CSS.f-ZiilSjqte USA UJNR U.S./ Japan Cooperative Program in Natural Resources 1 2TH MEETING U.S.-JAFAN MARINE FACILITIES PANEL SEPTEMbr~ ">S3 CONFERENCE RE , "T> ^o WMQggfe 'WENT Of Twelveth Meeting of the United States - Japan Cooperative Program in Natural Resources (UJNR) Panel on Marine Facilities September 1983 March 1984 u PREFACE This document contains technical papers and special reports presented at the Twelveth Meeting of the Marine Facilities Panel of the United States-Japan Cooperative Program in Natural Resources (UJNR), held August 26-27, 1983 in San Francisco, California. Following the meeting, the Panel participated in a study tour of marine facilities from September 1-13, 1983. A final meeting was held September 9, 1983. A schedule of the entire program and a summary report of the meeting and study are provided herein. The purpose of this document is to provide a permanent record, and to enable a wider dissemination of the technical information presented and exchanged at the meeting. The United States-Japan Cooperative Program in Natural Resources was established in 1964 to facilitate cooperative efforts and technology exchange in the field of natural resources that would provide a better environment for present and future generations. Seven of the 17 UJNR panels deal with marine science and technoloay and are a part of the Marine Resources and Engineering Coordination Committee (MRECC) of UJNR. Participating governmental agencies in Japan are: the Science and Technology Agency, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Environmental Agency, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, Ministry of International Trade and Industry, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Construction, and Japan Marine Science and Technology Center. Participation of governmental agencies in the United States include: the Department of Agriculture, Department of Commerce, Department of Energy, Department of Interior, Department of Transportation, Department of State, Department of Defense, and Environmental Protection Agency. The Marine Facilities Panel meeting enabled a valuable exchange of technical information between key representatives of the ocean community from Japan and the United States. Special recognition is given to Dr. Morton Smutz who served as Editor of this document. Mr. Vadus and Dr. Nagasawa OPENING REMARKS Hitoshi Nagasawa Chairman, Japan Panel It is a great pleasure for me to give an opening address on the occasion of the 12th US-Japan Joint Meeting of Marine Facilities Panel on behalf of the Japanese Panel members and advisers. I would like to express our appreciation to Chairman Mr. Vadus and all the other US Panel members for the effort and cooperation extended to us in planning and organizing an excellent technical program and study tour of marine facilities. It is an honor and privilege to serve as Chairman of the Japan Panel and to coordinate activities with Chairman Mr. Vadus and his distinguished Panel. I shall do my best to meet the objectives of our cooperative program of the development and utilization of marine resources and ocean space, and build on the accomplishments of the past chairmen and members. I appreciate the cooperation and valuable technical contributions given by the members and advisers of Japanese panel. I would especially like to acknowledge the accomplishment made by our former Chairman, Mr. Muneharu Saeki. At the 11th meeting in Tokyo in May 1982, there were 13 members and advisers from the US and 34 from Japan and a total of 57 papers and reports were exchanged and reported in conference proceedings in the Japanese and English languages. At this time, 16 participants from Japan are going to present 22 papers and reports on advanced marine facilities, ship technologies, undersea systems, and port and harbor facilities. I hope this meeting will provide a timely forum for the exchange of information useful for the experts engaged in the field of marine technology. Through these meetings, I am quite confident that, in addition to the exchange of valuable technical papers or reports, our Panel has played an important role in the development of technology in marine facilities by fostering the close personal relationships among the members and advisers of both panels. I sincerely hope that both panels will find this 12th meeting and study tour mutually rewarding and successful. i i Joseph R. Vadus Chairman, United States Panel Distinguished members and advisers of the UJNR Marine Facilities Panel and guests. On behalf of the U.S. Panel it is my pleasure to extend our warmest welcome and best wishes to Dr. Hitoshi Nagasawa, Chairman of the Japan Panel and to each of the members and advisers of the Japan Panel. It is good to be together again with so many friends, and to establish new friendships with those of you participating in a Marine Facilities Panel meeting for the first time. UJNR was established by our two governments 19 years ago to facilitate cooperative efforts and exchange of technology in the field of natural resources. Our Marine Facilities Panel, one of seven dealing with marine science and technology, is now meeting for the 12th time. We are confident that this meeting and study tour will be one of the most productive in the series. During the past year, we have broadened the membership of the U.S. Panel to include additional representatives from the U.S. Government and from the private sector. We are very pleased to include you in our UJNR association and we welcome you to this meeting. Those of us who have had the opportunity to participate in one or more previous meetings of the two panels remember the accomplishments of our tech- nology exchanges and study tours and the mutual benefits we have received from these associations. In particular, we remember the beauty of Japan and the warm hand of friendship extended to us and the hospitality of everyone. I was pleased to note that the proceedings of our 11th meeting held in Tokyo last year were printed both in English and Japanese. In order to improve our technology exchange, we have prepared pre-prints of the U.S. and Japan papers to be presented at these technical sessions. I would like to express our appreciation to Chairman Nagasawa and the Japan Panel for planning and organizing an excellent technical program in response to the U.S. request for technical information. We are also seeking opportunities for more cooperative efforts between the two panels, especially in participation in joint projects. We would like members of both delegations to keep this in mind during the presentations. We will be able to discuss such matters more fully at our closing session in Washington, D.C. We hope that your will find the technical program and study tour informa- tive, interesting and mutually beneficial. 1 1 l ITINERARY Date Local Time Aug 25 1300 1900-2100 Aug 26 0830-1700 Aug 27 0830-1300 Aug 28 1400-2000 Aug 29-31 Sept 1 1000-1700 Sept 2 Sept 3 0815-1000 1030-1200 1330-1515 1530-1630 0830 1640 Sept 4 Sept 5 Sept 6 0900-1300 ■ 1400-1600 1600-1700 Event Japan Panel arrives at San Francisco International Airport. NACOA-UJNR Reception, California Academy of Sciences. Opening of 12th Joint Meeting at the San Francisco Hilton Hotel. Meeting continued. U.S. Reception hosted by Mr. James Wenzel Saratoga, CA. OCEANS'83 Conference and Exhibits. Bus to the California Maritime Academy. Visit to the Ship Glomar Explorer. Bus to Richmond, CA. Visit Matson Lines Automatic Ro-Ro Containerization Facility. Visit Sperry Naval Integrated Storage, Tracking, and Retrieval System (NISTARS) (Automated Supply Facility in Port of Oakland). Bus tour of Port of Oakland. Briefing by Lockheed Ocean Systems Personnel Depart San Francisco for J.F. Kennedy Airport, N.Y. Arrive in New York. Bus to Garden City Hotel, Garden City, Long Island, N. Y. Free Day Free Day - U.S. Holiday (Labor Day) Visit Sperry Corporation Facilities, Great Neck, Long Island, N.Y. Visit the Maritime Administration's Computer-Aided Operations Research Facility (CA0RF), Kings Point, Long Island, N.Y. Visit Sperry Ship STAR, a seagoing marine test facility. IV Sept 7 Sept 8 Sept 9 Sept 10 Sept 11 Sept 12 0830-1230 1330-1430 1500-1600 0830-1200 1200-1300 1300-1400 1400-1630 1630-1730 1830-2030 0900-1300 1400-1600 1100 1815 0800-1700 0900-1200 Bus to International Underwater Contractors, Inc., City Island, N. Y. Presentation on IUC capabilities and tour marine facilities. Bus to La Guardia Airport. Flight to Washington National Airport Taxis to Lombardy Towers Hotel, Washington, D.C. Bus to Westinghouse Oceanic Division, Annapolis, Maryland. Presentations on Westinghouse marine activities and tour of facil ities. Bus to Baltimore Harbor. Visit Aquarium. To Baltimore Port Authority conference room, World Trade Center. Presentation on Harbor Facilities. Tour of Baltimore Harbor. Return to Lombardy Towers Hotel. Reception at National Academy of Sciences, hosted by Japan Panel. Final Meeting, National Academy of Sciences, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N. W. Washington, D. C. Special Session conducted by Dr. Noboru Hamada on "Sail Rigged Ships". Depart to Honolulu via Washington National Airport. Arrive Honolulu airport. Visit to Island of Hawaii including: Sea Coast Test Facility for 0TEC research and development, geothermal wells, and the University of Hawaii. Visit University of Hawaii. Presentations on High Technology Programs. Sept 13 0900 Depart for Tokyo FINAL MEETING The final meeting was held at the National Academy of Sciences Building, 2100 Constitution Avenue, Washington, D.C., on September 9, 1983, with Mr. Joseph R. Vadus presiding and Professor John Flipse, Chairman of the Marine Board, National Research Council, serving as host. Dr. Robert White, President of the National Academy of Engineering, sent a message of welcome but was not able to attend. Mr. Vadus summarized activities of the 12th meeting and study tour and expressed the hope that all objectives were accomplished. Dr. Nagasawa thanked Mr. Vadus and other members of the U.S. Panel for their efforts in making the meetings and tour successful. A question and answer period followed between participants concerning various subjects discussed at the conference. Mr. Vadus announced that the U.S. would again publish an English version of the Conference Record of the 12th meeting and would distribute these to members, advisers, and key individuals in the marine community. Mr. Vadus commented on the difficulties encountered in arranging joint projects between two countries. Arrangements for scholar exchange and for diving technology training have been arranged. Cooperative research projects are much more difficult. A discussion followed on possible areas of coopera- tion. Professor Flipse pointed out the scientific success of deep-ocean drilling projects depend on engineering advances, and suggested that it would be timely for Japan industry to become involved. Dr. Nagasawa asked for initial suggestions and requests for the 13th meeting in Japan. Mr. Vadus had earlier discussed the possibility of holding our meeting sometime between March and September 1985 to take advantage of the opportunity to attend Expo '85 in Tsukuba City. Dr. Nagasawa suggested Monday, March 25, as a tentative starting date in Tokyo. After a two-day technical meeting, four or five days would be spent visiting marine facilities in the Tokyo area followed by visits to facilities in Hokaido and in the northeast of Honshu before returning to Tokyo for the final meeting. Mr. Vadus adjourned the meeting with thanks to all participants and announced a special presentation to be held that afternoon by Dr. Noboru Hamada on "Sail Rigged Ships." VI PARTICIPANTS Japan Members Dr. Hitoshi Nagasawa, Chairman Mr. Ryuichiro Seki Mr. Norio Tanaka Advisers Mr. Tamio Ashino Mr. Hiromichi Fujii Dr. Noboru Hamada Dr. Seizo Motora Mr. Ikuo Mutoh Mr. Yukihiro Narita Mr. Masao Ono Mr. Masanao Oshima Mr. Muneharu Saeki Mr. Akihiko Sempaku Mr. Kiyoshi Shibata Dr. Naonosuke Takarada Mr. Masanobu Terada Organizations Ship Research Institute Ship Bureau, Ministry of Transport Port & Harbor Research Institute Japan Marine Machinery Development Assoc. Japan Marine Science & Technology Center Japan Marine Machinery Development Assoc. Nagasaki Institute of Applied Science Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding Co., Ltd, Japan Marine Machinery Development Assoc. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding Co., Ltd Japan Marine Science & Technology Center Nippon Kokan K.K. Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries Ltd. Sumitomo Heavy Industries Company, Ltd Hitachi Zosen Corporation Observers Mr. Y. Fujiwara Mr. Hiroshi Kagemoto Aitoku Company, Ltd. Ship Research Institute United States Members Mr. Joseph R. Vadus, Chairman Capt. Jack W. Boiler, USN(Ret) Mr. James G. Gross Mr. J. D. Hightower Dr. Kilho Park Capt. James M. Patton Dr. Alan Powell Mr. John A. Pritzlaff Mr. William E. Richards Dr. Morton Smutz Mr. James W. Winchester Organization National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration National Academy of Sciences Department of Transportation Naval Ocean Systems Center National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration Naval Ocean Systems Center David W. Taylor Naval Ship R&D Center Westinghouse Electric Corporation U.S. Department of Energy National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration Advisers Mr. Frank Busby Dr. John P. Craven Mr. Phillip Eisenberg Prof. John E. Flipse R. Frank Busby Associates University of Hawai i Texas A&M University VI 1 Advisers (cont'd) Mr. Andre Gal erne Mr. Ben C. Gerwick Mr. W. Gregory Hal pin Mr. Donald Keach Mr. Gilbert L. Ma ton Mr. Kurt Merl Mr. Richard M. Shamp Dr. Don Walsh Mr. James G Wenzel Observers Mr. Steven N. Anastasion Mr. William S. Busch Mr. John Freund Dr. Robert Friedheim Mr. J. Paul Lyet Mr. Denzil Paul i Dr. Andreas Rechnitzer Mr. Robert Rupp Dr. Reuben 0. Schlegelmilch Mr. Howard R. Talkington Dr. Luis Vega International Underwater Contractors, Inc Consulting Construction Engineer Maryland Port Administration University of Southern California Tracor-Jitco, Inc. Sperry Corporation Engineering Service Associates, Inc. International Maritime, Inc. Lockheed Missiles & Space Company, Inc. National Advisory Committee on Oceans & Atmos, National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration Naval Sea Systems Command University of Southern California President's Export Council National Academy of Science U. S. Naval Observatory Sperry Corporation U.S. Coast Guard Headquarters Naval Ocean Systems Command EG&G Meeting Room at San Francisco Hilton Hotel VI 1 1 CONFERENCE ATTENDEES AT SAN FRANCISCO HILTON Seated (L to R): Standing (L to R): ^* Y. Narita, M. Terada, A. Sempaku, N. Takarada, M. Ono, M. Oshima, I. Mutoh, S. Motora M. Smutz, K. Park, H. Talkington, F. Busby, J. Flipse, J. Wenzel , D. Paul i , L. Vega, J. Pritzlaff, J. Winchester, G Maton, J. Gross m Seated (L to R): Standing (L to R): N. Tanaka, H. Nagawawa, T. Ashino, R. Seki, M. Saeki, H Fujii, K. Shibata, H. Kagemoto R. Schlegelmilch, A. Powell, J. Vadus, J. Craven, J. Boiler, R. Shamp, D. Hightower, J. Patton, J. Freund, R, Friedheim, K. Merl , R. Rupp, A. Rechnitzer IX JAPAN PANEL Members Dr. Hitoshi Nagasawa, Chairman Director-General Ship Research Institute Ministry of Transport 38-1, 6-chome, Shinkawa, Mitaka-shi Tokyo, Japan Mr. Hirotomo Fujii Director, Construction Division Bureau of Ports and Harbours Ministry of Transport 1-3, 2-chome, Kasumigaseki , Chiyoda-ku Tokyo, Japan Dr. Yoshimi Goda Director, Hydrodynamic Engineering Division Port and Harbor Research Institute Ministry of Transport 1-1, 3-chome, Nagase, Yokosuka-shi Kanagawa-ken, Japan Dr. Masaya Hirosawa Director, Structural Engineering Department Building Research Institute Ministry of Construction 1-Tachihara Ohho-machi , Tsukuba-gun Ibaraki-ken, Japan Mr. Kiyoshi Katagiri Chief, Buoy Robot Unit Oceanographical Agency Meteorological Agency 3-4, 1-chome, Ote-machi, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo, Japan Dr. Toshifumi Noma Chief, Hydraulics on Aquaculture National Research Institute of Fisheries Engineering Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishery Ebidai, Hasaki-machi , Kashima-gun Ibaraki-ken, Japan Mr. Mitsuru Ogawara Director, Sea-Coast Division River Bureau Ministry of Construction 1-3, 2-chome, Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo, Japan Mr. Shoichiro Ohara Director, Engineering Division Aids to Navigation Department Maritime Safety Agency 1-3, 2-chome, Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo, Japan Mr. Hiromichi Sasaki Research Coordinator Ship Research Institute Ministry of Transport 38-1, 6-chome, Shinkawa, Mitaka-shi Tokyo, Japan Mr. Ryuichiro Seki Vice Director Technical Division, Ship Bureau Ministry of Transport 2-1-3, Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo, Japan Dr. Shoji Shimamura Director Material Engineering Department Mechanical Engineering Lab. Ministry of International Trade & Industry 1-2, Namiki, Sakuramura, Niihari-gun Ibaraki-ken, Japan Mr. Kuniro Sugiura Chief Hydrographer Hydrographic Department Maritime Safety Agency 3-1, 5-chome, Tsukiji, Chuo-ku Tokyo, Japan Members (cont'd Advisers Mr. Toshiyoshi Tada Head, Oceanographial Research Div. Meteorological Research Inst. Meteorological Agency 1-1, Nagamine, Yatabe-machi , Tsukuba-gun Ibaraki-ken, Japan Dr. Hajime Takahashi Director, Ship Propulsion Division Ship Research Institute Ministry of Transport 38-1, 6-chome, Shinkawa, Mitaka-shi Tokyo, Japan Dr. Yoshifumi Takaishi Director, Ocean Engineering Div. Ship Research Institute Ministry of Transport 38-1, 6-chome, Shinkawa, Mitaka-shi Tokyo, Japan Dr. Hajime Tsuchida Director, Structures Division Port and Harbour Research Institute Ministry of Transport 1-1, 3-chome, Nagase, Yokosuka-shi Kanagawa-ken, Japan Mr. Mutsuo Tsuchiya Director, Technology Division Ship Bureau Ministry of Transport 1-3, 2-chome, Kasumigaseki , Chiyoda-ku Tokyo, Japan Mr. Yasuo Ueta Director, Marine Engine Division Ship Research Institute Ministry of Transport 38-1, 6-chome, Shinkawa, Mitaka-shi Tokyo, Japan Mr. Kunio Yamamoto Head, Structure Division Structure and Bridge Dept. Public Works Research Institute Ministry of Construction 1-Oaza Asahi, Toyosato-cho, Tsukuba-gun Ibaraki-ken, Japan Dr Noritaka Ando General Manager, Shipbuilding Research Association of Japan 15-16, 1-chome, Toranomon, Minato-ku Tokyo, Japan Mr. Tamio Ashino Technical Adviser, Japan Marine Machinery Development Association Senpaku-Shinko Building 15-16, 1-chome, Toranomon, Minato-ku Tokyo, Japan Dr. Noboru Hamada President, Japan Marine Machinery Development Association Senpaku Shinko Building 15-16, Toranomon, 1-chome, Minato-Ku Tokyo, 105, Japan Mr. Kenichi Hirabayashi Senior Manager, Ocean Engineering Research & Development Department Kawasaki Heavy Industries Co. ,Ltd. 4-1, 2-chome, Hamamatsu-cho, Minato-ku Tokyo, Japan Mr. Yasuhide Koshimura Director, Ocean Development & Utilization Division Secretariat to the Minister Ministry of Transport 1-3, 2-chome, Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo, Japan Dr. Seizo Motora President, Nagasaki Institute of Applied Science 536, Amiba-cho, Nagasaki-shi Nagasaki-ken, Japan Mr. Ikuo Mutoh Managing Director, Mitsui Ocean Development & Engineering Co., Ltd Shogakkan Building 3-1, 2-chome, Hi totsubashi , Chiyoda-ku Tokyo, Japan XI Advisers (cont'd) Mr. Yukihiro Narita Chief, Japan Marine Machinery Development Association Senpaku-Shinko Building 15-16, Toranomon 1-chome, Minato-ku Tokyo, Japan Mr. Kenji Okamura Counsellor, Ryowa Ocean Engineering Company, Ltd. 5-1, 2-chome, Marunouchi, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo, Japan Mr. Masao Ono Chief Naval Architect Shipbuilding and Steel Structures Headquarters Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. 5-1, Marunouchi 2-chome, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo, 100, Japan Mr. Masanao Oshima Deputy Director Ship & Ocean Project Headquarters Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding Company, Ltd. 6-4, 5-chome, Tsukiji, Chuo-ku Tokyo, Japan Mr. Muneharu Saeki Executive Director Japan Marine Science & Technology Center (JAMSTEC) 2-15, Natsushima-cho Yokosuka, 237, Japan ■ Mr. Taisuke Sameshima Director-General Japan Dredging & Reclamation Engineering Association Toranomon Kotohira Kaikan Bldg 1-Shiba Kotohira-cho, Minato-ku Tokyo, Japan Mr. Akihiko Sempaku Assistant Project Manager North Rankin Project Team Nippon Kokan K.K. 1-2, 1-chome, Marunouchi, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo, Japan Mr. Atsushi Shaku Director International Affairs Div. Promotion Bureau Science and Technology Agency 2-1, 2-chome, Kasumigaseki , Chiyoda-ku Tokyo, Japan Mr. Kiyoshi Shibata Manager, Ocean Engineering Dept. Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries Co. , Ltd. 6-2, 1-chome, Marunouchi, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo, Japan Dr. Naonosuke Takarada General Manager Hiratsuka Research Laboratory Sumitomo Heavy Industries Co. Ltd, 63-30, Yuhigaoka, Hiratsuka-shi Kanagawa-ken, Japan Mr. Norio Tanaka Director, Port and Harbour Research Institute Ministry of Transport 3-1-1, Nagese, Yokosuka Kanagawa, Japan Mr. Masanobu Terada Manager, Marine Production Div. Hitachi Zosen Corporation 6-14, Edobori 1-chome, Nishi-ku Osaka, 550, Japan Mr. Kuniji Toda Director, Technology and Traffic Safety Division Secretariat to the Minister Ministry of Transport 1-3, 2-chome, Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo, Japan Mr. Masao Tsuge Director, Ocean Development Div. Research Coordination Bureau Science and Technology Agency 2-1, 2-chome, Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo, Japan XI 1 U.S. PANEL Members Mr. Joseph R. Vadus, Chairman National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration Office of Oceanography & Marine Services 11400 Rockville Pike, Room 630 Rockville, MD 20852 Dr. Peter W. Anderson Chief, Marine & Wetlands Protection Branch U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 26 Federal Plaza, Region II New York, NY 10278 Capt. Jack W. Boiler, USN(Ret) Executive Director Marine Board National Academy of Sciences 2101 Constitution Ave., N.W. Washington, DC 20418 Mr. Eugene S. Burcher U.S. Department of Energy Forrestal Building, Room 5E098 1000 Independence Ave., S.W. Washington, DC 20585 Mr. J. D. Hightower Head, Environmental Science Department Naval Oceans Systems Center P.O. Box 997 Kailua, HI 96734 Capt. John Howland Director, Deep Submergence Systems U.S. Department of the Navy Code OP-23, Pentagon Washington, DC 20350 Mr. Richard B. Krahl Staff Assistant Land & Water Resources Department of Interior 18 & C Streets, N.W. Washington, DC 20240 Dr. Kilho Park National Oceanic & Atmospheric Admin. Ocean Assessment Division 11400 Rockville Pike, Room 660 Rockville, MD 20852 Capt. James M. Patton Commander Naval Ocean Systems Center San Diego, CA 95152 Mr. Thomas Pross Acting Administrator Shipbuilding, Operations, & Research Department of Transportation 400 Seventh Street, S.W. Washington, DC 20590 Dr. Alan Powell Technical Director David Taylor Naval Ship Research & Development Center Bethesda, MD 20084 Mr. William E. Richards U.S. Department of Energy Forrestal Building, Room 5E098 1000 Independence Ave., SW Washington, DC 20585 Dr. Morton Smutz Executive Secretary National Oceanic & Atmospheric Admin. 11400 Rockville Pike, Room 630 Rockville, MD 20852 Rear Adm. K. G. Wiman Chief, Office of Research & Development U.S. Coast Guard Headquarters 2100 Second Street, S.W. Washington, DC 20593 Dr. James W. Winchester Associate Administrator National Oceanic & Atmospheric Admin Herbert C. Hoover Building Washington, DC 20230 Xll 1 Advisers Mr. Walter Abernathy Executive Director Oakland Port Authority 66 Jack London Square Oakland, CA 94607 Mr. Frank Busby R. Frank Busby Associates 576 South 23rd Street Arlington, VA 22202 Dr. John P. Craven Professor of Ocean Engineering University of Hawaii Marine Sciences Building Room 226 1000 Pope Rd. Honolulu, HI 96822 Mr. Phillip Eisenberg 6402 Tulsa Lane Bethesda, MD 20034 Prof. John E. Flipse Professor, Ocean Engineering Texas A & M University College Station, TX 77843 Mr. Andre Galerne President, International Underwater Contractors, Inc. City Island, NY 10464 Mr. Ronald L. Geer Senior Mechanical Engineering Consultant Shell Oil Company P.O. Box 2463 Houston, TX 77001 Mr. Ben C. Gerwick Consulting Construction Engineer Suite 803 500 Sansome Street San Francisco, CA 94111 Mr. W. Gregory Hal pin Port Administrator Maryland Port Administration World Trade Center Baltimore, MD 21202 Mr. Arthur J. Haskell Senior Vice President Matson Navigation Company P.O. Box 3933 333 Market Street San Francisco, CA 94119 Mr. Donald Keach Deputy Director Institute for Marine & Coastal Studies University of Southern California Los Angeles, CA 90089 Mr. Gilbert L. Maton President Tracor-Jitco, Inc 1776 East Jefferson Street Rockville, MD 20852 Mr. Clifford E. McLain President SPC Ventures 1500 Wilson Boulevard Arlington, VA 22209 Mr. Kurt Merl Vice President & General Manager Sperry Corporation Great Neck, NY 11020 Mr. William M. Nicholson 1672 St. Albans Square Annapolis, MD 21401 Mr. Marvin Pitkin Ship Analytics Suite 1012 2001 Jefferson Arlington, VA 22202 Mr. John A. Pritzlaff Program Manager Oceanic Division Westinghouse Electric Corporation P.O. Box 1488 Annapolis, MD 21404 Dr. Richard J. Seymour Scripps Institution of Oceanography University of California Mail Code A-022 La Jolla, CA 92093 xiv Advisers (cont'd) Mr. Richard M. Shamp President Engineering Service Assoc, Inc. 1500 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W. Washington, DC 20005 Dr. Don Walsh International Suite 217 839 S. Beacon San Pedro, CA Maritime, Inc, Street 90731 Mr. James G Wenzel Vice President Ocean Systems Lockheed Missiles & Space Company, Inc. 1111 Lockheed Way Sunnyvale, CA 94086 O. Mr Vadus presenting award to Mr. Tamio Ashino for his dedication, leadership, and valuable contributions over many years in the development and advancement of the UJNR Program. xv SPECIAL PRESENTATION \ Noboru Hamada President Japan Marine Machinery Development Association THE WORLD'S FIRST MOTOR-SAILS TANKER "SHIN AITOKU MARU" 1. The circumstances of the birth of the motor tanker equipped with sail. (1) At the beginning, I planned to save energy by equipping the conven- tional ship with sails but I got the approval of only three owners due to the first attempt. I began the investigation of the plan for the conventional ship "Aitoku Maru" according to the constructive proposal by President Fujiwara of Aitoku Co., Ltd. (2) The owner who intended to furnish the conventional ship had a hard time making a decision because of an expenditure of about one hundred million yen for the development which would include hull reconstruction, docking time of one month, and the anxiety of the instability of the ship caused by tall sailing gear. (3) The owner, being actively involved with advance technoloqy, could endure the possible economical situation caused by insufficient energy savings produced by _ the use of sails, but from the technical standpoint the purpose of utilizing wind would fade away. Accordingly, we gave careful investigation and consideration to the carrying out of our plan. (4) The owner wished at the beginning to adopt an automatic control system not only for the sails but also for the main engine in order to save manpower, but this system was excluded due to minimization of expenditures under the condition of indistinctness of sailing performance. xvi (5) The owner proposed the suspension of an offer of the conventional ship under an uncomfortable atmosphere caused by much anxiety over the economical problem and the safety of the ship equipped with sails. So I had to change my plan and investigate again using all possible means. (6) To meet the owner's request, I got approval f re n the Japan Ship- building Industry Foundation to prolong our plan tc crr^te a two year project. On the other hand, I again asked the owner to furnish the conventional ship, stressina that when considering the rising cost of oil the sail-rigged ship (engine main with sail auxiliary) could prevail throughout the world's oceans. (7) Meanwhile, the early spring in 1980 the owner proposed to make energy saving ship by improved navigational performance with utilize wind even if the effect of sail becomes small. And I could get the same opinion with the owner to build as a whole the high economical ship equipped with sail of fine type hull includes bow and stern form, propulsion system with suitable propeller, main engine and main shaft generator system, exhaust gas utilize system and adopts newly developed machinery which were developed by our association. Thus the project forwards on step to the realization of the ship equipped with sail . (8) I have proposed the alteration of our plan again to the Japan Ship- building Industry Foundation and could get the great advance to the realiza- tion of the sail equipped commercial ship by the special consideration and assistance toward the tangible plan for the sailing tanker as future ship. (9) First of all, I have investigated the safety of the sail equipped ship together with the owner and asked to the Ship Bureau, Ministry of Trans- port because we have not yet the Registration of J.G. for sail ship. Fortunately we could hold "the Committee of investigate the safety of sail equipped ship" under Chairman Dr. Motora, the professor of Tokyo University _ with a member from Ship Bureau, Ministry of Transport. And got the conclusion that the ship is not passenger ship but the safety is guaranteed according to "the coefficient 1 of safety factor C of passenger ship enter service to international navigation (This is not apply also to the ferry of coastwise service)", so that the ship was built as coastal service. (10) The building of sail equipped tanker was decided on February 1980 between the owner and Japan Marine Machinery Development Association with extensive support. In September 1980, the world first sail equipped tanker "Shin Aitoku Maru" was launched with eight months only. An information medium reported to foreign countries via satellite as well as domestic. But there were some cold wind rather than favorable wind against "50% effective of energy saving". 2. The actual result of "Shin Aitoku Maru" Sail equipped tanker "Shin Aitoku Maru" has continued the voyage during one and half year since September the year before last without any trouble. So that by inspection of two years after, the durability namely the least of maintenance fee will be confirmed. xvi i When I have planned sail equipped commercial ship seven years ago, I could not get much support. And received many attentions that I should investigate meteorological condition first and favorable navigation route for sailing ship before commencement. In short, there are great many opposite opinions. When I planned sail equipped ship, I started with the intention of contributing to curtail oil even the slightest amount. But the actual result of sail equipped "Shin Aitoku Maru" has indicated unexpected excellent performance. The ship has an excellent stability at rough weather so that continued to operate up to now without took shelter which these small ships usually have to carry out. This means to execute an unexpected high ratio of operation not only achieved the result to save fuel cost of more than 50 percent. From operating results rolling and pitching of "Shin Aitoku Maru" are very small and able to navigate against rough weather of 30 m/sec wind speed and 7 M wave height so that could operate without rest of a single day. Moreover, the sailing gear of the lifting type hard sail could utilize the wind except from 40°forward that means utilize all of the wind from 360° direction. And this is verify by the fact of better stability of sailing ship when navigated in rough weather of 15 m/sec wind together with the same type sister ship "Aitoku Maru" which is scheduled to equip the sailing gear. As the conclusion, the sailing gear has achieved unforeseen important results of energy saving as well as the stability of the ship. The principal operating results are the following: (1) The Sea of Japan during winter season with snowing by 30 m/sec wind which until now such a small ship could not navigate, but "Shin Aitoku Maru" has entered to Niigata Port. It was on 6th January and the reason of excellent stability was not yet elucidated. According to the captain of "Shin Aitoku Maru", he has received the information about 30 hours before that the unloading will be impossible until next 8 o'clock unless enter into the port till 16 o'clock on 14th January in rough weather of 20 m/sec wind. It has verified the excellent stability and regularity by enter into the port at 16 o'clock 45 minutes on 14th January before one hour and fifteen minutes front of the scheduled time and the ship got high reliability for regularity form shipper. (2) Even the ship was engine main with sail auxiliary, the operating results without engine and sail only of 3.75 knots speed by 6 m/sec breeze from stern side, two hours more than 8 knots speed by 25 m/sec wind from stern side, and has better stability with comfortableness compare with using engine have been confirmed. (3) I have received many inquiries about the effect of saving energy by sail and these sailing ships use estimated horsepower which read out from instrument in actual operation. But it was proved 40 - 50 horsepower smaller than actual power in case of 900 estimated horsepower according to the XVI 1 1 calculation by computer which introduced in order to analyze low fuel consumption level of 130 g/psh of the ship. It has confirmed by comparison of operating results during wintertime with the same type sister ship (not equipped sail now but will equip as soon as sail is completed) that the effect of saving energy by sail only is 30%. (4) I got the report that at the sea trial of wave height 3 m, wind direction right 45°, wind speed 15m equipped only one sail gear unfurled on the forecastle of the ship the condition of left 10°, right 26°, period 7.9/s was changed at once to left 15° right 22° period 7.3/s by furled the sail and in case of unfurled, the rolling angle decreased more than 30%, period approach to 8/s with much comfortable condition. (5) From one year actual operating results, the mean horsepower of this ship was 850 horsepower at 12 knots speed. In case of the same voyage with mean speed of conventional ship the horsepower is 650 horsepower. The mean horsepower was 11,000 and maximum was 1050 horsepower when came back quickly from Formosa at 14 knots speed. (6) According to the investigation at the dock just one year after, the surface smoothness of propeller was as same as launch time by mean of water grinding due to the idle rotation of propeller when cruising at more than 12 knots by sail only. Based upon this fact and the results from (5), the blade area of propeller was reduced to 20% lighten weight (from 265 kg to 217 kg) and the propeller of 1600 horsepower was replaced by 1200 horsepower propeller which is the limit of common use for the sail equipped ship, and also changed the smoothness of the blade to 6 (ordinary 12 to 15 at brand-new) This new propeller was fitted to the ship in January 1982 and could confirm about / percent less fuel consumption on the same voyage compare with the old one. (7) Conventionally, the ship has oil purifier and prevent the sludge flows into the main engine. But this ship has homogenizer and can burn the sludge and water which will be about 900 liters by one year so that also can save the labor and expenditure. (8) "Shin Aitoku Maru" has on board as much as 936 each of parts and machinery and all of these were controlled by computer as same as the ware- house on shore. In spite of small number of eight crews, the supply and exchange of these parts and machinery can carry out quite simply owing to the input of the software which able to supply these parts and machinery during several years. And by this we can confirm to keep in warehouse the minimum necessary amount of stock for the ship. Usually, the reports after the delivery of the ship are limited only for accident or trouble. But I must appreciate much for the cooperation of the owner, captain and crews of the ship to collect the data which will be very useful for the next sail equipped ship. And moreover these are fulfilled by only eight crews without any additional investigator. xix SPECIAL PRESENTATION J. Paul Lyet Former Chairman, Sperry Corporation Chairman, President's Export Council INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT It s a great pleasure to be with you today. It gives me a chance to give you some views about two subjects that are \/ery important to us... "inter- national trade" and "technology." As Kurt Merl pointed out, the core of Sperry' s business relationship with Japan is high technology. So, Japan's interests and views are always under consideration by Sperry. They are important to us. Today, high technology is becoming more of an issue between nations. And that leads me to discuss some things with you from my perspec- tive as chairman of President Reagan's export council. Today's issues in international technology can be illustrated best by a case study that's very close to Sperry. The first electronic computer was introduced to the public just 37 years ago. The inventors were faculty members of the Moore School of Electrical Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania, Dr. John Mauchly and Presper Eckert, who founded their own company. Later, their company joined Sperry and was the forerunner of our computer systems operations. Dr. Mauchly died but Presper Eckert is still with Sperry. That underlines the fact that the information processing revolution is very young. At the beginning, people, corporations and govern- ments thought of the computer as a novelty with limited significance. It was xx created under military contracts for wartime purposes. Very few people saw its commercial potential. I can tell you from direct experience that Sperry and a few other companies invested tens of millions of dollars in computer technology for 15 years before any of us made any profit from it. Sometimes we were faulted for making "bad" investments. Today that perception has reversed. Information technology now has great economic and political impor- tance. So much so, in fact, that channels of technology trade between nations are threatened. There's a fundamental convergence of interests in technology and trade. So, in my view the number one challenge facing the international economy today is the issue of keeping technology trade open and growing. I believe two major trends will dominate U.S. and Japanese world trade for the rest of this century. These are: o The rapid evolution of the global economy o The much more rapid evolution of high technology. The United States, Japan and other industrial nations can't escape growing interdependence, like it or not. I think Japan is much more alert to this than the United States. In the past we in the United States tended to think of ourselves, naively, as self-sufficient. To some extent we were. But, from now on all countries have to recognize that self-sufficiency is not compatible with a modern industrial state, no matter how much we admire the ideal. So, we all have to find ways to manage in a global economy. The best medium is open trade. The United States is the largest international trader. And Japan is next largest. But, we in the United States have fallen into the economically dangerous position of importing more than we export. In 1982, our merchandise trade deficit was $42.5 billion. This year our merchandise trade deficit could reach $70 billion. In the past this deficit usually was offset by our exports of services and international financial transactions. But even there (balance on current account) we are now in deficit. It has become politically convenient to blame this on our foreign trading partners. Japan has drawn blame and so have European nations. Some blame is deserved. But most of the deficit is due to our own shortcomings. The United States is addressing this in a positive way. We're seriously attempting to avoid protectionism by working to increase exports. Obviously, that's difficult with the dollar as strong as it is. But U.S. interest rates won't stay high forever, nor will the dollar stay high relative to the yen, the deutschmark, the pound and other major currencies. So, we are preparing for the change in the tide. The dollar has been unduly high in relation to other currencies for many reasons. o Interest rates have been relatively high - reasons have been the Federal Reserve's monetary policy has been designed to dampen inflation and to endeavor to offset the failure of inflationary fiscal policy with its enormous deficits. As inflation has diminished, monetary policy has loosened and rates have eased, - but they are still too high and foreign money is still chasing the dollar. There has been an attempt at inter- vention, but it has not been and cannot be a solution. xxi o The dollar is a reserve currency and a safe haven currency and thus monetary flows have been distorted by heavy outflows from economically depressed countries in Europe and elsewhere. o OPEC deals in dollars - Thus petro dollar demand has raised dollar values. Countries in many parts of the world, desperate for trade have lowered the value of their currencies - either by acts of omission or acts of commission -- restrictions on inward capital flows, interest rate ceil ings. Last fall President Reagan signed into law the Export Trading Company Act of 1982. And, I'm happy to note, that this was the number one item on the agenda of the President's export council. My colleagues and I worked very hard for it. The significance of this law can be measured against the fact that two-thirds of Japan's exports are through ETCS. So, we've learned an important lesson from you. I hope we can execute that approach as well as Japan. The sector where the United States still has a major export advantage is in high technology. .. "information processing", "guidance and control systems", "aerospace", "communications", "polymers", "electro-optics", "biology", and so on. These are growth industries today. But their expansion is just begin- ning. Science-based enterprises grow at a much more rapid rate than do more fundamental industries, such as steel. They take much less from the society in terms of environmental and other concerns. They give much more, in terms of human progress. So, today, we see each of the industrialized nations acting in various ways to encourage domestic high technology development. The way they do that concerns all of us. When they do it openly and in a positive way, we all benefit. When they do it in ways that shut out others, that hurts all of us. Technology trade is an umbrella phrase. It covers several related sectors. These include: o technology sales - the sale of products embracing high technology; o technology exchange, licenses, and know-how; and o technology protectionism. The "sale" of technology is the least troublesome. But in the United States it's becoming more so. There are two aspects to the issue. The first goes to the "strategic interests" concern. There's a view in some quarters that sale of high technology products to nations whose policies we oppose helps those nations, while the sale of grain or low technology products doesn't. That's a legitimate and widely held view. This is a very difficult and complicated problem: o Our government controls the export of our high technology products - but there are often disagreements between the Commerce, State and Defense Departments. o The rules are less stringent for shipment to our allies - but are compli- cated because we try to control the reshipments from our allies to others. xxi i o Our allies do not have the same degree of concern as we as to certain countries - or, more correctly, - they put trade before principle and we lose the business. So, there is much debate on the subject and it has intensified because the export administration law is about to expire, and Congress must pass a new one. The second aspect of this problem is competition. Many countries are competing for international high technology markets through subsidy or other arrangements. The United States has no adequate response. And, while the general agreement on tariffs and trade helps, it has no policing provisions. COCOM is supposed to result in a common approach on controlled items, but it is nothing more than a gentlemen's agreement. Next we look at technology exchange. This is a very complicated issue. It means much more than the shipment of products from place to place. Rather, essentially, it's the transfer of knowledge from mind to mind. In fact, this U.S. -Japan facilities panel is an example of technology transfer at work. You exchange ideas more than anything else. That's valuable for the future of both countries. Unfortunately, high technology has growing national strategic implications, not only in Japan and the United States, but in every other major country as well. These go beyond purely military concerns into fundamental economics. The questions that each of our countries must ask are: o Where will we be 10 years or a 100 years from now? o Strong or weak? o A leader or a follower? One thing we all know for sure is that high technology will be a big part of that future. So, the exchange of technology is not just important to individual nations, it's important to the world. But, like all other trade, it must be fair. In the long run I don't think there's any way to prevent the exchange of knowledge. But some nations think there is. So we see attempts to shut down certain channels of information. I don't pretend to have a solution to the contradiction between the need for each nation to maintain its military and economic security and the need for technology exchange. There are no absolutes. These conflicts have to be resolved case-by-case. An issue related closely to this is the growing amount of control on the flow of information between nations. This is called transborder data flow. This trend is not only a growing impediment to technology transfer, it's also affecting day-to-day operations of international business. In fact, trans- border data flow controls are one way some countries are force-feeding their domestic data processing industries — West Germany, Canada, France and Brazil are examples. This, too, is a complicated issue. But it boils down to a simple questions: Are we going to maintain an unimpeded flow of information, or is information going to be treated as a state secret?... Or as a commodity subject to taxes, controls, and censorship? We will probably always need and always have some "protectionism" to protect our core industries. The free trade promise that "comparative advantage" should dictate sourcing through the unimpeded functioning of the market system is fine so XXI 1 1 long as it does not operate to leave nations at the mercy of foreign suppliers of products essential to security. This is a subject being debated all over the United States today as we seek to determine whether we should have a more structured industrial policy. This gets into productivity R&D, stockpiling, government subsidies for industry, tariffs, educational policies targeting and the like (the market system will prevail!). Licensing - The view still persists in the U.S. that we have more to lose than to gain. Anyone familiar with where many of the best ideas are coming from today in all fields knows we have much to gain. I think our goal must be ful me to the final issue of protecti of nations, for domestic politica foreign competition. The GATT ag preventing that. Indeed, I think But attempting to meet them is a we now see many nations protectin preventing imports from abroad, protect. And, it's not just the third world nations are attemptin protectionist modes. Brazil is j 1 and fair freedom of exchange. That brings onism. Unfortunately, it is often the policy 1 reasons, to protect their industries from reements over the years have been aimed at most nations recognize their obligations, slow and frustrating process. In technology g the development of domestic technology by I think they hurt themselves more than they industrial countries. Some of the so-called g a quantum leap into high technology through ust one example. So, in brief, those are the principal issues that I see affecting the future of foreign trade in high technology: o The need to increase technology sales o The need to aid technology exchange on a fair basis o The need to limit technology protectionism. Trade is much more than a way to exchange goods and services. It is the medium for the exchange of ideas and the development of progress. If trade benefits are to work on a global scale then we must make certain now that walls aren't built to prevent high technology trade between nations. Natural a^ MARINE FACILITIES PANEL XXIV FIELD TOUR September 1-13, 1983 GLOMAR EXPLORER , San Francisco Bay (September 1, 1983) The visit to the GLOMAR EXPLORER was arranged and conducted as a part of the OCEANS '83 Conference. The GLOMAR EXPLORER was originally designed as a heavy-lift, deepsea vessel in the Pacific. The National Science Foundation let a contract to Lockheed, SEDCO, Earl & Wright, Western Gear Corporation, and Honeywell Marine Systems for preliminary design of the EXPLORER conversion to a drill ship. Design work was completed in mid-1983. The accompanying figure shows the converted configuration. The redesign calls for three new azimuthing thrusters (retractable) below the keel, relocation of deck cranes, provision of blowout preventer stacks, new derricks, automatic piperacker, and core elevator. tit.;- 1 ' - ^ w'M'M Port-Side View of Glomar Explorer xxv MATSON TERMINALS, INC. , Port of Richmond, California (September 2, 1983) Captain William Matson sailed his three-masted schooner from San Francisco, California to Hilo, Hawaii in 1882, thus initiating what has now become a major west coast marine corporation. In 1925, Matson Terminals was established as a wholly-owned subsidiary. The company is headquartered in San Francisco with terminals in Honolulu, Seattle, Port of Oakland, Port of Richmond, and Los Angeles. In 1976, Matson Terminals began work with the City of Richmond, California, to develop the Port's first container-handling facility. Matson Terminals is now under contract to manage and operate the MATSYSTEM (Matson Automated Terminal System) at Terminal 3. MATSYSTEM consists of a shoreside container crane on the wharf area, a container conveyor system, a yard gantry crane, and a "Transtainer" for properly loading and unloading containers on trucks. The system provides efficient container handling and precise positioning of containers both on and off ship. Richmond Terminal of Matson Line xxvi PORT OF OAKLAND , Oakland, California (September 2, 1983) The Port of Oakland is the largest container port on the Pacific Coast. It receives and dispatches 80 percent of its 11 million tons of cargo each year in containers. The Port of Oakland is located on the eastern side of San Francisco Bay. It has 19 miles of waterfront, 475 acres of container terminal facilities, and 28 berths. Seventeen of the berths can serve container, combination container/- break bulk, and roll -on/roll -off ships. All of the marine terminal facilities are port-owned, although they are operated by private steamship or terminal companies under lease on tariff agreements. The Port is in the midst of a $92 million expansion program that will increase the port container yard capacity by approximately 40 percent. • **t£- -v Aerial View of Port of Oakland xxvi 1 SPERRY, NISTARS (Naval Integrated Storage Tracking and Retrieval System), Oakland, California (September 2, 1983) NISTARS is operated by the U.S. Navy in Oakland, California; San Diego, California; and Norfolk, Virginia. The facility at Oakland will serve as an operating system for further refinement of the systems at the other two Naval Supply Centers. The purpose of NISTARS is to provide the Navy with a highly-efficient facility to control the inventory of parts and material. It has been designed to process 15,000 receipts and 75,000 issues per day. It will use computer control of 4,500,000 part numbers to be located in 10,800,000 unique locations. The Oakland NISTAR facility was partially completed and undergoing tests at the time of the visit. ■■{ - SPERRY NISTARS Building 422 Naval Supply Center Oakland, California © Sketch of NISTARS Warehouse ■■m*w«r - ?;*:■■.■. ■'■'■' ?■ ■: ■■ XXVI 1 1 LOCKHEED OCEAN SYSTEMS , Sunnyvale, California, (Presentation at Oakland) (September 2, 1983) Lockheed is one of the 65 largest companies in the U.S. with annual sales of more than $5 billion and 70,000 employees. Lockheed Ocean Systems is an advanced ocean-technology group of Lockheed Missiles and Space Company, Inc. Lockheed Ocean Systems' marine activities include ongoing program activi- ties in naval weapon systems, offshore oil services, ocean mining, ocean energy, ocean and environmental sciences, submarine and advanced ships, manned and unmanned submersibles, and basic marine technology. The presentation highlighted the development, design, and testing of the DEEP OCEAN MINER with the capability to mine ocean-floor resources to depths of 20,000 feet. Photo of 1/10-Scale Model of Deep-Ocean Miner XXIX COMPUTER-AIDED OPERATIONS RESEARCH FACILITY , King's Point, New York (September 6, 1983) The Computer-Aided Operations Research Facility (CAORF) has been designed and constructed for the U.S. Maritime Administration as an advanced visual system simulating real-world situations under controlled conditions for both training marine personnel and for research. The computer-operated visual scene "puts man in the loop" to show his capabilities and limitations under stressful conditions such as congested traffic and poor visibility. Among the many research areas conducted at the CAORF facility are colli- sion analysis; ship control, navigation, and operational procedures; bridge system design; and analyses of harbor designs and restricted waterways. CAORF was of particular value in the highly important task of specifying the minimum safe operating conditions for bringing supertankers in and out of the harbor at Port Valdez, Alaska. A modern bridge that looks and feels like a typical vessel puts the captain and pilot in a familiar setting with instrumentation that simulates actual shipboard facilities. Field-Tour Group at CAORF; Simulated View of Norfolk, Virginia Harbor in Background xxx SPERRY CORPORATION , Great Neck, New York (September 6, 1983) Mr. J. Paul Lyet, former Chairman of Sperry Corporation and chairman of the President's Export Council, commented on the importance of international exchange and gave his full support to the activities of our panel. Sperry Corporation now has approximately 75,000 employees, operates in 30 countries, with sales of $5 billion (information processing, machinery pro- ducts, and defense and aerospace services). The Great Neck facility is primarily concerned with Electronic Systems Operations. Briefings were presented on (1) Mobile Integrated Navigation, (2) Current and Future Marine Technology, (3) SRP 2000, autopilot, (4) Deep Sea Rescue Vehicle (DSRV), (5) Towed Unmanned Submersibles (TUNIS), and (6) Basic Integrated Navigation, Instrumentation and Positioning/Control System (BINIPS). A tour featured the most advanced marine navigation systems. Sperry ' s product line includes radars, collision avoidance systems, gyrocompasses, steering gear and alarms, ship stabilizers, speed logs, and autopilots. Field-Tour Group at Sperry xxxi INTERNATIONAL UNDERWATER CONTRACTORS, INC, (September 7, 1983) City Island, New York The International Underwater Contractors, Inc. (IUC) Group of Companies provides highly diversified services involving use of manned and unmanned submersibles, marine survey, shallow and deep diving, construction diving, support services, salvage operations, and project management. IUC personnel have designed, built, and used a series of progressively more advanced undersea vehicles. An example of an advanced design system currently available for use is the ROV MANTIS: a 2,300-foot remote-operated or manned vehicle outfitted with dual six-function seawater hydraulic manipu- lators, water jet system, dual TV cameras, Honeywell acoustic tracking beacon, 35-mm still camera, auto depth/heading/altitude control, cable cutter, and obstacle avoidance sonar. A special feature of IUC in the North American Hyperbaric Center estab- lished in 1982 to provide state-of-art advanced diver training for commercial divers and to promote and investigate the medical specialty of Hyperbaric and Diving Medicine. Research, diver training, and health care, as well as Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy on both an emergency and non-emergency basis, are provided. The Center houses a diving bell inside a wet chamber allowing student divers to experience deep-water working conditions and is an integral part of IUC's Professional Diving School of New York, Inc. View of Hyperbaric Chamber at I.U.C. xxx i i WESTINGHOUSE CORPORATION, OCEANIC DIVISION , Annapolis, Maryland (September 8, 1983) The Oceanic Division of the Westinghouse Electric Corporation employs about 1000 people and specializes in the development of ocean related electro- mechanical and acoustic systems for both commercial and defense systems. The General Manager, Walt Dunkle, briefed the UJNR group on Westinghouse corporate structure and the Oceanic Division's position within the Company. Rear Admiral Mike Rindskopf USN (Ret), presented an overview of the wide scope of Division activities, from deep towed sonar to acoustic flow meters for leak detection on the Trans-Alaska oil pipeline. Specific mini presentations were made to highlight current advanced technology projects. These included: o A lightweight mine neutralization vehicle o The AN/AQS-14 helicopter towed mine hunting sonar o Subsea electro-hydraulic control systems of oil wells o Autonomous vehicle applications of bottom navigation and executive logic control systems based on artificial intelligence concepts A tour of the Division's facilities was made with work place discussions in the transducer manufacturing facility and the acoustic test tank. Field-Tour Group at Westinghouse xxx i i i PORT OF BALTIMORE , Baltimore, Maryland (September 8, 1983) The port of Baltimore is one of the largest container ports in the United States and handles more export general cargo than any other East Coast port. The port's normal cargo volume is in the range of 35 million to 40 million tons of foreign cargo annually, with about 6 million of those tons in the general cargo category. More than 60 percent of all general cargo is handled in containers. The port of Baltimore is strategically located on the western shore of the Chesapeake Bay, some 200 miles closer to midwestern industrial areas than any other East Coast port. Its geographic location makes it a choice center of trade. The port has 45 miles of waterfront and close to 200 berths to accommodate all types of bulk cargo, conventional and container cargo, and roll on/roll off ships. Marine terminals are owned by the Maryland Port Administration and private firms. The majority of the general cargo facilities are under public agency control, whereas virtually all the bulk facilities (oil, coal, grain and ore) are privately owned and operated. The port of Baltimore is in the midpoint of an expansion program which started in the mid-1960 1 s and will continue through the year 2000 when container capacities will be doubled that which presently exists. By the year 2000 the port expects to double its volume of business. Aerial View of Baltimore Harbor xxx iv UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII NATURAL ENERGY LABORATORY , Honolulu, Hawaii (September 11, 1983 ) The Natural Energy Laboratory is located a few miles south of the Kona Airport on the Island of Hawaii. The NEL was established in 1974 to exploit the Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) process using the close proximity of deep, cold water just offshore from the laboratory. The UJNR group was hosted by Dr. Tom Daniels, NEL Director, who explained the history and techm cal accomplishments of the OTEC program at the laboratory. A tour of the NEL included the OTEC aquaculture experiments where the cold nutrient-rich water has been used to grow trout, lobster, and abalone. As a'result of this work, a full-scale commercial venture in abalone farming is scheduled to start in the near future. Dr, John Craven Leads Field-Tour Group at University of Hawaii xxxv GEOTHERMAL WELLS , Puna District, Hawaii (September 11, 1983) The lower east rift zone of Kilauea Volcano in the Puna District of Hawaii is the site of the Hawaii Geothermal Project. The Hawaii Electric Light Company is presently operating a 3-megawatt pilot plant at the site. The Abbott well, which provides the steam for the pilot plant, was drilled in 1976 as part of a Federally-funded project. The project engineer at the site, Mr. Nakamura, provided an excellent tour of the facility. The pilot plant has been in operation since 1980 and presently provides about 2.8 megawatts to the Hawaii Electric Light grid for distribution. At least three other consortia are active in developing additional wells. On their return trip to the airport, the group was driven past Kilauea Volcano, and stopped at Volcano House. View of Hawaii Geothermal Energy Project Site xxxvi UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII AND HYPERBARIC FACILITY AT LOOK LABORATORY , Honolulu, Hawaii (September 12, 1983) The first part of the morning was spent at the University of Hawaii Manoa Campus. The group received briefings on the Hawaii Undersea Research Labora- tory (HURL) project from Dr. John Craven, and on the status of the Pacific International Center for high Technology Research (PICHTR) from Dean Paul Yuen the Director of PICHTR. A visit was then paid to the laboratory of Dr John Learned, who presented a brief on Project DUMAND (deep Undersea Muon and Nutrino Detection) and showed various pieces of hardware, including glass sphere-encased photo detectors and a model of the array. The group then visited the Hyperbaric Facility at the Look Laboratory. The facility has been performing basic research in decompression sickness and physiology for several years, and officially opened as a treatment center in April 1983. An in-depth briefing was presented by Mr. Akinori Monta, a Japanese national graduate student at the University of Hawaii. Mr. Tamio Ashino Demonstrating Control Skills at CAORF Facility XXXVI 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS Author J. Winchester H. Nagasawa R. Seki J. Garden ier M. Hattori H. Fujii F. Busby N. Takarada T. Nakajima J. Gross J. Gross M. Oshima R. Seki A. Powell C. Krolick S. Motora J. Tozzi I. Mutoh I. Mutoh R. Shamp M. Ono Title Page A Review of NOAA's Ocean Programs 1 Collision Risk Assessment of LNG Tankers 4 Shipping Operation of the Future 7 Managing Risks of Ship Accidents 10 Remotely Operated Vehicles, Robotics, and Manipulators 12 Training Dive of Shinkai 2000 13 Undersea Vehicles - An Overview 21 Capsizing of Moored Semi-Submersible Platform and its Similation 24 Ship Operations Research and Development in the United States 28 U.S. Shipbuilding Research in the 1980's 32 Operational Experiences with the High-Speed SSC Passenger Ferry SEAGULL and New Concepts in the SSC 38 Shipbuilding Technology Including Robotics in Ship Construction 42 Energy Conservation on Naval Shrps and Electric Propulsion 44 Advanced Design for Semi -Submersible Offshore Plant System for Processing Natural Gas 48 Advances in U.S. Coast Guard Marine Vehicles 52 Newly Built Large Oil Skimmer 56 Dual Skirt Oil Boom "Mobax" 60 The Seaknife 63 Oceanographic Research Vessel "Tansei Maru" 66 xxxvn 1 Author D. Walsh Y. Tadaishi S. Ando H. Kagemoto H. Nagasawa H. Kitagawa B. Gerwick Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority J. Flipse R. Seki Japan Marine Machinery Develop- ment Association K. Shibata M. Terada Ministry of Inter- national Trade & Industry, Japan J. Patton A. Sempaku J. Hightower D. Smith S. Motora D. Keach W. Busch N. Tanaka Title An Update On Marine Transportation in the United States Fundamental Study of the Huge-Scale Floating Platform for Use of Sea Space Ice Engineering in Japan Artificial Islands for Arctic Offshore Exploratory Drilling and Production Islands Undersea Foundations Work on Honshu- Shikoku Bridge Recent Marine Board Activities Government-Industry Relationships in Advanced Program Planning and Development Advances on Measuring Current Jack-Up Drilling Platform in 500-600 Ft. Waters Desalinization Plant Barge Manganese Nodule Mining System Undersea Technology Projects At The Naval Ocean Systems Center Fabrication and Load Out of a Huge Jacket Teleoperator Technology Development Advanced Design and Prototype Experiments of Subsea Oil Production System The National Undersea Research Program Investigations in Advance to the Pilot Project on Cleaning-Up Bay Bottom Material in Japan Page 71 75 79 83 89 91 95 97 100 103 107 109 111 115 120 124 128 XXXIX Author Title Page K. Park Technology Need for Safe Disposal of D. Kester Radioactive Wastes in the Ocean 132 I. Duedall M. Morihira Large-Scale Test for Development of Port and Harbour Technology 135 R. Friedheim Japanese Ocean Policy in an Era of Regime Change 139 M. Smutz Fiber Optics At Sea 143 W. Richards Ocean Energy Technology Program 147 Additional Papers (not presented) D. Scribner Development of a Wind Energy System for Use at Remote Lighthouses 152 J. Gardenier Ship Simulators Do Not Train - Instructors Do 156 J. A. White Rigid Hull Inflatable Boat Tests at Cape Disappointment, WA, February 1982 159 P. Boyd T. Coe A Seakeeping Analysis of Surface Effect Ships 164 I. Grunther J.R. White New Technologies for Search and Rescue 168 J. Webster Airship Evaluation For Coast Guard Mission Platform 174 J. Milton Swath Buoy Tender Concept 177 A. Strickland xi A REVIEW OF NOAA'S OCEAN PROGRAMS JAMES W. WINCHESTER THE NA T IONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION NOAA is an agency with a rich tradition of scientific service and a vast variety of ocean products. We possess a wide variety of research and development skills and tools. There are exciting new initiatives and plans to use our capabilities to serve our own nation and our colleagues throughout the world. Thank you, Mr. Chairman. and good morning. Ohaiyo gozaimasu, It is a great privilege and pleasure to welcome you here today, to review briefly for you the ocean programs of NOAA. Our agency, and its predecessors, have worked in the oceans since President Thomas Jefferson founded the Coast Survey in 1807. That was the first scientific agency of the United States govern- ment, and it is now a part of NOAA. Our traditional ocean products include nautical charts of the United States and its territories and possessions, tide and current charts and tables, bathymetric maps, and asso- ciated publications of use to mariners and operators of small boats. We conduct applied research and development in cartography, instru- mentation, and survey methods. We operate a fleet of ships for deep water oceanographic and fishery research, hydrographic surveys, circula- tory studies, pollution monitoring, and coastal and estuarine research. We also operate a smell number of aircraft for research and aeronautical charting. Our scientists conduct research in the physical oceanographic and atmospheric sciences in all the oceans of the world. In addition to pursuing domestic research objectives, they have participated in the Global Atmospheric Research Program, they are members of the scientific committee of the International Whaling Commis- sion, and they regularly work with their col- leagues from universities and from other nations in a great many broad international environ- mental studies. During the great U.S. conservation era of the late 19th century, a U.S. Fish Commission was established to investigate the disappearance of many fishery resources along our coasts. This eventually became the National Marine Fisheries Service, which is the part of NOAA that conducts biological research and works to preserve the health of our Nation's marine fisheries. We are responsible for establishing the estuarine sanctuaries for conservation and research, and marine sanctuaries for a variety of purposes. The first marine sanctuary pro- tests the site of the ship Monitor , the Civil War ironclad that ushered in a new era of naval architecture. While under tow, it sank in a storm off North Carolina, and is now the object of historical and archaeological research. We monitor and conduct research on ocean dumping, and provide research support for activities looking toward the establishment of deep water ports. We are a part of the national response effort for offshore and coastal spills of hazardous materials, providing scientific coordination to the Coast Guard. Our response teams have become well-known throughout the world, and have been invited by other nations to lend their expertise at spills abroad -- includ- ing the Amoco Cadiz wreck off France and the current well blowout in the Persian Gulf. NOAA's undersea research program supports four regional underwater laboratory systems operated for us by universities -- one in the Virgin Islands, one in North Carolina, one in Hawaii, and one in Southern California. We are planning another in the colder waters of the north-eastern United States. We also use a variety of submersibles in our research, including the deep-diving Alvin operated by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institu- tion, and the Johnson Sea-Link vessels with diver lockout capability. We operate the National Oceanographic Data Center, with historical information on the climate and environment of the world's oceans. NOAA thus possesses a wide variety of research and development skills, and many tools - 1 -- ranging from satellites to data buoys, from mul tidiscipl inary laboratories to field stations as far away as Antarctica. We seek to blend these many capabilities into coherent, useful programs of service to our people and to our colleagues throughout the world. I would like to tell you about some the initiatives NOAA is now undertaking in the oceans to achieve these objectives. You may recall the Coastal Zone Color Scanner, an experimental instrument still operating on the old Nimbus 7 spacecraft. Its products clearly show areas of large phytoplank- ton bloom, sediment transport in estuaries, and details of oceanic circulation. With infrared added, they show thermal upwelling and areas of thermal pollution, and become especially useful to fishermen and to persons charged with monitoring ocean pollution. We would like to put a next-generation Ocean Color Instrument on our polar-orbiting satellites. The Improved TIROS-N spacecraft now available have room to accommodate it. We will use it operationally to provide the fishing industry and pollution monitors with near-real time information. