U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE / Environmental Science Services Administration Report to the INTERDEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE for APPLIED METEOROLOGICAL RESEARCH OFFICE OF FEDERAL COORDINATOR FOR METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH / \ *-' Solar and net radiation Standard surface observations Sky photog raphy Rawinsonde © 12 Distance (km) @vww@wv|@]wv/[©1 18 36 54 108 Figure E-l.— Proposed Movable Observational System for Boundary Layer Profiles being possible though not unique. The system, details of which are given below, represents a compromise. It lies somewhere between alogis- tically and economically feasible system as op- posed to a system which appears to be suitable for delineating the mesoscale structure of the atmosphere. It features variable spacing between stations designed to provide three measurements for wavelengths ranging between 2 and 54 kilo- meters. While the variable spacing is a desirable fea- ture of the system, other sets of distances between stations could be considered. However, it is essential that any eventual system insure that the space resolution is matched by the time reso- lution as represented by the frequency and manner of averaging of the measurements. In addition, consideration should be given to the possibility of providing for continuous measurements in the high-resolution part of the system. While the program of observations detailed below is specifically addressed to the problem of low-level profiles, it could be profitably extended to include additional measurements which have a bearing on other subsynoptic- scale problems. The proposed program is eminently capable of providing a basis for the research proposed for studying the structure and variability of mes- oscale systems. It will also allow partial testing of forecasting models along the lines proposed in section 6.3.2.2.b. The mobility of the system al- so allows modification in the configuration of sta- tions. It is proposed that, at a later date, in the light of results from the studies proposed in sec- tion 6.3.3.2, consideration should be given to 32 other configurations, including a square grid which is especially suitable for improving fore- casting models and for adapting these models to daily operations. Two types of measurements are required: (a) The principal profile elements consisting of wind, temperature and humidity, and (b) the aux- iliary measurements which are considered es- sential or useful in forecasting the principal ele- ments. A. Principal Elements 1. Horizontal Resolution It is proposed that the principal elements of wind, temperature, and humidity be measured along two lines with a common origin. On each line the distance of suc- cessive stations from the origin station would be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 12, 18, 36, 54, and 108 km— a total of 23 stations. This spac- ing would provide at least three values for averaging over a range of 1 to 54 km. For convenience the lines of stations are shown normal to each other in figure E-l, al- though this is not a requirement. The recommended grid is not unique and other configurations may be considered. 2. Vertical Resolution Measurements are recommended at 10, 50, 100, 200, 300, 600, 900, 1200 and 1500 me- ters above the surface. 3. Terminal Resolution Measurements at 600 meters and below should be made at intervals not greater than 10 minutes; above 600 meters, at intervals not greater than 20 minutes. The system should be capable of providing continuous measurements for short periods in the high resolution portion of the grid. 4. Accuracy Required Measurements should have the following currently attainable accuracy: Temperature ±0.1 °C. Wind speed +0.5 m.p.s. Wind direction +5 degrees Moisture +5% (10% < R.H.<95%) 15 5. Equipment It is proposed that observations at 10 me- ters be obtained by means of small movable masts. Those between 50 and 600 meters would be obtained by attaching radiosonde Further sensor research and development are needed in the crucial range above 95%. sensor elements and anemometers to teth- ered airfoils or balloons, equipped with suitable transmission facilities. For heights above 600 meters, (900, 1200 and 1500 meters) a modified rawinsonde with slower ascension rates would be suitable. B. Auxiliary Measurements In addition to the above principal elements the following measurements should be made at the locations specified in figure E-l. Standard meteorological surface observations Solar and net radiation Soil temperature and moisture Rawinsonde Cloud photography Radar observations II. Clouds and Precipitation A. The data-acquisition program pertinent to this research effort should be consistent with that established for the boundary-layer profile. Indeed, serious consideration should be given to implementing portions of the cloud and precipitation data-acquisition program simul- taneously with the boundary-layer effort for economy and to ensure proper integration of the research efforts in these two highly in- terrelated areas. B. The data to be acquired in the Mesoscale Description Research described in section 7.3.2.1 will consist mainly of surface and up- per -air observations at space intervals of 25 to 50 miles over one or more areas of size from 200 by 500 miles to 400 by 1000 miles and at time intervals of every 45 to 90 minutes for periods of 24 to 36 hours. These data will be supplemented by information from weather radars, satellites, and aircraft recon- naissance. C. The data to be acquired in the Extended Test Research described in section 7.3.2.4 will be similar in form to that of the Mesoscale De- scription Research but vastly greater in amount. These data should be handled and archived in the same manner as the earlier experiments. In addition, the data should be "packaged" according to the various 7- to 10-day period of experiments. This packag- ing will help in the event the research effort is divided among Agencies, contractors and other interested groups. III. Air Pollution Problems A. Urban Ventilation, Transport and Diffusion The following measurements are necessary or desirable: 33 lo Measurement of wind, temperature and moisture profiles. 