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 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE / Environmental Science Services Administration 
 
 Office of 
 
 FEDERAL COORDINATOR FOR 
 METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES 
 AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH 
 
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 Federal Plan for 
 Marine Meteorological 
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 0FCM68-4 
 
 WASHINGTON, D.C. 
 May 1968 
 
 

 
FEDERAL PLAN 
 FOR 
 MARINE METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES 
 
 FISCAL YEARS 1968 - 1972 
 
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 Sr ATES O* + 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE SERVICES ADMINISTRATION 
 FEDERAL COORDINATOR FOR METEOROLOGICAL 
 SERVICES AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH 
 
 MAY 1968 
 
 Washington, D. C. 
 OFCM 68-4 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2012 with funding from 
 
 LYRASIS Members and Sloan Foundation 
 
 http://archive.org/details/federalplanformaOObark 
 
FOREWORD 
 
 This Federal Plan for Marine Meteorological Services focuses on the 
 needs of an increasingly marine-oriented general public and the needs of 
 maritime industry, commerce, and national defense for specialized 
 meteorological support. It is directed toward providing improved services 
 to these users in the time period FY-68 through 72 and, in addition, 
 clarifies the relationship between civil and military programs. 
 
 This Federal Plan, one in a series of plans being prepared by the Office 
 of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research 
 to describe present and planned services in support of specialized user 
 groups, has been prepared in response to Bureau of the Budget Circular A-62 
 and in accord with the objectives stated by the National Council on Marine 
 Resources and Engineering Development. Federal agencies concerned with 
 marine meteorology have participated in preparing this plan, specifically 
 the Navy, Coast Guard, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 
 National Science Foundation and Environmental Science Services Administration. 
 
 In consonance with the responsibilities of the Federal Coordinator, 
 this Plan is limited to Federal meteorological programs and does not include 
 oceanographic or other related programs. In certain instances, oceanographic 
 programs are referenced to give a better perspective in the often closely 
 interrelated meteorological and physical oceanographic efforts. Programs in 
 the latter area are included in the Federal Plan for Marine Physical 
 Environmental Prediction. 
 
 Robert M. White 
 
 Federal Coordinator for Meteorological 
 
 Services and Supporting Research 
 
 - 1 - 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Foreword 
 
 Introduction 
 
 Role of Federal Agencies 
 
 1. User Requirements 
 
 2. Service Concepts 
 
 3. Existing Services 
 
 4. Areas of Potential Improvement 
 
 5. Planned Services and Programs 
 
 6. Planned Research and Development 
 
 7. Related Research Efforts 
 
 l 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 44 
 
 52 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Figure 1. Areas of U. S. Shipping Forecast and Warning 
 
 Respons ibil it ies 
 Figure 2. Planned Marine Forecast Centers 
 Figure 3. Naval Weather Service Command 
 
 Areas of Responsibility 
 Figure 4. ESSA Weather Wire 
 
 Figure 5. Department of Commerce VHF/FM Broadcasts 
 Figure 6. Explanation of Light and Flag Displays 
 Figure 7. Area of Coverage of High Seas Products 
 Figure 8. Existing and Planned Locations of 
 
 Marine Automatic Telephone Answering Systems 
 Figure 9. Phased Augmentation of Marine Forecast 
 
 Centers and Service Offices 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 23 
 26 
 34 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 LIST OF TABLES 
 
 Table 1, Civil Marine User Requirements 
 
 Table 2. Effects of Meteorology and Air-Sea Interface 
 
 Parameters on Military Operations 
 Table 3. Planned Responsibilities for Commercial 
 
 Fishing Areas 
 Table 4. Civil Marine Meteorological Service Operational 
 
 Products 
 
 6 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 35 
 
 - li - 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 To mobilize the Nation's marine science activities, the Marine Resources 
 and Engineering Development Act of 1966 L declares it to oe the policy of the 
 United States "to develop, encourage, and maintain a coordinated, comprehensive 
 and long-range national program in marine science for the benefit of mankind 
 to assist in protection of health and property, enhancement of commerce, 
 transportation, and national security, rehabilitation of our commercial 
 fisheries, and increased utilization of these and other resources." 
 
 Increasing national interest in the sea and its potential resources 
 can be measured in part by the surge in marine-related developments and 
 activities on the part of industry and commerce during recent years. For 
 example, during the period 1960-1964, United States domestic production of 
 crude oil from offshore wells increased by 72 percent and in 1964 accounted 
 for 7.3 percent of total domestic output. Natural gas production from 
 offshore wells increased almost 100 percent during the same period and year; 
 metals and minerals obtained from oceans bordering the United States 
 (exclusive of sand and gravel) had an estimated value of $104,000,000 — an 
 increase of more than 50 percent over 1960. 
 
 In the 10-year period 1953-1963, national waterborne commerce increased 
 from 374.4 to 554.7 million short tons. In 1963, more than 1,600,000 
 passengers traveled by sea between the United States and foreign shores, 20 
 percent of them in United States flag ships. Expenditures for port 
 development during this same year amounted to $213,000,000. In 1965, 
 American commercial fishing vessels accounted for about 6 billion pounds — 
 more than 5 percent of the world's seafood catch. 
 
 An expansion in public and private use of the marine environment for 
 recreational purposes has accompanied this rapid growth in commercial and 
 industrial activity. Salt-water sport fishing attracted almost 8,000,000 
 fishermen in 1964, involving expenditures estimated at $760,000,000. There 
 are approximately 8,000,000 small-boat owners in the United States at the 
 present time, plus 1,000,000 surfers, and 3,000,000 skin divers. With the 
 growth in rapid transportation facilities and an increasingly affluent 
 society, participation in marine recreational activities is no longer limited 
 to those living adjacent to the sea or near inland lakes and waterways but 
 now includes a broad segment of our population. 
 
 The vulnerability of individuals engaged in marine activities or living 
 near the sea is all too apparent. During FY-64, weather was the primary 
 cause or a contributing factor in damages to high-seas shipping amounting to 
 $33,000,000, with 26 lives lost. In March 1962, a severe slow-moving coastal 
 storm caused approximately $200,000,000 damage to the eastern seaboard. 
 During 1964, 216 lives were lost in small boating accidents in which weather 
 was a factor. 
 
 1 Public Law, Section 2(a), 89-454, 89th Congress, S.944, June 17, 1966 
 
 - 1 
 
More than 900 active Naval ships (plus more than 300 Coast Guard 
 vessels) and thousands of military aircraft operate within the marine 
 environment. They, and the many major defense installations located in 
 coastal areas, require marine meteorological services to carry out their 
 national security missions. 
 
 Adequate Marine Meteorological Services*, together with appropriate 
 oceanographic support, can reduce these losses in life and property, promote 
 the safety and efficiency of marine operations, and contribute to a fuller 
 realization of the potential of the sea. To insure that these services keep 
 pace with the growth and needs of users, a coordinated Federal program is 
 necessary so that: 
 
 . Existing requirements for services are identified and satisfied. 
 
 . Demands for new services are met most effectively and economically. 
 
 . New technology is introduced to improve the accuracy and timeliness 
 of services. 
 
 . An integrated, effective Federal system is developed in response 
 to the objective of exploring, using, and conserving the Nation's 
 marine resources. 
 
 ROLE OF FEDERAL AGENCIES 
 
 Though numerous Federal departments and agencies are users of Marine 
 Meteorological Services, three have specific statutory responsibilities 
 and are currently engaged in providing services. 
 
 * Meteorology has been defined by the Interdepartmental Committee for 
 
 Meteorological Services as the science dealing in a general manner with 
 the earth's atmosphere below the top of the stratosphere with a base 
 including the air-sea interface, and particularly with observations of 
 its current state, prediction of its motions, processes and future state, 
 determination of its long-term manifestations and the application of the 
 science to the activities of man. 
 
 Marine Meteorological Services consist of those facilities and activities 
 established or operated to provide the specialized meteorological products 
 needed by civil and military users operating in the marine environment of 
 the oceans, estuaries, and inland waters. Included are all specialized 
 observations, analyses and forecasts, communications, dissemination to 
 users, and general agency support. Products of the Marine Meteorological 
 Services are generally limited to tropospheric and such air-sea interface 
 parameters as are necessary to describe sea surface conditions. 
 
 - 2 - 
 
Department of Commerce: The ESSA-Weather Bureau has responsibility 
 for forecasting the weather, issuing storm warnings, displaying weather and 
 flood signals, and collecting and transmitting marine environmental 
 information for the benefit of commerce and navigation. Additionally, the 
 Safety of Life at Sea and the World Mateorological Organization (WMO) 
 Conventions assign to the United States international responsibility for the 
 provision of meteorological services to merchant shipping over large portions 
 of the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans, as illustrated in figure 1. 
 
 Department of Transportation: The Commandant, United States Coast Guard 
 has responsibility for promoting the safety of life and property on and over 
 the high seas and waters over which the United States has jurisdiction, and 
 for facilitating the preparation and dissemination by the Weather Bureau of 
 weather reports, forecasts, and warnings essential to domestic and 
 international commerce on and over such high seas and waters. 
 
 Department of Defense: The Chief of Naval Operations is responsible 
 for procuring and disseminating to the naval service all necessary 
 meteorological information. He has designated the Naval Weather Service 
 Command to provide meteorological services for air, surface, and subsurface 
 operations of the United States Navy and oceanographic forecasts for the 
 Department of Defense. 
 
 - 3 - 
 
1. USER REQUIREMENTS 
 
 All users of the Marine Meteorological Service require warnings and 
 forecasts of environmental conditions which affect the safety and efficiency 
 of their individual activities. These activities vary in sensitivity to 
 environmental conditions. The meteorological needs of the weekend sailor, 
 the commercial fisherman, the transoceanic merchant mariner, and defense and 
 security operations often are quite different. While there is a substantial 
 common base in civil and military requirements, it is convenient to consider 
 them separately since many of the military requirements demand highly 
 specialized programs to produce information tailored to a specific military 
 operation or weapons system. Therefore, adequate means which are not wholly 
 dependent upon national or international civil programs must be provided in 
 the Marine Meteorological Service programs to serve military purposes 
 worldwide. 
 
 Civil 
 
 Civil requirements are tabulated in Table 1 to indicate the environmental 
 parameters of operational significance to users, the amount of descriptive 
 detail needed, and the time periods for which information is required. Because 
 some users require extended forecasts of those environmental condictions which 
 may be decisive in planning for future operations (e.g., icebreakers will or 
 will not be needed), requirements have been further identified as "Operational" 
 and "Planning". 
 
 The categories of marine user requirements in Table 1 are based on the 
 following concepts: 
 
 HIGH SEAS - The open areas of the high seas. 
 
 These areas are generally traveled by large ships endangered only 
 by severe environmental conditions. Though conditions of lesser 
 severity adversely affect operational efficiency, the primary need of 
 such vessels is for generalized environmental information covering 
 broad geographical areas. Periodic updating of information is required 
 and immediate advice concerning major changes is a matter of urgency. 
 
 OFFSHORE - Areas off the coast to a distance of approximately 250 
 miles, including the Great Lakes. 
 
 Medium sized ships, barges, and larger recreational craft which 
 comprise the majority of vessels operating in these areas are more 
 sensitive to environmental conditions than large vessels and can be 
 endangered by weather and sea conditions of moderate intensity. Their 
 operational efficiency can be adversely affected by environmental 
 conditions of even lesser intensity. For these reasons and because 
 offshore areas are frequently influenced by land-sea interactions 
 resulting in rapid, localized environmental changes, the primary need 
 is for relatively detailed environmental information covering small 
 geographical areas. Frequent updating of forecasts and warnings is 
 vital. 
 
 - 5 - 
 
TABLE 1. CIVIL MARINE USER REQUIREMENTS 
 
 HIGH SEAS 
 
 
 OPERATIONAL INFORMATION 
 
 PLANNING INFORMATION 
 
 PARAMETER 
 
 Required Detail in 
 
 Forecast 
 
 Required Detail in 
 
 Forecast 
 
 
 Description 
 
 Period 
 
 Description 
 
 Period 
 
 Wind waves 
 
 Areas where waves > 2 meters, 
 4 meters, etc. 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 Areas with waves > 2 meters 
 and highest waves in area 
 
 3-6 days 
 
 Surface winds 
 
 Areas where speeds are > 20 
 knots, 30 knots, etc. 
 Directions to 8 points 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 Areas where speeds > 34 knots 
 and highest speed in area 
 
 3-6 days 
 
 Fronts and 
 
 Frontal positions. Location, 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 Frontal positions. Location, 
 
 3-6 days 
 
 pressure 
 
 movement, intensity, and 
 
 
 movement, and general change 
 
 
 centers 
 
 change in intensity of centers 
 
 
 in intensity of centers. 
 
