C/ o? *3 & /, >- gs 'tf* tf ^ ENERGY METALS ENERGY METAlI*^,. VIETALS ENERGY METALS ENERGY^ ^ ENERGY METAL c ~NERGY METALS VIETALS ENER^ ,C TALS ENERGY ENERGY MP ^Y METALS VIETALS Eh' '■$ ENERGY ENERGV 'METALS VIETA' ' x "ERGY ENERGY M 7Y METALS ^r *» .v r\-. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Draft Environmental Impact Statement U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration I s Office of Ocean Minerals and Energy March 1981 SJEcZJeI Jri s I i 5 * 1 * * « » C C • ; s ^ >»- M C ST S? ST 5T ST -5 d d n *- d do " £ £ E E -CJJSS25 E S E E Ei* E E E. s sr E N r N r E E E E 3 Q E _ ■ o (N in t- SEE es; E E E E a | ? i S g ? 2 o 5 $ E 3 f Q. ^ u C V » a a <« « ja c * « : E c ■JOOOuDifi d d rid 6 o "D "D V "O c c c c _ w i sss|| «) ■ ■ V i. k. a a o. a « • „ „ _ _ a a E § E E II E £ E c c o o £ sns s i S E E E S E E E E E E E ~ * « i- t? e c c £ £ 5 o u £ E . E E E N p N F E E Est; f • • S E E E E E E E D £ £ -0 < UJ _$ in cri co to ai 1 CE < in 0) o CO (D E c m K 5 S K - r ■ = 2 - =>* *- a ct oi S S = o £ ■ $ E ^^f ™ a i. h. e dt c S a a „ <« <* EiJ£^5 e**Je o o £ *»Ei, EtrE: $ 91 DRAFT ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT FOR COMMERCIAL OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION (OTEC) LICENSING March 19S1 U.S. Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Office of Ocean Minerals and Energy ABSTRACT This environmental impact statement is prepared in response to the Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Act of 1980 (PL 96-320) and the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, as amended, to identify and assess the effects of licensing commercial OTEC development on human activities and the atmospheric, marine, and terrestrial environments. Alternate regulatory approaches for mitigating adverse environmental impacts associated with siting, design, and operation of commercial OTEC plants are evaluated, and the preferred regulatory alternative identified. Address inquiries or comments to: Robert W. Knecht, Director Office of Ocean Minerals and Energy 2001 Wisconsin Avenue Washington, D.C. 20235 (202) 653-7695 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2012 with funding from LYRASIS Members and Sloan Foundation http://www.archive.org/details/draftenvironmeOOunit SUMMARY This Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is prepared in compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) , as amended, which requires an EIS for each major Federal action that significantly affects the quality of the human environment. This EIS considers the reasonably foreseeable environmental consequences inherent to commercial Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) development by the year 2000 under the legal regime established by the OTEC Act of 1980. Regulatory alternatives for mitigating adverse environmental impacts associated with construction, deployment, and operation of commercial OTEC plants are evaluated, and the preferred regulatory alternative is identified. The information contained in this EIS is being used to help identify the research needs for an environmental research plan required by the OTEC Act of 1980, and to develop a technical support document that will provide guidance regarding the types of environmental information that might be submitted with an OTEC application. Purpose of and Need for Proposed Action In response to the demonstration of OTEC as a viable alternate energy source by the U.S. Department of Energy's OTEC program, Congress enacted two public laws to accelerate and facilitate OTEC development as a commercial energy technology. The OTEC Research, Development, and Demonstration Act (PL 96-310) calls for the acceleration of OTEC technology development to meet specific national energy goals. The OTEC Act of 1980 (PL 96-320) requires the establishment of a legal regime to permit and encourage commercial OTEC development. iii The proposed action considered in this EIS is the establishment of a commercial OTEC legal regime by the Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) . The purpose of the proposed action is to promote energy self-sufficiency for the United States, protect the environ- ment, and authorize and regulate OTEC activities subject to the jurisdiction of the OTEC Act through a one-step licensing system. The need for the legal regime is to ensure that commercial OTEC development will have due regard for the marine environment, other ocean uses, special interests of the United States, and rights and responsibilities of adjacent coastal states. Initially, the cost of OTEC-generated electricity will be high, but will decrease as OTEC technology progresses. Because electricity in the United States' tropical-subtropical island communities is more expensive than on the mainland, OTEC-generated electricity will become cost-competitive with conventional power sources sooner in these areas. As conventional power costs continue to increase, commercialization of OTEC in the continental United States will become viable. A possible deployment scenario projects that twenty-five OTEC plants producing baseload electricity could be in operation in the Gulf of Mexico, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, the Hawaiian Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands by the year 2000, with a total output of 2100 megawatts (MWe) . The energy-intensive product scenario projects that eighteen 500-MWe ammonia plantships and three 400-MWe aluminum plantships could be deployed by the year 2000. Commercial OTEC plants utilize the temperature differential between warm surface and cold deep-ocean waters to produce electric power. Several different OTEC platform configurations and power cycle designs can be used to produce electric power from the thermal gradients in the tropical-subtropical oceans. The electricity produced could be delivered to local power grids directly (for land-based plants) or by means of submarine transmission cables. OTEC-produced electricity could also be used for the production of energy-intensive products, such as ammonia or aluminum, on plantships utilizing the thermal resources far from shore. iv To utilize the ocean's thermal resource for the production of electricity, OTEC plants must draw large volumes of warm, near-surface water and cold, deep water across evaporator and condenser heat exchangers, respectively. The volume of water required for OTEC plant operation decreases as the heat exchanger efficiency and the thermal gradient increases. Assuming a conservative thermal resource gradient of 20 C, a 400-MWe OTEC plant would require a total volume of water equivalent to 20% of the average flow of the Mississippi River. Alternatives to the Proposed Action The alternative to establishing a legal regime that permits and encourages the commercial development of OTEC is the no-action alternative. Under the no-action alternative, NOAA would not issue regulations to implement the OTEC Act of 1980. The no-action alternative would result in: • Use of existing regulations, which were not specifically prepared for the unique characteristics of OTEC, for controlling the use of the environment and preventing adverse environmental impacts. • Discouraged development of OTEC as a commercial energy industry which could: Continue the dependence of the United States on imported oil and other energy sources which pose higher environmental and economic risks than OTEC. - Discourage the development of industries that would construct, assemble, operate, and maintain OTEC plants. For these reasons, the preferred alternative in this EIS is the establishment of a legal regime that permits and encourages commercial OTEC development. The options for the siting, design, and operation of OTEC plants provide considerations for formulating regulatory alternatives within the proposed action from which the preferred legal regime can be selected. In general, OTEC operation sites must be chosen from candidate sites on the basis of siting considerations which: • Prevent interference with other ocean-use areas, such as shipping lanes, military zones, marine sanctuaries, ocean disposal sites, commercial and recreational fisheries, ecologically-sensitive areas, and recreational areas. • Minimize environmental disturbances. • Minimize thermal inteference between OTEC plants. Operation of single and multiple OTEC plants could result in adverse environmental effects. The magnitude of the potential impacts could be reduced by implementing various technological alternatives, including the utilization of various intake and discharge structure designs and biocide release methods. Alternative regulatory approaches for protecting the environment through siting and plant design include the detailed regulation approach, the moderate regulation approach, and the minimal regulation approach. Under the detailed regulation approach, the regulations would contain detailed substantive provisions applying to all OTEC plant designs and siting environments. Specific design and siting regulations could be too rigorous, thereby unnecessarily increasing plant construction costs and reducing flexibility in siting and plant design. The moderate regulations would contain specific guidelines and performance standards applying to all OTEC plants within a general ecosystem. This approach is commonly used to regulate mature, stable industries in which the nature of the technology and resulting environmental impacts are known. Uniform guidelines and performance standards coulc restrict the flexibility and experimentation required to develop OTEC as a commercial energy technology . VI Under the minimal regulation alternative, minimal guidelines encompassing existing regulations would be prescribed in advance, with additional regulations developed, as required, on a case-by-case basis for inclusion as terms and conditions of a license. The minimal regulation alternative results in maximum flexibility to deal with site-specific environmental concerns, while still encouraging development of the nascent OTEC industry. Because monitoring is required in all three alternate regulatory approaches and the minimal regulation alternative preserves the flexibility to deal effectively with site-specific environmental concerns, it is the preferred alternative. The minimal regulatory system would accomplish the goals of the OTEC Act of 1980 without interfering with technological innovations and responsible experimentation, which are part of the development of a new commercial power industry. Affected Environment Generically describing the atmospheric, marine, and coastal environmental conditions within the OTEC thermal resource area is critical for assessing environmental consequences of commercial OTEC development. The candidate regions likely to be used for commercial OTEC power production by the year 2000 include the eastern Gulf of Mexico, several island communities (Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, Hawaiian Islands, Guam, and the Pacific Trust Territories) , and various plantship areas located in the open ocean. Climates within the OTEC resource area are influenced by large-scale atmospheric patterns, the sea-surface temperature of surrounding ocean waters, and the proximity of landmasses. Large-scale atmospheric disturbances (tropical cyclones) are commonly observed throughout the year in various parts of the OTEC thermal resource area, but are most frequent in the eastern and western North Pacific. Hurricanes are frequent occurrences in the Gulf of Mexico. vii In general, the marine environment is composed of nearshore and offshore environments. The nearshore environment extends from the shoreline seaward to the continental shelf break and is influenced by continental conditions such as terrestrial runoff, tidal mixing, and coastal upwelling. The nearshore environment tends to be highly productive and is the location of the major world fisheries. The offshore environment is minimally influenced by continental conditions and is characterized by low productivity; however, important commercial fisheries, (i.e., tuna) do exist in the offshore environment. The coastal environment includes the area that extends seaward and inland from the shoreline and includes the nearshore marine and terrestrial environments. The coastal environment is heavily used by man for various commercial, recreational, cultural, and military purposes, and contains many ecologically-sensitive areas which may be affected by the deployment and operation of OTEC plants. Construction of land-based OTEC plants is most likely to occur in tropical island communities that have an adequate thermal resource close to shore. The terrestrial environments of these areas are diverse and support an extensive flora and fauna with many endemic species. The coastlines of these island communities range from minimally to extensively developed. Environmental Consequences Commercial OTEC development may potentially affect the atmosphere, the terrestrial environment, the marine ecosystem, and various human activities in the vicinity of deployment and operation sites. The net environmental impacts from commercial OTEC development are expected to be minimal compared to the impacts from fossil-fuel and nuclear power production; however, there are uncertainties associated with the withdrawal and redistribution of large volumes of ocean water that must be better assessed. vm Potential atmospheric effects from commercial OTEC development, although less than those from equivalent fossil fuel combustion, include climatic disturbances resulting from carbon dioxide releases and sea-surface temperature cooling. Significant atmospheric effects are not expected to occur as a result of single-plant deployments; however, under extensive development scenarios, carbon dioxide releases and sea-surface cooling from multiple-plant deployments may combine synergistically to cause climatic alterations. Local air quality is not expected to be significantly affected by emissions from industrial OTEC plants producing energy-intensive products. Construction of land-based OTEC plants may necessitate the destruction of existing terrestrial habitats and may have a local effect on noise levels, air quality, and the aesthetic quality of the construction area. These impacts will be similar to those from constructing conventional power plants. The majority of environmental effects associated with commercial OTEC development center on the marine ecosystem, since it is the source of evapo- rating and condensing waters and the receiver of effluent waters used by the plant. Marine environmental effects associated with commercial OTEC develop- ment can be categorized as: (1) major (those potentially causing significant environmental impacts), (2) minor (those causing insignificant environmental disturbances), and (3) potential (those occurring only during accidents). OTEC activities that cause environmental effects corresponding to these categories include: Major Effects : Platform presence Biota attraction Withdrawal of surface and deep ocean waters Organism entrainment and impingement Discharge of waters Nutrient redistribution resulting in increased productivity • Biocide release - Organism toxic reponse ix Minor Effects: Protective hull-coating release Concentration of trace metals in organism tissues • Power cycle erosion and corrosion Effect of trace constituent release • Implantation of cold- water pipe and trans- mission cable Habitat destruction and turbidity during dredging • Low-frequency sound production Interference with marine life • Discharge of surfactants - Organism toxic response • Open-cycle plant operation Alteration of oxygen and salt concentrations in downstream waters Potential Effects from Accidents: • Potential working fluid release from spills and leaks - Organism toxic response Potential oil releases - Organism toxic response Nekton populations will increase in the vicinity of the plant because of attraction to structure and lights, but will decrease in downstream areas as a result of entrainment of egg and larval stages and impingement of juvenile and adult stages. Plankton populations will be reduced immediately down- stream of OTEC plants, because of entrainment and biocide release; however, the redistribution of nutrient-rich deep water into the photic zone may stimulate plankton productivity, ultimately increasing plankton populations and fisheries. Benthic community effects will center primarily on their planktonic larval stages (meroplankton) , potentially reducing recruitment stocks and adult benthic populations downstream of the plant. The cumulative effect of commercial OTEC development near island environments may signifi- cantly affect terrestrial and coastal threatened and endangered species at some sites. Commercial OTEC plant operation in oceanic regions, however, is not expected to significantly affect local threatened and endangered species. The magnitude of potentially adverse impacts can be mitigated or reduced by implementing various siting and technology alternatives. Siting OTEC plants away from commercially-important, ecologically-sensitive, and biologically-productive areas will reduce the effects of biota attraction and avoidance, organism impingement and entrainment, and biocide release. Organism avoidance of OTEC plants can be minimized by reducing lights and noise on the platform to minimal levels required for safe plant operation. Organism impingement and entrainment may be reduced by siting intake structures at depths having the least number of organisms and by using velocity caps to achieve horizontal flow fields. Adverse environmental effects resulting from biocide release, sea-surface temperature alterations, and nutrient redistribution may be reduced by discharging the effluent waters below the photic zone. Employing alternate biocide concentrations and release schedules will minimize the effects of biocide release. OTEC plant components will be manufactured at shipyards and industrial facilities in island communities and the continental United States. The manufacture and assembly of OTEC plants, and the modification of existing harbors and shipyard facilities, will result in the creation of construction-related jobs. The projected job impact of OTEC plant construction will be significant for large depressed city areas, where most shipyards are located. Approximately 2,000 worker-years of shipyard employment would be required to construct a 40-MWe plantship. Operation and support of OTEC plants will create additional employment opportunities. XI Indirect effects of commercial OTEC development may result from the manufacture of OTEC plants, alterations in existing resource demands, and increased demands on the communities where OTEC plants are developed. Commercial OTEC development will have a positive influence on island economies by initiating a process for obtaining total energy independence, thereby creating long-term price stability for economic development. Generally, the island communities of the United States suitable for OTEC development are almost totally dependent upon imported oil, with few other viable alternatives available. Organization of the Environmental Impact Statement Chapter 1 specifies the purpose of and need for the proposed action, dis- cusses legislation related to commercial OTEC development, describes OTEC technology, and presents a possible commercial OTEC deployment scenario. Chapter 2 identifies and evaluates alternatives to the proposed action, and describes the preferred regulatory approach that provides the maximum flexi- bility for OTEC siting and technology design, while maintaining environmental quality. Chapter 3 generically describes the atmospheric, marine, and coastal environments of the OTEC thermal resource area targeted for commer- cial OTEC development. Chapter 4 analyzes the environmental consequences and summarizes the cumulative environmental effects of commercial OTEC develop- ment. Chapter 5 identifies the principal and contributing authors of the EIS. Chapter 6 lists the agencies and individuals to whom the EIS was sent for review. Chapter 7 contains a glossary, a list of abbreviations, and a list of references cited. Several appendixes are included: Appendix A contains the texts of the OTEC Act of 1980 (PL 96-320) and the OTEC Research, Development, and Demon- stration Act (PL 96-310). Appendix B summarizes the status of OTEC develop- ment. Appendix C contains maps of the areas where OTEC commercialization is most probable. Appendix D presents the calculations used in impact evalua- tion. xii CONTENTS Chapter Page SUMMARY iii 1 PURPOSE OF AND NEED FOR THE PROPOSED ACTION 1-1 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1-1 1.2 OTEC LEGISLATION AND CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT 1-3 1.3 TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION 1-7 1.3.1 OTEC Plant Configuration 1-8 1.3.2 Power-Cycle Description 1-16 1.4 DEPLOYMENT SCENARIO 1-27 1.4.1 Baseload Electricity Scenario 1-28 1.4.2 Grazing Plantship Scenario 1-30 2 ALTERNATIVES TO THE PROPOSED ACTION 2-1 2.1 NO-ACTION ALTERNATIVE 2-2 2.2 ALTERNATIVES UNDER THE PROPOSED ACTION 2-5 2.2.1 General Considerations 2-6 2.2.2 Regulatory Alternatives Under the Proposed Action 2-10 2.3 THE PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE 2-15 xiii Chapter Page 3 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 3-1 3.1 THE ATMOSPHERE 3-4 3.1.1 Data Requirements for Impact Assessment ... 3-4 3.1.2 Description 3-4 3.2 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT 3-10 3.2.1 Data Requirements for Impact Assessment . . . 3-10 3.2.2 Description 3-15 3.3 THE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT 3-24 3.3.1 Data Requirements for Impact Assessment ... 3-24 3.3.2 Description 3-24 3.4 THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT 3-25 3.4.1 Data Requirements for Impact Assessment . . . 3-25 3.4.2 Description 3-30 4 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 4-1 4.1 ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS 4-4 4.2 TERRESTRIAL EFFECTS 4-6 4.2.1 Staging Phase 4-7 4.2.2 Construction Phase 4-7 4.2.3 Completion Phase 4-8 4.3 MARINE EFFECTS 4-8 4.3.1 Discharge Plume Description 4-11 4.3.2 Major Effects 4-14 4.3.3 Minor Effects 4-24 4.3.4 Potential (Accidental) Effects 4-27 4.4 EFFECTS ON HUMAN ACTIVITES 4-29 4.4.1 Commercial and Recreational Fishing 4-29 4.4.2 Shipping and Transporation 4-30 4.4.3 Naval Operations 4-30 xiv Chapter Page 4.4.4 Scientific Research 4.4.5 Recreation 4.4.6 Aesthetics 4.5 INDIRECT EFFECTS 4.5.1 Secondary Environmental Effects 4.5.2 Socioeconomic Effects .. 4.6 CUMULATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 4.7 UNAVOIDABLE ADVERSE EFFECTS AND MITIGATING MEASURES 4.7.1 Platform Siting 4.7.2 Intake Considerations 4.7.3 Discharge Considerations 4.8 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SHORT-TERM USE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND MAINTENANCE AND ENHANCEMENT OF LONG-TERM PRODUCTIVITY 4.9 IRREVERSIBLE AND IRRETRIEVABLE RESOURCE COMMITMENT . . 5 LIST OF PREPARERS 5.1 PRINCIPAL AUTHORS 5.2 CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS 6 COORDINATION 7 GLOSSARY, ABBREVIATIONS, AND REFERENCES Glossary Abbreviations References APPENDIX A OTEC LEGISLATION APPENDIX B OTEC PROGRAM STATUS APPENDIX C CANDIDATE OTEC AREA MAPS APPENDIX D IMPACT AND RELATED CALCULATIONS 4-30 4-31 4-31 4-31 4-31 4-32 4-34 4-37 4-37 4-40 4-41 4-42 4-43 5-1 5-2 5-3 6-1 7-1 7-1 7-2 7 7-29 A-l B-l C-l D-l xv ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 1-1 OTEC Development Schedule 1-6 1-2 Moored OTEC Platform Designs 1-9 1-3 Typical Bottom-Resting Tower Design 1-10 1-4 Typical Land-Based Design 1-11 1-5 A Typical OTEC Plantship 1-12 1-6 Schematic Diagram of Closed-Cycle OTEC Power System .... 1-17 1-7 Tube-in-Shell Heat Exchanger 1-21 1-8 Plate-Type Heat Exchanger 1-22 1-9 Schematic Diagram of an Open-Cycle OTEC Power System . . . 1-24 1-10 Schematic Diagram of a Hybrid-Cycle OTEC Power System . . . 1-25 1-11 Schematic Diagram of a Mist-Flow OTEC Power System .... 1-26 1-12 Schematic Diagram of a Foam OTEC Power System 1-27 2-1 Comparative Annual Environmental Impacts (1,000 MWe System) From Various Power Production Methods 2-4 3-la The OTEC Thermal Resource Area (Pacific) 3-2 3-lb The OTEC Thermal Resource Area (Atlantic) 3-3 3-2 Monthly and Annual Average Storms for Maj or Ocean Basins . 3-6 3-3a Annual Frequency of Tropical Cyclones (Pacific) 3-7 3-3b Annual Frequency of Tropical Cyclones (Atlantic) 3-8 3-4 Recent Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Increases 3-9 3-5a Carbon Dioxide Outgassing Regions in the OTEC Resource Area (Pacific) 3-11 xvi Figure Page 3-5b Carbon Dioxide Outgassing Regions in the OTEC Resource Area (Atlantic) 3-12 3-6a. Major Circulation Patterns in the OTEC Resoure Area (Pacific) 3-21 3-6b. Major Circulation Patterns in the OTEC Resoure Area (Atlantic) 3-22 3-7 Existing-Use Areas in Oahu, Hawaii 3-2 6 3-8 Existing-Use Areas in the Island of Hawaii 3-27 3-9 Existing-Use Areas in Puerto Rico 3-28 3-10 Existing-Use Areas in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico 3-29 4-1 Environmental Effects of OTEC Operation 4-10 4-2 Generalized Diagram of a Mixed Discharge Plume 4-12 4-3 Rate of Fish Attraction to Floating Objects in Tropical Nearshore Waters 4-15 4-4 Biomass of Potentially-Entrained Phytoplankton and Zooplankton between the Surface and 1000m 4-17 4-5 Equivalent Number and Commercial Value of Adult Amberj ack (Seriola spp.) Lost as a Result of Ichthyoplankton Entrainment with Various Deployment Scenarios 4-18 xvii TABLES Table Page 1-1 Intake and Mixed Discharge Flow Summary 1-18 1-2 Characteristics of Candidate OTEC Working Fluids 1-19 1-3 OTEC Deployment Scenario for Year 2000 1-29 3-1 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of OTEC Resource Areas 3-14 3-2 Characteristics of the Plankton in the OTEC Resource Area 3-16 3-3 Threatened and Endangered Species of the OTEC Resource Area (Marine) 3-17 3-4 Typical Nearshore (Coastal, Upwelling) and Offshore (Oceanic) Food Chains 3-19 3-5 Division of the Oceans into Provinces According to their Level of Primary Productivity 3-23 3-6 Proposed Jurisdictional Boundaries 3-30 3-7 Threatened and Endangered Species of the OTEC Resource Area (Terrestrial) 3-31 4-1 Status of OTEC Oceanographic Surveys 4-3 4-2 Estimated Biomass Entrained Daily by Various Sizes and Number of OTEC Plants 4-16 4-3 Estimated Biomass (Wet Weight) Impinged Daily by Various Sizes and Numbers of OTEC Plants 4-20 4-4 Toxicity of Chlorine to Marine Organisms Based on 50% Mortality or 50% Decrease in Productivity ... 4-22 XVlll Table Page 4-5 Relative Hazards Presented by Candidate Protective Hull-Coating Materials 4-26 4-6 Relative Hazards Presented by Candidate Heat Exchanger Materials 4-27 4-7 U.S. Ports with Suitable Facilities for OTEC Platform Construction 4-33 4-8 Potentially Adverse Environmental Impacts and Mitigating Measures 4-38 5-1 List of Preparers 5-1 xix Chapter 1 PURPOSE OF AND NEED FOR THE PROPOSED ACTION As the supply of nonrenewable fuels is depleted and the cost of foreign oil increases, the development of OTEC as a commercial energy technology is becoming increasingly important. A legal regime is necessary to permit and encourage commercial OTEC development with due regard for protection of the marine environment and other ocean uses. The purpose of this EIS is to identify and assess the environmental effects of commercial OTEC development and evaluate regulatory alternatives that prevent, miti- gate, or reduce significant impacts. This chapter dis- cusses the status of the OTEC program, describes probable OTEC technology, and presents a possible deployment scenario to the year 2000. 1.1 INTRODUCTION Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) is a technique for the production of power using the temperature differential between warm surface and cold deep-ocean waters. The proposed action in this Environmental Impact State- ment (EIS) is the establishment of a legal regime by the Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) , as directed by the OTEC Act of 1980 (PL 96-320), to permit and encourage the commercial develop- ment of OTEC. The purpose of this EIS is to evaluate the generic environ- mental effects of commercial OTEC development, identify significant environmental impacts, and to evaluate alternate regulatory approaches which could mitigate or reduce adverse effects. This EIS is prepared in compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, which requires an EIS for each major Federal action that significantly affects the quality of the human environment. This EIS is programmatic in scope, considering the reasonably 1-1 foreseeable environmental consequences associated with commercial OTEC development, subject to the jurisdiction of the OTEC Act, in tropical and subtropical waters by the year 2000. The purpose of the proposed action is to promote energy self-sufficiency for the United States, protect the environment, and authorize and regulate commercial OTEC activities conducted by United States citizens. The proposed action will provide a one-step licensing system, allowing an applicant to file a single application for an OTEC plant license which encompasses licenses and permits from all involved Federal agencies, with the exception of the U.S. Coast Guard. The need for commercial OTEC development, as specified in the OTEC Research, Development, and Demonstration Act (PL 96-310), is evident because: • Oil imported by the United States will continue to increase in price. • The supply of nonrenewable fuels in the United States and throughout the world is slowly being depleted. • OTEC is a renewable energy resource that can make a significant contribution to the United States' energy needs. 4 A 400 megawatt (MWe) OTEC plant could power approximately 6 x 10 households for a year, saving 2 x 10 metric tons of coal or 6 x 10 barrels of oil per year. A 500-MWe OTEC plant producing ammonia would save 6 8 3 x 10 m of natural gas per year; a 400-MWe OTEC plant producing aluminum 13 3 would save 2 x 10 m of natural gas per year (Appendix D). Therefore, it is in the national interest to accelerate efforts to commercialize OTEC. As mandated in the OTEC Act of 1980 (PL 96-320), the Administrator of NOAA will, after consultation with the Secretary of Energy, State and Federal government officials, and interested members of the general public, promul- gate licensing regulations for commercial OTEC development. These regula- 1-2 tions will pertain to issuance, transfer, renewal, suspension, and termina- tion of licenses and will establish procedures for the location, construc- tion, ownership, and operation of OTEC facilities that are: (1) documented under U.S. law, (2) constructed, owned, or operated by U.S. citizens, (3) within the territorial seas of the United States, or (4) connected to the United States by pipeline or cable. The legal regime is needed to ensure that commercial OTEC development will have due regard for: (1) the coastal marine and oceanic environment, (2) other coastal, marine, and high sea uses, (3) the overall interests of the United States, and (4) the rights and responsibilities of adjacent coastal states (e.g., coastal zone management). 1.2 OTEC LEGISLATION AND CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT OTEC funding was initiated in 1972 by the National Science Foundation's Research Applied to National Needs (RANN) Program. Since 1972, OTEC develop- ment has passed several major program milestones: • Operation of Mini-OTEC as the world's first successful closed- cycle OTEC plant (50 kilowatts (kWe) , gross) to produce net energy at sea (Donat et al., 1980). • Operation of the preoperational 1-MWe test platform ( Ocean Energy Converter ) for testing heat-exchanger materials and performing biofouling tests (DOE, 1979b; Sinay-Friedman, 1979). • Construction of Stage 1 of the Seacoast Test Facility that will perform biofouling and corrosion experiments (ANL, 1980). The Department of Energy (DOE) OTEC program, whose goal is to demonstrate the technological, economical, and environmental feasibility of OTEC power- plants (DOE, 1979a), is proceeding through interrelated subprograms of stra- tegy and definition planning, engineering development and demonstration, and 1-3 technology development. The DOE OTEC program will culminate in the demon- stration of at least one 40-MWe (net) pilot plant by 1986 (Sullivan et al., 1980). In response to the progress being made in OTEC technology development, the U.S. Congress enacted two public laws to spur development of OTEC as a commercial energy technology for electrical power production: the OTEC Research, Development, and Demonstration Act (PL 96-310, signed into law July 17 1980) and the OTEC Act of 1980 (PL 96-320, signed into law August 3 1980) . The complete texts of these laws are included as Appendix A. The OTEC Research, Development, and Demonstration Act calls for the accel- eration of OTEC technology development to provide a technical base to meet the following energy production goals: • Demonstration by 1986 of at least 100 MWe of OTEC electrical capacity or energy product equivalent (approximately 0.04% of the projected U.S. energy demand). • Demonstration by 1989 of at least 500 MWe of OTEC electrical capacity or energy product equivalent (approximately 0.2% of the projected U.S. energy demand). • An average cost of OTEC electricity or energy-product equivalent that is competitive, by the mid-1990' s, with conventional energy sources in the Gulf Coast region, islands, and possessions and territories of the United States. • Establishment of a national goal of 10,000 MWe (10 gigawatts; GWe) of OTEC electrical capacity or energy product equivalent by the year 1999 (approximately 3% of the projected U.S. energy demand) . 1-4 The OTEC development schedule to the year 2000 Is shown in Figure 1-1 and reflects these energy production goals and the program milestones achieved to date. The current status of OTEC development is discussed in Appendix B. The OTEC Act of 1980 directs: • The Administrator of NOAA to establish a stable legal regime to foster commercial development of OTEC by (1) implementing a licensing program, (2) preparing an environmental impact statement covering each license application, (3) establishing a compliance monitoring program, and (4) conducting necessary environmental research on OTEC effects (Sections 102, 107, and 110). • The Secretary of the department in which the Coast Guard is operating to establish and enforce procedures with respect to OTEC facilities and plantships to: Promote safety of life and property at sea by lights and other warning devices, safety equipment, and designation of safety zones of appropriate size for OTEC operations. Permitted activities within such zones will be consistent with the purpose for which the zone was designated (Section 108(a)). Prevent pollution of the marine environment (Section 108(a)). - Clean up any pollutants that may be discharged from OTEC plants (Section 108(a)). - Prevent or minimize any adverse impacts from construction and operation of OTEC plants (Section 108(a)). 1-5 91 Cl _>- E a a. \$ , , 1 . OJ >- "} V «* F ft X E O X w O a. u Q a. rd a * a; *. 