(Lbb.lo, IVfc^ loO 
 
 NOAA TR NESS 65 
 
 A UNITED STATES 
 DEPARTMENT OF 
 COMMERCE 
 PUBLICATION 
 
 
 '«r ES o< ' 
 
 NOAA Technical Report NESS 65 
 
 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 
 
 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 
 
 National Environmental Satellite Service 
 
 Satellite Infrared Soundings 
 From NOAA Spacecraft 
 
 V/ASHINGTON, D.C. 
 SEPTEMBER 1973 
 
NOAA TECHNICAL REPORTS 
 
 National Environmental Satellite Service Series 
 
 The National Environmental Satellite Service (NESS) is responsible for the establishment and operation 
 of the National Operational Meteorological Satellite System and of the environmental satellite systems 
 IOAA. The three principal offices of NESS are Operations, Systems Engineering, and Research. The 
 Technical Report NESS series is used by these offices to facilitate early distribution of research 
 its, data handling procedures, systems analyses, and other information of interest to NOAA organiza- 
 tions . 
 
 Publication of a report in NOAA Technical Report NESS series will not preclude later publication in an 
 expanded or modified form in scientific journals. NESS series of NOAA Technical Reports is a continua- 
 tion of, and retains the consecutive numbering sequence of, the former series, ESSA Technical Report 
 onal Environmental Satellite Center (NESC), and of the earlier series, Weather Bureau Meteorological 
 Satellite Laboratory (MSL) Report. Reports 1 through 37 are listed in publication NESC 56 of this ser- 
 ies . 
 
 Reports 1 through 50 in the series are available from the National Technical Information Service 
 S), U.S. Department of Commerce, Sills Bldg., 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Va. 22151. Price 
 $3.00 paper copy; $0.95 microfiche. Order by accession number, when given, in parentheses. Beginning 
 with 51, printed copies of the reports are available through the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. 
 Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. Price as indicated. Microfiche available from NTIS 
 (use accession number when available). Price $0.95. 
 
 ESSA Technical Reports 
 
 58 Angular Distribution of Solar Radiation Reflected From Clouds as Determined From TIROS IV Radi- 
 ometer Measurements. I. Ruff, R. Koffler, S. Fritz, J. S. Winston, and P. K. Rao, March 1967. 
 (PB-174-729) 
 
 NESC 59 Motions in the Upper Troposphere as Revealed by Satellite Observed Cirrus Formations. H. 
 McClure Johnson, October 1966. (PB-173-996) 
 
 NESC 40 Cloud Measurements Using Aircraft Time-Lapse Photography. Linwood F. Whitney, Jr., and E. Paul 
 McClain, April 1967. (PB-174-728) 
 
 NESC 41 The SINAP Problem: Present Status and Future Prospects; Proceedings of a Conference Held at 
 the National Environmental Satellite Center, Suitland, Maryland, January 18-20, 1967. E. Paul 
 McClain, October 1967. (PB-176-570) 
 
 NESC 42 Operational Processing of Low Resolution Infrared (LRIR) Data From ESSA Satellites. Louis 
 Rubin, February 1968. (PB-178-123) 
 
 NESC 43 Atlas of World Maps of Long-Wave Radiation and Albedo--for Seasons and Months Based on Measure- 
 ments From TIROS IV and TIROS VII. J. S. Winston and V. Ray Taylor, September 1967. (PB-176- 
 569) 
 
 44 Processing and Display Experiments Using Digitized ATS-1 Spin Scan Camera Data. M. B. Whitney, 
 R. C. Doolittle, and B. Goddard, April 1968. (PB-178-424) 
 
 45 The Nature of Intermediate-Scale Cloud Spirals. Linwood F. Whitney, Jr., and Leroy D. Herman, 
 'May 1968. (AD-673-681) 
 
 NESC 46 Monthly and Seasonal Mean Global Charts of Brightness From ESSA 3 and ESSA 5 Digitized Pic- 
 tures, February 196 7-February 1968. V. Ray Taylor and Jay S. Winston, November 1968. (PB-180- 
 717) 
 
 47 A Polynomial Representation of Carbon Dioxide and Water Vapor Transmission. William L. Smith, 
 February 1969. (PB-183-296) 
 
 ; 48 Statistical Estimation of the Atmosphere's Geopotential Height Distribution From Satellite 
 Radiation Measurements. William L. Smith, February 1969. (PB-183-297) 
 
 49 Synoptic/Dynamic Diagnosis of a Developing Low-Level Cyclone and Its Satellite-Viewed Cloud 
 Patterns. Harold J. Brodrick and E. Paul McClain, May 1969. (PB-184-612) 
 
 Estimating Maximum Wind Speed of Tropical Storms From High Resolution Infrared Data. L. F. 
 Hubert, A. Timchalk, and S. Fritz, May 1969. (PB-184-611) 
 
 (Continued on inside back cover) 
 
ATMOSAl 
 
 r/ WENT Of 
 
 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 
 Frederick B. Dent, Secretary 
 
 NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION 
 Robert M. White, Administrator 
 
 NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITE SERVICE 
 David S. Johnson, Director 
 
 NOAA Technical Report NESS 65 
 
 Satellite Infrared Soundings 
 From NOAA Spacecraft 
 
 L. M. McMillin 
 D. Q. Wark 
 J. M. Siomkajlo 
 P. G. Abel 
 A. Werbowetzki 
 L A. Lauritson 
 J. A. Pritchard 
 D. S. Crosby 
 H. M. Woolf 
 R. C. Luebbe 
 M. P. Weinreb 
 H. E. Fleming 
 F. E. Bittner 
 C. M. Hayden 
 
 
 
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 CU 
 
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 to 
 
 Dl 
 
 WASHINGTON, D.C. 
 SEPTEMBER 1973 
 
 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C, 20402. 
 
 Price $1.30 
 
UDC 551.507.362.2:551.508.2:551.501.7:535-1 
 
 53 Physics 
 
 535-1 Infrared radiation 
 
 551.5 Meteorology 
 
 .501 Methods of observation and computation 
 
 . 7 Upper air data computation 
 
 .507 Instrument carriers 
 
 .362.2 Meteorological satellites 
 
 .508 Meteorological instruments 
 
 . 2 Radiation instruments 
 
 li 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Abstract 1 
 
 1 . Introduction 1 
 
 2 . Spacecraft and ground equipment 6 
 
 A. Spacecraft 6 
 
 B. Vertical Temperature Profile Radiometer 
 
 (VTPR) 6 
 
 (1) Description of the instrument 6 
 
 (2) Spectral transmission functions of 
 
 VTPR filters 13 
 
 C. Other spacecraft equipment 14 
 
 D. Ground equipment 14 
 
 3. Data reduction and analysis 15 
 
 A. Overall data flow 15 
 
 B. Geographical location 17 
 
 C. Calibration procedure 18 
 
 D. First guess fields for VTPR data processing 24 
 
 
 (1 ) Northern hemisphere 24 
 
 (2 ) Tropics 24 
 
 (3) Southern hemisphere 24 
 
 E. Procedure for obtaining clear radiances 
 
 (program CLRAD) 2 5 
 
 (1) Mathematical justification 25 
 
 (2 ) Operational procedures 28 
 
 F. Retrievals 32 
 
 (1 ) Introduction 32 
 
 (2 ) Input 32 
 
 (3) Construction of transmittances and 
 
 weighting functions 34 
 
 (4) Temperature retrieval 36 
 
 (5) Moisture retrieval 37 
 
 (6 ) Output 40 
 
 in 
 
CONTENTS (cont'd.) 
 
 4. Quality tests and rejection procedures 40 
 
 5 . Data outputs and archives 42 
 
 A. General 42 
 
 B. Teletype messages 42 
 
 C . Output to NMC 43 
 
 D. Archival tapes 43 
 
 Acknowledgment 44 
 
 References 45 
 
 Appendix I, Miscellaneous tables 48 
 
 Appendix II, Filter characteristics and CO2 
 
 transmittances 55 
 
 Appendix III, Archive formats 105 
 
 IV 
 
SATELLITE INFRARED SOUNDINGS FROM NOAA SPACECRAFT 
 
 L. M. McMillin, D. Q. Wark, J. M. Siomkajlo, 
 P. G. Abel, A. Werbowetzki, L. A. Lauritson, 
 J. A. Pritchard, D. S. Crosby, H. M. Woolf, 
 R. C. Luebbe, M. P. Weinreb, H. E. Fleming, 
 F. E. Bittner and C. M. Hayden 
 National Environmental Satellite Service 
 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 
 
 Washington, D.C. 
 
 ABSTRACT. Data are currently being received from 
 a Vertical Temperature Profile Radiometer (VTPR) 
 aboard the NOAA 2 spacecraft to produce operational 
 atmospheric soundings of temperature and humidity 
 on a global scale. This report describes the 
 VTPR instrument, its calibration, the procedure 
 to obtain "clear radiances" from cloud-contaminated 
 radiance measurements, retrieval techniques used 
 to obtain temperature and humidity profiles from 
 "clear radiances", the quality checks performed 
 on these profiles, and the various forms in which 
 data are available to potential users. 
 
 1 . INTRODUCTION 
 
 Beginning with the NOAA 2 satellite, launched 15 October 1972, 
 satellites of this series will carry instruments to make routine 
 observations from which atmospheric temperature soundings are 
 derived. This is an operational system designed to provide glo- 
 bal upper air data to weather services. The purpose of this 
 report is to describe the means by which the operational product 
 is derived from satellite measurements. Subsequent chapters 
 describe the instruments, ground support equipment, data systems, 
 mathematical developments, and the forms of final products. 
 
 Basic concepts of indirect soundings from satellites have been 
 tested on the Nimbus 3 and 4 satellites. A Satellite Infra-Red 
 Spectrometer (SIRS) (Wark 1970, Wark and Hilleary 1969, and Wark 
 et al . 1970) and an Infra-Red Interferometer Spectrometer (IRIS) 
 (Conrath et al . 1970, Hanel and Conrath 1969, and Hanel et al . 
 1972) were carried on each of these satellites. Output signals 
 from these instruments provided measurements of the thermal radi- 
 ation emitted by the earth' s atmosphere and surface. These 
 measurements can be related to the vertical structure of 
 
 M 
 
temperature and humidity. A full description of the principles of 
 measurement and data reduction is given by Fritz et al. (1972). 
 
 Following initial verification of the reliability with which 
 temperature profiles can be reproduced, the results from SIRS 
 data were provided on a timely basis to the U.S. National Weather 
 Service and were sent through normal telecommunications to other 
 weather services (Smith et al . 1972). This quasi-operational 
 procedure was commenced in May 1969 and continued with 
 occasional interruptions until the implementation of the fully 
 operational product from NOAA 2 . 
 
 In anticipation of the increasing demand for quantitative wea- 
 ther observations from satellites, the NASA and the NOAA have 
 planned and produced a system to obtain operational soundings 
 covering most areas of the globe twice daily. Plans have specif- 
 ically dealt with the main deterrent to accurate soundings - 
 clouds. As will be shown, the effect of clouds can be overcome 
 by conducting many measurements within the area from which a 
 single sounding is derived. Soundings are obtained from a num- 
 ber of sets of measurements; SIRS instruments obtained only 
 single sets of measurements from which soundings were derived. 
 A statistical technique (Smith et al . 1972) permits one to deduce 
 the emitted radiation from cloud- free areas. 
 
 Each satellite in the NOAA series beginning with NOAA 2 will 
 carry Vertical Temperature Profile Radiometers (VTPR's). 
 Duplication of instruments on each spacecraft will assure con- 
 tinued operation in the event one fails. The spacecraft are 
 described bv Schwalb (1972). 
 
 NOAA satellites orbit the earth in 78.3° retrograde orbits each 
 115 minutes at an altitude of 1464 km. Figure 1 shows the earth 
 projection of seven orbits during a 13-hour period. Solid lines 
 indicate the north to south, or "descending", portions of the 
 orbits, which occur over mostly sunlit areas; dashed lines are 
 the nighttime "ascending" portions of the same orbits. Equator 
 crossings of NOAA 2 occur at 9 a.m. (descending node) and 9 p.m. 
 (ascending node) local solar time. 
 
 VTPR instruments scan perpendicular to the satellite motion, 
 from left to right while facing the direction of travel, in 23 
 discrete steps. Fields of view, scanning times, and apparent 
 motion on the earth provide "spots" which are contiguous both 
 across and along the orbital track. In figure 1 the shaded areas 
 indicate the areal coverage during two orbits. Darker shading 
 indicates areas where data are redundant during the two orbits. 
 
Coverage of the earth by VTPR is not complete eguatorward of 
 49° because the instrument scans only + 30.3° from the local nadir. 
 At low latitudes as little as two-thirds of the area is observed, 
 but within a 24-hour period the combined ascending and descending 
 portions of the orbits provide nearly complete coverage. 
 
 A VTPR instrument observes each spot in eight spectral inter- 
 vals 4 cm - -'- to 16 cm"-'- (.09 y,m to .56 ym) wide. One interval is 
 in the window at 12 ym, six are located in the 15 y,m band of car- 
 bon dioxide, and one is the 19 y-m region where water vapor absorp- 
 tion dominates. After a set of eight spectral measurements has 
 been obtained, the scan mirror is stepped to the next spot. When 
 the 2 3 spots have been observed, the mirror returns to the origi- 
 nal position. The pattern resulting from the scanning is depic- 
 ted in figure 2, which is an enlargement of the small outlined 
 area in figure 1. Observations within this area are obtained 
 in about five minutes. 
 
 Analysis of the data first requires their reduction to "clear 
 radiances)' which are spectral radiances that one would find with 
 completely clear skies. As described in a later section, data 
 are separated into boxes of adjacent spots, from which a statis- 
 tical analysis produces a single group of eight radiances for each 
 box. Results are used to retrieve atmospheric profiles. 
 