 
 Pressure 
 
 Isobars at 8 millibar 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 
 
 pattern 
 
 intervals 
 
 
 
 
 Surface 
 
 Areas in which visibility 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 
 
 visibility 
 
 < 1 mile 
 
 
 
 
 Significant 
 
 Precipitation areas; type and 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 
 
 weather 
 
 intensity. Sky cover. 
 
 
 
 
 Ice accretion 
 
 Areas of probable icing on 
 superstructures or equipment 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 
 
 Air temperature 
 
 Temperature with resolution 
 of 2°C 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 
 
 Sea surface 
 
 Temperature with resolution 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 
 
 temperature 
 
 of 2°C 
 
 
 
 
 OFFSHORE 
 
 Wind waves 
 
 Areas where waves > 1 meter, 
 2 meters, etc. 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 Areas where waves > 1 meter 
 and highest waves in area 
 
 3-6 days 
 
 Surface winds 
 
 Areas where speeds > 15 
 knots, 20 knots, etc. 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 Areas where speeds > 30 knots 
 and highest speed in area 
 
 3-6 days 
 
 Fronts and 
 
 pressure 
 
 centers 
 
 Frontal position and movement. 
 Location, intensity and move- 
 ment of pressure centers 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 Location, movement and 
 general change in intensity 
 of centers 
 
 3-6 days 
 
 Ice 
 
 Location and character 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 Areas which are impassable 
 or require icebreakers 
 
 3-6 days 
 
 Surface 
 visibility 
 
 Areas where visibility 
 < 5 miles 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 Areas with visibility 
 < 1 mile 
 
 3rd day 
 
 Significant 
 weather 
 
 Precipitation areas; type and 
 intensity. Sky cover. 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 
 
 Ice accretion 
 
 Areas of probable icing on 
 superstructures or equipment 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 
 
 Air temperature 
 
 Temperature with resolution 
 of 2°C 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 
 
 Sea or water 
 
 surface 
 
 temperatures 
 
 Temperature with resolution 
 of 2°C 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 
 
TABLE 1 (Continued) 
 
 COASTAL, INLAND LAKES AND WATERWAYS 
 
 PARAMETER 
 
 OPERATIONAL INFORMATION 
 
 PLANNING INFORMATION 
 
 Required Detail in 
 Description 
 
 Forecast 
 Period 
 
 Required Detail in 
 Description 
 
 Forecast 
 Period 
 
 Wind waves 
 
 Waves > 1 foot, 2 feet, etc. 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 Areas with waves > 2 feet 
 and highest waves 
 
 3-6 days 
 
 Surface winds 
 
 Directions and speeds 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 Areas with speeds > 20 
 knots and highest speeds 
 
 3-6 days 
 
 Surface 
 visibilities 
 
 All values 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 Areas with visibility 
 < 1 mile 
 
 3rd day 
 
 Significant 
 weather 
 
 Precipitation areas; type and 
 intensity. Sky cover. 
 Probability of thunderstorms. 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 Probability of precipitation. 
 Cloudiness. 
 
 3rd day 
 
 Air temperature 
 
 Temperature with resolution 
 of 2°C 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 Temperature with resolution 
 of 2°C 
 
 3rd day 
 
 Water 
 temperature 
 
 Temperature with resolution 
 of 2°C 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 
 
 Humidity 
 
 Humidity with resolution of 
 
 10% 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 
 
 Breakers and 
 surf 
 
 Height and character 
 
 0-36 hrs. 
 
 
 
 Ice accretion 
 
 Areas of probable icing on 
 exposed equipment 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 
 
 Storm surge 
 
 Height in feet 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 
 
 COMMERCIAL FISHING (OFFSHORE AND HIGH SEAS FISHING AREAS) 
 
 Wind waves 
 
 Areas where waves > 1 meter, 
 2 meters, etc. 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 Areas with waves > 1 meter 
 and highest waves in area 
 
 3-6 days 
 
 Surface winds 
 
 Areas where speeds are > 15 
 knots, 20 knots, etc. 
 Directions to 16 points. 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 Areas with speeds > 30 
 knots and highest speed 
 in area 
 
 3-6 days 
 
 Fronts and 
 
 pressure 
 
 centers 
 
 Frontal positions and move- 
 ment. Location, movement, 
 intensity of centers 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 Location, movement, 
 intensity of centers 
 
 3-6 days 
 
 Ice 
 
 Location and character 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 Areas which are impassable 
 
 3-6 days 
 
 Surface 
 visibility 
 
 Actual or predicted values 
 when < 5 miles 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 
 
 Significant 
 weather 
 
 Precipitation areas; type and 
 intensity. Sky cover. 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 
 
 Ice accretion 
 
 Areas of probable super- 
 structure icing. 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 
 
 Air temperature 
 
 Temperature with resolution 
 of 2°C 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 
 
 Sea surface 
 temperature 
 
 Temperature with resolution 
 of 2°C 
 
 0-48 hrs. 
 
 
 
 In addition to the tabulated requirements all marine users require specific warnings of hurricanes, 
 severe storms, and other weather or wave conditions that present special hazards. 
 
COASTAL, INLAND LAKES AND WATERWAYS - The coastal areas in the oceans 
 and Great Lakes to a distance of about 15 miles from shore, 
 and inland lakes and rivers. 
 
 Most marine recreational activities, including small boating and 
 swimming, as well as commercial harbor and anchorage activities, take 
 place in these areas. These activities are extremely sensitive to 
 environmental conditions with life and property often imperiled by 
 rapidly developing localized disturbances. The primary need within 
 these areas is for detailed local environmental information carefully 
 monitored and rapidly updated. 
 
 COMMERCIAL FISHING - 
 
 Requirements of the commercial fishing industry have been treated 
 separately from the geographical categories for the following reasons: 
 
 Meteorological requirements of commercial fishermen operating 
 on the high seas and those operating in offshore areas are nearly 
 identical. 
 
 United States commercial fishing often takes place in 
 geographical areas remote from those in which other user groups 
 operate. 
 
 Commercial fishing requirements for specialized physical 
 oceanographic support are not included in this plan. Plans for this 
 support are a part of the Federal Plan for Marine Physical Environmental 
 Prediction. 
 
 Military 
 
 Military /naval operations require observations and detailed forecasts of 
 environmental conditions over the oceans and adjacent land masses. Meteorological 
 information required by forces operating on the high seas usually differ 
 considerably from that required when operating offshore and the needs of a 
 carrier task force differ from that of Polaris submarines. This diversity of 
 military operations and the need for tailored environmental information make 
 it difficult to divide specific military requirements for marine meteorological 
 services into geographic categories similar to those for civil users. It seems 
 more useful to indicate the magnitude and diversity of these requirements by 
 considering the effects of meteorological and air-sea interface parameters on 
 various types of military operations and to list the general types of 
 meteorological services and information required. This information is contained 
 in Table 2. 
 
 - 8 - 
 
TABLE 2. EFFECTS OF METEOROLOGICAL AND AIR-SEA INTERFACE PARAMETERS 
 ON MILITARY OPERATIONS 
 
 PARAMETERS 
 
 Wind vs Height 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Temperature vs 
 Height 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Clouds 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 Precipitat ion 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 Severe 
 Weather 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 Density vs 
 Height 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Air Frame Icing 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 T 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 Refractive Index 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 Clear Air 
 Turbulence 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Contrails 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Flight Level 
 Visibility 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Shock Wave 
 (Sonic) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 Surface Air 
 Temperature 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 Sea Surface 
 Temperature 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 Surface Wind 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 Surface 
 Visibility 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 State of 
 the Sea 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 Sea Ice 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 Surface 
 Air Density 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 Structural Ice 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 Surf 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2. SERVICE CONCEPTS 
 
 As noted earlier, there are significant differences between civil and 
 military marine meteorological requirements. These differences result in 
 somewhat different concepts for service programs to meet the requirements. 
 
 Department of Commerce 
 
 The ESSA-Weather Bureau concepts for service programs to meet civil 
 requirements are: 
 
 . Warnings, as well as forecasts and other information of general 
 utility to broad segments of users, will be provided by ESSA- 
 Weather Bureau. 
 
 . The more individualized and tailored products for individual commercial 
 concerns, other than those products that have to do with safety of life 
 and property, may be provided by private meteorologists from basic 
 information available from ESSA-Weather Bureau. 
 
 Department of Defense 
 
 The Navy concept for service programs to meet military requirements is 
 to provide a broad spectrum of general operational products as well as 
 products tailored to meet individual military operational requirements. 
 
 Department of Transportation 
 
 The Coast Guard generally looks to the ESSA-Weather Bureau for marine 
 meteorological services and will assist in disseminating forecasts and 
 warnings to marine users. Specialized analyses and forecasts for rescue 
 coordination and control will be provided by Coast Guard facilities and when 
 the Coast Guard is participating in operations with the Navy it will be 
 supported by Department of Defense meteorological service organizations. 
 
 Federal Programs 
 
 The Federal programs developed from these general concepts are based on 
 the following relationships between the Marine, Basic and Specialized 
 Meteorological Services and between civil and military programs: 
 
 a. The civil and military programs for the Marine Meteorological Service 
 
 contribute to and derive maximum benefit from ESSA's Basic Meteorological 
 Service for: 
 
 . Observations at the earth's surface, in the upper atmosphere, 
 and from weather satellites over the oceans and land masses. 
 
 - 10 - 
 
 
. Basic analyses and forecasts. 
 
 . Warnings of tropical cyclones and severe local storms. 
 
 . Communications support for collection and movement of 
 
 meteorological information between weather service offices, 
 and in some cases, distribution of products to users. 
 
 b. The costs for Basic Meteorological Service are not reflected in this 
 plan. Improvements necessary to support the Marine and the other 
 specialized meteorological services are planned and budgeted as part 
 of the Basic program. 
 
 c . Some marine meteorological service requirements are common to both 
 civil and military users. As planned services to civil users are 
 implemented, many of these common requirements can be met by ESSA- 
 Weather Bureau products. This will free some military resources to 
 concentrate on requirements unique to military operations. 
 
 d. Until services to civil users have been expanded, products designed 
 for military users which are appropriate and can be made available 
 will be used to meet requirements of the civil users. This use of 
 military products will be "ad interim" except in those cases where 
 common requirements can be met most effectively and economically by 
 their continued use. 
 
 The objectives of the civil and military programs in the Marine 
 Meteorological Service are: 
 
 Commerce 
 
 It is the objective of the Department of Commerce to provide timely 
 warnings and forecasts of meteorological and air-sea interface* conditions 
 for the high seas of the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans and for 
 coastal and inland waters of the United States. 
 
 To meet t;his objective, the broad-scale analysis and forecasting 
 programs at the Weather Bureau's National Meteorological Center (NMC) 
 will be expanded, Marine Forecast Centers (MFC) will be established, 
 and selected weather service offices will be strengthened. NMC will 
 produce basic meteorological guidance and the high seas graphic 
 analyses and forecasts. The MFC's, using this basic guidance and the 
 high seas products produced at NMC, will support designated areas of 
 the high seas and offshore users as shown in Figure 2 by producing 
 alphanumeric products and by maintaining a continuous marine weather 
 watch to insure rapid issuance of warnings. Selected weather service 
 offices will provide support to coastal, inland lakes and waterways, and 
 commercial fishing users. Table 3 lists planned responsibilities for 
 commercial fishing areas. The Marine Meteorological Service will continue 
 to rely upon the Basic Meteorological Service for observational support. 
 
 * Discussed in detail in the Federal Plan for Marine Physical Environmental 
 Prediction, April 1, 1968. 
 
 - 11 - 
 

TABLE 3. PLANNED RESPONSIBILITIES FOR COMMERCIAL FISHING AREAS 
 
 Responsible 
 ESSA-Weather Bureau 
 Office 
 
 Boston 
 
 Washington 
 
 Miami 
 
 San Juan 
 
 Los Angeles 
 
 Seattle 
 
 Anchorage 
 
 Honolulu 
 
 San Francisco 
 
 Guam 
 
 Fishing Area 
 Northern Georges Bank and Grand Banks 
 Southern Georges Bank to Florida 
 
 Gulf of Mexico and Western Caribbean shrimp areas 
 Caribbean shrimp area 
 
 Central and Southern California fishing areas 
 Canadian-U. S. salmon area 
 Alaskan and Aleutian salmon areas 
 Hawaiian tuna area 
 Eastern North Pacific fishing area 
 Trust territories 
 
 - 13 - 
 
Internal communication support for the Marine Meteorological 
 Service will be provided by the Basic Meteorological Service systems 
 for collecting observations and exchanging and coordinating analyses, 
 forecasts and warnings. Information from overseas areas will be obtained 
 from teletypewriter and high-speed communication systems; domestic 
 information will be obtained from basic teletypewriter networks. Analyses, 
 forecasts and warnings will be distributed from NMC, Hurricane Centers, 
 and the National Severe Local Storms Forecast Center over these 
 teletypewriter networks and Department of Commerce facsimile systems. 
 