0) o o OS f in a >- j= u C c u B. LU A) ■o C M O E F 01 g < CO o f8 o O ill lu > O h Jo 0Qi2 < 14 O o a I'* si* lu Jo (-Co OQC LU H O OS Z) 0) o CO c CD e a, o r-\ > Q w O CO 0> 0) ■H V s 5 2 o eo O c 5 T o o T o o o o o o (3|P3S °1 »ON) CMW) IfldlHO 1VDIMJL3313 13N 1-6 - Ensure that the thermal plume of an OTEC plantship does not unreasonably impinge on and thus degrade the thermal gradient used by any other OTEC plantship or facility or the territorial sea or area of national resource juris- diction of any other nation unless the Secretary of State has approved such impingement after consultation with such nation (Section 109(c)). • The Administrator of NOAA and the Secretary of the department in which the Coast Guard is operating to share responsibilities for enforcement of regulations under the Act (Section 303(a)). • The Secretary of State, in cooperation with the Administrator of NOAA and the Secretary of the department in which the Coast Guard is operating, to conduct international negotiations as necessary to assume noninterference between OTEC plants, safety of navigation, and resolution of other matters relating to OTEC plants that need to be resolved by international agreement (Section 402). • The Secretary of Energy to establish and enforce standards and regulations necessary for safe construction and operation of submarine electrical transmission cables and equipment asso- ciated with OTEC plants (Section 404(a)). 1.3 TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION OTEC employs the temperature differential between warm surface and cold deep-ocean waters to produce electric power. The electricity can be supplied to a local power grid or used for the production of energy -intensive products (e.g., ammonia, aluminum) that can be sent to domestic or foreign markets via conventional marine transportation methods. A large number of OTEC platform designs and power cycles have been studied. Although the designs differ, the engineering features that must be described for assessment of potential 1-7 environmental impacts or risk of credible accidents are similar. This section describes the various platforms and power systems that may be used for commercial OTEC plants. Because OTEC is presently a rapidly changing technology, description of specific plant components and details does not exclude technology which might change or become obsolete. 1.3.1 OTEC Plant Configuration Specific descriptions of important OTEC plant components, including platform configurations, intake structures, discharge structures, and sub- marine transmission cables, are presented in the following subsections. 1.3.1.1 Platform Description - Several types of OTEC platform configurations have been studied, including the moored platform, bottom-resting tower, land-based plant, and grazing plantship. Following basic construction standards, all types of plants are expected to be designed to survive 100-year storms and other catastrophic events at the selected sites (e.g., earthquakes and extreme winds, waves, and currents). Moored Platforms - Moored OTEC platforms are floating structures that are attached to the seabed by mooring lines. Moored platforms may have four basic hull configurations: rectangular, cylindrical, spherical, or disc; and may be surface-floating, semisubmerged, or totally submerged (Figure 1-2). Riser cable systems may be used to link moored OTEC plants to high-voltage transmission cables on the seafloor. The riser cables must withstand stresses from current drag, strumming, platform motions, corrosion, and bio- fouling growth. The cables must be designed to withstand abrasion at the touchdown point caused by the cable scouring the bottom as the platform moves through its watch circle. Bottom-Resting Tower - A bottom-resting tower (Figure 1-3) is a stationary platform upon which an OTEC plant may be built. Freestanding-articulated or derrick-type towers may be built in water depths less than 300 m. Guyed 1-8 'C -c Q. o o. 8- 01 2 E 3 (A E CO 5 00 •rl CO CD O O M-l ,Q 4-1 00 o a) o o ss o o CN I u 60 •H 1-9 Submarine Transmission Cable Cold-Water Intake (1,000 m) Figure 1-3. Typical Bo ttom-Re sting Tower Design Source: Sullivan et al . , 1980 towers, which use guy lines for added stability, may be installed in water depths between 300 and 900 m. Shallow-water (less than 300 m depth) towers will use a cold-water pipe that extends from the platform to the bottom, and down the continental slope to the appropriate depth (Gibbs and Cox, 1979); deepwater (guyed) towers may incorporate the cold-water pipe in the tower legs. Towers built on the outer continental shelf may employ tunnels drilled through the seafloor to the appropriate depth instead of a conventional cold-water pipe (Green et al., 1980). 1-10 Land-Based Platforms - Land-based platforms (Figure 1-4) must be construc- ted at sea level to avoid large power losses due to the pumps (Brewer et al., 1979). The electricity produced could be linked directly into the power grid. The warm water may be taken in through either an excavated channel or through a pipe extending offshore. The cold-water intake may be a pipe extending from the plant or a tunnel drilled through the seafloor down the slope, to the appropriate depth. Due to plant configuration, warm and cold water used by the plant will probably be discharged separately through parallel pipes. It may be possible to discharge a portion of the nutrient- rich condenser effluent into nearshore lagoons or holding tanks for mari- culture of marine plants and animals, such as seaweed and oysters. Warm- Water Intake (15 m) Cold-Water Discharge (100 m) Warm -Water Discharge (100 m Cold-Water Intake {1000 m ) Figure 1-4. Typical Land-Based Design 1-11 Plantships - OTEC grazing plantships (Figure 1-5) will produce energy- intensive products (e.g., ammonia, aluminum). OTEC plantships will graze the OTEC thermal resource area, using a ship-like hull configuration constructed of prestressed reinforced concrete or steel. As shown in Figure 1-5, the warm-water pumps could be in sponsons near the corners of the platform, with the cold-water pipe attached midship and surrounded by the power system (George and Richards, 1980). WATER INTAKE COLD WATER INTAKE Figure 1-5. A Typical OTEC Plantship Source: George et al., 1979 Plantships will house a plant capable of producing energy-intensive products (e.g., ammonia, aluminum), which will be delivered to market by ocean-going freighters or tankers. Ammonia (NH_) will probably be produced 1-12 by the Haber process (DOE, 1977) in which pure hydrogen and nitrogen are combined in a 3 to 1 ratio. Hydrogen will be obtained by the electrolysis of desalinated seawater, while nitrogen will be extracted from the atmosphere by liquification and fractional distillation (DOE, 1977). A 500-MWe plant can produce approximately 5.2 x 10 metric tons of ammonia per year (George and Richards, 1980). The United States' projected demand for ammonia in 1981 is 1.9 x 10 metric tons (White, 1981). Aluminum will be produced from alumina (brought to the plantship by freighter) using an electrolytic process. The conventional Hall process will probably not be used due to space requirements and platform motion problems. Two likely candidates for the electrolytic process are the drained-cathode Hall process and the new Alcoa process. These processes have a higher energy efficiency, require less deck area, and are tolerant of platform motions (Jones et al., 1980). In the drained-cathode Hall process, alumina is dissolved in cryolite and reduced to form molten aluminum. The Alcoa process involves the electrolysis of aluminum chloride, which is formed by a prior reaction using alumina (Mark, 1978). A 400-MWe plantship could produce approximately 3 x 10 metric tons of aluminum yearly (Jones et al«, 1980), resulting in the release of approximately 3.5 x 10 metric tons of carbon dioxide per year. The United States' projected demand for aluminum in is 5.0 x 10 metric tons (St. Marie, 1981). 1.3.1.2 Intake Structure Description - OTEC plants require immense volumes 3 -1 -1 (10 m sec MWe ) of warm and cold water for power production. The warm-water intake will withdraw water from the upper 50 m of the water column -1 at velocities ranging from 10 to 350 cm sec (Sullivan and Sands, 1980b) • The cold resource water will be transported from below 500 m to the plant through either a single large pipe or several smaller pipes. A single cold-water pipe, constructed of concrete, steel, fiberglass, polyethylene, or nylon fiber neoprene will have a diameter of approximately 10 m for a 40-MWe plant, 15 m for a 100-MWe plant, and 30 m for a 400-MWe plant. The warm and cold water withdrawn by an OTEC plant must be screened to prevent intake of materials that could clog the heat exchangers. Bar 1-13 screens, consisting of vertical parallel bars positioned over the intake, will be used at the warm- and cold-water intake openings to prevent passage of very large objects. Fine-meshed screens will not be placed over the cold- water intake because screen maintenance at great depth is not feasible. Thus, either static (fixed wire-mesh) or traveling screens will be located in sumps immediately before the condensers to remove materials that could clog the heat exchangers. Screen mesh sizes are generally half the heat exchanger tube diameter, or distance between the plates. Land-based plants can use conventional intake configurations. The cold- water pipe will extend to depth and use the same screening methods mentioned above. The warm-water intake may be pipes or a channel. The channel intake may use screens at several different locations to minimize the number of organisms impinged against any one screen. OTEC warm- and cold-water intakes may be bellshaped to reduce flow veloci- ties, or may employ velocity caps, which produce horizontal flow fields much more readily sensed and avoided by fish than vertical flows (Hansen, 1978) . In addition, there are a large number of auxiliary devices that may be incor- porated into OTEC systems for lessening the number of organisms withdrawn by the warm-water intakes. Several fish-protection systems may be employed, including: (1) fish-collection and removal devices, (2) fish-diversion barriers, and (3) fish-deterrence systems. 1.3.1.3 Discharge Structure Description - A commercial OTEC plant may discharge the warm and cold water at or near the thermocline to prevent degradation of the thermal resource. Several different discharge configur- ations have been considered, including mixed and separate discharges that release either horizontally or vertically. Mixed discharges will dilute nutrient-rich deep-ocean waters with nutrient-depleted surface waters, and will minimize the temperature difference between the discharge plume and the surrounding waters. Due to water density differences, mixed-discharge waters will stabilize at greater depths than the separate warm-water discharge and 1-14 at shallower depths than the cold-water discharge. A vertical discharge structure injects the plume deep into the water column, potentially limiting recirculation and nutrient enrichment in the photic zone. A horizontal discharge structure produces slightly larger dilutions than vertical discharges (Ditmars and Paddock, 1979). 1.3.1.4 Protective Hull Coatings - To retard the buildup of macrofouling on hull surfaces, which adds additional weight and drag to the platform and increases the potential for component destruction by boring organisms, protective hull coatings may be applied. Toxic coatings are not practical for heat exchanger surfaces because their thickness interferes with heat transfer. Protective hull coatings may incorporate heavy metal oxides, organic compounds, or thermoplastic paints as their toxic constituent. Protective hull coatings consist of a matrix containing a soluble toxic constituent: either the toxic constituent diffuses out of the matrix, or the entire coating gradually erodes to expose a fresh surface. Oxides of copper, mercury, and zinc are often used. However, toxic metal oxides require a protective primer coating when applied to metallic structures. Another consideration with regard to heavy metal oxides is the Federal government restriction of some paints (e.g., those based with mercury) because of potential environmental effects (Jacoby, 1981). Toxic organometallic compounds such as organotin, organolead, and organotin fluorides are generally more effective protective coatings than heavy metal oxides. The biocidal properties of these compounds have been demonstrated in the paper industry and in antifouling coverings (Luijten, 1972). Montemarano and Dyckman (1973) and Castelli et al. (1975) reported that organometallic coatings have longer periods of effectiveness, due primarily to their constant leaching rate. Organometallic coatings leach approximately one order of magnitude slower than heavy metal oxides (Montemarano and Dyckman, 1973) ; no protective primer coats are needed with organometallic coatings. 1-15 1. 3. 1. 5 Electricity Transmission Cables - OTEC plants may supply baseload electricity to electrical grids via submarine transmission cables. Moored plants require both riser cables and bottom transmission cables, while bottom-resting towers require only bottom cables. Two types of submarine transmission cables being considered include the self-contained oil- or gas- filled laminated dielectric cable and the extruded dielectric cable (Garrity and Morello, 1979; Pieroni et al., 1979). Because of cost considerations, cables probably will lie atop the seafloor, except in depths shallower than 100 m where they could be embedded 2 to 3 m into the substrate to avoid interference with other marine activities and to avoid stresses related to wave- induced forces. Cables may be imbedded at depths greater than 100 m where their presence on the substratum would interfere with deep-ocean uses such as trawling. Oil-filled dielectric cables have been used successfully in traditional submarine cable crossings. However, no high-voltage power cables have been laid to date at depths greater than 550 m (Pieroni et al., 1979). 1.3.2 Power-Cycle Description This EIS considers all major power-system designs being considered for commercial OTEC plants, including closed-cycle, open-cycle, hybrid-cycle, mist-flow systems, and foam systems. Although the closed-cycle system has received the most study and use to date, the other power cycle systems are being evaluated for possible second-generation application, as warranted by technological developments and analyses. A brief description of each of the power cycles is presented in the following subsections. 1.3.2.1 Closed-Cycle OTEC System - In the closed-cycle OTEC system, warm water is pumped through a heat exchanger containing a working fluid. The warm water vaporizes the working fluid, which drives a turbine and provides electrical power. 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The tube-in-shell configuration (Figure 1-7) consists of many parallel tubes with their ends mated to a flat tube sheet. A shell encloses a bundle of these tubes between the sheets. Seawater is circulated inside the tubes, with the working fluid applied to the outside of the tubes. In 2 this design, approximately 9. 3 m of heat exchanger surface is required for each kilowatt capacity of the OTEC plant (DOE, 1978c). The plate configuration (Figure 1-8) consists of a series of thin metal plates sealed together in pairs, with open spaces between each pair through which the 2 working fluid can circulate. In the plate design, approximately 7. 1 m of heat exchanger surface is required for each kilowatt capacity of the OTEC plant (Rowan, 1980). Various materials have been suggested for use in OTEC heat exchangers ; the most likely candidates are commercially-pure titanium, aluminum alloys, and stainless steel alloys. Titanium was used in Mini-OTEC (Donat et al., 1980) and OTEC-1 (Sinay - Friedman, 1979); however, it is expensive and limited in Vapor Outlets Disengagement Space Bundle Diameter Sea Water Inlets Working Fluid Inlets Sea Water Outlet Figure 1-7. Tube-in-Shell Heat Exchanger Source: Sands, 1980 1-21 Vapor Exit (Evaporator) Liquid Inlet (Evaporator) Liquid Exit (Condenser) Vapor Inlet (Condenser) Seawater Passage Figure 1-8. Plate-Type Heat Exchanger Source: Berndt and Connell, 1978 supply. Aluminum alloys are cheap and abundant but have the possible draw- back of a higher corrosion rate in seawater and ammonia than titanium. Stainless steel alloys would also be suitable since stainless steel is easily formed, readily available, and has adequate thermal conductivities. The heat transfer efficiency of the heat exchangers, which must be main- tained above minimum specifications for optimal plant operation, is greatly reduced by biofouling. To control fouling, a combination of techniques must be used to maintain heat-exchanger surfaces at optimal efficiency. Two major techniques for biofouling control include chemical and mechanical methods. Chemical methods are usually used to slow biofouling rates, but do not remove the material. Mechanical methods are used as necessary to remove the bio- foulants. Of the chemical methods, chlorination is the most viable method for use in commercial OTEC plants due to its low cost and ease of preparation. Chlorine could be generated electrolytically from seawater in commercial OTEC plants 1-22 to eliminate transport, storage, and handling of this hazardous gas. Other possible chemicals for the control of biofouling include chlorine dioxide, chlorine dioxide plus chlorine, bromine, bromine chloride, and ozone. These biocides are from two to ten times more expensive than chlorine (Sands, 1980). Mechanical methods are limited to use in tube-in-shell heat exchangers (Hagel et al., 1977). Two mechanical systems have been designed: the Amertap-ball and M.A.N, brush systems. The Amer tap-ball system cleans heat exchanger tubes using pliable foam rubber balls which are slightly larger in diameter than the heat exchanger tubes. Amer tap-balls continuously circulate through the tubes removing slime and fouling layers from heat exchanger surfaces. The M.A.N, brush system consists of cylindrical, tufted brushes in a plastic cage, which scrub the deposits off heat exchanger walls as the brushes are pumped back and forth through the tubes by reversing the flow direction of the seawater. Other biofouling control/removal methods being considered for commercial OTEC plants include ultrasonics, abrasive cleaning, and thermal shock. Further research is required to demonstrate the feasibility of ultrasonics for OTEC plants. Abrasive cleaning is presently not practical for commercial OTEC plants because of the large quantities of slurry medium required; the entire U.S. annual production of diatomaceous earth (the most suitable abrasive cleaning material) would be needed to make a one percent slurry for a six-hour cleaning cycle of a 400-MWe OTEC plant (Sands, 1980). Thermal shock, a method commonly used in conventional power plants, recirculates heated effluent through the heat exchangers to control biofouling growth. OTEC plants could achieve the temperatures required for thermal shock by accepting a seven percent parasitic power loss (Westinghouse, 1978) . 1. 3. 2. 2 Open-Cycle Design - The open-cycle OTEC system operates in much the same way as the closed-cycle system, except that seawater is used as the working fluid, eliminating the need for heat-exchanger surfaces. Warm surface seawater flows into a partially evacuated evaporator, where the lowered pressure changes the seawater to steam (Figure 1-9). The steam 1-23 Vacuum Pumps Warm Inlet Figure 1-9. Schematic Diagram of an Open-Cycle OTEC Power System Source: Watt et al., 1977 passes through a turbine, providing power for the plant, and is then con- densed by cold seawater (DOE, 1978b). A 40-MWe open-cycle OTEC plant will 3-1 3-1 require 200 m sec of warm water and 160 m sec of cold water (Watt et al., 1977). Approximately one percent of the warm water entering the evaporator is vaporized to steam allowing freshwater to be produced as a byproduct if the steam is condensed using heat exchangers instead of direct contact spray of cold seawater. Biofouling control measures, as described for the closed-cycle design, must then be considered to maintain heat exchanger efficiency. Freshwater production increases the salinity of the unvaporized warm water by less than one percent at the discharge point. 1.3.2.3 Hybrid Design - Hybrid-cycle OTEC plants (Figure 1-10) combine features from both the closed- and open-cycle systems. Hybrid plants flash- vaporize warm seawater in partially evacuated evaporators. The resulting 1-24 0-2 £ E 1« g.™^ ;.wa'.vA- > .v.v.v>w/, U too •H U uj 1-25 vapor is used to evaporate a second working fluid, which then performs as in the closed-cycle OTEC system. Freshwater may be produced, as in the open- cycle, if the vaporized warm seawater is condensed using heat exchangers instead of direct contact spray of cold ocean water (Charwat et al., 1979). Bio fouling control measures, as described for the closed-cycle design, must then be considered to maintain heat exchanger efficiency. 1.3.2.4 Mist-Flow Design - The mist-flow design (Figure 1-11) is a variation of the open-cycle power system. Warm water is withdrawn near the surface, allowed to fall down a penstock, and passed over a turbine producing elec- tricity. The warm water is then sprayed into a low-pressure chamber, forming a mist, which rises to the top of a duct. Here, the mist is condensed by cold seawater and discharged (Ridgway, 1977). A 400-MWe mist-flow plant will 3-1 3-1 utilize 520 m sec of warm water and 1,560 m sec of cold water (Ridgway, 1980). Fresh water may be a byproduct of the mist-flow design, as in the open-cycle design, if heat exchangers are used to condense the mist instead of a direct contact spray of cold seawater. Biofouling control measures, as described for the closed-cycle design, must be considered to maintain heat exchanger efficiency. Condenser , Condenser — Surface Hydraulic Turbine Evaporating Chamber Cold- Water Intake Figure 1-11. Schematic Diagram of a Mist-Flow OTEC Power System Source: Ridgway, 1977 1-26 1.3.2.5 Foam Design - The foam power cycle (Figure 1-12) is a variation on the open-cycle power design. Warm seawater is mixed with a foam-promoting, biodegradable surfactant and introduced into a low-pressure chamber, where the warm seawater flash-vaporizes and large amounts of foam are formed. The foam is drawn upward to the top of the chamber, condensed by cold seawater, and allowed to fall through pipes leading to a hydraulic turbine. After passing over the turbine and generating electricity, the condensed seawater- surfactant mixture is discharged into the environment (Zener, 1977). A 3 -1 400-MWe foam plant will utilize approximately 300 m sec of warm water 3 -1 and 1200 m sec of cold water (Zener, 1981). 1.4 DEPLOYMENT SCENARIO The development of OTEC will probably progress from small (10- to 40-MWe) modular demonstration platforms to large-scale commercial plants (100- to 400-MWe). This development may encompass closed-cycle, open-cycle, Vapor Condenser Foam Breaker Warm- Water Intake Discharged Liquid and Condensed Va P° rS Cold-Water Intake r Figure 1-12. Schematic Diagram of a Foam OTEC Power System Source: Zener, 1977 1-27 hybrid, mist-flow, and foam systems installed in moored, bottom-resting tower, land-based, or grazing plantship configurations. Several OTEC deployment scenarios have been developed to the year 2020 (General Electric, 1977; Jacobsen and Manley, 1979). The scenario in this EIS combines the results of these studies, present and future technology, electrical demands, and the goals of the OTEC Research, Development, and Demonstration Act (PL 96-310) to provide an outline for baseload electricity and industrial plantship development for the year 2000. 1. 4. 1 Baseload Electricity Scenario Commercial OTEC development will become viable earlier in U.S. tropical and subtropical island communities than on the mainland because OTEC-produced electricity will be cost-competitive in those areas sooner. Electricity costs range from two to eight times higher in island communities, which are almost totally dependent on imported oil (Sullivan et al., 1980). In addition, many island communities require freshwater, which is a beneficial byproduct of open-cycle, hybrid-cycle, and mist-flow OTEC plants. As OTEC designs are improved and conventional power costs continue to increase, OTEC power will become cost-competitive in mainland areas. The island markets of Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Hawaii, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands are expected to be major areas of OTEC development. After establishment of commercial OTEC plants in these island communities, large-scale commercialization will follow, based on entry into the U.S. Gulf Coast region. The projected commercial OTEC development for the island markets through the year 2000 appears in Table 1-3. Twenty plants are projected to be in operation in Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Hawaii, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands by the year 2000, with a total output of approxi- mately 2100 MWe (2.1 GWe) . Thirteen of these plants are projected for Puerto Rico and Hawaii. Because of the need for freshwater in island communities, a portion of the plants may be open-cycle, hybrid-cycle, or mist-flow systems. 1-28 TABLE 1-3 OTEC DEPLOYMENT SCENARIO FOR YEAR 2000 Region Plant Type Plant Size (MWe) Number of Plants Total Output (GWe) Percent of Total Projected Need* BASELOAD ELECTRICITY AMMONIA PLANTSHIPS ALUMINUM PLANTSHIPS Gulf of Mexico Closed-cycle 400 5 2.0 <1 Puerto Rico Closed-cycle (400, 100, 40) 4 0.94 Open-cycle 40 2 0.08 SUBTOTAL-PUERTO RICO 6 1.02 5 Virgin Islands St. Croix Closed- or Open-cycle 40 1 0.04 100 St. Thomas Closed- or Open-cycle 40 1 0.04 100 SUBTOTAL-VIRGIN IS. 2 0.08 100 Hawaii Oahu Closed-cycle (400,100) 3 0.60 80 Hawaii Closed- or Open-cycle 40 1 0.04 50 Kauai Closed-cycle 40 1 0.04 100 Maui, Lanai, and Molokai Closed- or Open-cycle 40 2 0.08 90 SUBTOTAL-HAWAII 7 0.76 80 Guam Closed- or Open-cycle (100,40) 3 0.18 100 Northern Mariana Islands Closed- or Open-cycle 10 2 0.02 90 BASELOAD TOTAL 25 4.06 Gulf of Mexico Closed-cycle 500 9 4.5 _ South Atlantic Closed-cycle 500 9 4.5 - TOTAL AMMONIA 18 9.0 PLANTSHIPS Gulf of Mexico Closed-cycle 400 1 0.4 _ South Atlantic Closed-cycle 400 1 0.4 - North Pacific Closed-cycle 450 J^ 0.4 - TOTAL ALUMINUM 3 1.2 PLANTSHIPS GRAND TOTAL 46 14.26 *See Appendix D 1-29 The Gulf of Mexico is a primary location for offshore OTEC power gener- ation. The total projected power production for the Gulf of Mexico is dependent on the level of Federal incentives (Jacobsen and Manley, 1979). Five baseload plants, with a total output of 2.0 GWe, are projected to be in operation in the Gulf of Mexico by the year 2000, representing less than one percent of the total projected electrical need for that region (Appendix D) . The determination of specific plant locations within the thermal resource region is difficult to predict, as siting is dependent on a number of variables. The area of the Gulf of Mexico that has an adequate thermal resource for OTEC operation and proper depths for moored plants and bottom-resting towers is shown in Appendix C, Figure C-5. Around islands, moored, bottom-resting tower, and land-based plant siting will represent a compromise between optimal thermal resources in deep-ocean areas, maximum demand regions onshore, and engineering limitations. 1.4.2 Grazing Plantship Scenario Plantships will generate electricity for onboard production of energy- intensive products, such as ammonia or aluminum. Plantships present a method of exploiting thermal resources located in areas either too deep or too far from shore for use of a stationary OTEC platform or in areas in which the thermal resource undergoes seasonal changes in location and magnitude. The projected ammonia and aluminum plantship scenario is presented in Table 1-3. The demand for ammonia is expected to increase by 3 percent through the year 2000 (General Electric, 1977). If commercial plantship operations are initiated in 1990, eighteen 500-MWe plantships could meet the new demand for ammonia projected for the year 2000. General Electric (1977) projected a 4.9 percent annual growth for aluminum and assumed demonstration and deployment of three 400-MWe aluminum plantships by the year 2000. 1-30 Chapter 2 ALTERNATIVES TO THE PROPOSED ACTION In establishing a legal regime that permits and encour- ages commercial OTEC development, it is essential to evaluate alternate regulatory approaches for minimizing adverse environmental impacts and protecting the in- terests of other ocean users. This chapter discusses the no-action alternative to the proposed action, describes the regulatory alternatives considered under the proposed action, and identifies the preferred alternative. Regulations are necessary to establish a legal regime that reduces legal and regulatory barriers to construction and operation of commercial OTEC facilities and plantships. Reduction of institutional barriers was the primary reason that the U.S. Congress passed the OTEC Act of 1980 (PL 96-320). The Act legislatively-mandates a licensing system to be administered by NOAA that permits and encourages development of OTEC as a commercial energy technology, ensures that OTEC plants do not interfere with ocean thermal resources used by other OTEC plants, protects the marine and coastal environment, and ensures that commercial OTEC facilities ana plantships licensed by NOAA comply with international treaty obligations of the United States. No OTEC plant of commercial size has yet been constructed or operated. Many theoretical predictions have been made of the operating characteristics and potential environmental impacts of commercial OTEC plants, but the theoretical work has not been confirmed by actual experience. Consequently, 2-1 NOAA must devise a general regulatory approach which takes into account the possibility of unexpected operating characteristics or environmental impacts, while meeting the legislated goals for the regulatory system. The alternatives to the proposed action considered in this document include the no-action alternative and various regulatory alternatives for minimizing adverse environmental impacts. Section 2.1 discusses the no-action alternative, which would result in not establishing a commercial OTEC legal regime. Section 2.2 discusses alternative regulatory approaches under the proposed action which would minimize or mitigate the major potential environmental effects identified in Chapter 4. Section 2.3 describes the preferred alternative. 2.1 THE NO-ACTION ALTERNATIVE Under the no-action alternative, NOAA would not issue regulations to implement the OTEC Act of 1980. A decision to forgo issuance of regulations would place the Administrator of NOAA in violation of Public Law 96-320. Section 102(a) of the Act requires the Administrator to complete issuance of final regulations by August 3, 1981. Adoption of the no action alternative would leave in existence many of the legal and regulatory uncertainties which the U.S. Congress intended to be resolved by passage of the Act and could discourage the commercial development of OTEC. Licensees would not be afforded the convenience of the one-step licensing regime provided by the legal regime, requiring that permits for OTEC plant ownership, construction, and operation be obtained from each involved Federal, State, and local agency. In addition, failure to implement the regulatory provisions of the Act could restrict Federal finan- cial support for commercial OTEC development. Discouraging commercial OTEC development could continue the dependence of the United States and its associated island territories, trust territories, 2-2 and commonwealths on imported oil and other energy sources, which pose greater environmental risks than OTEC. Figure 2-1 summarizes the magnitude of environmental effects associated with various electricity generating methods. Although the environmental effects associated with solar or geo- thermal powerplants are expected to be less than those from OTEC, OTEC is more environmentally acceptable than utilizing nuclear, oil, or coal-fired plants for power production. Adopting the no-action alternative could discourage the development of industries that would construct, assemble, operate, and maintain OTEC plants. The implication of discouraging potential OTEC-related industries would be significant to high-unemployment areas, such as island communities and large depressed city areas, where most major shipyards are located. Construction, deployment, and support of OTEC plants could alleviate both long-term and short-term unemployment by providing various employment opportunities to local contractors and laborers. Francis et al., (1979) estimated that approximately 2, 000 worker-years of shipyard employment would be required for the construction of a 40-MWe OTEC plantship. If commercial OTEC development persisted in spite of legal obstacles and lack of financial support, existing regulations for controlling the use of the environment and preventing adverse environmental impacts would have to be used. Since existing regulations were not specifically prepared for commercial OTEC plants, adoption of the no-action alternative could: (1) cause existing regulations to be imposed that are not applicable to com- mercial OTEC plants' unique design and siting requirements, or (2) allow commercial OTEC plants to interfere with other ocean uses or cause significant environmental disturbances. The United States is required by international treaties to ensure that its citizens respect the rights of citizens of other countries in conducting ocean activities. Development of OTEC as a commercial energy technology without the legal regime specified by the OTEC Act of 1980 could place the 2-3 o o >• o o > I- w 600 500 H 400 300 200- 100- « iiiiiiiiiu 50 40 30 20 10 H 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Air Emissions Mwzzz^ Water Discharges"*" .V.V.V.V.V.V f I '..'••'•' :: :■::-■■:':-■-: '.■:-:■'■''■:■ ''■' ■:•:■:-:■:-:•' 777^. None o C QJ O > I- i- 5 E Solid Waste Unknown None iiiiiiiiiii - ' None + water discharges = 3050 BTU for all power production methods except nuclear (5290 BTU) and OTEC (6290 BTU). serious moderate negligible Legend (severity of impact) Figure 2-1. Comparative Annual Environmental Impacts (1,000 MWe Systems) From Various Power Production Methods Source: Adapted from Council on Environmental Quality, 1973 2-4 United States in violation of its international treaty obligations and create a difficult international incident, in addition to causing environmental and socioeconomic damages. In summary, the no-action alternative would allow legal and regulatory barriers to remain which could discourage or prevent development of a commercial OTEC industry. If an OTEC industry were to develop despite those barriers, no legal system would exist to protect the environment and the rights of other ocean users. For these reasons, NOAA does not favor implementing the no-action alternative. 