s o Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2013 with funding from LYRASIS Members and Sloan Foundation http://archive.org/details/fireinunitedstatOOnati Highlights of the Report Fire is one of our Nation's major problems. Each year it causes thousands of deaths, hundreds of thousands of injuries, and billions of dollars of property loss. It causes more loss of life and property than all natural disasters combined. In the home it is the second most frequent cause of accidental death. If a "catastrophe" is defined as an event that causes five or more deaths at one time, fire is the catastrophe that occurs most frequently in this country. If we are to reduce fire losses as much as we can as a Nation, fire departments across the country, Federal and State governments, and others active in the fire protection field need to more clearly identify their fire problems and con- tinually evaluate their priorities for action, priori- ties that compete for staff time and funds. They need to identify what works and what does not work, and to target programs more accurately. To do these tasks well, they need more detailed, more reliable information than has been available to date. Objectives of This Report This report is intended to provide part of the information that is needed for the above pur- poses. As a by-product, it illustrates ways that State and local governments might analyze their own fire problems. It is the first in what is planned to be an annual series. The report describes the magnitude of the na- tional fire problem in terms of numbers of fires, deaths, injuries, and dollars lost. It also describes specific characteristics of the fire problem, such as who are the victims and what are the causes of fires in various types of property. Although some suggestions for reducing the fire problem are included, the reader is encouraged to formu- late his own. Better Fire Data Needed Before discussing findings, we must emphasize that the fire data currently available leave much to be desired in completeness, accuracy, and comparability — especially for rural sections of the United States. This report is uneven in detail on different aspects of the fire problem largely due to deficiencies in the available data when we began our analysis. The most detailed data on fire causes were avail- able for a full year only for two States — California and Ohio. A few other States had detailed data, but not in a form that was easily comparable. The limited State data available this year were supplemented by data from seven cities (in other States) with compatible data systems. In spite of the shortcomings, however, we think that the available data accurately character- ize some major aspects of the U.S. fire problem. Sources drawn upon for this report included the following: National Fire Protection Association (NFPA); Center for Health Statistics of the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW); insurance industry; National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS) of the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration (NFPCA); National Household Fire Survey; and State Fire Marshals' reports. Improved fire data is likely in the near future. More and more State and local governments are upgrading their fire data collection programs. Participation in the National Fire Incident Report- ing System is growing. And more attention is being paid to fire data at all levels of government. But there is clearly still a long way to go. Some of the key findings in this report are summarized below. Except where otherwise noted, all the findings are based on information about fires that were attended by the fire service. References in parentheses below indicate where each finding is given in the report. in National Estimates Show Severe U.S. Fire Problem In the mid-70's the Nation's annual fire experi- ence was approximately as follows: FIRES 2,600,000 Reported to Fire Service 30,000,000 Not Reported to Fire Service 32,600,000 Total DEATHS 7,500 INJURIES 110,000 Reported to Fire Service 200,000 Not Reported to Fire Service 310,000 Total DOLLAR LOSS . . $ 4.2+ Billion Direct Property $ 9.4+ Billion Other Costs $13.6+ Billion Total See Part I Section II for data in- terpretation notes. When these U.S. statistics are compared with those from other industrialized countries, our fire incidents, casualties, and dollar loss per capita are found to be among the highest in the world. U.S. casualties and losses per fire, however, are slightly below average compared to other countries. These results support the increasing belief that in order to make a major dent in the national problem we need to emphasize better fire prevention. (Part 1, Table 8) Estimates for the above U.S. statistics differ widely from source to source, sometimes by 50- 100 percent. This variation is a result of different methods and assumptions used in collecting and analyzing the data. (Examples of the variation for each estimate are given in Part I, Table 2.) Fire Deaths Are Highest in the Home • Residential fires are the main killer and should receive high priority in prevention pro- grams if we are to reduce fire deaths significantly. We think that the use of smoke detectors, coupled with escape plans, is one of the promising ways to reduce this toll. • Roughly two-thirds of fire deaths occur in residences, mostly in ones and twos in the vic- tims' own homes. However, the less than 4 per- cent of fire deaths that occur in multiples of five or more draw the most attention. As a result, the residential fire danger probably is underestimated by the public. • Only a small fraction of deaths (for example, 7 percent in California and Ohio) are in com- mercial or institutional places such as nightclubs, schools, jails, offices, or nursing homes. We should not, of course, permit these statistics to let us get complacent about the threat of fire in public buildings lest we invite more frequent catastrophes such as the 1977 Southgate, Ky., nightclub fire. (Part I, Tables 13 and 18) Who Dies • Among civilians (that is, anyone not a fire- fighter), males (especially nonwhite males), the very old, and the very young are high risk groups that fire prevention should focus on. While the problem of high fire death rates among the elderly, children, and nonwhites has long been known, the predominance of males as victims has not. This problem deserves more attention in prevention programs than it has received. • Nationwide, males outnumber females al- most two to one as fire death victims. Nonwhite males have more than twice the fire death rate of white males and almost twice that of nonwhite females. And nonwhite females have almost three times the rate of white females. (Part I, Figure 2) • Firefighters have the Nation's most hazard- ous profession in terms of death rates. Not surprisingly, they also have the highest fire death rate for any group in our society — it is over 25 times that of civilians. Firefighter on-duty deaths are most often (45 percent) caused by heart at- tacks and other cardiovascular problems, which suggests the potential importance of improving fire service physical fitness programs. (Part I, Table 5 and Section IV) IV WHERE FIRE DEATHS OCCUR Property Type Public Assembly Education Institutions Residential Stores, Offices Basic Industry Manufacturing Storage Transportation Other 30 40 50 60 70 Percent of All Fire Deaths Source: California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976). 100 100 90 - 80 - (A - o 70 £ q! 60 Si 50 40 National Average. 301- 20 - 10 - FIRE DEATH RATES BY RACE AND SEX- 1974 74.0 28.6 93.1 43.6 37.6 24.3 White Non- Males Females White Non- White Males White Source: National Center for Health Statistics. Males 56.0 20.2 White Non- Females White Females Who Gets Hurt • Unlike deaths, the risk of fire injury is highest for those in the 18-35 age group, and not the very young and very old. This may be due to a greater number of exposures to danger for people in their most active years, but an in- creased ability to escape with minor injuries when exposed. (Part I, Table 28) • For civilians in Ohio, the only State for which we have injury data by sex, about the same two-for-one male-female ratio is true for injuries as for deaths. Male injury victims outnumber fe- male victims not only overall, but also for every age group under 65. (Part I, Figures 2, 12; Part II, Table 27) • Civilian fire injuries are largely due to burns or "smoke" inhalation or both (83 percent in Ohio). As was noted for civilian deaths, smoke detectors offer good potential for reducing these injuries. Further research is needed on the relative frequency with which the various components of "smoke" caused either death or injury as a guide to both prevention and medical care. (Part I, Table 12; Part II, Table 32) • Firefighter injuries also require more atten- tion in research and prevention than they have CIVILIAN NON-FATAL INJURIES BY AGE AND SEX AGE IN YEARS MALE FEMALE 14 0-5 6-17 18-25 11 26-35 36-45 46-55 56-65 66-75 75 + Unknown 15 10 5 5 10 Percent of Total Injuries 15 Source: Ohio (NFIRS 1976). CIVILIAN NON-FATAL INJURIES BY NATURE OF INJURY 31 NATURE OF INJURY MALE | FEMALE Burns & Asphyxia/Smoke Burns Only "112 16 Asphyxia/Smoke Only ]12 Wound, Cut, Bleeding 6C3 2 Dislocation, Fracture 1Q]1 Complaint of Pain 0.8 [J] 0.9 Shock 0.6)0.6 Strain, Sprain 0.6 [J 0.7 Other 0.8 [J] 0.9 Unknown 1 111 0.6 L 30 1 1 1 1 1 20 10 10 20 Percent of Total Injuries 1 30 Source: Ohio (NFIRS 1976). VI received if we are to reduce the Nation's fire injuries significantly. Firefighters incur over half of the injuries sustained at fires they attend. This nationwide estimate is supported by the detailed analysis of data from Ohio (56 percent) and in seven cities elsewhere (54 percent). (Part I, Table 5; Part II, Table 32) • Firefighters need an across-the-board im- provement in their protective clothing. They need to make greater use of breathing apparatus. They need to achieve and maintain a higher level of physical fitness. And they need better fire safety training. "Smoke" (often carbon monoxide) in- halation seems to be the most common type of firefighter injury. In Ohio, for example, smoke inhalation accounted for 25 percent of incident- related injuries to firefighters, followed by strains and sprains (17 percent), cuts or wounds (17 percent), and burns (11 percent). (Smoke and burns combined were another 4 percent.) Fire- fighter injuries other than smoke inhalation were distributed roughly evenly over the body. (Part I, Table 5; Part II, Tables 29, 31, 32) It should be noted that the injury data — both for civilians and firefighters — are of much more questionable accuracy than fire death data. The major uncertainty probably is the degree of under-reporting (though in some cases, over- reporting) of minor injuries. The Problem Varies by Location • Overall, the fire death problem seems more severe both in large cities and in rural com- munities than in mid-sized communities. Fire death rates plotted versus population size have a U-shaped pattern, with a low in medium-sized cities (50-100,000 population) and highs in cities of over a million population at one extreme and in small towns and areas of under 5,000 popula- tion at the other, according to NFPA 1974 survey data. Supplemental data gathered from cities over one million population indicate that the big city fire death rate may be even higher than shown in the figure, perhaps exceeding 50 deaths per million on the average. (Part I, Figure 4) Patterns for fire incidents, injuries, and dollar loss are more complex and less reliable than for deaths, and are not easily summarized. (See Part I, Figures 4 and 14 for the patterns.) • Statewide fire death rates are highest in Alaska and Maine and the belt of Southern States from Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Louisiana through Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and the Carolinas (over 42 deaths per million in en CD c $* f Of v o °o ■&.. Community Population Size Source: 1974 NFPA Survey. °-o n VII each State). The fire death problem in these States is serious during the period considered. How- ever, in any given year, a State just by laws of chance may have a high fire death rate. • State and local governments should analyze their own fire problems and not rely on analyses from others. National trends and regional similari- ties exist, but there are also striking differences from place to place. To cite one example for residential fires, some of the six Ohio cities with over 200,000 population had smoking-related fires far outnumbering cooking-related fires, some had the reverse, and some had both about the same. In some of these cities arson outnumbered both cooking and smoking as a cause of residential fires; in others arson was lower than both. While some of the variation might be due to differences in reporting procedures, some of it is probably real. Each community should try to identify its own priorities and to learn why it differs from others. (Part II, Table 48) Deaths Trend Downward, Dollar Loss Upward • The annual U.S. fire death rate has declined slightly during the last 20 years, though it is still among the highest in the world. We did not find adequate data for assessing trends in injuries. (Part I, Figure 10) • Direct dollar loss from fire, adjusted for in- flation, has about doubled over the last 20 years. Per capita dollar loss, also adjusted for inflation, STATE FIRE DEATH RATES - DEATHS PER MILLION POPULATION (AVERAGE 1974-75) Deaths Per Million [ I Less Than 26 [ ] 34 to 42 [ | 26 to 34 | | 42 or Greater Source: State Fire Marshals and National Center for Health Statistics. VIII has increased by about 40 percent over this same period. But, overall, losses have remained a fairly constant percentage of the Gross National Product. (Part I, Figures 7, 8, and 9) Eight Cause Categories Predominate For the two States examined in detail-Ohio and California — and seven additional cities with comparable data systems, the leading causes of fire are described below. These data may or may not be representative of the entire United States; they collectively represent about 15 percent of the U.S. population, but are not a random sample. In general, the cause pattern was quite similar in the two States and the seven cities. In the two States combined, residential fires are only 22 percent of all fires attended by the fire service; but they account for 68 percent of deaths, 57 percent of injuries, and 43 percent of dollar loss. (Part I, Table 13) • The eight major "known" cause categories of residential fires in the two States combined are, in order of frequency: cooking (18 percent), smoking (13), heating (13), incendiary or sus- picious (11), electrical distribution (7), appliances (7), children playing (5), and carelessness with open flames or sparks (5). These general "cause" categories are shorthand for groups of more complex causes. The percentages shown in paren- theses are of all fires attended by the fire service, not just "known cause" fires. The actual per- centages thus may be somewhat higher, depend- ing on the true causes of the 10 percent of fires listed as "unknown." (Part I, Figure 13) • Among cooking fires, cooking left unattended (for example, while talking with neighbors or watching TV) was the most common problem. For smoking-related fires, dropped, thrown, or abandoned cigarettes were the most common problems. For heating-related fires, there appear to be sharp regional differences in the nature of the problem: Failures of central heating sys- tems and construction of deficiencies in fireplaces lead a wide variety of mechanical and operational problems in Ohio; "combustibles stored too close" to fixed room heating equipment and water heaters, and, surprisingly, "misuse" of fireplaces are among the leading heating-related problems in California. (Part II, Tables 38, 35, and 40) • The most frequently reported cause of resi- dential deaths (29 percent) and injuries (18 per- cent) in the two States is smoking, mostly ciga- rettes igniting bedding, mattresses, or upholstered furniture. The second most frequent cause of residential fire deaths and injuries in the two States, surpris- ingly, is cooking fires (9 percent of deaths, 13 per- cent of injuries). Although most people probably think of cooking fires as minor, they occur fre- quently; and the small fraction of them that are not minor cause a large number of casualties. Heating-related fires (8 percent of deaths, 12 percent of injuries) and incendiary/suspicious fires (6 percent of deaths, 12 percent of injuries) are close behind cooking as third and fourth causes of casualties. CAUSES OF RESIDENTIAL FIRES FIRES Cooking Smoking Heating Incendiary/ Suspicious Electrical Distribution Appliances Children Playing Open Flame, Spark Exposure Flammable Liquids Explosives, Fireworks Air Cond., Refrigeration Natural Gas Other Equipment Other Heat Unknown Cause 18 13 13 11 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.3 0.4 i 10 5 10 15 20 Percent Source: California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976). IX Again, percentages here are of total fire deaths, not just those with a known cause. Actual per- centages may be considerably higher depending on the true nature of the "unknown cause" deaths — an enormous 31 percent in these two States. (Part I, Figures 13; Part II, Table 33) • The known cause accounting for the most dollar loss is incendiary/suspicious fires (16 per- cent). Next highest is heating-related fires (14 percent). (Part I, Figure 13) • Better fire investigation and reporting prac- tices are needed to reduce the number of fires with cause listed as "unknown." There always will be some fires for which the cause will be unknown, but the fraction today seems excessive. "Unknown" is the leading cause category in the two States for deaths (31 percent) and dollar loss (19 percent), second for injuries (14 percent), and fifth for the number of fires (10 percent). Although the known causes discussed above clearly are important ones, their rank ordering could change significantly depending on what the "unknown" causes actually are. (Part I, Figure 13) CAUSES OF RESIDENTIAL FIRE CASUALTIES L Cooking Smoking Heating Incendiary/ Suspicious Electrical Distribution Appliances Children Playing Open Flame, Spark Exposure Flammable Liquids Explosives, Fireworks Air Cond., Refrigeration Natural Gas Other Equipment Other Heat Unknown Cause DEATHS n 3 0.2 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.4 3 29 31 10 15 20 25 30 Percent INJURIES I 13 12 12 7 5 6 4 ]~2 I 1.8 n.R 0.3 0.6 1.4 0.2 1.7 18 14 10 15 20 Source: California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976). CAUSES OF RESIDENTIAL FIRE DOLLAR LOSS DOLLAR LOSS Cooking Smoking Heating Incendiary/ Suspicious Electrical Distribution Appliances Children Playing Open Flame, Spark Exposure Flammable Liquids Explosives, Fireworks Air Cond., Refrigeration Natural Gas Other Equipment Other Heat Unknown Cause |7 11 114 J 16 12 4 4 4 4 | 1.0 0.4 0.6 0.9 0.8 0.4 \ 1.8 19 5 10 15 20 Percent Source: California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976). Non-residential building fires in the two States account for only 10 percent of all fires, 7 percent of deaths, 26 percent of injuries, but for 43 percent of dollar losses — tied with residential dollar loss (Part I, Table 13). Non-residential buildings cover an enormous range of structures and uses and probably should not be viewed as a single category. Principal causes vary considerably for different types of non-residential buildings, and prevention efforts should be tailored to the leading causes in each. • Overall, incendiary and suspicious fires are the number one problem for non-residential buildings. They account for 20 percent to 25 percent of non-residential building fires, deaths, injuries, and dollar loss. "Unknown" is the second most frequent cause reported (13 percent). The next most frequent cause categories are electrical distribution fires (11 percent), carelessness involv- ing open flames or sparks (8 percent), and smok- ing related fires (8 percent). As with residential, the unknowns could change the rank orderings. (Part I, Table 18) • For each category of non-residential oc- cupancies, in the two States, the leading causes are shown below. More than one cause is listed when one alone did not dominate: Public Assembly . . . .Cooking (mainly restaurants) Incendiary/Suspicious Education Smoking Incendiary/Suspicious in public day schools Institutions Smoking Incendiary/Suspicious Stores, Offices Incendiary/Suspicious Electrical Distribution Basic Industry Electrical Distribution (most- ly from fires in the energy distribution industry) Manufacturing Many assorted causes Storage Incendiary/Suspicious Vacant, Construction Incendiary/Suspicious (Part I, Table 18; Part II, Section XI) Unreported Fires Should Not Be Disregarded Fires not reported to the fire service cannot be assumed to be trivial. About 9 out of 10 fires in households are not reported to fire departments, according to the 1974 National Household Fire Survey of 33,000 households. Most of these un- reported fires involve cooking and are very small. However, the survey showed that almost half of the fires causing injuries severe enough to result in time lost from work were not reported to the fire service. And over half of the fires with more than a $200 loss were not reported. Another survey in a year or two is needed to see if these results will still apply. (Part I, Section IV) Findings Should Be Used to Reduce Losses Knowledge of the most common causes of fires can be used in setting prevention priorities. The priority to be assigned to any particular cause is not necessarily its frequency rank, however. XI Sometimes a greater reduction in fire loss can be achieved per dollar or man-year spent on pre- venting a lower ranking cause than a higher one, because of the difficulty in making progress on the higher one. And sometimes a group of citizens may have a disproportionately high casualty rate due to a cause that is not one of the most frequent ones community-wide. Priority setting must con- sider these productivity and equity issues as well as frequency of occurrence. To reduce fire losses further, fire protection leaders, prevention officers, researchers, code makers, and others concerned with the Nation's fire problem can now make use of the improved information they called for. Making sure that fire prevention efforts are targeted accurately in each community is perhaps the most important "next step." When this is done, it will show the thou- sands of firefighters who are bearing the brunt of data collection that their efforts are paying off. XII Acknowledgments Several thousand local fire departments and tens of thousands of firefighters collected the raw data that were used in this report. Their efforts are greatly appreciated. Special thanks for providing data go to the State governments of California and Ohio; to the local governments of Denver, Colo.; Jacksonville Fla.; Kansas City, Mo.; Madison, Wis.; Syracuse and New York, N.Y.; Tucson, Ariz.; Wichita, Kans.; Detroit, Mich.; Philadelphia, Pa.; Los Angeles City, Calif.; to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), Boston, Mass.; and to the Insurance In- formation Institute, New York, N.Y. We also would like to acknowledge NFPA's assistance in undertaking new analyses of their 1974 survey data for us. Many individuals reviewed early drafts of this report and provided valuable suggestions. We gratefully acknowledge reviews we received from the following: REVIEWER Mr. Terry E. Drake and Mr. Don Ryan Asst. Chief Charles F. Collini Chief Carl Neeb Mr. Philip Favro and Mr. John Tessore Chief John C. Gerard Chief Clyde Bragdon, Jr. Chief R. Yarborough Chief E. Dean Holland Chief Thomas Hanlon and Captain Henry Boynton Chief Floyd E. Hobbs Mr. Gordon Helmeid Chief Myrle K. Wise Asst. Chief Glen A. Wilcox Mr. David Gratz Mr. Walter Lambert Ms. Joann Langston Dr. Lois MacGillivray Mr. Harry Hatry and Dr. John Hall Dr. Walter Berl Chief Howard D. Boyd Mr. William Tikkala Mr. Benjamin Buchbinder and Mr. Richard Custer Mr. Elwood Willey and Dr. Lou Derry Mr. Jeffrey Stamps ORGANIZATION State Fire Marshal Fire Department Fire Department State Fire Marshal Fire Department Fire Department Fire Department Fire Department Fire Department Fire Department State Fire Marshal Fire Department Fire Department IAFC IAFF Consumer Product Safety Commission Research Triangle Institute The Urban Institute The Johns Hopkins University Fire Marshals Association of North America U.S. Forest Service National Bureau of Standards National Fire Protection Association Whitewood Stamps, Inc. LOCATION Reynoldsburg, Ohio Cincinnati, Ohio Toledo, Ohio Sacramento, Calif. Los Angeles City, Calif. Los Angeles County, Calif. Jacksonville, Fla. Tucson, Ariz. Syracuse, N.Y. Wichita, Kan. Madison, Wis. Denver, Colo. Madison, Wis. Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. Research Triangle Park, N.C. Washington, D.C. Laurel, Md. Nashville, Tenn. Washington, D.C. Gaithersburg, Md. Boston, Mass. Newton, Mass. This report was prepared by the National Fire Data Center. The principal authors include: Paul Gunther, Geraldine Fristrom, John Overbey, Philip Schaenman, and Sandra Steinhorn. Barbara Lund- quist was responsible for the production of the report. Special thanks from the authors go to Car- olyn Alderman, Joan Revak, and Danny Young, who typed innumerable drafts. XIII Table of Contents Page Highlights of the Report iii Acknowledgments xiii Introduction 1 PART I. NATIONAL FIRE ESTIMATES AND SELECTED STATISTICS Section I. Introduction to Part I Section II. The National Fire Problem 9 National Fire Losses 9 Basis of National Estimates 10 Estimated Year-to-Year Change in Fire Loss 14 Fire Death Rates by States 14 Fire Death Rates by Sex and Race 15 Fire Death Rates by Property Type 16 Firefighter Deaths and Injuries 16 Fire Losses Versus Community Size: Urban and Rural Estimates 18 Section III. Comparisons: Other Years, Other Hazards, Other Countries 23 Fire Incidence and Losses Through the Years 23 Fire Deaths Through the Years 24 Incendiary Fires Through the Years 26 Wildfires Through the Years 26 How the United States Compares to Other Nations . 28 How Fire Compares with Other Hazards 28 Section IV. Selected Characteristics of Fires 33 Injuries Caused by Fire 33 Where Fire Losses Occur 34 Viewing Fire Causes 35 Causes of Residential Fires 38 Fire Causes in Different Size Communities 40 Unreported Household Fires 44 Characteristics of Non-Residential Structure Fires ... 45 Characteristics of Mobile and Outside Property Fires 50 Fire Losses By Day, Week, and Year 50 Performance of Fire Protection Equipment 53 xv Table of Contents-Continued Page PART II. CHARACTERISTICS OF FIRES FOR SELECTED STATES AND CITIES Section V. Introduction to Part II 59 Data Limitations 59 Organization of Part II 60 Highlighting 60 Precision 60 Types of Numbers in the Tables 60 Section VI. Fire Frequency and Loss by Major Occupancy Types . . 61 Major Occupancy Classes 61 Large Structural Fires 61 Non-Residential Structure Fires 61 Large Non-Residential Structure Fires 62 Mobile Property and Outside Fires 62 Section VII. Characteristics of Fire Casualties 69 Ohio Fire Casualties by Age and Sex 69 Ohio Fire Casualties by Nature of Injury 70 Ohio Fire Casualties by Cause of Casualty 72 Ohio Fire Casualties by Part of Body Injured 73 Fire Casualties in Seven UFIRS Cities 75 Section VIII. Residential Fires Summary of Causes of Residential Fires Frequency and Causes by Type of Residence 78 Section IX. Detailed Characteristics of Residential Fires 81 Residential Cooking Fires 81 Residential Smoking-Related Fires 84 Residential Heating-Related Fires 91 Residential Incendiary or Suspicious Fires 95 Residential Electrical Distribution Fires 96 Residential Fires Involving Appliances 96 Residential Fires Resulting from Children Playing . . 102 Section X. City by City Fire Data 103 Summary of City by City Fire Data 103 Comparison by City of Residential Fire Causes .... 106 Section XI. Causes of Non-Residential Fires 111 Summary of Causes of Non-Residential Fires .... 111 Detailed Characteristics of Non-Residential Fires . . 111 xvi Table of Contents-Continued Page PART III. APPENDICES Appendix I. Fire-Related Activities of the Federal Government . . . 153 Appendix II. Annual Investment in Fire Safety 157 Appendix III. NFPA 1974 Survey 159 Appendix IV. State Fire Marshal Data 167 Appendix V. National Center for Health Statistics Data: The Basis for NFPCA National Fire Death Estimates 177 Appendix VI. Estimating Precision of Fire Incidents and Fire Casualties 181 Appendix VII. Tables of Fire Losses by Ignition Characteristics 183 Appendix VIII. Additional Findings from the Household Survey of Fires 191 Appendix IX. Tables of California and Ohio Residential Fire Incidents and Rates by Cause 193 Appendix X. Detailed Tables of California and Ohio Residential Fires 199 Appendix XI. Number of Reported Residential Fires by Community and Cause 213 Appendix XII. Number of California and Ohio Fires in Non-Residential Structures by Cause . 217 Appendix XIII. Dollar Loss and Number of California and Ohio Fires in Mobile Properties by Cause 221 Glossary of Selected Terms Used in This Report 231 References 233 Index 237 List of Tables PART Table Number 1 2 3 NFPCA's "Best" National Estimates of U.S. Fire Losses (1975) Comparison of National Estimates from Various Sources Comparison of Different Estimates of Year-to-Year Changes (1974 to 1975) Page 9 12 13 XVII List of Tables-Continued Table Number Page 4 States with Highest and Lowest Fire Death Rates (Circa 1975) 16 5 Firefighter Casualties 19 6 Building Fires of Detected Incendiary or Suspicious Origin 27 7 Wildfires Through the Years on Federal, State, and Private Protected Lands 27 8 Where the United States Stands Among Nations — Building Fires, 1972-1974 29 9 Comparison of Annual Losses from Fires, Accidents, Natural Disasters, and Crimes (Mid 1970's) 30 10 Where Fire Stands Among Residential Accident Fatalities, 1975 31 11 Catastrophic Accidents and Deaths by Type of Incident, 1941-1975 32 12 Fire Casualties by Nature of Injury— Ohio (NFIRS 1976) . . 34 13 Reported Fire Losses for Major Occupancy Types — California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) Combined . . 35 14 "Cause" Categories Used in This Report 36 15 Example "Scenario" Descriptions of Residential Fires — Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 37 16 Actions to Prevent Fire in the Home 41 17 Household Injuries by Sex and Activity of Victim (Reported and Unreported Fires) 45 18 Causes of Fires Reported in Non-Residential Structures — California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) Combined . . 48 19 Some Ways to Prevent Non-Residential Fires 49 20 Summary of Reported Mobile and Outside Losses — California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) Combined . . 