C 5 NOAA Technical Report EDS 12 BOMEX Permanent Archive: Description of Data WASHINGTON, D.C. MAY 1975 c % X o H > c o u u o m CU CO D 3 "H 0) 4-i •H -H U 4J •H C CH CU 4-4 -H CU O O CO CJ O T3 4-1 3 co en 4-1 co 3 3 3 O O •H CJ 4-1 (0 CU 3 60 CT ") CU 4-J H ^ O CU > m co r o 3 a) 3 >-i S~i 3 CO 03 0) E CO 3 •H M-l fn O I 1 CN I cO H co co H CU M 4-1 CO VI 0) CU 6 CU 4-1 CU CJ cd U-l M CO I cO CU co 01 S-i 4-J cd M CU cu 4-1 PQ Q H CU M 4-J cd 0) & CU 4J 3 >. 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CU •H • CO O CJ cd 4-1 •H O O p4 a p Pd o o o o o CJ r^- n cn ctv n vO vD vO I — • vO + + + + + co co cn cn cn 4-J 4-1 4-J 4-J 4-J % S § S B o o o o o a a cj o a so so ^0 \D *-o 73 CO CO CO CO CO o O O o o o •rl S-4 o o o o o CU P-. II > H d s 73 O •rH at ■H cn cO cu CO CO CO CO CO cu b cO CO S S E s s CO CO CO CO CO CO O o o o o ex •H H rH rH rH H CO + + + + + H H cc cn cn cn co o o o o o cj o a cj o v»/ ^-y >^y v-^ ~^-y CM O SO SO CM M r-HO N in in in 5 a •H a o CO 3 CJ J^ CU >rl • co CJ o co 4-J •H o O pS a P oi 28 Table 3-2. — Final transfer equations and coefficients used for conversion of measured voltage counts to scientific units (continued) Ship Relative humidity (RH) RH Sea-level pressure (PR) ! = k V + k , where V = counts/2000 Oceanographer Rainier Mt. Mitchell Discoverer Rockaway Oceanographer Rainier Mt. Mitchell Discoverer* Rockaway Period I RH = O.Ol(counts) + 0.0% O.Ol(counts) + 0.0% O.Ol(counts) + 0.0% O.Ol(counts) + 0.0% (did not work) Period II RH = O.Ol(counts) + 0.0% O.Ol(counts) + 0.0% O.Ol(counts) + 0.0% O.Ol(counts) + 0.0% O.Ol(counts) + 0.0% PR = 0.003400(counts) + 999.0 mb 0.003350 (counts) + 1001.1 mb 0.003400 (counts) + 999.5 mb 0.003400(counts) + 1000.4 mb (did not work) PR = 0.003400(counts) + 1000.1 mb 0.003400(counts) + 1000.3 mb 0.00 3400 (counts) + 1000.0 mb 0.003360(counts) + 1003.1 mb 0.003400 (counts) + 1000.1 mb Period III Oceanographer Rainier Mt. Mitchell Discoverer* Rockaway RH = O.Ol(counts) + 0.0% 0.01 (counts) + 0.0% O.Ol(counts) + 0.0% O.Ol(counts) + 0.0% O.Ol(counts) + 0.0% PR = 0.003400(counts) + 1000.4 mb 0.003400 (counts) + 999.8 mb 0.003400(counts) + 1000.0 mb 0.003360 (counts) + 1003.1 mb 0.003400(counts) + 1000.2 mb Oceanographer Rainier Mt. Mitchell Discoverer* Rockaway Period IV RH = 0.01 (counts) +0.0% O.Ol(counts) + 0.0% O.Ol(counts) + 0.0% O.Ol(counts) + 0.0% O.Ol(counts) + 0.0% PR = 0.003400(counts) + 1000.6 mb 0.00 3400 (counts) + 1000.3 mb 0.00 3400 (counts) + 1000.1 mb 0.003360(counts) + 1003.1 mb 0.003400(counts) + 1000.3 mb *NCAR barometer used. Rosemount barometers were installed on all other ships. 29 d o •H 03 ,-n r4 X) 0) CD > 3 e d O iH a -u C n o o o X) CO CD 4J CO -H 3 g CO •H "H ■H 3 •4-1 CD 13 4-> CO s § o o •H O cO m CO X) d m as pi 2 « 4-1 c CD X) •H U c d d d •i-l -H -H >. >. >s o o o • • • o o o + + + CO co co 4J 4-1 4-1 d d d 3 3 3 O O O a u CJ sO U~l vO LO r^ 00 r>. en H tH B 6 Sn tn ^ o o o • • • o o o + + + CO co CO 4J 4J 4J 3 3 3 3 3 3 O o O a u m m o en » >•> >. rH rH rH O O o • • • o o O + + + CO CO CO 4J 4-> 4J % 3 3 ^ o O o a CJ a > — ' o O O en en en CO Ci^ m en CN rH rH CN o o O o o o o o o Pi o o o rJ CD r4 >> U CD CO CD > > •H o CO 3 o i2 •H co a CO •H o p2 Q Pi C C G •H -H -H a s a o o o o o o + + + CO CO CO 4J 4J 4J g d g 3 3 3 o o o o o o vO i^ o\ m oo rH r^ i— i r-- ^ o\ oo m cn O vjO vD CN •H O o rH r4 O o O CD O o O P-. O o o o o o 3 3 3 •H -H -H BBS >» rn tn o o O o o o + + + CO CO CO 4J 4-t 4-» d 3 g 3 3 3 o o o CJ CJ CJ o m o O -3" CTi O r^ cti O O CN CM CN CM o o o o o o o o o o o o u . CD CO > & O cO a ^i CO CJ •H O a oS 3 3 •H -H B j3 o o O O /-» + + * 3 3 •H -H CO CO 4-1 4-1 3 3 3 3 o o cj a x) — ' **s -H vjD 1-^ X) r-* rH r*I ^ r4 + M o o S *-> 5 CO 4-1 4J 4J O 3 O 3 3 3 O > ■a o t) H •H v-' -H "O m t3 T3 V_^ .>%>% o o o * • • o o o + 1 ^ + + CO CO CO 4J 4-1 4-1 3 3 § § O o o CJ ' — ' CJ a o m o o o r^ CTn o o CN CN CN CN o O o o o o o o o o o o u CD U >. U CD eO 5 •H O CO 3 r*i •H CD o CO ■H o Pi Q OS S B B J3 o o o o • • • • o o o o + + + + /■> ^""N ^ /— > co co co co 4J 4J 4J 4J 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 O O O o CJ o CJ CJ *~s ^^ ^^ - — / vO r^ CO m cn r^ co r^ CO co CI CO CO CO 4-1 4-J 4-J 4J 3 3 o 3 3 3 3 3 O O O a CJ X) CJ ■ — *• ^^' •H ^^ m m X) rH en m en ^o iJ3 CN o O rH o o O o o o o o O o o 3 3 3 c •H •H •H •H J= B J= § >, >> >> f*. rH ^-{ rH rH O O O o * • • • o o O O + + + + /^N ^~N ^^ ^ CO co co co 4-1 4J 4-1 4J 3 3 i c 3 S O o O o CJ CJ cj CJ ^^ » — * ^^ / >^^ o m m o o sO o> o o o> CN CN CN rH CN o O o o o o o Q o o O Q OS o o o o H cu CN u cn Jn u CD CO 0) > >> 2 •H O rH CO 3 CJ 3 r« •H co T> O cS •H n o OS 30 3.1.1 Wind Direction and Windspeed Final wind direction was converted from measured relative wind direction to true wind direction by inclusion of ship's headings. Ship's speed, however, which was usually less than 1 m/s, was not included. Therefore, the boom wind velocities are relative to the ship's velocity. To obtain true heading, a correction had to be made because of voltage reduction at the sensing potenti- ometer. For this correction, which was applied to the gyro voltage before conversion to engineering units, the following equation (an approximation) was used: v = v. (1.00000 + 5.10204 x 10 _1 °/v. (10,000 - v.) « l l ' i where v = corrected voltage in counts, and v. = recorded voltage in counts. The renavigated ship motion and position data for Periods I, II, and III, when, after mooring failure, the ships operated in alternating steaming and drifting modes, were not taken into account in processing the boom data. The corrected motion and position data are discussed in section 2 of this report . 3.1.2 Sea-Surface Temperature Temperature readings from the thermistor suspended from the boom did not always compare favorable with Nansen bottle measurements. On the Oceanographer and Discoverer the differences amounted to only + 0.3°C, but in some cases they were as high as + 1.0°C. The average values by which the Nansen readings ex- ceeded those of the thermistor are given in table 3-3. However, since the two sensors were mounted on different platforms and possibly at slightly different depths, no attempt was made to apply these corrections to the final boom data. 3.1.3 Humidity Both the wet-bulb temperature (Tyg) sensor and the relative humidity (RH) transducer values contained biases, and there were problems with drift. The Tyg readings were often contaminated for several hours because the wick had dried out. Such segments of erroneous readings were eliminated during the final processing. The RH values, however, showed trends that could not be defined, and much of these data may be questionable. The 10- and 30-min averages include computed values of relative humidity, RH; wet-bulb temperature, T^; specific humidity, Q; u and v wind components; and wind direction relative to the ship's boom. In deriving an expression for the Tyg computation, Tyg was first ex- pressed by VW " ( RH/10 °) * E S (T DB ) = °- 00066 * P * (1+0.00115 * T WB ) * (T DB - T^) , (1) 31 Table 3-3. — Average differences between the Nansen readings and the boom sea-surface temperatures — Nansen minus boom Observation Period Beginning Date Time (GMT) Ending Date Time (GMT) Difference* (°C) Oceanographer May 3 through May 15 +0.3 II May 24 00:00:00 May 26 10:15:00 +0.3 II May 26 10:15:00 June 10 23:59:59 +0.2 III June 21 00:00:00 June 26 23:59:59 +0.1 III June 27 00:00:00 June 30 10:15:00 0.0 IV July 12 05:00:00 July 15 01:59:59 0.0 IV July 15 02:00:00 July 23 23:59:59 +0.3 IV July 24 00:00:00 July 29 05:00:00 +0.2 Rainier II II II II II II III III IV IV IV IV IV IV IV No Nansen cast temperatures available May 24 00:00:00 May 25 11:30:00 May 25 11:30:01 May 27 23:59:59 Thermistor measurements missing from May 28 through May 30 June 4 June 6 June 21 June 29 July 11 July 14 July 17 July 18 July 18 July 20 July 21 00:00:00 15:30:01 00:00:00 00:00:00 00:00:00 00:00:00 16:00:01 15:00:01 03:00:00 16:00:01 00:00:00 09:00:01 June 4 June 4 June 10 June 28 July 1 July 14 July 17 July 18 July 18 July 19 July 21 July 28 15:30:00 23:59:59 08:30:00 23:59:59 22:30:00 16:00:00 15:00:00 03:00:00 16:00:00 23:59:59 09:00:00 23:59:59 +0.2 0.0 May 29 +0.2 0.0 +0.1 +0.2 0.0 +0.7 +0.8 +0.7 +0.6 +0.5 +0.4 +0.3 32 Table 3-3.— Average differences between the Nansen readings and the boom sea-surface temperatures — Nansen minus boom (continued) Observation Period Beginning Date Time (GMT) Ending Date Time (GMT) Difference* (°C) Mt. Mitchell I Data bad from May 2 through 14; no thermistor readings II May 24 00:00:00' June 10 23:59:59 +0.6 III June 21 21:30:00 June 22 09:00:00 +1.0 III June 22 09:00:01 June 23 14:00:00 +0.5 III June 23 14:00:01 June 26 23:59:59 +0.1 III June 28 00:00:00 June 28 23:59:59 0.0 III June 29 00:00:00 June 30 23:59:59 +0.2 IV July 11 00:00:00 July 28 23:59:59 +0.6 Discoverer I May 7 00:00:00 May 9 16:15:00 +0.2 I May 9 16:15:01 May 10 14:30:00 0.0 I May 10 14:30:01 May 11 16:05:00 -0.4 I May 11 16:05:01 May 12 16:25:00 -0.3 I May 12 16:25:01 May 14 23:59:59 -0.1 II May 24 through June 10 0.0 III June 21 09:00:00 June 21 20:00:00 +0.1 III June 21 20:00:01 June 23 14 : 30 : 00 +0.2 III June 23 14:30:01 June 24 14:30:00 +0.1 III June 24 14:30:01 July 1 23:59:59 0.0 IV July 11 14:30:00 July 11 23:59:59 -0.2 IV July 12 00:00:00 July Rockaway 28 00:00:00 0.0 No Nansen cast temperatures available ^Correction not applied to final boom data. 33 where TwB = wet-bulb temperature, degrees' Celsius; Tpg = dry-bulb temperature, degrees Celsius; P = ambient temperature, millibars; E s = saturation vapor pressure over water, millibars; and RH = ambient relative humidity, percent; and by Tetens ' equation ( Handbook of Meteorology , McGraw-Hill Book Co., N.Y., 1945, p. 343) / 7.5 * T s v WB E (T TTO ) = 6.11 * lcA 237 * 3 + T WB/ ( 2 ) When eq. (2) is substituted into eq. (1), the resulting equation cannot be solved by the usual procedure of finding the root of a polynomial. Thus, to find T™, the following equation, which approximates the wet-bulb depres- sion, was introduced: [T - T (o) ] =6.6 + 2 * ( TpB " 2 °) - 3 *fMl50\ _ ± Ab " Z °) *(ta^0\ 1 DB X WB J p=1000 \ 10 / J V 20 / x \ 10 / \ 20 / , where T^, is a reasonably close first approximation of Tyg. Tetens' 'formula can now be accurately written in the form W * E s [T WB (0)l * [1 + a l (AT) + a 2 (AT)2] ' where AT = T WB - T^b . Now AT is the solution to a quadratic equation and is added to the first estimated depression to give the true depression. This method gives an accuracy of about + 0.01°C for the data set in question. Relative humidity is computed from RH= 100[E(T DB )/E s (T DB )] , where E(Tjjg), the ambient vapor pressure in millibars, is computed from the psychrometric equation E( V = E s (T WB ) " °-° 0066 * P * (1 + °-° 0115 + T WB } * (T DB " T WB } * Here, E s (Tyg) is the saturation vapor pressure in millibars at the wet-bulb temperature, T™, and is computed from Tetens' equation 7.5 * T WB E (T ) = 6.11 * 10 V237 - 3 + T WB s v WB . 34 By substituting T^g for T^g, the saturation vapor pressure at dry-bulb tem- perature, E S (T DB ), is also derived from Tetens' equation. Specific humidity , Q, in grams per kilogram, is computed from Q = 6.22 * E ( T DB )'/[P (mb) - 0.378 * E(T DB )'] , where E(Tdb) ' is a function of relative humidity as measured by the boom instrument (RH 1 ). By solving the RH equation for E(Tt> b ), we can form the expression E(T DB )' = (RH'/lOO) * E g * (T DB ) , and calculate E (T^g) from Tetens' equation as described previously. 3.1.4 Atmospheric Pressure All five ships were equipped with Weather Service precision aneroid barometers, scaled in millibars. Operating procedures called for comparison of these barometers with a portable standard during in-port periods to deter- mine the proper instrument and barometric corrections. With these corrections, the observers were to measure sea-level pressure to the nearest 0.10 mb . As noted earlier, at the beginning of the experiment, all ships carried Rosemount transducers, and the Discoverer , in addition, was equipped with an NCAR DPD barometer during Observation Period I. Examination of the initial Rosemount and DPD pressure values revealed many inconsistencies, stemming from insufficient in-port calibration documen- tation, and uncertainties as to whether (1) station or sea-level pressures had been recorded and (2) corrections had been applied by adjustments of the instruments during in-port periods. Pressure values for the Rock away for Period I are missing, because the Rosemount transducer was malfunctioning. The Discoverer 's Rosemount instrument was transferred to the Rockaway at the end of Period I, producing few data during Period II, but continuous records for Periods III and IV. Several methods were used in an attempt to solve these problems. First, 10-min average Rosemount station pressure values generated with the manufacturer's transfer equations were plotted as time series for all periods and ships, except for the Discoverer , all periods, and the Rockaway , Periods I and II. The manually recorded 1 1/2-hourly sea-level aneroid pres- sure values were added to these plots, which were then inspected for errors. Since the Rosemount values were station pressures, they should have differed from the sea-level aneroid values by an amount equal to the baro- metric correction for the Rosemount instrument's height above sea-level. This was not the case, however, and the average differences between the two (sea- level aneroid values minus corresponding transducer station pressures) were determined for each observation period. The results are shown in table 3-4. 35 To further define the differences between the two types of barometer readings, mean sea-level pressure charts were constructed for the BOMEX area for each observation period (figs. 3-1 to 3-4). This was done by plotting smoothed values extracted from daily charts prepared routinely by the National Hurricane Center for 0000 to 1200 GMT, at the BOMEX ship positions. Compar- ison of these results with similarly averaged values for the same times based on the shipboard aneroid sea-level readings showed that the aneroid values tended to fit a smoothed isobaric pattern, except for the Rainier , Period I, and the Mt. Mitchell , Periods II, III, and IV. The average Rainier aneroid value was slightly more than 1 mb lower than the value plotted on the chart, and a correction of +1 mb was therefore applied to the Rainier data for Period I, as shown in table 3-4. In the case of the Mt. Mitchell , the report- ed aneroid pressures were substantially higher than the smoothed sea-level chart values. However, if the former had been adjusted to conform entirely with the charts, a forced perturbation in the isobars would have resulted, which would not have been realistic in view of the continuous, smooth flow suggested by the surface winds measured on this ship, as well as on the Dis- coverer and on the island of Barbados. Based on these considerations, and on a momentum balance analysis done at CEDDA, a correction of -0.4 mb was applied to the Mt. Mitchell data for Periods II, III, and IV (table 3-4). The sum of the aneroid minus transducer ("A-T") and the adjusted aneroid ("Adj . A") values in table 3-4 was added algebraically to the ko term in the initial transfer equations to obtain the final sea-level pressures for the Rosemount and NCAR DPD transducers, shown as "Adj. T" in table 3-4. In the case of the Discoverer , however, a completely modified transfer equation had to be applied to the data for Periods II, III, and IV. The initial transfer equation for conversion to engineering units was Pressure = k..V(counts) + k„ , where k-^ = -0.003478 and k£ = +1033.0 mb . It was later discovered that these k values were erroneous, and another attempt was made at NCAR to derive a correct set of k terms. The results were k^ = +0.003360 and k2 = 1000.5 mb . However, a comparison of the pressures obtained with this second set of k terms with the pressures for the other ships and with the values extracted from the sea-level charts indicated that the k£ term was too low. Based on additional studies at CEDDA, a correction factor of +2.6 mb (table 3-4) was applied to the Discoverer data for the Periods II, III, and IV, and k£ - 1003.1 mb (table 3-2, sec. 3.1) was used in the final processing of these data. 3.1.5 Radiation Correction factors for the initial net radiation data were furnished by P. Kuhn, Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry Laboratory, Environmental Research Laboratories, NOAA, Boulder, Colo. 80302. The resulting transfer coefficients are given in table 3-2, section 3.1. 3.2 Archive Format and Data Inventory The final 2-spm boom data are archived on seven-track, 556 BPI, BCD magnetic tape, as well as on microfilm. The first file consists of ANSI 36 37 T3 O ■H cd ■a rH 0) > 01 CN I ro 0) M •H 38 39 -a o •H u 4-1 U * I I Pm 00 00 o + ? ? m v© O v£> • • • rH O ^H + + co non rH O rH + + PI o ci i 6 i ■K O vO O CM + cm m -d- o HOH + I + co o -H + + O CO O CO rH O rH + + O O rH t-H O H + + O \D I o ci cio«* H H O I + I I O CM O O • • • o o o m H I On >-> S O 00 o m + l o » s a, CM < H R) V— C M • • oC H rrn 5-1 o c 1 XJ X) <3 <8 <5 rd e 0) •H u o £ <3 H < H H I Xi X) < < cd M o ai H I < X) x> < H E-TvT-) T-) I XI XI < < < < H H TIT) I X) X) <; <3 < o M cd 43 CO O 0) -H (A 4-1 cd QJ 4-1 > CO O w cd l-i qj i-i a cu 3 4-1 xi QJ CO C aj cd > !-J CD 4-1 rH I co cd 3 QJ C co 1 43 60^, O HH n QJ QJ QJ 43 > fl qj cd rJ O J3 CO 4J o ^ c •H QJ 4J xi a O -H 4-1 QJ O CO H r4 3 M QJ •!-) 5 33 cd 4= O CO 4-1 U cd • 42 CO o QJ 3 rH rH QJ cd > > 0) rH QJ I u cd 3 QJ CO CO CO oj g u cd O, QJ s I 4= 4-1 •H & QJ QJ rJ 00 cd 4-1 •H <4H O CO 01 3 rH cd > r4 QJ O 3 XI CO QJ rJ 3 CD CO QJ (-1 &, o o 2 Q Xj CH <$ Q rH CM CO «* -K 41 , standard label, followed by end-of-file. The second file consists of an 80-character descriptive tape header, followed by end-of-file. The third file is repeated for each day. It consists of one or more data records each 1,540 characters long, and is preceded by a header record and followed by an. end-of- file. The 350-character header record identifies the data by type, ship name, and Julian day. A double end-of-file follows the last data file on the tape. An inventory of the 2-spm boom data is given in table 3-5. The 10- and 30-min average boom data are also archived, on both magnetic tape and microfilm. The format is shown in figure 3-5, and an inventory of these data is given in table 3-6. 3.3 Supplementary Material Available From the Archive Microfilm reel No, Description DOC-5 DOC-6 DOC-7 DOC-8 SCARD Event Log. Card 1 - Surface Observation Form; also on this reel is Card - Rawinsonde Form. Card 4 - Ship Operations Form; also on this reel are Card 2 - BLIP Calibration Form and Card 3 - STD Observation Form. Card 9 - Boom Calibration Form; also on this reel are Card 5 - Observation Summary Form, Card 6 - System parameter failure, and Card 7 - Slant range and azimuth, Ro ckaway . Note that the information on reels DOC-6 and DOC-7 is also contained on magnetic tape No. B08667. Documents Title (BO-1-4-1000) R-066-17 (BO-1-4A-1000) (BO-1-5-1000) R-066-19 BOMEX Software System , Program Documentation for Boom/Surface-Standard Engineering Units Conversion Program, General Electric, May 1971. BOMEX Software System , Program Documentation for Boom/ Surface Average, General Electric, June 1971. BOMEX/ Software System , Program Documentation for Boom/Surface Plot 30-Second, General Electric June 1971. 3.4 Material in Temporary Storage Hard-copy material, consisting of original manual logs, strip charts, and the like, has been placed in temporary storage for a period of 3 years. 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CO CN CN r^~ LO CN rH CN •H cO CN1 r4 H 01 pq -, >. 3 3 rH jg 3 3 3 S h) h) •") LO rH rH 00 C"> vO 00 O rH rH rH CN o o o o O O O CO ON 00 CN CN rH O CN CN <• O rH 00 CN CU >> >> 3 rH rH 3 3 3 h> h> h) > >-. ^ 3 rH rH CO 3 3 3 . 3 eg 3 3 S hi h> >. >» 3 h: CU >^ 3 cO 3 3 a h o CU >n ?o 3 3 h> h) LO rH CO ON CO iO CO o rH rH rH CN M M > rH M M > H > M M > u CU X ex cO 00| o CO I o CO cd CO u LO 3 o 4-1 3 4-) co co u 0) X ex CO 00 o 3 3 0) CJ o 0) X 4-J 0) •H a 3 u CJ o >, 3 3 CO a o cd QJ X H 50 MARINE METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AND SURFACE- PRESSURE— MARINE MICROBAROGRAM DATA SET In addition to the surface observations recorded automatically by in- strumentation mounted on a boom extending from the bow of each of the five fixed ships, conventional manual observations were made from the ships' decks and/or by permanently installed shipboard, instruments. These data should be used with the same caution one would apply to routine marine observations, because they were obtained by crewmen or technicians with varying degrees of skill and dedication, the exposure of the sensors was usually not optimum, and the observations were influenced by the usual perturbations caused by the mass of the ship. In the course of final processing of other BOMEX data, a number of these discrepancies have been identified. Corrections have not been applied to this data set, but are incorporated in the boom surface meteorol- ical data set (sec. 3) , the rawinsonde and radiometersonde data set (sec. 5) , and the Boundary Layer Instrument Package (BLIP) data set (sec. 6). 4.1 Observation Procedures and Parameters Measured The surface meteorological observations were entered on a Surface Observations Form, and each parameter is discussed here in the order in which it was entered on that form, an 80-column punched-card format. NOTE: On the form, the columns were misnumbered, i.e., column 46 is not indicated, and two columns are numbered 58. In recording, this deficiency was taken into account, and the parameters were re- corded in the order in which they are described below. Card Code - Column 1 . Code 1 was used on each form to identify it as being a surface meteorological observation. Card Code - Column 2 . The following codes identify the ship from which ob- servations were made: 0, Oceanographer ; 1, Rainier ; 2, Mt. Mitchell ; 3; Dis- coverer ; 4, Rock away . Date and Time - Columns 3 through 9 . Julian day and time of observation in GMT to the nearest minute, not exceeding 5 min before or after the beginning or end of the surface observation sequence. 51 Sea-Level Atmospheric Pressure - Columns 10 through 17 . Pressure was deter- mined from a precision aneroid barometer and read to the nearest 0.1 mb , estimating for values between scale graduations and applying correction re- corded on the face of the instrument, and then entered in columns 10 through 14 to the nearest 0.1 mb . Values less than 1,000.0 mb are preceded by a zero, i.e., 998.2 mb is recorded as 09982. Pressure tendency was determined from a marine microbarograph by find- ing the net amount of pressure change over a 3-hr period through determination, to the nearest 0.1 mb, of the difference in pressure between the beginning and the end of the period. The appropriate code was entered in column 15 on the form in accordance with the codes shown in table 4-1. The amount of 3-hr change in pressure was entered in millibars and tenths in columns 16 and 17. Temperature - Columns 18 through 25 . Dry-bulb temperature as measured by an ordinary thermometer exposed to the free air on the windward side of the ship, under conditions that eliminated as completely as possible the effects of ex- traneous sources of heat, was entered in columns 18, 19, and 20 in degrees and tenths. Wet-bulb temperature, representing the lowest temperature secured by evaporating water from a muslin- cove red bulb of a thermometer at a speci- fied rate of ventilation, was entered in columns 21, 22, and 23 in degrees and tenths. When the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures were known, the dewpoint was determined from table 4-2. By subtracting the wet-bulb temperature from the dry bulb, the wet-bulb depression was obtained. The nearest depression across the top of the table and the nearest wet-bulb temperature along the side were then located, and the value at the intersection of the two was entered in columns 24 and 25 in whole C. Relative Humidity - Columns 26 and 27 . Relative humidity to the nearest whole percent as determined from table 4-3, which was used in the same manner as table 4-2. True Wind - Columns 28 through 32 . Aboard the fixed ships , the true wind could not be read directly from the anemometer indicator. Since "north" on the indicator represents the ship's bow or heading, a reading of 320 would indicate an apparent wind of 040 off the port bow. The apparent wind rela- tive to the bow of the ship was converted to a true compass bearing by adding the apparent wind direction to the ship's heading if the wind was off the starboard bow and by subtracting the apparent wind direction if the wind was off the port bow. Windspeed was read directly from the anemometer indicator and entered in knots. Aboard the roving ships, the computation of true wind direction and windspeed was somewhat more complicated and was done by use of a shipboard wind plotter. 52 Table 4-1. — Barometer change characteristics in the last 3 hr DESCRIPTION OF CHARACTERISTIC NOMINAL GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION Code Figure PRIMARY UNQUALIFIED REQUIREMENT ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS (For Coding Purposes) A B C D E F G H HIGHER Atmospheric pres- sure now higher than 3 hours ago. Increasing, then decreasing. A Zll r r^ Zi r- JW \J Increasing, then steady; or increasing, then increasing more slowly. r /-- r oA PA, 1 j» 1 ZL r X J [ncreasi Steadily 7 y jf- / 1 2 Uns teadily "S \JSS j 1/ Decreasing or steady, then in- creasing; or increasing, then increasing more rapidly. 7 _/ _y V jj s\ / ^v 3 -j ^.. v \J \J\fv THE SAME Atmospheric pres- sure now same as 3 hours ago. Increasing, then decreasing. A Z\ rA <~\ JS Steady or un- steady 4 Decreasing, then increasing. V /~\ r\ 5 \/ ^J w V LOWER Atmospheric pres- sure now lower than 3 hours ago. Decreasing, then increasing. V s\ r\ 5 ^7 X ^ \r V w Decreasing, then steady; or decreasing, then decreasing more slowly. V. /\ /> r\ . A 6 v_ V ^v H/w \yvv v. V k ~\_ V Decreai \ r\ ^V 7 ate »ing Unsteadily A %. V Wi Steady or increas- ing, then decreas- ing; or A r\ s\ A i*, ... -i W 8 ."> ~N "\ ^\ \J v decreat |rapidly ing more ""A ^ ^\ Table 4-2. — Dewpoint temperature 53 Wet- Wet-bulb depression, ° C bulb o m o m LO m m in m m m temp. ■ o o -* — c-q CM co CO ^r ^r m m CO CD c- c^ CO CO o> 10 10 10 09 09 08 08 07 07 06 06 05 05 04 04 03 02 02 01 00 11 11 11 10 10 09 09 09 08 08 07 07 06 06 05 04 04 03 03 02 12 12 12 11 11 11 10 10 09 09 08 08 07 07 06 06 05 05 04 04 13 13 13 12 12 12 11 11 10 10 10 09 09 08 08 07 07 06 06 05 14 14 14 13 13 13 12 12 12 11 11 10 10 10 09 09 08 08 07 07 15 15 15 14 14 14 13 13 13 12 12 12 1 1 1 1" 10 10 10 09 09 08 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 13 13 13 12 12 1 1 11 11 10 10 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 14 14 14 13 13 13 12 12 12 11 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 14 14 14 13 13 13 19 19 19 19 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 15. 15 15 15 14 14 20 20 20 20 19 19 19 19 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 15 21 21 21 21 20 20 20 20 19 19 19 19 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 22 22 22 22 21 21 21 21 21 20 20 20 20 19 19 19 19 18 18 18 23 23 23 23 22 22 22 22 22 21 21 21 21 20 20 20 20 20 19 19 24 24 24 24 23 23 23 23 23 22 22 22 22 22 21 21 21 21 20 20 25 25 25 25 24 24 24 24 24 24 23 23 23 23 23 22 22 22 22 21 26 26 26 26 26 25 25 25 -25 25 24 24 24 24 24 23 23 23 23 23 27 27 27 27 27 26 26 26 26 26 26 25 25 25 25 25 24 24 24 24 28 28 28 28- 28 27 27 27 27 27 27 26 26 26 26 26 26 25 25 25 29 29 29 29 29 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 27 27 27 27 27 27 26 26 30 30 | 30 30 30 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 28 28 28 28 28 27 27 31 31 31 31 31 31 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 29 29 29 29 29 29 28 32 32 32 32 32 32 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 33 33 33 33 33 33 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 31 31 31 31 31 31 34 34 34 34 ,34 34 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 32 32 32 132 32 32 35 35 35 1 35 *35 1 35 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 _ 34 33 33 33 33 33 54 Table 4-3. — Relative humidity Dry- bulb Wet-b ulb depression, ' 'C temp. 