7* TID- 21431 January 1965 Current Status & Commercial Prospects for RADIATION PRESERVATION OF FOOD '•nnsylvenla State University Library documents Section University Park P«„ i yrar*, Pennsylvania 16802 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE Business & Defense Services Administration Prepared for the Division of Isotopes Development / U.S. Atomic Energy Commission/ AT (49-11)2524 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2012 with funding from LYRASIS Members and Sloan Foundation http://archive.org/details/currentstatusOOketc TID - 21431 ISOTOPES/ INDUSTRIAL / TECHNOLOGY Current Status & Commercial Prospects for RADIATION PRESERVATION OF FOOD Prepared for Division of Isotopes Development United States Atomic Energy Commission / AT (49-11)2524 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE John T. Connor, Secretary Thomas G. Wyman Assistant Secretary for Domestic and International Business Kt* TOr CQ V BUSINESS & DEFENSE SERVICES ADMINISTRATION George Donat, Administrator OFFICE OF CHEMICALS & CONSUMER PRODUCTS Edward R. Killam, Director by Harry W. Ketchum Jack W. Osburn, Jr. Jerome Deitch January 1965 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 Price 55 cents. Legal Notice This report was prepared as an account of Government-spon- sored work. Neither the United States, nor the Atomic Energy Commission, nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission : a. Makes any warranty or representation, expressed or im- plied, with respect to the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of the information contained in this report, or that the use of any information, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this report may not infringe privately-owned rights ; or b. Assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or for the determination resulting from the use of any information, appa- ratus, method, or process disclosed in this report. As used in the above, "person acting on behalf of the Commis- sion" includes any employee or contractor of the Commission, or employee of such contractor, to the extent that such employee or contractor of the Commission, or employee of such contractor pre- pares, disseminates, or provides access to, any information pur- suant to this employment or contract with the Commission, or his employment with such contractor. 11 Foreword This report on the current status and commercial prospects for radiation preservation of food is based upon a study conducted by the Business and Defense Services Administration, U. S. Depart- ment of Commerce, for the Division of Isotopes Development, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission. It should serve as a preliminary re- port to management to assist in the orderly absorption of this new technology by food processors and related industries. We believe radiation preservation of food will become an impor- tant part of the food processing industry with many benefits extending from farms and fisheries to the consumer's table. Dis- semination of the information in this report will stimulate the interest of business executives, resulting in greater support and participation by private business. This is the first phase of a continuing study. It covers the sub- ject in a comprehensive manner to provide guidance for future studies of greater depth. It describes the processes for preserving food by ionizing radiation and reviews the present state of food technology for selected products. Included is summary informa- tion on the magnitude of food production, processing, and other important industries that may be affected by the new process. Within the limits of currently available information the areas of impact, character and direction of changes, and related problems that may be anticipated have been identified. The report concludes with a discussion of legal and regulatory aspects and the problem of consumer reaction and acceptance. George Donat, Administrator, Business omd Defense Services Administration. in Acknowledgements Important contributions have been made to the preparation of this report by a number of persons and organizations. Dr. Kevin G. Shea and George Dietz, Division of Isotopes Development, AEC, provided guidance and assistance throughout the planning and conduct of the study. Dr. E. S. Josephson, Morris Simon, and Dr. Eugen Wierbicki, U. S. Army Natick Laboratories; Reuben Pom- erantz, Special Assistant to the Assistant Secretary for Science and Technology, and Dr. H. W. Koch and Elmer Eisenhower, Na- tional Bureau of Standards, U. S. Department of Commerce, were especially helpful in their reviews of the report. Assistance on special aspects of the study was obtained from industry specialists within the Commerce Department's Business and Defense Services Administration and from specialists within a number of other agencies including the Agricultural Marketing Service, Agricul- tural Research Service, the Atomic Energy Commission, the Bu- reau of Commercial Fisheries, and the Food and Drug Adminis- tration. The study was conducted under the direction of Jacob M. Schaffer, Assistant Director for Food Irradiation, Office of Chemicals and Consumer Products, Business and Defense Services Administration. IV Contents Page Legal Notice ii Foreword iii Acknowledgments iv Summary 1 PART 1 BACKGROUND, CURRENT STATUS, AND COMMER- CIAL PROSPECTS FOR FOOD IRRADIATION 5 Chapters 1 Introduction to Radiation Preservation of Food 7 What is Radiation 7 History of Major Developments in Food Irradiation ] Alternative Methods of Food Preservation 15 2 Radiation Sterilization 18 Meat: Bacon, Uncured Pork, Beef, and Ham 18 Poultry : Chicken, Turkey 23 3 Radiation Pasteurization 26 Fruit: Strawberries, Oranges, Sweet Cherries, Other Fruits 26 Seasonality of Fruit Harvests 36 Poultry : Chicken and Turkey 43 Seafoods 45 4 Radiation Disinfection 52 Liquid, Frozen, and Dried Eggs 52 Other Foods 53 5 Radiation Disinfestation 56 Wheat and Wheat Products 57 Mangos and Papayas 61 Pork 64 6 Radiation Sprout Inhibition 65 Potatoes 65 Onions 70 Radiation Product Improvement 72 Summary of Major Foreign Research 76 Canadian Potato Experiment 77 Other Research on Potatoes 77 Other Research: Austria, Australia, Belgium, Den- mark, France, Germany, Greece, Holland, India, Israel, Italy, Norway, Pakistan, Poland, Republic of South Africa, Sweden, United Kingdom, USSR, and The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 78 PART 2 AREAS OF POTENTIAL ECONOMIC IMPACT OF FOOD IRRADIATION 88 1 Food Production 90 Agriculture 90 Fisheries 94 2 Food Processing and Processing Equipment 100 3 Packaging, Containers, and Related Materials 103 4 Radiation Sources and Facilities 110 Gamma Radiation from Radioisotopes Ill Electron Machines 114 Control Instruments 118 5 Other Industries 120 Refrigeration and Storage Facilities 120 Transportation and Transportation Facilities 123 Chemicals 124 6 Marketing and Distribution Facilities and Operations 126 7 Significance of Irradiated Food in World Trade 132 PART 3 LEGAL AND CONSUMER ACCEPTANCE OF IRRADI- ATED FOOD 141 1 Government Regulation of Food Irradiation 142 Licensing and Regulation of Food Irradiation Facili- ties 143 Transportation of Radioactive Materials 144 vi Local and Municipal Activities 145 Laws and Regulations Relating to Irradiated Food 146 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act 147 Federal Meat Inspection Act 149 Poultry Products Inspection Act 151 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act 153 2 Consumer Reaction and Acceptance 155 REFERENCES 159 TABLES Page 1 Radiation Processed Foods : Food and Drug Administra- tion (FDA) Clearance Status as of December 1964; and Commercial Potential : 1965-1970 2 2 Current Status of Irradiated Food Petitions to U. S. Food and Drug Administration 13 3 Meat: Production by Kind, Average 1943-63 25 4 Effect of Gamma Radiation on Shasta Strawberries Held Under Simulated Marketing Conditions 30 5 Oranges: Effect of Gamma Radiation After Storage for 3 Months at 32°F 30 6 Sweet Cherries — Marketability (Edible) After Radia- tion and Storage 34 7 Effects of Radiation on Shelf Life of Selected Fresh Fruits 34 8 Usual Opening and Closing Canning Dates by State for Selected Fruits 40 9 Usual Opening and Closing Canning Dates for Selected Fruits by State 41 10 Shelf -Life of Selected Seafoods : Nonirradiated vs. Irradiated 51 11 Retail Sales Value of Total United States Soup Consump- tion : 1959-1963 75 12 Domestic Civilian Purchases of Farm Food Products for Major Commodity Groups : 1963 Estimates 92 13 Apparent U. S. Civilian Consumption of Selected Foods : 1962 92 14 U. S. Production of Selected Fruit, Vegetables and Wheat : 1963 93 vii 15 U. S. Production of Selected Meat and Poultry Products : 1963 93 16 U. S. Fish Catch for Selected Species : 1962 95 17 Food Processing Establishments by Type : 1958 102 18 Employment and Value of Shipments (FOB Plant) by Food Processing Establishments: 1958 and 1962 102 19 Value of Manufacturers Shipments of Selected Contain- ers Used for Food and Nonfood Products : 1962 105 20 Packaging for Foods Treated with Low-Dose Radiation 105 21 Type of Package and Preservation Process Estimated for Selected Food Products : 1963 107 22 Radioisotope Facilities Supporting AEC Food Irradia- tion Research 112 23 Characteristics of Electron Accelerators — Availability, Application, and Costs 115 24 Apparent U. S. Consumption of Selected Food Products in 1962 and Estimated U. S. Consumption in 1980 118 25 Gross Refrigerated Warehouse Capacity in the Conti- nental United States : October 1, 1963 125 26 Employment and Sales by Wholesalers of Grocery and Related Products : 1958 130 27 Total U. S. Consumption and Grocery Store Sales of Grocery Products : 1963 131 28 Exports and Imports of Selected Food Products by Con- tinents : 1961 134 29 Value of Total World Exports of Selected Commodities and U. S. Exports : 1961 136 30 Grain Trade Areas of the World, Surplus and Deficit: 1961 136 ILLUSTRATIONS I. U. S. Army Radiation Laboratory at Natick, Massa- chusetts 15 II. Interior of the Gamma Cell at the U. S. Army Natick Laboratory 24 III. The USAEC Mobile Gamma Irradiator 29 IV. The Atomic Energy of Canada, Ltd., Mobile Cobalt 60 Irradiator 37 Vlll V. Design Illustrating Mobile Electron Source 38 VI. Design of a Large-Scale Cobalt 60 Fishery Products Irradiator 48 VII. The Marine Products Development Irradiator at Gloucester, Massachusetts 50 VIII. Design of the Grain Products Irradiator Under Con- struction at Savannah, Georgia 60 IX. Design for Electron Beam Grain Irradiator 62 X. The Hawaiian Research Irradiator at the University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Oahu 63 XI. Linear Accelerator at the Atomic Energy Commission of Denmark 80 XII. Floor Plan of the Marine Products Development Ir- radiator, Gloucester, Massachusetts 95 XIII. Design for Transportable Shipboard Irradiators . 98 XIV. Basic Design of Research Irradiators Ill XV. Cobalt 60 Radiation Source at the U.S. Army Natick Laboratory 113 XVI. Linear Accelerator at the U. S. Army Natick Labora- tory 116 IX Summary The preservation of food by ionizing radiation is fast approach- ing commercialization. Within the next decade, food irradiation will evolve as a major technique for food preservation and will be utilized by many types of processors with substantial benefits to producers, distributors and consumers. Over the past decade a great body of scientific knowledge has developed on food and its reaction to ionizing energy. Many foods treated with ionizing radiation, either by isotopes or by electron machines, have been proven wholesome and nutritious and free from any measurable induced radioactivity. Irradiated foods and the construction and operation of food irradiation facilities are subject, as are other foods, to public regu- lation. The Atomic Energy Commission licenses facilities using radioactive materials. The Department of Agriculture issues regu. lations governing the processing and handling of meat and poultry products and the establishments in which they are processed. The Food and Drug Administration issues regulations governing ir- radiation of all foods. Many other governmental agencies at the Federal, regional, state and local levels have responsibilities in various aspects of food irradiation. Businessmen contemplating participation in this new technology should initiate early contact with the agencies identified in Part III of this report. In this report 28 products are discussed in conjunction with six radiation processes : sterilization, pasteurization, disinfestation, disinfection, sprout inhibition, and product improvement. Even though precise cost data are lacking, it appears that 17 of the 28 products have "excellent" or "good" commercial prospects for domestic or international markets (see table 1). These product evaluations were based on the state of technology, industry needs, estimated costs, competitive methods, consumer habits and prefer- ences, and other information. Those products for which radiation Table 1— RADIATION PROCESSED FOODS: FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRA- TION (FDA) CLEARANCE STATUS AS OF DECEMBER 1 964; AND COMMERCIAL POTENTIAL: 1965-70 Process and product Approved by FDA Expected submission to FDA Domestic commercial potential World trade potential Sterilization Bacon Pork Beef Ham Chicken- - Turkey- - - Yes. No_ No_ No. No. No_ Pasteurization Fruit Oranges Strawberries. _ Peaches Nectarines Apricots Cherries Apples Pears Tomatoes Figs Poultry Chicken Turkey Marine Products Fish Shellfish Pending. No No No No No No No No No No. No. No. No. Disinfection Liquid, frozen, and dried eggs. Disinfestation Wheat and wheat products. Pork Mangos Papayas No. Yes- No- No_ No. Sprout inhibition Potatoes Onions Yes. No. Product improvement Dehydrated vegetables. No. 1966 1966 1965 1965 1965 1967 1967 1965 1965 1966 1966 1965 1965 Limited. Good..- Fair Good._- Good... Good___ Limited _ Excellent b b b b b b b b Excellent Good Excellent. Excellent. Excellent. Limited . Limited - Good-.- Fair Limited- Limited - Excellent Good Good Good Good Good Good Fair Limited b b b b b b b b Excellent Good Excellent Good Excellent Excellent Good Limited Limited Good b Excellent a Not presently scheduled. b Insufficient data available for complete evaluation at this time. holds the most promise at this time are : pasteurized poultry, ma- rine products, and strawberries; sterilized poultry and ham; im- proved dehydrated vegetables ; and disinfected eggs, liquid, frozen, and dried. Food irradiation will have its major uses where its unique functions will fulfill needs not satisfied by other means. To some extent it may replace alternative methods of food preservation, but in many cases will be used in combination with other processes. Initial commercial applications will occur gradually as determined by technical and economic developments relating to variations in products, marketing needs and industry practices. Many firms now engaged in food processing will adopt food irradiation as a supplementary process or as a means of diversification, although a new branch of the food industry may emerge composed of firms engaged primarily in food irradiation. Food irradiation will affect agriculture, fisheries, and food proc- essing and related industries such as food processing equipment, packaging and packaging materials, radiation sources and facili- ties, refrigeration and refrigeration equipment, storage facilities, transportation, chemicals, marketing facilities and operations, and world trade. However, because of the tremendous magnitude of the food and the related industries in relation to the number and volume of select food products that will be irradiated, the primary impact will be on individual markets, producers, processors, dis- tributors, and geographic areas rather than on the food industry as a whole. Major benefits which may be expected to result from the com- mercialization of food irradiation include the following: (1) sav- ings resulting from reductions in spoilage loss from harvest to market ; (2) reductions in the incidence of food-borne diseases and parasites; (3) market expansion as a result of extensions in shelf life and shipping distances, and increased variety of product choice; (4) increased availability of a more nutritious and varied diet to the undernourished peoples of the world; (5) expanded export potentials, especially in developing countries ; and (6) mar- ket stabilization through the extension of shelf life resulting in the reduction of market gluts and shortages. In addition to the benefits of food irradiation to those engaged in production and distribution of foods, important benefits will be enjoyed by the consumer. Among consumer benefits will be: (1) improvement and extension of quality; (2) reduction in food- borne hazards to health; (3) development of new and more con- venient foods; (4) increases in the variety of foods not hereto- fore available; and (5) the eventual availability of a more bal- anced and nutritious diet in the primitive areas of the world. One of the most siginficant aspects of food irradiation lies in its potential for expanding international trade. Food irradiation thus becomes an important tool in bolstering the world's inadequate food supply which must be greatly increased to feed a global population estimated to double between the years 1960 and 2000. Concern about inadequate food supplies has spurred food ir- radiation research in many nations throughout the world. The re- cent union of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) in food irradiation activities underscores this concern. The promise of commercial food irradiation in advancing the standard of living in this nation and in alleviation of food prob- lems throughout the world warrants the continued and increased support of this program by industry, Government, and consumers. PART 1 BACKGROUND, CURRENT STATUS, AND COMMERCIAL PROSPECTS FOR FOOD IRRADIATION Since the inception of the radiation preservation of food pro- gram, private industry, universities, non-profit institutions and Government agencies have subjected over 100 foods to research. This research has covered broad areas such as microbiology, physics, chemistry, packaging, radiation dosimetry, economics, acceptability, wholesomeness, nutrition, source design and devel- opment, and other related areas, pertaining to irradiated food processing, marketing, and consumption. 110 It is impossible to cover all 100 foods which have been subjected to research in a report of this scope. Therefore, discussion in this section is limited to those foods meeting the following criteria : 1. Irradiated foods approved for human consumption by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 2. Irradiated foods likely to be approved by FDA within the next 2 years 3. Foods which, because of marketing patterns or spoilage rates, are good commercial prospects for irradiation The third criterion covers foods for which radiation processing- offers dramatic prospects, even though investigations are still in preliminary stages. It has been common, in discussions about radiation preservation of foods, to divide the program into two parts : Pasteurization and Note: Footnotes bear the number of the alphabetical list of references that begin on page 159. sterilization, Sometimes the trem low-dose is used for pasteuriza- tion and high-dose for sterilization. Actually, radiation preserva- tion of food breaks down into six areas of application. These are listed below without regard to order of importance. 1. Radiation sterilization. 2. Radiation pasteurization. 3. Radiation disinfection. 4. Radiation disinfestation. 5. Radiation sprout inhibition. 6. Radiation product improvement. Although there is some overlap, the six processes differ consid- erably with prospects and problems separate and distinct for each. To a large extent each food commodity reacts to radiation in a distinct manner. For this reason it is very difficult to generalize about the technology. Each process as applied to an individual food commodity must be examined within the limits set forth above. Following a description of what radiation is and what it does, chapter 1, the processes as applied to the foods listed above are discussed in chapters 2 through 7. Chapter 8 is a summary of major foreign research. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO RADIATION PRESERVATION OF FOOD WHAT IS RADIATION? "RADIATION. ... la: the action or process of radiating b(l) : the process of emitting radiant energy in the form of waves or particles (2) : the combined processes of emission, transmission, and absorption of radiant energy 2a : something that is radiated b : energy radiated in the form of waves or particles. " By permission from Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary Copyright 1963 by G. and C. Merriam Co. Man has been subjected to radiation, or irradiated if you pre- fer, since Adam and Eve. Without radiant energy, there would be no life on earth. The sun is our primary source of radiation. Scientists believe the sun's energy is derived from the release of atomic energy deep within the center of that star — the splitting of hydrogen atoms into helium atoms — emitting enormous quantities of radiant energy. Fortunately most of this energy never reaches the earth, but enough does reach us to support biological and chemical processes necessary to life. There are forms of radiation with which we are more familiar. For our purposes we may think of radiation as streams of radiant energy emitted from a source, transmitted through space, to a receptor in which it is absorbed. Some of the more familiar types of radiation are radio and television rays, heat or infra-red rays, visible light rays, ultraviolet rays, and even X-rays. We are usu- ally not so familiar with alpha, beta, gamma, and cosmic rays. All of these are types of radiation having certain characteristics in common yet differing greatly in other respects. Even though all of these various streams of energy travel at or near the speed of light (which is a convenient measure), only ultraviolet rays, X-rays, and alpha, beta, gamma, and cosmic rays are capable of penetrating and ionizing the material. From a technical standpoint, grilling a hamburger is preserving food by irradiation. Infra-red heat rays are emitted from the fire, are transmitted through space to the grill, and are absorbed in killing bacteria, inactivating enzymes, and cooking the meat. However, in general usage the term radiation preservation of food has come to mean the preservation of food by the use of high frequency, penetrating, ionizing radiations. One of the first questions asked by a person unfamiliar with radiation or the radiation preservation of food program is, "Does it make the food radioactive?" The answer is, "No, it does not." The Food Additives Amendment of 1958 to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act provides that any food subjected inten- tionally to irradiation would be adulterated unless the irradiation was in accordance with regulations in Section 402 (a) 7 of the Act. In effect, this means that irradiation is considered a food additive and that a food treated with irradiation cannot be offered for hu- man consumption without approval of the FDA. Under the regu- lations established (further discussed in Part III, Chapter 1) be- fore an irradiated food is approved, data must be submitted to the FDA to establish that there is no radioactivity induced in the food. Induced radioactivity in food is primarily dependent on the level of radiation energy to which the food is subjected. In other words, no radioactivity can be induced until a certain energy "threshold" has been reached or exceeded. Until the threshold level is reached, no activity can be induced regardless of the dose. 127 Other factors involved in this question are the elements con- tained in the food because each element has its own threshold level. Much research has been done on the question of induced radio- activity in foods. It has been shown that no measurable activity can be induced with Cobalt 60 or Cesium 137, the two isotopes approved for radiation preservation of foods, or with electron ma- chines up to 12 Mev. (Mev=l million electron volts, a unit of energy equivalent to the energy acquired by an electron accelerated across a potential of 1 million volts.) Although FDA has approved elec- tron machines only to the 5 Mev level, no measurable radioactivity as a result of treatment has been shown. 111 57 Other experiments have shown that induced activity from the 12 to 24 Mev level is so 8 little that background radioactivity naturally present in non- irradiated food is frequently much greater. 111 The consensus is that induced radiation will not constitute a serious problem in food irradiation. 127 In 1895, W. K. von Roentgen discovered X-rays during the course of experiments with cathode tubes. A year later, Henri Becqueral discovered natural radioactivity in uranium salts. In 1898, similar natural radioactivity from thorium salts was noted independently by G. C. Schmidt and the Curies. The Curies iso- lated radium from uranium salts. Before the turn of the century, several researchers, working independently, discovered that a portion of the rays from thorium could be deflected in a magnetic field. In 1900, P. Villard deter- mined that the rays which were not deflected were very penetrat- ing, while those that were deflected acted very much like electrons. These groups were then called alpha and beta rays until Ruther- ford found, in 1903, that a portion of the alpha rays could deflect in a very strong magnetic field. The undeflected were then termed gamma rays and were found to be very similar to X-rays. 2s Over a period of years, extensive research was performed to more clearly define the difference in X-rays, alpha rays, beta rays, and gamma rays. One of the major differences is the relative penetrating powers of these rays. 120 It was found that these nuclear radiations could be classified as particles or electromagnetic waves. Alpha and beta rays are of particles, while gamma and X-rays are electromagnetic waves. These rays, whether particle or electromagnetic, are often referred to as "ionizing" radiations, that is, they are capable of ionizing the matter through which they pass. Ionization is the process in which one or more electrons are re- moved from an atom. In a sense, these ionizing radiations are capable of penetrating matter with such energy that they are capable of "knocking" electrons loose from their atoms, thus mak- ing the atom unstable. This accounts for much of the effect of radiation of food, bacteria, insects, etc. 127 Of these ionizing radiations, only electrons, X-rays, and gamma rays are of major interest in food processing. Alpha and beta rays lack sufficient penetrating ability to be practical. Beta particles, while identical with electrons in their interaction with matter, are the product of nuclear disintegrations of man- made or natural radioisotopes and are limited in energy. Electrons, on the other hand, since they are from machines, may have any energy, depending upon the type of machine, its power input, etc., and are more suitable than beta particles for processing applica- tions. Until the 1930's, sources of ionizing radiation were limited to expensive and rare natural radioisotopes. In 1930, Cockcroft and Walton developed an apparatus using vacuum tubes and a voltage multiplying circuit, which was capable of delivering protons. In 1931, Van de Graff developed his high potential electrostatic gen- erator. It was capable of sustained output and through use of an oscillating magnetic device was able to scan the electron beam back and forth, over the area to be irradiated. Another source of high energy electrons is the linear accelerator proposed by Ising in 1925 and built first by Wilderoe in 1929. In the same period of time that electron machines were being developed, others were continuing research in natural radioac- tivity, so that by 1937, 190 artificial radioisotopes had been discovered. 127 The work in both fields has continued to go forward so that at present, electron machines have evolved from the experimental class and are produced on practically a production line basis. Ar- tificial radioisotopes now number over 700 and can be "tailor- made" to arrive at the most desired characteristics for their in- dustrial application. 1 It is planned that all future AEG and joint AEG/ Army petitions to the FDA will request clearance of foods irradiated by Cobalt-60, Cesium-137, electrons up to 10 Mev, and X-rays up to 5 Mev. HISTORY OF MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS IN FOOD IRRADIATION Since the preservation of food is one of man's oldest interests, he has devoted a great deal of attention to its accomplishment. Although he has not usually regarded the problem as one of energy relationships, it may be the case, as in the addition of energy by heating or conversely, the removal of energy by freezing. The use of ionizing radiation is a new method of imparting energy to accomplish preservation of food. It is now possible to transfer extremely large amounts of energy providing a means of effecting very rapid and selective biological and chemical changes. Since radiation transmits such large amounts of energy, its use must be precisely controlled. The problem is similar to cooking a hamburger. The hamburger 10 can be burnt by leaving it too long on the grill, or it can be too rare by removing it too soon. Radiation dosage is more critical be- cause of the tremendous energy involved compared to that which cooks a hamburger. The theory of destroying bacteria and other micro-organisms by the use of ionizing radiations was developed at about the same time Becqueral, Schmidt, and the Curies were making their dis- coveries in radioactivity. In 1898, Pacionotti and Porcelli observed the effect of radiation on microbes. Dr. Prescott reported effects of radium radiation on pathogenic organisms in 1904. Others worked on the effects of radiation on enzymes, while still others studied why these effects happened. In 1930, a French patent was issued to 0. Wust for the use of ionizing radiations to preserve food. It is thought to be the first patent recorded in this field. However, the earliest series of ex- periments on the level of food technology were probably those of Proctor, Van de Graaf and Fram of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, performed under contract for the U. S. Quartermaster Corps in 1943. This and similar work soon indicated that radiation preservation of food could be accomplished. Beginning about 1950, the Atomic Energy Commission began supporting research in the potentials of gamma emitting isotopes in preservation of foods. Universities and non-profit institutions were the researchers supported. In 1952, the Quartermaster Corps had a survey-type contract with Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology and MIT also investigated surface sterilization of meat for the Navy. As a result of these preliminary investigations, the Department of Defense decided that the radiation preservation of foods had sufficient potential to warrant deeper investigation. Accordingly the Quartermaster General requested, in May 1953, authorization to initiate a 5-year research program. Funds were allocated for Fiscal Year 1954 ; the Department of the Army assimilated the food technology studies of the AEC, and by 1956, over 80 institutions held research contracts with the Army. The bulk of these contractors were academic institutions, but the food industry was also represented. 123 In May 1956, the Interdepartmental Committee on Radiation Preservation of Food was formed by joint action of its member agencies, at the suggestion of the Secretary of Defense. The Com- mittee functions as a focal point in Government for those working on and interested in radiation preservation of food. It encourages 11 high levels of participation by Government agencies and industry, disseminates information, and encourages the commercial appli- cation of the techniques developed. Nine Governmental agencies are represented on the Committee : the Agency for International Development; the Atomic Energy Commission ; the Departments of Agriculture ; Army ; Commerce ; Health, Education and Welfare; Interior; State; and the Small Business Administration. Agency representatives meet periodi- cally to report progress and discuss problems relating to matters of mutual interest. 51 In 1960, the food irradiation program was evaluated and re- aligned. 152 The AEC assumed primary responsibility for research in radiation pasteurization. 00 The Army continued research in sterilization, with secondary emphasis on other processes. A food irradiation laboratory was built at the Army Natick Laboratory, Natick, Massachusetts. Designed and constructed un- der AEC supervision, it has a large gamma (Cobalt-60) source and an 18 kilowatt variable energy linear accelerator capable of providing electrons up to 24 Mev. The Army's program is conducted, planned, and monitored by Natick Laboratories, with the Office of the Surgeon General, De- partment of the Army, responsible for conducting research on wholesomeness. Progress is reviewed periodically by the Joint Com- mittee on Atomic Energy of the United States Congress. 