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X x; a, f. — a mm y c « _n S Cu CD r-; "7"! 3 T "T M OC TJ * i* '53 a Si ■" a o -c j= « — » s — ~ ~ CO J ■o oo« DJOOOO.DhO.S.0, S c •• • • • • mt •••com m • • • » m • • O CDCO O 909CMO OCCD O • •• ••CXDCDCOD CO O O • •• c»o ocdxsxd o • o • *o crocacccD O • CKDCD a> o • B»ca>ooco oo - OO CD O O • O CO CD O O o oooo o OOO ODO OOCDOO oo o oo oo cm o 1 1 1 1 100 150 Standard Length (mm) 200 Figure 15.— Scatter diagram of number of pseudobranch Filaments versus standard length for Diplectrum macropoma (open circles) and D. eumelum (closed circles). [Localities are based on the materials examined in this study.) Standard length, 151.63 (47.92, 81.0-233, 41); total length, 1,279 (15.74, 1,241-1,310, 39); fork length, 1,187 (14.00, 1.156-1,212, 40); body depth, 286 (18.54, 232-321, 35); head length, 387 (11.96, 369-412, 41); postorbital length, 221 (12.21, 200-266, 41); snout length, 99 (7.29, 87-118, 39); lacrimal width, 48 (4.05, 40-56, 40); maxil- lary width, 33 (1.85, 28-36, 41); orbit length, 86 (7.73, 72- 102, 40); orbit width, 72 (7.93, 56-93, 40); interorbital width, 70 (3.80, 64-79, 36); upper jaw length, 171 (5.52, 160-180, 41); lower jaw length, 184 (6.15, 166-196, 40); cheek height, 129 (7.87, 110-143, 41); cheek length, 121 (5.31, 110-134, 41); caudal peduncle depth, 122 (5.10, 110-133, 40); pectoral fin length, 267 (7.89, 244-285, 40); pelvic fin length, 201 (10.09, 175-223, 41); predorsal length, 369 (8.44, 353-382, 36); pelvic origin to lower jaw, 339 (9.47, 316-361, 33); pelvic origin to anus, 314 (13.11, 286-343, 36); postanal length, 402 (10.38, 380-421, 36). Dorsal spine height: first, 50 (5.69, 39-66, 36); second, 74 (5.80, 61-86, 36); third, 121 (8.45, 107-142, 36); fourth, 132 (20.37, 118-147, 38); fifth, 133 (7.54, 119-146, 36). Anal spine height: first, 29 (4.88, 21-36, 41); second, 60 (9.38, 48-83, 41); third, 83 (9.21, 69-107, 41). Diplectrum eumelum has broad spur at preopercular angle bearing 8-14 elongate spines. Vertical and horizon- tal preopercular arms serrate. Anterior nostril with elon- gate flap. Single row of scales along posterior edge of second anal spine. Caudal fin without elongate filament but upper lobe noticeably longer than lower. Chest scales not reduced or embedded. Gill rakers short, the first at the angle not reaching past base of the third below. Pseudobranch filaments numerous, 28-35 in adults. Color. — Color notes are from two adult specimens taken from the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica, 28 June 1973. The specimens had been on ice for 24 h before examina- tion. Dorsum gray-brown, paler ventrally. Ventral sur- face white with copper tinge more laterally. Lateral body surface with gold flecks. Some evidence of five to six in- distinct, thin, dusky ventral bars becoming paler ven- trally. Somewhat intensified cluster of black pigment in series of large midlateral blotches. Spinous dorsal fin pale blue along base, body of fin pale orange. Distally each interspinous membrane bears a scalloped-shaped pale orange wedge. Distal portion of spines tipped with black and orange. Soft dorsal with blue field bearing series of wavy, orange diagonal lines. Posteriorly, the wavy bars interrupted to present spotted pattern, pale orange on pale blue. Anal white at base becoming blotch- ed with pale orange-yellow distally. Snout with three to five orange spots in row. These becoming more irregular posteriorly, the last in series as elongate bar traversing cheek in a wavy pattern terminating at lower distal por- tion of preopercular spur. Irregular arrangement of orange spots also present on preopercles and opercles. Distal premaxillary edge with orange pigment line. Dis- tal maxillary with small orange blotch. Color notes from preserved specimens: preserved specimens show similar pattern but pale blue appearing as gray and orange as pale or clear. Caudal peduncle spot distinct, dark, and as large as eye but oriented ver- tically. Caudal fin with numerous pale spots in vertical row on dusky field. Distal caudal ray tips black. Medial opercular surface black like the posterior branchial cavi- 40 ty. Chest and