 To insure reliable distribution of marine meteorological service 
 products to users, existing marine radio broadcasts will be continued 
 and additional broadcasts — compatible with the varying reception 
 capabilities of users - will be established. High seas products will 
 be disseminated through multichannel commercial marine broadcast 
 facilities (paid transmissions). Offshore and commercial fishing products 
 will be disseminated through commercial broadcast facilities (as a 
 public service whenever possible) and by Coast Guard stations. Coastal 
 and inland lakes and waterways products will be disseminated by means of 
 the ESSA Weather Wire teletypewriter system to the press, radio, and 
 television, as well as by Coast Guard marine broadcasts, Commerce- 
 operated broadcasts, and automatic telephone answering systems. 
 
 Transportation 
 
 The Coast Guard will continue to cooperate with the Department of 
 Commerce by assisting in the dissemination of forecasts and warnings to 
 marine users. The services involved are: 
 
 . Marine weather broadcasts by Coast Guard radio stations to 
 
 supplement Commerce VHF/FM broadcasts and complement commercial 
 radio station coverage. 
 
 . Participation by Coast Guard stations in the Coastal Warning 
 Display System. 
 
 Defense 
 
 Marine Meteorological Service in the Department of Defense (DOD) 
 involves the acquisition, collection, analysis and processing of all 
 available environmental data. Included are those data obtainable from 
 the Basic Meteorological Service. Supplementary data sources are 
 maintained by the DOD as required to satisfy critical operational needs. 
 On the dissemination side, customized analysis and forecast products 
 are made available to the broad spectrum of users with varied numbers/ 
 types of requirements. 
 
 - 14 - 
 
Resources of the Naval Communications Command worldwide are used 
 for the broadcast dissemination of environmental warnings, forecasts 
 and advisories directed to the non-specialized user. Products are 
 originated by designated elements of the Naval Weather Service Command 
 and consist of radiotelegraph, radioteletype and radiofacsimile 
 transmissions. The six primary shore points of origin for these 
 services are the Fleet Weather Centrals located at Guam; Pearl Harbor; 
 Alameda; Norfolk; and Rota, Spain, and the Fleet Weather Facility at 
 Suitland. 
 
 Specialized environmental products are similarly disseminated with 
 additional emphasis on unique user requirements. Most tailored products 
 are provided by addressed message when dissemination by broadcast is 
 inappropriate. 
 
 The centralized data collection, processing and forecasting point 
 within the Naval Weather Service Command is the Fleet Numerical Weather 
 Central (FNWC) Monterey. The "hubbing" point for the Naval Environmental 
 Data Network, FNWC Monterey, transmits worldwide initially processed 
 gridded data via high speed data link to the aforementioned computerized 
 Fleet Weather Centrals/Facilities. The primary source of foreign 
 observational data is the high speed automated data network operated by 
 the United States Air Force and utilized by the Naval Weather Service 
 Command because of long-haul timeliness advantages. 
 
 - 15 - 
 
3. EXISTING SERVICES 
 
 Observations 
 
 Meteorological observations to meet the needs of the general 
 public and the common needs of specialized meteorological services for 
 various user groups are, as previously noted, a responsibility of the 
 Basic Meteorological Service. There are no civil programs for 
 meteorological observations solely for the Marine Meteorological Service; 
 all observational data are obtained from Basic sources and from observing 
 programs of the Department of Defense. The Basic Meteorological Service 
 provides the following observations: 
 
 . Surface observations from land and oceanic areas to support 
 broad-scale analyses and forecasts. 
 
 . Surface observations from the Cooperative Merchant Ship 
 
 Observing Program to supplement data coverage over the oceans. 
 
 . Surface observations from the Cooperative Coastal Observing 
 Network to support detailed forecasts for coastal and offshore 
 areas. 
 
 • Tidal data from coastal stations to support storm surge 
 predictions. 
 
 • Upper-air observations from land and ocean stations as 
 fundamental inputs to analysis and prediction by computers. 
 
 . Weather radar observations of thunderstorms and precipitation 
 over the United States and observations of tropical cyclones 
 and dangerous storms in the offshore areas. 
 
 . Weather satellite observations of the earth's cloud patterns 
 on a daily basis for locating and estimating the intensity of 
 storms and tropical cyclones, especially in the less frequently 
 traveled portions of the oceans. 
 
 . Weather reconnaissance observations of the detailed characteristics 
 and location of tropical cyclones and major storms over the 
 oceans to support accurate, timely warnings to marine users. 
 
 Marine meteorological services for military users, like those for 
 civil users, depend upon the Basic Meteorological Service for 
 observational support. The worldwide scope and frequently more demanding 
 needs of military users require more observational data than are provided 
 by the basic programs. To meet this need for supplemental data, the 
 Navy has established a marine observation program. 
 
 - 16 - 
 
All commissioned naval vessels are required to record and report 
 weather observations when underway and, under certain conditions, while 
 in port. Surface observations are made at 6-hourly intervals as an 
 additional duty by nonmeteorological personnel aboard most of the ships. 
 To fulfill requirements for more accurate and detailed observations, as 
 well as to perform other essential functions, meteorological personnel 
 have been assigned and more sophisticated meteorological equipment 
 provided to approximately 70 ships. All of these make scheduled surface 
 observations for synoptic and aviation purposes; approximately 50 are 
 equipped to make upper-air observations. The Navy also obtains data 
 from Navy Oceanographic/Meteorological Automatic Devices (NOMADs). 
 These unmanned buoys, currently undergoing "Research and Exploratory 
 Development", are instrumented to observe and transmit environmental 
 data from oceanic areas. Although the Navy's marine observational 
 program is conducted to fulfill military requirements, observations 
 are made available to other agencies. 
 
 Analyses and Forecasts 
 
 There are three types of analysis and forecast centers involved in 
 the Marine Meteorological Service. They are primary, area and specialized 
 centers. Each of these centers and its products are discussed in 
 subsequent paragraphs. 
 
 The Department of Commerce operates four primary centers which 
 provide products and support to the Marine Meteorological Service in 
 addition to their much larger roles in the Basic Meteorological Service. 
 The National Meteorological Center (NMC) at Suitland, Maryland provides 
 broad-scale analyses and forecasts on a hemispheric basis, plus graphic 
 products for facsimile transmission to high seas users. The National 
 Environmental Satellite Center, also at Suitland, operates the National 
 Operational Meteorological Satellite (NOMS) System to provide global 
 cloud cover mosaics and interpretive data on a daily basis. The NOMS 
 System also provides direct local readouts of cloud cover pictures from 
 weather satellites to suitably equipped shore stations and ships. The 
 National Hurricane Center at Miami, Florida provides warnings of tropical 
 cyclones (hurricanes) in the North Atlantic Ocean (West of 35°W), the 
 Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. Forecast centers in San Francisco 
 and Honolulu provide these services in the Eastern and Central Pacific 
 east of 180*. Warnings of severe local storms (thunderstorms and 
 associated winds, hail and tornadoes) over the 48 conterminous states 
 and coastal waters are provided by the National Severe Storms Forecast 
 Center in Kansas City, Missouri. 
 
 Twenty-five area forecast centers are operated by the Department of 
 Commerce in the 50 states and Puerto Rico. They provide analyses, 
 forecasts and warnings on a regional basis — including coastal areas. 
 Many of these centers contribute to marine meteorological services. The 
 centers at Boston, Washington, Miami, New Orleans and San Juan provide 
 limited forecast and warning services for fishing fleets operating in 
 the North Atlantic Ocean (West of 60°W), the Caribbean Sea, and the 
 Gulf of Mexico. Forecasts and warnings for the Great Lakes are issued 
 by the center at Chicago. 
 
 - 17 - 
 
Three area centers also provide analysis and forecast services 
 to meet United States' responsibilities under the World Meteorological 
 Organization. The center at Washington issues high seas forecasts and 
 warnings for the North Atlantic (West of 35°W). Similar services are 
 provided by the centers at San Francisco and Honolulu for the eastern 
 and central North Pacific Ocean. High seas service responsibilities 
 in the western North Pacific Ocean (between 135°E and 160°E) are met by 
 the Department of Defense (See figure 1). 
 
 The National Weather Records Center is operated by the Department 
 of Commerce at Asheville, N. C. as part of the ESSA-Environmental Data 
 Service. This specialized center is responsible for processing and 
 archiving meteorological records, including reports from naval and 
 merchant vessels. It is also responsible for recording and describing 
 the climate of the oceans in support of national requirements. 
 
 Ship weather logs are received at the National Weather Records 
 Center from about 2100 merchant vessels each year. Observations 
 entered in these logs are checked, recorded, summarized, and archived. 
 Summaries are included in various Commerce, Coast Guard, Navy, and 
 World Meteorological Organization publications. In addition, as part 
 of a World Meteorological Organization program, data cards are exchanged 
 with other major maritime nations. The Navy provides budgetary support 
 to these programs. 
 
 Since the primary, area, and specialized centers support the Basic 
 Meteorological Service, the Marine Meteorological Service and other 
 specialized user groups as well, their funding is prorated according to 
 the effort required for each type of support. The Marine Meteorological 
 Service budgets reflect the costs of preparing the specialized products 
 for marine users. 
 
 The Department of Transportation (Coast Guard) operates two weather 
 offices which function as specialized centers in support of Search and 
 Rescue (SAR) operations at sea. These offices, located at the Maritime 
 Search and Rescue Control Centers in New York and San Francisco, 
 provide advice to commanders directing rescue operations and prepare 
 specialized forecasts for transmission to vessels, aircraft, and 
 coordination centers engaged in SAR operations. 
 
 The Navy operates primary, area and specialized centers to provide 
 service to military users. Its Fleet Numerical Weather Central at 
 Monterey, California functions as a primary center to prepare global 
 analyses and prognoses for use by the elements of the Naval Weather 
 Service Command. These products also go to Operational Control Centers. 
 
 - 18 
 
Fleet Weather Centrals/Facilities located at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii; 
 Guam; Suitland, Maryland; Norfolk, Va. ; and Rota, Spain, operate as 
 area centers. They use the broad-scale products from the Fleet 
 Numerical Weather Central and, where available and applicable, products 
 from the National Meteorological Center to prepare detailed analyses, 
 forecasts and warnings for their areas of responsibility (see Figure 3). 
 Fleet Weather Central products are disseminated to naval operating forces 
 and to smaller naval environmental units by the Naval Communications 
 System. 
 
 In addition to the above listed area centers, the Navy operates 
 Fleet Weather Centrals or Facilities at Yokosuka, Japan; Sangley Point, 
 Republic of the Philippines; Alameda, Calif.; San Diego, Calif.; 
 Jacksonville, Fla. ; Quonset Point, R.I,; Kodiak, Alaska; Keflavik, 
 Iceland; London, England; and Pensacola, Fla. as specialized centers. 
 These centers provide environmental services, including forecasts and 
 warnings, tailored to specific naval operating and training areas. Many 
 Naval meteorological units also have functional responsibilities; e.g. , 
 Fleet Weather Facility, Kodiak and Naval Weather Service Environmental 
 Detachment, Argentia, Newfoundland provide specialized ice forecasting 
 services; Fleet Weather Centrals at Alameda, Norfolk and Guam operate the 
 Navy's Optimum Track Ship Routing (OTSR) program. OTSR offers a high 
 probability of one or a combination of the following: 1) Least steaming 
 time enroute; 2) The best weather route; and 3) By-passing areas where 
 storm damage may be expected. This service is available to Naval ships, 
 MSTS ships and vessels under contract to the government. A significant 
 activity of the Naval Weather Service Command is to participate in and 
 provide support to units engaged in antisubmarine warfare (ASW). 
 
 Specialized processing of meteorological observations from naval 
 units and the preparation of marine climatological studies for naval 
 use are performed under contract by the National Weather Records Center, 
 Asheville, N. C. 
 
 Communications 
 
 Just as the Marine Meteorological Service relies upon the Basic 
 Meteorological Service for observational data and broadscale analyses 
 and forecasts, there is similar dependence upon Basic weather 
 communications systems for support. In particular, the Marine 
 Meteorological Service relies on these Basic systems: 
 
 . Teletypewriter systems (Services C and 0) operated by the Federal 
 Aviation Administration for ESSA-Weather Bureau. 
 
 . Radar Reporting and Warning Coordination System - a teletypewriter 
 system operated by the Department of Commerce. 
 
 . Teletypewriter and high speed circuits operated by the Department 
 of Commerce for collecting and exchanging overseas information. 
 
 - 19 - 
 
- 20 - 
 
. ESSA's Weather Wire - a teletypewriter system to distribute 
 forecasts and warnings to the press, radio and television. 
 Figure 4 shows the areas covered by this system. 
 