 The scheme initially applied to the VTPR data is shown in fig- 
 ure 2. Eight scan lines are divided into three boxes of 8x8, 
 8x7 and 8x8 spots. Clear radiances are deduced for three 
 boxes indicated by X' s in the figure. A retrieval is made for 
 each box. The dimensions of the boxes are 500 by 600 km and 700 
 by 600 km for the center and side boxes, respectively. New pro- 
 cedures will be instituted to locate retrievals at the centroids 
 of clear areas. 
 
 Although there are potentially about 200 soundings per orbit 
 (2, 600_ daily) / several factors limit the number that can be pro- 
 vided to users. These include excessive cloudiness, which makes 
 it impossible to obtain satisfactory soundings in the troposphere; 
 multi-layered clouds, which reduce the reliability of clear radi- 
 ances; high and varied terrain, which produces a similar effect; 
 and redundance over polar regions. 
 
 The National Environmental Satellite Service will continue to 
 improve the scope and quality of soundings through an active de- 
 velopment program. Occasional changes in the methods of deduc- 
 ing soundings will be made, and ancillary data, such as those 
 from the Scanning Radiometer and from statistical regressions, 
 
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 Figure 2. — VTPR scan pattern and data 
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will be incorporated. As significant alterations are made, and 
 as parameters of newly launched instruments are needed, supple- 
 ments to this report will be issued. 
 
 Parts of this report were prepared by the following personnel 
 of the National Environmental Satellite Service. 
 
 Section 1 - Introduction (D.Q.Wark) 
 
 Section 2 - Spacecraft (J.M. Siomkajlo and P.G. Abel) 
 
 and Ground Equipment (L.M. McMillin) 
 Section 3 - Data Reduction and Analysis 
 
 A. Overall Data Flow (A. Werbowetzki) 
 
 B. Geographical Location of Data 
 
 (L.A. Lauritson) 
 
 C. Calibration Procedure (J. A. Pritchard, 
 D.S. Crosby, D.Q. Wark and A. Werbowetzki) 
 
 D. First Guess Fields for VTPR Data Proces- 
 sing (H.M. Woolf) 
 
 E. Procedure for Obtaining Clear Radiances 
 
 (R. Luebbe, L. A. Lauritson, and 
 L.M. McMillin) 
 
 F. Retrieval (M.P. Weinreb and H.E. Fleming) 
 Section 4 - Quality Tests and Rejection Procedures 
 
 (F.E. Bittner and CM. Hayden) 
 Section 5 - Data Outputs and Archives (L.M. McMillin) 
 
 2. SPACECRAFT AND GROUND EQUIPMENT 
 
 A. Spacecraft 
 
 The Improved TIROS Operational Satellite (ITOS) is a 1.02 x 
 1.02 x 1.25 m, 336 kq spacecraft designed to operate in a sun- 
 synchronous polar orbit at 1464 km. Power is supplied by three 
 1.65 x .91 m solar panels, which are extended in space. The 
 Digital Data Processor (DDP) receives data from the VTPR sensor 
 and forwards them to the magnetic tape recorders. A flywheel is 
 used to restrict satellite attitude errors about the pitch axis 
 to + 0.5°, and electrical coils are used to correct roll and yaw 
 errors (Schwalb 1972). 
 
 B. Vertical Temperature Profile Radiometer (VTPR) 
 
 (1) Description of the Instrument 
 
 The VTPR is a continuous day-night eight-channel sounding sys- 
 tem. Six of the eight channels are used to deduce radiances in 
 the 15 |im carbon dioxide band. Two other channels are used to 
 
deduce radiances at 535 cm-1 (in a water vapor absorption band) 
 and at 835 cm-1 (in an atmospheric window region); these two 
 radiances are used respectively to determine the atmospheric 
 humidity and to act as a control in the determination of clear 
 radiances for the other seven channels (see Section 3.B). The 
 system is designed to permit calculation of the vertical temper- 
 ature profile from the earth's surface to about 30 km, and to 
 obtain an estimate of the moisture in the lower troposphere. 
 
 The optical system of the VTPR instrument consists of a scan- 
 ning mirror, a 73.5 mm Cassegrainian telescope, a chopper, and a 
 filter wheel (all shown in fig. 3); and a detector assembly 
 
 (not shown) which consists of an Irtran 4 lens, a wide band anti- 
 reflection-coated germanium window, and an uncooled pyroelectric 
 detector. Broad areal coverage is obtained by scanning + 30.3° 
 
 (center of the center scan spot to the center of the outer scan 
 spot) from the nadir direction in 2 3 incremental steps of approx- 
 imately 2.7° (fig. 4). At each scan spot, measurements are ob- 
 tained for all eight channels as the filter wheel completes one 
 revolution. In order to provide image motion compensation, so 
 that the measurements for all eight channels cover the same geo- 
 graphical area, the filters on the filter wheel are arranged in 
 a spiral (fig. 5) . 
 
 A black temperature-controlled chopper provides a reference. 
 Radiation from the alternating signal resulting from successive 
 views of the chopper and the scene is passed through one of the 
 filters on the filter wheel and through an Irtran 4 lens to the 
 detector. A mask between the lens and the detector limits the 
 field of view to a 2.136° by 2.236° rectangular scan spot. The 
 projection of the scan spot on the earth's surface is approxi- 
 mately a square 55 km on a side when the satellite is viewing in 
 the nadir direction. Scan spot size increases at larger viewing 
 angles because of the increased distance from the earth" s surface 
 to the satellite and the curvature of the earth (fig. 4) . 
 
 Measurements of spectral radiance must be accurate if they are 
 to be used to obtain atmospheric temperature profiles. The VTPR 
 instrument provides calibrated radiance measurements ranging 
 from zero to 204.8 mV\/(m2 sr cm-1), enabling the instrument to 
 measure equivalent source temperatures up to 340 K. Maximum 
 allowable relative error between any two channels other than the 
 nominal 668.5 cm-1 channel is 0.25 mW/fm^ sr cm~l ) . Maximum allow- 
 able relative error between the nominal 668.5 cm-1 channel and 
 any other channel is 0.75 mV}/(m2 sr cm-1) or less. In order 
 to avoid certain problems which can occur when analog data are 
 digitized on the spacecraft. One digital count corresponds to 
 approximately . 3 m w / (m 2 sr cm-1 ) . 
 
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 Figure 5. — VTPR filter wheel showing 
 image motion compensation mask 
 (courtesy of RCA) 
 
11 
 
 Analog output from the detector is digitized into 10 bits of 
 binary data. Scan spot location is identified by a five-bit 
 binary code, which is combined with the radiometric data and a 
 parity bit to form a 16-bit word. The resulting digitized data 
 from the VTPR are stored in an output register, transferred to the 
 spacecraft Digital Data Processor, and stored on tape. Digital 
 data from the VTPR and other spacecraft components are trans- 
 mitted on one of four channels of the S-band link to the ground. 
 
 A single scan of the VTPR instrument takes 12.5 s, of which 
 11.5 s are used to sample the 2 3 scan spots. Measurements for all 
 eight channels are obtained during the 0.5-s interval allowed for 
 each scan spot. One second is required for the mirror to return 
 to its original position; during this time measurements of various 
 components needed for calibration are recorded in place of the 
 16 radiance measurements. Output data for a normal scan line are 
 summarized in table 1 of appendix I. When the instrument is ope- 
 rated in its automatic calibration mode, a 37.5-s calibration se- 
 quence is recorded (replacing 3 scans of normal data) every seven 
 minutes. Data from this calibration sequence are used in the cal- 
 ibration procedure described in Section 3 C. During this sequence, 
 measurements of electrical voltage calibration, space calibration, 
 housing calibration, and housekeeping telemetry are digitized and 
 inserted into the data stream. During regular operations, the 
 calibration sequence is initiated only once per orbit by direct 
 command from the ground. 
 
 Table 1 shows the nominal characteristics of the eiaht filters 
 in the VTPR instruments. In column 1, filters 1-6 are numbered 
 according to the opaqueness of the atmosphere in the respective 
 spectral intervals, so increasing numbers correspond to decreas- 
 ing atmospheric opaqueness. This means that the lower numbered 
 filters pass radiation containing information about the upper 
 atmosphere and the higher numbered filters are used to measure 
 the atmospheric temperature near the surface. The numbering sys- 
 tem shown in column 1 is used in this report. Numbers in column 
 2 show the order in which the filters are mounted on the filter 
 wheel. This sequence was chosen to minimize changes in signal 
 level between adjacent filters, thereby minimizing the effects of 
 any memory errors present in the instrument. 
 
 A summary of the VTPR parameters is given in table 2. 
 
12 
 
 Table 1. — Nominal spectral intervals for VTPR filters 
 
 
 Fi 
 
 Iter 
 
 
 
 
 Filter 
 
 band pass 
 
 Filter 
 
 wh 
 
 eel 
 
 Center 
 
 wavelength 
 
 Half -width 
 
 Tenth -width 
 
 number 
 
 P° 
 
 sition 
 
 (lim) 
 
 
 (cm" 1 ) 
 
 (cm- 1 ) 
 
 (cm" 1 ) 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 14.96 
 
 
 668.5 
 
 3.5 
 
 10.5 
 
 2 
 
 
 8 
 
 14.77 
 
 
 677.5 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 
 2 
 
 14.38 
 
 
 695.0 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 
 7 
 
 14.12 
 
 
 708.0 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 
 3 
 
 13.79 
 
 
 725.0 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 13.38 
 
 
 747.0 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 
 4 
 
 18.69 
 
 
 535.0 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 
 5 
 
 11.97 
 
 
 833.0 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 Table 
 
 2 . — Summary 
 
 Of VTPR 
 
 parameters 
 
 
 Parameter 
 
 
 
 
 Nomi 
 
 .nal value 
 
 
 Spectral range 
 
 Line rate 
 
 Field of view 
 
 Dynamic range 
 
 Sensitivity 
 
 Digital signal output 
 
 Data rate 
 
 Primary f/number 
 
 Effective f/number 
 
 Spectral resolution 
 
 Scan-mirror aperture 
 
 12-19 urn 
 
 4.8 lines /min 
 
 2.136° by 2.2 36° 
 
 to 210 mW/(m 2 sr cm" 1 ) 
 
 0.25 mW/ (m 2 sr cm" 1 ) or less 
 
 16 bits 
 
 256 bits /s 
 
 f/3 
 
 f /0 . 6 at the detector 
 
 See table 1 
 
 3 in. 
 
 *Q-Branch 0.75 m w / (m 2 sr cm" 1 ) 
 
13 
 
 (2) Spectral Transmission Functions of VTPR Filters 
 
 All VTPR filters, with the exception of the Q-branch filters at 
 668.5 cm~l, were manufactured by the Optical Coating Laboratory, 
 Inc. (OCLI). Q-branch filters were made by Grubb-Parsons, Ltd. 
 (GPL), and'by Spectrum Systems, Inc. (SSI). Table 2 of appendix 
 I gives the serial numbers assigned to the VTPR instruments on 
 NOAA 2, as well as the corresponding best estimates of filter 
 spectral characterisitcs. 
 
 The importance of obtaining accurate spectral data and the 
 difficulty of doing so implies that the manufacturer's oriqinal 
 data should be verified whenever possible. Data for all instru- 
 ment 1 filters, except the nominal 677.5 cm" 1 filter, were ob- 
 tained at the NESS Satellite Experiment Laboratory (SEL) . This 
 was, unfortunately, not possible for those in other instruments, 
 for which data on only the 535 cm~l filters were obtained at SEL. 
 
 In the SEL verification procedure each of the VTPR filters was 
 mounted in a special holder at 7.5° away from the normal to the 
 
 f/10 beam i n a Beckman IR-7 spectrometer. The holder was rigid- 
 ly mounted to the spectrometer so that the 7.5° angle was accu- 
 rate to better than + 0.3°. Filter temperature was set near 
 35C, typically within + 0.5C, and the instrument was purged con- 
 tinuously with pure dry nitrogen. Single beam mode, with a 
 spectral resolution of between 0.8 and 1.0 cm -1 , was chosen for 
 all the runs. This resolution causes a small but significant 
 convolution distortion in the case of the Q-branch filter only. 
 However, this did not seriously affect the comparison with the 
 manufacturer's data, which were similarly distorted. The distor- 
 tion is always in the direction of a less desirable filter pro- 
 file. Thus, filters whose measured profiles meet the specifica- 
 tions are acceptable. 
 
 Spectral calibration of the spectrometer was achieved using 
 known carbon dioxide absorption line positions between 577 and 
 959 cm~l. For the latter region of weak absorption, a White cell 
 with an optical path length of 10 m was used. The calibration 
 runs were made as closely as possible in time to the data runs, 
 but sometimes there was an overnight delay. 
 
 The spectrometer output was recorded in analog form on a chart 
 recorder and in digital form on a tape recorder. The tape record 
 wcis processed to provide a computer- drawn plot of transmission as 
 a function of indicated (uncalibrated) wavenumber. 
 
14 
 
 Table 3 of appendix I presents comparative figures on spectral 
 characteristics obtained from all sources of data. Agreement is 
 always within the noise level of the measurements except for the 
 535 cm~l filter. In this case, there is a significant disagree- 
 ment in center wavenumber. most probably caused by an unadvoid- 
 ably incomplete calibration of the SEL spectrometer. The OCLI 
 figures have therefore been accepted for the center wavenumber of 
 that filter. In addition to using CO2 line positions near 690 
 cm"-'-, the OCLI spectrometer was also calibrated with the water 
 rotation line at 525.97 cm-1 (vacuum). 
 
 Appendix II contains the best estimates of the filter spec- 
 tral characteristics in instruments 1 through 4. They are uncor- 
 rected for convolution distortion. The curves were calculated 
 solely from the OCLI chart traces. Points were taken from the 
 curves about every 0.4 cm - -'- and smooth curves were fitted to the 
 points by means of spline functions. 
 
 C. Other Spacecraft Equipment 
 
 The NOAA 2 satellite carries a two-channel Scanning Radiometer 
 (SR) , a Very High Resolution two-channel scanning Radiometer 
 (VHRR), and a Solar Proton Monitor (SPM) in addition to the VTPR 
 instrument (Schwalb 1972). Sea-surface temperatures, which are 
 used in the VTPR data processing, are derived from SR measure- 
 ments covering the 10.4-12.5 gtm spectral interval. The SR in- 
 strument views a smaller area than the VTPR instrument and thus 
 has a better chance of receiving radiation from a cloud-free area. 
 Statistical techniques are used to identify the measurements that 
 are cloud- free, and the cloud- free radiances are used to deduce 
 the ocean surface temperature. 
 