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration agency will use it for additional experimentation. In another area, we have recently begun what we call Project PORTS -- our acronym for Port Objectives for Real Time Systems. We are working with the marine transportation industry and our port and waterway authorities on this. We are beginning with systems to provide real time tide and water level information to ships entering and leaving harbors. To these will be added data on currents, waves, and weather, and perhaps ice conditions in northern ports. We're also considering electronic display of digital nautical chart information. We are looking forward to the day when a ship entering a harbor will display the appro- priate nautical chart on a CRT screen on the bridge. Real-time information on the ship's exact position will also be displayed on the screen -- along with water depths, currents, winds, buoys and channel markers, and the positions, directions, and speeds of other water traffic. The navigator will have a moving image of everything he needs for accurate and safe navigation under any conditions. We have also taken a first-step toward a marked improvement in service to the general marine community. In October we will open, in Seattle, our first Ocean Services Center. This will be a one-stop facility for a full suite of NOAA products and services. Its customers will include commercial and sport fishermen, merchant marine captains, shippers, recreational boaters, and operators of offshore oil rigs. People in the "value added" industries who use NOAA reports and data collections in the course of making their own marketable products will find help there -- as will, of course, the general public. A Japanese Ship captain in port will be able to drop by and pick up all NOAA products and services that he needs for his outgoing passage. Both operat tion will be ava and forecasts, n and marketing in mental data base operational unit provide 24-hour- services over an border to the U. about 300 miles ional and retrospective informa- liable -- marine weather warning autical charts, fishery trade formation, access to environ- s, and satellite data. An located at the center will a-day weather and oceanographic area from the Oregon-California S. -Canadian border, and out to offshore. The center will be staffed by our weather and ocean service experts, and will have com- puter access to the National Meteorological Center and the Navy's Fleet Numerical Oceano- graphy Center guidance portfolios. Seattle was selected for the first such center because of the large number of NOAA units already there. We expect to see additional centers created during the next year. In closing, I would like to touch briefly on a part of President Reagan's recent proposal to establish a Department of International Trade and Industry. If Congress approves the pro- posal , NOAA will become a separate agency. The President's proposal thus will not only give U.S. trade policy a strong, focused organi- zation, but will achieve for NOAA the indepen- dent role originally envisioned for it. The 1969 report Our Nation and the Sea , which led to the establishment of NOAA, recommended that it be a separate agency, "the principal instrumen- tality within the Federal Government for admini- stration of the Nation's civil marine and atmospheric programs." A major will be to pi other scienti the National Aeronautics a White House a Budget decisi budgets will other scienti advantage of i ace NOAA on an fie and techni Science Founda nd Space Admin nd the Office on processes, be considered fie and natura ndependent status equal footing with cal agencies, such as tion and the National istration. In the of Management and NOAA's programs and along with those of 1 resource agencies. In addition, implementation of NOAA deci- sions on such important issues as fisheries, deep seabed hard minerals, and marine mammals will be speeded up. NOAA will also gain the freedom to bring issues directly to the White House when necessary. The establishment of NOAA as an independent agency is tied to the approval of the new Department of International Trade and Industry, and recognizes that NOAA has both the opera- tional scale and the program cohesiveness to be independent. I will be most pleased to try to answer any questions you may have. Thank you very much. - 3 Collision Risk Assessment of LNG Tankers Hitoshi Nagasawa Director Ship Research Institute, Ministry of Transport 38-1, 6-Chome, Shinkawa, Mitaka Tokyo, 181 JAPAN The ships of exclusive use for danger- ous cargo such as LNG or LPG carriers are remarkably increased recently in Japan, and it is needed to study the safety assessment on the danger of collision on these ships especially navigating narrow channel or bay. As the first time, the investigation on the safety of LNG tankers at collision was carried out by the Japan Association for preventing Marine Accidents, and the similar investigations was carried out recently especially aimed to establish the LNG power plant at the coast of Osaka bay. At the early stage of these assessment, we studied the event flow of the disaster expansion as shown in Fig. 1. In these investigations, the behavior of ship hull fracture at collision was studied both experimentally and theoreti- cally. It is easily known that the most serious condition at collision is occured at a ship run against LNG tankers at right angles. The theoretical analysis on ship fracture at collision was obtained using the theory studied by the committee of the Japan Shipbuilding Research Association (I was the chairman of the committee) , and the results were compared with that obtain- ed by the theory of Minorsky or Det Norske Veritas. As the results of analysis, the criti- cal speed which is defined as the speed of safety limit at collision is obtained with respect to the ship scale. This critical speed is shown in Fig. 2 on 125,000m3 LNG tankers. It will be considered that if a ship run against LNG tankers at the speed above critical limit, LNG tanks are fractured and LNG flow out from the ship. In the former investigation, the cri- tical ship speed is obtained as 6 kt for a ship of 10,000 tons displacement, and 10 kt for a ship of 3,000 ton. This critical ship speed shows rather low speed compared with that obtained by latter investigation. The reason is as follows that, in the calculation of absorb- ed energy of ship hull fracture at colli- sion, the fracture of ship bow is not taken into account in the former investigation though this is taken into account in the latter investigation. In the theory of recent investigation, bow construction is assumed as an ideal frame structure with effective width of plate, and the ultimate strength of the structure is calculated by F.E.M. analysis. The theoretical analysis on the fracture of side structures of LNG carrier is calculat- ed by the method developed by the Ship- building Research Association in Japan. Relations between fracture load and deformation of bow structure obtained by this theory are shown in Fig. 3 for con- tainer carrier and in Fig. 4 for oil tanker. The comparison of fracture load and deformation curve on bow structure and side structure of ships is shown qualitatively in Fig. 5. The maximum collapse load at ship collision will be estimated from this curve by a conception that the absorbed energy due to fracture of construction equals kinetic energy of ship motion at the colli- sion. On the safety assessment of Osaka bay, we had an observation on speeds of actual navigating ships in the bay, and it was found the maximum of the ship speed amount to 14 - 15 kt which exceed the critical ship speed at collision obtained by calcu- lation . From these results, it was considered that the safety assessment on the collision probability of the ships navigating exceed the critical speed is necessary. The pro- bability calculation was carried out based on the accidental data of actual ship col- lisions in Japan and Osaka bay. It was obtained by the calculation that the probability on tank fracture of LNG carriers at collision is approximately 4xl0 -6 per year. It is difficult to eva- luate this value of probability, but there was the discussions in the committee to establish the LNG power plants that this value is sufficiently safety compared to the probability of fire or motoring acci- dents . - Cause of Di sosler — Ref.l Research Committee Report on Safety of LNG, Osaka City, 1983, 5 Ref.2 Report of Study on Preventing the Accidents of Dangerous Cargo Carrier Ship, The Japan Association for Pre- venting Marine Accidents, 1974 Ref.3 On the Ultimate Strength of Bow Con- struction, T.Ohnishi, H.Kawakami, W.Yasukawa, H.Nagasawa, IWABSE "Ship Collision" 1983 Ref.4 A Study on the Collapse of Ship Structure in Collision with Bridge Piers, H.Nagasawa, K.Arita, M.Tani, S.Oka, Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering Vol.19, 1981. The Society of Naval Architects of Japan Collision (with other ship] Collision (with quay wall) Stranding accident Study on Crlticol Ship Speed at Collision Observation o( Actual Ship Speed Critical Ship Speed (overl Unfrocture Fracture ol Oulsidf Plate Fraclure of Inner Hull Plote L^_ Detormatlon of LNG Tank -I~ Fracture of LNG Tank Study on Countermeasure INO) Study on Probability of Ship Collision O.K. Fig. I. Flow of Study on Safety Assessment 25 20 10 5- ( 1 ) by Ref. 1 (2) " N.V. (bulkhead) (2') " (midtank) ( 3) " Ref. 2 Observation Ship Speed o maximum b 80% cumulative probability 1,000 3,000 5000 10,000 30,000 (G.T. Fig 2 Critical Ship Speed at Collision and Observation Ship Speed 5 - — . Load ° , Plastic hingt (CASE!) CASE2 CASEl 309 313 317 321 325 CASE5 CASE4 TASE3 Idealized model of container 200 400 carrier 600 800 1000 - DEFORMATION (mm) 1200 Fig. 3 Load-deformation curve of container carrier model — : Load o ; Plastic hinge (CASE 1) ]CASE3 "9 124 129 i3i is L- /_ L_ A- /- CA=£7 Gx=£S C1SE5 OxSEi CASE2J Idealized model of tanker 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 — DEFORMATION (mm) 1400 1600 1800 Fig. 4 Load-deformation curve of tanker model Si > side structure LOAD ^ 2 ' k° w construct ' on i S3 ; Si + S2 Pa -zf-^fz^ d2 d3 * DEFORMATION Fig. 5 Load-deformation curve of bow and side structure SHIPPING OPERATION OF THE FUTURE R. Set KI Vice Director, Technical Division Ship Bureau, Ministry of Transport Z- 1-3 Kasuraigasekij Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo ABSTRACT For JaDan heavily relying her essential resources such as oil, iron ore and grams on the imoorts from overseas, it has been one of the criticallv important tasks to warrant Japan's economic security by ensuring a stable and efficient transport of goods to and from overseas trading partners. In this sense, it is considered to be a future task of crucial importance to encourage development of ships of "high added values with their shipboard living and working environments upgraded through drastic sophistication of ship automation and labor-saving towards the oncoming 1990s made possible by R&D endeavors on building economical ships of high intelligence and high reliability. Research and development for building ships of greater system intelligence and high reliability equipment and system Basically, ship-related techniques can be divided into energy-saving techniques, automation and labor-saving techniques and techniaues for the enhancement of safety and pollution prevention. On the energy-saving techniques, R&D activities have recently been vigorouslv thrusted forward in association with the increasing fuel prices, with considerable results, and further improvements in this area are likely to assume in the future. While on the other hand, on the automation and labor-saving techniques, a highly rationalized ship served by a complement of 18 crewmembers is going to be realized in the near future, but from a long range viewpoint, demand is considered to grow further for developing ships with still smaller complement through greater rationalization in shipboard systems with largely improved ship operating efficiency. However, realization of such a ship is by no means possible if effort thus it .ne would be made merely by conventional techniques, and necessarv to promote a systematic research and development to cope with such a demand standing on a long range viewpoint while ensuring to have leaps in upgrading the technology. In conventional ships, almost all ship operating duties have, in principle, relied on crew's personal judgements and disposals. For this reason, much labor of the crew is shared by such shipboard services, and moreover, judgements on weather and sea conditions, also ship's conditions had to but rely on the experience and intuition of individuals involving selective actions not necessarily optimum. However, thanks to the successful results of studies on the effects of wind and waves on shin's motions and conditions, and to great development of high accuracy sensors and very large-scale integrated circuit (VLSI), the conditions of the ship herself and surrounding conditions can now be evaluated scientifically on board the ship, and further, the measured results and shore-based instructions are effectively utilized for optimum ship operation on account of the development in the area of the intelligence system. What is more, the development in the space techniques is bringing about the advanced art of sea and weather forecast and their correst observations, thereby the possibility of large-scale transfer of shipboard duties to the shore base is growing. On the foregoing grounds, it is important to develop an integrated ship-shore system and sophisticated ship operating automation system via maximum utilization of these techniques and means for realizing added promotion of system automation and labor-saving for materializing a drastic improvement in ship operating efficiency. O: the other hand, trouble-free operations of ships have conventionally been ensured solely by effecting constant maintenance work by a number of crewmembers. Along with the ever degrading fuel quality and sophistication in the energy-saving techniques, the shipboard maintenance work tends to become more and more complicated. To intensify shin operating' automation and labor-saving under such circumstances, the maintenance-free features of the shipboard systems are most basic requirements, and for this reason, it is necessary to vigorously develop a plant of high reliability where the reliability of shipboard equipment and machinery including the main propulsion engine is enhanced to a great extent. Further, for enabling the crewmembers to enjoy comfortable sea life without feeling any drawbacks induced by such a reduced mannino- arrangement even in ships served with extremely small number of crewmembers, it is desirous to develop new crew accommodation arid lifesaving systems. We should say that these studies and researches are particularly- important from the viewpoint of ensuring to build ships of high added values, improvement of shipboard working environment and proper maintenance of the leadership long held by Japan in the area of technology. (1) High reliability plant (i) High reliability equipment Realization of maintenance-free features through elucidation of detailed combustion process of fuel oil, development of hardware techniques and equipment by making best use of heat-resistant and corrosion-resistant materials with resultant upgrading of reliability of marine equipment and machinery to a great extent is envisioned. The major tasks here as viewed from the standpoint of improving energy-saving results and measures against low grade fuel oil for upgrading overall reliability can be identified in how elaborately harmonize those mutually inconsistent technical requirements. (ii) Failure prediction and diagnostic system Significant upgrading in the reliability of marine machinery and equipment is envisionec by effecting R & D on the software techniques relating to maintainance feature capable of correctly predicting area and time of occurrence of failure for exact and immediate carrying out of maintenance work by monitoring and evaluating the operating condition of the shipboard machinery and equipment through scientific means replacing the conventional way of manual monitoring practice mainly relying on human intuition. Development of an effective monitoring and evaluation system of the operating condition of marine machinery and equipment constitutes itself as a task here. (2) Sophisticated system of automatic ship operation relying 'on an integrated ship-shore system and intelligence-intensive method (i) Automatic optimum ship operation system To enable ships to have most economical and safe operation with the functions of the integrated ship-shore information control and management system relying on sea and weather information data processing; evaluation of hull stress created by cargo load and external forces caused by wind and waves; and prediction of the resultant energy-saving effects; evaluation of operating conditions of machinery and equipment; and utilization of INMARSAT. The targets here also include optimization of work load allottment for ships' crew and operating system. (ii) Automatic operation system entering/leavin< Dort In conventional ships, on-deck work at entering/leaving port operation is carried out solely by crew hands. The intent of this project is to .ensure maximum degree of automation in such on-deck work including in-harbor maneuvers and docking/undocking operations for the improved operational safety and labor- saving achievements. On items relating to berthing operation and cargo operation which are considered difficult - 8 - for iar^e-scale automation for the time being, use of a system relying on shore support may be considered. However, effort will be made for minimizing the work load through the employment of some degree of automation and centralized control systems. (3) New accommodation and lifesaving systems (i) Comfortable living system Improved stabilization in shipboard living is envisaged through the upgraded reliability in all aspects of living-related systems such as fresh and sanitary water supplies and discharges, heating, air-conditioning and ventilation which have conventionally been relying on crewmembers' labor. In the meantime, it is also aimed at establishing design techniques on comfortable shipboard living installations and constructions taking into consideration of measures for dealing with special mental care and human behaviors in times of emergency suoposed to occur in association with the reduced manning arrangement of ships. (ii) New lifesaving system As the lifesaving system in ships of reduced complement, a lifeboat system capable of lowering and launching, floating off and releasing, and recovering safely and securely in full automatic mode of operation from and to a ship in motion and under heavy weather. Effort will also be made for improving protection of life of seafarers in a marine casualty in cold waters by developing water-and cold-resistant lifevests. MANAGING RISKS OF SHIP ACCIDENTS Dr. John S. Gardenier* Operations Research Analyst Commandant (G-DMT-1/54), U. S. Coast Guard 2100 Second Street, S. W. Washington, D. C. 20593 ABSTRACT Risk analysis and risk management mean many things to different people. Insurance companies manage risks by spreading coverage of high value assets over many underwriters. Investors manage risk by holding several different assets in their portfolios. Managers of large research and development projects manage risk by careful technological forecasting and by frequent and detailed project reviews. Those responsible for ship safety can manage risks by careful analysis of the specific hazards involved and by evaluating potential improvements in simulator studies. RISK ANALYSIS Insurance underwriters analyze life risks differently from ship risks. In life insurance, there are large numbers of insured persons in the fund pool. The risks are numerous and homogeneous. Statistical analysis is appropriate. Ship risks are individually much larger. They vary greatly by owner, trade, and class of vessel. Statistical analysis is inherently far less precise for ship accident risks than for life risks. It is important to use many forms of analysis to define the risks associated with specific ship operations. Understanding the nature of the risks is an important first step toward risk management. In a 1978 study [1] of navigation to and from the Louisiana Offshore Oil Part (LOOP), we used several means to define the chances of spilling oil due to ship accidents. One method involved laying out the routes and studying the charts, coast pilots, sailing directions and weather patterns in the areas of concern. These areas were the Florida Straits, Gulf of Mexico and the Louisiana Coast. Personnel involved in the study rode a ship through these areas and discussed navigational hazards with the crew. They also visited an offshore port in Saudi Arabia to observe and discuss navigational approaches. Another approach was to review records of all vessel accidents from 1969 through 1977 in the offshore Gulf of Mexico; the accidents were plotted and causal factors were tabulated. Most of those were other than tankers. A special analysis was made of tanker casualties, most of which occurred outside the Gulf of Mexico. The final analytic method was development of "fault trees", logic diagrams of causal sequences known to result in ship accidents. After development, these logic trees were validated by assuring that each accident in a new sample could be analyzed using logic sequences in the tree. This indicated that no major accident risks had been left out. All of the separate analyses were combined by the analysts into subjective hazard ratings for the different hazards that might cause a major accident. The most significant hazards were found to be the chances of a human factor problem in restricted waters and the possibility of damage due to severe hurricanes. More moderate hazards are the offshore oil rigs near the approaches to the oil port and floating derelicts or debris in the Gulf. The statistical oil spill risk was also calculated. A negative binomial probability distribution was used for tanker oil spill accident frequency and the lognormal distribution was found to describe spill sizes given that a spill occurred. The total risk that a spill as large or larger than that from the TORREY CANYON (109,500 long tons) was found to be about 10% over a 30 year port life. Thus, the statistical analysis only showed us that a non-neglible risk existed. It did not help tell us how to manage that risk. RISK MANAGEMENT Knowing that the major problem would be human error in restricted waters, we next investigated ways to help avoid human error. A set of simulator experiments was conducted at the Ship Analytics, Inc. simulator in North Stonington, Connecticut. [2] The most restricted water area for LOOP traffic is the approach to LOOP itself due to periods of heavy winter fog, small fishing vessel traffic, oil rigs and the fact that the only anchorage at LOOP was inside a restricted zone where tanker masters were not allowed to proceed without a LOOP mooring master (similar to a pilot). Figure 1. shows the LOOP complex. *This paper is the sole responsibility of the author. It does not necessarily reflect official U. S. Coast Guard policy. 10 - Four problems were devised to present realistic, but difficult problems to tanker masters. The scenario designs were based on interviews with masters familiar with the area. After the simulations were created, they were checked by an expert tanker master for realism. Several minor revisions were made as a result. An experimental design was devised to test various on-ship and off-ship navigation aids. Twelve teams of vessel masters and mates were test subjects. All were current professional large tanker officers. Four of these had received team training and voyage planning instruction at the simulator school in Southampton, England. Various data were logged by computer during the simulations: vessel track and speed, closest distance to other ships and oil rigs, numbers of engine orders and rudder orders. Other information was taken by experiment monitors: number of fixes using radar, LORAN-C, fathometer or radio direction finder. Finally, other information was provided by the masters in debriefing sessions after the simulator runs. Based on these experiments, specific recommendations were made regarding the mooring master pick up point, anchorages, charts, and aids to navigation. Several principles of risk management were illustrated in this case. First, multiple methods of risk analysis are needed to identify the actual hazards of a project as well as the numerical risk. Second, one must recognize that the control of shipping risk is mostly in the bands of the bridge watch and conning officer. Safety improvements must be evaluated based on how they affect the conning officer's motivation and capability to handle the ship safely. Simply placing another gadget on the bridge or in the harbor may do nothing for safety. Third, human beings are variable (among individuals and over time for the same individual). Thus, safety evaluations require statistical measurement. Fourth, safety improvements seldom are effective independently. Aids to navigation and charts have related effects. Bridge equipment and training in the use of that equipment and its role in overall watchstanding procedures are all interrelated. Fifth, although not illustrated in this study, safety does not remain constant after a one time decision to make certain improvements. Long term supervision and refresher training are also needed. FUTURE DIRECTIONS It is a mistake to collect data only on ship accidents, where people are in fear of the law. All countries should establish voluntary incident reporting systems guaranteeing legal immunity. Such a system exists for U. S. air traffic. Under that system, pilots are willing to discuss their problems and errors frankly. If ship safety researchers could have more reliable information on the human problems of ship traffic, we could do better risk analyses. We should also have data and voice recorders on ships to record the steering and engine control sequences leading up to accidents and the communications involved. The ship safety research community worldwide is conducting many independent lines of research. Much of this research is not widely read and there is no means to integrate it into a cohesive body of knowledge. Efforts should be made to coordinate related research results into principles of risk management by consensus where feasible or at least by majority and minority opinions. Topic areas might include: accident statistics, accident reports, scenario design, risk analysis methods, aids to navigation requirements, shipping channel dimension requirements, vessel speed control, vessel traffic monitoring systems, the pilot-master interface, mariner proficiency demonstrations, and navigation watch procedures. REFERENCES Faragher, W. E., et. al . Deepwater Port Approach/Exit Hazard and Risk Assessment. U. S. Coast Guard Research Report CG-D-6-79. Available from the National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA 22151. Accession Number AD-A074529. Cook, R. C, Marino, K. L. and Cooper, R. B. - A Simulator Study of Deepwater Port Shiphandling and Navigation Problems in Poor Visibility. U. S. Coast Guard Research Report CG-D-66-80. NTIS AD-A1 00-656. 11 - Source: U.S. Coast Guard. Final Environmental lmpact/4(f) Statement. LOOP Deepwater Port License Application. Vol. 1, Department of Transportation, 1976. »**i«»aier r on License FIGURE I LOOP SAFETY ZONE, ANCHORAGE AREA AND TRAFFIC SEPARATION SCHEME 12 REMOTELY OPERATED VEHICLES AND ROBOTICS , MANIPULATORS MUTSUO HATTORI JAPAN MARINE SICENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CENTER 2-15,NATSUSHIMA-CHO, YOKOSUKA 237 JAPAN ABSTRACT 10 ROVs have been constructed and 4 are under development in Japan. 7 of them belong to JAMSTEC. Some of those vehicles are utilizing or planning to use fiber optic tether cables with Kevlar strength member. They are MARCAS, Submarine Robot, HORNET-500, DOLPHIN-3K and two other unnamed vehicles. As to robotics, JAMSTEC once constructed autonomous vehicles and planning to develop robot vehicle of high intelligence. Two manned submersibles and three unmanned vehicles have manipulators, two of them are FFM. INTRODUCTION Since 1975, 10 tethered vehicles have been constructed in Japan. 9 of them are still operational. JAMSTEC owns 4 vehicles, they are Mosquito, JTV-1,2 and ROV-400. Except for ROV-400 which was built by Mitsui Shipbuilding Co., three vehicles were designed and constructed by JAMSTEC. Developers of other vehicles are ocean development company , underwater TV company, heavy industry and telephone and telegraph company. The smallest can be carried by a man and the largest weighes about 3.5 tons. The purpose of this paper is to review ROVs in Japan. Additionally a brief look will be taken at robotics and manipulators. ROVS OPERATIONAL MURS-300 This vehicle was developed by Mitsui Ocean Development Co. ( MODEC) in 1979. Specifications are; Operational depth: 300 m Weight in Size air Speed Propulsion Instrumentation 2600 kg 270(L) x 210(W) x 185(H) (cm) 3 knots 7.5 HP x 4 Color TV x 1, LLL b/w Remarks ROV-4 00 This launcher by Mutsui Shipbui owned by JAMSTEC. Operational depth Weight in air Size Speed Propulsion Instrumentaion TV x 1, light 250 W x 4, 500 W x 2, CTFM Sonar, gyrocompass, depth sensor, alti- meter, manipulator ( 7 d.f.) : The vehicle is not so active. The last dive was in the April of 1982. type vehicle was built lding Co. in 1980 and Remarks 400 m Vehicle 120 kg Launcher 270 kg Vehicle 74 (L) x 76 (W) x 150(H) (cm) Launcher 110 (L) x 100(W) x 150(H) 1.5 knot 200 W DC x 4 Color TV with tilt mechanism x 1, light 500 W x 2, Magnetic compass, depth meter The vehicle is also not so active. The last dive was in the summer of 1982 . Mosquito A simple open frame vehicle which was designed and built by JAMSTEC and HOKUSHIN electric Co. in 1980. Operational depth: 100 m Weight in air Size x 55(W) x Speed Propulsion Instrumentation 45 kg 70(L) 38(H) 1 knot Two magnetic torque coupling thrusters provide forward/ reverse motions. Depth is controlled by up--down of the cable . b/w TV x 1 , liqht x 1 - 13 JTV-1,2 and DLT-300-1,2 JTV-1 was designed and built by JAMSTEC. JTV-2 and DLT-300-1 are a commercial vehicle, constructed by Q.I. Co. , Tokyo under the permission of JAMSTEC. DLT-1 was delivered to a diving company in 1982. DLT-2 is under construction and to be delivered to the National Institute of Polar Research. Operational depth: 200m , 500 m(option) Weight in air : 43 kg (JTV-1), 48 kg(DLT-l,2) size : 52(L) x 64(W) x 50(H) (cm) Speed : 2 knots Propulsion : Four 100 W DC magnetic torque coupling thrusters provide three dimensional motions. Instrumentation : CCD color, b/w TV, light 150 W x 2, magnetic compass, depth meter, still camera MARCAS The vehicle is designed and constructed by KDD Laboratory for inspection of submarine cables and soil property tests. The vehicle is completed in 1981. Unique characteristics of the vehicle are using fiber-optic tether cable. Operational depth Weight in air Size Speed Propulsion Instrumentation Remarks 200 m 570 kg 120(L) x 180 (W) x 110 (H) 2 knots 3 HP AC motor x 4 , Altitude from the sea bed is auto- matically maintai- ned. Color TV x 1,SIT b/w TV x 1, light 300 W x 2, AC and DC magnetic sensor, magnetic compass, pinger direction finder, metal det- ector, soil tester The vehicle using a wavelength divi- sion multiplex optical fiber transmission and optical rotary jo- int for data transmission. The vehicle is mainly used in the Japan Sea and East China Sea. OTHER VEHICLES There is other two vehicles, one is a launcher type vehicle of Mitsubishi Heavy Industry and the other is a 300m vehicle of MODEC, both vehicles utilizing fiber-optic cables. ROVS UNDER DEVELOPMENT Three ROVs are under development in JAMSTEC. They are Submarine Robot, HORNET-500 and DOLPHIN-3K. All of them are planned to use optical fiber tether cable and wavelength division multiplex optical fiber transmission. The main features of them are shown in Fig.l. Submarine Robot (BOX FISH) A battery powered test vehicle for the future development of highly intelligent vehicle. The vehicle has two micro-computers and controlled by optical fiber cable transmission or preprogram. The vehicle shall be completed in the summer of 1983. HORNET-500 The vehicle is larger and deeper version of JTV-1. The vehicle utilize fiber-optic and electrical cable of 7 mm diameter. The cable is composed of 2 power conductors, 2 glass fiber reinforce optical fibers and 3 tension members (glass fiber) . The cable was developed under cooperation between JAMSTEC and Furukawa Electric Co. Ltd. The vehicle has one color TV(ENG) and one b/w after TV, one still camera and manipulator The vehicle shall be completed at September in 1983. DOLPHIN-3K JAMSTEC is now developing a larger ROV for deep sea survey. The vehicle, named DOLPHIN-3K, is capable to dive 3300 m of depth. The vehicle shall be completed at 1986. Specifications of the vehicle are: Operational depth: 3300 m Weight in air : 3.5 tons ( approximate) Size : 300(L) x 200(W) x 190(H) (cm) (approximate) Speed : 3 knots Propulsion : 10 HP x 2 (f/r),7.5 HP x 2 (u/d) ,7.5 HP x2 (port/stbd) Instrumentation : Color TV (ENG) x 2,' SIT b/w TV x 1, b/w stereoTV x 1, still camera, CTDV, obstacle avoidance sonar , direction finding sonar, - 14 - Remarks altimeter , depth meter, current meter, manipulator, grabb- er/cutter . The tether cable of the vehicle is under testing. ROBOTICS , MANIPULATORS Robot industry in Japan is highly advanced but very few of robot technology is applied in the sea. MITI has a plan of Working Robot at severe environments. Working Robot in the sea is one of the plan, but precise schedule are not known. JAMSTEC is planning to develope highly intelligent vehicle, but it takes rather long time to complete such a vehicle. Manipulators for underwater vehicles are shown in Fig. 2. Automax Co. Ltd. is a main developer of manipulator. Dim, Weigui Depth Power S. CcfflJNICAT Cable Instrumen- tation ■ ITV-1. (LADYBIRD) 6 430, 43 Kg 200 m AC ICO V Two-way Asynchronous d 16 Color tv (ccd) x l Light ISO w x 2 Still camera, strobe Depth sensor Compass 4 x 70 W DC Thrusters (Magnetic torque coupl- ing) ■IW-5m .(HOMED U30l x 960/ x 560n, 90 Kg 500 m AC 1100 V MjLT I -optical wave length 6 7 Opt, fiber power conductor Color tv (500 line) x 1 b/w tv x 1, Light x 4 Still camera, strobe Depth sensor Rate gyro 2 x 200 W DC2 x 120 W DC (PKgnetic torque coupling) _5ua^RiflE_SoBCLL ( M FISH) Dolphin~3K 1200l x 120Ow x 600h, 120 Kg 500 m Battery 2'l V '(0 ftlLT I -OPTICAL WAVE LENGTH (ei 1) Opt, fiber Stereo-color TV X 1 Light x 2 Depth sensor Magnetic compass 2 x 110 H DC, 2 x 70 W DC (Magnetic torque coupling) Fig.1 Specifications of Vehicles developed in J/V1STEC 3000lx2000wx1900h, 3500 Kg 3303 m AC 2500 V Milt i -optical wave length i 30 Opt, fiber, power conductor Color tv, Stereo-tv,b/w tv Light more than 6 Still camera, strobe x 2 Depth sensor Gyro, rate gyro Manipulator ( 7 d.f,) Grabber/cutter ( 5 d,f.) 10 hp x 2 Thrusters 7.5 hp x 4 tiirusters 15 - Pig 2. Manipulators(Soecification) Vehicle name JAMSTEC KAWASAKI HAKUY0 SKINKAI 2000 MURS-100 MURS-300 DOLPHIN- 3K Weight in Air — ~ 6.6 24 0.9 2.6 3-5 b] Depth ~ « 300 2000 100 300 3300 1 Payload Completed Year 1976 1980 1971 0.1 1981 1981 1975 0.15 To be completed in 1986 Type Hyd. Hyd. Hyd. Hyd. Hyd. Hyd. Hyd. D.F. 7 7 5 5 6 ! 7 Force feed back Lift (kgf) i [Force reflect- ing) 50 7 (Symmet- rical ) U<5 10 20 3 10 20 (Symmetrical) 20 < H < Reach (m) Weight (kg) 1.2 110 1.8 200 1.5 100 1.5 147 1.2 55 1.2 38 1.5 88 Shoulder Rotation -30°*, +20° +3Qo 150° LFT-RT 90° -30°*, +30° 90° 55° 150° 120° 0%-90° FWD-SWD 90° 75° 1^0 -30*, -90° Slbow Upper Arm Rotation 90° 130° 180° -905v-90° UP-DWN 120° -5% -125° 210° 105° 120° 0~120° LFT-RT 165° Wrist Rotation 180° Forearm -90~ +90° 130° + 9C o LFT-RT -60°~ +60° 220° 120° -60^/-60° UP-DWN 90° -30t+9C a 120° 120° -90*/ 30° Grasp Opening (mm) 100 0^150 100 150 130 100 150 16 - TRAINING DIVE OF SHINKAI 2000 Hiromichi FUJII, Chief Engineer Japan Marine Science and Technology Center 2-15 Natsushima-cho, Yokosuka 237 JAPAN ABSTRACT Japanese 2000m deep submergence research vehicle "SHINKAI 2000", delivered to JAMSTEC on October 1981, has been placed at the training of the pilots after the delivery. And from June 1983, she has been placed for the mission divings. In this paper, the outlines of the training, newly developed observation and sampling apparatuses, and the results of the annual survey are presented. In order to train the pilots of SHINKAI 2000, they were trained using both the operation simulator on land and SHINKAI 2000 herself at sea. Training dive at sea was carried out from January 1982 to May 1983 as seen in Table 1. The training on the launch and retrieval operation by support ship "NATSUSHIMA" was carried out using dummy model of SHINKAI 2000 before the training dive. SHINKAI 2000 has been developed for researches on geophysics, biologies, sea floor mineral resources, bio resources and inspections of artificial objects etc., and was delivered to JAMSTEC on October 1981. Total dives are 58 times and dive hours in total are 221 hours. Through these dives , some mechanical troubles occurred but the training dives have been almost carried out following to the initial plan (see Photo 1). Principal particulars of SHINKAI 2000 is as follows; 1.1 EXAMPLE OF 2000M DIVE L(OA) B(MLD) D(MLD) 9.3m 3.0m 2.9m Crew Weight (in air) 23.3ton Payload Maximum Operating Depth TRAINING DIVE 1 Observer 2 Pilots 100kg 2,000m In Fig.l, the typical dive profile to 2,000m deep is shown, which was executed on 25 March 1983 at KUMANONADA. 1.2 RESULT OF DIVE TRAINING (1) The underwater acoustic navigation system worked so well that NATSUSHIMA could track the descending, ascending, cruising and bottomming 17 (2: (3) SHINKAI 2000 precisely. SHINKAI 2000 could find out and pick up the silent pinger that had lost at sea from the support ship through training dive, and showed good abilities for the survey of the lost objects. Moreover, she could carry out the operations at the area of cliff and slope. After about one year training, JAMSTEC team could succeed to dive to 2000m deep sea and got technics and procedures necessary for the deep diving including the launch and retrieval operation of SHINKAI 2000. (4) Manipulator worked well however more improvement is required for the accurate handling of some of the observation and sampling apparatuses such as rock drill. (5) SHINKAI 2000 has observed dislocation and many types of life through one year training dives. There are some kind of fishes (see Photo 2) which are found as the first time in Japan. Then the research dives beginning from Summer of 198 3 are showing fruitful results. 2. NEWLY DEVELOPED RESEARCH OBSERVATION APPARATUSES AND SHINKAI 2000 has one manipulator, sample tray, stereo camera, monochrome TV camera but these apparatuses are not sufficient for the underwater survey and research. So JAMSTEC has newly developed water sampler, sediment sampler etc., and tested fitting to SHINKAI 2000 at deep sea (see Photo 3) . (1) Water Sampler 1 lit. x 9 Step Motor Type I (for midwater) Capacity Closing Media Type II (for bottom) Capacity 2 lit. x 3 Mo tor AC100V/60HZ 15W Pump Max. 15 lit./min (2) Sediment Sampler Type A (Core Type) 50mmdiax200mm with core retainer Type B (Grab Type) Motor Drive (3) Sub Bottom Profiler Frequency 4 - 5 kHz Acoustic variable Output Level Max. 96 dB/ljlbar Beam Width Transmitter 50°x75° Receiver 75°x75° (4) Water Sensor Depth, Dissolved Oxygen, PH Acoustic Velocity (5) 1 kW Light Type No. of Light Halogen Lamp 3 (6) Rock Drill Type Electro Hydraulic Type Core 2 0mmdiax4 6 0mmlong No. of bit 6 exchangeable in underwater 3. EXPERIMENT OF RESCUE BUOY SYSTEM AT DEEP SEA SHINKAI 2000 has a rescue buoy in order to cope with the emergency situation. This rescue buoy system was experimented using a dummy sinker, and its performance was confirmed to be able to retrieve the submersible from 2000m deep sea easily (see Fig. 2) . 18 Safety is one of the most important features for the manned submersible, therefore, besides this rescue buoy system, JAMSTEC is now developing the unmanned submersible "D0LPHIN-3K" which can be applied to the rescue operation. The outline of this vehicle is shown in Dr. HATTORI ' s paper "Remotely Operated Vehicles and Robotics, Manipulators" at this UJNR-MFP Meeting. (2) Main batteries are so designed as to be exchanged at 75 cycles charge and discharge or one year whichever short. So JAMSTEC exchanged these batteries with new ones at the annual survey, which had been used about one year. However, for the longer use of these batteries, endurance limit will be tested and confirmed using actual one . 4. ANNUAL SURVEY OF SHINKAI 2000 (1) SHINKAI 2000 was repaired at the annual survey under the Ship's Safety Law of Japan between October 1982 and January 1983. In this survey, pressure hull, hatch, view port, navigation and communication apparatuses, life support system, rescue and safety system etc. were fairly checked. They were in good conditions. All systems were again assembled and completely tested in the water and at sea. They showed good performances. (3) Launch and Retrieval system of NATSUSHIMA is in very good condition. The breaking strength of lifting rope (85mmdia Tetlon Nylon Double Braided type) showed 83% value relative to the initial strength (165ton) after 40 cycles of launch and retrieval operations . (4) In April 1983 after 2000m dive, SHINKAI 2000 was registered to NIPPON KAIJI KYOKAI (NK) , Japanese classification society, as the first submersible for the society. TABLE 1. TRAINING DIVE 1982/1983 VOYAGE DATE No. of DIVES SEA DEPTH (m) NOTE 1983-1 1982.1.26-3.25 3 SAGAMI 4-20 TEST DIVE, TRAINING DIVE II 1982.4. 6-4.27 10 SAGAMI 50-320 TRAINING DIVE III 1982.5.21-6.25 16 SAGAMI 98-507 TRAINING DIVE IV 1982.9.10-9.18 3 SAGAMI 820-830 TEST DIVE, TRAINING DIVE 1983.1. 7-2.23 12 KII-SUIDO 245-1000 TEST DIVE, TRAINING DIVE TEST OF WATER SAMPLER AND CORE TYPE SEDIMENT SAMPLER 1983.3. 4-3.25 8 SURUGA KUMANONADA 1370-2000 TRAINING DIVE 1983-1 1983.4.19-5.26 11 SURUGA 970-1570 TRAINING DIVE, TEST OF SUB- BOTTOM PROFILER AND GRAB TYPE SEDIMENT SAMPLER - 19 - Photo 2. Tri-Pod Fish Photograph- Photo 3-1 Water Sampler and ed at the depth of 800m Water Sensor -Photo 1 SHINKAI 2000 and A-Frame Crane : >*:•: Photo 3-2 Core Type Sediment Sampler Fig. 1. Typical Dive Profile Time M 2000 Area; KUMANONADA 2,000m deep Date; 25 March 1983 Sea State; 3 Crew; 2 Pilots and 1 Observer Photo 3-3 Grab Type Sediment Sampler Fig. 2 Experimental Results of Rescue Buoy System at Sea Horizontal Distance Between the Sinker and the Support Ship 500 1000m 500 ]000 1500 2000 - 20 UNDERSEA VEHICLES - AN OVERVIEW R. FRANK BUSBY BUSBY ASSOCIATES, INC. The undersea vehicle field continues strong. Specialization in vehicle types and capabilities has resulted in expanded task performance in all areas of oil exploitation, the chief factor in their development and growth. The future of "conventional" manned submersibles is uncertain, while the future of ROVs seems positive. Having demonstrated reliability, the manufacturers and operators of ROVs are currently engaged with in- creasing the data quality and work versatility of this class undersea vehicle. The offshore oil and gas industry sparked a vir- tual revolution in the undersea vehicles community; particularly in the area of remotely operated vehi- cles (ROVs) . Although the diver still remains the mainstay of the underwater service industry, every major company includes in its inventory a variety of vehicles, each one providing a specific capabil- ity unique to its design. These vehicles and capa- bilities include manned submersibles, ROVs and hy- brid vehicles. MANNED SUBMERSIBLES Within this category are five vehicle types: 1) one-atmosphere, untethered swimming vehicles; 2) one-atmosphere, tethered vehicles; 3) observa- tion/work bells; 4) lockout vehicles; and 5) atmos- pheric diving suits. One-Atmosphere, Untethered Vehicles This class of manned submersible constitutes the more or less "conventional" vehicle. They sup- port the occupants at one-atmosphere pressure and are self-powered by batteries. Maneuverability is obtainable in the x, y and z axes by control of onboard thrusters. (Representative vehicle: ALVIN) One-Atmosphere, Tethered Vehicles Accommodates one person at atmospheric pres- sure, power supplied from the surface via an um- bilical cable, maneuverability 3-dimensional by thrusters. Designed and used primarily for work on and about fixed structures. (Representative vehicle: MANTIS) Lockout Vehicles Submersible configured into two sections (generally interconnected) , one section is at 1- atmosphere pressure and supports pilot and obser- ver, the second section can be pressurized to am- bient pressure and serves to lockout diver and to support diver/tender and supervisor. Vehicle is generally free-swimming, electrical power is gen- erally supplied by onboard batteries, but can also be from a surface-connected umbilical. Maneuver- ability is obtainable in the x, y and z axes by control of onboard thrusters. Life support, diver heating, and breathing gasses carried onboard. (Representative vehicle: PC-1202) Observation/Work Bells Occupants at one-atmosphere pressure. Power derived from batteries or umbilical cable. De- signed for finely-controlled maneuverability in the x-y axes around and within structures, limited self-maneuvering capability in the vertical (z) axis. Always operates with tether to the surface. (Representative vehicle: ARMS) Atmospheric Diving Suits (ADS ) One person capacity. Occupant at one-atmos- phere pressure. Powered by operator or through surface-connected umbilical and tethers. Two di- mensional to three-dimensional maneuverability, anthropomorphic configuration. (Representative vehicle: WASP/JIM) REMOTELY OPERATED VEHICLES Four vehicle types fall into this category: 1) tethered, free-swimming vehicles; 2) bottom-crawl- ing/structurally-reliant vehicles; 3) towed vehi- cles; and 4) autonomous vehicles. - 21 Tethered, Free-Swimming Vehicles HYBRID VEHICLES Provides CCTV and is capable of maneuvering in three dimensions. Power is supplied from the surface via an umbilical cable. Designed primar- ily for mid-water operations. Dives positively bouyant and relies on verticle thrusters to remain submerged. Manipulative capability available. (Representative vehicle: RCV-225) Towed Vehicles (Mid-Water ) Closed Circuit TV (slow scan) . Propelled and powered by support ship via a surface connected umbilical cable. Power unlimited. Maneuverability in x and y axes controlled by tow ship direction, z axis controlled by winch on ship. Generally de- signed for 6000 in depth. (Representative vehi- cle: DEEP TOW) Towed Vehicles (Bottom and Structurally Reliant ) CCTV generally available. Propulsion and power obtained from support ship. Vehicles are sup- ported by a pipeline or structure on which the ve- hicle is towed from the surface. All vehicles in this category are used for pipeline oar cable trench- ing. All of these vehicles are one of a kind and purpose-designed; consequently, there is no typi- cal representative. Bottom-Crawling Vehicles CCTV generally supplied. All power and con- trol is from a surface platform via an umbilical. Vehicles obtain propulsion from wheels or caterpil- lar-like tracks in contact with the bottom. The majority of these vehicles are large, massive af- fairs used for pipeline and cable trenching — or bottom excavation. There are no typical represen- tatives. Structurally-Reliant Vehicles Vehicles in this category obtain their power from the surface and their propulsion from wheels, rollers or push/pull rams in contact with a pipe- line, rails or a ship's hull. Most have CCTV, all are specifically designed to conduct a specific task, such as pipeline trenching, hull cleaning/ inspection or Subsea Production Systems Maintenance. Autonomous Vehicles Vehicles in this category are self-powered (batteries) and operate without an umbilical. Man- euverability is generally in 3-dimensions and data collected is stored aboard the vehicle. None transmit TV signals and all are essentially in the development stage. They may operate within a pre- programmed schedule or, in some instances, they re- ceive course changes and commands from the surface via an accoustic link. No one vehicle is repre- sentative of this group. These vehicles are combinations of the foregoir vehicles and the diver to provide a specific capa- bility. Several such vehicles are in use in off- shore oil today, and include the following: Diver/ROV Controlled by diver or remotely. Provides diver assistance in underwater inspection, mainter. ance or construction/repair. (Representative vehi cle: DAVID) Diver/ROV Bottom-crawling pipe trencher controlled by diver. (Representative vehicle: Comex Services) ROV/Submersible Bottom-crawling pipe trencher controlled by crew in a one-atmosphere chamber. (Representative vehicle: Travocean Co.) ROV/Submersible Tethered, free-swimming vehicle controlled by crewman in a one-atmosphere chamber or remotely from the surface. (Representative vehicle: DUPLUS II) GROWTH OF FIELD There are a variety of factors which have en- couraged sub-surface penetration of the ocean. Until the 1960 's, the driving forces were food, gems, salvage, military advantage and recreation. For a brief period in the sixties science was a driving force. But nothing has had an effect equa! to the present force of offshore oil and gas. Tables 1 and 2 speak eloquently for the influence of the offshore energy field which began in ernest to penetrate deeper, more hostile waters in the early seventies. Of particular interest is the growth in Tethered, Free-Swimming ROVs. WORK ACCOMPLISHMENTS In only a very few instances do specific types of vehicles conduct work which only they are ex- clusively capable of performing. At any given time the diver, the manned submersible and the ROV can be found conducting similar tasks. The decid- ing criteria in the offshore oil and gas industry is what can do the job successfully and at the least cost. A listing of the tasks performed by undersea vehicles for offshore oil/gas, other in- dustrial interests and military activities is pre- sented in Table 3. - 22 TRENDS The following observations are brief capsuliza- tions of trends which have developed over the past several years in the undersea vehicle field. There is no intention to attempt to forecast what will be forthcoming. Such forecasts are not im- possible, they are simply unrealistic without know- ing what the price of a future barrel of oil will fetch. General The recent drop in oil prices has yet to make a visible impact on industrial undersea vehicle activities. ROVs, in particular, are currently used primarily in support of oil and gas produc- tion. This phase has not slackened. The greatest impact has been on the diver who has dominated the exploration and, particularly, the developmental phases of the offshore oil and gas industry. The vehicle field is undergoing a significant transition. In the late 1950 's and the 1960's, this was a fledgling industry where simply pene- trating the ocean's depths was an achievement. Gone now are the frequent claims of "firsts" which dominated the early years. Now, both the partici- pants and the vehicles have matured, and go about their business with little, if any, of the sixties' fanfare. The emphasis now is aimed at improving the quality and expanding the quantity of work the vehicles can accomplish. The feasibility of plac- ing man or his surrogate beneath the surface has long since been demonstrated. Now the goal is to produce reliable vehicles equipped with reliable tools and support systems. We have, in one author's terms, "greened." A great deal of effort is being placed on mani- pulative devices. Whereas most of today's manipu- lations are of the "rate-type", there is an in- creased trend toward spatially correspondent mani- pulations with proportionate speed. In this lat- ter type the manipulative movement parallels the human arm and its speed is proportionate to the displacement of the operator's control. The most advanced of these manipulations include: tactile feedback; force feedback; and ambient noise moni- toring. Manned Submersibles The industrial applications of manned sub- mersibles has fallen off significantly. Of the 267 vehicles produced since 1960 (Table 1) , only 142 of these have operated within the past three years or are in a condition where they could be readied for diving within 30 days. Of the 142 total vehicles, 38 are government funded and 7 more are under construction. There are only two manned submersibles presently under construction for an industrial customer. The greatest casual- ties have been in one-atmosphere untethered and lockout submersibles. As far as can be determined, all vehicles in the one-atmosphere, tethered, ob- server/work bell and ADS categories are opera- tional. The reason for this fall off in activity seems to be the advent of the ROV and, possibly, the limitations of battery power. The future of the one-atmosphere, untethered vehicle and the lockout vehicle in industrial use is uncertain. One aspect of manned vehicles which has shown increased activity is in the area of power. Projects are underway in England, France and Italy to equip submersibles with closed-cycle diesel or Stirling engines. Remotely Operated Vehicles ROVs have taken center stage in the undersea vehicle area. Their phenomenal increase can be seen in Table 2. There is, as of now, no indica- tion that the field is saturated. But the subject of oversaturation is (and has been since 1978) of great interest. One aspect of tethered, free-swim- ing ROVs that has made itself clear is a sorting out in the numbers of manufacturers of industrial vehicles. Of the 610 vehicles which have been built since 1960, approximately 450 have been pro- duced by four companies, there have been 28 differ- ent manufacturers of tethered, free-swimming ROVs, since 1960. Specialization in ROV design to perform a specific task is on the increase. Current efforts in this area have included anode replacement vehi- cles; deep drilling support vehicles; mine neutral- ization vehicles, pipeline inspection vehicles; diver assist vehicles; light, medium and heavy inspection/work vehicles and a wide array of bot- tom-crawling and structurally reliant vehicles de- signed to perform single-purpose tasks. A greater attention is being paid to ROV um- bilical cables; particularly in the area of fiber optics. The application of fiber optics in reduc- ing umbilical diameter, increasing bandwidth and reducing electrical noise is a subject of current interest both in the industrial and military commu- nity. Since television is one of the most critical capabilities of ROVs, it is not surprising that ef- forts are increasing to provide higher quality TV viewing. There are over 18 manufacturers of under- water TV cameras. The rate at which they announce the advent of a "new", "improved" or "innovative" TV camera is almost dizzying. Current interest seems to be centered at the CCD (Charged Coupled Device) camera which eliminates the imaging lines element and can be used for both color and black and white. - 23 CAPSIZING OF MOORED SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE PLATFORM AND ITS SIMULATION Naonosuke Takarada Toshio Nakajima Hiratsuka Research Laboratory, SUMITOMO HEAVY INDUSTRIES, LTD. ABSTRACT This paper presents the some results of both theoretical and experimental studies on the capsi- zing of moored semi -submersible platform in waves. Especially, the author's attention is paid to ana- lysis of the larger steady tilt of the platform under the excitation caused by the wave-induced vertical lift force on the lower hulls. The time histories of the platform motions predicted by the present method are compared with the experi- mental ones with good agreement. 