrastructure expansion. 265 The Peruvian swordfish fishery during the early 1950s was primarily conducted out of Mancora, Paita, and other small northern ports, especially Cabo Blanco (figures 5 and 6). Some fishing occurred from the southern ports of Mollendo and Ilo, but were of lesser importance. Currently the major ports involved in the domestic longline fishery are Callao, Ilo, and Paita (figure 17). Cabo Blanco: This is a small artisanal port near Talara. It was an important center of the artisanal harpoon fishery for swordfish during the 1940s and early 1950s. Much of the recreational fishing reported by foreign fishermen during this period was conducted from Cabo Blanco. The important fisheries are now for small pelagics, including jack and horse mackerel and sardine. There are still no modern processing facilities and the catch has to be sold when landed, often at low prices. 266 FONDEPESCA in 1992 was reportedly financing the construction of an artisanal port. 267 Callao: Callao is Peru's major port located only a few kilometers from Lima. It has port facilities capable of handling the largest fishing vessels. The Consorcio Pesquero freezer longliners (Maria Jose and Paloma) landed their catch at Callao. The licensed Japanese longliners targeting tuna in association with Peruvian companies land most of their catch in Callao, both the tuna and incidental catch of swordfish and other species. The Japanese vessels fishing on the highseas call at Callao to purchase fuel and supplies, but do not land their catch at the port. Most of these vessels reportedly transship to refrigerated cargo vessels on the highseas. 268 Two companies (Servinave and Japan Tuna del Peru), created to assist the Japanese fleet operating in the eastern, Pacific, are based in Callao. These companies help purchase supplies, take care of the many problems faced by fishermen operating away from home, and help recruit Peruvian crew members. The revenue generated by the foreign vessels is significant. One report suggested that in 1989 the Japanese vessels (the principal country involved) generated about $100 million in business at Callao, involving refueling, repairs, supplies, and local crew contracts. 269 While the Spanish longline fishermen mostly use Ilo, they also occasionally call at Callao, depending primarily on the schedule of Spanish cargo vessels. The Spanish longliner Maicoa /, for example, landed its catch at Callao during July 1996. 270 There has also been expanded Spanish activity at Callao during 1997. 27 ' Peru's largest shipyards are located at Callao. While they focus primarily on anchovy 324 Carta d«l Litoral Marino P«ruano con lot principals lugaras da dasambarqut pwquoro 1992- 1994 Figure 17— Principal Peruvian fishing ports, 1992-94 IMARPE 325 Photo 31 —Foreign fishermen, especially the Spanish, have extensively used the port of Ilo for their southeastern Pacific longline operations. Jose Echeandi'a Zegarra seiners, one small yard in 1997 built three small longliners. (See "Shipyards".) Ilo: The copper mining industry has extensive refining and shipping facilities at Ilo (photo 31). Fisheries is another major local industry. Peruvian domestic fishermen have landed very little swordfish at Ilo (appendix B3 series). Spanish longliners reportedly transship their swordfish catch primarily through the commercial port at Ilo. Facilities for artisanal fishermen were built in 1988, including a pier located close to the PESCA-PERU plant. 272 Cold stores operated by the wholesalers are available. Transshipments by foreign ongliners were reported during Shipments declined 1994, there were none but Spanish activity in 1996. (See: "Transshipments.") The authors know of several Spanish vessels that have been active during 1996- 97 (appendix A2). The Spanish also use the port to purchase supplies and fuel, and to contract local crew members. 274 The shipping company TRAMARSA handles their affairs in Ilo. (See: "Companies.") An Ilo shipyard in 1940s-50s when the harpoon fishery was active. One U.S. observer in the 1950s referred to it as the "Gloucester of Peru." 276 A report prepared in the mid-1980s indicated that there was no pier for the artisanal fishermen who had to beach their small boats or employ reefers to bring the catch ashore. 277 Paita: Paita was the center of Peru's whaling industry, conducted through a Japanese joint venture during the 1950s- 60s. Much of Peru's effort to initiate a modern tuna industry has centered on Paita. 278 Paita is now Peru's major northern fishing port (photo 32). The Soviets helped construct a modern fisheries complex at Paita during the 1970s (photo 33). 279 Some of the most modern port facilities constructed for PEPESCA are being used by the Navy and thus unavailable to the local fishermen. 280 Some swordfish is reportedly landed fresh in Paita by small longliners targeting shark. These vessels are operated by Agro-Pesca and other companies. 281 Other companies such as Consorcio Pesquero/ Productos Pesquero Peruano and Sindicato Pesquero are also active at Paita. 282 This activity at Paita appears to be a relatively recent development, as 1993.2" sharply in in 1995, increased 1996 built the first Peruvian longliner, a 25-GRT vessel. 275 (See: "Shipyards.") Mancora: This is one of the northern ports (4°S) that was especially important during the Photo 32 —A large number of artisanal and commercial vessels operate from Paita, including many of the longliners that target shark. Dennis Weidner 326 Photo 33 —Substantial quantities of swordfish were landed at several northern ports during the 1950s. A modern fisheries complex has been built at one of these ports — Paita. Dennis Weidner IMARPE has reported relatively landings at Paita (appendix B3.) limited swordfish at Artisanal fishermen often use Puerto Nuevo Paita, but facilities there are very limited. 283 Pisco: Peruvian fishermen reportedly land very small quantities of swordfish in the south, mostly in Pisco. Spanish fishermen occasionally transship through Pisco, depending on the shipping schedules of Spanish cargo companies. Talara: This is another of extreme northern ports where the harpoon fishery was conducted during the 1940s-50s. Others: Peruvian artisanal fishermen land small quantities of swordfish at several smaller ports. In recent years there has been some swordfish landed at Punta Cancas and Zorritos. Over the past few years activity has been reported at more than 15 ports, although the quantities of swordfish landed vary significantly from year to year (appendix B3 series). One such port was Caleta Cruz. The Government built a modern fisheries pier there, but the floods associated with the 1982 El Nino silted in the area and the pier is now 20-30 m from the water (photo 34). Another port increasing in importance is Manzarani-Arequipa. Fishermen there a ggccfc-L- jg Photo 34 — A substantial pier was built at Caleta Cruz in northern Peru, but it was silted in by the 1982 El Nino. Dennis Weidner 327 .... i L 1 fat 1 ; 4 i SaJptw*"" £-• -w*i. ,***-*«*' *iHWH - y i n ^ i« ai u w iMa» gi«)»»---r Photo 35—Artisanal and commercial vessels at Manzaram-Arequipa where substantial quantities of shark are being landed. Eduardo Pastor report limited swordfish catches, but they have been landing substantial quantities of shark which is mostly marketed in Lima (photo 35). 328 Photo 36 —The Vigo-based Spanish longliner Maicoa Uno operated out of Ho during 1996 Jose Echeandi'a Zegarra IX. Transshipments Peruvian officials confirm that foreign longliners transship swordfish through Peruvian ports, primarily Ilo. Peruvian regulations require that the fishermen obtain permits for each transshipment through a Peruvian port. 284 The principal fishermen involved appear to be Spanish longline fishermen based in Vigo (photos 36-46). The Japanese have transshipped through Peruvian ports in the past, but now mostly transship at sea. A few Japanese fishermen obtain Peruvian licenses and work in association with Peruvian companies. These licensed vessels land their catch in Peruvian ports. While not technically a transshipment, in reality these shipments are for all intents and purposes very similar to transshipments as the Japanese also participate in the marketing of the fish. Japan: The Japanese reportedly used to primarily transship through Callao, but some activity also took place at Ilo. 285 Much of the product transshipped in the past by the Japanese was tuna. The quantity transshipped by the Japanese has declined in recent years. Most of the substantial Japanese tuna, billfish, and swordfish catch in the ETP is transshipped at sea. The Japanese still call at Callao, but mostly to obtain supplies, make minor repairs, exchange crews, and conduct other business. The Peruvians have tried to interest the Japanese in using available cold stores, but the Japanese have declined to do so— in part because the Peruvian cold stores are not capable of reaching -50°C. 286 The Japanese motherships, however, came into Callao during the 1 990s to take on tuna landed as part of association agreements with Peruvian companies. The Japanese longliners operating with Consorcio Pesquero during 1996, for example, transhipped their catch. 287 The Japanese had a close relationship with Consorcio Pesquero, but the company ceased operations in 1997 and its assets were absorbed by the parent company, Productos Pesqueros Peruanos. (See: "Companies.") Spain: The Spanish are the only foreign fishermen in the ETP directly targeting swordfish. The first Spanish transshipments through Peruvian ports were Photo 37 —Frozen swordfish in the hold of the Maicoa Uno . Jose Echeandi'a Zegarra 329 Photo 38— Unloading swordfish trunks at Ho. Note the extremely large size of the these fish which are much larger than generally reported in Atlantic fisheries. J Echeandia Z. Photo 39 —The Spanish conduct a directed swordfish fishery and the species constitutes a very high proportion of the catch. Note the small size of the fish in the background. J. Echeandia Z. Photo 40 —Landing trunks of mixed size. Some vessels are equipped with deck cranes The fishermen at IIo can also use the portable cranes which can handle substantial loads J. Echeandia Z Photo 41 —Stacking the frozen swordfish trunks in the refrigerated containers to be loaded aboard a Spanish cargo vessel. Note the mixed sizes of the trunks Jose Echeandia Zegarra Photo 42 —Tarps are spread on the pier to prevent damage to the trunks from the rough concrete Jose Echeandia Zegarra reported in the north Atlantic declined and the Spanish shifted to the south Atlantic and other grounds such as the eastern Pacific. 288 Spanish fishermen operate in much smaller numbers than the Japanese and do not have the support system, such as dedicated refrigerated fish carriers, available to the Japanese. Given the distance from Vigo, the Spanish need a local ETP port to transship their catch. The Spanish have primarily worked out of Ilo (photos 36-46). One report suggests that the Spanish are transshipping large quantities of juvenile swordfish and transshipping them through Ilo. 289 The Spanish appear to be fishing largely off central and northern Chile and southern Peru. 290 They appear to fish as far as 800 km off shore. 291 One of the areas targeted by the Spanish is reportedly the Nazca Ridge. Chilean sources report that there is a high concentration of juvenile swordfish on the Nazca Ridge. 292 An official of the Peruvian company handling the shipments, however, denies the Spanish are transshipping small swordfish. He reports that most of the swordfish is 80-320 kg fish, but some is as small as 20 kilograms. 293 The authors have no independent data to be able to assess these conflicting reports. is Ilo, although there are transshipments through other ports as well. Foreign fishermen operating in the southeast Pacific have few alternatives to Peruvian ports for transshipping their catch. They would have preferred to use Chilean ports. Chile does not, however, allow foreign fishermen to transship swordfish through their ports, although a variety of other species which Chilean fishermen do not target can be transshipped. 294 Ecuador and Colombia do not permit transshipments. 295 Ilo: Spanish fishermen targeting swordfish in the eastern Pacific have used the southern port of Ilo (photos 37-46). (See: "Ports.") The Spanish have generally choose Ilo because it is the closest open port to their major swordfish grounds off Chile. 296 Activity : There was substantial activity at Ilo through 1994, but no transshipments were reported in 1995. One report suggests that disappointing catches during 1995 and the subsequent withdrawal of Spanish vessels from the Pacific explain why transshipments have declined. 297 Some activity has resumed in 1996-97. Five Spanish vessels {Alicante, Arosa Primera, Maicoa, Maicoa /, and Urugora) are known to have transshipped during 1996. At least two Spanish vessels (Maicoa and Rosu III) are known to The principal port involved with swordfish transshipments Photo 43 —Swordfish trunks to be loaded in refrigerated containers Note the small size of some fish which are comparable to the sizes harvested in US fisheries. Jose Echeandia Zegarra 332 Photo 44— Containers being loaded aboard Spanish refrigerated cargo vessels for shipment to Spain Jose Echeandia Zegarra Photo 45 —Transshipments at Ho often continue into the night when unloading a large longliner like the Maicoa Uno . Jose Echendi'a Zegarra 333 Photo 46 —Loaded containers being closed during a nighttime transhipment at Ilo. Note that the container is completely filled. Jose Echeandia Zegarra have transshipped in 1997. Other Spanish longliners were active in the southeastern Pacific and may have also transhipped through Ilo (appendix A2 and Chile, appendix D4). Shipments : There is little data available on transshipments. One of the Spanish vessels, the Maicoa, in June 1996 reportedly transhipped swordfish (85 t), shark (60 t), and shark fin (5 tons). This may be an unusually large quantity as the Maicoa is larger than most Spanish longliners. The Rosu HI which transshipped its swordfish catch a Callao in June 1997 also landed substantial quantities of shark (blue and makos) and seabass ("vidrio"). Transport: The transshipped product was loaded aboard refrigerated containers and shipped to Valencia in a Spanish cargo vessel, the Tamamonta. 29% Callao: The Japanese reportedly used to transship through Callao, Peru's principal port. They have in recent years curtailed such shipments. The catch of Japan's highseas longline fleet is now reportedly transshipped mostly at sea. 299 The Japanese motherships do call at Callao and take on tuna and swordfish caught and processed by Peruvian companies. 300 The Japanese longliners working in association with Peruvian companies do transship at Callao. There are also reportedly occasional Spanish transshipments as well, depending on the sailing schedule of Spanish merchant vessels. 301 Pisco: There are reportedly occasional Spanish transshipments, depending on the sailing schedule of Spanish merchant vessels. 302 The Ministerio de Pesqueria (MIPE) supervises the transshipping process and collects data on landings. MIPE inspection officials board each vessel and review the log books. One offic ial reports that transshipping activity in 1994 and 1995 was limited, but a few Spanish vessels transshipped during 1996. 303 The Japanese and Spanish catches are then loaded aboard cargo vessels of each country. 304 Peruvian officials do not, however, collect data on the disposition of the transshipped product. It is likely that much of the swordfish imported by the European Union (appendix E3) may be swordfish transshipped by Spanish fishermen. The small 1992 Peruvian swordfish catch, for example, was only a fraction of the 155 t the EU reports receiving from Peru (appendices B2a and B3d2). Peru poses some disadvantages to foreign fishermen desiring to transship their catch. Quality: The reports of quality control problems and outbreaks of cholera are of special concern to fishermen handling high-value species where the quality is critical. Sensational press reports in the 1990s have attracted world attention. These reports have adversely affected the prices for Peruvian exports and product transshipped through Peruvian ports by impairing the image of Peruvian seafood. Some observers indicate that the cholera and other health problems have discouraged foreign fishermen from transshipping through Peruvian ports. Other sources insist, however, that the cholera problem in Peru has been exaggerated by sensational press reporting. There was a serious country-wide outbreak in the early 1990s, but Government measures to control the disease have reportedly succeeded. 305 There have been no major reports of recent outbreaks. While the extent of the health problem is unclear, some foreign fishermen may still be concerned about shipping through Peru. The need for Peruvian and other foreign companies to initiate Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) systems to export to the United States may help assure potential importers of the quality standards of Peruvian exporters. Distant grounds: Chilean ports are closer to the primary Spanish fishing grounds thus they would have been the preferable swordfish transshipment points. The use of peruvian ports requires much longer trips from the fishing grounds. 334 X. Processing and Products The authors have few details on swordfish processing in Peru. Historical accounts suggests that the swordfish landed during the early and mid 1940s was primarily marketed fresh in local markets. (See "Catch".) Small quantities may have been canned for export. As the fishery developed and freezing facilities became available, most of the catch in the late 1940s and 1950s was primarily frozen for export. MIPE data available beginning in 1985 indicates that most of the catch during the 1960s was frozen, although substantial quantities were marketed fresh in 1968 (appendix B2b and figure quantities were frozen in 1970 and Metric Tons 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 A N /ft /ft A 1 * A* 3 A* A^ x* o.\ rv* o,\ o,\ ck* o,\ Year Figure 18— Much of the swordfish catch in the 1960s was frozen, but beginning in 1971, processing shifted to fresh product. 18). Large 1973. The primary product form, however, shifted to fresh during most of the 1970s. The quantities of swordfish processed, however, declined sharply. Little data is available for the 1980s and 90s as such small quantities of swordfish were caught. Photo 4 7. —Much of Peru's high quality edible fish is taken by trawlers. Note incidental capture of a seal. Robert Webster 335 Photo 48— Processing hake taken off northern Peru Almost no swordfish has been processed in recent years. Dennis Weidner Photo 49— Peruvian companies in northern Peru supply frozen hake and other demersal finfish. Dennis Weidner Photo 50— During El Nino events companies, which normally process demersal finfish, pack large quantities of tropical shrimp taken in the unusually warm waters. Dennis Weidner 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 There is currently only limited processing of oceanic pelagics in Peru. Peruvian companies have, however, given greater attention to producing edible fish and the handling and processing standards have improved in recent years (photo 47). Much of Peru's processing of edible finfish takes place in northern ports such as Paita, but the companies there primarily focus on demersal species (photos 48-50). A few companies have unsuccessfully attempted to supply high-quality frozen tuna (Tuna Latin and Consorcio Pesquero), but their efforts to operate commercial longliners failed. (See "Companies.") There is also some limited processing of shark and dorado (Agro-Pesca, Abastecimientos, Grupo Sotomayor, Industrias Pesqueras Daruma, Luming, and other companies). The shark and ray catch was initially marketed fresh without further processing, but companies now process fillets. 30 ' The Peruvian consumer appears to be more familiar, or willing to buy, dogfish ("tollo") than shark ("tiburon"). Thus shark fillets are often marketed as dogfish. 307 The ITP did some work assessing the drying of shark to market as a substitute for imported cured cod. 3 " 8 Other companies (R. Muelle) offer various other shark products such as cartilage and leather. As the shark catch has declined in recent years so has the output of shark products (appendices B5b and C3 and figures 19 and 26). Swordfish availability is very limited. The small amounts of swordfish caught by domestic fishermen is landed fresh. Fish of adequate quality is then exported without further processing to the United States (appendix E2al). The European Union and Japan import frozen product, but it is not clear that the product involved was actually caught by domestic fishermen. The authors know of no Peruvian company processing swordfish. ,oc This could change in 1997, depending on the success of Sindicato Pesquero 1 s new swordfish project. The authors have no Peruvian processing data, but foreign import data suggests that overall production declined sharply in 1993 and 1994 (appendix E2). Peruvian companies handle only small quantities of both fresh and frozen product. Frozen: Most of the Peruvian swordfish production in 1995-96 was handled by Consorcio Pesquero as part of the by-catch of its tuna longline operations. The Consorcio' s catch was headed and gutted at sea and stored in freezer holds. It is then exported as Metric Tons Commodity □Cured □ Frozen □Fresh 1990 1991 1992 Year 1993 1994 Figure 19 —Peru 's output of shark products has declined sharply since 1992, especially frozen product whole frozen fish without further processing. 310 The Consorcio wanted to produce sashimi-grade fish for export to Japan, but achieved disappointing catches. The company ceased its unprofitable longline operations in 1996-97 and has sold its longliners. (See: "Companies.") One was sold to a foreign company and another to a Peruvian company, Cazamar. 3 " The authors know of no companies currently freezing domestically produced fish. Fresh: Artisanal fishermen still land small quantities of fresh swordfish. Sindicato Pesquero, one of Peru's most important companies, is building three small longliners in 1997 and plans to target swordfish for export as fresh product.' 12 A least one other company (Pesquera Eraz) is shifting from demersal to pelagic longlining). 31 ' Cured: Small quantities are also reportedly cured. XI. Companies A. Trade associations The principal fishing industry trade association is the Sociedad Nacional de Pesqueria (SNP) which has a membership of more than 100 companies. The Sociedad was formed in 1952 to promote the interests of the country's entire fishery industry, including fishing, processing, and exporting companies. The SNP has been primarily concerned with the country's massive fishmeal industry. The ongoing privatization process and Government fisheries management policies have in recent years been the SNP's primary concern. 1 ' 4 (See: "Government Policy: Fisheries management.") The SNP is currently reviewing anew bill on fisheries management released for comments in February 1997. Other concerns include the modernization of the fleet, the large canning industry, and quality control standards. Involvement with the still fledgling longline industry have been limited. The primary Peruvian fishing fleet is composed of still relatively small purse seiners targeting anchovy. Two other important industry trade associations promote the interests of vessel owners, the Sociedad Nacional de Armadores Pesqueros and the Sociedad de Nuevas Embarcaciones Pesqueras (appendix D). B. Companies Several companies in the 1970s and 1980s attempted to initiate tuna purse-seine fisheries, but were unsuccessful. This may in part have been due to the popular suspicions and mistrust of foreign investors and fishermen. Government and private efforts to attract foreign investment and technology during the 1970s and 80s, especially in the fishing industry, proved highly controversial. Frequent policy changes and revisions in the regulatory regime adversely affected several joint ventures." 5 In some cases these changes invalidated commercial contracts after foreign and domestic investors had made equity commitments. This created a very uncertain, often onerous environment for foreign investors. 116 Given the limited Peruvian experience with tuna and the sophisticated modern technology required, foreign partners could have played a valuable role. Several Peruvian state and private companies attempted tuna fisheries without foreign partners. Other companies attempted to attract foreign partners, but potential partners were often discouraged by the complicated and changing regulatory regime which in some cases established burdensome conditions and extremely high fees. Most of the other Latin American countries which have successfully initiated fisheries for oceanic pelagics (mostly tunas) have had a variety of programs which attracted foreign investors and fishermen through various formal or informal joint venture or leasing arrangements. In other cases, provisions were made to contract experienced foreign captains and fishing technicians. Peruvian fishing operations on oceanic pelagics are currently limited. Several attempted tuna ventures have failed. Little effort has been made to target swordfish since the artisanal harpoon fishery declined during the 1950s. The ambitious Consorcio Pesquero effort in 1995-96 to initiate a longline operation for sashimi-grade tuna and swordfish failed. Sindicato Pesquero is planning directed swordfish operations in 1997 with three small longliners. A few Peruvian companies, such as Agro-Pesca, conduct longline fisheries for other species such as shark and dorado. The shark fishery, however, has declined sharply in recent years (figure 26). (See "By-catch.") Available details on these and other companies associated with tuna, swordfish, and longline fisheries are as follows: Abastecimientos IVlarinos: This company among other commodities handles shark fins. Agro-Pesca: Agro-Pesca is primarily involved in the hake trawl fishery and operates eight trawlers. Its processing facilities and pier are located at Tierra Colorada, just south of Paita. 317 The company also contracts with artisanal fishermen operating small longliners (under 10 m) to supply dorado and shark (makos and blues). The operations are highly seasonal: dorado (January-February), mako shark (March-August), and blue sharks (April). Agro-Pesca only signs such contracts when U.S. prices are high enough to sustain profitable operations. When prices are favo'fable, the company has contracted as many as 30-40 artisanal boats at one time. Agro-Pesca processed 500 t of dorado in 1995. Most of the production was exported fresh to the United States, but small quantities were also shipped to Caribbean countries. The company did not renew the contracts in 1996 because of low market prices. The company does not currently handle either tuna or swordfish. 318 Agro-Pesca reportedly studied possible tuna/swordfish longline operations and decided against them for now. Strict Government regulations limiting by-catch to 10 percent and the cost of the additional licenses discouraged company planners." |0 338 Atunera Bolivariana: This company was established in 1988. It purchased the four partially completed 1 ,000 ton PEPESCA tuna seiners as part of an effort to initiate a tuna fishery. 320 The company never succeeded in completing construction of the vessels and they were eventually placed in the hands of receivers. Cazamar: This company purchased the longliner Maria Jose from Consorcio Pesquero in 1997. Unconfirmed reports indicate that the vessel has been shifted to demersal operations. Consorcio Pesquero: Consorcio Pesquero was established in 1993. It is an affiliate of a large holding company, Productos Pesqueros Peruanos (PPP) and the Grupo Sotomayor. It was one of the principal Peruvian companies producing edible product. The company was involved in fishing, processing, and exporting seafood. It began operations in 1993 by forming a joint venture with a Japanese company. They deployed one freezer longliner {Maria Jose) which was 25-m long (59 tons storage capacity) and registered under the Peruvian flag. It was operated with a foreign crew, primarily Japanese. The company obtained a Peruvian fishing license which allowed fishing within the 200-mile zone, but closed a 48-km (30-mile) coastal zone to protect artisanal fisheries. 321 Consorcio Pesquero in 1995 acquired another freezer longliner Paloma, which has a 90 t hold, but registered under the Panamanian flag. Consorcio Pesquero has licenses for shark, swordfish, and tuna operations. Both longliners targeted tuna (yellowfin and bigeye). They deploy 80-km longlines with 2,000 hooks. The two Consorcio longliners generally operated from 300- 1,600 km off the coast. 322 Fishing trips lasted as long as 4-6 months. The Maria Jose was operated inside Peruvian waters, whereas the Panamanian- flagged Paloma is operating outside the 200-mile Peruvian EEZ. The target species were tunas (bigeye and yellowfin), but swordfish and sharks (mako, tiger, porbeagle, and blues, among others) were also caught. The two Consorcio longliners reported average retained catches of tuna (200 t), swordfish (50 t) and sharks (50 t) per year. All of the catch was processed at sea (headed and gutted, H&G) before being frozen. The tuna and swordfish catch was transshipped to Japanese freezer boats in Callao for export to Japan. The shark, except the fins, was marketed domestically in Peru. 323 Consorcio Pesquero in 1995 secured $6.2 million in financing from the Inter-American Investment Corporation and the Japanese International Development Corporation for a tuna exporting operation. The company planned to export sashimi- grade tuna and shark fins. (Presumably swordfish and other billfish were also involved.) The company had hoped to acquire additional vessels, presumably longliners, equipped with freezers and to build a processing plant at Paita. 324 The result of fishing operations, however, were largely disappointing. 32 Consorcio Pesquero is one of the few Peruvian company that the authors have confirmed were operating commercial tuna longliners during the 1990s. (Also see "Pesquera Atlantis" and "Tuna Latin".) Consorcio Pesquero participated in the 1996 IDB-longline training program. (See "Foreign Aid.") Results of its longline operations, however, proved disappointing. The company was one of the least profitable PPP/Grupo Sotomayor affiliates and, as a result, was closed in 1997 as part of a general restructuring. The Consorcio' s assets were absorbed or sold by PPP. All highseas fishing operations ceased and efforts to export sashimi-grade product to Japan were terminated. The Paloma was sold to a foreign company and the Maria Jose to Cazamar. 