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 'ENTS 
 
 A Balanced 
 Marine Aquarium 
 
 The Biology of 
 Marine Aquarium 
 Fishes Collected in 
 Marine County, 
 Florida 
 
 A two-paper NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFC-59 
 
 January 1981 
 
 U.S. Department of Commerce 
 
 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 
 National Marine Fisheries Service 
 
The NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS series is used for informal scientific and tech- 
 nical publications, specialized reports that require multiple copies when complete formal 
 review and editorial processing are not appropriate or feasible. Requests for copies of 
 this Technical Memorandum should be sent to the Southeast Fisheries Center, National 
 Marine Fisheries Service, Miami Laboratory, 75 Virginia Beach Drive, Miami, FL 33149. 
 
 The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) does not approve, rec- 
 ommend or endorse any proprietary product or proprietary material 
 mentioned in this publication. No reference shall be made to NMFS, or 
 to this publication furnished by NMFS, in any advertising or sales pro- 
 motion which would indicate or imply that NMFS approves, recommends 
 or endorses any proprietary product or proprietary material mentioned 
 herein, or which has as its purpose an intent to cause directly or indirectly 
 the advertised product to be used or purchased because of this NMFS 
 publication. 
 
^^■ofccf 
 
 A Balanced Marine Aquarium ( P a g e i 
 
 Barbara Jayne Palko 
 Southeast Fisheries Center 
 NMFS Miami Laboratory 
 
 The Biology of Marine Aquarium Fishes 
 Collected in Marine County, Florida ( P a ge 2< , 
 
 Deb Hess and John Stevely 
 
 Monroe County Marine Advisory Program 
 
 Florida Cooperative Extension Service 
 
 A two-paper 
 NOAA Technical 
 Memorandum, 
 NMFS-SEFC-59 
 January 1981 
 
 U.S. Department of Commerce 
 
 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 
 National Marine Fisheries Service 
 
A BALANCED MARINE AQUARIUM 
 by 
 
 Barbara Jayne Palko 
 Fishery Biologist 
 
 Southeast Fisheries Center 
 
 National Marine Fisheries Service 
 
 Miami Laboratory 
 
 75 Virginia Beach Drive 
 
 Miami, Florida 33149 
 
 305-361-4251 
 
 Artwork by Craig Phillips 
 Director, National Aquarium 
 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 
 Washington, D.C. 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2012 with funding from 
 
 LYRASIS Members and Sloan Foundation 
 
 http://archive.org/details/balancedmarineaqOOpalk 
 
A BALANCED MARINE AQUARIUM 
 
 A balanced marine aquarium reproduces the natural environment as 
 closely as possible. Before the introduction of the balanced aquarium, 
 marine fishes were usually kept in systems separate from marine 
 invertebrates. The balanced marine aquarium, however, permits the 
 successful mixing of fish and invertebrates within the closed system and 
 has become increasingly popular in the past few years. It is more 
 appealing and the behavior of the fishes and invertebrates within the 
 system is more natural. 
 
 A marine aquarium that is set up and maintained for periods of six 
 months or longer without medication, chemical additions, or other treat- 
 ments is the mark of a successful marine aquarist. All you add are food 
 and water. The bottom medium may contain crushed coral, beach shell, or 
 calcified algae (not silica sand or colored gravel). The habitat of the 
 aquarium is made up of rock with living organisms on it, cured coral, 
 plants, and anemones (not plastic figures or ceramics). You should not 
 suffer severe losses from disease, and fishes should only need to be 
 removed when they have become too large for the system. Everything within 
 the system is compatible in its mini-habitat within your home. Does this 
 sound impossible? Well, it isn't. 
 
 In setting up a balanced marine aquarium, an important factor is 
 PATIENCE. A well-balanced saltwater aquarium cannot be established in one 
 day, but with patience, you will be rewarded by an aquarium that is both 
 beautiful and trouble-free. No single set of rules will guarantee the 
 successful setup and operation of a saltwater aquarium, for there is more 
 
than one way to achieve a well-balanced marine aquarium. Books and pamph- 
 lets are only aids. This pamphlet will show you one way. Success depends 
 on you and the amount of time you are willing to give to your aquarium. 
 If you do not want to be totally involved, then set up a large tank with 
 hardy fish that can survive without a great deal of care. However, if you 
 are willing to accept the challenge of some of the more delicate and rarer 
 tropicals, then you must be willing to give more of yourself. 
 
 Equipment - Basic and Optional 
 
 A saltwater aquarium should be all glass or plastic, no smaller than 
 20 gallons for the beginner. Remember, larger aquariums are generally 
 easier to take care of, but harder to set up initially. You must have a 
 sturdy stand or base that will support the aquarium, water, and habitat 
 weight. For a 30 gallon aquarium, the weight will be a minimum of 250 
 pounds. You should also cut a 1/2" thick piece of styrofoam the same size 
 as your aquarium base to be used as a cushion. Additional basic equipment 
 required are an air pump, check valve, gang valve, air line tubing, 
 saltwater undergravel filter, glass cover, and fluorescent light. 
 
 Optional equipment includes an outside power filter with dacron floss 
 and activated carbon or an ion-exchange resin, heater, an undergravel 
 power pump, and/or an ultraviolet purifier (preferably with the bulbs 
 above the water for easier maintenance and better efficiency). 
 
Combination glass, metal, and slate aquariums are still safe for 
 freshwater fish but should not be used for a marine aquarium, as seawater 
 reacts with the metal and slate causing rust and toxins that can kill 
 marine fish and invertebrates. The check valve is used to prevent back- 
 syphoning in the event of a power failure. The undergravel filter is used 
 to support the bottom media above a water column to assure good water 
 circulation thus enabling nitrifying bacteria to carry out their 
 biological role of breaking down waste and organic matter. Purchase an 
 undergravel filter designed for saltwater. The stems are larger and the 
 platform base higher than freshwater filters. 
 
 The undergravel power filter is a fairly new product and some data 
 indicate it improves the efficiency of the undergravel filter and sets up 
 a current in the aquarium. The outside power filter removes larger parti- 
 culate matter in suspension in the water. It is also used to pump the 
 water through the ultraviolet filter. This filter helps to break down 
 organics, as well as serving its two primary functions: control of 
 disease caused by microorganisms and maintenance of good water quality. I 
 believe the potential of the ultraviolet purifier has not yet been fully 
 realized. I feel my system lets me do more with a saltwater aquarium than 
 just regular filtration. It lets me put in more fish in one tank than 
 published formulas recommend. You cannot "overdose" a tank with ultra- 
 violet. All research data have shown that it does not change the water 
 chemistry. 
 
PREPARATIONS FOR SETTING UP AN AQUARIUM 
 
 Parental supervision should be considered with younger hobbyists 
 because the combination of salt water and electricity can lead to some 
 shocking experiences! 
 
 One of the first steps in setting up any new marine aquarium is to 
 collect reliable seawater. If you live near the ocean, you can collect 
 natural seawater. When you collect seawater from a shoreline or off a 
 bridge (as opposed to collecting offshore by boat), collect at high tide 
 and be sure to filter and age the water before using. 
 
 Filter the water by running it through dacron floss and/or coffee 
 filter paper, or a comparable finely meshed material. Age the water in 
 the dark in a covered container for two weeks without aeration. Aging 
 helps to kill many of the algae and microorganisms present in natural 
 seawater. 
 
 You can also make seawater by using one of the many brands of arti- 
 ficial sea salts on the market. When mixing artificial salts, use a 5 
 gallon bucket of warm tap water to help dissolve the salts more readily. 
 Pour the dissolved salts into your empty aquarium and add the rest of your 
 tap water to bring the level within 4 inches of the top of the aquarium. 
 
 The use of natural or artificial seawater is an area of debate with 
 aquarists. Artificial seawater is easier to mix than natural seawater is 
 to collect, and it is no longer as expensive as it used to be. Also, 
 reliable brands of sea salts eliminate most of the unknowns, especially 
 disease organisms and parasites, which are present in natural seawater. 
 In addition, it does not have to be filtered or aged before use. 
 
The bottom medium for saltwater should be some type of carbonate 
 that prevents a dangerously low pH by maintaining the water in close 
 association with calcium carbonate. Low pH (an acidic condition) is 
 caused by oxidation, carbon dioxide production by the fish and other mar- 
 ine animals, and by bacterial action. I prefer crushed shell for aquar- 
 iums with jawfish (they construct burrows in the shell) and calcified 
 algae and crushed coral (available commercially) for other aquariums. 
 Dolomite can also be used, but is not as desirable a carbonate. 
 
 If you collect your bottom media yourself, you will need to purify 
 it. The same is true if you collect your own habitat (conch shells or 
 Florida oolite rocks). Bottom media purchased in pet stores need not be 
 purified, only rinsed before use. The same techniques are used for puri- 
 fication of both bottom media and habitat. You want to kill all organisms 
 on the collected material, so when you add it to your aquarium it is 
 "sterile." All media should be gathered below the low tide line to avoid 
 contamination. The shell can be screened to size at the beach. Use a 
 mesh or net with a size between 1/4 and 1/2 inch. Shell smaller than 1/4 
 inches is undesirable because it can plug up the undergravel filter leav- 
 ing pockets barren of the much needed nitrifying bacteria. Eliminate 
 shells over 1 inch, except for accents. Remember, when using large shells 
 for accent, such as conchs or helmets, be sure they are cut to allow a 
 good flow of water through them. If the water does not circulate com- 
 pletely through these shells, gases can build up and be released into the 
 aquarium and cause mortalities. With a bottom media of crushed coral and 
 calcified algae, the size should be smaller. According to Dick Greenfield 
 
(1978)1 a 3-inch bed of 1/3-inch diameter bottom media will provide 
 twice the total surface for bacterial attachment than would the same depth 
 of 1/4-inch gravel in the same aquarium. To purify the bottom media, 
 using a 2-gallon plastic bucket (never use metal when working with 
 materials for any saltwater aquarium), add about six handfuls of crushed 
 shell to the bucket, flush with fresh water and agitate until the water 
 flows clear. After rinsing each batch, recombine the shell in a plastic 
 5-gallon bucket for further purification with bleach. (For those of you 
 who have trouble finding 5-gallon plastic buckets, try your local bakery, 
 donut shop, or fast-food restaurant. They bring pie and donut fillings, 
 pickles, etc., in these buckets and usually discard them when empty.) 
 
 Fill the 5-gallon bucket 3/4 full of shell and cover with fresh water 
 to which two cups of bleach have been added. Two days later remove the 
 water and flush the shell again in the smaller plastic bucket and spread 
 the shell in a thin layer on a sheet of plastic to dry. Let dry for 4 to 
 6 days. Your nose becomes your best test mechanism to see if the shell is 
 clean. Take random handfuls and smell. There should be no hint of 
 chlorine or "fishyness." When the shell smells clean, store it in plastic 
 bags until needed. When you put the shell into the aquarium, it should be 
 wet again with a quick freshwater rinse to eliminate any "clouding" of the 
 water. (Adding the wet shell eliminates any problems of "floaters" with 
 the smaller and lighter weight shells that sometimes do not settle to the 
 bottom of the tank when they are dry.) 
 
 1 Freshwater and Marine Aquarium Magazine, November 1978: p. 12-14, 
 90-92, 94, and December 1978: p. 12-14, 88-92. 
 
When cleaning rock, follow the same procedure. Be sure to soak the 
 rock overnight in freshwater to kill worms and other invertebrate that use 
 the rock as habitat. The next day, remove all worms and other inverte- 
 brates with tweezers. Let the rock air dry. Before any rock can be 
 placed in a marine tank, every piece of barnacle, sponge, algae, sand 
 coral, and other organic matter must be removed. Use an ice pick to chip 
 away any remaining organisms. After cleaning thoroughly, bleach the rock 
 as you did the shell, using the same proportions of water and bleach. Dry 
 and test by smelling. If you have missed any of the organic matter, it 
 should appear darker than the natural color of the rock. Reclean and 
 bleach, if necessary. 
 
 When choosing habitat rocks, remember to collect only those that are 
 free of iron and other metal contaminates, and those that provide dif- 
 ferent-sized holes for hiding. In Florida, oolite rock is fine. If you 
 cannot or do not care to collect rocks, you will find a good array of safe 
 decorative rocks in any pet or aquarium shop. Corals are protected by 
 both state and federal laws and must be purchased, not collected in the 
 United States. Check with local or state officials before collecting. 
 Some areas are protected for everyone's future enjoyment. 
 
PREPARING YOUR AQUARIUM FOR FISH 
 
 Before adding water, you must be certain your tank is well supported, 
 i.e., placed on a sturdy, strong base. (Remember for a 30-gallon aquar- 
 ium, your base must support a minimum weight of 250 pounds.) Check the 
 corners to see if the tank is level on all sides. The 1/2-inch thick 
 styrofoam board is placed between the aquarium and the base of the stand 
 to cushion the aquarium and prevent breakage from uneven stress. DO NOT 
 rely on the styrofoam to compensate for a warped base. 
 
 With the aquarium stabilized, add your seawater. If you are using 
 artificial sea salts, make sure your salts are all dissolved. Do not add 
 your undergravel filter and media until you have your sea water in the 
 tank. Fill the tank 3/4 full, then add the undergravel filter plates 
 (with the air line tubing measured and attached). Agitate all bubbles 
 from beneath the filter plates. Gently sprinkle the bottom media (shell 
 or crushed coral) over the top of the plates. Work carefully to prevent 
 smaller pieces from being forced into the slits of the platform. The 
 bottom media should lie on the surface without plugging the holes which 
 will inhibit the operation of the bottom filter, destroying the circula- 
 tion of water through the filtering media and causing pockets of hydrogen 
 sulfide. 
 
 Next add the habitat. Consider the requirements of the fish and 
 invertebrates you will place in the tank. Will the fish have sufficient 
 cover to help prevent aggressive behavior? Try to arrange rocks, corals, 
 and such so the setting appears as natural as possible. With the habitat 
 completed, attach all remaining parts of the mechanical filtering equip- 
 
ment. Air lines should be attached to the gang valve and that in turn to 
 a check valve on the air pump (to prevent back syphoning). The water 
 level can be topped off by gently pouring the remainder of the seawater 
 into the tank. Use a plate or your hand to lessen the force of the water 
 on the bottom media. Next, connect your ultraviolet filter to the power 
 pump, start the syphons on the power filter, and cover the tank. Lastly, 
 plug in the lights (fluorescent lights are recommended as they are cooler 
 and come in wavelengths that support plant growth). The system is opera- 
 tional, but not ready for fish. The aquarium needs time to balance its 
 biological filter. At this point, it requires a lot of patience to 
 proceed slowly, but a snail's pace, gives nitrifying bacteria in the 
 bottom media an opportunity to establish themselves at levels capable of 
 handling waste from the fish you will add. 
 
 There are bacteria in natural seawater and with time these will 
 multiply (but remember bacteria are slow growing). whether using natural 
 or artifical water, there are ways to introduce the needed bacteria: by 
 adding gravel from an established aquarium into the new one, by using one 
 of the commercial starters, (if you use a commercial starter, proceed with 
 caution - not all starters are alike), or by adding one hardy fish to the 
 tank. DO NOT add a freshwater fish and hope that it dies, rots, and 
 establishes a bacterial colony. The procedure doesn't work and instead is 
 a good way to foul a system, introducing disease. Instead try a damsel 
 fish. They are excellent starters, will feed on anything, are inexpen- 
 sive, and are very hardy. The natural wastes from the damsel will add 
 nutrients which in turn help to "feed" the bacteria. (I prefer to add one 
 
portion of dry food - just a pinch - to my new system a week before I 
 introduce my damsel fish. I let it fall to the bottom where it acts as 
 "fertilizer" for bacteria in the gravel.) To establish a balanced tank 
 with artificial seawater takes longer. Most experts recommend a three- 
 week cycling period as nitrifying bacteria multiply slowly, and lower 
 temperatures, acid water (low pH) , high salinities, and lack of calcium 
 slow the process more. 
 