'C 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 10 98 95 93 90 88 86 83 81 79 77 74 72 70 68 66 63 61 59 11 98 95 93 91 89 86 84 82 80 78 75 73 71 69 67 65 62 60 12 98 96 93 91 89 87 85 82 80 78 76 74 72 70 68 66 64 62 13 98 96 93 91 89 87 85 83 81 79 77 75 73 71 69 67 65 63 14 98 9 b 94 92 90 88 86 84 82 79 78 76 74 72 70 68 66 64 15 98 96 94 92 90 88 86 84 82 80 78 76 74 73 71 69 67 65 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 16 95 90 85 81 76 71 67 '63 58 54 50 46 42 38 34 30 26 23 19 17 95 90 86 81 76 72 68 64 60 55 51 47 43 40 36 32 28 25 21 18 95 91 86 82 77 73 69 65 61 57 53 49 45 41 38 34 30 27 23 19 95 91 87 82 78 74 70 65 62 58 54 50 46 43 39 36 32 29 26 20 96 91 87 83 78 74 70 66 63 59 55 51 48 44 41 37 34 31 28 21 96 91 87 83 79 75 71 67 64 60 56 53 4 9 46 42 39 36 32 29 22 96 92 87 83 80 76 72 68 64 61 5 7 54 50 47 44 40 37 34 31 23 96 92 88 84 80 76 72 69 65 62 58 55 52 48 45 42 39 36 33 24 96 92 88 84 80 77 73 69 66 62 59 56 53 49 46 43 40 37 34 25 96 92 88 84 81 77 74 70 67 63 60 57 54 50 47 44 41 39 36 26 96 92 88 85 81 78 74 71 67 64 61 58 54 51 49 46 43 40 37 27 96 92 89 85 82 78 75 71 68 65 62 58 56 52 50 47 44 41 38 28 96 93 89 85 82 78 75 72 69 65 62 59 56 53 51 48 45 42 40 29 96 93 89 86 82 79 76 72 69 66 63 60 57 54 52 49 46 43 41 30 96 93 89 86 85 79 76 73 70 67 64 61 58 55 52 50 47 44 42 31 96 93 90 86 83 80 77 73 70 67 64 61 59 56 53 51 48 45 43 32 96 95 90 86 83 80 77 74 71 68 65 62 60 57 54 51 49 46 44 33 97 93 90 87 83 80 77 74 71 68 66 63 60 57 55 52 50 47 45 34 97 93 90 87 84 81 78 75 72 69 66 63 61 58 56 53 51 48 46 35 97 94 90 87 84 81 78 75 72 69 67 64 61 59 56 54 51 49 47 36 97 94 90 87 84 81 78 75 7 3 70 67 64 62 59 57 54 52 50 48 37 97 94 91 87 84 82 79 76 7 3 70 68 65 63 60 58 55 53 51 48 38 97 94 91 88 84 82 79 76 74 71 68 66 63 61 58 56 54 51 49 39 97 94 91 88 85 82 79 77 74 71 69 66 64 61 59 57 54 52 50 40 97 94 91 88 85 82 80 77 74 72 69 67 64 62 59 57 54 53 51 55 Waves - Columns 33 through 46 . The wave data, as entered on the Surface Observations Form, consist of the direction, height, and period of wind waves and swells. Wind waves, or "sea," are those raised by the local wind blowing at the time of observation; waves due either to winds blowing at a distance or to winds that have ceased to blow are known as swells. The direction from which the waves were coming was determined visually or, more accurately, by sighting from a compass along the wave crests and adding or subtracting 90°. Ship's heading was also used as a guide. The averages of several observations were recorded to the nearest degree in col- umns 33, 34, 35 for wind waves and in columns 40, 41, 42 for swells. When no wind waves were present, three zeros were entered. If the waves were from directly north, 360 was used, and if the sea was confused and direction could not be determined, 9's were used. Wave height as recorded on the form is an average of the estimated heights of the larger well-formed waves. Estimates were made by an observer from the best available point on the ship that permitted the height of the waves to be compared with the height of the ship. Heights in feet were con- verted to half-meter codes in accordance with table 4-4 and entered in columns 26, 27, and 43, 44, respectively. Wave period, the interval in seconds between passage of two successive wave crests of well-formed waves past a fixed point, was determined through observation of at least 15 well-formed waves, by (a) selecting a distinctive patch of foam or a small floating object at some distance from the ship, (b) noting the elapsed time to the nearest second between the moments when the object was on the crest of the first and the last wave in the group and noting also the number of crests that passed under the object during the interval, and (c) adding the elapsed times of the various groups together and dividing the total by the number of waves to obtain the average period. The wave period thus obtained was entered in columns 38, 39, and 45, 46 to the nearest second. A calm sea or the absence of either wind or swell is indicated by 00; 99 was used for confused sea. Clouds - Columns 47 through 52 . Total cloud amount, or "sky cover," was estimated in terms of eighths of sky covered by clouds. A few clouds or frag- ments of clouds were entered as 1 in column 47; if the sky was completely overcast, the amount entered is 8; 7 indicates a few patches of blue sky visible; when blue sky or stars were seen through fog or analogous phenomena, total cloud amount is reported as 0; and when clouds were observed through fog or similar phenomena, their amount is reported as though these phenomena had not been present; 9 indicates that the sky was obscured by fog, rain, or other phenomena, not clouds. Low cloud amount, recorded in eighths of sky in column 48 was estimated in the same way as total cloud amount. Low cloud type is indicated in column 49 by the appropriate code chosen from table 4-5. When several types were present in equal amounts, the code entered is that for the type whose base is at the greatest height above the sea, except (a) when types coded 1 and 2 only were present, code 2 was entered, 56 Table 4-4. — Wave or swell height in half -meters Half- Half- Half- Half- meters code Feet meters code Feet meters code Feet meters code Feet figure figure figure figure 01 2 21 34 41 67 61 100 02 3 22 56 42 69 62 102 03 5 2 5 58 43 71 63 103 04 7 24 39 44 72 64 105 05 8 25 41 45 74 65 107 06 10 26 43 46 76 66 108 07 12 27 44 47 77 67 110 OS 13 28 46 48 79 68 112 09 15 29 48 49 80 69 113 in 16 30 49 50 82 70 115 n IS 31 51 51 84 71 117 12 20 32 52 52 85 72 118 13 21 33 54 53 87 73 120 14 23 54 56 54 89 74 121 15 25 55 57 55 90 75 123 16 26 5b 59 56 92 76 125 17 28 57 61 57 94 77 126 18 30 38 62 58 95 78 128 19 31 59 64 59 97 79 130 20 35 40 66 60 98 80 131 regardless of amount, and (b) when types coded 3 or 9 were present, 3 or 9 was chosen, as appropriate, regardless of the amount of low cloud. Height of the bases of the low clouds was determined relatively closely by taking the elapsed time between release and disappearance of the rawinsonde balloon times the ascent rate. The height thus obtained is indicated in col- umn 50 by the appropriate code taken from table 4-6. Type of middle cloud is indicated in column 51 by the appropriate code from table 4-7, except (a) when altocumulus were present in a chaotic sky, regardless of amount, code 9 was used; (b) when the sky was not chaotic but tufted or turreted altocumulus were present, code 8 was used; (c) clouds observed when the sky was visible through fog or analogous phenomena were recorded as though these phenomena had not been present; and- (d) when conden- sation trails caused by high-flying aircraft persisted and/or cloud masses that had obviously developed from such trails (but not rapidly dissipating trails) were observed, they were reported as middle clouds when they resembled such clouds. Type of high cloud is indicated in column 52 by the appropriate code taken from table 4-8 for the predominant type present. When several types were present in equal amounts, the code for the type whose base was at the Table 4-5. — Code table for clouds of types Stratocumulus , Stratus, Cumulus, and Cumulonimbus 57 Code fig- ures Technical language specifications Plain language specifications No C L clouds. 1 Cumulus humilis, or Cumulus fractus other than of bad weather, or both. 2 Cumulus mediocris or congestus, with or without Cumulus of species fractus or humilis, or Stratocumulus; all having their bases at the same level. 3 Cumulonimbus calvus , with or without Cumulus, Stratocumulus or Stratus. Stratocumulus cumulogenitus 5 Stratocumulus other than Stratocumulus cumulogenitus. 6 Stratus nebulosis or Stratus fractus other than of bad weather, or both. 7 Stratus fractus or Cumulus fractus of bad weather or both (pannus) usually below Altostratus or Nimbostratus . 8 Cumulus and Stratocumulus, other than Stratocumulus cumulogenitus, with bases at different levels. No Stratocumulus, Stratus, Cumulus, or Cumulonimbus Cumulus with little vertical extent and seemingly flattened, or ragged Cumulus other than of bad weather, or both. Cumulus of moderate or strong vertical extent generally with protuberances in the form of domes or towers, either accompanied or not by other Cumulus or by Stratocumulus; all having their bases at the same level. Cumulonimbus the summits of which, at least partially, lack sharp outlines, but are neither clearly fibrous (cirriform) , nor in the form of an anvil; Cumulus, Stratocumulus, or Stratus may be present. Stratocumulus formed by the spreading out of Cumulus; Cumulus may also be present . Stratocumulus not resulting from the spreading out of Cumulus. Stratus in a more or less continuous sheet or layer, or in ragged shreds or both, but no Stratus fractus of bad weather. Stratus fractus of bad weather or Cumulus fractus of bad weather or both (pannus) usually below Alto- stratus or Nimbostratus. Cumulus and Stratocumulus, other than those formed from the spreading out of Cumulus; the base of Cumulus is at a different level than that of the Stratocumulus. 58 Table 4-5. — Code table for clouds of types Stratocumulus, Stratus, Cumulus, and Cumulonimbus (continued) Code fig- ures Technical language specifications Plain language specifications 8 Cumulus and Stratocumulus, other than Stratocumulus cumulogenitus , with bases at different levels. 9 Cumulonimbus capillatus (often with an anvil) , with or without Cumulonimbus calvus, Cumulus, Strato- cumulus, Stratus or pannus. Clouds Cl not visible owing to darkness, fog, blowing dust or sand, or other similar phenomena. Cumulus and Stratocumulus, other than those formed from the spreading out of Cumulus; the base of Cumulus is at a different level than that of the Stratocumulus . Cumulonimbus, the upper part of which is clearly fibrous (cirriform) often in the form of an anvil; either accompanied or not by Cumulonimbus without anvil or fibrous upper part, by Cumulus, Stratocumulus, Stratus, or pannus . No Cumulus, Cumulonimbus, Strato- cumulus or Stratus visible owing to darkness, fog, blowing dust or sand, or other similar phenomena. Note ; "Bad Weather" denotes the conditions which generally exist during precipitation and a short time before and after. Table 4-6. — Code table for low cloud height; height of base of lowest cloud (Cl or C^) above sea Code fig- ure Hei .ght in feet _ 149 150 - 299 300 - 599 600 - 999 1 ,000 - 1 ,999 2 ,000 - 3 ,499 3 ,500 - 4 999 5 ,000 - 6 ,499 6 ,500 - 7 ,999 8 ,000 or higher or no clouds Hen -ght in meters _ 49 50 - 99 100 - 199 200 - 299 300 - 599 600 - 999 1,000 - 1,499 1,500 - 1,999 2,000 - 2,500 2,500 or higher or no clouds Height cannot be reported owing to darkness or other reason Table 4-7. — Code table for clouds of types Altocumulus, Altostratus, and Nimbostratus 59 Code fig- ures Technical language specifications Plain language specifications No C,. clouds . No Altocumulus, Altostratus, or Nimbostratus . Altostratus translucidus Altostratus opacus or Nimbostratus . Altostratus, the greater part of which is semi transparent ; through this part the Sun or Moon may be weakly visible as through ground glass . Altostratus, the greater part of which is sufficiently dense to hide the Sun (or Moon) , or Nimbo- stratus . Altocumuls translucidus at a single level. Patches of Altocumulus translucidus (often lenti- cular) , continuously changing and occurring at one or more levels . Altocumulus translucidus in bands, or one or more layers of Altocumulus translucidus or opacus progressively invading the sky; these Altocumulus clouds generally thicken as a whole. Altocumulus, the greater part of which is s emi trans parent ; the various elements of the cloud change only slowly and are all at a single level. Patches (often in the form of almonds or fishes) of Altocumulus, the greater part of which is semi transparent ; the clouds occur at one or more levels and the elements are continually changing in appearance. Semitransparent Altocumulus in bands or Altocumulus in one or more fairly continuous layers (semitransparent or opaque) progressively invading the sky; these Altocumulus clouds generally thicken as a whole. 60 Table 4-7. — Code table for clouds of types Altocumulus, Altostratus, and Nimbostratus (continued) Code fig- ures Technical language specifications Plain language specifications Altocumulus cumulogenitus (or cumulonimbogenitus) . Altocumulus resulting from the spreading out of Cumulus (or Cumulonimbus) . Altocumulus trans lucidus in two or more layers , or Altocumulus opacus in a single layer, not progress- ively invading the sky, or Altocumulus with Altostratus or Nimbostratus. Altocumulus in two or more layers usually opaque in places and not progressively invading the sky; or opaque layer of Altocumulus not progressively invading the sky; or Altocumulus together with Altostra- tus or Nimbostratus. Altocumulus castellanus or f loccus . Altocumulus with sproutings in the form of small towers or battle- ments, or Altocumulus having the appearance of cumuliform tufts. Altocumulus of a chaotic sky, generally at several levels. Altocumulus of a chaotic sky, generally at several levels. Clouds C M not visible owing to darkness, fog, blowing dust or sand, or other phenomena, or because of a continuous layer of lower clouds . No Altocumulus, Altos tratus , or or Nimbostratus visible owing to darkness, fog, blowing dust or sand, or other similar phenomena, or more often because of the presence of a continuous layer of lower clouds. Table 4-8. — Code table for clouds of types Cirrus, Cirrostratus, and Cirrocumulus 61 Code fig- ures Technical language specifications Plain language specifications No Cjj clouds No Cirrus, Cirrostratus, or Cirrocumulus . Cirrus fibratus, sometimes uncinus, not progressively invading the sky . Cirrus spissatus, in patches or entangled sheaves, which usually do not increase and sometimes seem to be the regains of the upper par*" of a Cumulonimbus, or Cirrus castellanus or floccus. Cirrus in the form of filiments, strands or hooks, not progressively invading the sky. Dense Cirrus in patches or entangled sheaves which usually do not increase and sometimes seem to be the remains of the upper parts of Cumulonimbus; or Cirrus with sproutings in the form of small turrets or battlements or Cirrus having the appearance of cumuli- form tufts. Cirrus spissatus cumulonim- bogenitus . Dense Cirrus often in the form of an anvil, being the remains of the upper parts of Cumulonimbus. Cirrus uncinus, or fibratus, Cirrus in the form of hooks or or both, progressively filaments or both, progressively invading the sky; they invading the sky; they generally generally thicken as a become denser as a whole, whole. Cirrus, often in bands, and Cirrus, often in bands converging and Cirrostratus, or Cirro- towards one point or two opposite stratus alone, progressively points of the horizon and Cirro- invading the sky; they stratus, or Cirrostratus alone; generally thicken as a whole, in either case they are progressive- but the continuous veil does ly invading the sky, and generally not reach 45° above the growing denser as a whole, but the horizon. continuous veil does not reach 45° above the horizon. 62 Table 4-8. — Code table for clouds of types Cirrus, Cirrostratus , and Cirrocumulus (continued) Code fig- ures Technical language specifications Plain language specifications Cirrus, often in bands, and Cirrostratus, or Cirrostra- tus alone, progressively invading the sky; they generally thicken as a whole but the continuous veil extends more than 45° above the horizon, without the sky being totally covered. Cirrostratus covering the whole sky. Cirrus, often in bands converging towards one point or two opposite points of the horizon, and Cirro- stratus, or Cirrostratus alone; in , either case they are progressively invading the sky, and generally growing denser as a whole; the continuous veil extends more than 45° above the horizon, without the sky being completely covered. Veil of Cirrostratus covering the celestial dome. Cirrostratus not progressive- Cirrostratus not progressively invad- ly invading the sky, and not ing the sky, and not completely entirely covering it. covering the celestial dome. Cirrocumulus alone, or Cirro- Cirrocumulus alone, or Cirrocumulus cumulus predominant among accompanied by Cirrus or Cirrostra- the cirriform clouds. tus or both, but Cirrocumulus is predominant. tt not visible owing to No Cirrus, Cirrostratus, or Cirrocu- Clouds C darkness, fog, blowing dust or sand, or other similar phenomena, or because of a continuous layer of lower clouds . mulus visible owing to darkness, fog, blowing dust or sand, or other similar phenomena, or more often because of the presence of a continuous layer of lower clouds. 63 greatest height above the sea was used, except (a) clouds observed when the sky was visible through fog or analogous phenomena were reported as though these phenomena had not been present, and (b) persistent condensation trails caused by high-flying aircraft and/or cloud masses obviously developed from such trails were reported as high clouds when they resembled such clouds. Visibility - Columns 53 and 54 . Visibility, or the greatest distance from an observer that an object of known characteristics can be seen and identified^ was determined, whenever possible, based upon objects whose distance from the observer was known (the horizon or other ships). Appropriate codes from table 4-9 were entered in columns 5 3 and 54. When the visibility was not the same in all directions, the highest value common to one-half or more of the horizon circle was used; when the visibility was between two of the distances listed in table 4-9, the code for the lesser distance was used. Table 4-9. — Code table for visibility Code figures Visibility range 90 Less than 50 yd (50 m) 91 50 yd (50 m) 92 200 yd (200 m) 93 1/4 nmi (500 m) 94 1/2 nmi (1,000 m) 95 1 nmi (2,000 m) 96 2 nmi (4,000 m) 9 7 5 nmi (10 km) 98 10 nmi (20 km) 99 25 nmi (50 km) or more Present Weather - Columns 55 and 56 . "Present weather" refers to the state of weather at the time of, or within 1 hr before, the observation. The ap- propriate codes listed in table 4-10 were entered in columns 55 and 56. When more than one code appeared to be required, the highest was entered. Past Weather - Column 57 . "Past weather" refers to the state of weather since the last scheduled observation (either 1 1/2 hr or 3 hr before observa- tion time). The appropriate codes from table 4-11 were used. When two or more codes appeared to be required, the highest code was used. 64 Table 4-10. — Code table for present weather 00-49 No Precipitation at the Station at the Time of .Observation. 00-19: No Precipitation, Fog, Ice Fog, Duststorm, Sandstorm, Drifting or Blowing Snow at the Station (or Ship) at the Time of Observation, Except for 09 and 17, or During the Preceding Hour. 00 01 02 03 CI) M 04 o E CO OS U o 06 -a c0 ■ 07 CO •u en OH Q CD 09 N CO I -x. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Characteristic change of the state of sky during the past hour. Cloud development not observed. Clouds generally dissolving or becoming less developed. State of sky on the whole unchanged. Clouds generally forming or developing. Visibility reduced by smoke, e.g., from veldt or forest fires, indus- trial smoke, or volcanic ashes. Haze. Widespread dust in suspension in the air, not raised by wind at or near the station (or ship) at the time of observation. Dust or sand raised by wind at or near the station (or ship) at the time of observation, but no well developed dust whirl (s) or sand whirl (s) and no duststorm or sandstorm seen. Well developed dust whirl (s) or sand whirl (s) seen at or near the station (or ship) within last hour, but no duststorm or sandstorm. Duststorm or sandstorm within sight of station (or ship) or at sta- tion (or ship) at time of observation or during the last hour. Light fog, visibility 1,000 meters (1,100 yards) or more. Patches of . More or less continuous Shallow fog or ice fog at the station (or ship) not deeper than about 2 meters (6 1/2 feet) on land or 10 meters (33 feet) at sea [visibility less than 1,000 meters (1,100 yards)]. Lightning visible, no thunder heard. Precipitation within sight, but not reaching ground or surface of the sea. Precipitation within sight, reaching ground or surface of the sea, but distant [i.e., estimated to be more than 5 kilometers (3 miles) from station (or ship)]. Precipitation within sight, reaching ground or surface of the sea, near to but not at the station (or ship). Thunderstorm, but no precipitation at the time of observation. Squall(s) ) within sight during Funnel cloud(s)* (tornado or waterspout) / the past hour. 65 Table 4-10. — Code table for present weather (continued) 20-29: Precipitation, Fog or Ice Fog or Thunderstorm at the Station (or Ship) During the Preceding Hour But Not at the Time of Observation. 20 Drizzle (not freezing) or snow grains 21 Rain (not freezing) 22 Snow .23 Rain and snow or ice pellets 24 Freezing drizzle or freezing rain 25 Shower (s) of rain 26 Shower(s) of snow, or of rain and snow. 27 Shower (s) of hail, or of hail and rain. 28 Fog or ice fog [visibility less than 1,000 meters (1,100 yards)] 29 Thunderstorm (with or without precipitation) . not falling as showers 30-39: Duststorm, Sandstorm or Drifting or Blowing Snow. 30 Slight or moderate duststorm ] has decreased during the preceding or sandstorm / hour. 31 Slight or moderate duststorm 1 no appreciable change during the or sandstorm / preceding hour. 32 Slight or moderate duststorm 1 has begun or increased during the or sandstorm J preceding hour. 33 Severe duststorm , , , , > has decreased during the preceding hour, or sandstorm ' 34 Severe duststorm , ,. . , , f no appreciable change during the preceding hour, or sandstorm ' has begun or increased during the preceding hour. 35 Severe duststorm or sandstorm 36 Slight or moderate drifting snow. I Drifting snow 10 meters (33 feet) 37 Heavy drifting snow. J or below at sea. 38 Slight or moderate blowing snow. ] Blowing snow above 10 meters 39 Heavy blowing snow. J (33 feet) at sea. 40-49: Fog or Ice Fog at the Time of Observation [visibility less than 1,000 meters (1,100 yards)]. 40 Fog or ice fog at a distance at the time of observation, but not at the statipn (or ship) during the last hour, the fog extending to a level above that of the observer. 41 Fog or ice fog in patches. 42 Fog or ice fog, sky discernible ) has become thinner during the 43 Fog or ice fog, sky not discernible f preceding hour. 44 Fog or ice fog, sky discernible } no appreciable change during 45 Fog or ice fog, sky not discernible J the preceding hour. 46 Fog or ice fog, sky discernible ] has begun or has become thicker 47 • Fog or ice fog, sky not discernible J during the preceding hour. 48 Fog, depositing rime, sky discernible. 49 Fog, depositing rime, sky not discernible. 66 Table 4-10. — Code table for present weather (continued) 50-99 Precipitation at the Station (or Ship) at the Time of Observation. 50-59: Drizzle at Time of Observation. 50 Drizzle, not freezing, intermittent 51 Drizzle, not freezing, continuous 52 Drizzle, not freezing, intermittent 53 Drizzle, not freezings continuous 54 Drizzle, not freezing, intermittent 55 Drizzle, not freezing, continuous 56 Drizzle, freezing, slight. 57 Drizzle, freezing, moderate or heavy (dense). 58 Drizzle and rain, slight. 59 Drizzle and rain, moderate or heavy. slight at time of observation. moderate at time of observation, heavy (dense) at time of observation. 60-69: Rain at Time of Observation, 60 Rain, not freezing, intermittent 61 Rain, not freezing, continuous 62 Rain, not freezing, intermittent 63 Rain, not freezing, continuous 64 Rain, not freezing, intermittent 65 Rain, not freezing, continuous 66 Rain, freezing, slight. 67 Rain, freezing, moderate or heavy. 68 Rain or drizzle and snow, slight. 69 Rain or drizzle and snow, moderate or heavy. slight at time of observation, moderate at time of observation, heavy at time of observation. 70-79: Solid Precipitation Not in Showers at Time of Observation. slight at time of observation. moderate at time of observation. heavy at time of observation. 70 Intermittent fall of snowflakes 71 Continuous fall of snowflakes 72 Intermittent fall of snowflakes 73 Continuous fall of snowflakes 74 Intermittent fall of snowflakes 75 Continuous fall of snowflakes 76 Ice prisms (with or without fog). 77 Snow grains (with or without fog). 78 Isolated starlike snow crystals (with or without fog) . 79 Ice pellets (i.e., frozen raindrops or largely melted and refrozen snowflakes) . 80-99: Showery Precipitation, or Precipitation With Current or Recent Thunderstorm. 80 Rain shower (s), slight. 81 Rain shower(s), moderate or heavy. 82 Rain shower(s), violent. 83 Shower(s) of rain and snow, mixed, slight. 84 Shower (s) of rain and snow mixed, moderate or heavy. 85 Snow shower (s), slight. 86 Snow shower (s), moderate or heavy. Table 4-10. — Code table for present weather (continued) 67 87 Shower(s) of snow pellets or ice pellets* with or without rain or rain and snow mixed 88 Shower(s) of snow pellets or ice pellets* with or without rain or rain and snow mixed 89 Shower (s) of hail, with or without rain or rain and snow mixed, not associated with thunder 90 Shower (s) of hail, with or without rain or rain and snow mixed, not associated with thunder 91 Slight rain at time of observation 92 Moderate or heavy rain at time of observation 93 Slight snow or rain and snow mixed or hail* at time of observation 94 Moderate or heavy snow, or rain and snow mixed or hail* at time of observation 95 Thunderstorm, slight or moderate, without hail* but with rain and/or snow at time of observation 96 Thunderstorm, slight or moderate, with hail* at time of observation 97 Thunderstorm, heavy, without hail* but with rain and/or snow at time of observation **98 Thunderstorm combined with duststorm or sandstorm — at time of observation. 99 Thunderstorm, heavy, with hail* at time of observation. slight . moderate or heavy. slight. moderate or heavy. thunderstorm during the preceding hour but not at time of observation. thunderstorm at time of observation. ** Hail, ice pellets, i.e., pellets of snow encased in a thin layer of ice, snow pellets. In reporting code figure 98, the observer is allowed considerable latitude in the presumption that precipitation is or is not occurring if it is not actually visible. 68 Precipitation - Columns 58 through 68 . The amount of precipitation was recorded by a Weather Bureau shielded precipitation gage #D101 mounted on the boom of each fixed ship and graduated in millimeters. With care taken to allow for ship movement, the amount of precipitation during, or 1 1/2 or 3 hr before, the observation was read to the nearest millimeter and entered in columns 58, 59, and 60. If precipitation fell, but was too small to be measured, 001 was entered. If no precipitation was observed, 000 was used. The times of beginning and ending of precipitation were recorded in GMT to the nearest minute in columns 61 through 64 and 65 through 68, respective- ly. If precipitation began or ended more than once during the observation period, the time of the first beginning and last ending was entered, and the appropriate codes for showery or intermittent activity were entered in the present- and past-weather columns. Table 4-11. — Code table for past weather Code figure Past weather Clouds covering 1/2 or less of the skv throughout period 1 Clouds covering more than 1/2 of the sky during part of period, and less than 1/2 during part of period 2 Clouds covering more than 1/2 of the sky throughout period 3 Sandstorm, duststorm, or drifting or blowing snow 4 Fog, or ice fog, or thick haze 5 Drizzle 6 Rain 7 Snow, rain and snow mixed, or ice pellets 8 Shower(s) 9 Thunders torm(s) , with or without precipitation 69 Orientiation of Low Clouds - Columns 69 through 71 . When cumulus clouds arranged in bands or several bands separated by clear spaces (streets) were observed, their presence was recorded by entering code 1 in column 69 of the form; was used if they were not present. The orientation of the cloud street axis with respect to true north is indicated in columns 70 and 71 in accordance with table 4-12. (This information was reliably reported.) If columns 69 through 71 are blank, no observations of this type were made.) Remarks - Columns 72 through 80 . These columns were left open for the observer to record any information he considered pertinent to the observa- tion not allowed for in the form, such as wind shifts, gusting wind, waterspouts, hail, second swell group at least 30° different from the one reported, reasons for missing data or unreliability of some data, and whether the observation was transmitted to the Barbados Control Center, indicated by TRANS. The GMT for all such entries in the remarks column is given. The observer's initials appear in the last column of the Surface Observations Form. Table 4-12. — Code table for orientation of cloud band axis with respect to true north Code figure Orientation of band axis with respect to true north along a line 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 From 0° 1 :o 180° 10° 1 190° 20° ' 1 200° 30° 210° 40° ' • 220 o 50° 230° 60° 240° 70° ' ' 250° 80° 260° 90° 1 270° 100° ' 280° 110° 1 290° 120° ' 300° 130° ' 310° 140° ' i 320 o 150° 330° 160° 1 340° 170° ' 350° 70 4.2 Archive Format and Data Inventory The marine meteorological observations as logged on the Surface Obser- vations Form were punched on cards and edited for punching errors only. These data are contained on magnetic tape as the second of five files. The first file consists of 80-column card images, one card image per record, describing the formats of the five data files. The third file contains manually recorded ship operations and navigation data (these have been supplemented by correc- tions for ship motion and ship positions for Periods II and III, after the moorings of the fixed ships failed; see sec. 2) . The fourth file contains information logged on the STD Observation Form (see sec. 7) and the fifth file consists of radiometersonde data (see sec. 5) . All information is in binary- coded-decimal (BCD) format, even parity, 800 bits per inch. An inventory of the marine meteorological observations is given in table 4-13. The magnetic tape format is as follows: Character Element 1 Card code , should always be 1 2 Ship code - Oceanographer 1 - Rainier 2 - Mt. Mitchell 3 - Discoverer 4 - Rockaw %L 3-5 Modified Julian day 6-7 Hour, GMT 8-9 Minute 10-14 Station pressure, millibars and tenths 15 Three-hour pressure tendency 16-17 Three-hour pressure change, millibars and tenths 18-20 Dry-bulb temperature, degrees and tenths Celsius 21-2 3 Wet-bulb temperature, degrees and tenths Celsius 24-25 Dewpoint temperature, degrees Celsius 26-2 7 Relative humidity, percent 28-30 Wind direction, degrees true 31-32 Wind speed, knots 33-35 Direction from which wind waves come, degrees true 36-37 Wind-wave height, half-meters 71 Character 38-39 40-42 43-44 45-46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53-54 55-56 57 58-60 61-62 63-64 65-66 67-68 69-80 Element' 1 Wind-wave period, seconds Direction from which swell comes , degrees true Swell height, half-meters Swell period, seconds Total cloud amount, eighths Low cloud amount, eighths Low cloud type Low cloud height Middle cloud type High cloud type Visibility Present weather Past weather Precipitation amount, millimeters Hour precipitation began, GMT Minute precipitation began, GMT Hour precipitation ended, GMT Minute precipitation ended, GMT Remarks The BOMEX surface pressure - marine microbarograms for four of the fixed ships are contained on a reel of 35-mm microfilm. This reel also con- tains the Weather Radar Log for the Discoverer (see sec. 8) and the NAVOCEANO CTEM Sea-Surface Temperature Log (see sec. 7) . Daily charts are available for the time periods indicated in the inventory given in table 4-14. 