 . Facsimile networks operated by Department of Commerce. 
 
 . Continuous VHF/FM radio broadcasts* operated by the 
 Department of Commerce. 
 
 Although, these communications systems supply a large measure 
 of the communications support for the Marine Meteorological Service, 
 they must be supplemented by specialized civil and military programs. 
 There is increasing reliance upon available high speed civil and military 
 computer-to-computer data collection and exchange facilities. This 
 includes the Naval Environmental Data Network and the Air Force Automated 
 Weather Network. Department of Commerce links such as those between 
 Washington and Montreal, Canada; Offenbach, Germany; Tokyo, Japan; and 
 Melbourne, Australia (the latter two links are in final planning stages 
 as part of the World Weather Watch Telecommunications program) contribute 
 to marine meteorological services. 
 
 The Department of Commerce operates automatic telephone answering 
 systems and has arranged for radio broadcasts to marine users over 
 Coast Guard, Navy, Army and commercial radio facilities. 
 
 Automatic telephone answering systems operate throughout the year 
 at Baltimore, Washington, Juneau, Seattle, Chicago and Los Angeles; 
 service is also provided at Boston and Providence during the boating 
 season. These systems provide the latest forecasts and warnings for 
 marine users in their areas. Similar information may be obtained from 
 other coastal offices of the Weather Bureau through listed telephones. 
 
 More than 2,000 commercial radio and television stations broadcast 
 marine weather forecasts and warnings several times daily as a public 
 service of considerable benefit to small-boat operators with no cost 
 to the Federal government. Forecasts and warnings for coastal and 
 offshore areas are also transmitted by 31 Coast Guard, 10 Army (in 
 Alaska), and 39 commercial radiotelephone and radiotelegraph facilities. 
 These stations, though generally lowpowered, serve a broad spectrum of 
 the maritime community. High seas analyses, forecasts, and warnings are 
 provided to merchant ships operating in the western North Atlantic and 
 eastern and central North Pacific Oceans by Navy and commercial 
 radiotelegraph broadcasts. Warnings for the western North Atlantic and 
 eastern North Pacific are transmitted by commercial high seas 
 radiotelephone stations. Analyses and forecasts are also available from 
 Navy facsimile transmissions to suitably equipped merchant ships. 
 
 * These broadcasts on 162.55 MHz have a range of about 40 miles; 19 
 facilities at coastal or inland water locations are now in operation. 
 Figure 5 shows the existing and planned locations of these radio stations, 
 Detailed information on their location and broadcast contents may be 
 obtained from local Weather Bureau offices or from the Director, Weather 
 Bureau. 
 
 - 21 - 
 
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 - 23 - 
 
Communications support is provided at no cost to the Department 
 of Commerce by the Coast Guard, Army, Navy, and many commercial 
 facilities. 
 
 To promote maritime safety, the Department of Transportation (Coast 
 Guard) cooperates with the Department of Commerce (Weather Bureau) by 
 providing broadcasts of coastal marine weather information to shipping 
 and other maritime "sers at 31 locations. These broadcasts were 
 established to fill gaps in commercial radio station coverage, and, 
 though carried out on a not-to-interfere basis, constitute a major effort 
 by the facilities concerned. Broadcasts — usually plain language voice 
 transmissions — are scheduled at 6 or 12 hourly intervals; with 
 warnings of hazardous conditions transmitted upon receipt and repeated 
 periodically. The texts for these broadcasts are prepared by the Weather 
 Bureau and delivered to the nearest Coast Guard communications office. 
 
 The Naval Communications System provides support to military 
 programs. Meteorological traffic is handled in the same manner as other 
 traffic, and there are no centers or units dedicated exclusively to 
 meteorological communications. However, equipment needed to transmit 
 and receive meteorological data is installed directly in the weather 
 offices. Additionally, the Naval Environmental Data Network provides 
 for the dissemination of meteorological and oceanographic computer 
 products from the Fleet Numerical Weather Central at Monterey to 
 specially equipped locations in the United States and overseas. 
 
 Meteorological information is transmitted to operating Naval forces 
 by means of Navy radio (continuous wave, teletypewriter, facsimile and 
 voice) broadcasts. These broadcasts are prepared by the Fleet Weather 
 Centrals and Facilities and include observations, analyses, forecasts, 
 and warnings. In preparing broadcasts, the centrals and facilities 
 make use not only of their own specialized products and those of Fleet 
 Numerical Weather Central at Monterey, but also — insofar as possible « — 
 products of the Basic Meteorological Service and other data as received 
 from the Federal Aviation Administration's weather teletypewriter 
 networks, the Department of Commerce's National and High Altitude 
 Facsimile Networks, and the Air Force's Automated Weather Network and 
 teletypewriter systems. 
 
 Dissemination to Users 
 
 This function includes the preparation of local marine forecasts, 
 advisories, and warnings; the operation of offices engaged in the 
 preparation of these products; the provision of briefing services; and 
 the operation of visual display systems. It should be noted, however, 
 that the principal means for disseminating marine products to civil users 
 are by commercial communications media (radio and television), government 
 communications channels (voice and radiotelegraph broadcasts), and 
 automatic telephone answering systems. 
 
 - 24 - 
 
 
Currently, 14 Department of Commerce Area Centers issue forecasts 
 and warnings for nearby coastal and offshore waters (to 50 miles 
 seaward). In addition, two Area Centers and 12 weather offices provide 
 similar services for inland lakes, dams and reservoirs. Personal 
 briefing service is available at all of these activities; however, the 
 majority of civil marine users rely on the communications systems, 
 discussed earlier, for information and advice. 
 
 The Coastal Warning Display System is a cooperative network of 
 visual (flag and light) displays maintained at prominent locations along 
 the seacoasts, the Great Lakes, and inland waterways to advise boating 
 and other marine interests when small craft, gale, storm and hurricane 
 warnings, issued by the Weather Bureau, are in effect. Yacht clubs, 
 marinas, and other private marine activities; state and local governments; 
 as well as the Coast Guard and Weather Bureau participate in this 
 network of more than 550 display stations. The Department of 
 Transportation (Coast Guard) has 163 lighthouses, lifeboat stations, 
 lightships, and other facilities participating in the Coastal Warning 
 Display System. The Department of Commerce operates 75 displays; the 
 remainder are operated on a cooperative basis by non-Federal interests. 
 In addition, small craft warnings are displayed by state police patrol 
 craft in Chesapeake Bay and in the New York City area. Figure 6 shows 
 the light and flag displays for various warnings. 
 
 The focal point of the environmental support generated by the Naval 
 Weather Service Command is at the operating level. The primary purpose 
 is to support operational decisions by providing meteorological support 
 and advice. The Navy operates small weather service offices at all 
 major naval commands and aboard many larger ships. These offices 
 utilize the products of the Naval Weather Service Command, as well as 
 those available from the Basic Meteorological Service and other sources. 
 They interpret these products for local use, prepare local area and 
 route forecasts, and provide weather briefing services. Briefings 
 generally are conducted in person but may also be provided by telephone 
 or closed circuit television. More than 100 weather service offices, 
 as well as the larger area and specialized centers, provide these 
 services in support of the military Marine Meteorological Service 
 programs. 
 
 General Agency Support 
 
 General agency support functions cover the activities which 
 agencies must carry on to operate efficient meteorological service 
 programs and provide effective, reliable support to their users. It 
 includes training, maintenance, internal support and management above 
 the operating level. 
 
 - 25 - 
 
SMALL CRAFT 
 
 STORM 
 
 DAYTIME SIGNAL NIGHT SIGNAL 
 
 One RED pennant displayed by day and a RED 
 light over a WHITE light at night to indicate 
 winds as high as 33 knots (38 m.p.h.) and/or 
 sea conditions considered dangerous to small 
 craft operations are forecast for the area, (see 
 note on last page). 
 
 DAYTIME SIGNAL 
 
 NIGHT SIGNAL 
 
 A single square RED flag with a BLACK center 
 displayed during daytime and two RED lights 
 at night to indicate that winds 48 knots 
 (55 m.p.h.) and above are forecast for the 
 area. If the winds are associated with a tropical 
 cyclone (hurricane), the "Storm Warning" 
 display indicates winds 48 to 63 knots (55 to 
 73 m.p.h.) are forecast. 
 
 GALE 
 
 HURRICANE 
 
 DAYTIME SIGNAL NIGHT SIGNAL 
 
 Two RED pennants displayed by day and a 
 WHITE light above a RED light at night to 
 indicate winds within the range 34 to 47 knots 
 (39 to 54 m.p.h.) are forecast for the area. 
 
 DAYTIME SIGNAL NIGHT SIGNAL 
 
 Displayed only in connection with a tropical 
 cyclone (hurricane). Two square RED flags 
 with BLACK centers displayed by day and a 
 WHITE light between two RED lights at night 
 to indicate that winds 64 knots (74 m.p.h.) and 
 above are forecast for the area. 
 
 FIGURE 6. EXPLANATION OF LIGHT AND FLAG DISPLAYS 
 
 - 26 - 
 
Training 
 
 Accurate sea, swell, surf, storm surge, and other marine 
 forecasts require adequate training in physical oceanography, as 
 well as in meteorology. While forecasters currently supporting 
 civil marine users are qualified meteorologists, only a few have 
 received formal oceanographic training. Selected Department of 
 Commerce meteorologists are now receiving this training in 
 university programs. 
 
 Coast Guard personnel receive training at Navy schools to 
 support Coast Guard participation in the Basic Meteorological 
 Service observational program and meet Coast Guard requirements as 
 well. No meteorological training is conducted specifically to 
 support the Marine Meteorological Service. 
 
 As part of its Naval Technical Training Center, the Navy 
 operates three meteorological technician training schools for 
 enlisted personnel at Lakehurst, N. J., to provide specialized 
 technical training in meteorology and oceanography tailored 
 primarily to the needs of the Navy and Marine Corps. Small numbers 
 of personnel from the Coast Guard and other services are accommodated, 
 
 The Aerographer's Mate Class "A" School provides meteorological 
 training at the basic level and the "B M School provides training at 
 a more advanced level for selected Aerographer's Mates. The 
 Aerographer's Mate Class "C" School provides the following training: 
 
 Upper-air observing 6 weeks, 
 APT* 3 weeks, 
 
 Air-Ocean 7 weeks. 
 
 The Naval Postgraduate School at Monterey, California has an 
 environmental sciences program to qualify commissioned officers as 
 meteorologists with a working knowledge of oceanography as applied 
 to naval operations. Through advanced study, they may also conduct 
 independent research. Bachelor or Master of Sciences degrees in 
 meteorology as well as oceanography are awarded to qualified 
 graduates. Officers from other United States Services as well as 
 foreign countries also attend. A limited number of naval officers 
 are selected for doctoral studies at civilian universities. 
 
 All Navy-conducted meteorological training is directed toward 
 fulfilling its overall military requirements. No training is 
 specifically directed to the Marine or other specialized 
 meteorological services. 
 
 Automatic Picture Transmissions from meteorological satellites, 
 
 - 27 - 
 
Maintenance 
 
 This function includes all measures taken to keep meteorological 
 equipment in proper operating condition and to repair this equipment 
 when it fails. 
 
 Department of Commerce maintenance programs are operated and 
 funded as a part of the Basic Meteorological Service. The 
 Department of Transportation similarly has no maintenance programs 
 specifically for marine meteorological services. 
 
 Maintenance of meteorological equipment in the Navy is a command 
 responsibility and is generally provided at the local level. 
 However, the Navy also maintains two central and eight area overhaul 
 facilities to repair or overhaul more complex meteorological 
 instruments. A meteorological and oceanographic equipment program 
 has also been established which, by utilizing meteorological 
 officers with electronics training and civilian electronic engineers 
 working as teams, provides special assistance to fleet and shore- 
 based commands. 
 
 Internal Support 
 
 General mission-related activities in support of meteorological 
 operations within an agency are necessary parts of providing service 
 to users. These activities include the following types of programs: 
 
 . Engineering support for planning, preparing specifications, 
 surveying equipment sites for suitability, inspecting and 
 calibrating new equipment. 
 
 . Scientific studies and consultant services to determine the 
 feasibility of new programs and to increase the effectiveness 
 of on-going programs. 
 
 . Quality control of products to assure that accuracy and 
 productivity standards are maintained. 
 
 . Employee housing and housekeeping or utility-type equipment 
 at remote area locations. 
 
 Internal support activities within the Department of Commerce 
 are consolidated for the most part under the Basic Meteorological 
 Service. They are provided by ESSA, Weather Bureau, and Regional 
 Headquarters staffs when necessary for specialized marine user 
 programs. 
 
 - 28 - 
 
Internal support activities within the Navy include technical 
 support provided by the Naval Weather Service Command and the Naval 
 Air Systems Command; engineering support provided by Naval Industrial 
 Management Offices and Public Works Offices; and management, 
 supervision, administration, and logistical support provided at the 
 local operating level. 
 