 I hope you are a proponent of green algae (as I am). I must empha- 
 size how important algae is as a food supplement for some fish and as a 
 water conditioner for all fish. Here are some passages from Frank de 
 Graaf 's book Marine Aquarium Guide (1973) about the importance of algae: 
 
 "The saltwater aquarium (unlike the freshwater aquarium) can never 
 sustain sufficient growth of algae to absorb all the substances pro- 
 duced by bacteria. As a result, the aquarium water will gradually 
 accumulate far greater concentrations of all sorts of substances than 
 seawater does . . . While the presence of algae can slow down this 
 process, it cannot altogether eliminate it unless the hobbyist is 
 satisfied to keep just 1 or 2 fishes swimming among luxuriant growths 
 of algae . . . Nitrates, phosphates, sulfates and even ammonia — many 
 algae species absorb the latter in preference to nitrates — together 
 with other substances, are indispensable nutrients for algae; promot- 
 ing an optimal growth of green algae will thus help remove many such 
 substances accumulating in the tank . . . The presence of green algae, 
 on the other hand, is an indication that everything is shipshape, 
 since their growth is impeded by an excess of aromatic amino acids and 
 phenols as well as a low redox potential ... In addition to absorb- 
 ing organic substances and thus keeping the tank water healthy over a 
 longer period of time, algae play yet another role. By giving off 
 certain substances (extra-cellular products), algae considerably 
 influence and improve the general condition of fishes and inverte- 
 brates ... It is a fact that in tanks that contain luxuriant algae 
 growths or have an algae filter, fishes hardly ever get sick and show 
 a better growth rate . . . Algae are virtually indispensable in the 
 marine aquarium." 
 
 10 
 
The algae should be introduced during the 2nd and 3rd week. Leave 
 the tank lights burning continuously until the introduction of fish to 
 encourage algal growth. A good supply of algae before the fish are added 
 will encourage its continued growth after the fish begin feeding upon it. 
 There are several ways that you can promote algal growth. I prefer to 
 take some scrapings from the glass of an established tank, and spread the 
 pieces on rocks in the new setup. You can also borrow a piece of "green" 
 coral or rock from a friend's tank and with a toothbrush, spread particles 
 of algae around your aquarium. There are several commercial products that 
 can also be used. Once the fish have been introduced, their waste will 
 provide ample fertilizer for continued growth. Remember, red and brown 
 algae will dominate over green. To prevent this, I suggest that you treat 
 all water with ultraviolet before adding a pure culture of green algae. 
 In addition to the single celled algaes there are other algaes available 
 commercially such as the shaving brush ( Penicillus sp.), chain linked 
 (Ha lime da sp.) and feather plants (Caulerpa sp.) which can be purchased 
 
 from your local pet store and planted. 
 
 11 
 
When the two or three weeks cycling period is over, and the bacteria 
 is ready for fish and invertebrates wastes, then it is time to choose a 
 community of fishes for the tank. The following questions are often 
 asked. How many fish can I add? Which fish are the most compatible? As 
 a very conservative rule, you can add one fish 1 inch or less for every 
 two gallons of water, but with the ultraviolet sterilizer and other 
 sophisticated equipment, and some consideration for habitat requirements 
 of the species you select, you have some latitude. The rule of 1-inch of 
 fish/ 2 gal. of water is not infallible. The weight and volume of a fish 
 increases between the second and third power of the length. That is, 
 a 4-inch fish creates a biological load in a tank closer to 4 times that 
 of the same fish 2 inches long. In short, you may be able to keep fewer 
 larger fish than size alone would indicate. If you plan to stock a tank 
 to its limits, proceed cautiously. If you try for the maximum number a 
 tank can hold, remember to add one fish at a time after you have reached 
 the conservative limit. The point at which you first get mortalities can 
 be considered the maximum limit. The fish you choose depends upon a 
 number of factors: the size of your aquarium, the type of tank you prefer 
 (fish, invertebrate, or both), the area in which you live. 
 
 12 
 
SELECTING YOUR FISH 
 
 As an illustration, let's assume that you are setting up a 30-gallon 
 tank and from that point of view we'll consider several possibilities, 
 always keeping in mind the habitat requirements and behavior patterns of 
 the fish. 
 
 Marine fish occupy all levels of the habitat from open water, coral 
 reef, grass flats, to the bottom substrate. When considering habitats of 
 marine tropicals, generally, jawfish are substrate dwellers, blennies and 
 grammas are rock dwellers, angelfish and butterf lyf ish are open water fish 
 that "hole up" in the rocks and coral at night, and damselfish occupy 
 whole territories of rock, water, and substrate! Behavior patterns and 
 habitat requirements are generally the same for both Atlantic and Pacific 
 species of the same families. Pacific fish, however, do better at a lower 
 salinity and a lower temperature than Atlantic species. They are also 
 considered by some people to be far more colorful than their Atlantic 
 counterparts. Because some of the marine tropicals such as butterfly 
 fish, rock beauties, and tangs have very specific dietary requirements, I 
 do not recommend their purchase if you cannot provide the proper foods. 
 When you begin choosing fish, make decisions slowly. There are lots of 
 available choices even if this is your first tank and if you proceed 
 slowly, it is hard to fail. 
 
 13 
 
One of the most popular groups of aquarium fish are the angelfish. 
 If you decide to put some angelfish in your tank - and they are an excel- 
 lent choice for beginners - be sure there is a definite size difference 
 between species. The most docile should be the largest and the most 
 aggressive the smallest. Also, if you are going to have more than one of 
 any species (example 3 pigmy angelfish, Centropygi argi ) , they should all 
 be added at the same time because certain species are aggressive especial- 
 ly towards each other. Keep in mind some of the angelfish are cleaners in 
 their juvenile stages and other species grow to be quite large as adults. 
 Angelfish habitat requirements and behavior patterns are similar. They 
 "hole-up" at night and during the day spend their time in front of the 
 rocks and corals. They like frozen brine shrimp, dried foods and live 
 green algae - basically an easy fish to get to feed. I would not suggest 
 more than 3 angelfish in a 30-gallon community aquarium. 
 
 Butterflyf ishes are generally less hardy and more difficult to main- 
 tain than the angelf ishes. Some of the Pacific species must feed on 
 polyps from specific types of coral in order to survive, while others .will 
 eat anything you put in the aquarium. Usually butterflyf ishes are not as 
 aggressive as angelfishes and thus should be the larger when both are in 
 the same aquarium. Three of the six species available from the Atlantic 
 
 14 
 
do very well in the home aquariums. They are the Atlantic long nose 
 (Prognathodes aculeatus), the reef ( Chaetodon sendentarius ) , and the 
 banner (C. aya). The spot fin (C. ocellatus ) , banded ^C. striatus ) , and 
 four-eye (C. capistratus) butterf lyf ishes are more difficult and 
 sometimes never start feeding well, if at all. 
 
 If you have a butterf lyf ish that is not feeding you might try using 
 an old bleached piece of coral (rose coral works very well), and mash a 
 small piece of raw shrimp into the coral and place that in the tank. 
 Don't put too much shrimp on the coral as it does spoil and can foul the 
 tank. If the butterf lyf ish starts to feed you can increase the size of 
 the shrimp to match the food requirements of the fish. Another method to 
 stimulate feeding is to add live brine shrimp ( Artemis salina) or frozen 
 brine shrimp thawed and soaked in an appetite stimulant. Up to three 
 butterflyf ish can be considered for a 30 gallon aquarium. 
 
 Other options for middle tank dwellers (besides angelfish and butter- 
 fly fish) that should be considered are hogfish, tangs, cardinalf ish, 
 squirrelf ish, and big eyes. These latter three are reef dwellers that 
 live under rock ledges during the day and come out at night. As a result, 
 they do not do well in brightly lit areas but are good fish in home aquar- 
 iums where ledges are provided. Tangs are herbivores in their natural 
 habitat. This means they are plant eaters and require algae in large 
 amounts to be happy and to do well. They will eat dry foods and frozen 
 brine but need algae to maintain color and proper diet. Hogfish, wrasses, 
 small sea basses and groupers (Serranids) all are good feeders and are 
 very hardy. Keep in mind, as serranids get bigger, they do develop a 
 taste for smaller fish! One to three of any of the many options from the 
 middle tank dweller will enhance a 30-gallon aquarium, especially since 
 they are so brightly colored. 
 
 15 
 
Fish living on the bottom are probably the most popular; good choices 
 would be found among the various species of jawfish and worm gobies. A 
 30-gallon tank can handle up to six. Jawfish are a good choice, add 
 activity to any tank, have been known to spawn in a community tank, and 
 are all hardy and good feeders. The most important consideration for 
 jawfish is the bottom substrate. Jawfish and worm gobies need shells or 
 coral pieces to structure holes in the bottom of the tank. If you use a 
 "soft" media, such as the finely crushed coral sold commercially, then you 
 must provide them with some decorative clam shells or flat rocks to hide 
 under. If jawfish are unhappy with their "home" they will go to the 
 surface and look for a way out of the tank. They usually succeed, too - 
 much to your distress! Bottom dwellers are also notorious for rearranging 
 an aquarium, moving bottom media, shells, plants, etc., to suit their 
 desires. If you don't want your aquarium rearranged regularly, do not put 
 jawfish, worm gobies, or other bottom dwellers in your system. Use hermit 
 crabs and brittle starfish instead. 
 
 Rock dwellers are also good and possibilities include neon gobies, 
 other gobies, basslets, clinnids, hawkfish, and blennies. The neon goby 
 is a cleaner fish and a pair can be both attractive and functional. They 
 will establish a cleaning station, much as in nature, and have been known 
 to spawn in a closed system. Another choice is the basslets, including 
 the royal grammas (Gramma lore to) and the blackcap basslets (G. melacara) . 
 
 16 
 
These are aggressive fish, especially among their own kind. If you are 
 going to put in more than one gramma or blackcap bass let they must all be 
 introduced at the same time. Once established, the first arrivals will 
 kill any new basslets introduced. Grammas live under ledges in your tank 
 and it is not unusual to see them swimming upside-down. Other rock- 
 dweller choices can be made as much on color as on species. Blennies and 
 jawfish are incompatible in the same aquarium and may create some pro- 
 blems, so you may want to consider one of the other rock dweller species 
 if you intend to keep jawfish. 
 
 Damsel fish are the one group of fishes that will live, grow, and 
 spawn in nearly anyone's tank. They are very hardy, almost indestructible 
 and do well in any system. If there is a drawback, it is that they are 
 aggressive and extremely territorial. You must remember to leave room for 
 them. If you plan to introduce damsels, remember that each fish requires 
 considerable bottom and rock area as a part of its habitat. Plan for it. 
 Some of the least aggressive damsels are the saffron (Eupomacentrus 
 planif rons ) , honey gregory (E. mellis ) , the salt and pepper (E. partitus), 
 and blue and green reefs ( Chromis sp.). If you add damsels, be certain 
 they are the smallest fish in the tank. You needn't worry about their 
 size. Damsels are very competent at taking care of themselves even with 
 fish ten times their size. 
 
 17 
 
Invertebrates can also be added especially the hardy species. Some 
 choices include banded coral shrimp, sea anemones, brittle and serpent 
 starfish, small hermit crabs (but not arrow crabs since they like to eat 
 fish at night), as well as many of the smaller molluscs and bivalves. 
 Invertebrates make for a more successful aquarium. Anemones aid water 
 quality by their filter feeding activities. Hermit crabs and starfish 
 make good bottom cleaners. They eat the food missed by the fish. Mol- 
 luscs such as flame scallops and spiny oysters are also good water filter 
 feeders while small octopus and live olive or margin shells burrow into 
 the media and keep it clean of large debris. All invertebrates add to the 
 basic balance of a saltwater aquarium as well as making a more interesting 
 tank. 
 
 A suggested grouping of fish and invertebrates for a 30-gallon marine 
 aquarium: v / 
 
 Invertebrates f 7&X } Fish 
 
 1 pair neon gobies 
 
 2 jawfish or worm gobies 
 1 cardinalfish or 
 
 hawkf ish 
 1 butterfly 
 
 1 hogfish 
 
 2 Centropyge species of 
 
 angelfish 
 2 basslets 
 
 1 pair banded coral shrimp 
 
 1 pair pistol shrimp with spiral anemone 
 
 1 small hermit crab 
 
 1 small starfish or brittle starfish 
 
 2 sea anemones 
 
 2 flame scallops 
 
 1 margin shell 
 
 Marine algae such as Penicillus species 
 
 Halimeda species and Cauleupa species 
 
 18 
 
Do not add all of these fish and invertebrates all at once. When 
 your system is set up and ready, you can add your algae, pistol shrimp and 
 spiral anemone, and starfish as well as your cardinal fish or hawkfish. 
 Ten days later add your hermit crab, margin shell, and sea anemone and two 
 basslets. Ten to fourteen days later, add the remaining invertebrates, 
 neon gobies, butterf lyf ish and hogfish. Add the centropyge species two 
 weeks later as they are the most aggressive of this selection. Remember, 
 before any fish is placed in your main aquarium, they should be 
 quarantined in a medicine tank first. 
 
 GENERAL MAINTENANCE, FEEDING, AND MEDICATIONS 
 
 No one knows precisely the best temperatures for exotic tropical 
 marine fish. Safe ranges are found hit or miss, but there are certain 
 guidelines that work and certain rules that keep problems to a minimum. 
 Both Atlantic and Pacific tropicals will do well in temperatures as low as 
 70°-75°F (21°-24°C), and in my own tanks I keep Atlantic tropicals at 
 temperatures between 80°-82°F (26°-27°C). The most important factor is 
 maintenance of a stable temperature - no matter what range. Daily varia- 
 tions of more than a few degrees should always be avoided. A 5 degree 
 variation can cause stress and encourage disease. Buy a good heater and a 
 reliable thermometer, and keep variation to a minimum year round. 
 
 Clean water is essential. Change the volume by 1/4 at least once a 
 month, especially in smaller tanks. The color of the water can be a good 
 indicator of the "health" of the tank. When it begins to yellow and lose 
 its crystal clear look, a water change is overdue. 
 
 19 
 
If you want to replace the water volume lost through evaporation, 
 remember one fact: the liquid has evaporated, but the salts remain. 
 Therefore, replace the lost volume with distilled or aged tap water. Use 
 your hydrometer to check salinity in the tank. The hydrometer will 
 indicate when the salinity has dropped enough to use seawater instead of 
 tap water. Optimum salinities are 1020-1025 at 75°-80°F. 
 
 Do not overfeed. I feed my fish and invertebrates twice a day, and I 
 believe it is better to feed small amounts more often rather than one 
 large feeding each day. The more you can vary the diet, the healthier the 
 fish will be. I prefer to feed frozen and live brine shrimp (both baby 
 and adult forms) daily, a dry food once or twice a week, and keep marine 
 algae in the tank. Marine algae and plankton (live, frozen, or freeze- 
 dried) are good food sources. They help to keep the colors of the fish 
 bright. In addition, algae is a necessary part of the diet of tangs and 
 parrotfish. Other foods to consider are chopped beef heart, shrimp, 
 oysters and clams, freeze dried foods such as krill euphausids, tubifex 
 worms, and micro- and macro-plankton (which includes rotifers). 
 
 When feeding invertebrates, remember that some are filter feeders and 
 feed only at night. I use live baby brine shrimp which I place in the 
 tank after the lights are off. Clam juice is good for flame scallops and 
 featherduster worms. Liquid fry and finely crushed dryfoods are also 
 
 20 
 
very good for gorgonians. With the continuing advancements in product 
 research within the marine aquarium industry, many companies are 
 developing foods and diets to maintain many more fish and invertebrates 
 successfully. 
 
 One of the most common calls I receive are from people who have 
 little white "bugs" crawling on the glass. The bugs are non-parasitic 
 copepods that occur where there is a high bacterial build-up in an 
 aquarium, often due to fouling of water by overfeeding. Shortly after the 
 copepods appear, the tank, may go bad and a fish kill might result 
 (although, fast preventative action can result in no fish loses). This 
 can be corrected by an immediate water change of at least 1/2 the volume. 
 As you change the water, agitate the bottom media to remove the excess 
 food waste. 
 
 Another common question I am asked is, "What do I do with diseased 
 fish?" Never medicate in your main tank. If fish are sick, remove them 
 to a "hospital" tank (a 5- or 10-gallon aquarium). 
 