72 m ti O •H 4J n 0) M C n3 U ■H M O rH >-< o QJ 4J QJ B 01 c ■H B 14- & o u 0) > I CO 01 H rl 0J (0 0) fel XI c IT) o 1 HH ■H S o CO > & o 25 QJ M 03 01 QJ £> c >-i O 01 ■H > <4-l -u o CO en •H P O ss 10 •o _T! c o n •H CH 4-1 o CC > Z M 01 S) 01 -O c ■H O c •H •H U-I ■u CO o CO « c > 4= 01 B co in cr. .a c M tx •H r> DH ■U § o CO > 0) • o o z rH CO 3 -a CO -6 QJ n 0) CO .H T3 >, CO (fl u s •H O " Z r^ o> m m in oo rH cm co O CO CO CO CO *3" eO r*^ 00 CT> O oo oo r-~ m r~ r-~ CO CO iH VO CM iH cm co <■ in <• sT <■ •* -* iH cm co <■ m CM CM CM CM CM m ~rj- -* H oo co iMOOlOH • ~* -a- sr m m I i-H rH rH rH i-H \BMOC«o H CM CM CM CM CO CO 73 > CO Xs o a •H bo o r-H C O I QJ c •H u >1 .a c ra o § M-l •H 4-1 -Si o to o > <§ d 3 1 U o SB 01 1 U £ CD a Cfl 0) to J3 B h o o 01 •H o M-4 4-1 P>s a > H 0) o u o 4-1 o E3 a C1J > c H 1 1 a •H >> H to 3 T3 co (^ hi 1 cj\ cm m n m fO h m sO m lo lo m in H M ro m oo m -d- r^- oo a> o i— l | cm n r^ p** u CD en O cu u •H M O H O IH O PS H I I ! ^3 c « O § MH ■H 4J ^ eg u > Pi O 0) K ID 01 0J .O, c Vj O CJ 0) •H > IM 4J o O CO CJ > in • H D o z Jj c/) (0 01 rO c •H o C ■H •H U-l 4J ecl o ctj pt{ > CO CO J3 C O O •H >, ■H CO 3 "O bo a CO CO S 4J cvj en O CT\ O CTN H cm cn ^ m Hincoco co i—l 00 00 <■ 00 00 00 OO 00 H CO COCO CO H 00 00 00 00 MOOlO H o^ oi oi o o H H H CM CM kD r~* oo o o Ov lO CO CN CO CO CO 3-r^i r- oo oo soico enco co to r^ oo oo oo <- oo n en o 00000 ! OOOiH CMCMCMCMCM|CMCMCMCM rH cm en I i 5-i CO o >-, i— i •H crj T3 CO 5-i aj O iH •H 15 5-i CU X a CO 5-i (X O e CO 0) CJ c 5-i CO X. •H O M-l Jg ro O 1 5-i iH CJ 0) cJ id . CO cO \o CO CO X CO- CN CO 00 CN CO cn CN cO cu § 1-3 •D o CO CO CO CO CN CN CO 1-3 I CU o CO '-i l"3 I '-> CN OJ § l-J I C"\ H 0) 1-3 in 3 1-3 3 1-3 00 CN 3 I =1 1-3 O en B H 1-3 I o CN OJ 9 - 4-1 >. >, g rH i-j 5-1 CO CO 3 3 3 cO S S •-3 1-3 '-) rC o 1 i 1 1 1 >•> iH CN H C^ O H CN H H •H CO cu OJ >- ■n >> >, c g H CO CO 3 3 3 s S 1-3 •-> •-3 00 CN >•> H 3 •"3 I O 3 >-3 3 1-3 3 1-3 On CN rH 3 •-0 3 76 RAWINSONDE AND RADIOMETERSONDE DATA SET 5.1 Instrumentation and Observation Procedures Rawinsonde balloons launched from the BOMEX ships carried two instru- ment packages aloft for each observation: a temperature sonde equipped with a thermistor and a humidity sonde with a hygristor. All sondes and telemetry units were of standard National Weather Service type with these exceptions: (a) The temperature sondes were specially wired to yield only signals for temperature, low reference (190 Hz) instead of a humidity signal, and a special midreference signal (95 Hz) that replaced every fifth low reference in the sequence. This allowed more frequent reference signals and hence more precise corrections for variations in sonde characteristics. Select- ed precalibrated thermistors were used. (b) The temperature sonde pressure sensors were specially selected and precalibrated twice at the factory, once "up" and once "down." Sensors that showed large differences were rejected. (c) The humidity sondes were modified to yield an almost continuous humidity signal, interrupted only occasionally for a low-reference signal. Because the humidity data are much less sensitive to minor sonde battery variation than the temperature data, there was no need for frequent reference checks. A more sensitive uncalibrated pressure commutator was substituted for the usual baroswitch to further shorten the time occupied by reference signals. All pressure data were taken from the temperature sonde and time correlated to the humidity data. The net result was extraordinarily fine vertical resolution in the humidity profile. Table 5-1 summarizes the instrumentation and sonde frequency used by the fixed ships during the four BOMEX Observation Periods. Temperature sonde and humidity sonde signal output was acquired by separate receivers aboard ship and recorded automatically on the Signal Conditioning and Recording Device (SCARD) , the primary shipboard recording unit, which was developed and operated in the field by personnel from NASA's Mississippi Test Facility (MTF) . Data were also recorded on strip charts for quality control. Two types of balloon-tracking systems were used: the Scanwell Wind Finding at Sea System (WFSS) and radar wind finding systems. The Scanwell WFSS was carried aboard the Oceanographer , Mt . Mitchell , and Rainier . By means of rotary potentiometers mounted within the Scanwell balloon-tracking instrumentation, continuous slant range and azimuth values of balloon position were acquired for computation of upper air wind directions and speeds. These data were also recorded on SCARD, as well as on strip charts for quality control. The Discoverer was equipped with a Selenia radar, METEOR 200 RMT-2S (3.2-cm wavelength). Slant range and azimuth data, for computation of upper air winds, were recorded on punched paper tape at 15-s intervals, with a printed paper tape for quality control. The Rockaway used an AN/SPS-29 radar. 77 Slant range and azimuth measurements were obtained visually by the radar operator at 1-min intervals and recorded manually for subsequent conversion to punched cards. Radiometersonde observations were obtained at 0000 GMT each day from the Discoverer , Rainier , and Rockaway during all four BOMEX periods. A Suomi- Kuhn economical net radiometer to measure upward and downward IR radiation was attached to the rawinsonde. Table 5-1. — BOMEX rawinsonde instrumentation Ship Period I Period II Period III Period IV Oceanographer Temperature 403/1,680 MHz Same as I Same as I Same as I Mt. Mitchell Humidity 72.2 MHz ii ii ii Rainier Discoverer Temperature 403 MHz Humidity 403 MHz Low-level Same as I Same as I Same as I except all pulsed sondes used ii ii H FM sondes High-level pulsed sondes Rockaway Temperature Same as I Same as I Same as IV 403 MHz except all pulsed Humidity sondes Humidity 403 MHz used 72.2 MHz Low-level FM sondes High-level pulsed sondes Suomi-Kuhn 403 MHz FM-FM (upward and downward IR) radiometersonc . s flown at 0000 GMT daily. 2 Planned termination at approximately 400 mb . 3 From surface to burst. 78 The procedures for making rawinsonde observations were essentially the standard ones used by the National Weather Service. An exception was that the frequency of observations, i.e., every 1 1/2 hr, required termination at 400 mb , The requirement for increased accuracy and nearly continuous resolution in hu- midity data dictated the use of two sondes on the same balloon train, one that measured temperature, the other humidity. The temperature sonde was not baselined because individually calibrated thermistors were used. Standard pref light check and inspection were performed, however. The sonde was assembled in the normal fashion, except that no hy- gristor was installed. After the instrument had been checked externally, the temperature sonde ground equipment was turned on and allowed to warm up, and the activated batteries were placed in the sonde for a 2- to 3-min warmup period. By alternate touching of the, two test leads with a common lead, the low reference and midscale reference, respectively, were transmitted. The low- reference signal was maintained long enough to set the recorder on ordinate 95.0. After the reference had been tested and set on the strip chart, the temperature signal was checked for proper or expected value. The sonde trans- mitter was adjusted to the desired frequency; alternate flights were tuned to different frequencies to minimize possibility of an abandoned flight interfer- ing with pref light operations for the next observation. Under normal circum- stances, the sonde transmitter was never tuned to the limits of the equipment frequency range, since some latitude was left for postrelease frequency drifts. With the external switching completed and the test leads clipped off, the temperature sonde baroswitch was set t6 a position corresponding to the near- est 0.1 contact representing the ambient pressure read on the ship's precision aneroid barometer. The procedures used to set the baroswitch were those suggested in Federal Meteorological Handbook 3. The humidity sonde was inspected and reference checked in the same way as the temperature sonde, and the transmitter was tuned to the proper frequency. Following this, baseline measurements were made in the baseline check box. The baseline wet- and dry-bulb temperature conditions were established to the nearest 0.1°C (by use of special precision thermometers), and the corresponding relative humidity was determined. With the humidity stabilized at 31 to 35 percent (normally around 33 percent) , the baseline conditions were recorded on a special Rawinsonde Observation Form (BOMEX Card 0) for use in later data processing. The baseline measurements were considered valid for only 30 min . If release did not occur within 30 min, a fresh humidity element was installed and a new baseline check made. The baroswitch was then set. The humidity sonde baroswitch was set to either contact number 3 or 8, whichever was closest to the original pen arm position. Since the humidity- sonde baroswitch was not used for pressure measurements, setting the baroswitch according to ambient station pressure was not required. Only the temperature sonde baroswitch was used for pressure measurements. Setting the pen arm as indicated ensured that relative humidity data were transmitted at release and a low reference shortly thereafter. A 300-g balloon was used for flights to 400 mb at the 1 1/2- hr release frequency. For all 0000 GMT observations and flights released at the 6-hr release frequency, a 600-g balloon was used. With two instrumentation pack- ages, the ascent rate was nominally 200 m/min for the 300-g balloon and 300 m/min for the 600-g balloon. During BOMEX Observation Period I (May 3 to May 15), the two sondes were strapped together, back to back, but signal 79 interference between the two instruments occurred occasionally, and such flights were not processed. Thereafter, the sondes were separated on the train by 1 1/2 to 2 m, with the temperature sonde nearest the balloon. For flight, the arrangement was balloon, train regulator (15 to 20 m of line included) , sondes spaced 1 1/2 to 2 m apart, 3 1/2 m of line, and (for the Discoverer and Rockaway only) target. Just before release, all ground equipment was rechecked, and the SCARD operators were notified to prepare for release. Immediately before release, the humidity sonde external low-reference wire was grounded to the sonde for at least 5 s, and this connection was broken as the balloon was released. The resulting shift in signal frequency was used in later data reduction as indication of lift-off. After release, the usual procedures for monitoring rawinsonde ground equipment were followed, and the observation was terminated as scheduled or as soon as sonde failure occurred in flight. The same preflight checks and procedures used for the rawinsondes were used for radiometersonde observations. The radiometer was attached according to instructions given by P.M. Kuhn , Environmental Research Laboratories, NOAA, Boulder, Colo. 80302. 5.2 Preliminary Data Processing The rawinsonde data were initially processed by NASA's Mississippi Test Facility (MTF) , Bay St. Louis, Miss. After early review of the digitized SCARD analog data, it became evident that, because of inconsistencies in observational techniques, operational difficulties, and other problems (such as digital noise) , a comprehensive set of rawinsonde processing software could not be constructed without some intermediate processing step that would produce sufficiently complete output for review and for design of the final software. Temperature- and humidity-sonde signals for all ships were recorded as frequency-modulated signals on SCARD. Slant range and azimuth from the Scanwell WFSS installed on the Oceanographer , Mt . Mitchell , and Rainier were also recorded on SCARD, but as amplitude-modulated signals. All these parameters were frequency multiplexed on one of the seven SCARD recording channels. The temperature- and humidity-sonde input signals from ground- station receivers aboard the fixed ships were designed to vary between 10 and 200 Hz, but in many cases exceeded 200 Hz. The slant range and azimuth input voltages from the Scanwell WFSS varied between and 5 V d.c. The slant range was a ramped signal representing successive 2,000-m increments of measured slant range. The azimuth input from Scanwell consisted of two inputs one voltage (0 to 5 V d.c. ramp) representing the range from to 360° (called AZ360), the other (0 to 5 V d.c. ramp) representing successive to 20° ranges (called AZ20) . These two azimuth voltages, derived from precision potentio- meters mounted within the Scanwell antenna servodrive train, were necessary to achieve appropriate resolution in measured azimuth. On the Discoverer , slant range and azimuth were acquired at 15-s intervals by a Selenia radar, Model METEOR 200 RMT-2S, and recorded digitally on punched paper tape and on a 80 hard-copy printout. On the Rockaway , slant range and azimuth were acquired by an AN/SPS-29 radar and recorded manually at 1-min intervals. Digitization of the above signals required a two-pass operation: a first pass that converted the analog FM/FM (frequency modulated) and FM/PAM (pulse amplitude modulated) signals to digital form at 16 times real-time recording speed, resulting in 10 samples per second (10 sps) digital values of frequency and d.c. voltages; and a second pass that edited, formatted, scaled, and reduced the 10-sps digitized SCARD data to 2 sps and produced as output one reel of magnetic tape containing all measured frequency values and d.c. voltages gathered in one 24-hr period (0000 through 2400 GMT) for one fixed ship. The first pass was made by an SDS 930 Automatic Telemetry Reduction System, a program-controlled system in which an AMPEX FR-1400 analog tape unit, time-ccde-generator decoder, 18 discriminators, two cycle counters, input/ output tie-in crossbar units, five levels of a priority interrupt system, three digital tape units, and other peripheral input/output devices were used. The second pass was made by an IBM 7094 program that created SDS 930- compatible 2-sps tape from a 10-sps tape. This equipment and the programs were operated and managed by the NASA Slidell Computer Complex, Slidell, La. 5.2.1 Temperature- and Humidity-Sonde Data First pass . For each element, the demodulated output was input to a zero detection unit. At each positive-going crossover, the following took place : (a) The appropriate counter was updated by one. (b) The contents of a 312.5-kHz clock (recorded on SCARD as 3.125 kHz, then multiplied for system control) was transferred to the appropriate storage register. At the end of each 1/10 s, the output for each element (temperature/temperature references or humidity/humidity references) was computed by V = t/c, where V = recorded value; t = the time, in units of the 312.5-kHz clock; and c = the integral number of positive crossovers. Thus, a time series of 10-sps* values, one 10-sps series for the temperature sonde and one for the humidity sonde, were formed as input to the second pass . Each 10-sps time series contained measured temperature or humidity values and their respective reference values in the sequence of normal occurrence during the observation. Second pass . The 10-sps samples were converted to Hz values for each 1/10 s by dividing the output (V above) of digitizing into 3,125,000. Follow- ing conversion to Hz , a noise elimination averaging technique was applied to the 10-sps data with one 1/2-s period, i.e., five 1/10-s data points, to form the 2-sps time series. Selective averaging was done by comparing the new arithmetic average of the input data set with the previously averaged point for this variable. If the difference between these two values exceeded the tolerance as specified on the noise tolerance manual input card to the second pass program (± 0.5 Hz for temperature-sonde and ± 1.0 Hz for humidity-sonde *Used here, and in what follows, to indicate "values per second." 81 data), the point deviating most from the arithmetic mean was discarded, and the previous average was replaced with a new arithmetic mean of (n-1) 1/10-s points. The process was then repeated until the correct tolerance was established or until only two points remained. The average of these two points was then accepted as the average for one 2-sps data point. Following averaging, the digitizing system calibrations were applied to the 2-sps data points. 5.2.2 Slant Range, Azimuth 360, and Azimuth 20 First pass . For each channel (one for slant range, one for azimuth 360, and one for azimuth 20), the signals were demodulated through a discriminator giving a d.c. voltage nominally in the range of ± 7.5 V. At the beginning and end of each SCARD tape, the calibration outputs were taken for each channel and recorded separately. Each 1/10 s, the three discriminated voltage outputs were multiplexed to an A/D converter at the rate of 50 ys per channel. The converter was capable of digitizing in the range of ± 10 V, with significance to approximately 0.01 V. Thus, a slant range, azimuth 360, and azimuth 20 10-sps time series was formed for each variable for input to the second pass program. Second pass . The 1/10-s values were scaled to 10,000 counts, where - 5 V e - 10,000 counts as follows: Counts = 10,000 (A - L )/(H - L ), t c c c where L and H are low-reference calibration and high- reference calibration, c c respectively, as recorded on SCARD. The calibrations represent the average of the beginning and ending calibrations on one SCARD tape, and A is the variable sample. The 10-sps values were then reduced to 2-sps values by the noise elimination averaging used for rawinsonde temperature and humidity, with the tolerances for slant range and azimuth 360 being 60 counts and for azimuth 20, 250 counts. 5.3 Final Data Processing The 2-sps magnetic tape data from MTF described above were used for final processing, which consisted of both automated and manual procedures. The overall approach was as follows: (1) Soundings were processed to termination, or end of usable data. (2) A check was made for baroswitch setting errors, and the few sound- ings with errors of more than one contact were discarded. (3) Care was taken to distinguish between temperature signal and midreference signal at their crossover points. (4) Thermal lag corrections were applied to the temperature and humidity values, but the final output includes both uncorrected and corrected humidities. 82 (5) An insolation correction was applied to daytime humidity values, but uncorrected values are also included in the final data set. (6) Automated corrections were introduced for a number of recurring instrumentation problems. (7) Low-reference frequencies were accepted up to 210 Hz. (8) Ship-velocity corrections were determined for computation of winds. (9) Whenever possible, soundings that were missing or could not be processed automatically from the magnetic tapes were processed manually from strip charts. The system developed for the final processing of the rawinsonde data consisted of three distinct parts: (1) manual processing, (2) automated processing, and (3) an acceptance phase. The major elements of the system are shown in figure 5-1, where each of the rectangles represents an independent main computer program. This partitioning was made to hold individual program memory requirements and computer time within acceptable limits, and to allow for separate development of program parts. In general, each main program produced its own magnetic tape output as a "check point," so that extensive reruns could be cut down in case corrections were required or runs failed. The two trapezoids represent extensive manual preparation and intervention points. As part of these manual procedures, short computer routines were used in editing and displaying the data for evaluation. In the manual processing , data on temperature and humidity frequencies from strip charts, and slant range and azimuth readings from various listings, punched paper tape, and, in some cases, magnetic tape, were all reduced to punched cards, or to card images on magnetic tape. Three sets of cards were prepared from the manually logged Surface Observation, Rawinsonde Observation, and Ship Operations Forms. Baroswitch calibration pressures were also punched on cards, a separate set for each sounding. A fifth type of card, one set for each rawinsonde flight, carried the individual flight number assigned during data processing and included several parameters found necessary for correlation with the other punched card data sets. All cards were carefully inspected both visually and by special checking and display programs. A magnetic tape was then prepared, grouping together all data for each flight, and this tape was used as input for a rawinsonde program, by which the conversion to meteorological units and the various sounding computations were carried out. The resulting data were recorded on magnetic tape, from which listings and modified pseudo-adiabatic plots were made on microfilm. On the magnetic tapes generated at MTF, sea-surface temperature, surface wind, atmospheric pressure, and other data were interspersed with the rawinsonde data. In the automated processing , a first program sorted these data onto two tapes, one containing rawinsonde data, the other the surface data (obtained with the specially instrumented ships' booms; see sec. 3). The rawinsonde data tape was then used as input to two programs. One of these edited and averaged the temperature and humidity data into 5-s values, on magnetic tape, eliminating noise; the other prepared a similar output tape for slant range and azimuth. Next, the manually worked up data referred to above 83 SORT RAWINSONDE 2-SPS DATA J" I EDIT SLANT RANGE AND AZIMUTH DATA EDIT TEMPERATURE- HUMIDITY DATA AUTOMATIC EDIT AUXILIARY DATA I-- MERGE AUTOMATIC DATA CALCULATE AUTOMATIC RAWINSONDES MICROFILM RAWINSONDE LISTINGS AND PLOTS PREPARE MANUAL DATA EDIT MANUAL DATA BI- MANUAL CALCULATE MANUAL RAWINSONDES MANUAL INSPECTION AND ACCEPTANCE ACCEPTANCE DEVELOP ARCHIVE SOUNDING FORM I ASSEMBLE ARCHIVE MAGNETIC TAPES MICROFILM ARCHIVE LISTINGS AND PLtfTS Figure 5-1. — BOMEX rawinsonde processing system. 84 were introduced into the automatic processing, and a merging program was then used to prepare a tape that combined all pertinent data from the temperature- humidity tape, the slant range-azimuth tape, and the auxiliary data for input to a second rawinsonde program, which was almost identical to the one used in the manual processing and produced output in the same format. In the acceptance phase , results were reviewed not only at every major intermediate point in the processing, but a final inspection was made of microfilm plots of the individual soundings. If, for example, at this point a particular sounding "looked bad," as processed automatically, a check was made whether strip-chart data were available and, if they were, these data were introduced into the manual processing cycle for computation. As another example, the occurrence of a "super-adiabat" led in some cases to a special diagnostic run of the sounding in question to check whether a correction was needed. Also, computer runs were made of all soundings for a particular ship for a continuous period in order to compare successive soundings at various pressure levels. If such comparison indicated moisture values for one sounding that were, for example, low compared with values for the preceding and succeeding soundings, the microfilm output was examined in detail for signs of "reality," e.g., a close-by inversion. Finally, the wind data were corrected for ship motion (see sec. 2), and a sorting and merging computer run was made by which all soundings for each of the five ships and for each of the four BOMEX observation periods were placed in time order for archival. In the sections that follow, processing is discussed in terms of type of data rather than within the framework of the structure of the processing system as shown in figure 5-1. 5.3.1 Signal Processing 5.3.1.1 General . The transmitted frequencies of the reference signals were not exactly 95 and 190 Hz, and the frequency associated with the temperature sensor varied continuously. Also, although the reference frequencies for a particular rawinsonde flight were nearly constant, they were subject to some drift. In order to differentiate between the three signal types and to distinguish them from noise, frequency bounds were established for each type at the beginning of each sounding. After a first occurrence of one type, the range of acceptable values for that type were narrowed down for processing of later occurrences of the same type. In view of the small range of surface temperature over the tropical BOMEX area, the following initial ranges for the temperature sonde signals were set: Low reference — 178 to 210 Hz, inclusive. Midreference — 87 to 105 Hz, inclusive. Temperature frequency — 125 to 155 Hz, inclusive. Noise — any frequency not within the above ranges. 