152153154 In the AEC program, the Division of Isotopes Devlopment is responsible for source design and development, and the Division of Biology and Medicine is responsible for wholesomeness aspects. Cooperation and communication among the two divisions of the AEC, the Surgeon General's Office, and Natick Labs of the De- partment of the Army have been excellent. On February 8, 1963, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration cleared fresh bacon, sterilized by radiation, for unrestricted human consumption. August 15, 1963, brought the clearance of wheat and wheat products, disinfested by the use of ionizing radiation. On June 30, 1964, a clearance was issued for gamma irradiation for the purpose of inhibiting sprouting of white potatoes. Flexible packaging of food prior to its irradiation was approved by FDA through its clearance of several packaging materials on August 10, 1964. 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Army Radiation Laboratory at Natick, Massachusetts. —Courtesy USAEC These pioneering clearances are only the forerunners of what promises to be a long list of radiation processed foods in the rea- sonably near future. FDA is presently considering other clearance petitions for irradiated products as shown in table 2. The AEC is preparing petitions for submission to FDA in 1965 for clearances of pasteurized peaches and nectarines. In 1965, AEC and the Army plan to submit joint petitions for clearance of other foods including: onions, cherries, apricots, strawberries, apples, pears, mangos, papayas, and some varieties of fish. The Army plans to submit petitions for sterilized poultry and ham in 1965; sterilized beef and pork in 1966; and sterilized shrimp and fish in 1967. ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF FOOD PRESERVATION The major causes of food spoilage are : 1. The action of micro-organisms 2. The action of enzymes 3. Chemical changes such as oxidation 4. Physical changes such as dehydration 5. Biological changes such as sprouting 6. Damage from insects, rodents, and other pests As the food distribution chain from producer to consumer be- comes longer and more complex, food spoilage becomes a greater problem. The food industry from the farmer to the retailer wages continuous war against food spoilage. 15 The principal weapons in this war are : 1. Canning 2. Pasteurization 3. Cooling 4. Freezing 5. Dehydrating 6. Pickling 7. Fermentation 8. Chemical additives 9. Pest control As several of the causes of food spoilage may combine to cause spoilage in a food, so may several of the food preservation proc- esses be combined to combat the spoilage. Milk is a good example. As milk comes from the cow, even under ideal conditions, it has a bacterial population. On the farm it is cooled and protected from insects and vermin while awaiting delivery to the dairy processing plant. At the plant, it is clarified to remove cells from the lining of the cow's udder, and any solid foreign matter which may have accumulated. The milk is then pasteurized to kill any disease causing organisms it might contain and reduce the number of re- maining bacteria to a point which slows their action sufficiently for practical purposes. The milk is cooled, bottled, and stored at a temperature which also inhibits bacterial action. As the milk is delivered, it is protected from sunlight, in some cases in a brown glass bottle or in an opaque paper carton, because sunlight can trigger an enzyme into action causing oxidation of the milk with a resulting off-flavor. It is obvious that none of these principal weapons, or processes, is effective in preserving all foods, and equally obvious that no one food can be preserved acceptably by all of the processes. Each process in conjunction with each food has its advantages and dis- advantages. Some of the processes destroy certain vitamins and nutrient values; some change the appearance, flavor, aroma, or texture. Consider the difference in a cucumber and kosher dill pickle, fresh tomatoes and canned tomatoes, or grape juice and a grape wine. With the exception of thermal canning, the major food pre- servative processes in commercial use today are merely sophisti- cated modifications of methods used by primitive peoples before the dawn of history. Modifications continue to be made. When the canning industry was first established in the United States it was limited to the packing of seafoods. It was another 20 years or so before canning 16 began to broaden into the preservation of meats, fruits, and vege- tables. Pasteurization of milk and the product resulting today is far superior to that of 15 years ago. Now radiation preservation of foods is beginning to arrive at the point of commercialization to take its place in the arsenal of weapons against food spoilage. The specific effects, as shown by research, that radiation proc- essing can accomplish for specific foods are described in the fol- lowing six chapters. 17 CHAPTER 2 RADIATION STERILIZATION Radiation sterilization of food, like canning, destroys spoilage organisms to the point that the unrefrigerated shelf-life of a product is extended for several years as long as the product is protected from recontamination. Protection from recontamina- tion requires packaging. Once the package of sterilized food is opened, the food must then be treated as perishable. The process has obvious public health potentialities apart from the extension of shelf -life. MEAT Most of the effort in the field of radiation sterilization has been directed toward developing suitable meat and meat food products for military uses. Meat is basic to the modern diet and meat animals are a main- stay of modern agriculture. The abundance of meat and meat animals has become a distinguishing feature of advanced society : the peoples of the "underdeveloped" areas of the world subsist largely on a starch diet, but the industrial and prosperous agrarian nations are meat eaters. 159 In the United States, meat and meat animals have set a credit- able record of growth. In the last 40 years, production of all meats has increased nearly 75 percent from 17.7 billion pounds in 1923 to over 30.5 billion pounds in 1963. 158 162 Consumer expenditures for meat is over 4 percent of consumer income, (after taxes) and the sale of meat animals provides a third of all dollars earned by U.S. farmers. Beef has been the chief contributor to the growth of meat con- sumption in the United States. Its production has increased about 18 two and one-half times in the past 40 years: from 6.7 billion pounds in 1923 to 16.4 billion pounds in 1963. Pork production, however, has increased about 30 percent in the same period : from 9.5 billion pounds to 12.4 billion pounds. 3 162 Other meats have not had the same growth success. Veal pro- duction which had increased during the 1950's was actually less in 1963 than in 1923. Lamb and mutton increased by 30 percent. Meat production is reported in table 3 (page 25). The meatpacking industry gained its greatest impetus in 1875 through the invention of the refrigerator car. This development, and the later use of the refrigerated truck, makes possible a regu- lar flow of fresh meat every day, in winter and summer, from processing centers to consuming centers. With today's modern system of distribution and up-to-date methods of livestock pro- duction, meat supplies vary from month-to-month and season-to- season, although seasonal variation is growing less pronounced as more scientific methods of breeding and feeding are adopted. Various types of meat inspection prevail in the country's meat- packing plants. All meat or meat food products which are to be shipped in interstate or foreign commerce must be inspected un- der the rules set up by the Meat Inspection Division of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. 149 Many meatpacking plants do not ship beyond the borders of the State in which they are located. These plants may have city, county, or State meat inspection and sanitary regulations. The purpose of inspection, either by the Federal Government or a State, county, or city, is to detect and destroy unfit meat; to require that the preparation and handling of food composed wholly or in part of meat be conducted in a clean and sanitary manner ; to prevent the use in meat foods of harmful substances ; and to prevent false or deceptive labeling or marking of meats and meat-food products. (See Part 3, Chapter 1). In recent years, there has been a widening spread between what the homemaker pays for meat and the price the farmer receives for an equivalent quantity of his "raw product." Much of the higher prices to the consumer is a reflection of the convenience features demanded by the consumer. Consumers today expect to buy meats in different sizes and shapes, frozen and unfrozen, sliced or plain, closely trimmed, perhaps boneless or even pre- cooked. There has been great improvement in the preparation, processing, and packaging of meat and meat products. These im- provements have made it possible for packers to supply meat in the convenient forms customers prefer. This desire for con- 19 venience is somewhat of a necessity for the 60 percent of the na- tion's working women who are married. They require foods that can be prepared easily and quickly, since kitchen time is limited. The American Meat Institute indicates that homemakers are will- ing to spend approximately 25 percent of their food budgets on meat if they can get it in the quality and form they want to buy. 3 Among the new methods being investigated for the preserva- tion and the extension of the keeping qualities of meat, irradia- tion, antibiotics, and freezing are of first importance. Bacon The first irradiated food cleared by the Food and Drug Adminis- tration for human consumption was bacon. 145 This clearance, granted February 15, 1963, represents a milestone in the U. S. Food irradiation program and as such has an importance far out- weighing the commercial prospects of the product. The approval is the first obtained from a regulating agency of any country for a radiation sterilized food. Petitions for approval of other irradi- ated foods are pegged to this history making petition, which is the culmination of a decade of intensive research. 128 The research demonstrated that bacon exposed to Cobalt-60 radiations at 4.5-5.6 megarad* after canning may be held at room temperature for at least 2 years and, when opened, is indis- tinguishable from fresh bacon. One megarad equals 1 million rads. A rad is the quantity of ionizing radiation which results in the ab- sorption of 100 ergs per gram in the irradiated material at the point of interest. Bacon has been found acceptable for troop feeding, 83 84 and the Department of Defense is moving forward with further accept- ability testing. The Defense Subsistence Supply Center is prepar- ing bid tenders for dissemination to private industry for 30,000 pounds of radiation sterilized canned bacon. The bacon will be supplied to U. S. military establishments here and abroad for further acceptability studies. Uncured Pork Pork chops, pork loins, etc. which are steamed or oven-cooked to internal temperatures of 160 °F., are meat items which can be preserved by 4.5-5.6 megarads of radiation. These products so treated have been stored from 20 to 25 months at 70 °F. and are *Megarad = One million rads. A rad is the quantity of ionizing radiation which results in the absorption of 100 ergs per gram in the irradiated material at the point of interest, 20 considered acceptable when eaten. 182 The Army plans to petition FDA for clearance on irradiated pork in 1966. Another pork item capable of being preserved by ionizing radiation is pork sausage. 183 Beef Although the side effects of irradiation on the texture, flavor, and appearance of beef has been a problem, the results of inten- sive Army investigations indicate the problem is being solved. 182 Beef sterilized at 4.5 megarads has been found acceptable as a component of standard Army meals. 84 85 8G Civilian acceptance of radiation sterilized beef may result in packaged "brown and serve" roasts, uncooked canned beef items, and roast beef sandwich slices, all of which would require no refrigeration. Army scientists believe radiation sterilized beef has excellent commercial possibilities and plan to submit a clearance petition in 1966. Ham One major domestic meatpacker foresees enough commercial potential in canned radiation sterilized hams and ham products to support private research. Executives of the company believe that radiation sterilized hams will be more attractive to the consumer than the heat processed canned sterile hams or pasteurized canned hams. The conventional hams require refrigeration. Some con- sumers object to the appearance, caused by cooking in the can, of heat sterilized canned ham. Others object to the relatively high price. Together, these factors result in limited demand for con- ventional heat processed sterile canned hams. Research in Denmark indicates that substitution of parts of the heat treatment used in processing canned cured meats with irradiation may lead to a reduction of cooking losses and improve- ments in the flavor and texture. Experiments have shown that canned ham cooking losses were reduced from the range of 25 to 30 percent to 6 to 12 percent, by replacing the present commercial heat treatment with a combination treatment. 43 There is a sizable demand for canned hams of various sorts, most of which are unsterilized and require refrigeration. Produc- tion of Federally inspected canned hams for civilian use in fiscal year 1963 was 367.6 million pounds, with wholesale value in excess of $224 million, according to a USDA estimate. Imports during 21 1963 were valued at over $98 million. 143 Exports were negligible, amounting to less than $600,000. 142 Less than 10 percent of the imported canned hams are sterilized, yet imported sterile hams outsell domestic sterile hams, the USDA estimates. An important sales advantage of sterile hams, regardless of process, is that they require no refrigerator space in the home or in marketing channels. Indications are that research will culminate in an acceptable canned ham sterilized by radiation. The housewife eventually will have her choice of fully cooked, uncooked, or partially cooked hams of various types, packed dry in the can, or eventually in flexible plastic laminate. Technology and wholesomeness studies have advanced to the point that the U.S. Army plans to submit clearance petitions to FDA and USDA Meat Inspection Division in 1965. Although there has been some variation in preference ratings, radiation sterilized hams have been found acceptable for standard Army rations. 83 86 Army scientists are engaged in intensive research to find the cause of the preference variations. Hams from commercial sources, cured by six different processes, are being irradiated and evaluated to determine the effects of various curing ingredients, smoke, and internal temperatures on the reference ratings. 180 182 183 Other work is going forward on low dose sterilization. Since ham is a cured product it appears possible to sterilize it at radia- tion doses lower than those needed for uncured meats. Research is showing that lower doses than 4.5 megarad will have less effect on odor, flavor, texture, and appearance. 180 182 183 Although there are estimates that radiation sterilization of meat will cost from $9.96 to $17.14 per hundredweight (cwt.) 175 commercially sound radiation cost data are still lacking. The un- certainty about costs has not discouraged industry interest or participation in research directed toward radiation sterilized hams. Nor has uncertainty concerning consumer acceptance been an obstacle for one company which anticipates that general ac- ceptance will result from FDA and MID approvals with only very minor consumer objection. Considering the factors outlined above and the fact that military requirements for sterilized hams may be quite high, very good commercial prospects may be in store for producers of radiation sterilized ham. Most of the work on radiation sterilization of meat has been conducted by or under the auspices of the military. The prospect of being able to supply fresh-like meat products throughout the chain of military supply without requiring refrigeration is ex- 22 tremely attractive, not only because of the promised savings in- volved refrigeration and handling costs, but also for the increased flexibility indicated for military operations. An analysis of mili- tary needs and prospects for radiation sterilized foods is outside the scope of this report. However, much of the basic research for military purposes may be applied to foods of civilian significance as well, and military requirements could become sizable. POULTRY Chicken may be satisfactorily sterilized with 4.5 megarad of radiation. It has been pronounced wholesome and nutritious by the Army Surgeon General's Office 51 103 and found acceptable for inclusion in standard military rations by troop testing at Ft. Lee. 82 84 Radiation sterilized chicken stored at 70 °F. for 21 months was rated more acceptable than frozen chicken stored for the same length of time. 184 Preparation of a petition to FDA for approval of radiation sterilized poultry is awaiting completion of microbiological studies by the Army Natick Laboratories. These studies should be com- pleted in the Spring of 1965. The advantage to the military in eliminating the need for re- frigeration of sterilized poultry is obvious. The advantage to con- sumers may not be quite so obvious. Commercial adoption of this process would allow the marketing of packaged poultry, whole or in parts, which would be shelf stable and much more attractive to the consumer than those available from thermal canning. The high internal temperatures needed to obtain thermally sterilized canned poultry usually result in an over-cooked product and low- ered consumer acceptance. The pasteurized canned product re- quires refrigerating. New products which could be stored on the pantry shelf without refrigeration may be possible. Such items as "brown and serve" pre-stuffed chicken and turkey, and chicken and turkey rolls are possible. It is difficult to assess the commercial potentials for sterilized poultry at this point. However, it should be noted that pre-stuffed ready-to-cook refrigerated turkeys are being marketed today, as are turkey and chicken rolls. Today, they require refrigeration and take up quite a bit of space in the home refrigerator. The elimination of the need for refrigeration and the trend toward con- venience foods should combine to make these and similar irradi- 23 Figure II. — Interior of the gamma cell used in preservation of foods at the U. S. Army Radiation Laboratory, Natick, Mass. Products to be processed are carried, via the overhead conveyor system, between the rows of tubes which may be seen rising from the 25-foot-deep water-filled storage pool. Operations within the cell are remotely controlled and are monitored by instruments and a closed circuit TV system. — U. S. Army photograph 24 ated products attractive to processors, distributors, and con- sumers. Radiation sterilized poultry parts, packed in No. 10 metal cans or other suitable containers, may be used in restaurants, hotels, hospitals, and other institutions. Since a mild heat treatment is required for enzyme inactivation prior to radiation sterilization, the treated poultry would require a shorter cooking time, reducing costs and increasing service efficiency. Poultry is produced at less cost in the United States than in any other country of the world. The extended shelf life made possible by radiation processing should enable domestic poultry processors and distributors to compete even more successfully in interna- tional markets. The outlook for radiation processed poultry, including sterilized poultry discussed above and pasteurized poultry discussed in chap- ter 3, appears to be one of the most promising, both domestically and internationally, of all radiation processed foods. Table 3— MEAT: PRODUCTION BY KIND, AVERAGE 1943-63 (Percent) Beef _.. . .. 50.9 Pork 40.3 Veal ._______-_. . . 5.9 2.9 Total -_. 100.0 Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 155 The footnote number appears in the references. 25 CHAPTER 3 RADIATION PASTEURIZATION Radiation pasteurization of food is the exposure of a food to limited doses of radiation to effect a reduction in spoilage organ- isms to the point that the fresh-like shelf -life of the food is ex- tended and any disease causing organisms which might be present are destroyed. Radiation pasteurization requires the use of sub- sequent refrigeration to realize the fullest potential of the process. The principal products showing promise for radiation pasteur- ization are certain fruits, poultry meats, and seafoods. FRUIT The success of experiments in radiation processing is usually measured in extension of shelf -life. In the case of fruits, shelf- life extensions are merely indication of the benefit rather than the benefit itself. Drs. Maxie and Sommer of the University of California, Davis, have stated, ". . . the principal benefit that might be derived from irradiating most perishable commodities is a reduction in the amount of decayed fruit during a normal marketing sequence — and thus less total fruit lost." 72 Research has shown that pasteurization will improve the keep- ing quality of certain fruits. Results vary from species to species and from one variety of a species to another of the same. Even within the same variety of a species, variations result from such differences as the degree of ripeness and condition of the fruit at harvest. Research in fruits is often hampered because of the necessity of waiting from one harvest season to the next to continue ex- periments. Much remains to be done, but much has been done in experi- mental radiation pasteurization of fruit. A petition for clearance of irradiated oranges is pending before FDA. Data for inclusion 26 in clearance petitions are being completed for other fruits, includ- ing apples, apricots, sweet cherries, nectarines, papayas, peaches, pears, and strawberries. Petitions for clearance of these fruits are expected to be submitted in 1965. Strawberries Of all the fruits mentioned, strawberries are the most promis- ing for commercial radiation pasteurization. The technological work is well advanced for California varieties of strawberries and wholesomeness studies are in progress. Strawberries are grown commercially in approximately 30 States — all eastern and southern, and part of the midwestern and western States. California is by far the leading State in produc- tion, followed by Oregon and Michigan. 115 Approximately one-half of each year's crop is consumed fresh ; the other half is processed. Total U.S. consumption in 1963 amounted to 510 million pounds with a farm value of approxi- mately $95 million. 160 Usually the best berries are sent to the fresh market ; the rest are processed. Fresh berries bring an average price of about 22- 24 cents per pound; berries for processing bring from 12 cents to 14 cents a pound. The 1963 season average price per pound for fresh market strawberries was 23.4 cents while processing price was 12.1 cents. 161 It is, therefore, quite an incentive to ship as many berries to the fresh market as possible. Fresh strawberries are one of the most perishable produce items. Approximately one-fourth of each year's crop for the fresh market is lost by spoilage occurring in marketing channels. The major causes of spoilage are gray and Rhizopus molds, which can- not be satisfactorily prevented. 115 In California, strawberries are harvested from March to October. Oregon and Washington berries are harvested May through June. Because of the distance of the States from major fresh markets not supplied by California, a large portion of berries from this area is processed. Harvest in the early spring States — Louisiana, Alabama, and Texas — usually extends from March to April and most of this crop is used fresh. Most other States harvest in mid-spring and late spring with the heaviest harvest during May and June. Florida's harvest begins in mid-December and extends through April. Because of its unique winter crop it is a potential supplier of fresh markets. 27 Strawberries are usually picked every second day; but if the crop is ripening rapidly, the picking is done every day. Berries are placed by pickers directly into pint baskets con- tained in hand carriers which hold 6 to 12 baskets. In many States, grading is done by the pickers which obviates any further handling. In Florida and some other areas, grading is done at the packing shed. In this type of grading, berries are re- moved from the baskets and sorted before being replaced in baskets. At the packing shed, berries, if not already graded in the field, are graded, packed and crated. The packing facility is generally a temporary, inexpensive arrangement varying from a spot under a tree to a cheaply constructed shed. Market containers are of various materials ; wood veneer, fiber- board, plastic, or paper pulp ; they are ventilated and vary in size from pint to quart. Shipping crates, trays and cartons hold dif- ferent sizes and types of baskets. California shippers generally use the 12-pint shipping tray ; Michigan uses 16-quart trays ; and Florida 24-pint crates. In most areas, refrigerated trucks are used to a greater extent than rail cars for shipping strawberries. California is an exception and ships over 30 percent of its berries by rail in refrigerated cars to out-of-State points. Loading must take place immediately so that the quality of the fruit will not be diminished. Delay in load- ing is especially harmful if the berries have not been precooled soon after picking and maintained at a temperature below 40 °F. This temperature is maintained until the fruit reaches its desti- nation. The results of experiments on Shasta, Lassen, and Z-5A varie- ties of strawberries at the University of California indicate the promise radiation holds for this fruit. 71 Two crates of berries in good condition at harvest and two crates in poor condition at harvest were taken from the field. The good berries were in superb condition with only 5.1 percent soft berries before irradia- tion. Three batches were irradiated. These and the unirradiated control batch were stored at 41 °F. for 6 days, then held at 68 °F. for 48 hours, and evaluated at the end of that period. These stor- age times and temperatures simulate typical marketing condi- tions. The fruit treated at 0.1 and 0.2 megarads showed much less decay at the end of the period than did the untreated straw- berries, and those treated at 0.3 megarad showed no decay. 174 (See table 4.) 28 When several batches of the berries which were in poor condi- tion were treated with radiation, a larger percentage remained sound after six days of storage than did the nonirradiated batches. As shown in table 4, the treatment at 0.1 and 0.2 megarad re- sulted in 46 and 51 percent sound berries, respectively, compared to 37 percent sound berries for the nonirradiated batch. These and other experiments confirm that irradiated straw- berries are maintained at a higher quality than nonirradiated strawberries during a normal marketing sequence. 71 (See table 7, page 34.) Irradiated strawberries have been found acceptable by a trained panel which compared flavor, texture, color, and aroma. There were differences. When judged only for external color the irradi- ated berries were superior to the nonirradiated; however, when sliced berries were judged, the reverse was true. Radiation ap- parently toughens the berries slightly. A difference in flavor was apparent after the second week. Other tests show a nutritionally insignificant 174 reduction in ascorbic acid. Wholesomeness studies on irradiated strawberries will have to be completed and evaluated before petitions for FDA clearance irradiation Chamber Shuttle Loading and Unloading System Source Storage -/ ^^~~ * " Conveyor System Figure III. — The USAEC Mobile Gamma Irradiator scheduled for completion in Summer 1965.— Courtesy USAEC 29 Tabic 4-EFFECT OF GAMMA RADIATION ON SHASTA STRAWBERRIES HELD UNDER SIMULATED MARKETING CONDITIONS Initial condition and gamma radiation treatment in megarad Marketable (percent) Not marketable (percent) Sund Soft Decayed Good condition at start of experiment Treatment a 0.00 - -____.- - 85.2 93.3 99.0 98.0 19.6 60 . 3 66.7 72.8 37 . 2 46.0 51.0 38.3 14.8 0.10 --- 6.7 20 ._ 1 .0 0.30 _ . -. -_ 9 .0 Treatment 0.00 - 3.2 12.2 10.6 27.2 35 . 2 39.3 38.0 51.7 77.2 0.10 __ -- - _ - 27.5 0.20 __ ______ _ __ 99 7 0.30 _ __ _ _ _ .0 Poor condition at start of experiment Treatment a 0.00 27 . 6 0.10 _ __ _ _-_ 14.7 0.20 _ __ _ 11.0 30 _ 10.0 a Stored at 41° F. for 6 days after irradiating and evaluated immediately. b Stored at 41° F. for 6 days, then held at 68° F. for 48 hours and evaluated. Note: Two crates of strawberries were used in each treatment. Source: Adapted from a University of California Report. 174 Table 5-ORANGES: EFFECT OF GAMMA RADIATION AFTER STORAGE FOR 3 MONTHS AT 32°F. Oranges No radiation Radiation dose 0.10 megarads . 20 megarads 0.30 megarads Decayed (percent) __ Not decayed (percent) 66 34 2 98 1 99 100 Source: Adapted from data reported in Preservation of Food by Low-Dose Ionizing Energy. 126 30 can be prepared. Recognizing the economic advantages of irradi- ated strawberries, the AEC is moving forward in this field. Ani- mal feeding studies for wholesomeness were begun in fall 1964. 53 AEC is proceeding with design and construction on a self-con- tained mobile irradiator so that it might be completed in time for the 1965 fruit harvest in California. This irradiator is to be mounted on a truck and will utilize 125,000 curies of Cobalt-60. Planned capacity is 1,000 pounds per hour at the dose of 0.20 megarad. The estimate cost, including Cobalt-60, is $350,000. 5 31 Actual processing cost experience will have to await operation of this irradiator. The U. S. Department of Agriculture is completing a study of estimated costs and savings due to irradiated strawberries and other fresh fruits and vegetables. 33 3_t Oranges Radiation is very impressive in its ability to reduce the inci- dence of decayed oranges in storage. For instance, in one experi- ment four sample batches were made up by distributing oranges on an equal basis from commercial boxes. Three of the sample batches were irradiated at different levels and the fourth was retained as control. The four batches were stored for 3 months at 32 °F. and at the end of that time were evaluated as to the percentage of decayed fruit. Results are shown in table 5. The taste of oranges irradiated at 0.10 megarad was indis- tinguishable from the nonirradiated controls. Some slight off- odor was detected after 3 months in storage in oranges irradiated at the higher levels. 174 Oranges irradiated at 0.30 megarad were more easily peeled and the lobes more easily separated than were he controls. Other work confirms these results and indicates the useful life of re- frigerated oranges can be extended 30 days by irradiation. 71 Currently, radiation offers no distinct economic advantages when compared with chemicals for preserving certain fruits, such as oranges. 59 For instance, Maxie and Sommer do not foresee any immediate application of radiation technology to oranges in the United States : "Cold storage in conjunction with Biphenyl-impregnated pads in boxes seems to do a commercially acceptable job of controll- ing rot in this species. In countries where biphenyl is not al- lowed with oranges, there may be an application for irradia- tion." 72 Further research in the technology of irradiating oranges, the 31 development of more efficient irradiation, or disallowance of chem- icals could change this outlook. Further research on oranges will be conducted with the mobile irradiator. Sweet Cherries Studies on four varieties of sweet cherries at Utah State Uni- versity indicate some promise for irradiated sweet cherries. Table 6 shows the results of a study to determine the effects of radia- tion on the physical quality and microbial populations of Bing, Lambert, Napoleon, and Windsor varieties of sweet cherries. Samples of each variety were divided into 4 batches. One batch of each variety was retained as control. Of the three remaining batches, one was exposed to 0.20 megarad, the second to 0.30 megarad, and the third to 0.40 megarad of gamma radiation. All cherries were stored at 40 °F. and 80 percent relative humidity and examined at various time intervals. The results were evalu- ated as the percentage of marketable (edible) fruit remaining upon examination at each time interval. 24 The irradiated Bing, Lambert, and Windsor varieties remained in good condition throughout the experiment. The irradiated Napoleon variety became discolored after 43 days. The irradiated cherries were firmer after 29 days in storage than were the con- trols. The control cherries became progressively riper during the storage time, while the irradiated cherries exhibited less ripening. A dose of 0.30 megarad was considered effective in extending the shelf -life past 30 days. 24 A dose of 0.25 megarad is tentatively considered optimum for cherries and will extend shelf life to 20 days. 71 Work at the University of California, Davis, confirms these re- sults and indicates the vitamin C content of the cherries is not significantly reduced. The major adverse effect of radiation at dose levels of 0.25 to 0.30 megarad is softening of the cherry. 