2. The vertical component of the wind as in- ferred from vertical temperature gradient measurements or from bivanes placed on existing towers or fastened to tethered systems. 3. Measurements taken throughout the met- ropolitan area and extending to rural sites. 4. Measurements provided by the meteoro- logical instrumentation of at least one ex- isting tower in the urban area would be useful for comparative purposes. 5. A series of 6 experiments of tracer (e.g. SF 6 ) releases conducted for durations of about 30 minutes to an hour under selected weather conditions. The tracer should be sampled at several arcs downwind of the release site over a period sufficient to measure the entire dosage of the re- lease. Plume sampling in the vertical can be achieved by attaching sampling equipment to tethersondes or by aircraft probing. One sampling arc should be in the rural area outside the metropolitan complex; the other should sample suburban and downtown areas. 6. A tetroon could be released from the tracer site and tracked with radar to provide dispersion and transport data. B. Interurban Transport and Diffusion This program could be phased with the Urban Study, which will help establish the data- acquisition program that is required to un- dertake a larger- scale effort. C. Deposition The utilization of simplified gas and particu- late sampling techniques, suitable for auto- mation and remote unattended operation, may require some developmental work. In general, the various phases of this project can be integrated with the research efforts of a Federal Plan. For example, the washout and rainout studies, particularly involving convective storms, could be conducted under the auspices of the Severe Weather Program. The studies involving dry deposition and scavenging may be an integral part of the Agricultural-Forestry Project, while the var- ious projects involving atmospheric scaveng- ing and washout in urban atmospheres could become part of the Air Pollution and Trans- port and Diffusions Projects. 1. Washout and Rainout The following procedure is recommended: a. Release of a measured quantity of trac- er into the cloud (rainout) or into the air (washout). b. Measurements (e.g., grab samples) of tracer concentration in air and precip- itation as a function of height by use of airplane traverse through the plume or by means of samplers attached to Pro- file Project tethersondes; for rainout studies, concentration measurements within clouds are required. c. Collection of the precipitation at the ground and measurement of precipita- tion rates. d. Measurement of wind, temperature and moisture profiles by means of a teth- ered system. 2. Dry Deposition The following experiments are recom- mended to calculate deposition rate as a function of particle size, surface media and meteorological conditions: a. Release of fluorescent tracers at ground level to heights representative of pes- ticide aerial release (< 50 meters) under various weather conditions. Releases at heights 50-300 meters would be re- quired to represent large power plant releases. The use of various pesti- cides as a tracer is recommended. The size of tracers released should be varied to determine optimum dispersal techniques. Both artificial and natural deposition detectors should be used. b. Conduct experiments over low foliage, orchards, and forests. c. Measurement of wind, temperature and moisture profiles within canopy and to heights of at least 300 meters above ground. D. Atmospheric Physics 1. Solar and Terrestrial Radiation The following measurements are needed: a. Measurements of atmospheric turbidity at various levels with sun photometers over an urban-rural area. b. Measurements of surface radiation to derive solar, net and total radiation val- ues. c. Measurements of ultraviolet and infra- red radiation at surface. d„ Measurements of boundary-layer pro- files of wind, temperature and moisture. e. Measurements of ozone concentration, dust and aerosol loadings at various heights by means of grab samples at- 34 tached to tethered system or by air- craft sampling. The above measurements may be used to: (1) Determine dust and aerosol loading and vertical distribution of urban pollution envelope and how they are related to (a) meteorology (air pol- lution potential parameters) and to (b) the transmission of radiant en- ergy over a spectrum of wave- lengths, (2) Determine relationship of atmos- pheric turbidity to the intensity of solar radiation received at the sur- face. (3) Determine correlations of surface radiation, turbidity and ozone con- centration to describe photochemi- cal smog formation. (4) Assess urban-rural differences. 2. Atmospheric Electricity The following measurements are recom- mended: a. Measurement of electric field potential in an urban-rural environment. b. Measure conductivity together with aer- osol and dust loadings described under l.a.