85 Before a new set of samples for a particular type was collected (after the initial set), new tolerances were established for that type. For either of the reference frequencies, the new bounds were established at ± 2 Hz from the last reference mean. These same bounds were reset also for the temperature frequencies, but were then further expanded as a function of time elapsed since the creation of the last temperature frequency mean. The lower bound was reduced further by 1 Hz and an amount equal to 0.025 times the length of time, in seconds, between the mean time of the- previous occurrence of temperature frequency and the beginning time of the latest signal. The upper bound was increased by 1 Hz and an amount equal to 0.045 times the same time interval. These extended bounds were necessary in order to take care of decreases in frequency that occurred because of dry-adiabatic lapse rates and increases associated with fairly sharp temperature inversions. One problem was related to signal time extent that can result from a leaking or "floating" balloon, a contact that has stuck, or a noisy signal. To avoid uncertain pattern recognition and faulty processing under such circumstances, the time extent of each signal type occurrence was noted and, after some startup uncertainty, an average time extent for each type was computed and kept current for the last five occurrences of each type. The lower tolerance of time extent for a particular type of signal was set at 70 percent of its average time extent, and the higher tolerance at 50 percent longer than the average. When a new signal type could not be recognized because of noise or for other reasons, processing of the sounding was ended if the signal persisted beyond the high tolerance time. 5.3.1.2 Temperature . As temperature decreased with height, its frequency crossed the midreference frequency somewhere between an altitude of 20,000 to 30,000 ft. This often presented a special problem in the program used for signal recognition when the time window for expecting a new mid- reference contact occurred at a time when the recognition bounds for tempera- ture frequency and midreference frequency overlapped. In these instances, a sample that was larger than the one generally used was set up to include all temperature- sonde frequency data from the onset of the temperature signal to the low-reference signal following the crossover midreference. Also, the normal tolerance bounds for midreference of ± 2 Hz from the last mean was reset to ± 0.2 Hz, and this larger data set was then inspected from the first value until four successive values (2 s of data) were found to be within the new, closely set, midreference bounds. The first value was accepted as the beginning of the midreference frequency set. The search was then continued until another four successive values were found to be outside the midreference bounds, with the first value adopted as the beginning of the following temperature signal set, When the next low-reference signal appeared, the processing of the larger sample was considered ended and normal processing was resumed. The above solution to the crossover problem is illustrated in figure 5-2. Based on a given value of one type (temperature, midreference, or low reference) within the appropriate range, an average frequency value was calculated. For midreference or low reference, the entire set of values from a given contact was used to form the average. For a temperature frequency set, a subset of approximately 5 s of data was used to derive each average. After a frequency average had been formed, it was compared with individual values. Any value found to be more than 1 Hz from the average was discarded, 86 LOW REFERENCE (NEAR 190 H MID- REFERENCE (NEAR 95 Hz) TEMPERATURE FREQUENCIES (SLOWLY CHANGING, SAY 100 DOWN TO 90 Hz) Figure 5-2. — Solution to crossover problem. High and low range of expected temperature and midreference signals (dashed lines) ; close high and low range for mid- reference at crossover (dashed-dotted lines) . and a new average was calculated from the remaining values. This process was continued until all values were within 1 Hz of the average. For temperature frequency, an average time of occurrence was calculated from the clock values associated with the frequency values entered into the final frequency average, In averaging, the time the first value of a s'et was recognized was used as the reference time. 5.3.1.3 Humidity . Before noise elimination and averaging, corrections were applied to the 2-sps (2 values 'per second) humidity frequencies for a characteristic of the 72-MHz ground equipment that caused occasional "frequency doubling" for short periods of time, resulting in humidities that were from 5 to 50 percent too low. Except for the 1/2-s values mentioned below, each value was examined for doubling by checking it against one or two preceding values. If doubling had occurred, the frequency was replaced by 1/2 of its initial value. Excluded from inspection for doubling were (1) null values; (2) values above a certain threshold that were taken to be reference frequencies; (3) values below a threshold of 20 Hz, for which subsequent doubled values were judged -to be indistinguishable from real measurements because of the rapid changes possible in humidity measurements; and (4) values succeeding certain values considered to be unreliable for doubling 87 comparisons. The following three types of values seemed unreliable for doubling comparisons due to noise introduced in the analog-to-digital conversion: (1) values immediately following null values, (2) values immediately following reference values, and (3) values that were lower by more than 20 Hz than the value immediately preceding them. The reference threshold referred to above was initially set at 175 Hz for each sounding. Values above 175 Hz were considered to be possible reference frequencies or, at least, not possible values for humidity measure- ments. When a group of such high values was first encountered in a sounding, their average was calculated, and the threshold was then reset to that average minus 3 Hz and maintained for the rest of the sounding. Each 1/2-s value was inspected for doubling. The preceding frequency was doubled, and a range of values was set from minus to plus a small increment from this doubled value. If the value under inspection was within this range, it was replaced by 1/2 of its initial value; if it was not, a similar range was set based on the value before the immediately preceding one, and if this value fell within this range, it was replaced by 1/2 of its initial value. The small increment mentioned above was set at 2 Hz until two "doublings" had been discovered. It was then reset at 5 Hz. If no new doubling was discovered within 60 s of the last occurrence, the increment was reset at its original value of 2 Hz. Inspection of the results of these correction procedures for flights with known doubling indicate that about 60 to 80 percent of cases of doubling were corrected without introduction of false corrections, i.e., data being "undoubled" when no doubling existed. Also, many flights for which visual inspection of strip charts had not given evidence of doubling were found to contain a few instances of doubling. Not all flights were checked this way, but six soundings were looked at in detail, and the cases of doubling uncovered appeared to be real. The 2-sps digitized humidity frequency values included relative humidity frequencies and reference frequencies. This made recognition easier than for the three-signal temperature data. Relative humidity measurements can change rapidly, however, and meaningful frequency values at any point in a sounding can range from less than 20 Hz to about 170 Hz. To avoid more sophisticated methods, such as recognizing trends and setting limits on change in time, the processing method used limited groups for averaging to no more than 5 s (about 10 values, each 1/2 s) , set a wide range of ± 5 Hz from the last calculated average for collection of new samples to be averaged, and permitted all values within ± 2 Hz of an average to be included in the group processing. Because some changes were very rapid, the signal was occasionally "lost" during processing. In such instances, a "restart" was used in programming by which any values in the range from to 175 Hz were accepted for a new group, a procedure similar to that used at the start of a sounding. For both start and restart, at least two values were required to fall within ± 2 Hz of the average for the average to be formed. Inspection of 2-sps values of humidity frequencies in "noisy" soundings showed rather frequent rapid excursions of up to 20 to 50 Hz above or below what could be "seen" to be the average value. Where these excursions occurred over a few seconds, they were generally eliminated in the averaging process. However, some persisted in the averaged values, and were apparently associated with dropouts to null values, or near-dropouts, resulting possibly from weak signals and attendant digitizing problems. These spikes were considered unreal and were eliminated by the procedure described below. A "spike" is here defined as a rapid change in average frequency that returns close to its original value within a short time. The programming for eliminating these spikes consisted of setting an alert when a rapid frequency change — 20 Hz in 5 s, 30 Hz in 10 s, and 40 Hz in 20 s — occurred. If the spike alert was not cancelled within less than 1 min by the frequency returning to near- prealert values, or to a new stable value, the intervening humidity indications were judged unreliable, and were nulled (-999). If, within the time limit, four averages were found to be within ± 10 Hz of one another at values beyond the criteria for rapid change, the alert was cancelled and intervening averages were retained. Only one reference frequency was used with the humidity. sonde transmitter, and its signal occupied much less of the total transmission time than the reference for the temperature sonde. After a range of acceptable values had been established for the first occurrence, 2-sps frequencies from each reference contact were assembled for averaging if it had been found that (1) four successive values fit the reference criteria and (2) the average was within 2 Hz of the average calculated for the previous reference contact. The individual values were then compared with the average, any case found to deviate by more than 1 Hz from the average was dropped, and a new average was calculated from the remaining values. The time of the first reference within each group was noted, and these times were later used to develop reference averages by interpolation at each 5-s time point in order to have reference values available for each time point for which final computations were made. As with other averages, the time points were for every 5 s, beginning 2.5 s after "start-up" time. (For an explanation of "start-up" time, see sec. 5.3.1.5.) 5.3.1.4 Wind . Azimuth measurements from the Scanwell WFSS on the Oceanographer , Mt . Mitchell , and Rainier were recorded from two potentiometers, one for the full range, to 360 , and one for the 20 sector, constituting the coarse and fine azimuths, respectively. These two ranges were used to achieve the necessary resolution in azimuth for wind computations. The coarse azimuth was used in determining for which 20 sector the fine azimuth was valid and to estimate the azimuth bias error. The first step was to convert the azimuth 2-sps voltage values to degrees of azimuth, as follows: CAZ = 0.36 V , FAZ = 0.002 V^, r where CAZ = coarse azimuth in degrees , FAZ = fine azimuth in degrees , 89 V = coarse azimuth voltage in voltage counts (0 - 10,000 counts = - 5 Vd.c), and V_ = fine azimuth voltage in voltage counts. r If at some time, t, either a coarse azimuth or fine azimuth did not exist, there was no conversion to scientific units. In such instances, the 2-sps values were replaced by "dead words" (no data indicator) and not considered or used in any subsequent averaging. After conversion of CAZ and FAZ to degrees, the bias correction was applied. In practice, it was impossible to zero the two potentiometers measuring azimuth (CAZ and FAZ; FAZ = or 20 when CAZ = or multiple of 20 ). Therefore, an adjustment for relative bias was necessary before combining the two azimuth readings into a measured azimuth value. The maximum relative bias tolerated was 10 and included an allowance for backlash in the antenna drive gears to which the CAZ and FAZ potentiometers were attached. The azimuth bias routine was based on the assumption that the fine azimuth was correct and that the error was less than 10°. (This assumption, in turn, was based on the operating pro- cedures for orienting the directional antenna.) The following Fortran routine was used to compute the measured azimuth from CAZ and FAZ and to apply bias correction: A = CAZ - FAZ IA = A/20 A = A - 20 * IA IF (A-10) 2, 2, 1 1 IA = IA + 1 2 A = FAZ + 20 * IA IF (A-360) 4, 3, 3 3 A = A - 360 4 CONTINUE As one can see, this method fails when the relative bias reaches 10 . . Because this happened occasionally at higher altitudes due to change of bias during flight, an initial bias was determined from the first 5-s averages for each flight. The initial bias was used as a correction to all coarse azimuth averages for the rest of the sounding before the correction routine described above was applied. Change of bias during flight is believed to have been caused by backlash in the gearing between the two potentiometers, but may also have included a small amount of gear slippage on the driving shafts and some minor nonlinear ities in potentiometer windings. The corrected bias at this o point was always less than 10 . 90 Following the above manipulation of the 2-sps azimuth values, the resulting values were averaged to form two series of 60-s averages of azimuth. In one, 60-s averages were centered on the minute, in the other on the half- minute. These two series were used alternately in the wind computations. Slant range from the Scanwell WFSS on the Oceanographer , Rainier , and Mt. Mitchell was recorded as a ramped voltage, where m = V d.c. and • 2,000 m = 5 V d.c. Thus, during any one observation, slant-range measurements consisted of repeating voltages in the range of to 5 V d.c. every 2,000 m of slant range. This field of digital voltages was first converted from 2-sps voltage "counts" to 2-sps slant range values in meters as follows: S = 0.2 V, where S = slant range, in meters, modulo 2,000 m, and V = voltage in counts (0 - 10,000 counts = - 5 V d.c). After conversion, 30-s averages were calculated as follows: (1) Five-second averages were formed from the 2-sps data and 30-s averages were formed from the 5-s averages. Displacement between each 5-s average and the preceding 30-s average was checked, with an acceleration of 20 to 25 m/s/min allowed. (2) After a 30-s average had been obtained, the 5-s averages contained in it were checked again, as in (1) above, but against the 30-s average for these 5-s data points rather than the preceding 30-s average. (3) Values were linearly interpolated for any missing 30-s averages. If data for more than 3 min were missing, wind computations were terminated. 5.3.1.5 Sea-Level and Station Pressure . The sea-level pressure for processing a sounding was obtained from shipboard National Weather Service aneroid barometer readings near launch time. When the rawinsondes were released during BOMEX, the balloon and instrument package on most flights dipped below deck level before starting normal ascent. Study showed that the average time from release to a return-to-deck level, and, therefore, to the original station pressure, was close to 5 s. All calculations were based on this 5-s return-to-deck-level, or "start-up" time, unless there was direct evidence to the contrary, i.e., if the type of signal being transmitted at the time of release changed to another type within 5 s (change of temperature frequency to reference, or vice versa) , it was assumed that such a change in signal type meant that the instrument was already rising above deck level. 91 The station pressure needed to process each sounding was obtained by subtracting a pressure, based on the height of the launching deck of each ■ship, from the recorded sea-level pressure. The factors used were 0.9 mb for the Oceanographer , 1.0 mb for the Rainier and the Mt. Mitchell , and . 8 mb for the Discoverer and the Rockaway . 5.3.1.6 Baroswitch Pressure . The baroswitch contacts for reference on the temperature sonde were wired in the following two sequences (contact through 125) : M(0), L,L,L,L,M(5), L,L,L,L,M(10) , . . . , where M refers to the midref erence (95 Hz) and L to low reference (190 Hz) . Above the 125th contact the pattern becomes: M(125) ,L,L,L,L,M(130) ,L,M,M,L,M(135) , . . . The beginning of each reference contact, as the aneroid-driven linkage moved across the baroswitch, was associated with a calibration pressure provided for each instrument. Because of the limited range of station pressures during BOMEX, the reference transmitted at launch, or shortly thereafter, had to be the 4th, 5th, or 6th contact (counting the first reference as 0) . This was used in the automatic processing to determine which contact was in effect at launch and to establish a valid reference pattern, i.e., if a midreference was the first reference signal transmitted, it had to be from the 5th reference contact. If the first reference signal was a low reference, it had to be the 4th or 6th; if it was followed by a midreference, it was the 4th, otherwise it was the 6th and had to be followed by three more low reference contacts. Any sounding showing a different initial pattern was rejected. The correct pressure calibration contact number at release was estimated by the calculation described below instead of by the usual method outlined in Federal Meteorological Handbook No. 3. The estimate was made by noting the beginning time of the first and fourth reference contacts after release and the start-up time (see sec. 5.3.1.5). The contact number at time of release was taken as the linear extrapolation of contact number (pressure) at the start-up time from the contact numbers and times of first and fourth contacts after release. The pressure indicated by the baroswitch is the pressure at this start-up time contact in the array of calibration pressures. The difference between this baroswitch pressure and the station pressure, as derived from the aneroid barometer at time of release, was used to compute a contact correction, which was then applied to all contact numbers for the individual soundings. If the correction was equal to or greater than one contact, the sounding was not processed. After the first and fourth contact times had been located and the indicated baroswitch pressure had been obtained by interpolation, a program was used to calculate the contact correction from: SWOCR = (PRESS-PREST)/(PRESZ-PRES1) , 92 where SWOCR is the correction in fractional contacts, PRESS is the indicated baroswitch pressure, PREST is the station pressure obtained from the reading of the aneroid barometer, PRES1 is the calibration-array pressure corresponding to the first contact after launch, and PRESZ is the calibration-array pressure corresponding to the first contact before launch, the one immediately preceding PRES1. The pressure at any time during a sounding was obtained by interpola- tion based on the fractional corrected baroswitch contact number for that time point and the temperature sonde baroswitch pressure calibration provided by the manufacturer for each instrument. The beginning time of each baroswitch reference contact was noted during temperature- frequency processing. These times and their implied contact numbers were used to develop fractional baroswitch contact numbers at 5-s time points throughout a sounding by interpolation, beginning at 2.5 s after launch. The baroswitch launch-time correction was then applied to each interpolated value to arrive at an array of corrected fractional contact numbers. 5.3.2 Conversion to Meteorological Units 5.3.2.1 Temperature . The low reference correction (a correction for nonstandard battery voltages) applied to temperature and temperature-sonde midreference 5-s average frequencies was as follows: c c + 190 R f LR where f = corrected temperature, or temperature-sonde midreference 5-s average frequency, f = uncorrected temperature, 5-s average frequency, or temperature-sonde midreference 5-s average, f = low reference, linearly interpolated in time between low-reference frequencies on either side of the f , and K. * = multiplication. The internal resistances of the temperature sondes were computed from the midreference frequency obtained by switching a precision 50,000-ohm resistor into the circuit (every fifth reference contact being a midreference, 93 the other four low reference) . The internal resistance in ohms was calculated from f * 50,000 R _ _m? f 190 - f ms ' ms where B = internal resistance in ohms, f = midreference (midscale) frequency corrected for ms low-reference drift, as described above, and * = multiplication. With the above midreference correction, sensor frequency representing temperature in terms of resistance in ohms was calculated from R . 190 * (B ± f) . (B + f) t where R = sensor resistance in ohms representing measured temperature, B = internal resistance in ohms, f = temperature frequency corrected for low-reference drift, and * = multiplication. The temperature and thermistor resistances are related by the equation (furnished by Viz Mfg. Co.): V 10 SlOR^ = t / 27 - 3710+ T 1 t , 273:00 - 9 - 127 * 2 where R = thermistor resistance, R- n = resistance of thermistor at 30 C (furnished by the manufacturer for each thermistor, eliminating the need for baselining the temperature sondes) , and T = temperature in C. 94 Solving for T, we have T = 16 > 949 - 6 2 273.0 . (9.12742 + log -^-) - 27.3710 10 R 3Q Following this solution for T, a calibration correction was applied as shown in table 5-2. (The thermistors were calibrated individually by the manufacturer to conform within ± 0.1 C with the values given in the table.) Table 5-2. — Calibration corrections for rawinsonde temperature Indicated temperature, T Correction, C (°C) (°C) 30.00 +0.00 20.18 - 0.18 10.21 - 0.21 0.18 - 0.18 - 19.92 - 0.08 - 40.14 + 0.14 - 60.07 + 0.07 - 70.04 +0.04 Note: T = T + C, where T = corrected 5-s average temperature ( C) , T = uncorrected temperature, and C = correction. For values of T not shown in the table, a correction was linearly interpolated. The lag coefficient of the thermistor was determined from information furnished by C. Harmantas of the National Weather Service. The values used were functions of balloon type, which governed the rate of ascent, and of pressure: Pressure Balloon type > 500 mb < 500 mb >_ 200 mb < 200 mb 300 g 4 s 5 s 600 g 4 s 6 s The basic equation (from Meteorological Instruments , by W.E.K. Middleton and A. F. Spilhaus, 1953) is || . . i (e . t o - 8t) , (i) 95 where 9 = indicated temperature at time t; t = time from initial time in seconds, X = the lag coefficient in seconds; T = true temperature at 'initia] time, and (3 = dT/dt at the sensor, assumed constant over the correction interval . The true temperature at time t is given by T = T + Bt . (2) o Combining (1) and (2) gives T = e + x |i . (3) at Equation (3) can be evaluated by T = 9 + X ( 6n+1 " 9n ' 1 : n n ^m - Vi where n = sequence number of data point, and t = time of data point from launch. For BOMEX data, the time interval (t ... - t ,) was 10 s. n+1 n-1 Equation (4) was applied after calibration corrections had been made. The use of a correction interval longer than the lag coefficient resulted in a small amount of smoothing in the results. For the data automatically recorded on SCARD, correction was started at the 17.5-s point. Earlier points were given the same correction as the 17.5-s point except for the first temperature, a manual reading, which was not corrected for lag. 5.3.2.2 Humidity . The low-reference correction (a correction for nonstandard battery voltages) applied to the humidity frequencies was f = £ *i^° R f LR where f = corrected humidity frequency, f = uncorrected humidity frequency, f = low reference, linearly interpolated in time between low-reference frequencies on either side of the f , and * = multiplication. The corrected humidity frequencies were converted to total resistance values as follows: R = 190 * < B + f) - 33 percent and 0.03 if ^ < 33 percent. H25, as calculated above, was substituted in the equation A = log 1() y~ = 4.733 - 2.500 log 1() (110 - H^) , to obtain where r 33 = v ioA 97 R = hygristor resistance, determined as above from H humidity-signal baseline frequency, and R = hygristor resistance at 33 percent relative humidity, Relative humidity during the sounding was computed by *H | 4./ 33 - log 1() ... = 110 - antilog. 10 R 33 25 '10 2.500 where R^ = hygristor resistance at some temperature t, computed as above, R = hygristor resistance at 33 percent (from the baseline computation), and H„ = relative humidity at 25 C. The relative humidity at temperature T was calculated from H T - H 25 + C l (H 25 " 33) (T " 25) H 25 where C = 0.25 for H > 33 percent, C = 0.03 for H < 33 percent, and H = measured relative humidity at ambient temperature T. Following these computations, a calibration correction was applied to H.j to obtain the corrected relative humidity. The calibration corrections are shown in table 5-3. Note that these particular corrections apply only to relative humidity as computed above; they include both calibration corrections and corrections for errors in these simplified equations. The procedures described above are expected to give an rms error of less than 3 percent relative humidity (not including errors due to hygristor exposure and thermal lag) . Humidities computed to be less than 10 percent were reported as 10 percent. Humidity was reported missing for temperatures below -40°C. 98 Table 5-3. — Calibration corrections for rawinsonde relative humidity Indicated relative humidity, H Correction, C (percent) (percent) 14.5 - 4.5 24.5 - 4.5 27.0 - 1.0 31.8 + 1.2 37.5 + 2.5 46.1 + 3.9 56.4 + 3.6 68.3 + 1.7 80.3 - 0.3 89.7 + 0.3 95.0 + 2.5 100.0 +0.0 Note: H = H + C, where H = corrected humidity, H = calculated humidity, and C = correction from above for a given H . If H differed from the above, a correction was linearly interpolated. When humidity is measured with a v hygristor, the temperature of the hygristor itself is critical. Because of radiation effects and lack of ventilation, expecially during daytime, the hygristor temperature at the beginning of the sounding differed at times by several degrees from the ambient temperature. In order to arrive at the magnitude of this difference, it was assumed that the specific humidity at the first point of the sounding (usually 5 s after release) was identical to that of the shipboard psychrometer reading at the time of release. The hygristor temperature established under this assumption was used as the initial one in correcting for thermal lag. In determining the uncorrected moisture measurements, the hygristor temperature was assumed to be the same as the lag-corrected thermistor temperature as determined from the thermistor frequency average. Under the assumption that the instrument was measuring moisture correctly, the problem of correcting the measured moisture became that of making a good estimate of the actual hygristor temperature. From the definition of relative humidity, the true moisture was then obtained from RH (true) = RH (measured) * (saturation vapor pressure at the hygristor temperature/saturation vapor pressure at ambient temperature) . The problem of correcting the BOMEX rawinsonde data for both thermal lag and radiation effects has been discussed in detail by L.D. Sanders, J.T. Sullivan, and P.J. Pytlowany ( NOAA Technical Memorandum EDS BOMAP-16 , "Correction of BOMEX Radiosonde Humidity Errors," Center for Experiment Design and Data Analysis, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1975). The thermal lag coefficient based on their 99 study is given by A = 34.9/(pV)°'\ (5) where X = thermal lag coefficient of the hygristor in seconds, p = air density in kilograms per cubic meters _ 0.34837 T (1 + 0.000608q) , T = ambient temperature in degrees Kelvin q = specific humidity in grams per kilogram, and V = ventilation rate of the hygristor, which in the case of BOMEX was one-third of the rate of ascent. The basic equation for lag correction of the hygristor is the same as for the thermistor. The problem is reverse, however, since the true temperature is known, as determined from the thermistor reading, and the ' hygristor temperature must be computed. The basic equation was therefore rewritten as d e e _ T o + et dT + I- — x — ' (6) where 8 = temperature of the hygristor at time t, T = true air temperature at time zero, o B = dT/dt, assumed constant over the correction interval, and t = time from beginning of correction interval. Equation (6) is of the type dx and a solution is — + P (y) x = Q (y) , dy = T + B (t - X) + C t/X . (7) o e Letting 6=9 when t = gives ) = T - BX + C o o c = e - t + bx o o (8) 100 Combining (7) and (8) yields 6 = 6 e~ t/A + Bt + (T - BX) (1 - e" t/X ) . (9) If = T , eq. (9) reduces to ( Meteorological Instruments , -by W.E.K. Middleton and A.F. Spilhaus, 1953) 9 - T = BX (1 - e" t/X ) . (_t - Vl } % (10) For purposes of computation, eq. (9) was rewritten as T 3 n " T n = (9 n 1 " T 1> " ^(1-e " *"*' ), n n n-1 n-1 ' where T - T , _ n n-1 t - t ; ' n n-1 n is the sequence number of the data point, and t - t , is normally 5 s. n r n n-1 J In the processing of BOMEX data, uncorrected humidities had already been computed before the correction method was developed. Corrections were therefore applied by the procedure described below. The vapor pressure at the hygristor was, of course, the same for both temperatures (9 and T ) . Thus, n n H T H fl — l_ * e = _^_ * e e (in 100 sT 100 s ' v ; where H = relative humidity and e = saturation vapor pressure. Saturation vapor pressure is given by Teten's equation ( Handbook of Meteorology , McGraw-Hill Book Co., N.Y., 1945, p. 343) 7 5 * T e = 6.11 * 10 ** — (12) s 237.3 + T ' K } where T is temperature in C. Substituting (12) in (11) and solving for relative humidity at the hygristor temperature gives H = H * 10 Tn 6n H Tn = H 9n + 10 ** [7.5 * 237.3 (6 - T ) ~| 2 5 (237.3 + (T - 273.15) (237.3 + (9 - 273.15) n n J [1779.75 (9 - T ) n n (T - 35.85) (9 - 35.85) J ' n n (13) 101 where 6 - T is obtained from eq. (10). n n A value of 35.86 rather than 35.85 as given in eq. (13) was mistakenly used in the actual computations, but the resulting error is always less than 0.05 percent relative humidity and hence insignificant. As noted earlier, the soundings were also subject to error caused by radiation. The hygristor duct on the radiosondes used during BOMEX allowed the hygristor to be heated by solar radiation both directly through the translucent walls of the duct, and indirectly by reflection from the internal duct surfaces. The heated hygristor in turn heated the ambient air, resulting in relative humidity measurements that were as much as 24 percent lower than the humidity in the free atmosphere. The empirical method used in correcting the isolation error is described in detail by Sanders et al. in NOAA Technical Memorandum EDS BOMAP-16, cited earlier. Briefly, by this method the mean humidity for day- time soundings was made the same as for nighttime soundings. Since radiation data for individual soundings were not available, the correction factor was a mean value, dependent on pressure and time of day only, and resulted in slight overcorrection for soundings taken during very cloudy conditions. The corrected humidities are believed to be accurate to within 5 percent relative humidity. 