branchiostegal region pale. Anterior nasal flap pale. Each lateral body scale with dark pigment at base giving lateral surface appearance of being marked by X's. Upper pharyngeal area with dark pigment. Pel- vic and pectoral fins dusky, pigment running along ray edge. Size. — The species is large, reaching at least 234 mm SL as observed in the present study. Habits- -The two adults (209-228 mm SL) from the Gulf of Nicoya on 28 July 1973 had enlarged gonads but the ovaries did not contain ripe eggs. Stomachs were empty. Available collection depth data show that the species is taken from 15 to 100 m but most often from depths of 50 to 90 m. Distribution. — Diplectrum eumelum is infrequently taken within its range which extends northward off the outer Baja California at Bahia Magdalena (Fig. 14), into the Gulf of California, and southward along the eastern Pacific coast to Ecuador (lat. 2°29'S, long. 80°59'W). It is also found at the Galapagos Islands. Variation. — No obvious variation in characters was dis- cernible for D. eumelum throughout its distribution. Specimens examined. — In addition to those listed by Rosenblatt and Johnson (1974), a total of 130 specimens from 40 to 234 mm SL. Outer Baja California: UCLAW55- 78. 1 (87); CAS SU 47, 6 (47-121); LACM W52-195, 1 (216). GULF OF CALIFORNIA: UCLA W62-61, 8 (72-107). SAN SALVADOR: CAS 4761, 1 (54). COSTA RICA: LACM 30719-3, 2 (160-188); UCR 323-15, 1 (165). PANAMA: USNM (lat. 6°44'N, long. 77°33'W, 8 Dec. 1967), 2 (146-149); USNM (Gulf of Chiriqui. 29 Mar. 1963), 4 (136-188); CAS SU 1409, 2 (98-145); UMML 25094, 2 (96-156); UMML 26255, 2 (150-163); USNM 41481, 5 (40-93); UMML 26150, 1 (142); UMML 26252, 1 (130). COLOMBIA: USNM 211393, 12 (75-123); USNM 211391, 1 (150); USNM 211381, 1 (205); USNM 213813, 7 (173-213); USNM 213588, 19 (100-170). ECUADOR: USNM 213808, 10 (191-234); USNM 211396, 1 (186). Galapagos Islands: UCLA W53-12, 2 (42-78). Diplectrum macropoma (Giinther 1864) Figures G, 8, 7, 13, 15 Centropristis macropoma Giinther 1864:145 (original description, Panama); Giinther 1869:409, pi. 65, fig. 1 (redescription and figure, Panama). Diplectrum macropoma. Jordan and Bollman 1890:157- 158, 181 (Panama); Gilbert and Starks 1904:97 (in part, Panama and Gulf of California); Jordan et al. 1930:318 (check list); Hildebrand 1946:185 (key); Berdegue A. 1956:53, 264-265 (key, fishery data, Mex- ico); Chirichigno F. 1974:294-298, fig. 574 (key, Peru); Rosenblatt and Johnson 1974:178-191, fig. 1C (key, systematics). Diplectrum mexicanum Hildebrand 1948:13-15, fig. 6 (original description, Gulf of California); Bortone in press b (life history, Panama). The taxonomic confusion of D. macropoma with D. eumelum has already been discussed under the heading of the latter. References by Jordan and Bollman (1890), Jordan et al. (1930), and Hildebrand (1946) may have ac- tually referred to D. eumelum, but there is no way to determine this positively from data presented by those authors. Giinther (1864:145) described Centropristis mac- ropoma from three specimens collected by Dow and Sal- vin from the Pacific coast of Panama. The same descrip- tion reappeared accompanied by a figure (Giinther 1869:409, pi. 65, fig. 1). Hildebrand (1948:13-15, fig. 6) described Diplectrum mexicanum based on one specimen from the Gulf of California. Examination of the syntype (designated as the lectotype in the absence of a holotype) of Centropristis macropoma (BMNH 1864- 1.26:426, labeled as Serranus macropoma and hereafter referred to as a Diplectrum) and a comparison with the holotype of Diplectrum mexicanum (USNM 46518) assures me that the two species are synonymous. The most notable charaters used by Giinther to desig- nate D. macropoma were: the long spines at the preoper- cular angle graduating to a serrated preopercular arm; six rows of cheek scales; and a distinct notch between the spinous and soft portions of the dorsal fin. Other charac- ters more clearly noted from his figure and from the syn- type include: dark pigment (not discernible in a pat- tern) on the distal half of the dorsal fin; deep body (3.7 in SL); and an angular snout. The characteristics of D. mexicanum presented