(l), above. The above measurements may be used to: 1. Determine correlation between at- mospheric electricity and meteorol- ogy. 2. Determine correlation between con- ductivity and air pollutant concentra- tion in an attempt to use conduc- tivity as an index of air pollutant loading in the atmosphere. IV. Agriculture and Forestry The unique feature of the research efforts of the Agricultural-Forestry Prospectus is the wide variation of complicated surface boundary condi- tions (terrain and canopy) over which the experi- ments are to be conducted. This may impose more severe logistic requirements for some experiments and accordingly higher costs for a smaller data -gathering effort may result. The following data-acquisition program is pro- posed: A. The deployment of 150 (used in Deposition Project) recording precipitation gages to sup- plement an existing network over a 1000 sq. km. area. B. Measurement of wind, temperature and mois- ture profiles (using tethersonde systems) in areas of (1) prescribed burns, (2) in moun- tain-valley regions of varying local relief, and (3) over various canopies. C. Use tracer and pesticide/insecticide releases to assess transport, diffusion and deposition under conditions in paragraphs A and B above. D. Measurement of deposition on ground and within canopy, using both natural and arti- ficial detectors. APPENDIX F LOCALES FOR FIELD EXPERIMENTS I. Boundary- Layer Profiles Project It is recommended that the field experiments appropriate to this area be focused in two loca- tions: A. Around the mesonet facilities of the National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL) at Norman, Oklahoma, as augmented by the movable data- acquisition system proposed in appendix E. This site would be conveniently suitable for acquiring the data in connection with the studies described in section 6.3.2.2. B. Around the National Aviation Facilities Ex- perimental Center (NAFEC) at Atlantic City. This site would be most suitable for the re- search program described in section 6.3.2.1. II. Air Pollution Problems It is recommended that the initial field exper- iments be conducted in an urban environment. An inland city of minor topographic features would seem a logical first choice. Columbus ( Ohio) , Indianapolis, Omaha, St. Louis, and Dallas- Fort Worth would represent likely urban sites. 35 The interurban transportation and diffusion studies should take advantage of the abundant resources available in the eastern megalopolis from Washington, D.C., to Boston. The subsynop- tic- scale studies involving downwind distances to about 100 km. could utilize segments of this vast megalopolis for particular efforts oriented to take advantage of unique geographic features of each segment. For example, the Washington- Baltimore segment would be suitable for urban- rural and harbor effects. The New York- Atlantic City segment, involving the NAFEC resources, seems appropriate for a study of maritime and urban surface boundary effects on transport and o diffusion. Central New Jersey may be favorable for those aspects of the project which are of par- ticular importance to agricultural interests. In addition, the Delaware Breakwater off Cape May, New Jersey, offers a unique area for studying transport and diffusion processes over varying land-water geometries. Such studies may be of particular concern to marine facilities which utilize nuclear power plants. Initial rainout and washout studies as well as dry deposition studies are recommended to be A. conducted simultaneously with the Boundary- Layer Profile Project in Oklahoma. Later meas- urements can be obtained in urban-rural areas selected for the Air Pollution Potential studies. In addition to deposition measurements in Oklahoma, additional measurements over various surfaces and canopies in the New Jersey agricul- tural belt during the experiments on air pollution potential in that region are recommended. For radioactive or obnoxious tracers, where contam- B. ination to the public may be a problem, more re- mote areas are desired. For these experiments, the facilities at Battelle Northwest Laboratory in the State of Washington and at the National Reac- tor Testing Station in Idaho may be considered. For studies involving the use of pesticides or insecticides, those areas involved in the National Agricultural Weather Service Program are rec- ommended as experimental sites. Each of these sites represents a unique geographical or clim- atological feature of interest, relative to deposi- tion or scavenging. III. Clouds and Precipitation Project A. Mesoscale Description Studies 1. The Mesoscale Description Research de- C. scribed in section 7.3.2.1 should be con- ducted in locales where the various cloud and precipitation phenomena of interest occur and can be examined. Two areas which seem well suited for this type of experiment are the Midwest and the Atlan- D. tic Coastal region from the Carolinas to New England. 