 Management Above Operating Level 
 
 This activity includes all executive management, supervision, 
 administration, planning and logistical support provided from above 
 the operating unit level to support the Marine Meteorological 
 Service. It is carried on within the Department of Commerce by 
 full or part-time marine specialists on the ESSA, Weather Bureau 
 and Regional Headquarters staffs. Management above the operating 
 level within the Navy is provided by a part of the staff effort at 
 the Naval Weather Service Command and Naval Air Systems Command. 
 
 - 29 - 
 
4. AREAS OF POTENTIAL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 User requirements have been reviewed and current Marine Meteorological 
 Services listed. Potential improvements derived by comparing the requirements 
 with the current services may be placed in three categories: Product 
 improvements, support improvements and improvements requiring supporting 
 research and development. 
 
 Product Improvements 
 
 Current products fall short of fulfilling all civil user requirements. 
 Forecasts and warnings do not include all parameters of operational 
 significance to users and are not updated with sufficient frequency; facsimile 
 charts on marine broadcasts are not designed for use by nonmeteorologists; 
 and many users cannot receive weather information due to lack of adequate 
 dissemination capability. The requirements of military marine users are 
 being adequately met for the most part by existing programs; however, there 
 are some areas that need improvement. 
 
 Support Improvements 
 
 Support improvements have been identified in three subcategories: 
 
 . Common - those which are common to civil and military programs. 
 
 , Civil - those which are unique to civil programs. 
 
 . Military - those which are unique to military programs. 
 
 Common 
 
 Civil 
 
 Surface and upper-air observations from remote oceanic areas are 
 inadequate to support accurate forecasts and warnings. This is 
 particularly true for areas off normal shipping lanes. 
 
 Surface observations from United States coastal and offshore areas 
 are inadequate to support the detailed analyses, forecasts and 
 warnings required in these areas frequented by smaller craft and 
 characterized by rapidly developing localized storms. The 
 observations are inadequate in terms of numbers, frequency of 
 updating and description of significant elements such as sea- 
 state and sea surface temperature. 
 
 Weather service offices currently providing limited marine 
 services require additional staffing to assure that adequate 
 forecasts and timely warnings are prepared and disseminated. 
 
 Many meteorologists currently preparing marine forecasts require 
 additional training in marine meteorology and physical 
 oceanography to raise the quality of their products. 
 
 - 30 - 
 
Frequent and complete surface observations (including wave 
 height) are urgently needed from inland lakes, rivers, dams, and 
 reservoirs popular with the recreational boating community to 
 form a sound base for forecasts and warnings for these locations. 
 
 Communications support to disseminate information to users 
 requires considerable expansion for the following reasons: 
 
 a. Navy facsimile broadcasts are designed for specialized Naval 
 uses, not for general civil use. The contents of these 
 broadcasts may be changed to meet operational requirements. 
 Adequate support to civil users requires that the products 
 be responsive to their needs and the broadcasts compatible 
 with their communications capability. 
 
 b. Radiotelegraph broadcasts of meteorological information for 
 high seas and offshore users are on a low or no priority basis 
 since this service is generally provided free of charge. 
 
 Vital information may not get to users under these arrangements. 
 
 c. Radiotelephone broadcasts for high seas users are required 
 more frequently and for longer periods to assure that necessary 
 information will be available to users on a timely basis. 
 
 d. Additional radiotelephone broadcasts are required for 
 commercial fishing users. These broadcasts must have adequate 
 power to reach the ships on the fishing grounds and they must 
 also be made often enough to cope with rapidly changing 
 weather conditions. 
 
 e. Automatic Marine Telephone Answering Systems provided by the 
 Department of Commerce are needed at many additional locations 
 along coasts, lakes, and inland waterways so that more users 
 may be serviced without major additions to the weather service 
 offices and staffs. 
 
 Military 
 
 Surface and upper-air observations from areas in which military 
 operations are being conducted are inadequate. 
 
 The need to conserve allocated radio frequencies by using 
 multiplex techniques imposes technological disadvantages for 
 vessels otherwise able to receive single-sideband high frequency 
 environmental broadcasts (radioteletype and radiofacsimile). 
 
 Slowness in adopting radiofacsimile recorder improvements within 
 a system wherein several hundred potential users are affected 
 by even minor changes constitutes a serious problem. 
 
 - 31 - 
 
. There continues to be a shortage of trained personnel available. 
 
 . Surface and upper-air observations in the Southern Hemisphere 
 and Arctic areas are inadequate. 
 
 Improvements Requiring Supporting Research and Development 
 
 . Suitable observing equipment is needed for obtaining the 
 
 following measurements from shipboard and remote oceanic areas* 
 
 a. Surface observations of wind, air temperature, sea level 
 pressure, and moisture. 
 
 b. Vertical profiles of wind, temperature and moisture. 
 
 c. Spatial distribution of fog. 
 
 d. Cloud conditions. 
 
 e. Wave heights, periods and directions. 
 
 f. Sea-surface temperatures. 
 
 g. Solar radiation (remote oceanic areas only). 
 
 . Effective, reliable automatic weather observing and reporting 
 systems are needed for use on ships, unmanned buoys and remote 
 islands as well as at coastal locations. 
 
 . Improved processing techniques are needed for determining, from 
 ship observations, the distribution of wind stress on the sea 
 surface, the distribution of evaporation minus precipitation, 
 and the net heat exchange across the sea surface. 
 
 . Improved forecasting techniques, including numerical methods, are 
 needed for more accurate and longer range prediction of the 
 following: 
 
 a. Air temperature. 
 
 b. Sea-surface temperature. 
 
 c. Fog. 
 
 d. Clouds. 
 
 e. Sea state. 
 
 f. Ice formation and movement. 
 
 g. Precipitation patterns and amounts. 
 
 h. Formation, intensification and motion of hurricanes and typhoons, 
 i. Local winds. 
 
 - 32 - 
 
5. PLANNED SERVICES AND PROGRAMS 
 
 The Department of Commerce plans a five-phase program to meet the 
 applicable objectives of the Marine Resources and Engineering Development 
 Act of 1966, and to improve services to civil marine users. This program 
 includes a series of specialized products and distribution systems keyed to 
 user requirements and communications capabilities. Before many of these 
 products can be made available, additional resources must be committed. 
 Descriptions of the Department of Commerce programs for the Marine 
 Meteorological Service, plus selected Basic Meteorological Service programs 
 of major significance to marine users, are discussed in the following 
 paragraphs. 
 
 The planned products developed by geographic categories are described 
 in Table 4. High seas products (Numbers 1 through 12 in Table 4) will cover 
 the North Atlantic and North Pacific Ocean areas illustrated in Figure 7. 
 Transmission of graphic products of facsimile broadcasts and alphanumeric 
 products by radiotelegraph and radiotelephone broadcasts will be accomplished 
 by use of leased transmitting facilities located in the vicinity of New York, 
 San Francisco and Honolulu. 
 
 Offshore products, designed for users requiring frequent and detailed 
 information will cover the areas illustrated in Figure 2. Because offshore 
 users usually are not equipped to receive facsimile broadcasts, transmissions 
 will be by radiotelegraph and radiotelephone. Increased use will be made of 
 Coast Guard radio facilities to augment Department of Commerce and commercial 
 radio stations in broadcasting offshore products. 
 
 Coastal, lake and inland waterways users constitute by far the most 
 numerous consumer groups, and their activities are generally characterized 
 by high sensitivity to adverse weather conditions. To provide services that 
 will reach the greatest number of these users, the products must be in plain 
 language and available to the user with simple and relatively inexpensive 
 receiving equipment. 
 
 Products 16 through 25 in Table 4, as appropriate, will be made 
 available utilizing the ESSA Weather Wire System, and VHF/FM radio 
 transmitters operated by the Department of Commerce as part of the Basic 
 Meteorological Service, automatic telephone answering systems of the Marine 
 Meteorological Service, plus the cooperative efforts of Coast Guard and 
 commercial radio and TV broadcasters. The order of priority for these 
 services will be governed by the level of weather-sensitive marine 
 activities in the particular area served. 
 
 Special commercial fishing products (Numbers 21 and 22 in Table U) will 
 be transmitted by commercial marine radiophone broadcasts augmented by 
 appropriate Coast Guard broadcasts. 
 
 - 33 - 
 
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TABLE I*. CIVIL MARINE METEOROLOGICAL SERVICE OPERATIONAL PRODUCTS 
 
 PRODUCT 
 
 SUBJECT AND 
 
 
 VALID 
 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 FORM 
 
 CONTENT 
 
 TIME(S) 
 
 CYCLE 
 
 1 
 
 High Seas 
 
 Location and movement of pressure systems gen- 
 
 24 hrs 
 
 6 hrs 
 
 
 Warnings 
 
 erating gale force and higher winds, including 
 
 
 and as 
 
 
 (Alphanumeric 
 
 tropical storms and hurricanes, the extent of 
 
 
 required 
 
 
 via Facsimile) 
 
 waves > 2 meters, and other significant hazards. 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 High Seas 
 
 Fronts, pressure centers, and isobars. Selected 
 
 Synoptic 
 
 6 hrs 
 
 
 Marine 
 
 ocean station and moving ship observations in- 
 
 observat ion 
 
 
 
 Weather 
 
 cluding reports of wind, weather, visibility, 
 
 time 
 
 
 
 Analysis 
 
 temperature, sea temperature, and pressure. 
 
 
 
 
 (Graphic) 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 High Seas 
 
 Areas with waves > 1 meter, > 2 meters, etc. 
 
 Synoptic 
 
 6 hrs 
 
 
 Wind Wave 
 
 Areas of probable superstructure icing due to 
 
 observation 
 
 
 
 Analysis 
 
 freezing rain or seaspray. Selected reports from 
 
 time 
 
 
 
 (Graphic) 
 
 ocean stations and moving ships concerning wave 
 height, period, and direction. 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 High Seas 
 
 Prognostic charts depicting the expected position 
 
 12, 24, 36, 
 
 12 hrs 
 
 
 Marine 
 
 of fronts and pressure centers at specific time 
 
 and 48 hrs 
 
 
 
 Weather 
 
 intervals. Isobars to indicate intensity of cen- 
 
 
 
 
 Forecast 
 
 ters and general wind flow. Forecast data con- 
 
 
 
 
 (Graphic) 
 
 cerning wind, temperature, sea temperature, and 
 weather which causes visibility < 1 mile at 
 standard grid locations. 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 High Seas 
 
 Prognostic charts depicting the expected position! 
 
 12, 24, 36, 
 
 12 hrs 
 
 
 Wind Wave 
 
 of fronts and tropical storms, and the areas in 
 
 and 48 hrs 
 
 
 
 Forecast 
 
 which waves > 1 meter, > 2 meters, etc. are ex- 
 
 
 
 
 (Graphic) 
 
 pected, at specific time intervals. Areas of 
 probable superstructure icing. 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 High Seas 
 
 Prognostic charts (one per day at a specified 
 
 3rd, 4th, 
 
 24 hrs 
 
 
 Extended 
 
 time) depicting the expected positions of fronts 
 
 5th and 
 
 
 
 Marine 
 
 and pressure centers, the intensity of the pres- 
 
 6th day 
 
 
 
 Weather 
 
 sure centers, the areas in which winds > 34 knots 
 
 
 
 
 Forecast 
 
 and waves > 2 meters are expected, and the highest 
 
 
 
 
 (Graphic) 
 
 winds and wave heights expected in each area. 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 High Seas 
 Warnings 
 (Alphanumeric 
 and Voice) 
 
 See Product 1. 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 High Seas 
 
 Extratropical 
 
 Marine 
 
 Weather 
 
 Forecast 
 
 (Alphanumeric 
 
 and Voice) 
 
 Location and intensity of pressure centers not de- 
 scribed in warnings and expected direction and 
 speed of movement. Description of frontal systems 
 and expected movements. Identification of areas 
 in which winds > 20 knots, 30 knots, etc., and 
 wave heights > 2 meters, >4 meters, etc., are ex- 
 pected. Forecasts of temperature, sea tempera- 
 ture, visibilities < 1 mile, and areas of super- 
 structure icing. 
 
 48 hrs 
 
 6 hrs 
 
 9 
 
 High Seas 
 
 Tropical 
 
 Marine 
 
 Weather 
 
 Forecast 
 
 (Alphanumeric 
 
 and Voice) 
 
 Location and intensity of pressure centers not 
 described in warnings and expected direction and 
 speed of movement. Identification of areas in 
 which winds > 20 knots, > 30 knots, etc., and 
 wave heights > 2 meters, > 4 meters, etc., are 
 expected. Forecasts of temperature, sea tempera- 
 ture, and visibilities < 1 mile. 
 