 A medicine tank is set up with an undergravel filter, bottom media, 
 and habitat. A copper test kit is also necessary. Using the copper test 
 kit and your copper sulfate solution, stabilize the tank to 0.2 ppm (parts 
 per million). Copper sulfate will combine with the carbonates (your 
 habitat and bottom media); with each temperature and/or pH change, the 
 copper will go back into solution. However, some of the more recent 
 copper medications (such as Copper Power) stay in solution and do not 
 combine or precipitate out as readily. Copper can also distress or kill 
 invertebrates as their tolerance for copper is even less than fish. All 
 
 21 
 
fish (collected or purchased) should be held in quarantine for at least 
 one week before they are moved to your main aquarium. While under 
 quarantine, their food should be treated with a broad spectrum antibiotic 
 solution (such as INTRACURE, which is sold as internal medication in pet 
 stores) . 
 
 To make your own copper sulfate solution, dissolve 10 g copper 
 sulfate crystals (CuSO^ 5 H2O) and 3 g citric acid crystals in 100 
 ml of distilled water. This will make a 10% solution which is added at 1 
 drop/gallon water. Keep in mind that a 20 gallon aquarium does not 
 contain 20 gallons of water when bottom media and habitat have been added. 
 
 A cure commonly recommended is to increase the temperature. While it 
 sounds good, the advice is bad. (1) It puts the fish under tremendous 
 stress which means the disease gets a better foothold. (2) It does not 
 cause the disease to "burn" itself out in 5, 7, or 8 days as claimed. It 
 takes at least 14 days in high temperatures to stop most disease cycles. 
 In all cases, increased heat only compounds the problem. 
 
 There is an excellent book on the treatment of marine fish diseases, 
 Dr. Kingsford's Treatment of Exotic Marine Fish Diseases , which gives the 
 methods to cure various diseases, the duration of treatment, and the con- 
 centrations of chemicals required to effect a cure. 
 
 Remember that disease spots, wounds, and frayed fins do not disappear 
 or heal instantly. It will take 2, 3 or more days for the situation to 
 clear up and in some cases, it may require a second treatment a week later 
 to remove all traces of the disease. This is why an ultraviolet system is 
 important because it attacks disease causing organisms in the water 
 column, preventing them from passing from one fish to another while main- 
 taining good water quality. In addition, germicidal ultraviolet lights 
 
 22 
 
are capable of breaking down organic matter in the water without changing 
 the basic water chemistry, and you cannot overdose with ultraviolet. The 
 one important point to always remember is exposure to the germicidal 
 ultraviolet light can cause blindness to you or the fish and that is why 
 the light must be shielded when it is turned on. I run my UV system all 
 the time and replace the bulbs once a year. I feel it is the ultraviolet 
 that has permitted me to keep fish for 6-7 years without any medication or 
 special treatment and maintain more fish/tank than general filtration 
 calculations suggest. 
 
 The best way to prevent disease is to choose your fish carefully. If 
 you dive for your own, collect them from clean water areas and do a pre- 
 ventative dip and medicate them before you introduce new fish to your main 
 tank. Learn about a pet store before you buy fish. A good store owner 
 will work with you. You should expect healthy fish and long survival if 
 you place them in a balanced tank. If you can, be sure the fish are feed- 
 ing before you purchase them. Most good aquarium stores hold fish from 
 new shipments until they have been medicated and are actively feeding. 
 Remember that you have an obligation to your pet store owner, as well. If 
 you goof and do something wrong, don't blame it on the store. 
 
 One of the little tricks I do with store bought fish is in the manner 
 in which I acclimate them to my tanks. I float them in their sealed bags 
 in my medicine tank until I feel the water temperatures are both the same. 
 Then, I open the bagged fish and add some of my tank water to it - being 
 very careful not to get any of the pet store water into my tank, wait 15 
 minutes and then pour out and discard all the water in the bag, catching 
 the fish in a net and put only the fish into the medicine tank. Most pet 
 stores doing good business have two or three shipments or sources of fish 
 
 23 
 
each week and medicate their systems. I do not want any of the problems 
 they might have inherited from their shippers nor do I want their 
 medications to upset my tank, so I don't mix their water with 
 mine. There are lots of excellent marine disease treat- 
 ments on the commercial market. Try them and find 
 out which best serves your setup and situation. 
 
 Saltwater aquariums can be a rewarding, 
 satisfying hobby. There are more than 
 600 members of the Florida Marine 
 Aquarium Society in the Miami 
 area alone and there are 
 thousands of hobbyists 
 across the country who are 
 very willing to help and share 
 their ideas, techniques, and enthu- 
 siasm with you. 
 
 If you follow the ideas I've outlined, 
 you should discover the pleasures and joys of a 
 saltwater aquarium. And best of all, you should have 
 success with the fewest possible problems. 
 
 GOOD LUCK AND MUCH PLEASURE WITH YOUR NEW HOBBY! 
 
 24 
 
Books that Help. . . 
 
 Anemone fishes , Dr. Gerald R. Allen, T.F.H. Publications. 
 
 Anemonef ishes of the World , Dr. Gerald R. Allen, Aquarium Systems, Mentor, 
 Ohio. 
 
 Damselfishes of the South Seas , Dr. Gerald R. Allen, T.F.H. Publications. 
 
 Butterflyf ishes and Angelfishes, Vol. 2, Dr. Gerald R. Allen, Wiley 
 Interscience Publications. 
 
 Butterflyf ishes of the World , Dr. Warren E. Burgess, T.F.H. Publications. 
 
 Pacific Marine Fishes, Books 1-7, Dr. Warren E. Burgess and Dr. Herbert R. 
 Axelrod, F.F.H. Publications. 
 
 Caribbean Reef Invertebrates and Plants , Dr. Patrick Colin, T.F.H. 
 Publications. 
 
 Neon Gobies , Dr. Patrick Colin, T.F.H. Publications. 
 
 The Marine Aquarium in Theory and Practice , Dr. C.W. Emmens, T.F.H . 
 Publications . 
 
 Marine Aquarium , Frank de Graaf, Pet Library. 
 
 The Tropical Marine Aquarium , Vincent B. Hargreaves, McGraw Hill. 
 
 Treatment of Exotic Marine Fish Diseases and The Marine Aquarium 
 Compatibility Guide , Dr. Kingsford, M.D., The Palmetto Publishing Co. 
 
 Fish and Invertebrate Culture , Dr. Steve Spotte, Wiley - Interscience. 
 
 Marine Aquarium Keeping , Dr. Steve Spotte, Wiley Interscience. 
 
 Butterfly and Angelfishes of the World, Vol. 1, Roger C. Steene , Wiley 
 Interscience Publications. 
 
 Reef fish. Ronald E. Thresher, Palmetto Publishing Co. 
 
 The Saltwater Aquarium Manual. Dr. Robert Valenti, Aquarium Stock Co. 
 
 Tropical Marine Invertebrates of South Florida and the Bahama Islands , 
 Warren Zeiller, John C. Wiley and Sons. 
 
 Tropical Marine Fishes, Warren Zeiller, A.B. Barnes Publisher. 
 
 Monthly Magazines 
 
 Freshwater and Marine Aquarium Magazine, Subscription Dept . , P.O. Box 487, 
 Sierra Madre, CA 91024. 
 
 25 
 
THE BIOLOGY OF MARINE AQUARIUM FISHES 
 COLLECTED IN MONROE COUNTY. FLORIDA 
 
 by 
 Deb Hess and John Stevely 
 
 MARINE RESOURCE INVENTORY 
 MONROE COUNTY MARINE ADVISORY PROGRAM 
 FLORIDA COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE 
 
 26 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Paap 
 
 INTRODUCTION 29 
 
 1. CHAETODONTIDAE: ANGELFISHES AND BUTTERFLYFISHES 30 
 
 1.1. Description of the Commercially Valuable Species 
 
 and Their Biogeography 
 
 1.2. Local Habitat in the Florida Keys 34 
 
 1.3. Food Habits 35 
 
 1.4. Predation 36 
 
 1.5. Reproduction 36 
 
 1.6. Behavior 37 
 
 2. POMACENTRIDAE: DAMSELFISHES 37 
 
 2.1. Description of the Commercially Valuable Species 
 
 and Their Biogeography 37 
 
 2.2. Local Habitat in the Florida Keys 40 
 
 2.3. Food Habits 41 
 
 2.4. Predation 41 
 
 2.5. Reproduction 41 
 
 2.6. Behavior 42 
 
 3. APOGONIDAE: CARDINALFISHES 43 
 
 3.1. Description of the Commercially Valuable Species 
 
 and Their Biogeography 43 
 
 3.2. Local Habitat in the Florida Keys 44 
 
 3.3. Food Habits 44 
 
 3.4. Predation 44 
 
 3.5. Reproduction 44 
 
 3.6. Behavior 45 
 
 4. OPISTOGNATHIDAE: JAWFISHES 45 
 
 4.1. Description of the Commercially Valuable Species 
 
 and Their Biogeography 45 
 
 4.2. Local Habitat in the Florida Keys 45 
 
 4.3. Food Habits 45 
 
 4.4. Predation 45 
 
 4.5. Reproduction 45 
 
 4.6. Behavior 47 
 
 5. SCIAENIDAE: DRUMS AND CROAKERS 47 
 
 5.1. Description of the Commercially Valuable Species 
 
 and Their Biogeography n-j 
 
 5.2. Local Habitat in the Florida Keys 49 
 
 5.3. Food Habits 49 
 
 5.4. Predation £9 
 
 5.5. Reproduction £.9 
 
 5.6. Behavior 49 
 
 27 
 
Page 
 
 6. BLENNIIDAE: BLENNIES 49 
 
 6.1. Description of the Commercially Valuable Species 
 
 and Their Biogeography 50 
 
 6.2. Local Habitat in the Florida Keys 51 
 
 6.3. Food Habits 51 
 
 6.4. Predat ion 51 
 
 6.5. Reproduction 51 
 
 6.6. Behavior 52 
 
 7. LABRIDAE: WRASSES 52 
 
 7.1. Description of the Commercially Valuable Species 
 
 and Their Biogeography 52 
 
 7.2. Local Habitat in the Florida Keys 53 
 
 7.3. Food Habits 53 
 
 7.4. Predation 54 
 
 7.5. Reproduction 54 
 
 7.6. Behavior 55 
 
 8. GOBIIDAE: GOBIES 55 
 
 8.1. Description of the Commercially Valuable Species 
 
 and Their Biogeography 56 
 
 8.2. Local Habitat in the Florida Keys 56 
 
 8.3. Food Habits 56 
 
 8.4. Predation 57 
 
 8.5. Reproduction 57 
 
 8.6. Behavior » 57 
 
 9. DIVERSITY OF TROPICAL CORAL REEF FISH COMMUNITIES 57 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 60 
 
 10. BIBLIOGRAPHY 61 
 
 10.1. Literature Cited 61 
 
 10 . 2 . Additional References 68 
 
 APPENDIX A: DEFINITIONS OF GENERAL TERMINOLOGY 74 
 
 APPENDIX B: MAPS 79 
 
 APPENDIX C: COMMON PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 81 
 
 28 
 
THE BIOLOGY OF MARINE AQUARIUM FISHES 
 COLLECTED IN MONROE COUNTY, FLORIDA 
 
 by 
 
 Deb Hess and John Stevely 
 
 Marine Resource Inventory 
 Monroe County Marine Advisory Program 
 Florida Cooperative Extension Service 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Living in close association with coral reefs of the Florida Keys are 
 a wide assortment of interesting and beautiful fishes that are collected for 
 display in home or public aquaria. Exhibition of these fish in aquaria pro- 
 vide hours of entertainment, and for landlocked Americans, provides an 
 educational experience that would otherwise be unavailable. To many, these 
 abundant, brightly colored fishes, with their interesting behavoral patterns, 
 are an integral part of the beauty and fascinating biological complexity 
 associated with tropical coral communities. This paper presents a summation 
 of our current understanding of the biology of 8 major families (30 species) 
 of fishes that are of primary importance to the aquarium industry and which 
 are collected in the Florida Keys. 
 
 This task was primarily undertaken to provide a basis to evaluate what 
 we presently know about these fishes. This was deemed a logical first step 
 in addressing the question of whether increasing fish collecting would affect 
 natural abundance — a question being increasingly voiced by concerned citizens. 
 A description of the collection industry and preliminary analysis of its 
 magnitude has also been prepared by the present writers (Hess and Stevely, 
 1978, The Aquarium Reef Fish Collecting Industry of Monroe County: Monroe 
 County Florida Cooperative Extension Service, unpublished). 
 
 Summarizing and organizing all existing information on 30 species of 
 fishes was a somewhat taxing problem, and the reader will benefit from a few 
 pointers on how this paper can best be used. Because the use of non-familiar 
 technical language cannot always be avoided, Appendix A, an illustrative 
 definition of many technical phrases, has been included (parenthetical Roman 
 Numerals within the text refer the reader to the appropriate definition in 
 Appendix A). Maps showing the areas referred to in the Caribbean and Florida 
 Keys (Appendix B), and illustrations of invertebrates and plants commonly 
 mentioned in the text (Appendix C) are also included. Lengthy, detailed 
 information is presented in some sections of the paper. Therefore, the reader 
 not interested in such coverage may best be served by skipping over these 
 sections, or by using the paper as a valuable reference — providing valuable 
 information when a particular question arises. An extensive bibliography 
 provides those seeking additional information with a valuable introduction 
 to the available literature. 
 
 29 
 
1. CHAETODONTIDAE: ANGELFISHES AND BUTTERFLYFISHES 
 
 Angelfishes and Butterflyfishes are brightly colored fishes associated 
 with coral reefs around the world. Because of their beautiful coloration 
 and interesting shapes, they are popular aquarium fishes. Presently, the 
 angelfishes dominate the aquarium fish market in the Keys. They are among 
 the few species collected in these waters that can compete in popularity with 
 Indo-Pacific and Pacific imported fishes. Juvenile angelfishes exceeding 
 two inches in length seem to fare best on the aquarium market; smaller fishes 
 have very specific food requirements and frequently will die in captivity. 
 All angelfishes and butterflyfishes require small morsels of food, are slow 
 eaters, require clean salt water, and hiding places. 
 
 1.1 Description of the Commercially Valuable Species and Their 
 Biogeography. 
 
 The name Chaetodontidae is derived from Greek words meaning "bristle 
 tooth" or "hair tooth". These disc-shaped fishes have small protractile 
 (capable of being thrust out) mouths, with slender, brush-like teeth (III), 
 Two important subfamilies are recognized: Chaetodontinae (butterflyfishes) 
 and Pomacanthinae (angelfishes). Burgess (1974) elevated angelfishes to the 
 family Pomacanthiniae, leaving butterflyfishes as the family Chaetodontidae, 
 but the movement is still debated among ichthyologists. 
 
 Butter 
 of disrupti 
 near the ca 
 The colorat 
 through the 
 may confuse 
 prey during 
 the rear of 
 
 flyfishes and juvenile ange 
 
 ve coloration: prominent d 
 
 udal fin. This may be of c 
 
 ion breaks up continuity of 
 
 eye and the dark spot near 
 
 a predator. Since predato 
 
 attack, the predator, conf 
 
 the fish and misjudge the 
 
 lfishes have evolved an interesting form 
 ark vertical stripes and/or a dark spot 
 onsiderable adaptive significance, 
 shape, and more importantly, the stripe 
 the caudal fin (which resembles an eye) 
 rs frequently home in on the eyes of 
 using the spot for an eye, may attack 
 anticipated direction of flight. 
 
 Angelfishes 
 Queen Angelfish, Holacanthus ciliaris Linnaeus 1758 
 
 The Queen angelfish is purplish-blue with an orange-yellow trim on the 
 scales. Above the eye is a dark blue area; below it, a greenish-yellow area. 
 The mouth, chin, throat, and abdomen are purplish-blue. On the forehead there 
 
 30 
 
is a large distinct blue-edged spot (A), there is a bright blue blotch on 
 the gill cover (B), and a blue and black blotch at the pectoral fin base (C). 
 The paired fins are yellow, the caudal fin orange-yellow, and the dorsal and 
 anal fins orange with blue edges (D). The brilliant blue and yellow distinguish 
 it from all other angelfishes except the Blue angelfish, which is similar in 
 appearance but lacks the blue-edged black spot (A) and has a yellow rim only 
 around its blue caudal fin. Adults reach 46 cm (18 in.) in length. The Queen 
 angelfish occurs throughout tropical waters, including the southern Gulf of 
 Mexico, and from the coast of Florida to Brazil. 
 