326 Faenas Portuarias: This company provides port services in various Peruvian ports. The company assisted the first Spanish longliners enter the ETP- longline fishery in early 1989. Unconfirmed reports suggest that the company was no longer operating in 1996. Gloria: This company is best known in Peru as a producer of milk. It also buys canned fish and markets it in Peru under its own label. The company reportedly handles tuna fillets, but only canned product. It does not operate any fishing vessels. Grupo SIPESA: See Sindicato Pesquero. Grupo Sotomayor: This company is an important producer of fishmeal and canned fish. The company decided in the early 1990s to enter the tuna longline fishery through a subsidiary, Consorcio Pesquero. (See "Consorcio Pesquero" for details.) The results, however, were disappointing. Catches were substantially below the levels expected. Grupo Sotomayor decided in 1997 to close the operation when their Japanese partner could not meet needed financial contributions. The three longliners have either been sold or are idled in port. 327 IBC: IBC processes a wide range of seafood at its freezing plant located in Paita. Production is primarily demersal species, but some pelagics are also produced, including bonito, mako shark, and dorado. Industrias Pesqueras Da rum a: This company deploys a few small artisanal vessels using small longlines and driftnets. They reportedly handle, among other commodities, some tuna. Japan Tuna del Peru: Japanese tuna fishermen (Nikkatsuren) in 1993 established this company to provide ship agency services to members operating longliners with SEC. Luming: This company reportedly works with artisanal fishermen targeting sharks. They handle, among other commodities, some shark fins. 339 (R.) Muelle: This Callao-based company offers various shark products such as cartilage and leather. PEPESCA: The state-owned fishing company Peruana de Pesca (PEPESCA) attempted to launch tuna purse-seine operations during the 1970s. PEPESCA launched a $25-million program in 1973. As part of that effort, the company acquired four large (1,000 ton seiners), two in "kit" form. Some optimistic reports were published. 328 The effort, however, proved disastrous and massive deficits were incurred. 329 The vessel "kits" were never fully assembled by PEPESCA. The company was closed and its assets sold in the 1980s. 330 Two of the vessels were launched and have been afloat, idled in the Bay of Paita for several years (photo 8). The other two were in the SIMA shipyard for several years. The company made another effort to enter the tuna fishery in the mid-1980s during the APRA Administration. The results were another series of massive annual losses. The company's tuna seiners were first sold to Atunera Bolivariana in 1988 and subsequently to Pesquera Austral in 1994. Pesquera Atlantis: This company reportedly purchased three Japanese squid jiggers which they converted for longlining. The three vessels were: Andrew (formerly Yahata Maru), Christopher (formerly Hoyoshi Maru 5), and Rossie (formerly Konpira Maru 3) (appendix A2). The vessels were purchased in December 1995 from the North Japan Maritime Corporation and the Peruvian Embassy in Tokyo granted them a temporary Peruvian registration. They were outfitted with longline gear in Hawaii during January 1996. The vessels have been deployed off Peru in operations targeting primarily bigeye tuna. The primary market is Japan. Some of the catch is shipped fresh to Japan and there are also frozen shipments. Operations continue in 1997, but the have reportedly not proven as profitable as company officials had hoped. Pesquera Austral: The company in 1994 purchased the four partially completed tuna purse seiners that PEPESCA had ordered during the 1970s. Pesquera Austral planned to deploy them in the jack mackerel fishery. 331 Pesquera Eraz: A group of Peruvian investors affiliated with TRAMARSA purchased a small longliner, Eraz I, in 1996. It is the first Peruvian-built longliner. The vessel has been deployed for fresh fish operations out of Ilo. The 25-GRT vessel is 14 m long and 4 m wide. It has a 25-ton refrigerated hold, and an autonomy of about 15 days. Operations are conducted primarily within the Peruvian 200-mile zone. The initial operations used bottom longlines to target Patagonian toothfish ("mero/bacalao de profundidad") and other demersals. The company focuses on actual fishing operations and sells the catch to other companies more experienced with export marketing. 332 Company representatives report that warmer water temperatures in 1997 have reduced the demersal catch and they plan to redeploy the vessel with surface longlines for mako and other sharks. 333 Productos Pesquero Peruano (PPP): PPP is the fisheries division of Grupo Sotomayor and was the parent company of Consorcio Pesquero. The Consorcio was one of the few Peruvian companies which conducted commercial longline operations for tuna and swordfish. (See "Consorcio Pesquero".) Results proved disappointing and PPP suspended longline operations and closed the affiliate in 1997.334 Refrigerados Iny: This company, among other commodities, handles tuna. Ribar: Ribar operates Peru's most modern seiner fleet, the country's only all-refrigerated fleet. It also has some of the most modern fishmeal and canning plants in Cuboid and Paita. The company primarily targets jack and horse mackerel and sardines, but in 1992 was studying the possibility of initiating tuna operations. 335 Servicios Ejecutivos Comerciales (SEC): Japanese tuna fishermen (Nikkatsuren) in 1987 established the SEC joint venture in Callao. The Japanese partner was Japan Tuna (based in Panama). The Peruvian partner was M. Woll. Servinave: This Callao-based company was established by Japanese tuna fishermen (Nikkatsuren) in 1989 to recruit Peruvian fishermen to work on Japanese tuna longliners. Sindicato Pesquero (SIPESA): Sindicato Pesquero was established in 1945 and is one of Peru's oldest and largest fishing companies. It is associated with Grupo SIPESA. Initially it was involved in canning operations (bonito, sardines, and other species). The company began producing fishmeal in 1967-68 and they are now the leading fishmeal producer in Peru and perhaps the world (photo 22). Sindicato Pesquero operates 8 fishmeal plants and 65 purse seiners. It has a pier at Paita and its nearby processing facilities (fishmeal, canning, and freezing) at Tierra Colorado are the largest plant in Paita. 3 " The company has been diversifying its operations and in July 1995, deployed two longliners, Pionero and Audaz in the bottom longline fishery for Chilean seabass (Patagonian toothfish). These vessels are 18-m long and deploy longlines at depths of up to 1,800 meters. The company exports all of its catch of seabass fresh to the US, mostly to Seattle. Bottom longline operations for seabass have been affected in 1997 by warming water temperatures. Seabass and other demersal catches have as a result declined. Sindicato Pesquero has ordered the construction of three, 20-m longliners (Triunfador, Pionero /, and Audaz 1) to 340 target swordfish. SIPESA decided to focus on coastal swordfish vessels, in part because the vessels were less costly and more economical to operate than tuna vessels which need to be larger vessels with a wider operating ranges. The vessels were designed in SIPESA' s Fleet Division and Office of Studies and Execution of New Fishery Businesses based on the design of Spanish longliners. They are equipped with U.S. manufactured gear (Lindgren-Pitman). Sindicato Pesquero has contracted an experienced Chilean captain to provide technical assistance for fleet operations. They have decided to pursue swordfish in 1997 as prices for fresh product are favorable on the U.S. market. 337 Plans initially entailed deploying these vessels in November 1997, but the warming sea surface temperatures off Peru in mid- 1997 have caused swordfish and billfish (especially sailfish) to appear in unusual quantities close to the coast. As a result, the company has begun to target swordfish (appendices B8 series). SIPESCA also moved up deployment to June 1997. They have to deployed these vessels in grounds along the Peruvian coast from out of Callao, Paita, and Pisco, both inside and outside the 200-mile limit. The focus was to be primarily on northern grounds off Paita and southern grounds off Ilo. Company officials note, however, that because of the abnormally warm 1997 water temperatures, swordfish are available all along the coast. The early results in mid- 1997 have shown the best results out of Ilo off the southern coast (appendix B8al). The hold capacities of the new vessels are 70 cubic meters or 40 tons of fish. They were being built in the small Transmar Luz S.A. shipyard in Callao. The vessels are some of the few active Peruvian vessels targeting swordfish or tuna in a directed fishery. 338 Trabajos Man'timos, S.A. (TRAMARSA): TRAMARSA is a shipping company located in Ilo. It is the largest Ilo- based company handling transshipments. The company was formed as a joint operation between the Chilean Sudamericana de Vapores shipping company and the Peruvian Romero Group. The company works with foreign fishermen from various countries, especially Spain (photo 48). TRAMARSA helps the Spanish and other foreign fishing companies to recruit and place local crew members. The company has placed more than 100 crew members on Spanish vessels. TRAMARSA assists with the transshipments of the catch (photo 51). TRAMARSA reports that Spanish vessels first called in Ilo in 1989 and were active through 1993. Spanish activity has since tapered off. There was much reduced activity in 1994 and none in 1995. A few Spanish fishermen returned in 1996 and reported better catches. The authors have identified five Spanish longliners operating in the Pacific out Ilo during 1996 and transshipping through Peruvian ports (appendix A2). Two Spanish longliners have been identified in 1997. The authors do not have a complete list and more Spanish vessels may have been active. Investors affiliated with TRAMARSA built a small longliner at an Ilo shipyard in 1996. 339 (See: "Pesquera Eraz" above.) Tuna Latin: Tuna Latin is the private Peruvian company with the longest history of attempting to enter the ETP tuna fishery. The company's efforts, however, have been significantly affected by political changes and resulting shifts in the regulatory structure. Jose Koechlin and other Peruvian investors established the company in December 1979 to launch a new domestic tuna fishery. A very large number of Japanese longliners were operating off Peru and other ETP countries during the late 1970s, tuna Latin representatives estimate the number of Japanese longliners during this period at about 150 vessels. 340 The northern Peruvian coast off Tumbes/Piura appears to have been an especially important ground. Koechlin felt that Peru should participate in the lucrative fishery being conducted off its coast and carried out a feasibility study. Investors were encouraged in 1979 by the more open economic policies of President Fernando Belaiinde after years of a leftist-leaning military dictatorship. MIPE in 1984 Photo 51. -TRAMARSA is the Ilo-based shipping company assisting Spanish longliners operating in the southeastern Pacific. J. Echeandia Zegarra 341 Photo 52.—Bigeye tuna and swordfish landed by the Japanese tuna longlmers operating with Tuna Latin Maximo Collao Castro licensed 144 Japanese longliners for operations within Peruvian waters. Tuna Latin representatives estimate bigeye, the target species, catches at about 70,000 tons. 341 Drawing on his feasibility study, Koechlin decided to launch a domestic tuna longline fishery. He acquired Peru's first tuna longliner when in 1980 he purchased the Tokujio Maru and renamed it the Inca Mar (appendix A2 and photo 53). As Peru had no domestic tuna regulations, Koechlin worked with MIPE officials who in 1982 issued needed regulations, "Reglamento para la operacidn de los buques pesqueros atuneros frigorificos." The most important element of these new regulations was the creation of a reserved area ("Zona de Reserva") off northern Peru near Bayovar (7°S-to the Ecuadorean border and 82° W). 342 Only Peruvian-flag vessels were permitted to operate in the reserved area to help Peruvian investors enter the new fishery. Tuna Latin established its main offices in Lima (Miraflores), but fishing operations were conducted out of Paita. Tuna Latin attempted to purchase six additional Japanese longliners, but MIPE never acted on their request. Fisheries Minister Alejandro Deustua instead decided to open the reserved zone to foreign longliners. MIPE issued 20 licenses to Japanese longliners. The licenses were nominally charter agreements with what some observers describe as Peruvian "straw" companies, most with no fisheries experience or significant capital. As a result, Tuna Latin dropped its effort to purchase longliners and instead signed charter agreements to operate initially 4 Japanese longliners and eventually 14 longliners. The arrangements were made with Japan Tuna. 343 Tuna Latin worked with the Japanese longliners through 1985, despite the appointment of a new fisheries minister, Ismael Benavides, and further changes in the regulations rasing the fees and changing the nature of the contracts. A change of Government in 1985 brought President Garcia and the populist APRA party to power. President Garcia's new Administration modified existing regulations (such as the reserved fishing zone off Bayovar) and canceled many contracts with foreign companies (such as Tuna Latin's association contracts). These actions combined with a disappointing tuna season, forced Tuna Latin to cease tuna operations and instead shifted to hake. The Inca Mar was converted to a floating cold store (photo 53). 344 Attempting to take advantage of the more open market policies of the Fujimori Administration, the company made another attempt to enter the tuna fishery in 1992. During the term of office of another fisheries minister, Jaime Sobero Taira, Tuna Latin leased seven Japanese longliners with a 5-year purchase option (appendix A2). Initially the crews were 80 percent Japanese, but by the time the vessels were sold to Tuna Latin, about half the crew was Peruvian. Tuna Latin obtained MIPE approval for the 5-year leasing program at the end of which the vessels would be incorporated into 342 Photo S3.— Tuna Latin's vessel Inca Mar is now used as a floating cold store. Here some small trawlers are delivering their hake catch. Maxima Collao Castro the domestic fleet. MIPE issued 1-year licenses that could be renewed. Company officials reported that the cost of purchasing the vessels would have totaled $35 million over the 5-year period. Unlike leasing arrangements in other Latin American countries, the contract provided for the eventual purchase of the vessels. In addition, the lease/purchase agreements were not profit sharing arrangements. The vessels were to be operated by Tuna Latin which after paying the lease/purchase fees accrued the profits or was responsible for the losses. Tuna Latin was, however, only able to operate the vessels for about 14 months. Catch of both bigeye tuna and swordfish were reported (photo 52). The arrangement proved controversial and the Government in 1993 refused to renew the fishing licenses for the Tuna Latin vessels. Company officials attempted to work with MIPE to allow the vessels to operate, but MIPE officials were adamant. MIPE in 1993 issued new regulations ("Plan de ordenamiento pesquero del atun, especies afines, y asociados"), which, while not specifically identifying Tuna Latin, had a significant adverse impact on the company's operations and forced them to discontinue leasing arrangements. 345 As a result, Tuna-Latin had to suspend its operating plans and attempted to renegotiate the contract with the Japanese. In the end the company had to return the vessels after having made sizeable non-refundable payments. Other Government regulations, such as increasing import duties on fishing vessels to 42 percent, make in virtually impossible to import foreign longliners to initiate a domestic longline fishery. The company currently uses the Inca Mar as a mothership or floating cold store in the hake fishery (photo 53). It also operates small fishing boats which deliver their catch (mostly hake and tuna, but rarely swordfish) to the Inca Mar (photo 53). Given the difficulties experienced with fisheries, the company is closing many of its fishing operations and trying to sell the Inca Mar. They retain some of the small artisanal trawlers deployed in demersal trawl fisheries for hake out of Paita. 346 Unknown: One observer indicates that another company made arrangements with a Japanese company to operate the Taisei Maru /, a 48-m longliner with a 400 t hold. This was the last Japanese tuna vessel leased by the Peruvians and its lease expired in 1994 (appendix A2). 347 343 XII. Markets A. Domestic product in local markets. Often the fish is sold at fresh fish counters in central markets, but some fish may also occasionally be found in supermarkets. Some swordfish is landed frozen in Peru by licensed foreign vessels or transshipped by unlicensed vessels, but this product, with the exception of non-export grade fish, does not enter the domestic market. Little swordfish is currently marketed in Peru. Most of the small swordfish catch taken in the country's erratic longline fishery is exported and only B. Trade 1 . Exports Metric Tons / ^9 v. 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Year Peru was the first South American country to export significant quantities of swordfish. Swordfish shipments were first noted in the early 1940s during World War II, although few details are available. Significant shipments of frozen product began after the War. U.S. tuna boats began to freeze swordfish delivered by artisanal fishermen. The higher prices offered prompted the fishermen to rapidly increase effort. (See "Catch".) This enabled the fishermen for the first time to target lucrative foreign markets. Exports reached significant levels from 1947-52, but then declined sharply (appendix B2a). Almost all of the exports were shipped frozen to the United States. Figure 20.— The European Union swordfish imports were almost all marketed in Spain. small quantities (primarily lower quality product) is marketed domestically. The artisanal catch is largely marketed fresh in domestic markets, but the quantities involved are very limited. Government officials report that domestic consumers are unfamiliar with the species and it needs to be promoted to provide a better market for the fishermen. 348 Swordfish in Latin America is normally exported, but the current artisanal landings are often not of sufficient quality to export. In addition, the limited, inconsistent supply makes it difficult to establish reliable marketing channels, a critical factor when dealing with fresh product. Most of the current artisanal catch is landed at Paita and small artisanal ports near Paita (appendix B3d2). It is sold at the dock for eventual sale as fresh Metric Tons 1G0 140 120 Country □Germany 1992 1993 1994 1995 Year Figure 21 -Peru exports very Utile swordfish. The shipments to the European Union may be Spanish-caught fish. 344 Metric Tons 35 / f~l Species □Swordfish ■Billfish 30 25 20 15 10 i ■3 f=i A p & £ 4? 4* & Year ^ ^ A * & Figure 22— Billfish shipments to Japan probably included only small quantities oj swordfish. Swordfish exports in recent years have declined to extremely small quantities. 34 ' Peruvian exporters contacted about swordfish during the 1980s indicated that they were unable to supply the species on a dependable basis. 35 ' The situation during the 1990s was little changed. Some Peruvian groups during the 1980s and 1990s have attempted to promote an export fishery for swordfish, but so far with little success. The limited and irregular supply and the relatively poor quality of fish delivered by artisanal fishermen make it difficult to develop reliable foreign clients. Reported incidents of cholera have further complicated the ability of Peruvian companies to successfully market seafood overseas, especially fresh seafood. Metric Tons Year Figure 23 —Almost all Peruvian billfish exports to Japan are frozen product Peruvian swordfish exports during the 1990s have been minimal. Shipments have been as low as 5-8 t (appendix E2 and figure 20). Reported EU shipments (primarily to Spain) reached 155 t in 1992, but this is probably because Spanish transshipments were incorrectly identified as Peruvian product (appendix E3 and figure 20). Small quantities of swordfish exports during the 1990s have been shipped to the United States and Japan (appendix E2al and E4a). European Union: Large shipments of swordfish were reported to the EU in 1992 (155 t) and smaller quantities in 1993 and 1995 (31 t and 25 t) (appendix E3 and figure 21). All of the 1992 shipments and most of the 1993 shipments were marketed in Spain. Negligible shipments were reported in 1994 and none at all in 1995. The authors believe that some, if not most, of this product may be swordfish taken by the Spanish-flag longliners operating in the Pacific rather than product landed by Peruvian vessels (photos 36-46). 1S| (See: "Transshipments" and "International.") The EU imports, especially the 1992 shipments, substantially exceeded Peruvian catches. In addition the shipments appear to reflect the level of Spanish activity in the Pacific. (See "International".) Japan: Peruvian companies ship very limited quantities of swordfish and billfish to Japan (appendix E4a and figure 22). Japanese import statistics indicate there were no such shipments in the early 1990s and that shipments in 1994 and 1995 totaled only 24 t and 12 t, respectively (appendix E4). As the Japanese lump swordfish with other billfish in a combined basket category, actual swordfish shipments are even less, perhaps only a third of the total. Almost all of the Japanese shipments are frozen (appendix E4b and figure 23). The Consorcio Pesquero in 1995-96, working with Japanese partners and the IDB, hoped to begin surface longlining to supply high-quality sashimi grade tuna and swordfish for Japan. This project could have significantly increased exports. The project, however, was unsuccessful. (See: "Companies," "International." and "Foreign Aid.") United States: The United States, which played a key role in developing 345 Metric tons Dried Fins Frozen Fresh Shark, Dogfish Product Figure 24.— Peruvian sword fish exports to the United States have varied widely, but have been negligible since 1991. the Peruvian swordfish fishery before and after World War II, became the principal market for Peruvian swordfish. Shipments were reported during the war (1941-45). 352 Little information is available on the trade during the war years, but it may have been primarily canned product as Peru at the time had no fish freezing plants. After the War, U.S. tuna seiners began operating off Peru. The vessels had freezers and several were deployed as motherships for swordfish delivered by artisanal fishermen. Access to freezers for the frozen swordfish allowed Peruvian companies to enter the U.S. market. The increased prices offered for the fish greatly stimulated artisanal effort and catches soared (appendix B2a). During the high point of the harpoon fishery in the late 1940s and early 1950s, most of the catch was exported to the United States. One estimate suggested that exports peaked at 2,600 t in 1950; other estimates are substantially higher (appendix B2a). (See "Catch".) Since the early 1950s, exports to the United States have declined significantly. Shipments during the 1970s were minimal (appendix E2al and figure 24). Peruvian swordfish exports to the United States in recent years have been very limited. Small quantities of up to 11 t were shipped during the 1980s. About 5 t were shipped in 1991, but shipments since then have been negligible or non- existent—less than 1 t in 1994 and 1996 (appendix E2al). Peruvian exporters have been attempting to expand shipments of high quality fresh fish to the United States during the 1990s. Overall shipments of fresh fish increased from $0.1 million in 1990 to $2.9 million in 1996. Despite this increase, oceanic pelagics such as swordfish and tuna shipments are still very modest. Shipments of oceanic pelagics generally are only a small part of fresh shipments. In addition there is no observable trend showing that the Peruvian companies are successfully producing and exporting fresh product. Peruvian swordfish exports to the United States peaked at $39,000 in 1991 and tuna exports peaked at $150,000 in 1994 (appendix E2c). The source of that product is unknown, but as it is fresh product it would presumably be domestic Peruvian, probably semi-commercial artisanal, fishermen. Shipments declined sharply in 1995, but recovered somewhat in 1996 (appendix E2c). It is difficult to predict future export trends because of the lack of information on the status of the stock. Peruvian fishermen, often associated with foreign groups, have attempted to expand the longline fishery. The focus has been primarily on tunas. A commercial tuna longline fishery would also take swordfish. Peruvian companies (like Consorcio Pesquero and Tuna Latin) have had considerable problems launching the fishery. The ability of the Japanese and Spanish to catch tuna and swordfish confirm that there is an available resource. There is no reason why a well-managed, adequately capitalized Peruvian company could not succeed. The Government's more open economic policies are now making it possible for private companies to commit capital for such new ventures. Peruvian investors now appear to be less interested in large commercial freezer longliners than operations for fresh fish conducted by smaller, less expensive vessels. One company (Pesquera Atlantis) in 1997, however, is operating large commercial longliners. 353 This operation and the decision of a large well-established company (like Sindicato Pesquero) to deploy small longliners for swordfish in mid- 1997 suggests that Peru could begin exporting small quantities of swordfish and other oceanic pelagics by the later part of the year. 2. Imports Peru does not import swordfish. 346 XIII. Government Agency and Policy $50,000). " 8 Harpoon fishing for marlin and several other species are prohibited. C. Limits A. Fisheries agency The Peruvian agency responsible for fisheries is the Ministerio de Pesqueria (MIPE). B. Fisheries law The basic Peruvian fisheries law is the Ley General de Pesca of 1992. 354 The law represents a major revision of Peruvian fishery laws and regulations and provides the basis for managing Peruvian fisheries. It includes provisions on a wide range of fishery matters, including management, research, vessels, marketing, and aquaculture. It also establishes the Fondo Nacional de Desarrollo Pesquero (FONDEPES) to help finance fishery development projects. The law permits foreign fishermen to obtain access to Peruvian grounds and provides detailed provisions to regulate foreign operations. 355 (See "Licenses," below.) Peru currently has no specific regulations governing the swordfish fishery. The species has been of minor importance to MIPE given the minimal landings in recent years. Some observers, however, are concerned over unconfirmed reports that foreign fishermen are taking large quantities of juvenile swordfish and landing or transshipping them at Peruvian ports. While there are no specific swordfish regulations, the species is in part covered by Peru's tuna management plan. Peru implemented a management plan for tuna and related species ("especies afines") in 1994. 356 The plan indirectly covers swordfish as they are one of the associated species. A quota of 6,000 t was set for 1994-95. The Peruvian regulations are very strict and involve substantial access fees for tuna vessels. The Government requires fees based on the vessel's capacity. (See: "Licenses" below.) The vessels are prohibited from fishing in a 30-mile (48 km) coastal zone reserved primarily for artisanal fishermen. The Government also requires a Peruvian inspector on each vessel to collect data and help enforce regulations. The Government sets percentages of maximum capture of by-catch species. A fisherman with a valid tuna license, for example, is only permitted a 5 percent by-catch of other species. 35 If the by-catch is above this limit, the excess by-catch is confiscated and fines are levied ($1,000- Peru declared a 200-mile Territorial Sea in 1947 by a Supreme Decree and reconfirmed that declaration through subsequent laws and constitutional articles. 355 Peruvians refer to their 200-mile zone as the Mar de Grau in honor of a 19th century naval hero. The United States, which recognizes 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs), has protested the Peruvian 200-mile claim as it is a Territorial Sea claim. Peru has negotiated marine boundary agreements with both neighboring countries, Chile (1954) and Ecuador (1975). D. Management Peruvian officials have given considerable attention to possible new management systems. Officials are especially concerned about the expanding effort on the key anchovy stock, understandable given the importance of the stock and past history of wide fluctuations. Some foreign advisors, especially from the World Bank, have suggested promoting limited entry systems, such as individually transferrable quotas (ITQs). 360 The issue has engendered considerable debate in Peru. FAO specialists have also advised MIPE. An FAO team visited Peru during August 1995, to help evaluate the MIPE management plan. Many industry representatives object to the proposals and have expressed concern that such a sophisticated new system would provide considerable possibilities for cheating. The Sociedad Nacional de Pesca (SNP) characterized the management proposals a potential "disaster." Richard Diaz, SNP General Manager, labeled the ITQ proposal as disguised fees and taxes. He said that "If a tax is all they have to offer us, our answer is no, and if that is all they have to say to us, then the plan to re-order the fisheries sector is a disaster." 361 Most industry representatives appear satisfied with the current system which involves periodic closures. Such a system of completely closing the fishery makes it easier to enforce and assures the different companies that their competitors also have to cease operations. Thus it appears unlikely that Peruvian officials plan to embark on any sophisticated new management system, at least while catch rates continue at acceptable levels. MIPE is considering other options including fees and contracting a private company to monitor catch levels. 362 347 E. Promotion The Fujimori Administration has attempted to stimulate investment in the private sector and made many guarantees to investors. 363 • Tax, currency, exchange rate, and administrative stability for 10 years. • Taxes apply only to dividends distributed • Taxes on production to be deducted from income taxes • Right to remit profits abroad and free access to foreign currency • Administrative simplification • Investment guarantees • Accelerated depreciation up to 5 years The Administration published its fishery development policy in 1994 which included, among other matters, a commitment to acquire and designate information needed by domestic and international investors to plan fishery projects. 