2. SOME STUDIES ON STEADY TILT OF SEMI- SUBMERSIBLE PLATFORM The intitial effort has b marily toward experimentation understanding of mechanism of submersible platform in waves, represented a twin lower hull eight supporting columns was s test and is illustrated in Fig cipal particulars of the model 1. The model was moored by ei chains at the center of model een directed pri- to obtain a better capsizing semi- The model which type platform with elected for the tank 1 while the prin- is shown in Table ght spread mooring basin. 1. INTRODUCTION Over many years, semi -submersible platform have been believed to be most stable floating structure in waves and numbers of this type struc- ture have been constructed for drilling oil in the open sea. However, because of short historical background of semi -submersible platform, it is considered that many unknowns concerning with the stability exists. Since the existing stability criteria of the most classification society for semi -submersible platform are based on free float- ing body like conventional ship, they are not con- sidering current force, wave-induced steady forces , mooring forces which are important factor for the moored body. Some attempts to study on the stability of semi -submersible platform have been done since the ABS rule on the stability criterion came into force in 1973. Recently, Numata et al . 2 > reported that the semi-submersible platforms having small metacentric height had a tendency to behave with a steady tilt in addition to the osci- llatory motions in waves and this curious pheno- mena was considered in order to introduce the serious situation of the semi -submersible platform in waves. This problem indicates that the safety of semi -submersible platforms in waves is still a problem even though the stability requirement is satisfied with the rule. Wide experimental approach was, therefore, subsequently performed at Hiratsuka Research Labo- latory of Sumitomo Heavy Industries, LTD. to realize the capsizing phenomena of the moored semi- submersible platform in the wave tank. The details of this experimental approach was already present- ed at "Stability '82" in Tokyo in Oct. 1982, and this paper shows analitical studies of those ex- perimental results with simulation. Unit : mm o o o to L_ 1 1700 o en i^Fs n~A50 ■ f_ASO~P 1160 Fig. 1 1/60 Model of Semi-Submersible Platform 1/60 MODEL PROTOTYPE LENGTH OF LOWER HULL( L ) 1.7 H 102.0 H BREADTH OVER LOWER HULLS ( B ) 1.16 M 69.6 M DISTANCE BETWEEN LOWER HULLS 0.9 M 51.0 M DRAFT ( d ) 0.1 M 21.0 M DISPLACEMENT! A ) 163.5 KG 36,200 TON HEIGHT OF THE CG( KG ) 0.3 M 18.0 M METACENTRIC HEIGHTS ( GM T ) 0.028 M 1.68 H ( GM L ) 0.011 M 2.61 M LENGTH OF MOORING LINE 11.5 M 690.0 H CHAIN WEIGHT PER LENGTH! IN HATER) 0.038 KG/M 136.8 KG/M PRE-TENSION 0.15 KG 97.2 TON Table 1 Principal Particulars of 1/60 Model of Semi -Submersible Platform - 24 A lot of experimental works had been imposed for the analysis of the steady tilt of semi- submersible platform by 1) varying fairleader height 2) varying metacentric height 3) varying wave frequency and so forth. Results obtained from the tank test have shown that the angle of the steady tilt was strongly influenced by the location of the fair- leader as well as the metacentric height ( See Fig. 2 ). When the location of fairleader is higher than that of the center of gravity( CG ), the platform has a tendency to tilt to the weather side direction. It is noteworthy that the angle of tilt increases drastically as the wave period decreases and in consequence wave-induced drift force becomes fairly large at such wave period. To determine the mean tilt angle theoretica- lly, the quasi-static analysis of the steady tilt was conducted. The equations of forces and moments acting on the platform are balanced in equilibrium position and are expressed by the following equa- tions. W + M D + (T - (T L'v = F l> M T F-GZ re D W F GZ M M D r Drift Force Displacement Buoyancy : Lever Arm from CG : Overturning Moments due to Steady Force and Mooring Tension : Mooring Tension suffix w : weather side L : lee side h : horizontal direction v : vertical direction Fig. 2 shows the comparison between the ex- perimental data and the calculated results obtain- ed by the previous equations for the steady tilts due to different fairleader height. It is seen that the estimated steady tilts are agreeable with experiment qualitatively but not quantitatively. This indicates that more larger heeling moment should be induced by other additional forces such as the steady lift force on the lower hulls. The effect of the steady lift forces on the lower hulls originally have been argued by Numata et al. 2 ' as the steady tilt phenomena of unmoored semi- submersible platform. It is extremely difficult to assess such complicated behavior of the moored semi-submersible platform in waves by means of the quasi-static solution. In such a case, non-linear analysis of time domain may be applicable to simu- late the dynamic behaviors of the platform. The steady tilt phenomena caused by the diffe- rence in vertical second order steady lift force on each lower hull becomes significant in the case of the listing semi-submersible platform having small GM. Especially, when the platform has larger angle < UJ + 5 a ° in ■10 -15 Fairleaderi Height E*p. CG-5 Cal A | CG C( 10 CG + 20 WAVE Fig. 2 Steady Tilt of Moored Semi -Submersible Platform in Beam Sea ( (^ = 25 cm ) of tilt by mooring lines, the heeling moment due to the vertical lift force increases drastically and causes the serious situation of the platform. Photo. 1 shows some serious situation of the model which was considered as capsizing phenomena. This phenomena appears to occur in relatively short, steap regular waves( wave height = 25 cm or 15 m in full scale, wave period = 1.141 sec. or 8.8 sec. in full scale ). It is interesting to note that the wave having 15 m in height and 8.8 sec. in period is no longer considered as the severest design sea state for existing platform in open sea. Photo. 1 Some Dangerous Behavior of Moored Semi- Submersible Platform in Waves - 25 3. DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF THE MOORED PLATFORM BY TIME-DOMAIN SIMULATION The simulation in time-domain is required to clarify the mechanism of the capsizing semi- submersible platform. The investigation presented here was undertaken in response to this need. The method was developed by using strip theory for computing hydrodynamic coefficients and wave exci- tations. The motions of platform were computed by solving coupled non-linear equations of motions for beam sea in time-domain. The frame of reference for platform motions is a right-handed Cartesian coordinate system originating at the center of gravity of the plat- form ( See Fig. 3 ). The equations of platform motions are as follows: Sway ( X ) ( M + A n )-X + A 12 -Z + A 13 -^ + P/2'C dx -A x .|x - z- ) ( ^ + A 3 3).* + A 31 .X + A 32 -Z + p/2.C dx .A x :|x - U , i\ •( X - z-i - k )-z + p/2C. -A -|Z + x-j) - c|-( Z ♦ x-<(. ? )-x + C '33 + C,,- Z - Z( T :z. - T -.x. ) = F,(t) + F xj J ZJ J d3 where x., z. : Lever from CG in x and z directions (Ji <3> M, I, : Basic mass and moment of inertia in roll A.., C. : Added mass and restoring coefficient i J ' i J p : Oensity of water C , , C , : Viscous damping coefficients in x and z dx dz directions 5, c : Displacements of wave particle in x and z directions S r WAVE A x> A^ : Shaded area of lower hulls in x and z directions T xj'^"zj : ^ 00r i n 9 Tensions in x and z directions F^(t), F , . : First and second order wave forces or moments ( x > 2 ) ■ ■ ■ Coordinate System for Wave ( x - z ) • • ■ Coordinate System for Motions steady tilt drift \. / s Fig. 3 Coordinate System of Simulation Fig. 4 illustrates the sway and roll motions of the model in regular waves ( wave height = 25 cm , wave period = 1.141 sec. ) obtained from experi- ment and theoretical simulation. Since the fair- leader is located at lower position from CG, the angle of steady tilt results as possitive direc- tion( lee side direction ). In the case of the higher fairleader height than CG, the model has a tendency to heel weather side down as is shown in Fig. 5. In Fig. 5, Roll(l) indicates the result of roll motion with the effect of steady lift force while Roll (2) is the case neglecting the steady lift force. Since the model had a tenden- cy to incline in the direction of pitch at the 25 cm wave height in the tank test, the wave height was changed to 20 cm for these comparisons. Although the angle of steady tilt by simulation results as somewhat larger than that of experiment, Fig. 5 indicates that the influence of the second order wave force acting on the lower hulls in ver- tical direction (which is considered as small in magnitude) cannot be disregarded for the estimation of the tilt angle of moored semi -submersible plat- form in waves. QjftAAAAA A.AAAAA/: ~IME(SEC) 40 Fig. 4 Theoretical Results of Platform Motions in Beam Sea Obtained from Computer Simulation 25 cm, T 1.141 sec. Fairleader = CG - 26 CM k_ WAVE I jm iTIME(SEC) | i< y y v y y y MD-L CM DEC 20 r ROLL Simulation Experimental Oata TIME(SEC) With Steady Lift Force 20 ... T!ME(SEC) . AO DEC ROLL(2) A A &/\ 20 Without Steady Lift rorce TIME(SEC) -20 L Fig. 5 Theoretical Results of Platform Motions in Beam Sea Obtained from Computer Simulation ( H = 20 cm, T = 1.141 sec. ; Fairleader = CG + 20 ) 4. MECHANISM OF THE CAPSIZE OF MOORED SEMI- SUBMERSIBLE PLATFORM In the previous sections, insights of the steady tilt phenomena by means of theoretical computations were forcussed. Furthermore, a possible dangerous behavior- including capsize of moored semi-submersible platform- is discussed here. The mechanism of the larger tilt of the model in waves is somewhat complicated. First, the model starts to drift in the lee side direction due to wave-induced drift force. As the model shifts, the mooring lines located on the weather side of the model become taut until equilibrium of the net hori- zontal forces is achieved. In this case, it is ob- vious that the platform having small GM has a ten- dency to develop a constant heel. When the platform heels, the steady lift force acting on the lower hull close to the free surface increases drastically while decreasing the lift on the other hull causes larger heeling moment. On the other ha tank test have shown tilts was strongly i the fairleader. If higher position of t becomes much larger. fluence of the moori regarded for the saf platform. The large waves to ride on the may cause an additio of the platform. nd, results obtai that the angle o nfluenced by the the fairleader is he platform, the This indicates ng 1 ine could no ety of the semi-s r angl e of steady upper deck somet nal incl i nation a ned from the f the steady location of located at heel i ng angle that the in- longer be dis- ubmersibl e til t all ows ime, which nd/or capsize 5. CONCLUDING REMARKS Both theoretical and experimental works on the steady tilt of moored semi -submersibl e platform were conducted and some of the results are present- ed in this paper. From this study, it has been made clear that the additional overturning moment caused by the steady lift force on lower hulls can- not be neglect to predict the angle of tilt for the moored semi-submersible platform. Although the theoretical simulation is agreeable with experiment, further investigations are need to verify the full applicability of this simulation and to extend the capability to include the effect of the green- water on the upper deck which is considered as another important factor for capsizing phenomena. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors deeply appreciate the valuable discussions by Professors M. Bessho of Defence Academy and S. Takezawa of Yokohama National Uni- versity. Moreover, special thanks are due to Mr. S. Nagamatsu and the staffs of the Hiratsuka Re- search Laboratory of Sumitomo Heavy Industries , LTD REFERENCES 1) Rules for Building and Classing Mobile Drilling Units, American Bureau of Shipping, 1968 2) Numata, E., Michel, W.H. and McClure, A.C.," Assessment of Stability Requirements for Semi- Submersible Units", Tans., S.N.A.M.E., Nov. 1976 3) Kuo, C, Lee, A., Welya, Y. and Martin, J.," Semisubmersible Intact Stability-Static and Dynamic Assessment and Steady Tilt in Waves", OTC Paper 2976, May 1977 4) Lee, CM. and Newman, J.N., "The Vertical Mean Force and Moment of Submerged Bodies Under Waves", J. of Ship Research, Sep. 1971 5) Takarada, N. et al.,"The Stability of Semi- Submersible Platform in Waves", Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Stability of Ships and Ocean Vehicles, Oct. 1982 27 SHIP OPERATIONS RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED STATES James G. Gross Deputy Associate Administrator for Research and Development Maritime Administration U.S. Department of Transportation Washington, D.C. 20590 ABSTRACT "Ship Operations Research and Development" has been defined as "the systematic pursuit, and subsequent innovative practical application, of scientific knowledge and understanding in the effective use of resources (men, money, and material) in the efficient operation of ships and barges." This paper provides a brief overview of the joint industry-government sponsored ship operations research and develop- ment program coordinated and/or managed by the Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation. The Program is comprised of four major program areas, as follows: I. Fleet Management Technology Program II. Ship Performance and Safety Program III. Cargo Systems Technology Program IV. Ship Operations Simulation Program "Ship Operations Research and Development," the subject of this paper, has been defined as "the systematic pursuit, and subsequent innova- tive practical application, of scientific knowledge and understanding in the effective use of resources (men, money, and material) in the efficient operation of ships and barges." Ship operations research and development, as thus defined, is conducted in the United States by individual companies, by the cooperative efforts of multiple companies and/or professional or trade associations, and by cooperative efforts of industry and the Government. Although precise numbers are not readily available, it is believed that the largest share of the ship operations research and development (R§D) conducted in the United States falls in the latter category; i.e., industry/Government sponsored R&D, with the Government represented by the Maritime Adminis- tration, U.S. Department of Transportation. This paper provides a brief overview of the Maritime Administration's ship operations R§D program as of mid-calendar year 1983 (Federal Government's fiscal year 1983) . The Ship Operations Research and Development Program sponsored by the Maritime Administration (MARAD) is comprised of four major program areas, as follows: I. Fleet Management Technology Program II. Ship Performance and Safety Program III. Cargo Systems Technology Program IV. Ship Operations Simulation Program Each of these programs is discussed briefly in the text which follows: I . Fleet Management Technology Program A. Background In the recent past, there have been enormous changes in the technology of ships, boats and cargo handling, in the pace of the actual movement of goods, and in the degree and nature of inter- national competition. The philosophy and techniques of managing the business of U.S. international and domestic water transportation companies are in the process of adjusting to new requirements and challenges. In many cases, though, today's ship- ping technology is being employed with little more than yesterday's management capabilities. It seems obvious, therefore, that the basic nature of managing a ship operating company should respond to the demands brought about by modern shipping technology. Effective and safe utilization of large capital intensive ships requires that modern management techniques be applied, in conjunction with advanced computer technology and sophisticated communica- tions systems, to a broad range of functional requirements. Individual companies now use the advanced technologies of management science, operations research, information processing, computer technology, industrial engineering, and communications networks to varying degrees in order to enhance management capabilities at sea and ashore. However, it is believed major gains can be achieved if these technologies are further applied industry-wide to the broad range of planning, operational, and administrative functions performed by maritime companies. For a number of years the use of management technology by the maritime industry has been fostered by MARAD through computer-based management and control systems that were designed as joint industry- government projects, on a cost-sharing - 28 - basis. Over forty computer-based management capa- bilities have been developed to date. Research projects of MARAD's Fleet Management R§D Program continue to utilize the cost-sharing concept and apply advanced management techniques to specific shipboard and shores ide procedures. The ultimate products of the Program are made available for use by all U.S. water transportation carriers. B. Objectives The objectives of the Fleet Management Tech- nology R§D Program are to improve cargo productivity, corporate profitability, competitive position, and company performance within the U.S. water transportation community. To this end, MARAD's Office of Research and Development encourages companies to propose projects pertinent to specific functions that can be made more efficient by utilizing modern management technologies such as: o Management Science o Industrial Engineering o Operations Research o Information Processing o Computer Technology o Communications Networks Research areas of interest to the Maritime Administration include the categories of: Corporate Planning, Cargo Services, Vessel Operations, and Performance Evaluation. Within these principal categories are general activities that, in turn, can be separated into a number of components that eventually become specific projects . a. Corporate Planning This category involves projects related to corporate decision making for service optimization and resource allocation. General activities include: Cargo Flow Demand Assessment, Transporta- tion Network Analysis, Ship Allocation and Scheduling, Executive Decision Support, Terminal and Handling Requirements, Capital and Operational Budgeting. b. Cargo Services This category relates to operational procedures involving all aspects of cargo movement and shipper services. Examples of general activities are: Shipment Booking and Documentation, Equipment Tracking and Tracing, Marine Terminal Process Con- trol, Cargo Load/Discharge Management, Corporate Revenue/Expense Monitoring, Office Data Communications . c. Vessel Operations This category involves all aspects of managing and planning commercial ship operations, from the perspective of the vessel as well as company management ashore. General activities are: Ship Technical Performance Monitoring, Computer- Aided Crew Training, Shipment and Voyage Analysis, Ship/Shore Data Communications. d. Performance Evaluation This category is concerned with procedures and techniques to measure performance, either for an individual company or segments of the U.S. fleet. The output of projects within this area provides methodology, standards, historical perspective, and analytical results. Examples of the type of activities are: Shipper/Consignee Service Review, Corporate Productivity Analysis, Trade Route Competitive Assessment, Corporate Financial Performance, Government Regulatory Impact. II . Ship Performance and Safety Program A. Background U.S. -flag shipping has serious problems in its ability to compete with foreign ships. The gap in ship operation costs between U.S. ships and foreign competitors is growing larger every year. The high operating costs of U.S. shipping lie principally in the areas of manning costs, fuel costs, and overhead expenses. The technical con- tent of the Ship Performance and Safety Program was developed with the aim of arresting and narrowing the operating cost gap by addressing the problems of: o Effective manning o Fuel efficiency o Power requirements and maintenance costs The strategy of th Program is to identify cooperation with all s community, the conditi industry can recruit, personnel who are able within the present and and social frameworks competitiveness of U.S B. Objectives e Ship Performance and Safety and develop, in close egments of the U.S. maritime ons whereby the U.S. maritime train, and retain skilled to exploit all possibilities future technical, economical, and thus strengthen the flag shipping. The principal objective of the program is to reduce ship operating costs by appropriately utilizing advanced technology, capital investment, and human resources. This objective will be accomplished by challenging and exploiting the f o 1 1 ow i ng : 1. U.S. seafaring personnel represent a valuable resource which can be employed more efficiently through new and improved organizational methods and more productively through the appropriate utilization of advanced technology. 2. Increased efficiency, productivity, and opera- tional reliability can be realized by developing and implementing technological advances within the areas of ship design, maintenance, fuel efficiency, and computer systems. The specific objectives of the Shi]) Performance and Safety Program focus on three major areas which strongly impact ship operating costs. These three - 29 mutually reinforcing program elements and the objectives of each are: a. Effective Manning Determine the most economic and safe minimum manning levels for ships by employing U.S. sea- farers more efficiently through new and improved organizational methods and more productively through the appropriate utilization of advanced technology. b. Fuel Efficiency Reduce fuel costs by making more efficient use of fuel through development of a new technology that permits the accurate measurement of each factor of ship operation that causes fuel losses. c. Power Requirements and Maintenance Costs Reduce hull and propeller frictional losses and extend the periods between drydocking by develop- ment of new and improved maintenance management practices and new hull-coating materials. Ill . Cargo Systems Technology Program A. Background The Maritime Administration's Cargo Systems Technology Program encompasses three principal activities which address the needs of the U.S. maritime community to increase cargo throughput and reduce operating costs. The three program areas are as follows: 1. Cooperative Cargo Systems Improvement 2. Dry Bulk Cargo Systems Improvement 3. Military Sealift Improvement B. Objectives 1. Cooperative Cargo Systems Improvement The objective of this program is to reduce cargo systems costs by bringing new technology applications to the maritime cargo handling industry. Cargo handling costs represent a significant percentage of total daily operating costs for U.S. -flag carriers. Eight U.S. -flag liner carriers cooperate in this program by sharing in the cost of projects, acting as project directors and by providing terminals, equipment, labor, and other services in support of the projects. The Naval Supply Systems Command has also provided funding for projects where they have a special interest, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (Office of Transportation) has assisted in projects dealing with agricultural commodity cargo systems. Productivity improvement is vital for the survival of the U.S. -flag maritime industry. The industry, plagued with problems of low profits, a traditionally conservative attitude, and a lack of technology-oriented personnel, has not taken advantage of technology advancements made in other industries which can be adapted to marine cargo handling. The Maritime Administration acts as a catalyst to bring industry together to identify common problems and bring about solutions which will benefit U.S. -flag carriers by reducing costs, improving productivity, and increasing the share of cargo carried on U.S. -flag ships. 2. Dry Bulk Cargo Systems Improvement The objective of this program is to assist in the development of cargo systems which will allow U.S. carriers to compete with foreign carriers. A very small share of the United States' dry bulk trade is being carried on U.S. -flag ships. High transportation costs when compared to foreign carriers is the causal factor. Underlying factors are high shipbuilding costs, high vessel operating costs, poor fuel efficiency, high crew costs, and a lack of highly productive cargo handling systems. There has been little or no incentive to induce private investment in U.S. -flag dry bulk ships except for government -impel led cargoes. This pro- gram seeks ways in which U.S. owners can be commercially profitable in the operation of U.S.- flag dry bulk vessels without government financial assistance by increasing the productivity of cargo systems and improving vessel utilization. 3. Military Sealift The objective of this program is to develop, test and demonstrate, in cooperation with the Navy and U.S. -flag commercial carriers, materials handling systems which enhance the capabilities of the commercial merchant fleet to meet military sealift requirements. IV. Ship Operations Simulation Program A. Background The Maritime Administration in 1972 initiated construction of a ship operations research labora- tory in which the operating environment of a ship at sea is simulated on land. This facility, the Computer Aided Operations Research Facility, generally referred to as CAORF, is a sophisticated human factors laboratory which, through realistic simulation of the maritime environment, enables the researcher to examine the influence of the human element in ship operations. The simulated environment includes the visual out-of-a-window wheelhouse scene and a replica of the wheelhouse itself, including all of the customary navigation and communication equipment. This simulated environment enables the researcher to view the performance of a watch officer and/or bridge team in control of a vessel in a wide variety of operating scenarios including risk situations. B. The objectives of MARAD's Ship Operations Simulation Program conducted at CAORF are as follows : 1. Reduce the frequency of collisions, rammings , and groundings. 30 2. Ensure that a pool of trained marine personnel exists . 3. Support the development of ports and new port operations. 4. Establish standards and criteria by which to measure improvements in performance. The facility—which is unique worldwide-- supports the efforts of the U.S. port authorities, ship operators, programs internal to the Maritime Administration and regulatory activities such as the Coast Guard and National Transportation Safety Board, the military (specifically the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S. Navy) and the international community, including national governments and IMO. In addition to performing work funded by industry and agencies other than the Maritime Administration, CAORF conducts MARAD's own research program which has been developed to affect the safety and productivity of the merchant marine. MARAD's program is a combination of basic and applied research directed at five major program areas : 1. Navigation and Vessel Control 2. Port and Waterway Design and Operations 3. Training and Certification 4. Vessel Maneuvering Characteristics 5. Technology Transfer and Industry Liaison projects sponsored under the MARAD R&D Program, 2. Results of other research in the same or closely related fields, 3. Operational experience of research projects that have been implemented, 4. Future research and development needs of maritime companies. Dissemination of Results Perhaps the single most important aspect of the MARAD R§D effort is the dissemination of research findings that will lead to eventual implementation. The ultimate aim is to share results of one company's work with all other companies in the water transportation industry. This requires designing and developing functional systems and procedures that are transferable to other companies with similar requirements. The traditional avenue to achieve this objective is through issuance of technical reports. In addition to the publication of the required reports, the Maritime Administration seeks to translate research findings into action through annual conferences at which participants in the research program are invited to give presentations on the results of their completed projects or provide progress reports. The conferences serve a dual purpose: to provide a forum for knowledge sharing and interaction, and to aid the Maritime Administration and industry in formulating cooperative projects directed toward achieving the highest priority program goals. Such conferences are organized and sponsored by the Maritime Administration at various locations and are open to industry and other government agencies. Presentations generally fall within four categories: 1. Results of completed and ongoing research 31 - U.S. SHIPBUILDING RESEARCH IN THE 1980's James G. Gross Deputy Associate Administrator for Research and Development Maritime Administration U.S. Department of Transportation Washington, D.C. 20590 ABSTRACT Shipbuilding research in the U.S. has grown in scope and complexity during the 1970' s. The National Shipbuilding Research Program is involved with wide ranging projects which address Advanced Manufacturing Technologies for research in the 1980's. Background The Maritime Administration has been sponsoring a cooperative shipbuilding research program since early in the 1970' s. The National Shipbuilding Research Program (NSRP), as it has become known, has from its inception been a collaborative effort with the U.S. shipbuilding industry. The primary objectives sought to be achieved through the NSRP are cost reductions and accelerated deliveries. These objectives are consistent with the goal of maintaining an economically stable U.S. shipbuilding industry through increased productivity. Over the past decade, the NSRP has built up a nationwide industry organization with over 400 participants with representation from all major U.S. shipyards. The program strategy has been to respond to the needs of the shipbuilders as they perceived them and carry these projects to successful implementation. The NSRP conducts its planning and control functions through nine technical panels under the Ship Production Committee of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers. The panels, listed in Table 1, cover the major cost centers and technology areas of the production processes which make up ship construction. The projects, which are proposed and selected by the consensus of shipbuilding experts represented on the individual panels, are usually of a near-term nature, have wide application, and are cost-shared with the industry participant chosen to perform them. NSRP TECHNICAL PANELS SP-1 Facilities SP-2 Outfit and Production Aids SP-4 Design/Production Integration SP-6 Shipbuilding Standards SP-7 Welding SP-8 Industrial Engineering SP-9 Education and Training SP-10 Flexible Automation SP-023-1 Surface Preparation and Coatings Looking over the past decade of NSRP projects, several trends emerged. The early stages of the program focused on short-term projects and concentrated on hardware developments. These projects demonstrated to shipbuilders the effectiveness of cooperative research and that technology development and implementation can improve productivity. The second five years have seen the number of research programs expand, industry participation grow and the scope of the program broaden. In addition to traditional technologies, programs in outfit planning and unit construction, standard- ization, industrial engineering, facilities engineering, design/production integration, educational development and flexible automation have been initiated. With this increase in scope, the range of participants has grown to encompass not just shipbuilders but design agents, equipment and material suppliers, and academia. Likewise, the focus of projects has broadened to include not just facilities and equipment development, but also organizational and management technologies to improve productivity. It is worth noting that a number of these projects have studied (and are studying) in detail the highly efficient construction methods and technologies utilized by Japanese and European shipbuilders and these are seeing wide application by U.S. shipyards. 32 The foregoing overview serves to provide a departure point for my main topic of U.S. Shipbuilding Research in the 1980' s. This is because the emergent technologies, which are being dealt with in the 1980' s by the NSRP, can be characterized as Advanced Manufacturing Technology. The degree of sophistication required to integrate, coordinate and plan for the application of these methods and hardware represents a "second generation" in ship production research. Therefore, it is apparent from the complexity of Advanced Manufacturing technologies that the current make up of the NSRP must include a diverse membership including designers and academia, not just production process experts. It must also include a wide range of subprograms featuring design production systems and approaches which impact multiple construction areas. Advanced Manufacturing Technology In order to discuss this topic it is necessary to define several key concepts which are at the heart of today's manufacturing research and development. The concept of Group Technolo gy is defined in its broadest sense as "...the logical arrangement and sequences of all facets of company operations in order to bring the benefits of mass production to high variety, mixed quantity production. "1 The second concept is that of Social Technologies referring "...to innovative organizations of work and human resource manage- ment practices employed in experimental or quasi- experimental settings for the purpose of improving performance in the work place (quality, safety, efficiency) ." 2 The third concept is the term Flexible Automation which is meant to encompass the technological areas relating: (a) the combined use of robots, numerically controlled machines (single and multipurpose) , and conventional machines for use in the low volume shipbuilding environment; and (b) the integrating (including automation where necessary) of such "flexible" vs. fixed manufacturing techniques into an optimal facility for ship production. Each of these concepts represents a systematic approach to solving productivity problems. In order, they address: organizational, sociological and mechanical manufacturing areas. Taken individually and reduced to their subprogram project level it is evident that these approaches are refining and applying existing technologies to conventional manufacturing processes. However, when taken in the aggregate and seen with their inherent overlaps, the focus is on shipbuilding as a macro-system. This macro-system, fitting under the umbrella term of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, includes technical systems of stunning complexity, highly sophisticated organizational methods, as well as the humanistic components of ship production. The NSRP is pursuing projects and encouraging dialogue and experimentation in each of these three conceptual frameworks. The rest of this paper briefly describes completed and ongoing work which constitutes the thrust of -research of the 1980's in U.S. shipbuilding. Where appropriate possible follow on projects or directions for out-year projects will be mentioned. Organizational Approaches in Advanced Manufac - turing Technology As previously mentioned, the second phase (late 1970's) of NSRP activities included subprograms addressing outfitting. With the publication, in December of 1979, of the report entitled Outfit Planning 3 , the different methods for organizing the installation of components, other than ship hull structure, were identified. The inherent advantages to "zone outfitting" (i.e., interim-product oriented construction, based on segmented production process 'problem' classes, of everything within a limited three- dimentional space) concepts were contrasted with systems-by-systems approaches used in 'convention- al' (component on-board installation after a portion of the ship is erected) and 'preoutfitting' (earlier outfitting of large structural sections prior to erection of a hull). These advantages are represented in Figure (1) below. The adoption of zone outfitting necessitates changes in organizational philosophy. This is evident in the design process where zone-by- zone methods must be incorporated with the overriding change being the requirement that design information must fully anticipate the needs of material procurement and production. In the production area zone outfitting, as practiced by Japanese shipyards, allows for a more uniform production flow and taking advantage of this requires modification in scheduling techniques. This production related aspect of zone outfitting was separately explored by the NSRP with a report on Product Work Breakdown Structure^ (PWBS) . Group Technology methods for the application of mass production techniques to a variety of products in widely varying quantities form the underlying logic for the PWBS framework for classification based on manufacturing problems of purchased components, fabricated parts and subassemblies to achieve coordinated work flows. Cb ft a {2 ft Goth and brnrnu at ■ 33 These two efforts have served to communicate productivity increasing organizational management technologies to U.S. shipbuilders and, through the industry organization of the NSRP, the importance of these concepts has been recognized. In particular, the need for full integration of the two functions of design and production is being addressed by a separate panel of industry experts. This panel has an ongoing project entitled "Group Technology Parts Classification and Coding System" which focuses on implementation and enhancement of the PWBS framework for U.S. shipyards. The study when completed in 1984 will include a classification and coding system usable by a broad spectrum of the industry and which is designed to be compatible with shipyard computer aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM) systems. As mentioned earlier several U.S. shipyards have implemented parts of these technologies and have in place product work breakdown frameworks. The NSRP has encouraged these pilot program frameworks and during 1982 funded a project to study the adoption of "process lanes" by a U.S. shipyard. Organized process lanes (or production lines) are also based on Group Technology principles. As identified by Okayama and Chirillo in Product Work Breakdown Structure^ (see Figure (2)), in Japan the process of ship construction utilized several designated material flow routes for the processing of all material. These process lanes provide for sequential manufacture of detailed parts and pieces, assembly of these components into progressively larger and more complex units and ultimately the construction of these units into the ship itself. Each process lane consists of a series of work stations with a permanent group of workers performing a specific function or process - these work stations are organized so that work in progress is moved in a lane from one station to the next. Part of the study of using this concept in a U.S. shipyard will focus on the effects and interfaces with design, production planning, CAD/CAM systems and material procurement. A comparison between existing production systems and the proposed system with economic analysis will also be an out- put of the study for completion in early 1984. The two projects described are hardly exhaustive of the efforts by the NSRP to research and develop refined organizational technologies for U.S. shipyards. One direction will include a project exploring Computer Aided Process Planning in the shipyard environment. This project will be initiated by early 1984. Computer aided staging of resources and sequencing of fabrication steps is currently being utilized in the aerospace industry. The project will deal with possible shipbuilding applications, based on group technology principles, as well as industrial engineering techniques for operations sequencing with computer modelling methods. This represents a promising area which will result in decreased planning costs, reduced schedules, optimized process selection, increased flexibility, improved quality, and increased standardization. Sociological Approaches to Advanced Manufacturing Technology As identified in Figure (1) above, the adoption of zone outfitting methods not only results in higher productivity and better quality, but also improved worker safety and improves the working environment. The natural reflex is to postulate the existence of a positive relationship between the human side of work and productivity. As James C. Taylor suggested in a paper given in {^y wv 4MTO FIGURE 2 Simplified integrated proceun fix simultaneous hull construction ■nd outfitting. Painting would appnr as additional pnxe*se* in additional sub-siagcs in the various flow lanes (eg. between Hock a«embly and on-block outfitting) Sub- Mages. Mich a* Mock turnover when outfilting on block, arc alw omitted. w-m © §- "-tUt^iIj-^ © rj^j- m£^- lll^olnL ;1£ iih ►© © — c i © ®E3 i^^^D-k^o-k^i^-kiiik- 34 1975: "Work that is meaningfully arranged, both for the humans involved in its execution and for its technical requirements, typically results in a higher quality product and, not infrequently, in greater productivity as well." In general the NSRP, along with sister bodies such as the National Academy of Sciences Committee on Navy Shipbuilding Productivity, has recognized the potential for significant productivity gains for U.S. shipyards through work force innovation. To further this end the Education Panel of the NSRP has recently conducted a three-day workshop for an industry-wide, joint management/ labor examination of human resource innovations. These innovative methods include the principle areas of: (a) worker participation (especially quality circles and quality of work life); (b) work redesign (e.g., autonomous work groups, multiskilled workers); and (c) behavior modification (e.g., performance engineering, performance management). This project drew upon the resources of shipyard (and other industry) management and labor leaders, academics and consultants involved with social research, and government labor officials. Part of the agenda dealing with worker participation pointed out the "Quality Circle" (QC) experiences of Norfolk Naval Shipyard which began their experiment in 1979 and Lockheed Marine Shipbuilding which started theirs in 1980. The QC concept includes, to varying degrees, the decentralization of management (especially relating to safety, quality, and efficiency), statistical methods, and behavioral science. In general, QC has been a widespread management practice with Japanese and European shipyards since the 1960's, however, in the U.S. shipyards it calls for innovation in the integration of a parallel management chain in the existing organizational framework. The system is especially beneficial in that it allows for flexibility of emphasis on safety, quality, or productivity enhancements to suit individual yard concerns. It is likely that studies on U.S. shipyard implementation of QC concepts will form part of the NSRP in upcoming years. The workshop on Social Technologies also highlighted areas where the systems approach is being applied to workforce productivity problems. The application of the Performance Management theory (i.e., employee performance measurement, work performance feedback and worker improvement recognition (positive reinforcement)) in a systematic continuing program is a simple example of such an approach. More complex approaches include socio-technical system design which "...differs from other approaches to the problem of matching work to people by attending simultaneously to the technical and production requirements of the work and to the psychological and social aspects of individual and group requirements." 7 Such system modelling allows for integration of one or more of the previously mentioned social technology concepts such as quality circles, autonomous work groups and classical principles of scientific management. This sophisticated technique is a HKeiy direction which the NSRP will continue to study for shipyard workforce innovation in the 1980' s. Mechanical Approaches to Advanced Manufacturing Technology Although U.S. shipbuilding research has, to a degree, been preoccupied with the opportunities for productivity gains which advanced organizational structures present, a traditional core program to develop improved elements in facilities, welding and surface preparation and coatings areas is, and has been, ongoing. Of particular interest is the NSRP Welding Panel studies involved with the application of robots to perform shipyard welding and material handling tasks. 8 One study utilizing a fixed-position, jointed-arm, pendant-taught, machine is currently being conducted by a U.S. shipyard, with a concurrent Navy project being conducted to develop a simplified teaching system and an acceptable visual tracking system for that robot . The evaluation of the computer controlled pedestal mounted robot shown in Figure (3) to perform arc welding tasks in Todd shipyards has served as a test bed for state-of-the-art robotics as adopted to the shipyard. The basic design and analysis of an arc-welding robot work station and the test of welding performance were obvious technical questions to be solved and preliminary findings indicate that a programmable automated machine can be taught: to manipulate the tool attached to it, and to consistently, with accuracy, perform the task or process. More importantly, the project has served to bring out the developmental aspects to the cost-effective use of flexible automation. To highlight a few of these: o results confirm the importance of adequate workforce preparation which should include training prior to the introduction of the new technology; CINCINNATI MILACRON T-3 ROBOT »-Y - 35 - o results indicate fit up and positioning are of critical importance and emphasize the need for artificial intelligence and sophisticated sensory devices yet to be developed; o the question of material handling and robot accessibility is a crucial factor in the productivity equation - one early conclusion was the need for a more sophisticated feeding and positioning device; o "Teach time" was confirmed as the most significant factor limiting the productiv- ity of flexible automation machines in the small batch manufacturing environment; and o the necessary production planning which is required to optimize flexible automation, e.g., identification of acceptable candidate parts for welding on the robot; establishing minimum batch vs. teach time that is practical and economical to produce on the robot. An additional result was the NSRP Welding Panel decision to evaluate a portable, wand-taught "apprentice" welding robot for a second type of application (see Figure (4)). This evaluation, begun last year, will include: the identification of areas such as various fabrication shops and on-board locations to apply this robot; the design of a portability vehicle for the system; deter- mining optimum man/machine (s) loadings; further assessments of group technology as applied to candidate parts; and, the economic viability of the system as developed or modified. To summarize, the advantages to the use of robots can include: o increased product quality o flexibility o reduced workforce injuries o precision o improved worker morale o reduced production costs o improved equipment utilization THE APPRENTICE Mounting Configurations Tr\« APPRENTICE robol can o reduced personnel training cost o round-the-clock output availability However, the disadvantages of this technology may include: capital costs primitive sensory devices organization management adjustments space requirements requirements for specialized work flow and parts orientation With this in mind, the NSRP is committed to the application of this high-technology to the shipbuilding arena. It has recognized the existence of the separate subset of problems attendant with adopting and developing existing robotics technology. This current technology is rooted in high production, fixed position, assembly line, manufacturing industries in contrast to the low volume, variable size (from small to extremely large), and broad range of complexity of the subassemblies which make up ship manufacture. Therefore, a new panel to deal with this area of Flexible Automation was initiated by the NSRP. Amongst its first projects scheduled for award in the upcoming months, is a planning project for the introduction of flexible automation in U.S. shipyards to realize fully the advantages and minimize the disadvantages listed above. Specific application -projects are also planned. It is also quite possible that the limitations of robotics in shipbuilding may become the impetus for new technology research and development in methods and process improvements such as innovations and new materials for welding, bonding or painting which allow maximal automated production as well as the greater sophistication required in sensing and teaching machinery peripheral to the robots themselves . Conclusion This paper has touched on a handful of projects out of a total NSRP program which at any given point in time may have 60 ongoing projects. However, these few projects serve to indicate the thrust of U.S. shipbuilding research in the 1980's and typify the complex systems which are now being tackled by this industry/ government cooperative program in its second decade. Referen ces 1. Group Technology: A Foundation for Better Total Company Operation , G. McGraw Hill, London, 1972. Introduction: M. Ranson, Social Technologies Workshop May 3-5, 1983 / M. E. Gaffney (included in participants briefing package), 1983, p. 5. J6 3. Outfit Planning , C. S. Jonson, L. D. Chirillo, U.S. Department of Commerce, Maritime Administration, in cooperation with Todd Pacific Shipyards Corporation, December, 1979. 4. Production Work Breakdown Structure , Y. Okayama, L. D. Chirillo, U.S. Department of Transportation, Maritime Administration in cooperation with Todd Pacific Shipyards Corporation, November, 1980 revised December, 1982. 5. Ibid p. 10. 6. The Human Side of Work: The Socio-Technica l Approach to Work System Design , J. C. Taylor, Third Annual Systems Conference, The Hospital Management Systems Society of the American Hospital Association, Long Beach, February 19-21, 1975. 7. Ibid 8. The author wishes to acknowledge that much of the material presented in this section of the paper is based on the work of J. B. Acton, Manager of Research and Development at Todd Pacific Shipyards Corporation, Los Angeles Division. 37 - Operational Experiences with the High-Speed SSC Passenger Ferry SEAGULL and New Concepts in the SSC M. Oshima Deputy Director Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding Co., Ltd. Tokyo, Japan ABSTRACT A concept of the Semi-Submerged Catamaran (SSC) or Small-Waterplane-Area Twin-Hull (SWATH) appears to be one of the ideal approaches to a modest-sized ship with good seakeeping and ample deck space, as well as sustained speed in waves. This paper describes operational experiences of the world's first high speed SSC ferry SEAGULL, the outline of a 2800 G/T SSC support ship which is scheduled to be delivered in 1985, and some new concepts for the SSC including small prototypes and experimental craft. INTRODUCTION As one of the ideal ship concepts to meet the design requirements for good seakeeping and spacious deck space within modest-size, the SSC has been developed mostly in Japan and the United States. The SSC consists of a pair of submerged main hulls or lowerhulls, an above-water platform structure, and streamlined surface-piercing struts which connect lowerhulls to the upper structure. Because of this unique hull shape, the SSC is less susceptible to the wave forces in a seaway and has longer natural periods of motion than a conventional monohull ship. Furthermore, this type of ship can provide greater effective deck space and less speed loss in waves, in addition to good stability. Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding Co., Ltd. (hereinafter called Mitsui) began development of the SSC in 1970 with high expectation for a wide field of applications in commercial use, while the U.S. Navy is aiming to use the SWATH ships for various military missions. There are now four SSCs being operated: the high-speed SSC ferry SEAGULL (Photo 1) , the hydrographic survey vessels KOTOZAKI and OHTORI, and the workboat SSP KAIMALINO, as well as some small prototypes and experimental craft such as the 19.5 meter demonstrator SWATH boat SUAVE LINO. Portions of full-scale test results and operational ??? er !o? ces have been P ut> lished to this date. (-!■)/ (2) Photo 1 SEAGULL Aiming for an offshore support base for a large scale of experiments at open sea, the Japan Marine Science and Technology Center (JAMSTEC) decided to construct a larger SSC-type underwater experimental work support ship. (3) This 2800 G/T support ship will be completed at the Chiba Works of Mitsui in 1984 and delivered in 1985. OPERATIONAL EXPERIENCES OF THE SEAGULL Japan consists of many islands and there are many ferry routes on which fairly high waves cause problems with regular service and ride comfort. One of the domestic shipping companies, which operates many ferries on the routes between our, main island of Honshu and the seven remote islands near Tokyo, had been concerned about passenger complaints of poor ride quality and resultant seasickness. In order to improve their ferry service with regard to passenger comfort, over the past ten years the company has considered enlarging the size of their ferries or adopting a relatively small-sized new type of ship capable of carrying a large number of passengers at high speed with good seakeeping characteristics. - 38 They compared various ship types including ydrofoils, hovercraft, etc; however, they oticed some disadvantages such as limitation of he number of passengers, high initial cost, and igh maintenance cost. Consequently, they found he SSC to be the most suitable ship to meet heir demands relating to ship motion, speed in aves, and economy. The basic design requirements for the EAGULL were the capacity to carry 446 passengers t a service speed of 23 knots and the ability to un comfortably even in rough seas with a iignificant wave height of up to 3.5 meters. Accordingly, the main particulars of the 1EAGULL were decided as follows: Length b.p. Breadth, max. Depth Draft, full Draft, max. 31.5 m 17.1 m 5.845 m 3.15 m 3.8 m Displacement at full draft 343 tons Main Engine High speed diesel 4,050 PS X 2 sets Speed max. 27.1 knots The SEAGULL was put into commercial Dperation on the route between Tokyo and the remote islands of Oshima and Niijima, as shown in Fig. 1, in July 1981. Except for the summer season, July and August, she has been running twice daily round trips between Atami and Oshima island. Fig. 1 Operational routes of SEAGULL Passenger comfort in the SEAGULL has been optimal because of relatively minor motion and acceleraton. According to measured motion and acceleration during full-scale seakeeping tests, the significant value of pitch and roll motions were less than 1.5 degrees and the vertical acceleration was less than 0.1 G for all headings in sea state 4. This fact was proven by a very low seasickness ratio among SEAGULL'S passengers with less than 0.2 percent recorded from August 1981 to February 1982. Women, children and aged, who are liable to get seasickness easily, particularly enjoy this mode of sea travel. The children are also fascinated by the novelty. The SSC has changed the image of high speed passenger boats. The accumulated operating distance was more than 20,000 n.m. from July to December 1981 and nearly 40,000 n.m. in 1982. The main engines were driven more than 4,500 hours as of February 1982. The Z-drive system which was newly developed by Mitsui provides high transmission efficiency as well as high reliability. As shown in the following table of scheduled and suspended runs, a 94 percent ratio of total operation to scheduled service was recorded in 1982. 1982 Scheduled Suspended due to wave conditions January February March April May June 124 112 124 120 124 120 6 6 12 July* August* 90 88 12 8 September October November December 120 124 120 12 18 7 4 Total 1,278 73 (Operational routes: Atami-Oshima island, *: Tokyo-Oshima, Niijima islands) As well as measuring wind velocity and direction, the significant wave heights and wave directions were observed on board SEAGULL during her operations. In the vicinity of the operational routes, strong south to west-southwest winds blow frequently from April to August while dominant wind directions from October to March are north to east-northeast. We have learned from the data that the SSC is only slightly influenced by the winds which generate wind waves. For example, there were many days with wind velocity of more than 10 m/s in May and October in 1982, but the SEAGULL was operated 100 percent and more than 94 percent respectively in those months, and very few passengers experienced seasickness. During the month of September there were some strong typhoons which traced on the areas near Tokyo. This resulted in cancellation of all ferry services around Tokyo Bay and the remote islands for several days. 39 Furthermore, some runs were cancelled due to vulnerable port facilities on Oshima island facing the open sea, and due to the operator's in-house rule by which the ship is not operated in case that more than 3.5 meter waves will be prospected before leaving the mainland port. Therefore the operating rates in the summer season or the typhoon season were obliged to be decreased. Fig. 2 shows the distribution of the visual wave heights during 1982. ft •H 0> HI 1 I "^ ~ ! 2 2 j 3 ■ * > <*• ■ ""> ■^ •« 1 ■ ' T ! j n r j ». - „ 1 i ? 9.0 3 I . a. a :a «" t O j V Z O « - - "* |( j g ° 1 VI J 1 r»T f** ] , ajo» WIS 4 r^»<*»3 w»; | ' TO' fowar" i— I a (-1 x: en <4-4 c 01 e Oil v A-i^ \ Skirt > 0.7kt Current <0.6kt \Baffle Plates Fig. 2. MOBAX in a low current When the current speed exceeds 0.6 knot, the forward skirt gets to incline gradually and the stagnated oil in front of the forward skirt begins to flow down in droplets along the inclined skirt. The down-flowed oil droplets float up off the forward skirt bottom into the dual skirt space through baffle plates fitted at the bottom of the dual skirt. The oil once captured within the dual skirt space will not flow out owing to the effects of the baffle plates which reduce the eddy currents in the dual skirt space. Fig.l. Conventional Oil Boom However, MOBAX can retain the oil in higher currents up to abt. 1.4 knot, by virtue of its dual skirt and baffle plate system. Principle of MOBAX MOBAX is a dual skirt oil boom as shown in Fig . 2 and 3. When the current speed is less than 0.6 knot, both skirts are upheld nearly vertical, and spilled oil Oil >0.9kt Fig. 3. MOBAX in a high current 60 3. Principal Particulars of MOBAX 1) MOBAX - I Fig. 4. MOBAX - I Total height Freeboard Draft Weight 800 mm 300 mm 500 mm 10 kg/m 20 m abt. abt. abt. Length of one unit : Joint : Slide fastener (JIS) Tensile strength : abt. 5000 kg The skirt is conventional oil boom of which the float is made of polystyrene foam covered with polyetnyrene and skirt is made of PVC coated fabrics.. The baffle plate is made of PVC coated fabrics and the connecting pipe of dual skirt and stiffeners are made of stainless steel. 2) MOBAX - II F ig. 5. MOBAX - II Total height Freeboard Draft Weight 880 mm abt. 330 mm abt. 550 mm 15 kg/m 20 m abt Length of one unit Joint : Slide Fastener Tensile ctrength : abt. 8,000 kg All construction material is GRI except for the skirt which is made of nylon cloth coated with neoprene. Performance of MOBAX The full scale tests of MOBAX - I and II were carried out with oil at the tank test facilities of Institute of Ocean Environmental Technology at Tsukuba, in March, 1981. 1) MOBAX - II connected with the wing booms of conventional single skirt was tested with oil in a large square test basin being towed in various speed, as shown in Fig .6 . The length of MOBAX - II was 10 m and the length of wing booms was changed to 10 m and 20 m. The wave conditions were 30 cm in height, and 6 m and 10 m in length. 2) Fio.6 MOBAX Test MOBAX - I and II were also tested with oil in a circulating water channel to confirm the oil collecting performance in waves and currents. The wave condi- tions then, were 60 cm in height and 10 m in length. 3) After the above tests, the performance of the MOBAX is clarified as follows; (a) Wave conditions: 3 cm in height 10 m in length Winn boom: 10 m in length Up to abt. 0.9 knot current, the oil is retained ir, front of the forward skirt. When the current exceeds 0.9 Knot, the oil starts floating up- 61 ward into dual skirt space and when the current exceed 1.4 knots, a small volume of oil begins to leak backward . (b) Wave conditions: 30 cm in height 6m in length Wing boom: 10 m in length Nearly same as the above, but when the current exceeds 1.2 knot, a small volume of oil begins to leak backward. (c) Wave conditions: 60 cm in height 10 m in length Up to abt. 0.8 knot current, the oil is retained in front of the forward skirt. When the current exceeds 0.8 knot, the oil starts floating up- ward into dual skirt space and when the current exceeds 1.2 knot, a small part of oil begins to leak backward. (d) The oil containment capacity of MOBAX is abt. 9 % of spilled oil under the condi- tion of 30 cm wave height and 1.4 knot current speed. 