2. The Midwest provides relatively simple terrain and cloud-precipitation occurrence 36 of great interest, especially those of con- vective and frontal character. Experiments in this area should take advantage of the NSSL facilities; this area is recommended for the initial field experiments. The Atlantic coastal region provides complex- ities of the land- sea interface and the rough terrain of the Appalachian Moun- tains. This area also favors certain in- teresting storm development phenomena which, if better understood and forecast, would have considerable economic impor- tance. Numerical Prediction Models There is much in common between these experiments and those related to boundary- layer profiles. Therefore, the same sites, namely, the NSSL and NAFEC facilities, should be utilized in developing and testing numerical models for predicting clouds and precipitation. IV. Agriculture-Forestry Project The projects designed to improve the fore- casting of low-level inversions in rugged ter- rain, as well as attempts to describe the in- terrelationships between forest fire and weather conditions, can be carried out in the Rocky Mountain areas. These programs may be directed from the U.S. Forest Service fire research laboratories at Riverside, Califor- nia, Missoula, Montana, and Fort Collins, Colorado. For similar studies in less rugged terrain, the fire research laboratory at Macon, Geor- gia, is a likely headquarters site. The spe- cialized agricultural experiment stations in New Jersey, the area from northern Virginia to southern Pennsylvania, South Carolina, the tristate area of Georgia, southeast Alabama, and northwest Florida, the Midsouth (northern Mississippi, western Tennessee, Arkansas, Louisiana delta and Missouri bootheel area), Lower Rio Grande Valley in South Texas, Western Lower Michigan, Southern Idaho, and Oregon each offer unique geographic -climatic features as locale considerations for various research efforts directed toward improving meteorological services for agricultural -for- estry users. For projects involving a dense precipitation collection network the agricultural network in central Oklahoma can be supplemented with additional stations. The precipitation net- works in Illinois may also provide sites for special experiments. Studies of severe weather, particularly those that assess lightning intensity and the capa- bilities of refining radar detection techniques, can be initially carried out in Oklahoma, utilizing the facilities of NSSL. APPENDIX G THE ROLE OF SATELLITES Meteorological satellite data are now being- used routinely in the analysis and forecasting of macroscale meteorological phenomena. Their widespread use has been made possible by the recent activities of operational satellites which are providing data on a continuing and regular basis. This, in turn, allows for consistent in- terpretation and for verification of these inter- pretations. A. Synoptic -Scale Applications Large-scale cloud patterns and cloud dis- tribution observed in satellite pictures are used to identify the positions of fronts, ridges, troughs, vortices, jetstreams, etc. The ap- pearance of the clouds reveals something of the nature and intensity of the system with which they are associated. Satellite meteor- ologists have determined that the most im- portant observed characteristics of clouds are their brightness, pattern, structure, tex- ture, shape, and size. These characteristics can be used to identify the type of cloud, to detect the presence of cloud layers of dif- ferent height, and to infer the temperature, wind, and stability structures in the atmos- phere. They can be used to diagnose the stage of development of storms and tropical cy- clones. The ability to interpret these cloud characteristics has proved useful in macro- scale analysis and prediction. This ability will improve as the satellite picture availa- bility improves and as experience is gained. Until very recently, most of the develop- ments in the use of satellite pictures have been aimed primarily at macroscale features, both because the picture resolution has been more amenable to macroscale analysis, and because it was very seldom that more than one picture of the same small area was available over periods of a few hours. Even today, the most we are able to do in this respect is three successive pictures, each about 90 minutes apart. Under optimum con- ditions such a sequence can be accomplished twice a day, in daylight hours. B. Current Mesoscale Applications The use of satellite pictures in subsynoptic- scale meteorology has been envisioned since the inception of weather satellites, but this has only become widely recognized and par- tially realized since the advent of the APT- type satellite. As video data from satellites improve and as more data are obtained on a more frequent and continuous basis, the me- teorologist will better appreciate the advan- tages that such pictures provide in the anal- ysis and interpretation of mesoscale mete- orological phenomena. For example, satellite pictures have recorded "fingers" of moisture in the atmospheric flow which are only 30-50 miles in width. These are not normally ob- served by our synoptic scale network. The mesometeorologist will certainly want to de- tect and follow such intrusions within his region. The satellite can help make needed infer- ences (and eventually, even measurements) of precipitation amounts, and especially de- lineate areas of precipitation maxima or detect a relatively isolated event. Cloud movements can provide detailed information on mesoscale patterns of windflow otherwise not available. The mesoscale effects of terrain on a given windflow can be observed in satellite pictures and could be reliably forecast if pictures of optimum resolution were available on a regular basis. Such ob- served terrain effects frequently are accom- panied by large areas of convergence and di- vergence. Weather satellites can similarly observe and contribute to an understanding of the solar heating effects at the surface. Together, these heating and frictional effects have a