2.2 ALTERNATIVES UNDER THE PROPOSED ACTION The potentially significant environmental effects associated with the commercialization of OTEC technology are identified in Section 4.7 of this EIS, along with possible mitigating measures. These potentially significant effects include: • Biota attaction/avoidance • Biocide release • Organism entrainment • Nutrient redistribution • Organism impingement • Sea-surface temperature alterations The magnitude of environmental disturbances associated with these issues will depend upon site-specific characteristics of the proposed OTEC site and the technological design of the plant. As a consequence, regulatory alternatives for minimizing environmental impacts from OTEC plants could range from detailed regulations, which cover all of the possibilities that may arise, to flexible regulations, which allow for site-specific license terms. This section evaluates alternative regulatory approaches and selects the approach which provides the maximum encouragement to commercial OTEC development while maintaining acceptable environmental quality. Section 2.2.1 describes the general siting and technology considerations for 2-5 mitigating environmental impacts and summarizes pertinent regulations presently existing for protecting the environment. Section 2.2.2 contrasts three alternate regulatory approaches for maintaining environmental quality. 2.2.1 General Considerations 2.2.1.1 Site Evaluation Considerations - OTEC sites may be of three types: 2 (1) small (10 to 1,000 km ) areas that encompass all plant activities, 2 structures, and discharge plume effects; (2) large (1,000 to 10,000 km ) areas that encompass multiple OTEC deployments; or (3) very large (greater 2 than 10,000 km ) oceanic regions for use by grazing plantships. The adequacy of a potential OTEC site will depend on the following principal environmental characteristics: • Availability of an adequate thermal resource for continuous OTEC operation. • Current velocities high enough to replenish the thermal resource and disperse the waters used by the plant, but not exceeding platform structure design criteria. • Appropriately low frequency of occurrence of extreme meteorological conditions that exceed plant operation or survival limits. • Appropriate geological and bathymetic conditions for moored and land-based plants. • Compatibility with existing and potential ocean uses. In general, OTEC operation sites must be chosen from identified candidate sites on the basis of minimizing interference with other major ocean use areas, such as shipping lanes, military zones, marine sanctuaries, ocean disposal sites, and commercially or ecologically sensitive areas. The impacts 2-6 on recreational activities and aesthetics must also be considered. The location of single or multiple OTEC plants should be chosen so that localized perturbations in water quality or other environmental conditions during initial discharge plume mixing are reduced to normal ambient seawater levels or to acceptable contaminant concentrations before reaching any beach, shoreline, marine sanctuary, or known geographically-limited fishery. In addition, OTEC operation sites must be evaluated on the basis of minimizing thermal interference between OTEC plants. 2. 2. 1. 2 Intake and Discharge Structure Design - The design of OTEC intake and discharge structures directly influences the magnitude of impacts from organism entrainment, organism impingement, biocide release, and nutrient redistribution. Warm- and cold-water intake structure diameter, shape, depth, orientation, withdrawal velocity, screen configuration, screen mesh size, and ancillary structures (e.g., fish-return or -repelling systems) are important factors for directly or indirectly determining entrainment and impingement rates. OTEC discharge designs may include variations in the angle, velocity, and depth of discharge, the use of mixed or separate discharges, and the number of discharge ports. The design of OTEC discharge structures and the environmental characteristics of the site determine the discharge plume location within the water column, its behavior, and its rate of dilution, all of which determine the populations affected by biocide release and nutrient redistribution. Since commercial OTEC plants withdraw and redistribute immense volumes of water, it is extremely important to design intake and discharge structures to prevent unnecessary damage to important biological populations. 2.2.1.3 Biocide Release - Biocide release is a likely consequence of OTEC operation. Biocides are expected to significantly affect the local marine environment because of their toxicity to nontarget organisms and the large volumes that must be released to maintain OTEC heat exchanger efficiency. Therefore, biocide release from OTEC plants must be regulated to prevent unnecessary damage to ecologically-, commercially-, or recreationally- important populations. 2-7 Alternative biocide release control methods include limits on biocide concentrations and release schedules. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended, established the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) to regulate point-source discharges. Several types of limit- ations can be incorporated into an NPDES permit: (1) technology-based permit limits that apply at the discharge point, (2) water quality standards, (3) discharge limitations based on toxicity data, or (4) use of the steam- electric industry guidelines (DOE, 1979c). In developing the best available technology to control the release of certain effluents, EPA states that greater emphasis will be placed on toxicity-based limits rather than technology-based limits, particularly if the latter are inadequate for toxicity elimination (DOE, 1979c). There are no established toxicity guide- lines for organisms that occupy the OTEC resource area; however, studies currently underway at the Gulf Coast Research Laboratory will provide valu- able information for the establishment of these guidelines (Venkataramiah, 1979). At present, chlorine is the biocide-of -choice for maintaining heat exchanger efficiency. Two alternative methods for its release are: (1) continuous discharge of low concentrations of chlorine, and (2) intermittent discharge of high concentrations of chlorine. Continuous, low-level chlorination reduces the potential for acute impacts, but increases the number of organisms affected by chlorine impacts. Intermittent high-level chlorination causes acute and chronic effects only to those organisms in the vicinity of the discharge during chlorine release. Because of the reduction in environmental effects anticipated with intermittent chlorination schedules, EPA has allowed the discharge of chlorinated cooling waters from steam-electric generating plants at 0.2 mg liter for a maximum of 2 hours per day (EPA, 1974). New chlorination discharge standards have been proposed for steam-electric generating plants and are scheduled for implementation in late 1981 (Wright, 1981). 2.2.1.4 Existing Provisions for Maintaining Environmental Quality - In general, compliance with the regulatory provisions contained in the Ocean 2-8 Discharge Criteria (40 CFR, Part 125), and other existing environmental regulations which may apply to commercial OTEC plants, should provide adequate environmental protection. The Ocean Discharge Criteria respond to Section 403(c) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act and Amendments which called for guidelines for determining the degradation of the waters of the territorial seas, the contiguous zone, and the ocean. The promulgated Ocean Discharge Criteria allow the Administrator of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to issue an NPDES permit for a discharge to such waters if, on the basis of available information, the discharge will not cause unreasonable degradation of the marine environment. Such a determination is based on: • The quantities, composition, and potential for bioaccumulation or persistence of the pollutants to be discharged. • The potential transport of such pollutants by biological, physical, or chemical processes. • The composition and vulnerability of the biological communities which may be exposed to such pollutants, including the presence of unique species or communities of species, the presence of species identified as endangered or threatened pursuant to the Endangered Species Act, or the presence of those species critical to the structure or function of the ecosystem, such as those important for the food chain. • The importance of the receiving water area to the surrounding biological community, including the presence of spawning sites, nursery/ forage areas, migratory pathways, or areas necessary for other functions or critical stages in the life cycle of an organism. 2-9 • The existence of special aquatic sites including, but not limited to marine sanctuaries and refuges, parks, national and historic monuments, national seashores, wilderness areas, and coral reefs. • The potential impacts on human health through direct and indirect pathways. • Existing or potential recreational and commercial fishing, including finfishing and shellfishing. • Any applicable requirements of an approved Coastal Zone Management plan. • Such other factors relating to the effects of the discharge as may be appropriate. • Marine water quality criteria developed pursuant to Section 304(a)(1). 2. 2. 2 Regulatory Alternatives Under the Proposed Action NOAA has identified three possible general regulatory approaches under the proposed action: (1) detailed regulation of OTEC activities, (2) moderate regulation of OTEC activities, and (3) minimal regulation of OTEC activities. Each approach would require the licensee to perform monitoring of environmental effects of OTEC operation (as stated in Section 110(3) of the OTEC Act) and meet the requirements of the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) and Ocean Discharge Criteria; however, the three approaches differ in the extent of regulation and the degree of plant design and siting flexibility afforded the licensee. Each of these alternative approaches is discussed in the following subsections. 2.2.2.1 Detailed Regulation of OTEC Activities - Under this approach, the regulations would contain detailed substantive provisions specifying design 2-10 of OTEC plant components and siting criteria. NOAA would have to conduct reviews of all aspects of the proposed OTEC plant in order to ensure full compliance with the regulations. The information required to be submitted with an application would have to be sufficiently detailed and would most likely necessitate completion of design of the proposed OTEC plant prior to preparation of the license application for submission to NOAA. A licensee would have to demonstrate to NOAA compliance with all specific requirements contained in the regulations. The monitoring of environmental effects which the licensee is required to perform by Section 110(3) of the OTEC Act would provide NOAA with the information needed to determine whether some of its detailed regulatory requirements were stricter than necessary to accomplish the regulatory goal. Those regulatory requirements found to be too strict could then be relaxed. Utilizing detailed regulations would require specifying intake and discharge structure designs that cause minimal environmental effects for all OTEC plant designs and representative siting environments. Insufficient information is available to establish these regulations because of the diversity in abundance, vertical and spatial distribution, and behavior of local biological populations and the variability of other oceanographic parameters. Since site- and species-specific considerations must be evaluated to design intake and discharge structures which cause minimal impacts, designation of specific designs may not maintain acceptable environmental quality in all cases. In addition, designated intake and discharge structure designs would be too rigorous for certain areas, thereby unnecessarily increasing plant construction costs and reducing flexibility of OTEC plant designers. Utilizing the detailed regulatory approach would also require the estab- lishment of standards for allowable biocide concentrations and release schedules based upon technology considerations, toxicity studies, or existing 2-11 guidelines. Although the established standards should be sufficiently low to prevent adverse environmental impacts, the detailed regulatory approach would not allow OTEC licensees the flexibility of siting plants in areas where slightly larger biocide releases would cause insignificant effects. 2. 2. 2. 2 Moderate Regulation of OTEC Activities - Under the moderate regulation approach, the regulations would not contain detailed substantive provisions specifying design of OTEC plant components. The regulations would, however, contain specific guidelines and performance standards to ensure adherence to the overall regulatory goals. A license applicant would be required to demonstrate that his plant design and approach would meet each of the specific guidelines and performance standards included in the regulations. Guidelines and performance standards might relate to such matters as warm-water intake design, discharge plume behavior and dilution, and burial of pipelines and cables, where feasible. The information required to be submitted with an application would be less voluminous than under the detailed regulation alternative, but would have to include analyses and predictions of the proposed OTEC plant's performance standards. While this alternative would not require submission of a detailed design for the entire proposed OTEC plant, the information needed to demonstrate compliance with at least some of the guidelines and performance standards would probably not be available until at least part of the OTEC plant detailed design is completed. The monitoring of environmental effects, which the licensee is required to perform by Section 110(3) of the OTEC Act, would provide NOAA with the infor- mation needed to determine whether some of its specific guidelines and per- formance standards were stricter than necessary to accomplish the regulatory goals, and would alert NOAA to additional areas in which specific guidelines or performance standards were needed. Use of the moderate approach would result in NOAA establishing uniform guidelines and performance standards applying to all OTEC plants within a general ecosystem (e.g., nearshore, open-ocean). In some cases, the uniform guidelines and performance standards would restrict design options which might be environmentally-preferred for a particular OTEC plant or site. The 2-12 full consequences of such an instance would not be known at the time NOAA adopted the original set of guidelines and performance standards because there is no real-world experience with OTEC plants of commercial size on which to rely. The guidelines for intake and discharge design, biocide control strategies, and other aspects of OTEC under this alternative would have a generic environmental basis rather than applying to all OTEC siting environments. The use of specific guidelines and performance standards as required by this alternative is the approach commonly used to regulate mature, stable industries in which many facilities exist and the nature of their technology and resulting environmental Impacts are known. However, when applied to a nascent industry such as OTEC, this approach could have a limiting effect on the flexibility and experimentation which will be necessary to learn the designs which best meet the multiple goals of environmental protection, sound engineering, and economic construction and operation. Because monitoring would be required under all alternative approaches, and an alternative more suitable to the current early developmental stage of the OTEC industry exists, the moderate regulation alternative is not selected. 2. 2. 2. 3 Minimal Regulation of OTEC Activities - Under the minimal regulation alternative, NOAA would use minimal guidelines and performance standards to conform to the goals and provisions of the OTEC Act of 1980. These guidelines will be based on minimum NPDES regulations, Ocean Discharge Criteria, and other applicable regulations as agreed upon by the Administrator of NOAA, the Environmental Protection Agency, and other pertinent responsible agencies. Under the minimal regulation alternative, detailed environmental guidelines and performance standards would not be prescribed in advance, but would be developed for inclusion as terms and conditions of a license if they were deemed necessary by the Administrator to prevent adverse environmental impacts. The use of case-by-case license terms and conditions — rather than uniform regulations — to address significant environmental issues would 2-13 require NOAA to examine each applicant's assessment of the nature and rel- ative magnitude of each type of problem which might occur as a result of construction and operation of the proposed OTEC plant. Only those problems which appeared to be significant would be analyzed in detail. The informa- tion submitted to NOAA in a license application would not depend upon comple- tion of detailed design, but would need to include descriptions of the relevant operating features of the plant and an assessment of the potential impacts resulting from construction and operation. Although the minimal regulation alternative results in maximum flexibility for plant design and operation, it also necessitates extensive monitoring to ensure environmental compatibility. The monitoring of environmental effects, which the licensee is required to perform by Section 110(3) of the OTEC Act, would alert NOAA to significant problem areas which might need to become the subject of future license terms and conditions. Adoption of site-specific biocide regulations would allow the establish- ment of biocide concentration levels and release schedules for specific OTEC power systems and siting regions (i.e., nearshore, offshore). This approach would provide optimal flexibility to OTEC license applicants for designing OTEC plants and selecting operation sites while maintaining environmental quality. Employing the minimal regulatory approach, which would allow each OTEC plant to establish individual biocide release rates if subsequent moni- toring demonstrates minimal environmental effects, might allow higher biocide release rates for a specific OTEC plant than the detailed or moderate regula- tory approach. Under the minimum regulation approach, NOAA would consider and respond to proposals made by license applicants, instead of prescribing standards for the applicant to follow. The flexibility afforded the applicant under this approach would allow the prospective OTEC plant owner to propose what he con- siders to be the best environmental and engineering design for the plant and to design a cost-effective means of mitigating or reducing adverse environ- mental impacts resulting from plant operation. The flexibility would allow 2-14 incorporation of new technology into OTEC plant design as the technology is developed, and provide for site-specific license terms and conditions to protect the environment. Because monitoring is required in all three alternative regulatory approaches, and the minimal regulation alternative preserves the flexibility to deal effectively with site-specific environmental concerns, it is the pre- ferred alternative. The minimal regulatory system would accomplish the goals of the OTEC Act of 1980 without interfering with technological innovations and responsible experimentation, which are part of the development of a new commercial power industry. 2.3 THE PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE Minimal regulation of OTEC activities is the preferred alternative and has been chosen as NOAA's preferred general approach. It offers the greatest encouragement for creation of a commercial OTEC industry and realization of the resulting major environmental and economic benefits to the United States. The minimal regulation approach also provides the flexibility necessary to avoid artificial prejudgement of environmental protection measures at the current early stage in the development of OTEC technology. The preferred alternative will provide maximum protection to the environment by providing maximum flexibility to adapt to site-specific problems and characteristics, while still maintaining general provisions where appropriate. As such, it is considered to be the best approach to maintaining a legal regime that will effectively satisfy the requirements of the OTEC Act. 2-15 Chapter 3 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT A generic description of the atmospheric, marine, coastal, and terrestrial environments within the OTEC resource area is critical for adequately assessing the environmental effects of commercial OTEC development. Typical environmental characteristics which facilitate the assessment of impacts are presented. Areas having environmental character- istics that deviate significantly from the typical are described. This chapter provides a generic description of the oceanic, nearshore, and coastal environments within the OTEC resource area. The OTEC resource area (Figures 3-la and 3-lb) includes all tropical-subtropical regions of the world that possess sufficient thermal gradients for OTEC operation. Several candidate regions within the OTEC resource area are likely to be used for commercial OTEC power production by the year 2000. These candidate regions encompass the eastern Gulf of Mexico, various open-ocean plantship areas, and several island communities, including Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, the Hawaiian Islands, Guam, and the Pacific Trust Territories. Detailed maps of these candidate OTEC areas are presented in Appendix C. This chapter is not intended to be a site-specific description. The parameters which are considered: (1) describe the salient environmental and economic features under which single or multiple OTEC deployments are projected to operate, and (2) facilitate the assessment of impacts. Data from numerous sources have been pooled to prepare this environmental characterization. Section 3.1 presents the typical atmospheric conditions in candidate OTEC areas. Section 3.2 generically describes marine environmental 3-1 u •H •H o 03 PM ctj Q) < o 3 o a3 CO en cr> a) >— i Pi & u a) is H O w H O a) H CD J-i 50 •H Pn W O O CD o 1-1 o CO 3-2 a e © in V a. 01 -o E o © o u r- X ■ox c c 19 01 1i a. U Q. Ifl < 3 c i/> "O c 01 04 V C S 01 oi A a. U £_,. rg ^ . OJ 3 cr ai CO 5- CO 3 3 4 5-1 fa 4-1 3 T3 3 CO cu o a) .3 X) 3 cO S-i 0) o 4-1 fa 3 ^ t-i >> rH ■U 3 O S CO 3 •H c/) • • CO o CQ -i 3 O CO a) u o a) 3 00 •H fa 3-6 © r- V e © I e X X X >< E a. •a © o o ■o c at u A3 c 01 01 "S J2 0> i- 3 t- 01 Q. E o> n u K5 e 3 o c o u o •rl <4-l •H CJ CO 0) d o O u en 0) ? c5- XI pi cd Pn CJ 3 O CO en CO u §> •H 3-7 a. ■u o o o r— -a c nj \6 r, i i O T- O O V © r- C$ J S U i o> a E o> c 3 o C o U •u CO •M <: CO a) o ** a cr> >>^ u H cu cfl tH a >* •H co a- o 3 ^ H T3 c CO O U >. CU O X! C O .a c> I CO a; u •H Pn 3-8 3.1.2.3 Carbon Dioxide - The atmosphere and the world oceans are the two major reservoirs of carbon dioxide. The oceanic reservoir is estimated to contain 3.5 x 10 kg of carbon dioxide in various chemical forms, whereas 14 the atmosphere contains about 6.4 x 10 kg (Brewer, 1978). The global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration is steadily increasing (Figure 3-4). Carbon dioxide levels prior the industrial revolution were about 270 to 290 parts per million (ppm) by volume; present-day levels are approxi- mately 330 to 335 ppm (Keeling and Bacastow, 1977). The combustion of fossil fuels is the major source of atmospheric carbon dioxide increases. Additional sources are cement production, which involves the removal of carbon dioxide from limestone, and massive reductions in terrestrial biomass from the clearing of forests, burning of firewood, and large-scale agricultural practices (Brewer, 1978). Although OTEC power production will be a source of atmospheric carbon dioxide increase, the increase would be significantly less than that which would occur with equivalent fossil-fueled power production. E _3 O > .Q E Q. a. c o ft 0» u c o u 0) o c o u 310 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 Year Figure 3-4. Recent Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Increases Source: Brewer, 1978 3-9 The influence of vegetation on atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration is evident in seasonal cycles of carbon dioxide concentrations (Figure 3-4) . This annual variation in concentration, averaging 6 to 7 ppm in the tropics, is attributed to the uptake of carbon dioxide by green plants during summer growth periods and release of carbon dioxide through decomposition and respiration during winter months (Brewer, 1978). Large-scale destruction of forests in the tropical-subtropical regions has released large amounts of carbon dioxide and significantly reduced the land's capacity to absorb atmospheric carbon dioxide. The deep ocean is the major sink for carbon dioxide. Since carbon dioxide is less soluble in warm water than cold water, warm ocean waters contain less carbon dioxide than colder ocean waters. In most tropical-subtropical waters, carbon dioxide-rich water is sufficiently warmed to release carbon dioxide to the atmosphere (Figures 3-5a and 3-5b) ; however, many regions within the OTEC resource area are sinks for atmospheric carbon dioxide. Although the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide can be readily measured, the oceanic carbon dioxide increase is more difficult to detect. Presently, the detection limit for carbon dioxide in seawater is 50 ppm, which approximates the total atmospheric increase of carbon dioxide since the beginning of the industrial revolution. Consequently, it is difficult to estimate the impact of industrial carbon dioxide releases on oceanic carbon dioxide concentrations and to predict the capacity of the oceans to assimilate further increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide. 3.2 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT 3.2.1 Data Requirements for Impact Assessment Physical, chemical, and biological parameters are required to evaluate the environmental consequences of commercial OTEC development. Geological 3-10 o o o eo n V < 60 o C © V) w o flj v« 60 3 C o X X o O o o O O e c c ^ o ^ -O XI a d •H O m •H •H 4-> O a) CO U d 4-1 CO cO CO cu u S < o u CU <+-) CJ U y-^ 3 d o o en •H cu rH & rH •H • o 6 00 w i-. H M o^ O cu Cu H 0) r. ,£ CO 5-1 •u ■u CU 5-i > G CO cu •H CU 5-( v_^ M en C CO o fl o •H o u 60 •H "4-1 CU 4-1 Pi ctt T3 M CU W> ■u 4J c a •H Q) CO CO O T3 CO (3 «JJ CO o too y ■u • • d cu 01 o T3 CJ •H to cu X d T3 O O •H •rH W X T3 O •H d Q o C u o CO rQ a 5-1 CO a C_) •H • M cS CO l CO m 3 cu O u •U d d bO o •H u Pu 3-11 o • •H c 4J o c •H CO ■u iH CO 4-t >-i CU i-H a) ,C CD « 4-1 5-i CU ei CO & •H P. CU CO PQ a CO o C H •H o o 60 •H ^ cu 4J <4-l pi CO U T3 00 4-1 CU d C 4-1 •H cu ex en U CO CO d xi CO o <: Ifl 00 a 0) 4-1 c 3 cu •• < o X) cu be •H o c CU X H T3 O 3 i/> •H •H O (« X 13 CO 60 v> o a "g •H c o -I o o a -l T3 -O o CO X X rO o O o !-i CO C a Q O •H 1 § CU -a .o • >-i >- i: ,o cO « <« LO u u 1 CO *5 CO U 3 X*i CU o V.' U 4J I 3 c 00 o is •H o 3-12 parameters are important for siting and design of commercial OTEC plants, but generally not for environmental impact evaluation. Therefore, the variability of geological conditions within the OTEC resource area is not further considered here. Physical characteristics that are essential for assessing the effects of commercial OTEC development on the marine environment include thermal profiles, mixed-layer depths, circulation patterns, and photic-zone depths. The thermal profile is fundamentally critical to OTEC operation; OTEC siting areas should have an annual temperature difference of approximately 20 C between surface and deep-ocean waters. The mixed-layer depth provides information on the structure of the upper water column. The mixed-layer depth must be deep enough to ensure that the warm-water resource is continually available at the intake depth. The mixed-layer depth is also a consideration in selecting the discharge depth because the depth of discharge, in relation to the mixed-layer depth, influences the effects from recirculation of OTEC discharged waters by downstream plants, sea-surface temperature alterations, and nutrient enrichment of the photic zone. The photic-zone depth is used to estimate the increased biological productivity that may result from nutrient redistribution. Circulation patterns within the OTEC resource area are important because of their effect on thermal resource renewal and discharge plume dynamics. Circulation patterns will both replenish the withdrawn water and disperse the discharged water used by OTEC plants, thereby maintaining the thermal resource. Subsurface currents and internal waves will apply stress to the cold-water pipe; winds, waves, and tidal currents will supply forces that act on the platform. Chemical characteristics relevant to OTEC environmental assessments include nutrient and dissolved oxygen profiles from the surface to the cold-water intake depth. These values are necessary for assessing the effect of water mass redistribution. Table 3-1 summarizes the available physical and chemical data for several major regions of the OTEC resource area. Other 3-13 co c_> o co w H O Pn O co u —( I -1 w H C_> o M a 3 M CO a cm o O o A o O •H •H A •H •H M-l rH O 0) 4-1 •H O • • — i o • CN CN 1 I P p -* > o o ■—I I— 1 r-» o r^ 1 o 1 1 i—i O o LO CT\ mo 00 VO o> O o • o • • ■ • m • • vD m o r^ CO o o i—l O CM CM >* CO co s~* o •H m •H O CO CO ♦» 3 Hi pi cr ft 45 ft O A cr cr a S X) A a ft 3 m 0k ft 3 3 at bO •I-) cr a w CO •* CM vO cr u xf O • in cr CM ^o o • • • • | o • • • rH 1—1 i— I o O CM o o ^H o m CM KT CO co p J-l CO r-\ •H CU •» u M d 3 IS > -H CJ ^S A. A ft A * M ft 43 a rH o. rH ^H u TO TO H rH 3 •> O Xi 9% to ft A a » 0% •» *« «t A ft co O 4J CO 00 i^. ,i4 1~> TO TO o o TO TO TO TO £2 3 m o • r>» •I - ) -tf ID o co r^ o to -* -* 3 O tf 1 1 1 1 1 00 1 1 1 M p 1 o o v£> 1 CM CM o o o 1 oo o o M P o CM • • CO • • • • • to • • • CU CO -cr i— I o O CM O O CM r-H i—l CM «* CO ^H & u H A •h a •H -H CO M-l IS -H to o m cd N -' Pu S o m o o m o o m O o m o ^-s ^^ m CM o m CM o in cm o iri CM o B a 1 i—< <7> I i—l CJi • i—i o\ 1 —1 OS ■"W >w' o o o o H rCl 43 CU p P P (X a, CU CU CU O Q ^-v /— N ^"N CO en CO CO *-^ U M CU l 1 1 i-i CO 0) C! I Ch >> O CU T3 M CO ISJ 4J CU CU P 1 o p P 43 ■p CO P iH 3 -H T3 •H CO CO 3. cO O CO O CU rH > H X! !3 x_^ ffi v-^ CO v-' a O «-* -* r^ a> ■—I «t CM •H ^o St ^5 r^ CTi CO CO o^ — • r^. 3 t—i o\ •H i—i *» r m rH o H r^ ». £ >» co cj\ m o i—l CU En o P 00 Xi h« r* CU « M 3 r«. xi cr> •H CO O w a co 6 u ^cS *»*S #<*N *^N ^ •—N ^^ *~v cr m co p 3 > 5 o 00 CTi I—l «v >> M o CM p r» CO #i co cr. r^. r^ co u r^» r-» CJ> Q\ hJ vO CU a\ CT\ i—i l-l 1^ ^H rH >. CT> rH #k *i CU •— • CO ** •1 • • I-I Pi • • rH H Q) » rH rH CO CO ^! • -3 CO CO H -H 3 P P CU CO CO P P 0) CU PQ 0) I— 1 4) 4-t 3 f^~ 3 T3 CU CU O > a\ CO CU cu a CO '1! i— < 00 CO l^dxi u % 3 u CO CU O CU 3 «s CU CO n o T3 0) 0) y X) i is IS 3 CO > f=| 3 hJ CO P 3 % o ^ 3 W tJ cy> rH — 1 IS * ^ CU • • 6 rH rH CO CO tj P P (T! f5 CO iCi 3 CJ CU cu r^ o^ o\ CO hs r^ r^- r^- [^ r— co 3 cy> C3> a^ 0^ •H o^ cu cu r-i —1 r-W r-i r-l CO — i > CO CO U *» •» f> ^ 3 r. u cu H H H H •H H &o xi CO GO O) CO rH co rJ 3 O Q Pi a <3 Pi eg 3 a o o O O o a O cO,n O-d cUcw bOj-j 3-14 important chemical parameters include ambient levels of trace constituents and organohalogen compounds in the water column and in tissues of resident organisms . Assessing the environmental consequences of commercial OTEC development requires a general description of the biological community inhabiting the OTEC resource area. Descriptions of the vertical and geographical distribution of phytoplankton and zooplankton populations are necessary (Table 3-2) , along with the biological productivity and commercial value of fisheries in various areas. Special attention must be given to the distri- bution and migration of threatened and endangered species (Table 3-3) , and species of commercial importance, such as tuna, billfish, dolphin, and clupeid fish. 3.2.2 Description Physical, chemical, and biological properties in marine waters within the OTEC resource area are not homogeneous but do exhibit some similarities from place to place, especially in terms of horizontal and vertical trends. One of the most marked horizontal trends is the transition from nearshore to off- shore marine environments. The nearshore environment is the region extending seaward from the shore to approximately the edge of the continental shelf. This region is influenced by continental conditions, such as terrestrial runoff, tidal mixing, and coastal upwelling. The nearshore region is highly productive and the location of most of the major world fisheries. The offshore environment is minimally influenced by continental conditions. In the OTEC resource area, the offshore environment is characterized by lower productivity and fewer commercial fisheries than nearshore areas. Nearshore areas generally support a greater density of marine life than offshore areas because increased mixing, freshwater input, and coastal upwelling continually restore essential nutrients to sunlit surface waters, where primary production occurs. In addition, the shallow water in the nearshore zone allows nutrients regenerated by the benthic community to be mixed throughout the photic zone. Coastal and upwelling food chains are 3-15 cm Z I M CO Z W O J H pq W °8 a c o o 4J <4H CN -* • • CO CO 03 O CO O o o 4-1 4J 4J • 4J > o 1 1 CO cO 03 4-1 vO CO 1 in m o o Q Q Q CO i a m ^ CN o • • o o o • • o • vc o o z z z CN O 53 O B * a i^. 1 o o o, t— 1 CO O O <3 00 en i I— 1 1 1 1 l O -H O — t o 1—1 rH t— 1 -^ o • • • • • • • • • m o o rH O O r-l o o o o o •H -H •H s-^ ft ft Pi co X 43 43 ft ft o c 00 00 X •u 03 ft ft ft CO In rH XI XI & Q 3 CO ft ft ft l£ M 4^ cO CO CJ > j 3 A m o\ in 3 CO •> ■H 03 CN CO vo M -H &0 • • CO CO • oo CO •H J-l o o o 4J 4J T— 1 • 4-J n3 •H 00 1 1 XI 03 03 1 O > CO S > CN co cn Q Q m p n3 | O H 00 CN m cn 33 o • • • O O • . . o co o o O 3 2 ■—I O O 3 a a a a 43 a o o 4-> 8 a o o a a o o cu a o m o m o cu o CO O !