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 U.S.A. 
 
 ■ 
 
 UJNR 
 
 U.S. /Japan 
 
 Cooperative 
 
 Program 
 
 in 
 
 Natural 
 
 Resources 
 
 13TH MEETING U.S.-JAPAN 
 MARINE FACILITIES PANEL 
 
 NOVEMBER 1985 
 CONFERENCE RECORD 
 
 
 
 
 
,^aste 
 
 'WENT OF 
 
 Thirteenth Meeting 
 
 of the 
 
 United States-Japan Cooperative Program 
 
 in Natural Resources (UJNR) 
 
 Panel on 
 
 Marine Facilities 
 
 March 1985 
 
 November 1985 
 
 U. S. Dei >ry Copy 
 
IN MEMORIAM 
 
 Dr. Peter W. Anderson 
 
 Panel Member 1978-1984 
 Chief, Marine and Wetlands 
 Protection Branch, 
 Environmental 
 
 Protection Agency 
 Major contributions dealing 
 
 with protection of the 
 
 marine environment 
 
 Mr. Phillip Eisenberg 
 
 Panel Adviser 1980-1984 
 Founder and Chairman of the 
 Board HYDRONAUTICS INC. 
 Major contributions in naval 
 architecture and marine 
 engineering 
 Past President of the 
 Society of Naval 
 Architects and Marine 
 Engineers, and the Marine 
 Technology Society 
 
 Participant 1982 & 1983 
 
 Meetings 
 Office Manager, Engineering 
 
 Service Associates 
 Personal contributions in 
 
 support of UJNR/MFP social 
 
 activities 
 
 Mrs. Richard M. Shamp 
 
 This conference record is dedicated in remembrance of 
 their contributions and participation in Marine 
 Facilities Panel activities of the U.S. - Japan 
 Cooperative Program in Natural Resources. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This document contains technical papers and special reports 
 presented at the 13th annual meeting of the Marine Facilities 
 Panel of the United States - Japan Cooperative program in Natural 
 Resources (UJNR) , held March 14-15, 1985 in Tokyo, Japan. 
 Following two days of presentations of technical papers and 
 discussion, the Panel toured marine facilities from March 16-28, 
 1985. A final meeting of the joint panels was held March 26 at 
 the Ship Research Institute in Mitaka, Tokyo, Japan. A complete 
 schedule and summaries of the meetings and tour are provided 
 herein. 
 
 The purpose of this document is to provide a permanent record, 
 and to enable a wider dissemination of the technical information 
 presented and exchanged at the meeting. 
 
 The United States-Japan Cooperative Program in Natural Resources 
 was established in 1964 to facilitate cooperative efforts and 
 technology exchange in the field of natural resources that would 
 provide a better environment for present and future 
 generations. Seven of the seventeen UJNR panels deal with marine 
 science and technology and are a part of the Marine Resources and 
 Engineering Coordination Committee (MRECC) of UJNR. 
 
 Participating governmental agencies in Japan are: the Science 
 and Technology Agency; Ministry of Foreign Affairs; Environmental 
 Agency; Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries; 
 Ministry of International Trade and Industry; Ministry of 
 Transport; Ministry of Construction; and Japan Marine Science and 
 Technology Center. 
 
 Participation of governmental agencies in the United States 
 include: the Department of Agriculture, Department of Commerce, 
 Department of Energy, Department of Interior, Department of 
 Transportation, Department of State, Department of Defense, and 
 Environmental Protection Agency. The Marine Facilities Panel 
 meeting enabled valuable exchanges of technical information 
 between key representatives of the ocean community from Japan and 
 the United States. 
 
 Special recognition is given to Mr. Gerard F. Helfrich, Counselor 
 for Scientific and Technological Affairs, U.S. Embassy, Tokyo, 
 for his valuable advisory assistance and introductory remarks; 
 Mr. Makoto Utsonomiya, Japan Chairman, UJNR Marine Resources 
 Engineering Coordinating Committee for his introductory remarks; 
 and to Mr. John A. Pritzlaff and Ms. Joyce Flipse Smith, who 
 provided the photographs used in this conference record. 
 
 Morton Smutz, 
 Editor 
 
 li 
 
Participants at Sasakawa Hall 
 
 Mr. Joseph R. Vadus, Chairman, U.S. Panel 
 Dr. Hitoshi Nagasawa, Chairman, Japan Panel 
 
 111 
 
OPENING REMARKS 
 
 Dr. Hitoshi Nagasawa 
 Chairman, Japan Panel 
 
 It is a great honor and privilege for me, on behalf of 
 the Japan Panel, to express our heartfelt welcome to 
 Mr. Joseph Vadus, Chairman of the U.S. Panel and to 
 each of the members advisers of the U.S. Panel at the 
 opening of the 13th Japan and U.S. Joint Meeting of the 
 UJNR Marine Facilities Panel. 
 
 In opening the meeting, I also would like to express my 
 deep appreciation for the guidance and cooperation from 
 the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of 
 the U.S.A., Science and Technology Agency of Japan, and 
 the other related agencies. 
 
 It has been fifteen years since the inauguration of the 
 first Japan and U.S. Joint Meeting in March 1970, and 
 thirteen meetings have been conducted to date. Japan 
 and U.S. panels have cooperated on mutual exchange of 
 information between the two countries and the 
 development of technology in relation to natural 
 resources, and I believe that the Marine Facilities 
 Panel is one of the most active panels under UJNR. 
 
 At this 13th Meeting, about 50 papers have been 
 submitted, which I am sure, will contribute greatly 
 toward significant discussions between the two 
 countries on the development of marine facilities. 
 Through this meeting we hope that we will further 
 promote mutual exchange between the two countries and 
 also contribute to the development of natural resources 
 of the two countries. 
 
 I am saddened to report to you that Mr. Phillip 
 Eisenberg who has been so active as an adviser on the 
 U.S. Panel passed away last December, and also Dr. 
 Peter Anderson who was a member of the U.S. Panel and 
 presented papers at meetings in Japan and the U.S.A. 
 has passed away since our last meeting. Two years ago, 
 the 12th Japan and U.S. Joint Meeting was conducted in 
 the U.S., and I would like to express our thanks to 
 Chairman Mr. Vadus and all of the members and advisers 
 of the U.S . Panel. 
 
 In this meeting, field trips to visit several marine 
 facilities in Kyushu and the Science EXPO '85 have been 
 scheduled following the plenary session. Normally at 
 the end of March there is still much snow piled up in 
 the northern part of Japan and this is the start of 
 Spring in Kyushu and cherry blossoms are expected. I 
 hope that every member of the U.S. Panel will enjoy the 
 field trip to the southern part of Japan. 
 
 IV 
 
Joseph R. Vadus 
 Chairman, United States Panel 
 
 Distinguished members and advisers of the UJNR Marine Facilities 
 Panel, on behalf of the U.S. Panel, it is my pleasure to extend our 
 warmest greetings and best wishes to Dr. Hitoshi Nagasawa, Chairman of 
 the Japan Panel, and to each of the members and advisers of the Japan 
 Panel. We are pleased to be participating with you in this 13th joint 
 meeting in Tokyo, one of the truly great cities of the world, and we 
 are delighted for this reunion with our many friends from past 
 meetings and having this opportunity to make some new friends. 
 
 I would like to express our appreciation to Chairman Nagasawa and the 
 Japan Panel for planning and organizing an excellent technical program 
 and study tour of marine facilities. We are very impressed with your 
 planning and coordination skills and appreciate your fine hospitality. 
 
 I am saddened to report to you that two of our members have Passed 
 away since our last meeting. Mr. Phillip Eisenberg and Dr. Peter W. 
 Anderson. Mr. Eisenberg was an adviser to our panel for over 5 years 
 and participated in several meetings. He was founder and chairman of 
 HYDRONAUTICS, Inc., and was internationally known for achievements in 
 naval architecture and marine engineering, especially in the field of 
 hydrodynamics. He was past president of the Society of Naval 
 Architects and Marine Engineers and the Marine Technology Society. 
 Dr. Anderson was a member of our panel for over 7 years and presented 
 papers at meetings in Japan and the U.S. He was Chief of the Marine 
 and Wetlands Protection Branch of the U.S. Environmental Protection 
 Agency and was very effective in exchanging information dealing with 
 disposal and management of wastes in the oceans. We are grateful for 
 their friendship, many contributions, and dedicated service to our 
 panel. In their honor and memory, let us share in a moment of 
 silence. 
 
 The U.S. Panel has appreciated the cooperation, technical ability, and 
 cordiality of the Japan Panel. We find the meetings and facilities 
 tours to be very informative and valuable in providing an equitable 
 technology exchange with mutual benefits and advantages in development 
 of the oceans and their resources. The need for marine facilities in 
 Japan and the U.S. continues to expand in scope and intensity, and the 
 Panels have responded to this challenge, with excellent support from 
 the marine technical community. 
 
 I was pleased to note that the proceedings of our 12th meeting in the 
 U.S. were printed in Japanese and English. In order to improve our 
 technical exchange, we have distributed pre-prints of the U.S. and 
 Japan papers before this meeting to enable more effective discussion 
 of the topics presented. 
 
 We are seeking opportunities for more cooperative efforts between the 
 two panels, especially in development of joint projects and ventures 
 in government and industry. This meeting and facilities tour will 
 provide an opportunity to engage in discussions leading to closer 
 cooperation. We sincerely hope that both panels will find this 13th 
 meeting and marine facilities tour mutually beneficial and successful. 
 
PARTICIPANTS 
 
 Japan 
 
 Members 
 
 Dr. Hitoshi Nagasawa, Chrmn 
 
 Mr. Tadanori Asada 
 
 Mr. Yoshihito Chikunuki 
 
 Dr. Susumi Fujimatsu 
 
 Dr. Yoshimi Goda 
 
 Mr. Takao Hirota 
 
 Dr. Hayato Iida 
 
 Mr. Hajime Inoue 
 
 Mr. Kiyoshi Katagiri 
 
 Mr. Eifu Kataoka 
 
 Mr. Hirotaka Kawamoto 
 
 Dr. Tomohiko Ohno 
 
 Dr. Kazuo Sugai 
 
 Dr. Hajime Takahashi 
 
 Dr. Yoshifumi Takaishi 
 
 Mr. Norio Tanaka 
 
 Mr. Tadashi Tanimoto 
 
 Mr. Shigeo Toyoda 
 
 Dr. Hajime Tsuchida 
 
 Mr . Yasuo Ueta 
 
 Mr. Yasuyuki Yamakoshi 
 
 Mr. Akira Yamazaki 
 
 Mr. Kouichi Yokoyama 
 
 Mr. Kousei Watanabe 
 
 Mr. Takashi Yamamoto 
 
 Advisers 
 
 Mr. Hisashi Ando 
 Dr. Noritaka Ando 
 
 Mr. Hiroyasu Haga 
 
 Dr. Noboru Hamada 
 
 Mr. Kenichi Hirabayashi 
 
 Mr. Shouzou Hirano 
 
 Mr. Yasuo Hisada 
 
 Mr. Harumi Matsuda 
 Prof. Seizo Motora 
 
 Mr. Ikuo Mutoh 
 
 Mr. Yukihiro Narita 
 
 Dr. Kenji Okamura 
 
 Mr. Masao Ono 
 
 Mr. Masanao Oshima 
 
 Mr. Muneharu Saeki 
 
 Organizations 
 
 Ship Research Institute 
 Ministry of Transport 
 Maritime Safety Agency 
 Ministry of Construction 
 Ministry of Transport 
 Ministry of Transport 
 Meteorological Agency 
 Ministry of Transport 
 Meteorological Agency 
 Ministry of Transport 
 
 Ministry 
 Ministry 
 Ministry 
 Ministry 
 Ministry 
 Ministry 
 Ministry 
 Ministry 
 Ministry 
 Ministry 
 Ministry 
 Maritime 
 Ministry 
 Ministry 
 Ministry 
 
 of Intl Trade and 
 of Intl Trade and 
 of Transport 
 of Transport 
 of Transport 
 of Transport 
 of Construction 
 of Transport 
 of Transport 
 of Transport 
 of Agriculture 
 Safety Agency 
 of Construction 
 of Transport 
 of Transport 
 
 Ind 
 Ind 
 
 JAMS TEC 
 
 Shipbuilding Research Centre of 
 
 Japan 
 
 Shipbuilding Research Association 
 
 of Japan 
 
 JAMDA 
 
 Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Ltd. 
 
 Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Ind. , 
 
 Ltd. 
 
 Nippon Steel Corporation 
 
 Hitachi Zosen Corporation 
 
 Nagasaki Inst of Applied Science 
 
 Mitsui Ocean Dev & Eng Co. Ltd. 
 
 JAMDA 
 
 Ryowa Ocean Development Co. Ltd. 
 
 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. 
 
 Mitsui Eng and Shipbuilding Co. 
 
 Ltd. 
 
 JAMS TEC 
 
 VI 
 
Dr. Naonosuke Takarada 
 
 Mr. Masatoshi Takeuchi 
 
 Dr. Sinkichi Tashiro 
 
 Mr. Hiroshi Watanabe 
 
 Sumitomo Heavy 
 
 JAMSTEC 
 
 Nippon Kaiji Kyoukai 
 
 Nippon Kokan K. K. 
 
 Industries Co. Ltd 
 
 Observers 
 
 Mr. Hirofumi Satake 
 
 Mr. Nobukazu Takahashi 
 
 Mr. Hiroshi Tani 
 
 Mr. Makoto Utsunomiya 
 
 Science and 
 Ministry of 
 Ministry of 
 Science and 
 
 Technology Agency 
 Transport 
 Transport 
 Technology Agency 
 
 Japanese Speakers Other than Members 
 
 Dr. Hiroyuki Adachi 
 Mr. Shinji Hashiguchi 
 Dr. Mutsuo Hattori 
 Dr. Masayoshi Hirano 
 Mr. Natsuo Inagaki 
 Dr. Reisaku Inoue 
 Mr. Shinichi Ishii 
 Mr. Nobuo Ito 
 Mr. Masaki Kitazume 
 Mr. Nobuo Nagatomi 
 
 Mr. Shinichi Takagawa 
 Mr. Shigeo Takahashi 
 Dr. Masaaki Terashi 
 Mr. Shinichi Tomita 
 Mr. Toshihiro Watanabe 
 
 Ministry of Transport 
 
 Hitachi Zosen Corporation 
 
 JAMSTEC 
 
 Mitsui Eng and Shipbuilding Co. Ltd 
 
 JAMSTEC 
 
 Ministry of Transport 
 
 JAMSTEC 
 
 JAMSTEC 
 
 Ministry of Transport 
 
 Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Ind. Co. 
 
 Ltd. 
 
 JAMSTEC 
 
 Ministry of Transport 
 
 Ministry of Transport 
 
 Kawasaki Heavy Industries Ltd. 
 
 Nippon Kokan K. K. 
 
 Meeting at Sasakawa Hall 
 
 VII 
 
United States 
 Members 
 
 Mr. Joseph R. Vadus, 
 
 Mr. John Freund 
 
 Mr. J. D. Hightower 
 
 Mr. Richard B. Krahl 
 
 Dr. Kilho Park 
 
 Dr . Alan Powell 
 
 Dr. Reuben Schlegelmilch 
 
 Dr. Morton Smutz 
 
 Chrmn National Oceanic & Atmos Admin 
 US Navy 
 US Navy 
 
 Department of Interior 
 National Oceanic & Atmos Admin 
 US Navy 
 
 US Coast Guard 
 National Oceanic & Atmos Admin 
 
 Advisers 
 
 Prof. John E. Flipse 
 
 Mr. Ronald Geer 
 
 Mr. Clifford E. McLain 
 
 Mr. Kurt Merl 
 
 Mr. John A. Pritzlaff 
 
 Dr. Richard J. Seymour 
 
 Mr. James G. Wenzel 
 
 Texas A&M University 
 
 Shell Oil Co. 
 
 Systems Planning Corporation 
 
 Sperry Corporation 
 
 Westinghouse Electric Corporation 
 
 Scripps Inst, of Oceanography 
 
 Marine Development Associates 
 
 Speaker 
 
 Mr. Robert Rupp 
 
 Sperry Corporation 
 
 Group on Study Tour 
 
 vm 
 
ITINERARY 
 
 Date 
 
 Local Time 
 
 Mar 12 
 
 
 Mar 13 
 
 0900-1200 
 
 Mar 14 
 
 0900 
 
 
 1000-1030 
 
 Mar 15 
 
 Mar 16 
 
 Mar 17 
 Mar 18 
 
 1700 
 
 1800-2000 
 
 0900 
 
 1400-1430 
 
 1700 
 1800-2000 
 
 0800 
 1055 
 1300-1500 
 
 1800 
 
 0830-1300 
 
 Event 
 
 U.S. Panel arrives in Tokyo 
 
 Meeting of U.S. Panel, New 
 Sanno Hotel 
 
 Opening of 13th Meeting of U.S. 
 - Japan Panels, Sasakawa Hall, 
 Tokyo 
 
 Presentation of UJNR awards to 
 Dr. N. Hamada and Dr. H. 
 Nagasawa and Marine Technology 
 Society Award to JAMSTEC 
 (received by Mr. M. Saeki) 
 
 Conclusion of first day's 
 session 
 
 Japan Reception, Sasakawa Hall 
 
 Meeting continued, second day 
 
 Meeting with Mr. R. Sasakawa. 
 Presentation of UJNR award to 
 Mr. Sasakawa. 
 
 Conclusion of meeting. 
 
 U.S. Reception at the residence 
 of U.S. Counselor for 
 Scientific and Technological 
 Affairs, Mr. Gerard Helfrich 
 
 Depart Tokyo 
 
 Arrive Fukuoka, Kyushu 
 
 Visit OTEC Heat Exchanger 
 Facility, Imari, Kyushu 
 
 Arrive Nisshokan Hotel, 
 Nagasaki, Kyushu 
 
 Free Day 
 
 Depart Nagasaki. Visit 
 Nagasaki Technical Institute 
 and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries 
 Co. 
 
 IX 
 
Mar 19 
 
 Mar 20 
 
 Mar 21 
 
 Mar 22 
 
 Mar 23 
 
 Mar 24 
 
 Mar 25 
 
 Mar 26 
 
 1400-1700 
 
 1800 
 
 0830 
 
 1400-1500 
 
 1600 
 
 0900 
 1400-1500 
 
 1700 
 
 0830 
 
 1100-1200 
 
 1500 
 
 0900 
 1030-1200 
 
 1400 
 
 1000 
 1645 
 
 0900-1500 
 
 0900-1300 
 
 Mar 27-28 0800-1800 
 Mar 29 
 
 Visit Hitachi Zosen - Ariake 
 Works, Tahira, Kyushu 
 
 Arrive Hotel Castle, Kumamoto, 
 Kyushu ' 
 
 Leave Kumamoto 
 
 Visit Hatchobaru Geothermal 
 Power Station 
 
 Arrive Shiragiku Ryokan Hotel, 
 Beppu, Kyushu 
 
 Leave Beppu 
 
 Visit MAGLEV Experiment Center, 
 Hyuga, Kyushu 
 
 Arrive Sun-Hotel Phoenix, 
 Miyazaki, Kyushu 
 
 Leave Miyazaki 
 
 Visit Saboten Park 
 
 Arrive Tokyu Hotel, Kagoshima, 
 Kyushu 
 
 Leave Kagoshima 
 
 Visit Kiire Oil Storage 
 Terminal, Kiire, Kyushu 
 
 Arrive Ibuski Kanko Hotel, 
 Ibusuki, Kyushu 
 
 Leave Ibusuki 
 
 Arrive Tokyo 
 
 Free Day 
 
 Visit Mitsui Engineering and 
 Shipbuilding Co. Ltd., Chiba, 
 Honshu 
 
 Final Meeting, Ship Research 
 Institute, Mitaka, Tokyo 
 
 Visit EXPO '85, Tsukuba, Honshu 
 
 U.S. Panel departs for U.S. 
 
AWARDS 
 
 On March 15, 1985 representatives of the Marine 
 Facilities Panel met with Mr. Ryoichi Sasakawa in his 
 reception room in Sasakwa Hall. Members of the Japan 
 Panel included Dr. Hitoshi Nagasawa, Dr. Noburu Hamada, 
 and Professor Seizo Motora. Members of the U.S. Panel 
 included Mr. Joseph R. Vadus, Professor John E. Flipse, 
 Dr. Alan Powell, and Mr. John A. Pritzlaff. 
 
 Mr. Sasakawa is known throughout the world for his 
 leadership and philanthropic endeavors to improve the 
 welfare of mankind. He is chairman of more than 50 
 organizations concerned with public health, social 
 welfare, international understanding, culture, and 
 sports. He is chairman of the Japan Shipbuilding 
 Industry Foundation, the organization which formed the 
 basis of his many accomplishments. He is very 
 interested in marine activities and supportive of the 
 objectives and progress of the Marine Facilities 
 Panel. During the meeting Mr. Vadus presented a plaque 
 on behalf of the U.S. Marine Facilities Panel, to Mr. 
 Sasakawa in recognition and appreciation of his 
 interest and support of the activities of the U.S. - 
 Japan Marine Facilities Panel. 
 
 XI 
 
Dr. N. Hamada, Dr. H. Nagasawa 
 in Meeting with Mr. R. Sasakawa 
 
 Professor J. Flipse, Mr. J. Vadus 
 in Meeting with Mr. R. Sasakawa 
 
 xn 
 
During the Plenary Session at Sasakawa Hall, Mr. Vadus 
 presented plaques on behalf of the U.S. Marine 
 Facilities Panel to: Dr. Noboru Hamada, Past Chairman 
 and advisor of the Japan Panel in recognition and 
 appreciation of his distinguished service over the past 
 decade; and to Dr. Hitoshi Nagasawa, Chairman of the 
 Japan Panel, in appreciation of his distinguished 
 service as Chairman of the 13th meeting. 
 
 Xlll 
 
As President of the Marine Technology Society, 
 Professor John E. Flipse used the occasion to present 
 the MTS - Compass International Award to the Japan 
 Marine Science and Technology Center ( JAMSTEC) . 
 Receiving the award for JAMSTEC was Mr. Muneharu Saeki, 
 Executive Director. 
 
 xiv 
 
FINAL MEETING 
 
 The final meeting was held at the Ship Research 
 Institute, Ministry of Transport, 38-1, 6-Chome, 
 Shinkawa, Mitaka, Tokyo, on March 26, 1985, with Dr. 
 Hitoshi Nagasawa presiding. 
 
 Dr. Nagasawa summarized activities of the 13th meeting 
 and study tour and asked if all of the objectives were 
 accomplished. Mr. Vadus thanked Dr. Nagasawa and other 
 members of the Japan Panel for their efforts in making 
 the meeting and study tour both successful and 
 enjoyable. 
 
 A number of questions raised by U.S. Panel members 
 during the study tour were answered by the Japan Panel 
 members at this final meeting. The questions and 
 answers (summarized) are noted below. 
 
 1. What research is being conducted on offshore mobile 
 drilling unit structures for non-arctic use? 
 
 References to five Ship Research Institute 
 Reports were provided dealing with dynamic 
 positioning systems, tension-leg platforms, and 
 collision with platforms. 
 
 2. What research is being conducted on mooring large 
 floating vessels or platforms in deep water (500 to 
 3,000 m) ? 
 
 Reference was made to "Research on Deep Sea 
 Mooring of Offshore Structures" performed by SR 
 187 Research Panel of the Shipbuilding Research 
 Association of Japan (1974). The research 
 addressed: environmental conditions, mooring 
 line characteristics, slowdrift motion of 
 moored body, mooring devices, and strength of 
 mooring lines. 
 
 3. Does Japan have an equivalent program to that of 
 the U.S. in coastal zone management? Is there a 
 general report or description of such a program? 
 
 There is no equivalent or similar program in 
 Japan. No Ministry was given the 
 responsibility to develop and coordinate a plan 
 or program for use of the coastal sea area. 
 Any plan or program would be coordinated on a 
 case-by-case basis by all interested parties. 
 
 xv 
 
4. Report on the program of a new foundation 
 "Technical Research Center for Coastal 
 Development," particularly future research 
 projects. 
 
 The Coastal Development Institute was 
 established September 17, 1983, in Tokyo under 
 the Ministry of Transport. Personnel includes 
 three administrative staff and 13 
 researchers. Examples of research are (1) 
 demand for coastal development technology, (2) 
 concepts for offshore artificial islands, (3) 
 durability and maintenance of large marine 
 facilities, and (4) motion of large floating 
 moorings and the development of mooring 
 facilities. 
 
 5. Information on research pertaining to ice forces, 
 ice structures, and ice mechanics. 
 
 A pamphlet was provided that outlines a project 
 on the study on ice-transiting commercial 
 ships. Research items for 1984 were (1) 
 Resistance and Propulsion Tests in Level Ice, 
 and (2) Fundamental Performance of Propellers 
 in Ice. 
 
 6. Budget at the Ship Research Institute? Budget for 
 ice research and testing at the Ship Research 
 Institute? Budget for ice research in Japan? 
 
 A detailed budget for 1984 was provided showing 
 a total budget of 2.6 billion yen ($10,410,000) 
 with salaries of 1.5 billion yen 
 ($6,170,000). Budget data on ice research is 
 included. The total Japanese budget for ice 
 research including private sectors was not 
 available. 
 
 7. Latest information on bottom-crawling vehicles. 
 
 a. JH-160 Bulldozer 
 
 b. D-155W Bulldozer 
 
 c. Underwater Trencher 
 
 d. Rubble Leveling Robot 
 
 e. Mud Eater 
 
 f. RECUS-Bottom Survey and Inspection Vehicle 
 
 xvi 
 
The JH-160 (Hitachi) and D-155W (Komatsu) are 
 underwater bulldozers designed for operations 
 in relatively shallow depths and are believed 
 to be inoperative. 
 
 According to Dr. N. Takarada, Sumitomo Heavy 
 Industries, Ltd., they have suspended further 
 development of their Underwater Trencher 
 because there was insufficient demand from the 
 construction industry. 
 
 The Rubble Leveling Robot was developed by 
 Penta Ocean Construction and Komatsu, Ltd. for 
 leveling rubble on the sea floor for 
 construction of breakwaters. The system is 
 designed for operation to 30 meters depth and 
 is remotely controlled by one man from a 
 surface control station. The system can clear 
 about 200m per day. 
 
 Mr. I. Mutoh, Mitsui Ocean Development and 
 Engineering Co. , provided a brief description 
 of the Mud Eater which is capable of suction 
 dredging at 50 meters depth. The Mud Eater is 
 remotely operated from a crane barge and is 
 propelled by Archimedean screws for bottom 
 crawling. 
 
 Regarding the RECUS , a bottom survey and 
 inspection vehicle, there was no information 
 available at the meeting. 
 
 8. How do you obtain technical and research 
 information from other countries and how do you 
 translate and distribute such information in Japan? 
 
 Dr. Nagasawa described the usual institutional 
 methods of keeping abreast of international 
 progress in science and engineering. The 
 individual scientist and engineer is expected 
 to keep abreast of the latest developments in 
 his field. 
 
 9. How does the Nagasaki Technical Institute use 
 radio-controlled models in the maneuvering basin? 
 
 Mr. M. Ono, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd., 
 provided a brief description indicating that 
 they use a 14 channel radio (140 MHZ) control 
 system to control a free-running ship model. 
 The system controls the propulsion motor, auto 
 pilot and steering system, and on-board 
 measuring instruments. Radio telemetry is used 
 for data acquisition. 
 
 xvii 
 
10. How do you correct for Reynold's Number on models 
 of offshore structures or bridges in a wind tunnel? 
 
 Mr. Takarada indicated that wind-tunnel tests 
 are conducted using Reynold's Numbers for 
 actual offshore structures and bridges by 
 changing wind velocity. In the case where we 
 cannot simulate the Reynold's Number for an 
 actual large-scale offshore structure, we 
 evaluate the effect by using a partial model 
 and then correct the results for a full-scale 
 model test. 
 
 11. In addition to vessel traffic control of Tokyo Bay 
 area, do you provide real-time information on water 
 level, currents, wave, wind, and fog (visibility)? 
 
 The traffic control of Tokyo Bay gets real-time 
 information on direction and velocity of wind, 
 atmospheric pressure, and fog from various 
 fixed points such as Izuoshima, Jusangochi, as 
 well as from the center itself. As to current, 
 we provide it in the tide table, and we know 
 any water depth from charts; hence we do not 
 measure any real-time data at present. Wave 
 height is measured only by eye. 
 
 12. What ocean/meteorological measurements are made to 
 assist vessel traffic and to avoid delays? 
 
 See answer to question 11. 
 
 13. Data on Nippon Tetrapod Co., Ltd. 
 
 A pamphlet was provided showing data on Nippon 
 Tetrapod products. 
 
 14. Offshore artificial island concepts. 
 
 Summaries of two study reports were provided: 
 one by the Ministry of Transport on concepts 
 for offshore artificial islands; and another by 
 the Research Institute for Ocean Economics on 
 various concepts for utilization of sea 
 space. These studies were completed in 1984. 
 
 Final Meeting (continued) 
 
 Mr. Vadus proposed conducting the 14th Meeting in the 
 United States in September 1986, to coincide with the 
 OCEANS '86 Conference to be held in Washington, D.C. 
 Previous meetings in the United States traditionally 
 included the OCEANS Conference. Since the OCEANS '86 
 Conference will be held September 22-24, 1986, Mr. 
 Vadus proposed that the 14th Meeting be held on 
 
 XVlll 
 
September 18-19, 1986, and the study tour conducted 
 September 24 to October 5. He further suggested that 
 the study tour include visits to marine facilities in 
 the New Orleans and San Diego area. Another 
 possibility is to conclude the study tour with a visit 
 to the Transportation Exposition to be held in 
 Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, in 1986. 
 
 Dr. Nagasawa stated that the members of the Japan Panel 
 will study and discuss the proposed plan and options, 
 and will reply within several months. 
 
 Prior to the conclusion of the final meeting, Mrs. Alan 
 Powell made a special presentation of a painting which 
 she personally created. It is an excellent work of art 
 and was appreciated by all. It was received by 
 Chairman Nagasawa on behalf of the Japan Panel and will 
 be hung in a prominent location at the Ship Reserach 
 Institute. Dr. Nagasawa and Mr. Vadus acknowledged the 
 valuable technical contributions made by the members of 
 both panels and declared the 13th Meeting was most 
 successful. Dr. Nagasawa adjourned the meeting. 
 
 Group at Ship Research Institute 
 
 xix 
 
XX 
 
SPECIAL PRESENTATION 
 
 Artist June Powell with her painting enscribed 
 "Moonlight" by Chung Pao-hua, presented as a token 
 friendship to the Ship Research Institute. 
 
 of 
 
 The subject of the painting - The Lotus - is in Japan a 
 symbol of purity which well represents the spirit of 
 friendship and cooperation existing between the members 
 of UJNR from Japan and the United States. The Ship 
 Research Institute has been a gracious host to our 
 meetings in Japan. 
 
 xxi 
 
JAPAN PANEL 
 
 Chairman 
 
 Dr. Hitoshi Nagasawa 
 Director -General 
 Ship Research Institute 
 Ministry of Transport 
 6-38-1 Shinkawa, Mitaka 
 Tokyo 181 
 
 Members 
 
 city 
 
 Dr. Yoshimi Goda 
 Deputy Director-General 
 Port and Harbor Research 
 
 Institute 
 Ministry of Transport 
 3-1-1 Nagase, Yokosuka city 
 Kanagawa 239 
 
 Dr. Hayato Iida 
 Head, Oceanographical 
 Research Division 
 Meteorological Research 
 
 Institute 
 Meteorological Agency 
 1-1 Nagamine, Yatabe-cho 
 Tsukuba-gun, Ibaragi 305 
 
 Mr. Hajime Inoue 
 Director, Ship Structure 
 
 Division 
 Ship Research Institute 
 Ministry of Transport 
 6-38-1 Shinkawa 
 Mitaka city, Tokyo 181 
 
 Mr. Kiyoshi Katagiri 
 Chief, Buoy Robot Unit 
 Oceanographical Division 
 Meteorological Agency 
 1-3-4 Ote-machi, Chiyoda-ku 
 Tokyo 100 
 
 Dr. Kazuo Sugai 
 Director, Ship Dynamics 
 
 Division 
 Ship Research Institute 
 Ministry of Transport 
 6-38-1 Shinkawa, Mitaka city 
 Tokyo 181 
 
 Dr. Yoshifumi Takaishi 
 Director, Ocean Engineering 
 
 Division 
 Ship Research Institute 
 Ministry of Transport 
 6-38-1 Shinkawa, Mitaka city 
 Tokyo 181 
 
 Mr. Norio Tanaka, Director 
 Marine Hydrodynamics Division 
 Port and Harbor Research 
 
 Institute 
 Ministry of Transport 
 3-1-1 Nagase, Yokosuka city 
 Kanagawa 239 
 
 Mr. Tadashi Tanimoto, Director 
 
 Sea-Coast Division 
 
 River Bureau 
 
 Ministry of Construction 
 
 2-1-3 Kasumigaseki 
 
 Chiyoda-ku 
 
 Tokyo 100 
 
 Mr. Shiego Toyoda, Director 
 
 Technology Division 
 
 Bureau of Ports and Harbors 
 
 Mnistry of Transport 
 
 2-1-3 Kasumigaseki 
 
 Chiyoda-ku 
 
 Tokyo 100 
 
 Dr. Hajime Tsuchida, Director 
 Structures Division 
 Port and Harbor Research 
 
 Institute 
 Ministry of Transport 
 3-1-1 Nagase, Yokosuka city 
 Kanagawa 239 
 
 Mr. Yoshihito Tsukunuki 
 Director, Engineering Division 
 Aids to Navigation Department 
 Maritime Safety Agency 
 2-1-3 Kasumigaseki 
 Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100 
 
 xxii 
 
Members (continued) 
 
 Mr. Yasuo Ueta, Director 
 Marine Engine Division 
 Ship Research Institute 
 Ministry of Transport 
 6-38-1 Shinkawa, Mitaka city 
 Tokyo 181 
 
 Mr. Yasuyuki Yamakoshi, Chief 
 Ship Performance Laboratory 
 Fishing Boat and Instrument 
 Department, National Research 
 Institute of Fisheries Eng 
 Ministry of Agriculture 
 5-5-1 Kachidoki, Chuo-ku 
 Tokyo 104 
 
 Mr. Akira Yamazaki 
 Chief Hydrographer 
 Hydrographic Department 
 Maritime Safety Agency 
 5-3-1 Tsukiji, Chuo-ku 
 Tokyo 104 
 
 Mr. Kousei Watanabe 
 Deputy Director-General 
 Ship Research Institute 
 Ministry of Transport 
 6-38-1 Shinkawa, Mitaka city 
 Tokyo 181 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Mr. Takashi Yamamoto, Director 
 Research Plan and Program 
 Ship Research Institute 
 Ministry of Transport 
 6-38-1 Shinkawa, Mitaka city 
 Tokyo 181 
 
 Advisers 
 
 Mr. Hisashi Ando, Manager 
 Deepsea Technology Department 
 Japan Marine Science 
 
 and Technology Center 
 2-15 Natsushima-cho 
 Yokosuka city, Kanagawa 237 
 
 Dr. Noritaka Ando, President 
 Shipbuilding Research 
 
 Center of Japan 
 1-3-8 Mejiro, Toshima-ku 
 Tokyo 171 
 
 Dr. Noboru Hamada, President 
 Japan Marine Machinery 
 
 Development Association 
 1-15-16 Toranomon 
 Minato-ku, Tokyo 105 
 
 Mr. Kenichi Hirabayashi 
 Senior Mgr, Ocean Engineering 
 Research and Development 
 Department, Kawasaki Heavy 
 Industries, Co., Ltd. 
 2-4-1 Hamamatsu-cho 
 Minato-ku, Tokyo 105 
 
 Mr. Shouzou Hirano, Manager 
 Ocean Engineering Department 
 Ishikawaj ima-Har ima 
 Heavy Industries Co., Ltd. 
 1-6-2 Marunouchi 
 Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100 
 
 Mr. Yasuo Hisada 
 General Manager 
 Sagamibara Research and 
 
 Engineering Center 
 Civil Engineering and Marine 
 
 Construction Division 
 Nippon Steel Corp. 
 5-9-1 Nishihashimoto 
 Sagamihara city, Kanagawa 22 
 
 Mr. Harumi Matsuda, Manager 
 Offshore Business Division 
 Hitachi Zosen Corp. 
 1-1-1 Hitotsubashi 
 Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100 
 
 Prof. Seizo Motora, President 
 Nagasaki Institute of 
 
 Applied Science 
 536 Amiba, Nagasaki city 
 Nagasaki 851-01 
 
 Mr. Ikuo Mutoh 
 Managing Director 
 Mitsui Ocean Development 
 
 and Engineering Co., Ltd. 
 2-3-7 Hitotsubashi 
 Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100 
 
 XXlll 
 
Advisers (continued) 
 
 Mr. Yukihiro Narita 
 Department Manager 
 Research and Publicity Dept 
 Japan Marine Machinery 
 Development Association 
 1-15-16 Toranomon 
 Minato-ku, Tokyo 105 
 
 Dr. Kenji Okamura 
 
 Counsellor 
 
 Ryowa Ocean Development 
 
 Co. , Ltd. 
 2-5-1 Marunouchi 
 Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100 
 
 Mr. Masao Ono 
 
 Chief Naval Architect 
 
 Shipbuilding and Steel 
 
 Structures 
 Headquarters, Mitsubishi 
 
 Heavy Industries, Ltd. 
 2-5-1 Marunouchi 
 Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100 
 
 Mr. Masanao Oshima 
 Deputy-Director, Ship and 
 
 Ocean Project Headquarters 
 Mitsui Engineering and 
 Shipbuilding Co. , Ltd. 
 5-6-4 Tsukiji 
 Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104 
 
 Mr. Muneharu Saeki 
 Executive Director 
 Japan Marine Science 
 Technology Center 
 2-15 Natsushimo-cho 
 Yokosuka city, Kanagawa 237 
 
 Dr. Naonosuke Takarada 
 General Manager 
 Hiratsuka Research Laboratory 
 Sumitomo Heavy Industries 
 
 Co. , Ltd. 
 63-30 Yuhigaoka 
 Hiratsuka city 
 Kanagawa 2 54 
 
 Mr. Masatoshi Takeuchi 
 Chief Engineer 
 
 Deepsea Technology Department 
 Japan Marine Science and 
 
 Technology Center 
 2-15 Natsushima-cho 
 Yokosuka city, Kanagawa 237 
 
 Dr. Shinichi Tashiro 
 General Manager 
 Technical Institute 
 Nippon Kaiji Kyokai 
 6-20-1 Shinkawa, Mitaka city 
 Tokyo 181 
 
 Mr. Hiroshi Watanabe 
 
 General Manager 
 
 Ocean Engineering Department 
 
 Nippon Kokan K.K. 
 
 1-1-2 Marunouchi 
 
 Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100 
 
 xxiv 
 
U.S. PANEL 
 
 Chairman 
 
 Mr. Joseph R. Vadus 
 
 National Oceanic & Atmospheric 
 
 Administration 
 Office of Oceanography & 
 
 Marine Services 
 6010 Executive Boulevard 
 Rockville, MD 20852 
 
 Members 
 
 Capt. Jack W. Boiler, USN (Ret) 
 Executive Director, Marine 
 
 Board 
 National Academy of Sciences 
 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W. 
 Washington, D.C. 20418 
 
 Mr. John Freund 
 
 Naval Sea Systems Command 
 
 CODE 05R2 
 
 Washington, D.C. 20362 
 
 Mr. J. D. Hightower, Head 
 Environmental Sciences 
 
 Department 
 Naval Oceans Systems Center 
 P.O. Box 997 
 Kailua, HI 96734 
 
 Commodore Duane Griffith 
 Director, Deep Submergence 
 
 Systems 
 U.S. Department of the Navy 
 CODE OP-23, Pentagon 
 Washington, D.C. 20350 
 
 Mr. Richard B. Krahl 
 Deputy Associate Director 
 Offshore Operations - MS642 
 Minerals Management Service 
 12203 Sunrise Valley Drive 
 Reston, VA 22091 
 
 Dr. Zelvin Levine, Director 
 Office of Advanced Ship 
 
 Operations 
 U.S. Department of 
 
 Transportation 
 MAR-770 
 
 Room 4100 NASSIF 
 400 Seventh Street, S.W. 
 Washington, D.C. 20590 
 
 Dr. Kilho Park 
 National Oceanic & 
 
 Atmospheric Administration 
 Office of Oceanic and 
 
 Atmospheric Research 
 6010 Executive Boulevard 
 Rockville, MD 20852 
 
 Dr. Alan Powell, Technical 
 
 Director 
 David Taylor Naval Ship 
 
 Research & Development 
 
 Center 
 Bethesda, MD 20084 
 
 Mr. Thomas Pross, Acting 
 
 Administrator 
 Shipping, Operations, and 
 
 Research 
 Department of Transportation 
 400 Seventh Street, S.W. 
 Washington, D.C. 20590 
 
 Mr. William E. Richards 
 U.S. Department of Energy 
 Forrestal Building, 
 
 Room 5E098 
 1000 Independence Ave, S.W. 
 Washington, D.C. 20585 
 
 Dr. Reuben 0. Schlegelmilch 
 Technical Director, Research 
 
 and Development 
 U.S. Coast Guard Headquarters 
 2100 Second Street, S.W. 
 Washington, D.C. 20593 
 
 xxv 
 
Members (continued) 
 
 Dr. Morton Smutz, Executive 
 
 Secretary UJNR/MFP 
 National Oceanic & Atmospheric 
 
 Agency 
 6010 Executive Blvd, Room 1014 
 Rockville, MD 20852 
 
 Mr. Howard Talkington, Head 
 Engineering & Computer 
 
 Sciences Dept., CODE 90 
 Naval Ocean Systems Center 
 San Diego, CA 92132 
 
 Advisers 
 
 Commodore Howard B. Thorsen 
 Chief, Office of Research 
 
 & Development 
 U.S. S. Coast Guard 
 2100 Second Street, S.W. 
 Washington, D.C. 20593 
 
 Dr. James W. Winchester 
 Associate Administrator 
 National Oceanic & 
 
 Atmospheric Administration 
 Herbert C. Hoover Building 
 Washington, D.C. 20230 
 
 Mr. R. Frank Busby 
 R. Frank Busby Associates 
 576 South 23rd Street 
 Arlington, VA 22202 
 
 Dr. John P. Craven, Professor 
 
 of Ocean Engineering 
 University of Hawaii 
 Marine Sciences Building 
 Room 226 
 1000 Pope Road 
 Honolulu, HI 96822 
 
 Prof. John E. Flipse 
 Associate Vice Chancellor & 
 
 Associate Dean 
 College of Engineering 
 Texas A&M University 
 College Station, TX 77843 
 
 Mr. Andre Galerne, President 
 International Underwater 
 
 Contractors, Inc. 
 City Island, N.Y. 10464 
 
 Mr. Ronald L. Geer 
 
 Senior Mechanical Engineering 
 
 Consultant 
 Shell Oil Company 
 P.O. Box 2463 
 Houston, TX 77001 
 
 Mr. Ben C. Gerwick 
 Consulting Construction 
 
 Engineer 
 Suite 803 
 
 500 Sansome Street 
 San Francisco, CA 94111 
 
 Mr. W. Gregory Halpin 
 Port Administrator 
 Maryland Port Administrator 
 World Trade Center 
 Baltimore, MD 21202 
 
 Mr. Donald Reach 
 
 International Maritime, Inc. 
 
 Suite 217 
 
 839 S. Beacon Street 
 
 San Pedro, CA 90731 
 
 Mr. Gilbert L. Maton 
 Vice President, Marine 
 
 Programs 
 Tracor, Inc. 
 1601 Research Boulevard 
 Rockville, MD 20852 
 
 Mr. Clifford E. McLain 
 Vice President 
 Systems Planning Corporation 
 1500 Wilson Boulevard 
 Arlington, VA 22209 
 
 xxvi 
 
Mr. Kurt Merl, President 
 Sperry Corporation 
 Great Neck, N.Y. 11020 
 
 Mr. William M. Nicholson 
 1672 St. Albans Square 
 Annapolis, MD 21401 
 
 Mr. John A. Pritzlaff 
 Program Manager, Oceanic 
 
 Division 
 Westinghouse Electric 
 
 Corporation 
 P.O. Box 1488 
 Annapolis, MD 21404 
 
 Mr. Robert R. Rupp, Manager 
 Ocean Systems Group 
 Sperry Corporation 
 Great Neck, N.Y. 11020 
 
 Dr. Richard J. Seymour 
 Scripps Institution of 
 
 Oceanography 
 University of California 
 Mail Code A-022 
 La Jolla, CA 92093 
 
 Mr. Richard M. Shamp, 
 
 President 
 Engineering Service 
 
 Associates, Inc. 
 1500 Massachusetts Ave., 
 Washington, D.C. 20005 
 
 N.W, 
 
 Dr. Don Walsh 
 International 
 Suite 217 
 839 S. Beacon 
 San Pedro, CA 
 
 Mr 
 
 Maritime, Inc. 
 
 Street 
 90731 
 
 James G. Wenzel, 
 
 President 
 Maritime Development 
 
 Associates 
 P.O. Box 3409 
 Saratoga, CA 95070-1409 
 
 HERMOSA PLATFORM, Ariake Shipyard 
 Hitachi Zosen Corporation 
 
 xxvn 
 
Saga Un iversity 
 U, 1985 L 
 
 STUDY TOUR 
 
 OTEC Heat Exchanger Research Facility, March 
 
 Saga University was founded by the Japanese Government in 
 i™' an <? enrollment is now more than 4500. Saga University's 
 OTEC Facility in Imari, Kyushu is involved in research 
 activities concerned with the advancement of heat exchangers 
 for Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) systems. Assis- 
 tance for much of their research is funded through' the 
 Japanese Ministry of Education Science and Culture. 
 
 In 1979, Saga University served as team leader in the test of 
 Japan's Mini OTEC system developed by a consortium of Japanese 
 companies. This was the first test for OTEC in Japan. 
 
 Research activities at Saga University include enhancing the 
 performance of evaporators and condensers which are major cost 
 items for an OTEC plant. Several new designs of titanium 
 shell- and plate-type heat exchangers have been developed for 
 evaporators and condensers. Performance tests with fresh 
 water have shown that very high heat transfer coefficients 
 have been achieved. 
 
 A 50kw experimental plant located at Shin-Tokunoshima (an 
 island near Kagoshima, Kyushu) developed for the Kyushu Elec- 
 tric Power Company utilizes shell- and plate-type heat 
 exchangers. The polyethylene pipe is 60 cm in diameter 
 about 2500 m long on a slope to a depth of 300 m. This 
 has been undergoing test since late 1982. 
 
 and 
 plant 
 
 Other OTEC activity in Japan includes a design for a 500KW 
 shelf-mounted plant for the Republic of Nauru. Another design 
 for future development will be for a 3mw plant using titanium 
 plate heat exchangers and a slope-mounted buoyant sandwich- 
 type cold water pipe design that is anchored along the slope. 
 
 Heat Exchangers at OTEC Research Facility 
 
 xxvm 
 
Research Facility at Nagasaki Technical Institute 
 
 Nagasaki Technical Institute , Mitsubishi Heavy 
 Industries, March 18, 1985 
 
 For the past 80 years Nagasaki Technical Institute 
 (NTI) has conducted research related to ships and prime 
 movers in the fields of strength of materials, 
 chemistry, vibration, hydrodynamics, aerodynamics, and 
 tribology. The Fugahori-Koyagi Branch was inaugurated 
 in 1970. It houses the world's largest private 
 enterprise owned experimental tank consisting of towing 
 tanks, a cavitation tunnel, and a seakeeping and 
 maneuvering basin. 
 
 Research on materials include evaluating materials 
 needed for marine propellers, cylinder liners, and heat 
 exchangers. Various automatic welding processes for 
 ship hulls and piping have been developed and are in 
 use. 
 
 Research has been conducted on blade vibration, rotor 
 dynamics, noise control, and lubrication. 
 
 NTI has developed techniques for improving diesel 
 engine performance with low NO exhaust emission. 
 Research is under way on minimizing air pollution in 
 stack gases. 
 
 XXIX 
 
Large Dry Dock 
 
 Nagasaki Shipyard and Engine Works , Mitsubishi Heavy 
 Industries, March 18, 1985 
 
 With the advent of "steel ships" in the Western World, 
 the feudal government of the Tokugawa Shogunate decided 
 to construct a foundry in Nagasaki in 1855 and 
 establish a Naval Training Institute. In 1857 a group 
 of Dutch engineers arrived with the necessary materials 
 and machine tools. The YUGAO MARU was launched in 
 1887. Ships constructed at the Koyagi site include the 
 very large bulk carrier SHINO MARU, the LNG carrier 
 BANSHU MARU, escortship SAWAKAZE, oil transport JAPAN 
 STORK, and the bulk carrier RIVER BOYNE. 
 
 Among the main products produced by the Machinery 
 Division are a 200 megawatt power plant for Iraq; a 
 geothermal power plant at Hatchobaru, Japan; and large 
 marine steam turbines. 
 
 The Koyagi Plant features two 600-ton lifting capacity 
 Goliath cranes, a kilometer-long building dock, 
 extensively automated shops and production equipment, 
 and a million ton dry dock. 
 
 XXX 
 
.. "IjiM 
 
 The POLAR PIONEER 
 
 Ariake Works , Hitachi Zosen Corporation, March 18, 1985 
 
 The Ariake Works, Hitachi Zosen 1 s largest and most 
 modern plant, was completed in October 1974 and now has 
 about 2,500 employees. It occupies an area of 1.5 
 million square meters. It has two docks, each served 
 by its own 700-ton gantry crane, supplemented by 
 revolving cranes. One hundred thousand evergreen trees 
 and flowering shrubs have been planted at the site and 
 greatly improve the appearance of the shipyard 
 environment. 
 
 Ships constructed at Ariake include the 17,743 dead- 
 weight-ton car carrier GLORIOUS ACE, the 260,000 dead- 
 weight-ton ore carrier HITACHI VENTURE, the 
 refrigerator cargo ship FUJI REEFER, and the 509,000 
 dead-weight- ton tanker ESSO ATLANTIC. 
 
 Other large marine structure constructed at Ariake 
 include a floating desalination plant, jack-up oil- 
 drilling rigs, and a semi-submersible oil-drilling rig. 
 
 Land-use equipment constructed on site include very 
 large circulation pipes for nuclear reactors, heat 
 exchangers, crude-oil distillation columns, and high- 
 pressure chemical reaction vessels. 
 
 The offshore structures POLAR PIONEER and HERMOSA were 
 constructed at this site. 
 
 XXXI 
 
Hatchobaru Geothermal Power Station , March 19, 1985 
 
 Development and studies of geothermal power production 
 around Hatchobaru began in 1949. On June 24, 1977 its 
 commercial production had commenced with an operating 
 capacity of 55,000 KW; it is the largest among the 
 Japanese geothermal power stations (in 1983 Japan 
 produced 160,000 KW of electricity via geothermal 
 steam) . 
 
 The principle used here is that natural steam is 
 extracted from hotwater reservoir underground, 759-1971 
 meters deep; the steam then drives generator turbines 
 directly. Separated water is returned underground 
 through reinjection wells, 550-1250 meters deep. 
 
 Hatchobaru Power Station uses a double flashing 
 system. Hot water that has been separated from the 
 steam is sent into a flash system where secondary steam 
 is produced for additional 20% power production. 
 
 In Japan, the total geothermal power production can be 
 as much as 145 million KW. Economically 20 million KW 
 can be generated by the presently available 
 technology. By the year 2000 Japan hopes to produce 
 4.8 million KW geogthermally. 
 
 Explanation of Geothermal Plant Operation 
 
 XXXll 
 
MAGLEV Experiment Center , Hyuga, Kyushu, March 20, 1985 
 
 The Japanese National Rai 
 superconducting Magnetica 
 motor propelled railway s 
 1977 on a full-scale trac 
 Kyushu. In December 1979 
 target speed of 500 km/ho 
 underway on a new vehicle 
 guideway. The advantages 
 greater safety, faster tr 
 better riding quality, an 
 
 lways (JNR) are now developing a 
 lly Levitated (MAGLEV) electric 
 ystem. Experiments began in 
 k at Miyazaki Prefecture, 
 
 the test vehicle reached its 
 Further research is now 
 designed for a U-shaped 
 claimed for MAGLEV include 
 avel, less noise and vibration, 
 d less maintenance. 
 
 ur . 
 
 From an observation deck above the monorail we witnessed 
 a trial run of the newly designed vehicle. After a short 
 run the vehicle "took off" and "flew" several kilometers 
 down the track and returned. At the observation deck we 
 were able to monitor the speed, location, and "altitude" 
 (clearance above the track) . 
 
 The principle of operation is that when the magnet aboard 
 the vehicle passes over a coil laid on the ground, an 
 electric current is induced in the coil and it becomes an 
 electromagnet whose polarity is the same as that of the 
 magnet aboard the vehicle. The repulsion force between 
 the two magnets levitates the vehicle. 
 
 MAGLEV Test Vehicle 
 
 XXXlll 
 
Kiire Terminal , March 22, 1985 
 
 Japan must rely on imported crude oil to meet her energy 
 requirements. It is, therefore, imperative to reduce the 
 costs of the oil through the use of large carriers to 
 Japan, large storage facilities on land, and efficient 
 transport to refineries. All such operations need be 
 carried out under high standards of safety and environ- 
 mental protection in a region that has experienced 
 typhoons and earthquakes. 
 
 The sea berth of the Kiire Terminal (established in 1967) 
 is designed to handle 500,000 dead-weight-ton tankers. 
 When berthed, the tanker is connected to the 7.5 miles of 
 60-inch diameter on-shore pipe lines through the remote- 
 controlled loading arm to any of the thirty 629,000 
 barrel or twenty-four 944,000 barrel storage tanks. 
 Water ballast is preseparated from the recovered oil and 
 processed through a sand filter, activated carbon bed, 
 and a guard basin before being released to Kinko Bay. 
 
 Emergency equipment on hand includes eight fire engines, 
 271 fire hydrants, and five tug boats that also serve as 
 fire boats. An oil fence is laid around the tankers and 
 oil-recovery ships are always on stand-by alert. 
 
 Kiire Terminal 
 
 xxxiv 
 
Kiire Terminal Storage Tanks & Piping System 
 
 Mitsui' s KAIYO-Semi Submersible Catamaran 
 
 xxxv 
 
/ 
 
 
 ROTAS at Chiba Works 
 
 Mitsui Engin eering and Shipbuilding , Chiba, Honshu, March 
 25, 1985 
 
 The Chiba Works began operations in May 1962 as the first 
 modern shipyard in Japan. Ships constructed at this site 
 includes the first very large crude carrier (VLCC) 
 215,000 dead-weight-ton tanker for the United Kingdom, 
 the super-automated tanker MITSUMINESAN MARU, Mitsui' s 
 largest vessel the BERGE EMPEROR 417,000 dead-weight-ton 
 tanker, the semi-submersible offshore oil drilling rig 
 JOHN SHAW, the LNG carrier SENSHU MARU, and the 600 ton 
 semi-submerged catamaran passenger craft MESA 80. 
 
 A semi-submerged catamaran (SSC) support vessel (about 
 2,800 tons) called KAIYO (OCEAN) is undergoing final 
 tests for JAMSETC (Japan Marine Science and Technology 
 Center) . It is a diver support craft equipped with a 
 submersible decompression chamber. It is capable of 
 launching and controlling remotely operated vehicles. It 
 will be Japan's first exclusive vessel that can function 
 as an offshore testing base stable enough to maintain its 
 position offshore for a long period of time. 
 
 The Chiba Works has developed two highly innovated ship 
 construction methods, ROTAS (Rotating and Sliding) 
 permits huge ship module to be rotated and slid for 
 simpler and safer construction. MAPS (Mitsui Automated 
 Pipe Shop System) automates the complicated task of pipe 
 fabrication by means of computer control. 
 
 xxxvi 
 
Ship Research Institute , Mitaka, Tokyo, March 26, 1985 
 
 Ship Research Institute was founded in 1963 as a 
 research organization of the Ministry of Transport, and 
 its research work covers the whole fields of 
 shipbuilding technology including ocean engineering and 
 marine environmental preservation. The present staff 
 numbers 277, including 204 research members. 
 
 The Offshore Structure Experimental Basin, 40 m in 
 length and 33 m in width, has a sloping bottom with 
 water depth from to 2 m. The Ocean Engineering 
 Division is engaged in both theoretical and 
 experimental studies of dynamics, seaworthiness, 
 mooring techniques, anchoring equipment of special 
 ships, floating marine structures, self-elevating 
 platforms, and other facilities employed in ocean 
 exploration. 
 
 The Ice Model Basin is contained in a prefabricated 
 building 54 m by 25 m. The basin itself is 6 m wide, 
 1.8 m deep, and 35 m long. At the northern end is a 
 trim tank 1.6 m wide, 0.9 m deep, and 8 m long that is 
 connected through a lock gate to the test basin. An 
 access tunnel (observation corridor) is provided to 
 allow underwater viewing of ice phenomena during model 
 tests. The ice breaking and the motions of the ice 
 pieces around the ship model can be observed and 
 photographed. 
 
 Ship Research Institute's Ice Model Basin 
 
 xxxvn 
 
Robotic Piano Player at EXPO 85 
 
 Tsukuba EXPO 85 , March 27 and 28, 1985 
 
 The EXPO 85 site is located in Tsukuba Science City 
 about 60 km northwest of Tokyo. The city is the result 
 of a government program to create a national center for 
 scientific and technological research and education in 
 many fields. Tsukuba University and 47 national 
 research institutes are located here. Tsukuba Science 
 City was first conceived in 1963 as a way of meeting 
 Japan's technological needs of the future through 
 coordinated high-level research and educational 
 facilities. 
 
 One objective of EXPO 85 is the consideration of ways 
 to integrate major scientific and technological 
 advances to improve the quality of life throughout the 
 world with emphasis on living in the 21st century. 
 EXPO 85 featured 28 pavillions sponsored by major 
 Japanese corporations and 35 international pavillions 
 including the U.S. 
 
 Special arrangements were made for members of the 
 Marine Facilities Panel to visit selected pavillions 
 which included exhibits and demonstrations of future 
 integrated telecommunications and computer systems, 
 applications of robotics, high speed transportation and 
 other applications of high technology. 
 
 xxxvm 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Author 
 
 N. Negatomi 
 
 T. Watanabe 
 
 N. Ito 
 
 Y. Takaishi 
 S . Ando 
 
 H. Adachi 
 
 H. Kagemoto 
 
 I. Mutoh 
 
 R. Shamp 
 
 Technology for Marine Facilities 
 
 Title Page 
 
 Construction of MOLIKPAQ 1 
 
 Construction of Arctic Structure 
 
 "Super CIDS" 5 
 
 Some Aspects of Marine Fouling on 
 the Artificial Structures off the 
 Japanese Coast 9 
 
 Fundamental Study of the Huge-Scale 
 
 Floating Platform for the Use of Sea 
 
 Space (2nd Report) 13 
 
 Research Project on the Stability of 
 
 Offshore Moving Drilling Units of 
 
 Intact and Damaged Condition 17 
 
 MOOS SALM (Single Anchor Leg Mooring) 
 Tanker Terminal 21 
 
 Sea Knife II Developments 25 
 
 Marine Facilities for Ocea n Reso urces Development 
 J. Winchester A Review of NOAA's Ocean Programs 
 
 S. Ishii 
 
 Y. Masuda 
 
 T. Miyazaki 
 
 J. Flipse 
 
 P. Rabinowitz 
 
 S. Takahashi 
 
 Y. Goda 
 
 R. Geer 
 
 R. Krahl 
 
 The Second Term Plan of Wave Power 
 Generator KAIMEI Project 
 
 The International Program of Scientific 
 Ocean Drilling 
 
 Development of Wave Power Extraction 
 System with Vertical Breakwaters 
 
 Technology Trends for U.S. Deepwater 
 and Arctic Offshore Oil and Gas 
 Development 
 
 Recent Developments in Technology 
 for Oil and Gas Drilling and 
 Producing Operations in Record- 
 Setting Water Depth 
 
 31 
 36 
 
 38 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 
 53 
 
 XXXIX 
 
Author 
 
 R. Inoue 
 
 N. Inagaki 
 M. Okamoto 
 
 Title Page 
 
 Development of Wave Power Light 
 
 Beacon Installed on Sunken Rock 58 
 
 Function of a Steel Floating Fishing 
 
 Reef (Artificial Seaweed Farm Plant) 74 
 
 C. McLain 
 
 S. Toyoda 
 
 Port and Harbor Facilities 
 
 Real-Time Navigation Information 
 Systems for Port and Harbor 
 Development 
 
 Machinery Construction in Port and 
 Harbor Works 
 
 78 
 85 
 
 M. Terashi 
 
 M. Kitazume 
 M. Terashi 
 
 Sea Floor Engineering 
 
 Deep Mixing Method of Soil Improve- 
 ment for Soft Marine Clays 
 
 Centrifuge Modeling of Improved 
 Ground by D.M.M. 
 
 89 
 94 
 
 A. Zirino 
 
 G. Pickwell 
 
 R. Henderson 
 
 D. Lapota 
 
 S . Yamamoto 
 
 J. Hightower 
 
 R. Seymour 
 
 H. Iida 
 
 K. Katagiri 
 
 M. Smutz 
 
 J. Vadus 
 
 Ocean Observation Systems 
 
 Strategies for Marine Environmental 
 Assessment 
 
 Techniques for High-Resolution Wave- 
 Directional Spectra in Deep Water 
 
 Ocean-Waves Observation Buoy 
 
 Applications of Optical Fibers 
 at Sea 
 
 NOAA Coastal Storm Surge Program 
 
 98 
 
 106 
 109 
 
 120 
 125 
 
 Marine Transportation and Ship Technology Development 
 N. Takarada 
 
 The New Sail Training Ship NIPPON 
 MARU 
 
 133 
 
 xl 
 
Author 
 
 N. Takarada 
 
 M. Hirano 
 M. Oshima 
 
 R. Rupp 
 
 S. Hashiguchi 
 
 J. Moran 
 A. Wemple 
 
 Title 
 
 Voice Control of Mooring Winch 
 
 A Handy-Type Ship Maneuvering 
 Simulator 
 
 The Sperry Advanced Integrated 
 Navigation System 
 
 New Navigation System 
 
 MARINER Surface Ship System 
 Identification 
 
 R. Schlegelmilch Research and Development of 
 
 Advanced Marine Vehicles in the 
 United States Coast Guard 
 
 N. Hamada 
 V. Williams 
 
 D/W 26,000 MT Modern Sail-Assisted 
 Log and Bulk Carrier USUKI PIONEER 
 
 On-Line Ship Performance Monitoring 
 System 
 
 Page 
 138 
 
 142 
 
 146 
 151 
 
 155 
 
 158 
 165 
 170 
 
 S. Tomita 
 
 S. Tomita 
 T. Ikeda 
 
 K. Merl 
 
 M. Hattori 
 J. Pritzlaff 
 
 I. Mutoh 
 
 H. Talkington 
 J. Freund 
 M. Ono 
 
 Undersea Systems and Technology 
 
 Japan's First Deep Submergence 
 Rescue Vehicle 
 
 On the NATSUSHIMA's Launch and 
 Retrieval System for 2000 m Deep 
 Submergence Research Vehicle 
 
 Towed Unmanned Submersible (TUMS) 
 System 
 
 Design of ROV DOLPHIN-3K 
 
 Manned and Unmanned Vehicle Develop- 
 ments in the United States 
 
 Unmanned Remote-Controlled Sub- 
 mersible MURS-300 MK II 
 
 Voice-Controlled Manipulators 
 
 Underwater Work System Development 
 
 Development of an Electric Power 
 Control System for 6000 m Class 
 Deep Submersible 
 
 182 
 
 185 
 
 189 
 195 
 
 199 
 
 204 
 207 
 212 
 
 217 
 
 xli 
 
Author 
 
 J. Wenzel 
 
 S. Takagawa 
 
 Y. Amitani 
 
 T. Tsuchiya 
 
 T. Nakanishi 
 
 H. Ando 
 
 Title 
 
 Extraction of Oxygen from Seawater 
 
 Rescue Buoy System for Manned Sub- 
 mersible SHINKAI 2000 System 
 
 Page 
 221 
 
 224 
 
 P. Park 
 
 I. Duedall 
 
 D. Kester 
 
 I. Duedall 
 
 P. Park 
 
 J. Parker 
 
 Pollution and Waste Management 
 Managing Energy Wastes in the Ocean 
 
 Coal-Waste Artificial Reefs in 
 the U.S. 
 
 228 
 
 231 
 
 S. Bales 
 
 R. Bachman 
 
 R. Doughty 
 
 H. Friel 
 
 D. Keach 
 
 J. Millsaps 
 
 J. Puglisi 
 
 J. O'Hara 
 
 A. D'Amico 
 
 Z. Levine 
 
 R. Seymour 
 
 R. Seymour 
 
 C. Smith 
 
 D. Keach 
 
 Additional Papers 
 
 Ocean Wave Spectra Measurement and 
 Hindcasting 234 
 
 Ocean Dumping Monitoring System 238 
 
 Shipboard Smoke Control Using 
 
 Tracer Gas 242 
 
 The Search for a Cost-Ef fective 
 
 Replacement for a Marine 
 
 Research Vessel 245 
 
 Search and Rescue Satellite-Aided 
 
 Tracking 248 
 
 The Role of Maritime Simulation in 
 
 Port and Waterway Development 251 
 
 Wave-Powered Pump 263 
 
 Initiation of Turbidity Currents 
 
 on Shelf and Slope 267 
 
 Technology Assessment to Determine 
 
 Incipient Failures in Maritime 
 
 Structures 269 
 
 National Undersea Laboratory for the 
 University of Southern California 273 
 
 xlii 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF MOLIKPAQ 
 
 Nobuo Nagatomi 
 Manager of Offshore Project Engineering Department 
 
 Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries Co., Ltd. 
 
 6-2, Marunouchi 1-chome, 
 
 Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, JAPAN 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 Mobile Arctic Caisson named "MOLIKPAQ" 
 
 - an Inuit language meaning great wave -, 
 the first of its kind in the world was deli- 
 vered to BeauDril Limited Partnership , a 
 subsidiary of Gulf Canada Resources Inc. at 
 IHI Aichi Works on April 16, 1984. After 
 preparation for towing, MOLIKPAQ left IHI 
 Aichi Works, Nagoya on June 11, 1984 and 
 arrived at Canadian Beaufort Sea after 45 
 days voyage. 
 
 MOLIKPAQ consists of a continuous steel 
 annulus, deck structure and drilling modules 
 and has the capability of year round operation 
 in the iced Arctic Ocean in water depth from 
 15 to 40 m. The sand filled in the core of 
 annulus and the ballast water are designed to 
 resist the horizontal ice loading. IHI under- 
 took the engineering for fabrication in coope- 
 ration with Designer, SWAN WOOSTER 
 ENGINEERING CO., LTD., and developed 
 detail drawings and performed construction. 
 
 TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 As compared with conventional type of 
 artificial gravel island, MOLIKPAQ has the 
 following advantages. 
 
 - Easy Relocation 
 
 After completion of the drilling of an ex- 
 ploratory well, the center core sand is 
 removed partially by dredging, and then 
 the caisson is floated to a new location. 
 
 - No installation works of drilling equipment 
 at site 
 
 All the drilling equipments were already 
 installed and prepared for drilling on the 
 deck at fabrication yard. 
 
 - Decrease of the dredge volume of sand 
 and /or gravel 
 
 The merit will glow up in proportion as the 
 water depth increases. 
 
 Type: Bottom- founded steel structural 
 caisson 
 
 Dimension: Upper section 86.6 m x 86.6 m 
 Lower section 111 m x 111 m 
 Core 73 m x 73 m 
 
 Height to deck 29 m 
 Height to top deflector 33.7 m 
 
 Design water depth: 21 m 
 
 Fig. 1 General arrangement 
 
 Operating range 
 
 Displaced weight 
 
 Draft 
 
 15 m - 40 m 
 
 (set in dredged hole or 
 
 on deposited sand 
 
 berm) 
 
 Lightship 32,000 ton 
 
 Fully laden 46,100 ton 
 
 Lightship 5. 35 m 
 
 Fully laden 8.90 m 
 
 ,3 
 
 Core quantity : 106,250 rrr 
 
 Water ballast quantity: 80,140 m 3 
 
 Classification: ABS + Al Caisson Drilling 
 Unit 
 
CASISSON STRUCTURE 
 
 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 
 
 Structural parts of MOLIKPAQ consist of 
 doughnut shaped caisson structure and box 
 shaped deck structure. Both caisson and 
 deck are completely made of steel. Refer to 
 Table 1 and Fig. 2. 
 
 The steel materials used in exposed sur- 
 face of the caisson structure are required to 
 possess high toughness under ambient tempe- 
 ratures descending down to -50°C. The steel 
 material EH36-060 for this purpose was 
 developed by Japanese steelmakers with 
 "Thermo-Mechanical Control Process". 
 
 On the other hand, the application of 
 large heat input welding processes such as 
 one-side submerged arc welding, currently 
 practiced in shipyards , would utilize efficient- 
 ly the existing shipyard facilities and practices 
 in the construction of these offshore struc- 
 tures , and this should contribute significantly 
 to shortening construction time and reducing 
 work volume in construction. 
 
 Prior to the start of construction, in- 
 vestigation of welding properties of EH 36- 060 
 steel and its application were carried out at 
 our welding laboratory and Aichi Works. Up 
 to the present, the heat input is held at lower 
 level in case of welding the low temperature 
 service steels, for example, 35 - 40 KJ/cm for 
 LPG and LNG storage tanks. However, the 
 welding procedure in large heat inputs was 
 successfully established; 124.9 KJ/cm to one- 
 side submerged arc welding process with flux- 
 copper backing, 78.7 KJ/cm to flux-asbestos 
 backing process and 110.9 KJ/cm to tandem 
 submerged arc welding. • 
 
 Decl EH36-060 
 
 The following mechanical and electrical 
 systems for caisson operation are provided: 
 
 (1) Ballast system consists of the sea chests 
 and pumps located at the lowest level. 
 The pump capacity selections were made 
 on the time basis of removing the water 
 from the point of neutral buoyancy to 
 empty. The system also supplies service 
 water for the drilling equipment and 
 make-up water for the fire water tank. 
 
 (2) Core dewatering system dewaters from 
 core sand through filters on the inner 
 periphery of the caisson. 
 
 (3) Heating system is used for heating the 
 machinery space, fuel oil storage tank 
 and ballast water tank. Heated air cir- 
 culation system and closed glycol /water 
 system is selected according to the 
 requirement of the space and location to 
 be heated. 
 
 (4) Drainage system picks up the drainage 
 from the deck area, from all manned 
 areas , and the bilge from the pump 
 rooms and other machinery rooms. The 
 oil contaminated water are processed 
 through the oil-water separator. Sewage 
 from the accommodation module is 
 processed through the sewage treatment 
 plant. 
 
 (5) Fire protection system consists of the 
 salt water fire fighting system and halon 
 gas extinguishing system. The fire 
 detection and alarm system are also 
 provided. 
 
 (6) Fuel oil system transfers the fuel oil from 
 structural tank to day tank. 
 
 (7) Dredge piping system in the deck 
 structure is used to discharge sand 
 evenly into the core of the caisson. 
 
 (8) Electrical power of caisson is supplied 
 from the top-side generator. 
 
 Fig. 2 Material constitution 
 
 Table 1 Specification of materials 
 
 
 Base metal 
 
 Welded joint 
 
 
 Yield stress 
 (0,) 
 
 Reduction 
 of area 
 
 Charpy absorbed energy 
 
 Charpy absorbed energy 
 
 Sleel \ 
 
 Temp. 
 
 L-direcl. 
 
 C-direct. 
 
 Temp. 
 CO 
 
 Location 
 
 Manual arc welding 
 
 Automatic arc welding 
 
 (kgf/mm*) 
 
 (MPal 
 
 (%> | CO 
 
 (kgf-m) 
 
 U) 
 
 (kgf-m) 
 
 (J) 
 
 (kgf-m) 
 
 U) 
 
 (kgf-m) 
 
 Ul 
 
 EH36-060 
 
 536 
 
 £353 
 
 5 20 
 
 -60 
 
 5 3.5 
 
 £34 
 
 £2.4 
 
 524 
 
 -60 
 
 t/4 
 
 £3.5 
 
 £34 
 
 £2.4 
 
 £24 
 
 EH36 
 
 536 
 
 5353 
 
 520 
 
 -40 
 
 53.5 
 
 £34 
 
 £2.4 
 
 524 
 
 -20 
 
 1/4 
 
 55.5 
 
 554 
 
 541 
 
 540 
 
 DH36 
 
 236 
 
 5353 
 
 520 
 
 -20 
 
 £3 5 
 
 £34 
 
 £2.4 
 
 524 
 
 
 
 t/4 
 
 £5 5 
 
 £54 
 
 £4.1 
 
 £40 
 
 Class 70 
 
 570 
 
 £686 
 
 518 
 
 -30 
 
 £35 
 
 £34 
 
 5 2.4 
 
 £24 
 
 -30 
 
 1/4 
 
 £3.5 
 
 534 
 
 £2 4 
 
 524 
 
DRILLING RIG EQUIPMENT 
 
 The rig possesses the capability to drill 
 wells up to 6,000 meters efficiently and safely 
 year round in the Beaufort Sea. The drilling 
 rig equipment are assembled on the skid in 
 Canada and brought to Japan for installation 
 in the following fourteen (14) modules. 
 
 (1) Piperack enclosure is a structural cover 
 for the pipe storage area. 
 
 (2) Subbase structure consists of plate 
 girders spanning the platform skid rails 
 crosslinked for rigidity. 
 
 (3) Substructure is located on the subbase 
 girders and supports the. derrick and 
 
 encloses the drilling equipment. 
 
 (4) Three bulk modules contain bulk cement 
 and mud storage tanks, and handling 
 equipment for bulk material. 
 
 (5) Two mud modules contain mud tanks and 
 processing equipment. 
 
 (6) Two utility and power modules contain 
 rig and caisson related power generator 
 and distribution equipment. 
 
 (7) Accommodation utility module contains 
 power and utility equipment packages 
 related to the accommodation. 
 
 (8) Two accommodation modules contain living 
 quarter and related facilities for 100 
 persons . 
 
 (9) Helideck module is designed for Sikorsky 
 S61N. 
 
 FABRICATION AND ASSEMBLY 
 
 IHI Aichi Works is one of the largest in 
 the world in the terms of site area, shops and 
 handling equipment. There are also 1,000,000 
 ton dry dock of 810 meter length by 92 meter 
 width. However, as the base dimension of 
 MOLIKPAQ exceeds the width of the dock, a 
 new sophisticated method using submersible 
 pontoon was applied for the most reliable and 
 accurate fabrication. 
 
 That is to fabricate the blocks as heavy 
 and large as possible within the limit of lifting 
 capacity of two 400-ton goliath cranes and 
 erect these blocks completely on the submer- 
 sible pontoon, the caisson is launched and 
 unloaded from the pontoon. 
 
 The details of fabrication, assembly and 
 erection are as follows: 
 
 (1) Material: 
 
 All the steel materials are manufactured 
 at Japanese steel mills and delivered to 
 IHI Aichi Works. The sizes and weights 
 of these steel materials are as follows: 
 
 Plates: maximum length 22.0 m 
 maximum width 4.5 m 
 
 maximum weight 20.0 tons 
 
 Shapes: length 25.0 m 
 
 (2) Fabrication and block assembly of steel 
 structure: 
 
 Steel plates and shapes of framing 
 members are cut by flame cutting equip- 
 ment and preassembled in shop. 
 
 Plates for skin or deck are cut and its 
 edges are prepared by flame planer and 
 jointed to wider plate by welding. Then 
 the framing members and the skin or 
 deck plates are assembled to block, 
 having maximum weight of about 200 MT . 
 
 After structure inspection, the completed 
 blocks are painted in the sheltered and 
 air-conditioned paint shop. 
 
 (3) Pre- fabrication of piping: 
 
 Pipes and fittings for ballasting system, 
 etc. are pre- fabricated in shop according 
 to the spool drawings. 
 
 (4) Pre-outfittings 
 
 Pipes, valves, cable ways and equipment 
 are incorporated into the blocks in shop 
 before pre-erection at erection yard. 
 
 (5) Pre-erection at erection yard: 
 
 The blocks are picked up by 400 ton 
 goliath crane and pre-erected to larger 
 blocks having weight of about 700 ton at 
 erection yard. 
 
 (6) Erection in dock: 
 
 The large blocks are transported indivi- 
 dually by two goliath cranes in synchro- 
 nized operation, and erected on the sub- 
 mergible pontoon placed in the dock. 
 Fig. 3 shows erection sequence. 
 
 (7) Final painting: 
 
 After completion of erection, touch-up 
 painting on the damaged parts and final 
 painting are carried out on the welded 
 parts at erection stage. 
 
 (8) .Launching: 
 
 The pontoon is floated in the dock and 
 pulled out from the dock by tug boat. 
 Then the pontoon is submerged by filling 
 the ballast tanks with water. 
 
 When the caisson floats by its own buoy- 
 ancy, the pontoon is pulled out from 
 under the caisson and then the caisson 
 is moored to the quay. 
 
(9) Loading of deck structure and drilling 
 modules 
 
 The deck structures fabricated in two 
 pieces are installed on the caisson by 
 a floating crane. The drilling modules 
 are installed on the deck by the floating 
 crane. 
 
 (10) Test and commissioning 
 
 While caisson is moored to quay, all 
 required tests and commissioning are 
 performed and all functions have been 
 verified prior to the delivery. 
 
 TOWING 
 
 MOLIKPAQ left IHI Aichi Works on June 
 11, 1984 and started her towage to the 
 Canadian Beaufort Sea. The towing of huge 
 structure such" as MOLIKPAQ from Japan to 
 the Arctic Ocean is the world's first event 
 and is a big milestone in new technical range 
 of towing. Towing specification is as follows: 
 
 8.9 m 
 
 46,100 tons 
 3,180 N. Miles 
 
 Draft 
 
 Corresponding displacement 
 
 Towing distance 
 
 (from Nagoya to Cape Lisburne) 
 
 : 16,000 IHP x 
 3 sets 
 
 : 3.5 kt 
 
 Tug Boat 
 
 Average towing speed 
 
 Fig. 4 shows towing route and date. 
 
 Fig. 4 Towing route and date 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 J.C. Bruce, A.G. Harrington "Design 
 Aspects of a Mobile Arctic Caisson" , 
 OTC 4333 
 
 M. Fukagawa, Y. Ogawa, S. Mazaki, 
 T. Kohno, Y. Kumakura, H. Nakamuta, 
 T. Murayama, S. Ohga, T. Hirose, 
 S. Kaihara "Large Heat Input Welding 
 Process Applied to Artificial Island in 
 the Arctic Ocean" (Welding Construction 
 of Mobile Arctic Caisson Rig) , IHI 
 Engineering Review Vol. 17, No. 4 
 Oct. 1984 
 
 Phase 1: Preparation for Construction 
 
 Goliath C rane 
 400 t x 2 aeta 
 
 Phase 2: Erection In Dry Dock 
 
 Phase 3: Launching 
 
 Phase 4: Unloading the Caisson from the Pontoon 
 
 Phase 5: Loading of Deck Structure and Drilling 
 Modules 
 
 Phaae 6: Test and Commissioning 
 
 >B==a^ 
 
 N> 
 
 Fig. 3 Construction sequence 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF ARCTIC STRUCTURE "SUPER CIDS" 
 
 Toshihiro Watanabe 
 Deputy General Manager, Ocean Engineering Depertment 
 
 Nippon Kokan K.K. 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 A unique mobile Arctic drilling structure 
 called "Super CIDS" was delivered by NKK Tsu Works 
 in May 1984. The Super CIDS, completed in only 9 
 months after the construction contract, is a steel/ 
 concrete composite type unit, weighing 56,000 tons. 
 This paper describes the outline of the structure 
 and the applied construction method. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Exploratory drilling in Alaskan Beaufort sea 
 has been conventionally carried out mainly from 
 natural islands and man-made gravel islands. Where 
 natural islands were not available, a gravel island 
 was appropriate and economical for drilling at one 
 specified location with a shallow water depth. 
 However, as the water depth increases, the gravel 
 island becomes proportionately uneconomical. 
 A solution to this problem of coping with increased 
 water depths was to develop mobile drilling 
 structures which would enable more economical and 
 suitable long-range exploration programs. 
 Faced with this challenge, Global Marine Development 
 Inc., USA (GMDI) successfully developed a unique 
 design of modularized steel /concrete composite type 
 mobile Arctic drilling structure. 
 This new design was named Super Concrete Island 
 Drilling System (Super CIDS). GMDI entrusted 
 Nippon Kokan K.K. (NKK) with the difficult task of 
 completing the detailed design and construction work 
 within a very short time: the CIDS had to be built 
 wUhiri 9 months after the construction contract was 
 signed. This paper describes the outline of the 
 construction method of Super CIDS in NKK. 
 
 PARTICULARS 
 
 Contract 
 Delivery 
 Buyer 
 Builder 
 
 September 1983 
 May 1984 
 
 Global Marine Development Inc. (USA) 
 Nippon Kokan K.K. (Japan) 
 Fabrication Yard : NKK Tsu Works 
 Subcontractor for Concrete Part: 
 
 Joint Venture of Shimizu Construction 
 Co. and Penta Ocean Construction Co. 
 
 2. Principal Dimensions 
 
 Steel Mud Base (SMB) 
 Length 312' -6" 
 Breadth 295' -0" 
 Depth 25' -0" 
 Light Weight abt. 13,000 tons 
 Material ASTM A-537 class II Modified 
 
 Concrete Brick (BB-44) 
 Length 234' -0" 
 Breadth 234' -0" 
 Depth 44' -0" 
 Light Weight abt. 35,000 tons 
 Material Pre-stressed high strength 
 light weight concrete 
 
 Deck Storage Barge (DSB) 
 
 2 barges 
 
 Length 
 
 Breadth 
 
 Depth 
 
 Light Weight 
 
 Material 
 
 290' -6" 
 
 136' -0" 
 
 26'-0" 
 
 abt. 8,000 tons 
 
 (for two barges) 
 
 ABS EH36-060 
 
 3. Class and Flag 
 
 Class ABS *A1 
 
 Flag USA (USCG MODU) 
 
 4. Environmental Criteria 
 
 Water depth 
 
 Air Temperature 
 
 Wind Speed 
 
 Wave Height 
 
 Ice Thickness 
 winter 
 summer 
 
 35' -55' 
 
 -60 * F ~ +70 ' F 
 
 70 knots 
 
 17' (significant) 
 
 6.5' first-year ice sheet 
 25' multi-year floe 
 
 Fig 1 Super CIDS Outboard Profile 
 
 CONSTRUCTION 
 
 The project allowed only a very short construction 
 time and the concept of the unit permitted the 
 modularized construction method. 
 
 Components of the Super CIDS, SMB, BB-44 and 
 DSB, and the Drilling module (separately ordered 
 by Parker Drilling Company, USA) were constructed 
 at all three shipyards of NKK. The final assembly 
 of the unit was completed by the stacking at sea 
 near Tsu works. (Fig 2) 
 
SMB 
 
 (Tsurumi Works) 
 
 BB-44 
 
 (Tsu Works) 
 
 DSBs & Living 
 Quarter 
 (Tsu Works) 
 
 Drilling Module 
 (Asano Dockyard 
 & Shimizu Works l 
 
 ZZZ7 
 
 frr/mUzzzi 
 
 tZLX 
 
 r . 7 nj..Tnim\ 
 
 Towing] to 
 Tsu 
 
 ,, T 
 
 Del 
 ; ng 
 
 <b 
 
 Fig 2 Construction Schedule 
 
 The discussion between shipbuilding division 
 engineer and steel division staff of NKK concluded 
 to apply OLAC (One Line Accel leration cooling) 
 process steel production system. 
 
 
 SMB 
 
 DSNB 
 
 Material 
 
 ASTM A537- n Mod. 
 
 ABS EH36-060 
 
 Thickness 
 
 14.2 -50.8 MM 
 
 6.0-31.7 MM 
 
 Tensi le 
 strength 
 
 51.6 -70.4 
 
 kgf/m m' 
 
 50.0 -63.0 
 kgf/m nf 
 
 Yield 
 
 strength 
 
 min 42.3 
 
 kgf/m irf 
 
 min 36.0 
 
 kgf/m nf 
 
 Charpy test 
 
 Ave. 3.5 kg-m 
 
 at. -30 "C 
 
 Ave. 3.5 kg-m 
 at. -60 "C 
 
 1. Steel Mud Base (SMB) 
 
 SMB is located at the lowest part of the 
 structure and contains tanks and a pump room 
 inside, 5f t-high anti-sliding/anti-scouring 
 skirt at the bottom and 2f t-high shear curb on 
 the top for transferring of ice force from BB-44 
 to SMB. 
 
 This square steel box was constructed on skids 
 placed at the Central Building Birth of Tsurumi 
 Works equipped with a 130 tons and a 50 tons jib 
 cranes. As those cranes did not have sufficient 
 reach to cover all of this 312 ft x 290 ft SMB, 
 one crawler crane of 4000T-M was hired. 
 Considering the crane capacity availability, the 
 number of prefabricated blocks of SMB were 
 decided to be 124 pieces. The erection of these 
 prefabricated blocks at the Building Birth pro- 
 ceeded at the rate of three blocks/day. 
 After the construction on the ground, SMB was 
 skided on to the submersible barge of 147.4 m 
 long, 40 m wide and 8.5 m deep. SMB was launched 
 from the submersible barge at 20 m water depth 
 and towed about 200 miles to Tsu Works. 
 
 2. Deck Storage Barge (DSB) 
 
 DSBs (Port and Starboard), the top structure, 
 contain tanks, utility trunk for piping, cabling 
 and passage, pump rooms, emergency quarters, etc. 
 
 Because of the short construction period, the 
 two barges were constructed in the No. 2 dock of 
 Tsu Works at the same time. The 5- layer quarters 
 building was fabricated into one piece and set on 
 the starboard barge before the barge was launched. 
 
 3. Steel Material 
 
 Steel material for SMB and DSBs are shown in 
 table 1. EH36-060 applied to DSB had already 
 been proven as good material by previous appli- 
 cation to ice-breaker built in Tsurumi Works and 
 offshore structure built in Tsu Works. 
 The material has good weldability and much data 
 had been developed for the welding procedure. 
 
 ASTM A537 Class II, the material for SUB, was 
 modified for this project. The original ASTM 
 specification required heat treatment of quench- 
 ing and tempering. This tempering required the 
 furnace which did not allow short delivery of 
 13,000 tons of steel. Also the carbon content 
 of the original ASTM spec was so high that it did 
 not allow high heat input welding. 
 
 Table 1 Steel Material 
 
 4. Basic Brick (BB-44) 
 
 BB-44 is located between SMB and DSB and is 
 designed to resist the ice force. This 
 octagonal box is covered by the top and bottom 
 decks and the external wall. This structure 
 has a double hull construction consisting of 
 external wall, internal wall, and shear walls. 
 The Center part forms honeycomb structure made 
 up of silos and connection wall. (Fig 3) 
 Material of the structure is pres tressed high 
 strength light weight concrete as shown in table 
 2. 
 
 <Re-bar Arrangement The BB-44 is the concrete 
 structure with very high rebar content, ie. 
 about 430 kg of rebar per cubic meter of 
 concrete on arverage and 700 kg at maximum which 
 is 4 to 7 times as dense as ordinary concrete 
 structure. 
 
 Therefore, placing up work of the concrete was 
 carried out very carefully and, for this 
 purpose, spaces for tremie pipes and internal 
 vibrators were maintained by providing spacer 
 pipe when the rebar arrangement was made. 
 (Fig 4) 
 
 <Concrete> The main feature of this concrete 
 is its high strength and light weight with high 
 durability in freeze and thaw actions. 
 To determine the concrete design mix, 28 diffe- 
 rent mixes were tested based on the parameter of 
 W/C ratio, S/A ratio, kind of light weight 
 coarse aggregate and kind of pozzolan; then, 
 corresponding unit weight, air content, compre- 
 ssive strength and durability caracteristics 
 were observed. 
 
 The concrete mix was finally determined after 
 the workability tests of mock-up models. 
 As the conclusion, (1) moisture content of the 
 light weight coarse aggregate should be low 
 (2) When silicafume was applied as a pozzolan, 
 the strength of concrete was increased and 
 workability in fresh concrete was improved 
 compared with the application of flyash. 
 Based on the experiments, the following parti- 
 cular measures were performed. 
 (1) To keep the moisture content low the light 
 weight aggregate was transported by special 
 barge and kept in silos with daily moisture 
 content monitoring. 
 
(2) To kepp concrete workable, high efficient 
 water reducing agent together with super 
 plasticizer was used. 
 
 (3) In summer, to reduce the temperature of 
 fresh concrete, crushed ice was added. 
 
 (4) To cntrol curing method and period of 
 concrete, thermostats were put in the concrete. 
 
 (5) Light weight concrete was poured by bucket 
 to avoid water penetration into light weight 
 aggregate due to the pressure by pumping. 
 
 (6) In winter, to keep the concrete temperature 
 up, insulation sheets and jet heaters were 
 applied. 
 
 <Silos> A silo element of 3 m dia and 12.5 m 
 
 high were devided into 5 sections each ofabt. 
 
 2.5 m high and precast in a subcontractor's 
 
 factory. The shape of each piece was similar 
 
 but different in its openings or fittings for 
 
 pipes, ladders, etc, and they amounted to 
 
 30 kinds of patterns and 1,000 in total number. 
 
 (Fig 5). 
 
 <Pres tress ing> Prestressing work was performed 
 
 in the following procedure. 
 
 (1) After completion of the bottom deck, 25% of 
 the total number of bottom deck prestress 
 tendons were tensined. 
 
 (2) After completion of external wall, remaining 
 75% of bottom deck tendons and horizontal and 
 vertical tendons for external wall were 
 tensioned. 
 
 (3) After completion of the top deck, horizontal 
 tendons for top deck and vertical tendons for 
 internal wall and shear wall were tensioned. 
 <Floating> 6 months after the construction was 
 started, the BB-44 floated successfully and 
 smoothly with a highly precise draft as designed. 
 
 Moon Pool 
 
 Connection wall 
 
 Silo 
 
 Outer wall 
 
 Inner wall 
 Shear wall 
 
 Fig 3 Section view of BB-44 
 
 ■KB 
 
 §§11 
 
 m 
 
 Application 
 
 fresh unit 
 weight 
 
 Compressive 
 strength 
 
 Air content 
 
 Freeze/ thaw 
 durability 
 
 Rebar material 
 
 Prestressing 
 material 
 
 Light Height 
 Concrete 
 
 Bottom deck, 
 Top deck, 
 External Hall, 
 Silo, 
 Connection Wall 
 
 115 lb./ft3 
 
 6,500 psi 
 
 Normal Weight 
 Concrete 
 
 Internal Wall, 
 Shear Wall 
 
 155 lb./ft3 
 8,000 psi 
 
 7 ±2% 
 
 more than 802 at 300 cycles 
 (ASTM C666 Method A) 
 
 ASTM A615 Grade 60 
 
 Wire strand JIS G3536 
 Bar ASTM A772 
 
 Fig 4 Rebar arrangement Fig 5 Erection of Silos 
 
 Table 2 Concrete Material 
 
 5. Stacking 
 
 SMB constructed at Tsurumi Works and BB-44 
 constructed at Tsu Works were stacked at about 
 2.3 miles offshore of abt. 25 m water depth 
 near the Tsu Works. 
 The stacking procedure was as follows (Fig. 6) 
 
 Step 1. Tow SMB & BB-44 to the site. 
 
 Step 2. Hook up the wire of 3,000 tons cranes 
 
 and ballast the mud base. 
 Step 3. Lower the SMB into the sea and tow BB-44 
 
 just above the SMB. 
 Step 4. Hoist the crane and let SMB contact 
 
 BB-44; confirm the position of BB-44 and 
 
 deballast SMB to the complete afloat 
 
 condition. 
 
 The advantage of this method is: 
 
 • By using cranes, SMB could be sunk or floated 
 in the stable motion. 
 
 • When SMB rises and touches BB-44, rising 
 speed can be controled by the crane. This 
 enables the diver to check the clearance 
 between SMB and BB-44 safely. 
 
 • As the SMB does not touch the sea bottom, the 
 operation area can be chosen without 
 restriction of water depth and the sea bed 
 soil condition. 
 
 • Stacking time can be shortened. 
 
 Ballast pumps and valves in SMB were remotely 
 operated from the control stand provided on the 
 "con tori center" barge. All remote control lines 
 including cables, air hoses and hydraulic hoses 
 were connected to SMB through the sea. It took 
 about 45 hours for filling up SMB with ballst 
 water. Special care was taken to avoid leaving 
 air in the tanks as a mooving water surface would 
 unstabilize the crane hook load. 
 Trim and heel was remotely monitored by the 
 inclinometor fitted on the SMB. 
 
CONCLUSION 
 
 (Step!) 
 
 - .C—STEtLMUD.eatt- 
 
 (Step2 
 
 (Step 3 
 
 (Step 4) 
 
 Super CIDS, named "Glomar Beaufort Sea I", 
 was thus successfully completed and towed to 
 Alaska by two 20,000 HP ocean tugs.- It arrived at 
 Harrison Bay in Beaufort sea and started drilling 
 in November. Super CIDS has been bravely meeting 
 the first harsh Arctic winter. 
 
 Steel material, Concrete material, High rebar 
 content, Stacking work, etc.--- those in combination 
 were new challenging experiences to designers and 
 engineers involved in the project. 
 
 We trust that the successful completion of the 
 Super CIDS within the very short delivery time of 
 9 months would encourage ourselves and others to be 
 ready for more challenges. The Super CIDS was an 
 example of what could be achieved by the concerted 
 efforts of the Owner, the Builder and other various 
 people involved in the design and construction of 
 such huge projects. We trust that the successful 
 delivery within only 9 months was the fruit of the 
 good relationship between the Owner and the Builder. 
 
 Fig 6 Stacking procedure 
 
 Stacking of BB-44 on top of SMB was performed 
 by hoisting SMB by cranes, wherein BB-44 had to be 
 set in the shear curb on SMB with a clearance of 
 only 4 inches. Therefore, fine adjustments by 
 means of winches on the floating crane between 
 BB-44 and steel guide pieces provided on the SMB 
 were observed and guided by divers. 
 Afrer the stacking of SMB and BB-44 was completed 
 successfully, the combined structure was towed to 
 the shipyard's quay side. Then, using two 3,000 tons 
 floating cranes, the port DSB and the starboard 
 DSB were successively mounted and stacked. (Fig. 7) 
 
 Fig 7 Mounting of a DSB 
 
SOME ASPECTS OF MARINE FOULING ON THE 
 ARTIFICIAL STRUCTURES OFF JAPANESE COAST 
 
 Nobuo Ito 
 
 Japan Marine Science and Tecnology Center 
 2-15 Natsushima-cho Yokosuka 237 Japan 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Marine structures which are immersed underwater 
 for long periods are susceptible to a wide variety 
 of marine organisms which attack their surfaces. 
 When tolerance levels, dependent on the quantity 
 and type of organisms, are surpassed, a situation 
 which has been called " Marine Fouling " develops. 
 
 
 oaae 
 
 
 locat ion 
 
 
 depth 
 
 t taes 
 
 (1) 
 
 Observation To«er 
 
 
 off Hiratsuka 
 
 
 21a 
 
 3 ! 
 
 (VI 
 
 Art i! ic:al island So-* 
 
 
 off Oral* 
 
 
 U 
 
 
 (3) 
 
 Artificial isla..d \c-^ 
 
 
 off Osata 
 
 
 22a 
 
 } i 
 
 (4) 
 
 Seaberth (for 200000O 
 
 
 in the Port of 
 
 Kash laa 
 
 21 = 
 
 } 1 
 
 (5) 
 
 Seaberth (for 100000O 
 
 
 in the Port of 
 
 Kashiaa 
 
 16> 
 
 
 (6) 
 
 Eiperioenlal exposure 
 
 aci I i ty 
 
 off OigaMa 
 
 
 In 
 
 
 tab 1 e-1. The locations, and other items of the 
 structures 
 
 Because of the problems that they cause, it has 
 been necessary to take certain measures to combut 
 these organisms. Formerly, the research and 
 development of maintainence techniques has 
 concentrated mainly on dry-land applications 
 suitable for ships in dockyards. However, these 
 techniques are of limited value in those 
 underwater fields in which many types of 
 artificial structures are immersed. 
 
 It has therefore become necessary to alter our 
 approach from that of the dockyards to one of 
 direct, underwater-field application. A lack of 
 sufficient technical information and in-water 
 working experience in Japanese fields has, up 
 to the present, inhibited the development of such 
 techniques. 
 
 As a first step, it is indispensable then, that 
 present fouling conditions be practically 
 researched. With this aim, the present paper 
 provides some field research and measuring 
 techn iques. 
 
 This sutdy was performed through the Special 
 Coordination Fund for Promoting S&T of the 
 Science and Technology Agency of the Japanese 
 Government. 
 
 METHOD 
 
 (1) Field studies of present fouling conditions. 
 
 These works Were carried out underwater a total 
 of eight times at six structures, all of which 
 were of a gravity-type such as bridge posts. ( see 
 photo-1 ) The locations, and others were shown to 
 the table-1. 
 
 Photo-1. Observation Tower off Hiratsuka. 
 
 In each field we sampled, observed, and measured 
 fouling communities, each in one meter of water 
 measured from surface to bottom. These samples 
 were taken from areas of lOOcai (10 x 10 cm 
 quadrate method). After detailed observation, we 
 measured these samples' wet-weight in g, and 
 classified each species at our laboratory. 
 
 Thus the biomass, zonation, species composition 
 and settling formation of the fouling animals at 
 each sampling point were investigated. 
 
 We have memolized and taken many photographs 
 underwater of the fouling conditions, while at the 
 same time we have measured the thickness of the 
 fouling assemblage at each sampling point by means 
 of a steel measuring bar. 
 
(2) Development of quantitative field research 
 technique adopting the thickness-measuring 
 device. 
 
 Our thickness-measuring device was developed as 
 our prototype for another, similar works. 
 
 By using this unit we attemped to measure the 
 thickness of the fouling assemblages at the pier 
 of Yokosuka Harbor. The device consisted of an 
 underwater measuring unit and its cables, a 
 receiving-transmitting unit, and a data-processor 
 (see photo-2, and -3 ) 
 
 Photo-2. Underwater unit of the thickness- 
 measuring device. 
 
 Photo-3. Data-processing unit of the device. 
 
 By means of the super-sonic wave method the 
 device has been able to measure the distance from 
 the probe to the surface of the base, and the 
 thickness of the assemblage. The probe can be 
 motordriven and measure up to a length of 120 cm 
 on the rails of the unit's frame, and can be 
 place to within several decades of a cm of the 
 objects. Sufficient power is provided by units on 
 the deck. All data were recorded, calculated and 
 retrieved by personal computer. 
 
 As a means of verifying the findings while the 
 exact technical process is being established, all 
 examinations which presented certain problems — 
 such as those of data processing and underwater 
 working methods, for example -- were repeated. 
 
 Field operations were undertaken by means of 
 scuba diving. 
 
 RESULTS and DISCUSSION 
 
 (1) Field studies. 
 
 Biomass (wet-weight in g / lQQcnf ) and zonation . 
 Within the 1800 g, the fouling biomass varied 
 greatly. In these structures some vertical 
 zonations were shown clearly by the change in 
 biomass, and the consequent change of dominant 
 species. In the case of the observation tower, for 
 example, change of biomass at designated water 
 depths and avarage biomass of each zonation were 
 provided by table-2 and -3, respectively. 
 
 These results suggest the possibility that there 
 are some zonations, not only in the splash and 
 littoral zones, but even in the immersed range. 
 Information on changes of biomass and its zonation 
 are essential for routine maintainance operations 
 such as underwater cleaning and repair. 
 
 i MM 
 
 
 i 
 
 ! 1 
 
 1 j 
 
 
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 Mill 
 
 1982. 10 
 1933. 3 
 
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 5 10 
 
 depth ( m ) 
 
 table-2. Change of biomass at designated water 
 depths. 
 
 zone name ^s^ 
 
 ( 1982. 10 ) 
 
 ( 1983. 3 ) 
 
 depth 
 ( m ) 
 
 average 
 
 biomass 
 (g /100 cut) 
 
 depth 
 ( m ) 
 
 average 
 
 biomass 
 (g /100 erf) 
 
 splash zone 
 (animals -rare) 
 
 OS 
 
 
 
 OS 
 
 
 
 1 lttoral zone 
 (red barnacle dominant) 
 
 
 
 6 2 
 
 
 
 1 4 
 
 first zone 
 (red barnacle dominant) 
 
 1-13 
 
 3 7 9 
 
 1-14 
 
 4 36 
 
 second zone 
 (oyster dominant) 
 
 14-16 
 
 1 34 
 
 15-18 
 
 1 8 1 
 
 near bottom zone 
 (hydroid dominant) 
 
 17-21 
 
 2 4 
 
 19-21 
 
 36 
 
 table-3. Average biomass of each zonation. 
 
 10 
 
Th lckness 
 Data on thickness also provides useful 
 information for understanding phenomena of fouling 
 organisms. ( Since these findings were provided by 
 divers using a measuring bar, the results could be 
 reported only at 0.5 cm intervals. ) 
 
 The vertical distribution of thickness is shown 
 by table-4 and -5, taken at the observation tower 
 and sea berth (for 200, 000t) respectively. In any 
 case, changing situations have been paralleled in 
 each case by similar changes in biomass. In the 
 later it is necessary to separate the zonation 
 for calculating the average thickness; this is not 
 the case in the former. This situation is the 
 result of a lack of clarity in zonation at the sea 
 berth. Thus, the average values from the surface 
 were 4.5, 9.1, 6.7, 5.5, and the later was 12.2cm. 
 Concerning this item, more quantitative research 
 method will be mentioned later. 
 
 table-4. Changes in thickness at the observation 
 tower using measuring bar. 
 
 30 
 
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 Species composition and dominant species 
 During classification a total number of around 70 
 species were found. While the number of species at 
 each field varied from 10 to 40, about 20 species 
 were found to predominate. Judging from a view of 
 the biomass, the major groups in a species 
 classification consisted of barnacles, bivalves, 
 ascidians, tube worms, hydroids, bryozoans, and 
 sponges. An example of species composition found 
 at the observation tower is provided by tab 1 e-6. 
 
 Four species have been found to dominate: Large 
 red barnacle ( Megabalanus rosa ), marine mussel 
 ( My t i 1 us edulis ga 1 loprov inc i a 1 is ), large oyster 
 ( Crassostrea gigas ), large ascidian (Halocynth i a 
 roret izi ) . 
 
 SPECIES NAME 
 
 (barnacles) 
 
 Megabalanus rosa 
 
 Balanus tngonus 
 
 Balanus amphitnte 
 
 Chathamalus challengeri 
 (bivalvia) 
 
 Crassostrea gigas 
 
 Mytilus edulis gal loprovincial is 
 
 Crenomytilus grayanus 
 - (hydro ids) 
 
 Salmacina dysteri 
 
 Loimai medusa 
 
 Hydroides elegans 
 
 Serpulidae spl 
 
 Serpu 1 idae sp2 
 (ascidians) 
 
 Halocynth la roretzi 
 
 Pyura vittata 
 
 Leptoclinum mitsukuru 
 -(bryozoans) 
 
 Bugula neritina 
 
 Dakaria subovoidea 
 
 BRiOZOA sp 
 (others) 
 
 APPERASCE 
 
 1982. 10 1983. 3 
 
 C 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 o 
 c 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 o 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 10 
 ( m ) 
 
 Haliclona permollis 
 llalichondr la japonica 
 DEM0SPONGIAE sp 
 ACTINIARIA sp 
 Caetice depressue 
 Xantho reynaudii 
 Pugettia nipponensis 
 Talitndae sp 
 Pleustidae sp 
 Janiropsis longiantennta 
 Caprella scaura 
 Paracaprella crassa 
 Nereis pelagica 
 Aphroditidae sp 
 Muricidae sp 
 Cleantis planicauda 
 Ascorhynchus sp 
 Ophiocomidae sp 
 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 c 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 c 
 c 
 
 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 c 
 o 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 table-5. Changes in thickness at the Sea berth 
 (for 200, 000t) using measuring bar 
 
 t a b 1 e-6. Species composition at observation tower 
 
 11 
 
At the same time, many species were able to be 
 separated into two groups: those of soft and 
 hardshell animals. The hardshell animals usually 
 have, naturally, a hardshell, wheras the soft 
 animals normelly do not; the presence or absence 
 of these shells greatly effects both the attaching 
 strength and the fouling weight in the water, and 
 hence figures significantly in calculating boyancy 
 in floating structures and the problems of 
 underwater cleaning. 
 
 Sett 1 ing format ion 
 At the main settling formation a triple fouling 
 layer was observed. These layers have been 
 tentatively named as follows: Basic layer, cored 
 layer and covering layer. 
 
 The basic layer was present directly on the 
 coating surface and consisted of tube worms and 
 small barnacles, along with other small, hard 
 animals. This layer supplied a good, rough 
 attaching base for cored layer. 
 
 The cored layer ran from the basic layer to the 
 covering layer and was comprised of large 
 barnacles and/or mussels and oysters, ( et al. ) 
 as the dominant species. Usually these animals 
 were able to attach to the hard surface between 
 the organisms of the basic layer. At the same time, 
 cored layer organisms were able to pile upon one 
 another in tree-like formations. So far, the 
 maximum piling number observed is seven. 
 Additionally, these cored-layer animals, all with 
 large, monozoic shell formation, provided a main 
 pillar with their strong clusters. 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4' 
 
 
 p 
 
 IS 
 
 '/ 
 
 \\ 
 
 
 
 [i 
 
 U"U 
 
 T 1 
 
 f 
 
 j 
 
 f 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 A 
 
 I 
 
 612345678! 
 sweep range ( x 10 cm ) 
 
 table-7. Change of thickness at the pier, using 
 thickness-measuring device. 
 
 In the future, even more useful quantitative data 
 may be provided if we are able to obtain and store 
 information on the specific gravity of fouling 
 cl usters. 
 
 At the present there is some room for further 
 improvement of this work. Among other thing, the 
 operating and data processing method of underwater 
 divers should be made more easy and effective. 
 Once this has been accomplished, it will be 
 necessary to gradually systemalize this process. 
 
 The covering layer formed above the cored layer 
 and is comprised of soft organisms ( hydroids, 
 br yozoans, and sponges ),and small, hard animals 
 ( small barnacles, tube worms and some hard 
 bryozoans ). The species composition of hard 
 organisms in the basic and covering layer were 
 found to be similar. 
 
 (2) Development of quantitative field research 
 techn lque. 
 
 By using our measuring device it was possible to 
 obtain several decades cm of continuous data ( see 
 table-7 ). The repeating of this method allowed us 
 to accumulate a large quantity of thickness data 
 which was far more objective than that obtained by 
 the above-mentioned method of thickness measuring 
 bar. 
 
 Since these data were stored on magnetic tapes, 
 the useful, processed data was readily available. 
 Much statistical information was provided, for 
 example, such as average, maximum, minimum, 
 stadard deviation, besides other calculations. 
 
 12 
 
FUNDAMENTAL STUDY OF THE HUGE-SCALE FLOATING PLATFORM 
 FOR USE OF SEA SPACE (2ND REPORT) 
 
 Yoshifumi Takaishi 
 Sadao Ando 
 
 Ocean Engineering Division 
 Ship Research Institute 
 Ministry of Transport 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 This paper, as the successive report to that 
 presented at the 12th Meeting of MFP in 1983, 
 describes some results obtained by the first 
 stage of the research project 1982-1984. A 
 series of model experiments has been carried 
 out by using models constructed from various 
 combinations of element floating-bodies, and 
 the following items have been investigated: 
 
 a) Hydrodynamic forces such as added mass 
 and damping force, 
 
 b) Wave exciting force and current force, 
 
 c) Motion and stress distributions of the 
 large-sized platform which should be con- 
 sidered as flexible structure, 
 
 d) Structural strength analysis of the main 
 deck structures, 
 
 e) Buckling strength of the connecting parts 
 between platform and the supporting column, 
 
 f) Mooring forces acting on the multi-anchor- 
 ing system, 
 
 g) Berthing or mooring forces of a ship to 
 the platform in waves, 
 
 h) Design and model experiments of the proto- 
 type platform to be offered to the at-sea 
 experiment, 
 i) Design and sea-side experiment of a mecha- 
 nical pile anchor. 
 
 Through these studies, the procedures esti- 
 mating exciting and hydrodynamic forces acting 
 on assemblies of various element floating- 
 bodies have been established so that the 
 motions, stress distributions as well as moor- 
 ing forces can be predicted theoretically so 
 long as the linear assumption be valid. 
 
 MODELS 
 
 Three medium-sized models (Fig. 1) and three 
 large-sized model s(Fig. 2) have been tested 
 either in free-floating or moored conditions 
 at the Offshore Structure Experiment Basin of 
 SRI. The former models have been used to 
 measure exciting forces induced by waves in 
 order to study hydrodynamic interactions bet- 
 ween element floating-bodies, while the latter 
 ones were used to measure flexure responses 
 as well as mooring force distribution of the 
 multi -anchoring systems. 
 
 RESULTS 
 
 The experimental results together with the 
 computation are summarized as follows: 
 
 a. Hydrodynamic Forces 
 
 Added mass and damping force coefficients for 
 the assemblies of the element floating-bodies 
 
 are estimated theoretically by means of three- 
 dimensional singularity distribution method and 
 the results showed good agreement with the mea- 
 sured values by means of the forced oscillation 
 tests, by taking into account of the correction 
 for the viscous damping force. The differences 
 of the hydrodynamic forces on each element body 
 due to the differnce of its position are clear- 
 ly recognized both by the theory and experiment 
 as shown in Fig. 3. 
 
 b. Wave Exciting Forces and Current Force 
 
 The wave exciting forces acting on the assemb- 
 ly of element floating-bodies can be estimated 
 theoretically by sufficient accuracy for the 
 practical use in spite of ignorance of the mut- 
 ual interactions of hydrodynamic forces, as 
 shown in Fig. 4 as an example of the results. 
 