50 21 Effectiveness of Automatic Sprinklers in Structural Fires — Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 55 PART II 22 Reported Fire Losses by Property Type — California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 63 23 Summary of Losses from Large Structural Fires — California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 64 24 Reported Non-Residential Structure Losses by Property Type— California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 65 25 Large Fire Non-Residential Structure Losses by Property Type— California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 66 26 Mobile and Outside Losses by Property Type — California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 67 27 Fire Casualties by Age and Sex— Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 70 28 Relative Risk of Becoming a Fire Casualty 70 29 Fire Casualties by Nature of Injury— Ohio (NFIRS 1976) ... 71 30 Fire Casualties by Cause of Injury— Ohio (NFIRS 1976) ... 72 31 Fire Casualties by Part of Body Injured— Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 73 32 Summary of Fire Casualty Data by Community 74 xviii List of Tables-Continued Table Number Page 33 Residential Fires by Cause — California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 78 34 Causes of Residential Fires by Dwelling Type — California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 79 35 Residential Cooking Fires by Type of Equipment and Ignition Factor— California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 82 36 Residential Cooking Fires in Stoves and Ovens by Type of Fuel and Ignition Factor — California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 85 37 Residential Cooking Fires in Stoves and Ovens by Type of Fuel and Material First Ignited — California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 87 38 Characteristics of Smoking Fires in Residential Occupancies —California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 88 39 Type and Form of Material First Ignited in Residential Smoking Fires — California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 89 40 Residential Heating Fires by Type of Heating and Ignition Factor— California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 92 41 Central Heating Fires in Residential Occupancies by Type of Fuel and Ignition Factor — California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 94 42 Characteristics of Incendiary/Suspicious Fires in Residential Occupancies— California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 95 43 Electrical Distribution Fires in Residential Occupancies by Electrical Component and Ignition Factor — California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 97 44 Appliance Fires in Residential Occupancies by Appliance Type and Ignition Factor — California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 99 45 Residential Fires Caused by Children Playing Listed by Ignition Characteristic— California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 101 46 Reported Fires and Fire Losses by Community and Type of Occupancy 104 47 Rate of Reported Fires and Fire Losses by Community and Type of Occupancy 105 48 Percent of Residential Fires by Community and Cause 108 49 Rate of Residential Fires by Community and Cause 109 50 Fires in Non-Residential Structures by Property Type and Cause— California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) . 112 51 California Fires in Public Assembly Properties by Cause and Property Type (CFIRS 1975) 116 xix List of Tables-Continued Table Number Page 52 Ohio Fires in Public Assembly Properties by Cause and Property Type (NFIRS 1976) 118 53 California Fires in Educational Properties by Cause and Property Type (CFIRS 1975) 120 54 Ohio Fires in Educational Properties by Cause and Property Type (NFIRS 1976) 122 55 California Fires in Institutional Properties by Cause and Property Type (CFIRS 1975) 124 56 Ohio Fires in Institutional Properties by Cause and Property Type (NFIRS 1976) 126 57 California Fires in Store and Office Properties by Cause and Property Type (CFIRS 1975) 130 58 Ohio Fires in Store and Office Properties by Cause and Property Type (NFIRS 1976) 132 59 California Fires in Basic Industry, Utility, and Defense Properties by Cause and Property Type (CFIRS 1975) .... 134 60 Ohio Fires in Basic Industry, Utility, and Defense Properties by Cause and Property Type (NFIRS 1976) .... 136 61 California Fires in Manufacturing Properties by Cause and Property Type (CFIRS 1975) 138 62 Ohio Fires in Manufacturing Properties by Cause and Property Type (NFIRS 1976) 140 63 California Fires in Storage Properties by Cause and Property Type (CFIRS 1975) 142 64 Ohio Fires in Storage Properties by Cause and Property Type (NFIRS 1976) 144 65 California Fires in Mobile Properties by Cause and Mobile Property Type (CFIRS 1975) 146 66 Ohio Fires in Mobile Properties by Cause and Mobile Property Type (NFIRS 1976) 148 List of Figures PART I Figure Number Page 1 State Fire Death Rates — Deaths Per Million Population (Circa 1975) 15 2 Fire Death Rates by Race and Sex — 1974 17 3 Where Fire Deaths Occur 17 4 Fire Losses vs. Community Size (1974 NFPA Survey) 20 5 Fire Incident Rate by Property Type and Community Size . . 21 6 Fire Death Rate by Building Type and Community Size .... 22 Fires and Fire Dollar Losses Per Capita Through the Years . . 23 8 Fire Dollar Losses Through the Years 24 xx List of Figures-Continued Figure Number Page 9 Fire Dollar Losses Through the Years as a Percent of the Gross National Product 25 10 Fire Death Rates Through the Years 25 11 Trends in Catastrophic Fires and Associated Death Rates . . 25 12 Fire Death Rate by Age Group, 1966-1975 26 13 Causes of Reported Residential Fires — California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) Combined 39 14 Comparison of Residential Fire Rates by Cause for Different Size Communities 42 15 Causes of Fires Reported in Non-Residential Structures — California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) Combined . . 46 16 Fires by Time of Day, All Occupancy Types — Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 51 17 Fires in Residential Occupancies by Time of Day — Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 52 18 Fires by Day of Week, All Occupancy Types — Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 53 19 Fires by Month of Year, All Occupancy Types — Ohio (NFIRS 1976) 54 PART II 20 Fire Loss Rates Versus Community Size— Ohio (NFIRS 1976) and UFIRS Cities 107 XXI Introduction "Data Can Save Lives" . . . unfortunately, the opposite is also true — data can kill. Critical decisions affecting fire and life safety are being made every day. These decisions are being based on what are believed to be "the facts" . . . and those "facts" are the result of conclusions drawn from the data YOU ARE— or are not— REPORTING . . . ACCURATELY. Think about it. PHILIP C. FAVRO California State Fire Marshal 1 Fire is one of our major and often under- recognized national problems. U.S. fire losses and casualties are high, both in absolute num- bers and relative to other nations. Developing effective ways to reduce the problem requires better understanding of its dimensions and characteristics. In an age when fire protection agencies cannot obtain resources adequate to do everything well, we must have the best pos- sible information to target available resources as efficiently as possible. As the quote above implies, not having adequate data can result in avoidable deaths and injuries due to mistargeted programs. Background This report has been written in partial fulfill- ment of the requirements set forth in Section 9 of the National Fire Prevention and Control Act, Public Law 93-498. According to Section 9, the National Fire Data Center was established specifi- cally to provide an accurate, nationwide analysis of the fire problem, identify major problem areas, assist in setting priorities, determine possible solutions to problems, and monitor the effec- tiveness of programs to reduce fire losses. This report is the National Fire Data Center's initial 1 Favro, Philip C, "Introduction: Some Observations and Conclusions," in Summary and Analysis — California Fire Incident Reporting System 1976 (Sacramento, CA: California State Fire Marshal, 1977), p. 3. effort to address the above requirements. It is the first of an annual series of reports by the Data Center designed to provide a comprehensive, continuing description of the fire problem in the United States. To assure that key data about each fire are collected in a similar way from place to place and to help assure that the data get used for fire protection at local, State, and national levels, the Fire Administration established the National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS). NFIRS uses standard terminology and reporting forms developed by the Committee on Fire Re- porting of the National Fire Protection Associa- tion. 2 One reporting form is filled out for each fire incident and another for each casualty. These reports provide information on frequency, causes, spread, and extinguishment of fires; number, na- ture, and causes of casualties; amount of direct property losses; and other relevant factors. Data on incidents other than fires also may be collected at the discretion of State and local fire authorities. NFIRS depends on the voluntary cooperation of State and local governments. Local communi- ties collect the data and send them to their State. The State processes the data and sends feed- back reports to the local communities. State and local governments can use the data to guide fire prevention efforts and to answer a variety 2 The committee includes representatives from the fire service, industry, and Government agencies. of questions about their fire problem and fire protection programs. Every three months the State sends a data tape to the National Fire Data Center in Washington, D.C. The Center analyzes the data from all participating States along with data from other sources to produce annual re- ports as well as various special studies. By the end of 1977, 19 States were involved in various stages of developing the system; five — Ohio, California, Maryland, New York, and Mis- souri — were reporting data on a regular basis to the National Fire Data Center. Data from two of these States — Ohio and California — have been reported for over a year and are used as examples of detailed analyses of the fire problem in this report. The national estimates of total fires, casualties, and losses, however, were not based on NFIRS data this year because of the limited geographic coverage of the data. Instead, we used HEW Center for Health Statistics data (on deaths), State fire marshal reports, a new analysis of the 1974 NFPA Annual Survey, and other exist- ing sources. As more States provide data over a full year, we will base the national estimates on that data source. Eventually, we hope all States and territories will participate in NFIRS. Although new and still quite limited in scope, the NFIRS system has already been very useful. Information from the over 500,000 incidents now on file is shared with other Federal agencies to assist in a wide variety of fire-related issues such as consumer product safety, mobile home stand- ards, and rural fire protection. The data have been used to answer numerous requests from industry, the fire service, and others about the Nation's fire experience. They have also been used by the National Fire Administration's program offices in assigning priorities and shaping plans. As data are uniformly reported by additional States over a longer period of time, NFIRS will become even more valuable. Purpose and Uses This series of annual reports has multiple ob- jectives. The first is to provide a description of the magnitude and trends of the overall U.S. fire problem, and how it compares to other national problems and to the experience of other nations. This information indicates how well we are doing as a Nation in fire protection and provides a perspective for allocating resources to the fire problem. It is probably true that the fire prob- lem is underestimated by the public. It is also probably true that many people misunderstand the nature of the problem due to the attention given to spectacular or catastrophic fires. The second objective of this series of reports is to detail the characteristics of the fire problem in terms of losses, causes, victims, times and places of occurrence, and other particulars. This information is essential in assigning priority rat- ings to fire protection programs. It also is needed to target programs to specific problems and to the population groups most in need of help. And, over time, it will allow evaluation of the success of the programs undertaken. A third objective is to establish baseline data, national norms, and data from a variety of com- munities that States and localities can use to see how well they are doing relative to others. Com- parisons are difficult to make accurately and often can be misinterpreted. They are important none- theless. We will work toward providing data and methodology for communities to make meaning- ful and useful comparisons. Data from individual communities invariably will show some communities being high and some low on a given type of measure. This varia- tion leads to a fourth objective, related to the preceding one: to identify places with outstand- ing results in some aspect of fire protection to see if they resulted from programs that can be used by other communities; and to identify places which may need special assistance. The fifth objective is to illustrate ways in which fire data can be analyzed by State and local gov- ernments, so they can learn more about their own problems. Developing useful analyses takes time and statistical expertise often not available in State and local fire services. By providing ex- amples of national, State, and local data analyses meaningful to policy and operations, we hope to encourage more accurate and useful analyses in many communities. A sixth objective is to provide information in support of various fire protection research ac- tivities, such as studies of the relationship of fires to community characteristics or studies of the expected benefits from improved fire resistance in certain materials. A seventh and final objective is to provide an indication of the reliability of data used for the above purposes, by contrasting estimates from various data sources and by providing estimates of confidence, precision, and accuracy where possible. Obviously, meeting all of these objectives is a tall order. This first national estimates report does not meet each of the above objectives to the same degree, and meets none as completely as we would wish. Nonetheless, those are the ends toward which we are committed. Scope In principle, the scope of this series of reports includes all aspects of fire in the United States. We do present considerable data on the overall problem. However, in practice the limitations of available resources led us to emphasize the part of the fire problem faced by local governments, especially the part concerning fires in buildings. This focus includes the greatest human and prop- erty losses and the part of the problem most likely to be influenced by changes in public policy. Availability of data also influenced the scope of this report. As a result, various aspects of the fire problem described here have different levels of statistical detail. For example, California and Ohio fire characteristics are described in more detail than those of other States because, as noted above, they were the only two States for which we had comparable data for a full year, and not because they were thought most repre- sentative. For some characteristics, only Ohio data were available. Although no claims are made about California and Ohio as typical States, they happen to be two good choices because together they contain about 15 percent of the U.S. popu- lation and a wide range of climates, community sizes, city ages, industry types, life styles, and other factors. As more States and more com- munities in each State join the National Fire In- cident Reporting System, coverage will be greater and more even. "Clean" data are not available for any single recent year for all purposes. We therefore pre- sent data from different years, mostly 1974, 1975, or 1976, in various tables and figures. The scope of each table and figure is described in the text. The overall scope of the report is summarized below: • Department Type: Paid and volunteer de- partments. • Community Size: All. • Geographic Scope: The United States in general. Ohio and California in most detail. • Property Types: All — residential and non- residential structures, vehicles, outside fires. • Fire Data: Incidents, deaths, injuries, direct dollar loss, "causes," selected other data. • Period: 1974-1975 for national estimates; 1975-1976 for details of two States. • Reported/Unreported: Mostly fires attended by the fire service; some data from a special study of unreported household fires. Excluded from the report are data for: • Industrial fires not reported to the public fire service (probably the bulk of fires in big industry). • Federal government and military fires not reported to the public fire service. • Fires involving U.S. (transportation) carriers or property outside the United States. The scope of the analyses varies, as well as the scope of the available data. Because our purpose here is to present an overview of the fire problem, the analyses do not use every data element available, nor do they summarize data at the most detailed levels of the data base. 3 Although the report shows a number of ways to analyze data that State and local governments might consider, it just scratches the surface of what can be done. Validity and Proper Use of Data Data validity is not a new problem for fire pro- tection, nor for other government services. It is a problem that is being discussed more openly than ever before, however, in the hope of achiev- ing improvements. For example, the Federal ap- proach to measuring unemployment is under re- view. The FBI Uniform Crime Reports have been found to under-report major crimes to a degree that requires separate victimization studies to supplement them. The validity of national statis- tics on illegal drug dealing and usage is unknown. The existence of these validity problems does not mean the data cannot be used. It does mean they must be used intelligently. 3 For example, data are summarized in this report by State for property types at one and two digit NFPA 901 codes, but not the third digit level. The National Fire Data Center can provide specialized computer reports from its data base at any level of # detail in the NFPA 901 codes, upon request. Charges are at cost for this service. A major objective of the National Fire Data Center is to improve and periodically evaluate the validity of fire data available at all levels of government. Toward this end, the information in this report is presented wherever possible with comments on its validity and precision. One problem facing the readers of this first report is the confidence they can place in the results presented. Some results disagree with previously well-publicized "facts" about fires. Some findings are so elementary that they may be suspect for being "newly discovered." And some of the information here is based on a new data collection system using a complex coding scheme that has not been fully broken-in in each partici- pating fire department. Whether the validity of the data is adequate depends on the question being asked. In general, most of the major findings appear to have at least face validity, and a number of reasonable- ness checks are given in the text. These, plus the results of a recent independent study of the validity of the data in one State," suggest that the data presented in this initial report probably suf- fice to identify many major problem areas. The precision of the rank ordering of fire problems is not known, however. One must be especially careful in using new data when making comparisons among com- munities. Meaningful comparisons are difficult to make even when data are reliable and com- plete because of differences in the characteristics of the fire problem faced by various communities. It is especially hazardous here because of differ- ences in the completeness of reporting of fire data to the State and national levels. Given the complex validity situation, we are particularly 4 Eisenberg, Daniel, and Cetis, Robert, Principal Investigators, Initial NFIRS Data Validation Study (Philadelphia, PA: Auerbach Associates for the National Fire Prevention and Control Adminis- tration, March 1977), Contract No. 6-34583. concerned about having the data on individual communities and States quoted without the nec- essary caveats. That would be grossly unfair and could discourage the fire service from making further advances in data collection. Organization of This Report To meet the needs of readers with different roles and interests, this report has been divided into three parts. Part I presents the overall na- tional estimates and discusses both recent and long-term trends. Highlights from more detailed studies are also included. Part II presents detailed statistical tabulations of significant characteristics of fires in Ohio, Cali- fornia, and seven cities in other States. Part II is directed primarily toward providing an under- standing of the causes of fires and fire losses, insights for targeting fire safety programs, and data useful for fire protection policy decisions at the local and State levels. The analysis illustrated in this part is also intended to provide ideas to State and local governments wishing to analyze their own fire experience. The Appendices discuss methods used to de- velop the national estimates and the quality of the data sources available; they also give more details on State and national estimates. Readers' Comments Requested We hope this report will provide a stimulus for State and local governments to upgrade the quality of their data, to make better use of the data, and to participate in the national data col- lection effort. There will be modifications and improvements in the methods of analysis em- ployed for next year's estimates. We welcome comments on how to improve the usefulness and accuracy of this report. PARTI National Fire Estimates and Selected Statistics Section I Introduction to Part I The three main sections of Part I which follow will give the reader an overall picture of the fire problem in the United States. The purposes and contents of each section are: Section II: National Fire Problem. To indicate the magnitude of the fire problem in the United States and to provide a baseline from which future progress in fire safety can be measured, this section compiles overall estimates of the Na- tion's fire losses. The national estimates presented are a composite of data from various sources. Section III: Trends and Comparisons. To show whether the problem is getting better or worse, this section presents trends in the Nation's fire death rate, number of fires, and amount of direct property loss. To show how our country is doing relative to others, a comparison is made with other Western industrialized countries. Finally, comparisons of fire to other causes of death, such as accidents, serve to place fire in perspective relative to other national problems. Section IV: Selected Characteristics of Fires. To provide more precise information needed to tar- get fire prevention, a detailed analysis is given for two States: Ohio and California. Findings sum- marized in this section include: the types and causes of fires, the differences in fire rates be- tween communities, the importance of fire pro- tection devices, and fire casualty characteristics. Principal results from the National Household Fire Survey are also summarized. More detailed anal- yses of the Ohio and California data are presented in Part II of this report. Section II The National Fire Problem NATIONAL FIRE LOSSES The National Fire Prevention and Control Ad- ministration's estimates of overall fire losses in the United States for 1975 are summarized in Table 1, below. The estimates represent a com- posite from several data sources which are de- scribed in more detail in the following pages. The year 1975 has been used rather than 1976 because the data for 1975 were more complete. For the purpose of making appropriate "baseline" estimates — the main concern here — the differ- ences from year to year are not significant. 5 5 As the National Fire Incident Reporting System becomes fully operational and the estimating methodology routinized, we can expect a shorter interval between the publication of the national estimates and the year for which they are made. There were approximately 2,600,000 fires in 1975 that were reported to the fire service, and about 30,000,000 more that were not reported. Approximately 7,500 deaths resulted from these fires. In addition, about 110,000 injuries were re- ported to the first service; another 200,000 in- juries were not reported, although they may have been reported in part to hospitals. The estimated total dollar loss — excluding such indirect losses due to fire as temporary housing, lost wages, extra food expenses, and medical treatment, etc., 6 — exceeded $13.6 billion. 6 Estimates of these indirect costs for residential occupancies will soon be published in Munson, Michael ]., and Ohls, James C, Indirect Losses Arising from Residential Fires (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University, forthcoming), Fire Administration Grant No. NFPCA-77007. Table 1. NFPCA's "BEST" NATIONAL ESTIMATES OF U.S. FIRE LOSSES (1975) Fire Losses Approximate Rates FIRES 2,600,000 Reported to Fire Service 1,200 per 100,000 persons 30,000,000 Not Reported to Fire Service 1 14,000 per 100,000 persons 32,600,000 Total DEATHS 7,500 35 per million persons INJURIES 110,000 Reported to Fire Service Not Reported to Fire Service 2 520 per million persons per million persons 200,000 940 310,000 Total DOLLAR LOSS . . . $ 4.2 Billion Direct Property Loss $ 19.70 per person 59.10 per household 4 9.4 +? Billion Other Costs 3 44.00 per person Billion Total Cost 132.20 per household" per person Total $13.6 +? $ 63.70 $191.30 per household Total 1 National Household Fire Survey indicates that only about 8 percent of all fires are reported to the fire service. 2 America Burning: Report of the National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control, Richard E. Bland, Chairman (Washington, DC: Goverment Printing Office, 1973), p. 1. Also National Household Fire Survey. Some injuries not reported to the fire service may be reported to hospitals. 3 "Indirect" losses, such as medical costs, displacement costs, and building construction costs attributable to fire protection are excluded this year. See Appendix II for a breakdown of the "other" costs which are included. "There was an average of 2.9 persons per household in 1975. Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1976 (97th Edition) (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1977), p. 38. NOTES: The data are not from any single year due to differences among data sources. This will be improved in the future. Rates are based upon a 1975 Census population estimate of 213 million parsons. 9 Of this total, about $4.2 billion consisted of direct property loss and at least $9.4 billion was attributed to other costs such as public fire de- partments, insurance overhead, and sprinkler sys- tems. See Appendix II for a breakdown of the "other" costs which are included. BASIS OF NATIONAL ESTIMATES There are several sources that provide national summary fire data. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) makes estimates of incidents, deaths and injuries, and dollar losses. These are published annually in the Fire journal and have been based on a mail survey of some 2,000 fire departments in the United States, information ob- tained from various agencies of the Federal Gov- ernment, State Fire Marshals, and some local fire departments not reporting in the survey. These estimates will be termed the "NFPA composite" in this report, as opposed to the composite Na- tional Estimates developed by the Fire Administra- tion. The 1974 NFPA survey data have been, in addition, analyzed in detail in a different way by NFPCA, assisted by NFPA. 7 (See Appendix III.) The National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) of the U.S. Department of Health, Educa- tion and Welfare collects information from death certificates. The NCHS-published fire death figure is a count of deaths recorded as being caused by a fire, whether from a burn or another type of injury. Certain categories of fire deaths are in- tentionally omitted to avoid double counting or inaccuracies in other areas. For example, deaths by fire resulting from a motor vehicle accident are listed only under transportation accidents and not under fires. A detailed discussion of the NCHS data and of estimates of transportation fire deaths are contained in a separate National Fire Administration technical report. 8 Data originating from local fire departments are summarized, in most States, in annual State Fire Marshal reports. Unfortunately, the sum- mary data from many States are incomplete, and it is questionable whether the data can be directly added for making national estimates (with the 7 Derry, Louis, Principal Investigator, Analysis of NFPA Data for National Fire Loss Estimates (Boston, MA: National Fire Pro- tection Association, 1977), Fire Administration Contract No. 7-34753. 8 Fristrom, Geraldine, Fire Deaths in the United States: Re- view of Data Sources and Range of Estimates (Washington, DC: National Fire Prevention and Control Administration, September 1977). Some major points of this report are discussed in Ap- pendix V. possible exception of the data on fire deaths). However, these figures are useful for making com- parisons and for estimating trends. The details of the Fire Marshal report data are given in Appendix IV. The Insurance Information Institute publishes an annual estimate of direct property loss, based on information supplied by the Insurance Serv- ices Organization (ISO). ISO gets information from its members, which include about half of the insurance industry, principally stock com- panies. The Insurance Institute estimates include allowances for unreported and uninsured losses, but certain classes of property not usually covered by fire insurance are omitted; for example, gov- ernment property, timber, and standing crops. The National Safety Council (NSC) also pub- lishes estimates of fires, fire deaths, fire injuries, and direct and indirect fire losses in their annual publication Accident Facts along with other ac- cident information. Their death estimates are ob- tained from NCHS data and their estimates of numbers of fires and direct fire losses are ob- tained from the NFPA. They make their own es- timates of injuries and indirect losses. The NSC data were used in several charts and tables in this report, although they were not used directly in making the national estimates shown in Table 1. Besides NSC, a number of other public and private agencies collect injury data: the National Health Interview Survey 9 (interviews conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics), the Commission on Professional and Hospital Activi- ties (data from hospital discharge records), the National Burn Information Exchange (data from burn treatment facilities), the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (hospital emergency room data collected by the Consumer Product Safety Commission), and the National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey (data from physicians' visits, conducted by HEW). These injury data sources and others were investigated by the University of Michigan. 