 D. Ground Equipment 
 
 Ground equipment required for the VTPR data processing consists 
 of two readout stations (Wallops, Virginia and Gilmore, Alaska); 
 communication lines connecting the readout stations to the NOAA/ 
 NESS data processing and analysis facility in Suitland, Maryland; 
 and the following types of processing equipment and computers at 
 Suitland: 
 
 RCA Modulator - Demodulator (MODEM) 2270678-501 
 EMR 2721 - signal conditioner 
 EMR 27 31 - PCM frame synchronizer 
 EMR 6130 - computer 
 CDC 6600 - computer. 
 
15 
 
 3. Data Reduction and Analysis 
 
 A. Overall Data Flow 
 
 The VTPR data flow and software system consists of six major 
 computer programs. Figure 6 shows the individual program modules 
 and their relationship within the flow system from the spacecraft 
 to data users. 
 
 While the NOAA 2 satellite is above the horizon of either of 
 the two readout stations, the digital data are played back from 
 an onboard Scanning Radiometer Recorder (SRR) and immediately for- 
 warded via communication lines to the NOAA/NESS data processing 
 and analysis facility in Suitland, where they are demodulated by 
 the MODEM and passed on to the EMR computers for initial proces- 
 sing. The VTPR data are separated from the other spacecraft data 
 and finally written on an output digital magnetic tape by the 
 Ingest Program in the EMR 6130 computer. Normally, one orbit of 
 data is processed for each readout. However, once each day the 
 satellite does not appear above the horizon at either of the two 
 readout stations during one or two orbits, and it is necessary to 
 store these orbits of data on the spacecraft until the next read- 
 out. In these cases, up to 209 minutes of VTPR data may be re- 
 corded on one output tape, and two tapes may be required to re- 
 cord all the data. 
 
 A sequence of programs is executed on each output tape from the 
 EMR 6130. The first program computes the geographical location 
 of each vertical sounding to be produced. Data concerning the 
 instrument status and condition are then analyzed, and parameters 
 such as electrical gain and standard deviations are checked and 
 verified to be within acceptable limits. Following the proce- 
 dures described in section 3.B, radiance values are computed and 
 passed, together with appropriate earth location and time infor- 
 mation, to the next program. An archive tape containing the 
 earth-located radiances also is generated. 
 
 The Clear Radiance Program operates next to eliminate the 
 effects of clouds. It statistically computes an equivalent clear 
 radiance for an area by comparisons of adjacent scan spots, uti- 
 lizing knowledge of sea-surface temperature (obtained independent- 
 ly from the Scanning Radiometer data) and an approximate first 
 guess vertical temperature structure (obtained from climatology 
 and a recent forecast or analysis) . Earth-located clear radi- 
 ances are generated and added to the archive tape. The data are 
 then used to retrieve temperature profiles. 
 
16 
 
 e 
 
 CD 
 -P 
 W 
 >i 
 W 
 
 (1) 
 H 
 Ctf 
 
 4J 
 M-l 
 O 
 CO 
 
 « 
 
 CM 
 E-i 
 > 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 • 
 
 CD 
 
 Cn 
 •H 
 En 
 
17 
 
 The Retrieval Program uses the first guess temperature profile, 
 a first guess humidity value, and atmospheric transmittance val- 
 ues to compute the vertical atmospheric profiles from the input 
 of clear radiances. 
 
 The final output data are quality checked and reformatted onto 
 three magnetic tapes. One tape is forwarded to the National 
 Meteorological Center (NMC) for input to their numerical analysis 
 and primitive equation (PE) forecast model. The second tape is 
 given to the National Weather Service communications center for 
 transmission to users. Data that pass the quality check are 
 added to the archive tape, which is then transmitted to other 
 users (Goddard Institute for Space Studies, for example) and to 
 the permanent archive of the NOAA Environmental Data Service. 
 
 B. Geographical Location of Data 
 
 Earth location of the data is performed in two steps. The first 
 step is performed in an Earth Location Program, which calculates 
 latitudes and longitudes for centers of the areas for which VTPR 
 temperature and humidity profiles are to be calculated. The sec- 
 ond step is performed as a subroutine of the calibration program. 
 This subroutine calculates the locations of the VTPR scan spots 
 in the grid on which the sea-surface temperatures are provided. 
 
 The location of a scan spot is determined by a point called the 
 sensor principal point. This point is the center of a scan spot 
 on a plane surface perpendicular to the viewing angle of the in- 
 strument. Because of the curvature of the earth, this point is 
 the exact center of a scan spot only when the instrument is view- 
 ing along the local nadir. In the earth location procedure, prin- 
 cipal points are calculated for spots 5, 12, and 19 of the fourth 
 of eight scan lines (fig. 9). To locate these principal points, 
 the satellite position, the satellite attitude, the sensor mount- 
 ing position, and the mirror position must be known. Attitude 
 information in the form of 'J max and X (RCA 1972) is supplied 
 by the Satellite Operations Control Center (SOCC); § max is the 
 maximum roll angle during an orbit; and X is the angle from the 
 ascending node to the point of maximum yaw. Values of $ ma x an( 3 
 X are easily converted to roll and yaw angles. The SOCC attempts 
 to control $ max to within 0.5° tolerance, with a maximum error of 
 about 1°. The pitch tolerance is generally kept to within 0.5°. 
 
 Weekly orbital element data are supplied by the NASA. These 
 data and the General Electric orbital predictor package (Brov/er 
 1959, and Lyddane (1963) are used to determine satellite position. 
 Once the satellite position is determined, a series of matrix 
 
rotation and vector additions are used to compute the principal 
 point latitude and longitude (figs. 7 and 8). These rotations 
 convert the geocentric principal point to a position in a geodet- 
 ic coordinate system, and include corrections for satellite alti- 
 tude, satellite position, sensor mounting position, and mirror 
 position. 
 
 Sea- surface temperatures from the SR are available for i and j 
 points of a square grid superimposed upon a polar stereographic 
 projection. Positions of the bench marks (fig. 9) are calculated 
 for the VTPR location and converted to positions on the polar 
 grid. Temperatures of intermediate boxes are obtained from the 
 polar grid using coordinates obtained by interpolation from the 
 known bench mark coordinates. 
 
 C. Calibration Procedure 
 
 Calibration of the VTPR sensor data involves two procedures. 
 The first is a pre-launch ground calibration of the instrument; 
 the second is used after launch to adjust the calibration for 
 changes in the spacecraft operating conditions. 
 
 During the first procedure each VTPR instrument is calibrated 
 by being exposed to an external reference source. The internal 
 source is not a standard and must therefore be calibrated against 
 a standard source. This is accomplished by calibrating the in- 
 ternal source with an external source which, in turn, has been 
 checked with a standard. 
 
 Calibrations of the VTPR are based on the external sources used 
 during thermal -vacuum tests on the ground. The honeycombed ex- 
 ternal sources used in the calibration have provisions for main- 
 taining any fixed temperature between 180 K and 340 K. Six ther- 
 mocouples are used to measure the temperature; they indicate that 
 thermal gradients are less than 0.1 K across the surface of the 
 source. These external sources have been compared with the low 
 temperature blackbody reference of the Canadian National Research 
 Council (NRC) (Bedford 1970), using calibrated thermopile detec- 
 tors as transfer standards (Hilleary et al . 1969). Thermopile 
 output for the VTPR references read 1 +0.5% higher than the out- 
 put from the NRC reference. 
 
 During the calibration of the VTPR internal source, two of the 
 external sources were placed in the "earth" position so that they 
 filled the field of view for scan spots 1 and 23, the extreme 
 mirror positions. With the instrument temperature and the scan 
 position fixed, a calibration was performed by varying the 
 
19 
 
 To Aries 
 
 ascending node of orbital plane 
 
 north pole 
 
 geocentric subsatellite point 
 
 satellite position 
 
 = geocentric subsatellite point track 
 
 A = 
 
 C = 
 
 F = 
 
 I = 
 
 AFE 
 
 JHFC = meridian through F 
 
 BOD 
 
 COE 
 
 AOF 
 
 right ascension of orbital plane 
 
 inclination of orbital plane 
 
 Cl (angle from ascending node to geocentric satellite 
 
 point 
 
 FOH = ©2 an< ^ ^FH = ®l' angles to correct geocentric subsatellite 
 
 point to geodetic subsatellite point 
 FOJ = geocentric subsatellite latitude 
 HGJ = geodetic subsatellite latitude 
 
 Figure 7. — Location of satellite position 
 
20 
 
 HIK = roll, pitch, and yaw rotation 
 
 K = principal point of a VTPR data spot 
 
 KOM = geocentric latitude of principal point 
 
 KLM = geodetic latitude of principal point 
 
 CKM = mderdi an through K 
 
 Figure 8. — Location of principal point showing effect of 
 roll, pitch, and yaw error 
 
21 
 
 , Oro 
 *|g.<M 
 
 5 
 
 E 
 
 x y*> 
 
 to 
 
 0) 
 
 * 
 
 e 
 ■S 
 
 c 
 
 0) 
 
 
 c 
 
 ■H 
 
 CO 
 
 d 
 
 S^ rd 
 
 (1) +J 
 
 -p rd 
 -P 13 
 rd 
 P-, OS 
 
 rd tP 
 
 U CJ 
 
 CO -H 
 
 -P 
 
 & fd 
 
 S3 
 
 i 
 
 i u 
 
 • 
 <J\ M-l 
 
 (D 13 
 ^ CD 
 
 3 
 cT 
 -H 
 
 rx. 
 
22 
 
 temperature of one of the external sources in steps between 180 K 
 and 340 K. This procedure was repeated for a series of instrument 
 temperatures. During this calibration process, the VTPR was put 
 into its automatic calibration mode a number of times to allow 
 comparison of the internal source with the external secondary 
 standards. 
 
 The second procedure is performed when an instrument is in 
 space. Then, the only radiation references are the internal 
 blackbody source at the nominal temperature of the instrument 
 and a view of space. At the wavelengths used in the VTPR, 
 a space view effectively has zero radiance. For a linear system, 
 two references provide sufficient information to calibrate the 
 output of the instrument in physical units when it is viewing the 
 earth. A relationship between source radiance and the digital 
 output of VTPR is given by 
 
 Iij = ai + bi cij (1) 
 
 where i = radiance 
 
 a, b = calibration coefficients 
 
 c = VTPR output in counts 
 
 i = spectral interval 
 
 j = source identifier (space or internal). 
 
 The linearity of the output implied by eq (1) is an integral 
 part of the instrument design, and has been verified by tests of 
 each instrument. 
 
 In the normal earth-directed views, spots 1-2 3, the coefficients 
 "a" and "b" for the i^* 1 channel are determined from 
 
 a. = 
 
 i 
 
 2 A.. T, 
 
 k=o lk k 
 
 
 3 
 
 b. = 
 
 l 
 
 £ B . . T, 
 
 k=o lk k 
 
 and (2) 
 
 where T = 1.0 
 
 T, = primary optics (counts) 
 T 2 = secondary optics (counts) 
 T 3 = shroud (counts) . 
 
 The last three terms in eq (2) account for the contributions of 
 
23 
 
 components of the VTPR to the radiative flux at the detector. 
 Emissions of these components are temperature dependent, but be- 
 cause of the narrow range of operating temperature for these com- 
 ponents, their contributions to the flux may be taken to be a 
 linear function of temperature. Values of the coefficients A-^ 
 and Bj^ are determined by regression from data obtained during 
 pre- fli ght ' thermal vacuum tests, using output counts from the VTPR 
 and the various thermal probes listed in eq (2). In space, values 
 of T^ for these components are obtained for each scan during the 
 retrace period. Since these temperatures are obtained during each 
 scan, the values of a^ and bj_ can change during an orbit to com- 
 pensate for changing conditions on the satellite. 
 
 The values of a^ and b^ given by eq (2) are periodically checked 
 while the instrument is in space. During calibration checks in 
 space, the VTPR views space, identified as spot 27, and the inter- 
 nal source ("patch"), spot 28. These views provide data for the 
 relations : 
 
 = a. + b. C. _ 
 l l l 27 
 
 and (3) 
 
 B(v.,T,_ ) = a. + b. C. OQ 
 l 31 l l l 28 
 
 where B(v.,T_.)= Planck radiance at v. and T„, 
 i 31 i 31 
 
 v^ = spectral interval 
 
 T = temperature of the "patch" 
 
 C. and C. = average counts during the "space" and 
 
 "patch" views at v^ . 
 
 This procedure provides a check of the values of a^ and b^ . When 
 the values do not check the coefficients in eq (2) are adjusted. 
 As a last resort the instrument may be placed in an automatic cal- 
 ibration mode, values of ai and bj_ will be determined from eq (3), 
 and new coefficients will be generated for eq (2). 
 
 Data for the calibration check are provided during a calibra- 
 tion sequence. This sequence (table 4 of appendix I ) lasts for 
 37.5 seconds. In the automatic calibration mode, the instrument 
 obtains calibration data approximately every 7 minutes throughout 
 the orbit. Normally, the VTPR is commanded to obtain calibration 
 data only once per orbit. During a calibration sequence, an 
 electrical calibration is performed using the staircase voltage 
 counts to verify the linearity and stability of the electronic 
 circuitry. Also, means and standard deviations are computed for 
 
24 
 
 each phase of the calibration sequence (electrical staircase, 
 space view, and patch view) . 
 
 Instrument temperature data recorded during the one-second re- 
 trace period are identified by a five-bit binary code. Prior to 
 launch, each instrument was arbitrarily assigned identifier code 
 24 or 2 5. During the one-second retrace interval of each mirror 
 scan, output counts from the probes measuring the primary optics, 
 secondary optics, and shroud temperatures, a 24-bit time code, and 
 a frame synchronization identifier are recorded. 
 