 The drag force by current velocity can be eva- 
 luated by using drag and lift forces acting on 
 the single element body by taking into account 
 of the shielding effects amomg floating bodies 
 which have been determined experimentally. 
 Fig. 5 shows the current forces. 
 
 The berthing forces induced by the moored ship 
 in waves are shown in Fig. 6. The effect of 
 berthing places of the platform are observed. 
 
 c. Motions abd Bending Moments of the Platform 
 Motions of the large-sized models in waves can 
 
 be calculated theoretically in good accuracy as 
 shown in Fig. 7. Furthermore, the vertical 
 motion amplitude and the bending moment distri- 
 bution of the platform were measured and compar- 
 ed with the calculated values which take into 
 account of the elasticity of upper structures. 
 Both calculated and measured values agree well 
 each other qualitatively in general, as shown in 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 d. Mooring Forces Acting on the Multi- Anchoring 
 Systems 
 
 Steady and oscillatory forces acting on the 
 mooring lines of the large-sized models were 
 measured experimentally both in regular and ir- 
 regular waves together with the additional dri- 
 fting forces corresponding to the current or 
 wind forces which were applied mechanically on 
 the platform, and the distributions of mooring 
 forces or the maximum expectable force along 
 the four sides of the platform were estimated, 
 as shown in Fig. 9. 
 
 The so-called slow-drift motion of a moored 
 structure plays a significant role for estima- 
 tion of probability distribution of maxima of 
 mooring forces which remains still unsolved, 
 because of the non-linearity of the phenomena, 
 especially for such complex and huge structures. 
 
 13 
 
e. Planning of the At-Sea Experiment of the 
 
 Proto-Type Platform 
 To ascertain the validity or the reliability 
 of the design procedure developed by the above 
 mentioned studies, the at-sea experiment by 
 using the large-scaled proto-type platform has 
 been planned. The structures designed is as 
 shown in Fig. 10, and its motion characteristics 
 and the related responses estimated by model 
 experiment and theoretical calculation are 
 shown in Fig. 11 . 
 
 THE SECOND STAGE OF RESEARCH 
 
 Following the first stage, the second stage of 
 the research project is planned to start from 
 1985 fiscal year. The main themes of the rese- 
 arch are as follows: 
 
 a) At-Sea Experiment of the Proto-Type Platform 
 The designed structure will be built and towed 
 to the experiment site where the severe environ- 
 mental condition can be expected. 
 Two types of mooring systems will be tested 
 alternately, i.e. the catenary line mooring and 
 tension leg mooring. The motions and related 
 responses will be recorded together with the 
 environmental conditions throughout a year con- 
 tinuously. 
 The mooring systems are shown in Fig. 12. 
 
 b) Impulsive Loads Induced by Extreme Waves 
 The impulsive forces acting on the structures 
 
 induced by extreme waves are investigated exp- 
 erimentally. The effectiveness of the wave 
 breaking structures installed in front of the 
 floating platform if necessary will be also 
 tested giving attention to the mutual inter- 
 actions between platform and wave breakers. 
 
 c) More Precise Estimation of Deflection of 
 The Platform in Waves 
 
 The theoretical estimation method will be de- 
 veloped by taking into account of the hydrodyna- 
 mic mutual interactions among element floating 
 bodies supporting the upper structure. 
 
 d) Estimation Method of the Slow-Drift Motion 
 The non-linear motion characteristics of slow 
 
 drift motion will be investigated to develop 
 the estimation method of the maximum values of 
 mooring forces of the huge-scale platform. 
 The at-sea experiment will contribute very much 
 to obtain the actual data on this phenomena. 
 
 e) Mechanical Pile Anchor Experiment at Sea- side 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 
 
 This research was performed through Special Co- 
 ordination Funds for Promoting S & T of the 
 Science and Technology Agency of the Japanese 
 Government, as a part of the Research on the 
 Utilization of Marine Space by Coastal and Off- 
 shore Structures. 
 
 
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 Fig. 5 Current force acting on 
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 Fig. 6 Berthing forces of the ship to platform 
 
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 Fig. 7 Motion characteristics of the large-sized models 
 
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 -v\ f w " 0-3«H 2 
 
 F.P. ii2 A. P. 
 
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 in irregular waves 
 
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 Fig. 12 Mooring system of the at-sea experiment 
 
 16 
 
RESEARCH PROJECT ON THE STABILITY OF OFFSHORE 
 MOVING DRILLING UNITS OF INTACT AND DAMAGED CONDITION 
 
 Dr. Hiroyuki Adachi 
 Chief of Safety and Stability Section 
 
 and 
 Mr. Hiroshi Kagemoto 
 Thechnical Officer 
 
 Ocean Engineering Division, Ship Research Institute 
 6-38-1, Mitaka, Tokyo, 181 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 Stability research for semi-submer- 
 sibles has been keenly requested by the 
 governmental organizations since the 
 disasters of some accidental overturn- 
 ings of floating offshore structures. 
 In Japan, cooperative research projects 
 [1] have been started in 1983 for the 
 establishment of the basis for stability 
 assessment of semi-submersibles. SRI ( 
 Ship Research Institute) participated as 
 a governmental institute in the projects. 
 SRI also started by itself the stability 
 research under the auspices of the 
 Ministry of Transport. This paper will 
 introduce the research projects of SRI 
 which partly supplement the cooperative 
 research pro jects and partly aim at the 
 development of the method for assessing 
 the stability criterion of semi-submer- 
 sibles. 
 
 OUTLINE OF PROJECT 
 
 The main purpose of the stability 
 research in SRI is to seek a procedure 
 which enables us to estimate the stabi- 
 lity of any semi-submersible drilling 
 units at any designated conditions. So 
 the estimation of overturning moment 
 for a moored floating body under the 
 action of combined external forces due 
 to such as wind, waves and current, in 
 both intact and damaged conditions, is 
 one of the ultimate technical goals of 
 our projects. 
 
 The main feature of the technical 
 plans to the project is to devise 
 several computer programs for the 
 assessment of stability of floating 
 bodies. They are computer programs for 
 the statical and dynamical stability of 
 a floating body affected by the steady 
 and unsteady external forces. And the 
 stability assessment program for the 
 damaged conditions such as flooding to 
 sub-compartments, unballanced ballast 
 water allocation. This is for the 
 statical case. Another assessment 
 program is for the unsteady transient 
 case which deals with the behavior of 
 a floating body after the breakdown of 
 mooring lines, impulsive forces due 
 to high and low energy collisions, 
 mishaps of ballasting control and so 
 forth. 
 
 Apart from the technical aspects 
 of the project, there should be another 
 aspect in the field of application of 
 the researches. Three objectives are 
 contemplated for that. These are so- 
 called the official purposes of the 
 stability research for MODU in SRI. 
 
 Firstly, the consolidation of data con- 
 cerning the stability of MODU is 
 planned. The review of the rules for 
 MODU of IMO and the classification socie- 
 ties has been appealed since the recent 
 consecutively occured accidents. Many 
 proposals have been made based on the 
 extensive investigations of the acci- 
 dents and the basic researches in model 
 basins. It should be necessary to 
 provide enough technical data for such 
 proposals when the amendment of the 
 rules will be advocated. So SRI thinks 
 that it may be important to consolidate 
 basic technical data for MODU's stabili- 
 ty. As for the basic data, the relation 
 between the overturning moment and the 
 inclination angle, the inclinations 
 caused by flooding of sub-compartment 
 due to collision accident and the rela- 
 tion between GM value and the tilt, 
 are considered to be collected by means 
 of experiments and calculations. 
 
 Secondly, SRI is planning to have an 
 experimental system which can pursue the 
 simulation of the overturning of a 
 floating semi-submersible. This aims at 
 clarifying the final stages of the over- 
 turning phenomena of a floating body. 
 For this, the development of experimen- 
 tal apparatus will be necessary. In 
 connection with the phenomena the scal- 
 ing problem between a model and an 
 actual semi-submersible becomes another 
 important problem. 
 
 Thirdly, SRI is hoping for policies to 
 the prevention of accidents based on the 
 stability deficiency. Some ideas to 
 prevent a semi-submersible from the 
 fatal accident should be devised based 
 on the results from the basic data and 
 the overturning analysis. However the 
 prevention of the accidents usually 
 contradicts with the economic side of 
 construction and operation of semi- 
 submersibles. So the ideas must compro- 
 mise with the another aspect other 
 
 17 
 
than technical one. Some efforts will 
 be directed to this problem. 
 
 In the research program of SRI, the 
 development of computer programs for the 
 assessment of stability of floating 
 bodies is given a high priority. Then 
 it seems to be necessary to explain the 
 concept of the assessment of the sta- 
 bility of floating body. 
 
 A MODU which is constructed under 
 the rules of governmental organization 
 may be considered to have enough stabil- 
 ity so that she can withstand the 
 designated storm conditions when she 
 operates in the normal operational 
 condition. Then we say, from the view 
 point of the assessment of stability, 
 she satisfies a certain standard of 
 stability. However even if she satis- 
 fies the standard at her normal opera- 
 tional condition, it does not necessary- 
 ly mean that she is entirely safe for 
 her actual operational conditions other 
 than the designated normal condition. 
 In other words, different GM values 
 can define different standards of sta- 
 bility. Usually a larger GM value 
 tends to give a higher level of safety 
 standard. These considerations lead to 
 the safety standard for arbitrary 
 condition of a semi-submersible. 
 
 It seems to be possible to define 
 the degree of safety with relation to 
 the stability quality for the arbitrary 
 condition of a semi-submersible, if we 
 can obtain the instantaneous GM value 
 and environmental condition. At least 
 in experiments of semi-submersible at a 
 model basin we can control both the en- 
 vironmental condition and model condi- 
 tion, so that in principle we can define 
 the safety standard with relation to the 
 stability of a model at any conditions. 
 Comparison of the safety standard gives 
 some clue to the assessment of stability 
 of a semi-submersible. Later a simple 
 example for the safety standard will be 
 given. 
 
 RESEARCH PROGRAM FOR 1983-1986 
 
 The project of the stability re- 
 search mentioned here is one of four 
 research items of the special project 
 of the Ministry of Transport which 
 is concerned with the evaluation method 
 of mooring system for floating type off- 
 shore structures. The period for this 
 special project is from 1982 to 1986, 
 while the stability research started in 
 1983. 
 
 The following research programs are 
 under way and under planning. 
 
 1) Experimental study of the wind force 
 acting on upper decks whose plan 
 forms have several variations. 
 
 2) Pressure distribution around a bare 
 deck model without any appendix. 
 
 3) Three force components measurement 
 for deck-column-derrick configura- 
 tions by towing tests in towing tank. 
 
 4) Investigation of the behavior of 2- 
 lower hull and 8-column type semi- 
 submersible (Fig. 1) in storm condi- 
 tions simulated by the combined 
 external forces of waves, wind and 
 current in model basin. 
 
 5) Inclination tests for various draft 
 conditions at discretely varying GM 
 values. 
 
 6) Effect of damage extent and statical 
 stability and dynamical stability. 
 Experiments and calculations. 
 
 7) Experimental study on the simulation 
 of the breakdown of mooring lines. 
 
 8) Experimental and theoretical study on 
 the transient response of moored 
 semi-submersible due to various 
 impacts . 
 
 9) Experimental study on the effect of 
 the movement of heavy weight on deck 
 and shipping water. 
 
 10) Simulation of ballast water control 
 and effect of mishandling of ballast 
 water on the statical and dynamical 
 stability. 
 
 11) Simulation of overturning of semi-sub- 
 mersible by adding arbitraryly over- 
 turning moment both statically and 
 dynamically. 
 
 12) Development of computer programs for 
 the assessment of stability. 
 
 13) Probability study on the ultimate 
 stability of MODU. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 -:3 
 
 Fig.l Semi-sub Model with Sub-compartments 
 ESTIMATION METHODS OF STABILITY 
 
 18 
 
 In orde 
 goal of the p 
 establish the 
 stability of 
 And the simul 
 turning of a 
 We describe s 
 procedure for 
 for the stati 
 
 r to attain the technical 
 roject, it is necessary to 
 
 estimation method for the 
 semi-submersibles . 
 ation method for the over- 
 floating body is also needed, 
 imply the flow of research 
 
 the estimation methods 
 cal stability, the dynami- 
 
cal stability and the over-turning 
 simulation method. 
 
 Estimation method for STATICAL STA- 
 BILITY. In Fig. 2 the main flow of the 
 research program is shown. The most 
 important item is the estimation of the 
 steady over-turning moment due to 
 external forces. And the equilibrium 
 equations for forces and moments will 
 be derived based on the steady over- 
 turning moments. The equations must be 
 derived for any conditions of a semi-_ 
 submersible, for free and moored condi- 
 tion, for intact and damaged conditions. 
 The steady overturning moment will 
 cause a floating body to tilt. Usually 
 a steady tilt is given by wind, wave, 
 current, tension of mooring lines, move- 
 ment of heavy loads and ballasting. The 
 quantity of tilt will be determined from 
 the strength of moments and the position 
 of center of gravity of a body. 
 Steady tilt due to external forces of 
 wind, wave and current is obtained from 
 the experiments in wind tunnel and model 
 basin equipped with wave maker and 
 current generator. SRI has such a model 
 basin, so at least the estimation of 
 steady tilt is possible from experi- 
 ments. Also some attempts will be di- 
 rected to the theoretical estimation 
 methods for the steady tilt of floating 
 body in arbitrary conditions. These 
 methods will be consolidated to establish 
 the equilibrium equations for forces 
 and moments. These process will be 
 realized in the computer programs for 
 the statical stability. The inclination 
 test system for models may check the 
 applicability of the calculation. The 
 test system itself is useful to study 
 the basic stability of semi-submersibles 
 The results from above mentioned 
 
 EST I I1AT I ON METHOD 
 STATICAL STABILITY 
 COLLECTION OF DATA 
 
 \/ 
 
 EQUILIBRIUM Eq». 
 FORCE AND MOMENT 
 INTACT AND DAMAGED 
 
 STEADY TILT 
 DUE TO WIND 
 
 /FREE AND MOORED, 
 CONDITIONS 
 
 / STEADY TILT 
 / DUE TO UA'v'E 
 /FREE AND MOORED 
 
 CONDITIONS. 
 
 STEADY TILT 
 DUE TO CURRENTJ 
 FREE AND MOORED 
 F CONDITIONS 
 
 DATA FOR RULES 
 DERIVED FROM 
 STATICAL STABILITY 
 
 4- 
 
 CALCULATION 
 PROGRAMS 
 FOR STATICAL 
 STABILITY 
 
 / COMPARISON OF 
 _^/daTA UITH RULES; 
 "/RECOMMENOAT I ONS 
 
 I REPORT AND I 
 V DATA BOOK J 
 
 processes will provide the data for the 
 assessment of the statical stability, 
 which may be utilized for the comparison 
 with the rules and the proposals to 
 new regulations. 
 
 Estimation method for DYNAMICAL 
 STABILITY. In Fig. 3 the flow of the 
 program is shown. This is a counter- 
 part of the statical case. The forces 
 considered here are unsteady ones. 
 So the motion becomes unsteady. In 
 usual cases, the stability of a float- 
 ing body may become worse when it is 
 under motion due to waves. 
 Some comments seem to be necessary for 
 the dynamical stability. It seems 
 that there is no apparent definition 
 for the dynamical stability. Here we 
 define it as the stability related to 
 the righting arm of a body which making 
 motions. When a floating body is in 
 motion, the arm changes from time 
 to time. The time average of it is 
 defined as same as the steady righting 
 arm which is related to the steady stati- 
 cal stability. Only the changing part is 
 treated in the dynamical stability. 
 The successively changing righting arm 
 can be regarded as a time record, so 
 that it can be treated by the statisti- 
 cal method applying the spectral 
 analysis. Since the righting arm at an 
 instant can be known from the relative 
 motion of a body to the water surface, 
 or the geometrical relation. 
 Therefore the motion response for the 
 external unsteady forces becomes one 
 
 [ESTIMATION METHOD 
 j DYNAM I CAL 
 
 STABILITY 
 I COLLECTION OF DATA 
 
 f MOT I ON RESPONSE, 
 
 IN WAVES 
 'FREE AND MOORED) 
 /CONDITION 
 
 \1/ 
 
 EQUATIONS OF 
 MOTION 
 
 ^MOTION RESPONSE/ fExpeRlvem 
 
 UNDER COMBINED/ 1 UNDER COMB I NED | 
 
 FORCES ^ F ° RCES 
 
 COMPUTER PROGRAMS 
 
 FOR 
 
 MOTIONS 
 
 v 
 
 TRANSIENT 
 MOT I ON 
 RESPONSE 
 
 CALC. OF 
 MOTIONS 
 LINEAR THEORY , 
 
 ANALTSIS 
 NONLINEAR 
 PHENOMENA 
 
 EXPERIMENT 
 TRANS I ENT 
 RESPONSE 
 
 ^ 
 
 COMP AR I SON 
 WITH 
 EXPER I MENTS 
 
 SIMULATION 
 GRAPHICS 
 
 STABILITY 
 
 STANDARD 
 INCLUDING 
 DYNAMICAL 
 
 STABILITY 
 
 £■ 
 
 / COMPARISON OF 
 -W DATA WITH RULES 
 /RECOMMENDATIONS 
 
 REPORT AND 
 DATA BOOK 
 
 Fig. 2 Flow of Statical Stability Research Fig. 3 Flow of Dynamical Stability Reseach 
 
 19 
 
of the important items for the 
 dynamical stability. The research 
 program consists of the estimation of 
 the unsteady motion of a moored float- 
 ing body under the combined forces of 
 wind, wave and current. And the re- 
 sponse for the transient and impulsive 
 forces. This is for the cases such as 
 the breakdown of mooring line, moving 
 of heavy weight and transient ballast- 
 ing and so forth. 
 
 Experimental estimation is possible 
 covering most desirable areas. However, 
 theoretical estimation is not always 
 possible, because the motion of body 
 becomes too large to treat it by 
 the linearized theory, when the body 
 is exposed to large unsteady excitation. 
 Then we have to attack the nonlinear 
 phenomena which have not been investi- 
 gated throughly. In such situation, 
 the experiments and calculations may 
 be consolidated to a hybrid estimation 
 method for motions. The estimation of 
 motion is utilized to set a stability 
 standard including the dynamical sta- 
 bility. 
 
 Simulation method of OVERTURNING. 
 In Fig. 4 a flow of research program is 
 shown. The study of over-turning con- 
 sists of the experimental part and the 
 computer simulation part. As it may not 
 be possible to calculate the process of 
 a over-turning phenomenon theoretically, 
 test results should be utilized to com- 
 pose the simulation programs. As for 
 the experiments, it is not so easy to 
 make a semi-submersible model sink 
 into model basin under the controlled 
 conditions. Then an experimental appa- 
 ratus must be planned to cope with the 
 requests for the statically contorolled 
 over-turning moments. The over-turning 
 experiment will be useful for the 
 assessment of the determination for the 
 extra bouyancy and the consideration of 
 the method of prevention of accidents. 
 
 EXPERIMENTAL 
 STUDY OF 
 OVER-TURNING 
 COU-ECTION OF OATA 
 
 <- 
 
 EXPERIMENT 
 LIE TO STATICA 
 FACTORS 
 
 <r 
 
 -k 
 
 EXPERIMENT 
 TO DYNAMICA 
 FACTORS 
 
 /fac 
 
 \1/ 
 
 ANALYSIS of 
 
 causes of 
 over-turning 
 
 EXPERIMENTAL 
 SIMULATION 
 1 COLLECTION 
 OF DATA 
 
 V 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF 
 CALCULATION 
 
 METHOD 
 
 (REPORT AND \ 
 DATA BOOK J 
 
 ORAPHIC 
 SIMULATION 
 ANALYSIS OF 
 PROCESS 
 
 CONCEPT OF SAFETY STANDARD 
 
 The safety standard can be used to 
 assess a semi-submersible from the point 
 of the stability. Making use of a 
 simple example, the concept of safety 
 standard will be explained. 
 
 A floating body is forced to tilt 
 when it is exposed to an external force. 
 The quantity of the tilt will depend on 
 several parameters such as strength and 
 direction of force vector, point of 
 action and GM value of body. A combina- 
 tion may make it incline over the flood- 
 ing angle. In such case, the degree of 
 danger is defined to be large. To such 
 combination a high penalty point may be 
 allotted. 
 
 Fig. 5 shows the calculated inclination 
 of the model of Fig. 1 due to wind forces. 
 The position of reaction of force is 
 assumed to coincide with the center of 
 gravity. Wind speed and the acting posi- 
 tion of force are parameters shown in the 
 figure. In this case the displacement of 
 body is kept constant, so that KM is also 
 kept constant at the initial inclination. 
 It is obvious that a condition with ini- 
 tially small GM value is relatively more 
 dangerous. But how dangerous is the 
 our problem. If we set the flooding 
 angle at 15 degree, the combinations 
 of parameters by which the tilt is over 
 15° are known from the figure. Small 
 initial GM value does not always give 
 high penalty point if the other pa- 
 rameters are adequate. According to 
 the given condition it is possible 
 to set the safety standard by making 
 use of the penalty point concept. With 
 preparation of chart like Fig. 5 "fox oilier 
 external forces, with appropriate param- 
 eters, a synthesis of the penalty points 
 for various cases will give a safety 
 standard which will be used to assess 
 the stability criterion of MODU. 
 
 DRAFT d=41-5em 
 
 TRIM 
 
 HEEL 
 
 HrCENTE OF FORCE 
 
 "0.1 2 3 A 5 
 GM(Cm) 
 
 Fig. 5 Inclination due to Wind Force 
 
 REFERENCE 
 
 [1] SR 192 Research Panel; Research 
 
 Memoir of the Shipbuilding Research 
 Association of Japan, No. 373, 1984 
 
 Fig. 4 Flow of Simulation of Overturning 
 
 20 
 
MOOS SALM (SINGLE ANCHOR LEG MOORING) TANKER TERMINAL 
 
 Ikuo Mutoh 
 Mitsui Ocean Development & Engineering Co. , Ltd. 
 
 1. INTRODUCTION 
 
 Mutsu-Ogawara Oil Storage Co. (MOOS) 
 constructed a crude oil storage system at 
 Mutsu-Ogawara, Aomori Pref. as a first 
 national oil storage system and it has com- 
 menced the operation in Sep. 1983. (Fig.l) 
 
 The MOOS project consists of 51 crude oil 
 storage tanks on land of which capacity 5.7 
 million kl (36 mil. bbls) in total, offshore 
 SALM tanker terminal, pipelines connecting the 
 offshore terminal and storage tanks, operation 
 control center, power and communication faci- 
 lities etc. 
 
 The offshore transshipment terminal was a 
 first SALM (Single Anchore Leg Mooring) system 
 installed by a Japanese company. (Fig. 2) 
 
 2. DESIGN CRITERIA 
 
 After analyzing the test results, the 
 design loads were determined as follows. 
 
 (1) Natural condition 
 
 Water depth 
 Tide level : 
 
 : 45.3 m 
 
 H.H.W.L. +1.9 m 
 
 H.W.L. +1.52 m 
 
 M.W.L. +0.93 m 
 
 (2) Tanker to be moored 
 
 Max. 
 Min. 
 
 (3) Oil 
 
 275,000 DWT 
 100,000 DWT 
 
 Kind of Oil : Low viscosity crude oil 
 
 (50cst/15°C) 
 
 Sp. gravity : max. 0.886 
 min. 0.828 
 Oil transfer rate : Max 15,000 kl/hr 
 Max. oil transfer pressure : 9.4 kg/cm2 
 
 (4) SALM Buoy operating condition 
 
 
 Moored cond. 
 
 Survival cond. 
 
 Wave height 
 Wave period 
 Wind speed 
 Current 
 
 2.5 m 
 8.5 sec 
 20 m/s 
 0.75 m/s 
 
 7.8 m 
 16 sec 
 35 m/s 
 0.75 m/s 
 
 Note: Wave height is significant wave ht 
 
 (Hl/3) and period is peak one. Wind 
 speed is mean velocity of 10 min. 
 
 (5) Design loads on the buoy 
 
 The model test of 1/48 scale was 
 carried out at Netherlands Ship Model 
 Basin in various series changing and 
 combining wave spectrum, wind speed and 
 direction, current, tanker's draft. 
 
 Mooring hawser force 
 Anchor leg chain force 
 Anchor leg chain 
 
 horizontal force 
 Anchor leg chain 
 
 vertical force 
 Anchor leg chain 
 
 heel angle 
 
 (6) Earthquake factor 
 
 205 
 375 
 
 166 t 
 
 345 t 
 32 deg. 
 
 Horizontal 
 Vertical 
 
 Kh=0.204 
 Kv=0.102 
 
 3. SALM SYSTEM (Fig. 3) 
 
 (1) Mooring buoy 
 
 Out dia. : 5.18 m, Height : 15.24 m 
 Draft : 12.5 m 
 Submerged buoyance : 227 t 
 
 It is designed to maintain positive tension 
 on the anchor leg chain at any sea 
 conditions. 
 
 On the topdeck of the buoy, mooring hawser 
 connecting brackets, fog detector, fog 
 horn, navigation light, radar reflecter 
 and antenna are provided. 
 
 In the upper compartment of the buoy, bat- 
 teries, telemetering system and automatic 
 control system are installed. 
 
 On the outside of the buoy, vertical 
 rubber fenders are fitted. 
 
 (2) Mooring base 
 
 The base is a 15.3 m x 15.3 m square 
 construction of two cylindrical tanks 
 (3.1 m dia. x 15.3 m length) connected by 
 girders . 
 
 It is anchored on seafloor by four piles 
 which are rigidly grouted by cement with 
 the base construction. 
 
 Each pile is 1.2 m dia. steel pipe and 
 penetrated into seafloor 19.8 m depth. 
 
 (3) Anchor leg chain 
 
 Flush butt welded stud link chain (Oil 
 Rig Quality) 
 152 mm dia. x 20 m length 
 Breaking Strength : 1,618 t 
 
 Upper end of the chain is connected to the 
 universal joint under the buoy and lower 
 end is connected to chain swivel and U- 
 joint on the fluid swivel. 
 
 21 
 
(4) Fluid Swivel 
 
 It is designed as an independent module 
 unit, and connected on the mooring base by 
 16 high tensile bolts. Lower end of sub- 
 merged hose is connectd to the fluid swivel 
 which can rotate with the tanker and hoses 
 around the buoy. 
 
 The fluid swivel is made of special metal 
 so as to resist severe sea condition long 
 time without lubrication. 
 
 (5) Universal joint 
 
 An universal joint is welded at the buoy's 
 bottom and the top of fluid swivel respec- 
 tively. The bush of the pin is self- 
 lubricating type to minimize the underwater 
 maintenance. 
 
 (6) Hose system 
 
 Hose system consists of two lines of 
 floating hoses, submerged hoses and connec- 
 tion hoses. 
 
 The hoses are 24 inch dia. except the tail 
 hoses of 16" connected to the tanker. 
 
 Each line of the hose is 325 m in length 
 in total. On the submerged hose five 
 adjustable buoyancy tanks are fitted so as 
 to adjust the profile of the hose in the 
 water. The connection hoses are flexible 
 rubber hoses installed between fluid swivel 
 and sea bottom pipes. 
 
 Necessary valves are fitted on the hose 
 lines considering the hose exchanging and 
 cleaning inside. 
 
 (7) Mooring hawser 
 
 The hawser consists of 2 line of nylon 
 rope . 
 
 Circular length : 432 mm 
 Length : 55 m 
 
 (8) Load monitoring system 
 
 The actual load on each hawser is con- 
 tinuously monitored and transmitted to the 
 control station on land. By this load 
 monitoring system, they can make adequate 
 decision to stop the operation or not. The 
 load sensors are strain gage type built in 
 the pin of the mooring bracket on the buoy. 
 
 4. INSTALLATION 
 
 Installation works of the SALM system 
 started in May 1983 and finished in August. 
 
 To minimize the downtime due to heavy sea 
 conditions, one of the largest Self Elevating 
 Platform (SEP) in Japan was used for the main 
 works. (Fig4) 
 
 During the installation period, the works 
 were interrupted often by high waves, sometime 
 9 m wave height, however the works completed 
 nearly as per schedule due to adoption of the 
 SEP which could work up to 1.5 m significant 
 wave height. 
 
 The procedures of the installation works 
 were as follows; (Fig. 5) 
 
 (1) Mooring base installation 
 
 The mooring base was transported beneath 
 the SEP being on board a barge and lifted 
 up once from the barge and ballasted by 
 water up to 50 t underwater weight, then 
 lowered to the sea bottom slowly using two 
 20 t winches on the SEP. 
 
 It was settled in a position within the 
 required tolerance +20 cm using temporary 
 positioning jig and divers' guide. 
 
 (2) Pile driving 
 
 A long steel pile of 76 m was driven by 
 vibrohammer on the SEP at first through 
 pile guide on SEP and pile sleeve on the 
 mooring base. 
 
 Finally, the pile was driven by large 
 capacity air hammer to the required 
 penetration depth. 
 
 After completion of all pile driving, 
 unnecessary underwater parts were cut off 
 by divers. 
 
 (3) Pile grouting 
 
 The piles were rigidly grouted with pile 
 sleeve in the mooring base by pressure 
 cementing system. 
 
 (4) Installation of buoy and anchor chain 
 
 assembly 
 
 Horizontal afloat buoy with anchor chain 
 was upended by filling the water into 
 ballast tanks of the buoy, where the buoy 
 was excessively submerged. 
 
 Lower end of the anchor chain was jointed 
 to the lower universal joint on the mooring 
 base. 
 
 All ballast water in the buoy was 
 deballasted, then the required tension 
 force could be got on the anchor leg chain. 
 
 (5) Installation of hose system 
 
 Connection hose was lowered from SEP bet- 
 ween mooring base and sea bottom pipe end, 
 then bolted up by divers. 
 
 Submerged hoses and floating hoses were 
 assembled on beach near the site and towed 
 out to the mooring buoy. 
 
 The lower end of the submerged hose was 
 flange-jointed to a hose arm on the mooring 
 base by divers. Then floating hose was 
 connected to the upper end of the submerged 
 hose, using floating crane. 
 
 22 
 
JAP AN SEA 
 
 STORAGE TANKS 
 
 ; mooring BASE - 
 
 FIG.1 LOCATION MAP 
 
 RG.2 SALM SYSTEM 
 
 MOORING BUOY 
 
 FLOATING HOSES 
 
 HOSES 
 
 PIES 
 
 xoMecrnoN hoses 
 
 FIG.3 MOOS - SALM GENERAL ARRANGEMENT 
 
 <U 
 
 23 
 
hBJ-PORTDECK 
 
 8" 
 
 o 
 
 IO000 
 
 □ 
 
 D 
 
 mxr 
 
 OPBMNG 
 
 □ 
 
 □ 
 
 »9X> ■ ■ "HOP 
 
 74 OOP 
 
 JIB CRANE 
 
 (1) MOORING BASE LOWERING 
 
 PLAN 
 
 FIG.4 SELF ELEVATING PLATFORM 
 
 FIG.5 INSTALLATION PROCEDURES 
 
 24 
 
SEAKNIFE II DEVELOPMENTS 
 
 Richard M. Shamp 
 
 President 
 Engineering Service Associates, Inc. 
 
 SeaKnife International, Inc. has recently acquired all rights to 
 the SeaKnife. 
 
 SeaKnife (40 ft.) is currently undergoing tests and modifica- 
 tions. 
 
 In the immediate future, construction of a 65 foot SeaKnife will 
 commence. Marketing of the SeaKnife as a ferry boat, workboat, 
 patrol boat, search and rescue boat and interdiction vessel will 
 begin upon completion of the testing of the 65 foot model. 
 
 Projected Performance Specifications 
 
 Monohull Ferry 
 
 Design Cruise Speed 50 Knots 
 
 Displacement (Fully Loaded) 38 tons 
 
 (Empty) 22 tons 
 
 Draft (DIW Loaded) 25 inches 
 
 (Planing) 6 inches 
 
 Length (Overall) 65 feet 
 
 Maximum Beam 29 feet 
 
 Range 450 NM 
 
 Passengers 60 
 
 Crew (Captain, engineer, 2 
 
 deckhands - stewards) 4 
 
 65 Foot Workboat 
 
 Design Cruise Speed 
 
 Displacement (Fully Loaded) 
 (Empty) 
 
 Draft (DIW Loaded) 
 (Planing) 
 
 Length (Overall) 
 
 Maximum Beam 
 
 Range 
 
 Payload 
 
 Crew (Captain, Engineer, 
 2 deckhands) 
 
 52 knots 
 
 38 tons 
 
 22 tons 
 
 25 inches 
 
 6 inches 
 
 65 feet 
 
 29 feet 
 
 450 NM 
 
 6 tons 
 
 4 
 
 Catamaran Ferry 
 
 Design Cruise Speed 40 knots 
 
 Displacement (Fully Loaded) 52 tons 
 
 (Empty) 36 tons 
 
 Draft (DIW Loaded) 30 inches 
 
 (Planing) 6 inches 
 
 Length (Overall) 55 feet 
 
 Maximum Beam 32 feet 
 
 Range 300 NM 
 
 Passengers 92 
 
 Crew (Captain, engineer, 2 7 
 motormen, 3 deckhands - 
 stewards) 
 
 25 
 

 
 "^ Sfcf 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Figure 1 
 
 SeaKnife II, Currently Undergoing Engineering Tests, 
 Speed in Excess of 80 Knots in Open Ocean. 
 
 26 
 
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 U. S. Naval Institute 
 
 February 1985/$2.50 
 
 is? 
 
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 Figure 5 Front Cover of Journal 
 contain5.ng article on 
 SeaKnife. 
 
A REVIEW OF NOAA'S OCEAN PROGRAM 
 
 JAMES W. WINCHESTER 
 
 NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 One of President Reagan's top priorities is 
 his Private Sector Initiative Program which 
 is directed toward developing opportunities 
 for greater private sector participation in 
 government programs. He has urged leaders 
 from all segments of our society to find new 
 ways to revitalize our economy and to meet 
 the needs of America. NOAA is examining sev- 
 eral project areas which would be suitable 
 for the creation of public-private partner- 
 ships between NOAA and the other 
 organizations. Several areas under consider- 
 ation include: the development of real-time 
 information systems to improve safety and 
 efficiency in guiding vessel traffic in ports 
 and harbors; development of new fisheries 
 products for domestic and foreign markets; 
 and the establishment of regional ocean serv- 
 ice centers. 
 
 Several NOAA programs which would be of 
 interest to this panel are discussed includ- 
 ing: Ocean Data and Services, Exclusive 
 Economic Zone, Status and Trends, Delaware 
 Bay Circulation Modeling, Project PORTS, Mean 
 Sea Level, and Next Generation Water-Level 
 Measurement. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Before discussing some of the ocean 
 programs at NOAA which would be of inter- 
 est to the Marine Facilities Panel, I 
 will briefly describe the current NOAA 
 organization structure and NOAA policies 
 in promoting the use of the private sector. 
 
 The principal components of the NOAA 
 Organization are shown in Figure 1. Each 
 of the components are involved in marine- 
 related activities in varying degrees. 
 The National Weather Service, the largest 
 component (5100 employees) of NOAA, 
 provides national weather service forecasts 
 and severe weather advisories and warnings. 
 Marine related services are provided to 
 coastal states including marine forecasts 
 for offshore activities and port operations 
 and fisheries information. The National 
 Ocean Service (NOS) with 2500 employees 
 is the principal ocean-oriented component 
 in NOAA concerned with Charting and Geo- 
 detic Services, Ocean and Coastal Resource 
 Management, Oceanography and Marine Assess- 
 ment, and Marine Operations. The National 
 
 Marine Fisheries Service is about the 
 same size as NOS with 2500 employees 
 and is principally concerned with develop- 
 ment and conservation of the fisheries 
 resource, and conducts supportive research 
 and development activities. The National 
 Environmental Satellite and Data Informa- 
 tion Service with 1200 employees provides 
 supportive service in the form of sate- 
 llite derived data applicable to both 
 Weather Service and Ocean Service opera- 
 tions. The Oceanic and Atmospheric 
 Research component with 1100 employees 
 is mainly concerned with basic and long- 
 range research activities in support of 
 NOAA's atmospheric and ocean-related 
 activities. 
 
 The budget appropriation for NOAA 
 was approximately $1,021 billion in 1994, 
 and is approximately $1,158 billion in 
 1985. Because of the large federal deficit, 
 all government programs are faced with 
 potential reductions and re-alignment of 
 priorities, especially beginning in FY 86. 
 
 PROMOTING USE OF PRIVATE SECTOR 
 
 One of President Reagan's top priori- 
 ties is his Private Sector Initiatives 
 Program. He is personally committed to 
 urging leaders from all segments of our 
 society to join with him to find new ways 
 to revitalize our economy and to meet 
 the needs of America. At NOAA, we are 
 making every effort to enhance private- 
 sector activities as one way to increase 
 productivity and to reduce costs to the 
 taxpayers. NOAA is implementing a number 
 of initiatives in support of the President's 
 program and the Department of Commerce 
 policy. 
 
 PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS 
 
 In order to work more closely with 
 the private sector, NOAA is examining 
 several project areas which would be 
 suitable for the creation of public- 
 private (Government-Industry) partnerships. 
 Developing partnerships for a particular 
 project or function involve identifying 
 the government role and industry role 
 
 31 
 
and the terms of the partnership agreement. 
 Typically, the partnership stipulates that 
 government will cooperate with industry, 
 agree not to compete with industry, and 
 provide an opportunity for industry to 
 obtain a reasonable return on investment. 
 In any government-industry partnership, 
 industry's participation is primarily based 
 on profitability of their investment, mainly 
 through development of value-added products 
 aimed at special interest users. A major 
 objective of any partnership is to develop 
 an agreement where government-industry co- 
 operation complement and strengthen the 
 activity rather than compete with each 
 other. Partnership agreements could range 
 from one extreme where government retains 
 full responsibility and is supported by 
 industry, to where responsibility is shared, 
 to where industry has most of the responsi- 
 bility and government serves as a catalyst 
 to promote industry participation. 
 
 In one case, a group of private 
 companies composed of a natural gas com- 
 pany, and a food manufacturing company have 
 provided resources and are participating 
 with NOAA to develop a thermodynamic model 
 for use in forecasting climate. This joint 
 effort is directed by the National Climate 
 Program Office. 
 
 Studies are currently underway to 
 develop strategies and plans to create 
 public-private partnerships in two other 
 NOAA project areas. One area involves 
 development of new fisheries products and 
 the other involves the development of rapid- 
 access information systems for port and 
 harbor operations. 
 
 For a number of years, the vast majori- 
 ty of weather forecasts has been disseminated 
 to the public by the private radio and tele- 
 vision media. With the increasing availa- 
 bility of satellite communications and cable 
 television, we expect that the trend will 
 increase and even a larger percentage of 
 weather forecasts will be disseminated in 
 the future by the private media with no 
 expenditure of public funds. 
 
 NOAA is also reviewing its ocean and 
 environmental satellite services programs 
 to determine if some portions of ship 
 operations, hydrographic and oceanographic 
 surveys, chart production, and satellite 
 operations should be transferred to the 
 private sector as commercial ventures. 
 
 In order to improve communications 
 with the private sector and to help provide 
 incentives to industry to expand into here- 
 tofore government services, NOAA has estab- 
 lished an Office of Business Affairs and 
 an Extension Service to avoid competition 
 with the private sector and to assist 
 industry in developing new businesses and 
 
 new markets. NOAA's Office of Research 
 and Technology Applications also assists 
 the private sector and state and local 
 governments in utilization of available 
 technology. 
 
 The economic strength of the United 
 States is determined by the viability of 
 our competitive free-enterprise system. 
 The federal government is the largest user 
 of commercial-type goods and services of 
 any organization in the world. Therefore, 
 finding the most efficient and economic 
 method of obtaining those needed goods and 
 services can produce greater savings to 
 the taxpayers than any other one effort. 
 
 OCEAN PROGRAMS 
 
 In my previous presentation to you in 
 the 12th joint meeting of the Marine Facil- 
 ities Panel in September 1983, I briefly 
 described some of NOAA's activities that 
 related to marine facilities. Since time 
 does not permit describing the status and 
 plans for all projects, I have again se- 
 lected several projects which I would like 
 to describe briefly. 
 
 Ocean Data and Services 
 
 Ocean observational data is acquired 
 through various offshore collection net- 
 works including the collection of meteoro- 
 logical and oceanographic data from buoys, 
 NOAA vessels, offshore platforms, and 
 cooperating ships of opportunity. Marine 
 data acquisition and processing is central- 
 ized at national centers including NOAA's 
 National Meteorological Center, the Joint 
 Navy /NOAA Center at Monterey, California, 
 and the Joint Navy /NOAA Ice Center at 
 Suitland, Maryland. The processed meteor- 
 ological and oceanographic data and prod- 
 ucts developed at national centers are made 
 available at selected regional ocean service 
 centers. NOAA will provide improved 
 services to users by eliminating the back 
 logs of current data, tide and water-level 
 data, and hydrographic-survey data, and 
 by reducing the processing time required 
 to prepare charts of hydrographic-survey 
 data, tide, and current information. 
 
 NOAA is presently exploring the pos- 
 sibilities of creating partnerships with 
 industry to operate the regional ocean 
 service centers. NOAA will continue to 
 acquire and process data through existing 
 national and regional networks and make 
 these data and products available at 
 regional centers for use by the private 
 sector in providing value-added products 
 to special interest users including: 
 Federal, state, and local governments; and 
 the industrial/business sector including: 
 fishing, agriculture, forestry, boating 
 and recreation, construction (on shore and 
 
 32 
 
off shore), utilities, communications, 
 maritime, emergency services, coastal 
 planners, and many others. This plan 
 would promote the development of businesses 
 resulting in an economic stimulus in each 
 region through business expansion, employ- 
 ment, and contribution to Federal and state 
 revenues through taxes. In addition, the 
 public sector as a whole would benefit 
 by having this function performed by the 
 private sector, not requiring any expendi- 
 ture of public funds. 
 
 The National Research Council (Marine 
 Board) is conducting an assessment of the 
 concept of an Integrated Ocean Observa- 
 tion System for the Alaskan offshore area, 
 especially the Exclusive Economic Zone. 
 The offshore community has expressed inter- 
 est in rapid access of meteorological and 
 oceanographic data including: 
 
 marine weather; 
 
 sea surface and subsurface distribu- 
 tion of temperature and currents 
 (including tidal) ; and 
 
 present and forecast sea-ice edge, 
 concentration, extent, thickness, 
 and drift. 
 
 These data will facilitate their 
 operation in the Alaskan offshore region, 
 especially for ocean-resource development. 
 
 The Marine Board will make an assess- 
 ment of the need for developing an inte- 
 grated system to acquire, quality control, 
 process, interpret, and disseminate unique 
 Polar environmental data. This study will 
 assess the state-of-practice to determine 
 the applicability of existing systems and 
 adequacy in meeting current and projected 
 user needs. Deficiencies and additional 
 needed development will be identified as 
 they are determined. A systems approach 
 will be considered for integrating exist- 
 ing acquisition sources with any required 
 additions or improvements. This study will 
 provide some guidance in technical and or- 
 ganizational decisions regarding the need 
 for acquiring, processing, and disseminat- 
 ing marine-environmental data in the 
 Alaskan region. 
 
 An integrated ocean observational 
 system can benefit government (Federal, 
 state, local) and industrial and academic 
 sectors operating in the Alaskan region. 
 A government-industry partnership arrange- 
 ment will be considered as an effective 
 and efficient approach for implementation 
 of such a program. 
 
 Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) 
 
 In res 
 proclamatio 
 surrounding 
 sessions as 
 a program o 
 territory, 
 Exclusive E 
 200 miles o 
 approximate 
 
 ponse to President Reagan's 1983 
 n declaring the oceanic areas 
 the United States and its pos- 
 exclusive territory, NOAA began 
 f mapping the ocean floor. This 
 designated as the United States' 
 conomic Zone (EEZ) , lies within 
 f the coastline and encompasses 
 ly 3.4 million square miles. 
 
 The EEZ program includes the collection, 
 analysis, and distribution of bathymetric 
 (water depth) and geophysical (gravity, 
 magnetics, and seismic reflections) products 
 within selected high priority areas of the 
 EEZ. Initial NOAA plans are to survey areas 
 of the west coast of the United States. 
 Survey techniques will utilize state-of-the- 
 art multi-beam swath-mapping techniques. 
 These systems, in conjunction with precision 
 navigation, will produce bathymetric maps 
 at a scale of 1:100,000 with 20-meter con- 
 tour intervals. These maps will provide 
 such underwater features as canyons, ridges, 
 sea mounts, and faults, many of which are 
 not presently shown on existing bathymetric 
 maps. Digital data sets of the bathymetric 
 information will be available for scientific 
 researchers to utilize in conjunction with 
 other types of marine environmental data. 
 
 Status and Trends Program 
 
 Assessment of the effects of human 
 activities on coastal and estuarine envi- 
 ronments and development leading to improved 
 use of these environments require a body of 
 useful and reliable information regarding 
 variations in environmental conditions. 
 This information should be based upon sys- 
 tematic observations in carefully selected 
 locations using meaningful indicators of 
 environmental conditions in order to detect 
 significant changes in environmental quality. 
 In 1984, NOAA initiated a new program called 
 the National Status and Trends (S&T) Program 
 to quantify the current status and long- 
 term, temporal and spatial trends of key 
 contaminant concentrations, water-quality 
 parameters, biological indicators of effects 
 in the nation's coastal and estuarine en- 
 vironments. This program intends to deter- 
 mine the current conditions of the nation's 
 coastal zone, and whether these conditions 
 are getting better or worse. A nationally 
 uniform set of measurement techniques will 
 be employed to determine marine environ- 
 mental-quality parameters. 
 
 Fifty sites along the coastal United 
 States have been selected for surveillance 
 of benthic organisms. These locations 
 include urbanized industrial areas and a 
 few pristine areas that will serve as 
 reference points. 
 
 33 
 
Measurements of toxic chemicals will 
 be made in both surface sediments and 
 bottomfish taken from the same areas. 
 Sediments were selected because they are 
 known reservoirs of contaminants; bottom- 
 fish were selected because they are reli- 
 able indicators of local pollution and 
 because their exposure to toxic chemicals 
 is linked primarily to bottom sediments. 
 Lesions and disorders in the collected 
 bottomfish will be evaluated as an indi- 
 cator of biological response to toxic 
 chemicals. The S&T Program will also 
 collect mussels or other suitable bivalves 
 from 150 sites nationwide.' Of these, 37 
 will coincide with sites occupied by the 
 former National Mussel Watch Program 
 supported by the U.S. Environmental Pro- 
 tection Agency from 1976 to 1978. Bivalves 
 will be analyzed for major and trace ele- 
 ments, PAHs, PCBs, chlorinated pesticides, 
 size, weight, gonadal/somatic index, and 
 percent lipids. 
 
 The S&T Program will construct a data 
 base containing new measurements data 
 (nationally uniform quality controlled, 
 statistically reliable) and selected data 
 from other monitoring programs. The data 
 base will be available, to regulatory and 
 management organizations, environmental 
 scientists, and other interested parties. 
 
 Delaware Bay Circulation Modelling 
 
 A numerical model of Delaware Bay 
 and River was developed using real-time 
 oceanographic and meteorolgoical data 
 to provide near-term water level and 
 circulation forecasts. 
 
 The effort is based on a two-dimen- 
 sional circulation model developed at 
 Princeton University and adapted to the 
 Delaware estuary. The model has several 
 modes of operation which are presently 
 being exercised to investigate enhancements 
 to traditional NOAA circulation products. 
 The model can be run in a non real-time 
 mode to produce circulation and water level 
 parameters required for atlas production. 
 The model may also be used in real-time 
 to predict near-term (0 - 36 hours) condi- 
 tions in the bay. For this mode, real-time 
 data from four water level gages and 
 several meteorological stations are used 
 to initialize the model. Using the real- 
 time data as initial conditions, the model 
 provides accurate near-time predictions of 
 currents and water levels for users such 
 as ship operators and pilots. 
 
 Project PORTS 
 
 Provision of up-to-date charting and 
 mapping data is one of the responsibilities 
 of NOAA. With the increased labor and 
 energy costs of shipping and the desire 
 to increase the capacity and keel depth of 
 
 marine carriers serving specific ports, the 
 need for accurate real-time data on depth, 
 current, weather, and bar crossing data 
 (wave and current conditions) has been 
 recognized. At the present time, NOAA 
 publishes tables of daily tidal and current 
 predictions. These data, in conjunction 
 with data on nautical charts, provide in- 
 formation on both the static and the dynamic 
 environment for use by mariners for safe 
 navigation. 
 
 In some locations, predicted data 
 accurately reflect actual conditions. In 
 others, local, short-term meteorological 
 effects, estuarine flows, and other environ- 
 mental factors significantly affect water 
 depth, currents, and navigating conditions. 
 NOAA is cooperating with state and local 
 interests to determine their needs for 
 real-time data for vessel traffic in port 
 and harbor operations. 
 
 One such effort involves collaboration 
 with the Maritme Association of the Port of 
 New York, and has resulted in a demonstra- 
 tion system providing real-time tide and 
 wind data. Real-time environmental and 
 navigation systems for port and harbor 
 operations are being considered for imple- 
 mentation via a partnership with industry. 
 
 Mean Sea Level 
 
 An improved system for measuring mean 
 sea level is being proposed by NOAA that 
 would link the tide-gauge network to a 
 global geodetic reference frame. The sys- 
 tem utilizes existing Global Positioning 
 System (GPS) and Very Long Baseline Inter- 
 ferometry (VLBI) technology to measure, and 
 thus eliminate, vertical land motion as a 
 major source of uncertainty in estimates 
 of sea level change derived from tide guage 
 data. The improved sea-level monitoring 
 system is a cooperative international effort 
 aimed at providing the first true measure 
 of "absolute" sea level by distinguishing 
 real sea level change from spurious trends 
 which appear as the result of land uplift 
 and subsidence. The need for such a sys- 
 tem stems from the fact that global sea 
 level appears to be rising in response to 
 global climate warming due to increasing 
 concentrations of atmospheric carbon diox- 
 ide and other so-called "Greenhouse" gases. 
 Indications of sea-level rise include the 
 fact that three-fourths of the world's 
 beaches are eroding at rates ranging from 
 10 centimeters to over one meter per year. 
 In some regions, such as the gulf coast of 
 Louisiana and Texas, the combination of 
 eustatic rise and land subsidence is caus- 
 ing a relative sea-level rise of as much 
 as a half inch per year with consequent 
 land losses approaching 50 square miles 
 per year. 
 
 34 
 
Another important application of the 
 improved global sea-level monitoring net- 
 work will be to validate and blend with 
 satellite altimeter data from projected 
 U.S. and European altimetric satellites. 
 
 Next Generation Water Level Measurement 
 System 
 
 The obsolete systems in the existing 
 National Tide and Water Level Observation 
 Network (NTWLON) are being replaced with 
 a fully integrated system known as the 
 Next Generation Water Level Measurement 
 System (NGWLMS) . 
 
 NTWLON is composed os 225 permanent 
 primary control tide- and water-level 
 stations located in the marine waters of 
 the United States and its territories and 
 approximately 150 temporary stations. 
 Permanent stations, those which have been 
 in continuous operation for one or more 
 years and will continue to be in operation 
 indefinitely, provide the long-term mean 
 values which are required to establish 
 tidal datums and marine boundaries. Tem- 
 porary stations are usually operated less 
 than a year to support hydrographic sur- 
 veys, circulation surveys, and special 
 projects. Data from the NTWLON are pro- 
 cessed and analyzed in a central office 
 located at Rockville, Maryland , to provide 
 tidal information products. 
 
 NGWLMS consists of five major sub- 
 systems: sensor/measurement, data collect- 
 ion and recording, data transmission, data 
 processing and analysis, and data and in- 
 formation dissemination. NOAA proposes 
 to integrate its sea level/tide/Great Lakes 
 measurements networks (including the 
 Tsunami Warning System) and modernize them 
 with new technology sensors, satellite 
 transmission subsystems, and a central data 
 receiving/processing subsystem. The inte- 
 gration effort will include near real-time 
 capability and links with other NOAA cen- 
 ters and systems for ocean, weather, and 
 climate services. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 There is considerable activity and 
 interest in supporting the development and 
 management of ocean resources through ac- 
 quisition and dissemination of ocean data 
 and information, modernization of equip- 
 ment, and improvement in coastal facilities 
 and operations. This will require estab- 
 lishment of priorities and planning in- 
 cluding close cooperation and partnerships 
 with government, industry, and academia. 
 
 35 
 
THE SECOND TERM PLAN OF WAVE POWER GENERATOR "KAIMEI" PROJECT 
 
 Shinichi Ishii 
 Yoshio Masuda 
 Takeaki Miyazaki 
 
 Marine Exploitation Technology Department 
 Japan Marine Science and Technology Center 
 2-15 Natsushimachou Yokosukashi 237 JAPAN 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 The objective of this project is to 
 advance the state-of-the-art in the area of 
 wave power electricity generating units by 
 testing air turbine-type wave power generat- 
 ing systems. The second term plan are 
 roughly divided into the following two parts: 
 
 (1) On-board equipment: 
 Miniaturization and simplification of 
 
 power generation equipment, intensification 
 and improvement of the out-put. 
 
 (2) Hull: Improvement of out put transformed 
 from wave to air. 
 
 In the development of on-board equipment 
 concerning item (1) above, maximum efforts 
 will be made to effectively utilize the present 
 KAIMEI. Comparative studies will be carried 
 out simultaneously to examine the performances 
 of various types of on-board equipment. 
 
 through the use of the Wells turbine. It is 
 easy to manufacture, and its high-speed re- 
 volutions are extremely effective in somthing 
 of the power generation. However, on the 
 other hand, it is accompanied by such defects 
 as large shaft thrust and difficulties in 
 designing the bearings. 
 
 The tandem-type Wells turbine shown in 
 Fig 2 emerged to improve the aforementioned 
 Wells turbine. It is intended to offset 
 shaft thrust by positioning a pair of Wells 
 turbines tandemly and by letting airflows blow 
 against each other from opposite directions. 
 This turbine (40kw umit) was tested on shore 
 fixed Air chamber in successfuly at winter of 
 1983. The same unit (scale up to 60kw) is 
 tested on KAIMEI. 
 
 GENERATOR 
 
 WELLS TURBINE 
 
 AIR CHAMBE R 
 {.^rrrrrrnrrTrTjTTrrmrrrmrrrrTTTTTTTrrTTTT^ 
 WAVE 
 
 rm 
 
 Fig 1. Wave Power Generator KAIMEI 
 In regard to hull improvement, the 
 correlation between the results of ocean 
 experiment of the model shall be initially 
 clarified. Data are already available 
 regarding this matter, however, additional 
 experiments will be performed in the case the 
 need arises. 
 
 POWER GENERATION EQUIPMENT 
 
 The double rotor valveless turbine of the 
 U.S. had been manufactured through efforts extended 
 by the U.S., and basic experiments have already 
 been completed. This turbine is an ideal valve- 
 less turbine to be used on KAIMEI from the begin- 
 ning. The tests are to be performed on-board KAIMEI, 
 
 The Wells turbine was invented by Queens 
 University in the U.K.. 
 
 The size of the equipment has been reduced 
 
 36 
 
 Fig 2. Tandem-type Wells Turbine 
 
 (2) Airflow Phase Control Test 
 
 Waves with long period possess large 
 amounts of energy. Nevertheless, all wave 
 power generation devices up to the present 
 have hardly produced any power output when 
 exposed to waves with long period. A similar 
 situation waa observed in the air turbine 
 system. The following airflow phase cotrol 
 air turbine system. The phase control system 
 was proporsaled by Professor Budal of Norway 
 who was successful in substantially increasing 
 power output by stopping and removing the 
 vertically moving buoys (point absorbers). 
 This idea can be applied to the air turbine 
 system. Fig 3 shows the application of the 
 system to the tandem-type Wells turbine. 
 In this case, a butterfly valve is installed 
 at the air channel, and airflow is controlled 
 by the opening and closing the valve through 
 the hydraulic signals sent by the waves. 
 
^ HI 
 
 7777-, 
 
 1_Q- 
 
 V / V / / '/ '/77-7-7T77 
 
 "© 
 
 (l)Air Chamber (2)Hydraulic Pressure Detecting 
 Section (3)Wells Turbine(4)Wells Turbine (5) Rotor 
 (6)Stator(7)Valve Seat (8)Packing(9)Butterf ly Valve 
 (lO)Righting Weight (ll)Shaft (12)Servo Motor 
 
 Fig 3. Tandem-type Wells Turbine with 
 an Airflow Phase Control System 
 
 OPEN SEA EXPERIMENT METHOD . 
 
 The sea experiment is planned one year, 
 several performance improvement programs will be 
 tested and compared one by one on KAIMEI. The 
 experiment will be conducted in 1985. 
 The site of the experiment will be offshore of 
 Yura, Tsuruoka City, Yamagata Prefecture at a 
 depth of 40m . This is the same experimental 
 site as the previous one. 
 
 OTHERS 
 
 This project is accomplished as sub-task C: 
 open sea test under IEA wave power conversion 
 system study. We wish to express oun gratitued 
 to participation of USA to sub-task C. IEA 
 study includes Sub-task A wave information and 
 sub-task B research and development. 
 
 The Japan Marine Science and Technology 
 Center will work as the Opearating Agent to 
 advance the area of wave power electricity 
 generation with IEA wave power participation 
 countries. Since wave power is abundom on sea, 
 wave power generation is applicable to source of 
 power at sea, power supply for isolated Islands 
 and power supply for electric power systems. 
 
 So the vertical oscillation of the water colum 
 in the chamber will be modulated to the natural 
 frequency period of the air chamber, and by 
 selection appropriate timing for opening the 
 butterfly valve. 
 
 When the airflow phase control is implement- 
 ed, efficiency is increased for long period 
 waves as shown by the dotted line in Fig 4. 
 The air pressure period in each air chamber 
 are similarly distributed in a considerably 
 long period of 8-9 seconds, and efficiency is 
 expected to be increased through phase control. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L 0.69 IT) 
 
 
 
 phase control exp. oal. 
 
 
 B 0.44 m 
 
 
 
 without o —— 
 
 
 d 0.20 m 
 nozzle ratio 
 
 1/68 
 
 
 with • 
 
 
 
 
 1.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f \ 
 
 1 \ 
 
 0.5 
 
 i 
 / I 
 
 f 
 ' (averaged curve) 
 
 o\_ 
 
 1 °" o 1- 
 
 ! 
 
 2 3 A 
 Tw/T N 
 
 Fig 4 Example of Correlations between Wave 
 
 period Efficiency with and without Controls 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 H.Hotta, T.Miyazaki: Increase of Wave Energy 
 Absorption Ratio by Phase Control, 1st Symposium 
 on Wave Energy Utilization ,(1984) 
 
 Y.Washio, H.Hotta, T.Miyazaki, Y.Masuda: Full-Scale 
 
 Performance Tests on Tandem Wells Turbine, 
 
 1st Symposium on Wave Energy Utilization, (1984) 
 
 (3)Four Valves Impulse Turbine 
 
 Four valves type power generation units 
 with impulse turbines are tested in continueing 
 from first sea trial. 
 
 (4)Hull Of KAIMEI 
 
 The hull of the KAIMEI, 80m in length and 
 12m in width, will be reused after undergoing 
 thorough repairs. 
 
 37 
 
The International Program of Scientific Ocean Drilling 
 
 Philip D. Rabinowitz 
 Director 
 Ocean Drilling Program 
 
 Texas A&M University 
 College Station, Texas 
 
 Abstract 
 
 Texas A&M University is the operating 
 institution for the new $30 million per year, 
 10-year program of scientific Ocean Drilling. 
 This program is likely the most ambitious basic 
 research program in the earth sciences today. 
 
 The responsibilities of TAMU as Science 
 Operator include implementing the science plans 
 under the guidance of JOIDES, providing 
 logistical and technical support for a shipboard 
 science team, managing post-cruise activities, 
 the long term curation and distribution of core 
 samples, and coordinating, editing and 
 publication of the final research product. The 
 scientific programs will be carried out with the 
 drilling vessel JOIDES RESOLUTION (registered 
 name SEDCO/BP 471), a dynamically positioned 
 drillship capable of deploying 30,000 ft. of 
 drill string and operating with a riser in 6,000 
 ft. of water. 
 
 Introduction 
 
 In 1964, four of the major marine geoscience 
 institutions ( Lamon t -Dohe r t y Geological 
 Observatory of Columbia University [L-DG0], 
 Scripps Institution of Oceanography of the 
 University of California at San Diego [SI0], 
 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution [WH0I], and 
 the Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric 
 Science of the University of Miami [RSMAS]) 
 signed a memorandum of agreement which 
 inaugurated the Joint Oceanographic Institutions 
 for Deep Earth Sampling (JOIDES) and led the way 
 for the development of a unified program of deep 
 ocean drilling. 
 
 Now an international scientific 
 organization, JOIDES currently includes six 
 additional U.S. institutions: Texas A&M 
 University; the University of Texas at Austin; 
 Oregon State University; the University of Rhode 
 Island; the University of Hawaii; and the 
 University of Washington. JOIDES institutions 
 representing "10 other countries include: the 
 Bundesans t al t fur Geow i s senschaf ten and 
 Roshstoffe of the Federal Republic of Germany; 
 the Centre National pour L ' Exploitation des 
 Oceans of France; the Department of Energy, 
 Mines, and Resources of Canada; the Natural 
 Environment Research Council of the United 
 Kingdom; the University of Tokyo Ocean Research 
 Institute of Japan; and the European Science 
 
 and John Flipse 
 
 Associate Vice Chancellor and 
 Associate Dean of Engineering 
 
 Texas A&M University- 
 College Station, Texas 
 
 Foundation which represents Italy, the 
 Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland. 
 
 The initial effort of JOIDES was the 
 drilling of several deep holes on the Blake 
 plateau off of northern Florida. The drilling 
 vessel was M/V CALDRILL I, a converted 54-meter, 
 AKL-type vessel equipped for rotary drilling. [1] 
 This first successful effort of scientific ocean 
 drilling paved the way for a more ambitious 
 program: the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP). 
 This 15-year, globe-encircling scientific program 
 of ocean drilling commenced in 1968, with SIO as 
 the operating institution. The drilling vessel 
 was the D/V GLOMAR CHALLENGER, which logged 
 375,000 nautical miles, drilled 1092 holes at 624 
 sites and recovered 96,000 meters of core. 
 
 The results of DSDP have led to revolu- 
 tionary scientific achievements in the areas of 
 paleo-oceanography, plate tectonics, and crustal 
 evolution [2-4]. It demonstrated that a new 
 program with additonal expanded facilities (e.g. 
 more laboratory space and scientific/technical 
 quarters, longer drill string, riser capabil- 
 ities, capabilities for high latitude drilling, 
 greater seakeeping ability, etc.) was warranted. 
 In March 1983, the Board of Governors of the 
 Joint Oceanographic Institutions, Inc. (J0I), a 
 non-profit organization composed of the ten U.S. 
 members of JOIDES, selected Texas A&M University 
 (TAMU) to become the Science Operator of the new 
 Ocean Drilling Program (0DP) . TAMU is funded by 
 J0I, who in turn, is funded by the National 
 Science Foundation (NSF), an independent Federal 
 Agency. NSF receives partial support for 0DP 
 from the countries representing the non-U. S. 
 JOIDES members. 
 
 Role of the Science Operator 
 
 TAMU's ultimate responsibility as science 
 operator of the Ocean Drilling Program is to col- 
 lect cores from beneath the floors of the world's 
 oceans and to assure that adequate scientific 
 analyses are performed on these samples. In 
 order to properly discharge this major respon- 
 sibility, TAMU (under the scientific guidance 
 from the JOIDES community) has been charged with 
 the procurement and conversion of a dynamically 
 positioned drillship with riser capabilities 
 (including the purchase of scientific and dril- 
 ling equipment and the design of scientific labo- 
 ratories) for scientific ocean drilling. In 
 addition to the selection and conversion of the 
 drilling vessel, TAMU's responsibilities include: 
 
 38 
 
i. Staffing of the scientific and technical 
 support crew. These personnel include: a) The 
 shipboard scientific staff; typically about 25 in 
 number, they represent a team of specialists in 
 the various fields of geosciences (e.g. 
 paleontology, petrology, sed imentology , 
 geophysics, etc.), drawn from universities, 
 government, and industry; and b) A highly 
 technical support crew, also about 25 in number, 
 who are TAMU/ODP employees. These include 
 Electronic and Marine Technicians, Curatorial 
 representatives, computer experts, and an 
 experienced drilling superintendent, who will 
 oversee the drilling operations and act as a 
 liason between the drilling and scientific 
 activities. 
 
 ii. Maintaining shipboard laboratories necessary 
 to meet the needs of the shipboard scientific 
 staff. These include laboratories for sedimen- 
 tology, paleontology, geochemistry, paleo- 
 magnetics, physical properties, meteorology, and 
 geophysics, which will be equipped with 
 state-of-the-art research equipment and computer 
 facilities. Also included are technical facil- 
 ities such as computer, electronics, word 
 processing and photographic. 
 
 ill. Developing an operations plan and drilling 
 schedule which includes, among other activities, 
 ensuring equipment availability, defining oper- 
 ational limitations, providing an adequate supply 
 of consumables (beacons, drillbits, etc.), 
 assessing safety and operational procedures prior 
 to drilling, and ensuring organized transition of 
 personnel and supplies between cruises. 
 
 iv. Improvement of existing drilling and 
 downhole techniques and development of new ones 
 which may be useful to the needs and goals of the 
 JOIDES Scientific Community and the engineering 
 community at large. These include understanding 
 the physical characteristics of the drilling 
 system, so that the operating limits of very long 
 drill strings may be established; improving core 
 quality, orientation and recovery; and developing 
 the capability of hard rock spudding at sea. 
 
 v. Storage, archiving, and dissemination of 
 core and other scientific data collected during 
 the course of the program. TAMU will be curator 
 of all cores obtained in the Ocean Drilling 
 Program. It will maintain core repositories and 
 state-of-the-art shorebased scientific labora- 
 tories and computer facilities for the study of 
 the cores. 
 
 vi. Publication of an authoritative series of 
 reference books which will summarize the objec- 
 tives and results of each cruise. The reports 
 will include pre-drilling geological/geophysical 
 site surveys, objectives, planning documents, 
 core records, descriptions of physical and geo- 
 chemical measurements, logging data, core photo- 
 graphs, core descriptions, paleontology and peno- 
 logical reports and syntheses. Shipboard 
 post-cruise science documents will also be 
 included. These volumes will be a modified 
 version of the Inl t lal Report Series [5] 
 
 previously published by the Deep Sea Drilling 
 Project. In addition, TAMU will provide public 
 information such as press releases, informational 
 brochures, films, shipboard tours, and speaking 
 engagements presented by the scientific and 
 technical staff. 
 
 Drlllshlp Selection and Conversion 
 
 TAMU had made a contract award in March 1984 
 with Undersea Drilling, Inc. for the use of the 
 drillship SEDCO/BP 471 (to be commonly referred 
 to as the JOIDES RESOLUTION, Figure 1). This 
 470-foot long drillship is under contract for 5 
 years with options to continue for an additional 
 10 years. 
 
 The JOIDES RESOLUTION will be capable of 
 deploying 30,000 feet of drill string, and of 
 drilling in water depths up to 27,000 feet. It 
 will utilize a computer-controlled dynamic 
 positioning system to keep the ship stabilized 
 over a specific location. The ship is 70 feet 
 wide, has a displacement of 16,596 long tons, and 
 has a derrick that towers 200 feet above the 
 waterline. The JOIDES RESOLUTION will also be 
 capable of seasonal operations in high altitudes. 
 
 Although the initial phase of the Ocean 
 Drilling Program will involve only riserless 
 drilling, drilling with riser will be required to 
 address some of the problems that have been 
 targeted for scientific ocean drilling. The 
 drillship is capable of deploying a riser up to 
 6,000 feet long. 
 
 The complex job of converting an existing 
 drilling ship to a floating scientific research 
 center was started immediately after the contract 
 award. In order to meet the tight schedule, a 
 group referred to as the JOIDES Advisory Group on 
 Equipment and Laboratories (JAGEL) was formed to 
 provide advice to ODP/TAMU. 0DP also contracted 
 with an architectural firm with experience in 
 laboratory design to assist in the development of 
 laboratory plans. Frequent meetings were held 
 between ODP/TAMU, JAGEL, SEDCO, and the architect. 
 The scientific facility arrangement plans were 
 "finalized" in late April 1984. Minor changes 
 were made thereafter. 
 
 The main laboratory structure has been built 
 on the starboard side of the vessel in the area 
 between the rig floor and the bridge/accom- 
 modation house (Figure 2). Three levels of the 
 structure have been constructed below deck by 
 taking over a part of the casing hold. A 
 three-story laboratory structure has been 
 constructed on the main deck and is connected to 
 the below deck spaces by a stairway and by an 
 elevator. A downhole measurements lab 
 overlooking the rig floor is on top of the lab 
 house. A library and study area has been 
 installed on the main deck forward of the Bridge 
 House. An underway geophysics lab has been 
 constructed on the fantail under the helicopter 
 deck. Additional scientific office and storage 
 space is located on other parts of the ship. 
 
 General Scientific Plans 
 
 The primary scientific focus of the Ocean 
 
 39 
 
Drilling Program will be in studying the 
 following areas [6]: 
 
 a. The composition, origin and evolution of the 
 oceanic crust 
 
 b. The early rifting stages and evolution of 
 passive type continental margins 
 
 c. The active margin processes of fore-arc 
 subduction, accretion and erosion, and 
 back-arc spreading, compression, and 
 volcanism 
 
 d. The origin and evolution of marine 
 sedimentary sequences 
 
 e. The study of the long-term changes in the 
 atmosphere, oceans, cryosphere, biosphere, 
 and magnetic field 
 
 f. The development of new tools and technology 
 for deep ocean exploration and drilling 
 (such as bare rock spudding and riser 
 drilling in deeper than conventional water 
 depths) . 
 
 In order to address these objectives, 
 drilling plans are now being formulated by the 
 various panels and committees of JOIDES. These 
 plans are being fit into a schedule that is 
 geographically fixed at two points is time, 
 namely in high latitudes of the North Atlantic in 
 the summer of 1985, and in the Antarctic during 
 the Austral summer of 1986-1987. In Figure 3, 
 the drill site areas for the first two years of 
 the drilling program are shown. Tentative long 
 range plans call for the JOIDES RESOLUTION to 
 proceed soon afterward to the Indian Ocean. 
 
 Scientific ocean drilling has produced 
 spectacular results over the last fifteen years. 
 It is reasonable to expect that with the powerful 
 and sophisticated technology now available to us, 
 that the advances over the next fifteen years 
 will similarly improve our understanding of 
 fundamental processes occurring within the earth. 
 
 References 
 
 1. JOIDES, "Ocean Drilling on the Continental 
 Margin", Science , (1965), J_5_0, No. 3697, 
 709-716. 
 
 2. AGI Reprint Series 1, Deep Sea Drilling 
 Project Legs 1 -25 , American Geological 
 Institute, Falls Church, VA, (1975), 93. 
 
 3. AGI Reprint Series 2, Deep Sea Drilling 
 Project Legs 26-44 , American Geological 
 Institute, Falls Church, VA, (1976), 82. 
 
 4. AGI Reprint Series 4, Deep Sea Drilling 
 Project Legs 45-62 , American Geological 
 Institute, Falls Church, VA, (1979), 78. 
 
 5. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling 
 Project , (at the time of writing 79 
 volumes), U.S. Government Printing Office, 
 Washington, D.C. 
 
 6. Report of the Conference on Scientific Ocean 
 Drilling , Joint Oceanographic Institutions, 
 Inc., Washington, D.C. (1981); 112 pp. 
 
 40 
 
3 J. 
 
 Figure 1. The JOIDES RESOLUTION (registered name SEDCO/BP 171 ) is 470 feet long and 70 feet wide 
 and has a displacement of 16,596 long tons. The derrick towers 200 feet above the water line. A 
 computer controlled dynamic positioning system can be used in water depth as great as 27,000 feet. 
 The ship which was built in Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1978 is among the top worldwide dynamically 
 positioned drillships due to its rating of drilling depth capabilities. The rig will have a 30,000 
 foot drill string and will be able to use a riser system for drilling in 6,000 feet of water. 
 Approximately 12,000 square feet of shipboard space is devoted to science laboratories and science 
 storage. A scientific party of 50 persons can be accommodated for the approximately two-month 
 voyages. 
 
 41 
 
OOP DRILLING VESSEL 
 
 ^ 
 
 \~ 1 ^ 
 
 fFW^ 
 
 Figure 2. Scientific work spaces aboard the JOIDES RESOLUTION (SEDCO/BP 471), 
 
 42 
 
Figure 3. Candidate drillsite areas for the first two years of the Ocean Drilling Program 
 (January 1985 - January 1987). 
 
 43 
 
Developement of Wave Power Extraction System with Vertical Breakwaters 
 
 Shigeo Takahashi, Chief of Wave Power Laboratory 
 Yoshimi Goda, Dr. Eng., Deputy Director General 
 
 Port and Harbour Research Institute, Ministry of Transport 
 3-1-1, Nagase, Yokosuka 239 
 
 Abstract 
 
 A wave power extraction system is under 
 developement at the Port and Harbour Research 
 Institute. The extractor is a pneumatic type wave 
 power converter to be fitted to a vertical 
 breakwater. The power conversion from waves to 
 air flow by the extraction system was 
 investigated theoretically -and experimentally. 
 The stability of the breakwater against storm 
 waves was also studied. The focus of the research 
 is now on the developement of turbine-generator 
 system. The research project was started in the 
 fiscal 1982 and will be continued until the 
 fiscal 1986. 
 
 Introduction 
 
 Among various ocean energy resources, wave 
 power is the most readily-available and plentiful 
 resource. The total amount of wave power is 
 estimated at 2.7 x 10 9 kW in the world. Japan is 
 one of the countries which are rich in the wave 
 power resource. Figure 1 shows the geographical 
 variation of wave power around Japanese islands. 
 The figure was prepared by Tabata et al.(l) from 
 the four-year data of 17 wave observation 
 stations which belong to the Bureau of Ports and 
 Harbours, Ministry of Transport. The total amount 
 of the wave power in Japan is 3 1 x 10 6 kW which 
 is almost one third of the amount of electricity 
 used in Japan. The average value of the wave 
 power is 6 kW/m per unit length of the 
 surrounding lines of 5,200 km in the figure. 
 
 A number of wave power extracting mechanisms 
 (2) have been invented and tested in many 
 countries. In the U.K., which is also rich in 
 wave power resource, several devices such as 
 "Salter's Duck", "Oscillating Cylinder", 
 "Flexible Bag", and "NEL Breakwater" are about 
 ready to be put on full-scale sea trials. The 
 "Kaimei" of the Japan Marine Science and 
 Technology Center has made two field experiments 
 and is now on the second stage of its 
 
 developement. Several other institutions in Japan 
 are also developing their own devices. At the 
 Port and Harbour Research Institute a five-year 
 special research project was started in 1982 to 
 develope the technology for utilizing the wave 
 power. The outline and the progress of the 
 project are introduced in the present report. 
 
 Concept of Wave Power Ex traction System 
 
 A vertical breakwater illustrated in Fig. 2 
 is now under developement at the Port and Harbour 
 Research Institute. This breakwater has a 
 so-called oscillating-water-column (abbreviated 
 as O.W.C. hereinafter) type of wave power 
 extractor, which is attached to the front of the 
 ordinary concrete caisson. The O.W.C. type is one 
 of very promising devices for wave power 
 extraction. The device is essentially a caisson 
 with a large submerged opening at the front and a 
 small nozzle at the ceiling. The caisson is 
 rested on a sea bottom. An air turbine with an 
 electric generator is connected to the nozzle. 
 
 Nozzle Turbine-Generator 
 
 Air Chamber 
 Curtain Wall 
 Seaward Side 
 
 Fig. 2 Conceptual Figure of a Vertical Breakwater 
 with Wave Power Extraction 
 
 7 
 J 10 
 2 30 
 
 2.1 
 410 
 
 860 
 
 Average Wave Power (kW/m) 
 Length (km) 
 
 o 
 a 
 
 Average Wave Power in the region (MW) 
 
 5 2 
 
 OI70 
 6w: 
 
 Fig.l Geographical Variation of Wave Power around Japan 
 
 44 
 
w,H\n 
 (EXP) 
 
 p* 0.5 
 Wcti\n 
 
 (CAL) 
 
 The water column within 
 the lower half of the 
 caisson is caused to 
 oscillate vertically by 
 incident waves through the 
 opening, and it induces 
 the compression and 
 expansion of air mass 
 within the upper half (air 
 chamber) of the caisson. 
 The air motion generates 
 the high-velocity flow 
 through the nozzle, which 
 activates the air turbine 
 and generates electricity. 
 
 The O.W.C. type wave 
 power extractor can be 
 quite easily fitted to a 
 vertical breakwater, 
 because ""the latter is 
 mostly built with a large 
 
 concrete caisson rested on a rubble mound 
 foundation. Some of vertical breakwaters already 
 have perforations and slits in the front walls to 
 dissipate incident wave energy and to reduce wave 
 reflection. A combination of the O.W.C. type wave 
 power extractor and the vertical breakwater is 
 also attractive from the viewpoint of economical 
 feasibility of wave power extraction, because the 
 construction cost of the total system can be 
 jointly borned by the accounts for power 
 generation and harbour protection. Japan has 
 about one thousand commercial ports along her 
 coastline, and the total length of the 
 breakwaters amounts to nearly 800 km with new 
 addition of about 20 km every year. Most of these 
 breakwaters are built with concrete caissons on 
 rubble foundations. Therefore the possibility is 
 high for the adoption of wave power extracting 
 caissons as breakwaters. High level of already 
 accumulated technology for the construction of 
 vertical breakwaters in Japan also encourages the 
 developement of the wave power extracting 
 caisson. 
 
 Outline of the Research Project 
 
 The project consists of the following three 
 major research subjects : 
 
 1) the power conversion efficiency from waves to 
 
 air flow 
 
 2) the power conversion efficiency of the total 
 system including an air turbine and a 
 
 generator 
 
 3) the stability of caisson against storm waves. 
 Research efforts for the first two years were on 
 the subjects of the power conversion efficiency 
 from waves to air flow and the stability of 
 caisson against storm waves. The studies on the 
 two subjects will be continued in the following 
 years. However, the focus of the research would 
 be placed on the power conversion efficiency of 
 the total system in the following years. 
 
 Study on the Power Conversion Efficiency from 
 Waves to Air Flow 
 
 A theory based on thermodynamics was 
 derived to describe the response of air mass and 
 the conversion efficiency of the extractor for 
 given wave conditions (3). The validity of the 
 theory was confirmed by a series of experiments. 
 The theory was then extended so that it can 
 include the irregularity of real seas in the 
 
 ThXD'.i r. i:J'TTi :)")')' i ',i jn I iTI nnTirri.q. ij 
 
 .I.Ul.LQJ 
 
 Fig 
 
 .3 Time Variation of the Response in the 
 Extractor to a Train of Irregular Waves 
 1.0 
 
 EFF 
 0.5 
 
 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
 D =4m 
 
 i 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 </ = 1.5 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /?'" ,>^ 
 
 
 
 
 /£-^S \ 
 
 \ 
 
 * S N 
 
 - 
 
 
 \ N 
 
 \ \ 
 
 £ • 
 
 
 \ 
 
 .V- 
 
 ■^ .0.001 
 
 
 \ \ XP003- 
 
 ' / y 
 
 
 \ 
 
 X00045 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 ^^006' 
 
 7i/j= 7s 
 
 
 
 \00l 
 
 //i /s =l.5m , 
 
 1 
 
 1 < I 
 
 i i 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 20 B 
 
 30 
 
 0.2 03 D/ , 0.4 0.5 
 
 Fig 
 
 0.1 
 ,4 Variation of Efficiency by the Width B 
 
 analysis (5). The validity of the extended theory 
 was also confirmed by another series of 
 experiments. The theory developed here deals with 
 a extractor having an air nozzle alone without an 
 air turbine. Figure 3 shows an example of the 
 time variations of the water surface elevation of 
 incident waves H j , the water surface elevation 
 H in the extractor and the air pressure P* . 
 Both the measured variations and the variations 
 calculated by the theory with the measured 
 incident wave profile are shown in the figure. 
 The theory provides not only the conversion 
 efficiency but also the time-varying response in 
 the extractor. 
 
 Figure 4 shows the variation of conversion 
 efficiency of an extractor against the variation 
 of the air chamber width B . The calculation was 
 made for the irregular waves of the significant 
 wave period T ,„= 7s and the height #7/0= l«5m. 
 The height of the extractor above the still water 
 level is 4 m and the depth of the front wall from 
 the still water level is 1.5 m. The opening ratio 
 
 £ is defined as the area ratio of the opening 
 area of the nozzle to the horizontal area at the 
 still water level. For this wave condition the 
 conversion efficiency is estimated to be larger 
 than 80 % if S= 12m, and the efficiency is about 
 60 % even if B = 6m. 
 
 A new series of experiments are being 
 prepared to examine the effect of wave direction 
 on the efficiency. The experiments will be 
 conducted in a basin with wave makers which 
 
 45 
 
generate not only uni-directional random waves 
 but also random waves with directional spectrum. 
 Several minor changes in the shape of the 
 extractor may increase the efficiency. This will 
 be investigated experimentally in the following 
 fiscal years. 
 
 Study on Power Conversion by an Air Turbine and a 
 Generator 
 
 The efficiency of the conversion from the 
 air power to turbine power of wave power 
 extractors is not high in general, because the 
 air flow is always oscillating and fluctuating. 
 Conventional turbines to be used for wave power 
 extractors usually require complicated valve 
 systems to rectify the air flow direction. 
 However, Wells invented a novel turbine which can 
 produce rotational power of uni-direction without 
 a valve system even when the air flow reverses 
 its direction. The turbine has several aerofoils 
 around a rotor hub as shown in Fig. 5. When the 
 air flow changes the direction from upward to 
 downward, the axial component of the lift force 
 reverses the direction from upward to downward. 
 However, the tangential component of the lift 
 force is always in the same direction as the 
 rotational direction. Because this turbine has 
 the relatively high conversion efficiency despite 
 of its simple mechanism, it is selected as the 
 air turbine of the present extracting system of 
 wave power. 
 
 Fundamental characteristics of the various 
 types of Wells turbines under steady air flow 
 were already investigated by several researchers. 
 Figure 6 shows an example of variation (6) in the 
 torque coefficient Ct and the pressure-drop 
 coefficient ip against the attacking angle a . 
 The attaking angle is defined as 
 
 tan a = w / u , 
 
 where w is the air flow velocity and u is the 
 speed of rotation at the tip of the aerofoil. The 
 term is the solidity, which is the ratio of 
 the total aerofoil width to the circumferential 
 length at the tip. The conversion efficiency is 
 also shown in the figure. The turbine should have 
 high efficiency for the wide range of the air 
 flow velocity, i.e. the attacking angle. 
 
 A series of experiments were conducted to 
 investigate the interaction between an air 
 turbine and wave-generated air flow. The results 
 are being analyzed. In the analysis a 
 mathematical model is presented which gives the 
 time variation of turbine torque under a train 
 of irregular waves. The model is essentially 
 another extension of the theory on the conversion 
 of wave power into air power and includes the 
 characteristics of the torque and pressure-drop 
 of the turbine such as shown in Fig. 6. The 
 experiments will be followed by another series of 
 model experiments with a large scale model which 
 comprises an air turbine and a generator. The 
 optimum design of the total system of the wave 
 power extraction will be discussed with the 
 experimental results. The devices to protect the 
 turbine and generator from heavy storm waves will 
 be tested in the latter part of the experiments. 
 
 Study on Stability of Caisson against Storm Waves 
 
 Generator 
 
 ("Air Flov^a J 
 
 ShatW 
 
 /Rotor Hub 
 
 i.Tube 
 
 er oto>ls 
 
 Fig. 5 Schematic Diagram of Wells Turbine 
 
 
 
 
 (J = 0.6 
 
 
 
 0.20 
 
 
 / 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 Ct 
 
 
 a / 
 
 
 "3" 
 
 EFF t 
 
 /, 
 
 _ 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 0.10 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 1 u. 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / / s A 
 
 
 
 
 \/s \\ 
 
 jr 
 
 r\ 
 
 A 
 
 
 JT 
 
 U v 
 
 
 80 (•/.) 
 
 60 
 40 
 20 
 
 The characteristics of the wave forces on 
 the wave power extracting caisson were studied 
 
 10 20 30 40 50 
 
 Fig. 6 Characteristic Curves of Wells Turbine 
 
 experimentally (4). It was found that the caisson 
 receives the wave forces smaller than those on 
 the conventional breakwater caisson and that the 
 stability of this type of caisson against wave 
 forces is almost equivalent to that of a 
 well-designed perforated-wall caisson. The wave 
 force on the caisson can be calculated by 
 utilizing Goda's formula (7) for caisson 
 breakwaters. It was also found that a bypass 
 opening is necessary when the turbine opening is 
 shut down to protect the turbine and generator 
 from strom waves. This is because the wave force 
 increase significantly when all openings are 
 closed. The opening ratio of the bypass opening 
 should be equivalent to that of turbine nozzle 
 because the water mass might hit the ceiling of 
 the extractor from inside if the opening is too 
 large. 
 
 The effects of wave direction on wave forces 
 will be also studied simultaneoustly when the 
 experiments in a basin are conducted. The effects 
 of minor changes in the caisson shapes on wave 
 forces will be studies in the following fiscal 
 years. 
 
 Illustrative Calculation for a Prototype 
 
 A cross section of the vertical breakwater 
 with wave power extractor is designed here to 
 illustrate an overall idea of the prototype, 
 although the design is very preliminary. The 
 depth of the location is 19.1m and the design 
 
 46 
 
wave height and period are H = 14.55m ( R w 3 = 
 8.1m) and r 1/3 = 10s at the high water level 
 +1.4m. The shape of the caisson is the same as 
 shown in Fig. 2. The sizes of caisson are listed 
 in Table 1. The total width of the caisson is 23m 
 and the height is 8m above the still water level. 
 The width B of the extractor is 8m. 
 
 Table 1 Seizes of the Caisson 
 
 near 
 line 
 
 ^ q 
 
 Figure 7 shows the cumulative density 
 function (dash line) of wave power measured 
 Kashima Port for one year of 1981. The solid 
 in the figure shows the wave energy 
 below a certain level of wave power 
 in the year. The observed significant 
 wave height ranged from 0.19 to 5.92 
 m , and the average significant wave 
 height and period were 1.32 m and 
 7.8s. The total wave energy for one 
 year was 69,800 kWh/m and the average 
 wave power was about 8 kW/m. One can 
 read from the figure that the wave 
 energy for the wave power less than 8 
 kW/m is about 30 % of the total wave 
 energy, whereas the cumulative 
 frequency is 63 %. The cumulative 
 density function of air power 
 calculated by the theory is also 
 shown by the dotted line in the 
 figure. The dash-dott line indicates 
 the air energy in the year below a 
 certain level of air power. The total 
 air energy is 37,300 kWh/m which is 
 54 % of the total wave energy. The 
 average air power is 4.3 kW/m. 
 
 The following assumptions are made to 
 calculate the total electric energy: 
 
 1) The length of the caisson is 20m and is 
 devided into two parts, each of which has one 
 turbine-generator system. The capacity of the 
 
 generator is 40 kW, i.e. 4 kW/m. 
 
 2) The efficiency of the turbine-generator 
 system is 60 % which is rather an optimistic 
 
 value at this stage. 
 
 3) The allowable air power, therefore, is less 
 than 6.7 kW/m and when the air power exceeds 
 the limit the excess part of air power is 
 
 removed through a bypass opening. 
 
 4) The generator stay stopped when the air power 
 
 is less than 0.5 kW/m. 
 As the result, the total electric energy in a 
 year will be 17,700 kWh/m. The average electric 
 power is 2 kW/m which is 50 % of the generator 
 capacity. 
 
 Use of the Generated Electricity 
 
 Electric power generated by the extractors 
 can be used for many purposes, such as melting of 
 the snow, production of pure water from salt 
 water and purification of polluted sea water in 
 harbours. Because the rate of production of 
 electricity by the extractors varies according to 
 the wave conditions, use of wave power will be 
 limited to those which need electricity not 
 steadily. The limitation can hopefully be removed 
 by a electric device which can store a large 
 amount of electricity economically. The cost of 
 produced electricity by means of the vertical 
 breakwater with wave power extractor is expected 
 to be not more than that of elctricity generated 
 by oil fuel, if only the additional cost for the 
 part of wave power extractor is taken into 
 account . 
 
 Total width of Caisson 
 
 . 23 m 
 
 Width of extractor 
 
 8 m 
 
 Total Height of Caisson 
 
 22 m 
 
 Height above Still Water Level 
 
 8 m 
 
 Length of Caisson 
 
 20 m 
 
 Weight of Caisson in Open Air 
 
 800 tf/m 
 
 Buoyancy of Caisson 
 
 282 tf/m 
 
 Thickness of Rubble Mound 
 
 5.1 m 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 £=* 
 
 ID l_ 
 
 m 
 oc 
 
 OUJ 
 §0/ 
 
 ^.fl 
 
 o$ 
 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 r-i 
 
 E 
 o c 
 
 OUJ 
 
 O L. 
 
 47 
 
 20 30 40 
 Wave Power , Air Power (l<w/m) 
 
 Fig. 7 Wave Power and Air Power 
 
 The five-year project would be followed by 
 field experiments which will give us many vital 
 informations including the cost of the 
 electricity. 
 
 References 
 
 1) Tabata.T., Yagyu.T. and Fukuda.I. : Wave energy 
 on Japanese coast, Tech. Note Port and 
 
 Harbour Res. Inst. , No. 364, 1980, 20p (in 
 Japanese) . 
 
 2) Grove-Palmer , C J : Wave energy in the 
 United Kingdom, - A review of the programme 
 June 1975 - March 1982, Proc. 2nd Symp. on 
 Wave Energy Utilization , 1982, pp 23 -54. 
 
 3) Ojima.R., Goda.Y. and Suzumura.S. : Analysis 
 of efficiency of pneumatic-type wave power 
 extractors utilizing caisson breakwaters, - A 
 study on developement of wave power (1st 
 report)-, Rept. Port and Harbour Res. Ints* 
 Vol.22 No. 3, 1983, pp 125-158 (in Japanese), 
 also to appear in Coastal Engineering in 
 Japan , Vol.28, 1985. 
 
 4) Ojima.R.and Suzumura S. : Wave forces on a 
 Pneumatic-type wave power extractors utilizing 
 caisson breakwaters - A study on developement 
 of wave power (2nd report) -, Rept. Port and 
 Harbour Res. Inst. , Vol.23 no.l, 1984, pp 
 
 53-81, (in Japanese). 
 
 5) Takahashi.S. , Ojima, R. and Suzumura S. : Air 
 power of pneumatic-type wave power extractors 
 due to irregular wave actions , - A study on 
 developement of wave power (3rd report) -, 
 Rept. Port and Harbour Res. Inst. , Vol.24 
 
 No.l, 1985 in press. 
 
 6) Suzuki, M. , Arakawa, C. and Tagori, T. : 
 Fundamental studies on oscillating water 
 column wave power generator with Wells 
 turbine, Proc. 1st Symp. on Wave Energy 
 Utilization in Japan, 1984, pp 201-210, (in 
 
 Japanese) . 
 
 7) Goda, Y., : Random Seas and Design of Maritime 
 Structures, Univ. of Tokyo Press, 1985, 322p. 
 
TECHNOLOGY TRENDS FOR U.S. DEEPWATER AND ARCTIC OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT 
 
 Ronald L. Geer 
 Senior Consulting Mechanical Engineer 
 
 Shell Oil Company 
 Houston, Texas 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 The technology for oil and gas resource 
 development in deepwater and Arctic offshore 
 areas exists. Industry has demonstrated the 
 capability to safely drill in 7000 feet of water. 
 The record for deepwater production is 1025 feet, 
 limited only by lack of commercial discoveries. 
 Experience derived from numerous installations in 
 shallower water coupled with extensive research 
 provide a solid basis for safely employing novel 
 production systems in water depths well beyond 
 1000 feet. In the Arctic, proven technology and 
 capability is available to proceed with oper- 
 ations in water as deep as 650 feet in the 
 Southern Bering Sea, and to about 200 feet in the 
 more severely ice-covered areas of the Northern 
 Bering, Chukchi and Beaufort Seas. 
 
 DEEPWATER TECHNOLOGY 
 
 As exploration for oil and gas progressed 
 from marshlands out to 7000 feet of water a family 
 of mobile drilling rigs, shown in Figure 1, were 
 developed. Today there are approximately 733 of 
 these units (28 submersibles, 446 jack-ups, 56 
 dril 1 ships , 32 barges and 171 semi-submersibles) 
 available of which 88% are in operations around 
 the world. Forty-four rigs are capable of drill- 
 ing in at least 2000 feet of water. Figure 2 
 shows the drilling water depth records for the 
 last several years culminating in the current 
 record of 6952 feet achieved off the U.S. east 
 coast in 1984. 
 
 The special features of deepwater dynam- 
 ically positioned drillships are shown in Figure 
 3. The blowout preventer stack and marine riser 
 are used to control the flow of drilling fluids 
 returning from the bottom of the hole. The lower 
 marine riser package provides for disconnecting 
 the riser from the BOP stack. Tensioners and 
 buoyancy distributed along the riser support the 
 weight of the riser. Flex and slip joints 
 accomodate riser movement due to rig motions. 
 The dynamic positioning system uses an onboard 
 computer which receives acoustic signals from 
 seafloor beacons through hydrophones. Using 
 these signals, the computer determines the 
 position of the ship in relation to the subsea 
 wellhead. Power is directed to the thrusters 
 
 to maintain ship position against the forces of 
 winds, waves and currents. 
 
 Although the industry's capability to drill 
 exploratory wells in 7000 feet of water has been 
 proven, deepwater production system experience 
 has been limited to about 1000 feet by the lack 
 of commercial discoveries in deeper water. Both 
 platforms and subsea systems can be used to develop 
 deepwater fields. Over the last several years the 
 petroleum industry has invested millions of dollars 
 in designing equipment, developing analytical 
 tools, performing model tests and conducting full 
 scale field tests in preparation for producing oil 
 and gas in great water depths. 
 
 Nearly all offshore fields have been developed 
 with fixed leg platforms. Figure 4 shows how fixed 
 leg platforms have evolved to meet the needs of 
 United States deepwater locations. Shell's Cognac 
 platform in the Gulf of Mexico holds the current 
 U.S. and world water depth record of 1,025 feet. 
 The economic water depth limit for fixed leg 
 structures is expected to be about 1500' in the 
 Gulf of Mexico due to the very large amount of 
 steel required and limitations of fabrication and 
 installation methods. 
 
 Several deepwater field development options 
 with their probable water depth ranges in the 
 Gulf of Mexico are shown in Figure 5. The guyed 
 tower is a tall, slender structure that requires 
 less steel than a fixed leg platform. Guy lines 
 are used to hold the tower in its vertical config- 
 uration. Exxon's Lena guyed tower was installed 
 in 1000 feet of water in the Gulf of Mexico in 
 1983. The buoyant tower uses buoyancy chambers 
 near the surface rather than guy lines to main- 
 tain the tower in a vertical position. This type 
 of structure has been used for tanker loading in 
 500 feet of water in the North Sea. The tension 
 leg platform is a large floating platform, similar 
 to a semi-submersible drilling rig, which is con- 
 nected to the sea floor by vertical tension 
 members. Conoco' s Hutton tension leg platform 
 was installed in 1984 in 485 feet of water in 
 the North Sea. 
 
 Relative cost trends versus water depth for 
 fixed leg platforms, guyed/buoyant towers and 
 
 48 
 
tension leg platforms are shown in Figure 6. All 
 three concepts offer the important advantages of 
 drilling, completing, producing and maintaining 
 wells in a conventional manner from the platform 
 deck. These and other innovative platform con- 
 cepts being studied represent what might be termed 
 "new" deepwater technology. They certainly employ 
 the most advanced technology for offshore struc- 
 tures; for example, sophisticated wave models, 
 state-of-the-art dynamic structural analyses, and 
 finite element analyses of critical components. 
 But their designs have also evolved from years of 
 experience with these same fundamental tech- 
 nologies employed in fixed platforms, ships and 
 sem-submersibles. 
 
 The other major type of deepwater production 
 technology involves subsea systems where the 
 wells are drilled from a floating rig and subsea 
 trees are installed on the sea floor. Production 
 from the subsea wells can be handled on any of 
 the structures shown in Figure 5. The Shell/Esso 
 Cormorant underwater manifold system installed in 
 1982 in the North Sea and currently handling 
 30,000 B/D production from three sea floor wells 
 is shown in Figure 7. Worldwide, about 300 wells 
 have been completed on the sea floor since the 
 first remote subsea completion in the open sea 
 was made by Shell in the Gulf of Mexico in 1960. 
 Nearly all produce through flowlines to nearby 
 platforms. The current water depth record for 
 subsea wells is 1007 feet offshore Brazil. A 
 tree has been built and is scheduled for install- 
 ation in 2500 feet of water offshore Spain in 
 1985. Designs have recently been completed for 
 subsea well systems in 7500 feet of water. 
 
 In recent years several systems, using subsea 
 wells producing to floating facilities, have been 
 installed which offer potential for application in 
 deepwater. Experience gained from numerous 
 installations clearly indicates that subsea wells 
 and floating production systems can be installed 
 and operated in a safe manner. Although these 
 actual systems are in relatively shallow water, 
 considerable design and development work has been 
 done to extend the concepts to deeper water. 
 Technical problem areas to be resolved by further 
 development work are primarily aimed at increasing 
 cost effectiveness by hardware designed to provide 
 ease of installation, highly reliable operations 
 and efficient maintenance and repair. 
 
 Since subsea installations will eventually 
 be made in water depths which exceed the range 
 where wet divers can work effectively, the system 
 components will be maintained and repaired by 
 unmanned remote controlled vehicles, or workers 
 in dry, one-atmosphere vehicles similar to those 
 in Figure 8, or by recovery to the surface. Many 
 of the subsea wells and manifolds installed to 
 date have utilized variations of these repair 
 methods. 
 
 Transportation of production from deepwater 
 fields will be similar to that from existing 
 shallow water fields. Depending on field 
 location and other factors, gas production will 
 
 be transported by pipeline to a gas g 
 system or re-injected into the produc 
 mation. Oil production will be trans 
 pipeline to an offshore gathering sys 
 terminal, or to a platform or tanker 
 facility in shallow water. Figure 9 
 pipelaying vessels that can be used i 
 A semi-submersible laybarge has insta 
 inch pipeline in a record water depth 
 feet in the Mediterranean Sea. Studi 
 no technical barriers to pipeline ins 
 water depths of 8000 feet and more. 
 
 athering 
 ing for- 
 ported by 
 tern, shore 
 loading 
 shows several 
 n deepwater. 
 lied a 20 
 of 2,000 
 es have shown 
 tallation in 
 
 Over the past several years many equipment 
 designs, model studies and offshore installations 
 have been made by various companies throughout the 
 world. The net result of all of this development 
 and installation work is that the offshore 
 petroleum industry is confident that no technical 
 barriers exist for safely exploring, developing 
 and producing oil and gas fields in water depths 
 out to 7000 feet and beyond. 
 
 ARCTIC OFFSHORE TECHNOLOGY 
 
 Industry has been actively working in the 
 Arctic waters of Alaska and Canada for a number 
 of years. Alaskan activity, which had its start 
 in Cook Inlet in the I960' s , was primarily in 
 the Beaufort Sea in the 1970 ' s . A number of 
 milestones have occurred in exploration and 
 production in Arctic waters, as shown in Figure 
 10. In 1964, the first of many ice-resistant 
 production platforms was installed in 90 feet of 
 water in Cook Inlet, Alaska. In 1973, the first 
 exploration well in the Canadian Beaufort Sea 
 
 an artificial island. The first 
 was drilled from a floating ice 
 and the first Arctic subsea 
 completion was installed from an ice platform in 
 1978. A new type of artificial island -- a 
 caisson-retained island -- was installed in 1981. 
 
 was drilled from 
 exploratory well 
 platform in 1974 
 
 During the 1980' s , Arctic exploration and 
 development activity will increase as a result 
 of scheduled state and federal offshore sales. 
 Figure 11 shows the major geological basins and 
 the probable type of offshore structures that 
 will be used for drilling and producing oper- 
 ations. Gravel islands are expected to be econom- 
 ical solutions for water depths of 60 to 100 feet 
 in the Beaufort, Chukchi, Hope, and Norton Basins. 
 Between 100 and 200 feet in these basins, ice- 
 resistant fixed platforms - such as steel or 
 concrete cones - will be used. In the Bering Sea, 
 conventional jacket structures or ice-resistant 
 concrete or steel towers may be used. In water 
 depths of more than 650 feet, and possibly in some 
 shallower locations, compliant structures and 
 subsea completions, such as those discussed 
 earl ier, may be used. 
 
 Transportation will usually be by pipeline 
 to shore, then to tankers or existing pipelines. 
 An offshore pipeline depth limitation for ice 
 covered Arctic regions is not presently 
 assessable and is the subject of intensive 
 industry research and development programs. 
 
 49 
 
Otherwise, the pipeline systems capability dis- 
 cussed earlier will apply in the Arctic. Offshore 
 storage and loading facilities may be used in 
 deepwater and remote locations. 
 
 Arctic offshore research and development has 
 been underway for more than a decade. Ice 
 research has concentrated on ice strength and 
 stress-strain behavior, ice feature occurrence, 
 ice movement, and ice structure inter-action. 
 Field programs to measure oceanographic parameters 
 in the Arctic offshore have been underway for a 
 number of years and will continue. Work will 
 continue in evaluating the environmental exposure 
 (forces) and platform concepts required to extend 
 Arctic offshore capability. 
 
 WATER DEPTH RECORDS FOR DRILLING 
 
 65 68 69 '70 '74 '75 '76 '77 '78 '79 '82 ~B 
 
 1000 -exjom *£jl 
 CALIF EXXON 
 
 cm 
 
 652* ISS 
 
 e* L ' F EXXON 4?P 
 CALIF EXXON 
 CALIF 
 
 2097 
 
 SHELL 2290' 
 
 GABON SHELL 
 GABON 
 
 3460' 
 EXXON 
 THAILAND 5937' 
 EXXON 
 SURINAM 4348 
 SEAGAP 
 AFRICA 4876 
 TEXACO 
 CANADA 
 
 3624' 
 
 C FP 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 644tf 
 
 SHELL 
 NEW JERSEY 
 
 h 
 
 6992 
 SHELL 
 NNJMSEY 
 
 This has been a brief review of the tech- 
 nology trends for U.S. deepwater and Arctic 
 offshore oil and gas resource development. In 
 closing, I would like to make these final points: 
 
 Figure 2 
 
 The oil industry has historically developed 
 the required technology to meet the needs 
 that have arisen from lease offerings and 
 hydrocarbon discoveries. 
 
 Because of extensive research and actual 
 experience with key equipment systems over 
 the past 25 years, industry has the basic 
 technology for drilling and production in 
 deepwater and Arctic offshore areas. 
 
 Opportunities and economics, n 
 will limit future developments 
 
 COMPUTERS 
 \ 
 
 TENSIONERS 
 
 :h*L±> 
 
 not technology, 
 
 MARINE RISER 
 
 FLEX JOINT 
 
 LOWER MARINE RISER PACKAGE 
 
 BLOWOUT PREVENTOR STACK 
 
 2 
 
 20" CASING 
 
 SUBMERSIBLE 
 SUBMERSIBLE POSTED 
 
 SEMI 
 SUBMERSIBLE 
 
 BARGE 
 
 BARGE 
 
 JACK-UP 
 
 DRILL 
 SHIP 
 
 DYNAMICALLY POSITIONED 
 DRILLING RIG 
 
 Figure 3 
 
 20' 
 l»47 
 
 100' 
 1955 {£/ 
 
 1959 285' 
 
 850' 
 
 COGNAC CERVEZA 
 
 IOOO' 
 1963 
 LENA 
 
 MOBILE DRILLING RIGS 
 
 Figure 1 
 
 U.S. PLATFORM MILESTONES 
 
 Figure 4 
 
 50 
 
FIXED 
 PLATFORMS 
 
 1500' * 
 
 DEEP 
 
 DEVELOPMENT 
 
 OPTIONS 
 
 GULF OF MEXICO 
 
 Figure 5 
 
 GOM PLATFORM COST COMPARISON 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 600 
 
 1000 MOO 1800 
 
 WATER DEPTH - FEET 
 
 Figure 6 
 
 2200 
 
 MANIFOLD CENTER SYSTEM 
 
 06s ^PRODUCTION PLATFORI 
 rfll „SERVICE BOAT 
 
 MANIPULATOR 
 
 PROTECTED MANIFOLDING 
 
 SATELLITE CONNECTOR 
 
 REMOTE OPERATED VEHICLE 
 
 JIM ISOO WASP 2000 ARMS 3000 
 
 Figure 7 
 
 PISCES SUB 
 
 SUBSEA SUPPORT SYSTEMS 
 
 Figure 8 
 
 51 
 
CONVENTIONAL SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE REEL BARGE REEL SHIP 
 
 LAYBAR6E LAYBARGE 
 
 PIPELAYING VESSELS 
 
 Figure 9 
 
 STEEL TOWER 
 
 COOK INLET 
 
 1864 
 
 ARTIFICIAL ISLANO 
 BEAUFORT SEA 
 1973 
 
 ,./'!". 
 
 ICE PLATFORM 
 
 ARCTIC ISLANDS 
 
 1974 
 
 SUB SEA COMPLETION 
 t ARCTIC ISLANDS 
 5l 1978 
 
 dftk. 
 
 ■ rf fc r\-r t rw 
 
 CAISSON-HETAINED ISLAND 
 
 BEAUFORT SEA 
 
 1961 
 
 MOBILE ARCTIC STRUCTURE 
 
 (COS) 
 BEAUFORT SEA 1984 
 
 ALASKAN ARCTIC BASINS a STRUCTURES 
 
 ARCTIC DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES 
 
 CONCRETE OR 
 STEEL TOWERS 
 
 JACKET STRUCTURES 
 
 Figure 10 
 
 Figure 1 1 
 
 52 
 
Recent Developments in Technology for Oil and 
 Drilling and Producing Operations in 
 Record-Setting Water Depths 
 
 Gas 
 
 Richard B. Krahl 
 Deputy Associate Director 
 for Offshore Operations 
 
 Minerals Management Service 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 The U.S. Department of the Interior is now 
 providing the opportunity for the oil and gas 
 industry to select and purchase drilling and pro- 
 ducing rights on acreage of their choice on the 
 U.S. Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). As a result, 
 several areas of interest underlying deep waters 
 have been leased. Recent drilling activities and 
 the discovery of oil and gas in deepwater areas 
 of the U.S. OCS have provided an impetus for the 
 development of technology and innovative design 
 both for drilling operations and the implacement 
 of marine structures. 
 
 DEEPWATER DRILLING 
 
 Shell Offshore, Inc., recently drilled four ex- 
 ploratory wells in water depths ranging from 5,000 
 to 7,000 feet on the Atlantic OCS. The technolo- 
 gies used to successfully operate in these record 
 water depths are among the most sophisticated in 
 the world. Previous to Shell's program, the maxi- 
 mum demonstrated capacity of any exploration fa- 
 cility was 6,000 feet of water. However, through 
 changes in geohazards survey equipment and refur- 
 bishment of Sonat Offshore Drilling, Inc.'s, 
 drillship, Discoverer Seven Seas, this limit has 
 been extended to 7,500 feet. Several other tech- 
 nical modifications to the drillship enhance 
 aspects of safety, well-control, and formation 
 evaluation in deep water. 
 
 Technical developments responsible for enhanced 
 data quality from deepwater geohazards surveys in- 
 clude design of a deep-tow vehicle with associated 
 electronics, specialized towing requirements, 
 improved navigation systems which allow for the 
 precise positioning of the deep-tow system, and a 
 multiplex system which provides data acquisition 
 and electronics control over long cable lengths. 
 
 The most outstanding change to accommodate 
 drilling in 7,500 feet of water is the introduction 
 of a marine riser system which uses two complete 
 risers. The primary riser is entirely new and 
 utilizes 5,500 feet of syntactic foam floatation 
 riser with 2,000 feet of air can riser. The backup 
 riser consists of Sonat's previous 6,000-foot air 
 can riser and 1,500 feet of syntactic foam. 
 
 Syntactic foam was chosen as a floatation riser 
 because it is easier to use than air cans. There 
 is no need to provide positive buoyancy by filling 
 the joints with air during deployment. Air cans 
 were not completely eliminated so that buoyancy 
 could be varied for different operating conditions. 
 Additionally, a new system for suspending the 
 entire string of riser from the moonpool area was 
 developed especially for this program. 
 
 Associated with the marine riser are components 
 that add to the efficiency of operating in ultra- 
 deep water. A backup emergency disconnect is 
 installed above the primary disconnect which is 
 located within the lower marine riser package. An 
 instrumented riser joint (IRJ) just above the back- 
 up disconnect provides direct information on ball 
 joint angle, riser tension, pressure, and temper- 
 ature. Instrumentation is also available on the 
 upper 44 degree flex joint to provide readings of 
 angle and tension. A riser fill valve at 2,000 
 feet below sea level operates both manually and on 
 signal from the IRJ to prevent riser collapse in 
 the event of complete loss of drilling fluids. 
 Riser tensioners now provide over 1.2 million 
 pounds of pull and are equipped with a riser recoil 
 protection package. Finally, the telescopic joint 
 can stroke to 55 feet and was strengthened for 
 increased bending and tension. 
 
 Another feature of the hydraulic controls is 
 the ability to program disconnect functions. 
 Activation of one button results in several sequen- 
 tial operations occurring to safely secure the 
 well. This includes the closing and blocking of 
 such valves as the annular preventer, rams, wedge 
 locks, and choke- and kill-line valves. The se- 
 quence operates automatically in less than 30 
 seconds and reduces the opportunity for human error 
 and hesitation. To back up the already redundant 
 blowout preventer controls, an acoustic control 
 system can be used to close all rams and unlock 
 the riser connector and wellhead connector. These 
 acoustic controls are used if all hydraulic lines 
 on the riser become severed or malfunction. This 
 system is designed for water depths to 8,000 feet. 
 