by Hildebrand (1948) include: deep body (3.2 in SL); angular snout; and six cheek scale rows. The figure also depicts a preopercular structure similar to that described and figured by Giinther (1864, 1869). Hildebrand's specimen was collected in 1889 and the fact that he did not describe any dorsal fin pigmentation could be owing to its loss during prolonged preservation. Current examination also shows a lack of dorsal fin pig- mentation. A comparison of other meristic and morpho- metric data indicate no apparent specific differences. Jordan and Eigenmann (1890:397-398) and Meek and Hildebrand (1925:475) gave accounts of D. macropoma which are apparently not of this species but of D. eumelum. Later, Hildebrand considered D. mexicanum as distinct from D. macropoma as understood by Meek and Hildebrand. Diagnosis. — Diplectrum macropoma has large scales and, therefore, scale counts tend to be low for this species (Tables 2-7). These characters should separate it from other species of Diplectrum except D. eumelum which it closely resembles. Diplectrum macropoma has pale yel- low markings on its snout but these are inconspicuous in live material and nonexistent in preserved specimens. Diplectrum macropoma has a more pointed snout, a proportionally lower number of pseudobranch filaments (Fig. 15), and the posterior dorsal and anal rays are con- siderably shorter than the anterior rays. These charac- ters all differ for D. eumelum. Other differences are noted under the diagnosis for D. eumelum. 41 Confusion with D. labarum might occur but D. mac- ropoma has none of its anterior spines elongated and the mean caudal peduncle depth is considerably greater than that of D. labarum (138.51 as opposed to 117.11 for D. labarum). Diplectrum macropoma has the greatest body depth, caudal peduncle depth, predorsal length, and postanal length of any Diplectrum. Description.— D, X. 12 (11-13); A, III, 7; P, , 17.12 (16- 18); pored lateral-line scales, 48.09 (44-51); scale rows in lateral line. 53.86 (48-63); scales above lateral line, 6.32 (5-7); scales below lateral line, 14.60 (11-18); predorsal scale rows, 13.96 (10-18); cheek scale rows A, 6.27 (5-8); cheek scale rows B, 8.53 (7-10); gill rakers, 19.93 (17-24). Standard length, 107.39 (13.74, 90.6-140, 41). Total length, 1,308 (28.13, 1,260-1,350, 26); fork length, 1,190 (9.30. 1,175-1,207, 25); body depth, 306 (14.64, 273-338, 39); head length, 367 (8.30, 353-391, 41); postorbital length. 202 (6.12, 194-216, 41); snout length, 96 (6.39, 82- 106, 41); lacrimal width, 41 (2.28, 36-47, 36); maxillary width, 35 (3.05, 30-43, 36); orbit length, 87 (4.43, 79-97, 41); orbit width, 73 (4.94, 64-85, 41); interorbital width, 67 (4.03, 59-77, 36); upper jaw length, 163 (6.10, 148-177, 41); lower jaw length, 182 (5.85, 165-191, 41); cheek height, 119 (4.56, 112-135, 41); cheek length, 118 (4.25, 107-140. 41); caudal peduncle depth, 139 (4.31, 128-147, 41); pectoral fin length, 265 (8.93, 246-281, 41); pelvic fin length, 196 (9.06, 175-210, 36); predorsal length, 382 (9.90, 366-410, 33); pelvic origin to lower jaw, 348 (11.77, 333-373, 27); pelvic origin to anus, 296 (13.04, 269-318, 37); postanal length, 411 (15.51, 387-456, 40). Dorsal spine height: first, 46 (5.33, 35-63, 40); second, 67 (5.62, 54-79, 39); third, 130 (9.87, 109-154, 40); fourth, 142 (10.47, 122-158, 21); fifth, 144 (10.31, 126-155, 20). Anal spine height: first, 32 (3.78, 23-38, 41); second, 59 (5.70, 47-69. 41); third, 90 (6.29, 73-101, 40). * Preopercular spur broad, with 8-13 elongate spines. Vertical and horizontal arms serrate. Distinct flap pres- ent on anterior nostril. Gill rakers moderate in length, the first at angle not reaching past the fourth below. Scales large but notably smaller in predorsal area. Scales present along third anal spine and first anal ray. Caudal lobes unequal, upper being longer but tip not produced as a filament. Caudal fin only slightly forked. Chest scales not embedded. Posteriormost soft dorsal and anal rays short, nearly 1.5 into longest respective soft dorsal and anal rays. Second anal spine slightly more stout than third. Pseudobranch filaments few, 20-30 in adults (Fig. 