5.3.2.3 Wind . Inputs to rawinsonde wind computations were slant range (30-s averages), azimuth angle (two series of 60-s averages, one for averages centered on the minute, one centered on the half-minute), altitude (from thickness computation and converted to geometric units) , and surface wind (from the Surface Observation Form, Card #1). The Discoverer used the Selenia radar model METEOR 200 RMT-2S for balloon tracking, with output consisting of printed and punched paper tape containing slant range, azimuth angle, and elevation angle at 15-s intervals. The punched paper tape was converted to magnetic tape and a printout of the results prepared, which was scanned and compared with the printed paper tape. Observers' comments on the printed paper tape were used to edit the data. For instance, such a comment as "balloon lost" was used to delete bad data. After deletion from the magnetic tape of records proven to be bad, a computer edit of alternate 15-s data points was performed as follows: (1) The time difference between alternate samples was first edited for consistent changes (30-s apart) . "Dead words" or missing data indicators were inserted for unrecognizable or inconsistent times and the associated slant ranges and azimuths. (2) For i = 30, 60, 90, ... N S, successive second differences were computed for slant range or azimuth from M=S -2(S ) + S , where S = slant range or azimuth at time t. i i+1 i+2 i (3) The following logic was used to edit the data: 102 (a) Until the first value of M less than 100, the value of S ti was replaced with a "dead word." After M of less than 100 was found, the value of S t . remained unchanged. (b) After the first value of M less than 100 and whenever a value of M greater than 100 was detected, the value °f St_.+2 was replaced with a "dead word." (c) Whenever a "dead word" was encountered in Sti, s f+i > or S t £ + 2» tne value of M could not be computed and was irrelevant. The dead word was left in the table; condition (a) above was reverted to. The results of this edit were values of slant range and azimuth sampled at 30-s intervals and, depending on the edit, containing periods of time when no values existed for one or more 30-s periods. No wind computa- tions were made unless two or more consecutive 30-s values of slant range and azimuth were found. The Rockaway used an AN/SPS-29 radar for balloon tracking. Slant range and azimuth measurements were usually made at 1-min intervals and recorded manually. These data were then punched on cards directly , from the form and transferred to magnetic tape. Since the measurements were made at 1-min, rather than 30-s, intervals, linear interpolation was used to supply the intermediate 30-s values of slant range and azimuth. The slant range, azimuth angle, and altitude values for all fixed ships were used to compute horizontal distance out to the balloon and the S-N and W-E coordinates of that distance for each 30-s point. At each 30-s point, t, the 1-min movement from point t - 30 s to t + 30 s along each coordinate (divided by 60, giving units in meters per second) gave the zonal and meridional components at time t. Linear interpolation was used to derive components at 5-s intervals. The terms used in the computations are listed below and shown in figure 5-3 as related to wind computations. HDO = horizontal distance out, meters SLR = slant range, meters GH = height of balloon above ship's deck, meters AZ = azimuth angle WWE. . = W-E wind component WSN, v = S-N wind component 103 X C = HDO sin AZ Z C = HDO cos AZ Figure 5-3. — Diagram of terms used in wind computations The following equations were then used: HDO V 2 2 * SLR - GH X = HDO(sin(AZ)) , Z c = HDO (cos(AZ)) , WWE WSN x c " x c ^t+30 t-30 (t) 60 Z C " Z C = t+30 t-30 (t) 60 ^Curvature of the earth was neglected, but the resulting error (about 10 m at 500 mb for average BOMEX conditions) is negligible. 104 The following ship deck heights, H, were used: Oceanographer 8.230 m Rainier 9.144 m Mt. Mitchell 9.144 m Discoverer 6.706 m Rockaway 7.010 m 5.3.3 Derived Quantities Equations used in computing derived. parameters from those measured are given below. These computations were done for each 5-s data point for each s sounding in the case of automatically recorded data and for significant levels in the case of manually recorded data. Saturation Vapor Pressure e = 6.11 * 10 ** (7.5 * T/(T + 237.3)) , s which is based on Teten's equation ( Handbook of Meteorology , McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1945, p. 343), and where e = saturation vapor pressure in millibars, T = ambient temperature in degrees Celsius, * = multiplication, and ** = exponentiation. Vapor Pressure e - e * RH/100 , where e = ambient vapor pressure in millibars, and RH = relative humidity in percent. Specific Humidity q = 622 * e/(P - 0.37802 * e) , where q = specific humidity in grams per kilogram, and P = atmospheric pressure in millibars. 105 Dewpoint T dp = 237.3 * log 1() (e/6.11)/(7.5 - log 1() (e/6.11)) , which is also based on Teten's equation, and where T, = dewpoint in degrees Celsius. Virtual Temperature T = (T + 273.15) * P/(P - 0.37802 * e) , where T = virtual temperature in degrees Kelvin, v Layer Thickness The mean virtual temperature was computed by a method adopted from the Smithsonian Meteorological Tables (Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., 1951, p. 266): T = (T _ - T ,)/log (T _/T -) , v v2 vl e v2 vl where T = mean virtual temperature in degrees Kelvin, r „ = virtual temperature at the 5-s data point, and T = virtual temperature at the preceding 5-s data point. When humidity measurements for a sounding were missing, a correction in degrees was added to the temperature to obtain an estimate of the virtual temperature. The correction was calculated from specific humidities of a sample of soundings that were considered representative of BOMEX at the pressure levels shown in table 5-4. Values at pressures not shown in the table were arrived at through interpolation. No correction was made above 300 mb. From the mean virtual temperature, the layer thickness was calculated by the equation Az = 29.2911 * T * (lo § e P i ~ log e P 2 ) ' where Az = layer thickness in geopotential meters, P„ = atmospheric pressure in millibars at the 5-s data point, and P, = atmospheric pressure at the preceding 5-s data point. 106 Table 5-4. — Virtual temperature correction Pressure (mb) Correction ( C) 1,020 3.1 1,000 2.9 900 2.6 850 2.1 800 1.6 700 0.8 600 0.5 500 0.4 400 0.2 300 0.03 Geopotential Height z = z + z , where z = height of the 5-s data point in geopotential meters above sea level, and z = height at the preceding 5-s data point. Geometric Height w = 6337838 * z/(6327368 - z) , which was also adapted from the Smithsonian Meteorological Tables (p. 219), and where w = height of data point in geometric meters above sea level, and the constants are for latitude 15°N, approximately the center of the BOMEX array. 5.4 Special Problems 5.4.1 Slant Range The rotary potentiometers used in BOMEX to obtain slant range and azimuth readings cover slightly less than a full circle, I.e., they go through their full resistance range in slightly less than 360 . This is important only in terms of slant range. A multiplier of 0.98 applied to the raw data solved the problem, and since the raw slant-range readings were modulo 2,000 m, there was no possibility of cumulative error. 1Q7 The potentiometer readings were also reduced somewhat by the load imposed by the recorder circuit. Potentiometer resistance was 5,000 ohms, recorder circuit resistance was 98,000 ohms, and the power supply was 5 V. A correction was computed for all readings, but amounted, at most, to less than 1 percent. During BOMEX Periods I and II, one ship had a slant-range error because an electrolytic capacitor was connected backward across the recorder circuit. This placed, in effect, a voltage-controlled variable resistor across the circuit, giving slant- range ramps curved as shown in figure. 5-4, rather than the usual nearly straight lines. A calculated correction gave suspicious results, and an empirical correction was therefore developed from data recorded when the "black box" that measured slant range was not locked onto the sonde signal but was running away at a steady rate. The corrected data are believed to be indistinguishable from normal slant-range data, without possibility of cumulative error. The effect of another slant-range error, apparently in the recording circuit, had the effect of an additional resistor seemingly being occasionally inserted in series with the recorder (fig. 5-5). When it appeared at a ramp change, it caused the "zero reading" to be 252 m, but the maximum ramp value of 2,000 m was not affected. The error appeared and disappeared at infrequent intervals and in a random manner. A correction routine was developed for cases where this error was large, i.e., at, or soon after, a ramp change, but when it was small it was not considered worthwhile to expend the additional effort or time needed to distinguish it from ordinary noise or wind shear. Again, there is no possibility of cumulative error. In the Scanwell WFSS used by three of the ships during BOMEX the phase comparison for slant-range measurements is the same as for the AN/GMD-2, except that readout is in modules of 2,000 m rather than 2,000 yd. It is well known that there are occasional problems in slant-range measurements with the GMD-2, but the 2-sps BOMEX data brought a number of other problems to light. Unfortunately, it was not possible to investigate these problems beyond the minimum necessary to achieve acceptable accuracy in the data processing. The most striking feature of the plots of the 2-sps slant-range data is the large number of noise spikes, ranging from a few meters to a few tens of meters. A second striking feature is that these spikes are predominantly toward higher values. This type of problem, however, can be handled by simple editing procedures and is believed not to contribute significantly to errors in the BOMEX wind data. Multiple ramp changes are illustrated in figures 5-6 to 5-9. This problem, too, can be solved by simple editing, but the unexplained slant-range jumps shown in figure 5-8 are more troublesome. When a jump is followed by a return to normal within a few seconds, as illustrated by (1) in figure 5-8a and by (2) in figure 5-8c, no error resulted in processing; the errors were simply discarded as noise. When the return to normal did not occur as quickly, the processing program interpreted the jump as a short-term increase in radial windspeed, and the resulting displacement in the computed winds would be carried to the end of the sounding. 108 S.0 1 CD d CD QJ O •H U H CI rd S o rQ •H M o 4-1 n3 rH 4-1 x cn •H en •H M T3 M-i 0) cti CD o * 01 > ,C 0) M cn d (3 1 ,£3 03 •H T3 JJ « ■H •U cd •H 4-1 X & •H • •H • cn cn M-l T3 U o > CD o P- -u d 1-1 01 d ■H n X3 00 a) •i a) CD d 4J 4-1 cd 4J O U U U 'gj CJ o •u CD P. 4-1 H U en X c a) o •H cu CO •u M cn H d 5-1 CD en 1 •H QJ M •H in LT| a) )-i 3 CUJ •H Pm h- 3 I bo d •H & O X • cn u o ** u CD 5-i e CD •H 4-1 u o . JJ rn cn > •H cn 01 CD OL 5-1 d 1 CTl CD u H ^ 4-1 nj d •H cd 5-j rH cfl CO 1 1 > CD 5-i M •H 109 MIN. Figure 5-6. — Slant range vs. time, showing typical noise spikes and multiple ramp change. Figure 5-7. — Slant range vs. time, showing multiple ramp change in other- wise clean data. 110 400 METERS 1600 METERS L_| MINI— J |— I MIN.— H • ^ b. c. Figure 5-8. — Slant range vs. time, showing unexplained jumps Figure 5-9. — Slant range vs. time, showing "gear slip" error and multiple ramp crossings. The two examples are from different ships. Ill Figure 5-9 illustrates a "gear slip" error. It was not known whether the cause lay in the normal GMD-2 "black box" or in the special BOMEX readout or recording devices. It resulted in too small a radial displacement of the sonde, but since the error was infrequent, no correction was applied. 5.4.2 Azimuth The most serious azimuth error was caused by signal saturation of the receiver at time of sonde release. This made it impossible to obtain good direction during the first few seconds of flight, and wind data were therefore disregarded for approximately the first 30 s of flight. In the archived data, winds for this interval were interpolated between the surface wind and wind centered at 1 min after launch. Wind data were also lost during the first few seconds of flight on the Discoverer because of the Selenia radar's inability to track close-in targets. 5.4.3 Pressure A complicating factor, though not a serious one, in determining the baroswitch correction and low-level temperature is that a rawinsonde released aboard ship rarely begins to rise immediately. It first moves downward, horizontally away below deck level, and then begins to rise. Also, the slight pressure increase occasionally causes the baroswitch to back onto a pressure contact for a short time, making contact recognition difficult. The mean time at which the sonde rises through deck level ("start-up" time) can be estimated by linear extrapolation back to station pressure, assuming that, in the mean, baroswitch pressures are correct. Eight plots were made of mean pressure versus time from launch for different ships and on-station periods, based on 19 to 54 soundings. The resulting start-up times ranged from 3 to 8 s . In the example shown in figure 5-10, the time is 4 s, the mean station pressure is 1,013.66 mb , and its mean deviation is 1.04 mb . Mean absolute error of sonde pressure extrapolated to the mean start-up time is 1.50 mb. Although it seems reasonable that surface windspeed should be a factor in determining when the sonde begins to rise above deck level, examination of 70 soundings from one ship, with surface windspeeds ranging from 5 to 10 m/s, showed no significant correlation. An attempt was also made to determine individual start-up times by use of the 2-sps temperature data. The small amount of noise in these data made this impossible. The problem of start-up time deserves additional research, which could not be justified for data processing purposes, and a start-up time of 5 s was therefore used for all soundings (see sec. 5.3.1). The only error involved is a small one in baroswitch setting, which cannot be determined more closely than within 1 mb or so . 112 Baroswitch errors are assumed to be mostly the result of (a) error in the aneroid element, (b) baroswitch detent-setting step (^ 0.5 mb) , (c) improper setting during baseline check, or (d) mechanical shifting of the baroswitch because of shock during launch. The general, National Weather Service, procedure for determining the error is to extrapolate linearly backward in time from the first two, or several, contacts after launch to find the actual contact value at time of release. The actual value is then compared with the contact values corresponding to station pressure at launch as determined from the baroswitch calibration table. The difference is the baroswitch error, which is subtracted from all contacts during a sounding, and the pressures are then obtained from the calibration table. In processing the BOMEX data, the extrapolation was done in pressure, rather than in contacts (fig. 5-10), because pressure proved to be somewhat more linear with time, for short periods, than the contact numbers. Also, values were extrapolated to the start-up time discussed above, not to launch time. National Weather Service procedures in 1969 called for baroswitch corrections only if the correction exceeded 0.3 contacts, about 4 mb at the surface. For convenience in computations, corrections were calculated for all BOMEX soundings, although most were insignificant. O MEANS FOR ALL SOUNDINGS □,A,X TYPICAL INDIVIDUAL SOUNDINGS SHORT HORIZONTAL LINES ARE STATION PRESSURE. 'CONTAC 10 20 30 40 50 60 CONTACT TIME, SECONDS AFTER LAUNCH 80 Figure 5-10. — Baroswitch pressure vs. time, from launch data for 52 soundings from the Mt . Mitchell , Period III. 113 5.5 Archive Format and Data Inventory 5.5.1 Rawlnsonde Data Data from each ship for each BOMEX Observation Period are available on microfilm and on seven-channel, 556 BPI, BCD magnetic tape. Each tape has three files: (1) ANSI standard system label, 80 BCD characters, followed by an end-of-file; (2) descriptive information and a program that will read the data (in 80-character BCD records) , followed by an end-of-file; and (3) data file, 1,300 characters per record, followed by a double end-of-file. The data file is divided into four sections: (1) 5-s or significant levels; (2) 10-mb surfaces; (3) standard pressure surfaces (1,000, 950, 900, 850, 800,... mb); and (4) standard aircraft operating levels (305, 1,220, 2,135, and 3,040 m) . Each section has a header, which indicates the number of valid counts, amd a variable number of data scans of 1,300 characters. There are 22 variables and 10 levels per record, except for the last record, which may be a partial record and is blank filled to complete the record. The format is as follows: Word Format Data Element 1 F7.1 2 F7.1 3 F6.1 4 F6.1 5 F5.1 6 F5.1 7 F6.1 8 F5.1 9 F5.1 10 F5.1 11 F5.1 12 F6.1 13 F7.1 14 F8.1 15 F8.1 16 F6.1 17 F6.1 18 F6.1 19 F6.1 20 F5.1 21 F5.1 22 F5.1 Time from launch (start-up time) Pressure Temperature Relative humidity (no lag correction) Specific humidity " Dewpoint " Relative humidity (lag correction) Saturated vapor pressure Vapor pressure Specific humidity (lag correction) Dewpoint " Virtual temperature Thickness Geopotential height Geometeric height Potential temperature U wind component V wind component Wind direction Windspeed U component, ship motion V component, ship motion 999. = missing data Units seconds millibars degrees Celsius percent grams per kilogram degrees Celsius percent millibars millibars grams per kilogram degrees Celsius degrees Kelvin meters meters meters degrees Kelvin meters per second meters per second degrees meters per second meters per second meters per second A summary inventory of the rawinsonde data is given in table 5.5 114 4-4 o 1-1 u ■H x a Ed co cu ft a3 U •H •u cu & cfl B 0) X) P3 o to 3 •H m u QJ > •H 43 u 03 O m I I m 43 3 H 0C C ■H -a £ o QJ H o o o O o e S o o o o o •H 00 oo 00 o CM H v^* H H rH o H cu o^ 4-1 vjO 03 ctn Q H 3 cfl •h >, rH cd 3 X) X e a •H O QJ 0> 4-1 MD 3 On Q H 3 Cfl •H >> i— I 03 3 X) 3 o ■H XI 4-J O CO -H S > M O M QJ B 4) Pm 03 ,e o ex •H 43 CO Ml 3 •H XI c =1 o en X •H O O U H u aj •h aj o • •H O 4-t S3 QJ QJ ft 03 03 S 4J g) >^ en CM aj 43 ft Ml o . 4J QJ 03 •H > & g O 03 CJ ^ • CO CJ 4-J •H o a Q od o o o o en o o o LO O H rH H rH o CO 0) 3 3 00 CM 3 X CO oo M QJ 43 a 03 5-1 M| O 3 03 a) a o vO I OO CO rt Pi I co H .H H rH a) aj M u 43 43 OJ QJ CJ a rM M >> 4-J 4-1 QJ OJ 03 •H •H > > & a 2 O o 3 CJ CJ M • • CO CD u 4-) ■M •H ■H o a a n Q Pi 00 0> tH I CO OS co OS co prj rH I CO P* I CO Pd M OJ 43 ft cfl U 00 o c 03 CU CJ O CO CO PA I co Pd CM QJ 3 3 X m I CO Pi 3 X CO 00 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o , >, >> 3 >> 3 >, 3 3 3 3 03 03 1 3 03 3 03 3 3 3 3 a a X a X a X X X X OJ r^ CM H •H a a . . 4J 4-> a a I CO 04 m vD LO oo CTi ^ CM CO n LO m r^ m uO vO ^D vT> -d cj 5-i Cfl X w s o pq I I m m cu rH n) H M C •H c O en cu H S S •H o H -— - cu o\ cd CTs Q rH C cd •h >> i-i cd d -d cu id CU c^ •u ^o Cfl ON Q rH d •H to iH cd 3 T3 ►d c o •H w cd o S > -H o u u PQ CU 0) en p-i o a •H CO &0 d •H -d d d o en •H O O 5-i rH O CU •H CU s 5-. 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SALINITY-TEMPERATURE-DEPTH (STD) DATA SET 7.1 Instrumentation Hytech STD Models 9006 and 9040 built by the Bissett-Berman Corpora- tion (now Plessey Environmental Systems), San Diego, Calif., were used during BOMEX for measuring seawater salinity, temperature, and depth of the sensor. The instrument's underwater signals were frequency modulated and multiplexed so that salinity, temperature, and depth measurements were transmitted through the lowering cable as a single composite wave form, which was direct- frequency recorded on SCARD (Signal Conditioning and Recording Device) aboard ship. The incoming signal was also separated into salinity, temperature, and depth frequencies, which were strip-chart recorded as a quality control meas- ure and to control operation of the underwater unit. A summary of STD equip- ment aboard each of the five fixed ships is given in table 7-1. Table 7-1. — STD sensor characteristics Range of measurement Ship STD model Sensor input System 1 System 2 No. (primary) (backup) Oceanographer 9006 temperature -2 to +35°C -2 to +35°C salinity 28 to 38°/oo 30 to 40°/oo depth 1 to 300 m to 300 m depth 2 to 2,000 m to 2,000 m Discoverer 9006 temperature -2 to +35°C -5 to +35°C salinity 28 to 38°/oo 28 to 38°/oo depth 1 to 300 m to 300 m depth 2 to 4,000 m to 4,000 m Rockaway 9006 temperature -2 to +40°C salinity 30 to 40 /oo depth 2 to 1,500 m Rainier 9040 temperature -2 to +39°C -2 to +39°C salinity 30 to 40°/oo 30 to 40°/00 depth 2 to 3,000 m to 3,000 m Mt. Mitchell 9040 temperature -2 to +39°C -2 to +39°C salinity 30 to 40°/oo 30 to 40°/oo depth 2 to 3,000 m to 3,000 m 146 7.2 Observation Procedures Uniform procedures for STD data collection were established to ensure consistent results and reliable intercomparison of data obtained from the five ships. Performance checks of every STD sounding were made by comparing salinity and temperature STD surface measurements with simultaneous bucket samples. Two Nansen bottles were attached to the STD lowering cable, allow- ing for comparisons that were used in applying calibration corrections during later data processing. Routine STD casts from the surface to 1,000 m were scheduled for the Discoverer , Oceanographer , and Rockaway at 0100, 0300, 0600, 0900, 1200, 1500, 1800, and 2100 GMT; during Period IV, however, the first sounding from the Discoverer was made at 0000 rather than 0100. Soundings from the Mt. Mitchell and Rainier were scheduled at 0100, 0600, 1200, and 1800 GMT. All schedules were adhered to within + 30 min. The sensor package was soaked at the surface for 5 min, lowered at a rate of approximately 20 m/min to 100 m, and then al- lowed to descend at 40 to 50 m/min. The depths were determined from the STD strip-chart recorder on deck. Data were recorded during descent only. During and following periods of significant precipitation, rainy day casts were taken to determine the influence of rain in the upper 15 m of the ocean. The procedure began whenever precipitation greater than 2 n mi across, as confirmed by radar, was approaching the ship. The STD package was allowed to soak for 5 min at the surface ( 1 1/2 to 3m), then lowered at a rate not exceeding 10 m/min to 15 m, allowed to soak for 5 min at 15 m, and raised to the surface to soak for another 5 min. This procedure was repeated as long as the rain persisted and was discontinued not sooner than 3 hr after the rain had stopped. Rainy day soundings were interrupted for scheduled 1,000-m casts, and were resumed after the latter had been completed. Salinity, tem- perature, and depth were recorded continuously during the rainy day cast. On board the Oceanographer , a special program was conducted by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution to determine velocity profiles in the ocean mixed layer. In support of this special study, a sequence of surface region STD casts were taken during BOMEX Period II, from May 25 to 28, May 30 to June 2, and on June 7 and 8, which improved the time resolution of surface region data available for these dates. The STD sensor was allowed to soak at the surface for 5 min, then lowered at a rate not exceeding 20 m/min to a depth of approximately 60 m. Salinity, temperature, and depth were recorded during both descent and ascent. As a check on the STD system calibration in the field, two-bottle Nansen casts were taken daily at 2100 GMT on the Rockaway and at 0100 and 1200 GMT on the other four ships, except for the Discoverer during Period IV, when the cases were scheduled for 0000 and 1200 GMT. The Nansen bottles were at- tached to the STD cable 10 m and 15 m above the sensor package. At 1,000 m, the upper bottle was tripped after a 12-min soak. During retrieval, the lower bottle was allowed to soak at the surface for 5 min, then tripped. The bottle thermometers were read to within + 0.01°C,and salinities were determined within 147 + 0.003 /00 on successive readings of a calibrated salinometer. Values were manually recorded on an STD Observation Form. STD temperatures and salinities of the corresponding depths were recorded on the same form to within + 0.01 C and +0.01 /oo, respectively. The Nansen values were compared with the 1,000-m and surface STD values of the same cast. Temperature and salinity calibration corrections were computed from the differences between the Nansen and STD measurements. 7 »3 Data Processing 7.3.1 Digital Reduction and Editing After the field operations, the SCARD analog tapes were digitized at the NASA Mississippi Test Facility (MTF) , Bay St. Louis, Miss., which has a data acquisition system designed for acquiring large quantities of data during static test firing of various rocket stages. This 200-channel system is con- nected to a Beckman 410 computer and includes a number of counters that can develop a period average measurement of a signal, a fact of particular im- portance in STD digitizing, since it offers the possibility of measuring more precisely the frequency of the signal on the tape and of making the measure- ment reflect the average value of the frequency during the measuring interval. The clock frequency used with the counters in initial experiments at MTF was 100 kHz (10-ys period) , giving a precision of interval measurement of 1 part in 4,000, a precision insufficient for adequate rendition of STD data. Some improvement was effected by raising the clock frequency to 250 kHz. the maximum value supported by the acquisition system. With 120-ms counting intervals, this results in a precision of 1 part in 30,000. The digitized signals also contained much more scatter than could be accounted for by quan- tizing alone, and it soon became apparent that a variation in measured fre- quency of about 1 part in 3,000 was being introduced by tape flutter. A partial solution to this problem consisted of measuring the frequency of the reference signal from the tape, as well as the salinity, temperature, and pressure signals. Since the ideal frequency (3125.0 Hz) of the control track signal was known, it was possible to develop a corrected measure for any sig- nal by use of F = F 3125 -° corrected measured F ., , control track where F is the frequency for salinity, temperature, or pressure, in hertz. The magnetic tapes produced at MTF were further reduced and edited at NOAA's Center for Experiment Design and Data Analysis by a two-step process, with the basic aim of obtaining continuous time series of data for each sound- ing that could be used in subsequent analyses. Every effort was made to avoid changing the values of data points, and editing was therefore restricted to 148 (1) deletion of out -of- range values, (2) linear interpolations of pressure, salinity, or temperature across not more than a few seconds in time, and (3) inserting corrected time, date, and ship position, as well as descriptive comments, in the header information. Conversion from frequency to oceanographic quantities was effected during the first phase of the two-step digital reduction process by use of the transfer equation X = (F-Z) x M+C, where X is salinity ( /oo) , temperature ( C) , or pressure (decibars) ; F is the frequency (Hz) from the data tape; Z is the bias, or zero frequency (Hz); M is the slope (units of X per Hz) in the linear transform; and C is the y-intercept (units of X). Tables 7-2, 7-3, and 7-4 give values of Z, M, and C for temperature, salinity, and pressure for each ship and time period, Values of C are given in both the uncorrected form as supplied by the manu- facturer and in corrected form. The calibration corrections and their appli- cation are discussed in further detail below. Temperature and pressure were smoothed by means of a double running mean low-pass filter that has characteristics by which the response of both the pressure and the temperature sensor, including the effects of ship motion could be preserved, but quantizing noise eliminated. The time control track originally recorded on SCARD was used to minimize the influence of variations in tape drive speed. Second, in order to obtain a clean time series of salinity, pressure, and time, at a density of 8 sps , corrections were applied both to the header information and the data. The geographic position of each cast was extracted from the BOMEX Ship Operations Form (see sec. 2) and was inserted in the header for that cast. However, before and after each BOMEX Observation Period, STD soundings were often made while the ships were en route to and from their stations. Geographic positions of these casts were not entered on the Ship Operations Form, and the positions were renavigated based on ships' logs. These renavigated positions are shown in table 7-5. In addition, any comments pertaining to sensor malfunctions or other conditions of importance in analyzing a particular sounding were added to the header information. Regions of rapid changes, discontinuities, or out-of-range values as revealed by the printout produced during the first phase of the reduction process were examined in detail. Any clearly unreasonable values were elimi- nated or, more frequently, replaced by machine-interpolated values. These procedures were used only when a small number of points were involved; if more extensive corrections were necessary, explanatory comments were inserted into the header information. 