 Various aspects of the well-control equipment 
 were changed to adequately drill in these great 
 water depths. On the blowout preventer stack, 
 four tension rods extend from the wellhead con- 
 nector to anchoring sleeves on the lower annular 
 preventer. These supports add strength to the 
 stack to prevent failure of any connection from 
 
 53 
 
the severe stresses caused by bending, tension, and 
 pressure. In order to avoid the costly and time- 
 consuming operation of pulling the riser, redundan- 
 cy of several components are present. Variable 
 bore rams for 2 7/8-inch to 5-inch drill pipe are 
 installed as the lower-most ram. Two blind shear 
 rams are in the upper cavities. Also, two 5,000- 
 pounds per square inch (psi) annular preventers 
 are used above this 10,000-psi stack. 
 
 For underwater support to the deepwater oper- 
 ations, Shell uses the Dual Hydra 2500 System deve- 
 loped by Solus Ocean Systems, Inc. This consists 
 of two remotely operated vehicles and a cage for 
 deployment. Power and operating signals are sent 
 to the cage by means of an umbilical connection. 
 The cage transmits signals to the vehicle through 
 a 400-foot tether. The vehicles were used for 
 site surveys, reentry of pipe, connection of riser 
 and stack, recovery of equipment, cleaning debris 
 from the wellhead area, replacement of equipment, 
 and cutting cable or rope. The system provided a 
 capability for inplace maintenance of equipment 
 which resulted in not having to pull the blowout 
 preventer assembly in more than one case. Through 
 its use and its remotely operated mechanical capa- 
 bility, a ring in the blowout preventer system was 
 replaced with the stack in place. These vehicles 
 have extended diving-support capability to more 
 than double the previous depth. 
 
 DEEPWATER PRODUCTION 
 
 Although the Shell wells were not successful in 
 discovering hydrocarbon resources, other deepwater 
 oil and gas exploration on the U.S. 0CS has enjoyed 
 some measure of success over the last several 
 years. A recent surge in activity in the Gulf of 
 Mexico has led to a number of hydrocarbon discover- 
 ies in water depths exceeding 800 feet. This surge 
 has been spurred in part by the introduction of the 
 areawide lease sale concept which has made avail- 
 able for exploration huge amounts of offshore 
 acreage. It is also caused by the deepwater suc- 
 cess stories of companies such as Shell, Exxon, 
 Union, and others who, in the mid- to late 1970s, 
 discovered oil and gas deposits on deepwater 
 California and Gulf of Mexico tracts. These 
 companies developed the necessary technology to 
 design, fabricate, and install platforms of mammoth 
 proportions in order to produce those deposits. 
 Such structures as Shell's Cognac, Exxon's Hondo 
 and Lena (guyed tower), and Union's Cerveza and 
 Cerveza Ligera proved to industry that the problems 
 of deepwater oil and gas production could be tech- 
 nically and economically overcome. Figure 1 pro- 
 vides a summary of all platforms installed to date 
 or planned for installation in the near future in 
 water depths exceeding 800 feet. Exxon's Hondo and 
 Shell's Cognac jackets were fabricated in two and 
 three pieces respectively, then joined together in 
 the marine environment. Union, however, fabricated 
 and installed their jackets in one piece, thereby 
 realizing substantial savings in the costs of those 
 structures. 
 
 Considering the large number of recent announce- 
 ments concerning deepwater discoveries, it is 
 logical to expect the rate of deepwater platform 
 installations to increase in the next few years. 
 In fact, some companies have already completed 
 designs for tension-leg platforms (TLP) and others 
 are contemplating the use of floating production 
 systems (converted semisubmersibles). Still others 
 have conventional jacket-type 1 structures on the 
 drawing board. One joint industry project present- 
 ly underway is looking at the design of such a 
 structure for 1,600 feet of water depth in the Gulf 
 of Mexico. This involves the use of a compliant 
 structure featuring large bouyancy chambers just 
 below the water line to support topside weight. 
 Just a few years ago, such a design would not have 
 been considered economically feasible, even if 
 technically possible. To a large extent, the 
 introduction of the one-piece jacket concept for 
 deepwater structures such as Union's Cerveza 
 platforms has greatly reduced fabrication and 
 installation costs, thereby enabling this design 
 concept to be competitive in ever deeper water. 
 
 Figure 2 provides a summary of several recent 
 0CS deepwater discoveries for which furtherdrill- 
 ing is either planned or underway to determine if 
 the fields are commercial. While such news is 
 certainly encouraging, some of these discoveries 
 will probably not culminate in the installation of 
 a platform. Deepwater production of oil and gas 
 deposits requires enormous financial investments, 
 and the fields produced must therefore contain 
 substantially more hydrocarbon deposits than fields 
 in shallower waters. It has been estimated that 
 a field in 1,200 feet of water must contain 100 
 million barrels (bbl ) of oil equivalent to approx- 
 imate the development economics of a 20-mi 1 1 ion bbl 
 field in 300 feet of water. Development costs for 
 the former are on the order of $450 million, $90 
 million for the latter. Further, it has been 
 estimated that as much as 1 year may be required 
 to determine whether or not a deepwater field is 
 commercial and another 4 years to initiate pro- 
 duction. Considering that some estimates of 
 deepwater wildcats to be drilled in the Gulf of 
 Mexico this year are as high as 40, this list of 
 deepwater discoveries is certain to grow. 
 
 Once the decision to develop a deepwater field 
 has been made, selection of a particular type of 
 production system is based on several factors. 
 For large fields where the water depth is less 
 than 1,500 or 1,600 feet, one- or two-piece jacket- 
 type structures will probably be the most econom- 
 ical choice for many operators. Further, the 
 experience base for this structural type is large 
 which weighs heavily in its favor with smaller 
 operators. Beyond 1,600-feet water depth, however, 
 the choice of systems narrows to guyed towers to 
 2,000-feet, TLP to 3,000-feet, or floating pro- 
 duction systems to 3,000-feet. For marginal 
 fields, the floating production system will pro- 
 bably be the choice of most operators since it can 
 readily be moved to another location when the field 
 is depleted. For larger fields, this system will 
 also be attractive to operators with limited 
 
 54 
 
capital and little or no experience with TLP's 
 and guyed towers since these structures are tech- 
 nically complex and require very large economic 
 investments. As such, their use will probably be 
 limited to the "giant" fields of large operators 
 in water depths exceeding 1,600 feet. However, as 
 experience is gained in the design, construction, 
 and operation of these structures, economics will 
 dictate the type of structures to be considered. 
 Eventually, the use of TLP's and guyed towers is 
 expected to become more widespread. 
 
 While the great majority of deepwater discov- 
 eries have been in U.S. waters, there have been 
 two such discoveries abroad, both in Norwegian 
 North Sea waters. The most recent of these is a 
 discovery where the water depth is 945 feet. 
 Testing is continuing at that location. Another 
 discovery was made in 1979 in the West Troll field 
 where the water depth is 1,140 feet. For some time 
 now, three different platform designs have been 
 undergoing intensive review, and while no decision 
 has yet been made, it is anticipated that the 
 choice will probably be a Condeep T-300 concrete 
 structure with the skirts extended to a depth of 
 8 to 10 feet. The long skirts will solve the 
 anticipated soft bottom problem of differential 
 settlement and eliminate the need for base pil-es-. 
 Production of this field will rely heavily on 
 subsea technology because of the large size and 
 shallow depth of the reservoir. It is anticipated 
 that as many as 30 subsea oil and 30 gas wells will 
 be tied into this platform. 
 
 Conclusion 
 
 The technology for developing and producing oil 
 and gas from reservoirs underlying deep water has 
 been demonstrated. The application of this tech- 
 nology for specific projects will be constrained 
 by the hydrocarbon reserve inventory, costs of 
 development and production, and the world oil 
 prices. 
 
 55 
 
Figure 1 
 
 DEEPWATER (> 800 FEET) STRUCTURES IN PLACE 
 
 OPERATOR 
 
 LOCATION 
 
 DATE 
 INSTALLED 
 
 PLATFORM 
 NAME AND/OR 
 TYPE 
 
 WATER 
 DEPTH 
 
 NUMBER 
 OF 
 SLOTS 
 
 Exxon 
 
 Pacific OCS-P 0188 
 
 1976 
 
 Hondo 
 (Jacket) 
 
 842' 
 
 28 
 
 Shell 
 
 GOM OCS-Mississippi 
 Canyon Block 194 
 
 1978 
 
 Cognac 
 (Jacket) 
 
 1,023' 
 
 62 
 
 Exxon 
 
 GOM OCS-Mississippi 
 Canyon Block 280 
 
 1983 
 
 Lena 
 (Guyed) 
 (Tower) 
 
 1,000' 
 
 58 
 
 Union 
 
 GOM OCS-East Breaks 
 Block 159 
 
 1982 
 
 Cerveza 
 Llgera 
 (Jacket) 
 
 924' 
 
 21 
 
 Union 
 
 GOM OCS-East Breaks 
 Block 160 
 
 1981 
 
 Cerveza 
 (Jacket) 
 
 935' 
 
 40 | 
 
 DEEPWATER (> 800 FEET) STRUCTURES PLANNED OR BEING FABRICATED 
 
 OPERATOR 
 
 LOCATION 
 
 PLATFORM 
 NAME AND/OR 
 TYPE 
 
 WATER 
 DEPTH 
 
 NUMBER ! 
 OF i 
 SLOTS 
 
 Exxon 
 
 Pacific OCS-P 0182 
 
 Pescado 
 (Jacket) 
 
 1,075' 
 
 60 
 
 Exxon 
 
 Pacific OCS-P 0190 
 
 Hondo B 
 (Jacket) 
 
 1,200' 
 
 60 
 
 Placid 
 
 GOM OCS-Green Canyon 
 Block 29 
 
 Not named 
 (Converted 
 semi submer- 
 sible) 
 
 1.650' 
 
 24-40 
 
 Shell 
 
 GOM OCS-Green Canyon 
 Block 65 
 
 Bullwinkle 
 (Jacket) 
 
 1,350' 
 
 40 
 
 Conoco 
 
 GOM OCS-Green Canyon 
 Block 184 
 
 Not named 
 (TLP) 
 
 1,800' 
 
 30-48 
 
 Exxon 
 
 GOM OCS-Mississippi Canyon 
 Block 397 (Alabaster) 
 
 Not named 
 (Jacket) 
 
 600' 
 to 
 1,100' 
 
 20 
 
 56 
 
Figure 2 
 
 DISCOVERIES IN 800 FEET OR GREATER WATER DEPTH 
 (DELINEATION DRILLING PLANNED OR UNDER WAY) 
 
 OPERATOR 
 
 LOCATION 
 (GULF OF MEXICO) 
 
 WATER DEPTH 
 (FEET) 
 
 ODECO 
 
 Green Canyon Block 21 
 
 1.270 
 
 Placid 
 
 Green Canyon Block 39 
 
 2,200 
 
 Sohlo 
 
 Green Canyon Block 60 
 
 1,100 
 
 Shell 
 
 Green Canyon Block 63 
 
 1,150 
 
 Marathon 
 
 Green Canyon Block 110 
 
 1,300 
 
 Tenneco 
 
 Green Canyon Block 136 
 
 1,300 
 
 Sohio 
 
 Mississippi Canyon Block 109 
 
 1,100 
 
 Sohio 
 
 Mississippi Canyon Block 110 
 
 1,500 
 
 Exxon 
 
 Mississippi Canyon Block 354 
 (Zinc) 
 
 1,500 
 
 57 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF WAVE POWER LIGHT BEACON INSTALLED ON SUNKEN ROCK 
 
 Ocean Engineering Division, Ship Research Institute, 
 Ministry of Transport 
 6-38-1 ,Shinkawa,Mitaka-shi, Tokyo, Japan 
 
 Engineering Division, Ryokuseisha Co. Ltd. 
 
 9-11, Narita, Nishi, 3-chome, Suginami-ku, Tokyo, Japan 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The light beacon which is installed on the 
 sunken rock, etc., as navigation aid has great 
 difficulty in securing power supply because of 
 its installing location. It can therefore be 
 said that to utilize wave energy that exists in 
 its surroundings as power source for light 
 beacon is very effective measures. 
 
 The research- project concerns both with the 
 experimental investigation on the performance 
 of circular air chamber and that of air turbine, 
 which means a technical extension of the light 
 buoy technology which already has been realized 
 as only case successfully utilizing wave energy?' 
 
 This paper deals with the first stage of the 
 investigation, i.e., the power absorbing 
 characteristics of circular air chamber in order 
 to squeeze wave energy efficiently even in the 
 calm or moderate sea state throughout a year. 
 
 The circular air chamber is attached around 
 circular base as shown in Fig. 1 and is divided 
 into two or four chambers. In the experiment 
 a 1/5 scale model has been used in the Offshore 
 Structure Experimental Basin of Ship Research 
 Institute, and the wave power absorbing 
 efficiencies for each air chamber have been 
 measured for various wave directions, wave 
 periods and heights, water-line levels and so 
 on. As the results, it is clarified that this 
 system can" generate sufficient power for use of 
 the light beacon. Furthermore, absorbed wave 
 energy was calculated by use of the equivalent 
 floating body concept and compared with 
 experimental values 
 
 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD 
 
 DESIGN CONDITIONS OF AIR CHAMBER 
 
 Based on wave and tidal observation data in 
 the sea area where the light beacon is to be 
 constructed, the air chamber was designed under 
 the following conditions: 
 
 ^"Frequency ofN 
 
 Wave height 
 Wave period 
 Sea Level 
 
 H,/3 
 
 Va 
 AH 
 
 0.35 m<| ^Occurrence 
 
 4 sec j 
 +W-0.6 
 
 50 % 
 m 80 % 
 
 The necessary wave energy to be absorbed, 
 which is able to produce electric power of 300W 
 for light beacon, on the assumption that the 
 air turbine efficiency is 50% and the generator 
 efficiency 40%, Was estimated by the "reverse 
 calculation as follows: 
 
 E a =300/ (? hi/3 -^h- V?g) = 3.75 KW 
 where, 
 #hi/3; 
 
 *T ! 
 
 50% (Frequency of occurrence of wave) 
 80% (Frequency of occurrence of sea level) 
 50% (Air turbine efficiency) 
 40% (Generator efficiency) 
 
 AIR CHAMBER MODEL 
 
 The circular air chamber model is illustrated 
 in Fig. 2. The model is constructed by the 
 circular foundation section and the air chamber 
 section located around it. The 1/5 scale model 
 is made of 2.3 and 4.5mm thick steel plates. 
 Part of the top and side of the air chamber 
 section is made of transparent acryl plate so 
 that the behavior of water surface in the air 
 chamber can be visually observed. Also, in 
 order to minimize the consumption of wave energy 
 to be introduced into air chamber, a 16 $ round 
 steel bar was welded throughout the circumference 
 at the lower end of the front part of the air 
 chamber. 
 
 The air chamber section can be divided into 
 two or four air chamber in the direction of its 
 diameter. Moreover, to change the incident 
 angle of wave against the air chamber, the air 
 chamber section can be rotated to any angle. 
 
 The load on the air chamber which takes the 
 place of an air turbine or generator was changed 
 by changing the area of the nozzle on the top 
 of each air chamber. The principal dimensions 
 of the model are as follows: 
 
 Outside diameter of air 
 
 chamber section Di : 2.56 m 
 
 Inside diameter of air 
 
 chamber section D 2 : 1.24 m 
 
 Height of air chamber : 0.70 m 
 
 Water plane area of air 2 
 
 chamber(4 air chamber type) : 0.985 m 
 
 Water plane area of air 
 
 chamber(2 air chamber type) : 1.970 m z 
 
 The photo of the model is shown in Fig. 3 . 
 
 EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS 
 
 Using the model shown in Fig. 2, experiments 
 were conducted by changing the number of air 
 chamber, the depth of front of air chamber d 
 ( change of sea level ), the direction of 
 incident wave "X , the ratio of nozzle to water 
 plane area of air chamber R V and so on. 
 
 58 
 
 Table 1 Experimenta' 
 
 Conditions 
 
 Items 
 
 Conditions 
 
 Number of air chamber 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Direction of incident vave X 
 
 0*22.5" 4^ 
 
 0° 45* 90* 
 
 Depth of front of air j, , 
 . u d(cm) 
 chamber 
 
 12 32 2 
 
 Ratio of nozzle to water n 
 plane area in air chamber 
 
 1/100 1/150 1/270 
 
 Wave 
 
 Regular 
 
 T (sec) 
 
 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 
 
 H, (cm) 
 
 5 10 
 
 Irregular 
 
 T m (sec) 
 
 1.2 
 
 Hi/ 3 (cm) 
 
 6 11 
 
Experimental conditions are shown in Table 1 . 
 The direction of incident wave to air chamber is 
 shown in Fig. 4 . 
 
 MEASURING ITEMS 
 
 Measuring items included incident wave, water 
 level and air pressure in air chamber, etc. 
 
 The air pressure was measured by use of a 
 miniature pressure gage on top of air chamber. 
 Also, variation in water level in air chamber 
 was measured with capacitance type average water 
 level gage. 
 
 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND CONSIDERATIONS 
 ABSORBED WAVE ENERGY IN EACH AIR CHAMBER 
 
 The absorbed wave energy E a calculated in 
 terms of the full scale model by Froude's law 
 is shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6. In these figures, 
 Eai > E a2 » E°3 and E a t indicate the absorbed 
 wave energy in air chamber No.l, No. 2, No. 3 and 
 all air chambers respectively. The values 
 correspond to the case where direction of 
 incident wave % = 0°, the depth of front of air 
 chamber d = 0.6 m, the ratio of nozzle to water 
 plane area R = 1/100 and the height of incident 
 wave Hi= 0.25 and 0.5 m . Also, the air 
 chamber output E a = 3.75 KW that satisfies the 
 generating output 300 W is indicated in these 
 figures as a target value. 
 
 In the 4 air chamber type model, the absorbed 
 wave energy in the air chambers No. 2 and No. 4 
 is about 1/2 of that in the air chamber No.l and 
 that in the air chamber No. 3 is about 1/4 . 
 With regard to the 2 air chamber type model, the 
 absorbed wave energy in the air chamber No. 2 is 
 about 1/2 of that in the air chamber No.l . 
 
 In either case, when H -, = 0.25 m , the 
 absorbed wave energy fails to reach the target 
 value 3.75 KW . When Hj = 0.5 m, however, it 
 fully satisfies the target value. Also, the 
 total absorbed wave energy is almost similar in 
 both cases even if the number of air chamber is 
 different. 
 
 VARIATION OF ABSORBED WAVE ENERGY OWING TO THE 
 DIRECTION OF INCIDENT WAVE 
 
 Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 show the variation of absorbed 
 wave energy of the air chamber No.l (A.C. No.l) 
 and all air chambers in the 4 and 2 air chamber 
 type full scale models in the case where the 
 direction of incident wave t is changed.. In 
 case of the 4 air chamber type model, there is 
 no major variation of absorbed wave energy from 
 whatever direction wave may come, as shown in 
 Fig. 7 . In case of 2 air chamber type model, 
 the total absorbed wave energy undergoes little 
 change as shown in Fig. 8 . But, the absorbed 
 wave energy in the air chamber No.l becomes 
 about 1/2 of the value y ■ 0° when >x =90° . 
 
 VARIATION OF ABSORBED WAVE ENERGY OWING TO THE 
 DEPTH OF FRONT OF AIR CHAMBER 
 
 Fig. 9 shows the variation of absorbed wave 
 energy in full seal model, corresponding to the 
 variation of the depth of front of air chamber 
 in the 4 air chamber type model. These values 
 are described when H-, = 0.5 m, R = 1/100 and 
 % - 0° . The absorbed wave energy in the air 
 chamber No.l is the largest when d = 0.6 m ( 
 optimum depth of front of air chamber obtained 
 from the results of two dimensional experiment), 
 while the maximum value of total absorbed wave 
 energy in all air chambers is showing a similar 
 value when d = 0.6 and 1.6 m . When d = 0.1 m, 
 
 the value is small because the lower end of the 
 front part of the air chamber is exposed to the 
 air. Also, the maximum value at d = 1.6 m is 
 produced on the longer period side than that of 
 others, and this is attributable to that the 
 resonant period of a water column in the air 
 chamber is large. 
 
 CALCULATION OF ABSORBED WAVE ENERGY 
 
 The absorbed wave energy was calculated by 
 the equivalent floating body concept which is a 
 method of making approximate calculation by 
 replacing a water column in the air chamber 
 with a floating body to be equivalent to it . 
 The heaving motion of the water column in the 
 air chamber is expressed by the following 
 equation. 
 
 (m+m 2 )'z + (N + d )z + pgAz = F 2 e Iut 
 
 Where, m and m 2 are mass and added mass of the 
 equivalent floating body respectively, N is a 
 wave damping coefficient, d„ is a linearized 
 load damping coefficient, A is a water plane 
 area of the equivalent floating body, and F z is 
 an amplitude of wave exciting force. 
 
 The values m 2 and N were calculated by the 
 finite element method with respect to the 
 doughnut-shaped floating body having a core in 
 the center as shown in Fig. 10 . The nondimensi- 
 onal values of their calculated results are 
 shown in Fig. 10 . Also, F 2 was obtained by 
 integrating the pressure acting on the bottom 
 surface of the floating body calculated by the 
 finite element method, over the water plane area 
 of each air chamber. Since experimental values 
 of load damping coefficient d shows almost 
 constantagainst a wave period, this linearized 
 value was used for calculation. 
 
 The experimental values of absorbed wave 
 energy in the full scale4air chamber type model 
 are compared with the calculated value in Fig. 11. 
 The tendencies of both values agree very well 
 in each air chamber, though the experimental 
 values are slightly larger than calculated ones 
 in the vicinity of T = 3 and 4 sec. . 
 
 Fig. 12 shows the values in the 2 air chamber 
 type model, and indicates that the experimental 
 values are larger than calculated ones on the 
 whole, while both agree well qualitatively. 
 
 CONCLUSIONS 
 
 From the results of experiments, the following 
 can be said with respect to the wave energy ab- 
 sorption characteristics of circular air chamber. 
 
 (1) The absorbed wave energy in the air chamber 
 in front of wave is the largest. In the rear 
 air chamber, absorbed wave energy is from about 
 1/2 to 1/4 of that in the front of air chamber. 
 
 (2) The circular air chamber can absorb almost 
 constant wave energy for any wave directions 
 when the energy of all chambers are summarized. 
 
 (3) The absorbed wave energy becomes the 
 largest in the depth of front of air chamber 
 d = 0.6 m. Hence, the air chamber must be 
 designed in such a way that the mean water 
 level will come to this position. 
 
 (4) The absorbed wave anergy becomes the 
 largest in the ratio of nozzle to water plane 
 area R = 1/100. 
 
 (5) The absorbed wave energy in circular air 
 chamber as well as two dimensional air chamber 
 can be calculated by the equivalent floating 
 body concept. 
 
 59 
 
(6) Assuming the total absorbed energy of the 
 air chamber in the design wave ( T,/ 3 = 4sec, 
 H,/ 3 = 0.35 m ) from the experimental value, it 
 can be considered that the 4 air chamber type 
 model satisfies output target value 3.75 KW 
 of the absorbed wave energy of the air chamber, 
 while the 2 air chamber type model may have 
 difficulty in reaching the target value in all 
 conditions. 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 
 
 This work was carried out partly with the 
 support of the Grant-in-Aid of Japan Foundation 
 for Ship Building Advancement. The authors 
 acknowledge the favor for this research received 
 from Navigation Aids Department of Maritime 
 Safty Agency and Japan Association for Aids to 
 
 Navigation, and thank Mr. H.Kagemoto for the 
 assistance of the calculation by Finite Element 
 Method. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 1) Inoue.R., Iwai.M., Yahagi ,M. and Yamazaki, 
 T.; Wave Energy Absorption Characteristics of 
 Air Chamber for use of Light Beacon, 1st 
 Symposium on wave Energy Utilization in Japan, 
 1984. 
 
 2) Maeda.H., Kinoshita.T. , Masuda.K.and Kato, 
 W. ; Fundamental Research on Oscillating Water 
 Column Wave Power Absorbers, OMAE Symposium, 
 1984. 
 
 3) Akane.T. and Izumi.H.; New type of Wave - 
 Activated Generator Light Buoy, The 3rd ODC 
 Symposium, 1975. 
 
 Fig.l Wave activated generating system 
 for light beacon 
 
 Fig. 3 Circular air chamber model 
 
 12 
 
 Air Chamber 
 
 Foundation 
 
 UNI T: mm 
 
 Fig. 2 Circular air chamber model 
 
 Incident Wave 
 
 \ 
 
 
 Incident Ww* 
 
 o* 
 
 45* 
 
 f^I.8 1 m — I \ h 2.S6 m 
 
 Fig. 4 Direction of incident wave 
 
 12 
 
 Fig.5 Absorbed wave energy in full scale model Fig. 6 Absorbed wave energy in full scale model 
 
 60 
 
Fig. 7 Variation of absorbed wave energy 
 in full scale model owing to 
 direction of incident wave 
 
 Fig. 9 Variation of absorbed wave energy 
 in full scale model owing to depth 
 in front of air chamber 
 
 QMr 
 
 2 3 A 5 6 7 
 T (sec) 
 
 Fig. 11 Comparison between experimental 
 and calculated values 
 
 Fig. 8 Variation of absorbed wave energy 
 in full scale model owing to 
 direction of incident wave 
 
 (m.m,)i* (N.u,)i. r gAz.F,e"" 
 s 
 
 Fig. 10 Water column in air chamber and 
 calculated values of added mass 
 and wave damping coefficient 
 
 12 
 10 
 8 I— 
 
 - 6 
 
 5 
 
 tu A 
 
 Wav» t *«o* 
 
 
 i 
 
 CAL. 
 
 ' 1 
 EXP. 
 
 f /"~\ \ 
 
 
 — 
 
 O ; A.C.1 
 
 — r~v /i "™ 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 vty 
 
 
 — 
 
 A ; A C.2 
 
 2A.C. _ 
 
 R» 1/100 
 H)»0.3m 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 \o 
 
 
 •/ 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 7 
 
 & 
 
 
 -• 
 
 .-»" 
 
 
 ..A A --- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 3 4 5 6 7 
 T(s«c) 
 
 Fig. 12 Comparison between experimental 
 and calculated values 
 
 61 
 
Lantern 
 
 Fig. 1 Wave activated generating system for light beacon 
 
 62 
 
Nozzle 
 
 Air 
 chamber 
 
 Foundation 
 
 n> 
 
 ! 
 
 v <|>2570- 
 
 -4>1200- 
 
 s o 
 
 E 
 
 Average 
 water 
 level gage 
 
 Window 
 
 - it 
 
 St 
 
 ~i\ 
 
 o o o 
 o o o 
 
 *4" LT> c^ 
 
 £ ? £ 
 
 !! !! !f 
 
 UNIT; mm 
 
 Fig. 2 Circular air chamber model 
 
 63 
 
Fig. 3 Circular air chamber model 
 
 64 
 
Incident wave 
 
 o 0° 
 
 45 
 
 22.5 i 
 i 
 
 Incident wave 
 0° 
 
 \ 
 
 A 5* 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 KL81m 
 
 \ 
 
 2.56m — 
 
 U Air chambers type 2 Air chambers type 
 
 Fig. 4 Direction of incident wave 
 
 65 
 
12 
 
 10 
 
 .8 
 
 o6 
 
 UJ 
 
 \.h 
 
 d=0.6m 
 
 R=1/100 
 
 Hi=0.5m 
 
 Oi-V 
 
 Fig. 5 Absorbed wave energy in full scale model 
 
 66 
 
Fig. 6 Absorbed wave energy in full scale model 
 
 67 
 
Fig. 7 Variation of absorbed wave energy 
 in full scale rtiodel owing to 
 direction of incident wave 
 
 68 
 
Fig. 8 Variation- of absorbed wave energy 
 in full scale model owing to 
 direction of incident wave 
 
 69 
 
Fig. 9 Variation of absorbed wave energy 
 in full scale model owing to depth 
 in front of air chamber 
 
 70 
 
N 
 < 
 
 8 
 
 •N 
 
 o 
 
 + 
 
 in 
 
 cu 
 
 Arfrt/N 
 
 00 CM 
 
 - O 
 
 CO cnj 
 
 Acf/ z UU 
 
 — o 
 
 fcfrr-9'l 
 
 ot 
 
 71 
 
Fig. 11 Comparison between experimental 
 and calculated values 
 
 72 
 
T (sec) 
 
 Fig. 12 Comparison between experimental 
 and calculated values 
 
 73 
 
FUNCTION OF A STEEL FLOATING FISHING REEF 
 ( ARTIFICIAL SEAWEED FARM PLANT ) 
 
 Dr. Mineo OKAMOTO and Natsuo INAGAKI 
 
 Manned Undersea Science and Technology Department 
 Japan Marine Science and Technology Center ( JAMSTEC ) 
 2-15, Natsushima, Yokosuka, 237, Japan 
 
 Introduction 
 
 The artificial seaweed farm plant, the experimental 
 floating reef made of steel, was anchored by two chains at 
 the depth of fourty-three meters off Tajima in the Japan 
 Sea, from August 1979 to October 1982. Mean component of 
 the plant was a shelf ( 22 x 22m square ) settled at ten 
 meter depth layer and an observation tower rose at the 
 center of the shelf toward the surface. 
 
 This was an experimental facility of the artificial 
 continentalshelf project, which had been planned by Hyogo 
 prefectural office and some shipyards in the area ". The 
 purpose of the project was to construct the steel 
 continental shelf ( 200m in width, 20km in length ) in the 
 Japan Sea which is known as sandy and flattened bottom, for 
 improving productive algal belt and for gathering fishes 
 especially migrational ones. As the project was paused 
 only to make up one artificial seaweed farm plant, the 
 function of the plant was interested as a special 
 artificial fishing reef. 
 
 The behavioral characters and the gathering factors of 
 fishes around the plant were investigated by direct visual 
 observation, some automatic recording instruments and the 
 echosounder. 
 
 Method 
 
 Investigations were carried out four times from May 
 1980 to July 1982. Fig. 1 shows a view of the complete 
 construction of the plant. 
 
 I 
 
 ■.-.-,:. 
 
 
 Fig. 2 Automatic underwater camera. 
 
 ~^2s 
 
 Fig. 3 Automatic fish finder. 
 
 Result 
 
 Fig. 1 Artificial seaweed farm plant. 
 
 Diving observarion 
 
 The fish fauna and approximate figures of each fish 
 species were observed by divers. Diving observations were 
 carried on day and night mainly around the shelf and the 
 observation tower. 
 
 As it was difficult to dive in a rough sea, and the 
 continuous diving was impossible because of the limit of 
 bottom time, automatic recording instruments were used. 
 Fig. 3 shows an automatic underwater camera, which could 
 take 250 photographs lit with an electronic flash at every 
 5, 15, 30 and 60 minutes. Fig. 4 shows an automatic fish 
 finder, which records 960 brief echograms of 30 seconds at 
 every 5, 15, 30 and 60 minutes. 
 
 By diving observation, twenty-three kinds of fishes 
 were found around the artificial seaweed farm plant 
 ( Table 1 ). Most of them belonged to the young stage, and 
 adult species were not so much. The dominant fishes 
 changed at every observation period. 
 
 In the first observation period, young Goldeye Rockfish 
 Sebastes thompsoni were the dominant. . In the day, they 
 formed dense inactive schools mainly above the shelf, and 
 in the night, they settled on the shelf to rest or sleep. 
 
 In the second observation period, young Yellowfin 
 Horse Mackerel Trachurus japonicus , young Striped Beakperch 
 Oplegnathus fasciatus , young Goldeye Rockfish and young 
 
 74 
 
Black Scraper Navodon modestus were the dominants. 
 Vellowfin Horse Mackerel formed schools and swam rapidly 
 around the plant in the day, but they were not seen in the 
 night. Striped Beakperch acted near the plant close to the 
 surface ( Fig. 4 ) and sometimes moved up and down between 
 the shelf and the bottom along two anchor chains in the 
 day, they settled on the shelf in the night. Black Scraper 
 aggregated near the shelf in the day, and in the night they 
 settled on the shelf. 
 
 in a same year, Bambooleaf Wrasse Pseudolabrus japonicus 
 Striped Beakperch, Spotyellow Greenling Hexagrammos 
 agrammus , Pat Greenling Hexagrammos otaki 1 and Goldeye 
 Rockfish were estimated to stay at least four months, but 
 they were not able to stay there against rough and cold 
 winter. So the longest duration of stay of every fish 
 species were estimated from spring and late autumn or 
 winter. 
 
 Table 1. Fishes found near the artificial seaweed farm 
 plant. Total length (T.L.) and number of them were 
 estimated by visual observation. 
 
 Species 
 
 May 14-16 
 1980 
 
 Sep. 29- Oct. 1 
 1980 
 
 Aug. 11-19 
 1981 
 
 Jul. 5-8 
 1982 
 
 T.L. No- of 
 (era) fish 
 
 T.L. 
 
 (cm) 
 
 No. of 
 fish 
 
 T.L. 
 (cm) 
 
 No. of 
 fish 
 
 T L. No. of 
 
 (cm) fish 
 
 ho fiosmaris 
 Seriola aureovittata 
 
 10 8-9 
 
 30-35 
 
 5-6 
 
 50 
 
 50-70 
 
 15-20 15-20 
 
 Trachurus japonicus 
 Cirella punctata 
 
 - 
 
 15-18 
 15 
 
 1000-2000 
 3 
 
 6-7 
 
 10 
 
 2-t 200-300 
 
 2-t 25-30 
 
 15 2 
 
 Pseudolabrus japonicus 
 Pleragogus flagellifa 
 Oplegnalhus fascialus 
 
 5-10 10 
 15 100 
 
 10-15 
 
 10-15 
 15-20 
 
 20-30 
 
 20-30 
 
 20 
 
 7-20 
 10 
 
 5-10 
 20 
 
 150-200 
 1 
 50-100 
 20-30 
 
 7-15 100-200 
 7-10 100-200 
 15-20 200-250 
 
 Ckaelodonloplus seplenirionalis 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 2-4 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 Abudefduf vaigensis 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 10-20 
 
 — 
 
 Pomacentrus coelestes 
 
 — 
 
 2-3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 Microcanthus strigaius 
 
 2-4 2 
 
 15-18 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 Epinephelus aboard 
 Pelroscirles breviceps 
 
 — 20-30 
 
 25-30 
 
 1 
 30-50 
 
 — 
 
 SO- 
 
 — 50- 
 
 Piciiblennius yaiabei 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 10 
 
 — 10- 
 
 Parapercis sp. 
 Hexagrammos agrammus 
 Hexagrammos otakii 
 Sebastes inermis 
 
 15 10 
 10 10 
 
 4-5 
 15 
 20-25 
 
 1 
 
 4 5 
 2-3 
 
 10-15 
 10-15 
 15-20 
 
 10- 
 
 1 
 50-100 
 
 10-15 IOO-200 
 20 1 
 
 Sebasies thompsoni 
 
 2-4 30000- 
 
 6-7 
 
 4000-5000 
 
 5-7 
 
 15-20 
 
 3-5 1000- 
 
 2000 
 
 Sebastiscus marnwralus 
 
 15 2 
 
 8-10 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 Navodon modestus 
 
 20 1 
 
 20-25 
 
 200-300 
 
 10-15 
 
 25 
 
 300-100 
 50- 
 
 5-6 30-50 
 10-15 30-50 
 25-30 30- 
 
 Rudarius ercodes 
 
 — 
 
 5-6 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 10-20 
 
 — 
 
 Stephanoiepis cirrhifer 
 
 - 
 
 10-15 
 
 20-30 
 
 7-8 
 
 30-50 
 
 — 
 
 In the third observation period, Goldstriped Amberjack 
 Seriola aureovittata , young Striped Beakperch, young and 
 adult Black Scraper were the dominants. Goldstriped 
 Amberjack formed dense school and swam rapidly in a wide 
 area around the plant in the day ( Fig. 5 ), but they were 
 not seen in the night. Adult Black Scraper aggregated 
 between the shelf and the bottom in the day, and settled 
 on the bottom in the night. 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 mm 
 
 
 *v 
 
 
 Fig. 4 Young Striped Beakperch Oplegnathus fasciatus. 
 
 In the fourth observation period, young Goldeye 
 Rockfish and young Striped Beakperch were the dominants. 
 
 As the fish fauna in these three years were almost the 
 same, the constituted fishes of it were not the same. 
 Comparison of the fish fauna and size of them between the 
 first and second observation period, which were conducted 
 
 m » 
 
 ► 
 
 t 
 
 Fig. 5 Goldstriped Amberjack Seriola aureovittata. 
 
 Measurement by automatic instruments 
 
 In the third observation period, automatic underwater 
 cameras and automatic fish finder were settled as shown in 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 X OBSERVATION 
 Towefi 
 
 BOTTOM " ■•- J . 
 
 Fig. 6 Observation stations using automatic recording 
 
 instrument. St. A-E: Automatic underwater camera, 
 
 St.F-I: Automatic fish finder, St. J: Current and 
 temperature meter. 
 
 From the photograph taken by the automatic underwater 
 camera, fishes in species and number were analyzed by every 
 frame and summarised in table 2. Six species of fishes 
 were recognized. Fishes were seen day and night near the 
 shelf ( St. A, B ), but at midwater layer ( St. C, D ) and 
 bottom layer ( St. E ), only Black Scraper were seen in the 
 day. 
 
 A transducer of the automatic fish finder was settled 
 upward ( St. F ), downward ( St. G ) and sideway ( St. H, 1 ). 
 From each brief intermettent echogram, the size of every 
 fish schools were analyzed as "index of fish school by 
 statistic echosounder". Results of them are shown in Fig. 7 
 to Fig. 9 together with water temperature and current in 
 midwater layer ( St. J ) obtained by a magnetic tape 
 recording type instrument every five minutres. In every 
 direction around the shelf, distribution and the size of 
 
 75 
 
Table 2. Kind and number of fishes appeared on 35mm film 
 taken by automatic underwater camera by every thirty 
 minutes. 
 
 •SUNSET 
 
 
 Period 
 
 Number of 
 frames 
 
 Fishes appeared 
 
 on film 
 
 
 station 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 Total 
 
 Fish 
 
 
 
 
 Name 
 
 frames 
 
 number 
 offish 
 
 appeared 
 time 
 
 A 
 
 15.00 Aug. 11 
 9:30 Aug. 13 
 
 86 
 
 Optegnatluis fasciatus 
 Sebasies inermis 
 Stephanolepis cirrliifer 
 
 10 
 1 
 I 
 
 15 
 1 
 1 
 
 Day & night 
 19:00 
 18:30 
 
 
 
 
 Navodon modestus 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 8:00-19:00 
 
 B 
 
 15:00 Aug. 11- 
 
 86 
 
 Oplegnaihus fasciatus 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 Day & night 
 
 
 9:30 Aug. 13 
 
 
 Sebasies inermis 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 13:00-19:00 
 
 
 
 
 Pseudolabrus iaponicus 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 14:30-16:30 
 
 
 
 
 Petroscirtes breviceps 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 22:30 
 
 C 
 
 10: 30 Aug. 13- 
 10: 30 Aug. 16 
 
 145 
 
 Navodort modestus 
 
 17 
 
 32 
 
 10:00-17:00 
 
 D 
 
 14:00 Aug. 16- 
 18: 00 Aug. 19 
 
 152 
 
 hiavodon modeslus 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 6:30-15:30 
 
 E 
 
 10: 30 Aug. 13- 
 3:00 Aug. 14 
 
 45 
 
 Navadon modeslus 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 6:00- 7:00 
 
 fish schools varied between day and night, but the state 
 of distribution was not influenced by change of underwater 
 temperature or current. 
 
 Over the shelf ( Fig. 7 ), small fish schools 
 distributed sometimes in the day. large and dense schools 
 distributed constantly in the night. 
 
 " . •• • 
 
 :■<';• 
 
 SIZE OF FISH 
 SCHOOL I SEC-MI 
 
 Fig. 9 Fish amount at the shelf layer (10m depth) toward 
 the East from St. H. t 
 
 Echosounding 
 
 Under the shelf ( Fig. 8 ), the distribution of fish 
 schools were contrary to the result obtained over the shelf. 
 In the day, large and dense fish schools distributed 
 constantly, but rare in the night. Fishes in the day were 
 estimated as adult Black Scraper. The distributed range of 
 fish schools in the night were limited within ten to twenty 
 meters from the shelf. 
 
 SIZE OF FISH SCHOOL ISEC-Ml 
 
 -5 -5-25 -25 -SO «:50-tOO 
 - ? SUNSET O SUNRISE • O • O 
 
 
 Fig. 7 Fish amount over the shelf obtained by automatic 
 fish finder at St. F, temperature and current at St. J. 
 
 SI2E Of FISH SCHOOL ISEC M) 
 
 •■■ -5 .:5-25 -25-50 .50-100 • 100- 
 ,0™ * SHELF ° » SUNSET OSUWISE 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 '. •••'. •»■ -• <• ■ ,•>' '• ' . ••■•• ... 
 
 ■".V. . •'•'• V":*-V*.V • '■:• -»'• 
 
 J**.-'-'-". *?£•:•*•- • '■ -C-- 
 
 BOTTOM 
 
 16 
 
 AUG. 11. 1981 
 
 Fi 
 
 g. 8 Fish amount under the shelf at St. G. 
 
 Distribution of fish schools in the sideway of the 
 shelf ( Fig. 9 ) were almost the same as over the shelf. 
 Thed istr lbuted range of fish schools were within ten to 
 twenty meters from the shelf, and in two occasions at St. H, 
 big fish schools ( estimated as Goldstriped Amberjack ) 
 appeared in the day. 
 
 Radial echosounding was conducted in the fourth 
 observation period by the scientific echosounder ( S1MRAD 
 BY-M ) as shown in Fig. 10. As fishes were not so much in 
 this period, fish schools around the plant were rare and 
 little. Under the shelf, big fish schools of adult Black 
 Scraper were recognized. 
 
 Fig. 10 Distribution of fish school around the artificial 
 seaweed farm plant. Numerals shows the size of fish 
 school compared to the smallest one. Parenthesized M 
 and B indicate the layer of fish school, midwater and 
 bottom layer respectively. 
 
 Discussion 
 
 Fishes observed around the artificial seaweed farm 
 plant were almost of the young stage, and adults were only 
 Goldstriped Amberjack and a part of Black Scraper. The 
 plant located in the sandy flattened bottom area, at the 
 depth of fourty-three meters, isolated from other reefs or 
 shore more than one kilometer. All fish species except 
 Banded Grouper Epinepherus awoara were known accompanying 
 the drifting algae ( Nagaremo in Japanese ) 2> , and the fish 
 fauna and their popuration changed each year. The drifting 
 algae in the Japan Sea mainly composed of Sargassum 
 appeared much in late spring and early summer. Many young 
 fishes just after post larva stage drift with drifting 
 algae and spend their young stage 2) . So the process of 
 gathering young fishes to the plant as shown in the first 
 observation period is considered to the drifting algae 
 
 76 
 
origin or drifting post larva origin. In case of adult or 
 semi-adult fishes, Goldstriped Amberjack , Black Scraper 
 and Yellowfin Horse Mackerel were considered to be the 
 transient to the plant in their migration. Subsequently 
 the function of the plant to fishes are discussed about 
 some dominants fishes more minutely. 
 
 Goldeye Rockfish were the most numerous. As the 
 adult of them inhibit at the bottom of seventy-five to 
 two-hundred meters, a large number of the young appeared 
 with the drifting algae 3) . At Noto area in the Japan Sea, 
 the young appeareed between May and July accompanied with 
 drifting algae. Body length of them was 15-25mm in May and 
 50-60mm in July. As they grew and became active, they 
 change their inhabitant to the bottom layer. They leave 
 from the drifting algae when water temperature rises to 
 about 18T;. At the artificial serweed farm plant, Goldeye 
 Rockfish stayed still around the plant in the second 
 observation period of September, when water temperature was 
 22.0-22.7 t:. So they stayed around the plant more 
 extended period of time than at the drifting algae. By 
 night diving in the third observation period, they were 
 seen to settled on the shelf of the plant. From above 
 msntioned facts, it is concluded that the floating shelf 
 of the plant at ten meter depth layer effect as the 
 inhabitation to young Goldeye Rockfish in the same manner 
 as more deeper bottom and extend the duration of their 
 near-surface inhabit up to late autumn or to winter. After 
 all, the floating shelf has both function of the drifting 
 algae and the bottom. This function is considered to be 
 equal to other many young fish species. 
 
 On some fishes, different growth stage was seen. They 
 were Goldstriped amberjack, Yellowfin Horse Mackerel and 
 Black Scraper. The distributed area of these fishes varied 
 with the growth stage. Young Goldstriped amberjack ( Total 
 Length 15-20cm ) distributed near the shelf in the same 
 manner as many other young fishes, but adults ( T. L. 50cm ) 
 swimmed around the plant in wide areas more than fourty 
 meters. Young Yellowfin Horse Mackerel ( T. L. 2-4cm ) 
 distributed near the shelf mixed with dense school of young 
 Goldeye Rockfish, but semi-adults ( T. L. 15-18cm ) swam 
 more wide area. As the behavior in the night of adult 
 Goldstriped amberjack and semi-adult Yellowfin Horse 
 Mackerel were not confirmed, they formed schools above the 
 shelf from the twilight of the morning*'. So they were 
 considered to distribute not so far from the plant even in 
 the night. Young Black Scraper ( T. L. up to 20cm ) 
 distributed over the shelf in the day and settled on the 
 shelf in the night, but adults distributed between the 
 shelf and the bottom in the day and settled on the bottom 
 in the night. From these facts, it is concluded that 
 fishes act more wide area as they grow. 
 
 The distributed area of young fishes were limited 
 within a range of ten to twenty meters from the shelf all 
 the day. Adult fishes distributed center the plant in the 
 
 day in more wide area than young fishes, and left the plant 
 in the night. Fig. 11 shows the schematic diagram of 
 diurnal-nocturnal actibity of some dominant fishes around 
 the plant in the third observation period 5) . 
 
 • StsrIOl, 
 
 O ° Nmiodon 
 
 O ° modatta 
 
 I BIG SIZE) 
 
 ntltmwjw*mm>'»>9/li»t»»www// BOTTOM 
 
 *,»r*wS»9/ S> »f > »>«t) . in,f i. * 
 
 Pig. 11 Schematic diagram of diurnal-nocturnal activity of 
 some dominant fishes around the artificial seaweed fan 
 plant. 
 
 It is concluded that the artificial seaweed fan plant 
 has three functions to fishes as followes, and the function 
 of 1 and 2 owe much to the presense of the shelf at ten 
 meter depth layer. 
 
 1. Gather the larval fishes or drifting young acconpanied 
 with the drifting algae. 
 
 2. Function as the inhabitation to young fishes like algal 
 belt or natural reefs. 
 
 3. Function as the rest place to adult migrat lonal fishes. 
 
 References 
 
 1. FUJITA M. : Outline of the artificial seaweed fan 
 plant, KAIYO SNGYO KENKYU KAI, 10(8), 16-21(1979). 
 
 ( in Japanese ) 
 
 2. SENTA T. : Importance of drifting seaweeds in the 
 ecology of fishes, ISHIZAKI SYOTEN, 1965, pp. 1-55. 
 
 ( in Japanese ) 
 
 3. YAMADA E. : Studies on the life histries ob the 
 Rockfish, Sebastes thompsoni , found in waters around Noto 
 peninsula, the Japan Sea, 1. The relationship between the 
 swimming behavior of larval Rockfish and drifting plant, 
 Bui It in of Ishikawa Prefecture Fisheries Experimental 
 Station. 3. 21-35(1980). 
 
 4. 0KAM0T0 M. Studies on the behavioral character of 
 fishes around the artifishal seaweed fan plant, Bui It in of 
 the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries, 49(5), 689-692 
 (1983). 
 
 5. 0KAM0T0 M. Diurnal-nocturnal activity of fishes near 
 the artifishal seaweed farm plant, Bui It in of the Japanese 
 Society of Scientific Fisheries, 49(2). 177-182(1983). 
 
 77 
 
REAL-TIME NAVIGATIONAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS 
 FOR PORT AND HARBOR OPERATIONS 
 
 Clifford E. McLain 
 President, SPC Venture Corporation 
 
 System Planning Corporation 
 
 1500 Wilson Blvd. 
 
 Arlington, VA 22209 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 Based on present day technology in the 
 measurement of tides, currents, and weather and 
 the new techniques for electronic charting and 
 navigational display systems, the integration of 
 tidal and current sensors into a real-time navi- 
 gation information system is suggested as a 
 logical step toward a complete shipboard display 
 of all pertinent information needed for ship 
 operations. A general concept for the configu- 
 ration of a multi sensor real-time navigational 
 information system for ports and harbors is 
 described, as well as the details of the first 
 of such systems now in operation or being 
 planned. Information from such systems has 
 proven to be of real value to piloting and 
 dredging operations, and can be installed 
 using "on-the-shel f" technology. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Since 1981, the National Oceanic and 
 Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has been 
 investigating the development of a real-time 
 navigational system for port and harbor opera- 
 tions as a part of its general program to 
 better understand and apply the dynamic behavior 
 of tide and current in confined waters (bays and 
 estuaries) to the needs of the various users of 
 these waters. A detailed knowledge of actual 
 water depths and currents would be particularly 
 important to the safety and more efficient 
 operation of deep draft vessels in transit to 
 and within ports and also to the control of 
 dredging operations in shipping channels. My 
 company, System Planning Corporation, examined 
 and analyzed a conceptual plan for such a 
 system in 1981. Subsequently, NOAA has spon- 
 sored a series of workshops in various U.S. 
 port areas to determine specific needs of 
 shipping and other operations in such areas. 
 These studies, under NOAA's Project PORTS 
 (Port Objectives for Real Time Systems) have 
 culminated in a series of first order operating 
 systems now either operating or being planned 
 for installation in a number of U.S. Port areas. 
 
 BACKGROUND AND TECHNICAL CONCEPT 
 
 Recent developments in microprocessor tech- 
 nology and computer graphics make possible relat- 
 tively low-cost systems that can integrate, 
 analyze, and display a wide variety of inter- 
 related navigational data, incorporate models for 
 spatial and temporal extrapolation between data 
 fixes, and combine real-time instrumentation data 
 with basic hydrographic data. Since positional 
 data derived from a global positioning system (GPS) 
 can also be displayed, the capabilities derived 
 from several major technologies can now be com- 
 bined to develop systems with a computer-stored 
 and automatically updated real-time navigational 
 data system. Such a system is the logical exten- 
 sion of data gathering and analysis systems that 
 are defined by present requirements to provide 
 tide and current data and to develop and test 
 dynamic tide, current, and circulation models. 
 
 The technology context for the Real-Time 
 Navigational System is illustrated in Figure 1. 
 The available or rapidly developing technologies 
 for 
 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 
 Computer-assisted charting 
 Automated survey 
 
 Telemetering tide and current gages 
 Tide- and water-level instrumentation 
 Current measurement instrumentation 
 
 all place cartographic data in the appropriate 
 computer format for storage and automatic computer 
 graphics display. In addition, the general -tech- 
 nologies of 
 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 
 Global Positioning Systems (GPS) 
 Microcomputers and storage systems 
 Computer graphics and display 
 
 make possible the processing, analysis, and dis- 
 play of such data and the real-time updating of 
 stored data bases by any set of local instrumen- 
 tation and associated processing system. Thus, 
 in its ultimate conception, such a real-time 
 navigational data system would permit the storage 
 and continuous display of hydrographic information 
 derived from stored data on board ship with pro- 
 vision for the overlay of ship position (and the 
 
 "Ihis paper is the sole responsibility of the 
 author. It does not necessarily reflect NOAA 
 or System Planning Corporation policy. 
 
 78 
 
adjustment of chart Information centering on the 
 ship position), and local, real-time tide (depth), 
 current, and weather data. Highly accurate, 
 detailed real-time data in critical navigation 
 areas, as well as the more accurate prediction 
 of future conditions (e.g., channel depths under 
 changing tide conditions), should greatly improve 
 navigation in marginal conditions of high traffic, 
 shallow bottoms (or deep draft), restricted water- 
 ways and difficult currents and winds. 
 
 Benefits of the type of system suggested in 
 Figure 1 may be expected to include 
 
 o Shipping operations, permitting higher 
 traffic density and greater draft opera- 
 tions with safety 
 
 o Improved efficiency of dredging operations 
 
 o Improved navigation aids and traffic con- 
 trol (for example, increased frequency of 
 traffic in the Valdez Arm approach to 
 Valdez Harbor, Alaska, might be possible). 
 
 In its fullest configuration, such a real- 
 time system would provide an overlay of high 
 accuracy local dynamic conditions to the elec- 
 tronically stored navigational data aboard, in 
 an integrated shipboard navigation system com- 
 bining these data with indicated ship position, 
 course, speed, and "collision avoidance" and 
 other navigational checks available from ship- 
 board radar and depth-finding equipment. 
 
 Figure 2 suggests some of the data options 
 ultimately available from the Real-Time Naviga- 
 tional Data System and shows how this system 
 might interface with a full shipboard electronic 
 navigational system. Detailed specification and 
 design of each local real-time system will depend 
 on the needs and requirements of the local user 
 community. The real-time system supplements an 
 existing capability (i.e., nautical charts, tide 
 and current tables, and tidal charts) and the 
 need for extending existing capability will vary 
 among port areas. Therefore, the structure and 
 instrumentation of the system may vary, depending 
 on local conditions and requirements. 
 
 SYSTEM DESIGN AND EXPERIENCE TO DATE 
 
 The proposed Real-Time Navigational Systems 
 would provide mariners with the ability to obtain 
 tide, meteorological, current, and/or nautical 
 chart data in real time, either displayed on a 
 shipboard CRT or transmitted by radio, telephone, 
 or teletype on demand by the user. Figure 3 shows 
 pictorially a possible design configuration for 
 the system. Data from the tide, current, and 
 weather sensors are telemetered to a central site 
 for processing and then merged with digital 
 nautical data. These data may also be used for 
 prediction using a dynamic area model if one has 
 been developed. These data are stored in a file 
 for periodic updating of the shipboard display 
 
 system; alternately, display information is tele- 
 metered or radioed directly to the shipboard 
 operator on demand. 
 
 In the actual systems which have been in-_ 
 stalled or are being planned to date, information 
 from a local network of tide gauges (and, in some 
 instances meteorological and current meter infor- 
 mation) is telemetered to a central microcomputer 
 or processor and display. Information is then 
 relayed to users via telephone, radio telephone, 
 or other means. In no case has on-board display 
 yet been used as the operating display method. 
 The primary users are the pilots, who, in some of 
 the first operational areas, have found the real- 
 time information to be very useful. These are 
 the areas where the extension of the mean tide 
 predictions of the national tide network are often 
 at considerable variance from actual water depths. 
 
 At this time, local real-time systems, or 
 parts of systems have been installed, on at least 
 a prototype basis, in four localities: 
 
 o Port of New York, under the operation of 
 the Maritime Association of the Port of 
 New York (MAPONY) 
 
 o Delaware Bay, as the instrumentation net- 
 work required by NOAA for the develop- 
 ment of a Delaware Bay dynamic circula- 
 tion model, operated by NOAA in coopera- 
 tion with the Delaware Bay Pilots 
 
 o San Francisco Bay, installed by a private 
 company as a system demonstration, in 
 cooperation with the San Francisco Marine 
 Exchange 
 
 o Columbia River, a single tide gauge in- 
 stalled as a cooperative effort between 
 NOAA and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 
 
 As an indication of specific design require- 
 ments, it may be of interest to briefly review_ 
 these systems, with some mention of other appli- 
 cation areas of interest. In all areas, it should 
 be noted, off-the-shelf instrumentation has been 
 found to be generally available which will inter- 
 face well with standard modems for data trans- 
 mittal. In all cases, personal computers (PC's) 
 or other low cost micro-processors have been used 
 to combine the instrument data for display. 
 Higher level data processing capability would be 
 required if complete nautical chart data were to 
 be stored, updated, and presented, or to operate 
 dynamic prediction models. 
 
 Two specific areas requiring technical 
 improvement -- or at least lower cost options 
 are those of current measurement and local dynamic 
 model predictions. Direct current meters have 
 been found unreliable over long times due to 
 fouling (and, of course, direct meters can pose 
 an impediment to navigation). Indirect acoustic 
 current meters have proved to be accurate, but 
 are very expensive. In the Delaware Bay area, 
 
 79 
 
NOAA has developed a local dynamic model which can 
 be used for short-term predictions based on data 
 received from the real-time instrument network, 
 but it has been an expensive model to build, and 
 runs on a large mainframe machine under NOAA 
 operation. These shortcomings are in many cases 
 not critical, since the principal users (pilots, 
 tugboat operators, and dredgers) are primarily 
 interested in accurate real-time water depth 
 readings at specific critical locations. 
 
 In the New York (MAPONY) and San Francisco 
 installations, the instrument network is of 4-5 
 tide gauges whose readings are telemetered via 
 telephone line to a central display (MAPONY in 
 N.Y., the Marine Exchange in San Francisco) The 
 layout of the MAPONY system is shown in Figure 4 
 Data is relayed to pilots and other users via 
 radio, telephone, or other means, on an "on demand" 
 basis. The N.Y. (MAPONY) system uses an electro- 
 mechanical printout. The San Francisco system, 
 using a new tide gauge design by Sea and 
 Meteorology, Inc. (SAM), the cooperating company, 
 uses a CRT display and can also print out the 
 tide history at each gauge site. Neither system 
 directly interfaces with a shipboard electronic 
 display. However, a local shipboard graphic 
 display model, and shipboard display equipment 
 for navigational information has been separately 
 tested by the Staten Island Ferry, and the Sandy 
 Hook Pilots (pilots for New York and New Jersey 
 in the N.Y. harbor area). 
 
 The Columbia River installation of a single 
 tide gauge can hardly be called a "system " In 
 conjunction with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 
 dynamic model for the river, however, it can pro- 
 vide much improved water depth information for 
 channel dredging, which is the principal interest 
 of the Corps. Columbia River pilots will also 
 find the information useful in keeping track of 
 the actual phase of the tides in making the long 
 (60 miles) river transit from Astoria, at the 
 mouth, to Vancouver and Portland. The principal 
 Columbia River navigational hazard, that of the 
 bar crossing, is not addressed by this measure- 
 ment, however. 
 
 The Delaware Bay system is in a sense a 
 special case, but may be repeated elsewhere. NOAA 
 installed a system of four stations, comprised of 
 two tide gauges and two current meters of dif- 
 ferent design for each station. The data from 
 these stations have been used by NOAA over the 
 past several months to develop and test a dynamic 
 tide and circulation model for the bay. At the 
 same time, these data were made available through 
 direct telephone line telemeter to the Delaware 
 Bay pilots, who provided a suitable computer, 
 modems, and display units to collect and display 
 the real time data. The data are displayed at 
 the Delaware Bay Pilots Association headquarters 
 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (the largest 
 Delaware Bay port) and at the pilot station at 
 Lewes, Delaware at the mouth of the bay. Pilots 
 can receive real-time water level and current 
 
 meter information from either Philadelphia or 
 Lewes, as well as some local site weather infor- 
 mation Recently, the short-term predictive out- 
 
 ?n Rn \ n m ° d 5 ls " h ich °P era tes on a NOAA computer 
 in Rockville, Maryland, has also been made avail- 
 able to the pilots, who have found the 4 to 6 hour 
 future predictions of water depth to be useful 
 This predictive model provides a mesh of future 
 tide and current values tied to the real-time 
 input from the measurement sites, but extended to 
 include all other locations, by specific point 
 calculations or by extrapolation, within the navi- 
 gating areas of the bay. 
 
 It is anticipated that these real-time navi- 
 gation systems, which, in effect, provide for the 
 accurate extension of the U.S. national tide net- 
 work data into specific local bays and estuaries 
 will be extended to other port areas. Areas with 
 high tides, difficult current conditions, and 
 restricted waterways are those where the qreatest 
 benefits will be realized. In Miami, Florida, the 
 problem is a combination of tidal current problems 
 with the s/ery restricted project geometry and 
 dimensions of the waterway. In the New Orleans 
 area, a major problem is that of marginal bridqe 
 clearances for fixed spans. In Alaskan ports, 
 the combined effects of tide, current, and weather 
 are of importance. 
 
 In the future, many worldwide ports may find 
 it useful to install such real-time systems for 
 accurate local navigational information. With the 
 growing interest in all electronic navigation data 
 handling and display, and increasing requirements 
 for integrated collision avoidance systems in 
 heavy traffic areas, it seems certain that the 
 advantages of local real-time information systems 
 will soon be combined with these advanced on-board 
 navigational display systems and that the effi- 
 ciency of port and harbor operations will be signi- 
 ficantly improved through their use 
 
 80 
 
TECHNOLOGY 
 
 • Computer assisted charting* 
 
 • Automated survey* 
 
 • Telemetering tide and current gages* 
 
 • Tide and water level equipment* 
 
 • Current measuring equipment* 
 
 • Global positioning system 
 
 • Computer graphics 
 
 REAL-TIME 
 NAVIGATIONAL 
 DATA SYSTEM 
 
 'Current NOS programs. 
 
 BENEFITS 
 
 Shipping 
 
 Dredging 
 
 New Aids and Traffic 
 Control 
 
 REQUIREMENTS 
 
 • Hydrographies 
 
 • Tides 
 
 • Currents 
 
 • Up-to-date data 
 
 • Dynamic models 
 
 — Tide transfer 
 
 — Coastal, bay, and 
 estuary circulation 
 
 FIGURE 1. 
 
 PROGRAM AND TECHNOLOGY CONTEXT 
 
 FOR REAL-TIME NAVIGATIONAL DATA SYSTEM 
 
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 83 
 
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 FIGURE 4. 
 
 REAL-TIME DATA COLLECTION AND TELEMETRY SYSTEM 
 
 FOR THE PORT OF NEW YORK 
 
 816-2-4-85-11 
 
 84 
 
MACHINERY CONSTRUCTION IN PORT AND HARBOR WORKS 
 
 Shigeo Toyoda 
 Director of the Engineering Division, 
 
 Ports and Harbours Bureau, 
 Ministry of Transport 
 
 1 . INTRODUCTION 
 
 In Japan, there are about 4,000 ports 
 including commercial ports, industrial ports 
 and fishing ports. In association with the 
 port, port facilities, such as breakwater, 
 wharf, and waterway, are constructed top assure 
 the port function to the fullest extent. The 
 construction of these facilities is performed 
 mostly on or in the sea, so it is essential to 
 use construction machinery, i.e., working 
 vessels. 
 
 At present, there are about 10,000 working 
 vessels totalling government and private 
 vessels in Japan. The following is the outline 
 of the machinery construction of port and 
 harbour works employing working vessels. 
 
 2 . BREAKWATER 
 
 Breakwaters in Japan are mostly taken the 
 gravity type, typically caisson type break- 
 waters. The caisson type breakwater con- 
 struction is consist of construction of the 
 mound (rubble deposition from sand carriers 
 with grab bucket, diver rubble leveling), 
 towing of caissons and placing of caissons. 
 The caissons carried to the place of works are 
 guided to a specified position by tug boats, 
 crane vessels, etc., filled with water, and set 
 on the mound. Then, immediately silling sand 
 is put into the caisson, and a concrete cap is 
 fixed. Construction works demanded a large 
 scale and rapid construction so development of 
 large construction machines and mechanized 
 construction method are required in every part 
 of the works. 
 
 leveling the crown of mound, i.e., the method of 
 leveling and dumping. The leveling shoot is 
 placed on the rectangular bed set on the crown 
 of mound, and rubble is supplied from rubble- 
 supply-vessel moored just above. Being the bed 
 type, this equipment is hardly affected by the 
 water depth, and is capable of preventing rubble 
 spreading (Fig. 1). 
 
 In case the work site is far out at sea, 
 floating mixing plants capable of concrete 
 mixing and handling at the site are used for the 
 concrete works such as coping the caissons. 
 Most of the concrete mixing plants, have been 
 the batching plants hitherto. But interruption 
 of mixing is the disadvantage of this equipment. 
 Lately, the continuous mixing type capable of 
 continuous mixing has started operation. The 
 floating mixing plant of this type can supply 
 the material continuously at a high accuracy and 
 perform a uniform and strong mixing continuous- 
 ly. The continuous mixing plant with its 
 capacity ranging from 90 m 3 /h to 120 m 3 /h and 
 capable of 1,200 m 3 continuous placing operation 
 without material supply has been cons tructed 
 and in operation. 
 
 Production of caisson is either production 
 on land or production on sea. The production on 
 sea using, the floating dock type, is superior 
 of the production on land because a large land 
 site is unnecessary. For this reason, the use 
 of the latter is increasing. As of April 1983, 
 there are around 120 floating docks, and one of 
 the largest class has the lifting capacity of 
 14,5 00 tons. It is believed that the floating 
 dock would take its advantage in the caisson 
 production for greater depth breakwaters. 
 
 Particularly in the leveling of a rubble 
 bed the machinery construction is required to 
 enhance work efficiency and safety in consid- 
 eration of the depth of the site, therefore the 
 development of leveling machinery of a rubble 
 bed is urgent. The leveling method of a rubble 
 bed currently in R&D stage is largely clas- 
 sified by their mechanism to several types 
 including the method of drawing horizontally 
 and the method of pushing vertically. Of 
 these, the leveling equipment now under devel- 
 opment by the Ports and Harbours Construction 
 Bureau, Ministry of Transport will be intro- 
 duced in the following. This equipment is of 
 the type to move the shoot horizontally while 
 rubble is dumped from the shoot and 
 
 3. GREATER WATER DEPTH BERTHING FACILITIES 
 
 One of the typical greater water depth 
 berthing facilities in Japan is the offshore 
 quay utilized for petroleum transport. Around 
 the years of 1965, tanker size grew markedly 
 larger for the reduction of oil transportation 
 cost, and even as large as 200,000 dwt tankers 
 appeared. Accordingly, facilities for berthing 
 such huge tankers became large, and required 
 water depths also became great. As a result, 
 the berthing facility construction point was 
 removed to several kilometers offshore from the 
 existing port. 
 
 85 
 
The structural type of the offshore quay 
 is largely classified to the stationary type 
 and floating type. The former is subdivided to 
 the open piled structure and dolphin piled 
 structure, and the latter the one point mooring 
 system and multi-legged mooring system. At 
 present, there are 35 offshore quays of 200,000 
 dwt class or greater in Japan, and about half 
 of those are of dolphine piled structure. 
 
 The water depths of the dolphine piled 
 structure are generally in the range from 20 m 
 to 30 m. However, there are offshore quays, 
 such as the Okinawa oil offshore terminal for 
 500,000 dwt oil carriers, which require 40 m 
 water depth. The length of the steel pipe 
 pile, which is a main material, is 60 - 85 m, 
 and its diameter is 1.2 - 2.3 m. 
 
 For construction, aiming at the early 
 stabilization during construction and speedy 
 working, the method of jacket is frequently 
 employed, wherein a structure to be obtained by 
 assembling steel pipe sheaths through which 
 piles penetrate is manufactured in advance at 
 the factory, setting it on the sea bed, driving 
 pile into the pipe sheath, and fixing it with 
 the jacket. 
 
 As a working vessel, a large pile driving 
 barge and floating crane (a maximum lifing 
 capacity of 3,500 tons) are normally used, 
 however, when the effective working rate 
 markedly decreases with the above working 
 vessels because of the bad marine conditions of 
 the sites, typically due to being located in 
 the open sea, a self-elevating platform is 
 used. There are, at present, 16 self-elevating 
 platforms in Japan, and of them 6 are a large 
 size. The largest self-elevating platform is 
 5,500 tons in dead weight, 1,500 PS in the main 
 engine MCR, and 55 m in the maximum possible 
 working depth. 
 
 For laying pipes, pipe laying vessels were 
 used. For works to dig and burying pipelines, 
 unit dredging machines were used. There are 
 two pipe-lay barges in Japan. 
 
 4. FOUNDATION IMPROVEMENT 
 
 There are cases when an enough bearing 
 capacity for holding a structure, such as a 
 breakwater, revetment, or mooring facility, 
 cannot be obtained due to soft seabed ground. 
 In such cases, a method to strengthening the 
 seabed ground directly by driving sand piles 
 into the soft clay layer or adding a hardener 
 is employed. Typical of this method are the 
 sand drain method, sand compaction method, and 
 deep layer mixing method. 
 
 The sand drain method is such that 40 - 50 
 cm diameter steel pipes are driven to the 
 subsoil, sand is flown thereinto, and many sand 
 
 piles almost identical in diameter with the 
 steel pipe are provided. There are 10 sand 
 drain barges currently in Japan, and a large one 
 can make a dozen sand piles at about 45 m under 
 the water level at a time. 
 
 The sand compaction method is such that 
 steel pipes are driven similar to the sand drain 
 method, and sand piles (1 - 2 m «5) in diameter 
 larger than the steel pipe are produced by 
 inserting sand compulsorily by pressure utiliz- 
 ing the steel pipes and vibrohammer. There are, 
 at present, about 40 sand compaction barges in 
 Japan, whose largest workable depth is 55 m. 
 
 The deep-layer mixing method is such that a 
 propeller-shaped mixing apparatus is inserted 
 from a pontoon on the sea into the seabed soft 
 clay layer by pressure while being rotated and 
 improve soft ground into a hard foundation 
 forcedly mixing line or cement stabilizer 
 carried by pressure from the pontoon with soil 
 (Fig. 2). 
 
 The deep-layer mixing barges are growing 
 larger and larger in size and greater and 
 greater in working depth, and 6,000 ton class 
 barges can work at a water depth of 70 m at the 
 maximum. There are about 20 such barges. 
 
 On the other hand, for the enhancement of 
 the accuracy of construction and the reduction 
 of surveyors, introduction of the auto electric 
 positioning system to these large foundation 
 improving barges is planned. This system is 
 purposed to measure the position and direction 
 of the barge accurately utilizing the auto range 
 finders by light waves, and, in addition, in 
 combination with the electronic computer, to 
 make possible to current position of the barge 
 and the next position of works to be displayed 
 on the display unit at the same time, thus 
 facilitating the guidance of ship. 
 
 Typical of 
 accomplished us 
 the Daikoku Pie 
 Port South Dist 
 it is expected 
 crafts would be 
 New Kansai Inte 
 foundation cond 
 
 foundation improvement works 
 ing these working crafts includes 
 r of Yokohama Port and the North 
 rict of Osaka Port. In addition, 
 that many foundation improvement 
 
 used for the reclamation of the 
 rnational Airport due to poor 
 ition there. 
 
 5. RECLAMATION 
 
 General reclaimed type at sea may be 
 largely classified to the reclaimed type by 
 suction dredger wherein sand is sucked from the 
 seabed by the suction dredger and reclamation is 
 performed by transferring the sand through the 
 discharge pipe by pressure, and the reclamation 
 type by hopper barge wherein soil and sand 
 supplied from the loading equipments at land or 
 
 86 
 
dredger are transported by hopper barges and 
 reclamation is performed by direct dumping or 
 using equipments for loading sand. 
 
 Typical of works accomplished by the 
 latter type are reclamation for the Port Island 
 and Rokko Island at Port of Kobe. 
 
 Transport of sands 
 
 In the case of the Port of Kobe, since 
 transportation of sand at land by dump trucks, 
 etc. to be used for reclamation involves such 
 traffic pollutions as noise, vibration, and 
 dust, transport at sea by hopper barges was 
 employed. For the navigation of hopper barges, 
 the pusher type which allows free guidance of 
 hopper barges crossing waterway and is capable 
 of making the fleet of vessels short thus 
 allowing the use of large hopper barges was 
 adopted. This type began to be used in areas 
 of Japan subsequently. The type of hopper of 
 the hopper barge falls into the bottom door 
 type, circular hopper type, non-open door type, 
 etc. The bottom door type is mainly used for 
 the barge which directly dumps sand by opening 
 the hopper door at the reclamation site. It is 
 also used for reclamation under sea level. The 
 circular hopper type is one in which the 
 section of hopper is made semicircular accord- 
 ing to the shape of the bucket wheel of unload- 
 ing machine. The non-open door type is one in 
 which the hopper is a box-form with its bottom 
 closed. Every type is used for reclamation 
 employing the unloading equipment. The volume 
 of the hopper barge is 1,500 - 6,000 m 3 . 
 
 Unloading 
 
 When the place of reclamation is shallow 
 or the outer circumference is bounded by 
 revetment, direct dumping from the hopper barge 
 is impossible. As a result, reclamation by the 
 method of unloading is generally employed. In 
 the reclamation of the Port of Kobe, direct 
 dumping reclamation by the bottom door type is 
 used up to the depth of 2 m, and for the depth 
 less than 2 m, sand unloaded from the circular 
 type hopper barge by the bucket wheel type 
 unloader provided on the reclamation revetment 
 is dumped through the belt conveyor and spread- 
 er (Fig. 3). 
 
 Unloading equipments are classified the 
 land equipment, and equipment on ship. Typical 
 ones are the reclaimer barge on which unloading 
 equipments of bucket wheel type or grab dredger 
 type is mounted the unloading barge having pump 
 type unloading equipments. 
 
 The capacity of these unloading equipments 
 is from 1,500 to 3,000 m 3 /h. 
 
 6. SURVEY BOAT 
 
 For the sounding at sea, water depth is 
 normally checked by the analog type echo-sounder 
 installed on the boat, and the position is 
 measured by the sextant on the boat. The tidal 
 level is found from the data of nearby tide 
 gage. Data thus obtained are manually analyzed, 
 and represented in graphs. As the sounding area 
 Is extended, many more analyses are required 
 proportionally, with the resultant large amount 
 of labour and time that must be spent. 
 
 To cope with the situation, that which has 
 been developed to perform automatically from 
 every survey to analyses and graphic representa- 
 tion taking advantage of the latest technology 
 of electronics is the automatic survey system. 
 This system is capable of obtaining water depth 
 data of 4 to 6 points at about 2 m intervals, 
 gathering measurements of position and direction 
 of the boat, recording data on the magnetic 
 tape, and generating various graphs, such as 
 depth charts and charts of volume of dredging 
 soil by analyzing the data in a short time using 
 the electronic computer at the land. 
 
 The depth chart is generated in such a way 
 that the sea surface is divided to 1.25 to 500 m 
 mesh on an X-Y plotter, mean depth, maximum 
 depth, and minimum depth of that mesh are 
 computed, and the resultant values are typed out 
 
 The chart of volume of dredging soil is 
 produced through the computation of the volume 
 of soil to be dredged in the area set similar to 
 above and the typing out of the resultant values 
 by mesh. 
 
 At present, about 10 survey boats equipped 
 with such automatic survey system are in opera- 
 tion. 
 
 Three of these survey boats can perform 
 water quality and tide flow automatic measure- 
 ment and sonic prospecting in addition to depth 
 measurement (Fig. 4). 
 
 7. FUTURE TREND OF WORKING VESSELS 
 
 Regarding the working machinery for port 
 and harbour construction in Japan, performance 
 improvement by the automation of working vessels 
 and efficiency promotion by robotizing underwa- 
 ter works would be attempted. 
 
 By automating working vessels to a high 
 degree introducing control technology which 
 shows marked progress lately, performance 
 improvement to a large extent should be attempt- 
 ed. 
 
 87 
 
For example, it involves building an 
 operation system capable of automatically 
 controlling dredger pump flow rate, cutter 
 speed, and dredging speed of the nonpropelling 
 suction dredger to the optimum dredging condi- 
 tion, and realization of unmanned operation of 
 both sides drug heads in the trailing suction 
 dredger. 
 
 Robotaization of underwater works is for 
 the promotion of work efficiency and on-the-job 
 safety in underwater rubble leveling, detection 
 of dangerous objects, inspection of completion, 
 etc., which are mainly accomplished manually, 
 by the introduction of underwater robots. 
 
 In land works, such as those at automobile 
 factories, robots are used for many jobs. 
 Since underwater works in port and harbour 
 construction involve a variety of works under 
 different conditions and not uniform work such 
 as flow production work, robotization has been 
 delayed. 
 
 However, since the trend is such that port 
 and harbour construction in deep water will 
 increase more and more, for the promotion of 
 efficiency and safety of diving work the 
 development of underwater robot is strongly 
 demanded, and a great effort is being made to 
 successful development. 
 
 Fig. 2 deep-layer mixing barge 
 
 Fig. 3 unloading equipments 
 
 ship 
 
 land 
 
 sand farriers with grab bucket 
 rubble supply barge 
 
 depth 
 recorder 
 
 Fig. 1 leveling machinery of a rubble bed 
 
 Fig. 4 survey system image 
 
 88 
 
Deep Mixing Method of Soil Improvement for Soft Marine Clays 
 
 Dr, 
 
 Masaaki Terashi 
 
 Port & Harbour Research Institute 
 Ministry of Transport 
 3-1-1 Nagase, Yokosuka, Japan 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 In order to improve soft clay foun- 
 dation soil for the construction of the 
 reclamation, port and harbour facili- 
 ties, Deep Mixing Method (DMM) has been 
 developed in Japan. The method is a 
 kind of in-situ admixture stabilization 
 using lime or cement as a stabilizer. 
 Due to the quick strength increase and 
 due to the extraordinary high shear 
 strength of treated soil, this may be 
 one of the useful technique in the 
 offshore construction. In this article, 
 the outline of the method, its appli- 
 cation, current design procedure and 
 scope of the future are described. 
 
 Behavior of the improved ground by 
 the method is simulated by centrifuge 
 modeling technique and reported in a 
 companion paper (Terashi and Kitazume, 
 1985). 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Japan is quite mountainous and is 
 consisting of a number of islands and 
 limited plane area has been highly 
 developed for many decades. We have 
 been up to present obliged to reclaim 
 the sea seeking the site for industrial 
 and public usage. For example, the area 
 of approximately 600 km 2 has been 
 reclaimed in 20 years since 1960 to 
 1980 (Ad hoc Committee of Case Studies 
 of Coastal Reclamation, 1981). Although 
 the rate of the expansion of reclama- 
 tion has been reduced since the energy 
 crisis in 1973, the needs to reclaim 
 the sea will not be unchanged in the 
 future. However possible site will 
 tend to be in the deeper sea and sub- 
 soil condition be more and more 
 difficult than ever. An example for 
 this is the just-started project of a 
 new international airport in Osaka. 
 Feasibility study for the project is 
 suggesting that the site is at water 
 depth around 20 m and the soil condi- 
 tion is thick alluvial clay underlain 
 by layers of clay and sand of diluvial 
 age appearing alternatively up to 400 m 
 from the sea bottom by the available 
 boring data. Geologists suggest that 
 this multiple layers extend up to 1,000 
 m or more. 
 
 In such a sea reclamation or in the 
 construction of port and harbor facili- 
 ties on alluvial clay deposit, it is 
 absolutely necessary to improve the 
 soft soils in advance to the construc- 
 tion of superstructure. The most common 
 soil improvement techniques employed 
 
 ~7h 
 
 89 
 
 Photo 1 Special DM Barge in Operation 
 
 hitherto have been replacement or 
 vertical drain method. However, for the 
 structure with increasing scale, suffi- 
 cient improvement is not attained by 
 such techniques in some cases. In some 
 cases, sea bottom sediment in the deve- 
 loped harbor area is so polluted that 
 severe environmental restrictions is to 
 be followed in dredging and dumping of 
 the soft soils. And in some cases, 
 replacement and preloading with the aid 
 of vertical drains will give un- 
 favorable influence on the existing 
 adjacent structures. Therefore, new 
 reinforcement technique of soft soil 
 foundation by manufacturing very stiff 
 treated soil mass in-situ (DMM) have 
 been developed in Japan (Photo 1 ). 
 
 DEEP MIXING METHOD 
 
 Deep Mixing Method is a kind of in- 
 situ admixture stabilization technique 
 using quick lime or cement as stabil- 
 zing agent. The research work for 
 developing the method started in 1967 
 at the Port and Harbour Research Insti- 
 tute and the method was brought into 
 practice in 1974 using quick lime and 
 in 1975 using cement milk. In the 
 recent years, the method with cement 
 milk is widely applied to the port 
 construction works. 
 
 In practice, special equipment (DM 
 machine) is used to improve the soft 
 soil in-situ. DM machine is basically 
 
DM machine using cement 
 milk or cement mortar as 
 stabilizer. 
 
 Cement-milk 
 Injection Pipe 
 
 mixing 
 blades 
 
 Oil Pressure 
 Motor 
 
 Cement-milk 
 
 Injection 
 
 Pipe 
 
 mixing 
 
 blades 
 
 Fig. 1 DM machine with two mixing 
 shafts 
 
 consists of several mixing shafts with 
 mixing blades and stabilizer feeding 
 system. Fig. 1 shows the most simple 
 machine with two mixing shafts. The 
 machine is equipped to guide rail of 
 the tower on a crawler type vehicle or 
 on a barge. A column of treated soil 
 is manufactured by the procedure as 
 shown in Fig. 2. During the penetration 
 of the machine to a desired depth of 
 improvement, mixing blades at the 
 bottom end of mixing shafts cut and 
 remold the soft soil and enable the 
 machine to sink by its own weight. In 
 the stage of withdrawal of the machine, 
 stabilizer is forced into the soft soil 
 and thorough mixing of stabilizer with 
 soil is attained by the mixing blades. 
 In order to improve the foundation of 
 relatively low embankment or light 
 weight structure a group of these 
 treated soil columns is manufactured. 
 In the case where a huge treated soil 
 mass is required to support a heavy 
 superstructure, treated soil columns 
 are overlapped one another in the 
 successive operation of DM machine. 
 Actual operation of special DM barge on 
 the sea is already shown in Photo 1. 
 
 CURRENT DESIGN PROCEDURE 
 
 Treated Japanese marine clays by 
 DMM have high unconfined compressive 
 
 strength of the order of 1 MN/m z , small 
 strain at failure of the order of 0.1 
 %, relatively low tensile strength and 
 low permeability (Terashi et al., 1979 
 and Kawasaki et al. , 1983). However, 
 strengths of treated soils have a large 
 deviation from its average value even 
 if the manufacturing works were carried 
 out with the best possible care. 
 Furthermore treated soil mass contains 
 weak point at the overlapped surface. 
 Therefore , sufficiently high factor of 
 safety is taken for the strength of in- 
 situ treated soils, which in turn 
 results in extraordinary difference of 
 engineering characteristics between 
 treated and untreated surrounding soft 
 soils. Hence, treated soil mass is 
 considered not to be a part of the 
 ground but to be a rigid structure 
 buried in the ground. 
 
 As shown in Fig. 3, current design 
 of the improved ground by DMM is mainly 
 carried out in two stages. The first 
 stage is an "external stability" of a 
 buried rigid structure in which four 
 modes of failures are examined; 
 sliding, overturning, bearing capacity 
 and extrusion. Extrusion is a failure 
 mode considered for untreated soft soil 
 left inbetween treated soil blocks or 
 soil walls which is subjected to the 
 unballance of active and passive earth 
 pressure. In the case of huge treated 
 soil mass as shown in the Fig. 4, it is 
 impossible to manufacture continuous 
 soil mass in the longitudinal direction 
 and untreated soft soil should remain 
 inbetween treated soil blocks. The 
 second stage is an "internal stability" 
 of a structure in which induced 
 stresses should be limited to be lower 
 than the allowable strength of treated 
 soil. Design loads considered both in 
 the external and internal stability 
 analyses are active and passive earth 
 pressures and other external forces 
 exerted onto the boundary of the 
 treated soil structure and mass forces 
 due to gravity and earthquake (Fig. 4). 
 Above mentioned design concept is 
 derived for simplicity by analogy with 
 the design procedure of a gravity type 
 structure such as concrete retaining 
 structures . 
 
 Withdrawal stage of the machine 
 
 supply of stabilizer and mixing 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 Procedure of manufacturing a treated soil column in-situ 
 
 90 
 
Determination of design condition 
 for superstructure 
 
 Assumption of dimensions for 
 super and buried structure 
 
 Calculation of mass forces and 
 external forces acting on super- 
 structure 
 
 Examination of external stability 
 of superstructure 
 
 Calculation of mass forces and 
 external forces acting on buried 
 structure 
 
 Examination of external stability 
 
 of buried structure; 
 
 sliding 
 overturning 
 bearing capacity 
 extrusion 
 
 Examination of allowable strength 
 laboratory mold test & 
 field test 
 
 Examinationofinternal stability 
 ofburied structure : 
 
 stress analysis 
 
 Examination of immediate 
 long term settlement 
 
 and 
 
 Detailed design 
 
 Fig. 3. Flow of the current design 
 procedure 
 
 In the current design procedure 
 examining different modes of failure 
 independently, optimum design must be 
 found out by trial and error. An 
 example of these calculation for the 
 most common application of DMM is shown 
 in Fig. 5. In this example, super- 
 structure is a revetment composed of 
 gravel mound and concrete caisson 
 supporting the earth pressure increased 
 by sea reclamation. Superstructure is 
 to be constructed on a soft clay layer 
 underlain by reliable bearing stratum 
 of dense sand as shown in the upper 
 left corner of the figure. First 
 approximation of the shape of treatment 
 in this trial calculation is shown by 
 dotted line. To obtain necessary factor 
 of safety, width B of treated soil mass 
 is increased by changing a distance a 
 and/or b. Three curves in the figure 
 are suggesting the minimum extent of 
 treated soil mass which satisfies the 
 requirement of sliding of the buried 
 
 I. .W.N. 
 
 IIJOo 
 112 
 
 118 nw8 
 
 <** <> U2 
 
 R.W.I. 
 
 <3 Pw 
 
 Fig. 4 Schematic Diagram of Design Load 
 x 
 
 Trr 
 
 
 n i 
 
 l a, . b | 
 
 R 
 
 / > A 
 
 / 
 
 a=0 1 ine 
 
 91 
 
 B 
 Fig. 5 Determination of Optimum Design 
 
 structure (curve I), induced shear 
 stress at the toe of a buried structure 
 (II), and also shear stress in the 
 vertical plane in front of super 
 structure (III). Hatched zone satisfies 
 all the requirements and point A is the 
 optimum. In this particular example, 
 overturning, bearing capacity and 
 extrusion are not the governing factor. 
 As shown, usually, one or two modes 
 become critical factors in determining 
 the shape and extent of treated soil 
 mass. Arrow on each line shows a 
 direction toward the higher factor of 
 safety. 
 
 Based on the current design 
 procedure, DMM has already been applied 
 to improve soft clay foundation of 
 several port facilities and a number of 
 light weight or temporary structures. 
 Net volume of improved soil by the 
 method exceeds six million cubic 
 meters . 
 
 Problems to be Studied 
 
 As is mentioned above, DMM has been 
 applied to a number of practical 
 constructions. However, it is still a 
 new soil improvement technique in which 
 various aspects of problems are left to 
 be studied. For example, boring and 
 sampling technique to obtain un- 
 disturbed samples of treated soil is 
 still immature. A variety of DM machine 
 
results in the difference in the 
 quality of treated soil. These problems 
 are indirectly but closely related to 
 the design of the improved ground by 
 the method. Regarding the current 
 design concept and procedure, much are 
 left to be studied to increase the 
 accuracy of design and to reduce the 
 cost of improvement. Research efforts 
 by various organizations in Japan are 
 concentrated to the point. At the same 
 moment, complicated three dimensional 
 shape of improved soil mass has been 
 conceived of in order to minimize the 
 volume of treated soil mass as shown in 
 the Fig. 6. 
 
 ilong wall 
 short wa 
 
 WWM 
 
 ground 
 
 Fig. 6 Wall type of improvement 
 
 From the example calculation shown 
 in Fig. 5, it must be easily understood 
 that the optimum design by the current 
 design procedure (point A) is sensitive 
 to the determination of design loads on 
 the boundary and the magnitude of 
 factor of safety. It is natural to take 
 two dimensional active and passive 
 earth pressures as design load for 
 external stability, as long as a buried 
 structure is two dimensional and is 
 resting on a reliable stratum as in the 
 above example. However, it is question- 
 able to apply the same critical earth 
 pressures for the internal stability 
 analysis of a structure whose external 
 stability has been already satisfied. 
 In Fig. 6, earth pressure change during 
 backfilling is schematically shown for 
 rapid and slow rate of filling. When 
 the fill height is increased rapidly to 
 critical height (to failure), earth 
 pressure reach to active and passive 
 state finally. It is the condition of 
 external stability. However, if the 
 fill height is lower than critical 
 which is the case for actual structure, 
 earth pressure is affected by the 
 factor of safety and rate of filling. 
 When the margin of safety is 
 sufficiently large and if the rigid 
 buried structure does not displace 
 during filling, then the earth pressure 
 is dependent only on the rate of 
 filling. In the case of rapid filling, 
 all the fill pressure is carried by the 
 excess pore water pressure. On the 
 other hand, if the rate of filling is 
 sufficiently low as to allow the dissi- 
 pation of excess pore water pressure, 
 horizontal pressure acting on the 
 buried structure is an at rest pressure 
 under the fill. Real phenomenon will 
 
 time 
 acti.ve earth pressure 
 Kg pressure 
 
 rapid filling 
 
 ^exc ess p.w.p T ™ slow fillin 9 
 time 
 
 passive earth pressure 
 
 K pressure 
 
 Fig. 7 Concept of 
 change 
 
 time 
 
 Earth pressure 
 
 be inbetween these extremes and this 
 must be the design load for internal 
 stability analysis. 
 
 When a rigid buried structure is 
 three dimensional, even for the exter- 
 nal stability, further consideration 
 is required for the pattern of failure 
 and for the determination of design 
 loads. Extrusion failure is the typical 
 three dimensional failure (Terashi, et 
 al, 1983). When a rigid buried struc- 
 ture is floating in the soft clay, the 
 magnitude and distribution of contact 
 pressure is highly dependent on the 
 mode "of displacement of a rigid 
 structure. 
 
 To establish rigorous design 
 method, (i) clear understanding of the 
 design loads acting on boundaries of a 
 buried structure, (ii) improvement of 
 the accuracy of calculation for each 
 mode of failure and (iii) selection of 
 adequate factor of safety for each mode 
 and establishment of appropriate 
 allowable strength for treated soil are 
 required. 
 
 Recent Research on DMM 
 
 Research group at Port & Harbour 
 Research Institute have started a 
 series of research project to reveal 
 the engineering behavior of the 
 improved ground. In the first step, 
 each mode of failure assumed in the 
 current design procedure (Fig. 3) has 
 been examined by geotechnical centri- 
 fuge modeling and elasto-plastic FEM 
 analysis in the soils division, PHRI. 
 Large shaking table test of the model 
 improved ground, dynamic analyses and 
 observation and record of earthquake 
 motion at site are carried out in the 
 structures division. As a part of a 
 
 92 
 
feasibility study for the new 
 international airport in Osaka Bay, 
 full scale loading test was carried out 
 by the Third District Port Construction 
 Bureau in collaboration with Port and 
 Harbour Research Institute. 
 
 Centrifuge Modeling 
 
 Extrusion failure, a typical 
 failure mode for wall type was studied 
 by Terashi et al. (1983). From the 
 test results, evidence of the extrusion 
 failure was observed where soft soil 
 underneath the fill material behind the 
 revetment was squeezed out through the 
 narrow spacing between long walls. 
 Movement of the soft soil inbetween the 
 long walls was almost horizontal and 
 parallel to the underlying sandy layer 
 as shown in the Fig. 8. No large 
 strain was observed to develop within 
 the soft soil, which means that the 
 soft soil mass moves as rigid body 
 under the unballanced earth pressures 
 acting on it. A diagram for estimating 
 the extrusion failure is obtained as a 
 kind of stability number Heq 
 (equivalent fill height) which is a 
 function of density of the fill 
 material, fill height, shear strength 
 of soft soil and spacing of the long 
 wa 1 1 s . 
 
 External loading condition for the 
 internal stability analysis is also 
 studied by a series of centrifuge model 
 test. Details of the test results for a 
 rigid buried structure of the wall type 
 resting on a stiff sandy layer is 
 reported in a companion paper (Terashi 
 and Kitazume, 1985). 
 
 Full Scale Test 
 
 Loading test on the full scale 
 improved ground of wall type was 
 carried out to investigate the validity 
 of the current design procedure of DMM. 
 Loading was applied by gravel mound, 
 concrete caisson and back filling as in 
 the case of centrifugal model test. 
 
 The test was ended by the sliding of 
 super structure. Measurement of displa- 
 cement of buried structure and super- 
 structure, contact pressures, and 
 strains inside the treated soil mass 
 has been carried out successfully 
 until the end of the test. Obtained 
 data also support the findings by the 
 above mentioned centrifuge study. 
 Yajima and Terashi (1984) have reported 
 the detail. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Ad hoc Committee of Case Studies of 
 Coastal Reclamation (1981) Geotechni- 
 cal aspects of coastal reclamation 
 projects in Japan., Proc. 9th ICSMFE, 
 Case History Volume, Tokyo 
 Terashi, M. and Kitazume, M. (1985) 
 Centrifuge Modeling of improved 
 ground by DMM, Proc. of U.S. -Japan 
 Marine Facilities Panel, UJNR 
 Terashi, M., Tanaka, H. and Okumura, T. 
 (1979) Engineering properties of 
 lime-treated marine soils and DM 
 method, Proc. 6th Asian Regional 
 Conf. on SMFE, Vol. 1, 191-194, 
 Singapore 
 Kawasaki, T. et al. (1983) Ground 
 stabilized by Deep Mixing Method, 
 Proc. 7th Asian Regional Conf. on 
 SMFE, Vol. 1, 249-254, Haifa 
 
 Tanaka, H. and Kitazume, 
 
 ExtrusionFailureof Ground 
 
 by the Deep Mixing Method, 
 
 Asian Regional Conf. on 
 
 313-318, Haifa. 
 
 and Terashi, M. (1984) Full 
 
 Test on the Improved 
 
 Submitted to JSSMFE 
 
 Terashi ,M. , 
 
 M. (1 983) 
 
 Improved 
 
 Proc. 7th 
 
 SMFE, 1 , 
 Yajima, M. 
 
 Scale Loading 
 
 Ground by DMM, 
 
 Symposium on the Strength and 
 Deformation of Composite Ground, 
 Tokyo, Oct., '84. 
 
 
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 Fig. 8 Shear Strain Distribution 
 
 93 
 
CENTRIFUGE MODELING OF IMPROVED GROUND BY D.M.M. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Masaaki Terashi and Mr. Masaki Kitazume 
 
 Port & Harbour Research Institute 
 
 Ministry of Transport 
 
 3-1-1 Nagase, Yokosuka, Japan 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 Deep Mixing Method has been applied 
 in Japan to reinforce soft clay by 
 manufacturing an extraordinary stiff 
 treated soil mass in-situ. Interaction 
 of soft alluvial soil and this treated 
 soil walls resting on reliable stratum 
 is investigated to improve current 
 design procedure. It is known from the 
 centrifuge model test that the external 
 forces are carried solely by the 
 treated soil walls, that the magnitude 
 and distribution of contact pressures 
 at the surface of treated soil mass is 
 dependent on the magnitude of factor of 
 safety against external stability, and 
 that the pressures change with time 
 due to consolidation of soft untreated 
 soil . 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Deep Mixing Method(DMM), a deep in- 
 situ admixture stabilization using 
 cement slurry, has been developed 
 in Japan to reinforce soft alluvial 
 clays . In practice, huge treated soil 
 mass whose shear strength exceeds 1 
 MN/m 2 is formed to support superstruc- 
 ture. Due to the large difference in 
 the engineering characteristics between 
 treated soil and untreated soft soils, 
 treated soil mass is assumed to behave 
 as a rigid structure buried in soft 
 ground . Details of DMM, its application 
 and current design procedure are des- 
 cribed in a companion paper in the same 
 proceedings (Terashi, 1985). In the 
 present article which is a part of a 
 paper submitted to the coming 11th 
 ICSMFE (Terashi et al, 1985), interac- 
 tion between soft soil and this rigid 
 buried structure manufactured by DMM is 
 investigated. Special attention is paid 
 to the time dependent change of earth 
 pressure and pore water pressure acting 
 on the surface of rigid structure of 
 wall type resting on a reliable sand 
 layer. 
 
 CENTRIFUGE MODELING OF A BURIED RIGID 
 STRUCTURE 
 
 test procedure 
 
 Model study of a super structure 
 and improved ground is carried out 
 using a large geotechnical centrifuge 
 at Port & Harbour Research Institute 
 (Fig. 1 ). Details of the centrifuge is 
 described by Terashi et al (1984). 
 Present model tests have no particular 
 prototype and the purpose of the tests 
 
 Fig. 1 PHRI Centrifuge 
 
 is to know the interaction between soft 
 soil and extraordinary stiff treated 
 soil mass of wall type resting on a 
 reliable stratum. Soft clay ground is 
 modeled by kaolinite whose liquid 
 limit, plastic limit, and Gs are 71.5 
 %, 32.9 % and 2.58 respectively. Bake- 
 lite stiff enough to model treated soil 
 whose density is 1.39 g/cm 3 is used to 
 model a rigid buried structure. Toyoura 
 standard sand which is uniform fine 
 sand with Uc = 1.33, D-| Q = 0.12 mm and 
 G s = 2.64 is used to model underlying 
 sand layer and fill material. Concrete 
 caisson for revetment is modeled by 
 cement mortar with density = 1.71 
 g/cm 3 . Due to the selection of these 
 materials, consolidation of clay ground 
 and instrumentation for contact 
 pressure measurement are carried out 
 with ease. 
 
 tie bar 
 
 Fig. 2 Model of treated soil walls 
 
 Longwallsof amodelrigid buried 
 structure (Fig. 2) is placed on the 
 
 94 
 
sand layer in the prescribed position 
 in the strong box (width 50 cm x height 
 30 cm x 10 cm). Kaolinite remolded by 
 vacuum mixer at water content of 
 approximately 150 % is poured on the 
 sand layer and preconsolidated at 1 OkPa 
 in the laboratory under 1 G. Following 
 preconsolidation, strong box is dis- 
 assembled to embed short walls in- 
 between long walls and to place targets 
 for photo-measurement on the side of 
 clay. Strong box is reassembled, 
 mounted on swinging basket of centri- 
 fuge and brought into 50 G field. Up to 
 the end of this stage, short walls are 
 set between long walls independently 
 from long walls so as to allow free 
 consolidation of the soft clay in- 
 between long walls. Thus a clay ground 
 normally consolidated in general and 
 lightly overconsolidated at top surface 
 is prepared after a long run of centri- 
 fuge. Centrifuge is once stopped to 
 connect long and short walls tightly as 
 it is the case of actual improvement 
 and to place mound and caisson in 
 place. Accerelation is increased again 
 and back filling is carried out using 
 sand hopper under the steady accerela- 
 tion of 50 G. Setup of model ground and 
 strong box is shown in Fig. 3. Transdu- 
 cers for total earth pressure (TEP) and 
 pore water pressure (PWP) are fixed in 
 the bakelite walls to measure the 
 pressure change at the interface 
 between a rigid structure and soft 
 soil. A limited number of transducers 
 for TEP and PWP are set on the sand 
 layer in-between long walls to measure 
 reaction of soft soils and on clay 
 surface to estimate fill height and 
 water pressure. 
 
 disp transducer 
 
 Fig. 3 Setup of Model Ground 
 
 test conditions 
 
 Centrifuge tests were carried out 
 for two model ground both of which are 
 designed to satisfy external stability. 
 In both cases, depth of clay is 10 cm, 
 long wall reaches to underlying sand 
 layer (height of long wall is also 10 
 cm), height of short wall is 3.0 cm, 
 thickness of long wall is 2 cm and that 
 of short wall is 1 cm. Difference is in 
 the width of long wall; width of long 
 wall is 1 cm for case A and 15 cm for 
 
 case B. It means the factor of safety 
 against external stability is higher in 
 case B. Factor of safety against 
 sliding is 1.0 for case A and 1.4 
 for case B. 
 
 test results 
 
 The change of total earth pressure 
 and pore water pressure in the first 
 flight is shown in Fig. 4. In this and 
 in the following figures triangular 
 marks show the positions of TEP & PWP 
 cells . Before this flight clay ground 
 was preconsolidated only at 1 kPa. 
 Measured PWP and horizontal TEP at the 
 surface of the rigid buried structure 
 immediately after acceleration up to 50 
 G is practically equal to the total 
 vertical stress. At the end of self 
 weight consolidation under 50 G, 
 measured PWP were equal to static water 
 pressure and measured TEP showed the 
 increase of effective horizontal stress 
 due to consolidation. Kg coefficient 
 obtained by the experiment is approxi- 
 mately 0.4 which is a little bit 
 smaller value compared with laboratory 
 test result carried out separately. 
 With consolidation process, TEP 
 measured at the bottom of long walls 
 slightly increased. This phenomenon is 
 a result of negative skin friction 
 along long walls due to the consolida- 
 tion of clay ground which never would 
 happen in reality. 
 
 95 
 
 • 50G(U=0%) 
 O 50G(U=100%) 
 a TEP cell 
 a PWP cell 
 
 Fig. 4 Pressure Distribution 
 (Modeling of N.C. Clay) 
 
 The placement of superstructure on 
 top of a buried structure gives rise to 
 no change of TEP and PWP in the soft 
 soils in-between long walls. It 
 suggests that the applied external load 
 is carried solely by long walls. 
 
 Measured TEP and PWP during filling 
 stage are the major concern in the 
 present experiment. TEP and PWP under- 
 neath the fill respond quickly to 
 filling and whose magnitude is quite 
 reasonable in case B (Fig. 5b). It 
 means that the increment of TEP and PWP 
 immediately after the filling are 
 practically equal to applied fill 
 pressure. However, in case A, TEP and 
 PWP underneath the fill respond only to 
 first filling (Fig. 5a). As is already 
 explained in the previous section, 
 
3rd fillin g 
 2nd filling 
 
 1st filling 
 
 
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 ^ 
 
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 '.c 
 1st filling _£ 
 
 A- 
 
 A- 
 
 A 
 
 J" 1 
 
 o *a 
 o «a 
 
 o *D 
 o «a 
 
 *£ 
 
 8 2° 
 
 o before filling 
 • 1st filling 
 a 2nd filling 
 ■ 3rd filling 
 
 a TEP cell 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
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 O 
 
 ©0- 
 
 CqCOO d O O O 
 
 „**£8tfS* #$ 6 
 
 10 
 
 20 (min) 
 
 a PWP cell 
 
 c) Pressure Change with Time 
 (CASE A) 
 
 CASE A b) CASE B 
 
 Fig. 5 Measured Pressure in the Filling Stage 
 
 factor of safety for sliding in case A 
 is around unity. Disagreement between 
 applied vertical stress and measured 
 pressure increment in the case A seems 
 to be due to the horizontal displace- 
 ment of a buried structure. TEP and PWP 
 on the front of a buried structure 
 shows negligibly small increase with 
 filling in both cases. The pressure 
 increase with filling and decrease with 
 the consolidation of clay is shown in 
 Fig. 5c. 
 
 Change of horizontal pressure with 
 time and change of contact pressure 
 distribution at the bottom of long wall 
 is clearly shown in Fig. 6. Increment 
 of resultant vertical force calculated 
 from the measured contact pressure 
 agrees well with the vertical increment 
 of external force. 
 
 Fig. 7 shows the TEP and PWP mea- 
 sured in between the long walls and 
 those measured at the vertical surface 
 of treated soil wall at the heel and 
 toe immediately after the filling. The 
 distribution of induced pressure incre- 
 ment in between the long walls is 
 linearly decreasing from heel to toe of 
 the buried structure. Most of this 
 pressure increment disappears with 
 time. It seems that the pressure dis- 
 tribution is dependent solely on the 
 difference of excess pore water 
 pressure between the front and rear of 
 a structure and hence it disappears 
 with dissipation of excess pore water 
 pressure underneath the filling. 
 
 These evidences suggest that the 
 external force i's carried mostly by the 
 rigid buried structure. From the mea- 
 sured pressures, however, no strong 
 evidence is found of large stress 
 concentration on long walls along the 
 vertical plane at the heel. Therefore, 
 in the external stability analysis of 
 wall type improvement except extrusion, 
 two dimensional earth pressure is 
 applicable as design load along the 
 
 vertical planes at the heel and toe of 
 a buried structure. Horizontal force 
 acting on soft clay in-between the long 
 walls is considered to be transmitted 
 to long walls by adhesion. The force 
 carried by long walls is finally 
 transmitted to bearing stratum. 
 
 Contact pressure at the bottom of 
 long walls is calculated by assuming 
 that the buried structure is rigid and 
 
 3rd filling 
 • U=0% 
 
 o U=100% 
 
 A TEP cell 
 A PWP cell 
 
 Pressure Re-distribution 
 due to Consolidation 
 
 96 
 
 Fig. 7 Pressure Increment between Walls 
 
r=2.0 gS'= 35° 
 r'=1.0 0'=35° 
 
 (unit ton,m) 
 
 r*=0.45 
 n r Cu=0.18z 
 
 r'=0.55 
 Cu=0.18z 
 (z =-19) 
 
 3 3 3 
 
 (a) Cross Section 
 
 30 40 
 
 (b) Optimum Design 
 
 Fig. 8 Change of Optimum Design with External Loading Conditions 
 
 it seats on the elastic springs. As is 
 already described, the resultant verti- 
 cal stress at the bottom of the long 
 walls agrees well with the vertical 
 external force and mass force. However 
 the calculated contact pressure distri- 
 bution based on the horizontal compo- 
 nent of earth pressure (solid line in 
 Fig. 6 for U = 100 %) is steeper than 
 measured one. This is probably because 
 no account was taken for the vertical 
 component of earth pressure from the 
 fill and shear stress induced in the 
 clay layer on the surface of a buried 
 structure to restrain the rotational 
 movement at the instance of loading and 
 the negative skin friction in the long 
 run. Contact pressure distribution 
 taking account of vertical component of 
 earth pressure of the fill material and 
 the negative skin friction acting on 
 the treated soil walls is shown by 
 dotted line in Fig. 6 for U = 1 00 % 
 which is the better fit for the test 
 results than solid line. The similar 
 result is obtained from the elasto- 
 plastic FEM simulation of the tests. 
 
 Effect of the External Loading 
 Condition on the Optimum Design 
 
 In the current design practice, 
 active and passive earth pressures are 
 taken as external load for both 
 internal and external stability 
 analyses. When the rigorous considera- 
 tion is paid on the rate of filling and 
 the rate of consolidation, both the 
 external and internal stability are 
 influenced tremendously. Fig. 8b shows 
 these effect on the optimum design of 
 revetment under the condition shown in 
 Fig. 8a. Lines I, II, and III represent 
 the critical lines for sliding failure, 
 shear stress at the toe of buried 
 structure and shear stress inside the 
 buried structure. Point A represents 
 the optimum design by the current 
 design procedure and point B and C 
 
 represent the optimum design for rapid 
 construction and slow construction. 
 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 Interaction between soft soil and 
 a rigid buried structure sitting on the 
 reliable stratum is studied by means of 
 centrifuge modeling. From the study, it 
 is known that the design load condition 
 is sensitive to relative movement of 
 a rigid buried structure to surrounding 
 soft soils and to the rate of filling. 
 
 Conclusions drawn from the present 
 study are as follows. 
 
 i) Design load condition in "internal 
 stability" should not be the critical 
 active and passive earth pressures, 
 ii) When the margin of safety against 
 external stability is sufficiently 
 large, Kg pressure must be taken at the 
 front of a rigid buried structure, 
 iii) Underneath the fill, earth 
 pressure must be calculated as a sum of 
 effective horizontal stress and excess 
 pore water pressure. It means that the 
 rate of filling influences the loading 
 condition. 
 
 iv) In the analysis of internal 
 stability, it is reasonable to consider 
 that all the external forces are 
 carried by a rigid buried structure. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Terashi, M 
 H.(1 984) 
 
 97 
 
 ., Kitazume, M., and Tanaka, 
 Application of PHRI Geo- 
 technical Centrifuge., Submitted to 
 International Symposium on Geotechni- 
 cal Centrifuge Modeling, Tokyo, 
 Apri 1 . 
 
 Terashi, M. (1985) Deep Mixing Method 
 of Soil Improvement for Soft Marine 
 Clays, Proc. U.S. -Japan Marine Faci- 
 lities Panel, UJNR 
 
 Terashi, M. Kitazume, and Tanaka, H. 
 (1985) Interaction of Soil and Buried 
 Rigid Structure, Submi tted to 11th 
 ICSMFE, San Francisco, August 
 
STRATEGIES FOR MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ASSESSMENT 
 
 A. Zirino, G.V. Pickwell, R.S. Henderson, D. Lapota, S. Yamamoto 
 Environmental Sciences Division (Code 52) 
 Naval Ocean Systems Center, San Diego, CA. 92152 
 
 and 
 
 J. D. Hightower 
 
 Advanced Systems Division (Code 53) 
 
 Naval Ocean Systems Center, Hawaii 
 
 Kailua, HI 96734 
 
 ABSTRACT: The organizational and scientific 
 strategies of the Marine Environmental Quality 
 Assessment Program at the U.S. Naval Ocean 
 Systems Center, San Diego are presented. The 
 scientific effort is directed towards determining 
 stress in individual organisms and in community 
 structure produced by non-lethal but chronic 
 exposure to harmful pollutants. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 
 of 1969 made environmental protection and 
 pollution abatement a national mission in the 
 United States. Subsequent Executive Orders called 
 on federal agencies to provide leadership in a 
 nationwide effort to protect and enhance the 
 environment. In April 1971, Chief of Naval 
 Material tasked the Naval Ocean System Center 
 (NOSC) to conduct a research and development 
 program in environmental quality assessment 
 (MEQA) . The primary goal was to develop the 
 technology necessary to define, measure and 
 predict the environmental impact of Naval 
 activities on the harbors and coastal areas in 
 which they operate. 
 
 The rationale for such a program was clear. 
 In order to maintain compliance with environmental 
 regulations and keep the cost of pollution control 
 within reasonable bounds, the Navy needed to 
 acquire advanced methodology for accurately 
 determining environmental quality. Such 
 technology would enable the Navy to optimize its 
 own pollution abatement programs, identify its own 
 liabilities from those of other potential 
 polluters and to predict the environmental 
 consequences of its activities. The latter would 
 avoid future problems with regulatory agencies, 
 expedite operations and minimize capital 
 investments. 
 
 Environmental assessment is not a simple 
 task. One deals with questions which are 
 inherently complex because they are multi-faceted, 
 multi-disciplinary and constantly changing as 
 technology and methods of analysis improve. 
 Environmental criteria are essentially judgements 
 based on direct information, comparisons with 
 information previously collected and 
 
 consultations with "experts" (Figure 1). The 
 final value judgement is usually based on 
 biological criteria. These criteria arise from 
 two types of environmental alterations: a) those 
 which relate to the aesthetics, economics and well 
 being of the local population and b) the more 
 subtle environmental changes among biological 
 communities caused by chronic, yet sublethal 
 toxicity. 
 