tremendous influence on mesoscale phenomena. Over water areas, the change in size of sun glint from picture to picture is an indi- cator of the state of the sea. This in turn makes it possible to infer characteristics of the low-level winds. The satellite can pro- vide pictorial information on river, lake, and coastal ice and on river flood stage which are important considerations to the mesometeor- ologist. The changes in flood and ice condi- tions which can be detected from sequential pictures are especially important to him and to his customers. These and many other meso- scale applications of satellite data await a fuller exploitation. It is therefore quite appropriate that wea- ther satellites which are capable of observing mesoscale phenomena be used extensively as tools in subsynoptic-scale research. Such uses of satellites have been proposed in the cloud-precipitation and severe weather re- search prospecti of this report. C. Research Required The interpretation of satellite data and the applications of these data to a wide range of subsynoptic-scale problems are fertile fields 37 for continuing research. This is especially true as new and improved sensors are de- veloped and made operational, and as the observation frequency increases to that of a potential "continuous watch." As instru- ments are developed for observing and meas- uring in the ultraviolet, infrared, millimeter, and microwave bands, research is necessary to apply these data to gain a more complete knowledge of the temperature structure and moisture distribution in the whole atmosphere on a global basis,, Other instrumentation is being developed which will provide measure- ments of upper winds over remote regions. Today, such developments are being pursued to assist in improving synoptic-scale analy- ses, but the ultimate application of such in- formation to mesoscale observation and pre- diction is obvious. D. Future Mesoscale Applications The role of the satellite in mesometeor- ology will become more apparent and more widely recognized when and if the meteorol- ogists are provided with regular observations on a resolution and time scale consistent with the size and life cycle of mesometeor- ological systems. Today, this does not ap- pear to be economically feasible with the polar orbiting satellite. However, a system of synchronous-altitude satellites offers the opportunity to obtain more-or-less continuous observation of most sectors of the globe. The importance of synchronous satellites to mesometeorology is the opportunity it presents to observe motion in the atmosphere, i.e., clianges in clouds, fog, state of the sea, etc. Such changes can be used to measure or infer winds, atmospheric stability, storm, and other severe weather developments. These changes provide the key to prediction of the weather on the mesoscale. Given a picture of his region, say every 10 minutes, coupled with other mesoscale observations, the mesometeorologist will be able to watch and predict the development and movement of clouds, storms, and other features. He will be better able to predict when storms will intensify or decrease in activity and where they will have the most effect in his area. He will be able to observe the extent and intensity of precipitation, be it rain or snow. In addition, he will be better able to predict when and where precipitation will occur and its intensity. He also will be able to observe and better predict the effects of friction and convective heating on the atmosphere and to follow the movement and development of re- sultant clouds. Most importantly, he will be able to observe the existence and movement of moisture instrusions which are not detected by the synoptic- scale observing network. The satellite observations will provide data over those blind areas untouched by our point- observation networks and will serve to "com- plete the picture" for the mesometeorolo- gist. There is a requirement for the further development of instrumentation to observe from satellites the vertical profiles of tem- perature and humidity as a source of input data into subsynoptic- scale numerical predic- tion models. Present resolution of such de- rived profiles is about 10 km. in the vertical and several miles in the horizontal, which is not sufficient for general mesoscale applica- tion. APPENDIX H MESOCLIMATOLOGY I. Introduction The research projects described in this report have been developed to increase present capa- bility to forecast various subsynoptic- scale phe- nomena. The climatologist is also very interested in these and other subsynoptic -scale phenomena, but more from the viewpoint of their descrip- tion and behavior in a statistical sense, than as a forecast problem. This is so, because the climatologist is largely responsible for the proper interpretation of the effects of the natural en- vironment on the design of equipment and facili- ties and on the development of plans for which the user may later require operational forecasts. Both the user and forecaster benefit when, with the help of the climatologist, the designer or planner is able to take advantage of the operating environment while minimizing its detrimental effects. 