132 This may not be a serious problem because some commercial cherry packers believe the less crisp cherries can be marketed. Further evaluation of this problem depends on commercial ship- ments and operation of the mobile irradiator. 72 Methods other than irradiation, including controlled atmosphere storage and shipment, are effective in extending the shelf -life of sweet cherries, but there is not enough total information available as yet on irradiation of cherries to make meanginful comparisons. The prospects for radiation pasteurization are promising. Final evaluation must await the results of further research, 32 Other Fruits As in the case of cherries, evaluation of commercial prospects for irradiation pasteurization of apples, apricots, nectarines, peaches, and pears awaits the results of further research. The work accomplished thus far does indictate that radiation is effec- tive in extending the shelf-life of a variety of fruits. Table 7 is a compilation of results of the research of various workers, and shows the effects of radiation on the extension of shelf-life of some of the fruits in question. Apples Apples of the Golden Delicious, Red Delicious, and Northern Spy varieties irradiated at 0.05 and 0.10 megarad and stored at 35°F. for one year showed less spoilage than those irradiated at 0.20 megarad. The unirradiated control apples spoiled several months sooner than the irradiated apples. 126 Irradiated Jonathan apple slices were acceptable after 6 months of storage at 75 °F. when mature apples were processed immedi- ately after harvest, blanched in dilute sugar solutions, vacuum packed, and frozen before irradiating. 40 Canadian work has shown irradiation is effective in reducing core flush and scald in stored apples. 87 Apricots Dried apricots have been irradiated by a linear accelerator at doses of 0.1 to 2.0 megarad. Upon examination, the acceptability of the apricots irradiated at 0.5 megarad were found to be similar to the unirradiated samples. It was determined that radiation at this level is sufficient to control spoilage by yeast and molds and is more than sufficient to control insects and their larvae. 39 In another study, Perfection, Hungarian, Wilson Delicious, Stella, and Chinese varieties of apricots were subjected to 0.10, 0.30, and 0.50 megarad of electron beam radiation. Even though there was some softening and skin discoloration, particularly at the higher doses, the irradiated apricots were scored by a taste panel as acceptable as the unirradiated controls. When stored for 8 days at 50 °F., and examined, some mold growth was found on the fruit irradiated at the 0.10 level, but those subjected to the higher doses, even though there was an increase in softening, bruising, and discoloration, were judged acceptable by the panel. 08 Later studies found that apricots of the Chinese and Moorpark varieties irradiated to 0.20 megarad and stored at 40 °F. remained 33 Table 6-SWEET CHERRIES-MARKETABILITY (EDIBLE) AFTER RADIATION AND STORAGE (Percent) Dose Marketable (edible) fruit remaining Days in storage a Variety (Megarads) 8 15 22 29 36 43 50 57 64 71 Bing _ 0.0 94 87 76 68 34 31 23 2 97 94 90 82 69 55 34 30 .3 100 97 97 93 82 81 72 73 52 31 .4 100 100 100 99 93 90 85 79 84 58 Lambert .0 95 91 82 80 58 59 38 30 27 20 2 100 96 94 88 85 74 39 37 9 .3 100 99 99 93 96 93 80 64 39 29 .4 100 100 98 96 96 94 85 42 37 28 Napoleon .0 99 93 84 88 75 71 64 64 57 56 .2 99 97 88 89 84 75 70 69 57 35 .3 100 100 96 92 95 83 67 68 58 59 .4 100 100 100 96 97 80 50 50 38 30 Windsor .0 99 90 93 92 70 64 60 50 48 44 .2 100 98 96 94 84 74 7 3 2 .3 100 98 100 98 96 92 68 54 40 30 .4 100 100 100 99 99 95 95 80 85 45 a Stored at 40° F. and 80% relative humidity. Source: Adapted from Cooper & Salunkhe. 24 Copyright 1963 by The Institute of Food Technologists Used by permission. Table 7-EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON SHELF LIFE OF SELECTED FRESH FRUITS Fruit Conditions Packaging Type of radiation Dose (Megarad) Storage Temp. (°F) Shelf life Unirra- diated (days) Irra- diated (days) Sweet cherries Sweet cherries (Schmidt variety). Nectarines Nectarines Figs Oranges Papayas Peaches, by variety New Haven New Haven New Haven Strawberries, by variety Lassen Shasta Sparkle Sparkle Robinson Robinson Robinson Tomatoes d 30 1b. lug Pt. Box, Poly Wrap 32 1b. lug 10 1b. bag 81b. flat 40 lb. fiber board carton. 12 lb. fiber board carton. 32 1b. lug Poly bag Polv bag 10 1b. bag Pt. box 10 lb. crate 10 lb. crate Poly bag Poly bag Poly bag Poly bag Pt. box, poly wrap Variable Gamma. . Gamma.. Gamma . Gamma. . Gamma. . Gamma. . Gamma. . Gamma. . Gamma. . Electron . Gamma. . Gamma.. Gamma. . Gamma. . Gamma.. Electron . Gamma.. Electron . Gamma.. Gamma. 0.250 a .200 .200 a 125-.200 b .200 a ,200 a .200 a .200 a .040 .060 125-.200 b .200 b .200 .200 .200 .200 .200 .200 .115 300-.400 a 32-41 44 32 60 32 32-35 45 32 33 33 60 60 32-41 32-41 33 33 33 33 39 55 10-14 8-10 10 3 10 60 10 10 15 15 3 1 10-14 10-14 26 30 28 30 10-14 8-12 14-20 10-14 14 5-7 14 90 14 14 21 26 5-7 3 14-18 14-18 34 36 36 34 12-16 12-20 a Probable maximum dosage for acceptability. D Treated in Cobalt-60 mobile irradiator. ° Fruit purchased on market — preirradiation holding period unknown. d Pink or ripe. Source: Adapted from data presented in various papers at AEC 3rd and 4th Annual Contractors Meetings. « 7u 7 > ™ 34 in good condition up to 42 days. The same varieties deteriorated in storage after being subjected to 0.40 megarads. 99 Nectarines Although nectarines irradiated at 0.20 megarads were subject to loss of texture, the loss was not severe enough to offset sub- stantially the incidence of mechanical damage or taste panel ac- ceptability. 132 See table 7. Irradiation increases the redness of some varieties of nectarines, making them more attractive than the nonirradiated fruit. 72 Peaches The attractiveness of some varieties of peaches, like nectarines, is increased by the effect of radiation on the redness of the fruit. 72 Brown rot has been satisfactorily controlled up to 14 days when stored at 50°F. after irradiation at 0.15 megarad. 2745 However, varietal differences in responding to radiation are very pro- nounced in peaches. When subjected to 0.20 megarad, some varie- ties show only a loss in texture while others exhibit skin dam- age. 27 45 132 Pears Electron beam pasteurization at 0.10 megarad is effective in suppressing mold growth on pears, but the most promising use of radiation treatment of this fruit is the inhibition of ripening. Major problems of the pear industry are the breakdown of pears from over-ripening and their loss of ability to ripen at all if held from 10-12 weeks in cold storage. 174 Early experiments showed that the ripening of Bartlett pears was delayed from two to four days by electron radiation of 0.10 to 0.20 megarad. No adverse effects were noted at this dose level and degree of ripeness. 69 Other studies did not duplicate these re- sults, but found the keeping qualities to be improved at those levels of dosage. 89 More recent work, utilizing gamma radiation, tends to confirm that radiation can inhibit ripening of Bartlett pears with no substantial adverse effects. 174 Bartlett pears were subjected to gamma radiation at the follow- ing doses: 0.10, 0.20, 0.30, and 0.40 megarads. The pears were then stored for 60 days at 32°F. and then held at 68°F. for 4 to 9 days. Evaluation of the fruit after the storage periods showed that the nonirradiated control pears and the pears irradiated at 0.10 and 0.20 megarads were "eating ripe" on the fourth day of stor- age at 68 °F. Little ripening was observed in the fruit irradiated 35 at 0.30 and 0.40 megarad. 174 Further experiments indicate that Bartlett pears subjected to ripening inhibition by gamma radia- tion may be then ripened by treatment with ethylene gas. 132 Tomatoes Early experiments on green and "breaker" tomatoes were dis- couraging, but recent work using pink and table-ripe tomatoes has been very encouraging. Dosages of 0.30 and 0.40 megarad resulted in shelf life extensions of 4 to 12 days over the unirradiated fruit with no loss of acceptability. These tomatoes were shown to con- tain more vitamin C than the unirradiated green fruit ripened to a comparable degree. Shipping tests revealed that irradiated pink and table-ripe tomatoes are no more subject to transit injury than unirradiated fruit. 70 71 Figs Radiation at 0.20 megarad has permitted fresh figs to be stored acceptably at room temperature for 6 weeks. 71 Some benefit has been observed in irradiating dried figs. 70 Other fruits indicating some degree of promise for radiation pasteurization are dewberries, pineapples, raspberries, and pa- payas. 70 71 However, considerable research is needed, and is being done, on these and the other fruits mentioned above before com- mercial potential can be evaluated. Perhaps the best summary of the present commercial potentials for radiation pasteurization of fruits is the following statement by Maxie and Sommer of the University of California, Davis : "These studies permit the following tentative conclusions: (1) The minimum acceptable dose will usually be determined by limitations of fruit tolerance. (2) Commodities with a high decay potential and short physiological life are evidently most benefited by radiation. (3) With these highly perishable com- modities the benefits will be in reducing losses during normal handling and marketing periods. The use of radiation to achieve a long shelf -life extension does not appear desirable and is fre- quently impossible. (4) With highly perishable commodities the benefits appear to be important. (5) Although not proved, it appears possible that radiation may permit the marketing of commodities now considered too perishable to ship." 132 SEASONALITY OF FRUIT HARVESTS One of the problems which must be solved for commercial adop- tion of radiation processing to fruits and vegetables is the season- 36 ■a •«' A * T3 (V '• o © ^ > O CD p c 2 -2 CD ^ c3 c3 S of O QJ iff lllflli * IS ill 3?? M SBF* 37 ality of these products. It has been shown many times that the best results are accomplished if the product is irradiated as soon as possible after harvest. The problem has been approached by the designing of mobile irradiators such as the Cobalt-60 irradiator mounted on a semi- trailer which AEC leased from Atomic Energy of Canada, Limited. Other designs such as an irradiator mounted on a railroad car have been developed. However, these admittedly experimental concepts do not always come to grips with the problems. Those envisioned multi-purpose irradiators, with conveying systems and other hardware designed to handle a great many products, prob- ably could not handle any one product most efficiently. If mobile sources, rather than a complete irradiator, conveyors, etc., were designed to fit into stationary food handling processing facilities which were specifically adapted for the product handled, it would seem to offer possibilities of greatly lowered processing costs. Theoretical calculations show a great many applications where radiation sources are capable of treating much larger quantities Figure V. — Design illustrating how a mobile electron source — in this case, an insulated core transformer (ICT) electron accelerator — might be used with a permanently installed food processing system. — Courtesy High Voltage Engineering Corp., Burlington, Massachusetts 38 of product than it is possible, because of handling" and conveyor limitations, to pass through the irradiator. In these cases, if the efficiency were further hampered by attempting to handle a par- ticular commodity in a multipurpose conveying system, the com- parative efficiency would be very low. At an American Nuclear Society Seminar on Prospects and Problems in the Radiation Processing Industry, Washington, D. C, May 13, 1964, speakers emhasized the importance of suitable materials handling equip- ment in radiation processing. Indeed, it was said that one of the major causes of unscheduled downtime is breakdowns in product flow systems rather than difficulties with irradiators. The impor- tance of designing a complete process, rather than an irradiator with ancillary equipment tacked on almost as an afterthought was emphasized. Because the selection of radiation sources is much more limited than is the selection of equipment to move products to, through, and away from the source, it would appear that the mobile source approach has some merit. When confronted with the short harvest season of many agri- cultural commodities and with the necessity of irradiating them as soon as possible after harvest for optimum results, it is not surprising that the concept of mobile irradiators has a certain attraction. However, scheduling these mobile irradiators or mobile sources could be a staggering task because of the varying harvest seasons for fruits and vegetables, both within a single State or in different States, as shown in tables 8 and 9. For example, table 9 indicates that an irradiator used to process strawberries in California would be unavailable to process straw- berries in any other State. Table 8 indicates that the irradiator used to process California strawberries would be available to process oranges during the last third of the orange season and would be idle from the middle of November until the end of March. It would not be available to process apricots, cherries, and peaches. With proper scheduling and contracts, similar to those common for combines in the wheat belt, it might be possible for a new industry to arise as a result of those factors. Radiation sources flexible in design, isotope or machine, could be "plugged" into existing processing lines at the proper time and place and go else- where when the season is over. A full analysis of the practicability of mobile sources and irradi- ators is too complex for this report, but should be studied in depth because of the importance of seasonality on the economics of fruit and vegetable radiation processing. 39 n H ~U 3 S AJ 0) O -O O 3 < w u PL. Ol o. •H TO M -a v> U to < U HI 11 to O -O -H 01 O S M X :f •H TO U o U U 0> TO u o 1 o u CO J^ ! < l> 1 II 1 3 ►"3 1 1 III II ■" 'llll ll'l'll P I'M CD 1 < CD J3 c CD 05 4-1 O o u Q < CD C H O c o .m 4J ^ XI V4 00 O CD O C C +-I ^ JH O -^ r-i o oo,c si -4 ,-1 £ , C H 4 O t-IOt H ,C 60X J3 O > -4CJS3 ^ O X. 4J -1 1-4 O C CO O -H O O O £ £ E CO •r4 C C co O i > 4J T -i --I 00 c C >> C «4 O to -H ( O MC£X C J -r-l 0) C CO CO C U £ 1-4 4) 4J CO -r 5 o o pu p s : ^ 4-1 -H CO - 3 C 3 U O J M-4 N 0) t4 ■1 Q ^ E CO < u o o o oi co u o r-l 4-1 M U O Ol -< 3 -n a, 41 & CD >% o •.-I -i c 01 C o OJ T) C -H 03 ^ CD CD t. l-i n C it h ^ h u R 01 o CD CD •h co oo 3 at o 10 M-l •H 03 CD c l-i ,i 00 ,-1 tJ o •-) >-< X 01 XI CO •H O CD >* >^.c to •u 01 O x; CD ^ o u o to £ s V-i n CU CD -H -H (1) (U o CD u Pn «J < < u o n o s JS S 55 Z 2 O 01 A4 00 C -U CD X J2 0) C 3 X to 03 s-i a; o ai 4-> to O fx, c/i H » S 42 POULTRY Chicken One of the major problems in the poultry processing industry- today is the periodic use of chicken in special promotions in retail outlets. In some cases, promotional sales about every fourth to sixth week result in a production load of about five times the average of the other three to five weeks. If the present in-plant refrigerated shelf -life of 7 days or less could be increased by 7 to 14 days, the processor would be able to build and rotate inven- tories and stabilize production. Limited shelf -life places the poultry processor at a marketing disadvantage. Because of customer preference, the chickens must be killed at between 8 and 9 weeks of age and must be moved into retail outlets within 7 days ; otherwise, the chicken is either sold as distressed merchandise, or spoils. One major U.S. processor of poultry has said that an extension of in-plant refrigerated shelf- life by one or two weeks would be worth 1 cent per pound to the processor. 103 This same processor is looking to radiation processing of chicken rather than to freezing because his extensive experience shows that the American homemaker prefers fresh chicken 2-to-l over frozen chicken. One major supermarket chain reports that frozen chicken accounts for less than 2 percent of its total chicken sales. There is some reason to believe that a portion of the frozen chicken entering retail outlets, thaws and is sold as fresh chicken. European preferences are not so markedly in favor of fresh vs. frozen chicken, but radiation processing could improve U.S. op- portunities in export trade by enabling delivery of a fresher, more tasteful product. Experiments on radiation processed poultry indicate that a com- paratively low radiation dosage is capable of attaining the results desired by poultry processors. Exploratory studies indicate radia- tion at a level of only 0.1 megarad is sufficient to extend the shelf- life of chicken stored in the range of 34°-40°F. to about 23-25 days. 41 103 This represents a shelf -life extension of about 12 days, which should be enough to accomplish the desired results. Most of the research to date on irradiated chicken has been 43 aimed at sterilization, rather than pasteurization. Higher dose levels usually result in greater organoleptic effects than lower dose levels. Acceptance testing using troops at Fort Lee, Virginia, conducted in June 1963, showed that radiation sterilized chicken is suitable for incorporation in standard military rations. 82 The sensory qualities of radiation pasteurized chicken should be less affected than those of the sterilized chicken. Consumer reaction to radiation processing is, to a large extent, unpredictable. However, the sales manager of a large poultry processor has stated, "Radiation processing can be used as a sell- ing point and will eventually become synonymous with quality." Preparation of a petition for clearance of chicken by FDA is awaiting completion of microbiological studies at the Army Natick Laboratories. It is estimated that these studies will be completed in spring of 1965. Representatives of the Army, AEC, USDA, and FDA, and their Canadian counterparts, are cooperating in an effort to expedite development of data needed for the petition. The Poultry Division, AMS, USDA, also has clearance respon- sibilities concerning poultry. The Poultry Products Inspection Act provides for compulsory inspection of poultry products in inter- state commerce. (See Part 3, Chapter 1) The Army Surgeon General's Office has declared radiation sterilized chicken wholesome and nutritious, 51 103 so there is every reason to believe that pasteurized chicken, with its lower radia- tion dose requirements, will also be found wholesome and nutritious. A literature search reveals no work on irradiators and ancillary equipment designed specifically for poultry. However, it does not appear that any great difficulty should arise in arriving at efficient designs. The poultry processing industry has become increasingly automated during the past few years and highly sophisticated handling equipment is common in the industry. Proponents of electron machines believe a conveyor system de- signed to spread open the visceral cavity and then rotate the en- tire chicken to subject it to surface irradiation would be sufficient to attain the desired results. Others feel that it would be better treated with penetrating radiation from a gamma source, thus eliminating much of the complicated mechanical handling within the radiation field and alleviating a possible cause of unscheduled downtime. Experimental work on both approaches should go forward as soon as possible. Taking all factors into consideration, at present, irradiated pasteurized chicken appears to be one of the most likely commodi- 44 ties to achieve successful commercial exploitation and in the shortest time. Therefore, it would be valuable to the whole pro- gram if more work were concentrated in this area. Commercial marketing of irradiated chicken should be success- ful. Assuming that technical problems can be worked out, and clearances are forthcoming, radiation preservation of chicken will fulfill a demonstrated need at a savings which will pay for the added cost of the process and its capital investment. Radiation pasteurization of chicken combined with the use of new types of sealed plastic containers (which are in limited use today) will result in benefits to the consumer as well as to the processor. No doubt some increased shelf life will remain for the use of the consumer, and a much higher quality, better flavored product will result. Turkey The outlook for radiation pasteurization of turkey is essentially the same as that of chicken from a technological standpoint. A major difference is that the attitude of the American housewife does not seem to be the same about frozen turkey that it is about frozen chicken. For instance, about 84 percent of total poultry produced in the United States is Federally inspected. Of chickens Federally inspected, the USDA estimates that only about 12 per- cent go into retail outlets frozen ; while on the other hand, about 84 percent of the turkeys going into retail outlets from Federally inspected plants are frozen. This inconsistency in the housewife's acceptance could mean the difference in economic feasibility for irradiated chicken and non- feasibility for irradiated turkeys. SEAFOODS The fresh fish industry can look forward to greatly expanded markets throughout the United States for its products. The present state of research on seafood indicates that these prod- ucts may be among the first to be processed commerically by irradiation. Fresh fish has had very limited inland distribution in this country because of its perishable nature and need for special rapid handling. Although some fresh fish are available in a number of noncoastal cities, the consumer living inland usually has access only to processed products: canned, smoked, frozen, or dried. 45 Frozen fish must, in almost all instances, be substituted for fresh for these consumers because : 1. There is a lack of fresh fish or a very limited selection. 2. The retail price of frozen fish is usually less than that of fresh in inland areas. 3. Due to deterioration of fresh fish during transportation away from coastal areas, frozen fish products are more uniform in quality. The ordinary shelf -life of fresh fish kept on ice is from 4 to 10 days at the outside limit from the time of catch. With irradiation, the shelf -life of fish can be extended up to 30 days and perhaps longer. This fish would taste fresh in contrast to the normal frozen product. Thus, fresh ocean fish would be introduced to a large number of consumers in the United States. Consumer demand, presently unknown, should be determined through market surveys and de- veloped through consumer education before any large-scale com- merical effort is undertaken. Today, the market for fresh fish is plagued by wide fluctuations in supply. Since the demand for fresh fish is fairly stable along the eastern seaboard, the wide daily variations in supply of fish causes wholesale prices to rise and fall. If there is a small catch, prices are high. If fish is plentiful, prices drop sharply due to the highly perishable nature of the fresh product. The effect that radiation preservation of fresh fish could have on the demand- supply picture is evident. The extension of keeping time for fresh fish would help level out excess and shortages. Although excesses of fresh fish are usually frozen, the varia- tions of supply have tended to increase costs to the point that frozen fillets cannot compete with foreign fish. Frozen fish is necessary during off-season (November through February) when fresh fish are not available. But the projected supply of fresh fish will not satisfy market requirements even at present levels of demand. Interviews with fishery product producers, processors, dis- tributors, retailers, and others, reported in a marketing feasibility study of irradiated fishery products conducted by the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, reflected a wide range of opinions about the desired optimum shelf-life extention of fishery products. 170 The consensus may be summarized as follows, in number of days: producers, 20-30 ; processors, 7-30 ; distributors, 10-30 ; and re- tailers, 1-30. 46 The chief reasons for desiring extended shelf -life were reported to be: 1. Expand marketing area 2. Improve quality control 3. Stabilze market 4. Reduce spoilage loss 5. Facilitate distribution 6. Reduce transportation and handling costs 7. Improve merchandising methods At least four of the seven reasons given relate to market ex- pansion and greater sales. In many areas of the United States, fresh fish, particularly marine varieties, are difficult or expensive to obtain. Frozen fish, while enjoying wide distribution, do not appear to be as acceptable to the consumer as fresh fish. A major supermarket chain reports that "fresh" is a magic word in selling fish. Where fresh fish is available in their stores, fish sales amount to about 7 percent of the meat business, but where mostly frozen fish is sold the sales amount to only 2 percent of the meat business. It may be erroneous to assume that sales of fish would grow by any appreciable extent if fresh fish were universally available. The trend of sales is to convenience items, such as breaded fish sticks, which are usually frozen. No data are available comparing consumer preferences of fresh and frozen fish. Such data would be very valuable in estimating the impact of radiation processing on the fishing industry. In the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries study, 40 percent of the respondents would accept a cost spread of V^ to 1 cent per pound to increase the shelf-life of fresh fish, 30 percent considered a spread of 1 to 3 cents acceptable, and another 30 percent did not consider the range of 2 to 5 cents excessive. The answers vary somewhat with the segment of the fishing industry in which the respondent was engaged. 170 Extensive research has confirmed that radiation pasteurization will indeed extend the fresh-like shelf -life of refrigerated fishery products to the desired limits. Table 10 (page 51) is a compilation of results from various tests and shows a comparison of the "nor- mal" refrigerated shelf with the refrigerated shelf-life of the same items when irradiated. Wholesomeness testing has been success- ful. 75 Petitions for clearance will be submitted to FDA during 1965 on a variety of marine products, including pollock, ocean perch, had- dock, clam meat, flounder, crab meat, and shrimp. 47 OS O .i Jh - -3 £ -9 J? O a g 0) « * pq ^ ft cc W tj a; u o> u ■+* -(J CO P-l o u ° O 73 S 45 bQO* 62 these fruits in 1966, continuing research is awaiting construction of a tropical fruit irradiator to be located in Hawaii. If funds are approved, designs will be solicited in spring 1965. 31 The mango is the most widely eaten fruit in the world. Com- mon in the tropics and subtropics, it grows on native trees and is of many different varieties. The mango found on fruit stands in the United States is usually of the Hayden variety. Most of these come from farms located south of Miami, Florida, where about 2,500 acres are devoted to their cultivation. The same variety is grown in Hawaii and is said to be superior to the Florida grown mango because of a longer and more suitable growing season. Because of the quarantine restrictions, there is no established market for Hawaiian mangos in the continental United States, but a market potential of over $13 million has been estimated. The cash receipts for Hawaiian papayas were reported to be $810,- 000 in 1962. 12 Figure X. — The Hawaiian Research Irradiator at the University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Oahu.— Courtesy USAEC 63 Evaluation of costs vs. potentials offered by irradiation must await further investigation. Insect pests may be controlled by radiation sterilization of male insects. Millions of males of a given species are produced in cap- tivity, exposed to radiation at a suitable dose to insure sexual sterility and released in areas inhabited by wild insects. The ster- ile insects mate with wild insects, thus limiting the number of offspring. As the proportion of sterile insects to wild insects be- comes greater, fewer offspring are reproduced. Experimental use of this technique eradicated the screw-worm in Florida within 18 months, resulting in estimated annual sav- ings of $20 million.' ! * Considerable research has been concentrated on eradication or control of tropical fruitflies and results have been gratifying. 10 19 116 Although insect male sterilization tech- niques may not fit the technical description of "radiation disinfes- tation," the purpose is similar and offers promise for increased production and distribution of many food commodities. PORK A problem in ensuring the wholesomeness of pork and pork products is the control of worm parasites including trichina. Ex- periments have shown that both X-rays and gamma radiation from cobalt-60 prevent trichina larvae from reaching maturity when exposed at a level of 0.03 megarad. 126 Because most of the experimental work on pork has been done at sterilization levels of dosage, much higher than 0.03 megarad, little primary attention has been given to this effect. Trichinosis in the United States is no longer as serious a public health problem as it once was. Educational efforts by industry and Government have alleviated the problem. The time is not too far distant when radiation processing at low dosage levels will be combined with heat processing at lower temperatures than are necessary today, resulting in tastier and more wholesome pork products. 64 CHAPTER 6 RADIATION SPROUT INHIBITION Application of radiation to vegetables subject to sprouting, such as onions and potatoes, can inhibit or remove the ability to sprout, thus eliminating this cause of spoilage. Radiation sprout inhibi- ton is not reversible ; although not dependent on refrigerated stor- age, radiation is likely to be used in conjunction with refrigeration. POTATOES The potato economy of the United States today is the result of significant changes in marketing and utilization factors in the past 20 years. While total farm production of potatoes has remained relatively static, decreasing per capita consumption has more than offset the effects of population increases in total potato utilization, making potatoes a surplus commodity. Although total demand has declined, the use of potatoes in processed foods, such as french fries, potato chips, potato flour, and as an ingredient in such canned foods as soups, hashes, and stews has increased dramatically in the past two decades. Pota- toes in processed foods accounted for only 2.1 percent of total potatoes sold in 1940 but to 28 percent in 1960. In the same 20 years, supermarkets have changed the food mar- keting picture drastically. Today, potatoes make up almost a fourth of the dollar value and almost half the tonnage of fresh vegetables moving through retail stores. Eighty percent of total foods are marketed through integrated wholesale-retail systems which require large quantities of uniform produce throughout the year. Because of these factors, the potato growers, packers, and ship- pers are faced with the need to adjust their grading, packaging, and storage to meet specific demands. For instance, while the 65 American housewife will accept potatoes of various sizes, she in- sists that they be of regular shape and free of cuts and bruises. The potato chip processor wants large potatoes with low sugar content, but will accept minor skin damage. Potato canners pre- fer regularly shaped potatoes, not over 1% inches in diameter and free of defects. In order to meet the specific requirements of various ultimate users, it is imperative that growers and packers store and handle potatoes properly. Storage of potatoes differs from the storage of other foods in that their storage is, in a sense, a process. Provided temperature and humidity are in the right range, stored potatoes are capable of healing their own cuts and bruises. Further, stor- age treatment of potatoes destined to be used for chips is extreme- ly important because the sugar-starch ratio is affected by storage temperatures. Below 55 °F. a portion of the starch in the potatoes is converted to sugar and can make the potato unpalatable. The process is reversible, however, and potatoes so affected may be stored under conditions that make possible reconversion of sugar to starch. Sprouting, greening, bruising, and some of the other factors that downgrade potato quality can be controlled to a cer- tain extent by proper storage and handling. In general, potatoes properly stored and handled undergo changes that make them progressively more desirable, unless they sprout. It is impossible to assign a value to the amount of potatoes lost annually because of sprouting. Most of the loss probably takes place in the consumer's home. Other losses take place on the farm, in storage, during transportation, and in institutional and proces- sor warehouses. Suitable data are not available to place a value on these losses. From these areas it can be seen that the potential users of inhib- itors would likely be the producer, the middleman, and the pro- cessor. On this basis, an estimate of the total potential for sprout inhibitors of 5 billion pounds of potatoes has been made. 36 This figure amounts to roughly 18 percent of total potato farm production in 1963. (See Part 2, Chapter 1). Temperature is probably the most important single factor in sprout inhibition. It affects sprouting as well as storage rots, mois- ture loss, and respiration. For optimum results, sprout inhibitors should be used in conjunction with temperatures as low as possible considering sugar development. Two chemical antisproutants have been licensed by the Agricul- tural Research Service, USD A: maleic hydrazide (MH) and iso- prophyl N-(3-chlorophenyl) carbamate (CIPC). No data are 66 available on the size of the market. MH is used on both potatoes and onions ; CIPC is not used on onions. Maleic hydrazide is applied to foliage as a spray about 4 to 6 weeks before harvest. Cost per bushel depends on yield per acre but is estimated to average 5 cents. 