 ENVIRONMENTAL 
 PROBLEM 
 
 NEW 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 DEF 
 
 NITION 
 
 MEASUREMENT 
 
 PREVIOUS 
 KNOWLEDGE 
 
 ANALYSIS 
 
 REPORT 
 
 EXPERTS 
 
 JUDGEMENT 
 
 T 
 
 NEW 
 
 UNDERSTANDING 
 
 PREDICTION 
 
 Figure 1 . The marine environmental quality 
 process 
 
 The first type of environmental insult is of 
 little concern to the research community since it 
 
 is easily detected and legislated away. On the 
 other hand, long term, chronic effects require 
 much investigation since they often resemble 
 "natural" changes and may be subject to much 
 debate. It is the latter which must be addressed 
 by a comprehensive research program. (At present, 
 a principal Navy concern is the environmental 
 impact of the heavy metal-based antifouling 
 coatings (paints) which cover the hulls of all 
 ships.) A final complication is that 
 environmental insults are not necessarily constant 
 over time and space. Estuaries are notoriously 
 dynamic in both of these variables. Thus, a 
 satisfactory environmental research program must 
 
 98 
 
both supply information on subtle biological 
 phenomena and a comprehensive field measurement 
 capability. 
 
 This paper presents an overview of the NOSC 
 marine environmental program and discusses three 
 of the research strategies in some detail. 
 
 STRATEGY 
 
 In order to adequately serve present and 
 future Navy requirements, the MEQA R&D program 
 must be able to obtain accurate and timely 
 information and to pass on this information, in a 
 usable form, to the Navy field activity which has 
 need of it. For this purpose, the NOSC 
 environmental R&D effort is organized into four 
 distinct work areas wherein information is 
 collected by the first three and disseminated by 
 the fourth. The four work units are: 
 
 1) Development of analytical methods and 
 instrumentation. This work unit is tasked with 
 developing cost-effective technology for 
 measuring, defining and predicting marine 
 environmental quality when commercial technology 
 is not available or adequate. 
 
 2) Biological Effects . This work unit 
 provides methodology for biological testing. 
 Efforts are directed towards identifying molecular 
 products in marine organisms subjected to chronic, 
 but sublethal toxicity. Other work is directed 
 towards developing standardized testing 
 procedures . 
 
 3) Field Survey Methodology . The emphasis 
 of this work unit has been the development of 
 protocols for rapid biological field surveys and 
 for real-time chemical and physical measurements. 
 This effort has resulted in the development of an 
 instrumented houseboat known as the Marine 
 Environmental Survey 
 Craft (MESC) [1]. 
 
 4) Information and Technology Transfer . 
 This work unit collects environmental information 
 and makes it available to the Fleet and 
 Facilities. Simultaneously, it keeps abreast of 
 Navy environmental problems and provides 
 guidelines for future research. 
 
 The relationship between the four work units, the 
 Fleet and Facilities and the scientific and 
 regulatory communities are shown in Figure 2. 
 
 r 
 
 INFORMATION 
 COLLECTION 
 
 FIELD SURVEY 
 CAPABILITY 
 
 < 
 
 BIOLOGICAL 
 EFFECTS 
 
 Figure 2. Organization of the MEQA program 
 
 dredging, construction, waste disposal and any 
 other alteration to existing marine facilities. 
 Similarly, Officers In Charge of Construction 
 (OICC's) are charged with obtaining permits for 
 the construction of new Naval facilities. Since 
 environmental issues are often complex and 
 guidelines are either unclear or subject to 
 change, both EFD's and OICC's often need expert 
 opinion from the research community. On the other 
 hand, the research program can be responsive to 
 the Navy's needs only if it has an ear to the 
 Navy's problems. For this reason the MEQA program 
 instituted the Information and Technology Transfer 
 unit. The primary "product" of this unit is the 
 Marine Environmental Support Office (MESO) . Via a 
 telecommunications network, MESO will be the 
 interface between EFD's, OICC's and planning units 
 and the body of environmental information 
 available in the public, private, academic and 
 military sectors. MESO is intended to be the 
 "in-house" consultant on the technical aspects of 
 marine environmemntal quality and the regulatory 
 aspects of environmental compliance. 
 Additionally, MESO is expected to provide imputs 
 into the Navy's Environmental Protection R&D 
 Program. Figure 3 shows how MESO is intended to 
 interface between the users and suppliers of 
 environmental information. 
 
 MARINE ENVIRONMENT SUPPORT OFFICE 
 
 The full value of each of the work areas 
 above can only be realized if the relevant 
 environmental information can be transferred 
 readily, in a useable form, to the ultimate user. 
 In the U.S. Navy, the users are primarily the 
 Environmental Field Divisions (EFD's) of the Naval 
 Facility Command which deal directly with the 
 local, state and national regulatory agencies. 
 The EFD's are charged with obtaining permits for 
 
 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS 
 
 I. Individual Organisms 
 
 Our previous article, "Real Time 
 Environmental Survey Techniques" [2] stressed the 
 MEQA program's emphasis on field methodology and 
 described some of the field survey techniques and 
 instrumentation developed at the Naval Ocean 
 System Center, San Diego. It dealt primarily with 
 the development of an instrumented houseboat 
 
 99 
 
NAVY 
 USERS 
 
 REGULATORY 
 COMPLIANCE 
 
 OPERATIONAL 
 REQUIREMENTS 
 
 ACTIVITIES 
 
 ENVIRONMENTAL 
 INFORMATION 
 
 MARINE 
 ENVIRONMENTAL 
 SUPPORT 
 OFFICE 
 
 • INTERCALIBRATION 
 
 # METHODS ACCEPTANCE 
 m STANDARDIZATION 
 
 GOVERNMENT LABS 
 
 UNIVERSITIES 
 
 DATA BASES 
 
 • SCIENCE 
 
 • NEW UNDERSTANDING 
 
 • PUBLICATIONS 
 
 Figure 3. Relationships between MESO, the Navy 
 and other environmental activities 
 
 (Marine Environmental Survey Craft or MESC) and 
 with some electrochemical instrumentation capable 
 of measuring trace levels of Cu and other heavy 
 metals in seawater in or near real-time. This 
 paper presents some exploratory methodology for 
 determining the biological effects of chronic, 
 low-level environmental insults. 
 
 It is important to assess the environment 
 before permanent damage occurs to its inhabitants. 
 Present technology for environmental assessment 
 depends primarily on estimating numbers of 
 surviving organisms, after the damage has been 
 done. For this reason, the MEQA program has 
 carried out research on biochemical methods for 
 determining stress in marine organism. At this 
 point, it should be emphasized that the problem is 
 complex because most animals have some ability to 
 cope with toxins. Thus, simple tissue burdens of 
 toxicants may not indicate stress. For instance, 
 at non-lethal concentrations, mussels may 
 sequester toxic metals with metal binding 
 proteins, thereby mitigating or avoiding the toxic 
 properties of the metals. 
 
 The MEQA project intends to develop rapid, 
 sensitive and quantifiable methods of assessing 
 the health status of impacted marine organisms at 
 sites of Naval relevance. The present approach is 
 to develop quantititative assays for "stress 
 proteins" which may appear in the "blood" 
 (hemo lymph) of mussels and oysters [3]. The 
 latter organisms were chosen because they are 
 virtually ubiquitous, sessile, and easy to sample 
 and monitor. Figure 4 shows diagrams of the 
 scientific approach. 
 
 Three types of "stress" proteins are being 
 considered as indicators of environmental insult: 
 ( 1 ) hydro lytic enzymes , such as lysozyme , which 
 appears in the hemolymph at the onset of 
 irreversible cell breakdown and tissue death; 
 (2)metallothioneins which act to bind and thus 
 detoxify heavy metals; and (3) components of the 
 mixed function oxygenase (MFO) system which 
 detoxify organic pollutants by making the invading 
 toxic organic molecule more susceptible to 
 
 cleavage and final breakdown by other enzyme 
 systems. The first type of response is termed 
 "passive" because it does not constitute a defense 
 by the organism but rather is a sign of internal 
 damage. The other two responses are termed 
 "active" because they represent actual defense 
 mechanisms which (when activated) can enable the 
 organism to pursue its normal functions despite 
 exposure to toxins. 
 
 Rationale: 
 
 DISCOVER BIOCHEMICAL CHANGES 
 BEFORE VISIBLE SYMPTOMS (AS IN 
 BLOOD SAMPLING! 
 
 Objective: 
 
 FIND RAPID TECHNIQUES TO 
 MONITOR EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS 
 (i.e.,ANTIFOULANTS. DREDGE SPOILS) 
 VIA SESSILE MARINE ORGANISMS 
 
 Approach: 
 
 EXTRACT BODY FLUIDS FROM MEASURE STRESS ENZYMES USING 
 
 MUSSELS DIFFERENT ANALYSES 
 
 Figure 4. 
 
 Biochemical 
 assessment 
 
 environmental 
 
 impact 
 
 As mentioned earlier, present research 
 efforts are intended to determine the 
 environmental effects of Cu and organotin-based 
 antifouling paints. Thus, sensitive immuno-assays 
 are being developed to study these agents. Figure 
 5 shows a diagram of the expected mussel response 
 and of the "stress" proteins under investigation. 
 The approach is three pronged: (1) mussels are 
 stressed in the laboratory with known toxicants, 
 such as Cu. The "stress" protein, lysozyme in this 
 case, is then isolated from the hemolymph, 
 purified and (2) , injected into New Zealand white 
 rabbits. The rabbits develop antibodies specific 
 to the mussel hemolymph which are then extracted 
 from their serum. (3) The purified antibodies are 
 then used to quantify the amount of lysozyme in 
 mussels collected in the field. 
 
 The method currently employed for this is 
 known as Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). 
 The ELISA technique works as follows: A suitable 
 "test" enzyme that will bind with the antibody is 
 chosen. Alkaline phosphatase was chosen in this 
 case. This "test" enzyme will produce a color 
 when added to a neutral substrate (a 1mg/ml 
 solution pf p-nitrophenylphosphate in pH 9.6 
 buffer). When the antibody, alkaline phosphatase 
 and substrate are combined and the excess antibody 
 is washed away, no color is produced because the 
 alkaline phosphatase has been tied up by the 
 antibody and rendered inactive. On the other 
 hand, when the lysozyme from the mussel hemolymph 
 is added, the antibody preferentially binds to it, 
 thereby freeing an equivalent amount of alkaline 
 phosphatase. The "freed" alkaline phosphatase can 
 
 100 
 
now produce a color with the substrate. The 
 intensity of the color is then proportional to the 
 concentration of mussel lysozyme. The advantage 
 of the ELISA method is that it can be performed in 
 the field, since the antibody-alkaline phosphatase 
 substrate mixture can be immobilized and preserved 
 on a small plate and the color read by eye or with 
 a portable spectrophotometer. 
 
 MARINE — . 
 
 ANIMALS «*■> 
 
 eg. OYSTERS 
 
 «£> <3* 
 
 Cu J 
 
 PASSIVE RESPONSE 
 
 Cell breakdown and 
 tissue death 
 
 Detected & monitored 
 by ELISA for lysozyme 
 & proteolytic enzymes 
 in blood senim 
 
 ACTIVE 
 RESPONSE 
 
 Metal binding 
 protein pickup 
 
 Cu J 
 
 /[fa j^> 
 
 TBTO 
 
 X 
 
 ACTIVE RESPONSE 
 
 MFO system within cells 
 dismantles & metabolizes 
 organic component of 
 molecule through multiple 
 steps catalyzed by 
 cytochrome P-450 
 
 Detected & monitored 
 by ELISA for 
 cytochrome P450 
 
 Sn eventually 
 released 
 
 Picked up by 
 
 metal binding protein 
 
 Detected & monitored 
 by ELISA 
 
 Figure 5. Biochemical responses of organisms to 
 toxins 
 
 The details of this work have been given by 
 Pickwell and Steinert [4] and Steinert and 
 Pickwell [5). Figure 6 shows a plot of lysosome 
 released into mussel hemolymph in response to 
 cupric ion challenge. The lysozyme activity was 
 measured using conventional laboratory methods. 
 Figure 7 shows ELISA-determined hemolymph Oysozyme 
 concentrations in Cu exposed mussels. The 
 occurrence of lysozyme activity several days after 
 Cu was removed suggests that latent tissue damage 
 occurred following the first exposure. 
 
 0.040 
 
 a 
 
 "5 o 
 ■s E 
 
 < £ 
 
 E * 
 
 S2 
 
 >. </) 
 
 ->£ 
 
 E 
 
 0.030 
 
 0.020 
 
 Cu Cu 
 
 Cu 2+ Dilutions 
 — • — Control 
 -* — 26 ppb 
 — ♦— 134 ppb 
 
 — ■— 267 ppb 
 
 0.010- 
 
 1 ' 
 
 e 
 
 10 12 
 |Cu2* 
 
 Cu* 
 
 
 'out 
 
 IN 
 
 
 Time (d*y») 
 
 Figure 7. 
 
 ElISA-determined hemolymph lysozyme 
 concentrations in mussels, (upper line, 
 160 ppb copper- exposed mussels; lower 
 line, controls 
 
 6 8 10 
 TEST DAYS 
 
 II. Community Effects 
 
 While the biochemical determination of stress 
 in individual organisms is important for 
 forecasting of environmental damage, it is 
 virtually impossible to project precisely the 
 results of this stress beyond the population of 
 organisms immediately affected. That is to say, 
 ecological communities can be thought of as a 
 network of organisms in constant competition, 
 fighting for food and shelter. Over time, the 
 community, which consists of plants and animals, 
 reaches a "steady state" , a dynamic condition in 
 which the requirements of each member of the 
 community are balanced against those of the 
 others. The removal of a single population of 
 organisms will produce a "domino effect" within 
 the community, leading to complicated 
 rearrangements, and, if given enough time, to a 
 new "steady state". Because ecosystems are very 
 complex, and most of the components and 
 interactions are not known, it is very difficult 
 to predict analytically the new "steady state" 
 from individual perturbations. 
 
 A way of obtaining community information is 
 to construct analogue models of specific 
 ecosystems. These are known as microcosms [6]. 
 The NOSC microcosms are located on the Mokapu 
 Peninsula, on the island of Oahu, Hawaii. It 
 consists of twelve, approximately 1 m square, 0.5 
 m deep fiber-glassed tanks placed on the roof of 
 NOSC's Ulupau, waterfront laboratory (Fig. 8). 
 The tanks are flow- through, that is, fresh 
 seawater is pumped from an inter- tidal reef 
 adjacent to the laboratory into the tanks and 
 allowed to overflow. The system maintains a 
 constant head, thus constant flow rates can be 
 maintained. Since the tanks, by necessity, have 
 higher surface area to volume ratios than the 
 natural environment, this difference can be 
 compensated for by choosing the appropriate flow 
 rate. Figure 9 shows a schematic diagram of a 
 tank with its inlet and outlet plumbing and 
 metabolic monitoring apparatus. 
 
 Figure 6. Lysozyme released into mussel hemolymph 
 in response to cupric ion challenge 
 
 Microcosms are useful for studying the 
 effects of pollutants on naturally recruited or 
 
 101 
 
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 \^-. ^ MICROCOSM FACILITY ^l 
 
 V/\ COCONUT r® ? 
 \ IMOKU LOEI^T > 
 
 3000 \ /\ .„ ISLAN ° Z, SEWAGE / 
 | ■ ,' l, V Nj — s^,-/ 'Uj C^A OUTFALL./ 
 
 " W0 ^^_**J y •* W_Aj 
 
 Lgure 
 
 8. Map of Oahu, 
 
 Hawaii showing the 
 
 constant over time. Three types of pollutants 
 have been tested at the NOSC facilities: the 
 nutrient elements ammonia and phosphate common in 
 sewage and waste waters, ionic copper and 
 copper-based antifouling paints and organotin 
 antifouling paints. The results of an elevated 
 nutrient experiment have been published [7] and 
 will be summarized here. Six tanks were used in 
 the experiment: two were kept as controls, two 
 were enriched by about 8 micromoles of phosphorus 
 as phosphate and the last two by an equal amount 
 of nitrogen as ammonia. The tanks were first 
 "aged" for 126 days and were then nutrient 
 enriched for 66 more days. Dissolved oxygen was 
 measured as an indicator of community production 
 and metabolism. 
 
 inlet feeder pipe 
 
 location of the NOSC microcosm 
 facilities 
 
 transplanted shallow water communities. The 
 organisms of a typical soft-bottomed microcosm 
 community are shown in Figure 10. For an 
 experiment to study the effect of pollutants on 
 the natural recruitment of organisms, the tanks 
 are prepared by placing the appropriate substrate 
 on the bottom (mud, sand, crushed coral and 
 individual testing panels) , and allowing the water 
 to flow. Ambient light can also be reduced if 
 desired by placing screens over the tanks. Over 
 time, natural populations of animals and plants 
 carried by the inflowing water will settle in the 
 tanks. The predominant species, however, will be 
 determined by the condition of the water. 
 
 Thus, for a typical experiment, several tanks 
 will be designated as controls and no pollutant 
 will be added to them. The others, designated as 
 "test tanks" will have some foreign substance 
 added to the inflowing water, in such a manner 
 that the concentration of pollutant will be 
 
 adjustable level 
 overflow 
 standpipe 
 
 outlet adiustable level 
 compartment overflow 
 
 magnetic tape data logger stepping 
 
 signal 
 
 Figure 9. Schematic of plumbing and metabolic 
 monitoring apparatus for a microcosm 
 tank 
 
 102 
 
After nutrient enrichment, algal populations 
 in the treatment tanks were markedly different 
 (Table I) . The control tanks contained 
 approximately equal amounts of unicellular 
 blue-green algae and diatoms. On the other hand, 
 the ammonia treated tanks were dominated by a 
 mult i -cellular green alga, Ulva sp . , commonly 
 known as sea lettuce. Similarly, the phosphate 
 treated tanks contained a much higher percentage 
 of blue-green algae than the control tanks. 
 Proliferation of cyanophytes in the phosphate 
 enriched tanks is probably due to their ability to 
 fix nitrogen (they are marine legumes) and thus 
 achieve the proper N/P ratios required for 
 production. Both phosphate and ammonia enrichment 
 significantly increased productivity. However, 
 the effect of phosphate enrichment persisted even 
 after the phosphate additions were terminated. 
 Presumably, phosphorus is retained in the 
 sediments and recycled efficiently within the reef 
 community. The nutrient enriched microcosm also 
 developed more abundant and diverse infaunal 
 (living in the sediment) communities than did the 
 control. "This suggests that the largely 
 detrivore-based food webs that developed were 
 about equally favored by any appropriate food 
 addition" [7]. The infauna was dominated by 
 several species of segmented worms which were two 
 to three times more abundant in the treatment 
 tanks. Within those groups, Nereis acuminata was 
 3 and 5 times more abundant in the ammonia and 
 phosphate treatments respectively, as compared 
 with the control population. Also 20 individuals 
 of Dorvillea sp . A were found in both (test) 
 tanks, whereas only one individal was found in the 
 control tanks" [7]. These two organisms have been 
 used as indicators of moderate levels of sewage in 
 metropolitan harbors [8]. 
 
 Similar experiments on the toxic effects of 
 Cu and organot in-based antifouling formulations on 
 tropical communities have also been conducted [9]. 
 While organotin compounds were found to be 
 appreciably more toxic than Cu-based toxins, both 
 produced marked ecological effects even when the 
 tanks were maintained at low-level, (initially) 
 non-lethal concentrations. 
 
 III. Underway Determinations of Biological 
 Populations. 
 
 Community effects must also be determined in 
 the field. The organisms which 1) are very 
 
 sensitive to environmental changes and 2) are 
 amenable to an instrumental assessment in the 
 field include the microalgae [10], 
 microcrustaceans and the larval forms of larger 
 organisms. For this reason the MEQA program has 
 made some efforts to analyze for phytoplankton by 
 in situ fluorescence analysis [2]. This effort is 
 also being carried 
 
 out independently by Oldham and colleagues who 
 have recently field tested just such an analyzer 
 [11]. Unfortunately, fluorescence analysis 
 measures only chlorophyll in phytoplankton. 
 
 Thus, NOSC scientists have developed techniques 
 for the in situ analysis of mechanically 
 stimulated Tio luminescence . Of all of the 
 
 organism in the deep sea, approximately 90% of 
 them bear light-emitting cells or photophores. 
 When stimulated, nearly all of these organisms 
 will emit light principally in the blue-green. 
 However, the high time resolution spectra are 
 often characteristic of the type of organism 
 [12]. While mear-surface bioluminescent 
 organisms are not as numerous, many bays and 
 harbors contain bioluminescent dinoflagellates as 
 well as zooplankters . 
 
 Details of the instrumentation used to 
 measure bioluminescence have been described [13]. 
 Briefly, seawater is pumped through a narrow 
 viewing chamber equipped with two oppositely 
 mounted RCA 8575 photomultiplier tubes (PMT's). 
 The narrowness of the chamber induces the 
 organisms to "flash" and the light is detected by 
 the photomultiplier tubes. One of the tubes 
 measures the polychromatic (broadband) radiation 
 while the other can be shielded with filters for 
 spectral work (Figure 11). Signal pulses are then 
 handled in two ways: high time resolution data is 
 obtained by binning the pulses into time bins on 
 two multichannel analyzers or output from the 
 PMT's is converted to a DC signal and recorded 
 continuously on a data logger along with signals 
 from other oceanographic sensors. 
 
 TABLE I 
 
 Coverage and Dominance of the Five Most Common 
 Algal Taxa on Tank Walls 
 
 Treatment 
 and algae 
 
 Percent 
 Coverage 
 
 Percent 
 Dominance 
 
 CONTROL 
 
 
 
 Blue-green algae 
 Green Algae 
 Diatoms 
 Calcareous 
 
 25.7 
 0.5 
 
 22.8 
 1.9 
 
 50 
 <1 
 
 45 
 5 
 
 Total Coverage* 
 
 50.9 
 
 
 NH 3 ADDITION 
 
 
 
 Blue-green algae 
 Green algae 
 Diatoms 
 Calcareous 
 
 23.4 
 39.3 
 23.8 
 trace 
 
 27 
 45 
 28 
 <1 
 
 Total Coverage* 
 
 86.5 
 
 
 PO, ADDITION 
 
 
 
 Blue-green algae 
 Green algae 
 Diatoms 
 Calcareous 
 
 58.5 
 6.1 
 
 13.4 
 0.3 
 
 75 
 8 
 
 17 
 <1 
 
 Total Coverage* 
 
 78.3 
 
 
 *Balance is bare wall 
 
 103 
 
FILTER 
 
 q 2250 - 
 
 FILTER CARRIER 
 / 
 
 ESSBMSg 
 
 s 
 
 BLANK 
 
 SEAWATER 
 OUT 
 
 .QUARTZ WINDOW 
 5cm x 0.3cm 
 
 , PMT CASING 
 
 3/4 SCALE 
 
 
 
 
 3000 
 
 
 
 2250 
 
 
 • 
 
 1500 
 
 - 
 
 I 
 
 750 
 
 n 
 
 ' I 
 
 \ A DARK COUNT 
 \ l\ OF PMT \. 
 
 Figure 11. Schematic of chamber for measuring 
 mechanically stimulated bioluminescence 
 
 Figure 12 shows some high time resolution 
 spectra recorded from the "flash" of the larva of 
 a small crustacean Metridia longa Lubbock. It can 
 be seen that the flash has a very steep rise, then 
 an exponential decay which is followed two 
 smaller rises occurring one and two seconds after 
 the initial burst. The "flash" patterns of many 
 other crustaceans and dinoflagellates have been 
 
 TIME IN SECONDS 
 
 Figure 12. High time resolution spectrun of larval 
 crustacean 
 
 found to vary [13]. Also, assemblages of 
 organisms give high time resolution patterns which 
 are characteristic of the mixed population. 
 Additionally, the DC signal which is the time 
 integral of the intensities of the combined 
 flashes has been found to vary with the physical 
 characteristics of the marine waters studied. 
 Figure 13 gives an artist's rendition of the MESC 
 determining the composition of micro-organism by 
 fluorescence and bioluminescence while underway at 
 sea. The figure presents actual data from the 
 Gulf of California which show that both 
 bioluminescence and chlorophyll (measured from 
 fluorescence) are high on the cold side of a 1 
 degree Celsius temperature front. The fact that 
 the peaks in fluorescence and bioluminescence 
 coincide suggests that dinoflagellates 
 (chlorophyll-bearing bioluminescent organisms) are 
 responsible for the signal. 
 
 Figure 13. Artist's rendition of MESC sampling the 
 microbiological realm while underway 
 
 104 
 
REFERENCES 
 
 Anonymous, 1980. The MESC Program for Marine 
 Environmental Quality Assessment. Naval Ocean 
 System Center TD 383. 
 
 2. Zirino , A. and J. D. Hightower, 1983. 
 Real-Time Marine Environmental Survey 
 Techniques. In Proceedings of the 11th 
 meeting U.S. -Japan Marine Facilities Panel, 
 Tokyo, Japan, May 1983. 
 
 3. Livingstone, D. R. , 1982. General Biochemical 
 Indices of Sub-lethal Stress. Marine Pollution 
 Bulletin . 13, 261-263. 
 
 4. Pickwell, G. V. and S. A. Steinert, 1984. 
 Serum Biochemical and Cellular Responses to 
 Experimental Cupric Ion Challenge in Mussels. 
 Marine Environmental Research. 14, 245-265. 
 
 13. Losee, J. R. , D. Lapota and S. H. Lieberman, 
 1985. Bioliminescence : A New Tool for 
 
 Oceanography? In: Mapping Strategies in 
 Chemical Oceanography . Zirino, A., Ed., 
 Advances in Chemistry Series No. 209, American 
 Chemical Society Publications, Washington, 
 D.C. 
 
 5. Steinert, S A. and G. V. Pickwell, 1984. 
 Quantitative Determination of Lysozyme in the 
 Hemolymph of Mytilus edulis by the Enzyme 
 Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) . Marine 
 Environmental Research . 14, 229-243. 
 
 6. Giesy, J. P., Editor, 1980. Microcosms in 
 Ecological Research U.S. Technical Information 
 Center Pub., U.S. Dept. of Energy Symp. Series 
 (Conf-781 1 01 ) , 1110 pp. 
 
 7. Henderson, R. S. and S. V. Smith. 1980. 
 Semi-tropical Marine Microcosms: Facility 
 Design and an Elevated Nutirent Effects 
 Experiment, pp. 869-910. In: Microcosms in 
 Ecological Research , (J. P. Giesy, Ed.) 
 U.S. Dept. of Energy Symp. Series 52 
 (Conf-781 101), 1110 pp. 
 
 8. Reish, D. , 1973. The Use of Benthic Animals 
 in Monitoring the Marine Environment, 
 Environ . Plan . Poll . Contr . , 1, 32-38. 
 
 9. Henderson, R. S., 1978. Flow-Through 
 Microcosms for Simulation of Marine 
 Ecosystems: The Effects of Elevated Copper 
 on Semi-Tropical Benthic Communities. 
 Unpublished. 
 
 10. Thomas , W.H. , 0. Holm-Hansen, D. L. R. 
 Sickert, F. Azam, R. Hodson and M. Takahashi, 
 1977. Effects of Copper on Phytoplankton 
 Standing Crop and Productivity, Bulletin of 
 Marine Science . 27, 34-43. 
 
 11. Oldham, G. Patonay and I. M. Warner, 1984. A 
 Microprocessor Controlled, Multichannel 
 Fluorimeter for Analysis of Sea Water, 
 Analytica Chimica Acta . 158, 277-285 
 
 12. Nealson, K. H., Ed., 1981. Bioluminescence: 
 Current Perspectives. Burgess Publishing 
 Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota. 165 pp. 
 
 105 
 
TECHNIQUES FOR HIGH RESOLUTION 
 WAVE DIRECTIONAL SPECTRA IN DEEP WATER 
 
 Dr. Richard J. Seymour 
 Head, Ocean Engineering Research Group 
 
 Institute of Marine Resources 
 
 Scripps Institution of Oceanography 
 
 La Jolla, CA 92093 
 
 A BS T RACT 
 
 High resolution directional spectra in deep 
 water are valuable to establish wave climates for 
 broad areas and to verify modelling techniques. No 
 means exist today to provide these estimates. 
 Several possible techniques are discussed, 
 including upward- looking sonar in fixed and 
 steerable arrays, side-looking Doppler sonar, and 
 buoy arrays. A form of remote sensing is described 
 in which a large shallow water array is used along 
 a coastline with straight, smooth contours. This 
 latter method is found to be the only one not 
 requiring substantial development. 
 
 THE MEASUREMENT PROBLEM 
 
 Measurement of wave direction in deep water 
 (>100 m) is desirable because the directional 
 spectrum has not been significantly modified by 
 refraction. Therefore, the direction estimate can 
 be assumed to have generality and can be employed 
 to derive waves at many shallow water locations. 
 Further, since it is uncontaminated by refraction 
 and shoaling, the deepwater measurement is much 
 more valuable for verifying predictive models of 
 wave generation. 
 
 In either case, the wave directional spectrum 
 must be measured with good resolution to be useful. 
 The effects of refraction over complicated 
 topography are very sensitive to even small changes 
 in incident wave energy. In the case where 
 offshore islands provide a shadowing effect, 
 studies have shown that a one degree change in 
 approach direction for swell can cause an order of 
 magnitude change in the wave energy at the 
 shoreline 100 km from the islands. It is also 
 clear that the measurement system must have 
 significantly better resolution than the model to 
 provide reasonable testing of its capabilities. 
 
 The present state of the art in measuring 
 direction in deep water is to use the measurement 
 of sea surface slope as first suggested in 
 Longuet-Higgins et al. (1963). This is 
 accomplished with a pitch-roll buoy that measures 
 two components of slope and may also contain a 
 vertically stabilized accelerometer to derive 
 energy. This approach is inherently very poor at 
 resolving direction. It is barely capable of 
 
 This work was supported in part by a grant from the 
 Foundation for Ocean Research. 
 
 separating two wave trains of the same frequency 
 which arrive from directions as much as 90 degrees 
 apart. While it is theoretically possible to 
 improve this resolution by measuring higher moments 
 (i.e., curvature) of the slope [see, for example 
 the cloverleaf buoy, Mitsuyasu et al. (1975) .] , 
 these approaches have been uniformly unsuccessful. 
 This appears to be caused by the great sensitivity 
 of these higher order terms to the contributions of 
 high frequency components which have poor 
 signal-to-noise characteristics. In short, there 
 are, at present, no techniques for achieving wave 
 directional spectra routinely in deep water. 
 Although synthetic aperature radar (SAR) looks very 
 promising, it provides a wave number spectrum at 
 best, with no estimate of the energy distribution. 
 
 A variety of methods are available in shallow 
 water for measuring wave direction, including 
 surface-piercing staffs and bottom-mounted pressure 
 sensors in various array configurations. Two-axis 
 current meters, in conjunction with a pressure 
 sensor to yield energy, have also been used. 
 Compact arrays, with lengths of a few meters, [see, 
 for example, Seymour and Higgins (1978)] and the 
 current meter system, provide very low resolution 
 measurements. They are the equivalent of the 
 pitch-roll buoys used in deep water. High 
 resolution measurements have been accomplished in 
 shallow water only by using very large arrays with 
 many sensors and lengttts of hundreds of meters [see 
 Pawka et al. (1976) .] Neither the surface-piercing 
 staffs nor the pressure sensors are useful in deep 
 water, however. Therefore, obtaining high 
 resolution directional measurements in deep water 
 will require new technology. 
 
 POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS 
 
 In the following sections, several potential direct 
 measurement techniques will be discussed: 
 
 A. Upward-looking Sonar. 
 
 Bottom-mounted sonars for measuring wave energy 
 spectra have been used extensively in Japan. It is 
 possible that five or six such instruments could be 
 installed in a carefully surveyed array of about 
 400 m length to provide directional capability. As 
 in all multi-element arrays, signals must be 
 recorded with strict attention to time phasing to 
 extract meaningful directional data. There is a 
 question of the ability to resolve high frequency 
 components because of beam width problems. Also, 
 speed of sound variations caused by sharp 
 thermoclines and bubbles from breaking waves will 
 
 106 
 
degrade accuracy. This scheme offers the advantage 
 of fixed locations but is difficult to install. 
 
 A multiple-beam steerable acoustical array 
 could, in theory, provide resolution equivalent to 
 a very large number of individual sonar beams. 
 However, the distortion caused by the thermocline 
 will be aggravated because of the non-normal 
 intersection as the beam is steered. The 
 installation is somewhat simpler than the sonar 
 array, but the power and data rate requirements 
 will be more severe. 
 
 B. Side-looking Doppler Sonar. In this 
 technique, two beams at right angles to each other 
 are projected horizontally near the surface from a 
 buoy. Use of a stable configuration, like a spar 
 buoy, reduces error and data analysis complexity. 
 In the Doppler mode, the sonars could (in theory) 
 detect the horizontal components of wave orbital 
 motion. Linear theory allows a simple 
 transformation to the directional spectrum in 
 frequency space. The heading of the beams would be 
 derived from a compass on the buoy. By 
 range-gating over intervals as short as a few 
 meters, it is theoretically possible to construct 
 the equivalent of a very large and dense array. 
 However, the data rate is enormous. It would 
 probably require an on-board computer to condense 
 the data. 
 
 C. Array of Wave Measurement Buoys. A number 
 of commercially available buoys are capable of 
 reliably measuring wave height at a point, through 
 sensing vertical acceleration. If several of these 
 buoys were moored in the approximate position 
 required for an array, and their outputs recorded 
 simultaneously, directional data could be derived. 
 The equipment is state of the art and can be 
 installed entirely from the surface. Two problems 
 arise. First, the position of the array elements 
 relative to each other and their compass heading is 
 only known approximately because of the slack 
 moored arrangement. Second, the elements of the 
 array are not always at the same location, which 
 complicates the analysis. The position uncertainty 
 can be removed by using two navigation systems. 
 The first is short range and consists of mutual 
 rangefinding between buoys using either acoustics 
 or radio signals. The second is a shorebased 
 electronic system which determines the position of 
 the two furthest apart elements relative to a 
 baseline on shore. These two systems then provide 
 both relative position and azimuthal heading of the 
 array at all times. The "flexible" array problem 
 is resolved by an iterative scheme that assumes 
 first the mean position for all elements and then 
 makes successive corrections to the wave field for 
 the actual positions. This scheme employs 
 easy-to-use instruments and commercially available, 
 but complicated, navigational equipment. The 
 analysis is slightly more complicated than a fixed 
 array, but removes uncertainty of the type 
 encountered with acoustical systems. 
 
 D. Shore-based Array. Recognizing the 
 technical difficulties associated with the methods 
 discussed above, a form of remote sensing was 
 developed by the author and Professor Robert Guza 
 of Scripps Institution of Oceanography. In this 
 scheme, a large linear array of pressure sensors is 
 built in shallow water. The location is carefully 
 selected to provide straight and parallel bottom 
 
 contours from shallow water to the edge of the 
 shelf. One such location was found along the 
 California coast, north of Point Sal, as shown in 
 Figure 1. This location is subject to very 
 energetic waves and is adjacent to an important 
 area for petroleum exploration. High resolution 
 directional spectra would be calculated for the 
 shallow water location. These would be then mapped 
 into deepwater spectra using conversion functions 
 developed from linear refraction. Preliminary 
 analyses show that wave trains of the same 
 frequency and separated in direction by as little 
 as 10 degrees in deep water can be resolved by such 
 an array. 
 
 CO NC LUS IO N 
 
 Determination of high resolution directional 
 spectra in deep water by direct measurement will 
 require considerable development and evaluation of 
 specialized equipment. If the proper bathymetry 
 exists, "remote sensing" is possible through a 
 state of the art shore-based array. 
 
 PISMO 
 B6ACH 
 
 SITE. 
 
 PT.SAL 
 
 Figure 1 
 
 107 
 
Longuet-Higgins, M. S., D. E. Cartwright and 
 N. D. Smith: 1963. "Observations of the 
 Directional Spectrum of Sea Waves Using the Motions 
 of a Floating Buoy," Ocean Wave s Spectra. 
 Proceedings of a Conf erence . Prentice-Hall, Inc., 
 Englewood, Cliffs, NJ, 1963, pp. 111-136. 
 
 Mitsuyasu, H., F. Tasai, T. Suhara, S. Mizuno, 
 M. Ohkusu, T. Honda and K. Rikiishi: 1975. 
 "Observations of the Directional Spectrum of Ocean 
 Waves Using a Clover leaf Buoy," J. of Physical 
 Oceanography. Vol. 5, October, 1975, pp. 750-760. 
 
 Pawka, S. S., D. L. Inman, R. L. Lowe, and 
 L. Holmes: 1976. 
 
 "Wave Climate at Torrey Pines Beach, 
 California," U. S. Armv Corps of Engineers. Coastal 
 Engineering Research Center. Fort Bel voir, 
 Virginia, May 1976, Technical Paper 76-5, 372 pp. 
 
 Seymour, R. J. and A. L. Higgins: 1978. 
 "Continuous Estimation of Longshore Sand 
 Transport," Symp. on Tech. Environmental, 
 Socioeconomic and Regulatory Aspects of Coastal 
 Zone Management, S.F., CA. , March 14-16, 1978. 
 ASCE, Coastal Zone '78, Vol. Ill, pp. 2308-2318. 
 
 108 
 
Ocean-waves observation buoy 
 
 Hayato Iida 
 Meteorological Research Ins'-titute 
 
 and 
 
 Kiyoshi Katafgiri 
 Japan Meteorological Agency 
 
 1. Introduction 
 
 In 1982, the Ministry of Transport of the Japanese Government initiated 
 a comprehensive study entitled "Research and development for a system to prevent 
 unusual shipwrecks under violent waves condition". This five-year project 
 aims to clear up causes of frequent shipwrecks involving ocean-going vessels in 
 the western North Pacific Ocean (see Fig. 1), and to develop a total system for 
 safety navigation. 
 
 In the study one of the important and essential themes is to obtain 
 detailed ocean-waves data with their directional characteristics for long periods 
 in winter seasons when unusual high waves are suspected. For this purpose an 
 ocean-waves observation buoy was fabricated in 1982, and deployed at a site south- 
 east of Honshu Island for eight months in 1983 to 1984. 
 
 2. Configuration and functions of the buoy 
 
 The buoy in discus shape weighs 48 tons with overall diameter of 10 
 meters. The configuration of the buoy and mooring, similar to those of the 
 operational ocean data buoys of the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) , is given 
 in Fig. 2. 
 
 The buoy has functions to measure a number of parameters of marine environ- 
 ment including ocean-waves as given in Table 1 every 3 hours and to transmit the 
 obtained data to the ground station via the Geostationary Meteorological Satellite 
 (GMS) on real time basis. Beside the radio link, all of the obtained data are 
 stored on magnetic tapes installed onboard the hull. (Fig. 3) 
 
 Regarding the ocean-waves measurements, three kind of sensors are equipped, 
 namely, (1) a vertical accelerator to measure heaving of the hull, 
 
 (2) a compass to measure heading of the hull, and 
 
 (3) a 3-axis wave directional sensor to obtain pitching rolling and heaving. 
 The accelerator and 3-axis wave directional sensor make measurements every 200 ms 
 and 1000 ms , respectively, for 20 minutes each 3 hours. The analog data from 
 the wave sensors are converted into digital form to fed to the wave data analyzer. 
 
 109 
 
They are processed to have the following characteristic values; 
 
 (1) time series of the elevation of the sea surface from the data 
 obtained with the accelerator, 
 
 (2) those of directional data (the latitudinal/longitudinal components 
 of the sea surface slope and the elevation of sea surface) from 
 the data obtained with 3-axis wave directional sensor, 
 
 (3) those of height and duration between the successive two peaks, 
 
 (4) significant, mean and maximum wave height and period, and 
 
 (5) maximum and mean inclination, mean wave direction and spreading 
 angle, skewness, kurtosis, principal direction, long crestedness, 
 cross-spectrum, and wave direction at each frequency. 
 
 The processed values of (1) and (2) are stored on magnetic tapes for more detail- 
 ed analysis in laboratories after recovering the buoy. 
 
 The processed ocean-waves data from (2) to (5) as well as meteorological 
 and oceanographical data are put into a UHF (402.1046 MHz, 20 W RF output power) 
 for real time data collection. The transmitter makes radio message in the format 
 given in Fig. 4 to the ground station in the suburbs of Tokyo via the GMS. 
 
 3. Operation at sea and preliminary results 
 
 The buoy was operated from October 18, 1983 to June 22, 1984 at 32°00'N 
 
 147°00'E in water approximately 6000 meters deep. The data received at the 
 
 Meteorological Satellite Center, JMA are distributed to the Meteorological 
 
 Research Institute, Ship Research Institute, Port Harbour Research Institute 
 
 and others concerned to the project in the Ministry. Comprehensive studies of 
 
 the ocean-waves data are now being carried out a *• , r .v , 
 
 K i-airiea out. a few examples of the received 
 
 data are given in Table 2 and Fig. 5. 
 
 4. Summary 
 
 The first attempt in Japan to obtain detailed ocean-waves data in high 
 sea for long period was successfully made, and it is expected that the buoy 
 will play important role in our comprehensive project. 
 
 110 
 
40* N 
 
 I 
 
 Ocean Data Buoy 
 NO. 21001 
 
 3l'-30' N 
 1«5*-J0' E 
 
 Meteorological Satellite Center 
 
 * (Tokyo) 
 
 .ift<^ 
 
 •T / 
 
 ' Id rJ AL.SABBIY 
 '-)(/' (1977.10. 
 
 SABBIYAH 
 201 
 
 Ocean Data Buoy 
 
 y. No. 22001 
 
 II 2B--10' N 
 
 [I 12f-20' E 
 
 140 m a' 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 i 
 
 GOLDEN PINE 
 (1911.1.2) 
 
 O 
 
 Ocean Data Buoy 
 — No. 21004 
 
 I 
 
 2J--00 N 
 135--00 E 
 
 Ocean Data Buoy 
 No. 2100] 
 
 2S , -40' N 
 lJS'-SS' E 
 
 CALIFORNIA HABU 
 11970.2.9) 
 
 TRIOHPH No.l 
 (1977.2.211 — 
 
 _li! N 
 
 I 
 
 SOPIA PAPAS ANTIPABOS 
 (1970.1.51 (1911.1.2) 
 O 
 
 SANDALION 
 (1910.11.271 
 
 O ANTONIOS 
 DEHADES 
 (1970.2.(1 
 O 
 
 Ocean Have Obeervatlon Buoy 
 
 o 
 
 BOLIVAR HABU 
 (19(9. LSI 
 
 J2 , -00" N 
 
 lll'-OO 1 E 
 
 O 
 
 HABATHA 
 
 PBOVIDENCE 
 
 11971.2.}) 
 
 O 
 
 DUNAV 
 (1910.12.21) 
 
 AGIOS CIOBIS 
 O U990.1.I) 
 
 O 
 
 ONOHITI MABU 
 (1910.12.201 
 
 Ml N 
 
 25' N 
 
 130* E 
 
 135' E 
 
 140* E 
 
 145* E 
 
 150* E 
 
 155* E 
 
 Fig.l Locations of Ocean-data buoys and occurences of shipwrecks (1969-1981) 
 
 1 UHP antenna 
 
 2 LOBAN C antenna 
 ) Coetpeae 
 
 4 wind Vane 
 
 9 Marker light 
 
 4 Ptychroaater 
 
 7 Aneaoaeter 
 
 I Radar reflector 
 
 9 Hater therwciaiter and 
 Current aeter 
 
 Table 1 List of Measurment 
 
 Chain Anchor 
 
 Pie. 2 CMtornal Apnearrancc 
 
 Item 
 
 Range 
 
 Wave data 
 
 
 Vertical amplitude 
 
 -15 - +15m 
 
 Wave direction 
 
 
 pitching 
 
 -90* - +90° 
 
 rolling 
 
 -90* - +90* 
 
 heaving 
 
 -10 - +10m 
 
 heading 
 
 - 360* 
 
 Meteorological data 
 
 
 wind direction 
 
 - 360* 
 
 Wind velocity 
 
 - 120KT 
 
 Air temperature 
 
 -10 - +40*C 
 
 Wet-bulb temperature 
 
 -10 - +40 # c 
 
 Atmospheric pressure 
 
 920 - 1040mb 
 
 Compass 
 
 - 360* 
 
 Oceanographic data 
 
 
 Water temperature 
 
 -10 - +40*c 
 
 Current direction 
 
 - 360* 
 
 Current velocity 
 
 - 10KT 
 
 
 
 Ill 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Mil « 
 
 K*gn*tic 
 taoontar 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Httvt 1 
 
 InLA^TCLion 
 
 diip t| 
 
 W»v» 0*U 
 An*lyt«r 
 ( WDA) 
 
 
 
 
 Hagn.tifc 
 T*po 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tip. 
 
 .annular 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Corpui 
 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 pitch. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tall. Pitch And 
 
 ww» diU 
 
 
 
 
 roll * 
 
 central 
 
 
 DCF B.dlo Set 
 1 DCPRS | 
 
 
 
 Hoit* Senior 
 
 bCAW 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *o: mi, 2n u 
 
 outpjt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 HotijorolorjlCAl 
 
 SCASOTB 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 — ♦ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ? ? t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IUUI 
 
 TIT 
 
 
 
 Battery Fouv 
 Sivply Syatan 
 
 
 
 
 «> 
 
 
 ^CBAncoT«prU.c 
 SufUOft 
 
 
 
 
 
 Receiver 
 
 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ja-Wup 
 Vitenn* 
 
 Fig. 3 Syitam Block Diagram 
 
 15 
 
 45 
 
 Sice l.Siec libit 31 1,3(4 u ii 
 
 2 
 
 1» 31 <.4J» 11 11 u ji 
 
 11.11 
 
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 Table 2 Highest 10 of the Maxima™ Wave Height 
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 119 
 
APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBERS AT SEA 
 
 Morton Smutz 
 
 Senior Project Engineer 
 
 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 
 
 Rockville, Maryland 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 An earlier paper [1] discussed the nature 
 of optical fibers and associated devices that 
 could be used for data transmission or sensing 
 at sea. This paper describes both actual and 
 potential applications of such systems for 
 civilian and military purposes. Also discussed 
 in OTDR, "Optical Time-Domain Reflectometry," 
 now used routinely to measure attenuation in 
 fibers, connectors, etc., but which also has 
 promise as a sensing system. 
 
 Among the reasons for interest in using 
 optical systems at sea are the following: 
 
 1. Optical cables with glass fibers are 
 smaller and lighter than cables with 
 metallic wires. 
 
 2. Optical fibers are totally dielectric. 
 Thus data can be transmitted free of 
 interference in electrically congested 
 regions. Furthermore, optical fibers 
 cannot spark or short circuit. 
 
 3. Optical fibers have ^ery large information- 
 carrying capacity that allow simultaneous 
 transmission of video, data, facsimile, 
 imagery, etc. 
 
 4. Optical fibers can transmit high-quality 
 signals that emit no detectable radiation. 
 Signals can be transmitted long distances 
 with few repeater stations. 
 
 5. In many applications, optical -fiber systems 
 can be installed, operated, and maintained 
 at relatively low cost. 
 
 TRANSOCEANIC COMMUNICATIONS 
 
 Pan [2] reported that international tele- 
 communications traffic via undersea coaxial 
 cables has been increasing at a rate of about 10 
 times per decade and shows the status of plans 
 for new undersea installations as of November 
 1983. Other plans have been formulated in 
 recent months. 
 
 The next generation undersea transatlantic 
 cables will be TAT-8 single-mode fiber-optic 
 cable scheduled for operational use in 1988, and 
 a transpacific optical link will be in operation 
 shortly thereafter. The transatlantic system is 
 
 expected to connect Tuckerton, New Jersey with 
 Widemouth, England and Penmarch, France, and may 
 include ports in Canada, Spain, and Portugal 
 [3]. This AT&T system would operate at 1300 nm 
 wave length and transmit at 280 Mbps. The 
 system has been designed for a "mean time before 
 failure" of eight years with repeater stations 
 at 25 to 50 km. The system must withstand 
 ocean-bottom temperatures of about 3°C and 
 pressures of 5 x 10 Torr. Undersea tests to 
 date have been highly successful. 
 
 Japan also plans an undersea fiber-optic 
 cable to be in operation in 1988 connecting 
 Japan and Hawaii [4]. It anticipates operating 
 at a 1300 nm wave length with a 400 Mbps data 
 rate with repeater spacing of 50 to 100 km. 
 
 UNDERSEA LINK TO OFFSHORE PLATFORM 
 
 In April 1985, a 150-kil 
 undersea link will run from s 
 semi-submersible offshore pla 
 link, built by AT&T Technolog 
 group, is part of a military 
 vering Instrumentation Range" 
 aircraft crews in battle simu 
 Applications report data tran 
 Mbps with attenuation under 
 dispersion of 14 ps/nm/km at 
 strength members in the four- 
 carry over 500 watts of elect 
 platform. 
 
 VIEWING UNDER THE SEA 
 
 ometer repeaterless 
 hore to a 
 tform [5]. The 
 ies Federal Systems 
 "Air Combat Maneu- 
 used to train 
 lation. Lasers & 
 smission at 3.088 
 .25 dB/km and 
 1550 nm. Metal 
 fiber cable will 
 rical power to the 
 
 Lyons [6] described a coherent fiber-optic 
 viewing system that allows a surface operator to 
 view weld preparation, the welding arc, and the 
 weld pool in the so-called OTTO process. The 
 fiber-optic conductor has eight 50-micron glass 
 fibers. The entire system has been tested 
 extensively at pressures in excess of the design 
 working depth. 
 
 TETHERED WEAPONS 
 
 Research and development is underway to 
 develop fiber-optic tethered guided missiles and 
 naval torpedos that are improved versions of 
 
 120 
 
standard wire-guided weapons. The fibers allow 
 video targeting signals to be fed back to the 
 launch site so that operators can use a 
 joy-stick and video screen to direct the weapon 
 onto the target. The system is intended to 
 direct torpedos 10 to 15 kilometers from the 
 launch platform [7]. 
 
 SUBMARINE ADVANCED COMBAT SYSTEM 
 
 The prime contract for engineering 
 development of SubACS was awarded to IBM's 
 Federal System Division for $683 million while 
 the production phase has been estimated to cost 
 at least $2 billion [8]. 
 
 SubACS is considered a part of the Defense 
 Departments "technology insertion effort" 
 directed to improve significantly the 
 performance of weapons systems. If the system 
 works as well as anticipated, it could be 
 included in future surface ships, aircraft, 
 missiles, land combat vehicles, and spacecraft 
 [8]. 
 
 The four technologies to be evaluated in 
 SubACS are: (1) light-wave data bussing, (2) 
 Ada computer language, (3) very large scale 
 integration of electronics, and (4) distributed 
 processing computer architecture. 
 
 ARIADNE 
 
 In Greek mythology Ariadne, the daughter of 
 King Minos and Pasiphae, gave her lover Theseus 
 a thread which allowed him to escape the 
 Labyrinth after he battled the monster Minotaur. 
 Today, the United States Defense Advanced 
 Research Projects Agency and the Naval Research 
 Laboratory, with the assistance of industrial 
 concerns, are endeavoring to supply the glass 
 threads and associated facilities to warn of the 
 presence of hostile underwater "monsters". 
 Ariadne is the code name given to a top-secret 
 project to develop a system that can be deployed 
 from either small vessels or aircraft [9]. It 
 is expected to consist of conventional sensors 
 on the ocean floor connected by fiber-optic 
 cables to land-based computers for analysis and 
 interpretation. 
 
 It has been estimated that the project, if 
 fully funded, will need about 2,000 kilometers 
 of single-mode fiber per year in 25 kilometer 
 lengths from 1987 to at least 1990 [9]. The 
 maximum attenuation is to be 0.5 decibels per 
 kilometer at 1300 nm and 0.35 at 1550 nm. A 
 life expectancy of at least one year is 
 required. 
 
 OPTICAL TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETRY 
 
 0TDR has been described as a 
 "one-dimensional closed-circuit optical radar 
 [10]." As shown in Figure 1, a high-intensity 
 short-duration light pulse is launched into a 
 fiber, and a photodetector records the 
 backscattered light. Backscattering results 
 
 from Fresnel reflections at fiber ends, breaks, 
 and connectors, and from Rayleigh scattering due 
 primarily to inhomogeneity in the fibers, see 
 Figure 2. 0TDR has been used primarily as a 
 method for measuring optical -fiber attenuation 
 and locating defects. See the pioneering paper 
 of Bonarski [11]. 
 
 Photodyne Incorporated [10] described a 
 commercially available 0TDR unit with a range of 
 5 to 20,000 meters with a resolution of one 
 meter and. a repetition rate of 3 kHz at 850 nm ± 
 10 nm. 
 
 Rogers [12] described a new optical-fiber 
 technique for spatial distribution of physical 
 fields such as magnetic field, electrical field, 
 temperature, and mechanical stress using 
 polarization optical time domain reflectometry, 
 P0TDR. In P0TDR a plane-polarized pulse of light 
 is launched into a polarization-preserving 
 single-mode fiber. The backscattered light is 
 resolved into two orthogonal polarizations and 
 the outputs recorded on two photodetectors. The 
 fibers chosen are such that the parameter being 
 measured will cause significant rotation of 
 polarization of the backscattered energy with 
 minimum change due to the other factors. Rogers 
 gives a number of possible applications such as 
 detecting signatures of large structures. 
 
 Kingsley [13] described several distributed 
 fiber-optic sensor systems in which a number of 
 sensors are positioned along a single-mode 
 fiber. He described how such systems might be 
 used to monitor oil and gas lines for local 
 stresses, for intruder detection, corrosion 
 inside the frame of an airplane, determine the 
 state of a bridge structure, and as a nuclear 
 radiation dosimeter. 
 
 The distributed 0TDR system seems well 
 suited for determining the state of offshore 
 structures and vessels. A single-mode fiber 
 could be laid adjacent to structural members and 
 be able to sense unusual stress, vibration, 
 pressure, temperature, etc. The very small size 
 of the coated fiber would permit installations 
 in regions of limited access. 
 
 SHIPBOARD SIGNAL DISTRIBUTION 
 
 Slemon and Abbott [14] have described a 
 "Fiber-Optic Cabling and Switching" (F0CAS) 
 network to provide a vessel with a truly 
 universal signal distribution network. They 
 claim that a F0CAS network can handle all 
 present or future shipboard signal distribution 
 architectures such as point-to-point or data 
 bus. They state that although the technique is 
 far from optimized, conversion to a F0CAS 
 network is straightforward and would result in 
 substantial savings in cable weight and cost. 
 
 Paton [15] described several demonstration 
 projects that involve the installation of 
 fiber-optic telephone systems on shipboard, the 
 installation of an engine control system between 
 
 121 
 
the bridge and engine room of the cargo vessel 
 America Maru , and tethers to undersea divers and 
 vehicles. 
 
 Paton stated that "one estimate of an 
 aircraft carrier radar cable was $1 million for 
 a copper installation vs $30,000 for a 
 fiber-optic cable." 
 
 SHIPBOARD CHEMICAL SENSORS 
 
 The establishment of the Exclusive Economic 
 Zones around national shores gives added 
 incentive to determining the extent of available 
 resources in coastal waters and developing 
 economical methods of obtaining them. It would 
 obviously be false economy to sacrifice 
 extensive renewable resources in the recovery 
 process. An ocean monitoring program is thus 
 required to provide early warning of the 
 possibility of undesirable and potentially 
 dangerous trends in localized ocean areas. 
 Because of the vastness of the bodies of water 
 involved and the relative slowness of movement 
 of dissolved substances, it would be unwise to 
 depend solely on results from fixed stations and 
 the analyses of organs from marine life brought 
 to market. There is need for accurate and 
 sensitive analytical methods that can be 
 conducted on shipboard by relatively 
 inexperienced personnel for determining the 
 level of trace substances in seawater in 
 real-time and preferably in situ. Several 
 potential methods for doing so involve the use 
 of optical fibers. Most of these methods 
 involve sending a laser beam down one fiber and 
 collecting a return beam from one or more other 
 fibers. 
 
 FIBER SMELLING 
 
 Butler [16] has de 
 technique to detect the 
 substances based on the 
 fiber and the resulting 
 interference pattern 
 presence of hydrogen us 
 palladium, a metal that 
 It seems feasible to de 
 that would change size 
 specific substances in 
 
 BIOMEDICAL SENSORS 
 
 veloped a simple 
 presence of various 
 swelling of an optical 
 change in an 
 
 He has detected the 
 
 ing a fiber coated with 
 readily forms a hydride. 
 
 velop coatings for fibers 
 
 in the presence of 
 
 seawater. 
 
 Peterson [17] and others have developed a 
 wide variety of fiber-optic sensors useful in 
 various biomedical applications such as 
 oximetry, dye-dilution measurements, 
 laser-Doppler velocimetry, and fluorometry and 
 as physical sensors of pH, partial pressure of 
 blood gases, and glucose. These sensors involve 
 a reactive tip of an optical fiber that causes a 
 change in the returned signal. Saari and Seitz 
 [18] have developed sensors based on immobilized 
 reagents whose fluorescence characteristics 
 change with pH and/or metal -ion concentration. 
 
 0PTR0DES 
 
 Herschfeld and associates have popularized 
 the term optrodes, from optical electrodes, and 
 developed several types of sensors using optical 
 fibers for remote fiber fluorescence 
 measurements [19], These may or may not involve 
 a reactive tip. 
 
 MONITORING HYDROCARBONS 
 
 Kawahara and Fiutem [20] described a novel 
 method of monitoring hydrocarbons in water using 
 an unclad optical fiber coated with 
 octadecyltrichlorosilane. In its present form, 
 the monitor can detect diesel oil in water at 17 
 mg/liter and crude oil at 3 mg/liter. 
 
 RAMAN SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS 
 
 Schwab and McCreery [21] have obtained 
 extremely high-quality Raman spectra using one 
 optical fiber to conduct the exciting light and 
 18 similar fibers to carry the backscattered 
 light. The entire array diameter is 1.0 mm. 
 
 Brown et al [22] and Van Haverbeke et al 
 [23] demonstrated in the laboratory that it was 
 possible to detect the presence of various 
 organic molecules in water at ^ery low 
 concentrations by use of the Raman technique 
 using a flow-through system. 
 
 Asher [24] has demonstrated that it is 
 possible to detect trace levels of polycyclic 
 aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) at levels of 20 ppb 
 in acetonitrile by Raman spectroscopy. PAH are 
 a potential health hazard because some species 
 are know carcinogens. 
 
 Vickers et al [25] have shown that it is 
 possible to detect the presence of several trace 
 organics in simulated seawater at levels below 
 parts per million. 
 
 Previous work thus indicates that it will 
 be possible to employ optical fibers with lasers 
 to make real-time in-situ measurements at sea of 
 various substances at trace concentrations. 
 
 SHIPBO ARD SENSING OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF 
 SFJWATER 
 
 The "Fiber Optic Sensing Systems" (F0SS) 
 program of the Naval Research Laboratory has 
 developed a large number of different sensors 
 that can measure acoustic waves, magnetic 
 fields, rates of rotation, and numerous physical 
 properties [26]. 
 
 The Applied Physics Laboratory has used a 
 fiber-optic tether to bring back temperature 
 profile data from a free-fall sensor package to 
 the ship's laboratory [15]. 
 
 122 
 
REFERENCES 
 
 1. Smutz, M. , "Fiber Optics at Sea," 
 Conference Record of 12th UJNR/MFP Meeting, 
 September 1983 
 
 2. Pan, J. J., "Fiber Optics for Undersea 
 Applications," Sea Technology, p 18-24, 
 November 1983 
 
 3. Chaffee, C. D., "Fiber Optics Leap into the 
 21st Century," Optics News, Vol. 9, No. 5, 
 
 p 10-14, Sept/Oct 1983 
 
 4. Chang, C. , S. J. Cowen, M. E. Kono, and H. 
 E. Rast, "Fiber Optics in Japan," Office of 
 Naval Research Far East Science Bulletin, 
 Vol. 9, No. 2, p 49-66, 1984 
 
 5. Anonymous, "Late News," Lasers & 
 Applications, Vol. Ill, No. 11, p 6, 
 November 1984 
 
 6. Lyons, S. , "OTTO: An Orbital TIG Welding 
 System for Hyperbaric Use," International 
 Underwater Systems Design, Vol. 6, No. 4, 
 p 14-18, July 1984 
 
 7. Rhea, J., "Lightwave Recruited for New 
 Weapons," Lightwave, p 9-10, January 1984 
 
 8. Rhea, J., "Fiber's Foothold in 'Technology 
 Insertion'," Lightwave, p 5, February 1984 
 
 9. Anonymous, "The Navy's Secret Undersea 
 Surveillance Effort," Lightwave, p 12, May 
 1984 
 
 10. Anonymous, Photodyne, Inc., Fiber Optics 
 Instrumentation Product Catalog, p 26-27, 
 1984-1985 
 
 11. Barnoski, M. K. and S. M. Jensen, "Fiber 
 Waveguides: A Novel Technique for 
 Investigating Attenuation Characteristics," 
 Applied Optics, Vol 15, p 212-215, 1976 
 
 12. Rogers, A. J., "Polarization-Optical 
 Time-Domain Reflectometry: A Technique for 
 the Measurement of Field Distributions," 
 Applied Optics, Vol. 20, No. 6, 
 
 March 15, 1981 
 
 13. Kingsley, S. A., "Distributed Fiber-Optic 
 Sensors," ISA-84, p 315-220, October 1984 
 
 14. Slemon, C. S. and J. W. Abbott, "FOCAS - A 
 New Look in Combat Signal Transmission," 
 Naval Engineers Journal, Vol. 95, No. 3, 
 
 p 51-62, May 1983 
 
 15. Paton, B. E. , "Fiber Optics on Shipboard," 
 Photonics Spectra, Vol. 18, No. 7, p 53-57, 
 July 1984 
 
 16. Anonymous, "Optical Sensors Can Tell by the 
 Swell," Lasers & Applications, Vol. Ill, 
 No. 11, p 40-42, November 1984 
 
 17. Peterson, J. I. and G. G. Vurek, "Fiber 
 Optic Sensors for Biomedical Applications," 
 Science, Vol. 224, p 123-127, April 14, 1984 
 
 18. Saari, L. A. and W. R. Seitz, "pH Sensor 
 Based in Immobilized Fluoreseinamine," 
 Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 54, p 821-823, 
 1982 
 
 19. Anonymous, "Optrodes," Analytical Chemistry, 
 Vol. 53, No. 14, p 1616A-1618A, December 
 1981 
 
 20. Kawahara, F. K, and R. A. Fiutem, 
 "Development of a Novel Method for 
 Monitoring Oils in Water," Analytica Chimica 
 Acta, Vol. 151, p 315-317, 1983 
 
 21. Schwab, S. D. and R. L. McCreery, "Versatile 
 Efficient Raman Sampling with Fiber Optics," 
 Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 56, No. 12, 
 
 p 2199-2004, October 1984 
 
 22. Thibeau, R. J., L. Van Haverbeke, and C. W. 
 Brown, "Detection of Water Pollutants by 
 Laser-Excited Resonance Raman Spectroscopy; 
 Pesticides and Fungicides," Applied 
 Spectroscopy, Vol. 32, p 98-100, 1978 
 
 23. Van Haverbeke, L. and M. A. Herman, 
 "Detection and Identification of Water 
 Pollutants by Means of Resonance Raman 
 Spectroscopy," Environmental Science, No. 7, 
 p 127-131, 1982 
 
 24. Asher, S. A., "Ultraviolet Resonance Raman 
 Spectroscopy for Detection and Speciation of 
 Trace Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons," 
 Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 56, p 720-724, 
 1984 
 
 25. Vickers, T. J., C. K. Mann, N. A. Marley, 
 and T. H. King, "Raman Spectroscopy for 
 Quantitative Multicomponent Analysis," 
 American Laboratory, p 18-34, October 1984 
 
 26. Giallorenzi, T. G., J. A. Bucaro, D. A. 
 Dandridge, G. H. Siegel, Jr., J. H. Cole, S. 
 C. Rashleigh, and R. G. Priest, "Optical 
 Fiber Sensor Technology," IEEE Journal of 
 Quantum Electronics, Vol. QE 18, No. 4, 
 
 p 626-665, April 1982 
 
 123 
 
LASER 
 
 AND 
 
 PULSER 
 
 SENSOR 
 1 
 
 SENSOR 
 2 
 
 FIBER 
 END 
 
 PHOTODETECTION 
 AND ANALYSIS 
 
 Figure 1. Schematic of Optical Time Domain Ref lectometer 
 
 CO 
 
 ■o 
 cc 
 
 LU 
 
 O 
 o. 
 
 Q 
 HI 
 
 I- 
 O 
 UJ 
 
 -J 
 u_ 
 
 LU 
 DC 
 
 LAUNCH 
 
 SENSOR 1 
 
 SENSOR 2 
 
 FIBER 
 END 
 
 DISTANCE INTO FIBER, OR TIME 
 
 Figure 2. Schematic Response of Optical Time Domain Ref lectometer 
 
 124 
 
NOAA COASTAL STORM SURGE PROGRAM 
 
 Joseph R. Vadus 
 
 NATIONAL OCEANIC & ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION (NOAA) 
 
 The NOAA National Weather Service (NWS) 
 has developed a computer model for making 
 real-time forecasts of storm surge due to an 
 impending hurricane. The model has been 
 applied to 22 basins covering most of the 
 Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic coastal areas of 
 the U.S. The model has been successfully 
 used for providing warnings and assisting 
 coastal planners in evacuation planning, 
 emergency preparedness and land-use control. 
 Evacuation maps and plans are based on com- 
 puter simulation using previously recorded 
 hurricane tracks as well as simulated tracks. 
 
 Situation 
 
 Over the last 33 years there have been 
 19 major hurricanes (category 3 or greater) , 
 averaging about one every one and a half 
 years. A major hurricane greater than cate- 
 gory 3 has not occurred in the U.S. over the 
 last 25 years. Over this period, there has 
 been considerable coastal development. The 
 shore population is now increasing at a rate 
 of 3 to 4 times faster than average. There 
 are over 60 million people and over 55 per- 
 cent of the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico 
 coastlines. People have not been adequately 
 conditioned and educated on the impact of a 
 major hurricane. Many high-rise buildings 
 have been erected at a fast pace in the major 
 coastal cities and resorts, and few of these 
 new communities have experienced the winds 
 and wurge forces of a major hurricane. 
 
 Storm surge which is primarily generated 
 by hurricane wind-driven coastal waters has 
 been a major threat to life. Figure 1 illus- 
 trates the tracks of major hurricanes 
 (category 3 or greater) experienced on the 
 U.S. east coast and Gulf of Mexico over the 
 past 30 years. Hurricanes are categorized 
 using the SAFFIR/SIMPSON scale as noted in 
 Table 1. The deadliest U.S. hurricanes in 
 the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico are given in 
 Table 2. One of the deadliest hurricanes 
 occurred in Galveston, Texas in 1900 which 
 resulted in from 5,000 to 6,000 deaths. 
 
 Tide gage observations made during a 
 hurricane's passage shows that storm surge 
 lasts typically about six hours. The surge 
 from hurricane Camille in 1969 reached 24 
 feet. 
 
 NOAA Program 
 
 NOAA's storm surge technique is a numer- 
 ical dynamical computer model called SLOSH 
 which stands for Sea, Lake Overland Surge 
 from Hurricanes. In 1980, NOAA began a five 
 year program to adapt the SLOSH model to 22 
 basins as shown in Figure 2. There are about 
 20 additional basins or gaps in coverage pro- 
 posed for future adaptation of the model. 
 
 This modeling technique was developed by 
 the NWS, principally by Mr. G. W. Platzman 
 and Mr. C. P. Jelesnianski . Their early 
 research is described in references 1 and 2. 
 More recent information on the SLOSH model, 
 cited herein, is the subject of reference 3. 
 
 The SLOSH model is two-dimensional, cov- 
 ering part of the continental shelf, inland 
 water bodies, and terrain. The equations of 
 fluid motion are solved numerically incor- 
 porating finite amplitude effects but not the 
 advective terms from the equations of motion. 
 At any given point, the computed surge is 
 designed to follow a time-history of a long- 
 period gravity wave, as shown in a tide gage 
 graph of water level versus time. The SLOSH 
 basin models use a polar grid to provide the 
 highest resolution near the greatest area of 
 interest. 
 
 At each of the model's grid points the 
 amplitude of terrain height and water depth 
 is provided. The model considers overtopping 
 barriers and impediments to water for e.g. 
 dunes, levees, spoil areas, natural ridges, 
 reefs, and man-made structures. In addition, 
 the model takes into account the flow between 
 cuts and barriers, channel flow, and con- 
 structions and expansions along rivers. 
 
 The SLOSH model incorporates a hurricane 
 wind model. In order to run the model, the 
 user must provide time-dependent meteorologi- 
 cal parameters viz., position (latitude and 
 longitude) , storm size, and central pressure. 
 Note that wind is not an input parameter. 
 These inputs are entered at 6-hour intervals, 
 beginning 48 hours before landfall and ending 
 24 hours after landfall. The wind model 
 incorporated in the program produces a vector 
 wind field throughout the basin balancing 
 forces based on the meteorological input 
 parameters. 
 
 125 
 
The accuracy of the SLOSH model, based 
 on nine storms, eight basins, 542 tide gage 
 readings, and high mark observations is _+ 20 
 per cent for significant surge heights. 
 
 The next phase of the NOAA Program is 
 directed toward preparation of atlases for 
 the basins for which SLOSH models have been 
 adapted. In order to determine a region's 
 potential for storm surge a large number of 
 hypothetical storms, around 250 to 300, are 
 simulated to impact the region. The storms 
 are varied in intensity, size, and landfall 
 points along likely tracks. This number of 
 simulated tracks is sufficient to highlight 
 the critical hurricane paths and associated 
 storm surge levels and areas flooded. An ex- 
 ample of the type of information compiled in 
 the atlas is illustrated for Southwest 
 Florida (Charlotte Harbor/Ft. Myers) . Figure 
 3 shows the major highways, principal towns 
 in an area roughly 120 miles by 120 miles. 
 Figure 4 shows the contour levels of the ter- 
 rain in feet. It also lists 12 locations for 
 which specific graphs are generated. Figure 
 5, which shows plots of storm surge versus 
 time, and wind speed versus time for a cate- 
 gory 4 storm from the NNE with landfall 60 
 miles to the left of Charlotte Harbor. Such 
 graphs can be generated to forecast storms 
 from any direction for a given landfall. 
 This time series forecast presentation is an 
 invaluable tool for emergency and evacuation 
 planners. Figure 6 shows the predicted maxi- 
 mum envelope of overland waters (MEOW) , which 
 is an integration of simulated runs for cate- 
 gories 1 and 5 landfalling hurricanes 
 simulated from all directions. Note that the 
 surge level from the category 5 hurricane can 
 reach terrain levels greater than 30 miles 
 inland. 
 
 Conclusions 
 
 The NWS uses the atlases for each 
 region, based on up to 300 simulated runs, to 
 assist in forecasting the possible storm 
 surge levels which can be expected. The Fed- 
 eral Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) , the 
 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and state coas- 
 tal planners can use the MEOWS for evacuation 
 planning, locating emergency facilities, and 
 determining evacuation routes. The SLOSH 
 model has been effective in forecasting storm 
 
 surge heights with an accuracy of about +_ 20 
 percent. 
 
 Based on the rapid level of development 
 of coastal cities and resort areas, the lim- 
 ited experience of new inhabitants, an 
 accelerated education program is needed as 
 well as a combined Federal and State planning 
 and preparedness to deal with the problems 
 and emergencies of a major hurricane. It is 
 inevitable that the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts 
 will be exposed to a major hurricane greater 
 than category 3 in the future, and the highly 
 developed character of this region will 
 experience these destructive forces of storm 
 surge and flooding. Preparedness is essen- 
 tial. 
 
 References 
 
 1. Platzman, George W. , 1963: The dynamical 
 prediction of wind tides on Lake Erie. 
 Meteorological Monographs . American Mete- 
 orological Society 4, 44 pp. 
 
 2. Jelesnianski, C. P., 1967: Numerical 
 computations of storm surges with bottom 
 stress. Mon. Weather Review ., 95, 740-756 
 
 PP- — -— — ■-=-■■- 
 
 3. Jelesnianski, C.P., J. Chen, W.A. Shaffer, 
 and A. J. Gulad, 1984: SLOSH - A Hurri- 
 cane Storm Surge Forecast Model. 
 
 126 
 
MAJOR (^CATEGORY 3) 
 
 U.S. HURRICANES 
 
 Figure 1 
 
 1951-1960 
 1961-1970 
 
 O PHASE II COMPLETE INCLUDING MEOW 
 
 127 
 
Table:. 1 
 
 SAFFIR/SIMPSON HURRICANE 
 SCALE RANGES 
 
 SCALE 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 (CATEGORY) 
 
 CENTRAL PRESSURE 
 MILLIBARS INCHES 
 
 WINDS 
 (MPH) 
 
 SURGE 
 (FT) 
 
 DAMAGE 
 
 1 
 
 >980 
 
 >28.94 
 
 74-95 
 
 4-5 
 
 MINIMAL 
 
 2 
 
 965 - 979 
 
 28.50 - 28.91 
 
 96-110 
 
 6-8 
 
 MODERATE 
 
 3 
 
 945 - 964 
 
 27.91 • 28.47 
 
 111-130 
 
 9-12 
 
 EXTENSIVE 
 
 4 
 
 920 • 944 
 
 27.17-27.88 
 
 131-155 
 
 13-18 
 
 EXTREME 
 
 5 
 
 <920 
 
 <27.17 
 
 >155 
 
 >18 
 
 CATASTROPHIC 
 
 Table 2 
 
 DEADLIEST ATLANTIC & GULF COAST HURRICANES 
 
 LEVELS 3-4-5 (1951-1984) 
 
 DAMAGE 
 HURRICANE YEAR CATEGORY DEATHS (MILLIONS $) 
 
 AUDREY (LA/TX) 
 CAMILLE (MS/LA) 
 HAZEL (SC/NC) 
 BETSY (FL/LA) 
 CAROL (NE U.S.) 
 
 1957 
 
 1969 
 
 1954 
 1965 
 
 1954 
 
 DONNA (FL7EAST U.S.) 1960 
 CARLA (TX) . 
 
 1961 
 
 HILDA (LA) 1964 
 
 CONNIE (NC) 1955 
 
 FREDERIC (AL/MS) 1979 
 
 ALICIA (TX) 1983 
 
 390 
 
 256 
 
 95 
 
 75 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 46 
 
 38 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 150 
 
 1,420 
 
 281 
 
 1,420 
 
 461 
 
 387 
 
 408 
 
 125 
 
 < 52 
 
 2,550 
 
 1,000 
 
 128 
 
tTN 
 
 Figure 3 
 
 SOUTHWEST FLORIDA 
 (Charlotte Harbor/Ft. Meyers) 
 
 •cxfm 
 
 «•»-■ 
 
 MfttfN 
 
 •mctw 
 
 •$•» 
 
 tsncto 
 
 Major Highways, Principal Towns/Areas 
 (Overray Chart) 
 
 •rsdw 
 
 129 
 
Figure l|. 
 
 SOUTHWEST FLORIDA 
 (Charlotte Harbor/Ft. Meyers) 
 
 «T»* 
 
 untin 
 
 Storm Surge (Ft.) vs Time; Wind Speed vs Time 
 Graphs available for each of areas listed 
 (Overlay Chart) 
 
 130 
 
Figure 5 
 
 STORM ID 
 M(fl)l)CHOX0LOSKEE 5(43,63) 
 
 SOUTHWEST FLORIDA 
 ( Chad otte Harbor/Ft. Meyers ) 
 
 hl(fl) 2) MARCO 6. (3*53) M(fl) 3) NAPLES (35,50) 
 
 20n r 60 20i rBO 
 
 -OO 
 
 18 00 06 
 
 mm 
 
 1° ■ % d0 06 k fe A )° 
 
 50& 
 
 M ffl) 4)FT MYERS BCH (25,40 
 20-| i-60 
 
 O- /\ -WO] 
 
 OMB |. 
 
 OMM 
 
 18 00 08 £ E 
 
 00 
 
 W("> 9 SANBEL IS (28,37) 
 
 20 
 
 -K> 
 
 rBO 
 
 mm 6)BLM> PASS (30,31) MW7JENGLEW0OO BCH (2*0 
 
 20i rBO 20i rBO 
 
 MM B)RMA RASSA (25,36) 
 20i rBO 
 
 J^V 
 
 
 i 1 1 r— 
 
 B 00 06 B 18 00 
 
 0*03 J-— Ot/04 
 
 **** 9IFT MYERS 04*351 
 20t r B0 
 
 -i r— 4 
 
 B 00 08 12 B 00 
 I- 
 
 M(, *D MATLACHA PASS C22.29 
 
 B CO 06 B B 00 
 
 M(ft) 
 
 I 
 
 IDCOUNTY LtC 08,23) 
 
 B CO 06 12 B 00 
 
 M "•ePCRT CHARLOTTE 06J2) 
 20i A rBO 
 
 WX>- 
 
 Graphs oiF: Storm Surge (Ft) vs Time 
 Wind Speed vs Time 
 
 For 12 Areas 
 
 131 
 
2T"M 
 
 (Charlotte Harbor/ Ft. Meyers) 
 
 »*30'« 
 
 ran* 
 
 •2«90'W- - 
 
 •rw 
 
 ••i 
 
 tT^I 26*30** 
 
 Figure 6 
 
 86PM 29*30'N 82*W 
 
 Maximum Envelope Overland Water (MEOW) ^^^ 
 
 Integration of Simulated Runs for Category 1 flW 
 
 Landfall 1ng Hurricane _ ... . -,, 
 
 eratfw 
 
 26*30* N 
 
 2ft*N 
 
 29*30'N 
 
 132 
 
The New Sail Training Ship "Nippon Maru" 
 
 N. Takarada 
 General Manager of Hiratsuka Research Laboratory 
 Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd. 
 2-1, Ohteamchi 2-chome, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 
 
 Preface: 
 
 New large sails have rarely been built 
 worldwide and have never been built in Japan 
 for this half a century. The "Nippon Maru" 
 completed on September 14, 1984 by Sumitomo 
 Heavy Industries, Ltd. at its Oppama 
 Shipyard for the Institute for Sea-Training 
 of the Ministry of Transport is a new large 
 sail built in Japan for the first time 
 during past half a century. 
 
 1. Background for Construction 
 
 The construction of first generation 
 dates back to more than 50 years ago 
 when the old "Nippon Maru" was built in 
 1930. This sail had been in service 
 for training ship together with its 
 sister vessel "Kaiwo Maru". During the 
 Second World War the sail was reconstructed 
 to remove the rig, and after the War, 
 it engaged in transporting 
 ripatriate and it was reequip- 
 ed in 1952 and placed back as sail 
 training ship again. These were really 
 hard times for the ship. The hull 
 became so old that the building of new 
 sail was expected. 
 
 The Institute for Sea-Training has 
 decided the following basic direction 
 for this new sail to be built. 
 
 (i) The new vessel will be built 
 
 based on the old "Nippon Maru" 
 and "Kaiwo Maru", but designed 
 for basic marine engine training, 
 too. 
 
 (ii) The new vessel will have 
 
 durability with dignity and 
 beauty, giving consideration to 
 the long years service. 
 
 (iii) To give thorough consideration 
 to its hull strength, righting 
 moment, noise-proof, vibration- 
 proof and heat-proof. 
 
 (iv) The new vessel will have the 
 
 training equipment and facility 
 necessary for practical training, 
 and as well be equipped with the 
 best fitting for training of 
 sailing quality (including 
 training of mind and body, 
 "sea-worthy") and acquisition 
 of practical seaman-ship. 
 
 (v) To make living conditions 
 
 as comfortable as possible and 
 to give consideration to sailors' 
 healthy life on board. 
 
 2. Design Considerations 
 
 A few years before the Meiji Era, Japan 
 imported steamers as well as large 
 sailing vessels. Accordingly, Japan 
 entered into the age of power vessels 
 without going through the age of 
 clippers, which means that Japan did 
 not get used to designing the large 
 sailing vessels, especially for the 
 sails. 
 
 Thus, five large sail training ships 
 (including first generation of the 
 "Nippon Maru" and the "Kaiwo Maru") 
 built in Japan before completion of the 
 second generation of the "Nippon Maru" 
 were designed and built in Japan, 
 except the designing for the sail which 
 came completely from U.K. 
 
 As there is no appropriate guideline 
 available in Japan for designing of the 
 large sailing ships, we were forced to 
 rely upon the data in Europe and the 
 U.S.A. However, most of such data was 
 a sort of "folktale" far from modern 
 design book. Therefore, we analyzed 
 these obsolete documents which could be 
 called "Museum Property", confirmed our 
 analysis by means of the wind tunnel 
 test and the tank test, and finally 
 interpreted and generalized the 
 "folktale" sail designs through the 
 modern naval architect, spending a lot 
 of energy to arrive at optimum design 
 data. 
 
 I cannot introduce all of these works 
 on this limited report, so I will take 
 up and explain a few of them. 
 
 2-1 Wind Tunnel Test 
 
 As to the sail, the most essential part 
 of the sailing vessels, we performed 
 the wind tunnel test to make researches 
 on its shape, masts distance and its 
 relation with the hull. The part of 
 the test is described in Photo 1, Fig. 
 1 and Fig. 2. Further, the speed rate 
 as resulted from the test is described 
 in Fig. 3. 
 
 2-2 Roll Damping Test 
 It has been known s 
 sailing vessels do 
 rolling. However, 
 succeeded in analyz 
 or technologically 
 the test result of 
 "Shin-Aitoku-Maru" 
 effect on the roll 
 effect is prominent 
 sailing training ve 
 
 ince old days that 
 not have much 
 no one has ever 
 Ing it theoretically 
 
 We recognized in 
 the 
 
 that the sail had an 
 damping. This 
 
 in case of the 
 ssel, with large 
 
 133 
 
areas of the sail. The scene of the 
 tank test and the part of test results 
 are described in Photo 2, Fig. A and 
 Fig. 5. These test results are 
 reflected on the evaluation of 
 dynamical stability, and the stability 
 of this new vessel fulfils the 
 requirements of the passenger ship. 
 
 2-3 Strength of Mast and Stay 
 
 As to deciding the scantling for mast, 
 stay and yard, considering the 
 influence effected from the material 
 difference, we analyzed the scantling 
 through direct calculation, referring 
 to the Rule and Regulations of Lloyd's 
 Registers (1906/1907) and German 
 Lloyd's (1903), etc. The computer 
 program we adopted is the 3-Dimensional 
 Structure Analysis Program (ICES- 
 STRUDLE-II) as modified for mast and 
 stay. We analyzed the scantling using 
 wind pressure acquired from the wind 
 tunnel test or acceleration of the ship 
 motion acquired from the tank test and 
 the theoretical calculation, as the 
 external force, and the part of 
 this analysis results are described in 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 It is so difficult to verify the 
 calculation results that we confirmed 
 the reasonableness of our calculations 
 by collecting many dismast photos, 
 verifying dismast positioning and 
 maximum stress occurring position, and 
 also varying pretension in many ways 
 when the stay is mounted on the vessel 
 and measuring precisely the deformation 
 of mast and stay. 
 
 Several types of vessels are tested for 
 resistance, self propulsion and 
 manoevability , which is common to 
 general vessels. As sailing vessels, 
 which are different from ordinary 
 vessels, decline to wind pressure and 
 sail in an oblique state with helm 
 angle, we made a search for 
 hydrodynamics derivatives in several 
 conditions through oblique towing test. 
 Further, we made a search for the 
 characteristic of sailing ships through 
 several tests including the test for 
 confirming the bar keel effect upon 
 drifting. 
 
 3. Fitting and Equipment 
 
 For fitting and equipment, traditional 
 method was adopted. However, 
 
 3-1 Sail Making 
 
 We put the machine sewing sail and the 
 hand sewing sail to the endurance test. 
 As a result, we came to confirm that 
 the hand sewing sail has higher 
 durability, and so selected the hand 
 sewing sail for the new vessel. 
 There is no problem regarding sail 
 
 making for the new vessel after going 
 into service, because cadets hoist its 
 sails. However, the number of workmen 
 was so restricted while the new vessel 
 was under construction that we had to 
 spend long time to hoist its .sails. 
 
 3-2 Standing Rigging 
 
 The main standing rigging was treated 
 elaborately so that it can be used for 
 a long time period. After various 
 reviews, we decided to give traditional 
 serving treatment to the primary 
 standing elaborately, and we gave 
 protective treatment at the three 
 stages of worming, parcelling and 
 serving. For end treatment, we adopted 
 the socket method as opposed to the 
 traditional end-up-sizing method. 
 
 3-3 Running Rigging 
 
 Nylon rope has higher strength. 
 However, the diameter of the rope is 
 confined to the grip size, so we cannot 
 make the rope thin even if the rope has 
 high strength. The block, strength of 
 which is equivalent to the running 
 rigging, necessarily increases its 
 size. It is necessary for us to 
 consider the balance between the 
 diameter of the running rigging and the 
 block size. 
 
 It is in the field of the fitting and 
 equipment that we will find a lot of 
 other problems if we try to manufacture 
 with modern material, based on the 
 traditional shape. As to the engine 
 department and the navigation equipment, 
 I will state only that we made 
 the automation and the automatic 
 measuring devices equal to those of 
 modern vessels, for the purpose of 
 educational training. 
 
 4. Nippon Maru 
 
 After making the foregoing efforts in 
 design and building, we decided the 
 principal particulars for new "Nippon 
 Maru" as described in Table 1 in 
 comparison with the ex "Nippon Maru". 
 The comparison between both vessels is 
 described in Fig. 7 and the general 
 arrangement plan is described in Fig. 
 8. The completed sailing condition is 
 shown in Photo 3. 
 
 5. Conclusion 
 
 The foregoing is in an attempt to 
 outline the technological approach we 
 had for the building of the large sail 
 training vessel "Nippon Maru" while its 
 sailing performance must be confirmed 
 with the actual servicing which largerly 
 depends on the marine weather conditions 
 and the degree of the sail operating 
 skill, I believe that it must be more 
 
 [34 
 
excellent than that of the ex "Nippon 
 Mara". I also believe that much 
 technological knowledge and experience 
 regarding sailing vessels acquired at 
 the time of building of this new vessel 
 will contribute so much to the designs 
 of the modern sailing vessels. 
 
 Let me end this report by emphasizing that 
 the satisfactory completion of this sailing 
 vessel owes to extreme enthusiasm and energy 
 of all people who joined in this building 
 project, among others the Institute for Sea- 
 Training, seniors in shipbuilding industry d 
 and related suppliers. 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 I 'express my deepest thanks to all of them. 
 
 C»-F</-f/>AU 2 
 
 C« ~Ck 
 
 jfiJ / \\ 
 
 -*--* 
 
 RELATIVE WIND DIRECTION »(DEG.) 
 
 0" ^yaO' 60* 90* 120" 150* 180* 
 
 J FIG.l. Cx-Curves ( Full sail ) 
 
 dLpp) 
 
 ' 0.2 r 
 
 0.1 
 
 ISO 
 
 I 
 
 C.l 
 
 <& ,,■*-- Jfc, 
 
 1'i ^'' lf ^~--Ol geometrical center 
 
 iL' l-«5*.A— -JEss- OF SAIL iHULL AREA (EXCEPTSTAYSl)P-0546Lpp 
 
 ■fi T^f^SB^ 33! (INCL STaVS'L) 0.0425 L pp 
 
 ^aai 
 
 3 
 - Q2 
 
 03 
 
 ■ 0.4 
 
 30* 60* 90" 
 
 RELATIVE WIND DIRECTION TaIDEG.) 
 
 «£,- 
 
 rigO* 150* 
 
 No v 
 
 180* 
 
 0\° 
 
 o\° 
 
 FIG. 2. L.C.E. Curves ( Full sail ) 
 
 OLD NIPP0N-MARU (TRIAL) 
 
 M00EL A-ll-M 
 
 M0DELA-II-G 
 
 MO0ELB-II-M 
 
 M00EL A-l -G 
 
 OLD NIPP0H-MARU (FULL 
 LOAD J 
 
 FIG. 3. Speed Rate 
 
 ROLL AMP. RATIO 
 FULL SAIL 
 EFFECT OF WIND 
 
 CAL. EXP. 
 
 o NO WIND 
 
 A VW-2.1 M/SEC 
 
 D VW-4.2 M/SEC 
 
 0-0 
 
 2.0 4.0 
 
 WAVE LENGTH /SHIP LENGTH 
 
 FIG. 4. Roll Amplitude in 
 Wind and Waves 
 
 Photo 1 Wind Tunnel! Test 
 
 135 
 
ROLL AMP. RATIO „ . „ 
 
 WIND VEL. 4. 2 M/SEC CAL - " p ' SAIL COND 
 
 EFFECT OF SAIL* o FULL SAIL 
 
 N a BARE POLES 
 
 A- 
 
 i 
 
 2.0 4.0 
 
 WAVE LENGTH/SHIP LENGTH 
 
 FIG. 5. Sail Effect for Roll Amplitude 
 
 Photo 2-a Rolling Test (Bare Poles! 
 
 IX mi 3. 858 
 
 IT IMI 10000. 000 
 
 L! IHI I. 880 
 
 NIPPON IIARU J 
 
 FIG. 6. Deformation of Masts 
 
 FIG. 7. Comparison between "Old" and "New" 
 
 Photo 2-b Rolling Test (Full Sail) 
 
 136 
 
 Table 
 
 1. Principal Particulars 
 
 Item 
 
 NIPPON MARU 
 
 Ex. NIPPON MARU 
 
 Remarks 
 
 Keel Lay 
 
 1983-4-11 
 
 1929-4-17 
 
 
 Launch 
 
 1984-2-15 
 
 1930-1-27 
 
 
 Completion 
 
 1983-9-14 
 
 1930-3-31 
 
 
 Ship Type 
 
 Complete Super 
 Structure Deck 
 Type 
 
 Well Deck Yype 
 
 
 Sail ing Rig 
 
 4 Masted Bark 
 
 4 Masted Bark 
 
 
 Principal 
 Dimension 
 
 
 
 
 Length Overal 1 
 
 110.09 m 
 
 97.05 m 
 
 Incl .Bowsprit 
 
 Length p.p. 
 
 86.00 m 
 
 78.23 m 
 
 
 Breadth mid. 
 
 13.80 m 
 
 12.95 m 
 
 
 Depth mid. 
 
 Loaded Draft 
 mid. 
 
 10.70 m 
 6.29 m 
 
 10.29 m 
 6.15 m 
 
 Up to Super- 
 str. Deck 
 Above B.L. 
 
 Gross toonage 
 
 2,570 GT 
 (abt.2,950 GT*) 
 
 2,284 GT* 
 
 * Old Rule 
 
 Service Speed 
 
 13.2 Knt 
 
 abt. 3 Knt 
 
 303 sea margin 
 
 Main Engine 
 
 2x1,500 PS 
 
 2x600 PS 
 
 
 Complement 
 
 
 
 
 Crewa 
 
 70 p. 
 
 66 p. 
 
 
 Cadets 
 
 120 p. 
 
 120 p. 
 
 
 Total 
 
 190 p. 
 
 186 p. 
 
 
 Number/Area 
 of Sail 
 
 
 
 
 Square Sail 
 
 18/abt. 1,790m 
 
 18/abt. 1,531m 
 
 
 Fore | Aft 
 
 18/abt. 970m 
 
 18/abt. 866m 
 
 
 Full Sail 
 
 36/abt.2,760m 
 
 35/abt.2,397m 
 
 
 Max. mast height 
 
 abt.55.52 m 
 
 abt. 50. 61 m 
 
 Above B.L. 
 
Photo 3 Completed Full Sail Condition 
 
 
 • * 
 
 1 
 
 * 
 
 ** ... 
 
 II 
 
 * 
 
 
 , .van- n- 
 
 
 
 
 W Wfo- * 
 
 
 W\ in. B 
 
 
 
 
 ^Kfc -■ -.^si^HH 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^x _fc -> N 
 
 
 =dSL_J = jSTLL£== 
 
 SUPEnsillUCtUIlE 0EO( 
 
 -S3 
 
 8. General Arrangement Plan 
 
 137 
 
Voice Control of Mooring Winch 
 
 N. Takarada 
 General Manager of Hiratsuka Research Laboratory 
 Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd. 
 2-1, Ohtemachi 2-chome, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 
 
 1. Preface 
 
 In parallel with the advancement of 
 hardware and software technology of 
 computer, automatic devices using 
 computer is being actively adopted by 
 ships and vessels. 
 
 Man-Machine Communication applied to such 
 automatic devices are mostly indirect 
 method, but there is voice information 
 treatment technology which enables direct 
 communication through the human invoice. 
 If at the busy port-entering and 
 port-leaving time, ship and vessel 
 navigator is able to operate 
 directly mooring winch like 
 "Open Sesame" in well known Ali Baba 
 Story by the use of this voice 
 information treatment technology, 
 operation error can be avoided and 
 labour saving will be attained. 
 In this respect, this paper reports the 
 co' trol system recently adopted to three 
 mooring winches of DW200.000 T Ore 
 Carrier "TSUKUBA-MARU" . 
 
 2. Basic policy of Mooring Winch Voice Control 
 
 Navigation of ships and vessels 
 involves high judgement ability, wide 
 working areas. And, the route from 
 issuance of direction to execution of 
 works are mostly as follows: 
 
 (1) Highest responsible person who 
 directs and controls the navigation 
 of ship and vessel 
 
 (2) Headman who possesses high judgement 
 ability and causes the direction to 
 be executed 
 
 (3) Operator who performs the works as 
 directed 
 
 This route and method is frequently seen 
 in the operation of main engine and 
 operation of deck machineries at the port 
 entering and leaving time, at wharf 
 leaving time, at the mooring time. 
 If in the above direction route, the 
 relevant machines could work without any 
 error by the highest responsible person, 
 the above 2) and 3) can be omitted and 
 labour saving effect will be obtained. 
 Since the biggest number of operators are 
 required in the mooring works, much 
 labour saving effect will be attained if 
 mooring can be made by voice control. 
 
 3. Voice Input and Pre-treatment 
 
 Working principle of voice recognition 
 part used as voice control of the moored 
 ship is shown in figure 1. 
 
 (1) Voice input and pre-treatment. 
 Voice is collected by microphone, 
 and amplified to the appropriate 
 level by amplifier. Amplified voice 
 signal is supplied to spectrum 
 analyzer. Voice signal inputted 
 into spectrum analyzer 
 
 is then analyzed by band filter 
 of 16 channels which are divided 
 according to the disbribution 
 of standard information amount. 
 The output of filter of respective 
 bands are smoothed through low area 
 filter which is rectified to detect 
 the signal level within belts and 
 supplied to analogue multi treatment 
 A/D converter thereby being 
 converted to digital signal. These 
 information is sampled at every 5 
 mil-seconds and similar treatment is 
 made . 
 
 (2) Digital treatment of voice signal 
 Digitalized voice signal is treated 
 by coding compressor to compress 
 the data. Word detector detects 
 
 the opening and closing of respective 
 voices and compresses to a certain 
 pattern irrespective of inputted 
 word length, thereby symbolizing. 
 
 (3) Preparation of Reference Pattern 
 Human being does not necessarily 
 speak in a same accent when he 
 speaks any language, but there are 
 certainly, variations. 
 
 In order to memorize such variation, 
 persons who make voice input are 
 required to make three repetitive 
 speakings so that form of reference 
 pattern is made by pattern collector. 
 Such reference pattern is memorized 
 in the reference pattern memory, 
 representing the expression of 
 respective specific words. 
 
 (4) Classification of Input Voice 
 
 At the recognition mode, the correla- 
 tion between the inputted voice and 
 reference pattern memory for each 
 language is calculated by bit and 
 scores indicating the discrepancy 
 degree are given. 
 
 Scores of average discrepancy at the 
 reference pattern making time are 
 calculated in advance and furthermore 
 discrepancy margin scores for each 
 language is added. This is reject 
 level. If the score of discrepancy 
 between reference pattern and inputted 
 voice is within the reject leverance, 
 the input is judged to be effective, 
 and if the discrepancy exceeds the 
 
 138 
 
level, it is rejected and no signal 
 is emitted. 
 
 System Structure and Specifications 
 
 The System structure is shown in Figure 
 2. and the specifications of respective 
 equipment are shown in the table 3 & 4: 
 
 Characteristics of the System 
 
 This system possesses the following 
 characteristics: 
 
 (1) Content of Control 
 
 Content of control is determined as 
 shown in Tab le 1 . 
 In so determining, actual mooring 
 works, questionnaires results, 
 opinions of navigators at the 
 shipyard were taken into account. 
 
 (2) Control Method 
 
 Prior to the operation, usage 
 
 language by means of the director is 
 
 inputted and registered as reference 
 
 pattern. 
 
 In case of change in a director, 
 
 reference pattern of new director is 
 
 registered. 
 
 Since it is nuisance to register the 
 
 reference pattern at each time of change 
 
 in the director, there is a way that voices 
 
 of all directors are inputted and reference 
 
 pattern is memorized in small magnet 
 
 disc and small magnet disc is replaced 
 
 by an appropriate disc. 
 
 When a director makes an instruction 
 
 by voice, voice recognition device 
 
 recognizes the content and the 
 
 recognized content is echoed in the 
 
 voice recognition device. If such 
 
 echo coincides with the instruction, 
 
 working signal is emitted and the 
 
 devices begins to work. 
 
 (3) Characteristics of the system 
 
 The characteristics of voice control 
 of the moored ships are as follows: 
 
 (i) Director can make an Instruction 
 for the movement of the mooring 
 winch by voice, whether treating 
 hawer or auditing rope tention 
 
 (ii) Director has only to make an 
 
 instruction of required movement 
 to the mooring winch, drum or 
 warping end: clutch change, 
 speed control and brake change 
 are automatically controlled 
 by pre-setting sequence. 
 
 (iii) In case of the occurrance of 
 
 trouble in voice input or voice 
 recognition, simultaneous 
 stoppage can be made by emergency 
 stop switch. 
 
 (iv) In case of any trouble in the 
 system, change to electrical 
 
 (v) Since registration of director's 
 voice with pattern check can be 
 made, the system does not work 
 by the third party's voice 
 other than that of director. 
 
 (vi) Noise is automatically removed 
 by the automatic noise sampling. 
 
 6. Acknowledgement 
 
 We have tried to control mooring winch 
 using voice as direct Man-Machine 
 Communicat ion . 
 
 At present, it is operating very smoothly 
 and we believe that said control method 
 would be further improved by continued 
 study of usage language, syntax, 
 recognition logic etc, by collecting the 
 date of actual operation. We have 
 achievements of voice control of marine 
 equipment such as the main diesel engine 
 control of "Kinokawa-Maru" (built by 
 Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd.), mooring 
 winch voice control which is the subject 
 of this report and in the steering engine 
 voice control built by Hitachi Zosen. 
 The development of this voice control has 
 been made with the financial aid of 
 the Japan Foundation of Shipbuilding 
 Advancement ( JAFSA) . We wish to 
 appreciate JAFSA' s assistance and Daiichi 
 Chuoo Kisen who provided an opportunity 
 for the adoption of the voice control. 
 
 Table 1. Categories of Voice Recognition 
 Technology and its possibility 
 
 Type of 
 Voice 
 Entry 
 Speaker 
 
 Discrete Speaking 
 
 Continuous 
 Speacking 
 
 Word 
 
 Monosyllable 
 
 Word/ 
 Sentence 
 
 Speaker Practical First stage 
 Dependent use of Practical 
 
 use 
 
 Under study 
 (Partially 
 Practical 
 use) 
 
 Speaker . Partially Under study Future 
 
 Independent Practical (Partially Investiga- 
 
 use (Too Practical tion 
 expensive) use 
 
 Table 2. Items Controlled by Voice 
 
 Mooring 
 Winches 
 
 Drums 
 
 Items 
 
 No. 9 
 
 Port Drum 
 
 Direction (Slack 
 
 Mooring 
 
 
 Off or Heave in 
 
 Winch 
 
 S.B Drum 
 
 Rev. (L.M.H.) 
 (8 Slack Off or 
 Heave in) 
 
 No. 10 
 
 Mooring 
 
 Winch 
 
 Both side 
 Drum 
 
 Break on/off 
 
 No. 11 
 
 Mooring 
 
 Winch 
 
 Warping 
 Heads 
 
 Clutch on/off 
 
 139 
 
T— * 10 
 
 T*T 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 1 Speech signal 
 
 2 Amplifier 
 
 3 Spectrum analyzer 
 
 4 Analog multiplexer/A-D 
 
 converter 
 
 5 Word boundary detector 
 
 6 Coding compressor 
 
 7 Reference pattern compensator 
 
 8 Micro floppy disk 
 
 9 Reference pattern memory 
 
 10 Correlation processor 
 
 11 Output interface 
 
 12 Mooring winch 
 
 FIG. 1. Block Diagram of Voice Recognition Unit 
 
 1 Headphone-microphone for speaker 
 
 2 Portable transceiver 
 
 3 Stationary wireless unit 
 
 4 Voice signal 
 
 5 Voice recognition unit 
 
 6 Display command 
 
 7 Display unit 
 
 8 Voice pattern write/read 
 
 9 Micro floppy disk 
 
 10 Code of recognized word 
 
 11 Micro computer for control 
 
 12 Output interface including D/A 
 
 converter 
 
 13 Output signal 
 
 14 Interface panel 
 
 15 Input signal 
 
 16 Input signal interface 
 
 17 Input signal 
 
 18 Mooring winch 
 
 19 Mooring winch 
 
 20 Mooring winch 
 
 21 Voice synthesizing command 
 
 22 Voice synthesizer 
 
 23 Synthesized voice 
 
 24 Loud speaker amplifier 
 
 25 Speaker 
 
 26 Speaker 
 
 27 Voice control system rack 
 
 FIG. 2. Block Diagram of Mooring Winch Voice Control System 
 
 Table 3. Major Equipment 
 
 Mooring Winch 
 
 Portable Transceiver 
 
 Throat Microphone 
 
 Directional Headphone Microphone 
 
 Stationary Radio Unit 
 
 Voice Recognition Unit 
 
 Micro Floppy Disk 
 
 Alfa-Numeric Display 
 
 Control Micro Computor 
 Output Interface 
 Input Interface 
 Voice Synthesizer 
 Amplifier 
 Speaker 
 
 Interface Panel 
 Simulation Test Panel 
 
 140 
 
Table 4. Specifications of major devices 
 (refer to Figure 3) 
 (a) Portable transceiver 
 
 Coverage 
 Battery 
 
 Emission 
 
 Receiving 
 
 frequency 
 
 Transmitting 
 
 frequency 
 
 Microphone 
 
 30m radius 
 Charging type 
 Ni-Cd 2.4V 
 (4 hour Available) 
 F3 
 117.395 MHz 
 
 140.35 MHz 
 
 Throat microphone 
 Directional headphone 
 microphone 
 
 (b) 
 
 Stationary wireless unit 
 Electric source AC, 100V 
 
 Emission 
 
 F3 
 
 Receiving 
 
 140.35 MHz 
 
 frequency 
 
 
 Transmitting 
 
 117.395 MHz 
 
 frequency 
 
 
 Output power 
 
 0.02 W 
 
 Antenna 
 
 75 proof 
 
 (c) Voice recognition unit 
 Type of voice entry 
 
 Discrete word speaking 
 
 Speaker dependent 
 Voice recognizing method 
 
 non-linear pattern 
 
 DP matching 
 Recognizable max. number of words 
 
 80 Words 
 Length of word 
 
 0.1 - 1.3 sec. 
 Space of voice entry 
 
 0.1 - 0.25 sec. 
 Response time 
 
 within 2 sec. 
 Recognizing accuracy 
 
 99.8% 
 
 (by 5 times repeat of 
 100 words) 
 Auxiliary output RS-232C 
 Electric source AC. 100 V 
 
 (h) Loud speaker 
 
 Amplifier output power Max 30W 
 Speaker 10 W water 
 
 (i) Mooring Winch 
 Capacity 
 Drum 
 
 Amplifier _ 
 
 Voice Synthesizer 
 
 Display 
 
 Voice Recognition 
 
 Unit 
 Monitor Panel 
 
 and Power Unit 
 1/0 Interface 
 
 FM Stationary _ 
 
 Wireless Unit 
 Drawer for w 
 
 Spare Parts 
 
 Main Power Unit &^ 
 Battery Charger 
 
 20Txl5m/min 
 Hawser drum 2 
 Warpind head 1 
 
 :i 
 
 [ 
 
 :o 
 
 CD o 
 
 IL 
 
 I CD B3DB 
 
 oos«o«« oo o»o o L 
 
 IHHjjT] 
 
 8 8 8 a 
 
 - - n 
 
 8. L 
 
 ( ) 
 
 on 
 
 3 
 
 oute 
 
 
 
 FIG. 3. Contents of Voice Control 
 System Rack 
 
 (d) Micro floppy disk 
 Capacity 
 Recording type 
 Dimensions 
 Frequency of use 
 
 (e) Display unit 
 Type 
 Display 
 Character 
 Dimensions 
 
 8K Bytes 
 
 FM 
 
 67mmx67.8 mmxl.5 mm 
 
 2000 times or more 
 
 Plasma display 
 
 16 charactersxlxl line 
 
 128 kinds 
 
 10. 2mmxl75mm 
 
 (f) Voice synthesizer 
 Synthesizing method PARCOR 
 Frequency Man: 100Hz - 2KHz 
 
 Woman: 150Hz - 4KHz 
 electric source DC, 5V 
 
 (g) Micro Computer for control 
 CPU 8 bits 
 PROM 8K bytes 
 
 141 
 
A Handy-type Ship Maneuvering Simulator 
 
 Masanao Oshima* and Masayoshi Hirano»« 
 
 » Deputy Director, Ship and Ocean Project Headquarters 
 ** Division Head, Akishima Laboratory 
 
 Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding Co., Ltd. 
 Tokyo, Japan 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 This paper presents an outline of a handy-type 
 ship maneuvering simulator, which was developed 
 for purposes such as maneuverability evalu- 
 ations in the ship design and maneuvering safety 
 studies in the port design. System description 
 is made first, and then some examples of the 
 simulator study reuslts are presented. The 
 simulator is extensively utilized now as a very 
 useful and powerful tool for such purposes as 
 the above. 
 
 1. INTRODUCTION 
 
 Recent progress in the maritime transportation 
 has brought about development of various kinds 
 of ships, such as high-speed container ships, 
 liquefied natural gas carriers and oil tankers 
 from handy-sized product carriers to ULCCs. In 
 connection with problems of the navigation 
 safety in ports and waterways, the diversi- 
 fication in ship types and the growth in ship 
 size, mentioned above, have greatly enhanced the 
 significance of the ship maneuverability. 
 
 For the naval architect, it has become very 
 important to precisely predict the ship ma- 
 neuverability at the preliminary design stage. 
 Moreover, at the time of ship completion, the 
 maneuvering information is required for posting 
 in the wheelhouse of ships, as is recommended by 
 IMO. In addition to the ship design area, in 
 the area of the port design, it has become 
 necessary to perform maneuvering safety studies 
 of ships which are expected to enter the port to 
 be planned. 
 
 For these kinds of purposes, namely in order to 
 flexibly meet these kinds of needs, the sim- 
 ulation calculation technique may be considered 
 to be the most useful and powerful tool. Paying 
 attention to this point, in Mitsui Engineering & 
 Shipbuilding Co., Ltd., extensive studies have 
 been made on the ship maneuvering simulation. 
 Major emphasis was placed on development of a 
 practical calculation method for wide range of 
 the ship maneuvering motion, namely for various 
 kinds of the ship maneuvering motion under 
 various environmental conditions. A mathe- 
 matical model for the fundamental maneuvering 
 motion in calm and deep water was developed 
 first 1 ). Then this mathematical model was 
 improved and its applicability was extended to 
 the wide range of the ship maneuvering motion, 
 
 namely such ship maneuvering motion as that 
 under external forces of wind, wave and current 
 in shallow water area. Thus a highly sophis- 
 ticated mathematical model of the ship 
 maneuvering motion for practical use was 
 successfully developed2). 
 
 Based on the versatile results obtained and 
 accumulated through the above mentioned stud- 
 ies, an attempt was made to develop a handy-type 
 ship maneuvering simulator with which such work 
 as the maneuverability evaluations in the ship 
 design and the maneuvering safety studies in the 
 port design can be performed extensively in the 
 practical sense. The simulator thus developed 
 is not a real-time one, but a highly sophis- 
 ticated mathematical model is employed in it. 
 This paper describes an outline of the simulator 
 showing some examples of the simulator study 
 results. 
 
 2. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION 
 
 The mathematical model of the ship maneuvering 
 motion in this paper is based on coupled motion 
 equations of surge, sway, yaw, roll and 
 propeller revolution, and they can be written in 
 the following form. 
 
 Surge 
 
 Sway 
 
 Yaw 
 
 Roll 
 
 m(u-vr) 
 m(v+ur) 
 Izz f 
 
 = X 
 
 Ixx p = 
 
 Propeller revolution: 
 
 H 
 Y H 
 N H 
 KH 
 
 + 
 2ttI 
 
 X P 
 
 X W 
 
 Yp 
 
 Y W 
 Np 
 
 N W 
 
 Kp 
 
 K W 
 
 Xr + x L 
 
 X WV + Xp 
 
 Yr + y l 
 
 YWV + Y F 
 Nr + N L 
 
 N WV + % 
 Kr + K L 
 K, 
 
 WV 
 
 PP 
 
 n = Q E + 
 
 ■ K F 
 
 Q P 
 
 142 
 
 where the terms (in the right-hand side) with 
 subscripts H, P, R, L, W, WV and F represent 
 hull forces, propeller forces, rudder forces, 
 LTU (lateral thrust unit) forces, wind forces, 
 wave drifting forces and other forcing functions 
 respectively, and Qg represents main engine 
 torque. The shallow water effects are taken 
 into account in the estimation of hull forces 
 and rudder forces. 
 