5. Conclusion As a result of the full scale tests in waves and currents, it was confirmed that MOBAX has a good retainability and containability of spilled oil in waves and currents. MOBAX can be used in waves and currents, not only for retaining oil but also for recovering spilled oil when fitted with a suitable suction mouth and hose in the dual skirt space. MOBAX is also designed to be foldable compactly for easy carrying and handling. References: 1) I. Mutoh : "MODEC Oil Boom for High Current" UJNR MFP 1978 (Annapolis) 2) E. Tasaka, S. Motora : "The Develop- ment of Oil Fences (Booms) and Oil Skimmers" UJNR MFP 1979 (Tokyo) 62 THE SEAKNIFE Richard M. Shamp President Engineering Service Associates, Inc. 1500 Massachusetts Ave., N.W. Washington, D.C. 20005 ABSTRACT The SeaKnife is a new revolutionary type of boat that can attain very high speed with exceptional stability and maneuverability. Results of some of the tests that have been conducted and plans for its future use are discussed. INTRODUCTION This paper will describe in a ^ery brief way the evolution of a unique vessel called the Sea- Knife. It is unique in its hull design and the performance which this design allows in heavy seas and its stability both at very high speeds and dead in the water. DISCUSSION The SeaKnife was originally built in 1971 by hydrodynamist Peter R. Payne of Annapolis, Mary- land. The design was patented. During the seventies, the boat (a 21'version) was extensive- ly tested in the United States, England and in Russia. Models were also tested widely in var- ious tow tanks. In all cases the performance characteristics, such as stability, maneuver- ability, speed and ability to operate in heavy seas far exceeded expectation. In 1980 SeaKnife Limited Partnership acquired an exclusive license to produce the vessel for all applications and sizes. This partnership was headed by Ron Cain of McLean, Virginia. Also in 1980 a 34' wood hull prototype was built and since that time has undergone extensive testing. In the summer of 1982 demonstrations were run for high-ranking Navy, U.S. Coast Guard and Cus- toms personnel, along with foreign military atta- ches and other representatives of foreign gov- ernments and commercial organizations. The demonstrations were received and declared unan- imously as "fantastic." In the spring of 1983 some limited tests were run by NavSeas and the U.S. Coast Guard at the NavSeas Combat Systems Engineering Station at Norfolk, Virginia, and reported on in NAVSEAC0M- BATSYSENGSTA Report No. 60-113. Due to a break- down in certain of the test equipment, the tests were not as thorough as had been hoped. However, the report does state, "The SeaKnife maneuvers well and imparts the feeling that ^jery tight turns can be made at very high speed. The boat did NOT exhibit ANY negative maneuvering characteristics," and "It was further noted that when the SeaKnife was dead in the water, like most craft, it even- tually assumed a beam sea attitude. When in this position, there was practically no roll induced by the waves. The craft would heave slightly and pitch up by the stern as the wave passed, but no significant beam sea induced rollings were notice- able." These tests were run in 6-foot seas. Fur- ther data on these tests indicate the performance is far superior in all aspects and the ride was at least 2-1/2 times better than a longer hull deep-V 38' Scarab vessel being tested simultane- ously. Comments by four SEAL team officers who both rode in these tests and operated the SeaKnife are as follows: 1. Believes the SeaKnife has a real potential and would like to continue the tests. 2. The overall performance was outstanding and the maneuverability was exceptional. 3. Very stable at speed and dead in the water. 4. The advantages of the boat are its speed and maneuverability, its tight turning radius and low profile. You can lay the boat on its side and turn it 180° at full throttle without reducing power within two boat lengths. A design has been prepared for a 83' patrol boat configuration with the following specifica- tions: SeaKnife Patrol Boat Configuration L0A Length at water! ine Beam Beam at bottom Depth to gunwale Maximum displacement with (with Harpoon missiles) 83' 64 ' 37 22 10 full load (70.2 Lt) 157,148 lbs - 63 Light ship displacement (without mission items) (31.5 Lt) 70,475 lbs Performance: Range (SS-0) 1,706 n. miles at maximum continuous power (4330 hp) Range (SS-3) 1,323 n. miles at maximum continuous power (4330 hp) 56,467 lbs fuel 20,000 lbs fuel option bladdertank 2,134 n. miles Pursuit Power: One 501-KF Allison (maximum available hp, 6000) Port Power: Two Garrett GT601 Using one GT601 at 8 knots (range is 3,800 n. miles] Speed: Full load 50 knots Lt load at 80% of power 78 knots Short time top speed with light load 100 knots Plans are underway to build this patrol boat with private funding. It will probably be built in the United States but there have been dis- cussions on building it overseas. Conversations with a major U.S. aluminum company are expected to yield an agreement to produce the boat in kit form. This would simplify its construction in countries lacking sophisticated shipbuilding facil ities. and we are currently having discussions with a number of prospective purchasers. I have available some copies of the following re- ports which discuss various aspects about the Sea- Knife: "Explanation of the Super-critical Hull Design and the Performance of the SeaKnife," by Peter R. Payne; "A New Approach to Fleet and Base Naval Protec- tion," presented to the Falklands Conference by Ron Cain, September 3, 1982; "Naval Design on the Knife's Edge," by David Har- vey, Defense & Foreign Affairs , May 1982; "Performance Test Results for a 34 Foot SeaKnife," by C. E. Shields, NAVSEACOMBATSYSENGSTA Report No. 60-113, June 1983. SUMMARY In summary, we believe the following charac- teristics make the SeaKnife a very attractive plat- form for almost any job: speed, maneuverability, stability at high speed and dead in the water, low profile and smooth ride. I have a short film taken during certain of the demonstrations which will illustrate some of these characteristics. My position with SeaKnife is in marketing it overseas in all configurations: work boat, pa- trol boat, sport fishing or recreation vessel. Surveys have indicated a very extensive market, 64 - ■' - 65 OCEANOGRAPHI.C RESEARCH VESSEL "TA.MSI MAR I Masao Ono Chief Naval Architect Shipbuilding £ Steel Structures Headquarters Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. 5-1, Marunouchi 2-chome, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo, 100, Japan ABSTRACT The TANSEI MARU (Fig. 1) which is the most modern oceanographic research vessel completed on October 15, 1982 at Shimono- seki Shipyard § Engine Works of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. to the order of Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo (The Ministry of Education) replaced the first TANSEI MARU completed in 1963. The vessel is designed for multi-purpose observations and research, i.e. basic research concerning the ocean bed, includ- ing physical, chemical, biological, geo- logical, and meteorological, fishery research and other fields. INTRODUCTION She is a single decker with a long forecastle and a deck house and careful consideration has been given to the design of her hull forms and structural arrangements to ensure adequate propul- sion performance during normal naviga- tion, improved performance for slow speed navigation, and also prevention of vibra- tion. The vessel is designed so as to have high performance for seaworthiness which allows out sea conditions. It also has ample stability and reserve buoyancy so that it can accommodate any future increase or modification in observation device. A complete system of hybrid navigation equipment is installed, and this is the first time for a vessel of this class. This equipment has also made it possible to significantly improve the accuracy of position measurement, which is particular-, ly important for research vessels. Leading Particulars Classification Overall length Length between perpendiculars Breadth (moulded) Depth (moulded) Designed full load draft (moulded) Gross tonnage Service speed Complement JG, Fishing vessel 51.00m 45.00m 9.20m 4.20m Main engines Electric generators (Main generators) (Prime movers) 3.70m 469.84 ton 12 knot Total 38 (Crew 23, Scientist 11, Reserve Person- nel 4) 750PS x 720/237 rpm, two sets of diesel engines with a reduc- tion gear. Two engines are coupled to one main shaft, and prime movers : 300kVA9240kW) AC 450v 60 Hz 2 sets 360PS x 1,200 rpm 2 sets (Auxiliary generator) 300kVA(240kW) AC 450V 60 Hz 1 set Propeller : 2650mm x 4 blade c.p. p. x 1 set Bow thruster : 980mm x 4 blade c.p. p. x 1 set (Electric motor) 160 kW x l,160rpm Sewage and waste water treatment equipment: Aerobict TF-40(with a capacity for 40 persons! 2. Arrangement of Equipment for Research and Observation (1) Operation deck for observation A wide operation deck (wooden deck) is prepared in the stern part to deal with increases in size or changes in the ovser- vation equipment, and the living quarters are positioned midship a little nearer to the bow. 66 A wide wooden deck is also constructed on the long forecastle deck forward of the living quarters, and a con- siderable amount of observation work can be carried out there. To utilize the limited space on the vessel as effectively as possi- ble, equipment on the operation deck has been positioned asymmetrically, that means the observation winches have been installed on the port side to secure a wide space on the star- board side facilitating observations. (2) Observation winches Four observation winches, including a large one which can lower or lift research and observation equipment to or from a depth of 7,000m, are installed in positions which has been decided through full con- sideration for operation efficien- cy. The possibility of mounting portable winches in future is also taken into account. * No. 1 winch Electrohydraulically driven, 3t x 43m/min, 09.14mm x 7,000m This winch is used for the collection of samples of water or mud, living organism, etc. in deep sea areas using large equipment. *No. 2 winch Electrohydraulically driven, It x 76m/min, 06.37mm x 4,000m This winch is used for lowering and lifting a conductivity temperature depth sensor using an armored coaxial cable. *No. 3 winch Electrohydraulically driven, It x 75m/min, 04.76mm x 7,000m This winch is used for the collection of water or mud samples or living organisms, taking measurements, etc., using medium-sized equipment. *No. 4 winch Electrically driven, 160Kg x 115m/min, 03mm x 1,500m This wincli is used for lowering and lifting various BT (Bathy Thermograph) and optical measuring devices, water and mud sample collection, collection of lviing organisms, etc., in shallow sea areas using small equipment. (3) Observation support equipment Installations include a fully hydraulic setting up type gantry (large A-shaped frame) at the stern, a large electrically driven davit on the starboard, a davit for a piston corer on the starboard aft, and other davits and booms, etc., are installed so that the handling of large equipment can be carried out efficiently to facilitate obser- vation. In addition, it is equipped with several hoists and telescopic (folding) type deck crane, and efficient heavy load handling and cargo work is possible using this equipment. A 6 meter working boat is also provided. * Setting up type gantry (large A- shaped frame) Electrohydraulically driven, working load at the fully swung out position 5 ton, working load during setting up 1 ton. This gantry, since it is operated on a fixed stand, is used for No. 1 and No. 3 winches and for mooring and can be supported with a stopper at vertical or a half (45 ) position to enable to perform observation work, such as drawing nets. This allows continuous operation. * Starboard rotary davit Electrically driven, It x 0.3 rpm, maximum radius 2.1m. This davit is used in combination with No. 2 or No. 3 winch for swing- ing out equipment from the starboard bulwark opening to the outside of the board with the equipment suspend- ed and then lowering and lifting it in this position. * Davit for the piston corer Manual operation (swivelling), ele- ctrically driven hoist 0.9 t (hoist- ing). This davit is situated at the stern on the starboard side, and is equipp- ed with an electrically driven hoist. It is mainly used for lowering and lifting a piston corer in the swung out position. * Telescopic (folding) type deck crane Electrically driven, 650 kg x 4 m (2.6 tin) This crane is situated at the after part of the long forecastle deck port side and is used for cargo handling and heavy load transfer on the deck. 67 - * Working boat L '6m x W 2m x D 0.9m, Complement 6 persons, made of al-alloy, 22 PS, Approx. 6 knot This boat is housed to the port side of the long fore- castle deck and is used for simple observation work in shallow sea or estuarine areas or as a communication boat. * Line hauler Electrohydraulical ly driven, 150 kg x 268 m/min. * Geomagnetic electro kinetograph (GEK) reel Manual operation for 011m x 310m wire, equipped with two receptacles * Front deck davit Manual operation, rated load 500 kg (for the No. 4 winch) * Other special equipment Boom for drawing in nets, elect- rically driven hoist, detachable platform, frame bed for the piston corer, temporary frame bed for the winch, etc. (4) Laboratory (Fig. 2) The laboratory, which is adjacent to the stern operation deck , occupies about 5.3 m2 of the central part of the upper deck on the starboard side and consists of dry, semidry and wet areas to make it possible to carry out operations efficiently. To provide a laboratory which is adapta- ble to research in various fields, no partitions between sections are provided, the arrangement of desks can be easily changed or they can be removed in its entirety, cables can be stretched temporarily, thus the laboratory can be used for multiple purposes . * Dry laboratory (Approx. 21 m2) Anemoscope and anemometer, gyroscope, electromagnetic log, doppler speed log, wire feed length meters for the winches remote monitor for the hybrid navigation equipment, etc. * Semidry laboratory (Approx. 20 m2) Aspectic and dark room (clean boosters, germicidal lamps) , water temperature recording indicator, storage for chemicals, etc. * Wet laboratory (Approx. '12 m2) Place for processing collected samples, frame bed for detachable water collector, tension meter, etc. (5) Research Equipment in the Vessel Instruments installed at the bottom of the vessel include the transmitter/receiver of a tidal current meter positioned the bottom of the stern, the transmitter/ receiver of a PDR (precise depth recorder) housed in the dome projecting out at the forward bottom part of the vessel, a fish echo sounder at the bottom of the midship part of the vessel, a scanning sonar and an electromagnetic log which are installed one above the other at the after bottom part of the vessel. These items of equipment are covered with streamlined domes or guide vanes to protect them from driftwood and to reduce the hydrodynamic resistance as much as possible. The various items of equipment are disposed in such a way as to prevent interference between them. * PDR 12 kHz, 8,000 m 1 set * Fish finder I 28 kHz, 5,200 m 1 set * Fish finder II 50 kHz, 1,850 m (200 kHz, 630 m) 1 set * Scanning sonar 75 kHz, 0-800 m 1 set * Marine meteorological observation equipment 1 set * GEK (geomagnetic electro kinetograph) 1 set * CTD (conductivity temperature depth recorder) 1 set * Compressor for air guns Discharge pressure 120 kg/cm2 Discharge rate 1.8 m3/min. 1 unit 3. Machinery Part The main engines, the reduction gears and the controllable pitch propeller can be controlled either from the engine control room or the wheel house. Low load operation for long periods is anticipated during survey and observations with this vessel, and therefore a system was adopted which couples the two main engines provided with low load performance to one main shaft. A main engine driven generator is also installed to conserve energy. The engines which drive the generators are equipped with a remote operating device and an automatic starting device operated from the engine control room. 68 - These engines are also equipped with a data logger and a CRT for automati- cally monitoring various data includ- ing pressure, temperature, etc., recording this data and giving alarm signals. Moreover, for more comfort- able research activities and life in the cabins, vibration proofing and noise isolating measures were in- corporated and air conditioning equipment is provided for all the rooms . Electric Part In consideration of the particular requirements of this vessel for undertaking research, the electrical equipment is installed with the emphasis given to continuity of power supply, assurance of the power supply to cope with future develop- ments and research, a communications system which can provide the con- venient and reliable communications required for research and observation work, arrangements which allow effici- ent fitting-out work, adaptability to future increases in the amount of equipment, etc. * Static precision power equipment 1 unit 1 set 3 units 3 units 10 kVA, AC 100V, 3$5 60 Hz Shore connection facility AC 440V, 60 Hz Transformers General purpose 450/105V, 25kVA General purpose 450/225V, 15kVA Hybrid navigation equipment NNSS, Decca navigator, LORAN, Doppler speed log, central processing unit, fixed disc device, magnetic tape device, CRT display terminal, printer, X-Y plotter, CRT color plotter, controller, remote display, etc., are included in this equipment. * Reflection type magnetic compass ■■ Electrical control steering -■• device ' Gyrocompass v Radio direction finder fc Doppler speed log * Radar and collision warning equipment * Monitoring television system * Electromagnetic log * Wireless installation 500W, 125W and 75W (reserve) transmitters All-wave receiver, emergency automatic receiver All-wave reserve Tele-printer Facsimile equipment International VHF wireless telephone set 1 set 1 set 1 set 2 sets 1 set sets sets set 1 each 2 each 1 set 1 set 2 sets Tele-talk equipment Ships telephone Portable radio equipment for life raft Automatic exchange telephone system 1 set 1 set 1 set 1 set 1 set 69 - Fig. 1 TANS EI MARU on Cruise Fie. 2 Laboratory 70 AN UPDATE ON MARINE TRANSPORTATION IN THE UNITED STATES Don Walsh Director, Institute for Marine and Coastal Studies University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089 ARSTRACT Despite increased activity and interest on the part of the Reagan Administration and Con- gress, the U.S. marine transportation industry continues to decline in almost all of the key indicators. The proposed actions announced over the past year have yet to take the form of actual changes in this industry. A recently completed study by the National Advisory Committee on Oceans and Atmosphere (NACOA) has outlined many of these problems and makes recommendations for their solu- tion. Introducti on In year, I flag Me the act mi ni str i ni tiat would h most of actions i strati tor. my presentation of this same topic last addressed the current state of the U.S. rchant Marine with special emphasis on ions proposed by the then new Reagan Ad- ation. I also commented on how these ives were received by the Congress, who ave to pass implementing legislation for them. Finally, I reviewed the positive that had been implemented by the Admi n- on that affected the U.S. industrial sec- For this year's update, I would like to pre- sent the findings and recommendations of a re- cently completed study on the U.S. maritime in- dustry. The study was done by the National Ad- visory Committee on Oceans and Atmosphere (NACOA) and was entitled, Marine Transportation in the United States: Constraints and Opportunities . I had the honor to be chairman of the study duri ng its R-l/2-year duration. Refore reviewing the results of the study, I think it is useful to be aware of the basic, ex- isting policy statement which is supposed to di- rect the U.S. maritime industry. This is the statement of intent embodied in the Merchant Marine Act of 1936, which is still a valid law of the United States of America: It is necessary for the national defense and the development of its foreign and domestic commerce that the United States shall have a merchant mari ne (a) sufficient to carry its domestic water-borne commerce and a substan- tial portion of the water-borne export and im- port foreign commerce of the United States and to provide shipping service essential for main- taining the flow of such domestic and foreign water-borne commerce at all times; (b) capable of serving as a naval and military auxiliary in times of war of national emergency; (c) owned and operated under the U.S. flag by ci- tizens of the United States insofar as may be practicable; (d) composed of the best equipped, safest, and most suitable types of vessels, constructed in the United States and manned with a trained and efficient citizen personnel; and, (e) supplemented by efficient facilities for ship building and ship repair. It is here- by declared to be the policy of the United States to foster the development and encourage the maintenance of such a merchant marine. Unfortunately, it is quite clear that we have not met the mandates of this law. U.S. Marine Transportation: An Industry i n Trouble ~ The National Advisory Committee on Oceans and Atmosphere (NACOA) was concerned about the deteriorating situation found in many parts of the U.S. marine transportation system. In brief, the following summarizes some of the major prob- lems and existing conditions observed by the Commi ttee: o In 19Sn, the U.S. Merchant Marine ranked first in the world (by deadweight tonnage); by 19«0, it ranked eighth, despite significant go- vernment subsidy programs designed to cover dif- ferential operating and construction costs he- tween the U.S. Merchant Marine and its foreign competi tion. 71 - o Although the United States is the major trad- ing nation in the world, foreign-flag vessels car- ry more than 96 percent of its exports and imports (on a tonnage basis). In fact, foreign flag ships of only seven nations transport 75 percent of U.S. international water-borne commerce. o Employment in the U.S. maritime industry has dropped drastically in the past 10 years. Seagoing employment has plunged 65 percent from 1965 to the present. In the shipyards, employ- ment of skilled workers devoted to merchant ship construction has dropped by 71 percent in only the past seven years. Most of this decrease in maritime employment is caused by the competitive disadvantage of U.S. ship operators and shipbuild- ers. o U.S. military planners seriously doubt wheth- er the nation has sufficient sealift capability (which must come largely from the commercial sec- tor) to meet its military treaty commitments throughout the world. act o The 27 major U.S. shipyards that comprise the _.ive industrial base of U.S. shipbuilding are in serious trouble. Unless the government takes im- mediate, vigorous offsetting actions, some yards will be forced to close in the next couple of years. o The U.S. Navy's expanded shipbuilding pro- gram to construct 150 new vessels will assist the ailing industry, but 75 percent of the work (by dollar value) will go to just four yards, and only 15 of the 27 yards are now equipped to build military vessels (warships). The remain- ing 12 commercial yards predict that their order books will go to zero in the next 3 to 4 years, if current trends continue. o Although the growth of world trade has le- veled off owing to the poor state of the world economy and the present oil glut, it is clear that world trade' will expand in the future. The di- verse, but effective, assistance programs of for- eign governments greatly aid foreign ship opera- tors and their shipyards in competing with the United States. These direct and indirect govern- ment subsidies keep foreign-flag industries in "good track position" for the time when world trade will move into a more vigorous growth mode. The United States does not now have such effec- tive programs. o U.S. merchant marine and shipping laws, dat- ing to the early part of this century, identify and attempt to remedy many of the problems facing the U.S. marine transportation system. Yet, these acts have not effectively maintained an American merchant marine capable of meeting our national security needs. There are indications of improvement as a re- sult of actions taken or being considered by Con- gress, the Reagan Administration, and industry. Some are: o Reduction of the domestic regulatory frame- work that is unequally imposed on U.S. ship opera- tors in competition with foreign-flag operators. o Recognition and removal of subsidy programs that do not work and the consideration of new, more effective assistance programs. o An increased Navy shipbuilding program that will provide work and upgrade part of the ship- building base. o Increased military development and use of chartered commercial vessels for military sealift requirements. This also will stimulate new ves- sel construction and older vessel conversion for these charters. o A move toward Congressional consideration of a national cargo reservation formula that will help the United States match the practices of many other foreign states that reserve percentages of their imports and exports for their flag vessels. o A greatly improved relationship between mari- time labor and industry to develop better work practices leading to cost savings, a better com- petitive position, and more growth (and thus more jobs) for the U.S. Merchant Marine. o Special, limited incentives to assist the U.S. -flag operator in international trade to re- place and upgrade his ship assets through foreign construction and acquisition. National Security: The Basic Determinant A basic question that requires policy reaf- firmation at the highest levels is whether or not a U.S. -flag merchant marine is vital to America's national security interests. The term "national security" includes not only national defense but also control over a significant part of the trans- portation system that keeps our economy function- i ng. From a pure "free-market economics" point of view, it might seem highly desirable to let for- eign treasuries and companies subsidize both the carriage of U.S. maritime trade and the cost of vessels built overseas. These would then become subsidies to the U.S. economy. However, the NACOA review points to the weak- nesses of our current marine transportation sys- tem. The U.S. lacks control over a substantial portion of its maritime imports and exports. Mi- litary advisors warn of the inability of the U.S. merchant marine to meet treaty obligations and wartime needs. And as the shipbuilding base dis- appears so does emergency or wartime construction surge capability. 72 If national security is the key, then the time has come for the U.S. merchant marine to again emerge as a strong force in its trade. This implies regulatory structures and operating practices competitive with those of foreign-flag operators and their respective shipbuilding ba- ses. The Merchant Marine Act of 1936, Presi- dent Reagan's 1980 pre-election statements on our maritime industry, and many other Congres- sional and Presidential statements point to the national security importance of a viable U.S. merchant marine. But, in the case of the 1936 Act, these goals have not been achieved in nearly a half century of effort. Although some of the actions proposed by President Reagan are being implemented, it is perhaps too soon to tell how effectively the Administration's directions will be translated into actions benefitting the U.S. marine transportation system. The NACOA Recommendations The aim of NACOA's study was to assess the adequacy of U.S. marine transportation in terms of: o National security o World trade and its implications on marine transportation o U.S. domestic marine shipping trades o Ports, workers, and terminals o l.S. policies and regulations o Foreign government policies for marine trans- portation In reaching its final conclusions, NACOA ob- served that: (a) Congress and the Administration have af- firmed for the past 60 years that a U.S. -flag marine transportation industry, with the support- ing industrial base, is essential to our nation's national security in peace and in times of emer- gency. (b) Legislation and federal government regu- lation, programs, and subsidy supports have not had the desired impact on the U.S. marine trans- portation industry. It was the Committee's view that certain ac- tions should be initiated or expedited if the U.S. merchant marine is to develop and fill the major security and economic role that agrees with pro- claimed U.S. poli cy. NACOA's recommendations, which derive from its broad overview of the major elements of this industry, are the following: 1. The Construction Differential Subsidy Pro- gram should be eliminated by Congress through amendments to the Merchant Marine Act of 1936. 2. The Maritime Administration should ini- tiate discussions with the liner operators to en- courage early termination of Operating differen- tial Subsidy contracts and eventual elimination of the program. Simple removal of subsidy assistance with- out a simultaneous offset of new remedies and incentives could be a crippling blow to the in- dustry. In NACOA's view, it is important that these subsidy reductions be phased out at a rate commensurate with the achievement of benefits from other actions. Recause such remedies and incen- tives for industry promotion can only become ef- fective over a period of time, coordination of the recommended reductions in subsidy with the following actions is essential: (a) The Maritime Administration should prompt- ly provide competitive incentives for U.S. ship- yards to bridge the gap between termination of the Construction Differential Subsidy and other measures that would offer increased work for U.S. yards. (b) Congress should enact legislation tc authorize closed liner shipping conferences and empower these conferences to collectively set in- termodal transportation rates; and, (ii) permit shippers who consign cargoes to establish "ship- pers councils" to negotiate collectively with the 1 i ner conferences. (c) Given the recent involvement of the U.S. shipbuilding industry in the task of rebuilding our naval fleet and given the absence of Construc- tion Differential Subsidy funds, the Maritime Ad- ministration should relax restrictions governing the current Operating Differential Subsidy (ODS) Program as follows: (i) U.S. shipowners should be permitted to qualify for ODS with respect to foreign-built vessels registered under the U.S.- flag provided they otherwise meet the criteria for qualifications; and, (ii) U.S. shipowners should not be disqualified from ODS, when they would otherwise qualify simply by reason of operating other vessels in foreign-flag shipping activi- ties. This does not contradict the recommendation to terminate the ODS program; it simply recog- nizes that, in the interim, some immediate adjust- ments need to be made to the ODS program to make it work more effectively while means are found to reduce and eventually terminate the program. 3. U.S. ship depreciation allowances and schedules should be made competitive with those provided by foreign governments for their mer- chant fleets. 4. Congress and the Administration (a) should support continuing Federal investment in major port developments in the interest of national security; and, (b) Congress should pass legisla- tion that would greatly streamline the planning and permitting process for port improvement de- vel opments. - 73 5. U.S. Coast fiuard regulations relating to design and standards of construction of U.S.- flag vessels should be made consistent with the accepted standards established by the world's leading classification societies. 6. The Department of Defense (a) should be encouraged to continue to shift to the private sector the ownership of and/or the contract man- agement for the major share of its noncombatant (sealift and service support) ship capacity; and, (b) should be urged to continue to offer charters of sufficiently long duration to encourage opera- tors to build or buy vessels through utilizing their own investment funds. 7. The current review of regulations affect- ing the U.S. maritime industry by the Presidential Task Force on Regulatory Relief should be expe- dited. 3. Congress should take the lead in formu- lating national cargo policy within an expanded system of bilateral agreements. 9. The Department of State should expedite the development of an effective response to the Code of Liner Operations of the U.N. Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). 10. The Title XI and Capital Construction Fund programs should be preserved by the Mari- time Administration with their benefits remain- ing applicable solely to vessels of U.S. regis- try constructed in U.S. shipyards. 11. The Maritime Administration should in- crease the level of its support for research and development and coordinate its efforts with those of the industry. NACOA recognized that some of the recommen- dations in this report imply costs to U.S. tax- payers. However, with the stated U.S. policy that a strong merchant fleet and shipbuilding industry are of high priority for national security, the costs for achieving a strong U.S. maritime indus- try should be considered along with those of the Department of Defense. Events Since the NACOA Study was Completed Since the NACOA report was submitted to the President and Congress in early 1983, there have been several new initiatives proposed by these two branches of government. As noted earlier in this paper, none of these has led to any major remedial actions yet, but some innovative ways of being explored to solve the major problems fac- ing this industry: o The development of a national cargo reserva- tion policy to ensure a certain portion of U.S. exports and imports are shipped in U.S. -flag ves- sels is proposed by the "Competitive Shipping and Shipbuilding Act of 1983" (H.R. 1242) introduced by Congresswoman Li ndy Boggs. A similar bill (S. 1 000) sponsored by Senator Paul Trible is be- fore the Senate. This Act would reserve a maxi- mum 20 percent of all U.S. bulk cargo shipments for U.S. -flag vessels over a 200-year period of increasing reservation. This would result in the construction of approximately 268 bulk carrier ships for the U.S. Merchant Marine. In terms of jobs, the program would create 18,000 shipyard and support industry jobs, as well as seagoing jobs for about 9,000 merchant seamen. The first hearings on this Bill were held in May. There- fore, it is too soon to know how successful this congressional initiative will be. It should be noted that nearly one fourth of the House has en- dorsed this proposed legislation. If it fails, it will still have served the purpose of opening up serious consideration of national cargo reser- vation policies at the highest levels of govern- ment. o The "Maritime Redevelopment Rank Act of 1983" (H.R. 3399) was introduced in June by Congressman Mario Biaggi. This proposed act would create a government-backed financing authority to help support and ensure investment in ship construc- tion through a "U.S. Maritime Redevelopment Bank." The Rank would have $2 billion in assets through a line of credit with the U.S. Treasury and would also have an additional $2 billion in loan insur- ance capability. It would work between ship- builders, ship buyers, domestic and international financial markets, and could even take equity positions in ship assets. o The "National Ocean Policy Commission Act of 1983" (H.R. 2853) was introduced in the House in May by Representative Walter Jones. Later in the month, a similar bill was introduced in the Senate by Senators Pell and Hoi lings. The proposed leg- islation would establish a 15-member, presiden- tial ly appointed National Ocean Policy Commission to consider a-nd suggest a national ocean policy framework. Marine transportation is one of the stipulated areas to be studied. While each of these initiatives will meet re- sistance from within Congress and from the Reagan Administration, they do show a new departure from the old remedies of times past. Then, the solu- tion seemed to throw money at the problem in terms of more subsidy ..and..il 1 -conceived protection mea- sures for the U.S. marine transportation industry. If a significant number of the initiatives al- ready put in motion over the last 2-1/2 years by the Reagan Administration and Congress, and those outlined here arc implemented, then the U.S. mari- time industry may eventually find its way back to good health. 74 FUNDAMENTAL STUDY OF THE HUGE-SCALE FLOATING PLATFORM FOR USE OF SEA SPACE Yoshifumi Takaishi Sadao Ando Hiroshi Kagemoto Ocean Engineering Division Ship Research Institute Ministry of Transport ABSTRACT In this paper, the model experiment results on the behaviours of a huge scale floating platform in waves are presented. The platform consists of an array of floating bodies such as columns with low- erhulls supporting a wide upperstructure which will be used for various porposes either industrial or transportational . The wave exciting forces and hydrodynamic forces associated with the motions of platform have been measured for several combinations of floating bodies so as to clarify the hydrodynamic inter- actions which affect on the behaviours of the plat- form. The elastic responses and the distributions of the bending stresses of the upperstructure as well as the mooring forces acting its multi-anchoring system have also been investigated experimentally by the large scale models in waves. After the feasibility study on the floating air- port was carried out [1], fundamental investigations on the technical problems concerning with the huge scale floating platform are being continued which is considered to be realized for various purposes as industrial plants, storage of oil or gas, city or transportation center and so on, to extend the use of sea space beyond the coastal area. A lot of technical problems are still remained to be solved in order to ensure the construction of a large platform in the severer environmental condi- tions. The common and fundamental techniques are summarized as follows: 1) Accurate understanding and exact description of environmental conditions including the prediction of the severest storm expected to encounter within the life of the structure, 2) Accurate estimation of external forces excited by wind, current and waves or of hydrodynamic forces associated with the motions of the struc- ture, 3) Accurate calculation or simulation of motions excited by the external forces taking account of the elastic responses of the structure which could not be ignored for such large platform, 4) Optimal design of mooring system to achieve the equilibrium of tension forces acting on the moor- ing lines of the multi-anchoring system within the allowable mooring capacity, 5) Development of the anchoring system having a great capacity to resist the tension forces, 6) Development of several construction and install- ation techniques such as towing, assembling or connecting of elemental platforms which would be built in docks and towed to the sea area where the platform is installed. At the Ship Research Institute, the research is being carried out along with the following proce- dures. a) Preliminary Design of the Platforms The floating platforms have been designed assum- ing several purposes as container yard, LNG storage tank, coal center. The image of such a platform is shown in Fig. 1, and the preliminary design of a container yard is in Fig. 2. The floating bodies supporting the platform con- sist of various types corresponding to the loading capacities of the columns with a buoyant footing, the columns with a lowerhull or the barges which have been chosen as the fundamental shapes as shown in Fig. 3. b) Investigation of External Forces Excited by Waves As the first stage of study, the wave exciting forces acting on the individual or the assembly of the floating bodies have been measured by the models settled in waves. Some examples are shown in Fig. 4 and F1g. 5. In the figures, the wave excited surge forces acting on the component platform of an array of columns with buoyant footing are presented and compared with the theoretical values calculated by using the exciting forces acting on the single body ignoring the mutual interactions between columns. c) Investigation of Responses of the Platform in Waves The motions of the platform in waves have been measured. An example is shown in Fig. 6 which re- present the surging amplitudes in regular head wave. The calculation have been done excluding the mutua interactions between elemental bodies but the resul- ts show rather good agreement with the experiment in the significant wave period range. 75 - Elastic responses,! .e. the deflections of the platform have been also measured by using accelero- meters or photo-electric position sensors distribut- ed on the platform. The influence of the rigidity of the upperstructure on the dynamic or quasi-static deflection or bending stress induced by the external forces has been investigated through model experi- ment as well as theoretical analysis. An example of deflections of a platform is shown in Fig. 7 in the form of stereographic display. d) Mooring Forces in Combining Wind, Cu The platform model the tension forces ac have been obtained ex the non-uniformity of direction of the mode been chosen variously bution of mooring for regular waves combine shown in Fig. 8. the Environmental Conditions rrent and Wave s were moored in the basin and ting on the multi-mooring lines perimentally so as to grasp the induced tensions. The Is against external forces has . An example of the distri- ces measured in oblique ir- d with wind and current is e) Connecting Forces When Assembling the Element of Platform The connecting forces and moments acting on the joint jigs between unit platforms which are to be assembled into one huge-scale floating platform at sea have been investigated experimentally in regular waves, and the measured results are compared with the theoretical values. Fig. 9 shows the amplitudes of forces and moments acting on joint jigs between a L-shaped large structure and a unit platform under assembling as illustrated in the figure in head and beam seas. Of the experimental values, the white and black dots represent the forces and moments corresponding to the position of the unit platform behind or in front of the large structure against incoming waves, respectively. Theoretical results show good agreement with the experiment in spite of Ignoring the hydrodynamic interations between float- ing bodies. [2J The connecting processes just before the rigid connection were simulated on the models with the joint jigs which hold some clearance for each other, and the relative motions and impact forces which occur when the relative motion amplitude is limited by the clearance of the jigs were measured. [3] f) Access Technology As to one of the access technology to the plat- form, the behaviours of the moored ships have been measured together with the forces acting on the mooring lines or on the fenders by the model ship in waves. The effects of wave directions and wave periods are investigated in comparison with the conventional mooring systems as dolphin or pier. The following problems are subjected to the future researches which will be continued till 1986. 1) More detailed Investigation on the hydrodynamic interactions between various floating bodies to achieve an accurate estimation of structural res- ponses as well as mooring forces of the platform. This should be pursured theoretically, refering the obtained experimental data. 2) Development of analysis method of dynamic res- ponses of platform which is considered flexible, taking account of non-linear hydrodynamic forces. 3) Establishment of the design criteria which will be determined by the severest environmental condi- tion. The impact forces induced by the breaking waves should be taken into account. 4) Researches on the estimation methods of the larg- est mooring forces which would be associated with slowly drifting motion of the platform under the combined effect of wind, current and waves. 5) At-sea mesurement of motions and mooring forces on the prototype platform to ascertain the design procedures developed by this research project. The prototype. model test of a developed mechanical anch- or will be also planned. The most part of this project is being supported financially by the Science and Technology Agency. REFERENCES [1] Ando, S., Y.Okawa and I.Ueno; Feasibility study of floating offshore airport, Report of Ship Resear- ch Institute, Supplement No. 4, March 1983. [2] Ando, S. and H.Kagemoto; A study on the conne- cting forces and moments of a huge offshore struct- ure composed of several unit structures, Transact- ions of the West-Japan Society of Naval Architects, No. 60, August 1980, pp.101. [3J Kagemoto, H. and S.Ando; A study on various pro- blems to connect offshore structures on the sea. ( Part 2 Relative motions and impact loads ), Trans- actions of the West-Japan Society of Naval Archite- cts, No. 62, August 1981, pp.195. 76 typical xaic* ill w m m «i.i» ■ mm. U « « r 11 - -^^^^^^^^^g ^ »~A PLAN ('■) •'■) .'•1 n r 7 J ('■', ,'.'t '•"') 1 '•> ."-'l ("1 4 © C ) O 9 ;•) ' • l ■ •) '• ' O C ) < .'' U U '.:.J - .' >,: ' '■_.-■' '.-'' '•-•* Fig.l Artist Image of a Floating Platform © Fig. 2 Platform for Container Yard ( 1 unit 165 t^x 2M. 728; 171

- A 1.200 (a) Footing Type (b) Lowerhull Type (c) Barge Type unit:mm Fig. 3 Floating Bodies Supporting a Platform 1.5 1.0 t> 0.5 1 1 1 1 LINES 7 ROWS I i WAVE 1 ooooo ooooo OOOOO 00? »4 ooooo ooooo ooooo § ri iiSE_B XJIMi _CAL, ~1 ^ \ h" . — o ffity \ J s s# 2 3 WAVE PERIOD A sec 4 sec Fig. 4 Wave Excited Surging Forces WAVE PERIOD Fig. 5 Wave Excited Heaving Forces o5 i.o ;'a) Surging Force'' 5 ^ U» Surging Motion Amplitude^ Fig. 6 Wave Excited Force & Amplitude of Surging Motion - 77 WAV( DIMCllon; MEAD SEAS HAVE PERIOD ; 6.5? ItC WAVE DIKECTIM; box SEAS 1 30") wave pi«iod; l.s; tec ^••■i _s WAVE ONLY WAVE-CURRENT WIND ONLY WAVE- WIND WAVE- WIND •CURRENT > -..- __-ffl- SURGE SWAY YAW a> drift by current ® drift by steady wind - 1 P ? -I I YAWtdes.) H 6 8 |0 12 SURGE, SWAY (m) Fig. 7 Deflection of a Platform -Of Mi iilH .«■-- S8?& STEPPKU 1'YKAMl CliUUltK. 1 Fortunately these are readily identified by side-looking radar from aircraft (or eventually satellite) and thus, while similar in rarity and extreme force to major earthquakes, unlike them, will give ample warning of their imminence. Local ice forces are limited only by the crushing strength of ice. It is these which determine, to a large extent, the design of the peripheral wall. The crushing strength is increased by a factor of 3 or more, as compared to the uniaxial unconfined strength, due to confinement, often referred to as "indentation factor". The - 85 effective strength is also a function of tempera- ture, salinity, crystal orientation, and strain rate. It is accepted that these high local unit forces will occur only over limited areas: they will decrease significantly as the contact area increases. The ice forces, both the local forces referred to above, and the more generally distributed global forces, just be transmitted through the struc- ture in compression and shear, and eventually into the base of the structure. A suggested philosophy of structural design is to design within elastic limits for all frequently- anticipated forces and combinations of forces. For the rare events, especially a concentrated local force of impact, inelastic behavior can be accepted, with permanent cracking of the ice wall, stretching of the wall's flexural steel beyond yield, and even local crushing, where it is confined by reinforcement. A ductile failure of the wall is desired, that is a failure in flexure, without brittle crushing or punching shear. These undesirable failure modes can be prevented in concrete structures by three-dimensional confinement and by provision of a sufficient quantity of well-anchored stirrups. For steel structures, ice-breaker vessel exper- ience has shown that rarely do the hull plates fail: they yield in ductile fashion. Rather it is the scantlings and frames behind the wall that buckle. Some steel designs provide for plastic deformation of the scantlings in order to provide ductil ity. &i C.I.D.S. CLOBAL MARINE DEVELOPMENT INC. An evolving structural concept is the hybrid design, in which concrete and steel plates are used in composite action: the steel plates providing the tension steel and confinement. Obviously, the steel and concrete must be well- tied together if composite action under dynamic impact is to be assured. Foundation Soils The generalized profile for the Beaufort Sea is that of silty clays and clayey silts, overlying a dense sand stratum. The depth of the silt-clay overburden varies rather widely, but 5 to 25 meters will cover most locations. This over- burden is overconsol idated to a greater or lesser degree, believed due to freeze-thaw action while exposed during glacial epochs when the sea level was lower. The sands are usually ice bonded (permafrost), although near the upper portions of the stratum, this tends to be discontinuous, due to salinity and gradual thawing over geological times. Between the silt-clay and the sand there is frequently encountered a thin (one meter) stratum of very weak clayey-silt. The origin of this stratum is controversial, some ascribing it to organic deposits whereas an explanation preferred by this author is that of clathrate (methane hydrate) decomposition as the perma-frost has thawed, with the gas released being trapped in the impermeable silty-clay, and hence increasing its internal pore pressure to such an extent as to largely offset the effect of depth of over- burden and water. In any event, this weak zone has apparently led to slope failures, even in areas of very gradual slope (1° to 2°) and poses a problem of shear transfer into the more competent soils below. The proposed solutions vary with depth of loca- tion and structure requirements. They include dredging and refill with granular material, as has been carried out for Tarsiut and other structures in the Canadian Beaufort Sea, and the use of large diameter steel spuds or dowels, designed to transfer the shear loads from the structure into the competent sands below. Proposals have been made on the concepts of drainage (of gas and water) combined with con- trolled surcharge, and freezing. t£y< i. «re* as_yaps STRUCTURAL .VHEISHT A: WE- t^ST"** S.-:; "* y ->•>!, •^-ixrri°in I «*'■* Si.A«INti — i — L © INSTALLATION I. SPUES VI8R-6TE0 OOwN (SMOWNi OR Jl.HED TO GRADE 2 TOP Of SPU05 DRIVEN BILOw TOP Of OEC.K K s SMIM"Bt> »NO S01.TI ED "» f -' cf SAMS Installation * . \ "!::■«■- •*: ..it**** fr • ■-> SAMS SAMS SOHIO Arctic Mobile Drilling System Structure - Soil Contact A relatively uniform contact between the base of the structure and the seafloor is desirable in order to provide for shear transfer at the interface as well as bearing. Yet the typical Arctic seafloor, at least to depths of 50 meters, is extensively gouged by the keels of ice ridges. This plowing action not only develops trenches 1 to 3 (maximum 5 to 7) meters deep but forces up low ridges on each side. The trenches later fill with soft unconsolidated sediments. While an optimal location will, of course, be adopted for each specific structure, it will still have to accommodate bottom irregularities. These can result in high local forces acting on the base slab. 86 Attempts have been made to level the contact area by first placing an underwater sand embankment, then levelling its surface. In the open sea, however, it has not proven practicable to level it to the requisite tolerances. Further sand irregularities can develop higher pressures against the base slab than clay: the latter will fail in shear under the high bearing. The solution so far adopted has been to slurry-in sand under the base, using the methods developed in Denmark and The Netherlands for underbase fill beneath subaqueous tunnels (tubes). For permanent structures, special grouts can be used, following the practice for the North Sea concrete platforms, and previously used in offshore terminal construction in Australia. Another solution, adaptable to exploratory structures on relatively uniform seabeds, is to use deep skirts, preferably tapered or stepped, so as to transfer bearing and shear loads into the soil below the depth of scour. Pile and Spud Installation Piles and spuds, generally large-diameter, heavy-walled steel tubulars, have been proposed as means of transferring shear and also bearing and uplift, so as to resist overturning. The installation of these may be rendered unusu- ally difficult, due to the need to penetrate overconsol idated silts, which are very dense and tend to plug the pile tip. At deeper penetra- tions, fully or partially ice-bonded sands will be encountered. Experience in both of these materials elsewhere (Cook Inlet and Prudhoe Bay) has shown that high pressure jets are very effective in breaking up the overconsol idated silts and permafrost. Driving with a large impact hammer, while jet- ting, would undoubtedly prove most efficacious; however, there may be imposed severe restrictions on underwater noise during the fall migration of the bowhead whale. Thus vibratory hammers or jacking systems may be indicated. Means of underwater noise attenuation, such as air bubbling, may also be employed. Shallow-Water Deployment The presence of the perennial polar ice pack off Point Barrow, Alaska, severely restricts the open water area, and hence the available water depth for deployment of floating structures. Simi- larly, due to the very gradual slope of Beaufort Sea shores, there are many locations which limit the draft during deployment. It seems relatively certain the structures and transport barges will encounter some floating ice, hence they must be ice-strengthened near the touring water! ine. Use of pusher tugs may be preferable to towing on a towline. Skirts projecting beneath the base will further reduce the underkeel clearance. Various concepts are in design to overcome this problem of draft, recognizing that it occurs for only a few hundred kilometers and in waters that are generally calm, due to the limited fetch imposed by the ice. These include: - Use of an air-cushion within the skirts to partially overcome their added draft. Air cushions have been successfully employed on a number of North Sea caissons in order to reduce their draft during initial float out. - Provision of temporary buoyancy in the form of attached steel tanks. Often these can also serve the added purpose of controlling buoyancy and stability during set-down at the installation site. - Splitting the structure horizontally, so that each half can be towed around separately, then joined after arrival or at the installation site. - A similar approach is to reduce the overall height of structure (and hence its draft) by placing an underwater embankment of sand and gravel on which to found the structure. - The structure can be made lighter in weight, by the use of steel internals in some locations, in lieu of concrete, or by the use of structural lightweight concrete. Recent developments in high-strength lightweight aggregates and in making strong and durable lightweight concrete have made this option especially attractive. Durabil ity The Arctic environment is an extremely harsh one, with extreme low temperatures reaching to -50°C, ice abrasion, and cold saline water with high oxygen content. The loadings from ice not only include impact loads, but cyclic crushing, leading to stress peaks at a frequency of 1 to 2 Hz. Thus fatigue may also be a potential problem. Steels must be selected that will not lead to brittle fracture at the low temperatures. The welding materials and procedures must be selected so as to preserve this ductility. Exposed steel surfaces are subjected to a combina- tion of corrosion and abrasion. While corrosion rates are moderate, due to the low temperature, the ice wipes away the corrosion products, exposing fresh surfaces. A loss rate of 0.2 to 0.3 mm. per year is not uncommon. Concrete is exposed to freeze-thaw attack. Although the number of cycles is not large, intensity is severe. Near the water line, the - 87 - concrete may become partially saturated. This is also the zone with the greatest number of cycles, due to the thawing action of waves in the fall, just before final freeze-up. The use of air- entrainment, plus pozzolans in the mix, can provide the necessary degree of protection. Ice abrasion also acts on concrete, eroding the sand-cement matrix. Current attention is being directed to increasing the strength of this matrix by the use of finely-ground pozzolans such as condensed silica fumes. In order to enable the use of structural light- weight concrete, a number of current research projects have been directed towards ensuring the freeze-thaw and abrasion resistance of the resultant structure and exposed surfaces. Detailing of the steel reinforcement is also of importance, in order to minimize cracking, and to ensure that any cracking which does ensue does not stretch the reinforcement above yield; i.e., the cracks will always be under a closing force. This prevents progressive ice wedging from widening the crack. Consideration is being given to using epoxy coated reinforcement on the steel closest to the exposed face, in order to prevent corrosion occurring after the cover has been reduced by abrasion. The ^ery low external temperatures, combined with warm internal spaces due to operations and produced oil, lead to significant thermal strains. Similarly, experience shows that the radiant heat of the sun acting on cold faces can produce important thermal strains. Typical concrete walls are thick, leading to severe gradient through the walls, with the potential for surface cracking to develop. Satisfactory preventive means include pre- stressing, the prevention of initial micro- cracking during construction due to heat of hydration and shrinkage, the the provision of face reinforcement. Finally, the frictional resistance between the ice and the exposed face of the structure has an important effect on the global forces and mode of failure of the ice. Low friction coatings have been developed for the steel hulls of ice- breakers. While similar coatings can be applied to concrete, research is till underway to ensure that such coatings will not trap water vapor behind them, leading to freezing rupture of the concrete skin behind the coating. This has occurred in conventional concretes; however, it may be that the dense concretes now being produced and the use of lightweight coarse aggregate to reduce microcracking may render the concrete sufficiently impervious to water vapor transmission. Standards and Practices A number of professional and technical societies have addressed the special problems involved in work in the Arctic. They have produced recommen- dations for design and construction which are of great value, although still subject to revision as more experience is obtained. These organizations include the American Petroleum Institute, American Concrete Institute, Federation Internationale de la Precontrainte, and the bi-annual conference "Ports and Ocean Engineering under Arctic Conditions (POAC)". Industry-government and joint industry associa- tions have sponsored extensive research on the Arctic, developing means for effectively meeting the demands of the environment. These include the Arctic Petroleum Operators Association (APOA) of Canada and the Alaska Oil and Gas Association (AOGA). The Canadian Government and the U.S. National Bureau of Standards have also addressed these issues in a number of reports. Finally, there has been intensive research in several Universities and by consulting firms, primarily sponsored by industry. Thus there is an extensive body of knowledge existant and developing which will enable the unprecedented problems of the Arctic offshore environment to be met with structures which are safe and efficient. Continuation of this development is essential if we are to meet the increasing challenges as operations move further offshore, into deeper waters and more severe ice regimes. Undersea Foundations Work on Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority 1, Shiba Nishikubo Shiroyama-Cho, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105 JAPAN The construction of Honshu and Shikoku connecting bridge (Koj ima-Sakaide route) was started in 1978, and will be completed in 1988. Honshu (main islands of Japan) and Shikoku island will be connected by roads and railways after this route is completed. This route pass through five small islands between Honshu and Shikcku as shown in Fig. 1, and six new bridges will be built between these five islands. The total distance of the route is about 10 km. The longest bridge in this route is called Bisanseto bridge and it across the Bisanseto channel of 3 km wide. There are two sea lanes of south and north in this, channel, and more than thousand ships pass these sea lanes in a day. Two suspension bridges having central span of 1100 m and 990 m will be built across these two sea lanes. Six piers of these bridges are built in the sea, and the anchorage pier in south end is the biggest one. The dimensions of this pier is 75 m in length, 59 m in breadth and 50 m in depth under water plane, and the volume is 220,000 m 3 . This underwater water pier hardrock i load from consists o remove the weathering is taken a is th pier s of n sea the s f gra surf and s bas e biggest s in the wor the bridges bottom to uspension b nite , and i ace of 5 - to expose h ic bottom p tructure as the Id. These under- are built on support the huge ridges. The rock t is needed to 15 m because of ard surface which lane of piers. The depth of the deepest basic bottom plane of piers is 50 m under water plane. The construction work of underwater pier was started by excavating sea bottom, and the crushing rock by underwater blast- ing was carried out to excavate the rock surface efficiently and surely. After drilling to the surface of bed- rock by the drilling machine installed on the SEP (Self Elevating Platform) , explosive in cartridge was charged on the bottom of drilling hole through the casing tube. Though the maximum tide current at pier site amount to 4 . 