364 Attracting private domestic and foreign investment is critical for the industry's development. Not only does the Administration not have the financial resources for adequately funding needed improvements, but it believes that such investments may not be in the industry's long term-interest— especially investments in state corporations. The Fujimori Administration sees the efforts of previous administrations to promote development through state corporations as part of the reason for Peru's dreadful economic performance during the 1980s-90s. The Administration does, however, see a Government role in funding small, narrowly focused projects. The Ley General de Pesca established FONDEPES to promote and execute commercial fishery development projects by providing technical, economic, and financial support. FONDEPES is funded primarily through MIPE. 365 The Peruvian Government has decided to give increased attention to promoting improved quality control standards in the fishing industry. Given the importance of the fishing industry to Peru, both for supplying food to the domestic market and generating foreign exchange earnings, such a decision is critical. Ing. Jorge Villena Chavez, Director General de Salud Ambiental in the Ministerio de Salud in 1996 addressed the subject of quality standards at a regional FAO meeting dealing with fishery products. He announced that the Peruvian Government at the "highest level" has decided to ensure that Peruvian fishery products are of the highest quality standards and described the national program to achieve that objective. 366 F. Licenses Peru had a very active program of licensing foreign tuna fishermen during the 1970s and 1980s. The number of licenses issued peaked at 144 in 1980. Licensing and other access arrangements, however, have proven very controversial in Peru. 367 The licensing regulations, as a result, have changed significantly from year to year. Policies have varied from a developmental focus using licenses for generating funds and acquiring foreign technology to an essentially exclusionary focus achieved by setting licensing (access) fees at prohibitively high levels. The number of foreign companies applying for fishing licenses has declined significantly in recent years, primarily because of fee increases. 368 1. Regulatory framework a. 1982 The Government in 1982 established a reserved zone off extreme northern Peru for Peruvian-based vessels. 365 The regulations were reportedly written primarily to benefit one company, Tuna Latin. The licensing regulations provided for: Vessels: The size of foreign vessels were limited to 250 tons. Fees: Fees were increased to $160-320 per GRT, depending on how close to the coast the vessels were deployed. Zones: An exclusive 30-mile (48-km) coastal zone was established for domestic fishermen. Foreign fishermen could operate in a 30-60 mile (50-100 km) coastal zone, but had to pay higher fees than in the 60-200 mile zone. Crew: Crews members had to be primarily (not less than 20 percent) Peruvian nationals. Status: • The foreign vessel owners had to sign association or joint venture agreements. Catch: At least 30 percent of the catch had to be landed in Peru. 370 b. 1984 New regulations were implemented in 1984 which provided for: Domestic landings: At least 30 percent of the catch had to be landed in Peruvian ports and sold at national prices (article 8 and 19). Status: Foreign fishermen could either purchase a fishing license or sign a leasing contract with a Peruvian company (article 11). Fees: Fishing fees included a registration ($2,000), navigation permit ($20 per GRT), and fishing permit 348 ($160 per NRT) (article 13). Duration: Leasing contracts could extend for 12- month periods (article 18). Zones: Foreign and national vessels had to fish outside a 30-mile coastal zone, except for a special northern area (article 24)."' c. 1985-88 Several changes were reported during the mid- 1980s. The new APRISTA Administration in 1985 rescinded the reserved zone. Further changes to these regulations were made in 1987 and 1988. 372 d. Early 1990s Tuna Latin leased foreign longliners again in 1992, but the Government refused to allow them to renew the licenses after 1993. 37 The operation of foreign vessels off Peru, especially large stern factory trawlers, has proven very controversial. The 1992 Ley General de Pesca permitted foreign vessels to operate in Peruvian waters, but only in association with Peruvian companies (Article 48). The contractual arrangements can be in various forms of leases, partial ownership, joint ventures, or other types (Article 49). e. 1994 The Government implemented new licensing regulations for foreign and domestic fishermen desiring to fish for tuna and related species in 1994. The licensing regulations were included in the Government's new tuna management plan." 4 Fees: Both foreign and domestic vessels were assessed a fee of $500 per net-registered-ton (NRT) for a 6-month license. Crew: Peruvian regulations required that the crew of licensed tuna vessels consist of at least 30 percent Peruvian nationals. 375 Duration: The licenses were valid for 6 months. 37 ' By-catch: The Government limited by-catches in the tuna longline fishery to 5 percent of the catch of the target species. 37 ' Fines for violations were set a substantial levels. The Peruvian regulations also prohibited the licensed tuna fishermen from discarding the by-catch at sea and required that it be landed. 378 f. 1996-97 President Fujimori appointed a new Fisheries Minister in 1996. Alberto Pandolfi Arbulu, who was also appointed Prime Minister, previously headed Peru's oil company (PETROPERU). He replaced long-serving Jaime Sobero. Minister Pandolfi has indicated that he believes that licenses to foreign fishing vessels should only be issued to companies willing to invest in Peruvian shore-based processing plants. 379 Peruvian officials in 1997 are currently considering various revisions to the 1994 management plan for tuna and associated species. Some of the changes under consideration are: Species: Ministry officials are considering the issuing of licenses for specific tuna and associated species. By-catch: The permissible by-catch would be limited to: purse seiners (5 percent) and longliners (20 percent). The vessel owner can retain the by-catch within these limits. Any by-catch exceeding these limits must be donated to MIPE. Fees: The licensing fee for domestic fishermen may be reduced. Some officials are concerning charges of about $170 per NRT. Fines: Fines for exceeding the by-catch limits and other infractions may be reduced. 380 2. Fishing licenses The number of tuna licenses issued to foreign fishermen has declined significantly during recent years. 381 The increase in the cost of the licenses appears to have been the principal reason. The number of licenses issued to foreign longliners fell from six in 1992-93 to only two in 1994 (appendix G3). One unconfirmed report suggests that four or five foreign tuna vessels were licensed in 1995- 96. 382 Such numbers are only a small fraction of the numbers of vessels that purchased licenses during the 1980s. (See "International".) Most of the tuna licenses issued to foreign fishermen during the 1990s have been issued to Japanese longliners. Almost all of the foreign longliners known to the authors as having operated with Peruvian licenses have been Japanese vessels. Virtually all of these licenses, however expired in 1993 (appendix G2). The licensing of foreign fishing vessels is a contentious issue in Peru. Some Government officials and industry groups promoting development as well as companies working with the foreign fishermen have favored the licensing program. Other industry groups not benefitting from the foreign effort as well as most fishermen are critical. Fisheries is one of the country's principal resources and discussions of industry issues are often highly politicized. Some nationalistic politicians have been especially vociferous in criticizing the licensing of foreign vessels. As a result, fees are sometimes set to demonstrate nationalistic fervor rather than on an assessment of the intrinsic values involved. 349 Businessmen who have attempted to work with the foreign companies have been especially critical of constantly changing regulations. 383 Critics: Some Peruvian fishery experts have criticized foreign companies, claiming that they were not interested in training Peruvian fishermen. 384 Some of the language used in the debate is highly emotional and nationalistic. The foreign parties involved, for example, are sometimes referred to as "imperialists." 385 Others sometime refer to the foreign fishermen as "pirates". Proponents: Other Peruvian analysts believe that the high fees established in 1994 are counter productive. One observer believes, for example, that foreign investment and technology are necessary to successfully initiate a domestic tuna fishery and that the current high fees are "absurd" and simply discourage foreign investment in Peru. 386 A businessman notes that since the new regulations were adopted virtually no foreign companies have expressed an interest in deploying vessels off Peru. 387 3. Research licenses Some licenses are occasionally approved for research fishing. The Ministry of Fisheries, for example, in 1994 approved a 12-month license for the foreign tuna vessel Connie Jean to conduct test fishing in Peruvian waters. 388 350 XIV. Research Several Peruvian research institutes and university groups have fisheries research programs. The principal Peruvian research institute working on marine fisheries is the Instituto del Mar. The authors know of no Peruvian research specifically on swordfish. Some Peruvian researchers have done limited work on longlining and tuna. 1IMARPE: The Instituto del Mar (IMARPE) is a "decentralized" public institution dedicated to oceans and fisheries research. The law establishing IMARPE accords it "scientific, economic, and administrative autonomy and acts in concordance with the administrative and political objectives of MIPE." 38 ' IMARPE is the leading fisheries research institute in Peru. IMARPE conducts research on oceanography, fisheries biology, fisheries technology, marine pollution, and biodiversity. IMARPE's research program has focused on the species of greatest commercial importance, especially small pelagics (anchovy and sardine, and mackerels), demersals (especially hake), and other species. Since 1992 greater attention has been given to invertebrates of commercial importance (especially squid) and species of potential commercial importance (deep-water species and sharks).' 00 Budget constraints in recent years have severely restricted its research program. IMARPE researchers have done some limited work on sharks and tunas.' 01 The authors know of no IMARPE work on swordfish, but there has been some work on longlining oceanic pelagics in general, primarily focusing on sharks and tuna. 302 The 1994 tuna management plan assigns IMARPE the responsibility for initiating a research program for tuna and associated species (including swordfish). 39 IMARPE is pursuing research aimed at diversifying the fishing industry. Current work is reported on sharks, dorado ("perico"), flying fish ("peces voladores" or Cypselurus heterurus). IMARPE is particularly interested in promoting the export of flying fish eggs. IMARPE is also conducting longline experimental cruises to assess the potential for bottom longlining for Patagonian toothfish (bacalao de profundidad or Dissostichus eleginoides).^ 4 ITP: The Instituto Tecnologico Pesquero (ITP) conducts research on capture methods and processing. Some of this work has included oceanic pelagics, especially shark and tuna.' ' ITP is participating in the 1996 Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) longline training program. (See "Foreign Aid".) The authors know of no specific swordfish studies. UDEP: The Universidad de Piura (UDEP), a public university, is coordinating the 1996 Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) 2-year longline training program.' 06 (See "Foreign Aid".) UNP: The Japanese Government donated a 50-m used longliner, the Ibaraki, to the Universidad Nacional de Piura (UNP) which was to be used for exploratory longlining fishing. A U.S. fishing company, Ocean Fresh Seafood (OFS), in 1994 provided financing and technical assistance. The U.S. company financed the refitting of the Ibaraki and staffed it with experienced longline fishermen who trained 10-15 students on each trip. The venture planners expected to land 60 t of tuna as well as a shark and swordfish by-catch and donated $0.08 per kg of catch to the UNP. The company had a 1-year contract which could have been extended for 5 years. Results, however, proved disappointing and OFS did not renew the contract when it expired in June 1995.'°' The Ibaraki was idled in port during 1996 because of a lack of funds and remained idled in 1997. The UNP had planned to coordinate the IDB- financed 1997-99 longline training program and to execute some of the projects. 308 (See: "Foreign Aid.") Due to a variety of problems, however, IDB finally decided to work with the UDEP. UNTC: The Universidad Nacional Tecnica del Callao has a Programa de Ingenien'a Pesquera which grants technical fishery degrees. Researchers at UNTC have done some work on shark. 300 Some foreign groups have also been involved in research off Peru. Foreign fishermen receiving fishing licenses are required to submit data. This data, however, has not been released to the public and some industry representatives have criticized MIPE/IMARPE for not disseminating this information. 4 "" IMARPE's budget limitations, however, have severely limited its work. Japan: The Japanese have reportedly donated longliners to the UNP and other universities, but few details are available. U.S. fishermen: MIPE uses foreign fisherman to acquire fisheries data. MIPE authorized, for example, the U.S. tuna seiner Connie Jean to conduct experimental tuna in 1994 (appendix G2). 40 ' 351 XV. By-catch A. Swordfish and related fisheries Little information is available on the by-catch taken in tuna, swordfish. and related fisheries for oceanic pelagics. The limited domestic effort suggests that the by-catch is small, although more extensive foreign longlining suggests a more significant by-catch. Government officials report a wide range of species are involved, especially sharks. 4 " 2 Domestic: The Peruvian swordfish fishery was traditionally conducted with harpoons. (See "Fleet Operations and Gear".) The fish were individually selected, and there was very limited by- catch. Presumably a few other species were taken, including an occasional turtle. Metric Tons 100 Species □Others □Billfish Sharks Japanese Fleet Maria Jose Vessel Taisei Maru 1 Figure 25 —The Japanese longliners operating off Peru take mostly tuna, but the Consorcio Pesquero longliner Maria Jose took large quantities of shark. Given the large number of fishermen involved during the peak of the fishery, such catches could have been of some significance. Peruvian fishermen have in the past few years deployed a few commercial longliners (appendix A2). However they have experienced little success. (See: "Fleet" and "Fleet Operations.") The limited current effort means that the by-catch is also limited. Peruvian artisanal fishermen, however, target species normally taken in commercial longline fisheries (especially shark) and the artisanal effort appears to have had a significant adverse impact on stocks. Foreign: Foreign longline fishermen are more active. Given the extent of foreign operations, their by-catch would appear to be significant. MIPE. There are also regulations protecting turtles. Observers: Because licensed foreign vessels are required to carry observers, some catch data is being collected. MIPE has not, however, published any of the observer data. The limited catch data available to the authors suggests that by-catches of oceanic pelagic species are significant. The foreign longline effort in coastal and offshore waters for tunas is substantial. Peruvian effort is more limited, but there is a directed shark and ray fishery. The by-catch and directed fisheries include billfish, swordfish, sharks, ravs, turtles, Peru regulates the by-catch in tuna and related fisheries. There is also an observer program. Regulations: MIPE in 1994 approved a tuna management plan which covers similar ("afines") species including billfish and swordfish in 1994. (See: "Government Policy" above.) The Government limits by-catches in the tuna longline fishery to only 5 percent of the target species catch. 403 The Peruvian regulations also prohibit the licensed tuna fishermen from discarding the by-catch at sea, requiring that it be landed in Peru. 404 The authors know of no publications describing the by- catch of the longliners licensed by 30 1,000 Metric Tons Year Figure 26 —The Peruvian shark catch plummeted in the late 1980s and has leveled off at only about 5,000 I since 1991. 352 Photo 54. —Sharks landed by artisanal fishermen at Malarani being loaded for shipment to Lima, Peru 's principal domestic market. Eduardo Pastor -> c ~> Figure 27— Japanese and Korean southeastern Pacific shark catches peaked in 1987 at nearly 1,800 tons. Catches in recent years have been increasing. dorado, and other species. Some of these species are also taken in directed artisanal and small-scale commercial operations. The populations of some species, especially sharks, appear to have declined significantly in recent years. Available information on by-catch species is as follows: Sharks: A variety of shark species shark occur off Peru. Government officials report approximately 20 species (appendix H). 405 Shark would be part of the by-catch of any future Peruvian tuna/swordfish longline fishery. Some Peruvian commercial longline operations report very high shark catches. Consorcio Pesquero in 1994, for example, reported that about 70 percent of the Maria Jose longline catch was shark (appendix B5a and figure 25). The vessels which have begun to target swordfish in 1997 are also reporting substantial shark by-catches, much of which is discarded (appendix B8a2). 4 " 6 Peru already has a directed artisanal/semi-commercial fishery for shark and rays. Some of the major species landed are blue ("azul" or Prionace g I a u c a) , mako ("dinamente/bonito" or Isiirns oxyrinchus), and hammarheads ("martillo" or Sphyrna :yganea). 401 The sharks are used for both meat and fins as well as other products such as cartilage and leather. (See "Processing and Products.") This fishery was of considerable importance to the artisanal fishermen in the 1980s (appendix B5b and figure 26). Catches have fallen sharply in recent years, from nearly 26,600 t in 1988 to only 5,600 t in 1994, but recovered somewhat in 1995 (appendix B5b and photos 34 and 51). Several Peruvian companies process shark and output has also declined sharply in recent years (appendix C3). Heavy fishing pressure and climatic conditions appear to have been responsible. 408 The authors have little data on the foreign operations, but one report suggests that 20 percent of the Japanese catch in the early 1990s was sharks (appendix B2a and figure 25). 40<) The Japanese and Koreans have reported small shark and ray catches to FAO in area 87 (appendices B5d and figure 27). The foreign shark and ray catch has not fluctuated nearly as much as the domestic catch. Rays: No by-catch data is available on rays, but they are known to be taken in the longline fishery (appendix B5a). The most common species off Peru are sting (Urotrygon spp.) and eagle (Myliobatis pentvians) rays. Peruvian ray catches have declined even more sharply than sharks. The domestic ray catch totaled 8,700 t in 1989 (appendix B5c and figure 28). Press reports noted a developing artisanal fishery using hook and line ("espinel"). The fishery was concentrated along the southern coast out of Pucusana and sold as fillets primarily in the domestic market, especially Lima. 410 The catch has since 10 1 ,000 Metric tons Species □Sting ■Eagle 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Year Figure 28 -The Peruvian ray catch peaked at 8. "00 t in 1989 and has since plummeted to minimal levels. 354 Metric Tons Country □Peru ^Ecuador 800 600 400 200 si%P9 i lAs? ^euT ^^Ti^O^TZ^ Year Figure 29 — Peru has sharply reduced turtle harvests since 1987, but small harvest are still reported. plummeted to a mere 700 t in 1995 (appendix E5c). Billfish: The domestic Peruvian billfish catch is negligible (appendix B5b). One sport fishermen in the early 1950s, however, reported an abundance of black marlin off Cabo Blanco, especially in what he referred to as "black marlin boulevard" from 2-6 km offshore, never more than 8 kilometers. Striped marlin were somewhat further offshore, 5-13 kilometers. 4 " Foreign longline fishermen are taking billfish off Peru. FAO assessments suggest that stripped marlin are particularly plentiful in the waters off southern Peru and stripped and blue marlin off extreme northern Peru and Ecuador. 412 There is an area off the northcentral coast where billfish are not abundant, the same area where swordfish abundance is the lowest. Government officials believe that the potential billfish catch is especially significant. 413 The fish are generally beyond the range of artisanal fishermen, but they appear to come in closer to the coast when oceanic water temperatures rise. One Peruvian company initiating longline operations reports that marlin and sailfish in particular are abundant in 1997 because of the abnormally warm water. 414 IMARPE confirms the appearance of marlins in coastal waters. 415 Artisanal, commercial, and recreational fishermen are reportedly taking both swordfish and marlin since the water began warming in 1997 (photos 26-27). The Japanese vessels working with Peruvian companies appear to be reporting billfish and swordfish catches of 4-5 percent (appendix B5a and figure 25). 416 Sea turtles: Four species of sea turtles occur off Peru. Green (Chelonia mydas) and leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) turtles are the most common. Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) and olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) also occur (appendix H). Loggerheads (Caretta caertta) are observed rarely. Virtually no Peruvian research is available on these species, let alone on the by-catch of the fishing industry. Foreign researchers have done some work, including satellite monitoring. 417 MIPE has prohibited the taking of leatherback and small green turtles (80 cm or smaller). 418 The other species were not protected and were still unprotected as of 1989. Some observers report that regulations protecting greens and leatherback are rarely observed. Peru conducted directed commercial turtle harvests throughout the 1980s. The directed fishery for turtles centered on San Andres in Pisco Province south of Lima (13°S). 419 As recently as 1990 over 100 t of turtles were harvested (appendix B5f and figure 29), although catches have since declined to negligible levels. The authors have no information on Peruvian by-catches. One Chilean company operating longliners in the Eastern Pacific reports that while they do not experience turtle by-catches in Chilean waters, there are some turtles taken off Peru, mostly leatherbacks. 420 Given the limited Peruvian commercial longline effort, turtle by-catches would appear limited. No information is available on the foreign turtle by-catch off Peru. Available reports are Photo 55. —Turtles nesting on Mexican and Costa Rican beaches, like this olive Ridley at la Escobilla in Oaxaca. have been taken as far south as Peru and Chile. Rolland Schmitten 355 Figure 30 —Over a 6-month period, leatherbacks tagged at Mexiquillo Beach (Mexico) moved south to the Galapagos Islands and then appear to be head south/southeast toward Peru and Chile Scott Eckert somewhat contradictory. One study suggests that foreign longline fishermen in the western Pacific seldom or rarely take turtles and do not retain them. 421 Ecuadorean officials, however, report seizing turtle skins aboard Japanese longliners. 422 U.S. longline fishermen operating off Hawaii do report turtle interactions. Fishermen report hook rates of 0.12-1.15 turtles per 100,000 hooks. 423 Environmentalists are especially concerned about leatherbacks as populations have plummeted in recent years. Mexican officials report that leatherback nestings have reached critically low levels. 424 Anecdotal accounts and tag returns have noted incidental catches of leatherbacks from Mexican and Costa Rican beaches in the southeastern Pacific as far south as Chile. Recent satellite tagging data shows that after nesting at Mexican beaches, leatherbacks move due south through oceanic areas off Central America to the Galapagos. The turtles then appear to be moving on to Peru and Chile, although only preliminary data is available (figure 30). 425 Interactions off Peru may be limited because of the still minor longline fishery and relatively small inshore driftnet fishery. The shark longline fishery and the developing longline fishery may take small numbers of leatherbacks. Pinnipeds: Peru has a population of both fur seals (Otaria flavescens) and sea lions (Arctoceplalus austral is) 426 Both species are protected under Peruvian law, but enforcement is not a high priority. 427 Fur seals and sea lions have overlapping ranges. Fur seals occur along the central and southern coast, from Mazorca Island (11°S) south to Punta Coles (17°S). The population is especially concentrated in the area from 13-15°S. Sea lions occur along most of the coast, from Isla Foca (5°S) south to Morro Sama (18°S) near the Chilean border. There are particularly dense populations at several points along the coast, but primarily along the central coast. The largest sea lion populations are reported at El Dorado (9°S), an area along the central coast (13°S), and Chincha Sur, Ballestas, and Morro Quemado Islands (14°S). 428 The central coast is not an area where longline fishermen have focused, but no information is available on oceanic and seasonal distribution or interactions with longline and other fisheries. Such interactions are not believed to be common, but there are reports of some incidental catches in other areas (photo 47). 429 The lack of a significant commercial longline fishery in Peru means that there is currently no seal and sea lion by-catch associated with a swordfish fishery. Significant incidents, however, are reported with artisanal 356 1,000 Animals 60 50 40 30 20 10 Species □Fur Seal QSea Lion / 71 / 71 M 1968 1971 1974 1975 1977 1978 Year 1984 probably limited as given the cost to the fishermen, they will usually avoid areas in which cetaceans, especially killer whales and false killer wales, are found. 438 The domestic Peruvian fishermen because of their limited longline effort would have very few such interactions, although the more extensive foreign effort may be taking a few cetaceans. U.S. Hawaii-based longline fishermen report extensive interactions with cetaceans, but few mortalities. 439 B. Other fisheries Figure 31 —Peru reports expanding pinniped populations, although no recent surveys are available fishermen. One observer estimates that as much as 25 percent of the overall artisanal catch is lost to the sea lions and fur seals. Damage to fishing gear is an especially serious problem for low-income fishermen who often are able to eke out only a marginal existence. The artisanal fishermen have in recent years been complaining of increasing problems with pinnipeds, especially sea lions. 411 Virtually no information is available on foreign interactions, but based on an assessment of western Pacific fisheries, interactions may be rare. 432 U.S. longline fishermen in Hawaii do not report pinniped mortalities, but local populations are quite small. 433 Current Peruvian pinniped population data is old. IMARPE conducted the last census in 1984. 434 One unconfirmed estimate, however, suggests that pinniped populations appear to have increased significantly in recent years (appendix B5g and figure 31). MIPE has created a commission to study this problem. IMARPE reportedly initiated a census in March 1997. The commission is reportedly considering a trial cull of 1,000-2,000 sea lions, but environmental groups object. 435 Cetaceans: The authors have no information on small cetacean by catches off Peru. Information available for the western Pacific suggests cetacean interactions with longlines are unusual, although occasional dolphin by-catches have been reported. 436 It appears that the primary problem with cetaceans is that the animals learn to feed on the longline by-catch. This is a serious problem reported elsewhere in Latin America. 437 Some incidental hookings or tangles are possible with the animals playing or feeding on the bait or hooked catch. Such interactions are IMARPE reports that swordfish have been taken by factory trawlers. Peru during the 1970-80s signed contracts with the Soviets and other distant-water fishing countries permitting access to Peruvian waters. 440 IMARPE reports that these vessels during the 1980s reported significant swordfish by-catches (appendix B3c2). Such by-catches are unusual, but the authors have been unable to obtain details on the fishery. The amounts involved, in 1984 nearly 300 t, were much larger than the small domestic catch. The authors have been unable to obtain any details on the fishery involved, but the vessels involved were probably Soviet. It is unclear, for example, whether it was by- catch from factory trawlers conducting mid-water trawls for jack mackerel or demersal trawls for hake. 441 Much of the hake trawling was conducted off the northern coast around Paita, the same area that the traditional Peruvian swordfish fishery was conducted. By-catch from factory trawlers were also reported in 1993, about 55 t (appendix B3d2). 357 XVI. International A. International relations 1. Bilateral Peru is actively engaged on a variety of international fishery issues. Peruvian officials have been involved in fishery discussions with both neighboring and distant-water countries, although the distant-water contacts have primarily been with foreign fishing companies. Highly migratory fish, in particular, create a variety of concerns with neighboring Chile as well as several distant-water fishing countries. Neighboring countries: Peru's most important bilateral relationship is with neighboring Chile. They share important transboundary pelagic stocks that are critical to their respective fishing industries. The two countries have made little progress, however, in cooperating on fishery issues. Swordfish does not appear to be a subject under consideration in the limited meetings between the two countries. It is still a species of minor importance in Peru. Peruvian officials have to date shown little interest in pursuing significant cooperative efforts on major species, such as anchovy, let alone on a species which is not currently of major concern. Distant-water companies: Several distant-water fishing countries are currently active in the southeast Pacific (Latin America, appendix C2b). Peru has generally restricted access to its coastal waters. The Government during the 1970s and 1980s licensed foreign tuna fishermen, but with a few exceptions (primarily Cuba and the Soviet Union) restricted most other foreign fishermen. 442 More recently licenses have also been issued to Japanese and Korean squid fishermen. Most of the current longline effort is deployed by the Japanese and to a lesser extent the Spanish. The foreign tuna fishermen report a small incidental swordfish catch. Most of the Japanese effort is beyond Peru's 200-mile zone and transshipped at sea. One Peruvian source stressed that there are no Japanese transshipments. 