149 The proximity of the STD unit to the air-sea interface during the soak- ing period can be determined by inspecting the salinity and temperatuYe data for values lying within certain ranges and by examining the pressure data for oscillations corresponding to the roll and pitch of the ship. In some 10 per- cent of the soundings, pressure values were either excessively high or low. All pressure data for these particular soundings were shifted to make the pressure during the soaking period read between 1 and 2 decibars. 7.3.2 Calibration Corrections As noted earlier, surface and 1,000-m STD and two-bottle Nansen casts were .taken for calibration purposes. The mean differences for each sensor were computed based on comparisons of these casts. The mean differences and the standard deviations of differences for both the surface, 1,000-m, and com- bined comparisons for each BOMEX Observation Period are shown in tables 7-6, 7-7, 7-8, and 7-9. The calibration corrections for salinity and temperature shown in tables 7-2 and 7-3 constitute the mean differences between the Nansen and STD surface and 1,000-m measurements. The calibration corrections for pressure in table 7-4 were not obtained from Nansen-STD comparisons, but, as described earlier, by shifting unreasonable values to make pressure during the soaking period read between 1 and 2 decibars. Note that the uncorrected C was used in preparing the time-series data. It is recommended that users of these data apply the appropriate C corrections as shown in tables 7-2, 7-3, and 7-4. The corrections were, however, incorporated into the depth-sorted data set, discussed in the next section. 7.3.3 Depth Profiling and Editing Following the production of the time- series data, each STD sounding was sorted by depth. As noted earlier, the calibration corrections given in tables 7-2, 7-3, and 7-4 were not applied to the time-series data. In pre- paring the depth profiles, however, these corrections were incorporated. Also, because of the different time constants of the temperature and salinity sensors, salinity spiking occurs in regions of large temperature change. In depth-profiling, compensation was effected by extracting from the salinity a value of conductivity based on the recorded temperature, obtaining a lag- corrected temperature, and calculating a new salinity. The conductivity G was computed from salinity S without regard to pres- sure effects by means of the equation (Mosetti, F., "A New Formula for the Connection of Sea Water Conductivity With Salinity and Temperature," Bollettino di Geofisica Teorica ed Applicata , Vol. VIII, No. 31, 1966, pp. 213-217) G = (a + BT k ) S h , and the corrected temperature was obtained by assuming a simple lag constant for the temperature and solving ft - 7 < T " « • at x 150 where T is the recorded temperaturp T -f c * --t ered a reasonable value (N L BrZ' 1970 ^^ ° f 25 ° mS ' COnsid ~ h. and k are suitably chosen 'c Unt ^T^ co»„n±cation) , and a, g, j uoeu constants. The corrected salinity S is then s = (a + eT K ) c / k s (o + ge ) c ,k. 1/h where S is the original, uncorrected salinity. data in low gradient reli^r^rtually^^tou^^?'" 6 ^"^ bUt UaTCS into l.OOO^inT^rralrrof^ch^sounl^r-Sr 68 "T ™° ^ ^ ^ each integer decibar level of pressure a 'saliniL^Vr "' deteralnin 8 ««r sras^ 1 .^ a - ^™^^ 1? ^--^^ at each integer level decibar <« ,>,/ al 8"ized at 8 sps, the data value on the time-s'eries "agnatic tapes ^ ° f *"*«*•*"* U CO H T3 01 4-1 c_> a> c_> no u ^ o o c CM o c o •H o » •u •H o rO 4J /~s i l-i O C_) ^y -Q 0)O •H M ^ co ro r» CO rH vO O vO rH rH iH rH U o o o o m m m m O O O O cd O r o O o o o o o o o o O O O O u 0) CJ 0) /-v u o MO o ^ CJ a 3 w u o N com £ o •H 4J T3 X « o W > -H o a) a) PQ 0) pL| o Q a) • H-3 O co o 3 43 CO CM O CM I CO o 04 I r^ r^ co r^ ON On On On HvDOvO in in in m 0« O 0> rH o> o o> o O 00 CO CO o o> on 00 <* r^ o o o o I I I I CM CM CM CM I I I I rH CM rH CM I I I I I I I CM CM CM CM I I I I CO O CM CM CM O O rH O O O O I I I .H -3- r^ O O O +- O O O O I I I o o CNJ I o ON H o o CM CM O o CM O ON r» rH O O cm O O CM I m a-. rH O O CM O o Cx! 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Longitude deg, min. Discoverer Mt . Mitchell it ii ti :i it tt it IV ti- lt it II It Oceanographer Rainier tt tt it Rockawa^ July ti 10 191 it tt 1! it tt July July t? 16 28 197 209 ?t it n July ii 29 210 tt May tt 15 135 tt June 10 161 July it 16 197 M it it it tt May May ti 15 16 135 136 it ti it May June 30 10 150 161 June 11 162 June 19 170 June ii 20 171 tt 1! tt July July t! 9 10 190 191 tt tt tt 0756 13 34 N 056 07 W 1755 13 33 N 054 14 W 1754 12 49 N 058 22 w 1018 12 49 N 058 22 W 1305 12 49 N 058 49 W 1615 12 49 N 059 08 W 1757 12 49 N 059 16 W 0601 12 29 N 058 45 W 1258 11 29 N 057 41 W 1717 11 02 N 057 03 W 1923 10 48 N 056 50 W 1416 10 28 N 056 27 W 1728 11 16 N 056 39 W 2050 11 47 N 056 45 W 2149 11 48 N 056 46 W 0055 12 15 N 056 51 W 0626 13 12 N 057 02 W 1004 16 51 N 055 30 W 1558 16 04 N 056 24 W 0803 17 35 N 054 38 W 0111 17 30 N 054 05 W 0611 17 28 N 054 02 W 1209 17 11 N 054 21 W 1800 17 29 N 053 58 W 2029 14 59 N 058 20 W 0024 14 59 N 059 11 W 0317 14 21 N 059 10 W 0639 13 41 N 059 11 W 0303 14 59 N 056 37 W 2122 15 00 N 059 12 W 0033 14 35 N 059 08 W 2143 14 05 N 059 08 W 0124 14 31 N 059 00 W 0517 15 06 N 058 58 W 1004 15 05 N 058 15 W 2304 13 59 N 059 15 W 0240 14 34 N 059 14 W 0558 15 05 N 059 15 W 1151 14 53 N 058 20 W 15 7 Table 7-6. — Nansen-STD comparisons, BOMEX Observation Period I, showing the amount by which the Nansen measurements are higher than the STD measurements Ship Comparison Temperature level Mean Stand, dev. A No. of comparisons (decibars) difference (°c) of diff. (°c) +0.05 0.07 8 1,000 +0.01 0.09 6 and 1,000 +0.03 0.08 14 -0.60 0.06 10 1,000 -0.44 0.13 14 and 1,000 -0.51 0.14 24 O +0.03 0.01 17 1,000 0.00 0.02 19 and 1,000 +0.01 0.02 36 Above temperature comparison applies 1,000 throu ghout Period I and 1,000 Discoverer Mt. Mitchell Oceanographer Rainier (Insufficient Nansen-STD comparisons to determine corrections) Rockaway -0.07 Intermediate (I) +0.02 1,000 0.00 and I and 1,000 -0.01 0.08 8 0.13 10 0.06 10 0.10 28 2 Z(X-X} ^Unbiased standard deviation, a = =■ ■ I n-1 -(-Intermediate comparison made, when possible, between 500 and 700 decibars, 158 Table 7-6. — Nansen-STD comparisons, BOMEX Observation Period I, showing the amount by which the Nansen measurements are higher than the STD measurements (continued) Ship Comparison level (decibars) Mean difference C°/oo) Salinity Stand, dev.* of diff. (°/oo) No. of comparisons Discoverer +0.10 0.10 II 1,000 +0.07 0.02 II and 1,000 +0.08 0.08 Mt. Mitchell -0.03 0.05 ii 1,000 -0.03 0.04 ti and 1,000 -0.03 0.04 Oceanographer (Until May 8, 1 1,000 and 1,000 +0.36 0.02 +0.33 0.02 +0.35 0.02 (After May 8, 1200 GMT0 +0.54 0.01 +0.51 0.04 +0.52 0.03 7 5 12 17 15 32 10 10 20 7 8 15 Rainier Rockaway 1,000 and 1,000 (Insufficient Nansen-STD comparisons to determine corrections) +0.43 Intermediate (I) +0.43 1,000 +0.44 and I and 1,000 +0.43 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.04 9 10 10 29 * Unbiased standard deviation, a 2 = — — -. — - . n-1 t Intermediate comparison made, when possible, between 500 and 700 decibars. 159 Table 7-7. — Nansen-STD comparisons, BOMEX Observation Period II, showing the amount by which the Nansen measurements are higher than the STD measurements Ship Comparison level Temperature Mean Stand, dev.* No. of comparisons (decibars) difference (°C) of diff. (°C) Discoverer +0.02 0.05 23 t» 1,000 +0.04 0.06 16 ii and 1,000 +0.03 0.06 39 Mt. Mitchell -0.60 0.06 24 11 1,000 -0.51 0.06 21 ii and 1,000 -0.56 0.07 45 Oceanographer +0.02 0.04 26 ii 1,000 -0.01 0.02 27 ii and 1,000 +0.01 0.03 53 Rainier 0.06 20 it 1,000 +0.03 0.09 19 ii and 1,000 +0.02 0.08 39 Rockaway -0.04 0.01 8 ii Intermediate (I) -0.12 0.14 4 it 1,000 +0.02 0.04 7 ti and I and 1,000 -0.04 0.05 19 *TTnK-i acoH ct-ar 2 r\a-rr\ c\(*xr\ ati'nn n Z(X-X) , n _ 1 f Intermediate Nansen-STD comparison made, when possible, between 500 and 700 decibars . 160 Table 7-7. — Nansen-STD comparisons, BOMEX Observation Period II, showing the amount by which the Nansen measurements are higher than the STD measurements (continued) Comparison level (decibars) Salinity Ship Mean difference (°/oo) Stand, dev.* of diff. (°/oo) No. of comparisons Discoverer +0.03 0.05 20 H 1,000 -0.01 0.05 19 M and 1,000 +0.01 0.05 39 Mt. Mitchell -0.04 0.04 23 ii 1,000 -0.03 0.02 22 ii and 1,000 -0.04 0.03 45 Oceanographer +0.44 0.09 23 ti 1,000 +0.45 0.08 25 M and 1,000 +0.45 0.08 48 Rainier 0.07 23 it 1,000 +0.03 0.05 19 it and 1,000 +0.02 0.06 42 Rockaway -0.04 0.04 7 ii Intermediate (I) 0.05 7 ii 1,000 -0.04 0.03 7 ii and I and 1,000 -0.03 0.04 21 * Unbiased sta ndard deviation, n^ E(X-X) t Intermediate Nansen-STD comparison made, when possible, between 500 and 700 decibars. 161 Table 7-8. — Nansen-STD comparisons, BOMEX Observation Period III. showing the amount by which the Nansen measurements are higher than the STD measurements Ship Comparison Temperature level Mean Stand, dev.* No. of comparisons (decibars) difference (°C) of diff. (°C) +0.05 0.03 18 1,000 +0.09 0.08 12 and 1,000 +0.07 0.08 30 -0.61 0.03 21 1,000 -0.39 0.13 17 and 1,000 -0.50 0.14 38 +0.02 0.02 15 1,000 0.03 15 and 1,000 +0.01 0.03 30 +0.02 0.05 14 1,000 +0.01 0.07 13 and 1,000 +0.03 (+0.02) + 0.06 27 -0.03 0.03 8 1,000 -0.03 0.09 9 and 1,000 -0.07 (-0, 03) + 0.07 17 Discoverer Mt. Mitchell Oceanographer Rainier Rockaway 2 E(X— X) *Unbiased standard deviation, a = : . n-1 tValue in parenthesis was recalculated after final processing of the STD data. This value should be applied to the depth-sorted data. Note that no corrections were applied to the time series data. tf Comparison r>r.t- used; excessive deviation. 162 Table 7-8. — Nansen-STD comparisons, BOMEX Observation Period III, showing the amount by which the Nansen measurements are higher than the STD measurements (continued) Comparison level (decibars) Salinity Ship Mean difference (°/oo) Stand, dev.* of diff. (°/oo) No. of comparisons Discoverer +6.04 0.03 18 it 1,000 -0.01 0.04 15 it and 1,000 +0.01 0.04 33 Mt. Mitchell +0.01 0.03 19 it 1,000 -0.03 0.03 16 ■ I and 1,000 -0.01 0.04 35 Oceanographer +0.03 0.06 15 ii 1,000 +0.05tt 0.20 15 ii and 1,000 Rainier +0.05 0.04 15 ii 1,000 +0.09 0.07 13 it and 1,000 +0.02 (+0. 07)t 0.06 28 Rockaway 1,000 and 1,000 Comparison omitted; insufficient shipboard documentation * Unbiased standard deviation, a 2 = — — ■= — - n-1 t Value in parenthesis was recalculated after final processing of the STD data. This value should be applied to the depth-sorted data. Note that no corrections were applied to the time series data. ttComparison not used; excessive deviation. 163 Table 7-9. — Nansen-STD comparisons, BOMEX Observation Period IV, showing the amount by, which the Nansen measurements are higher than the STD measurements Comparison level (decibars) Temperature Ship Mean difference (°C) Stand, dev.* e jj« Wo. or of diff. ,o » comparisons Discoverer 0.05 0.04 21 ii 1,000 0.02 0.05 17 ii and 1,000 0.03 0.05 38 Mt. Mitchell -0.66 0.11 31 ti 1,000 -0.47 0.13 26 it and 1,000 -0.56 0.15 57 Oceanographer it -0.02 0.05 26 ii 1,000 -0.01 0.02 25 M It and 1,000 1,000 -0.01 (-0. 02)t 0.04 51 It Rainier 0.07 0.06 20 ti 1,000 0.16 0.12 14 ti and 1,000 0.12 0.10 34 Rockaway Comparison omitted; insufficient shipboard documentation *TTnh i as e H s t an c\ arc\ Hpvi flfn'nn. 2 Z(X-X) n-1 tValue in parenthesis was recalculated after final processing of the STD data. This value should be applied to the depth-sorted data. Note that no corrections were applied to the time series data. ttComparison not used; excessive deviation. 164 Table 7-9. — Nansen-STD comparisons, BOMEX Observation Period IV, showing the amount by which the Nansen measurements are higher than the STD measurements (continued) Ship Comparison level (decibars) Mean difference (°/oo) Salinity Stand, dev.* of diff. (°/oo) No. of comparisons Discoverer Mt. Mitchell Oceanographer Rainier Rockaway 1,000 and 1,000 1,000 and 1,000 1,000 and 1,000 1,000 1,000 and 1,000 0.02 0.07 0.05 0.0 -0.02 -0.01 0.04 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 Until July 18, 1200 GMT +0.17tt 0.19 +0.05 0.03 After July 18, 1200 GMT +0.39tt 0.22 +0.74 0.0 0.06 0.03 0.06 0.08 0.03 0.07 16 19 35 27 25 52 9 7 16 15 20 16 37 Comparison omitted; insufficient shipboard documentation V f Y— Y^ * Unbiased standard deviation, a 2 = . — - n-1 t Value in parenthesis was recalculated after final processing of the STD data. This value should be applied to the depth-sorted data. Note that no corrections were applied to the time series data. ftComparison not used; excessive deviation. 165 7.4 Archive Format and Data Inventory 7.4.1 Time-Series Magnetic Tape Data Tape length - 2,400 ft Tape width - 1/2 in Number of tracks - seven Recording density - 556 BPI Recording label - unlabeled Physical block length - 1,600 bytes Control characters Inter-record gap - 3/4 in End-of-file mark - physical Character code - BCD Parity - even Length of byte - 6 bits/byte File 1 Header Record Data Record Data Record r-^-Data .Record E F File 2 Header Record Data Record Data RecordV Data \Record File 3 ) ) File n E F E F Header Record Data Data Record Record Data J> Record \ ^/Data Data \Record Record The first record in each file contains information concerning that particular sounding. The following records contain time-series STD data recorded during that sounding. File organization is repeated as necessary, with one file per STD sounding. A double end-of-file mark is written after the last file on the tape. The header record is intended to fully describe the data contained within 1 within that file. Each header record contains: Description of data records. Ship name. Date and time of sounding. Geographic location of sounding. Instrument model and serial number. Transfer equation for sensors. Transfer constants for sensors. Pertinent comments about the sounding. The header record consists of 20 BCD card images with 80 characters per card image. The format of the header record is described in table 7-10. The data records also consist of 20 BCD card images per record, with 80 characters per card image. Records are repeated as necessary with 100 STD 166 data scans per record; an average STD soundings lasting about 20 min would fill approximately 100 records. If a cast ends at a depth that is not a mul- tiple of 100 decibars, the remainder of that record is zero filled. Data are arranged in each card image as 5 triples per 80 characters, having the Fortran format (F6.2, 2F5.3). Each triple contains pressure (deci- bars), salinity (ppt) , and temperature ( C) . Time determination is order de- pendent; the first triple is assumed to be at s of the hour and minute given in the header record. Successive triples are 0.120 s apart, i.e., the first card image contains data from to 0.60 s, the second card image contains data from 0.72 to 1.20 s, etc. A summary of the time-series data is given in table 7-11. Table 7-10. — Data field position description Card image Field No. Character position Fortran field Description 1 001 001 IH Carriage control ' 1' 002 002-011 10H 'BOMEX STD* 003 012-025 14H Ship name 004 026-029 4H 'YEAR' 005 030-034 15 Year '1969' 006 035-038 4H 'DAY 1 007 039-042 4H Julian day of year 008 043-047 5H 'TIME' 009 048-050 13 Hour of start of cast 010 051 IX Blank 011 052-053 12 Minute of start of cast 012 054-062 9H GMT LAT. ' 013 063-064 12 Latitude degrees 014 065 IX Blank 015 066-067 12 Latitude minutes 016 068 IH Latitude direction 'N' 017 069-073 5H •lon. ' 018 074-076 13 Longitude degrees 019 077 IX Blank 020 078-079 12 Longitude minutes 021 080 IH Longitude direction 'W' 167 Table 7-10. — Data field position description (continued) Card image Field No. Character position Fortran field Description 4 001 001 1H 002 002-080 79H 5 001 001 1H 002 002-031 30H 003 032-035 14 004 036-043 8H 005 044-047 14 006 048-080 33H 6-8 001 001 1H 002 002-012 12H 003 013-017 5H 004 018-021 14 005 022-025 4H 006 026-034 F9.0 007 035-036 2H 008 037-046 F10.3 009 047-048 2H 010 049-058 F10.3 011 059-080 22H 9-13 001 001 1H 002 002-080 79H 14-20 001-080 80H 2 001 001 1H 002 002-080 79H 3 001 001 1H 002 002-080 79H Carriage control 'blank' Description of data format Carriage control '0' Text STD model number Frame serial number STD serial number Frequency conversion equation Carriage control 'blank' Sensor: 'SALINITY*, TEMPERA- TURE', or 'PRESSURE2' 'SN= ! Sensor serial number 'Z=» Zero frequency f S=' Slope 'C=' Y- intercept Units: PPT, °C, or 'DECIBARS' Carriage control '0' Comment pertinent to data in file Blank Carriage control '0' Description of data format Carriage control '0' Description of data format 168 cd -J cd ca (D ■H rH (JJ 17) ! 4-1 .-V -» .O -a- ja m d O ■ r-< 01 X! -1 00 e ■H o CD i-( C a •H u -o X CO 1 > i-l •H U o CD co pq en CM a • ■H O 4-> z •5) H 41 o o o CO in PI o rH in CN o H CN H H PI CM en PI >, >N r-> (1) (!) 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TO r G x; mh X o & X 4-1 o +j CXI rJ G 60 6C CU O TO a t^ C X X CJ rH CU 4-J CU 5- HI CJ G rH -H rH O rH CD CO CJ H a c c 01 c X •rH CU •H M 4-J c X) CO TO x; X 4-1 X O 4J CJ 4H c CU pej TO -H TO cu co H CU XI CU X a E=> cu o G CO XI CD Oj a O U 4-1 U 3 E » IH CU -H CU OJ 4J & H) cu u X X CJ CJ X rX CU TO X) TO rH 4-1 X >-■ C H o TO :: TO O TO co 3 u x: cj X r-i X cu 5- o ai a TO •H P cu CO > CU X a p C •H E G CJ rH CJ TO X o G PQ CU .CO CJ c G CJ cx ■H TO OJ o o E > G m co in a) X rH rH U rH 4-1 5- TO CJ cu CO O CJ •H CU 4-1 CU E» CJ 4J u a u CO CJ e TO TO TO TO '^ r: JH rH V .0 CO TO to • o X c XI X X X HI 1 rH JH U u c Hi —1 o o o X X CJ CJ Q a u CU M CU CU CJ CJ cu 0} •H r— Pi PQ iX CO X X X 254 Table 9-6. — Navy WC-121 aircraft basic observation system Parameter measured Sensor or method of recording Temperature (total) Temperature (ambient) Dew point Wind direction at flight level Wind speed at flight level Radar altitude Ambient pressure Cloud cover Sea state Sea-surface temperature Subsurface seawater temperature Radar precipitation areas (horizontal) Radar precipitation areas (vertical) Weather Icing Date Time Octant of globe Lattidue and longitude True airspeed True heading Ground speed Drift angle Compass AMR-42 potentiometer DY2861A Cambridge systems 137-C3 dew pointer APN-153 Doppler, ASR-41 adapter APN-153 Doppler, ASR-41 adpter APN-159 potentiometer Rosemount transducer Manually recorded Manually recorded Barnes PRT-4A SSQ-36 bathythermograph APS-20 CR-1A camera APS-45 CR-1A camera Manually recorded Manually recorded Manually recorded Clock ASN-41 adapter ASN-41 adapter AX-606 TAS computer ASN-41 adapter APN-153 Doppler APN-153 Doppler CGRS 255 Table 9-7. — Navy WC-121 aircraft meteorological instrumentation System Description Data acquisition logging system (DALS) Baththermograph system Radiosonde system Airborne radiation thermometer system SSQ-36 BT probe (0.5°F) ARR-58 receivers (+ 1°F ) XN-1&3 Rustrack recorder (+0.275°C) AMT-6 radiosonde (+0.2 mb) AMR-3 radiosonde deceptor MA-1 radiosonde dispenser MH-1 radiosonde adapter sleeve PRT-4A radiation thermometer (+0.2°C) 680 Mosely strip-chart recorder (+0.55°C) AMQ-17 aerograph set AMA-2 indicator recorder Pressure transducer (+ 0.2°C) Temperature humidity probe (+0.5°C, +3%) Instruments dials at or near Metro panel Absolute altitude indicators MA-1 Kollsman pressure altimeter AMQ vortex thermometer C-3 Cambridge dew pointer (+ 1°C) True heading indicator Ground speed indicator True airspeed indicator True wind speed indicator Drift angle indicator FA-122 barometer (+ 0.5 mb) Clock SCR-718 radio altimeter (+ 50 ft) APN-159 radar altimeter (+ 10 ft) Navigation aids APN-70 Loran APN-153 Doppler ARN-21 TACAN ARN-14 OMNI ASN--41 navigation computer Sextant BDHI 256 a o c >, en u 0) CX CO l l 00 o\ O) H ■a O m I a I 8 CO -u ■H 43 J-i 00 CO -H o o a •H V-i iH c •H 33 i 43 03 M oc o 4J o 43 P4 ac a •H CO cd •a cd PC! X S> K,> s> K> »s> K> PS PS PS PS i"* PS SP- S*" 1 s«r* sp- s^ sp 1 PS PS PS rS PS PS SP S*' 1 ^ s> ►sP s> k> ^ K_P K,J k^4 KP PS PS PS kS PS PS PS PS PS PS PS PS ps ps Ps ps ps K^ S> 1-^ K-J PS PS PS PS X PS PS PS PS PS SP SP KP SP SP SP PS PS f^i PS 1^4 >"( SP fc^ kj> l^> l^> PS PS PS PS PS X X PS PS CT\ •U CO a 11 m vo 00 V K* 4 kS k*h rN II OJ H •S O en I 3 m I d o •H £, U 60 00 c •H l-i H 3 I cd to 60 a •H M r-{ cd s: a to j-i oo o 4-1 o J3 pti 60 c •H cd 131 co ON ON 4-1 cd Q X X! Ps PS Ps Ps, Ps Ps Ps PS PS Ps Ps Ps Ps Ps Ps Ps Ps Ps Ps Ps Ps Ps X X! S^ **** S^ S^ S<-* Si- - S^ V 4 V fc* 4 s^ s^ S^ 4 s^* >"*^ **m kS **n »<** »*h i^i t^* i-** ^ r*s »■*•« rS kS X! Ps Ps Ps Ps Ps Ps Ps Ps Ps Ps Ps XX X x x x x x x x x x x o 00 Os CM CO «tf m vO r^ 00 o\ o CN CN CN CN CM CN CN CM cn I CN 259 Table 9-9. — Air Weather Service WB-47 basic meteorological instrumentation Measurement Ins trument Precipitation areas Altitude Wind speed and direc- tion at flight level Temperature (total) D-value Particulate air sampling Cloud cover Present weather Past weather Turbulence Icing AN/APS-64 search radar AN/APN-42A radar altimeter MA-1 pressure altimeter AN/APN-102 Doppler Rosemount probe AN/APN-42, MA-1 altimeter U-l foil Visual observation Visual observation Visual observation Subjectively manual Visual observation 260 Table 9-10. — Air Weather Service WC-130 basic meteorological instrumentation Measurement Sensor Temperature (total) Wind direction Wind speed Altitude Radar precipitation Dropsonde temperature pressure humidity Particulate air sampling Rosemount probe AN/APN-147 (V) Doppler AN/APN-147 (V) Doppler AN/APN-133A or SCR-718 radio altimeter MA-1 STD AC aneroid AN/APN-59 radar system AN/AMT-6 system ML-419/AMT-4 rod thermistor aneroid cell ML-476/AMT carbon strip U-l foil Table 9-11. — Air Weather Service RB-57 basic meteorological instrumentation Measurement Sensor Color photographs of cloud cover Particulate air sampling Temperature Wind direction and speed at flight level Altitude F-415P Fairchild camera system U-l foil Rosemount probe Doppler, APN-102 MA-1 pressure altimeter 261 9.1 RFF Aircraft The data collected by the RFF aircraft were assigned a flight identifi- cation (ID) number for every mission flown. This number is made up of the year, month, and day, and a letter designating a particular aircraft. The letter "A" was used for the DC-6 39C; "B" for the DC-6 40C; and "E" for the DC-4 82E. An extra digit at the end of the flight ID number indicates the number of missions flown in one day, e.g., flight number 690526B1 means that the DC-6 40C was flown on May 26, 1969. The original meteorological data were recorded aboard the aircraft at the rate of one record every second. Each record consists of 150 characters (7-track BCD) written on magnetic tape at 200 BPI. There are approximately 10 to 12 hr of data, i.e., 36,000 to 44,000 records, per flight. No record counts are available, but each observation is distinguished by time in hours, minutes, and seconds. Most of the parameters contained in each record must be calibrated, based on constants provided by RFF to convert counts to engineering units. The DC-6 "A" and "B" aircraft use the APN-82 Doppler radar navigation system as the primary source for basic navigational parameters. During BOMEX, an APN-153 Doppler radar navigation system was included and used for the first time on RFF aircraft because of its better response at altitudes below 1,000 ft. Normally, the "A" and "B" aircraft tape records are identical. When the APN-153 was used, the PITCH and ROLL in the tape record were replaced by GS-153 and DA-153. The DC-6 "A" aircraft operated with the APN-153 on all flights, but the "B" aircraft did not use it until late in May 1969. The "E" aircraft used the APN-153 only; it did not use its APN-82 to record data on tape. The "E" tape record did not contain true airspeed, wind direction, windspeed, longitude, latitude, and magnetic variation; all these elements were derived during subsequent data processing. Pitch, roll, liquid water content, Rosemount temperature, and dewpoint were also missing, and could not be derived. Another parameter unavailable on the DC-4 "E" aircraft data tape is the memory on/off indicator. On the DC-6 aircraft, the APN-82 system goes into memory mode when the return radar signal is too weak to compute a ground speed or drift angle (usually the result of hitting very smooth sea surfaces or the aircraft being in a tight turn). In such cases, the last reliable wind direction and windspeed are stored in the memory and are combined with the true airspeed and magnetic heading plus magnetic variation for computation of ground speed (GS) and drift angle (DA). When the memory is on, a switch on the DC-6 "A" and "B" records indicates this. Because the "E" aircraft record has no memory switch, the memory-on situation has to be interpreted when GS-153 and DA-153 do not change over a short period of time. 9.1.1 Preliminary Processing of Meteorological Data The original data were recorded at 200 BPI on magnetic tape in BCD for- mat at the rate of one complete record per second, including all parameters. These BCD records were edited by RFF for long records (more than 150 characters), short records (less than 150 characters), and noise records, and 262 for parity and illegal characters. The tape was then rewritten minus the unreliable records onto a higher density (556 BPI) IBM-compatible CONVERT tape. The tape had the same format as the original tape, except for two new parameters: the actual record count and the original record count. These were used to show when records had been deleted. An error summary was provided to indicate the relative merit of each flight. RFF also provided the calibration constants for use in later processing to' convert the original count units to meteorological and engineering units, with the exception of the infrared hygrometer (IRH) and liquid water count. The constants are listed in table 9-12. The following equations were obtained by the method of least squares to relate the IRH count values to absolute humidity at 1,015 mb for each of the aircraft: Absolute humidity (g/m ) = C + C H + C H + C H + C H + C H + C H , where H = counts, and the coefficients are DC-6 "A" DC-6 "B" DC-4 "E" c o c i c 2 C 3 C 4 C 5 C , - 7.959 9.420 X X 10" 1 lO" 3 - 4.981 4.326 x 10 _1 x 10~ 3 - 7.238 - 2.660 -2 x 10 x 10~ 3 - 1.811 X ID" 5 7.718 x 10" 6 4.098 x 10~ 5 3.854 X lO" 8 - 1.309 x 10" 8 - 7.904 x 10" 8 - 3.635 X 10" 11 1.544 x 10" 11 8.022 x 10" 11 1.695 X lO" 14 - 8.181 x lO" 15 - 3.953 x lO" 14 - 2.876 X lO" 18 1.744 x lO" 18 7.632 x lO" 18 The absolute humidity was then obtained from the expression where P is ambient pressure, and T is ambient air temperature in degrees absolute . Liquid water counts from the DC-6 "A" and "B" aircraft data record (the DC-4 "E" aircraft had none) were converted into liquid water measured in grams per cubic meter by use of the latest set of RFF liquid water conversion graphs Each graph has two curves, one for a 0-2 range and the other for a 0-6 range. The ranges are determined by the state of the two switches operated aboard the DC-6 aircraft and recorded into the tape record. The curves are essentially straight lines, and the linear equations that yield liquid water are 263 C P c o •H CO M CU > 3 o u en 4-) 3 RJ 4-1 CO c o u c o TO r4 CO I I r0 TO H CU 4-» 00 3 3. ch 3 TO O O pi a _ w 4J " <-W TO r U PQ o z u •H z. < < - co oo oo -h ooxxjxjXj — QJcuEcueeSS E T3TO d T3 GO (DO 00 00 00 60 cu cu cu cu cu cu *"0 "O *"0 *"3 'O *T3 m o n • ►^ S/ 1 ►•^ N^ S^ - k ^ t e^N »^S t^S e*-« <^S r^t tr^i 4-1 CU 3 5-4 3 3 CO • u CU cu T3 ^ rJ u CU 00 3 ex ^"^v rH 3 cn nd s-\ rH •H CO ^A u CU ^-v CU CU TJ 0) TO OJ CU CU I— 1 > TO r4 •H 4-1 a H 00 TO cu a 4-) CU CO 00 c u J3 3 B 3 TO +j 4J CU TO TJ TO O 3 U !h c -:-' CU ■H (1) CU TO 3 4-1 l+H CJ 4-1 -H 4H P-, O <4-4 •H c CU -D <4-i U -H U TO 3 g •H 00 S-i -a 4J 00 TO T3 — ' 13 ■^^ [fl TO v -^ ^—' *— ^ •H S on en T3 v — ' en CO m cm m n«x co CO rH 00 rH o w H 1 1 1 a Q (X ci co •< < H §3 Pm O Q Q O Q X cu M 3 /— N 4-' QJ TO }-i 5-4 3 CU 4J PI, TO e /— \ rJ OJ cu CU 4-1 3 6 4-1 4-) cu 3 ■H 4-J •H 4-1 O rH TO X eg §" 4-J cu !h u X) TO o T3 ^ rH TO co r4 a, ^ p 00 cu 13 O I CI CO cu TO M C 3 3 4-) TO II r4 cu • a 6 cu 4-> 4-) QJ c rH 3 42 o TO S rH cu ■H CO TO o > Pi TO II Pi H X! >, rH Cu •H 4-J rH 3 B 264 DC-6 "A' (0-2) range LIQW = - 0.0120 * (LIO counts - 120) + 1.025 (0-6) range LIQW = - 0.4411 * (LIO counts - 180) + 0.75 DC-6 "B" (0-2) range LIQW = - 0.0105 * (LIQ counts - 164) + 0.5 (0-6) range LIQW = -^ 0.01429 * (LIQ counts - 200) * 3 9.1.2 Final Processing of Meteorological Data A binary copy was made of the CONVERT tape for use as input for final processing. In making this copy, derived quantities, such as latitude and longitude, windspeed, and wind direction, were