38 In general, the forecaster and climatologist are interested in the same meteorological phe- nomena, and for the most part, observations which the forecaster has routinely required and used over the years are sufficient for the solu- tion of many climatological problems. In some cases, the climatological requirement for ob- servations precedes the requirement of the forecaster for the same type of data. An example is the current need for a better description (climatology) of that part of the natural environ- ment which should be considered in the design and operational planning of the supersonic trans- port (SST) aircraft. Some climatological requirements for sub- synoptic-scale research can be met by computing and cataloging various statistics from the data acquired in the research program proposed in this report. Other climatological requirements can be met economically by acquiring additional data within the same program. Several clima- tological research efforts that can be undertaken in conjunction with the recommended research are discussed in section 2. Section 3 describes some additional desired research insubsynoptic- scale climatology which would undoubtedly help meet future forecast requirements. II. Recommended Climatological Studies The following climatological studies may be made using data acquired to implement the re- search program: A. Urban-Rural and Topographic Variations of Climate The objective of this project is to better describe the variations in climate to be ex- pected over an urban-rural complex and over an area with topographic features. These variations can be described in general by the surface and low-level profile elements to be observed in the boundary-layer profile project. The study should be undertaken in an area containing an urban-rural complex. The area must possess the required degree of topographic variability and the observation sites must be chosen to bring out the desired comparisons. In addition to this, observa- tions must be taken uniformly over a long enough period of time to provide some degree of stability in the statistics of the cases being studied. A better knowledge of the variations of climate with topography and of the differences between urban and rural climatic regimes will produce many benefits. This knowledge will be reflected in the forecaster's ability to interpret weather information from one location to another location in the same gen- eral area, but with different topographic fea- tures and a different position within an urban- rural complex. B. Gust Structure of Strong Winds The objective of this project is to better describe the relationship of maximum speeds averaged over various periods from one second to five minutes under strong wind conditions as a function of elevation, topog- raphy, and certain meteorological param- eters. This project can be undertaken in part with the detailed wind data acquired in the boundary-layer profile project and the severe weather research, provided that the necessary wind observations are made during strong wind periods. Similar data from other sources will also be analyzed. A better knowledge of the gust structure of strong winds will result in the specification of more realistic criteria for engineering designs which must consider wind load. C. Short-Period Precipitation Rates The objective of this project is to develop statistics on the extreme amounts of precipi- tation that can accumulate over areas of dif- ferent sizes and for periods ranging from a few seconds to an hour or more, and to re- late these extreme values to standard param- eter statistics. Some of the data for this analysis are al- ready available. Additional data can be col- lected as a part of the severe weather and cloud-precipitation projects but will require a high-density network of precipitation meas- uring instruments. The accurate specifica- tion of extreme rates of precipitation will result in the economical design of effective drainage facilities. D. Hail, Snow, and Ice Loading The objective of this project is to better describe the snow and ice collection efficien- cy of various geometric forms and the extreme loads to be expected on these forms as a func- tion of standard observed and forecastparam- eters. Data for this investigation can be collected as part of the severe weather and cloud-pre- cipitation projects provided these projects are run during hail, snow, and icing situations. A standard procedure for reporting icing on various geometric forms (wires, domes, etc.) is required. A standard instrument and procedure should be specified for measuring the weight (per unit area) of hail, snow, and entrapped liquid on a level surface. Addi- tional data for this investigation should be acquired over long periods of time at other regular reporting locations. These data will 39 probably not describe the time and space variability of the snow- ice phenomena in the detail that data acquired in the severe weather and cloud-precipitation projects will permit. This investigation should contribute to an improved understanding of hail, snow, and ice loading on various geometric forms and should permit more accurate specification of design criteria. E. Night Light Levels The objective of this project is to determine the amount of natural night light in the visible and near infrared wavelengths available at the surface as a function of astronomical and meteorological parameters and the physical surroundings. Data for this investigation can be acquired in conjunction with the pro- file and cloud-precipitation projects. Appro- priate light-meter readings must be made in a variety of surroundings (water, grass- land, sand, forest, etc.) and related to the concurrently observed meteorological and astronomical parameters. This project will result in a better un- derstanding of the meteorological effects on the natural night light at the surface. Such