443 The relatively few Japanese vessels that have obtained licenses for operations within the 200-mile zone, worked in association with Peruvian companies and landed their catch in Peru. In addition, the Japanese use the Peruvian ports to obtain supplies and to recruit local crews. Spanish fishermen are also operating in the southeast Pacific, although to a lesser extent. The Spanish do transship their catch through Peruvian ports. (See: "Transshipping.") Unlike the Japanese, the Spanish target swordfish. Peruvian fishermen insist that a large fleet of longliners (mostly Japanese and Korean, although some Taiwanese as well) of about 100 vessels fish off Peru's 200-mile EEZ. They have preferred not to pay Peruvian fishing fees and instead have operated outside the country's waters. 444 The authors have been unable to confirm this level of foreign activity, but available catch data suggests that the number of foreign longliners operating in the southeastern Pacific (FAO area 87) is substantial, but not massive (appendix A2b). The Japanese catch reported in 1993, for example, could have been taken by about 60 longliners. 445 Details on Peruvian fishery relations with specific countries include the following: Chile: Chile and Peru confront a wide range of unresolved fishery issues. The similarity of oceanographic conditions off northern Chile and southern Peru means that there are many transboundary stocks. Fishermen from the two countries generally target the same species and stocks along their common marine boundary. The swordfish appearing off Peru seems to be a shared stock with Chile. (See: Species: Stock structure.") The two countries, however, are making no progress in cooperatively managing their shared marine resources. Peru and Chile have a heavily militarized border and considerable tension existing between the two governments have, until recently, prevented cooperation in many seemingly beneficial areas. Sharply different philosophical outlooks during the 1970s and 80s aggravated historic problems between the two countries. Since the return of a democratic government in Chile during 1990, tensions have cooled. There have been some preliminary contacts between fishery officials on major stocks, but little progress has been made in cooperating on management. Officials discussed the possible coordinated management of the anchovy stock off southern Peru and northern Chile in 1994. These discussions, however, did not result in any coordinated effort. The Chileans restricted fishing in their zone during 1994, but the Peruvians did not reciprocate. No further meetings have been held. Officials focused on some of the more important stocks, such as anchovy, and have not yet even begun to discuss arrangements on other smaller fisheries such as swordfish. The two countries appear to have different interests at stake regarding swordfish— complicating possible future cooperation. Chile has developed a commercial swordfish fishery and a regulatory regime and is interested in restricting foreign fishing in the southeastern Pacific to protect its domestic fishermen. 446 Chilean officials are very concerned about their plummeting catch, would reportedly like the Peruvians to help curtail Spanish 358 and other distant-water fishing on swordfish. Peru, on the other hand, has no current directed swordfish fishery or significant incidental landings and has not implemented regulations specifically covering the swordfish fishery. This includes regulations on the fishing methods employed by the foreign distant-water fishermen or the quantity harvested. As their fishermen do not currently target swordfish, they have little to lose from foreign fishing. Peruvian reluctance to limit foreign fishing in the southeastern Pacific is perhaps due to the significant financial inducements in attracting foreign vessels to Peruvian ports. Peruvian fishery officials do not seem to object to the foreign distant-water activity in the ETP as long as the foreign fishermen do not fish in Peruvian waters. Ecuador: Peruvian fishery relations with neighboring Ecuador are of less importance than with Chile. There are very significant climatic and oceanographic differences between most of the Peruvian coast and the Ecuadorean coast. The major species targeted by Peruvian fishermen are of much less significance to the Ecuadoreans. While there are some shared stocks, significant differences exist between the species targeted by the fishermen of the two countries. Ecuadorean fishermen have made considerable progress in developing a longline fishery. 447 As the Peruvian fishermen are only beginning to develop their own longline fishery, Peruvian officials have not yet felt it necessary to pursue discussions on possible cooperation with Ecuadorean officials. The authors note, however, that the historical Peruvian swordfish fishery was along the northern coast close to the Ecuadorean border. Thus as the two countries develop a longline fishery for swordfish, there may be some conflict. Longline fishermen from the two countries appear to be targeting different areas. The authors note that recent Ecuadorean efforts to target swordfish have not been off its southern coasts, but rather waters to the west of the Galapagos. 448 The Peruvian company (Sindicato Pesquero) launching a directed swordfish fishery in 1997, however, is planning to extensively fish along the northern coast near the Ecuadorean boundary. (See: "Companies.") Japan: Peru has limited contacts with Japanese Government officials over highly migratory species, but does have extensive contacts with private Japanese associations representing the distant-water fishermen. The Japanese operate widely in the southeastern Pacific (FAO area 87). 44t) The Japanese reportedly purchased significant numbers of licenses during the 1970s and early 1980s; in some years a total of more than 100 licenses were issued. 450 One Japanese press report in 1988 indicated that about 100 Japanese vessels were operating off Peru, but it is unclear if they were purchasing Peruvian licenses. 451 The Japanese primarily target tunas, but also take important quantities of swordfish and billfish. 452 The Japanese have reported swordfish catches ranging from 250 t (1989) to 1,000 t (1992) (Latin America, appendix C2b). One unconfirmed report in 1988 indicated that a fleet of about 50 Japanese longliners were operating outside of the Peruvian 200-mile EEZ. A Japanese fisheries delegation from the Japan Tuna Fishing Association visited Lima in August 1988 to discuss access to the EEZ. Japanese officials offered to donate equipment, but the talks reportedly failed. The Instituto Peruano de Derecho Pesquero advised against the Japanese proposal. 453 One unconfirmed report suggested that a Peruvian participant demanded donations for the APRISTA party. One report suggested that in 1989 the Japanese vessels generated about $100 million in business in Callao, involving refueling, repairs, supplies, and local crew members. 454 The Peruvian Government has also issued licenses permitting some longlining operations within the Peruvian 200-mile EEZ. (See: "Government Agency and Policy.") The regulations governing these operations have changed substantially from year to year. The number of vessels purchasing licenses has declined significantly. Only a few Japanese vessels purchased licenses in the early 1990s (appendix G3). The decline appears to be primarily due to the escalating costs involved. (See: "Government Agency and Policy.") Peruvian Government sources provide varying estimates as to the number of licenses granted, but all report relatively small numbers (appendix Gl-3). 455 Korea: Korean distant-water fishermen also operate in the southeastern Pacific (FAO area 87), but the last reported swordfish catches were 1981 and 1991 and the quantities were very small (Latin America, appendix C2b). There would seem to be a swordfish by-catch associated with their operations, although no such catch is being reported to FAO. The fishermen report operations primarily outside of the Peruvian 200-mile zone. The Korean tuna fleet in recent years have not purchased for access to the Peruvian 200- mile EEZ (appendix G3). Overall Korean tuna longline yields off Peru are highly variable: no activity in 1988, moderate yields outside of the EEZ in 1989, excellent yields outside the EEZ in 1990, and moderate yields off the southern coast and goods yields beyond the EEZ during 1991 and 1992. 456 One unconfirmed report suggests that Korean tuna longliners operate out of Peruvian ports. 457 Spain: Spanish sources confirm that their fishermen are fishing for swordfish and tunas in the southeastern Pacific, outside of the 200-mile zone of the coastal countries. 458 The Spanish are reportedly targeting fish 320-800 km off the coast, which is the same stock the Chilean longliners are targeting. Most of the Spanish fishing appears to be off southern Peru 359 and northern and central Chile as far south as 35°S, but some operations are reported as far north as Ecuador. 459 The best swordfish grounds appear to be located off Chile. Companies working with the Spanish as well Chilean Navy data all confirm operations as far south as central Chile. 460 Given the desire of the Spanish to use Chilean ports, it is likely that latitudes off Chile are their primary fishing grounds. The Spanish longliners began fishing in the Pacific during early 1989. The first transshipments were reported in mid- 1 989. 461 The Spanish fishermen, however, are not reporting their swordfish catches to FAO (Latin America, appendix C2b). Details on the level of activity in the early 1990s is unavailable, but a relatively modest number of Spanish vessels appear to be operating in the Pacific. The authors do not have a complete list of the vessels involved, but believe the 1 1 longliners known to have been deployed in 1996-97 constitute most of the Spanish effort (appendix A2). One of the most active companies is Pesquera Maicoa based in Vigo. The company has deployed three longliners {Maicoa, Maicoa /, and Urugord) in the eastern Pacific during 1995-96 (appendix A2). 462 Another Vigo company, Palangeros del Atlantico, deployed the Arosa Primera. 463 While other deployed a longliner (Alicante) in 1996. Other Spanish longliners (Rosu III) were also active in 1997. The authors know of 11 Spanish vessels active during 1996-97 (appendix A2). The Spanish primarily operate out of the southern port of Ilo, but some of the catch is also transshipped through Pisco and Callao. 464 (See: "Transshipments.") The use of Peruvian ports appears to be the only viable option open to the Spanish. The Chileans do not permit foreign swordfish fishermen to use Chilean ports for transshipping. 465 The Spanish report that their inability to transship through Chilean ports severely restricts their operations as some of the best fishing grounds are off Chile. The Spanish are reporting better catch rates in the Pacific than the Atlantic, but lack of access to Chilean ports significantly increases costs and thus has limited the expansion of the Spanish fishery into the Pacific. 466 The Spanish primarily use Ilo because it is the closest available port to their major fishing grounds. A recent report indicated that one of the vessels, the Maicoa transshipped product in Ilo on June 14, 1996. 467 The Spanish are not purchasing Peruvian licenses which would allow them to operate within the Peruvian 200-mile EEZ (appendix G3), presumably because the potential benefits from access do not justify the cost. One report indicates that the Spanish normally transship 120-150 t per vessel, although this varies widely because of the different size vessels deployed. 468 One observer reports that the Spanish are taking large quantities of juvenile swordfish and landing them in Peru. 469 Spanish fishermen, however, deny this. 470 (See: "Transshipments.") The authors have no official data confirming the sizes being harvested. 471 Taiwan: Taiwan fishermen report no swordfish catches in the southeastern Pacific (FAO area 87), the FAO area off Peru. Taiwan does, however, report a sizeable swordfish catch to the north in FAO area 77. This FAO area, however, extends far out into the central Pacific and is not restricted primarily to coastal waters. The Taiwan swordfish catch is taken more in the central Pacific than off Central America. Detailed Taiwan 1992 data, the most recent year available to the authors, show no Taiwan longline catches east of 110°W. 472 United States: United States swordfish longliners in the Pacific primarily operate north of the Hawaiian Islands, although a few also operate out of southern California. 473 Operations in the South Pacific for swordfish are unusual, although there is some activity for albacore in the western Pacific. 474 One U.S. fishermen is known to have longlined swordfish and tuna in the southeastern Pacific outside Chilean waters during 1991-92 which he transhipped through Peru because of Chilean restrictions on transshipping swordfish. 475 USSR: Soviet distant-water fisheries at times reported substantial catches of swordfish, usually in the south Atlantic off West Africa (appendix B6). 476 The Soviets have not reported any incidental swordfish by- catch in the Pacific to FAO, despite conducting a major mid-water trawl fishery off Chile and Peru until the early 1990s. 477 Limited Soviet trawl fishing for demersal fishing was at times conducted within Peru's 200-mile zone. IMARPE reports, for example, that during 1983-85 the Soviet vessels fishing within Peru's 200-mile zone took as much as 318 t of swordfish (1984). The authors have been unable to find any description of this fishery. The by-catch appears to have been largely incidental catches. It could be that the catch was taken incidentally to a demersal trawling operation off northern Peru. 478 This would explain the absence of any swordfish by- catch reported in the large Soviet mid-water trawl fishery off Peru and Chile outside the 200-mile limit (Latin America, appendix C2b). But this cannot be confirmed as the accuracy of Soviet reporting is unknown. 360 2. Multilateral Swordfish in the southeastern Pacific has received only limited attention from multilateral organizations. Several organizations involved with tuna have shown some interest in the western Pacific (Indian Ocean Fisheries Commission, Indo-Pacific Fisheries Commission, South Pacific Commission, South Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency, and others), but work on the southeastern Pacific has been more limited. In part this is due to the small number of coastal countries involved. Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Chile are the only southeastern Pacific (FAO area 87) coastal countries and only Chile has an active swordfish fishery, although some developments have been reported in Ecuador during 1996-97. In addition there are only a small number of distant-water countries actively taking swordfish (Japan and Spain). The primary multilateral groups are: Eastern Pacific Ocean Tuna Organization (EPOTO): This organization was created in 1995 as a result of a long series of negotiations sponsored by the Organizacion Latinoamericana de Desarrollo Pesquero (OLDEPESCA). Peru was an active participant in these negotiations. EPOTO is not yet active and, if and when it begins work, will almost certainly focus on tuna. Swordfish would likely be a low priority, if addressed at all. International Symposium: Researchers from various countries are expanding work on swordfish, in part because of the increasing fishing pressure and concern over stocks. Most researchers believe that given the highly migratory nature of the fish, a full understanding of the stock structure will require a cooperative international research effort. The first international symposium on Pacific swordfish was held in Ensenada, Mexico during 1994. A second symposium was held in Hawaii during 1997. Peruvian scientists have not participated. Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC): The IATTC was formed in the 1950s to manage ETP tuna resources. The organization has focused on tunas, especially yellowfin, which occurs primarily in tropical waters. Peru is on the southern limit of ETP yellowfin concentrations, although in some years extremely good fishing has been reported off Peru. Peru is not a member of IATTC, but the country has at times attempted unsuccessfully to enter the ETP tuna fishery. 479 IATTC has two primary programs. One is the Tuna-Dolphin Program and the other is the Tuna-Billfish Program. While the IATTC 's primary focus has been on tunas, important work has also been done on swordfish and billfish. 480 Peru was active in the negotiations of the international convention on straddling fish stocks and highly migratory species conducted during 1994 and 1995. A convention was finally adopted by a U.N. conference on August 4, 1995. Some Peruvian industry representatives were critical of the treaty, believing erroneously that it requires coastal countries to grant access to foreign fishermen. Jose Sarmiento, President of the Sociedad Nacional de Pesca, was particularly concerned about possible access by EU countries. 481 As of July 1997, Peru has not signed the treaty. B. Joint ventures/commercial activities No joint-venture fishing companies are currently active in Peru targeting tunas and swordfish. Japanese companies have, however, been involved in several unsuccessful joint ventures to launch fisheries for oceanic pelagics. Japanese companies were involved in the failed Tuna Latin and Consorcio Pesquero projects. They also currently conduct a variety of commercial activities associated with their distant- water fishing operations in the southeastern Pacific. Foreign investors have been hesitant to make long- term investments in Peru given the experiences of other foreign investors during the 1970s and 80s. Efforts by a variety of countries (including Cuba, Japan, Poland, the United States, and the USSR) have resulted in contentious, often acrimonious political debates and protracted legal disputes. 482 Even as recently as 1993 such problems have been reported. A Peruvian company (Cultecmar) attempted to operate 1 1 small trawlers obtained through a joint venture association with a Russian company. MIPE insisted on a fee for a 6-months permit. CULTECMAR insisted that the General Fisheries Law of 1992 authorized such imports and that the fees assessed were excessive for small vessels. Company representatives maintain that the fees assessed were appropriate for the large stern factory trawlers deployed by previous joint ventures, but not the small trawlers the company wanted to deploy. 483 Some information is available on tuna joint ventures: Japan: There were two unsuccessful Japanese tuna/swordfish longlining joint ventures in Peru during the early 1990s. These efforts have proven very controversial. 484 Tuna-Latin tried unsuccessfully to lease longliners, but there was apparently no equity participation by the Japanese. Efforts with Tuna Latin continued through 1994 when at least one Japanese longliner (Taisei Maru I) worked with the company. Press reports indicate that in 1995 the Inter- American Investment Corporation and the Japanese International 361 Development Organization agreed to help finance a $6.2 tuna export operation with Consorcio Pesquero. (See: "Companies.") Plans called for producing and exporting frozen sashimi-quality tuna and shark fins. 485 Although not identified in the report, presumably swordfish and other billfish were also involved, but they would be of lesser importance because of the lower prices they command on the Japanese market. 486 The project, however, proved unsuccessful and PPP, the parent company of Consorcio Pesquero, has closed the operation and the longliners involved are sold or idled. There also appears to be an arrangement with Pesquera Atlantis in 1996-97, although it is unknown if there is any Japanese equity participation. The Japanese also conduct a variety of commercial activities in Peru associated with the operations of their longline vessels in the southeastern Pacific. The primary target species are tunas, but some swordfish and other billfish are also taken incidentally. The Japanese Federation of Tuna Cooperatives (Nikkatsuren) established the joint venture Servicios Ejecutivos Comerciales (SEC) in Callao during 1987. The Japanese partner was Japan Tuna (Panama) and the Peruvian partner was M. Woll. Peruvian fishery specialists criticized the ventures being considered. 487 The Nikkatsuren then established Servinave in Callao during 1989 to recruit Peruvian fishermen to work on Japanese tuna vessels. Finally, Nikkatsuren established Japan Tuna del Peru during 1993 to provide ship agency services to member vessels working with SEC. 488 The Japanese Government is apparently trying to promote a joint- venture company. Japan has over the years provided some fisheries assistance. (See: "Foreign Aid.") Panama: One Panamanian-flag tuna longliner reportedly operated in association with Consorcio Pesquero during 1995-96. The longliner is presumably a flag-of-convenience vessel owned by a Japanese company. This appears to have been a leasing arrangement with no Panamanian equity participation. Spain: The authors know of no Spanish-Peruvian joint fishing ventures. The Spanish companies operating longliners in the Pacific appear to be very small operations with at the most three or four vessels. 489 None appear to have made contractual relations with Peruvian fishing companies. United States: U.S. fishing companies, primarily U.S. tuna companies, were involved in the development of the Peruvian swordfish fishery during the late 1940s and early 1950s. 490 The authors, however, have no details on the contractual relations. A US tuna company operated a cannery in Peru during the 1960s-70s until it was nationalized in 1973. A US company recently participated in a 1-year longlining venture in 1994-95 with the UNP, but the venture was not renewed. (See: "Research.") There are no U.S. longliners operating off Peru. C. Foreign Aid Various countries and international organizations have provided fisheries assistance to Peru. The most significant donor country during the 1970s was the Soviet Union, but the Japanese have also provided important assistance. The Japanese have funded small projects since the 1960s. A Japanese/Inter- American Development Bank (IDB) project in 1995 focused on longlining for oceanic pelagics. The project targeted primarily tunas and sharks, but there was a small swordfish by-catch. The project proved unsuccessful and was closed in 1996. 1. Bilateral the Japanese have been the country most involved in Peru's longline fishery, but other countries have provide fisheries assistance. Japan: The Japanese have provided extensive fisheries assistance for many years, working with Peru's principal fisheries research institute, the Instituto de Tecnologi'a Pesquero, which focuses on fishing gear and seafood processing technology. They also assisted the fisheries training school in Paita. The Japanese are currently working with university groups assisting Peru to develop longline fisheries which could eventually enable fishermen to target Peru's offshore tuna and swordfish resources. (See: "Research.") The Japan International Development Organization and the Inter-American Investment Corporation signed an agreement in 1995 to jointly finance a $6.2 million project in Pern to export sashimi-grade tuna and other oceanic pelagics. 491 The project, however failed and ended in 1996. United States: During the late 1940s and early 1950s, U.S. freezer vessels were contracted by Peruvian companies to freeze the catch of artisanal fishermen. The operation enabled the fishermen to land substantial quantities of swordfish. (See "Catch".) U.S. baitboats (1940s-50s) and purse seiners (1960s- 70s) also operated off Peru, but given the methods used there was only a negligible swordfish by-catch. In recent years only one U.S. fishermen has obtained a fishing license. The U.S. tuna seiner Connie Jean was licensed in 1995 (appendix G2). USSR: The Soviets provided substantial assistance during the 1970s, including some well-publicized large projects. 492 There is considerable differences of opinion, however, among Peruvians concerning the impact of the Soviet assistance. 493 One major accomplishment was assistance in building the Paita 362 fishing port in northern Peru. (See "Ports.") Much of the Soviet assistance was oriented toward demersal fisheries. The authors know of no project involving swordfish. The Soviet assistance coincided with a substantial deployment of their fishing vessels to the southeastern Pacific 494 2. Multilateral The primary multilateral organization involved in Peruvian fisheries has been the IDB. FAO: FAO has for years worked with MIPE. FAO work on stock assessment, funded by Norway, has been particularly valuable. As with virtually all joint ventures and fishery development projects in Peru, the FAO effort has not been without controversy. 495 FAO experts have provided technical assistance with a series of fishery development plans. 496 FAO experts have recently been involved in MIPE efforts during the mid-1990s to formulate a comprehensive fisheries management program. (See "Industry Overview".) The authors know of no FAO activity associated with the longline fishery. IDB: Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) also has a long history of involvement in Peru. 497 One recent project concerns longlining and oceanic pelagics. The IDB Multilateral Investment Fund announced on March 21, 1996, the approval of $3 million in non-reimbursable financing for a 2-year project (ATN/MH-5172-PE) for tunas, sharks, rays, and "quimera" (English equivalent unknown). Swordfish is included only as an incidental species. IDB officials report that they also seek to modernize fisheries training and to strengthen the Government's capability to implement a resource management system for oceanic pelagics. 498 A pilot program in fish handling and processing will also be carried out. The project includes: longline training, handling and processing of fresh fish for the sustainable export of the selected pelagic species. 499 Trainees will receive hands-on instruction in fishing techniques aboard modern longline vessels. Peruvian scientists and technicians will undergo training in fisheries management. The Universidad de Piura (UDEP) is coordinating the project, the Consorcio Pesquero, and the Institute of Fisheries Technology (ITP) are participating as well as the Universidad Nacional de Piura (UNP). 500 UDEP officials indicate that in mid- 1997 they were beginning the implementation phase. 501 World Bank: The World Bank has assisted Peru with the costs of privatizing the extensive array of state-owned companies. The Bank approved a structural adjustment loan in 1991, but advised the Government not to proceed with the privatization of PESCA-PERU until a regulatory framework was implemented to manage the fishing industry for sustainable development. Since then there has been considerable disagreement between Peruvian and Bank officials. The concerns primarily involve management of the large anchovy reduction fishery producing fishmeal. Peruvian efforts have been particularly critical of some of the suggestions on fisheries management made by Bank technical advisers. (See "Industry Overview.") The authors know of no Bank activity associated with the longline fishery. 363 XVII. Enforcement Peruvian fishery officials report extensive incidents with foreign fishermen. Officials seized several foreign tuna vessels during the 1960s and 1970s. Most of these incidents were tuna purse seiners (Mexico, the United States, and Spain). Several other countries (Cuba, Poland, and the USSR) have also been active off Peru and involved in highly publicized incidents, but these incidents were with companies deploying trawlers. 502 Since the early 1980s, the number of fishery incidents have been very limited, primarily because of the withdrawal of the U.S. fleet from the ETP. Incidents now mostly involve the seizures of small Ecuadorean vessels. The principal country operating longliners off Peru is Japan, although Spain and Korea also operates a few. Interestingly, despite the level of Japanese activity the authors have noted no seizures. Industry sources contend that the number of foreign tuna longliners (mostly Japanese) operating off Peru outside the 200- mile limit in the southeastern Pacific (FAO area 87) is very significant, some estimates are as high as 200 vessels. 503 The authors, however, cannot confirm this estimate. The absence of Peruvian seizures suggests that industry sources may have an exaggerated opinion concerning the level of offshore fishing activity. 504 Based upon the quantity of tuna and swordfish being landed, the number appears much less than 100 vessels. 505 Available details concerning enforcement activities are as follows: Chile: There have been a few fishery incidents reported along Peru's southern coast involving Chilean and Peruvian fishermen. 506 Such incidents are infrequent, but some have involved the exchange of fire. 507 The number of incidents has been limited, presumably because the Chilean companies operating vessels along the northern coast are relatively large fishmeal companies keeping close control over the operations of their seiners. The authors know of no seizures of Chilean longliners. Ecuador: Peru's major enforcement problem is off its northern border with Ecuador. The press in both countries regularly reports incidents involving small Ecuadorean and Peruvian fishing boats. 508 The vessels involved are usually small artisanal craft, as well as shrimp trawlers and seiners. The fines assessed are usually modest, but some Ecuadorean tuna seiners have been assessed significant fines. 509 In some instances navy patrol vessels have fired on the fishing vessels and individuals have been killed. 510 These incidents have recently become even more potentially serious because of the military border confrontation between the two countries in 1995. Rumors have been reported, apparently erroneously, of naval deployments. 5 " The authors know of no Peruvian seizures of Ecuadorean longliners. The Ecuadorean longline operations are conducted primarily from Manta and other ports well north of the marine boundary with Peru. Japan: Despite the numbers of Japanese longliners operating off Peru, the authors have not noted extensive press reporting on seizures for fishery infractions. One Peruvian source, however, claims that, since the late 1 960s, a large number of Japanese longliners have been seized by Peruvian authorities. 512 The authors have unable to confirm such seizures. The only press report noted by the authors of a seizure involved a non-fisheries incident. The Japanese longliner Kiowa Maru No. 8 struck and sunk the Peruvian submarine Pacocha near Callao on August 26, 1988. 5L1 The Peruvian Government seized the Japanese vessel and a Peruvian court held the Japanese captain responsible for the incident. The owner was fined $53 million. The captain was sentenced to 2 years in prison and the pilot and navigator to 1 year each. The owner asked that the fine be reduced to the $2 million repair costs. The Peruvian Government noted that the fine included payments of 20 million intis for each of the eight Peruvian sailors killed and 5 million intis for the wounded sailors. 514 Korea: The authors have noted no seizures of Korean vessels. Mexico: Since Mexico has developed an important tuna fleet capable of distant-water operations, there have been a few Peruvian seizures of Mexican vessels. 