118 Other estimates range from 5 to 7 cents per cwt. 3(5 CIPC is applied to harvested potatoes as a gas, a dust, a dip, or a wax. Applied as a wax or dip, the cost is from 5 to 7 cents per cwt. Application as a gas from aerosol generators may be pur- chased as a custom service for 3.3 cents per hundredweight in the northwest. 36 In the Northeast, at least one professional custom-f ogger special- izes in potato sprout inhibition ; he operates in the potato-growing areas of New Jersey, New York, and New England. During a typical 6-month storage period, 55 warehouses, containing an aver- age of 18,000 bushels of potatoes, are treated. A converted war- time smoke generator, mounted on a pick-up truck, is used to dispense a fog of CIPC through flexible piping into the warehouses. Usually CIPC is applied 2 or 3 weeks after the potatoes are placed in storage. This allows time for harvest cuts and bruises to heal. This method is reported to be superior to methods using aerosol generators. It requires about 1 hour for application and effects a better distribution of the chemical. The warehouse is sealed during the process and remains sealed for 48 hours thereafter. The current rate for this treatment is said to be 2 cents per bushel (3.3^/cwt.). 93 Custom foggers work in the various potato-growing areas of the United States ; however, no data are available on their number or operations. MH and CIPC are effective sprout inhibitors capable of pre- serving potatoes for 1 year if stored at 50 °F. Each has certain disadvantages. To be effective, MH must be applied in the field after the potatoes are formed and while the vines are still green. 172 But, the potato grower may not know until some time after harvest whether his potatoes really needed the treatment. If he treats his potatoes before harvest and marketing conditions are such that the treat- ment proves unnecessary, the cost of the treatment is wasted. CIPC treatment leaves a residue that causes storage rot in in- jured potatoes. On the other hand, CIPC treatment may be with- held until needed, giving the potatoes time to heal themselves and eliminating the possibility of wasting the treatment. Storage areas 67 must be equipped with good ventilation systems to insure adequate distribution of CIPC for effective treatment. Proper application of these chemicals causes no deleterious effect on the culinary quality of the treated potatoes; neither does it improve them in any way. If an insufficient dosage of MH or CIPC is used and potatoes are stored at 50 °F. or above, the serious prob- lem of internal sprouting can be expected. On June 30, 1964, FDA cleared white potatoes irradiated with gamma rays from cobalt-60 at an absorbed dose level of from 0.005 to 0.01 megarads. Canada cleared irradiated potatoes in 1960; Russia in 1959. Research has shown radiation to be a very potent, perhaps the most potent, sprout inhibitor. 7 124 Generally, a dosage of 0.007 to 0.01 megarad will inhibit sprouting of potatoes under commercial conditions. However, to irradiate potatoes in commercially used transportation and storage boxes of 4 X 4 X 4 feet in size, the upper limits of radiation dosage will have to be increased to 0.015 megarad to assure the minimum antisprouting dosage for all the potatoes within the box. There is some evidence that irradiated potatoes are better for processing than chemically inhibited potatoes, 7 36 but, like CIPC, radiation increases storage rot in wounded potatoes. The Army Natick Laboratories considers the extent of storage rot of little significance in cured and properly handled irradiated potatoes. 124 The Canadian experiment, described in Part 1, Chapter 8, cer- tainly indicates that commercial application of this method is feasible. But this is an area of usage where radiation would have to compete directly with other methods which are almost identical in effect. Estimates of the cost of irradiating potatoes at suitable dosage levels range from a high of 25 cents to a low of 2.8 cents per cwt. 36 120 128 When compared with estimates for chemical anti- sproutants of from 3.3 to 7 cents per cwt., radiation sprout inhibi- tion estimated at 2.8 cents per cwt. appears competitive. Whether potatoes can be irradiated in large enough quantities to arrive at such low costs must still be ascertained. Sprouting inhibition by chemicals or radiation, is comparatively recent, and all the facts for a satisfactory evaluation are not yet available. The low capital investment in a pickup truck and smoke gen- erator used in custom fogging and the extreme flexibility of the method itself indicate that radiation cannot now compete with chemical sprout inhibition of potatoes for U.S. domestic consump- tion. 68 The Canadian experiment, while showing technological feas- sibility of treating and marketing irradiated potatoes, does little to dispel the questions about cost. The evidence that irradiated potatoes may be superior to chemically treated potatoes for proc- essing and other uses is still rather fragmentary and not firm enough to assign a monetary value. Practically every nation of the world which is engaged in research on the radiation preservation of food is working on potatoes. (See Part 1, Chapter 8). Although U.S. exports of fresh potatoes are an insignificant part of total production, radiation might help export trade. (See Part 2, Chapter 1.) If the use of chemical antisproutants in the United States were ever disallowed, then radiation sprout inhibition would be available instead. The potato economics of different nations vary greatly, depend- ing upon growing seasons, supply, and demand. Unlike the United States, Canada must import potatoes. The climate for private commercialization of the process is favorable in Canada. In fact, Newfield Products, Ltd., a private corporation, is building a com- mercial potato irradiation facility near Montreal. On November 24, 1964, the Wall Street Journal carried an article by William D. Hartley which stated, "Irradiated potatoes can be stored a year and delivered to processors at about $1 per hundred pounds less than the $4 to $5 a hundred pounds paid by Canadians for U.S. potatoes, says Nelson Saunders, Newfield Vice President." The Newfield Products irradiator will be available for com- mercial radiation processing of other foods and medical supplies during the off seasons. 03 Processing cost data on radiation sprout inhibition is lacking. Newfield Products' pioneering venture will be watched with the hope that data of this type will be forthcoming. Under present conditions, it is likely that the use of radiation sprout inhibition of potatoes in the United States will be limited to treatment of potatoes for export and special processing and military applications. Processors of potato chips, french fries and other processed potato products need potatoes that can be stored for 9 to 12 months without sprouting. If further development of the technique can lower radiation capital and processing costs to compete with chemical antisproutants, irradiated potatoes will have great commercial appeal. 69 ONIONS Onions are the other major vegetable in which sprouting is of importance. A measure of this importance is the warning sounded by the editors of Progressive Grocer : ". . . . sprouting is a sure indication that quality is impaired and that soft spongy flesh and root growth can be expected. There is a great loss risk in purchasing this kind of stock. It may be wiser to buy and sell Bermudas which come onto the market in the spring, rather than risk having deteriorating winter stock." 92 According to a study made at Cornell University, retail sales of onions ranked fifth (after potatoes, tomatoes, lettuce, and celery, in descending order) in relative sales importance of 46 vege- tables and amounted to 6.3 percent of total dollar vegetable sales. Potato and onion sales together equal 31.4 percent of all vegetable sales. 92 At present, maleic hydrazide (MH) is the only chemical ap- proved by USDA as an antisproutant for onions. According to the manufacturer of MH, onions treated with MH may be held in ordinary storage without sprouting for several months longer than the untreated onions. As in the treatment of potatoes, MH is applied to onions in the field one or two weeks before harvest, when the bulbs are mature and the tops are still green, but beginning to fall. If MH is applied too soon, a hollow neck bulb results. MH is applied by conventional spray equipment. Five and one-half pints of MH are mixed with 100 to 150 gallons of water to treat 1 acre. A rain within 24 hours of application may require an addi- tional application. 173 The cost of treating onions with MH may be slightly less than 5 to 7 cents per cwt. Unlike potatoes, where sprouting starts from the "eyes" near the surface, onions sprout from tissue imbedded in the center of the bulb. Experiments have been somewhat limited on this vegetable, but results indicate that dosages of from 0.008 to 0.2 megarad consistently control sprouting in a number of varieties stored under varying conditions. Although sprouting was not completely controlled at these levels, the sprouting that did occur rarely devel- oped beyond the half way point of the bulb. The sprouting tissue was discolored in a high percentage of the bulbs so treated and was directly proportional to the antisprouting effect of the treatment. Experiments with electron machines indicate that the radiation from this source must be directed at the base of the bulb to be effective. 70 Canadian experiments dating back to 1957 proved that gamma irradiation as low as 0.003-0.004 megarad effectively controlled external sprouting in several varieties of onions. The onions were found wholesome and nutritious. 63 71 CHAPTER 7 RADIATION PRODUCT IMPROVEMENT Ionizing radiations may be used to improve foods and food prod- ucts without regard to preservation or matters of importance to public health. By far the larger portion of research has gone into radiation sterilization, pasteurization, disinfection, disinfestation, and sprout inhibition. During the course of this research, effects have been noted that indicate possibilities for modifying and improving foods. Some of these have been mentioned in prior chapters. Irra- diated oranges are more easily peeled and the segments separated more readily than in nonirradiated oranges. 174 Radiation im- proves the dough and bread rise of certain flours as well as the organoleptic qualities of some bakery products, sweets, and pas- tries. 18 Radiation sometimes improves the culinary quality in irradiated potatoes. 7 36 178 Early in the Army program, it was discovered that radiation at high doses tends to tenderize beef. The effect was so pronounced on the better grades of beef used in the experiments as to be con- sidered a problem. Later experiments determined that lower grades, such as U.S. Commercial, may be tenderized acceptably by irradiation at 4.5 megarads. 182 Some other possibilities in the use of radiation are: decreased roasting time for coffee beans (resulting in improvement in flavor of the brewed coffee), 9 17S the aging of wines, 28 home-cooked flavor for commercially packed gefilte fish, and increased yield from irradiated yeast. 172 The prospects may be promising, but comparatively little has been published on radiation food product improvement. There is at least one important exception to this lack of research 72 which offers excellent prospects for commercial adoption. In 1956, a claim was filed for a U.S. patent relating to a process for tender- izing and decreasing the cooking time of dehydrated vegetables. The inventor claimed that dehydrated vegetables, containing 1 to 20 percent water, subjected to ionizing radiation may be reconsti- tuted in a much shorter period of time and with better texture than non-irradiated dehydrated vegetables. The irradiated vege- tables needed only 3 minutes or less, the inventor claimed. Dehy- drated vegetables require boiling for 10 minutes or more for rehydration and may need presoaking. It was further claimed that undesirable side effects of radiation from gamma rays or electron beams are substantially reduced or eliminated by irradiating the vegetables in the dehydrated state. The patent, which was granted March 13, 1962, named lima beans, green beans, okra, corn, potatoes, celery, green and red bell peppers, peas, carrots, beets, onions, lentils, leeks, and cabbage as the vegetables benefited. As examples of the practical benefits of the process, tomato vegetable soup was prepared using, among other ingredients, de- hydrated irradiated carrot, white onion, bell pepper, and celery flakes. Onion soup was prepared with dehydrated irradiated white onion and toasted onion flakes, plus conventional non-irradiated ingredients. The soup mixes containing irradiated ingredients were boiled for one minute and compared with similar soup mixes containing nonirradiated ingredients which had been boiled for 10 minutes. No difference could be found in the resulting soups and the extent of rehydration appeared to be the same for all mixes. In onion soups, the tenderness of the onions was found to be about the same in both soups, and the soup from the irradiated mix had a higher onion flavor. All the vegetables listed in the patent were subjected to various dose levels of radiation from gamma and electron sources and re- sults were generally the same. The flavors of the treated vege- tables remained substantially unchanged from that of the con- trols except for carrots and beets which were sweeter and onions and peppers which had a higher flavor. This is thought to result from decreased cooking time, resulting in less leaching of flavors. 104 Further work has confirmed the results reported in the patent. Commercially available dehydrated onion flakes (white and toasted), red tomato flakes, diced carrots, celery, diced potatoes, red and green bell peppers, cabbage, and green beans were ex- posed to electron beam radiation. A 1.5 Mev van de Graaff linear 73 accelerator was used at dose levels ranging from 0.3 to 6.0 megarads. Pre- and post-irradiated samples were microbiologically evalu- ated and showed substantial reductions of microbial populations proportional to dosage levels. Shear test comparisons of controls and irradiated samples, ac- cording to the patent, showed dramatic tenderization effects re- lated to dosage levels, with resulting decreases of cooking time. Diced potatoes showed a progressive darkening with increasing dose and a toasted flavor at 6.0 megarads, but no off-flavors. The flavor of cabbage was unaffected, but there was a slight change in odor increasing with dosage. 105 The large food company which has supported the research is continuing to support development of the process. Submission of petitions to FDA for clearance of some of these vegetables, includ- ing dehydrated carrots, potatoes, onions, and cabbage, are ex- pected soon. Wholesomeness data developed in the Army, AEC, and Canadian programs will be submitted with the results of other work now in progress. The questions of processing and capital costs are being investi- gated. The effect of gamma irradiation is the subject of further study. Only limited samples of gamma irradiated vegetables were available in the earlier studies. Executives of the company are attempting to measure the comparative advantages of isotopic and electron sources as applied to this particular process. Progress in this determination is hampered by lack of cost data. None of the obstacles to commercialization of this process ap- pear to be insurmountable. The very fact that all the research and development has been funded by a private corporation, with- out any Government subsidy, is revealing. Consumer benefits and sales advantages in prospect for instant dried soups is obvious. Conventional dried soup mixes have posted marked sales gains in recent years. As shown in table 11, retail sales of dried soup mixes have shown an overall increase of 42.8 percent from 1959 through 1963; in that same period canned soups have shown an overall increase of only 5.9 percent. The dramatic sales gain by dry soups in 1962, shown in table 11, has been attributed to the introduction of two new heavily pro- moted brands. There is some belief that dry soups have reached a "sales plateau." 121 This may be true; however, the increases 74 were made regardless of the fact that most dry soup mixes today are not "instant" mixes ; some require more than 15 minutes cooking time. Radiation processing should give added impetus to the sales growth of dry soup mixes. There is no doubt that other advantageous applications will be found for these radiation tenderized dehydrated vegetables. Granted FDA approval and reasonable processing costs, commercial success will follow. Table 11— RETAIL SALES VALUE OF TOTAL UNITED STATES SOUP CONSUMP- TION: 1959-63 (In thousands of dollars) Year Dried soup mixes a Canned soups b 1959 1960 1961 28,500 29,500 31,830 42,110 40,720 489,990 503,220 493,160 1962 498,590 1963 519,030 a Excludes bouillon cubes. b Excludes frozen soups. Source: Adapted from Food Field Reporter. 23 49 in use d by permission. 75 CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY OF MAJOR FOREIGN RESEARCH In order that research workers in the field of food irradiation be made fully cognizant of research work in other countries the European Information Center for Food Irradiation was estab- lished in 1960 by the member countries of OECC (Organization for European Economic Cooperation) now renamed OECD (Or- ganization for Economic Cooperation and Development) . The Cen- ter acts as the liaison between research workers in the field of food irradiation. A number of other countries, non-members of OECD, such as Yugoslavia, Poland, India, and Pakistan also participate in the dissemination of the results of their research. The functions of the European Information Center for Food Irradiation — located at National Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, Saclay, France — are to act as a contact point for scientists, food technologists, governmental and industrial circles interested in this field and to encourage closer international coop- eration in the development and application of knowledge in all matters pertaining to food irradiation. One of the major activities of the Center, other than the meeting of the scientists to discuss their work, is the publication of the Food Irradiation Quarterly International Newsletter, which publishes the scientific and tech- nical information contributed by the various nations. Interested parties may obtain a copy of this publication by writing to the Executive Secretary, Interdepartmental Committee on Radiation Preservation of Food, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C. The United States occupies a special position in this organiza- tion, contributing the major share of the research. The efforts of the other OECD countries are rather limited ; the most important 76 work is being done in the United Kingdom, in Canada on potato iradiation, and in France on wholesomeness tests. Of the 18 European OECD countries, 12 laboratories are work- ing on irradiation of meat, 9 on the effects of irradiation on sea- foods, and 20 are working directly or indirectly with fruits and vegetables. Others are concentrating efforts on the effects of radiation on basic food elements. The total effort is modest since not many over 100 workers were engaged in this research in 1962. In general, however, the results of experiments on varieties of fruits and vegetables indigenous to each country have been rewarding. CANADIAN POTATO EXPERIMENT The most significant event in the program of irradiation of foods outside the United States took place in Canada during the 1961-62 season. For the first time, a realistic experiment was car- ried out on an industrial scale when about one million pounds of potatoes were irradiated, during the 1961-62 season, and released for public consumption after storage for differing lengths of time and under different conditions. The potato irradiation program using mobile cobalt-60 irradia- tion was carried out for twenty-six potato shippers or processors in the provinces of Ontario, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. The dose of 8000 rads provided excellent control of sprouting in all storages regardless of variety, storage temperature, date of irradiation, method of storage, or length of storage. When good material suitable for long term storage was irradiated, and not mishandled during treatment, there was no effect on the rate of breakdown during storage. Irradiated pota- toes were successfully processed into potato chips, instant mashed potato flakes, frozen french fries and pre-peeled fresh boilers. Irradiated potatoes were sold to Canadian consumers in the form of table stock and processed products. No complaints were re- ceived and there was no unfavorable public reaction to the first irradiated food offered for sale in Canada. 7 8 63 OTHER RESEARCH ON POTATOES Russia was the first country in the world to issue a public clearance for the use of ionizing radiation on food by accepting in 1959 the use of radiation for the prevention of potato sprouting. 77 The U.S.S.R. has been carrying out a very comprehensive research program on irradiation of potatoes against sprouting since 1954 and their scientists have found .005 megarad of gamma radiation effective. There is still no commercial application of this process in Russia. 153 The Republic of South Africa has had very promising applica- tions of gamma rays in control of sprouting in potatoes. Dosage varied according to variety. In Denmark studies on inhibition of sprouting in potatoes reported adverse effects to some lots of potatoes. In Austrialia a dose of .005 megarads gave good control of sprouting in potatoes stored under Australian conditions for six months. Shelf-life of the Phulwa potato in India was extended with low dose irradiation. Poland has also had favorable results in irradiation for sprout inhibition in potatoes. OTHER RESEARCH The countries in Europe, Asia, and Africa are concentrating their research efforts on those food products important to their economy, but whose short shelf -life results in large losses in their market distribution. Some of the research has resulted in favor- able results ; some has not. Overall progress is being made internationally in irradiation of foods. Although research has been primarily under the auspices of governments, industry in several countries has become aware of the results and is interested in participating. From the progress reports made by OECD member countries, the following is a sampling of the work being done. 91 Austria The main problem is concerned with fruit juice irradiation. Not only is the Austrian fruit juice industry interested, but also the Institute of Wine and Food Cultivation in Vienna. The idea of food preservation by irradiation has become popular in Austria. The wine and beer industries have made preliminary contacts with the Institute at Seibersdorf, the only center in Austria for food irradiation. Even the sugar industry intends to make use of this new method. Austria has successfully inactivated yeast in grape juice by means of low temperature pasteurization with low dose radiation. 91 78 Australia Particular attention has been given to the irradiation of citrus fruit infested with the Queensland fruit fly. This insect occurs throughout large areas of the eastern coastal region. This treat- ment is promising as the eggs and larvae, the only stages present in infested fruit, fail to develop into adults after a dose of 0.01 megarad. 107 Belgium Tests showed that gamma irradiation can prolong the cold storage life of strawberries with an optimum dose of about 0.25 and 0.5 megarad. Storage life could be tripled by use of suitable packaging. There was little loss in vitamin C content — in fact, less than in stored untreated berries. Work is being done on potential applications of low-dose irradiation for part-preservation of vege- tables such as green peas, "Princesse" beans, spinach puree, cut asparagus, and mushrooms. Studies are continuing on the influ- ence of ionizing radiations on proteins, irradiation of freeze dried corn gluten, and irradiation of powdered eggs. Investigation is being made of methods for control of insects which attack stored grains and grist. Another study is on wheat and on the baking properties of the resulting flour. 46 91 Denmark The main products investigated by the Danish Meat Research Institute are luncheon meat, bacon, and canned ham. Of these, canned ham seems to be the most promising for radiation preser- vation. With a combined heat and radiation treatment, it has been possible to obtain a commercially acceptable sterile product with less shrinkage than after heat treatment alone. Color and texture were good, but the taste panel rated this ham a little lower than the unirradiated product. Consumer tests of irradiated hams are planned involving 200 families. Future large scale plans exist for irradiation of pig feed to control salmonella. Studies of various dairy products indicate that gamma irradia- tion cannot be used directly for the purpose of preservation. There is a possibility of surface irradiation, using linear accelerators, of butter and cheese. In experiments with inhibition of sprouting of potatoes and onions, irradiation did not cause any adverse changes. 91 79 Figure XI. — Fifteen million electron volt linear accelerator with scanner and conveyor system at the Atomic Energy Commission of Denmark, Riso Ros- kilde, Denmark. — Courtesy Varian Associates, Palo Alto, California Extensive studies have been performed with pasteurizing doses of gamma radiation to prolong the normal cold storage period of strawberries, raspberries, black currants, sour cherries, plums, apples, tomatoes, asparagus, carrots, and cucumbers. Strawberries 80 have proved to be the best suited for treatment and the only promising fruit product. 43, 44, 91 France France has found that irradiation can prolong shelf -life of the tomato and may prove to be the key to the problem of tomato production and marketing in that it may allow a wider distribution of the crop in both time and space — to the satisfaction of growers and consumers alike. France is making an economic study on the irradiation of African produce. In the new states — particularly in tropical Africa — the problems are very different from those in the highly industrialized countries. In Africa, it is a question of preserving foodstuffs, and especially foods rich in protein, for a period of one to three weeks. One problem for example, is fish from Mopti in Mali which is exported to Ghana, Guinea, Nigeria, the Ivory Coast and even as far as the Cameroons. Although smoked as soon as caught, the loss due to insects is estimated as high as 50 to 75 percent. Since traditional chemicals used to preserve fish have not worked satisfactorily, it is hoped gamma radiation would destroy the insects. The irradiation would take place after the smoking and packing. Then there is the problem of meat. African meat is produced on a belt of territory known as the Sudano-Sahel, starting north of Senegal and following a curving line as far as Ethiopia, a vast area of land, on which there are some 20 million or more head of cattle widely scattered. Since there is very little refrigerated transport or storage available, the animals, when sold for con- sumption, are driven on the hoof as far as the coast, covering distances from 500 to over 1,000 miles through regions lacking good pasturage. Losses are estimated at more than 30 percent and the meat available for consumption is of poor quality. A prelim- inary study indicates that there may be some possibility that mobile irradiation units could be used to sterilize slaughtered meat on the spot and so insure its preservation during transport. Conventional transport could then be used to avoid costly air freight. Among other projects, French researchers are working on chicken, fermented milk, prevention of deterioration of moist grain, and insect control in foodstuffs. Of special interest to growers in the south of France is insect control in chestnuts, and it seems that the problem may be resolved by the application of 81 simple techniques. Researchers in France find that fruit in air- tight packages tends to go soft and deteriorate fairly rapidly. They favor that fruit be treated in its final package to avoid extra handling. Work is also being done on the house fly. 91 176 Germany Research includes studies on dosimetry in foodstuffs, radiation sensitivity of some important species of microbes at different conditions, biochemical and chemical effects of irradiation, effects of surface irradiation, and chemical analysis of the products of irradiation. Work on certain problems of adequate packaging and of changes produced in packaging materials during irradiation is also in progress. Some studies on prevention of sprouting of po- tatoes and on irradiation of fruits and fish have recently been made. 91 106 Greece Greece is studying the radio-resistance of yeasts and molds which cause spoilage to fruits. Favorable results with cobalt-60 have been found with certain varieties of grapes. Preliminary results of irradiating dried figs for insect disinfestation have shown no deleterious effect on figs. In studying the extension of shelf-life of Valencia oranges it was found that there was little loss of vitamin C content, but a large vitamin C loss in irradiated orange juice. 101 102 Holland Holland has found that irradiation extended shelf -life of straw- berries 5 days with 0.25 -0.35 megarad without affecting flavor or ascorbic acid content of berries. Shelf -life of blackberries can be extended 3 days with doses up to 0.25 megarad and cherries can be prolonged 3 days with doses from 0.3 to 0.5 megarad. Holland has plans to build a pilot plant for strawberries. It is uncertain whether the source will be a gamma emitting isotope or machine generated electrons. 29 91 82 India Experiments with low-dose gamma irradiation of mangos, sapotas, guavas, green tomatoes and limes have resulted in no adverse effects on color, texture, taste, or odor. Shelf-life was extended so that low-dose gamma irradiation of these fruits may prove helpful in their transportation and marketing. Other commodities under investigation are ginger, garlic, and kidney beans. 67 Israel Experimenting with oranges to determine respiration rate, which is usually a measure of the physiological state of the fruit is continuing. There are reports of experimentation to extend the shelf -life of oranges by plastic coating and irradiating the coated oranges. 54 Italy Experiments with a cobalt-60 source have shown that foot and mouth virus (relating to South American beef imports) is com- pletely inactivated at 3 megarads in solution and 5 megarads in the dry state. 91 Norway Norway is pursuing fundamental studies on C. botulinum Type E, with relation to marine products and extension of shelf -life of fish. There is also an interest in the extension of shelf -life of beef carcasses and studies have been made on the storage life of potatoes, fruits and vegetables exposed to gamma irradiation. 153 Pakistan In Pakistan leguminous pulses constitute an important food accessory in the Pakistan-Indian sub-continent. Infestation by insects that devour and destroy the pulses has been treated by fumigation which does not seem to affect the eggs because there continues to be reinfestation. Radiation appears to be effective in destroying the insect, the egg, and the grub. 50 83 Poland Research on sprout inhibition in potatoes with X-rays and with gamma radiation from a cobalt-60 source has been carried out in Poland with satisfactory results. Work has been done on irradia- tion of fruit, barley and malt, mushrooms, cellulose, milk, and meat. Bilberries which grow abundantly and are exported fresh on a large scale reacted favorably to gamma irradiation. It was shown that a dose of about 0.3 megarad applied to the fruit wrapped in polyethylene increased its storage at temperatures between 32°F. and 68°F. by 2% to 3 times. The 0.3 megarad dose had no harmful effect whatever on the quality, while bacteria, yeasts and molds were reduced to about 1 percent of their initial amounts. Gamma irradiation is also being used on barley to slow down the germination (for making malt) without reducing the enzyme properties so as to effect malting at temperatures higher than usual. This process, in conjunction with potato irradiation, might enable agricultural distilleries to operate over longer periods there- by improving their productivity and at the same time making it easier for farmers to obtain forage for dairy cattle (in the form of potato decoctions) in the scarce season. Owing to the importance of the meat industry in Poland and the potentialities of the irradiation of meat and meat products, the Warsaw Meat Industry Institute is most interested in this question and is conducting research in the field — particularly on irradiation combined with other forms of preservation. 