deleted. Only the basic data were retained in units of counts. In addition to time, these included all data in fields 1 to 19, inclusive, shown in section 9.1.3 below. Missing time frames were inserted, with the corresponding missing data being filled with -Is. Records were packed from the CONVERT tape density of 1 s per record to 32 s per record. All RFF data were edited by (a), linearly interpolating all missing data; (b) converting to engineering units by means of transfer equation furnished by RFF ("The NOAA Research Flight Facility's Airborne Data Collection Program in Support of the Barbados Oceanographic and Meteorological Experiment," by Howard A. Friedman, John D. Miche, and James D. McFadden, NOAA Technical Report ERL 198-RFF 4, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- tration, Boulder, Colo., 1970); (c) flagging obviously erroneous or suspicious data and producing a listing of all data, flagged or not, and punching cards, termed "correction cards," describing the location of the flagged data; and manually reviewing the flagged data. Data were flagged in three cases: (1) Data falling outside specified ranges, e.g., absolute humidity was negative, were flagged. (2) Data were flagged when redundant sensors correlated poorly. On the DC-6 39C and 40C, temperature, humidity, wind velocity, and flight altitude could be cross-checked by comparing the vortex and Rosemount thermometers, the infrared hygrometer and the CSI dewpoint hygrometer, the APN-82 and APN-153 Doppler radars, and the pressure sensor and radar altimeter. For the DC-4 82E, only the last correlation was possible. Direct comparisons could not be made, because paired sensors did not measure exactly the same thing, and additional data had to be supplied. The Rosemount temperature sensor required a correction for airspeed derived from the differential pressure sensor; the CSI hygrometer required input from the static pressure sensor and vortex thermometer to compute absolute humidity; the Doppler radars were compared on the basis of the wind velocity computed after the air- speed vector had been computed from aircraft heading and differential pressure data; and height and pressure were related through the hydrostatic equation, 265 which required temperature input. This approach may seem circular and inconclusive, but earlier experience had shown that static pressure, differ- ential pressure, infrared humidity, and vortex temperature were very reliable. Any discrepancies were caught through manual review of the editing. (3) The flights were broken up in segments of two types: one consisting of data obtained on long, straight, and horizontal flight legs, during which the data could be expected to vary slowly, and the other of data obtained when the aircraft was maneuvering. In the first case, a least- squares straight line was fitted to the entire span of data, excluding data already flagged under (1) and (2) above. In the second case, a second-order least-squares polynomial was fitted to 32 s of data at a time. In either case, residual variance was computed and each point tested by taking the ratio of the deviation of that point from the least-squares curve to the square root of the residual variance. Any points lying outside a specified number of "residual standard deviations" were flagged. The results of editing 37 flights by the above procedure are shown in table 9-13. Table 9-13. — Percentages of data recovered in editing 37 BOMEX flights Parameter RFF aircraft DC-6 39C DC-6 40C DC-4 82E 0.92 0.085 0.042 1.16 1.99 3.95 0.015 0.48 0.43 12.8 9.27 19.0 11.8 0.16 0.014 0.0017 0.17 2.06 1.31 0.68 1.13 0.043 18.7 28.4 1.36 23.0 27.9 0.79 0.12 5.23 7.73 Pressure Radar altimeter Heading APN-82 distance travel count APN-8 drift angle Vortex temperature Infrared hygrometer Differential pressure APN-153 ground speed APN-153 drift angle Rosemount temperature CSI hygrometer Thirty-three intercomparison flights were flown by the three RFF aircraft at an altitude of 300 m, and data from these segments were used to determine systematic biases between the infrared and CSI dewpoint hygrometers, the vortex and Rosemount thermometers, and the APN-82 and APN-153 Doppler radars aboard the DC-6 39C and 40C. Table 9-14 gives the resulting corrections applied to the 40C and 82E data. Note that with the exception of two sensors aboard the 40C, the corrections were applied uniformly for all BOMEX observation periods. Detailed examination did not reveal any trends that might have been associated with sensor drift, but showed random scatter independent of the time between comparisons. This day-to-day correction or any other treatment on a smaller time scale than that used here does not seem warranted. 266 The desired consequence of applying the intercomparison corrections was to force the data from the three aircraft into internal consistency, admitting the possibility that all three might be wrong in the same direction. Since the unusual circumstance was an intercomparison of all three aircraft at the same time, a nontrivial "closure error" can be defined as £ = Z(40C - 39C) + I (39C - 82E) + £ (82E -• 40C) . The summations were made over the comparisons between the aircraft pairs as indicated. Ideally, e should be zero. Table 9-15 shows the closure errors and their estimated standard deviations a for several sensors. The aircraft e altimeters were assumed to be correct, and adjustments in pressure and temperature were made for aircraft altitude differences. Table 9-14. — RFF intercomparison differences Sensor DC-6 40C/39C 82E/39C 82E/40C Pressure (mb) Heading (deg) APN-82 ground speed (m/s) APN-82 drift angle (deg) Vortex temperature (°C) Infrared hygrometer (g/m ) Differential pressure (mb) APN-153 ground speed (m/s) APN-153 drift angle (deg) Rosemount temperature (°C) CSI hygrometer (°C) 0.3, -3.5* - 0.8 1.3 0.8 2.0 0.2 0.8 1.2 - 1.0 2.2, -1.3** 1.3 5.0 0.1 2.1 0.3 0.3 1.4 2.1 5.8, 9.0* 1.4 1.6 0.8 0.6 1.3 0.3 *Applicable to 40C after May 11. **Applicable to 40C after July 11 Table 9-15. — Closure errors and their estimated standard deviations Vortex Absolute Differential APN-153 APN-153 Pressure Heading temperature humidity pressure ground speed drift angle (mb) (deg) (°C) (g/m 3 ) (mb) (m/s) (deg) £ 1 •1, 0. 5* 5 1 5 8 - 1 1 3 1 4 a £ 2. 4 1 4 8 1 2 2 2 .6 1 7 *Applicable after May 11 All three RFF aircraft flew a large number of "wind boxes," a maneuver in which they covered four sides of a square, each side about 10 km long. Under the assumption that the wind velocity does not change significantly during the 8 to 10 min required for the flight pattern, one can compute 267 corrections to an angle-speed pair chosen from heading, drift angle, ground speed, and airspeed. Friedman et al., in the NOAA Technical Report cited earlier, describe the computation for finding the drift-angle and airspeed corrections. Instead of these, the drift-angle and ground-speed corrections were computed in the final processing of the RFF data. Since only two of the four sides of the wind box are needed for computing a pair of corrections and six pairs of sides are available, a single wind box can yield six sets of corrections to the same pair of angle-speed measurements. It was found that the average variance among the six sets was approximately the same as the variance taken across all wind boxes. The drift-angle and ground-speed corrections listed in table 9-16 were therefore applied to all the RFF data. Wind-box patterns were flown most frequently near the BOMEX ships, from which rawinsondes were released at frequent intervals. By comparing aircraft winds and temperatures with those interpolated from the rawinsonde data, a third set of corrections, given in table 9-17, was obtained under the assumption that the rawinsonde winds and temperatures are correct. The correction to the u component of the wind (positive east) represents the correction for sea drift on the Doppler radar ground speed. Some indication of its value can be seen in figure 9-1, which shows the geographic coordinates for the last data collected on all RFF flights departing from and terminating at Seawell Airport, Barbados. Without the sea-drift correction, the distribution would have been centered about 60 km (approximately 0.6°) east of the island. Beginning latitude and longitude c? all these flights were 13.083°N, 59.466°W., Table 9-16. — Wind box corrections Ground speed (m/s) 39C APN-82 39C APN-153 40C APN-82 40C APN-153 82E APN-153 0.7 + 0.00033z 1.9 3.6 + 0.00092z 2.9 2.2 Drift angle (deg) .5 - 1 - 5 + .4 + .4 Table 9-17. — Aircraf t-rawinsonde comparison corrections Parameter Aircraft 39C 40C 82E u component (m/s) v component (m/s) Vortex temperature ( C) Rosemount temperature ( C) - 1.5 0.0 1.2 + 0.00029z 1.2 - 1.5 0.0 0.6 + 0.00025z - 0.6 - 1.5 0.0 - 0.9 + 0.00066z 268 r~ (.O LO -id- no OJ CO oo no no no no oo LO U) OD jj OO 4= lO •H H M-l pn. Pn OO 3 no LO M-l O Oj * — v (1) OO 1 , 1 X) LlJ 3 CD DC C3 4-> Ol i , i 00 LO O c " — o LU rH o Z3 X) 1 — G CJ3 CO o-j ^ m o CO LO — 1 Q) 1 — T3 oo =1 LlJ 5 ■H ■P cd ^T H CT5 LO O •H 4-J C ■H t-O F en (U LO (_ j en CD LO U 3 60 •H 1 pK (S33d03Q) 3QnillVl HldON 269 Because of redundant sensors aboard each aircraft, and the possibility of deriving height from pressure and vice versa, a priority system had to be used to compute a best estimate of temperature, humidity, height, pressure, and wind at any given time. Two things should be noted. First, the data from a given sensor may not be available at that time because of its deletion during editing or because, in the case of the Doppler radar, the memory switch was on. Second, if data were neither available at that time from any sensor nor could be computed, the last valid datum was carried forward, second by second, until data became available again. The priority scheme, where subscript o denotes the previous value, is as follows: Height, z Pressure, P Temperature, T Humidity, p Wind velocity, u,v Position Ground speed Heading, D Radar altimeter > hydrostatic computation > z Pressure sensor > hydrostatic computation > p c Rosemount > Vortex > T o Infrared > CSI > p o u , v o o APN-153 > APN-82 > f (airspeed, heading, u f (airspeed, heading, u , v ) Magnetic compass > D v ) o Priorities or computational intermediates, such as atmospheric density and airspeed, are not shown. 9.1.3 Archive Format and Inventory of Meteorological Data The RFF meteorological data are archived on 800 BPI, BCD magnetic tape, The length of each record is 2,080 characters (16 s x 130 characters/s) . The format of each record is as follows: Field Character Data Units Remarks 1 1-6 2 7-12 3 13-17 4 18-24 5 25-28 6 29-33 7 34-38 8 . 39-43 9 44-47 10 48-51 Air pressure Radar altitude Heading APN-82 distance travel count APN-82 drift angle Vortex temperature Infrared hygrometer Differential pressure APN-153 ground speed APN-153 drift angle counts counts counts counts counts counts counts counts counts counts Notes 1,2,3 Notes 1,2,3 Notes 1,2,3 Notes 1,2,3 Notes 1,2,3 Notes 1,2,3 Notes 1,2,3 Kotes 1,2,3,4 Notes 1,2,3 Notes 1,2,3 2 70 Field Character Data 11 12 13 14 15 L6 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 50 52-56 57-61 62-66 67-68 69-71 72-73 74-75 76-77 78-81 82-85 86-89 90-93 94-97 98-102 Rosemount temperature CSI dewpoint Liquid water content APN-82 and APN-153 memory Julian day Hour Minute Second u (positive east) wind component v (positive north) wind component m/s x 10 o Temperature Absolute humidity Liquid water content Pressure 103-107 Altitude 108-114 Latitude (positive north) 115-121 Longitude (positive east) 122-125 Ground speed 126-129 True heading 130 (9) Dummy character Units Remarks counts Notes ;j 1,2,3 i counts Notes 1,2,3 counts Notes 1,2,3 counts Notes 1,2,3 day hr l mm m/s x 10 U C x 10 , 3 g/m x 10 , 3 g/m x 10 Note 5 mb x 10 m deg x 10 deg x 10 m/s x 10 deg x 10 4 Note 1. Data missing from the CONVERT tape are denoted by -1 in field. Note 2. Edited values are denoted by -count in field. Note 3. Units of "counts" as originally recorded, with the exceptions noted in 1 and 2 above . Note 4. A programming error did not allow sufficient room for minus sign for the purpose described in 2 above. Characters 39-43 and their multiples should be read or decoded under an A format since field overflow is on tape as an asterisk. Note 5. Where liquid water content counts were negative (1 and 2 above), liquid water content in grams per cubic meters was set equal to zero. An inventory of the RFF meteorological data is given in table 9-18. 271 0) co B •• •h a •U -H s X •• E •H 4-1 4-1 u CO ■u Cfl h •H B o co CN O LO CM CO m LO O m m CM o o O O O LO CN o rH o LO rH rH O o O O co H rH o rH m O CO m rH co 1^ cm co m OX m o CM CM LO CM o rH ro o cc n en CM co m CO O rH O m iO LO rH O m LO CO m c LO 5-i i-H O rH co rH IT) H o rH rH rH CM H c- rH co rH H o H rH H CO rH o rH O i— 1 rH rH O rH o H co H o rH CO ,—s X tO rO *•— ' co crj cO rcj £ 2 S £ c to •H >x rH 03 x o •H X 4-1 X cfl O > -H pq cu o) co p.: o O CM LO co o OX rH co rH LO CN LO CO O rH vD CO CO CO LO lO rH rH o CO o co o rH C 1 rH CT O rH o CM CO LO o LO O o vO lO m CO LO CN rH CO vD CM OX o CO CO -rr lO O CO CJ CI 00 rH CO rH CM CO co CM rH UO vO CI co co CO rH CN H CM rH CJ OX rH CM rH CN rH CN rH CN ox ON rH CO CM rH O CM CI rH CI CM CJ CI rH rH CM rH CI CN rH C J cr rH H CM C4 r^ CM x k^ kO £x r*% k^ CO cO CO CO CO CO co S 2 S S S S 2 r- r-~ rH CM CO CJ CJ - X LO CTs rH CM CM CO CN '.D co r CO co j- o co vO vO U CJ) Q Q CJ CJ Q Q u cj Q Q CJ CJ q a 1 CJ Q 1 CJ o CJ W O CM H c QJ 4J QJ E Pi >, In 4-1 C CJ > I oc I Cfl H QJ w c , -H •U S S-i •• cO S-i 4-J X. 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J c o h X o ■q z Q > ■ -. ■> i ". Cs z o 5 _ < o z n _i o Q K < s c fXH o ej c u u CM •H 286 Table 2 °c, No humidity report 1 °c, Relative humidity 2 °c, Difference between dry- and wet-bulb temperatures 3 °c, Difference between dry-bulb and dewpoint temperatures 4 °c, Dewpoint j Table 3: Y Table 4 1 Sunday 2 Monday 3 Tuesday 4 Wednesday 5 Thursday 6 Friday 7 Saturday 0° - 90°W | 1 2 90° 180° - 180 °W 90°E North lati- tude 3 90° - 0°E 4 5 6 0° 90° — 90 °W 180°W | South lati- 7 180° - 90°E tude 8 90° - 0°E Table 6: f c Cloud amount less than 1/8 1 Cloud amount at least 1/8, with either 1/8 to 4/8 above or 1/8 to 4/8 below, or combinations thereof 2 Cloud amoun t more than 4/8 above and to 4/8 below 3 Cloud amount to 4/8 above and more than 4/8 below 4 Cloud amount more than 4/8 above and more than 4/8 below 5 Chaotic sky; many undefined layers 6 In and out oJ : clouds; on instruments 25 percent of the time 7 In and out o] : clouds; on instruments 50 percent of the time 8 In and out ol : clouds; on instruments 75 percent of the time 9 In clouds all the time; continuous instrument flight / Impossible to determine due to darkness Figure 9-3. — Tables referred to on RECCO Code form that were used in encodi ng. 287 Table 7: Spot wind 1 Winds averaged over 100 nmi preceding last fix Last fix 2 Winds averaged over 200 nmi preceding last fix 25 nmi 3 Winds averaged over 300 nmi preceding last fix prior to 4 Winds averaged over 400 nmi preceding last fix position . 5 Winds averaged over 100 nmi preceding iast fix Last fix 6 Winds averaged over 200 nmi preceding last fix 75 nmi prior 7 Winds averaged over 300 nmi preceding last fix to this 8 Winds averaged over 400 nmi preceding last fix position , 9 Winds averaged over more th an 400 nmi Table 8: 90 to 100 percent reliable 1 75 to 100 percent reliable 2 80 to 100 percent reliable 3 75 to 90 percent reliable 4 60 to 80 percent reliable 5 50 to 75 percent reliable 6 Less than 50 percent reliable ! 7 No re liability 8 No wind 9 Not used (see i lote 15) Figure 9-3. — Tables referred to on RECCO Code form that were used in encoding (continued) . 288 Table 9: w Table 10 m Clear (no cloud at any level) 1 Partly cloudy (scattered or broken) 2 Continuous layer(s) of cloud(s) 3 Sandstorm, duststorm, or storm of drifting snow 4 Fog, thick dust, or haze 5 Drizzle 6 Rain 7 Snow or rain and snow mixed 8 Shower(s) i 9 Thunders to rm(s) No remarks 1 Light intermittent 2 Light continuous 3 Moderate intermittent 4 Moderate continuous 5 Heavy intermittent 6 Heavy continuous 7 Wi th rain 8 With snow 9 With hail Table 11: Surface pressure in whole millibars; 6 Altitude of 200-mb surface in thousands figure omitted decameters or tens of feet 1 Altitude of 1,000-mb surface in deca- 7 Altitude of 100-mb surface in meters or tens of feet; if ne ga- decameters or tens of feet tive, add 500 8 True altitude (radio altimeter or 2 Altitude of 850-mb surface in deca- other method) minus pressure meters or tens of feet; if ne ga- altitude (set at 1,013 mb) in tive, add 500 tens of feet; if negative, add 3 Altitude of 700-mb surface meters or tens of feet in deca- 500 to absolute value (e.g., minus 100 is reported as 600) 4 Altitude of 500-mb surface meters or tens of feet in deca- 9 Altimeter subscale reading in whole millibars; thousands 5 Altitude of 300-mb surface meters or tens of feet in de ca- figure omitted Figure 9-3. — Tables referred to on RECCO Code form that were used in encoding (continued) . Table 12: N , N 2 , N 3 289 Zero Zero 1 1/10 or less, but not zero 1 Okta or less, but not zero 2 2/10 and 3/10 2 Oktas 3 4/10 3 Oktas 4 5/10 4 Oktas 5 6/10 5 Oktas 6 7/10 and 8/10 6 Oktas 7 9/10 or more, but not 10/10 7 Oktas or more, but not 8 oktas 8 10/1C 8 Oktas 9 Sky obscured, or « 2loud amount cannot be estimated Table 14 ; hh , HH, h.h., H H li li Table 13: Cirrus (Ci) 1 Cirro cumulus (Cc) 2 Cirrostratus (Cs) 3 Alto cumulus (Ac) 4 Altos tratus (As) ! 5 Nimbostratus (Ns) 6 Stratocumulus (Sc) 7 Stratus (St) or Fractostratus (Fs) 8 Cumulus (Cu) or Frac to cumulus (Fc) 9 Cumulonimbus (Cb) ! / Cloud not visible owing to darkness, ! fog, dustorm, sandstorm, or other . . . analogous phenomena 00 Less than 100 ft (30 m) 01 100 ft (30 m) 02 200 ft (60 m) 03 300 ft (90 m) 04 400 ft (120 m) 05 500 ft (150 m) , etc. 49 4,900 ft (1,470 m) 50 5,000 ft (1,500 m) 51 Not speci fled, etc. 56 6,000 ft (1,800 m) 57 7,000 ft (2,100 m) , etc. 78 28,000 ft (8,400 m) 79 29,000 ft (8,700 m) 80 30,000 ft (9,000 m) 81 35,000 ft (10,500 m) 82 40,000 ft (12,000 m) , etc. 87 65,000 ft (19,500 m) 88 70,000 ft (21,000 m) 89 Above 70, ( 300 ft (21,000 m) // Unknown Figure 9-3. — Tables referred to on RECCO Code form that were used in encoding (continued) . 290 Table 15 : D, n, D " ■ ■ - K W Calm or stationary (or at the station) 1 NE 2 E 3 SE 4' S 5 SW 6 W 7 NW 8 N 9 All directions, no definite direction, or unknown, or no report Table 16 Calm 1 1 to 3 kn ! 2 4 to 6 kn 3 7 to 10 kn 4 11 to 16 kn 5 17 to 21 kn 6 22 to 27 kn 7 28 to 33 kn 8 34 to 40 kn 9 41 to 47 kn or over (see note 30) Table 17: Calm (glassy) 1 Calm (rippled) ( o to 1 ft) 2 Smooth (wavelets) ( 1 to 2 ft) 3 Slight ( 2 to 4 ft) 4 Moderate ( 4 to 8 ft) 5 Rough ( 8 to 13 ft) 6 Very rough (13 to 20 ft) 7 High (20 to 30 ft) 8 Very high (30 to 45 ft) 9 Phenomenal, as (over 45 ft) might exist at the center of a hurricane Figure 9-3. — Tables referred to on RECC0 Code form that were used in encoding (continued) . 291 Table 18: W No change 1 Marked wind shift 2 Marked turbulence begins or ends 3 Marked turbulence change (not with altitude) 4 Precipitation begins or ends 5 Change in cloud form 6 Fog bank begins or ends 7 Warm front 8 Cold front 9 Front, type not specified Table 19 : S , S, , S s b e Table 20: W No report 1 Reported at previous position 2 Occurring at present position 3 20 nmi 4 40 nmi 5 60 nmi 6 80 nmi 7 100 nmi 8 150 nmi j 9 More than 150 nmi No report 1 Signs of hurricane 2 Ugly, threatening sky 3 Duststorm or sandstorm 4 Fog or ice fog 5 Waterspout 6 Cs cloud shield or bank 7 As or Ac cloud shield or bank 8 Line of heavy cumulus 9 Cb heads or thunderstorms Figure 9-3. — Tables referred to on RECCO Code form that were used in encoding (continued) . 292 10. L L L and L L L - The latitude and longitude of the point at which the aaaooo ° flight level observation is made are reported for "L L L " and "L L L ," aaaooo respectively. Tenths of a degree are obtained by dividing the number of minutes by six, disregarding the remainder. The hundreds digit is omitted from longitudes 100° to 180°, inclusive. 12. f - The average flight condition existing during the time required to make the flight level observation is reported for "f." c 13. hhh - The true altitude of the aircraft at the time of the flight level observation is reported to the nearest 100-ft or 30-m level, e.g., when the aircraft is 50 ft or more above a 100-ft level, the next higher level is reported for "hhh." 14. d - When code figure 9 is reported, the distance over which the wind is averaged is added at the end of the message in plain language. 15. d and ddfff - When code figure 8 is reported for "d ," five solid (/////) are reported for the "ddfff" group. The complete specifications for d (table 8, fig. 9-3) are: a 90 to 100 percent reliable. Multiple drift with closed wind star, or small open star when winds are 50 kn or greater. Short radar wind runs . 1 75 to 100 percent reliable. Multiple drift with small open star or double drift or single drift with average ground speed by timing. Short radar run. 2 80 to 100 percent reliable. Fix-to-fix winds based on the following pin-point visual fixes, radar fixes, or accurate Loran fixes from good ground waves. 3 75 to 90 percent reliable. Fix-to-fix winds based on two or three lines of positions (LOPs) , either Loran, celestial, radio, or sight bearings, or any combination of the above three when all lines of position are considered reliable. 4 60 to 80 percent reliable. Winds obtained from single drift and single LOP (speed line), air plot, etc. 5 50 to 75 percent reliable. Fix-to-fix winds based on two or three lines of position, either Loran, celestial, radio or sight bearings, or any combination of the above three when one of the lines is not considered reliable. 6 Less than 50 percent reliable. Winds obtained by any of the above methods that the navigator believes to be inaccurate or of questionable accuracy. 7 No reliability. Assumed or estimated winds. 293 8 No wind. Navigator unable to determine wind. 9 Not used. 16. TT - free-air temperature (corrected for calibration, installation, and dynamic heating effects) at flight level (hhh) at the time of observation is reported for "TT" to the nearest whole degree Celsius. When the temperature is below zero, 50 is added to the absolute value of the temperature, and the sum is reported for "TT." The hundreds figure, if any, resulting from this addition is disregarded. 17. T,T, - When the wet-bulb temperature is below -35 C, "//" is reported for d d "T,T,." Dewpoint is used to indicate the moisture content of the air in d d United States RECCO reports (see note 16). 18. w - The specification most descriptive of the weather existing at the time of observation is reported for "w." Code figure 2 is reported when the total amount of cloud above or below the aircraft is 7/8 or more. 19. m - The information which best amplifies the present weather reported for "w" is reported for "m." 20, Ik N n N_N„ - If data on more than three layers of cloud are reported, a n 1 2 3 second Ik N..N 9 N„ group plus the required number of ChhHH groups are inserted in the message following the last of the first three ChhHH groups. The additional number of layers (exclusive of the first three layers) being reported is given for "k " in the second Ik N 1 N ? N„ group. The coverage of the additional cloud layers is reported for N , N ? , and N„ in the second group, as required. When no clouds exist, the Ik N-N-N- and ChhHH groups are omitted from the message. 21. K - When clouds are present in indefinite layers (chaotic sky), code figure 9 is reported for "k ." If it is impossible to determine that clouds exist (due to darkness or for other reasons) a "/" is reported for "k ." When a cloud layer is present but data on the type, the extent of coverage, and altitude cannot be observed, M /'s" are reported for N, C, hh, and HH, as appropriate; however, the layer will be included in the number of layers reported for "k " (see note 22) . 22. N , N_, N„ - The amount of cloud reported for N , N~, etc., is the amount in the individual layer as though no other clouds were present; the summation concept is not used. The cloud layers are reported in the message in ascending order according to altitude of the base. When code figure 9 is reported for "k ," the value reported for "N , " is the total n 1 amount of cloud coverage present, and "//" is reported for "N N~." When a "/" is reported for "k ," "999" is reported for "N..N N " (see note 21). 294 23. ChhHH - This group is included in the message for each layer of clouds reported by "k " and described by N. , N_ , etc. 24. C - The type of cloud predominating in the layer is reported as "C." 25. hh and HHH - The average altitude of both the base and top of the cloud layer reported for "C" is reported for "hh" and "HH," respectively.- 26. 4ddff and 5DFSD, - Surface data are reported in this group. Surface wind data are included in each low-level report. Either or both of the groups may be included in -the message if required. 27. dd - The estimated direction (true) from which the surface wind is blowing is reported for "dd" (see note 28). 28. ff - The estimated speed of the surface wind is reported for "ff." In the range of 100 to 199 kn, inclusive, the hundreds figure is omitted, the tens and the units values are reported for "ff," and 50 is added to the value normally reported for "dd . " For speeds in excess of 199 kn, "//" is reported for "ff," and the actual speed is reported in plain language at the end of the message. 29. D - The estimated direction (true) from which the surface wind is blowing is reported for "D." 30. F - The estimated force of the surface wind is reported. When the speed exceeds force 9, code figure 9 is reported for "F," and a plain-language remark is added at the end of the flight level portion of the message giving the actual Beaufort force as "GALE TEN," "STORM ELEVEN," or "HURRICANE TWELVE." 31. D - The true direction FROM which the swell is moving is reported for K "D . " Code figure is reported for "no swell," and code figure 9 is K reported to indicate "confused" swell. When the waves are from several directions, the direction from which the wave of longest period is traveling is reported. 32. 6W S W D - Two 6-groups may be included in the message to report two SSCW b f J e> r significant weather changes, and/or two weather phenomena off course, or two combinations thereof. 33. W - Significant weather changes that have occurred since the last observation, or in the preceding hour (whichever period is shorter) along the track of the aircraft are reported for "W ." s 34. ~S - The distance from the present position back to the location of the s significant weather change (W ) is reported for "S ." 295 35. W - Any off-course weather condition of importance that is not included c or implied in the specification reported for present weather will be reported for "W ." The information reported for "W " supplements the c c present weather (w) (see notes 2, 18, 54, and 55). 36. D - Code figure 9 indicates "in all directions." w 44. 8d d S 8'w a c i - When radar data are observed, both the 8-groups rrreeeee shall be included in the report. The 8-groups may be repeated as often as necessary to report essential data. 54. Plain-language remarks may be added at the end of the message to supple- ment the coded data or to supply additional information of importance not provided for in the code, e.g., time of occurrence of significant weather (W ), past weather, etc. 55. If information on past weather is added as a plain-language remark, the most significant weather encountered since the last report, or in the last hour, whichever period of time is shorter, shall be described by the remark. 