5 ' 5 All of the vessels involved are tuna purse seiners, the only Mexican fishing vessels capable of distant-water operations. Taiwan: The authors have noted no seizures of Taiwan vessels. United States: Peru seized several U.S. tuna seiners in the 1960s and 1970s. These incidents declined in the 1980s as the U.S. fleet gradually withdrew from the ETP and declined in size. One incident was reported in 1995 when the U.S. seiner Connie Jean was briefly detained in Paita. While the vessel had a Peruvian valid license (special research license), it also had some Ecuadorean crew. The vessel was allowed to begin fishing after it replaced the Ecuadoreans with Peruvian nationals. 516 All of the fishing vessels incidents with the United States have involved tuna purse seiners. The authors know of no incidents involving longliners. 364 XVIII. Future Trends Peru has been unable to successfully launch a modern commercial fishery for oceanic pelagics. The country's major focus has been on tuna purse seining, but both private and state companies have failed in a variety of projects initiated beginning in the 1970s. Efforts to launch a commercial tuna/swordfish longline fishery have surprisingly also failed. The country has a substantial fisheries infrastructure. Peruvian companies conduct some of the largest fisheries in Latin America. The country has many well-trained fishery specialists.. Peruvian fishermen have for years been working on foreign longliners, both Spanish and Japanese. An oceanic pelagic (bonito) was the first commercial fishery in Peru. In addition, artisanal fishermen previously reported very substantial swordfish catches, albeit for a relatively few years. Exploitable stocks of tunas and swordfish clearly exist off Peru. It is unclear if the swordfish stock has declined from the levels reported in the early 1950s. Even if it has declined, however, there is clearly no resource problem as foreign fishermen report tuna and swordfish catches on both coastal and offshore grounds. Clearly a sufficient resource of swordfish, tunas, and other oceanic pelagics exists to support a artisanal or commercial fishery. A least one commercial venture in 1997 is reporting catches of swordfish. The reasons Peruvian fishermen have failed to develop a longline fishery for oceanic pelagic are unclear. While longlining is a minor activity, there appears to be no reason why the country's fishing industry should not be able to develop such a potentially profitable fishery. The lack of success to date may be due to a variety of factors: Focus: Some observers believe that the massive Peruvian fishing industry may have difficulty in changing fishing strategy away from easily-caught small pelagics. Regulations: Industry sources complain of onerous, constantly changing regulations which discourage both foreign and domestic investment. Foreign participation: Many Peruvians are distrustful of foreign involvement in fisheries as well as other industries. Regulation of foreign companies has often resulted in onerous measures that have in effect excluded foreign participation. Such policies for a fishery in which foreign participation would be very helpful, if not essential, may be an especially important factor, experienced to date. Import policies: Import duties on foreign-built boats make it prohibitively expensive to import longliners even though Peruvian shipyards have little experience in building such vessels. Strategy: Peruvian efforts to develop a longline fishery have focused on operating large commercial longliners which require considerable expertise and technical support. Only recently have companies begun to deploy smaller longliners to supply high- quality fresh fish. There still is no effort to support artisanal fishermen so, as in Ecuador, they can participate in a lucrative export-oriented fishery. Alternatives: There appear to be other alternative fisheries that do not require adopting a still relatively unfamiliar gear and method (longlining) or the acquisition of expensive vessels capable of offshore operations. Peruvian fishermen will, in the long run, almost certainly develop a longline fishery to deliver high- quality fresh and frozen swordfish and other oceanic pelagics to lucrative foreign markets. Companies in both Chile and Ecuador have done so and there no reason why Peru will not eventually follow suit. Several factors suggest, however, that such a fishery may not develop significantly for several years. The failure of several well-publicized projects has discouraged potential foreign investors. Current policies, despite efforts in the 1990s to open the economy, have not encouraged either foreign or domestic investment in the fishery. While MIPE is currently considering changes in the regulatory regime, the precise changes are not known or how permanent they will be. Foreign companies are wary of Peru given the experience of other foreign companies. The situation is not, however, totally negative. A few companies in 1996-97 have launched modest longline projects using small coastal longliners to deliver high-quality fresh project. Foreign donors are funding modest projects aimed at diversifying the industry by promoting alternative fisheries, including the use of longlines. 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"Peruvian tuna fishery," International Fishery Reports (IFR-87/31), May 19, 1987. Weidner, Dennis and Francisco Quintanilla. "Peruvian bilateral fishery relations," International Fishery Reports (IFR-88/88), September 2, 1988, 22p. Weidner, Dennis and Tracey Thomas. "Cuban Fishery Relations in the Americas, 1959-88," International Fishery Reports (IFR-89/39), May 5, 1989, 33p. Wong, Luis, Jesus Rodriguez, and Aurea Muguruza.l "Utilizacid del tollo-tiburdn congelado en la elaboration de seco-salado 'tipo bacalao' y su estudio de preservabilidad," Revista Latinoamericana Tecnolohia de Alimentos Pesqueros, No. 3, December 1986, pp. 11-76. World Fishing, June, 1996, p. 9. Wosnitza-Mendo, Claudia, Marco Espino, and Maria Veliz. "La pesqueria artesanal en el Peru durante Junio de 1986 a Junio de 1988," Informe No. 93, (IMARPE/GTZ: Callao, 1988), 144p. Zegarra, Carol. PROMPERU. Personal communications, February 3 and 10, 1997. Zuzunaga Zuzunaga, Jorge. Director Ejecutivo, Instituto del Mar. Personal communications, Of. N°DE-300-133-96-PE/IMP, February 26, 1996 and Of. N°DE-300-577-97-PE/IMP, August 14, 1997. 370 ENDNOTES SECTION I. (INDUSTRY OVERVIEW) 1. A good review of the development and state of the anchovy fishery and fishmeal industry before the catastrophic 1972 el Nino is available in Michael Roemer, Fishing for Growth (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1970), 208 p. 2. PESCA-PERU workers insist that the company has never required deficit funding and that the operations are highly efficient. Oscar Montes Velasquez, General Secretary, National Federation of Peruvian Fishery Workers as cited in "COPRI presents new privatization schedule for this year," La Republica, May 28, 1997. 3. Alejandro Bermejo, "Alan Garcia declara la guerra," Expreso, February 24, 1990. 4. "Informe de secretario Aprista refuto Ministro de Pesqueria," El Comercio, October 12, 1984. 5. Protests have continued with charges that the Administration is virtually giving away company assets to Chilean interests. "Protesta de Pescadores peruanos," El Mercurio, October 29, 1992. The Peruvian political culture appears to have changed significantly during the 1990s. Protests and allegations about foreign investors, however, do not seem to have the same impact as in the past. 6. "COPRE presents ...," op. cit. 7. See for example, "Hoy subastan pesqueras de Chancay a Tambo de Mora," El Sol, July 15, 1996. 8. "COPRE presents ...," op. cit. 9. The Tambo de Mora fish meal plant was to be auctioned on August 28, 1997 at a base price lowered to $4.2 million. "Pescaperu refineries privatization update," Expreso (internet version), August 5, 1997. 10. U.S. Embassy, Lima, "Peru: Fishing industry report," December 1994, p. 1. 11. Eduardo Loyaza, personal communications, February 13, 1996. 12. "Peru fleet to pay for fish," Fishing News International, April 1997, p. 48. 13. "Fishmeal stocks to fall on lower production," WorldFish Report, June 19, 1997, p. SP/7. It is always difficult to predict the intensity and duration of El Nino events, but there are indicators suggesting that the 1997-98 El Nino may be a powerful event. Frank Schwing, Supervisory Oceanographer, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, presentation on El Nino at the 1997 Chile-United States Fishery Cooperation Talks, Seattle, Washington, July 26, 1997. 14. A useful review of efforts in Peru and two other nearby countries (Ecuador and Colombia) to modernize their fishing industry is available in Peggy Parker, "South America looks to the future," Seafood Business, November- December 1995, pp. 20, 22. 15. Eduardo Pastor, Sindicato Pesquero, personal communications, June 6, 1997. 16. Juan Neyra Balta, "Pesquera atunera: Anhelo y desafio," Pesca, July-August 1995, p. 25. 17. Antonio Landa C, "Datos sobre la pesqueria de atiin aleta amarilla y barrilete en la zona economica exclusiva del Peru 1970-1977," Rev. Com. Perm. Pacifico Sur, vol. 11, 1980, pp. 457-472. 371 18. Two of the most important attempts have been PEPESCA (state corporation focusing on purse seining) and Tuna Latin (private corporation focusing on longlining). For details see the "Companies" chapter. 19. For details see the Ecuadorean and Chilean chapters. 20. Dennis Weidner, "Peruvian tuna and bonito fisheries," International Fishery Reports (IFR/76-182), August 31, 1976 and Dennis Weidner, "Peruvian tuna fishery," International Fishery Reports (IFR/87-31) May 19, 1987. 21. See "Companies" for details. 22. Collao, op. cit., July 22, 1997. 23. Anonymous 1MARPE official, personal communications, August 26, 1997. 24. Javier Barendiran, Commercial Section, Grupo Sotomayor, personal communications, June 12, 1997. 25. Albertina K. Ameya K., Director de Estudios Economicos y Evaluacion de Recursos Potenciales, IMARPE, personal communications, August 14, 1997. 26. Pastor, op. cit., June 6, 1997. SECTION II. (SPECIES) 27. Yuji Uozumi, Distant Water Fishery Research Laboratory, personal communications, February 6, 1997. 28. See the Latin American overview of this report for a review of theories on the stock structure of Pacific swordfish. 29. Actual catches are, of course, not necessarily a good indicator of abundance, but they are currently one of the few indicators available to the authors. 30. Peruvian accounts report that the primary fishery was off the northern coast, although lesser quantities have been landed in the south. The authors know of no significant swordfish landings along the northcentral coast. Japanese longline data consistently show an area along the northcentral coast where swordfish catches and yields are poor. Fabio Carocci and Jacek Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes, (FAO: Rome, 1996), map 13; Yuji Uozumi and Kotaro Yokawa, "Country report for the swordfish fisheries in the Pacific Ocean," paper delivered at the Second International Swordfish Symposium, March 3, 1997, Turtle Bay, Oahu, Hawaii, p. 6; and Oscar Sosa-Nishizaki and Makato Shimizu, "Spatial and temporal CPUE trends and stock unit inferred from them for the Pacific swordfish caught by the Japanese tuna longline fishery," Bull. Nat. Res. Far Seas Fish., No. 28, March 1991, pp. 80-85. One study shows an area of moderate catch rates along the Peruvian coast, but poor catch rates further offshore. Hideki Nakano, "Stock status of swordfish in the Pacific Ocean inferred from standardized CPUE of the Japanese longline fishery using general linear models," in press as of March 1997, fig. 2. 31. This has been well documented in various swordfish fisheries. The north Pacific fisheries have been studied in detail. See for example Jeffrey Polovina, "The oceanographic features of the swordfish fishery grounds in the central north Pacific based on satellite altimetry and an ocean circulation model," in "Second International Pacific Symposium," Turtle Bay, Hawaii, March 4, 1997. 32. Uozumi and Yokawa, "Country report ...," op. cit., p. 6. 33. See "Fishing Grounds" for a description of the offshore current structure. 34. Jose Echeandi'a Zegarra, Gerente, TRAMARSA, personal communications, July 19, 1996. 372 35. Available Ecuadorean catch data is limited. The best available data may be estimated from import data (Ecuador, appendix B2a). In addition, as swordfish is an incidental catch, results could be affected by varying strategies used to target other species, primarily tunas. 36. For details see the Ecuadorean chapter of this report. 37. See the Chilean chapter of this report for details. 38. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfish, op. cit., map 13. 39. Sosa-Nishizaki and Shimizu, "Spatial and temporal CPUE trends ...," op. cit., pp. 80-85. 40. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Bill fishes, op. cit., map 13. 41. Sosa-Nishizaki and Shimizu, "Spatial and temporal CPUE trends ...," op. cit., pp. 80-85. 42. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfish, op. cit., map 13. 43. Sosa-Nishizaki and Shimizu, "Spatial and temporal CPUE trends ...," op. cit., pp. 80-85. 44. Uozumi and Yokawa, "Country report ...," op. cit., p. 6. 45. See figure 1 displaying the geographic distribution of swordfish catches in Yuji Uozumi and Kotaro Yokawa, "Country report for the swordfish fisheries in the Pacific Ocean," paper delivered at the Second International Swordfish Symposium, March 3, 1997, Turtle Bay, Oahu, Hawaii, p. 6. 46. Nakano, "Stock status of swordfish ...," op. cit., fig. 2. The pattern for actual catches in the 1990s is somewhat different with very substantial catches reported in the offshore areas. Uozumi and Yokawa, "Country report ...," op. cit., p. 6. 47. Nakano, "Stock status of swordfish ...," op. cit., fig. 2 and Sosa-Nishizaki and Shimizu, "Spatial and temporal CPUE trends ...," op. cit., pp. 80-85. 48. Another view of this southeastern Pacific cluster is available in Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes, op. cit., map 13. This also study includes data from other Asian longline fishery. Caution has to be used in drawing firm conclusions from the Japanese and other Asian longline data because swordfish was usually not the target species. The Japanese in recent years have generally targeted bigeye. Notably a southeastern Pacific cluster of bigeye catches also appear in the Asian data. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes, op. cit., map 3. 49. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfish, op. cit., map 13. 50. For details see the Chilean chapter of this report. 51. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., July 19, 1996 and Salas, op. cit., September 1, 1997. 52. Ramon Salas, SIPESA, personal communications, August 26, 1997. Mr. Salas is a Chilean fishing vessel captain currently working with SIPESA's new longliners. 53. Schmidt, op. cit., April 8, 1996. Another observer suggests operations at 80-84°W off Callao which would be about 750 kilometers. Salas, op. cit., August 26, 1997. 54. Salas, op. cit., August 26, 1997. 55. For details see the Chilean chapter of this report. 373 56. Hideki Nakano, Distant Water Fishery Research Laboratory, presentation at the First International Symposium on Pacific Swordfish, Ensenada, Mexico, December 11-14, 1994. 57. Javier Chong Lay-Son, Universidad Catolica de Sma. Concepcidn, personal communications, December 4, 1996. 58. Carol Reeb and Barbara Block, "Genetic analysis of Pacific swordfish populations using mtDNA and microsatellite markers," paper delivered at the Second International Swordfish Symposium, March 5, 1997, Turtle Bay, Oahu, Hawaii. 59. Reeb and Block, "Genetic analysis ...," op. cit. 60. Reeb and Block, "Genetic analysis ...," op. cit. 61. Naritoshi Cho, "An attempt to clarify genetic stock structure of swordfish using nuclear gene markers," paper delivered at the Second International Swordfish Symposium, March 5, 1997, Turtle Bay, Oahu, Hawaii. 62. For details see the Chilean chapter of this report. 63. There are a variety of limitations associated with using fisheries-dependent data as described above. It is, however, given the paucity of other data one of the few indicators available to the authors. 64. Norman W. Bartoo, Atilio L. Coan Jr., "An assessment of the Pacific swordfish resource," in Richard H. Strod, (ed.) Planning the Future of Billfishes: Research and Management in the 1990s and Beyond (National Coalition for Marine Conservation: Savannah, Georgia, 1989), pp. 143-144. 65. Pastor, op. cit., June 6, 1997. 66. Smith, "La industria pesquera ...," op. cit. 67. The company had planned to focus primarily on the northern coast. Pastor, op. cit., June 6, 1997. Initial results, however, have been much better off the southern coast. One of the captains involved reports water temperatures in the north of up to 25-27°C and believes this may be a least in part the cause of the poor catches. Sal as, op. cit., September 1, 1997. 68. Jorge Campos, Manager, Consorcio Pesquero, personal communications, January 25, 1996. 69. Salas, op. cit., September 1, 1997. 70. Even if swordfish was the target species, fisheries-dependent data must always be used with caution to estimate distribution because it reveals what is caught and not necessarily actual populations. Gear and fishing strategies, for example, could only be targeting part of the available resource. When the data is derived from a fishery in which the species studied was not the target species, the data becomes even more suspect. 71. The Japanese longline fishery, given the many years of operations and increasing refinement in fishing technology, may be more effectively utilizing the available resource than many other fisheries. The primary problem with the Japanese swordfish data, however, is that swordfish is not generally the target species. Some of the fluctuations in swordfish catches therefore may reflect market trends and changes in fishing technology and strategy directed at the principal target species, tuna. 72. Uozumi and Yokawa, "Country report ...," op. cit., p. 6. 73. Some swordfish were taken along the coast, however, at these central latitudes. Nakano, "Stock status of swordfish ...," op. cit., figure 2. 74. Sosa-Nishizaki and Shimizu, "Spatial and temporal CPUE trends ...," op. cit., pp. 80-85. 374 75. Alejandro Covarrubias, Director de Fiscalizaci on, Servicio Nacional de Pesca (Chile), personal communications, July 21, 1996. 76. Jose Echeandi'a Zegarra, General Manager, TRAMARSA, personal communications, July 22, 1996 and June 3, 1997. 77. Salas, op. cit, September 1, 1997. 78. Salas, op. cit., September 1, 1997. 79. The study focused primarily on tuna, but there was a swordfish by-catch reported. Carlos Martinez,"Prospeccio'n de atunes y peces espadas en el Oceano Pacifico oriental al este de los 1 10°W: Segundo semestre de 1971," (IFOP N° inven: 740002), December 1974. 80. Tuna Research Center (TRC), Annual Catch Statistics of Taiwanese Tuna Longline Fishery (Institute of Oceanography: Taipei, December 1993), F21-24. 81. TRC, Annual Catch Statistics ..., op. cit., F21-25. 82. National Fisheries Research and Development Agency, "Fishery statistics and fishing grounds for the Korean tuna longline fishery," Technical Report, No. 106, December 1993, pp. 87, 157, 227, 297, and 367. 83. The fact that swordfish was not the target species in the Japanese longline fishery, the most complete available data set, further complicate assessing seasonal patterns. 84. There is a more detailed discussion of this theoretical circular migratory route in the Chilean chapter of this study. 85. For details of the possible migratory path off Chile, see the Chilean chapter of this report. 86. Pastor, op. cit., June 6, 1997. 87. Some interesting work has been done, however, on adults. See Guillermo Podesta, "Aspects of swordfish oceanography in the Atlantic," paper presented at the Second International Swordfish Symposium, Turtle Bay, Hawaii, March 4, 1997. 88. Edward DeMartini, "Sex and size composition in the Hawaiian-based longline fishery," Second International Pacific Symposium, Turtle Bay, Hawaii, March 4, 1997. 89. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfish, op. cit., map 13. 90. For details see the Chilean chapter of this report. 91. M. A. Barbieri, M. Donoso, A. Gonzalez, V. Correa, B. Leiva, and A. Montiel, "Development and state of the art of the swordfish fishery in Chile," paper delivered at the International Symposium on Pacific Swordfish, Ensenada, B.C., Mexico, December 11-14, 1994, figure 10. 92. See the Chilean chapter of this study for details. 93. Salas, op. cit., August 26, 1997. 94. A. S. Grechina and D. F. Arcos, "Distribucion y migracion del jurel, Trachurus symmetricus murphyi (Nichols), en el Pacifico suroriental, Guyana Oceanol, Vol. 3, No. 1, 1995, pp. 3-27. 95. IMARPE, "Estadi'sticas de los desembarques de la pesqueria marina peruana, 1983-1992," Informe, No. 105 (IMARPE: Callao, March 1994), pp. 63-202. 375 96. IMARPE, "Estadi'sticas de los desembarques ..., 1983-1992," op. cit, pp. 23-42. 97. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes, op. cit., map 13. 98. Most ETP coastal countries report that swordfish larvae are not found east of 110°W. One Ecuadorean researcher, however, has reported the presence of swordfish larvae in coastal waters. (See "Spawning.") 99. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfish, op. cit., map 13. 100. Emira Antonietti, IMARPE, personal communications, March 24, 1997. 101. The five foreign companies which purchased licenses landed only 3,000 t of an anticipated 100,000 t catch. The companies paid $23 million for fishing licenses and lost production cost the companies $50 million more. "Elusive squid cause Peruvian headache," Seafood International, April 1997, p. 8. 102. Reeb and Block, "Genetic analysis ...," op. cit. 103. U.S. tagging data show some movement offish in the north Pacific between the Hawaiian Islands and the mainland waters off California. 104. Uozumi and Yokawa, "Country report ...," op. cit.; Nakano, "Stock status ...," op. cit.; and Sosa-Nishizaki, "Spatial and temporal CPUE trends ..., op. cit. Also see the Mexican and Central American chapters of this report. 105. While the shift is no perfect, this is the general pattern. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes, op. cit., map 13. 106. Antonietti, op. cit., March 13, 1997. 107. See each country chapter for details. 108. The most comprehensive Pacific study of oceanic fish larvae has been conducted by the Japanese National Far Seas Fisheries Research Institute (JFSFRL). Researchers with the JFSFRL failed to find any swordfish larvae east of 108°W, although they did not test waters south of 12°S. Nisikawa, Honma, Yueyanagi, and Kikawa, Average Distribution of Larval Oceanic Species of Scombroid Fishes, 1956-81 (Far Seas Fisheries Research Laboratory: Shimizu, Japan, 1985), Series S No. 12. Other larval studies have included: CALCOFI, EASTROPAC I and II, and the Soviets (R/V Akademik Kurchatov - cruise 17). They have all failed to find swordfish larvae east of 108°W. While these surveys were not designed specifically for swordfish, they did encounter larvae of similar species (such as frigate mackerel and sailfish). If swordfish larvae had been present, they would have presumably also have noted that. Larvae of several other oceanic species such as bigeye and yellowfin tuna were also absent or extremely rare. Researchers are unsure as to why spawning of these oceanic species does not appear to be taking place in the ETP~despite appropriate temperatures and salinities. Robert Humphreys, "Review of larvae and juvenile distributions with inference towards spawning habitat," paper delivered at the Second International Swordfish Symposium, March 5, 1997, Turtle Bay, Oahu, Hawaii. 109. M. Angela Barbieri Bellolio, J. Miguel Donoso Pastor, Eleuterio Yanez Rodriguez, Antonio Gonzalez Casanga, Victor Catasti Barraza, Marcelo Garcia Alvarado, "Monitoreo de la pesqueria de recurso pez espada (I-X Regiones, 1994,)" Proyecto FIPA N°ll/93 (IFOP: Valparaiso, November, 1995), p. 64. 110. Nisikawa, Honma, Yueyanagi, and Kikawa, Average Distribution of Larval Oceanic Species of Scrombroid Fishes, 1956-81, op. cit. 111. The assessment of Chilean swordfish seasonality is based on catch data published by SERNAP since the mid-1980s. 112. Pastor, op. cit., June 6, 1997. 376 113. Sosa-Nishizaki and Shimizu, "Spatial and temporal CPUE trends ..., op. cit., pp. 80-85. 114. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfish, op. cit., map 13. 115. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes, op. cit., map 13; Uozumi and Yokawa, "Country report ...," op. cit., p. 6; and Sosa-Nishizaki and Shimizu, "Spatial and temporal CPUE trends ...," op. cit., pp. 80-85. 116. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes, op. cit., map 13. 117. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes, op. cit., map 13. 118. Sosa-Nishizaki and Shimizu, "Spatial and temporal CPUE trends ..., op. cit., pp. 80-85. 119. For details see the Chilean chapter of this report. 120. S. Kip Farrington, Jr., Fishing the Pacific: Offshore and On (New York: Coward-McCann, 1953), pp. 15-16. 121. Farrington, Fishing the Pacific, op. cit., pp. 44 and 67. 122. Smith, "La industria Peruana ..." op. cit., p. 7. 123. Maria Angela Barbieri, Jefe, Departamento de Tecnologia Pesquera, Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (Chile), personal communications, April 9, 1996 and Hans Louis Schmidt, General Manager, Pesquera Omega (Chile), personal communications, April 8, 1996. 124. Mike Justen, NMFS-F/SWR, personal communications, October 19, 1995. 125. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., June 26 and July 22, 1996. 126. For details see the Chilean chapter of this report. The Chileans can operate within the 200-mile zone while the Spanish cannot. This difference in grounds, in addition to other factors (such as gear, vessels, experience, and fishing strategy), could cause differences in size distribution. 127. See for example Michael Seki, "Diet and role of feeding ecology in observed swordfish distribution and catch patterns in the north Pacific," "Second International Pacific Symposium," Turtle Bay, Hawaii, March 4, 1997. 128. Smith, "La industria Peruana ..." op. cit., p. 7. 129. For details see the Chilean chapter of this report. 130. Salas, op. cit., September 1, 1997. 131. Fishermen off southern Peru and Chile report minimal squid catches. 132. Pastor, op. cit., June 6, 1997. 133. The squid catch is primarily taken by foreign jiggers and is thus not reported by port in Peruvian statistics (appendix B7bl-2). Almost all of the fishing by the foreign vessels , however, is conducted off the northern coast. 134. Sosa-Nishizaki and Shimizu, "Spatial and temporal CPUE trends ...," op. cit., pp. 80-85. Another assessment of seasonality in the Japanese longline fishery suggests the best fishing off Ecuador and northern Peru early in the year, although the seasonality is not as marked as in the south. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfish, op. cit., map 13. 377 135. The commercial fishery for giant squid was initiated in 1991-92 by foreign jiggers. As a result, significant squid catch data is available only beginning in 1991. 136. Nakano, "Stock status of swordfish ...," op. cit., fig. 8. 137. Nakano, op. cit., December 11-14, 1994. 138. Nakano, "Stock status of swordfish ...," pp. 10-11. 139. Richard Parrish, "Regime scale climatic variations in the north Pacific and implications for highly migratory species," paper delivered at the Second International Swordfish Symposium, March 5, 1997, Turtle Bay, Oahu, Hawaii. 140. Nakano, "Stock status of swordfish ...," op. cit, p. 8. 141. For details see the Chilean chapter of this report. 142. Swordfish may not have preyed extensively on the principal small pelagic (anchovy), but they do prey upon squid and other species which do feed extensively on anchovy. 143. Bartoo and Coan, "An assessment ...," op. cit., pp. 143-144. 144. Nakano, "Stock status of swordfish ...," op. cit., fig. 9. 145. Pastor, op. cit., June 6, 1997. 146. Job growth in other areas, such as mining, may have been an even more important factor. SECTION III. (FISHING GROUNDS) 147. Matthias Tomczak and J. Stuart Godfrey, Regional Oceanography: An Introduction (Tarrytown, New York: Pergamon, 1994), p. 144. 148. A more detailed discussion of the Humboldt Current is available in Tomczak and Godfrey, Regional Oceanography, op. cit., p. 144. 149. Sydney Levitus and Timothy P. Boyer, "World Ocean Atlas 1994: Temperature," NOAA Atlas NESDIS 4, Vol. 4 (National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service: Washington, D.C., June, 1994), pp. 45- 50. 150. Tomczak and Godfrey, Regional Oceanography, op. cit., p. 144. 151. Sidney Shapiro, The Fisheries of Chile (Bureau of Commercial Fisheries: Washington, D.C., 1965), pp. 2-3. 152. A more detailed discussion of the Chile/Peru upwelling system is available in Tomczak and Godfrey, Regional Oceanography, op. cit., pp. 144-145. 153. Robert O. Smith, "La industria peruana de congelacidn de pez espada y atun," Pesca y Caza, N°2, 1951. 154. D.P. De Sylva, "Red-water blooms off northern Chile, April-May 1956, with reference to the ecology of the swordfish and striped marlin," Pacific Science, 1962, Vol. XVI, No. 3, pp. 271-279. Two excellent recent descriptions of this phenomenon are available in Don Olson, X. Humston, and Guillermo Podesta, "Large pelagics in frontal zone environments;" Jeffrey Polovina, "The oceanography of the swordfish fishery grounds in the central north Pacific based on satellite altimetry;" and Keith Bigelow, "Influence of environmental factors on swordfish catch rates," papers delivered at the Second International Swordfish Symposium, March 4, 1997, Turtle 378 Bay, Oahu, Hawaii. 155. Smith, "La industria Peruana ...," op. cit. 156. Smith, "La industria Peruana ...," op. cit. 157. Barbieri, op. cit., April 11, 1996. 158. The primary Japanese fishery is to the northeast of the Nazca Ridge. Uozumi and Yokawa, "Country report ...," op. cit., fig. 1. 159. Farrington, Fishing the Pacific, op. cit., pp. 56-58 and 75. SECTION IV. (FLEET) 160. Jorge Zuzunaga Zuzunaga, Executive Director, Instituto del Mar (IMARPE-RJS), personal communications, August 14, 1997. 161. Eduardo Pastor, Sindicato Pesquero, personal communications, May 29, 1997. 162. Campos, op. cit., May 28, 1997. 163. Zuzunaga Zuzunaga, op. cit., August 14, 1997. 164. Claudia Wosnitza-Mendo, Marco Espino, Maria Veliz, La Pesquen'a Artesanal en el Peru durante Junio de 1986 a Junio de 1988, Informe No. 93, (IMARPE/GTZ: Callao, 1988), pp. 81-82, 119. 165. "New technology provides more profit with less pollution," World Fishing, June 1996, p. 9. 166. "Peru: Change quantity to quality," Fishing News International, August 1995, pp. 14-15. 167. Webster, Fishing Programs ..., op. cit., p. 134. 168. Jorge Zuzunaga Zuzunaga, Director Ejecutivo, Instituto del Mar, personal communications, Of. N°DE-300- 133-96-PE/IMP, February 26, 1996. 169. Ursino Gonzalez, Hotel Merlin, personal communications, February 6, 1997. 