88 Republic of South Africa Research in the irradiation of food was initiated somewhat re- cently with the installation of a cobalt-60 radiation unit at the Stellenbosh Research Institute. The first experiments consisted of inoculating various fruits with organisms which cause rotting of the particular fruit and then subjecting the fruit to a series of increasing radiation doses. Experiments with Golden Delicious and green apples indicated that gamma rays are effective in reducing fungal penetration in apples. However, there were side effects such as color change and tissue softening. Research on apples is continuing. Irradiation on Waltham Cross grapes and Kaksucas peaches looks very prom- ising. Experiments with gamma rays on fruit juices reveal their 84 effectiveness in extending the keeping quality by controlling development of yeast cells. 68 Sweden Studies are continuing on the wholesomeness of irradiated potatoes fed to large groups of rats and pigs. No harmful effects have been observed. Work on cured fish products (anchovies, gaffelbits, etc.) have been stopped as the results have not been very promising. Research, however, is continuing with smoked fish and experiments to irradiate fresh fish have been started on an overall scale. 91 United Kingdom The United Kingdom has a working group, set up under the Ministry of Health, which is examining the question of the whole- someness of irradiated food and which will advise on the need for control and possibly the principles which should govern any official control. A study on rat feeding of irradiated wheat has been completed. Rat feeding tests on irradiated eggs are continuing. Work is continuing on salmonella, especially the salmonella problem associated with the importation of horse meat intended for distribution as pet food and the importation of spray-dried and frozen egg products. About 50 tons of frozen horse meat were inoculated with various strains of salmonella and then irradiated. Results were favorable. It is believed that naturally contaminated meat can be adequately dealt with by irradiation. It has been es- tablished that a dose of 0.5 megarad to frozen whole eggs effec- tively reduces radiation resistant strains of salmonella. Fundamental work is being done on the effects of irradiation on enzymes and enzyme systems. Research on fish has been done in some detail. The main varie- ties of interest in Britain are cod, halibut, herring, and flat fish. A feasibility study has been started on the commercial possibilities in Britain in collaboration with Sweden. The incidence of mold in strawberries was found to be reduced when stored at 68 °F. and completely inhibited at 34 °F. after radiation at 0.2 megarad. 01 94 ° 5 85 USSR Russia reportedly is pursuing a vigorous program in irradiation of foods. Irradiated potatoes have been authorized for food use. An experimental plant will be built to irradiate 20,000-25,000 tons of potatoes a season. Research is progressing on irradiation of hen eggs for increased hatchability of the irradiated eggs and on increased egg production of the hens grown from such eggs. In general, the Russian effort is on the improvement of shelf -life of foods to combat insect pests in grain products and to change the properties of raw materials being processed. 153 THE INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY (IAEA) The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) have recently united their activities in the field of application of isotopes and radiation to the food and agricultural sciences. Food irradiation will be the major program of the new " Joint IAEA-FAO Division of Atomic Energy in Agriculture" established in Vienna, Austria. The IAEA with its highly technical base (the only agency in the United Nations family that has its own laboratory) and the FAO with its greater emphasis at the application level and with extensive field pro- grams ideally complement each other. The resources of both agencies will serve the varied and different interests of their member countries and between them include almost all the countries of the world. 37 The program contemplated by this new joint agency will pay particular attention to the problems of international significance and will include the following six areas : 1. Placing irradiated food in international commerce 2. Disinfestation by irradiation 3. Control of harmful organisms transmitted by products moving in international trade. 4. Quarantine control by irradiation 5. Sensitizing microorganisms to radiation 6. International fruit juice program Although the emphasis will be on the above areas, research will continue on marine, meat and fruit products and their improvements in marketability. 86 In furthering this program, the Joint Division of Atomic Energy in Agriculture will support fellowships, training courses, exchange professors, research contracts, consultants, symposia and confer- ences, technical assistance and act as executing agent in programs funded by other organizations such as the United Nations or World Bank. 37 87 PART 2 AREAS OF POTENTIAL ECONOMIC IMPACT OF FOOD IRRADIATION The commercialization of radiation preservation of food will affect many industries either directly or indirectly. For the most part, it is anticipated that the results will be positive and beneficial. In some instances, however, they may prove to be adverse for indi- vidual firms or for competitive materials, equipment, or processes. The identification of these potential impacts will assist those industries and businesses affected to plan in an orderly manner for such changes in investment, equipment, labor requirements, oper- ating procedures and marketing programs as may be required. The following sections are intended to provide this type of information. Radiation processing of food, although subject to a decade of research, experimentation, and development, has yet to be initiated in the United States on a commercial basis. Under these circum- stances, the measurement of economic impact must be subject to uncertainties and variables, the answers to which will ultimately determine the direction and intensity of change. These uncertain- ties (without reference to order of importance) include: 1. The rate and success of technical research and development in such areas as radiation sources, facility design, packaging, and related fields. 2. The development of acceptable cost data based on opera- tions on a commercial or semi-commercial basis. 3. The determination of practical and measurable benefits in such areas as spoilage reduction, extension of shelf -life, improve- ments in quality, market stabilization and expansion, etc. 4. The rate of issuance of regulations for radiation processed 88 foods by the Food and Drug Administration (and in some cases the Meat Inspection Division and Poultry Inspection Division, Department of Agriculture) as well as the extent of restrictions included in such regulations. 5. The extent of other restrictive measures including State and local laws. 6. The nature of consumer reaction and acceptance, and the success of consumer educational programs. Developments in each of these and similar fields, both in direc- tion and magnitude, will ultimately determine the extent to which radiation processing of food will become a factor in the food industry, and the many ancillary industries which service the food industry. Within this framework, the following pages pre- sent a review of the potential areas of impact from radiation preservation of food in the fields of : Agriculture Fisheries Food processing and processing equipment Packaging, containers and related materials Radiation sources and facilities Refrigeration and storage facilities Transportation and transportation equipment Chemicals Marketing and distribution facilities and operations World trade 89 CHAPTER 1 FOOD PRODUCTION The production of food, on farms and by fisheries, will undoubt- edly be affected by the commercialization of radiation preservation of food for the specific products concerned. The success of both farming and fishing operations is to a considerable degree depend- ent upon the effectiveness of subsequent processing and distribu- tion activities and consumer acceptance. Consequently, both agriculture and the fisheries industry will have a large stake in the future developments of this new technology. AGRICULTURE According to the 1960 Census of Agriculture, there were in the United States in 1959, more than 3,700,000 farms with total assets of approximately $200 billion, and proprietors' equity of $176 bil- lion. Together these farms accounted for more than one billion acres of land of which more than one-half billion represented farm land. Harvested croplands accounted for more than 300 million acres. The farm population at that time was 16.5 million, slightly more than 9 percent of the population, with approximately 7.5 million workers, including 5.5 million family workers and almost 2 million hired workers. Total receipts from the marketing of farm products in that year amounted to more than $33 billion, and per- sonal income to more than $13 billion. 155 By 1963, the total value of farm assets had increased to $214 billion, proprietors' equity to $185 billion, and the value of total farm receipts had increased to over $35 billion. Table 12 summarizes the 1963 domestic civilian purchases of farm products for major commodity groups indicating both farm and retail value. These data indicate something of the magnitude 90 of the total value of the United States food production and con- sumption. Table 13 shows the volume of total U.S. consumption of selected major foods from U.S. farms in fresh weight equiva- lents, and the relative proportion purchased by the consumer fresh, frozen or canned. These data indicate something of the magnitude of the physical quantity of food production and consumption, some part of which will be commercially irradiated. Table 14 lists the 1963 production quantities and farm value of selected fruits, vegetables and wheat. Each of the products in- cluded is considered a likely product for radiation processing. (See Part 1, Chapters 2-7.) Such impact as radiation preservation of foods may have upon those engaged in agriculture should be con- sidered in terms of the importance of these products to farm production as a whole, and to the operations of any individual farm producer. It should be noted that the fruit products listed in table 14 accounted for over one-third in volume of all fruit products in 1963 and had a combined farm value of almost $600 million. Onions, potatoes and tomatoes which accounted for over 50 percent in volume of all vegetables produced in 1963 had a farm value of approximately $675 million. Wheat production which exceeded 68 billion pounds had a farm value of $2.4 billion. Meat products which are likely candidates for radiation preservation (table 15) amounted to more than 37 billion pounds in 1963, with a retail value estimated in excess of $25 billion* Tables 14 and 15 are indicative of the magnitude by weight or value of selected food products in which developments in irradi- ation are most likely to occur during the next decade. The total impact of commercialization of radiation preservation of food on farming and those engaged in agriculture cannot be accurately measured. However, some indication of possible, or even probable directions and results can be identified. It is gen- erally accepted that radiation processing, to be most effective, should take place as soon after harvest as possible, and as close to the point of origin of the product as possible. Research and experi- mentation in the use of mobile irradiators are indicative of this consideration. To the extent that field, or mobile, radiation may prove to be feasible, this will affect the entire operation of assembly, handling, and initial shipments of the crops involved. Part 1, Chapter 3 of Estimate by Food Industries Division, BDSA, U.S. Department of Commrece. 91 Tabl< 12— DOMESTIC CIVILIAN PURCHASES OF FARM FOOD PRODUCTS FOR MAJOR COMMODITY GROUPS: 1963 ESTIMATES" Billions of dollars Food Products Farm Value Retail Value Amount Percent of total Amount Percent of total 8.5 4.5 3.0 1.4 3.0 1.0 39.7 21.0 14.0 6.6 14.0 4.7 17.0 10.6 5.1 8.6 12.9 5.9 28.3 17.6 8.5 14.3 21.5 Others.., . 9.8 Total 21.4 100.0 60.1 100.0 a Limited to those foods sold at retail store level. Excludes foods served by restaurants, institutions, etc. Source: U. S. Department of Agriculture unpublished estimates. 158 Table 13-APPARENT U. S. CIVILIAN CONSUMPTION OF SELECTED FOODS: 1962 (Billion Pounds Fresh Farm Weight) Food Total Fresh Frozen Canned 29.5 24.7 20.5 16.3 11.7 5.5 1.3 18. 9 a 16. 2 C 18.1 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 2 l b *\ 1.7 b n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 8.5 b 6.7 d .7 b Chicken (ready-to-cook) TotaL 109.5 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. — Not available. "Represents total commercial production for sale as fresh; excludes farm garden output for farm household use. h Frozen and canned potatoes included with vegetables. c Includes .5 billion pounds dried fruit. d Includes 2.4 billion pounds canned juice. Source: U. S. Department of Agriculture. 181 92 Tabic 14-U. S. PRODUCTION OF SELECTED FRUIT, VEGETABLES AND WHEAT: 1963 Food Quantity (Million Pounds) Farm Value (Million Dollars) Fruit 400 304 124 114 8,356 3,536 510 24.0 40.9 5.0 a Nectarines (California) 5.3 285.0 137. a 94.9 13,344 20,656 592.1 Total Fruit 34,000 Vegetables b 2,522 27,600 2,007 85. 3 a 441. 6 a 150.1 32,129 17,409 677.0 n.a. 49,538 n.a. Total Fruits and Vegeta 83,538 Wheat 68,280 2,390 a a Estimated by Food Industries Division, BDSA, U.S. Department of Commerce. b Commercial production for fresh market. c Includes melons. Source." Adapted from U.S. Department of Agriculture. 161 164 165 Table 15 U. S. PRODUCTION OF SELECTED MEAT AND POULTRY PRODUCTS: 1963 Product Classification Quantity (Million Pounds) 17,360 12,360 l,866 a 2,239 a 7,410 6,070 1,340 Meat Beef and Veal (carcass weight) Pork (carcass weight) Bacon Ham Poultry Chicken (ready-to-cook) Turkey (ready-to-cook) Total 37,130 a Estimates by Food Division, BDSA, U.S. Department of Commerce. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 162 93 this report discusses the possibilities of the utilization of mobile sources in conjunction with permanent radiation processing sites equipped with all necessary equipment except the radiation source. Such sites could be located adjacent to concentrated geographical areas of production for individual crops. A single mobile radiation source could serve a number of crops of different seasons or in different geographical areas. These sites might in some cases be owned and operated by individual large-scale farmers, or by farm cooperatives or other groups. (See Figure V) In the case of many products, it seems probable that radiation processing will take place at central assembly points or at the facilities operated by large food packers or processors. In these instances, the benefits will extends back to the producers as a result of market expansion, improved quality, extension of the marketing season as a result of increased shelf -life, the elimination of market gluts, spoilage reduction, and similar developments which will all tend toward increased volume in marketings and increased receipts resulting from market growth and stabilization. It has been estimated that the elimination of all wastes due to spoilage and poor handling for fresh fruits and vegetables could reduce the necessary acreage for these products about 20 percent, releasing nearly one million acres for other purposes. 65 This amount of acreage is not significant in relation to the approxi- mately 300 million acres employed in harvested croplands; how- ever, individual farmers specializing in the production of fruits and vegetables would be affected. FISHERIES The fishery industry of the United States in 1962 comprised 4,135 fishery shore establishments and 70,733 fishing craft. It provided employment for 126,333 fishermen, 90,993 shore workers, and 315,000 workers in allied industries for a total of 532,326. (Allied industries include gear manufacture, boat building, pro- cessing equipment, etc.) The total U.S. catch in 1962 amounted to 5,354,185,000 pounds, with a value of $396,428,000.^8 Table 16 shows the volume and value of selected species in rela- tion to the total U.S. catch. The species selected are those for which favorable results have been achieved in radiation processing. (See Part 1, Chapter 3). It should be noted that the fishery products listed accounted for over 900 million pounds or 17 percent by weight of the total 1962 fish catch and had a value of more than $130 million, or 33 percent of the value of the total catch. 94 Table 16-U. S. FISH CATCH FOR SELECTED SPECIES: 1962 Quantity Value Selected Species 1,000 lbs. Percent of U.S. Catch Thousand dollars Percent of total 155,329 134,250 141,310 16,333 243,340 191,106 54,169 2.9 2.5 2.6 .3 4.5 3.7 1.0 14,390 10,913 6,046 685 18,708 73,236 11,762 3.6 2.8 1.5 Pollock .. ... . . .2 4.7 18.4 3.0 935,837 4,418,348 17.5 82.5 135,749 260,679 34.2 Balance of catch 65.8 Total U. S. catch . . ... . . ... 5,354,185 100.0 396,428 100.0 ••Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. 168 86 FEET INCHES Conveyor Co 60 Cell ^1 ^ \y Preparation KZ SOURCE POOL SOURCE PLAQUE GUIDE RAILS P Rest Room =a jf Mechanical Equipment Labyrinth A Work Area Storage and Maintenance Cold Storage Loading Dock 50 FEET 4 INCHES Figure XII. — Floor plan of the Marine Products Development Irradiator (MPDI) at Gloucester, Mass.— Courtesy USAEC 95 Commercialization of radiation preservation in the case of marine products will undoubtedly have a significant impact on the fisheries industry and those engaged in the processing and distri- bution of seafood. An evaluation of the technical, economic and practical feasibility of radiation preservation of fish conducted by the Department of Food Technology of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1960 identified the following advantages, each of which might result in a reduction in price to consumers : 90 The process would tend to : a. Stabilize ex-vessel prices by equalizing supply with demand b. Reduce losses caused by spoilage, wastage and poor hand- ling c. Reduce handling costs and need for special rapid handling during distribution d. Greatly increase markets to provide for larger, more effi- cient operations e. Allow more successful handling and merchandising of raw fish, thus more effective marketing of this product. f. Allow central processing of fresh fish with subsequent savings in labor and equipment These conclusions were supported by a recent study of the marketing feasibility of radiation processed fishery products con- ducted by the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Department of Interior. 170 This study indicated that many respondents antici- pated that radiation processing could completely revolutionize the seafood industry resulting in both the development of new markets and the expansion of old markets for fresh ocean fish. The poten- tial for expansion of markets for fishery products ranked first among the advantages possible through radiation and improved quality control ranked second. Respondents participating in this survey included producers, processors, distributors, wholesalers, retailers, home economists, and food trade groups at various mer- chandising levels, as well as extension service workers, nutrition- ists, and newspaper food editors. The demand for fresh ocean fish throughout seaboard areas where fresh fish are available remains very constant whereas the supply is extremely volatile. As a result, the market (especially at the wholesale level) is highly unstable with prices fluctuating from extremely high levels during periods of short supply to extremely low levels during periods of over supply when the market is glutted. This market instability is primarily the result of the highly perishable nature of marine products. 96 Research on radiation pasteurization of fish has clearly demon- strated the feasibility of converting highly-perishable fresh fish to a less-perishable product with an added shelf -life of 20 to 30 days. This will make possible a levelling out of supply and demand in current seaboard markets and a more orderly marketing process, including a more orderly scheduling of shipments and inventory control to handle peak demands such as those relating to Fridays or special holidays. It will also make possible the establishment of brand identity as a means of increasing the volume of sale of quality products available on a stable basis in major markets. In addition to the advantages which will result in market stabili- zation in seaboard markets, there are unlimited potentials for mar- ket extension through the development of new markets for fresh- like seafoods in inland highly populated areas in which such pro- ducts are not presently available. An additional advantage of radiation pasteurization of fishery products to the U. S. commercial fishing industry may be an im- provement in competition with imported seafood. Increases in volume due to lower spoilage losses and extended shelf-life, proxi- mity to domestic markets, and market stability will all contribute to the advantage of domestic commercial fisheries in exploiting new inland markets for fresh fish products. This advantage, how- ever, is somewhat dependent upon the extent to which U.S. com- mercialization of the irradiation of marine products precedes that of foreign competitors. As in the case of agricultural products, the radiation preserva- tion of marine products should take place as close to the point of catch as possible. This was confirmed in the survey conducted by the Bureau of Fisheries referred to above. Obviously, the most advantageous point for maximum effectiveness will be aboard the fishing vessels. In the event that radiation processing on shipboard ultimately proves to be feasible, the impact upon fishery operations will be maximized. Extension of both the length and time of fishing expeditions, on-board reductions in spoilage and waste, and im- provements in quality will add to those advantages previously mentioned. Two small research on-ship irradiators are now being constructed to be used on an experimental basis, and consideration has been given to the development of a large-scale on-ship facility which would have the capability for commercial operations. In addition, the Marine Products Development Irradiator, recently dedicated at Gloucester, Massachusetts, with a capability of processing up to 1,000 pounds per hour at a 5 megarad dose will provide an oppor- 97 tunity for measuring the feasibility of on-shore radiation of ma- rine products. (See table 22, Part 2, Chapter 4). Also possible is the combination of a light-dose treatment on shipboard immedi- ately after catch with further application after processing and packaging at a land-based unit. SHUTTLE Figure XIII. — Design for the two transportable Shipboard Irradiators sched- uled for completion in Spring 1965. Each irradiator will be capable of pasteurizing 150 pounds of fish per hour while pasteurizing the refrigerated sea water used for refrigerating fish stored in the hold of the ship. — Cour- tesy USAEC 98 Radiation processing of fishery products, whether conducted on shipboard or at port or shore locations, can make possible a tre- mendous expansion in the quality and size of the catch, and the resulting value to commercial fisheries as a result of both market stabilization and market expansion. While it is not possible to measure accurately the full potential of market expansion for marine products which may result from an extension in the length of haul and increased storage time we do know that there is no problem of limitation in the source of supply. It has been esti- mated that in the waters adjacent to this country about 7 billion pounds of fish annually remain unharvested which represents a food waste greater that the total present annual U.S. catch. 169 In addition, at least a billion pounds of the U.S. catch are now dis- carded at sea for lack of markets. The extent to which this poten- tial for increasing the consumption of marine products may be realized through radiation preservation will be contingent upon the continuation of technical developments (which are highly ad- vanced in the case of fishery products), the rate of clearance and consumer acceptability. A study of consumer acceptability of irradiated marine products by the Bureau of Commercial Fisher- ies is currently in the planning stage, and may contribute to the answer to this question. 99 CHAPTER 2 FOOD PROCESSING AND PROCESSING EQUIPMENT The food processing industry ranks first among all manufactur- ing industries in the United States in both value of shipments and total employment and second in size of payroll. In 1962, the in- dustry accounted for $67 billion or about 7 percent of the value of shipments of all manufactured products. Employment in that year amounted to 1.7 million, 10 percent of all manufacturing employees, with a payroll of $8.6 billion. 136 The composition of the food processing industry is indicated by the classification of establishments engaged in the processing of major food commodities as shown in Table 17. It is quite possible that food irradiation may result in the de- velopment of a new branch of food processing including new estabilshments designed primarily to engage in the types of proc- esses discussed and outlined in Part 1 of this report. However, it should also be expected that food irradiation applications will be developed as complementary or auxiliary processes incorporated into current food processing facilities. This could occur in con- nection with present operations such as canning, freezing, and freeze drying operations in each of which radiation may be used in conjunction with the other processes. For example, canners may employ low-dose radiation treatments on raw products held at the cannery before processing. Crops which are picked before maturity ripen in storage at the plant. During the ripening period there may be some mold development and deterioration. Radiation pasteurization by preventing this would improve the quality of the product at the time of canning. It would also lengthen the ripening period and prolong the canning period which might result in a beneficial reduction in overtime 100 labor costs, provided the facilities were not required to meet the scheduling of a subsequent seasonal crop. In addition, it is quite likely that in those instances where radia- tion processing develops as a means of preservation without com- bination with other preservation techniques, it may be undertaken as a means of diversification by those currently engaged in food processing employing other forms of preservation. Types of food processors most likely to be affected by the development of this new technique include those currently en- gaged in canning, freezing, freeze drying, meat packing, fresh produce packing, and cold storage. Many firms engaged in these fields are large and possess adequate financial resources to under- take the investments necessary for launching commercial radia- tion operations as soon as feasibility has been fully demonstrated or gives indication of profitable operations. In the case of radiation pasteurization, those currently engaged in packing fish and fruits and vegetables might adopt the new technique where volume is adequate. At the same time, firms now engaged in freezing operations may diversify into this field utilizing their current knowledge of refrigeration techniques and their alliance with well established refrigerated warehouses and distribution systems since pasteurized products must, for maxi- mum benefit, continue to be kept under refrigeration until ready for consumption. On the other hand, radiation sterilization, which requires no further refrigeration, may appeal to canners as a means of diver- sification, since canners have the advantage of a long-time alliance with dry grocery distributors through whom such products would logically be marketed. In addition, the present facilities of cah^ ners could be converted for radiation by installation of a radiation chamber at the point in the processing line where the product would otherwise have passed into the retort for thermal treatment. Either the sterilization or pasteurization of meat products could logically develop as part of the operation of meat packing at which point the process would be most economical. Information on the number of establishments, employment, and value of production in the canning, freezing, and meat packing industries is contained in table 18. 101 Table 17-FOOD PROCESSING ESTABLISHMENTS BY TYPE: 1958 Type Number of establishments 5.528 9,879 Canned processed and frozen foods _ _ 3,693 Grain mill products 3,484 Bakery products 6,319 Sugar 144 1,444 5,558 Other food preparations _ __ 5,570 Total 41,419 Source: Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce. 1 Table 18 EMPLOYMENT AND VALUE OF SHIPMENTS (FOB PLANT) BY FOOD PROCESSING ESTABLISHMENTS: 1958 AND 1962 Type of Processor Number of Estab- lishments 1958 Number of Employees Value of Shipments ($1,000) 1958 1962 1958 1962 Canners and Freezers Canned and Cured Seafoods 333 107 1,607 161 619 440 426 17,146 24,186 118,498 7,599 19,500 17,613 39,772 15,460 25,270 104,224 9,223 21,457 16,040 43,891 325,088* 846,881* 2,333,885 273,286 525,309 310,095 1,025,897* 428,906 1,085,812 Canned Fruits and Vegetables. . Dehydrated Fruits and Vege- 2,626,456 320,113 692,625 Fresh and Frozen Packaged Fish. . ._ 346.083 Frozen Fruits and Vegetables. . 1,323,731 Total... 3,693 244,314 235,565 5,640,441 6,823,726 Meat Packers 2,801 1,494 1,233 200,783 48,586 62,389 185,715 46,913 67,076 11,962,273 2,066,257 1,888,166 12,465,471 2,133,856 Poultry Dressing Plants 2,080,925 Total --. 5,528 311,758 299,704 15,916,696 16,680,252 * Value of production rather than shipments. Source: Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce. 1 * 8 1K 102 CHAPTER 3 PACKAGING, CONTAINERS, AND RELATED MATERIALS Containers and packages are essential to the processing, dis- tribution and sale of all food products. The containers and packaging industries on the one hand meet the packaging needs of food processors and distributors, and on the other represent a major consumer of many basic raw materials produced by other important industries. In 1958, the latest year for which detailed data on identifiable segments of the packaging field are available, there were 4,625 establishments in the packaging field with more than 391,000 employees and a payroll of approximately $1.8 billion. The total value of shipments by this group in that year amounted to $10.6 billion. 139 It is estimated that by 1962 the number of establishments of this type exceeded 5,000, providing employment for over one and one-half million employees and a yearly payroll in excess of $2.5 billion. Value of shipments in 1962 are estimated at $13.8 billion, compared with $8.3 billion a decade earlier, an increase of 66 percent in 10 years.* In addition to the value of actual materials shipped, if con- sideration is given to other aspects of the field of packaging such as filling, closing, handling, research and development, and pack- age design, it is estimated that the total value of packaging would approach $23 billion.* Major basic raw materials consumed in the production of containers and packages include steel, glass, paper and paperboard, wood, aluminum, and plastics. *Estimates by the Containers and Packaging Division, BDSA, U.S. Department of Com- merce. 103 The significance of packaging and containers in the consump- tion of these materials is illustrated by the fact that the packag- ing field is the third largest customer of the steel industry, uses over 50 percent of the total production of paper and paperboard, and consumes approximately 90 percent of the aluminum foil production.* The above data and estimates relate to packages and containers for all types of products. Among these, food is by far the most important, accounting for between 55 and 60 percent of the value of shipments for the entire field. Consequently, for 1962 the value of shipments of packages for food amounted to approxi- mately $8 billion. The significance of food packaging for selected major types of containers is indicated in table 19. Obviously in view of the magnitude of the packaging industry, the impact of radiation preservation of food on those engaged in packaging will not be universal, nor will it be significant in total terms. Such changes as will result will relate to particular types of containers and to the use of various types of packaging materials to the extent that such materials may themselves be affected by radiation or meet special requirements of packaging materials necessary to utilize fully the benefits of radiation in extending the preservation and quality of different types of irradiated foods. Studies by the U. S. Army Quartermaster Research and Engineering Command have demonstrated that the packaging of foods treated with low doses of radiation (below 1 megarad) does not involve serious problems. 