10 While all of these sources contain some useful information, the overall conclusion of the Michigan report is that each contains at 9 Not to be confused with the 1974 National Household Fire Survey, sponsored by National Bureau of Standards and Con- sumer Product Safety Commission. 10 Flora, Jarius D., et al, Fire Data Methodolog)', Vol. I: Na- tional Estimates of Fire Injuries (Ann Arbor, Ml: Highway Safety Research Institute, The University of Michigan, 1978), Fire Ad- ministration Grant No. 76028. 10 least one major deficiency that limits its useful- ness for making national estimates. Basis of Fire Incident Estimate Table 2 summarizes the individual national es- timates from the various sources used in forming the Fire Administration composite estimate. The large differences among the estimates reflect the disparate methods and assumptions used in col- lecting and analyzing the data. The final NFPCA composite estimates are presented in terms of both a range of values and a single "best esti- mate." The reasons for the differences between the estimates and the considerations that led to the final values are discussed below. Several factors account for the large differences between the 1974 NFPCA/NFPA survey estimate and the NFPA composite estimate of the number of fires attended by the fire service. 11 First, proc- essing of the 1974 NFPA survey data included extensive editing to eliminate or correct those responses that had obvious errors or inconsist- encies in terms of the new application of the data. 12 Second, the NFPCA/NFPA analysis stratified the survey data according to community popula- tion, so that each population grouping was given its appropriate weight in the total. The main re- sult of doing this was to increase the weight given to medium size and small communities over that in the earlier NFPA analysis. Finally, the NFPA composite estimate included certain fires that were not reported to fire departments, but which insurance records showed to have involved sub- stantial losses. To provide a further check, data from several States whose reporting was considered relatively complete were examined. From these data, we estimated a range of 1,150 to 1,300 reported fires per 100,000 persons, selecting 1,200 as the "best estimate" on the basis of NFPCA staff judgment. We do not consider this approach satisfactory; better estimates will have to await improved data collection in the future. Basis of Death Estimate The NCHS count of fire deaths is perhaps the most accurate of any of the fire loss numbers. However, as noted previously, this count must be 11 "Fires attended by the fire service" is approximately equal to fires reported to the fire service. 12 It was necessary to evaluate the data quality in light of a new application for the data. corrected for transportation fire deaths, primarily from motor vehicle accidents. The NFPA's widely quoted Fire Journal pre-1977 figures included an estimate of motor vehicle fire deaths based upon some earlier studies, whereas the current NFPCA estimate of about 550 to 800 deaths from fire in motor vehicles is based on more recent studies, as well as State data. Combining the NCHS esti- mates with the NFPCA automobile death estimates leads to an estimated range of 34.6 to 35.7 fire deaths per million persons, with a "best estimate" of 35.1 deaths per million. Observe that the es- timate, based on the 1974 NFPA survey, of 36.7 deaths per million is practically identical to the adjusted 1974 NCHS estimate of 36.5 per million. Basis of Injury Estimate The large differences in the injury estimates in Table 2 are not easy to reconcile. A major diffi- culty encountered in the collection of injury data is in deciding which minor injuries are to be reported and which are too insignificant to re- port. There is apparently little uniformity in this regard. The low estimate for the 1974 survey data partly reflects the fact that the injury rates for rural and small town areas were estimated to be less than one-half the city rates (although this is based on inadequate data). When the sample data for the 1974 survey was extrapolated to the United States, the estimate for total injuries turned out to be only slightly larger than the number estirm !ed by NFPA and the International Associa- tion of Fire Fighters (IAFF) for firefighter injuries alone. (See Table 5, page 19.) On the other hand, NFPA's composite estimate of total injuries is about twice the number of firefighter injuries, which is a relationship observed in data from many State and local jurisdictions. A reasonable estimate of the injury rate appears to be between 400 to 600 injuries per million persons, with 500 as the "best estimate." Basis of Dollar Loss Estimate Again, the differences between the various es- timates are substantial and not easily reconcil- able. A few large losses can have a big effect. 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C E^ CO -H- CO CD La c — ' ~ c§ '" £^§ 2 - o 1.2° 2 o -a — CD CD CD O *" ° *~ e Sf2 2 CO i— .Eii iol = 2 CO «*» o .El — F l. a ju o CO 2 o •J= 2 afc ^ CO ® m CD LL ,f O "O „. 0) o>S^ E l co co o v> o I ™ to «» CO • n C O < i a F CO E CO \n o ■a en CD ■a in CO CO CD LL r CT) 1 c o ■o F o CO o CO CO c — CD o n> n n m CO E CO c CO CO i L C *^ CNJ o • Vi o I. = o .E E O CO CD m 1_ O E CO m m CO 5 a — i §1 » c CO O J Of IL Z 0)» o Siill -- 3 © « o c c = ._ U- < F co _ m CO cu lis 13 timated by fire departments may be much less than the final amounts settled through adjust- ment or litigation. Note also that the Insurance Information Institute (III) estimate includes losses from fires not reported to fire departments and excludes substantial losses associated with Fed- eral property, forests, and transportation. These categories of loss also tend to be under-reported by fire departments. Federal and non-building property losses have been included in the NFPA's composite estimate and the adjusted Insurance Information Institute values. The 1974 III unad- justed rate differs only slightly from the 1974 NFPA survey and from the State estimate. (States with unreasonably low published fire rates or dollar loss rates were not used in the calculation.) A reasonable estimated range for 1975 total direct property loss (including unreported, non- building, and Federal) is $18 to $21 per person. Our judgment is that the "best estimate" is about $19.50 per person. It is apparent that the precision of the above national estimates of deaths, injuries, and dollar losses is low. We need more consistency and accuracy in State and local data collection meth- ods to improve this situation. ESTIMATED YEAR-TO-YEAR CHANGE IN FIRE LOSS Year-to-year changes indicate whether the fire problem is getting better or worse. Because of the uncertainty in previous estimates of the Nation's fire losses, a relatively small change from one year to the next is difficult to detect with any degree of confidence. However, by comparing the differ- ences between 1974 and 1975 for the same data sources, one may be able to obtain a better estimate of recent change than by comparing estimates from different sources. Estimates of year-to-year changes from various sources are summarized in Table 3. The NFPCA composite estimates (bottom line) are that there was a small reduction in deaths (down 3 percent), a small increase in fire incidents (up 3 percent), and moderate increases in injuries (up 7.5 per- cent) and property loss (up 8 percent). 14 Much of the property loss increase may be attributed to inflation. It is also possible that the increases in 14 The Insurance Information Institute reported that property loss in 1976 was about the same as for 1975. fire and injury rates reflect improved reporting by communities rather than true changes. NFPA did not consider its 1975 survey data sufficiently reliable to warrant the detailed an- alysis that was performed for the 1974 data, and thus year-to-year changes in it are omitted. The year-to-year estimates given above were made in the following manner. For fire incidents, the percentage increase was taken to be the average between the change in the NFPA com- posite and the change in the State Fire Marshal report figure. For deaths, the NCHS estimate, thought the most reliable, was used. For injuries, the increase of about 8,000 shown by both the NFPA composite and the State Fire Marshal data was used as the national estimate of change and converted to a percentage. For dollar loss, the intermediate NFPA estimate was judged the most reliable; this was also consistent with using their value as the recommended National Estimate in Table 2. FIRE DEATH RATES BY STATES Comparison of State fire death rates indicates whether the problem is more severe in some regions than others. The variation in death rates among States is shown in Figure 1. In general, the highest death rates occur in the Southeast; the lowest death rates occur in the West. There are, however, many exceptions. It would be use- ful to be able to explain why the problem in certain States is so much better or worse than in others, but we have not found satisfactory an- swers yet. Table 4 lists the States with highest and lowest death rates and indicates certain economic and social characteristics that may be pertinent. Since death rates fluctuate from year to year, especially for States with low population, for any one year they may not be representative. Because of this, for each State we took the larger of the death estimates from the State Fire Marshal and the Center for Health Statistics for 1974 and the larger for 1975, and then averaged those two numbers. One of the sources for the National Estimates was State Fire Marshal Annual Reports obtained from 34 States and the District of Columbia. The quality of the State data varies greatly. In- complete reporting of fire incidents to States from local governments occurs frequently, espe- cially from small towns and rural communities. 14 Figure 1. STATE FIRE DEATH RATES - DEATHS PER MILLION POPULATION (CIRCA 1975) 100 200 300 1 I I I Scale of Miles 34 to 42 42 or Greater SOURCE: Based on estimation of death rates by State for 1974 and 1975 given in Appendix IV, Table IV-4, except for New York which is based on the 1974 NFPA Survey. We believe that records on the number of deaths are considerably more accurate. Moreover, pre- liminary tabulations of most of the death counts from the National Center for Health Statistics, excluding transportation fire deaths, have enabled us to correct death rates from several States and to obtain estimates for States for which we had no State Fire Marshal Annual Reports. FIRE DEATH RATES BY SEX AND RACE Males, nonwhites, and most strikingly, non- white males, have fire death rates much greater than the general population. This is shown in Figure 2. Males have an 80 percent higher fire death rate than females. Nonwhite males have a fire death rate more than 50 percent greater than nonwhite females. Nonwhites have three times the fire death rate of whites. While multiple problems associated with pov- erty and poor housing conditions undoubtedly contribute to the higher risk for nonwhites, they cannot explain the much higher risk of nonwhite males over nonwhite females. Greater likelihood of males to smoke and drink, to fight fires them- selves, to work with and around gasoline, and to be involved in rescue efforts may be some possible reasons for their higher death rate. Future studies by NFPCA will be directed toward investigating these characteristics in order to 15 Table 4. STATES WITH HIGHEST AND LOWEST DEATH RATES Percent Percent of Average Fire Per Capita Completing Families Below Death Rate 1 Income Rank High School Poverty Level State (1974-1975) (1975) 2 (1970) 3 (1969) 4 LOWEST RATES Hawaii 11.1 11 62% 8% Idaho 16.8 33 60 11 Colorado 19.0 23 64 9 Connecticut 19.9 3 56 5 Kansas 22.5 16 60 10 Delaware 23.4 4 55 8 California 23.5 8 63 8 Wisconsin 23.9 26 55 7 Utah 23.9 40 67 9 Rhode Island 24.1 18 46 9 Florida 25.7 29 53 13 New Jersey 25.8 6 53 6 HIGHEST RATES Alaska 112.3 1 67% 9% Mississippi 65.2 51 41 29 South Carolina 54.4 48 38 19 Arkansas 53.6 50 40 23 Maine 52.7 43 55 10 District of Columbia 49.4 2 55 13 Tennessee 48.5 44 42 18 Alabama 44.0 47 41 21 Louisiana 43.9 45 42 22 Georgia 43.8 38 41 17 Oklahoma 43.2 35 52 15 North Carolina 43.1 42 39 16 1 Average of the maximum rate (deaths per million persons) for each State from the National Center for Health Statistics and the State Fire Marshal report for each year (1974 and 1975). 2 U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1976 (97th Edition), U.S. Bureau of the Census, (Washing ton, DC: Government Printing Office, 1976), p. 402. 3 Ibid., p. 126. 4 /b/d., p. 419. better understand the reasons for the great disparities. Fire prevention programs should be targeted toward these high risk groups, just as they have been for the elderly and children. FIRE DEATH RATES BY PROPERTY TYPE The distribution of deaths from fires in various types of properties is shown in Figure 3. Residen- tial fires alone account for two-thirds of all deaths from fires. Deaths from residential fires in one- and two-family dwellings account for 44 percent of all deaths due to fires. Certainly the residential fire problem must be tackled to reduce fire deaths significantly. We should not, of course, permit these statistics to let us get complacent about the threat of fire in public buildings lest we invite more frequen catastrophes such as the 1977 Southgate, Ken tucky, nightclub fire. FIREFIGHTER DEATHS AND INJURIES "Firefighters are ahead of all other occupation: in death rates, making firefighting the most haz- ardous type of employment." I5 Flames, falling walls, smoke, and motor vehicle accidents al take their toll, but the most frequent on-dut} cause of death is heart attack. 16 15 "1974 Annual Death and Injury Survey," The Internationa Fire Fighter, November 1975, pp. 8-13. 16 Balanoff, Thomas, Fire Fighter Mortality Report (Washing ton, DC: International Association of Fire Fighters, for the Na tional Fire Prevention and Control Administration and th< Center for Fire Research, Institute for Applied Technology National Bureau of Standards, May 1976), Contract No. 4-35909 16 Figure 2. FIRE DEATH RATES BY RACE AND SEX - 1974 c o c/> <5 Q. c 100 90 80 70 60 50 CD o. 1 40 CD Q 30 20 10 h 93.1 74.0 28.6 43.6 37.6 24.3 56.0 20.2 NCHS National Average White Non- Males Females White Non- White Non- White Males White Females White Males Females SOURCE: Based on mortality data from the National Center for Health Statistics (which excludes transportation-related fire deaths) and population estimates from the Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1975. Figure 3. WHERE FIRE DEATHS OCCUR Property Type Public Assembly Education Institutions Residential Stores, Offices Basic Industry Manufacturing Storage Transportation Other 0.1% 0% 1 .2% 2.0% 0.1% 1.7% 1 .6% 67.8% 21 .3% 4.0% 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Percent of All Fire Deaths 1 This category includes mobile and outside properties, as well as other and unclassified properties SOURCE: Ohio 1976 NFIRS and California 1975 CFIRS data combined. 80 90 100 17 Injury rates for firefighters are also high — much higher than would be tolerated in other occupations. More than half the injuries from fires attended by the fire service are to fire- fighters even though there are many times more civilians exposed than firefighters. The firefighter is exposed to danger much longer and more fre- quently than the civilian. Table 5 shows several estimates of firefighter deaths and injuries, including the International Association of Fire Fighters (IAFF) annual number of reported casualties for full-time firefighters. One hundred firefighter deaths were reported to the IAFF in 1974 and 108 deaths in 1975. The number reported to the NFPA in 1974 was about the same as that for IAFF, and slightly less than lAFF's figure for 1975. None of these counts are thought to be complete. Full-time firefighter deaths have been estimated by the IAFF to be 90.7 per 100,000 firefighters in 1975. To further illustrate just how serious that prob- lem is, consider that the full-time firefighter death rate from fire is about 25 times that of civilians. And it is 10 to 20 times higher than that of the highest risk civilian groups — black males, the elderly, the very young. A comparable fire death rate for all firefighters is difficult to arrive at and not attempted here because of uncertainty in the total number of volunteers, uncertainty in the number of deaths they suffer, and the difficulty of developing an equivalent full-time firefighter person-years esti- mate for the volunteers. The number of firefighter injuries shown in the table confirms the hazardous nature of firefight- ing. There was one injury per year for approxi- mately every two full-time firefighters in reporting jurisdictions. The trend in firefighter injuries is not clear. There were almost 9 percent fewer injuries reported to the IAFF in 1975 than in 1974. The NFPA estimate of total injuries (re- ported plus unreported injuries, including those to volunteers), was about 8 percent more in 1975. A major effort is needed to reduce firefighter injuries. NFPCA has funded studies toward im- proving the physical fitness of firefighters, 17 de- 17 Gratz, David C, and McCune, Dennis H., Principal Investi- gators, Fire Service Physical Fitness Programs (Washington, DC: International Association of Fire Chiefs Foundation, June 1977), Fire Administration Grant No. NFPCA-76025. veloping better protective clothing and breathing apparatus, and training firefighters in burn safety practices. (More details on firefighter injuries are given in Section IV.) FIRE LOSSES VERSUS COMMUNITY SIZE: URBAN AND RURAL ESTIMATES The urban fire problem has been highly pub- licized and deserves much attention. The rural problem has not received as much attention as it probably needs, especially since about 27 percent of the U.S. population is in rural areas. The relationship between fire loss rates and the popu- lation of the community served by individual fire departments is shown in Figure 4. The data are from the NFPA 1974 survey. Fires, deaths, and dollar loss per capita have roughly similar patterns of being high for the two extremes of the popula- tion — -large cities and rural areas — and low in between. This phenomenon of middle-sized com- munities having less of a problem than the ex- tremes is commonly found for many community services, not only fire protection. More specifically, death rates for large cities and rural areas are about twice as large as for the 50,000 to 100,000 population interval. Data sup- plementing the survey on which Figure 4 is based, gathered from cities over one million popula- tion, indicate that the big city fire death rate may be even higher than shown, perhaps ex- ceeding 50 deaths per million on the average. Reported fire rates are lowest for small towns (5,000 to 10,000 population). Injury rates decrease with community size, falling sharply for com- munities of less than 10,000 persons (which on the surface is a paradox relative to the death rates). For dollar losses, the rates are quite low in the 10,000 to 250,000 population range and then surge by about 70 percent for communities be- low 10,000 population. Figure 5 provides some insight into the U- shaped curve for per capita incident rate of fires (upper left hand graph in Figure 4). The large cities have a higher rate of fires than middle- sized communities mainly because of a higher rate of trash and residential fires. Rural areas have a higher rate than middle-sized communities primarily due to a higher rate of residential fires 18 but also because of higher vehicle and non- residential building fire rates. Residential fire deaths account for the majority of all fire deaths regardless of community size. The pattern of residential fire death rates in different size communities is similar to the pattern for all fire deaths. Figure 6 shows that both large cities and rural areas have a higher death rate in residential properties than do middle-sized com- munities. The death rate in public assembly prop- erties increases sharply in rural areas. These two factors account for the "U"-shaped appearance of the top curve of Figure 6. The rural estimates are not very precise since comparatively few rural communities were sampled in the NFPA survey. This, together with the fact that rural areas comprise about 27 per- cent of the total U.S. population, results in the rural data contributing most to the overall statisti- cal error in the national estimates. A more ex- tensive rural survey would greatly improve the reliability of the national estimates and is planned. Table 5. FIREFIGHTER CASUALTIES (NOTE: None of the reported counts are thought to be complete.) Source Data Firefighters Included 1975 1974 Fatalities National Fire Protection Association Reported count Paid + Volunteer 100 1 96 x National Fire Protection Association Estimate (reported + unreported) Paid + Volunteer 165 2 N/A International Association of Fire Fighters Reported count Paid only 108 3 100 4 National Fire Protection Association Estimate (reported + unreported) Paid + Volunteer Inji jries 65,000 + 2 60,000 + 5 International Association of Fire Fighters Reported count Paid only 51,312 3 56,296 4 'Private conversation, Louis Derry (NFPA) to J. Wm. Overbey (NFPCA), September 30, 1977. The count for 1976 was 107. 2 "Fires and Fire Losses Classified, 1975," Fire Journal, November 1976, pp. 17-19. 3 "1975 Annual Death and Injury Survey," The International Fire Fighter, November 1976, pp. 9-16. Firefighter deaths reported to the IAFF from government units with 119,392 full-time firefighters. 4 "1974 Annual Death and Injury Survey," The International Fire Fighter, November 1975, pp. 8-13. Firefighter deaths reported to the IAFF from government units with 119,062 full-time firefighters. 5 "Fires and Fire Losses Classified, 1974," Fire Journal, September 1975, pp. 43-45. 19 Figure 4. FIRE LOSSES vs. COMMUNITY SIZE (1974 NFPA Survey) 1,500 I 1 600 1,400 Z3 S. 1-300 o o o o 1,200 a) 1,100 1,000 - National Average J_l L I I I L -^ " ,S>'£> 5>',S>' ,o'" i^",S ' ■SsVio' o *- ° «- £ Community Population Community Population a o Q. C o Q ##'#% A§> Community Population '"Industry, etc. Fires" includes those fires occurring in basic industry, utility, defense, manufacturing, storage, and special properties. 2 "Public Assembly, etc. Fires" includes those fires occurring in public assembly, educational, institutional, and store/office properties. SOURCE: 1974 NFPA Survey. 21 Figure 6. BUILDING FIRE DEATH RATE BY BUILDING TYPE AND COMMUNITY SIZE * Building Fire / Deaths 45 / / 40 — ~ / / * c 35 '■■'* n^""~ — .^ — \ / A CO a o Q. 30 — \ / / \ Residential Fire Deaths C o i 25 — ^^ N / / CD Q- 20 "~~ XV CD O 15 ■ 10 5 I H^""*" Public Assembly, etc. Fire Deaths 2 s / / / - .., ,' Industry, etc. ^'~ \S Fire Deaths 3 ^f*— ^=~r — i r^l i %f 4? 4?4 ? 4?4?4 Q) Q. C o 3 a o Q. O o o. 1,000 500 Fire Rate (left-hand scale) Fire Dollar Loss (right-hand scale) $15 o o_ $10 3 o w c/> X3 CD O CD $5 J l_l L_l L 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 $0 to CD o o oT c/5 SOURCE: Based on fire and fire loss estimates reported annually in "Fires and Fire Losses Classified", Fire Journal, National Fire Protection Association, Boston, MA, and population estimates from The Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1976 Bureau of the Census, p. 5. 23 a constant dollar basis. That is, losses have been rising faster than inflation and population — we are burning an increasing amount of property relative to our numbers. Although the total amount of fire loss has increased several-fold (Figure 8), loss as a frac- tion of Gross National Product (GNP) has re- mained approximately constant (Figure 9). Since the GNP represents the total worth of goods and services our Nation produces, fire is claiming about the same share of our annual output. Taken together, these various loss trends imply that we have more things to burn and are therefore losing more when a fire occurs. FIRE DEATHS THROUGH THE YEARS Overall Fire Death Rates. — The overall fire death rate has declined significantly during the past 20 years. The data for 1955 through 1975 are shown in Figure 10. However, the U.S. fire death rate is still close to the highest, if not the highest, in the world, as discussed later. The U.S. problem is particularly severe for big cities, rural areas, the elderly, the very young, blacks, and males — as discussed in Section II. Some reasons have been suggested for the declining trend including: 1. More buildings and equipment built with better passive and active fire protec- tion, largely due to improved building and safety codes and the availability of better materials and equipment. 2. Increased public fire safety education. 3. More numerous, better trained, and bet- ter equipped public fire departments. Death Rates for Catastrophic Fires. — The fre- quency of fires causing five or more deaths is shown in Figure 11. These fires are decreasing in number, in total persons killed, and in severity (average number of deaths per multiple death fire). Only three to four percent of fire deaths occur in such fires; most fire deaths occur in ones and twos in the victims' own homes. Fire Death Rates by Age Group. — It has long been realized that the elderly and the very young suffer inordinately high fire death rates. For per- sons 65 years of age and over, the fire death rate has been about three times that of the general population; for children four years of age and under, about twice. In the past few years, the fire Figure 8. FIRE DOLLAR LOSSES THROUGH THE YEARS 5q° o o Oj as q i 5000 4000 — 3000 — 2000 1000 Actual Dollars S 1967 Dollars J I I I L 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 SOURCE: Based on fire loss estimates reported annually in "Fires and Fire Losses Classified, " Fire Journal, National Fire Protection Association, Boston, MA (1973-1975) and "Are We Winning the War Against Fire Waste? A Sequel," Fire Journal, March 1973, p. 51. Conversion to 1967 dollars was made through the use of the Consumer Price Index as reported in Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1976, Bureau of the Census, p. 439. 24 Figure 9. FIRE DOLLAR LOSS AS A PERCENT OF GNP u o m CO O _l o a. 4-» r UJ m m ,!5 c C) u_ n ni -t-' Q. 0) CD (0 Q CO CO CD O 0.2% - o 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 SOURCE: Based on fire loss estimates reported annually in "Fires and Fire Losses Classified," Fire Journal, National Fire Protection Association, Boston, MA, and the Gross National Product reported in The Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1976, Bureau of the Census, and "Are We Winning the War Against Fire Waste? A Sequel, " Fire Journal, March 1973, p. 51. Figure 10. FIRE DEATH RATES THROUGH THE YEARS c o _cp CL O Q_ c o CD Q. CO -C +-j CD CD Q 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 SOURCE: Based on fire fatality estimates reported in "Fires and Fire Losses Classified, 1975", Fire Journal, National Fire Protection Association, Boston, MA, November 1976, p. 19. Figure 11. TRENDS IN CATASTROPHIC FIRES AND ASSOCIATED DEATH RATES 1 aths Fires en o o — of De ophic o - H- H - 0) en ■9 2 300 t CD .2 o Average (^ Year from _ o o 3 o o - 50 - 40 - 30 - 20 - 10 1941-50 1951-60 1961-70 1971-75 Period CD a> M— > o ,_ l_ CD a; CL F CO CD 3 ,)z -z. LL CD CJ Ol-C CD O CD O > < CO CD ■w CD o m Average number of deaths per year for time period shown (left-hand scale). D Average number of catastrophic' fires per year for time period shown (right-hand scale). 1 A catastrophic fire is one in which five or more deaths occurred. SOURCE: Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., Statistical Bulletin, August 1971, and unpublished data, as reported in U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1976 (97th Edition) (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 19771, p. 67. 25 Figure 12. FIRE DEATH RATE BY AGE GROUP, 1966-1975 150 - c o CL .2 100 CD Q. CD Q 50 - - - z 65 Years & Over 5 ■14 Years i 1 I t I i 25-44 Years 1 1 _^0-4 Years l i -45-64 Years 15-24 ' Years 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 SOURCE: National Safety Council as reported in Insurance Facts, 1976, Insurance Information Institute, New York, NY, 1976, p. 35. death rates for both groups have been reduced significantly, although they are still much higher than for the population at large (Figure 12). It is not definitely known what caused the improve- ment, but there has been much fire prevention program effort expended toward this end. Gov- ernment at all levels and many private organiza- tions have worked to improve fire safety of nurs- ing homes and housing for the elderly and to require that children's clothing be fire resistant, for example. INCENDIARY FIRES THROUGH THE YEARS There has been a sharp increase in the reported number of incendiary fires over the last 10 years. Table 6 shows the number of building fires where incendiarism was detected or suspected. To these must be added the undetected and unsuspected incendiary fires, plus fires of incendiary origin occurring in transportation vehicles, crops and wildlands, and outside of buildings. Incendiarism has become one of the most serious fire and crime problems. Part of the reported increase may be due, however, to improved detection or report- ing techniques. WILDFIRES THROUGH THE YEARS Wildfires 18 destroy thousands of acres of valu- able grass and timberland each year. They also harm the environment, which takes years to recover. Wildlife and fish are killed, watersheds destroyed, topsoil eroded, and rivers are polluted with ash and silted with topsoil. Some of the most disastrous fires in American history have been wildfires. 19 The Peshtigo fire, Wisconsin, 1871, had losses involving 1,500 lives, an undetermined number of structures, and 1,280,000 acres of timberland; the Maine fire, 1947, with 16 lives, 1,200 structures, and 206,000 acres of timber and scenic forest land; the Cayote fire, California, 1964, with 1 life, 118 structures, and 67,000 acres of watershed lands; the Laguna fire, California, 1970, with 5 lives, 382 structures, and 175,000 acres of watershed lands; and most recently the Sycamore fire, 1977, Santa Barbara, California, with no lives, 250 structures, and 800 acres' of watershed lands. 18 A wildfire is a fire in grass, brush, or timberland burning out of control. In the NFPA Uniform Coding for Fire Protection (901 Code), it is classified as an "outside fire." 19 Private communication from William R. Tikkala, Director, Cooperative Fire Protection, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, October 19, 1977. 