information is needed for the optimum design and employment of night- vision equipment for reconnaissance, surveillance, and search- and-rescue operations, F. Cloud Geometry The objective of this project is to determine the horizontal and vertical distributions of cloud and cloud-free spaces and to relate these distributions to standard cloud observa- tion statistics. Data for this project can be acquired in conjunction with the cloud-precipitation proj- ect by taking additional special cloud obser- vations using vertical pointing cloud radar (AN/TPQ-11), sky cameras (including whole- sky and stereoscopic), lidar, and standard light-beam probes. These data will be re- lated to the concurrent standard cloud ob- servation to describe, as well as possible, geometric models of cloud cover according to reported types, amounts, and height of cloud bases. This project will result in the more accurate specifications of the probability of cloud- free line-of- sight between an observer and a target on the basis of cloud forecast or climatology. This information has applica- tions in air-to-air and surface-air recon- naissance, surveillance, mapping, and search- and-rescue operations. III. Recommended Additional Climatological Research A. Duration Models The objective of this project is to determine statistical models which adequately describe, in a climatological sense, the probability of specified meteorological events having cer- tain duration characteristics. In general, data are already available for the development and test of such models. As far as possible , these models should pre- scribe duration probability as a function of the usual climatological statistics. Thus, from a knowledge of the frequency distribu- tion of a parameter, one could provide infor- mation on how often a critical value would be exceeded and the probability of its duration for at least a certain period of time. The results of the successful completion of this research will have wide application in specifying criteria for design of equipment which could be degraded by continuous opera- tion during certain adverse-condition periods. B. Mesoscale Variability to 60 Kilometers The objective of this research is to better describe the time and space variations, with- in the subsynoptic-scale, of temperature, pressure, density, and wind, to a height of 60 Kilometers. Some of this information will be used to solve problems involving supersonic trans- port (SST) aircraft such as determining fuel requirements during climb. There is a need for data on temperature variations through distances of tens to hundreds of miles in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere. For problems involving SST vertical accel- eration during flight at constant pressure altitude, there is a need for information on changes in geometric height of pressure sur- faces over short distances. For re-entry impact point dispersion, there is need for information on the representativeness of ra- diosonde and rocketsonde data over periods of minutes to hours and over distances of tens to hundreds of miles. 1. Mesoscale Variability up to 30 Kilometers Once each year during the five-year period, a series of radiosonde observa- tions should be taken at hourly intervals for a 72- to 96-hour period. Schedules should be arranged to obtain measure- ments during various synoptic conditions (deep low, high pressure, etc.) in dif- ferent climatic regions. Also, once each 40 year, a series of simultaneous radio- sonde releases should be scheduled from several locations, 5 to 200 miles apart, to determine spatial variability over short distances. Measurement should be made during various synoptic condi- tions and in different climatic regions. 2. Mesoscale Variability at 30 to 60 Kil- meters Once a month (or once every 4 months) a series of meteorological rocket firings should be scheduled to obtain wind, temperature, and density measurements at three-hour intervals throughout a 24- hour period in the region between 30 and 60 km. Such firings should be scheduled at several locations. 3. Wind Profile Details Detailed wind soundings (ROSE or JIM- SPHERE balloons) should be taken two times a day at a number of locations to obtain data for a climatology of small- scale properties of vertical wind pro- files. Time and space studies should also be undertaken to determine the persistence of the small-scale features. Observations should be analyzed to de- termine the most useful, valid, and economical methods of collecting and summarizing data. Obtaining represent- ative geographical data is limited by the availability of FPS-16 radars. 4. Wave Motions in the Wind Field Multiple rocket soundings are required to provide information on internal waves in the stratosphere and mesosphere which will cause turbulence-type ac- celerations to fast-moving aerospace ve- hicles. Smaller waves, approaching the turbulence regime, may not be de- tectable with conventional equipment. Smoke sensors are required to investi- gate this problem and define it further. APPENDIX I DATA PROCESSING AND ARCHIVING RECOMMENDATIONS I. Principal Element Data These data will generally consist of wind, tem- perature and moisture values at the surface and at prescribed height intervals for each network location and each reporting time. A. The system acquiring these data must estab- lish and preserve the time- space-element identity of each bit of data. B. Method of observation and data accuracy in- cluding instrument exposure, response char- acteristics and calibration procedures