5 knot, the drilling work was continued day and night not affecting the tide current, because these drilling and medicine manufacturing works were carried out on the SEP. The platform of SEP is supported by four pillars while at work, and easily moved to another place by floating the platform. Many holes of 10 cm diameter and 2 m space were drilled in lengthwise and trans- versely, and explosive of 20 - 30 kg was charged in each hole. The initiation is carried out when the total of these explosive amount to about 1,000 kg. On the initiation in deep sea or high tide current, wireless initiation system by ultrasonic type or electromagnetic induction type was used. The rocks loosened by blasting were dredged by grab dredger. On the surface of excavated bedrock, there were undulations of about 50 cm. Finally the surface of bedrock was shaved by 2.5 m diameter rotat- ing boring machine mounted on the SEP. After all surface of the bedrock was finished, the surface which come to the basic plane of the bottom of pier was almost completly flat within 10 cm undula- tions . The inspection of the surface was carried out by the divers of technical ex- perts to judge that the bedrock could support the huge load due to the suspension bridge . The special diving system was applied on diving 50 m depth, and helium-oxygen was used instead of air for breathing gas. The diving excort ship SEATOPIA devel- oped by Japan Marine Science and Technology 89 Center was effectively used in these diving works . On the other hand, basic structure of the bridge pier was fabricated as the huge steel caisson in shipyard, and transported to the pier site by tug boats. 12 tug boats of 40,000 horse power in total were used in the transportation. The maximum size of these steel caissons is 75 m in length, 59 m in breadth and 55 m in height, and the total weight of steel is 16,000 tons . These caissons have buoyancy compart- ments between out and inner side plates, and are possible to float in sea with 10 m draft. At the pier seite, these steel cais- sons are moored by eight mooring ropes of 76 mm diameter to eight concrete anchors Qf 900 ton previously set arround the pier, and keep the position against tide current. The position of these caissons are adjusted exactly to that of pier founda- tions by the control of winch. The position of the caisson is sur- veied from survey tower, but these informa- tion was input to a miniature computer installed on the caisson through telemeter and indicated on a cathode-ray tube display. Thus the operater of winch on the caisson can learn the position of caisson. The caissons sink by pouring water into the buoyancy divisions of it, and stop at 1 m above the bottom of sea, and after then they are slowly founded on the bottom of sea by 3,000 ton floatinq clane adjust- ing the depth and inclination of the caissons . The allowance of setting the caisson was expected to be within ±50 cm in posi- tion, and the results in actual construct- ion attained within this allowance. At the best case, this allowance attained within 4 cm. After setting on the bottom of sea, concrete was placed in the steel caisson. This work was carried out in water and the prepacked concrete method was used. The process of construction method is as following that, coarse aggregate is firstly placed directly in the caisson and mortar composed of cement, flyash, water, sand and admixture, is pumped in through previously placed pipes to fill the voids. Coarse aggregate graded in size be-^ tween 8 cm and 15 cm is transported on sea by pusher burges , and throw into the cais- son by unloader barges having capacity of 1000 m 3 /hr. For mixing and pouring of mortar, mortar plant barge having capacity of mortar pouring 240 m 3 /hr which developed by Honshu Shikoku Bridge Authority was used. This work was carried out 72 hours continuously to pouring mortar into one compartment of the caisson. After the concrete in placed in the caisson, the construction of anchorage piers is completed. Now the construction of six anchorage piers in Bisanseto bridge is continued successfully. They were already found, and five caissons were already finished the prepact concrete works . Fig.l The Koiisa-Sakaide Rouce of the Hcnshu-Shikoku 3rids;es 90 - RECENT MARINE BOARD ACTIVITIES John E. Flipse Distinguished Professor of Civil & Ocean Engineering Texas A&M Uni versify College Station, Texas 77843 ABSTRACT The U.S. Navy proposes to order 133 new ships from U.S. commercial shipyards between 1983 and 1986. The Navy has instituted a shipbuilding technology program to foster the development and implementation of shipbuilding technology and thereby increase productivity. A committee of the Marine Board identified and appraised ways to improve the productivity of commercial building of Navy ships as discussed herein. INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES The Marine Board is responsible for marine engineering and transportation matters within the Commission on Engineering and Technology Systems (CETS) of the National Research Council (NRC). It acts within its particular area of responsibility to bring about participation of the national community of engineers, scientists and other professionals in the activities of the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engi neering. Since the 1982 meeting of the UJNR Marine Facilities Panel in Japan, the Marine Board studied a wide range of maritime issues including Ocean Resources and Marine Transportation Development; Coastal, Port and Harbor, and Inland Waterway Use; Support of Ocean Science and Engineering Research; and National and International Cooperation and Information Exchange. Twelve major reports were issued reflecting the broad extent of the Marine Board interests with one of the studies described below. PRODUCTIVITY IMPROVEMENTS IN U.S. NAVAL SHIPBUILDING To enhance national security, the U.S. Navy is interested in improving the capability of the U.S. shipbuilding industry, including shipbuilding companies, their suppliers, and ship design agents, to build naval ships. The Navy is seeking to improve the quality of ship construction, to decrease ship construction time, and to increase productivity through the advancement of planning and production technologies. This report is the first of a multi-year effort and is therefore introductory in nature. Its objectives are limited: to describe the status of shipbuilding productivity in the U.S., to acknowledge and describe the substantial industrial activity that is directed towards productivity improvement, and to identify and appraise a number of issues for subsequent technical assessment. The Basics of Productivity The history of shipbuilding clearly demonstrates that the productivity of shipbuilding is greatly affected by the status of certain fundamental aspects of industry. The purpose of this report is less to measure and evaluate productivity than to recommend how it may be improved. Toward this objective, the committee's analysis indicates that shipbuilding productivity is enhanced and improved when certain conditions are present and positive: Ships are built in volume and on long-term contractual commitments. • Designs are standardized and explicitly directed toward ease of manufacturing. • Shipbuilders individually and as an industry invest in and employ technologies and facilities which improve productivity and constantly seek to improve their equipment and production processes via innovation and application of human and financial resources. • Management systems and personnel do an aggressive and effective job in production planning, contracts, information systems, and project management, taking advantage of continuing developments in management science and techniques. • Managers place consistent and substantial emphasis on the development of superior human resources, focusing on effective communications, employee training and development, and participative organizations, all with genuine concern for the welfare of employees. Another fundamental requiring attention is the documentation of the productivity of the U.S. shipbuilding industry in constructing naval ships. The committee recommends that the Navy conduct studies to analyze and evaluate the productivity of the U.S. shipbuilding industry in constructing naval vessels so that efforts to improve productivity can be focused on problems and opportunities. It is also necessary to consider 91 the productivity of shipbuilding supplier industries because procuring, assembling, and installing supplier-built systems represents the largest single cost area in naval shipbuilding. Productivity-related research and development is central to the advancement of shipbuilding technologies. Productivity-related research and development exists in shipyards today largely as the result of the National Shipbuilding Research Program, which is funded by the Maritime Administration (MarAd) and the Navy. Shipbuilding Productivity Issues Shipbuilding Industry and Supplier Productivity To effect substantial improvement in naval shipbuilding productivity, it will be necessary to investigate problems and opportunities in the supplier industries as well as shipyards. The suppliers and the shipyards also need to be assessed as a system, since the interface between them complicates production planning and the quality of supplied materials affects the quality of the product and the necessity of rework. Industrial Factors Intergrati on of Design and Production The degree of integration of the engineering phases of ship production -- ship design, production planning, early material ordering, and production engineering and employee training -- is a major determinant of production efficiency. These engineering phases are segregated in U.S. shipbuilding to a greater degree than in some other countries. Further, such separation of engineering phases does not occur in many other American industries. Assessments are needed of how the lack of integration affects productivity, the extent to which it is difficult to introduce productivity innovation and how more complete integration of the engineering phases of ship production can be achieved. Work Flow in Shipyards The scheduling and flow of materials and work in shipyards bear on productivity. The extent to which improvements in facility layouts, production processes, and materials handling can improve the efficiency of materials and work flow needs to be assessed in each shipyard. Opportunities for improvements need to be identified and pursued. Modern Production Control Techniques The potenti al fo product -ori ented work breakdown structures to produce significant productivity gains in Navy shipbuilding needs to be determined. Impediments to the introduction of product - oriented work breakdown structures need to be identi fied. Management System Modernization and Computeri zati on " The extent to which significant Navy shipbuilding productivity improvements can be made through shipyard management system modernization and computerization needs to be determined. Specific actions to this end need to be identified. Computer-Aided Design and Manufacture (CAD/CAM) The use oT computers Tn" ship desi gn and manufacture has the potential to improve productivity significantly. However, the successful integration of computers into and between shipyards, the design agent, and the Navy requires organizational and procedural changes. Ways to harness the potential of computers in shipyards need to be outlined and pursued. Human Resources Issues Quality of Engineering and Management Personnel The i mpl ementati on of new technologies and productivity innovations in shipbuilding will require basic strengthening in engineering and management functions and personnel. Needing identification are the means to attract engineeing and management personnel to the field, to improve the adaptability of existing personnel to new technologies and innovations, and to train them. Labor-Management Relations Improvements in labor-management relations are needed to pave the way for the implementation of new technologies and productivity innovations in shipbuilding. Training and Retention of Skilled Labor As shi p y a r d producti on processes become more sophisticated, it will be necessary to attract, train, and retain skilled shipyard workers. Problems and opportunities in skilled worker training and retention need to be identified and developed. Participatory Management/Organization of Work The potenti al for productivity improvement through reorganizing shipbuilding work to better utilize human resources needs to be established. The nature and extent of alternative approaches and their potential contribution and applicability to Navy shipbuilding need to be explored. Institutional Factors Capital Formation The importance of financial stabi li ty to capi tal formation and productivity innovation needs to be established, as does the extent to which the Navy can or should assist U.S. shipbuilders and their suppliers in developing a healthy financial climate suitable for productivity innovations. Aspects of this include the degree to which the government can share financial risks of production technology advancement, whether the shipbuilding workload can be stabilized over the long term, the financing of capital improvements, and whether U.S. - 92 shi pbui lders production. are competitive in warship Contracts The effects of the scope and duration of ship procurement contracts on shipbuilding need to be assessed. In addition, opportunities need to be investigated for reducing the complexity of Navy contracts and speeding up decision making. Materials and Equipment Standards Areas in critical need of standardization (defined as the use of standards) need to be identified. The body of existing starndards needs to be distilled into a usable base of information, to facilitate their implementation (for without use, standards themselves are of no consequence). The extent to which commercial marine standards meet military requirements, the potential benefits to the Navy from supporting the development and application of commercial marine standards, the needs and implications of updating, deleting, and supplementing military standards, and the additional areas in which the development of material and equipment standards would contribute to productivity improvement all need to be assessed. Quality Assurance Means to achieve and improve the abi 1 it y to meet Navy shipbuilding quality standards in the initial installation of material, equipment, and systems need to be identified and evaluated. Employee Safety and Health Means to improve the safety of Navy shipbuilding need to be identified and evaluated as well as the benefits of comprehensive safety and health programs. Yards and vendors need to be encouraged to provide such programs. Yards and vendors need to be encouraged to provide such programs. The Navy needs to be aware of potential health and safety exposures. Effects of Federal Laws and Regulations The i mpact of government laws and regulations on shipbuilders needs to be better understood, since the cost of regulatory compliance is added to the cost of building ships. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Support the National Shipbuilding Research Program The National Shipbuilding Research Program has resulted in productivity-related research and development in the shipyards and a growing awareness on the part of management of the value of such activities. Benefits result from the process of technical interaction of shipbuilder representatives in the program as much as from the substance of the activities undertaken. The process results in direct benefits in terms of productivity advances to the Navy. With U.S. Navy shipbuilding currently accounting for the majority of the total ship construction activity in the United States, continued U.S. Navy and Maritime Administration support of the National Shipbuilding Research Program is justified, important, and vital. The support of the program should continue to be shared by those who benefit from it. Recommendat ion : The Navy and the Maritime Administration should continue to participate in and support the National Shipbuilding Research Program. Analyze and Evaluate the Productivity of the U.S. Shipbuilding Industry in Constructing Naval Vessels The productivity of the U.S. shipbuilding industry in building commercial vessels has been analyzed and evaluated, and has been established as approximately half that of the leading foreign competitors. In contrast, the productivity of the U.S. shipbuilding industry in building naval vessels has not been well documented; it needs to be analyzed and evaluated so that efforts to improve productivity can be focused on specific problems and opportunities. Recommendation : The Navy should conduct studi es to anal yze and evaluate the productivity of the U.S. shipbuilding industry in building naval vessels and determine the relative productivity of U.S. and foreign naval shipbuilding as an aid in focusing its programs on specific problems and opportunities. Foster Rapid Development and Application of CAD/CAM for Naval Shipbuilding CAD/CAM technologies offer an opportunity to improve productivity not only by reducing the direct labor contribution to a number of technical tasks, but also by making possible and stimulating the coordination of engineering phases and management functions. Furthermore, shipyards that have applied CAM to their operations have realized reductions in fitting and welding costs. The Navy, as the major shipbuilding customer in the United States, is in an outstanding position to resolve CAD/CAM legal issues and to cause or foster its rapid application in shipbuilding, in conjunction with the shipbuilding industry. Recommendati on : The Navy should sponsor the development of an integrated product definition data base for establishing its shipbuilding requirements and communicating among the shipbuilding industry. The Navy should encourage its use and the development of complementary, compatible data bases by ship designers, shipbuilders, and vendors. Recommendati on The Navy should and support the participate in development and application of graphic exchange specifications applicable to shipbuilding. Together with the shipbuilding industry, it should cause a shipbuilding interest group to be established within the IGES program. - 93 Recommendati on : The Navy should sponsor a continuing forum in conjunction with the broader CAD/CAM industry to allow shipbuilding and design agent CAD/CAM managers to plan jointly for the Navy development and use of computer technology. Encourage Development and Use of Standards Increased development and use of standards represents a significant opportunity for productivity improvement in Navy shipbuilding. With increased support in terms of committed technical talent and also financial resources, the benefits of standardization can be realized. Recommendati on : The Navy should accelerate and increase its support of the Mil Specs improvement program to eliminate the lag between the state of military standards and the state of technology so that standards can be used effectively in the accelerated naval shipbuilding program. This should include minimizing the number of Mil Specs where commercial standards will suffi ce. Recommendation : The Navy should accelerate and increase its financial support of and technical participation in the industrial standards activities conducted under the auspices of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers' Ship Production Committee and the American Society for Testing and Materials in order to be as effective as possible in the current accelerated Navy shipbuilding program. Recommendati on : Both the Navy and the ASTM standards program procedures should be reviewed and revised to shorten the period needed to update their standards. Improve Human Resources The cultivation of human resources is essential to the productivity of organizations. It begins with management commitment and includes human relations, labor relations, personnel functions (i.e., recruitment, selection, training, and retention), and industrial engineering. Perhaps the most essential human resources challenge in shipbuilding is to improve the physical and organizational conditions of shipbuilding work by altering the relationship between employees and management and the relationship between employees and tasks. In particular, participatory management and small group/multiski 11 worker organizational innovations which focus on effectiveness, performance, quality, and safety, have significant potential for improving the productivity of the commercial construction of U.S. Navy ships. An outstanding innovation is the training of workers for multiple skills, and then the organizing of work tasks to take advantage of the flexibility of the multi -skilled worker. The logic for the emphasis on human resources is that weakness in this area--for example, manpower shortages—may , in fact be occasioned by physical and organizational deficiencies, such as failure to provide satisfying and challenging jobs. Increased attention to the physical and organizational conditions of shipbuilding work can strengthen an already sound human resources situation, but in cannot substitute or correct for basic deficiencies. Shipbuilding in particular is prey to unstable work load and consequent high personnel turnover as the result of variables outside industrial control, including the economic climate, government procurement policies, and national industrial policy. Investment in human resources is not easily justified in an environment of high personnel turnover. Yet, such an approach is self-fulfilling in the sense that minimal human resource investment will lead to greater voluntary turnover. Since the immediate and mid-term survival of the U.S. shipbuilding industry hinges very largely on Navy construction, the Navy needs to give careful consideration to contracting so that a number of shipyards are able to sustain stable employment. In any other environment it is unlikely that management and the work force will commit themselves to improving human resources in general and, in particular, to experimenting with parti ci patory management /organi zati onal development programs. Recommendati on : The Navy should encourage experiments with worker participation and organizational change by considering requests from industry (labor and management) to share in the costs of experimental programs; and, by means of a continuing periodic forum, foster the transfer of information between companies and unions involved in or considering social technology projects. The forum would allow both the Navy and commercial yards to share their growing experience wi,th productivity-related social technologies. ' - 94 GOVERNMENT-INDUSTRY RELATIONSHIPS EN .ADVANCED PROGRAM PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT R. Seki Vice Director. Technical Division Ship Bureau. Ministry ot Transport 2,-1-3 ECasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo ABSTRACT <2.bo eve -5 irec _ ! 1 or successful promotion of R&D on Ldino tecznoicsv with substantial results L it is oarticulariy important that an and efficient R&D project is - -enalized 'under proper alio tt merits of duties shared by the Governmental, industrial and academic' circles guided by an integrated national R&D plan, realized through the interdesciolinary collaboration in an organic manner with financial aids given by the positive utilization of the funds raised by private and other non-^overnmentai organizations. Since :ne imoortant tasks of technical developments not only involve high-graded technical requirements but also they spread over a vast field of diversified sectors such as electronics. new materials and space techniques, it is necessary to actively promote tiohiy interdisciplinary mode of R & D among different academic circles and different industrial circles while ensuring a well concerted cooperation in an organic manner for achieving. with substantial results, the technological sophistication meeting the Ivianairic industrial structure, advent of the era of old a^es. and changing business environment caus »d bv the rising tide of the developing shipbuilding countries and others. tantiating the foregoing proposals, an the efficient Dromotion of ror suos integrated plan for R&D should be established on the basis of the following concents. Policv- rnaiung on an integrated R&D i Ian (I) The Government ot integrated R&D plan JaDan must draw an for oromoting the research and development project v. coverage smoothiv and effectively. vas (2) In planning R & D projects, targets of the R&D should be set as specific as possible from .task to task, and at the same time, the specific R&D items necessary for achieving tne of the R&D Droiects should oojectives proj' ined ov clearly defined as annual projects class responsible body of R&D and by progress; v. stage of R and D. Also, the period of various R&D projects should tentatively be set at or about 5 years though some of them may require longer periods during which viability of each R & u item should be appraised by conducting fact- orovinc experiments as much as possible. (3) On the tasks for adapting the Japanese shipbuilding industry to the 21st Century, it is considered difficult to set down any clear-cut R&D projects at the moment, and hence assessments on technical problem areas ana possibility of solutions, investigations or the size of social needs in the future or basic research and studies should be made. 2. Establishment of R&D organization ana system (1) For promoting the R&D projects on the imoortant tasks for R&D, an extreme concentration of expertise in a wide perspective and research and study abilities is necessary, and in this context, it is considered particularly important to assign the role to play in promoting 'the R&D projects to private enterprises of our country who are greatly accumulating technological force especially in recent years so that their technological development potential and vitality can be utilized to the fullest possible extent, and at - 95 - the same time it is desirous to positively make use of the private R&D organizations and systems serving as a common area of forum for developing their joint researches and studies as much as possible. (2) Under the R&D organization and system herein given, the Government of Japan should ensure overall promotion of the projects by conducting evaluation of the status of development at each stage and review of the R&D projects on each item of such projects in accordance with the integrated plan of R & D projects, and further, on items relating to the techniques for the safety of ships and reliability, or those requiring proper adjustments and coordination to and with the social systems and organizations because of their public nature where satisfactory progress of R&D by the forementioned organizations and systems of the private enterprise is unable to be anticipated, it is expected that such specific R&D items will be better undertaken bv the national research and development organizations. (3) Since the R&D projects stated herein will require a huge amount of money for an extended period of time, the Government must take special consideration for the proper allottment of such fund so that it is proDerly distributed according to the order of importance, but at the same time, positive use of money raised by those private financial bodies should also be considered. 96 ADVANCES ON MEASURING CURRENT JAPAN MARINE MACHINERY DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION FURUNC ELECTRIC CO., LTD. Abstract DoppLer sonars are recognized as an accurate speed sensor for any type of vessels. When ship's speeds reLative to ocean floor and watermass are measured at the same time, a speed of a tidal current can be derived from the difference between these two speeds. The Doppler sonar current indicator provides accurate data on ocean currents at three selected depths as well as ship's speed. These measurements can be automatically done without anchoring. Acoustical pulses are emitted in narrow beams in 3 directions separated 120 degrees from each other and tilted by a certain angle, and this conf iguia^ j-ou eliminates the effect of heaving. The ship's speed data can be used for Satellite Navigator, true motion radar and scanning sonar and dramatically increases the accuracy of these equipments. The indicated tidal direction can be stabilized by interfacing ship's gyro through gyro converter. Introduction — Development of the Doppler Sonar Current Indicator Current soeed and direction at a » selected depth is obtained by calculating the difference between the ship speeds mentioned above and measured against the selected depth. If the ground tracking speed is used as reference, the current speed and direction calculated should also be against the ground. Using this principle, JAPAN MARINE MACHINERY DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION and FURUNO ELECTRIC CO., LTD. developed the Doppler Soner Current Indicator, model CI-20 in 1979- The CI-20 is capable of measuring currents at three depth layers simultaneously. Maximum depths for measurement of ship's ground tracking speed and current depends on the ground and sea conditions; typically to 450 meters for ship's ground speed and 70 meters for current speed. TOP VIEW 120 SIDE VIEW The CI-20 has made it possible to measure the current while the ship is cruising. Over 400 sets of CI-20 have been installed on survey vessels and fishing boats. The majority of users are purse seiners because of dynamic measuring capability of ocean current data. 97 Further Development: — Mu lti-func tion Current Indicator CI-30 (1) Ship's Speed In order to present the current information more effectively, totally new display device has been developed. This is model CI-30 and has a 14" hi-re solution color CRT instead of the numerical display of the CI-20 . Internal memory is increased to store the data for 6 hours. All data is displayed on the color screen. TIDE SPD DIR D0.8kts ESE IIIII[=I591=h! um ■ t r.s w SCREEN [_J 5. W. INTAKE poa J= MAIN DECK PLAN |\ A 80ILER w. r. AIR CCND. haCH.ROOh T MACH. STORE CHEMI. STGRE , ^\ r7=?\ n r^\ r?^ f?^\ ACIO SCLUT. STOR.T. EVAPORATOR j \i vy; u \^j \^j \±jj y ; . \ / TROLLEY BEAM r?/^nr^^Q r CHLOR. ROOM THrTSTijTSTTSPSJ U. ! ACCESS WAT LOWER FLOOR PLAN S. W. INTAKE BOTTOM PLAN FIG.1 LAYOUT PLAN 105 WWs\ FIG. 2 STRUCTURE OF BARGE BED FIG. 3 50% TOUCH AREA BETWEEN BARGE BOTTOM PLATE AND BARGE BED SURFACE TIME SCHEDULE 1976 1979 1980 10 11 12 , 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 10 11 12 j 1 2 3 DATE OF NOTICE TO PROCEED: OCT. 22, 1978 DESIGN BARGE AND PLANTS PROCUREMENT/ MANUFACTURING ON THE BARGE OF EQUIPMENT ELECT | 0N TOWING GROUNDING 'MFnwiirAi compi ftion OFFSHORE CIVIL WORK SURVEY «-*TEST 8ED CONSTRUCTION 1ST UNIT DESIGN * ACCEPTANCE ONSHORE WORK PROCUREMENT/SHIPMENT INSTALLATION 'ACCEPTANCE 106 MANGANESE NODULE MINING SYSTEM National Research & Development Program (Large-Scale Project) Office Agency of Industrial Science & Technology Ministry of International Trade & Industry, Japan Since manganese nodules were first discovered in the deep ocean floor during the great oceanographic expedition by the HMS Challenger from 1872 to 1876, many geoscientists have been studying these deep ocean concretions. Manganese nodules are golf-ball to fist-sized, dark brown to black-colored concretions which are found over most of the ocean floor, especially in depths of 4,000 to 6,000 m. Most of their shapes are potato-like spheres, but they range from disks to irregular lumps. Manganese nodules are manganese-iron oxides which contain some valuable miner- als such as copper, nickel, cobalt and manganese. Because of their richness in these four strategic metals, the great economic and industrial issues have arisen since the 1960s. Manganese nodules are considered to be an important future source of minerals which are crucial to Japanese industrial and national security interests. In other words, recavering manganese nodules from the deep ocean floor will ensure a stable supply of four strategic metals as "guasi- domestic" sources for Japan. From a technological viewpoint there are three aspects to the deep ocean man- ganese nodule mining: 1) the exploration system to find an economic deposit; 2) the mining system to collect the nodules efficiently on the deep ocean floor, to lift the nodules efficiently from the ocean floor to the mining ship, and to control the equipment which is used in the system; and 3) the processing system to extract the useful metals from the nodules. Among them the exploration activities in Japan have been conducted since 1975 using the exploration system on board the "Hakurei-Maru" and the "Hakurei-Maru #2." The system for extracting the metals from the nodules, or processing, has been also studied in Japan; therefore the mining system has been forcused to be developed as a new mining technology for Japan. In addition, according to the new Law of the Sea Treaty adopted at the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea on April 30, 1982, those who would develop deep ocean manganese nodules would have to possess their own mining technology and would be required to transfer it to The Entarprise . Under such circumstances, Japan started the Large-Scale Project named the Research and Development Project of Manga- nese Nodule Mining System in FY 1981. The mining system being researched and developed in the Project is a hydraulic mining system in which manganese nodules are collected by a towed vehicle on the ocean floor and are transported in a slurry of seawater and nodules through the lift system onto the mining ship. The hydraulic mining system consists of four sub-systems to be researched and developed in the Project: 1) the collector system which is towed along the ocean floow at depths of 4,000 to 6,000 m by the mining ship, collects the nodules, eliminates unnecessary objects, and supplies desirable size and delivery rate to the lift system; 2) the lift system which transports a slurry of the nodules and the sea- water using either a pump system or an air lift system from the collect- or system to the mining ship through a long pipe string which also tows the collector system along the ocean floor; 3) the machinery handling system which is mounted on a mining ship in order to hang, lower, and raise such under- water equipment as the collector and lift systems; and 4) the measurement and control system which measures, supervises, and controls operations of each sub- systems in order to conduct the min- ing operation safely and efficiently 107 - The Project has been conducting the development studies in each sub-system; furthermore inter-sub-system coordination and commercial feasibility have been also confirmed. At the last stage of the Pro- ject the pilot scale mining test is sched- uled in the Pacific Ocean. Machinery Handling System Pwo Lift ;ooo System Lift Pipe Collector System 2cco (m) A Figure of Manganese Nodule Mining System 108 UNDERSEA TECHNOLOGY PROJECTS AT THE NAVAL OCEAN SYSTEMS CENTER James M. Patton, CAPT., USN Commander, U.S. Naval Ocean Systems Center Naval Ocean Systems Center San Diego, California ABSTRACT NOSC's mission is to be the principal Navy RDT&E center for command control, communica- tions, ocean surveillance, surface and air launched undersea weapons systems, subma- rine arctic warfare, and supporting tech- nologies. Ocean technology provides broad- base support to the NOSC missions as well as many other undersea programs. Successful projection of the Nation's policy at sea requires that the classic mis- sions of the Navy be prosecuted by resources with continually improving capabilities. In addition to the fighting ships and aircraft of the Fleet, knowledge of the oceans and the capabilities to work deep in the ocean are very important. The undersea require- ments of mine and countermine warfare, undersea surveillance, lost devices and ship losses require means to accurately locate, inspect, classify, install, main- tain, recover, and/or neutralize items within the sea. Five generic missions are identified that require research and development for undersea systems. These are SEARCH AND RECOVERY, SALVAGE AND RESCUE, SURVEY AND INSPECTION, NEUTRALIZA- TION, and DEPLOYMENT OF SENSORS. These, in turn, require application of new technology DEEP SUBMERGENCE RESCUE VEHICLE DEEP SUBMERGENCE VEHICLE "SEA CLIFF" to sensors, navigation, communications, tools, energy storage, and the vehicles to support them. The Navy has developed and is operating a series of manned undersea vehicles from the original TRIESTE, to the deep submergence rescue vehicles, AVALON and MYSTIC, the TURTLE, and SEA CLIFF, and provides support to the ALVIN for univer- sity research. Next came the cable-controlled undersea vehicles of the CURV family for under- sea work, the SNOOPY family for undersea inspec- tion, and the RUWS for deep undersea technology demonstration. Advanced technology is now being applied to untethered, free swimming undersea vehicles. While certain relatively shallow operations (to 6,000-10,000 ft.) can be effi- ciently accomplished by tethered vehicles with their unlimited power availability and immedi- ate teleoperator monitor and control, unteth- ered vehicles offer the advantages of a smaller support ship since cable handling and storage is not required, and freedom of the support ship from rigid station keeping. The unteth- ered vehicle does not require excessive thrust to tow a cable or hold it against currents, is not constrained in depth due to cable configu- ration, or suffer entanglement with undersea obstacles. It can run long distances from one area to another, and turn and repeat maneuvers, without concern for surface support. The pri- mary goal of the undersea technology program at the Naval Ocean Systems Center is to apply 109 - CABLE-CONTROLLED UNDERWATER RESCUE VEHICLE, "CURV III" new technological advances in microprocessors, control theory, energy storage, optical, mag- netic and acoustic sensors, data links, voice actuated and supervisory controlled manipu- lators and tools into a system that, when given the decision and control logic of arti- ficial intelligence, can perform a multitude of undersea tasks. Personnel at the Naval Ocean Systems Center have developed a test bed autonomous vehicle on which new technological items may be tested and validated in full scale undersea operations. This autonomous vehicle supports both Navy requirements and those of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) offshore tower and pipeline inspection needs. The following film gives an introductory explanation of the NOSC FREE-SWIMMING VEHICLE vehicle concepts, shows it in operation, and demonstrates some of its applications. NOTE! This seven minute sound film includes the following infor- mation. The free-swimming vehicle is a robotic test-bed submersible developed to demonstrate improved vehicle system technology. This submersible, which is 9 feet long, about 20 inches high, and 20 inches wide, has a modular construction which allows expansion to accommodate additional pay- loads and new sensor systems as the technology for those systems advances to the point at which fabrication and testing become feasible. The vehicle is designed to follow a set of predeter- mined program tracks, such as a parallel-path search or a figure-8 demonstration run. In this mode of operation, the vehicle is programmed via a computer console and an umbilical cable, which is disconnected after the initial preprogramming phase. The vehicle is then allowed to follow this course until its mission is complete. If an emergency arises, there are automatic proce- dures that allow the vehicle to turn on an emergency beacon. This action shuts off all thrusters, and the vehicle is recovered at the surface. After initial tests with this mode of operation, other methods of vehicle command con- trol and communication will be demonstrated. In particular, an acoustic control link and an acoustic slow-scan television link are planned. The end result will be a system which is not limited by cable drag and cable-handling prob- lems and one which should perform rudimentary tasks without direct operator control. ELECTRIC "SNOOPY 1 110 FABRICATION AND LOAD OUT OF A HUGE JACKET Akihiko Sempaku Assistant Project Manager, North Rankin Project Team Nippon Kckan K.K. ABSTRACT The North Rankin "A" Jacket was constructed at Tsu Works between April 1980 and April 1982 for use in the development of a natural gas field in the north-western part of Australia. With a height of about 147m, bottom dimension of about 67m x 83m, and 22,000t in weight, this barge- launching type jacket is ranked fourth largest in the world. In its construction, various new technologies were fully exploited, such as a large block construction method including panel roll-up with a floating crane (the first such process ever used in the world), dimensional control with an electronic tachymeter, loading out of a barge float type from a quay with big tidal changes, welding procedure requiring high quality (includ- ing COD test) , etc. . 1. INTRODUCTION In 1947, the first full-scale offshore drill- ing operation was undertaken in the Gulf of Mexico. At first, the drilling for offshore oil and natural gas was confined to shallow water regions of only a few meters in depth. However, as the price of crude oil rose to inflationary levels coupled with rapid advances in drilling technology, offshore drilling activities slowly began to move into deeper water regions. Furthermore, drilling for oil and natural gas in regions where such operations were hithert believed to be inconceiv- able, such as the North Sea oil fields, became a reality. In the northwest region of Australia, three offshore natural gas fields, North Rankin, Goodwyn and Angel, in a region 130m in depth and 130km in distance off the shores of Dampier, were discovered between 1971 and 1972. Development of this vast source of natural gas has begun with the aim of starting delivery of gas of Western Australia in 1984 and exportation of LNG to Japan in 1988. Our company, Nippon Kokan K.K., became a major contributor to this development project when we accepted an order from the Australian development consortium, Woodside Offshore Petroleum Pty., Ltd., to build one of the world's largest class jackets for the development of the North Rankin natural gas field, which lays at depths of 3,000 to 4,000 meters below seafloor. The construction work, completed in April of 1982 at NKK's Tsu Works, involved numerous modern technical methods of construction including the world's first panel roll-up opration using float- ing cranes, dimensional control with the aid of electronic tachvmeters, weldinn methods conform- ing to strict quality standards and a jacket load out operation using a special barge capable of adjusting its displacement to large variations in tidal condition at the quay. The main character- istics of these technical methods employed in the construction of the North Rankin "A" Jacket will be introduced. PERTH • SYDNEY MELBOURNE V, Installation Site 2. SUMMARY OF CONSTRUCTION WORK 2.1 Basic Description of the Work The following is a basic description of the work involved in the construction of the North Rankin "A" Jacket. (1) Outline drawing: Conceptual drawing of the North Rankin "A" Platform is shown in Figure 2. (2) Contractor : Woodside Offshore Petroleum Pty. Ltd. (abbr. WOP), Australia (3) Designer : Earl & Wright Consulting Engineers (USA) (4) Scope of work: Material procurement, fabrica- tion, load out, up to and including tie-down opration Contract award - 4.16.1980 Delivery date - 4.01.1982 (6) Conf iauration: 8 leg barge launch type (7) Water'depth : 124.5 m (8) Dimensions : Top section - 38.4 x 60.4 m Bottom section - 67.4 x 82.9 m Overall height - 146.5 m (9) Weight: Weight at the time of load out Jacket structure - 1 5 , 000 t approx. Floatation tanks - 2,000t Carried piles - 3 ,000 1 Piping & others - 2,000t 5) Work period Total - 22,000t approx. Ill - :io: (id (12) (13) Dimension and thickness of principal members Inner leg : 16OOmm0 85mm max. plate thickness Outer lea : 15OOmm0, 3OOOmm0, 4500mmei 65mm max. plate thickness Brace : 600 - 1300mmtf 700mm max. plate thickness F. Tank : 4000mmfzS, 5000mmizS 15 - 20mm plate thickness Number of conductor auides: 34 Material : BS4360 50D modified Outfitting: (a) Riser pipe (b) Grouting line (c) Piping used for upending AAC JAC«CT Fig. 2 Overall View of North Rankin "A" Platform 2.2 Special Characteristic of the Jacket Structure Special characteristics of the jacket structure are given below. (1) Cluster Eight piles are positioned around each of the four outer legs of the jacket. Thus, pile sleeves are fixed to the lowest part of these legs in order to connect the piles to the legs, thereby forming what are known as "clusters". (2) Floatation tank In order to obtain the necessary buoyancy during launching, detachable floatation tanks are attached to both sides of the jacket. (3) Carried piles To simplify the piling operation, eight piles, two on each of the four outer legs of the jacket, are installed at the construction yard. (4) Deck truss The deck truss and the jacket are of uniform construction. This design allows direct installa- tion of the upper deck module onto the top of the jacket. (5) Riser pipes A pipeline will be laid on the seafloor for brinqinn the oas to on shore. In order to connect this pipeline to the upper deck module, three riser pipes are installed on the jacket. 2.3 Method of Construction Basically, the jacket was divided into three blocks along the length of the structure as shown in Figure 3. Each member was assembled on ground in ex- termely large sub-blocks (weighing in the neighbor- hood of lOOOt) and subsequently put into place using a 3000t floating crane barge. For this pur- pose", the No.l block was built close to the quay and then "skidded" inland to allow for assembly of the No. 2 block near the quay. In this way, a "skid back" construction method was implemented. The floating crane was used twelve times to lift panels built of legs and braces into place and also to lift the floatation tanks into an upright posi- tion and to lift the clusters into place. As a .1 result, a lot of high altitude work could be avoided, and use of large land cranes could be conserved. The sequence of jacket assembly is depicted in Figure 3. (1) No.l block assembly (2) Skidding and No. 2 block assembly (3) No. 3 block assembly Fig. 3 Jacket Assembly Sequence 3. LOAD OUT 3.1 Summary After completion of the jacket fabrication, it was loaded out onto the launchina barne. H-109(owned - 112 - by HEEREMA Co., Holland) on 14th April, 1982. The method of load out employed is generally called the "floating type" method. In this method, the verical motion of the launching barge induced by variations in the added weight of the jacket and the level of the tide, and all other changes in configuration experienced during the transfer of the jacket from land to barge are fully com- pensated for by ballasting adjustments made on the barge. In other words, the barge is constantly maintained parallel to the water surface and at the same level as the land surface. The load out of a jacket weighing in excess of 20,000t using the floating type method had been accomplished in only one previous case by McDermott Co., USA. However, this method of load out has never been implemented before in a region such as that surrounding Tsu Works, where tidal variations may cause differences in water depths of up to 2.4m. Therefore, completeness in planning and coordination had to be insured well in advance of the actual loading operation through meticulous engineering calculations and the development of suitable control systems. 3.2 Sensitivity Study A three-dimensional computer model analysis was conducted in order to estimate the changes in configuration and the stress response conditions of the jacket during load out. Based on this analysis, the jacket/barge configuration and the maximum allowable difference in ballast conditions at each point in the load out sequence were deter- mined and established as the control standard used during the actual operation. 3.3 General Load Out Procedure Figure 4 shows the general load out procedure. 3.3.1 General procedure for skidding Two units of skidding jacks installed on the launching barge H-109 were used for pulling the jacket onto the barge. These jacks were of a diesel oil hydraulic gripping type with a maximum specified horizontal force of 2000t/unit and an average displacement speed on 4 min/m. In order to minimize yawing and sideways motion of the jacket, a part of the uniform control mechanism was altered such that the two jack units were made to operate identically and simultaneously by operation of just one of the units. For the purpose of decreasing friction during sliding, teflon was coated on the top surface of the skidrail on both the land and the barge and in addition, grease was spread beneath the wooden sliding surface supporting the jacket on the skid- rail. A special grease was used to keep the fric- tion coefficient between jacket and skidrail below 0.15. The horizontal reaction force result- ing from skidding was transferred to the quay through the temporary fender affixed to the end of the barge. This fender acted as a structural pin connection for both edges of the barge, permitting the use of the barge under the influence of various external forces. / 'ujww.i,unia; / - " L -'»- il I i MiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiilliniilliiiiiiniiiiniMlilllliiMiiiii^ ll-nn- i ; | 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 ) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 il i ii i it 1 1 1 a rM ' bh \ \ 513 _J \ \ TOT.* I— Sk«4 U,. HrMcmla ! S.J Vtm-w 1 t-«r«.l7-*«l*"« IPJ. > UMXI4 1 n- mt Km IHIJbMk i»w »iti 1 SkM &«n* M 1 TEFLON + GRZASILS SO EPJ 4) umt nig- nuy P.I. G..4 . I . J , ". !/* "t/i ""HM /fiL r-""iTt" — su> - n IcLM. ..... ■ B..-.T1C — )U wm7jf*xn_v teflon+cblaseidow cornivc root Fig. 4 General Procedure of Load Out 3.3.2 General procedure for ballast The arrangement of ballast tank Figure 5. These tanks were categori according to specific ballasting fun plained below. Furthermore, a total pump units were fitted to each of th ballasting work (4m 3 /mm/uni t) . Eac made to be operated by a centralized unit which was temporarily installed control panel aboard the barge. Alt barge was equipped with a 2000m3/h c ballast pumo , it was deemed insuffic present work and was delegated for u ing s is shown in zed and used ctions as ex- of 87 water e tanks for h pump was remote control on the central hough the H-109 apacity diesel ient for the se as a backup system in case of power failures or other such problems. (1) Adjustment to added weight In response to increases in added weight due to the gradual loading of the jacket onto the barge, ballast adjustment was made by pumping out excess ballast water such that the barge maintained constant displacement. For this purpose, 24 water pump units were installed and put to use within the 15 tanks as shown in Fiaure 5. (2) Adjustment to trim In the adjustment to added weight described previously, the center of gravity of the added 113 weight of the jacket and the corresponding outflow of ballast water could not be maintained at the same point along the barge and hence, inevitably, this difference resulted in a trim moment. To combat this problem, and thus keep the barne at a horizontal position at all times, a total of 12 pump units were installed within the 4 tanks indicated in Figure 5, such that during each step in the load out procedure the necessary ballasting work was carried out. (3) Adjustment to heel In order to counteract heel moment arising from variations in the position of the jacket's center of gravity, a total of 3 water pump units were fitted to the 2 tanks shown in Figure 5 and thus the necessary ballast work was carried out. (4) Adjustment to tide level Again, for the purpose of maintaining the barge at constant level with respect to the quayside, ballasting and deballasting was also required to compensate for both the increase and decrease in buoyancy due to variations of tide level. For this work, a total of 48 pumps were installed within the 6 tanks shown in Figure 5 and thus the barge could be maintained at a preset level even under a maximum tide level difference of 2.4m and a maximum tide level variation of i53cm/h. J: Tanks for jacket weight compensation H: Tanks for heel adjustment W: Tanks for tide adjustment o: ballast pump T: Tanks for trim adjustment t: deballast pump Fig. 5 Arrangement of Ballast Tank 3.4 Ballast Control Work 3.4.1 Jacket/barge level control Deviations from the preset level of the barge resulting from the weight of the jacket, differ- ences in mooring conditions, differences in volume of ballast water etc. were estimated. For this purpose, the following two conditions were monitored during load out. (1) Difference in level between the edge of the quay and the barge A standard level was used to monitor the difference in level between the edge of the quay and the barge at all times, and to establish, whether the difference fell within the allowable limit predetermined by analysis. (2) Changes in the general configuration of the jacket and barge Changes in the general configuration of the jacket and barge at a total of 24 points along the jacket and the barge, corresponding to node points where the jacket weight added onto the barge under- goes a large and sudden change during loading, were measured and continuously monitored to determine whether these changes deviated widelv from theo- retical estimations. For this purpose, a "jacket/ baroe configuration variation monitoring system", consisting of a graphic display system on top of a measurement data processing system, capable of simultaneously determining the ballasting adjust- ment required to correct deviations in the jacket/ barge configuration, was developed and put to full use. 3.4.2 Ballast control for tide variations As a result of tidal observations through the years, the tide level near Tsu was found to vary in the range of 10-20 cm from the values given in the tide charts issued by the Government's Weather Bureau. Furthermore, the existence, at the same time, of another oscillation with a period of 10 minutes and a wave amplitude of 5 cm has been confirmed. In response to those tide variations which cannot be forecasted, a "tide level adjust- ment ballast control system" was developed and utilized. This system enables the forecasting of tidal variations expected during the following 20 minutes interval based on tide data acquired during the past two hours period. At the same time, the system provides the output necessary for suitable operation of the pumps. With this system, a fore- casting accuracy of +1 cm for tide levels en- countered during the subsequent 20 minutes time interval is possible, and thus deviations in ballast adjustments to tide levels could be kept to a minimum. 4. CONCLUSION Thus the North Rankin "A" Jacket has gone through the aforementioned stages of development, and on April 26th, 1982 it was towed out to sea by two ocen-going tugboats. On May 22nd, after a 6,000 km voyage, the jacket arrived at Dampier. And, on June 6th, it was successfully set on the seafloor. In having been able to exploit some of the most recent technical know-how, our company feels that the successful completion of the con- struction of one of the world's largest class offshore drilling platforms is of special signifi- cance. We intend to make full use of the knowledge gained from this valuable experience by focusing our efforts towards the realization of even larger scale offshore structures. Photo: The Jacket on Barqe - 114 - TELEOPERATOR TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT J.D. HIGHTOWER AND D.C. SMITH Environmental Sciences Department Naval Ocean Systems Center P. 0. Box 997 Kailua, Hawaii 96734 ABSTRACT This paper briefly describes the Naval Ocean Systems Center's newly initiated program in teleoperator technology. The goal of this Drogram is to develop the technology base required to build teleoperator work systems (remotely operated vehicles), that will be able to perform man-like work and inspection in areas too hazardous for human habitation. Our approach concen- trates on the development of a generic anthropomorphic system that will allow a remote operator to utilize the vast assortment of tools, vehicles and systems that currently exist for human use. Sensory information from the remote site is presented to the operator in a way that enhances natural interpretation and provides a sense of "remote presence." Experience to date indicates that this sense of remote presence vastly reduces the time and effort required for a remote operator to perform complex manipulative tasks. Introduction The Naval Ocean Systems Center (NOSC) and its predecessors have a long history of development and operation of remotely operated vehicles (ROV's). The earliest versions of these undersea work vehicles were relatively simple, utilizing a TV camera and lights, and a simple grabber that provided a capability for grasping small objects and recovering practice torpedoes. As ocean engineering technology has evolved over the past several decades, ROV's have become more sophisticated and reliable, incorporating precision navigation, sonar and specialized tools and manipulators. In addition they have proven their value in gathering scientific and engineering data. These systems have progressed to the point where they are employed worldwide by the off-shore oil industry and salvage companies . Generally speaking, ROV's perform very well when they are utilized to accomplish tasks for which they were specifically designed. Conversely, experience has shown that difficulties often occur when unanticipated situations are encountered, even though only minimal manipulative performance is required. On the other hand, many of the tasks that are difficult or impossible to accomplish with current ROV's can be accomplished quickly by a diver if depth and other safety considerations permit. In an attempt to capitalize on the remarkable adaptive and dexterous skills of man, the NOSC Hawaii Laboratory has initiated research and development work on teleoperator devices that will permit human-like work capability in hazardous environments. Teleoperator s , as des- cribed in this paper, represent a special class of ROV's. They are devices that are man-like or anthropomorphic in general size and form (they could, however, be made either larger or smaller), and rely on replicating human motor skills and sensory capabilities in a manner that is natural and as realistic as possible. These teleoperator systems will have subsystems and components to provide mobility, sensing (sight, sound, feel, direction, etc.) and manipulation, and will be remotely controlled in real time by a human operator. Such a system will permit the operator's extension of the sensory-motor functions and problem solving skills to a remote or hazardous site as though the operator were actually there; a concept referred to as remote presence. In actuality, the word teleoperator has become almost synonomous with ROV's in contemporary meaning. The work described here might better be described as the development of remote presence systems technology. Our use of the word teleopertor is intended to retain the essence of the definition offered by Johnson and Corliss in their original technology survey ( 1 ) . 115 In any event, teleoper at ion as we are concerned with it here involves the human being as an essential part of the control system. The human operator provides the real-time manipulation of controls and the correct interpretation of displays and other information received from the remotely deployed unit. It is on this basis that we distinguish teleoper at ion from the closely related field of robotics. Robots, unlike teleope r a tor s , are designed to be virtually independent once they are programmed and set into operation. The component parts , i.e. computers, sensors, displays, controls, and actuators, are used in both types of systems, but the teleoperator system is distinguished by the fact that it adds enormous adaptive skills and cognitive capabilities by maintaining man in the control loop. The key to success in this teleoperator development, however, depends in large measure on the successful development of new man- machine interface hardware that enhances the sense of remote presence. Ultimately, the ideal display will be transparent in the sense that the the operator will not be aware that he is interacting with a machine but will feel that he is actually at the remote site. We believe that maximizing the man- machine interface transparency is crucial in allowing the operator to use his natural perceptual motor and cognitive skills to maximum advantage. Teleoperator System Description The basic functions of a teleoperator system are similar to those of other ROV's and are represented in the simplified block diagram of Figure 1. The major difference between our program to develop systems that achieve a high degree of remote presence and more conventional ROV's is in the area of the man-machine interface. In that portion of Figure 1, noted as the operator station, we show separate functions of control and display with each having an interface boundary with the human operator. It seems likely, however, as we continue to push the development of transparent man-machine interface hardware that the display and control functions will merge together in such a manner that the operator will literally "wear" a sensory feedback and control uniform as opposed to sitting in front of a display console containing control knobs, buttons and display screens. TELEOPERATOR BLOCK DIAGRAM' INPUTS OUTPUTS SENSOR ACTUATOR POWER SOURCE DATA LINK DISPLAY MAN * CONTROL REMOTE UNIT OPERATOR'S STATION Figure 1. Teleoperator Block Diagram Indicating major functional subsystems. Although the basic definition of teleoperator systems highlights the importance of the human operator, there are functions that may be best accomplished with some degree of automation or even artificial intelligence in future systems. The A/C block in Figure 1 represents such autonomous control. As an example, teleoperator system status could be monitored and the operator alerted only if a malfunction has, or is likely to occur, much like the sensation of pain alerts the human biosystem. Considerable development has occurred over the last few years in each of the functional areas shown in Figure 1. For example, in our past ocean engineering research work at NOSC , we developed advanced TV cameras and displays. We demonstrated the advantages of stereoscopic TV imagery over conventional TV systems, especially under real world conditions of poor visibility (2,3,4). These tests and demonstrations were performed with a single relatively unsophisticated direct coupled manipulator. Earlier research (5) has shown that binaural hearing is extremely important in enabling man to detect, localize and recognize sound in the environment and to aid in directing visual acquisition of the source. Other work at the Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Center (NEODTC) supported the development of a pair of prototype anthropomorphic manipulators. These arms together with their exoskeleton controllers represent a high degree of sophistication in manipulator technology. 