15). Color. — Color notes were taken from numerous D. macropoma from the Bay of Panama, January-February 1973. Dorsum pale copper to pale brown. Venter white, almost silvery. Sides in smaller specimens (60 mm SL) with two dark brown stripes, uppermost running through eye onto snout. Larger specimens with two lateral bands interrupted by pale pigment and appearing indistinct in outline. Dark snout bar yellow in larger specimens. Pec- toral fin pale reddish-orange, pelvic fin pale orange. Anal fin white at base and distally; a wide pale yellow lateral band through the center of fin. Caudal fin bright reddish orange on upper lobe, pale gray or white on lower. Body of caudal fin with five to six vertical rows of small orange spots on pale blue field. Caudal spot distinct; as large as eye, oval shaped, oriented laterally (an extension of lateral stripe) in small specimens; vertical in orientation in larger specimens. Spinous dorsal fin white, becoming pale gray distally. Spine tips orange. Soft dorsal rays tipped with orange. Body of fin with two rows of distinct round orange spots on pale blue field. Below this, fin clear to base. Chest and branchiostegal membranes white. Upper medial opercular surface black, area below yellow. Posterior branchial area black with yellow lining. Upper pharyngeal region yellow with sparse gray-blue flecks. Dorsal surface of eye blue-black, yellow laterally, and white below. Smaller specimens with dark spot on caudal peduncle dorsum disappearing in larger speci- mens. Maxillary gray-brown, dentary white. Lateral opercular surface metallic blue-green. Three to four pale, indistinct yellow spots on snout, the uppermost elongate. Snout spots fade quickly, barely discernible. Color in preserved specimens shows a similar pattern as above but all colors have faded. The venter appears silvery, dorsum tan with evidence of brown lateral indis- tinct bars. Caudal spot larger than eye and vertical in orientation. Soft dorsal fin with appearance of wide dark band above and pale or clear bar below. Size. — Diplectrum macropoma is a small species not exceeding 144 mm SL (Rosenblatt and Johnson 1974). Habits. — In the Bay of Panama (10-15 km east of Naos Island) I collected the species from about 20 to 30 m over an open mud and sand bottom along with D. pacificum (Bortone in press b). Diplectrum macropoma was abun- dant at this locality with about 50 being obtained in each 20-min tow with a 10-m otter trawl at night. The species has been recorded to occur at depths ranging from 9 to 80 m but is more frequently taken at depths of 20-40 m. Distribution. — Diplectrum macropoma is found in the Gulf of California; northward on the outer Baja Califor- nia to at least lat. 24°27'N, long. 111°59'W; and south- ward along the eastern Pacific coast to the Ecuador- Peruvian border at lat. 3°39'S, long. 80°41'W (Fig. 13). The species was also taken at the Galapagos Islands. The type-locality is the Pacific coast of Panama (Giinther 1864). Variation. — Examination of meristic data indicates some variation in D. macropoma with regard to the mean number of predorsal scale rows (Table 5) . Gulf of Califor- nia (13.81), Panama (14.96), and Colombia (12.92) pop- ulations all show different means for this character. Specimens examined. — Outer Baja California: CASSU47, 2 (113-113); SIO 64-807, 1 (29). GULF OF CALIFORNIA: USNM 46518. 1 (95); USNM 183977, 2 (128-140); SOSC (Choya Bay, Mexico, 14 Feb. 1969), 1 (141); SIO 68-72, 24 (54-114); CAS W 59-14, 26 (36-102); INP 6601, 7 (97-129); FMNH 62743, 8 (38-135); UA 67-74-3, 3 (45-50); UA 67- 72-2, 1 (120); SIO 62-75, 1 (128); USLA W52-45, 12 (110-138); SIO 70-141, 42 4; SIO W62-60, 8 (72-139). MEXICO: SIO 62-37, 3 (95-108); SIO 62-46, 1; SIO 62-36, 2 (97-100). COSTA RICA: SIO W63-148, 2. PANAMA: BMNH 1864-1.26:426, lectotype, 1 (91); SOSC (lat. 8°08'N. long. 80°20'W, 23 July 1967), 22 (86-118); UMML 25094, 21 (25-85); UMML 25075, 5 (33-74); UMML 26094, 2 (111-118); UMML 26253, 4 (30-115); UMML 25041. 