 D. First Guess Fields for VTPR Data Processing 
 
 f: 
 When describing the nature and source of first guess fields s , 
 
 utilized in VTPR data processing, it is convenient to divide the 
 
 earth into three geographical regions: (1) that portion of the 
 
 Northern Hemisphere north of 18°N (hereafter identified as NH); 
 
 (2) the area between 18°N and 18°S (hereafter identified as 
 
 tropics); and (3) the Southern Hemisphere south of 18°S (SH) . 
 
 (1) Northern Hemisphere 
 
 Guess fields for the NH are extracted from the operational fore- 
 cast of the National Meteorological Center. The fields used and 
 the time intervals at which forecasts are available are listed 
 
 in table 5 of appendix I. w ' 
 
 tl 
 
 When forecasts are available for a given field, the forecast 
 nearest in time to that of the satellite observation is used. 
 
 The fields are read from system disk (permanent files) and 
 stored in Extended Core Storage (ECS). To construct a guess pro- 
 file for a particular VTPR observation point, the fields are read 
 into central memory from ECS, and a value for each parameter is 
 interpolated to the VTPR location from the four surrounding grid 
 points. The portion of the guess temperature profile above 10 mb 
 is generated by regression as explained in 3. F. 
 
 (2) Tropics 
 
 For the tropics, radiosonde data averaged over an appropriate 
 two-month period provides the guess temperature profile; regres- 
 sion estimates are employed to estimate the relative humidity. 
 
 (3) Southern Hemisphere 
 
 In the Southern Hemisphere, a feedback technique is used to gen- 
 erate guess temperature fields up to 10 mb. The retrieved VTPR 
 
25 
 
 profiles for a given day, together with other available upper air 
 data, are used as input to a multi-level objective analysis pro- 
 gram, whose output, in the form of grid point data, provides the 
 first guess fields for the subsequent day 1 s VTPR data processing. 
 Humidity information is provided by regression estimates. 
 
 E. Procedure for Obtaining Clear Radiances (Program CLRAD) 
 
 (1) Mathematical Justification 
 
 To eliminate the effect of clouds on the retrieved temperature 
 profiles, a single cloud- free or "clear" radiance is produced 
 from measurements obtained from a number of scan spots. The re- 
 sulting "clear" radiances are then used to obtain temperature pro- 
 files. "Clear" radiances for a7x8oran8x8 box or subarray 
 are obtained from the measured radiances of the scan spots and the 
 sea-surface temperatures provided by data from the Scanning Radi- 
 ometer (SR) . They are obtained using a technique suggested by 
 Smith in Fritz et al. (1972), and in Smith et al. (1970). 
 
 For an area that is partly cloud covered, the radiance can be 
 expressed as 
 
 I(v.) = Nl^v.) + (l-N)I clr (v.) (4) 
 
 where N is the fractional cloud cover, Icy( v i) is the radiance of 
 the cloudy areas, I c lr^ v i^ * s the radiance of the clear areas, 
 and Vj_ is the central wavenumber of spectral interval i. The term 
 ^cy(vi) can be written as 
 
 W = £ ( VWV + u-«<V] WV (5) 
 
 where e(v-l) is the cloud emissivity and Icld(^i) i s the radiance 
 of a completely opaque cloud. Using eq (5) to substitute for 
 I C y(vi) in eq (4) leads to 
 
 kv.) = "(vwv + [i-«(v.m olr (v.) (6) 
 
 where a(v^), the product of the fractional cloud cover and the 
 emissivity, is given by 
 
 a(v. ) = Ne (v. ) . ( 7 ) 
 
 In the spectral region covered by the VTPR, clouds can be assumed 
 to be grey, so a is therefore independent of wavenumber. If there 
 
26 
 
 are two adjacent scan areas with different values of a but with 
 the same values of Icld( v i) and I clr( v i)' then, for a given spec- 
 tral interval, a separate equation can be written for each of the 
 two adjacent areas 
 
 and 
 
 i l( v.) = VVWV + [1 - a l<V ]I clr (s, i> (8) 
 
 I 2 (v.) = « 2 (v.)I cla (v.) + tl-VVWV' (9) 
 
 where the subscripts 1 and 2 denote two areas. Elimination of 
 !cld( v i) from eqs (8) and (9) gives 
 
 The atmospheric transmittance for spectral interval 8, which is 
 in an atmospheric window, is close to unity. The radiance for 
 this spectral interval is only slightly affected by the atmosphere 
 so a very good approximation of the value of I c lr( v 8) can *->e com - 
 puted using the first guess atmospheric profiles of temperature 
 and humidity and the surface temperature obtained from the SR data 
 With a value of I c lr^ v 8^' the rat io a 2 ( v i )/ a l ( v i ) can be obtained 
 from eq (10). Since the ratio is independent of wavenumber, the 
 value of the ratio obtained for Vg can be used in eq (10) to ob- 
 tain values of Iclr( v i) f° r the other spectral intervals. Writ- 
 ing eq (10) for V8 and some other v^, and eliminating the ratio 
 «2 ( v i)/ a l ( v i) ' gives 
 
 I clr (v 8 , - I 2 (v 8 ) WV'W (ID 
 
 The right hand side of eq (11) is the slope of a line containing 
 the points [ I c lr (vj[ ) , I c lr ( v 8) 1 and [ J l ( v i ) > T 2 ( v 8^ • Graphically 
 (see fig. 10), the three points [I c i r (vj_) , I c i r (vg) ] , [I^ (vj_) , Ii (vg) 
 and [12 (v- ) , I2 (Vg) ] lie on a straight line that can be determined 
 from the measured values of Ij (vj_) , I]_ (vg) , I2 (vj_) and I 2 (vg) . The 
 value of I c lr( v i) can then be found from the known value of 
 XclrCvg). When calculating values of I c lr( v i)' radiances from 
 adjacent spots with different nadir angles are adjusted to a com- 
 mon nadir angle as described later, 
 
27 
 
 t 
 
 (CLEAR)-? 
 
 - 
 
 "^^*NSPOT 1)1 
 
 .^^^(SPOT 2) 
 
 
 ^(OVERCAST) 
 
 • . — 
 
 Hi's) 
 
 I clrd^s) 
 
 Figure 10 .--Procedure for determining 
 clear radiances 
 
28 
 
 (2) Operational Procedures 
 
 To reduce the noise level of the deduced clear radiances, 
 I c l r (vj_), values from a number of adjacent pairs are combined. 
 Figure 2 shows the scanning pattern of the instrument. Data from 
 eight successive scans are used to obtain three temperature pro- 
 files. Figure 2 also shows how the 23 x 8 scan spots are divided 
 to form two 8x8 subarrays and one 7x8 subarray for which 
 three temperature profiles are calculated. 
 
 Scan spots are considered to be adjacent if they meet at a cor- 
 ner or an edge. For a given scan spot, pairs are obtained for 
 four adjacent scan spots: the one above and to the right, the 
 one directly above, the one above and to the left, and the one 
 immediately to the left of the given scan spot (fig. 11). In each 
 subarray, there are 49 scan spots for which the four combinations 
 with adjacent spots shown in figure 11 are possible. As a re- 
 sult, 49 x 4 or 196 values of Iclr( v i) are obtained for each sub- 
 array. Except for scan spots on the edges of the 23 x 8 array, 
 each scan spot has been compared with each of its eight adjacent 
 scan spots when the array is completed. 
 
 The 196 values of I c lr( v i) are combined to obtain an estimate 
 of the value of Iclr( v i) f° r the area. Several procedures for 
 obtaining a combined value have been tried using simulated data. 
 The best results were obtained by using a mixture of two of these 
 procedures. 
 
 When a single cloud layer was simulated, the resulting distri- 
 bution of values of Iclr( v i) was symmetrical, and a weighted 
 average gave the best estimate of the true value of l c lr^ v i^* 
 The weights used are proportional to the inverse of the estimate 
 of the variance of the I c lr( v i) f° r a given scan spot pair and 
 are given by 
 
 M 
 L 
 
 m=l 
 
 W = U / S U (12) 
 
 mm m 
 
 U = [I, (v )-I (v )] 2 //|[I -■ (v )-T ( Vo )] 2 
 
 where 
 
 L m L ~l v "8' ^2 v "8' J ' l L ~clr v '8' ~~1 x '8 
 
 + [I clr ( V-W ]2 }- <13) 
 
 In eqs (12) and (13), m refers to one of the 196 possible pairs, 
 and M is the number of pairs included in the average. 
 
29 
 
 UJ 
 
 2 
 
 STEP BY STEP 
 TO LINE 7 
 
 STEP BY STEP 
 TO SPOT 22 
 
 2 3 4 
 
 SPOT 
 
 Figure 11. — Scanning pattern showing 
 the pattern used for adjacent pairs 
 and the nominal location of 
 retrievals 
 
30 
 
 When several cloud layers were used in the simulation, the dis- 
 tribution became asymmetrical and the mode gave the best estimate 
 of the true value of I c i r (v-L). However, when the mode is deter- 
 mined from the number of occurrences in a given class interval, 
 an uncertainty occurs because of the size of the class interval. 
 To avoid this uncertainty, the distribution of values of Iclr^ v i^ 
 was convoluted with a smooth function and the mode was taken at 
 the maximum value of the resulting function. Several smoothing 
 functions were tried, and a fourth degree chi-square distribution 
 was selected. Figure 12 shows typical unsmoothed histograms and 
 the smoothed histograms that result from convoluting the data 
 with a chi-square distribution. Since the effect of clouds (and 
 thus the corrections) are small for channels 1 and 2, the weighted 
 averages are always used and histograms are not produced. 
 
 Selection of the value from the weighted average or the mode is 
 determined by comparing the two values. Agreement between the 
 two indicates that the distribution is symmetrical; in such cases 
 the weighted average is selected. Otherwise the mode is selected. 
 At the present time, a difference of 1 mW/ (m 2 sr cm-1) or less 
 between the two values is considered to indicate agreement and 
 thus a symmetrical distribution. 
 
 During processing of the VTPR data, two checks are made while 
 calculating values of Iclr( v i)* First, if the measured window 
 (vs) radiance "agrees" with the window radiance calculated from 
 the first guess, the spot is assumed to be clear. Window radi- 
 ances are considered to be in agreement when the measured window 
 radiance equals or exceeds the calculated value. Values of I c i r 
 (vi) from clear spots are averaged. If one or more clear scan 
 spots is found, the value of Iclr( v i) ^ s obtained exclusively 
 from the "clear" areas. As a second check, values of window ra- 
 diance for adjacent scan spots are compared. When values are too 
 close, the resulting estimate of Iclr( v i) -"- s cons idered to be un- 
 reliable unless one or more of the spots is clear. Values of 
 IclrNj.) resulting from adjacent scan spots with differences in 
 value of I(vg) that are less than 1.0 mW/ (m 2 sr cm -1 ) are not 
 used. If no clear areas are found and if fewer than 2 5 values 
 of Iclr( v i) are obtained for a 7 x 7 subarray, a retrieval is not 
 attempted. 
 
 Measurements for some adjacent pairs are obtained at different 
 viewing angles of the earth. When these measurements are com- 
 pared, a correction must be made to compensate for the different 
 atmospheric path lengths. When comparing radiances in adjacent 
 scan spots, and when averaging the results over a 7 x 7 subarray 
 for adjacent scan spots, the first guess temperature profile and 
 
31 
 
 CHANNEL 7 
 
 VTPR, ORBIT 1892 
 
 15 MARCH 1973 
 
 I9N I67W, 1954 GMT 
 
 Figure 12. — Typical histograms and 
 smoothed histrograms of radiances 
 for channels 3 through 7 
 
32 
 
 the sea-surface temperature are used to calculate spectral radi- 
 ances for the four cases of no clouds and of 50% cloud cover at 
 700, 470, and 300 mb. Radiances are calculated for several zenith 
 angles, and curves of radiances verses zenith angle are calculated 
 for the four cases (fig. 13). Calculated and measured first guess 
 window radiances are compared to determine which of the four 
 curves gives the best estimate of cloud height (fig. 13a). The 
 corresponding curve is then used to determine zenith angle correc- 
 tions for the other spectral intervals (fig. 13b). When correc- 
 ing to the center of the array, the curve for no clouds is used 
 since clear radiances derived in program CLRAD are being adjusted. 
 While the first guess atmosphere is used in making corrections 
 for zenith angles, the zenith angle corrections are small, and 
 the first guess atmosphere has a very minor influence upon the 
 radiances passed on to the retrieval program. One should also 
 note that the value of I c i r (vg) resulting from the clear radiance 
 procedure is the value calculated from the first guess. 
 
 F. Retrievals 
 
 (1) Introduction 
 
 The temperature and moisture retrieval program derives atmos- 
 pheric temperature and humidity profiles from the clear radiances 
 produced by the CLRAD program and can be described as a sequence 
 of five sections called Input, Construction of Transmittances and 
 Weighting Functions, Temperature Retrieval, Moisture Retrieval, 
 and Output. 
 
 (2) Input 
 
 The retrieval program uses the radiance values for the first 
 seven of the eight spectral intervals listed in table 1. As ex- 
 plained in section 3E., the eighth radiance value is calculated 
 from the first-guess surface temperature and first-guess atmos- 
 pheric profiles. The retrieval program uses the surface tempera- 
 ture in place of this radiance. 
 
 A first-guess temperature and water vapor profile is required 
 by the retrieval program. Below 10 mb, the first-guess profiles 
 are obtained from forecasts, analyses, and climatology as ex- 
 plained in section 3 D. The tropopause temperature, height, and 
 pressure are also provided by the National Meteorological Center 
 (NMC) . Above 10 mb, the first-guess temperature profile is ob- 
 tained by regression on radiances measured in spectral intervals 
 1 and 2 and the first-guess temperatures at 10, 30, and 50 mb. 
 This technique gives reliable estimates of the temperature above 
 10 mb because it is based upon a recent sample of rocketsonde and 
 
33 
 
 ZENITH ANGLE- 
 
 (a) 
 
 Z Z + AZ 
 
 ZENITH ANGLE— ^ 
 (b) 
 
 Figure 13. — Calculated window radiance versus zenith angle for 
 50% cloud cover at four levels showing the zenith angle 
 correction 
 
34 
 
 radiosonde data (Gelman et al., 1972). It is especially- 
 valuable in accounting for sudden warming in the stratosphere. 
 