116 - Based on our knowledge and experience of this earlier work and development, we felt that much of the technology to support anthropomorphic teleoperator work systems was in existance, but what was lacking was the developmental effort to combine and integrate the components into an experimental prototype system. Our most recent efforts have moved in this direction in order to gain experience and identify the technology areas requiring further development. This prototype teleoperator system, shown in Figure 2, consists of a head, arms and torso and the man-machine interface head-coupled display controller which provides a one-to-one match between the operator's visual-motor space and that of the remote system. This allows the operator's head, arm and torso motions to be coupled to the remote system in real time. The degree of remote presence achieved in this experimental prototype system has been remarkable, even though there are many obvious improvements to be made. Figure 2. This photograph shows the operator with helmet mounted stereo TV display, exoskeleton manipulator and torso control units. The slight mismatch of corresponding positions between the remote unit and operator is easily adjusted with trim control. Figure 3 shows a closeup of the remote system. The sensors on the head consist of two black and white TV cameras mounted at an interocular distance of 2.5 in. and two miniature microphones located in artificial pinnas that simulate remote "ears". The head has 3 degrees of freedom with 180 degrees of pan, 45 degrees of roll and over 180 degrees of tilt. The arms, which were developed over ten years ago for another program, have 7 degrees of freedom plus end effector open/close. * Ji *s> Figure 3. Close-up view of remote teleoperator unit showing the two TV cameras (stereo eyes), binaural hearing sensors and several of the servo valves and hydraulic actuators. The system torso, or "waist", has 3 degrees of freedom, allowing pan, tilt and roll motions. All of the controlling actuators are hydraulic, running at a pressure of 500 psi. The manipulators, mentioned pre- viously, were modified slightly and incorporated in our prototype unit. These two manipulators are controlled with exoskeleton controllers which allow the operator to control the motions of both arms in a very natural way. The direct coupling between the operator's head and torso motions with that of the remote system provides the operator with the visual motion and parallax cues that establish a very natural and realistic visual presentation. Very recent work in our laboatory has shown that these head motion cues aid operator performance in depth perception tasks. (6) The binaural hearing subsystem provides the capability to quickly localize sound in three-dimensional space and greatly adds to the sense of remote presence. These features, combined with the one-to-one visual motor space correspondence, allow the operator to perform some relatively complex motions and manipulative tasks in an easy and natural way, thus a definite sense of "remote presence" is obtained and effectively utilized. - 117 The data link for the present system is a full duplex optical fiber 3km in length. Data from the remote unit is transmitted at a wave length of 1.3 microns and control signals to the remote unit are transmitted at 0.85 microns. Actuator power for this experimental prototype is supplied by an external electro-hydraulic unit. Future Efforts Preliminary research experience to date with our experimental prototype teleoperator has reinforced the belief that the concept of a high fidelity, r emo t e- pr e s ence system offers a tremendous advantage for the performance of complex tasks. (7) Future work will emphasize the development of a more sophisticated arm/hand subsystem, including force feedback and, if possible, a degree of tactile capability in the fingers, much like the human hand. Other high priority tasks will include the development of a more comfortable and transparent display/con- trol interface unit. Color stereo vision will be incorporated and experiments with kinesthetics, or body coupling, will be undertaken so that motions of the remote unit are sensed and displayed to the operator. Conclusion In conclusion, the goals we have established to guide our research and development of teleoperator systems on the development and of the sense of remote the human operator. We this with the highest fidility possible, which implies a man/machine interface that is so comfortable and "transparent" that the operator literally is at the remote location; i.e., the operator will have achieved remote presence through extending his complete sensory/motor- skill capability to a remote location. The program of research and development that will be required to implement these concepts is varied and extensive. It will include surveys of existing technologies, design and engineering development of the components of generic teleoperator s , integration of components into working systems, test and evaluation in specific work environments, as well as basic research in perception. Additionaly, human factor studies of the array of special problems involved in the complex man-machine interaction will be conducted (8). We also plan to continue concent r ate utilization presence for hope to do to introduce artificial intelligence (AI) developments into our teleoperator systems to the extent (and when) they become available. In this manner we will be taking steps toward integrating a symbiotic relationship between human and computer control. We believe the payoff will be considerable if we are ultimatly successful in the development of a complete technology base for tele- operator and robotic systems. References and and W.R. Corliss, Human Augmenta- Johnson, E.G. Teleoperators tion x NASA SP-5047, National Aeronautics and Space Administra- tion, Washington, D.C., December 1967 Pepper, R . L . , Smith, Operator R.E. Cole and D. Perfor m a n c e _U s i n g_ Conventional or Stereo Displays , Proceedings of the 21st Annual Symposium for the Society of Photo- Optical Instrumentation Engineers, San Diego, CA, 21-26 August 1977. Pepper, R.L. and R.E. Cole, Display System Variables Affecting Operator Performance in "Undersea Vehicles and W ork Syste ms, NOSC TR 269, June 1978. Schubert, E.D. (ed) , Psychological Acoustics, in: Benchmark Papers and Acoustics, Vol. 13, pp. 324- 332, Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Inc., Stroudsburg, PA, 1979. Pepper, R.L., R.E. Cole and E.H. Spain, The Influence of Camera Sep_ar_at.ion and Head Movement on Perceptual Perfor m ance under Direc t a H^ TV^Disgla^ed Condition^, Society for Information Display, 1983. Pepper, R. L., R. E. Cole, E. H. Spain, & J. E. Sigurdson, Research Issues Involved in Applying Stereo- scopic Television to Re motely Operated Vehicles. Proceedings of the International Society of Photo- optical Instrumentation Engineers, Geneva, Switzerland, April 18-22, 1983. - 118 Frosch, R.A., Robots, People and Navies, The Charles H. Davis Lecture Series, Sixth Lecture, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1982. - 119 Advanced Design and Prototype Experiments of Subsea Oil Production System by Seizo Motora Nagasaki Institute of Applied Science Abstract In view of rapid increase of needs to develop subsea oil resource in deeper sea over 300m, Min- istry of International Trade and Industry has been promoting a seven-year project on "Subsea Oil Pro- duction System" which deals with fundamental and elementary technology for producing oil in deep sea where a fixed platform system is not practical. An extensive experiments at sea using proto- type well head system, pipeline system, manifold system and riser system which have been constructed as a part of this project will be conducted in the fall of this year. Introduction Development of offshore oil resources has be- come more and more important in recent years,, and also new oil resources tend to be found in deeper sea area as seen in Fig. 1. In Fig. 1 deepest oil field now being under production is 312 m and deep- est oil field being at test drilling is 1499 m. Therefore it will be necessary to be prepared for production technology for deeper water than 300 m at such depth fixed platform type production systems seem to be almost unpractical due to enor- mus quantity of steel needed and long period of time required for platform construction. It will be necessary for Japan which is sorely deficient in oil resources to be prepared for deep water oil production in the year ahead. In this view, The Agency of Industrial Science and Technology (Ministry of International Trade and Industry) instituted a seven-year research project starting in 1978 with a budge of roughly ¥15 billion in order to develop a "Subsea Oil Production System". This project aims to develop fundamental and elementary technology for deep subsea oil production system together with investigation into total system, and will end up with an integrated experiments at sea. Practical work has been conducted as a cont- ract basis by the Technology Research Association of Subsea Production System which is a joint venture of private companies dealing with oil production and offshore engineering. 1. Outline of the research and development 1.1 aims and target Principal target of this project is as follows: 1) Water depth: over 300 m 2) Subsea installation, operation and maintenance are to be done without aid of divers and guide lines . well head system and flow lines are to be buried under sea floor. 3) Harmonization with fishing and environmental safety has to be secured. A conceptual drawing of total system thus planned is shown in Fig. 2. As seen in Fig. 2 the system consists of 1) the well head system, 2) the pipeline system which con- nects each well head to the manifold center, 3) the manifold system which gathers oil and gas and cont- rols flow rate from each well head, and also controls valves and switches channels to which maintenance tool is pured down, 4) riser and oil storage system 120 Ffclvl ft \lfi 51 -r\ } ffC If > 0. 4-> d. (C 1 j k tr mm '» r 5 > / 1 / / ' *■> • y iv . \ A. 60 •H 121 - Fiscal Year Item Total system Conceptual design Subsystem Wei lliead system Pipeline system Manifold system Riser-Oilstorage system 1978 Study of test c oncept 1979 1980 1981 Total sysjem_englneerlng 1982 J983 R&D of system corelatlon. maintenance and safety technologies Drafting of basic plan for integrated tests Study of elementary technologies * *- i Basic design Detailed des ign ft » «" : " *■ Plan for testing Tew ting of elementary technology Integrated / ■« rf test plan v Des tgn and manufacture Manufacture and testing Detailed test plan * Test on land 1984 Integrated tests at sea \\i Tests on land i »— * W '1 \ Evaluation Tests at sea Fig. 3 Long Term Research and Development Plan which gathers oil from manifold center and send it and store in a huge floating storage tank through riser system, and 5) total system to operate these subsystems in a good harmonization and to secure safety and reliability. At the end of the project, an integrated experiments at sea will be done in the fall 1983 using prototype systems which were developed and constructed during past five years. 1.2 Time schedule The time schedule of the project is shown in Fig. 3. 2. Total system As for the total system, the following items were investigated. 1) Engineering of total system 2) Development of technology for operation and maintenance. 3) Plan of the integrated experiment at sea 4) Evaluation of the project All the items except 4) have been finished. 3. Wellhead system The type of the well head is chosen to be of an independent, and wet type, and is to be buried under sea floor so as not to be damaged by fishing. The system is also designed to be diverless and guidline less type. Valves of the production tree are designed to be of fail safe, i.e. a spring return system is adopted so as to be safe when the pressure of the working fluid dropped. To enable operations of installation and re- entry from a supporting ship at sea surface without aid of divers and guidelines, conputer aided auto- matic positioner and apparatus for reentry which can be controlled from a ship at sea surface were developed. (see Fig. 2) 4. Pipeline system This system is to lead high pressure gas and oil from each well head to the manifold. For this system, development of flexible pipes for high pressure liquid (350 kg/cm 2 ) , development of light and compact umbilical cable which contains flexible pipes and cables for electric power and signals, development of unmanned pipe laying apparatus in deep sea (refer Fig. 4), and positioning system for pipe laying have been conducted. 5. Manifold system (refer Fig. 2) The manifold system consists of pressure vessels forming flowline work cellar to which flow lines from well heads are connected, manifold center (Ser- vice and control section) , and gathering line work- cellar. Inside of these pressure vessels is kept atmospheric pressure so as to make it possible for workers to operate the system in an atmospheric environment. The manifold center contains several apparatus for oil production and valves, and gather produced oil from each well head and adjust flow rate and send oil to the floating oil storage tank. Such controlling can be done by a remote control system from the control center on the oil storage tank. A service capsule to send and back workers to and from the manifold in an atmospheric atmosphere has also been developed. Prototypes of these systems have been developed and constructed and is under preparation for the integrated experiments at sea. 6. Riser and oil storage system This system is to send oil from the manifold 122 to the riser base by gathering lines, and to send oil up to the floating oil tank of which capacity is 32,OOOm 3 through the riser which has three universal joints. Stored oil will be carried by tankers to proper consumers occasionary. In this system, development of riser joints which is duarable for high pressure and repeated motions, and a storage tank which will have less movement in waves are essential. Prototype of the developed riser joint was subjected to repeated oscillation under application of high pressure in connected pipes to assertain its performance. Prototype of the floating tank was not con- structed. Instead, a semi-submersible type control barge was constructed and will be used for a dummy tank and also for the commanding center of the experiment. 7. The integrated experiments at sea In the fall 1983, an extensive integrated experiments at sea will be done using developed and constructed prototypes of elementary sub system. Constructed prototypes and associated items of the experiment are as follows: 1) Well head system production well head assembly well head control system templets installation and reentry apparatus Operation tests of each system and apparatus as well as test operation of installation and reentry with be conducted. Fig. 4 Automatic pipe laying apparatus 2) Pipeline system flexible pipe umbilical cable wet cable connector apparatus for wet and dry connection pipe laying apparatus pig for drift tool Operation tests on each apparatus and tool with be performed. 3) Manifold system manifold center recovery system including service capsule recall busy Performance test for each apparatus will be done. 4) Riser and oil storage system riser base universal joints and riser Test installation of the riser base, appending test of the riser and connection test of the riser and the riser base, connection test of the riser and the floating tank (control barge at the experi- ment) recovery of the riser etc. will be performed. A conceptual drawing of the experiment is shown in Fig. 5. Wellhead system Support ship for ., installation and reentry 1 (Semi-sub rig) Manifold system Peentry apparatus Support ship lor wet connection SupporCship for recovery of capsule K7 " '- \ aP jf.t connection apparatus JQ_],J work cellar for dry connection Service capsule 9 Mnnlfold collar Flow lino carrier Mk: mk —ten -« u Riser system Cor.crol barge (Command center of the experiment) CZ3 c r — i ~~T - L \X— a Riser syscen RJser Jo'. ■.T-JT-, " Gathering lines HJn.ir bsoe /_ "-/Connecting apparatus ~ — «-* -» — Pipeline system Fig. 5 Conceptual scheme of the integrated experiments at sea - 123 - THE NATIONAL UNDERSEA RESEARCH PROGRAM Donald L. 1 2 Keach and William S. Busch Deputy Director, Institute for Marine and Coastal Studies University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089 Program Manager, Office of Undersea Research, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Rockville, Maryland 20852 ABSTRACT The University of Southern California, through its Institute for Marine and Coastal Studies, in cooperation with the National Ocea- nic and Atmospheric Administration, is develop- ing a new temperate-water saturation diving com- plex for use by the marine scientific community. The program is one of four major elements of NOAA's National Undersea Research Program. The other three include HYDROLAB, a seafloor habitat located in a submarine canyon in the Caribbean Sea; the submersible MAKALII, with its associated launch, recovery and transport (LRT) vehicle oper- ated in the vicinity of the Hawaiian Islands; and a highly mobile surface-supported open bell mix- ed gas diving system operated along the eastern seaboard of the United States. Research Requirements In 1979, NOAA requested the Ocean Sciences Board of the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences to conduct an inde- pendent and detailed study to: (1) identify im- portant scientific needs and ocean research topics requiring undersea research activities; and, (2) define the types of facilities and techniques needed to support these scientific requirements. Two major recommendations were made as a result of this study: First, the establishment of a re- search program exploiting the use of existing un- derwater facilities, including saturation diving systems and submersibles, that would be operated by selected oceanographic institutions with re- search interests and capabilities relevant to the types of research conducted; and second, a program establi shing new operational facilities that would be mobile, adaptable to different scientific configurations, and make use of the latest technology and past experience in under- sea activities. Introduction During the past 20 years, underwater research facilities have been increasingly supported by de- veloped countries as a means to enable scientists to spend longer periods of time under water than can be achieved by more conventional diving tech- niques. The system currently under development for emplacement at the Catalina Marine Science Center will provide a second operational under- water laboratory in United States waters for qua- lified marine scientists. The other habitat sys- tem, HYDROLAB, is located in the coastal waters of St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. These facilities, along with the open bell diving system operated by a consortium of univer- sities along the southeastern coast of the U.S. and a manned submersible system operated by the University of Hawaii, and their related research programs, constitute NOAA's National Undersea Re- search Program. This paper will briefly review the research requirements for and principal elements of the four systems. Based upon this report and continuing input from other federal agencies and the scientific community, NOAA undertook, through its National Undersea Research Program Office, the development of a series of national underwater research sys- tems. While initially sitted at specific geogra- phic locations to respond to the most pressing current needs, each of the systems is also de- signed to be relocatable as these needs change and expand. Research requirements which dictated design of the four systems stemmed from NOAA's responsi- bilities for managing and protecting living marine resources and their habitats, monitoring and con- ducting research in marine pollution and manag- ing marine sanctuaries. Specific objectives of NOAA's undersea research program include: (1) Acquisition of basic scientific informa- tion about the marine ecology and environments in U.S. coastal waters; (2) broadening support of research efforts re- quiring advanced undersea facilities and capa- bilities; 124 (3) enhancing the ability of researchers to complete successfully selected undersea tasks and to extend classical land-based laboratory scien- tific methods and capabilities to the seafloor; (4) ensuring continuity of effort and long- range funding for otherwise infeasible in-situ research efforts; and, (5) providing training and facilities to de- velop a cadre of scientific personnel proficient in the use of underwater laboratory facilities and advanced undersea research techniques. Systems riesign It is anticipated that the habitat system under development for initial emplacement at Santa Catalina Island will become operational in early 1985. A detailed engineering design was com- pleted by Perry Oceanographies, Inc. in 1982. Perry Oceanographic's primary consideration in all facets of the design was to make the habitat system a tool for the marine scientist to use in performing research tasks that could not be done from the surface. The system will allow research- ers extended periods in situ in which to make long-term and continuous observations and to con- duct experiments independent of the surface. The scientists (perhaps better called aquanauts) must also be safe and relatively comfortable in order to carry out their work most effectively. The Perry design truly represents a "next genera- tion" system - a quantum jump above any others in use today. It will operate anywhere in west- ern coastal temperate waters, from the coast of California to the Gulf of Alaska. The basic habitat will be a double-lock cham- ber capable of both bottom and surface decompres- sion. It is designed to be mobile, (i.e., tow- able), with submersible-type ballast tanks and a haul-down system for routine submergence and re- covery. A movable and negatively buoyant base- plate will be implanted on the seafloor at the research site for hauling down and anchoring the habitat. Water, electric power, communications, sewage disposal, heat, and breathing gas will be provided via umbilicals either from shore or a surface support unit. On shore, an operations room will monitor all critical functions and pa- rameters of the operation, with override capabi- lity on life-essential functions only. Actual control of all habitat systems and activities within the habitat will be on board, with abso- lutely no outside or external control. The breathing air mixture will be nitrogen oxygen (nitrox), which will allow the saturation stor- age depth to vary from 60 to 120 feet of seawater (fsw) and permit the divers to make excursions to depths greater than 200 fsw. If an aquanaut develops decompression sickness, he or she can be treated right in the habitat. Since the system is a double-lock chamber with an internal pres- sure capability of 232 fsw, it permits the use of hyperbaric treatment tables. Attached to the system's entrance lock will be a diver's "wet porch," providing an entrance to the sea, along with a "wet lab" sorting tray for collected spe- cimens. Because the habitat will be based in temperate waters, there is the possibility that an aquanaut could acquire an increasing body heat deficit after making repetitive dives in cold wa- ter; a diver rewarming tub is therefore also in- cluded in the wet porch area. Inside the main lock, there are sleeping and galley accommodations for six aquanauts, with shower and bathroom facilities in the entrance lock. The main lock will serve not only as an apartment for the aquanauts, but will truly be a marine laboratory. It will have two large 24-inch in diameter viewports, with a number of smaller 8-inch ports. The larger ports will have trays positioned on the water side on which experiments can be set up to be viewed from the inside. An area will be set aside as a dry lab, with appro- priate scientific equipment such as microscope balances, dissection equipment, and whatever else is needed. Connected to shore by hardwire will be an onboard computer terminal permitting real-time analysis of data, such as cataloging of samples/ specimens, and plotting of trend graphs, which should be particularly useful in determining whether the data or approach taken in an experi- ment is fruitful. Data analysis on the spot will allow experiments or methods not considered appro- priate to be modified right there. In addition, the computer can be used administratively to run the habitat system by monitoring vital para- meters, setting off alarms in situations danger- ous to the aquanaut (i.e., fire, low PO2,), Keep- ing track of dive profiles and physiological da- ta on each of the aquanauts and innumerable other tasks. Once in the water, the aquanaut/scienti sts will be allowed to work not only in the near vi- cinity of the habitat itself but at distances far greater than previously allowed under NOAA Diving Regulations; this feat will be accomplished by using diver way-stations. A way-station is actu- ally an open diving bell that consists of a heavy metal base with a plastic bubble or dome mounted above by metal struts. The bubble is continuous- ly filled with nitrox from the main habitat, al- lowing the divers to enter the station, remove their masks, talk, rest, refill their tanks from a high-pressure air hose, and communicate with the main habitat or the operations base on shore if need be. Breathing gas, power, and communications will be supplied from the main habitat via an um- bilical. In an emergency, the way-station could also be used as a diver refuge. The Marine Science Center operates a double- lock hyperbaric chamber for physiological re- search, training and hyperbaric therapy for div- ing accidents. The chamber is on-call at all times, with a five-man crew on standby. This operation will be available for use by the NURL program. An intermediate chamber will be attached to the existing chamber to act as the entrance lock for the habitat's personnel transfer capsule 125 - (PTC). The PTC acts as a life boat for the ha- bitat and is placed nearby on the seafloor. In the event of an emergency requiring that the habitat be evacuated, the aquanauts would swim to the PTC, climb inside, and rise to the surface - still at the ambient pressure of the habitat. From the surface, the PTC would be transported to and locked onto the chamber on shore, allowing the aquanauts to carry out normal decompression inside the larger chamber. The program anticipates accommodating 12 to 16 saturation missions per year, each lasting from 7 to 10 days. Construction is planned to begin in the late Fall of 1983. Southeastern Undersea Research Facility The Southeastern Undersea Research facility, which became operational in 1982, consists of a unique and highly mobile research diving system designed to accommodate a wide range of scienti- fic needs, ranging from SCUBA and surface-supplied umbilical systems to open-bell and mixed-gas oper- ations. The science projects emphasize mobility and the use of mixed-gas diving for in-situ re- search within its operational area, including the Atlantic Continental Shelf, the Florida Keys, and the Gulf of Mexico's coastal areas. The diving system uses surface supported mixed-gas umbili- cal units, with a wet bell acting as an in-water elevator, diving stage, and emergency refuge. The primary mode of operation will use nitrox breathing gas to a maximum depth of 150 fsw. However, this system has been used to depths greater than 200 fsw with helium-oxygen breath- ing gas. The program will not have to be inter- rupted to accommodate the seasons, and the diving facilities will be operated throughout the year. Approximately 150 dive days are planned each year. Hawaiian Undersea Research Laboratory The undersea research laboratory operated in Hawaiian waters was initiated in 1980 by pulling together various resources including those of N0AA and the State. The program is centered a- round the submersible MAKALII (formerly the STAR II), and its base of operations is located in Makapuu Point on the island of Oahu. The MAKALII is a one-atmosphere , two-person (pilot and scientist) vehicle capable of operating at depths up to 1,200 fsw. It allows a scientist to observe directly, take pictures, gather sam- ples and implant instruments on the seafloor, and has a life-support capability of 48 man-hours maximum. The submersible can cruise underwater at 1 knot for up to 10 hours. The launch, retrieval, and transport vehicle (LRT) - designed specifically for launching and retrieving the MAKALII in rough Hawaiian waters - is itself a towed, wet submersible controlled by SCUBA divers. It submerges to a depth of 50-100 fsw with the MAKALII positioned on its deck, re- leases the submersible in calm sub-surface water, and resurfaces. When the MAKALII returns from its mission, the LRT is towed into position and re- submerged, after which the submersible lands and is secured on the deck for surfacing. The LRT may also be used for diver support, salvage, or for launching other oceanographic equipment in rough waters where the use of surface equipment might be dangerous. To date, HURL has conducted over 103 scienti- fic mission dives, not only in the Hawaiian Is- lands area, but also in the Western Pacific. Caribbean Undersea Research Laboratory The central facility of MOAA's ongoing program at St. Croix in the Virgin Islands is the habitat HY0R0LAB, located at the head of a submarine can- yon and fixed to the bottom during missions at a site depth of 44 fsw, approximately one-half mile off the north central coast of the island. At present, HYDR0LAB is the only operational habi- tat system in the world dedicated exclusively to marine science. Since its first scientific mis- sion in May 1978, the program has averaged 14 mis- sions a year, with both American and international researchers participating. HY0R0LAB consists of a single chamber housing living quarters, laboratory facilities, and a wet diving area that will support four aquanauts for as long as 14 days. A large 36 inches in diame- ter viewport and additional smaller ones allow researchers to observe marine life and their ex- periments directly while remaining inside the habitat. The life supporting air, power and communications are supplied via an umbilical con- nected to a life-support buoy on the surface. As a backup, a submerged high-pressure air hose and hardwire communications line run directly from the habitat to the operations base on shore. Way- stations containing pockets of air are located near the habitat to permit divers to talk, rest, or obtain refuge during excursion dives. In addi- tion to the various support equipment and capabi- lities, a double-lock chamber is maintained on shore for treating injured divers if the need arises. Since the proqram began at St. Croix, it has been extremely successful. More than 56 scien- tific saturation missions representing over 165 different scientists from more than 27 organiza- tions and institutions have been conducted, with the aquanauts performing excursion dives totaling more than 13,000 hours, and saturations involving more than 59,000 hours of underwater living. Dur- ing all of these activities and missions, no ac- cident has occurred that required emergency pro- cedures. The HYDR0LAB system has proven to be an extremely safe, cost-effective, and valuable sci- entific tool . 126 - Summary In the development of these undersea research programs and NOAA's Undersea Research Office, the science programs have been the driving force. Timely, pertinent and useful science is the pro- duct of all of the program's activities and ef- forts; the program's facilities and support are available not only to NDAA but also on a national and international basis to all research organiza- tions, institutions, agencies, and industry. The use of these facilities by international teams and the development of cooperative undersea pro- grams among interested countries is actively en- couraged. Interested parties are required only to submit a proposal to the appropriate peer re- view panel for consideration and review. In addition to these existing and planned undersea research facilities, NOAA anticipates that its involvement in the use of other undersea tools for scientific efforts, such as remotely controlled vehicles and specialized submersibles , will increase and will further expand the array of research facilities available to the interna- tional community of marine scientists. - 127 - INVESTIGATIONS IN ADVANCE TO THE PILOT PROJECT ON CLEANING-UP BAY BOTTOM MATERIALS IN JAPAN. Norio TANAKA Director of the Marine Hydrodynamics Division Port and Harbour Research Institute, Ministry of Transport 3-1-1, Nagase, Yokosuka, Kanagawa, JAPAN ABSTRUCT A big project on cleaning-up of bay bottom sediments is under investigation by the Ports and Harbours Bureau of Ministry of Transport in Japan for the purpose of the restoration of the self purification ability of the sea. Test dredging, test earth covering and excavating of test trench were operated in selected five sites. Effects of these test works have been followed from many points of view. This paper reports on the abstruct of these investigation works. I. INTRODUCTION The pollution problems of the sea water is grov/ing seriously in bay areas in Japan, such as Tokyo Bay, Ise Bay and Seto Inland Sea, because in addition to lower rate of water exchange between the open sea, these bay area have a large amount of load of pollutants discharged from big cities around these bay areas. Since a few years ago, the legal basis of the restriction of pollutant discharge has been changed from the concentration of pollutants to the total amount of it in Japan. But, it is difficult to say that this policy obtained the disired result. One of the reason to this result is considered that the self purification due to secondary production by materials released from polluted bottom sediments deposited during long period. Therefore, the Ports and Harbours Bureau of Ministry of Transport in Japan Its! 0*T X "^ ff r ,m ^...^rr -it 1 , m ami) /jfp Onvu Jf: '--£,. X iix-.-.T. :„til. /ft >i BM .JT A \ ft J ir ' 1— ,; ^ tik. OCt AN '■^ PACIFIC ^x^octi.'i I Jrejjlng . " ^_ if I lcu 1. 1980 Osaka Bay Hiroshima Bay Test dredging Test earth covering A,B;Mar.l980 C-E; Aug. 1980 Suohnada Bay A;0ct. 1979 B;Jul. 1980 0.6 m -13.8 m A;0.8m, D;0.8 B;1.0 E;1.2 C:0.4 -16 m Test trench Oct. 1981 A; 0.5 m B; 0.3 -21 m 2.0 m -9.9 m polluted bed sediments, three methods were selected such as removing of sediments by direct dredging, earth covering by fresh sediments and removing by dredging sediements trapped into trench excavated on sea bottom. Some of these methods were selected in each investigation site considering natural and social conditions of the site. Positions of these test works are shown by star marks in the Fig.-l, and the principal items of the test works are listed up in Table-1. b) . Subjects of the Investigations. In addition to test works and follow up studies on effects of it in each site, the investigations cover wode items such as a basic study on the mechanism of bottom materials movement as well as the development of disposal method of dredged olluted materials as listed in Table-2. c) . The Organization for Operation of Test Works and for Administration of Investigation Work. This investigation is performed through the administrative flow among the Ports and Harbours Bureau of Ministry of Transport, four Harbour Construction Bureau and the Port and Harbour Research Institute as shown in Fig. -2. Besides of these routine flow, a working group by members of these offices has been organized in order to exchange 129 informations obtained in each site, to discuss common problems and to develope standard methods of observations and measurements. Moreover, committees by members of knowledge and experience are organized for every investigation site to discuss the plan and results of the investigations. d) . The Expenditure of the investigation works. During five years since 1979, 2,880 millions yen ( about 120 millions dollar ) was expended for this investigation project as listed in Table -3. Table-2. Items of the advance investigations. * Execution of test removing and test earth covering. * Studies on execution method of test works. * Studies on enviromental influences due to execution of test works, such as generating turbidity. * Follow up studies on effects of test works. * Follow up studies on the variation of the concent- ration of pollution index parameters in sediments, in void water and in water near the bottom. * Estimation of the rate of release of nutrient salts into water from bottom sediments in field and labo- ratory. * Follow-up studies on the variation of the number 3 and kinds of benthos and bacteria. * Investigations on the durability of effects of test works. * Estimation of the rate of accumulation of newly deposits. * Estimation of the rate of transport of suspended sludge. * Estimation of the rate of release of nutrient salts into sea water from newly deposits. * Development of the estimation method of feasibility of the project on cleaning-up bottom sediments. * Development of a numerical simulation model includ- ing chemical and biological variation of pollutants. * Studies on the value of coefficients in the above mentioned model. * Investigations on incidental problems for execution of the pro- ject. * Development of the disposal method of dredged pol- luted sediments. * Development of the method of assessment on envir- onmental influences due to operation of the pro- ject such as generation and diffusion of turbidity. Ports & Harbour Bureau, Ministry of Transport T Port & Harbour Research Inst. Committe by menbers of knowledge and experience u I-' 2nd Harbour Construction Bureau (Tokyo Bay) H Tokyo Bay Bottom Sediment Committee 3rd Harbour Construction Bureau (Osaka Bay & Hirosima Bay) r r 4th Harbour Construction Bureau (Suohnada Bay) 5th Harbour Construction Bureau (Ise Bay) Working Group on the Development of Methods of Cleaning-up Pollut- ed Sediments. Seto Inland Sea Bottom Sediment Committee I Suohnada Bay Bottom Sediment Committee Ise Bay Bottom Sedimemt Committee Flow of budget, direction and report. Flow of information. Flow of suggestion and advice. Fig. -2 The organization for the advance investigation for the pilot project on cleaning-up bay bottom sediments. - 130 - Table-3 Trends of the Expenditure of the investi- gations works in advance to the pilot project on cleaning up polluted sea bottom sediments. Site 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 Total Tokyo Bay 50 110 105 265 Ise Bay 100 100 110 115 425 Osaka Bay 150 150 170 185 180 835 Hiroshima Bav 150 200 200 145 125 820 Suohnada Bay 50 150 155 180 535 Total 300 500 670 705 705 2,880 unit: million yen 131 TECHNOLOGY NEEDED FOR SAFE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN THE OCEAN P. Kilho Park Ocean Dumping Program, National Ocean Service National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Rockville, MD 20852 Dana R. Kester Graduate School of Oceanography University of Rhode Island Kingston, RI 02881 Iver W. Duedall Department of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering Florida Institute of Technology Melbourne, FL 32901 ABSTRACT Future technological acti be emphasized include a s ments at depths greater t periments include in situ (ISHTE), radiation regime metabolic activity. The coupled with information- Concomitant development o the depth of 6000 meters experiments. INTRODUCTION vities and improvements to eries of j_n situ experi- han 4000 meters. The ex- heat transfer experiment study, & deep-sea species experiments should be processing technology, f a deep ocean vehicle to is needed to service these Recently we have edited a book entitled Radio- active Wastes and the Ocean with Bostwick H. Ketch- um (1912-1982)[1] . During this process we have become keenly aware of the need to develop adequate ocean technology that will insure safe disposal of radioactive wastes at sea. In the United States the land disposal option is receiving greater attention; the oceanic disposal option is considered as an alternative to land disposal. However, we believe that successful waste management must include con- tinuing evaluation of disposal alternatives if existing disposal methods encounter environmental or technical limitations. In 1973 William P. Bishop of the U.S. Sandia National Laboratories and Charles D. Hollister of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution conceived the idea of subseabed disposal of high-level radio- active wastes[2]. At present the U.S. Subseabed Disposal Program (SDP), supported by the U.S. Depart- mentof Energy (DOE), is forging ahead to assess and develop the technical feasibility of engineered emplacement of high-level wastes within the deep-sea sediments[3]. The SDP has four phases: 1. Estimation of technical and environmental feasibility (completed 1976). 2. Determination of technical and environmental feasibility from newly obtained oceanographic and ecological data. 3. Determination of engineering feasiblity. 4. Demonstration of disposal capability. Concurrently, the U.S. National Oceanic and At- mospheric Adminstration (N0AA) assessed technologies applicable to monitoring radioactive waste disposal on or in the deep seabed[4,5]. In addition, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has been determining the fate of low-level radioactive wastes dumped in the past[6]. In this report we describe the engineering development activity of the SDP and the. EPA. THE SDP ACTIVITY We have been impressed very much by the thorough- ness of the SDP. Rather than studying the waste management problems in a descriptive manner, the SDP begins each phase of investigation with a pos- tulate, a supposition without proof. It is followed by development of a mathematical model, prediction based on the model, and finally field verification [3]. During phase 3 of the SDP, the engineering feasi- bility of subseabed disposal will be determined. Included is the initiation of a long-term (15-year) in situ heat transfer experiment (ISHTE), now scheduled to commence in 1986. Already a modelling and laboratory experimental study has been carried out using a waste canister having an initial power of 1.5 kW and resulting in 200 to 250 °C [7]. This study has yielded several important results. Among them are: 1. The high temperature region in the sediment of over 100 °C surrounding the waste canister is limited to 0.8m radius X 3.6m long for up to 35 years . 132 - 2. Total fluid displacement due to the correc- tive velocity is about 3% at a burial depth of 30 m. 3. Hydrothermal alteration of the sediment yields a hot, acidic, oxidizing environment around the waste canister. 1 37 90 4. Fission products, such as Cs and Sr, will decay in the sediment with no release. 5. Long-life radionuclides, such as 239 Pu, have almost negligible release rates from the sediment. 6. Nuclides that migrate as anions, such as '2 9 I and 99 Tc, will take several thousand years to diffuse through a 30-m sediment layer. Other SDP engineering developments include: 1. Development and demonstration of various emplacement methods that include penetro- meter, injector, trench, and drill. 2. Development of a transportation system to move suitably packaged wastes or spent fuel from the originating plant to the dock facility and to the dumpsite. THE EPA CANISTER RETRIEVAL STUDY One of the major products of the EPA program is a comprehensive study of a radioactive waste pack- age retrieved from the U.S. Atlantic 2800-m dump- site [8,9]. On 31 July 1976 a 300-liter radioactive waste drum was retrieved from a dumpsite centered at 380 30' N, 72° 06'W. At Brookhaven National Laboratory the drum was subjected to container corrosion, matrix leach rate, and matrix degrada- tion studies. The drum was made of mild (carbon) steel with 0.121-cm thickness; it was manufactured in June 1959. The radioactive package was disposed in 1961, therefore, 15 years had elapsed when it was retrieved. Although from only a single drum, several findings reported include: 1. Little dissolution of the concrete waste form occurred; a conservative estimate is a maximum of 0.3% annually. 2. The measured compression strength of the concrete is in the range expected for com- parable concrete formations, indicating the absence of appreciable sulfate attack. 3. Corrosion rates for general attack on the upper portion of the steel drum, assuming a constant rate with no induction period, were 0.032 to 0.049-mm per year. Therefore, the mild steel drum would require 25 to 37 years before integrity loss due to corrosion occurs. FUTURE PERSPECTIVE In concert with scientific researches, concomi- tant development of essential equipment and instru- mentation must continue. Triplett and his cowork- ers prepared a comprehensive report on the need of engineering development of radioactive waste dis- posal [4]. Bishop and Tyce made an assessment of available engineering and technology capabil ity[5] . They recommend that we expand the application of ocean technology to meet the distinctive needs of deep-sea marine biologists. The needs include: acoustic systems for remote sensing of bio-popula- tion sizes and for tracking individual organisms; pressure and temperature retaining traps to collect deep-sea fauna; and in situ measurement devices of deep-sea species metabolic activity. A prevailing theme throughout the recommendations of Triplett and his coworkers is the increasing use of j_n situ analysis methods which are integrated with informa- tion-processing technology. They advocate the development of an automated seafloor monitoring system [4]. We quote: "While much of the technology is available now, we recommend significant improvements in sev- eral key areas: A deep ocean (greater than 4000m capability) vehicle to service and monitor in-situ experiments; in-situ gamma radiation detector system for use from man- ned or remotely operated vehicles; surficial sediment sampling systems that retain only the surficial materials of the first few cen- timeters of sediment for radionuclide distri- bution and analysis; seafloor current and sediment resuspension measurement systems capable of autonomous operation for periods of 1 to 5 years; current meters for both vertical and horizontal currents capable of 1 to 5 years operation; sensors for detection of changes in sediment physical and chemical properties, including pore pressure, gas formation and conductivity; and improved sensors to detect and measure ocean floor seismic activity for long periods of time." We also need to determine the radiation regime of the deep sea tn_ situ.. REFERENCES [1] Park, P.K., D.R. Kester, I.W. Duedall, and B.H. Ketchum (Eds.). 1983. Radioactive Wastes and the Ocean. Wiley-Interscience, New York, approx. 550 pp. [2] Bishop, W.P. and CD. Hollister. 1974. Seabed disposal -where to look. Nuclear Technology, 24,245-443. [3] Anderson, D.R., D.M. Talbert, D.A. Deese, D.G. Boyer, H. Herrmann, and J.E. Kelly. 1983. Strategy for assessing the technical, environ- mental, and engineering feasibility of subsea- bed disposal. In: Radioactive Wastes and the Ocean, P.K. Park, D.R. Kester, I.W. Dueda-11 , and B.H. Ketchum (Eds.). Wiley-Interscience, New York, pp. 327-344. [4] Triplett, M.B., K.A. Solomon, C.B. Bishop, and R.C. Tyce. 1982. Monitoring Technologies for Oceanic Disposal of Radioactive Waste. Report R-2773-N0AA, Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, California, 93 pp. 133 [5] Bishop, C.B. and R.C. Tyce. 1982. Technologies Applicable to Monitoring Radioactive Waste Disposal on or in the Deepseabed. SIO Refer- ence 82-3, MPL-U-28/80, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, San Diego, California, 79 pp. [6] Dyer, R.S. 1976. Environmental surveys of two deep sea radioactive waste disposal sites using submersibles. Proceedings of an Inter- national Symposium on Management of Radioac- tive Wastes from NuclearFuel Cycle. Inter- national Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, pp. 317-338. [7] McVey, D.F., K.L. Erickson, and W.E. Seyfried, Jr. 1983. Thermal, chemical, and mass trans- port processes induced in abyssal sediments by the emplacement of nuclear wastes: Experi- mental and modelling results. In: Radioactive Wastes and the Ocean, P.K. Park, D.R. Kester, I.W. Duedall, and B.H. Ketchum (Eds.). Wiley- Interscience. New York, pp. 359-388. [8] Colombo, P., R.M. Neil son, Jr., and M.W. Ken- dig. 1982. Analysis and Evaluation of a Radio- active Waste Package Retrieved from the Atlan- tic 2800 Meter Disposal Site. U.S. EPA Report 520/1-82-009, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 118 pp. [9] Colombo, P., R.M. Neilson, Jr., and M.W. Ken- dig. 1983. Analysis and evaluation of a radio- active waste package retrieved from the Atlan- tic Ocean. In: Radioactive Wastes and the Ocean, P.K. Park, D.R. Kester, I.W. Duedall, and B.H. Ketchum (Eds.). Wiley-Interscience, New York, pp. 237-268. 134 - LARGE-SCALE TEST FOR DEVELOPMENT OF PORT AND HARBOUR TECHNOLOGY Michio Morihira Director of Construction Division Bureau of Ports and Harbours, Ministory of Transport 2-1-3 Kasumigaseki , Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo ABSTRACT The high utilization of sea space in Japan will be stepped up in the future . Under these circumstances, large-scale development of technology, notable port and harbour technology, is being actively conducted under the leadership of the Bureau of Ports and Harbours, Ministry of Transport, with the object of estabilishing the technology of ma- rine civil engineering. In applying development results to work projects, large-scale test using full-size or near full-size models are carried out insofar as possible to fully confirm the safety and reliability of technology in advance. This article summarily describes three cases repre- sentative of the large-scale test projects that are now in progress. NECESSITY (1) Establishing the technology of marine civil engineering is very much in demand as supporting technology necessary to advance exploitation of the sea into the 21st century. Particularly, technol- ogy to which port and harbour technology are cen- tral must be vigorously developed to accelerate the efficient utilization of sea space reaching scores of meters underwater. The Bureau of Ports and Harbours, is keeping with this situation, is proceeding with technical devel- opment, spending nearly six billion yen each year, to solve the following major issues of technical development: a. Development of technology for the effi- cient use of sea space. b. Development of technology for construct- ing marine structures. (Ex. Offshore ports, offshore airports, etc.) c. Development of technology concerning the assurance of safety in using coastal space. d. Development of technology concerning the protection and the creation of coastal environments . Technology unique to Japan and in accord with Japanese conditions are being developed on a long- term and comprehesive basis and efficiently while coordinating with the Port and Harbour Research Insititute, the District Port Construction Bureaus , etc. (2) The larger of these projects require drastic technical development since methods developed as more extension to existing technology involve many problems. So, in applying results of development to execution of projects, it is necessary to make demonstrative tests using full-size or near full- size models and thereby thoroughly confirm the safety and reliability of methods in advance. This large-scale technical development can pro- duce great achievements but private companies can hardly tackle it because of the wide range of technology concerned and the high development risks due to the large scale of development. That is why it is being actively conducted under the leadership of the Government. PRESENT TRENDS The large-scale test projects that are now being executed by the Bureau of Ports and Harbours are as listed in Table 1. Of these, three: a) - b) are outlined in this article. FIELD TEST ON NEW TYPE CAISSON BREAKWATER (1) Purpose of test: i) To confirm the exe- cution capacity of a fairly practical break- water of a new type structure (the caisson composite breakwater) by actually constructing a prototype so as to cope with increase of water depth and the increase of wave height at the site of construction. Also,ii) to confirm its safety and functions under real wave condition. Further, iii) to investi- gate its effects on the properties of water and the biological environments in the vicin- ity of the structure. (2) Place of test: About 1 km off Funakawa Port in the Akita Bay. Water depth approx. -11 m. (Geology: soft rock.) (3) Details of test a) As the shapes of caissons for the test breakwater, four types, namely, three types selected in hydraulic model experiment etc. as being not only suitable for the sat- isfactory outer-sea ground but also practical and a conventional type serving for compar- ison were used. (See Table 2) b) Lavout of Test breakwaters Fig. 1. See 135 Table 1. The large-scale test projects executed by the government Subj ect Project Budget (xlOO million yta) 6 4 5 5 Period of develop- ment Place Port (Prefecture) Construction in deep water and high wave a. Field test on new type caisson breakwater b. Field test to measure bearing capacity of rubble mound i) allowable bearing capacity ii) uneven rubble mound c. Field test on development of floating break- water 1979 - 83 1980 - 83 1982 - 85 1977 - 83 Funakawa (Akita) Onahana (Hukushima) ii Kumamoto-shin (Kumamo to) Improvement of soft ground d. Field test on construction of improved ground i) by deep mixing method using lime or cement ii) by sand compaction pile method 9 3 1981 - 82 1982 - 83 Sakai-Senboku (Osaka) Maizuru (Kyoto) Construction method and working craft e. Model test on development of red tide recover- ing vessel f. Test on development for improving technology to construct the rubble mound g. Model test on development of vessel to remove structure in the sea 2 13 2 1978 - 83 1980 - 85 1980 - 81 Seto Inland Sea Kamaishi (Iwate)etc. Tokyo bay Investigation h. Test on development of shore investigation technology used the piled pier ■ — — — 5 1981 - (10 years) Kashima (Ibaragi) c) Method of measurement: A system where basically measurement and recording are made by measuring instruments installed on the breakwater and some data are transmitted by radio to measuring instruments installed ashore is used to demonstrate the design method and assess the behavior. The items of measurement include waves, wave pressure, member stress caused to rein- forcing bars in caissons, structure motion, toe pressure and mound shape. For this pur- pose, the breakwater is provided with a total of 183 measuring instruments. (4) Present conditions a) Measured data are now being obtained but data for cases with large wave height are rather scarce. The largest of incoming waves ever is Hl/3 = 3.5 m and Tl/3 = 7.6 sec (October 25, 1982). b) Facts including the distribution of wave pressures working on test caissons and the distribution of stress of reinforcing bars have been grasped. c) It has been found that the measured values of external force fairly well agree with its theoretical values. (5) Future schedule a) Measurement will be continued through fiscal year 1983. Also, the details of data already obtained will be hurriedly analyzed and the measuring instruments will be checked for operation. b) In fiscal year 1984, the test break- water will be removed and data will be con- solidated as a whole. Table 2. The shape and characteristic of test caisson Caisson cype & Sketch Vertical wall (Conventional type) Deformed bottom with protuberance Fronc: Slope wall at top Rear : With porous retarding part With arc-shaped slit wall Characteristic Standard caisson composite break- water . Provided for comparison with the other types. This con- tains an observation room. The caisson bottom has protube- rance to increase slide resist- ance. This makes reduction of Che section possible and helps to cut construction cost. It can be ap- plied to types T-3 and T-4 . The wave force chat works is re- duced by the effect of the slope wall at the top; thereby, the section is reduced and the reflect- ed waves are also reduced. The porous retarding part alleviates harbour disturbance due to wave overtopping and dissipates waves on the harbour side. Further, it expedites the aeration of sea water' and provides a breeding place for seaweeds and shellfish and the act- ion of these organisms is believed to help maintain water envrionments . Both the wave force and the re- flected waves are reduced by the effect of the arc-shaped slits. These slits can also check trans- mitted waves in the harbour. Furthermore, these slits are be- lieved to help maintain water en- vironments by a similar action to T-3. 136 (5) Future schedule (3) Details of test a) By the end of fiscal year 1983, the 3rd test will be carried out to i) confirm the limit bearing capacity of the rubble mound and observe the phenomenon of attaining high density, ii) observe the phenomenon of shear destruction of the mound and the foundation ground system and iii) compare materials composing the mound. Thus, comprehensive analysis will be carried out, using the results of this test along with the results of past tests. b) Preparations are being made to conduct a field test on two cases with utmost uneven rubble mound in fiscal year 1985. FIELD TEST ON DEVELOPMENT OF FLOATING BREAKWATER (1) Purpose of test: Complicated technical pro- blems remain to be solved to be able to use floating structures as port facilities capable of meeting such conditions as soft ground, large tidal level difference and great water depth . This test is concerned with the floating breakwater and its purpose is to elucidate its wave dissipating effect, its mooring capacity and other factors as well as problems in work performance . (2) Place of test: approx. 5km off Kumamoto- shin port, water depth: approx. -8 m /Geology: Clayey soil (0 ~ -40 cm), tid\l \ level difference: 4.5 m, design wave: Hl/3 Tl/3 = 5.5 sec, Hmax = 3.8 m, = 2.1 tidal current: 1.3 m/s a) The floating part of the breakwater was made of prestressed concrete by the side- float structure. It was manufactured by the method of joining four RC precast block cais- sons with PC steel lines in the direction of face line. Data i) ii) iii) iv) Main body : 10 . 0m( Width )x40 .0m (Length )x 4.0m(Height) Weight:907.6t Draft:3.06m Sinker: 9. 5m(W)xl0.0m(L) xl.0m( thick- ness) Weight : 222 .4t 350mm H-shape steel 5 .0m(L)x21pcs Intermediate sinker: 1.74m(W)xl.75m(L) xl.75m(H) Weight :9.1t(Weight in water :5.1t) Chain:NK Type No . 3 with stud 76 <£> About 89m b) Measurement was made after installing the floating breakwater at the field site as indicated in Fig. 3. The items of measurement included wave height (incident wave and trans- mitted wave), wave pressure, tidal level and current, wind direction and velocity, oscil- lation of floating body, member stress and chain tension, etc. (4) Present conditions and future schedule: Measurement was started in November 1982 and various data are still being collected. In the past analysis, the wave dissipating effect is unexpectedly high. If circumstances permit, measurement will be continued and measured data will be consoli- dated and analyzed in the future, as hitherto. Fig. 3 Layout of floating breakwater at the field site 137 L =1 Z0x4=480 + 4.5 \"± V 2.9 35 T- 1 T - 2 -80 T- 4 T - 3 -9 5 H W L+0.5 1 l ! 1 ^S\ J IX XI'.'V s with the H2 and O2 from the electrolyzers. would be more costly than ammonia. However, by using coal as the carbon source, the plant can produce 2 1/2 times as much methanol as ammonia at equal OTEC power capacity. Another advantage of methanol is its compati- bility with existing fuel storage and handling systems. An appraisal of the physical requirements, sizes, and constraints for an OTEC methanol-from-coal plantship was addressed. This resulted in a conceptual design of an OTEC 1 60MWe plantship producing 1000 metric tons/day of fuel grade methanol. Preliminary analysis indicated that methanol from such a plantship would be marginally competitive with methanol from other sources. The design was based on a Texaco gasifier design using a coal slurry fuel. Several inhibiting features of this process are the presence of excess CO2. H2S production and large quantities of waste water. A study made, utilizing the Rockwell Molten Carbonate gasifier design which produces a gas relatively free from CO2 and H2S. indicated this gasifier would produce methanol that is economically competitive. The use of coal slurry requires expensive land based water treatment, as well as coal slurry prepara- tion and loading facilities. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH PROGRAM ELEMENT The net environmental impacts resulting from OTEC development are expected to be minimal compared to the impacts of fossil fuel and nuclear power production. OTEC development on a commercial basis also can be acceptable if proper attention is paid to design. Dunng FY 80-83. the OTEC Environmental Program has provided baseline information during the exploratory design phases for deep- water closed-cycle OTEC systems to ensure that such designs are survivable and environmentally sound. In FY 80 the major effort was in field measurements and environ- mental compliance assessment. In FY 81 the program emphasized the integration of the various test and field studies to ensure uniformity in the data base and completion of the benchmark studies while coop- erating with the OTEC-1 tests and insuring permit compliance. During FY 82. efforts were directed towards data analysis, completion of the OTEC-1 benchmark reports and preparation for the marine research and compliance activities associated with the OTEC Pilot Plant. In FY 83. the focus was in support of the Pilot Plant activities including participation in and analysis of the State of Hawaii Com- mon Base Program, and maintenance of the permit compliance sche- dules Research activities were limited to the evaluation of bottom assessment strategies and updating an existing computer flow model. The shift in program emphasis from off-shore deep-water moored to near-shore shallow-water bottom-seated plants with long bottom mounted cold water pipes requires new consideration of near-shore and along the bottom environmental design concerns. This suggests more emphasis on marine geology than water column oceanography Slumping, due to the passage of Hurricane Iwa. along the proposed pipe line route of the Pilot Plant off Kahe Point highlighted the lack of knowledge of the impacts of extreme events in deep water In general, further research is required to validate coastal flow models and to determine the scope of chronic and jcute toxicity to ambient populations 01 ammonia, chlorine, and trace metals. OCEAN ENGINEERING PROGRAM ELEMENT The Ocean Engineering activities address cold water pipes (CWP), Sea-water Systems CSWS). Moorings- Foundations and Platforms. The CWP is a major component of all OTEC systems. It has been by far the most difficult engineering challenge addressed by the program because of its unique characteristics, which primarily stem from its size. Typically. 