 48 hrs 
 
 6 hrs 
 
TABLE 4 (Continued) 
 
 PRODUCT 
 
 SUBJECT AND 
 
 
 VALID 
 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 FORM 
 
 CONTENT 
 
 TIME(S) 
 
 CYCLE 
 
 10 
 
 High Seas 
 
 Location and intensity of pressure centers and 
 
 3rd thru 
 
 24 hrs 
 
 
 Extended 
 
 movement of frontal systems. Identification of 
 
 6th day 
 
 
 
 Marine 
 
 areas in which winds > 34 knots and waves > 2 
 
 
 
 
 Weather 
 
 meters are expected, and highest winds and waves. 
 
 
 
 
 Forecast 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Alphanumeric) 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 High Seas Coded 
 
 Surface weather and wind wave analysis coded in 
 
 Synoptic 
 
 6 hrs 
 
 
 Analys is 
 
 IAC (Fleet), including pressure centers, fronts, 
 
 observation 
 
 
 
 (Alphanumeric) 
 
 isobars, and two meter wave height contours, 
 plus a listed selection of synoptic reports. 
 
 time 
 
 
 12 
 
 High Seas Coded 
 
 24 and 48 hour prognoses coded in IAC (Fleet) 
 
 24 and 48 
 
 12 hrs 
 
 
 Forecast 
 
 including pressure centers, fronts, isobars and 
 
 hrs 
 
 
 
 (Alphanumeric) 
 
 two meter wave contours. 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 Offshore 
 Warnings 
 (Alphanumeric 
 and Voice) 
 
 Location and movement of frontal systems or 
 pressure centers from the coast to 25T miles sea- 
 ward in designated offshore areas. Identifica- 
 tion of areas in which winds > 30 knots or 
 waves > 1 meter are expected. 
 
 24 hrs 
 
 6 hrs 
 
 14 
 
 Offshore 
 Forecast 
 (Alphanumeric 
 and Voice) 
 
 Description of the general weather conditions and 
 wind wave conditions expected in the offshore 
 area. Includes temperature, sea temperature, 
 cloudiness, type and intensity of precipitation, 
 the distribution of winds > 15 knots, > 2 1 knots, 
 etc., and wave heights > 1 meter, > 2 meters, 
 etc., visibility when less than 5 miles, and 
 areas of probable icing on superstructures or 
 exposed equipment. 
 
 48 hrs 
 
 6 hrs 
 
 15 
 
 Offshore 
 Observation 
 (Alphanumeric 
 and Voice) 
 
 Observations from selected stations. 
 
 Observation 
 time 
 
 3 hrs 
 
 16 
 
 Seiche 
 
 Area of expected occurrence and expected change 
 
 As 
 
 As 
 
 
 Warnings 
 
 in height of water. 
 
 required 
 
 required 
 
 
 (Alphanumeric 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Voice - 
 
 
 
 
 
 Great Lakes) 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 Coastal and 
 
 Description of areas of ice, identifying loca- 
 
 Week 
 
 24 hrs 
 
 
 Great Lakes 
 
 tions where ice is impassable or requires ice- 
 
 
 seasonal 
 
 
 Ice Forecast 
 
 breaker assistance. General forecast of the 
 
 
 
 
 (Alphanumeric) 
 
 formation or breakup of ice conditions on the 
 Great Lakes, the interconnecting waterways, and 
 the Alaskan coast, when applicable. 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 Coastal 
 
 Significant changes in forecast wind, wave, or 
 
 As 
 
 As 
 
 
 Warnings* 
 
 precipitation conditions, unusual tidal condi- 
 
 required 
 
 required 
 
 
 (Alphanumeric 
 
 tions, or heavy breakers and surf. 
 
 
 
 
 and Voice) 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 Coastal 
 Forecast 
 (Alphanumeric 
 and Voice) 
 
 Description of the present and expected weather, 
 winds, wave conditions, visibility, cloudiness, 
 temperature, and precipitation along a designated 
 strip of coastal water extending 15 miles seaward. 
 
 * Combined with Prodvict No, 19 in many cases. 
 
 48 hrs 
 
 6 hrs 
 
TABLE 4 (continued) 
 
 PRODUCT 
 
 SUBJECT AND 
 
 
 VALID 
 
 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 FORM 
 
 CONTENT 
 
 TIME(S) 
 
 CYCLE 
 
 20 
 
 Harbor/ 
 Anchorage 
 Forecast 
 (Alphanumeric 
 and Voice) 
 
 Wind, wave, tide conditions and general weather 
 forecasts of temperature, humidity, visibility, 
 and any unusual effects of weather or wind waves 
 on harbor or anchorage Ttproaches. 
 
 48 hrs 
 
 6 
 
 hrs 
 
 21 
 
 Special 
 
 Fishing 
 
 Area 
 
 Forecasts 
 
 (Alphanumeric 
 
 and Voice) 
 
 Location and movement of frontal systems or pres- 
 sure centers through the fishing area. Identifi- 
 cation of area with winds > 15 knots, > 20 knots, 
 etc., or waves > 1 meter, > 2 meters, etc. Fore- 
 casts of temperatures to the nearest 5 degrees 
 and water temperatures to 2 degrees. General 
 description of cloudiness, visibility, and pre- 
 cipitation. (Also includes any available infor- 
 mation on mixed layer depth.) ** 
 
 48 hrs 
 
 6 
 
 hrs 
 
 22 
 
 Special 
 
 Location, movement, intensity, and change in 
 
 3rd, 4th, 
 
 24 
 
 hrs 
 
 
 Fishing 
 
 intensity of pressure centers which will affect 
 
 5th and 
 
 
 
 
 Area 
 
 fishing area. Areas with waves > 1 meter and 
 
 6th day 
 
 
 
 
 Outlooks 
 
 highest waves expected. Areas with winds > 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Alphanumeric 
 
 knots and highest winds expected. 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Voice) 
 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 Boating 
 Out 1 ook 
 (Alphanumeric 
 and Voice) 
 
 Areas in which waves > 2 feet, winds > 20 knots, 
 or visibilities < 1 mile are expected. Proba- 
 bility of precipitation, and expected tempera- 
 tures. 
 
 3rd day 
 
 12 
 
 hrs 
 
 24 
 
 Breaker and 
 Surf 
 
 Forecast 
 (Alphanumeric 
 and Voice) 
 
 Height, period, and character of breakers and 
 probable occurrence of dangerous surf conditions. 
 Water temperature. 
 
 36 hrs 
 
 12 
 
 hrs 
 
 25 
 
 Inland Lakes 
 
 Weather, air and water temperature, waves and 
 
 24 hrs 
 
 Variable 
 
 
 and Waterways 
 
 seiche conditions. 
 
 
 1-12 hrs 
 
 
 Warnings and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Forecasts 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Alphanumeric 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Voice) 
 
 ** Discussed in detail in the Federal Plan for 
 Marine Physical Environment Prediction, 
 April 1, 1968. 
 
 
 
 
Department of Commerce Five-Phase Program 
 
 PHASE 1 
 
 . Establish Marine Forecast Centers at San Francisco and Washington. 
 
 . Expand the National Meteorological Center program to include sea 
 and swell analyses and forecasts. 
 
 . Establish radio facsimile broadcasts from New York and San Francisco 
 to distribute high seas products. 
 
 . Establish automatic telephone answering service at Miami, San 
 Francisco, Anchorage, Cleveland, Houston, and Portland, Me. 
 Figure 8 shows the existing and planned locations of these systems. 
 
 . Begin training meteorologists in physical oceanography through 
 postgraduate and inhouse programs. 
 
 . Add a marine meteorologist to the ESSA-Weather Bureau staff to 
 assist in program development and management. 
 
 PHASE 2 
 
 . Establish Marine Forecast Centers at Anchorage and Honolulu. 
 
 . Expand the National Meteorological Center to provide additional 
 marine products, including sea surface temperatures. 
 
 . Establish radiotelegraph broadcasts on the East, West and Gulf 
 
 Coasts; specific locations will be determined by the most effective 
 and economical transmission arrangements. 
 
 . Establish automatic telephone answering service at Norfolk, Corpus 
 Christi, Buffalo, Jacksonville, Mobile, New Orleans, and Charleston, 
 S. C. 
 
 . Augment the service staff with a marine meteorologist at Norfolk, 
 Seattle, and New Orleans. 
 
 . Expand the program to train meteorologists in physical oceanography 
 to approximately double that of Phase 1. This level of training 
 effort continues through Phases 3, 4 and 5. 
 
 . Establish quality control programs for marine products in the 
 ESSA-Weather Bureau Eastern and Western Regions. 
 
 . Add a marine meteorologist to one ESSA-Weather Bureau regional staff, 
 
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PHASE 3 
 
 . Establish Marine Forecast Centers at Chicago and Miami. 
 
 . Expand the National Meteorological Center program to provide 
 additional marine products, including mixed layer depths,* 
 
 . Establish a radio facsimile broadcast at Honolulu to distribute 
 high seas products. 
 
 . Establish automatic telephone answering service at Astoria, Brownsville, 
 Tampa, New York City, Detroit, San Juan, Portland, Ore., and 
 Wilmington, N. C. 
 
 . Establish a radiotelephone broadcast at Boston to distribute 
 products to commercial fishing users. 
 
 . Augment the forecasting staff with a marine meteorologist at 
 
 Portland, Ore., Cleveland, Buffalo, New York City, Detroit, Juneau, 
 San Juan, Tampa, Charleston, S. C. , and Wilmington, N. C. 
 
 . Establish quality control programs for marine products in the 
 ESSA-Weather Bureau Southern and Pacific Regions. 
 
 . Add a marine meteorologist to two ESSA-Ueather Bureau regional staffs. 
 
 PHASE 4 
 
 . Establish radiotelephone broadcasts at Los Angeles, Miami and 
 Anchorage to distribute products to commercial fishing users. 
 
 . Augment the forecasting staff with a marine meteorologist at 
 Boston, Portland, Me., Jacksonville, Houston, Atlantic City, 
 Corpus Christ i, Baltimore, Brownsville, Port Arthur, Mobile, 
 San Diego, and Santa Maria. 
 
 . Establish quality control programs for marine products in the 
 ESSA-Ueather Bureau Central and Alaskan Regions. 
 
 . Establish automatic telephone answering services at Atlantic 
 City, Port Arthur, San Diego, and Santa Maria. 
 
 * Discussed in detail in the Federal Plan for Marine Physical Environment 
 Prediction, April 1, 1968. 
 
 - Ul - 
 
PHASE 5 
 
 . Augment the forecasting staff by adding a marine meteorologist at 
 Fort Myers, Eureka, Duluth, Savannah, Daytona Beach, Apalachicola, 
 Annette Island, and Hartford. 
 
 . Establish automatic telephone answering services at Fort Myers, 
 Eureka, Duluth, Savannah, Daytona Beach, Apalachicola, Ketchikan, 
 and Hartford. 
 
 In addition to the foregoing 5-phase program for Marine Meteorological 
 Services, the following improvements in the Basic Meteorological Service 
 planned by the Department of Commerce will have major significance to marine 
 users: 
 
 Observations 
 
 . The Cooperative Merchant Shipping Observing Progam will be 
 
 expanded and improved by adding more ships and installing wind, 
 sea surface temperature, and wave measuring equipment on selected 
 vessels. 
 
 . The Cooperative Coast Observing Network will be expanded and 
 modernized by establishing new stations, adding new equipment 
 at some existing stations, and providing more frequent 
 observations from selected stations. 
 
 . Automatic weather stations will be installed to provide 
 
 observations from Coast Guard facilities and other locations 
 where it is not feasible or economical to use cooperative 
 observers. 
 
 . Telemetering equipment will be installed at selected coastal 
 stations to obtain tidal data. 
 
 . The Basic Weather Radar Network will be expanded by adding radars 
 along the New England coast and in the Pacific Northwest. A 
 number of radars will also be added at inland locations to 
 provide coverage for the Great Lakes and many smaller lakes and 
 reservoirs. 
 
 Analyses and Forecasts 
 
 . Improved forecasts and warnings for tropical areas are expected 
 from new machine products now under development at the National 
 Meteorological Center. 
 
 . Machine produced 5-day or longer forecasts issued daily are 
 planned by the National Meteorological Center. These forecasts 
 are expected to be of considerable benefit to ship routing 
 programs and planning by marine interests. 
 
 - 42 - 
 
Communications 
 
 . The ESSA's Weather Wire System will be expanded to cover many 
 of the areas not now served by this system. 
 
 . The VHF/FM radio broadcasts will be expanded as shown in 
 Figure 5. 
 
 General Agency Support 
 
 . Maintenance programs for observing and communications equipment 
 and quality control of merchant ship observations will be 
 expanded. 
 