 Finally, the guess temperature profile is interpolated to the 
 100 pressure levels shown in table 6 of appendix I. These levels 
 are distributed between 1000 mb and 0.01 mb in even increments on 
 a scale of pressure raised to the 2/7 power. 
 
 A guess for the water vapor mixing ratio profile is also re- 
 quired. In the Northern Hemisphere, NMC provides an average rel- 
 ative humidity for the atmosphere between the surface and a vari- 
 able level which is near 500 mb. From this single quantity a 
 mixing ratio profile is specified as follows: a saturation mix- 
 ing ratio profile is calculated from the guess temperature profile 
 between the surface and 500 mb. In this region, the guess mixing 
 ratio profile is constructed as the product of the relative humid- 
 ity and the saturation mixing ratio. Above the 500 mb level, the 
 mixing ratio profile is constructed to fall off as p 3 . 
 
 In areas where no moisture information is provided by NMC, such 
 as the Southern Hemisphere, the correlation between temperatures 
 and mixing ratio is utilized through the regression relation 
 
 W* - W = H (T* - T), (14) 
 
 where W* is the required guess mixing ratio pro_file and T* is 
 the guess temperature profile. The quantities T, W, and H are 
 the mean temperature profile, the mean mixing ratio profile, and 
 a matrix of regression coefficients, respectively, which have 
 been compiled in advance from conventional soundings. 
 
 (3) Construction of Transmittances and Weighting Functions 
 
 Atmospheric transmittances for the eight spectral intervals of 
 table 1 are fundamental to the retrieval and must be constructed 
 accurately. The total transmittance of the atmosphere is assumed 
 to be the product of the individual transmittances of carbon di- 
 oxide, ozone, and water vapor, 
 
 *<P> = T C o 2 <P> • T 3 <P> • T h 2 o<P>. <«> 
 
 Transmittances for CO2 are based upon calculations made with the 
 point-by-point method of Drayson (1971). His method was used to 
 calculate transmittances for the U. S. Standard Atmosphere, 1962 
 (COESA 1962) and for atmospheres which differed from the Standard 
 Atmosphere by + 10K, + 20K, and + 30K. Temperature corrections 
 
35 
 
 to the transmittances, generated from these calculations, are 
 used in the retrieval program to adjust the transmittances to val- 
 ues appropriate for the first-guess temperature profile. 
 
 Appendix II contains the measured filter characteristics of the 
 first four instruments. It includes carbon dioxide transmittances 
 for a typical atmosphere and weighting functions (derivatives of 
 the transmittances with respect to p2/7 ) , which indicate the rel- 
 ative contributions of levels of the atmosphere to the radiance 
 received at the satellite. Radiation detected by the VTPR origi- 
 nates from layers which increase in pressure as the channel wave- 
 number increases. 
 
 Ozone transmittances are a minor correction and are applied as 
 a single correction for all latitudes and seasons. The transmit- 
 tances were calculated for an average profile (McClatchey 1972) 
 from a line-by-line technique for pressures greater than 100 mb, 
 and from a band model for lower pressures. 
 
 Water vapor has a marked influence upon atmospheric transmit- 
 tances in the lower troposphere. The infrared spectrum of water 
 vapor includes both spectral lines and a strong continuum, which 
 are treated separately. The line contribution cannot be calcula- 
 ted by the same procedure used for CO2 transmittances because the 
 mixing ratio of water vapor is highly variable. Instead, the 
 first step (performed in advance of the retrieval) is to fit a 
 model to line by line calculations of spectral line absorption 
 averaged over the appropriate filter functions. These calcula- 
 tions are performed over homogeneous paths and cover, in incre- 
 ments, the expected atmospheric range of pressure, temperature, 
 and mixing ratio. In the retrieval, the atmosphere is treated as 
 a succession of homogeneous layers (Weinreb and Neuendorf fer 197 3) 
 
 The absorption by the water vapor continuum is observed to vary 
 as the square of the water-vapor concentration and as the inverse 
 fifth or sixth power of temperature (Burch 1970 and Bignell 1970). 
 This behavior, which is consistent with absorption by the water 
 vapor dimer (H20)2, is included in the continuum transmittance. 
 A term ascribed to foreign-gas broadening of distant lines, which 
 is proportional to the first power of the moisture concentration, 
 is also included. The overall water-vapor transmittance is 
 finally calculated as the product of the line and continuum 
 transmittances . 
 
36 
 
 (4) Temperature Retrieval 
 
 The temperature profile is obtained through a modification of 
 the minimum-rms solution (Rodgers 1970 and Strand and Westwater 
 1968) of the radiative transfer equation. This solution can be 
 written as 
 
 B (T) = B (T*) + (C) (R -R *) (16) 
 
 r r r r 
 
 where the matrix C is given by 
 
 C = SA T (ASA T + N)" 1 . (17) 
 
 A description of all terms in these equations follows. Eq (16) 
 and (I7) yield B r (T) , which is the 100-element Planck-radiance 
 profile of the solution temperature profile, T, computed at a 
 reference wavenumber of 700 cm"-*-. The 100 elements correspond to 
 the 100 atmospheric pressure levels shown in table 6 of appendix 
 I. A solution temperature profile is readily obtained from B r (T) . 
 Geopotential thicknesses relative to 1000 mb are computed from 
 the perfect-gas and hydrostatic equations. In the Northern Hem- 
 isphere, heights are obtained relative to the NMC forecast 850-mb 
 height. 
 
 The term B r (T*) is the Planck- function profile computed at 700 
 cm~^ from the guess temperature profile T*. The vector R r con- 
 tains six elements, the measured radiances in the first six spec- 
 tral intervals of table 1. Likewise, R* is a vector of six radi- 
 ances calculated (by the radiative transfer equation) from the 
 surface temperature, the guess temperature profile, and the trans- 
 mittances. Both R r and R* are scaled to the 700 cm~l reference 
 wavenumber through radiance-equivalent temperatures. The 6 x 100- 
 dimensional matrix A consists of the six 100 -dimensional weight- 
 ing functions illustrated in appendix II. 
 
 Uncertainties in measurements of the radiances, originating 
 from instrumental noise and calibration errors, quadrature errors, 
 and uncertainties introduced in obtaining clear radiances, reside 
 in N, a 6 x 6 dimensional variance-covariance matrix. Statistics 
 of the atmosphere comprise the 100-dimensional diagonal matrix S, 
 whose elements are variances of the 700 cm"-'- Planck- radiance pro- 
 file derived from a set of typical radiosonde measurements. The 
 off-diagonal elements of S, which should contain the correlations 
 among the temperatures at different levels of the atmosphere, are 
 ignored for computational speed and simplicity. 
 
37 
 
 Eq (16) and (17) express the solution as the guess profile plus 
 a linear combination of differences between observed radiances 
 and the radiances calculated from the guess profile. Large errors 
 in the measurements of radiances (large N) will force the solu- 
 tion toward the guess. The solution will also tend toward the 
 guess for layers of the atmosphere with small expected variations 
 in the temperature (small S). Usually one application of eq (16) 
 and (17) will provide a convergent solution in the sense that 
 radiances calculated from the retrieved profile differ from the 
 measured radiances by less than the standard deviation of the 
 errors. Otherwise, eq (16) and (17) are applied again, with T* 
 and R* representing the result of the previous iteration. Since 
 the matrix C is nearly independent of temperature, it is held 
 constant from iteration to iteration, thus minimizing computation 
 time. 
 
 Figures 14 and 15 compare operational VTPR retrievals with near- 
 ly simultaneous radiosondes for a high latitude (fig. 14) and a 
 tropical (fig. 15) case. It is seen that the VTPR retrievals 
 follow the trend of the radiosondes up to and beyond 50 mb. How- 
 ever, because the weighting functions are broad, the solution does 
 not contain fine-scale structure unless it is introduced via the 
 guess profile. 
 
 (5) Moisture Retrieval 
 
 The moisture retrieval begins with a measured radiance at 535 
 cm"-'- and the retrieved temperature profile. The solution for the 
 mixing ratio profile W is assumed to have the form 
 
 W = W* + Ccp (18) 
 
 where W* is the guess mixing ratio profile, C is a constant to be 
 determined, and cp is an empirical orthogonal function (Alishouse 
 et al. 1967) computed in advance of the retrieval from conven- 
 tional sounding data. If it is impossible to compute cp because 
 of lack of reliable data over certain areas, cp is assumed to be 
 W* itself. The constant C is evaluated in the retrieval through 
 the requirement that 535 cm~l radiance computed from W be equal 
 to the measured radiance within two standard deviations of the 
 measurement errors. Finally the solution W is transformed to dew- 
 point depression. Only one spectral interval is used to measure 
 water vapor. With this single measurement, only one parameter 
 (e.g., the value of C) can be determined. The distribution of 
 the water vapor is determined by the relatively smooth functions 
 W* and cp. Another limitation of any moisture retrieval is the 
 
38 
 
 E 
 
 £ 100 — 
 
 CO 
 CO 
 
 LU 
 
 cc 
 
 1000 
 
 — VTPR 
 
 — SHIP 4YJ RAOB 
 OOOO GMT 
 30 NOV 1972 
 
 180 200 
 
 220 240 260 280 
 TEMPERATURE (K) 
 
 300 320 
 
 Figure 14. — Comparison between a VTPR sounding and a radiosonde 
 at 52.5° horth, 20° west. D.P. indicates dewpoint. 
 
39 
 
 10 
 
 E 
 
 ui 
 
 E 
 
 100 
 
 VTPR 
 
 1000 
 
 SAN JUAN RAOB 
 0000 GMT 
 17 NOV 72 
 
 180 200 
 
 220 240 260 280 
 TEMPERATURE (K) 
 
 300 320 
 
 Figure 15. — Comparison between a VTPR sounding and a radiosonde 
 at San Juan (18° north). D.P. indicates dewpoint. 
 
40 
 
 dependence on accurate knowledge of the temperature profile 
 since temperature enters strongly into the computation of radi- 
 ance. Operational moisture retrievals appear in figures 14 and 
 15; the lack of detailed structure in the moisture retrievals is 
 apparent. 
 
 (6) Output 
 
 For each sounding, the following quantities are passed to the 
 quality control program: 
 
 a. Retrieved temperatures, heights, and guess temperatures 
 at the 15 standard levels (1000, 850, 700, 500, 400, 
 300, 250, 200, 150, 100, 70, 50, 30, 20, and 10 nib) and 
 at the tropopause 
 
 b. Clear radiances in the eight spectral intervals 
 
 (table 1) 
 
 c. Dewpoint depression at the five standard levels up to 
 the 400 mb level 
 
 d. Two coefficients to account for atmospheric attenuation 
 (limb darkening) in the Scanning Radiometer measurements 
 
 of equivalent temperature which are used to derive 
 surface temperatures. 
 
 4. QUALITY TESTS AND REJECTION PROCEDURES 
 
 The final output from the VTPR is called the Satellite Infrared 
 Sounding (SIRS); it includes location, heights, temperatures and 
 dewpoint-temperature depressions at the mandatory pressure levels 
 up to 400 mb, height and temperatures up to 10 mb, and tempera- 
 tures at significant levels. Initially, only data from open 
 water oceanic regions are being released to the user. Before the 
 data are released, several tests are performed. Failure of any 
 one test causes all data up to 100 mb to be deleted. There is no 
 provision for manual adjustment of rejected data; however, opera- 
 tional personnel are provided with orbit-by-orbit summaries from 
 which they are expected to note trends requiring corrective ac- 
 tion. The following tests are performed on the data: 
 
 a. A super adiab at ic temperature lapse rate test is per- 
 formed on the tropospheric pressure layers bounded by 
 the mandatory and significant pressure levels to 
 insure a stable profile; 
 
41 
 
 b. A gross error or "neighbor" check is performed on the 
 difference between the NMC forecast first guess heights 
 and the retrieved heights for all constant pressure 
 levels. Values of this difference are calculated for 
 all points in the neighborhood (within 500 km) . A 
 sounding is required to have at least one neighbor or 
 it is automatically rejected. The value of the height 
 difference for the point is required to agree with the 
 average of the height differences for the other points 
 in the neighborhood to within: 
 
 + 200 m with one neighbor, 
 
 + 100 m with two neighbors, or 
 
 + 7 5 m with more than two neighbors. 
 
 c. When retrievals are extended to land areas on an opera- 
 tional basis, further location tests will be performed 
 to insure that a proper adjustment has been made for the 
 terrain elevation in the field of view. 
 
 The above tests are performed on all retrievals; however, the 
 initial criteria used in (b) above for the Southern Hemisphere 
 may be adjusted to the quality of available first guess profiles 
 in this region. 
 
 When a retrieval is rejected, the cause is listed for the infor- 
 mation of the operational personnel. At the conclusion of each 
 data orbit, the rms temperature difference, E, between the first 
 guess and the retrieval is plotted on a latitude-longitude grid, 
 where the value of E for a retrieval is given by 
 
 10 A 2 1/2 
 E = (1/10) [ 2 (T„-T_r] (20) 
 
 q=l 
 
 ■q q' 
 
 where T„ and Tq are the first guess temperatures and retrieval 
 temperatures, respectively, for the lowest 10 standard pressure 
 levels. 
 
 Histograms of the change made to each first guess temperature 
 are tabulated by mandatory level and by location (the Tropics 
 between 18°N and 18°S and Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hem- 
 isphere extratropical areas). 
 
42 
 
 At the end of each computer processing, coverage charts are 
 plotted on polar stereographic maps for the Northern and Southern 
 Hemispheres and on a Mercator map for the Tropics. Data rejected 
 during the synoptic period are included but flagged in order to 
 indicate any consistent geographical bias. 
 