126 Such problems as may exist in this area of radiation processing involve the development of packages which will meet for each product particular require- ments in terms of tensile strength, moisture, vapor transmission and similar aspects which vary from product to product. Table 20 describes packaging requirements for foods treated with low- dose radiation for meat, fruits and vegetables, tubers, and cereal grains, depending upon the condition in which the product would be shipped. By amendment to the food additives regulations on August 14, 1964, the Food and Drug Administration approved the use of specified packaging materials for use in radiation preservation of pre-packaged foods for doses not to exceed 1 megarad, and in accordance with specification. The following packaging ma- terials were approved: (1) nitrocellulose-coated cellophane, (2) *Estimates by the Containers and Packaging Division, BDSA, U.S. Department of Com- merce. 104 Table 19— VALUE OF MANUFACTURERS SHIPMENTS OF SELECTED CON- TAINERS USED FOR FOOD AND NONFOOD PRODUCTS: 1962 (Millions of Dollars) Containers Total Value Food Nonfood Value Percent Value Percent 177 912 237 2,056 992 2,107 300 194 537 205 87 838 419 012 436 25 1,700 714 569 104 82 368 10 4 838 230 63 48 11 83 72 27 35 42 69 5 5 100 55 65 476 212 356 278 1,538 196 112 169 195 83 189 37 52 89 17 Glass Containers Corrugated and Solid Fibre Shipping Con- tainers 28 73 65 Textile Bags . _ . 58 31 95 Steel Pails ._. 95 45 Total . ... ... . 9,061 5,192 57 3,869 43 Source :Estimates by Containers and Packaging Division, BDSA, U. S. Department of Commerce Tabic 20-PACKAGING FOR FOODS TREATED WITH LOW-DOSE RADIATION Package Requirement Type of Product and Condition Refrigerated Storage Ambient Temperature Storage Meat Raw Carcass, Large cuts Waxed-kraft bags, parchmentized kraft bags, pliofilm bags. Same as refrigerated. Individual cuts Cellophane, pliofilm, polyethylene, polystyrene, and similar con- tainers presently used. Packages with low moisture rates, i.e., polyethylene-coated Mylar, cellophane, Saran; carefully selected grades, stress-crack re- sistant. Packages which minimize oxygen and moisture transfer, i.e., Saran, pliofilm, vinyl; polyethylene- coatedMylar or cellophane. be taken to select grades with stress-crack resistance. Cook d Packages which minimize oxygen and moisture transfer. Poly- ethylene-coated cellophane or Mylar, Saran, Saran-pliofilm, etc. be taken to select grades with stress-crack resistance. Fresh Fruits and Vegetables . Present type packages are satisfac- tory (perforated bags, where re- quired) . Same as refrigerated. Tubers Enzyme, inactive or cooked Packages which minimize oxygen and moisture transfer, i.e., poly- ethylene-coated cellophane or Mylar, Saran, etc. Same as refrigerated. Care must be taken to select grades with stress-crack resistance. Present type of containers are satis- factory. Insect control (i.e., nema- todes) . Crates with paper liners, multiwall paper sacks and other containers without opening which will allow respiration are satisfactory. Same as refrigerated. pyrethrinpiperonyl butoxide. Source: U. S. Army Quartermaster Research and Engineering Command. 126 105 glassine paper, (3) wax coated paperboard, (4) polypropylene film prepared from polypropylene basic polymer, (5) ethylene- alkene-1 copolymer film, (6) polyethylene film, (7) polystyrene film prepared from styrene basic polymer, (8) rubber hydrochlo- ride film prepared from rubber hydochloide basic polymer, and (9) vinylidene chloride-vinyl chloride copolymer film. The regulations contain specifications for permissible use in each case. 150 The basic research supporting the petition was conducted by the Hazelton Laboratories, Inc. 38 The U. S. Army Natick Laboratories has prepared an amend- ment to the Food and Drug Administration's Regulation 121.2543 on packaging materials for safe use of six generic groups of prepared foods to provide for safe use of six generic groups of packaging materials (polyolefin, polyvinylidene chloride copoly- mer, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, polyester, and poly amide), which may be subjected to a sterilizing dose of irradiation not to exceed 6 megarads, incidental to the use of gamma radiation in the radiation sterilization of prepackaged foods. Table 21 presents estimates of the types of packages now used in the processing and distribution of selected products which are likely to be candidates for radiation preservation and the relative importance of each. These data and the information and industry views on various types of packaging materials indicated in the following paragraphs may provide a basis for determining rough guides to changes in packaging requirements for various foods which may result from radiation processing of foods. For a discussion of the current outlook and commercial prospects of radiation preservation for the products listed see Part 1, Chapters 2-7. Producers of packaging materials approved or currently under consideration in connection with radiation processing including film manufacturers are well aware of developments in food irradiation and are interested in its possible impact. Many com- panies have either experimented in irradiating their own ma- terials or have cooperated with other companies, the AEC or associations in order to ascertain the effects of irradiation on the materials. The general feeling of industry representatives is that any change in packaging requirements resulting from ra- diation processing can be met with little difficulty. Capacities are large, the industries are operating considerably below capacity, and growing at a substantial rate. Consequently, it is believed that such shifts as may result in the use of packaging materials can be handled without any major problems. 106 Table 21 TYPE OF PACKAGE AND PRESERVATION PROCESS ESTIMATED FOR SELECTED FOOD PRODUCTS: 1963 Product, Package and Preservation Millions of Pounds Percent Fruit 400 100 48 268 72 12 300 12 67 Cartons 18 3 100 50 110 83 57 114 17 37 Cartons 27 19 100 Fresh in baskets, boxes 111 3 8,400 97 3 100 3,024 5,376 3,530 36 64 100 Fresh in baskets, boxes — 1,730 1,625 105 70 510 49 46 Cartons 3 2 100 353 157 2,522 69 31 Vegetables 100 2,500 27,600 99 100 11,900 610 3,920 1,850 4,880 4,440 1,866 43 2 Carton 14 Dried .. . . ... _ 7 Flexible and other type package 18 16 Meat 100 Smoked: 1,390 476 17,360 74 26 100 Fresh Flexible packaging 10,410 6,950 60 40 107 Table 21 -TYPE OF PACKAGE AND PRESERVATION PROCESS ESTIMATED FOR SELECTED FOOD PRODUCTS: 1 963— (continued) Product, Package and Preservation Millions of Pounds Percent Ham, total 2,239 100 Smoked: Paper bags 1,520 719 12,360 68 Other packaging . 32 100 3,580 1,480 7,300 6,072 29 12 59 Chicken, total Poultry 100 Canned _ 100 3,095 1,600 1,277 1,341 2 51 Flexible package _ _ . 26 Other packaging ______ 21 100 Canned 87 1,200 27 27 155 6 Flexible package 90 Other packaging Fresh ____ .___ ___ ____ 2 2 Fish (1962) 100 Carton, frozen 50 105 134 32 68 Haddock, total __ 100 44 90 141 33 67 100 131 10 16 93 7 Pollock, total-- _ . 100 Carton, frozen _ _ 11 5 243 69 31 100 231 7 5 191 95 3 2 100 13 113 65 54 7 59 34 100 1 53 2 98 Note: Shipping containers included only where product is not packed in individual containers. Source: Tables 14, 15, and 16; type of process and package estimated from various sources by Con- tainers and Packaging Division, BDSA, U. S. Department of Commerce. 108 The impact of radiation preservation of food on the utilization of tin plate and aluminum plate, and metal foils will relate primarily to developments in the field of radiation sterilization. Metal cans, which are currently used for heat processed foods are essential to this form of processing because such containers are the only ones that will withstand the high pressures of steam sterilization, and because they are the best hermetic containers known. In addition, their rigidity and ability to withstand handling during storage and distribution has been an advantage in military use. One of the current major objectives of the U. S. Army's Radiation Preservation of Foods Program is the development of flexible containers to replace metal cans for radiation-sterilized foods. Since radiation sterilization does not involve intense heat or pressure, flexible packaging can be utilized with resulting ad- vantages in weight and shipping space. 181 183 Excellent progress is being made in reaching this objective, and a petition for ap- proval of irradiation of six packaging materials has been prepared for transmittal to the Food and Drug Administration. (See page 104 for list of materials). The development of effective and acceptable flexible packaging, including pouches, from plastic materials or laminated foils suita- ble for radiation-sterilized foods represents a major opportunity for producers of such materials. 109 CHAPTER 4 RADIATION SOURCES AND FACILITIES The commercialization of radiation processing of foods will have a direct impact on the radiation processing industry, producers of power sources, installations, conveyor systems, electronic control instruments, and related components and materials. During the past decade a radiation processing industry has de- veloped for the treatment of a number of important products and processes in areas other than food irradiation. These include: cross-linked polyethylene film, semi-conductor components, cross- linked polyethylene wire insulation, shrinkable film, the produc- tion of ethyl bromide, and the sterilization of medical supplies. Other industrial radiation process applications nearing commer- cialization include: the production of biodegradable detergents; the production of wood plastic materials for use in furniture, flooring, decorative trim and sporting goods; the curing of paint primers and coatings in building materials; the improvement of semi-conductor devices such as diodes, transistors, and electronic components ; the production of commercial polymers ; and applica- tions in the field of textiles, including dyeability, mildew resistance, and fire and water resistance. It is estimated that the current annual sales of radiation processed products exceeds $70 million and is growing rapidly. 62 Radiation facilities are also widely em- ployed in many research and development programs including food irradiation research. Radiation sources for food preservation which presently appear to be most promising are: (1) gamma radiation from radioiso- topes (primarily cobalt-60) and (2) high energy electron accele- rators. Both of these methods appear to have relative advantages 110 and disadvantages depending upon process, type of product, dose levels, rate of through-put and similar variables. Other possible sources for food irradiation include gamma rays from other iso- topes, including Cesium 137, and X-rays based on electron beam conversion. GAMMA RADIATION FROM RADIOISOTOPES Radiation preservation of food utilizing isotope sources involves many different types of facilities with wide variations in source storage and strength, design, capacity and cost. These variables depend upon the purpose for which the facility is designed and the physical and other characteristics of the products to be treated. Food irradiators currently in use or under construction or design for use in connection with the AEC food irradiation research pro- gram include: (1) research irradiators; (2) transportable or mobile irradiators; (3) central or in-plant irradiators; (4) bulk W^My'i^-^' : '^^''- &f-MtwmAifX£8 UHif tONTBOi P&MSl W4TIS $M$£&& WAf£# ♦??«#*? fCO0 cisHfAimist Figure XIV. — Basic design of the Research Irradiators in operation at Massachusetts Institute of Technology; University of California, Davis; University of Washington, Seattle; and University of Florida, Gainesville. Modified versions of this design are in use elsewhere. — Courtesy US AEC 111 z O < < en oc Q O O < u. LU a. 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It is anticipated that Figure XV. — World's largest cobalt-60 radiation source concentration used in experimental processing of meats, fish, vegetables, fruits, and other foods at the U. S. Army Radiation Laboratory, Natick, Massachusetts. The neon-like glow is caused by gamma ray ionization of the water in the 25- foot-deep storage pool. — Courtesy U. S. Army standardization of sources, source holders, conveyors and other equipment and construction features will result in substantial cost reductions for future facilities. Gamma radiation from radioisotopes offers many advantages for food preservation. Gamma rays are highly penetrating, and especially effective for bulk irradiation. This type of facility pro- vides exceptional reliability, low maintenance, and simplicity of operation. The technology of source design and fabrication of facilities for containment and handling of cobalt-60 are well ad- 113 vanced. There are no problems of availability of this isotope and costs, while reasonable, may be expected to decline considerably in future years. ELECTRON MACHINES In addition to gamma radiation from radioisotopes, electron ac- celerators offer excellent promise as economical energy sources for food irradiation. A number of facilities of these types have been employed in research and experimentation in food irradiation, in- cluding a 24 million electron volt, 18 kilowatt linear accelerator now in operation at the U.S. Army Radiation Laboratory in Natick, Massachusetts. 74 A number of types of accelerators with varying characteristics are now available from manufacturers or are under design. (See table 23) Types of accelerators applicable for food processing include : (1) Dynamitron, (2) Resonant transformer, (3) Microwave Linear, (4) Van de Graaff, and (5) Insulating Core Transformer. Electron accelerators have many basic characteristics which should prove to be advantageous in food preservation applications. These include ultra high dose rates and flexibility of operation and directional output. These facilities can be utilized or turned off at will whereas gamma emitting sources continue to decay whether in use or not. However, the continuous emission characteristic of radioisotopes is advantageous in applications where a 24-hour con- tinous process is used. Studies of relative costs of gamma and electron sources con- ducted to date, largely by estimates based on assumptions as to source efficiency, down-time, through-put, number of days in use, number of shifts and other variables, do not provide an acceptable basis for determining realistic competitive relationships. Opera- tions on a semi-commercial or pilot plant basis may support the expectation that estimated costs for both types of facilities can be substantially reduced through large volume operations and opera- tional experience. Moreover, future cost comparisons may reflect anticipated reductions in isotope prices. It is probable that both of these types of sources, and others which may be developed, will be used commercially for the irradiation of those products and ap- applications for which experience reveals relative advantages. 35 44 56 62 120 126 The only firm conclusion which can be made in this connection, at this time, is that "the choice of the source can be made only 114 Tabic 23 CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTRON ACCELERATORS-AVAILABILITY, APPLICATION, AND COSTS Degree of Penetration Item Surface (Up to 1 MeV) Thin Packages Up to 1 * or Bulk (1-4 MeV) Thick Packages Cartons — Bags (10 MeV or X-Rays) Power Levels Lower Power (Up to 1 kw)_ .25 kw Sprout Inhibition of potatoes Medium Power (1-10 kw). .10-2 kw Whole Beef Pasteur- ization (Surface) Fruit Pasteurization Dried Eggs 2-4 kw Fish fillet pasteurization, Packaged cereals and dry goods, Liquid Eggs (6 kw T X-Ray a ) Sterilization of Processed Foods (canned ham, poultry, frozen eggs) (60 kw a ) Grain Disinfestation (37 kw - X-Ray a ) over). Cost Estimates Capital Required: Equipment . . __ $100,000 25,000 25,000 $135,000 40,000 25,000 $400,000 Facility 50,000 50,000 Total Capital .. 150,000 200,000 500,000 Operating Cost b Per 2,000 hours (1 shift) 20,000 25,000 30,000 Fixed Cost and Return c _ _ 40,000 60,000 170,000 Total Annual Cost (1 shift) $60,000 80,000 100,000 $85,000 110,000 135,000 $200 , 000 (2 shifts) 230,000 (3 shifts) 260,000 a Design only available. b Includes crew of 2 per shift for control of process and product handling . Capital prorated 10 percent for depreciation and 23 percent for return and insurance. Source: High Voltage Engineering Company 120 . Table adapted from estimates included in several tables in cited reports. 47 115 Figure XVI. — The 18 kilowatt, 24 million electron volt linear accelerator used in irradiated food research at the U. S. Army Radiation Laboratory, Natick, Massachusetts. — U. S. Army photograph with regard to the demands of a specific process." 62 Consequently, business firms interested in food irradiation should carefully con- sider the relative advantages of alternative processes within the framework of specific applications. Obviously, it is not possible to predict in any detail the extent to which radiation processing of foods will develop future markets for the power sources, facilities and equipment employed in radia- tion installations. However, the accelerated rate of growth in the volume of radiation facilities used for all purposes in recent years 116 is indicative of significant future potentials. According to esti- mates by a manufacturer of radiation facilities, 1964 sales of electron machines alone have surpassed in kilowatt equivalent the sales of both electron machines and isotope sources combined for the previous ten years.* A projection of the potential for radiation processing equipment for food preservation to the year 1980 was estimated by R. Hal Mason and Samuel I. Taimuty of the Stanford Research Institute in a paper presented at the 19th Annual Meeting at the Institute of Food Technologists in May 1959. 66 The projection assumed that on the average, radiation processing would involve 10 percent of the market for fresh fruits and vegetables, fresh meats, potatoes, edible small grains and foods currently processed by thermal treat- ment and freezing. Based upon this assumption, it was estimated that 200 billion pounds of food in these categories would be con- sumed annually by 1980 indicating an annual volume of irradiated foods in the magnitude of 20 billion pounds with a value in excess of $4 billion at current prices. At this rate of development food radiation by 1980 would be nearly two-thirds as large as either canning or freezing today. This estimate omitted consideration of radiation potentials for fresh marine products and poultry. The same study also estimated that the projected volume of food that would be irradiated would require the use of more than 300 large accelerators by 1980. Such a development would mean an annual market of approximately $15 million to the electronics in- dustry, assuming a five-month two-shift operating season with investment amortized over a 10-year period. It was also estimated that the use of gamma sources for irradiation sterilization of meats would involve an additional investment of $5 million annually with additional outlays for replenishment of the isotope sources. These estimates did not include investment requirements for physical plant, accessory equipment or repair components. The projection referred to above is merely indicative of the potential which exists for radiation processing facilities. Develop- ments since the time this projection was made indicate a greater potential. Table 24 lists the volume of U.S. consumption in 1962 of food products for which radiation preservation at present ap- pears promising adjusted to an estimated 1980 consumption level. The estimate for 1980 consumption of the listed food categories is over 240 billion pounds, 40 billion higher than the estimate re- ferred to above. *Presentation at Washington Section, American Nuclear Society, "Washington, D. C. May 13, 1964. 117 These estimates of the volume of consumption of selected food groups which show promise for radiation could serve as a basis for projections of future potentials for power sources, installa- tions, conveyor systems and electronic control devices. The development of such projections would necessitate careful analysis of the percentage of each product category which might ultimately be treated by this process, the type of treatment, size and source levels of facilities to be employed, number of days and shifts per day of utilization, source utilization efficiency, down-time and other variables. Tabic 24— APPARENT U. S. CONSUMPTION OF SELECTED FOOD PRODUCTS IN 1962 AND ESTIMATED U. S. CONSUMPTION IN 1980 (Billion Pounds) Product Apparent 1962 Consumption Estimated 1980 Consumption* Vegetables (Fresh-Farm Weight) 29.5 20.5 24.7 16.3 11.7 5.5 1.9 1.3 39.8 27.7 Fruits _ 33.3 Beef. 22.0 Pork._ 15.8 Chicken. 7.4 Fish 2.6 1.8 Total Foods 111.4 68.3 150.4 Wheat 92.2 179.7 242.6 a Estimated 1980 consumption represents an increase of 35 percent based on the Bureau of Census population projections. 26 Source: Tables 13 and 14. CONTROL INSTRUMENTS Radiation facilities include many measuring and controlling de- vices. For example, the U.S. Army installation at Natick, Massa- chusetts, which employs radioisotope sources of energy uses the following types of instruments : Area monitoring apparatus Portable survey meters Dosimeters Dose-rate meters Light spectrometers Flow indicating and recording instruments Temperature indicating and recording instruments The cost of the instruments installed in the Natick facility is estimated at $12,500. However, the requirements for instruments will vary according to the size of a facility and its rate of output. An increase in the scale of operations to a commercially feasible level may raise the cost to around $17,500. 118 The above figures pertain only to facilities that utilize radioiso- tope sources of energy. If machine-generated sources are utilized the total instrument cost will include, in addition to some of the instruments listed above, those instruments directly associated with the machine per se. A typical high energy electron beam accelerator's control console contains the following types of indi- cating, recording and/or controlling devices : Impact voltage meters Input current meters Load current meters Output current meters Waveform generator Time-interval control instruments Output voltage meters Counters Vacuum meters Beam current meters Cathode ray window current meters Scan length meters External beam current meters The total cost of these and related instruments may range from as low as $3,000 to over $20,000 depending upon type and capacity of the accelerator. Based on the foregoing, one might expect total instrument costs for food irradiation facilities of all types to fall within a range of $15,000 to $35,000 depending upon size and characteristics of the installation. Thus, should the demand for food irradiation facili- ties reach a level of 50 units per year, it would result in an annual market for control instruments of approximately $1 to $1.5 million. This represents less than 1 percent of the current total annual factory shipments for such instruments. 119 CHAPTER 5 OTHER INDUSTRIES REFRIGERATION AND STORAGE FACILITIES Refrigeration and related equipment is an essential element in the production, processing, distribution, and consumption of almost all perishable food products. The need for food refrigera- tion extends from the farm to the dining room, and involves process equipment, transportation cooling devices, refrigerated storage, refrigerated sales equipment, and finally, home refrigera- tors and freezers as well as restaurant and other institutional refrigeration installations. The air conditioning and commercial and industrial refrigera- tion industry consists of about 600 companies with 62,000 em- ployees. The total value of shipments of this industry in 1963 was in excess of $1.7 billion. The value of equipment for the cold storage, processing, serving and marketing of foods within these totals cannot be separately measured because of interplant shipments and the fact that many components such as compres- sors may be used for either air conditioning or refrigeration. However, there can be no question but that refrigerated process- ing and preservation of food account for a substantial share of the market for this industry.* The importance of commercial refrigeration of food products is also apparent from the fact that more than 50 percent of the retail sales dollar spent in food stores is for products requiring refrigeration, and approximately $250 million is invested each *Estimates by General Industrial Equipment and Components Division, BDSA, U.S. Depart- ment of Commerce. 120 year in refrigerated equipment in retail food establishments (grocery, meat, poultry, fish and fruit markets, and establish- ments serving prepared foods). In addition, about $100 million is spent each year for refrigeration equipment by food processors, while cold storage facilities in the United States are estimated to have a replacement value of over $1 billion, not including land.* The total capacity of all refrigerated warehouses in the United States (excluding Alaska and Hawaii) on October 1, 1963, was 1.1 billion gross cubic feet, including approximately 579 million cubic feet with holding temperatures 0°F. or below and 529 million cubic feet with holding temperatures 0°F. to 50°F. The October 1, 1963 capacity represented an increase of 8 percent during the previous two-year period 157 (see table 25, page 125). The commercialization of food irradiation by pasteurization should increase refrigeration requirements at all levels of food production, processing, shipment, storage, and retail outlets to the extent that it results in market expansion for radiation pasteurized perishable foods. Under present methods of preservation, most fresh and perishable foods require refrigeration, as will radiation pasteur- ized foods. Any displacement of fresh foods by radiation pasteurized foods will, therefore, not reduce, but more likely in- crease refrigeration requirements. This will result from exten- sions in holding periods and length of haul due to geographical market expansion and increases in the varieties of perishable products (i.e.-tropical fruit), shipped into new markets. Although the commercial radiation processing of foods will probably result in some increases in requirements for public refrigeration storage space, this should present no problem since the products involved and the rate at which radiation processing is expected to grow will be a minor factor in relation to total capacities and normal growth in the industry. It is, of course, possible that some shifts in storage requirements of individual products or within geographical areas might affect the receipts of individual storage companies. The selection of locations for radiation processing facilities should be a factor of concern to refrigerated warehouse operators. Similarly, in the case of refrigeration requirements for food processors, no problems are apparent. As a result of the sophisti- cation of the food processing industry in the United States, and *Estimates by General Industrial Equipment and Components Division, BDSA, U.S. Depart- ment of Commerce. 121 its constant expansion as a corollary to population growth, it is characterized by a high degree of flexibility and adaptability to change. Manufacturers of refrigeration equipment necessary to serve the needs of food producers and processors are geared to this characteristic. Consequently, such changes as may occur in the types or volume of food refrigeration equipment required by processors as a result of food irradiation will be absorbed in the normal growth of the industry without significant impact on current operations. This will, however, represent an additional growth factor. The impact of commercialization of irradiated foods on re- frigeration at the retail level will be diverse, but will present no problems. The need for refrigerated display cabinets should increase as a result of an increased volume of radiation pasteurized products requiring refrigeration. On the other hand, there will be some reductions in refrigeration requirements in connection with the packaging of meat products and the trimming and packaging of produce to the extent that packaging operations are shifted from the retail level to the point at which radiation applications are applied. To the extent that radiation sterilization of foods may become commercialized, the rate of growth in refrigeration requirements may be slightly curtailed, since such foods require no refrigera- tion subsequent to treatment. However, no early shifts of this type are anticipated in connection with the sale of radiation sterilized products in domestic markets since refrigeration facilities for both shipment and distribution are adequate and the extension of shelf-life for such products is less significant to consumers than in the case of products likely to be pasteurized. There are some notable exceptions to this conclusion for the domestic sale of such convenience products as sterilized canned ham, brown-and-serve turkeys, and roasts, etc. (See Part 1, Chapter 2) . In addition, large scale food distributors have indicated an interest in the availability of radiation sterilized meats, luncheon meats, bologna, frankfurters, etc. in order to reduce their requirements for frozen food display cases. On the other hand, in foreign markets and especially in the less developed nations where refrigeration facilities are inadequate, radiation sterilization may contribute to meeting consumer needs without the necessity for rapid increases in refrigeration facilities (not presently available) thus slowing down the need for future development of such facilities in these markets. 122 TRANSPORTATION AND TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES All food products, whether processed or consumed fresh, must be moved by a vast complex of transportation agencies and facilities through the complicated and diverse channels of dis- tribution that extend from the point of production to the point of final sale. These transportation facilities include the privately- owned vehicles of farmers and assemblers, the fleets of individual processors and large scale distributors, and all types of common carriers, including railroads, motor trucks, water carriers and airways. The magnitude of movement of agricultural raw materials and fresh or processed food products by all of these means has never been measured. However, food is undoubtedly the most important single commodity contributing to the transportation industry and its growth. Within such a vast complex and magnitude of food shipments of all kinds by carriers of all types, the impact of commercializa- tion of radiation preservation of food will have a relatively small and gradual impact within the foreseeable future. Nevertheless, for specific types of food products, within particular geographical areas and for various methods of shipments or equipment requirements the effect within the next decade will be significant. Radiation preservation of food may be expected to affect trans- portation facilities and requirements in the following respects: (1) changes relating to refrigeration requirements; (2) changes relating to extensions in length of haul resulting from extensions in shelf-life, market expansion and increases in the value of shipments; (3) geographical shifts in movements resulting from modifications in the location of assembly, processing or storage points; and (4) competitive shifts in the proportion of various products handled by different types of carriers — railroad, motor truck, water carriers and airlines. In evaluating the possible changes in competitive relations between alternative types of shippers, a major consideration is the fact that irradiated foods can be shipped farther by slower and less costly forms of transportation than can highly perishable non-irradiated products. This factor would appear to favor increased volume by rail and truck lines in competition with air shipments. For example, an extension of shelf-life for highly perishable products of 15 days or more would make possible 123 shipments within the domestic market by rail or truck to any point with minimum spoilage. To the extent that seasonal peaks for perishable products can be eliminated and market periods extended, all types of carriers should benefit from a more orderly scheduling of shipments with relatively less equipment in relation to the total volume of shipments. In the case of pasteurized irradiated foods formerly shipped fresh, less refrigeration equipment will be required since a smaller volume of trimmed pre-packaged products can supply the market with a greater tonnage of edible foods with less space requirements. Off-setting this reduction in the requirement for refrigerated equipment will be the increased volume resulting from shipments into markets not previously served. Large shipments of fresh ocean fish into inland markets is an example. Shippers engaged in foreign trade should benefit significantly from increased exports due to extended shelf -life for pasteurized perishable products and market expansion for sterilized products in areas where refrigeration facilities are inadequate. (See Part 3, Chapter 7). Overall, it appears that commercialization of radiation preserva- tion of food will result in increased volume and other benefits to the transportation and transportation equipment industries as a whole, although shifts in competitive advantages and rates of growth may result for competitive carriers in the tonnage of particular products handled. This is a factor to which attention should be directed by those engaged in the transportation of food products and the production of transportation equipment likely to be affected by this new technology. CHEMICALS Any significance which the commercialization of radiation processing of food may have on the chemical industry will relate primarily to two major areas: (1) the effect on the use of plastic materials in food packaging, and (2) the possibility of declines in the total demand for pesticides, sanitizers, sterilizers and sprout inhibitors in the treatment of potatoes, onions, and grains. In addition, there may be some effects on the use of chemicals as food additives and as refrigerants. Information relating to the use of chemicals in connection with packaging materials is included in Part 2, Chapter 3 which deals with the impact of food irradiation on food packaging. In 124 general, it is anticipated that the total demand for packaging and packaging materials will be increased somewhat and that no significant problems will result from such changes or shifts in ma. terials as may be necessary. An analysis of the feasibility and outlook for radiation processing as a means of disinfestation and sprout inhibition is included in Part 1, Chapters 5 and 6. The extent to which develop- ments for radiation processing in these applications may displace the current use of chemicals for these purposes cannot yet be determined. It is suggested that producers of the chemicals involved include this consideration in their future planning. The effect of food irradiation on the use of chemicals as a refrigerant will depend upon the extent to which there is an effect on the total requirement or growth rate for food refrigeration. This subject is covered in the first part of this chapter. Any analysis of the possible effect of food irradiation on the use of chemicals as food additives would necessarily have to be made in terms of individual food products and related additives and in connection with particular types of radiation applications. This does not appear warranted at this time. Table 25-GROSS REFRIGERATED WAREHOUSE CAPACITY IN THE CONTI- NENTAL UNITED STATES: OCTOBER 1, 1963- (Millions of Cubic Feet) Type of Warehouse 0° F. or Below Above 0° F. to 50° F. Total Capacity Percentage Change Since October 1961 Public b 422 140 17 208 287 34 630 427 51 - 2 Meat Packing ._ U.S. Total 579 529 1,108 + 8 a Does not include space owned or leased and operated by the Armed Services. b Includes apple houses. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 157 125 CHAPTER 6 MARKETING AND DISTRIBUTION FACILITIES AND OPERATIONS Food marketing and distribution is the largest business in the world. It is also one of the most dynamic and flexible segments of the American economy. In 1963, American consumers spent ap- proximately $76 billion for food (excluding alcoholic beverages) an amount which represented approximately 20 percent of all personal consumption outlays. 167 According to the latest Census enumeration, there were over 50,000 wholesale distributors of grocery and related products with total sales of more than $58 billion and paid employment of 524,- 000 in 1958. 138 This included merchant wholesalers, manufactur- ers' sales branches and offices, merchandise agents and brokers, and assemblers of farm products. Included in this total were over 29,000 wholesale distributors of poultry, fish, meats, fruits and vegetables, and grains (candidates for irradiation) with sales of more than $25 billion and employment of almost 260,000 (table 26, page 130). In 1963, sales of wholesalers of groceries and related products including wheat had increased to $75 billion. 141 The Census of Retail Trades (1958) reported the existence of approximately 260,000 grocery stores with sales of almost $49 billion and paid employment of over 1.2 million. 137 At the same time, there were approximately 345,000 eating and drinking places with sales of more than $15 billion and paid employment of over one and a half million. In 1963, sales of food stores had increased to $59 billion and those of eating and drinking places to over $18 billion. 140 Together these three business classifications which are engaged primarily in the distribution of food in 1958 accounted for more 126 than 655,000 business establishments with combined sales of ap- proximately $120 billion and combined paid employment of well over 3 million. Obviously, the impact of a new form of food preservation on a marketing structure of this magnitude will be relatively small, but highly important for the products and classes of products involved. Moreover, most people believe that the commercialization of radiation preservation of foods will be gradual, depending upon the rate of technical developments and individual product clearances. When this is coupled with a recognition of the extreme flexibility of marketing channels and institutions and the fact that the mar- ket will be continuously growing to meet the increasing needs of our expanding population, it is reasonable to assume that the economic impact on marketing facilities and operations will have significance only in terms of specific products and functions. Al- through no irradiated products have yet been sold to the public, some possible developments or problems in distribution can be explored. Adjustments in the marketing of food which may result from radiation preservation will vary greatly depending upon the prod- uct, the type of process involved, and the level of distribution under consideration. The rate at which such changes might occur will in turn depend upon the rate at which technical barriers are overcome, clearances obtained and production facilities established. It will depend also upon the number of products which ultimately are treated and the volume of each which finally wins acceptance in the market. In the final analysis this will be determined by con- sumer acceptance involving not alone acceptance of radiation as a safe and wholesome process, but more importantly, the economics of cost relationships and resulting benefits to the consumer. All of these matters are dealt with in other parts of this report. This sec- tion is concerned only with identification of the types of changes which may be anticipated in marketing practices, methods, facili- ties and operations. There has been no comprehensive research into the probable impact of radiation processing of food products on marketing operations and practices at the wholesale and retail levels. In- dustry representatives are concerned with possible developments and anticipate some repercussions. For example, respondents to a survey of the marketing feasibility of radiation processed fishery products, including producers, wholesalers, and retailers, indicated that the process would completely revolutionize the fresh fish in- 127 dustry, leading to the development of new markets and the expan- sion of old markets. The three major advantages of irradiation of fishery products identified were : expansion of markets, improved quality control, and the tendency to stabilize markets. Many re- spondents also believed there would be an increase in overall consumption. 170 In another study on the economic feasibility of radiation-pasteur. izing of fresh fruits, the majority of respondents (two-thirds in the wholesale and retail segments) thought that the irradiation process would increase the production and market volume of the products covered. The majority did not believe, however, that there would be a significant change in output and sales volume of canned, frozen, or other processed foods. It is interesting to note that approximately one-third of the respondents had no opinion or failed to express one concerning the effect of food irradiation on sales volume. 32 Table 27 (page 131) contains estimates of dollar sales and per- cent of total store sales for selected grocery store products and groups of products in 1963. The broad categories in which radia- tion preservation may be expected to affect marketing operations are fresh meat, fish, poultry, and produce which together account for almost one-third of total store sales. To the extent that radiation sterilized food products gain a place in the domestic market, we can expect to see significant impacts at all levels of distribution ranging from the point of radiation proc- essing to the retail counter. This will result because the sterilized product will have attributes considerably different from the same product preserved by other techniques. Sterilized foods will have much longer shelf-life, require no refrigeration and may be un- cooked, blanched, or cooked. The distribution pattern for radiation sterilized products will be similar to that now employed in the distribution of canned foods and dry groceries. To the extent that such foods may displace either fresh, perishable or frozen products, their distribution will necessitate less refrigerated transportation and storage require- ments and refrigerated retail display cases. In addition, in the case of fresh meat products and produce, there will be a decrease in the refrigerated space utilized in retail cutting and packaging and in related labor requirements. In addition to domestic sales, significant developments in radia- tion sterilization presently foreseeable include military require- ments for troop feeding and sales in foreign markets, especially in developing nations. Military requirements for irradiated foods are 128 not covered in this report, but wil be treated in a separate study. The impact of food irradiation on the development of foreign trade is covered in the following chapter. In the case of radiation pasteurized products resulting changes in marketing activities will tend to be less pronounced than in the case of sterilized products since the attributes of the product will remain substantially unchanged except for possible changes in quality. The benefits anticipated as a result of radiation pasteuri- zation which may be expected to induce changes in the distribution system, appear to rest primarily in the lengthening of shelf-life, market stabilization, and expansion, resulting from longer hauls and extended seasons, and savings resulting from spoilage reduction. It is possible that pasteurized perishable products will channel through fewer and larger shippers as a result of the volume re- quirements essential to economical processing costs. Since most irradiated products will need to be pre-packaged, there could be a significant shift in the packaging function from the retailer to the point of radiation processing. This may well reduce both equip- ment and labor requirements at the retail level, cost savings which should more than offset the absorption of such costs at the processing level. At the retail level, extended shelf -life in some instances may re- duce or facilitate procurement problems, improve inventory con- trol by the elimination of requirements now resulting from the weekly sale cycle and usual week-end carry over and reduce the necessity for distressed sales. Shippers, at the same time, can an- ticipate increased flexibility in the selection of markets with any significant growth in radiation pasteurization. To the extent that radiation proves to be commercially feasible as a means of insect control and the disinfestation of grain, there will be little or no impact on the distribution of resulting flour and bakery products. (See Chapter 5, Part 1 for a discussion or ir- radiated grain products). There will, however, be possible changes in the location of assembly, storage and shipping facilities for grains. Similarly, in the case of radiation processing of potatoes and onions for sprout inhibition, there will be little marketing im- pact beyond the point of application for the effect of market stabi- lization resulting from increased holding periods. There are no indications that radiation preservation of foods will result in any increases in the cost of food distribution, nor in food production or processing costs other than those associated with radiation processing. At the same time, it appears con- 129 elusive that there will be substantial savings in the distribution of irradiated foods. These include primarily savings resulting from a reduction in refrigeration requirements in the case of sterilized products, savings from reductions in spoilage losses in the case of both sterilized and pasteurized products and economies resulting from market stabilization and market expansion. In the absence of experience with radiation costs on a commercial scale, no precise data exist for accurately measuring the cost-benefit relationship for specific products. However, estimates which have been made with assumptions as to the variables involved indicate favorable results. The long term development of food irradiation will de- pend upon the extent to which increased processing costs can be held within the limits of distribution cost reduction and quality increase benefits. Table 26 EMPLOYMENT AND SALES BY WHOLESALERS OF GROCERY AND RELATED PRODUCTS: 1958 Item Establishments* (Number) Sales ($1,000,000) Paid Employees (Number) Product Class Poultry ___ 4,026 1,667 5,132 9,554 9,279 29,658 2,574 747 6,737 6,423 9,498 25,979 30,684 Fish 13,541 Meats .. 57,626 112,320 45,605 Subtotal . 259,776 Other 22,166 32,579 264,272 Total _ 51,824 58,558 524,048 a Includes Merchant Wholesalers, Manufacturer's Sales Branches, Offices, Merchandise Agents, Brokers and Assemblers of Farm Products. Source: Based on data from Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce. 138 130 Table 27-TOTAL U. S. CONSUMPTION AND GROCERY STORE SALES OF GROCERY PRODUCTS: 1963 (Billions of Dollars) U. S. Consumption Purchased in Grocery Stores Product Amount Percent 21.2 .4 12.1 9.2 1.6 1.3 2.8 6.0 1.1 1.0 2.2 1.7 8.8 6.1 2.7 2.8 1.0 .8 1.0 11.8 .4 5.9 4.2 1.0 .7 1.5 4.1 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 5.5 3.2 2.3 2.3 .7 .7 .8 22.0 .7 Fresh Meat 11.0 Beef _ -- 7.7 Pork_ 1.8 Other _.. 1.5 Poultry 2.7 7.6 n.a. Other n.a. 10.1 6.0 4.1 4.1 Meat, Fish, Poultry 1.4 1.3 Vegetables, Fruits, Juices 1.4 32.8 13.5 7.6 33.1 19.6 4.4 4.0 28.0 36.2 8.2 7.4 29.6 Total Foods 87.0 n.a. 43.9 10.0 81.4 Non-Foods and Household Supplies 18.6 Grand Total _ n.a. 53.9 100.0 Source: Food Field Reporter. 49 used by permission. 131 CHAPTER 7 SIGNIFICANCE OF IRRADIATED FOOD IN WORLD TRADE The commercialization of food preservation by radiation will have great significance in world trade, and in contributing to the elimination of protein deficiencies and hunger in many of the developing countries throughout the world. The current magni- tude of this problem, which will rapidly accelerate as a result of tremendous increases in world population now projected, is difficult to comprehend in a country in which food is both plentiful and inexpensive and in which surpluses characterize many types of food production. The latest World Food Budget, with projections through 1970, prepared by the Foreign Regional Analysis Division, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and published in October 1964, described the world's food problem as follows : "Two-thirds of the world's people live in countries with nu- tritionally inadequate national average diets. The diet-deficit areas include all of Asia except Japan and Israel, all but the southern tip of Africa, the northern part of South America, and almost all of Central America and the Caribbean. "The diet of people in these areas averaged 900 calories per day below the level of the one-third of the world living in coun- tries with adequate national average diets in 1959-61, and 300 calories below the average nutritional standard for the diet-deficit areas. The daily consumption of protein was less than two-thirds of the level in the diet-adequate countries; the fat consumption rate was less than one-third." 166 132 It is anticipated that the total world population will increase from approximately 3 billion in 1960 to more than 6 billion in the year 2000. 16 Thus, it will be necessary in a period of 40 years to create an additional world food production capacity equal to that developed from the beginning of the human race up to the year 1960. This is a tremendous challenge and one which might well be crucial. It is also a two-dimensional problem, the solution to which includes both increases in the initial production of food products, and the development of adequate preservation methods to maximize distribution efficiency and consumption. Radiation preservation of food offers great promise in contri- bution to the solution to current and emerging world food prob- lems by adding to the effective food supply through the elimina- tion of losses due to spoilage, infestation, and sprouting. In addition, it will make possible the movement into new areas of foods whose present keeping qualities are too short for distant shipping, and will contribute to public health objectives through reduction in the incidences of food borne diseases. The importance of food as a factor in world trade is indicated by the fact that the total exports of food and feed products in 68 major countries in 1961 amounted to $18 billion out of a total of $105 billion for all products exported. (See table 28). Cereals represent the largest category of food products in world trade, with 1961 exports of cereals (wheat and wheat flour and other grains such as maize, barley, oats, etc.) of the 68 countries reported amounting to $4.4 billion, 24 percent of total food exports. Fruits and vegetables processed and fresh accounted for $2.6 billion or 14 percent ; meat, processed, fresh, and frozen accounted for $1.8 billion, or 10 percent of the value of total food exports. In comparison, fish exports, the value of which amounted to $832 million, represented less than 5 percent of the total. 122 These figures indicate the current magnitude of world food trade and the major categories in which radiation preservation may be expected to play a role. To determine the possible impact of food irradiation on international trade, specific products which are likely candidates for irradiation should be considered. Table 29 lists the value of total world exports and U. S. exports for selected food products with irradiation potentials. In most cases, the values shown are large reflecting the importance of world trade in these products to both the exporting and importing countries. It is anticipated that the impact of food irradiation 133 Table 28 EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF SELECTED FOOD PRODUCTS BY CON- TINENTS: 1961 (Millions IT. S. dollars) Countries All food and feed Selected Food Stuffs Meat Dairy Products &Eggs Fish G rains a Fruit and Vege- tables Total, 68 countres: Exports Imports. _ _ United States: Exports ._ Imports North and Central America (10 countries excluding U.S.): Exports __„ Imports South America (6 countries) : Exports Imports Asia (13 countries) : Exports Imports. _. Africa (14 countries) : Exports Imports Oceania (5 countries): Exports Imports Europe (19 countries): Exports Imports 18,063 20,156 3,611 3,419 1,735 829 2,104 458 1,952 2,206 1,207 536 1,286 203 6,168 12,505 1,811 1,890 148 375 266 11 394 11 911 1,360 1,404 1,264 131 36 31 156 281 4 895 943 832 989 20 338 147 26 188 412 452 4,415 3,656 2,003 59 791 92 217 204 390 894 94 175 337 19 584 2,213 2,557 3,367 406 303 136 266 168 56 338 208 172 42 28 248 466 a Includes all grains. Source: United Nations. 122 134 on foreign trade will be most significant in the case of grain, meats, fruits, poultry, and fish. In addition, significant export markets may also develop for radiation processing facilities and equipment. Grain is produced on seventy-one percent of the world's cropland. The direct consumption of grain and grain products provides 53 percent of man's caloric supply and indirect consump- tion, in the form of meat, milk, eggs, and other livestock products, accounts for a large part of the remaining caloric intake. The per capita availability of grain largely determines the quality of diet. If availabilities are low, virtually all grains must be consumed directly to satisfy man's minimal energy requirements — if high, a substantial portion may be fed to livestock and converted into meat, milk and eggs essential to a nutritionally adequate diet. 16 Grain production in Europe, and in many of the developing regions of the world, including Asia, Africa and Latin America is critically short of domestic requirements necessitating large imports. As populations in these regions continue to increase at an unprecedented rate, their dependence upon surplus grain regions will mount rapidly. The net export and net import grain areas of the world in 1961 as reported by the United Nations are shown in Table 30. It is conclusive that the disparity between the grain surplus and deficit regions of the world will continue to increase as a result of both geographic and economic characteristics and rates of population growth. There can be little question that North America, and especially the United States, is destined to play the leading role in future programs to expand the world's grain supply. 16 Other major regions or countries lack some of the essentials necessary to meet this demand. The Soviet Bloc, including the U.S.S.R. although reasonably well supplied with land areas, capital and technology, and although at one time the major grain producing area, has now become a net importer of grains, resulting in part from political developments. Oceania (primarily Australia and New Zealand) although favorably endowed in the facilities of grain production, does not have the necessary agricultural potential because of limited croplands. Western Europe, with both technology and capital, also lacks adequate croplands. Only North America, and especially the United States, possesses all of the essentials necessary to meet this need, and radiation may become a significant factor in this accomplishment. The United 135 Table 29-VALUE OF TOTAL WORLD EXPORTS OF SELECTED COMMODITIES AND U. S. EXPORTS: 1961 (Millions of Dollars) Product World Exports U.S. Exports Beef, fresh and frozen 547 179 148 184 285 2,665 385 336 87 149 56 2,716 1,024 6 Mutton and lamb, fresh, chilled and frozen . a Pork, fresh, chilled and frozen . 11 Poultry meat . 63 Bacon, ham and salted pork __ . n.a. Wheat 1,114 Wheat Flour 114 Oranges and tangerines (fresh) 39 Other citrus fruits (fresh) _. . 25 Potatoes . 5 Onions 4 Coffee (not roasted) _ 2 Cocoa beans 4 b n.a. — Not available. a Less than one million dollars. b Re-export. Source: United Nations I22 and Bureau of the Census. 142 Table 30-GRAIN TRADE AREAS OF THE WORLD, SURPLUS AND DEFICIT: 1961 (Million metric tons) Areas Bread grains Feed grains Surplus Net Export Areas 30.0 5.2 6.2 10.6 U.S.S.R 1.6 1.4 2.3 Deficit Net Import Areas 17.9 16.4 3.3 2.1 12.9 3.6 n.a. n.a. n.a. — Not available. Source: United Nations. 122 136 States, the world's largest exporter of grains and grain prepara- tions, exports approximately $2 billion of grain and grain prepara- tions abroad annually. Annual wheat and flour exports from the U. S. average about 20 million metric tons, or about 40-45 percent of total world exports. The losses in tonnages and dollar value sustained due to spoilage and insect infestation are large. The consequences of these losses are reflected not only in reduced profits, but also in a poorer diet for the peoples of the deficit grain countries of the world, South America, Europe, Asia and Africa, to which the bulk of such exports are directed. As the food re- quirements of these nations increase from expanding populations under conditions in which their own food production potential is limited, the prevention of food losses in shipment becomes more and more important. Exports are an extremely important part of the billion dollar poultry industry in the U. S. which commands approximately one-half of the world's trade in poultry products. American producers of poultry have a competitive advantage in both costs and quality compared with other countries as a result of both advanced technology and the economies of large scale mass pro- duction. Frozen chicken, broilers and turkeys exported from the U. S., because of their high quality, compare favorably in foreign markets with fresh poultry produced domestically. If the Ameri- can preference of eight to one for fresh chicken in comparison with frozen chicken is taken into account, the foreign market potential for fresh irradiated U. S. poultry could be substantially greater than the current export volume of frozen poultry. This is a significant, yet unproven potential, for food irradiation. In addition to the benefits from increasing U. S. exports the availability of low cost meat proteins to low income consumers throughout the world would provide an additional contribution in solving the world food problem. As a correlative advantage, since poultry feed is composed primarily of grains, there would be an immediate gain to American farmers in the utilization of surplus grain crops. Successful developments in the radiation preservation of marine products will have a direct impact on the well-being of populations in countries in which the diet is deficient in protein, vitamin and mineral content. The extension of shelf-life and shipping distances for fresh fish can increase the available supply and variety of fishery products in both coastal and inland areas. In countries with inadequate refrigeration, only dried, smoked, or canned seafoods are available today. The possibility of providing 137 sterilized fresh-like marine products, without the need for refrigeration, in such areas is highly significant. In the United States, fish, unlike poultry, is a net import of magnitude, with imports amounting to $475 million in 1963, and accounting for approximately one-third of world fishery imports. 168 One hundred and thirteen countries shared in the U. S. import of fishery products, the largest three being respec- tively Canada $116 million, Japan $105 million and Mexico $54 million. While the bulk of the U. S. fish imports are canned, over 30 percent are classified as "fresh or frozen," (predominantly frozen). With imports of this volume, it is probable that the irradiation of marine products will affect the level of imports as well as exports. A number of countries, notably Canada, Germany, the Soviets, and Japan are at present successfully operating factory ships which catch and process fish aboard ship. The addition of on-board ship irradiators in such an operation would result in a rapid and economical means of providing pasteurized packaged fresh fish for direct shipment to importing countries. Although importers of grain and grain products, South Ameri- ca, Asia, and Africa are exporters of fruit. For these countries, the development of an internal radiation capability would serve as a boon in increasing their exports of fruits and other products, in turn increasing their ability to purchase grains and equipment. For example, food exports such as coffee, cocoa and bananas are the basis of much of the Latin American economy. These crops all suffer spoilage losses. The incidence of mold because of high moisture content of coffee might be decreased by irradiation. In addition, there are many fruits which cannot be shipped in international trade because of perishability or quarantine barriers relating to infection or infestation. These could become likely candidates for international trade if successfully irradiated. Spoilage reduction and extension of shelf -life for tropical fruits would also add to the vitamin deficient diets of the native population. In addition to its impact on the movement of food products in international trade, successful commercialization of radiation preservation of food may open up new foreign markets for the radiation equipment industry in the United States. Developments in this respect must be considered on a long-run basis, but are nonetheless significant in any appraisal of the future potentials for food irradiation. A number of developing nations have already indicated that they are interested in facilities for food 138 irradiation. In these countries, food preservation is a much more important consideration than in more developed nations. In the food deficient areas of the world the problem is not alone one of the unproductivity of the land or oceans. It is more apt to be the high perishability of domestic protein and vitamin sources, and the tremendous wastes involved due to lack of adequate processing, storage, transportation, refrigeration and marketing facilities. Both the import of irradiated foods and the irradiation of domestically-produced foods will be a definite step toward solving the food supply problem in many areas of the world and in contributing to an increase in living standards throughout the world. 139 PART 3 LEGAL AND CONSUMER ACCEPTANCE OF IRRADIATED FOOD Two major factors that will have a significant influence on both the rate and extent of commercialization of food irradiation are (1) the interpretation and administration of related Federal, State, and local legislation presently in existence, as well as ad- ditional legislation which may be enacted, and (2) the reaction of consumers to the new process. Developments in each of these fields should be carefully watched by businesses that contemplate future activities in food irradiation. 141 CHAPTER 1 GOVERNMENT REGULATION OF FOOD IRRADIATION Considerations of public health and safety require governmental regulation of all atomic energy activities. This includes the licens- ing of radiation facilities, the regulation of shipments of radation sources and disposal of wastes, and the regulation of working con- ditions and related safety factors within and adjacent to nuclear facilities. In these respects, the regulations applicable to food ir- radiation are similar to those relating to other types of radiation activity. In addition, food irradiation is subject to the govern- mental controls which apply to other methods of food processing and preservation with somewhat more stringent applications to ensure acceptable standards of wholesomeness and the absence of induced radioactivity. Federal and State legislation, agency re- sponsibilities, and general and specific types of regulations and controls applicable to food irradiation are discussed below. The Joint Committee on Atomic Energy of the United States Congress develops the basic legislation which governs both the de- velopmental and regulatory aspects of our national atomic energy program. Extensive hearings are held to develop the information necessary to provide the base for national policy formation. As a means of implementing this policy, the committee recommends to the Congress necesary appropriations and legislation. The Subcommittee on Research, Development, and Radiation has been most intimate with the radiation preservation of food pro- gram in all its many aspects. The subcommittee furnishes encour- agement, guidance, and critiques of the program as circumstances warrant. The commercialization of food irradiation developed over long years of patient and difficult research will represent a monument to the foresight and imagination of those who have served on this Committee. 142 LICENSING AND REGULATION OF FOOD IRRADIATION FACILITIES The use of atomic energy in commercial applications by organi- zations and individuals outside the Federal Government was au- thorized in the Atomic Energy Act of 1954. The Atomic Energy Commission which was established as a civilian agency in 1946 succeeding the Manhattan Distict continues to be charged with the basic responsibility for regulating all atomic energy activity as a means of serving the security of the nation and protecting public health and safety. The production and the utilization of nuclear materials are sub- ject to authorization by the Atomic Energy Commission under general or special license. 148 134 A 1959 amendment to the Act provided for the transfer of au- thority to the states for licensing the use of byproduct materials, source material, and limited quantities of special nuclear mater- ials, through the execution of an agreement between the Commission and the State Governor. The reasonability for the issuance of materials licenses by the Commission is centered in the Commission's Division of Materials Licensing. The responsibility of inspection for compliance with regulations and license conditions is centered in the Division of Compliance. Requirements for obtaining by-product material (radioisotope) licenses may be found in Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Chapter 1, Part 30. Regulations relating to radiological safety are set forth in Chapter 1, Part 20. 148 Regu- lations issued by agreement states are compatible with those of the Commission. The regulations which govern licensing define the types of in- formation to be submitted, criteria for evaluation of applications, and conditions and procedures to be followed, including : 1. The equipment and facilities must be appropriate for protecting health and safety. 2. The licensee and his staff must be qualified to use the material safely. 