 Department of Transportation 
 
 The Coast Guard is reviewing its present radiotelegraph and radiotelephone 
 marine weather broadcast schedules with the goal of making more frequent, 
 more timely broadcasts of weather forecasts and warnings. Particular attention 
 is being directed to the VHF/FM maritime mobile band, where Coast Guard VHF/FM 
 facilities may supplement those of the Department of Commerce. The feasibility 
 of making facsimile and other additional broadcasts will also be determined. 
 The Coast Guard and ESSA-Weather Bureau are working together to improve the 
 dissemination of weather information to marine users, especially the boating 
 public. 
 
 Department of Defense 
 
 No major changes are planned in the military programs for the Marine 
 Meteorological Service. There are, however, plans to expand selected 
 ongoing programs. The more significant are: 
 
 . The use of computers in the Naval Weather Service Command will be 
 increased to provide additional "tailored" support to military users. 
 
 . The Navy's Environmental Data Network will be extended to additional 
 locations to speed the flow of observations, analyses and products 
 to military users. 
 
 . The Fleet Multichannel Radioteletypewriter Broadcast System is 
 currently being implemented and will be completely operational in 
 the near future. However, to satisfy continuing needs of Allied 
 Nations for marine meteorological information (and some Merchant 
 Marine needs, until such time as the civil broadcasts are operational), 
 the existing single channel radioteletype system will remain in 
 operation from selected stations. 
 
 . A network of oceanographic/meteorological buoys (NOMAD' s) may be 
 established when equipment becomes operational. 
 
 . The Navy has a continuing program of modernizing its Meteorological/ 
 Oceanographic Reconnaissance Aircraft. 
 
 - 43 - 
 
6. PLANNED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 All of the work reported on herein is not primarily designed to satisfy 
 the specific supporting research requirements that have been identified to 
 improve the Marine Meteorological Service. Some of the effort discussed 
 falls, for example, into the category of basic research; and other work has 
 broader objectives than just the improvement of the Marine Meteorological 
 Service. 
 
 The supporting research funded by ESSA that contributes to satisfying 
 the Marine Meteorological Service requirements has been conducted principally, 
 but not wholly, in support of the Basic Meteorological Service in consonance 
 with the concept that civil programs for the Marine Meteorological Service 
 will rely mainly upon the Basic Meteorological Service for general observa- 
 tional and forecasting support. Therefore, much of the ESSA funding for 
 research is not attributed directly to the Marine Meteorological Service. 
 
 Analogously, the supporting research funded by the Navy that contributes 
 to improvements is divided between funds attributable directly to the Marine 
 Meteorological Service and certain research programs having the primary aim 
 to improve the General Military and Ground Forces Support Meteorological 
 Service. 
 
 ESSA and Navy are the only agencies that fund some research and 
 development that is primarily aimed at improving the Marine Meteorological 
 Service. A separate section describes related efforts by these two agencies 
 as well as by others that should contribute to the improvement of the 
 Marine Meteorological Service. 
 
 The improvements identified as requiring supporting research and 
 development have been categorized as being either in the functional area 
 of "observation" or in the area of "analyses and forecasts". 
 
 Observation 
 
 . Suitable observing equipment is needed for obtaining the following 
 measurements from shipboard and remote oceanic areas: 
 
 a. Vertical profiles of wind, temperature and moisture 
 
 b. Spatial distribution of fog 
 
 c. Cloud conditions 
 
 d. Wave heights, periods and directions 
 
 e. Sea-surface temperatures 
 
 f. Solar radiation (remote oceanic areas only) 
 
 . Effective, reliable automatic weather observing and reporting systems 
 are needed for use on ships, unmanned buoys and remote islands as well as 
 
 at coastal locations. 
 
 - 44 - 
 
Some of the improvements required in the observations category relate 
 to the lack of a suitable, low-cost platform upon which sensors can be 
 placed for use in the large expanse of oceanic and coastal areas. Although 
 the sensors needed to observe and measure the weather parameters in the 
 marine areas and those required in land areas are similar, problems inherent 
 in the marine environment impose additional challenges to engineering to 
 produce sensors that will operate efficiently for long periods of time in 
 this particular environment. An alternative is the development of sensing 
 devices which can observe the necessary parameters by remote means; this 
 would alleviate some of the cost problem of procuring and logistically 
 supporting the large numbers of sensing devices needed to observe effectively 
 the phenomena of interest to the time-space scale desired. 
 
 Department of Commerce 
 
 The Department of Commerce (ESSA) plans to design a Marine Environmental 
 Prediction System to deal with both the atmosphere and the oceans. Only that 
 part which is concerned with marine weather services will be included in this 
 Federal Plan. 
 
 On the basis of a recent field survey of user needs in marine weather 
 services, and a preliminary survey of potential means for acquiring critical 
 data in support of these services, a study of merchant ships (ships of 
 opportunity) as observing platforms has been selected for special emphasis. 
 
 The merchant ship study will use computer programs to determine the 
 optimum distribution of surface observations and upper air soundings that 
 could be obtained from various numbers of suitably instrumented ships. Also, 
 the effect of such factors as degree of automation, equipment portability, 
 data preprocessing and communication will be analysed and evaluated in terms 
 of cost and performance. Specifications for the various components of the 
 shipboard observation system will be determined and suitable equipment then 
 developed, particularly designed to operate in the marine environment. 
 
 Department of Defense 
 
 The Department of Defense (Navy) will continue to conduct research on 
 all of the improvements required in observing except measuring solar 
 radiation in oceanic areas by remote means. 
 
 Several efforts are directed toward improving techniques and equipment 
 for obtaining meteorological data aboard naval vessels. Development of 
 rocketsonde components is proceeding for use in obtaining soundings of wind, 
 temperature, and moisture. The Navy's balloon-borne frost point radiosonde 
 will undergo further development to provide greater reliability and accuracy 
 in high level moisture measurements. 
 
 There is an extensive program planned to provide instrumentation and 
 experimental techniques with accuracies and resolutions sufficient to 
 describe the characteristics of a natural fog. This includes further 
 development of the microwave hygrometers for measuring humidity, optical 
 methods for measuring fog droplet size and number distribution, and new 
 and improved instruments for measuring liquid water distribution, droplet 
 and ice particle sizes and the number of nuclei. 
 
 - 45 - 
 
A cloud height measuring device using a laser is being designed for 
 use aboard ship. Also, improvements are being investigated for the shipboard 
 readout equipment of automatic picture transmission from the National 
 Operational Meteorological Satellite System. 
 
 In order to measure parameters which determine sea conditions, techniques 
 are being investigated for objective measurements with radar. These techniques, 
 if successful, would be used by ship and shore radars. 
 
 Sea-surface temperature measurements are now being made by a variety of 
 equipment and techniques. Improvements are being sought by standardizing 
 the methods to achieve needed accuracy and comparable measurements. 
 
 The National Bureau of Standards is developing devices for visibility 
 measurements for the Navy; for shipboard use, a back-scattering measuring 
 device is being tested. This device does not require a long baseline as 
 does a transmissometer; it may be used as a sensor in the Navy's Shipboard 
 Automatic Weather System. 
 
 The system is under development to provide observations on ships where 
 no observers are available. Sensors are being adapted or fabricated for use 
 in a small unit. Inputs from standard equipment currently in use on shipboard 
 will be integrated into the device, if feasible. 
 
 Because weather reconnaissance aircraft currently provide one of the 
 best means of acquiring information from remote oceanic regions, efforts are 
 underway to improve their capability to obtain data above and below flight 
 level. The 2.75 inch folding-fin aircraft rocket motor is being evaluated 
 for use in a vertical sounding system; prototype models of system components 
 are being developed and evaluated. Also, an aircraft-borne turbidity sensor 
 is being developed for use in the study of atmospheric contaminants, as they 
 relate to changes in visibility. In addition, a radiation thermometer is 
 undergoing test and evaluation. 
 
 Several approaches are being used in developing automatic weather 
 observing systems for use at unmanned sea and coastal locations. To support 
 naval operations in oceanic regions other than polar, the Navy Oceanographic/ 
 Meteorological Automatic Device (NOMAD) is being developed. The NOMAD senses 
 synoptic oceanographic and meteorological data, processes the data and 
 transmits it to receiving locations. It is intended to operate for prolonged 
 periods in deep water anchoring sites. Smaller NOMAD buoys (1/2 scale) are 
 
 also being developed and evaluated. The Polar Automatic Weather Station (PAWS) 
 was developed and is being improved for use in polar areas. Sensors and 
 telemetry equipment suitable for normal climatic conditions will fail in the 
 polar environment; improvements and adaption of these equipments are being 
 accomplished. New sensor development will be undertaken where necessary. 
 The third development of automatic stations is the Tactical Island and Marine 
 Device. The approach here is to adapt, standardize, improve and, where 
 necessary, develop sensor systems for measuring environmental parameters in 
 remote areas during tactical situations. Emphasis is on development of solid 
 state electronics for command control and automatic storage of observations. 
 Development of ocean-wave sensors and pretransmission processing of ocean- 
 wave data is underway and will continue. Wave height and period sensing devices 
 are being investigated for possible development for operational use. 
 
 - U6 - 
 
Analyses and Forecasts 
 
 . Improved processing techniques are needed for determining, from ship 
 
 observations, the distribution of wind stress on the sea surface, the 
 
 distribution of evaporation minus precipitation, and the net heat exchange 
 across the sea surface. 
 
 . Improved forecasting techniques, including numerical methods, are 
 needed for more accurate prediction of the following: 
 
 a. Air temperature 
 
 b. Sea-surface temperature 
 
 c. Fog 
 
 d. Clouds 
 
 e. Sea state 
 
 f. Ice formation and movement 
 
 g. Precipitation patterns and amounts 
 
 h. Formation, intensification and motion of hurricanes and typhoons 
 
 i. Local winds 
 
 Inadequacies in the analysis and forecasting functional area can be 
 traced in some degree to the inadequate observations used to define the 
 initial state in marine areas. An improvement in the density and frequency 
 of observations in the sparse areas should result in increased forecasting 
 capability. As in the case of the improvements required in observing, some 
 of the improvements needed in analysis and forecasting related for marine 
 needs are much the same as for land areas. Therefore, resolving existing 
 common analysis and forecasting problems for land areas will result in 
 improvements of marine area forecasts. 
 
 Department of Commerce 
 
 ESSA is funding research aimed at improvements relating to the forecast 
 of sea state. A machine program is being prepared to accomplish the analysis 
 and forecast of wind waves and the resulting swell, making use of computed 
 surface winds and other information available at the National Meteorological 
 Center. The program is based on physical models of the generation, movement, 
 and modification of waves used by the Navy at the Fleet Numerical Weather 
 Facility. 
 
 Objective techniques are being developed and tested for forecasting 
 wind-induced changes in water level on Lake Erie. On a shallow lake such 
 as Lake Erie, sustained winds can result in damaging floods. 
 
 - 47 - 
 
Techniques will be developed and tested for predicting storm surge from 
 extra-tropical storms and hurricanes. These predictions will be derived from 
 multiple-regression equations using numerical forecasts of sea level pressure 
 at selected grid points. 
 
 Techniques for forecasting surf and breakers and other near-shore 
 phenomena will be developed. 
 
 Some research effort will be devoted to developing techniques for 
 predicting sea temperature structures.* ESSA will also begin development 
 of techniques for predicting ice formation and break-up over inland waters. 
 
 Department of Defense 
 
 The scope of the research activities of the Navy encompasses all of the 
 desired analysis and forecasting improvements identified as requiring 
 supporting research. 
 
 Considerable effort is being devoted to the development of numerical 
 models and techniques applicable to naval environmental forecasting problems. 
 Specific problems include: 
 
 . Improving analysis and forecasting techniques for polar regions; 
 
 . Development and evaluation of meteorological aids such as computers, 
 scales, rules, tables, etc., for naval operational units; 
 
 . Preparation of a handbook of forecasting procedures and techniques; 
 
 . Investigation of development, changes in intensity and movement of 
 middle latitude maritime weather systems in order to develop better 
 forecasting techniques; 
 
 . Development of summary maps and models of the atmosphere above the 
 troposphere to improve analysis and forecasting technique." 5 and to 
 ascertain the effects of upper air level changes on tropospheric 
 weather; 
 
 . Investigation of ballistic density and temperature for updating 
 the Navy Meteorological Ballistic Manual; 
 
 . Investigation of the relationship between measurements of atmospheric 
 electricity and fog formation or dissipation in order to develop 
 techniques that will improve short-range fog forecasting; 
 
 . Evaluation of meteorological satellite products and adaption for 
 Navy use; and 
 
 . Development of techniques to predict tropical storm development, 
 change in intensity and movements. 
 
 * Discussed in detail in the Federal Plan for Marine Physical Environment 
 Prediction, April 1, 1968. 
 