 Additional checks are generated over selected areas or at se- 
 lected times to monitor the performance of each VTPR channel, the 
 communication links from the data acquisition stations, and the 
 individual internal programs used to generate a SIRS sounding. 
 Some retrieved soundings are compared with standard radiosonde 
 reports, the NMC analyses, and the Scanning Radiometer (SR) data 
 as a test for meteorological reasonableness. For example, the 
 amount and pressure height of the cloud output are compared with 
 the SR data to check the algorithms used in the clear radiance 
 program. The 1000 to 300 mb thickness and the contoured height 
 fields at 300 mb are also compared with the SR data and the NMC 
 forecast and analyses. 
 
 A more complete quality control program is being developed. 
 Further details will be published later in a supplement to this 
 report. a 
 
 5. DATA OUTPUTS AND ARCHIVES 
 
 A. General 
 
 e 
 Soundings that pass the quality control tests are archived and a 
 sent to a number of users. Three tapes are prepared to satisfy 
 requirements of various users. One tape is used to send a tele- 
 type message; a • econd tape is sent to the National Meteorological 
 Center (NMC); and a third tape is prepared as a data archive. 
 
 B. Teletype Messages 
 
 Teletype messages are formatted to conform to the code used for 
 
 SIRS A and SIRS B (World Meteorological Organization 1972). 
 
 Differences in the instrument design and the retrieval procedure 
 
 require a change in the interpretation of several of the values 
 
 given. th 
 
 mi 
 A number of adjacent measurements are used to obtain "clear" 
 
 radiances from cloud contaminated values. These "clear" radi- 
 ances are used in the retrieval, so cloud conditions do not affect 
 the reliability of the data in the way that they affected the 
 SIRS soundings. The cloud indicator is always set at zero to in- 
 dicate a clear sounding, and no cloud information is transmitted. 
 
 r.« 
 
43 
 This does not, however, indicate that no clouds are present. 
 
 When the Nimbus 3 and Nimbus 4 satellites were operational, 
 retrievals were attempted only in the Northern Hemisphere where 
 the NMC forecast was available. The 850-mb forecast height was 
 used as a reference level for the height calculations. This pro- 
 cedure is currently being used with the VTPR data for regions 
 covered by the NMC forecast. When the 850-mb forecast height is 
 not available, the 1000-mb height is set to zero; for these cases, 
 the value given as the 300 -mb height is actually the 1000- to 
 300-mb thickness and the 1000-mb height is zero. 
 
 In summary, north of latitude 21°N all heights are referenced 
 to the NMC 850-mb forecast height. South of latitude 18°N, all 
 heights are actually thicknesses between the given level and 1000 
 mb. Between 18°N and 21°N, either method may be used, and the 
 1000-mb height must be checked to determine which is used for a 
 given sounding. 
 
 To make the SIRS code more compatible with the capability of 
 the VTPR instrument, the code will be modified in the near future, 
 and "clear" radiances will be sent as a separate transmission. 
 
 C. Output to NMC 
 
 Soundings supplied to NMC are written on two tapes, one for 
 each twelve-hour interval (0600-1800 GMT and 1800-0600 GMT). Data 
 are output as soon as orbits are processed, and NMC uses the 
 tapes as required by their operational schedule. The tapes are 
 not available for general use, but the same soundings appear on 
 the archival tape. 
 
 D. Archival Tapes 
 
 VTPR data are available in different forms (raw radiances, 
 "clear radiances", and retrieved profiles) at three major points 
 in the data processing. These data are written on tape as three 
 separate files, each of which consists of a header record and a 
 number of data records. The data content and the formats of 
 these files are described in appendix III. This tape is trans- 
 mitted to the Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) in real 
 time. A copy also is sent to the National Climatic Center at 
 Asheville, North Carolina. Requests for data and questions con- 
 cerning formats should be sent to the National Climatic Center, 
 Federal Building, Asheville, North Carolina 28801. 
 
44 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT 
 
 We wish to acknowledge the efforts of other members of the NESS 
 staff who made this report possible. Mr. F. VanCleef calculated 
 the CO2 transmittances and, along with Mr. M. Morin, wrote most 
 of the programs required to calibrate the VTPR instruments. 
 Mr. S. Ross also helped calibrate the instruments and generated 
 the curves found in appendix II. S. Schurg typed the report. 
 
 c: 
 
 Co 
 
 Dr 
 
 Fri 
 
45 
 
 References 
 
 Alishouse, J. C, Crone, L. J., Fleming, H. E., Van Cleef, F. L., 
 and Wark, D. Q., "A Discussion of Empirical Orthogonal 
 Functions and Their Application to Vertical Temperature Pro- 
 files", Tellus , Vol. 19, No. 3, 1967, pp. 477-481. 
 
 Bedford, R. E., "Blackbodies as Absolute Radiation Standards", 
 in Advances in Geophysics , edited by Landsberg, H. E., and 
 Mieghem, J. Van, Academic Press, New York and London, Vol. 14, 
 Chap. 6, 1970, pp. 165-202. 
 
 Bignell, K. J., "The Water-Vapour Infra-Red Continuum", 
 
 Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society , Vol. 96, 
 1970, pp. 390-403. 
 
 Brower, Kirk, "Solution of the Problem of Artificial Satellite 
 Theory Without Drag", The Astronomical Journal , Vol. 64, No. 9, 
 Nov. 1959, pp. 378-396. 
 
 Burch, D. E., "Investigation of the Absorption of Infrared Radia- 
 tion by Atmospheric Gases", Aeronutronic Publication No. 
 U-4784 , Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories, Bedford, 
 Mass., Contract No. F19628-69-C-0263, Jan. 31, 1970, 24 pp. 
 
 COESA (U.S. Committee on Extension to the Standard Atmosphere), 
 U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1962 , U.S. Government Printing 
 Office, Washington, D.C., Dec. 1962, 278 pp. 
 
 Conrath, B. J., Hanel, R. A., Kunde, V. G., and Prabkahara, C, 
 "The Infrared Interferometer Experiment on Nimbus 3", Journal 
 of Geophysical Research , Vol. 7 5, No. 30, Oct. 20, 1970, 
 pp. 5831-5857. 
 
 Drayson, S. R., "Transmittances for Use in Remote Soundings of 
 the Atmosphere", Space Research XI; COSPAR, Plenary Meeting 
 13th, and Symposium on Remote Sounding of the Atmosphere 
 Leningrad, USSR, May 20-29, 1970, Proceedings , Vol. 1, 
 Akademie Verlag, Berlin, GDR, 1971, pp. 585-592. 
 
 Fritz, S., Wark, D. Q., Fleming, H. E., Smith, W. L., 
 Jacobowitz, H. , Hilleary, D. T., and Alishouse, J. C, 
 "Temperature Sounding from Satellites", NOAA Technical Report 
 NESS 59 , National Environmental Satellite Service, National 
 Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington, D.C., 
 July 1972, 49 pp. 
 
46 
 
 Gelman, M. E., Miller, A. J., and Woolf, H. M., "Regression Tech- 
 nique for Determining Temperature Profiles in the Upper 
 Stratosphere from Satellite Measured Radiances", Monthly- 
 Weather Review , Vol. 100, 1972, pp. 542-547. 
 
 Hanel, R. A., and Conrath, B. J., "Interferometer Experiment 
 on Nimbus 3: Preliminary Results", Science , Vol. 165, No. 
 3899, Sept. 1969, pp. 1258-1260. 
 
 Hanel, R. A., Conrath, B. J., Kunde, V. G., Probkahara, C, 
 Revah, J., Salomonson, V. V., and Wolford, G., "The Nimbus 4 
 Infrared Spectroscopy Experiment 1. Calibrated Thermal 
 Emission Spectra", Journal of Geophysical Research , Vol. 77, 
 No. 15, May 20, 1972, pp. 2629-2641. 
 
 Hilleary, D. T., Anderson, S. P., Karoli, A. R., and Hickey, 
 J. R., "The Calibration of a Satellite Infrared Spectrometer", 
 Proceedings of the XVII Ith International Astronautical 
 Congress , Polish Scientific Publishers, Warsaw, 1968, pp. 
 423-437. 
 
 Lyddane, R. H., "Small Eccentricities or Inclinations in the 
 Brower Theory of the Artificial Satellite", The Astronomical 
 Journal , Vol. 68, No. 8, Oct. 1963, pp. 555-558. 
 
 McClatchey, R. (Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories, 
 Bedford, Mass.), 1972 (personal communication). 
 
 RCA (Radio Corporation of America), "Attitude Control Prin- 
 ciples and Procedures", Section VII, Programming and Control 
 Handbook for ITOS-D Series Spacecraft (prepared for Goddard 
 Space Flight Center, National Aeronautics and Space Admin- 
 istration, Washington, D.C., under Contract No. NAS5-10306), 
 Princeton, N. J., Oct. 6, 1972, pp. 1-61. 
 
 Rodgers, C. D., "Remote Sounding of the Atmospheric Temperature 
 Profile in the Presence of Clouds", Quarterly Journal of the 
 Royal Meteorological Society , Vol. 96, 1970, pp. 654-666. 
 
 Schwalb, A., "Modified Version of the Improved TIROS Operational 
 Satellite (ITOS D-G)", NOAA Technical Memorandum NESS 35 , 
 National Environmental Satellite Service, National Oceanic 
 and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, 
 Washington, D.C., Apr. 1972, 48 pp. 
 
47 
 
 Smith, W. L., Woolf, H. M., and Jacob, W. J., "A Regression 
 Method for Obtaining Real Time Temperature and Geopotential 
 Height Profiles from Satellite Spectrometer Measurements and 
 Its Applications to Nimbus III 'SIRS 1 Observations", Monthly- 
 Weather Review , Vol. 98, No. 8, Aug. 1970, pp. 582-60 3. 
 
 Smith, W. L., Hilleary, D. T., Baldwin, E. C, Jacob, W., 
 Jacobowitz, H., Nelson, G., Soules, S., and Wark, D. Q., 
 "The Airborne ITPR Brassboard Experiment", NOAA Technical 
 Report NESS 58 , National Environmental Satellite Service, 
 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. 
 Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C., Mar. 1972, pp. 1-74. 
 
 Strand, O. N., and Westwater, E. R., "Minimum-RMS Estimation of 
 the Numerical Solution of a Fredholm Integral Equation of the 
 First Kind", Journal on Numerical Analysis SI AM , Vol. 5, 1968, 
 pp. 287-295. 
 
 Wark, D. Q., and Hilleary, D. T., "Atmospheric Temperature: 
 Successful Test of Remote Probing", Science , Vol. 165, No. 
 3899, Sept. 1969, pp. 1256-1258. 
 
 Wark, D. Q., "SIRS: An Experiment to Measure the Free Air 
 
 Temperature from a Satellite", Applied Optics , Vol. 9, No. 8, 
 Aug. 1970, pp. 1761-1766. 
 
 Wark, D. Q., Hilleary, D. T., Anderson, S. P., and Fischer, J. C, 
 "Nimbus Satellite Infrared Spectrometer Experiment", IEEE 
 Transactions on Geoscience Electronics , Vol. GE-8, No. 4, 
 Oct. 1970, pp. 264-270. 
 
 Weinreb, M. P. and Neuendorf fer, "Method to Apply 
 
 Homogeoeous-Path Transmittance Models to Inhomogeneous Atmos- 
 pheres", Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences , Vol. 30, No. 4, 
 May 1973, pp. 662-666. 
 
 World Meteorological Organization, WMO Manual on Codes No. 306 , 
 1972, Geneva, Switzerland, 1972, pp. II-R.IV-B-10 — 
 II-R.IV-B-12. 
 
48 
 
 APPENDIX I 
 Miscellaneous Tables 
 
 Information contained in tables 2 and 3 applies to the instru- 
 ments carried on NOAA 2. Tables 5 and 6 contain information 
 about current operational procedures. These tables will be re- 
 vised as needed and included in future revisions to this report. 
 
49 
 
 Table 1- — VTPR data sequence and spot identifiers, 
 
 (normal sequence) 
 
 Word no. No. of words Position code Description 
 
 1-7 
 
 8 
 9-16 
 17-24 
 25-32 
 33-40 
 41-48 
 49-56 
 57-64 
 65-72 
 7 3-80 
 81-88 
 89-96 
 97-104 
 105-112 
 113-120 
 121-128 
 129-136 
 137-144 
 145-152 
 153-160 
 161-168 
 169-176 
 177-184 
 185-192 
 
 193 
 194-195 
 
 196 
 197-199 
 
 200 
 
 1-7 
 
 7 
 
 24/2 5 
 
 
 Primary optics 
 
 1 
 
 24/2 5 
 
 
 Not 
 
 used 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 Spot 
 
 1, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 Spot 
 
 2, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 Spot 
 
 3, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 Spot 
 
 4, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 Spot 
 
 5, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 Spot 
 
 6, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 Spot 
 
 7, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 Spot 
 
 8, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 Spot 
 
 9, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 Spot 
 
 10, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 Spot 
 
 11, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 Spot 
 
 12, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 Spot 
 
 13, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 Spot 
 
 14, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 Spot 
 
 15, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 Spot 
 
 16, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 Spot 
 
 17, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 Spot 
 
 18, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 Spot 
 
 19, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 Spot 
 
 20, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 21 
 
 Spot 
 
 21, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 Spot 
 
 22, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 8 
 
 23 
 
 Spot 
 
 23, 
 
 filters 1-8 
 
 1 
 
 24/25 
 
 
 Not 
 
 used 
 
 2 
 
 24/2 5 
 
 
 Shroud 
 
 1 
 
 24/25 
 
 
 Not 
 
 used 
 
 3 
 
 24/2 5 
 
 Secondary optics 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 24/25 
 
 Primary optics 
 
 7 
 
 24/2 5 
 
 Prime 
 
 ary optics 
 
50 
 
 Table 2. — Spectral characteristics of VTPR filters, instruments 
 
 1 and 3 
 
 Central Filter band pass Maximum 
 
 Instrument wave- Half- Tenth- Hundredth- trans- 
 Filter Number number width width width mittance 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 
 (cm~l) (cm~l) (cm"-'-) (cm~l) 
 
 1 667.50 3.6 8.9 13.7 .320 
 
 3 668.25 4.3 11.7 20.0 .320 
 
 1 677.40 11.1 16.6 22.4 .590 
 
 3 677.95 11.1 16.4 23.2 .610 
 
 1 694.95 12.4 17.9 21.5 .540 
 
 3 695.20 
 
 Half- 
 
 Tenth 
 
 width 
 
 width 
 
 (cm-1) 
 
 (cm"-'- 
 
 3.6 
 
 8.9 
 
 4.3 
 
 11.7 
 
 11.1 
 
 16.6 
 
 11.1 
 
 16.4 
 
 12.4 
 
 17.9 
 
 12.3 
 
 
 10.7 
 
 15.3 
 
 10.9 
 
 15.3 
 
 11.4 
 
 15.8 
 
 10.3 
 
 14.4 
 
 12.0 
 
 16.5 
 
 11.8 
 
 16.7 
 
 15.3 
 
 25.9 
 
 17.8 
 
 29.3 
 
 7.1 
 
 15.3 
 
 6.9 
 
 16.2 
 
 1 708.25 10.7 15.3 21.2 .610 
 
 3 708.95 10.9 15.3 20.0 .610 
 
 1 725.35 11.4 15.8 21.5 .740 
 
 3 725.90 10.3 14.4 19.9 .635 
 
 1 747.40 12.0 16.5 21.6 .715 
 
 3 747.40 11.8 16.7 22.3 .745 
 
 1 533.65 15.3 25.9 33.6 .495 
 
 3 533.30 17.8 29.3 40.1 .510 
 
 1 835.25 7.1 15.3 24.6 .665 
 
 3 835.75 6.9 16.2 24.8 .625 
 
51 
 
 Table 3. — Spectral characteristics of instrument number 1, as 
 determined by SEL and manufacturer. 
 