 In this simulator, the ship maneuvering sim- 
 ulation can be performed through dialog with a 
 computer terminal with the graphic display 
 function, which is connected to a larged-sized 
 host computer. The system configuration of the 
 simulator is shown in Fig. 1. The simulator is 
 
A Handy-type Ship Maneuvering Simulator 
 
 basically composed of four major parts, namely 
 simulation terminal, motion program, support 
 programs and peripheral devices. The "motion 
 program" with which the ship maneuvering motion 
 can be calculated with high accuracy is based on 
 the mathematical model mentioned above. 
 
 (through narrow waterway to outer sea) of a bulk 
 carrier, and the other is an entering maneuver 
 in a port (from outer sea to berthing area) of a 
 container carrier. 
 
 ( 1 ) Leaving maneuver of a bulk carrier in Port 
 "A" 
 
 SImULATIoW 
 terminal 
 
 CRT 
 
 DISPLRY. 
 
 ^> 
 
 o 
 
 pbjtpbehrt: 
 
 DEVICES 
 
 d 
 
 orJTRoL 
 
 DRTR 
 
 TRAJECTORY 
 
 o 
 
 SUPPorT 
 
 PROCRRM 
 
 ESTIMATE 
 
 RECORD 
 
 HNRLIZE 
 
 
 M6TI6N 
 
 PROGRAM 
 
 
 
 
 NULL 
 
 FORCES 
 
 
 
 
 PROPElLM 
 
 FORCES 
 
 
 
 
 II RUDDER 
 II FORCES 
 
 o 
 
 
 II LfU 
 II FORCES 
 
 
 
 
 IIWIND'HfiVE 
 II FORCES 
 
 
 
 
 SHALLOW 
 EFFECTS 
 
 
 
 
 CURRENT 
 EFFECTS 
 
 
 
 Fig. 1 System configuration 
 
 Standard simulator operation consists of three 
 phases of preparation, simulation run and 
 completion. In the preparation phase, huge data 
 base stored in the large-sized computer system 
 is fully utilized in order to estimate coef- 
 ficients which are necessary for calculation of 
 the ship maneuvering motion. For instance, hull 
 force derivatives, propeller characteristics 
 and rudder force coefficients can be estimated 
 with the data base or the estimate formulae by 
 knowing values of only the fundamental factors, 
 which are usually given in the simulator study, 
 such as the principal particulars of ship hull 
 together with propeller and rudder geometry. 
 Thus by inputting the minimum necessary data, 
 versatile simulation results for the wide range 
 of the ship manueuvering motion can be rel- 
 atively easily obtained in this simulator. 
 
 In the phase of the simulation run, time his- 
 tories of ship motion variables (ship velocity 
 etc.) calculated by "motion program" are 
 displayed at every moment on the CRT of the 
 simulation terminal together with motion tra- 
 jectory. Watching the results displayed graph- 
 ically and numerically in this way, the 
 simulation run is executed by giving the order 
 of rudder and main engine operation etc. 
 interactively. The simulation can be completed 
 by repeating this procedure as long as nec- 
 essary, although the simulation execution is not 
 a real-time one because of the time sharing 
 operation of the large-sized computer system. 
 
 In the completion phase, the simulation results 
 are outputted and recorded both in graphical and 
 numerical forms. Then according to purpose of 
 the simulator study, analyses and evaluations 
 are made. 
 
 3. SOME RESULTS OF SIMOLATOR STUDY 
 
 Some examples of the simulation results obtained 
 in two cases of simulator studies are presented 
 here. One is a leaving maneuver in a port 
 
 A large-sized bulk carrier was planned for 
 transportation of raw materials form Port "A", 
 which has a crooked narrow waterway at entrance 
 part of the port. The newly planned ship was 
 such a large-sized ship (220,000 DWT) that had 
 never entered into the Port "A". In this 
 context, the maneuverability of the bulk carrier 
 was carefully investigated at early stage of its 
 design, placing major emphasis on the transit 
 maneuver through waterway at fully loaded 
 condition. In the following, typical examples 
 of the simulation results for the waterway 
 transit maneuver obtained in this investigation 
 are presented, where ship operations were 
 performed by professional ship officers. 
 
 BUOY NO 7_A_ 
 
 I 
 
 .BUOYi NO 3 
 
 ' (A /K- 
 
 BUOY NO 3^ v ^v _ ,- 
 
 I -BUOY NO 4 
 
 I 
 
 BUOY NO 2 A ' 
 
 / 
 
 ^BUOV JfQ. L, a . 
 
 Fig. 2 Schematic plan of Port "A" 
 
 PORT 'A- {BULK CARRIER) 
 
 APPROACH SPEED 
 • 5.» KNOTS 
 
 143 
 
 Fig. 3 Leaving maneuver of a bulk carrier 
 in calm water 
 
 A schematic plan of the crooked narrow waterway 
 of the Port "A" is shown in Fig. 2 together with 
 water depth contour and buoy arrangement. In 
 this maneuvering simulation, ship enters into 
 
A Handy-type Ship Maneuvering Simulator 
 
 FORT -A- (BULK CARRIER' 
 
 PPROOCM SPEED 
 5.0 KNOTS 
 
 "1 v«i.t ttvm rm mav -M* tUM TWf 
 
 •i I f J 
 
 a i|| | i « 
 
 iii iiy I i ii , :ii 
 
 :i 
 
 r.i m iitS IB: 
 
 !: II J! Si III! 
 
 ! "i:ijii! i-S 
 
 s si : :i :; 
 
 " iii !-u 
 
 II 
 
 ;;! S :E 
 
 3a 
 
 ! 
 
 Fig. 4 Leaving maneuver of a bulk carrier 
 in wind and current 
 
 the waterway (the ratio of water depth to ship 
 draft = 1.2) with an approach speed of 5.0 knots 
 and proceeds changing its course along the 
 crooked waterway to the port exit. 
 
 Fig. 3 shows the result of the waterway transit 
 maneuver at the calm sea condition. Fig. 4 
 shows the result under the wind (wind speed of 
 20 knots) and the current (current speed of 0.6 
 knots) condition, where directions of the wind 
 and the current are referred to Fig. 2. These 
 figures indicate that the subject bulk carrier 
 would have no problems regarding its transit 
 maneuver through the waterway in the Port "A", 
 although some difficulty may be expected under 
 the condition of external forces acting as is 
 seen in Fig. 4. 
 
 (2) Entering maneuver of a container carrier in 
 Port "B" 
 
 Maneuvering safety studies of a very large-sized 
 container carrier (the maximum size of the 
 Panama Canal passable hull form) were performed 
 in connection with the port design of Port "B". 
 Typical simulation results obtained in this 
 investigation are presented here, which are for 
 an entering maneuver from outer sea to berthing 
 area. 
 
 Fig. 5 shows a schematic plan of the Port "B", 
 where a waterway with constant water depth (the 
 ratio of water depth to ship draft = 1.4) comes 
 into berthing area from outer sea bending its 
 direciton. In this maneuvering simulation, the 
 ship is operated according to an operating 
 procedure prepared by well-experienced ship 
 masters. The operating procedure for the enter- 
 ing maneuver consists of the following three 
 phases. The first phase: the ship passes over 
 the point "A" (the entrance of the waterway) 
 with an approach speed of 8 knots, and proceeds 
 to the point "B" changing its heading along the 
 waterway bend. The second phase: when the ship 
 reaches the point "B", the order of "Engine 
 Stop" is made. And then the ship proceeds to 
 the point "C" only by its inertia. After pass- 
 ing over the point "B", the ship is accompanied 
 by 4 tugs with maximum capacity of 3,000 HP 
 each. Thereby in the stopping maneuver after 
 the point "B", aid of tugs can be utilized so 
 that ship can run on the waterway even under 
 
 BREHKHRTER 
 
 BUOY NO l-'J-^-'a-BLlOY NO 2 
 
 Fig. 5 Schematic plan of Port "B" 
 
 P0HT 'B* (CONTAINER! 
 
 RPPR0ACH SPEED 
 
 • 8.9 KNOTS 
 
 ■KSIIS 
 
 «•* >Mi lUM W W IM IK 
 
 i 
 
 i I ! 
 
 J 
 
 l • > 
 
 ■ iHi 
 
 I : ] 3 
 
 m 
 
 :!• - -. ! ! 
 
 \ If 
 
 If i|| 
 
 | : : : ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 Be! ' 
 
 ■l! : :| ■ i 1 
 
 I If 
 
 || 1 i 1 i 
 
 . 3U:S 
 
 :3 i3 : 11 
 
 Fig. 6 Entering maneuver of a container 
 carrier in calm water ( 1 ) 
 
 144 
 
 Fig. 7 Entering maneuver of a container 
 carrier in calm water (2) 
 
 external forces (such as wind and current 
 forces) acting condition. The third phase: 
 after passing over the point "C", the ship is 
 operated to stop at the berthing area, the area 
 behind point "D". The main engine operation 
 
A Handy-type Ship Maneuvering Simulator 
 
 P0»T *l* ICOHTAINERJ 
 
 
 1 j jjj! I".! i! :i i ! i 
 
 ; : i 
 
 iiEiiiiiii iili i 
 ; ; :::: :;;; : :i :: s : : 
 
 ! ! ! 
 i : i 
 
 1.) .11. im i .. tin! i 
 
 t * 
 
 j i .it' ii»i i •> ** 
 
 :: ! 
 
 ::n 
 
 II llj l|| 
 
 ! 1 
 
 j j 
 
 ill 
 
 i i *&!{&! U M 
 
 ! 
 
 • • 
 
 1 l -ii .Dt • «r -m 
 
 
 
 i I •tli-itit i i| -<i 
 
 
 sis! 
 
 iiiTliiiiiii :ii 
 
 
 I i 
 
 iiiiiiiiiiiiil iij 
 
 
 { i 
 
 iiEEiijii! 
 
 
 i j 
 
 i ! 
 
 iiiiiltilMli 
 
 
 1 i 
 
 ! i Silt '-v.;::; iii 
 
 
 ! ( J 
 
 Fig. 8 Entering maneuver of a container 
 carrier in wind and current 
 
 with the order of "Slow Astern" propeller rpm is 
 made in the last part of this phase, and the 
 simulation is ended when the ship stops. 
 
 The simulation results for the calm sea condi- 
 tion are shown in Figs. 6 and 7. The result in 
 the first phase is given in Fig. 6 and the 
 result in the succeeding second and third phases 
 is given in Fig. 7 where necessary portion of 
 the port layout is zoomed up on the CRT display. 
 Fig. 8 shows the result of the simulation under 
 the wind (wind speed of 20 knots) and the 
 current (current speed of 0.5 knots) condition 
 for the stopping maneuver after the point "B" , 
 
 where direction of the wind and the current are 
 referred to Fig. 5. In the ship handling shown 
 in Fig. 8, the aid of tugs is fully utilized in 
 order to keep the course on the waterway. It 
 may be seen from these figures that external 
 forces could considerably affect the entering 
 maneuver of the subject container ship. 
 
 >\. COHCLUDING REMARKS 
 
 A handy-type ship maneuvering simulator was 
 developed for purposes such as the maneu- 
 verability evaluations in the ship design and 
 the maneuvering safety studies in the port 
 design. System description and some examples of 
 the simulator application are presented in this 
 paper. The simulator is not a real-time one, 
 but the mathematical model employed in it is a 
 highly sophisticated one. The simulator pre- 
 sented here is extensively utilized now as a 
 very useful and powerful tool for such purposes 
 as those mentioned above. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 1) Hirano, M.; A Practical Calculation Method 
 of Ship Maneuvering Motion at Initial Design 
 Stage, Naval Architecture and Ocean Engi- 
 neering (published by the Society of Naval 
 Architects of Japan), Vol. 19, 1981. 
 
 2) Hirano, M. , Takashina, J., Fukushima, M. and 
 Moriya, S.; Maneuvering Motion Prediction 
 by Computer in Ship Design, IFIP/IFAC Fourth 
 International Conference (ICCAS 82), 1982. 
 
 145 
 
THE SPERRY ADVANCED INTEGRATED NAVIGATION SYSTEM 
 
 Robert R. Rupp 
 Manager, Ocean Systems 
 
 Sperry Systems Management Group 
 Great Neck, N.Y. 11020 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 This paper describes a sophisticated inte- 
 grated navigation system that Sperry developed 
 for use on a geophysical exploration ship 
 owned by a major multi-national oil corporation. 
 The system can optimally process navigation 
 data from a large set of navigation sensors 
 which includes Doppler sonars, gyrocompasses, 
 navigation satellite receivers, Loran C 
 receivers and as many as four (from a set of 
 eight) radio navigation aid receivers. The 
 system also provides for many other functions 
 including automatic steering along survey 
 lines, control of the seismic shot events, and 
 logging of navigation and other data at seismic 
 shot times. The system has many applications 
 including deep sea mining, cable laying and 
 mine hunting. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Sperry has produced what may well be the 
 world's most sophisticated commercial 
 Integrated Navigation System (INS). The 
 system was developed for use in seismic and 
 geophysical oil exploration by a multi- 
 national oil corporation. This corporation 
 selected Sperry to develop the system 
 because Sperry had in-depth capability in the 
 following essential areas: 
 
 System engineering 
 Navigation optimization 
 Ship control 
 Computer Programming 
 Computer Technology 
 Display Techniques 
 
 Because the system provides optimal naviga- 
 tion and accurate steering along survey lines, 
 the system is expected to have wide application 
 in at least the following areas: 
 
 o Geophysical Exploration 
 
 o Oceanographic Exploration 
 
 o Deep Sea Mining 
 
 o Cable Laying and Positioning 
 
 o Precise Military Navigation 
 
 o Mine Hunting 
 
 o Mine Sweeping 
 
 The development of the system started in 
 December 1980. By July of 1982, the system 
 development was completed and the system was 
 installed on its host ship which was built by 
 Mitsubishi at their shipyard in Shimonoseki, 
 Japan. The ship was sent to the Gulf of Mexico 
 where, in the Autumn of 1982, the system underwent 
 at-sea test, tuning and demonstration. Since 
 March of 1983, the ship with its Sperry Integrated 
 Navigation System has been conducting geophysical 
 surveys . 
 
 GENERAL NAVIGATION REQUIREMENTS 
 
 The claim for sophistication stems in part 
 from the general navigation requirements that 
 were imposed on the system by the customer. The 
 system was to operate world-wide in water depths 
 to 6000 feet with or without land-based radio 
 navigation aids. In addition, the system was to 
 use data from all or parts of a large set of 
 navigation sensors and, at the same time, provide 
 optimal processing of the available sensor data. 
 The set of navigation sensors with which the 
 system was to work is listed below: 
 
 o Sperry deep-water Parametric Array 
 
 Doppler Sonar (PADS) 
 o An intermediate depth (1000 ft.) Doppler sonar 
 o Two Sperry water speed logs 
 
 o Two Sperry high-accuracy MK 29 gyrocompasses 
 o A satellite navigation receiver 
 o Two Loran-C receivers with a Rubidium 
 
 frequency standard 
 o Any four of the following eight radio 
 
 navigation aids 
 
 146 
 
- ARGO 
 
 Decca Hi-Fix 
 
 Decca Navigation 
 
 Maxiran 
 
 Miniranger 
 
 Raydist 
 
 Shoran 
 
 Syledis 
 
 OTHER REQUIREMENTS 
 
 Besides the above navigation requirements 
 there are many other requirements that the system 
 meets. One of the requirements that reinforces 
 the claim of sophistication is the requirement 
 for automatic steering of the ship along the 
 survey line. Depending on weather conditions, 
 the automatic steering function can maintain the 
 ship to within one meter of the survey line for 
 extended periods of time. 
 
 Another control requirement, in this case 
 customary with such systems, is the control of 
 the seismic shot events. "Shots" are the 
 compressed air explosions whose sonic 
 reflections from beneath the sea bed constitute 
 the primary data collected in seismic surveys. 
 
 Because Operator errors can lead to re- 
 shooting survey lines (at about $10,000 per 
 line), the Operator controls and displays had to 
 be user-friendly. The controls have to allow 
 for such things as: 
 
 o Selection of the navigation sensor data 
 to be used in the navigation solution 
 
 o Entry of navigation parameters e.g. 
 
 geographical coordinates of radio-navi- 
 gation aid transmitters 
 
 o Entry of navigation system calibration 
 parameters and/or control of navigation 
 system calibration processes 
 
 o Entry of the geographical coordinates of 
 the end points of lines to be surveyed 
 
 o Control of the distance or time spacing 
 between shot events 
 
 o Control of the magnetic tape data logging 
 system 
 
 The displays had to provide for complete, 
 user-friendly visibility of the state of the 
 system. The displays had to include the 
 following: 
 
 o A specialized large-character display of 
 the survey status (including ship 
 position relative to the line) for 
 personnel on the ship's bridge. 
 
 o A graphic display of the trajectory of the 
 ship and its position and orientation 
 relative to the survey line. 
 
 o Displays of all aspects of the naviga- 
 tion situation which includes the 
 identification of sensor data used, the 
 analysis of the performance of each 
 sensor and the comparison of sensor data 
 with each other. 
 
 o Elevation and plan view graphic displays of 
 the depth and shape of the seismic streamer 
 (a 3 Km long array of hydrophones with 
 depth and heading sensors). 
 
 The system had to include a subsystem of two 
 magnetic tape transports and associated electronics 
 to provide for recording of shot event navigation 
 data. In addition, records had to be kept of the 
 status of the system so that on shore post- 
 processing of the data could isolate anomalies 
 not detected onboard. As an aid to this post 
 processing, the Operator had to be able to 
 record comments on the magnetic tape and on a 
 printed record of the survey. The capability 
 of providing an overview printed record of events 
 during the survey was also a system requirement. 
 
 The system was also to have the electrical and 
 communication interfaces with equipments provided 
 by the customer. These equipments included the 
 following: 
 
 o A Sperry Gyro-pilot 
 
 o Two Sperry Collision Avoidance Systems 
 
 o A gravity/magnetic data acquisition 
 system 
 
 o A streamer data acquisition system 
 (for streamer heading and depth) 
 
 o A fathometer 
 
 o The seismic data acquisition system 
 
 SPERRY SOLUTION 
 
 The centerpiece of Sperry's solution for meet- 
 ing the above requirements was the use of a 
 powerful, disc-based 32-bit minicomputer with 
 1 Megabyte of memory. The capacity of this mini- 
 computer gave systems analysts and programmers 
 complete freedom to implement whatever algorithms, 
 logic and data manipulation that were required to 
 meet the formidable requirements described above. 
 
 The control and display requirements were met 
 by using four "smart" alpha-numeric/graphic CRT 
 terminals. One was mounted on the bridge and the 
 other three were in the ship's Recording Room for 
 use by the system Operators. These terminals had 
 RS-232C interfaces with the mini-computer. It can 
 be seen in Figure 1 that many of the equipments 
 chosen had RS-232C interfaces. The choice of an 
 
 14^ 
 
established standard interface, where possible, 
 obviated the need for many special interface 
 electronics. For the most part, when non-RS-232C 
 interfaces were required for customer-supplied 
 equipment the interface electronics were chosen 
 from a standard line of interface modules avail- 
 able through the minicomputer manufacturer. 
 
 The optimal integration of navigation data 
 was provided by two well established statistical 
 techniques. One is the method of Maximum Likeli- 
 hood estimation. This technique generates a 
 "best" position (or velocity) from a set of 
 position (or velocity) sensors provided that an 
 estimate of their accuracy is available. In this 
 application the technique reduces to weighted- 
 least-squares estimation. 
 
 The other statistical technique used was 
 the Kalman filter. The Kalman filter is 
 specifically designed to estimate the states of 
 a system from observations (measurements) of 
 linear combinations of the system states. The 
 Kalman filter is therefore ideally suited for 
 calibrating systems whose underlying error 
 processes are well understood. Such is the 
 case in common navigation systems such as 
 dead reckoners. The Kalman filter was used 
 in the system for the following purposes: 
 
 o Calibration of the two Doppler-gyro- 
 compass dead reckoning subsystems 
 
 o Integration of heading data from two 
 gyrocompasses 
 
 o Calibration of Loran-C transmitter 
 chains 
 
 The functional relationships among the 
 various computer program modules is shown in 
 Figure 2. 
 
 er-friendly interface 
 emented by providing 
 11-out" CRT display 
 
 Operator with the 
 of a large number (28) 
 s. On all the form 
 as an example of the 
 a required for entry 
 roach makes it easy 
 enter data and to 
 rrors . 
 
 The concept of the us 
 with the Operator was impl 
 the Operator with "form fi 
 pages and by providing the 
 ability to call any three 
 well designed display page 
 fill-out pages, the page h 
 kind and format of the dat 
 by the Operator. This app 
 to train the Operators to 
 make the entries free of e 
 
 The top of each alpha-numeric page is 
 reserved for computer generated alert messages 
 designed to apprise the Operator when an 
 anomalous condition exists. If several such 
 conditions exist in queue, the number of them is 
 displayed and the Operator can scroll the display 
 to exhibit them one at a time. The system has 
 more than 100 canned alert messages. 
 
 As an aid to onshore post-processing, the 
 minicomputer maintains a reserve bock of 10,000 
 words of memory (called Datapool) to store all 
 the important system variables and the status of 
 all keys. This block of words is logged on the 
 magnetic tape once each minute. The magnetic 
 tape thereby contains an exact and complete 
 description of the state of the system. This 
 Datapool is the final resort for the analysis 
 of any problems that might escape the numerous 
 other defenses built into the system. 
 
 Finally, the system was provided with an 
 uninterruptible power supply to perserve 
 essential functions from disturbances in the ship 
 electrical power system. A further protection 
 against disturbances is special re-start software 
 that allows operations to resume operations with- 
 out the re-entry of navigation and other para- 
 meters . 
 
 RESULTS 
 
 The complex and sophisticated system described 
 above is now fully operational and is on station 
 performing its intended function. The Sperry 
 deep-water Doppler has demonstrated reliable 
 operation in water depths exceeding 5000 ft. The 
 Kalman filter calibrated dead reckoning subsystem 
 yields excellent results (0 . 13% of distance 
 travelled). The Kalman filter calibration of 
 Loran-C chains has allowed their use as a primary 
 reference for surveys. The system has met with 
 enthusiastic Operator acceptance because of its 
 reliability, its ease of operation, its 
 automatic steering and the full visibility of 
 system status that it provides. The multi- 
 national oil corporation that originally ordered 
 the system is especially pleased with the 
 reliability and accuracy of navigation data 
 produced. 
 
 PRESENT AND FUTURE PLANS 
 
 The system described above is the core of a 
 new family of sophisticated integrated navigation 
 systems. A variant of this system has been 
 proposed to the U. S. Navy as a navigation and 
 ship control system for their new class of mine- 
 sweeper/hunters. Other variants are being 
 considered. One variant will add color CRT 
 terminals to display so-called "binning" data 
 which show the thoroughness of seismic survey 
 coverage required for 3-D surveys. 
 
 Other features to be added to the core 
 system include the following: 
 
 o Automatic ship control to steer the 
 apparent source of seismic echoes 
 
 o More radio navigation aid options 
 
 o New technology alphanumeric/graphic 
 CRT terminals 
 
 o Integration of Global Position System 
 hardware and data 
 
 Sperry is committed to the Integrated 
 Navigation System business and Sperry expects to 
 continue to be a prime supplier of such items. 
 
 148 
 
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 150 
 
NEW NAVIGATION SYSTEM 
 
 Shinji Hashiguchi 
 Manager of Marine Machinery Design Department 
 
 Hitachi Zosen Corporation 
 6-14, Edobori 1-chome, Nishi-ku, Osaka, 550, JAPAN 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 Work of the captain on board in ship's 
 operation is divided into a recognition, a 
 judgement and an operation. 
 
 Development of micro-electronics and 
 automatic control techniques has made it 
 systemized (softwarized) the recognition and 
 the operation of the captain's work. From now 
 on, systemization (softwarization) of the 
 judgement will become an object of automation, 
 and in the future, almost all the captain's 
 work will be automated. 
 
 However widely the software of a system 
 may be sophisticated, it can not become a real 
 assist system if the hardware of the system is 
 not easy to operate. 
 
 Upon this, an ideal way of the future 
 total navigation system is reviewed, and the 
 navigation console which makes one man 
 watch/control possible is presented. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Since the magnetic compass was first 
 applied around 1200 as the navigational 
 instrument, various kinds of navigational 
 instruments have been invented and improved 
 until today. 
 
 In the beginning, the navigational 
 instruments were developed as a tool for safe 
 navigation. But, appearence of the system 
 with automatic control function like an auto 
 pilot made it possible to save the man-power, 
 and furthermore, progress of the hyperbolic 
 navigation or satellite navigation system 
 contributed for economical navigation as well 
 as safe navigation. And now, systems aiming 
 at the shortest route, the shortest time, and 
 minimum fuel oil consumption have been 
 developed, utilizing micro-computers. And 
 finally in the future, the navigation system 
 will go forward toward the total navigation 
 system under synthetical consideration of 
 economical efficiency, safety and punctuality. 
 
 As above mentioned, the softwares of the 
 navigation system have been remarkably 
 developed according to a progress of the 
 micro-computers. On the other hand, however, 
 the hardwares of the system are independently 
 composed for every system, and the bridge of ^5 ^ 
 
 the ship is now very crowded with many 
 electronic navigation systems. 
 
 If the ship is fully equipped with 
 sophisticated navigation systems, she ought to 
 be operated by one operator at one position in 
 the bridge in the future, as a cockpit on an 
 airplane. In order to realize this, it is 
 indispensable to make the hardware of the 
 systems simple and compact. 
 
 Taking these circumstances into account, 
 a new navigation console for the future will 
 be discussed. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF NAVIGATION SYSTEM 
 
 In general, the captain operates a ship 
 doing the following procedures as illustrated 
 below; 
 
 First - to recognize informations necessary 
 
 for the ship's operation, consulting 
 
 signals from sensors, 
 Second - to judge, adding his navigation 
 
 know-how on the informations, and 
 Third - to operate the ship, utilizing 
 
 actuators. 
 
 I Recognition I »| Judgement I >| Operation 1 
 
 * I 
 
 I * 
 
 Sensor Actuator 
 
 The following sensors are nowadays used 
 for this purpose; 
 
 Bearing - Gyro compass and Magnetic compass 
 
 Depth - Echo sounder 
 
 Ship's speed - Electro-magnetic log or 
 
 Doppler log/sonar 
 Ship's position - Loran, Decca, Omega and 
 
 NNSS 
 Target - Radar 
 Direction - Direction finder 
 Others - Anemometer, Barometer, Thermometer, 
 Current meter, etc. 
 
 and, as actuators; 
 
 Propulsion control system 
 Steering control system 
 
 Techniques of micro-electronics and 
 automatic control have so far automated the 
 
recognition and the operation of the captain's 
 work. 
 
 For example, as the recognition system; 
 
 Position fixing by dead reckoning basing gyro 
 
 compass and log 
 LAT/LON position signal translated from LOP 
 
 signal on hyperbolic navigation system 
 Recognition of targets by computer 
 
 processing of radar video signal (ARPA) 
 
 and, as the operation system; 
 
 Auto pilot 
 
 Automatic course keeping /route tracking 
 system 
 
 The aboves are the so-called 
 systemization (softwarization) of the 
 navigation, and this systemization will more 
 and more expanded in the future according to 
 development of micro-electronics technique. 
 Coming subjects are how to systemize the 
 judgement of the captain's work. 
 
 LATEST ADVANCED NAVIGATION SYSTEM 
 
 Navigation systems which have already 
 been developed for practical use as a 
 substitute or a support system for the 
 captain's judgement are introduced below. 
 
 (1) Hybrid navigation system 
 
 Sensors for positioning have their own 
 merit and demerit in accuracy, continuity and 
 availability. This is such a system as to mix 
 merits of each sensor (NNSS, Omega, Loran, 
 Decca and Dead reckoning) , to increase 
 accuracy and redundancy. But this system will 
 be replaced with the GPS when it becomes to 
 practical use. 
 
 (2) Navigational planning 
 
 This is such a system as to plan a 
 navigation route (course and speed) of the 
 minimum fuel oil consumption and the shortest 
 time, basing upon the ship's operation 
 schedule, the weather and sea condition, the 
 dangerous zone, the navigation mode, etc. 
 
 (3) Adaptive pilot 
 
 This is such a system as to automatically 
 adjust the weather control, the counter rudder 
 setting, etc. for the auto pilot which the 
 captain manually set on the conventional 
 system, considering the weather/sea condition, 
 the ship's condition, etc. 
 
 (4) ARPA 
 
 This is sush a system as to automatically 
 track the other ships' targets in the radar 
 raw video signal, to display their course and 
 speed in vector, to judge the dangerous 
 ship(s) for alarm, and to plot past positions. 
 
 (5) Digitized chart 
 
 This is such a system as to digitize the 
 chart informations into a magnetic tape, so 
 that the chart can be displayed on the CRT 
 together with the radar raw video, and the 
 grounding dangerous or the course deviation 
 can be warned. 
 
 152 
 
 TOTAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM 
 
 Advanced navigation systems introduced 
 last chapter are all independent system and 
 their hardwares are also independent. For one 
 man watch/control in the future, these 
 independent systems are not always useful, 
 even if they have excellent respective 
 function. 
 
 For the future system, it is 
 indispensable to totalize all the functions 
 into one system. Here, what the total 
 navigation system in the future should be is 
 considered. 
 
 (1) System software 
 
 The system is to have the following 
 functions at least; 
 
 Optimum route planning 
 
 Navigation calculation for the great 
 circle, the rhumb line and the composite 
 great circle route has been completely 
 established so far, and the coming subject 
 will be an establishment of know-how to 
 define the optimization, such as planning of 
 a real optimum route both for the minimum 
 FOC and the shortest time, considering 
 effective utilization or avoidance of the 
 current and the wind, the sea worthiness, 
 etc. 
 
 Ship's position fixing 
 
 There seems to be few practical problem 
 for the merchant ships on the positioning by 
 the existing hybrid system. Much less if 
 the GPS is of service. No further 
 development for the ship's positioning will 
 be necessary after the GPS. 
 
 Sea/weather condition grasping 
 
 At present, the weather routing 
 service, basing on remote sensing by the 
 satellite and the statistical data, is 
 offered. Insufficiency of the local data 
 makes it difficult to increase the accuracy 
 of the service. It is much necessary to get 
 the local accurate data to set the most 
 optimum sailing route. Such local data will 
 be automatically obtainable by a wave sensor 
 for which further development is required. 
 
 Automatic navigation 
 
 Such a system as to keep the set course 
 or to track the planned route, has already 
 been established, as far as automatic 
 steering is concerned. However, the problem 
 is a selection of the most optimum ship's 
 speed. There is not so much ripe system at 
 the present to automatically select the 
 ship's speed together with a selection of 
 the route, considering the voyage schedule, 
 the sea/weather condition, the current, the 
 seaworthiness, the propulsion system 
 condition, etc., in order to realize the 
 real minimum FOC and shortest time. The 
 technique how to select the optimum speed 
 should be further sophisticated. 
 
 Danger avoidance 
 
 Danger avoidance includes the collision 
 avoidance, the grounding avoidance and the 
 wind and waves avoidance, and is 
 
important for the ship's safety, about which 
 the captain most worries during the voyage. 
 
 Collision avoidance :- ARPA was recently 
 obligated to be equipped for safe 
 navigation, but it only has a warning 
 function against a collision dangerous. The 
 coming subject is to develop a software to 
 automatically control the course and the 
 speed of the ship and to develop a 
 high-performance radar which can 
 discriminate even small boat in order to 
 avoid collisions perfectly. 
 
 Grounding avoidance: An active sonar was 
 once developed for this purpose, but there 
 is a problem in straight propagation of the 
 supersonic wave in the water just below the 
 sea surface. There seems to be a limit on 
 the active sonar for the detecting of the 
 shoal. Effective means of the grounding 
 avoidance will be collation to the chart. 
 It is desired to put the digitized chart to 
 practical use. 
 
 Wind and waves avoidance:- Such a system as 
 to calculate the deliverate speed loss or 
 the course to change in the rough sea will 
 be greatly helpful for protection of the 
 hull. Development of any sensors to detect 
 fources against the hull and the propulsion 
 system is wanted. 
 
 (2) Navigation console 
 
 Fig (1) shows one of the future 
 navigation console images on which all the 
 navigation systems are totalized. The 
 navigation console is equipped with four 
 displays, a steering wheel, a main engine 
 control handle, communication devices, etc., 
 and each display has the following functions; 
 
 Main navigation display (A) 
 
 This is a large sized color graphic 
 display unit on which various major 
 informations along the sailing route, such 
 as the radar raw video, the electronic 
 chart, the planned route, the track chart, 
 the ARPA data, the weather chart, the wind 
 and waves chart, etc., are displayed 
 simultaneously and independently in the 
 distinguishable color vision. 
 
 On the display surface, a transparent 
 touch sensing panel is put so that one can 
 access to the data on the display by a 
 finger touch. 
 
 And this has also such functions as to 
 automatically keep the set course and avoid 
 the danger by connecting to the steering 
 control system, and give the proper 
 revolution to the propulsion control system. 
 
 Sub navigation display (B) 
 
 This is a color graphic display unit on 
 which the navigational planning is proceeded 
 through the man-to-machine interface, and 
 the ship's position, course, propeller 
 revolution, rudder angle and speed, the 
 distance and time to next way point, the 
 wind velocity and direction, the depth, the 
 time, etc. are displayed at the ordinally 
 time. And the trends of the ship's course, 
 the depth, etc. can also be shown by a mode 
 change. 
 
 And, the display is covered with a 
 transparent touch sensing panel so that 
 switching operation for the 
 navigation/signal lights, etc. can be done 
 by a finger touch on the switch panel mode 
 on the display. 
 
 Propulsion monitoring display (C) 
 
 This is a color graphic display unit on 
 which the propulsion system condition is 
 always monitored. And if any trouble 
 happens in the propulsion plant, suitable 
 instructions from the diagnosis system are 
 given on the display, and one can remotely 
 operate each control system according to the 
 instructions by a finger touch on the 
 display. 
 
 CCTV display (D) 
 
 Surrounding conditions (ship's fore, 
 after and both sides) are always monitored 
 on this display through CCTV cameras which 
 can be remotely controlled from the console. 
 
 AFTERWORD 
 
 An idea of the total navigation system 
 has become remarkable by appearence of the 
 micro-computer, and now is at its starting 
 point historically. And from now on, the 
 total navigation system will be extended 
 toward a splendid system with the development 
 of the micro-electronic technique. 
 
 The navigation console which makes one 
 man watch/control possible, presented on this 
 paper, is believed to be effective for 
 realization of the real total navigation 
 system. 
 
 REFERENCE 
 
 1) Japan Marine Standards Association, 1981 
 Report on "Investigation for 
 Standardization of Bridge System" 
 
 153 
 
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 Navigation Console 
 154 
 
MARINER SURFACE SHIP SYSTEM IDENTIFICATION * 
 
 Thomas Moran and Abigail Wemple 
 
 David Taylor Naval Ship Research and Development Center 
 Bethesda Maryland, 20084, U.S.A. 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 The techniques of System Identification 
 (SI) applied in conjunction with a Radio 
 Controlled Model (RCM) of a surface ship to 
 identify the full non-linear horizontal plane 
 maneuvering equation of motion are presented. 
 The identification results are found to be in 
 excellent agreement with full-scale test data. 
 When compared to captive model test data, the 
 results only agree with planar motion mechanism 
 based data for maneuvers associated with small 
 rudder angles and rotating arm facility data for 
 maneuvers associated with large rudder angles. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 System Identification (SI) is a technique 
 for mathematically characterizing a system based 
 on knowledge of the responses of that system to 
 some known input. In this ship maneuvering 
 application, the ship, (or its model) is subject 
 to precisely determined control deflections and 
 the response is measured precisely enough to per- 
 mit working backwards to deduce the value of the 
 coefficients in the maneuvering equations 
 (parameter identification) or to determine the 
 form of the maneuvering equations as well (system 
 identification). Due to the large number of 
 unknowns (both the form of equations and asso- 
 ciated parameters), the technique is dependent on 
 great experimental precision and efficient com- 
 puter based estimation methods. The computer 
 based estimation methods were Kalman filtering, 
 regression and maximum likelihood. The David 
 Taylor Naval Ship R&D Center (DTNSRDC) has deve- 
 loped a methodology for applying System 
 Identification techniques employing a RCM for the 
 identification of the maneuvering equations for 
 marine vehicles. It has been the experience at 
 DTNSRDC that the SI technique, described in this 
 paper, is the only way that a math model suitable 
 for the stringent requirements of ship control 
 can be developed. In order to demonstrate the 
 techniques developed, a program to apply these 
 techniques for the "identification" of a surface 
 ship was proposed and funded under the DTNSRDC 
 Independent Research (IR). The MARINER was cho- 
 sen as the candidate surface ship because: (a) 
 extensive captive model test data are available, 
 (b) A model was readily available; and (c) some 
 full-scale trial data are available. 
 
 Presented by Dr. Alan Powell 
 
 A more thorough treatise of the subject 
 matter covered in this paper is given in 
 reference 1. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF MODEL AND TEST FACILITY 
 
 The MARINER, model 4414, is the same model 
 used by Gertler for captive model tests. 
 
 The RCM was fitted with propeller 4630. The 
 pertinent characteristics for this propeller are 
 given in reference 1 . 
 
 The tests were conducted in the 360-foot 
 (109.7 meters) long, 240 foot (73.2 meters) wide, 
 maneuvering basin of the Harold E. Saunders 
 Maneuvering and Seakeeping (MASK) Facility shown. 
 
 The RCM utilizes commercial frequency 
 modulated (FM) and pulse code modulated (PCM) 
 telemetry equipment to telemeter the commands to 
 the model and the data from the model, respec- 
 tively. 
 
 PROCEDURES EMPLOYED 
 
 The procedure employed at the Center for 
 identifying marine vehicles is as follows: 
 
 1. The rudder is deflected to a predetermined 
 fixed rudder angle in order to attain a 
 desired steady angle of sideslip and turning 
 rate. A small amplitude sequence is then 
 superimposed on this constant rudder deflec- 
 tion which imparts small perturbations about 
 this steady equilibrium. 
 
 2. For the same steady equilibrium condition, 
 the procedure is repeated for several dif- 
 ferent input sequences, and each input 
 sequence is repeated at least one time. 
 
 3. These perturbation runs are then used to 
 identify parameters for a local linear model. 
 
 4. The above steps are repeated over a predeter- 
 mined range of steady equilibrium conditions 
 resulting in a set of local parameters for 
 each condition. 
 
 5. The variations in the local parameters as a 
 function of the equilibrium states defined at 
 each of the steady conditions are then used 
 
 155 
 
to identify the structure for the full non- 
 linear set of maneuvering equations that 
 apply to the range of steady conditions 
 tested. 
 
 6. Once the full non-linear equations are known, 
 the parameters for these equations can be 
 easily determined from a regression analysis 
 in which the dependent variables are the 
 local parameters identified at the 
 equilibrium conditions and the independent 
 variables are the unbiased steady states. 
 
 INPUT DESIGN 
 Input design is the process wherein the 
 inputs (rudder angle and propeller RPM) are 
 selected in such a manner as to enhance the iden- 
 tifiability of the system. Properly designed 
 inputs not only yield accurate parameter estima- 
 tes, but require less test data. 
 
 The candidate inputs are a set of Walsh 
 functions which resemble square waves whose 
 highest frequency is beyond the ship response 
 range. An optimal subset is chosen that combines 
 several Walsh functions. 
 
 TESTS PERFORMED 
 Two sets of experiments were performed. 
 The first set consisted of a series of steady 
 turn maneuvers corresponding to full-scale speeds 
 of 10, 15 and 20 knots. Nominal rudder angles of 
 ±15, ±25, and ±35 degrees were employed. 
 Constant propeller RPM was maintained during 
 the maneuver. The run duration was approximately 
 one full-scale minute after steady conditions 
 were obtained. The second set of experiments 
 were performed for the purposes of system iden- 
 tification, and consisted of two types of 
 maneuvers; diagonal runs and spiral runs. The 
 spiral runs consisted of steady turns that were 
 performed on an inward spiraling path. 
 
 GLOBAL MODEL 
 The manner in which the local linear para- 
 meters varied as a function of each of the steady 
 state conditions suggested global equations for 
 the lateral force and yawing moment as shown in 
 Table 1. The values of the global parameters 
 were estimated such that: 
 
 a. The values of the partial deri- 
 vatives of the global equations 
 evaluated at the equilibrium 
 states agreed with the local 
 parameters estimates at the 
 equilibrium states. 
 
 b. The solutions of the global 
 equation passed through the mean 
 value of the equilibrium states 
 for all the identification runs. 
 
 Several forms of the global structure were 
 investigated before the final structure was 
 determined. For example, several forms for 
 explaining the variation of Y5 r and N$ r at dif- 
 ferent equilibrium states were investigated, and 
 the term that best explained this variation was 
 
 Table 1 
 Table 1 - Lateral Force and Yawing Moment Maneuvering Fquations and 
 Coefficients Obtained frch System Identification 
 
 + Y uv + Y , ,v/v/ 
 v v/v/ 
 
 m(v + ur) = |i Iy,u 
 
 + 1 I [y^r + Y;v] 
 
 + !^[V + Y r/r/ r/r/ ] 
 
 = f S, 3 [n*u + N y uv + N y/v/ v/v 
 
 + f?"[N r ur + N C C] 
 
 '6r 
 
 2 2 1 
 
 u(l + tan g )6r I 
 
 I r 
 
 N r u (1 + ta 
 or 
 
 n 2 B t )6r| 
 
 + flN-r +§«.N rrr r /u 
 
 where 
 
 
 tang 
 
 V + 
 
 u 
 
 *1 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 LATERAL FORCE PARAMETERS 
 
 YAWING 
 
 MOMENT PARAMETERS 
 
 *. 
 
 = 
 
 .503 
 
 X 
 
 io- 4 
 
 N. 
 
 a 
 
 .271 X IO -4 
 
 Y 
 
 
 -.145 
 
 X 
 
 lO" 1 
 
 N 
 
 = 
 
 -.42 X IO' 2 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 Y 
 
 = 
 
 .255 
 
 X 
 
 io" 2 
 
 N 
 
 = 
 
 -.2 X 10~ 2 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 or 
 
 ■ 
 
 .287 
 
 X 
 
 io" 2 
 
 N x 
 or 
 
 = 
 
 -.138 X IO" 2 
 
 V 
 
 
 -.225 
 
 X 
 
 io" 1 
 
 N / / 
 
 = 
 
 .105 X 10 _1 
 
 v/v/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 v/v/ 
 
 
 
 Y , , 
 
 „ 
 
 .208 
 
 X 
 
 io' 2 
 
 N 
 
 = 
 
 -.311 X IO" 2 
 
 r/r/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 rrr 
 
 
 
 Y- 
 
 _ 
 
 -.748 
 
 X 
 
 io" 2 
 
 N- 
 
 = 
 
 .4355 X 10"' 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 Y- 
 
 
 -.975 
 
 X 
 
 io" 4 
 
 N- 
 
 = 
 
 -.401 X IO -3 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 x t 
 
 « 
 
 -.48 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 = 
 
 .428 X 10 -3 
 
 n 
 
 - 
 
 .7976 : 
 
 i io -2 
 
 I 
 
 = 
 
 528.01 
 
 6 r (l + tan B t ). Furthermore*, it was found that 
 this form of the equation best fitted rotating 
 arm data taken from reference 1. Similar proce- 
 dures were used to determine the other non-linear 
 terms. 
 
 In order to satisfy these criteria, it was 
 necessary to adjust the zero equilibrium con- 
 dition values for Y v and N r by 6% and 10% respec- 
 tively. Since these zero rudder parameters were 
 based on much shorter run lengths (80 to 100 
 seconds), they were in all likelihood biased. 
 Table 1 li sts the values of the global parameter 
 *After this paper was prepared, it was realized 
 that there exists a high correlation between (1 + 
 tan f3 t ) and the propeller propulsion jatio. 
 Thus, it is possible that the (1 + tan 3 t ) term 
 could be due to the propeller slip stream on the 
 rudder. This needs to be investigated further. 
 
 FULL SCALE VALIDATION 
 Two types of validations were performed, 
 local and global. An example of the local vali- 
 dation is shown in figure 1 which compares the 
 system identification results with a full scale 
 zig zag maneuver reported in reference 2. An 
 example of the global validation is shown in 
 
 156 
 
figure 2. This figure which shows the variation 
 in drift angle with non-dimensional turning rate, 
 and defines the operating range of the ship. It 
 also shows that the identified model and the 
 radio controlled model agrees extremely well with 
 full scale. 
 
 COMPARISON WITH CAPTIVE MODEL DATA 
 
 Since it has been demonstrated above that 
 the SID model estimates of steady drift and 
 non-dimensional turning rate are practically 
 identical to both the RCM and full-scale values 
 for these variables, these estimates can be 
 used as a basis to assess the estimates of 
 maneuvering equations determined from captive 
 model techniques. Figure 3 presents steady 
 values of non-dimensional turning rate as a func- 
 tion of rudder angle for equations based on 3 
 different types of tests: RAF-designates 
 rotating arm tests, SL-represents large angle PMM 
 tests, and HY-A represents plane motion tests. 
 This plot shows the following trends: 
 
 1 . For small rudder angles the SI predictions 
 are in closest agreement with the predictions 
 based on the PMM techniques. 
 
 2. For large rudder angles the SID predictions 
 are in closest agreement with the predictions 
 based on RAF techniques. 
 
 The significance of these differences bet- 
 ween SID and captive model based predictions can 
 be assessed by comparing stability predictions 
 for small rudder angles and turning diameter pre- 
 dictions for large rudder angles. 
 
 Stability estimates for small rudder angles 
 indicate similar stabilities for the SID, HY-A 
 and SL models. The RAF stability estimates indi- 
 cate that the ships is two times more stable. 
 
 The turning diameter, in ships length, is 
 defined by 
 
 T d = 2/r' 
 
 For a 40 degree right rudder, the turning 
 diameters predicted by the four sets of 
 maneuvering equations range from 3.1 to 5 ship 
 lengths. The RAF prediction differs by only 0.2 
 ship lengths from the SID value of 3.5 ship 
 lengths. 
 
 CONCLUSIONS 
 
 Based upon the results reported herein, it is 
 concluded that: 
 
 1. The system identification procedures deve- 
 loped and originated DTNSRDC have been suc- 
 cessfully demonstrated for MARINER. 
 Furthermore, it has been shown that a 
 complete non-linear maneuvering mathematical 
 model can be developed without any apriori 
 information concerning the equations of 
 motion with the exception of knowledge of the 
 
 3. 
 
 5. 
 
 mass, mass moment of inertia, added mass and 
 added mass moment of inertia. 
 
 The RCM and the identified maneuvering 
 equations both predict full-scale behavior 
 during turns. No significant effects between 
 ship models and full-scale were observed. 
 
 Rudder effectiveness increases in a turn. 
 This effect is due to either the local drift 
 angle or the effect of the propeller slip 
 stream or both. 
 
 The identified maneuvering equations are in 
 close agreement with PMM based maneuvering 
 equations around the equilibrium condition 
 defined by small rudder angles and in close 
 agreement with the Rotating Arm based 
 maneuvering equations around equilibrium con- 
 ditions defined by large rudder angles. 
 Neither the PMM nor RAF techniques by them- 
 selves are adequate for predicting turning 
 characteristics for the whole operating range 
 of MARINER. 
 
 For those surface ships configured with twin 
 screws and/or thrusters, consideration should 
 be given to the use of multiple inputs. This 
 would decouple the states v and r and greatly 
 simplify the identification process. 
 
 6. Inputs for the surge equation and roll 
 equation require tests. 
 
 7. Tests to further define the effect of pro- 
 peller ship stream on rudder effectiveness 
 should be included in future SI testing. 
 
 8. Finally, additional system identification 
 tests, both RCM and full-scale, should be 
 performed in order to generalize these 
 conclusions to other surface ships. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 (1) Thomas Moran, et al , "Mariner Surface Ship 
 Identification" presented at the Seventh Ship 
 Control Systems Symposium, 24-27-September 1984, 
 Bath England. 
 
 (2) Gertler, Morton, "Cooperative Rotating Arm 
 and Straight Line Experiments with ITTC Standard 
 Model", DTNSRDC Report 2721, June 1966. 
 
 (3) Morse, R.V., and Price, D. , "Maneuvering 
 Characteristics of the MARINER Type Ship (USS 
 COMPASS ISLAND) in Calm Seas", Sperry Gyroscope 
 Publication G7-2233-1019 prepared for the David 
 Taylor Model Basin under Contract No nr 3061 
 (00). 
 
 157 
 
FULL-SCPLE CORRELATION PT 20 KNOTS 
 
 o 
 
 z 
 
 1 uU-l. -li- 1 — ^ 
 
 -fc! 
 
 - T!3 
 
 
 •!.«■> 
 
 -t.OO- 
 
 J __ 
 
 I 
 
 -T- 
 
 0.0 L-C.t' IFO.O i 1 -' " MO.O -O'.'J MBCi.O St'.'.'.' 6M0.C' 't i.O 60ft. 
 
 TIME 3': 3EI : 6UC'-: 
 
 Fioure 1a - Full-Scale Measured and SI Estimation of Heading 
 Rate for a Typical Validation Run 
 
 FULL-SCPLE CORRELATION PT 20 KNOTS 
 
 0.0 «0 180.0 2M0.0 320.0 HCtt.C 189.0 S6O.0 6H0.C 720.0 (00.0 
 
 TIME IN SECONDS 
 
 Fioure 1b - Full-Scale Measured ahd SI Estimation of Drift 
 Amble for a Typical Validation Run 
 
 157A 
 
VALlDRTieN WITH M9DEL PND FULL-SCPLE 
 
 C9MPPR1S9N WITH CPPTJVE M6DEL 
 
 c.»o- 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *aa Full Scale 
 
 M.RCM 
 
 «i SI Estimation 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 • 
 
 1* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 if 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 # 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 V tM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 €> 
 
 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 BE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q, 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .ii 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 '■£■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 X* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * »' 
 
 ,» 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •e.w- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -M.O -IS." -It." -1.0 -M.fi 0.0 M. 
 
 let' 16-0 20.0 
 
 RETO IN DFr.PEF? 
 
 Figure 2 - Full-Scale fe*a*ED, KM ffeAsuRED and SI Estimation 
 of Variation in toN-oiMeeioNAL Turning Rate with 
 
 Drift Angle 
 
 o.to- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •** SI ESTIhATION 
 
 
 .\ 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 
 mWf 
 
 444 SL 
 
 •«HY-A 
 
 
 
 
 S, 
 
 l\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 kv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ni 
 
 iv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 QC 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L b» 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -o.to- 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -w.o -m.o ^m.o -ii. o -i.o o.o s.o ie.0 t».o m.o »o.c 
 DP IN DEGREES 
 
 frnx 3 - Gcmfmikn BrncB* tefriFicATioN IksED and Captive 
 Ftaa Bases Estimation of Non-dimbcional Turning 
 Rate as a Function of Arm *** «• 
 
 157.B 
 
Research and Development of Advanced Marine Vehicles 
 in the United states Coast Guard 
 
 Mr. Rueben O. Schlegelmilch 
 Technical Director, Office of Research and Development* 
 
 Commander Donald H. Van Liew, Chief, Marine Vehicle Technology Branch* 
 
 Office of Research and Development 
 
 U. S. Coast Guard, Washington, D. C. 20593 
 
 enhance the effectiveness of ship resources, 
 and (2) the Coast Guard should continue to 
 examine the possibility of augmentation of 
 its current fleet with more specialized and 
 less costly platforms in certain geographic 
 regions where specific operational 
 characteristics permit. 
 
 This latest and most comprehensive 
 effort that we are describing was instituted 
 to continually evaluate the utility of 
 evolving advanced marine vehicle (AMV) 
 technologies within the context of USCG 
 operational missions. 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 During the next decades and into the 
 coming century the cost of buying and 
 maintaining new vessels for the U. S. Coast 
 Guard will be in the billions of dollars. 
 The Coast Guard needs to maximize every 
 design detail and make better use of current 
 technologies in preparing specifications for 
 new vessels in order to get the most out of 
 them in operational mission performance. 
 This paper describes what the Coast Guard 
 Research and Development Staff is doing to 
 reach that goal. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Our Research and Development role in 
 applying the economics and technologies of 
 advanced marine vehicles (AMV) in the 
 U. S. Coast Guard is directed towards three 
 objectives. They are to support: 
 
 (1) the acquisition process for 
 various cutter replacements 
 
 (2) ad hoc procurements of advanced 
 craft for operational use by the Coast 
 Guard, and 
 
 (3) operational program manager 
 decisions concerning fleet composition 
 and operation considerations which 
 will maximize the effectiveness of our 
 fleet. 
 
 BACKGROUND 
 
 in March 1982 the "COAST GUARD ROLES 
 AND MISSION" report recommended that (1) the 
 Coast Guard should continue to pursue R&D 
 projects such as evaluating advanced marine 
 vehicles and advanced technologies which 
 
 The advanced state of AMV technology 
 at present is one of the most important 
 strengths of this project. The general 
 categories of advanced marine vehicles with 
 proven demonstrator craft in the size range 
 of primary interest to the Coast Guard 
 (100-3000 tons) are the following: fully 
 submerged hydrofoils, surface piercing 
 Surface Effect Ship (SES), planing craft, 
 and Small waterplane Area Twin Hull (SWATH) 
 craft. In all cases, these craft surpass 
 the Coast Guard mission effectiveness of 
 conventional cutters of the same general 
 size due to (1) a superior speed capability 
 (in calm water and/or in a seaway) and/or 
 (2) a superior seakeeping capability. 
 However, these benefits may be at the 
 expense of other fundamental mission tasks 
 such as towing, boarding, range, and 
 payload. Each improvement normally has a 
 commensurate impact on life cycle cost. 
 
 TECHNICAL APPROACH 
 
 The project is divided into three 
 major project elements: 
 Acquisition/Technical Support, Test and 
 Evaluation, and Craft Hydrodynamic 
 Characteristics. 
 
 The first project element, 
 Acquisition/Technical Support, provides for 
 the primary project results, i.e., planned 
 replacement acquisition support. The 
 operations analysis (OA) and operations 
 
 ♦This paper is the sole responsibility of 
 the authors. It does not necessarily 
 reflect official U. S. Coast Guard policy. 
 
 158 
 
research (OR) portions serve this purpose 
 directly by providing the primary inputs 
 required by the cost effectiveness 
 analysis. The principal source of the input 
 information is the database which will 
 contain all pertinent physical and 
 performance features of existing 
 conventional and advanced craft which are in 
 the range of interest for Coast Guard 
 cutters. (At present, the range of interest 
 is 100-3000 tons; however, this may change 
 in the future). The database has been 
 established on the Digital Equipment 
 Corporation Model PDP 11/34 computer with 
 future plans to expand to the Digital 
 Equipment Corporation VAX computer. It will 
 be updated regularly from the technical 
 literature and from the output of the other 
 two project elements to ensure that current 
 information is available on very short 
 notice. The technical support portion of 
 the project provides general technical 
 services. It provides for the development 
 of notional craft designs which can be used 
 to supplement database information for those 
 advanced craft for which there are few 
 in-service demonstrators in the size range 
 of interest. Additionally, a reliability, 
 maintainability, and availability 
 methodology will be developed in order to 
 improve the cost effectiveness analysis 
 methodology, which does not consider craft 
 availability at present. The cost 
 effectiveness output is also of value by 
 identifying those craft characteristics 
 which are most important for any given set 
 of performance requirements. This feature 
 helps us to make the most efficient use of 
 project resources by concentrating them in 
 the areas of highest "pay-off". 
 
 craft performance characteristics for the 
 purposes of acquisition and usage decisions. 
 
 CUTTER ACQUISITION SUPPORT 
 
 Here we will look at the vessel's 
 characteristics such as speed, seakeeping, 
 maneuverability, range and availability. We 
 will do this by running analytic and 
 simulation models of the pertinent 
 missions. These models integrate realistic 
 mission scenarios with ship characteristics 
 obtained from recent technical evaluations 
 and currently available engineering design 
 information. This system will manage a 
 large amount of historical data on the 
 entire project, and will provide Coast Guard 
 managers with the ability to access, 
 analyze, compute, and display historical 
 data and future predictions. The system 
 will be useful in forecasting resource 
 utilization, productivity, and the 
 performance of candidate craft for 
 acquisition. 
 
 A preliminary in-house study will be 
 conducted on the deployment of Remotely 
 Piloted Vehicles (RPVs) from multi-mission 
 AMVs. Study will include a literature 
 search of existing RPVs, historic 
 utilization of RPVs on conventional craft 
 including sensor payloads, and the benefits 
 of RPVs for "over the horizon" Coast Guard 
 missions. 
 
 A feasibility study of a hybrid craft 
 will also be conducted. This will be a 
 follow-on effort to the work begun in 1984 
 (See Figures 1-4) and will develop a new 
 design, rather than retrofit an existing one. 
 
 The second project element, Test and 
 Evaluation, provides the primary full-scale 
 vessel input to the database. Due to the 
 type of work undertaken within this project 
 element, e.g., leasing and long-term field 
 testing of advanced craft, it requires the 
 greatest commitment of funds. Nevertheless, 
 it is of great technical and demonstrative 
 value to the project. 
 
 The third project element, Craft 
 Hydrodynamic Characteristics, provides a 
 means for obtaining performance data for 
 designs which do not exist in service. This 
 type of analytical and experimental work is 
 necessary due to the limited number of 
 in-service demonstrator craft under many of 
 the craft categories. Additionally, the 
 literature reviews which will be conducted 
 continuously will provide an important 
 source of information to the database. The 
 three portions of this project element are: 
 Resistance and Propulsion, Seakeeping and 
 Stability, and Special Topics. The first 
 two headings are stated explicitly since, 
 according to the OR/OA work done over the 
 past year, they are the most significant 
 
 An in-house study on human factors 
 considerations for AMVs will be conducted. 
 This study will look at the effects of craft 
 motions on crew members and the ability to 
 effectively conduct mission objectives. 
 
 TEST AND EVALUATION 
 
 This includes full-scale test, 
 evaluation and demonstration of various 
 marine vehicle craft. Testing is 
 accomplished through technical and 
 operational evaluations. A technical 
 evaluation is a short duration look at a 
 vessel's performance characteristics. It is 
 in this stage that we take hard seakeeping 
 performance data. The operational 
 evaluation is an extended look (6-12 months) 
 to provide a true evaluation of the vessels' 
 ability to perform Coast Guard missions. We 
 will evaluate the 44 foot Motor Life Boat 
 and later our 41 foot boats in addition to 
 the SES-200 Surface Effect Ship on loan to 
 us from the Navy. 
 
 In addition to full-scale craft 
 evaluations, craft subsystems are also 
 
 159 
 
evaluated. This fiscal year installation of 
 a ride control system on one of the Coast 
 Guard's Surface Effect Ships will be 
 completed. An advanced propulsor will be 
 installed on a 41 foot utility boat (UTB) 
 for evaluation of pre-swirl vanes. 
 
 CRAFT HYDRODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 Our in-house effort to program and 
 evaluate computer models which may be used 
 to predict AMV seakeeping performance, 
 maneuvering and stability characteristics, 
 and prediction of speed loss in a seaway 
 will be augmented with work done by 
 contract. The development of a Surface 
 Effect Ship motions computer model in the 
 frequency domain and a parametric study of 
 the effect of hydrostatic parameters such as 
 Longitudinal Center Gravity and Metacentric 
 on SWATH ship seakeeping will be done. We 
 will also study seakeeping, powering and 
 loss of speed in a seaway for an SES design 
 and a SWATH ship design using model tests in 
 a towing tank. The models will be towed in 
 head and following seas. A research project 
 in conjunction with the British Department 
 of Transport and Vosper Hovermarine, Ltd. 
 will continue work in the area of SES 
 stability using radio-controlled model tests 
 to predict safe operating limits for SES. 
 
 Preliminary model tests will be 
 conducted in a towing tank and in a rotating 
 arm basin to provide the initial 
 hydrodynamic data for an in-house study to 
 develop roll/yaw stability and 
 turning/maneuvering criteria for planing 
 hulls. In addition, seakeeping, powering 
 and loss of speed in a seaway will be 
 studied for two notional patrol boat (WPB) 
 designs. The effect of changes in forebody 
 shape on the seakeeping, powering and loss 
 of speed in a seaway for planing hulls will 
 be systematically investigated using model 
 tests in a towing tank. 
 
 The time dependent pressures on a 
 planing hull will be measured for head seas 
 in towing tanks. These pressures will be 
 correlated with the velocity and 
 acceleration of the hull and the wave 
 motion. Three hulls with different deadrise 
 angles will be tested. 
 
 Steady state pressure distributions on 
 a planing hull will be studied in the 
 circulating water channel at the D. S. Coast 
 Guard Academy. 
 
 Seakeeping, powering and the loss of 
 speed in a seaway will be studied for 95 
 foot patrol boats (WPB), 44 foot motor life 
 boats (MLB), 180 foot buoy tenders (WLB) and 
 327 foot cutters (WMEC) using model tests in 
 the D. S. Naval Academy towing tank. The 
 models will be towed in head and following 
 seas. The seakeeping of the 210 foot WMEC, 
 
 95 foot WPB, 44 
 will be studied 
 in a seakeeping 
 tested in head, 
 following seas, 
 complement each 
 data for future 
 
 foot MLB and 180 foot WLB 
 using self propelled models 
 basin. The models will be 
 bow, beam, quartering and 
 This group of tests will 
 other and provide baseline 
 comparison. 
 
 A preliminary in-house study will be 
 conducted on the survivability of advanced 
 hull designs in ice, including AMV usage for 
 low density icebreaking. This work will 
 support Coastal Buoy Tender Replacement. 
 
 An experimental evaluation of the 
 effects of shaft inclination on propulsor 
 performance is also planned. 
 
 BENEFITS 
 
 The activities of this project provide 
 important inputs to the decision making 
 process which will involve several billions 
 of dollars in acquisition costs over the 
 next twenty years and several times that 
 amount for support (personnel, fuel, 
 maintenance, facilities) costs. As a result 
 of this project we can provide Coast Guard 
 management with credible information which 
 will enhance our understanding of the 
 performance and economic benefits of 
 advanced marine vehicles versus those of 
 conventional vessels. 
 
 Advanced marine vehicles offer 
 improved performance (effectiveness) over 
 conventional vessels in the following 
 categories: crew safety, seakeeping, speed, 
 energy efficiency, reduced crew manning, 
 reduced maintenance and support costs, and 
 improved crew habitability. Construction 
 standards of present advanced marine 
 vehicles are compatible with marine industry 
 standards. The general trend is toward 
 greater simplicity, reliability, and 
 managable costs. The resulting construction 
 costs are now becoming comparable to 
 conventional vessels using similar materials 
 and as this improves, we will see more 
 acceptance of advanced unconventional craft 
 in the Coast Guard. 
 
 160 
 
U.S. COAST GUARD HYBRID CONCEPT 
 
 AN ARTISTS CONCEPTION OF THE HYBRID SWATH (HYSWAS) VESSEL. 
 
 Figure 1 
 
 161 
 
SIDE-BY-SIDE TRIALS OF SWATH KAIMAL1NO AND COAST GUARD BUOY TENDER. 
 
 FIGURE 2 
 
 162 
 
TWO CG SURFACE EFFECT SHIPS MANEUVER TOGETHER NEAR KEY WEST, FLORIDA 
 
 FIGURE 3 
 
 L63 
 
: . m-,:.''" .:;:■■■ 
 
 SIDE-BY-SIDE COMPARISON TRIALS BETWEEN 89 FOOT LONG SWATH KAIMALINO, 
 CG 95 FOOT LONG PATROL BOAT? AND 378 FOOT LONG CUTTER SHOWED THE MUCH 
 SMALLER SWATH RODE VERY SIMILAR TO THE LARGER 378 FOOT CUTTER. 
 
 FIGURE 4 
 
 164 
 
D/W 26,000 M.T. Modern Sail-Assisted Log and Bulk Carrier 
 
 "USUKI PIONEER" 
 
 Noboru Hamada 
 President 
 
 Japan Marine Machinery Development Association 
 
 1-15-16, Toranomon, Minato-ku, Tokyo 
 
 Japan 
 
 1. Background 
 
 Since the Japan Marine Machinery Develop- 
 ment Association (JAMDA) embarked on the 
 development of the world's first modern sail- 
 assisted tanker, the 'Shin Aitoku Maru', which 
 was notable for the fact that it required no extra 
 crew to handle the sails, other ships of the same 
 type, all using wind power to reduce energy costs, 
 have come into service. The 'Shin Aitoku Maru' 
 was launched in 1980, and since then a total of 
 six other sail-equipped ships have been launched 
 and are now in service in domestic waters. The 
 'Shin Aitoku Maru', which has now completed its 
 fourth year of service, has shown a fuel saving in 
 use of 50% compared to conventional ships of 
 the same size, type and age. 
 
 These modern sail-assisted motor vessels have 
 shown good results not just in terms of fuel sav- 
 ing, but also in terms of dynamic performance. 
 They exhibit considerably reduced rolling, pitch- 
 ing and yawing when compared to conventional 
 ships and this is a further factor in their success. 
 
 In this new ship, we have tried to make the 
 best possible use of the lessons learned and the 
 experience gained from the previous ships in 
 order to produce a large modern sail-assisted bulk 
 carrier. The new ship has been buiit at Usuid Iron 
 Works' Saiki Shipyard. (Fig. 1 , Table 1 ) 
 
 As may be seen from the specifications, the 
 ship employs two main engines which drive a 
 single low speed large diameter controllable 
 pitch propeller through reduction gearing. This 
 is by no means a new system, and can be seen 
 on many recently designed ships, but the differ- 
 ence is that on this ship the relationship between 
 the two engines, the propulsion obtained from 
 the sails, and the propeller pitch can be freely 
 controlled by computer to give optimum fuel effi- 
 ciency. The use of two engines also means that 
 the load factor can be reduced to as low as one 
 fifth (about 1320 PS) while still burning grade C 
 heavy oil. This differs from conventional heavy 
 oil burning engines which have to switch to grade 
 A oil at low loads. 
 
 In addition to the sail system, the ship incorpo- 
 rates a considerable number of other energy sav- 
 ing measures, and it is felt that it will be possible 
 to achieve fuel savings of between 15 and 40% as 
 compared to conventional fuel efficient ships. 
 The initial target is a fuel consumption of less 
 than 15 tons per day at normal running speed. 
 
 Note: Modern sail-assisted ship 
 
 The term 'modern sail-assisted ship' as used here 
 refers not to existing ships which have been retrofit- 
 ted with sails, but to those ships which have been 
 designed for sail use from the outset. Such design 
 includes not only the design of the most suitable 
 hull for sail use, but also the design of the sails 
 and engines as a complete energy-saving unit capable 
 of making the greatest possible use of the gains 
 achieved by the sails. 
 
 2. The Component Parts of the Energy 
 Saving System - Details 
 
 2.1 The Modern Wing Sail System 
 
 The ship employs a fully automatic sail system 
 which was designed aerodynamically after con- 
 siderable research into wing theory. This sail 
 system has a dual role, it reduces fuel costs, and 
 also it serves to reduce pitching, rolling and yaw- 
 ing, thus greatly increasing the ship's stability. 
 
 (1) There are two parallel furling aerofoil type 
 sails mounted on the ship, each of which is 
 made of cloth mounted on a steel frame. 
 
 (2) Each sail measures 16 m. in height and 20 m. 
 in width, giving a sail area of 320 m 2 per sail 
 and a total sail area of 640 m 2 . Each sail is 
 also divided into upper and lower sections 
 which can be furled and unfurled separately. 
 This enables the ship to make effective use 
 of winds of up to 25 m/s. 
 
 (3) The sails are controlled by a computer which 
 sets the sails to the optimum angle after 
 
 165 
 
measuring the wind speed and direction. 
 The system is completely automatic and no 
 extra crew members are required in order to 
 operate the sails. The ship's complement is 
 the same as that of a conventional ship of 
 this size. 
 
 (4) The positions of the sails and the cranes 
 have been carefully arranged so that the sails 
 in no way interfere with loading and unload- 
 ing operations. 
 
 (5) In view of the need for the ship to pass 
 under low bridges when entering ports in 
 America, the air draft has been fixed at 40 m. 
 
 (6) The ship will be sailing the Northern Pacific 
 route, on which cold conditions are often 
 encountered. In consideration of this, the 
 sail cloth has been specially chosen to resist 
 cold, and the sails are fitted with a de-icing 
 system. 
 
 2.2 The Hull Design 
 
 In addition to designing the ship's hull for mini- 
 mum resistance, the height of the superstructure 
 was also reduced with a view to improving the 
 ship's stability. 
 
 (1) In order to achieve the lowest possible hull 
 drag, we commissioned the University of 
 Tokyo to design a new type of low drag hull. 
 
 (2) Five different designs of model were sub- 
 jected to comparative tests in order to as- 
 certain the best hull shape. Tests using 
 models were also carried out at the Japan 
 Shipbuilding Technology Centre. 
 
 (3) The use of a special bulbous bow and bul- 
 bous stern means that the ship can use 
 much less powerful engines than would 
 normally be fitted to a 26,000 D.W.T. 
 bulk carrier. 
 
 (4) We were very much aware of the need to 
 ensure safety in a large sail-equipped vessel 
 of this type, and to this end we carried out 
 basin and wind/current generator-equipped 
 basin tests using models in order to confirm 
 the ship's safety. 
 
 (5) The ship's superstructure is of a new, low 
 height design aimed at reducing wind 
 resistance. 
 
 2.3 The Propulsion System 
 
 In order to achieve maximum fuel economy 
 under a wide variety of sailing conditions, the 
 ship employs, in addition to its sails, two main 
 
 engines which drive a single propeller shaft 
 through reduction gearing. The propeller is a 
 large diameter low speed controllable pitch type. 
 This two engine/one shaft system is run by 
 computers which automatically control engine 
 speed and output, balance load between the 
 engines, and regulate the ship's sailing speed. The 
 computer system regulates in addition the pitch 
 of the propeller and the relation between engine 
 power and sail power. When a higher power out- 
 put from the main engines is required, the com- 
 puter system switches in both units, but when 
 there is a good wind and there is sufficient pro- 
 pulsion being generated by the sails, the computer 
 cuts out one engine. This system enables the ship 
 to make the best possible use of its sails at all 
 
 times. (Fig. 2 ~ 4) 
 
 (1) The main engines are two Hanshin 6EL40 
 units rated at 3300 HP each. These engines 
 exhibit very good combustion characteristics 
 even under partial load. 
 
 (2) The use of a two engine/one shaft system 
 means that grade 'C heavy fuel oil can be 
 burnt even at loads as low as one fifth 
 (about 1320 PS). 
 
 (3) Over the full load range, (including start up 
 and stopping but not including periods when 
 the engines are stopped for a long time,) 
 both of the engines are capable of burning 
 fuel with a calorific value as low as 380 est 
 (50°C). 
 
 (4) The ship uses a large diameter (6.4 m) low 
 speed (88 rpm) 4 blade controllable pitch 
 propeller which gives a high level of propul- 
 sive efficiency. 
 
 (5) The propeller surface is ground to a very 
 high level of finish (5 ju), which further im- 
 proves propulsive efficiency. 
 
 2.4 The Exhaust Gas Economizer, Boiler, and 
 Oil Circulating Preheating System 
 
 (1) The Oil Type Exhaust Gas Economizer. 
 
 (a) The heat exchange process is as follows: 
 exhaust gas -» air -+ heating medium (oil) -*■ 
 areas to be heated (fuel oil etc.) This system 
 allows exhaust gas to be used with a high 
 degree of efficiency for heating purposes, 
 and does not suffer from the problem of 
 corrosion caused by exhaust gas. 
 
 (b) The high efficiency of the system means 
 that it is capable of supplying not only all 
 
 166 
 
the heating needs of the crew quarters, but 
 also that it has sufficient capacity to heat 
 the ship's fuel and lubricating oil. 
 (2) The Oil Circulating Boiler 
 
 (a) The boiler is a closed cycle type which 
 uses oil as the heating medium instead of 
 steam. This means that, in addition to 
 achieving a high level of efficiency, the 
 system needs no water tank, thus saving 
 weight and also saving engine room space. 
 
 (b) The fact that the boiler system operates 
 in a closed cycle means that there is no 
 contact with the air, and no high temperature 
 oxidation takes place. 
 
 The use of oil as the medium in both the ex- 
 haust gas economizer and the boiler also means 
 that there is no risk of pipe corrosion. 
 
 2.5 The De-Icing System 
 
 (1) The system uses closed circulation type heat 
 pipes designed for use in extreme cold. 
 
 (Fig- 1) 
 
 (2) The system is capable of maintaining a tem- 
 perature of 5-10°C on the heated surfaces 
 with minimum consumption of electricity. 
 It serves both as a de-icer and as an icing- 
 prevention system. 
 
 (3) Operation of the system is carried out auto- 
 matically by means of temperature sensors 
 on the system's surface. 
 
 2.6 The Automatic Radio Navigation System 
 
 (1) Position Determination Control System 
 
 The system incorporates navigation receivers 
 for 4 systems (Loran C, Decca, Omega & NNSS), 
 and is controlled in such a way that a reliable 
 and accurate position may be obtained by pro- 
 cessing data from either single or plural receivers. 
 
 (2) Navigational Information and Ship's Course 
 Display 
 
 Navigational information such as course, dis- 
 tance to destination, course deviation, etc. and the 
 ship's present course are displayed on a CRT 
 display screen. 
 
 (3) Compact Design 
 
 The system is extremely compact, and even 
 including the automatic receiver control unit 
 it is only half the size of conventional systems. 
 
 2.7 The Ship's Computer Systems 
 
 (1) The Sail Control Computer 
 
 This computer provides fully automatic control 
 of the sails, and its use means that no additional 
 crew members are required in order to operate 
 the sails. 
 
 (2) The Automatic Load Computer 
 
 This computer controls the engine load, engine 
 speed and propeller pitch and automatically 
 chooses the most economical settings for each. 
 
 (a) Automatic Load Control 
 
 The system takes into account the power 
 being gained from the sails at any given time 
 and increases or reduces the engine speed 
 accordingly. It also makes the decision 
 whether to run both engines or only one. 
 The engine speed and load are always set to 
 the optimum figure in terms of fuel 
 economy. 
 
 (b) Automatic Load Balancer 
 
 This system ensures that loads are always 
 evenly balanced between the two engines. 
 
 (c) Automatic Sailing Speed Control 
 
 The system increases or reduces engine 
 speed automatically as necessary in order 
 to maintain a preset sailing speed. 
 
 (3) The Stability Confirming and Navigation 
 Manual Computer 
 
 This computer calculates the 'C coefficient 
 on the basis of the amount of cargo in the holds, 
 works out the required speed and amount of fuel 
 required, and also calculates the ship's E.T.A. 
 
 2.8 Others 
 
 (1) Self-Polishing Antifouling Paint 
 
 In order to prevent any increase in drag caused 
 by fouling on the hull, the submerged sections of 
 the hull are coated with self-polishing antifouling 
 paint. 
 
 (2) Auxiliary Machinery Capable of Burning 
 Low Grade Fuel Oil 
 
 The generator driving engine is run on low 
 grade fuel oil, thus reducing the cost of electricity 
 generation. 
 
 (3) The Homogenizer 
 
 The homogenizer system crushes sludge mixed 
 with the fuel and passes the mixture to an ultra- 
 fine mesh filter which removes all metallic im- 
 purities before the fuel is burnt in the engines. 
 
 167 
 
Fig. 1 The general arrangement of the D/W 26,000 MT Modern Sail-Assisted Log & Bulk Carrier 
 
 "USUKI PIONEER" 
 
 :'. ,1..^ J N04 CARCO HOLO 
 
 NOS CARCO HOLD 
 
 """ft,' 
 
 « »..' T ""' 
 
 N02 CARCO HOLD 
 
 Keel laid 
 
 Launched 
 
 Completed 
 
 June 6th 1984 
 August 30th 1984 
 November 19th 1984 
 
 Table 1 D/W 26,000 MT Modern Sail-Assisted Log & Bulk Carrier - Principal Particulars 
 
 about 162.50 m 
 ii 152.00 m 
 25.20 m 
 14.80 m 
 10.57 m 
 about 15,700 tons 
 " 26,000 tons 
 about 13.5 knots 
 about 12,000 sea miles 
 
 Length o.a. 
 Length b.p. 
 Breadth mid. 
 Depth mid. 
 Designed load draft 
 Gross tonnage 
 Dead weight 
 Service speed 
 Endurance 
 Main engines 
 
 Type & No. 
 
 Max. output 
 
 F.O. consump. (MCR) 
 Propeller 
 
 Typefc No. 
 Electric generator 
 
 400 kW, 445 V A.C. 60 Hz, 4 cycle diesel driven X 2 
 Thermo oil boiler & Exhaust gas economizer 
 
 Thermo oil circulating type 
 Boiler X 1 (400,000 kcal/Hr) 
 Economizer X 2 (200,000 kcal/Hr) 
 
 HANSHIN 6EL40 X 2 
 
 3,300 PS X 240.0/88.0 r.p.m. 
 
 133 gr/bhp. hr (Lu=10,200 kcal/kg) 
 
 C.P.P. type 4 blade X 1 
 
 about 32,000 m 3 
 30,000 m 3 
 970 m 3 
 60 m 3 
 450 m 3 
 9,500 m 3 
 22 + 6 persons 
 
 Hold capacity (grain) 
 Hold capacity (bail) 
 Fuel oil tank (Coil) 
 Fuel oil tank (A oil) 
 Fresh water tank 
 Water ballast tank 
 Complement 
 Equipment 
 
 Deck cranes El-hydraulic 25 t X 12 m/min. X 4 
 
 Navigational instruments 
 
 Automatic Radio Navigation System 
 
 (Loran C, Decca, Omega & NNSS) X 1 
 Gyro compass & auto pilot X 1 
 Radar X 2 
 Echo sounder X 1 
 Direction finder X 1 
 Radio tele. X 1 
 Electric magnetic log X 1 
 Computers Sail control computer 
 
 Automatic load computer 
 
 Stability confirming and navigation manual computer 
 
 Sail rig: 
 
 Two sets of parallel folding rigid sails with a total area of about 640 m 2 Maximum wind speed when sails unfurled: 25.0 m/s 
 
 168 
 
Fig. 2 Plan of propulsion system 
 
 I Blade controllable 
 pitch propeller 
 (6.400 mm diameter) 
 
 6EL40 Main engine 
 (3300PS * 240 rpm) 
 
 Fig. 3 The No. 1 < — ► No. 2 engine auto switchover system 
 
 (Under reduced speed running: 2 engines -* 1 engine} 
 (Under acceleration: 1 engine -* 2 engines) 
 
 177 l&O 
 
 211 227 
 
 Engine speed (rpm) — ^- 
 
 Note: This graph shows a simplified version of the program employed. 
 The actual program offers a considerable number of variations. 
 
 Fig. 4 The two engine/one shaft configuration and the propulsion control system 
 
 Pitch control tfansm 
 
 Manual remore control 
 
 y 
 
 \ Electronic log 
 
 169 
 
AN CNLINE SHIP PERFORMANCE MONITORING SYSTEM 
 
 V. E. WILLIAMS 
 
 Program Manager 
 
 Office of Advanced Ship Operations 
 
 U.S. Department of Transportation 
 
 Maritime Administration 
 
 Washington, D.C. 20590 
 
 Abstract 
 
 The paper describes a microprocessor-based, 
 onboard, real-time ship performance monitoring 
 system. Those features which represent a major 
 advance in ship performance monitoring 
 technology are detailed. The capabilities of 
 the system for achievement of improved 
 maintenance management and reduced maintenance 
 costs, and improved operational performance 
 accompanied by reduced operating costs are 
 presented. It is shown that, by the design 
 approach used and its implementation as a 
 distributed digital processing system, this 
 technology is compatible with current marine 
 onboard control and surveillance systems design 
 goals. The potential applicability to merchant 
 ships is discussed. 
 
 1 
 
 Introduction 
 
 Fuel consumption is not only a function of the 
 operational variables of ship speed, 
 displacement, trim, machinery plant operation, 
 and variations in hull and propeller conditions, 
 but also the environmental factors of wind, sea, 
 temperature, and ocean currents which change in 
 random patterns that have defied precise 
 prediction by either theoretical or statistical 
 techniques. To reduce these variables to 
 manageable proportions, there is a need for an 
 improved system of measurement and analysis 
 aboard every ship to derive a rational input to 
 ship operations economic analyses. In 
 particular, the in-service performance 
 monitoring of ship speed-to-power relationships 
 is an essential input to techno-economic 
 analyses relating to hull and propeller 
 maintenance, determination of optimum operating 
 conditions of the ship-machinery-propeller 
 system at any given time, and proper design of 
 service margins. 
 
 This paper presents a description of a 
 microprocessor -based, real-time ship performance 
 monitoring system that is now being developed 
 and tested as a part of the U.S. Maritime 
 Administration's advanced ship operations 
 research and development program. This paper is 
 directed to those aspects of the system's 
 capabilities related to condition-based 
 maintenance and improved operating efficiency of 
 
 ship and fleet. The method is outlined by which 
 the critical performance parameters of the 
 ship/propeller /engine system are automatically 
 measured and monitored in real-time using a few 
 key measurement sensors and online digital 
 processing techniques, to identify and track the 
 changing propeller /propulsion parameters in all 
 weather as a function of hull and propeller 
 degradation and environmental factors. 
 
 The means are described by which the system, 
 using online identification, estimation and 
 performance monitoring technology, has been 
 designed to be both self-learning and adaptive 
 to various ship systems and operating conditions 
 to reflect the current speed/power /thrust 
 relationships of the ship, so allowing the 
 simultaneous online performance 
 measurement/analysis of all ships on which the 
 system is installed in real-time. A description 
 is also given of the configuration of the system 
 aboard ship as a distributed intelligence 
 network, to enable local decision-making and 
 control at various points on the ship to achieve 
 optimum short-term performance, in addition to 
 providing information to efficiently project 
 maintenance resource requirements in the longer 
 term. The relevant human/computer interface 
 features of the system are presented. 
 
 The system design is shown to be independent of 
 whether the ship is turbine or diesel-driven. 
 Further, the design principles employed as shown 
 to be compatible with current marine designs for 
 digital distributed condition/control and 
 surveillance systems. In particular the paper 
 shows that the real-time performance monitoring 
 software can be implemented either within an 
 existing computer or in an additional 
 microprocessor of these digital distributed 
 systems, and uses sensors needed for 
 surveillance and control purposes. The paper 
 demonstrates the potential of this technology 
 for significant gains in availability and 
 performance, and reduction in the cost of ship 
 maintenance and operation. 
 
 2. The In-Service Performance Problem 
 
 Shortly after a ship has entered service, 
 deterioration in ship performance begins. This 
 deterioration, resulting in speed/power/fuel 
 
 170 
 
losses, arises from both design effects and 
 operational procedures. Deterioration in the 
 operation of the ship in the open seas has been 
 shown to be in the following main areas: (1) 
 power plant and auxiliaries, (2) propeller 
 efficiency, (3) hull resistance, and (4) 
 navigation, steering, and routing (1). 
 Controllable factors which affect fuel 
 efficiency include operational procedures, plant 
 efficiency, and ship propulsion efficiency. 
 Various attempts have been made to improve 
 operational efficiency, e.g., (2-4). Other 
 efforts have been directed toward improving 
 design techniques to optimize power margin as 
 opposed to operating procedures, for example, 
 the work of Prochaska (5) , Sinclair and Eames 
 (6), and Kresic and Haskell (7) in relation to 
 propeller design. 
 
 It is generally accepted that the largest 
 achievable gains in fuel efficiency are 
 realizable through the optimization of ship 
 propulsion, e.g., (1). The greatest potential 
 for fuel savings in this area appears to be by 
 the minimization of hull and propeller roughness 
 occurring from surface fouling, pitting, and 
 corroding. Through the implementation of an 
 effective hull maintenance program, it has been 
 shown that significant reductions in fuel 
 consumption may be achieved, e.g., (8-10). The 
 work of Prochaska (5), addressing the effects of 
 hull roughness on propeller efficiency and the 
 effect of propeller blade roughness on ship 
 performance, showed not only the interdependence 
 of hull condition and propeller, but also the 
 magnitude of the resulting estimated losses due 
 to the increasing wake fraction in addition to 
 those resulting from propeller blade surface 
 degradation. The results were based on a 
 statistical analysis of the in-service 
 performance of many ships over a ten-year 
 period. Based on these studies, Figure 1 
 (extracted from (5)) shows Prochaska* s estimates 
 of the three main influences contributing to 
 
 12 
 
 36 
 
 4 8 
 
 Figure 1 
 
 18 24 JO 
 Months in Service 
 Components of Ship Power Increase with 
 Time: Approach to the Chronological 
 Development of the Growing Power 
 Requirement Illustrated by Enveloping 
 Curves Showing the Di stribution. of the 
 Detrimental Causes. 
 
 Note : Constant Propeller Speed, Dry- 
 Docked - Regularly and Restored with 
 Conventional Paints, Valid for Full- 
 Formed Ships, Cg = 0.80 (Approximately) 
 Average Service Speed = 14 Knots, 
 Trading World Wide. 
 
 power losses over the ship's total time in- 
 service. On the basis of service data analysis 
 of more than 100 ships over the ten-year period, 
 Prochaska concludes that after four to five 
 years service and shortly before the regular 
 drydocking (assumed to be every one and one half 
 years) , an additional 30 percent power over that 
 required during the ship's initial sea trials is 
 required to maintain design speed. This 
 increasing power demand is attributed equally 
 (15 percent) to rippling and roughening of the 
 hull and propeller roughening ("permanent" 
 loss) , and the regular biological fouling of the 
 shell plating ("removable" loss). 
 
 The estimates made for partial recovery of both 
 types of losses by a proper condition-based 
 maintenance and performance 
 
 monitoring/management program are gains of 4 to 
 6 percent between subsequent dry-dockings 
 realizable through hull shot/sand blasting, 
 propeller repolishing, improved paint effect and 
 application, and optimum scheduling of dry- 
 docking for maximum revenue (11). By 
 optimization of propeller design for service 
 condition (5), a further 2 percent savings could 
 be made. Further, by making use of, and 
 understanding, the means to optimize ship's 
 operating performance, some 7 percent fuel 
 savings could be made. Optimization of the 
 ship's performance includes achievement of the 
 correct operating point of the ship/machinery/ 
 propeller system at any given time, and the 
 correct trim and draft , the correct steering 
 controls, navigational and weather routing 
 practices for particular loading and 
 environmental conditions. 
 
 It is clear that the propeller efficiency plays 
 a major role in propulsion losses by recent 
 work, e.g., (12-14) in examination of the 
 effects of propeller roughness on power losses. 
 Using analytical techniques based on roughness 
 measurements of a great number of propellers, 
 Byrne, et al. (12), have shown that the economic 
 penalties resulting from propeller roughness are 
 very severe. In the case of the containership 
 examined in their research it was shown that if 
 the increase in delivered power due to 
 deteriorative effects required to maintain a 
 given service speed is proportioned between hull 
 roughness losses and propeller roughness losses, 
 ignoring losses due to other effects, this 
 proportion was about 2/3 due to hull roughening 
 and 1/3 due to propeller roughening. 
 
 A successful hull and propeller maintenance 
 program must include the capability to monitor 
 ship condition/performance changes as a function 
 of hull and propeller surface degradation with 
 respect to some baseline set of ship and 
 environmental conditions. By hull degradation 
 is meant the unavoidable mechanical, chemical 
 and biological deterioration of the hull; by 
 propeller degradation is meant primarily 
 propeller blade roughness and damage. Such a 
 
 17: 
 
program could also include a quantitative 
 evaluation of various new hull coatings in terms 
 of a common base of performance measurements, 
 and the cost/benefits associated with various 
 propeller polishing methods, e.g., (15). A 
 requirement for measuring the effects of a 
 degraded hull or propeller is the capability to 
 effectively determine either average speed loss 
 at standard conditions (in particular, power), 
 or average power increase at standard conditions 
 (in particular, speed) since the last dry- 
 docking, etc., (16). 
 
 Losses due to machinery plant operation , the 
 operational variables of speed, displacement and 
 trim, and the dynamic effects due to ship 
 motions, steering, and weather are also 
 considerable, and must be separated from losses 
 due to hull and propeller degradation if the 
 losses resulting from the latter two effects are 
 to be successfully identified (15). The 
 detection and attribution of both long-term 
 effects and short-term dynamic effects on speed, 
 power and fuel consumption is therefore 
 dependent on a continuous and critical 
 monitoring of ship condition/performance while 
 in-service. By inclusion of a thrust 
 measurement, the means is provided to track 
 propeller efficiency and its progressive 
 degradation, and to separate hull and propeller 
 losses by the knowledge of thrust in addition to 
 torque as provided by a shaft torque 
 measurement . 
 
 Of the other involuntary losses, those related 
 to steering have recently been shown to be 
 significant, even in calm water operation (17). 
 Recent theoretical and full-scale experimental 
 work by Reid, et al. (17), has quantified the 
 potential penalties in speed/power losses 
 associated with limit cycle behavior of a wide 
 range of ship types resulting from bang-bang 
 steering gear controllers. There are few ships 
 which are not fitted with this form of steering 
 gear control. This work shows that between 2 
 and 4 percent of full power can be lost in the 
 steering system. Figure 2 abstracted from (17), 
 contains rather dramatic evidence of the effect 
 of steering gear control on performance. Figure 
 2 shows the results of full-scale tests for a 
 diesel-powered containership using different 
 
 Type 4 S)S'en- 
 
 [fti 
 
 Swiichinq Pomt 
 
 steering gear control systems in essentially 
 calm water. Both heading and rudder angle 
 recordings, and measured steering and propulsion 
 performance are included. The changeover from 
 proportional steering gear control to bang-bang 
 control resulted in an average decrease of 1.8 
 percent in ship speed and an average increase of 
 0.4 percent in shaft torque over the measurement 
 period. The wear of the steering gear, as 
 discussed, e.g., in (18), will also have an 
 impact on propulsion performance. 
 
 It is therefore clear that the inclusion of the 
 means to monitor steering related speed/power 
 losses online in any performance monitoring 
 system is mandatory, both for proper analysis of 
 the effects of roughness/fouling on ship 
 performance given the apparent magnitude of the 
 steering losses, and for more accurate 
 determination of the extent of these losses and 
 the degradation of the steering gear with time. 
 It also seems clear that the means to achieve 
 what are considered the rather conservative 
 assessments of potential fuel savings described 
 above are necessarily predicated on performance 
 monitoring in real time. 
 
 3. The Online Ship Condition/Performance 
 Monitoring System 
 
 3.1 System Capabilities 
 
 It is against the background described in 
 Section 2 that the Maritime Administration has 
 developed a real-time, automated ship 
 performance monitoring system. An onboard, 
 online microprocessor -based system has been 
 designed and developed to identify long-term 
 speed/power losses due to hull and propeller 
 degradation, and short-term losses resulting 
 from ballasting/loading practices, operational 
 practices and environmental factors. The system 
 is presently undergoing testing aboard the sea 
 barge clipper S.S. Aimer ia Lykes . 
 
 The outputs of typical vessel performance 
 systems are parameters such as specific fuel 
 consumption, fuel consumption per unit time, 
 fuel consumption per unit distance, propeller 
 shaft rpm, shaft horespower, and ship speed. 
 These measures are already available to, and 
 
 pe 2 S>siem 
 
 I* y ^ W *y<*'V w <««^^> 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 Y !£s-o-Wvy---v--«^\<^^ 
 
 Rudder 
 Servo Type 
 
 0-12 ir.in Type 4 
 24-36 min Type 2 
 
 Rudder Angle 
 Variance 
 
 W - FJ 
 0.108 deo 
 1 .783 de 
 
 ran Rate 
 Variance 
 
 0.0037 (deg'sec) 
 
 Mean Square Average Speed Average Shaft 
 
 Heading Error through Water Torques 
 
 u 2 i ■ (0) ion 
 
 0.033 deg 2 16.77 knots 72.851 of max. 
 
 0.495 deg 2 • 18.43 Inots 73. 1 51 of ma». 
 
 Figure 2 Measured Steering and Propulsion Performance: Proportional versus 
 Bang-Bang Steering Systems, 610 ft. Long Containership in Calm 
 Weather, North Atlantic, February 1982. 
 
 172 
 
used by, ship personnel in performance 
 assessment and reporting. Knowledge of these 
 measures does not in general enable 
 determination of the source of fuel penalty or 
 performance degradation. Further, the error 
 bands attributable to the raw measurements of 
 speed through the water and fuel oil flow rate 
 are generally greater than the source of the 
 fuel penalty under investigation. These 
 measures are basically used as inputs to our 
 condition/performance monitoring system, in 
 which models of the ship/machinery/propeller 
 relationships are embedded (16). 
 
 The output of our system is the identification 
 and attribution of each source of 
 speed/power/fuel losses in real time. 
 Specifically the following principal long-term 
 ship performance trend data are calculated: 
 
 * Long' 
 » Long' 
 
 * Long 
 
 * Long 
 
 * Long 
 
 * Long 
 
 -term "standard" speed 
 
 •term wake fraction 
 
 -term propeller efficiency 
 
 -term hull efficiency 
 
 -term propulsion plant efficiency 
 
 -term steering gear efficiency 
 
 By standard speed is meant the ship's fair- 
 weather speed through the water calculated at 
 standard (nominal) power, trim, draft, and 
 weather conditions. The present capability does 
 not include the means to identify and analyze 
 the individual components of the propulsion 
 plant which may be contributing to degraded 
 power plant efficiency, though this capability 
 could be realized rather easily, as is discussed 
 in Section 4. In addition, the following 
 dynamic ship operating performance data are 
 calculated in real time: 
 
 Speed/power /fuel losses due to steering 
 Speed/power/fuel losses due to 
 
 ballasting/loading practices 
 Speed/power /fuel losses due to trimming 
 
 practices 
 Speed/power /fuel losses due to wind, waves, 
 
 and weather. 
 
 On the Aimer ia Lykes , this performance data is 
 calculated on the basis of measurement data from 
 the 10 sensors listed below: 
 
 Water speed log 
 
 Gyrocompass 
 
 Satellite navigator 
 
 Propeller shaft torque sensor 
 
 Propeller shaft tachometer 
 
 Propeller shaft thrust sensor 
 
 Fuel oil flow meter 
 
 Rudder angle measuring equipment 
 
 * Wind speed and direction measurement system 
 
 These sensors are automatically sampled by the 
 microprocessor-based system once per second. 
 From these measurements, in the process of 
 calculation of the major performance parameters 
 
 described above, statistics of the following 
 real-time, short-term ship and propulsion 
 operating performance parameters are calculated 
 and made available for display on operator 
 demand at the various remote terminals of the 
 distributed intelligence network with which the 
 system is configured aboard ship (see Section 
 3.3) on the basis of (normally) 1 minute, 1 
 hour, and 24 hour time intervals: 
 
 Fuel consumption rate 
 
 Specific fuel consumption 
 
 Fuel consumption per unit distance 
 
 Ship speed through the water 
 
 Propeller shaft rpm 
 
 Propeller shaft horsepower 
 
 Propeller thrust 
 
 Apparent slip 
 
 Wake fraction 
 
 Ship speed at standard power 
 
 Propeller efficiency 
 
 Horsepower meter bias 
 
 Thrust meter bias 
 
 Speed log bias 
 
 Propeller torque/thrust characteristics 
 
 Steering speed loss 
 
 Mean change of rudder angle 
 
 Heavy weather speed loss 
 
 Trimming speed loss 
 
 Ballasting/Loading speed loss 
 
 In addition, as a necessary by-product of the 
 ship performance assessment, the following real- 
 time navigation data is calculated and made 
 available for display at one minute intervals: 
 
 * Latitude, longitude 
 
 * Heading 
 
 * Speed over the ground 
 
 * Current North and East components 
 
 * Wind speed and direction 
 
 * Rudder angle. 
 
 Our approach to the performance monitoring 
 problem has been to structure and embed in a 
 shipboard microprocessor -based system a general 
 model of the ship speed and propulsion 
 relationships using trials and model test data 
 for the ship (16). Using online, near real-time 
 identification and estimation techniques 
 implemented in the onboard computer system, the 
 unknown or uncertain parameters of the model are 
 precisely identified, and the model refined to 
 reflect the current speed/propulsion 
 relationships of the ship. This is accomplished 
 on a continuous basis during in-service 
 operation of the ship. This unique approach in 
 fact provides the ability for the model to be 
 adapted to any ship without any changes in the 
 basic online system. Once the model is defined, 
 the system continuously automatically updates 
 its parameters through monitoring of 
 ship/propulsion data, navigation data, and 
 environmental conditions. The system design, 
 further, is independent of whether the ship is 
 turbine or diesel-driven. 
 
 173 
 
3.2 System Principles: Sensors, Data 
 
 Acquisition, and Real-Time Performance 
 Analysis 
 
 To separate power plant fluctuations from ship 
 performance measurement, a direct measure of 
 plant output in terms of shaft horsepower is 
 necessary. Speed values are then adjusted or 
 corrected to a standard level of power. A shaft 
 torque meter is used for this purpose in our 
 system. The separation of hull and propeller 
 losses is made possible only by the knowledge of 
 thrust in addition to torque.- This has been 
 accomplished by the installation of a thrust 
 meter on the propeller shaft. The measurement 
 of thrust is treated similarly to that of torque 
 (16). In addition to providing a measure of 
 propeller efficiency and its progressive 
 degradation, the thrust measurement provides 
 additional calibration of the propulsion 
 relationships and thereby improves the accuracy 
 of determination of ship speed and the other key 
 parameters of ship performance. 
 
 An essential measurement in the system is ship 
 speed through the water. A doppler water speed 
 log forms part of the existing system. Many 
 factors affect the accuracy of the speed log, in 
 particular those related to ship motion and 
 weather. It is therefore necessary to perform 
 continual automatic checks on measured speed 
 values. Estimates of speed over the ground are 
 used for this purpose. These estimates are 
 obtained using the satellite navigation system. 
 Speed data are also checked on the basis of 
 properly calibrated, theoretical 
 propeller/propulsion relationships, e.g., (16, 
 19-21). These corrections are achieved in our 
 system design by the use of redundant 
 measurements and adaptive filtering algorithms 
 (16, 22-24), which also determine sensor error 
 and ocean current magnitudes. 
 
 In our computer algorithms, the best estimate of 
 speed through the water is obtained by combining 
 information from each of these sources. Based 
 on measured thrust, power and rpm, a theoretical 
 speed value is calculated via the 
 propeller /propulsion relationships of the ship. 
 By incorporating this value along with measured 
 log speed and estimated ground speed, an optimal 
 estimate of speed through the water is 
 determined through an appropriately weighted 
 averaging of these inputs. This is presented 
 pictorially in Figure 3- The weights given to 
 these inputs are calculated dynamically on the 
 basis of error estimates in each by on-line 
 processing. 
 
 The use 
 collect 
 done in 
 change 
 cause s 
 of the 
 weather 
 
 of automatic measurement and 
 ion/logging of data whenever possible is 
 the system. Wind and wave factors can 
 substantially over short time periods and 
 ignificant changes in speed. Since most 
 information necessary to quantify speed- 
 relationships is lost by averaging over 
 
 a 24 hour period, a continuous input of data is 
 used to provide an exact description of the 
 losses in real-time, a concept embedded in the 
 online system design. 
 
 Information on ship performance during 
 acceptance trials and other measured mile runs 
 and model test data is used. to establish and 
 initialize our performance monitoring system. 
 Trials and model data are used for establishing 
 and initially calibrating fundamental 
 propeller/propulsion relationships (19-20); the 
 initial estimates of the effects of draft and 
 trim on speed and wake fraction can also be 
 determined using these data. Both of these 
 facts were established for the Almeria Lykes 
 (16). The relationships developed from these 
 data are particularly important since they 
 essentially represent the best (theoretical) 
 performance the ship will ever achieve. 
 
 Aside from other advantages of our performance 
 monitoring system, it enables optimal estimates 
 of system parameters to be continuously 
 calculated to provide measures and trends of 
 ship condition/performance. The decision to 
 implement a system which processes performance 
 data on-board, versus a shore-based facility for 
 post-mission analysis, will have major impact on 
 the potential economic benefits of the system. 
 Using a shore-based facility to do post-mission 
 performance analysis, large time lags can exist 
 between the time the ship delivers 
 condition/performance data and the time it is 
 fully processed and analyzed; maintenance- 
 related problems during this lag time cannot be 
 corrected on a timely basis, i.e., as they 
 occur. The ability to optimize the real-time 
 performance of the ship is also lost in such a 
 system. 
 
 3.3 System Configuration: Distributed Digital 
 Processing Architecture 
 
 The onboard condition/performance monitoring 
 system is configured as a digital distributed 
 intelligence system. The prototype system has 
 recently been installed aboard the S.S. Almeria 
 L y kes • The Almeria Lykes is a sea barge clipper 
 owned and operated by Lykes Bros. Steamship Co., 
 New Orleans, Louisiana, running between the Gulf 
 of Mexico and either Northern Europe or the 
 
 SHAFT THRUST. TORQUE 
 POWER AND 51-EED INPUTS 
 
 APPLY PROPELLER/PROPULSION RELATIONSHIPS 
 
 THEORETICAL SPEED 
 
 OBSERVED GROUND SPEED 
 
 liCASURED LOG SPEED 
 
 DYNAMICAL WEIGHTED AVERAGE 
 
 BEST ESTIIUTE OF 
 PROPELLER EFFICIENCY 
 
 BEST ESTIIUTE OF SPEED THROUGH UATER 
 
 Figure 3 Calculation of Best Estimate of Speed 
 Through Water and Propeller Efficiency 
 
 174 
 
Mediterranean. The ship's length and breadth 
 are approximately 874 ft. (266 m) and 106 ft (32 
 m), with a full load displacement (corresponding 
 to 36 ft draft) of almost 51,000 tons. The ship 
 has a single propeller/single rudder 
 configuration, and is powered by steam turbines 
 with a rated output of 36,000 shp. 
 
 Distributed processing architecture is gradually 
 replacing conventional federated architecture in 
 digital systems due to the rapid advances in 
 digital computer and communications systems due 
 to the rapid advances in digital computer and 
 communictions systems technology. Applications 
 of shipboard distributed computerized 
 surveillance, control and performance monitoring 
 systems relating mainly to rotating machinery 
 for military vessels have been reported in e.g., 
 (25-26). The U.S. Navy's current design 
 objective for control and surveillance systems 
 for new vessels is based on a digital 
 distributed processing concept, in part to 
 replace the traditional miles of point-to-point 
 electrical signal cabling with a few coaxial 
 cables and some multiplexing electronics. Some 
 advanced proposals and current trends relating 
 to this issue have recently been presented by 
 Fastring and Wapner (27,28). 
 
 Our ship performance monitoring system is 
 essentially a software-based system. We have 
 designed the system in the modular manner 
 described to enable its portability to various 
 ships' needs and to changing hardware 
 technology. Distributed systems architecture is 
 the digital implementation technology chosen for 
 our system. Aside from cabling considerations, 
 a significant factor aboard the Aimer ia Lykes 
 where signals have to be transmitted over 850 
 ft. between the vicinities of the propeller 
 shaft alley and the bridge, various other 
 important benefits accrue from our chosen 
 design. Distributed processing is well suited 
 to the harsh environment of a ship. Apart from 
 the improved physical properties in terms of 
 heat and vibration associated with the inherent 
 chip technology embedded in the components of 
 such a system, the distributed architecture 
 allows the means for concurrent processing, 
 improved local response time capability, and 
 improved "system" reliability by enabling 
 failure diagnosis in real-time and hardware 
 replication of critical functions. 
 
 A digital communications network links the 
 sensors with the central signal processing 
 computer and remote terminals of the ship 
 performance monitoring system throughout the 
 ship. Transmission is by means of a twisted 
 pair shielded cable. Microprocessor-controlled 
 network interfaces connect the constituent 
 components of the system to the network. 
 Analog, contact-closure and discrete sensor 
 signals from the various propulsion system, ship 
 and navigation sensors of the system, are 
 digitized and formatted locally at the 
 
 microprocessor-controlled network interface 
 units. For sensor interfacing aboard the 
 Aimer i a Lykes those units are located at the aft 
 end of the shaft alley (in a space adjacent to 
 the hydraulic steering gear pumproom) and in the 
 Master Gyro Transmitter Room (directly 
 underneath the bridge). The central signal 
 processing computer with associated terminal and 
 printer is housed in the ship's office, located 
 at the 02 level of the superstructure. Remote 
 computer terminals are provided in the Chief 
 Engineer's office, the Master's office, and in 
 the Chart Room . 
 
 The network is transparent to the types of 
 equipment used as the constituent elements of 
 the condition/performance monitoring system. 
 The distributed architecture design therefore 
 allows almost total modularity and flexibility 
 with respect to additional sensors, local 
 processors and terminals. The system is 
 designed for growth, and so yields significant 
 life cycle cost and advantages in the 
 flexibility afforded in adding new performance, 
 surveillance or control functions in new 
 hardware/software modules through the 
 incremental addition of more network "nodes." 
 Aboard the Aimer ia Lykes , the electrical 
 connection between the network interface to "end 
 user's," i.e., data terminal, equipment, 
 conforms to the RS232-C standard, and the 
 network interface is configured for 9600 Baud, 
 with communications in the form of 7 bit ASCII 
 character code. 
 
 3.4 System Performance: Simulation Results 
 
 The real-time performance monitoring system is 
 presently undergoing functional and performance 
 testing. In the course of system design, 
 extensive simulation studies were carried out to 
 verify the integrity of system performance, 
 prior to testing in a land based test facility 
 and at-sea testing. The heart of the system, 
 and the key to online performance analysis of 
 the critical ship/engine/propeller performance 
 parameters, is the real-time estimation and 
 identification software embedded in the system. 
 This software uses adaptive filtering algorithms 
 to optimally determine, from the available 
 sensor measurement data , embedded 
 ship/engine/propeller models, and the 
 automatically updated performance parameter data 
 base, the key system performance states and 
 parameters at the current operating conditions 
 necessary to determine both short-term operating 
 performance and long-term performance trends 
 (16). 
 
 Figures 4 through 9 are presented to demonstrate 
 the ability of the adaptive filter to estimate 
 key performance states and parameters in real- 
 time from noisy measurements, and in the face of 
 process noise (disturbances to ship/propulsion 
 system dynamics) . The figures show the 
 performance of the filter over a period of 200 
 
 175 
 
2.5 "10 1 
 
 ■g 20x10* 
 
 isxio'L 
 
 Estimate 
 
 — — True Volue 
 
 100 
 Time (mm) 
 
 200 
 
 2.8* 10 6 
 
 'L9X10 6 
 
 5 
 
 lOxlO 6 , 
 
 Estimate 
 
 Actual 
 
 100 
 Time (mm) 
 
 200 
 
 Figure 4 Adaptive Filter Performance: Ship's 
 Speed through the Water 
 
 Figure 7 Adaptive Filter Performance: Propeller 
 Shaft Torque 
 
 1.5*10 2 
 
 c 
 
 - 1-2 *10 2 
 
 o 
 
 10 x10 s , 
 
 100 
 Time (mm) 
 
 cCI 
 
 50 
 
 10, 
 
 
 Estimate 
 
 True Value 
 
 100 
 Time (mm) 
 
 200 
 
 Figure 5 Adaptive Filter Performance: Propeller 
 Speed 
 
 Figure 8 Adaptive Filter Performance: Speed Log 
 Bias 
 
 0.20 
 
 :0.11 
 
 0.01 
 
 Estimate 
 
 True Value 
 
 50 
 Time (min) 
 
 100 
 
 30x10" 
 
 o 
 
 B 2 5x10" 
 
 20x10", 
 
 Estimate 
 
 True Value 
 
 100 
 Time (mm) 
 
 200 
 
 Figure 6 Adaptive Filter Performance: Wake 
 Fraction 
 
 Figure 9 Adaptive Filter Performance: Torque 
 Sensor Bias 
 
 176 
 
minutes of simulated real-time of steady- 
 steaming conditions. The results are intended 
 to demonstrate the ability of the filter to 
 cross-calibrate sensor errors, and to accurately 
 assess key ship/propeller /propulsion performance 
 states and parameters, in the face of: (i) poor 
 initial estimates; (ii) measurement errors; and 
 (iii) process noise. 
 
 In the simulation, the true mean ship's speed is 
 considered to be 19-7 knots, propeller rpm 114, 
 propeller shaft torque 1,486,810 ft-lb, and wake 
 fraction 0.11. These conditions, in fact, 
 relate to ship trials/model conditions (16) at 
 32,000 shp for 32 feet draft. The initial 
 estimates assumed, as input to the performance 
 monitoring system for purposes of this 
 demonstration, were as follows: ship's speed 
 15.7 knots, propeller speed 139 rpm, and wake 
 fraction 0.03. Further, the speed log is 
 considered to have a measurement bias of 2.5 
 knots and a random error variance of 0.25 
 (knots) ; the torque measurement is considered 
 to have bias of 22,150 lb-ft, and a random error 
 variance of 6.201562 x 10' (lb-ft) ; propeller 
 rpm measurements are considered to have a random 
 error variance of 0.09 (rpm) , and gyrocompass 
 heading measurements a random error variance of 
 0.25 (deg) . Additionally the ship dynamics are 
 considered to be perturbed by process n,oise such 
 that dynamic variances of 0.04 (knots) , 0.09 
 (rpm) 2 , 1.0 (deg) , respectively, result in 
 actual ship's speed, propeller rpm, and heading 
 about the mean nominal conditions defined above; 
 these disturbances related to process noise 
 corresponding to essentially fair weather 
 conditions. 
 
 At the end of 200 minutes, the following 
 estimates of key performance states/parameters 
 are made by the filter : 
 
 Ship's speed through 
 the water 
 
 Propeller rpm 
 
 Wake fraction 
 
 Torque meter bias 
 
 Speed log bias 
 
 Ship's speed through 
 the water 
 
 Propeller rpm 
 
 Wake fraction 
 
 Torque meter bias 
 
 Speed log bias 
 
 Mean Value 
 19-9405 knots 
 
 113.9990 
 0.1208194 
 22,205.77 ft-lb 
 2.25472 knots 
 Variance 
 0.082125(knots) 2 
 
 0.011796 (rpm) 2 
 0.00025767 
 302.396 (ft-lb) 2 
 0.06115 (knots) 2 
 
 The trajectories of various performance states 
 and parameters over 200 minutes from the basis 
 of the initial estimates, and in the face of the 
 measurement errors and process noise defined 
 above, are shown in Figures 4 through 9, on 
 which are also shown the corresponding true mean 
 values. 
 