26 Table 6. BUILDING FIRES OF DETECTED INCENDIARY OR SUSPICIOUS ORIGIN Number per Loss per Year Total Number 100,000 Persons Dollar Loss Capita 1975 144,100 68 $633,900,000 $3.00 1974 114,400 54 563,000,000 2.70 1973 94,300 45 320,000,000 1.50 1972 84,200 40 285,600,000 1.40 1971 72,100 35 232,947,000 1.10 1970 65,300 32 206,400,000 1.00 1969 56,300 28 179,400,000 .90 1968 49,900 25 131,100,000 .70 1967 44,100 22 141,700,000 .70 1966 37,400 19 94,600,000 .50 SOURCE: "Fires and Fire Losses Classified," Fire Journal, September 1967 through 1975, November 1976. Rates based on Census population estimates for the United States as reported in U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1976 (97th Edition), (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1976), p. 5. Table 7. WILDFIRES THROUGH THE YEARS ON FEDERAL, STATE, AND PRIVATE PROTECTED LANDS Federal I Protection State Protection 2 Acres Acres Year Acres Number Acres Burned Acres Number Acres Burned Protected of Burned per Protected of Burned per (Millions) Fires (Thousands) Fire (Millions) Fires (Thousands) Fire 1976 680 15,800 519 33 737 157,035 2,118 13 1975 698 12,272 408 33 726 91,026 1,119 12 1974 678 15,040 1,200 80 708 105,835 1,511 14 1973 661 12,806 676 53 627 78,877 1,086 14 1972 652 15,937 1,232 77 631 83,010 1,050 13 1971 647 13,167 1,719 131 574 91,673 1,827 20 1970 647 14,968 719 48 521 101,455 1,541 15 1965 1 655 9,073 146 16 472 91,495 1,206 13 1960' 363 12,090 622 51 403 77,537 1,909 25 1950' 247 8,604 2,451 285 361 96,578 3,407 35 1 These values are for the particular year indicated and are not five or ten year averages. 2 States protect State and some privately owned lands within their boundaries. SOURCE: Private communication, William R. Tikkala (Director, Cooperative Fire Protection, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service) to Philip S. Schaenman (NFPCA), October 19, 1977. The majority of wildfires do not kill people or burn structures, but the threat is there. Most wildfires burn grass, brush, or timber land and result in lost or delayed production of forage for livestock, browse for wildlife, and trees for paper and timber. The forest and rangelands of the Nation where most wildfires occur are the responsibility of Federal and State fire protection agencies. Wildland fires in forests and grasslands under Federal protection have been successfully reduced over the past 50 years. Statistics on these fires for the years 1950 through 1975 are shown in Table 7. In 1950, the average fire on Federally- protected lands burned 285 acres before being brought under control; in 1976, it was only 33 acres. The number of fires has changed very little, although there are now many more acres under Federal protection. 20 The States protect 737 million acres of forest and non-forested watershed on State land and some privately-owned land within their bound- 20 Statistics for 1977 may be vastly different due to several extremely large fires. 27 aries. This protection is usually provided through the State forestry organization by the State forester. Financial and technical assistance is pro- vided to the States through the Clarke-McNary Act of 1924. In 1976, the States reported 157,000 fires burn- ing 2.1 million acres of protected land. In addi- tion, the States estimated 69,000 fires burning 2.5 million acres on 101 million acres outside State fire protection jurisdiction. Statistics on wildfires for the years 1950 through 1976 are also shown in Table 7. HOW THE UNITED STATES COMPARES TO OTHER NATIONS It has often been reported that the United States has one of the worst fire records of any developed nation. 21, " The different means of reporting and estimating numbers of fires in vari- ous countries make comparisons difficult. The most valid bases for comparison probably are the rates of building fires and deaths. A recent study by the Georgia Institute of Technology attempts to take into account reporting differences to the extent possible." The study found that the U.S. rate of deaths resulting from building fires is in- deed among the worst (Table 8). This country's per capita dollar loss for building fires is also among the highest. As a fraction of the Gross National Product, per capita dollar loss is about average. However, the U.S. dollar loss per fire and the number of deaths per building fire are below the average of the 13 countries. The Georgia Tech study suggests that fire deaths and losses may be lower in other countries in part because they have devoted a greater part of their fire safety effort to prevention. The generally good U.S. job in suppression is not enough to offset our generally poor job in prevention, with the net 21 America Burning: Report of the National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control, Richard E. Bland, Chairman (Wash- ington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1973), p. 1. 22 Harlow, David W., "International Fire Losses, 1974," Fire journal, November 1975, p. 43. 23 Rardin, Ronald L. and Mitzner, Morris, Determinants of International Differences in Reported Fire Loss: Preliminary Investigation (Atlanta, CA: Georgia Institute of Technology, forthcoming) Fire Administration Grant No. NFPCA-76023. effect being higher death and injury rates than in other countries. HOW FIRE COMPARES WITH OTHER HAZARDS National policy should determine resources to be devoted to reducing hazards. Resource allo- cations should depend on the relative severity of various problems, the expected reductions relative to resources needed, and their effect on lifestyles and the public's feeling of security. To put the fire problem in its proper perspec- tive, fire losses must be compared to losses from other problems, such as crime, accidents, and natural disasters. Such comparisons are presented next, and they make it clear that fire is one of our major national problems. Fires Versus Crimes, Accidents, and Natural Disasters As shown in Table 9, fire causes far more loss of life and property damage than all natural dis- asters combined. Although fire is lower in life and dollar loss than crime or auto accidents, it is of the same scale as these two. Dollar loss esti- mates are difficult to compare because of dif- ferences in definition and selection of the types of costs included in estimation methodologies. 2 * Fire vs. Residential Accident Deaths. — The more common causes of accidental residential deaths are ranked in Table 10. Fire is the second most frequent cause of accidental death in the home, after falls. Fire vs. Other Catastrophes. — Fire has also been the cause of more catastrophic deaths in recent years than any other cause (Table 11). Some 27 percent of the deaths and 31 percent of the catastrophic incidents are from fires and explo- sions. Motor vehicle accidents follow with 23 per- cent of catastrophic deaths and 37 percent of incidents. Tornadoes, floods, hurricanes, and air transport accidents are next. All other causes for catastrophic incidents are of much less import. 2 * The NFPCA is currently sponsoring projects to estimate indirect losses from fire more accurately. 28 Table 8. WHERE THE UNITED STATES STANDS AMONG NATIONS- BUILDING FIRES, 1 1972-1974 Country Service Aspects Measured Overall Fire Protection Ignition Prevention Fire Suppression Dollar Total Dollar Loss Fire Deaths Loss per as Percent per 100,000 Capita of GNP Persons 2 Reported Fires per 1,000 Persons Total Fire Deaths Dollar Loss per 1,000 per Fire Building (In Thousands) Fires 2 Europe Austria $ 4.70 .13% .8 2.1 $ 2.4 3.9 Belgium N/A N/A 1.3 .9 N/A 14.0 Denmark France Germany 3 Italy The Netherlands . . . Norway Sweden United Kingdom .... Asia Japan 12.10 .22 1.7 3.4 3.9 4.9 9.00 .18 1.6 .8 12.6 21.7 8.90 .16 1.0 .9 10.2 11.3 2.70 .11 .7 1.1 2.7 6.6 7.70 .17 .7 .8 10.0 8.4 14.80 .31 1.1 7.8 1.8 1.5 11.60 .19 1.3 2.6 4.7 5.2 6.80 .21 1.8 2.5 2.8 7.2 2.50 .07 1.8 .4 6.8 47.0 The Pacific Australia 13.20 .29 1.3 3.0 4.6 4.5 New Zealand North America Canada United States N/A N/A 1.2 5.4 N/A 2.3 10.20 .18 3.2 2.8 3.8 11.7 13.00 .21 3.1 5.7 2.3 5.4 U.S. Rank 4 11 of 13 9.5 of 13 14 of 15 14 of 15 2 of 13 7 of 15 1 Only building fires were included in this comparison because differences in definitions and reporting in the systems used by various nations prevent valid comparisons of fire rates based on all fires. Although comparisons of building fires are the most valid, definitional differences arise even for this category. The data here, including those for the United States, are 1972-74 averages. 2 Total fire deaths were used for comparisons because for the international data the percentage of the total which are building fire deaths in each country was not available. 3 German Federal Republic. 4 Lower rank indicates better performance. SOURCE: Rardin, Ronald L. and Mitzner, Morris. Determinants ot International Differences in Reported Fire Loss: Preliminary Investigation (Atlanta, GA: Georgia Institute of Technology for the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration, June 1978, Grant No. NFPCA-76023, Table 3-6. 29 CO □c LU h- co < CO < =) z co" I- z LU g o o < CO b CD CO" 1- CO LU O O CE Ll_ CO LU CO CO Q< < => z z < o z o CO cr < CL o o _0) jd cc H •*-» *-> *-> o o o o o o CD k_ 1_ 1- u. •— k. 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It includes casualty characteristics, causes of residential and non-residential fires, comparisons among com- munities of varying sizes, statistics on when fires occur, and the performance of sprinkler systems. Results from the 1974 National Household Fire Survey of residential fires are also discussed. Part II of this report provides much greater detail. Data from 284,000 fire incident reports from the States of California and Ohio were used for this section. The two States considered here have a com- bined population of almost 32 million persons, about 15 percent of the U.S. population. The data may or may not be typical of the entire Nation — we do not know yet — but they do cover com- munities of all sizes, many climates, and diverse geographical regions. Over 2,000 fire departments are represented. This section illustrates the types of policy- relevant information that can be extracted from the National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS). As more States enter the NFIRS system, the results will, of course, become more repre- sentative of the country as a whole. In developing these results, we were faced with the difficulty of subdividing the fire problem into useful and understandable categories. Evaluations of the problem from many different perspectives aid in understanding its many facets. For example, to evaluate the effectiveness of prevention edu- cation, it is useful to distinguish fire causes related to human behavior from causes related to equip- ment failures. To evaluate prevention approaches dealing with making materials flame resistant, it is useful to group causes by "material first ig- nited." A major benefit resulting from the detail provided in the data collected by NFIRS is that it permits analyses from these multiple, but neces- sary perspectives. The approach taken for the analysis presented in this section is that it must be useful to State and local fire services, especially those officials concerned with fire prevention policy. Many of the analyses are also likely to be of interest to the Federal Government, industry, or researchers. The detailed breakdowns can also be regrouped ac- cording to other viewpoints; for example, infor- mation on fires involving consumer products can be gleaned from the analyses of heating, cooking, and other types of fires in Part II. INJURIES CAUSED BY FIRE The most important aspect of fire protection is persona! safety. To reduce casualties, it is im- portant to know what types of injuries occur, where and why they occur, and who is being hurt. Table 12 summarizes the types of injuries and causes of deaths sustained by civilians and firefighters in Ohio in 1976. (More details and data for other States and cities are given in Part II, pages 57 through 149.) Injuries to firefighters account for over half (56 percent) of all injuries associated with fires attended by the fire service in Ohio. Although there is some question on the extent to which minor injuries to both firefighters and civilians are reported, firefighters clearly account for a sub- stantial portion of the total injuries from fire in Ohio and many other places. Thus, injuries to firefighters require special attention if we are to make a major reduction in overall fire injuries and reduce the exceptional risks run by fire- fighters. Smoke inhalation is the most common injury to firefighters in Ohio (25 percent), followed by 33 Table 12. FIRE CASUALTIES BY NATURE OF INJURY— Ohio (NFIRS 1976) Nature of Injury Non-Fatal Injuries Total Civilian Male Civilian Female Civilian Firefighter Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Burns & Asphyxia/smoke . . 167 12 97 10 70 14 67 4 Burns only 617 43 443 48 174 35 206 11 Asphyxia/smoke only 397 28 234 25 163 33 464 25 Wound, cut, bleeding 107 8 81 9 26 5 304 17 Dislocation, fracture 22 1.5 14 1.5 8 1.6 50 3 Complaint of pain' 24 1.7 11 1.2 13 3 103 6 Shock 17 1.2 8 0.9 9 1.8 7 0.4 Strain, sprain 19 1.3 9 1.0 10 2 316 17 Other 25 1.8 12 1.3 13 3 258 14 Undetermined 26 1.8 17 1.8 9 1.8 58 3 Total 1,421 100% 926 100% 495 100% 1,833 100% Nature of Injury Fatalities 2 Total Civilian Male Civilian Female Civilian Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Burns & Asphyxia/smoke . . Burns only Asphyxia/smoke only Wound, cut, bleeding Dislocation, fracture Complaint of pain 1 Shock Strain, sprain 124 55 77 57 47 53 21 9 10 7 11 12.5 31 14 17 12.5 14 16 3 1.3 1 0.7 2 2 1 0.4 1 1.1 6 3 5 4 1 1.1 2 0.9 1 0.7 1 1.1 Other Undetermined 5 2 4 3 1 1.1 31 14 21 15 10 11 Total 224 100% 136 100% 88 99% 1 Includes heart attacks and strokes. 2 The nature of injury resulting in a firefighter fatality is not indicated because in 1976 in Ohio there were only five firefighter fatalites reported to NFIRS. NOTE: Some column totals may not equal 100 percent or the sum of their elements due to round-off error. Percentages less than two were rounded to the nearest tenth of a percent. SOURCE: Ohio 1976 NFIRS data. Estimated completeness is roughly 50 percent (Reference 11). strains or sprains (17 percent), and cuts or wounds (17 percent). Firefighter deaths in Ohio were too few (5 were reported) to make any generalizations. However, as previously mentioned, a recent IAFF study shows that almost 45 percent of on-duty fire- fighter deaths nationwide are due to heart attack, more than three times the second largest cause of death" In Ohio, males account for 61 percent of the civilian deaths and 65 percent of the civilian in- juries, similar to the totals for the United States as a whole (Figure 2, page 17). 25 Balanoff, Thomas, Fire Fighter Mortality Report (Washing- ton, DC: The International Association of Fire Fighters for the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration and the Center for Fire Research, Institute for Applied Technology, Na- tional Bureau of Standards, May 1976), Contract No. 4-35909, p. 111. The vast majority of civilian casualties in Ohio were due to burns or smoke inhalation — 83 per- cent of injuries and 79 percent of fatalities. The most frequent injury is burns alone (43 percent); the most frequent fatality is from burns and smoke together (55 percent). WHERE FIRE LOSSES OCCUR Shown in Table 13 is the relative distribution of California and Ohio fires and fire losses among the major occupancies. The non-residential cate- gory is further subdivided into structures, mobile property, and outside property. Mobile homes have been included with residences. About half of all fires in the two States occur on outside property, such as grass, trees, brush, or rubbish. These are usually small fires which do 34 Table 13. REPORTED FIRE LOSSES FOR MAJOR OCCUPANCY TYPES 1 — California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) Combined Occupancy Type Fires Deaths Injuries Dollar Loss Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent (Thousands) Percent 63,555 22 Residential 2 Non-residential Structure 29,275 Mobile Property 43,037 Outside Property (Rubbish, wildlands, etc.) 148,112 Total 283,979 471 68 5,093 57 $155,609 44 10 15 48 148 7 21 3 2,329 767 26 9 150,884 24,732 43 7 52 28 4 751 8 22,183 6 99% 695 100% 8,940 100% $353,408 100% 1 Reported fire incidents shown do not include all fires attended by fire departments, only those reported to the State (mostly by the fire service). Estimated completeness is on the order of 90 percent for California and 50 percent for Ohio (Reference 11). 2 Mobile homes are included in this category and excluded from the Mobile Property category. 3 This percent is higher than the national average. Possible reasons are that Californians drive more or different definitions are used in data collection. not result in significant losses, though they in- clude some large, dangerous wildland fires. Apart from these outside fires, residential fires are the principal category of fires and fire losses. More specifically: Fire Incidents — Residential fires comprised slightly over two-thirds of the structural fires in the two States (and 22 percent of all fires.) Deaths — Residential fires accounted for 68 percent of deaths; mobile property fires (mostly auto- mobiles) were second with 21 percent. Non-residential structural fires — which in- clude public places such as nightclubs, schools, and stores — accounted for only 7 percent of deaths. Injuries — Residential fires accounted for 57 percent of injuries; non- residential structural fires were second with 26 percent. Dollar Loss — Residential and non-residential structural fires accounted for about the same dollar loss, approximately 43 percent each. Clearly the residential fire problem must re- ceive a high priority if the United States is to achieve a significant reduction in human and eco- nomic fire losses. VIEWING FIRE CAUSES There are many ways to describe the cause of a fire and to group similar causes in a way that helps in making fire protection decisions. We decided to use the cause categories shown in Table 14 as shorthand for more complex causal factors. How we arrived at that choice is discussed below. The NFPA 901 Coding System, upon which the National Fire Incident Reporting System is based, does not give a single "cause of the fire," but, rather, it gives a more detailed breakdown that corresponds to the physical environment and contributing factors of cause. An ignition re- quires three basic ingredients: a source of heat, something to ignite, and a triggering mechanism or agent to bring the two together. The cor- responding NFPA 901 data elements are formally called: form of heat of ignition, type of material ignited, and ignition factor. Other 901 data ele- ments cover equipment involved in ignition and form (or usage) of material ignited. These five factors together comprise the cause. By using these factors, one can analyze the causes of fires from several different prevention perspectives, such as human behavior or flammability of ma- terials, as appropriate. One of the major ad- vantages of the NFIRS system is that it collects data on each individual element so that they can be aggregated for analytical purposes into differ- ent groups at different times as required. Viewing the relative frequency of incidents, casualties, or dollar losses separately for each of 35 Table 14. "CAUSE" CATEGORIES USED IN THIS REPORT Sorting Sequence "Cause" Category' Definition 1 Exposure Caused by heat spreading from another hostile fire. 2 Natural Source Caused by sun's heat, spontaneous ignition, or chemical, lightning, or static discharge. 3 Incendiary/Suspicious Fire deliberately set or suspicious circumstances. 4 Explosives, Fireworks Self-evident; explosives used as incendiary devices included in category 3. 5 Smoking Cigarettes, cigars, pipes as heat of ignition. 6 Children Playing Includes all fires caused by children playing with any ma- terials contained in the categories below. 7 Heating Systems Includes central heating, fixed and portable local heating units, fireplaces and chimneys, water heaters as source of heat. 8 Cooking Equipment Includes stoves, ovens, fixed and portable warming units, deep fat fryers, open fired grills as source of heat. 9 Air Conditioning, Refrigeration Includes dehumidifiers and water cooling devices as well as all air conditioning and refrigeration equipment as source of heat. 10 Electrical Distribution Includes wiring, transformers, meter boxes, power switching gear, outlets, cords, plugs, lighting fixtures as source of heat. 11 Appliances Includes TV's, radios, phonographs, dryers, washing ma- chines, vacuum cleaners, separate motors, hand tools, electric blankets, irons, electric razors, can openers as heat source. 12 Gas Material first ignited was a gas: natural, LP, manufactured, anesthetic, acetylene, other gas. 13 Flammable, Combustible Liquid 2 Material first ignited was flammable liquid: gasoline, ethyl alcohol, ethyl ether, acetone, jet fuel, turpentine, kerosene, diesel fuel, cooking oil, lubricating oil, etc. 14 Open Flame, Spark (Heat from) Includes torches, candles, matches, lighters, open fire, back- fire from internal combustion engine as source of heat. 15 Other Equipment Includes special equipment (radar, X-ray, computer, tele- phone, transmitters, vending machine, office machine, pumps, printing press), processing equipment (furnace, kiln, other industrial machines), service, maintenance equipment (incinerator, elevator). 16 Other Heat Includes all other fires caused by heat from fuel-powered objects, heat from electrical equipment arcing or over- loaded, and heat from hot objects not covered by above groups. 17 Unknown Cause of fire undetermined or not reported. 1 "Cause" as used here is a shorthand notation 2 Note that incendiary fires involving flammable for what is sometimes a complex chain of events leading to a fire, liquids are covered in category 3, not 13. 36 the above five NFPA 901 Ignition Characteristics provides insights into some of the most important components of the fire problem. This is one of the most common types of analysis used by the fire service today. One of the things it can be used to show, for example, is how often specific materials (such as plastics or wood) or products (such as mattresses) are involved in ignitions. Other examples are shown in Appendix VII. While viewing the data from a single causal factor provides useful information, it is frequently desirable to consider several factors to under- stand their joint effect, or the "scenario" in which they all played a role. Table 15 shows the relative frequency of death and amount of dollar loss for the top five scenarios of Ohio residential fires. The four factors used for each scenario make up a chain of events which led to the fires. A variety of proposed intervention strategies can be evaluated to determine if any could break that chain and prevent the fire from occurring. The scenario method is an example of aggregating several NFIRS (901) data elements for analytical purposes. Scenario analysis has several drawbacks when only limited data are available. One arises from spreading a small number of fire incidents over many categories. Frequently a situation results where even the most frequent pattern, or scen- ario, may appear "trivial" because it accounts for a small percentage of the fires. A related draw- back is that a major phenomenon may be masked by being broken into too many little categories. For example, Table 15 distributes fires involving smoking materials that ignite textiles into three scenarios. Other fires involving smoking materials are distributed among many additional scenarios. Smoking, therefore, appears in this table to be a smaller problem than it really is. To obtain a general overview of the fire prob- lem, it seemed more advantageous to use the aggregated cause categories shown in Table 14. 26 For most fires there is no problem in choosing an appropriate category. However, there are some instances when more than one cause category could be used to describe the same fire incident. For example, one person might describe a fire re- sulting from children playing with a stove as a "children playing" fire while another person would describe it as a "cooking-related" fire. Rather than assign multiple causes to the same fire — in which case the sum would exceed the total number of fires — we have used a hierarchical approach (sorting sequence) which assigns a single cause category to each fire. The basic idea in the hierarchical ranking of the categories is that a fire is compared against the first category; if it fits, it is assigned to that cause category. If not, it is checked to see if it fits in the second category, etc. For example, a 26 This table is also repeated inside the back cover for easy reference. For the reasons given in the text above, those in- dividuals using NFIRS Standard Feedback Reports should note that their reports are not directly comparable with the Tables presented in this volume. Table 15. EXAMPLE "SCENARIO" DESCRIPTIONS OF RESIDENTIAL FIRES— Ohio (NFIRS 1976) The Top Scenarios for Deaths in Residential Fires Percent of Deaths 1. Day/Smoking materials/Textile/Furniture. (e.g., cigarette left on upholstered furniture during the day) 2. Night/Smoking materials/Textile/Furniture. 3. Night/Smoking materials/Textile/Bedding or clothing, (e.g., cigarette dropped on bed at night) 4. Night/Hot object/Textile/Bedding or clothing. 5. Night/Smoking materials/Natural products/ Furniture. 3.9% 3.9 3.9 3.0 3.0 The Top Scenarios for Dollar Loss in Residential Fires Percent of Dollar Loss 1. Night/Arc from electric equipment/Wood/Structure or finish. 2. Day/Arc from electric equipment/Wood/Structure or finish. 3. Night/Smoking materials/Textile/Furniture. 4. Day/Smoking materials/Textile/Furniture. 5. Day/Open flame/Textile/Bedding or clothing. 5.2% 3.8 1.8 1.7 1.4 1 Each scenario is made up of the following sequence of elements: Time of Day/Source of Heat/Material First Ignited/Form of Material First Ignited. Incidents with an unknown value for any element are excluded from the calculation of percentages as well as from the list of top scenarios. 37 fire unintentionally set by a child playing with gasoline near a stove would be categorized as "children-playing," not as "flammable liquid," and not as "cooking." This approach can be somewhat misleading in that the categories at the beginning of the list are "favored" and tend to appear larger with respect to those at the end of the list than they would under a different hier- archical ranking. For example, if the category "open flame, spark" was placed earlier in the list than "incendiary/suspicious," many fires currently contained in the "incendiary/suspicious" category would switch categories, the relative frequencies would alter, and a different view of the fire prob- lem would result. Another major problem with such categorization schemes is that fires involv- ing a particular material first ignited are scattered across categories and require separate analysis. Another element of arbitrariness that enters into the simplified cause categories, especially when equipment is involved, concerns the specific types of equipment to be included. For example, if water heaters or fireplaces were separated out from the heating category, this category would appear less important relative to other categories. Certainly, the approach described in Table 14 cannot serve all purposes. The categories of that table are not in order of importance, but rather the order in which we felt it logical to make meaningful categorizations for guiding preven- tion efforts. A variety of cause categories have been used for analytical purposes and presenta- tion by different organizations and fire depart- ments. Our selection was a compromise. CAUSES OF RESIDENTIAL FIRES The "causes" of residential fires and how they vary by size of community are discussed here. The analysis in this and the next section is based on fires reported to the fire service. The third section discusses the cause of fires not reported to the fire service. Figure 13 shows the relative frequency of the different causes of residential fires. There are eight major cause categories for fires in resi- dences: cooking, smoking, heating, incendiary/ suspicious, electrical distribution, appliances, children playing, and open flames or sparks. These eight do not have the same rank order in both States, but they are the top eight in each State. For example, fires involving "open flames or sparks" is a high-ranking major cause for Cali- fornia, but is a lower ranked cause for Ohio; the reverse is true for children playing. These eight categories account for at least 80 percent of all residential fires, at least 64 percent of all residen- tial fire deaths, at least 77 percent of all residential fire injuries, and at least 62 percent of residential dollar losses. 27 A more detailed description of leading causes follows: Fire Incidents — The top four major cause cate- gories — cooking, smoking, heating, and incendiary/ suspicious — represent the principal causes of reported fires and account for 55 per- cent of them. Deaths Injuries Dollar Loss Fires resulting from people smoking is by far the princi- pal known cause of fire death (29 percent), with cooking and heating next. The largest category is ac- tually "unknown cause," which applies to 31 percent of the deaths. The top four causes — cook- ing, smoking, heating, incendiary/suspicious — ac- count for 55 percent of all injuries. Fires of incendiary/suspicious nature result in the most dollar loss, followed by heating, electrical distribu- tion, and smoking fires. Note that electrical distribu- tion fires cause almost dou- ble the dollar loss of fires involving cooking, even though cooking fires are more than twice as frequent. Again, the unknown cate- gory contains the largest proportion; many of these may well be of incendiary origin. 27 To the extent that the fires currently classified as being of unknown cause were actually caused by any of these eight causes, the hazard presented by these causes would be greater than shown. 38 1 LU cc ■D 0) C u. 15 -J F < o 1- O z HI CO Q o> ■■■ ^™ (0 LU CO CC DC E.2 Q-O LU » CCJH O t- coco LU CC coq: O CB ml f o eg <0 O) O DC CX> CD CN CO CO o _l - ID z O ro O) CO CN c a> LT> CN O CD 0. CN Lf) iS &* *~ O) 00 CO X CO <* CO CO co O < LU Q CN CN O 00 cd d CM d CD O in ^5 or* 00 _ CO CO CN *— - LT> r-> r^. ' O CO LU CC Lfl LO CO CD l>« r>- cn CD CO -^ CN - LO 0' CD CD LL. CO •J CD Q. '3 £ % LU CC co" 4-" c CD co 3 CO CO 5 CO CD O c m Q. < c > CO 0_ CO E _i CD E g. '3 O" LU 0) _c CD CO 3 CD O D3 C o o O c o E CO c CD CD X co T3 c CD O c ~cd o 'k- o LU c CD k- CD LL C CD CL O CD k_ 3 CO a X LU -Q CD E E CD LL. CD "O .