 Central Filter band pass 
 
 wave- Half- Tenth- Hundredth- Maximum 
 Filter Laboratory number width width width transmittance 
 
 (cm"-'-) (cm - -'-) (cm"-'-) (cm"-'-) 
 
 1 
 
 SEL 
 
 667.5 
 
 3.6 
 
 8.9 
 
 13.7 
 
 .32 
 
 BEC 
 
 668.0 
 
 3.9 
 
 10.9 
 
 13.4 
 
 .30 
 
 3 
 
 SEL 
 
 694.8 
 
 12.2 
 
 17.9 
 
 21.7 
 
 .54 
 
 OCLI 
 
 695.1 
 
 12.5 
 
 17.9 
 
 21.2 
 
 .54 
 
 4 
 
 SEL 
 
 708.3 
 
 10.6 
 
 15.0 
 
 21.8 
 
 .61 
 
 OCLI 
 
 708.2 
 
 10.8 
 
 15.5 
 
 20.6 
 
 .61 
 
 5 
 
 SEL 
 
 725.3 
 
 11.3 
 
 15.6 
 
 20.9 
 
 .74 
 
 OCLI 
 
 725.4 
 
 11.5 
 
 16.0 
 
 22.0 
 
 .74 
 
 6 
 
 SEL 
 
 747.4 
 
 12.0 
 
 16.1 
 
 21.4 
 
 .70 
 
 OCLI 
 
 747.4 
 
 11.9 
 
 16.8 
 
 21.8 
 
 .73 
 
 7 
 
 SEL 
 
 532.80 
 
 15.4 
 
 26.4 
 
 31.3 
 
 .49 
 
 OCLI 
 
 533.65 
 
 15.1 
 
 25.3 
 
 35.8 
 
 .50 
 
 8 
 
 SEL 
 
 835.1 
 
 7.0 
 
 15.0 
 
 22.9 
 
 .67 
 
 OCLI 
 
 835.4 
 
 7.1 
 
 15.6 
 
 26.2 
 
 .66 
 
52 
 
 Table 4. — VTPR data sequence and spot identifiers (calibration 
 
 sequence) 
 
 Word no. 
 
 No. of words 
 
 Position 
 
 code Description 
 
 1-7 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 Primary optics 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 Zero Offset 
 
 level 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 Not used 
 
 
 10-16 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 1st voltage 
 
 level 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 Not used 
 
 
 18-24 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 2nd voltage 
 
 level 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 Not used 
 
 
 26-32 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 3rd voltage 
 
 level 
 
 33 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 Not used 
 
 
 34-40 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 4th voltage 
 
 level 
 
 41 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 Not used 
 
 
 42-48 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 5th voltage 
 
 level 
 
 49 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 Not used 
 
 
 50-56 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 6th voltage 
 
 level 
 
 57 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 Not used 
 
 
 58-64 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 7th voltage 
 
 level 
 
 65-320 
 
 256 
 
 27 
 
 Space look 
 Filters 1-8 cycling 
 
 321-352 
 
 32 
 
 28 
 
 Mirror moving, not used 
 
 353-559 
 
 207 
 
 28 
 
 Patch look, filters lr8 
 
 cycling 
 
 560 
 
 1 
 
 28 
 
 Shroud 
 
 
 561-567 
 
 7 
 
 29 
 
 Shroud 
 
 
 568 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 Detector 
 
 
 569-591 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 Detector 
 
 
 592 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 Patch 
 
 
 593-607 
 
 15 
 
 31 
 
 Patch 
 
 
 608 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 - Rr>rl of ( 
 
 Not used 
 
 
 Normal scan sequence resumes with spot 1, etc. 
 
53 
 
 Table 5. — NMC fields used in VTPR retrievals 
 
 Analysis Forecast 
 
 Field interval interval 
 
 Pressure: 
 
 Tropopause 12 hr 12 & 18 hr 
 
 Temperature: 
 
 Tropopause 12 hr 12 & 18 hr 
 
 1000 to 100 mb 12 hr 12 & 18 hr 
 
 (10 levels) 
 70 to 10 mb 24 hr 
 
 (4 levels) 
 
 Relative humidity: 
 
 Tropopause 12 hr 
 
 Boundary layer 12 hr 12 & 18 hr 
 
 Heights 
 
 850 mb 12 hr 12 & 18 hr 
 
54 
 
 Table 6. — The 100 pressure levels used in VTPR retrievals 
 
 Level 
 
 Pressure 
 
 Level 
 
 Pressure 
 
 Level 
 
 Pressure 
 
 (mb) 
 
 (mb) 
 
 (mb) 
 
 1 
 
 .010000 
 
 35 
 
 30.205717 
 
 68 
 
 271.245360 
 
 2 
 
 .022509 
 
 36 
 
 33.093637 
 
 69 
 
 284.886288 
 
 3 
 
 .043472 
 
 37 
 
 36.173585 
 
 70 
 
 299.010313 
 
 4 
 
 .075634 
 
 38 
 
 39.453026 
 
 71 
 
 313.627558 
 
 5 
 
 .121989 
 
 39 
 
 42.939518 
 
 72 
 
 328.748216 
 
 6 
 
 .185758 
 
 40 
 
 46.640713 
 
 73 
 
 344.382547 
 
 7 
 
 .270375 
 
 41 
 
 50.564355 
 
 74 
 
 360.540883 
 
 8 
 
 .379474 
 
 42 
 
 54.718280 
 
 75 
 
 377.233623 
 
 9 
 
 .516882 
 
 43 
 
 59.110411 
 
 76 
 
 394.471232 
 
 10 
 
 .686604 
 
 44 
 
 63.748763 
 
 77 
 
 412.264246 
 
 11 
 
 .892818 
 
 45 
 
 68.641437 
 
 78 
 
 430.623266 
 
 12 
 
 1.139871 
 
 46 
 
 73.796622 
 
 79 
 
 449.558960 
 
 13 
 
 1.432267 
 
 47 
 
 79.222593 
 
 80 
 
 469.082061 
 
 14 
 
 1.774667 
 
 48 
 
 84.927709 
 
 81 
 
 489.203370 
 
 15 
 
 2.171881 
 
 49 
 
 90.920415 
 
 82 
 
 509.933752 
 
 16 
 
 2.628863 
 
 50 
 
 97.209237 
 
 83 
 
 531.284137 
 
 17 
 
 3.150709 
 
 51 
 
 103.802787 
 
 84 
 
 553.265520 
 
 18 
 
 3.742652 
 
 52 
 
 110.709757 
 
 85 
 
 575.888960 
 
 19 
 
 4.410059 
 
 53 
 
 117.938919 
 
 86 
 
 599.165579 
 
 20 
 
 5.158426 
 
 54 
 
 125.499127 
 
 87 
 
 623.106566 
 
 21 
 
 5.993379 
 
 55 
 
 133.399315 
 
 88 
 
 647.723168 
 
 22 
 
 6.920666 
 
 56 
 
 141.648495 
 
 89 
 
 673.026699 
 
 23 
 
 7.946158 
 
 57 
 
 150.255758 
 
 90 
 
 699.028533 
 
 24 
 
 9.075845 
 
 58 
 
 159.230270 
 
 91 
 
 725.740107 
 
 25 
 
 10.315836 
 
 59 
 
 168.581278 
 
 92 
 
 753.172921 
 
 26 
 
 11.672352 
 
 60 
 
 178.318103 
 
 93 
 
 781.338533 
 
 27 
 
 13.151729 
 
 61 
 
 188.450141 
 
 94 
 
 810.248566 
 
 28 
 
 14.780413 
 
 62 
 
 198.986865 
 
 95 
 
 839.914701 
 
 29 
 
 16.504959 
 
 63 
 
 209.937822 
 
 96 
 
 870.348681 
 
 30 
 
 18.392029 
 
 64 
 
 221.312631 
 
 97 
 
 901.562308 
 
 31 
 
 20.428391 
 
 65 
 
 233.120986 
 
 98 
 
 933.567446 
 
 32 
 
 22.620917 
 
 66 
 
 245.372655 
 
 99 
 
 966.376016 
 
 33 
 
 24.976580 
 
 67 
 
 258.077476 
 
 100 
 
 1000.000000 
 
 34 
 
 27.502455 
 
 
 
 
 
55 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 Filter Characteristics and CO- Transmittances 
 
 Filter curves have been obtained for the first four VTPR instru- 
 ments. These curves were used to calculate CO2 transmittances 
 and the resulting weighting functions (derivatives of the trans- 
 mittances with respect to a function of pressure). Table 1 
 lists the pressures at which numerical values of transmittances 
 and weighting functions are given. 
 
 For each instrument (set), twelve pages of data are given in 
 the following order: 
 
 filter curves for channels 1 and 2 
 
 filter transmittances for channels 1 and 2 
 
 filter curves for channels 3 and 4 
 
 filter transmittances for channels 3 and 4 
 
 filter curves for channels 5 and 6 
 
 filter transmittances for channels 5 and 6 
 
 filter curves for channels 7 and 8 
 
 filter transmittances for channels 7 and 8 
 
 CO2 transmittances at 0° zenith angle 
 
 CO2 weighting functions at 0° zenith angle 
 
 CO2 transmittances at 23.8° zenith angle 
 
 CO 2 weighting functions at 2 3.8° zenith angle. 
 
 Instruments 1 and 3 were used on NOAA 2. 
 
56 
 
 Table l.--The 50 pressure levels for which CO2 transmittances 
 and weighting functions were calculated 
 
 Level 
 
 Pressure 
 
 Level 
 
 Pressure 
 
 Level 
 
 Pressure 
 
 
 (mb) 
 
 
 (mb) 
 
 
 (mb) 
 
 2 
 
 .022509 
 
 36 
 
 33.093637 
 
 70 
 
 299.010313 
 
 4 
 
 .075634 
 
 38 
 
 39.453026 
 
 72 
 
 328.748216 
 
 6 
 
 .185758 
 
 40 
 
 46.640713 
 
 74 
 
 360.540883 
 
 8 
 
 .379474 
 
 42 
 
 54.718280 
 
 76 
 
 394.471232 
 
 10 
 
 .686604 
 
 44 
 
 63.748763 
 
 78 
 
 430.623266 
 
 12 
 
 1.139871 
 
 46 
 
 73.796622 
 
 80 
 
 469.082061 
 
 14 
 
 1.774667 
 
 48 
 
 84.927709 
 
 82 
 
 509.933752 
 
 16 
 
 2.628863 
 
 50 
 
 97.209237 
 
 84 
 
 553.265520 
 
 18 
 
 3.742652 
 
 52 
 
 110.709757 
 
 86 
 
 599.165579 
 
 20 
 
 5.158426 
 
 54 
 
 125.499127 
 
 88 
 
 647.723168 
 
 22 
 
 6.920666 
 
 56 
 
 141.648495 
 
 90 
 
 699.028533 
 
 24 
 
 9.075845 
 
 58 
 
 159.230270 
 
 92 
 
 753.172921 
 
 26 
 
 11.672352 
 
 60 
 
 178.318103 
 
 94 
 
 810.248566 
 
 28 
 
 14.780413 
 
 62 
 
 198.986865 
 
 96 
 
 870.348681 
 
 30 
 
 18.392029 
 
 64 
 
 221.312631 
 
 98 
 
 933.567446 
 
 32 
 
 22.620917 
 
 66 
 
 245.372655 
 
 100 
 
 1000.000000 
 
 34 
 
 27.502455 
 
 68 
 
 271.245360 
 
 
 
57 
 
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 ooN<-oO'-sr>r4oot- 
 N. 4in>ONNin4'-oo 
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 0*0*0*0*0*oOoOoONN.r-. 
 