 Juvenile Queen angelfish have three light blue bars on the body (A), and 
 two on the head (B). There is a dark band through the eye. As the fish grows, 
 these bands increase in number, then gradually disappear. 
 
 Blue Angelfish, Holacanthus bermudensis Jordan and Rutter 1898 
 
 The Blue a.ngelfish has yellowish-brown to purplish-brown scales with pale 
 edges. The dorsal and anal fins have blue margins (A) except the ends are 
 yellow. The caudal fin is yellow at the end (B), but darker toward the base. 
 The pectoral fins have blue at their base (C), a yellow band (D), and then 
 turn transparent. There is a large, prominent preopercular spine (E) and 
 several smaller spines which are all blue. The adults reach 46 cm (18 in.) 
 in length. The Blue amgelfish occurs in the West Indies, Bermuda, Florida, 
 and the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Juveniles have a yellow caudal fin (A), blue bars on the body and head (B), 
 and a dark area between the two bars on the head (C), as do juvenile Queen 
 angelfishes. The two can de differentiated by the second body bar which is 
 straight in the juvenile Blue angelfish (D) and curved in the juvenile Queen 
 angelfish. 
 
 Gray Angelfish, Pomacanthus arcuatus Linnaeus 1787 
 
 The scales of the Gray angelfish are edged in light brown, the larger 
 scales having a dark brownish-gray spot in the center. The caudal fin has a 
 lightish border (A), the inside of the pectoral fins are yellow (B), and the 
 dorsal and anal fins prolonged in adults and sub-adults (C). There is a large 
 spine on the preopercule (D) and the lips are white (E). The adult Gray 
 a.ngelfish may reach 50 cm (24 in.) in length. The Grey angelfish is found on 
 both sides of the Atlantic, on the western side from New England to Brazil, 
 including the Gulf of Mexico. This species has been introduced into 
 Bermuda. 
 
 31 
 
Juveniles differ tremendously in coloration. The young are black with 
 t\i/o light yellow bars on the body (A), and two yellow bars on the head (B). 
 The caudal fin has two yellow bars (C) with a black area inside. The bars 
 may be present in older juveniles even after the spotted brown adult color 
 is gained. 
 
 French Angelfish, Pomacanthus paru Bloch 1787 
 
 A 
 
 The French angelfish is primarily black; however, the scales of the body 
 are rimmed with golden yellow. The dorsal fin filament is yellow (A), the 
 chin whitish (B), and the outer iris is yellow (C). Maximum size for the 
 French angelfish is 41 cm (16 in.). The French angelfish is found on both 
 sides of the Atlantic, in the western Atlantic from the Bahamas and Florida 
 to southeast Brazil. This species has been introduced into Bermuda. 
 
 Juvenile French a«ngelfish strongly resemble juvenile Gray angelfish, the 
 body black with yellow stripes (A); however, the juvenile French angelfish 
 has a round black spot in the caudal fin (B) whereas, in the juvenile Gray 
 angelfish, this spot is rectangular. The center yellow nose stripe on a 
 juvenile French angelfish stops at the upper lip while it continues through 
 the lower lip on a Grey angelfish juvenile. 
 
 Rock Beauty, Holacanthus tricolor Bloch 1795 
 
In the Rock Beauty, the back half of the fish is black (A); the remainder 
 yellow. The front margins of the anal fin (B) and the edge of the gill cover 
 are orange (C). There are bright blue areas on the upper and lower parts of 
 the iris (D). Adults of this species attain 30 cm (12 in.) in length. The 
 Rock Beauty is found in Bermuda, the Bahamas, and from Florida to Brazil. 
 
 Juveniles of about 2 cm (1 in.) in length are entirely yellow except for 
 a blue-edged black spot (A) that, with age, increases in size until it covers 
 most of the body in the adult. 
 
 Butterflyf ishes 
 
 Foureye Butterflyf ish, Chaetodon cap is t rat us Linnaeus 1758 
 
 During daylight hours, the Foureye butter- 
 flyfish is light gray to pale yellowish on the 
 sides. Two sets of diagonal dark lines (A) cover 
 much of the body; a black bar cuts through the 
 eye (B); and there is a large white-edged black 
 spot in the rear (C). During the evening, this 
 species displays two broad, dusky bars on each 
 side, to blend into coral cravices where it hides 
 The Foureye butterflyf ish grows to 10 cm (4 in.) 
 in length. It is found from Massachusetts to 
 the Lesser Antilles in the western Atlantic and 
 in the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Spotf in Butterflyfish, Chaetodon ocellatus Bloch 1860 
 
 The Spotf in butterflyf ish has a white body, 
 with the dorsal, pelvic, anal, and caudal fins 
 yellow. There is a black bar through the eye (A), 
 and a large black spot in the dorsal fin (B). 
 A narrow yellow bar is located along the gill 
 opening (C). This species grows to 18-20 cm 
 (7-8 in.) and is the largest butterflyfish in the 
 Florida Keys. The Spotf in butterflyfish is found 
 from Massachusetts to Brazil, and in the Gulf 
 of Mexico. 
 
 Reef Butterflyfish, Chaetodon sedentarius Poey 1860 
 
 The coloration of the Reef butterflyfish is 
 white; however, the upper part of the body is 
 yellow. There is a black bar through the eye (A), 
 and a broader dark area near the tail (B). The 
 rear side of the dorsal and anal fins are rounded 
 (C). This species reaches 14 cm (5.5 in.) in 
 length. The Reef b utterflyf ish occurs from North 
 Carolina to Florida, in the West Indies, the 
 Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 33 
 
Banded Butterflyf ish, Chaetodon striatus Linnaeus 1758 
 
 The Banded b utterf lyf ish is white and has 
 the same diagonal dark lines (A) as the Foureye 
 butterflyf ish. In addition, two broad black 
 bars are on the side of the body (B) and a third 
 less distinct bar is in the rear of the body (C). 
 Again, a dark bar cuts through the eye (D) and 
 there are bands in the dorsal, anal, and caudal 
 fins (E). This species reaches 15 cm (6 in.) 
 in length. The Banded b utterf lyf ish occurs on 
 both sides of the Atlantic; on the western side 
 from New Jersey to Brazil, and in the Gulf of 
 Mexico. 
 
 1.2 Local Habitat in the Florida Keys 
 
 In the Florida Keys, researchers have described the habitat of angelfishes 
 (Feddern 1968, Straughan 1973) and butterflyf ishes. (Straughan 1973). Unless 
 otherwise noted, the following habitat descriptions are taken from these 
 studies. 
 
 Angelfishes 
 
 Feddern (1968) described five habitats of angelfishes in the upper Florida 
 Keys: 
 
 1) Inshore channel habitat : Fairly uniform rock bottom, a few sandy 
 spots, abundant growth of Finger coral ( Porites sp.), gorgonians, 
 and calcareous algae ( Halimeda sp. ) . Currents are swift during 
 flood and ebb tides, the water turbid. 
 
 2) Bridge pilings : Sandy or smooth rock bottom with sponges, algae, 
 coral, and other fouling organisms which occur primarily on the pilinc 
 themselves. Currents are extremely swift, water clarity is dependent 
 on the tide. 
 
 -^) Coral heads : Coral heads up to 3 m (10 ft.) across, 3 to 6 m (10 
 
 to 20 ft.) in depth with extensive sponge growth were sampled. Coral 
 heads were primarily Star coral ( Montastrea annularis ), a boulder- 
 like species that thrives in inshore areas (Hawk's Channel). 
 
 4) Reef top : Five to 8 km (3 to 5 mi.) offshore with 1 to 6 m (3 to 19 f 
 of water overhead. Bottom consisted of very eroded rock densely 
 covered with algae and gorgonians. There are many attached and en- 
 crusting sponges, and Fire coral ( Millepora sp. ) . 
 
 5) Deep reef : The deep reef occurs on a steep slope 18-33 m (54-99 ft.) 
 in depth. It consists of eroded rock with channels and supports a 
 dense growth of corals, gorgonians, sponges, and sparse algae. 
 
 Feddern commented on juvenile and adult angelfish distribution in general, 
 and pointed out that juveniles are commonly found solitarily in and around 
 
 34 
 
colonies of Finger sponge ( Neopetrosin sp.) and Fire coral, and that they 
 seldom venture into open waters. Adults are found around large objects such 
 as rocks, ledges, pilings, and coral heads, and swim more freely in open 
 waters. Causey (pers. commun.) has reported similar observations. 
 
 Queen Angelfish : Queen angelfish are common around bridge pilings, inshore 
 coral heads and on the outer reefs. Juveniles are especially abundant on 
 the reef top habitat. 
 
 Blue Angelfish : Blue angelfish are common in the shallow water and inshore 
 channel habitats (they dominate angelfish populations present on bridge 
 pilings) and are common on coral heads and the outer reefs. Straughan (1973) 
 reported the highest concentrations of angelfishes on the bridge pilings. 
 
 Gray Angelfish : Gray angelfish occur on the bridge pilings; however, they 
 are most prevalent on the coral heads and nearshore patch environments. 
 This species occurs occasionally on the reef top and deep reef. Juveniles 
 can be found in the inshore channels as well. 
 
 French Angelfish : French angelfish occur on the bridge pilings and occur 
 occasionally in all other habitats. 
 
 Rock Beauty : The Rock Beauty is found in coral rocky areas, offshore in outer 
 reef habitats. It is also found in the mid-channel reefs (a shallow reef 
 area running through the middle of Hawk's Channel). 
 
 Butterfly fishes 
 
 Foureye Butterflyf ish : This species is found in shallow sponge flats and 
 around Finger coral as juveniles, as well as in Hawk's Channel, and around 
 Staghorn coral ( Acropora cervicornis ) as adults. In the warmer months, the 
 Foureye butterflyf ish can be found in extremely shallow water, especially 
 around the tong-spined sea urchin ( Diadema antillarm ) . This is the most 
 common butterflyf ish in the Bahamas (Bohlke and Chaplin 1968). It is common 
 and plentiful here in the Florida Keys from the backcountry (Gulf side of the 
 Keys) to the Atlantic reefs. 
 
 Spotf in Butterflyf ish : This species is locally abundant in shallow water in 
 the spring through fall, and on the outer reefs year round. 
 
 Reef Butterflyf ish : This species seems to prefer the 30-50 m (80-150 ft.) 
 deeper waters and is locally common on the outer reefs. 
 
 Banded Butterflyf ish : Like the Spotf in butterflyf ish, this species is found 
 in shallow waters in the spring through fall, and on the outer reefs. 
 
 1.3 Food Habits 
 
 Angelfishes feed primarily on sponges. Feddern (1968) described angelfishes 
 as the most important sponge feeders in south Florida. However, he found that 
 the percentage of sponge consumed varied with species and habitat, with the 
 
 35 
 
non-sponge portion of the diet consisting of algae. He further noted that 
 although the Rock Beauty, Queen, and Blue angelfish consumed primarily sponge, 
 the French and Gray angelfish consumed varying amounts of sponge and algae, 
 depending on habitat sampled. 
 
 Randall (1967) reported angelfishes to prefer sponges with siliceous 
 spicules (small glass-like particles, V) which are eaten successfully 
 because a tough mucous is secreted around the food mass to protect the 
 stomach. The two major types of sponge eaten by angelfishes have a low 
 spicule content relative to organic matter, reducing the spicule effect 
 somewhat, but they have a large amount of fibrous protein material in the 
 form of spongin, making digestion difficult (Randall and Hartman 1968). 
 
 Like adults, juvenile angelfish consume sponge and algae. However, 
 juveniles may also feed by picking parasites (IV) off larger fishes. This 
 interesting biological relationship is referred to as "cleaning" and is seen 
 in many marine animals (Holson 1969). Randall (1967) reported filaments of 
 algae and copepods in young angelfishes. Feddern (1968) found similar 
 stomach contents in adults and juveniles and reported parasite picking to 
 be a small portion of the diet. 
 
 The butterflyfishes, according to Randall (1967, 1968), fed primarily 
 on tentacles of polychaete worms and zoanthonians (colonial sea anemonies). 
 Alevizon and Brooks (1975) found that butterflyfishes fed primarily on 
 coral polyps. These fishes have long, thin snouts, well adapted to a 
 picking habit that permits them to snip coral polyps from the coral surface. 
 
 1.4 Predation 
 
 There are few reports of predation on angelfishes and butterflyfishes 
 in the literature. However, Dragovich (1959, 1970 as cited in Aiken 1975) 
 reported juveniles consumed by seven species of Atlantic tunas, especially 
 the Skipjack ( Katsuwanus pelamis ) and Yellowf in ( Thunnus albacares ) . 
 Randall (1967) recorded a Rock Beauty in the stomach of the Dog Snapper 
 ( Lut janus jocu ) . 
 
 1.5 Reproduction 
 
 Munroe et al. (1973) and Aiken (1975) studied angelfishes and butterfly- 
 fishes in Jamaican waters and found that, in more than 40% of the species 
 studied, reproductive activity was apparent in all months. Maximum spawning 
 activity occurred between December and March. 
 
 Many times in the literature, these fishes have been reported to travel 
 in pairs (Bohlke and Chaplin 1968; Randall 1968; Straughan 1973; and Aiken 
 1975). These pairs seem to form and reform; there is no evidence of a 
 permanent pair bond (Moe, pers. commun.). No large spawning aggregations 
 have been described. Straughan (1973) reported the Blue angelfish spawning 
 in the area of Finger sponge and dense beds of Finger coral, as well as 
 around large Loggerhead sponges ( Spheriospongin nesparia ). Straughan (1973) 
 indicated similar spawning habitats for other angelfishes and butterflyfishes. 
 
 36 
 
Since these fishes lack intromittent organs, fertilization is probably 
 external (Aiken 1975). There appears to be little movement from the home 
 ranges of angelfishes and butterflyfishes during spawning (Causey, pers. commun . ) 
 
 Aiken (1975) estimated the number of eggs in ovaries of seven species of 
 Chaetodontids and concluded that butterflyfishes produce more eggs per unit of 
 body weight compared to angelfishes. Number of eggs produced per individual 
 was usually in the tens of thousands. 
 
 Breder and Rosen (1966) reported angelfishes and butterflyfishes to have 
 pelagic (floating) eggs. Scotton and de Sylva (1972) found larval butterfly- 
 fishes in Gulf Stream waters. Moe (1977) reported rearing Gray angelfish and 
 confirms that angelfishes spawn smooth, pelagic eggs of 1 mm or less, and 
 have a three week pelagic larval stage. Hatching reguires 15-30 hours in 
 warm water (70 -80 F). The larvae are well developed upon hatching and can 
 feed themselves within two days (Moe 1977). Where the eggs and larvae travel 
 after release by the female is unknown. 
 
 1.6 Behavior 
 
 Starck and Davis (1966), from their studies on Alligator Reef, pointed 
 out, "Chaetodontids are active, diurnal (daytime) browsers (IV) all more or 
 less inactive at night". The Rock Beauty, Blue, and Queen angelfish rested 
 in holes and under ledges at night, were inactive, and only responded sluggishly 
 to divers. Several species of butterflyfish were also inactive at night, 
 but responded to divers. The Gray and French angelfish are more darkly colored 
 than the others and, therefore, can rest safely in more open locations, usually 
 next to a rock or large sponge. 
 
 Tagging experiments (Bardock 1958, Springer and McErlean 1962, and Moe 
 1972) have shown these fishes to have a small fixed home range. Wilson (1975) 
 defines home range as that area which an animal learns thoroughly and 
 habitually patrols for long periods. 
 
 Angelfishes and butterflyfishes are often sighted solitarily or in pairs. 
 Juvenile angelfishes and butterflyfishes remain close to shelter areas, drawing 
 back into crevices and holes as potential danger nears. 
 
 2. POMACENTRIDAE: DAMSELFISHES 
 
 The damselfishes are a family of small, tropical, inshore, and reef 
 dwelling fishes. These fishes are characteristically extremely territorial 
 in nature, especially during reproductive periods when males are guarding 
 eggs. Damselfishes are hardy aquarium fishes and do well in aquaria as long as 
 territorial species are separated to avoid fighting. Their hardiness, variety 
 in shape and color, and abundance, have made damselfishes popular among 
 collectors in the Florida Keys. 
 