> C CO O O (J a. »_ LU < ~CD k_ 3 ■^ CD 2 CO CD CD X 1— CD C O c c D ■p "O q JZ O c L0 j CO M- n r 0) LU u CI) L0 nr CIS 8 O S c > r 0J ro b CO x '^ O Q. g axi (D c m t ro ■0 c cu ro CD ro 39 What can be done about the residential fire problem? Some actions that households may take to prevent the leading causes of fires are listed in Table 16. Smoke detectors, coupled with a practical escape plan, can reduce casualties and losses once fire does strike. The fire service (and others) may wish to teach these preventive ac- tions to the public along with providing data to motivate them to take the required action. FIRE CAUSES IN DIFFERENT SIZE COMMUNITIES There is considerable variation in fire rates and losses between California and Ohio, and also among cities within each of these States. Large differences in fire loss among cities of varying population size were mentioned earlier in the discussion of data from the 1974 NFPA survey (page 18). Similar differences are found when considering residential fires alone. A better under- standing of the reasons for such diversity may be gained by examining variations in fire rates among different sized communities for each of the major causes of residential fires. Figure 14 illustrates the average fire rate for the Ohio cities by popula- tion group for each of the eight major cause categories. The Ohio cities were grouped into four ranges of population: over 200,000 persons, 50,000 to 200,000 persons, 25,000 to 50,000 persons, and less than 25,000 persons. The last group included rural communities as well as small towns. Data from seven cities using the NFPA 901 codes under the Uniform Fire Incident Reporting System (UFIRS) were also included in the comparison. 28, 29 The UFIRS cities provide a fifth group. The fire rate for each of the five groups is plotted in Figure 14 at the mean value of the population range. The largest differences in fire rates among cities occurred in cause categories dominated by human carelessness or misbehavior — such as smoking or arson, rather than in categories where equipment malfunctions dominate — such as ap- pliances, electrical distribution, and heating. Several interesting points are suggested by this data. First, although the larger Ohio cities prob- ably had more complete reporting than the smaller cities, 30 the differences in fire rates appear to be larger than would result just from differ- ences in reporting completeness. This tends to be supported by the constancy of the equipment- related causes with population — equipment of the same quality tends to be sold all over, whereas socioeconomic mixes and behavior of citizens may vary considerably from large cities to rural areas. Second, if the differences are indeed real and not data artifacts, they point up the potential for reducing fires caused by carelessness and other "human behavior" problems — citizens in some communities outperform those in others five to one. While the circumstances they face may be vastly different, figuring out how to move the worst rates even part way toward the best rates could have a significant impact on the fire prob- lem. (Determining how to induce the changes is the focus of NFPCA's Public Education Office.) Third, cities should compare their performance by fire cause to others in their population class. Further detailed analysis of causes by socio- economic classes within a city should provide in- formation that is important in targeting public education programs more effectively. Several re- cent studies relate community characteristics to C i 31, 32, 33, 34 fire rates. Finally, a note of caution about data for rural areas. The profile here for that class does not agree with that from the NFPA survey data pre- sented earlier. Here it is a low rate; there it is a high rate. Although precision and accuracy are lowest for data from the rural communities, we do not know if this is why the profiles differ or if the differences are real. 28 These seven are Denver, CO; Jacksonville, FL; Kansas City, MO; Madison, Wl- Syracuse, NY; Tucson, AZ; and Wichita, KS. 29 UFIRS is a fire information system based on the NFPA 901 system and is designed for use by communities. 30 Eisenberg, Daniel and Cetis, Robert, Principal Investigators, Initial NFIRS Data Validation Study (Philadelphia, PA: Auerbach Associates, Inc., for the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration, March 1977), Contract No. 6-34583. 31 Oliver, Raymond B., Project Director, Baton Rouge Fire Household Study (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana Department of Public Safety, forthcoming), Fire Administration Grant No. NFPCA-7X009. 32 Karter, Michael J., Fire Rates and Census Characteristics — A Descriptive Approach (Boston, MA: National Fire Protection Association, forthcoming), Fire Administration Grant No. NFPCA- 76043. 33 Berl, Walter G. and Halpin, Byron M., "Fire-Related Fatali- ties: An Analysis of Their Demography, Physical Origins and Medical Causes," presented at the Symposium on Fire Standards and Safety, National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, MD, April 5 and 6, 1976. 3 *Schaenman, Philip et al, Measuring Fire Protection Out- comes: Some Further Improvements, Boston, MA: National Fire Protection Association and The Urban Institute, Washington, DC, 1977. 40 Table 16. ACTIONS TO PREVENT FIRE IN THE HOME 1 Smoking Fires 1. Don't smoke in bed, especially after drinking alcoholic beverages. 2. Develop the habit of checking for cigarettes under chair cushions before going to bed, after people have been smoking near upholstered furniture. 3. Use safety ashtrays— the type which causes a lit cigarette to fall into the ashtray, not out of it. 4. Leave ashtrays to empty in the morning, to avoid throwing live cigarette butts in with ignitable trash. Cooking Fires 1. Stay around and pay attention once you have started cooking. Unattended cooking is one of the most common causes of fires. 2. Clean grease from the stove and flue. 3. Keep combustibles — such as curtains or drapes, clothing, packaged foods, and trash — away from stoves. Heating Fires 1. Have your heater or heating system checked by a competent service man at least once a year. 2. Take special care with fireplaces. Use a spark screen to prevent sparks from flying, and be sure the chimney is unblocked and without too much soot ac- cumulation. Fireplace fires are very common, even in California. 3. Keep combustibles (dust mops, cleaning fluids, aerosols, Christmas decora- tions, etc.) at least 18 inches away from all heating units. Electrical Distribution Fires 1. If there is any sign of electrical trouble, shut off power to the circuit and have it checked by a good electrician. 2. Check cords and plugs frequently for signs of broken insulation or frayed wires. Appliance Fires 1. Don't overload dryers, and be sure to remove lint regularly. 2. Check your appliances at least once a year to see that they are clean and functioning properly, and that insulation has not broken or cracked. 3. Buy appliances having Underwriters Laboratories or other nationally recognized testing laboratory approval. Fires Caused by Children Playing or Intentionally Setting Fires 1. Keep matches and cigarette lighters away from children (and senile adults, for that matter). 2. Suggest professional counseling to help children work out problems which motivate fire setting. 1 Material for related programs is available from the Public Education Office, National Fire Prevention and Control Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, P.O. Box 19518, Washington, DC 20036. 41 Figure 14. COMPARISON OF RESIDENTIAL FIRE RATES BY CAUSE FOR DIFFERENT SIZE COMMUNITIES (Continued) Fires/ 100,000 Fires/ 100,000 ,p up Community Population V 50 - Fires Caused by Children Playing 40 - 30 - N. 20 ~UFIRS Average X 10 n ' 1 1 1 Average I Community Population Fires/ 100,000 X UFIRS Average 9 *-"^bhio Average 10 Heating Fires II II 1 <£&^ Fires/ 100,000 Electrical Distribution Fires 20 UFIRS Average Ohio Average 10 II II ' ## && 4? Community Population Community Population SOURCE: Ohio 1976 NFIRS data. Small X's indicate the seven-city UFIRS average for each of the eight causes of residential fires. The cities I Madison, Wl, Syracuse, NY, Wichita, KS, Tucson, AZ, Kansas City, MO, Denver, CO, and Jacksonville, FLI range in size from 170,000 to 580,000 persons. 42 Figure 14. (Cont'd.) COMPARISON OF RESIDENTIAL FIRE RATES BY CAUSE FOR DIFFERENT SIZE COMMUNITIES Fires/ 100,000 50 - 40 - 30 - 20 - 10 - X UFIRS Average Cooking Fires Ohio Average J_L &<*&# 0^ 4 ^ *$ Fires/ 100,000 50 40 30 20 10 - UFIRS Average Ohio "Average _L_L Smoking Fires _L _L cnQ © 4 # Community Population Community Population Fires/ 100,000 Open Flame or Spark Fires 20 10 UFIRS Average ~"X — ^ Ohio n II II - -Average && V >y 6* 4^W Community Population Fires/ 100,000 20 10 Appliance Fires UFIRS Average ' L Ohio Average X Community Population SOURCE: Ohio 1976 NFIRS data. Small X's indicate the seven-city UFIRS average for each of the eight causes of residential fires. The cities (Madison, Wl, Syracuse, NY, Wichita, KS, Tucson, AZ, Kansas City, MO, Denver, CO, and Jacksonville, FLI range in size from 170,000 to 580,000 persons. 43 UNREPORTED HOUSEHOLD FIRES Most household fires are not reported to the fire service. These fires are fought and extin- guished by the householder, perhaps assisted by neighbors, or they may simply go out by them- selves. An understanding of the total fire problem would be incomplete if these fires were ignored, especially since many cause nontrivial injuries and losses. Under the sponsorship of the National Bureau of Standards and the Consumer Product Safety Commission, the Bureau of the Census conducted a "national household fire survey" of 33,000 households in 1974. These households identified a total of 2,463 fires experienced between April 1973 and April 1974 in residences, yards, autos, garages, boats, etc. A detailed analysis of this sur- vey was completed recently for the National Fire Administration. 35 A consumer-product-oriented analysis by the CPSC has also been prepared. 36 Some of the highlights of the survey are: • Less than 9 percent of household fires are actually reported to the fire service. • Two percent of all fires resulted in loss of one or more days of work; only 57 percent of these were reported fires. That is, almost half of the fires resulting in time lost from work were not reported. • About 15 percent of all fires resulted in one or more injuries or had an estimated damage greater than $200; almost half of these fires were not reported. Of these significant loss fires 15 percent were fires where food or grease was the first item ignited; 91 percent of these food or grease fires were not re- ported to the fire department. Of the other 85 percent significant loss fires, 50 percent were not reported. • Five percent of all fires start when no one is home. • Eighty-two percent of all building fires dam- aged only contents; that is, did not involve fire, smoke, or water damage to the walls, floor, or ceiling of any room. 35 Joiner, Brian L, Martin, Richard, and Gaumnitz, Cynthia, Statistical Analysis ot the National Household Fire Survey (Madi- son, Wl: University of Wisconsin, Statistical Laboratory, Septem- ber 1977), Fire Administration Grant No. NFPCA-76009. 36 Wadsworth, Ethel, Results of the National Household Fire Survey (Cambridge, MA: Technology and Economics, Inc., August 1977), Purchase Order # CPSC 77-68700. • Fifty-five percent of all building fires involv- ing some room damage were in the kitchen. • Fifty percent of all building fires had only smoke damage and no flame or water damage. • Five percent of all building fires involved ex- terior walls; 44 percent of these fires were to buildings having wood siding. • Less than 0.3 percent of all building fires spread to another building. • Eighty-three percent of all fires occurred dur- ing waking hours — 7 a.m. to 10 p.m. • Forty-seven percent of all fires involved cook- ing; 3 percent of these cooking fires were reported. • Twenty-nine percent of all fires involved grease. • Excluding those fires of unknown location, 65 percent of all fires occurred in the kitchen (53 percent if fires of unknown location are included), 4 percent of these were reported. • Fifty percent of all fires were extinguished by females of the household, 30 percent by males of the household, and 8 percent by fire departments (others extinguished the remainder). The Household Survey also yielded information on injuries from fires. Although the results should be considered tentative because they are based on only 138 injuries distributed across many categories, the principal findings are shown in Table 17. Briefly: • In all fires, males sustained 60 percent more injuries than females. • Males had four times more injuries from non- household fires than females (this seems to be the principal reason for the male and female injury differences). • Females sustained 50 percent more injuries from household fires than males. • Fires from cooking caused 43 percent of the injuries in household fires; trying to put out a (non-cooking) fire caused 17 percent of household injuries. The University of Wisconsin analysis also showed that household members had a major problem in recalling fires. Survey respondents apparently failed to mention many fires that occurred during the months about which they were asked. In fact, it was estimated that only 44 Table 17. HOUSEHOLD INJURIES BY SEX AND ACTIVITY OF VICTIM (Reported and Unreported Fires) Household Activity Causing (Including auto, garag e, etc.) Non-Household Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Injury Number Cooking 4 23 27 5 7 12 9 30 39 Putting out fire 6 5 11 10 10 16 5 21 Other 15 10 25 45 8 53 60 18 78 Total 25 38 63 60 15 75 85 53 138 Cooking Percent 6 37 43 7 9 16 7 22 28 Putting out fire 10 8 17 13 — 13 12 4 15 Other 24 10 40 60 11 71 43 13 57 Total 40% 60% 100% 80% 20% 100% 62% 38% 100% SOURCE: Joiner, B. L, Martin, Ft., and Gaumnitz, C, Statistical Analysis of the National Household Fire Survey (Madison, Wl: University of Wisconsin, Statistical Laboratory, September 1977). NOTE: Some column totals may not equal the sum of the elements due to round-off error. about 40 percent of the total fires that had oc- curred within 12 months prior to the interview were actually reported during the interview. Most of those omitted are believed to be minor fires, for example, grease fires, but many may have been nontrivial. Making allowance for unrecalled fires, the es- timate of the total number of annual household fires in the country comes to about 13 million, or nearly one incident per year for every five households. CHARACTERISTICS OF NON- RESIDENTIAL STRUCTURE FIRES The causes of fires in non-residential structures are discussed in this section. Figure 15 shows the relative frequency of the different causes of fires reported in non-residential structures in Ohio and California. Fires of incendiary or suspicious origin, the most frequent cause, accounted for 27 percent of all reported non-residential structure fires, 21 percent of the deaths, 19 percent of the in- juries, and 27 percent of the dollar loss. A variety of causes are second, depending upon which loss measure is used. Flammable liquids rank second in deaths; while natural causes (lightning or spontaneous ignition) are important in injuries, and heating, for dollar loss. Fires with unknown cause are actually second most frequent after incendiary/suspicious. Table 18 shows causes of non-residential fires by occupancy type. The values across the bottom of the table give the totals of fires, deaths, injuries, and dollar losses. The entries in the table repre- sent, for each occupancy, the percent of fires attributable to each cause. There appear to be strikingly different patterns of losses and causes for each occupancy type. The three occupancies showing the greatest dollar losses are storage, stores and offices, and manufacturing. The fire losses shown in the table for industry and manufacturing are probably less than half of the actual total. Since many large businesses and industries maintain their own fire brigades, only a small proportion of their total fires may be re- ported to local fire departments. Though we may not know the full extent of the fire problem in these properties, the part involving public fire departments is included in the reported data; the unknown part is that which the companies are handling themselves. To help pinpoint problems on which to focus and to measure success those interested in fire prevention can array the data from their own communities in a manner similar to Table 18. For example, the table illustrates that in these two States most fires in schools are incendiary and relatively few in schools are from smoking. Cooking fires are the most common cause in public assembly properties, particularly in restau- rants (as can be seen in the data presented in 45 I CO LU OC D h- -o II CO § jO < I I- -a Z « w .E Q -Q So Z? 2 CO — cc OLZ P5 S| £jo coS LU O) cc «- LI co llEE o CO — "J CO «l . 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(r c O r Reported 1 (In Thousands) Mobile: Automobiles . 21,391 10,938 36 32 242 187 $ 6,818 $ 5,218 Other Motor Vehicles 7,213 1,935 33 10 172 101 5,241 2,460 Rail, Water & Air Transportation .... 412 166 27 8 26 11 1,449 1,705 Other Mobile 572 410 2 15 13 1,041 800 Mobile Subtotal . 29,588 13,449 98 50 455 312 $ 14,549 $ 10,183 Outside: Refuse . 30,234 11,852 74 7 2,994 16 Trees, Grass, Brush . 55,771 10,949 6 360 6 2,777 61 Forests 38 1 6 2 Crops 177 27 4 1 178 24 Other Outside 31,930 7,133 17 5 224 75 10,661 5,465 Outside Subtotal 118,150 29,962 23 5 662 89 $ 16,617 $ 5,566 All Fires 216,155 67,824 423 272 4,936 4,004 $209,091 $144,317 Mobile: Percent of All Losses Automobiles 10% 16% 9% 12% 5% 5% 3% 4% Other Motor Vehicles 3 3 8 4 3 3 3 1.7 Rail, Water & Air Transportation .... 0.2 0.2 6 3 0.5 0.3 0.7 1.2 Other Mobile 0.3 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.6 Mobile Subtotal . 14 20 23 18 9 8 7 7 Outside: Refuse 14 17 1.5 0.2 1.4 Trees, Grass, Brush . 26 16 1.4 7 0.1 1.3 Forests 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 Other Outside 15 11 4 1.8 5 1.9 5 4 Outside Subtotal 55 44 5 1.8 13 2 8 4 All Fires 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 1 Reported fire incidents shown do not include all fires attended by fire departments. Estimated completeness is on the order of 90 percent for California and 50 percent for Ohio (Reference 11). 2 Less than $500 loss. NOTE: Some column totals may not equal the sum of their elements due to round-off error. Percentages less than two were rounded to the nearest tenth of a percent. 67 Section VII Characteristics of Fire Casualties The most important aspect of fire protection is life safety. In addition to knowing where and why fires occur, it is necessary to know what groups of people are most likely to be victims and what the circumstances and nature of the casualties are. It is also important to differentiate between fire- fighter casualties and general public casualties because their nature and the remedial actions called for are likely to be quite different. This section presents characteristics of civilian and firefighter casualties. Civilian casualties are discussed by age, sex, nature and causes of casualty, and body parts injured. The results are based primarily on NFIRS casualty data for Ohio, since California did not report corresponding details. However, selected comparisons of fire casualties are also presented for the seven UFIRS cities. In examining the data in this section, it should be noted that casualty data has some special validity problems. Minor injuries may or may not be reported. Major nonfatal injuries cannot be distinguished in the current NFIRS from minor injuries, since the NFIRS reporting form does not contain a data element relating to the severity of a nonfatal injury. Reporting of firefighter in- juries may be influenced by local pension and in- surance reporting requirements, which differ from place to place. Reporting a minor injury is some- times discouraged by peer pressures and by the paperwork involved. Because of the problems and the importance of the issue, improving injury re- porting is a high priority on the National Fire Data Center's agenda. OHIO FIRE CASUALTIES BY AGE AND SEX The distribution of civilian injuries by age and sex, and firefighters injuries by age are shown in Table 27. Highlights of that table are: • Over half (56 percent) of all injuries from fires attended by the fire service in Ohio are to firefighters. There were five firefighter deaths re- ported in 1976. • Sixty-five percent of all civilian injuries and 61 percent of fire deaths in Ohio are to males. This agrees with the National Center for Health Statistics death data presented in Figure 2, page • The reason for the surprisingly high percent- age of male casualties is not known; this subject will receive further study. • Not only do male victims outnumber female victims overall, but also civilian male fire injuries in Ohio are more frequent that female injuries for all age groups under 65 years. The situation re- verses at the over-65 category, possibly because there are many more females surviving to that age than men. Deaths follow the same pattern except for the 6-17 age group. • Almost two-thirds of firefighter injuries in Ohio are to individuals between the ages of 26 and 45: 39 percent between 26 and 35 years; and 25 percent between 36 and 45 years. • The age distribution of civilian injuries is quite different from that for civilian deaths. About three-quarters of all civilian injuries occur to persons between 18 and 65 years of age, but only half of the deaths. Persons less than 18 years have only 18 percent of the injuries, but 30 percent of deaths. Persons more than 65 years have only 9 percent of the injuries, but 21 percent of deaths. Clearly, the nature of fire encountered and the response of the victim to the fire situation and to treatment varies significantly with age. From another point of view, one can con- sider the relative risk for each age group. Rela- tive risk is the percent of injuries or fatalities in 69 Table 27. FIRE CASUALTIES BY AGE AND SEX— Ohio (NFIRS 1976) Age Group Injuries Fatalities Total Civilian Male Civilian Female Civilian Fire- fighter Total Civilian Male Civilian Female Civilian Fire- fighter Number Reported 1 0-5 Years 78 49 110 205 155 107 101 61 27 19 92 926 29 49 95 89 44 60 36 29 24 40 495 NA 5 227 709 450 310 25 3 103 2 1,833 32 28 28 20 10 21 20 12 31 22 224 23 12 16 14 5 13 14 5 16 18 136 9 16 12 6 5 8 6 7 15 4 88 NA 6-17 Years 159 18-25 Years 26-35 Years 300 244 1 36-45 Years 151 1 46-55 Years 161 2 56-65 Years 97 66-75 Years 56 76 Years and Over .... Unknown Total 43 132 1,421 1 3 5 0-5 Years 6-17 Years Percent 6% 11 5% 12 22 17 12 11 7 3 2 10 100% 6% 10 19 18 9 12 7 6 5 8 101% 0% 0.3 12 39 25 17 1 0.2 6 101% 14% 13 13 9 5 9 9 5 14 10 101% 17% 9 12 10 4 10 10 4 12 13 101% 10% 18 14 7 6 9 7 8 17 5 101% 0% 18-25 Years 26-35 Years 36-45 Years 21 17 11 20 20 46-55 Years 56-65 Years 66-75 Years 76 Years and Over Unknown Total 11 7 4 3 9 100% 40 20 100% 'Tabulations based on numbers reported on the Ohio 1976 NFIRS Casualty Forms. 2 Includes two miscoded firefighter injuries of ages 4 and 11 years. 3 Includes one miscoded firefighter death of age 4 years. NA = Not applicable. NOTE: Some column totals may not equal 100 percent of the sum of their elements due to round-off error. each age group divided by the percent of the people in that age group. A relative risk of "one" is by definition normal or average; higher than "one" means higher risk. As can be seen from Table 28, the greatest risk of death by fire is to those over 75 years, followed by those under 6 years. The results for Ohio are basically in agreement with the death rates for different age groups reported by the National Safety Council (Figure 9, page 25) for the Nation. OHIO FIRE CASUALTIES BY NATURE OF INJURY Table 29 summaries the nature of injuries and causes of deaths sustained by civilians and fire- fighters. As noted previously, there is some ques- Table 28. RELATIVE RISK OF BECOMING A FIRE CASUALTY Relative Risk Age Group Of Injury Of Death 0-5 Years 0.6 6-17 Years 0.5 18-25 Years 1.8 26-35 Years 1.6 36-45 Years 1.0 46-55 Years 1.1 56-65 Years 0.9 66-75 Years 0.8 76 Years & over ... 1.0 1.5 0.6 1.1 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.2 1.1 4.6 70 Table 29. FIRE CASUALTIES BY NATURE OF INJURY— Ohio (NFIRS 1976) Injuries Total Male Female Fire- Total Civilian Civilian Civilian fighter Civilian Nature of Injury Number Reported 1 Burns & Asphyxia/smoke 167 97 70 67 124 Burns only 617 443 174 206 21 Asphyxia/smoke only .. . 397 234 163 464 31 Wound, cut, bleeding ... 107 81 26 304 3 Dislocation, fracture 22 14 8 50 1 Complaint of pain 2 24 11 13 103 6 Shock 17 8 9 7 2 Strain, sprain 19 9 10 316 Other 25 12 13 258 5 Unknown 26 17 9 58 31 Total 1,421 926 495 1 ,833 224 Percent Burns & Asphyxia/smoke 12% 10% 14% 4% 55% Burns only 43 48 35 11 9 Asphyxia/smoke only ... 28 25 33 25 14 Wound, cut, bleeding ... 8 9 5 17 1 Dislocation, fracture 2 2 2 3 0.4 Complaint of pain 2 2 1 3 6 3 Shock 1 0.9 2 0.4 0.9 Strain, sprain 1 1 2 17 Other 2 1 3 14 2 Unknown 2 2 2 3 14 Total 101% 100% 101% 100% 99% 'Tabulations based on numbers reported on the Ohio 1976 NFIRS Casualty Forms. 2 Includes heart attacks and strokes. Fatalities Male Civilian Female Fire- Civilian fighter 77 10 17 1 5 1 4 21 136 47 11 14 2 1 1 1 1 10 88 57% 53% 20% 7 13 13 16 0.7 2 1 20 4 1 0.7 1 3 1 20 15 11 40 100% 99% 100% tion concerning the degree of reporting of in- juries, especially minor ones. For civilians, the data show: • The most frequent fire injury to civilians is burns alone, with smoke inhalation second. Burn and smoke injuries which occurred separately or together account for 83 percent of injuries. • Males have many more burn injuries than females and many more wounds than females. There is no category here in which females have significantly more injuries than males. • The largest category of civilian deaths in Ohio is burns and smoke inhalation at the same time (55 percent). Burns and smoke inhalation, separately or together, account for 78 percent of deaths. (It is not apparent from this data whether smoke inhalation was the prime cause; but other, more detailed studies point that way. 45 ) For firefighters, the data show: • Smoke inhalation is the most common in- jury in Ohio (25 percent), followed by strains or sprains (17 percent), and cuts or wounds (17 percent). Only 11 percent of firefighter injuries are burns alone. • Of injuries sustained in connection with a fire in Ohio, 83 percent are incurred during fire control activities. 46 Another 3 percent are incurred in transit to or from the fire, 4 percent during rescue attempts, 6 percent during overhaul, and 4 percent during other activities. 45 Halpin, Byron M. et al, "Fire-Related Fatalities- An Analysis of Their Demography, Physical Origins, and Medical Causes," Fire Standards and Safety, American Society of Testing Materials, STP 614, (1977), pp. 26-54. 46 This finding is based on additional analysis of the Ohio data. 71 • Firefighter deaths in Ohio were too few to make any generalizations. However, a recent joint IAFF/NBS/NFPCA study shows that almost 45 per- cent of on-duty firefighter deaths are due to heart attacks or other cardiovascular accidents. 47 OHIO FIRE CASUALTIES BY CAUSE OF CASUALITY Table 30 summarizes the causes of casualties. "Cause" is used here in the sense of the immedi- ate physical condition or action that led to the injury. 47 Balanoff, Thomas, Fire Fighter Mortality Report (Washing- ton, DC: International Association of Fire Fighters for the Na- tional Fire Prevention and Control Administration and the Center for Fire Research, Institute for Applied Technology, Na- tional Bureau of Standards, May 1976), Contract Number 4-35909. "Exposure to fire products (including flame, heat, smoke, and gas), chemicals, or radiation" resulted in 75 percent of civilian injuries and 70 percent of civilian deaths. This category is most applicable to burn or smoke inhalation casualties in the previous section, which accounted for 83 percent of injuries and 79 percent of deaths. Only 44 percent of firefighter injuries are from "exposure to fire products." That is, most fire- fighter injuries in Ohio (specifically, the remaining 56 percent) are not directly from the fire, but rather from working near the fire and falling or being struck by something or from over-exertion. This suggests that in addition to improving turn- out gear and breathing apparatus, there is a need for more training in fire safety. Table 30. FIRE CASUALTIES BY CAUSE OF INJURY— Ohio (NFIRS 1976) Injuries Fatalit ies Total Male Female Fire- Total Male Female Fire- Cause of Injury Civilian Civilian Civilian fighter Civilian Civilian Civilian fighter Number Reported 1 Caught in, under or between, or trapped by 64 48 16 36 28 15 13 1 Exposure to fire products, 2 chemicals or radiation . 1,060 699 361 810 157 93 64 1 Fell or stepped on, over, into 47 29 18 346 1 1 Overexertion 13 93 6 58 7 35 110 145 3 1 3 1 Rubbed by, contact with . Struck by 36 25 11 205 3 2 1 1 Not applicable 16 8 8 19 4 2 2 1 Other 62 30 38 15 24 15 116 46 5 22 3 16 2 6 Unknown 1 Total 1,421 926 495 1,833 224 136 88 5 Percent Caught in, under or between, or trapped by 5 5 3 2 13 11 15 20 Exposure to fire products, 2 chemicals or radiation 75 75 73 44 70 68 73 20 Fell or stepped on, over, into 3 3 4 19 0.4 0.7 Overexertion 0.9 7 0.6 6 1 7 6 8 1 0.4 2 0.7 Rubbed by, contact with . Struck by 3 3 2 11 1 1 1 20 Not applicable 1 0.9 2 1 2 1 2 20 Other 4 2 4 2 5 3 6 3 2 10 2 12 2 7 20 Unknown Total 101% 100% 100% 100% 100% 98% 100% 100% 'Tabulations based on numbers reported on the Ohio 1976 NFIRS Casualty Forms. 2 Includes flame, heat, smoke, and gas. NOTE: Some column totals may not equal 100 percent or the sum of their elements due to round-off error. 72 At least 19 percent of firefighter injuries are caused by falling or stepping on, over, or into something. Another 11 percent of firefighter injuries are due to contact with some object. Ap- proximately 6 percent of firefighter injuries are due to over-exertion. Civilians are much lower in each of these categories, which provides an- other rough face-validity check. It is not surpris- ing that firefighters get injured by working around the fire; whereas, most civilians flee from the fire if able to do so; and if not injured by smoke or flame, they are unlikely to suffer strains, sprains, or be hit by objects. OHIO FIRE CASUALTIES BY PART OF BODY INJURED Table 31 indicates the frequency of injuries to various parts of the body. For both firefighters and civilians, about one-third of all injuries are "in- ternal," mostly from smoke inhalation. The ma- jority of firefighter injuries in Ohio are about equally divided among various parts of the body: 11 percent each for (1) head and neck; (2) hand; (3) body, trunk, and back; and (4) leg. Arm in- juries are 9 percent. A recent IAFF study also found firefighter injuries well distributed over the body. 48 These results suggest that improve- ment is needed for all parts of the firefighter's protective outfit — no single weak point is evident. Severe but nonfatal injuries might be more con- centrated, however, and should be analyzed be- fore any final conclusions are drawn. 