 The accuracy of estimation of the true mean 
 values by the adaptive filter algorithms is 
 clearly very good, in the face of rather large 
 measurement errors and initial uncertainties and 
 disturbance noise. Although the simulated speed 
 log has a bias of 2.5 knots and a random 
 variance error of 0.25 knots, the estimation and 
 identification algorithms after 200 minutes 
 estimate the speed to within 98.8 percent (0.24 
 knots) of its true mean value. The quality of 
 estimation of wake fraction by the filter to 
 within 90.2 percent (an error of 0.0108) of its 
 actual mean value after 200 minutes under the 
 conditions considered is also extremely good. 
 It is the capability of the filter to calculate 
 these two key performance parameters of the 
 ship/propulsion/propeller system to these 
 accuracies which provides the means to 
 accomplish online ship performance monitoring in 
 real time aboard ship. 
 
 The reason that these estimates do not converge 
 to exactly the true mean values, in fact, may be 
 attributed to the lack of power variations or 
 ship maneuvers in the simulated conditions. The 
 inability of the filter to properly identify and 
 calibrate exactly the torque meter bias (Figure 
 9) is due to lack of simulated engine maneuver 
 conditions, and is reflected in the errors 
 exhibited in the filter estimates of ship speed 
 through the water, wake fraction, propeller rpm, 
 and, of course, speed log bias, which also 
 suffers from lack of course variations of the 
 ship in the simulation . 
 
 4. Conclusions: Implications for Ship and 
 
 Fleet Management, and Potential for Merchant 
 Ship Implementation 
 
 The capability afforded by the system design and 
 configuration of the ship performance monitoring 
 system described have significant implications 
 relating to ship and fleet maintenance and 
 management, in addition to those relating 
 specifically to the potential provided for 
 reduction in direct fuel usage and operating 
 costs as discussed in Section 2. The system 
 provides condition/performance information both 
 to shipboard and shoreside management. The 
 long-term condition/performance trend 
 information provided (Section 3.1) directed to 
 efficient projection of maintenance resources 
 related to hull and propeller 
 condition/performance, charter party ship 
 performance conditions, and 
 
 determinations/assessments related to design or 
 retrofit issues falls predominantly under the 
 domain of shoreside management. The importance 
 
 177 
 
of knowledge of the in-service performance of 
 the ship/machinery/propeller system in relation 
 to propeller design/re-design decisions has been 
 clearly stated in (5, 7); similar knowledge is 
 also required relating to re-engining 
 assessments. These are also shoreside 
 management's functions. The system generates 
 and updates aboard ship the ship performance 
 data base over time in a manner which is 
 computationally efficient, and automatically 
 performs the long-term trend analyses necessary 
 for these management functions. 
 
 The system also provides the means for improved 
 shipboard management, and increased decision- 
 making capability aboard ship. These, of 
 course, have been major issues for the merchant 
 shipping industry for some time, e.g., the work 
 done relating to modern shipboard management, 
 e.g., (29), and decentralization and 
 redefinition of authority in shipping company 
 organization, e.g., (30). The specific 
 performance information provided by the online 
 system described which can be directed to an 
 onboard management information system for 
 improved local decision-making aboard ship is 
 that short-term performance data related to 
 speed/power /fuel losses attributable to trim, 
 ballasting and loading practices, choice of 
 steering control parameters, and navigation and 
 weather routing decisions. The selection of the 
 optimum operating point for the 
 ship/machinery/propeller system under various 
 different operational and environmental 
 conditions is also made possible aboard ship by 
 the real-time short-term ship and propulsion 
 system performance data provided by our system 
 (Section 3.1). This is important in the 
 
 CD © 
 
 50 60 
 
 Propeliei Speed (rpm) 
 
 Propeller Low Curve 01 Roted Propeller Pilch 
 
 Mom Engine Output Limitation Curve 
 
 — Mom Engine Speed Limitolton Line 
 
 ^ Boned Speed flonge of Operotion Due to Torsionol 
 
 Viorotion 
 Turbo Chorger Blower Surging Zone 
 
 — Iso - Fuel Consumption Rote Curve 
 •"—Minimum Fuel Consumption Role Curve 
 
 — Iso- Ship Speed Curve 
 
 — ISO- Pilch Curve 
 -— ALC Setting Curve 
 
 • Current Operohng Poinl 
 
 *-•• Post Operating Pomls ond their Track 
 
 Figure 10 Oiesel/CPP Propulsion System: Display 
 and Relationship of System Operating 
 Variables 
 
 selection of the correct operating point for a 
 diesel engine/CPP combination, for example, 
 which, as has been shown in (31), is a 
 relatively complex problem, some of the key 
 parameters of which are shown in Figure 10, 
 extracted from (31). 
 
 The distributed system architecture of our ship 
 performance monitoring system is further 
 designed to lend itself to local decision-making 
 and control at various points of the ship. 
 Implementation of appropriate human /computer 
 interface design is key to the success of this 
 concept. The remote displays of the real-time 
 ship performance monitoring system in the Chief 
 Engineer's office, Master's office and Chart 
 Room are simple user-friendly, menu-driven 
 displays of the various requested performance 
 data. Hard copy of any particular data 
 presented at remote displays is available, by 
 operator action, at printers directly connected 
 to the terminals. Hard copy and storage of 
 critical short-term and long-term performance 
 data is automatically accomplished by the 
 printer and storage media associated with the 
 central signal processing computer in the ship's 
 office. These outputs are also available for 
 transmission via satellite communications to 
 shoreside facilities. 
 
 The technology described represents a 
 significant advance in measurement/monitoring of 
 ship condition/performance capabilities. The 
 system structure has been designed with a growth 
 capability, and is common to all candidate 
 ships, allowing, by the implementation and 
 proper initialization of such a system, the 
 simultaneous condition /performance 
 measurements/analyses of all ships on which it 
 is installed. This overcomes the economic and 
 operational objection to existing techniques, 
 e.g., (2,8-10,21), which require a lengthy 
 processing time for condition /performance 
 analysis and which, by the methods of analyses 
 adopted, are directed to one particular ship at 
 a time. As stated in (25), the condition-based 
 maintenance concept recognizes that the correct 
 time to perform maintenance should be determined 
 by monitoring the condition and performance. 
 Ideally, condition monitoring should be done in 
 real-time, aboard ship to identify and isolate 
 problems as they occur. 
 
 The system described has the potential to enable 
 efficient maintenance management and so reduce 
 maintenance costs; further it can provide the 
 achievement of a high operational standard of 
 the ship system. The adaptive filtering 
 algorithms employed, together with the use of 
 redundant sensor measurements (Section 3.2) 
 implicit to the system design, enable sensor 
 failure detection and a reasonable degree of 
 failure diagnosis and fault compensation (32), 
 and provide for a graceful degradation in system 
 performance in the event of sensor failures. 
 Given the modular design of the present 
 
 178 
 
microprocessor-based ship performance monitoring 
 system, with its digital communications 
 interface system between measurement sensors and 
 the central signal processing computer-based 
 system, and the implementation of recursive, 
 sequential filter algorithms to process 
 measurement data input to the system in the 
 signal processor, it is straightforward to 
 implement extensions to the system to enhances 
 its capabilities. 
 
 The system implementation described is directed 
 to ship performance monitoring. 
 Condition/performance monitoring of the combined 
 engine/ship system is achievable by an extension 
 of the present system to include power plant 
 measurements and relationships in the computer- 
 based system. Accounting for the reasons for 
 variations/degradation in power plant 
 performance in the same manner as the ship 
 performance monitoring system attributes 
 speed/power losses to the various factors 
 affecting its performance, as discussed in the 
 paper, requires formulation of a machinery model 
 within the online computer-based system and 
 input of the necessary key machinery performance 
 measurements. 
 
 The need and reasons for monitoring of machinery 
 performance have been well documented, e.g., 
 (1,4,25), as have been the various procedures 
 implemented both to assess the machinery 
 condition, and to attempt to correct 
 deficiencies. The implementation of a rotating 
 machinery condition/performance monitoring 
 capability within the framework of the 
 monitoring system described in the paper is a 
 rather straightforward task. Modern machinery 
 systems will employ a distributed computerized 
 system for surveillance and online control 
 purposes. The necessary basic computer system 
 and related peripheral devices will therefore be 
 already available, as well as most of the 
 sensors, for an online machinery 
 condition/performance monitoring system to be 
 implemented. The combined engine/ship condition 
 monitoring system software could be implemented 
 either within an existing computer, or in an 
 additional microprocessor of the distributed 
 processing system. 
 
 We believe that the technology inherent to the 
 performance monitoring system described in this 
 paper has immediate application to merchant 
 shipping goals for more efficient maintenance 
 management to reduce maintenance costs, and for 
 achievement of a higher operational standard of 
 their ships in terms of both availability and 
 performance together with a reduction in 
 operating costs. 
 
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 (2) Gronwall, P.E., and P. F. 
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 1982 Spring Meeting/STAR 
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 (3) Sweeney, J.J., "A 
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 (4) Attwood, J. H. et al., "A 
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 (5) Prochaska, F., "A 
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 Prochaska, F. , "Timing of 
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 SNAME Propellers '81 Symp., 
 Virginia Beach, May 1981. 
 
 Byrne, D. , et al. , 
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 Svenson, T. E., and J. S. 
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 Face of Uncertainty," Ph.D. 
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 "Survey: Marine Propulsion- 
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 Logan, K. P., Reid, R. E., 
 and V. E. Williams, 
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 Energy Conservation '80 , 
 SNAME, New York, Sept. 1980. 
 
 Reid, R. E., et al., "Energy 
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 Practice," SNAME Ship Cost 
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 Sept. 1982. 
 
 (18) Kallstrom, C. G., and N. H. 
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 (20) Telfer, E. V., "Some Ship 
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 April 1964. 
 
 (21) Townsin, R. L., et al., 
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 (22) Jazwinski, A. H., "Adaptive 
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 (24) Lainotis, D. G. (ed.), 
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 (26) Conolly, M. W. , "Distributed 
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 AIAA/SNAME/ASME 7th Marine 
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 (27) Fastring, R. A., and M. 
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 180 
 
 ■ 
 
(28) Wapner, M. , and R. Fastring, 
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 (29) Mackay, K. H., "Some Modern 
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 181 
 
 
JAPAN'S FIRST DEEP SUBMERGENCE RESCUE VEHICL€ 
 
 TAMA J I IKEDA 
 
 Senior Manager of Submarine Design Department 
 Kawasaki Heavy Industries LTD. 
 1-1 Higashikawasaki-cho 3-chome 
 chuo-ku, Kobe, 650-91, Japan 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The launching ceremony of the Japan's first 
 Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle (DSRV) for Japan 
 Maritime Self Defence Force was took place at the 
 Kobe Works of KAWASAKI HEAVY INDUSTRIES LTD. on 
 October 15, 1984. The keel of the DSRV was laid on 
 December 15, 1982 and its completion is set for 
 March 1985. 
 
 FEATURES 
 
 The DSRV was developed for the purpose to 
 rescue crew from the distressed submarine. 
 Once an accident happens the DSRV is transfered 
 to the disaster point by the mother ship. 
 
 The DSRV leaves the mother ship through her 
 center well and approaches to the distressed 
 submarine following the guide system of the 
 mother ship, and using its own many sonars, TVs 
 and view ports. When the DSRV gets to the 
 distressed submarine, it mates the transfer 
 skirt on the hatch of the submarine using its 
 trim/heel control system, maneuvering control 
 system, automatic position keeping system 
 and mating system. Then the crew is safely 
 rescued into the DSRV through the hatch from the 
 distressed submarine on the dark sea bottom. 
 
 transfer skirt is attached on the bottom of the 
 rescue room. Consequently very high grade 
 techniques are necessary to build the pressure 
 hull. 
 
 The outer hull is made of titanium alloy, 
 pure titanium and FRP. Equipments are skillfully 
 designed to have a high performance and to lighten 
 the weight. And the equipments are well arranged 
 outside the pressure hull as well as possible so 
 as to utilize buoyancy and space to maximum. 
 
 In order to accomplish the urgent mission to 
 save a life, main equipments are installed to be 
 easy for quick maintenance and the reliability 
 has been increased by adapting dual system. 
 
 Thus the DSRV is a highly -advanced, complicated 
 submergence vehicle, and very high-grade 
 technologies are required for its construction. 
 These technologies are believed to become a 
 great help in building various submergence 
 vehicles and under-the-sea equipments which are 
 necessary for furthering ocean development, 
 researching deep sea mineral resources such as 
 manganese nodules and hydrothermal deposits 
 or researching ocean trench for earthquake 
 prediction. 
 
 Pressure hull of the DSRV is made of ultra 
 high-tensile strength steel, and the construction 
 is rather complicated one. Three spheres are 
 connected to form a tri-spherical pressure hull 
 in which a control room, a rescue room and a 
 machinery room are arranged, and a hemispherical 
 
 182 
 
PRINCIPAL PARTICULARS 
 
 Length o. a. 
 
 Breadth 
 
 Depth 
 
 Displacement 
 
 Speed 
 
 Pilot 
 
 Propulsion system 
 
 Pressure hul 1 
 
 Outer hul 1 
 
 Viewing port 
 
 TV camera 
 Manipulator 
 
 12.4m 
 
 3.2m 
 
 4.3m 
 40 t 
 4 knots 
 2 men 
 
 Main forward propulsion is 
 provided by a stern mounted 
 reversible propeller, with 
 an AC motor, oil-filled and 
 pressure compensated. 
 A shroud ring around the 
 propeller can be tilted to 
 provide pitch and yaw motion, 
 
 4 ducted thrusters, 2 vertical 
 and 2 horizontal, each is 
 driven by an AC motor, oil 
 filled and pressure compen- 
 sated. 
 
 Three spheres composed of 
 
 ultra high-tensile strength 
 
 steel. 
 
 Titanium alloy and pure 
 
 titanium framework 
 
 FRP shell 
 
 2 ports made of methacrylic 
 
 resin 
 
 5 sets 
 
 One, hydraul ical ly-powered, 
 7 degrees-of-freedom 
 
 183 
 
DEEP SUBMERGENCE RESCUE VEHICLE 
 GENERAL .ARRANGEMENT 
 
 AFT HORIZONTAL 
 SHROUO RING THRUSTER 
 
 MAIN PROPELLER 
 
 TOP TV CAMERA 
 
 FWO HORIZONTAL THRUSTER 
 
 FWO VERTICAL THRUSTER 
 
 AFT TV 
 CAMERA 
 
 FWO TV CAMERA 
 VIEW PORT 
 
 MANIPULATOR 
 
 184 
 
ON THE "NATSUSHIMA"' S LAUNCH AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM 
 
 FOR 2000 DEEP SUBMERGENCE RESEARCH VEHICLE 
 
 DEEP-SEA TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT 1) n 
 TAMAJI IKEDA 2) 
 
 SHIN-ICHI TOMITA 2) 
 
 1) Japan Marine Science and Technology Center 
 2-15 Natsushima-cho, Yokosuka, 237 Japan 
 
 2) Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Ltd, Kobe Shipyard 
 1-1 Higashi Kawasaki-cho 3-Chorae, Chuo-ku, 
 Kobe, 650-91 Japan 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 Japan Marine Science and Technology Center 
 (JAMSTEC) completed in October, 1981, the 2000 m 
 Deep Submergence Research Vehicle "SHINKAI 2000" 
 and the support ship "NATSUSHIMA" that carries 
 this research vehicle on board to the 
 destination sea area, carries out the sea 
 surface investigation and supports the 
 submersible during its diving operation. In 
 this project Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Ltd. 
 took charge of the -coordination of the total 
 system including the support ship and the 
 research vehicle, and the construction of the 
 support ship. 
 
 The launch and retrieval operation of the 
 submersible in waves is very difficult. This is 
 because of the point that, due to the 
 substantial difference of the hull dimensions 
 between the submersible and the support ship, 
 their oscillation characteristics in waves 
 differ from each other and the complex and large 
 relative oscillation appears in irregular waves 
 of the practical sea surface. For the support 
 ship "NATSUSHIMA" this problem has been solved 
 through the adoption of the shock decreasing 
 method by using flexible nylon lift ropes, as 
 well as the adoption of the self mating type 
 lift devices in the stern A-frame crane system 
 when retrieving the submersible from the wavy 
 sea surface. 
 
 After about one year of the training, 
 ■NATSUSHIMA" is now engaged in the practical 
 investigation work. Till now she has carried 
 out 141 launch and retrieval operations 
 satisfactorily. This paper outlines the launch 
 and retrieval system of "NATSUSHIMA". 
 
 REQUIREMENTS 
 
 The principal particulars of the support ship 
 and the research vehicle are shown in Table 1. 
 
 (1) SUPPORT SHIP 
 
 The general arrangement is shown in Fig. 1, 
 and the external apperance in Photo 1. 
 In consideration of her good maneuverability in 
 low speed condition during launching and 
 retrieving the submersible, she is planned to be 
 a twin-screw vessel with a bow thruster and 
 controllable pitch propellers. She also adopts 
 a wider breadth hull shape compared with 
 conventional vessels in order to obtain the wide 
 deck area as much as possible for handling the 
 submersible on the deck. 
 
 Photo 1. 
 
 'NATSUSHIMA" RETRIEVING "SHINKAI 2000' 
 
 (2) SUBMERSIBLE 
 
 The outer hull is made of FRP and its hull 
 shape is fat and short (L/B 3) . 
 The submersible .has two lifting points at fore 
 side and aft side of the back and their lifting 
 loads are abt. 13.5 ton and abt. 11 ton. 
 
 (3) SEA STATE CONDITIONS 
 
 The sea state conditions for the 
 sumbersible operation including its launch and 
 retrieval are determined as shown below. These 
 are adopted, trying to obtain a reasonable 
 working rate under the sea weather statistics 
 around Japan. 
 
 (a) Normal launch and retrieval operation 
 
 ... Up to Sea State 3. 
 1/3 significant wave height : 1.25 m 
 mean wave period : 5.5 sec. 
 
 (b) Emergency retrieval operation in case of 
 sudden weather change during submergence 
 operation ... Even at Sea State 4 
 
 1/3 significant wave height : 2.5 m 
 mean wave period : 6.0 sec. 
 
 PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS 
 
 The A-frame crane and hoisting winches for 
 
 185 
 
launching and retr 
 equipped at the af 
 as in Photo 2 and 
 The specifications 
 retrieving system 
 principal componen 
 composed of the A- 
 frame, 2 nylon lif 
 2 hoisting winches 
 devices, and a tro 
 
 ieving "SHINKAI 2000" are 
 ter upper deck of "NATSUSHIMA" 
 illustrated in Fig. 2. 
 of the launching and 
 are shown in Table 2, and its 
 ts in Fig. 2. The system is 
 frame crane with a pendant 
 ting ropes, 2 ram tensioners, 
 
 2self-mating type lift 
 lley. 
 
 [Prodi.) 
 
 Photo 2. "NATSUSHIMA" HANDLING "SHINKAI 2000" 
 
 Table 1 Principal Particulars of Support Ship and Submersible 
 
 Support Ship 
 
 
 Submersible 
 
 Length overall 
 
 abt. 
 
 67 ■ 
 
 Length overall : abt. 
 
 9.3 ■ 
 
 Breadth 
 
 abt. 
 
 13 ■ 
 
 Breadth i abt. 
 
 3.0 ■ 
 
 Depth 
 
 abt. 
 
 C.3 ■ 
 
 Depth ■ abt. 
 
 2.9 ■ 
 
 Designed draft 
 
 abt. 
 
 3.55 ■ 
 
 Draft i abt. 
 
 2.S ■ 
 
 Desplacement 
 
 abt. 
 
 l,70Qton 
 
 Height In air 1 abt. 
 
 24. S ton 
 
 Propeller 
 Rudder 
 
 CPP 
 2 
 
 x 2 set 
 
 Displaced linesi abt. 
 volume 
 
 44. S ton 
 
 Bow thruster 
 
 1 set 
 
 
 
 PROCEDURE OF RETRIEVAL OPERATION 
 
 The procedure to retrieve the submersible 
 is shown in the following (see Fig. 2). For its 
 launching, reverse the retrieving procedure in 
 almost the same sequence. 
 
 (a) The swimmers on a working boat approach to 
 the submersible coming up on the surface 
 and fit it with a steady line. 
 
 (b) The support ship starts in a slow speed 
 (1-2 kts) , taking in the steady line with a 
 capstan, and brings the submersible near 
 herself. 
 
 (c) The swimmers fit the guide lines to the 
 lift pieces of the submersible and the 
 automatic tension is applied to these guide 
 lines 
 
 (d) The submersible is pulled further just 
 under the A-frame. 
 
 (e) The hoist lines are let out, lowering the 
 fore and aft lift devices along the 
 respective guide lines to make the female 
 devices fit automatically by their own 
 weight to their counterpart male pieces of 
 the submersible. 
 
 iUppar Deck] 
 
 r n r~ I k 
 
 Bow Thrueter 
 Sonar Done 
 Hangar 
 
 Aft Wheel House 
 Mock Boat 
 Hydraulic Cylinder 
 A-frame Crane 
 Pendant Fcaae 
 "Transducer 
 Subaersible 
 Side Seen Sonar 
 Trolley 
 Labor a try 
 Hoist Winch 
 Capstan 
 
 rig. 1 ARRANGEMENT OF HAT6USI1IHA* 
 
 (Profile] 
 
 
 T^m 
 
 \_ 
 
 A- Crane 
 
 Hydraulic Cylinder 
 
 Re at 
 
 Pendant Prune 
 
 Brake 
 
 Shock Absorber 
 
 Lift Device Stopper 
 
 Guide Line Winch 
 
 Pinch Roller 
 
 Uolst Winch 
 
 Hoist Line 
 
 LUt Device 
 
 Ramte nsloner 
 
 Steady Line 
 
 Aft Wheel House 
 
 Trolley 
 
 Uangar 
 
 Capstan 
 
 Side Scan Sonar 
 
 Plq. 2 LAUNCH AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM 
 
 Table 2 Specification of A-Frame Crane and Trolley 
 
 Item 
 
 Q'ty 
 
 Specification 
 
 A-Frame Crane 
 
 1 set 
 
 Capacity i 
 Lift i 
 Out reach. 
 
 Max. 40 ton 
 6.S m 
 10.2 m 
 
 Pivotting Equipment 
 
 2 acts 
 
 Type 
 
 Hydraulic Cylinder 
 
 Boist Line 
 
 2 sees 
 
 Type i 
 
 jf85mra Nylon Rope 
 (Double Braid) 
 
 Hoist Winch 
 
 2 sets 
 
 Type 
 Capacity 
 
 Hydraulic Winch 
 20 tonx lBm/min . /se t 
 
 Raw Tensionec 
 
 2 sets 
 
 Type i Hydraulic Ram Cylinder 
 Tension Range t 2 to 10 ton/set 
 Adjusting stroke. 4 m 
 
 Lift Device 
 
 2 sets 
 
 Type 
 Capacity 
 
 Self-Hating 
 20 ton/set 
 
 Guide Line 
 
 2 sets 
 
 Type 
 
 ct6 nun Wire Rope 
 (Auto Tension) 
 
 Trolley 
 
 1 set 
 
 Type 
 Capacity 
 
 Hydraulic Winch 
 (Wire-Guided) 
 t 25 ton x 6 m/min 
 
 (f) The swimmers confirm that the lift devices 
 have fit securely. 
 
 (g) The hoist lines are let in to lift up the 
 submersible out of the water surface. 
 
 (h) Having lifted the submersible, the load is 
 transfered to the pendant frame, and then 
 the A-frame is swung in and is returned to 
 its stowing position. 
 
 (i) The submersible is lowered on to the 
 
 trolley and tied fast to it. The lift 
 devices and guide lines are removed. 
 
 (i) The hatch of the submersible is opened and 
 the crew leaves the submersible. 
 
 (k) The submersible is washed with fresh water 
 and the trolley is untied and pulled into 
 the hangar. 
 
 186 
 
A series of the retrieval operation is 
 finished. 
 
 OUTLINE OF THE SYSTEM 
 
 (1) LIFTING METHOD 
 
 Usually, an A-frame crane system has one 
 lifting point and one lifting rope method, but 
 we have adopted two lifting points and two 
 lifting ropes due to the following three reasons. 
 Fitst, the weight of "SHINKAI 2000" was too 
 great (abt. 24.5 tons). Secondly, the pitching 
 and yawing motion could be decreased by using 
 two lifting ropes. Thirdly, we have succeeded 
 in developing a self-mating device to lift the 
 submersible safely. 
 
 But unfortuately, we had no data to design 
 the A-frame crane system in the areas of towing 
 load, lifting load, and the relative motion 
 during the recovery operation in waves. 
 Therefore, we made the experiment of this system 
 using a 1/10 scale model in the sea-keeping and 
 maneuvering tank of the University of Tokyo. 
 Through the result of this test and analyses we 
 confirmed that the stern mounted A-frame crane 
 with two lifting ropes was suitable for "SHINKAI 
 2000" launching and recovery system, and that 
 this system could be operated even in Sea State 
 4. We have adopted this tank test result to the 
 detail design of the launching/retrieving 
 equipments, and it is shown in Table 3 as an 
 example. 
 
 The A-frame is -of the gate type with its 
 upper beam a little narrower. Its lower ends 
 are fitted on the extended -stern end of the 
 upper deck with hinges". 
 
 The strength of the A-frame is so designed that 
 the maximum hoist load is 20 tons per -hoist line 
 and 40 tons in total in consideration of the 
 dynamic load gained from the model basin test. 
 
 The pendant frame of the swing type is hung 
 from the upper section of the A-frame. Two 
 hoist lines are led at the outsides of both 
 arms, enter into the middle section at the 
 sheaves fitted at both shoulders, are separated 
 fore and aft at the sheaves fitted at -the upper 
 section of the pendant frame, and run downward 
 through holes provided at the lower section of 
 the frame. The brakes for the pendant frame are 
 provided at the inside of the upper sections of 
 both arms. 
 
 (2) HOIST LINES 
 
 The hoist lines installed in the A-frame 
 crane had to decrease the shock load and be 
 suitable for smooth recovery. 
 
 Therefore, we selected nylon fiber rope for this 
 system. However, we had no data on the large 
 size Tetoron-Nylon double-braided rope 
 concerning strength, spring constant, and other 
 properties. 
 
 Thus, we designed an experiment of this rope to 
 obtain its characteristics, and inverstigated 
 the spring constant by using the simulated model 
 rope which was the same length and which was 
 installed in the same sheave arrangement as in 
 the actual A-frame crane system. 
 
 Through this experiment, the strength, 
 spring constant in the dynamic conditions, and 
 other properties of the Tetoron-Nylon 
 double-braided rope became clear. In this 
 manner we confirmed that the rope was suitable 
 for smooth recovery of the submersible, and 
 decided the diameter of rope was 850 (breaking 
 strength: 165 tons) . 
 
 The line having the rupture strength safety 
 factor of 7 in the wet condition against the 
 load of 20 tons considering the dynamic load is 
 adopted. 
 
 Table 3 Character lstlcs Test Result! in Waves 
 
 Significant value 
 
 (single amplitude) at Sea State 4 
 
 Ducing towing 
 
 With 
 
 sea 
 
 anchor 
 
 without 
 aea 
 
 anchor 
 
 Ducing llftlnq-up 
 
 with 
 
 sea 
 anchor 
 
 without 
 
 sea 
 anchor 
 
 not." 
 
 Dea ign 
 Standard 
 Value at 
 •HO* 
 
 Submersible motion 
 
 Roll angle' 
 
 Pitch angle 
 
 Yaw angle* 
 
 Surge 
 
 Sway* 
 
 Heave 
 
 Surge acce- 
 leration 
 
 Sway acce- 
 leration* 
 
 Heave acce- 
 leration 
 
 deg 
 d-g 
 deg 
 
 4.3 
 
 8.1 
 21 
 0.9 
 0.9 
 1.1 
 0.14 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.13 
 
 3.8 
 
 a. 9 
 
 26 
 1.1 
 1.1 
 1.1 
 
 0.13 
 
 0.05 
 0.12 
 
 19 
 
 7.4 
 19 
 
 1.9 
 
 l.S 
 2.1 
 0.18 
 
 0.26 
 
 0.24 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 30 
 2.2 
 2.0 
 2.1 
 0.32 
 
 0.21 
 
 0.31 
 
 16* 
 14* 
 JO" 
 
 2. 
 2. 
 2. 
 
 0. 
 
 
 
 
 2 ■ 
 
 a\ 
 
 1 ■ 
 32 9 
 
 2« 9 
 
 Jl 9 
 
 Relative motion between support ship t submersible 
 
 Surge rela- 
 tive motion 
 
 Sway rela- 
 tive motion* 
 
 Heavy rela- 
 tive motion 
 
 up load 
 
 Lifting- _T F °«] 
 
 ~" [ropej 
 
 Aft 
 
 rope 
 
 Max. 
 
 llfting- 
 ud load 
 
 Weight 
 in air 
 
 Towing load 
 
 0.7 
 
 3.80 
 
 1.3 
 1.1 
 
 3.1 
 
 2.73 
 
 l.i 
 1.8 
 
 1.32 
 
 2.1 
 2.0 
 
 1.41 
 
 1.26 
 
 1 ■ 
 
 • 
 L a 
 
 1.41 
 
 Note 1) Shall be the largest valus at Sea State 4. 
 
 Note 2) (•) It Is difficult to estimate the transvsrss 
 
 motions in Irregular waves, and the values shown 
 In the table are only (or reference. 
 
 The ram tensioners are arranged between the 
 hoisting winches and the A-frame, follow the 
 relative oscillation between the submersible and 
 the support ship. 
 
 (3) MATING METHOD 
 
 The self-mating device provided at the end 
 of the lifting rope was a part of the launching 
 and retrieval system installed in the support 
 ship. 
 
 This mating device was designed to slide down 
 along the guide rope and mates with the male 
 device installed on the top of the submersible. 
 Hence, the swimmers can work easily and safely 
 on the submersible. 
 
 However, since there was no data on this 
 type of device, we have manufactured it in 
 full-scale and carried out an experiment 
 concerning its mating and handling performance 
 using the simulated model which was composed of 
 a launching and retrieval system. The simulated 
 model was separately oscillated by the hydraulic 
 cylinder. As a result of this test, we obtained 
 data concerning the shape of the male device, 
 suitable weight of the self-mating device and 
 its handling method. Thus, we confirmed that 
 this device was useful for the actual launching 
 and retrieval system. 
 
 The main portion of the lift device is the 
 welding construction of 6A1-4V-Ti for weight 
 reduction and anti-corrosion. Each device 
 weights about 55 kg. When the male type hoist 
 piece of the submersible is come up into the 
 hoisting device, it is engaged and checked with 
 six claws arranged on the circumference. The 
 
 187 
 
section of the lift device is shown in Fig. 3. 
 The guide lines are handy stainless wire 
 ropes of 6 nun in diameter. These run from the 
 auto-tension winches on the pendant frame, and 
 pass through the lift device stopper and the 
 line end hooks are connected to the pins of the 
 submersible lift pieces. Even when the 
 submersible oscillates in wave, the winch can 
 keep the guide line without slacking, and make 
 the lift devices fall by their own weight along 
 the guide lines and engage with the lift pieces. 
 
 1. Fcua 
 
 2. Stopper 
 
 3- ■*!••!• Ring 
 
 4. lift Pi.c. 
 
 5. Guld« Llna 
 i. Hone LLna 
 
 7. SuOner aible ' s Fri 
 
 ri«. i Lin ocvtce 
 
 simulated submersible. This simulated 
 submersible was manufactured with its external 
 form, dimensions, weight, center of gravity, 
 center of buoyancey, etc. nearly equal to those 
 of the actual submersible. In addition, after 
 the operation training had been carried out 
 fully in the actual sea surface with the 
 simulated submersible mentioned above, the sea 
 trials were carried. out with the actual 
 submersible. More than, 30 sea trials, including 
 training, were carried out and all were 
 satisfactory. 
 
 POSTSCRIPT 
 
 The 2000 m Deep Submergence Research 
 Vehicle System was completed at the end of 
 October, 1981, and after approximately one year 
 of the training the system is now engaged in the 
 practical investigation. Till now 141 launch 
 and retrieval operation have been carried out 
 satisfactorily. 
 
 Among the above operations the sea weather 
 of 4 or higher in Beaufort wind scale were 
 recorded in as many as 34 times, and even then 
 the launch and retrieval operations could be 
 carried out safely without any trouble. And the 
 time length required for each "operation was 
 about 30 minutes on the average. So we are 
 convinced that the System will also operate 
 satisfactorily in future. 
 
 (4) TROLLEY AND TROLLEY WINCH 
 
 The trolley and its winch are means of 
 carrying "SHINKAI 2000" at a high degree of 
 operating safety and assuredness between the 
 launching/retrieval place at the aft upper deck 
 and the maintenance/servicing place in the 
 hangar. 
 
 They have also characteristically the 
 functions of lashing "SHINKAI 2000" on the 
 trolley, securing the trolley and submersible to 
 the hull of "NATSUSHIMA" at the 
 maintenance/servicing place and servicing as a 
 work stand for the maintenance and servicing 
 jobs. They comprise the trolley, trolley rails, 
 winch, securing and lashing gears. 
 
 The authors wish to acknowledge the 
 valuable advices given by the members of Japan 
 Marine Science and Tecknology Center and the 
 excellent operations carried out and the 
 precious experience data given by those who 
 operate the system. 
 
 MANUFACTURING AND TEST 
 
 Having fully confirmed the performances and 
 safety of various components through the 
 development research, the final detail designing 
 was carried out. Manufacture of the components 
 were charged by their respective expert 
 manufactures having sufficient experiences and 
 carried out under the strict quality control. 
 
 The individual performance tests of the 
 components in shop, the load tests after 
 assembling on board, the operation test and sea 
 trials were carried out. These tests were 
 carried out under the cargo handling equipment 
 regulation of Nippon Kaiji Kyokai and the 
 inspections were carried out by its surveyor. 
 
 The operation tests in the mooring 
 condition and at sea were carried out with a 
 
 188 
 
TOWED UNMANNED SUBMERSIBLE (TUMS) SYSTEM 
 
 Kurt Merl 
 President 
 
 Sperry Systems Management Group 
 Great Neck, N.Y. 11020 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 A unique unmanned deep-sea submersible 
 capable of operation in depths beyond the reach 
 of conventional diving systems or ship sensors 
 has been built by Sperry for the Royal Navy. 
 The Sperry Towed Unmanned Submersible (TUMS) 
 will perform a wide range of search, identifica- 
 tion, classification, and recovery operations 
 at full ocean depths using optic, acoustic, 
 and magentic sensors and a manipulator arm. 
 
 combined Gyroscope, U. K.'s experience supplying 
 a wide range of equipments to the Royal Navy 
 with Systems Management's 20 years of experience 
 in underwater and deep submersible programs. As 
 prime contractor, Gyroscope, U. K. assumed 
 responsibility for overall program management, 
 ship interfaces, system installation, harbor 
 and sea trials, documentation and support. 
 Systems Management was responsible for the 
 development and test of the entire system, 
 including procurement and supply of all equipments 
 Program authorization for the initial phase was 
 received in May 1979; the development phase 
 started in May 1980 and was completed in 
 August 1982. Shipboard installation was 
 completed in August 1983; preparations are being 
 completed for ship trials in late 1984 continuing 
 through 1985. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The United Kingdom Ministry of Defence 
 has launched H. M. S. Challenger, a Seabed 
 Operations Vessel, whose missions involve 
 seabed searching and working at full ocean 
 depths. These functions are achieved by use 
 of onboard saturation diving facilities and an 
 unmanned underwater vehicle system. This 
 vehicle system, supplied by Sperry to the 
 Royal Navy, is called the TUMS (Towed 
 Unmanned Submersible) system. The shipboard 
 saturation diving facilities are limited to 
 use at only shallow depths. The TUMS is 
 required to obtain the searching and working 
 functions beyond these depths, to 90% of 
 full ocean depth. 
 
 The TUMS contract was awarded, in a 
 competitive procurement, to a team comprising two 
 units of Sperry Corporation's Sperry Division: 
 Gyroscope, U.K. in Bracknell (which is now 
 Bracknell Division of the Dynamics Group of 
 British Aerospace Ltd.) and Systems Management 
 Group in Great Neck, New York. This teaming 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF TUMS SYSTEM 
 
 A two-body underwater configuration, as 
 illustrated in Figure 1, was selected for TUMS. 
 The depressor is a heavy body which functions 
 as a garage for the twelve-foot long instrumented 
 vehicle. An advantage of this arrangement is that 
 the depressor isolates the vehicle from ship's 
 motion transmitted down the tow cable and from 
 induced tow cable motions (see Figure 2). 
 
 TRACTION IT0MGE 
 
 HEME * mW WmCH 
 
 COMPENSATOR 
 CABLE 
 
 0VERB0ARDING 
 fVSTEM 
 
 Unmanned Submersible System 
 Figure 1 
 
 189 
 
CABLE 
 GALLOPING - 
 FORCES 
 
 CABLE MOTION 
 
 TETHER ACTING AS 
 MOTION FILTER 
 
 |._ S UNDISTURBED 
 VEHICLE 
 
 MAGNETOMETER 
 
 TUMS Tow Configuration 
 Figure 2 
 
 The vehicle is connected to the depressor 
 by a neutrally-buoyant tether cable. A six- 
 mile tow cable weighing 28,000 pounds couples 
 the depressor with the ship. A single coaxial 
 electrical cable core carries power of 30kVA at 
 3000 volts to the underwater bodies and carries 
 signals in both directions. Mechanical strength 
 is achieved by a steel armor sheath over the 
 electrical core. The tow cable is wound on a 
 storage winch located on the ship, as shown in 
 Figure 3. Figure 4 is a photograph of the 
 storage winch. The cable is hauled in and out 
 by a traction winch (shown in Figure 5). A 
 cable overboarding sheave hauls and supports 
 the underwater bodies during launching and 
 recovery. A heave compensator (shown in 
 Figure 6) is provided to control cable motion 
 which would otherwise induce high tensile loads 
 in the cable through the ship and sea inter- 
 action. Two operator control stations are 
 provided in the Ship's Operations Room. 
 Remote ancillary electrical and hydraulic 
 power equipments are included as part of the 
 TUMS system. 
 
 Cable Storage Winch 
 Figure 4 
 
 TRACTION WINCH 
 
 HEAVE 
 COMPENSATOR 
 
 CABLE 
 STORAGE WINCH 
 
 TUMS CONTROL CONSOLE 
 
 HYDRAULIC POWER UNIT 
 POWER CONVERSION 
 EQUIPMENT COMPARTMENT 
 
 CABLE REMOTE CONTROL 
 
 OVERBOARDING 
 
 SYSTEM 
 
 Traction Winch 
 Figure 5 
 
 Layout of Seabed Operations Vessel (S.O. V. ) 
 Figure 3 
 
 190 
 
INSTRUMENTED VEHICLE 
 
 The instrumented vehicle (see Figure 7 and 
 8) is approximately neutrally buoyant and 
 contains the sensor suite of the system. (The 
 sensors are illustrated in Figure 9.) It can be 
 deployed up to 1000 feet from the depressor body 
 and is maneuverable using its thrusters in five 
 axes — surge, sway, heave, yaw, and pitch. 
 
 In addition to shelf-powered operation, the 
 vehicle can be towed by the ship at speeds up to 
 two knots. A vehicle autopilot enables auto- 
 matic flight at constant heading and altitude. 
 When searching, the vehicle employs side-looking 
 and forward-looking sonars, low light level 
 television and stereoscope photographic camera 
 systems, and a magnetometer which trails behind 
 the vehicle to isolate the magnetometer from 
 magnetic fields. A six-function manipulator arm 
 on the vehicle is used for working on objects 
 near the seabed. 
 
 OPERATION OF TUMS 
 
 The instrumented vehicle is garaged in the 
 depressor body before launching. The two bodies 
 are launched as one unit from the aft of the 
 ship under the control of an operator using a 
 special console. They are lowered using the 
 overboarding sheave through the air/water 
 interface. Once underwater, the instrumented 
 vehicle is separated from the depressor body, 
 and control reverts to the TUMS control consoles 
 in the Ship's Operations Room. 
 
 Two operator stations are provided for TUMS 
 control as shown in Figure 10. A pilot at one 
 operator station flies the instrumented vehicle 
 using joy sticks, and monitors vehicle position 
 computed by a special processor provided within 
 the console. The Sperry-designed processor 
 (shown in Figure 11) uses data telemetered from 
 the vehicle, which acoustically measures 
 distances to various bottom transponders. The 
 Pilot also monitors sonar and television displays 
 to detect obstacles in the vehicle's path, and to 
 aid in search and work operations. An Observer 
 at the other operator station monitors sensor 
 displays during vehicle search operations. 
 Either the Pilot or the Observer can control the 
 manipulator arm during work operations. 
 
 Upon completion of an underwater mission, 
 the instrumented vehicle is returned to the 
 depressor body prior to recovery. Before lifting 
 out of the water, control is transferred to the 
 aft console. The bodies are lifted through the 
 water/air interface, and securely latched by the 
 cable overboarding sheave. Figure 12 shows the 
 mated depressor and vehicle latched on the 
 H.M.S. Challenger during installation testing. 
 The bodies are then inboarded by the "M-Frame" 
 shown in the figure and secured on the ship's 
 deck. 
 
 The TUMS program required high technology 
 and sophisticated management skills. The TUMS 
 engineers on both sides of the Atlantic have 
 combined their skills and resources to achieve 
 the program's success and are working closely 
 together to develop U. K. deep submergence 
 technology for the future. 
 
 Figure 6 
 
 191 
 
Figure 7 
 
 Figure 8 
 
 192 
 
STEREO 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC 
 
 CAMERAS 
 
 FORWARD 
 SONAR 
 
 TV CAMERA 
 
 ALTITUDE 
 SONAR 
 
 TOWED 
 MAGNETOMETER 
 
 SIDE SCAN SONARS 
 (PORT & STBD) 
 
 Major Vehicle Sensors 
 Figure 9 
 
 Figure 10 
 
 193 
 
is, *. 
 
 i 
 
 * mr-* 
 
 M" 
 
 ■ '. » 
 
 
 1 4 
 1 *■ ' 
 
 
 -SB- 
 
 
 
 
 ^ M 
 
 
 
 *!■ ; 
 
 MmJ 
 
 [*"' 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 *- if 
 
 f 
 
 s IP 
 
 *v ; ; 
 
 mi 
 
 H. 
 
 Figure 11 
 
 Figure 12 
 
 194 
 
DESIGN OF ROV " DOLPHIN-3K 
 
 Mutsuo Hattori 
 
 Japan Marine Science and Technology Center 
 Yokosuka 237, Japan 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 Dolphin-3K is a Remotely Operated Vehicle 
 (ROV) developing in JAMSTEC. It is a largest 
 and deepest. ROV (3300 m of water) ever plann- 
 ed in Japan. The vehicle shall be completed 
 in early 1987. The design of Dolphin-3K was 
 started in 1982 and completed in 1983 and 
 now under construction. The contractor for 
 the system is Mitsui Engineering and Shipbuil- 
 ding Co.,Ltd.(MES). The hydrodynamic test 
 of 1/4 scale model and tests of components 
 such as cable and buoyant materials were 
 completed. The design of Dolphin-3K and 
 static and dynamic consumptions of the suspens- 
 ion system are reported. 
 
 1 . INTRODUCTION 
 
 Since 1978, 2 types of small ROVs were 
 developed in JAMSTEC. The smallest one, 
 JTY-1, for 200 m of water, was commercial- 
 ized as DLT-300 by Q.I.Co.,Ltd.,Tokyo and 
 8 vehicles were delivered. The other vehicle 
 HORNET-500, for 500 m of water, utilizes 
 very thin fiber optic cable (o.d.7 mm) and 
 successively tested up to 300 m of water 
 in 1984, but lost by accident. HORNET-500- 
 
 2 is under construction. 
 
 Dolphin-3K is planning to use for pre- 
 site survey of the manned submersible "Shinkai 
 2000" and for scientific reconnaissance survey 
 around Japan. 
 
 Dolphin-3K is planning to develope by 
 
 3 years schedule as follows. 
 
 a. 1982(FY): Conceptual design and test 
 of prototype cable. Static hydrody- 
 namic test of 1/4 scale model. 
 
 b. 1983(FY): Detail design. Hydrodynamic 
 test of the revised scale model. 
 
 c. 1984(FY): Construction of the vehicle 
 hydraulic system, a frame made of 
 titanium, manipulator and grabber, 
 pan and tilt units and TVs. Tests 
 of new buoyant materials. 
 
 d. 1985(FY): Construction of the control 
 console and the vehicle control soft- 
 ware. 
 
 e.l986(FY): Construction of the deck handl- 
 ing system, telemetry system, cable 
 and acoustic navigation system (SSBL). 
 Sea going test. 
 
 2. DESIGN OF DOLPHIN-3K 
 
 2.1. The System Operational Requirement 
 
 The vehicle is planned to use for pre-site 
 survey of the manned submersible "Shinkai 2000" 
 and scientific reconnaissance survey. The task 
 required the above mentioned surveys are as 
 follows. 
 
 • Pre-site survey of the "Shinkai 2000". 
 
 • After dive support survey of the "Shinkai 
 
 2000", depth up to 3300 m. 
 
 • Broad area scientific survey by tow mode. 
 
 • Installation and retreaval of scientific 
 tools such as seismograph, tilt meter, 
 current meter and transponder etc. 
 
 • Survey of dangerous areas such as very 
 steep slopes, valley walls, submarine volcan- 
 oues and high current areas. 
 
 • Retreaval of lost object light than 2 tons 
 with special tools. 
 
 • Entangling and cutting of ropes and wires. 
 
 2.2 Operational Conditions 
 
 Sea state: 
 Currents: 
 
 Support Ships: 
 
 under 4 
 
 Surface 4 knots, decrease 
 1 knot at 500 m of water, 
 500 to 3300 m 1 knot. 
 Natsushima, Kaiyo 
 
 2.3. Specifications of Dolphin-3K 
 
 The specifications of Dolphin-3K were deter- 
 mined by the detail design, total sytem of the 
 vehicle is shown in Fig. 1. 
 
 Main specifications of Dolphin-3K are as 
 follows. 
 
 1). Vehicle 
 
 (1) Dimensions: 
 
 x 194(W) x 190(H) 
 
 285(L) 
 in cm 
 
 (2) Weight in air: 3400 kg.in water -10 kg 
 
 (3) Operating depth: 3300 m 
 
 (4) Payload: Max. 150 kg 
 
 (5) Speed: Forward 3 knots, reverse 2 knots 
 
 Port/stbd 1.5 knots, Up/down 
 1 knot. Rotation 30°/sec. 
 
 (6) Propulsion: A hydraulic pump provides 
 
 power to 6 thrusters 
 2 x 15 HP each For/rev thrusters 
 2 x 9.5HP each Port/stbd thrusters 
 2x9 HP each Up/down thrusters 
 
 (7) Power unit: AC motor ( 3 phase 40 KW) 
 
 and hydraulic piston pump 
 
 (8) Instrumentation: Color TV camera (broad- 
 
 cast grade) with pan and tilt, 5 x 
 500 W and 1 x 250 W light, two 
 
 195 
 
manipulators, 1 x 7 d.f. master- 
 slave, 1 x 5 if. rate control 
 grabber, 2 x cutters, CTDV, still 
 camera and strobe 
 (9) Navigation: Obstacle avoidance sonar, 
 
 direction finding sonar, depth 
 meter, fluxgate gyro, rate gyro, 
 altimeter, current meter and 
 trim sensor 
 
 2). Shipboard components 
 
 (1) Control/navigation Van 
 
 (2) Power generating equipments 
 
 (3) Deck handling system: Traction winch, 
 
 cable storage winch, rum tension- 
 er, zimbal shieve, servo hydraulic 
 power unit 
 
 (4) Cable: 30 mm o.d. fiber optic electro- 
 
 mechanical cable. L 5000 m. 
 Breaking strength 16.5 tons 
 
 (5) Acoustic navigation system: Super short 
 
 base line acoustic navigation 
 
 (6) Weight: 2.2 tons (in air), 2 tons (in 
 
 water). This weight is used for 
 tow/self-propelled mode operation 
 
 2.4. Main Characteristics of Dolphtn-3K 
 
 Among the specifications mentioned above, 
 the main characteristics of Dolphin-3K is as 
 follows. 
 
 1). Dolphin-3K utilizes fiber optic electro- 
 mechanical cable of proven performance and 
 high speed PCM transmission system (400 MBPS) 
 via one optical fiber of 5000 m length. 
 The transmission system is able to transmit 
 4 TV channels, 2 acoustic channels and 2 up/ 
 down data and control signals using 2 wave 
 length division multiplex optical transmission 
 together with high speed PCM mentioned above. 
 The cable consists of 4 optical fibers and 7 
 power conductors and only one optical fiber 
 is used, so there remains a great amounts of 
 transmission capability. 
 
 2). Viewing system of Dolphin-3K utilizes 
 4 TV cameras, they are 1 news gathering grade 
 color TV with remote zoom and focus, 1 stereo 
 b/w LLL TV with remote focus and 1 b/w after 
 TV. SIT and small color TVs shall be installed 
 later. The main specifications of TVs are 
 shown below. 
 
 Focus 
 
 Viewing angle 
 Horizontal 
 Vertical 
 
 Resolution 
 
 Sensitivity 
 
 Weight in air 
 
 Dimensions 
 
 Color TV 
 6.3 to 21.9 mm 
 
 53°(wide),16°(tele) 
 42°(wide),12°(tele) 
 
 400 lines 
 
 2000 lux 
 23 kg 
 «J186 x 635(L) mm 
 
 b/w TV 
 5.5 mm 
 
 79° 
 
 63° 
 
 630 lines 
 
 0.3 lux 
 
 11.5 kg 
 
 «Sl80x435(L) 
 
 Wide angle b/w TVs are designed to provide 
 medium distance wide angle view and stereo- 
 scopic view. Color TV is designed to provide 
 high resolution, high quality color pictures of 
 broadcast grade. 
 
 3). Dolphin-3K is capable of two mode 
 of operations, one is self propelled mode fine 
 
 Manipulator 
 
 Grabber 
 
 20 kg 
 
 20kg 
 
 40 kg 
 
 40kg 
 
 1.5 m 
 
 1.5 m 
 
 100 kg 
 
 80kg 
 
 scale survey and the other is tow/self-propelled 
 mode survey of broad area with simple attachable 
 weight. 
 
 4). Dolphin-3K has 2 manipulators. They are 
 7 d.f. spacially correspondent manipulator and 
 5 cLf. rate control grabber. 4th to 7th arms of 
 the manipulator are bilaterally controlled. The 
 specifications of the manipulator and grabber are 
 as follows. 
 
 Normal handling capacity 
 Maximum lifting capacity 
 Total length of the arm 
 Weight in air 
 
 Both hands are normally stowed inside of the 
 framework, they shall be stowed automatically 
 by microcomputer control. Those arms are design- 
 ed to perform variety of tasks. Main tasks shall 
 be sampling of bottom rocks, sediments, creatures, 
 cutting or entangling of ropes and wires and ret- 
 reaval of object lighter than 2 tons with special 
 tools. 
 
 3. HYDRO-DYNAMIC TESTS AND BEHAVIOR S 
 OF THE SUSPENSION SYSTEMS 
 
 Hydrodynamic tests of 1/4 scale model were 
 carried out at Akishima Laboratory of MES in 
 1982 and 1983. The results were used for static 
 and dynamic considerations of the suspension. 
 
 Main parameters except for hydrodymanic 
 parameters are given below. 
 
 
 Vehicle 
 
 Weight 
 
 Cable 
 
 Length 
 
 
 
 5000m 
 
 Diameters 
 
 4.54m 
 
 1.12m 
 
 0.03m 
 
 Weight 
 
 3500kg 
 
 2000kg 
 
 0.191kg/m 
 
 Drag 
 
 For/rev 0.7 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.2 
 
 coefficients 
 
 Port/stbd 1.0 
 Up 0.8 
 Down 1.6 
 
 
 0.01 
 
 As static considerations, cable catenary and 
 foot print analysis of various conditions were carri- 
 ed out. 
 
 Fig.2 shows a cable catenary of the maximum 
 current velocity. Fig.3 shows a foot print of the 
 tow/self-propelled mode operation, tow speed is 
 1.6 and 1.7 knots, depth 3300 m. 
 
 The cable dynamics were calculated by the 
 Lumped Mass Method and the results were used 
 for dynamic considerations of suspension. 
 
 Three cases were calculated, they are: 
 
 1). ROV is fixed. 
 2). ROV is propelled. 
 3). Tow/self-propelled mode with weight. 
 They are shown in Table 1. 
 
 Static and dynamic considerations reveals that 
 the vehicle has targe stability and wide foot print 
 and the maximum dynamic tension of the cable 
 allows tow mode operation using 2 tons of weight 
 or recovery of a object weight about 2 tons in 
 the case of self-propelled mode of operation. 
 
 4. CONCLUDING REMARKS 
 
 The design and tests about main subsystems 
 of Dolphin-3K were completed and the total system 
 
 196 
 
shall be completed and tested in early 1987. 
 
 The operation of Dolphin-3K shall play a 
 important role concerning more sophisticated 
 utilization and safety of the manned submersible 
 " Shinkai 2000 " and scientific reconnaissance 
 survey aroud Ja^an. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 1. Nomoto,M.,Hattori,M.,Aoki,T. "Application 
 of Optical Fiber Cable to Seabed Survey , 
 Proa Oceanology International '84, 1984 
 
 2. Hattori,M.,Aoki,T.,Nomoto,M., "Remotely 
 Operated Vehicles Developed in JAMSTEC", 
 ROV '84, p.335-339, 1984 
 
 3. Hattori,M.,Takahashi,K.,Kadomoto,Y.,"Present 
 Status of ROVs in JAMSTEC", ROV '85 
 
 in press 
 
 CONTROL VAN 
 
 SUPPORT SHIP 
 
 
 Fig.l. Dolphin-3K System 
 
 Ship's Motion 
 T»6,Amp 2.5m 
 
 Static 
 Tension 
 
 Ship side 
 Dynamic 
 tension 
 
 Ship side 
 ROV side 
 
 Max. 
 Mln. 
 
 Maximum Tension 
 
 Pitch 
 
 1019 kg 
 312 kg 
 
 1900 kg 
 495 kg 
 
 Heave 
 
 1019 kg 
 312 kg 
 
 1380 kg 
 980 kg 
 
 Minimum Tension 
 
 Pitch 
 
 980 kg 
 257 kg 
 
 1900 kg 
 490 kg 
 
 Heave 
 
 980 kg 
 257 kg 
 
 1370 kg 
 950 kg 
 
 Tow/self-propelled 
 
 Pitch 
 
 2614 kg 
 51.3 kg 
 
 3450 kg 
 2220 kg 
 
 ROV side 
 dynamic 
 tension 
 (ROV fixed) 
 
 Max. 
 Mln. 
 
 400 kg 
 225 kg 
 
 355 kg 
 270 kg 
 
 345 kg 
 190 kg 
 
 275 kg 
 215 kg 
 
 ROV side 
 dynamic 
 tension 
 (self-propelled) 
 
 Max. 
 Mln. 
 
 Motions 
 
 of 
 ROV 
 
 Position 
 
 of 
 weight 
 
 X(m) 
 Z(m) 
 Pitch 
 
 X(m) 
 Z(m) 
 
 395 kg 
 225 kg 
 
 350 kg 
 270 kg 
 
 340 kg 
 175 kg 
 
 270 kg 
 225 kg 
 
 0.25 
 0.16 
 
 4-1-16-1 
 
 0.065 
 0.045 
 
 fl.iH1.fi 
 
 0.23 
 0.18 
 
 i. 0-13.3 
 
 0.045 
 0.037 
 
 ZJblflJ 
 
 Table 1. Dynamic suspension of Dolphin-3K system 
 
 57 kg 
 42 kg 
 
 0.01 
 0.01 
 
 L3&L3 
 
 
 0.24 
 
 197 
 
XCm) 
 3 2 1 -1 -2 -3 -4*10~3 
 
 1 ' I ' ' ' ■ I ' ' ' ' I ' ' ' ' I ' ' ' ' I ' ' ' ' I ' ■ ' ' I ' Mj il ' ■ I i | i i i I | i I I i j i i i i | i i i i , , i i , | , t, , | , , , , , , , , , 
 
 4 
 
 *10~3 
 
 £ 
 N 
 
 1200H 
 
 2000H 24 OOH 
 
 TETHER CPBLE CPTENARY 
 
 Depth Cm) = 3300 
 Max. anqleCdeg) 
 Pi tch= 10 
 
 Fig.2. Cable catenary at the maximum current velocity 
 
 *10~3 
 3 
 
 G 
 
 >- 
 
 FOOT PRINT 
 
 Depth Cm)= 3300 
 Max. anqleCdeq) 
 Pi tch= Q. 165 
 Roll= 5.7SG 
 Yauj= 
 
 1-- 
 
 I ' ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
 3 2 10 
 
 _!-. 
 
 Vc-1.6kt 
 
 I I I * | II I I | ' l I I I | I I I I | I l l 
 
 -1 
 
 -2 
 
 I I I I | I I l l | l l I 
 
 -4*10^3 
 XCm) 
 
 -2 
 
 Fig.3. Foot print of tow mode operation 
 
 198 
 
MANNED AND UNMANNED VEHICLE DEVELOPMENTS 
 IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 J. A. PRITZLAFF 
 PROGRAM MANAGER 
 
 WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC CORPORATION 
 
 OCEANIC DIVISION 
 
 P.O. BOX 1488 
 
 ANNAPOLIS, MARYLAND 21404 
 
 To start this discussion of the current status of 
 manned and unmanned vehicles in the United 
 States, I'll begin with an overview of manned 
 vehicle activity and conclude with a summary of 
 unmanned vehicle activity. 
 
 MANNED VEHICLES 
 
 One of the newest vehicles in the U.S. is the 
 recently rebuilt SEA CLIFF operated by Submarine 
 Development Group I of the U.S. Navy in San 
 Diego, California. 
 
 Major characteristics of SEA CLIFF are: 
 
 Length 31 1/2 ft. Displacement 58,000 lbs. 
 
 Width 11 1/2 ft. Crew 3 
 
 Height 12 1/2 ft. Operating Depth 20,000 ft. 
 
 DSV SEA CLIFF 
 
 Of particular interest is the methodology used by 
 the Navy to achieve operational readiness of the 
 vehicle and its crew. This rigorous and 
 documented sea trial procedure has two phases. 
 Phase 1 consists of several parts. First is the 
 certification of the crew in their administrative 
 positions (i.e., do they have the correct 
 background and experience for their new 
 assignment) . 
 
 Second, is the certification of the training 
 course to be used for each of the different 
 positions. Third is the production (or hardware) 
 test and checkout of each part of the vehicle, by 
 component, subsystem, and system. 
 
 The vehicle and the crew are now ready to begin 
 interactive checkout. This consists of actually 
 doing such items as: vehicle system and 
 subsystem maintenance checks. (This trains the 
 people involved and validates the written 
 procedures used to maintain the vehicle. Changes 
 to procedures are made as required to reduce 
 design and written theory to actual practice. )Pre 
 dive checkouts are run as well as the vehicle air 
 and water inclining experiments. 
 
 Thethered dock trials and certification of the 
 launch and recovery handling systems are then 
 conducted prior to entering the second phase of 
 the sea trial procedure. 
 
 Phase 2 begins with the official certification of 
 the crew in their assigned watch station. Vehicle 
 operational checkout is next; with the vehicle in 
 the water, but on the surface, a "fast cruise" 
 cycle is started. This is a realistic dive 
 simulation where all systems are operated in 
 normal sequence with the exception that the 
 vehicle does not dive. 
 
 After a successful fast cruise, the vehicle and 
 operational procedures are certified for dives to 
 progressively deeper depths. In SEA CLIFF'S 
 case, 500 feet, 5000 feet, and 15,000 feet. 
 
 The success of the sea trial methodology is 
 measured in terms of successful future operations 
 not really in terms of how smoothly the sea 
 trials went. In fact, it is the object of the 
 Navy's sea trial procedure to force things such 
 that problems and discrepancies are exposed and 
 corrected. The more problems that are discovered 
 during sea trials, the fewer that will come up 
 during future operations. 
 
 Deep Ocean Engineering of Oakland, California 
 has recently completed its first Deep Rover 
 vehicle. 
 
 This one person craft has a 5 inch thick acrylic 
 plastic sphere 63 inches in diameter. The 
 overall vehicle size is 8.2 feet long, 7.8 feet 
 high and 6.3 feet wide. The two plastic 
 hemispheres mate to a central aluminum structural 
 ring that contains all of the pressure sphere's 
 penetrations for power and control wiring. Deep 
 Rover displaces 6800 pounds and has a current 
 depth capability of 3200 feet. Four 1 1/2 HP 
 thrusters provide vertical and horizontal 
 mobility. The two heavy duty work manipulators 
 have a lift capacity of 200 pounds when fully 
 extended . 
 
 199 
 
Operator safety is obtained through jettisoning 
 of the battery, frame, thrusters and 
 manipulators. The 1400 buoyancy of the hull 
 brings it to the surface . An acoustic pinger, 
 strobe light and radio provide the means to 
 locate the sphere. A 150 hour life support 
 system has a 6 day emergency capability beyond a 
 normal 6 hour dive. 
 
 DEEP ROVER 
 
 The Perry Offshore Company of Riviera Beach, 
 Florida, has had a number of Perry names and 
 produces a variety of undersea products. They 
 have built 28 manned submersibles over their 25 
 year history. Thus making them the leading 
 submersible manufacturer in the United States and 
 the World. Table I lists all of the Perry 
 submersibles as to designation, year built, depth 
 capability and original owner. 
 
 
 
 TABLE I 
 
 
 
 
 PERRY SUBMERSIBLES 
 
 
 
 
 DEPTH 
 
 
 DESIGNATION 
 
 YEAR BUILT (FEET OP SEAWATER) OWER (ORIGINAL) 
 
 PC-3A-1 
 
 1964 
 
 300 
 
 U.S. Army 
 
 PC-3A-2 
 
 1966 
 
 300 
 
 U.S. Army 
 
 PC-3A-2 
 
 1963 
 
 600 
 
 I.U.C. 
 
 PC-3X 
 
 1960 
 
 150 
 
 U.S. Navy 
 
 PC-5C 
 
 1968 
 
 1200 
 
 Sub Sea Oil, Italy 
 
 PC-8B 
 
 1971 
 
 800 
 
 Intersub, France 
 
 pc-ec 
 
 1972 
 
 1200 
 
 Sub Sea Oil, Italy 
 
 OPSUB 
 
 1972 
 
 2000 
 
 Phillips Petroleum, UK 
 
 PC-9 
 
 1970 
 
 1350 
 
 Merpro, UK 
 
 PC-1201 
 
 1975 
 
 1000 
 
 Intersub, Prance 
 
 PC-1203 
 
 1976 
 
 1000 
 
 Intersub, France 
 
 PC-1204 
 
 1976 
 
 1000 
 
 Intersub, France 
 
 PC-1205 
 
 1976 
 
 1200 
 
 Intersub, Prance 
 
 PC-14-a 
 
 1974 
 
 1200 
 
 Texas ASM University 
 
 PC-14-C2 
 
 1975 
 
 600 
 
 U.S. Army 
 
 PC-1601 
 
 1976 
 
 3000 
 
 Intersub, France 
 
 PC-1602 
 
 1980 
 
 3000 
 
 Saipem, Italy 
 
 PLC-4 
 
 1968 
 
 1350 
 
 Ocean Systems, Inc. 
 
 PLC-4B 
 
 1968 
 
 800 
 
 Oceanographic 
 Institute, France 
 
 PC-1202 
 
 1975 
 
 1000 
 
 Intersub, France 
 
 PC-15-LI 
 
 1973 
 
 1200 
 
 Vickers Oceanics, UK 
 
 PC-15-LIII 
 
 1977 
 
 1500 
 
 Vickers Oceanics, UK 
 
 PC-15-LIV 
 
 1977 
 
 1500 
 
 Vickers Oceanics, UK 
 
 PC-1801 
 
 1977 
 
 984 
 
 Intersub, France 
 
 PC-1802 
 
 1977 
 
 984 
 
 Intersub, France 
 
 PC-1803 
 
 1977 
 
 984 
 
 Superpesa, South America 
 
 PC-1804 
 
 1978 
 
 984 
 
 Intersub, France 
 
 PC-1805 
 
 1982 
 
 984 
 
 Shell, UK 
 
 Harbor Branch Foundation of Fort Pierce, 
 Florida operates two Johnson Sea Link (JSL) 
 submersibles. At the end of 1984, these two 
 vehicles will have completed over 2500 dives 
 during their careers. In 1984 150 dives were 
 made for fisheries research, baseline ecology 
 documentations in offshore oil lease areas, 
 mid-water science studies, and marine organism 
 enzyme collection for possible development as 
 pharmaceutical agents. 
 
 The JSL submersibles are four man 12 ton vehicles 
 with a two man acrylic pilots sphere and a two 
 man aluminum observation/diver lockout chamber. 
 They are certified by the American Bureau of 
 Shipping for operations to 2640 feet. 
 
 JOHNSON SEA LINK I 
 
 Harbor Branch has developed a new support ship 
 the Seward Johnson. With its ultra modern 18 ton 
 aluminum A-frame on the stern, their vessel can 
 carry two submersibles or one submersible and a 
 deck mounted diver living and decompression 
 chamber for use when saturated lock out diving is 
 done from the submersible. 
 
 The Seward Johnson is 276 ft. long, has a beam of 
 36 ft. and a draft of 12 ft. She carries a crew 
 of 8 and has additional space for a 22 person 
 submersible and scientific team. 
 
 RV SEWARD JOHNSON 
 
 200 
 
The Woodshole Oceanography Institution (WHOI) 
 of Woodshole, Massachusetts, operates perhaps the 
 best known submersible in the United States, 
 ALVIN. Since commissioning in 1963, ALVIN has 
 made 1460 dives. With the addition of a titanium 
 hull her current depth capability is 4000 meters 
 
 ALVIN has been somewhat limited in her dive 
 activities by the lack of mobility of her 6 knot 
 catamaran support ship LULU. 
 
 In 1984 the WHOI oceanographic research ship 
 ATLANTIS II was reconfigured to support ALVIN 
 with the addition of a stern mounted 28 ton 
 A-frame. Hanger space for ALVIN and a vehicle 
 control room were also added. To use the A-frame 
 launch and recovery system, ALVTN had to be 
 rebuilt to incorporate a single point lift point 
 on her titanium frame. 
 
 ALVIN AND ATLANTIS II 
 
 The International Underwater Contractors 
 (IUC) vehicle, ROV MANTIS, is the final 
 submersible to be discussed in this overview of 
 'U.S. manned submersible activity. It is fitting 
 to use this vehicle as a bridge between manned 
 and unmanned vehicles for ROV MANTIS is in fact, 
 both types of vehicles. It can be used as an on 
 board operator controlled manned submersible. It 
 can be used as a surface operator controlled 
 manned craft when the occupant is a particular 
 technical observer or work specialist. Fastly, 
 the vehicle can be used as a completely unmanned 
 R07. 
 
 An interesting and perhaps significant point 
 reported by IUC at the Oceans '84 Marine 
 Technology Society Conference was that when 
 operators were made aware of the dual roll of ROV 
 MANTIS and a choice was available for use as a 
 remotely operated vehicle or a manned vehicle, in 
 every case the manned capability of MANTIS was 
 selected . 
 
 UNMANNED VEHICLES 
 
 This summary of unmanned vehicles starts with 
 a review of the vehicles produced by 
 International Submarine Engineering (ISE) of Port 
 Moody, Canada. While not a U.S. activity it is 
 close to the U.S. and does have a major U.S. 
 subsidiary; ISE Gulf of Houston, Texas. 
 
 ISE is the most diversified and largest producer 
 of a variety of ROV craft. Since 1974 they have 
 produced 124 ROV type craft. One, Wrangler, has 
 both ROV and manned capabilities similar to the 
 ROV MANTIS. Table II shows the various types of 
 vehicles that they have produced. 
 
 TABLE II 
 
 I.S.E. BUILT VEHICLES 
 
 1974-1979 
 
 1975-1980 
 
 1977-1982 
 
 1981 
 
 1981 
 
 1982 
 
 1982-Present 
 
 1982-Present 
 
 1982-Present 
 
 1982-Present 
 
 198 3- Present 
 
 1983-Present 
 
 1984-Present 
 
 1984-Present 
 
 1984-Present 
 
 1984-Present 
 
 1984-Present 
 
 8 TROV 
 19 TREC 
 26 DART 
 
 6 TREC MARK II 
 
 1 SUPER DART 
 
 1 WRANGLER 
 
 6 RASCL 
 
 8 HYSUB 10 
 34 HYSUB 20/30 
 
 8 HYSUB 40/60 
 
 1 DOLPHIN 
 
 1 MAXI-DART 
 
 1 ROSS Type 6 
 
 1 ARCS 
 
 1 TRAILBLAZER 
 
 1 F.M.V. 
 
 1 INSPECTOR 
 
 ROV MANTIS 
 
 In the U.S. proper, the largest producer of 
 unmanned vehicles is Hydro Products of San Diego, 
 California. They have produced 96 RCV 225 
 vehicles, and 10 RCV 150 vehicles. 
 
 They are currently working on a U.S. Navy 
 contract to produce eight mine neutralization 
 vehicles and they have recently introduced a new 
 low cost vehicle the LCRCV. As a result, their 
 total count is currently (Dec 1984) 115 vehicles. 
 
 201 
 
DEEP WATER PIPE REPAIR SYSTEM 
 
 RCV 225 AND RCV 150 
 
 TABLE III 
 
 Also in San Diego is the Ametek Straza 
 Company which has produced 75 remotely operated 
 vehicles. These include their large SCORPIO work 
 vehicle (51); the smaller inspection vehicle 
 SCORPI (15); and a redesigned SCORPI vehicle 
 designated the ASD 620 (5). They also produce a 
 number of other vehicles; a new modular work 
 package vehicle GEMINI (1); a new special purpose 
 underwater structure cleaning vehicle PROS (1). 
 Earlier they produced two older cable work 
 vehicles SCARB and the Deep Drone vehicle built 
 for the U.S. Navy. 
 
 PERRY RECON SERVICE HISTORY 
 
 ADS 620 
 
 Perry Offshore entered the RCV business in 
 1977 with their first remotely operated vehicle 
 RECON II. Since that time, they have built some 
 35 of the RECON series of vehicle including RECON 
 Ill's, IV's and one RECON V (see Table III). In 
 addition Perry has built a number of special 
 purpose remotely operated devices. These 
 include: a large remotely operated pipeline 
 repair system for operation to 3000 feet. A 
 thruster module for the Deepwater Pipe Repair 
 System also contains two remotely deployed RECON 
 IV systems to monitor the progress of the pipe 
 repair work. 
 
 MODEL NUMBER & NAME 
 
 YEAR BUILT 
 
 RECON II 
 
 1977 
 
 RECON III-l 
 
 1978 
 
 RECON I I 1-2 
 
 1978 
 
 RECON III-2 (spare) 
 
 1979 
 
 RECON I I 1-3 
 
 1978 
 
 RECON V-l 
 
 1979 
 
 RECON III A-l 
 
 1980 
 
 RECON III B-l 
 
 1980 
 
 RECON III B-2 
 
 1980 
 
 RECON III B-3 
 
 1981 
 
 RECON III B-4 
 
 1981 
 
 RECON III B-5 
 
 1981 
 
 RECON III B-6 
 
 1981 
 
 RECON III B-6 
 
 1982 
 
 RECON III B-7 
 
 1981 
 
 RECON III B-8 
 
 1982 
 
 RECON ill B-8 (spare) 
 
 1982 
 
 RECON III B-9 
 
 1982 
 
 RECON ill B-9 (spare) 
 
 1982 
 
 RECON III B-9 
 
 1982 
 
 RECON III A-2 
 
 1981 
 
 RECON IV-1 - 1500 
 
 1982 
 
 RECON III C-10 
 
 1982 
 
 RECON IV-2 - 1500 
 
 1982 
 
 RECON IV-3 - 1500 
 
 1983 
 
 RECON IV-4 - 1500 
 
 1983 
 
 RECON III B-ll 
 
 1983 
 
 RECON IV-5 - 2300 
 
 1983 
 
 OWNER 
 
 RECON IV-6 - 3000 
 
 RECON TV-7 - 3000 
 
 RECON rV-8 - 1000 
 RECON IV-9 - 1000 
 RECON rv-10 - 1500 
 RECON IV-11 - 1500 
 RECON IV-12 - 1500 
 
 1984 
 
 1984 
 
 1984 
 1984 
 1984 
 1984 
 1984 
 
 Shell Expro (out of service) 
 
 Oceanics (out of service) 
 
 Oceanics (destroyed) 
 
 Replacement (out of service) 
 
 POI (lost at sea) 
 
 Prototype - MIT 
 
 International Underwater 
 
 Contractors 
 
 International Underwater 
 
 Contractors 
 
 Constructora Subaquatica 
 
 Diavaz 
 
 International Underwater 
 
 Contractors 
 
 Jered J-l (now Oceaneering) 
 Jered J-2 (now Oceaneering) 
 
 Jered J-3 (now Oceaneering) 
 
 Replacement (destroyed) 
 
 Jered J-4 (now Oceaneering) 
 
 McDermott, Inc. 
 
 McDermott, Inc. 
 
 Solus Ocean Systems (now 01) 
 
 Solus Ocean Systems (now 01) 
 
 Solus Ocean Systems (now 01) 
 
 German Navy 
 
 Jered j-5 (now Oceaneering) 
 
 Jered J-6 (now Oceaneering) 
 
 Jered J-6 (now Oceaneering) 
 
 Jered J-7 (now Oceaneering) 
 
 Solus Ocean Systems (now 01) 
 
 McDermott 
 
 International Underwater 
 
 Contractors 
 
 Snamprogetti (summer 
 
 delivery) 
 
 Snamprogetti (summer 
 
 delivery) 
 
 USN (summer delivery) 
 
 USN (summer delivery) 
 
 Sonat 
 
 Sonat (June 1984 delivery) 
 
 RECON T Taylor Diving 
 
 202 
 
The Towed Unmanned Submersible (TUMS) search and 
 survey system was delivered to the British Royal 
 Navy by Perry. It has an operating capability 
 down to 6000 meters. 
 
 TUMS 
 
 A new very small RCV is the MINI ROVER by 
 Deep Sea Systems International of Falmouth, 
 Massachusetts. This vehicle is so small that it 
 can be lifted by one hand (50 lbs) and carried as 
 passenger luggage on board airplanes. 
 
 MINI ROVER 
 
 In the area of RCV operations, both SONAT 
 Subsea Services and International Underwater 
 Contractors, in Houston, Texas are offering RCV 
 operator training courses. The SONAT facility is 
 at Belle Chase, Louisiana and includes a large 
 (55' diam. x 24' deep) training tank with typical 
 offshore oil hardware on the bottom. ROV's are 
 then deployed in the tank by trainees to 
 familiarize them with wet vehicle operations on 
 real equipment. 
 
 SONAT SUBSEA SERVICES RCV TEST AND TRAINING TANK 
 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 Manned and unmanned vehicle activity in the 
 U.S. is continuing at a reasonable, market based 
 pace. Manned submersible usage is essentially 
 limited to scientific activities with ALVTN and 
 the two Johnson Sea Link vehicles; offshore oil 
 support involving IUC and their MERMAID, BEAVER, 
 PISCES and RCV MANTIS vehicles and the search and 
 salvage work done by the U.S. Navy with SEA CLIFF 
 and TURTLE. 
 
 Unmanned vehicle activity is growing in the area 
 
 of offshore oil support with inspection, 
 
 maintenance tasks, repair and support of drilling 
 and production. 
 
 293 
 
UNMANNED REMOTE-CONTROLLED SUBMERSIBLE 
 
 MURS-300 MKII 
 
 I. Mutoh 
 Mitsui Ocean Development & Engineering Co., Ltd. 
 
 1 . INTRODUCTION 
 
 In co-operation with Tokyo Electric Power 
 Co., Ltd., MODEC has developed MURS-300 
 MKII (MODEC Unmanned Remote-Controlled 
 Submersible for 300 meter water depth) 
 and carried out first trial successfully 
 at Midono Dam in December, 1984. 
 
 The MKII is a highly mobile and remotely 
 controlled submersible which is used for 
 inspection of the facilities of Hydraulic 
 Power Plants such as dam wall, water 
 intake, Penstock, etc, as shown on Table-1, 
 
 Table-1 Objects of Inspection 
 
 Object 
 
 Detail 
 
 
 Dam 
 
 . Deterioration, cracks, joints 
 
 
 of the concrete wall 
 
 
 . Piling condition 
 
 of sand 
 
 Discharge 
 
 . Corrosion, wear, 
 
 damage and 
 
 gate 
 
 rust of the gate 
 
 
 
 . Piling condition 
 
 of sand 
 
 
 around the gate 
 
 
 Water 
 
 . Corrosion, wear, 
 
 damage and 
 
 intake 
 
 rust of screens 
 
 
 
 . Deterioration anc 
 
 cracks of 
 
 Water 
 
 concrete 
 
 
 outlet 
 
 . Piling condition 
 
 of sand 
 
 
 around intake anc 
 
 outlet 
 
 Headrace 
 
 . Deterioration anc 
 
 cracks of 
 
 Surgetank 
 
 concrete 
 
 
 Trail race 
 
 
 
 Penstock 
 
 . Corrosion, wear, 
 
 paint con- 
 
 
 dition and rust c 
 
 f pipe inner 
 
 
 surface 
 
 
 
 . Joints of pipes 
 
 
 PRINCIPAL FEATURES 
 
 For the above mission, some improvements 
 or enhancements have been done on the 
 component or subsystem of MK II. 
 
 1) Compactness 
 
 Considering its transportation in hilly 
 terrain or carrying into narrow areas, 
 the MKII was made in compact as far as 
 possible in both size and weight. 
 
 2) Improvements of Tether Cable 
 
 A kevler armored compos it cable using 
 optical fiber for communication has been 
 newly developed so as to conform with the 
 following requirements. 
 
 a) Ample strength to lift up the vehicle 
 
 b) Small diameter 
 
 c) Positive bouyancy 
 
 3) Underwater DC Motor 
 
 A new brushless DC Motor for the vehicle 
 thruster was develped to get higher 
 reliability of DC motor. 
 
 4) Others 
 
 a) Pitching lens was developed for TV 
 camera to make the vehicle compact. 
 
 b) Vehicle control system was enhanced to 
 achieve high maneuverability. 
 
 c) A gyro system was adopted to detect the 
 direction of the vehicle especially in 
 case of pipe inside inspection. 
 
 I. SYSTEM SPECIFICATION 
 
 1) System Conf igulation 
 
 The MKII system consists of the following 
 major modules (see Fig-1). 
 
 - Vehicle with TV camera, still camera 
 
 - Control van with a control console and 
 power supply panel 
 
 - Handling system with cable winch 
 
 The vehicle is electrically and optically 
 connected to the cable winch with 600m 
 tether cable and it can be operated by 
 one man. 
 
 The vehicle is capable of longitudinal, 
 vertical and lateral translation as well 
 as turning by four (4) electric 
 thrusters . 
 
 Heading and depth of the vehicle can be 
 maintained manually and also automati- 
 cally. 
 
 204 
 
The navigational informations of the 
 vehicle such as relative position to base 
 point, direction and depth are displayed 
 in digital on the TV monitor and recorded 
 by a video tape recorder. 
 
 2) Principal Particulars 
 
 a) System 
 
 Type : Tethered Remotely operated 
 
 vehicle 
 Maximum Operating Depth : 300m 
 Operating Extent : max. 500m 
 Function : Real time observation by TV 
 camera 
 : Recording by VTR 
 : Photographing by still 
 camera 
 
 TEST 
 
 This MURS-300 MKII was completed in Nov. 
 1984 and first trial test has been 
 carried out successfully on 19th Dec. 
 1984 to inspect damwall and waterintake 
 where the depth was abt. 20 - 60m, water 
 temperature was abt. 6°C and transparency 
 was 1.5m. (see photo- 1) 
 
 After the test, it is expected that the 
 MKII inspection is much convenient and 
 better than the conventional inspection 
 system by divers. 
 
 b) Vehicle (Fig 2) 
 
 Type : Open frame 
 
 Size : 950mm(L) x 750mm(B) x60Qmm(H) 
 Weight in Air : abt. 200kg 
 Maximum Speed : 1.8 kts (ahead) 
 
 Payload 
 Thruster 
 
 TV Camera 
 
 abt . 40 kgs 
 4-300W eletric DC brush- 
 less motor 
 (2 sets for forward and aft) 
 (2 sets for lateral and 
 vertical ) 
 
 1-SIT TV camera with lens 
 pitching mechanism 
 Still Camera : l-35m/m x 250 exposures 
 Light : 2-75W halogen lamp 
 Sensor : Acoustic transponder 
 Depth sensor 
 Angular rate sensor 
 Directional gyro 
 Telemetry Unit : PCM using optical 
 fiber 
 
 c) Control Van (Fig 3) 
 
 Size : 3m(L) x 2m(B) x 2.4m(H) 
 
 Weight : abt. 1,600 kgs 
 
 Equipment : Control console 
 VTR 
 
 Thruster Control Unit 
 Power Supply Panel 
 
 d) Handling System (Fig 4) 
 
 Truck Size: 7.9m(L) x 2.2m(W) x 2.93m(H) 
 Weight : abt. 8,000 kgs 
 Equipment : 1) Crane 300kgs x 15m 
 
 2) Cable winch & power 
 sheave 
 
 3) Tethercable 
 17.54 x 600m 
 
 4) Gyro compass 
 
 205 
 
HANDLING SYSTEM 
 
 CONTROL VAN 
 GENERATOR 
 
 TETHER CABLE 
 
 WATER INTAKE 
 
 AIR CONDITIONER 
 
 POWER SUPPLY PANEL 
 
 FIG. 3 CONTROL VAN 
 
 FIG 1 S 
 
 YSTEM CONFIGURATION 
 
 BUOYANCY MATERIAL 
 
 FIG 2 VEHICLE 
 
 TRANSPONDER 
 
 FLOOD LIGHT 
 
 STILL CAMERA 
 T V CAMERA 
 
 ELECT FLASH 
 
 CABLE WINCH 
 
 POWER SHEAVE 
 SWING GEAR 
 
 HANDLING SYSTEM 
 
 PHOTO 1 TEST 
 
 206 
 
VOICE CONTROLLED MANIPULATORS 
 
 Presented by: Howard R. Talkington 
 Naval Ocean Systems Center 
 San Diego, California, USA 
 
 Research Performed by: 
 Paul Heckman, Hokan Kleverbrandt and Associates 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The objective of the research effort is to inves- 
 tigate the use of voice control of undersea 
 teleoperator systems. This initial investigation 
 was concerned with voice recognition technology 
 as applied to an existing supervisory controlled 
 underwater manipulator. To investigate the poten- 
 tial of applying this technology to specific Navy 
 applications, a laboratory demonstration of voice 
 actuation of both analogic and symbolic commands 
 was conducted. It is anticipated that voice con- 
 trol of an underwater manipulator or teleoperator 
 system will eliminate the necessity of providing 
 an operator with a complex computer keyboard at 
 sea. This will allow the operator to issue ver- 
 bal commands (or obtain data) when his hands or 
 eyes are already occupied by other necessary 
 functions. 
 
 BACKGROUND 
 
 During the past several years the Naval Ocean 
 Systems Center (NOSC) has developed an unteth- 
 ered, unmanned submersible testbed for demon- 
 strating, testing, and evaluating advanced con- 
 cepts in underwater robotic systems, teleopera- 
 tors, and remote manipulation. Under the Office 
 of Naval Research (ONR) sponsorship and in 
 cooperation with Dr. Tom Sheridan at Mas- 
 sachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) , an ad- 
 vanced underwater manipulator has also been 
 developed to demonstrate advanced concepts in su- 
 pervisory control of teleoperator s. A review of 
 the general concepts arising from Dr. Sheridan's 
 work is provided in reference 1. A description 
 of how the supervisory command language functions 
 is provided by Yoerger and Sheridan (reference 
 2) . The manipulator developed for this effort is 
 an oil-filled, pressure compensated, 
 electrically-driven unit having five degrees of 
 freedom, harmonic drive gearing and position con- 
 trol feedback. The entire configuration is 
 operated in a supervisory controlled fashion us- 
 ing two Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) LSI- 
 11/23 computers; one contained in an underwater 
 housing on the submersible and one located at the 
 surface operating console. It is this topside 
 computer working under the DEC RSX-11M operating 
 system that acts as the host computer for voice 
 controlled manipulation. This single computer 
 should allow interaction between existing 
 
 resolved position control software generated by 
 MIT and external voice recognition circuitry ac- 
 tuated by the console operator. 
 
 As the research effort progressed, it was found 
 useful to add voice response for verification of 
 input commands from the voice recognition 
 hardware. In addition, voice recognition input 
 was added to the NOSC Free Swimming Submersible 
 to allow investigations into the voice control of 
 planning operations as well as unmanned submersi- 
 ble control. 
 
 LITERATURE REVIEW 
 
 During the past decade, there has been a growing 
 interest in the use of supervisory control of re- 
 mote teleoperator systems. Supervisory control 
 means that a human being plans the actions and 
 directions the computer should take, "teaches" it 
 how to achieve the desired function, and monitors 
 its performance, but always retains the ability 
 to intervene whenever necessary. Supervisory 
 control has been shown to be more effective than 
 manual control, with the exception of 
 master/slave with force feedback (reference 3) . 
 Various environments have been examined for pos- 
 sible use of these remote systems (references 4, 
 and 5) . One such environment is the ocean 
 depths. Computer controlled systems may increase 
 the effectiveness of remote manipulation. One 
 big advantage with the use of supervisory control 
 in undersea projects would be cost savings. 
 Brooks (reference 3) presents data for cost com- 
 parisons for underwater welding based on a model 
 developed by Moore (reference 6) . Brooks cau- 
 tions, however, that the length of time needed to 
 complete the task is another critical factor that 
 must be taken into consideration. 
 
 Vadus (reference 7) and Pesch, Hill, and Klepser 
 (reference 8) both discuss the issue of cost ef- 
 fectiveness of using divers versus manned or un- 
 manned teleoperators. 
 
 In another investigation, commercial airline pi- 
 lots preferred synthesized speech providing the 
 callouts of approach to landing data (reference 
 9) . Improvements in flight performance were not- 
 ed when there was a high manual and visual work- 
 load on the pilots and synthesized speech was em- 
 ployed. The interface between the human being 
 
 207 
 
and the computer might improve operations in 
 terms of accuracy, speed of performance, and user 
 satisfaction. Several input devices might be 
 used, including handprinting, touch sensors, key- 
 boards, or voice. 
 
 Numerous investigations have been conducted to 
 evaluate the use of voice versus other input or 
 output. Some questions that should be asked in 
 evaluating potential systems are: 
 
 - Are the operator's hands and eyes busy with 
 other functions? 
 
 - Must the operator frequently move from the 
 input station? 
 
 - Must the operator deal with various or 
 confusing computer languages? 
 
 - Will the operators be untrained? 
 
 - Are speed and accuracy important factors 
 when transmitting the commands? 
 
 - Can a small input vocabulary be utilized? 
 
 If these questions can be answered, "yes," then 
 voice input should be seriously considered as a 
 method of improving the functioning of the sys- 
 tem. In addition, Bejczy (reference 10) found 
 that voice input was beneficial for man-machine 
 integration. Taggart and Wolfe (reference 11) 
 explored the use of a voice recognition unit in 
 performing two data processing tasks, and found 
 that subjects who had prior voice input experi- 
 ence were able to work faster when using voice 
 input, rather than keyboard data entry. They be- 
 lieve speech is convenient and natural and that 
 artificial syntax should be avoided. Speech al- 
 lows the user to be more mobile and have freedom 
 to do other tasks. Another aspect is security. 
 The voice recognition unit could use the voice 
 pattern to identify the operator. The subjects 
 they tested reported, on a questionnaire, that 
 they generally preferred to enter data using the 
 voice mode because it was less fatiguing. Tag- 
 gart and Wolfe also point out that even though 
 more errors were made using voice input, this 
 result may have been an artifact of the vocabu- 
 lary being used. Operators would often say, 
 "Two-two," instead of "Twenty-two," for example. 
 The fact that there were no recognition errors 
 possible in the typing mode, thus, total errors 
 equal operator errors, whereas for voice input, 
 total errors truly equal operator errors plus 
 recognition errors. Also, for total errors, 
 there were no significant differences for either 
 experience level or task type. Experienced sub- 
 jects were faster than inexperienced subjects in 
 all three entry methods, especially in the unbuf- 
 fered voice condition. One possible side benefit 
 of using voice input is that others can hear what 
 commands are being given, whereas typewritten 
 commands are usually known only to the operator. 
 This would keep supervisors (or others) informed 
 and would also be a check on improper or in- 
 
 correct commands being given. 
 
 Previous research in the use of voice controlled 
 systems and the personal observations gained 
 while performing preliminary investigations have 
 indicated possible directions in which we might 
 proceed in the development of a workable system 
 for use in the field. Because of the large 
 number of variables that might be considered when 
 devising a research project in voice recognition, 
 the following guidelines have been developed in 
 an attempt to logically measure what conditions 
 will lead to optimal human performance. 
 
 First, creation of a command vocabulary which 
 will best allow the operator to perform a variety 
 of tasks using a remote manipulator with optimum 
 efficiency. Thus we should attempt to develop a 
 vocabulary that: 
 
 a. Has a minimum of errors 
 
 b. Is easy to remember 
 
 c. Is sufficiently flexible to accomplish a 
 variety of tasks. 
 
 It appears that longer terms result in the best 
 performance of the voice recognition component of 
 the hardware. 
 
 Keeping the list of commands as short as possible 
 will aid memorization, but it should be large 
 enough to allow the operator to complete the task 
 efficiently. One should include those terms 
 which would naturally express the operation of 
 the manipulator. We always keep in mind, howev- 
 er, the problem of word recognition by the 
 hardware. The authors of this document, for ex- 
 anple, assumed that the words, "open" and "close" 
 would be the best terms to describe the operation 
 of the jaws of the manipulator. A major problem 
 arose, though, because the voice recognition 
 equipment cannot differentiate between these two 
 commands due to the long "oh" sound in both 
 words. Syntax nodes, too, seem to create prob- 
 lems in memorization. The modes are confusing to 
 the operator and prove to be frustrating, espe- 
 cially for the novice who may not completely 
 understand how they function. It may be benefi- 
 cial to have several words available to the 
 operator which will bring about the same result. 
 For example, having the words "grasp" and "grab" 
 as commands to make the jaws close. 
 
 Secondly, there should be some means of verifica- 
 tion feedback to the operator to indicate that 
 the command has been received and correctly in- 
 terpreted by the computer before it is executed 
 by the manipulator. Command verification aids the 
 operator in his/her ability to quickly correct 
 mistakes which result in a mis-recognition or 
 non-recognition of the command. It also makes 
 the operator feel more relaxed using the system 
 and builds operator confidence in the system. It 
 appears on cursory examination that auditory 
 (voice) verification is an excellent means of 
 providing a command verification. Voice response 
 is better than a visual (CRT) alpha-numeric 
 
 2C8 
 
response because it is less distracting and does 
 not require complete concentration on the CRT. 
 The operator is freed to be more mobile, or to 
 divide his attention between necessary tasks. 
 Also, if keyboard input is sometimes used, typing 
 errors are often hard to detect (if a word is 
 misspelled, for example) and, therefore, can be 
 pointed out to the operator via voice response. 
 
 Thirdly, as indicated by the literature, the op- 
 timal number of training passes to establish a 
 very high degree of voice recognition (98%) 
 should be approximately seven. 
 
 Fourthly, research has determined, in general, 
 that ambient noise is not a serious problem when 
 the following procedures are employed: 
 
 a. The operator training takes place with 
 some noise in the background. 
 
 b. Loud, intermittent "banging" type noise 
 can be eliminated. 
 
 c. A noise cancelling microphone is used, 
 
 and 
 
 d. The operators receive proper instruction 
 in how to wear the microphone (consistent place- 
 ment approximately one inch from the mouth) and 
 how to speak in a consistent manner. 
 
 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION 
 
 The primary components of the hardware system 
 used in our investigation are the underwater 
 manipulator itself, a DEC LSI-11/23 computer, and 
 a computer terminal CRT. An Interstate Electron- 
 ics Corporation (IEC) Voice Recognition Unit, 
 Model VRT-200, and an IEC Voice Response System, 
 Model VTM-150, have been added for evaluation of 
 voice input and output commands, respectively. 
 Two LSI-11/23 computers are used for operator in- 
 terface topside, and one is packaged in an under- 
 water housing to be installed on an unmanned sub- 
 mersible, such as the NOSC Free Swimmer. This 
 latter version of the hardware architecture al- 
 lows incorporation of the vehicle related rou- 
 tines, such as joint space coordinate transforma- 
 tions, within the vehicle hardware. Such an al- 
 location of computer resources has the inherent 
 advantage of reducing the bandwidth of control 
 communications to the vehicle, anticipating con- 
 trol of such advanced teleoperators by acoustic 
 control in the not too distant future. 
 
 During the initial stage of this investigation a 
 cursory study was performed addressing the suita- 
 bility of various commercial hardware which might 
 be incorporated into the present hardware and 
 software configuration. In general, there were 
 two overriding criteria involved in the choice of 
 hardware for this investigation: (1) Cost versus 
 Equipment Performance; and, (2) Software Confi- 
 guration. The approximate cost range of the 
 voice recognition equipment falls into three 
 categories: (a) $200-$500; (b) $2,000-$5,000; 
 and (c) $12,000 and above. Category (a) was 
 found to be hobby quality and market oriented 
 
 hardware. Category (c) was found to address 
 technology such as connected speech and 98% reli- 
 ability designs. These were deemed to be quite 
 expensive and somewhat more advanced than the 
 state-of-the-art which we were considering. 
 Thus, the main area of consideration was category 
 (b) , which addressed commercial quality hardware 
 and single utterance, operator dependent opera- 
 tion. 
 
 The second criterion involved in the selection of 
 suitable voice input hardware was the ease of in- 
 corporation of that hardware into the existing 
 equipment and software configuration. It hap- 
 pened that two of the voice recognition cards 
 manufactured by IEC easily plugged into this 
 equipment; one, the VRT-200 plugged directly into 
 the existing Lear Siegler, Model ADM-3A, "dumb" 
 terminal. Another, the VRO/-400 board, worked 
 from the DEC LSI-11 "q" bus. Since this latter 
 board required considerable software support, it 
 was not adopted for this investigative effort. 
 In order to allow detailed evaluation of the 
 hardware circuitry involved in the VRT-200 sys- 
 tem, the VRT-103 voice recognition system was 
 used. This system included a means of sorting 
 voice patterns and vocabulary on mini-floppy 
 disks. 
 
 EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION 
 
 The VRT-200 provides voice data entry capability 
 for Model ADM-3A or Model ADM-5 of the Lear 
 Siegler Interactive Display Terminals. The ADM- 
 3A or ADM-5 retains its standard terminal key- 
 board and display capabilities while adding the 
 following voice recognition capabilities: 
 
 a. A user -defined vocabulary of as many as 
 100 words and/or phrases. 
 
 b. Trainable for any vocabulary in any spo- 
 ken language. 
 
 c. Reject threshold level control. 
 
 d. User control of recognition parameters. 
 
 e. Real-time performance. 
 
 f . Accuracy of over 99% (claimed by manufac- 
 turer) on 50 word subsets. 
 
 g. User programmable automatic gain control 
 (3 ranges) . 
 
 h. Word length: 80 milliseconds minimum; 
 1.25 seconds maximum. 
 
 i. Response time: 25 + N milliseconds fol- 
 lowing end of word detection, where: N = active 
 vocabulary size. 
 
 j. Required pause between words: 160 mil- 
 liseconds minimum. 
 
 k. Power consumption: 60 watts (115 volts, 
 60 Hz) . 
 
 209 
 
1. Audio input bandwidth: 200 to 7,000 Hz. 
 
 m. Input impedance: 10 kilohms, a.c. cou- 
 pled. 
 
 The VKT-200 is a speaker dependent, discrete word 
 recognition system. Speaker dependence requires 
 each speaker to provide it with a sample of how 
 that speaker enunciates each item in the chosen 
 vocabulary. This sample is recorded by the 
 recognizer as a reference pattern stored in ran- 
 dom access memory. The reference pattern is pro- 
 duced during a training session wherein the 
 speaker recites the vocabulary one or more times. 
 Usually, five to seven training passes are re- 
 quired to produce an optimum set of reference 
 patterns. A battery backup power supply on the 
 VKT-200 board allows retention of the reference 
 patterns in the CMOS RAM on board, while the a.c. 
 power is turned off or lost. 
 
 In the beginning of this investigation it was 
 deemed that computerized voice response would be 
 incorporated as an added bonus to the study sim- 
 ply because it was reasonably cost effective. In 
 view of the fact that existing systems were 
 available at a fairly low cost, and since we al- 
 ready had a host computer in the system to sup- 
 port it, we felt it would be easy to include an 
 evaluation of voice response and at the same time 
 add to the novelty of the system. Unexpectedly, 
 however, the voice response system was found to 
 be a very natural and effective means of verify- 
 ing the validity of input speech commands without 
 causing the operator an excessive amount of dis- 
 traction from his command task with the manipula- 
 tor. 
 
 The underwater manipulator arm is basically con- 
 trolled by an LSI-11/23 minicomputer and has the 
 option of being controlled in a supervisory 
 manner using this single computer. In this sin- 
 gle computer configuration, the computer is as- 
 sumed to be at the surface, while in a two com- 
 puter configuration, a second computer is in- 
 stalled in an underwater bottle, close to the 
 manipulator. Despite the number of computers 
 used, there are several different ways in which 
 the operator can maneuver the arm. These are: 
 
 a. Master-Slave operation 
 
 b. Joystick control 
 
 c. Incremental movement control 
 
 d. Rate control (i.e., on/off discrete com- 
 mand) . 
 
 Perhaps even more important is the choice of 
 coordinates for the work space reference frame, 
 since we have to distinguish between two dif- 
 ferent ways of movement: absolute and relative. 
 The absolute movement is a movement in which the 
 set of joint angles of the arm is unique for a 
 certain position relative to a base-frame. The 
 base-frame is defined as the coordinate frame at- 
 tached to the base of the arm. Relative move- 
 ment, on the other hand, is a movement in which 
 
 the spatial hand positions always 
 but require different sets of 
 depending on the relationship of 
 and the base-frame. 
 
 are the same 
 joint angles, 
 hand movement 
 
 The components described above were assembled 
 into a demonstration system. Many experiments 
 were conducted with several different operators, 
 including multilingual commands. It operated sa- 
 tisfactorily, and successfully demonstrated the 
 concept of voice control of dexterous manipula- 
 tors. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 1. T. B. Sheridan, "Supervisory Control: Prob- 
 lems, Theory and Experiment for Application to 
 Human-Computer Interaction in Undersea Remote 
 Systems," Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Cambridge, 
 Massachusetts, March 1982. 
 
 2. D. B. Yoerger, T. B. Sheridan, "Development 
 of a Supervisory Manipulator System for a Free- 
 Swimming Submersible," OCEANS '81 PROCEEDINGS, 
 September 1981. 
 
 3. T. L. Brooks III, "Superman: A System for Su- 
 pervisory Manipulation and the Study of 
 Human/Computer Interactions," Master's Thesis, 
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, May 11, 
 1979. 
 
 4. A. L. Bejczy, "Advanced Control Techniques 
 for Teleoperation in Earth Orbit," THE PROCEED- 
 INGS OF THE AUVS-80 CONFERENCE, Dayton, Ohio, 
 June 16-18, 1980. 
 
 5. A. J. Sword, W. T. Park, "Location and Ac- 
 quisition of Objects in Unpredictable Locations," 
 MECHANISM AND MACHINE THEORY, V. 12, pp 123-132, 
 1977. 
 
 6. A. P. Moore, "Metals Joining in the Deep Oce- 
 an," Master's Thesis, Department of Ocean En- 
 gineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
 May 1975. 
 
 7. J. R. Vadus, "International Status and Utili- 
 zation of Undersea Vehicles 1976," INTER OCEAN 
 '76 CONFERENCE, June 1976. 
 
 8. A. J. Pesch, R. G. Hill, W. F. 
 Klepser, "Performance Comparisons of Scuba Divers 
 vs. Submersible Manipulator Controllers in 
 Undersea Work," OFFSHORE TECHNOLOGY CONFERENCE, 
 Houston, Texas, 1971. 
 
 9. C. A. Simpson, "Synthesized Voice Approach 
 Callouts for Air Transport Operations," October 
 1980. 
 
 10. A. J. Bejczy, "Integrated Operator Control in 
 Teleoperation," ASCO QUALITY CONGRESS TRANSAC- 
 TIONS, 1981. 
 
 11. J. L. Taggart, Jr., C. D. Wolfe, "Voice 
 Recognition as an Input Modality for the Tacco 
 
 210 
 
Preflight Data Insertion Task in the P-3C Air- 
 craft," Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, Cal- 
 ifornia, March 1981. 
 
 211 
 
UNDERWATER WORK SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT 
 
 John F. Freund 
 
 U.S. NAVAL SEA SYSTEMS COMMAND 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 Two interrelated areas are being given 
 attention in the development of underwater work 
 systems. The first concerns tool packages for 
 use either by saturation divers or by deep ocean 
 vehicles. The other is seawater hydraulics, 
 which promises not only to simplify the operation 
 of such tool systems but is finding use in sub- 
 mersible pumps and motors for many other appli- 
 cations. 
 
 UNDERWATER TOOLS 
 
 Depending on depth, underwater work is done 
 either by divers or by submersible vehicles 
 equipped with work packages. Diver tools for 
 shallow water can usually be adapted from their 
 dry-land counterparts, but tools for use by 
 saturation divers operating at depths of 600-800 
 feet (180-250m) must be specially designed. 
 Vehicle work packages are even more complex 
 because the tools must be integrated with mani- 
 pulators which are operated wither from within 
 the vehicle or from the surface. 
 
 A work package developed for U.S. Navy 
 submersibles consists of an array of tools 
 arranged in a series of bins (Figure 1) . The 
 package also includes a set of manipulators, two 
 for holding the work stationary, and one , more dex- 
 terous, for selecting and operating the tools. 
 The tools themselves are hydraulically driven and 
 designed for a variety of tasks. They- include a 
 high speed rotary saw, wrench, velocity stud 
 driver, jack, and spreader. The manipulator arm 
 can exert a wrist torque of 1,200 lb-in (135 N-m) 
 and multiplication can be achieved by gearing in 
 the tool itslef. The arm can lift a set of TV 
 cameras to provide the necessary visual inputs to 
 
 to the operator. 
 
 A somewhat similar tool package is being de- 
 veloped for saturation divers. For such work a 
 power module is lowered to the work site near the 
 Personnel Transfer Capsule (PTC) which provides 
 life support and transport for the diver (Figure 2). 
 The power module is battery operated and contains 
 the necessary pumps and controls to provide hydrau- 
 lic power to a tool head carried by the diver. The 
 head can then be fitted with any one of a set of 
 tools to perform tasks similar to those done in 
 deeper water by a vehicle. The tools so far pro- 
 posed include an abrasive saw, a grinder, an impact 
 wrench, a rope cutter, a wire brush, drills, a 
 small winch for moving heavy objects, and a water 
 eductor for pumping or trenching. The tool head 
 contains reduction gears to step down the input 
 speed (3,000 rpm) in one or possibly two steps. 
 Power levels at the head are about 4.5 hp (3.3 kw) 
 and an endurance time of 3 hours can be expected. 
 
 The major advantage to this approach is that 
 tools may be interchanged without breaking the 
 hydraulic lines. This not only avoids contamina- 
 tion of the fluid by seawater but also prevents the 
 fluid from escaping into the sea. Such pollution 
 can be dangerous not only to the diver but also to 
 other occupants of the PTC. For oil-based hydraulic 
 fluids, contact with the oxygen-rich atmosphere 
 of the PTC can result in a violent reaction. 
 
 With this hazard in mind, a water-based hy- 
 draulic fluid has been adopted for use in the 
 system. This fluid has significantly less lubricat- 
 ing ability than conventional fluids and the motors 
 and pumps in the system have had to be modified to 
 some degree. Such a development has brought the 
 system closer to one which can operate on seawater 
 alone, and the technology of seawater hydraulics, 
 itself under intensive development, is being applied 
 to these systems. 
 
 SEAWATER HYDRAULICS 
 
 Hydraulic power systems of any kind are the 
 most adaptable and versatile systems for safely 
 providing controlled forces and functions for use 
 at all depths in the ocean. Systems which can use 
 seawater as the working fluid have many advantages: 
 
 212 
 
(1) they use the surrounding environment as the 
 working fluid; (2) they are insensitive to con- 
 tamination due to leakage; (3) they are non- 
 polluting; (4) they can be used without reaction 
 hazards in hyperbaric environments; (5) they 
 require only one supply hose; (6) they do not 
 require the use of pressure compensation in heat 
 exchangers or reservoirs; and (7) they are com- 
 pact, light-weight, and easy to maintain. 
 
 The original problem in the development of 
 such systems was a materials one. There was only 
 limited information available on materials suita- 
 ble for use for close tolerance, heavily loaded 
 bearing surfaces operating in a seawater medium. 
 Materials studies conducted since 1977 have indi- 
 cated that certain Inconel and titanium alloys 
 are sufficiently resistant to seawater corrosion 
 to be used for pump and motor bodies. Thermo- 
 plastics with fibre fillers can be used for parts 
 which move in sliding contact with the metal sur- 
 faces. These materials were used to build a 
 3 hp (2.2 kw) spring-loaded vane motor from which 
 it was discovered that spring fatigue appeared to 
 be a more serious problem than wear. An improved 
 version was then constructed and run for 250 
 hours, with spring renewal necessary at 100 
 hours (Figure 3). This motor weighed less than 
 7 lbs. (3 kg), occupied a volume of 23 cu. in. 
 (375 cc) and operated at 1,370 rpm with an over- 
 all efficiency of 70%. Its performance demon- 
 strated the feasibility of seawater hydraulic 
 machinery and development was accelerated. 
 
 A few commercially available hydraulic com- 
 ponents such as valves and filters need only small 
 modifications to work with seawater. However, 
 motors and pumps are not available off-shelf and 
 specific development efforts are called for. 
 Pumps are of particular interest at present. Two 
 types, fixed and variable displacement, are re- 
 quired. The fixed-displacement type is suitable 
 for surface applications where energy supplies 
 are ample. A typical size is 15 gpm (57 1/m) at 
 a pressure of 1,500 psi (10,200 kPa) . The varia- 
 ble displacement type is needed for portable sys- 
 tems where small size and high efficiency are 
 important, as in diver-carried tool systems. 
 Flow rates and pressures run somewhat higher, 
 being in the 20 gpm (75 1/m) at 2,000 psi 
 (13,800 kPa) range. 
 
 One application of seawater hydraulic tech- 
 nology is already in place. This is the sea- 
 water pump used in the variable ballast system 
 for the modified SEA CLIFF submersible. This 
 pump is a double-acting piston type designed to 
 operate at 9,000 psi (62,000 kPa) at a flow rate 
 of 1 gallon (3.78 liters) per minute. It is 
 driven by a 10 hp (7.5 kw) motor. Titanium and 
 ceramic components are used to resist corrosion 
 and abrasion. 
 
 The vane-type motor already described has 
 been modified to operate as a pump and is being 
 evaluated for use in variable ballast systems for 
 smaller vehicles. A major question exists as to 
 the limits to which simple dimensional multipli- 
 
 cation can go to upscale the power capabilities of 
 the vane motor/pump design. A study effort is 
 currently in progress to establish guidelines; 10 
 hp (7.5 kw) seems to be readily attainable with 
 little sacrifice in efficiency. 
 
 WORK IN PROGRESS 
 
 Work in both the tool and seawater hydraulic 
 areas is continuing. Higher powered tools are 
 being designed, including a rock drill and a low- 
 speed, high torque drill press. This is for 
 drilling large holes in metal objects where the 
 torques needed are too large for a diver to con- 
 trol. 
 
 Other hydraulic devices being adapted to the 
 seawater medium include linear and rotary actua- 
 tors. When fully developed they will complete the 
 array of seawater tools available to underwater 
 workers and the tasks of both repair and recovery 
 will be made much easier. 
 
 213 
 
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 214 
 
SATURATION DIVER TOOL PACKAGE 
 
 DC MOTOR PUMP UNIT 
 
 Saturation Diver Tool System 
 
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 216 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF AN ELECTRIC POWER CONTROL SYSTEM 
 FOR 6.000M CLASS DEEP SUBMERSIBLES 
 
 Masao Ono 
 
 Chief Naval Architect 
 
 Shipbuilding & Steel Structures Headquarters 
 
 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. 
 
 5-1, Marunouchi 2-chome, Chiyoda-ku 
 
 Tokyo, 100, Japan 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 An oil-filled and pressure-compensated 
 transistor inverter, which is suitable for 
 installation on 6,000m class deep submersibles, 
 has been developed for the first time in the 
 world, its main features being small size, 
 light weight, and high efficiency. 
 
 The particulars of the inverter unit 
 trial ly manufactured are as follows. 
 
 ° Rated input voltage 108V DC 
 
 ° Output power more than 8KVA,3«S 
 
 Rated output voltage more than 80V AC 
 
 ° Rated output frequency 120Hz 
 
 ° Maximum operating pressure 625kgf/cm 2 
 
 This unit has been tested under 
 pressure conditions of to 938kgf/cm2 
 (1.5 times the pressure at 6,000m depth), 
 and its satisfactory performance has been 
 confirmed. 
 
 1. Introduction 
 
 World-wide interest in the scientific 
 research and the development and utiliza- 
 tion of ocean has remarkably increased in 
 recent years. Under these conditions, the 
 deep-sea surveys by SHINKAI 2000( maximum ope- 
 rating depth: 2,000m) have marked the beginning 
 of a new era of ocean development in Japan, and 
 now the development of a 6,000m class deep sub- 
 mergence research vehicle is being planned for 
 wider and deeper ocean research. 
 
 The purpose of this study is to realize 
 a compact power control system for 6,000m 
 class submersibles by adopting an oil-filled 
 and 'pressure-compensated system for a tran- 
 sistor inverter, the satisfactory perform- 
 ance of which was confirmed on SHINKAI 2000. 
 