 2.1 Description of the Commercially Valuable Species and Their 
 Biogeography 
 
 Damselfishes have one distinctive family characteristic making them easy 
 to identify from similar fishes: a single nostril on either side of the snout 
 (as opposed to the normal two), Bohlke and Chaplin (1968) reported twelve 
 species of damsel fishes occurring in the Bahamas and adjacent waters. 
 
 37 
 
Emery (1973) reported fourteen species at Alligator Reef. Eight species are 
 considered here. 
 
 The following descriptions and biogeographies are adapted from Bohlke 
 and Chaplin (1968) and Randall (1968). Juvenile damselfishes are, in general, 
 much more brightly colored and spotted than the adults. 
 
 Threespot Damselfish, Eupomacentrus planifrons Cuvier and Valenciennes 1830 
 
 Adult Threespot damselfish are brownish- 
 yellow with a large black spot at the dorsal 
 fin base (A). The juveniles are bright yellow, 
 with the large blackish spot faintly edged in 
 blue and two other black spots, one on the caudal 
 peduncle (B), and one at the upper dorsal fin 
 base (C). This species reaches 13 cm (5 in.) 
 in length. 
 
 The Threespot damselfish occurs from south Florida, Bermuda, and the 
 southwest Gulf of Mexico, through the Caribbean Sea and the Bahamas, south 
 of the Lesser Antilles. 
 
 Cocoa Damselfish, Eupomacentrus variabilis Costelnau 1855 
 
 /— C 
 \ ^^ The Cocoa damselfish has a bluish upper 
 
 \jp^U^£2E!s body (A), and the lower body is yellowish (B). 
 
 ^w v^'- '• '• ■ ^*^7 ^-^ ^ ne fi ns are a l so yellowish except the 
 
 \>;dl?? \ U ; 4r^Io\ dorsal fin which is blue (C). There is a dark 
 
 ^^-lis> ^>3 \ spot in the dorsal fin as well. Juveniles 
 
 / \ have an additional dark mark on the caudal 
 
 B D peduncle (D). Maximum size in this species is 
 
 10 cm (4 in. ) . 
 
 The Cocoa damselfish occurs from Florida and the Bahamas to Brazil, 
 including the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Beaugregory, Eupomacentrus leucostictus Muller and Troschel 1848 
 
 C The upper body of the Beaugregory is blue (A), 
 
 elsewhere yellow (B). There is a black spot in 
 the dorsal fin (C) decreasing in size with age. 
 Large males are dark gray; their tail, however, 
 remains lightly colored. Scattered blue dots 
 and lines cover the head, snout, and upper body. 
 Maximum size in this species is 10 cm- (4 in.). 
 
 The Beaugregory is found on both sides of the Atlantic; on the western 
 side from Maine to Brazil, including Bermuda and the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Yellowtail Damselfish, Microspathodon chrysurus Cuvier and Valenciennes 1830 
 
 Adult yellowtail damselfish are very dark yellowish-brown with scattered, 
 small, iridescent blue spots (A). The caudal fin (B) is bright yellow in 
 adults, and almost transparent in juveniles. Juveniles are dark blue with many 
 large, bright, metallic blue spots, resulting in the juveniles often being 
 termed "jewel fish". This species reaches 19 cm (7.5 in.) in length. 
 
 38 
 
Like the Beaugregory, the Yellowtail damselfish 
 is found on both sides of the Atlantic; on the 
 western side from Bermuda, Florida, and the 
 Bahamas, to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Sergeant Major, Abudefduf saxatilis Linnaeus 1758 
 
 The Sergeant Major has two color phases; the 
 phase displayed being dependent on the habitat it 
 is in. When a lightly colored habitat, the body is 
 bluish-white, the upper body yellow; however, as 
 the environment darkens, so does the fish, assuming 
 a dark grey appearance. The Sergeant Major derives 
 his name from the five blackish bars that span the 
 body (A) in either color phase. Adults reach a 
 maximum of 18 cm (7 in.). 
 
 The Sergeant Major can be found in warm waters worldwide. In the western 
 Atlantic, this fish occurs from New England to Uruguay, including the Gulf of 
 Mexico. 
 
 Honey Gregory, Eupomacentrus mellis 
 
 The Honey Gregory is a smaller damselfish, 
 the adults growing to 6.3 cm (2.5 in.). They are 
 predominantly yellow, with blue bars and dots in 
 the head region (A). Variation in coloration 
 with age appears insignificant in this species 
 (Goodson 1976). Aquarists Stan Becker and Tom 
 Reid (pers. commun. as cited in Emery 1973) pre- 
 ferred this species because it holds its color in 
 aquaria while other similarly colored species tend 
 to fade. 
 
 The Honey Gregory abounds from the Bahamas and Florida, through the West 
 Indies, south of Venezuela (Goodson 1976). 
 
 Yellowtail Reef fish, Chromis enchrysurus 
 
 This species has two violet stripes near the 
 eye (A) and a yellow tail (B). The ends of the 
 dorsal and anal fins are also yellow (C). The body 
 is a bluish-gray color overall. This species 
 reaches 10 cm (4 in.) in length. 
 
 The Yellowtail Reeffish occurs along both coasts of Florida and south- 
 ward (Goodson 1976). 
 
 Blue Chromis, Chromis cyanea Poey 1869 
 
 The Blue Chromis is a bright blue fish with 
 black trim (A) on the upper body and the edges of 
 the dorsal, caudal, and anal fins. This blue color 
 helps this species blend into the blue Gulf Stream 
 waters where it frequently can be observed 
 schooling above the reef. This species has been 
 recorded to reach 13 cm (5 in.) in length (Goodson 
 1976). 
 
 39 
 
The Blue Chromis occurs from Bermuda, the Bahamas and Florida, south 
 through the Caribbean to the Lesser Antilles. 
 
 2.2 Local Habitat in the Florida Keys 
 
 Damselfishes are found in both nearshore and offshore areas of the 
 Florida Keys, primarily associated with coral heads and reefs. An important 
 morphological (body shape) variation can be used to differentiate the 
 habitat of some damselfishes. Emery (1973) found the rounder fishes with 
 shorter and more rounded caudal fin (I) live on or near the bottom (Threespot 
 damselfish), while those with more oval shaped bodies and longer, more pointed 
 caudal fins swim in large aggregations in mid-water (Blue Chromis), He 
 conducted an extensive study on damselfishes in the Florida Keys. This study 
 was carried out on Alligator Reef where four major habitats were examined: 
 1) deep reef; 2) reef tops; 3) back reef or lagoon; 4) patch reefs (coral 
 heads). 
 
 The following habitat data was drawn primarily from Emery (1973) unless 
 otherwise referenced. 
 
 Threespot Damselfish : Juveniles were rare inshore, but all ages were common 
 on patch reefs. Adults commonly occurred in deep surge channels; usually near 
 coral, the walls of caves, or an obstruction on the bottom. There are many 
 juveniles on the outer reef top just below the Fire coral zone. All ages occur 
 on the deep reef, with considerable variation in abundance. 
 
 Cocoa Damselfish : This species is the most widespread of all the damselfishes, 
 abundant in both offshore and nearshore habitats. Both juveniles and adults 
 are common on the deep reef. 
 
 Beaugregory : The adults, especially, were common in channels cut into islands. 
 
 Adults and juveniles were most common where calcareous algae ( H alimeda sp.), 
 
 rock caves, and conch shells occurred together. This species is rare below a 
 depth of 7.5 m (25 ft.). 
 
 Yellowtail Damselfish : This species occurred on patch reefs, but the greatest 
 concentrations were found on the reef tops, especially in the Fire coral zone 
 (which is in shallow water). Adults were more common in this zone in slightly 
 deeper water than juveniles. 
 
 Sergeant Major : This species occurred frequently around nearshore bridges and 
 seawalls, especially juveniles from 1.8-8.0 cm (0.7-3.0 in.). Juveniles often 
 remained in schools in restricted areas. Patch reefs support both juveniles 
 and adults, but the maximum abundance occurred on the reef top. Cummings (1968) 
 reported Sergeant Majors in tide pools and also drifting among patches of 
 Sargassum up to 32 km (20 mi) offshore. 
 
 Honey Gregory : This species was not reported inshore; most. often this species 
 occurred on the outer reefs, primarily on the reef top. Juveniles and adults 
 occurred in equal abundance on the reef tops, except in surge channels where 
 juveniles predominated. This species seems to prefer areas of dense cover and 
 small crevices. 
 
 40 
 
Yellowtail Reef fish : This species is a deeper water species. Emery (1973) 
 found large concentrations of these fishes at 45 m (135 ft.) on the deep ledge, 
 and juveniles around sponges in the sand-silt rubble area on the deep reef. 
 
 Blue Chromis : This species is abundant on the outer reef top, hovering in the 
 water column 1 - 2 m (3 - 6 ft.) above the reef. Maximum abundance was 
 observed on the deep reef, where both juveniles and adults occurred. 
 
 2.3 Food Habits 
 
 Damselfishes are omnivores (IV), many of them browsers (IV) feeding on 
 algae (although animal material often makes up a large percentage of their 
 diet). Food habits of this family appear to be strongly influenced by the 
 habitat in which the fish lives (Randall 1967), with species in a particular 
 habitat browsing on the most available food sources. 
 
 The Threespot damselfish and juvenile Sergeant Major eat primarily algae, 
 although sponges and anemones are also consumed. Juvenile Cocoa damselfish, 
 Beaugregorys, Sergeant Majors, Honey Gregorys, Yellowtail Reef fish, and Blue 
 Chromis rely heavily on plankton, especially copepods. Adult Beaugregorys 
 consume polychaete worms. Juvenile Yellowtail damselfish feed on nematocysts 
 (stinging cells) of Fire coral. Considerable variation occurs among all the 
 above listed diets. More detailed accounts of the food of these fishes are 
 given by Randall (1967) and Emery (1973). 
 
 2.4 Predation 
 
 Randall (1967) and Emery (1973) reported jacks, barracuda, and grouper 
 to be the main predators of damselfishes. 
 
 2.5 Reproduction 
 
 All damselfishes studied to date produce small eggs, individually attached 
 to a hard substrate (choice of substrate is species specific) and cared for by 
 the parent until hatching. It is likely that all damselfishes reproduce in this 
 same manner. 
 
 Courtship involves a series of looping motions around a cleared, well 
 guarded nesting area (Cummings 1968). The elliptical eggs are attached to the 
 substrate by a tuft of filaments at the base of the egg. The eggs are carefully 
 guarded day and night by the male for up to 8.5 days (Breder and Rosen 1966). 
 The eggs hatch into minute larvae 0.15 cm (1/16 in.) long. A free floating 
 period (3-4 weeks) follows, after which the fish settle to the bottom as 
 juveniles (Sale 1976). Much of the following data is drawn from Emery's (1973) 
 extensive damselfish study on Alligator Reef, Florida Keys. 
 
 Threespot Damselfish : Found nesting on large patch reefs. Although abundant 
 on Fire coral, it has not been observed nesting there. 
 
 Cocoa Damselfish: Nests located on the shallow edge of the outer reef. 
 
 41 
 
Beaugregory : Emery (1973) reported the Beaugregory nesting around islands. 
 Breder and Rosen (1966) noted it often placed its eggs in large, empty conch 
 ( Strombus sp.) shells, or utilized undersides of rocks and dead sea fans. 
 Females began breeding at 5.5 cm (2 in.) in length, and the breeding season 
 extended from June to August (Longley and Hildebrand 1941). 
 
 Yellowtail Damselfish : This species nests below the ridge of Fire coral in 
 areas of heavy algal growth. Breeding occurred from June to August (Longley 
 and Hildebrand 1941). 
 
 Sergeant Major ; Nests are found below the breaker zone in deeper, quieter 
 surge channels on the outer reef. Cummings (1968) reported these fishes 
 aggregate when not involved in reproductive activity. Stark and Davis (1966) 
 observed nesting year round at Alligator Reef, with a peak in the summer. 
 Males were found guarding from 4,000 to 84,000 eggs, the average female 
 contributing 20,000. Clutch size (number of eggs laid) appeared to be limited 
 by substrate (bottom) type. 
 
 Honey Gregory : Emery (1973) located nesting Honey Gregorys in the back reef 
 rubble area at Looe Key and Alligator Reef, Florida. 
 
 Yellowtail Reeffish : Reproductively active fish were found in August in the 
 Dry Tortugas (Longley and Hildebrand 1941). No other data available. 
 
 Blue Chromis : Feddern (pers. commun.) has observed the Blue Chromis with 
 sand nests and nests on hard substrate with low algal cover. Myrberg et al. 
 (1967) studied a closely related species, the Brown Chromis ( Chromis multilineata ) 
 These fish were reported to defend small areas around rocky ledges and 
 crevices 3-20 m (9-60 ft.) in depth year round. Group aggregations occurred 
 above these territorial areas, and females were observed to individually deposit 
 eggs on nesting areas prepared by the male. In one case, paired spawning 
 without group aggregations was observed. The eggs themselves were microscopic, 
 visible under a low power dissecting microscope. 
 
 2.6 Behavior 
 
 Damselfishes are characteristically extremely territorial (IV) with this 
 territoriality becoming pronounced during the breeding season. However, the 
 Beaugregory and Cocoa damselfish remain extremely territorial year round. 
 Thresher (1976), addressing the territoriality of the Threespot damselfish, 
 showed the size of the territory defended to be related to the type of food 
 eaten by the invader. Protection of the eggs and shelter site are also 
 dependent upon territoriality. 
 
 Starck and Davis (1966) observed diurnal feeding in damselfishes. These 
 fishes moved into caves and crevices at night to hide (except males guarding 
 eggs, a duty they perform day and night). Emery (1973) observed the Sergeant 
 Major moving low in the water column as the sun set, schools breaking up, and 
 fishes assuming a dark color phase. Yellowtail damselfish dulled in color 
 and rested on their pelvic fins in crevices. The Blue Chromis also darkens at 
 night, moving into crevices. The Beaugregory, Cocoa and Threespot damselfish, 
 Honey Gregory, and Yellowtail Reeffish did not undergo color changes, but did 
 move back into reef crevices at night. 
 
 42 
 
3. APOGONIDAE: CARDINALFISHES 
 
 Cardinalfishes are nocturnal (active at night), reddish, large-eyed fishes, 
 associated with coral reefs in tropical waters. Because they are so numerous 
 and occupy so many habitats on the reef, Goodson (1976) has termed these fishes 
 "masters of the night reef". Their small size and interesting colorations and 
 markings have enabled these fishes to grow in popularity on the aguarium market. 
 Cardinalfishes demand a high water guality and prefer live food. Therefore, 
 they are not always successful in the home aguarium (de Graaf 1973). 
 
 3.1 Description of the Commercially Valuable Species and Their 
 Biogeography 
 
 Cardinalfishes are characterized by two well developed, distinct, dorsal 
 fins (I); one spiny and the other soft-rayed. They have a large mouth and 
 a rounded forked tail (I). The reddish coloration of these fishes is a common 
 characteristic of nocturnal fishes, especially on reefs. The red color enables 
 the fish to hide in crevices and blend into the shadows during the day. 
 
 Bohlke and Chaplin (1968) reported 18 species in the Bahamas. Livingston 
 (1971) reported at least 8 species on Alligator, Long, and Triumph Reefs. 
 Starck (1968) reported 17 species on Alligator Reef. Two species are considered 
 here. Species descriptions have been adapted from Bohlke and Chaplin (1968) 
 and Randall (1968). 
 
 Flamefish, Apogon maculatus Poey 1861 
 
 The Flamefish is bright red with a round, 
 black spot beneath the rear of the second dorsal 
 fin (A), a broad blackish, saddle-like marking 
 on the caudal peduncle (B), and a dusky spot on 
 the operculum (gill cover) at eye level (C). 
 The maximum length of this species is 10 cm (4 in.) 
 
 The Flamefish is found from New England to Bermuda, the Florida Keys and 
 the Bahamas, to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Barred Cardinalf ish, Apogon binotatus Poey 1867 
 
 Like the Flamefish, the Barred Cardinalfish 
 is bright red, but has two black bars on the body 
 (A). This species reaches 13 cm (5 in.) in length, 
 
 The Barred Cardinalfish occurs from Bermuda, Southern Florida, and the 
 Caribbean to Venezuela. 
 