170. Tuna Latin and Consorcio Pesquero have both reported unsuccessful efforts. Tuna Latin maintains that fishing operations were successful, but their efforts failed because of Government policies. Maximo Collao, General Manager, Tuna Latin, personal communications, July 22, 1997. Pesquera Atlantis' efforts are more recent and the results still unclear. Unconfirmed assessments such that the results have been somewhat disappointing. For details see "Companies". 171. Most of the larger Peruvian fishing vessels are trawlers and seiners, but there are also a few longliners. 172. Ludwig Meier Cornejo, El Futuro de la Pesquen'a: Corrigiendo los Errores del Pasado (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Pesqueros, July 1990), p. 42. 173. Webster, Fishing Programs ..., op. cit., p. 1. 174. Campos, op. cit., January 25, 1996. 175. Jorge Campos, Manager, Productos Pesquero Peruano, personal communications, May 28, 1997. 379 76. Webster, Fishing Programs ..., op. cit., p. 4. 77. Echeandi'a Zegarra, o/?. c#., July 3, 1997. 78. Campos, op. cit.. May 28, 1997. 79. Campos, op. cit., May 28, 1997. 80. Much of the focus of foreign interest during the 1930s-50s was Chile. See the Chilean chapter of this report or details. 81. Enrique Pardo, the son of a former president, even imported a boat for recreational fishing in 1948. : arrington, Fishing the Pacific, op. cit., pp. 58 and 68. 182. Carol Zegarra, PROMPERU, personal communications, February 3, 1997. 183. Gonzalez, op. cit., February 6, 1997. 184. '"Gigantes del mar' frente al Callao," El Comercio, June 1, 1997. 185. The Hotel Las Arenas de Mancora in Mancora near Piura has zodiacs available. Expediciones Viento Sur Dffers trips in the Lima area to the Islas Hormiga which can include some fishing, but the sailboats they used are not equipped for billfish. Zegarra , op. cit., February 10, 1997. 186. The general characteristics of the Japanese vessels are described in the Japanese chapter of this report. See Wildman, "Asia," op. cit. 187. Campos, op. cit., January 25, 1996. 188. Details on the Spanish fleet and fishing companies deploying them are described in the Spanish chapter of this study. See: Folsom, "Western Europe" op. cit. 189. The authors have received different reports on the size (appendix A2). 190. Jose Echeandi'a Zegarra, General Manager, TRAMARSA, personal communications, June 21 and July 22, 1996. SECTION V. (SHIPYARDS) 191. For details see Weidner and Hall, "Latin America." op. cit., pp. 424-428. 192. Pedro Chang Wong, Gerente de Produccidn, Navales Industriales, December 13, 1995. 193. See for example "40 seiners building—As the fleet switches to deeper mackerel," Fishing News International, August 1995, pp. 24-25. 194. Chang Wong, op. cit., December 13, 1995. 195. "Peru purser caries 'copter,'" Fishing News International, January 1997. 196. "Peru purser caries 'copter,'" op. cit. 197. Chang Wong, op. cit., January 18, 1996. 198. Jose Echeandi'a Zegarra, General Manager, TRAMARSA, personal communications, June 26, 1996. 380 199. Pastor, op. cit, May 29, 1997. 200. Decreto Supremo N°060-91-EF, March 22, 1991. 201. Maximo Collao, General Manager, Tuna Latin, personal communications, June 27, 1996. SECTION VI. (FLEET OPERATIONS AND GEAR) 202. Farrington, Fishing the Pacific, op. cit., p. 67. 203. Smith, "La industria Peruana ..." op. cit., p. 7. 204. Pastor, op. cit., June 3, 1997. 205. Campos, op. cit., May 28, 1997. 206. Pastor, op. cit., May 29, 1997. 207. Campos, op. cit., May 28, 1997. 208. Robert Webster, Fishing Programs Required to Maximize Catch Rates in Peruvian waters (Sea Sources Ltd.: Harvey's Lake, Pennsylvania, 1995), p. 12. 209. Pastor, op. cit., May 29, 1997. 210. Salas, op. cit., September 1, 1997. For details on Chilean gear and methods see the Chilean chapter of this report. 211. Webster, Fishing Programs ..., op. cit, pp. 4, 12. 212. Pastor, op. cit., May 29, 1997. 213. Zuzunaga Zuzunaga, op. cit., February 26, 1996. 214. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., July 2, 1996 and June 3, 1997. 215. Pastor, op. cit., May 30, 1997. 216. For details, see the Chilean chapter of this study. Farrington reports that Alfred Glassel was particularly active off Peru during the early 1950s. Farrington, Fishing the Pacific, op. cit., p. 4, 10-11, and 17. 217. Farrington, Fishing the Pacific, op. cit., pp. 56-58. 218. Farrington, Fishing the Pacific, op. cit., pp. 64-66. 219. See, for example, Farrington, Fishing the Pacific, op. cit., pp. 12-13, 16, 59-63, 68, and 71. 220. Farrington, Fishing the Pacific, op. cit., pp. 58-59. 221. Gonzalez, op. cit., February 6, 1997. 222. Emira Antonetti, Director of Research, IMARPE, personal communications, June 20, 1996. 223. Zegarra, op. cit., February 3, 1997. 381 224. Gonzalez, op. cit., February 6, 1997. 225. "Palm beach boat 'busy' off Peru," The International Angler, month unknown, 1997, p. 3. 226. Two suggestions were the Hotel Las Arenas de Mancora in Mancora and Expediciones Viento Sur in Lima. Zegarra, op. cit., February 10, 1997. 227. '"Gigantes del mar' frente al Callao," El Comercio, June 1, 1997. 228. Japanese distant-water operations are described in the Japanese chapter of this study. See Wildman, "Asia," op. cit. 229. Uozumi and Yokawa, "Country report ...", op. cit., p. 6 and Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Billfishes, op. cit., map 13. 230. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., July 22, 1996. 231. Salas, op. cit., September 1, 1997. 232. If the live weight of the sharks finned was calculated the shark catch would be much more important. 233. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., July 22, 1996. 234. I. Fernandez, op. cit., July 2, 1996. 235. Salas, op. cit., August 26, 1997. SECTION VII. (CATCH) 236. Smith, "La industria Peruana ..." op. cit., p. 4. 237. A higher catch is suggested by EU import data, but the authors believe that much of this may be the transshipments of the Spanish vessels operating in the eastern Pacific (appendix E3). 238. For details see "Companies." 239. A good indicator of the results of the Peruvian companies deploying longliners are imports reported by the European Union, Japan, and United States. There are no known fresh swordfish imports to the European Union (appendix E3) and virtually none to Japan (appendix E4b). U.S.' fresh swordfish imports from Peru, as well as other oceanic pelagics, have increased in the 1990s, but vary widely from year to year. The record year for swordfish was the 39 t reported in 1991 and for oceanic pelagics, as a group, the 189 t in 1994 (appendix E2c). Clearly the companies involved are having difficulties supplying product on a regular basis. 240. Farrington, Fishing the Pacific, op. cit., p. 66. 241. For details on the development of the fishery in Chile, see the Chilean chapter of this study. 242. Farrington, Fishing the Pacific, op. cit., p. 67. 243. There were virtually no commercial fisheries in Latin America for any species until after World War II. Fisheries were conducted almost entirely by artisanal fishermen. Most Latin Americans regarded fishing as a very low-status occupation. The artisanal fishermen in the region were generally very poor, often with virtually no formal education, and employed primitive gear and methods and in most cases primitive, open boats. The description of Cuban fishermen in Hemingway's classic Old Man of the Sea provides a good description for U.S. readers. Many artisanal fishermen pursued their craft through a strong sense of family tradition built during 382 several generations of fishing, often with minimal technical innovation and few economic rewards. 244. Smith, "La industria Peruana ...," op. cit and Farrington, Fishing the Pacific, op. cit., p. 69. 245. Farrington, Fishing the Pacific, op. cit., p. 66. 246. The 1950 catch of 2,600 t has only been exceeded by the Chilean swordfish fishery which total more than 7,000 t in 1991. The Chilean fishery has since declined significantly. See the Chilean chapter of this book for details. 247. Zuzunaga Zuzunaga, op. cit., August 14, 1997. 248. Zuzunaga Zuzunaga, op. cit., August 14, 1997. 249. The difference is unexplained, especially because FAO's source is the Peruvian Ministry of Fisheries (MIPE) and IMARPE is the research institute of the Ministry. 250. The Soviets have reported swordfish catches to FAO. Catches of as much as 1 ,400 t have been reported off West Africa (appendix B6). They have never, however, reported catches of that species in the southeastern Pacific. 251. Weidner and Jacobson, "Soviet fishing operations off Latin America," op. cit. The swordfish by catch was probably in the more coastal trawl fishery, although such a by-catch is highly unusual. Wlodzimierz Kaczynski, Research Associate Professor, Institute for Marine Studies, College of Ocean and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington, personal communications, July 9, 1997. 252. This is highly unusual as factory trawlers do not normally report significant swordfish by-catches. 253. This discrepancy is difficult to assess. The source of the FAO data is the Peruvian Ministry of Fisheries and IMARPE is a unit of the Ministry. 254. The company, however, reported generally poor results. Collao, op. cit., June 27, 1997. For details see the entry for Consorcio Pesquero in the company section. 255. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., June 21, 1996. 256. Campos, op. cit., January 25, 1996. 257. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., June 21, 1996. 258. Collao, op. cit., June 27, 1996. 259. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit,, June 26, 1996. 260. Campos, op. cit., May 28, 1997. 261. Pastor, op. cit., June 2, 1997. 262. Pastor, op. cit., June 2, 1997. SECTION VIII. (PORTS) 263. Alejandro Bermejo, "Necesitamos muelles," Expreso, November 3, 1991. 264. Chile is also preparing to privatize its ports. For details see the Chilean chapter of this study. 383 265. "Instituciones man'timas rechazan privatizacidn de infrastructure," La Republica, July 10, 1996. 266. Alejandro Bermejo, "Desde Parachique hasta Tumbes," Pesca, November-December 1991, p. 7. 267. "Piers for landing ports," Fishing News International, November 1992. 268. Zuzunaga Zuzunaga, op. cit, February 26, 1996. 269. "Japanese fishing boat detained in Callao on $53 mn submarine claim," The Andean Report, May 1989, p. 138. 270. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., July 11, 1996. 271. Salas, op. cit., September 1, 1997. 272. "Tenders: Peru," Andean Report, July 1985, p. 118 and R. Orozco, "Descripcio'n del puerto de Ilo, Mayo 1986-Mayo 1988," in Wosnitza-Mendo, et. al, "La pesqueria artesanal ...," op. cit., pp. 99-104. 273. Zuzunaga Zuzunaga, op. cit., February 26, 1996. 274. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., June 26, 1996. 275. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., June 26, 1996. 276. Farrington, Fishing the Pacific, op. cit., p. 66. 277. R. Orozco, "La pesqueria artesanal en la caleta de Mancora, Mayo 1986-Junio 1988," in Wosnitza-Mendo, et. al, "La pesqueria artesanal ...," op. cit., pp. 18-21. 278. Alejandro Bermejo, "Paita, base pesquera del norte," Pesca, May278. 1971, pp. 22-23. 279. "Modern fishing port to handle food fish landings," Fishing News International, July 1972. 280. Alejandro Bermejo, "Desde Parachique hasta Tumbes," Pesca, November-December 1991, p. 7 and Alejandro Bermejo, "Estacion naval frena desarrollo de Paita," Pesca, November-December 1990, p. 5. 281. Zuzunaga Zuzunaga, op. cit., February 26, 1996. 282. Alejandro Bermejo, "Desde Parachique hasta Tumbes," Pesca, November-December 1991, pp. 6-8. 283. C. Moreno and A. Mendieta, "La pesqueria artesanal en la caleta de Puerto Nuevo (Paita) Julio 1986-Junio 1988," in Wosnitza-Mendo, et. al., "La pesqueria artesanal ...," op. cit., pp. 22-27. SECTION IX. (TRANSSHIPMENT) 284. Gallo, op. cit., June 18, 1996. 285. Zuzunaga Zuzunaga, op. cit., February 27, 1996. 286. Enrique Solar, personal communications, May 29, 1986. 287. Campos, op. cit., January 25, 1996. 288. For details see the Spanish and Uruguayan chapter of this study. 384 289. Mike Justen, NMFS-F/SWR, personal communications, October 19, 1995. 290. Some observers report some operations as far north as Ecuador. Salas, op. cit, August 26, 1997. 291. One Chilean source estimates that the Spanish are fishing from the 200-mile limit out to about 800 kilometers from the coast. Schmidt, op. cit., April 8, 1996. Another observer reports operations off Callao at 80-84° W which would be about 750 kilometers. Salas, op. cit, August 26, 1997. 292. Barbieri, op. cit., April 9, 1996 and Hans Schmidt, Pesquera Omega, personal communications, April 6, 1996. 293. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., June 26 and July 22, 1996. 294. Covarrubias, op. cit., August 17, 1995. For details on Chilean transhipping regulations, see the Chilean chapter of this report. 295. Both countries, however, offer fishing licenses for foreign fishermen interested in working with local companies. For details see the Colombian and Ecuadorean chapters of this report. 296. Ronaldo Gallo, Direccion Nacional de Extraction, Ministerio de Pesquen'a, personal communications, June 18, 1996. 297. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., June 26, 1996. 298. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., June 26, 1996. 299. The Japanese have also curtailed shipments through Montevideo. Japanese sources report that there are no longer any transshipments to foreign markets and all transshipments are destined to Japan. See the Uruguayan chapter of this study for details. This shift toward at-sea transshipments appears to be part of an overall pattern. Japanese transshipments through distant-water ports continue primarily where access arrangements require that the catch be landed locally. The authors believe that the Japanese have moved toward at-sea transshipments to preserve quality and to avoid the cost and complications of transferring fish through foreign countries. See the Japanese chapter of Wildman, "Asia," op. cit. One of the principal ports where the Japanese still transship is Capetown, South Africa where they continue to tranship the longline catch. This may be due to access arrangements with the South Africans. See the South African chapter in Folsom, "Africa," op. cit. It is possible that some transshipments to Japan occur through other ports, but the authors believe such shipments are limited and there is no Japanese data available on the quantities involved. Wildman, "Asia," op. cit. 300. Consorcio Pesquero reports supplying product to the Japanese. Campos, op. cit., January 25, 1996. The Japanese also have a relationship with Tuna Latin which leased and attempted to buy Japanese longliners. Presumably much of this product was supplied by the Japanese, but the precise registration status (Japanese or Peruvian) is unclear. For details on these two companies, see "Companies." 301. I. Fernandez, op. cit., July 2, 1996. 302. I. Fernandez, op. cit., July 2, 1996. 303. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., June 26, 1996. 304. Julio Gallo, Ministerio de Pesqueria, personal communications, June 18, 1996. 305. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., June 21, 1996. SECTION X. (PROCESSING AND PRODUCTS) 385 306. "Por precios altos se pone de moda filete de pez raya en los mercados de Lima," El Comercio, July 3, 1989, p. 1. 307. "Como tollos venden a fieros tiburones," La Republica, December 12, 1992. 308. Luis Wong, Jesus Rodriguez, and Aurea Muguruza, "Utilizacio del tollo-tiburon congelado en la elaboration de seco-salado 'tipo bacalao' y su estudio de preservabilidad," Revista Latinoamericana Tecnologia de Alimentos Pesqueros, No. 3, December 1986, pp. 11-76. 309. Zuzunaga Zuzunaga, op. cit., February 26, 1996. 310. Campos, op. cit., January 25, 1996. 311. Campos, op. cit., May 28, 1997. 312. Pastor, op. cit., June 2, 1997. 313. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., June 3, 1997. SECTION XL (COMPANIES) 314. The SNP in 1995, for example, was trying to convince the Government to close most of PESCA-PERU's remaining plants rather than sell them. "Shut state meal plants," Fishing News International, August 1995, p. 20. 315. Collao, op. cit., June 27, 1996. 316. For details see the Peruvian chapter in Weidner and Hall, "Latin America," Vol. IV, op. cit. 317. Bermejo, "Desde Parachique ...," op. cit. 318. Ivonne Diminich, Commercial Manager, Agro Pesca, personal communications, January 16, 1996. 319. If the by-catch exceeds 10 percent, the entire catch can be confiscated and the company fined. Diminich, op. cit., January 19, 1996. 320. "Primera flota atunera privada peruana," Pesca, July-August 1988, p. 5. 321. Resolution Ministerial, N°120-94-PE and "Autorizan pesca," La Republica, March 23, 1994. 322. The vessels fish off both Ecuador and Chile, but outside the 200-mile zones of those countries. 323. Campos, op. cit., January 25, 1996. 324. INFOPESCA, "Atun enfriado, congelado: Peru," Noticias Comerciales, June 20, 1995. 325. Javier Barendiran, Commercial Department, Grupo Sotomayor, personal communications, June 11, 1997. 326. Campos, op. cit., May 28, 1997. 327. Barendiran, op. cit., June 11, 1997. 328. "Success of the 'white elephant'," Fishing News International, December 1979. 329. For details see Dennis Weidner, "Peruvian tuna fishery," International Fishery Reports (IFR-87-31), May 19, 1987. 386 330. "Tuna fleet for sale," Fishing News International, March 1981. 331. "Cuatro ex-atuneros se convierten en jureleros," Pesca, September-October 1994. 332. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., June 26 and July 2, 1996. 333. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., June 3, 1997. 334. Campos, op. cit., May 28, 1997. 335. "Peru owner plans big freezing plant," Fishing News International, February 1992, p. 51. 336. Bermejo, "Desde Parachique ...," op. cit. and Alejandro Bermejo, "Pesquero en Paita," Pesca, November- December 1990, pp. 7-11. 337. Pastor, op. cit., June 6, 1997. 338. Eduardo Pastor, Sindicato Pesquero, personal communications, May 29, 1997. 339. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., June 26, 1996, and June 3, 1997. 340. Maximo Collao, General Manager and Co-Owner, Tuna Latin, personal communications, June 27, 1996. 341. Collao, op. cit., July 22, 1997. 342. Resolution Supremo 008-82-PE, "Plan de Ordanamiento Pesquero del Atun y Especies Afines." 343. Collao, op. cit., June 27, 1996. Details on the arrangements are described in Alejandro Bermejo, "Ismael Benavides y los palangreros japoneses," Pesca, September-October 1988, pp. 12-13, 34. 344. Collao, op. cit., June 27, 1996. 345. Retroactive provisions resulted in substantial fees the company had to pay. Collao, op. cit., June 25, 1996. Both foreign and domestic vessels were required to pay fees of $500 per vessel ton and the by-catch had to be delivered free to MIPE. Company officials maintain that their operations could simply not afford such costs. One observer notes that proof that the new regulations were not viable is that since they were issued no company has attempted to enter the fishery. Collao, op. cit., July 22, 1977. 346. Collao, op. cit., June 25 and July 19, 1996. 347. Collao, op. cit., July 30, 1996. SECTION XII. (MARKETS) 348. Ameya, op. cit., August 14, 1997. 349. See "Catch" for a detailed annual assessment of catch and export trends. 350. U.S. Embassy, Lima, message number 974, February 4, 1980. 351. It is unclear why the Spanish are reporting these shipments as imports from Peru. The Spanish Government has never reported the Pacific swordfish catch of its longliners. (FAO for example shows no Spanish swordfish catch in the Pacific (Latin America, appendix c2b.) 352. Farrington, Fishing the Pacific, op. cit., p. 67. 387 353. The authors have been unable to contact the company. No increased shipments of tuna and swordfish are noted in early 1997, however, the company could be marketing its catch in Japan. SECTION XIII. (GOVERNMENT POLICY) 354. Decreto Ley N°25977 and implementing regulations, Decreto Supremo N°001-94-PE. 355. "Estado regulara el manejo integral y explotacion de recursos hidrobiologicos," El Comercio, December 23, 1992. 356. "Plan de ordenamiento pesquero del atiin, especies afines y asociados," Resolucidn Ministerial N°l 10-94-PE, March 16, 1994. 357. Section 6.1 of the Tuna Management Plan, Resolucidn Ministerial, N°l 10-94-PE, Match 16, 1994. 358. Campos, op. cit., January 25, 1996. 359. Supreme Decree, August 1, 1947; Law No. 15720, November 11, 1965; Constitutional Articles 98/99, July 12, 1979; and Constitutional Article 54, December 29, 1993. 360. U.S. Embassy, Lima, "Environmental roundup from Peru," message number 7091, August 12, 1995. 361. "FAO plan 'a disaster,'" Fishing News International, September 1996. 362. "Peru fleet to pay for fish," Fishing News International, April 1997, p. 48 363. U.S. Embassy, Lima, "Peru: Fishing industry report, 1994" op. cit., pp. 8-9. 364. "Los lineamientos de politica pesquera," RM 084-94-PE, El Peruano, March 3, 1994. 365. "Fondo de desarrollo pesquero adquirid plena vigencia," El Comercio, December 23, 1992, p. A12. 366. Jorge Villena Chavez, "Peru: Planificacion del sistema HACCP en la industria de productos pesqueros en Peru," CC&I (Red de Cooperacion Latinoamericana de Control de Calidad e Inspeccion de Productos Pesqueros: Montevideo, 1996), Vol. V, pp. 5-10. 367. See the Peruvian chapter in Weidner and Hall, "Latin America," op. cit.; Dennis Weidner and Francisco Quintanilla, "Peruvian bilateral fishery relations," International Fisher}' Reports (IFR-88/88), September 2, 1988, 22p.; Donald Jacobson and Dennis Weidner, "Soviet-Latin American Fishery Relations, 1961-89," International Fishery Reports (IFR-89/39), May 5, 1989, 153p.; and Dennis Weidner and Tracey Thomas, "Cuban Fishery Relations in the Americas, 1959-88," International Fishery Reports (IFR-89/39), May 5, 1989, 33p. 368. Collao, op. cit., July 22, 1997. 369. "Plan de Ordenamiento Pesquero del Atun y Especies Afines," Resolucidn Supremo 008-82-PE. 370. U.S. Embassy, Lima, "Tuna season opens in Peru, foreign boats welcome under certain conditions," message number, 12626, December 5, 1983. 371. Decreto Supremo, N°008-84-PE. A good discussion of the licensing system is available in Alejandro Bermejo, "Ismael Benavides y los palangreros japoneses," Pesca, September-October 1988, pp. 12-13, 34. 372. DS N°014-87-PE, DS N°010-88-PE, and the Ley General de Pesqueria N°24790. 373. Collao, op. cit., June 27, 1996. 388 374. Plan de Ordenamiento de la Pesquen'a del Atiin, Resolucidn Ministerial N°l 10-PE, March 16, 1994. 375. Section 8.1 of the Tuna Management Plan, Resolucidn Ministerial, N°110-94-PE, Match 16, 1994. 376. Details on the licensing procedure are in Section 7 of the Tuna Management Plan, Resolucidn Ministerial, N°110-94-PE, March 16, 1994. 377. Section 6.1. Resolucidn Ministerial, N°110-94-PE, March 16, 1994. 378. Section 6.2. Resolucidn Ministerial, N°110-94-PE, March 16, 1994. 379. "Peru's Prime Minister runs fishing!," Fishing News International May 1996, p. 2 and INFOFISH, "Peru: New minister; new measures," Trade News, May 16, 1996. 380. Collao, op. cit., August 4, 1997. 381. Gladys Liliana Rocha Freyre, Directora Nacional de Extraccion, Ministerio de Pesquen'a, personal communications, Oficio N°277-96-PE/DNE-Dop, February 7, 1996. 382. Campos, op. cit., May 28, 1997. 383. Collao, op. cit., July 22, 1997. 384. See for example, Alejandro Bermejo, "Ismael Benavides y los palangreros japoneses," Pesca, September- October 1988, pp. 12-13. 385. Alejandro Bermejo, "En el atiin, gobierno y transnacionales japonesas son 'imperialistas'," Pesca, July- August 1988, pp. 12-13. 386. Juan Neyra Balta, "Atun y el desarrollo del Peru," Pesca, January- February, 1995, pp. 11-12. 387. Collao, op. cit., July 22, 1997. SECTION XIV. (RESEARCH) 388. Resolucidn Supremo 010-94-PE, March 24, 1994. 389. Zuzunaga Zuzunaga, op. cit., August 14, 1997. 390. Zuzunaga Zuzunaga, op. cit., August 14, 1997. 391. See, for example, Landa C, "Datos sobre ...," op. cit. and Norma Chirichigno F., "Nuevas especies de peces de los generos Mustelus (Fam. Triakidae), Raja (Fam. Rajisae) y Schedophilus (Fam. Centroolophidae)," Informe, N°42 (IMARPE: Callao, June 1973), 40p. 392. Enrique Sanchez V., Eulalio Carrillo F., and Jaime Cisneros S., "Pesca experimental con palangre o long-line a bordo de una lancha anchovetera," Informe, N°69 (IMARPE: Callao, 1979) and Jaime Cisneros and Enrique Sanchez, "Pesca de atiin con palangre en costa norte del Peru," Rev. Com. Perm. Paci'fico Sur, vol. 1 1, 1980, pp. 473-480. 393. Section 5 of the Tuna Management Plan, Resolucidn Ministerial, N°110-94-PE, Match 16, 1994. 394. Ameya, op. cit., August 14, 1997. 395. See for example Wong et.ai, "Utilizacidn del tollo-tiburon ...," op. cit. 389 396. Sergio Balarezo Saldana, Project Coordinator, IDB-UDEP Project, personal communications, July 7, 1997. 397. "A different school offish," Seafood Leader, November-December 1994, p. 22 and Robert Coutu, President, Ocean Fresh Seafood, personal communications, July 11, 1996. 398. "MIF approves $3 million to modernize fisheries training in Peru," Inter-American Development Bank New Release (NR-073/96), March 21, 1996. 399. Jaime Espinoza Soriano, "Tiburones de la costa peruana," Documenta, N°66, October-December 1978, pp. 36-44. 400. Neyra Balta, "Pesquera atunera ...," op. cit., p. 25. 401. RS 010-94-PE, March 24, 1994. 402. Ameya, op. cit., August 14, 1997. SECTION XV. (BY-CATCH) 403. Section 6.1. Resolucidn Ministerial, N°110-94-PE, March 16, 1994. 404. Section 6.2. Resolucidn Ministerial, N°110-94-PE, March 16, 1994. 405. For details on Peruvian sharks see Espinoza Soriano, "Tiburones ...," op. cit. 406. Salas, op. cit., August 26, 1997. 407. Ameya, op. cit., August 14, 1997. 408. Peruvian press reports have fluctuations in shark abundance as a result of climatic shifts, especially off the northern coast. "Como tollos venden a fieros tiburones," La Republica, December 22, 1982. 409. Comparative information on Japanese and other Asian (Korea and Taiwan) in the western Pacific suggest relatively low shark by-catches in tuna/swordfish longline operations. Japanese shark by-catches in tropical and subtropical areas of the Western Pacific were 0.5-2.5 percent, although over 30 percent was reported in temperate areas. Relatively high shark by-catches of 13 percent were reported by Taiwan in the Western Tropical Pacific. Kevin Bailey, Peter G. Williams, and David Itano, "By-catch and discards in Western Pacific tuna fisheries: A review of SPC data holdings and literature," Technical Report, No. 34 (Oceanic Fisheries Program: Noumea, New Caledonia, 1996), p. 4.26. For details on discard practices see table 4.7 in the same publication. 410. "Por precios altos se pone de moda filete de pez raya en los mercados de Lima," El Comercio, July 3, 1989, p. 1. 411. Farrington, Fishing the Pacific, op. cit., p. 75. 412. Carocci and Majkowski, Pacific Tunas and Bi lifts hes, op. cit., map 10. 413. Ameya, op. cit., August 14, 1997. 414. Pastor, op. cit., June 6, 1997. 415. Ameya, op. cit., August 14, 1997. 416. This is somewhat higher than the Japanese report in the Western Pacific. Bailey, et. at, "By-catch and discards ...," op. cit., p. 4.26. 390 417. See for example Pamela T. Plotkin, Richard A. Byles, and David W. Owens, "Migratory and reproductive behavior of Lepidochelys olivacea in the eastern Pacific Ocean," in Barbara A. Schroeder and Blair E. Witherington, compilers, "Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Symposium on sea turtle biology and conservation," NOAA Technical Memorandum, NMFS-SEFSC-341 (NMFS-SEFSC: Miami, January 1994), p. 138; Scott Eckert, Hubbs-Sea World Research Institute, personal communications, September 26, 1997; and Peter Dutton, Specialist on the molecular ecology of turtles, Comments at the United States-Mexico Fishery Cooperation Talks, Huatulco, Mexico, September 4, 1997. 418. The MIPE Resolucidn was issued in 1976. 419. Carlos F. Aranda A., "Marine turtles in Peru," Marine Turtle Newsletter, April 1989. 420. Hans Louis Schmidt, General Manager, Pesquera Omega, personal communications, April 8, 1996. 421. Bailey, et. al, "By-catch and discards ...," op. cit., table 4.29. 422. "Turtle skins seized," Fishing News International, May 1985. 423. Robert A. Dollar, "Annual report of the 1993 Western Pacific longline fishery," Southwest Fisheries Center Administrative Report H-94-06, August, 1994, pp. 9, 24-25. 424. Rene Marquez, Mexican National Turtle Coordinator, comments at Mexican-United States Fishery Cooperation Talks, September 4, 1997, Huatulco, Mexico. 425. While the satellite tracking devices were attached to only a few turtles, the preliminary results are striking. All of the tagged turtles moved south and then southeast toward the Galapagos. The tract was probably deflected somewhat westward by prevailing currents. From the Galapagos the turtles appear to be moving on to Chile and Peru. When more data is available they may show foraging movements in Chilean coastal waters. The strong El Nino developing in 1997 may affect the migratory pattern so 1997 may not prove to represent normal movements. Scott Eckert, Hubbs-Sea World Research Institute, personal communications, September 25, 1997 and Scott Eckert. The satellite data prepared by Eckert for this study is reproduced as figure 30. 426. Some Peruvian writers refer to both species as sea lions ("lobos marinos"): "comun" or "chusco" (sea lion) and "fino" (fur seal). 427. Karen De Young, "Peruvian conservationists mounts attack on seal killers," Washington Post, April 3, 1978, p. A14. 428. Humberto Tovar Serpa and Humberto Fuentes Tapia, "Magnitud poblacional de lobos marinos en el litoral peruano en marzo de 1984," Informe, N°88 (IMARPE: Callao, 1984), p. 12. 429. New Zealand observers, for example, report that Japanese longliners targeting bluefin tuna were taking seals. Bailey, et. al., "Bycatch and discards ...," op. cit., p. 4.12. 430. Based on information compiled by Ricardo Ghersi Beliinde, Universidad Villareal. "Lobos marinos no depredan el mar," Informativo del MIPE, April-June 1981. 431. Jorge Mehia Gallegos, "La pesca aretesanal y los lobos marinos," Pesca, July-August, 1989, pp. 8-10. One recent press report noted complaints in 1995 by artisanal fishermen at Matarani. INFOFISH, "Artisanal fishermen against industrial fishing, Trade News, December 1, 1995. 432. Bailey et. al., "By catch and discards ...," op. cit., table 4.7. 433. Dollar, "Annual report ...," pp. 24-25. 434. Tovar Serpa and Fuentes Tapia, "Magnitud poblacional...," op. cit. 391 435. "Plea for sea lion cull in Peru," Seafood International, April 1997, p. 11. 436. Bailey, et. a/., "Bycatch and discards ...," op. cit., p. 4.12. 437. See the individual country chapters on Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay. 438. The authors have no information on Peru, but some useful background information is available on the western Pacific. Bailey, et. al. "Bycatch and discards ...," op. cit, p. 4.12. 439. Dollar, "Annual report ...," pp. 24-25. 440. For details see Weidner and Hall, "Latin America," op. cit. 441. One expert on Soviet fisheries suspects it was probably the coastal demersal trawl fishery for hake. Kaczynski, op. cit, July 9, 1997. SECTION XVI. (INTERNATIONAL) 442. The Government allowed the Soviets and Cubans to operate out of Peruvian ports, but usually restricted their operations to grounds outside the 200-mile limit. In a few years, however, operations within the 200-mile zone were permitted. For details see Weidner and Hall, "Latin America," op. cit. 443. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., June 3, 1997. 444. Campos, op. cit., January 25, 1996. 445. A Japanese longliner with a 300 t hold could catch about 600 t annually. If about 4 percent of the catch is billfish (appendix B5a), at least 2 percent would be swordfish. That would mean it would take about 60 longliners to catch the 690 t reported in 1993 (appendix C2b). 446. Chilean fishermen reported a catch of over 7,000 t in 1991, but officials are concerned about catches which have since declined. 447. See the Ecuadorean chapter of this report for details. 448. For details see the Ecuadorean chapter of this report. 449. For details on Japanese commercial activities in Peru see "Joint Ventures" in this report and the Japanese chapter in Wildman, "Asia" op. cit. 450. A good description of the licensing arrangements with the Japanese longliners is available in Bermejo, "Ismael Benavides ...," op. cit. 451. "Submarine, Japanese boat collide; three dead," Kyodo (Tokyo), 1020 GMT, August 27, 1988. 452. Uozumi, op. cit., February 6, 1997. 453. "El Instituto Peruano de Derecho Pesquero dice 'No'," Pesca, July-August 1988, pp. 10-11. 454. "Japanese fishing boat detained in Callao on $53 mn submarine claim," The Andean Report, May 1989, p. 138. 455. Juan Neyra Balta, "Pesqueria atunera: anhelo y desafio," Pesca, July-August 1995, p. 25 and Campos, op. cit., January 25, 1996. 392 456. National Fisheries Research and Development Agency (NFRDA), "Fishery statistics and fishing grounds for the Korean tuna longline fishery, 1988-1992" Technical Report of the NFRDA, (NFRDA: Seoul, December 1993), pp. 87, 157, 227, 297, and 367. For overall details on the Korean swordfish fishery, see the Korean chapter of this report. Wildman, "Asia," op. cit. 457. Alejandro Covarrubias, Director de Fiscalizacion, SERNAP, personal communications, August 17, 1995. 458. The vessels deployed are large longliners which freeze their catch. Trips are reportedly 3-4 months, but it is unclear if this refers to Pacific as well as Atlantic operations. Subdireccion General de Recursos Internos Comunitarios, Direccidn General de Recursos Pesqueros, Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentacion, "Pesquera Espanola del pez espada," undated report, probably released in 1994. 459. Schmidt, op. cit., April 8, 1996 and Salas, op. cit., August 26, 1997. 460. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., July 22, 1996 and unpublished Chilean Navy data (Chile, appendix D4). 461. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., July 19, 1996. 462. I. Fernandez, op. cit., July 2, 1996. 463. Garcia, op. cit., June 27, 1996. Details on the various Spanish companies are available in the Spanish chapter of this study, Folsom, "Western Europe," op. cit. 464. Zuzunaga Zuzunaga, op. cit., February 26, 1996. 465. See the Chilean chapter of this report for details. 466. Inaki Fernandez, Assistant Manager, Maicoa Fisheries, Vigo, Spain, personal communications, July 2, 1996. 467. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., June 26, 1996. 468. Gallo, op. cit., June 18, 1996. 469. Mike Justen, NMFS-F/SWR, personal communications, October 19, 1995. 470. I. Fernandez, op. cit., July 2, 1996. 471. Some information is available on the size of swordfish being taken by Chilean longline fishermen off northern Chile which could provide insight into Spanish activity in the same general area. For details see the Chilean chapter of this report. 472. TRC, Annual Catch Statistics ..., op. cit., pp. Fl-4 and F21-25. For further details see the Central American chapters of this report. 473. See the U.S. chapter of this report for details. 474. John Childers and Forrest R. Miller, "Summary of the 1994 U.S. north and south Pacific albacore troll fisheries," Southwest Fisheries Science Center Administrative Report, LJ-95-15, July 1995, 57p. 475. One U.S. fisherman operated the Mandy J and Sundance off Chile. He reportedly would have preferred to have transshipped through Chilean ports because of the more stable political climate, absence of terrorism, and superior port and supply facilities as well as being closer to the fishing grounds. The owner reported that transshipment costs are substantially higher through Callao. U.S. Embassy reports indicate that he was using the Peruvian port of Callao. U.S. Embassy, Santiago, "Sundance returns," message number 4017, May 22, 1992; U.S. Embassy, Santiago, "USA, Sundance update," message number 5140, July 2, 1992 and U.S. Embassy, Santiago, "Sundance update," message number 5601, July 17, 1992. 393 476. Soviet catches off West Africa have been as high as 1,400 t (1974), but this was an anomaly. Catches did not exceed 300 t in any other year. 477. For details on the Soviet mid-water trawl fishery off Chile and Peru see Weidner and Hall, "Latin America," op. cit. 478. One expert on Soviet fishing believes it was probably taken in the coastal demersal trawl fishery for hake. Kaczynski, op. cit., July 9, 1997. 479. Weidner, "Peruvian tuna fishery," op. cit. 480. See for example, Hinton and Deriso, "Structure and assessment ...," op. cit. 481. "Keep foreign fleets out—to preserve stocks," Fishing News International, September 1996. 482. Weidner and Hall, "Latin America," op. cit. 483. Cultecmar adds that their small trawlers would employ Peruvian crews and supply the Peruvian market. James McDonald Checa, "Pesca para consumo humano directo," El Comercio, July 7, 1993, p. 2. 484. Bermejo, "Ismael Benavides y los palangreros japoneses," op. cit. 485. INFOPESCA, "Atun enfriado ...," op. cit. 486. Swordfish sells for only about half the price of tuna. Uozumi, op. cit., February 6, 1997. 487. Alfonso Arevalo and Oswaldo Hundskopf, "El Instituto Peruano de derecho pesquero dice 'No'," Pesca, July-August, 1988 pp. 10-11. 488. Federation of Japan Tuna Fisheries Co-operative Associations (Nikkatsuren), Japan Tuna (Nikkatsuren: Tokyo, 1995), pp. 21-22. Nikkatsuren uses the term "Japan Tuna" as a shortened English title for the Association. 489. For details on the Spanish companies, see the Spanish chapter in Folsom, "Europe," op. cit. 490. Smith, "La industria Peruana ...," op. cit. 491. "Japan-Peru sashimi enterprise," INFOFISH Trade News, June 16, 1995. 492. "Soviet loan to aid construction of fishing terminal," Lima PRELA, 2005 GMT, February 12, 1979. 493. For details, see the discussion in Jacobson and Weidner, "Soviet-Latin American ...," op. cit. 494. Weidner and Hall, "Latin America," op. cit. 495. "^FAO, honesto intermediario?" Pesca, October, 1974, p. 5. 496. See for example, "Expertos FAO asesoraran plan pesquero perunao," Peruano, January 31, 1986. 497. "Loan will mean more fish for food," Fishing News International, February 1979. 498. Roger Hamilton, Editor of The IDB, personal communications, May 8, 1996. 499. Balarezo Saldana, op. cit., July 7, 1997. 394 500. "MIF approves $3 million to modernize fisheries training in Peru," Inter-American Development Bank New Release (NR-073/96), March 21, 1996, and "Fujimori, IDB sign $5.9 million to assist small business, fisheries," Inter-American Development Bank New Release (NR- 13 1/95), May 22, 1966. The UNP was considered for executing parts of the project, but because of various operational problems has not been deeply involved. 501. Balarezo Saldana, op. cit., July 7, 1997. SECTION XVII. (ENFORCEMENT) 502. For details see the Peruvian chapter of Weidner and Hall, "Latin America," op. cit. 503. Campos, op. cit., May 28, 1997. 504. If 200 foreign longliners were operating off Peru, it is likely that some would enter the country's 200-mile zone and that occasional seizures would result. 505. Effort in the southeastern Pacific appears to vary considerably. The main target species is bigeye and Japanese catches have varied from 17,700 in 1990 to only 5,700 t in 1995. FAO, Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, 1995. Thus the number of longliners appears to have also varied widely from year to year. 506. See for example: "Patrol captures two Peruvian boats," Paris AFP, 1602 GMT, September 8, 1979; "Peruvian fishing vessels captured, unloaded," Paris, AFP, 2056 GMT, July 13, 1984; "!6 goletas peruanas sorprendidas en aguas chilenas!," La Tercera de la Hora, July 14, 1984; "Otros tres pesqueros peruanos retenidos," El Mercurio, August 2, 1984; "Two Peruvian boats captured off Arica," Santiago Domestic Service, 2140 GMT, September 6, 1984; "Peru releases 2 Chilean fishing boats," El Mercurio, March 9, 1989, p. C7; "Chilean fishing boat seized, held port of Ilo," Lima, Television Peruana, 1100 GMT, June 6, 1989; and Minister Rojas says Peruvian boat incident over," Santiago, Television Nacional de Chile Network, 1800 GMT, April 23, 1990. 507. "Peruvian boat reportedly attacks fishing vessel," Noticias Argentinas (Buenos Aires), 1931 GMT, April 22, 1990. 508. See for example: "Ecuadorean fishing boats pay fines, released," Paris AFP, 1915 GMT, November 28, 1983; "Navy notes detainment of Ecuadorean ships," Paris AFP, 1301 GMT, December 30, 1986; U.S. Embassy, Quito, "Ecuadorean economic developments," message number 826, January 21, 1987; "Detienen a pesquero ecuatoriano," Expreso, November 8, 1987; "Peru libero a buques pesqueros," Expreso, November 29, 1988; "Pesqueros de Ecuador en mar peruano," El Comercio, February 11, 1989; "Navy seizes 2 Ecuadorean fishing vessels," Madrid EFE, 0116 GMT, February 12, 1989; "Juzgan a 8 pesqueros peruanos en Ecuador," Diario las Americas, April 18, 1990; and "Peruvian boat reportedly attacks fishing vessel," Buenos Aires, Noticias Argentinas, 1931 GMT, April 22, 1990. 509. U.S. Consulate General, Guayaquil, "Tuna boat seizures," message number 2455, November 20, 1979 and U.S. Department of State, "Tuna situation off Ecuador and Peru," message number 354205, December 14, 1983. 510. "Fisherman reportedly killed by Ecuadoreans," Paris AFP, 1944 GMT, December 17, 1983; "Navy Minister on attack against fishing vessels," Paris AFP, 2043 GMT, December 20, 1983; and "Peruvian boat reportedly attacks fishing vessel," op. cit. 511. "Navy denies ship deployment offshore from Guayaquil," Madrid EFE, 2035 GMT, February 3, 1995. 512. Echeandi'a Zegarra, op. cit., July 19, 1996. 513. "Submarine, Japanese boat collide; three dead," Kyodo (Tokyo), 1020 GMT, August 27, 1988 and "Rescatan submarino 'Pacochd' tras once meses de hundimiento," El Comercio, July 25, 1989, p. 1. The submarine was subsequently raised. Pascual Huaylinos, "Le soplaron aire y ... IBluuuumm!, Oiga, July 31, 1989, pp. 30-33. 395 514. "Embargo de barco japones esta al voto en tribunal de Callao," El Comercio, July 8, 1989. 515. "Multan a barco mexicano por pescar en aguas de Peru," Diario las Americas, December 3, 1983, and U.S. Department of State, "Tuna situation ...," op. cit. 516. U.S. Embassy, Lima, e-mail message, February 2, 1995. 396 APPENDICES Series A: Fleet Series B: Catch Series C: Processing Series D: Agencies/Companies Series E: Trade El Overall E2 EU E3 Japan E4 United States Series F: Contracts Series G: Licenses Series H: Glossary Appendix A1.--Peru. Fishing fleet, 1994 Fishery Vessels Capaci ty Total Vessel* Number Tonnag e Purse seine Reduction 518 118,660 229 Edible 83 12,902 155 Trawlers 42 7,652 182 Tuna fleet 3 272 91 Smal l-scale 5,362 16,426 3 Total 6,008 155,912 NM * Average per vessel NM - Not meaningful Source: Ministry of Fisheries as cited by the U.S. Embassy, Lima, "Peru: Fishing industry report, 1994," December 1944, p. 4. 397 Appendix A2.--Peru. Commercial longliners, 1980-97 Vessel Size Size Vessel Hold Owner/ chandler Acquired/ 1 eased chandler Hold Built Country Year Meters GRT Tons Peruvian owned Andrew 23 Audaz 18 Audaz 1 20 Christopher 23 Eraz I 14 Ibarakia 50 Inca Mar# Juliana 6 Maria Jose* 25 Maria Jose 25 Paloma* Pena Cayetano 17 Pionero 18 Pionero 1 20 Rossie 23 SIPESCA 18 Triunfador 20 Unknown**** Foreign leased vesse Is Jyutoku Maru 6 Kiku Mary 26 Koei Maru 18 Senko Maru 1 Senko Maru 26 Senko Maru 38 Senko Maru 51 Taisei Maru I 48 Tokujo Maru# Unknown## 48o Pesquera Atlantis Sindicato Pesquero 1995 Sindicato Pesquero 1997 42o Pesquera Atlantis 1995 20 8 Echeandiaaa 1996 150 192*» University of Piura 1994 299 134 Tuna Latin*** 1980-96 Peter Sucksmith i994aaa 59 Consorcio Pesquero 1993-96 59 Cazamar 1997 90 Consorcio Pesquero NA Sindicato Pesquero 1995-96 Sindicato Pesquero 1997 66»* Pesquera Atlantis 1995 80 NA Sindicato Pesquero 1997 300 RSW Tuna Latin 1992 Freezer Tuna Latin 1992 Freezer Tuna Latin 1992 Freezer Tuna Latin 1992 Freezer Tuna Latin 1992 Freezer Tuna Latin 1992 Freezer Tuna Latin 1992 Freezer NA** *** 1994E?? Freezer 134 Tuna Latin 1980 Freezer Japan Ice hold RSW Ice hold Peru Japan Peru 1997 1996 Freezer Freezer NA Japan Japan 1970 Freezer Freezer Freezer NA Ice hold RSW Peru Japan 1997 Ice hold Peru 1997 Unlicensed vessels operating from Peruvian ports Japanese Unknown Spanish Arosa Primera Palangeros del Atl. 19?? -96 Al icante 170 19??-96 Carvisa 1996 Depredador 1996 Espadarte 1997 Juanitoba I 1996-97 Maicoa 36 500###185 Pesquera Maicoa 1993-97 Freezer Spain 1988 Maicoa I 524 Pesquera Maicoa 1993-96 Freezer Spain 1994 Radoche I 1997 Rosu 1 1 1 1997 Urugora Pesquera Maicoa 1993-96 Freezer E - Estimated NA - Not avai lable RSW - Refrigerated seawater 3 Research vessel donated by the Japanese Government. 33 Sr. Echeandia is the General Manager of TRAMARSA. He is purchasing the Eraz I separately as part of a group of investors. aaa Owner is a U.K. national. The vessel was reported adrift on March 15, 1994, by a Spanish freighter. # The Inca Mar was formerly the leased Japanese vessel Tokujo Maru. Since 1985 it has not been operated as a longliner, but rather used as a floting cold store. ## Tuna Latin alone reported leasing six Japanese longliners in the early 1980s. ### ONI reports 400 GRT. * Registered in Panama and fishing outside of the 200-mile zone. Sold to a foreign company in 1997. ** 208 NRT *** One unconfirmed report indicated that Tuna Latin deployed three longliners in 1995, but no current information is available. **** Several small artisanal longliners and small commercial longliners landing fresh product reportedly operate under contract to companies in Paita (such as Agro-Pesca). Few details are currently available. ♦ Panamami an- flagged vessel ♦♦ Cubic meters Source: Various 398 Appendix A3. --Peru. Characteristics of Japanese vessels operating from Peruvian ports Vessel Port Year* Size Crew Japan Peru Total Kyowa Maru 8 Callao 1988 GRT 412 16 21 * Dates when the vessel was known to be operating, but actual operations could cover other years. Source: "Submarine, Japanese boat collide; three dead," Kyodo (Tokyo), 1020 GMT, August 27, 1988. Appendix A4. --South America. Characteristics of Spanish longliners operating off South America, 1996 Vessel* Built/ Size Freezer# Refurbished Length Tonnage Hold Long line Length Hooks Crew Alicante 1966/1988 Arosa Primera Maicoa Maicoa I Urugora Virgen de la Franqueira 1966 Meters NA 36 36 NA GRT 170 300 500 180 Tons Ce I s i us Ki lometers Number Persons NA -30° 8 800 20-23 120 -28° 10 500 15-17 185 -35° 65 4,000 18-20 NA -30° 800 20-24 # Minimum temperture Source: Interviews with company officials Appendix A5. --South America. New large commercial fishing vessels,* 1996-97 Country Vessel Owner Bui It Scheduled Type Size Length Country Shipyard Tons** Meters Argentina Longliner# NA## 44 Birting Norway Westcon 1996 Long line r# NA## 44 Birting Norway Westcon 1996 Long line r# NA 50 NA Norway Westcon 1996 Trawler NA 29 NA Argentina Federico Contessi 1996 Chile Seiner 1,500 65 Pesquera Chi lesur Chile Asmar 1996 Seiner 1,600 66 Pesquera San Jose Chile Asmar 1996 Seiner NA 47 Pesquera Coloso Chile Marco Chi leana 1996 Comb.*** NA 75 Pesquera DOF Chile Asenav**** 1997 General 1,000 NA NA Chile Marco Chi leana 1996 Peru Seiner 590 46 Copetsa Peru Andesa 1996 Seiner 540 45 Truji llo Peru Andesa 1996 Seiner 850 51 Sindicato Pesquero Chile Asenav 1996 Seiner 300 NA Austral Peru R ernes a 1996 Seiner 350 NA Mata V Peru R ernes a 1996 Seiner 300 NA Pes. San Antonio Peru R ernes a 1996 Seiner 550 43 Rodga Peru Navinsa 1996 Seiner 370 38 Pes. Monteverde Peru Navinsa 1996 Seiner 580 44 Pes. Carolina Peru Navinsa 1996 Seiner 340 35 Procesadora El Carmen Peru Navinsa 1996 Seiner 580 NA Pes. Velevit Peru SIMA 1996 * Vessels with capacaities of 300 tons are larger. ** Capacity *** Combination: Purse seiner/mid-water trawler **** Norwegian designers (Vik & Sandvik Skipstekniskhe Konsulenter # These vessels will be deployed for demersal longlining targeting toothfish and other species off southern Argentina. The Norwegian shipyard Brattvaag Skipsverft delivered other longliners to a U.S. -Argentine joint venture during 1995, also deployed in demersal operations. ## 962 GRT. Note: The above list is not complete, but includes most of the larger vessels added to Latin American fishing fleets during 1996. Source: "Vessel orders and deliveries," Morld Fishing Vessel Yearbook, 1996, pp. 53-61; "Fishing vessels on order for delivery during 1996/97," Horld Fishing, June 1996, pp. 32-35; and other sources. 399 Appendix Bl.--Peru. Fisheries catch, 1938-96 Year Catch Year Catch Mi L lion Metric tons 1938 Negl 1939 NA 1940# NA 1947*. NA 1948* 0.1 1949* 0.1 1950*# 0.1 1951*# 0.1 1952* 0.2 1953* 0.2 1954* 0.2 1955 0.2 1956* 0.3 1957* 0.5 1958 1.0 1959 2.2 1960 3.6 1961 5.3 1962 7.0 1963 6.9 1964* 9.1 1965 7.5 1966 8.8 1967* 10.2 1968* 10.6 1969* 9.2 1970* 12.5 1971 10.5 1972# 4.7 1973*# 2.3 1974 4.1 1975 3.4 1976 4.3 1977# 2.5 1978# 3.5 1979 3.7 Mi I Lion Metric tons 1980 2.7 1981 2.7 1982# 3.5 1983# 1.6 1984 3.8 1985 4.1 1986# 5.6 1987# 4.6 1988 6.6 1989 6.9 1990 6.9 1991# 6.9 1992# 6.9 1993# 8.5 1994 11.6 1995# 8.9 1996 9.6E 1997# NA** E - Estimate * Years in which swordfish catches exceeded 500 t (appendix B2a). ** The Peruvian catch will decline in 1997, in part because the southern anchovy stock has shifted south into Chilean waters. In other areas the anchovy catchg may be abnormally high because the El Nino often conentrates the fish in easily fished coastal areas. Unless carefully contrled, heavy fishing can exacerbate the impact of the El Nino event on stocks. If the 1997 El Nino proves as severe as anticipated, almost certainly a major decline will be experienced in 1998 # El Nino years. These events were of varying intensity. The El Nino events noted in the early 1990s were unusual, consisting of only modest warming extended over an usual time period. CI imatologists have not reached a consensus on how to characterize it. Source: FAO, Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, various years. 400 Appendix B2a.--Peru. Swordfish catch, 1948-96 Year Catch Smith FAO IMARPE* Year Catch FAO IMARPE* 11 Metric tons Metric tons 1940 60* 1941*** 1942*** 1943*** 1945*** 1946 1947 1,100 1948 423# 2,600 1949 1,385# 2,100 1950 2,585# 6,900 1951 1,170# 2,400 1952 1,900 1953 900 1954 700 1955 400 1956 600 1957 600 1958 400 1959 400 1960 400 1961 300 1962 400 1963 200 1964 900 1965 300 287 1966 200 193 1967 1,300 1,274 1968 800 778 1969 1,200 1,162 1970 2,400 2,396 1971 200 185 1972 NA 550 1973 1,900 1,941 1974 470 470 1975 158 158## 1976 294 264## 1977 420 420## 1978 436 436## 1979 188 188## 1980 216 1981 91 1982 154 1983 225 238 1984 298 343 1985 92 55 1986 33 21 1987 62 73 1988 129 54 1989 83 3 1990 2 1 1991 3 3 1992 21 16 1993 19 21-76 1994 5 7-310 1995 - 7 1996 NA NA E - estimated NA - Not avai lable * Landings in southern ports. Smaller quantities were also landed at several other ports. ** Includes Peruvian catches and small incidental catch of the Japanese longliners operating off Peru. Ministry of Fisheries data used in some years. *** No data is available for the war years (1941-45), but unconfirmed reports indicate that swordfish was shipped to the United States during this period. # Export data. Only small quantities were marketed domestically, mostly damaged fish that were not export grade. Actual catches were greater as the export shipments were product weight, about 65 percent of liveweight. The 1950 shipments would have had a live weight equivalent of about 3,300 tons. ## Ministry of Fisheries data. • The smaller quantity was landed by the domestic fishermen. The larger number includes factory vessel bycatch (55 t in 193) and landings from associated foreign vessels (303 t in 1994). See appendix B3d2). Sources: Robert 0. Smith, "La industria Peruana de congelacion de pez espada y atun," Pesca y Caza, N 2 2, 1951 (1940-51 data); FAO, Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, various issues (1955- 93 data); IMARPE, Informe, N 2 30 and 32 (IMARPE: Callao, different dates) (1968-69 data); Oficina Sectorial de Pesqueria, Ministerio de Pesqueria, Anuario Estadistico Pesquero, various years (1974-78 data); M. Flores, S. Vera, R. Marcelo, and E. Chirinos, "Estadisticas de los desembarques de la pesqueria marina peruana, 1983-92," Informe, N 2 105 (IMARPE: Callao, March 1994), pp. 63-202 (1983-92 data); Manuel J Flores, Segundo Vera, Raul Marcelo, and Erika Chirinos, "Estadisticas de los desembarques de la pesqueria marina peruana durante 1995," Informe Progresivo, N 2 45, November, 1996, p. 18; and unpublished statistics (1993-94 data) and Dra. Emira Antonieti, Director of Research, IMARPE, personal communications, June 20, 1996, and March 13, 1997 (1994-95 data). 401 Appendix B2b.--Peru. Swordfish landings by product form, 1965-86 data Year Form Total* Fresh Frozen Cured Metric tons 1965 - 287 - 287 1966 Negl 193 - 193 1967 102 1,171 - 1,274 1968 580 199 - 778 1969 200 962 - 1,162 1970 378 2,018 . 2,396 1971 117 58 10 185 1972 252 71 228 550 1973 991 710 240 1,941 1974 269 1 201 470 1975 153 5 - 158 1976 239 25 - 264 1977 365 55 - 420 1978 339 97 - 436 1979 168 20 - 188 1980 1981 75 15 - 91 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 33 Negl - 33 1987 1988 1989 * Totals may not agree due to rounding. Source: Ministerio de Pesqueria, Oficina Sectorial de Planif icacion, Anuario Estddistico Pesquero. (Lima: Ministerio de Pesqueria, various years) (1965-79 data); Ministerio de Pesqueria, Oficina Sectorial de Planif icacion, Informe Estadfstico Anual del Sector Pesquero. 1981 (Lima: Ministerio de Pesqueria, 1982) (1981 data); and Ministerio de Pesqueria, Oficina de Presupuesto y Planif icacion. Parte de Actividades del Sector Pesquero. 1986 (Lima: Ministerio de Pesqueria, June 1987) (1986 data). 402 Appendix B3a1.--Peru. Swordfish catch by port, alphabetical order, 1968-69 Port Year 1968 1969 Metric tons Acapulco Cabo Blanco 19 Callao-TPZ Chimbote Caleta Cruz 147* Ilo Lobitos 4 Mancora 135 Matarani (El) Nuro Paita 53* Punta Cancas Punta Mero Puerto Pizarro Talara 394 Vila Vila Zorritos 28 Others Total** 778 * The swordfish landed at these ports was mostly processed commercially and exported. ** Totals may not agree due to rounding. Source: IMARPE, Informe, N 5 30 and 32 (IMARPE: Callao, different dates) (1968-69 data) 403 Appendix B3a2.--Peru. Swordfish catch by port, alphabetical order, 1968-69 Port Year 1968 1969 Metric tons Northern coast Puerto Pizarro - Caleta Cruz 147* Zorritos 28 Punta Mero - Punta Cancas - Mancora 135 (El) Nuro - Cabo Blanco 19 Lobitos 4 Talara 394 Paita# 53* Subtotal 778 Central coast Chimbote - Callao-TPZ - Southern coast Ilo - Unknown Acapulco - Matarani - Vila Vila - Total** 778 * The swordfish landed at these ports was mostly processed commercially and exported. # Paita is located at approximately 5°N, the other ports are north of Paita. ** Totals may not agree due to rounding. Source: IMARPE, In forme, N 5 30 and 32 (IMARPE: Callao, different dates) (1968-69 data). 404 Appendix B3b1.--Peru. Swordfish catch by port, alphabetic order, 1975-79 Port Year 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 Metric tons Acapulco - NA - - - Cabo Blanco Negl NA 25 21 16 Caleta Cruz 10 NA 37** 77** 3** Callao-TPZ - NA Negl Cancas - NA 7** Chimbote 1 NA 4 Ilo NA Lobitos - NA 3 17 5 Mancora 86 NA 204 182 63 Matarani NA Negritos - NA - 2 1 (El) Nuro NA (Los) Organos - NA - 1** Paita - NA 29 - - Pisco Negl NA - 7** Pucusana - NA - 1 Punta Cancas NA Punta Mero - NA - 3 Puerto Pizarro NA NA 9 4 1 Talara 1 NA 28 55 28 Vila Vila - NA Zorritos 59 NA 74 69 67 Others NA - 1 Totals* Fresh 153 239 365 339 168 Frozen 5 25 55 97 20 Grand total* 158 264 420 436 188 * Totals may not agree due to rounding. ** Mostly frozen *** Landed mostly fresh Source: Ministerio de Pesqueria, Oficina Sectorial de Planif icacion, Anudrio Estadistico Pesquero. Peru-1979 (Lima: Ministerio de Pesquetia, 1980) 405 Appendix B3b2. 1975-79 ■Peru. Swordfish catch by port, geographic orientation, Region/port Year 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 Met ric tons Northern coast Puerto Pizarro NA NA 9 4 1 Caleta Cruz 10 NA 37** 77** 3** Zorritos 59 NA 74 69 67 Punta Mero - NA - 3 Cancas - NA 7** - - Mancora 86 NA 204 182 63 (Los) Organos - NA - 1** - Cabo Blanco Negl NA 25 21 16 Lobitos - NA 3 17 5 Talara 1 NA 28 55 28 Negritos - NA - 2 1 Paita# - NA 29 - - Subtotal, north 157 NA 416 429 187 Central coast Chimbote 1 NA 4 - - Callao-TPZ - NA - Negl - Pucusana - NA - 1 Pisco Negl NA - - Subtotal, central 1 NA 4 1 Southern coast Ilo - NA - - - Others - NA - 1 - Totals* Fresh 153 239 365 339 168 Frozen 5 25 55 97 20 Grand total* 158 264 420 436 188 * Totals may not agree due to rounding. ** Mostly frozen *** Landed mostly fresh # Paita is located at approximately 5°N, the other ports are north of Paita. Source: Ministerio de Pesqueria, Oficina Sectorial de Planif icacion, Anuario Estadistico Pesquero. Peru-1979 (Lima: Ministerio de Pesqueria, 1980). 406 Appendix B3c1.--Peru. Swordfish catch by port, alphabetical order, 1983-89 Port Year 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 Metric tons Acapulco - 11 - - - 5 Cabo Blanco - - - - - Negl Callao-TPZ - - - - - - 1 Chimbote 160 1 - - - - Caleta Cruz 5 4 6 Negl 17 3 Negl Ilo - - - - - - Mancora - 1 - 5 1 2 1 Matarani - - - - Negl - (El) Nuro - - - - - Negl Negl Paita - - 2 Negl 39 7 Negl Punta Cancas - 8 - - 14 35 Negl Punta Mero - - - - - Negl Talara - - 13 - Negl - Negl Vila Vila - - - Negl - - Zorritos - - - 15 2 2 1 Others - - Negl 1 Negl - Other* 73 318 34 " " ■ Total 238 343 55 21 73 54 3 * Soviet factory trawler fleet Source: M. Flores, S. Vera, R. Marcelo, and E. Chirinos, "Estadisticas de los desembarques de la pesqueria marina peruana, 1983-92," Informe, NM05 (IMARPE: Callao, March 1994), pp. 63-202 (1983-92 data) and Dra. Emira Antonieti, Director of Research, IMARPE, personal communications, June 20, 1996 (1993-94 data). 407 Appendix B3c2.--Peru. Swordfish catch by port, geographical order, 1983-89 Region/port Year 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 Metric tons Northern coast Caleta Cruz 5 4 6 Negl 17 3 Negl Zorritos - - - 15 2 2 1 Acapulco - 11 - - - 5 Punta Mero - - - - - Negl (Punta) Cancas - 8 - - 14 35 Negl Mancora - 1 - 5 1 2 1 (El) Nuro - - - - - Negl Negl Cabo Blanco - - - - - Negl Talara - - 13 - Negl - Negl Paita** - - 2 Negl 39 7 Negl Subtotal, north 5 24 21 20 73 54 2 Central coast Chimbote 160*** 1 - - - - Callao-TPZ - - - - - - 1 Subtotal, central 160*** 1 - - - - - Southern coast Mat a rani - - - - Negl - Ilo - - - - - - Vila Vila - - - Negl - - Subtotal, south ■ - - Negl Negl - Other Other ports - - Negl 1 Negl - Factory vessels 73 318 34 - - - Subtotal, other 73 318 34 1 Negl Total 238 343 55 21 73 54 3 * Soviet factory trawler fleet ** Paita is located at approximately 5°N, the other ports are north of Paita. *** This could have been swordfish taken by a foreign longliner operating with a Peruvian company. Source: M. Flores, S. Vera, R. Marcelo, and E. Chirinos, "Estadisticas de los desembarques de la pesqueria marina peruana, 1983-92," Informe, N 2 105 (IMARPE: Callao, March 1994), pp. 63-202 (1983-92 data) and Dra. Emira Antonieti, Director of Research, IMARPE, personal communications, June 20, 1996 (1993-94 data). 408 Appendix B3d1 -Peru. Swo rdfish catch by poi -t, alphabetical order, 1990-95 Port Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Metric tons Caleta Cruz Negl 1 1 - - - Callao - - - Negl - 6 Ho - - - 1 303** 1 Mancora - Negl - - - - Paita Negl - 6 - - - Punta Cancas 1 1 Negl 3 6 - Talara - - 7 - - - Zorn'tos Negl 1 2 17 1 - Others Negl - - - - - Other* " - - 55 - - Total 1 3 16 76 310 7 * Factory trawler fleet ** This may have been swordfish caught by associated foreign vessels. Source: M. Flores, S. Vera, R. Marcelo, and E. Chirinos, "Estadfsticas de los desembarques de la pesqueria marina peruana, 1983-92," Informe, NM05 (IMARPE: Callao, March 1994), pp. 63-202 (1983-92 data); M. Flores, S. Vera, R. Marcelo, and E. Chirinos, "Estadfsticas de los desembarques de la pesqueria marina peruana, 1992-94," Informe, N 2 118 (IMARPE: Callao, April 1996), pp. 35-76 (1992-94 data); Manuel J Flores, Segundo Vera, Raul Marcelo, and Erika Chirinos, "Estadfsticas de los desembarques de la pesqueria marina peruana durante 1995," Informe Progresivo, N-45, November 1996, pp. 22-35; and Dra. Emira Antonieti, Director of Research, IMARPE, personal communications, June 20, 1996 and March 13, 1997 (1993-95 data). Appendix B3d2.--Peru. Swordfish catch by port, geographical order, 1990-95 Region/port Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Metric tons Northern coast Caleta Cruz Negl 1 1 - - - Zorn'tos Negl 1 2 17 1 - Mancora - Negl - - - - (Punta) Cancas 1 1 Negl 3 6 - Talara - - 7 - - - Paita** Negl - 6 - - - Subtotal, north 1 3 16 20 7 - Central coast - - - - - Callao - - - - - 6 Southern coast Ilo - - - 1 303*** 1 Other Other ports Negl - - - - - Factory vessels* - - - 55 - - Subtotal, other Negl 55 Total 1 3 16 76 310 7 * Factory trawler fleet ** Paita is located at approximately 5°N, the other ports are north of Paita. *** This may have been swordfish caught by associated foreign vessels. Source: M. Flores, S. Vera, R. Marcelo, and E. Chirinos, "Estadfsticas de los desembarques de la pesqueria marina peruana, 1983-92," Informe, N 5 105 (IMARPE: Callao, March 1994), pp. 63-202 (1983-92 data); M. Flores, S. Vera, R. Marcelo, and E. Chirinos, "Estadfsticas de los desembarques de la pesqueria marina peruana, 1992- 94," Informe, N a 118 (IMARPE: Callao, April 1997), pp. 35-76 (1992-94 data); and Dra. Emira Antonieti, Director of Research, IMARPE, personal communications, June 20, 1996, and March 13, 1997 (1993-95 data). 409 Appendix B4a.