3. The site or proposed location of the facility must be suitable. 4. Only properly authorized persons may transfer the material or use it and the facility. Regulations aimed at health and safety are concerned with maxi- mum permissible limits of radiation exposure, limitations on waste disposal, requirements for personnel monitoring, instructions of 143 personnel, records and reports, and the use of caution signs, labels, and symbols. At the present time eight States : Arkansas, California, Florida, Kentucky, Mississippi, New York, North Carolina, and Texas have effective agreements with the Commission to regulate the use of radioactive materials. These cover issuing licenses, performing in- spections to determine compliance with state regulations, and taking appropriate enforcement actions as necessary. Approximately 23 additional States have enacted enabling legis- lation for this purpose, and other are expected to follow. Resolu- tions urging such action have been adopted by the Governors' Con- ference, the American Municipal Association, and the National Association of Attorney Generals. Any individual or firm contemplating the establishment of a facility for the commercial irradiation of food should make ap- plication to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, D.C. or to the regulatory authority of an agreement state as ap- propriate. In the case of either the Atomic Energy Commission or an agreement state it is advisable to discuss the matter in detail as early as possible in the planning stage. Information and applica- tion blanks for non-agreement states may be obtained from the Division of Materials Licensing, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, D. C. 20545. For agreement states, requests should be sent to the State Health Department, or in the case of New York, to the Secretary, Committee on Licensing. TRANSPORTATION OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS Because of the safety factors involved in the handling of radio- active materials, special precautions must be exercised in their transportation and in related aspects of packaging, storage and disposal. Responsibilities and activities in this connection are lodged in a number of Federal agencies. Interstate shipments of radioactive materials are subject to the regulations of the Interstate Commerce Commission. These regulations relate to the specification of acceptable shipping con- tainers depending on the types and quantities of material, special labels for the shipping containers and transporting vehicle, and the selection and notification of routes to be followed. The latter may involve both State and local regulations. Under I.C.C. regulations, radioactive materials such as those used in food irradiation are classified as "Class D Poisons, Group 144 I." Not more than 300 curies of cobalt 60 may be packed in one outside container for shipment by rail freight, express or highway without special arrangement with the Bureau of Explosives of the Association of American Railroad which cooperates with the I.C.C. in the investigation of acidents and violations of shipping regulations. Shipments of radioactive materials by air are regulated by the Federal Aviation Agency. Responsibility for shipment by water is divided between the Interstate Commerce Commission and the United States Coast Guard. Shipments by mail are subject to regulations by the U.S. Post Office Department. Further information on this aspect of regulation is available in "A Handbook of Federal Regulations Applying to the Transpora- tion of Radioactive Substances" issued by the Atomic Energy Commission, 130 and a report, "Physical, Biological, and Admini- strative Problems Associated with the Transportation of Radio- active Substances," published by the National Research Council. The answer to specific questions may be obtained by contacting any of the applicable agencies as identified above. LOCAL AND MUNICIPAL ACTIVITIES As State governments become more active in regulation and control in the atomic energy field, so will local and municipal governments. As the uses of atomic energy increase, the interest of those closest to the point of impact, local governments, will increase. The effects of radiation preservation of food will be felt in many areas of local government including health and safety, building and zoning codes, and economic industrial development. Information on State and local government responsibilities and activities relating to atomic energy is contained in a report by the American Municipal Association to the Atomic Energy Com- mission, "The Community Impact of Peaceful Applications of Atomic Energy." 100 The AEC offers training and guidance in these areas and main- tains excellent liaison with interested local and state officials. For additional detailed information write to: State Relations Branch, Division of State and Licensee Relations, U.S. AEC, Washington, D. C. 20545. The Public Health Service, Department of Health, Education and Welfare is also concerned with radiation hazards because of 145 its broad responsibilities in the field of health and safety and cooperates with other agencies in this field including the Atomic Energy Commission. Cooperative programs are maintained with State and local groups to provide technical training, consultations, demonstrations, and in some cases, financial assistance for special projects. Inquiries in this connection should be sent to the Divi- sion of Radiological Health, Public Health Service, H.E.W., Wash- ington, D,C, 20201. 100 LAWS AND REGULATIONS RELATING TO IRRADIATED FOOD In addition to the governmental requirements for the licensing and regulation of irradiation facilities described above, The irra- diation of food products and the irradiated foods also are subject to governmental control. The authority for such controls derives from the same legislation that covers conventional food process- ing and is vested in the same Federal agencies. The four Federal acts which provide the authority for these controls are: 1. The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, administered by the Food and Drug Administration, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 144 2. The Federal Meat Inspection Act, administered by the Meat Inspection Division of the Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 149 3. The Poultry Products Act, administered by the Poultry Division, Agricutural Marketing Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 147 4. The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, administered by the Pesticides Regulation Division, Agri- cultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agricul- ture. 151 The Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act applies to all food products which enter into interstate commerce including those derived from wild animals, fish, and game. The Federal Meat Inspection Act applies only to meats and meat food products derived from cattle, calves, sheep, swine, and goats. The Poultry Products Act applies only to dressed poultry and poultry products. The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act applies to the treatment of foods by chemicals or devices designed to control loss resulting from insects, fungi or rodents as well as other pesticide applications. All irradiated food products in inter- state commerce must conform to the Federal Food, Drug, and 146 Cosmetic Act, and to the specific regulations for irradiated food promulgated thereunder. Once regulations have been established, preclearance for each individual lot or shipment is not required by the law. It is the responsibility of the individual or firm to see that his product complies. In the case of specified meat and poultry products, additional requirements may be applied under the regulations of the Meat Inspection Division or Poultry In- spection Division respectively of the U. S. Department of Agricul- ture. In the case of disinfestation of wheat or sprout inhibition of potatoes or onions additional controls may apply under regula- tions of the Pesticides Regulation Division of the U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture. Business firms contemplating the commercial irradiation of any food product which is not provided for by a food additive regulation should contact the Petitions Control Branch, Food and Drug Administration as early as possible in the planning stage in order to determine the information that will be required. In the case of meat or poultry products early discussions with rep- resentatives of the Meat Inspection Division, or Poultry Inspec- tion Division, U.S. Department of Agriculture would also be advisable. Clearance requirements for irradiated foods by these agencies are discussed in the following pages. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act The Food Additives Amendment of 1958 to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act provides for the establishment of regula- tions setting forth the considerations under which a food additive may be safely used in food or in connection with food as a result of processing, packaging, transporting, or holding the food (Sec- tion 201 (s) ). This amendment also stipulates (Section 402 (a) 7) that "A food shall be deemed to be adulterated ... if it has been intentionally subjected to radiation, unless the use of the radiation was in conformity with a regulation or exemption in effect pur- suant to Section 409. . . ." Section 409 of the Act spells out the conditions under which food additives may be safely used. Thus far regulations have been issued by the Food and Drug Administration approving the use of gamma radiation in irradiat- ing bacon, wheat and wheat products, and potatoes, and for the use of electrons in irradiating bacon. 145 146 In each case, the regulations specify the source of radiation, permissible dosage limits, and in the case of bacon, the type of container. It is important to note that regulations of this type 147 do not provide just for products or processes as such, but rather for specified treatments for particular purposes for individual foods. Each food additive petition must provide evidence that the proposed use of the particular radiation is safe and efficacious. The following conclusions must be reached before such a regu- lation can be issued: 1. The use provided for is safe 2. Irradiation is not conducted at higher levels than reasonably needed 3. The use will not lead to deception or a violation of any other section of the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act To assure safety it is necessary, among other things, to establish that : 1. There is no induced radiation produced 2. There is no significant reduction of nutrient factors com- monly associated with the food irradiated 3. The irradiated food has not been made toxic Furthermore, it should be established that: 1. The effect desired is accomplished 2. The process is safe and efficacious on a commercial scale under reasonably stimulated commercial conditions. This should include data to establish: a. There are no adverse significant deleterious effects in the flavor, odor, texture, or appearance of the product b. The product is free from any hazards which might arise from alterations of the microbiological flora, etc. The last item is indicative of the knowledge that radiation may kill one kind of bacteria and yet be ineffective against another in or on the same food, thus making it possible that another, previously inhibited and perhaps more toxic strain of bacteria may grow. Freedom from this hazard for irradiated products may be demonstrated by the use of inoculated pack studies. These consist in inoculating samples of food with known dosages of various types of pathogenic and toxic forming bacteria, (utilizing known radiation resistant strains) irradiating the sample, and after a suitable amount of time, evaluating the results. Proper design and implementation of such experiments require considerable expertness, but are necessary to the safety of the consumer. They are also indicative of the great pains that re- search groups and regulatory agencies take to ensure safety. A regulation may require a permanent record of absorbed radiation dosage in order that FDA can determine that the com- modities, such as canned bacon, have received the necessary dose 148 for adequate processing. This may require the use of phantoms containing dosimeters. A phantom is a device identical in shape and density to the food product irradiated which will contain dosimeters of various types which record the amount of absorbed radiation. The records of such tests must be retained for one year. Certain commodities, such as bulk wheat, are not suited to the use of phantoms. For these it may be necessary to assess the geometry of the radiation source, the rate of flow of the com- modity passing the source, the area, the exposed thickness of the material, and the controls and safeguards that maintain the proper relations of all these factors. This data may be necessary to obtain an exact record of absorbed dosage. The establishment of labeling requirements is provided for in the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act and the regulations under which it is administered. No specific labeling requirements have been included in the regulations issued thus far by FDA approv- ing the irradiation of bacon, wheat and wheat products, and potatoes. Whether or not labeling requirements will be estab- lished for the identification of irradiated foods is still under con- sideration. (See below regarding labeling requirements under the Federal Meat Inspection Act. Regulations governing radiation of processing foods under pro- visions of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act are set forth in the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Chapter 1, Sub- chapter B, Subpart A. "Food Additives." Federal Meat Inspection Act Authority for Federal inspection of meat and meat products was established, "for the purpose of preventing the use in inter- state or foreign commerce ... of meat and meat food products which are unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food. . . ." The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act specifically exempts meat and meat food products from coverage by the Act insofar as they are covered by the Meat Inspection Act. The Federal Meat Inspection Act applies to cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, and the edible products derived from them in inter- state and foreign commerce. The responsibility of the Meat In- spection Division covers the entire production of a plant ship- ping in interstate or foreign commerce, regardless of the propor- tion of production so shipped. 149 Federal meat inspection begins with approval of plant construc- tion and equipment. Before a new plant is constructed or an existing plant remodeled, the plans must be examined and ap- proved. The actual inspection work extends from the live ani- mals in holding pens and continues with a thorough examination of each carcass to the finished product. Each stage of processing is supervised by Federal inspectors under the direction of veterinarians. The meat food product, ingredients thereof including additives, as well as all materials used in the establishment where the meat food product is pro- duced are subjected to laboratory examination. Only labels which have been approved may be used and continuing inspection con- firms their accuracy. Whether radiation processing of meat is considered an additive, a process, or called by some other name, is immaterial to the Meat Inspection Division. If applied in a plant shipping in inter- state or foreign commerce, it becomes their responsibility, and as such, it must be approved before use. The first step required in securing MID clearance for the irra- diation of meat or meat food products is the submission of a written proposal for the product in question. For evaluation of the proposal MID requires data sufficient to cover the following major points : 1. Toxicity 2. Microbiology 3. Wholesomeness 4. Nutrition 5. Control of the process 6. Labeling 7. Benefits In weighing the criteria for approval of radiation processing of meats, MID attaches great importance to the effect of radia- tion on nutrients. Their position is that a product must be evalu- ated as to its relative importance in public diet in conjunction with the comparative effect of radiation processing vs. other forms of processing, on vitamins and other nutrients. If, in MID's judgment, the effect would tend to deprive a segment of our population of nutritional values they would ordinarily need and receive from the non-irradiated product, the process of irra- diation of the meat or meat food product will not be permitted. If, after weighing all the factors for any product, MID renders a favorable decision on the process, the regulations would be amended to permit treatment with ionizing radiation. After the 150 regulations are amended, the applicant must continue to demon- strate to MID that he is equipped to control and process the item properly. The amount of time necessary for a proposal to be approved by MID will vary greatly. After the decision to approve is made, the amendment to the regulation probably could not be made effective in less than 90 days. The time interval before the ap- proved procedure could be put into effect would depend upon the time required to install necessary equipment and satisfy all criteria mentioned above. Regulations governing the inspection of meat and meat products are contained in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9, Chapter 1, Subchapter A. The first action taken by the Department of Agriculture under authority of the Meat Inspection Act, specifically relating to irradiated meat products, was the publication in the Federal Register of November 26, 1964, of proposed regulations for irra- diated bacon. The proposed regulations include spesifications of source, (Cobalt 60 or Cesium 137) packaging and labeling require- ments, and provisions for measuring and recording the absorbed dose. The labeling requirement in this proposed regulation would require. . . . "When product is treated with ionizing radiation, a term approved by the Director such as 'Processed by Ionizing Radiation' shall appear on the main display panel in conjunction with the product designation." Final regulations under the Meat Inspection Act relating to irradiated bacon will not be determined until consideration has been given to the views expressed as a result of publication of the proposals. Poultry Products Inspection Act This Act provides for compulsory inspection of poultry and poultry products in interstate commerce and certain designated major consuming areas. It is administered by the Poultry Divi- sion, Agricultural Marketing Service, U. S. Department of Agri- culture. Before a poultry plant approved for interstate shipment is constructed or altered, the design must be submitted to the Poulty Division for approval. Requirements under this Act do not supersede, but are in addition to those contained in the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act. In the case of irradiated chicken or other poultry, before ap- proval can be granted, each specific proposal with its evidence of safety and efficacy will be considered on its own merits. The basic requirements in each case are that the process pro- 151 duces a wholesome product which is physically, chemically, and microbiologically sound, is free from adulteration, and is properly labeled. The equipment, facilities and operations that will be used must be in accordance with the regulations, and must be located, in- stalled, and supervised in such a manner that operating personnel and other plant personnel are fully protected at all times. In addition to these requirements, the Poultry Division must be satisfied that the product is: sound from the standpoint of quality, which will include flavor, odor, appearance, and texture; and free from toxic substances and any microbiological hazards which might arise from alterations in the ecology of the micro- flora. The Poultry Division is prepared to handle requests for ap- proval of radiation processed poultry after FDA approval as rapidly as is consistent with the studies necessary for reaching a sound decision. If irradiated poultry is to be processed for intrastate distribu- tion only, the responsibility of the process and the product will rest with appropriate State authorities. However, it is likely the State authorities will require assistance from the Poultry Divi- sion in reaching a decision in the case of irradiated chicken. No decision has been reached concerning special labeling require- ments for commercially irradiated poultry in connection with approvals under the Poultry Products Inspection Act. Regulations governing the inspection of poultry products are contained in the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 7, Chap- ter 1, Part 81. Specific sections of the regulation applicable to the installation of radiation equipment for the preservation of chicken include the following. 147 185 "The Administrator is authorized to waive for limited periods any particular provisions of the regulations to permit experi- mentation so that new procedures, equipment and processing techniques may be tested to facilitate definite improvements." Section 81.3 All poultry and poultry products must be "inspected, handled, prepared, marked and labeled," as required by the regulations. Section 81.7 Equipment used for radiation of poultry products must be shown on the floor plan of the official plant. The regulations further require under (e) "When changes are proposed in areas for which drawings have been previously approved, one of the following types of revised drawings shall be submitted for re- view and consideration." (Details specified) Section 81.14 (b) (e) Provision is made for suspension of plant approval and with- 152 drawal of service if "alterations of buildings, facilities, or equip- ment have not been approved in accordance with the regula- tions." Section 81.25 "Equipment used for preparing, processing, or otherwise han- dling any product in the plant shall be suitable for the purpose intended and shall be of such material and construction as will facilitate their thorough cleaning and insure cleanliness in the preparation and handling of products." Section 81.41 "Operations and procedures involving the preparation, storing, or handling of any product shall be strictly in accord with clean and sanitary methods, and shall be conducted in such a manner as will result in sanitary processing, proper inspection, and the production of wholesome poultry and poultry products." Sec- tion 81.49 Each label approved for use for poultry products shall bear the common or usual name of the poultry product, a statement of ingredients if fabricated from two or more ingedients, and shall not bear any statement that is false or misleading. Section 81.130 "Poultry products which have been treated with compounds to retard spoilage shall be labeled to indicate such treatment." 147 Section 81.131 (b) (3) In accordance with this section, the Poultry Division anticipates irradiated poultry will require labeling to that effect. 185 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act This Act established authority for control in interstate com- merce under regulations issued by the Secretary of Agriculture of pesticides in the preservation of foods. Provisions of these regulations may extend to the use of irradiation in the disinfesta- tion of wheat or wheat products, or the inhibition of sprouting in potatoes or onions, or similar applications. (Code of Federal Regulations Title 7, Chapter 3, Part 362). 151 Section 2 includes the following definitions: 1. The term "economic poison" means any substance or mix- ture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any insects, rodents, nematodes, fungi, weeds, and other forms of plant or animal life or viruses, except viruses on or in living man or other animals, which the Secretary shall de- clare to be a pest. 2. The term "device" means any instrument or contrivance intended for trapping, destroying, repelling, or mitigating insects or rodents or destroying, repelling, or mitigating fungi, nematodes or such other pests as may be designated by the Secretary, but 153 not including equipment used for the application of economic poisons when sold separately therefrom. 3. The term "insect" means any of the numerous small inver- tebrate animals generally having the body more or less obviously segmented, for the most part belonging to the class insecta, comprising six-legged, usually winged forms, as, for example, beetles, bugs, bees, flies, and to other allied classes of anthropods whose members are wingless and usually have more than six legs, as, for example, spiders, mites, ticks, centipeds, and wood lice. The Pesticides Regulation Division of the U.S. Department of Agriculture has not as yet by administrative decision interpreted "radiation" as a pesticide or economic poison, nor equipment to produce radiation as "devices," under these regulations. However, it is anticipated that such an interpretation would result in the event that abuses should develop in claims relating to the effec- tiveness of irradiation ill the control of insects or regulation of plant growth. 177 154 CHAPTER 2 CONSUMER REACTION AND ACCEPTANCE Irrespective of ultimate achievements in the technology of food irradiation, of considerations of economic feasibility, or of the rate of official clearances, the extent of commercialization will be largely determined by consumer reaction and acceptance. This is true of every new process or product. Consumer reactions and acceptability for any product are difficult to measure. This is especially true in the case of food products. Most individuals are aware of their need for a nutritious diet, whether consciously or subconsciously, and adjust their food procurement and eating habits accordingly. However, the final choices in the selection of food items by most consumers are usually dominated by other considerations. Generally, individuals select food products on the basis of quality, service, convenience, and price. But individual "likes" and "dislikes'' are also major factors. Some preferences are based on national, regional or family tradition ; some on religious or ethnical grounds ; and some on psychological associations. In addition, there are the individual patterns of sensory perception to the variants of ap- pearance, flavor, odor, and taste. Obviously, a new method of processing food cannot be rejected "because it changes the character of a natural food, otherwise we should never have had bacon, canned peaches, or even cooked food." 42 There is, however, an additional unknown in the evaluation of consumer reaction and acceptance of irradiated foods. This is the effect of the psychological reaction which may exist as a result of the association of the dangers of radioactive fall-out with this new process of food preservation. There has been a great deal 155 of speculation concerning the extent to which the well-publicized dangers of radioactive fall-out may deter the acceptance of a food product subjected to radiation, notwithstanding official pronouncements of safety and wholesomeness by governmental agencies. To date, there have been no comprehensive nor direct efforts to measure consumer attitudes in this respect, but several limited studies are of interest. The importance of this aspect of food irradiation was high- lighted by the results of a study of the marketing feasibility of radiation processed fishery products, conducted by the Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries in I960. 170 In this survey the two most frequently mentioned disadvantages of the process were (1) consumer resistance and (2) expensive educational programs. However, advantages cited outnumbered disadvantages. In the evaluation of this view of potential consumer reaction, it should be noted that respondents included distributors, whole- salers, retailers, food editors, home economists, extension agents, restauranteurs, and others who work with consumers on a day- to-day basis and should be in a position to reflect probable consumer reaction. The same view of the importance of consumer reaction and acceptance was reflected in a study of the economic feasibility of radiation processing of selected fruit products, conducted by the U. S. Department of Agriculture in 1963. 32 In this study a high percentage of respondents stated that successful market introduc- tion of radiation-pasteurized fruits and vegetables would depend on an effective educational or promotional program. The im- portance of consumer acceptability was also recognized in a study outlining projects necessary to determine the feasibility of radiation preservation of marine products conducted by the Department of Food Technology at MIT. The study included consumer acceptability as one of six areas of research in which proposed projects should be undertaken. 80 Consumer reaction to products involving any possibility of health hazards is highly unpredictable and variable. Recent experience in connection with the introduction of fluorine into community water systems as a means of contributing to a re- duction in tooth decay, the recent experience in connection with insecticide contamination of some packs of cranberries, and other instances in highly restricted cases of food poisoning of fish and egg products are indicative of consumer concern and reaction to 156 possible hazards in food consumption. In contrast, the unpre- dictability of consumer reaction to health hazards, irrespective of governmental pronouncement, was well illustrated by the reaction of cigarette smokers subsequent to the report of the Advisory Committee to the Surgeon General on Smoking and Health. It is also interesting to note that in the 1961-62 season Canadian potato experiment (See Part I, Chapter 8) approximately 400 tons of potatoes were irradiated and sold to Canadian consumers in the form of table stock, chips, frozen french fries, instant mashed potatoes and fresh pre-peeled boilers. Although legislation did not require the irradiated potatoes to be labelled as such, some shipments were followed to destina- tion to ascertain the acceptability by purchasers. The reports indicated that the irradiated potatoes were found quite acceptable and were considered to be better than potatoes usually offered for sale late in the season. No complaints of any kind regarding the acceptability of the irradiated potatoes were received or reported. This experience, while meaningful, is, however, of limited value in appraising consumer reaction since the irradiated potatoes were not identified for all purchasers or potential purchasers. In the absence of a comprehensive study of consumer attitudes concerning the acceptability of irradiated food products, it must be assumed that this problem remains an unknown quantity in measuring the potential for successful commercialization. It is equally certain that individual business firms will not risk investment nor undertake operations in the absence of some assurance of successful consumer acceptance. Consequently, the measurement of consumer reaction and acceptance, and the development of related consumer educational programs must be considered an essential requirement for successful commercialization of this new technology. Offsetting the possibility of negative consumer reaction and acceptance of irradiated food products are many factors which tend toward a favorable reaction and positive acceptance. The variety of food products is increasing rapidly and shows no prospect of limitation. It would thus appear likely that food irradiation, to the extent that it contributes to improved quality, convenience, variety or satisfaction, will be welcomed by Ameri- can consumers provided unfounded apprehensions are dispelled through effective educational and promotional means. For example, the tomato, long thought to be poisonous, is now a universal item in the American diet. 157 American consumers will always be interested in new or better food products, food innovations, product modifications, conveni- ences, and quality improvements. Food irradiation offers many possibilities in this direction. Most important of all is a reduction in causes of food deterioration or spoilage. In addition, however, are many other potential benefits such as increasing the rising characteristics of flour, reducing the pungency of onions, shorten- ing coffee roasting time, speeding up the rehydration of dehy- drated foods, aging wines, tenderizing meats, maintaining the freshness of fruits and vegetables, providing new and more convenient foods such as heat-and-serve steakes, chops and roasts, and adding to our diet tropical fruits and nuts and other products previously unavailable in this country. (See Part I, Chapter 7). Consumer reaction and acceptance will be a major factor in the commercialization of radiation preservation of food. It is a subject which should receive careful attention and study by governmental agencies concerned with the program, as well as commercial firms that anticipate future benefits from participation in this activity. 158 REFERENCES 1. Aebersold, Paul C, "Nuclear Energy — Developments in Use of By-Product Material." Insurance Council Journal. 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