9.2.1.1 RECCO Data Processing . After the transcription sheets have been completed, cards were punched and verified. The data were then checked for the following gross errors: (1) Missing time or date; time <^ 2369 and date >_ 501, <_ 731. (2) Latitude must be between 0.0 and 20.0 , longitude between 45.0 and 68.0°. (3) Flight condition must be from through 9. (4) Wind directions between 00 through 36 and wind directions of 99 are good; windspeed <_ 100 kn. (5) Temperature and dewpoint were checked for positive values between 00.0 through 30.0 and for negative values _> 50.0. Sea temperature was checked for values between 20.0 through 35.0. (6) Altitude indicator must be 1, 2, 6, or 7; with an altitude indicator = 2 or 7 , the value of altitude must be 2 and 999 decameters, respectively. With altitude indicator = 1 or 6 and aircraft indicator = 1 or 2, altitude must be between to 60,000 ft; with an altitude indicator = 1 or 6 and aircraft - 3, 5, 6, or 8, altitude must be between to 10,500 ft. (7) Humidity indicator must be between through 4. (8) Day of the week must be between 1 through 7. (9) Octant must equal only. 296 (10) Pressure field checked for the first 32 files* on tape. If pressure indicator = 1, pressure field must lie between >_ 700 and _< 999. If pressure indicator = 2, pressure field is pressure altitude > 350. (11) Clouds were checked for continuity. Layers should ascend, i.e., no third layer unless second layer is present', and no second layer unless a first layer is present. Height of the top of cloud should be greater than height of bottom. (12) Surface wind direction and force were checked against sea state and direction of swell for inconsistencies. Approximately 150 to 200 observations were corrected. When an error wa? found, the original recording form was checked for error or data transposition between columns. A correction was made only if the inserted data could be validated. If the correction could not be proven, the standard "no report" or "missing data" descriptors were used. 9.2.1.2 Characteristics of the Navy arid Air Force Data To Be Considered Before Use in Analysis . Although the RECCO data were checked for gross errors, as described in the preceding section, many errors of various types may have been overlooked. The user must be prepared to test the data quality thoroughly before use in scientific analysis. Also to be noted are the following: (1) The data (characters 78-90) on Navy RECCO flight from 1615 to 0030 GMT on July 22, 1969, does not change to July 23 at 0000 GMT. (2) The observations between 1452 and 1534 on Air Force RECCO flight from 1400 to 2230 on July 17, 1969, were written out of order. (3) The nominal frequencies of RECCO observations reported by the Navy and Air Force flight crews were: Navy WC-121 - observations vary from one every 5 to 10 min in flight; Air Force WC-130 - observations vary from one every 10 to 20 min in flight; Air Force WB-47 - observations vary from one every 10 to 25 min in flight; and Air Force RB-57 - observations vary from one every 15 to 45 min in flight. 9.2.2 Navigation (NAV) Data The NAV data consist of manual observations of aircraft altitude, airspeed, and heading; drift angle and ground speed; pressure and temperature; and indicated wind direction and windspeed uncorrected for Doppler radar errors and the variation of airspeed with density. The observations were frequently made in rapid succession during long, straight flight paths, and during each leg of a "wind box." The NAV data were punched on cards and scanned for lying within the limits shown in the next section. In addition, the time and position data were scanned for consistency with the flight log. No other processing or error checks were done. Airspeed is uncorrected for density; ground speed and drift angle are not corrected by wind-box or 297 intercomparison data; and windspeed and wind direction are uncorrected for airspeed, heading, ground speed, and drift-angle errors. 9.2.3 Archive Format and Inventory of RECCO and NAV Data The format of the RECCO data is as follows: Word 1 2 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Data Element 16 Time Humidity indicator Day of week Octant of globe Latitude Longitude Flight conditions Altitude Type of wind Reliability of wind Wind direction Windspeed Temperature Dewpoint Present weather Remarks on present weather Index pertaining to HHH HHH (Altitude and other data) Cloud amount group indicator No. of cloud layers Cloud amount layer 1 Cloud amount layer 2 Cloud amount layer 3 CI Cloud type Altitude of base Altitude of top Format F4.0 F3.0 Code Reference HHMM Table 2, fig. 9-3 Table 3, fig. 9-3 Table 4, fig. 9-3 F3.0 L L L a a a F3.0 L L L o o o F1.0 Table 6, fig. 9-3 F3.0 hhh F2.0 Table 7, fig- 9-3 Table 8, fig. 9-3 F2.0 dd F3.0 fff F3.1 TT.T F3.1 TT.T F2.0 Table 9, fig. 9-3 Table 10 fig 9-3 F1.0 Table 11 fig 9-3 F3.0 HHH F5.0 Table 12 fig 9-3 F5.0 Table 13, fig. 9-3 Table 14, fig. 9-3 Table 14, fig. 9-3 17 C2 same as CI F5.0 298 Word 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Data Element C3 same as CI VSFC group indicator 1 Direction of surface wind 2 Speed of surface wind 2 Group indicator 1 Surface wind direction 1 Surface wind force 1 AMISC state of sea 1 Direction of swell 1 Group indicator 1 Significant change in WX 1 Distance of occurrence 1 Weather off course 1 Bearing WX off course 1 Sea surface temperature Pressure indicator Altitude indicator Aircraft indicator Date Format F5.0 F8.0 F7.0 F3.1 F1.0 F1.0 F1.0 F3.0 Code Reference Notes 26, 27, 28 (sec. 9.2.1) dd ff Note 26 (sec. 9.2.1) Table 15, fig. 9-3 Table 16, fig. 9-3 Table 17, fig. 9-3 Table 15, fig. 9-3 Note 36 (sec. 9.2.1) Table 18, fig. 9-3 Table 19, fig. 9-3 Table 20, fig. 9-3 Table 15, fig. 9-3 Redesignated columns on RECCO Form (sec. 2.2.1) The format of the NAV data is as follows: Character Data Element Units Format 1 Data type see table 9- 21 11 2-4 Location see table 9- 22 13 5-8 Observation time month 14 or F4.0 9-10 Observation time day 12 or F2.0 11-13 Latitude degrees 13 or F3.0 14-15 Latitude minutes 12 or F2.0 16-18 Longitude degrees 13 or F3.0 19-20 Longitude minutes 12 or F2.0 21-23 Observation time hours 13 or F3.0 24-25 Observation time minutes 12 or F2.0 26-31 Aircraft altitude feet 15 or F5.0 32-35 Aircraft hea ding degrees 14 or F4.0 36-39 Drift angle degrees F4 1 40-43 Ground speed knots 14 or F4.0 44-49 Pressure alt itude feet 16 or F6.0 50-52 Pressure alt itude significance unknown 13 indicator 299 Character Data Element Units Format 53-57 Temperature degrees Celsius F6.1 58-61 Airspeed knots 13. or F3.0 62-64 Airspeed indicator significance unknown 13 65-68 Wind direction degrees 14 or F4.0 69-71 Wind speed knots 13 or F3.0 72-77 Observation No. 16 Table 9-21. — Data type Integer value Meaning Flying intercomparison leg Flying data leg Sounding Flying wind box Other Table 9-22. — Location with respect to BOMEX array Integer value Location 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 12 23 34 14 95 00 ALFA BRAVO ECHO DELTA HOTEL INDIA JULIETT KILO Barbados ALFA-BRAVO (northern side) BRAVO-ECHO (eastern side) ECHO-DELTA (southern side) ALFA-DELTA (western side) Barbados-HOTEL Other As noted earlier, the NAV data were scanned for laying within certain limits. These limits are as follows: .<_ data type < 4 Location = 10,20, ... ,90,12,23, 34,14, 95, or 00 Month = 0,5,6, or 7 1 <_ day < 31 300 Latitude £ 25 Longitude £ 60 0000 £ time £ 2400 £ altitude £ 9999 £ heading £ 360 -9.9 £ drift angle £ 9.9 £ ground speed £ 225 £ pressure altitude £ 9999 Temperature £ 30 150 £ airspeed £ 225 £ wind direction £ 360 £ windspeed £ 50 Missing data are indicated by 9's Both the RECCO and NAV data are contained on the same archive magnetic tape, No. B3407. All flights appear sequentially by date as shown in the inventory in table 9-23. In general, on any given date, the Air Force WC-310 flight data come first, followed by Air Force WB-47, Air Force RB-57, and Navy C-121 data. There is only one file on the tape. Each record is 800 characters long and contains 10 card images. Each card image corresponds to one observation. Flights are separated by 800 character records, which are blank except for the first 10 characters, which contain RECCO only or NAV plus RECCO to describe the contents of the following records. The last three characters of the NAV observations are blank, and the last three characters of the NAV plus RECCO observations in a flight are 9's. 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An inventory is given in table 9-24. 9.3 Supplementary Material Available From the Archive 9.3.1 RFF Flight Folder A folder was prepared for each RFF flight, giving a complete history of the day's operation. It is important that the folder be reviewed when data from a given mission are evaluated. All the RFF Flight Folders are contained on one reel of 35-mm microfilm, labeled DOC-2 in the BOMEX Permanent Archive. The following is included in each folder: Detailed Flight Program - RFF-1 Work Form . Lists date and takeoff and land- ing times; proposed flight patterns and actual flight patterns; takeoff data from aircraft for comparison with meteorological ground observation; and re- marks pertinent to the mission. Flight Information - RFF-2 Work Form . Contains navigation information and Event Light assignments; and crew list. Flight Data - RFF-3 Work Form . Equipment log for meteorological and photo- graphic equipment; recorder operations log; and dropsonde data. Digital Station Log - RFF-4 Work Form . Contains camera operation log; digi- tal operation; inventory of data outputs; and remarks on interruptions, power outages, etc. Radar Station Log - RFF-5 Work Form . Log of the operation of all radar equipment and operation, with pertinent remarks. RFF Time Check Form . Log of data chamber and clock times from radar and cloud cameras versus digital time from digital recorder with corrections for synchronization with total data package. Electronic Status and Meteorological Systems In-Flight Data Log . Lists electronic outages and malfunctions at beginning, during, and at end of flight Event Log . A chronological log kept by the flight meteorologist, reporting mission progress and the time of significant events. (Useful in locating specific information on the NNV tape for programming or special interest.) Navigation Log . A record of the aircraft position with a Doppler correction record for updating the Doppler to true position. (The corrections have been incorporated into the NNV tape.) 310 Table 9-24. — Inventory of Navy and Air Force radar photographs Reel No. Type of radar First frame Last frame Aircraft Date Time Date Time (1969) (GMT) (1969) (GMT) May 3 1411 May 3 1813 4 1146 4 1637 5 1149 5 1726 6 1105 6 1359 7 1205 7 1741 9 1320 9 1620 11 1159 11 1623 13 1600 1 3 2103 14 1155 14 1730 24 0550 24 0940 25 1212 25 1620 27 1240 27 1635 28 1315 28 1620 '30 1025 30 1735 -31 1220 31 1731 June 1 1230 June 1 1640 2 1150 2 1625 3 1135 3 1625 4 1150 4 1725 6 1239 6 1630 7 1200 7 1530 9 1140 9 1740 2J 1425 21 1720 22 1220 22 1612 23 1305 23 1635 24 2305 24 0340 25 1200 25 1755 26 1255 26 1820 28 1210 2 8 1740 29 1240 29 1630 30 1140 30 1720 July 1 1135 July 1 1735 13 1313 13 1708 15 1358 15 1710 19 1220 19 1829 20 1106 20 1448 23 1215 23 1740 26 1306 26 1724 28 1250 28 1527 14 1550 14 1900 L9 1450 26 2035 84 76 7 7 78 79 80 81 82 83 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 102 101 103 104 105 106 107 109 111 112 113 114 108 115 117 116 AN/APS-64 AF WB-47 AN/APS-20 Navy WC-121 311 9.3.2 RFF Photographic Quality Review Log Following the BOMEX field operations, RFF personnel reviewed all cloud, photopanel, and radar film acquired aboard the RFF aircraft. These log sheets indicate the quality of the processed film, any discrepancies found, and cor- rections of such discrepancies for each mission flown. They are archived on the same 35-mm reel of microfilm, DOC-2, as the RFF Flight Folder discussed in the preceding section. 9.4 Material in Temporary Storage Material used in the processing of the aircraft data, such as the RFF CONVERT tapes, Navy and Air Force RECCO punched cards, original flights logs, and the like, has been placed in temporary storage for a period of 3 years. Inquiries concerning this material should be addressed to the Center for Experiment Design and Data Analysis, EDS, NOAA, Washington, D.C. 20235. 312 10. DR0PS0NDE DATA SET Dropsonde observations were made during reconnaissance flights by USAF Air Weather Service WC-130 aircraft operated by the 53rd Weather Reconnais- sance Squadron, Ramey Air Force Base, Puerto Rico. During the first three BOMEX Observation Periods, day and night missions were flown along the flight path shown in figure 10-1. On -each flight, eight dropsondes were released from an altitude of 20,000 ft at the positions indicated in the figure. Dropsonde release times were nominally between 0130 and 0600 GMT at night and between 1300 and 1830 GMT during the ( day. In addition, on May 6, 13, and 28, June 26, and July 1, 1969, eight daytime soundings at 30-min intervals were made over position DELTA, the station of the NOAA ship Mt. Mitchell , for comparison with the ship rawinsonde observations. During BOMEX Period IV, the drop positions, flight altitudes, and observation times varied with the objective of each day's mission. The WC-130 flight tracks for Period IV are shown in BOMEX Field Observations and Basic Data Inventory (BOMAP Office, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Rockville, Md. , 1971) . Of a total of 488 soundings, 438 could be recovered and were processed The remaining 50 soundings were not processed because of bad, missing, or noisy data resulting from instrument or recorder malfunctions, interference, or weak signals. 10.1 Instrumentation The system used consisted of an AN/AMT-6 radiosonde; a radiosonde receptor, AN/AMR-1 or AN /AMR- 3 , on which the signals were recorded; a D-12/ AMT-6 radiosonde dispenser for ejecting the sonde from the aircraft; and a baseline-check set AN/GMM-2 for preflight calibration of the temperature and humidity sensors. 10.2 Data Processing 10.2.1 Conversion to Meteorological Units Tolerances used for selection of significant levels were that no point on the temperature or humidity traces could depart from a straight line be- tween significant levels by more than 0.2 ordinate (about 0.4 C) or 5 percent RH. Data at all significant levels were read to the nearest 0.1 ordinate. Further significant levels were inserted between two validated levels when the pressure difference between levels was more than 70 mb. It is believed that the great majority of interpolated points had a precision of the order of ±0.25 C and ± 3 percent RH. This procedure proved useful in later interpola- tion routines. Pressure contacts at significant levels were interpolated to two decimal places — usually to the nearest 0.05 contact (about 0.6 to 1.2 mb) . 313 61° 60° 59° 58° 57° 56° 55° 54° 53° 5 2° 20° 20° 19° 19° 18° 18° 17° ^ • 17° .8 4 \ \XRAY 16° 16° 1 ) 13 15° 15° • s_ 6 14° 12 \ YANKEE 14° \5 13° %-\ 13° BAR BADOS • 12° 11° 12° 11° ■ THIS SY DROPSC UBOL DENO ♦IDE RELEAS TES E POSITION. 10° 10° 9° 8° 9° 8° 7° 6° 7° 6° 2° 6 1° 60° 59° 58° 57° 56° 55° 54° 53° 5 Figure 10-1. — WC-130 flight track for dropsonde observations 314 After the significant levels had been chosen, ordinate values for temperature, relative humidity, and low reference and pressure contact were read off and transcribed onto a set of punched cards. Gr % oss errors were eliminated by ensuring that temperature, relative humidity, and low reference were within the proper range of values. The pressure contact was checked to make sure that it was in proper sequence. A second set of punched cards was then prepared, containing such basic information as time of flight, date, position, serial number of the dropsonde, flight-level temperature, pressure and radar altitude, and interpolated sea- level pressure. Baseline information was also included, after having been checked to ensure that the reported baseline relative humidity was compatible with observed dry- and wet-bulb temperatures. If not, the recomputed humidity was used. If a gross discrepancy occurred, as with transposition of digits, corrections were made based on comparison with baseline information on the other seven dropsondes released during the same mission. The baroswitch pressure calibration information was transcribed onto a third set of punched cards. An error check was made by finding the difference in pressure between successive contacts for groups of 11 dropsondes. If any of the 11 values deviated significantly from the average, that value was rechecked . The three atmospheric variables sampled by the dropsonde instruments were pressure, temperature, and relative humidity. The values obtained from the strip charts were converted to meteorological units in the following manner : (a) The baroswitch calibration chart for each dropsonde gives a pressure in millibars for each whole contact number. A pressure for a contact that lies between two whole contacts was obtained through linear interpolation, (b) The transfer equation used for temperature follows Inter-Range Instrumentation Group (IRIG) standards: [T(I) + 170.0] = [TB + 170.0] * x 19 1/BAS0RD-C1 1/T0RD(I)-C1 where T(I) = temperature in C at the I-th significant level, TB = baseline temperature in C, TORD(I) = temperature ordinate at the I-th level, BASORD = baseline temperature ordinate, and CI = 0.0105288. (c) The CP-223B/UM Humidity-Temperature Computer was used as the standard for relative humidity evaluation. A routine for reproducing the CP-223B/UM by a computer program was supplied by Douglas R. Soule, NOAA Air Resources Laboratory, Las Vegas, Nev. It was concluded that this approach agrees with the CP-223B/UM evaluator to within 0.4 percent for relative humidities greater than 20 percent. 315 Once the soundings had been fully worked up in meteorological units, further checks showed that the sensors had inherent errors in them, as opposed to purely random errors, such as reading and transcription. The recorded splashdown pressures sometimes differed from interpolated rawinsonde pressures by as much as 30 mb . This can be attributed to a variety of causes. Correction was made by forcing agreement with the interpolated ship pressure by adding a correction to the splashdown contact reading. The thermistor was subject to thermal lag error because of its inability to respond to rapid changes in the ambient-air temperature. The hygristor was affected by both thermal lag and by solar radiation heating. The methods used in correcting these errors are discussed below. 10.2.2 Correction for Thermal Lag and Radiation Effects One cause of the thermal lag error was found to lie in deficiencies in the design of the duct in which the hygristor was mounted. The duct opening and the semitranslucent plastic cover permitted solar radiation to penetrate, internally reflect, and heat the carbon-coated hygristor. The positioning of the duct opening and the shape of the duct were such as to reduce the airflow at the sensor to about 30 percent of the ascent rate, giving the hygristor a large thermal lag constant and causing its temperature to lag behind the ambient temperature during ascent by about 1 C, even at night. The hygristor is assumed to measure correctly the relative humidity of an adjacent thin layer of air that has reached thermal equilibrium with the hygristor. Thus, with a given ambient vapor pressure, if the hygristor temperature is higher than ambient, the measured relative humidity will be less than the true humidity of the air sample at its true ambient temperature. If the temperature of the hygristor is known, the true ambient relative humidity can be determined. A second cause of the difference between the hygristor and ambient air temperatures was that, in almost all the daytime soundings, the hygristor was warmer than the ambient air at launch time. This was mainly the result of solar radiation, either by direct heating of the hygristor or by pre-launch heating of the ship's deck. A third, and major, cause was the fairly steady daytime heating of the hygristor by solar radiation after launch, depending on the amount of cloud cover. The heat transfer properties of the hygristor itself are such that the boundary layer of air between the hygristor and the ambient air largely controls the heat-transfer process. This means that Newton's law of cooling accurately describes this transfer. Applying the law to this case, one can state the rate of cooling for the hygristor is proportional to the difference in temperature between the hygristor and the atmosphere. Five-second values of temperature and relative humidity were generated in processing the BOMEX rawinsonde data (sec. 5). Making the plausible assumption that heating by radiation and the rate of change in the ambient temperature are approximately constant during a 5-s interval, we can use the law of cooling in the following form: 316 [T fl (t + At) - T A (t + At)] = [T R (t) - T A (t)] * e" At [T (t + At) -T (t)] -At/x(t) - x(t) * — £ ^ * <1 - e At/T ^V) (1) + T R (t) * (1 >e" At/T(t >) , where t = time after launch (s), T„(t) = hygristor temperature at time t (°C), H T (t) = ambient air temperature at time t (°C), A At = time interval between sounding points (5 s), x(t) = thermal lag constant (s), and T R (t) = the part of the total temperature difference between the hygristor and the ambient air caused by solar radiation heating (°C). Eq . (1) is used in a recursive manner to find the hygristor tempera- ture profile. Knowing [T u (t) - T.(t)], i(t) ," AT_.(t) , and the ambient • HA R temperature at time t, one can calculate [T (t + At) - T (t + At)], the total H A difference between the hygristor and ambient air temperatures, from eq . (1). Since T.(t + At) is known from thermistor measurements, T TT (t + At) is obtained. A H The total temperature difference at time t + At is then reinserted into eq. (1) to yield the total difference at time t + 2At , and so on. The initial level for which knowledge of the hygristor temperature is needed is the level reached 5 s after launch. This temperature value was inferred as follows. During BOMEX it was often observed that immediately after launch the rawinsonde would descend for a short time and then begin its ascent. Approximately 5 s after release it should therefore have sampled the same water-vapor content as the psychrometer used aboard ship, and the assumption was made that the specific humidity at the 5-s level was the same as the psychrometric reading. This means that e = e (ship) * RH (ship) = e (5 seconds) * RH (5 seconds), (2) where e = the vapor pressure (mb) , e = the saturation vapor pressure (mb) , and RH = the relative humidity (percent). The quantities e (ship), RH(ship) , and RH(5 seconds) were recorded. Thus the 317 saturation vapor pressure that the rawinsonde must have sensed, e (5 seconds), can be obtained. Since the saturation vapor pressure depends only on temperature, a unique temperature can be found by inverting the saturation vapor pressure equation. Teten's formula ( Handbook of Meteorology , McGraw- Hill Book Company, N.Y. , 1945, p. 343) was used: 7.5 * T 237.3 + T e (T) = 6.11 * 10 s where T is measured in C. The final result for the hygristor temperature 5 s after 'launch, T (5 seconds), is H 237.3*log 1Q [e s (5 seconds)/6 .11] T (5 seconds) = — : f yz — — . , H 7.5 - log [e (5 seconds)/6 .11] where e (5 seconds) is calculated from eq . (2). Typical temperature differ- ences at the 5-s level are approximately 6 C at midday and 2 C at night . This term can be evaluated for each sounding individually. The second term on the right of eq. (1) represents the lag of response to changing ambient temperature during ascent. Theory suggests that the thermal lag constant x(t) is a function of ventilation rate and ambient air density. Based on BOMEX data, it was found that a reasonable expression for the lag constant in seconds is given by -0.4 t = 34.9 (pV) u , where -3 p = ambient air density (kg m ) , and V = the ventilation rate of the hygristor = 0.3 * ascent rate (m s ). This gives values for the time constant of the order of 30 s near sea level. At ascent rates of 4 to 5 m/s, the lag constant is about 45 to 50 s at the level of p* = 500 mb . (The levels referred to here are the ones used in the analysis of the BOMEX Core Experiment, or the sea-air interaction program, which is based on a p* coordinate system, where p* is the position on the vertical axis in terms of pressure relative to sea level, i.e., p* = at sea level and 500 mb at the top of the BOMEX atmospheric volume.) For nighttime rawinsonde flights, the hygristor temperature difference stems mainly from this lag in response to changing atmospheric temperature, and is on the order of 1 C. In the moist layer, this difference produces relative -humidities that are 4 to 6 percent RH too low. The radiation term presented a problem because radiation measurements at times of individual rawinsonde ascents were not available. An indirect method based on 7-day average data was therefore used. This means that the 318 effects of varying cloudiness are ignored, and that other heating effects, those due to sonde electronics, for example, will be included in the radiation term. The 7-day averages were derived from data collected during BOMEX Observation Period III, June 19 to July 2. Since there was little variation in solar zenith angle during the other observation periods, the results are considered equally applicable to all BOMEX data. The aim was to obtain a simplified radiation correction term, AT (t), R which depends only on p* and the time of day. For every p* level, the time after launch, t, is known, The' assumption was made that the daytime ambient vapor pressure of the 7-day averages at each level was equal to the vapor pres- sure at the same level computed from the nighttime (0000 to 0730 GMT) average temperatures and average relative humidities, the latter having been corrected for the effect of lag in response to changing ambient temperatures. All evidence from surface observations, data obtained with the Boundary Layer Instrument Package (BLIP) , and aircraft measurements suggests that the diurnal variation of vapor pressure is nearly zero. Thus, *»N * e s 320 mb) where c = 13.03. The value 1016 was taken as typical of the sea-surface pressure in millibars. By use of eq. (3), AT was found and substituted in eq . (1), yielding the hygristor temperature T . Based on the assumption that the air sampled by H the hygristor has the same vapor pressure as the ambient air, the true relative humidity, RTL, was found from the measured relative humidity, RH,., by the formula rh t " RH M * 1TTTT (A) vv From the corrected values of the basic measured variables — pressure, temperature, and relative humidity — 10 atmospheric variables were generated: saturation vapor pressure, ambient vapor pressure, specific humidity, dew- point temperature, potential temperature, virtual temperature, mean virtual temperature, layer thickness, geopotential height, and geometric height. These were computed by standard procedures. For purposes of comparison with other BOMEX data and for the conven- ience of users, three different sets of interpolated data were generated: (a) Data interpolated at every 10 mb in pressure from the sea surface to 500 mb above the surface within the p* coordinate system. (b) Data interpolated at every 50 mb in pressure, beginning with the 1,000-mb level. These include the standard mandatory pressure levels. (c) Data interpolated at heights of 1,000, 4,000, 7,000, and 10,000 ft, the nominal flight levels of NOAA's Research Flight Facility aircraft during BOMEX. Only the basic variables of pressure, temperature, and relative humidity were interpolated; the other parameters were derived as described above . As noted earlier, significant levels on the strip chart were selected so that the temperature and relative humidity ordinate values are nearly linear between the levels chosen. Conversion of the strip-chart ordinate values to meteorological units showed the temperature and relative humidity values themselves to be approximately linear. Since the strip-chart speed is constant, this also means that these values vary linearly with time between significant levels. 320 The ascent velocity of radiosondes is approximately constant. The height varies linearly in time, and the appropriate interpolation variable for radiosondes therefore is the height. The descent velocity of the BOMEX drop- sondes, however, was not constant, decreasing with time. However, examination of 53 BOMEX soundings showed that, on the average, the dropsonde traveled across equal pressure intervals in equal times. The pressure was therefore chosen as the appropriate interpolation variable. 10.3 Archive Format and Data Inventory The final BOMEX dropsonde data are available on magnetic tape and microfilm. The magnetic tape contains five separate data sets for each sounding. Information about the tape itself, the content of each set and the format used to place it on tape are given in the first file (see fig. 10-2). A subroutine for reading the rest of the files is also included in this first file, which contains records that are 80-column card images. The first data set for each sounding contains data for the significant levels, without pressure contact or thermal lag correction. This was done in order to preserve the "raw," uncorrected data so that the user might apply a correction scheme of his own if desired. The second data set contains the same data with corrections applied for baroswitch contact error, and thermistor and hygristor thermal lag errors. The last three data sets contain the three types of interpolated data discussed earlier. The microfilm output contains both plotted data, consisting of plots of temperature, dew point, and relative humidity on a pseudo-adiabatic chart, and tabular data. There are four tabular data sets for each sounding: (1) data for the significant levels without correction, (2) data with corrections, (3) data interpolated at 10-mb p* intervals , <_ p* <_ 500 mb , and (4) data interpolated at mandatory pressure levels. An inventory of the dropsonde data is given in table 10-1. 10.4 Material in Temporary Storage Hard-copy material, consisting of original manual logs, computer printouts, and the like, has been placed in temporary storage for a period of 3 years. Inquiries concerning this material should be addressed to the Center for Experiment Design and Data Analysis, EDS, NOAA, Page Bldg. 2, Washington, D.C. 20235. 321 <» *-. X »- to X z X • h- 9- X UJ z > c t— X 1— c. c c 1— X UJ < »— 1 l_lj >— z >- 1— 1 Q Ul X H- •> X t- X U. UJ o c o t CO < X X CJ UJ cr a XK > 2 ^ KH UJ a. 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