--Peru. Swordfish catch, by month, 1983-95 Year Month Total* Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Metric tons 1965 1966 1967 1968 251 301 77 13 14 12 10 17 18 17 4 44 778 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 7 4 5 57 23 13 1 2 8 13 14 9 158 1976 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 264 7 4 5 57 23 13 1 2 8 13 14 9 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 52 42 129 79 46 24 12 7 13 2 3 11 36 27 32 49 34 24 57 83 22 45 28 9 7 6 4 59 19 15 8 6 4 3 19 38 1977 52 42 129 79 46 24 12 7 13 2 3 11 420 1978 36 27 32 49 34 24 57 83 22 45 28 9 436 1979 7 6 4 59 19 15 8 6 4 3 19 38 188 1980 1981 1982 1983 86 6 5 3 40 24 2 5 28 3 5 31 238 1984 151 29 4 4 10 23 37 19 11 38 17 - 343 1985 4 17 13 - - 1 1 - 2 10 7 55 1986 Negl - 4 5 Negl 5 7 - - - Negl Negl 21 1987 Negl 2 2 19 18 28 Negl Negl 1111 73 1988 1 24 6 1 1 Negl 13 Negl 5 111 54 1989 Negl 2 Negl - Negl - - 1 Negl - Negl - 3 1990 - Negl Negl Negl Negl - Negl - Negl Negl Negl Negl 1 1991 Negl 1 2 Negl Negl Negl - - Negl - Negl 3 1992 Negl - - Negl - 3-76 16 1993 5 11 19 5 5 19 1 2 19 76 1994 Negl Negl Negl 1 200# 3 100# - 1 5 - - 310 1995 - Negl 1 - - - Negl Negl Negl 1 5 - 7 1996 Averages** 1968 251 301 77 13 14 12 10 17 18 17 4 44 778 1970s 26 20 43 61 31 19 20 25 12 16 16 17 293 1980s 35 11 5 5 10 12 9 4 7 8 4 5 112 1990s Negl 12 3 113 Negl 14 2 1 19 * Totals may not agree due to rounding. ** For available years # This is prbably fish caught by foreign vessels and not included in the averages Sources: IMARPE, Informe, N 2 30 and 32 (IMARPE: Callao, various dates) (1968-79 data); Ministerio de Pesqueria, Oficina Sectorial de Planif icacion, Anuerio Estadfstico Pesquero. Peru, various years (Lima: Ministerio de Pesqueria, December, various years) (1978-79 data); M. Flores, S. Vera, R. Marcelo, and E. Chirinos, "Estadisticas de los desembarques de la pesqueria marina peruana, 1983-92," Informe, N 2 105 (IMARPE: Callao, March 1994), pp. 63-202 (1983-92 data); M. Flores, S. Vera, R. Marcelo, and E. Chirinos, "Estadisticas de los desembarques de la pesqueria marina peruana, 1992-94," Informe, NM18 (IMARPE: Callao, April 1996), pp. 23-28 (1982-94 data); Manuel J Flores, Segundo Vera, Raul Marcelo, and Erika Chirinos, "Estadisticas de los desembarques de la pesqueria marina peruana durante 1995," Informe Progresivo, N 5 45, November 1996, pp. 22-35; and Dra. Emira Antonieti, Director of Research, IMARPE, personal communications, June 20, 1996, and March 13, 1997 (1993-95 data). 410 Appendix B4b.--Peru. Swordfish catch, by month, 1983-95 Year Month Total* Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Perc entage 1968 32 39 10 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 6 100 1975 4 3 3 36 15 8 1 1 5 8 9 6 100 1976 1977 12 1 31 19 11 6 3 2 3 Negl 1 3 100 1978 8 6 7 11 8 6 13 19 5 10 6 2 100 1979 4 3 2 31 10 8 4 3 2 2 10 20 100 1983 36 3 2 1 17 10 1 2 12 1 2 13 100 1984 44 8 1 1 3 7 11 6 3 11 5 - 100 1985 7 31 24 - - 2 2 - 4 18 13 - 100 1986 - - 19 24 - 24 33 - - - - - 100 1987 - 1 1 26 25 38 - - 1 1 1 1 100 1988 2 44 11 2 2 - 24 - 9 2 2 2 100 1989 - 67 - - - - - 33 - - - - 100 1990 NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM 1991 NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM 1992 NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM 1993 - 7 14 25 7 7 25 1 2 25 - - 100 1994# NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM# NSM NSM# NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM 1995 NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM# NSM NSM# NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM NSM Averages** 1968 32 39 10 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 6 100 1970s 7 3 11 24 11 7 5 6 4 4 7 10 100 1980s 13 22 8 8 7 12 10 6 4 5 3 2 100 1990s* Negl 5 11 16 5 5 11 Negl 5 21 11 5 100 NA - Not available NSM - Not statistically meaningful * Totals may not agree due to rounding. ** For available years # Foreign landings excluded Sources: IMARPE, Informe, N a 30 and 32 (IMARPE: Callao, various dates) (1968-79 data); Ministerio de Pesqueria, Oficina Sectorial de Planif icacion, Anuario Estadistico Pesquero. Peru, various years (Lima: Ministerio de Pesqueria, December, various years) (1978-79 data); M. Flores, S. Vera, R. Marcelo, and E. Chirinos, "Estadisticas de los desembarques de la pesqueria marina peruana, 1983-92," Informe, NM05 (IMARPE: Callao, March 1994), pp. 63-202 (1983-92 data); and and Dra. Emira Antonieti, Director of Research, IMARPE, personal communications, June 20, 1996 and March 13, 1997 (1993-95 data). 411 Appendix B5a.--Peru. Catch of tuna and related species, longline fleet, 1992-94 Vessels Operations Species# Total Tuna* Bi llfish** Sharks Others*** Japanese fleet 11/92-10/93 Maria Jose 3-11/94 Taisei Maru 1 10-11/94 1,310 16 44 Metric tons 93 548 11 69 2 6 100 2 Negl 2,501 98 52 # Target and associated species * Target species ** Primarily marl in and swordfish *** Rays, mantas, turtles, dorado, etc. Source: Ing. Gladys Li liana Rochafreyre, Directora Nacional de Extraccion, Ministerio de Pesqueria, personal communications, Oficio N 2 277-96-PE/DNE-Dop, February 7, 1996. Append i x B5b.--Peru. SI iark' ** and bi If ish catch, 1989-95 Year Sharks** Total sharks** Bi I If ish* Mustelus Squat ina Rhinobatos R> aj i formes Elasmobranchi i Metric tons 1985 8,764 563 1,413 5,496 546 16,782 - 1986 10,239 1 ,731 2,046 7,276 1,959 23,251 - 1987 11,137 1 ,432 1,161 7,922 1,465 12,117 - 1988 13,160 576 3,033 8,251 1,615 26,635 - 1989 12,589 313 715 9,849 1,579 25,045 - 1990 6,458 190 539 4,311 768 12,266 . 1991 2,705 57 218 2,081 525 5,586 - 1992 8,578 93 42 2,771 2,087 13,571 - 1993 8,747 228 89 3,632 1/212 13,908 - 1994 3,431 159 - 1,158 548 5,296 - 1995 4,125 289 121 1,841 694 7,070 * IMARPE also does not report any bi I If ish catches. ** Includes rays and skates Source: fao. Yearbook of Fishery statistics . various years. 412 Appendix B5c. --Peru. Ray catch, 1983-95 Year Catch Total Sting Eagle Metric tons 1983 1,327 - 1,327 1984 1,803 - 1,803 1985 4,155 - 4,155 1986 6,506 - 6,506 1987 3,259 - 3,259 1988 6,871 - 6,871 1989 8,674 - 8,674 1990 3,226 - 3,226 1991 2,155 - 2,155 1992 498 840 1,338 1993 221 648 869 1994 2,143 787 2,930 1995 233 437 670 Source: M. Flores, S. Vera, R. Marcelo, and E. Chirinos, "Estadisticas de los desembarques de la pesquerfa marina peruana, 1983-92," Informe, NM05 (IMARPE: Callao, March 1994), pp. 23-42 (1983-92 data); M. Flores, S. Vera, R. Marcelo, and E. Chirinos, "Estadisticas de los desembarques de la pesquerfa marina peruana, 1992-94," Informe, NM18 (IMARPE: Callao, April 1996), pp. 23-28 (1982-94 data); Manuel J Flores, Segundo Vera, Raul Marcelo, and Erika Chirinos, "Estadisticas de los desembarques de la pesquerfa marina peruana durante 1995," Informe Progresivo , N ? 45, November, 1996, pp. 22-35; and Dra. Emira Antonieti, Director of Research, IMARPE, personal communications, June 20, 1996, and March 13, 1997, p. 18 (1993-95 data). Appendix B5d. --Korea. Shark and ray catch in the southeastern Pacific*, 1985-95 Year Catch Total Raj i formes Elasmobranchi i Metric tons 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 356 - 356 1990 1991 1992 1993 668 - 668 1994 120 - 120 1995 * FAO area 87. Source: FAO. Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, 1994. 413 Appendix B5e.- -Japan. Shark and ray catch in the southeastern Pacific*, 1985-95 Year Catch Total Rajiformes Elasmobranchii Met ric tons 1985 - 521 521 1986 - 663 663 1987 - 1,754 1,754 1988 - 1,297 1,297 1989 - 818 818 1990 - 1,409 1,409 1991 - 857 857 1992 - 1,032 1,032 1993 - 996 996 1994 - 1,415 1,415 1995 - 492 492 * FAO area 87 Source: FAO. Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, 1994. Appendix B5f .--Ecuador and Peru. Turtle catch, 1985-95 Year Catch Ecuador Peru Metric tons 1985 124 36 1986 715 9 1987 - 305 1988 - 32 1989 - 79 1990 - 101 1991 - 9 1992 - 30 1993 - 28 1994 - 6 1995 10 4 Source: FAO, Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, 1994. Appendix B5g.--Peru. Pinniped census, 1968-96 Year Species Total Sea I i on Fur seal Number 1968 17,400 11,800 29,200 1971 22,800 7,300 30,100 1974 20,000 10,200 30,200 1975 19,800 NA NA 1977 18,900 15,800 28,100 1978 25,000 21,700 46,700 1984 33,800 15,400 49,200 1996 NA NA 120,000E E - Unknown estimate reported in the press. Source: IMARPE census data reported by Jorge Mehia Gal legos, "La pesca aretesanal y los lobos marinos," Pesca, July- August, 1989, p. 10 (1968-84 data) and "Plea for sea lion cull in Peru," Seafood International , April 1997 (1996 data). 414 Appendix B6. --Soviet Union/Russia. Swordfish catch by FAO area, 1970-95 Year FAO Area* Total 34 47 51 87 Metric tons 1970 200 - - 200 1971 200 - - 200 1972 200 - - 200 1973 200 - Negl - 200 1974 1,400 - Negl - 1,400 23 - 286 157 2 - 123 183 80 175 40 95 .** 46 .** 174 .** 73 18 4 1975 263 - 1976 157 - 1977 87 34 1978 146 37 1979 58 22 1980 140 35 1981 36 4 1982 90 5 1983 46 - 1984 162 12 1985 73 - 1986 18 - 1987 4 - 1988 - - 1989 - - 1990 - - 1991 - - 1992 - - 1993 -# - 1994 - - 1995 * FAO Areas: 34 - Centraleastern Atlantic (off West Africa) 41 - Southeastern Atlantic 51 - Eastern Indian Ocean 87 - Southeastern Pacific ** Peruvian officials reported that the Soviet stern factory trawlers operating with Peru's 200-mile zone took swordfish incidentally (appendix B3c2?), Such incidental catches could have been taken prior to 1983, but the authors do not have a complete set of Peruvian statistical reports. No information is available on possible incidental swordfish catches outside of 200 miles, but the Soviets reported none to FAO. *** Peruvian officials also reported a catch by factory trawlers in 1993 (appendix B3d1). The large Soviet stern factory trawlers were no longer operating off Peru, but a joint venture was operating several small Russian-built trawlers in 1993. For details see the Peruvian chapter of Weidner and Hall, "Latin America," World Fishing Fleets, Vol. IV (NMFS: Silver Spring, Maryland, 1993). # Lithuania, a former Soviet republic reported a 794 t swordfish catch off West Africa in 1994. Source: FAO, Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, various years. 415 Appendix B7a--Catch trends of prey species, 1983-92 Year/ Month Total* species Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1, 000 Metric tons 1983 J. mackerel 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 3.5 2.5 12.4 7.6 9.7 11.9 11.8 60.8 Squ i d Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl 0.2 Giant squid - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1984 J. mackerel 6.6 7.0 5.7 10.9 22.5 15.2 15.2 11.8 5.3 5.3 30.6 36.1 172.1 Squ i d Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl 0.1 Giant squid Negl Negl - - Negl - - - - - Negl Negl Negl 1985 J. mackerel 5.8 9.0 3.6 11.1 7.7 9.3 10.5 3.7 1.0 2.7 2.9 1.3 68.6 Squid Negl Negl 0.1 Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl 0.1 Negl Negl Negl 0.4 Giant squid Negl 0.1 Negl Negl - - - - - - - Negl 0.2 1986 J. mackerel 3.0 3.7 4.3 3.5 6.2 6.8 5.3 3.9 3.1 2.8 1.8 2.4 47.0 Squid Negl Negl Negl Negl 0.1 0.1 0.1 Negl 0.1 Negl Negl 0.1 0.7 Giant squid Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 Negl 0.7 1987 J. mackerel 2.9 1.9 2.3 2.3 2.9 3.0 0.8 1.4 0.3 2.5 4.6 4.8 29.7 Squ i d Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl 0.2 Giant squid Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl 1988 J. mackerel 6.8 10.8 14.0 12.4 9.9 8.7 9.0 5.3 8.5 7.6 8.9 7.6 109.6 Squid Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl 0.2 Giant squid - Negl Negl Negl Negl 0.1 0.1 Negl 0.1 Negl Negl 0.1 0.4 1989 J. mackerel 6.9 7.1 8.6 8.9 12.6 15.4 20.0 10.9 9.4 10.5 9.9 11.2 131.5 Squ i d Negl 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.0 Giant squid 0.1 Negl Negl Negl 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 Negl Negl 0.1 1.0 1990 J. mackerel 17.8 16.4 17.7 17.6 14.0 8.4 16.2 15.3 9.1 6.0 9.5 13.8 160.8 Squid 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.8 0.5 0.1 Negl 0.5 1.1 Negl Negl Negl 3.7 Giant squid 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.5 1.2 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.1 2.0 6.9 1991 J. mackerel 19.9 6.1 15.1 21.5 8.7 9.2 9.6 1.6 16.6 12.0 5.4 10.8 136.6 Squid 0.1 0.3 Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl 0.1 Negl 0.7 Giant squid 0.9 7.7 2.8 3.4 3.6 7.9 9.3 6.2 6.3 11.7 9.2 8.5 77.6 1992 J. mackerel 5.6 1.7 0.8 0.4 0.8 5.9 6.2 3.0 2.9 2.3 7.9 13.6 51.2 Squ i d Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl 0.1 Negl 0.2 Giant squid 5.2 4.7 2.4 2.6 2.6 7.7 10.0 8.9 16.2 12.2 15.6 19.4 107.1 1993 J. mackerel 4.8 2.5 4.3 5.2 12.9 3.1 0.4 1.3 2.7 4.5 14.0 8.7 64.5 Squid 9.0 0.3 0.1 0.3 3.5 24.6 38.6 31.4' 8.7 11.3 5.3 7.1 140.3 Giant squid 0.1 Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl Negl 0.2 0.1 0.2 1994 J. mackerel 19.8 9.5 38.6 5.0 4.3 18.8 10.3 6.0 3.9 7.5 13.8 13.9 151.3 Squid 2.5 1.3 1.3 2.1 2.0 40.9 54.8 19.5 27.4 17.1 12.8 7.2 188.8 Giant squid 0.1 Negl Negl 0.1 Negl Negl Negl 0.1 Negl Negl 0.2 0.1 0.4 1995 J. mackerel 36.1 13.3 30.5 38.4 29.9 24.6 42.6 5.9 18.6 17.1 15.4 34.6 307.0 Squid 2.5 0.4 1.2 1.9 2.6 10.5 21.4 15.2 15.1 8.9 10.9 1.8 92.4 Giant squid Negl Negl Negl Negl 0.4 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.2 0.5 0.1 4.4 Species: Jack mackerel - jurel (Trachurus picturatus murphyi) Squid - calamar (Thais chocolata) Giant squid - pota (DosidiCUS gigas) Source: M. Flores, S. Vera, R. Marcelo, and E. Chirinos, "Estadfsticas de Los desembarques de la pesqueria marina peruana, 1983-92," Informe, NM05 (IMARPE: Callao, March 1994), pp. 23-42; M. Flores, S. Vera, R. Marcelo, and E. Chirinos, "Estadisticas de los desembarques de la pesqueria marina peruana, 1992-94," Informe, NM18 (IMARPE: Callao, April 1996), pp. 25-28; Manuel J Flores, Segundo Vera, Raul Marcelo, and Erika Chirinos, "Estadisticas de los desembarques de la pesqueria marina peruana durante 1995," Informe Progresivo, N-45, November 1996, pp. 18-19. 416 Appendix B7b1.--Peru. Landings of prey species, by port, 1992 Port 1992 J. mackere I Squid G. squid Metric tons Northern coast Puerto Pizarro - - 25 Caleta Cruz - 1,105 61 Zorritos 3 253 10 Acapulco - - - Punta Mero - - - (Punta) Cancas 21 - - Mancora 15 - - (Los) Organos 70 - - (El) Nuro 66 - - Cabo Blanco A3 - - Lobitos 57 - - Talara 18 1,709 - Negritos 21 74 - Paita 17,267 152 42 Parachique 11.176 Negl 47 Subtotal, north 28,757 3,293 185 Central coast San Jose 1,694 1 - Pimentel 6 Negl - Santa Rosa 1,072 - - Pacasmayo 4 - - Salaverry 419 - - Coishco 2,192 - - Chimbote 11,754 - 29 Supe 23 - - Huacho 1,209 - - Chancay 9 - - Cal lao 127 15 - Callao-TPZ 443 - - Pisco 34 18,986 27 - Subtotal, central 43 29 Southern coast San Adres 21 1 - Lomas 5 - - Chala 2 - - Atico 3 - - Camana 12 - - Mo I lendo 1,810 Negl 13 Ilo 1,265 7 - Vila Vila - 9 17 1 Subtotal, south 3,118 14 Other Factory vessels Trawlers 295 7 - Jiggers - 103,784* - Subtotal, other 295 103,791 Total 51,156 107,144 228 Note: Given the limited range of much of the Peruvian fleet, the landing site for the domestic fleet is a good general indicator of where the fish/squid was caught. * The giant squid catch is primarily landed by foreign (Japanese and Korean) jiggers which purchase Peruvian licenses. Landings data is not available, but the authors believe that most of the catch is taken off the northern coast. Source: M. Flores, S. Vera, R. Marcelo, and E. Chirinos, "Estadisticas de los desembarques de la pesqueria marina peruana, 1983-92," Informe, NM05 (IMARPE: Callao, March 1994), pp. 189-202. 417 Appendix B7b2.--Peru. Landings of prey species, by port, 1994 Port 1994 J. mackere I Squid G. squid Metric tons Northern coast Puerto Pizarro Negl - 101 Caleta Cruz - 90 - Zorritos 121 121 - Acapulco 1 2,763 - Punta Mero 24 35 - (Punta) Cancas - 1,542 - Mancora - - - (Los) Organos - - - (El) Nuro - - - Cabo Blanco - - - Lobitos - - - Talara 6,116 11,306 - Negritos - - 1 Paita 91,238 7,900 - Parachique 2.144 97,500 - - Subtotal, north 23,757 102 Central coast San Jose Negl Negl - Pimentel 26 Negl Negl Santa Rosa 3,865 5 - Pacasmayo - 1 - Salaverry 3,058 102 Negl Coishco 638 - - Chimbote 38,699 212 110 Casma 1 - 29 Huarmey - - 18 Supe 31 - - Huacho 1,209 - 104 Chancay - - - Callao 9 19 - Callao-TPZ 485 3 - Pisco 15 48,036 110 - Subtotal, central 452 261 Southern coast San Adres 27 Negl Negl Lomas - - - Chala - - - Atico - - - Camana - - - Mo I lendo 330 Negl Negl Ilo 1,846 - - Vila Vila 101 2,304 - - Subtotal, south Negl Negl Other Factory vessels Trawlers - - - Jiggers - 164.713 . * Subtotal, other 164,713 Total 151,349 188,801 363 Note: Given the limited range of much of the Peruvian fleet, the landing site for the domestic fleet is a good general indicator of where the fish/squid was caught. * The giant squid catch is primarily landed by foreign (Japanese and Korean) jiggers which purchase Peruvian licenses. Landings data is not available, but the authors believe that most of the catch is taken off the northern coast. Source: M. Flores, S. Vera, R. Marcelo, and E. Chirinos, "Estadisticas de I os desembarques de la pesqueria marina peruana, 1992-94," In forme, N 2 118 (IMARPE: Callao, April 1996), pp. 63-768. m 418 Appendix B8a1.--Peru. Vessel trip reports: Pionero, July 1997 Set Date Position Temperature Swordf ish catch South West Individual s Quantity Ranqe Averaqe °S °W °C Number Kil Lograms ( H&G) 1 July 10 19 77 21.1 1 60 60 60 2 July 11 19 77 20.6-21.1 4 105 15-40 26 3 July 12 19 77 21.3 1 20 20 20 4 July 13 NA NA NA 8 NA NA NA 5 July 14 19 78 20.8-21.0 4 160 30-50 40 6 July 15 NA NA NA 2 NA NA NA 7 July 16 18 78 21.5-21.9 12 270 15-40 23 8 July 17 18 78 20.6-22.4 20 485 15-50 24 9 July 18 18 78 21.0-22.5 12 440 15-80 37 Total 66 2,014* 31 Location: The position is off the southern coast close to the Chilean marine border about 600-700 km off Ho. Bait: Horse mackerel Note: A subsequent trial during August yielded very poor results (only one 30-km swordfish) in sets off northern Peru, about 300-km off the coast. * Estimated at 1,770 kg onboard. Source: Ramon Salas, SIPESCA, personal communications, August 26 and September 1, 1997. Appendix B8a2.--Peru. Vessel trip reports: Pionero, July 1997 Spec i es Landi ngs Individuals Quantity Number Ki loqrams (H&G) Swordfish 66 2,014 Shark Blue* 357 5,672 Mako 26 361 Tuna (yellowf in) 4 131 Note: The position is off the southern coast close to the Chilean marine border, about 700 km off I lo. * This species apparently does a lot of damag to the gear as well as damages hooked swordfish which then have gto be discarded because they have no commercial value. (The discarded trunks are not counted in the catch.) Source: Ramon Salas, SIPESCA, personal communications, August 26, 1997. Appendix B8b.--Peru. Vessel trip reports: Christopher Atlantis, May- June 1997 Zone Sets Posi tion Temperature Swordfish catch South West Individual s Quantity Range Average 1 2 NA NA °S 18 18 °W 75 75 °C 18.5 20.9 Number NA NA Kilog NA NA rams (H&G) NA NA NA NA Total 11 7 220* NA 31 Note: The position is off the southern coast close to the Chilean marine border, about 400 km off I lo. Bait: Squid Dates: May 25-June 16, 1997 * 220 kg live weight. Source: Ramon Salas, SIPESCA, personal communications, August 26, 1997. 419 Appendix C1.--Peru. Swordfish processing and export Year Catch* Processed Exports Fresh Frozen Quantity Value Metric tons S/1 .000 1967 1,273.8 NA NA 183.6* 6,456 1968 778.1 NA 198.5** 336.8* 7,212 1969 1,162.0 200.3 961.7 1979 38.0 33.6 4.4 # Data may be landed weight, which would make the actual catch about 30 percent greater. Discrepancies with catch tables above are unexplained. * Frozen ** Landings at Caleta Cruz and Paita. Source: IMARPE, Informe, N ? 30 and 32 (IMARPE: Callao, different dates) (1967-69 data) and Ministerio de Pesqueria, Oficina Sectorial de Planif icacion, Anuario Estadistico Pesquero. Peru-1979 (Lima: Ministerio de Pesqueria, December, 1981) (1979 data). Appendix C2.--Peru. Swordfish marketed in the Lima fisheries market, 1965-74 Year Quantity Metric tons 1965 - 1966 - 1967 - 1968 - 1969 0.7 1970 - 1971 112.2 1972 135.0 1973 591.6 1974 153.7 Source: Ministerio de Pesqueria, Oficina Sectorial de Planif icacion, Anuario Estadistico Pesquero. Peru, various years (Lima: Ministerio de Pesqueria, December, various years) Appendix C3.--Peru. Shark processing, 1990-94 Year Product form Total Fresh Frozen Cured Metric tons 1990 584 157 27 768 1991 205 315 32 552 1992 1,304 762 21 2,087 1993 132 808 3 943 1994 12 301 2 315 Source: INFOPESCA, "Peru: Produccion anual de tiburon, segun procesamiento, anos 1990-1994," Noticias Comerciales, December 20, 1995. 420 Appendix D.--Peru. Government agencies and companies involved with oceanic pelagics Government Agencies Ministerio de Pesqueria (MIPE) Paseo de la Republica #3103 Lima PERU FAX: (51-14) 703-978 Tel: (51-1) 224-3283 224-2950 Capitania de Puertos Callao: (51-1) 429-0109 Ilo: (51-5) 478-1767 or 478-1659 Research I nst i tutes/Uni versi t i es Instituto del Mar del Peru (IMARPE) Apartado 22 Callao, PERU Tel: (51-14) 429-7030/7630?? FAX: 656-023 Genaro Huamanchumo . Presidente Asociacion de Armadores de Consumo Di recto del Peru address unknown Sociedad de Nuevas Embarcaciones Pesqueras Andres Reyes 466 San Isidro Lima 27 PERU Tel: (51-1) 440-8617 FAX: 441-7714 Sociedad Nacional de Armadores Pesqueros Calle veinteocho 145 Urb. Corpac San Isidro Lima 27 PERU Tel: (51-1) 476-3338, 475-4710 FAX: 476-3338 Universidad Villareal address unknown Instituto Tecnologico Pesquero (ITP) Carretera Ventinilla, Km. 5.2 Callao PERU Tel: (51-14) 219-181 FAX: 512-181 Centro de Entrenamiento Pesquero-Pai ta Playa Hermoza s/n Paita, Piura PERU Tel: (51-74) 611-454 FAX: 611-397 Universidad de Piura Nicolas de Rivera 135 San Isidro, Lima 27 PERU Tel: (51-74) 32-8171 (Piura) FAX: (51-74) 32-8645 (Piura) Felix Davi la Gi I Programa de Ictiologia Pesquera Universidad de Trujillo Truji I lo PERU Jaime Espinoza Programa de Ingenieria Pesquera Universidad Nacional Tecnica del Callao Callao PERU Environmental Organization Asociacion de Ecologia y Consevacion Vanderghen 560 #2A Lima 27 PERU Corporacion Nacional de Armadores Pesqueros Av. Guardia Civil 836 Urb. Corpac San Isidro Lima, PERU Tel: 40-7237 FAX: 41-9033 Comite de Pesca Asociacion de Exportadores (ADEX) Av. Las Palmeras 375 San Isidro Lima 27, PERU Tel: (51-1) 346-2530 FAX: (51-1) 346-1879 Companies Abastecimientos Marinos Calle Cartavio 109 Urb. Monterrico Santiago de Surco Lima 13 PERU Tel: (511) 435-6773 FAX: 435-6773 Trade Associations Sociedad Nacional de Pesqueria (SNP) Los Laureles 381 San Isidro PERU Tel: (51-1) 441-8345, 442-7180 FAX: (51-1) 442-7190 Agro-Pesca Diego Ferre Lima 18, PERU Tel: (51-1) 444-0367 FAX: (51-1) 447-6517 421 Consorcio Pesquero S.A. Calle Carpaccio 296 5 to Pi so San Borja Lima 41 PERU Tel: (51-D-475-0777/750-777 Fax: (51-D-475-5193 Gloria Republica de Panama 2461 Santa Catalina la Victoria Lima 13 PERU Tel: (511) 470-7170 FAX: 470-9387 Grupo Sotomayor Calle Carpaccio 296, Pi so 5 San Borja Lima 41 PERU Tel: (511) 475-0777; 475-8577 FAX: 475-5193 IBC Las Begonias 552, Of. 4 San Isidro Lima PERU Tel: (51-14) 417-588 FAX: 410-880 Industrias Pesqueras Daruma, S.A. Av. Pedro de Osma 328, Of. 101 -A Barranco Lima 4 PERU Tel: 467-4222; 4215 FAX: 467-4219 Luming Alborada 1426 Urb. las Brisas Pueblo Libre Lima 21 PERU Tel: (511) 463-9282 FAX: 463-9282 (R.) Muelle, S.A. Jr. Miller 450, Oficina 603 Callao PERU Tel: (51-14) 296-606 FAX: 655-529 Pesquera Atlantis address unknown Sindicato Pesquero address unknown Tel: (51-1) 221-3066 TRAMARSA Giron Matara 340 Ilo PERU Tel: (51-5) 478-1682 FAX: (51-5) 478-2295 Tuna Latin Andulucia 174 Mi raf lores Lima PERU Tel: (51-1) 422-6574 FAX: 422-4701 Trade Journals Pesca Apt. 877 Lima 1 PERU Tel: 46-4383 Shipyards Gerente de Produce ion Naves Industrials (NAVINSA) Casilla Postal 186 Callao 01 PERU Tel: (51-1) 429-5450, 5459 FAX: (51-1) 465-1060 Construcci ones A. Maggiolo Av. Jorge Chavez 148 Apt. 01-309 Callao 1 PERU Tel 295-310; 296-637 FAX 295-190 Tel 429-6633; 429-5310 FAX 429-5190 Sport Fishing Urs no Gonzalez Hostal El Merlin Cabo Blanco Piura 1 Talara, El Alto Tel: (51-74) 85-6188 FAX: 32-0210 Productos Pesquero Peruano address unknown Refrigerados Iny Las Begonias 552, Piso 3, Of. 45 San Isidro Lima 27 PERU Tel: (511) 442-2442; 2722 FAX: 442-3260 Carol Zegarra PROMPERU Internet: CAR0L3foptur.gob.pe 422 Appendix El.--Peru. Fishery exports, 1985-95 Year Reduct ion Other (Edible) Total Proportion Meal Oil edible US$ Mi 1 1 i on Percent 1985 118.1 8.3 95.2 221.6 43 1986 200.1 9.8 48.2 258.1 19 1987 222.0 0.2 65.3 287.5 23 1988 346.9 0.2 55.3 402.4 14 1989 406.5 15.2 57.3 479.0 12 1990 346.7 4.3 48.7 399.7 12 1991 437.5 5.6 55.7 498.8 11 1992 451.7 7.8 57.6 517.1 11 1993 560.4 35.5 89.1 685.0 13 1994 743.3 67.5 168.7 979.5 17 1995 696.9 61.4 111.4 869.7 13 Source: FAO, Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, various years. Appendix E2. --World. Swordfish imports from Peru, 1990-95 Country Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Metric tons European Union NA - 155 31 Negl 25 Japan - - - - 8E 4E 2E United States - 5 - - Negl - Negl Other* NA NA NA NA NA NA Total - 5 155 31 8 29 * Believed to be negligible E - NMFS estimate. See appendix E4a. Source: EU, Eurostat; Japan Tariff Association, and U.S. Bureau of the Census. Appendix E2a1 .--United States. Swordfish imports from Peru, 1980-96 Year Commodity Total Fresh Frozen Metric tons 1975 - - - 1976 - - - 1977 - - - 1978 - 10.6 10.6 1979 - 4.0 4.0 1980 - 6.6 6.6 1981 - 9.1 9.1 1982 - 6.2 6.2 1983 - - - 1984 - 1.6 1.6 1985 1.8 - 1.8 1986 1.0 9.5 10.5 1987 - 1.1 1.1 1988 2.2 1.2 3.4 1989 11.0 - 11.0 1990 - - - 1991 5.0 - 5.0 1992 - - - 1993 - - - 1994 0.4 - 0.4 1995 - - - 1996 0.4 0.4 Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. 423 Appendix E2a2.- -United States. Swordfish imports from Peru, 1980-96 Year Commodity Total Fresh Frozen U.S.$1, ,000 1975 - - - 1976 - - - 1977 - - - 1978 - 22 22 1979 - 9 9 1980 - 22 22 1981 - 24 24 1982 - 28 28 1983 - - - 1984 - 9 9 1985 30 - 30 1986 1 16 17 1987 - 5 5 1988 14 3 17 1989 78 - 78 1990 - - - 1991 39 - 39 1992 - - - 1993 - - - 1994 3 - 3 1995 - - - 1996 5 - 5 Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census Appendix E2b. --United States. Fishery imports from Peru, by product form, 1990-96 Product Year form 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 US$ M i 1 1 i on Live - - Negl - - - Negl Fresh 0.1 Negl 0.1 0.2 0.6 1.0 2.9 Frozen 23.0 19.7 23.1 20.7 28.7 32.5 23.7 Canned 3.5 3.0 0.7 1.9 3.4 3.0 1.3 Curred - - - - - Negl - Other 7.4 6.2 8.9 8.1 8.3 16.8 11.0 Total 34.0 28.9 32.7 30.9 41.0 53.3 38.9 Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. 424 Appendix E2c. --United States. Fresh imports of oceanic pelagics from Peru, 1994-96 Species/ Year form 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Shark Dogfish Other Swordf ish Tuna Albaore Yellowf in Other 38.7 2.8 3.6 3.2 3.1 US$ 1,000 38.2 2.5 2.3 15.8 2.4 132.1 6.3 4.9 30.4 15.3 Total 45.1 6.3 4.7 188.5 6.3 50.6 Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. Appendix E3. --European Union. Swordfish imports from Peru, 1991-95 Country Commodity Years 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Metric tons France Frozen fillets NA Germany Frozen trunks NA Spain Frozen trunks NA 155 11 20 Negl 25 Total NA 155 31 Negl 25 NA - Not avai lable Source: EU. Eurostat. Appendix E4a. --Japan. Billfish (including swordfish) imports from Peru, 1986-94 Year Quantity Billfish Swordfish Metric tons 1986 - - 1987 4 1E 1988 - - 1989 2 1E 1990 - - 1991 - - 1992 - - 1993 - - 1994 24 8E 1995 12 4E 1996 5 2E E - Estimated swordfish proportion of billfish imports Source: Japan Tariff Association, Japan Exports & Imports, various years. 425 Appendix E4b.- -Japan. Billfish (including swordfish) imports from Peru, 1986-96 Year Product form Total* Fresh Frozen Fillets Other 1986 - 1987 - 1988 - 1989 - 1990 - 1991 - 1992 - 1993 - 1994 - 1995 Negl 1996 1 Metric tons 1** 24 11 2 24 12 5 * Totals may not agree due to rounding. ** Until 1993 the fillets category included some tuna fillets. Source: Japan Tariff Association, Japan Exports & Imports, various years. Appendix F.--Peru. Contracts aboard Tuna Latin vessels Company/ crew Share* Company Crew Fishing master Captain First mate Second mate Crew Percent 65 6-7 4 3 2 1.0-1.5 ** 35 * Shares of the net profits ** Depending on length of service. Source: Maximo Collao, Tuna Latin, personal communications, June 27, 1996. Appendix Gl.--Peru. Tuna licenses, 1994 Country Vessel Japan Kiko Maru No. 1 Koei Maru No. 18 Zenko Maru No. 1 Zenko Maru No. 26 Zenko Maru No. 38 Zenko Maru No. 51 Other countries NA Note: Licenses vaid for 6 months. NA - Not available, but belived to be very limited. Source: R.M. 121-94-PE, March 21, 1995 426 Appendix G2.--Peru. Tuna longline and purse seine vessels licensed, 1993-95 Vessel Country/ Size Capacity Hold Freezer Licenses Peruvi compar ian type vessel Gross Net ly* GRT NRT Tons T/day Long liners Japan Kiko Maru No. 18 359 178 218 16 1/15/93-8/22/93 8/23/93-10/14/93 Tuna Tuna Latin Latin Kiku Maru 16 315 155 180 8 1/15/93-7/15/93 8/16/93-10/15/93 Tuna Tuna Latin Latin Taisei Maru 1 349 200 557 28 10/94-to date NA Zenko Maru No. 1 701 296 300 18 11/1/92-2/13/93 2/21/93-7/8/93 Tuna Tuna Latin Latin 7/13/93-10/93 Tuna Latin Zenko Maru No. 26 344 173 190 6 11/1/92-4/30/93 5/1/93-10/12/93 Tuna Tuna Latin Latin Zenko Maru No. 38 619 257 285 8 2/20/93-4/13/93 4/14/93-10/93 Tuna Tuna Latin Latin Zenko Maru No. 51 315 160 190 8 11/1/92-4/30/93 5/1/93-12/10/93 Tuna Tuna Latin Latin Peru Maria Jose 69 25 54 6 3/94-9/95 Consorcio Pesquero Purse seiners United States Connie Jean 496 208 400 NA 1/23/95-6/22/95 NA NA - Not available * Source: Ing. Jorge Zuzunaga Zuzunaga, Director Ejecutivo, Instituto del Mar, personal communications, Of. N 2 DE-300-133-96-PE/IMP, February 26, 1996 and Maximo Collao, General Manager and Co-Owner, Tuna Latin, personal communications, June 27, 1996. Appendix G3. .--Peru i. Tuna licenses , 1992-9! Year Country Total Type Peru Japan U.S. Number 1992 - 6 '- 6 Longline 1993 - 6 - 6 Longline 1994 1 1 - 2 Longline 1995 2 1 1* 4 Long I i ne/Pursesei ne 1996 NA NA NA 5 Long liners 1997 Note: Discrepancies with appendices G1-2 are unexplained. * The U.S. license was for a purseseiner doing test fishing. Source: Ing. Gladys Li liana Rochafreyre, Directora Nacional de Extraccion, Ministerio de Pesqueria, personal communications, Oficio N 2 277-96-PE/DNE-Dop, February 7, 1996 (1992-95 data) and Jorge Campos, Manager, Productos Pesquero Peruano, personal communications, May 28, 1997 (1996 data). 427 Appendix H.--Peru. Glossary of oceanic pelagics Common Scientific Spanish English Atun Albacora Aleta azul A I eta amari I la Barri lete Ojo grande Cachorreta Dorado Gallo Macarela Barri lete Barri lete negro Marl in Peri co Pez aguja Marl in azul Marl in negro Marl in rayado Pez vela Pez espada Pez gal lo: See gal lo Quel la Rayas Raya Raya agui la Tiburones* Aleta Angelote Azul Blanco Cazon/tiburon Cazon Cazon Cazon Cruz/amari I lo Diamente/bonito Gatita Gato Guitara Marti I lo Tintorera/azul Zorro Tol los Comun Gato Manchado Tollo Tortugas/quelonios Verde Qui I lada Caret Loro Caguama Vidrios/lubinas Tuna Albacore Bluef in Ye I lowf in Skipjack Bigeye Oceanic bonito Do I ph i n/mah i - mah i Rooster fish Mackerel Bullet Frigate See "Pez aguja" See "Dorado" Billfish Indo-Pacific blue marlin Black marlin Stripped marlin Indo-Pacific sailfish Swordf i sh NA Rays Sting Eagle Sharks* Soupf in Angel Blue Speckled smoothound Silky Galapagos Black tip Oceanic whitetip Smooth hammerhead Shortfin mako Broadnose sevengill Bullhead Guitar Hammarhead Blue Threasher Sharks/dogfish (See "ti Sicklefin smoothound Unknown Spotted houndshark Humpback smoothound Turtles Green Leatherback Hawksbill Olive Ridley Loggerhead Sea basses Thunnus sp. T. alalunga T. thynnus oriental is T. albacares Katsuwanus pel ami a T. obesus ???? Coryphaena hippurus Nematistius pectoral is Auxis sp. A. rochei A. thazard Makaira mazara M. indica Tetrapturus audax Istiophorus platypterus Xiphias gladius NA Urotrygon spp. Myliobatis peruvians Carcharhinus sp. and others Galeorhinus zyopterus Squat ina armata Prionace glauca Mustelus mento Carcharhinus falciformis C. galapagensis C. limbatus C. long I i nanus Sphyrna zygaena Isurus oxyrinchus Notorynchus cepedianus Heterodontus quoyi Rhinobatos planiceps Sphyrna zygaena Prionace glauca Alopias vulpinus burones") Mustelus sp. and others Mustelus lunulatus Schroederichthys chiliensis Triakis maculata M. whitneyi Che Ionia mydas Dermochelys coriacea Eretmochelys imbricata Lepidochelys olivacea Caretta caretta NA NA - Not avai lable * and related species such as guitar fish Source: Various. 428 PENN STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES ADDDD31t3MSn