48 A Comprehensive Study of Firefighter Injuries, and In/ury Reporting Systems (Washington, DC: International Association of Fire Fighters, October 1977), Fire Administration Grant Num- ber NFPCA-76056, p. 82. The study results are based on a sur- vey conducted in 13 cities. Table 31. FIRE CASUALTIES BY PART OF BODY INJURED— Ohio (NFIRS 1976) Injuries Fatalit ies Total Male Female Fire- Total Male Female Fire- Part of Body Injured Civilian Civilian Civilian fighter Civilian Civilian Civilian fighter Number Reported 1 Head, neck 112 85 85 55 27 30 213 200 5 26 3 14 2 12 1 Body, trunk, back Arm 130 54 98 31 32 23 159 186 Leg Hand 205 142 63 210 Foot 42 28 14 77 Internal 2 444 251 193 572 55 32 23 1 Multiple parts 281 195 86 68 110 68 42 2 Other 28 40 15 26 13 14 90 58 6 22 4 15 2 7 1 Unknown Total 1,421 926 495 1,833 224 136 88 5 Head, neck Percent 8 9 5 12 2 2 2 Body, trunk, back 6 6 6 11 12 10 14 20 Arm 9 11 6 9 Leg 4 3 5 10 Hand 14 15 13 11 Foot 3 3 3 4 Internal 2 31 27 39 31 25 24 26 20 Multiple parts 20 21 17 4 49 50 48 40 Other 2 3 2 3 3 3 5 3 3 10 3 11 2 8 20 Unknown Total 100% 100% 100% 100% 101% 100% 100% 100% 'Tabulations based on numbers reported on the Ohio 1976 NFIRS Casualty Forms. 2 Includes respiratory system and heart. 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They imply the need for follow-up analysis to improve the comparability of the statistics and to identify any transferable successes in reducing injury rates. From the table it can also be seen that fire- fighter injuries range from 16 percent of total re- ported injuries for Denver to 77 percent for Kansas City. Some of the discrepancies might be due to differences in reporting practices or to the fact that urban firefighters may be exposed to hazardous fires more frequently than rural fire- fighters — rural fires are included in the Ohio data. Reported civilian injury rates (injuries per capita) vary five-fold, from an extraordinarily low rate of 98 per million persons, to 530 per million. The number of deaths in the table is too small to provide reliable comparisons. 75 J Section VIII Residential Fires This section contains tables showing the rela- tive frequency of the causes of residential fires. In this section we use the same cause categoriza- tions discussed earlier in Section IV, page 33. Ap- pendix IX provides tables showing the same breakdowns, but presents the number of fires and their rates instead of relative frequencies. SUMMARY OF CAUSES OF RESIDENTIAL FIRES Table 33 shows the relative frequency of fire losses attributed to different causes of reported residential fires. There are eight major cause cate- gories: cooking, smoking, heating, incendiary or suspicious, electrical distribution, appliances, children playing, and open flame or spark. For fires of known cause, these together account for 90 percent (89 percent) of all residential fires, 93 percent (91 percent) of deaths, 92 percent (87 percent) of injuries, and 89 percent (87 per- cent) of losses. 49 The top four major known cause categories for both States are cooking, smoking, heating, and incendiary or suspicious. For fires of known cause, these four categories account for well over half the fire problem any way you look at it: 63 per- cent (60 percent) of all residential fires, 80 percent (66 percent) of deaths, 68 percent (59 percent) of injuries, and 62 percent (55 percent) of dollar losses. 50 These numbers suggest that both States should consider focusing fire prevention pro- grams on these four areas to achieve significant reductions in fire losses. Of course, programs also are needed in other areas to prevent new prob- lems arising. • Cooking is the most frequent cause of all reported residential fires in both States: 19 per- cent (16 percent). This is no surprise. It is also the second highest cause of death in both: 7 per- cent (10 percent). This is less obvious; cooking is not often thought of as causing other than trivial fires. • Smoking ranks first by far as the cause of fire deaths in both States: 37 percent (18 percent). It is also first or second as the cause of injuries: 14 percent (12 percent). Further, it is the second most frequent cause of fire 50 in both States: 13 percent (14 percent). • Heating fires are the third most frequent cause of residential fires in both States. • Incendiary or suspicious residential fires are the fourth most frequent cause of residential fires but are the most frequent in both States in dollar loss: 17 percent (14 percent). • Fires caused by children playing rank eighth in California (4 percent), but fifth in Ohio (8 per- cent). • Fires caused by open flame or spark are a larger part of the problem in California (6 per- cent) than in Ohio (3 percent). Recall that "open flame or spark" does not include fires that have been assigned to any of the seven preceding cause categories — see priority list, page 36. For example, "children playing with matches" are not included in "open flame or spark." • Exposure causes about 3 percent of re- ported residential fires. "Exposure" in building fires means "ignited by heat from another hostile fire." The most common mode is from the burn- ing of outside trash. Less frequently, it includes ignition from another building. 49 Unless specifically noted, the remaining discussions of this section will be in terms of percentages of all fires (i.e. those of known and unknown causes). The first figure refers to Cali- fornia; the figure in parentheses is for Ohio. 50 Possibly many fires attributed to smoking should more properly be classified as unknown cause. 77 Table 33. RESIDENTIAL FIRES BY CAUSE— California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) Fires Deaths Injuries Dollar Loss Calif. Ohio Calif. Ohio Calif. Ohio Cause Cooking 19% 16% Smoking 13 14 Heating 13 13 Incendiary/Suspicious ..10 12 Electrical Distribution ... 7 8 Appliances 7 7 Children Playing 4 8 Open Flame, Spark 6 3 Exposure 3 3 Flammable Liquids 0.9 0.9 Explosives, Fireworks ... 0.8 0.2 Air Conditioning, Refrigeration 0.8 0.7 Natural 0.6 1.8 Gas 0.3 0.3 Other Equipment 0.3 0.5 Other Heat 1.6 3 Unknown 11 8 Total Percent Percent Calif. Ohio 7% 37 6 7 4 3 1.1 3 0.4 1.5 0.7 0.4 1.9 27 10% 18 10 4 4 3 3 4 0.5 0.5 5 35 14% 22 13 10 7 5 4 5 1.3 1.7 0.5 0.3 0.4 1.3 0.1 1.3 13 12% 13 11 13 8 5 9 3 3 1.9 0.4 0.3 0.9 1.5 0.3 2 15 6% 13 14 17 10 5 3 4 4 1 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.3 1.7 18 8% 8 14 14 14 4 5 3 3 1.1 0.1 0.6 1.9 1.4 0.5 2 20 Residential 99% 99% 100% 99% 100% 100% 100% 101% Total Number Residential 1 46,585 16,970 270 201 2,745 2,348 $94,274 2 $61,335 2 1 Reported fire incidents shown do not include all fires attended by fire departments. Estimated completeness is on the order ol 90 percent for California and 50 percent for Ohio (Reference 11). 2 Dollar loss in thousands. NOTE: Some column totals may not equal 100 percent or the sum of their elements due to round-off error. Percentages less than two were rounded to the nearest tenth of a percent. • Fires of unknown cause comprise 11 per- cent of all fires in California and 8 percent in Ohio. It is the leading dollar loss category in both States: 17 percent (14 percent). In Ohio unknown cause is also the leading category for deaths (35 percent), occurring almost twice as often as smoking which is the most frequent of the known causes; in California unknown causes (27 percent) are second to smoking (37 percent). In Ohio un- known cause also leads the list of causes for injuries (15 percent). 51 51 A change in any year in the relative frequency of fires of unknown cause may create some difficulty when monitoring trends for individual cause categories. For example, an appar- ent decrease in incendiary/ suspicious fires or smoking fires may actually be the result of reporting more fires of doubtful cause as fires of unknown cause. This problem can be reduced by considering causes as a percent of fires with known causes, rather than as a percent of all fires. FREQUENCY AND CAUSES BY TYPE OF RESIDENCE Table 34 shows how causes are distributed among different types of residences. Fires occur most frequently in one and two family dwellings — three times as often as fires in apartments in both States. They account for 68 percent (75 per- cent) for all residential fires, 62 percent (72 per- cent) of deaths, 64 percent (74 percent) of in- juries, and 71 percent (79 percent) of dollar loss. However, one- and two-family dwellings do not necessarily represent a higher fire risk than apart- ments or mobile homes. This type of analysis would require knowing the relative number of buildings or households of each type. 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CO CO "O . co cd . c: 11 11 CO ±z CO ■o CO 5 . c "S ■c -c !s eg 05 ■£ ^ i? co - ilQ-Dj: c to 3 CD O) CT.- c c c CD CD ~ a3 •- _2 to co ra . _ CO m ,.2 o T3 'C 0) o cr CL u c n: Q CO CD k e >- u- T3 C c .= CD c co .2 c .5 1 _ a E Q. LU^ cd a c g c c a3 a Cf V O fc CD <-> S o.-CQ-x to x.— co co ^ 3= c Owi£u < O O LU LL. LU < ZOOO^ Q ^ c C O LL to (f> a> a; a; 01 ^ a fc ■D C -0 O a> u a O E t 01 o ip d «*- 0) 0) « TS ^ O LU o 79 again, one would need to know the number of persons occupying these types of residences be- fore saying that the rate of danger is especially high or low. The cause profile for apartments is somewhat different than for single-family dwellings in both States. This difference suggests a need for differ- ent emphasis in prevention programs. For ex- ample, smoking-related fires account for twice the percentage of apartment fires, 22 percent (22 percent), as one- and two-family dwelling fires, 8 percent (11 percent). Fires involving heat- ing equipment are half the percentage of apart- ment fires, 7 percent (5 percent), as in one- and two-family dwellings, 16 percent (15 percent). Although not shown in Table 34, fires involv- ing people smoking are the principal cause of death for each residential occupancy. 80 Section IX Detailed Characteristics of Residential Fires This section presents more detailed informa- tion on the characteristics of the major causes of residential fires that were previously identified for California and Ohio. From the various data elements included in the NFIRS reporting form, we have selected those cause categories most likely to be useful in targeting local fire preven- tion programs. For the cause categories primarily involving equipment, the most important addi- tional information needed is the ignition factor. For causes not involving equipment, information on the form of heat of ignition, type of material ignited, form of material ignited, and area of origin may also be pertinent. For each of the equipment cause categories, detailed breakdowns are given by the principal NFPA 901 code subcategories of equipment. As noted previously, this breakdown makes it pos- sible to redefine cause categories, if desired. For example, one could separate fireplace fires from the general heating category or include portable heaters or hot plates in the appliance category. For each equipment category, the causes of ignition are subdivided into malfunction, design- construction-installation deficiency, and misuse or carelessness. The NFPA 901 codes further sub- divide misuse according to misuse of heat, misuse of material ignited, and operational deficiency. The order in which the leading causes are dis- cussed below is their relative frequency for both States combined; the most frequent cause, cook- ing, is discussed first. RESIDENTIAL COOKING FIRES According to the 1974 National Fire Household Survey, the vast majority of fires in the home arise from cooking. (See Section IV, page 44 for a summary.) Most of these fires are not reported to the fire service — they are small and are extin- guished by the resident or go out by themselves. The reported cooking fires tend to be more serious. According to the data in Table 35, in both Ohio and California human errors account for about three-fourths of residential fires involving cooking. In both States this same factor accounts for a similar fraction of the injuries, deaths, and dollar losses. Mechanical failure or malfunction usually account for much less than one-fourth as many fires, injuries, deaths, or dollar losses as carelessness. The single most common specific cause of fires involving cooking is leaving cooking "unattended" — 43 percent of the cooking fires in Ohio and 27 percent in California. This ignition factor also accounts for the highest percent of cooking- related injuries, deaths, and dollar losses. It includes a person being physically absent from the kitchen, but may also apply to any situation, not otherwise more specifically classified, when the person is conscious, but inattentive to the cooking. This behavioral problem far outnumbers mechanical problems, such as shorts and part failures. Comparatively few cooking fires are reported as caused by somebody starting to cook then falling asleep, though some of these might have been reported as "unattended." "Accidentally turned on or not turned off" equipment is the second most common type of misuse: 9 percent (5 percent) of all cooking fires. In California, "combustible-too-close" ranks a close third. Although not shown in Table 35, almost 90 percent of residential cooking fires have stoves and ovens as the type of equipment involved. This probably is due to their vast predominance over other types of cooking equipment. 52 The See Appendix X for the frequency distribution of cooking tires. 81 §1 2i zo LU I si. Q_ CD 5& o^- Wco luz CO CO to uj r— DC 05 CZ 1 " U DC o- o o CO ^ 2 h- ca ZO LU I 9or coo < ^z h-Z o c 0) E Q. tT UJ CD ^5 $2 °-8 o LL 1- Q. >* CD "- Q co c CO 0) CD > CO T3 c CO c CO CM o> CM com o 00 co o coo 04 © Ninrow d c! m d co co O CM in ■«r in 04 -3- «3 CO 01 CO n- o r-- in 1- i- f- co o> CD 04 00 oocoo 00 O'* inor--T- o4^ 0!Ot-0 d c\j CM f^.1^. oh-oo (--■<*• o o •* o 1^. o O CO 04 t- co d 04 O 04 t- O) CM O) CM in CO CO CO O CO CO CD d m 04 d CO 04 ■^ 04 in CM CO CO in in d in d m co CD d CO d co o c 3T 3 ° — CO CO o c CD Q. O ~ o c en >» CU T3 = a) (o t r: f ■£ p m t; 2 O CD en CO o c o 3< a -a CD CD Q. C O O . 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Q C *| ,fi 55 =3 < O < c CD Q- O fi- s i « 1 H -2 J •- co co ■- S o>§-£ E « .E D O n E = "° <-> .n « 2 c * LL C ^ O CO CD O E : CD O ! •- 2 OS CD i- CO 3= a- a. © 3 E " S <3 £ o) a) a E ^ ,? E ' CD . ^ CO c _ o 0) IS LL W iS CO *- O LL '= CB O S ZJ o *s O O _ o co .b o o c ■£ O K => fc ™ E 09 CD m 3 E CO n ^ ^ o co m LL _l 5g CD 2 ^ E O co o 5 co CJ 1 >- o c c .'y »"S c^^ Q co C>J CD in en CJ) in to co C\J co CO T3 c CO VU "J ^ y) >- 0) J — in Z: CD co _ CD LL Q J= O CD O O o ' CD CD CD JD JD JD E E E o o o I- I- H 83 characteristics of these fires are further analyzed below. Residential Cooking Fires Involving Stoves and Ovens The nature and frequency of specific causes of residential fires involving stoves or ovens for cooking, shown in Table 36, appear to depend in part upon whether the appliance is gas or electric. The source of heat is unknown for many reported cooking fires, because there are several ways to code certain causes, some of which do not indicate whether a gas or electric source of heat is involved. The relative risks cannot actually be assessed without a more accurate determina- tion of electric or gas and without knowing rela- tive numbers of each in homes. 53 However, if we look just at the incidents where gas versus electric is coded, patterns of incidents emerge which can be used in identifying the specifics of the cooking problem and in planning prevention programs. Some highlights of Table 36 include: • Stoves are much more often the source of fires than ovens in the two States, possibly be- cause of more frequent use and the presence of an open heating element. • In Ohio, fires from electric stoves outnum- ber fires involving gas stoves by almost 35 per- cent. In California, however, they are tied. • In California, gas oven fires outnumber electric oven fires by two to one. In Ohio, gas oven fires also are more frequent, but not by as much as in California. Note again that these are not relative rates of failure for each type of ap- pliance relative to its numbers, but rather the proportion of cooking fires that involved them. • Fires caused by "accidentally turned on or not turned off" stoves are more frequent for electric than for gas stoves. • A larger percentage of fires for gas stoves involve "part failures" than for electric stoves — ■ but this may be a reporting artifact, since part failures leading to shorts might not be included for electric stoves. Material Ignited in Cooking Fires Table 37 shows that the material most fre- quently ignited in stoves and ovens is, as ex- 53 Analysts can use sales or consumer product consensus data to convert the raw cause data to rates. pected, grease: 48 percent (57 percent). The next most important is food: 18 percent (14 percent). Together these are the first ignited materials in over two-thirds of stove and oven fires. Plastic on electric stoves and ovens also is ignited fairly often. On the other hand, fabric is ignited much more often for gas. RESIDENTIAL SMOKING-RELATED FIRES Fires involving people smoking are the second most frequently occurring type of residential fire. Table 38 presents statistics on the origin of fires related to smoking. In Ohio, 94 percent of fires related to smoking are caused by cigarettes, but in California only 69 percent. The difference may be more apparent than real, however, and may be the result of dif- ferent coding practices when one is not certain that a cigarette was involved. In California, the unknown smoking materials category represents a relatively high proportion, 27 percent, com- pared with only 3 percent in Ohio. With the unknowns deleted, the profiles in the two States would be very similar. "Falling asleep" was reported as a factor in a surprisingly small percentage of smoking-related fires — 11 percent in California and 14 percent in Ohio. But it accounts for a large proportion of smoking-related deaths, especially in California, 44 percent (17 percent), and injuries, 28 percent (23 percent). The condition "unconscious" was not reported in any of the fires. In both States over 40 percent of smoking- related fires occur in the bedroom and 26 percent in the living room; one-third occur elsewhere. Of the smoking-related fires causing deaths, 51 percent start in the bedroom in California; wnereas in Ohio, 63 percent of fires causing deaths start in the living room. Materials First Ignited in Smoking Fires Knowledge about the material first ignited is important, especially for setting State or Federal flammability standards or conducting research into flammability of materials exposed to burning cigarettes, and in alerting industry to the potential need for improved products. Both the form (or usage) of the material as well as the type (or composition) are relevant. The breakdown in Table 39 is according to the NFPA 901 codes. 84 Q Z < _l LU 3 U_ Li. 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Ohio Fire Characteristics Percent Form of Heat of Ignition: Cigarette Pipe Cigar . . . Other . . . Unknown Total . Ignition Factor: Abandoned (cigarette) Falling asleep Children playing Unattended Other Unknown , Total Area of Origin: Bedroom Living room . . . Kitchen Trash area . . . Garage area . . Bathroom Supply storage Roof Other Unknown Total 69 0.5 0.3 3 27 100% 57 11 2 0.6 30 0.1 101% 41 26 5 5 3 2 1 1 15 0.6 100% 94 93 97 0.8 3 0.6 1 1 3 3 2 80 95 1 0.7 0.2 0.3 3 0.7 15 3 99% 99% 100% 99% 100% 78 51 74 14 44 17 2 3 0.1 5 2 9 0.5 45 72 28 23 5 0.7 0.2 23 4 100% 100% 100% 101% 100% 44 51 26 26 41 63 6 3 6 2 0.8 3 1 0.3 15 4 6 1 1 49 46 34 38 4 4 0.2 0.9 0.3 2 3 0.2 8 9 2 0.7 99% 100% 101% 100% 101% 79 0.6 0.3 4 16 100% 64 15 2 0.7 18 100% 38 37 6 0.4 2 2 0.6 0.6 12 2 1 01 % 93 0.3 1 1 4 99% 81 10 1 0.4 7 0.2 100% 27 36 6 1 2 0.6 24 3 100% Total Number 1 6,011 2,287 91 35 582 304 (In Thousands) $11,507 $4,745 1 Reported fire incidents shown do not include all fires attended by fire departments. Estimated completeness is on the order o 90 percent for California and 50 percent for Ohio (Reference 11). NOTE: Some column totals may not equal 100 percent or the sum of their elements due to round-off error. Percentages less than one were rounded to the nearest tenth of a percent. Upholstered chairs and sofas, mattresses, and bedding are the items most frequently involved in residential fires caused by smoking, 57 percent (69 percent). It should be noted that the distinc- tion between bedding materials and mattresses may not always be correctly coded. There are significant differences reported between Cali- fornia and Ohio. Although bedding materials account for the same percentage of residential smoking fires in both States, they account for twice the percentage of deaths in California than in Ohio, 29 percent vs. 14 percent. On the other hand, residential smoking fires involving uphol- stered chairs or sofas account for about half the percentage of deaths in California than in Ohio, 36 percent vs. 60 percent, although again the category accounts for about the same percentage of fires, 31 percent and 28 percent. In othe words, smoking fires occur in the same places ir both States, but they happen to result in more lethal fires in beds in one and in upholsterec furniture in the other. Whether this is happen stance or has an underlying reason remains to be seen. The number of deaths is small, so tha the precision is low. Ignition of fabric (including natural or man made fabrics or fur) resulted in 61 percent (fr percent) of smoking fires, 11 percent (69 percent of deaths, 73 percent (75 percent) of injuries, anc 65 percent (67 percent) of dollar loss. 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The information routinely provided by NFIRS is neces- sarily much narrower in scope than this and requires supplemental data from in-depth studies in the future. Nevertheless, Table 42 reveals some important findings on incendiary and suspicious fires, based on currently available data. Suspicious fires (that is suspected, but not confirmed, as incendiary) comprise over 40 percent of the total reported as "incendiary or suspicious." This, together with the large percent of fires of "unknown" cause, suggest the need for better arson detection methods and training. Incendiary devices are listed as the source of ignition relatively infrequently, 5 percent (10 percent). These fires do not account for much of the losses. The most common source of ignition is a match or other flame. However, the "un- known" source of ignition is listed for a sub- Table 42. CHARACTERISTICS OF INCENDIARY/SUSPICIOUS FIRES IN RESIDENTIAL OCCUPANCIES— California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) Fires Deaths Injuries California Ohio California Ohio California Ohio Fire Characteristics Percent Dollar Loss California Ohio Type of Fire: Incendiary, not civil disturbance Suspicious not civil disturbance Incendiary, during civil disturbance Suspicious, during civil disturbance Total Form of Heat of Ignition: Incendiary device Match Other flame Cigarette Fireworks Other Unknown Total Material Ignited: Gasoline Kerosene Other flammable liquid Paper Wood Fabric Other Unknown Total 57 54 75 33 44 50 42 45 25 67 55 50 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.5 101% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 5 10 15 4 8 42 33 20 26 20 10 30 30 33 16 40 1 1 2 0.6 1 0.3 0.7 4 4 22 2 7 37 22 35 44 49 25 100% 100% 100% 99% 100% 101% 5 8 10 22 6 9 1 3 0.7 3 9 6 55 10 6 14 14 9 8 10 22 11 11 26 27 21 15 33 21 18 19 15 5 19 17 15 11 15 33 24 14 100% 100% 100% 99% 101% 101% 48 48 51 51 0.5 0.2 0.6 0.5 100% 100% 3 13 27 18 12 40 1 0.5 0.4 0.1 3 4 55 24 101% 100% 5 9 0.7 5 15 7 6 4 12 24 17 16. 14 16 31 20 101% 101% Total Number 1 4,871 2,107 20 287 315 $16,468 3,774 1 Reported fire incidents shown do not include all fires attended by fire departments. Estimated completeness is on the order of 90 percent for California and 50 percent for Ohio (Reference 11). NOTE: Some column totals may not equal 100 percent or the sum of their elements due to round-off error. Percentages less than two were rounded to the nearest tenth of a percent. 95 stantial proportion of these fires, 37 percent in California, 22 percent in Ohio, and some of these may be from incendiary devices. Gasoline, kerosene, and other flammable liquids are seldom listed as the material first ignited. Only about 16 percent of these fires list flammable liquids as the material first ignited. Paper is used slightly less often. Fabric and wood are high: 37 percent (43 percent). This may be due to misreporting, since wood and fabric may be the second material ignited, not the first. This is something to be checked in the future. RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION FIRES Residential fires involving electrical distribution equipment constitute 7 percent of the residential total. A variety of electrical components is in- cluded in the electrical distribution category: fixed wiring, lamps and lighting fixtures, cords and plugs, switches and outlets, light bulbs, and so forth. Light bulbs are somewhat different from other items in the category and should perhaps be placed in a separate class. If a fire originates from an electrical rather than a light bulb mal- function, it should not be coded as a light bulb fire, although this practice may not always be fol- lowed. Among electrical distribution fires shown in Table 43, fixed wiring is the most frequent source in both States, 25 percent of electrical fires in California, 31 percent in Ohio. "Cords and plugs" rank second in both States. Regardless of the particular electrical com- ponent involved, equipment malfunction is the principal reported cause of electrical fires, 59 percent in California and 17 percent in Ohio. "Short circuit" is the most frequently reported malfunction, 37 percent (56 percent) of all fires. According to the data, overloaded circuits are much less frequently cited, although still im- portant. However, overloads produce heating which might be reported as a short circuit. Many fire officers have raised caution flags about the accuracy of the reporting of the precise cause of electrical fires. In California "combustibles too close to heat" is a frequent specific cause for lamp and fixture fires (19 percent) and also for light bulb fires (27 percent). Although in Ohio "improper con- tainer" is most frequently reported for light bulbs, much of this difference may be due to differing interpretations of the codes or to encoding error. RESIDENTIAL FIRES INVOLVING APPLIANCES Characteristics of fires involving "appliances," which account for 7 percent of the residential fires, are shown in Table 44 by appliance type and cause. "Appliances" here include TV's, dryers, washing machines, irons, electric blankets, and assorted other items. Appliances used in cooking (e.g. ovens, stoves, deep-fat Iryers) and heating (e.g. portable space heaters), air conditioners, and refrigerators are covered elsewhere under those separate headings. The data in the table indicate that dryers are the appliance in this category most frequently involved in residential fire, 32 percent in Cali- fornia, 38 percent in Ohio. Television and radio fires occur second most frequently, 26 percent (29 percent), but are most frequent in dollar loss by far. TV and radio fires also accounted for most of the small number of deaths resulting from "appliance" fires. Malfunctions are reported as the ignition factor for 60 percent (73 percent) of the appliance fires. The appliance category with the greatest propor- tion of fires reported due to malfunctions is TV/ radio, 85 percent (89 percent). The appliance category having the greatest proportion of misuse reported is "portable appliances producing heat" (such as irons), 34 percent (33 percent). For all appliance fires except those involving dryers, short circuits are reported as the principal type of malfunction. As noted when discussing electrical distribution fires, this may be a euphemism for a variety of electrical problems. For appliance fires involving dryers, "worn out or lacking maintenance" and "automatic control failure" are cited more frequently than short circuits. As with previous categories such as heating and electrical distribution, "combustibles too close" (California) and "improper container" (Ohio) are the most common forms of reported misuse of appliances. 96 CO UJ o z < Q_ !>* O CC CD &§ !^< o UJ V QZJL co2cp ZO(0 DC <^ El— o cfp ISit CQ^>CT> hOco co_i gc Q CJ3 03 a $ O CO CO d o i-^ m CM OO CJ m CI OCM c\ c c c 00 CM CD CO s££ CO 00 c 1-1- ' — ' t- co O CD CO 03 5 = *E 3? 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RESIDENTIAL FIRES CAUSED BY CHILDREN PLAYING LISTED BY IGNITION CHARACTERISTIC— California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1976) Fires Deaths Injuries Dollar Loss California Ohio California Ohio California Ohio California Ignition Characteristic Form of Heat of Ignition: Matches 56 Lighter 8 Candle 6 Fireworks Gas fueled equipment .... 5 Electrical equipment 3 Other 7 Unknown 16 Total 101% Area of Origin: Bedroom 35 Living area 9 Kitchen 7 Bathroom 3 Closet 5 Supply storage 1 Laundry room 1 Garage 8 Other 17 Unknown 14 Total 100% Type of Material Ignited: Cotton or rayon fabric ... 32 Man-made fabric 8 Other fabric 4 Paper 13 Wood 4 Natural fiber 2 Polyester plastic Gasoline 3 Other 19 Unknown 15 Total 100% Form of Material Ignited: Mattress 17 Bedding 9 Upholstered chair or sofa 6 Wearing apparel not on person 7 Trash 8 Roof covering 0.8 Newspaper, etc 4 Curtain, drapery 3 Fuel 3 Toy 3 Box, carton, bag 2 Cooking material 2 Wearing apparel on person 0.3 Other 34 Unknown 0.4 Total 100% Total Number 1 1,982 Percent Ohio 68 67 50 62 69 66 54 13 6 15 11 13 4 10 3 9 9 0.9 0.5 0.9 3 33 6 1 2 1 1 33 3 3 0.6 1 8 13 8 7 12 2 17 2 0.5 4 9 100% 100% 100% 102% 100% 100% 100% 48 67 67 49 42 45 46 10 4 17 14 16 8 5 7 3 5 2 2 1 2 0.3 5 8 7 9 5 4 33 0.8 5 0.3 2 2 33 7 0.5 1 0.9 1 11 1 9 1 17 14 20 15 18 2 1 7 99% 100% 100% 101% 101% 99% 101% 41 17 30 40 31 34 14 11 12 12 18 6 33 10 8 8 7 11 33 10 10 14 10 6 3 6 6 12 4 0.8 7 2 3 3 33 1 2 1 33 13 4 3 3 11 16 11 15 8 3 33 17 6 2 10 3 100% 99% 100% 100% 101% 101% 100% 27 12 17 8 17 13 67 17 16 13 16 15 11 4 24 10 19 10 11 11 15 10 8 4 7 4 0.5 0.8 2 0.3 4 33 4 £ 6 4 3 2 1 3 2 0.6 33 12 4 2 2 1 33 1 1 0.4 2 2 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.2 0.7 0.9 4 3 0.2 0.4 17 33 14 28 16 2 17 2 1 8 101% 100% 100% 102% 101% 100% 99% 420 3 6 120 193 $3,197,000 $3,184,000 1 Reported fire incidents shown do not include all fires attended by fire departments. Estimated completeness is on the order of 90 percent for California and 50 percent for Ohio (Reference 11). NOTE: Some column totals may not equal 100 percent or the sum of their elements due to round-off error. Percentages less than one were rounded to the nearest tenth of a percent. 