40MWe land-based or shelf-mounted baseline designs require a CWP on the order of 10.000 feet in length and 30 feet in diameter. These dimensions for an underwater structure are unprec- dented. and industrial experience in the required fabrication, de- ployment, installation, inspection, maintenance and repair techniques is lacking. Thus, an extensive research and engineering effort has been pursued in cold water pipes. In FY 80. the program focused on developing baseline designs and computer model codes for defining and evaluating physical stresses on the CWP. Further development and model testing validated these codes. Numerous CWP concepts were evaluated. Of these concepts. six were selected to enter a baseline design phase. One design, the Fiber-Reinforced Plastic (FRP) sandwich, exhibited the greatest potential for long-term system life expectancy and economic via- bility. This potential is due to its high strength-to-weight ratio, flexi- bility, resistance to electrochemical interaction, relative low cost, and ease of deployment. Subsequent work concentrated on FRP materials for cold water pipes. The basic FRP design is a monolithic cylindrical structure with a sandwich wall composed of two equal thicknesses of FRP laminate material separated-by a syntactic foam core. Materials testing efforts were performed on the FRP design to provide engineering data on static and fatigue performance. Several modeling activities were undertaken to analytically predict the environmental loading and subsequent stresses acting on the CWP. A three-dimensional design methodology was developed around a computer-aided analytical model which provides a time-domain dynamic simulation of the coupled CWP response to hydrodynamic loading of the CWP/Platform/Mooring systems caused by waves and currents. The output of this model is a statistical summary which predicts the interaction of a variety of forces including: CWP 'platform motions, hydrodynamic forces, pipe loads and internal pipe stresses. As part of the validation process, a CWP at-sea model test was per- formed off th» ^nast of Catalina Island. Tne model was 1 foot in diameter. 70 feet long and constructed of polyvinyl chloride. Five axial stations along the pipe held instrumentation that measured the structural effects of waves and currents. The CWP was suspended from a 1 /30th scale OTEC barge platform and was analyzed in grazing and moored moes. This at-sea test and subsequent analysis supplied insight to the relationship between vortex shedding and CWP structural response. A small-scale CWP tow-out and deployment project model test was performed to validate analytical methods for calculating CWP response during deployment operations. This test utilized numerous scaled CWP models. The maximum size of the models was 1:50 scale for a 30-foot diameter prototype CWP. and ranged to 1:110 scale for turning and swing-down tests. Upon investi- gating tow stability, resistance, heading limitations, maneuverability, and swing-down loads in 'afloat, awash and submerged modes, the study concluded horizontal tow-out and swing-down was technically feasible. However, loads experienced dunng the tow-out procedure, caused by waves and currents directed at high angles, were critical. Improved transportation loads analysis techniques will be required to increase design confidence. The culmination of these efforts is a three-phased FRP Scaled CWP At-Sea Test Program. The objective is to design, fabricate and test a scaleable FRP CWP in suspended and slope-mounted configurations. The planning and design stage of the project included overall design. analysis of static dynamic loads, laminate design, materials test, determination of environmental loading parameters, mooring and deployment procedures definition, and instrumentation requirements. Upon completion, a CWP 8 feet in diameter and 400 feet in length was fabricated. The suspended pipe test was conducted b\ attaching a bottom weighted CWP (20 lb ft water weight 1 to a scaled platform barge through a gimbal Five 80-foot-long pipe segments were joined 149 dockside. The test article was towed to the site by two tugboats while horizontally suspended beneath two barges. The vertical deployment test has been completed and data analysis is underway. The intent of the next Phase is to investigate hydrodynamic loads on slope-mounted pipes and joining techniques. Two 80-foot-long seg- ments of CWP will be connected through a male/ female joint con- figuration and tremie concrete will be poured over the joint after the deployment. The joint assembly will also serve as the foundation. This test article is scheduled for recovery duiing FY 83. The major focus in sea-water systems was to develop an analytical code to predict the performance of the OTEC water loops. This involved development of a dynamic analytical computer model that simulates the performance of the SWS components and para- metric sensitivity studies applied to the Johns Hopkins University/ Applied Physics Laboratory Grazing Plantship, the Gibbs &. Cox Spar Plant, and OTEC-1. Model response predictions were compared to measured data to fine tune the model. A substantial research effort was performed in the Moorings/ Founda- tions area through FY 82 including a preliminary design analysis of two types of stationkeeping subsystem, the Multiple Anchor Leg (MAD Mooring System for the OTEC floating barge configuration and the Tension Anchor Let (TAL) Mooring System for the spar configuration. The MAL consists of catenary-type anchor moorings arranged in pairs at each corner of a barge, whereas the TAL incorpor- ates a solid spar configuration moored with taut lines. In general, TAL appears to be less costly but MAL is closer to SOA and entails less risk. Two assessments of mooring technology were performed to summarize and evaluate the mooring SOA and evaluate the feasi- bility of using scaling techniques to determine relative forces asso- ciated with mooring system/ocean environment interactions. It was found that the scaling of moonng systems would not be an accurate procedure if the relative depth of the scaled system to a full-size system was greater than an order of magnitude apart. An analysis of platform construction techniques was developed with respect to the floating platform configuration. The baseline scenario investigated was a 400 MWe commercial OTEC plant in the ship hull and spar hull configurations. Hull materials evaluated included steel and concrete. The CWP material choices were steel, concrete. FRP and elastomenc. Three deployment locations were evaluated: Florida west coast, Puerto Rico and Hawaii. Construction requirements were compared with current industrial capabilities. Results were then integrated with the potential deployment loca- tions. In general, the study concluded that present United States industnal capabilities meet the construction requirements for concrete and steel hulls. If segmented construction techniques are applied to the steel hull area, present U.S. facilities are adequate. Facilities for concrete hull construction, are not presently available in the United States. Notably, concrete was deemed to be the most advantageous material for hull construction. The cable subsystem is a critical development area with respect to the overall feasibility of the moored/floating OTEC plant configuration. The basic design consists of a long cable suspended in a catenary configuration from the platform and attached to the connector between the plant and the bottom transmission cable. The environ- mental loading (i.e. waves, currents, and hydrostatic pressure), plat- form motion, and the weight of the cable itself define the complexity of the design considerations. Additionally, the design must be life cycle cost effective. Two cable designs were developed and evaluated in the OTEC Program. The self-contained oil-filled (SCOF) design used a laminated oil-impregnated paper insulation and the extruded solid insulation design featured cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE). Both cable systems included four single conductor cables (three- phases and a spare) capable of carrying of lOOMWe load. The program also addressed the cable gimbal component (platform/cable interface), mechanical cable termination, electrical termination, and emergency disconnect procedures. The SCOF cable may not be suitable for the OTEC application due to its laminated construction. Test failures occurring in this design were due to "sleeving, " i.e.. relative motion between the cable conductor and the laminated insulation which leads to paper tape slippage and premature cable breakdown. An ideal cable termination scenario, where each cable component is terminated in a plane perpendicular to the cable axis, has been pro- posed to eliminate the sleeving problem. Until the SCOF cable is tested in this scenario however, its suitability for the OTEC applica- tion cannot be determined. ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM ELEMENT The Engineering Development Program Element involves large experi- ments such as the OTEC-1 ocean-based engineering test bed and the 40 MWe Pilot Plant Proof-of-Concept. Both efforts were initiated pre-FY 80. The OTEC-1 project fostered a broad spectrum of engi- neering evaluations on key OTEC components and provided valuable input to all areas within the DOE/Ocean Energy Program. The Pilot Plant Program is a natural technological progression from OTEC-1. and may culminate in the deployment and operation by industry of a 40MWe closed-cycle OTEC plant. The major objectives of the OTEC-1 test facility tests were to assess heat exchanger technology, provide power system performance data, evaluate biofouling countermeasures. assess the environmental effects of OTEC-1 operations and provide the pilot plant program ocean integration data on hulls, moonng and cold water pipes. The United States Naval Ship (USN) CHEPACHET. a mothballed WW II tanker. was selected for use as the test bed vehicle. After inspection, repair and reactivation of shipboard systems, and installation of the CWP attachment equipment, a lMWe heat exchanger test article and experiment support systems were installed. The CHEPACHET (referred to as OTEC-1) was deployed at a site located approximately 12 nautical miles off the west coast of the Island of Hawaii. This activity involved: placement of the deepest moor of this size ever performed; design, fabrication, deployment, operation, release and recovery of the CWP: OTEC operation in a grazing mode: operation in a single point moonng array; and demonstration of the near sur- face mixed effluent discharge as an option. The test penod lasted four months and demonstrated the feasibility of deployment and at-sea operations of a large-scale OTEC plant. The OTEC Pilot Plant Program Opportunity Notice (PON) was issued late in FY 80. Responses to the PON in FY 81 exhibited significant interest in shelf-mounted systems. Two proposals were selected for one year conceptual design beginning in mid-FY 82. Both proposals were sited adjacent to the existing Kahe Point power station, owned by the Hawaiian Electric Company (HECO). HECO and the State of Hawaii were members of both consortia and contributed to the cost- shanng. One contractor proposed to design a 40MWe net power plant on a fixed tower. The plant would be located one mile off-shore from Kahe Point. Oahu, HA in 328 feet of water. The design employed current SOA off-shore oil ng technology for the tower and included condensers located at a depth of 150 feet, evaporators located at a depth of 280 feet and a steel CWP. The CWP was 33 feet in dia- meter and extended to the bottom (328 feet) runing into the deep ocean for a total length of 9.800 feet. The heat exchanger design proposed was aluminum flat plate using freon-22 as the working fluid. A single turbine-generator was located atop the tower and was nominally rated at 50 MWe. The net power produced was to be transmitted to a land-based distribution station via trenched and buried submarine cable. The second contractor proposed a 40MWe plant constructed on an artificial island. This island would be located 600 feet off-shore from Kahe Point. Oahu. HA. in 28 feet oi water. The OTEC plant warm water intake would utilize the HECO's 600MWe fossil fuel plant effluent condenser coolant to enhance the warm water tempera- ture. The system would include four lOMWe electrical power modules (each with two condensers and two evaporators and one four-stage axial turbine-generators), and a composite lightweight concrete and fiberglass reinforced plastic CWP. 30 feet in diameter and 13.100 feet in length. The heat exchangers are titanium tube construction employing a horizontal tube and shell design and ammonia as the working fluid. The proposed deployment technique uses a combina- tion of floatation tanks and anchors for installing the CWP on the sloping sea floor. The conceptual design has been completed and included tradeott analyses, the preparation of layout drawings, design reports, environ- mental impact statements, cost estimates, commercialization plans 150 and the initiation of environmental data accumulation. The landbased design has been selected to advance to Preliminary Design. This 18-month effort is scheduled for completion during the first quarter of FY 85. STATE OF TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT AND REMAINING AREAS OF UNCERTAINTY A evaluation of the state of development of ocean energy systems has been completed. Each subsystem of the various options such 1.5 landbased OTEC-closed cycle, wave, etc. was considered. This evaluation for closed and open cycle landbased OTEC is shown in table I. A part of this evaluation was the determination of areas of uncertainty in the technologies as shown in table II. The subjects in table II are those presently under consideration in the DOE FY 1 984 oceans program formulation. TABLE: I. ASSESSMENT OF STATE OF TECHNOLOGY FOR CLOSED AND OPEN CYCLE OTEC XEY (STATE OF TECHNOLOGY!: 1. PRELIMINARY FEASIBILITY 2. ADVANCED CONCEPT 3. CONCEPTUAL DESIGN 4. CONCEPT VALIDATION 6. SCALED FIELD TEST 7. CRITICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN 8. FULL-SCALE DEMONSTRATION 9. OFF-THE-SHELF 5. PRELIMINARY DESIGN SI. EXPLORATORY ENERGY TRANSFER MODE S-3. PRELIMINARY RESEARCH S-4. FOCUSED RESEARCH OPEN- CYCLE OTEC CLOSED CYCLE OTEC "N/A" - NOT APPLICABLE TO THE SITUATION - SITE, DEPTH OR SIZE DEPENDENT "N/A" "N/A" POSITION CONTROL/MOORING SYSTEM STRUCTURE 2 3 PLATFORM/FACILITY/ViULL 2 3 FOUNDATION , 7-9- 7-9* CW PUMPS AND MOTORS 7-9* 7-9* WW PUMPS AND MOTORS 6-9- 6-9- SEA WATE'R SYSTEM 7 7 BIOFOULING & CORROSION CONTROL IM&R 5 S PIPE STRUCTURE COLD WATER PIPE SYSTEM 6* 6* INTAKE MECHANISM 5 5 CWP/PLANT TRANSITION 3 3 BUOYANCY/BALLAST SYSTEM 3 3 MOORING/FOUNDATION/EMBEDMENT 6 6 BIOFOULING AND CORROSION CONTROL IM&R 3 3 DEPLOYMENT AND INSTALLATION , 69' 6-9* PIPE STRUCTURE WARM WATER PIPE SYSTEM L 4 - 7 " 47* INTAKE MECHANISM 5 5 WWP/PLANT TRANSITION 6 6 BUOYANCY/BALLAST SYSTEM 7 7 MOORING/FOUNDATION/ EMBEDMENT 5 5 BIOFOULING & CORROSION CONTROL IM&R 7 7 DEPLOYMENT AND INSTALLATION 6 e PIPE STRUCTURE DISCHARGE WATER PIPE SYSTEM 3 3 DISCHARGE MECHANISM 5 5 DWP/PLANT TRANSITION 5 5 BUOYANCY/BALLAST SYSTEM 4-6* 4-6' MOORING/FOUNDATION/EMBEDMENT 9 9 BIOFOULING AND CORROSION CONTROL IM&R 4-5* 4-5- DEPLOYMENT AND INSTALLATION 3 46' EVAPORATOR POWER SYSTEM 2 4-6' CONDENSOR n/a 4-6* WORKING FLUID SYSTEM ICCI 3 N/A LOW PRESSURE STEAM CONNECTIONS IOCI N/A 4-5* PURGE SYSTEM (CO 2 '" N/A DEAREATION SYSTEM (OCI ' '2 ' 46* POWER GENERATION 3 7 AUXILIARY SYSTEMS 7 INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL 3 4-6" BIOFOULING AND CORROSION CONTROL IMS, R 9 9 POWER CONTROL AND BUS ENERGY TRANSFER SYSTEM 9 9 POWER CONDITIONING N/A N/A RISER CABLE 8 6 BOTTOM CABLE 9 9 ABOVE WATER CABLE 9 9 SHORE GRID STATION 9 9 FITTINGS & CONNECTIONS B 8 BIOFOULING & CORROSION CONTROL IM&R 9 3 MATERIAL HANDLING ENERGY UTILIZATION 4 4 PRODUCTION SYSTEM 9 9 PRODUCT TRANSFER 9 9 AUXILIARY SYSTEMS IM&R S 2 S-2 THERMAL RESOURCE RESEARCH ACTIVITIES ENVIRON MENTAL/ REGULA TORY S 3 5-3 METEOROLOGICAL S 2 S 2 PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY s 2 S 2 GEOLOGICAL/GEOTECHNICAL s 2 S 2 BIO ECOLOGICAL s 2 S 2 CHEMICAL s 4 S 4 INTERNATIONAL LAW KEG COM!' s 4 S-4 FEDERAL REGULATIONS s 4 S-4 STATE REGULATIONS TABLE II. AREAS OF UNCERTAINTY • Cold Water Pipe and Foundation Deployment Techniques • Geotechnic and Soil Mechanics Factors (including slope stability) for Soil/Platform and Soil CWP Interactions • Improvement of Heat Exchanger Water Side Heat Transfer to Decrease Size of Heat Exchanger and Analytical Modeling • Life Expentancy of Low-Cost Heat Exchangers as a Function of Corrosion. Fouling, Structural Integrity, and Materials • Understanding Coastal Zone Impacts, Including Validation of Analytical Models for Prediction of Recirculation and Discharge Plumes • Statistical Variability of the Ocean Thermal Resource and other Fluctuating Environment Conditions (meterological, chemical, geological, physical oceaographical) • Operational Scalable Data From a Fully-Integrated OTEC System in a Seawater Environment • IM&R and Retrieval of Submerged Components - Up to 5000 foot depth and 70° slopes • Validated Computer Codes for Predicting CWP (Shelf-Mounted and Suspented) Loads and Responses • Distribution of Non-Condensible Gases in a Plant and Their Impact on Open Cycle System Performance • Long-Term Materials Characteristics for CWP • Electrical Cable Termination Design • Effect of Redistribution of Oceanic Properties • Hydrodynamic Loads on CW? (suspended or shelf-mounted) Above Reynolds' Number of 10 6 • Scalable Open-Cycle OTEC Turbine Performance Data • Electrolysis Efficiency for Plantships • CWP Platform Connection Hinge and Seal Validated Design Test • Direct Contact Heat and Mass Characteristics of sea water at OTEC Conditions • Major Effects of Impingement/Entrainment on Plant Design and the Environment • Anchor Hardware for Both Steep Slopes and Rock Conditions - 151 DEVELOPMENT OF A WIND ENERGY SYSTEM FOR USE AT REMOTE LIGHTHOUSES Dean Scribner Commandant (G-DMT-3/54), U. S. Coast Guard 2100 Second Street, S. W. Washington, D. C. 20593 ABSTRACT Previous work conducted by the U. S. Coast Guard, Office of Research and Development focused on analyzing the technical and economical aspects of using alternate energy sources at remote light- houses presently powered by diesel -electric generators. This work has shown that wind energy systems appear to be very attractive in all locations except the coastal areas of Florida where photovoltaic systems appear to be most attractive. Major questions to be answered regarding the use of wind energy at remote lighthouses are discussed including system configurations, operating modes, control schemes, battery manage- ment, component sizing, component selection, instrumentation and data collection. 1. INTRODUCTION The U. S. Coast Guard currently operates 65 major lighthouses at remote sites using diesel- electric generators. Due to the escalating cost of diesel fuel as well as the shortage of trained personnel needed to maintain these lighthouses and generators, a research and development project was initiated to explore the use of solar energy. A previous paper^ discussed the results of a feasibility study^ that analyzed the technical and economical aspects of using wind machines and photovoltaic arrays to supplement the diesel - electric generators. The major results of the feasibility study, which used a computer simulation model, were that hybrid systems using a wind machine and a diesel -electric generator set inconjunction with battery storage would be from 40-85% less in life cycle costs than the current stand-alone diesel system. Generally, the feasibility study showed that for the present, wind systems are more economical than photovoltaic systems everywhere except in the coastal areas of Florida. The second phase of the work, which is now in progress, involves the design, development, fabrication, test and evaluation of an experi- mental system at a lighhouse. The purpose of this work is to verify the results predicted by the feasibility study and identify and solve technical problems that arise in implementing wind energy systems at lighthouses. In the final analysis the basic measure of performance will be life cycle costs. Some specific technical problems that will be explored are electromagnetic interference, component compatibility, and safety consider- ations. The actual development of the system will focus on four general areas: 1. System configuration and operating modes. 2. Control schemes and battery management. 3. Component sizing and selection. 4. Data collection and analysis. Each of these topic is discussed in the next section. 2. CRITICAL ISSUES IN DEVELOPING A WIND ENERGY SYSTEM. Using the results of the feasibility study, a general system design has been prepared and a wind machine has been selected and installed at the Cape Henry Lighthouse in Virginia Beach, Virginia. A complete system, including diesel -electric generator, wind machine, battery storage, inverter, and a microprocessor controller, is expected to be in place by September 1983. Based on experimental data collected from operating the system and updating and re-running the computer simulation we expect to make important determinations about the overall system design and operation. 2.1 SYSTEM CONFIGURATION AND OPERATING MODES Figure 1 gives a general description of a hybrid system. Major components of the hybrid power source are the wind machine, diesel - electric generator, main storage battery, battery charger, inverter, and a microprocessor controller. The first step in determining an efficient detailed design is to minimize the lighthouse load requirements. Obvious measures that can be employed include daylight control of the light, use of more efficient lights such as gas discharge or flashtubes (if these are acceptable), use of more energy efficient equipment such new solid state radio beacons, operating as many components on DC power as possible. The use of PC power may prove to be problematic for lighthouse components that were designed to operate on AC power. For the lighthouses we are interested in, the average 152 - power is in the range of 500W to 2000W and this makes 120 volts the most practical operating DC voltage. Smaller lighthouse could be operated at 48 volts or possibly 12 volts DC. It is important to operate the diesel as efficiently as possible when it is running which equates into keeping it heavily loaded. Operating the diesel at partial loads causes two problems. First, it is inefficient for a diesel to operate at partial loads. Second, operating a diesel at below 75% capacity for prolonged periods leads to carbon buildup inside the diesel and eventual maintenance problems. Therefore one operating mode should be with the diesel charging both the main storage battery and powering the lighthouse load. This would occur when the main storage battery is approaching a 100% state-of-charge (SOC). In this operating mode the inverter would be off and the diesel would be powering the AC load directly. A second operating mode would be when the battery has been deeply discharged and requires a high level of power from the diesel. Then the diesel would power only the battery charger. A third operating mode would have the diesel off and all power would go to the load from the battery. Other operating modes are possible but the major emphasis should be to limit the running time of the diesel, avoid inefficient transfer of power through the battery charger and the inverter, operate the main storage battery at as low a SOC as possible so energy can always be accepted from the output of the wind machine (or photovoltaic array). 2.2 CONTROL SCHEMES AND BATTERY MANAGEMENT The basic strategy for controlling the system must have as its first priority the development of a battery management criteria. Managing the batteries involves monitoring the SOC so that routine charging and discharging of the batteries can be carried out in a timely and efficient manner. Furthermore, proper management prevents severe physical and electrical abuse to the batteries and extends life expectancy. Major conditions that can shorten battery cell life are: . Overcharging - causes gassing that can lead to plate damage, water loss, and hydrogen gas dangers. . Overdischarging and prolonged periods at partial discharged - leads to sulfation problems. . Temperature excursions - leads to possible freezing and cracking at low temperatures; leads to sulfation at high temperatures. . Electrolyte specific gravity excursions - leads to sulfation. The SOC of the individual cells must also be kept in balance. Voltage measurements across the entire battery array may not give a good indication as to the SOC balance of all the cells. If they become imbalanced, problems in individual cells may develop unnoticed and irreversible damage may occur. Monitoring of individual battery voltages can help to detect problems. Also, a systematic method of occasional heavy overcharging will probably be necessary to bring the cells back into balance. There are three methods for the actual measurement of battery SOC. First, ampere-hours can be counted during charge and discharge. Proper consideration must be given to battery inefficiency (both coulombic and voltage inefficiencies). This method can be very accurate for short periods but tends to drift over a large number of cycles and must therefore be adjusted" periodically. Second, voltage measurements can be used to estimate SOC. Although somewhat inaccurate, particularly if the battery is in a state of nonequilibrium, voltage measurements are a more fundamental measurement of the SOC than ampere-hour counting. Using voltage measurements in combination with ampere-hour counting is a reasonable approach to obtaining relatively accurate SOC measurements with an adequate level of certainty. Both methods are highly amenable to microprocessor monitoring. Third, specific gravity readings using hydrometers can yield accurate measurements of SOC as well as indicating whether the electrolyte is vertically stratified in the battery cells. Electrolyte stratification causes the type of plate damage due to specific gravity excursions previously mentioned. Hydrometers readings are taken manually so this method of measuring SOC can not be used to automatically monitor and control the batteries, but is useful for collecting test data and evaluating the usefulness of the automatic SOC measurement using combined ampere-hour counting and voltage measurement methods. Having determined a basic battery management criteria for avoiding damage to the batteries and measuring SOC, the next step is to examine possible control schemes which will lead to optimum life cycle costs. The present plan is to collect experimental data by operating the system with a variety of control schemes and then updating and running the computer simulation model based on this data to project life cycle costs over long periods of operation. This approach maximizes test results by expanding short term test data into long term computer representations. A great deal of flexibility in testing is obtained using a microprocessor to control the system and collect data. For example, changes in the type of data to be collected or the control schemes to be used can be accomplished by simple changes to microprocessor software. Control scheme parameters include, limits of battery SOC for charge/discharge when operating the diesel, schedules for overcharging of the battery to prevent electrolyte stratification, voltage regulator settings of the wind machine (and 153 - photovoltaic array if applicable) to most efficiently charge the battery or prevent unwanted overcharge, and battery charger settings. In a very sophisticated system decisions regarding diesel operation could be based on projected wind machine (or photovoltaic array) outputs. 2.3 COMPONENT SIZING AND SELECTION The size of the components selected has a critical effect on the life cycle cost of the system. Estimates of optimum component sizes were made in the feasibility study using the computer simulation model to analyze the expected wind machine output, battery and inverter performance, and diesel usage. Estimates were made for varying sizes of lighthouse loads at a number of geographical locations. Based on the experimental data to be collected with the predetermined component sizes planned for testing, the computer simulation model will be updated and rerun. Interpolations, using the computer, can then be made to confirm component sizing that will yield optimum life cycle costs. Selection of the individual system components calls for a great deal of practical consideration and attention to detail. A brief discussion of selection criteria for wind machines, batteries, and inverters is given below (the Coast Guard already has standards for diesel -electric generators). Beyond the careful selection of individual components, additional planning must be made to insure that all the components are compatible. Examples of compatibility questions that must be investigated are: . Can the inverter operate all the AC modules in the lighthouse load? Can the load tolerate current surges or voltage spikes generated by the inverter? Will the inverter meet all the peak load requirements? . Does the microprocessor controller require special shielding from electromagnetic interference or protection from power transients? . Can the inverter input tolerate the varying voltage inputs it experiences across the main storage battery array from the battery charger? . Is the voltage regulation sufficient in the wind machine to prevent damage to the battery array? Selection of a wind machine was limited to DC output generators that can directly charge a main storage battery. DC machines are generally simpler and more efficient than constant speed AC machines that produce a controlled output frequency of 60 Hertz. Because the most practical battery array voltage was 120 volts, the wind machine must likewise be a nominal 120 volt system. Other than these basic requirements the selection of a wind machine must be based on extreme reliability with a simple rugged design as proven in a rigorous test program. Results of wind machine testing are available from the U. S. Department of Energy, Rocky Flats Test program. Just as important as selecting a good wind machine is the issue of properly siting a wind machine. Proper siting is essential for good power output with minimum machine wear and maintenance. Two basic questions must be addressed in the siting of a wind machine, (a) where is the best, or at least the most accept- able, location for a machine in the vicinity of the lighthouse, and (b) what are the estimated wind characteristics at the site. By answering these two questions a site can be found that minimizes turbulent wind forces on the machine and allows the designer to predict the wind energy resource at the site which in turn allows for the optimum design and sizing of the overall system. Selection of main storage batteries involves identifying batteries with a long service life when deeply discharged up to several hundred times per year. Although there are several different generic types of batteries to choose from the lead-acid has several major advantages that currently make it the first choice: (a) it has a demonstrated energy efficiency and functionality that are well understood, (b) it has the lowest overall material costs, (c) it is a recyclable product, (d) there has been more field experience with lead-acid than any other system. The specific type of lead acid battery that most closely fits our application is the motive battery as used for example in industrial fork lifts. Recently, low maintenance motive power batteries, which are designed to reduce water loss have become available. Selection of an inverter is critical to overall system efficiency particularly if the load is primarily AC which means most of the power will need to flow through the inverter. In general, there is a direct trade-off between wave form quality and inverter efficiency. Inverters with very high efficiencies (greater than 90%) tend to have non-sinusoidal waveforms which may be acceptable for heavy current components such as motor drives but unacceptable for sensitive electronic components. On the other hand, inverters with high quality sinusoidal waveforms tend to be less efficient. In this case a very low efficiency inverter would cancel all cost savings that could be achieved with a hybrid system over the use of straight diesel system. 2.4 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS As was previously mentioned, the system under development will use the microprocessor controller to carryout the secondary function of data collection. The microprocessor design consists of a complete portable microcomputer system including terminal, tape drive, memory, and CPU with ten slots for STD bus cards. The microprocessor provides three functions: 154 . Fundamental microprocessor operations including: CPU, interfacing to peripherals (printers, tape recorders, etc.), RAM memory, ROM for operating codes. . Measurement and I/O capability for data collection including: A to D voltage conversion for voltage measurements, shunt voltage to frequency conversion for current measurements, and a buffer for input to the CPU. . Data logging and display including: a non-volatile real-time clock and an interface to the CRT. Actual data to be collected will be individual battery voltages, battery charger output, windmachine current, inverter current (input) lighthouse power, diesel starts, wind speed/direction, temperature (ambient and battery). Also, specific gravity measurements of the battery electrolyte will be manually taken periodically. The analysis of the data collected will be used inconj unction with the computer simulation model to predict long term technical and economical performance. 3. CONCLUSIONS Initial test results will not become available until early 1984. Fabrication of the experimental system for Cape Henry is proceeding on schedule. Although some design questions are still being answered there appear to be no major technical problems in terms of developing a successful wind-diesel hybrid system for use at remote lighthouses. REFERENCES 1. D. A. Scribner, "Utilization of Wind Energy at Lighthouses", Eleventh Meeting of the Marine Facilities Panel of the United States - Japan Cooperative Program in Natural Resources. 2. W. R. Powell, R. J. Taylor, J. L. Baron, E. E. Mengel and J. C. Ray, "Alternate Hybrid Power Sources for Remote Site Applications," 1981 (Coast Guard Report No. CG-D-06-81 , available from NTIS, AD A099471). Diesel Generator Set Hind 'lachine \ J PV Array 1 i i i 1 AC 1 1 f fc. "—-J.— Battery Charger Main Storage Battery Array fir ™ DC DC V ''l'cro- processor Controller Inverter AC AC 1 r lighthouse Loac .Light .Fog Signal .fadio Beacon J w ^ .Au»il iary Equipment Figure 1 - Flow of electric energy in i wind-diesel hybrid systen 155 - SHIP SIMULATORS DO NOT TRAIN - INSTRUCTORS DO Dr. John S. Gardenier* Operations Research Analyst Commandant (G-DMT-1/54 2100 Second St Washington, D ABSTRACT Research conducted since 1977 on simulator training for mariners establishes that no hardware feature of ship simulators has as large an impact on training effectiveness as instructors do. Ship simulators tend to be designed and built to duplicate the real world as well as feasible. We should focus our concern far more on: (1) instructor support features in simulators, (2) functional validity rather than face validity, and (3) the value and retention of trainee skills enhanced through simulator training. THE BASIS FOR SIMULATOR TRAINING OF MARINERS The direction of ship movements is an applied skill involving knowledge, perceptual skills, judgement, alertness, decisiveness and caution. Only the knowledge segment of the requirement is tested in licensing examinations. The ability to conduct a ship safely is inferred from knowledge demonstrated on a test plus records of training and work experience. Some people worry about the lack of specific evidence that proper perceptual and decision skills have actually been learned by an individual who is nominally trained and experienced. There are three reasons to doubt the adequacy of mariner training: First, some individual mariners tell us that they received no instruction whatsoever in the handling of ships during their early years as an officer. An uncommunicative master merely let them observe, rather than practice, shiphandling. Second, progress in reducing ship casualties is unsatisfactory, according to analyses by the U. K. Nautical Institute [1] and others. Third, modern ships tend to be larger with respect to restrictive waterways than previously and to carry more cargoes which are hazardous to crews, shoreside populations and the maritime environment. Therefore, greater levels of skill are needed now than previously. *This paper is the sole responsibility of the author. It does not necessarily reflect official U. S. Coast Guard policy. ) , U.S. Coast Guard reet, S.W. .C. 20593 Visual ship simulators have only been available since 1970, although radar/electronic navigation simulators have existed longer. Because visual methods provide the most accurate bearing and position data - and ships are normally piloted visually when feasible - visual navigation skills are very important to ship and public safety. RESEARCH INTO SHIP BRIDGE SIMULATOR USE The U. S. Coast Guard and Maritime Administration began a joint project on simulators for mariner training and licensing in 1977. The initial study [2] examined mariner tasks, existing training systems, use of simulators in other industries and potential for maritime use. Of 74 training objectives examined, 71 were judged to be more suited to simulator training than to alternative methods. In a few cases, simulators were preferred because practice of certain skills at sea would involve excessive risks. Most generally, however simulators were preferred because they offered better control of the training, professional instructors, better feedback on trainee performance and greater flexibility than at sea training. During the mid-1 970 's much of the concern with ship bridge simulators focused on design features, particularly those involving the face validity of the visual scene. Point light source, model board, spot light and computer generated imagery systems were tried using various fields of view and projection systems. The second phase of our project involved experiments to determine whether the highest cost features produced commensurate advantages in training effectiveness. All experiments in this project were conducted at the Computer-Aided Operations Research Facility (CA0RF) in Kings Point, NY. The major finding was that differences between instructors (who had apparently equal qualifications) were much more significant than any variations in field of view, day versus night, color versus black and white, means of feedback to the trainees or flexibility of traffic ship maneuvers relative to own ship. It was concluded that emphasis should shift from face validity to functional validity and that more attention should be paid to instructor support features and training techniques. 156 A persistent problem during the first two phases of study was the proper selection of performance measures which would distinguish between good and poor mariner skills and habits. An effort was made in the third phase of the study to identify objective performance measures which could be used to establish standards of functional performance useful for licensing. [4] The experiments in this third phase tested 14 expert pilots against 14 chief mates who were ready to become masters. Five harbor/harbor entrance scenarios were used because most accidents preventable by simulator training occur in such waters. Findings were that: First, the distinguishing performance measures are different for various scenarios. Second, for experienced mariners, only demanding scenarios can distinguish performance; it is important that tests be at least moderately difficult. Third, many numerical performance measures do not distinguish performance, but Yes/No measures specific to a scenario are often valuable. (For example, did the mariner recognize that a buoy was off station? Did the mariner complete the transit safely?) Fourth, maximum measures seem to be more revealing than average measures. The maximum swept path is likely to be more useful than average swept path and maximum deviation from average trackline may be more useful than average deviation. Aside from the research with ship senior officers, studies of cadet training showed very beneficial results also. Although U. S. National Merchant Marine Academy cadets get ample time at sea on commercial vessels, they tend not to be allowed actual control of the ship. Simulator training gives the cadets invaluable "hands-on" skills and confidence in decisions about when to call the master and how to evaluate collision risks. Interestingly, cadets who take the training prior to sea experience seem not to retain the skills. Those who have sea experience are more motivated and able to integrate the simulator training into their overall perspective of bridge watchstanding. That factor appears to make the major difference between simulator training as a video game versus learning it as a professional skill. SIMULATOR TRAINING GUIDELINES It does not seem currently practical to set numerical performance standards for evaluating simulator training courses and the trainees. Yet some means is desirable to allow the U. S. Coast Guard to certify a simulator training course so that its graduates can receive partial credit toward 1 icenses. The solution we adopted was to specify many critcal characteristics of simulator training systems. (See Table 1.) Each characteristic has two to four levels of capability identified. Depending on the category of material to be taught, one level is designated as minimum and one as a recommended level. A Coast Guard regulator can use this guide to audit a simulator training program. If the facility and its program meet at least the minimum levels of the critical characteristics, then the program(s) can be approved for partial credit toward licenses. TABLE 1. CRITICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SHIP BRIDGE SIMULATOR TRAINING PROGRAMS Simulator Design Geographic Area Horizontal Field of View Vertical Field of View Time of Day Color Visual Scene Visual Scene Quality Radar Presentation Bridge Configuration Ownship Dynamics Exercise Control Traffic Vessel Control Training Assistance Technology Simul ator Mai ntenance/Avai 1 abi 1 i ty Training Program Structure Skill Levels After Training Skill Levels Prior to Training Training Objectives Training Techniques Knowledge of Requirements Positive Guidance Adaptive Training Post Problem Critique Instructor's Guide Classroom Support Material Simulator/Classroom Instruction Mix Training Program Duration Class Size Scenario Design Number of Scenarios Stress Overl earning Instructor Qualifications Mariner Credentials Instructor Credentials Subject Knowledge Instructor Skills Instructor Attitude Student Rapport Instructor Evaluation Such guides [5, 6] do not necessarily depend on official action. Designers of simulator training programs can use these guides to help assure that those programs will be effective . The guides allow considerable flexibility in terms - 157 - of facility details, specific training objectives, course organization and scenario design. These same documents can be used by ship fleet operators as consumer guides to simulator training. By comparing alternative simulator programs on these criteria, company executives can determine which programs best meet Coast Guard criteria, if they choose to accept these criteria. It should be noted that the guides do not rely solely on this one research program. Several principles of effective training are based on recent cognitive and experiemental psychology literature. Two guides have been produced to date, one for cadets and the other for senior mariners. Research to produce a guide for simulator training for ship pilots is currently underway. Guides for simulator training of towboat operators and offshore supply vessel operators are planned in later years. REFERENCES 1. Nautical Institute (UK), "Memorandum on Maritime Safety" LLOYDS LIST, Thursday, May 21, 1981. 2. Hammell, T. J. et al . Series: Simulators for Mariner Training and Licensing . Phase 1 : The Rol e of Simulators in the Mariner Training and Licensing Process, July, 1980. CG-D-12-80. National Technical Information Service (NTIS) Springfield, VA 22151. AD-A091 926 and AD-A092 177. 3. Hammell, T. J. et al . Phase 2: Investigation of Simulator Characteristics for Training Senior Mariners, October 1981. CG-D-8-82. NTIS AD-A114 746. 4. Williams, K. et al . Phase 3, Task C: Performance Standards for Master Level Simulator Training, March 1982. CG-D-15-82. NTIS AD-A116536. 5. Gynther, J. W. et al ♦ Guidelines for Deck Officer Training Systems, December 1982. CG-D-7-83. (NTIS number forthcoming.) 6. Gynther, J. W. et al . Functional Specifications and Training Program Guidelines for a Maritime Cadet Simulator, December, 1982. CG-D-8-83. (NTIS number forthcoming.) 158 RIGID HULL INFLATABLE BOAT TESTS AT CAPE DISAPPOINTMENT, WA FEBRUARY 1982 James A. White, Project Officer Commandant (G-DMT-2/54) , U. S. Coast Guard 2100 Second Street, S. VI. Washington, D. C. 20593 ABSTRACT The surf rescue capabilities of three rigid hull inflatable boats (RHIBS) were tested and evaluated in comparison with the USCG Prototype 30 Foot Surf Rescue Boat (30 FT SRB) at Cape Dis- appointment, WA in February 1982. The test crews indicated that any of the boats tested was ad- equate to perform surf rescue missions, although a strong preference was expressed for the larger heavier boats. INTRODUCTION In December 1981 the Search and Rescue Div- ision (G-OSR) of the Office of Operations re- quested the assistance of the Marine Technology Division (G-DMT) of the Office of Research and Development in conducting a side-by-side test and evaluation (T&E) of various rigid hull inflatable boats (RHIBs). A test program was developed that had a threefold purpose. First, to determine the capabilities of this type of boat in a breaking (bar) surf environment. Second, to evaluate fea- tures of the various boats participating in the tests for their application to the Coast Guard Search and Rescue Mission. Third, to act as an information exchange for the participants and other interested parties. As things turned out, the Marine Technology Division developed and con- ducted a test program to accomplish these goals. The T&E program was scheduled for 19 February 1981 through 28 February 1981. Familiarization and testing actually started on Monday, 22 February 1982 and finished on Friday, 26 February 1982. The tests were conducted at the mouth of the Columbia River using the facilities of the National Motor Life Boat School at Cape Dis- appointment, Washington. Coast Guard Group Astoria, Oregon, and Coast Guard Station Cape Disappointment, Washington also provided support. DESCRIPTION OF THE BOATS TESTED Four boats were tested: The Arctic 24, a 24 foot RHIB, manufactured by Osborne Rescue Boats, LTD; the Pacific 22, a 22 foot RHIB, manufactured by Osborne Rescue Boats, LTD; the 6 Meter Sea- rider, a 19 foot RHIB, manufactured by Avon Inflatables, LTD; and the USCG Prototype 30 Foot Surf Rescue Boat (30 FT SRB). The Arctic 24 has a fiberglass (G.R.P.), deep "V" planing hull, fitted with removable, inflat- able, flotation collars. The boat tested was powered by twin 90 horsepower (HP) Johnson out- board motors. It has a length over all of 24 feet, a beam overall of 8 feet, 7 inches, and a draft of 2 feet, 4 inches (with the motors down). The boat weighed about 4,009 pounds, as tested. The coxswain sits at a control console. Two crewmen may sit, facing forward, immediately behind and to either side of the coxswain. The boat tested is currently in service at the Coast Guard Station Beach Haven, New Jersey. It is fitted with a towing bit and a self-righting inflation bag. Figure 1 The Pacific 22, a Typical RHIB. The Pacific 22 has a fiberglass (G.R.P.), deep "V" planing hull, fitted with removable, inflat- able, flotation collars. The boat tested was powered by a 155 HP, Model AQAD-40, Volvo diesel engine, through a Volvo Model 280 outdrive unit. It has a length over all of 22 feet, 1 inch, a beam over all of 8 feet, 4 inches, and a draft of 3 feet, 1 inch (with the outdrive unit down). The boat weighted about 3,955 pounds, as tested. The coxswain stands at a control console, leaning against a backrest. Two crewmen may sit side saddle on the engine casing, facing forward, immediately ahead of and to either side of the coxswain. The boat tested is currently used by Osborne Rescue Boats, LTD as a demonstration boat. The boat may be fitted with a self righting - 159 inflation bag. Figure 1 is a drawing of the boat. The 6 Meter Searider has a fiberglass (G.R.P.), deep "V" planing hull, fitted with inflatable, flotation collars that are bonded to the hull. The boat tested was powered by twin 70 HP Mariner outboard motors. It has a length over of 19 feet, 11 inches, a beam over all of 7 feet, 7 inches, and a draft of 2 feet, 3 inches (with the motors down). The boat weighed about 2,110 pounds, as tested. The coxswain sits at a control console. A crewman may sit immediately behind him. The boat tested is currently in service as a ship's boat on the USCGC CHEROKEE (WMEC 165). This boat may be fitted with a self righting in- flation bag. The boat tested was not equipped with this feature. The Prototype 30 Foot Surf Rescue Boat (30 FT SRB) is a high speed personnel rescue boat, designed by the Coast Guard, and manufactured by the Willard Boat Company. It is a fiberglass (G.R.P.), hard chine, deep "V" planing hull, with a self righting capability. The 30 FT SRB was designed for search and rescue work under moderately heavy sea and surf conditions (approximately 8 feet to 10 feet surf) with high transit speed. The boat Figure 2. The Prototype 30 Foot Surf Rescue Boat. contains four watertight compartments. The 30 FT SRB is powered by a 340 HP, crew rated, General Motors 8V71 turbo charged diesel engine. It has a length over all of 30 feet, 4 inches, a beam over all of 9 feet, 4 inches, and a draft of 3 feet, 7 inches. The boat weighed about 10,300 pounds, as tested. The coxswain stands at the control con- sole with a crewman standing at his side. The coxswain and crewman are harnessed to the boat so that they will stay with the boat if it rolls over. The boat tested is currently in service at the Coast Guard Station Tillamook, Oregon. TEST PROGRAM This was an operational evaluation program not a technical test program. Nevertheless, the need to take some engineering measurements was apparent. These included speed versus engine RPM tests, taking noise level measurements, and measuring the vertical accelerations experienced during bar crossings. This information would quantify some of the basic performance characteristics of the boats, and provide a data base for objective comparisons. We had to decide whether to try and have individual coxswains, with a great deal of experience with one particular boat, demonstrate the merits of the individual boats; or to have experienced heavy weather coxswains, with little or no experience driving RHIBs or the 30 Foot SRB, evaluate the relative merits of all of the boats. We felt that the objectives of the test program would be served best by adopting the latter alternative. This required that a program of training and familiarization be incorporated into the test plan. There is a triad of related elements that interact whenever you test a boat. These elements are the boat, the coxswain, and the environment. The coxswain and the environment are subject to change during the course of a one week evaluation program. Therefore, the Graeco-Latin Square tech- nique of experimental design was used extensively in these tests. The evaluation depended heavily on the answers to questionnaires which were given to the coxswain and crewman immediately at the end of each test. The Graeco-Latin Square technique, or the round robin as it was called at Cape Dis- appontment, gave each coxswain and crewman an equal opportunity to be in any given boat, at any given time. It prevented one man from having a steady influence on the opinion of another. Finally, it allowed the results to be analyzed statistically to remove individual bias. The formal program of RHIB familiarization and test began on Monday, 22 February 1982. The cox- swains and crewmen were given the objective, his- tory, and scope of the program. Operating areas were located on charts, dangerous areas were identified, and the philosophy and approach of the program discussed. The men were given an overview of the test plan and schedule. The nature of the questionnaires was explained and their importance to the operational evaluation stressed. Technical representatives covered the design, manufacture, and general capabilities of each boat. The practical portion of the familiarization phase of the program began in the afternoon. Each of the coxswains and crewmen was given a chance to take a calm water familiarization run in each boat in accordance with a Graeco-Latin Square design. A technical representative was assigned to each boat to answer questions and give advise to the coxswains. The coxswains were told to get the feel of each boat, and each was asked to determine if each boat could perform a quick turn at maximum speed without accident. Each boat was brought to a dock to practise docking and slow speed ma- neuvering. 160 Tuesday morning was devoted to the following series of calm water tests. First, acceleration from a standstill to maximum speed. Second, acceleration from a speed of 10 MPH to maximum speed. These tests were run in two directions along a channel. Third, quick turn tests at maximum speed to both port and starboard. Finally, a zig-zag test turning quickly first to port and then to starboard, and then a zig-zag test turning quickly first to starboard and then to port. These tests were also conducted in ac- cordance with a Graeco-Latin Square Design. None of the boats had any difficulty performing these tests. The afternoon was devoted to a relatively un- structured familiarization and training exercise in waves. Crews switched from boat to boat, but a strict round robin was not followed. Wednesday morning was devoted to a series of towing tests. Each of the RHIBs took the 30 FT SRB under stern tow, from the Coast Guard Station, out the channel, into waves and returned. Upon returning to the area of the Coast Guard Station, each RHIB took the 30 FT SRB under side tow, and brought the boat alongside the dock. None of the RHIBs had any trouble towing. The operational evaluation program was secured after lunch because the water was too calm. Speed versus RPM tests were run on each of the RHIBs, and some noise level measurements were made on Wednesday afternoon. Thursday morning was spent evaluating the ease with which people can be recovered from the surf using the RHIBs and the 30 FT SRB. Each boat pra- cticed maintaining a heading in the surf, and then went in to retrieve a dummy. This was done in ac- cordance with a Graeco-Latin Square design. At the end of the round robin a volunteer went into the water three times, and was rescued in turn by each of the RHIBs. The RHIBs were vastly superior to the 30 FT SRB for pulling people out of the water. Thursday afternoon each of the boats left the fuel dock, ran out the channel and crossed the Columbia River Bar to run in deep water in areas around the sea buoy. A bank of vertical accelera- tion counters was mounted on each of two Stokes litters, which in turn were mounted on the Avon 6 Meter, and the Arctic 24 RHIBs. Each of the RHIBs did a practice Stokes litter hoist with a Coast Guard helicopter. Friday morning the weather was foul. Each of the boats left the fuel dock, ran down the channel and out into open water. The boats rendezvoused with a 44 Foot Motor Life Boat, which acted as a safety and rescue boat, and returned to the dock. A bank of vertical acceleration counters was mount- ed on each of two Stokes litters, which in turn were mounted on the Pacific 22 and the 30 FT SRB. We had planned to switch crews and make another run, but rain squalls limited visibility and we stopped testing. Friday afternoon was spent filling out ques- tionnaires and discussing the capabilities of the RHIB for search and rescue work in the breaking, bar, surf environment. The men were enthusiastic about the RHIBs. ENGINEERING TEST RESULTS A short series of tests were run in which the speed (MPH) of each RHIB was measured at a series of engine speeds (RPM). The tests were run in calm water, in two directions, and the average speed calculated. Speed is reported in MPH rather than knots because it was measured with a radar gun which was calibrated in MPH. 2000 3000 4000 ENGINE RPM 6000 Figure 3. Speed Versus Engine RPM for all Test Boats The results of the tests are presented in Figure 3. The curve drawn through the 30 Foot SRB data is a second degree polynomial, least squares fit. The curves drawn through the data for each of the RHIBs came from a single master curve which was drawn through all of the RHIB data. The master curve, shown in Figure 4, was drawn on the basis of the following hypothesis. The engine speeds of the various RHIBs at any planing speed are in common ratio, e.g. at 20 MPH, the Pacific 22 engine RPM = 0.772 x the Avon 6 Meter engine RPH, and the Arctic 24 Engine RPM = 1.044 x the Avon 6 Meter Engine RPM. It is felt that, in a gross sense, this master curve indicates that we were testing variations of the same basic rigid hull inflatable boat. The performance of the Arctic 24 RHIB appears to fall off at an engine speed between 5000 RPM and 5500 RPM. The pro- pellers probably started to cavitate at this point. 161 - so so 20 10 LEGEND AVON 6 METER RHIB ▲ PACIFIC 22 RHIB □ ARCTIC 24 RHIB 1000 2000 3000 4000 ADJUSTED ENGINE RPM BOOO • 000 Figure 4. Master Curve for RHIBs Noise level measurements were made on each boat. The measurements were made in order to pro- vide an objective standard of comparison for use in evaluating the reasonableness of the coxswain's and crewmen's answers to questions about noise. They were not made to provide definitive noise level values for the boats. Unfortunately, the sound level meters were not equipped with a wind screen. 110 CO SO 40 SO 20 RHIB PRE- PLANING I REGION I RHIB PLANING REGION ( I ._._-..