1 (106); UMML 25067, 8 (63-120); UMML 2646, 13 (52- 109); CAS SU 1641, 1 (126); UCR 223-8, 1 (109); UMML 26247, 1 (122). COLOMBIA: USNM 211369, 2 (96-97); USNM 216385, 2 (83-90); USNM 211421, 1 (104); USNM 211416, 2 (117-122); USNM 211410, 5 (90- 129); USNM 211394, 13 (81-136); USNM 211398, 18 (97-121); USNM 213590, 8 (91-122); USNM 211402, 15 (91-119); USNM 213591, 152 (62- 128); USNM 211397, 12 (100-131). GALAPAGOS ISLANDS: CAS SU 1569, 1 (116). ZOOGEOGRAPHY The genus Diplectrum is restricted to the western hemisphere (Rosenblatt 1967) and, in general, is found in coastal areas of tropical-subtropical regions. Ekman (1953) has termed groups with this distribution pattern as "endemic amphi-American thermophiles." The generic distribution closely parallels other groups such as the decapod crustacean genus Mithrax, the pen- natularian genus Renilla (Ekman 1953) and numerous fish genera such as Centropomus (Fraser 1968), Calamus (Randall and Caldwell 1966), Haemulon (Courtenay 1961), and Mycteroperca (Smith 1959). Diplectrum has affinities for continental coastal areas but D. bivittatum is commonly present in the Antillean Archipelago. Six of the nine Pacific species have a fairly continuous coastal distribution which encompasses nearly the en- tire Panamanian province (i.e., the Eastern Pacific Zoogeographic Region of Briggs (1974) ). Of these six, only D. euryplectrum and D. maximum are not found in the Gulf of California. Diplectrum maximum is unique (Fig. 11) in that its northern population is separated by a long geographical range from its southern population. As stated previously, only juveniles were taken at the northern locality. Although the larval life history of some serranids may be relatively long (Smith 1959), the vast distance involved does not allow for transport of larvae or juveniles from the southern population (Rosenblatt and Johnson 1974). Most assuredly this deepwater species will be found as adults much further north of its southern population. Diplectrum sciurus is almost restricted to the Gulf of California. Although its movement out of the Gulf may be hindered by geographical and hydrological barriers (Walker 1960), its extrme morphological adaptations related to feeding (i.e., long and numerous gill rakers) give credence to the hypothesis of a restricted dis- tribution owing to competitive interaction. Diplectrum conceptione is outside the Panamanian province in the Peru-Chilean province of Briggs (1974). It is the only nonthermophilic species in the genus. This species' southernmost limit at Conception, Chile (the type-locality) could be explained by possible mis- labeling by early collectors. Its northern limit is governed by rapid temperature changes caused by a westward turn of the Peru Current near Punta Aguja, Paita, Peru. This temperature block is formidable during "El Nino" years (Rosenblatt and Walker 1963). Four species of Diplectrum have been recorded from the Galapagos Islands (i.e., D. euryplectrum, D. ros- trum, D. macropoma, and D. eumelum). The fauna of the Galapagos Archipelago represents a unique zoogeographical situation (Rosenblatt and Walker 1963). Although comparative material is scarce, there seem to be no significant taxonomic differences between Galapagos and mainland conspecific representatives. This suggests a nonisolated gene pool for Galapagos Diplectrum. Larvae may periodically invade the islands from the Panamanian province during "El Nino" years when current patterns seem to favor this transport mechanism (Rosenblatt and Walker 1963). Briggs (1974) has also indicated the currents which flow toward the Galapagos Islands from the Panama area during Feb- ruary through April may be important in explaining the similarities in marine inshore fauna between the Galapagos and Panamanian province. It may be sig- nificant to note the absence of D. conceptione, a Peru- Chilean province species. Currents would seem to favor its movement to the Galapagos (Rosenblatt and Walker 1963), yet its absence may be due to competitive ex- clusion or simply inadequate sampling. Hubbs (1960) has stated that the northern boundary for the Panamanian province is not abrupt. Northern limits for Pacific Diplectrum support this statement. Magdalena Bay (lat. 24.5°N) is the northern limit for five of eight Pacific species recorded from the outer Baja California. Magdalena