*1H o O CO -H Q CO O r-H O 1 1 m m I l i— i 1 1 o CN O O I o m 1 rH O O 1 m m o O 00 O CN CO o O H CO >-, 4-1 •H > CO u •H s 3 CO cm a 4-> a CU 3 cd| 4*5 4*i o i*o e X >-, l 3 3 -h 03 O 03 rH cO cO PQ CO U t-i XI rH 1-1 rH H 00 03 Ph >> p- 3. P^ a a PL, CN 43 oco O cO o >>L (X O 1 O Q O CO u B OCO n a N **» N CO cO Sh 1 o O 4-1 O o eg o o a >-i o CJ "W 4J u a •H H CJ O O l-i 00 Ph S rj M D a •H 00 a a CO -H CO g Z Ph eg -h S PQ CT\ ^O CT, rH »s x> <■ r^ U Oi in n -j rH o> On Q m rH ^ CO * r-i r^ rij • \0 CT» m *t »> cd rH CT* r-i n CT. CO XI CO X z cfl ■—< A vO r-H •H •H X +J n X r^ rc a 3 0) > 4J Q\ ♦i cd O 3 rH cO XI X > X H u c a cO o 3 43 ** p ex) crt M 3 U 00 >» B p 3 00 3 0) CO 00 00 § X o 3 3 ■a c 3 00 3 o o •H •H n o •H >< M z W fc4 CO pq > co 4J 3 > S >*. N c^ vO CTi rH * >> X a 3 u CO 60 r^ O CTl 3 i— i CO 0) •» CJ cn > O >o o MH CO CN r-H ■a o t^ CO 00 CT\ >% Cft r^ r^> -H #* X 0) — i CT. o\ 4J 3 4J rH x 1 »« )H Ph D *« • 3 4-1 • r. *■ rH 13 X •H H • u cO 0) 3 4-1 rd <-{ 0) r^ 4-1 3 CO ctl 00 4-> r^ CO 00 3 4J u (1) o\ h* > HH CU 4-1 CU <-* X o> O 0) 43 X 3 ^H X CO M 3 OJ r> 3 3 a o >^ OJ >> CO ^ M a •H QJ H 3 4J CO CO 00 •H Jh rH 3 co o M S4 o 1H 3 C-J2 1 IH 01 0) 3 o CU O- y rH ■H a> a) •H CO > W CO W ta cq pq > t-» -J4 H a 3 O O.criH r^ O cr> r^ •—< as O pq o 3 3 S 33 343 CJX 3i4H bO.fl'H 3-16 TABLE 3-3 THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES OF THE OTEC RESOURCE AREA (MARINE) Source: Sands, 1980. Scientific Name Common Name Status Distribution Marine Mammals Balaenoptera musculus Blue whale E* Oceanic, Pacific, Atlantic Balaenopteva borealis Sei whale E Oceanic, Pacific, Atlantic Balaenopteva physalus Finback whale E Oceanic, Southern Hemisphere Eschrichtius gibbosus Grey whale E Oceanic, off western North America Eubalaena gl.aaial.is Right whale E Oceanic, Pacific, Atlantic Megapteva novaeangliae Humpback whale E Oceanic, Atlantic Caribbean, North Pacific, Physeter catodon Sperm whale E Oceanic, Atlantic Caribbean, Pacific, Dugong dugong Dugong E Micronesia, Western Carolines, TTPI** Tvichechus manatus Caribbean manatee E Off Flor Lda, Caribbean Monachus sohauin standi Hawaiian monk E Northwest Hawaiian Islands seal Monaehus tropical is Caribbean monk E Caribbean (extinct?) seal Sea Tur ties Chelonia mydas Green sea turtle E Hawaii Florida, Pacific coast of Mexico Evetinoch.e1.ys imbricata Hawksbill E Micronesia, TTPI , Gulf of Mexico Dermochelys coriacea Leatherback E Micronesia, TTPI, Caribbean, Gulf of Mexi Lepidochely s kempii Kemp's ridley E Caribbean , Gulf of Mexico Lepidoehely s olivacea Olive ridley T E Tropical circumglobal, Pacific coast of Mexico Cavetta caretta Loggerhead T Tropical circumglobal Birds Pelecanus occidental.is Brown pelican E Caribbean, U.S. west Gulf coasts coast , Puffinus puffinus Newel's Manx T Hawaiian Islands newelli shearwater Pterodroma phaeopygia Hawaiian dark- E Hawaiian Islands sandw ic hen si s rumped petrel ^Endangered **Trust Territories of the Pacific Islands ***Threatened 3-17 characteristically shorter (1 to 3 trophic levels) and have higher efficiencies (15-20% between trophic levels) than oceanic food chains (5 trophic levels, 10% efficiency; Table 3-4). The total catch of pelagic resources from the nearshore zone is an order of magnitude greater than from the open sea, and the catch per unit area is almost 150 times greater on the shelf than it is at sea (Moiseev, 1971). Furthermore, coral reefs on the continental shelf are among the most highly productive communities, in terms of biomass and species diversity (Pequegnat, 1964). Nearshore environments contain a higher proportion of ecologically-sensitive areas than offshore environments. The nearshore is restricted in size, but serves as a nursery ground for many species of fish and benthic invertebrates. In addition, the nearshore region is also used by many marine reptiles and marine mammals for breeding and nursery grounds. Characteristics of the nearshore and offshore marine environments in the OTEC resource area are described in the following subsections. 3.2.2.1 Nearshore Environment - The nearshore marine environment is general- ly defined as the region between the shoreline and continental shelf break, encompassing the intertidal, subtidal, inner-continental shelf, and outer- continental shelf regions. Circulation patterns of nearshore areas are variable, and are primarily driven by winds and tides, with some influence from large-scale oceanic currents. Strong tidal currents, seasonably variable winds, and irregularities in circulation patterns cause increased mixing of surface and bottom waters in nearshore areas. Physical processes along the edge of continental margins may cause upward mixing of nutrient-rich deep waters for some areas with narrow continental shelves (e.g., west coast of North America, most island systems). This upwelling process is caused by: (1) winds blowing parallel to shore, with subsequent offshore Ekman transport of waters, or (2) current divergences toward the surface caused by continental features (e.g., escarpments, headlands, submarine canyons). Upwelling of nutrient-rich deep waters into 3-18 TABLE 3-4 TYPICAL NEARSHORE (COASTAL, UPWELLING) AND OFFSHORE (OCEANIC) FOOD CHAINS Source: Adapted from Ryther, 1969 Oceanic Food Chain (10% Efficiency) Nannoplankton »-Microzooplankton »-Macrozooplankton »-Megazooplankton- (small flagellates) (herbivorous (carnivorous (chaetognaths, zooplankton and zooplankton) euphausiids) protozoa) Planktivores (mesopelagic fish) Piscivores- (tuna, squid, and saury) Human Consumption Phytoplankton (diatoms, dinof lagellates) Coastal Food Chain (15% Efficiency) -»-Macrozooplankton (herbivorous zooplankton) -Planktivores- (clupeid fish) -Piscivores (tuna) -Human Consumption Macrophytoplankton (large, chain-forming species) Upwelling Food Chain (20% Efficiency) Planktivores (clupeid fish) Me gaz oop lank t on (euphausiids) Human Consumption •*— Piscivores' (tuna) surface layers of the water column results in higher productivity. The upwelled nutrient-rich waters that result from mixing over the continental shelf may be transported offshore by prevailing current systems. Two types of nearshore environments are present in the OTEC resource area. The Gulf of Mexico has a wide shallow shelf strongly influenced by 3-19 coastal processes. Wind-induced turbulence, freshwater input, tidal mixing and partial isolation from the major ocean basins by the wide continental shelf significantly affects the nearshore environment in the Gulf of Mexico, causing high seasonal variability of physical, chemical, and biological properties. Conversely, nearshore environments surrounding islands are characterized by a narrow continental shelf, greatly influenced by offshore (oceanic) processes, and experience less seasonal variation. Differences in physical characteristics between island environments and the Gulf of Mexico become evident when comparing the organisms comprising the major fisheries in each region. Gulf of Mexico fisheries are primarily benthic (e.g., shrimp and demersal fishes), reflecting the enhanced benthic productivity resulting from mixing over the shallow continental shelf. Fisheries around islands are mainly composed of migratory offshore pelagic fish and reef fish, illustrating the influence of offshore and extreme nearshore processes in these areas. 3.2.2.2 Offshore Environment - The offshore marine environment is generally defined as the oceanic region seaward of the continental shelf break. Large- scale oceanic currents prevail over most of this region and tidal and continental influences are minimal. Major circulation patterns within the OTEC resource area are shown in Figures 3-6a and 3-6b. Vertical mixing occurs slowly, causing offshore waters to become vertically stratified. Vertical stratification reduces the recirculation of nutrients into the surface layer, resulting in typically low productivity (Table 3-5). The nutrient-poor offshore environment supports small phytoplankton cells resulting in long food chains (Ryther, 1969). The higher number of trophic levels and the less efficient transfer of energy between each level results in a smaller yield at the top of the food chain. Consequently, the open ocean, despite its high initial biomass, supports a low total fish yield. In areas such as the equatorial Pacific and the North Atlantic, where conditions allow the influx of nutrients to the surface layer, the open ocean is moder- ately productive. 3-20 o. •Q ■o e * u ft t 3 c V * Q. c 3 O c o u * o to cO < CD o u o CO (!) P!i U W H O O 0) CO 4J On C - •H CO co C C co U c/1 CD CO CD (X, cj M C 3 O O •H C/3 4-1 CO tH O M •H O o •I - ) CO £ CO I on a; •H 3-21 Q. 0> ■D O O O C m o> u c o> J2 ■D 0* u 3 o> Q. E 0i c 3 o c o U # CO CU s-l -i o •n 43 vO CO CU 00 ■H Pn 3-22 TABLE 3-5. DIVISION OF THE OCEANS INTO PROVINCES ACCORDING TO THEIR LEVEL OF PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY Source: Adapted from Ryther, 1969 Province Percentage of Ocean Area (km2) Mean Primary Productivity (g dry weight m~2 year "*) Total Primary Productivity (metric tons year ~1) Percentage of Total Productivity Number of Trophic Levels Ecological Efficiency (percent) Fish Production (metric tons) Open Ocean 90.0 326 x 10 6 50 16.3 x 10 9 81.5 5 10 1.6 Nearshore Zone* 9.9 36 x 10 6 100 3.6 x 10 9 18.0 3 15 120 Upwelling Area 0.1 3.6 x 10 6 300 0.1 x 10 9 0.5 1-1/2 20 120 ♦Includes highly productive areas over the continental shelf. Commercial offshore fisheries are mainly oriented around widely scattered, migratory species such as billfish and tuna. These fisheries are seasonal and operate on a low yield, high cash-return basis. Although open ocean commercial fisheries represent only about one percent of the entire world fish harvest (Rounsefell, 1973), their contribution to the world's fishing economy is substantial. In 1975-1976, offshore fisheries in the Eastern Tropical Pacific accounted for 30% of the total catch (Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, 1981) . This represented a yearly total cash value in excess of $91 million. The great depth of the water column in the offshore environment results in a variety of vertical habitats which, combined with a large number of trophic levels, creates a large diversity of organisms. Many of the species aggregate at great depths during the day, and migrate to the surface at night to feed in the more productive photic zone. 3-23 3.3 THE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT 3.3.1 Data Requirements For Impact Assessment Commercial OTEC plants located within the coastal zone will affect both the marine and terrestrial environments. The coastal zone is heavily used by man and contains many existing-use areas which may be impacted by deploy- ment and operation of OTEC plants. Information required to assess the magnitude of OTEC-related effects on coastal areas include: • Location of ecologically-sensitive areas, such as seagrass beds, coral reefs, spawning grounds, and nursery areas. • Location of existing-use areas, and any special regulations and permits associated with their use. • Location of State and Federal jurisdictional limits, which determine the regulations which will affect OTEC operations. 3.3.2 Description The coastal region extends seaward and inland from the shoreline and includes the nearshore marine and terrestrial environments. The coastal environment is heavily used by man for various commercial, recreational, cultural, and military purposes. High -conflict areas such as restricted military zones, marine sanctuaries, fishing grounds, and ecologically- sensitive areas will require site- and design-specific assessments to determine any possible impacts, whereas areas such as oil- and gas-lease areas and nonrestricted military-use zones may accommodate OTEC facilities without problems. As a result of the increasingly high use of the coastal environment, the U.S. Congress passed the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (amended in 1976 and 1978) , which encouraged the preservation, protection, and development of the coastal zone. The Act and amendments established policies by which 3-24 coastal states could identify, preserve, restore, and develop areas of special environmental, cultural, or socioeconomic importance. Under the Act, areas of particular concern (APC) and special management areas (SMA) can be designated by each state. Any use or alteration of APC and SMA sites requires special state permits issued after an environmental impact statement on the proposed action has been prepared and approved. r OTEC plants may be sited in existing-use areas of the coastal region. Figures 3-7 through 3-10 identify the existing-use areas in the coastal environments most likely to be used for commercial OTEC development. Locations of APC's and SMA's are shown for all areas with the exception of the islands of Oahu and Hawaii, which presently designate their entire coastlines as SMA's. Current U.S. jurisdiction applicable to commercial OTEC development is divided into two areas: (1) territorial sea and (2) the contiguous zone. The draft treaty being developed by the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea would allow 12-nautical mile territorial seas and 200-mile economic zones; however, this treaty has not been finalized by the United Nations and is not yet international law. Under current international and domestic law, the U.S. has a 12 nautical mile contiguous zone and a territorial sea of 3 nautical miles, except in areas which had wider territorial seas when they became part of the U.S. The present territorial sea and contiguous zone boundaries applicable to candidate U.S. OTEC development areas are listed in Table 3-6. 3.4 THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT 3. 4. 1 Data Requirements for Impact Assessment Land-based OTEC plant construction will disrupt the terrestrial envi- ronment in the vicinity of the site. In order to assess the impact of land based plant construction, a description of the existing flora and fauna found within the resource area should be presented, the accessibility of 3-25 3-26 - 20°30'N 20 00' Existing Power Stations Restricted Military Areas | Non-Restricted Military Areas Commercial Fishing Statistical Areas (Nos. Represent Ranking to Hawaiian Economy) Parks, Fishponds, Historical Districts, State and Federal Marine and Bird Refuges Kilometers I 1 10 20 1930' 19°00' © 156°00' 156°30' 15500'E Figure 3-8. Existing-Use Areas in the Island of Hawaii 3-27 o a •H Qi O 4J U CO PL) C «H en cd cu I 60 C •H 4-1 CO •H w ON I ro 0) 60 •H 3-28 3-29 TABLE 3-6. CURRENT JURISDICTIONAL BOUNDARIES IN OTEC AREAS Territorial Contiguous Area Sea (nmi) Zone (nmi) Saint Croix 3 12 West Coast of Florida 9 12 Guam 3 12 Puerto Rico 10.8 12 Hawaii 3 12 candidate sites described, and the degree to which the area has been developed by man identified. Special consideration should be given to identifying any threatened and endangered species potentially affected by construction activities. 3.4.2 Description Five candidate sites represent typical environments in which the construction of land-based OTEC plants is most likely to occur. These sites include Punta Tuna, Puerto Rico; Kahe Point, Oahu; Ke-ahole Point, Hawaii; Guam; and Saint Croix, Virgin Islands. Although each proposed area has a unique terrestrial environment, with minor differences in topography and meteorology, similarities between the individual communities do exist. All are tropical island communities originally formed as a result of volcanic activity. Each supports an extensive flora and fauna with many endemic species, several of which are classified as threatened or endangered (Table 3-7). The coastlines of the candidate sites range from minimally to extensively developed, with limited access to the shoreline. Populations near candidate sites are small (except Guam and Oahu) , and economies are based primarily on agriculture and fishing. A brief description of these candidate land-based OTEC areas are presented in the following subsections to illustrate the diversity of terrestrial environments. 3-30 TABLE 3-7. THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES OF THE OTEC RESOURCE AREA (TERRESTRIAL) Source: Sands, 1980. Scientific Name Common Name Status Distribution Crocodiles and Alligators Crooodylus acutus American crocodile E* South Florida Crocodylus novaequineae mindorensis Philippine crocodile E Philippines (and Palau, TTPI**?) Crocodylus vhombifer Cuban crocodile E Cuba (Caribbean?) Alligator missise- ippiensis American alligator T Southeastern United States Other Reptiles Cyclura pinquis Anegada Island ground iguana E Virgin Islands Cyclura stejnegevi Mona Island ground iguana T *** Puerto Rico Epicvates inormatus Puerto Rican boa E Puerto Rico Ameiva polops St. Croix ground lizard E St. Croix, Virgin Islands Araph ib ians Eleuthevodactylus jasperi Goldon coqui Puerto Rico Birds Acrocephalus familiavis kingi Nihoa miller-bird E Nihoa, Hawaiian Islands Psittirostra canteens cantons Laysan finch E Laysan, Hawaiian Islands Anas lay sannensis Laysan duck E Laysan, Hawaiian Islands Anas wyvilliana Hawaiian duck E Hawaiian Islands Anas oustaleti Marianas mallard E TTPI, Micronesia Fulica amevicana alai Hawaiian coot E Hawaiian Islands Caprimulgus Puerto Rican E Puerto Rico noctittherus whip-poor-will Amazona vittata Puerto Rican parrot E Puerto Rico Coluriibia inornata wetmDvei Plain pigeon E Puerto Rico Agelaius xanthomas Yellow-shouldered blackbird E Puerto Rico Falcon pevegvinus American peregrine E North American, Carribean ana turn falcon Himantopus himantopus knudseni Hawaiian stilt E Hawaiian Islands Gallinula chloropus sandvicensis Hawaiian gallinule E Hawaiian Islands Branta sandvicensis Hawaiian goose E Hawaiian Islands *Endangered **Trust Territories of the Pacific Islands ***Threatened 3-31 3.4.2.1 Punta Tuna, Puerto Rico - Punta Tuna is located in the Maunabo Valley in southeast sector of Puerto Rico. The coastline is relatively level with numerous rivers and streams. Annual rainfall is about 25 cm per year. The landscape is forested but not tropical, and supports a myriad of wild- life (DOC, 1978c). Cultivation of sugar cane is the predominant land use. Extensive irrigation canals are present as a result of farming. 3.4.2.2 Kahe Point , Oahu - The substrate at Kahe Point is primarily composed of coarse gravel and coral sand, underlain by coral reefs. Annual rainfall is less than 25 cm per year. Vegetation near Kahe Point can be broken into 3 basic types: (1) a closed forest, consisting of trees 5-7 m in height and uniform in distribution, (2) an open forest where trees are scattered and a ground cover of herbs and grass exist, and (3) an open scrub grassland, where trees are sparsely scattered, and numerous scrubs and tall grasses are present. (Hawaiian Electric Company, 1973). No terrestrial threatened or endangered species are present near Kahe Point. Land use is primarily agricultural; however, some lands in the valley are designated as county and state parks and beaches. The Nanakuli Beach Park, the largest park in the area, encompasses 40 acres of the coastal zone north of the Kahe Electrical Generating Station. 3.4.2.3 Ke-ahole Point, Hawaii - Ke-ahole Point is located on the Kona coast of Hawaii. The coastline is somewhat level; however, some irregularities occur. Lava is the prima.ry substrate, with its depth varying from 0.3 to 30 m. Annual rainfall is about 6 cm per year. Ground cover is sparse and conditions are semi-desert. Candidate land-based OTEC sites can be divided into three habitats: (1) the beach zone, containing an extremely diverse plant life; (2) a northern area, termed "new lava", comprised of sparse scattered vegetation; and (3) the remaining area, termed "old lava", comprised of dry grasses and herbs (R. M. Towill, 1976). 3.4.2.4 Guam - The shoreline configuration of Guam is rocky coastline with sandy beach. The rocky coastlines comprise 62% of the coast and the sandy beaches 32%. Four terrestrial ecosystems, located along the southeastern shores and on the northern half of the island, are presently being considered 3-32 as potential APC's. These unique ecosystems include wildlife refuges, lime- stone forests, pristine ecological communities, and critical habitats (DOC, 1978a). Each of these areas supports numerous types of native plants in addition to many endangered plants and animals. 3.4.2.5 Saint Croix, Virgin Islands - The north and west coasts of Saint Croix, the most likely areas for installation of land-based OTEC plants, are characterized by coastal plains and drowned estuaries which have since become mangrove lagoons (DOC, 1979b). The annual rainfall is about 16 cm per year. Extensive alteration of the island's ecosystem, sugar cane agriculture, and subsequent regrowth of vegetation have eliminated any free flowing streams that once existed. There is endangered species critical habitat for leather- back turtles at Sandy Point, St. Croix. 3-33 Chapter 4 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES Commercial OTEC facilities and plantships may affect air quality, the terrestrial environment, the marine ecosystem, and human activities in the vicinity of deployment and operation sites. A quantitative and qualitative assessment of major, minor, and potential environmental effects associated with commercial OTEC development is presented, along with a summary of measures for reducing the magnitude of those effects that may cause adverse environmental impacts. Commercial OTEC development may affect the atmosphere, the terrestrial environment, the marine ecosystem, and human activities in the vicinity of deployment and operation sites. The net environmental impacts resulting from commercial OTEC development are expected to be minimal compared to the impacts from fossil-fuel and nuclear power production; however, commercial OTEC development may result in significant environmental disturbances. Envi- ronmental effects that may result from commercial OTEC development can be related to specific plant activities. These activities and their associated environmental effects include: Platform presence Biota attraction or avoidance Protective hull-coating release Low-frequency sound Pipe and transmission cable implantation Interference with existing uses Aesthetic impact Warm- and cold-water withdrawal Organism impingement Organism entrainment 4-1 Water discharge Biocide release Ocean water redistribution Working fluid release Trace constituent release Sea-surface temperature changes Carbon dioxide release Evaluation of potential environmental impacts associated with commercial OTEC development is presently a matter of speculation; little data has been collected near an operating OTEC plant (Sullivan et al. , 1980). During the first deployment of Mini-OTEC at Ke-ahole Point, Hawaii, the number and spe- cies of fish attracted to the platform were monitored, chemical samples were obtained, and discharge plume observations were made (Donat et al., 1980). Environmental monitoring for the Ocean Energy Converter (0TEC-1), also near Ke-ahole Point, has begun (Menzie et al., 1980), but it is presently too early in the monitoring program to evaluate the results. Oceanographic surveys are being conducted under Department of Energy (DOE) funding at candidate OTEC sites (Table 4-1) to provide preliminary information for future studies (Wilde, 1980). Physical models are being developed to predict OTEC plume dilution and dispersion and examine recirculation potentials from various discharge configurations (Ditmars et al. , 1980). Zooplankton and fish toxicity studies are underway at the Gulf Coast Research Laboratory (GCRL) and will provide information on organism tolerance to chlorine and ammonia releases (Venkataramiah , 1979). Several reports have made preliminary assessments of the potential envi- ronmental effects associated with OTEC plants. The full range of environmen- tal issues surrounding OTEC development, demonstration, and commercialization was described in the DOE OTEC Environmental Development Plan (DOE, 1979a). An Environmental Assessment (EA) was prepared (DOE, 1979b) and supplemented (Sinay-Friedman, 1979) for OTEC-1. A draft of the OTEC Programmatic EA, considering the environmental effects of the development, demonstration, and commercialization of several OTEC plant designs, configurations, and power usages, has been completed (Sands, 1980). A site- and design-specific EA was prepared for the proposed second deployment of Mini-OTEC (Donat et al., 4-2 TABLE 4-1 STATUS OF OTEC OCEANOGRAPHIC SURVEYS (NUMBER OF SITE OCCUPATIONS) Source: Wilde, 1980 Physical Chemical Biological Site Measurements Measurements Measurements Gulf of Mexico 8 6 6 South Atlantic 4 2 2 Puerto Rico 10 7 8 Virgin Islands 1 1 Hawaii - Ke-ahole Point 11 8 8 Oahu - Kane Point 4 4 4 1980), and a generic EA has been completed for the 40-MWe OTEC Pilot Plant Program (Sullivan et al. , 1980) . This section quantitatively and qualitatively assesses the potential atmospheric, terrestrial, and marine impacts associated with commercial OTEC development. The potential for atmospheric, terrestrial, and marine effects resulting from commercial OTEC development are considered in Sections 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3, respectively. The effects of commercial OTEC development on human activities are discussed in Section 4.4. Indirect and cumulative environmental effects of commercial OTEC development are summarized in Sections 4.5 and 4.6, respectively. Section 4.7 identifies unavoidable adverse effects associated with commercial OTEC development and describes mitigating measures for reducing impacts. Section 4.8 discusses the relationship between short-term use and long-term productivity, and Section 4.9 describes the commitment of resources. 4-3 4.1 ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS OTEC operations may affect local air quality and climate. Air quality may be affected by emissions from OTEC plantships and electrical-generating facilities. OTEC operation could affect local and global climate as a result of carbon dioxide release and sea-surface temperature alterations. Carbon dioxide releases from degassing of seawater and industrial processing by OTEC plants may contribute to the warming of the atmosphere. Sea-surface temperature alterations resulting from ocean water redistribution may influence storm frequencies. Under normal operating conditions, OTEC electrical-generating plants will release few emissions to the atmosphere and will not adversely affect local air quality. Industrial OTEC plantships, which produce energy -intensive products (e.g., ammonia, aluminum), will reduce gaseous releases to the atmosphere through byproduct recycling and the use of scrubbers. A catas- trophic accident could release large volumes of working fluids which would vaporize to the atmosphere and cause short-term air quality effects; however, accidents of this magnitude will be extremely rare. The carbon dioxide concentration in the earth's atmosphere is increasing (Brewer, 1978), which may be causing average global temperatures to increase through the greenhouse effect. Seawater degassing and industrial processing by OTEC plants are not expected to cause a significant increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide. The amount of carbon dioxide efflux from a 400-MWe closed-cycle OTEC plant has been estimated to range from 1500 to 2500 metric tons per day (Sands, 1980), which is approximately 25% of the carbon dioxide that a 400-MWe coal-fired plant produces (Ditmars, 1979). An aluminum-producing plantship will emit an additional 930 metric tons of carbon dioxide per day as a result of the manufacturing process (Appendix D). A 40-MWe open-cycle OTEC plant, could release 2300 metric tons of carbon dioxide per day (Appendix D) , roughly 10 times as much as a similar-sized closed-cycle OTEC plant, or about 2.5 times the carbon dioxide released from a 40-MWe coal-fired plant. The projected OTEC operation by the c. year 2000 would release about 28 x 10 metric tons of carbon dioxide per 4-4 year. Although OTEC operations will add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, 9 this contribution is insignificant when compared to the 18 x 10 metric tons of carbon dioxide added yearly from fossil fuel consumption (Brewer, 1978).. Potential sea-surface temperature alterations by OTEC plants have caused environmental concern because climatic changes resulting from small (less than 1 C) sea-surface temperature changes over large ocean areas (greater 2 than 1000 km ) have been reported (Barnett, 1978; Davis, 1978; White and Haney, 1978; Namias, 1979). Two aspects of OTEC plant operation will decrease sea-surface temperatures: (1) large quantities of cold water will be brought to the surface for use in a plant's condenser units and be discharged into the surrounding water column after use, and (2) large quantities of warm water will be drawn across the evaporators and cooled by several degrees before being discharged to the receiving waters. If the discharged waters remain within the mixed layer, the sea-surface temperature will be altered, potentially causing climatic changes. The magnitude of the sea-surface temperature alteration will be determined by the size of the plant, the discharge mode, the site, and the mixed-layer depth. Several potential OTEC sites (e.g., Gulf of Mexico) are located in source regions of tropical cyclones. Since these areas are sensitive to changes in sea-surface temperature, OTEC operations could alter storm frequency by increasing or inhibiting storm production. Altering storm frequency could significantly affect distant regions to which storms migrate. The magnitude and nature of climatic effects resulting from sea-surface temperature alterations by commercial OTEC development have not been ascertained; additional research is required to assess the magnitude of this effect. Bathen (1975) estimated the area of heat loss associated with the operation of 100-MWe and 240-MWe OTEC plants off Hawaii and concluded that sea-surface temperature anomalies greater than the natural diel temperature fluctuations (0.1 C to 0.3 C) could occur, but these temperature changes were less than the seasonal variation of about 1 C. The area over which this temperature anomaly would spread was insignificant when compared to the 4-5 size of areas required for changes in large-scale weather patterns. Esti- mates of sea-surface temperature depression caused by the operation of one hundred 200-MWe OTEC plants in the Gulf of Mexico indicate that the average sea-surface temperature could decrease by about 0.05 C over the entire Gulf of Mexico (Martin and Roberts, 1977), which could potentially have climatic implications. A numerical model of the Gulf of Mexico is being prepared by Dynalysis of Princeton under DOE funding, and will provide information on the effect of OTEC operation on sea-surface temperatures and weather patterns over large ocean areas. 4.2 TERRESTRIAL EFFECTS Construction of land-based OTEC plants will have similar effects on coastal-marine and terrestrial environments as building fossil or nuclear power plants along the coast. The magnitude of these disturbances will be determined by the proximity of ecologically-sensitive areas, the nature of the existing biological and physical environment, the design of the OTEC plant, the accessibility of the site, and the proximity of the site to the resources required for plant construction. Land-based plants should be sited to minimize impacts on historically-, culturally-, and ecologically-sensitive areas. Maximum effects to both land and biota will occur during the initial staging phase of construction and diminish as the plant nears completion. Permanent effects will be limited to the actual plant site and access routes necessary for the operational workforce. Temporary effects will result from the implantation of the warm- and cold-water pipes, connection of the OTEC facility to existing utilities, and noise, fumes, and dust associated with construction activities. Construction of land-based OTEC plants consist of three phases: (1) a staging phase, in which the site is prepared for the incoming workforce and equipment, (2) a construction phase, in which the plant and any other required construction is completed, and (3) a completion phase, where cleanup of the site occurs and preliminary operational testing of the facility begins. A cursory description of the potential effects of these phases is 4-6 presented in the following subsections. A further assessment of impacts is not possible until specific plant locations and design details have been determined. 4.2.1 Staging Phase The staging phase involves the construction of access roads, storage areas, and housing facilities. Access roads leading to the construction site must be built or sufficiently renovated to withstand traffic from heavy construction equipment. The primary effects from the staging phase will include ground cover removal, habitat destruction, and material disposal. These changes to the terrestrial environment may alter watershed runoff patterns and increase the accessibility of the area. Any associated terrestrial impacts will be localized and mitigating measures required by Federal, State, and local regulations. 4.2.2 Construction Phase Upon completion of the staging phase, construction of the power plant and its components will begin with the manufacture and implantation of the cold- and warm-water pipes and the excavation of heat exchanger troughs. These activities will require extensive modification of the coastal region since the pipes and heat exchangers must be placed approximately 20 m below sea level (Brewer et al. , 1979). Some of the candidate sites are located on a lava base and blasting may be required. The construction phase will result in increased noise levels and habitat disruption to the surrounding land and adjacent waters, which could potentially damage or kill biota in the immediate vicinity. 4-7 4.2.3 Completion Phase Upon completion of the facility, areas surrounding the plant may be restored to their original form. Lands adjacent to the facility, the coastal region of pipe implantation, and all utility corridors will be landscaped. Permanent effects to the surrounding areas will result from an increase in human presence, the maintenance of access roads, and noise from plant operation. Proper plant siting and design will minimize these effects. 4.3 MARINE EFFECTS The majority of environmental effects associated with commercial OTEC development center on the marine ecosystem because it is the source of evap- orating and condensing waters and receiver of effluent waters used by OTEC plants. Marine environmental effects associated with commercial OTEC development (Figure 4-1) can be categorized as: (1) major (those potentially causing significant long-term environmental impacts), (2) minor (those causing insignificant long- or short-term environmental changes), and (3) potential (short-term impacts occurring only during accidents). OTEC activities that cause environmental effects corresponding to these categories include: Major Effects : • Platform presence - Organism attraction or avoidance Withdrawal of surface and deep-ocean waters - Organism entrainment and impingement • Biocide release - Organism toxic response • Discharge of waters - Nutrient redistribution, resulting in increased productivity 4-8 Minor Effects: • Protective hull- coating release Toxic effects and bioaccumulation of trace metals • Power cycle component erosion and corrosion Toxic effects and bioaccumulation of trace constituents Implantation of cold- water pipe and trans- mission cable Short-term habitat destruction and turbid- ity during implantation Low-frequency noise Interference with organism behavior and communication • Discharge of surfactants - Toxic effects to resident organisms Open-cycle plant operation - Alteration of oxygen and salt concentration of downstream waters Potential Effects from Accidents: Potential working fluid release from spills and leaks - Organism toxic response • Potential oil releases - Organism toxic response A description of the downstream plume behavior is essential for assessing the major, minor, and potential effects of commercial OTEC development. A generalized summary of the predicted plume behavior from commercial OTEC plants is presented in Subsection 4.3.1. The major, minor, and potential (accidental) environmental effects associated with commercial OTEC develop- ment are quantitatively and qualitatively discussed in Subsections 4.3.2 through 4.3.4. 