 43 
 
3.2 Local Habitat in the Florida Keys 
 
 During the day, according to Straughan (1973), cardinalfishes hide under 
 ledges, or small coral heads. At night, they emerge into the water column to 
 feed. 
 
 Flamefish : Several investigators have reported the Flamefish to be the most 
 widely distributed of all cardinalfishes in offshore areas (Longley and 
 Hildebrand 1941, Stark and Davis 1966, and Livingston 1971). Livingston (1971) 
 found the daytime habitat to be holes and caves in and around the reef. They 
 occurred singly and in pairs and were often associated with the Long-spined 
 sea urchin. Flamefish have also been reported by Straughan (1963) to occupy 
 inshore sponge beds. At night, the Flamefish can be found out in more open 
 waters feeding, but they remain near the daytime shelter area (Longley and 
 Hildebrand 1941, Livingston 1971). 
 
 Barred Cardinalfish : This species is an offshore dweller, located in holes 
 and ledges by day and emerging into the water column at night to feed 
 (Livingston 1971). In the Tortugas, Longley and Hildebrand (1941) found this 
 species to be associated with Finger coral and ledges of other more massive 
 corals. 
 
 3.3 Food Habits 
 
 Cardinalfishes are almost all nocturnal, voracious (greedy eating), 
 carnivores (IV) according to Livingston (1971). They feed primarily on small, 
 swimming crustaceans (shrimp-like animals) in the plankton, small fishes, or 
 small invertebrates (Randall 1967). Migration from the daily shelter spots 
 during nocturnal feeding does not appear to be extensive (Starck and Davis 
 1966, Livingston 1971). 
 
 3.4 Predation 
 
 Randall (1967) reported an unidentified cardinalfish in the stomach of the 
 Trumpetfish ( Aulostomus maculatus ) and that the Graysby ( Petrometopon cruen tat urn ) 
 consumed the Dusky cardinalfish ( Apogon pigmentarius ) . Longley and Hildebrand 
 (1941) found the Flamefish in the stomachs of two snappers, the Gray snapper 
 ( Lut janus griseus ) and the Mutton snapper (L_. an a lis ) . 
 
 3.5 Reproduction 
 
 Cardinalfishes brood their eggs orally. This unusual technigue involves 
 incubation of the eggs in the mouth of the fish, typically the male. Breder 
 and Rosen (1966) reported eggs to be held together in a cluster in the mouth 
 by threads attached to each egg. This is probably an adaptation to insure 
 greater hatching success of the eggs since fish eggs are one of the foods of 
 many tropical fishes, and the cardinalfishes, as a rule, live in rather highly 
 populated areas of the reef. 
 
 Pair formation occurs during the winter (Causey, pers. commun.). Breeding 
 peaks from August to November and April to June (Powell 1975, Luckhurst and 
 Luckhurst 1977). Larvae and young seem to remain in the area of hatching 
 (Causey, pers. commun.). 
 
 44 
 
3.6 Behavior 
 
 Cardinalfishes are slow, awkward swimmers (Livingston 1971). Perhaps 
 this is related to their reluctance to leave caves and crevices during the 
 day. However, as darkness approaches, the cardinalfishes assume a lighter 
 color phase and move out from their daily shelter site (Starck and Davis, 1966, 
 Livingston 1971). 
 
 4. OPISTOGNATHIDAE: JAWFISHES 
 
 Jawfishes are warm-water fishes, living in vertical burrows that they 
 line with small stones or shells. These fishes can be fascinating in an 
 aguarium because burrows are established and often competition for stones and 
 shells to line the burrow follows. However, because jawfishes are a rather 
 retiring (shy) species, care must be taken to see that they get enough food. 
 Jawfishes have fared well on the aguarium market in the Keys, and the Yellow- 
 head jawfish is freguently collected. 
 
 4.1 Description of the Commercially Valuable Species and its 
 Biogeography 
 
 Jawfishes have large heads without spines or ridges. The face has an 
 extremely steep profile with large eyes, a very large mouth, and an elongate 
 body. In the Bahamas, Bohlke and Chaplin (1968) reported 5 species and Randall 
 (1968) reported 4 species. Starck (1968) found 6 species on Alligator Reef. 
 Only one species will be considered here. 
 
 Yellowhead Jawfish, Opistognathus aurifrons 
 Jordan and Thompson 1905 
 
 The body of the Yellowhead jawfish is light bluish- 
 gray, shading to bright blue in the caudal fin (A) 
 and rear of the dorsal and anal fins (B). There 
 are numerous pale blue dots on the body and fins 
 as well. The mouth, head, and back neck region 
 (from the head to the base of the dorsal fin) are 
 yellow (C). This fish approaches 10 cm (4 in.) 
 in length. 
 
 The Yellowhead jawfish is found in the Bahamas, Florida, Cuba, and the 
 Virgin Islands. 
 
 4.2 Local Habitat in the Florida Keys 
 
 Yellowhead jawfish live in colonies. Colin (1970) reported these fishes 
 prefer the seaward side of the reef, usually in depths exceeding 7 m (23 ft.). 
 The bottom must be soft enough to dig individual burrows. Colin (1970) described 
 three types of burrows, each being 13 - 17 cm (5-7 in.) deep: 1) under rock 
 burrow; 2) open chamber (which was lined with coral, but not roofed by a rock); 
 and 3) terminal chamber (made of an erosion hole or fracture in a large rock. 
 Ideal habitat, according to Bohlke and Chaplin (1968), is crushed sand over a 
 rock within reach of Turtle grass ( Thalassia sp.) and long-spined sea urchins 
 and having a strong current overhead. Jawfishes have been reported to occur as 
 deep as 45 m (135 ft.) in the Florida Keys (Bohlke and Chaplin 1968). 
 
 45 
 
4.3 Food Habits 
 
 Because Yellowhead jawfish feed on plankton (IV) certain restrictions 
 on its feeding are posed. These fishes spend as much as 90% of their daylight 
 hours in search of the small, widely distributed food items (Colin 1970). 
 Like most plankton feeders, the Yellou/head jawfish detects all of its prey 
 with its eyes. The use of eyesight for picking food particles has resulted in 
 the development of binocular vision (using both eyes at the same time, whereas 
 many fishes utilize monocular vision: the use of one eye to focus on an object). 
 Binocular vision greatly enhances depth perception; however, this vision is 
 restricted to daylight hours (Colin 1970). Bohlke and Thomas (1961) have 
 postulated that the tear-drop shaped eye of jawfish, along with special ligament 
 development, are adapted to provide the sharp eyesight required for a hovering, 
 plankton-feeding existence. The eyes of jawfishes are located so that bi- 
 nocular vision can be obtained while the fish hovers upward in his burrow. 
 Colin (1970) recorded a horizontal feeding range of about 1 m (3 ft.) and a 
 vertical range of 1.5 m (5 ft.) from the burrow. 
 
 Randall (1967) reported that copepods were the primary food of the Yellow- 
 head jawfish (85% of stomach contents) with shrimp larvae also being eaten. 
 
 4.4 Predation 
 
 Colin (1970, 1971) reported on reactions of Yellowhead jawfish to other 
 fishes swimming near, over, and around their burrows. The Nassau grouper 
 ( Epinephelus striatus ), Yellowtail snapper ( Qcyurus chrysurus ) and Margate 
 ( Haemulon album ) caused the most severe retreat reactions by the jawfishes. 
 Randall (1967) reported 2 jawfish in the stomach of the Southern Stingray 
 ( Dasystis americana ). Colin (1971) speculated on several species as potential 
 predators: the 3 mentioned above, plus Sand tilefish ( Malacanthus plumieri ), 
 Slippery Dick ( Halichoeres bivitatus ) , and the Yellowhead wrasse (]H. garno t i ) . 
 
 4.5 Reproduction 
 
 Jawfishes spawn from spring through late summer (Colin 1970). Mayo (pers. 
 commun. as cited in Colin 1970) described a short larval life (1 month) after 
 which the young (which are unusually large upon hatching) settled to a 
 burrowing habitat. The larvae and young remain near the area of hatching 
 (Causey, pers. commun.). Females produce 1500 eggs, which are orally brooded 
 by the male (Colin 1970). 
 
 Leong (1967) described pair formation and spawning of the Yellowhead jaw- 
 fish. Pair formation involved a male leading a female into a prepared burrow. 
 This was accomplished by the male swimming high in the water and performing 
 attractive movements (displays) for the female. If successful, the male 
 attracted the female out of her burrow and together they would descend into a 
 third burrow (the male tail first and the female head first). This pair formation 
 occurred long before spawning, and once performed, the two formed a pair, 
 permitting one another into their respective burrows. A pair will defend a 
 burrow area (each pair defends 2 or more burrows) against a third intruder during 
 breeding season. Sex partners are permitted to enter one anothers' territory 
 and burrow without fighting. 
 
 46 
 
Before spawning, the male enters the female's burrow more frequently, but 
 neither remain together long. Courtship displays are similar to pair formation 
 with the male attracting the female into his burrow. After spawning, the 
 female departs. The male incubates the eggs orally, rotating them for aeration, 
 and depositing them on the burrow bottom during feeding periods. During this 
 incubation period, the female is banned from the male's burrow, but the male is 
 permitted in the burrow of the female. 
 
 4.6 Behavior 
 
 Although jawfishes live individually in burrows, they are a social species 
 in that 10-20 burrows comprise a colony (Colin 1970). Jawfishes spend most of 
 the daylight hours hovering just above the burrow, but at night, they retreat 
 into it, and shut it with a rock (Colin 1971). The burrow is lined with rocks, 
 and the large canine teeth (III) of the jawfish have been hypothesized to aid in 
 carrying these rocks (Colin 1970). Stealing of rocks and other suitable 
 burrow liners are common in the colony. 
 
 Longley and Hildebrand (1941) described the threat response of jawfishes, 
 "On the approach of danger, they settle down tailfirst, and in an emergency, 
 they dart in headfirst." Jawfishes were reported as territorial, but Colin 
 (1971) found them not to be as forceful as damself ishes, defending themselves 
 only against smaller or similar sized fishes. 
 
 5. SCIAENIDAE: DRUMS AND CROAKERS 
 
 Drums and croakers are so named because of their ability to produce sound 
 with the muscles of the swim bladder (IX), this organ acting as a resonance 
 chamber. The reef dwelling drums discussed below are impressive, especially 
 juveniles, whose first dorsal fin (I) is elevated and may extend beyond the 
 caudal fin. These fishes (especially the Jackknife and Spotted drum) present 
 several problems for the hobbyist: 1) they require plenty of space; 2) they 
 are finicky eaters; and 3) they seem prone to skin diseases (de Graaf 1973). 
 However, the time spent in maintaining these fishes is well worth the investment 
 if their beauty is considered. 
 
 5.1 Description of the Commercially Valuable Species and Their 
 Biogeography 
 
 This family of fishes is characterized by two distinct dorsal fins (I) 
 barely connected at the base. The first dorsal is elevated. This may deter 
 predators since a large mouth would be required to swallow the fish whole. 
 Bohlke and Chaplin (1968), and Randall (1968) reported 4 species in the Bahamas. 
 Starck (1968) reported 7 species on Alligator Reef. Three species are 
 considered here. Species descriptions are adapted from Bohlke and Chaplin 
 (1968) and Randall (1968). 
 
 47 
 
High Hat, Equetus acuminatus Bloch and Schneider 1801 
 
 C 
 
 The High Hat has a series of dark brown and white stripes, the dark stripes 
 alternating in width from a narrow to broad (A). Young fish have fewer stripes 
 (B). The first dorsal fin is elevated (C), especially in juveniles, in which 
 it is elongated as well. 
 
 The High Hat occurs from Bermuda and North Carolina south to Rio de 
 Janeiro, and in the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Jackknife Fish, Equetus lanceolatus Linnaeus 1758 
 
 The Jackknife fish is gray with 3 white-edged dark brown to black bands 
 (A). The juveniles are impressive with elongated first dorsal fins (B) 
 (Goodson 1976). This species reaches 23 cm (9 in.) in length. 
 
 The Jackknife fish has been reported from Bermuda and South Carolina to 
 Brazil. 
 
 Spotted Drum, Equetus punctatus Bloch and Schneider 1801 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 The Spotted drum is grayish-white with several brown to black bars on the 
 body (A). The second dorsal fin, anal fin, and caudal fin are dark brown with 
 white spots (B). Juveniles have no spotting. This species is the largest 
 drum discussed, with adults reaching 26 cm (10.5 in.) in length. 
 
 The Spotted drum occurs from southern Florida to the West Indies. 
 
 48 
 
5.2 Local Habitat in the Florida Keys 
 
 During the day, these fish hide in small groups under ledges or coral 
 heads (Randall 1968). High Hats are often reported around rocks, sand, Turtle 
 grass, coral, or combinations of these (Straughan 1973). The High Hat is almost 
 always present on shallow reefs surrounded by seagrasses (Straughan 1973). 
 High Hats are the hardiest of the 3 species, and are often found inshore, whereas 
 the Jackknife fish and Spotted drum are restricted to outer reef waters. 
 
 5.3 Food Habits 
 
 All three species feed primarily at night. Nocturnal migration from 
 caves and crevices into the water column to feed is well documented (Longley 
 and Hildebrand 1941, Starck and Davis 1966, Randall 1967). Starck and Davis 
 (1966) reported nocturnal feeding to be solitary. Randall (1967) reported the 
 High Hat feeds primarily on shrimps and shrimp larvae, as well as other 
 crustaceans. The Jackknife fish also feeds on shrimps and polychaete worms. 
 The Spotted drum has the most varied diet, feeding on crabs, unidentified 
 crustaceans, shrimps, and hermit crabs (Randall 1967). 
 
 5.4 Predation 
 
 No information is available in the literature concerning predation on 
 any species of the genus Equetus . Consumption of the High Hat by the Ringed 
 anemone ( Bartholomea annulata ) in an aquarium has been observed by John 
 Stevely. 
 
 5.5 Reproduction 
 
 Goodson (1976) reported members of the genus Equetus to be permanent 
 residents on the reef, unlike other members of the Sciaenid family, that have 
 to move to estuarine waters to spawn. Consequently, this has extended the 
 range of the genus Equetus to the West Indies, Central and South America. 
 Longley and Hildebrand (1941) found reproductively active female Jackknife 
 fish from June through August, Munro (1973) reported ripe female Spotted 
 drums in April, July, and September. Breder and Rosen (1966) reported croakers 
 have pelagic eggs. Moe (pers. commun.) has raised both the Jackknife fish 
 and High Hat and reported a 3 week larval stage. 
 
 5.6 Behavior 
 
 As mentioned, drums are active at night. According to Starck and Davis 
 (1966) they often appear in groups of up to 20 during the day, but tend to feed 
 solitarily at night. Beebe and Tee Van (1933) pointed out a.permanence in 
 choice of habitat, i.e., individuals located in the same crevice week after 
 week. 
 
 6. BLENNIIDAE: BLENNIES 
 
 Blennies are small, blunted-headed, bottom fishes (Randall 1968). Beebe 
 and Tee Van (1933) described this family, "They seem to be the most intelligent 
 Bermuda fish by their actions and appearance. This is enhanced by hand and 
 foot-like use of the pelvic fins, and conspicuous intellitent looking eyes." 
 
 49 
 
Blennies are lively and inquisitive inhabitants of home aquaria, and require 
 small hiding places (de Graaf 1973). 
 
 6.1 Description of the Commercially Valuable Species and Their 
 Biogeography 
 
 The blenny family is easily identified by the continuous dorsal fin (I), 
 which is not broken into two parts as we have seen in most fish families. The 
 family Blennidae derive their name "comb tooth" blennies from their close-set 
 teeth (III) resembling a comb (Bohlke and Chaplin 1968). Eight species are 
 found in the Bahamas (Bohlke and Chaplin 1968) and Starck (1968) reported 5 
 species on Alligator reef. Three species are collected in the Keys. The 
 following descriptions are adapted from Bohlke and Chaplin (1968) and Randall 
 (1968). 
 