 - U8 - 
 
Exploration by computer models of heat, water, and energy processes 
 will continue. Programs which provide rudimentary computations of sea-air 
 energy exchaage are presently operational; studies of air-ocean interaction 
 in stable weather systems will continue with the aim to refine the programs. 
 Studies of hurricane wind effects on the thermal structure of the sea-surface 
 layer will continue. 
 
 Numerical methods have received special attention during recent years. 
 Future efforts are directed toward: 
 
 . Improving the accuracy of prediction of the distribution of 
 
 ntmospher ic/oceanographic elements and the processes changing them. 
 
 . Developing and implementing an operational tropical forecasting model 
 (non-storm) utilizing data derived from satellite cloud readout 
 information in addition to all available conventional data. 
 
 . Point forecasting of standard oceanographic/atmospheric parameters 
 24-36 hours in advance. 
 
 . Developing water distribution analysis and forecast models, operational 
 simplified cloud and precipitation forecasts and improving fog 
 forecasts through refined moisture modeling. 
 
 . Improving existing typhoon/hurricane steering models. 
 
 A large portion of the research effort at the Navy Weather Research 
 Facility is now directed toward tropical forecast problems, especially 
 formation and intensification of tropical cyclones. Computer models are 
 also being developed for prediction of cloud and fog development and 
 dissipation. 
 
 Summary of Planned Research Efforts 
 
 The current and planned research efforts of ESSA and Navy in support of 
 the Marine Meteorological Service are summarized to show the phased efforts. 
 
 ESSA Five-Phase Program 
 
 Phase 1 
 
 . Design and develop a merchant ship traffic analysis model 
 
 . Conduct study of concepts for acquiring meteorological and 
 oceanographic data from merchant ships 
 
 . Develop computer programs for prediction of surface wave heights 
 
 . Collect data on extratropical storm surges 
 
 . Develop and test techniques for predicting wind-induced tides 
 
 - 49 - 
 
Phase 2 
 
 . Complete design study of merchant ship data acquisition system 
 
 . Initiate system engineering study for merchant ship data 
 acquisition system 
 
 . Improve the open ocean wind-wave operational forecasting program 
 
 . Complete development of program for predicting open ocean swells 
 and initiate test 
 
 . Complete development of techniques for predicting wind-induced 
 tides 
 
 , Initiate development of multiple regression equations for 
 predicting storm surges 
 
 . Initiate development of prediction techniques for wind waves 
 in coastal waters 
 
 . Initiate development of current sensors 
 
 Phase 3 
 
 . Complete the system engineering study for merchant ship data 
 acquisition system 
 
 . Continue development of prediction techniques for waves, swell, 
 storm surges, breakers and surf along coasts 
 
 . Develop wind and humidity sensors to withstand the marine 
 environment on merchant ships 
 
 Phase 4 
 
 . Test techniques for predicting storm surges 
 
 . Test techniques for predicting coastal winds 
 
 . Initiate development of improved techniques for predicting 
 sea temperature structure 
 
 . Initiate development of sea-state sensors 
 
 . Initiate test and evaluation of Marine Environmental Prediction 
 System weather equipments and observation techniques 
 
 - 50 - 
 
Phase 5 
 
 . Prepare computer program for prediction of storm surges 
 
 . Initiate development of techniques for predicting hurricane 
 storm surge 
 
 . Develop improved techniques for predicting sea surface temperature 
 
 . Initiate development of techniques for predicting ice formation 
 and break-up 
 
 . Continue test and evaluation of Marine Environmental Prediction 
 System weather equipments and observation techniques 
 
 Navy Program 
 
 No ma ior changes are planned in the military programs for supporting 
 research and development to improve the Marine Meteorological Service. It 
 is planned to continue the following ongoing programs: 
 
 . Improvement and development of buoy systems at unmanned sea/coastal 
 locations 
 
 . Development and implementation of an operational tropical forecasting 
 model (non-storm) 
 
 . Development of techniques for point forecasting of atmospheric 
 parameters 24-36 hours in advance 
 
 . Development of simplified cloud and precipitation forecast techniques 
 
 . Refining moisture modeling for improving fog forecasts 
 
 . Improving typhoon and hurricane steering models 
 
 . Conducting studies on formation and intensification of tropical 
 cyclones 
 
 . Shipboard \ipper-air and surface sensing devices 
 
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7. RELATED RESEARCH EFFORTS 
 
 A number of studies and experiments are being conducted by educational 
 institutions under the support of the National Science Foundation, the 
 results of which, though not aimed at direct support of the Marine Meteorol- 
 ogical Service, will assist indirectly in solving some of the technical 
 problems. 
 
 Line Islands Experiment 
 
 One group of these studies was a part of the Line Islands Experiment 
 in the tropical regions of the Pacific Ocean. Aircraft observations were 
 made as follows: 
 
 . Time-lapse motion pictures of clouds; 
 
 . Radar photographs of precipitation areas; 
 
 . Wind measurements; 
 
 . Temperature and moisture vertical profile measurements ; 
 
 . Infrared measurements of sea-surface and island temperatures; 
 
 . Short wave solar radiation measurements; 
 
 . Aerosol count; and 
 
 . Infrared measurements of atmospheric water vapor. 
 
 These observations will be used for a number of studies, including: 
 
 , Study of atmospheric motions, structure and physical processes 
 operating in the equatorial convergence zone; 
 
 . Effect of atolls on oceanic currents; 
 
 . Interaction between the ocean surface and the overlying atmosphere; 
 
 . Synoptic and subsynoptic weather processes in the tropical region; 
 
 . Investigations of ocean-atmospheric momentum exchange, Lagrangian 
 dynamics and atmospheric tides; and 
 
 . Sea-surface and subcloud layer temperature gradients in the 
 vicinity of the intertropical convergence zone. 
 
 - 52 - 
 
World Weather Program 
 
 Several Federal agencies are planning to support the World Weather 
 Program which consists of the World Weather Watch (WWW) and the Global 
 Atmospheric Research Program (GARP). The WWW will be a system for observing, 
 communicating, and processing global weather data adequate to meet the needs 
 of the nations of the world. Implementing the global system will require 
 complex system design activities, considerable technological development and 
 a full-scale research program. 
 
 Extending the time range of marine environmental prediction is an 
 essential goal of the service improvement program. This is an integral part 
 of the larger problem of long range meteorological predictions. The inter- 
 national scientific community, through International Council for Scientific 
 Unions (ICSU) and WMO, have joined together to plan GARP which will conduct 
 basic research into the dynamics of the atmosphere with the objective of 
 extending the time range of forecasts. This program will be concerned with 
 the total atmosphere - continental as well as marine. 
 
 A number of comprehensive field experiments will be required in the 
 pursuit of GARP. The first of these will be the Barbados Oceanographic 
 and Meteorological Experiment (BOMEX) , an experiment being planned and 
 organized by the United States, to be carried out in the vicinity of the 
 Island of Barbados in the spring of 1969. 
 
 The primary focus of BOMEX is on the problem of ocean-atmosphere 
 interaction. The specific boundary layer research objectives include 
 studies of: 
 
 . The flux of momentum, radioactivity, aerosols and energy (radiative, 
 sensible and latent heat) at the interface and their divergence and 
 transformations in the interior of each fluid; 
 
 . The response of the atmosphere - ocean system to variations in 
 boundary conditions; and 
 
 . The feasibility of parameterizing the area-wide integral of at least 
 the surface fluxes from observation at the fixed corners or perimeters, 
 
 Research in the preceding areas will provide essential ingredients in 
 the refinement of the mathematical models of the atmosphere - a prerequisite 
 to extending the time range of forecasts - and will provide valuable 
 experience for follow-on and larger experiments in the future. 
 
 A number of Federal agencies, universities, and the National Center for 
 Atmospheric Research (NCAR) are participating in this experiment. A BOMEX 
 Project Office has been established in the Office of World Weather Systems, 
 ESSA, to provide a focus for the design and planning of the total experiment. 
 
 - 53 - 
 

 The largest and most complex of the projects being planned under GARP 
 is the Global Meteorological Experiment (GLOMEX). Both the establishment 
 of the WWW and the conduct of GLOMEX involve difficult system design and 
 integration problems. The United States will participate in appropriate 
 design studies. This activity includes cost/performance analyses of 
 alternative configurations, further evaluation of potential of new techniques, 
 formulation of new processing techniques, subsystem and system design for 
 both the WWW and GLOMEX. The planned United States effort, principally by 
 NASA and the Department of Commerce, falls into five areas: 
 
 . Overall systems design and integration studies (Commerce); 
 
 . Global observation system design (Commerce); 
 
 . Global telecommunications system design (Commerce); 
 
 . Global data processing system design (Commerce); and 
 
 . Satellite system feasibility and design studies (NASA). 
 
 Achievement of the long-range objectives of the WWW depends heavily on 
 development of new observation and communication techniques. Although 
 present technology is capable of providing the observations and communications 
 required, the new technology, which includes balloons, buoys and satellites 
 for remote sensing, communications and data collection, offers promise of 
 reducing the cost of the World Weather Watch and GLOMEX in comparison with 
 costs associated with present technology. 
 
 Meteorological Satellite Applications 
 
 Much of the meteorological satellite development effort will have a 
 major impact on the Marine Meteorological Service. Satellite remote sensing 
 instrumentation offers promise of being the most effective and economical 
 technique for observing cloud distribution and vertical profiles of tempera- 
 ture, water vapor nnd ozone over oceanic areas. Development of sensors to 
 accomplish these observations includes infrared radiometers and spectrometers, 
 microwave techniques, lasers and ultra-violet devices. Some of these 
 developments are further advanced than others and may be integrated into the 
 WWW and GLOMEX in the early 197V s. The final configuration of remote 
 sensors for use in an operational satellite system will be dependent upon a 
 test flight program and evaluation of data received from the competing 
 sensors. Satellites are required to flight test remote sensor^ and <->ther 
 equipment. Nimbus B, D, E, and F and the Applications Technology Satellites 
 (ATS) provide the required test beds. Early versions of remote sensors 
 will be tested on Nimbus B and development of advanced models will continue. 
 
 - 54 - 
 
A conceptual system study of the WWW has indicated that satellites offer 
 the most efficient and least cost, long-range approach for carrying out the 
 functions of the Global Telecommunications System. Communication feasibility 
 tests, continued experimentation, and new communications techniques and 
 transmission and receiving equipment will be necessary before a fully satis- 
 factory spacecraft can be achieved. A test will be conducted on ATS-3 and 
 further studies will be undertaken. 
 
 The concept of obtaining atmospheric measurements through the use of 
 satellites to interrogate and locate measuring devices mounted on earth, 
 ocean, or atmospheric platforms offers great promise for the WWW and GLOMEX. 
 Three satellite data location and collection (DATALOCOL) systems are now 
 under development. These include Interrogating, Recording, Locating System 
 (IRLS), Omega Positioning and Locating Equipment (OPLE), and EOLE , a French 
 system. The United States is cooperating in the test of EOLE. After 
 evaluation of the results of system tests, a preoperational DATALOCOL system 
 will be designed and fabricated. Initial models of IRLS I and OPLE I systems 
 will be tested during FY-68 and development will continue on advanced 
 versions. 
 
 Other Applications 
 
 Other related efforts by ESSA include the development of a windfinding 
 system for use on merchant ships. An attempt is being made to develop an 
 automatic antenna system which does not require the highly sophisticated 
 tracking system used on land. Further, ESSA is engaged in a two-phased buoy 
 development program. The first phase will determine operational, equipment 
 and total system requirements. The second effort is to develop and test 
 three prototype satellite-interrogated buoys to determine sea-keeping and 
 communications capabilities. The results of these two programs will 
 determine total hardware requirements. 
 
 Studies are also being made of the atmospheric effects on the dynamics 
 of the circulation in the Great Lakes and in the San Francisco Bay area. 
 
 Other research efforts include the development of an airborne radio- 
 meter for use not only in measuring sea-surface temperature, but also in 
 making a heat budget study of the sea-surface and the development of a 
 capability for making reasonably accurate measurements of vertical turbulent 
 flux. 
 
 The Department of Transportation (Coast Guard) is programing a large 
 effort in marine sciences for FY-69. Although this is a related program 
 which will benefit meteorology, the program funding is carried entirely in 
 the marine sciences area. This effort is a research and development, test 
 and evaluation program leading to a national data buoy system. Since the 
 most serious deficiency in the available information on data buoys is the 
 lack of knowledge on their reliability and survivability, the plan is to: 
 
 - 55 - 
 
. Establish an operational test system of buoys in the natural 
 
 environment using readily available equipment to test for reliability 
 and survivability; 
 
 . Carry on a research and development phase to establish a five-year 
 state-of-the-art position; and 
 
 . Establish a modest program for looking at future possible 
 technological breakthroughs. 
 
 The capability to make meteorological observations from these buoys is 
 an integral part of the program. 
 
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