4-9 CO U 01 ex o u w H o o 0) 4-J M-l 0J 14-1 w c CO rH > CO •H 4J rH C H 0) 3 B en c o S-i • • •H 0) > cj c U w o w • r— 1 1 d) )-* 3 M •H Ph (sjajaw |o spajpunH) HJdaa 4-10 4.3.1 Discharge Plume Description As the OTEC discharge effluent enters the ocean, it will have a different density than the surrounding ambient water. The behavior of the discharge plume will be dominated by the discharge momentum and buoyancy forces resulting from the initial density difference (Figure 4-2) . Within several hundred meters from the point of discharge, the discharge plume will: (1) be diluted by the ambient ocean water, (2) sink or rise to reach an equilibrium level within the water column where the average density difference between the diluted plume and surrounding ambient water vanishes, and (3) lose velocity until the difference between the plume's velocity and the ambient current velocity is small. This initial region is referred to as the near-field regime (Ditmars and Paddock, 1981). When the discharge effluent from the plant has reached its equilibrium depth, it has lost its jet-like characteristics and has a velocity only slightly different than the ambient current; this region is referred to as the intermediate-field regime. The intrusion of the effluent into the stratified ocean causes the plume to collapse vertically due to residual buoyancy forces and spread laterally due to gravity forces. The interaction of the spreading layer and the ambient current in the near-field produces a plume that extends upcurrent of the plant and grows in width downcurrent due to gravity spreading until gravity forces become small and turbulent diffusion takes over as the dominant mixing process (Ditmars and Paddock, 1979). Mixing in the intermediate-field is greatly reduced compared to the near-field region. The magnitude of the ambient current dominates the behavior of the discharge plume in the intermediate-field, although local ambient density stratification and initial near-field dilution will have some influence on the width and thickness of the resultant plume. Further downstream, buoyancy-driven motions become small and diffusion (by means of ambient turbulence in the ocean) becomes the dominant mixing and spreading mechanism. This region of passive turbulent diffusion is referred to as the far-field regime. 4-11 & v E u c 5 5 2 - t 1 — — — r 4 6 Distance In Kilometers S ? I near field , L, intermediate field _} ^+_ far field — km 1 km -i *+- 5 km Figure 4-2. Generalized Diagram of a Mixed Discharge Plume. Ambient current velocity assumed to be 100 cm sec""-*-. 4-12 Predicting the detailed external flow field in the near-field region of OTEC discharge plumes is complicated by the strong influence that the discharge-structure design, ambient currents, water column stratification, and proximity of the warm^water intake to the outfall have on plume behavior. Schematic laboratory-scale experiments on OTEC discharge plume behavior have been conducted by Sundaram et al. (1977, 1978) and Jirka et al. (1977, 1980); detailed physical model tests are currently underway (Adams et al. , 1979; Coxe et al., 1981). These studies indicate that, in the case of separate evaporator and condenser discharges, the density of the evaporator effluent will be only slightly above ambient if discharged into the mixed layer. The plume will reach its equilibrium level within the mixed layer if discharged horizontally, or slightly below the mixed layer if initially directed downward. The condenser effluent will be strongly negatively- buoyant, but mixing with ambient water in the mixed layer will cause the condenser effluent to reach an equilibrium level only slightly below the mixed layer (within the thermocline) . If discharged vertically below the thermocline, mixing will prevent the condenser effluent from sinking more than 50 to 100 m below the point of discharge. A combined- or mixed-discharge effluent will behave much like the condenser effluent, except that the equilibrium depth will probably be slightly higher due to the smaller initial density difference. Although the near-field dilution will vary with the discharge structure design and ambient environmental conditions, near-field dilution will range between 5-10 for currents below 50 cm sec and 15-20 for currents between 80 and 100 cm sec . Once the diluted OTEC effluent has reached the equilibrium level in the intermediate-field, plume spreading is governed by current velocity and strength of the ambient water column stratification. In areas with low current velocities (approximately 10 cm sec ) , the plume will be 10-12 km wide and approximately 20 m thick within 10 km downstream of the plant. Large currents (approximately 100 cm sec ) would produce narrow plumes only 1 km wide at 10 km downstream of the plant (Ditmars and Paddock, 1981). The discharge plume will have to travel several hundred kilometers in the far-field region in order to obtain additional dilution comparable to the original near-field dilution of 5-10. 4-13 4.3.2 Major Effects Major environmental effects of commercial OTEC development may potentially cause significant environmental impacts. These major effects, including biota attraction and avoidance, organism entrainment, organism impingement, biocide release, and nutrient redistribution, are described in the following subsections. 4.3.2.1 Biota Attraction and Avoidance - OTEC plants will attract epipelagic organisms similar to those that concentrate around offshore structures, floating objects, and artificial reefs (Carlisle et al. , 1964; Wickham et al., 1973; Gooding and Magnuson, 1967; Hastings et al. , 1976). Motile organisms will be attracted by the plant structure and nighttime illumination of the plant (Wickham et al. , 1973; Isaacs et al. , 1974; Longhurst, 1976), while weakly swimming and nonmotile organisms will settle on the plant. As a result of new habitat formation, populations near the plant will increase, compounding the magnitude of environmental impacts associated with OTEC deployment and operation. Conversely, organisms sensitive to human activities and presence may avoid OTEC areas as a result of construction activities, plant operational support activities, and plant operation noise. Siting of OTEC plants is a critical consideration for reducing the effects from biota attraction and avoidance. In nearshore environments, platform attraction rates will be rapid (Figure 4-3) and include high concentrations of both neritic and oceanic biota. In contrast, an offshore OTEC platform will attract lower numbers of organisms, primarily through opportunistic encounters. Multiple plant deployments could result in higher numbers of attracted organisms because the new habitat formed may be larger than the sum of the habitats produced by individual plants. Biota avoidance of OTEC plants will have a greater effect in nearshore environments than in offshore environments because nearshore organisms are generally less motile and have more restricted habitats. OTEC plants should be sited away from breeding grounds, calving areas, and migration routes of sensitive organisms. 4-14 JO E 3 z E 3000 2500- •S 2000 1500- 1000- 500- o o TTT I I I I | I I I I I I I I I | I I I I M I I I | I I I I I I I I I | I I I I | I I I I | I I I 10 20 30 40 50 Days After Mooring Figure 4-3. Rate of Fish Attraction to Floating Objects in Tropical Nearshore Waters Source: Hunter and Mitchell, 1967 4.3.2.2 Organism Entrainment - Small marine organisms will be withdrawn from the water column and passed through 0TEC plants. Organisms withdrawn at the cold-water intake are expected to suffer 100% mortality as a result of the o physical abuse, large temperature (20 C) and pressure (100 atmosphere) changes, and biocidal stress associated with passage through the plant. Similarly, survival of organisms withdrawn by the warm-water intakes of open-cycle, hybrid, mist, and foam OTEC plants will be negligible; however, survival of organisms withdrawn by the warm-water intake of closed-cycle OTEC plants may be possible. Preliminary estimates (Table 4-2) indicate more organisms will be entrained at the warm-water intake than at the cold-^water intake because the concentra- tion of plankton in tropical oceanic environments decreases dramatically 4-15 TABLE 4-2 ESTIMATED BIOMASS ENTRAINED DAILY BY VARIOUS SIZES AND NUMBER OF OTEC PLANTS Source: Sands, 1980 Size of Operation Intake Phytoplankton Blomass Entrained (kg C) Mlcrozoop lank ton Blomass Entrained (kg C) Macrozoop lank ton Blomass Entrained (kg C) Warm-Water Intake 120 2.3 81.0 40-MWe Cold-Water Intake 5.4 Total 120 2.3 86.4 Warm-Water Intake 1,200 24 830 AOO-HWe Cold-Water Intake 50 Total 1,200 24 880 Warm-Water Intake 9,600 190 6,640 Cluster (8 Plants; 3200-MWe) Cold-Water Intake 400 Total 9,600 190 7,040 below 300 m (Figure 4-4). Entrainment at the warm- and cold-water intakes will primarily affect macrozooplankton. Phytoplankton and microzooplankton populations will not be seriously affected by OTEC operation because the majority of their biomass is concentrated between the warm- and cold-water intake depths (Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, 1980; Beers, 1978). The ecological impact of macrozooplankton entrainment is difficult to predict because knowledge on the dynamics of the tropical-subtropical ecosystem (i.e., trophic relationship, population dynamics, and community structure) is incomplete. However, the mortality of a large percentage of the macrozoo- plankton population within an area could affect higher trophic levels and potentially become apparent to man through a reduction in commercial fisheries. Entrainment of the eggs and larvae of benthic invertebrates (meroplankton) and fish (ichthyoplankton) may be the single-most serious biological impact resulting from commercial OTEC operation. Preliminary estimates indicate 4-16 - 500 H 4) Q 600 A 700 800 900 H 1000 12 mgC m — 3 16 20 24 Figure 4-4. Biomass of Potentially-Entrained Phytoplankton and Zooplankton Between the Surface and 1000 m. Source: Data from Johnson and Home (1979); King and Hida (1954). that entrainment of eggs and larvae by commercial OTEC plants may signifi- cantly impact the adult population of ecologically- and commercially- important species (Sands, 1980; Sullivan et al. , 1980). This is of particular concern around islands where maintenance of local larval populations is vital to adult population existence and limited recruitment stocks are available. It has been estimated that a 400-MWe OTEC plant would entrain daily approximately 0.05 percent and 0.2 percent of the total meroplankton biomass around the Hawaiian Islands and Puerto Rico, respectively (Sands, 1980), eventually causing a reduction in the adult benthic invertebrate population downstream of the plant. Entrainment of ichthyoplankton by commercial OTEC plants may significantly affect fishery resources in the vicinity of the operation site. The effects of ichthyoplankton entrainment on the fisheries of Oahu, Hawaii, were 4-17 predicted for three different deployment scenarios (Figure 4-5). Three commercially-important fish were investigated (Appendix D); however, only the commercially -important amber jack (SevLota sp.) is discussed here as an example which best illustrates siting and spacing considerations. Clustering of OTEC plants near a spawning area could cause a loss of a potential fishery resource equivalent to $67,000 per year. In contrast, clustering of OTEC plants in an area of low larval abundance could cause a negligible threat to the island's fishery resources. Scattered plant spacing may cause an impact of intermediate magnitude because larval abundance varies greatly with geographic location. Another entrainment issue concerns the secondary entrainment of organisms into the discharge plume. Because of the large discharge volumes and rapid near-field dilution, this secondary entrainment may be significant. A vertically oriented discharge structure would provide secondarily entrained waters with a net downward momentum, which may transport the organisms below Total Year" 1 Evenly Spaced Deployment Cluster off Kane Point Cluster off Waimea Bay Entrained Larvae 1.5 x 10 Equivalent Adults 1500 Commercial Dollar Value 25,000 Spawning areas • 400-MWe OTEC Plant 4000 67,000 See Appendix D for larval density information and catch statistics Negligible Negligible Negligible Figure 4-5. Equivalent Number and Commercial Value of Adult Amberjack (Seriola spp.) Lost as a Result of Ichthyoplankton Entrainment with Various Deployment Scenarios. 4-18 their optimum habitat, strongly reducing their chances for survival. The effects from displacing organisms from the surface layers to deeper depths cannot be assessed with the available information, but could cause increased organism mortality. 4.3.2.3 Organism Impingement - Large marine organisms with limited avoidance capabilities will be subjected to impingement on intake screens of OTEC plants. Impingement may cause significant reductions in local fish, squid, and shrimp populations and could directly or indirectly affect the fishery resources of an area. Disposal of impinged organisms killed or damaged on the intake screens may result in increased feeding activity downstream of an OTEC plant. Impingement rates at conventional land-based generating plants were used to provide an order-of -magnitude estimate of potential impingement at a land-based OTEC plant. Extrapolating from existing data suggests that a 400-MWe land-based OTEC plant could impinge between 50 and 4400 kg of large motile nekton per day (Appendix D). Nekton impingement rates for OTEC plants cannot be precisely estimated because no impingement studies have been performed for offshore power plants. Preliminary estimates indicate that micronekton (mesopelagic fish, squid, and shrimp) impingement will be higher for warm-water than cold-water intakes (Table 4-3) because micronekton vertically migrate from 500 m to concentrate near the surface at night. Micronekton impingement will indirectly affect nekton through food chain interactions since many commercially -important species of nekton (e.g., tuna) rely upon micronekton as a major food source. However, the direct and indirect effects of impingement on commercially - important species cannot be fully evaluated with the available data. 4.3.2.4 Biocide Release - OTEC plants may use biocides to control biofouling on the seawater side of heat exchanger surfaces. Biocides may adversely affect the local marine environment because of their toxicity to nontarget organisms and the large volumes that must be released to maintain heat exchanger efficiency (Sullivan et al., 1980). Candidate biocides include chlorine, chlorine dioxide, bromine chloride, and ozone. Evaluation of the effect of biocide release on the marine environment is difficult, because 4-19 TABLE 4-3 ESTIMATED BIOMASS (WET WEIGHT) IMPINGED DAILY BY VARIOUS SIZES AND NUMBERS OF OTEC PLANTS Source: Sands, 1980. Size of Operation Intake Micronekton Biomass Impinged (kg) Gelatinous Organism Biomass Impinged (kg) Warm-Water Screen 130 8.3 40-MWe Cold-Water Screen 82 6.7 Total 212 15 Warm-Water Screens 1,300 84 400-MWe (1 Plant) Cold-Water Screens 790 64 Total 2,090 148 Warm-Water 10,400 672 Screens Cluster (8 Plants; 3200-MWe) Cold-Water Screens 6,300 512 Total 16,700 1,184 insufficient information exists on the seawater chemistry, toxicity, and dilution rate of the various biocides within the discharge plume. Chlorine, the most likely biocide to be used in commercial OTEC plants, will be discussed as an example of the effects of biocide release because it is the most studied of the alternative biocides. The chemistry of chlorine in seawater is complex (Opresko, 1980; Macalady et al., 1977; Block et al. , 1976; Davis and Middaugh, 1975). In general, chlorine decays rapidly when exposed to sunlight, forming various organic and inorganic compounds that may persist for long periods of time. It is not possible to confidently predict the organic and inorganic compounds generated by chlorinating natural seawater (Block et al. , 1977); however, more organic compounds may be formed than inorganic compounds (Zika, 1981). The organic compounds may be more toxic than either the inorganic compounds or the initially introduced chlorine (Zika, 1981). Chlorinated organic compounds are resistant to degradation and may be accumulated in organism tissues (Goldman, 1979). 4-20 Chlorine toxicity varies widely with the nature of the affected organism (Table 4-4). In general, phytoplankton are the most sensitive to chlorine, exhibiting a 50% reduction in photosynthesis after 24 hour exposures to concentrations as low as 0.075 mg liter" (Gentile et al. , 1976). Plank- tonic larvae of benthic invertebrates (meroplankton) demonstrate a 50% mortality after a 96-hour exposure to chlorine concentrations as low as 0. 005 mg liter" (Bender et al. , 1977). Chlorine concentrations below 0.005 mg liter are not likely to significantly affect marine organisms. As chlorine decays, the concentration of organic and inorganic compounds will increase, potentially reaching toxic levels. The lack of information on the toxicity of chlorine-seawater reaction products to marine organisms (Macalady et al. , 1977; Opresko, 1980) hinders the further assessment of chlorine dis- charges. Sublethal effects of persistent chlorine-seawater reaction products may reduce the survivorship of organisms downstream of commercial OTEC plants. The release of biocides by commercial OTEC plants could adversely affect the marine environment; therefore, unless other methods (e.g., thermal shock, abrasive cleaning, ultrasonics) are employed to control biofouling, an acceptable level of impact will have to be determined. For instance, if the region within 100 km of an OTEC plant can be affected without causing significant environmental disturbances, an initial chlorine concentration of less than 0. 125 mg liter at the discharge point would have to be maintained (assuming 25-fold dilution). If an OTEC plant can affect a 30 km region downstream of the plant without causing adverse impacts, the point source chlorine concentration would have to be limited to 0.06 mg liter" (assuming 12-fold dilution). In ecologically-sensitive areas, where the adverse effects associated with chlorine release are not acceptable, low ( 0. 005 mg liter" ) chlorine concentrations at the discharge point will be required. This may be possible by chlorinating heat exchanger modules individually and diluting the chlorinated effluent with chlorine-free effluent waters from the remaining heat exchanger modules which are not being chlorinated. These examples illustrate that determining biocide release concentrations and schedules will depend on the level of environmental disturbance NOAA is willing to accept at a particular site. 4-21 >H *-4 06 <3r I W u a a a 00 i^ CM r^ ^H *H CM • vO 4 o 00 o u 4-1 O 4J o\ 4J ■ a 1 1 CO «» CO O rv o 0\ CM O CM CM -» CO 00 1"- o O CM O O o O O O CM • • • • SB O O o O o o o o o 4J a CM ■H CO vO r>. O H . 1 «A r^. 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U TI c >-i 0) 0) 4-1 ^H c 4-1 hJ X XI Cfl ■r-t 01 t) o £ u o (X 2 •-> OS X •H 1-1 ^ ^H E c Csl 0> r-~ . — 1 sO CTn u-i F-- p— 1 ■1 vO |v O^ a r-~ i-^ 0> f— 1 A 01 , en a) u CO H o 4-1 . — i CO 2 OJ u T3 4-1 ^ . 01 ■H ■H 01 CO 01 l-i 4J U a •rl ■H 0) X C C 14 > a. t3 o 01 (11 01 to a. c CX4 O o u p W 01 pa to X CJ TJ 0) <4-J 60 4-22 4.3.2.5 Nutrient Redistribution - The transport of large volumes of nutrient-rich deep water into surface layers by an OTEC plant is comparable to the natural phenomenon of upwelling. Increased nutrients in the surface layers of the water column may result in increased phytoplankton populations, thereby leading to the enhancement of zooplankton populations and the entire food chain. Entrained organisms killed during their passage through the plant provide on additional nutrient source as particulate organic carbon. Nutrient redistribution is expected to enhance biological productivity and potentially create valuable fishery resources; however, nutrient redistri- bution could stimulate toxic red tides that occur in certain regions of the OTEC resource area (i.e. Gulf of Mexico) . The cold, nutrient-rich waters discharged by commercial OTEC plants may stabilize below the one percent light-penetration depth, where phytoplankton growth is limited. Therefore, increased productivity resulting from nutrient redistribution may not be an issue. However, if the cold, nutrient-rich water discharged from OTEC plants remains within the photic zone, enhanced primary production will result, potentially increasing phytoplankton biomass to 3 times the ambient concentration for a 40-MWe plant (Sullivan et al. , 1980) and 30 times the ambient concentration for a 400-MWe plant (Sands, 1980). Increases in phytoplankton biomass downstream of OTEC plants may result in changes to the existing marine food chain by making additional food avail- able, thereby potentially increasing zooplankton and other higher trophic- level populations. An order-of -magnitude estimate indicates that the nutrients discharged by a 400-MWe OTEC plant in a day would sustain 4. 1 kg of tuna through a long, oceanic food chain (Appendix D). However, increasing the productivity of an area may make the marine food chain shorter and more efficient. The same amount of nutrients as used in the previous example would sustain between 1,000 and 16,000 kg of tuna if shorter, more efficient food chains develop as a result of the upwelled waters (Appendix D). Therefore, commercial OTEC plants have the potential for artificially enriching downstream areas and supporting valuable fishery resources. 4-23 Increased productivity downstream of the plant could potentially result in adverse impacts. Within the phytoplankton, a group of dinof lagellates exists that cause the phenomenon known as red tide. Red tide refers to the discolored patches of seawater caused by large aggregations of dinoflagellates that produce a neurotoxin lethal to marine organisms (Lackey and Hines, 1955). Exact causes of red tides are not known, but an abundant nutrient source is required to sustain a bloom. The redistribution of nutrient-rich deep waters into the surface layers by an OTEC plant could potentially cause a red tide outbreak, especially in areas having a large population of red tide-producing organisms (i.e. Gulf of Mexico). 4. 3. 3 Minor Effects Minor environmental effects result from OTEC activities that cause insignificant changes to the marine environment. These minor effects, including protective hull-coating and trace constituent releases, submarine cable and pipe implantation, and low-frequency sound production, are described in the following subsections. 4. 3. 3. 1 Protective Hull-Coating Release - OTEC plants will use protective hull coatings on exposed surfaces to minimize biofouling. Protective hull coatings may contain heavy metal oxides, organic compounds, or thermoplastic paints as their toxic constituent. Protective hull-coating releases are not expected to cause acute (lethal) effects to marine organisms (Sands, 1980; Sullivan et al. , 1980); however, chronic impacts resulting from bioaccumul- ation may occur. Bioaccumulation, or the uptake and assimilation of toxic materials within organism tissues, occurs through absorption and ingestion (Phillips and Russo, 1978). Organisms in the immediate vicinity of the plant may be exposed to metal concentrations above background levels that could be absorbed through their skin or gill tissues. Organisms that have absorbed metals may be ingested by predators, thereby passing the metals to higher trophic levels within the food chain. 4-24 Bioaccumulation of metals in commercial fish and shellfish will probably not create a hazard to man (Table 4-5). Copper and zinc pose a low risk to humans because of their low toxicities and tendency to accumulate in non- edible tissues. Arsenic bioaccumulation in edible tissues of most fish is quite low; however, levels associated with shellfish can be high and may be toxic to humans. Mercury is readily accumulated in muscle tissues and is the most toxic of the four metals; for these reasons, the Federal government has restricted the use of mercury in protective hull coatings (Jacoby, 1981). 4.3.3.2 Trace Constituent Release - Trace constituent releases will occur from the seawater corrosion and erosion of structural elements within OTEC plants (e.g., heat exchangers, pump impellers, metallic piping). Heat exchangers, the major source of trace constituent releases from an OTEC plant, will be constructed of titanium, aluminum, or stainless steel, all of which have low toxicities to marine organisms and slow bioaccumulation rates (Table 4-6) . In addition, preliminary estimates indicate that OTEC trace constituent release rates will be extremely low (Sands, 1980; Sullivan et al. , 1980). Therefore, no adverse environmental effects are expected. 4.3.3.3 Cable/Pipe Implantation - The benthic community will be affected by bottom scouring from mooring lines and bottom trenching during implantation of submarine transmission cables and cold-water pipes. Bottom scouring will cause a small disturbance at depths greater than 300 m. Because of the relatively small area disturbed, and the low benthic productivity below 300 m, the surrounding benthic community will not be significantly impacted (Sullivan et al. , 1980). The effects of cable and pipe implantation include burial, turbidity- induced clogging of respiratory and feeding surfaces, and habitat destruc- tion. These effects should not be serious except in ecologically-sensitive areas, such as spawning grounds and coral reefs. The effects of implantation must be fully assessed after the dredging route has been determined and before construction proceeds. 4-25 TABLE 4-5 RELATIVE HAZARDS PRESENTED BY CANDIDATE PROTECTIVE HULL- COATING MATERIALS Source: Phillips and Russo, 1978. Toxicity to Humans Bioaccumulative Tenc ency Human Hazard Freshwater Marine Marine Rating From Oral Fish Fish Shellfish or Metal Ingestion Muscle Muscle Crustaceans Copper Low Low Low High Low Zinc Low Low Low High Low Arsenic High Low High High Low Mercury Low High High High High 4.3.3.4 Low-Frequency Sound - OTEC plants may produce low-frequency sound as a result of pump operation, passage of water through intake tubes, and cavi- tation within the plant. The sound emitted from an OTEC plant could inter- fere with low-frequency signals used for communication among marine mammals and various other marine life forms. Information on the frequency and intensity of OTEC sound emission is not presently available. A study of the military implications and applications of OTEC operation (prepared for the DOE by Tracor, Inc.) contains information on sound output from OTEC opera- tion; however, this study is not available for public review. Considering the numerous human-related sources of low-frequency sounds in the ocean, sound emitted from OTEC operation is not expected to have a significant impact on marine life (Appendix D). However, special consideration should be given to studying the effects of low-frequency sound from OTEC plants on the endangered humpback whale (Megapteva novaeangliae ) during its winter breeding and calving activities near the Hawaiian Islands. 4.3.3.5 Surfactant Release - The environmental effects of discharging surfactants along with the effluent from OTEC foam power plants is not known. Various surfactants are currently being tested at the Carnegie-Mellon University (Noriega, 1981); presently, no biodegradable surfactant has been identified. Until an acceptable biodegradable surfactant is chosen, no definite impacts can be assessed. 4-26 TABLE 4-6 RELATIVE HAZARDS PRESENTED BY CANDIDATE HEAT EXCHANGER MATERIALS Source: Phillips and Russo, 1978; HEW, 1979. Toxicity to Humans Bioaccumulative Tendency Human Hazard Freshwater Marine Marine Rating From Oral Fish Fish Shellfish or Metal Ingestion Muscle Muscle Crustaceans Titanium Low Low Low Low Low Aluminum Low High Low Low Low Stainless Steel Chromium Low Low Low Low Low Nickel Low Low Low Low Low Iron Low High High High Low 4. 3. 3. 6 Open-Cycle Plant Operation - Release of deaerated water from an open-cycle plant will not cause adverse effects, because rapid mixing of the discharge plume will increase oxygen concentrations to ambient levels before the end of the near-field (Sands, 1980). Release of higher-than-ambient salinity waters from open-cycle plants will not cause adverse environmental effects, because the difference in salinity between the discharge and ambient waters will not exceed 0.35 ppt (Appendix D). 4. 3. 4 Potential (Accidental) Effects Operations in the marine environment present several unique hazards or potential for accidents. Collisions, extreme meteorological conditions, military action, political terrorism, or human error may cause catastrophic spills of OTEC working fluids and petroleum products stored aboard the platform. The effects of these releases during normal plant operation and during catastrophic events are described in the following subsections. 4-27 4. 3. 4. 1 Working Fluid Release - OTEC heat exchangers will have extensive surface areas exposed to constant physical and chemical stresses. Leaks may develop in the heat exchangers or working fluid transport system, resulting in working fluid release. Toxicity data is only available for one of the candidate working fluids, ammonia, which is the most likely working fluid to be used in commercial OTEC plants. Natarajan (1970) reported ammonia concentrations of 55.0 to 71.1 mg liter inhibited photosynthesis in unspecified marine phytoplankton. Toxicity studies on Sargassum shrimp (Latveutes fueovim) and filefish (Monocanthus lispidus) indicate that the lethal ammonia concentration for both species is approximately 1.0 mg liter (Venkataramiah, 1979). Ammonia release from heat exchanger leaks during normal OTEC operation is not expected to cause adverse environmental effects because low concentra- tions of ammonia stimulate primary productivity. Ammonia concentrations can only reach lethal levels in the event of a catastrophic spill (Appendix D) . A 2 catastrophic spill would kill zooplankton and fish stocks over a 63 km area, resulting in a significant short-term environmental impact. A catas- trophic spill from an ammonia-producing plantship would release up to 4. 3 x 10 kg of ammonia, which around the plantship (Appendix D). 7 2 4. 3 x 10 kg of ammonia, which could potentially affect a 428 km area 4.3.4.2 Oil Releases - Oilspills from accidents at sea or petroleum leaks from minor spills may occur because of increased ship traffic resulting from OTEC operation. Oil releases could also occur during the deployment of the cold-water pipe. One proposed method for deploying the cold-water pipe 3 consists of filling an insert within the pipe with 10,000 m of oil for buoyancy and floating the pipe to the deployment site. The cold-water pipe would then be upended during deployment activities by pumping the oil out of the steel insert into a nearby barge or tanker (Moak et al. , 1980). An accident during such an operation could cause total release of the oil, resulting in significant environmental impacts. 4-28 The toxic effects of petroleum product spills have been summarized by Cox (1977). The potential damages to marine organisms from oil pollution include: • Coating and asphyxiation of organisms © Contact poisoning of organisms • Exposure to water-soluble toxic components of oil A large oilspill could potentially affect the entire local environment and disrupt local populations of phytoplankton, zooplankton, nekton, marine mammals, and birds. A complete assessment of the effects of an oilspill resulting from OTEC activities cannot be provided until additional environ- mental and engineering information is available. However, careful consider- ation of the risk of potential accidents must accompany the design of OTEC plants to ensure that accidental oil releases will not create significant problems. 4. 4 EFFECTS ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES The major human activities in the OTEC resource area include commercial and recreational fishing, shipping and transportation, naval activities, scientific research, and recreation. The effects of commercial OTEC develop- ment on these activities are discussed in the following subsections. 4. 4. 1 Commercial and Recreational Fishing Commercial and recreational fishing may be significantly affected by the siting and operation of OTEC plants. Fish attracted to OTEC plants will concentrate in the general vicinity of the plant, increasing the recreational yield of the area. However, the entrainment of egg and larval stages, the impingement of juvenile and adult fish stages, and the discharge of biocides may reduce the fish population downstream of the plant. These losses may be partially compensated by the redistribution of nutrients and resulting enhanced productivity. The net effect of OTEC operation on fishing depends on the biological productivity of the region. In highly productive regions 4-29 OTEC operation may slightly decrease the fishery resources, whereas in areas of low productivity, the net effect could benefit commercial and recreational fishing. 4. 4. 2 Shipping and Transportation The effect of commercial OTEC development on shipping and transportation will be minimal because the sites will be designated for the production of baseload electricity or energy -intensive products, and should not interfere with commercial shipping. The location and boundaries of OTEC plants will be clearly marked on navigational charts and a Notice to Mariners issued by the U.S. Coast Guard. Shipping lanes may be established in areas having multiple OTEC plant deployments. 4.4.3 Naval Operations U.S. Naval operations may occur in the vicinity of commercial OTEC plants; however, only minimal interference is expected. The Hydrographic Center of the Defense Mapping Agency is responsible for issuing a Notice to Mariners in the event of naval maneuvers or any other hazard to vessel operations. Submarine operation areas exist in the OTEC resource area and submarine traffic is a potential hazard to the cold-water pipe and mooring cables of OTEC plants. However, OTEC-use areas will be clearly marked on navigation charts. The military implications and applications of OTEC operation has been studied by Tracor, Inc., but the results are not available for public review. 4. 4. 4 Scientific Research Commercial OTEC development will not have significant detrimental effects on scientific research activities. Deployment and operation of OTEC plants may stimulate scientific research through site evaluation and monitoring studies required for licensing. 4-30 4.4.5 Recreation Recreational areas affected by commercial OTEC development are primarily concentrated in coastal regions. Most coastal states in which OTEC plants are likely to be located have Federally -approved coastal zone management programs, which will ensure that effects to recreational areas are mitigated. 4. 4. 