 Molly Miller, Blennius cristatus Linnaeus 1758 
 
 The Molly Miller is distinctive with its band 
 of cirri (I) on the head (A). Bohlke and Chaplin 
 (1968) reported these appendages to be helpful for 
 both "the systematist and presumably for other 
 individuals of the blenny species" to recognize 
 one another. Coloration varies from yellowish- 
 gray on the back, and bluish-gray to almost yellow 
 coloration on the side. There are numerous small 
 brown spots, some of which form stripes and bars (B) 
 
 The paired fins are yellow. The Molly Miller has been reported to reach 7 cm 
 
 (3 in. ) in length. 
 
 This species is found on both sides of the Atlantic, on the western side 
 from Bermuda, the Bahamas, and the Florida Keys to Brazil. 
 
 Redlip Blenny, Qphioblenn ius a tl an t icus 
 Cuvier and Valenciennes 1836 
 
 The adult Redlip blenny is dark, while pro- 
 gressively younger juveniles are lighter in color- 
 ation. There is a dark spot beneath the eye (A), 
 and there are red areas on the edge of the dorsal 
 fin, lips, and parts of the caudal and pectoral fins 
 (B). Because of different coloration in the 
 juveniles, and different body shape (torpedo-like), 
 the juveniles were once considered a separate 
 
 species (Bohlke and Chaplin 1968). The Redlip blenny reaches 12 cm (5 in.) in 
 
 length. 
 
 This species occurs from Bermuda and South Carolina to the Lesser Antilles, 
 and eastern shores of Central America. 
 
 Seaweed Blenny, Blennius marmoreus Poey 1875 
 
 The Seaweed blenny has a golden head (A) with 
 brown from the eyes to the caudal fin. Considerable 
 variation in the shading occurs. This species does 
 not have a series of cirri on the head, simply one 
 outgrowth (B). The Seaweed blenny rarely exceeds 
 7 cm (3 in.) in length. 
 
 50 
 
Seaweed blennies occur from North Carolina to Brazil, including the Gulf of 
 Mexico. 
 
 6.2 Local Habitat in the Florida Keys 
 
 Blennies may be found in tidepools, on rocky slopes, under boulders, in or 
 under shells, in grass beds, and around corals (Bohlke and Chaplin 1968). 
 Typically bottom dwelling fishes, they live in close association with rocks and 
 coral, sitting on the surface until danger approaches, then hiding inside 
 crevices and holes. 
 
 Molly Miller : Straughan (1973) reported this species to skip around the coral 
 reef, living in crevices in the coral. Randall (1968) and Smith (1974) found 
 them to be common in rocky areas near shore and in tidepools. 
 
 Redlip Blenny : Bohlke and Chaplin (1968) reported this species to prefer shallow 
 water on coral and rock bottoms, the deepest recorded species taken at 8 m (25 ft.). 
 The senior author has observed this species on inshore coral heads and on shallow 
 outer reef areas. Causey (pers. commun.) reported many blennies on bridge pilings 
 and in channels during the summer of 1977 following the January and February cold 
 spells. 
 
 Seaweed Blenny : Longley and Hildebrand (1941) reported this species to occur on 
 rocky tracts, and in dead coral, often making its home in the holes of boring 
 bivalves (clams). They also found them under a single rock in sand or a single 
 coral head in Turtle grass if shelter was provided. 
 
 6.3 Food Habits 
 
 Blennies are bottom feeders, eating primarily algae and detritus (decomposing 
 material) (Randall 1967; Overstreet, pers. commun. as cited in Smith 1974). 
 
 6.4 Predation 
 
 The only report of predation in the literature is of a Trumpetfish con- 
 suming an unidentified blenniid (Randall 1967). 
 
 6.5 Reproduction 
 
 The anal fin (I) has been used to sex blennies (Smith 1974). The first anal 
 fin spine in females is barely visible, the second is obvious. In males, these 
 two spines are flattened as pads, Losey (1969, as cited in Smith 1974) pointed 
 out that this pad may be a source of secretions of pheromones (chemical attractants) , 
 aiding in synchronizing spawning. The anal fin in males develops fleshy lateral 
 extensions during breeding periods. Wickler (1957, as cited in Smith 1974) 
 hypothesized these extensions to be useful in cleaning the eggs. It appears that 
 blennies produce demersal eggs which are guarded in cavities by the male (Randall 
 1968, Smith 1974). 
 
 51 
 
6.6 Behavior 
 
 Goodson (1976) described blennies as sharp-eyed and active. Gibson (1969, 
 as cited in Smith 1974) described the Molly Miller sitting up on rocks, propped 
 up on its pectoral fins, "The Molly Miller is able to maintain position on the 
 bottom, often in a vertical position in spite of turbulence and wave action. 
 Since it and most other blennies have no swim bladder (IX), it does not have to 
 counteract buoyancy. This alone, however, is insufficient to account for its 
 observed tenacity (ability to hold firmly) in clinging to rocks." The bracing 
 action of pectoral and pelvic fins aids in this support, but the split anal fins 
 (I) act as hooks to hold the fish in place (Gibson 1969, as cited in Smith 1974). 
 When approached, the blennies will guickly retreat and stare at intruders with 
 the large eyes mounted high on the head (for excellent vision). Starck and 
 Davis (1966) reported no sightings of blennies after dark. 
 
 7. LABRIDAE: WRASSES 
 
 Wrasses are a family of predominantly cigar-shaped fishes, usually brightly 
 colored, and often displaying several color phases. These fishes are often the 
 most numerous on the reef, and are perhaps, the most diversified family in body 
 form and size (Randall 1967). These fishes do well in aguaria, but reguire a 
 sand bottom as they freguently bury themselves at night. 
 
 7.1 Description of the Commercially Valuable Species and Their 
 Biogeography 
 
 Wrasses have small to medium mouths, thick lips, and curved canine teeth 
 (III) that protrude, causing a buck tooth appearance. They use their pectoral 
 fins for swimming. Bohlke and Chaplin (1968) and Randall (1968) reported 15 
 species in the Bahamas, while Starck (1968) reported 19 species on Alligator 
 Reef. Three species will be discussed. The following descriptions are adapted 
 from Bohlke and Chaplin (1968) and Randall (1968). 
 
 Bluehead, Thalassoma bifasciatum Bloch 1791 
 
 The Bluehead displays several color phases 
 during its life. The most distinct are the ju- 
 venile (yellow) phase and the adult (blue) phase. 
 In the yellow phase, the upper body and head are 
 bright yellow (A) with the lower half white (B). 
 There is a large, orange-brown blotch around the 
 eye (C) and a dark spot in the dorsal fin (D). 
 In the blue phase, the head is blue (A) and the 
 body green; these two colors being separated by 
 broad, verticle, black bands (B) with a bluish- 
 white band between (C). The blue phase fish are 
 always adult males, making up about 4?o of the pop- 
 ulation. Other color phases are juvenile and 
 adult fishes of both sexes. The Bluehead reaches 
 15 cm (6 in.) in length. 
 
 52 
 
The Bluehead occurs from Bermuda, the Florida Keys, the southern Gulf of 
 Mexico, and the Bahamas, south to Columbia. 
 
 Spanish Hogfish, Bodianus rufus Linnaeus 1758 
 
 The upper body is bluish- to plum-colored (A) 
 (In juveniles this color may cover the front half 
 of the fish); the remainder is yellow. The jaws 
 of the young fish develop a golden-orange color 
 which turns reddish with age. This species 
 reaches 38 cm (15 in.) in length. 
 
 The Spanish hogfish occurs in Bermuda, Southern Florida, the Gulf of 
 Mexico, and the Bahamas. 
 
 Spotfin Hogfish, Bodianus pulchellus Poey 1860 
 
 Juvenile Spotfin hogfish are yellow, with the 
 front half of the dorsal fin black. With age, red 
 areas develop on the upper two-thirds of the body 
 (A), lower sides of the body (B) , and caudal fin 
 (C). The lower half of the head and central body 
 (D) of adults are white, and the upper half of the 
 caudal peduncle, dorsal fin, and caudal fin (E) are 
 yellow. This species reaches 23 cm (9 in.) in 
 length. 
 
 The Spotfin hogfish has been reported from South Carolina to Southern 
 Florida and the West Indies. 
 
 7.2 Local Habitat in the Florida Keys 
 
 Bluehead : This species is most numerous on rocky or coral bottoms (Feddern 1965) 
 Goodson (1976) reported it in most offshore habitats including reefs, rocky 
 flats, reef sand, and sea grasses. 
 
 Spanish Hogfish : Feddern (1963) reported this species on coral reefs and rocky 
 areas, nearshore and offshore, as well as most rocky areas where the water is 
 flowing or turbulent. 
 
 Spotfin Hogfish : This is a deep water species. Feddern (1963) and Colin (1975) 
 reported it around coral and rocks in depths of at least 16 m (50 ft.). Spotfin 
 hogfish prefer vertical rock surfaces to level reefs and occur commonly on the 
 deep reef and ledges. 
 
 7.3 Food Habits 
 
 Compacted sand and rubble bottoms seem to be preferred by feeding wrasses 
 (Hiatt and Strasburg 1960). Hobson (1975) has observed wrasses hovering near 
 the feeding jaws of larger fishes that stir up the sea bottom, especially 
 herbivores (IV). The wrasses snap up small fishes and crustaceans as they are 
 driven from hiding. Bohlke and Chaplin (1968) and Randall (1968) mentioned 
 plankton as a food source for many wrasses. Randall (1968) found that juveniles 
 of several species are parasite pickers (IV). 
 
 53 
 
Bluehead ; Blueheads, like the cardinal fishes, are voracious (hearty appetite) 
 carnivores (IV), but unlike the cardinal, feed during the day. Randall (1967) 
 observed Blueheads swimming near the bottom, feeding on invertebrates with 
 hard parts (molluscs, crustaceans). These prey items were easily crushed by 
 well developed pharyngeal teeth (II). Apparently little effort is made to eject 
 these hard parts as they are present in the stomach contents. The canine 
 teeth (II), located at the mouth opening, can be used to remove gastropods 
 (snail-like molluscs) and other adhering animals. 
 
 Yellow phase blueheads, especially juveniles, have been reported to be 
 parasite pickers (Longley and Hildebrand 1941, Collette and Talbert 1972). 
 However, parasites picked from other fishes may constitute a very small portion 
 of the total diet (Longley and Hildebrand 1941). Collette and Talbot (1972) 
 mentioned the abundance of Blueheads on the reef, pointing out yellow phase 
 juveniles swarming in loose aggregations picking at small benthic and planktonic 
 animals. 
 
 Spanish Hogfish : The parasite picking behavior of young Spanish hogfish was 
 noted by Limbaugh (1961), Randall (1962) and Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1965 as cited in 
 Randall 1967). Adults have been reported to feed on crabs, brittle stars, 
 urchins, and molluscs (Schroeder and Starck 1964, Randall 1967). 
 
 Spotfin Hogfish ; No data was available on the specific food items of this 
 species, although Randall (1968) reported that juveniles are probably parasite 
 pickers (IV). 
 
 7.4 Predation 
 
 Bluehead : Randall (1965) reported a hamlet ( Hypoplectrus sp.) eating a Bluehead, 
 and de Sylva (pers. commun . as cited in Feddern 1965) reported Roughtail 
 stingray ( Dasyatis centroura ) consumed Blueheads. Randall (1967) found the 
 following species to have Blueheads in their stomachs: Trumpetfish, Yellowfin 
 grouper ( Mycteroperca venenosa ), and the Soapfish ( Rypt icus saponaceus ) . 
 
 Spanish Hogfish ; Randall (1967) reported the Spanish hogfish in the stomach of 
 the Schoolmaster snapper ( Lutjanus apodus ). Limbaugh (1961) reported the 
 Trumpetfish and Yellowfin grouper to also consume this species. 
 
 Spotfin Hogfish : There were no reports of predation on this species. 
 
 7.5 Reproduction 
 
 Bluehead: The Bluehead exhibits two types of spawning: aggregate and paired 
 spawning (Feddern 1965). Randall and Randall (1963, as cited in Feddern 1965) 
 described the aggregate and paired spawning as follows: 
 
 "The fish (yellow or white phase) usually concentrate 
 their activity over prominent rocks or heads of coral. As 
 many as 80 or more begin to swim more rapidly in one direction 
 and then another. As with parrotf ishes, there is a sudden 
 upward or diagonally upward movement which resulted in the 
 fish being a maximum of about 2 ft. above the rest of the 
 group. A small cloud of white could often be seen, indicating 
 release of sperm. 
 
 54 
 
Rarely were the large Blueheads present in the milling 
 aggregation of the yellow phase fish, and then they mostly 
 chased individual yellow fish. 
 
 On only two occasions was spawning by blue phase and 
 yellow phase females observed. After a very short chase, 
 the female fish darted upward with the male Bluehead and 
 they spawned." 
 
 Spawning occurs throughout the year, except in September (Feddern 1965). 
 Longley and Hildebrand (1941) noted a peak in spawning during August. 
 Goodson (1976) reported blue phase males spawned 40 - 100 times/day, with 
 each spawning period lasting about 1 week. Examination of ripe females by 
 Feddern (1965) showed between 800 - 3,000 eggs/spawn. Males and females over 
 30 mm (1.2 in.) participated in the spawn. De Boer, et. al. (1973) reported 
 many large blue phase fish participating in paired spawning to have reached 
 senescence (menapause) and to be sterile. Feddern (1965) also found some 
 large blue and yellow phase fishes to be sterile. 
 
 Little is known concerning reproduction of the Spanish and Spotfin hogfish, 
 although Moe (pers. commun.) has reported that male Spanish hogfish are twice 
 the size of females and that small eggs are laid during the summer. 
 
 7.6 Behavior 
 
 Most wrasses are active during the day, burying themselves in sand at 
 night (Feddern 1965, Randall 1968). Schroeder and Starck (1966) observed the 
 Spanish hogfish hiding in coral crevices at night. Adults tend toward 
 schooling, especially Blueheads, while juveniles are solitary (Feddern 1965, 
 De Boer, et. al. 1973). 
 
 8. G0BIIDAE: GOBIES 
 
 The goby family has more species (over 1,000) than any other family of 
 marine fishes (Colin 1975). Every general coral reef area in the western 
 Atlantic, except Bermuda, has at least one species of Gobiosoma (Colin 1975). 
 Gobies living in tropical Atlantic waters are rather unique in that they 
 display, according to Colin (1975) "unusual ecological and behavioral 
 adaptations." Several goby species are parasite pickers (IV) and set up 
 cleaning stations which many larger fish visit to have parasites picked from 
 their mouths and gills. The Neon goby is the only cleaning species commonly 
 collected in the Florida Keys and, therefore, is the only species considered 
 here. The Neon goby is a popular aquarium fish. Few fishes have better 
 adaptations to tank living. The Neon goby is small, brightly colored, easy 
 to feed, and is one of only a few species to breed successfully in captivity. 
 
 55 
 
8.1 Description of the Commercially Valuable Species and its 
 Biogeography 
 
 Most gobies have their pelvic fins joined to form a sucking disc, allowing 
 these fish to cling to corals, sponges, or rocks (Randall 1967). This family 
 is often confused with the blenny family (Bleniidae), but can be differentiated 
 by a continuous dorsal fin in the blenny family, and two dorsal fins in the 
 goby family (I). Of the twelve species of the genus Gobiosoma that occur in 
 the entire tropical Atlantic, seven are closely associated with corals, and the 
 other five with sponges. Six of these twelve species are parasite pickers (IV) 
 (Colin 1975). Bohlke and Chaplin (1968) reported forty-four goby species 
 (entire family, including the genus Gobiosoma ) , in the Bahamas. Starck (1968) 
 reported twenty-seven species on Alligator Reef. 
 
 Neon Goby, Gobiosoma oceanops Jordan 
 -\^ 
 
 The Neon goby is black, with a iredescent 
 blue stripe (A) through the body and a lighter 
 area beneath the belly and head (B). This species 
 reaches 5 cm (2 in.) in length. 
 
 The Neon goby occurs from Florida to the 
 Yucatan, including the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Local Habitat in the Florida Keys 
 
 The Neon goby has been reported in waters from 1 - 40 m (3 - 120 ft.) in 
 depth. This species (all ages from newly metamorphosed to adults) is frequently 
 found in association with corals or rocks. Colin (1975) reported the Star 
 coral and Large Star coral ( Montastrea cavernosa ) to be the coral species most 
 frequently having the Neon goby on their surfaces. The Neon goby was found 
 singly or in groups of up to 30 fish/coral head. Colin (1976) reported, 
 "populations of Gobiosoma sp. in limited localities do show some, often 
 considerable variation over periods on the order of the life span (1 yr.) of 
 individual fishes." 
 