Bay is considered a northern boundary for the eastern Pacific tropical fish fauna (Rosenblatt 1967). Hubbs (1960) indicated that rapid temperature changes in this area are due to insolation and upwelling. This is a plausible reason for Diplectrum northern distribution limits in this area. Two species go beyond the above faunal boundary and one of these (D. labarum) extends to Bahia Asuncion (lat. 27°N). It would be reasonable to expect Diplectrum to extend further north of the Panama-San Diegan province boun- dary, especially when local weather conditions favor northern movement of warm-water species. In the western Atlantic, the northern limit for the Carolina Province water is Cape Hatteras, N.C. (Briggs 1974). From collection data it appears Cape Lookout (110 km southwest of Cape Hatteras) is the northernmost area of abundance for D. formosum . The one locality record from Chincoteaque, Va. (lat. 38°N) apparently occurred at a time during favorable weather conditions. Diplec- trum bivittatum (from the intermediate population) is probably limited more by favorable reef habitat than temperature along the southeast U.S. coast. Presumably the species occurs at deep patch reefs at higher latitudes than it is currently known. Southern limits for Atlantic Diplectrum have been reported in the literature to be Montevideo, Uruguay. This southern distribution limit cannot be confirmed as yet. Montevideo (i.e., Rio del Plata) is certainly con- sidered a zoogeographic boundary (Ekman 1953) and Briggs (1974) considered this area as the southernmost boundary of the Eastern South American Region. However, the present study indicates a slightly more 43 northern boundary for S. Atlantic Diplectrum near Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. This area is also considered a boundary by Ekman (1953). and Briggs (1974) attributed the presence of this boundary to a cooling of the Brazil current. Diplectrum formosum, with its two subspecies, pre- sents an interesting distribution pattern. The northern form {D. f. formosum) is almost restricted to continental North America. Except for a single record from the Vir- gin Islands, the southern form is essentially restricted to continental South America. The vast expanse of Carib- bean Sea with its Antillean Island chain (i.e., West In- dian Province of Briggs (1974) ), appears to have been a formidable barrier to the species distribution which led to considerable genetic isolation. Conceivably the species may have lacked the competitive ability of other reef- dwelling serranids and was therefore not able to occupy or use the Antilles coast for its habitat. Diplectrum bivittatum presents us with two geographical populations herein considered subspecies. The Gulf of Mexico form (D. b. arcuarium) seems restricted to areas of the Gulf with characteristically "soft" bottom (i.e., mud or sand; Lynch 1954:fig. 19). The absence of D. b. arcuarium from the west penin- sular Florida coast and the coast of the Yucatan Penin- sula, both characterized by limestone and coral sub- strates, attests to this premise. Diplectrum bivittatum with its distribution in the Antilles is apparently capable of surviving at reef as well as coastal localities. The inter- mediate form of the two recognized subspecies must be considered by itself zoogeographically. Because the ap- parent ranges for the two subspecies do not actually over- lap, an explanation must be offered for the existence of the S. Florida population. Gulf currents may favor a lar- val drift of the northern Gulf of Mexico form to the south Florida area, especially during summer months (Leip- per 1954; Nowlin 1971). Larval transport across the mouth of the Gulf from Yucatan is not probable in view of these currents (Leipper 1954; Nowlin 1971). General circulation in the Caribbean and Antilles areas favors a northwest drift of larvae from these areas to south Florida. Another possible explanation for the existence of an intermediate form of the two subspecies is that the in- termediate form represents a third subspecies, almost completely isolated from the Gulf and excluded by an unknown factor from the southern form. The