6 Aesthetics The analysis of aesthetic impact is complex, because a great variety of natural and man-made conditions exist in the OTEC resource area. OTEC development may have an adverse impact on aesthetics; the magnitude of the impact depends upon the nature and number of OTEC plants and their location. Degradation of aesthetics could decrease the public's enjoyment of beaches and coastal waters. This in turn may affect tourism, especially in highly- scenic areas. These effects should be assessed at the State and local level prior to deployment of OTEC plants. 4.5 INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect effects of commercial OTEC development may result from the manu- facture of OTEC plants, alterations in existing resource demands, and increased demands on the communities where OTEC plants are developed. The nature and magnitude of these indirect impacts are dependent on the number and type of plants that will be built and characteristics of the construction site, deployment site, and transportation routes. The secondary environmental and socioeconomic effects of commercial OTEC development are discussed in the following subsections. 4. 5. 1 Secondary Environmental Effects The development of OTEC as a commercial energy technology will have sev- eral indirect environmental effects. Modifications to existing shipyard facilities will be required for concrete platform designs (Table 4-7). Construction of a concrete OTEC plant would require deep graving docks and 4-31 protected shallow- and deep-water areas. Adequate graving docks are not presently available at U.S. shipyards. Puget Sound is the only U.S. port having adequate shallow- and deep-water protected areas (Table 4-7). Steel OTEC designs will require minimal modifications to existing shipyard facilities. Impacts related to OTEC plant construction will be short-term and mitigated by controls imposed by existing Federal, State, and local regulations. For example, the placement of structures, such as piers and wharfs, will require Corps of Engineers approval and prior notification to the U.S. Coast Guard so that appropriate warnings to navigators can be issued. Any major construction or harbor modification will require an EIS, EA, or Finding of No Significant Impact, in accordance with the requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act (PL 91-190). Most of the coastal states in which construction facilities are likely to be located have Federally-approved coastal zone management programs which influence the design and impacts of facilities constructed along the coast. These measures will minimize the impact of harbor and shipyard modifications required for the manufacture of OTEC plants and will ensure that unacceptable environ- mental impacts do not occur. Ship traffic will increase in the vicinity of OTEC sites as a result of OTEC plant deployment, operation, and the transport of products manufactured on plantships. Increased ship traffic could interfere with commercial fishing vessels, recreational boating, and commercial vessels not associated with the OTEC plant. Atmospheric emissions and landscape alterations will result from mining and smelting of mineral ores for OTEC plant components; the associated impacts cannot be accurately predicted without specific information on material requirements. 4.5.2 Socioeconomic Effects In general, the island communities of the United States suitable for OTEC development are almost totally dependent upon imported oil, with few viable alternatives available (Sullivan et al. , 1980). Thus, these island 4-32 TABLE 4-7. U.S. PORTS WITH SUITABLE FACILITIES FOR OTEC PLATFORM CONSTRUCTION. Source: Modified from Delta Marine Consultants, 1980. Platform Hull Adequate Access Initial Construction Graving Dock Secondary Construction Protected Shallow Protected Deep Type Material** Channel Water Site Water Site (Fig. 1-2) nwc Puget Sound, WA Corpus Chriati, TX* None Puge t Sound , WA Not Required Concrete ship Puget Sound, WA Long Beach, CA (external heat exchanger) lwc San Francisco, CA Corpus Chriati, TX* None Puget Sound, WA Not Required Galveston, TX* Hampton Roads, VA* Puget Sound, WA Long Beach, CA San Francisco, CA Concrete ship nwc Corpus Chrlstl, TX* Galveston, TX* None Puget Sound, WA Not Required (external heat Baltimore, MD* exchangers , Hampton Roads, VA* upside down construction) 11 sites on East Coast 9 sites on Gulf Coast lwc 8 sites on West Coast Hawaii Puerto Rico None Puget Sound, WA Not Required Puget Sound, WA Long Beach, CA nwc San Francisco, CA Concrete spar Corpus Chriati, TX Galveston, TX* None Puget Sound, WA Puget Sound, WA (external heat Hampton Roads, VA* exchanger) 11 sites on East Coast 9 sites on Gulf Coast lwc 6 sites on West Coast Hawaii Puerto Rico None Puget Sound, WA Puget Sounl, WA nvc Puget Sound, WA None Not Required None Concrete spar (Internal heat Puget Sound, WA None Not Required Puget Sound, WA exhanger) lwc Corpus Chrlstl, TX* Galveston, TX* San Diego, CA Puget Sound, WA San Francisco, CA Long Beach, CA Tampa, FL San Francisco, CA New Orleans, LA+ Corpus Chrlstl, TX* Qulncy, MA Galveston, TX* Baltimore, MD+ Baltimore, VA* Steel ship Steel Available at all U.S. Pascagoula, MS+ Hampton Roads, VA (external and ports with adequate Brooklyn, NT Grays Harbor, WA* Not Required Internal heat construction facilities. Chester, PA+ Freeport, TX* exchanger) Newport News, VA Norfolk, VA+ Portland, OS Sparrows Point, MD San Francisco, CA+ New York, NT Port Everglades, FL Puerto Rico* * Proposed **uwc: normal wei| ;ht concrete; lwc s light weight concrete +Adequate float in | dock available. 4-33 communities are highly vulnerable to oil price increases and future oil embargoes. Commercial OTEC development will have a positive influence on island economies by initiating a process for obtaining total energy independence, thereby creating long-term price stability for economic development. OTEC plant components will be manufactured at shipyards and industrial facilities in island communities and the continental United States. The manufacture and assembly of OTEC plants, and the modification of existing harbors and shipyard facilities will result in the creation of construction- related jobs. The projected job impact of OTEC plant construction will be significant for large depressed city areas, where most shipyards are located. Approximately 2,000 worker-years of shipyard employment would be required to construct a 40-MWe plantship (Francis et al. , 1979). Operation and support of OTEC plants will create additional employment opportunities. Estimates indicate that approximately 20 to 30 persons would be required to operate a commercial OTEC plant (Moak et al. , 1980), and an additional number of people would be employed in a support capacity. Jobs provided by commercial OTEC development would most likely replace any jobs lost at facilities powered by fossil fuels. There may be significant short-term impacts to the population character- istics of communities near OTEC plant assembly sites, depending on the characteristics of the site and the local community infrastructure. Temporary housing and community services (water, electricity, sewage) may be needed for construction crews. Population impacts would probably be reduced to minimal levels after the construction of an OTEC plant is complete and operation begins. 4. 6 CUMULATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS Effects of OTEC development may include (1) habitat disruption, (2) attraction to the platform, (3) toxic effects from biocide release, working fluid spills, and other discharges, (4) redistribution of food 4-34 resources from platform attraction, impingement, entrainment, and nutrient redistribution, (5) changes in ocean water properties, and (6) human activity alterations. Marine organisms may be affected either directly or indirectly by these effects and by synergistic interactions between these effects. Nekton populations will increase in the vicinity of the plant because of attraction to structure and lights, but could decrease in downstream areas as a result of entrainment of eggs and larval stages and impingement of juvenile and adult stages. Plankton populations will be reduced immediately downstream of OTEC plants as a result of entrainment and biocide release ; however, the redistribution of nutrient-rich deep water into the photic zone may stimulate plankton productivity and ultimately increase plankton and nekton populations. Benthic community effects will center primarily on their planktonic larval stages, which may be reduced as a result of entrainment and biocide release. Impacting the egg and larval stages of benthic organisms has the potential of reducing recruitment stocks and adult benthic populations downstream of the plant. The size of the area influenced by OTEC operations will be determined by the size of the plant and the spacing distance between plants. Decreasing interplant distance will increase the magnitude of plant operational effects, while reducing the geographic region affected. In addition, clustering of plants may synergistically increase the magnitude of environmental effects associated with multiple plant operations. In general, OTEC operation will affect nearshore environments to a greater degree than offshore environments because: • The coastal zone is highly biologically-productive and used as spawning, breeding, and calving grounds for many species of marine organisms; therefore, disturbances in nearshore regions are likely to affect commercially-important and ecologically- sensitive areas. • Nearshore populations rely on local recruitment from life stages concentrated in small areas and can be severely disrupted by localized impacts. 4-35 • The nearshore has less horizontal homogeneity than the offshore environment, which limits the ability of nearshore organisms to move away from disturbances without leaving their preferred environment . The cumulative effect of commercial OTEC development may significantly affect threatened and endangered species. Specific plant locations are required to predict the potential cumulative effect of commercial OTEC development on threatened and endangered species. OTEC development near island communities may impact threatened and endangered species which are endemic to the area, or affect species which migrate to the area for reproductive or feeding purposes. These species inhabit or make use of nearshore areas around islands, and OTEC plants would be sited either on land or close to shore. Migratory threatened and endangered species could abandon areas impacted by OTEC operation; however, this could disrupt their breeding, calving, or feeding activities. Endemic threatened and endangered species could be directly affected if their habitat is disrupted by OTEC develop- ment. To avoid or mitigate impacts to threatened and endangered species, plant siting should avoid critical habitats and ecologically-sensitive areas of threatened and endangered species. OTEC development in oceanic regions of the Gulf of Mexico, Pacific Ocean, and Atlantic Ocean is not expected to significantly affect threatened and endangered species. Plants will be located far offshore, where threatened and endangered species are highly motile and have worldwide distributions. Thus, oceanic threatened and endangered species should be able to avoid any localized impacts associated with OTEC operation. Commercial OTEC development in climatically -sensitive areas may alter weather patterns as a result of sea-surface temperature changes and carbon dioxide release. The magnitude and nature of climatic effects resulting from commercial OTEC development have not been ascertained; additional research is required. 4-36 4. 7 UNAVOIDABLE ADVERSE EFFECTS AND MITIGATING MEASURES Preliminary estimates demonstrate that single and multiple deployments of 40-, .100-, and 400-MWe OTEC plants have the potential for significantly impacting marine and terrestrial environments through unavoidable adverse effects associated with their siting, construction, and operation. The identified unavoidable effects associated with commercial OTEC development include: • Biota attraction and avoidance • En trainmen t of planktonic organisms, particularly larvae • Impingement of ecologically- or commercially-important species • Biocide release • Ocean water redistribution, particularly nutrient redistribu- tion and sea-surface temperature alterations The potential for, and magnitude of, environmental impacts resulting from these OTEC development issues can be mitigated or reduced by implementing various siting and design considerations (Table 4-8). In general, these measures are related to platform siting, and intake and discharge structure design. The following subsections evaluate the effectiveness of these mitigating measures. 4. 7. 1 Platform Siting Siting is the single-most important determinant of the potential for environmental impact. Platform siting will determine the magnitude of environmental impacts related to OTEC activities, because the local populations define the ecological sensitivity of an area. 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Siting away from ecologically -sensitive areas (such as coral reefs, seagrass beds, reproductive areas, and critical habitats for threatened or endangered species) and important fishery-resource areas is the most effective and fundamental means available for minimizing significant adverse impacts. Avoidance of OTEC plants by organisms sensitive to human activities can be minimized by reducing light and noise levels on OTEC platforms to the minimum required for safe operation. 4.7.2 Intake Considerations Unavoidable adverse effects associated with the withdrawal of resource waters by OTEC plants include organism entrainment and impingement. Entrain- ment of planktonic organisms and the larvae of oceanic and nearshore organisms may reduce the food resource for higher trophic levels, and reduce adult fish and benthic invertebrate populations downstream of the plant. Impingement of juvenile and adult organisms may also reduce the food resource for higher trophic levels and reduce existing and future population sizes. Both entrainment and impingement effects have the potential for adversely affecting the fishery resources in the OTEC resource area. The design of OTEC intake structures will determine, in part, the number of organisms withdrawn and the associated mortality rate. Impingement and entrainment may be reduced by taking advantage of the natural vertical stratification of marine organisms and locating the intakes at depths with low organism concentra- tions. Entrainment mortality may be effectively reduced by minimizing the physical abuse to which entrained organisms are subjected during passage through the plant. Low intake velocities will minimize shear and acceleration stresses, and the number of pipe bends and constrictions could be reduced to minimize abrasion and impaction of entrained organisms. Conventional power plants use various intake designs and technology con- siderations for reducing organism impingement rates. Similar design con- siderations should be made for commercial OTEC plants. OTEC intakes should be engineered to attract the least number of organisms possible, either 4-40 through structure design, such as screening the water prior to entry into a land-based plant's warm-water intake, or the placing intakes as far as possible from structures that attract organisms. Fish sense and avoid horizontal flow fields more readily than vertical flow fields; therefore, commercial OTEC plants may impinge fewer organisms if the resource water is withdrawn horizontally rather than vertically, either through intake orientation or the use of a velocity cap (Hansen, 1978). Reducing intake flow velocities to a point at which most fish, squid, and shrimp could escape withdrawal may further reduce organism impingement rates. Fish-return systems could also be used to reduce impingement losses. 4.7.3 Discharge Considerations Significant environmental effects resulting from the discharge of warm and cold water by OTEC plants include organism mortality from biocide release, increased productivity from the upwelling of nutrient-rich waters, and sea- surface temperature alterations from ocean water redistribution. The magnitude of these environmental effects will be determined by the discharge plume's dilution rate and stabilization depth (Sullivan and Sands, 1980b). Plume behavior can be controlled through discharge structure design. Plume" temperature and density, discharge orientation, discharge velocity, discharge depth and the number of discharge ports or diffusers can all be modified to produce desired plume behavior (Sullivan and Sands, 1980b). Mixing cold and warm discharges will result in a plume density between that of warm- and cold-water discharges and cause the mixed plume to stabilize deeper than warm-water plumes and shallower than cold-water plumes. The plume from a discharge structure oriented vertically downward tends to stabilize deeper than the plume from a horizontal discharge, due to the initial downward momentum and the entrainment of denser deep water. High discharge velocities tend to increase turbulence in the plume, increasing mixing and dilution rates. The plume stabilization depth is influenced by the discharge depth, and the number of discharge ports affects plume dilution rates. 4-41 Plume stabilization below the photic zone will reduce the potential for adverse impacts, decrease the potential of degrading the warm-water resource downstream of the plant, and minimize sea-surface temperature alterations. The most effective means for reducing the adverse effects of OTEC effluent discharges is to employ biofouling control methods which do not require the release of biocides. If biocide release is necessary to maintain heat exchanger efficiency, designing the discharge structure to allow the discharge plume to dilute rapidly and stabilize below the photic zone will reduce environmental effects because: • Phytoplankton, the organisms most sensitive to biocides, are limited to depths receiving sufficient light for photosynthesis, and would, therefore, not be affected. • Chlorine degradation to potentially toxic organic compounds is slower below the photic zone, allowing greater plume dilutions before formation of the compounds. • Depths below the photic zone have far fewer organisms , commercially-important species, and ecologically-important groups than do photic zone waters. Discharging the effluent below the photic zone, however, also decreases the potential for an increase in primary productivity that could result from the release of nutrients into the photic zone. The benefits and advantages of various discharge plume behaviors should be weighed on a site-by-site basis to select the alternative with the least adverse impact. 4.8 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SHORT-TERM USE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND MAINTENANCE AND ENHANCEMENT OF LONG-TERM PRODUCTIVITY The proposed action in this EIS, the encouragement of commercial OTEC development, is not a short-term use of the environment. Rather, it is a long-term commitment to an energy technology which could assist im promoting energy self-sufficiency for the United States. Commercial OTEC development 4-42 will primarily occur in tropical-subtropical communities which have an adequate thermal resource and require a renewable, unlimited energy source which is free from foreign control. Commercial OTEC plants may cause environmental disturbances in the vicinity of deployment and operation sites, but careful consideration of the environmental characteristics at candidate OTEC sites during the design of OTEC plants will reduce the magnitude of environmental impacts to acceptable levels and maintain the long-term productivity of the region. 4.9 IRREVERSIBLE AND IRRETRIEVABLE RESOURCE COMMITMENT Resources that would be irreversibly or irretrievably committed upon implementation of the proposed action include: • Raw materials used in the construction of commercial OTEC plants. • Energy in the form of fuel required for construction, transportation, operation, and maintenance of OTEC plants. • Plant constituents, such as trace metals and chemical biocides, released during normal plant operation because technology is not adequate to recover them efficiently. • Use of the deployment site for other purposes, and commitment of nearby areas for plant access. • Flora and fauna impacted by OTEC development, which may affect commercial resources of localized areas. 4-43 Chapter 5 LIST OF PREPARERS The preparation of the EIS was a joint effort employing members of the scientific and technical staff of Interstate Electronics Corporation (IEC) and the Office of Ocean Minerals and Energy (OME) of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) . Technical advice was provided by consul- tants selected by IEC. The preparers of the EIS and the sections for which they were responsible are presented in Table 5-1. TABLE 5-1 LIST OF PREPARERS Author Affiliation Summary Chapter Appendix 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 A B C D Principal Authors J. R. Donat IEC X X X X X X X S. M. Sullivan IEC X X X X X X L. F. Martin NOAA-OME X X E. P. Myers NOAA-OME X X R. D. Norling NOAA-OME X X Contributing Authors K. D. Green IEC X X P. D. Jepsen IEC X X X X X C. E. Olshesky IEC X X X J. F. Villa IEC X X X X J. D. Ditmars ANL X R. A. Paddock ANL X A. M. Barnett MEC X X X R. E. Pieper use X X 5-1 5. 1 PRINCIPAL AUTHORS John R. Donat Mr. Donat holds a B.S. degree in chemical oceanography and is an OTEC Project Manager for Interstate Electronics Corporation. As a principal author of this EIS, Mr. Donat directed the preparation of the Summary and Chapters 1, 5, and 6, and Appendix A, contributed to Chapters 2 and 4 and Appendix D, edited all chapters, and maintained liaison with NOAA-OME. Mr. Donat has two years' experience in the preparation of EIS's on deep- ocean waste disposal and spent one year assisting in the preparation of the Draft OTEC Programmatic Environmental Assessment (EA) and the OTEC Pilot Plant EA. Mr. Donat was the principal investigator for the EA on the pro- posed second deployment of Mini-OTEC. Mack Sullivan Mr. Sullivan holds a B.S. degree in biological oceanography and is the OTEC Program Manager for Interstate Electronics Corporation. As a princi- pal author of this EIS, Mr. Sullivan directed the preparation of the Summary, Chapters 3 and 4, and Appendix B and C, contributed to Chapter 2, edited all chapters, and maintained liaison with NOAA-OME. Mr. Sullivan has over three years' experience in OTEC-related projects and has served in both technical and project management roles. In addition to being a major contributor to the OTEC-1 Environmental Assessment and the Mini-OTEC EA, he was a chapter editor for the OTEC Programmatic EA, and prin- cipal investigator for the Environmental Assessment of OTEC Pilot Plants. Mr. Sullivan has authored technical publications on OTEC environmental issues and has given formal presentations at several OTEC conferences. Lowell F. Martin Mr. Martin holds a B.S. degree in mechanical engineering and an M.S. degree in machine design. Mr. Martin, as the OTEC Licensing Program Manager for NOAA-OME, provided general guidance, and contributed to the preparation of the Summary and Chapter 2 of the EIS. 5-2 Edward P. Myers Dr. Myers holds a Ph.D. in Environmental Engineering Science and is the OTEC Environmental Program Manager for NOAA-OME. Dr. Myers provided technical guidance throughout the EIS and contributed to the preparation of the Summary and Chapter 2. Richard D. , Nor ling Mr. Norling holds a B.S. degree in mathematics and B.A. , M. A. , and M.Phil, degrees in political science. Mr. Norling, as the OTEC Program Coordinator for NOAA-OME, provided general guidance, and contributed to the preparation of the Summary and Chapter 2 of the EIS. 5.2 CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS Karen Green Ms. Green, an Oceanographer with Interstate Electronics Corporation, holds a B.S. degree in marine biology, and is a candidate for an M.S. degree in marine biology. Ms. Green contributed to the preparation of Appendix D and was responsible for assessing the effects of cable/pipe implantation, entrainment, impingement, and attraction in Chapter 4. She also edited all chapters. Ms. Green, has two years' experience in assessing the environmental effects of power plant entrainment and impingement, and one year's experience in preparing EIS's. Peter D. Jepsen Mr. Jepsen holds a B.S. degree in oceanography and is an Associate Oceanographer with Interstate Electronics Corporation. Mr. Jepsen was responsible for assessing the environmental effects of sea-surface temperature changes, carbon dioxide release, and biocide release in Chapter 4. He also was responsible for preparing Chapter 7 and Appendix C, assisted in the preparation of Chapter 3 and Appendix D, and edited all chapters. Mr. Jepsen has one year's experience in preparing EIS's, and was a major contributor to the Environmental Assessment of OTEC Pilot Plants. 5-3 Christine E. Olshesky Ms. Olshesky holds a B.S. degree in chemical oceanography and is an Associate Oceanographer with Interstate Electronics Corporation. Ms. Olshesky was responsible for the preparation of the OTEC technology description in Chapter 1 and assisted in the preparation of Chapters 5 and 7. Ms. Olshesky has one year's experience in preparing EIS's on ocean disposal of dredged material. Joseph F. Villa Mr. Villa, an Associate Oceanographer with Interstate Electronics Corporation, holds a B.A. degree in biology. Mr. Villa was responsible for assessing the effects of trace constituent releases, protective hull-coating releases, and nutrient redistribution in Chapter 4, and for the preparation of Appendix A. Mr. Villa also assisted in the preparation of Chapter 3, coordinated the publication of the EIS, and edited the art work. Mr. Villa has three years' experience in preparing EIS's and was a major contributor to the Environmental Assessment of OTEC Pilot Plants. John D. Ditmars Dr. Ditmars holds a Ph.D. degree in civil engineering and is the Director of the Water Resources Section (Energy and Environmental Systems Division) of Argonne National Laboratory. Dr. Ditmars has extensive experience in modeling thermal plume dynamics, and four year's of experience in modeling OTEC discharge plumes. Dr. Ditmars prepared the description of OTEC discharge plume behavior in Section 4.3, Marine Effects. Robert A. Paddock Dr. Paddock holds a Ph.D. degree in physics and is an Environmental Scientist in the Water Resources Section of Argonne National Laboratory. Dr. Paddock has five year's experience modeling thermal plume dynamics, and four years' of experience in modeling OTEC discharge plumes. Dr. Paddock prepared the description of OTEC discharge plume behavior in Section 4. 3, Marine Effects. 5-4 Arthur M. Barnett Dr. Barnett holds a Ph.D. degree in biological oceanography and is president of Marine Ecological Consultants in Solana Beach, California. Dr. Barnett edited Chapters 2, 3, and 4. Richard E. Pieper Dr. Pieper holds a Ph.D. degree in biological oceanography. Dr. Pieper has been a Research Scientist at the University of Southern California's (USC) Institute of Marine and Coastal Studies and an Associate Research Professor in the Department of Biology at USC for the past ten years. Dr. Pieper assisted in the preparation of Chapter 3, and edited Chapter 4. 5-5 Chapter 6 COORDINATION In compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, NOAA developed an Environmental Issues Discussion Document and held a public scoping meeting prior to preparing this Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) on Commercial OTEC Development. The public scoping meeting was held 30 October 1980 in Washington, D.C., to determine the scope of issues to be addressed in the EIS, and to identify the significant issues related to establishing a legal regime for the commercial development of OTEC. Notice of the scoping meeting and the availability of the discussion paper was published on pages 63543 and 63544 of the Federal Register , September 25, 1980. Attendees of this meeting included representatives of Federal, State, and local agencies, private industry, academic institutions, special interest groups, and members of the general public. This EIS has been reviewed by individuals from the Main Line Components (MLC) of NOAA. In addition, copies of this EIS have been sent to the following agencies and individuals for review: AFL-CIO Maritime Trades Department Ms. Jean Ingrao, Administrator 815 - 16th Street, N.W., Suite 510 Washington, D. C. 20006 American Association of Port Authorities Mr. Michael J. Giari 1612 K Street, N.W., Suite 502 Washington, D. C. 20006 6-1 American Bureau of Shipping Carma Pereira 65 Broadway New York, New York 10006 Mr. Enrique Af lague Chief Commissioner P. 0. Box 786 Agana, Guam 96910 American Farm Bureau Federation Mr. Bruce Hawley 425 13th Street, N.W. Washington, D. C. 20004 American Society of Planning Officials Devon Schneider 1313 East 60th Street Chicago, Illinois 60637 American Fisheries Society Carl R. Sullivan 5410 Grosvenor Lane Bethesda, Maryland 20014 Advisory Council on Historic Preservation Ms. Katherine Raub Ridley 1522 K Street, N. W. , Suite 510 Washington, D. C. 20005 American Gas Association J. P. Whitman 1515 Wilson Boulevard, 11th Floor Arlington, Virginia 22209 Atomic Industrial Forum Ms. S. Nakamura 1016 16th Street, N.W. Suite 850 Washington, D. C. 20036 American Industrial Development Council Dr. Joseph P. Furber 1207 Grand Avenue, Suite 845 Kansas City, Missouri 64106 American Petroleum Institute Mr. Steve Chamberlain 2101 L Street, Room 792 Washington, D. C. 20037 American Society of Civil Engineers Mr. Orville T. Magoon P. 0. Box 26062 San Francisco, California 94126 American Shore and Beach Preservation Association Dr. M. P. O'Brien 412 O'Brien Hall University of California Berkeley, California 94720 Orlando Anglero Division Head of Environmental Protection Quality Assurance and Nuclear Puerto Rico Water Resources Authority San Alberto Building Room 517 Condado Avenue Santurce, Puerto Rico 00908 6-2 Boating Industry Association Jeff W. Napier 401 North Michigan Avenue Chicago, Illinois 60611 Center for Law and Social Policy Mr. James M. Barnes 1751 N Street, N.W. Washington, D. C. 20036 Bureau of Marine Resources Mr» Richard. L. Leard Post Office Drawer 959 Long Beach, Mississippi 39560 Center For Natural Areas Brian O'Sullivan 1525 New Hampshire Avenue, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20036 Mr. Julio Brady Virgin Islands Federal Programs Office 1001 Connecticut, N. W. Washington, D. C. Eduardo Lopez-Ballori Director, Office of Energy Apartado 41089 Estacion Minillas San Juan, Puerto Rico 00936 Dr. Juan A. Bonet, Jr. Director Centro para Estudios Energeticos y Ambientales de Puerto Rico Caparra Heights Station San Juan, Puerto Rico 00935 Honorable Carlos Romero-Barcelo Governor La Fortaleza San Juan, Puerto Rico 00912 Chamber of Commerce of the United States Mr. Jeffrey B. Conley 1615 H Street, N.W. , Room 456 Washington, D. C. 20062 Conservation Foundation Mr. John Clark 1717 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W. 3rd Floor Washington, D. C. 20036 Council of State Planning Agencies Mr. Robert Wise 444 North Capitol Street Washington, D. C. 20001 Honorable Paul M. Calvo Governor of Guam Agana, Guam 96919 The Cousteau Society Mr. Norman Solomon 777 Third Avenue New York, New York 10017 6-3 Honorable Peter T. Coleman Governor Governor's Office Government of American Samoa Pago Pago, American Samoa Department of the Army Mr. Donald Bandel 20 Massachusetts Avenue, N. W. Room 2109 (DAEN-MTO-B) Washington, D. C. 20314 Honorable Carlos S. Camacho Governor Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Saipan, Mariana Islands 96950 Carribean Fishery Management Council Suite 1108 Banco de Ponce Building Hato Ray, Puerto Rico 00918 Division of Recreation and Parks c/o Florida Department of Natural Resources 202 Blount Street, Crown Building Tallahassee, Florida 32301 Honorable Francisco Diaz Mayor of Saipan Saipan, Mariana Islands 96950 Department of Defense Mr. Francis Rohe MRL&A Office of Assistant Secretary Pentagon, Room 3D 761 Washington, D. C. 20301 Department of Justice Mr. Bruce Rashkow Chief, Marine Resources Section 9th and Pennsylvania Avenue, N. W. Room 2644 Washington, D. C. 20530 Department of Agriculture Mr. Warren Zitzmann Soil Conservation Service, Room 6117 14th and Independence Avenues, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20013 Department of Energy Mr. Emmet t Turner Federal Building, Room 2113 or 2109 12th and Pennsylvania Avenues, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20472 Department of the Interior Mr. Paul Stang PPA, Room 4144 18th & C Streets, N. W. , Room 3150 Washington, D. C. 20240 6-4 Department of Transportation Martin Convisser, Director Office of Environment & Safety Room 9422 400 7th Street, S. W. Washington, D. C. 20590 Department of Health and Human Services Mr. Gerald Britten Office of Secretary Program Systems Room 447 200 Independence Avenue, S. W. Washington, D. C. 20201 Department of Housing and Urban Development Mr. Mel Wachs Room 7262 451 7th Street, S. W. Washington, D. C. 20410 Department of Commerce Mr. William H. Brennan Economic Development Administration 14th Constitution Avenue, Room 6001 Washington, D. C. 20230 Environmental Policy Center Ms. Hope Robertson 317 Pennsylvania Avenue, S. E. Washington, D. C. 20003 Environmental Defense Fund, Inc. Mr. Ed Thompson 1525 18th Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20036 Environmental Law Institute Mr. Frederick Anderson, Suite 620 1346 Connecticut Avenue, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20036 Friends of the Earth Elizabeth Kaplan 530-7th Street, S. E. Washington, D. C. 20003 Mr. David Flores Guam Economic Development Authority Administrator P. 0. Box 3280 Agana, Guam 96910 Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Dr. Schuster Room 3000 825 North Capitol Street, N. E. Washington, D. C. 20426 Honorable Bob Graham Governor State of Florida The Capitol Tallahassee, Florida 32304 Guam Energy Office Mr. Jay Lather Administrator P. 0. Box 2950 Agana, Guam 96910 6-5 Guam Environmental Protection Agency Administrator P. 0. Box 2999 Agana, Guam 96910 Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council Lincoln Center, Suite 881 5401 West Kennedy Boulevard Tampa, Florida 33609 4 General Services Administration Mr. Carl W. Pen land Public Buildings Service, Room 2329 19th & F Streets, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20405 Global Marine Development Mr. Curtis Crooke P.O. Box 3010 Newport Beach, CA 92663 Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service Mr. Richard Gardner 440 G Street, N. W. Room 215 Washington, D. C. 20243 Industrial Union of Marine and Shipbuilding Workers of America Mr. Arthur E. Batson, Jr. 1126 - 16th Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20036 Institute for the Human Environment Mr. Norman T. Gilroy World Affairs Center 312 Sutter Street San Francisco, California 94108 Interstate Natural Gas Association of America Mr. Lawrence Ogden 1660 L Street, N. W., Suite 601 Washington, D. C. 2036 Mr. Hide to Kono Director Department of Planning and Economic