- LEGEND AVON • METER RHIB PACIFIC 22 RHIB ARCTIC 24 RHIB SOFT. SRB _l_ 10 20 30 40 SPEEO OF THE BOAT (MPH) SO Figure 5. Noise Level Versus Speed of the Boat The noise levels measured are presented in Figure 5. Two regions have been defined for the RHIBs: A RHIB pre-planing region, and a RHIB planing region. Data taken at speeds below 12.5 MPH (10.9 knots) falls into the pre-planing reg- ion. Data taken at speeds equal to, or greater than, 12.5 MPH falls into the planing region. Two, discontinuous, solid lines have been drawn through all of the RHIB data. The lines were fitted to the data by the method of least squares-one for the pre-planing region, and one for the planing region. A single dotted line connects all of the 30 FT SRB data. The noise level for the RHIBs increases with the speed of the boat, in the pre-planing region, as the boats work to climb up on plane. The noise level then drops sharply as the boat begins to plane. The noise level increases with speed, once again, as the boat continues to plane. Note that there is no appreciable difference between the noise level for a RHIB, at a given speed, and the type of engine used for propulsion. Although the sound level measurements made during these tests were not definitive, there is reason to believe that a noise exposure problem may exist for any of the boats operated at speeds in excess of 25 MPH (21.7 knots). The safe and comfortable transportation of injured victims is an important aspect of ad- equately performing the search and rescue mis- sions. Therefore, the vertical accelerations that a victim in a Stokes litter would experience were measured during the bar crossings on Thursday, 25 February 1982 and Friday, 26 February 1982. Sea conditions were worse on Friday than they were on Thursday. The surf was building to 12 foot break- ers in the open water by the end of the day on Thursday, while some 15 foot breaking waves were encountered on Friday. TABL1 1. VUTICAL ACCXLERATIOH DATA FOR TH1 OSBORtn ARCTIC 24 RHIB Rang* of Acceleration Fr*qu*ncy of Oceurranc* Probability of Oceurranc* Cwulativ* Probability 1 «9'a * 2 2 da'a* 3 J *S» , » *~* 6 ij'l «l e a *9's«i2 12 Ml'm 419 116 55 21 11 4 1 0.66S3 0.1850 0.0877 0.0315 0.0175 0.0064 0.0016 0.6683 0.8533 0*.0410 0.9745 0.9920 0.9984 1.0000 total mnont or counts - 627. DATA TAKES 2S PXBRUAKI 1982. The vertical acceleration data taken on Thursday for the Arctic 24 is presented in Table 1. The Arctic 24 was traveling at about 27 MPH on Thursday. Vertical acceleration data taken on Friday for the 30 FT SRB is presented in Table 2. The 30 FT SRB was traveling at about 19 MPH on Friday. It is significant that the number of acceleration counts registered on the 30 FT SRB is an order of magnitude lower than that registered on the Arctic 24. Note that a small number of counts for accelerations equal to, or greater than, 8 g's were registed on both boats. This was true on all boats. One count of an acceleration equal to, or greater than, 12 g's was registered on the Arctic 24. Two such counts were registered on the Pacific 22. - 162 TABLE 2' VERTICAL ACCELERATION DATA •OB THE USCS 30 FOOT 8RB Rang* of Frequency of Probability Cunulatlve acceleration Occurrinc* of Occurrence Probability X « «'■ «: 2 29 0.5918 0.5918 2 ef »"■ * 3 7 0.1429 0.7347 3 < g'e * 4 7 0.1429 0.8776 4 4 q'm * 6 1 0.0204 0.8980 3 0.0612 0.9592 Kl'l'U 2 0.0408 1.0000 12 4 g's 0.0000 1.0000 TOTAL NUMBER or COUNTS • 49. DAT* TaXEN ON 26 rEBRUAKl 1982. The exi stance of levels of acceleration as high as 8 or 12 g's not only raises the pos- sibility of further injury to the victims being transported during a search and rescue mission, they pose problems for the crew. The measured values can be supported by theoretical cal- culations and they are believed to be valid. The only way to prevent these high values of ac- celeration, is to reduce the speed at which the boats travel . RESULTS FROM QUESTIONNAIRES Two types of questionnaires were developed. The first made use of a four category rating scheme where respondents were asked to rate a characteristic as either excellent, good, satisfactory, or poor; and simple yes or no responses. The second type of questionnaire was designed to force each rater to rank order the test boats from one to four with instructions that there should be no ties. Two non-parametric tests were chosen to analyze the data. The first type of questionnaire was analyzed using the Chi -Square statistic. In addition, the median response was computed for each question and used to compare statistically significant responses. For the second type of questionnaire, a program was written which computed the Kendell Coefficient of Concordance, W. This statistic is essentially a non-parametric correlation coefficient which assumes a value from zero to one, where zero indicates no correlation and one indicates a maximum correlation. The results of the questionnaire analysis are presented accordinging to category and not specific questionnaires. Only statistically significant responses are discussed. Maneuverability and Steering: The only significant responses were in regards to bow on docking and astern maneuverability. In both cases the Pacific 22 and the 30' SRB were rated less than the two outboards. Power and Speed: Initially, in the Familiarization and Training period, there was a significant response to the question relating to acceleration; both from a dead stop and when underway. Again, there was a break between the diesels and the outboards; the outboards being preferred. During man overboard trials (Scenario I) there was no significant difference noted between the boats. The median scores are close and there is no break between diesels and outboards. Human Factors: The largest number of questions with significant responses were in the human factors sections. The questions are discussed by category below: a) Visibility: Both the coxswains and crewman found the near visibility of the SRB to be poor. The coxswains noted the Pacific 22 to be satisfactory but the other RHI's good to excellent. b) Accessibility of Electronics: The coxswains rated the SRB as poor, the two RHI's with electronics as excellent. c) Feeling of Comfort and Security: Following the Quick Turn/Zig-Zag maneuvers, the crewman indicated that they felt in danger of being thrown overboard. d) Man Overboard Retrieval: With regard to Gunwale Height and Ease of Retrieval the RHI median scores indicated a rating of "good" while the SRB was reated "satisfactory". The Boat Comparsion Que intended to force each rate boats according to personal Initially, significant resu the questions dealing with keeping and acceleration, rated the boats in the foil visibility: (1) Avon 6M, ( Pacific 22 and (4) SRB. Fo coxswains rated the boats ( Arctic 24, (3) Avon 6 M and acceleration (1) Avon 6 M, and (4) Pacific 22. stionnaires were r to rank order the preference. Its were found only in visibility, course Both coxswain and crew owing order for 2) Arctic 24, (3) r course keeping, the 1) Pacific 22, (2) (4) SRB. And for the (2) Arctic 24, (3) SRB For victim retrieval, both the coxswains and crewmen were in agreement and rated the boats by preference (1) Pacific 22, (2) Arctic 24, (3) Avon 6 M and (4) SRB. For size preference there was no agreement among the crewmen but the rating given by the coxswains was (1) Pacific 22, (2) Arctic 24, (3) SRB and (4) Avon 6M. The question relating to noise yielded an interesting result. They agree with the decibal measurements taken while the boats were operating a, id show that at least in terms of perceived noise level there is no noticeable difference among the boats. CONCLUSION The present state-of-the-art for the RHIB affords the Coast Guard a major opportunity to extend its operational effectiveness beyond its present state. The RHIB can become an extremely valuable resource. It is a fast, highly maneuverable and extremely seaworthy boat. - 163 A SEAKEEPING ANALYSIS OF SURFACE EFFECT SHIPS Peter J. BOYD, LT, USCG, Thomas J. Coe, LT, USCG and Ian Grunther, LTJG, USCG Commandant (G-DMT-2/54), U. S. Coast Guard 2100 Second Street, S. W. Washington, D. C. 20593 ABSTRACT Seakeeping data on Surface indicate two major ride quality The crafts tested have excel 1 en stability at all speeds; howeve erations are quite severe in hi The Coast Guard is concerned wi vertical accelerations and eval on both crew fatigue and crew p tive plans are progressing to i ride-control system onboard an attenuate vertical motions and mission effectiveness of the ve tion. INTRODUCTION Effect Ships (SES) characteristics, t roll and pitch r, vertical accel- gh speed ranges, th defining SES uating their effect roficiency. Tenta- nstall a digital operational SES to improve the overall ssel/crew combina- The Coast Guard operates a division of surface effect ships in Key West, Florida. The SES div- ision consists of three vessels. Two of these vessels have been operating for about six months and the third vessel was scheduled for delivery on 17 June 1983. These boats are being used for drug interdiction in the Gulf of Mexico and Florida coastal area. This paper looks at SES motions (primarily vertical accelerations) in head seas. Recent re- search has attempted to link ship motion with mo- tion sickness and crew fatigue. Most of this re- search has concentrated on motions in the 0.1 to 1.0 HZ range. Many studies have proposed fatigue boundary limits in this range, but no one method has ever been universally accepted. The SES at low speed responds to wave encounters in low fre- quencies (0.1 - 0.6 HZ the motion sickness range). However, the area of concern for the SES is at high speeds where we can expect the worst motions. SES motions in head seas, above a hump speed of 19 to 22 KTS, occur at a relatively "high" frequency of 1.8 to 2.0 HZ. Vibrations in this frequency range cause human fatigue. Reference 1 details acceptable vibration limits for fatigue and ex- posure in the 1.0 to 80.0 HZ range. It is important to ensure that SES ride qual- ity does not cause fatigue and reduce crew ef- ficiency. The ride quality of the SES can be char- acterized by comparing vertical accelerations a- gainst recommended limits. No attempt has been made to compare SES ride quality to other vessels operating in similar environments. HEAVE ENERGY Figure 1 shows the dramatic shift of heave energy from 0.4 to 1.8 HZ with a speed increase from 22 to 28 KTS. This figure also shows how the SES response is not dominated by a single fre- quency like a conventional craft. The SES is characterized by a response over a spectrum of frequencies. The one-third highest heave accelera- tions, corresponding with this speed change, in- crease from 0.2 to 0.4 G's. HEAVE SPECTRUM CGC SHEARWATER (USES 3) HERO SEAS 2.5 FEET SPEED 28 KNOTS HERD SERS 2.S FEET SPEED 22 KNOTS (HUMP SPEED) Figure 1. Heave Spectrums (G's RMS). Severe motions in the range of 1 to 80 HZ cause human fatigue and eventual loss of pro- ficiency over a period of time. The SES heave motions are within this range and future research should consider the possible degradation of crew safety and mission effectiveness. The relatively "high" frequency (1.8 HZ) and intensity of whole body vertical accelerations (0.4 G's at 28 kts head seas) are most likely related to the natural frequency of the vessel on cushion above hump speed. The heave energy was reduced to 0.2 G's and shifted downward to the wave encounter fre- quency (0.4 HZ) when the vessel reduced speed to 22 kts. At this speed the vessel responds more like a conventional displacement hull craft, and consequently ship motions fall within the motion sickness frequency range (0.1-0.6 HZ). The shift of heave energy with change of speed, which is most pronounced in head seas, was also observed when transiting at all other headings relative to 164 - the sea direction. The magnitude of this shift can be seen by com- paring the root mean square (rms) power lost in a 1 HZ band centered around the 1.8 HZ peak prevalent at 28 kts that disappears at 22 kts. Heave power in that band decreased 88% when speed was reduced from 28 to 22 kts in head seas (Figure 2 and 3). In addition, the power concentrated at 1.8 HZ is very dependent on sea direction as well. There was a 67% decrease of heave rms power when the vessel changed relative headings from head seas to bow quartering seas at 28 kts (Figure 2 and 4). UAVI tf~U 2i ku tair: 4.8762110 Mt«i ram »• »• aotw ■ It rapraaaDta th« araa un4ar tka cur». ta»H> tka v. tt leal llnaa. Figure 3. Heave Spectrum (G's RMS). In Figure 4 it is interesting to note that there are two frequencies where power appears to peak. The peak at J. 25 HZ corresponds to an ex- pected frequency of encounter with the seas off the bow quarter. The peak at 1.8 HZ is once again related to the natural frequency of the vessel when on cushion above hump. This peak is probably caused by an interaction between the natural fre- quency of the vessel and the frequency of en- counter. N A KM ■faaal 21 at a lai all law Quattaf ►car: 2.2MI • 10' 1 tola: KWI It mi aouar (ft rat) . It ranraiantt lha traa uodar tlM curva baUaaaa tlw ««rtlctl llaat. r — r_ a 1 i , — 2 1 , i " i i i J a » » ' I Figure 4. Heave Spectrum (G's RMS). MOTIONS Figure 5 shows curves of SES vertical accelerations for various sea state. These curves were generated by a regression analysis using data taken from CG testing and data presented in ref- erences 2 and 3. The trends exhibited by Figure 5 confirm the rise in acceleration levels that we expect with increasing sea state and speed. The severity of accelerations in sea state (signifi- cant wave height of 0.2 ft or less) at speeds a- bove hump is noteworthy. These accelerations are probably the result of a small sea state with sho- rter wavelengths driving up the frequency of en- counter to somewhere near the natural frequency of the SES in heave (1.8 HZ). The level of accelera- tions experienced above hump speed in sea state 2 or larger is also of significance and may be cause for concern. e. as 8.2 0.15 0.1 .85 . USCC SEABIRD CLASS SES HEAUE-HEAD SEAS 10 15 SPEED (KTS) Figure 5. 110-FT SES Vertical Accelerations (G's RMS), The frequency of response for the SES in heave has been shown to shift dramatically with high sp- 165 eed operations. As the response frequency in- creases beyond 1.0 HZ the level of accelerations become more critical in regards to human exposure to whole-body vibration. Reference 1 places an increased emphasis on vibrations that approach the frequency of the human body (standing - 5.0 HZ). This leads us to believe that SES heave motions may carry a higher weight (i.e. may be more crit- ical) than motions from a conventional displace- ment hull craft because of the higher frequency response of the SES in heave. At the same time when we characterize SES vertical accelerations using the rms evaluation method we may be under- estimating their severity. Vibrations having a high crest factor (i.e. greater than 3) are often underestimated using the rms evaluation method. These vibrations are expected to occur with the SES when the forward cushion vents as a result of the right combination of sea state and speed. RIDE CONTROL SYSTEM As the SES operates in a seaway, the waves pu- mp the cushion volume. This causes the cushion pressures, which support the craft, to rise and fall inducing heave motions. Figure 6 illustrates how the ride control system modulates cushion pre- ssure to reduce heave. The ride control system uses cushion pressure as a feedback variable. In low sea states vertical accelerations and cushion pressure are directly proportional. Various con- trol laws can be instituted for various sea states. Typically, the control laws are designed to vent air to the atmosphere to counteract a wave induced pressure rise. The U. S. Navy in concert with Maritime Dynamics, Inc. has shown that signifi- cant improvement in SES habitability can be ex- pected using ride control. Test results from ride control installations on the XR-1D and the SES-200 have been encouraging. _nra ^ -S. ^CZ Figure 6. Illustration of Ride Control System Operation. The CG 110 FT SES experiences high vertical accelerations in relatively calm seas. Figure 7 shows the frequency of occurrence of different waveheights for the Gulf of Mexico and Southeast United States. This data was taken from reference 4. For this area there is a 60% probability that the expected waveheight will be less than 3.3 FT. Likewise, there is a 90% probability that the wave- heights encountered will be less than 6.6 FT. In this environment a ride control system would be ex- tremely effective. Reductions in heave on the order of 50% could be expected in sea state 3 or lower. And a reduction of 30-40% could probably be expected for sea state 4 conditions. GULF OF MEXICO AND SOUTHEAST U. S. ANNUAL SEA CONDITIONS lee X TIME LESS THAN Figure 7. Annual Sea Condition. Assuming vertical accelerations to be the best criteria for SES ride quality, a ride control sys- tem could maximize the effectiveness of a CG SES performing its assigned mission in its intended environment. The most jarring motion for an SES occurs when the bow crests over an oncoming wave. As this occurs the forefoot comes out of the water and the cushion vents to atmosphere. This action causes a large amplitude spike to occur as the cushion pre- ssure is lost and builds back up again. An ef- fective ride control system would reduce the fre- quency of this occurrence. Additional ride ben- efits will occur such as better flow to the prop- eller due to less broaching and an ability to bet- ter maintain speed in a seaway due to a reduction in pitch and heave. Reduction in motion will par- tially offset the loss of speed (calm water) as- sociated with ride control usage. CONCLUSION Crew comfort, safety and mission effectiveness are primary concerns. The implication of severe motions causing crew fatigue, adversely effecting health and safety, and decreasing performance can- not be ignored. Preventative measures such as ride control have to be investigated. Some un- desirable motions can be accepted when we send our crews out in severe weather. On a military vessel we can expect to compromise crew comfort in per- forming certain missions. However, crew fatigue and decreased proficiency should be addressed whenever possible. The CG Office of Research and Development is continuing full-scale SES testing trying to shed light on these areas of concern. Future testing will be involved with looking at various motions and trying to identify and control the forcing - 166 function behind the motion. Current emphasis is on assessing the capabilities and potential for a ride control system onboard a CG SES. REFERENCE 1 Armed Forces System Command DH1-3, "Human 3. Blakely, Gary T. "SES-110 Acceptance and Ev- ? C r 1hF&. Depart of th. Air Force, „u.t1 ^Trt .1 £- ? J*V> ? «J»»-ffi»^.. do June i you. -mat June 1981 . 2 SDanqler, Peter K., "Test and Evaluation of ( the Bell Halter 110 Foot Surface Effect Ship Dem- 4. National Climatic Data Center, Climatic Sum- onstration Craft", Naval Sea Systems Command Det- maries for NOAA Data Buoys , U. S. Department of achment, Norfolk, Virginia, February 1981. Commerce, January 1983. - 167 NEW TECHNOLOGIES FOR SEARCH AND RESCUE CDR. JAMES R. WHITE U.S. COAST GUARD The United States Coast Guard Office of Research and Development has been actively investigating the use of new technologies to improve its Search and Rescue capabilities. Major projects underway include, development of an all weather, day/night, multi sensor system for the HU-25A medium range search aircraft; development of Forward Looking Infrared systems for both ships and helicopters; and investigation of a satellite aided Search and Rescue system. Taken together these systems have the potential of dramatically improving our ability to locate vessels and downed aircraft in distress. Initial testing has already resulted in many successful rescues. AIREYE AIREYE is the designation of an advanced ocean surveillance system that is currently being developed for the HU-25A medium range search aircraft. It is a multi-sensor system that includes a Side Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR), infrared/ultraviolet linescanner, reconnaissance film camera, Active Gated Television (AGTV), airborne data annotation system, and a control and display console. Current plans are to acquire six AIREYE sensing systems, which will have the capability to detect and identify vessels and detect and map oil spills. The aircraft are modified Falcon 20G (military designation HU-25A) , which are currently being purchased by the Coast Guard. The first of 41" aircraft was delivered in early 1982. SIDE LOOKING AIRBORNE RADAR (SLAR) The SLAR to be integrated into the AIREYE system is a new generation of the AN/APS-94 SLAR which has been in the Department of Defense inventory for 15 years in various versions. It was manufactured by Motorola Incorporated and has been designated as AN/APS-131 .The SLAR has been the backbone of past generation Coast Guard integrated sensor systems, and is expected to continue as the "key" sensor in the system. The operating characteristics which distinquish the SLAR as the prime AIREYE sensor are: a. Long Range - Detection of discrete targets depends upon their radar cross secton. A 1 square meter radar cross section would be equivalent to a small boat or life raft, 10 square meters to a cabin cruiser and 100 square meters is equivalent to a small cargo ship. Small boats and life rafts should be detected at ranges up to 22 nautical miles on each side of the aircraft, Cabin Cruisers up to 39 nautical miles and small cargo ships up to 68 nautical miles. In addition, the SLAR is useful for detecting oil slicks. Oil slick detection range with the new generation AIREYE SLAR is estimated to be between 24 and 40 km depending on sea state and aircraft altitude. This could provide an oil detection swath width of up to 80 km. b. All-Weather Day/Night Operation- the SLAR can produce good imagery in most weather conditions and is unaffected by clouds or darkness. Since the detecion of oil slicks by SLAR depends on the damping of capillary waves by the oil, slicks normally cannot be detected by SLAR on flat calm seas or on very heavy seas. c. Wide Area Mapping - The output imagery of the SLAR is a wide area map on 23 centimeter dry-silver film, and video for presentation on the Multi-purpose Display. INFRARED/ULTRAVIOLET (IR/UV) LINE SCANNER The IR/UV line scanner has a two fold purpose on AIREYE. It is used to scan the area directly below the aircraft that is missed by the SLAR. In addition, targets detected by the SLAR can be overflown and imaged by the IR/UV line scanner. With data from three portions of the electromagnetic spectrum (SLAR, IR, UV), wake scars and kelp beds can be differentiated from oil slicks. The output imagery from the line scanner will be recorded on film and also can be shown in real time on the multi-purpose display. The optical/mechanical portion of the line scanner will be pod mounted from the starboard wing of the HU-25A. - 168 AERIAL RECONNAISSANCE CAMERA The Aerial Reconnaissance Camera will be a KS-87B camera which is presently in Department of Defense inventory. It is produced by Chicago Aerial Industries and is a pulse operated frame camera containing interchangeable lens cones, high speed focal plane shutter, integral automatic exposure control, data recording and forward motion compensation. The film handling system will be a combination cassette-magazine drive capable of operation with full 150 meter (m) standard film spools. An optical window in the HU-25A will permit operation of the camera in two positions, either vertical or 30° below horizontal. Table 4 lists detailed camera characteristics. ACTIVE GATED TELEVISION (AGTV) The AGTV sensor is required to provide nighttime identification of vessels and their activities. It was developed by General Electric 's Aerospace Electronic Systems Department in Utica, New York. The AGTV is a small, light weight, low power, system that will be pod mounted under the left wing of the aircraft. It will have a 39 cm turret with a stabilized pointing system. In the passive mode, it will function as a low light level television and have a maximum field of view of 18°. It will be capable of detecting deck lights of 320 candella at a range of 21 Kilometers (km). As the aircraft approaches the ship at approximately 150 m altitude and a speed of 250 km/hr, the field of view is reduced to 6.5° and finally to 2.3°. At a slant range of 4 km, the AGTV is switched to the active mode, and at this range small ships (6 X 18m) can be observed. In the Active mode, illumination is provided by a 0.8 watt, pulsed gallium arsenide laser operating at 855 nanometers (nm). At a slant range of 500 meters, 35cm. high letters can be resolved and 20cm. high letters are readable at 300 m. The imagery will be presented on the AIREYE multipurpose display and recorded on a video tape recorder. This will enable the operator to play back the passes on the ship and "freeze" a frame to identify it. CONTROL DISPLAY AND RECORD CONSOLE (CDRC) The CDRC is the control point for the integrated sensor system. The "heart" of the CDRC is the sensor computer. The sensor computer will perform the following primary functions: 1. Automatic pointing of the Active Gated Television. 2. Generation of a map displaying search and target positions. 3. Implementation of display and control functions . 4. Digital interface of the Data Annotation Sytem to the Aircraft Data Buss. 5. Monitoring of sensor and system performance and failure alerting. The display functions which will be available to the sensor operator at the console are: 1. Real-time imagery from the Side Looking Airborne Radar, Infrared Linescanner, or Ultraviolet Linescanner displayed in the form of a moving map in the Multi-purpose Display. 2. Real-time Television imagery will also be available on the Multi-purpose Display. 3. A computer generated map can be called up by the Control and Display Unit and presented on the Multi-purpose Display. It will depict relative positions of up to 10 Search Radar Targets and 10 Aircraft Waypoints. 4. A cursor, displayed as a unique symbol, such as a triangle, will be used to designate important targets. The Sensor System Operator will be able to move the cursor anywhere on the Multi-purpose Display using the trackball. 5. A vector can be displayed as a line with one end fixed, normally at the sensor aircraft position, and the other end varying with the cursor. 6. Full resolution stop action/frame freeze recording and playback of any video displayed on the Multi-purpose display will permit frame-by-frame examination of the imagery. In addition to the individual sensor functions, the AIREYE computer will have on board image processing capabilities to improve the probability of correctly detecting marine targets and idenifying vessels. AIREYE OPERATIONS - The AIREYE system will be a powerful tool for search and rescue. The SLAR will allow swath widths up to 44 nautical miles for life rafts and small boats and up to 136 nautical miles for small cargo ships. Vast ocean areas can be searched with probabilities of detection of over 90% in much shorter time than visual searches. Once a target is detected it can be observed and its activity recorded on video tape. This will enable positive identification of the target in either day or night. SARSAT The U. S. Coast Guard is also actively investigating the use of satellites to improve distress alerting and locating for search and rescue. 169 In 1976, joint U. S. and Canadian efforts defined a mission to demonstrate a satellite-aided SAR system which had been designated SARSAT (Search and Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking). During 1977, France's Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES) became a participant in the SARSAT joint demonstration project. In August 1980, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics also became a member in a joint COSPAS/SARSAT project team and, during June 1982, they sucessfully launched a COSPAS satellite into orbit. Since then Norway has also joined the SARSAT team and England is considering becoming a participant. The SARSAT program will use the U. S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) E, F, and G spacecraft in the TIROS-N spacecraft series to provide a repeater for the detection and locaton of ELT/EPIRB's. The first SARSAT satellite was launched into orbit on 28 March 1983 and began tests on 1 May 1983. The objective of the SARSAT project is to demonstrate and evaluate the capability of satellite-aided search and rescue system to improve monitoring, detection, and location of distress incidents alerted by ELT/EPIRB's carried on commercial, military, and general aviation aircraft, and some marine vessels. The goal is to reduce the notification time that an ELT/EPIRB has been activated and to reduce the search time through accurate position information. Since being launched into orbit, the Soviet COSPAS satellite has validated the SARSAT concept with the relay of distress information to SARSAT receiving sites which has led to the rescue of 23 persons. SARSAT SYSTEM CONCEPT The SARSAT system provides two modes of operation, a local or regional coverage mode and a global mode. Spacecraft instrumentation consists of a three-band repeater for the regional coverage system, and a receiver and pre-processor for the global coverage system. In the regional coverage system, the spaceborne repeater relays distress alerts in real-time, which may be transmitted from existing 121.5/243 MHz ELT/EPIRB's presently carried by aircraft and vessels, to local user terminal (LUT) ground stations. The regional system will also include a spaceborne repeater for real-time relay of experimental ELT/EPIRB's which will operate in the 406 MHz band. The regional coverage system requires mutual visibility among the ELT/EPIRB and the satellite, and the ground receiving station and the satellite. Position information can then be determined from the Doppler profiles between the ELT/EPIRB's and an 850 to 1000 km altitude, polar-orbiting satellite tracked by the ground system. This information will then be forwarded to a Mission Control Center and the appropriate rescue coordination center (RCC). The full-orbit global coverage SARSAT system will operate only with the experimental 406 MHz ELT/EPIRB's. This system will provide global coverage by storing information, which is received from a 406 MHz ELT/EPIRB distress alert transmission, aboard the satellite in view of the ELT/EPIRB. When the satellite orbits into visibility with a ground station, the on-board stored information is transmitted on command to a NOAA Control and Data Acquisition (CDA) ground station which forwards the distress alert information to an MCC for dissemination to RCC's. For the global coverage mode, the spacecraft on-board instrumentation includes a 406 MHz receiver and a pre-processor which computes and time-tags the Doppler profile relating to the ELT/EPIRB position and stores this information. Recovery and storage of the distress alert data from the 406 MHz ELT/EPIRB transmission is also performed on-board the spacecraft, as described later. This system will also work in real-time if there is mutual visibility with the ground station. The key elements of the SARSAT system are: 1. NOAA TIROS-N Series Spacecraft 2. A satellite-borne repeater for the existing ELT/EPIRBs (121.5 and 243 MHz) 3. A satellite-borne receiver and pre-processor for the experimental (406 MHz) ELT/EPIRB 4. An experimental 406 MHz ELT/EPIRB 5. Local User Terminals (LUT) 6. Mission Control Centers (MCC) Ground Processing Stations Local User Terminals (LUT). When the spacecraft comes into view of a LUT, the LUT receives the phase modulated L-band downlink from the satellite. At the LUT, special processing will be used to search for the weak 121.5/243 MHz signals. Once the signal is detected, its frequency is recovered and time tagged. This time tagged Doppler information, in conjunction with the spacecraft orbit information, is used to calculate the ELT/EPIRB position. The position information is then sent to the appropriate Mission Control Center for transmission to the Rescue Coordination Center. Mission Control Centers The Mission Control Centers (MCC) will be responsible for; 170 Mor nitoring overall SARSAT status in their area Receiving stored 406MHz data and ephemeris data Distributing the ephemeris data to the LUTs Processing stored 406MHz data to determine ELT/EPIRB location Distributing ELT/EPIRB location information to RCCs ACCURACY The location accuracy of an ELT/EPIRB is governed by many factors, one of which is the geometry between the ELT/EPIRB and the spacecraft. Additionally, various frequency error sources affect the ability to measure the received frequency. These include at least the following seven items: . Reference Oscillator Drift . ELT/EPIRB Oscillator Drift . ELT/EPIRB Altitude Uncertainty Ionospheric Effects, RF Link Interference or Noise, Measurement Precision, and Ephemeris Knowledge Performance analysis indicates that the SARSAT 121.5/243 MHz system will be able to detemine position to within 10-20 km (rms). Initial experiences with the COSPAS satellite reveal that the position determining accuracy has been on the order of 12 miles for 121.5/243 MHz. The 406 MHz system will be able to locate an ELT/EPIRB to within 2-5 Km (rms). The U. S. Coast Guard Office of Research and Development is conducting an extensive evaluation of the SARSAT system to determine its actual performance as an operational system. Commencing with the satellite launch, NASA began a three month system checkout. For the next two years, the Coast Guard will conduct a number of tests concentrating on the assessment of SARSAT's ability to detect and locate 121.5, 243, and 406 MHz EPIRB signals. Specifically the evaluation period is designed to: Demonstrate the ability of the SARSAT system to identify, process, and determine the location of single and multiple 121.5/243 MHz and 406 MHz EPIRB's in the regional mode of operation. Determine the degree to which the SARSAT system may reduce times between initial incidence occurrence and visual sighting of the distress incident. Evaluate the degree to which 121.5/243 MHz EPIRB assisted SAR operations may be improved by SARSAT. Demonstrate the ability of the SARSAT system to identify, process and determine the location of single and multiple 406 MHz EPIRB in global mode of operation. Compare the demonstrated performance of the 406 MHz EPIRB with that of the 121.5/243 MHz EPIRB with respect to both SAR and SARSAT system performance parameters. Evaluate the potential improvements in future SAR operations using 406 MHz EPIRB's. Determine the communications requirements necessary to utilize SARSAT effectively in an operational environment. . Characterize SARSAT system performance parameters . . Determine cost benefits/disadvantages due to SARSAT. Determine the increase/decrease in Coast Guard workload produced. Evaluate recurring costs or operating SARSAT ground system network and facilities, equipment reliability and maintenance requirements . The evaluation commenced in the fall of 1982 with the launch of the Soviet COSMOS 1,383. That satellite has been credited with saving more than 15 persons in downed aircraft and maritime accidents. Coverage has been increased with the launch of the United States' satellite N0AA 8 on 28 March 1983 and another COSMOS satellite in spring 1983. First Successful SARSAT Rescue. On 9 September 1982, the Canadian rescue requested that the Canadian Mission Control Center assist them in their search for an overdue aircraft. The next day the SARSAT Mission Control Center reported detecting a signal. Its location was in an area that had already been searched and there were no plans to conduct additional search efforts there. Responding to the SARSAT information, the downed aircraft was located in a deep ravine surrounded by 8,000 foot mountains on each. The 3 persons were rescued at a position only 14 miles NW of 171 - the position predicted by SARSAT. They were reported to be in a weaken condition and probably would not have survived another night. FLIR One of the largest obstacles to conducting an effective search has been the onset of darkness. Night searches have historically been ineffective, unless the vessel or persons in distress were equipped with lights or pyrotecnic devices. The U. S. Coast Guard has equipped some helicopters with powerful search lights, but they have been of limited value. However, it now appears that the rapidly improving technology of night vision devices is clearing away the cloak of darkness. In addition to the Active Gated Television system that was discussed earlier as part of the AIREYE system, the U. S. Cost Guard Office of Research and Development is also investigating the use of Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR) sensors for search and rescue applications. In conjunction with Northrop Corporation, the Coast Guard has developed a prototype FLIR system that has been installed on an HH-52A helicopter. Additionally, an inexpensive "off-the shelf" FLIR has been installed on an HH-52A helicopter for test and evaluation, and plans are under development to test and evaluate a shipboard installed FLIR in the near future. Coast Guard/Northrop FLIR development The Coast Guard Northrop FLIR has been designed specifically for the search and rescue mission. It is attached to a support on the nose of the aircraft and is enclosed in a turret assembly that is 16 inches in diameter and weighs about 85 pounds. It will slew at 180°/second and has gimbal limits of +30° and - 80° in elevation and plus or minus 90° in azimuth. A stow mode is also provided whereby the FLIR window is rotated upward for stowing under the turret support structure. This protects the optics from damage during take-offs and landings, and because most Coast Guard flying is done at low altitudes over the water, the FLIR is further protected from water damage. Complete submersion of the turret will not damage the FLIR. The FLIR provides two fields of view (FOV) - Wide and Narrow. The Wide Field of View (WFOV) has an elevation of 30° and an azimuth of 40°. This view is a compromise between viewed area and detail. The viewed area should be large enough to permit a reasonable time to cover a search area and still be detailed enough to enable a person in the water to be seen. A second FOV is provided to for more detail. This Narrow Field of view (NFOV) is 10° elevation by 13.3° azimuth which is a magnification of three and gives much better detail. The procedure is to use the WFOV for location and NFOV for identification. Two monitors are furnished for the helicopter crew. A 10" display is located in the cabin and a 5" display in the cockpit. Each monitor has its own handgrip control which enables the crewman and the copilot to manipulate the FLIR. The monitors have symbology that shows: 1. What station has FLIR control 2. The track windows 3. NFOV limits when WFOV is selected 4. Gimbal limits of turret 5. Direction the FLIR is pointing in relation to nose of aircraft. EXPERIENCE The FLIR equipped helicopter has been in operation since July 1981. During this period it has proven highly reliable and effective. Two days after the Coast Guard formally accepted the FLIR from Northrop, it was used at night to locate a 10 foot Boston Whaler that had been blown out to sea. The helicopter crew sighted the small boat on the FLIR long before they could see it visually. They could actually see the persons in the boat waving their arms! A second rescue involved locating a capsized boat with three people on-board. This rescue occurred at midnight with 1/4 mile visibility and with a 4000 ft ceiling. The crewman, using the cabin display, located the overturned vessel within 30 minutes after arriving on scene, and vectored the helicopter to the capsized position. The pilots never visually saw the victims until the helicopter was in hovering over them. SRR FLIR Program Based upon the successful FLIR demonstration on the HH-52A, the Coast Guard has decided to equip each of its 90 new HH-65A Short Range Recovery (SRR) helicopters with FLIR systems. The HH-65A helicopters, manufactured by Aerospatial in Grand Prairie, Texas, are scheduled for delivery beginning late 1983. The Office of Research and Development plans to release a request for proposals in the summer of 1983 to develop a prototype high performance FLIR for the HH-65A. A contract will be awarded in FY84 to each of the two highest rated proposers to develop prototype systems. A "fly off" will be conducted between the two prototypes prior to the award of a production contract . The HH-65A FLIR will be a high performance sensor with three fields of view - 30° x 40°, 10° xl3.3°, and 5° x 6.5°. It will be stabilized and weigh less than 150 pounds as installed on the helicopter. - 172 Coast Guard Evaluation of FLIR Systems Inc. Model 1000 FLIR In addition to the Northrop FLIR development, the Coast Guard Office of Research and Development has also investigated the utility of a low cost off-the-shelf FLIR as an interim helicopter night vision sensor for use until the completion of the HH-65A FLIR production in 1988. A commercial FLIR System Model 1000A was purchased and installed on an HH-52A helicopter at Coast Guard Air Station Miami in November 1982. The model 1000A is a small, lightweight system that is easily installed on the helicopter's might sun searchlight mount. Its characteristics are: Fov 27° x 17° Resolution 1.87 mrad MRTD 0.2°C 8-12 UM Spectral Range Weight 26 kg Power 12 VDC at 7.5 amps. The FLIR systems model 1000A has performed surprisingly well while at Miami. Although its lower thermal sensitivity and optical resolution generally resulted in shorter ranges for detection and observation of targets, and it lacked such features as a stabilized turret, automatic tracking, narrow field of view, and cockpit display, available on the high performance FLIR, it did provide a good basic night vision capability. Also, the manufacturer has recently introduced an upgraded version that now includes a second narrow field of view. Conclusion The emerging new technologies of remote sensing systems have wide applicability for all Coast Guard search and surveillance missions. They have the ability to turn night into day and enable the Coast Guard to patrol vast ocean areas more quickly and efficiently. 173 - AIRSHIP EVALUATION FOR COAST GUARD MISSION PLATFORM CDR James L. Webster U. S. Coast Guard Office of Research and Development ABSTRACT The Coast Guard Office of Research and Development is investigating the use of airships as a possible mission platform for the future. The U.S. Navy used non-rigid airships extensively up until the mid 1960's when their military needs shifted to other air and surface craft. The Navy experience with nonrigids, or "blimps", included many impressive capabilities in maritime operations, yet not without a few problem areas that need to be improved in a modern design. The Coast Guard program has been planned to build on the experience of the past and apply the advances in technology of the present into a modern airship system for the 1980's and 90' s. INTRODUCTION The U.S. Coast Guard has been working side by side with the U.S. Navy since 1977 in order to update the subject of Lighter-than-Air vehicles. An extensive study effort was conducted to examine the entire spectrum of today's mission needs and to develop a theoretical system of airships and complete infrastructure to perform the missions. At the same time the Coast Guard has worked with NASA on technology development. This work has focused on the aspects of new materials, new propulsion configurations, new control systems and computer simulations of vehicle dynamics and controllability. The current effort will be a first step in evaluating available hardware for validation of the study conclusions and the simulation programs. This effort has taken the form of a lease contract funded jointly by the Coast Guard and the Navy to evaluate an existing modern technology airship, the Airship Industries Ltd. model AI-500. The overall goal of the evaluation is to validate the results of the previous studies and to demonstrate the performance improvements of the new materials and vectored thrust propulsion of the AI-500 airship. The evaluation will concentrate on two aspects of lighter-than-air vehicles. The performance, flying qualities, vibration environment and acoustic noise levels will be tested and documented at the Naval Air Test Center at Patuxent River, MD in late June and July, 1983. Following this will be a series of mission capability demonstrations in the coastal region of North Carolina near Kitty Hawk in August. The result of the testing and demonstrations will assist future development of vehicle designs, mission adaptations, and determination of total system logistics and costs. The AI-500 The AI-500 airship is quite similar in size to the Goodyear Blimp. Its envelope volume is nominally 5000 cubic meters with a length of 59 meters. It is powered by two Porsche gasoline engines of 200 hp each, driving ducted, controllable pitch, reversible propellers that can be rotated in a vertical plane to provide vertical thrust during take-off, landing and "hovering". The envelope is made of lightweight dacron material for strength, a mylar film on the inside for retention of the helium, and a polyurethane film on the exterior for protection from ultraviolet radiation. The rigid structure of the gondola and tail fins are made of glass reinforced plastic and the internal suspension cables for the gondola are of Kevlar. The manufacturer has recognized the trend toward reduced radar signatures in military aircraft and has gone to great lengths to reduce metallic structures and components to the absolute minimum. The result of this effort is a virtually non-metallic airship. Provisions are made inside the envelope of the AI-500 for a radar antenna of up to 100 inch size. rimiM»"_-~ - - 174 - The previous studies of Coast Guard mission scenarios led to a hypothetical airship that was properly sized to accomplish nearly all missions currently being performed. This airship was called the Maritime Patrol Airship (MPA) and was about five times the volume of the AI-500 being evaluated this summer, about 24,000 cubic meters. Past U.S. Navy patrol blimps ranged in size up to about 40,000 cubic meters. The following chart shows the comparison between the AI-500 and the fully mission-capable MPA. AI-500 MPA Length 164 feet 324 feet Envelope vol ume 181,200 cu. ft. 875,000 cu. Diameter 46 feet 73.4 feet Lift from hel i urn 10,150 lb. 52,164 lb. Maximum gross wt. 11,550 lb. 60,644 lb. Useful load 4,400 lb. 22,500 lb. Maximum altitude 9,500 ft. 10,000 ft. Horsepower 408 2,400 Maximum speed 55 knots 97 knots Cruise speed 45 knots 60 knots Cruise fuel consumption 80 lb./hr. 300 lb./hr. It is fully recognized that the AI-500 does not have the speed, range, endurance or load capacity to be an effective mission platform for the Coast Guard. However, the data obtained during the tests and the results of the mission capability demonstrations will be scaled up to the MPA size so that a more accurate picture of the capabilities of a full sized airship can be obtained. PERFORMANCE AND FLYING QUALITIES One of the major problem areas of past Navy airship operations was a proportionately high accident rate during launching and recovering the airships from their operating bases. This can also be said of any aircraft, helicopter or surface vessel since this phase of operation is inherently the most demanding in controllability and when the control effectiveness is generally diminished by lower operating speeds. The helicopter is a notable exception to this generality since it maintains good control at virtually zero airspeed. A "hover" capability of some degree in an airship would be a great improvement in the ability to avoid loss of control in take-offs and landings. It would also enable the airship to directly interact with a surface vessel at sea to perform a greater range of missions. The extent of hoverability to be included in a future MPA design is clearly a significant exercise in optimization since the benefit is only achieved at the expense of system complexity and an extra weight penalty. The performance and flying qualities tests are planned so that a thorough documentation can be obtained of dynamic characteristics, control response, and performance parameters. These will include linear acceleration and deceleration rates from engine thrust and envelope drag, turn radius and yaw rate obtained from rudder deflection and from differential engine thrust, the inherent airship's static and manuveuring stability (or instability), roll, yaw, and pitch rate response to control movements, undesirable motions such as flutter, buffeting and vibrations, and low speed/hover flying qualities and controllability. (It may be of interest to note that an airship can be trimmed fore and aft by shifting the contents of two large air bags or "ballonets" that are in the front and rear of the envelope interior. The pilot has direct control over yaw and pitch through conventional rudder and elevator control surfaces. The rolling motion of an airship is a purely pendulous response to lateral accelerations in turns and side gusts.) These results will be compared to predicted characteristics of the AI-500 derived from modeling the airship on the NASA computer simulation. Validation of the computer model will then allow simulation analysis of virtually any size airship with a wide range of control systems and power plant configurations. MISSION DEMONSTRATIONS The previous study efforts identified the full range of mission categories performed by the Coast Guard from search and rescue and law enforcement on the high seas and coastal waters to lesser 175 known tasks such as port safety and military operations when required. Each mission category was carefully analyzed and divided into a series of elements common to most all of the categories. These elements were identified as transit, patrol or search, station keeping or loiter, escort, and deli very /retrieval of personnel or equipment from the surface. By assuming the future availability of a suitably sized, "hoverable" airship a mission comparison with traditional ships and aircraft proved encouragingly favorable. Although the AI-500 is not large enough to have the endurance, range or speed to perform actual missions effectively, it will provide an excellent opportunity to demonstrate some measure of the more general attributes of LTA vehicles of modern design. The effectiveness of patrol and search scenarios (both day and night) will be investigated on a mission comparison basis with ships and aircraft. Fuel consumption, man-hour commitment, crew fatigue/stress, and an overall measure of patrol /search effectiveness will be considered. The advantages or disadvantages of airships in station keeping or loiter will depend on fuel consumption and endurance, crew fatigue and stress as well as ease of maintaining visual or electronic contact with the surface unit. The endurance of a fully capable airship would be reckoned in days and would allow a long-term escort of a distressed vessel or law-violating vessel and avoid the costly practice of providing a series of short-term fixed-wing surveillance flights to maintain a long-term escort or "hot pursuit". The ability to achieve a reasonable measure of hover capability and low speed control seems to be crucial to the usefulness of a Coast Guard patrol airship. The modern helicopter, of course, is the perfection of the ability to interact directly with a surface vessel, yet its range is limited and operating costs are generally high. The AI-500 tests will try to demonstrate the ability to hoist from and lower people and equipment to a boat under way. The tests will investigate the ability to lower a manned, rigid-hull inflatable boat to the ocean surface to perform some task and then to retrieve it at sea, and winch it up securely under the gondola. At a range beyond helicopter capability the ability to deliver equipment to a boat with a high success rate would be a distinct advantage over fixed wing aircraft with often low probability of success and over ships with slow enroute speeds with similar difficulties in delivering equipment. SUMMARY This summer's tests of the AI-500 are being viewed as a "proof of concept" effort. We are evaluating the lighter-than-air concept more than the particular vehicle since it was not designed for maritime patrol effectiveness. It will be the task of the evaluators to distinguish between the AI-500 limitations and the broader limitations and expected abilities of LTA vehicles in general. REFERENCES 1. D.B. Bailey and H.K. Rappoport "Maritime Patrol Airship Study" (MPAS) 1980 (Naval Air Development Center report No. NADC-801 49-60, available from NTIS, AD A089483) 176 - SWATH BUOY TENDER CONCEPT John T. Milton, P. E. and Alvah T. Strickland Commandant (G-DMT-2/54), U. S. Coast Guard 2100 Second Street, S. VI. Washington, D. C. 20593 ABSTRACT The U. S. Coast Guard's Advanced Marine Vehi- cles Program is assessing the potential of non- conventional vessel concepts for the performance of existing and projected mission needs. The pre- sent fleet of ocean going buoy tenders, the 180 foot WLB class constructed 40 years ago, will be up for replacement in the 1990's. One concept currently being assessed for the offshore buoy tending role is the SWATH (Small Waterplane Area Twin Hull) Ship. Recent efforts by the Office of Research and Development include conducting de- monstration trials and the development of SWATH buoy tender design concepts and comparative cost estimates. DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPT The ocean going buoy tender mission of the U.S. Coast Guard requires that the vessel be able to transport 50 tons of buoys, chains, sinkers, spare parts and associated equipment for distances of from 1,000 to 4,000 miles at a speed of 14-16 knots to service buoys weighing as much as 9 tons. To assure the capability to handle flood- ed buoys, the hoisting crane should be rated for a static lift of twenty tons. The vessel should have a buoy deck area of at least 1600 square feet and the ability to transport 31 tons of fuel and 56 tons of water to remote sites. The vessel should not have a list of greater than 10 degrees when working the larger buoy systems or a roll period of less than 8.5 seconds. Whether or not a SWATH buoy tender can effectively be constructed to satisfy the Coast Guard's needs at a reasonable acquisition and life cycle costs is a critical question. DEMONSTRATION TRIALS In order to make a direct assessment of the SWATH buoy tender concept, a decision was made to compare an existing SWATH vessel, the SSP KAIMALINO, with a 180 WLB offshore buoy tender (See Table 1). The selection of the SSP involved several factors. The primary reason was that the SSP KAIMALINO has successfully operated for almost 10 years as a range support vessel performing tasks not unlike those of an ocean going buoy ten- der. The second reason was that the SSP could be utilized as a large model for a SWATH in the 600 to 1200 ton range. A comparison of the two ves- sels' characteristics indicated that the SSP lift- ing a second class buoy sinker and chain (with a total weight of 8,000 pounds) would experience almost the same heel angle as the 180 foot WLB lifting the largest Coast Guard buoy (9x32) with sinker and chain (with a total weight of around 33,000 pounds). TABLE 1. COMPARATIVE CHARACTERISTICS Length Beam Draft Displacement Estimated GM 180' WLB 180 feet 35 feet 13 feet 1,025 tons 3 feet SSP 89 feet 49 feet 15 feet 220 tons 3 feet The SSP, for the purposes of this assessment, was considered to be a one-fourth to one-fifth scale model of an actual buoy tender. The de- monstration trials were held off the island of Oahu in March 1983. They were conducted on a side-by-side basis with the Coast Guard's 1,025 ton, 180 foot long, ocean going buoy tender MALLOW. These trials examined several aspects of com- parative performance on a side-by-side basis in- cluding steaming in a seaway, stationkeeping, lee- way (drifting), and buoy tending. The side-by-side steaming tests were conducted to compare the vessels' motions in a typical sea- way during transit. The stationkeeping tests were performed to give a relative comparison of each vessel's ability to maintain a fixed position in beam and bow wind conditions as might be experienc- ed while setting or approaching a buoy. The lee- way or drift tests were attempts to estimate the effects of wind force on each vessel. The buoy tending tests were intended to illustrate differ- ences between buoy tending operations con- ducted aboard a SWATH vessel and those conducted aboard a traditional monohull buoy tender. The results of the steam as expected, that the SSP ha keeping capability. Motions the Coast Guard Research and indicated that for all headi a fraction of that measured steamed simultaneously along and heading. (See Figure 1 plots). The seakeeping capa ing trials indicated, s a superior sea- measurements, made by Development Center, ngs the SSP's roll was aboard the WLB which side at the same speed for polar comparison bilities of a SWATH - 177 buoy tender in the 600-1200 ton range should great- ly exceed those of the 220 ton SSP. SPEED B KNOTS SSP KP. I MALI NO NOIL KH1IW-1NO UOll ANGLES NEVER EXCEEDED 1.0 DEGREES BEBH SEHS * I I I I I I I I I I 28 IB iucmcsi FOLLOWING SEHS FIGURE 1. ROLL AMPLITUDE POLAR PLOT Stationkeeping tests were conducted in the absence of currents to obtain estimates as to the relative abilities of the two vessel concepts to maintain a fixed position using controls against the wind. The WLB was moved over twice the dis- tance off station by the wind in the same time in- terval as the SSP. In the leeway tests each ves- sel drifted about the same distance in the same time interval except that the SSP, after a short delay, tended to behave similarly to a sailboat with a keel, eventually drifting almost beam to the wind. This tendency appears to be related to the high lateral resistance f the SWATH concept. In the buoy tending tests the SSP was able to conduct operations at all five desired headings to the seaway (i.e., head, bow quartering, beam, stern quartering, and following sea conditions). The WLB completed three operations in approxi- mately the same time interval. An analysis of the time intervals required to conduct the buoy tend- ing operations aboard the two vessels indicated that significant time savings occurred aboard the SSP. The greatest savings (averaging about 6.25 minutes per evolution) was associated with the technique employed to hoist the sinker and chain to the deck edge from the bottom. The SSP employ- ed a deck edge roller chock and a horizontal axis winch to draw a large (35 foot) bight of chain across the deck. The conventional WLB used its overhead boom and special deck edge stopper to draw smaller (15 foot) bights of chain. The long- er chain bights require less chain handling by the deck crew. The cross deck operation avoids crew activity underneath the hoisting mechanisms. The second greatest time savings (averaging about 4.5 minutes per evolution) involved the interval re- quired to manuever the vessels for buoy placement. Many of the current Coast Guard WLB vessels employ bow thrusters to assist in manuevering. However, neither vessel in these trials had bow thusters. The SSP did employ reversible fixed pitch propellers driven by hydraulic motors. The WLB propulsion is a diesel- electric driven single, reversible, fixed pitch propeller. Additional time savings (averaging about 2.5 minutes per evolution) occurred in the interval during which the buoy with attached chain is slewed across the deck, then positioned on its side in wooden chocks and securely fastened to the deck to prevent movement due to vessel motions. Observations of buoy handling aboard each vessel indicate that buoy deck safety is closely related to minimizing roll, which, on the WLB, means maintaining a bow-on heading into the sea until the buoy is secured to the deck or placed over the side, where pendulum motion remains a problem. Comments from experienced Coast Guard and Navy personnel who served as observers repeat- edly stressed the inherent safety and desirability of a stable working platform. EXPLORATORY DESIGNS To be effective in the mission arena in which the Coast Guard's 180 foot WLB class has operated for the last forty years, a replacement buoy ten- der design should have a modest draft, a length of less than 200 feet to work in narrow channels, a lift capacity of 20 tons and the ability to trans- port 50 tons of buoys and equipment and 87 tons of fuel and water to remote sites. While the 180 WLB class contains ice-strengthened hulls that conduct limited ice breaking operations, it is anticipated that the majority, if not all, of the WLB's his- torical ice operations will be performed by the new 140 foot WTBG Harbor Tug class vessels. Table 2 presents the primary considerations used in establishing a nominal SWATH buoy tender design. TABLE 2. NOMINAL DESIGN CAPABILITIES Design Speed Range (with 20% Margin at Design Speed) Deck Payload Minimum Deck Area Water + Fuel for Remote Sites Maximum List during hoists Minimum Natural Roll Period Hoisting Capacity Endurance Crew 15 kts 2,500 n. miles 30 tons 1,600 sq ft 31 + 56 tons 10O 8.5 seconds 20 tons static lift 12 days 48 The reader is reminded that the data presented in this section is preliminary and is subject to refinement. No stability studies or detailed structural analyses were made. Design parameters were taken from assessments of existing SWATH vessels including the steel hull vessel Duplus, and from a collection of design studies performed for the Coast Guard and U. S. Navy. However, this work is considered sufficiently accurate for early decision making activities. Several exploratory design concepts were con- sidered. The most promising configuration is a SWATH of around 750 tons nominal displacement which trades off various combinations of ballast, payload, fuel, and speed to achieve a wide range 178 of operational capabilities. The design presented employs all steel construction, elliptical, con- toured lower hulls, European diesel propulsion, and four automatically controlled canards for additional stabilization. Table 3 presents general SWATH buoy tender characteristics which satisfy the desired cap- abilities identified in Table 2. TABLE 3. 750 TON SWATH BUOY TENDER CHARACTERISTICS Di spl acement ( nomi nal ) Length Beam Installed Horsepower Fuel Ballast Fuel + Ballast + Payload Hull Clearance 750 tons 152 feet 73 feet 1,750 hp 63 tons 73 tons 166 tons 11 feet A number of operating options are readily available with this design which provide ad- ditional range, additional payload, or reduced draft to accommodate a specific operational situ- ation. A portion of the operating capabilities a- vailable to the operator by selective use of the concepts' ballast/payload/spead/draft options are presented in Table 4. TABLE 4. 750 TON SWATH BUOY TENDER OPERATING Range Speed w/20J (kts) Margin(n mi 15 2500 15 1720 15 1280 15 5400 15 6600 12 2500 12 2500 12 7500 OPTIONS. Initial Payload Initial* Debal lasted Fuel Ballast ml) (tons) Draft (ft) Draft (ft) (tons) (tons) 30 15.1 11.3 63 74 50 15.1 11.3 43 74 30 13.4 9.8 32 74 30 15.1 15.1 136 15.1 15.1 166 50 15.1 12.1 55 61 30 15.1 11.0 55 81 15.1 15.1 166 *As fuel 1s consumed, 1t may or may not be replaced with ballast to maintain a constant draft. program ASSET (Advanced Surface Ship Evaluation Tool) developed by the Boeing Company for the David W. Taylor Naval R&D Center was employed. This cost model is designed for use in exploratory and feasibility design cost estimation. The cost pattern which emerged is that for both SWATH buoy tender designs, there is no class acquisition cost penalty of any significance relative to the existing mono- hull design. For ships which would operate for 2400 hours per year for 15 years, there is a fuel cost penalty associated with the increased speed capability of the SWATH design. Lead ship costs are higher for the SWATH vessels. However, follow ship costs are expected to be comparable. Also, there appears to be no major difference in cost between the European diesel and the diesel- electric SWATH designs. CONCLUSIONS There appears to be a high probability of success for the SWATH buoy tender concept based on innovative application of current technology. The benefits of the SWATH concept, i.e., seakeeping- both underway and at low speeds, the ability to transit without speed loss in a seaway, and deck steadiness can be acquired at no significant cost differential because a lower displacement vessel can be utilized. The SWATH buoy tender offers considerably more deck area and operational flexi- bility than the current WLB vessel. Conventional wisdom would lead the casual ob- server to the conclusion that the SWATH concept is not suited for the buoy tender mission because of its draft and hydrostatic characteristics. The experience of the recent Coast Guard demonstration trials and the analyses conducted in developing the exploratory designs indicate that the SWATH concept is a good, practical match for satisfying the ocean going buoy tender mission needs of the U. S. Coast Guard. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A diesel electric propulsion configuration is currently under analysis. It is expected to in- crease the vessel's gross displacement by about 20 tons. A cost analysis was conducted to estimate gross relationships for comparing the replacement cost for the existing WLB design with the diesel - electric SWATH and the lightweight diesel SWATH buoy tender designs. The interactive computer The authors would like to thank LT Edward HOTARD, Marine Vehicles Technology Branch, USCG HQ and LT Thomas COE, USCG R&D Center, Groton, CT for their contributions to this effort. LT HOTARD provided the cost data and analysis. LT COE pro- vided the demonstration trials motions data. The R&D* Center's demonstration trials data will be pre- sented in a report scheduled to be released in the latter months of 1983. »U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1984 0-421-859/16454 179 - PENN STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES AQ0QD720 227L,l>