 The study has been carried out for two 
 years from 1982. In the first year, the 
 
 principal parts such as power transistors(250V, 
 300A) and large electrolytic capacitors (160VAC, 
 6,800uF) which are capable of functioning in 
 high-pressure oil, were developed. 
 In the second year, the transistor inverter was 
 trial ly manufactured, assembling these parts in 
 an oil-filled and pressure-compensated container 
 instead of a pressure vessel. Various tests were 
 then carried out under the pressure conditions 
 from to 938kgf/cm2. 
 
 As satisfactory results have been obtained 
 both electrically and mechanically, they will 
 be reported in this paper. 
 
 2. Power Control System for Submersible 
 
 The main purpose of a manned deep submer- 
 gence research vehicle is that the man on board 
 is able to observe and investigate objects 
 directly with his own eyes. In order to make 
 accurate, delicate and free maneuvers possible, 
 the submersible must be compact. 
 
 Batteries are used for the power source of 
 such a submersible and the power is mainly 
 consumed by electric motors which drive the 
 thrusters, hydraulic pumps, and so on. 
 
 Two types of motors are used in a sub- 
 mersible: DC motors and AC motors. DC motors 
 are used in many submersibles because they can 
 be operated directly by batteries. However, DC 
 motors require more frequent maintenance because 
 they have commutator bars and brushes, and 
 comtamination caused by clinker formation 
 decreases the insulation resistance of the 
 encapsulated oil especially under high pressures. 
 
 AC motors, on the other hand, are small, 
 light, and simple in construction, and have no 
 such problems. AC motors, however, require the 
 power control equipment to convert DC to AC. 
 The transistor inverters which were developed for 
 SHINKAI 2000 using large power transistors are 
 excellent both in controllability and efficiency. 
 
 Six transistor inverters, which are housed in 
 three pressure vessels made of titanium alloy 
 
 !17 
 
(Ti-6A£4V ELI), were installed outside the pres- 
 sure hull of SHINKAI 2000. If these pressure 
 vessels are adopted for a 6,000m class deep 
 submersible, the weight of the total inverter 
 system will be more than 2.5 times as heavy as 
 that for SHINKAI 2000, which will cause serious 
 problems in a submersible design. 
 Figure 1 shows the difference in weight. 
 
 Aux, thruster motors 
 
 ©CO - 
 
 ®C3 - 
 
 Mam thruster motor 
 Hyd pump motor 
 
 □=> - 
 
 Sea water pump motor 
 
 oD - 
 
 Service power 
 
 Main 
 Inverter distribution 
 
 ma.n circuit pane| 
 
 Inverter 
 control circurt 
 
 -o 
 
 i 
 
 ®-l 
 
 Signal 
 
 lied & 
 pressure-compensated 
 
 Syntacticform 
 
 Pressure Vessel 
 Container & Oil 
 Contents 
 
 SHINKAI 2000 
 
 6000m Pressure 6000m Oil-filled 
 
 vessel type pressure-compensated type 
 
 Fig-1 Comparison of weight of inverter system 
 
 The aim of this study is to make the weight 
 of the total inverter system equal to or less 
 than that of SHINKAI 2000 system by using 
 an oil-filled and pressure-compensated method 
 for the main circuit of the transistor 
 inverter. 
 
 The electric system for the 6,000m sub- 
 mersible is shown in Figure 2 and the basic 
 circuit of the PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) 
 transistor inverter is shown in Figure 3. 
 
 TrU 
 
 Transistor U 
 
 MDd 
 
 Main Diode 
 
 Df 
 
 Feed back diode 
 
 La 
 
 : Filter reactor 
 
 Ld 
 
 : Current limited 
 
 
 reactor 
 
 Cd 
 
 Electrolytic 
 
 
 capacitor 
 
 Rd 
 
 Discharged 
 
 
 resistor 
 
 CT 
 
 Current 
 
 
 transformer 
 
 CS 
 
 Current sensor 
 
 Rb 
 
 Resistor 
 
 Main 
 battery 
 
 Main 
 switchboard 
 
 I ■ ■ ■ J pres 
 
 Fig-2 Diagram of electric system 
 
 3. Development of Main Circuit Parts 
 
 As shown in Figure 3, the main circuit of 
 the transistor inverter consists of power tran- 
 sistors, power diodes, large electrolytic 
 capacitors, reactors, and so on. 
 
 When conventional parts are assembled in an 
 oil-filled and pressure-compensated container, 
 they will be crushed and broken by the high 
 pressure of the surrounding deep-sea water, 
 because they have empty space inside their cas- 
 ing. 
 
 Therefore it becomes necessary to develop parts 
 that can maintain their electrical characteris- 
 tics and mechanical performance even in high- 
 pressure oil . 
 
 As for reactors, it is possible to make them 
 withstand high pressures by hardening with epoxy 
 resin. 
 
 Transistors, diodes and capacitors, however, 
 have empty space inside their casing. 
 Accordingly they must be filled with insulation 
 oil or electrolyte and be housed in a pressure- 
 compensated case. 
 
 Inverter main circuit 
 
 r-cTb-A i_^o__A 
 
 I 
 
 La Ld 
 
 L o~b-^ — a 
 
 ..J L 
 
 oN^ 
 
 a — e 
 
 AC Motor 
 (ACM) 
 
 Inverter control circuit 
 
 Power source 
 Start-Stop 
 Speed control 
 Abnormal 
 Fail 
 
 Power 
 source 
 circuit 
 
 1 
 
 Base 
 
 drive 
 circuit 
 
 =CD= 
 
 t> 
 
 =C> 
 
 Voltage 
 sensor 
 
 Gate control 
 circuit 
 
 Pressure 
 
 compensated 
 
 container 
 
 Fail detect 
 circuit 
 
 Pressure 
 
 proof 
 
 vessel 
 
 Fig-3 Basic circuit of PWM transistor inverter 
 
 213 
 
Figure 4 shows an example of a power tran- 
 sistor. The empty space is minimized and filled 
 with silicone oil. The flanges are so designed 
 as to serve as pressure-compensating bellows. 
 Figure 5 shows an example of an electrolytic 
 capacitor. This capacitor has a rubber bladder 
 and is filled with electrolytic fluid. 
 
 Table 1. Particulars of oil-filled and pressure- 
 compensated transistor inverter 
 
 Sealing Pipe 
 
 Element ^Ceramic Package 
 
 Control system 
 
 PWM wave control system 
 
 Rated input voltage 
 
 108V DC 
 
 Output power 
 
 More than 8KVA 
 
 Output phase 
 
 3* 
 
 Rated output voltage 
 
 More than 80V 
 
 Rated frequency 
 
 120Hz 
 
 Storage temp 
 
 -10-50 "C 
 
 Operating temp. 
 
 -5-35C 
 
 Sea water temp. 
 
 0~28"C 
 
 Inclining angle 
 
 + 15° (Heel) ±30' (Trim ) 
 
 Rolling angle 
 
 ±60 - 
 
 Max. operating pressure 
 
 625kgf/cm ! 
 
 Test pressure 
 
 688kgf/cm ! 
 
 Proof pressure 
 
 Over 938kgf/cm* 
 
 Pressure compensating oil 
 
 
 
 Silicone oil 
 
 Fig-4 Oil-filled and pressure-compensated power transistor 
 
 PWM control was chosen in order to achieve high 
 efficiency and compactness. The input voltage 
 was decided, assuming that the power supply was 
 from the battery system consisted of 72 silver- 
 zinc alkaline cells. 
 
 The output power was decided, assuming that the 
 main thruster would require a 4kW AC motor. 
 
 The main circuit of the inverter was en- 
 closed in an oil-filled and pressure-compensated 
 container, and underwent various electrical 
 charactaristic tests in an atmospheric-pressure 
 water tank. After that, pressure tests were 
 carried out as shown in Figure 6. 
 
 Dummy load 
 
 Fig-5 Electrolytic capacitor with rubber bladder 
 
 The electrical characteristic tests of each 
 part were first carried out in insulation oil 
 under atmospheric pressure and in high pressure 
 test tank from to 688kgf/cm 2 . Then pressure- 
 proof tests, were carried out at a static pres- 
 sure of 938kgf/cm2 and 1,000 cyclic pressure 
 from to 625kgf/cm2 under supplying voltage 
 to each part. Satisfactory results were 
 obtained. 
 
 4. Manufacture and Tests for Evaluation 
 
 Using the parts described above, an oil- 
 filled and pressure-compensated transistor 
 inverter was designed and manufactured for 
 evaluation. The target specifications of 
 the newly developed inverter are shown in 
 Table 1. 
 
 -mrvvv- 
 
 Cable 
 penetrator 
 
 Under water _ 
 power cable 
 
 DC Power 
 source 
 
 Inverter 
 control 
 circuit 
 
 Temperature 
 recorder 
 
 P ) Water pump 
 
 Fig-6 Schematic diagram of high pressure test 
 
 219 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fl 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 n 
 
 h 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 y ° 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 III i 
 
 > 100 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 III : 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 
 J 
 
 J D ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4.15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 83 
 
 Time (msec) 
 
 100 
 | o 
 
 5 
 c 
 
 <3 -ioo 
 
 4.15 8.3 
 
 Time (msec) 
 
 Fig-7 Output waveform 
 
 (input 135 V DC, output frequency 120 Hz) 
 
 The electrical charactaristics were confirmed 
 under pressure from to 688kgf/cm2 and the 
 mechanical performance was confirmed at 938kgf/ 
 cm2. Continuous operation tests were carries 
 out at pressures of 625kgf/cm2 and 688kgf/cm* 
 
 Figure 7 shows an example of output waveform 
 of 120Hz for an input voltage of 135V. The in- 
 put-output characteristics under various pres- 
 sures are given in Figure 8. 
 By monitoring the output waveforms on oscillo- 
 scopes throughout these tests, the inverter was 
 confirmed to have enough performance both 
 electrically and mechanically. 
 
 5. Conclusions 
 
 An electric power control system for a 
 6,000m class deep submergence research vehicle 
 has thus been developed after two years of 
 research and development. 
 
 
 . Input 
 
 current 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 ( 
 
 . o_ 
 
 
 
 Out 
 
 put f 
 
 120Hz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 U 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 100Hz 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a A 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50Hz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25Hz 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 100 300 625 688 938 688 625 300 100 O 
 
 Pressure (kgf/cm J ) 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 
 - 40 
 
 > 
 
 Output 
 
 vo 
 
 tage 
 
 Output f 
 
 120Hz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100Hz 
 50Hz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25Hz 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 — u 
 
 ■ 
 
 I i— 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 l_ 
 
 100 300 625 688 938 688 625 300 100 
 
 Pressure (kgf/cm 2 ) 
 
 Output current 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 U 
 
 - 
 
 I 
 
 A 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 100Hz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50Hz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25Hz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 100 300 625 688 938 688 625 300 100 
 
 Pressure (kgf/cm 2 ) 
 
 Fig- 8 Input and output characteristics 
 (input voltage 108 V DC) 
 
 (1) The main circuit parts of the transistor 
 inverter withstanding the maximum pressure 
 of 938kgf/cm2 and an operating pressure of 
 625kgf/cm2 have been developed. 
 
 (2) Various kinds of data for the design and 
 manufacture of a practical oil-filled and 
 pressure-compensated transistor inverter 
 have been obtained. 
 
 Now it is possible to apply an oil-filled 
 and pressure-compensated method for all electric 
 power equipment such as batteries, distribution 
 panels, motors, and inverters, so that it will 
 be possible for a 6,000m class deep submergence 
 research vehicle of the same size and weight as 
 SHINKAI 2000 with an equally satisfactory per- 
 formance. 
 
 This study has been conducted under the 
 subsidy from the Technology Development Fund of 
 the Japan Foundation for Shipbuilding Advance- 
 ment. 
 
 The author acknowledges the technical guid- 
 ance of Japan Marine Science and Technology 
 Center (JAMSTEC) and The Shipbuilding Research 
 Association of japan. 
 
 220 
 
OXYGEN EXTRACTION FROM SEAWATER. 
 A MAJOR ADVANCEMENT FOR SUBSEA SYSTEMS 
 
 James 6. Wenzel 
 
 President. Marine Development Associates 
 
 Saratoga. California 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 The ability or man to operate underwater is 
 severely limited by his oxygen supply which he 
 must carry in a pressure container or receive via a 
 lifeline tether. A promising new patented process, 
 capable of extracting oxygen directly from saa 
 water in sufficient quantities to support a diver or 
 provide oxygen for operating underwater power 
 systems is currently under development by the 
 Aquanautics Corporation. 
 
 INTPOOUCTION 
 
 Biotechnology, like microelectronics technology 
 two decades ago, is now emerging from the basic 
 research laboratory and entering the marketplace. 
 Aquanautics Corporation, a San Francisco-based 
 small business firm founded to develop business 
 opportunities associated with man's interaction 
 with the sea. is looking toward biotechnology in 
 diversifying its business base. Aquanautics, in 
 1984, obtained the patent rights from Duke Univer- 
 sity to an invention (U.S. Patent 4,427,416) by two 
 biochemists. Drs. Joseph and Celia Bonaventura. 
 The invention relates to a material for, and a 
 process of extracting oxygen from fluids, such as 
 seawater, in which oxygen is dissolved. 
 
 The commercial potential of this invention in 
 marine applications is obvious. A device that will 
 allow direct extraction and recovery of oxygen 
 from seawater would not only enable man to oper- 
 ate undersea with a degree of freedom and mobility 
 not now possible, but would also permit develop- 
 ment of a new generation of non-nuclear, undersea 
 power supply systems that can operate electro- 
 chemical fuel cells or conventional internal com- 
 bustion engines. 
 
 Currently, mans capability to operate under- 
 water is limited by his oxygen supply. Present 
 power supply systems for undersea work and for 
 submersible vehicles, e.g., manned and remotely 
 operated vehicles (ROVs), also have severe limita- 
 tions. The submersible power-generation systems 
 which use batteries have limited operating time and 
 low power-to-weight ratios. The surface-based 
 systems which generate power by conventional 
 means and supply it underwater via power cables 
 impose undesirable restrictions on operating depth 
 and mobility. 
 
 Devices capable of extracUng the oxygen that 
 is disolved in seawater. which are called artificial 
 gills, could supply breathing oxygen for divers, or 
 oxygen for power systems, an exciting potential. 
 
 HISTOPICAI BACKGROUND 
 
 The work that led to the Invention of the bio- 
 logically-based oxygen-extraction process was 
 essentially the result of a natural progression in 
 the basic research activities of Drs. Joseph and 
 Celia Bonaventura. a husband and wife team of in- 
 ternationally known biochemists. The Bonaventura 
 team pondered the fact that fish not only extract 
 oxygen from a low oxygen content fluid, but are 
 capable of storing it at pressures up to 500 pounds 
 per square inch in sacs called 'swim bladders .and 
 are apparenUy able to adust the amounts at will to 
 provide buoyancy control. The Bonaventuras had 
 long been Interested in proteins that are involved 
 in respiration, especielly hemoglobin, which in our 
 blood and in the blood of fish provides the proper 
 environment for reversible oxygen binding. They 
 thought they might be able to simulate in the Lab 
 what happens in e fish. 
 
 Reversible is the key word in describing the 
 process in which iron atoms resident in each mole- 
 cule of hemoglobin will first load oxygen while 
 passing through a lung or gill, later to unload ft. 
 after entering a cell, and returning egain to reload. 
 In the lung or gill, the iron, properly protected by 
 the protein (globin) that surrounds it, has an af- 
 finity for oxygen, an almost magnetic kind of 
 attachment, which decreases under the chemicel 
 condition or slightly lower pH that is natural within 
 each cell. Without this loss of affinity, you have 
 what is called irreversible oxidaUon. where the 
 iron in losing en electron becomes, es a result, 
 much more like iron oxide, better known as rust. 
 For humans and for fish, reversibility, in this pro- 
 cess is synonymous with life. 
 
 Joe Bonaventura reasoned that hemoglobin and 
 other heme-like molecules could be made to bind 
 oxygen outside of the body and that, if they could 
 somehow be contained, enough of them 
 concentrated would allow a diver or a submersible 
 to mimic fish and extrect oxygen from water. Dr. 
 Bonaventura extracted his own blood from a vein, 
 separated the serum, immobilized the remainder in 
 
 221 
 
a polyurethane sponge and th«n passed seaweter 
 through the sponge. He noted with sensors thai 
 most of the available oxygen had been extracted in 
 passage. It was this immobilization effort that led 
 to their invention of a now patented process for the 
 extraction of dissolved oxygen from fluids. 
 
 With this proof of principle behind them, the 
 Bonaventuras obtained modest financial backing 
 from the Office of Naval Research and from the 
 Naval Sea Command to explore the concept on a lab 
 scale. By the summer of 1903. they were certain 
 enough of the reliability of the technique to seek a 
 commercial partner to both assist in future funding 
 and to focus on practical applications. 
 
 Aquanautics Corporation, in the Fail of 1963, 
 acquired the patent rights to this process and began 
 a p rogram for the commercialization of this techno* 
 logy under the direction of Mr. Taylor A. Pryor. the 
 Aquanautics Director of Research. In an effort to 
 expedite the execution of this program and to as- 
 semble a strong technical team. Aquanautics set up 
 a branch of its operations in Beaufort, N.C ani 
 formed a joint venture with Duke University. 
 
 The initial phase of the Aquanautics' do ve l e y 
 ment program was directed mainly at designing a 
 small-scale device to demonstrate the integrated 
 operation of the various process elements and to 
 develop information for the construction of proto- 
 type devices. Research efforts, carried out with 
 the support of Makai Ocean Engineering. Inc., have 
 focused on the fabrication of a small-scale device 
 capable of extracting sufficient oxygen from sea- 
 water to operate a small internal combustion engine 
 that has been modified for shallow underwater 
 operation. 
 
 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION 
 
 The system as it emerged by June. 1984. con- 
 sisted of five major components: (I) a set of hollow 
 fibre membranes which is exposed to sea water and 
 which contains an oxygen carrier fluid, (2) the car- 
 rier fluid itself which is a solution that supports, 
 not hemoglobin, but herne-like molecules with active 
 metal sites, (3) a pump to move the fluid through 
 the membrane to other parts of the system, and 
 back again, (4) an electrochemical cell which acts 
 to extract an electron from an active metal carrier 
 causing the carrier to lose its affinity for oxygen, 
 and later to donate an electron causing it to regain 
 its affinity, and (5) a second set of membranes 
 which act to separate the now free oxygen from the 
 
 fluid so that it can be taken off in a *ry 
 pure gaseous form for breathing or combustion. 
 Four of these items, that is all but the pump, are • 
 result of relatively new technology developments 
 in membrane science, biochemistry and electro- 
 chemistry which have come together to make pos- 
 sible a man-made gill. 
 
 A schematic block diagram of the system-. 
 comblned_with an internet combustion engine is 
 shewn in Figure I. The gill subsystem incorporates 
 
 Figure I. 
 
 hollow fibre membr a ne s which mimic the fishs gill 
 tissue. The carrier fluid passes through the 
 membranes and seawater flows over the outside. 
 Oxygen molecules, contained in the seeweter. pass 
 through tiny pores that exist in the membr a ne skin 
 and are molocuierly absorbed and carried away by 
 the carrier fluid. The oxygen tension gradient 
 between the two fluids, across the m e m b ra n e , 
 permits concentration of the oxygen to take place 
 in the carrier fluid, up to 500-600 mi/I. 
 
 The carrier fluid then passes through a pump 
 which isolates the higher pressure ambient carrier 
 fluid from the l-atmosphere carrier fluid loop 
 within the pressure vessel. Currently, in the 
 development effort, the technical team has 
 dropped hemoglobin, substituted cobalt ror the 
 iron, and are now working with essentially a heme 
 analog. While it Is only an echo of the carrier 
 fluids founding father, h emoglobin, the cobalt fluM 
 
 222 
 
is simple and compact, low in cost, man made, and 
 durable. 
 
 inside the pressure vessel. the carrier fluid Is 
 electrically unloaded and yields gaseous oxygen 
 which can be used for a wide variety of energy con- 
 verters. This component of the system is a new 
 method for unloading the oxygen, a patented elec- 
 trochemical unit which substitutes for cell tissue, 
 but does the same job. 
 
 Cobalt has a very high affinity for oxygen but 
 has a low affinity if one electron is removed. By 
 simply pumping the carrier fluid to the anode of the 
 electrochemical cell, and producing the correct po- 
 tential and current, an electron is removed so that 
 the oxygen is released. This allows the oxygen to 
 exit out through the second set of hollow fiber 
 membr a nes, and into a bladder where it is available 
 for divers to breathe or to be used in support of a 
 suitable power system. The carrier fluid is now 
 moved into the cathode side of the electrochemical 
 ceil where the missing electron is restored, so thai 
 it can emerge once again with a high affinity for 
 oxygen, and returned to the gill. 
 
 In November, 1984, the project team was able 
 to bring all of these components together into a 
 simple system. A unit was made to operate suc- 
 cessfully, extracting oxygen from tap water, and 
 demonstrating that the Aquanautics/Duke Univer- 
 sity team had successfully substituted an electro- 
 chemical shift for the chemical shift that occurs in 
 biological tissue. A major milestone! The task 
 ahead is a breadboard unit and a prototype cap^le 
 of supporting a 5KW dlesel engine. This will be 
 completed before the end of the year. 
 
 APPLICATIONS 
 
 Scanning over the possible applications of the 
 oxygen extractor, one can readily predict where 
 the priorities will be in the commercial world. One 
 use is for divers, to provide a backpack which will 
 substitute for scuba tanks. When Aquanautics first 
 announced in 1983 that it would develop the gill, 
 there was indeed an amazing rush of worldwide in- 
 terest. 
 
 Another application, however, looks more 
 highly attractive. Just as the petroleum industry 
 and the automobile boomed in tandem after the turn 
 of the century, so should underwater robots and 
 oxygen extractors in the undersea world at the end 
 
 of the century. Such "robots" are simply unman- 
 ned submersibles with sensors, perhaps manipu- 
 lators, and some artificial intelligence. They are 
 called remote operating vehicles (ROVs). In 1973. 
 an explosive growth in this field began and by the 
 end of 1983. over 600 of such vehicles had been 
 built. 
 
 The reason for this fast growth was that ROVs 
 were accepted by the offshore oil and gas industry 
 as a viable alternative to providing underwater 
 services in the offshore fields. Divers, manned 
 submersibles end manned l-atmosphere work sys- 
 tems were previously used for such jobs, but 
 ROVs offered major advantages over all of these. 
 To list a few. they offered unlimited operational 
 duration, can work in a wide range of environ- 
 ments without human risk, are less costly to 
 maintain end operate, and are compact for flexibil- 
 ity and air transportability. 
 
 Tethered free-swimming vehicles account for 
 most of the rest growth. Originally demonstrating 
 their efficiency in performing observation tasks, 
 their design has now advanced to incorporate 
 capabilities for both observational and limited 
 work tasks. Advancements in ROV technology 
 have made this type of underwater work system 
 very useful for s large variety of systems down 
 to 7.500 feet of water. In only 10 years. ROVs 
 have proven that man's place in the system is on 
 the surface. 
 
 Currently, mans role is still a very active 
 one in that he continuously monitors and controls 
 the movements of the vehicle. Increasingly, how- 
 ever, man is taking a less active supervisory 
 control, where he intervenes in vehicle actions 
 only when necessary. The final step will be when 
 man is totally removed from any function and one 
 has the unmanned, tetherless system. 
 
 Practically all ROVs operating now receive 
 their electric power through an umbilical cable on 
 the vehicle. The electric power drives thrusters 
 and hydraulic pumps and is transformed for 
 driving electronic equipment and instruments. 
 Power requirements vary vastly, depending on 
 vehicle size. dreg, speed, equipment on board, end 
 umbilical length and diameter. Control data can be 
 easily transmitted over light-weight, fine 
 fiber-optic tethers, but this gain is limited by 
 electric power requirements. 
 
 •aU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1985 491 097 36672 
 
 A few tetherless ROVs hove been built and 
 
 223 
 
have performed well in special tasks, e.g. bottom 
 surveys and oceanographlc data gathering. The data 
 collected by the ROV are stored on board until it 
 returns to shore or to the support ship. These 
 vehicles are powered by batteries which limit the 
 operational endurance to a few hours without the 
 tether. One recent study of tether less vehicles 
 concluded: "The major problem area in the devel- 
 opment of the tetherless ROV is the vehicle power 
 source." 
 
 A most promising concept for a ROV power 
 source is the oxygen-extraction/heme system 
 coupled with a fuel cell or an internal combustion 
 engine. The development of the heme/engine con- 
 cept culminating in successful demonstration tests 
 of a prototype power pack would remove the great- 
 est hurdle in the path towards autonomous ROVs. It 
 would make the electrical power umbilical obsolete 
 for many work systems. 
 
 For commercial and scientific purposes, the 
 trend seems clear. Divers are being replaced by 
 robots and robots are going deeper and doing more. 
 The impact of severing them from the constraints 
 of umbilical power cables and batteries first, and 
 later from all tether requirements, can only be 
 surmised in todays commercial market. However, 
 it will not be long before the first heme-powered 
 ROV will be free swimming in Hawaiian waters, 
 undergoing evaluation by both government and 
 civilian engineers. A great day for the undersea 
 world! 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 1. Bonaventura. Celia et. al. Duke University Ma- 
 rine Laboratory/Marine Biomedical Center. Beau- 
 fort. N.C. "Underwater life support based on Im- 
 mobilized oxygen carriers." 
 
 2. Pryor. T. A.. Aquanautics Corp./flakai Ocean 
 Engineering. Inc. 'Extraction of Oxygen from 
 Seawater for Life Support" Sea-Space Symposium. 
 May A. 1984. 
 
 3. Pryor. T. A. . Aquanautics Corp. "Artificial Gills 
 for Undersea Power" Sea Technology. Jan. 1985. 
 
 223A 
 
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK 
 
 223B 
 
RESCUE BUOY SYSTEM FOR MANNED SUBMERSIBLE "SHINKA1 2000" SYSTEM 
 
 by 
 
 Shinichi Takagawa, Yasutaka Amitani, Toshio Tsuchiya, Toshiyuki Nakanishi, Hisashi Andoh 
 
 Japan Marine Science and Technology Center (JAMSTEC) 
 
 2-15 Natsushima-cho, Yokosuka 237 Japan 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 2,000m deeD research submersible "SHINKA1 
 2000" constructed by JAMSTEC has a marker 
 buoy and cable for emergency. In this investiga- 
 tion, theoretical and experimental studies of 
 rescue system using this marker buoy and cable 
 actively are carried out. 
 
 Outline of this rescue system is as follows. 
 The cable of the retrieved buoy is stretched 
 between the sunken submersible and the surface 
 ship, then keeping the position of the surface 
 ship adequately using underwater acoustic naviga- 
 tion system, a go-getter connected with strong 
 retrieval rope is launched down to the submersi- 
 ble by its own weight along the buoy cable. 
 After the go-getter mates with her, she is 
 pulled upward and then retrieved on the deck 
 of the surface ship. 
 
 Theoretical study showed that it is not neces- 
 sary for the surface ship to stay just upward 
 of the submersible but she has a wide opera- 
 tional region when materials of ropes, weight 
 of go-getter and others are appropriately desig- 
 ned Ocean experiment also showed good results 
 retrieving a dummy sinker from the depth of 
 2,000m which is equal to the maximum opera- 
 ting depth of "SHINKAI 2000". 
 
 I. INTRODUCTION 
 
 Manned submersible should be designed as 
 safely as possible. However, underwater opera- 
 tions are accompanied with many and serious 
 dangers, so operators should always consider 
 the possibilities of accidents which oblige the 
 submersible unable to ascend to the surface. 
 
 In case a submersible has a misfortune to 
 have such a fatal accident at the bottom of 
 the ocean, the crew should be rescued by the 
 other vessels. This rescue procedure usually con- 
 sists of ^ascertainment of the sunken position 
 and 2)retrieve of the submersible to the surface 
 of the ocean. 
 
 There are several methods to ascertain the 
 sunken position, such as underwater acoustic 
 method. However, the marker buoy method will 
 be the most simple way. Outline of this method 
 is that the sunken submersible releases the mar- 
 ker buoy which contains a thin and long cable, 
 then the surface ship catches it and stretches 
 the cable. At the other end of the cable there 
 sits the sunken submersible. This marker buoy 
 method is adopted by several manned submer- 
 sibles(Ref.l), and also "SHINKAI 2000" adopts 
 this method(Ref.2). 
 
 Next stage is to retrieve the sunken submersi- • 
 ble. One method for this stage is to use another 
 manned or unmanned submersible. But it is usual- 
 ly not certain whether these submersibles can 
 be utilized to this rescue operation during the 
 very limited residual life support time. 
 
 The rescue buoy method is the most simple 
 and prompt way using actively the marker buoy 
 method although it can be applied only for sub- 
 mersible's weight increase. Outline of this meth- 
 od is that a go-getter connected with a strong 
 retrieval rope is launched down to the sunken 
 submersible along the thin cable(guide rope) 
 and she is pulled up to the surface. There are 
 several submersibles adopting this method(Ref. 1). 
 
 However, effectiveness of this method is highly 
 
 affected by current, properties of ropes and go- 
 getter etc., and the effects of these factors were 
 not found clearly yet. 
 
 In this investigation, theoretical study on these 
 effects was carried out and then the ocean experi- 
 ments were carried out to the depth of 2,000m, 
 the maximum operating depth of "SHINKAI 2000". 
 
 Fig.l shows the concept drawing of the rescue 
 buoy method. 
 
 Ai 
 
 i"i„. 
 
 Underwater 
 Sound 
 
 2 
 
 77777777777? 
 
 (1) Buoy Release and 
 
 Tracking 
 
 77777 
 
 (2) Stretching 
 
 k 
 
 — ■£-±3 
 
 
 777T 
 
 (3) Ge-Getter Launching (4) Retrieve 
 
 Fig.l Concept Drawing of Rescue Buoy Method 
 l:Sunken Submersible 2:Guide Rope 
 3: Buoy 4: Surface Ship 5:Go-Getter 
 6: Retrieval Rope 7: Male Mating Device 
 
 II. THEORETICAL STUDY 
 
 In this theoretical study, underwater double cate- 
 nary problem was treated. And in order to simplify 
 the problem, theoretical calculation was carried 
 out under static hypothesis. 
 
 (1) Operational Region 
 
 In case of no current, it is easily imagined that 
 the guide rope and the retrieval rope are stretched 
 straightly between the sunken submersible and 
 the surface ship when the latter is just upward 
 of the former, and a go-getter mates with the 
 submersible without difficulty(Fig.2-A). However, 
 
 [Operational Regi 
 
 Fig. 2 Double Catenaries and Operational Region 
 under No Current 
 
 when the surface ship is some distance off from 
 the point just upward of the submersible, the ret- 
 rieval rope may droop lower than the go-getter, 
 and the drooped rope may crowl the ocean bottom. 
 This situation may become some problem such 
 as friction or entanglement(Fig.2-B). Moreover, 
 
 224 
 
when the distance becomes longer, the go-getter 
 may be stopped by the friction with the guide 
 rope(Fig.2-C). Therefore the positions may exist 
 where the retrieval rope never droops down and 
 goes forth to the sunken submersible. The mathe- 
 matical definition of these points is given as 
 0(or horizontal) gradient of the retrieval rope 
 end at the ocean bottom(Fig.2-D and D')- The 
 retrieval operation is considered to be carried 
 out successfully when the surface ship stays bet- 
 ween these D and D'. So this region was defined 
 as "Operational Region" in this study. 
 ' When there is any current, the points D and 
 D' may drift. So one of this theoretical study 
 is to find out the relation between the current 
 and the operational region. 
 
 Moreover, the guide rope is stretched between 
 the surface ship and the sunken submersible by 
 a constant tension at the surface ship and when 
 the current is very strong, the hydrodynamic 
 force on the guide rope may become stronger 
 than the tension exerted at the surface ship, 
 so there may exist some position upstream from 
 where the guide rope cannot be stretched. This 
 point also gives the limitation to the operational 
 region. 
 
 Therefore, the operational region was calculat- 
 ed using the conditions that; 
 1) The guide rope can be stretched between 
 the surface ship and the sunken submersible, 
 
 2) The go-getter can go forth and mates with 
 
 the sunken submersible, and 
 
 3) The gradient of the retrieval rope at the 
 bottom is larger than 0(or horizontal). 
 
 (2) Optimum Solution Condition 
 
 When the operational region is very narrow, 
 any drift of the surface ship or any fluctuation 
 of the current may bring the surface ship away 
 from the operational region very often, and the 
 rescue operation including the position keeping 
 of the surface ship becomes very difficult. There- 
 fore the operational region should be as wide 
 as possible, and such region is optimum. So, in 
 this study, optimum solution of the rope sizes, 
 rope diameters, rope materials, guide rope ten- 
 sion and size and weight of the go-getter etc. 
 were calculated in order to make the operational 
 region the widest. 
 
 (3) Parameters on Operational Region 
 Operational region is determined by the fol- 
 lowing 9 parameters. 
 
 1) Depth 
 
 2) Current pattern 
 
 3) Guide rope tension 
 
 4) Material of the guide rope 
 
 5) Diameter of the guide rope 
 
 6) Material of the retrieval rope 
 
 7) Diameter of the retrieval rope 
 
 8) Weight of the go-getter 
 
 9) Frictional coefficient between the guide rope 
 and the go-getter 
 
 In this calculation, the depth was selected 
 
 mainly as 2,000m and the current pattern was 
 
 hypothesized as no current between 500m and 
 
 2,000m deep and triangular increase from 500m 
 deep to the surface. 
 
 (4) Tank Test 
 
 Beforehand of the above mentioned parametric 
 studies, tank test using a circulating test tank 
 of JAMSTEC was carried out in order to confirm 
 the calculation method, and the results showed 
 good agreements. 
 
 (5) Effect of Each Parameter 
 
 In order to optimize the operational region, 
 the effect of each parameter was calculated. 
 This calculation shows that, 
 1) When the tension of the guide rope becomes 
 stronger, the operational region becomes a 
 little wider, but the effect is not so signifi- 
 cant. However, the tension affects the maxi- 
 mum operational surface current velocity, 
 so the tension should be as strong as possible. 
 
 2) The diameter of the guide rope has no signifi- 
 
 cant effect on the operational region. 
 
 3) The density of the guide rope should be as 
 small as possible. 
 
 4) The diameter of the retrieval rope should 
 be as small as possible. 
 
 5) The density of the retrieval rope should be 
 
 as small as possible. If it is large like steel 
 wire, the operational region becomes very 
 narrow. 
 
 6) The frictional coefficient between the guide 
 rope and the go-getter should be as small 
 as possible. This means that usual rope of 
 rough surface should be avoided as the guide 
 rope but the rope sheathed with smooth sur- 
 face material should be preferred instead. 
 Also the inner surface of the go-getter 
 should be smooth and rounded. 
 
 7) About the weightof the go-getter, the calcu- 
 
 lation shows that the weight should not be 
 too light or too heavy, but be about 50-70% 
 of the guide rope tension. 
 
 III. ROPES AND GO-GETTER 
 
 In order to specify the ropes and the go-getter 
 the type of accident should be defined. This res- 
 cue buoy system is designed to rescue the submer- 
 sible sunken by weight increase. In case of SHIN- 
 KAI 2000, her maximum weight increase is pre- 
 sumed as about 1.2ton by the seawater flood-in 
 to the pressure vessels and the exchange of oil 
 of the oil-filled devices with seavater. So the 
 breaking strength of the retrieval rope is deter- 
 mined as more than 12ton adopting the safety 
 factor as more than 10. 
 
 The candidates of the retrieval rope are Nylon 
 rope of 26mm Dia.(Breaking strength; 12.6ton) 
 and Kevlar rope of 14.8mm Dia.(Do.; 12.6ton), 
 but wire rope is excluded because of its heavy 
 density. 
 
 The calculation for selection from these two 
 candidates shows no significant difference on the 
 operational region, so Nylon rope was selected 
 because of the easy handling and low cost. The 
 length was decided as 3,300m following to the 
 catenary calculations. 
 
 The guide rope should be as light, thin and 
 strong as possible. And also its surface should 
 be smooth. So the Nylon sheathed Kevlar 29 rope 
 of 3.4mm Dia.fDo.; 880kg) was selected. From 
 its breaking strength, the tension exerted to the 
 guide rope was determined as about 100kg by 
 taking the safety factor more than 6. The length 
 was also determined as 3,300m. 
 
 The weight of the go-getter was determined 
 as 50kg in order to get 50% of the tension of 
 the guide rope. 
 
 In Fig.3, The calculation result on the opera- 
 tional, region using these ropes, tension and the 
 go-getter is shown. 
 
 IV. DEVICES 
 
 The rescue buoy consists of the buoy, reel, 
 pinger and the cable, and is installed in SHINKAI 
 2000. The pinger indicates the release of the 
 buoy and also indicates the bearing of its position 
 relative to the surface ship by its underwater 
 acoustic pinging so that its tracking becomes 
 
 225 
 
2 
 O 
 
 M 
 
 E- 
 
 s 
 
 W 
 0. 
 
 o 
 
 2000m 
 
 01 
 
 u 
 
 M 1000m 
 ft 
 
 0m 
 
 S -1000m 
 
 to 
 
 ; -2000m 
 
 s 
 
 Surface Velocity (kt) 
 
 -U_ 
 
 Fig. 3 Relation between Operational Region 
 
 and Surface Current Velocity of Model 
 Current Pattern 
 
 very easy. The real is fixed in the buoy and 
 when ascending, the buoy itself rotates so that 
 the cable is dragged out smoothly without kink. 
 The ascending velocity is calculated to be about 
 70-80m/min. The rescue buoy is connected with 
 SHINKAI 2000 through a cut-off device. 
 
 (2) Go-Getter 
 
 Fig. 4 shows the configuration of the go-getter 
 and the outline of mating sensor. Gravity center 
 of the go-getter is located as rear as possible 
 in order to make the mating attitude straight 
 forward. The principle of the mating sensor is 
 the obstruction of ray. When the photo transistor 
 doesn't receive the light emitted from the LED, 
 the underwater acoustic pinger begins to ping. 
 However, the light obstruction may occur not 
 only by the mating but also by the guide rope. 
 In order to distinguish them, the circuit is so 
 designed as to ping after 30 seconds continuous 
 light obstruction because the guide rope cannot 
 obstruct the light such long time. The LED and 
 photo transistor are usual commercial ones and 
 are directly pressurized by seawater. They were 
 selected from many candidates through the pres- 
 sure testfwater and seawater) and the tempera- 
 ture test of 0°C 20°C. The performance test 
 at the sedimental environment was also carried 
 out and this system showed good performance 
 even at the usual worst conditions. 
 
 to Pinger 
 and Circuit 
 
 ?hoto 
 ran- 
 s is tor 
 
 (3) On-Board Devices 
 
 As is already mentioned, the surface ship 
 should keep her position. "NATSUSHIMA", the 
 support ship of SHINKAI 2000, has a splendid 
 underwater acoustic navigation system and maneu- 
 vering system. However, these a're not dynami- 
 cally positioning system, so she is manually con- 
 trolled. At the rescue operation, the relative 
 position to the sunken submersible is measured 
 by the underwater acoustic navigation system. 
 And using these data the crew controls each 
 machinery such as two controllable pitch propel- 
 lers, two rudders and bow thruster. The ocean 
 experiments showed that even in the very rough 
 sea of more than 15m/sec wind speed, NATSU- 
 SHIMA could keep her position precisely with 
 error of only 30m. 
 
 In order to exert the constant tension to the 
 guide rope, "Constant Tension Winch" is settled 
 on the forecastle deck. The guide rope is wound 
 in this winch through the handy davit. 
 
 The retrieval rope is wound in "Retrieval Rope 
 Reel". This is hydraulically driven and the retrie- 
 val rope is wound up/off. However, this reel has 
 no such capacity as to retrieve the sunken sub- 
 mersible by itself. The force required to retrieve 
 is exerted to the retrieval rope by capstan 
 through blocks fitted on the A-frame crane and 
 on the poop deck. 
 
 V. RESCUE PROCEDURE 
 
 to Submersible 
 Fig. 4 Go-Getter and Mating Sensor 
 
 In case of a fatal accident of SHINKAI 2000, 
 the pilot pushes the button of the rescue buoy 
 and it ascends to the surface pinging and drag- 
 ging out the guide rope. The surface ship tracks 
 the ascending buoy using underwater acoustic 
 navigation system and make work boat stand- 
 by to retrieve the buoy. 
 
 Just after when the buoy emerges on the sur- 
 face, the work boat catches it, and it is picked 
 up on the forecastle deck. Then the residual 
 guide rope in the buoy is dragged out manually 
 and is cut at an appropriate length. The rope 
 is put through the go-getter and is wound in 
 the constant tension winch through the pendant 
 block on the handy davit. The go-getter is 
 hanged outboard on the davit. After the adjust- 
 ment of the position of the surface ship, the 
 go-getter is launched down to the sunken submer- 
 sible dragging the retrieval rope. Also the retrie- 
 val rope reel is driven precisely so that the rope 
 is wound off with neither slacking or tight- 
 stretching in order to avoid kink or to make 
 the time for retrieval short. 
 
 Some time after the go-getter launching, it 
 mates with the male mating device of the sunken 
 submersible. The mating is found at the surface 
 ship by sensing the mating shock transitted 
 through the guide rope or by the underwater 
 acoustic navigation system catching the under- 
 water acoustic pinging of the pinger. 
 
 After the mating, the winding off of the retrie- 
 val rope is stopped and fixed at a cross bit tem- 
 porally and then the retrieval rope is brought 
 to the stern and the preparation for retrieval 
 is accomplished. Then, releasing the fixation of 
 the retrieval rope at the cross bit and driving 
 the capstan, the retrieval work starts. During 
 this work, the retrieval rope reel and the con- 
 stant tension winch are also driven so as to 
 avoid the entanglement of the ropes. 
 
 As is already mentioned above, this retrieval 
 rope reel has no capability to retrieve the sub- 
 mersible onto the deck. Therefore, the submersi- 
 ble is retrieved up to 5-20m beneath the surface, 
 and after then A-frame crame system is driven 
 for the retrieve onto the deck as usual. 
 
 226 
 
VI. OCEAN EXPERIMENTS 
 
 As can be easily imagined, this rescue opera- 
 tion is highly influenced by the training level 
 of the operators who are crew of the support 
 ship NATSUSHIMA. Therefore, the ocean experi- 
 ments of this rescue buoy system were carried 
 out in order not only to confirm the capabilities 
 of this system but also to train the operators. 
 
 In the experiments, it was very difficult to use 
 the actual submersible SHINKAI 2000 as a sunken 
 submersible, so specially designed Dummy Sinker 
 was used instead. 
 
 As is shown in chapter V(Rescue Procedure), 
 the rescue operation is divided into two phase. 
 One is the releasing and catching of the rescue 
 buoy and the other is the mating and retrieving. 
 In case of the experiment also, it is divided into 
 the same two phase. 
 
 The experiments were carried out by three 
 periods. The first period was January 1982 at 
 the depth of 100-500m for the first and the 
 second phase at SAGAMI Bay, the second was 
 July 1982 at the depth of 1300-2000m for the 
 second phase at SURUGA Bay and the third was 
 January 1983 at the depth of 2,000m for the 
 first and second phases at KUMANO-NADA. 
 
 VII. TEST RESULTS 
 
 The experimental results on the relation bet- 
 ween the depth and the horizontal distance are 
 shown in Fig. 5. Because we had no method to 
 measure the current pattern at this time, the 
 experimental results are compared with the static 
 theoretical limit for no current as shown in solid 
 line in this figure. 
 
 The time for retrieving concerns mainly with 
 the depth, however, it concerns directly with 
 the length of the retrieval rope wound-off. The 
 comparison of the 2,000m deep retrieval tests 
 at the second and the third period showed the 
 effectiveness of the mating sensor, that means, 
 the retrieval at the second period of 2,000m 
 depth took about 2 hours but it was only 1 hour 
 at the third period when the mating sensor was 
 introduced. The reason is that the too much 
 longer rope was wound-off at the second phase 
 because the mating could not be sensed. 
 
 Horizontal Distance between 
 Dummy Sinker and the Surface Ship 
 
 500 
 
 1000m 
 
 * 1st Period 
 
 • 2nd Period 
 
 P. 
 
 w 
 
 Q 
 
 500m 
 
 1000m 
 
 1500m 
 
 200 
 
 VIII. CONCLUSIONS AND PROVISIONS 
 
 By these experiments, the following results 
 were obtained. 
 
 1) It was confirmed that this rescue buoy sys- 
 tem had a good performance to mate even 
 at the very deep ocean of the depth of 
 2,000m. The operational region had a fairly 
 wide region and this means that the opera- 
 tion becomes very easy. This system is a 
 cheep, small and light one compared with 
 other manned or unmanned submersible sys- 
 tem. Of course its capability is restricted, 
 however, it will be an effective system as 
 an instant rescue method. 
 
 2) Test results showed that the mating could 
 
 be done even beyond the theoretical limit. 
 This reason is presumed as the dynamic 
 effect at descending. And this situation 
 means that the rescue operation becomes 
 easier than can be given by the static theory. 
 
 3) The mating sensor worked well even at the 
 depth of 2,000m. This method will be applied 
 to any area of deepsea activity. But also 
 it is important that LED and photo transistor 
 are used under the condition of direct pres- 
 surization by seawater. This result shows 
 the near future feasibility of electronic parts 
 application under pressurized condition, and 
 of small and light weight design of manned 
 and unmanned submersible. 
 
 4) This rescue buoy system is originally deve- 
 
 loped for the rescue of manned submersible. 
 However, as is easily seen, this method can 
 be applied to another recovery area of any 
 objects from the deepsea. We hope this sys- 
 tem utilized to such recovery operations. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 1) R.F.Busby; "Manned Submersibles" 1976 
 
 2) S.Takagawa,et als;JAMSTECTR3,ppl-6,1979 
 
 Fig. 5 Experimental Results for Second Phase 
 (Launching, Mating and Retrieving) 
 Remark : Calculation was carried out 
 with Frictional Coef.;0.3 
 
 227 
 
MANAGING ENERGY WASTES IN THE OCEAN 
 
 Dr. P. Kilho Park 
 
 U.S. Executive Secretary, UJNR/MRECC 
 
 NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (R/PDC1) 
 
 6010 Executive Boulevard 
 
 Rockville, MD 20852 
 
 Professor Iver W. Duedall 
 Head, Department of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering 
 Florida Institute of Technology 
 Melbourne, FL 32901 
 
 Professor Dana R. Kester 
 
 Graduate School of Oceanography 
 
 University of Rhode Island 
 
 Kingston, RI 02881 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 The exploitation of the ocean as a practical source 
 of energy as well as a safe disposal site for ener- 
 gy wastes becomes reality as our knowledge of ocean 
 technology increases. Presently the ocean is used 
 as a sink for C0 2 in the atmosphere. The ocean 
 also receives drilling fluids and cuttings, brine 
 effluents (produced water) arising from offshore 
 platform operations, and coal wastes (fly ash and 
 colliery wastes). In 1983 and 1984 no nuclear 
 wastes were disposed of in the ocean. As our non- 
 renewable energy reserves become smaller, the re- 
 newable energy in the marine environment should be 
 exploited. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Recently we (including Dr. Bostwick H. Ketchum, 
 1912-1982) edited a series of books entitled "Wastes 
 in the Ocean", issued by Wiley-Interscience, New 
 York City. As its volume 4 we edited "Energy Wastes 
 in the Ocean" that is published in 1985. While ed- 
 iting we noted that both the production and the 
 consumption of fuel and energy create considerable 
 wastes. We believe that both scientific understan- 
 ding of the fate and effects of the disposed wastes 
 and technical knowledge of how to dispose of the 
 wastes safely in the marine environment must be 
 considered simultaneously to insure the future 
 growth of mankind. The ocean, as a large energy 
 source as well as a vast disposal site, is intrin- 
 sically coupled with our future energy demand. 
 
 ENERGY DEMAND 
 
 The demand for energy by us has accelerated 
 faster than has population growth. In 1900 the 
 rate of energy consumption per person was about 
 4000 kilowatt-hour per year (kWhy-1); in 1980 it 
 was 20,000 kWh y-1. Sustained economic growth 
 needs more electricity (energy) since mechanization 
 and automation depend on electricity rather than 
 human labor. In general, the gross national pro- 
 duct (GNP) is proportional to energy consumption. 
 
 However, there is an upper limit to the amount 
 of energy we can extract safely from the Earth[l]. 
 Beyond that, climate and weather patterns could be 
 affected for the energy we spend may eventually be 
 returned to the atmosphere as heat. The Earth pre- 
 sently receives 10 17 joules per second (J s-1) of 
 solar radiation. The maximum energy use safely 
 allowed is estimated to be 10 15 J s"1[l]- The 
 present global energy demand by humans is about 
 10^' j s"'. When our energy demand increases to 
 10 14 joules per second or more in the 21st century, 
 we will be approaching the upper limit of the glo- 
 bal capacity to consume energy safely. Even for 
 that reason alone, it is prudent for us to conserve 
 energy. 
 
 ENERGY RESOURCES 
 
 In the United States of America we mainly use 
 petroleum liquids, natural gas, coal, hydropower 
 and nuclear power to produce enrgy. Hydropower is 
 renewable; a limited increase in hydropower produc- 
 tion is seen for the future. 
 
 Nonrenewable energy reserves in the United 
 States are shown in Table 1. Within several hun- 
 dred years many of these reserves will be depleted. 
 Effective and safe use of nuclear power, such as 
 breeder reactors, will give us an energy sufficien- 
 cy in the order of 1000 years. Other countries, 
 including Japan, are not as fortunate as the U.S. 
 is. We believe that renewable energy sources should 
 be tapped as much as possible. 
 
 228 
 
Table 1. Energy Reserves in the United States 
 
 Material 
 
 Energy Reserve 
 (joules) 
 
 Estimated 
 time of 
 Depletion(yrs) 
 
 Natural gas 
 
 9 X 10 20 
 
 50 
 
 Petroleum liquids 
 
 8 X 10 20 
 
 50 
 
 Oil shale 
 
 5 X 10 20 
 
 50 
 
 Coal 
 
 3 X 10 22 
 
 400 
 
 Urani um(nonbreeder) 
 
 1021 
 
 30 
 
 Uranium(breeder) 
 
 10 24 
 
 1000 
 
 Thorium 
 
 2 X 10 24 
 
 1000 
 
 ENERGY WASTES 
 
 
 
 Energy wastes come from exploration and mining 
 operations, and from all the steps of the fuel cycles 
 ranging from combustion to dismantlement; the four 
 main fuel cycles are that of natural gas, oil, coal 
 and atomic energy. When fuels are burned, they 
 produce solid, gaseous (air-pollutant) and heat 
 wastes. Notable ones include fly ash (mainly from 
 coal burning), CO2, CO, hydrocarbons, nitrogen ox- 
 ides and sulfur oxides. Large quantities of solid 
 wastes produced by coal combustion must be collec- 
 ted and disposed of or utilized properly as a re- 
 source in order to prevent air, land, and water 
 pollution. For nuclear wastes, care must be taken 
 to prevent any radiation damage to man as well as 
 irresponsible proliferation of nuclear weapons 
 (atomic bombs can be fabricated from nuclear 
 wastes). 
 
 Carbon dioxide is the major waste product of 
 fossil-fuel burning. In 1980 five billion metric 
 tons of carbon were produced as carbon dioxide; per 
 capita we ejected 1.2 metric tons of carbon (4.4 
 metric tons of carbon dioxide) into the atmosphere. 
 
 Approximately one half of the 
 entered the ocean. 
 
 CO2 produced may have 
 
 When coal is burned, fly ash and bottom ash are 
 produced as solid wastes. In the United States they 
 are usually dumped into disposal ponds, landfills, 
 or in the ocean. Flue-gas desulfurization (FGD) 
 sludge is also produced as a coal waste; the U.S. 
 may produce two million metric tons of 50%-sol i d 
 FGD sludge in 1985. In Japan FGD waste is utilized 
 for wallboard fabrication and as an additive in 
 cement production. 
 
 MARINE DISPOSAL OF ENERGY WASTES 
 
 Recently, drilling fluids and other discharges 
 from offshore oil and gas operations came under 
 scientific scrutiny[2]. Drilling fluids and cut- 
 tings are discharged continually into Surrounding 
 waters during the drilling operation and are dis- 
 charged in bulk at the completion of drilling. 
 Drilling fluids discharged into the ocean can be as 
 much as 33,000 metric tons per platform. During 
 the production phase of oil and gas, brine effluents 
 
 (produced water) become the major discharge. 
 
 Coal wastes are disposed of into the ocean as 
 loose fly ash and as consolidated coal waste. The 
 Blythe Power Station in the United Kingdom dumps 
 about one million metric tons annually of loose fly 
 ash into the North Sea[3]. Colliery wastes (the 
 solid material remaining after coal is washed; they 
 are mainly shale and sandstone particles) are also 
 dumped into the North Sea[3]. 
 
 In the United States several experiments have 
 been carried out to use coal ash wastes for artifi- 
 cial fish reef construction. Fly ash and FGD were 
 stabilized with lime and Portland cement; the 
 wastes thus became bricks with which to build the 
 fish reefs. The blocks were then placed in the New 
 York Bight apex (Atlantic Ocean), the Chesapeake 
 Bay and Lake Ontario as artificial reefs to improve 
 sportsfisheries. 
 
 No marine disposal of nuclear wastes has occur- 
 red in 1983 and 1984. The wastes have been stored 
 on land awaiting an international decision on its 
 marine disposal . 
 
 RECOMMENDATIONS 
 
 Two recommendations we wish to advocate here 
 are 1) control of energy consumption rate so that 
 no adverse climatic and weather change occurs rap- 
 idly[l], and 2) exploration of renewable forms of 
 ocean energy. The upper limit of energy consumption 
 may be 1% of the incoming solar radiation as deduced 
 by von Arx[l]. For the renewable forms of ocean 
 energy, much technological development is needed to 
 convert diffuse, renewable energy into readily use- 
 able forms. With advanced technology the ocean 
 will play a major role in man's quest for renewable 
 energy (Table 2) . 
 
 Table 2. Renewable Energy in the 
 Marine Environment [1. ,4] 
 
 Source 
 
 Total Power 
 (joules per second) 
 
 Photosynthesis 
 
 Thermocline(OTEC) 
 
 Steady surface wind 
 
 Variable surface wind 
 
 Potential (osmotic pressure) 
 
 Damming of evaporative sinks 
 
 Surface waves 
 
 Geothermal power 
 
 Tidal flow 
 
 Great oceanic currents 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 c 
 
 10' 
 
 10* 
 
 14 
 13 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 11 
 10 
 10 
 
 229 
 
REFERENCES 
 
 [1] von Arx, W.S. 19791 Prospects: a social con- 
 text for natural science. Oceanus ,22(4) ,3-11 . 
 
 [2] U.S. National Research Council, 1983. Drill- 
 ing Discharges in the Marine Environment. 
 National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 180 
 pp. 
 
 [3] Bamber, R.N. 1980. Properties of fly ash as 
 a marine sediment. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 
 Jl, 323-326. 
 
 [4] Wick, G.S. 1979. Saltpower: is Neptune's 
 
 ole salt a tiger in the tank? Oceanus, 22(4), 
 29-37. — 
 
 230 
 
COAL WASTE ARTIFICIAL REEFS IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Professor Iver W. Duedall 
 
 Head, Department of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering 
 
 Florida Institute of Technology 
 
 Melbourne, Florida 32901 
 
 U.S 
 NOAA Office of 
 
 Dr. P. Kilho Park 
 , Executive Secretary, UJNR/MRECC 
 Oceanic and Atmospheric Research 
 
 6010 Executive Boulevard 
 Rockville, Maryland 20852 
 
 (R/PDC 1) 
 
 Mr. Jeffrey H. Parker 
 Science Appl ications International Corp. 
 Newport, Rhode Island 02840 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 Fly ash and flue-gas desulfurization sludge can 
 be mixed with hydrated lime, cement, and water 
 to form coal-waste blocks for disposal into the 
 ocean as an aritifical reef. Two blocks are 
 produced every 6 to 8 s at a concrete block- 
 making factory using conventional equipment. 
 Accelerated curing of the blocks using 70 C 
 steam quickly produces block strengths exceeding 
 2000 kPa, which allowed automated handling of 
 the blocks for transport and disposal at sea. 
 Fifteen thousand blocks (450 t) were disposed of 
 in the sea to form an artificial reef in the 
 Atlantic Ocean south of Long Island, New York, 
 the United States of America. The reef has a 
 relief of about 1 m, and a length of about 70 m, 
 and covers about 1200 m of seabed. The reef 
 blocks have maintained their physical stability 
 and are being examined for their biological and 
 chemical acceptability as a means of disposal 
 into the ocean. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Many countries are converting to increased coal 
 usage for electricity generation because of the 
 rapidly rising cost of oil and the uncertainty in 
 the oil market. In coal combustion, fly ash and 
 flue-gas desulfurization (FGD) sludge are the 
 main soild wastes produced; several hundred tons 
 of coal waste are generated daily from a 500-MW 
 power plant. Fly ash is a finely divided mineral 
 byproduct with high concentrations of silica, 
 alumina, and iron oxide. Flue-gas desulfurization 
 sludge is the solid residue remaining after SO2 is 
 removed from stack emissions; it is primarily a 
 mixture of CaSO-^HpO and CaSO^H-O, the relative 
 amounts depending upon whether the S0 ? scrubbing 
 system uses lime, limestone, or forced oxidation. 
 
 In the United States of America most of the 
 fly ash is disposed of in landfills, with less than 
 20% utilized as a resource, mainly by the concrete 
 industry. FGD sludge is disposed of entirely in 
 landfills. 
 
 In their shift to coal , many power plants will 
 be faced with a wery serious waste-disposal problem 
 because of the large volumes of coal waste; thus the 
 need is growing for new solutions to the coal-waste 
 disposal problem. Because of the scarcity of land 
 and environmental problems associated with disposal 
 of coal wastes on land, the ocean could become a 
 possible site for disposal. 
 
 The chemical stabilization of fly ash and FGD 
 sludge to form a stabilized power-plant coal waste 
 composite has led to some success in decreasing the 
 amount of leached toxic metals entering the ground- 
 water flowing near a disposal site. Chemical 
 stabilization of fly ash and FGD sludge is made 
 possible by the formation of cementitious compounds 
 after the wastes are mixed with lime. Two kinds of 
 cementing products are formed when coal waste reacts 
 with lime (Table 1): (1) hydrated compounds from 
 the chemical reactions occurring between silica, 
 alumina, and lime; and (2) al uminosul fate compounds, 
 whic-h are formed when the FGD sludge components 
 CaS0 3 -JH 2 and CaS0 4 '2H 2 react in the presence of 
 
 water and the added lime with the alumina present in 
 fly ash. 
 
 Stabilized, power-plant coal wastes in the form 
 of solid blocks were tested in a pilot study to 
 determine their effects on an estuarine system and 
 their potential as reef-building' material (Duedall 
 et al . , 1981; Roethel et al . , 1983). This study led 
 to a larger project involving machine production of 
 coal waste blocks and the subsequent placement of 
 
 231 
 
these blocks into the ocean to form a reef 
 (Parker et al . , 1981, 1982). This present paper 
 reports on the research required for the successful 
 machine fabrication of approximately 15,000 of coal 
 waste blocks, each 20 cm x 20 cm x 40 cm, and their 
 disposal into the Atlantic Ocean as an artificial 
 reef. Other smaller reefs or oyster bars have been 
 constructed in Chesapeake Bay, in Lake Ontario, and 
 in Long Island Sound. 
 
 Table 1. 
 
 Composition of Reactants and Cementing 
 Products in Stablizied, Power-Plant Coal 
 Wastes 
 
 The compressive st 
 the best index of perfo 
 for block stability in 
 with strengths of 2000 
 mechanical handling by 
 including stacking in i 
 cubing machine. Due to 
 had slumped were more d 
 strength of 2000 kPa wa 
 for long-term survival 
 (Duedall et al . , 1981). 
 
 BLOCK CURING 
 
 rength of the blocks provided 
 rmance for block handling and 
 the sea (Figure 2). Blocks 
 kPa held up well during 
 automated factory machine, 
 nterlocking layers by the 
 their shapes, blocks that 
 ifficult to interlock. The 
 s adopted as the criterion 
 of the blocks in the sea 
 
 Reactants 
 
 Cementing Products 
 
 Fly Ash 
 S10 2 
 
 A1 2°3 
 
 3Ca0-2Si0 2 -3H 2 
 3CaOA1 2 3 -H 2 
 
 Flue-gas Desulfurization Sludge 
 CaS0 4 -2H 2 
 
 CaS0 3 -jH 2 
 
 3Ca0-Al 2 3 -3CaS0 4 -32H 2 
 3Ca0-Al 2 3 -CaS0 3 -7H 2 
 
 Once the blocks were formed, they were transferred 
 to an underground circular steam-curing chamber 
 where they remained for 0.5 to 3 d , since it was 
 found that a longer curing time produced a stronger 
 block. The freshly cured blocks averaged 29.5 kg 
 each, although block weight decreased to 28.6 kg 
 when the blocks remained outside for a few days. 
 The temperature in the steam kiln ranged between 60 
 and 70°C. 
 
 FIGURE 1. Block-Production Facility 
 
 FABRICATION OF COAL WASTE-BLOCKS 
 
 The coal waste blocks were made using 
 conventional concrete block-making technology 
 (Figure 1). The block-making plant was equipped 
 with a Besser block-making machine. The batches 
 were stored in a hopper above the block-making 
 machine and transferred to the mold via a feed box. 
 Feed time allows the feed box to pick up material at 
 the bottom of the hopper and transfer it to the 
 mold; the compression shoes press the material into 
 the vibrating mold during the finishing time. The 
 feed time was approximately 5-7 s, and the finish 
 time averaged about 2-3 s. At both plants, batches 
 with low solids content needed longer feed times and 
 shorter finishing times; while dry batches needed 
 less feed time and longer finish time. Adjustment 
 of the feed box height is important because the 
 compression shoes are lowered into the mold to a 
 predetermined depth; if enough material does not 
 fill the mold, the blocks will not receive 
 sufficient compaction. Two blocks were produced per 
 cycle. 
 
 The additives used were hydrated lime (6% by wt) 
 and Type II Portland cement {3% by wt). Moisture 
 content of the coal -waste mix was the most critical 
 factor in processing the coal waste with block- 
 making machinery. The steam kilns operated at 70°C 
 with a 24-h curing period repeated one or more times 
 depending on the experiment. This became important 
 in the development of initial block strength. After 
 the cured blocks were tested for strength, other 
 blocks from the same batch were fed through a 
 conventional block cuber to determine how well blocks 
 stood up to handling by the cuber and the conveyor 
 system. 
 
 
 
 
 BLOCK CUBING 
 
 Cubing, the automatic stacking of individual 
 blocks into interlocking layers to form a stable, 
 easily portable cube, held the greatest potential 
 for damage to the blocks. The blocks were pushed 
 off their pallet and loaded into the front of the 
 cuber, where the blocks were turned so that they 
 would interlock. An armature then pushes rows of 
 blocks together into layers onto a cart for 
 transport. The total weight of the cubes ranged 
 between 2.3 t and 3.2 t depending upon the cubing 
 configuration. In order to avoid the use of 
 wooden pallets, the first layer of the cube was 
 made of conventional hollow concrete blocks 
 (20 cm x 20 xm x 40 cm) to allow fork lifting. 
 The concrete blocks also served as a reference 
 material for comparison with the coal waste blocks 
 in the ocean. 
 
REEF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 CONCLUSIONS 
 
 The cubes of coal waste blocks were taken on 
 flat-bed trailers to Port Kearney, New Jersey. 
 There the cubes were placed in large skip buckets 
 and placed into a 180-m-long bottom dumping barge, 
 with 8 pockets and a capacity of 1500 m . The 
 barge was towed to the disposal site by tug boat. 
 The reef site was located 3.7 km off Fire Island, 
 Long Island, near an existing artificial reef 
 made of construction rubble. Once the barge was 
 positioned over the reef site, the bottom doors 
 were opened in sequence, and the coal waste blocks 
 fell to the seabed. The entire disposal 
 operation took 15 min to complete. 
 
 BATHYMETRIC SURVEYS 
 
 Bathymetric surveys to map the position and 
 relief of the coal waste reef were carried out 
 once before and once immediately after construction 
 of the reef. The work was conducted using a 
 specially developed computerized data acquisition 
 system designed to provide maximum precision 
 between successive surveys over the same area 
 (Morton, 1983). A trisponder system was used to 
 obtain continuous and accurate (± 1 m) ship 
 positions for the bathymetric surveys. Measurements 
 of the water depth during the surveys were made 
 using a precision fathometer system consisting of 
 a digital graphic recorder, a transciever, a digital 
 tracking system, and a 200 kHz narrow beam (4 ) 
 transducer; depth measurements were accurate to 
 + 20 cm. 
 
 The general bottom topography of the region 
 reflects a gentle northeast southwest bottom 
 slope with depths ranging between 18 and 20 m. The 
 bottom in the vicinity of the reef is flat and 
 nearly featureless, with a slight slope to the 
 southwest. The total depth difference over the 300 
 m x 300 m area is less than 1 m. A probable 
 outcrop in the southwest corner of the survey area 
 is the only discernable feature found at the site. 
 
 The result of the contouring of all post 
 disposal data showed an irregular elliptical 
 mound of coal waste blocks oriented in a northeast- 
 southeast direction. The highest point of this 
 mound was 0.4 m. 
 
 3000 
 
 o 
 
 z 
 
 UJ 
 
 a: 
 
 UJ 
 
 > 
 
 UJ 
 
 or 
 o. 
 
 s 
 o 
 o 
 
 2000 
 
 1000 - 
 
 5 10 
 
 CURING TIME (h) 
 
 Our work has shown that coal waste can be 
 converted to blocks that are useful in the 
 production of reef substrate. After our coal waste 
 reef was established, colonies of marine organisms 
 began to appear on the blocks and numbers of fish 
 increased in and around the reef site. Work is 
 underway to determine the extent of colonization 
 (Woodhead et al . , 1984). For the artificial 
 reef to be successful, the coal waste blocks must 
 survive in the sea for long periods of time. 
 Consequently, research is also underway to determine 
 the physical and chemical stability of the blocks in 
 the ocean. To date, we have discovered that block 
 strengths have increased with time and also that 
 the leaching of major components has been steadily 
 decreasing (Woodhead et al . , 1984). 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 [1] Duedall , I.W., F. J. Roethel , J.D. Seligman, 
 H.B. O'Connors, J.H. Parker, P.M.J. Woodhead, 
 R. Duyal , B. Chezar, B.K. Roberts, and H. Mullen. 
 1981. Stabliized power plant scrubber si udge 
 and fly ash in the marine environment. In: 
 Ocean Dumping of Industrial Wastes, B.H.~K"etchum, 
 D.R. Kester, and P.K. Park (Eds.). Plenum 
 Press, New York, pp. 315-346. 
 
 [2] Morton, R.W. 1983. Precision bathymetric study 
 of dredged-material capping experiment in Long 
 Island Sound. In: Wastes in the Ocean, Vol. 2, 
 Dredged-MateriaT - Disposal into the Ocean, 
 D.R. Kester, B.H. Ketchum, I.W. Duedall, and P.K. 
 Park (Eds.). Wiley-Interscience, New York, 
 pp. 99-121. 
 
 [3] Parker, J.H., P.M.J. Woodhead, and I.W. Duedall. 
 1981. Coal Waste Artificial Reef Program, 
 Phase 3, Vol. 2: Comprehensive Report. EPRI 
 CS-2009, Electric Power Research Institute, 
 Palo Alto, California, 4 sections (paginated 
 separately) + 1 appendix. 
 
 [4] Parker, J.H., P.M.J. Woodhead, I.W. Duedall, and 
 H.R. Carleton. 1982. Coal Waste Artificial 
 Reef Program, Phase 4A. EPRI CS-2574, Electric 
 Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California, 
 
 6 sections (paginated separately) + 1 appendix. 
 
 [5] Roethel, F.J., I.W. Duedall, and P.M.J. Woodhead. 
 1983. Coal Waste Artificial Reef Program: 
 Conscience Bay Studies. EPRI CS-3071 , Electric 
 Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California, 
 
 7 sections (Paginated spearately) + 3 appendices. 
 
 [6] Woodhead, P.M.J. , J.H. Parker, H.R. Carleton, 
 and I.W. Duedall. 1984. Coal Waste Artificial 
 Reef Program, Phase 4B. EPRI CS, Electric 
 Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California. 
 
 FIGURE 2. Compressive Strength of Blocks. 
 
 Additives: A hydrated lime, 
 
 A quicklime, o hydrated lime and 
 3% Type II Portland Cement, and • 
 hydrated lime and 6% Type II Portland 
 cement. 
 
 233 
 
OCEAN WAVE SPECTRA MEASUREMENT AND HTNDCASTING* 
 
 Susan L. Bales, and Robert J. Bachman** 
 
 David W. Taylor Naval Ship Research and Development Center 
 Bethesda Maryland, 2008U, U.S.A. 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 The rapid evolution of marine vehicle design 
 technology during recent years has emphasized the 
 need for quantification of systems performance. 
 This in turn has resulted in the need for better 
 quantification of the prevailing environments in 
 which vehicles must operate. The remote sensing 
 community may eventually provide substantial 
 marine environment data bases, but at least for the 
 near future, only sparse measurements vill be 
 available to engineers. Hence, in 1975 the U.S. 
 Navy examined the possiblity of utilizing computer 
 based models to estimate wave and wind climatolog- 
 ies for large open ocean, deep water areas. This 
 paper highlights the resulting Mndcast Climatology 
 (HCC) and briefly previews the application of buoy 
 measurements to its verification. 
 
 WAVE HINDCASTING 
 
 A complete history, including a list of 
 related publications, of the Hindcast Climatology 
 (HCC) is provided elsewhere [T] , so that only high- 
 lights of its development, validation, and applica- 
 tion are summarized here. 
 
 The Spectral Ocean Wave Model (SOWM) [2], 
 operational at the Fleet Numerical Oceanography 
 Center (FNOC) in Monterey, California, routinely 
 provides twice daily forecasts of directional wave 
 spectra for about 1500 open ocean, deep water loca- 
 tions or grid points throughout the Northern 
 Hemisphere. The SOWM is based on the earlier work 
 of Pierson and his associates [3] • While total 
 validation of the SOWM was not complete in 1975 
 (nor is it now), some correlations with full-scale 
 measurements indicated that the forecasts provided 
 representative wave spectra, particularly in the 
 statistical sense (e.g., at a given location over 
 long periods of time). 
 
 The SOWM was thus selected to produce the HCC. 
 In brief, surface pressure fields for much of the 
 years 1955 to 1975, archived at the U.S. National 
 Climatic Center, were converted to wind fields 
 which were, in turn, the required input to the 
 SOWM. The input winds were updated every 6 hours. 
 Hence, the directional wave spectra were hindcast 
 at 6 hour intervals. The term "hindcasting" is 
 
 used here because the events predicted are 
 historical, or in the past, as opposed to fore- 
 casting where events in the future are predicted. 
 
 A typical hindcast directional spectrum is 
 illustrated in Figure 1. Clearly, with a suf- 
 ficiently large data base of these spectra, many 
 useful statistics can be derived. A variety of 
 wave height, period, and direction, and wind speed 
 and direction statistics, derived from the hind- 
 casts, are now available for the North Atlantic and 
 North Pacific Oceans [l] . Table 1 illustrates a 
 Sea State probability chart , based on the World 
 Meteorological Organization (WMO) definition of Sea 
 State, now widely used in the U.S.A. 
 
 Other wave parameters associated with the 
 directional spread of the hindcast spectra as well 
 as their skewness have been developed by Cummins 
 and are summarized in [l]. Cummins has also 
 developed a "stratified" sample of the spectra for 
 both the North Atlantic and North Pacific. The 
 development and application of this small but 
 unbiased sample were summarized in [k] and a more 
 detailed description will be published at a later 
 date. 
 
 Due to the temporal and spatial grids of 6 
 hours and up to 180 nautical miles, respectively, 
 the hindcasts may not necessarily account for waves 
 in the case of severe storms of small extent. 
 However, some extreme value analyses can be con- 
 ducted. Figure 2 illustrates the occurrence of 
 significant wave heights of 10 m or greater over a 
 10 year period in the North Atlantic. Clearly, the 
 band between about 55 to 60° N is the area of most 
 severity. And, by Figure 3, 10 to 12 m waves can 
 persist in the North Atlantic for as long as k2 
 hours, 12 to lU m for 36 hours, lk to 16 m for 30 
 hours, and 16 to 20 m for 18 hours. 
 
 Additionally, if a Weibull distribution is 
 assumed, extremes can be estimated for long return 
 periods [k], 
 
 WAVE MEASUREMENT 
 
 Since the days of the Tucker meter, many 
 advances have been made in both in-sltu and remote 
 
 • Presented by Dr. Alan Powell. 
 
 ** This paper is the sole responsibility of the 
 authors. It does not necessarily reflect official 
 U.S. Navy policy. 
 
 234 
 
wave measurements. For purposes of evaluating the 
 applicability of the HCC, some data bases, though 
 sparse, have been available for comparison of point 
 spectra and overall statistical parameters such as 
 significant wave height and modal wave period. In 
 general, the comparison of these parameters has 
 been favorable, even though individual point 
 spectra may sometimes vary from measurements due to 
 temporal or spatial shifts in the wind fields input 
 into the SOWM. This is not considered particularly 
 important, however, because what is lost at one 
 time step or grid point, will be picked up at 
 another. 
 
 The verification of the hindcast directional 
 components has been more difficult due to a great 
 spars ity of measured directional wave data, par- 
 ticularly for times and locations spanned by the 
 hindcasts. Most directional data have been 
 collected to support more shallow water (e.g., 
 offshore) applications. Another problem associated 
 with the directionality evaluation was the dif- 
 ficulty of deploying a measuring system from small 
 naval vessels. It was correctly anticipated early 
 on that most measurements would be made during 
 trials of opportunity. The deployment and 
 retrieval of high resolution sensors, such as 
 cloverleaf buoys, arrays of sensors, and/or large 
 discus buoys, appeared to be difficult for routine 
 use aboard ships. 
 
 After some deliberation, it was decided that, 
 for the time being, it would be sufficient to 
 evaluate only the overall directionality charac- 
 teristics of the SOWM spectra. Their coarse 30 
 degree directional bands together with limits in 
 the directional propagation techniques employed by 
 the model, make more refined comparisons difficult. 
 
 Thus, a simple directional wave measuring 
 system was sought and found in the ENDECO Wave 
 Track" buoy, originally developed at the University 
 of Rhode Island [5]. Figure h illustrates this 
 accelerometer buoy which tilts with wave orbital 
 velocities to provide directional information. A 
 good description of the buoy has been given pre- 
 viously [6] , and it clearly provides representative 
 point spectra comparable to those from conventional 
 heave accelerometer buoys. Measurements with this 
 so-called pitch-roll-heave buoy can be taken with 
 relative ease. The calculation of a truncated 
 Fourier expansion using the first five Fourier 
 coefficients results in a smoothed directional 
 spectrum. This follows the well-known theories of 
 Longuet-Higgins and his associates [7] • 
 
 Figure 5 provides a sample comparison of the 
 mean wave directions vice wave frequencies for a 
 location in the North Atlantic. The measurements 
 were taken in cooperation with the Royal Dutch Navy 
 aboard the HNLMS TYDEMAN during May 1982. The mean 
 direction from the buoy is the solid line. The 
 approximate mean direction from the forecasts pro- 
 vided by the SOWM at a grid point kO nautical miles 
 to the west and 1.3 hours earlier is the heavier 
 dashed line. The agreement is generally within 15 
 to 30 degrees. The lighter dashed lines indicate 
 the approximate spread of any notable energy in the 
 SOWM forecast. This comparison, as well as others 
 
 taken over the last several years often show 
 reasonable agreement. Difficulties in the data 
 analysis techniques and in resolving some com- 
 binations of sea and swell (e.g., when their fre- 
 quencies overlap) do not permit conclusiveness on 
 the validity of the directional data of the HCC at 
 this time. However, agreement is sufficiently good 
 that application of the data is proceeding. 
 
 HCC APPLICATIONS 
 
 The HCC is widely used throughout the U.S. and 
 abroad for engineering applications. Clearly, it 
 is applicable to the prediction of ship motion. 
 This can be accomplished by applying the spectra 
 directly, as illustrated in Figure 6. Here a hind- 
 cast spectrum has been used to backfit the con- 
 ditions existing when a frigate suffered severe 
 structural damage. As shown on the speed polar 
 plot, the ship was operating at about 17 knots with 
 high seas approaching off the port bow. A speed 
 change would not have lessened the motions. But a 
 course change of about 20 degrees would have 
 greatly improved the likelihood of avoiding damage 
 due to high waves and excessive ship motions. 
 
 For ship design evaluations, the HCC is 
 usually applied by selecting appropriate com- 
 binations of wave height and period, e.g. , from 
 Table 1, to initialize two-parameter wave spectra 
 such as the Bretschneider formulation. Upon calcu- 
 lation of the ship motions, weights can be assigned 
 using percent frequencies of occurrence developed 
 from Table 1. The results can be analyzed in 
 various ways including the example shown in Figure 
 7. The set of geographic contours shows ship per- 
 formance, in this case in terms of sonar and heli- 
 copter operations, as a function of longitude and 
 latitude. 
 
 FUTURE WORK 
 
 The present plan is to continue the hindcast 
 work for several more years. If all technical and 
 financial obstacles are overcome, the HCC will be 
 extended to include far northern latitudes, the 
 Mediterranean, the Indian Ocean, and the Southern 
 Hemisphere. This should permit the design of 
 marine vehicles which can, if necessary, operate 
 safely all over the globe. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 1. Bales, S.L., "Development and Application of a 
 Deep Water Hindcast Wave and Wind Climatology," 
 Proceedings , RINA International Symposium on Wave 
 and Wind Climate Worldwide, London, April 198U. 
 
 2. Lazanoff, S.M. and N.M. Stevenson, "An 
 Evaluation of a Hemispheric Operational Wave 
 Spectral Model," Fleet Numerical Weather Center 
 Technical Note 75-3, June 1975- 
 
 3. Pierson, W.J., L.J. Tick and L. Baer, "Computer 
 Based Procedures for Preparing Global Wave 
 Forecasts and Wind Field Analyses Capable of Using 
 Wave Data Obtained by a Spacecraft," Proceedings , 
 6th Naval Hydrodynamics Symposium, Washington, 
 D.C., 1966. 
 
 235 
 
h. Lee, W.T. and S.L. Bales, "Environmental Data 
 for Design of Marine Structures," Proceedings , 
 SNAME Ship Structure Symposium, Washington, D.C., 
 October 198k. 
 
 5. LeBlanc, R.R. and F.H. Middleton, "Pitch-Roll 
 Buoy Wave Directional Analysis," Measuring Ocean 
 Waves , National Research Council Symposium and 
 Workshops on Wave Measurement Technology, National 
 Academy Press, Washington, D.C., April 1981. 
 
 6. Foley, E.W. , R.J. Bachman and S.L. Bales, "Open 
 Ocean Wave Buoy Comparisons in the North Atlantic," 
 Proceedings , MTS Symposium on Buoy Technology, 
 
 New Orleans, April 1983. 
 
 7. Longuet-Higgins , M.S., D.E. Cartwright and N.D. 
 Smith, "Observations of the Directional Spectrum of 
 Sea Waves Using the Motions of a Floating Buoy," 
 Ocean Wave Spectra , Prentice-Hall, Englewood 
 Cliffs, N.J. , 1963. 
 
 Table 1 . Annual Sea State Occurrences (Hlndcast) 
 
 Sea State Definition 
 
 Open-Oceen North Atlantic 
 (Revised March 19841 
 
 Open-Oceen North Pacific 
 (Revised March 13841 
 
 Sea 
 State 
 
 Number 
 
 Significant Wave 
 Height Iml 
 
 Susteined Wind 
 Speed (Knots)* 
 
 Percentage 
 Probability 
 of Sea State 
 
 Modal Wave Period 
 (Seel 
 
 Percentage 
 Probability 
 of Sea State 
 
 Modal Wave Period 
 (Seel 
 
 Range 
 
 Mean 
 
 Range 
 
 Mean 
 
 Range" 
 
 Moat 
 Probable"" 
 
 Range'* 
 
 Most 
 Probable"" 
 
 0-1 
 
 0-0.1 
 
 0.05 
 
 0-6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 2 
 
 0.1-0.5 
 
 0.3 
 
 7-10 
 
 8.5 
 
 7.2 
 
 3.3-12.8 
 
 7.6 
 
 9.0 
 
 5.1-14.9 
 
 6.3 
 
 3 
 
 0.6-1.26 
 
 0.88 
 
 11-16 
 
 13.5 
 
 22.4 
 
 5.0-14.8 
 
 7.5 
 
 16.9 
 
 6.3-16.1 
 
 7.6 
 
 4 
 
 1.26-2.6 
 
 1.88 
 
 17-21 
 
 19 
 
 28.7 
 
 6.1-15.2 
 
 8.8 
 
 30.4 
 
 6.1-17.2 
 
 8.8 
 
 5 
 
 2.5-4 
 
 3.26 
 
 22-27 
 
 24.5 
 
 15.5 
 
 8.3-16.6 
 
 9.7 
 
 22.6 
 
 7.7-17.8 
 
 9.7 
 
 6 
 
 4-6 
 
 6 
 
 28-47 
 
 37.6 
 
 18.7 
 
 9.8-16.2 
 
 12.4 
 
 13.9 
 
 10.0-18.7 
 
 12.4 
 
 7 
 
 6-9 
 
 7.6 
 
 48-56 
 
 61.5 
 
 6.2 
 
 11.8-18.6 
 
 16.0 
 
 6.7 
 
 11.7-19.8 
 
 16.0 
 
 8 
 
 9-14 
 
 11.6 
 
 56-63 
 
 69.5 
 
 1.2 
 
 14.2-18.6 
 
 16.4 
 
 1.3 
 
 14.6-21.6 
 
 16.4 
 
 >8 
 
 >14 
 
 >14 
 
 >63 
 
 >63 
 
 <0.05 
 
 18.0-23.7 
 
 20.0 
 
 <0.05 
 
 16.4-22.5 
 
 20.0 
 
 •Am 
 H 2 . 
 
 blent wind sustained at 19.6 m ebov 
 apply V 2 = V,IH 2 /19.6) 1/7 
 
 s surface to generate fully-developed seas. To convert to another altitude. 
 
 ••Mir 
 
 Imum is 6 percentile and maximum 
 
 s 95 percentile for periods given wave 
 
 height range. 
 
 •••Ba< 
 
 ed on periods associated with centr 
 
 3l frequencies included In SOWM Hindcast Climatology. 
 
 WAVE 
 -FREQUENCY 
 
 IHEBTZI 
 
 VARIANCE 
 ENERGY 
 
 POINT 
 SPECTRUM 
 
 ,/ 
 
 WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED WHITECAP 
 PERCENTAGE FRICTIONAL WIND VELOCITY 
 
 DATETIME LOCATION 
 
 92 16 FEB 80 58 292N 12 297W 
 
 WIND DIR 19 6 WIND SPD 16 WHITE CPS ■"• USTR 31| 
 
 308 208 166 133 117 103 092 081 072 067 061 066 060 044 039 
 
 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 o.o 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 1.3 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 .0 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 
 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 
 
 2 7 10 10 12 10 10 15 1 
 
 M1/3 11 7 FT I3 6MI 
 
 SIGNIFICANT WAVE 
 HEIGHT 
 
 00 1 
 
 00 00 
 
 00 * 00 
 
 00 00 
 
 1 00 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 0.0 
 0.0 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 00 00 00 
 
 
 .1 
 1.1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 .1 
 
 5 
 
 TOTAL 
 
 ENERGY 
 
 (FT 2 ! 
 
 DIR [FROMI 
 
 66 58 
 36 58 
 
 6S6 
 336 68 
 306 68 
 
 276 68 
 246 58 
 
 186 58 
 
 WAVE 
 DIRECTIONS 
 
 Fig. 1 . Typical Hlndcase Directional Variance Spectrum for 
 Grid Point 1 27 in the Northeast Atlantic 
 
 236 
 
NOTE NUMBERS AT GRID POINTS INDICATE NUMBER OF OCCURRENCES OF 10M OR GREATER 
 
 60- 
 
 50 = 
 
 90° 
 
 ± 
 
 ± 
 
 60° 
 
 -L 
 
 30° 
 
 W 0° E 
 
 30 
 
 UMJAl 
 
 I0IU SAMFUS £K 
 
 ^HjP \- 1 V. 89o 
 43^ 
 
 48 
 
 — <*nSF\y/ 72 I 
 — o , 
 
 105~\ 1 y 
 
 ■ffrf 
 
 94 
 
 36 12 
 
 #v 
 
 6 
 
 7 ■ rVi 
 
 \ 
 
 If 
 
 ^J 
 
 M 
 
 IE 
 
 —V- --^;^_~4 
 
 1 i .' 
 
 .^» 
 
 28 29 ..' fa : -,/£?. .%,■ 
 
 Fig. 2. Contours of 10 M or Greater Significant Wave Height 
 Occurrences During 1959 to 1969 
 
 76 cm 
 
 184 cm 
 
 360 
 300 
 
 §? 240 
 
 £ 180 
 Q 
 
 z 
 
 < 120 
 
 60 |- 
 
 
 
 S" 
 
 
 > « 
 
 4 
 
 2 3 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1? 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 51 
 
 74 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 115 
 
 V 
 
 39 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11! 
 
 ■5 
 
 95 
 
 71 
 
 ! 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 522 
 
 SI6 
 
 19 
 
 75 
 
 27 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 924 
 
 910 
 
 IS 
 
 111 
 
 57 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 E 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1449 
 
 129? 
 
 •a 
 
 772 
 
 114 
 
 4) 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7374 
 
 in 
 
 m 
 
 471 
 
 191 
 
 106 
 
 55 
 
 30 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 3511 
 
 22B2 
 
 1273 
 
 851 
 
 BJ 
 
 157 
 
 IDE 
 
 56 
 
 31 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 fi 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 4839 
 
 SOB 
 
 1517 
 
 ■ 
 
 SO 
 
 352 
 
 213 
 
 146 
 
 E7 
 
 42 
 
 27 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 8529 
 
 2464 
 
 I7H 
 
 1135 
 
 "6 
 
 573 
 
 359 
 
 75i 
 
 111 
 
 131 
 
 67 
 
 47 
 
 57 
 
 78 
 
 71 
 
 78« 
 
 199 1 
 
 itxl 
 
 ri 
 
 r» 
 
 m 
 
 429 
 
 332 
 
 315 
 
 706 
 
 ISS 
 
 125 
 
 95 
 
 70 
 
 BO 
 
 7940 
 
 9B| 99o| 
 
 .2, 
 
 "1 
 
 . 
 
 241 
 
 ™ 
 
 IS3 
 
 154 
 
 13 
 
 91 
 
 SE 
 
 m 
 
 644 
 
 1 456 
 
 i5tn|m| 
 
 521. | 
 
 « 
 
 7127 
 
 1453 
 
 1CC7S 1 805 
 
 556 1 400 ] 1 294 n 750 |18 , ,1062 
 
 |ussi 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 1? 
 
 IB 
 
 74 
 
 30 
 
 IE 
 
 47 
 
 41 
 
 54 
 
 93 
 
 96 
 
 n 
 
 It, 
 
 707 WS 
 
 ■o 
 m 
 
 n 
 
 DURATION (HOURS) 
 
 Fig. 3. Persistance of Significant Wave Height 
 (Number of Events) 
 
 7j 
 
 15 MAY 1982 
 
 — — MEASURED MEAN (11.1°N,50.3°W) 
 
 FORECAST MEAN (11 .7°N,50.0°W) 
 
 FORECAST RANGE 
 
 .05 
 
 .15 .2 
 
 FREQ. (Hz) 
 
 .25 
 
 .3 
 
 Fig. 5. Comparison of Measured and Forecasted 
 Wave Directions 
 
 Fig. 4. ENDECO Wave-Track™ 
 
 PROBABLE I96S.I DAMAGE 
 
 POSSIBLE I5%l DAMAGE 
 
 □ NO DAMAGE BUT OCCASIONAL 
 WET ISTEBNI IVDS DOORS 
 
 (£) OPERATING CONDITION 
 
 INCURRED DAMAGE TO TOP 
 MAST STRUCTURE 
 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 SPEED CHANGE OOESNT 
 HELP. HEADING CHANGE 
 DOES - CASUALTY MAY 
 HAVE BEEN AVOIDED BY 
 POUTING CHANGE 
 
 SHIP SPEED HEADING PLANE 
 
 Fig. 6. Frigate Operating in North Pacific, 8 March 1974, 0300 GMT 
 
 Fig. 7. Percent Availability of Frigate Helo. /Sonar System 
 During Winter Operations 
 
 237 
 
OCEAN DUMPING MONITOR SYSTEM 
 
 Mr. Russell A. Doughty* 
 Electronics Engineer 
 
 Commandant (G-DST-1), U. S. Coast Guard 
 
 2100 Second Street, S. W. 
 
 Washington, D. C. 20593 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 The dumping of treated sewage sludge, 
 hazardous chemicals, and toxic materials in 
 our oceans continues to be a problem. There 
 is pressure from state governments and the 
 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to 
 move designated dumping areas for sewage 
 sludge farther offshore. This raises the 
 costs of dumping operations and increases the 
 temptation for contracted vessels to dump 
 short of those areas, placing a greater 
 burden on those that monitor these operations 
 for compliance with regulations. An Ocean 
 Dumping Monitor System (ODMS) that will 
 lessen this burden and improve surveillance 
 is now under development. 
 
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 
 
 Since 1972 the Coast Guard has been 
 charged with monitoring ocean dumping and 
 enforcement of ocean dumping regulations. 
 Until now this monitoring has been performed 
 by a combination of Coast Guard aircraft and 
 ships, radar, and observers placed aboard 
 vessels that are engaged in dumping 
 operations. Recently it has been proposed 
 that the dump site located 12 nautical miles 
 from New York City be moved to a new site 106 
 nautical miles from the city. The current 
 methods for monitoring these sewage sludge 
 dumping operations are no longer practical at 
 such an extended range due to the increased 
 demand on the Coast Guard's personnel and 
 material resources. An electronic system 
 that will provide the identification, 
 location, and dumping status of all dumping 
 vessels and barges in the New York — New 
 Jersey area is now under development. Two 
 approaches to system operation were 
 considered: 
 
 1. Record all dump mission information 
 on magnetic media aboard the vessel for 
 processing and review after the mission. 
 
 2. Send dump mission information at 
 frequent intervals over a communications link 
 
 to a base station located at an existing 
 Coast Guard operations center for immediate 
 processing and display. 
 
 The second approach was selected since 
 it offers the important advantage of 
 detecting violations almost as soon as they 
 occur and increases the probability of 
 apprehending a suspected violator at the time 
 the violation occurs. In addition, the base 
 station operator is alerted to any failures 
 of the ODMS as they occur. This eliminates 
 difficulties that can occur in attempting to 
 verify the occurence of dumping violations 
 using taped information that is discovered to 
 be invalid only long after completion of the 
 mission in question. 
 
 Any ODMS to be used by the Coast Guard 
 must minimize the workload of the 
 watchstanders at the base station and the 
 personnel at the operations center that 
 submits reports to the EPA. The 
 watchstanders often are personnel with little 
 or no technical training. This demands that 
 particular attention be given to the design 
 of the man-machine interface. While the 
 current system will monitor the dumping of 
 sewage sludge in the New York — New Jersey 
 area shown in figure 1., the system must be 
 of modular construction to allow for future 
 use in other areas, at longer ranges, and 
 with other cargoes. 
 
 ODMS CONFIGURATION 
 
 The prototype ODMS consists of a base 
 station and four shipboard stations as shown 
 in figure 2. 
 
 The base station consists of a 
 Hewlett-Packard HP-1000 minicomputer system 
 equipped with 500 kilobytes of random access 
 memory and 28 megabytes of hard disk data 
 storage for overall system control and 
 database management tasks, an HP-150 desk 
 top computer that serves as the 
 watchstander's console, another HP-150 that 
 serves as the ODMS system manager's console, 
 and a high frequency (HF) radio 
 
 ♦This paper is the sole responsibility of the 
 author. It does not necessarily reflect 
 official U. S. Coast Guard policy. 
 
 238 
 
communication system that uses a commercial 
 grade HP transceiverin conjunction with a 
 multi-tone, time-diversity modem made by BR 
 Communications, Inc. A design feature of the 
 HP-150 computer that was a large factor in 
 its selection for use in the ODHS system is 
 its touch sensitive video display. This 
 allows the user to interact directly with the 
 screen without the need for a keyboard. This 
 feature is important in meeting the design 
 requirement for a user interface that 
 non-technical watchstanders can use 
 confidently. 
 
 Each shipboard station contains a draft 
 sensor system, a position monitor system, a 
 controller, and a communication system. The 
 draft sensor system consists of three 
 stainless steel jacketed pressure 
 transducers. These transducers are mounted 
 below the water line and on the centerline of 
 the vessel's hull. They are housed in 
 perforated steel enclosures for protection. 
 A transducer located at the bow and another 
 at the stern are used to determine the draft 
 of the vessel while a third transducer 
 mounted amidships can be used in the event 
 that one of the other two transducers fails. 
 This sensor system was chosen for use on 
 sludge vessels and barges since it can be 
 used on any vessel without regard to the form 
 of dump valves that are employed. This 
 simplifies the maintenance support for the 
 system. The positioning system is a 
 commercial grade, low cost LORAN-C receiver 
 with its associated antenna and coupler. The 
 communications system is compatible with that 
 of the base station. A controller based on a 
 single board microcomputer using an eight bit 
 microprocessor coordinates the functions of 
 the shipboard station. This controller reads 
 position information from the LORAN-C 
 receiver and analyzes the readings from the 
 three pressure transducers to determine when 
 a vessel is dumping and whether it is dumping 
 within the prescribed dump site for the cargo 
 it is licensed to dump. Local time is 
 available for the time stamping of any data 
 from a real-time clock located on the 
 computer board. Programming is done in BASIC 
 with machine language routines for functions 
 requiring faster execution than is available 
 in the BASIC language. The complete program 
 is stored in a read only memory (ROM) so that 
 the system starts automatically whenever the 
 vessel's power system is producing power. A 
 vessel identification (ID) code is 
 incorporated in each shipboard controller. 
 
 SYSTEM OPERATION 
 
 The base station interrogates each 
 shipboard station in sequence by 
 identification number and obtains the 
 location, dump status, and back-up battery 
 status from each remote. This information is 
 displayed on the watchstander's console as 
 shown in figure 3. Should the status of a 
 vessel change an alarm is sounded and the 
 affected vessel's display is highlighted on 
 the display. The watchstander acknowledges 
 an alarm by touching the boxed area of the 
 HP-150 video display containing the name of 
 the appropriate vessel. Figure 4 shows 
 information that in a similar manner is 
 available to the operator. It can be 
 obtained by using the "LAST/NEXT — MENU' area 
 of display and the boxed area containing the 
 vessel's name (see figure 3) to call up this 
 more detailed information from the data base 
 available on the HP-1000 minicomputer 
 system. This data is initially entered by 
 the ODMS system operator using the keyboard 
 on his HP-150 console. This console also 
 provides for editing of the data base and 
 generation of summary reports on all the 
 dumping operations monitored by the system. 
 A printer provides copies of the 
 watchstander's display on demand, and also 
 automatically prints report forms for 
 submission to the EPA and other regulating 
 agencies. 
 
 FDTORE USES AND IMPROVEMENTS 
 
 An operational field test of the prototype is 
 scheduled to begin in the spring of 1985 and 
 continue for several months. Comments from 
 the watchstanders and other system operators 
 will be used to refine the system in 
 preparation for procurement of a quantity of 
 shipboard units when regulations are enacted 
 requiring their use by sewage dumping 
 contractors. 
 
 There is already interest in using this 
 system for the monitoring of ocean 
 incineration ships and hazardous waste 
 dumping vessels that will burn or dump their 
 cargoes up to 500 nautical miles from shore. 
 The use of satellite communications and 
 alternate sensors for detection of cargo 
 disposal are being studied in the event that 
 such use becomes reality. 
 
 239 
 
BARNEQAT 
 INLET 
 
 88NM 
 
 \ 
 
 10 6 N M TO NEW YORK 
 
 PROPOSED 
 DUMP SITE 
 
 Proposed 106 Mile Dump Site 
 
 Figure 1 
 
 i 
 
 Position 
 
 Monitor 
 System 
 
 Draft 
 Sensor 
 S y s t • m 
 
 Micro- 
 processor 
 Based 
 Controller 
 
 Y_ 
 
 C o m m . 
 System 
 
 SHIPBOARD STATION 
 
 Y 
 
 
 
 Hewlett- 
 
 
 Watch- 
 
 C o m m . 
 
 
 Packard 
 H P- 1 00 
 
 
 Stander'a 
 Touch 
 
 System 
 
 
 Mini- 
 computer 
 
 
 Screen 
 Terminal 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 Data 
 
 
 
 B a a e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Terminal 
 
 
 
 BASE STATION 
 
 ODMS System Block Diagram 
 
 Figure 2 
 
 240 
 
ACTIVE SEWAGE VESSELS AND BARGES 
 
 FRAGRANCE 
 
 UNDERWAY 
 
 LISA 
 
 VIOLATION 
 
 SUSAN FRANK 
 
 UNDERWAY 
 
 PRINT 
 
 K 1 M B E R L Y 
 ANN 
 
 UNDERWAY 
 
 W E S T C O #1 
 
 UNDERWAY 
 
 D I N A MARIE 
 
 DOCKED 
 
 U P 
 
 DOWN 
 
 SCROLL 
 
 SPARKLING 
 WATERS 
 
 UNDERWAY 
 
 
 LEO FRANK 
 
 DOCKED 
 
 
 REBECCA K 
 
 DUMPING 
 
 
 
 LAST 
 
 NEXT 
 
 MENU 
 
 NORTH RIVER 
 
 UNDERWAY 
 
 NEWTON 
 CREEK 
 
 UNDERWAY 
 
 OWLS HEAD 
 
 UNDERWAY 
 
 SELECT 
 
 
 Typical ODMS Watchstander Display 
 
 Figure 3 
 
 VESSEL: Kimberly Ann 
 
 8MAR84 0643 
 
 DESCRIPTION: Type: Sewage Sludge Barge CURRENT POSITION: 38-22-10N, 73-35-18W 
 Displacement: 8500 tons 
 
 Length: 272 FT 
 
 Beam: 68 FT 
 
 Draft: 18 FT 
 
 Crew: 2 while underway 
 
 OWNER: Modern Transportation 
 1234 XYZT Street 
 Newark, NJ 12345 
 (201) 432-8765 
 
 OPERATOR: Same as owner. 
 
 PERMITS: NYC 18746Q 
 
 CONTRACTED BY: City of New York 
 
 LAST POSITION: 38-22-11N, 73-35-17W 
 STATUS: Underway and Dumping 
 ACTION: 
 
 In the event of a dumping violation: 
 
 1. Verify that you have hardcopy of this data screen. 
 
 2. Notify OD of violation. 
 
 3. Call LCDR TOWER: 555-1345 (W) or 555-5632 (H) 
 
 Typical Vessel Information Display 
 
 Figure 4 
 
 241 
 
SHIPBOARD SMOKE CONTROL USING TRACER GAS 
 
 H.C. FRIEL* 
 Marine Fire Research Coordinator 
 
 Office Of Research and Development 
 U.S. Coast Guard Headquarters, Washington, D.C. 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 Shipboard smoke control remains the 
 single most troublesome aspect of marine fire 
 dynamics. A recently completed research project 
 ("A Method for Evaluating Smoke Control on Ships 
 Using SF6 Tracer Gas") is part of the U.S. Coast 
 Guard effort in this field. A simple, portable 
 and relatively inexpensive marine fire research 
 methodology has been developed in the 
 accomplishment of the overall objectives of the 
 project. The tracer gas concept and techniques 
 developed are presently being used in a series of 
 full scale shipboard smoke control tests. There 
 is further potential for the application of this 
 tracer gas technology in direct laboratory 
 experimentation and reduced-scale testing. As 
 future application becomes more wide spread, this 
 powerful new marine fire research tool may result 
 in enhanced correlation between scaling and 
 modeling, full-scale testing, and the study of 
 actual marine fire experience. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Fire losses to all merchant ships in U.S. 
 ports and waters, and U.S. Flag merchant ships at 
 sea and in foreign ports and waters, for the time 
 period 1980 - 2000, have been projected to 
 average over $100 million per year. The type of 
 sporadic reactive shipboard fire safety 
 improvements prior to the last two decades, was 
 at best an evolutionary process and did little to 
 stem this devastating drain on the U.S. marine 
 transportation system. If significant reductions 
 are to be made in marine fire losses, a total 
 ship fire safety systems approach is required. 
 Aggressive marine fire research programs are 
 essential to support the continued development of 
 this type of total systems method. 
 
 The U.S. Coast Guard provides continuing and 
 comprehensive RDTAE (Research .Development, 
 Testing and Evaluation) in marine fire safety. 
 The technical approach to specific RDT&E projects 
 used by the Marine Fire Research Branch (MFRB) of 
 the CG Research and Development Center includes a 
 wide range of methodologies: laboratory 
 experimentation and analysis; field testing and 
 
 evaluation; on scene ship fire casualty studies 
 and analysis; and full-scale shipboard fire 
 testing. A major thrust of these RDT4E efforts is 
 directed toward the single most troublesome 
 aspect of marine fire safety, SHIPBOARD SMOKE 
 CONTROL. 
 
 One major technological constraint in the 
 study of shipboard smoke control remains. All 
 marine fire research can be viewed in one of 
 three general categories: small -scale testing and 
 predictive modeling, full-scale shipboard fire 
 testing, and the study of actual shipboard fire 
 experience. Correlation between these three 
 catorgories is very limited. 
 
 During 17-25 March 1983, a series of smoke 
 control tests were conducted aboard the USCG 
 VIGOROUS (WMEC 627). Sulfur hexaflouride (SFe) 
 was used as a traceable simulated smoke. The 
 overall objectives of the project have been 
 accomplished, specifically, (1 ) the development of 
 a technique to determine air movement using SFs 
 as a tracer gas, and (2) the demonstration that 
 the tracer gas techniques can provide 
 quantitative air flow data aboard operational 
 ships. 
 
 The published test report is technically 
 comprehensive and graphic representations are 
 provided for test ship configurations, smoke 
 control theory, pressure mapping, test procedures 
 and test results. The intent of this paper is to 
 convey the significance of this powerful new 
 research tool through a brief description of the 
 selected tracer gas characteristics, a synopsis 
 of the test plan and a forecast of future 
 applications. 
 
 *This paper is the sole responsibility of the 
 author. It does not necessarily reflect official 
 
 U. S. Coast Guard policy. 
 
 242 
 
TEST PLAN SYNOPSIS 
 
 Preliminary Testing 
 
 Preliminary Trial A was conducted to 
 determine the air transfer patterns for an 
 "inport" status. Both supply and exhaust fans 
 were operated at low speed and the watertight 
 doors and hatches were placed in the positions of 
 "In Port Configuration". 
 
 Preliminary Trial B was run with the 
 conditions identical to the first preliminary 
 trial and the resulting data were compared with 
 the first trial. It confirmed the 
 reproducibility of the tests and provided 
 confidence for subsequent data and time interval 
 sampling. The tests indicated that sampling at 
 5-minute intervals was appropriate in locations 
 of rapid change or fluctuation, and 1 5-minute 
 interval sampling was sufficient at all other 
 locations. 
 
 Preliminary Trial C simulated an emergency 
 condition. Both supply and exhaust blowers were 
 turned off and the access fittings were 
 positioned as for "General Quarters 
 Configuration", and baseline samples were taken. 
 
 Berthing Compartment Series 
 
 After the preliminary trials were 
 completed, two series of tests were developed. 
 Both series were designed to compare the effect 
 of different configurations and fan settings on 
 limiting the movement of SF$. 
 
 For the first series of tests, the movement 
 or confinement of SF$ was studied as affected 
 through the manipulation of just one variable, 
 the watertight door (WTD) at frame 52. 
 
 Paint Locker Series 
 
 In the second series of tests attention was 
 turned to the effect that supply dampers have on 
 the movement of air. The paint locker was chosen 
 as the release area. Two variables were 
 manipulated in this series, the WTD between the 
 laundry and the passageway forward and the supply 
 damper to the paint locker. All tests- were 
 conducted to simulate actual fire conditions. 
 
 Methods of Testing and Instrumentation 
 
 The SFs was released from a 0.015 cu ft. 
 cylinder at a flow rate of 3-5 ml/min for a 
 30-minute period. The 30-minute period 
 commenced five minutes after the start of each 
 
 test. A release rate of 4.5 ml/min was 
 determined to yield good test results. This 
 release rate provided a well mixed and evenly 
 distributed concentration of SF5. It was low 
 enough so that it did not saturate the detector 
 yet high enough to still be detectable for low 
 concentrations in remote locations. The flow 
 rate of SF5 was regulated by a flow meter that 
 could be set to release gas in the range of 3-27 
 ml/min. Fifty milliliter air samples were taken 
 with disposable syringes at 60 inches above the 
 deck by a team of three samplers. In locations 
 where a rapid change in concentration was 
 anticipated, samples were taken at 5 minute 
 intervals. In all other locations samples were 
 taken at 15 minute intervals. 
 
 Between 80 and 125 samples were taken for 
 each test. Samples were capped, marked, and 
 brought back to a central room to be analyzed. 
 The concentration of SF5 in the air samples was 
 measured by a portable gas electron 
 chromatograph, fitted with a 0.25 ml sampling 
 loop and a capture detector with a 200 ml 
 tritium source. The instrument was calibrated 
 before and after each test by standard SFs/air 
 mixtures. Output of the instrument was recorded 
 by a reporting integrator. 
 
 TRACER GAS CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), the selected 
 tracer gas, is colorless, odorless and easily 
 detectable at levels down to one part per billion 
 (ppb) by an electron capture detector. It has a 
 molecular weight of 146.05 and a density at 70° F 
 and 1 atm of 0.382 lh/cu ft making it about five 
 times as dense as air. It is suitable for a 
 gas-air tracer and is described as 
 physiologically inert. Rats have been exposed to 
 the maximum concentration of SFs without lowering 
 the oxygen supply to an unsafe level (80% SFs and 
 20% O2) for periods of 16-24 hours. The rats 
 showed no sign of intoxication, irritation or 
 other toxic effects, either during exposure or 
 afterward. No health hazard to personnel is 
 indicated. 
 
 Sulfur hexafluoride is an extremely stable 
 gas. It does not react with water, alkali 
 hydroxides, ammonia or hydrochloric acid. It is 
 noncorrosive to any metal at ambient 
 temperatures. Additionally, it is nonignitable 
 and nonflammable. One of the largest uses of SFs 
 is in gas-filled circuit breakers. It is also 
 used in gas insulated transmission lines and 
 electrical power-distribution substations. These 
 applications for SFs are not found in a normal 
 shipboard environment and risk of contamination 
 of test samples is minimal. 
 
 243 
 
FUTURE APPLICATIONS 
 
 Results 
 
 Figure 1 depicts the results of Test 
 NO. 1(3/20/83); the first test with the SFg 
 released from the berthing area. For clarity, 
 only four sample release locations of the SFs are 
 shown; deck berthing, the passageway aft of deck 
 berthing, first class quarters, and the main deck 
 head. The relative concentration of SFs detected 
 is plotted against time. The concentration curve 
 for deck berthing shows a steadily increasing 
 rate and generally follows the SFs concentration 
 curve for operations berthing but with a time 
 lag. The other three locations, show negligible 
 amounts of SFs until 55 minutes after release 
 when WTD 1-52-1 was opened. The graph is repre- 
 sentative of the nine graphs contained in the 
 full test report. The raw numerical data for all 
 segments of the project are maintained with the 
 project file, allowing additional graphs to be 
 constructed to study a particular sample location. 
 
 The basic concept and techniques developed by 
 this project are presently in use in a series of 
 full-scale fire tests. Additional applications 
 will include; laboratory experimentation, and 
 reduced scale testing. The technique is further 
 enhanced by the ability to perform full-scale 
 studies in various operational modes of a test 
 ship. This new marine fire research tool can 
 ultimately result in improved correlation of 
 reduced-scale and full -scale testing. More 
 significant improvement in correlation between 
 reduced-scale and the study of actual marine fire 
 casualties is anticipated. 
 
 REFERENCE 
 
 HELGESON, W. C. and SCHULTZ, H. H.- A METHOD FOR 
 EVALUATING SMOKE CONTROL ON SHIPS USING SF 6 
 TRACER GAS., U.C. COAST GUARD RESEARCH REPORT 
 CG-D-23-84. Available from the National Technical 
 Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA 
 22151. Accession Number ADA 145 465. 
 
 CD 
 
 650 
 
 in 
 
 600 
 
 u. 
 
 550 
 
 o 
 
 
 z 
 
 500 
 
 o 
 
 450 
 
 hH 
 
 
 1- 
 
 CE 
 
 400 
 
 rr 
 
 
 h- 
 
 350 
 
 z 
 
 
 Ld 
 
 300 
 
 U 
 
 
 z 
 o 
 
 250 
 
 ( ) 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 u 
 
 
 > 
 
 150 
 
 n 
 
 
 h- 
 
 100 
 
 CE 
 
 
 _J 
 
 50 
 
 U 
 
 
 LY 
 
 
 
 FIGURE 1 
 BERTHING COMPARTMET SERIES 
 
 TEST 1 (3/20/83) 
 
 40 60 80 100 120 
 ELAPSED TIME IN MINUTES 
 
 * SF6 RELEASED TEST i _ berthing compartment series 
 
 244 
 
THE SEARCH FOR A COST-EFFECTIVE REPLACEMENT FOR A 
 MARINE RESEARCH VESSEL 
 
 DONALD L. KEACH 
 DIRECTOR, INSTITUTE FOR MARINE AND COASTAL STUDIES 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA 
 University Park, Los Angeles, California 90089-1231 
 
 Abstract 
 
 The design of research vessels involves 
 trade-offs among costs, research requirements 
 and ship characteristics. The design of a re- 
 placement research vessel for the University of 
 Southern California provides a good example of 
 how these three factors were integrated to 
 produce a unique cost-effective solution to 
 regional research requirements. 
 