Development 250 King Street P. 0. Box 2359 Honolulu, Hawaii 96804 Honorable Juan Luis Governor United States Virgin Islands Government House Charlotte Amalie St. Thomas, U. S. Virgin Islands 00801 Mr. Matt Le'i Acting Director Office of Energy Pago Pago, American Samoa 96799 Legislative Council Aitofle Sagapolu Legislature of American Samoa Pago Pago, American Samoa 96799 6-6 Lockheed missiles and Space J.E. Wenzel Department 57-01 Building 568 P.O. Box 504 Sunnyvale, CA 94086 Honorable Sonny McCoy Mayor City of Key West Key West, Florida 33040 Marine Mammal Commision Ms. Lisa Posternak 1625 I Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20006 National Association of Conversation Districts Mr. Robert E. Williams 1025 Vermont Avenue, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20034 Marine Technology Society Ms. Annena McKnight 1730 M Street, N.W., Suite 412 Washington, D. C. 20036 Ms. Jennie Myers Coast ALliance 1346 Connecticut Avenue, N. W. , Room 723 Washington, D. C. 20036 Mr. Jose Marina Engineer Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority Apartado 4267 San Juan, Puerto Rico 00936 Maritime Administration Mr. James Carman Office of Port and Intermodal Development Department of Commerce Room 4888 14th and E Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20230 National Marine Manufacturers Association Mr. George Rounds Box 5555 Grand Central Station New York, New York 10017 National Association of Home Builders William J. Ehrig 15th and M Streets, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20005 National Association of Realtors Mr. Joe Winkelmann 925 - 15th Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20005 National Audubon Society 1511 K Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20005 6-7 National Coalition for Marine Conservation, Inc. Mr. Christopher M. Weld 100 Federal Street, 18th Floor Boston, Massachusetts 02110 National Farmers Union M. Woodrow Wilson 1012 14th Street, N.W., Room 600 Washington, D. C. 20005 T National Fisheries Institute Gustave Fritschie 1101 Connecticut Avenue, N. W. Suite 700 Washington, D. C. 20006 National Society of Professional Engineers Donald G. Weinert, P.E. Executive Director 2029 K Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20006 National Wildlife Federation Mr. Kenneth S. Kamlet 1412 16th Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20036 National Waterways Conference Mr. Harry N. Cook 1130 17th Street, N. W. , Room 200 Washington, D. C. 20036 National Ocean Industries Association Mr. Tony Mazzaschi 1100 - 17th Street, N. W. , Suite 410 Washington, D. C. 20036 The Nature Conservancy Hardy Wieting, Jr. /Ray Culter 1800 North Kent Street Arlington, Virginia 22209 National Recreation and Park Association Mr. Barry Tindall 1601 North Kent Street Arlington, Virginia 22209 National Research Council Mr. Jack W. Boiler 2101 Constitution Avenue, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20418 Natural Resources Defense Council 1725 I Street, N. W., Suite 600 Washington, D. C. 20006 Nuclear Regulatory Commission Mr. Frank Young Office of State Programs, Room 7512 Maryland National Bank Building 7735 Old Georgetown Road Bethesda, Maryland 20014 Honorable Dr. Herman Padilla Alcalde Municipio de San Juan Apartado 4355 San Juan, Puerto Rico 00905 6-8 Ms. Ana M. Rodriguez 1410 Longworth House Office Building Washington, D. C. 20515 Mr. Malaetasi Togafau 1709 Longworth House Office Buildin; Washington, D. C. 20515 Mr. Jean Romney Administrator Christiansted, St. Croix, U. S. Virgin Islands 00820 Sierra Club 330 Pennsylvania Avenue, S. E. Washington, D. C. 20003 Soil Conservation Society of America 7515 N. E. Ankeny Road Ankeny, Iowa 5C021 Sport Fishing Institute Mr. Gil Radonski, Suite 801 608 - 13th Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20005 T.R.W. , Inc. A.F. Butler 1 Space Park Building 81/ 1673 Redondo Beach, CA 90278 Urban Research and Development Association, Inc. Mr. Martin C. Gilchrist 528 North New Street Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 18018 U. S. Army Corps of Engineers Rennie Sherman 20 Massachusetts Avenue, N. W. Room 219 (DAEN-MTO-B) Washington, D. C. 20314 Sea Solar Power, Inc. J. Hilbert Anderson President 2422 South Queen Street York, Pennsylvania 17402 Honorable Tommy Tanaka Speaker Guam Legislature Agana, Guam 96910 U. S. Coast Guard Lt. Cmdr. Richard Lyons 400 - 7th Street, S. W. , Room 7306 Washington, D. C. 20590 U. S. Department of Energy Lloyd Lewis Division of Ocean Energy Systems Room 421 600 E Street N. W. Washington, D. C. 20585 6-9 U. S. Department of Energy Helen McCammon, Director Ecological Research Division Washington, D. C. 20545 Wildlife Management Institute Wire Building, Suite 709 1000 Vermont Avenue, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20005 U. S. Environmental Protection Agency William Beller (Code WH-54S) Ocean Program, Room 2817 (Hall) 401 M Street, S. W. Washington, D. C. 20460 U. S. Environmental Protection Agency Rich Walentowicz, Oceans Programs Branch 401 M Street, S. W. Washington, D. C. 20460 Congressman Antonio Won Pat 2441 Rayburn Building Washington, D. C. 20515 Western Pacific Fishery Management Council 1164 Bishop Street, Room 1608 Honolulu, Hawaii 96813 6-10 Chapter 7 GLOSSARY, ABBREVIATIONS, AND REFERENCES ABUNDANCE ACUTE EFFECT ADVECTION AESTHETICS AIR BUBBLE SCREEN ALUMINA AMBIENT AMERTAP-BALL ANTIFOULING COATING AREA OF PARTICULAR CONCERN (APC) ARTICULATING TOWER Glossary Relative degree of plentifulness. The death or incapacitation of an organism caused by an action or a substance within a short time (normally 96 hours) . The process of transport of water or of an aqueous property solely by the mass motion of the the oceans, most typically via horizontal currents. Pertaining to the natural beauty or attractiveness of an object or location. A barrier of air bubbles designed to impede the passage of fish. Aluminum oxide (AI2O3). Intermediate material in the production of aluminum from bauxite. Pertaining to the existing conditions of the surrounding environment. A slightly oversized foam rubber ball that is used to clean heat exchanger surfaces. Such balls are continually circulated through heat exchanger tubes to remove slime and fouling layers. A special paint containing a toxic substance, such as copper, used on ship hulls to prevent marine organisms from attaching themselves. A coastal resource area subject to serious or potential use conflicts. Established under considerations outlined in 15 CFR 923.21 (d). A tower constructed with one or more flexible joints to absorb stress. 7-1 ASSEMBLAGE ASSIMILATION ATMOSPHERE AUTOIGNITION TEMPERATURE BACKGROUND LEVEL A group of organisms having a common habitat. The conversion of nonliving matter into tissue by living organisms. A unit of pressure equal to the air pressure at mean sea level, comparable to a 760-mm column of mercury. The temperature at which ignition can occur spontaneously. The naturally occurring concentration of a substance within an environment that has not been affected by unnatural additions of that substance. BALEEN WHALE BAR SCREEN BASELINE SURVEYS AND BASELINE DATA BATHYMETRY BATHYMETRIC GRADIENT BATHYPELAGIC ZONE BENTHOS A whale of the suborder Mysticeti, which feeds using whalebone (baleen) to strain plankton. A screen constructed of heavy gauge bars to prevent passage of large objects. Surveys and the data collected before the initiation of actions that may alter an existing environment. The measurement of ocean depths to determine the sea floor topography. The rate of change of depth in a body of water. The biogeographic realm of the ocean lying between depths of 1,000 and 4,000 m. All marine organisms living on or in the bottom of the sea. BENTHIC COMMUNITY A community of organisms living on or in the bottom of the sea. BILLFISH BIOACCUMULATION BIOCIDE BIODEGRADABLE BIOFOULING A fish, such as a marlin, with long slender jaws. The uptake and assimilation of substances, such as heavy metals, leading to a concentration of these substances within organism tissues. A substance capable of destroying living organisms. Capable of being broken down especially into innocuous products, by the action of living organisms, such as microorganisms . The adhesion of various marine organisms to underwater structures. 7-2 BIOTA BIOTIC BIOTIC GROUPS BIOMASS BLOOM BOTTOM-RESTING TOWER BREEDING GROUND BRITISH THERMAL UNIT (BTU) CANDIDATE SITES CARANGID CARBON FIXATION CARNIVOROUS CENTERLINE DILUTION CENTIGRADE DEGREE Collectively, the plants and animals of a region. Pertaining to life and living organisms. Organisms that are ecologically, structurally, or taxonomically grouped. The weight of living matter, including stored food, present in a population, expressed in terms of a given area or volume of water or habitat. A relatively high concentration of phytoplankton in a body of water, resulting from rapid proliferation during a time of favorable growing conditions generated by nutrient and sunlight availability. An OTEC plant design in which the plant is placed on a tower that rests on the ocean bottom at a depth of 300 m or less. An area used by animals to produce or bring forth their young. A unit of heat energy that is equal to 2.93 x 10"^ kWh. Specific areas being considered for OTEC deployment. Any of the large Carangidae family of marine spiny-finned fishes. Includes important food fishes such as jacks, pompanoes, and yellowtail. Process by which primary producers (phytoplankton) absorb inorganic carbon for production of energy during photosynthesis. Subsiding or feeding on animal tissues. Dilution that occurs along the center of a plume. Unit of thermometric scale on which the interval between the freezing point and boiling point of water is divided into 100 degrees with 0° representing the freezing point and 100° the boiling point; also called Celsius degree. 7-3 CHAETOGNATH A phylum of small plank- tonic, transparent, worm- like invertebrates also known as arrow-worms ; they are often used as water-mass tracers. 2 cnr CHLOROPHYLL CHLOROPHYLL a CHRONIC EFFECT CLOSED-CYCLE SYSTEM CLUPEID COASTAL ZONE COLD-WATER PIPE COMPENSATION DEPTH CONDENSER CONDUIT CONTIGUOUS ZONE A group of green plant pigments that function as photoreceptors of light energy for photosynthesis. A pigment used in photosynthesis that serves as a convenient measure of phytoplankton biomass. A sublethal effect of a substance on an organism which reduces the survivorship of that organism after a long period of exposure to the substance. An OTEC power cycle in which the working fluid does not enter or leave the system but is continuously recycled. Any of the large family Clupeidae of soft-finned bony fishes having a laterally compressed body and a forked tail, such as herring and pilchard. The region, which extends seaward and inland from the shoreline, and that is significantly influenced by both marine and terrestrial processes. That component of the OTEC plant through which cold water is drawn, it extends to about 1000 m depth. The depth at which oxygen production by photosynthesis equals that consumed by phytoplankton respiration during a 24-hour period. The portion of a heat exchanger that conducts heat from the gaseous working fluid to the cold water system. In this process the vapor is changed, or condensed, from a gas to a liquid. A channel through which a material is transported. An area of the high seas adjacent to a State's terri- torial sea, in which the State may exercise the control necessary to prevent infringement of the customs, fiscal, immigration, or sanitary regulations within its territory or territorial sea. This zone extends 12 nmi from the baseline from which the terri- torial sea is measured. The zone is part of the high 7-4 seas, and the Coastal State exercises no sovereignty over these waters other than to the extent covered by the Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone. CONTINENTAL MARGIN CONTINENTAL RISE The zone separating the emergent continents from the deep sea floor; generally consists of the Continental Shelf, Continental Slope, and Continental Rise. A gentle slope with a generally smooth surface between the Continental Slope and the deep ocean floor. CONTINENTAL SHELF That part of the Continental Margin adjacent to a continent extending from the low water line to a depth, generally 200 m, where the Continental Shelf and the Continental Slope join. CONTINENTAL SLOPE That part of the Continental Margin consisting of the declivity from the edge of the Continental Shelf down to the Continental Rise. COPEPODS A large diverse group of small planktonic crustaceans, mostly between 0.5 and 10 mm in length, representing an important link in marine food chains. 4 mm CORROSION The gradual erosion of a surface, especially by chemical means. CRITICAL-TEMPERATURE PRESSURE The vapor pressure of a substance when the liquid and gas phases are in equilibrium. CRUSTACEANS Animals with jointed appendages and a segmented external skeleton composed of a hard shell. The group includes barnacles, crabs, shrimps, and lobsters. CRYOLITE A mineral, Na3AlF6, used in the reduction of aluminum ore. CUMULATIVE IMPACT Impact resulting from the additive effect of individually harmless or less harmful factors. CURRENT DRAG Resistance caused by the friction of a fluid moving past a stationary body. CURRENT SHEAR The measure of the rate of change of current velocity with distance. A shear force caused by current action, see SHEAR FORCE. 7-5 DECIBEL (db) DECOMPOSER DEEP SOUND CHANNEL DELTA Jt DEMERSAL DENSITY DESALINATION DIATOMS In the measurement of sound intensity, a unit for describing the ratio of two intensities, or the ratio of an intensity to a reference intensity. An organism, such as bacteria, which converts the bodies or excreta of other organisms into simpler substances. A region in the water column in which sound velocity reaches a minimum value. Above this region, sound rays are bent downward, below it, they are bent upward; the sound rays are consequently channeled into this region. Sound traveling in this channel can be detected thousands of miles from the sound source. Difference in temperature between ocean depths. Living on or near the bottom of the sea. The mass per unit volume of a substance. The process of removing salts from seawater. Microscopic phytoplankton characterized by a cell wall of overlapping silica plates. Populations in the water column and in sediments vary widely in response to changes in environmental conditions. DIEL CYCLE DIEL MIGRATION DIFFUSER 40 nm 80 pm 150 (jm Pertaining to, or occurring within, a 24-hour cycle. The cyclical pattern of vertical migration that occurs within a 24-hour period. Usually, organisms that display this pattern migrate toward the surface during the night and away from the surface during the day. The section of discharge pipe that is modified, usually through the addition of numerous ports or holes, to promote rapid mixing of the discharge with the ambient waters. 7-6 DIFFUSION Transfer of material (e.g. salt) or a property (e.g. temperature) by eddies or molecular movement. Diffusion causes dissemination of matter under the influence of a concentration gradient, with movement from the stronger to the weaker solution. DILUTION A reduction in concentration through the addition of ambient waters. Expressed as the ratio of the sum of the volumes of ambient water plus plume water to the volume of plume water. A dilution of 5 indicates 4 parts ambient water + 1 part plume water 1 part plume water DINOFLAGELLATES A large diverse group of phytoplankton with whip-like appendages, with or without a rigid outer shell, some of which feed on particulate matter. Some members of this group are responsible for toxic red-tides. 80 Jim 80 Mm DISCHARGE FIELD An area of the water column into which a fluid is discharged. DISCHARGE PLUME The fluid volume, released from the discharge pipe, which is distinguishable from the surrounding water. DISCHARGE PORT The opening through which fluid is released to the environment. DISPERSION DISSOLVED OXYGEN Dissemination of discharged water over large areas by the natural processes of ocean turbulence and ocean advection. The quantity of oxygen (expressed in mg liter"!, ml liter""!, or parts per million) dissolved in a unit volume of water. Dissolved oxygen is a key parameter in the assessment of water quality. 7-7 DIVERSITY DOLPHIN DOWNWELLING A measure of the variety of species in a community that takes into account the relative abundance of each species. Either of two active pelagic food fishes of the genus Covy-phaena (suborder Percoidea) of tropical and temperature seas . Any of various small toothed whales of the family Delphinidae. A downward movement of water generally caused by converging currents or the higher density of a water mass relative to the surrounding water. DRY WEIGHT ECOSYSTEM EDDY The weight of a sample of material or organisms after all water has been removed; a measure of biomass when applied to organisms. An ecological community considered as a unit together with its physical environment. A circular mass of water within a larger water mass that is usually formed where currents pass obstruc- tions, where two adjacent currents flow counter to each other, or along the edge of a permanent current. An eddy has a certain integrity and life history, circulating and drawing energy from a flow of larger scale. EFFLUENT In this case, a liquid discharged from an OTEC plant that has thermal or chemical properties that differ from the ambient water. EFFLUX ELECTRICAL GRID ELECTROLYSIS An action or process of flowing out; effluent. Network of conductors for distribution of electric power. The process of chemical changes effected by passage of an electric current through a nonmetallic electric conductor. ELECTROLYTIC REDUCTION Reduction through electrolysis 7-8 ENDANGERED SPECIES Any species which is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range other than a species of the class Insecta determined by the Secretary of the Interior to constitute a pest whose protection under the Endangered Species Act would present an overwhelming and overriding risk to man. (Endangered Species Act of 1973, PL 93-205). ENHANCED HEAT EXCHANGER Heat exchanger with increased surface area, either by addition of fins or surface coating. ENDEMIC Restricted or peculiar to a locality or region. ENERGY INTENSIVE PRODUCTS Material, such as aluminum and ammonia, which requires large amounts of energy to produce. ENTRAINMENT The process by which organisms are drawn into the intake pipes of an OTEC plant; the process by which ambient waters are mixed with the discharge plume. EPIPELAGIC Of, or pertaining to that portion of the oceanic zone extending from the surface to a depth of about 200m. EUPHAUSIID Shrimp-like, planktonic crustaceans which are widely distributed in oceanic and coastal waters, especially in cold waters. These organisms, also known as krill, are an important link in the oceanic food chain • 10 mm EVAPORATOR The chamber in which the working fluid is vaporized prior to passing through the turbine. EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE (EEZ) An area, established by the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, which extends seaward to a distance of 200 nmi from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured, in which the bordering country has exclusive rights to the natural resources of the seabed and the subsoil of the continental shelf. The EEZ has not been adopted by the U.S. Congress. FACILITY A structure that is built, installed, or established to serve a particular service (e.g. an electricity generating facility) . 7-9 FAR FIELD The region where natural ocean processes become the dominant factors in the mixing of discharge waters. FAUNA The animal population of region, or period. a particular location, FEDERAL ACTION Actions which include: (1) recommendations on legislation by Federal agencies, (2) projects and activities directly undertaken, supported or otherwise approved by Federal agencies, and (3) the establishment or modification of Federal regulations, rules, procedures, and policy. Fully defined in 40 CFR 1500.5. FILE FISH FIN WHALE Fish of the order Plectognathi with rough granular leathery skins (genera AluteruSy Cantherfaines, and Monaeanthus ) . A whale of the suborder Mysticeti, genus Bal^aenoptera phy salus , FLAGELLATE An organism with one or more whip-like locomotory organelles. A protozoan of the class Mastigophora. FLASH POINT The lowest temperature at which vapors from a volatile liquid will ignite upon the application of a small flame. FLOATING DOCK A form of dry dock which can be partially submerged by controlled flooding to receive a vessel, then raised by pumping out water so that the vessel's bottom can be exposed. FLORA The plant population of a particular location, region, or period. FLOW FIELD The velocity and density of a fluid as functions of distance and time. FOOD CHAIN A group of organisms involved in the transfer of energy from its primary source to herbivores and finally to carnivores and decomposers. FOOD WEB FOSSIL FUELS A complex pattern of several interlocking food chains in a complex community, or between several communities. Fuel ultimately derived from living organisms of a past geologic age. 7-10 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION GALVANIC CORROSION GELATINOUS. ORGANISMS GENERIC The process of separating components of a mixture through differences in physical or chemical properties. The corrosion, above normal corrosion of a metal, associated with the flow of electric current to a less active metal in the same solution and in contact with the more active metal. Generally, the large organisms composed of a jelly like substance, including the cnidarians, salps, and ctenophores. Relating to, or characteristic of, a whole group or class. GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS GIGAWATT ELECTRIC (GWe) GRADIENT GRAVING DOCK GRAZING GREENHOUSE EFFECT A geologic condition that poses a potential danger to life and property, such as earthquake, mudflow, or faulting. One billion power. (10 9 ) watts, or 1,000 MWe, of electric The change in value of a given variable, such as temperature with depth). quantity with change in a distance (e.g. change in A form of dry dock, consisting of an artificial basin fitted with a gate, into which a vessel can be floated and water pumped out to expose the vessel's bottom. The feeding of zooplankton upon phytoplankton. In relation to OTEC, refers to plantships that travel through an area to exploit optimum thermal resources. Warming of the earth's surface and lower layers of the atmosphere that tends to increase with increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide and is caused by the selective transmission, reradiation, and absorption of solar radiation. GROUND CREEP GUY GUYED TOWERS HABITAT HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE A slow, more or less continuous, downward and outward movement of slope-forming soil or rock; slow deforma- tion resulting from long application of a stress. A rope, chain, or rod attached to something as a brace. A tower supported by a guy. A place or type of site where an organism normally lives or where individuals of a population live. A substance listed by the EPA in the Clean Water Act as a hazardous substance (Section 311(b) (2)). 7-11 HEAT EXCHANGER HEAVY METALS OR ELEMENTS HERBIVOROUS A material (usually metal) with a high coefficient of thermal conductivity which is used to exchange heat between the working fluid and the heat source or sink. Elements that possess a specific gravity of 5.0 or greater. Feeding or subsisting principally or entirely on plants or plant products. HERTZ (Hz) HIGH SEAS HOLOPLANKTON HUMAN ENVIRONMENT A unit of frequency equal to one cycle per second. The open sea beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea, which is subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of no one nation. May include the contiguous zone. Also an informally defined oceanic region, see OCEANIC. Organisms that spend their complete life cycle as plankton. All the factors, forces, or conditions that affect or influence the growth and development or the life of humans • HURRICANE HYDRAULIC TURBINE A cyclonic storm, usually of tropical origin, covering an extensive area and containing winds of 120 kilometers per hour or greater. A rotary engine actuated by the impulse of a current of water. HYPOBROMOUS ACID An acid, HOBr, which forms very quickly upon the addition of chlorine to seawater. ICHTHYOPLANKTON IMPINGEMENT INDIGENOUS INITIAL MIXING Fish eggs and weakly motile fish larvae. A situation in which an organism is forced against a barrier, such as an intake screen, as a result of the intake of water into a facility such as a powerplant. Having originated in and being produced, growing, or living naturally in a particular region or environment. The dispersion or diffusion of liquid, suspended- particulate, and solid phases of a material, which occurs immediately after relase. This type of mixing occurs in the near-field zone. INORGANIC COMPOUNDS Compounds not containing carbon. 7-12 IN SITU INVERTEBRATES ION JET JUVENILE KILOWATT ELECTRIC (kWe) KILOWATT HOUR (kWh) LAND-BASED DESIGN LANTERNFISH In the natural or original position; pertaining to samples taken directly from the environment in which they occur. Animals without backbones. An electrically charged group of atoms, either negative or positive. A forceful stream of liquid or gas discharged from a narrow opening. A young individual resembling an adult of its kind except in size and reproductive activity. One thousand (lO^) watts of electric power. A unit of energy used in electrical measurement equal to energy converted or consumed at a rate of 1,000 watts during a 1-hour period. An OTEC design in which the plant is built on land, with the intake and discharge pipes projecting into the water. Any of the family Myctophidae of bony fish which bear individual light organs over the sides of the body. Commonly found in the mid-water region of the subtropical and tropical ocean. 8 cm LARVA LEGAL REGIME LETHAL LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE A young and immature form of an organism that must usually undergo one or more form and size changes before assuming characteristic features of the adult. Management program based upon legal guidelines. Capable of causing death. A type of concrete made with a lightweight inert material. Used to make structures of low weight and high insulation. 7-13 LIQUEFACTION MACROZOOPLANKTON MACROPHYTOPLANKTON MACROFOULING ORGANISMS M.A.N.™ BRUSHES MARINE MEGAWATT ELECTRIC (MWe) MEGAWATT HOUR (MWH) The process of making or becoming liquid. Zooplanktonic organisms with lengths between 200 and 2,000 microns, composed mainly of copepods, chaetognaths , and fish larvae. Phytoplanktonic organisms with lengths between 200 and 2,000 microns. Sessile organisms, visible to the naked eye, which affix themselves to structures exposed to seawater (e.g. barnacles, mussels, and sea anemones). Machinefactory Augsburg-Nurenberg brushes that travel through heat-exchanger tubes for removal of micro- fouling organisms. Pertaining to the sea. One million (10") watts of electric power. One thousand (10^) kilowatt hours. See kilowatt hour. MEGAZOOPLANKTON MERO PLANKTON MESO PELAGIC METEOROLOGICAL METRIC TON MICROCLIMATE MICROFOULING ORGANISMS Zooplanktonic organisms with lengths greater than 2,000 microns, includes euphausiids, and large copepods and chaetognaths. Organisms that spend only a portion of their life cycle as plankton; usually composed of floating developmental stages (i.e., eggs and larvae) of benthic and nektonic organisms. Also known as temporary plankton. Relating to the oceanic depths between 200 m and 1,000 m. Relating to the atmosphere and its phenomena, especially to weather and weather forecasting. A unit of weight equal to 1,000 kg or about 2200 pounds. The essentially uniform local climate of a small site or habitat. Organisms too small to be seen with the naked eye which accumulate on the hull of a structure exposed to seawater and appear as a slime film. 7-14 MICROGRAM (yg) MICROGRAM- ATOM (yg-at) MICROMETER A unit of mass equal to one millionth (10~6) of a gram. Mass of an element numerically equal to its atomic weight (in grams) divided by 10 6 . A unit of length equal to one millionth (10~6) of a meter. MICRON MICRONEKTON MICRO-ORGANISMS MICROZOOPLANKTON MIGRATORY ORGANISM MINI-OTEC MITIGATE MIXED LAYER MODULAR MOLE MONITORING MOORED PLANTSHIP See MICROMETER. Small weak-swimming nekton such as mesopelagic fish, small squid, gelatinous organisms, and fish larvae. Microscopic organisms, including bacteria, protozoans, fungi, viruses, and algae. Planktonic animals with lengths between 20 and 200 microns, composed mainly of protozoans and juvenile copepods. Organism that peridically moves from one locality to another. A modified barge designed to demonstrate the technical feasibility of OTEC power and to provide design, fabrication, and operation experience. To make less severe. The upper level of the ocean that is well mixed by wind and wave activity. Within this layer, tempera- ture, salinity, and nutrient concentration values are essentially homogeneous with depth. Of, relating to, or based on, any of a series of standardized units for use together. That amount of substance containing the same number of atoms as exactly 12 g of pure carbon-12. The mass in grams of a mole of a substance is equal to the atomic or molecular weight. As considered herein, the observation of environmental effects of OTEC operations through biological, physical and chemical data collection and analyses. An OTEC plantship moored on the water by single- or multiple-anchor systems. 7-15 MORTALITY MOTILE MULTIPLICATIVE The death of individuals of a population. Exhibiting or capable of spontaneous movement. Tending or having the power to increase greatly in numbers. N ANNO PLANKTON NEAR FIELD NEARSHORE ZONE NEKTON NERITIC NET ENERGY NET POWER NEUROTOXIN NONCONVENTIONAL POLLUTANT NONRENEWABLE FUELS NONTARGET PLANKTON Minute planktonic plants and animals that are 50 microns or less in size and include algae, bacteria, and protozoans. Individuals of this size will pass through most nets and are usually collected in centrifuges. The region in which the plume momentum is the dominant factor controlling entrainment and mixing of the plume with the ambient receiving waters. The zone extending seaward from the shore to a distance where the water column is under minimal influence from continental conditions. Free-swimming aquatic animals, essentially moving independent of water movements. Pertaining to the region of shallow water adjoining the seacoast and extending from the low-tide mark to a depth of about 200 m. Energy output from generating system after deduction of energy involved in system operation. Total power remaining after required for system operation. deduction of power A poisonous protein complex that acts on the nervous system. A pollutant not listed by the EPA in the Clean Water Act as a toxic pollutant (Section 307 (a) (1)) or a conventional pollutant (Section 304 (b) (4)). Fuels, such as fossil fuels, which are regenerated at a slower rate than they are consumed, or which cannot be regenerated. Plankton, usually outside the generating plant, toward which biofouling control methods are not expressly directed. 7-16 NUISANCE SPECIES NURSERY NUTRIENT OCEANIC OFFSHORE ZONE OIL TRACT ONE-HUNDRED YEAR STORM ONE-PERCENT LIGHT PENERATION DEPTH OPEN-CYCLE SYSTEM OPERATING CONDITIONS OPERATIONAL SITE ORGANIC COMPOUND ORGANOHALOGEN ORTHO-PHOSPHATE OTEC OTEC- 1 Organisms of no commercial value, which, because of predation or competition, may be harmful to commer- cially important organisms. A protected area where the larval and juvenile stages of organisms can feed and develop. Any substance that promotes growth or provides energy for biological processes. The portion of the pelagic zone seaward from the approximate edge of the continental shelf. A region in which physical properties are influenced only slightly by continental conditions. A parcel of land designated by the U.S. Department of the Interior for exploration and recovery of oil resources. The most severe storm expected to occur in a one hundred year period. The depth at which light has been attenuated to 1% of its surface value, used to define the photic zone, that depth above which net productivity of phytoplank- ton can occur. An OTEC power system in which both coolant and working fluid are seawater and pass through the plant only once before being discharged. The maximum values of winds, waves, or currents below which an OTEC plant is able to operate. Location of an operating OTEC plant. A compound containing carbon. A molecule containing a carbon-halogen linkage. One of the possible salts of orthophosphoric acid; one of the components in seawater of fundamental importance to the growth of marine phytoplankton. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion. A 1-MWe OTEC test platform that is presently testing power system designs, materials, and cleaning methods at Ke-ahole Point, Hawaii. J 7-17 OUTGASSING OXIDANT SPECIES OXIDATION OXYGEN MININUM LAYER PARAMETERS Removal of gasses from a material or space. An atom, molecule, or ion that is capable of per- forming as an oxidizing agent. The combination of a substance with oxygen; a reaction in which the atoms in an element lose electrons and the valence of the element is correspondingly increased. Examples of oxidation are the rusting of iron, the burning of wood in air, and the decay of animal and plant material. A subsurface layer in the water column in which the concentration of dissolved oxygen is lower than in the layers above or below. Any of a set of arbitrary physical properties whose values determine the characteristics or behavior of something (e.g., temperature, pressure and density); a characteristic element. PARTIALLY EVACUATED Having a partial vacuum. PARTS PER THOUSAND (ppt, %o) PELAGIC A unit of concentration of a mixture that denotes the number of parts of a constituent contained per thousand parts of the entire mixture (e.g., g kg""l, ml liter "**) • For example, the average salinity of sea water is usually reported to be 35 °/oo, indicating 35 parts total salts per 1,000 parts sea- water (including the salts). Pertaining to the open sea or organisms not associated with the bottom. PENSTOCK A sluice or gate for regulating a flow, pipe for conducting water. A conduit or PHOTIC ZONE The layer of the ocean from the surface to the depth where light has been attenuated to 1% of the surface value. The zone in which primary production shows a net increase. PHOTOSYNTHESIS PHYTO PLANKTON Synthesis by chlorophyll-containing plant cells of organic compounds from carbon dioxide and a hydrogen source, with simultaneous liberation of oxygen. Mostly microscopic passively floating plant life of a body of water; the base of the food chain in the sea. 7-18 PISCIVORES PLANKTIVORES PLANKTON PLANT (S) PLANTSHIP PLUME PLUME DYNAMICS Organisms which feed or subsist principally or entirely on fish. Organisms which feed or subsist principally or entirely on plankton. Organisms whose movements are determined by the currents and not by their own locomotive abilities. The land, building, machinery, apparatus, and fixtures employed in carrying on a trade or an industrial business (e.g. an OTEC plant). An OTEC plant situated on a floating self-propelled platform that also contains facilities for the manufacture of an energy -intensive product. See DISCHARGE PLUME. The motion of a plume under the influence of forces which originate outside the plume. That branch of fluid mechanics which deals with the motion of a plume under the influence of outside forces. POINT SOURCE POMACENTRID POPULATION DYNAMICS POTENTIAL IMPACT A source having a definite position but no extension in space; this is an ideal that is a good approxima- tion for distances from the source that are large compared to the dimensions of the source. Tropical fishes, 5 to 25 cm long, of the family Pomacentridae, also called damselfish. The sequence of population changes characteristic of particular organisms. The study of population change. Impact resulting from an accident, such as the accidental release of working fluid. POWER GRID POWER SYSTEM PREDATOR PRIMARY PRODUCTION See ELECTRICAL GRID. The power-producing portion of a generating plant (e.g., turbine and working fluid system). An animal that procures food primarily through the killing and consuming of other animals. The amount of organic matter synthesized by organisms from inorganic substances per unit time and unit volume of water, or in a column of water of unit area extending from the surface to the bottom. 