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 oromomN >j* o >o -o 
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 oomo*4040*4oom 
 ■OOininin>rmmr*sir\j 
 
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 «-Oi-oo>to , inN>j , «o o*onooo 
 
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 ^ooo-oooonoo^ -j-roiNjooN-iniNio^NO K>a^oi^o , roNO v '- romi i o»-rvr-rorooiri «oon ^aroooooo 
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 en 
 
 LU 
 
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 oooN.roK.o*ooi\jO*0 
 
 0>O l N'0>rNO<iO'iO 
 0*0>0>O s O*O v O''OOoOoO 
 O* O 1 O* 0* O* O* 0* O^ O 1 O* 
 
 irtNjTN.ooroo^O-rsjoo* 
 t-*O(\j0>o0oO(\J«— •** m 
 
 ^O^'OooaoOO'flO 
 N.hs. •Om^fnrOiNlOO* 
 
 oo ^j- i\j >r r^ -j- <— r\j^«- ooo(\joor\jmr^r^r^oo 
 oooor\jo*O i rsjN.r^oo NinNororoi-oooo 
 
 oofx..o^ror\joooN.in m <— o -o -J - *- ©o in «— oo 
 
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 ro oo inj O 1 ro ^o o oo po o m pn oo o no -r in oo f\j o 
 
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 oooooooooo ooooo«-«-«-«-*- »-«-f\j(\jrgi\ji\ji\jiNji\j <\j*-.-»-f-«-«-ooo oooooooooo 
 
 oooooooooo oooooooooo oooooooooo oooooooooo oooooooooo 
 
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105 
 
 APPENDIX III 
 Archive Formats 
 
 Archival tapes for VTPR data contain earth located raw radian- 
 ces, first guess information, and retrievals. Each type of data 
 is written as a separate file. 
 
 The first file contains earth-located raw radiances. These 
 radiances have been calibrated - that is converted from counts to 
 radiances - but are otherwise unchanged. A description of this 
 file is contained in tables 1 and 2. The calibration identifica- 
 tion number referred to in table 1 is now 4. If changes in the 
 regression coefficients used for the calibration are required be- 
 cause of changes on the spacecraft, this number will change. The 
 instrument number referred to in table 2 identifies a scan line 
 as: data from the calibration sequence in either instrument (0); 
 earth radiances from instrument 1 (1); earth radiances from in- 
 stument 2 (2); dual mode earth radiances from the secondary in- 
 strument (3). During the rarely-used dual mode, the primary 
 instrument controls the data system, and radiances from that in- 
 strument are identified normally; radiances from the secondary 
 instrument replace those of the primary instrument on alternate 
 scans . 
 
 The second file on the tape contains "clear radiances" obtained 
 by the CLRAD program, as well as the first guess information that 
 was available. A description of this file is contained in tables 
 3 and 4. 
 
 The third file on the tape contains retrieved profiles that 
 have passed the quality control tests. A description of this 
 file is given in tables 5 and 6. Data records on this file dif- 
 fer from all other records on the tape in that the data are coded 
 and six bits are required to represent each character. Table 7 
 shows the octal and binary representations of the characters con- 
 tained in the data records. The format used for the data records 
 is the same format used for the NMC data, except that twelve 
 reports constitute one physical record of 30,600 bits on the NMC 
 tape. In order to keep the buffer size small, this record was 
 broken down into five physical records of 6, 120 bits each for the 
 archive tape. 
 
106 
 
 Table 1. — VTPR archive I format and data description 
 header record (6480 bits) 
 
 Description 
 
 Number 
 of words 
 
 Bits/ 
 word 
 
 Number 
 of bits 
 
 Satellite numfc 
 
 er 
 
 Start of data 
 
 (year) 
 
 Start of data 
 
 (month) 
 
 Start of data 
 
 (day) 
 
 Julian day 
 
 
 Start of data 
 
 (hour) 
 
 Start of data 
 
 (minute) 
 
 Start of data 
 
 (second) 
 
 End of data (b 
 
 our) 
 
 End of data (minute) 
 
 End of data 
 Calibration 
 
 (second) 
 identification number 
 
 Standard deviations [mW/(m 2 sr cm~^)]x 10 
 (channels 1-8 of primary instrument), 
 (8 words of fill or channels 1-8 of 
 secondary instrument for dual mode 
 operation) 
 Fill 
 
 ORBITAL PARAMETERS 
 
 Eccentricity x 10 
 
 Argument of perigee (deg x 10 3) 
 
 Right ascension (deg x 10^) 
 
 Inclination (deg x 103) 
 
 Semi -major axis (km x 10^) 
 
 Mean anomaly (deg x 10 3) 
 
 Epoch year 
 
 Epoch month 
 
 Epoch day 
 
 Epoch hour 
 
 Epoch minute (whole) 
 
 Epoch fraction of minute x 100 
 
 Phi max x 100 
 
 Lambda x 10 
 
 Fill 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 192 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 481 
 
 12 
 
 5772 
 
107 
 
 Table 2. — VTPR archive I format and data description -- 
 documentation records (groups of 3 records - 6480 bits per record) 
 
 Number Bits/ Number 
 Description of words word of bits 
 
 Radiances [m^(m 2 sr cm" 1 )] x 20 1472 12 17664 
 (channels 1-8 (spots 1-23 (lines 
 1-8))) 
 
 Latitude (deg + 90) x 10 
 East longitude (deg x 10) 
 (spot 5 - line 4) 
 
 Latitude (deg +90) x 10 
 East longitude (deg x 10) 
 (spot 12 - line 4) 
 
 Latitude (deg +90) x 10 
 East longitude (deg x 10 
 (spot 19 - line 4) 
 
 Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) (hour) 
 
 Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) (minute) 
 
 Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) (second) 
 
 Zenith Angles (deg x 10 ) 7 12 84 
 
 (spot 1 - line 1), (spot 1 - line 23), 
 (spot 4 - line 5), (spot 4 - line 12), 
 (spot 4 - line 19), (spot 8 - line 1), 
 (spot 8 - line 23) 
 
 Fill 1 12 12 
 
 Line count 1 
 
 Sea surface temperatures [ (°K-269. 9 )x5 ] 184 
 (spots 1-23 (lines 1-8)) 
 
 Fill 1 
 
 Instrument number (see text) 8 
 
 (8 lines) 
 Clock 
 
 (spot 1 - line 1) ■*- 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 1472 
 
 8 
 
 28 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 36 36 
 
108 
 
 Table 3. — VTPR archive II format and data description 
 header record (480 bits) 
 
 Number Bits/ Number 
 
 Description of words word of bits 
 
 Start of data (year) 1 12 12 
 
 Start of data (month) 1 12 12 
 
 Start of data (day) 1 12 12 
 
 Satellite number 1 36 36 
 
 Calibration table number 1 12 12 
 
 Instrument number 1 12 12 
 
 Standard deviations [mW/(m 2 sr cm~ 1 )]x 100 16 12 192 
 
 (channels 1-8 of primary instrument) ; 
 (8 zeros or channels 1-8 of secondary 
 instrument of dual mode operation) 
 
 Start of data (hour) 1 12 12 
 
 Start of data (minute) 1 12 12 
 
 Start of data (second) 1 12 12 
 
 End of data (hour) 1 12 12 
 
 End of data (minute) 1 12 12 
 
 End of data (second) 1 12 12 
 
 Fill 10 12 120 
 
109 
 
 Table 4. — VTPR archive II format and data description- 
 documentation records (720 bits) 
 
 Description 
 
 Latitude (deg-f- 90) x 10 
 West longitude (deg x 10) 
 Time of sounding (hour) 
 Time of sounding (minute) 
 
 Time of sounding (second) 
 
 9 1 
 Clear radiances [mW/(m^sr cm" ) ] x 20 
 
 (channels 1-8) 
 
 Zenith angle (deg x 10) 
 
 Sea surface temperature (°K-269.9) x 5 
 
 First guess values temperatures ( CxlO) 
 
 (15 standard pressure levels — 1000 to lOmb) 
 (tropopause temperature) 
 
 Number 
 
 Bits/ 
 
 Number 
 
 of words 
 
 word 
 
 of bits 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 96 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 192 
 
 Pressure (mb x 10) 
 
 Dew point depression"'' 
 
 (first 10 standard levels) 
 
 1 
 10 
 
 12 
 12 
 
 12 
 120 
 
 Confidence factors (x 100) 
 (channels 1-8) 
 
 First guess 850-mb height (m) 
 obtained from NMC forecast 
 
 Fill 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 96 
 
 12 
 
 108 
 
 *Missing data = 7777 octal 
 '''Missing data = 0000 octal 
 
110 
 
 Table 5. — VTPR archive III format and data description- 
 header record (480 bits) 
 
 Description 
 
 Number Bits/ Number 
 of words word of bits 
 
 Start of data (year) 
 
 Start of data (month) 
 
 Start of data (day) 
 
 Satellite number 
 
 Calibration table number 
 
 Instrument number 
 
 Standard pressure levels (mb) 
 
 Start of data (hour) 
 
 Start of data (minute) 
 
 Start of data (second) 
 
 End of data (hour) 
 
 End of data (minute) 
 
 End of data (second) 
 
 Fill 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 1.80 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 132 
 
Ill 
 
 Table 6. — VTPR archive III format and data description — 
 
 documentation records* 
 
 Number Characters/ Bits/ No. of 
 Description of words word charac. bits 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Latitude (deg x 100) 
 
 West Longitude (deg x 100) 
 
 Fill (N) 
 
 Orbit number for 12- hour 
 period (set to 1 at 0600 
 and 1800 GMT) 11 6 6 
 
 Sounding number 1 3 6 18 
 
 Fill 11 6 6 
 
 Time (hours + fraction of 
 
 hours) x 100 1 4 6 24 
 
 Parameters (data used by 
 NMC only) 
 
 Data for 15 levels 
 
 Height (m) 
 
 Temperature (°C x 10) 
 
 T d (not given) (°C x 10) 
 
 Fill 
 Fill 
 
 (End report) 
 
 f 
 ( End record) 
 
 *A data record consists of 12 soundings or reports and contains 
 30600 bits. It is broken up into five physical records of 
 6120 bits each. The data on this record are written as an "A" 
 format so 6 bits are required for each character (table 7). 
 
 When 12 reports are obtained or an orbit is ended, a data 
 record is written. The remaining space is filled with "end 
 record" so that the five physical records always contain a 
 total of 30600 bits. 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 180 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 1980 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 120 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 60 
 
 variable 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 variable 
 
112 
 
 Table 7. — Six-bit binary code used for data records on the third 
 
 file of the archival tape 
 
 Character Octal representation Binary representation 
 
 33 011011 
 
 1 34 011100 
 
 2 35 011101 
 
 3 36 011110 
 
 4 37 011111 
 
 5 40 100000 
 
 6 41 100001 
 
 7 42 100010 
 
 8 43 100011 
 
 9 44 100100 
 
 46 100110 
 
 57 101111 
 
 Blank 55 101101 
 
 R 22 010010 
 
 E 05 000101 
 
 C 03 000011 
 
 O 17 001111 
 
 R 22 010010 
 
 D 04 000100 
 
 P 20 010000 
 
 T 24 010100 
 
 N 16 001110 
 
 A U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1 973--5 1 *2-6 1 t9/'ll 
 
(Continued from inside front cover) 
 
 NESC 51 Application of Meteorological Satellite Data in Analysis and Forecasting. Ralph K. Anderson, 
 Jerome P. Ashman, Fred Bittner, Golden R. Farr, Edward W. Ferguson, Vincent J. Oliver, and 
 Arthur H. Smith, September 1969. Price $1.75 (AD-697-033) Supplement price $0.65 (AD-740- 
 017) 
 
 NESC 52 Data Reduction Processes for Spinning Flat-Plate Satellite-Borne Radiometers. Torrence H. 
 MacDonald, July 1970. Price $0.50 (COM-71-00132) 
 
 NESC 53 Archiving and Climatological Applications of Meteorological Satellite Data. John A. Leese, 
 Arthur L. Booth, and Frederick A. Godshall, July 1970. Price $1.25 (COM-71-00076) 
 
 NESC 54 Estimating Cloud Amount and Height From Satellite Infrared Radiation Data. P. Krishna Rao, 
 July 1970. Price $0.25 (PB-194-685) 
 
 NESC 56 Time-Longitude Sections of Tropical Cloudiness (December 1966-November 1967). J. M. Wallace, 
 July 1970. Price $0.50 (COM-71-00131) 
 
 NOAA Technical Reports 
 
 NESS 55 The Use of Satellite-Observed Cloud Patterns in Northern Hemisphere 500-mb Numerical Analysis. 
 Roland E. Nagle and Christopher M. Hayden, April 1971. Price $0.55 (COM-73-50262) 
 
 NESS 57 Table of Scattering Function of Infrared Radiation for Water Clouds. Giichi Yamamoto, 
 Masayuki Tanaka, and Shoji Asano, April 1971. Price $1.00 (COM-71-50312) 
 
 NESS 58 The Airborne ITPR Brassboard Experiment. W. L. Smith, D. T. Hilleary, E. C. Baldwin, W. Jacob, 
 H. Jacobowitz, G. Nelson, S. Soules, and D. Q. Wark, March 1972. Price $1.25 (COM-72-10557) 
 
 NESS 59 Temperature Sounding From Satellites. S. Fritz, D. Q. Wark, H. E. Fleming, W. L. Smith, H. 
 Jacobowitz, D. T. Hilleary, and J. C. Alishouse, July 1972. Price $0.55 (COM-72-50963) 
 
 NESS 60 Satellite Measurements of Aerosol Backscattered Radiation From the Nimbus F Earth Radiation Ex- 
 periment. H. Jacobowitz, W. L. Smith, and A. J. Drummond, August. 1972. Price $0.25 (COM-72- 
 51031) 
 
 NESS 61 The Measurement of Atmospheric Transmittance From Sun and Sky With an Infrared Vertical 
 Sounder. W. L. Smith and H. B. Howell, September 1972. Price $0.30 (COM-73-50020) 
 
 NESS 62 Proposed Calibration Target for the Visible Channel of a Satellite Radiometer. K. L. Coulson 
 and H. Jacobowitz, October 1972. Price $0.35 (COM-73-10143) 
 
 NESS 63 Verification of Operational SIRS B Temperature Retrievals. Harold J. Brodrick and Christopher 
 M. Hayden, December 1972. Price $0.55 (COM-73-50279) 
 
 NESS 64 Radiometric Techniques for Observing the Atmosphere From Aircraft. William L. Smith and Warren 
 J. Jacob. January 1973. Price $0.35 (COM-73-50376) 
 
PE riP| T | A lTf.^ N .'. V ,f- RS,TYL 'BRAR IES 
 
 A000D75Q lfl3S4