first view is the most favored. Further studies on these forms will help resolve this question. Both D. formosum and D. radiale terminate their dis- tribution along the northern coast of South America at or near the Gulf of Venezuela. The significance of this dis- tribution pattern is important when considering the amphi-American distribution of Diplectrum and par- ticularly the very close "geminate" relation D. radiale has with D. pacificum. It is reasonable to postulate that in view of the ob- vious affinity of the two species, D. radiale may at one time have had a distribution which included the Atlan- tic side of Panama and Colombia. There is general agree- ment that the latest transoceanic passage available to marine species occurred during the late Pliocene (Simp- son 1950). Considering the present distribution of the geminate pair, the Colombian "gap," open from middle Eocene to late Eocene or late Oligocene (Smith 1971), may have served as the last area and time for passage. If this is true, then relative selective differences between D. radiale and D. pacificum have been small. A test for this hypothesis, assuming the species are indeed distinct, would be to perform comparative in situ life his- tory studies of the two species. Rosenblatt (1967) has suggested that morphological diversity and genetic changes may not be clearly related. Diplectrum thus portrays an almost classic case of a distribution limit, approaching lat. 25°N and 5°S (ex- cept for D. conceptione) along the coastal east Pacific, due to cold-water current "squeeze" (Rosenblatt 1967). The Atlantic warm-water gyres have allowed the genus to assume the classic warm-water distribution which is essentially from lat, 35°N to 35°S. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many persons aided me in the course of this study. I thank the following: Allwyn C. Wheeler (BMNH), Wil- liam N. Eschmeyer (CAS), Loren P. Woods (FMNH), Robert W. Topp (FSBC), Carter R. Gilbert (FSM), Ralph W. Yerger (FSU), Charles E. Dawson (GCRL), William D. Anderson, Jr. (GMBL), Aurelio Solorzano P. (INP), Camm C. Swift (LACM), Myvanwy Dick (CMZ), M. L. Bauchot (MNHN), Naercio A. Menezes (MZUSP), Maurice Boesemen (RMNH), Richard H. Rosenblatt (SIO), Leslie W. Knapp (SOSC), George C. Miller (TABL), Lloyd T. Findley (UA), Boyd W. Walker (UCLA), William C. Bussing (UCR), C. Richard Robins (UMML), Frank J. Schwanz (UNO, William H. Eger (UPR), Victor G. Springer (USNM), Donald E. Wohl- schlag (UTMSI), and Arthur D. Welander (UW) for making available museum specimens from their respec- tive institutions; Fernando Cervigon, Nucleo de Nueva Esparta, Porlamar, Venezuela, and Richard Moore, University of Texas, Marine Sciences Institute, for per- sonally collecting specimens used in this study; Ben Cooper, Costa Rica, and David Drennan, Panama, for collecting specimens in their respective countries; Ira Rubinoff, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama, for making available facilities at that in- stitution; James K. Dooley, Richard H. Rosenblatt. David Johnson, John E. McCosker, C. Lavett Smith, Robert Lavenberg, C. Richard Robins, and Victor G. Springer for contributing through helpful discussion, ad- vice, and correspondence; Charles M. Johnson for aid in obtaining specimens and histological advice; A. F. Chestnut, Institute of Marine Sciences, University of North Carolina, for making available facilities necessary for conducting my research at that institution; Camm C. Swift for aid in collecting specimens, loan of material, and very able advice; the members of my graduate com- mittee, Elizabeth A. McMahan, H. Eugene Lehman, Jan J. Kohlmeyer, William J. Woods, University of North 14 Carolina, and Joseph R. Bailey, Duke University, for ser- ving on that committee and editing this manuscript. Jan J. Kohlmeyer also translated several references. Special thanks are due to William E. Fahy, my graduate advisor, for his editing of the manuscript and for his direction and guidance; and to my wife Midge for collecting specimens, typing the manuscript, and main- taining stability in the laboratory and at home. 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