7-19 PROTOZOA REACTIVITY RECRUITMENT Mostly microscopic, single-celled animals which constitute one of the largest populations in the ocean. Protozoans play a major role in the recycling of nutrients. The tendency of a substance to combine (react) with another substance. Increase in a population through the addition of new individuals. RECRUITMENT STOCK RED TIDE REFERENCE OR AFFECTED WATER COLUMN RENEWABLE ENERGY RESIDUAL CHLORINE RESPIRATION RESPIRATORY SURFACE SALINITY SALT SARGASSUM SHRIMP SAURY That portion of a population from which recruitment can occur. A red or reddish-brown discoloration of surface waters most frequently found in coastal regions, caused by high concentrations of dinof lagellates. The volume of water that may be potentially affected by OTEC operation. Energy derived regenerated. from a source that is quickly See TOTAL RESIDUAL CHLORINE. The interchange of gases between an organism and its environment. The liberation of energy within, and its utilization by, a cell, also called internal respiration. The tissue of an organism that is used for the inter- change of gases between the organism and its environ- ment. The amount of dissolved salts in seawater measured in grams per kilogram, or parts per thousand. Any substance that yields ions other than hydrogen or hydroxyl ions. Obtained by displacing the hydrogen of an acid by a metal. A shrimp of the species Latreutus fucovum. A billfish of the species Seorriberesox saurus (family Belonidae). It is distributed worldwide in temperate and warm seas. 7-20 SCOMBROID SCRUBBER SEA BED SEA FLOOR SEA STATE Any of the suborder Scombroidea of marine spiny fishes, such as mackarels, tunas, and albacores, of great economic importance as food fishes. A device for the removal or washing out of entrained fluid droplets, dust, or undesired gas components. See SEA FLOOR. The bottom of the ocean. The numerical or written description of wind-generated waves on the surface of the sea, ranging from 1 (smooth) to 8 (mountainous). SERIOLA SPP. SHEAR FORCES A large vigorous sport fish of the family Carangidae. Commonly called amberjack. See CARANGID. Applied forces that cause or tend to cause two adjacent parts of a substance to move relative to each other in a direction parallel to their plane of contact. SHELLFISH SHORELINE SIGNAL SLIDE SLOPE Any invertebrate, usually of commercial importance, having a rigid outer covering, such as a shell or exoskeleton, includes some molluscs and arthropods. Term is the counterpart of finfish. The boundary between a body of water and the land at high tide. A detectable physical quantity or impulse by which messages or information can be transmitted. The descent of a mass of earth or rock down a slope. The angle at which an inclined surface deviates from the horizontal. Any portion of the earth's surface that deviates from the horizontal. SOFAR SPAR SPAR BUOY RISER An acronym derived from the expression "sound fixing and ranging". See DEEP SOUND CHANNEL. A long, thin, typically cylindrical structure ballasted at one end so that it floats in an approximately vertical position. An independently moored, retrievable pipe that is buoyant, allowing connection to the mother ship. 7-21 SPAWNING GROUND An area used by aquatic animals for the release of sperm and eggs. SPECIES A group of organisms having similar characteristics and capable of interbreeding and producing viable offspring. A taxon forming basic taxonomic groups that closely resemble each other structurally and physiologically and, in nature, interbreed and produce fertile offspring. SPONSON Any structure projecting from the side of a ship or hull. STABILIZATION DEPTH The depth at which a mass of water will neither rise nor sink. STANDING STOCK The biomass or abundance of living material per unit volume or area. STATIC SCREENS STRESSED Intake screens that are fixed in position. A state caused by factors that tend to alter an existent equilibrium or normal state. STRUMMING The establishment of transverse vibrations in a cable with fixed endpoints, usually caused by current or wind. SUBLETHAL SUBSTRATE Less than lethal, injurious but not fatal. The solid material upon which an organism lives, or to which it is attached (e.g., rocks, sand). SUMP A pit or reservoir serving as a drain or receptacle for liquids. SURFACTANT A soluble compound that reduces the surface tension of a liquid or reduces interfacial tension between two liquids or a liquid and a solid. It often works through the production of a liquid foam. SURVEILLANCE Systematic observation of an area by visual, electronic, photographic, or other means for the purpose of ensuring compliance with applicable laws, regulations, permits, and safety regulations. SURVIVAL CONDITIONS The maximum intensities of winds, waves, and currents that a structure can endure without sustaining permanent damage. 7-22 SUSPENDED SOLIDS SYNERGISTIC EFFECTS SYNERGISM SQUID Finely divided particles of a solid temporarily suspended in a liquid (e.g., sediment particles in water), expressed as a weight per unit volume. Effects capable of acting in synergism. The interaction between two or more effects to produce an effect greater than the sum of the individual effects. Any of numerous 10-armed cephalopods having a long tapered body, a caudal fin on each side, and usually a slender internal chitonous support (especially genus Loligo and Ommastvephes) . TAXA 25cm Two or more of a hierarchy of levels in the biological classification of organisms. TEMPORAL DISTRIBUTION The distribution of a parameter over a period of time, TERRIGENOUS Produced of or from land. TERRITORIAL SEA THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY THERMAL EFFICIENCY THERMAL GRADIENT The area of the ocean bordering a nation over which it has exclusive jurisdiction except for the right of innocent passage of foreign vessels. Its seaward limit is less than or equal to 12 nmi. The United States has traditionally claimed 3 nmi, with the exception of Puerto Rico, which claims 10.8 nmi, and Florida and Texas, which claim 9 nmi in the Gulf of Mexico. The heat flow across a surface per unit area per unit time, divided by the negative of the rate of change of temperature with distance in a direction perpendicular to the surface. The ratio of the work done by a heat engine to the heat energy absorbed by it. The change in temperature with a change in distance, usually depth. 7-23 THERMAL RESOURCE THERMAL SHOCK The source of temperature differential required for OTEC operation. A temperature differential of 20°C between surface waters and 1,000 m is usually considered an adequate thermal resource. A good thermal resource has a strong temperature gradient and a well established thermocline, and consequently is not easily depleted. A state of profound depression of an organism's vital processes induced by an abrupt change in ambient temperature. THERMOCLINE The region of the water column where temperature changes most rapidly with depth. THERMOPLASTIC PAINT Paint that is capable of softening or fusing when heated and of hardening again when cooled. THREATENED SPECIES Any species which is likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range. (Endangered Species Act of 1973, P.L. 93-205). TISSUE An aggregate of cells, usually of a particular kind, together with their intercellular substance, that form one of the structural materials of a plant or animal. TOTAL RESIDUAL CHLORINE (TRC) The summation of the concentrations of various chlorine compounds in water, including hypochlorous acid, hypo- chlorite ion, chloramines, and other chlorine derivatives. TOXICITY The degree to which a substance is poisonous to an organism. TOXICITY STUDY The addition of a specific pollutant to a sample of natural waters containing a number of test organisms to determine the toxicity of the pollutant to the organisms. TOXIC POLLUTANT A pollutant listed by the EPA in the Clean Water Act as a toxic pollutant (section 307(a) (11)). TRACE CONSITITUENT An element or compound found in the environment in extremely small quantities. TRACE METAL OR ELEMENT An element found in the environment in extremely small quantities; usually includes metals constituting 0.1% (1,000 ppm) or less, by weight, in the earth's crust. 7-24 TRADE WINDS TRAVELING SCREEN TROPHIC LEVELS TROPICAL CYCLONE TSUNAMI TUNA TURBIDITY TURBINE TURBULENT DIFFUSION TURBULENT EDDY TURNOVER RATE UPWELLING The wind system that occupies most of the tropics, generally blowing from the subtropical highs towards the equatorial trough. The winds are northeasterly in the Northern Hemisphere and southeasterly in the Southern Hemisphere. Mesh screen attached to an OTEC plant intake to prevent the intake of materials that could clog the heat exchangers. Discrete steps along a food chain in which energy is transferred from the primary producers (plants) to herbivores and finally to carnivores and decomposers. A type of atmospheric disturbance, originating between 25° north and south latitudes, characterized by masses of air rapidly circulating (clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere) around a low-pressure center. Tropical cyclones are usually accompanied by stormy, often destructive, weather. A long period sea wave produced by a submarine earthquake or volcanic eruption. Any of numerous large vigorous scombroid food and sport fishes. See SCOMBROID. A reduction in transparency, as in seawater, caused by suspended particulate such as sediments or plankton. A rotary engine actuated by the reaction or impulse, or both, of a current of fluid or vapor subject to pressure. The transfer of matter by turbulent eddies in a fluid. An eddy in which the instantaneous velocities exhibit irregular and apparently random fluctuations. The time necessary to completely replace the standing stock of a population; generation time. The rising of water toward the surface from subsurface layers of a body of water. Upwelling is most promi- nent where persistent winds blow parallel to a coast- line so that the resultant water current sets away from the coast. The upwelled water, besides being cooler, is rich in nutrients, so that upwelling regions generally have rich fisheries. 7-25 ULTRASONIC UTILITY CORRIDOR UTILITY TERMINUS VACUUM VAPORIZE VAPOR PRESSURE VELOCITY CAP VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION WARM-WATER PIPE Having a frequency higher than the human ear's audi- bility limit of about 20,000 cycles per second. A strip of land designated for the transfer of a public utility. Either end of a utility distribution system. A space in which the pressure is so far below normal atmospheric pressure that the remaining gases do not affect processes being carried on. The conversion of a substance from liquid or solid state to a vapor state by the application of heat, reduction of pressure, or both. The pressure exerted by the molecules of a given vapor. Restriction plate placed over intake ports to change direction and velocity of inflow. The frequency of occurrence over an area in the vertical plane. That component of the OTEC plant through which the warm surface water used to vaporize the working fluid is drawn. WATCH CIRCLE RADIUS WATER COLUMN WATER MASS WATT WORKING FLUID ZOO PLANKTON The horizontal distance between a free-floating vessel and the buoy or anchor to which it is tethered. A vertical section of the ocean used in relation to descriptions of oceanographic parameters. A body of water usually identified by its tempera- ture-salinity (T-S) curve or its chemical content. A unit of power equal to the rate of work represented by one ampere under a pressure of one volt; taken as the standard in the U.S. The medium in an OTEC plant that is vaporized by warm ocean water, passed over a turbine to generate elec- tricity, and finally condensed by cool ocean water. The passively floating or weakly swimming animals of an aquatic ecosystem. 7-26 Abbreviations APC atm BTU C co 2 cm -1 cm sec CW °C dB DOC DOE EA EEZ EIS EPA FWPCA GCRL g C m yr GWe HEW Hz IEC kg kg C kg C day km km kWe kWh -1 Area of Particular Concern atmosphere British Thermal Unit carbon carbon dioxide centimeter(s) centimeters per second cold water degrees Celsius or centigrade decibel United States Department of Commerce United States Department of Energy environmental assessment Exclusive Economic Zone Environmental Impact Statement United States Environmental Protection Agency Federal Water Pollution Control Act Gulf Coast Research Laboratories grams carbon per square meter per year gigawatt electric U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare hertz Interstate Electronics Corporation kilogram(s) kilogram(s) carbon kilogram(s) carbon per day kilometer(s) square kilometer (s) kilowatt electric kilowatt hour(s) 7-27 m m m -1 m sec 3 , ■ m day -1 3 m MWe -1 3 m sec -1 MWe MWh NH 3 NEPA nmi NOAA NPDES OME OTEC ppm ppt SMA sec S/N SST tons C yr M Jig -1 meter (s) square meter (s) cubic meter (s) meters per second cubic meters per day cubic meters per megawatt electric cubic meters per second megawatt electric megawatt hour ammonia National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 nautical miles National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Office of Ocean Minerals and Energy Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion parts per million parts per thousand Special Management Area second (s) signal-to-noise ratio sea-surface temperature tons of carbon per year micron microgram 7-28 References Adams, E.E., D.J. 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Atlantic Ocean, Trinidad to Montevideo and Freetown to Cape of Good Hope. Washington, D.C. United States Naval Oceanographic Office. 1973. Bathymetric Atlas of the North Pacific Ocean. Washington, D.C. 1969. N.O. Chart 525. (Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands). Washington, D.C. University of Hawaii. 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. The University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii. 222 pp. Venkataramiah , A. 1979. Progress Report for OTEC Contract No. ET-78-5-02-5071. A000. Gulf Coast Research Laboratories. Ocean Springs, MS. Venrick, E. L. , J. A. McGowan, and A.W. Mantyla. 1973. Deep maxima of photo- synthetic chlorophyll in the Pacific Ocean. Fish. Bull. 71 (l):41-52. 7-44 Vinogradov, M.E. 1961. Quantitative distribution of deepsea plankton in the Western Pacific and its relation to deep-water circulation. Deep Sea Research. 8:251-258. Vinogradov, M.E. and Y.A. Rudyakov. 1973. Diurnal variations in the vertical distribution of the plankton biomass in the equatorial west Pacific. In: Life Activity of Pelagic Communities in the Ocean Tropics. Vinogradov, N.E., ed. Transl. from Russian. Akad. Nank USSR. Israel Prog. Scientific Translation, Jerusalem. 298 p. Watt, A.D., R.S. Matthews, and R.E. Hathaway. 1978. Open cycle thermal energy conversion. In: Proceedings of the Fifth Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Conference. A. Lavi and T. N. Veziroglu, eds. U.S. Depart- ment of Energy, Washington, D.C. Watt, A.D., R.S. Matthews, and R.E. Hathaway. 1977. Open cycle ocean thermal energy conversion. A preliminary engineering evaluation. Final report. U.S. Department of Engergy, Washington, D.C. ALO/3723-73/3. 130 pp. Wenz, G.M. 1964. Curious noises and the sonic environment in the ocean. In: Marine Bio-Acoustics. W.N. Tavolga, ed. Pergamon Press, New York, New York. Westinghouse Electric Corporation. 1978. Ocean thermal energy conversion power system development. Phase 1: preliminary design. Final report. Prepared for U.S. Department of Energy. Contract No. EG-77-C-03-1569. White, W. 1981. Personal communication. National Fertilizer Institute, Wash- ington, D.C. White, W.B. and R.L. Haney. 1978. The dynamics of ocean climate variability. Oceanus. 21(4) : 33-39. Wickham, D.A., J.W. Watson, Jr., and L.H. Ogren. 1973. The efficacy of mid- water artificial structures for attracting pelagic sport finfish. American Fisheries Society Transactions. 102(30) :563-572. Wilde, P. 1980. Environmental assessment for OTEC pilot plants. In: Expanded Abstracts of the 7th Ocean Energy Conference. U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C. 1979. Environmental monitoring and assessment program at potential OTEC sites. In: Proceedings of the Sixth Ocean Thermal Energy Conference. G. L. Dugger, ed. U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C. Wilde P. and J. Sandusky. 1977. Cruise report to the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. Unpublished reports and data sheets. Wright, T. 1981. Personal communication. Office of Effluent Guidelines. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 7-45 Youngbluth, M.J. 1975. Zooplankton studies 1973 and 1974. In: E.O. Wood et al. , Cabo Mala Pascua Environmental Studies. Repr. from: Tech. Rpt. No. 188, Puerto Rico Nuclear Center. Zener, C. 1977. The foam OTEC system: A proposed alternative to the closed closed cycle OTEC system. In: Proceedings of 4th OTEC conference. G.E. Ioup, ed. Energy Research and Development Administration, Washington, D.C. Zener, C. 1981. Personal Communication. Carnegie - Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA. Zika, R. 1981. Personal communication. University of Miami, Rosenstiel School of Marine Science, Department of Marine and Atmospheric Chemistry. 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Island of Guam Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1971 C-3 CO £ 5 <^ « ^h tH (0 H ,? U o © c ° in r! ••> 2 r*. *£ . w 7§ U e © OS Ml •* U • •H 5 in fa ° C-4 Caribbean Sea 16°00'N 1400' 12°00' 10W 800' 6°00' 4°00' 2°00' 000' 2°00'S 100W 98°00' 96°00' 94°00' 92°00' 9000' 88°00' 86°00'W Figure C-4. East Pacific Plantship Region Source: U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office, 1973 C-5 o in r*> cn 1 1 F ~~* «« oor- ^£~ ~ k < < ^>vN \*, ■ < 00 ^td^' "' g Of I laaftr \ ' ¥^ ' 3 ■"-'.•■ •■ ■'• ' ••. a. u_ ijr H «/> LU > LU At /^t/ ;•.•:; ,'■&& -J&^^ *e IE * i - . "/Jr /^pJj|ljjilljljL» X - ^ - »» ^ ' jr " \ * Mf/ 9 M ' $1/ 6*2. *■ ■ s> Jl i i 7 s II » // (/> f *' < -1 2 •■.■'] CO < - LU < Q Z LU J t- 1 < I t/5 \ N —I 3 LU Z> LU £.- 'J ARITIM O AND Z D Q z < «75. - 0/) ' \ ^^^^. VTA \ I \ 1 E 5 y < UJ JL % .^k . llllll o X 00 < %£* •"'V\: ' 'VR o III <*■> LU 5 3 z Of LU > — "'• • • ' © z o < - < (/) ' ' . •';* \ / cm l/l 5 3 < z < • LU iJ J av 01 17) DO >- oe LU > Z Z < z < at E o - o "5. 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O, •»" O. as r^ CI CO en CTl in iO oo a en en en CJl T3 ■-H i—i l-~t •H 0) ^v ■•^ ^^ s*« ^^ ^^ s> *"■* 4-1 n a u <-> oi 3 to x: o o O O o O o 3 to oi 5 o o o o o o o r< o b f« a o o o o o o o o ft o ^^ A "H CJ r** tN o o o o o a r^ CN o oo r^ oo o •H CM en en i— < en o to a •H ■a Xi tO a o Ji cd >-5 o rH rH CO U u a l-H CO co M cd (0 « a •H cd > T3 to CO cd •H K 1 rH a u CO -H rH CO M rH a (0 M £ •H M CJ •H •H « a CO 3 CO 3 ■H H • •H X! 3 3 0) -H 4J 00 to M 4J CO •H (0 cd O 9 s 3 I 1 XI 4-1 H •H > £ 3 o eS CO CO CJ u cd T3 d CO rH ■2 -4 0) x; 4-1 CH o B ctj 0) a to ■H 01 3 rH CO ^> a CO • 3 • 0) O cfl 4J o^ CO M r^ M O o-> 4H — 1 o X o Q CO CJ O C4H CJ a o o C4H •H O 4J 4J 4J s a a M 01 a & O a •H w CO • • P » z 5 e D-3 The Alcoa process releases carbon dioxide through the reduction of alumina to aluminum chloride (A1C1.): (A) 2 A1 2 + 3C + 6C1 2 — 4 A1C1 3 + 3 C0 2 Aluminum chloride is further reduced to aluminum (B) 2A1C1 3 — 2A1 + 3 Cl 2 . 3. 1 x 10 metric tons of aluminum is equal to 1. 1 of 10 moles of aluminum: (3.1 x 10 U g Al) 1 m ° le A1 = 1.1 x 10 10 moles Al. 27 g Al One mole of alumina is required to produce two moles of aluminum (Equations A 10 9 and B) ; 1. 1 x 10 moles of aluminum consequently requires 5. 5 x 10 moles of alumina. The reduction of two moles of alumina produces three moles 9 of carbon dioxide (Equation A); 5.5 x 10 moles of alumina will 9 5 consequently produce 8.2 x 10 moles, or 3.6 x 10 metric tons, of carbon dioxide. (8.2 x 109 moles C0 2 ) 44 8 °°2 = 3. 6 x 10 U g C0 2 1 mole CO 2 = 3.6 x 10 5 metric tons C0 2 . The annual production of 3. 1 x 10 metric tons of aluminum using the Alcoa process will release 3. 6 x 10 metric tons of carbon dioxide. Drained-Cathode Hall Process . A 100-MWe plantship could produce about 6. 4 x 4 10 metric tons of aluminum per year through the drained-cathode Hall process (Jones et al., 1980); correspondingly, a 400-MWe plantship could D-4 produce 2.6 x 10 metric tons of aluminum per year. A simplified descrip- tion of the reduction of alumina (Equation C) shows that this process pro- duces carbon dioxide in the same proportion to aluminum as the Alcoa process : (C) 2A1 2 3 + 3C — 4A1 + 3C0 2 . 5 9 . 2.6 x 10 metric tons of aluminum is equal to 9.6 x 10 moles 9 of aluminum; this requires 4.8 x 10 moles of alumina, producing 9 5 7.2 x 10 moles of carbon dioxide, or 3.2 x 10 metric tons of carbon dioxide. An annual production of 2.6 x 10 tons of aluminum through the drained cathode Hall process could result in the release of 3.2 x 10 metric tons of carbon dioxide. D.3 PROJECTED CARBON DIOXIDE RELEASE THROUGH OTEC OPERATION BY THE YEAR 2000 The following calculations present an order of magnitude estimate of the amount of carbon dioxide that could be released from OTEC deployment accord- ing to the scenario for the year 2000 (Table 1-3) . Carbon dioxide release was calculated for open- and closed-cycle generating plants, and ammonia- and aluminum-producing plantships. Closed-cycle Baseload Generating Plants . The total baseload generating capacity is predicted to be 3580 MWe by the year 2000. At an estimated release rate of 5 metric tons of carbon dioxide per MWe per day (Sands, c. 1980), 6.5 x 10 metric tons of carbon dioxide will be released per year. Open-cycle Baseload Generating Plants . Open-cycle plants are projected to supply 830 MWe by the year 2000. At a carbon dioxide release rate of about 57 metric tons per MWe per day (Section D.4), the projected open-cycle deployment wi! the year 2000. deployment will release 1.7 x 10 metric tons of carbon dioxide per year by D-5 Aluminum- and Ammonia-producing Plantshlps . Aluminum- and ammonia- producing plantships could produce 2200 MWe of electricity through a closed-cycle system by the year 2000. This will release about 4 x 10 metric tons of carbon dioxide per year. In addition, projected aluminum production will release about 3.4 x 10 metric tons of carbon dioxide per year (Section D.2). The estimated plantship deployment by the year 2000 could release a 6 total of 4.3 x 10 metric tons of carbon dioxide per year. Total Carbon Dioxide Output by the Year 2000 . Closed-cycle baseload electricity 6.5 x 10 metric tons CO- 2 generation g Open-cycle baseload electricity 17 x 10 metric tons CO generation Plantship operation and aluminum 4.3 x 10 metric tons CO production 2 Total 27.8 x 10 metric tons CO 2 D.4 OPEN-CYCLE CARBON DIOXIDE DISCHARGE Open-cycle plant operation requires the removal of non-condensible gases from the working fluid system. (Watt et al., 1978). This will release large quantities of carbon dioxide. Flow rates for a 40 MWe open-cycle OTEC plant are estimated to be 3-1 3-1 209 m sec and 159 m sec for the warm and cold water systems, respectively (Watt et al., 1977). At an average seawater density of 1.025 g 1~ (Gross, 1977), the mass flow rates are 2.14 x 10 kg sec for warm water, and 1.63 x 10 kg sec for cold water. Carbon dioxide concentrations at the surface and at 1100 m were taken from Takahashi et al., (1970). These values were measured in the eastern North Pacific Ocean and will be used to represent typical ocean values. D-6 Total carbon dioxide available (Takahashi et al. , 1970): Warm. water (surface) -3 -1 1.947 x 10 moles CO. kg seawater -5 -1 = 8.567 x 10 kg C0 2 kg seawater Cold water (1100 m) -3 -1 2.328 x 10 moles C0 2 kg seawater -4 -1 = 1.024 x 10 kg CO kg seawater Assuming that 75% of the equilibrium condition gas is liberated by the plant (Watt et al. , 1978), the amount of C0 2 released is equal to: (0.75) (Total C0 2 available) (Mass flow rate) = Total C0 2 released (0.75) (8.567 x 10 kg C0 2 kg seawater) (2. 14 x 10 kg seawater sec~ ) +(0.75) (1.024 x 10 kg C0 2 kg~ 1 seawater) (1.63 x 10 kg seawater sec" ) - 26.3 kg C0 2 sec" 1 A 40 MWe open-cycle plant could release 26.3 kg of carbon dioxide per second, or 2270 metric tons of carbon dioxide per day. D.5 LARVAL ENTRAINMENT Natural variations in the geographic distribution of organisms makes the siting and spacing of OTEC plants a determining influence in the nature and magnitude of larval entrainment. The potential impacts of different siting and spacing alternatives are illustrated in the following model. These calculations consider the impact of larval entrainment on three species of commercially-exploited fish, representing different life histories, found around the island of Oahu, Hawaii. The primary purpose of this model is to D-7 illustrate the different natures and magnitudes of entrainment impacts resulting from various OTEC siting and spacing configurations. The results present an order of magnitude estimate of the impacts to commercial fisheries of OTEC deployment around an island community. Larval entrainment for each species is estimated for three 400-MWe OTEC plants (1) clustered off Kahe Point, (2) clustered off Waimea Bay, and (3) spaced evenly around Oahu. Because impacts may vary with different types of fish, three species representing different life histories were selected: a carangid, Sevvola spp. (kahala, amberjack), a pelagic/neritic species with pelagic eggs; a pomacentrid, Abudefduf abdominalis (maomao, damself ish) , an inshore reef species with demersal eggs; and a scombrid, Thimnus dtbaeoves (ahi, yellow-fin tuna), an offshore species with pelagic eggs. The model follows the following four steps: (a) The distribution and density of larvae of three commercially- important fish were estimated. Larval distribution around Oahu was obtained from the literature; larval density was averaged from sampling stations located nearest the plant locations used (Figure D-l). (b) Larval entrainment for each species was estimated for the three different deployment scenarios. Larval entrainment was estimated by multiplying larval density by the plant's warm-water flow rate. (Larval density) (Flow rate) = Entrainment estimate. 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CO XI i"S 4-> T CM I to X o a co T 1 CM 1 CO x; O -H O CM 5 O CM CO O o CO o o. cd c O O o >M C O CM 0,0 (J O o O CO O 5 ■S O O 01 o o O -H O O o co o 01 CO »3 £ •* ■* -3 M £ St M r KtjN-U a a) i-i cm a) to ill M c 0) ■H > 00 CO s cn co >> 1-1 C H 0) 0) .* iS CO m 4-1 ■0 cm c A! s m >N -3 AS m -o 3 c ■U' CO £ T) 4) H *J 01 H r-l s a CO 0) d ij 0) n m I 3 o 00 4-1 X x; Of) o i-i T3 0) 0J 00 « a CO CO a k •H 4J CO CO 01 CO s> u S- rH « 9 to X) g CO rQ 01 •n CJ •H M g 0) 3 Cm C/JI D-12 Despite these limitations, the results can be used to show that the impact of larval entrainment on different species of marine organisms is strongly dependent on plant siting and spacing* D.6 IMPINGEMENT The nekton impingement estimate was obtained by extrapolating from data taken at conventional land-based generating plants. The following sites were compared: (1) the Kahe Generating Station, located in a tropical open coast area in Oahu, Hawaii, (2) a generating station located on Galveston Bay in the Gulf of Mexico. The lower impingement values from the Kahe Generating Station are more likely to be representative of impingement from a land-based OTEC plant located on a tropical island, whereas the other station is used to estimate impingement rates in an area of higher productivity. Only impingement at the warm-water intake was considered, impingement at the cold water intake was not estimated because there is no data available on impingement of deep-water organisms . Kahe Generating Station . Unit 5 of the Kahe Generating Station, Oahu, with- 3 -1 draws about 9.5 m sec of nearshore water at velocities similar to those of an OTEC plant, resulting in the impingement of an average of 250 g (wet weight) of fish daily (McCain, 1977). A 400-MWe OTEC plant will with- draw about 210 times more water through the warm-water intake than Unit 5. Assuming that impingement is directly proportional to the volume of water withdrawn, a 400-MWe OTEC plant will impinge about 50 kg of organisms per day. Gulf Mexico . The P.H. Robinson Generating Station in Galveston Bay, Gulf of 3 -1 Mexico, withdraws about 50 m sec of nearshore water, resulting in the daily impingement of 110 kg (wet weight) of nek tonic organisms (Landry, 1971 D-13 after Coles, 1979). A 400-MWe OTEC plant will withdraw about 40 times more water through the warm-water intake. Assuming a direct increase in impinge- ment with volume of water withdrawn, this could result in the impingement of about 4400 kg of organisms per day. D.7 NUTRIENT REDISTRIBUTION The discharge of nutrient-rich waters into the photic zone will increase the productivity of an area and may alter the existing food chain. To demon- strate the differences between food chains in oceanic, coastal, and upwelling areas, the phytoplankton biomass (mg C day ) which could be produced as a result of nutrients released by a 400-MWe OTEC plant was calculated. Assum- ing a 400-MWe plant will discharge cold water with a nitrogen concentration -1 -3 of 30 ug-atom liter (30 mg-atom N m ; Table 3-2) at a flow rate of 2,000 m 3 sec" 1 , (Table 1-1) then 5.18 x 10 9 mg-atom N day" will be redistributed: -3 3 -1 -1 -1 30 mg-atom N m x 2000 m sec x 60 sec min x 60 min hr -1 9 -1 x 24-hr day = 5.18 x 10 mg-atom N day The phytoplankton uptake ratio for nitrogen to carbon is 16: 106 (Redf ield et al. , 1963). Following this ratio, the amount of nitrogen released in a day would result in the production of 4. 1 x 10 kg carbon of phytoplankton biomass. c ,o m 9 «. xu _1 106 mg-atom C 12 mg C 5.18 x 10 mg-atom N day x —r~, °— — x ■: °— - ° * 16 mg-atom N 1 mg-atom C 4.1 x 10 mg C day" = 4. 1 x 10 kg C day" The efficiency of energy transfer between trophic levels and the number of trophic levels characteristic of the food chain which were used to calculate the effects of int shown in Table D-4. the effects of introducing 4. 1 x 10 kg C day into the environment are D-14 TABLE D-4. IMPACTS OF BIOMASS INCREASE TO OCEANIC, COASTAL, AND UPWELLING FOOD CHAINS. Source: Ryther, after Schaeffer (1969) Oceanic (10% Efficiency) Nannoplankton " (small flagellates) 410,000 kg C day -1 Microzooplankton »» Macrozooplankton. (herbivorous (carnivorous zooplankton) 41,000 kg C day -1 zooplankton) 4, 100 kg C day -1 Megazooplankton (chaetognaths, euphausiids) 410 kg C day -1 Planktivores - (lanternf ish, saury) 41 kg C day -1 Carnivores (squid, tuna) 4. 1 kg C day -1 Coastal (15% Efficiency) Phytoplankton — (diatoms, dinoflagellates) Macrozooplankton (herbivorous zooplankton) -Planktivores • (clupeids) -Carnivores (tuna) 410,000 kg C day -1 61,500 kg C day -1 9,230 kg C day -1 1,380 kg C day" Upwelling (20% Efficiency) Macrophytoplankton (large, chain-forming diatoms and dinoflagellates) Planktivores (clupeids) Megazooplankton (euphausiids) Carnivores (tuna) 410,000 kg C day -1 62,000 kg C day -1 16,400 kg C day -1 D-15 D.8 LOW FREQUENCY SOUND EMISSION The impact of anthropogenic sound on marine organisms can be demonstrated by referring to calculations by Payne and Webb (1971) on the interference of oceanic traffic noise with low frequency sounds produced by fin whales ( Balaenoptera physalus) . Noise from oceanic traffic has a frequency range from 10 Hz to 1000 Hz, with a peak intensity at about 50 Hz (Wenz, 1964); fin whales produce loud signals at around 20 Hz (Schevill et al., 1964). Payne and Webb (1971) assume that these sounds represent a method of communication among fin whales. Using a dB signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) as the threshold detection level, Payne and Webb (1971) calculated that noise from present day shipping activity can reduce the effective range of a 20 Hz signal by a minimum of 70% from the range during pre propeller-ship conditions (Table D-5). D.9 SALINITY INCREASE IN OPEN-CYCLE SEAWATER WORKING FLUID. The operation of an open-cycle OTEC plant involves flash evaporation of the seawater working fluid. About one percent of the seawater passing through the plant is evaporated (Watt et al., 1977). Assuming the seawater entering the plant has a salinity of 35 ppt, this will increase the salinity of the remaining fluid by 0.35 ppt. D.10 AMMONIA RELEASE Approximately 6.4 x 10 kg of ammonia (NH_) will be stored on a 400-MWe OTEC plant. During a large spill, 60% of the ammonia (3.8 x 10 kg) will dissolve in the mixed layer, and the remaining 40 percent will be released to the atmosphere. An ammonia concentration of -1 -3 -3 1 mg liter (10 kg m ), was found to cause a 50 percent mortality in oceanic shrimp and fish (Venkataramiah, 1979). The dissolved ammonia will -1 9 3 produce a lethal concentration of 1 mg liter in 3.8 x 10 m of water. 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D-17 total NH3 in seawater - — rr—-. 1 — ~. — = volume of water with lethal concentration lethal concentration 3.8 x 10 6 kg NH 3 in _3 . tt - 3. 8 x 10 9 m 3 10 J kg m J » Assuming that the mixed layer is 60 m deep, this represents a lethal ammonia 2 concentration over an area of 63 km . A 400-MWe ammonia producing plantship will hold 6. 4 x 10 kg of ammonia for working fluid. The ammonia product will be stored for a maximum of 30 days before being removed by ship. About 3.64 x 10 kg of ammonia can be produced in a 30 day period. Consequently, the total amount of ammonia that could be released in a catastrophic spill is 4.28 x 10 kg. Using the same calculations as above, this could result in a lethal concentration of 2 ammonia through 428 km of the mixed layer. US GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1981-342-736:8193 D— 1 8 PENN STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES ADQDD7DTMD17L J