101 The accuracy of the reasons for failure of dryers and other appliances is uncertain. For example, it is difficult to be certain if the cause of a given fire in a dryer was due to an overload condition, failure to clean out lint, or a malfunction. This may be difficult to determine with the investiga- tive resources available for most fires. RESIDENTIAL FIRES RESULTING FROM CHILDREN PLAYING In the combined data for California and Ohio, residential fires resulting from children playing are the seventh most frequently occurring type of fire. These fires account for 5 percent of all residential fires. The relative frequency of these fires by ignition characteristic is shown in Table 45. Among the highlights of Table 45 is that matches are the most frequent ignition source in residential fires caused by children playing. Matches were used in 56 percent of fires in this category in California, 68 percent in Ohio. Ciga- rette lighters were second, 8 percent (13 percent). Residential fires caused by children playing occur in just about any room, but most frequently in bedrooms, 35 percent (48 percent). In Cali- fornia garages are also a frequent location. Mattresses or bedding are the forms of material most frequently ignited by children playing, 23 percent (39 percent). In Ohio, upholstered chairs or sofas are second (11 percent); in California, however, trash is second (8 percent). Clothes that are not being worn at the time is another item frequently ignited by children. Relatively few fires caused by children play- ing ignite clothing worn by children, 8 incidents in California, 13 in Ohio. Possible reasons for this surprisingly low number are (1) standards for making ignition-resistant clothes for children, which were initiated about 1970, may be having significant effect; and (2) clothing ignitions are traditionally under-reported to the fire service. In many cases the child is rushed immediately to the hospital without calling the fire department. 102 Section X City by City Fire Data Up to this point, we have discussed statewide and national results. But the fire problem varies in its detail from community to community, and each must consider its own problems and estab- lish its own priorities. Setting the priorities for solving problems in each community is the heart of master planning for fire protection. 55 Many communities also are interested in know- ing how their fire experience compares to others, both in specific areas and overall. It is also important from a national perspective to know how diverse the problem is from place to place, to aid in developing appropriately responsive programs. And it is also important to identify communities that are performing exceptionally well. Why have they been successful? Can their techniques be transferred to other communities? For all of these purposes, the fire problem re- quires looking at the data community by com- munity and not just aggregating at the State or national levels. This section describes the statistical differences in fire and loss rates among Ohio cities and among seven of the cities using the NFPA Uniform Fire Incident Reporting System (UFIRS). (As mentioned earlier, this was the data available for this study; a broader base is expected in future years.) The comparisons were made first according to major occupancy type, and then in more detail for residential fires. There is a risk in doing this. The rate comparisons are affected by differences in reporting among the various communities. In addition, the numbers of fires, deaths, and injuries, and the dollar losses in the city tables are, of course, much fewer than in the previous State tables. This means that the preci- 55 Urban Guide for Fire Prevention and Control Master Plan- ning, prepared by the Mountain View and Los Angeles City Fire Departments and the Mission Research Corporation (Washing- ton, DC: Government Printing Office 1977), Fire Administration Grant No. NFPCA-75006. sion at the city level will be much lower than at the State level, as noted in Section V, page 59 and discussed more fully in Appendix VI. This lower precision in turn lessens the confidence in the inferences that can be drawn from the data. There are important differences between com- munities which affect fire rates and losses, and which are beyond control of the fire service or even the community. Ideally, comparisons should be made only between cities with similar "un- controllable" conditions. The question of which factors should be used to group like communities is currently being investigated by NFPCA, NFPA, and others. SUMMARY OF CITY BY CITY FIRE DATA Although the first year's data from NFIRS for the Ohio cities is known to be incomplete, we will discuss it here anyway, to illustrate the types of inter-city analyses that can be made. The data on the absolute numbers of fires and their rates per capita (Tables 46, 47, 48) do not accurately indicate the fire performance of the cities in- volved. However, the numbers of fires shown indicate the size of the samples we worked with. They are non-random samples but are sufficiently large that they do indicate the broad characteris- tics of the fire picture in these cities with reason- able accuracy. The information on percent of residential fires by cause (Table 48) is likely to be closer to the mark than either the absolute numbers of fires or the fire rates. Tables 46 and 47 summarize fire incidents and losses by major occupancy category for each of the 20 largest Ohio cities. These are also the Ohio cities designated as "central cities" by the Bureau of Census. All have a population over 50,000. 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Since we do not know how accurate the data are, these comparisons must be taken only as a starting point for understanding problems and identifying sources of solutions. Perhaps the first question for understanding reasons for differences should be, "Is it a data collection artifact or a real world difference?" Variation of Fire Losses with Community Size Figure 20 shows a plot of the average fire and fire loss rates for the four different Ohio popula- tion groups and also the average for the UFIRS cities. The patterns are strikingly similar to the analogous plots from the NFPA 1974 survey, Figure 3 and Figure 4. The curves for injury and dollar loss rates agree well in both magnitude and shape. The death rate curve has the same U-shape as in the 1974 survey, but with lower values; this is because Ohio's average death rate is well below the national average (see Appendix IV). The principal difference is in the total fire rate. The large Ohio cities and the UFIRS cities have about the same value as in the NFPA survey, but the rates for the remaining Ohio groups are about 40 percent to 50 percent smaller. This is probably due to under-reporting of fires by local communities to the State in NFIRS for the first year. "Values for the under 25,000 group were obtained by re- moving cities with greater than 25,000 population from the Ohio data tape. The figures were not obtained by averaging the values obtained from all cities with less than 25,000 population. Comparison by City of Residential Fire Causes Table 48 shows the percent of residential fires within eight major cause categories for each Ohio and UFIRS city. To the extent that the data are valid, they suggest problems (and the priorities) local fire prevention programs might address. They also indicate how well cities have been doing relative to various problems, and what areas may not require additional programs. Table 48 also shows that the top two or three problems (i.e. most frequent causes) vary from city to city. For example, in Cleveland, incendiary, smoking, and "children playing" fires account for over half of all residential fires. In Columbus, as in Cleveland, incendiary and smoking related fires are important, but cooking-related fires are more important than "children playing." In Cincinnati, cooking and smoking dominate with "children playing" a distant third. In contrast with the larger cities, as the com- munity size becomes smaller, heating fires ap- parently become progressively more important. For communities under 25,000 population, it is the principal cause of residential fires; cooking is second and electrical distribution third most frequent. As was done in the previous table, one can also compare the fire rates among the cities. Table 49 indicates those cities, within each population group, having the highest and lowest fire rate for each cause category. Although some cities are consistently higher than others, the leaders in each category tend to vary. It would be useful to see if the cities with low rates for certain causes have prevention programs aimed at those causes; or if they have community characteristics tending to have fewer fires of that type; or if they have reporting practices that would reduce reporting of those fires or report them in another category; or if, in fact, the laws of chance were kind to them that year. The average fire rates for each cause category versus average community size were previously plotted in Figure 14, page . Except for heating fires, the largest cities on the average have the highest rates. The largest differences occurred in those categories which the analysis in Section IX showed was dominated by behavior problems such as equipment misuse, rather than categories where equipment malfunction dominated. 106 Figure 20. FIRE LOSS RATES vs. COMMUNITY SIZE Ohio (NFIRS 1976) and UFIRS Cities 1,200 — 1,000 — 800 600 400 200 X= UFIRS Average \ X — — = Ohio Average for Each Type of Fire — ^— Total Fire Rate \ x \ i^'^O — Non-Residential Fire Rate \ ^^ r— Outside Fire Rate ' JC / j— Residential Fire Rate \y If— Mobile Property Fire Rate V /V / 1 1— Non-Residential Structure "•" v X / X /OT Fire Rate v x/ / J*l Jr — ^x*Z 1 1 "^^ i \ ## ## §§ SfO ®£ gj! V cftf ## *& 600 Total Injury Rate 500 ^v 400 — >. Ohio Average UFIRS X_ 300 \ 200 X M ii i" ## w r Average \ ^^ 10 n II II 1 Community Population •3^ a 03 u o Q $16 $14 $12 •Z $10 $ 8 — $ Total Dollar Loss Rate XI J L ^ ## *£ Community Population J /# f# •V Population Range (1973 estimate) — — — ^^— ^— ^^— Over 200,000 Persons 50,000-200,000 Persons 25,000-50,000 Persons Less Than 25,000 Persons Number of Ohio Fire Departments (1976) 6 14 31 1,170 (Approx.) 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I o .. cr in L. cd l- 1— O O - £™ ™ WZ 109 Section XI Causes of Non-Residential Fires This section discusses the causes of non-resi- dential fires and fire losses for Ohio and Cali- fornia. The first subsection summarizes the re- sults for eight major non-residential structure occupancy classes. This is followed by a detailed breakdown into the more detailed types of properties within each occupancy class. As is the case for residential fires, it is neces- sary to identify for each State the property types that have the most fire losses, and their causes, since they vary somewhat from State to State and occupancy to occupancy. Although fire losses for each property type are presented, comparison of relative risk for each was not possible be- cause that would require knowledge of the num- ber of structures or of total property value, which for the most part was not available. The leading properties and causes are generally the ones where most fire prevention efforts should be placed to achieve further reduction in losses. There are, however, exceptions. The general cost-effectiveness principle is that one should consider investing in programs likely to give the greatest loss reduction per dollar spent. In interpreting the tables, it should be recalled that many industrial fires attended by industrial fire brigades are not reported to fire departments. Thus, the data here only represent the part of the problem addressed by public agencies. SUMMARY OF CAUSES OF NON-RESIDENTIAL FIRES Table 50 summarizes the causes of California and Ohio fires for the eight major 901 non- residential occupancies. Highlights of the table are discussed below. In both States, incendiary or suspicious fires are by far the principal cause of non-residential fires, injuries, and dollar loss. Electrical distribu- tion ranks second as the cause of fires and dollar loss. There are few non-residential fire deaths rela- tive to residential fire deaths in both States. The ones which occurred are distributed across several categories of causes. The leading cause categories for fires for each major non-residential occupancy type are listed below. The list applies amazingly well both to California and Ohio, adding to the face validity of the results. More than one cause is listed when one alone did not dominate. Public Assembly Education Institutions Stores and Offices Basic Industry — Cooking (mostly in res- taurants); Incendiary or Suspicious — Incendiary or Suspicious in day schools — Smoking; Incendiary or Suspicious — Incendiary or Suspicious; Electrical Distribution — Electrical Distribution (mostly from fires in the power industry) — Many assorted causes — Incendiary or Suspicious Manufacturing Storage Vacant, Construction — Incendiary or Suspicious Prevention programs should be targeted es- pecially against these causes. It is clear that dif- ferent problems must be focused on in different types of properties. DETAILED CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-RESIDENTIAL FIRES More details on the causes of California and Ohio non-residential occupancy fires are pre- sented in this section. For each occupancy cate- gory, some prevention thoughts are presented in 111 LU GL > fc| DC.E LU-£ Oo CC I °- JL s_CO S5 cngc h-Z o^ 3 O DC !£ HO CO X — H"«- Zy) HI DC 9e COQ m^ DC cc zl O o z~ _ cc co I LU HI DC CO o w z _Q)< .Q CO >. o i_ rn to rti _J m "O CO c £ TO O CD m O) 0) co o o H — M — to o c o CO o LU CD Q. >. H >* O c co Q. =3 O o O CD CO co O NO)T-p)t-i-ioin^on o 5 °> °J (BStWfflo'CMit^fo'o cnmTOiincMcooococM COO(OCO^C\J 0(0 ^Ot- WCMOOlOt O) N- in 5? 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O to to O co QJ OUID.D.50 127 California Fires in Store and Office Properties The occupancies with the most fires in this category are offices, motor vehicle sales places, and food stores. (See Table 57.) For dollar loss, these properties plus household goods stores are important. The leading cause of fires in stores and offices involved electrical distribution problems, es- pecially in offices and food stores. This is followed closely by incendiary or suspicious fires in offices, food stores, and motor vehicle sales places. For dollar loss, the leading cause is incendiarism. A small number of exposure fires in motor vehicle sales places apparently also caused much loss. Other frequent situations are appliance fires in professional supply stores and flammable liquids fires in motor vehicle sales property. A small number of heating-related fires in house- hold goods stores are also important for dollar loss. The prevention focus here needs to be on incendiary fires and electrical distribution fires; the latter might be emphasized during inspection visits. Ohio Fires in Store and Office Properties The Ohio properties with the most fires are motor vehicle sales places, followed by food stores and offices, the same top three as in California, though in different order. (See Table 58.) Motor vehicle sales property also ranked first for dollar loss. The leading cause of fire is incendiary or suspicious (especially in offices, motor vehicle sales, food stores, and household goods stores). Electrical distribution is the second leading cause (especially in offices and motor vehicle sales), but accounts for most dollar loss (especially in hobby and home repair stores). California Fires in Basic Industry, Utility, and Defense Properties Half of the fires in this category are electrical distribution fires, primarily in utility and energy distribution properties and in laboratories. (See Table 59.) From the loss viewpoint, the picture is somewhat different. Large losses result from a small number of incendiary or suspicious fires and electrical distribution fires in agricultural oc- cupancies, and from small numbers of equipment fires in laboratories and communications or de- fense industries. Ohio Fires in Basic Industry, Utility, and Defense Properties There are far fewer fires and much less dollar loss in this category in Ohio than in California. (See Table 60.) Only 96 fires were reported, com- pared with over 1,200 in California. Electrical distribution is the principal cause of fires in this property class, distributed across many industries. A large dollar loss resulted from incendiary or suspicious fires in mining companies. California Fires in Manufacturing Properties The manufacturing property class with the most fires in California is that involved with metals and woods, including furniture, paper, and print- ing. (See Table 61.) One in six manufacturing fires reported are of unknown cause, by far the larg- est single cause category. Of the known causes, most involved "other equipment." The cause second in importance is incendiary or suspicious (especially in wood-related manufacturing prop- erties), followed by electrical distribution (from metals manufacturing properties). Dollar losses are concentrated in incendiary fires in food manufacturing, equipment and electrical distribu- tion fires in metal manufacturing, and gas (explo- sions) in the chemical industry. Ohio Fires In Manufacturing Properties As in California, most of the Ohio fires occur in metal manufacturing properties. (See Table 62.) Chemical manufacturing properties, however, lead dollar loss. The principal causes of fire in metals manufacturing involve a variety of "other equipment" (23 percent), as in California, fol- lowed by flammable liquids (12 percent), and open flame or spark (9 percent). In wood manu- facturing fires, "other equipment" is the most frequent cause, but incendiarism and unknown causes account for most dollar losses. Across all manufacturing property types, relatively few fires of unknown cause are reported, but these by far lead to the largest dollar losses. 128 California Fires in Storage Properties California Fires in Mobile Properties Vehicle storage (mostly garages) are the most frequently cited type of storage fires (57 percent). (See Table 63.) Of these, 90 percent are resi- dential garages." Principal causes of vehicle stor- age fires are incendiary or suspicious (21 percent), unknown (17 percent), open flame and spark (14 percent), and exposure (14 percent). Of the latter, 85 percent were from residential fires. In- cendiary or suspicious was the principal cause of all storage fires. This type of fire led to large losses in vehicle, chemical, and agricultural stor- ages. Large losses also are sustained from fires of unknown causes in agricultural and vehicle stor- ages, and from flammable liquid fires in chemical storage. Ohio Fires in Storage Properties As in California, Table 64 shows that vehicle storage is by far the most frequent type of Ohio storage fires (but ranks third in dollar loss). In- cendiary/suspicious is the leading cause of vehicle storage fires (32 percent), with "children playing" next in importance (12 percent). Agricultural storage, though a distant second to vehicle stor- age in number of fires, is the leading category for dollar loss, accounting for 50 percent of stor- age losses. The principal known cause of these agricultural storage fires is incendiary or suspici- ous, followed by electrical distribution and na- tural cause. Dollar loss was highest for fires of unknown cause, both overall and for agricultural storage in particular. In California (see Table 65), automobiles are by far the leading mobile property in terms of num- ber of fires and fire losses. All other categories account for only one-quarter of mobile property fires. Trucks rank second in the number of fires, while mobile homes "for non-residential use" rank second in dollar loss 58 The leading cause category by far for auto- mobile fires and fire losses, as well as for overall mobile property, is "flammable liquids" (45 per- cent). Other frequent causes are unknown (14 percent), electrical distribution (11 percent), and incendiary or suspicious (9 percent). Incendiary fires, although a small fraction of auto fires, ac- count for almost a quarter of the dollar loss from auto fires. Ohio Fires in Mobile Properties As in California, automobiles are the most fre- quent mobile property for fires and fire losses. "Flammable liquids" is the leading cause. (See Table 66. ) 59 A very small number of rail transport fires involving flammable liquids resulted in very large dollar loss, half as much loss as from the more than 10,000 auto fires. This suggests the importance of increased attention to transporta- tion of hazardous materials. 57 Residential garages, if detached from the house, are in- cluded in this catgory by NFPA 901 code. Exposure from resi- dential fires accounted for fully 12 percent of all vehicle storage fires. Therefore, many vehicle storage fires are not really non- residential. 58 We do not know how many residential mobile home fires were included accidentally here. That the vast majority of the dollar loss resulted from fires related to home appliances sug- gests that the category included at least some residential mobile home fires. 59 Mobile homes are not included in this property type in this analysis. 129 UJ CO < o > CO CO UJ ft = UJ I u. £; o5 Qco ^Li- mo oc — Ouj co£ z«- ->- COH LUCC CEUJ - CO k. 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O o c c co ii c c c g CO o - LU c c C c CO § a a w - 7- o LO E n IS CD o < CO 3 ( 1 CO 0. U I CO •- =1 CD T3 ■ ~o 3 ' CO o . CD X ; v cd - c c - c ■l- n CO c " E ^ >- >< ■o CO — © i_ CJ O c° E CD LO - E CO CO CO CD -Q co CD o CO CO ^ A k ° o c "a Q Q. 3 C co o o CD T3 S c CO < ffl CJ O "cO CO 0. co U LL. L " CD a >> s ~~ e _q CD t: ■C' ^^ o c If CO O m 3 O -2 Q »E — CD .- .5 b » ■jO D) CD ■S < £ 2 "■ CO) CO CO 3 CD O C3 OC _1 EC LU 160 mates for unincorporated urban areas or for most rural areas. As an approximation, since there is apparently no accurate estimate of the total popu- lation encompassed by fire departments serving fewer than 5,000 persons, the total percent of rural population (26.5 percent) was assigned to the 0-5,000 population interval. The remaining un- accounted urban population (18.3 percent), mostly unincorporated areas, was assigned to the 5,000-10,000 interval. The number of fire departments in each in- terval, shown in column 3, is not used directly in the computations. These numbers do not reflect the fact that many fire departments protect the area of other jurisdictions in addition to their own area. The number of departments in each interval was obtained from NFPCA's mailing list and cor- responds reasonably well with Census's count of "places" in each of the population intervals greater than 10,000. The number of departments in each of the last two population intervals repre- sents rough estimates. ANALYSIS Plots of total fires, deaths, injuries, and dollar loss versus population of community appear in Figure 3, page 17. Figure III — 1 is a plot of fire in- cident and death rates for residential and non- residential occupancies. The vertical lines show the statistical precision (or confidence interval) associated with each of the plotted values. The patterns exhibited by each of the curves in Figure 111-1 differ considerably. The main features are summarized below. Residential Fire Death Rates The residential fire death rate pattern of Figure 111-1 is roughly U-shaped. The highest residential death rate (37 per million) occurs for the very large cities. The lowest (17 per million) occurs for medium sized cities (population 50,000-100,000). The three smallest population intervals (those below 25,000 population) also have high death rates (28-33 per million). However, the small town/rural estimates have low precision, being based upon a total of only 100, 15, and 6 deaths, respectively, in each interval. Some insights as to why the residential fire death rate pattern is U-shaped are given by Figure III-2. The pattern in the death rate for all fires closely follows the pattern in the death rate for fires in one and two family dwellings. The trough of both curves occurs in communities of medium population size. As would be expected, large cities have a higher rate of deaths from apartment fires than the less populous areas do, whereas the smaller and rural areas have a higher rate of death from fires in mobile homes. The death rate of fires in hotels and motels is relatively constant over all population intervals. Non-Residential Fire Death Rates The non-residential death rate of Figure III — "I is much less than the residential fire death rate for each population interval. The pattern is also different. The rates are approximately constant, or increase slightly as population decreases in com- munities of more than 5,000 population. But for rural communities, the non-residential fire death rate increases considerably. This estimate has extremely low precision, being based only on 2 deaths from a single nursing home fire. Until more extensive rural data become available, one can- not really assert that the observed difference is real rather than being merely a random effect. 65 Death Rate for All Fires The fire death rates (shown in Figure 6, page 22) for residential and non-residential fires com- bined are similar to the curve for residential alone. The precision of the estimate of the total death rate for each population interval is given in Table III-2. Note that because of the low preci- sion of the rural estimate (±41 percent), the value is not statistically significantly greater than the values given for the two next larger population intervals. The incident rates for residential fires show only moderate variation. They are highest for the very large cities and lowest for cities between 50,000 and 100,000 population. Below 50,000 the rate is approximately constant. This behavior is quite different from that found in the NFIRS data for Ohio communities (Figure 20, page 107), which show a sharp fall-off for communities below 65 Statistically, the observed rural death rate is not significantly larger, since the confidence limits overlap so much with those from the preceding population interval. 161 Figure 111-1. FIRE AND DEATH RATES vs. COMMUNITY POPULATION - 1974 NFPA Survey 1100 1000 900 80< 700 400 300 40 - 3<- 20 10 Non-Residential Fire Incident Rate National Average Residential Fire Incident Rate National Average Residential Fire Death Rate National Average National Average Community Population Metro- polis Large Cities Medium Cities Small Cities Small Towns Rural Population Range Over 1 Million 500,000- Million 250,000- 500,000 100,000- 250,000 50,000- 100,000 25,000- 50,000 10,000- 25,000 5,000- 10,000 Under 5,000 Approximate Number of Fire Departments 6 25 30 95 227 476 1,157 5,200 18,140 Approximate Percent of U.S. Population 9.2% 6.4% 5.1% 7% 8.2% 8.8% 10.5% 18.3% 26.5% 1 Rough estimate. NOTE: Vertical lines denote precision of estimate (the distance from the midpoint to the end of the line is one standard deviation) The National Averages plotted are those developed from the NFPA Survey results. 162 CD > CO r^ < Q- CO LJJ I- < DC CO CO O _l LU DC < cc => or < CD DC => u_ O CO LU h- < CO LU CM 0) cc h- o a = E CD c CO o CD o E I! CD ra £ z U ft LU Q. a CO in rr - — * O 7" o O Z to o CD " CO o CD o O en CD XT tN C\j CO CT> Ti q CM o o o A to z .a; < -tr CO o oc w 3 CM c/> in Ti CD o CM +1 CM + 1 Ti A CO -z. .9? < -tr CO O CC — ID CO II en en + 1 CD OS oo o CT) CO d 00 CO +1 Lf) CO ro CM o o o o V CD c =1 E _i E < o DC O =) " cc "3- in CO O 1^- CM CM CD CM co CM CD CO c~- ,_ +1 +1 CO +1 Ti in r^ CM T- CO CO CO CO CM CO co CO CM co o o o A CO ■<3- CM co in cm' A co CT> co d o o o o V 2.2 -z. ® _j E < >T < a < o CD O CO O DC O DC w DC —• 3 "-' r> n CC CD t^- CM in CM CO CX> CM m 0> -D E o n u o CI) c_ C) CD r u a) ^; ■n C ^ O c (J o o 0? 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JD CO 03 03 o o)(Dcijm>a)ii)'-^--.-i:^™Ooo!>'6i5™ co (0 a> Q. O CO CO to ■ c 0J "u CO Q> ^ ■"-6 N- CO 3 T— => O U> O c > '"■ to CO Q. 01 o o _ TO =: C 0: r o> w O a.^: n> to ( ) CO 0) CO r 0) c c_ 3 0) ■n m -a X a CO cu c a) 0! m 01 CO 00 ■0 a; cu (O (0 -Q 169 about two-thirds for 1975; Arizona and Wyoming are for 1974. The States are listed according to increasing total death rate. The numbers in paren- theses represent the change from the previous year, with an asterisk denoting when the change is not statistically significant; that is, it is prob- ably due to chance. The frequency distributions for fire incident and death rates are plotted in Figures IV-1 and IV-2. For fire incident rates, almost one-third of the States are seen to have exceptionally low values. Of these, Missouri and Iowa reporting is apparently quite complete; Vermont and North Dakota report only fires with loss exceeding $200 and $25, respectively; and in Kansas 25 of 103 counties do not report. The situation in Min- nesota, Kentucky, Nebraska, and West Virginia has not been determined. The remaining portion of the frequency distribution (except for Nevada) shows statistical regularity; however, the fire rates are on the average only about two-thirds of the rates in the NFPA survey. In Figure IV-1 we have sketched, using subjec- tive judgment based on the NFPA survey estimates in the previous section as a guide, the frequency distribution one might expect to find if there had been 100 percent reporting of all fires by all States. It seems clear that the uncertainty regard- ing completeness of reporting is so great that the State fire incident rate data are not suitable for making national estimates at present. The frequency distribution for fire death rates in Figure IV-2 is much more regular. Fewer States have low death rates, indicating that under- reporting of deaths probably is less of a problem than for fires. Data on fire injuries were available only for 16 States. On the average one would expect injuries to correlate with deaths, with injuries being roughly 10-15 times greater. However, the rank- Figure IV-1. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF STATE FIRE INCIDENT RATES - State Fire Marshal Reports 03 CO 1) E 'VWV Nine States Less Than 200 Data From State Fire Marshal Reports \ /- Subjective \A Estimate If 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 Fire Rate (per 100,000) 1600 1800 170 Figure IV-2. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF STATE FIRE DEATH RATES - State Fire Marshal Reports 0) CO ■I-' CO E 3 7 - 6 - 5 - 3 - 2 - 1 - 10 One State Greater Than 60 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 Death Rate (per million) ing of injury rates in Table IV-2 is seen to depart considerably from the ranking of death rates. The highest injury rate, for the District of Columbia, exceeded 1,000 per million persons, yielding an injury-to-death ratio of 26. Nevada had the sec- ond highest injury rate (and the second lowest death rate) with an injury-to-death ratio exceeding 40. The next largest injury rate was Oregon with an injury-to-death ratio of 12.8. Oregon is often considered by many to have one of the most com- plete fire reporting systems in the country, which may account for its relatively high reported injury rate. Dollar loss also shows considerable variability, ranging from $2 per capita for Delaware and $5.70 for North Carolina, to $79.50 for Alaska and $28.40 for Illinois (excluding Chicago). Because much of the injury and property loss data seem to be of low quality, statistical plots have not been made for them. The frequency distributions of the magnitude and direction of the change in fire and death rates for each State (the value shown in paren- theses in Table IV-1) are plotted in Figures IV-3 and IV-4. These distributions appear to be fairly well behaved statistically and, as expected, have less variability than the absolute distributions in the previous Figures IV-1 and IV-2. EXTRAPOLATION TO NATIONAL ESTIMATES Using the State Fire Marshal data, we developed national estimates by calculating the mean, weighted by population, of the values for indi- vidual States. In extrapolating this result to the entire country, the assumption was made that the 35 States (or less, depending on the category) con- stitute a random (or representative) sample of all States, which may or may not be true. 171 Figure IV-3. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF YEAR-TO-YEAR CHANGE IN FIRE INCIDENT RATE State Fire Marshal Reports 0) E 3 4 - 3 - 2 " 1 - One State Greater Than +500 - 500 - 400 300 200 100 + 100 +200 +300 +400 +500 Fire Rate Change (per 100,000) The results of the statistical calculations are summarized in Table IV-3. The upper half of that table pertains to the magnitude of fire loss while the lower half pertains to change from the pre- vious year. The first column indicates the num- ber of States for which data were available. In some instances the extreme values were not used, either because of suspected significantly large under-reporting or some other special circum- stances; the States omitted are noted in the last column. The second column shows the weighted mean, which corresponds to the national estimate. Since not all States provided a breakdown into residen- tial and non-residential occupancies, the sum of the separate estimates for these occupancies may not always equal the total estimate. The third column presents the standard devia- tion, a statistical measure for degree of spread among the individual values. Differences in popu- lation size among States were not taken into ac- count so that the variability reflects both the random fluctuation (principally of the smaller States) as well as differences in State characteris- tics and fire protection. The last column presents the statistical error attached to the estimate of the mean. This quantity does not take account of any bias resulting from under-reporting. The mean death rate of 29.5 from these State Fire Marshal reports is somewhat less than the rate of 37 previously obtained from the 1974 NFPA survey or the value of 35 obtained from the HEW National Center for Health Statistics data, which is discussed in the next section. Possible reasons for this low estimate are currently under investigation. The sampling error (or statistical precision, with confidence 68 percent) of the death rate is 4 percent. The error arises from the 172 CD -Q E ZJ Figure IV-4. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF YEAR-TO-YEAR CHANGE IN FIRE DEATH RATE State Fire Marshal Reports 6 - w r- CD 5 eg CO 4 - 3 - 2 - - 1 /^ 25 20 -15 -10 -5 +5 +10 +15 +20 +25 Death Rate Change (per million) fact that only a (random) sample, 35 out of 50 States and the District of Columbia, is used. For the 14 States giving residential death data, the mean residential death rate is 18.7 per million persons and the mean non-residential death rate is 7.3 per million persons. The percentage of deaths that are residential is 72 percent, some- what less than the 83 percent obtained from the NFPA survey. As noted previously, because not all States reported residential deaths separately, the sum of the residential and non-residential rates doer not equal the total calculated rate. As indicated in Figure IV-1, in determining the mean fire rate, we have excluded the 9 States having a total fire rate of less than 20 per 10,000 persons, for which the under-reporting is in most cases likely to be substantial, and Nevada. For the remaining 20 States, the mean fire rate is 79. Of this, 25 percent is residential, which is again less than the estimate from the NFPA survey (28 percent). The precision of the total fire rate esti- mate, again ignoring under-reporting bias, is 9 percent. Note that only 6 of the 29 reporting States have total fire rates exceeding 114, the mean from the NFPA survey. The injury rate, with the District of Columbia excluded, is estimated at 253 per million persons (much below the 1974 NFPA survey estimates), with a precision of 11 percent. The average dollar loss rate, calculated from 16 States (with 13 States omitted) is $14 per person, the same as for the 1974 survey. The estimates of annual change shown in the lower half of Table IV-3 show an increase in all categories of fire loss. But taking into account the (absolute) precision in the last column, only the death rate increase is statistically significant. This result for death rates contradicts that obtained 173 CO CO o _l HI >l- DCCO < LU ^ ^ D 00 CO > CD -Q CO 1- m ca CD CO CO co n X ■a -£ "O m en m en ca > TO > CO > CO CO z < CD Z < CD z c o TO © CNJ V O CM V o CNJ V o CNJ V o CNI V b o \/J8 Vo O m CD CD CD cdZ c ' 4- — *•" — CO ^- (0 _ T3 S 2 E o 75 75 "co 75 75 F i: (1) CD CD CD fi) CO -i Q> a> -> > > > > c > z n O n O n CI o o E x: JZ -C .c x: N < u -c 2 E O g 5 5 <: 5 o „* 05 en en en en co o en , D "> "= *- CO -C c O) o $2 T3 O O) 33 CO (0 :3^; re O 55 § g t^ b ai cnj cb co oiri doi r- o> q co cb r^ c\i cnj CO oi-i-r-^in cocooi- eb Tf ui io co oi T- cci CO 1 °° h- O i- CO O T- o CNJ 1- 1 o CNI i- O O CNJ CD C C C O O O 2 CO O zz o CO CO CO c •o ca to ts o ' 2 = J) Or o Z 2 OO i~- co co iri CO d CO p CO ^ CO CO 00 CD Tf 00 cvj 2 I CO TJ; O CNI t^ CNJ CO o + ++ I ++++ U0 CO CNJ CNJ en b I I? •- re = a> o c en CO CD V o to 0) O ra a 0) c a CD D i- 5 o 0) 12 < 174 from the NCHS data in the next section. It is suspected that the increase may be a data artifact reflecting the fact that data reporting is becoming more complete. COMPARISON OF STATE FIRE MARSHAL AND NATIONAL CENTER FOR HEALTH STATISTICS DEATH DATA National Center for Health Statistics data tapes on U.S. deaths for 1974 and 1975 were obtained by NFPCA. The fire death rates for the two years for individual States are shown in Table IV-4. Also shown for comparison are the fire death rates for 1974 and 1975 obtained from State Fire Marshal (SFM) reports, if these figures were available. The total death count from the preliminary tabulation of the NCHS data for all States, 6,746 for 1974 and 6,541 for 1975, is between 950 and 975 (or 13 percent) less than the adjusted NCHS total which includes transportation fire deaths. (See Table V-1 in the following Appendix.) Thus, those States which achieve a fairly complete count are likely to show more deaths than reported by NCHS. Table IV-4 shows that during 1975 death rates obtained from State Fire Marshal reports for 19 States were lower than the NCHS tabulation. For 11 States the SFM rates were higher than NCHS, as would be expected if motor vehicle fire deaths were counted in these reports. Since neither the SFM data nor the NCHS data are likely to overestimate the number of deaths, it seems likely that the better estimation proce- dure is to choose the larger of the two death rates. That is, both sources are more likely to miss a fire death than to count as a fire death one that is not. One exception to this is that State Fire Marshal data may be counting fatalities as fire deaths in cases where vehicle accidents are ac- companied by fire, but it is uncertain whether the original impact or the subsequent fire caused the death. The procedure of choosing the average of the maximum of the NCHS and SFM rates within each year was followed in drawing the map of State death rates and in identifying those States with highest and lowest death rates (Figure 1 and Table 4 of Part I). Table IV-4. COMPARISON BETWEEN DEATH RATES FROM STATE FIRE MARSHAL REPORTS AND NCHS— Continued States Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts .... Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri 1974 1975 Average NCHS SFM NCHS SFM Rate Within Population 1 Rate 2 Rate 3 Population 1 Rate 3 Rate 3 Each Year 4 3,575,000 42.8 43.1 3,614,000 44.8 39.6 44.0 330,000 124.2 136.4 352,000 73.9 88.1 112.3 2,160,000 38.9 7.9 2,224,000 27.4 33.2 2,068,000 54.6 2,116,000 52.5 53.6 20,876,000 22.2 16.7 21,185,000 24.7 19.9 23.5 2,515,000 18.7 2,534,000 19.3 19.0 3,086,000 22.4 19.4 3,095,000 17.4 15.2 19.9 577,000 19.1 579,000 24.2 27.6 5 23.4 721,000 59.6 716,000 39.1 49.4 8,099,000 27.8 8.8 8,357,000 23.6 14.8 25.7 4,877,000 43.1 4,926,000 44.5 43.8 841,000 7.1 865,000 15.0 11.1 796,000 17.6 820,000 15.9 16.8 11,160,000 30.6 36.8 5 11,145,000 26.9 37.8 5 37.3 5 5,313,000 25.0 5,311,000 31.8 28.4 2,857,000 29.4 28.7 2,870,000 25.8 32.1 30.8 2,266,000 24.7 2,267,000 20.3 14.6 22.5 3,354,000 38.8 3,369,000 36.8 31.8 37.8 3,762,000 45.2 43.1 3,791,000 42.5 42.2 43.9 1,049,000 62.9 1,059,000 42.5 52.7 4,089,000 30.8 35.0 4,098,000 40.0 43.4 39.2 5,799,000 35.5 5,828,000 33.8 34.7 9,117,000 36.6 36.6 9,157,000 29.7 34.7 35.7 3,905,000 27.9 24.1 3,926,000 27.3 21.9 27.6 2,334,000 66.8 2,346,000 63.5 65.2 4,772,000 36.9 14.9 4,763,000 26.5 12.4 31.7 175 Table IV-4 cont'd. COMPARISON BETWEEN DEATH RATES FROM STATE FIRE MARSHAL REPORTS AND NCHS States 1974 1975 Average of Maximum Rate Within Each Year 4 Population 1 NCHS Rate 2 SFM Rate 3 Population 1 NCHS Rate 2 SFM Rate 3 Montana Nebraska Nevada 737,000 1,541,000 574,000 808,000 7,322,000 1,119,000 18,101,000 5,375,000 636,000 10,745,000 2,681,000 2,255,000 11,841,000 938,000 2,775,000 681,000 4,149,000 12,017,000 1,179,000 468,000 4,910,000 3,494,000 1,784,000 4,566,000 362,000 29.9 23.4 34.8 30.9 25.7 44.7 21.8 44.7 31.4 26.9 43.3 31.9 32.1 29.9 54.8 27.9 51.3 35.4 25.4 19.2 34.6 36.1 38.7 23.4 47.0 24.0 27.9 38.4 34.6 23.8 35.8 37.3 32.3 23.1 13.6 29.9 5 32.4 49.7 748,000 1,546,000 592,000 818,000 7,316,000 1,147,000 18,120,000 5,451,000 635,000 10,759,000 2,712,000 2,288,000 11,827,000 927,000 2,818,000 683,000 4,188,000 12,237,000 1,206,000 471,000 4,967,000 3,544,000 1,803,000 4,607,000 374,000 41.4 24.6 22.0 25.7 25.8 36.6 21.5 41.5 25.2 25.7 43.1 32.3 35.1 18.3 50.0 30.7 45.6 37.2 17.4 38.2 34.4 26.0 44.4 24.3 18.7 26.7 31.7 11.8 27.9 41.1 s 29.9 24.8 39.8 37.2 30.2 53.9 22.4 21. 2 5 32.8 31 .6 5 35.7 27.9 28.4 28.3 25.8 40.7 21.7 43.1 32.3 26.3 43.2 37.3 33.7 24.1 54.4 29.3 48.5 36.3 23.9 34.1 6 34.5 31.1 41.6 23.9 34.2 New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming 1 July 1, 1974, and July 1, 1975 Census population estimates as reported in Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1976 (97th Ed.) (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1976), p. 11. 2 Deaths per million. NCHS data includes the following ICDA (International Classification of Disease, Adapted for Use in the United States) codes: fires in railway accidents (E803), fires in water transport (E837), accidents caused by fires/flames (E890- 899), accidents caused by gas cylinder explosions (E921.1), accidents caused by pressure vessel explosions (E921.8), accidents caused by explosive materials (E923), and late effect of accidents caused by fire (E944). 3 Deaths per million. "Computed as follows: [max (1974 NCHS, 1974 SFM) -f max (1975 NCHS, 1975 SFM)] -i- 2. These death rates were used in the map (Figure 1), except for New York State where the estimate of 36.7 deaths per million from the 1974 NFPA Survey was used. 5 Rate is based on State Fire Marshal data reported by fiscal year. 6 Actual average of the maximum rates, which may be less than this value, could not be computed because the State Fire Marshal data is reported by fiscal year. It does appear that the majority of Vermont fire deaths for FY 75 occurred in the first half of 1975. 176 Appendix V National Center for Health Statistics Data: The Basis for the NFPCA National Fire Death Estimates This appendix discusses the basis for arriving at the NFPCA national estimate of fire deaths. The estimate is derived primarily from fire death data published annually by the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) of HEW, after certain modifications are made to include a few cate- gories of fire deaths not explicitly identified by NCHS as resulting from fire. The nature and mag- nitude of these adjustments are discussed in de- tail here. The NCHS death data is obtained from death certificates submitted by the 50 States and is believed by NCHS to be over 99 percent com- plete. These certificates usually indicate whether the death was caused by fire. However, in the case of death from transportation accidents (ex- cept water transport), NCHS does not separate fire deaths from non-fire deaths. Thus, some adjustment in the NCHS data is required. In addition, death certificates of fire victims who expired some time after the fire may not state fire as the underlying cause of death. An adjustment for these omissions is also needed. The numerical adjustments that were made are based upon a detailed NFPCA study by Fri- strom of national fire death data from various sources, including NCHS. 68 That study gave esti- mates in terms of minimum and maximum values. Here we suggest intermediate "best estimates," usually but not always the average of these ex- tremes. These are shown in Table V-1. The principal correction is for motor vehicle fire deaths. Numerous studies of such deaths have been made, yielding widely differing esti- mates. Table V-2, taken from the Fristrom report, lists the principal studies and their estimates of the percentage of vehicle accident deaths at- tributed to fire. The values range from 0.6 per- cent to 7.8 percent. The median of 1.5 percent yields the estimated number of motor vehicle fire deaths labeled as Method A in Table V-1. Fristrom also examined State Fire Marshal re- ports and found that, "on the average, 10.8 per- cent of total fire deaths in the years 1970-1974 could be attributed to fire associated with motor vehicles." 69 This value results in a slightly larger estimated number of motor vehicle fire deaths, designated in Table V-1 as Method B. The average of Methods A and B is used in forming the overall NCHS-adjusted national esti- mates for 1973-1975 shown in the bottom lines of the table. The death rate (35 per million for 1975) is, as noted previously, somewhat greater than was obtained from the State Fire Marshal data (29.5). This result is not surprising for the follow- ing reasons. 1. When death results from clothing ignition not accompanied by (uncontrolled) fire, the person affected often is taken directly to the hospital without the knowledge of the local fire department, and thus the death is not reported to the State Fire Marshal. 2. Seriously injured persons may subsequently die without notification to the fire depart- ment, and again the death will not be re- ported to the State. 68 Fristrom, Ceraldine, Fire Deaths in the United States: Re- view of Data Sources and Range of Estimates (Washington, DC: National Fire Prevention and Control Administration, September 1977). 69 Fristrom, Geraldine, Fire Deaths in the United States: Re- view of Data Sources and Range of Estimates (Washington, DC: National Fire Prevention and Control Administration, Septem- ber 1977). 177 Table V-1. CALCULATION OF NFPCA's BEST ESTIMATE OF FIRE DEATHS (Based on Corrections to HEW Fire Mortality Data) 1973 1974 1975 Estimated Range 1 for Corrections Maximum/Minimum Correction Rationale 2 NCHS Total 7,090 6,746 Estimated corrections for deaths involving: Rail +5 +5 Air +58 +59 6,541 + 4 + 54 (Percent of Fire Deaths) 1.2% 6.9% % % Motor vehicles Method A . . + 680 +563 + 555 7.8% 0.6% Method B + 860 +818 + 793 — Delayed reporting of death which is not properly attributed to fire + 231 +220 +213 4-9% % For both rail and air, maximum values correspond to DOT's 1973 rate estimates. We arbitrarily used one-half these rates since some detailed studies showed that, al- though all fatalities in some crashes were recorded as fire deaths, only a fraction were ac- tually fire victims. Estimate is 1.5% of vehicle-occupant accident deaths. This is the me- dian of 17 studies (Table V-2). It is also the U. of Michigan HSRI recommendation, and the value calculated from NFPA Fire Protec- tion Handbook. State Fire Marshal Reports classify 10.8% of annual fire deaths as motor vehicle fire deaths; this fac- tor is used here. Estimate is 3.25% of deaths derived as follows: Half of the deaths oc- curring 2 or more weeks after fire are assumed not to show fire as underlying cause. The maximum number of such delayed deaths is estimated to be (4 + 9)/2 = 6.5% of total annual fire deaths, the minimum is estimated to be 0. The mean value between 6.5% and is 3.25%, and was selected as the factor. National Estimate 3 Death rate per million 8200 38.9 7720 36.5 7490 35.1 1 For discussion of these ranges see: Fristrom, Geraldine, Fire Deaths in the United States: Review of Data Sources and Range of Estimates (Washington, DC: National Fire Prevention and Control Administration, September 1977). 2 Includes deaths by: fire and flames, explosion, fire or burning in water transport, accidents caused by explosive materials, and explosions of pressure vessels excluding boilers. 3 Average of Method A and Method B used for motor vehicle fire deaths. Final values for National Estimates rounded to one significant digit. 4. Many motor vehicle fire deaths are believed to go unreported even when the fire was clearly the cause of death. (On the other hand, the cause of death may be wrongly attributed to an accompanying fire, which an autopsy later shows was not the true cause.) Some aircraft fire deaths mav not be re- ported by any local fire department because they occur in areas serviced by private or government fire brigades, or they occur in areas not serviced by any fire protection service. 5. State Fire Marshals do not always get re- ports of all fire deaths from all departments throughout the State. 178 Table V-2. SUMMARY OF TRAFFIC FIRE DEATH STUDIES Estimated number of deaths per year Estimated fire (calculated using deaths as percent average of 45,000 of yearly vehicle vehicle accident Studies Scope accident deaths deaths per year ') Lauriente and Wiggins, Fourth Inter- 1973 National estimate 6.7% 3,027 society Conference on Transporta- tion, Los Angeles, California, July 18-24, 1976 DOT, Federal Register, Vol. 39, No. National estimate 1.1—2.2 500—1 ,000 56, March 1974 New York State Police reports 1968 <2.4 <1,080 Vehicles Research Report 1969-72, September 1969 Siegel and Nahum, 1970 International Los Angeles City and County fire 2.7 1,215 Automobile Safety Conference department records 1966-1969 Compendium, Society Automobile Engineers 1970 University of Oklahoma Research Oklahoma accident records 1968 <7.8 <3,500 Institute, Final Report for NHTSA under contract FH-1 1-7303, De- cember 1970 University of Oklahoma Research Oklahoma and Kansas accident file 3.3 1,485 Institute, Final Report for NHTSA data and death certificates 1970- 2.5 1,125 under contract FH-11-7512, July 1971 1972 Highway Safety Research Institute, Wayne County Michigan morgue re- 1.3 585 University of Michigan, Special Re- ports 1968-1971 port for NHTSA under contracts FH-11-6555 and FH-11-7129, June 1972 Highway Safety Research Institute, Michigan State Police reports 1968- 1.0 450 University of Michigan, UM-HSRI- 1971 SA-74-3, April 1974 Michigan fire statistics 1972 1.4 630 Oregon fire statistics 1969-1973 1.3 585 Iowa fire statistics 1971-1972 1.4 630 Illinois fire statistics 1963-1972 1.7 765 NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, 13th National: 10% sample motor vehicle 1.5 675 edition and National Safety Coun- fire deaths over 35 year period cil accident data Johns Hopkins University Applied State of Maryland 1971-1976 0.7 309 Physics Laboratory Fire, Problems Programs, Fire Casualty Studies 1971-1976 Flammability Research Center Univ- Greater Salt Lake City, June 1972 to 0.6 280 ersity of Utah, Progress Report February 1975 "Fire Injuries-Case History Stud- ies" under NSF Frant Ert 72- 03406-1904, July 1975 Range from Studies 0.6—7.8% 280—3,500 1 Averaged number of yearly in-vehicle traffic deaths during the years 1970-1973. Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1975, 96th Edition (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1975). 179 Appendix VI Estimating Precision of Fire Incidents and Fire Casualties Fires rates, injuries, deaths, and dollar loss fluc- tuate from one year to the next. The smaller the community and the fewer the number of fires or deaths, the greater is this fluctuation. This ran- domness is inherent in fire data and should be explicitly taken into account in any interpreta- tions. The rule for determining the expected random fluctuation over time (or„ in statistical jargon, the precision of the estimate) is as follows: The ab- solute variability (standard deviation) associated with the observed count of fires (or deaths, or injuries) equals the square root of the count. The relative precision (coefficient of variation) in percent equals 100 percent divided by the square root of the observed count. 70 The relative precision is usually more pertinent than the absolute variability since it applies to per capita rates as well as to actual counts. Some useful benchmarks are: Count Relative (e.g. number of deaths) Precision 4 50% 9 33 16 25 25 20 44 15 100 10 400 5 For example, if a community experienced 25 deaths during the year, the relative precision is 20 percent (= 100% -^ \/25). This can be inter- 70 Statistically, individual counts are assumed to occur ran- domly following the Poisson distribution for rare events, for which the standard deviation equals the square root of the mean. This distribution does not apply to dollar loss. Also, multiple (exposure) fires and multiple deaths and injuries are assumed to constitute a small fraction of the total. The square root formula usually leads to values that are slightly low since other important random factors {e.g. changes in yearly tempera- ture piofile) will increase the fluctuation. preted as follows: If over an extended period of time with stable (no trend) conditions, a city experiences an average of 25 deaths per year, the chances are 68 percent (or the odds are about 2 to 1) that if the fire situation does not change, the next year will show between 20 and 30 deaths (= 25 ± V25 or ± 20% X 25). For 95 per- cent chance (odds of 19 to 1) the interval should be doubled, giving 25 ± 10." The low precision associated with small counts is important even for large cities. If too fine a sub- division of the data is used (e.g. fire caused by toasters), the precision will be too low to monitor trends, with statistical confidence, on a yearly basis. For a small community, even the total ag- gregated count for all fires or deaths may be too imprecise to conclude that a change is statis- tically significant. Increased precision can be ob- tained only by monitoring for longer than a year or by combining with data from neighboring communities. The above rule can be adapted to provide trend charts (similar to quality control charts widely used in industrial production) for monitoring progress over several years. The two numerical examples in Figure VI-1 illustrates the construc- tion of trend charts. The first example shows num- ber of annual fire deaths for Hawaii, according to NCHS statistics, for the years 1971 to 1975. The "quality control" 68 percent limits of ± 2.8 (and 95 percent limits of ± 5.6) are based upon the five-year average of 7.8 deaths per year. If 1976 falls outside the limits, one can conclude (with confidence 68 percent, or 95 percent, as selected) that there has been a statistically sig- nificant change. 71 If the city's population has changed significantly during the period, the procedures for calculation of the mean and of the confidence limits require slight modification. 181 Figure VI-1. EXAMPLES OF QUALITY CONTROL CHARTS FOR NUMBER OF FIRE DEATHS CD £ 3 J5 15 CD > CD Q. CD Q 13.4 10.6 7.8Q- 2.8 = ^7.8 | 5.0 2. 2.2 ,0- ,8 _L 1971 Upper 95% confidence limit: 13.4 g- Upper 68% confidence limit: 10.6 5- Year Average: 7.8 Deaths Lower 68% confidence © limit: 5.0 Lower 95% confidence limit: 2.2 S _i i i Actual Death Rate for 1975 Hawaii 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 co 80 CD >- i_ CD Q. 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NUMBER OF RESIDENTIAL FIRES CAUSED BY CHILDREN PLAYING LISTED BY IGNITION CHARACTERISTIC— California (CFIRS 1975), Ohio (NFIRS 1975) 1 Fires Deaths Injuries Dollar Loss Calif. Ohio Calif. Ohio Calif. Ohio Calif. Ohio Ignition Characteristic Number Reported 2 Form of Heat of Ignition: In Thousands Matches 1,107 964 2 3 74 133 $2,121 $1,711 Lighter 149 184 7 28 362 421 Candle 117 62 12 6 273 300 Fireworks 13 1 30 Gas fueled equipment 97 36 1 7 2 77 35 Electrical equipment 64 21 2 3 6 20 33 Other 130 109 15 16 210 379 Unknown 318 31 1 2 1 134 275 Total 1,982 1,420 3 6 120 19S $3,197 $3,184 Area of Origin: Bedroom 698 687 2 4 59 82 1 ,429 1 ,468 Living area 180 146 5 32 457 494 Kitchen 136 116 6 14 92 151 Bathroom 51 33 2 2 63 10 Closet 90 72 9 13 300 163 Supply storage 22 54 2 1 9 8 66 Laundry room 25 29 1 8 1 36 30 Garage 154 21 13 2 296 31 Other 343 240 17 38 472 562 Unknown 283 22 45 209 Total 1,982 1,420 3 6 120 193 $3,197 $3,184 Type of Material Ignited: Cotton or rayon fabric 636 588 1 36 78 982 1,087 Man-made fabric 165 192 13 23 382 561 Other fabric 82 81 1 12 15 244 210 Paper 252 155 2 12 19 459 323 Wood 78 92 4 11 180 392 Natural fiber 41 54 1 13 53 99 Polyester plastic 37 2 2 72 Gasoline 51 16 1 16 7 103 87 Other 371 1 63 19 21 484 247 Unknown 306 42 1 1 7 4 312 106 Total 1,982 1,420 3 6 120 193 $3,197 $3,184 Form of Material Ignited: Mattress 330 379 14 33 246 532 Bedding 185 178 2 1 19 26 509 489 Upholstered chair or sofa 123 158 5 46 304 609 Wearing apparel not on person ... 141 136 13 21 465 315 Trash 164 111 8 237 117 Roof covering 15 7 1 71 8 Newspaper, etc 86 53 2 5 11 203 120 Curtain, drapery 67 44 2 2 99 71 Fuel 53 8 1 14 7 63 65 Toy 51 16 2 2 36 12 Box, carton, bag 34 29 2 1 24 19 Cooking material 37 11 1 1 5 22 Wearing apparel on person 6 13 5 5 5 12 Other 682 245 39 27 893 524 Unknown 8 32 1 3 36 270 Total 1,982 1,420 3 6 120 193 $3,197 $3,184 1 Estimated completeness is on the order of 90 percent for California and 50 percent for Ohio (Reference 11). 2 Reported fire incidents shown do not include all fires attended by fire departments. NOTE: Dollar loss totals may not equal the sum of their elements due to round-off error. 212 Appendix XI Number of Reported Residential Fires by Community and Cause (Discussed in Section X) 213 T3 Q) =3 C -i— i C o O UJ CO z> < o y- CO CD CJ t^-m moJONONT-ocDoncDcMCM^foninoofflinccr oor^-cMco'^-i^-'^-m c r- 1- CDCOOCOCOCOCMCM r- CM -1-1- t- CO CO WIONt^CMlDi- CO O CM CO ■>- 1- -i- LO CO Q. 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O CO O CD := RS Cities (C otal UFIRS Jacksonvil Denver, C Kansas Ci Tucson, A Wichita, K Syracuse, Madison, O Comm ities ovc- Clevela Columb Cincinn Toledo Akron Dayton ities 50,i Youngs Canton Parma Lorain Springf Ketterir Lakewc Hamilto Euclid Warren Mansfie Clevela Elyria Lima ities 25, ommuni LZOC - O cj O LT 1 - z O 3 < o o > CD CO LU DC < h- Z LU 9 co LU DC Q LU H DC O CL LU DC DC LU CD CO Q c £ O co Q. si CD CD 3 0-J2 U. co O — n * CD m ^ ^3 O c _ CO O (1) co CB c E Ml c n 3 c F ^ c u n Is ^ B. ^ < LU a if cu a> CO c co •>- c O CD ^ F E S| Lt. ^ — m - .° >. 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O o CM => !S C => > — O CD > CO ■So CO is O CD O c Q) a o o o o o CM o o o ■ ■= og 2 -u cd ai o = E ca c ai ^ 1 § s c c 6 o 5 = 3 a, c- 32 3? CD "" - 2. CD CO d) co Q. CO O IS •""-CM O ,_ O CD <=> "D O C in =3 O CO gra- ce > ~ CO CO CD o ~o j b b P CO E -,*_ E o O O CM 00 CO CJ> CM CM CD CM CO CO O O co - 52 o - N ^o o < ■(- -1 CO o _ co 2 cr o T7 H c c o o m cj 3 ~ Q ^ h- C0 215 Appendix XII Number of California and Ohio Fires in Non-Residential Structures by Cause (Discussed in Section XI) 217 LU < o LU CL > h- > o z < Q.T3 =>§ C/> JL LU CO I- (JC/0 Z)CC ccLZ l-Z _J o -*oc\jLoa ) O O t- CO o COCOcOWCMi-mCON h- cm co -^ cc ) O t- o O) 1c T - G> CM o c O co" 3 O «e- TO 3 c i-CDCOCDCOT-T-t^CnOOOOCOCDi-CDCN 1 in CM N TT cd hJ T-Nr~wnconna)^f*cMin co a> o 1 CM t- CD CM 5 "co O o 1c O COCNJi-i-t- CM t- i- t- CO If COCOT-ni-T-lfl'^^OCOCMCMOrocO') 96 2,9 15 3 880 $19,3 >, &* o £; to ca 3 CD "O C O o OLfiinco^NNcooi-nciii-iD^sc NOtNST-N^ini-n co co cm o CD f N(ONOOOCOncDIOCCnCMCMOUlNl£ 6 1,278 7 1 8 41 8 $2,848 oitn^otwcoconT-T-WT- •^•rto j m co co !E T" T- I - T" ■ o CO o O t-" cd" CO CO CD u T~ CD «> o o ^r Q. co o >* ■o i-LOC\Jir)COCOLOLnN.COCO-i-CDT-a5CDC£ > t- h- CM CD H ^ cu coinffliDinoinmcDoinNcoi-cococt ) co ^ m "cO t^ N 00 CM n r- -"J-CNJ-i- l- Lf > co t- rv. >* o o -a-" o" o Q. CM c rr CV5- CO Q. o 3 o .q tCMCOCO'-Otnr-lflNCOT-OOCDC > ■* co m en O O O E t- CM •"* W CM •f t- t- C\ i r^ oo o> CO !c 3 "* r- c o O Z <& 3 ."co coooNcocrii-ocMt'^'^coojT-oin^ a> m ■* co c ;U cdcd^too a) en co i- cm -q-t-cc > co co r^ "co O o in t- i- i- N(DW\fO)roCOO)lO'T-Wr-T-OOCM'J MJlCMlOr-COOit t-t-CM i-CMLT 83 1,69 00 5 I76 $6,33 >, 1c T— T— r^ t- vi o B B E CD O co" 69 a c/> < N.-i--i-"3-a>co"3-oo , a-coCT>cocoi-coc" r~- t- o cj> H-" noti-uioiaiNcocMT-cor- co co cc m t)- co 1Z1 CD CO ■>- CM h- i- c O r- CO CO O co" m" c o CO CD D) CO "i_ CO CO 1 ° w 0) o 3 ca pic but oar T3 "5 ? a> CD C CO CO , , O CO O y/Sus Distri me, S| a cr.E !_"j >< — ' co W 0. c "c o is, Fir uipme at . . CD aths . jries . liar L usand endiar ictrical en Fla oking oosure oking pliancy ating immab ildren tural ■ Cond s ... y tl co -cco._cox-~— c o o o o £iUOc0lilO. CO O fj i_ CD CO 0? CO CO f ' c n CD n (i Li c c~ F o B T3 c T3 0) O Q CO E LU rn CD U LU DC ^L 218 LU co => < o Q Z < LU Q_ > \- > O Z < Q_ Z> O o o > CO CO s CO CD LU rr CO z> DC i- LL 02 Z) ""— ' DC O co O _l < ^-Z. H LO ZCD LU i— Q CO CO OC LU LL oc O z c CO CO LUO — I LL LL O DC LU CO c o o X -Q co "5 £ o ro ^ Q ra D o £; c o o N't'-ffflinoicMf^oi'-omoinm o(on(DooNNn(Di-T-in co 00 m CD CO CO t-" t-" cm' cm ■*" T-' CM o 1- CM OlCOn^ONNOOltDCiJ COWCOOlO)00^'-(DNNi-vv ifltBcviinfmw^moiDiDo •*" I---" CO CO Tf t-" cm" CO co" T^ CO CM cm ■* r-- -^ m c\j cm cd tj- in m co © r- o in co CM r- N-COCD(T)LnT-CJ^t^-'tcoc\jcDin"*i--5tcDm CDincON-CMCOCOLOCOCOCM t- Or- n t- co T-i-OOOOOC\JOOCOOOOOvJ ■^■T-CMC0moOC0C75OOOT-OOO'~ i- t- t- 1- i- cm t- t--s- NojnniniDnoNNOioxDccicDnco o^Nnjn^roninno t- -jo ^t ra OCMincMcn i-rrCMr t- t- r» 3 C O 3 '5.5 CO >- ^5 T3 '5 g> - O LL. "D ■r- c ~ - CU o O CU CD • • ' ' — ' a e ' ' : % : oq. C3;?ca>2a>-j: ^■- M .?iocE'-2 cu0Q.0Q.n3t — P-ExOQ.cu™^=ro OcOLUUUJl> g _ _ o < O LU O O Z> CO -i- CO co en 00 co CM CO 1- LO CO I s - 00 r- co O co co CM CM CM 69 co co r>- LO T- CM in <* in 5> P CO .b CU ll. a O O I- r- (0 ~ co to o -o ST! S ■2«§ S.o° C Q £ CO CO o o 219 Appendix XIII Dollar Loss and Number of California and Ohio Fires in Mobile Properties by Cause (Discussed in Section XI) 221 Ill _J CO o LJJ CO => < o >■ CO ■D CO CD n LJJ c H -*-' CC c o LU Q_ O O rr 2-». Q. LJJ a> _J i— m CO o DC LU COq. LU ^ 2 LU DCQ. OO U-DC IjO- < O DC LU CO =) 2 X jGL> ca © _Q (0 CO T3 E5 CDlOinwiDSO^TfSWNOOlT-TtO) b- oicoomT-Tt^cMNnw^itcMcoino co »f n i- inio cm CM E.g CO _l 0) cm" Li- en c COi-OTfinCM(OCOCOonCMTtOi-OCN CM to Tf T- o CD T" I (0 © o c oco^coiocM(CO)t-cMO)oconncMco co (0 O i- r-~ T" 1— D. Q. < O) c '>• TTOJOOCNi-C0lOOOOT-tnOT--i-i- co o T - T~ T o O "in CD iZ CD 3 CD 3 T3 CD r o a CD T-^'COCO'-WCONOJCOCOCOSOr-COCO CN O Q. 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