 Background 
 
 The University of Southern California has 
 operated a research vessel since 1910. Begin- 
 ning with early field studies in Santa Monica 
 Bay using the 35-foot Anton Dohrn, the Univer- 
 sity has developed a comprehensive marine stud- 
 ies program and the requisite facilities to sup- 
 port it. As other academic institutions in the 
 area developed marine programs, these facili- 
 ties became increasingly identified as regional 
 in nature, and today USC's field laboratories, 
 marine support facility and research ship are 
 utilized regularly by marine scientists from 
 throughout central California. 
 
 For the past 34 years, the University has 
 owned and operated the R/V VELERO IV, a 110- 
 foot converted tuna clipper. Over the years, 
 the VELERO has proven to be a highly capable and 
 efficient research vessel. For some types of 
 field work and in local coastal waters, she is 
 still a capable platform. At the same time, it 
 is clear that the science requirements are 
 changing and expanding and that VELERO has 
 neither the capacity or sea-kindliness charac- 
 teristics to adequately support many of these 
 emerging needs. Consequently, and in consul- 
 tation with traditional users of VELERO and 
 
 with other marine scientists of the central 
 California research community, the University, 
 with the National Science Foundation's support, 
 initiated a survey of available ship platforms 
 that have the requisite basic operating char- 
 acteristics to meet the current and projected 
 needs of the community over the next 15-20 
 years. 
 
 Research Requirements 
 
 Research requirements include 220-250 days 
 per year of operations in the eastern pacific 
 and include a full range of biological, geologi- 
 cal, physical and chemical measurements at all 
 depths. Typical research projects include stud- 
 ies of marine boundary layer meteorology, upper 
 ocean boundary layer dynamics, and oceanic tur- 
 bulence. The vessel will also serve as a plat- 
 form for the study of ocean optics and acoustics 
 and large-scale phenomena such as coastal up- 
 welling and current patterns. In support of the 
 nation's need to determine the properties of the 
 seafloor within the exclusive economic zone, the 
 vessel will also be utilized for extensive sed- 
 iment coring and high-resolution geophysics. 
 Deployment of tewed and manned/remotely con- 
 trolled vehicles is also a requirement. 
 
 Vessel Characteristics 
 
 The specifications and operating charac- 
 teristics of a replacement vessel were derived 
 from the specific needs of regional research 
 ship users and discussions with other potential 
 users from the central California research com- 
 munity. 
 
 Basic specifications include: 
 
 Age 
 
 Length 
 
 Beam 
 
 Displacement 
 
 Range 
 
 Cruising Speed 
 
 Endurance 
 
 Crew 
 
 Scientists 
 
 Operating Days/Year 
 
 0-16 years 
 
 135-200 feet 
 
 25-50 feet 
 
 500-1500 tons 
 
 3500+ nautical miles 
 
 12-18 knots 
 
 20-40 days 
 
 6-14 
 
 12-20 
 
 250 
 
 In addition, good slow-speed maneuverabil- 
 ity, roll stabilization and adequate open deck 
 and laboratory space are considered essential. 
 
 245 
 
Less essential but highly desirable char- 
 acteristics include the ability to handle a hel- 
 icopter and manned/remote controlled vehicles. 
 
 Availability of a Replacement Research Vessel 
 
 In assessing the availability of a replace- 
 ment vessel, certain basic assumptions were 
 made. One of these was an assumption that pro- 
 curement of a new-construction research vessel 
 through government sources was not an option 
 because of time (a replacement vessel was re- 
 quired before the unwieldy government procure- 
 ment process could be energized) . Secondly, 
 several existing academic research vessels were 
 included in the assessment. Consideration of 
 these vessels was based upon recommendations 
 contained in various government advisory body 
 reports. A third assumption was that if pro- 
 curement of a nongovernment vessel was selected 
 as the most viable option, the procurement 
 costs would have to be borne by the University. 
 An arbitrary limit of $3 million was established 
 for purposes of this review. While this ex- 
 ceeded the amount that could be made available, 
 depending upon the source of procurement, the 
 cost might be largely or partially offset by a 
 donation. Sale of VELERO IV would also reduce 
 the acquisition cost. A fourth assumption was 
 that reasonable initial repair, alteration and 
 equipment costs would be shared between the 
 
 government and the University, with an upper 
 limit of $4.5 million on these costs. While 
 these costs could not be fixed until a replace- 
 ment vessel was selected, approximate costs 
 for various classes of commercial vessels con- 
 sidered in this review have been calculated. A 
 final assumption was that the operating and 
 maintenance costs of the replacement vessel 
 should not exceed those of a medium-sized (170- 
 foot) government research vessel (i.e., $1.77 
 million/ year in FY84 dollars) . 
 
 The first step in ascertaining the avail- 
 ability of a replacement research vessel includ- 
 ed reviewing the specifications of government- 
 owned vessels that might be available for trans- 
 fer, and soliciting commercial ship owners, 
 operators and brokers for information concern- 
 ing availability of vessels meeting the basic 
 specifications. Next, those vessels that ex- 
 ceeded the arbitrary limits placed on age and 
 acquisition/ operating costs were eliminated 
 from consideration, as were any that appeared 
 to be in poor condition. 
 
 Candidate replacement vessels that met the 
 basic specifications and that survived the ini- 
 tial screening are listed in Table 1 (selected 
 AGOR and OCEANUS class government research ves- 
 sels are also listed for comparison purposes) . 
 
 TABLE 1 
 
 COMPARISON OF SHIP CLASS CHARACTERISTICS - OCEANUS/AGOR/ISELIN/CAPE/ 
 PURSE SEINER/MUD BOAT/OFFSHORE SUPPLY/SEISMIC 
 
 Name/Class 
 
 WECCMA (0) 
 
 ENDEAVOR (0) 
 
 OCEANUS (0) 
 
 MELVILLE (A) 
 
 THOMPSON (A) 
 
 WASHINGTON (A) 
 
 KNORR (A) 
 
 GYRE (A) 
 
 ISELIN 
 
 CAPE FLORIDA 
 
 CAPE HATTERAS 
 
 OSPREY (PS) 
 
 FINISTERRE (PS) 
 KERRI M (PS) 
 
 STATE SWAN (MB) 
 
 EAGLE (SUPPLY) 
 
 STATE HAWK 
 
 Owner/ 
 Operator 
 
 NSF/OSU 
 
 NSF/URI 
 NSF/WHOI 
 
 USN/SIO 
 
 USN/UW 
 
 USN/SIO 
 
 USN (WHO!) 
 
 USN (TAMU) 
 
 UOM 
 
 NSF/UOM 
 
 NSF/Duke 
 
 Van Camp 
 
 StarKist 
 
 StarKist 
 
 State Boat 
 
 State Boat 
 
 State Boat 
 
 STATE ARROW 
 
 STATE QUEEN 
 
 STATE TREASURE 
 
 STATE DIAMOND 
 
 1535RV( Seismic) 
 
 KANA KEOKI (Supp) 
 
 CORAL SEA 
 
 FENICIO (PS) 
 
 INTREPIDO (PS) 
 
 ROSA OLIVIA (PS) 
 
 MARY S (PS) 
 
 ENTERPRISE (PS) 
 
 State Boat 
 
 State Boat 
 
 State Boat 
 
 State Boat 
 
 Midland 
 
 1984 
 
 Opera t- 
 
 ing Cost 
 
 1.9M 
 
 1.6M 
 
 1.8M 
 
 3.2M 
 
 2.3M 
 
 3.2M 
 
 3.2M 
 
 1.9M 
 
 1.7M 
 
 1.2M 
 
 1.4M 
 
 1.72M 
 
 1.72M 
 
 1.51M 
 
 .95M 
 
 TT 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.3 
 1.4 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.3 
 
 Hawaii (UOH) 
 
 Seal Fleet 
 
 Van Camp 
 
 Van Camp 
 
 Van Camp 
 
 Bank 
 
 Leasing Co. 
 
 1.0H 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.72 
 
 Complement 
 
 Crew 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 1.72 
 
 1.72 
 
 1.72 
 
 1.65 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 Rsrch 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 29 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 TBD 
 
 TBD 
 
 TBD 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 Endurance 
 (Days) 
 
 30 (F) 
 
 30 (S) 
 
 25 (F) 
 
 41 (F) 
 
 40 (F) 
 
 42 (F) 
 
 45 (F) 
 
 60 (F) 
 
 30 (S) 
 
 21 (S) 
 
 24 (S) 
 
 75 (F) 
 
 35 (F) 
 
 16 (F) 
 
 33 (F) 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 38 
 
 38 
 
 42 (S) 
 
 28 
 
 75 (F) 
 
 75 (F) 
 
 75 (F) 
 
 75 (F) 
 
 75 (F) 
 
 Acq. 
 
 Cost 
 
 $M 
 
 3.1 
 
 3.5 
 
 3.1 
 
 3.1 
 
 3.1 
 
 1.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.5 
 1.7 
 
 T72 
 
 "175 
 
 .95 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 .95 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.2 
 
 Built 
 yrs) 
 
 1976 
 
 1976 
 
 1975 
 
 1969 
 
 1965 
 
 1965 
 
 1970 
 
 1973 
 1972 
 
 1981 
 
 1981 
 
 1973 
 
 1973 
 
 1969 
 
 198 
 
 1976 
 T978 
 
 1978 
 
 1978 
 
 1972 
 
 1972 
 
 17 
 
 14 
 
 Length 
 
 Beam 
 
 Draft 
 
 177x33/18.6 
 
 177x33/17.6 
 
 177x33x17.5 
 
 245/46/16 .4 
 209/39/15 
 
 209/39/14.5 
 
 245/46/15 
 
 174/36/13.1 
 
 170/36/10.5 
 
 135/32/9 
 
 135/32/9 
 
 220/38/15 
 
 203/40/19 
 
 18 0/36/17 
 
 150/35/12 
 
 150/34/11 
 
 150/35/12 
 
 165/36/12 
 
 166/38/13 
 
 176/38/14 
 
 176/38/14 
 
 18 0/38/14 
 
 156/36/11.7" 
 
 1972 
 
 1972 
 T972 
 
 1971 
 
 1971 
 
 165/38/13 
 
 214/36/14.8 
 
 214/36/14.8 
 
 214/36/14.8 
 
 214/36/14.8 
 
 213/39/16.4 
 
 Cruise 
 
 Speed 
 
 (kts) 
 
 11.5 
 
 12 
 
 12.5 
 
 10 
 
 9.5 
 
 11.5 
 
 10 
 
 9.5 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 13.5 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 TT 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 10.5 
 
 10 
 
 13.5 
 
 13.5 
 
 13.5 
 
 13.5 
 
 13 
 
 Max 
 
 Speed 
 
 (kts) 
 
 14.5 
 
 15.4 
 
 15 
 
 11.5 
 
 11.5 
 
 13.2 
 
 11.5 
 
 11.8 
 
 14.5 
 
 12.5 
 
 12.5 
 
 17.2 
 
 IS 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 TV 
 
 IT 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 13.5 
 
 12 
 
 16.2 
 
 16.2 
 
 16.2 
 
 16.2 
 
 16 
 
 Range 
 (Naut 
 mi) 
 
 5000 
 
 5540 
 
 7000 
 
 9 000 
 
 8500 
 
 87 00 
 
 10000 
 
 )000 
 
 97 00 
 
 7680 
 
 7 000 
 
 24000 
 
 10500 
 
 4608 
 
 78 00 
 
 68 00 
 
 78 00 
 
 6200 
 
 6500 
 
 11000 
 
 11000 
 
 10000 
 
 6667 
 
 22000 
 
 22000 
 
 22000 
 
 22000 
 
 24000 
 
 Bow 
 Thruster 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 Frames 
 Cranes 
 Winches 
 
 1/1/3 
 27I7T 
 
 37I7T 
 
 27274" 
 
 I7I7T 
 
 I727T 
 
 07273 
 
 37173 
 
 2/2/3 
 
 I727T 
 
 17173 
 
 0/2/6 
 0/1/6 
 
 wr 
 
 WT 
 
 0/2/1 
 
 wr 
 wr 
 
 wr 
 wr 
 
 Est 
 Alt 
 
 $ 
 
 NA 
 
 NA 
 
 NA 
 
 $3. CM 
 
 $3. CM 
 
 $2.8M 
 
 $2.5 
 
 NA 
 
 $3.5 
 
 $3.5 
 $3.5 
 
 $4.5 
 
 $2.5 
 
 246 
 
Conclusions 
 
 Projected user requirements dictated the 
 need for a larger, more capable vessel to 
 replace the VELERO IV in 1986. These require- 
 ments stemmed from an extrapolation of the 
 science needs of current VELERO users as well 
 as the needs of government laboratories and 
 the fact that new and increased requirements 
 for field work are emerging off the central 
 California coast and eastern Pacific ocean. 
 
 The need for replacement of VELERO IV 
 within the next 2 years dictated that the 
 replacement vessel be a transfer from existing 
 fleet assets rather than by new construction. 
 While many of the candidate vessels listed in 
 Table 1 would have been acceptable as a re- 
 placement for VELERO IV, review of those vessels 
 
 having the requisite characteristics and within 
 reasonable limits of age, acquisition and oper- 
 ating costs indicated that, as a class, the 
 modern purse seiner was the most suitable. The 
 purse seiner design combines the range and 
 sea-keeping characteristics of the largest re- 
 search vessels of the U.S. academic fleet with 
 the economy of operation of the smallest of 
 these vessels. Further, because of a decline 
 in the needs of the tuna industry, purse seiners 
 were available at a fraction of their replace- 
 ment value. The selection of a purse seiner 
 had the additional advantage of adding a capa- 
 bility to deploy large nets and trawls to the 
 academic fleet. A comparison of the character- 
 istics of major existing U.S. research vessels 
 with those of a modern purse seiner conversion 
 is presented in Table 2. 
 
 TABLE 2 
 
 Ship 
 
 Range 
 
 nm 
 
 Endurance 
 days 
 
 Speed 
 
 KTs 
 
 Cr using/Max 
 
 Complement 
 
 Science Work Space 
 
 Open 
 
 Deck 
 
 AFT ft 2 
 
 Fuel Con. 
 
 gal/day 
 
 cruising 
 
 Acquisition 
 
 
 Sci. 
 party 
 
 Crew 
 
 Dry lab 
 ft2 
 
 Wet lab 
 f t 2 
 
 Storage 
 ft2 
 
 Cost/year 
 
 AGOR 14 
 class 
 
 9500 
 
 37-6 
 
 10.2/13 
 
 25-3 
 
 20-25 
 
 1950- 
 3 000 
 
 1950- 
 4 00 
 
 923 
 
 3592 
 
 28 00- 
 
 3144 
 
 53.2M/197 
 
 A II 
 
 10000 
 
 60 
 
 12/13 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 4300 
 
 400 
 
 704 
 
 2632 
 
 -> 
 
 - 
 
 AGOR 3 
 class 
 
 10000 
 
 36-45 
 
 11/12.5 
 
 18-23 
 
 19-25 
 
 890- 
 
 1475 
 
 231- 
 
 9 00 
 
 520 
 
 2005 
 
 18 Q0 
 
 S3M/1965 
 
 OCEANUS 
 class 
 
 8300 
 
 30 
 
 14.5/15.4 
 
 12-16 
 
 12 
 
 600- 
 
 800 
 
 3 00- 
 550 
 
 420 
 
 1652- 
 
 2128 
 
 2000- 
 
 2100 
 
 S3.l-3.5ty 
 
 1976 
 
 ISELIN 
 class 
 
 7 000- 
 12000 
 
 30 
 
 11.5/14 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 758- 
 1500 
 
 252- 
 300 
 
 144 
 
 2365 
 
 18 00- 
 
 2060 
 
 - 
 
 OSPREY 
 
 24000 
 
 75 
 
 13/17.2 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 2650 
 
 1100 
 
 15,000 
 
 2100 
 
 1800 
 
 S3.5-4.5M/ 
 1984 
 
 Necor 
 
 conference 
 19-22 APR 84 
 recommends t ion 
 
 11000 
 
 60 
 
 15/16.5 
 
 25-3 
 
 - 
 
 3600 
 
 400 
 
 10,000 
 
 3 000 
 
 3000 
 
 $321-1/1984 
 (if SWATH) 
 
 Gilbert 
 study Oct 81 
 (Alvin 
 support) 
 
 8 000 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 12/15 
 
 14- 
 
 - 
 
 850 
 
 4 00 
 
 5,000 
 
 2200 
 
 
 - 
 
 Comparision of Ships Characteristics 
 
 247 
 
SEARCH AND RESCUE SATELLITE AIDED TRACKING 
 (SARSAT) 
 
 LCDR JERRY L. MILLSAPS* 
 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROJECT OFFICER 
 
 COMMANDANT (G-DST-2), U.S. Coast Guard 
 2100 Second Street, S.W. 
 Washington, D.C. 20593 
 
 if 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 Quickly detecting and locating persons in 
 distress at sea or on land are the two most 
 challenging problems facing rescue personnel 
 today. Studies have shown that if survivors of 
 an air crash on land are rescued within eight 
 hours, their survival rate is over 50%. If the 
 rescue is delayed beyond two days, their chance 
 of survival is less than 10%. In distress 
 situations at sea, time is even more critical 
 the person is unable to stay out of the water. 
 Direct radio communications between rescue 
 personnel and the distress unit is the best 
 method of distress notification. Direct radio 
 communications are not always possible due to 
 being out of range, no one listening, lack of 
 sufficient time to broadcast, no radio equipment 
 or for many other reasons. Small emergency 
 radio beacons were developed in the early 1970' s 
 to automatically alert rescue forces of 
 distresses in aircraft (Emergency Locator 
 Transmitters (ELTs) and in marine vessels 
 (Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacons 
 (EPIRBs). For years, detection of ELTs and 
 EPlRBs was only done by overflying aircraft. 
 Although many persons were saved through 
 emergency beacons, many others were not detected 
 because aircraft overflights give incomplete and 
 sporadic coverage and localization is difficult 
 because the initial reported position can be 300 
 miles or more from the distress site. In the 
 late 1970' s, the Search and Rescue Satellite 
 Aided Tracking (SARSAT) System was developed by 
 the U.S., Canada, and France. Satellites 
 orbiting around the poles about 600 miles above 
 the earth receive the emergency beacon signals 
 and locate them using the "Doppler Effect" and 
 highly sophisticated computer techniques. The 
 USSR joined the SARSAT team with an 
 interoperable counterpart (COSPAS), and a 
 cooperative program (COSPAS-SARSAT) was 
 established. Other nations joining the project 
 as investigators include Norway, United Kingdom, 
 Finland, and Bulgaria. 
 
 CONCEPT 
 
 The basic operational concept of the system 
 is illustrated in Figure 1. Satellites circling 
 the globe in near-polar orbits about every 102 
 minutes detect signals emanating from 121.5 and 
 243 MHz ELT/EPlRBs and from experimental 406 MHz 
 ELT/EPRlBs and relay the data to ground stations. 
 (The 406 MHz beacons are not commercially 
 available; they are presently being used for 
 testing only.) Ground stations, referred to as 
 Local User Terminals (LUTs), process the signals 
 received from the satellites, determine the 
 locations of the beacons, and transmit the 
 position information to a Mission Control Center 
 (MCC). The MCC sorts the incoming data by 
 geographic position and distributes the 
 information to the appropriate Rescue 
 Coordination Center (RCC). 
 
 The system operates in two modes, regional 
 and global. In the regional mode existing ELT 
 and EPIRB transmitters operating at 121.5 and 
 243 MHz are detected and immediately rebeamed 
 to the ground station. For this to occur, the 
 satellite must simultaneously be in view of both 
 the ELT/EPIRB and the ground station. 
 
 Signals from the experimental 406 MHz 
 transmitters can be received, processed, and 
 stored on board the satellite itself. The 
 stored data can then be transmitted to the 
 ground on command when a ground station is in 
 view of the satellite. This system thus 
 provides full orbit or global coverage. The 406 
 beacon also operates in the regional mode. 
 
 The 406 MHz system can pinpoint the site of 
 the distress within two to five kilometers (one 
 to three miles). The regional coverage system 
 using the 121.5 and 243 MHz ELTs and EPIRBs 
 provides a location accuracy of 10 to 20 
 kilometers (5-10 miles). Both systems use 
 •Doppler" data, determining location according 
 to whether a signal's radio waves come together 
 or fan out as the satellite either approaches or 
 moves away from the signal. 
 
 ♦This paper is the sole reponsibility of the 
 author. It does not necessarily reflect 
 official U.S. Coast Guard policy. 
 
 248 
 
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 249 
 
SUMMARY OF SYSTEM DEMONSTRATION AND EVALUATION 
 
 During an 18 month demonstration and 
 evaluation the COSPAS-SARSAT project, has met 
 with overwhelming success. And, while the 
 detailed evaluation of the performance of the 
 COSPAS-SARSAT search and rescue satellite system 
 continues, some of the following anticipated 
 benefits of the system are being realized: 
 
 COSPAS-SARSAT is contributing to the 
 rapid detection and location of people in 
 distress and thus relieving human suffering 
 and enhancing the protection of property. 
 
 Individually, the SARSAT and COSPAS 
 systems have demonstrated that facilities 
 developed, meet and in many cases exceed, 
 specification requirements. Collectively, 
 all interoperability requirements have been 
 achieved. 
 
 Experimentation at 121.5/243 MHz has been 
 overwhelmingly successful. As of July 1984, 
 the system has provided alert and location 
 data in 112 distress incidents worldwide, 
 involving 333 people, of which 289 survivors 
 were rescued. 
 
 Experimentation at 406 MHz has 
 demonstrated the benefits of using beacons 
 designed for satellite detection. Benefits 
 include global coverage, beacon 
 identification and improved location 
 accuracies and probability of detection. 
 
 FUTURE PLANS 
 
 In view of the successful demonstration of 
 the system, the COSPAS-SARSAT nations have 
 agreed to continue to operate and to provide 
 search and rescue satellite services until 
 1990. The COSPAS-SARSAT system will consist of 
 four satellites; two provided by the USSR and 
 two provided by the SARSAT countries. The 
 decision to extend the COSPAS-SARSAT service was 
 made to permit the continuity of service while 
 the planning for the establishment of a future 
 global operational satellite-aided search and 
 rescue system is concluded. 
 
 The SARSAT countries will continue to 
 provide service at 121.5/243 MHz and 406 MHz on 
 the NOAA series of weather satellites. The USSR 
 will provide service at 121.5 MHz and 406 MHz on 
 the COSPAS series of satellites. During this 
 period of time, efforts will be made to reduce 
 the level of false alarms and number of 
 interference sources that currently degrade 
 system performance. 
 
 In general, the system provided through to 
 1990 will build upon the experience attained 
 during the COSPAS-SARSAT demonstration and 
 evaluation phase. At 121.5/243 MHz, 
 improvements will be made to the LUTs to enhance 
 system performance. The regional coverage 
 provided by COSPAS-SARSAT will increase through 
 the deployment of additional LUTs. The mode of 
 communication between MCCs and RCCs and the type 
 
 of data being transferred will continue to be 
 studied and where necessary, modifications will 
 be made to MCCs to make them more responsive to 
 SAR user needs. 
 
 At 406 MHz, beacon development will continue 
 to ensure that reasonable cost beacons, which 
 meet all necessary performance specifications, 
 will be available when the 406 MHz system is 
 expected to become operational in mid 1985. 
 Finally, the optimum use of COSPAS-SARSAT data 
 with geosynchronous satellite data is being 
 investigated. One experiment is to determine if 
 search and rescue performance can be enhanced by 
 adding geosynchronous satellite alerting data to 
 complement position locating data provided by 
 COSPAS-SARSAT satellites. 
 
 All the COSPAS-SARSAT nations are 
 considering proposals for the future 
 institutional basis of the system. These 
 proposals will include system configuration, 
 organization, management and funding 
 arrangements. After agreement of the 
 COSPAS-SARSAT nations, a plan to achieve 
 international acceptance will evolve and these 
 nations will commence international initiatives 
 to achieve this objective. During this time, 
 efforts will continue to keep the CCIR, ICAO, 
 IMO and INMARSAT organizations informed of the 
 system progress. Prior to 1990, the 
 COSPAS-SARSAT nations will continue to encourage 
 other countries, not yet involved, to 
 participate as investigators of the system. 
 
 250 
 
THE ROLE OF MARITIME SIMULATION IN PORT AND WATERWAY DEVELOPMENT 
 
 JOSEPH J. PUGLISI, Managing Director 
 
 JOHN M. O'HARA, PhD, Research Manager 
 
 ANITA D'AMICO, PhD, Assistant Program Manager 
 
 Computer Aided Operations Research Facility 
 
 Kings Point, New York 1 1024 
 
 ZELVIN-LEVINE, PhD, Senior Advisor for Research and Development 
 U.S. Maritime Administration, Washington, D.C. 20590 
 
 Abstract 
 
 One of the primary objectives of the U.S. Maritime Administration 
 (MARAD) is to promote the development of U.S. ports and commercial 
 transportation systems. As part of the effort towards realizing this objective, 
 MARAD has built and developed one of the world's most sophisticated ship- 
 handling computer simulators. The simulator is housed at the Computer 
 Aided Operations Research Facility (CAORF) in Kings Point, New York, 
 and consists of a full ship's bridge and related hardware and software re- 
 quired to develop realistic simulations. The simulated ship is piloted by ex- 
 perienced licensed mariners in simulated ports and harbors. Simulation 
 makes possible the integration of all of the important variables in marine 
 transportation system — man, ship, and environment — in the study and 
 evaluation of proposed system design modifications. These modifications 
 include port and waterway developments, vessel and instrument design, 
 modification of operational procedures and risk management. The purpose 
 of this paper is to illustrate the use of maritime simulation in one of the 
 areas described above — port and waterway development. Two studies are 
 described, one for Hampton Roads, Virginia, and the other for the Panama 
 Canal, for which CAORF was used in the evaluation of channel designs 
 proposed to enable these ports to better accommodate deep-draft vessels. 
 
 1. Introduction 
 
 One of the primary objectives of the U.S. Maritime Administation (MARAD) 
 
 is to promote the development of U.S. ports and commercial marine trans- 
 portation systems. A major research tool utilized by MARAD to further this 
 objective is the Computer Aided Operations Research Facility (CAORF) 
 (Figure 1) located at Kings Point, New York. CAORF houses a real-time, 
 full-mission shiphandling simulator that is one of the most sophisticated 
 simulators of its kind in the world. Rather than being devoted to training, 
 which many people associate with simulation, CAORF is used almost 
 exclusively for basic and applied research in marine transportation systems 
 and port and waterway development. 
 
 This paper is intended to accomplish two objectives: first, to briefly de- 
 scribe the simulator and explain its importance in the area of marine trans- 
 portation research; second, to illustrate the value of marine simulation as a 
 tool in the engineering of ports and waterways. Two studies performed at 
 CAORF, one for Hampton Roads, Virginia, and the other for the Panama 
 Canal, are described. These studies were performed to evaluate proposed 
 channel designs that were developed to better enable those waterways to 
 accommodate deep draft vessels. 
 
 2. Background 
 
 Historically, simulation has been associated with training, such as the air- 
 craft cockpit simulators, i.e., the Link aircraft pilot trainer. The simulator 
 at CAORF, on the other hand, was conceived as a research facility to be 
 applied to real-world operational problems. In the early 1970's, it became 
 
 HUMAN FACTORS 
 MONITORING STATION 
 
 PROJECTORS 
 
 PROJECTION 
 SCREEN 
 
 INDUSTRIAL 
 LIAISON CENTER 
 
 WHEELHOUSE 
 
 Figure 1. Cutaway of CAORF Building 
 
 251 
 
apparent to MARAD that a research tool was needed to investigate prob- 
 lems associated with marine transportation, with the flexibilty to investi- 
 gate all aspects dealing with the human control of ships. 
 
 The mission, as defined at CAORF's inception in 1970 was to create a 
 facility to perform research and and to test and evaluate ship operations 
 in harbor confines and open seas. 
 
 The facility addresses man/ship issues facing the maritime industry, concen- 
 trating on areas where past efforts lacked the required sensitivity. To this 
 end the CAORF research program aims toward investigation, understanding 
 and development of the man/ship/environment and its interaction. CAORF 
 offers the unique ability and sensitivity to respond to this need, and provide 
 objective data to establish government and industry requirements in varied 
 areas of marine research. CAORF research efforts have been focused to- 
 wards obtaining a greater insight and understanding into key maritime 
 issues, with the goal of achieving effective solutions to such issues as the 
 following: 
 
 • Reduction of vessel casualties 
 
 • Stimulation of industry and production 
 
 • Investigation of operational safety and efficiency of vessels engaged in 
 commerce in U.S. territorial waters. 
 
 • Establishment and evaluation of regulatory requirements 
 
 • Improvement of navigational efficiency, safety, and versatility of 
 waterway design and vessl/ship traffic flow plans 
 
 • Facilitation of harbor designs and associated sea lane safety (Risk 
 Management) 
 
 • Facilitation of accident analysis and development of maritime oper- 
 ational standards and criteria such as: 
 
 — Shiphandling procedures 
 
 — Training and certification requirements 
 
 • Evaluation of man/ship/environment interaction 
 
 • Determination of performance characteristics and requirements such as: 
 
 — Human operator work load 
 
 — Vessel/Ship maneuverability 
 
 — Port and harbor design, channels and maneuvering areas 
 
 • Determination and evaluation of design requirements for: 
 
 — Ship design and controllability 
 
 — Cost-effective shipboard design to meet navigational criteria 
 
 In the past, the engineering approach to examination of problem areas such 
 as the human control of vessels in restricted waterways was largely frag- 
 mented, i.e., the U.S. Coast Guard for aids to navigation, psychologists for 
 the decision-making processes of the mariner on the bridge, etc. Such a frag- 
 mented approach, however, is inappropriate and inedequate when scien- 
 tifically examining the profoundly complex interaction of man, ship, and 
 environment. A complete examination of the marine transportation system 
 requires the incorporation into the study of all relevant factors and their 
 interactions, including, for example: 
 
 • Channel geometry impact on vessel/ship controllability 
 
 • Vessel hydrodynamics and aerodynamics on course keeping 
 
 • Prevailing current and wind forces 
 
 • Formal aids to navigation, such as ranges and buoys 
 
 • Informal land based navigation aids 
 
 • Visibility, ambient lighting, and meteorological environmental effects 
 
 • Human operator control and decision processes 
 
 • Availability and uses of vessel maneuvering assistance, such as types 
 of tugs and tug forces 
 
 Considering the need to include the complex interrationships of such factors 
 when examining the marine transportation system, it might seem logical to 
 study that system in vivo, i.e., in its natural environment. Such an approach, 
 however has several serious drawbacks. First, the costs and risks associated 
 with conducting marine transportation research in the field are prohibitive. 
 Second, it would be difficult, if not impossible, to exercise appropriate 
 scientific controls (i.e., to control extraneous factors) or to collect enough 
 data to form reliable conclusions and recommendations. Third, and perhaps 
 most importantly, it would not be possible to evaluate the benefits of pro- 
 posed changes to marine transportation system prior to their implemen- 
 tation. For example, the determination of the effects on vessel control- 
 lability and safety of a channel deepening project would have to await 
 project completion. At that point, millions, perhaps hundreds of millions of 
 dollars would have been expended. To help ensure that problems would be 
 minimized at that point, a customary procedure has been to conservatively 
 overengineer the channel design. That is, design more channel than optimal 
 
 to provide adequate safety in the face of unforeseen factors. Such an 
 approach is not cost-effective when considering modern dredging costs. It 
 would clearly be desirable to examine proposed modifications to the marine 
 transportation system prior to implementation, be they changes in channel 
 design, vessel design, aids to navigation, operational procedures, or any 
 other mitigating factor. 
 
 With these considerations in mind, MARAD concluded that a shore-based 
 research facility was desirable and the CAORF facility was constructed. A 
 full-mission real-time simulator "piloted" by experienced mariners under 
 realistic conditions seemed to have the proper balance between realism, flex- 
 ibility, and cost -effectiveness; however, other models including fast-time 
 simulation are also utilized at CAORF. The simulator at CAORF was con- 
 structed to meet these research needs. Since 1976, CAORF has played a 
 significant role in the growth and development of a number of ports, water- 
 ways and harbors in the United States and abroad. The analytical tools 
 used by the CAORF staff have included: 
 
 • Formal risk management procedures 
 
 — Risk assessment 
 
 — Risk mitigation 
 
 • Fast-time computer simulation 
 
 — Hydrodynamically valid ship models 
 
 — Realistic environmental conditions 
 
 — Shallow water/bank/passing effects 
 
 — Ship control algorithms 
 
 — Ability to represent specific port, channel, and operating conditions 
 
 • Real-time simulation (CAORF SIMULATOR) 
 
 — Realistic simulation of the total environment 
 
 — Man-in-the-loop performance 
 
 — Assessment of the effect of the human element 
 
 3. Description 
 
 Before providing examples of CAORF's role in marine transportation 
 research, a brief description of the simulator is in order. A simulation at 
 CAORF involves the interplay of six major subsystems; Figure 2 shows their 
 system location: 
 
 The Ship's Bridge, its Instrumentation, and Haidware 
 
 Image Generator and Display Hardware 
 
 Radar Signal Generation Hardware 
 
 Control Data Processor (Computer Systems) and Software 
 
 The Control Station 
 
 The Human Factors Monitoring Station 
 
 The first three major subsystems comprise the full-scale replication of the 
 bridge of a ship and a view from that bridge. The first subsystem is the 
 CAORF bridge which replicates the bridge system of a modern merchant 
 ship. It contains all the instrumentation required to maneuver "ownship" 
 including gyrocompass, throttle, RPM and rudder angle indicators, helm, 
 communication devices, and radars. The equipment is actual marine hard- 
 ware, not simulated equipment. 
 
 The second major subsystem consists of the Image Generator and Display 
 hardware. The visual scene is in full color. All important details of an area 
 are modelled. These details are derived from photographs, charts, and maps 
 of the area, and discussions with local pilots to be certain that all essential 
 visual cues are represented. There are five projectors which display a com- 
 puter generated image on a screen which encircles the wheelhouse with 240° 
 of azimuth. When on the bridge looking dead ahead, the visual scene takes 
 up the entire field of vision. The screen itself is 60 feet in diameter, 15 feet 
 high, and situated approximately 30 feet from the wheelhouse. illumi- 
 nation can represent daylight, moonless night, haze, fog, passing ship lights, 
 harbor lights or any realistic combination of these. For example, to simulate 
 an early morning voyage, the CAORF computer can start with a moonless 
 night, gradually increase illumination to hazy daylight, and then gradually 
 lift the haze so that the visibility is unlimited ( to the horizon). 
 
 The third major subsystem is the Radar Signal Generator, which synthe- 
 sizes video signals to simulate the bridge radars and Automatic Radar Plot- 
 ting Aids (ARPA) where up to forty moving ships can be displayed in the 
 radar screen. Up to six moving ships and numerous stationary ships can be 
 included in the visual scene. These moveing "traffic" ships can be individ- 
 ually controlled to ownship. For example, if the master of ownship wishes 
 
 252 
 
VISUAL DISPLAY 
 
 IMAGE GENERATOR 
 
 SIMULATED 
 BRIDGE 
 
 CONTROL 
 STATION 
 
 CENTRAL DATA 
 PROCESSOR 
 
 HUMAN FACTORS 
 STATION 
 
 Figure 2. CAORF Subsystems 
 
 to pass "port to port" with one of the target vessels, he can pick up his 
 VHF radio and communicate with the master of the other ship (in 
 reality, a member of the experimental team at the control station). 
 
 There are computers to process and coordinate the following information: 
 the visual scene, the radar image, the characteristics of the vessel being 
 modelled, the depth/bank/current effects, wind effects, the bridge 
 equipment stimulus, and the recording of data for analysis. 
 
 As the master or pilot takes action to control the ship (such as ordering 
 a course or speed change) a central computer interprets these actions and 
 alters the visual scene accordingly. The central computer also adjusts the 
 instrument readings to correspond to the changing visual scene. Radar 
 displays are also coordinated with the outside visual scenes. Thus, the 
 radar depicts, buoys, shorelines, and other ships in their proper locations 
 with respect to ownship. In the case of simulated fog, the radar depicts 
 objects which may not be visible in the visual scene. 
 
 CAORF staff interact with the bridge and can start and stop the simu- 
 lation with the Control Station, the fifth subsystem. For instance, if a 
 pilot contacts a traffic vessel over VHF or calls a mate onboard via 
 sound-powered phone, a response is made from the Control Station. If 
 the study calls for instrument failures or manipulation of traffic vessels. 
 
 these can be initiated and controlled from the Control Station. From the 
 Control Station environmental conditions such as current, wind and 
 visibility, as well as any required assist tugs, can be manipulated. All 
 experimental conditions are reset from the Control Station once the 
 passage is over. 
 
 The Human Factors Monitoring Station permits the observation and re- 
 cording of bridge activities. Closed circuit television cameras and micro- 
 phones are located on the bridge to display and record all activities, 
 comments, and commands. Communication with the bridge can also be 
 made from this station. 
 
 It is through the interworkings of these six major subsystems that 
 CAORF simulation is applied to maritime research. To summarize, the 
 fundamental approach in the CAORF research program is to scientifi- 
 cally investigate marine transportation issues by: 
 
 • Building (simulating) alternative marine system components under 
 investigation into an appropriate configuration for research. 
 
 • Placing a mariner on the bridge and allowing him to use his know- 
 ledge, skill, and experience to work through test scenarios. 
 
 • Recording data and collecting the mariner's opinions and comments 
 
 • Analyzing data to serve as the basis from which to draw conclu- 
 sions and make recommendations. 
 
 253 
 
4. Port and Waterway Development 
 
 The approach which has been described will be illustrated with two exam- 
 ples drawn from studies conducted at CAORF. The projects are being con- 
 ducted for one of the largest coaol ports in the United States, the Port of 
 Hampton Roads, Virginia, and the Panama Canal. The first project involves 
 designs to permit ports to better accommodate large, bulk carriers (coal 
 colliers), by deepening existing channels to 55 feet. The objective of the 
 CAORF studies is to determine the channel width requirements, based upon 
 specific man, ship, and environmental interactions. 
 
 This project is funded by The Norfolk District of the U.S. Army Corps of 
 Engineers (USACE) whose responsibility it is to dredge and maintain 
 federal navigation channels. The USACE has noted the importance of ex- 
 amining the entire marine transportation system in the design of U.S. water- 
 ways. The recently issued Engineer Regulation 1110-2-1404 states that 
 "Navigation channel design requires careful consideration of human factors 
 in vessel piloting. Human judgement and reactions must be considered in 
 addition to physical design factors. Therefore, optimum channel dimensions 
 for a specific project will require an evaluation of ship maneuverability and 
 pilot or captain response" (1982, pg. 2). 
 
 5. Hampton Roads Project 
 
 The central purpose of this project is to determine channel design require- 
 ments for Hampton Roads, Virginia, the largest coal exporting area in the 
 United States. However as indicated earlier, the economics of scale dictate 
 that large, 100,000 plus DWT, deep-draft vessels will account for the bulk of 
 future coal exports. The area presently cannot accommodate such vessels 
 fully loaded, so the port and the USACOE are embarking on a large scale 
 port improvement program to allow deep-draft carriers to fully load at 
 Hampton Roads. These plans include : (1) constructing several new coal 
 loading facilities (two to three in Newport News alone); (2) dredging the 
 major access channels from 45 to 55 feet; and (3) employing an asym- 
 
 metrical design by constructing outbound lanes on one side of the channel 
 to accommodate fully-loaded bulk carriers. Figure 3 provides a chart of the 
 
 general area. 
 
 The general objectives of the CAORF component of this program are: 
 
 (1) to determine navigability by larger ships of existing channel features, 
 
 (2) to determine maneuvering area requirements of large coal carrying 
 vessels, (3) to determine minimum required widths of the outbound lanes, 
 (4) to evaluate the effects of the asymmetrical channel design on pilot 
 contollability of vessels, and (5) to identify operational restrictions (i.e., 
 wind, current, visibility) that may be necessary. 
 
 The vessels of interest are large coal carrying vessels. The study examined 
 two designs: 
 
 • A 150,000 DWT model representing the largest class of vessels cur- 
 rently calling on Hampton Roads. The vessels are approximately 915 
 feet long, 145 feet in beam, with a loaded draft of 52 feet. 
 
 • A 225,000 DWT model representing a shallow-draft, wide beam 
 collier not yet constructed but which is likely to come into service in 
 the next decade. This vessel is approximately 1100 feet long, 178 
 feet wide, with a loaded draft of 53 feet. 
 
 The participants in the project include 22 active members of the Virginia 
 Pilots Association, with local knowledge and experience with 150,000 
 DWT colliers. 
 
 The CAORF investigation is a multiphase series of studies examining the 
 entire area. Two phases of the Hampton Roads project are briefly described 
 to illustrate the problem of determining the channel dredging requirements. 
 These two phases relate to The Norfolk Harbor Reach and The Newport 
 News Channel, two prominent parts of the Hampton Roads area. 
 
 OLD 
 
 POINT 
 
 COMFORT 
 
 CHESAPEAKE BAY 
 
 NEWPORT 
 NEWS 
 
 NORFOLK 
 
 Figure 3. Hampton Roads and Chesapeake Bay with Major Access Channels 
 
 254 
 
6. 
 
 Norfolk Harbor Reach 
 
 This channel connects Norfolk and Portsmouth with the entire harbor. It 
 is 1500 feet wide and heavily trafficked with vessels calling on container 
 facilities at Lamberts Point, and on container facilities at Norfolk Inter- 
 national Terminals and the U.S. Navy facilities located along the channel. 
 The study of the Norfolk Harbor Reach Channel was accomplished in two 
 parts, the first part addressing more general channel design issues and the 
 second part addressing refinements. Both parts of the study looked at 
 partial widths dredged to 55 feet on the outbound onshore side. 
 
 The primary objective of this phase of the study was to determine the 
 channel width requirements of the outbound lane for deep draft vessels. 
 The initial investigation compared a 500-foot width to a 750-foot width. 
 Another width was also examined - 650 feet (see Figure 4). In addition, 
 effects of the following variables on channel passage were investigated: 
 
 • Environment (wind: 10 vs. 40 knots, and visibility: 1.5 vs. 12 nm) 
 
 • Vessel design (150,000 DWT vs. 225,000 DWT) 
 
 • Navigational aids (a range marker was placed at the northern end of 
 the channel to aid vessels in aligning in the channel) 
 
 • Effect of asymmetric channel design on vessel controllability 
 
 Two performance measures were examined: vessel proximity to the channel 
 boundary and vessel controllability as indicated by swept path. Swept path 
 represents the area in the channel occupied by the vessel. The minimum 
 swept path is equal to the vessel beam and the maximum is approximately 
 equal to the vessel length, if the vessel is perpendicular to the channel. 
 
 The results indicated that the 500-foot channel was inadequate since fre- 
 quent channel exits occurred. The 750-foot channel was certainly adequate 
 since no channel exits occurred in that condition. These results held regard- 
 less of wind, visibility, or ship type. The 650-foot wide channel was subse- 
 quently tested foradequacy. At this width, only one channel exit occurred 
 and this was in a 12-mile visibility condition although no exits occurred 
 when visibility was in the 0.5-mile visibility condition. This one exit ap- 
 peared to be an anomalous passage because on no other passage did a vessel 
 come within 100 feet of the boundary. The range marker did not seem to 
 aid pilots in remaining within the channel. 
 
 As for vessel controllability (swept path), the asymmetrical channel design 
 was not found to hinder controllability. Typical values of swept path were 
 only slightly above the vessel's beam width (minimum swept path). 
 
 It was concluded, therefore, that the 650-foot wide channel was adequate 
 as a minimum lane width. 
 
 7. Newport News Channel 
 
 The Newport News Channel connects facilities in Newport News with the 
 Chesapeake Bay (see Figure 3). Its entrance is located near Piers 14 and 15 
 at Newport News. A worst-case condition occurs when undocking from a 
 bow-in position when a strong ebb current from the James River sets the 
 vessel to the south. The usual practice is to back the vessel and turn it up- 
 river. Toward the end of the channel, the James River turns northward just 
 before the channel bend. It was expected that both these areas might pose 
 navigational difficulties. 
 
 The main objectives of this phase of the study were (1 ) to test the ability of 
 large vessels to negotiate the existing channel design, (2) to specify potential 
 problem areas and determine additional channel requirements, and (3) to 
 examine the effects of (a) environment — current (1.5 vs. 2.5 knot ebb) and 
 visibility (0.5 vs. 12 nm), (b) ship type (150,000 DWT vs. 225,000 DWT), 
 and (c) aids to navigation (the presence of a special purpose buoy at the 
 northern entrance boundary of the channel). For this study, a simulation 
 was conducted of an undocking of a collier from the tip of Newport News 
 (Pier 14), entering Newport News Channel and sailing to entrance reach. As 
 the James River flows past the tip of Newport News, it creates strong cur- 
 rents during ebb and flood conditions. The simulation involved undocking 
 under strong ebb currents (1.5 knots and 2.5 knots) and variable wind and 
 visibility. Docking masters from Chessie System and Virginia pilots, par- 
 ticipated in the simulation. 
 
 1500' 
 
 500', 650', 750' 
 
 I 
 o 
 < 
 
 UJ 
 
 cr 
 O 
 m 
 
 < 
 
 I 
 
 DC 
 O 
 
 Lf) 
 
 CRANEY 
 ISLAND 
 
 800' 
 
 Performance measures were, again, proximimity to channel bounds and 
 vessel controllability (swept path). A total of 23 pilots participated in this 
 phase of the project. For each run, a docking master from the Chessie sys- 
 
 Figure 4. Dredged Lane Configuration in Norfolk Harbor Reach 
 
 255 
 
tem was present to perform undocking maneuvers from the western side of 
 Pier 14. The docking master had the aid of tugs to be utilized at his dis- 
 cretion. Once clear of the berth, the docking master turned the vessel 
 towards the channel entrance. He had to counter the current pushing the 
 vessel toward the south where an explosive anchorage is located. Once tugs 
 were released, the docking master turned the vessel over to the pilot who 
 proceeded on to Entrance Reach. 
 
 The results indicated that the entrance at the west end of the Newport 
 News Channel was marginally acceptable. The number of failures (channel 
 exits) was very high in the 2.5 knot condition regardless of ship type. There 
 were also failures in the 1.5 knot condition as well. The special purpose 
 buoy did not have an impact upon navigability, nor did the visibility vari- 
 able. Based upon the performance of all pilots, a composite envelope and 
 estimate of added dimension requirements for the 1.5 and 2.5 knot current 
 conditions with the 225,000 DWT collier were generated. Figure 5 shows the 
 actual dimensional requirements of each perimeter in the Newport News 
 Channel. In Figure 6, the shaded area (composite envelope) shows the area 
 outside the existing channel on the southern boundary used by the pilots 
 under 1 .5 knot current. However, in simulation such as this, we are not only 
 interested in the performance observed in the specific sample of passages in 
 the study. Rather, we wish to estimate performance of all possible passages 
 based on the performance of the sample. The dashed line represents the sta- 
 tistically estimated perimeter which would accommodate 90% of all runs 
 and the dotted line represents the statistically estimated perimeter which 
 would accommodate 95% of all runs. Figure 7 shows the very same 
 information for the 2.5 knot current. Note the large increase in the area 
 required outside the channel under this condition as compared with the 1.5 
 current condition shown in Figure 6. 
 
 The eastern portion of the channel also was found to be marginal and visi- 
 bility seemed to be an important determinant. For the southern boundary, 
 the incidence of channel exits was fairly constant across all conditions. At 
 the northern boundary, performance seemed worse in the 0.5 nm visibility 
 condition compared with the 12 nm visibility conditions. Again, as in other 
 areas discussed, the specific vessel type did not seem to be an important 
 factor. In addition, more exits occurred in the southern boundary of the 
 channel entrance. 
 
 Boundary crossings did not occur in the rest of the channel, thus suggesting 
 that dredging is needed only to flare the east and west ends of Newport 
 News Channel. 
 
 There are several other phases to this project in progress, as well as several 
 phases proposed for the future. These two, however, illustrate the useful- 
 ness of the man-in-the loop simulation approach to examining the dredging 
 requirements of the Hampton Roads area. 
 
 The Norfolk District USACE has conducted a preliminary assessment of the 
 effect of simulation on the Hampton Roads Deepening Study. Their pre- 
 liminary report evaluated the original plan and adjusted the original cost 
 estimates for inflation, better dredging techniques and measurements, and 
 incorporated the channel design modifications developed from the CAORF 
 simulation. The USACE has estimated that a savings of $74.5 million may 
 be realized as a result of the simulation studies. Compared to the original 
 cost estimates by the USACE, this reduction on costs results in approxi- 
 mately 20% savings in the total investment required to implement the 
 Hampton Roads Deepening Study. Additional annual savings in mainten- 
 ance dredging will be realized. 
 
 Figure 5. Newport News Channel 
 
 256 
 
NEWPORT NEWS 
 
 PIER 14 
 
 Q 90 STATISTICAL BOUNDARY 
 Q95 STATISTICAL BOUNDARY 
 AREA OF COMPOSITE ENVELOPE 
 OUTSIDE CHANNEL BOUNDARY 
 
 NEW PORT NEWS CHANNEL 
 
 Figure 6. Statistical Perimeters Depict Dimension Requirements of the 225,000 DWT Vessel in 12 NM Visibility, 
 1.5 Knot Ebb Current at the Western End of Newport News Channel (from McGee, et al, 1983) 
 
 NEWPORT NEWS 
 
 PIER 14 
 
 Q 90 STATISTICAL BOUNDARY 
 
 Q95 STATISTICAL BOUNDARY 
 ;;>:; AREA OF COMPOSITE ENVELOPE 
 S&: OUTSIDE CHANNEL BOUNDARY 
 
 HEW ORT NEWS CHANNEL 
 
 1206' 
 
 Figure 7. Statistical Perimeters Depict Dimension Requirements of the 225,000 DWT Vessel in 12 NM Visibility, 
 2.5 Knot Ebb Current at the Western End of Newport News Channel (from McGee, et al, 1983) 
 
 257 
 
8. Panama Canal Widening Study 
 
 In an effort to increase the throughput of large vessel traffic in the Panama 
 Canal, the Panama Canal Commission, (PCC) has undertaken a study of 
 Canal modifications necessary to permit two-way traffic of Panamax-size 
 vessels throughout its length. At present the Gaillard Cut is the narrowest 
 section of the Canal (See Figure 8). It is 500 feet wide with several curves, 
 making the meeting of Panamax vessels operationally hazardous. In order to 
 increase the Canal's future thoughput, the Gaillard Cut would have to be 
 modified to accommodate large vessels in meeting situations. 
 
 Gaillard Cut 
 
 Gatun Lake 
 
 Cristobal 
 
 Atlantic Ocean 
 
 Gatun Locks 
 
 Miraflores Locks 
 
 Pacific Ocean 
 
 Figure 8. Panama Canal Profile 
 
 PCC is considering the redesign of the Gaillard Cut to achieve safe meetings 
 between Panamax-size vessels while incurring the latest excavation and main- 
 tenance costs. The objective of the Widening Study is to determine the 
 specific dimensions which will afford a reasonable balance between ex- 
 cavation costs and safety. Technical, operational, economic, financial, and 
 environmental considerations are being evaluated to provide the information 
 necessary for the PCC Board of Directors to render a decision regarding 
 the project. 
 
 To gain assistance in the required technical analyses, PCC entered into an 
 interagency arrangement, early in 1983, with MARAD to allow for the 
 utilization of CAORF in the evaluation of various channel configurations. 
 PCC's decision to utilize CAORF followed a world-wide evaluation of 
 simulation facilities and research capabilities. CAORF offered both the 
 fast-time and real-time simulation capabilities necessary for the 
 determination of an optimum navigation channel. 
 
 To systematically evaluate the relative safety of various channel configur- 
 ations, PCC decided to utilize a combination of fast-time to real-time 
 simulations as the primary method of assessment. The method uses fast- 
 time simulation to compare the relative safety of numerous channel layouts 
 in combination with numerous operational conditions. The result of the 
 fast-time analysis would be a set of candidate solutions which PCC would 
 evaluate in the light of geotechnical analysis. While the simulation analysis 
 primarily addresses the safety of various channel layouts, the geotechnical 
 analysis addresses the excavation requirements of various channel layouts. 
 Thus, the list of candidates for the optimum channel design would be derived 
 from a combination of simulation analysis and the geotechnical analysis. 
 Finally, the "best" solution — that is, the channel configuration and accom- 
 panying operational conditions which afforded the most safety (above the 
 minimum acceptable level) with the least excavation and maintenance cost 
 — would be subjected to real-time simulation analysis. During real-time 
 simulation, PCC pilots would be required to maneuver a Panamax-size 
 vessel through the Gaillard Cut during which several meeting encounters 
 with other Panamax-size vessels would occur. Only if this last simulation 
 analysis yields results which indicate that such meetings could occur safely 
 within the new design dimensions of the channel would the new channel 
 design be deemed acceptable. 
 
 The Panama Canal Widening Study is one of the largest single endeavors in 
 CAORF's history. It requires the expansion of CAORF 's in-house fast- 
 time simulation analysis capabilities, the development of new, reliable and 
 valid measures of safety in passing situations, and the exercise of virtually all 
 of the real-time simulation capabilities of CAORF. In addition, the develop- 
 ment of a valid mathematical model of a Pananmax ship, so important to 
 the validity of the entire study, has been undertaken by the Swedish State 
 
 Ship Experimental Institute (SSPA) and Stevens Institute of Technology 
 under subcontract to MARAD. 
 
 The following sections of this paper address the methodology of this pro- 
 ject, and report of progress to date. 
 
 9. Methodology and Progress Report 
 
 Stages of Project 
 
 Figure 9 illustrates the flow of work through the course of the project. 
 There are five conceptual stages in the project: (1 ) the development of ship 
 models, geographic data bases, mathematical model of a navigator, and 
 performance measures; (2) the validation of each of these models and 
 measures; (3) the establishment of a baseline of safety against which alter- 
 native channel designs could be measured; (4) the systematic evaluation of 
 many channel and operating conditions using fast-time simulation tech- 
 niques; (5) the verification of the choice of best channel design using real- 
 time simulation techniques. 
 
 Development. During this stage, all the tools necessary to accomplish the 
 study are being developed. These include the ship models, geographic data 
 bases, a new performance measure for reliable assessing the safety of a pass- 
 ing situation ("steering quality index"), and a mathematical model of 
 human navigator ("autopilot") to be used in fast-time analysis routines. 
 
 Validation. During the validation stage, the tools developed for this project 
 are evaluated in the light of their comparability to the real world. For 
 example, the performance of a simulated ship model will be compared to its 
 performance in the real world. Like wise, the mathematical model of the 
 human navigator ("the autopilot") will have to yield results in the fast- 
 time simulation equivalent to that of a human pilot in real-time simulation. 
 
 Establishment of a Baseline of Safety. During this stage, a baseline of safety 
 for passing vessels is established. The baseline measures will then be used as 
 the minimum acceptable criterion for evaluating the safety of various 
 channel layouts when two Panamax-size vessels pass. This effort will pro- 
 duce an operational definition of safety, than quantify and validate it. 
 
 At the outset of this project it was decided that the current operational 
 level of safety associated with the meeting of two smaller vessels in the 
 Gaillard Cut is acceptable. The goal of this study is to achieve the same level 
 of safety with two Panamax-size vessels meeting in an improved Gaillard 
 Cut; i.e., safety is defined as the degree to which a pilot is in control of the 
 vessel. 
 
 Since the subsequent stages of simulation will use both fast- and real-time 
 simulations, it is necessary to establish a baseline level of pilot controlla- 
 bility for use with a human pilot as well as with an automated model of the 
 human pilot ("autopilot"). 
 
 The actual measurements of the baseline safety occurs when each of sev- 
 eral PCC pilots successfully handles a small validation vessel through the 
 Gaillard Cut and safely passes another vessel of the same size in several 
 curves on the real-time CAORF simulator. A similar exercise is then per- 
 formed using the autopilot with a fast-time simulation routine. These 
 results will then be compared and the autopilot will be tuned so that it 
 responds in a manner equivalent to the response of the human pilots. The 
 resultant baseline measures will be used as the selection criterion for the 
 fast-time simulation stage, and as measures of acceptable performance in 
 the verification of the "best" solution. 
 
 Evaluation of Layouts and Operating Conditions Using Fast-Time Simu- 
 lation. There are seven curves in the Gaillard Cut which may require a 
 customized channel layout. The number of combinations of channel vari- 
 ables (e.g., radius of curvature, width, depth) and operating conditions (e.g., 
 speed, tug assistance, meeting location) associated with each curve are so 
 great that fast-time simulation will be used to systematically evaluate 
 alternative solutions. That is, fast-time simulation will serve as a method 
 for eliminating unacceptable solutions and narrowing down the number of 
 candidates for best channel design. The final product of the fast-time 
 simulation analyses will be the identification of specific optimal layouts for 
 specific sets of operating conditions. 
 
 If every posible combination of factors were to be evaluated for each curve 
 of the Gaillard Cut, over 10,000 simulation runs would be required. Instead 
 
 258 
 
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 259 
 
of running every possible layout, CAORF has developed a decision tree for 
 systematically eliminating certain combinations of conditions, the results 
 of which could be logically inferred from previous results. 
 
 The fast-time simulation analysis will be programmed to select each com- 
 bination of conditions in the proper order, carry out the run with the auto- 
 pilot, compare the results to the baseline level of steering quality, record 
 the outcome, and select the next appropriate set of conditions. The entire 
 series of runs can be made with little or no human intervention. 
 
 Verification of the Best Solution Using Real-Time Simulation. Following 
 the fast-time analysis, the PCC will examine the list of candidate solutions 
 with respect to the cost of excavation and maintenance as determined 
 through their geotechnical analysis. One or more potential solutions will 
 then be chosen for simulation in real-time. Panama Canal pilots will handle a 
 Panamax-size vessel through the newly designed Gaillard Cut while passing 
 other Panamax-size vessels. The pilots' performance in these scenarios will 
 be evidence used to verify the recommendations for the optimal channel 
 design for a particular set of operating conditions. 
 
 Technical Developments Required for the Study 
 
 In order to complete the above five major conceptual stages of the project, 
 it has been necessary to develop or improve mathematical models and simu- 
 lation techniques at CAORF. Two new ship models, a Panamax-size vessel 
 and a Series 60 tanker (the "validation vessel"), had to be generated and 
 validated; a geotechnical data base of the existing Gaillard Cut had to be 
 constructed and validated; a new performance measure of piloted control- 
 lability had to be developed and validated ("the Steering Quality Profile"); 
 and the off-line simulation program had to be modified to simulate the 
 performance of a pilot in meeting situations (the "autopilot"). Each of 
 these techniques is described below. 
 
 Panamax Ship Model. The Panamax-size vessel which has been modelled is a 
 San Clemente Class bulk carrier having the following characteristics: 855- 
 foot length, 106-foot beam, 40-foot draft. 0.83 block coefficient, 650 
 square-foot rudder area, with 16,000 SHP at 95 shaft RPM. SSPA has per- 
 formed hydraulic model tests of the Panamax vessel to provide test data to 
 characterize the inherent ship maneuverability in deep and shallow waters, 
 and the ship-channel interaction effects of meeting ships in straight channels 
 of 650-foot to 750-foot widths. The resultant mathematical model of the 
 Panamax-size vessel will be used by CAORF as the design vessel which PCC 
 pilots must conn past another Panamax vessel in the newly designed channel. 
 
 Validation Vessel. The "validation" vessel is a Series 60 Class vessel and is 
 the largest vessel that is currently permitted to pass another vessel of the 
 same size in the Gaillard Cut. The development of a model of the "vali- 
 dation" vessel was accomplished by Dr. Haruzo Eda of Stevens Institute of 
 Technology, and was based upon real world data, model data and theoret- 
 ical considerations. 
 
 Real-world data, upon which the development of the "validation" vessel is 
 partially based was collected in July 1983 as a collaborative effort between 
 CAORF and PCC. Ship position in the Canal was recorded by photo- 
 graphing the radar plan position indicator presentation at 0.5-minute 
 intervals. Aerial photographs of the ship were taken by helicopter at 
 0.5-minute intervals. Ship position was recorded by using land-based ref- 
 erence transponders. The pilot commands and the helmsman's reponses were 
 recorded on the audio portion of one of the video cameras located near the 
 helmsman's stand. 
 
 Continuous monitoring of the wind speed and direction, propeller rpm, ship 
 speed, achieved helm, and gyro compass heading was also accomplished. 
 During the occurrence of a meeting situation, the relative velocity of the 
 passing ship was measured using a doppler velocimeter. The distance to the 
 passing ship was measured using a tri-pod mounted range finder. 
 
 The real-world data collected at the Panama Canal in July 1983 was the 
 primary data against which the performance of the CAORF Model was 
 compared. Two methods of validation were used. 
 
 The first method exercised the simulation model so that it followed the 
 same trajectory within the Gaillard Cut as that achieved by a similar vessel 
 in the real world. Comparisons were then made between the rudder activity 
 
 used to achieve this trajectory in the real world and the rudder activity used 
 to achieve the same trajectory on the CAORF simulator. The ship model is 
 considered valid if similar rudder activity in the model and in the real world 
 is used to achieve the same trajectory. 
 
 The second method of validation was recommended by PCC. This method 
 required that the rudder and engine orders given in the real world be dupli- 
 cated on the simulator, and the resultant trajectories be compared. The 
 ship model is considered valid if the same rudder and engine orders achieve 
 the same resultant trajectory both on the simulator and in the real world. 
 This method of validation requires precise recording of rudder and engine 
 orders and an accurate accounting of the initial conditions of the vessel 
 measured in the real world. These real-world conditions will then be dupli- 
 cated on the simulator. 
 
 CAORF performed both validation methods and compared these methods. 
 While both methods supported the validity of the model, the first method 
 was found to be more cost-effective. 
 
 Following the fine-tuning of the ship model based upon the results of these 
 two tests, the ship model was presented to PCC pilots for an evaluation of 
 its handling characteristics. 
 
 Existing Gaillard Cut Data Base. The construction of the visual scene, 
 situation display, plotting and depth/current/bank data bases to represent 
 the existing Gaillard Cut was accomplished by using a combination of 
 engineering drawings, charts, photographs and PCC pilot input. The geo- 
 graphic data base represents the Gaillard Cut of the Canal from Pedro 
 Miquel Locks to Chagres Crossing, a section of which is shown in Figure 10. 
 The depth of water varies from approximately 43 to 52 feet. The data base 
 for use with the validation vessels was constructed to have an average depth 
 of approximately 49 feet in order for its depth to correspond to that of the 
 Gaillard Cut during July 1983 when the real world data was collected. 
 
 Of particular interest was a sensitivity analysis conducted to determine 
 whether the data base had to include a complex bottom structure. Since 
 the bottom of the Gaillard Cut is not a smooth surface, and includes rocky 
 hills and valleys, a study was conducted to ascertain which of these bottom 
 features may have some effect on shiphandling. In order to determine which 
 bottom contours would be included in the test, each bottom feature on the 
 charts was examined, based upon its size and form to determine whether it 
 could possibly affect the maneuvering of a 40-foot draft vessel. A study of 
 smooth bottom shiphandling was then conducted in two data bases, one 
 with smooth bottom and another with an uneven bottom. 
 
 Steering Quality Profile. The Steering Quality Profile is the primary measure 
 of performance to be used in the assessment of various channel layers. It is 
 designed to quantify a pilot's control of a vessel. In order for a proposed 
 channel layout to be considered "safe", it would be necessary for pilots 
 passing a Panamax, in the proposed channel layout, to achieve an acceptable 
 level of performance. 
 
 Ten pilots handled a 30,000 DWT tanker through each of the scenarios 
 which varied with respect to difficulty of vessel control. The prototype 
 dimensions of the steering quality profile would be considered valid if 
 values on each of these dimensions varied according to the difficulty of the 
 scenarios. 
 
 From approximately 15 prototype dimensions which were studied, the 
 following measures were selected: amount of control force available, a 
 relative measure of ship and bank clearance, smoothness of course-changing 
 (for curves), yaw rate variance (for straight sections), and two measures of 
 subjective ratings. 
 
 Autopilot. The development of a trackline autopilot was necessary so that 
 fast-time analysis of various channel layouts could be accomplished with a 
 model of a navigator. CAORF's compressed-time simulation program 
 autopilot operates on a heading error and lateral off-track distance to gen- 
 erate rudder commands which will control the transit of the vessel. This 
 particular fast-time program can simulate two "intelligent" autopilots, one 
 on each side of the vessels which meet. A trackline is specified by the user 
 to indicate the path the ship will attempt to follow. In the case of the 
 Panama Canal Widening Study, the trackline will be the centerline or sail- 
 ing line of the Gaillard Cut (See Figure 1 1 ). The autopilot anticipates turns 
 in the track by looking ahead of the vessel by a specified distance. It also 
 
 260 
 
GAILLARDCUT 
 
 NAVIGATION LIGHTS IN THE GAILLARD 
 CUT ARE WHITE ON THE EAST BANK & 
 RED ON THE WEST BANK, SPACED 500 
 FEET APART. 
 
 S.V.F-H.E. 
 
 QIC- IHI 
 
 S-6II8-77 SHEET 8 
 
 (REV MAY, 19 81) 
 
 Figure 10. Gaillard Cut 
 
 Figure 1 1 . Sailing Line/Center Line, Vessels Passing in Gaillard Cut 
 
 anticipates the approach of another vessel, and in response to the presence 
 of another vessel, will initiate a maneuver to move from the centerline to 
 the sailing line. During meeting and passing, the position of the vessels are 
 controlled within the limits of controllability of the rudder to avoid an on- 
 coming vessel. If either vessel is unable to maintain position on the sailing 
 line, then the other vessel will attempt to move closer to the channel wall 
 until some minimum specified distance has been reached. 
 
 The CAORF staff has added several special options to the autopilot which 
 improve its sophistication; for example, the option to have the vessel exe- 
 cute a slow down/speed up maneuver to enhance rudder effectiveness 
 during a meeting encounter, and the option to require tug assistance during 
 the transit. Tug assistance will be given when the value of the rudder angle 
 generated by the autopilot exceeds some specified value. 
 
 The autopilot has been validated by comparing its performance in standard 
 scenarios with that of seven Panama Canal pilots who performed on the 
 CAORF real-time simulator. In addition, observations of pilot performance 
 
 have been made while handling real-world vessels in the actual Gaillard Cut. 
 These data were used to evaluate the performance of the autopilot. 
 
 10. Summary 
 
 The marine transportation system is a broad complex network which, in 
 addition to the operations of ships at sea, encompasses such diverse ac- 
 tivities as the operations of shore-side terminal facilities and the design of 
 channels and harbors. The various simulation techniques at CAORF can be 
 extremely useful in designing that portion of the system which requires 
 consideration of the interaction of the man, the vessel, and the environment 
 in which they operate. 
 
 The Hampton Roads and Panama Canal projects, illustrated in this paper, 
 represent only a part of the CAORF research effort aimed at increasing 
 productivity and safety in marine transportation. Aiding the design of 
 channels by determining their optimal dimensions is, however, an important 
 step toward enabling the development of U.S. and foreign ports in the most 
 
 261 
 
efficient and cost-effective manner. 
 
 These and similar projects for other sponsors have demonstrated the value 
 of the computer simulation techniques in the design, development and 
 evaluation of port and waterway projects. Simulation permits the inter- 
 pretation of all relevent variables in the marine transportation system, thus 
 providing important engineering tools with which to study and evaluate 
 alternative system designs. Looking at CAORF's research and development 
 programs conducted since its operational beginning in the mid 1970's, we 
 conclude that CAORF has met and exceeded the challenge which inspired 
 MARAD's original efforts to develop a flexible useful, and realistic marine 
 transportation research instrument. 
 
 11. Conclusions 
 
 In recent years, the maritime industry has witnessed a dramatic increase in 
 the size and cargo capacity of ships. While advances in shiphandling tech- 
 nology have led to substantial gains in the productivity of shipping, this 
 trend has had some negative ramifications as well. The size and capacity of 
 channels and port facilities have not generally increased in proportion with 
 the size of vessels that must be handled. This has led to situations in which 
 the relationship between the ship size and channel size leaves little or no 
 margin for error, a situation which has, unfortunately, been borne out by 
 the rise in the maritime accident rate. While it is vital that economic effi- 
 ciency of shipping be maximized, this cannot be done at the expense of 
 safety. Thus, it is important to utilize every available tool in designing 
 harbors and waterways to mitigate risks as much as possible. 
 
 CAORF has been utilized by many segments of the marine community to 
 conduct waterway design analysis. Through this work, CAORF has devel- 
 oped an evaluation approach to design assessment which is based in the 
 collection of objective data within the framework of a rigorous method. The 
 integration of this data with subjective evaluations by experts (e.g., pilots, 
 ship masters, operation personnel) associated with the specific areas under 
 
 investigation provide a thorough evaluation of a proposed design. Thus 
 simulation has been proven to be a most valuable tool in port and waterway 
 engineering. 
 
 Simulation supplies data which is essential to make credible, real-world 
 decisions. It is generally the case that the maritime simulation facility 
 (CAORF) acts as a project facilator by providing data which is quantitive 
 and unambiguous. Planners and decision makers, seeing the results of 
 simulation, know better what the relative trade-offs involved really are, and 
 such knowledge produces action — action to build, action to dredge, 
 action to implement. 
 
 References 
 
 Puglisi, Joseph, J. Overview of CAORF Research for the Maritime Industry. 
 
 Proceedings of the Fifth CAORF Symposium: Port and Vessel Produc- 
 tivity, Computer Aided Operations Research Facility, Kings Point, New 
 York 1983. 
 
 Puglisi, Joseph, J.; D'Amico, Anita, D. Ph.D,; Van Hoorde, G. The Use of 
 Simulation at CAORF in Determining Criteria for Increased Throughput 
 in the Panama Canal. MARSIM 84 Conference, Rotterdam, The Nether- 
 lands, June 1984. 
 
 Engineering Regulation 1110-2-1404, Engineering and Design - Deep Draft 
 Navigation Project Design. Department of the Army Corps of Engineers, 
 1981. 
 
 McGee, S; Vann, R.; Schryver, J. The Use of CAORF Simulation to Deter- 
 mine Channel Requirements for Norfolk Harbor and Channel Deepening 
 Project. Proceedings of the Fifth CAORF Symposium: Port and Vessel 
 Productivity, Computer Aided Operations Research Facility, Kings Point, 
 New York, 1983. 
 
 262 
 
WAVE POWERED PUMP 
 
 Dr. Richard J. Seymour, Head 
 
 David Castel, Senior Engineer 
 
 Ocean Engineering Research Group 
 
 Institute of Marine Resources 
 Scripps Institution of Oceanography 
 La Jolla, CA 92093 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 Attempts to use wave power to generate 
 electricity have been hampered by the variability 
 of the energy source, by the destructive power of 
 storm waves and by excessive maintenance on 
 moorings and cables. 
 
 The authors have developed a wave powered pump 
 for seawater which eliminates these problems. The 
 pump is bottom mounted in shallow water and uses 
 the horizontal, rather than vertical water motions 
 for power. The shallow location filters out 
 destructively large waves. Model tests with random 
 waves at 1/8 scale have verified a predictive model 
 for performance. A full scale pump with a body 
 diameter of 4.5 meters delivers 145 liters/minute 
 against a 14 atmosphere head. 
 
 Applications include fresh water production by 
 reverse osmosis, dredging and harbor clearance 
 projects. 
 
 BACKGROUND 
 
 Most wave power projects have utilized the 
 vertical motions of the ocean surface to drive a 
 mechanical device. The development of the Masuda 
 air turbine concept in Japan from small buoys to a 
 major power generation facility in the Kaimei [see, 
 for example, Miyazaki and Masuda (1978), Koriki 
 (1983)], represents the most successful of these 
 efforts. The principal use of wave power has 
 traditionally been seen as the generation of 
 electricity, for reasons that are obvious in the 
 economic climate of today. Many of these 
 wave-driven systems must be moored to hold 
 position. They tend to be sited in locations with 
 energetic waves to increase their average power 
 output . 
 
 This combination of requirements and conditions 
 produces a series of difficult design and 
 operational problems that have impeded the 
 acceptance of wave power. 
 
 l)The electrical power customer needs a constant 
 and dependable source. Wave energy is highly 
 variable. Expensive plants must be held in reserve 
 for periods of small wave conditions. 
 
 2) The deep water, exposed conditions selected 
 for high average waves will produce very large 
 
 This work was supported in part by grants from the 
 Foundation for Ocean Research and the University of 
 California Appropriate Technology Program. 
 
 waves during major storms, introducing extreme 
 design loads, heavy and expensive structures, and 
 poor small wave response. 
 
 3) Moored systems, because of fatigue and stress 
 corrosion, have very short lifespans. 
 
 4) Power cables, connecting the moored systems to 
 shore, are very expensive and vulnerable to fatigue 
 in the sections subject to flexing [Marine Board 
 (1982).] 
 
 A SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEMS 
 
 Recognizing these characteristic problems, the 
 authors have devoted some effort in developing a 
 set of design criteria for wave power projects that 
 would eliminate some or all of these inherent 
 difficulties. In brief, these criteria are: 
 
 a) The system should produce a product or service 
 that can be economically stored or which can be 
 used with widely varying production rates. 
 
 b)The system should operate in very shallow 
 water so that the large destructive storm waves 
 will be diminished by breaking before striking the 
 machinery. 
 
 c)As corollaries to b) , first, the system should 
 utilize the horizontal wave motions, because these 
 are amplified significantly in shallow water 
 compared to the vertical motions. Second, the 
 device should operate successfully in breaking, or 
 already-broken waves. 
 
 d)The system should be fixed to the bottom, 
 rather than moored and be easily removed for 
 maintenance purposes. The product should be 
 removed through fixed rather than flexible means to 
 eliminate fatigue problems and increase 
 reliability. 
 
 WAVE POWERED PUMP DESIGN 
 
 One simple and straightforward method for 
 extracting power from the oscillatory motion of 
 waves is to use these motions to pump a fluid. 
 Several proposed systems, particularly in Great 
 Britain, have suggested using hydraulic fluid as a 
 working medium. [Ross (1981)] An even simpler 
 arrangement is to have the machine pump seawater. 
 To meet the design criteria defined above, the 
 pressurized seawater must then meet some economic 
 requirement. At least two such applications are 
 immediately apparent. Reverse Osmosis (RO) is a 
 desalinization process that requires seawater at 
 high pressures (about 70 atmospheres.) About half 
 of the cost of producing freshwater by this method 
 is in the energy costs of pumping the saltwater. 
 
 263 
 
This is obviously an application in which wave 
 power could be expected to compete. Fresh water 
 can be stored readily, so that a variable 
 production rate is not a significant problem. A 
 second, and potentially much greater market exists 
 in providing pressurized seawater for dredging or 
 harbor clearance projects. Again, a very large 
 fraction of the costs of these operations is in the 
 energy costs for pumping seawater. If the wave 
 powered pump is used to support a semi-continuous 
 harbor clearance process (such as a by-passing 
 plant) it will produce more water on days when the 
 waves are large. Typically, the demand on the 
 sediment movement system will increase with wave 
 energy, so that the pump system appears well 
 matched to the demand. 
 
 To meet these needs, a pump was developed that 
 meets the design criteria set by the authors [for 
 details of design, see Seymour and Castel (1985) .] 
 The general configuration is shown in Figure 1. It 
 consists of a cylindrical displacement body, 
 constrained to move horizontally on tracks. It is 
 directly coupled to a double-acting, 
 positive-displacement piston pump. The body is 
 driven by the horizontal orbital motions of the 
 waves. Typically, the pump would be mounted in 
 water about 8 m deep, with a diameter of about 4.5 
 m on the displacement body. At this depth, long 
 period Pacific swell have greatly elongated 
 horizontal excursions and provide a powerful 
 driving force. 
 
 In shallow water, considerable refraction has 
 already taken place. Therefore, waves tend to be 
 nearly normal to the shore, side forces are 
 minimized, and most of the wave energy can be 
 effectively used. Waves are limited in height to 
 about 8 m by the water depth so that the maximum 
 wave loading is known accurately. A unique feature 
 of the design is that the entire system can be 
 installed beneath the water. This allows its use 
 in locations where the appearance of large, 
 above-surface structures would degrade the visual 
 environment. 
 
 The system can be supported on a gravity 
 foundation or with piles as shown in Figure 1. The 
 pump and valves are shown schematically in Figure 
 2. A 1/8 scale model of the pump has been tested 
 with random seas in a wave tank. A series of 
 experiments was performed that confirmed the 
 predictive skill of an analytical model of pump 
 performance. Scaling to prototype size results in 
 the following typical outputs with 1.4m 
 significant wave heights: 
 
 146 liters per minute at 14 atmospheres head 
 
 33 liters per minute at 70 atmospheres head. 
 
 REFERENCE S 
 
 Koriki, Akira: 1983. "Experimental Full Scale 
 Result of Wave Power Machine KAIMEI," Japan Marine 
 Science and Technology Center, 11 pp. 
 
 Marine Board: 1982. "Ocean Engineering for 
 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion," National Academy 
 Press, Washington, D.C. 
 
 Miyazaki, T. and Y. Masuda: 1978. "Development 
 of Wave Power Generators," Ocean Management . 
 Vol. 4, pp. 259-271. 
 
 Ross, David: 1981. "Energy From The Waves," 
 Pergamon Press. 
 
 Seymour, R.J. and D. Castel: 1985. "Wave 
 Driven Pump for Saltwater," Manuscript submitted to 
 Ocean Engineering Journal. 
 
 This is the output from a single pump. Multiple 
 units can be mounted very close together for 
 increased output. Figure 3 shows the predicted 
 output for the prototype as a function of wave 
 height against two representatives heads. 
 
 264 
 
PROPOSED CONFIGURATION OF FULL-SCALE WAVE POWERED PUMP 
 
 Figure 1 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF PUMP CYLINDER AND VALVES 
 Figure 2 
 
 265 
 
Pump Output v. Incident Wave Height 
 
 160 h 
 
 '3 140 
 
 \ 120 
 
 in 
 
 u 
 
 CD 
 
 £ 100 
 
 <u 80 
 
 •4-J 
 
 £ 
 
 fc 
 
 60 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 14 Atmospheres 
 
 70 Atmospheres 
 
 110 120 130 
 
 Significant Wave Height 
 
 FIGURE 3 
 
 140 
 
 Cm 
 
 266 
 
INITIATION OF TURBIDITY CURRENTS 
 ON SHELF AND SLOPE 
 
 Dr. Richard J. Seymour 
 Head, Ocean Engineering Research Group 
 
 Institute of Marine Resources 
 Scripps Institution of Oceanography 
 La Jolla, CA 92093 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 Turbidity currents present hazards to 
 construction on steep slopes with unstable 
 sediments. Among currently planned projects that 
 could face these hazards are OTEC cold water intake 
 lines in Hawaii and Puerto Rico, and inter-island 
 electrical power cables in Hawaii. 
 
 Turbidity currents observed in nature are often 
 two-dimensional (trapped in canyons) and may often 
 be initiated by oscillatory shelf currents rather 
 than landslides. 
 
 The theories of Bagnold appear to explain the 
 steady-state behavior of observed turbidity 
 currents better than other competing theories. 
 Laboratory experiments suggest that the initiation 
 energy for two-dimensional flows can be predicted. 
 
 THE PROBLEM 
 
 Several ocean engineering initiatives, now under 
 consideration, will involve massive construction 
 projects on relatively steep slopes covered with 
 unstable sediments. The possibility of turbidity 
 currents — density flows driven by sediment 
 entrainment — exists under such conditions. Ocean 
 Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) plants are being 
 planned for Hawaii and Tahiti [see, for example, 
 Castellano et al. (1983), Gauthier (1984).] A 
 third is possible in Puerto Rico. All of these 
 sites contain nearly vertical cliffs on the shelf 
 that appear to be ancient reef structures. These 
 steep cliffs severely complicate the design and 
 installation of the cold water intake pipes, which 
 must reach to great depths. In both Hawaii and 
 Puerto Rico, natural canyons exist that provide a 
 more gently sloping access for the intake 
 structure. 
 
 Coastal submarine canyons are known to be 
 locations for turbidity currents [Reimnitz (1971), 
 Inman et al. (1976).] At the Hawaiian site, during 
 Hurricane Iwa in 1982, there was almost certainly a 
 turbidity current of large magnitude detected by 
 downslope movement of oceanographic instruments 
 [see Dengler et al. (1984).] Thus, by selecting a 
 location where gradual slopes cut through a steep 
 cliff, the OTEC plant designers may be selecting 
 the exact place where turbidity currents are most 
 likely to occur. 
 
 This work was supported in part by a grant from the 
 Foundation for Ocean Research. 
 
 The State of Hawaii is studying the possibility 
 of interconnecting all of the islands within a 
 single electrical power grid. This requires that 
 high voltage cables be laid down steep slopes to 
 depths greatly exceeding existing capabilities. 
 The potential for turbidity currents most certainly 
 exists somewhere along the proposed alignments. 
 Cables were damaged or parted in the Hurricane Iwa 
 turbidity current as well as the well-studied cable 
 breaks off Newfoundland. 
 
 TURBIDITY CURRENT INITIATION 
 
 There are, at present, no models in the 
 literature that predict the requirements for 
 initiating turbidity currents. Geologists, who 
 have studied the evidence of ancient massive marine 
 flows, have generally assumed that they were caused 
 by landslides, slumping or cliff failure under 
 water. This is one of the two theoretically 
 possible ways to start such a density current — 
 introduce a very high concentration of suspended 
 sediment and allow the flow to accelerate until it 
 reaches the autosuspension point. Autosuspension 
 implies that the flow speed is great enough to 
 entrain at least as much sediment as is being lost 
 by gravity, assuring the continuation of the flow. 
 The second method is to start with a high enough 
 speed of flow with initially clear water to cause 
 an increasing concentration of sediment. If the 
 proper concentration is reached before the speed is 
 diminished too far, autosuspension results. 
 Observations in nature of turbidity currents 
 suggest that this second initiation mechanism is 
 often the dominant one. In particular, it appears 
 that low frequency oscillations on the shelf may 
 provide the critical suspending velocities. 
 
 Most of the documented turbidity currents are 
 two-dimensional in character, at least near the 
 initiation point. That is, they start in narrow 
 submarine valleys or canyons. This eliminates 
 momentum losses at the sides which could halt the 
 flow. It would seem that if the initial flow were 
 wide enough it could survive even in a 
 three-dimensional flow, however no theoretical 
 models exist for this condition. 
 
 Determining the conditions necessary to initiate 
 and sustain a turbidity current appears necessary 
 for at least two reasons: 
 
 1) make it possible to predict the probability 
 of a naturally-occurring turbidity current at any 
 site, and 
 
 267 
 
2) determining the feasibility of a manmade 
 turbidity current to clear out unstable sediment 
 accumulations prior to construction. 
 
 TURBIDITY CURRENT THEORY 
 
 A review of existing theories for steady state 
 turbidity flows (there are no theories for 
 initiation or other non-steady attributes) is 
 contained in Seymour (1985) . This work also 
 reviews all of the field observations and tests the 
 various theories against the results in nature. 
 The theory of Bagnold (1962) was shown to be the 
 only one to predict all observed turbidity 
 currents. A laboratory-scale evaluation of 
 Bagnold 1 s criteria using oscillatory cross-shore 
 currents as the initiation mechanism is also 
 reported in Seymour (1985) . 
 
 It appears from this study that the engineering 
 tools may be relatively obtainable to make 
 reasonable predictions about the energy required to 
 initiate full-scale turbidity flows in the ocean. 
 A confirmatory experiment is being planned. 
 
 Bagnold, R.A. : 1962. "Auto-suspension of 
 Transported Sediment; Turbidity Currents", Proc. 
 R. Soc. London, Ser A., 205: pp 315-319. 
 
 Castellano, C.C, E.A. Midboe, and 
 G.M. Hagerman, Jr.: 1983. "The U.S. Department 
 of Energy's 40 We Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion 
 Plant Program: A Status Report," Oceans '83 
 Conference Record, San Francisco, CA, Aug 29-Sep 1, 
 pp 728-733. 
 
 Dengler, A.T. , E.K. Noda, P. Wilde, and 
 W.R. Normark: 1984. "Slumping and Related 
 Turbidity Currents along Proposed OTEC Cold-water 
 Pipe Route Resulting from Hurricane Iwa," OTC4702, 
 Proc. 16th Offshore Tech. Conf., Houston, Tx. , 
 May 7-9, pp 475-480. 
 
 Gauthier, M: 1984. "The French OTEC Project in 
 Tahiti: Preliminary Results of the Site 
 Environmental Study," Oceans '84 Conference Record, 
 Washington, D.C. , Sept. 10-12, pp 359-363. 
 
 Inman, D.L. , C.E. Nordstran, and R.E. Flick: 
 1976. "Currents in Submarine Canyons: an 
 Air-Sea-Land Interaction," Annl. Rev. of Fluid 
 Mech. , v. 8, pp 275-310. 
 
 Reimnitz, E. : 1971. "Surf-beat Origin for 
 Pulsating Bottom Currents in the Rio Balsas 
 Submarine Canyon, Mexico," Geol. Soc. of Amer. 
 Bull., v. 82, pp 81-90. 
 
 Seymour, R. J. : 1985. "On the Existence of 
 Turbidity Surges in the Surf Zone", Submitted to 
 Journ. of Geophy. Res. 
 
 268 
 
Technology Assessment to Determine 
 Incipient Failures in Marine Structures 
 
 Charles E. Smith 
 
 Program Manager 
 
 Technology Assessment and Research Program 
 
 Minerals Management Service 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 Industry's move into the deeper and more 
 hostile regions of the Outer Continental Shelf 
 (OCS) in search of new sources of oil and gas 
 has stimulated the development of new technol- 
 ogies for the inspection of marine structures. 
 Historically, the structural integrity of off- 
 shore platforms has been assessed through the 
 use of divers and/or submersibles, both manned 
 and remotely controlled. However, these methods 
 have serious limitations when applied to the 
 newer structures and their environments. This 
 paper discusses the need for an inspection 
 philosophy, the various inspection techniques 
 employed, and the development of new technol- 
 ogies to assess the integrity of marine struc- 
 tures. 
 
 The ever-present need for new oil and gas 
 resources has driven Government and industry to 
 venture into progressively deeper waters and 
 increasingly more hostile environments of the 
 OCS. Just this past summer (1984), exploration 
 activities were conducted on the U.S. Atlantic 
 OCS in water depths up to approximately 7,000 
 feet and recent lease sales in the Gulf of Mexico 
 (Nos. 81 and 84) included areas in water depths 
 up to 3,500 feet. These deepwater sites will 
 call for the use of new technologies to make 
 field development economically attractive. 
 Deepwater production operations can also be 
 expected in the North Sea where hydrocarbons 
 in commercial quantities have been found in 
 waters over 1,100 feet deep. In addition to 
 deep water, structures will be deployed in or 
 near the ice-shear zone in both the U.S. and 
 Canadian Arctic. It is the deep waters and 
 hostile environments encountered in these fron- 
 tier areas which have stimulated the devel- 
 opment of many new inspection techniques to 
 verify the structural integrity of marine 
 structures. 
 
 Another concern which has not received much 
 public attention is the structural integrity of 
 many existing platforms. Between 1947 and the 
 present, approximately 3,400 structures have 
 been erected in the Gulf of Mexico for the 
 
 production of oil and gas. Many of these are 
 still in service today, and the only requirements 
 for periodic inspections are those which the 
 platform operators/owners elect to impose upon 
 themselves. Sufficient knowledge of the integrity 
 of a structure must be available to assure reliable 
 performance. The ability to demonstrate such 
 reliability has necessitated rigorous inspection 
 requirements which, in turn, have led to new 
 developments in the inspection technologies. It 
 is important to note that for an inspection method 
 to be truly useful , either for the new frontier 
 structures or for the older structures in shallow 
 water, the method must be reliable and cost 
 effective. 
 
 Historically, the structural integrity of off- 
 shore platforms has been assessed by visual tech- 
 niques through the use of divers and manned or 
 remotely controlled unmanned submersibles. 
 However, progressively larger structures, deeper 
 waters, and more hostile environments have 
 seriously limited the use of current nondestructive 
 examination (NDE) techniques. Even in fairly 
 shallow waters, techniques for inspecting facili- 
 ties are only marginally effective, time-consuming, 
 and costly. In view of this situation, current 
 developments have been and will continue to be 
 made in two major areas. 
 
 The first is the improvement of the capabilities 
 of remotely operated vehicles (R0V) as replacements 
 for divers. At the root of this technology are 
 microprocessors that can be programmed in a manner 
 to perform the various necessary work tasks. The 
 second approach, structural monitoring, is more 
 basic. This approach is conducted by global 
 monitoring techniques, that is considering the 
 total structure, instead of the local techniques 
 presently used. Examples of global structural 
 monitoring are vibration-monitoring techniques, 
 acoustic emission techniques, and acoustic imaging 
 techniques, to name a few. 
 
 The need to perform periodic 
 tions is clear when considering 
 failures that have resulted from 
 tural defects. The loss of the 
 a hotel platform, illustrates th 
 industry's past performance with 
 has been excellent, future explo 
 tion activities in new environme 
 structural concepts, will be app 
 
 inservice inspec- 
 some of the past 
 
 undetected struc- 
 Alexander Kielland, 
 is point. Although 
 
 fixed platforms 
 ration and produc- 
 nts, using new 
 roached cautiously. 
 
 269 
 
Underwater inspection and defect assessment 
 have been and will continue to be a major con- 
 cern to all involved in ensuring the long-term 
 integrity of offshore facilities. Considerable 
 experience, drawn mainly from the aircraft and 
 nuclear industries, has been gained in the 
 assessment and consequences of growth of small 
 cracks into major failures. Yet, even with 
 these advances, numerous questions remain to be 
 answered regarding offshore underwater inspec- 
 tions. These major questions include the 
 foil owing :*■' 
 
 - What should inspectors actually look for? 
 
 - Will it be recognized when it is seen? 
 
 - What items should be inspected/where 
 
 should an inspector look? 
 
 - What mimimum defect might be found? 
 
 - How frequently should an inspection be 
 
 performed? 
 
 - How does the design, particularly the 
 
 estimated fatigue life of particular 
 structural elements affect the need, 
 objective, nature, and frequency of 
 an inspection? 
 
 - What type and size of defect should 
 
 inspectors look for to ensure continued 
 safe operation of an installation? 
 
 - What is the significance of a given 
 
 defect in a given position on a struc- 
 ture? 
 
 - To what extent does the underwater 
 
 environment affect the feasibility, 
 accuracy, and frequency of inspections? 
 
 These major questions are difficult to answer 
 and, in fact, require different answers for 
 differing structures (e.g., a fixed steel -jacket 
 platform versus a compliant tension-leg plat- 
 form) or for differing environments (e.g., the 
 Arctic versus the Gulf of Mexico or the North 
 Sea). Answers to the above questions are nec- 
 essary to develop the comprehensive philosophies 
 needed for the inspection of the various types 
 of offshore structures. These answers require 
 a knowledge of the capabilities for the avail- 
 able inspection and monitoring techniques. 
 
 Before reviewing the newer developments, it 
 is useful to look at NDE techniques which have 
 been and are currently being used for underwater 
 inspections. Numerous NDE techniques have been 
 developed for quality control operations in 
 industry; however, relatively few have been 
 adapted for the underwater environment. Most 
 techniques were developed for use with a parti- 
 cular material; whereas, some found a wider 
 range of application. Traditionally, the 
 offshore industry has used the NDE techniques 
 as follows: 
 
 - Visual (detection of surface cracks and 
 
 missing or damaged members). 
 
 - Ultrasonics (surface and subsurface flaw 
 
 and crack detection, material thickness 
 measurements). 
 
 - Magnetic Particle (surface and shallow 
 
 subsurface crack detection). 
 
 - Radiography (internal flaw and crack 
 
 detection, material thickness measure- 
 ments) . 
 
 - Electrical Potential (corrosion potential 
 
 measurements). 
 
 Each of these methods have advantages and limi- 
 tations and is dependent on the use of a diver and 
 his ability to gain access to a structure. Also, 
 for these methods to be effective, a thoroughly 
 clean and smooth metal surface is required. In 
 fact, the cleaning process can be a major problem, 
 often more time consuming than the actual testing. 
 The density of marine growth decreases signifi- 
 cantly beyond a water depth of approximately 200 
 feet, but increasing water pressure will reduce 
 the efficiency of a diver or prevent his use 
 altogether. To avoid going beneath the water 
 surface, many of the inspection techniques and 
 work functions have been transferred to unmanned 
 ROV's. Manned submersibles have been widely used 
 by the offshore industry, and the technology is 
 well established. 
 
 For underwater inspections, divers have good 
 facilities for viewing and maneuvering and are 
 quite responsive to changing situations. Their 
 weakness usually results from a lack of proper 
 NDE training, depth capability, and underwater 
 time exposure. The unmanned ROV, on the other 
 hand, exhibits no such limitations. It has a high 
 endurance and depth capability. In addition, the 
 inspection data can be presented in real time and 
 viewed by a number of inspectors. Conversely, the 
 ROV only presents a two-dimensional view, and its 
 manipulative capability is not equal to that of a 
 diver. A tethered, free-swimming ROV is subject to 
 cable fouling, and it can be unreliable in terms 
 of equipment performance. 2/ 
 
 There are four types of R0V's--tethered, free- 
 swimming; towed; bottom-crawling; and autonomous. 
 From an NDE point of view, the first type, tethered, 
 free-swimming ROV's, are used almost exclusively. 
 The latter type, autonomous ROV's, are several 
 years away from operational usage, but they do 
 indicate potential for future NDE utilization. 
 
 The tethered, free-swimming ROV is capable of 
 maneuvering in three dimensions. Power is supplied 
 from the surface by means of a relatively heavy 
 umbilical cable. Standard equipment consists of 
 closed-circuit television (TV), lights for TV 
 viewing, and a depth sensor. An array of naviga- 
 tional and work instrumentation may be carried in 
 combination with a manipulator, depending upon a 
 vehicle's power and purpose. 
 
 Autonomous 
 i ndependently 
 power onboard 
 technologies h 
 for greatly re 
 Ultimately, th 
 machines to be 
 specified task 
 highly trained 
 face facilitie 
 
 ROV's, on the other hand, operate 
 
 of umbilical cables and carry battery 
 
 Within the past few years, new 
 ave appeared which offer much promise 
 ducing the need for online controls, 
 is technology, robotics, will allow 
 
 programmed in advance to perform 
 s and to communicate directly with 
 
 technicians located on the sur- 
 s. The scope of applications for 
 
 270 
 
an unmanned autonomous submersible ROV is wide 
 and varied, offering many potential advantages 
 over a tethered, free-swimming ROV. As pre- 
 viously stated, the autonomous ROV is present- 
 ly in the development stage, and additional 
 research is required in such areas as energy 
 storage, guidance and control systems, infor- 
 mation and communication systems, and the 
 intelligence-coordinating systems. With 
 further development, the autonomous ROV will 
 greatly enhance the ability to inspect struc- 
 tures in deep waters and hostile environments. 
 
 It has been demonstrated that their are 
 techniques available for direct NDE or visual 
 inspection of a marine structure. However, 
 there are techniques available which can 
 monitor the integrity of a structure without 
 requiring an inspector to enter the water or 
 dispatch an underwater vehicle on his behalf. 
 
 Several monitoring techniques have been 
 identified in reference 3 as feasible candi- 
 dates for structural integrity monitoring. 
 These are as fol lows: 
 
 - Attitude Measurements. 
 
 - Strain Gauges. 
 
 - Leak Testing of Tubular Members. 
 
 - Ultrasonic Imaging. 
 Vibration Monitoring. 
 
 - Acoustic Emission. 
 
 - Optical Fibers. 
 
 - Trace Elements in Welding Consumables. 
 
 The first three techniques are relatively 
 simple systems in concept. Attitude monitor- 
 ing is based on measuring the changes in the 
 inclination from the vertical alignment of a 
 platform. Strain-gauge systems may be useful 
 in obtaining stress or strain data for fatigue 
 monitoring; however, these systems have many 
 problems which result from the placement and 
 maintenance of gauges. Leak testing of tubu- 
 lar members reveals cracking by measuring 
 either leakage of air or influx of water into 
 members. Once leakage has been determined to 
 have occurred, a diver or an ROV would be 
 deployed using standard NDE techniques to find 
 and assess the defects. 
 
 Imaging systems using a scanning sonar beam 
 are under development and are intented for the 
 global inspection of structures. Such systems 
 could easily be deployed and give real-time 
 information on certain structural deficiencies, 
 i.e., missing or bent members. However, 
 additional research is necessary to produce 
 an operationally acceptable imaging device. 
 
 Vibration monitoring is a technique in 
 which the measured vibrational response of a 
 member or structure is related to its stiff- 
 ness properties and hence its structural in- 
 tegrity. This technique is based on measured 
 changes in either the natural frequencies or 
 mode shapes of a member or structure which, in 
 turn, reflects a decrease in the structural 
 
 stiffness and degradation within the platform. 
 Vibration monitoring can be conducted at both the 
 local or global level. The global mode provides 
 information on a critical failure within an entire 
 structure; whereas, the local mode would provide 
 information on crack initiation or growth only 
 near a sensor. 
 
 The first attempts at global monitoring consist- 
 ed of placing accelerometers on platforms above 
 the water to measure their structural responses 
 under ambient conditions and then compare these 
 responses to previously taken baseline measurement. 
 A change in the response indicates damage or a 
 failure within a structure. It was found that 
 other factors not associated with structural 
 damage or failure could cause changes in the 
 responses, for examples marine growth, topside 
 load changes, and conductor or riser movement. 
 Another problem is that large structures have so 
 many redundant members that even the removal of 
 a major member would not sufficiently change re- 
 sponses of the above-water accelerometers. Thus, 
 most offshore engineers consider that it is not 
 an acceptable inspection tool. 4/ 
 
 A variation of this global system called flexi- 
 bility monitoring has been tested and has shown 
 promise as a valid inspection method. It is 
 basically a vibration technique specifically 
 designed for a fixed steel -jacket platform. For 
 this technique, accelerometers are placed on the 
 deck and the legs of a structure at different bay 
 levels, ideally all the way to the mud line. 
 These instrument packages are attached to the legs 
 of a platform during construction. Vibrational 
 data obtained are used to determine mode shapes, 
 depicting movement at each bay level, which are 
 compared with previous baseline measurements. 
 Analytical models are then used to determine the 
 responses at various levels of the structure. In 
 this manner, decisions can be reached about the 
 structural integrity of the platform at each of 
 the instrumented levels. 
 
 A local vibration-monitoring technique is being 
 used to some extent in the North Sea. For this 
 technique, accelerometers are attached to individ- 
 ual members, the members are then excited by a 
 vibrator, and the measured responses are compared 
 to previously obtained baseline data. A change in 
 the response indicates structural damage or flood- 
 ing of a member due to a crack. 
 
 A variation to the local 
 technique is the random dec 
 based on the analysis of a 
 "randomdec" signatures whic 
 on higher structural freque 
 characteristics. These si g 
 from random response data o 
 is subjected to random exci 
 waves. Incipient structura 
 detected by noting the chan 
 
 vi brati on-monitoring 
 rement method. It is 
 set of graphs known as 
 h present information 
 ncies and damping 
 natures are generated 
 btained when a platform 
 tations such as ocean 
 1 failures can be 
 ges in these signatures. 
 
 Two other techniques, acoustic emission and 
 optical fibers, have been proposed recently as 
 a means for inspecting offshore structures. 
 
 271 
 
Acoustic emission techniques measure the 
 acoustic waves generated in materials from 
 crack evolution or from contacts due to crack 
 closures. This technique has been used 
 successfully in onshore installations but has 
 met with very limited success in offshore 
 applications. The optical fiber system. is 
 based on the fracturing of optical fibers at 
 a predetermined strain level. Fibers are 
 attached to selected structural members with 
 an adhesive, and when light transmission 
 through these filaments degrades, failure or 
 damage is indicated. Both of these systems 
 are under development and currently are not 
 suited for marine operations. 
 
 The trace-element technique is developmen- 
 tal and is an innovative approach for detect- 
 ing cracks or corrosion in a weld. This 
 technique consists of incorporating a trace 
 or radioactive material into a welding con- 
 sumable for use in the fabrication of a 
 structure or pipeline. Activated material 
 would be used only on certain interior beads 
 of multipass weldments. Ions of the traceable 
 material when cracks or corrosion penetrate 
 the interior of the specially fabricated 
 weldment. Detection of the ions by monitoring 
 the fluid being transported in a pipeline, or 
 by periodic scanning of the water adjacent to 
 a structure, would indicate the presence of 
 cracks or corrosion. The significance or 
 magnitude of a required repair or the need 
 for additional inspection could be assessed 
 by the level of ion concentration. As pre- 
 viously stated, a technique of this type 
 would not be used for all weldments but 
 reserved for critical locations. Additional 
 research and development are necessary if 
 this technique is to become operational. 
 
 for a clean, smooth surface. More expeditious 
 techniques to reduce the time required for cleaning 
 structures should be developed, though significant 
 improvements have been made in, the past several 
 years for high-pressure water jets. 
 
 The ROV offers the most immediate potential 
 for reducing the time and logistics of an under- 
 water inspection program. The various problems 
 encountered by divers when operating in deep 
 waters or hostile environments can be mitigated 
 by the use of ROV s. This is a very dynamic devel- 
 opment area of underwater technology as more and 
 more inspection requirements are being placed on 
 ROV's. The concept of an unmanned, untethered, or 
 autonomous ROV is very appealing and is presently 
 under development, though operational usage except 
 for simple tasks is several years away. 
 
 Most of the structural monitoring tech- 
 niques appear promising but will require 
 further development and field testing. Other 
 techniques investigated have significant 
 limitations that may prove impossible to 
 overcome. For example, vibration monitoring 
 in the global mode has not lived up to its 
 earlier expectations although monitoring by 
 the local method, flexibility method, trace 
 element method, and acoustic-emission tech- 
 nique appear to have various degrees of 
 merit. All of the techniques require further 
 development and testing to determine the 
 extent to which they can be relied upon and 
 the limits to which they can assess the 
 integrity of a structure. Monitoring tech- 
 niques will not totally replace the need for 
 divers and/or submersibles; however, they 
 will ensure that both divers and future ROV's 
 are used and deployed in a safe and proficient 
 manner. 
 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 This paper has highlighted the major new 
 technologies under development for inspecting 
 offshore structures. It has not presented, 
 however, a complete account of all inspection 
 techniques employed within the industry. 
 Because of the many variables and alternatives 
 inherent in an inspection program, a number 
 of requirements should be considered. Ideally, 
 an inspection program should be keyed to a 
 specific structure because no single inspection 
 technique can be successfully applied to all 
 facilities. Several important factors should 
 be recognized in selecting a specific inspec- 
 tion program and interval for a particular 
 structure--age, condition, economic importance 
 and consequence of a failure, and location. 
 All NDE techniques and interpretations are 
 operator dependent, and recent developments 
 have been directed towards reducing or remov- 
 ing this human interpretation factor from the 
 inspection process. Another problem with pre- 
 sently used NDE techniques is the requirement 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 1. Development of a New Philosophy and 
 Guidance for Effective Underwater 
 Inspection of Offshore Installation , UEG 
 Proposal 64, Underwater Engineering 
 Group, London, England, 1983. 
 
 2. Busby, R.F., Arctic Undersea Inspection 
 of Pipelines and Structures , R.F. Busby 
 Associates, Arlington, Virgi ni a , 
 
 June 1983. 
 
 3. Busby, R.F., Underwater Inspection / 
 Testing/Monitoring of Offshore 
 Structures , R.F. Busby Associates, 
 Arlington, Virginia, February 1978. 
 
 4. Dunn, F.P. , "Offshore Platform Inspection," 
 The Role of Design, Inspection, and 
 Redundancy in Marine Structural Reliability , 
 National Research Council, Washington, 
 
 D.C. , November 1983. 
 
 272 
 
NATIONAL UNDERSEA LABORATORY FOR THE 
 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA 
 
 DONALD L. KEACH 
 DIRECTOR, INSTITUTE FOR MARINE AND COASTAL STUDIES 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA 
 University Park, Los Angeles, California 90089-1231 
 
 abstract 
 
 As part of the U.S. National Oceanic and 
 Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Undersea Re- 
 search Program to foster, coordinate and sup- 
 port the nation's undersea science activities, 
 the University of Southern California (USC) 
 and NOAA have designed a semi-mobile under- 
 sea research laboratory system. The system 
 consists of a large double-lock pressure cham- 
 ber, a support barge, way stations and a per- 
 sonnel transfer chamber/deck decompression 
 chamber (PTC/DDC) for emergency rescue. 
 
 The laboratory will be initially emplaced 
 in 7 feet of water adjacent to USC's Catalina 
 [ferine Science Center on Santa Catalina Island, 
 26-miles off the southern California coast. 
 
 State-of-the-art design of the system will 
 enable scientists to perform long-term in-situ 
 research in temperate waters of the world's con- 
 tinental shelf. 
 
 Background 
 
 Historically the scientific diving commu- 
 nity has been severely restricted by the inher- 
 ent limitations of traditional diving methods. 
 Since the 194 0's the Self Contained Underwater 
 Breathing Apparatus (SCUBA) has greatly in- 
 creased access to the shallow waters of the 
 continental shelf, but bottom time below 40 
 feet is limited. 
 
 Scientific underwater habitats developed 
 in the 196 0's greatly increased bottom time, and 
 the positive result of numerous research proj- 
 ects undertaken using these facilities provided 
 the impetus for developing a new, more capable 
 underwater laboratory system. 
 
 Conceptual design of this new system was 
 initiated in 198 under a cooperative agreement 
 between NOAA and USC. Basic precepts which 
 guided the design included: 
 
 A. tfeximum mobility of the system; 
 
 B. Operation in temperate water to 120 
 feet depth; 
 
 C. Laboratory accommodations for up to 6 
 aquanauts; and, 
 
 D. Capability to conduct 12-16 saturation 
 missions of 7-10 days per year. 
 
 System Design 
 
 The underwater laboratory system will con- 
 sist of the laboratory itself, a ballasted 
 baseplate as anchor, a surface support barge, 
 personnel transfer capsule/deck decompression 
 chamber (DDC/PTC) for emergency rescue and a 
 series of "way stations" for conducting excur- 
 sions away from the laboratory and for use as 
 safety havens in an emergency. 
 
 The laboratory "building" will be an in- 
 sulated double lock 9 foot diameter pressure 
 chamber. Integral with, but external to the 
 chamber will be nitrox and compressed air cyl- 
 inders, a "wet porch" for diver entry/exit, 
 surface umbilical attachments, and other equip- 
 ment which can be housed external to the lab- 
 oratory. Overall dimensions of the laboratory 
 will be 40 feet by 12 feet by 16.5 feet in 
 he ight . 
 
 The laboratory's small outer lock will con- 
 tain sanitary facilities, an environmental con- 
 trol unit, and a "wet" laboratory. The main 
 "dry" chamber will be the principal work/ sleep- 
 ing area and contain a fully equipped laborato- 
 ry, cctnputer, control panel, environmental con- 
 trol unit, observation ports and hotel facili- 
 ties for 6 scientists. The laboratory will be 
 maintained at a comfortable temperature and 
 humidity level with an atmosphere made up of 
 nitrox (oxygen partial pressure between .21 
 and . 50 ) . This gas mixture is used at satura- 
 tion depths below 50 FSW to reduce the possibil- 
 ity of pulmonary oxygen toxicity from long 
 exposures . 
 
 The "wet porch," attached but external to 
 the outer lock, will be open to the sea for 
 diver egress and will contain a fully equipped 
 diving locker, hot tub for diver rewarming and 
 the diver umbilical attachments. Excursion div- 
 ing will be on cctnpressed air. 
 
 A series of several "way stations" will ex- 
 tend the horizontal excursion range of the di- 
 
 273 
 
vers. These mini-laboratories will be supplied 
 with gas, power, hot water and communications 
 by an umbilical linked to the main laboratory. 
 
 The surface support barge will contain all 
 the essential support equipment to enable the 
 underwater laboratory system to operate in- 
 dependent of additional external support. The 
 barge will supply the laboratory with power, 
 nitrox, hot water and fresh water. It will 
 also contain a deck decompression chamber and 
 handling equipment for the personnel transfer 
 capsule. A monitoring station onboard the 
 barge will enable a surface observer to monitor 
 all life support systems in the laboratory. 
 
 The deck decompression chamber and per- 
 sonnel transfer capsule are essentially emer- 
 gency equipment for evacuating divers from the 
 laboratory in the event of fire or other major 
 catastrophe. They may also be used for the de- 
 compression of divers who participate in a sat- 
 uration mission for periods shorter than an on- 
 going mission. In either case, the procedure 
 will involve transfer of the divers at ambient 
 bottom pressure in the PTC to the deck decom- 
 pression chamber on board the surface support 
 barge. 
 
 The normal sequence of operations will be 
 to tow the laboratory and support barge to a 
 site, launch the baseplate from the barge or 
 
 towing vessel, flood it down and secure it to 
 the bottom on an even keel, then winch the lab- 
 oratory to the bottom and secure it to the base- 
 plate. The PTC will then be lowered to the bot- 
 tom and positioned adjacent to the laboratory, 
 after which the laboratory will be occupied and 
 way stations established in desired positions. 
 
 The system can be emplaced in temperate 
 coastal waters at depths up to 120 FSW. Teth- 
 ered excursion diving may be conducted to depths 
 of 200 FSW. The system should be capable of 
 operations in sea states up to three and in 
 currents of up to one-half knot. 
 
 Status 
 
 Engineering design of the system was com- 
 pleted by Perry Oceanographies , Inc . , in 1982 . 
 After a series of delays caused by funding pro- 
 blems and design modifications, a construction 
 contract for the laboratory was awarded in Au- 
 gust 1984 to Victoria Machine Works of Victoria, 
 Texas. The completed laboratory will be deliv- 
 ered to the University's Marine Support Facility 
 on Terminal Island, Los Angeles, California, in 
 early 1986 for integration with the support 
 barge, PTC/DDC and baseplate and subsequent 
 testing. It is anticipated that the underwater 
 laboratory system will become operational for 
 scientific use in mid-1986. 
 
 274 
 
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PENN STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES 
 
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