should be documented. C. The mechanics of data recording should be automated as much as possible. Direct digi- tized recording on magnetic tape is desirable. In addition, a central visual display of in- strument response is recommended for con- tinuous monitoring of the system. D. A data checking and editing program should be carried out concurrently with the data- acquisition phase to minimize periods of system failure. E. The final edited and corrected data should be filed on magnetic tape in one or more for- mats, permitting rapid recovery. Considera- tion should be given to a dual system of filing: (1) by site location (station-time series) and (2) synoptically (time-station series). F. Programs should be available to recover data by selected time-space-element identifica- tion. G. Certain statistics should be computed and cataloged routinely as part of a uniform sum- mary of the data. These statistics might include maximum, minimum, mean, and vari- ance values, as well as selected time and space correlation coefficients. II. Auxiliary Measurements and Information From Within the Subsynoptic Networks This group may include standard surface ob- servations, radar observations, cloud photographs and radar records, and measurements of solar and net radiation, soil temperature and soil mois- ture. It may include information on surface roughness and cover classification, and a physical description of the network terrain and open water areas. It also should physically describe heat and smoke sources, showing periods of activity. Data should be filed in formats compatible with the basic data filing system. Image-type records 41 (sky camera, radar, satellite, etc.) may require special handling and filing. Consideration should be given to possible gray- scale digitization and areal rectification of these records. Aircraft reports, one-of-a-kind observations, descriptive information, etc., will require special handling and filing according to form and content. Con- sideration should be given to identifying and fil- ing these data and information in a "project log." III. Supplemental Data and Information From Within 300 Kilometers of the Subsynoptic Networks This group should include all available surface and upper-air synoptic data. It should contain reports such as pireps, rareps, and certain ana- lyzed charts (NMC-type) showing general synop- tic features relative to the subsynoptic network area. A. Synoptic data should be extracted from routine collections, then checked, edited and filed on magnetic tape in formats compatible with the principal element data. B. It may be desirable to file pireps, rareps, and other applicable observations according to the parameter observed (turbulence, thunder- storm-cell location, etc.). C. The selected charts probably should be pho- toreductions of NMC originals. These could be filed as part of the project log. D. Selected forecasts and records necessary for their verification are a special problem. The desired data-handling system will depend largely on the amount of data, as well as the form and content of the data, which the re- searcher must specify. APPENDIX J LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS R. A. Allen, Weather Bureau, ESSA CDR W. S. M. Arnold, U.S. Navy Project FAMOS Dr. M. L. Barad, Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories Dr. G. L. Barger, Environmental Data Services, ESSA CDR R. W. Bloomfield, USN, Joint Meteorologi- cal Satellite Program Office, DOD E. F. Corwin, U.S. Naval Air Systems Command Dr. G. P. Cressman, Weather Bureau, ESSA M. W. Edelstein, U.S. Naval Weather Service Dr. R. J. Englemann, Pacific Northwest Labora- tories, Battelle Memorial Institute Dr. H. R. Glahn, Weather Bureau, ESSA C. Harmantas, Weather Bureau, ESSA D. M. Hershfield, U.S. Department of Agriculture Maj. J. G. Howcroft, Air Weather Service, USAF L. F. Hubert, National Environmental Satellite Center, ESSA L. A. Hughes, Weather Bureau, ESSA Lt. Col. L. H. Johnson, Air Weather Service, USAF Col. J. B. Jones, USAF, Joint Meteorological Sat- ellite Program Office, DOD Dr. E. Kessler III, National Severe Storms Lab- oratory, ESSA Dr. W. H. Klein, Weather Bureau, ESSA Dr. C. W. Kreitzberg, Air Force Cambridge Re- search Laboratories Dr. R. M. Lhermitte, National Severe Storms Lab- oratories Col. R. F. Long, Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories Col. D. E. Martin, Air Weather Service, USAF A. L. Miller, U.S. Naval Air Systems Command Col. E. A. Moseley, 6th Weather Squadron (Mo- bile), USAF M. W. Mull, Weather Bureau, ESSA R. M. Nilsestuen, U.S. Navy Project FAMOS Dr. T. L. Noffsinger, Weather Bureau, ESSA V. J. Oliver, National Environmental Satellite Center, ESSA D. H. Pack, Air Resources Laboratory, ESSA Dr. J. P. Pandolfo, Travelers Research Center M. E. Pautz, Weather Bureau, ESSA A. D. Pearson, Weather Bureau, ESSA A. F. Pyle, U.S. Naval Air Systems Command M. E. Ringenbach, Weather Bureau, ESSA Col. P. E. Romo, USAF, Joint Meteorological Satellite Program Office, DOD Dr. W. E. Sangster, Weather Bureau, ESSA D. Saunders, National Severe Storms Laboratory, ESSA CDR R. C. Sherar, U.S. Naval Air Systems Com- mand N. Sissenwine, Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories CDR J. F. Sowar, USN, Aviation Weather Pro- gram Coordinator, FAA Col. L. A. Stiles, Air Weather Service, USAF K. E. Wilk, National Severe Storms Laboratory, ESSA CAPT P.M. Wolff, USN, Fleet Numerical Weather Facility 42 PENN STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES lllllllllllll AODDDTDTMljott