 The fact that gobies can associate with corals is interesting. Corals 
 are carnivores, possessing cells within their tissues known as nematocysts or 
 stinging cells. These stinging cells release harpoon-like projectiles which 
 stab and kill prey. Barnes (1968) reported two methods of discharge for these 
 deadly stinging cells - one chemical, and the other physical. It appears that 
 the Neon goby possesses some chemical that prevents the discharge of these 
 stinging cells (Colin 1975). 
 
 8.3 Food Habits 
 
 Neon gobies are parasite pickers (IV), frequently termed "cleaners" (Darcy, 
 et. al. 1974, Colin 1975). Colin (1975) reported no competitive behavior among 
 cleaners, and all ages of fishes participated in cleaning. Using a snipping 
 motion of the teeth, parasites are removed from the host (fish being cleaned). 
 The entire body of the host may be inspected, including the gills and inside 
 the mouth. 
 
 56 
 
8.4 Predation 
 
 Several biologists have hypothesized cleaning fishes and invertebrates 
 to be free from predation because of their important cleaning function (Limbaugh 
 1961, Randall 1965). Detisle (1969 as cited in Colin 1975) performed some 
 experiments to test this hypothesis. One involved releasing anesthetized 
 gobies into the water column over a reef and observing the reactions of the 
 fishes in the area to the goby sinking. No predation was observed, although 
 some fishes did "pose" to be cleaned. 
 
 8.5 Reproduction 
 
 The Neon goby is one of only a few species of marine tropicals to have bred 
 
 in captivity. Walker (1977) has made available his technique to the home 
 
 aquarist, and this technique is summarized here. Neon gobies are "sexable, 
 
 small, fairly easy to spawn, and produce large, active young." The sexes can 
 
 be distinguished by the male's genital papilla (pointed organ just forward of 
 
 the anal fin), the female's ovipositer (in the same location) which is short, 
 
 blunt, and almost unnoticeable. The Neon goby is a "secretive spawner" (Moe 
 
 1975) and a shell or flower pot must be provided for the Neon goby to place its 
 
 eggs under. Gobies spawn naturally in the winter and early spring (Feddern 1967, 
 
 Colin 1975). These natural conditions can be simulated in the home aquarium 
 
 o o i 
 
 by maintaining temperatures between 70 -75 F and providing 7-9 hrs. of light/day, 
 
 Females average 250 eggs/spawn, but larger frmales may carry 300 - 500 eggs 
 
 (Colin 1975; Moe 1975). Larval Neon gobies changed into juveniles in 12 - 14 
 
 days (Colin 1975; Moe 1975). 
 
 8.6 Behavior 
 
 Neon gobies can be found on the sides of corals, both day and night, 
 although at night, with the coral polyps expanded to feed, the gobies become 
 difficult to see (Schroeder and Starck 1964). "Cleaning stations" are 
 established by the Neon goby (most often on the upper surface of brain corals) 
 and larger fishes come and may even wait in line to be cleaned. 
 
 9. DIVERSITY OF TROPICAL CORAL REEF FISH COMMUNITIES 
 
 The tremendous diversity of life living in association with coral reefs is 
 a characteristic of coral reef communities (a community being an association of 
 interacting populations) which is recognized by even the most casual observer. 
 The 30 species described here represent only a fraction of the total number of 
 fishes present. For example, Starck (1968) reported 389 species of fishes on 
 Alligator Reef, and Bohnsack (pers. commun . ) more than 200 species on Looe Key. 
 
 As would be expected, many biologists have pondered the question of 
 speciation, and why certain habitats have a more diverse fauna than others. As 
 would also be expected, considerable disagreement has arisen over whose 
 theories are right or wrong. A thorough discussion of the evolution of modern 
 biological thought concerning community diversity is beyond the scope of the 
 present paper. However, for those interested, a brief description of some of 
 the newly emerging theories specifically concerning tropical reef fish diversity 
 is included here. It must be recognized, however, that the following discussion 
 
 57 
 
simply presents some interesting ideas and preliminary findings, and does not 
 represent either proven theories, or a comprehensive review of all aspects of 
 speciation. 
 
 Smith and Tyler (1972, 1973a, b, 1975) were among the first biologists to 
 discuss diversity in coral reef communities. They hypothesized that fish 
 specialized to minimize competition for food and space, two critical resources 
 on the reef. Study of tropical bird communities let McArthur (1972) and Cody 
 (1973) to conclude that diversity could be explained in terms of resource 
 portioning (division of food and space) allowing more species in an area before 
 serious competition results. However, more ; recent research (Sale 1974, 1975, 
 1976, 1977) has revealed reef fishes with similar space and food requirements 
 coexisting (living together and sharing the same resources), not specializing 
 and dividing up the resources. 
 
 Several biologists have shown reef fishes to specialize into large habitats, 
 such as reef crest, reef flat, etc.; but upon examination, reef fishes with 
 very similar or identical food and space requirements coexist successfully within 
 these large habitats (Sale 1974, 1975; Sale and Dybdahl 1975). Root (1967) 
 has termed these groups of species utilizing the same resources a "guild". 
 Sale (1974, 1975) has demonstrated the existance of such a guild between 4 
 species of damselfishes on the Australian Great Barrier Reef, amd suggested 
 several others. 
 
 Existance of these guilds contradicts theories which suggest that high 
 species diversity is the result of extreme specialization. Thus, although reef 
 fishes specialize broadly into habitats, within habitats it appears that theTe 
 is neither specialization with xespect to food and space, and several species 
 of fishes with highly specialized requirements often coexist with other species 
 showing similar adaptations (Sale 1977). 
 
 Smith and Tyler (1972), Goldman and Talbot (1976), and Sale (1977) have all 
 found living space to be the resource most limiting the numbers of fishes on 
 reefs. Sale (1977) has also found living space to be unpredictable. Growth of 
 coral, wave action, silting, and shifting of sand and rubble can alter habitat, 
 suitable coral outcroppings or other required habitat is often widely and 
 somewhat randomly distributed. Large storms, also unpredictable, can drastically 
 alter the reef structure. Predators (which are unpredictable in time and 
 space) affect fishes that live in a habitat. Sale (1977) has hypothesized this 
 unpredictability of living space (habitat) to be important to reef fishes. He 
 states, "In a situation in which the supply of living space is limited and 
 vacant living space is unpredictable in time and space, the production of 
 numerous offspring scattered widely in space and time appears to be the only 
 satisfactory way of getting some offspring successfully to living sites. 
 Similarly, successful offspring should stay put." 
 
 Numerous studies on reproduction in coral reef fishes have been undertaken 
 in the last few years (Munro, et. al . 1973; Powell 1975; Sale and Dubdahl 1975; 
 and Luckhurst and Luckhurst 1977). All observed seasonal peaks in reproduction 
 
 58 
 
but noted at least some year round spawning in most species. Little data is 
 available on frequency of spawning, although it does appear to be frequent, 
 and numerous larvae are produced each spawn. Sale (1977) has suggested that 
 the extended breeding seasons and frequent spawning of reef fishes are 
 strong evidence that life cycles do occur in response to unpredictability of 
 space in the reef environment. 
 
 Reef fish larvae scatter widely in space. Most reef fishes produce eggs 
 which are found on or near the bottom, but some have pelagic larvae. Studies 
 of larval dispersal and length of larval life need attention and should be 
 considered by biologists interested in reef fishes. Little is known of what 
 happens to fish larvae after hatching, until they settle on the reef as 
 juveniles. 
 
 Studies by Greenburg (1947), Braddock (1949), Phillips (1971), Frey and 
 Miller (1972) and Myrburg (1972) indicate that territorial battles are 
 usually decided in favor of the original resident. Thus, offspring successful 
 in finding suitable living space should stay put. Once living space is 
 gained, survival is greatly enhanced. Reese (1964) observed limited movement 
 by the majority of reef fishes. Bardach (1958) and Springer and McErlean 
 (1962), in their tagging studies, observed limited movement in groupers, 
 snappers, angelfishes, butterf lyf ishes, and surgeonf ishes. 
 
 Sale (1977) has described a number of mechanisms used by reef fishes to 
 cope with the unpredictable nature of available living space: 
 
 1) dispersing numerous pelagic (open ocean) larvae widely 
 both in space and time so as to maximize chances of 
 getting some offspring to suitable space; 
 
 2) having requirements for space that remain general enough 
 for there to be some chance of finding a suitable site; 
 
 3) remaining in a site, once found, for extended periods 
 or throughout adult life. 
 
 Sale (1977) also noted that species of fishes in a guild are competing in 
 a "lottery for living space in which larvae are the tickets, and the first 
 arrival at a vacant site wins that site. The lottery operates within the 
 habitat and at the levels of the individual fish." Vacant sites are 
 generated unpredictably, and are immediately refilled. Because the types and 
 numbers of larvae in a given area are unpredictable as well, it is unlikely 
 that one species will dominate a habitat. "So long as all species of a guild 
 win some of the time and in some places, they will continue to put larvae into 
 the plankton and hense into the lottery for new sites" (Sale 1977). 
 
 59 
 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
 
 Completion of this project would not have been possible without the 
 assistance of the following people. We especially thank Jim Bohnsack, 
 Billy Causey, Henry Feddern, and Martin Moe , for their review of the 
 rough draft. Their advice and comments were invaluable. We also thank 
 Bill Becker, Stan Becker, Chris Combs, Irene Hooper, Thomas Murray, 
 Leigh Taylor, Art Weiner, and the entire Sea Camp/Newfound Harbor Marine 
 Institute (Big Pine Key, FL) staff. The assistance of Julia Josiek 
 (Librarian, Southeast Fisheries Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, 
 Miami) was invaluable. Considerable thanks also to the entire Monroe 
 County Cooperative Extension Service staff, especially Nancy Brewer and 
 Mary Ann Sasnett for their labors in preparing the manuscript, and 
 Robin Kulik for assisting in gathering the necessary research literature. 
 
 Fiscal support for this undertaking was provided by the Monroe 
 County Board of Commissioners, which made available Comprehensive 
 Employment Act funds for the Monroe County Marine Resource Inventory. 
 Heartfelt thanks are extended to the Florida Cooperative Extension 
 Service, Marine Advisory Program for its direction and guidance in 
 completion of this project and to the National Marine Fisheries 
 Service and the Southeast Fisheries Center for providing publication 
 funding. 
 
 60 
 
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 65 
 
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 66 
 
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 67 
 
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 68 
 
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 73 
 
APPENDIX A 
 
 Definitions of General Terminology 
 (adapted from Ricklefs, 1973) 
 
 Adaptation - a genetically determined characteristic that helps an animal 
 or plant cope with its environment. 
 
 Carrying Capacity - the number of individuals that the resources of a 
 
 habitat can support. 
 
 Coexistence - the occurrence of two or more species in the same habitat; 
 usually applied to potentially competing species. 
 
 Community - an association of interacting populations of plants or animals. 
 
 Competition - use or defense of a resource by one individual that reduces the 
 availability of that resource to other individuals. 
 
 Diversity - a measure of the variety of species in a community that takes into 
 account the relative abundance of each species. 
 
 Generalist - a species with broad food or habitat preferences, or both. 
 
 Habitat - a place where an animal or plant normally lives, often it is 
 
 characterized by a dominant plant form or physical characteristic 
 (i.e., stream habitat, forest habitat). 
 
 Home Range - that area which an animal learns thoroughly and habitually patrols. 
 
 Microhabitat - the particular parts of the habitat that an individual encounters 
 freguently in the course of its activities. 
 
 Niche - all the components of the environment with which the animal or plant 
 interacts. 
 
 Recruitment - addition by reproduction of new individuals to a population. 
 
 Specialists - a species with specific food or habitat preferences, or both. 
 
 Stability - inborn capacity of any system to resist change. 
 
 74 
 
Appendix A continued: Terminology Referenced in the Paper by Roman Numeral 
 
 (Ricklefs 1973). 
 
 I. Fins 
 
 Fins are supported by spines (A) or rays (B). 
 
 Median fins - fins in a line with the middle axis of a fish, 
 below: C, D, and E. 
 
 Paired fins - sets of two fins on a fish, 
 below: F and G. 
 
 Cirri - flaps of skin, often on head, 
 below: H. 
 
 ■ porsal Fin(c) 
 (continuous) 
 
 SHv ►caudal Eia(o) 
 
 Dorsal Fin 
 
 (split) 
 
 75 
 
Appendix A continued: 
 Caudal fin types: 
 
 Truncate 
 
 Forked 
 
 II. Scale Types: 
 
 Slow Swimming Fishes 
 
 Lanceolate 
 Fast Swimming Fishes 
 
 Lunate 
 
 Rounded 
 
 Cycloid 
 
 III. Teeth: 
 
 Conical IncisiformJ 
 Canine 
 
 Emarginate 
 
 Ctenoid 
 
 sin 
 
 Comb or Bristle 
 
 IV. Feeding Types: 
 
 Carnivores - animal (meat) eaters. 
 
 Herbivores - plant eaters. 
 
 Omnivores - eats both animals and plants, 
 
 Planktivores - plankton eaters. 
 
 76 
 
Appendix A continued: 
 
 Piscivores - fish eaters. 
 
 Parasite Pickers - eat parasites from other fishes. 
 
 Browsers - nibblers, grazers. 
 
 V . Sponge Structure: 
 
 The skeleton of sponges is made up of spicules or fibers, or sometimes 
 both. Spicules can be calcareous (made up of calcium carbonate) or 
 siliceous (made up of silica). The fibers are made of a protein material. 
 Spicules appear in a number of forms (below) and are used to determine 
 the identification of many sponges. 
 
 Spicules 
 
 Spongin 
 
 VI 
 
 Territoriality: 
 
 A territory is an area occupied more or less exclusively by an animal 
 or group of animals by means of repulsion through overt defense (without 
 hiding) or advertisement. Some reasons for territoriality include pro- 
 tection of a shelter area, nesting area, food source, mate, or just a 
 swimming area. 
 
 VII. Nematocysts: 
 
 Nematocysts are specialized stinging cells characteristic of the 
 animal grouping called coelenterates (corals, sea anemones, and jellyfish) 
 A long harpoon-like thread is released by the cell either from physical 
 or chemical stimuli. 
 
 VIII. Lateral Line: 
 
 The lateral line is a series of pores in a fish's scales forming what 
 appears to be a line on the fish. These holes are involved in pressure 
 sensing, allowing water to contact the skin. The lateral line of an 
 angelfish is drawn in the drawning under Section I. 
 
 77 
 
Appendix A. continued: 
 
 IX. Swim Bladder: 
 
 The swim bladder is a gas filled sac found in true fishes just under 
 the backbone. It functions in hydrostatic balance (floating, or adjusting 
 buoyancy with depth), as an auxiliary breathing organ, in sound production, 
 and in sound reception. 
 
 swim 
 bladder 
 
 78 
 
APPENDIX B 
 
 MAPS: 
 
 Map 1. The Western Atlantic Ocean (range for most aquarium reef fishes 
 discusses) (adapted from Goodson 1976). 
 
 PACIFIC 
 OCE/\M 
 
Appendix B continued: 
 
 
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 80 
 
APPENDIX C 
 Common Plants and Animals 
 
 A calcareous algae 
 Halimeda sp. 
 
 Turtle Grass 
 
 Loggerhead Sponge 
 
 Finger Sponge 
 
 81 
 
Appendix C. continued: 
 
 Finger Coral 
 
 Hydroids 
 
 Fire Coral 
 
 Sea Whip 
 
 (one of 
 many gorgonians) 
 
 Staghorn Coral 
 
 Elkhorn Coral 
 
 82 
 
Appendix C. continued: 
 
 Long-spined Sea Urchin 
 
 Colonial 
 Sea Anemones 
 
 Sea Anemone 
 
 Copepod 
 
 Tunicates (Sea squirts) 
 on a Gorgon ian 
 
 Amphipod 
 
 Polychaete 
 Worm 
 
 U S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OPFICE 1981-797-637/177 RE< 
 
 83